Skip to main content

Full text of "The universal geography : earth and its inhabitants"

See other formats 


THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  ILLINOIS 

LIBRARY 

9/0 


3  <-   ~>-^~ 


OSTYAK  TTPES  AND  COSTUMES. 


6 


v< 


CONTENTS. 


TAGS 
1 


33 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

Chap.  I.  General  Cemarks  on  Asia 

Plateaux :  Highlands  and  Lowl  inds,  p.  3.  Geological  Formation :  Igneous  Forces,  p.  6. 
Climate:  Diminution  of  Jloisture,  p.  8.  Areas  of  Inland  Drainage,  p.  9.  Rivers  flowing 
t^eawa^ds,  p.  12.  Temperature,  Rainfall,  Vegetation,  p.  H.  Peninsulas,  p.  15.  Inhabitants, 
Culture,  p.  18.  Religions,  p.  21.  Historical  Retrospect,  Migrations,  p.  23.  European 
Influences,  p.  24.     Progress  of  Discovery,  p.  25.     Political  Rivalries,  p.  28. 

Chap.  II.  Caucasia 

I.  Caucasia  :  The  Ponto-Caspian  Mountain  System,  p.  33.  The  Great  Caucasus,  p.  34. 
Geological  Formation,  Volcanic  Action,  p.  38.  Water  Systems,  Snow-line,  Rainfall,  Glaciers, 
p.  40.  Vegetation,  Fauna,  p.  43.  Inhabitants  :  Varied  Ethnical  and  Linguistic  Elements, 
p.  46.  Russian  Conquests :  Main  Physical  Divisions,  p.  48.  II.  Wi stern  Caucasia:  Kuban 
Basin,  p.  50.  River  Systems  :  Kuban  Basin,  p.  50.  'I'aman  Peninsula,  p.  53.  Inhabitants  : 
the  Cherkesses,  p.  54.  The  Abkhasians  and  Cossacks,  p.  57.  Topography,  p.  GO.  III. 
Centhal  Caucasus  :  Kuma  and  Tlrek  Basins,  p.  64.  River  Systems  :  Kuma  Basin,  p.  65. 
The  Terek,  p.  68.  Inhabitants:  the  Kabards,  p.  70.  The  Osses  and  Xogai  Tatars,  p.  71. 
Topography,  p.  73.  IV.  Eastekn  Caucasia  :  Daghestan,  p.  78.  Rivtr  Systems,  p.  79. 
Inhabitants :  the  Chechenzes,  p.  79.  The  Lezghians,  Tats,  and  Tatars,  p.  83.  Topography,  p.  86. 
V.  Inguk,  Rion,  and  Chorukh  Ba.<ins:  JIixgrelia,  Lmeritia,  Svania,  Lazista-n,  p.  88. 
Climate,  flora  and  Fauna,  p.  91.  Inhabitants:  the  Svans  and  Rachians,  p.  92.  The 
Imeritians,  Jlingrelians,  and  Lazes,  p.  94.  Topography,  p.  96.  VI.  The  Kura  B.isin: 
Georgia,  Tkaxscaucasun  Tataky,  p.  100.  River  Systems:  the  Kura,  p.  100.  Agriculture,'^ 
Irrigation  M'orks,  Climate,  p  104.  Lower  Kura  Basin  :  Apsheron  Peninsula,  p.  106.  Inhabit- 
ants: the  Georgians,  p.  111.  The  Khevsurs,  Pshavs,  and  Tiishcs,  p.  116.  The  Tatars, 
Talishes,  Slavs,  and  Germans,  p.  119.  Topography,  p.  120.  VII.  Ri  ssian  Armenia  :  Arar.it, 
Ala  Gbz,  Plateau  of  L.ake  Gok-chai,  and  Araxis  Basin,  p.  13'.  Orography:  Ararat, 
Ala-goz,  p.  130.  Lake  Gok-chai,  the  Karabagh,  Flora  and  Faunri,  p.  136.  The  Araxis  Basin, 
p.  139.  Inliabitants :  the  Armenians,  p.  140.  Topography,  p.  145.  VIII.  Geneua^  Con- 
dition AND  Administr-ation  OF  THE  CAUCASUS,  p.  150.  Land  Tenure,  Agriculture,  p.  152. 
Population,  Industries,  Trade,  Education,  p.  154.     Religions,  Finance,  Administration,  p.  158. 

Chap.  III.  The  Aralo-Caspian  Basin:   Russian  Turkest.an,  the  Turkoman  Country,  Khiva, 

Bokhara,  Region  of  the  Upper  Osus     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .161 

I.  General  Survey,  p.  161.  II.  The  Pamir  .vnd  Alai,  p.  IGo.  Flora,  Fauna,  L:ikes  of  the 
Pamir,  p.  170.  The  Alai  Highland,  p.  171.  III.  The  Tiax-shan,  p.  175.  Orograpliic 
System,  p.  176.  Katiin  and  Vulduz  Highlands,  p.  179.  Scmirechinsk  Region,  p.  182.  Ala- 
tau  Highland,  p.  183.  Lake  Issik-kul  and  "Western  Tian-shan  Highlands,  p.  184.  JV.  Tar- 
BAGATAt  Highl.ands  .iND  Balkhash  Basin,  p.  189.  L.ikc  Balkhash,  p.  191.  Scmirechinsk 
River  System  :  the  Hi,  p.  192.  V.  The  Ak.alo-Caspi.an  Hydroghaphic  System,  p.  193.  The 
Turkestan  Deserts,  p.  194.  Flora  and  Fauna  of  Turkestan,  p.  195.  Water  System:  the  Sir, 
p.  198.    The  Osus  River  System,  p.  201.     The  Aral  Sea,  p.  208.     The  Turkoman  Deserts  and 


A  n    r    -^  A_ 


iv  CONTKNTS. 

PAOE 

HighlandB,  p.  213.  The  Atrek  and  (Jurgan  Kivers,  p.  2U.  The  Ust-urt  Plateau,  p.  215. 
Kast  Coast  of  the  Caspian,  p.  217.  VI.  Imiahitasts  or  the  Akalo-Caspian  Keoions,  p.  219. 
Tho  Turkomans,  p.  2.'0.  The  Kara-Kalpaks  aud  Kirghiz,  p.  225.  The  Tarauihis  and  Dungans, 
p.  231.  Tlie  Uzbegs,  p.  233.  The  partes,  I'ajik.s,  and  Galcluis,  p.  234.  VII.  States  of  the 
Ahalo-Casiman  Ba61n  :  I.  Baktriana,  or  Afglum  Turkestan,  p.  237.  \Vakhan,  p.  23S.  Badak- 
ehan.  p.  210.  Kunduz  and  Bamian,  p.  244.  Khulm,  Balkh,  Andkhoi,  p.  247.  II.  Merv:  the 
Southern  Turkomans,  p.  250.  III.  Bokhara,  p.  252.  Shignan  and  Eoshan,  p.  253.  Darvaz 
and  Karateghin,  p.  253.  Hissar :  the  Iron  Gate,  p.  255.  Topography :  Bokhara,  p.  257. 
n'.  Khiva,  p.  263.  V.  Russian  Turkestan,  p.  268.  Ferghana  Basin:  Topography,  p.  272. 
Samarkand,  p.  2;  2.     Kulja  Basin  :     Topography,  284.     Administration  of  Turkestan,  287. 

CUAP.   IV.  SlBEHIA 292 

I.  SniEiiiA,  p.  292.  Progress  of  Conquest  and  Discovery,  p.  ^93.  Water  Highways,  Portages, 
Highlands,  p.  297.  Kiver  Systems,  p.  300.  Northern  Seaboard,  p.  303.  Pacific  Seaboard: 
Transbaikalia,  p.  304.  Climate,  p.  305.  Flora,  p.  310.  Fauna,  p.  314.  Inhabitants  :  the 
Chudes,  p.  317.  II.  The  Altai  Highlands  p.  319.  Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Altai,  p.  323. 
Inhabitants:  the  Kalmuks,  Tatars,  and  Kussians,  p.  324.  Topography,  p.  327.  III.  The  Ob 
Basis  :  Govek>ments  of  Akmolixsk,  Semlpalatixsk,  Tomsk,  Tobolsk,  Eastern  Distkicts 
OF  THE  Governments  of  Perm  and  Okenbckg,  p.  329.  The  Irtish  Basin,  p.  33U.  Course  of 
the  Ob,  p.  334.  Inhabitants  of  the  Ob  Basin :  the  Voguls,  p.  338.  The  Ostiaks,  p.  340.  The 
Ural  Mining  Districts,  p.  344.  Topography  of  West  Siberia,  p.  346.  IV.  Yenesei- Baikal 
Basin,  p.  352.  Basin  of  the  Western  Yenesei,  p.  352.  Inhabitants:  the  ChuJes,  p.  355.  The 
Soyots  and  Karagasses,  p.  356.  The  Tunguses,  p  358.  Topography,  p.  361.  The  Baikal- 
Angara  Ba.<in,  p.  364.  The  Tunka  Highlands,  p.  366.  Lake  Baikal,  p.  368.  The  Angara 
Water  Systtm.'p.  373.  Inhabitants  :  the  Burials,  p.  375.  Topography,  p.  378.  V.  Ba^in  of 
THE  Lena  :  Siiokes  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  p.  382.  The  Lena  and  its  Inhabitants,  p.  384.  The 
Yana,  Kolima,  and  Indigirka  Kivers,  the  Arctic  Islands,  Ken-  Siberia,  p.  3S8.  Inhabitants : 
the  Yakuts,  Yukaghirs,  and  Cliuvantzes,  p.  393.  Topography,  p.  398.  VI.  Bering  Pexixsvla, 
Basin  of  thf.  Anadir,  and  ICamchatka,  p.  399.  Bering  Strait  and  Sea,  p.  402.  Climate: 
Fauna  and  Flora,  p.  406.  Inhabitants;  the  Chukchis,  p.  408.  The  Koriaks  and Kamchadales, 
p.  413.  Topography,  p.  416.  VII.  The  Sr.iNOToi  Highland.s,  Amvr  Basin,  Russian 
Manchi-ria,  p.  417.  The  Stanovoi  Uplands:  the  Yablonoi  Range,  p.  419.  The  Daurian 
Plateau,  p.  420.  'J'he  Amur  Kiver  System,  p.  423.  The  Sungari  and  Usuri  Rivers,  p.  425. 
'the  Lower  Amur  and  its  Delta,  p.  428.  The  Manchurian  Seaboard,  p.  431.  Climate  of 
Slunchuria.  p.  432.  Mamhurian  Fauna  and  Flora,  p.  431.  Inhabitants:  the  Golds  and  other 
Tungus  Tribes,  p.  436.  The  TazI,  JIandzi,  Giliaks,  and  Russians,  p.  437.  The  Kamenshiki, 
p.  410.  Topography,  p.  442.  VIII.  S.vkhalix,  p.  448.  Highlands,  p.  452.  Climate,  Fauna, 
Flora,  p.  453.  Inhabitmts  :  the  Ainos  and  Oroks.  p.  4i5.  Topography,  p.  457.  IX.  JIatekial 
Condition  and  Administration  of  Siberia,  p.  459.  Social  Elements  :  the  Exiles  and  Outlaws, 
p.  459.  '1  he  Siberian  Russians  :  the  Commune,  p.  4b3.  Religious  Sects  :  the  Strannild,  p.  465. 
Agriculture,  the  Ch.ise  and  Fisheries,  p.  465  ilining  Industries,  p.  467.  Manufactures, 
Trade,  p.  469.  Highways  of  Communica'.ion.  the  Trakt,  Railway  Projects,  p.  471.  Educa- 
tion, Administration,  p.  472.  Siberian  Political  Life,  p.  474.  Growth  of  the  Rrssi.iN 
Empire,  p.  475.  Merv,  p.  478.  The  Dera-giiz,  4«1.  The  Akhal  Tekke  Country,  483.  Races 
OF  Asiatic  Rissia  okovpeu  according  to  their  Affinities  and  Religions,  p.  485. 

Appendix  :  St.vtistkal  Tables 489 


Index 


497 


1^? 

^^ 

p 

1® 

s 

^ 

nK 

^^_ 

f^,' 

m 

i 

/X 

i 

6 

^^S 

^^ 

^^u 

"^^^^^^ 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAPS  PEINTEl)  IN  COLOUES. 


1.  Hypsographical  Map  of  Asia.      Frontispiece. 

2.  Ethnograpliical  Map  of  the  Caucasus  .         .       46 

3.  Lakes  Balkhash  and  Issik-knl      .         .         .191 


4.  The  Delta  of  the  Amu-daria 

5.  Ethnographical  Map  of  Northern  Asia 

6.  Victoria  Bay,  or  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great 


FAOIC 

205 

303 
432 


PLATES. 


Cliffs  in  the  "  Yellow  Earth,"  north  of  Tai- 

yuen,  Shan-si    .         .         .        To  face  page 

The  Upper  Yang-tse-kiaug       .         , 

The  Darial  Defile     .... 

Jews  of  the  Caucasus 

Patigorsk—  View  taken  from  the  Mashuka  Slopes 

Svan  Types      ...... 

Mingrclian  Types  and  Costiiniea 

Georgian  Types  and  Costumes 

Imerian  Types  and  Costumes —  Group  of  Danceri 

Khevsur  in  Armour 

A  Street  in  Tiflis      .... 

Armenian  Types  and  Costumes 
Town  of  Giiusi         .... 

Shchurovskiy  Gl.'uii  r 

Kizil-kum  Desert— Diissibai  Wells  . 

Tjake  Iskander-kul   .... 

Shores  of  the  Caspian 

Tui-koman  Customs— Pursuit  of  the  Bride 


11 

13 

42 

56 

73 

92 

95 

111 

115 

118 

r.'4 

140 

149 

173 

194 

202 

208 

222 


Kirghiz  Horsemen  .  .  .  To  face  page  2'26 
Kirghiz  crossing  a  Eiver  .....     2'J9 

Tajiks  of  Bokhara -234 

Colossal  Idols,  Tipper  Bamian  Valley  .  .245 
The  Iron  Gate  Defile  on  the  Karshi-Derbent 

Route 257 

Bokhara — Assembly  in  front  of  the  Mosque     .     2.J8 

Khiva 265 

Bukbtarma  Valley— Altai  Highlands  .  .  319 
Ostiak  Typos  and  Costumes      ....     341 

Y'ekaterinburg 348 

General  View  of  Tobolsk  .         .         .        .350 

General  View  of  Omsk  .  .  .  .  .351 
Tungus  Types  and  Costumes  ....  359 
Irkutsk— View  taken  before  the  Fire  of  1878  .  380 
Chukchi  Types  and  Costumes  ....  408 
General  view  of  Petropavlovsk  .         .         .416 

Gidd  Types  and  Costumes  ....  436 
Port  of  Ayan,  Sea  of  Okhotsk  .        .        .        .412 


VI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT. 


of    the     Central 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

no. 

1.  Plateaux  and  Plains  of  Central  Asia 

•>.  Parallelism  o.the  Main  Asiatic  Ranges 

3.  MiivXT  EvEKEsr         .         .         .         • 

4.  The  Han-hai :  a  dried-up  Sea-bed'     . 

5.  Arid  lieirions  and  Closed  Basins  of  Asia 

6.  Isobars  in  January     .         .         •         • 

7.  Isobars  in  July 

8.  Curves  of  the  Eastern  Asiatic  Seaboard  and 

Islands .         .         •         •         • 

9.  Density  of  the  Asiatic  Populations 
10.  Distribution  of  the  Asiatic  Races 
U.  Chief  Religions  of  Central  Asia 

12.  Chief  Itineraries  of  Central  Asia 

13.  European  Influence  in  Asia 

CAUCASIA. 

14.  Bed  of  the  Caspian     . 

15.  Geological     Formations 

Caucasus 

16.  Hot  Springs  and  Xaphtha  Regions  in  the 

Caucasus       ..... 

17.  Profile  of  the  Caucasus  as  seen  from  Pati' 

gorsk    . 

18.  Rainfall  of  the  Caucasus 

19.  The    Kazbek  :    View   taken    from    the 

Kazbek  Station 

20.  Kazbek  and  Devdoraki  Glaciers 

21.  Forests  of  the  CaucaS' 8 

22.  The  Western  Caucasus  seen  from  off  Cape 

Kodor  ..... 

23.  The  Akhtari  Liman    .... 

24.  The  Kuku-Oba  Mud  Volcano    . 

25.  Abkhasian  Tyi'E       .... 

26.  Cossack  Sentinel     .... 

27.  Valley  of  the  Bzib      .... 

28.  The  Taman  Peninsula 

29.  Valleys  of  Erosion  in  tbe  Kuban  Basin 

30.  Passanaur,  ov  the  Tifus- Vladikavkaz 

Route  . 

31.  The  Elbruz  Group 

32.  Ramification  of  the  Kalaus 

33.  Delta  and  flooded  Districts  of  the  L  wer 

Terek 

31.  The  Terek  Floods  of  1863  . 

35.*  Patigorsk    and   the    Region    of    Thermal 

Waters 

36.  The  Vladikavkiz-Ananur  Route   through 

the  Terek  Valley 

37.  The  Tebulos-mta  Group    . 

38.  Mouths  of  the  Terek  and  Lower  Sulak 

39.  The  Kuba  District     .... 

40.  NooAi  YoiTH   ..... 

41.  Mount  GCnih   ..... 

42.  Derbcnt 

43.  Mouth  of  the  Rion     .... 

44.  Upper  Ingiir  Valley  .... 

45.  MlNOltELIAN    liAPY       .... 

46.  Kutais  and  the  Kion  iind  Kvirila  Junction 


PAGE 

3 

4 

5 

8 

11 

13 

14 

16 
17 
19 
22 
27 
29 


35 


17 


40 
41 

43 
44 
45 

50 
52 
54 
58 
50 
61 
62 
63 

65 
66 
67 

68 
69 

74 

76 
77 
80 
81 
84 
85 
87 
89 
93 
95 
97 


and   Alex 


47.  PoTi  .... 

48.  Batim 

49.  Akhalkalaki  Plateau . 

50.  Tatar  Type 

51.  The  Kiira  and  Araxis  Confluence 

52.  Mouths  of  the  Kura    . 

53.  Chief  Regions  of  Earthquakes  in  Caucasia 

54.  Oscillations  of  the  Baku  Coast  during  th 

last  1,500  Years   .... 

55.  The  Apsheron  Peninsula    . 

56.  Mtzkhet,  Anc-ihnt  Capital    of    Geobgi 

57.  The  Khevsur,  Tush,  and  Pshav  Lands 

58.  The  Suram  Pass  and  Mesk  Mountains 

59.  The     Kura    Valley     between     Gori    and 

Mtzkhet 
(iO.  Tiflis  .... 

61.  Yelizavetpol  and  Vicinity  . 

62.  The  Telav  Basin 

63.  Baku  and  Cape  Bail-Burni 

64.  Lenkoran  .... 

65.  Recent  Russian  Conquests 

66.  Ararat        .... 
07.  Mount  Ararat 

68.  Ala-goz      .... 

69.  Lake  Gok-chai  . 

70.  The  Alapolarim  Lava  Streams 

71.  Araxis  and  Zauga  Basin     . 

72.  Aumenian  Woman    . 

73.  The   Kars  cbai  VaUey:    Kara 

andrap'il       ..... 

74.  Nakhichevan 

75.  Progress  of  Russian  Conquest    . 

76.  Fever  Districts  in  Caucasia 

77.  Density  of  the  Population  of  the  Caucasu 

in  1873  per  Square  Mile 

78.  Highways  in  Caucasia 

79.  Section  of  the  Route  from  Vladikavkaz  to 

Jufa 

80.  Shiab^  and  Punnite ;  in  Eastern  Caucasia 

81.  Baku  Harbour 

52.  Sta\'rnpol 

THE  ARALO-CASPIAX  BASIN. 

53.  Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Aralo-Caspian 

Basin    ....... 

84.  Russian  Encroachments  in  Turkestan 

85.  Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Eastern  Pamir 

86.  The  Alai  and  Tkans-Alai  Range  . 

87.  Relief     of    the   Highlands   and   Plateaux 

between    the   Hindu-Knsh  and   Tian- 
eban     ....... 

8S.  The  Alai  Plati  au 

89.  The  Shchurovskiy  Glacier 

90.  Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Western  Pamir 

91.  Relative  Area  of  the  Tian-shan,  Alps,  and 

Pyrenees      ...... 

92.  Relative   Relief    of   the    Tian-shan,  Alps, 

and  Pyrenees       .        .         .         •         • 

93.  Chief  Crests  of  the  Tian-shan    . 


PAOR 

98 
99 
101 
102 
103 
106 
108 

109 
110 
112 
117 
121 

122 
125 
126 
127 
128 
129 
131 
132 
133 
135 
136 
137 
143 
144 

146 
143 
150 
151 

153 
154 

1"5 
156 
157 
159 


163 

164 
166 
168 


170 
172 
173 
174 

175 

17G 

177 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS. 


Vll 


94.  Eastern  Chains  of  the  Tian-shan 

95.  Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Eastern  Tian- 

shan  ....... 

96.  Ovis  Karelini,  Argali,  Oris  Poli 

97.  The  Aktogoi  Defile 

98.  Western  Chains  of  the  Tian-shan     . 

99.  Routes  of  E-xplorera  in  the  Western  Tian- 

shan  

100.  Sauru  and  Tarbagalai      .... 

101.  Vegetation  of  the  Kizil-kum 

102.  Range  of  Vegetation  in  Turkestan  . 

103.  Petrov  Glacier 

104.  Lower  Part  of  the  lir-tash  Glacier  . 
10.5.  The  Sir  Delta 

106.  Lake  Victoria,  or  Sari-kul 

107.  Map  in  the  Catalonian  Atlas  of  1375 

108.  VaUey  of  the  Uzboi  at  the  Aidin  Wells    . 

109.  The  Balkan  Gulf 

110.  Inundation  of  the  O.xus  in  1878 

111.  The  Aral  Sea 

112.  Old  River  Beds    of    the    Aralo-Caspiaa 

Basin  ...... 

113.  Ak-tau  and  MurtTiy-kultuk 

114.  Entrance  to  the  Kaia-boghaz  . 

115.  The  Tuk-karagan  Lakes 

116.  Tentiak-sor      ...... 

117.  Ogurchinskiy  Island         .... 

118.  Kulali  Island 

119.  Turkoman  Female  Head-dress 

120.  Tekke  Turkoman  Oasis  in  the  Atok 

121.  Area  of  the  Turkoman  Raids  South  of 

Kizil-arvat  ..... 

122.  A  Wealthy  Kirghiz      .... 

123.  A  Kirghiz  Woman  .... 

124.  Populations  of  the  Hi  Basin     . 

125.  Sarte  Type     ...... 

126.  Population  of  Ferghana  .... 

127.  A  Tajik  Mollah 

128.  KlLA-PANJA,  ON  THE  UpPER  OxUS  :  FouTS 

at  the  Foot  or  the  P.4mir 

129.  East  Badakshan 

130.  Badakshan  and  Kunduz    .... 

131.  Bamian  Pass  and  Kunduz  Route 
13i.  Ruins  of  Balkh  and  Mazar-i  sherif  . 

133.  Saripul  and  Shibirkhan  VaUey 

134.  The  Maimene  VaUey        .... 

135.  Khanates  of  Afghan  Turkestan  West  of 

the  Oxus 

136.  Merv  and  Sarakhs  Oases  . 

137.  Ak-tash  Valley  and  Movntain    . 

138.  Shehr-i-sebs  and  Karshi  .... 

139.  Bokhara:    Ruins   in    the   Interior   ok 

THE  City    ...... 

140.  Oasis  of  Bokhara      ..... 

141.  Khiva 

142.  A  MiNAKET  in  Khiva     .... 
1 13.  Khiva  :  Exterior  or  a  JIosqve     . 

144.  Krasnovodsk  Bay     .         .         .         .         . 

145.  Cheleken  Island  and  Michael  Gulf  . 

146.  Hassan-kalch  Bay    ..... 

147.  Ashur-adeh      ...... 

148.  Valleys  of  the  Atrek  and  Gurgen     . 

149.  S.amark.and       ...... 

150.  Samarkand:  Approach  to  the  Citadel 


PAGE 

FIO. 

178 

151 

180 

152 

181 

1S3 

153 

186 

154 

155 

187 

1.56 

190 

157 

196 

158 

197 

159 

198 

160 

199 

161 

201 

162. 

203 

206 

207 

163. 

208 

161. 

209 

165. 

210 

166. 

211 

167. 

212 

213 

168. 

214 

169. 

215 

216 

170. 

217 

171. 

221 

172. 

223 

173. 

224 

174. 

227 

228 

175. 

232 

176. 

233 

234 

177. 

233 

178. 

179. 

239 

180. 

241 

181. 

242 

182. 

243 

183. 

244 

246 

184. 

247 

185. 

248 

186. 

251 

187. 

254 

188. 

256 

189. 

259 

26(1 

190. 

261 

191. 

262 

192. 

263 

193. 

264 

194. 

266 

267 

195. 

268 

196. 

269 

270 

197. 

271 

198. 

PAGE 

.  Samarkand  :    The   Gir-emir  Tomb   of 

Tamerlane 272 

.  Varzamixor  :    Upper  Zarafshan    Val- 
ley       273 

.  Oasis  f  f  the  Zarafshan      ....  275 

.  From  Kokan  to  Marghilan       .         .         .  277 

.  Khojend:  Gexek.vl  View      .         .         .  2"9 

.  Khojend  and  Neighbourhood    .         .         .  280 

.   Plain  of  Tashkend 281 

.  A  Street  in  Tashkend  ....  282 

.  Kulja  and  Neighbouring  Mines        .         .  285 
.  Disputed  Territory  in  Kulja    .         .         .286 

.  Chinese  Type,  Kulja     ....  287 

.  Projected  Railway  Lines  in  Western  Asia  289 

SIBERIA. 

,  West  Sibeiia,  according  to  Herberstein    .  293 

Sakhalin,  according  to  La  Perouse    .         .  295 

Gulf  of  C.\stries  :   La  Perouse  Gate  .  296 
Water    Highways    and   Portages   across 

Siberia        ......  298 

Duration  of  the  Frost  and  Thaw  on  the 

Yenisei  and  Lena        ....  300 

Drift  Ice  on  the  Banks  of  the  Yenisei       .  301 
Shores  of  the  Y'eniseiworn  by  Glacial 

Actios       ......  302 

BanksoftheY'emsei:  Ice-formed  Levee  304 

Climate  of  Y'akutsk          ....  306 

Northern  Limit  of  Forest  Vegetation       .  309 
Trailing     Larch      150     Y'ears      old  : 

Quarter  of  the  natural  Size         .  310 
LaR-H  Forkst  on  the  Boganida,  a  Tri- 
butary OF  THE  Katanga.         .         .  312 
Range  of  Animal  Species  in  North  Asia  .  313 
The  ChindagCtui,  a  Tributary  of  the 

Ihtish,  Province  of  Semipalatinsk  320 

Lake  Teletzkoye 321 

Zmeinogorsk    .         .         .         .         .         .328 

Lake  Zaisan 330 

The  Ust-Kamenogorsk  Defile  .         .         .331 

Lakes  Chany  and  Sartlam  in  1870    .         .  332 

Dried-up  Streams  in  the  Barnaul  District  334 
Projected    Canals   between   the   Ob   and 

Y'enisei       ......  335 

Network  of  Streams  at  the  Ob   and    Kct 

Junction 336 

Lower  Course  and  Mouth  of  the  Ob          .  337 

Lakes  and  Marshes  in  the  Iset  Basin         .  345 

Y'ckateiinburg  and  Berezovskiy        .         .  348 
U|iper    Y'enisei     Basin     and    Minusinsk 

Stcopes So'i 

Rock    IxscRiPTtoN    on    the    Banks    op 

the  Y'enisei 361 

Region  of  t!ie  Y'enisei  Gold  Mines    .         .  362 

From  Krasnoyarsk  to  Kansk    .         .         .  363 

The  Muxku-sakd'K  Group     .         .         .  365 

I^Iunku-sardik  and  Kamar-daban                .  367 
Thb    "  Cup "    at    the    Source    of    the 

Oka 368 

Depths  of  the  Western  Baikal           .         .  370 
The     Angara    below    the    Padu.vskiy 

Rapid 374 

Rapids  of  the  Angara       ....  375 

Populations  of  the  Irkutsk  Government  .  381 


vm 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIOKS. 


199.  Coast  of  the  Taimir  Peninsula 

200.  Old  Lake  traversed  by  the  Vitim     . 

201.  Lena  Delta 

202.  Archipelago  of  New  Siberia 

203.  Routes  of  Anjou  and  Wrangi  11 

204.  KoxTAM  Bay  :   the  Veoa  at  Anchor 

205.  Yakutsk 

206.  Volcanoes  at  Cape  Povorotnoii,  South  of 

Avacha  Bay       .... 

207.  Bering  Sea 

208.  Bering  Strait 

209.  Currents  of  the  Bering  Waters 

210.  Avacha  Bay     ..... 

211.  Plateaux  and  Highlands  of  East  Siberia 

212.  Lake  Khanka 

213.  Islhmus  of  Kizi        .... 

214.  Mouths  of  the  Amur 

215.  Bat  of  the  Golden  Horn    . 

216.  Bay  of  Castries         .... 


rAOE 

no. 

.  383 

217 

384 

218 

.  366 

389 

219 

390 

220 

391 

221 

.  397 

222 

223 

.  400 

224 

403 

225 

.  404 

226 

.  405 

227 

.  415 

228 

.  418 

229 

426 

230 

428 

231 

429 

430 

232 

432 

233 

Harbour  of  Olga 

Herbaceous  Vegetation  on  the  Islands 

OF  THE  Amir    .... 

Blagovyeshchexsk,  ON  the  Amir 
Nikolayevsk     ..... 

America  Bay    ..... 

The  Possiet  Inlets    .... 

La  Perouse  Strait     .... 

Sakhalin  :    Cape  La  JoxQviiRE     . 

Mamia  Rinzo  Strait 

Sakhalin  ...... 

AiNO  GlKL        ..... 

Sakhalin  :  the  Dm  Valley  . 
Port  of  Sluraviov     .... 

Density  of  the  Siberian  Population  . 
Produce  of  East  Siberian  Sable-hunting 

from  1850  to  1855 
Gold-washings  in  the  Amur  Basin   . 
Vladivostok  and  the  Eastern  Bosporus 


PAOB 

433 

4  35 
444 
445 
446 
447 
449 
450 
451 
453 
454 
456 
457 
460 

460 
468 
473 


■'VLKiiilVo.'  ILLlNUli. 


HYPSOGRAPHIC 


Slum . 


Depth       of      the      Sea, 

Z! 


Area  ot"  Depression. 


Iknm  ro  SieO  Jtfrt.  6S60  a  MOO  Jvrt . 


Oror  S80(>  Hvt 


Btrla^-  thf  I.evv!  ut'  Less  than  SSOF&' 

rAe  MedirerrajieHn- 


.  MAP    OF    ASIA 


vatioix    of    tile     Land      above    the     Level    of   tke    Sea. 


eeo  to  1640  Feet 


1640  JD  S2liOFeet 


3280  to  eseo  feet 


eseotoiewoTent 


Oxvr  16400  feet 


S-.    CP     LIMITED 


A  UNIVERSAL  GEOGEAPHY. 


ASIATIC   RUSSIA. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  ASIA. 


F  tlie  great  divisions  of  tlie  globe  Asia  is  by  far  the  largest,  com- 
prising almost  exactly  one-third  of  all  the  dry  land,  and  exceeding 
in  area  even  the  double  continent  of  the  New  World.  It  is  one- 
third  larger  than  Africa,  and  five  times  more  extensive  than 
Europe,  which  may  in  some  respects  be  regarded  as  one  of  its 
peninsular  appendages.  Excluding  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  eastern  districts  of 
the  government  of  Perm,  it  has  a  total  area  of  16,776,000  square  miles,  and 
including  Japan,  the  Philippines,  and  Malaysia,  17,930,000  square  miles. 

But  if  it  takes  the  foremost  rank  in  size,  it  is  far  inferior  even  to  Europe  in 
the  variety  of  its  peninsular  forms,  in  the  development  of  its  coast-line,  in  the 
extent  to  which  the  ocean  inlets,  and  with  them  the  marine  climate,  penetrate 
into  the  heart  of  the  land  ;  nor  does  it,  like  Europe,  present  the  great  advantage 
of  geographical  unity.  Divided  by  lofty  tablelands  and  old  sea-beds  into 
absolutely  distinct  regions,  it  embraces  vast  rainless  tracts,  where  the  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  cold,  and  even  the  rarefaction  of  the  air  offer  great  difficulties 
to  the  migrations  of  its  inhabitants,  the  more  so  that  the  opposite  slopes  are  not 
connected  together  by  natural  valley  routes  like  those  of  the  Alps.  Asia  may 
thus  have  given  birth  to  many  local  civilisations,  but  Europe  alone  could  have 
inherited  them,  by  their  fusion  raising  them  to  a  higher  culture,  in  which  all  the 
peoples  of  the  earth  may  one  day  take  a  part. 

Plateaux — Highlands  and  Lowlands. 
Compared   with  the  other  continents,  Asia  is   essentially  the  region  of  table- 
lands.    "Were  the  dry  land  to  subside  uniformly,  all  the   other  regions  of  the 

VOL.    VI.  B 


2  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

globe  would  have  long  disappeared,  or  would  be  indicated  at  most  by  narrow 
islands  and  peaks,  while  the  lofty  uplands  of  Central  Asia,  with  the  ranges 
skirting  them,  still  rose  above  the  surrounding  waters.  The  plateaux  of  Asia,  with 
the  regions  enclosed  by  them,  form,  so  to  say,  a  continent  within  a  continent, 
differing  in  its  climate,  its  flora,  fauna,  and  inhabitants  from  the  surrounding 
species.  Rismg  in  some  places  to  a  height  of  20,000  feet  and  upwards,  these 
plateaux  give  to  the  whole  of  Asia  a  mean  altitude  greater  than  that  of  the  other 
quarters  of  the  globe.  Humboldt  calculated  the  mean  of  the  Asiatic  continent  at 
1,1G5  feet,  which  on  more  recent  information  Kriimmel  raises  to  1,6-50  feet,  or 
one-third  more  than  that  of  Europe. 

The  Asiatic  coast-Kne  is  more  diversified  than  that  of  Africa  or  South 
America,  especially  on  the  south  side,  which  is  varied  with  large  peninsulas, 
gulfs,  and  islands.  But  the  central  mass,  including  the  plateaux  and  deserts, 
presents  a  great  uniformity  of  outline.  This  region,  limited  southwards  by  the 
Himalayas,  Dapsang,  and  Karakorum,  almost  everywhere  presents  other  lofty 
ranges — in  the  west  the  numerous  crests  of  the  Pamir,  in  the  north-west  the 
Tian-shan,  in  the  north  the  Altai,  in  the  north-east  and  east  the  several  chains 
separated  by  intervening  river  valleys.  This  upland  tract,  which  includes  Tibet, 
Kashgaria,  and  the  Gobi  Desert,  presents  the  form  of  a  vast  trapeze  gradually 
narrowing  towards  the  west.  Near  its  south-west  angle  there  rises  a  lofty 
mountain  nucleus  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Himalayas  and  Karakorum,  and 
marking  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  continent.  From  this  central  mass, 
which  is  otherwise  less  elevated  than  many  other  Asiatic  mountain  systems,  there 
radiate  three  vast  plains  and  as  many  tablelands,  disposed  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel.  The  lowlands  are  the  plain  of  Tatary  in  the  north-west,  the  Tarim  basin 
in  the  east,  and  in  the  south  and  south-east  the  depression  furrowed  by  the  Indus 
and  Ganges;  the  highlands  are  the  Pamir,  Tibet,  and  Iran.  The  last  named 
doubtless  begins  with  the  Hindu-Kush,  a  mountain  range  separating  the  Indus 
and  Oxus  valleys ;  but  this  mass  is  of  very  small  extent,  and  the  uplands  attached 
to  it,  while  less  extensive  and  less  elevated,  are  more  geometrical  in  their  outlines 
than  those  of  Tibet.  The  Iranian  tableland,  comprising  most  of  Afghanistan, 
Baluchistan,  and  Persia,  forms  a  trapeze  whose  northern  and  southern  sides  are 
almost  perfectly  parallel. 

In  the  north-west  this  plateau  is  continued  through  Kurdistan,  Armenia,  and 
Asia  Minor,  by  other  lofty  uplands  overlooking  the  waters  of  the  Euxine  and 
Mediterranean.  Thus  nearly  the  whole  of  the  continent  is  intersected  by  an 
elevated  mass,  forming  in  the  west  a  single,  in  the  east  a  double  line,  separating 
the  northern  and  southern  slopes,  and  leaving  between  them  a  few  gateways  only, 
through  which  passed  the  great  historical  routes  of  migration.  In  the  centre  of 
East  Asia  the  Kuen-lun  forms  a  continuation  of  the  Hindu-Kush  and  more 
westerly  systems.  Though  its  crests  fall  short  of  the  extreme  height  attained  by 
those  of  the  Himalayas,  this  range  is  on  the  whole  the  most  elevated  on  the  globe, 
and  probably  stretches  eastwards  across  42°  of  the  meridian,  or  for  a  distance  of 
2,300  miles.     It  thus  forms  the  eastern  half  of  the  continental  axis,  and  is  much 


PLATEAUX— HIGHLANDS  AND  LOWLANDS.  ,8 

more  regular  in  outline  than  the  western,  running  in  the  direction  of  Europe. 
The  term  "  Diaphragm,"  restricted  by  the  Greeks  to  the  mountains  on  the  north 
Iranian  frontier,  might  eqvially  well  be  extended  to  the  whole  parting  line  from 
the  Eastern  Kuen-lun  to  the  Anatolian  Taurus.  This  would  thus  correspond  with 
the  European  diaphragm  formed  by  the  Pyrenees,  Cevennes,  Alps,  and  Balkans, 
and  roughly  continuing  the  line  of  the  Asiatic  "  Great  Divide."  But  in  the 
European  section,  with  its  rare  tablelands  and  convenient  passes,  how  much  more 
numerous  are  the  gaps  and  breaks  of  continuity,  facilitating  the  movements  of 
migration  from  slope  to  slope  ! 

The  ranges  skirting  or   towering  above  the  Asiatic  tablelands  are  mostly  of 
striking  regularity  in  their  line  of  direction,  and  several  consist  of  distinct  ridges. 


B'ig.  1. — Plateatjx  and  Plains  op  Central  Asia. 
Scale  1  :  21,000,000. 


70- 


E,of   Gr. 


Eegions  atove  6,500  Feet. 


CD 

Regions  below  6,500  Feet, 


.  300  Miles. 


all  running  parallel  to  each  other.  The  Himalayas,  culminating  with  Mount 
Everest,  or  Gaurisankar,  "  the  Radiant,"  the  highest  point  on  the  globe,  develop 
along  the  northern  frontier  of  India  a  perfect  arc,  whose  focus  might  be  in  the 
very  heart  of  Central  Asia.  The  whole  system,  including  both  the  Terai  Hills  of 
Hindustan,  and  the  Dapsang,  Karakorum,  and  other  ranges  of  South  Tibet,  also 
runs  in  parallel  curves  north  and  south  of  the  main  range.  In  the  same  way  the 
Kuen-lun  comprises  a  great  many  ridges,  all  developing  uniformly  parallel  lines. 

This  well-marked  parallelism  recurs  in  most  of  the  systems  of  Siberia,  China, 
Cis  and  Transgangetic  India,  Irania,  and  Western  Asia.  Speaking  generally, 
the  main  continental  ranges  may  be  said  to  run  chiefly  in  two  directions — east- 
south-east   to  west -north-west    (Altai,  Tarbagatai,   Western  Himalayas,  Iranian 

b2 


4  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

Mountains,  and  Caucasus),  and  east  to  west,  or  rather  east-north-east  to  west- 
soutli-west  (Tian-shan,  most  of  the  Siberian  chains,  and  those  converging  on  the 
Pamir  tableland).  In  many  places  the  ranges  forming  curves  with  their  convex 
sides  facing  southwards,  by  their  intersections,  give  rise  to  entanglements  and 
overlappings  which  disturb  the  general  uniformity  of  the  mountain  systems. 
Thus  the  ridges  forming  a  continuation  of  the  Himalayas  and  Dapsang  intersect, 
east  of  the  Pamir,  the  regular  chains  running  parallel  to  the  Tian-shan  and 
Altai.  To  these  crossings  are  probably  due  the  elevated  masses  of  Kizil-yart  and 
Tagharma,  rising  above  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Pamir,  and  from  remote  times 


Fig.  2. — Parallelism  op  the  IJxis  Asiatic  Eaxges. 
According  to  Eichtbofcn  for  the  Central  Atiatjc  Ranges.    Scale  1  :  120,000  000. 


.  3.000  Miles. 


known  to  the  Chinese  as  the  Tsung-ling,  or  "  Onion  Mountains,"  from  the  wild 
garlic  covering  all  their  slopes.  Out  of  these  groups  has  been  created  the 
imaginary  Bolor  range,  to  which  Humboldt  had  assigned  a  paramount  importance 
in  the  orographic  structure  of  Asia. 

Asia,  like  Europe,  runs  mainly  east  and  west,  a  geographical  fact  which  has 
had  enormous  influence  on  the  development  of  mankind.  While  Europe  and 
Asia  occupy  over  half  of  the  earth's  circumference  east  and  west,  but  a  fourth  part 
only  taken  north  and  south,  the  New  "World,  confined  between  the  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  Oceans,  stretches  precisely  in  the  inverse  direction,  across  more  than  a 
third  of  the  periphery  from    the   Arctic    nearly  to   the  Antarctic  Circle.     The 


PLATEAUX— HIGHLANDS  AND  LO^TjANDS.  & 

contrast  is  complete  in  the  general  disj)osition  of  the  two  continental  groups,  so 
that  flora,  fauna,  and  races  all  present  analogous  contrasts.  In  Asia  the  species  are 
easily  diffused  from  one  extremity  of  the  continent  to  the  other  by  following  the 
parallels  of  latitude,  and  taking  advantage  of  the  breaks  of  continuity,  wherever 
the  upland  plateaux  present  an  obstacle  to  their  progress.  From  the  plains  of  the 
Oxus  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  races  have  been  variously  displaced  without  meeting 
with  climates  greatly  differing  from  their   own.     Hence  the  mutual  influences 


3. — Mount  Evehest. 


and  the  elements  of  a  common  civilisation  spread  over  vast  spaces.  The  same 
cause  secured  the  inevitable  intermingling  of  all  the  European  and  Asiatic  races, 
generally  producing,  in  these  two  divisions  of  the  Old  World,  a  certain  unity 
contrasting  forcibly  with  the  diversity  characteristic  of  the  western  hemisphere. 
Here  the  migrations  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north,  were  necessarily 
confined  to  much  narrower  limits,  the  ordinary  obstacles  presented  by  plateaux  and 
highlands  being  intensified  by  those  flowing  from  differences  of  latitude.     Special 


6  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

civilisations  were  thus  developed  in  favoured  regions,  -which  had  no  more  than  a 
distant  influence  on  each  other,  and  the  peoi^les  remained  almost  everywhere 
•without  coherence  or  any  common  bonds  of  union.  For  how  could  the  Eskimo 
share  in  a  common  culture  with  the  Prairie  Indians,  or  these  with  the  Mexicans, 
Mayas,  Muiscas,  Quichuas,  Aymaras,  Guaranis,  Patagonians?  It  was  even 
throuo'h  the  interference  of  Europe  that  the  American  aborigines  were  destined 
to  receive  the  first  impulse  which  caused  them  to  become  members  of  the  common 
human  family.  Thanks  to  the  position  of  the  two  continents  stretching  across  the 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  Europeans  of  different  climates — Portuguese, 
Spaniards,  Italians,  French,  English,  Scotch,  Scandinavians — have  been  able  to 
settle  north  and  south  of  the  equator  in  regions  whose  climates  resembled  their 
own,  thus  founding  in  the  two  zones  a  new  England,  a  new  Spain,  and  for  a 
time  a  new  France. 


Geological  Formations — loNEors  Forces. 

Still  but  partially  explored  as  a  whole,  Asia  remains  even  now  to  a  large  extent 
an  imperfectly  known  region.  The  western  section,  Siberia,  with  some  of  the 
highlands  separating  it  from  the  central  plateau,  India,  and  various  tracts  of 
Further  India  and  China  are  the  parts  whose  formations,  disposed  in  the  same 
order  as  in  Europe,  have  already  been  studied  and  classed  by  the  geologist. 
Crystalline  rocks,  old  schists,  palceozoic  strata,  are  the  chief  constituents  of  the 
Siberian  highlands.  The  Kuen-lun  and  the  Karakorum  seem  also  to  belong  to 
the  primitive  structure  of  the  continent,  whereas  the  Himalayas,  while  resting  on 
crystalline  masses,  have  been  more  recently  upheaved  dui-ing  the  secondary  and 
tertiarj-  periods.  An  idea  of  the  tremendous  disturbances  that  have  here  taken 
place  may  be  had  from  the  fact  that  the  eocene  strata  near  Leh  have  been  raised' 
to  a  height  of  11,650  feet. 

The  tracts  covered  with  molten  lava  occupy  a  great  part  of  the  periphery  of 
the  continent.  Volcanic  eminences  occur  in  Siam  and  Pegu  ;  half  of  the  Ganges 
peninsula  is  strewn  with  igneous  rocks  ;  hot  springs  and  mud  volcanoes  bubble 
up  on  the  crests  of  argillaceous  cones  on  the  Mekran  coast,  and  near  the 
Helmand  ;  extinct  craters  are  met  in  South-west  Arabia  and  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  as  well  as  in  Abyssinia,  on  the  opposite  coast ;  the  Hejaz  also,  and  the 
Sinai  peninsula,  have  their  ancient  lava  streams  ;  in  Asia  Minor  we  meet  with  the 
burnt  plains  of  Cappadocia,  "  Phlegrsean  Fields"  like  those  of  Italy,  the  Hassan 
Dagh,  Argseus,  and  other  mountains  of  igneous  origin  ;  in  Armenia,  Mounts 
Ararat,  Aligoz,  and  Abul  are  of  the  same  character ;  and  Elburz,  giant  of  the 
Caucasus,  is  also  an  old  volcano,  while  the  two  extremities  of  this  range  are 
marked  by  boiling  mud  and  naphtha  wells.  Lastly,  Demavend,  rising  majesti- 
cally above  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian,  is  a  burning  mountain,  whose 
crater  is  not  yet  quite  extinct. 

The  northern  ranges,  which  under  various  names  separate  Russian  Turkestan 
and  Siberia  from  the  Chinese  Empire,  must  be  regarded  as  forming  a  section  of 


GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS— IGNEOUS  FORCES.  7 

the  vast,  thoiigli  frequently  interrupted,  ridge  stretching  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  Africa  to  that  of  the  New  World,  and  forming  an  immense  crescent 
round  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans.  But  within  this  is  another  crescent,  the 
"fiery  circle"  already  traced  by  Leopold  yon  Buch.  Starting  from  the  volcanoes 
of  New  Zealand,  it  runs  through  the  Philippines  and  along  the  Asiatic  seaboard 
northwards,  through  Japan  and  the  Kuriles,  to  the  Aleutian  archipelago  and 
Alaska,  whence  it  is  continued  in  a  south-easterly  direction  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Magellan  Strait.  In  the  Asiatic  section  of  this  crescent  the  active  or  barely 
quiescent  volcanoes  are  reckoned  by  the  hundred,  though  the  only  fiery  cones 
still  active  on  the  mainland  are  those  of  Kamchatka,  which  connect  the  Kuriles 
with  the  Aleutian  group. 

In  some  regions  of  the  interior  there  also  occur  masses  of  scoria  and  lava 
streams,  but  the  craters  whence  they  flowed  have  been  extinct  either  since  the 
second  half  of  the  tertiary  period,  or  at  least  for  some  centuries.  The  doubts 
formerly  thrown  on  the  reality  of  the  active  volcanoes  mentioned  in  the  Chinese 
records,  and  often  referred  to  by  Humboldt,  have  not  yet  been  finally  disposed  of. 
The  observations  made  by  Stoliezka,  who  fancied  he  had  traversed  a  volcanic 
district  with  basalt  rocks  in  the  distance,  have  been  called  in  question.  But 
west  of  Irkutsk  the  valley  of  a  tributary  of  the  Oka  is  filled  by  a  vast 
lava  stream,  above  which  rise  two  craters.  Other  craters  occur  in  the  valley  of 
the  Irkut,  and  other  lava  streams  farther  east,  in  the  basin  of  the  Jida,  near 
Selenghinsk,  and  on  the  Vitim  plateau,  near  the  north-east  angle  of  Lake  Baikal. 
Lavas  and  basalts  have  also  flown  from  the  neighbouring  Okhotzk  Mountains, 
while  vestiges  of  recent  eruptions  occur  in  most  of  the  terraced  mountains  of 
Siberia  flanking  the  north-west  side  of  the  Mongolian  plateaux. 

The  suspension  of  the  lava  streams  arises  from  the  almost  total  disappearance 
of  the  saline  lakes  formerly  filKng  the  great  depressions  of  Central  Asia.  Never- 
theless there  is  a  volcanic  tract  in  the  east  of  the  continent  south  of  Aigun,  and 
540  miles  from  the  coast,  where  eruptions  certainly  took  place  in  1721  and  1722. 
The  detailed  reports  of  the  Chinese  savants  brought  to  light  by  Vasilj'ev  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  this  fact,  which  should  perhaps  be  explained  by  the  number  of  lakes 
and  swamps  still  found  on  the  plateau. 

The  oscillations  which  have  given  its  present  form  to  the  continent  are  still 
going  on  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  enable  observers  to  detect  them  along  a  great 
extent  of  the  seaboard.  Thus  there  can  be  scarcely  any  doubt  that  the  northern 
shores  of  Siberia  are  slowly  rising  above  the  Arctic  Ocean,  for  islands  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  standing  at  some  distance  from  the  coast  are  now 
connected  with  it,  not  by  sand-banks,  but  by  the  rocky  bed  of  the  sea.  Similar 
phenomena  have  been  observed  in  the  ^gean  and  Black  Seas,  as  well  as  along 
the  east  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  shown  by  the  upheaved  coral  banks  fringing 
the  coast  of  Arabia.  Traces  of  recent  upheaval  have  likewise  been  noted  on  the 
shores  of  Baluchistan  and  Malabar,  in  Ceylon,  British  Burmah,  East  China,  about 
the  Amur  delta,  and  in  Kamchatka. 

Symptoms  of  subsidence,   so  much  more  easily    recognised   than  the  upward 


8 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA 


motion,  have  hitherto  been  detected  only  at  a  very  few  points  along  the  Asiatic 
seaboard.  A  part  of  the  coast  of  Syria,  the  Great  Western  Runn  between  the 
Indus  delta  and  Katch,  the  shores  of  Fo-kien,  Ton-kin,  and  Cochin  China,  are  at 
present  subsiding.  But  the  movement  is  most  perceptible  in  the  Laccadives  and 
Maldives,  where  the  atolls,  or  circular  coral  reefs,  are  slowly  disappearing, 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  busy  polyps  to  keep  them  above  the  surface. 
The  Chagos  Bank  has  already  been  entirely  engulfed. 


Climate — Diminution  or  Moisture. 

The  great  elevation  of  the  Asiatic  plateaux,  with  an  atmosphere  twice  as 
rarefied  as  that  of  the  lowlands,  modifies  to  a  remarkable  extent  the  normal 
climate  of  the  continent.      Already  as  a  whole  far  more  extensive  than  Europe, 

Fig.  4. — The  Han'-hai  :  A  dried-vp  Sea-bed. 
According  to  Eichthofen.    Scale  1  :  32,000,000. 


A\^M^ 


E.oF  6K 


Sandy  or  Stony  Desert. 


Upheaved  Islands.        Eecent  Lacustrine  Depressions. 
^_— ^^^_  COO  Miles 


and  consequently  less  exposed  to  oceanic  influences,  it  everywhere  receives  a 
proportionately  less  amount  of  moisture.  But  the  central  portions,  being  almost 
completely  encircled  by  mountains  which  arrest  the  course  of  wet  or  snowy  winds, 
receive  far  less  humidity  than  the  average  rainfall  of  the  rest  of  the  continent. 
Still  the  maritime  slopes  of  the  plateaux  and  highlands  do  not  retain  all  the 
moisture  brought  by  the  winds,  so  that  torrents  and  even  rivers  furrow  the  slopes 
facing  inland.  Some  of  these  streams  ultimately  find  their  way  to  the  ocean, 
but  most  of  them  run  dry  either  in  the  "  cirques  "  where  they  rise,  or  at  a  lower 
elevation,  or  else  in  the  deep  and  winding  depression  stretching  south-west  and 
north-east,  between  the  Kuen-lun  and  the  Tian-shan  and  Altai'  mountain  systems. 
At  a  time  when  these  waters  were  more  abundant  the  whole  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  great  Asiatic  depression  was  filled  by  a  vast  sea  nearly  as  long,  east  and  west. 


AEEAS  OF  INLAND  DEAmAQE.  9 

as  the  Mediterranean,  but  somewhat  narrower.  This  dried-up  sea,  the  Han-ha'i 
of  the  Chinese,  seems  to  have  stood  about  5,000  feet  above  the  actual  sea-level, 
with  a  depth  in  some  places  of  3,000  feet.  It  occupied  between  Tibet  and  the 
Tian-shan  range  all  the  present  Tarim  basin,  forming  between  the  Tian-shan  and 
Altai  a  ramifying  gulf,  which  Richthofen  has  called  the  "  Zungarian  Basin." 
Eastwards  it  joined  the  Chamo  basin  through  a  strait  studded  with  islands,  all 
running  in  the  same  direction  as  the  Tian-shan.  At  present  this  depression  is 
divided  by  slight  elevations  into  secondary  cavities,  each  with  its  dried-up 
river  beds  and  marshes,  or  saline  incrustations,  last  remnants  of  what  was  once 
the  Asiatic  Mediterranean. 

In  spite  of  the  different  elevations  and  latitudes,  a  singular  imiformity  is 
imparted  to  all  these  inland  regions  by  the  general  sterility  of  the  soil,  the 
drjmess  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  sudden  vicissitudes  of  temperature.  The 
rolling  steppes  of  red  earth  in  the  Altai  region ;  the  argillaceous  plateaux,  heavy  and 
grey  like  a  sea  of  congealed  mud  ;  the  less  monotonous  districts,  varied  here  and 
there  by  a  few  protruding  rocks;  the  deserts  where  crescent  sandy  dunes  drive 
like  mighty  bUlows  before  the  wind ;  lastly,  the  stony  plains  strewn  with  frag- 
ments of  quartz,  chalcedony,  jasper,  carnelians,  amethysts,  released  from  their  less 
solid  and  vanished  matrices,  weathered  to  dust  and  dispersed  by  the  wind's — all 
these  regions  form  a  monotonous  whole  sublime  in  the  very  simjolicitj'  of  their 
Hnes.  On  these  vast  tablelands,  crossed  from  horizon  to  horizon  by  long  furrows 
like  the  ground-swell  produced  by  the  trade  winds,  caravans  wind  their  way 
for  days  and  weeks  through  a  changeless  scene  of  dreary  majesty.  Even  the 
descent  from  the  plateaux  towards  the  deep  depressions  produces  little  change. 
The  upland  steppe,  3  miles  above  sea-level,  the  bed  of  the  dried-up  Mediterranean, 
the  naked  lands  of  Tibet  and  the  Northern  Gobi,  separated  from  each  other  by 
18°  of  latitude,  present  everywhere  the  same  uniform  aspect,  broken  only  by  a 
few  oases,  whose  fresh-water  streams,  with  their  fringe  of  rich  herbage,  contrast 
forcibly  with  the  bare  mountain  crags  and  steppes  of  the  surrounding  plateaux. 
The  species  of  indigenous  plants  are  nowhere  numerous,  and  even  by  the  running 
waters  few  trees  are  met  except  the  poplar  and  willow.  The  nomad  shep- 
herds, who  drive  their  flocks  from  the  lowlands  to  the  uplands,  13,000  to  20,000 
feet  above  sea-level,  are  little  affected  by  the  change.  How  different  all  this 
from  the  contrast  presented  in  Europe  by  the  luxuriant  plains  of  Lombardy  with 
the  rugged  Alpine  heights  ! 

Areas  of  Inland  Drainage. 

The  expression  "  Central  Asia "  is  by  the  Russians  wrongly  applied  to  the 
part  of  the  continent  bordering  on  Europe,  and  lying  within  the  same  Aralo-Caspian 
depression  as  the  portion  of  Russia  watered  by  the  Volga  and  its  tributaries. 
Richthofen  more  correctly  restricts  this  term  to  the  Han-hai  depression,  and  the 
Tibetan  tablelands  whose  waters  evaporate  without  forming  streams.  This  part 
of  the  continent  is,  in  fact,  distinguished  from  all  the  surrounding  regions  by  the 


10  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

circumstance  that  the  detritus  of  the  plateaux  and  highhmds  caused  by  weathering 
and  erosion  remains  in  the  basin  itself,  whereas  it  is  elsewhere  regularly  carried 
away  to  the  sea.  The  general  movement  of  Central  Asia  proper  is  centripetal, 
that  of  the  periphery  centrifugal.  But  on  the  Pamir,  forming  the  water-parting 
between  China  and  the  Caspian,  there  also  occur  closed  cirques,  whose  waters  do 
not  reach  the  lowlands.  Afghanistan  and  the  Persian  tableland  have  also  their 
isolated  basins,  their  land-locked  lakes  and  marshes ;  and  Asia  ISIinor  itself 
presents  saline  lakes  cut  oif  from  all  communication  with  the  sea,  notwithstanding 
the  greater  relative  abundance  of  the  rainfall  in  this  sea-girt  region.  The  plains 
of  Syria,  Arabia,  and  even  India,  also  comprise  vast  spaces  whose  waters  have  no 
outlet  towards  the  sea.  Lastly,  the  Aralo-Caspian  depression  is  now  a  land- 
locked basin,  or  rather  forms  a  group  of  distinct  basins  like  that  of  the  Chinese 
Mediterranean,  with  which  they  seem  to  have  formerly  communicated  through 
the  Straits  of  Zungaria.  Before  the  present  geological  epoch  the  Caspian,  Aral, 
Balkash,  and  countless  other  lakes  of  smaller  size  were  successively  isolated  like 
those  of  the  Han-hai.  But  the  two  depressions  of  Western  and  Central  Asia 
present  a  complete  contrast,  the  one  in  the  generally  horizontal  direction  of  its 
plains,  the  other  in  the  great  relief  of  the  surrounding  highlands. 

Taken  collectively,  all  the  Asiatic  regions  with  no  outlets  seawards  have 
ari  area  of  perhaps  4,000,000  square  miles,  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  of 
Europe.  This  arid  tract  is  connected  through  the  Arabian  peninsula  with  the 
zone  of  waterless  deserts  occupying  nearly  the  whole  of  Africa  between  the 
Mediterranean  seaboard  and  Sudan.  Thus  all  the  eastern  hemisphere  is  crossed 
obliquely  by  a  belt  of  arid  regions,  which  barely  fringes  the  south-east  corner  of 
Europe,  and  is  divided  in  nearly  equal  proportions  between  Asia  and  Africa. 
Historic  evidence  shows  that  for  the  last  four  thousand  years  a  large  portion  of 
Central  Asia  has  been  dried  up.  At  one  time  the  region  of  Lake  Lob  was 
occupied  by  a  vast  inland  sea,  the  Li-ha'i,  or  "  Western  Sea,"  forming  a  con- 
siderable section  of  the  ancient  Han-hai.  But  as  the  process  of  desiccation 
progressed  this  term  had  to  be  transferred  from  the  Tarim  basin  to  the  Caspian. 
Skilfully  planned  works  of  irrigation  may  have  here  and  there  created  a  few 
small  oases,  but  the  loss  of  habitable  land  has  been  enormous.  Whole  kingdoms 
have  disappeared,  many  cities  have  been  swallowed  up  in  the  sands,  and  certain 
tracts,  formerly  accessible  to  travellers,  can  no  longer  be  visited,  owing  to  the 
total  absence  of  water  and  vegetation.  Inhabited  districts  south  of  the  Lob-nor, 
traversed  by  Marco  Polo,  are  now  inaccessible.  Even  beyond  the  large  Asiatic 
basins  on  the  South  Siberian  and  Mongolian  plateaux  the  same  phenomenon  of 
gradual  absorption  is  perceptible,  especially  in  the  west.  East  of  Lake  Baikal 
the  ancient  sheets  of  water  filling  the  cavities  and  terraces  have  been  replaced  by 
countless  lakelets,  tarns,  marshes,  forming  an  ever-changing  watery  labyrinth. 
From  the  Baikal  to  the  Amur,  from  the  Argun  to  the  Khingan  Mountains,  the 
land  is  studded  with  these  lacustrine  bodies,  recalling  a  time  when  the  country 
exhibited  the  same  aspect  as  the  present  Finland. 

East  of  the  western  Chinese  closed  basin  the  erosive  action  of  runnins  waters 


LIBRARY 

•OF  THE 

INiVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


i^ 


\  »ij 


■'I 


'.•.\ 


^  v.v^  •      /. »      .1 


V'. 


.  .  ^\'*,'.''  ,'.  '\<'*' 


»•*'*' 

'••••.> 


O.* 


-V. 


'♦'.•♦ 


>V| 


12  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

The  erosion  of  these  vast  accumiilations  is  effected  by  the  infiltration  of  water. 
Wells  are  sunk,  and  uaderground  galleries  opened  here  and  there,  over  which  the 
clay  vaults  sink  In.  Thus  are  formed  ravines  with  vertical  walls  ramifying  in  all 
directions.  In  many  places  the  plateau  seems  perfectly  horizontal ;  yet  it  is  cut 
up  into  so  many  fragments  connected  by  narrow  Isthmuses  that  the  traveller, 
unaccompanied  by  a  guide,  would  inevitably  lose  his  way.  The  erosion  Is 
incessantly  advancing  in  the  west,  where  nothing  remains  in  many  river 
valleys  except  isolated  vertical  masses  assuming  the  form  of  walls,  turreted 
castles,  or  keeps.  Many  of  these  blocks  have  even  been  converted  Into  strong- 
holds pierced  with  Invisible  caverns,  affording  shelter  to  their  occupants.  By  a 
remarkable  contrast,  this  clay,  formerly  covering  uninhabited  wastes,  now  yields 
the  heaviest  crops  in  the  irrigated  districts.  The  yellow  earth  even  serves  as  a 
manure  for  the  neighbouring  lands.  The  Tibetan  plateaux  would  seem  to  be  also 
composed  of  a  similar  clay,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  geological  pheno- 
mena are  taking  place  corresponding  exactly  with  those  of  the  Upper  Hoang-ho 
basin.  In  their  aggregate  all  the  geographical  zones  of  Eastern  Asia  may  be 
said  to  have  shifted  westwards.  The  ravines  of  the  Yellow  Land  encroach  on  the 
plateaux,  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-ho  and  its  tributaries  advance  contiaually 
farther  inland,  the  coast-line  itself  stretched  formerly  farther  eastwards,  and 
Japan  and  the  Kuriles  are  probably  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Asiatic  seaboard. 


Rivers  flowing  Seawards. 

On  the  northern  slope  of  the  continent  the  waters  drain  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
through  the  three  mighty  rivers  Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  though  they  flow  freely 
for  a  portion  only  of  the  year.  In  these  northern  latitudes  the  streams  are  ice-bound 
or  blocked  for  eight  or  nine  months,  besides  which  their  navigation  is  extremely 
tedious  between  frozen  tundras  destitute  of  towns,  villages,  or  cultivated  lands. 
The  sea  voj^ages  from  Europe  to  the  mouths  of  the  great  Siberian  rivers  did  not 
begin  till  about  1600  under  the  Czar  Boris  Grodunov,  but  a  few  years  thereafter 
a  decree  of  the  Russian  Government  closed  all  trade  with  the  Siberian  coast, 
which  was  not  reopened  tiU  1869  by  the  Norwegians  Carlsen  and  Johannesen. 
The  Lena,  however,  was  ascended  for  the  first  time  in  1878  by  a  vessel  accom- 
panying that  of  Nordenskjold.  But  though  the  communication  Is  now  fully 
established  between  Europe  and  the  Siberian  estuaries,  this  result  can  have  but 
little  economic  importance  so  long  as  these  northern  lands  remain  unpeopled. 
Cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  ice  and  the  bleak  wastes  of  the  seaboard, 
the  Siberian  rivers,  though  flowing  to  the  open  sea,  may  be  said  to  possess  no 
more  interest  for  man  than  if  they  drained  to  inland  basins.  Even  the  Amur, 
flowing  under  a  more  favourable  climate  eastwards  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotzk,  is 
ice-bound  for  six  mouths  in  the  year.  Thus  fully  half  of  Asia,  consisting  either 
of  Inland  depressions  or  of  valleys  without  easy  outlets,  is  deprived  of  the 
advantages  derived  by  most  other  regions  from  their  running  waters. 

From  the  Pet-chl-li  to  the  Persian  Gulf  most  of  the  coast  lands  are  abundantly 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

iVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


THE  UPPER  YANQ-XSE-KIA2JG, 


••.N^ 


.».♦», 


♦  ■«  »' 


\.  •v.^ v.*/ '*'•'' 


\V.'/ 


/•v* 


vV.''/...s^''»'a 


k'.X 


.».».» 


'*'♦»' 


^^••:v. 


.» » 


XV.'VAV 


\%' 


\%' 


>'•• 


.\'. 


/-v»* 


.v» 


'#  •  »' 


.>'• 


'*  *  ♦' 


14 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


the  Sea  of  Ai-al,  or  inland  basin  of  Turkestan,  offers  a  like  pkenomenon  in  the 
Oxus  and  Sir-darj-a,  flowing  parallel  to  each  other,  and  at  one  time  apparently 
united  in  a  common  delta. 

TexMpekature — Rainfall — Vegetation. 

The  work  of  geographical  exploration  being  still  unfinished,  pluviometrical 
observations  are  also  necessarily  incomplete,  the  direction  and  force  of  the  winds 
and  the  amount  of  humidity  having  been  gauged  only  in  the  regions  accessible 
to  European  science,  so  that  tracts  as  large  as  all  Europe  are  stiU  almost  unknown 


Fig.  7. — Isobars  in-  July. 
Scale  1  :  120,000,000. 


3,000  Miles. 


lands  for  the  meteorologist.  Not  even  a  proximate  estimate  can  be  formed  of  the 
rainfall  in  the  various  Asiatic  countries,  though  we  know  that  in  the  aggregate 
the  climate  of  Asia  contrasts  sharply  with  that  of  Europe.  The  latter,  almost 
everywhere  sea-girt,  receives  moisture  at  all  seasons,  the  mean  difference  between 
the  driest  and  wettest  months  oscillating  between  1  and  3,  whereas  the 
great  bulk  of  the  Asiatic  mainland  is  exposed  to  atmospheric  strata  far  more 
regular  in  their  action.  East  of  the  transitional  zone  bordering  on  Europe,  the 
course  of  the  -s\-inds  and  rains  is  marked  by  extreme  uniformity.  On  all  the 
southern  and  eastern  seaboards  the  driest  month  yields  fifty  to  sixty  times  less 
moisture  than  the  rainy  season.     In  winter  the  cold  atmospheric  strata  become 


PENINSULAS.  15 

concentrated  in  Eastern  Siberia  in  the  basin  of  the  Lena  and  its  tributaries.  The 
maximum  point  of  cold  oscillates  about  Yerhhojansk,  where  the  sky  is  always  clear, 
the  air  bright.  On  some  places  snow  falls  so  rarely  that  sleighs  are  unavailable 
for  a  great  part  of  the  winter.  Then  this  cold  air  sets  eastwards  and  southwards, 
bringing  in  its  wake  fine  weather  and  dryness.  In  summer  the  reverse  process 
takes  place,  as  shown  in  Yoj-eikov's  tentative  chart.  Siberia,  where  the  barometer 
in  winter  marked  the  greatest  pressure,  is  then  exposed  to  the  least  atmospheric 
weight.  The  sea  air  is  here  concentrated  from  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans, 
filling  up  the  vacuum  and  bearing  with  it  clouds  and  rain.  Along  all  the  sea- 
board from  the  Arabian  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Okhotzk  the  wet  monsoon  prevails 
during  this  period  of  atmospheric  reflux  to  Eastern  Siberia. 

Cis  and  Transgangetic  India,  with  the  neighbouring  archipelagos  of 
Malaysia  and  the  Philippines,  probably  receive  more  than  half  of  the  whole 
continental  rainfall.  In  this  region,  exposed  by  the  barrier  of  the  Himalayas  and 
its  eastern  extensions  to  the  full  play  of  the  tropical  currents,  the  sea  air  arrives 
charged  with  vapours,  which  are  precipitated  at  the  slightest  contact  with  the 
upland  slopes.  In  summer  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent,  having  a  much 
higher  temperature  than  the  sea,  attracts  the  aerial  masses  resting  on  the  Indian 
Ocean,  thus  ^producing  the  southern  monsoon.  Saturated  with  the  moisture 
arising  from  the  sea  as  from  a  seething  caldron,  this  monsoon  discharges 
torrential  downpours  on  the  Malabar  and  Transgangetic  coasts,  after  which  it 
strikes  against  the  advanced  Himalayan  spurs  and  other  ranges  flanking  the 
southern  border  of  the  Chinese  tablelands.  The  moist  clouds,  thus  arrested  by  the 
lower  chains,  show  that  the  marine  breezes  seldom  rise  higher  than  from  5,000  to 
6,500  feet.  But  here  the  tropical  rains,  real  deluges,  exceed  anything  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  temperate  zone  have  any  experience  of.  Annual  rainfalls  of 
20,  30,  and  40  feet  are  by  no  means  rare  in  various  parts  of  India,  and  in  the 
Kassia  HiUs,  overlooking  the  course  of  the  Lower  Brahmaputra,  it  amounts  to 
52  feet.  Certain  Indian  valleys  have  received  in  one  downpour  as  much  water  as 
many  French  valleys  in  a  twelvemonth. 

Peninsulas. 

Thanks  to  their  varied  coast-Hne  and  reliefs,  the  regions  of  Southern  Asia, 
Irania  and  Arabia  alone  excepted,  present  a  greater  diversity  of  aspects  than  the 
other  parts  of  the  continent.  The  two  great  peninsulas  of  India  and  Indo-China, 
with  the  neighbouring  archipelagos,  are  probably  unequalled  in  the  richness  of 
their  vegetation,  the  splendour  of  flower  and  foliage,  and  the  beauty  of  the 
animal  species.  These  are  the  enchanted  isles  of  the  Arab  legends,  where 
the  sands  sparkle  with  rubies  and  sapphires,  where  the  trees  shed  strength  and 
health-giving  perfumes,  where  the  birds  with  their  diamond  pltmiage  speak  with  a 
wisdom  unknown  to  the  inhabitants.  Many  of  these  islands,  gems  set  in  a  blue 
tea,  lie  nevertheless  within  the  zones  of  typhoons,  earthquakes,  and  fierce  volcanic 
action.  But  the  vapour- charged  sea  breezes  soon  repair  the  disasters  of  these 
agencies,  quickly  reviving  the  magnificence  of  their  tropical  vegetation. 

c  2 


16 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Comparing  continents  with  continents,  the  Swede  Torbern  Bergmann  remarked 
in  the  last  century  that  the  large  peninsulas,  such  as  Arabia,  Hindostan,  and 
Indo-China,  nearly  all  face  southwards.  These  correspond  exactly  with  the 
Ilollcnic,  Italic,  and  Iberian  peninsulas  in  Europe,  and  to  a  less  degree  with  those 
of  Lower  California  and  Florida  in  the  New  T7orld,  where  the  intermediate  peninsula 
has  been  transformed  to  an  isthmus  by  the  upheaval  of  the  laud  in  Central  America. 

rig.  8. — Curves  of  the  Eastern  Asiatic  Seaboard  axd  Isla>;ds. 
Scale  1  ;  00,000,000. 


C. Perron 


0  to  810 

SIO  Fathoms  and 

Fathoms. 

upwards. 

The  peninsulas  of  the  two  continents  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  taken  in  their 
geographical  order,  are  also  distinguished  by  special  and  analogous  features. 
Thus  Arabia,  nearly  quadrangular  In  form,  is  another  Spain  in  the  solidity  of  its 
contour  and  the  monotony  of  its  coast-line.  India,  like  Italy,  presents  more  varied 
outlines,  and  has  a  large  Island  at  Its  southern  extremity.  Lastly,  Indo-China  and 
Greece  are  both  alike  washed  by  seas  studded  with  countless  islands  and  Islets.  These 
European  and  Asiatic  archipelagos,  like  the  corresponding  Antilles  in  America, 


PENINSULAS. 


17 


have  all  tlieir  igneous  phenomena,  their  craters  of  molten  lava — more  numerous, 
however,  in  Asia  than  elsewhere.  Important  geological  changes  are  now  taking 
place  in  this  partially  upheaved  region,  which  may  in  its  aggregate  be  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  isthmus  between  Asia  and  Australia.  Nevertheless  Wallace  has  noted 
a  sharp  line  of  separation  between  these  two  worlds,  easily  recognised  by  the 
difference  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  species  peopling  the  lands  situated  on  either 
side  of  this  line.      In  the  volcanic  chain  of  the  Southern  Sundas,  Bali  belongs  to 

Fig.  9. — Density  of  the  Asiatic  Populations. 

According  to  Bebm  and  Ilanemaim. — Coatpont  Projection. 

Scale  1  :  120,000,000, 


^^W^  \ 


110"      Eof  br 


'C.  Perron 


□ 


Per  Square  Mile. 


TJninhabited.' Under  2.       2  to  18.         18  to  36.       36  to  72.      72  to  144.     144  to  288.      28S  and 

upwjirds. 
-^^— ^-__-^.^^__^— ^___  3,000  Miles. 

the  Asiatic,   while  Lombok,   only  24    miles  distant,   already  forms  part  of  the 
Australian  group. 

Like  the  southern,  the  eastern  Asiatic  seaboard  has  also  its  three  peninsulas 
stretching  southwards — Kamchatka,  Corea,  and  Sakhalin — the  last  apparently  an 
island,  but  really  a  peninsula,  being  connected  with  the  Siberian  coast  by  a  bank 
inaccessible  to  large  vessels.  Though  possibly  mere  coincidences,  these  facts  are 
more  probably  the  result  of  a  Liav  regulating  the  distribution  of  dry  land,  the 
existence  of  which  can  scarcely  be  questioned,  if  its  explanation  must  still  remain 
an  unsolved  problem. 


18  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

No  less  remarkable  geographical  analogies  occur  in  the  south-eastern  archi- 
pelago. Thus  Sumatra  is  obviously  a  peninsula  of  Malacca,  connected  -with  the 
mainland  by  the  partly  submerged  isthmus  of  the  Nicobar  and  y\jidaman  groups. 
SeA-eral  of  the  Malay  Islands,  Sumatra  itself  included,  are  disposed  in  regular  order 
on  openings  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  through  which  they  communicate  with  an 
underground  lava  sea.  But  the  distinctive  feature  presented  by  all  these  insular 
groups  consists  in  their  coast-lines  forming  a  succession  of  segments  of  circles. 
From  the  north-west  extremity  of  Sumatra  to  Flores  the  shores  facing  the  Indian 
Ocean  are  developed  in  the  form  of  a  regular  arc,  and  the  same  is  true  of  Borneo, 
Palavan,  Luzon,  and  Formosa.  The  east  coast  of  Corea  begins  a  third  curve,  which 
is  continued  towards  the  Liu-khieu  Islands,  while  Japan  and  Sakhalin  form  a 
fourth,  which  in  the  island  of  Yesso  intersects  a  fifth,  sweeping  through  the  Kuriles 
along  the  east  side  of  Kamchatka.  Lastly,  the  chain  of  the  Aleutians,  resting  on 
a  Kamchatka  headland,  stretches  like  a  barrier  across  Bering  Strait  to  Alaska. 
The  radii  of  these  insular  curves  vary  in  mean  length  from  1,100  to  1,200  miles, 
and  the  continental  seaboard  facing  them  is  also  disposed  in  large  circular  lines. 
The  coasts  of  Siberia  beyond  the  Amur,  the  Chinese  seaboard  between  the  Yellow 
Sea  and  Gulf  of  Ton-kin,  that  of  Cochin  China  as  far  as  the  Me-khong  delta,  are  all 
traced  as  if  by  the  compass.  Were  the  level  of  the  Pacific  to  be  raised  from 
1,600  to  2,000  feet,  the  Sikhota-Alin  coast  range,  Russian  Manchuria,  would  be 
changed  to  an  archipelago  like  that  of  Japan,  and  the  lower  valley  of  the  Amur 
and  Sungari  would  be  transformed  to  a  sea,  in  its  outlines  resembling  that  of  the 
Kuriles.  In  the  west  the  Khingan  range  also  develops  a  curve  parallel  to  the 
sweep  of  the  Kuriles,  though  composed  of  older  rocks. 

Inhabitants — Culture. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  whole  population  of  the  globe  are  probably  concen- 
trated in  Asia ;  but  these  multitudes  are  far  from  being  evenlj-  distributed  over 
its  surface.  They  are  disposed  according  to  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
and,  speaking  generally,  their  density  may  be  said  to  be  in  proportion  to  the 
abundance  of  the  rainfall.  Over  one-tenth  of  the  land,  consisting  of  sands,  rocks,  or 
frozen  tablelands,  is  absolutely  uninhabited,  and  some  of  these  tracts  are  never  even 
traversed  by  caravans.  In  four-fifths  of  the  surface  the  number  of  inhabitants 
scarcely  reaches  40  per  square  mile.  But  in  the  remaining  fifth,  comprising 
India,  parts  of  Indo-China,  the  Yang-tze-kiang  and  Hoang-ho  basins,  Japan, 
Luzon,  and  China,  the  population  is  dense  enough  to  give  Asia  a  decided  numerical 
preponderance  over  the  other  continents.  More  than  half  of  mankind  are  grouped 
in  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia  within  a  space  less  than  one-sixth  of  the  dry  land. 
Thus  one  of  the  extremities  of  Asia  presents  in  this  respect  a  phenomenon  analogous 
to  what  is  witnessed  in  AYestern  Europe  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  Old  World. 
Isolated  from  each  other  by  plateaux,  lofty  ranges,  or  waterless  wastes,  the 
Asiatic  populations  have  naturally  remained  far  more  distinct  than  those  of 
Europe.     Whatever  be  the  origins,  rivalries,  or  antagonisms  of  the  European 


INHABITANTS— CULTUEE. 


19 


nations,  they  have  none  the  less  the  full  consciousness  of  belonging  to  the  same 
human  family,  and  in  many  places  the  interminglings  of  Iberians  and  Celts,  of 
Slavs  and  Finns,  of  Turks  and  Albanians,  have  effaced  all  primitive  differences. 
Eut  crossings  are  far  from  having  produced  a  similar  racial  uniformity  in  Asia. 
Doubtless  in  the  north  an  ethnical  fusion  has  taken  place  between  many  Turki  and 
Mongolian  tribes,  in  the  west  between  Semites  and  Iranians.     Nor  are  there  any 

Fig.  10. — DlSTKIBUTION  OF  THE  ASIATIC   RACES, 
ficale  1  :  120,000,000. 


50' 


IIO*  ,E.of  Gr, 


^ 


m 


Aryans.   Mongolians.    Tatars.         Finno-       Tibetans.      Chinese,      Semites.    Dravidians, 
Ugiians.  Japanese,  &c. 


Caucasians.    EsMmo.      Africans.      Malays.      Papuans. 
3,000  Miles. 


longer  to  be  foimd  completely  homogeneous  races,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  Anda- 
man Islands  and  Yesso.  Yet  what  striking  contrasts  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  continent !  The  various  so-called  "  Turanian  "  or  Finno-Tataric 
races  mostly  form  distinct  groups,  completely  separated  from  the  other  races  in 
their  mental  qualities  and  social  habits.  In  the  north  the  Samoyedes,  Ostyaks, 
and  other  Siberian  tribes  form  one  of  the  most  easily  recognised  subdivisions.  In 
the  east  Manchus  and  Tung  uses,  in  the  west  Kirghiz  and  Tatars,  represent  the 


20  ASLVTIC  ETJSSIA. 

Tuikl  stock.  The  Mongolians  and  Buriats  of  the  centre  are  regarded  as  the 
typical  branch  of  the  Mongol,  or  Yellow  familj'.  On  the  southern  plateaux  the 
Tibetans  also  form  a  distinct  group,  while  the  basins  of  the  eastern  rivers  are 
occupied  by  the  more  or  less  mixed  Chinese  nation,  surpassing  all  others  in 
numbers,  and  distinguished  from  them  by  well-marked  moral  and  mental  features. 
In  the  south-east  the  Malays  constitute  another  division  of  mankind,  which  in 
some  of  the  Sunda  Islands  and  Malacca  exhibits  characteristics  contrasting  with 
those  of  all  the  Asiatic  peoples.  The  Arabs  also,  who  with  the  Jews  form  the 
Semitic  fomily,  have  maintained  the  primitive  purity  of  their  type  in  the  interior 
of  the  south-western  peninsula.  Lastly,  the  races  of  India  have,  so  to  say, 
followed  each  other  in  successive  layers.  Although  living  in  the  same  land,  the 
various  ethnical  groups,  divided  into  hostile  castes,  have  been  developed  side  by 
side,  while  keeping  aloof  from  aU  physical  or  social  intermixture.  The  sacred 
poems  of  the  Hindus  relate  how  the  noble  races  had  to  struggle  with  the  low-caste 
tribes,  people  of  black  complexion  and  flat  nose,  and  even  with  the  Anasikas,  demons 
and  monkevs.  The  struggle  has  ceased,  but  the  law  of  caste  has  raised  a  brazen 
barrier  between  these  primeval  conflicting  elements. 

Speaking  generally,  the  thickly  peopled  southern  and  eastern  regions  may  be 
said  to  be  occupied  by  cultured  races,  while  the  more  desert  northern  tracts  were 
till  recently  the  exclusive  domain  of  savage  tribes,  the  intervening  plains  and 
plateaux  being  held  by  nomad  peoples  at  the  transitional  or  barbarous  stage  of 
civilisation.  Yet  thi'ough  a  strange,  though  by  no  means  solitary  delusion,  the 
lofty  Central  Asiatic  highlands  have  often  been  described  in  legends  as  the  cradle 
of  mankind,  and  the  influence  of  these  childlike  traditions  has  been  felt  in  many 
grave  scientific  works.  It  seemed  natural  that  these  cloud-eapped  peaks — abode 
of  the  gods  and  immortals — should  also  be  the  first  home  of  man  created  by  them, 
and  that  the  migrations  of  the  tribes  should  follow  the  course  of  the  streams, 
descending  to  the  lowlands  from  the  pure  sources  springing  amidst  eternal  snows. 
The  Hindus,  gazing  northwards  on  the  glittering  crests  of  Mount  Meru,  fancied 
that  here  the  first  rays  of  light  had  beamed  on  their  forefathers.  The  Armenian 
Ararat,  with  its  snowy  cone  sweeping  a  boundless  horizon  of  hills  and  plains,  was 
also  for  many  peoples  the  eminence  on  which  the  universal  father  of  mortals  had 
first  set  his  foot.  Lastly,  the  Pamir,  well  named  the  "Hoof  of  the  World," 
forming  the  great  divide  between  east  and  west,  was  held  sacred  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  Aryan  tribes,  who  spread  thence  over  "Western  Asia  and  Europe.  Thus 
have  these  uninhabited  iipland  wastes  conie  to  be  regarded  as  the  cradle  of  the 
countless  multitudes  whica,  since  the  appearance  of  the  Aryan  race,  have  dwelt 
west  of  the  Pamir. 

But  these  delusions  are  henceforth  dispelled,  and  the  peoples  of  the  earth  have 
ceased  to  discover  in  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow  the  first  trace  of  their  ancestors. 
The  geography  of  traditions  and  legends  is  doubtless  of  great  importance,  often 
furnishing  valuable  hints  to  the  historian  ;  but,  if  taken  as  an  exclusive  guide,  it 
could  lead  to  nothing  but  error.  The  civilisation  of  modern  Europe  cannot  have 
had  its  rise  in  the  arid  upland  plateaux  and  desert  valleys  of  Central  Asia.     Apart 


INHABITANTS— CULTURE.  21 

from  what  has  been  developed  on  the  spot,  most  of  its  elements  must  be  traced  to 
the  Nile  basin,  to  the  Asiatic  coast  lands,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Babylonia,  Arabia, 
Persia,  India,  and  China. 

All  the  languages  of  Europe,  except  Basque,  are  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  all, 
whether  introduced  by  the  Aryans,  Finns,  or  Tatars,  bear  witness  in  their 
vocabularies  to  the  multiplicity  of  objects  derived  from  the  Eastern  civilisations. 
In  prehistoric  times  especially  Asiatic  influences  must  have  been  most  felt  by  the 
stiU.  barbarous  tribes  of  Europe.  Previous  to  the  national  and  spontaneous 
development  of  independent  Hellenic  culture,  the  first  impulses  had  come  from 
Asia,  where  the  more  advanced  peoples  had  already  worked  out  complete  systems 
of  culture.  Here  were  invented  the  arts  of  copper  casting,  of  blending  the  metals 
into  useful  alloys,  of  smelting  iron,  working  in  gold  and  silver.  Languages, 
religions,  customs,  implements,  domestic  animals,  all  came  from  the  East.  But 
after  Europe  had  achieved  its  first  triumph  over  Asia  by  the  overthrow  of  Troy, 
Hellenic  culture  made  rapid  progress  in  the  western  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor  as 
well  as  in  Greece  itself.  Europe  began,  so  to  saj',  east  of  the  iEgeau  Sea,  where 
the  Ionian  cities  received  and  transmitted  to  posterity  the  inheritance  of  knowledoe 
bequeathed  to  them  by  the  Chaldeans,  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians.  The  very 
name  of  Asia  seems  to  be  of  Hellenic  origin,  restricted  at  first  to  a  small  portion 
of  the  Ionian  seaboard,  and  afterwards  sjDread  to  the  Anatolian  peninsula  and  the 
whole  continent.  By  an  analogous  phenomenon  the  name  of  a  small  tribe  dwelling 
on  the  south  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  was  first  extended  to  a  Libyan  province, 
and  then  to  all  Africa. 

Eeligions. 

But  even  long  after  the  great  centres  of  civilisation  had  been  shifted  from  the 
Mesopotamian  regions  westwards  to  Athens  and  Ivome,  the  religion  destined 
gradually  to  spread  over  the  West  took  its  rise  in  an  obscure  hamlet  by  the  shores 
of  Lake  Tiberias.  The  Arab  writers  had  already  observed  in  mediteval  times  that 
all  the  great  religions,  except  Buddhism,  had  their  origin  in  Western  Asia,  which 
has  given  birth  to  Judaism,  the  Zoroastrian,  Christian,  and  Mohammedan 
worships,  which,  like  rhythmical  waves  of  thought,  here  succeeded  each  other  at 
regular  intervals  of  about  six  hundred  years.  All  these  systems  have  otherwise  a 
strong  family  likeness  ;  all  have  been  alike  influenced  by  outward  surroundings, 
which  in  their  essential  features  present  striking  analogies  from  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian  to  those  of  the  Red  Sea.  Notwithstanding  minor  differences,  the  wilder- 
nesses of  Arabia,  Palestine,  Chaldcea,  and  Persia  have  the  same  aspect  of  monotonous 
grandeur. 

Buddhism  also  attempted  to  penetrate  westwards,  and  traces  of  its  passage 
are  still  preserved  in  the  upland  valley  of  Bamian,  the  main  highway  of  intercourse 
in  former  times  between  India  and  Western  Asia.  On  this  historic  spot,  8,600  feet 
above  the  sea,  in  the  Hindu-Kush,  a  Buddhist  king  ruling  over  the  Ujaper  Oxus 
basin  caused  two  colossal  statues  to  be  hewn  in  the  solid  rock,  pierced  Avith  niches 
giving  access  to  pilgrims.    Other  religious  monuments  mark  the  track  of  Buddhism 


22 


ASIATIC  ETJSSIA. 


towards  the  north  and  north-west.  But  it  failed  to  secure  a  permanent  footing 
anywhere  west  of  the  Pamir  and  Tian-shan.  But  Mongols,  Chinese,  and  Tibetans 
received  the  Indian  missionaries,  and,  though  misunderstanding  their  doctrine, 
they  at  least  accepted  its  name,  repeated  its  formulae,  and  practised  its  rites.  At 
present  Buddhism,  mingled  with  divers  superstitions,  prevails  in  China,  Tibet,  Japan, 
Mongolia,  amongst  numerous  tribes  about  Lake  Baikal,  and  even  in  Europe  on  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian.  In  point  of  numbers  it  takes  the  foremost  rank  amongst 
the  religions  of  the  earth,  while  geographically  Christianity  has  become  the  most 

Fig.  11. — Chief  EEucioys  of  Cextkai.  Asia. 
Scale  1  :  66,000.™X). 


C  PerroD 


w. 


m 


ChriBHans.      Mohammedans.      Bialunans.          Buddhists.  Ehamanists.  i'agans. 
1,200  HQes. 

widelj'  diffused.  In  Asia  the  influence  of  the  latter  is  Kmited  to  the  Armenians, 
Georgians,  Nestorians,  Maronites,  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  the  evangelized  tribes  of 
Asiatic  Russia,  a  few  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Indians,  besides  European  immi- 
grants and  Eurasians.  But  elsewhere  it  has  become  the  creed  of  all  the  civilised 
nations  of  Europe,  America,  South  Africa,  and  Australasia.  Mohammedanism  also 
has  spread  over  a  vast  domain,  stretching  mainly  south  and  east  of  the  Christian 
area.  Arabia,  its  original  home,  Palestine,  nearly  all  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the 
Hindu-Kush,  belong  to  the  various  Moslem  sects.  In  India  the  followers  of  the 
Prophet  are  more  numerous  and  influential  than  elsewhere,  while  their  domain  has 


HISTOEIC  RETROSPECT— MIGRATIONS.  23 

also  been  extended  to  China  and  Malaysia.  North  Africa  has  also  been  converted 
by  the  Arabs,  and  Islam  is  rapidly  developing  in  Sudan,  and  even  approach- 
ing the  Guinea  coast.  In  Europe  it  is  practised  only  by  the  Osmanli,  Aruauts, 
Pomaks,  and  Bosnians  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  by  the  Tatars  and  other  non- 
Aryan  races  of  Russia.  In  the  south  it  has  been  extirpated  by  fire  and  sword, 
though  not  before  it  had  exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  European  civilisa- 
tion. The  Spanish  Moors  were  for  some  time  the  teachers  of  the  Western  nations, 
nor  were  the  arts  and  sciences  unaflfected  by  the  warfare  carried  on  for  two 
centuries  by  the  Crusaders  against  the  Saracens  and  Turks  for  the  possession  of 
the  Holy  Land. 

Historic  Retrospect — Migrations. 

Seen  from  an  elevated  standpoint,  the  great  drama  of  universal  history  resolves 
itself  into  endless  struggles,  with  varying  issues,  between  Europe  and  Asia.  After 
the  initial  Asiatic  movement  a  European  reaction  began  in  the  legendary  times 
which  are  recalled  by  the  myths  of  the  Argonautic  expedition.  But  the  European 
period  begins  probably  with  the  first  great  defeat  of  Asia,  when  the  free  citizens 
of  Athens  triumphed  over  the  hosts  of  Darius  and  Xerxes.  Henceforth  the  spirit 
of  Western  civilisation  stood  out  in  bold  contrast  with  that  of  the  East.  Greece  and 
the  heirs  of  her  greatness  understood  that  the  true  object  of  life  is  to  uphold  and 
expand  freedom,  even  at  the  cost  of  life  itself.  But  after  the  glorious  struggle 
ending  with  the  memorable  victories  of  Marathon  and  Salamis,  Europe  failed  to 
maintain  her  rising  superiority.  Alexander  no  doubt  in  a  few  years  overran 
Asia  to  the  Indus;  but  his  Macedonian  followers  ended  by  becoming  Asiatics 
themselves,  leaving  successors  who  sought  to  continue  the  work  of  Darius  and 
Xerxes  by  attaching  Greece  to  Asia.  Even  Rome  accepted  her  religion  from 
Palestine,  and  the  seat  of  empire  was  shifted  to  the  Bosporus.  And  while  the 
cultured  peoples  of  the  South,  the  Aryans  and  Semites,  were  thus  exercising  a 
moral  influence  on  the  West,  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Eastern  Europe  and  of  Asia 
contributed  bj^  wholesale  migrations  to  modify  the  races,  if  not  of  the  West,  at  least 
those  of  the  Sarmatian  plains.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  eastern 
continent  again  acquired  an  ascendancj%  which  lasted  for  a  period  of  a  thousand 
years.  In  the  north  the  Alans,  Avars,  Huns,  Pecheneghs,  Kumans,  Magyars,  and 
other  Finns,  followed  later  on  by  Tatars  and  Mongolians,  penetrated  across  the  steppe 
lands  westwards,  and  one  of  those  nations  founded  a  state  within  the  circuit  of  the 
Carpathians  which  still  flourishes.  In  the  south  the  Arabs,  following  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  reached  the  very  heart  of  Gaul,  while  between  these 
two  great  movements  the  Turks  seized  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  made  the  second 
Rome,  the  city  of  Constantino,  the  capital  of  their  empire.  For  a  time  the  European 
world  threatened  to  be  swallowed  up  in  the  advancing  tide  of  Eastern  supremacy. 
One  of  the  most  astounding  phenomena  of  history  is  the  sudden  rise  in  the 
thirteenth  century  of  the  Mongolian  Empire,  the  largest  that  ever  existed.  The 
strictljr  nomadic  population  of  the  East  can  scarcely  be  estimated  at  more  than 
four  or  five  millions,  and  the  fighting  element  can  at  no  time  have  exceeded  half  a 


24  •      ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

million  in  these  regions.  Tbe  Mongolian  hordes  could  never  of  themselves  alone 
have  made  up  those  vast  hosts  spoken  of  in  the  mediajval  chronicles.  The  alarm 
and  terror  of  the  vanquished  multiplied  in  imagination  the  number  of  the 
conquerors,  and  in  the  popular  fancy  the  East  seemed  to  be  an  officina  gentium 
peopled  by  vast  multitudes,  whereas  the  more  favoured  regions  of  the  West  were 
really  far  more  populous.  The  Mongolian  conquests  were,  in  fact,  achieved  by  small 
armies  moving  quickly  from  place  to  place  with  a  unity  of  purpose,  and  falling 
suddenly  on  enemies  too  scattered  or  dismayed  to  offer  an  effectual  resistance. 
The  detachment  sent  bj'  Jenghis  Khan  to  Samarkand  in  pursuit  of  Sultan  Ala- 
ed-din  consisted  of  no  more  than  20,000  men,  and  for  three  years  these  warriors 
triumphantly  ovei-ran  Persia,  Khorassan,  Armenia,  Georgia,  the  Caucasus,  the 
Crimea,  and  the  plains  of  the  Volga  before  returning  to  their  master. 

The  Mongols  easily  reached  China  by  descending  from  their  barren  tablelands 
through  the  many  valleys  watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Hoang-ho.  But  towards 
the  west  there  was  but  one  route,  which  all  could  not  reach.  During  the  great 
displacements  of  populations  vast  numbers  were  crowded  into  Ivashgaria,  where 
they  found  themselves  enclosed  by  lofty  ranges  inaccessible  to  armies.  But  the 
bulk  of  the  migratory  tribes  followed  the  traditional  route  along  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Altai,  whence  they  swept  over  Western  Siberia  in  two  streams,  one 
proceeding  westwards  to  Europe,  the  other  southwards  to  Persia  and  India.  None 
of  these  hordes  ever  returned  to  their  native  pastures,  except  a  few  of  the  Astrakhan 
Kalmuks,  who  attempted  in  1770  to  escape  from  Russian  rule  to  their  ancestral 
homes  at  the  foot  of  the  Altai.  And  now  silence  reigns  in  the  restless  regions  which 
were  once  the  centre  of  the  Mongolian  Empire,  and  the  highway  of  the  Altai  is  a 
solitude.  The  turbulent  populations  formerly'  dwelling  on  the  northern  frontier 
of  China  have  been  pacified  largely  through  the  policy  which,  by  the  propagation 
of  Lamaism  in  Mongolia,  has  changed  a  population  of  warriors  into  a  community 
of  monks. 

But  the  traces  of  the  old  migrations  have  not  been  effaced.  The  flora  and 
fauna  of  the  two  continents  have  become  intermingled,  while  the  peoples  them- 
selves overlap  and  encroach  on  each  other  at  various  points.  Samoyedes  and 
Lapps  may  still  be  regarded  as  Asiatics,  and  many  even  of  the  Mordvinians, 
Chiivashes,  and  Cheremissians  in  Central  Russia  are  more  akin  in  their  habits  to 
the  remote  Siberian  Ostyaks  than  to  the  surrounding  Russian  populations.  Many 
Bashkirs,  Tatars,  Kirghiz,  and  Kalmuks  are  also  settled  in  Europe,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  European  nations  have  penetrated  far  into  Asia.  Compact  Slav 
communities  are  settled  in  Transcaucasia,  and  even  on  the  Pacific  seaboard,  while 
the  Hellenes  arc  more  numerous  in  Anatolia  than  the  Osmanli  in  the  Balkan 
peninsula. 

European  Influences. 

Formerly  the  civilising,  the  Asiatics  now  represent  the  barbarous  element  in 
the  presence  of  the  Europeans,  whose  culture,  with  all  its  shortcomings,  may  still 
be  regarded  as  the  focus  of  education  for  the  Eastern  world.     The  general  move- 


PEOGEESS  OF  DISCOVEEY.  25 

ment  of  civilisation  has  tLus  been  reversed,  and  intellectual  life  now  radiates 
from  Europe  to  the  remotest  corners  of  the  cartli.  Wherever  the  European 
explorers  first  settled  they  doubtless  began  their  civilising  work  by  massacring, 
enslaving,  or  otherwise  debasing  the  natives.  But  the  beneficial  influences  of 
superior  races  have  ever  commenced  by  mutual  hatred,  mistrust,  and  antagonism. 
The  conflicting  elements  everywhere  contend  for  the  mastery  before  they  awaken 
to  the  conviction  that  all  alike  are  members  of  the  same  human  family. 

Like  the  civilising  action  of  Asia  in  former  times,  that  of  Europe  spread 
eastwards  first  from  the  seaboard.  The  Portuguese  led  the  way  by  establishing 
themselves  on  the  shores  of  both  India  and  Malaysia  ;  and  these  were  followed 
successively  by  the  Spaniards,  Dutch,  English,  and  French,  who  founded 
factories  or  forts  on  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  same  regions.  At  present 
Cyprus  is  an  English  island,  while  Asia  Minor  is  at  least  in  theory  under  the 
protectorate  of  Great  Britain,  whoso  agents  are  also  establishing  her  sujjremacy 
over  Baluchistan,  Afghanistan,  and  possibly  even  over  Persia.  Several  points  on 
the  Arabian  and  Persian  seaboards  belong,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  England,  which 
guards  the  waters  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  reigns  as  undisputed  mistress  over 
India,  Ceylon,  and  part  of  Indo-China.  A  large  portion  of  Further  India  is 
under  French  rule,  while  Holland,  England,  and  Spain,  share  with  a  few  native 
sultans  the  possession  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  Of  all  the  Asiatic  nations 
Japan  has  been  most  rapidly  transformed  under  European  influences,  and  in  the 
Cliinese  seaports  whole  quarters  are  already  occupied  by  European  or  American 
trading  communities.  Lastly,  all  the  northern  division  of  the  continent  owns  the 
sway  of  Russia,  whose  Cossack  pioneers  have  since  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  brought  the  whole  of  Siberia  under  the  sceptre  of  the  Czar.  Thus  about 
one-half  the  area  and  one-third  the  population  of  Asia  belong  henceforth  politically 
to  Europe,  as  appears  from  the  subjoined  table  of  the  direct  and  indirect  Asiatic 
possessions  of  the  various  European  states  :  — 

Area  in  Sq-  Miles.  ropulation. 

Asiatic  Russia  and  Dependencies 0,730,000  17,000,000 

British  PossESsions  and  Dependencies  in  Asia         .        .  2,772,000  218,500,000 

Dutch 690,000  26,600,000 

French 50,200  2,700,000 

Spanish 118,200  7,450,000 

Portuguese 7,200  770,600 

Total  Asia  subject  to  Europe    ....  10,385,600  313,080,000 

From  the  settlements  on  the  seaboard  the  political  conquests  and  commercial 
relations  of  the  West  have  advanced  with  ever-increasing  rapidity  towards  the 
interior,  although  the  work  of  scientific  discovery  is  still  far  from  complete. 
There  are  extensive  regions  of  Central  Asia  scarcely  visited  except  by  solitary 
explorers,  while  even  in  the  parts  already  surveyed  many  obscure  problems 
remain  still  to  be  solved. 

Progress  of  Discovery. 

The    ancients,    whose  navigators   never   ventured    to    sail    beyond    the    Indian 
waters  to  China,  carried  on  a  tedious  overland  traffic  with  that  country  by  caravan 


2fi  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

routes,  wliicli  remained  unknown  to  the  Western  conquerors.  It  will  be  scarcely- 
possible  to  discover  the  exact  highway  followed  by  the  Greek  traders ;  but  Bactra 
being  at  that  time  the  great  emporium,  the  route  indicated  by  Ptolemy  most 
probably  penetrated  eastwards  through  the  Upper  Oxus  valley  across  the  southern 
portion  of  the  Pamir,  thence  descending  by  one  of  the  head-streams  of  the 
CEchardes  (Tarim)  to  the  present  basin  of  Kashgaria.  Attempts  have  even  been 
made  to  identify  the  Tash-Kurgan,  which  lies  on  a  tributary  of  the  Yarkand  in 
Sarikol,  with  the  "  Stone  Tower  "  spoken  of  by  the  old  traders.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  when  their  military  power  was  most  flourishing,  the  Chinese 
subdued  Western  Tatary,  and  while  their  armies  were  crossing  the  Tian-shan 
passes,  their  merchants  and  pilgrims  were  traversing  the  rougher  routes  over  the 
"  Eoof  of  the  World."  Hwcn-T'sang,  the  most  famous  of  these  pilgrims,  describes 
his  journeys  with  sufiBcient  minuteness  to  enable  us  to  follow  his  footsteps  across 
the  Pamir  and  the  Upper  Oxus  valley.  Marco  Polo  also,  after  leaving  Eactra 
(Balkh),  followed  a  route  differing  little  from  that  of  his  Greek  predecessors,  and 
nmniug  north-east  across  "the  plain  of  the  Pamier,  which  they  say  is  the  highest 
place  in  the  world."  Beyond  Yarkand  he  skirted  the  Gobi  district  on  the  south, 
entering  China  proper  about  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-ho.  This  journey  of 
Marco  Polo  across  the  continent  from  west  to  east  still  remains  unrivalled  after  a 
lapse  of  six  hundred  j^ears.  As  an  imperial  functionary  he  also  visited  most  of  the 
Chinese  provinces  and  East  Tibet,  penetrating  into  Burmah  through  the  still  little- 
known  regions  separating  Yun-nan  from  Indo-China.  By  his  enthusiastic  account 
of  China,  its  great  cities  and  eastern  islands,  he  contributed  more  than  any  other 
traveller  to  stimulate  the  love  of  enterprise,  and  by  him  was  conjured  up  the  phantom 
pursued  by  Columbus  across  the  western  waters  to  the  goal  of  a  new  world. 

When  Marco  Polo  was  making  his  way  over  the  Pamir,  another  more 
northern  route  to  Mongolia  had  already  been  traversed  by  numerous  merchants, 
missionaries,  and  cnvoj's.  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  centre  of 
gravity^  of  the  Mongol  Empire  lay  about  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Altai.  Hence 
the  main  commercial  highway  naturally  converged  on  Karakorum,  capital  of  the 
state,  and  this  was  the  road  already  followed  by  the  Mongol  and  Tatar  hordes 
north  of  the  Tian-shan,  and  along  the  valley  of  the  Sir-darya.  It  was  also 
traversed  by  Plan  do  Carpin  and  Eubruk,  envoy  of  Louis  IX.  Western 
adventurers  now  crowded  round  the  imperial  tent,  and  so  numerous  were  the 
relations  of  the  West  with  the  great  Eastern  potentate  that  there  was  question  of 
founding  a  chair  of  the  Mongolian  language  in  the  Paris  Sorbonne. 

But  the  empire  was  soon  broken  up  ;  Karakorum  ceased  to  be  a  capital,  and 
its  ruins  were  forgotten  in  the  sands.  Still  the  route  to  China  along  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Tian-shan,  and  through  Zungaria,  remained  open  to  trade.  Pcgolotti 
and  others  followed  it  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  it  might  have  ultimately 
acquired  real  commercial  importance,  had  the  attention  of  the  Western  nations  not 
been  diverted  to  the  great  oceanic  discoveries  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
India,  and  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  New  World.  The  Ions  and  danserous 
highways  of  Tatary,  Zungaria,  and  Mongolia  were  now  forsaken,  and  the  work  of 


PEOGEESS  OF  DISCOVEEY. 


27 


Marco  Polo  has  been  resumed  only  in  our  days.  But  it  is  being  now  prosecuted 
by  many  explorers  armed  witb.  the  resources  of  science,  and  j)rotected  by  the 
respect  with  which  the  natives  have  learnt  to  regard  the  Western  nations.  From 
year  to  year  the  space  still  remaining  to  bo  explored  becomes  narrower ;  the  main 
features  of  the  mysterious  Pamir  are  already  determined  ;  Northern  and  Western 
China  have  been  traversed  in  every  direction.  But  certain  Tibetan  districts  still 
remain  a  terra  incognita,  pending  the  exploration  of  which  many  important 
geographical  problems  must  remain  unsolved.     Asia  may  still  be  said  to  lack 


Fig.  12. — Chief  Itineraries  of  Central  Asia. 

Pcalc  1  :  120,000,000. 


—  Silk  Route. 

..>»  Chinese  in  fifth  cenUny. 
n-wen-T'sang. 

—  Arabs. 

—  Nicolo  and  M;iirco  Polo. 
— •  Marco  Polo. 


C  Perj-or> 


Pundits. 

Gabet. 

t. ..II  JTrajicis  Gamier. 

...»..  McCarthy. 

. -.  Bichthofen. 

„ — „.  Elias,  1872. 


Main  Ti-ade  Route  according  lo  Pcgoletti,  1340,     —  •—  Sosnovski. 

Forsyth,  1870.  Cooper. 

_, —  Prjeviilski.  =.......  Annand  D,iTid. 

•  Schlagintweit. 

3,000  Miles. 


geographical  unity  in  its  relations  with  the  history  of  man ;  for  the  interior 
remains  but  partially  known,  while  the  movements  of  population  and  commerce 
continue  still  to  be  made  by  the  seaward  routes  and  coast  regions. 

The  progress  of  trade  and  discovery  must  ultimately  give  to  Asia  the  unity  it 
now  lacks,  and  the  result  must  be  a  general  shifting  of  equilibrium  throughout 
the  whole  world.  At  no  distant  day  the  European  railway  sj'stcm  will  be 
continued  eastwards,  connecting  the  cities  of  the  Bosporus  with  those  of  India, 
and  enabling  goods  to  be  forwarded  without  break  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Indus 
basin.     Travellers  will  then  flock  to  those  still  unknown  regions  of  Eastern  Tibet, 


28  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

tlie  scene  of  some  of  the  grandest  phenomena  on  the  globe.  The  teeming 
populations  of  India  and  China  will  then  also  enter  into  direct  relations  with  each 
other,  and  the  trade  routes  of  Calcutta  and  Shanghai  will  meet  midway  between 
those  emporiiims. 

All  these  economic  revolutions  must  revive  many  cities  decayed,  or  even 
vanished,  since  the  overland  routes  were  abandoned  for  the  safer  and  easier 
oceanic  highways.  Large  cities  cannot  fail  again  to  spring  up  in  Bactriana  and 
Sogdiaua,  where  the  main  road  between  Central  Europe  and  India  will  cross  that 
leading  to  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  But  besides  the  new  centres  of 
population  that  must  arise  in  the  West,  others  will  be  founded  in  Central  Asia, 
the  rallying-points  of  Chinese  and  Russians,  of  the  Hindu  and  European  traders. 
But  the  precise  locality  of  these  new  marts  must  be  determined  by  political  as 
well  as  by  climatic  and  other  physical  considerations,  for  Asia  is  a  battle-field 
which  is  destined  soon  to  witness  a  decisive  struggle  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

Political  Rivalries. 

The  influence  of  Europe  on  the  Asiatic  populations  is  steadily  increasing,  so 
that  the  vast  eastern  continent  would  seem  in  some  respects  to  be  becoming  more 
and  more  a  simple  dependency  of  its  little  western  peninsula.  The  power  of 
Europe  is  represented  in  Asia  mainly  by  the  two  rival  states,  England  and  Russia, 
differing  profoundly  from  each  other  in  their  traditions,  political  situation,  and 
interests.  Russia  rules  in  the  northern,  England  in  the  southern  zone,  and  many 
small  intermediate  peoples  struggling  to  maintain  their  independence  gravitate 
necessarily  to  the  orbits  of  these  great  states.  lu  the  extreme  east,  Japan,  while 
preserving  its  political  autonomy,  is  striving  to  rival  the  European  peoples  in  the 
form  of  its  administrative  system.  But  the  Chinese  still  cling  to  their  individual 
nationality.  Their  power  has  been  but  little  afiected  by  the  recent  invasions  and 
treaties  with  foreign  states,  and  the  empire  is  already  beginning  to  resist  further 
aggression  by  the  inert  force  of  its  teeming  populations.  But  these  countless 
masses  have  also  the  strength  imparted  by  industry,  toil,  and  patience,  while 
common  sense,  methodic  habits,  unflagging  tenacity,  render  them  formidable 
competitors  in  the  race.  Compared  with  the  Hindus,  the  Chinese  have  the 
paramount  advantage  derived  from  a  thorough  mixture  of  races  and  national 
cohesion.  Their  temperate  habits  also  enable  them  to  become  acclimatized  under 
the  most  varied  climes.  They  are  an  enduring  race,  which  acquires  fresh  vitality 
from  oppression  and  defeat.  Hence  England  and  Russia  are  not  the  only  rivals 
for  supremacy  in  Asia.  Nay,  more,  the  Chinese  race  cannot  fail  to  clash  with  the 
peoples  of  Europe  and  North  America  on  the  fundamental  questions  of  culture  and 
social  habits,  before  taking  an  active  and  intelligent  part  with  them  in  the  work 
of  human  progress.  This  conflict  must  needs  retard  the  development  of  mankind 
until  its  course  be  again  resumed  by  a  final  reconciliation  of  the  ideas  common  to 
both  elements. 

The  inevitable  struggle  between  these  three  rival  states  is  still  retarded  by 


I 


POLITICAL  EIYALEIES. 


29 


the  vast  extent  of  the  partly  desert  lands  separating  them.  If  China  is  easily 
accessible  by  sea,  she  is  at  least  completely  enclosed  landwards.  Towards  Hussian 
Siberia  she  has  far  more  solitudes  than  peopled  regions,  and  here  also  Russia,  having 
but  few  colonies,  is  incapable  of  exercising  any  political  pressure  on  China.  Between 
the  "  Flowery  Land  "  and  British  India  the  zone  of  separation  is  formed  not  by 
solitudes,  but  by  highlands  still  scarcely  explored.  In  the  west  there  is  still  a 
considerable  tract  intervening  between  Russian  territory  and  India,  and  here  the 
native  element  has  hitherto  maintained  a  certain  political  independence.     In  both 


Fig.  13. — ErEOPEAX  Ixflcence  in  Asia. 
Scale  1  :  120,0On.O(Vi. 


'--Ar-'  '•. 


E.of  Gr. 


CPerxofl 


^ 


^ 


Bnssian 
FossessLOns. 


Subject  to  Russian 
Influence. 


Britisli 
Possessions. 


Subject  to  Britisli 
Influence. 


■  3,000  Miles. 


directions  the  Turkomans  and  Afghans  have  till  recently  presented  a  bold  front  to 
the  Russian  and  English  iuvaders,  who  are  endeavouring  to  seize  the  strategic  points, 
of  their  territory.  Influential  statesmen  have  even  declared,  whether  sincerely  or 
not,  that  this  intermediate  zone  should  be  permanently  respected  by  the  two  rival 
powers,  and  that  the  advanced  sentinels  of  British  India  and  Russian  Turkestan 
run  little  risk  of  soon  meeting  on  some  pass  of  the  Hindu- Kush,  or  about  the 
sources  of  the  ilurghab. 

From  the  military  point  of  view  China  is  still  far  inferior  to  the  two  other 

VOL.    VI.  D 


30  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

great  Asiatic  powers.  Althougli  she  has  had  the  foresight  to  utilise  the  last  twenty 
years  of  peace  to  reorganize  her  army,  replenish  her  arsenals,  cast  guns,  build 
ironclads,  she  is  scarcely  yet  strong  enough  to  contend  with  any  European  power 
beyond  her  own  limits.  She  is  also  still  largely  enslaved  to  official  etiquette  and 
deep-rooted  traditions,  preventing  her  from  freely  entering  on  the  new  career 
towards  which  she  is  impelled  by  the  course  of  events.  Nev«rtheless  both 
Government  and  people  are  at  one  in  the  determination  to  prevent  foreigners  from 
monopolizing  the  wealth  and  trade  of  the  country.  While  receiving  them  in 
compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  treaties,  the  Chinese  have  contrived  to  protect 
their  own  interests,  and  while  slowly  accepting  new  ideas,  they  prefer  to  be  their 
own  teachers  in  applying  them  to  economical  purposes.  From  the  material 
point  of  view  they  also  possess  the  strength  inherent  in  numbers.  In  Manchuria, 
in  Formosa,  and  in  the  central  regions  they  are  gradually  acquiring  the  land  by 
cultivation,  and  even  in  many  foreign  countries  they  have  attained  a  decided 
preponderance.  From  their  over-peopled  native  land  they  arc  already  overflowing 
into  Further  India,  Malaysia,  Australia,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the  United 
States. 

On  the  other  hand,  England  is  unable  to  contend  by  means  of  compact  masses 
for  the  supremacy  in  Asia.  In  the  very  centre  of  her  power  she  has  nothing  to 
depend  upon  beyond  her  European  troops  and  native  mercenaries.  Still  the 
territory  already  acquired  gives  her  a  tremendous  defensive  and  aggressive  power. 
She  not  only  raises  formidable  armies  in  an  empire  containing  one-sixth  of  the 
population  of  the  globe,  but  also  a  sufficient  revenue  to  be  independent  of 
the  resources  of  the  home  country.  The  English  cannot,  of  course,  reel  on  the 
sympathy  of  their  subjects,  whom  they  probably  despise  too  much  to  expect  it  of 
them.  The  time  must  also  doubtless  come,  though  it  may  be  still  remote,  when 
the  Hindus  will  develop  a  national  life  and  get  rid  of  their  foreign  masters. 
Meanwhile  the  English  tenure  is  far  more  secure  than  before  the  mutiny  of  1857, 
although  the  majority  of  the  army  is  composed  of  sepoys,  and  all  the  lower 
functions  of  the  administration  are  in  the  hands  either  of  natives  or  of  "  Eurasians ;  " 
that  is,  half-caste  Hindus  and  Europeans.  The  secret  of  England's  strength  lies 
in  the  fact  that  no  national  spirit  has  yet  been  evolved,  no  public  opinion  formed, 
except  here  and  there,  and  even  then  deprived  of  all  efficacy  in  a  country  which  is 
divided  into  a  multitude  of  distinct  societies  by  the  institution  of  caste.  The 
English,  belonging  almost  exclusively  to  the  wealthy  and  influential  classes,  and 
unattended  by  servants  of  their  own  nationality,  whose  menial  status  might 
diminish  British  prestige,  are  enabled  to  live  like  gods  and  move  in  a  higher 
world,  far  above  their  midtitudinous  subjects,  by  whom  they  are  hated,  yet  feared. 

Apart  from  the  various  questions  of  internal  policy,  the  main  point  for 
England  is  not  only  to  uphold  her  sway  in  Cisgangetic  India,  but  also  to  con- 
nect by  easy  and  rapid  routes  the  two  centres  of  her  vast  empire  on  which  "  the 
sun  never  sets."  She  requires  the  geographical  unity  of  a  powerful  state,  for 
there  are  stiU  great  gaps  in  her  boundless  domain.  The  London  and  Calcutta 
highway  is  not  absolutely  secured  to  her  fleets  and  armies,  and  would  be  exposed 


POLITICAL  EIVALEIES.  31 

on  the  flank  were  Russia  to  seize  the  Dardanelles  and  upper  basin  of  the 
Euphrates,  or  place  Cossack  garrisons  in  the  strongholds  of  Afghanistan.  Thanks 
to  her  fast-sailing  fleets,  England  has  hitherto  enjoyed  a  great  advantage  over  her 
rival  for  empire ;  for  British  armies  are  moved  from  the  Thames  to  the  Indus  far 
more  expeditiously  than  feeble  Russian  columns  from  the  Caspian  to  the  oasis  of 
Merv.  Hence,  in  spite  of  the  maps,  England  is  in  reality  much  nearer  to  India 
than  are  the  advanced  Muscovite  outposts  on  the  Upper  Oxus.  The  Mediter- 
ranean belongs  to  the  fleets  of  England,  which  is  thus  enabled  to  close  the  Suez 
Canal  at  pleasure.  She  also  rules  supreme  in  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  Arabian  sea- 
board, in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  along  the  coasts  of  Persia  and  Baluchistan.  But 
the  water  highways  are  insuflicieut,  and  she  will  also  have  to  hold  the  overland 
routes  beyond  Europe.  With  this  object  she  has  already  secured  the  virtual  pos- 
session of  Asia  Minor  and  occupied  Cyprus,  at  the  extreme  corner  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, over  against  the  great  bend  of  the  Euphrates ;  she  also  holds  strong  posi- 
tions in  Makran  and  Baluchistan,  and  must  either  now  or  ultimately  annex 
Kandahar  permanently  to  British  India.  She  is  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
Western  Asiatic  sovereigns,  by  means  of  pensions  gradually  transforming  them 
into  vassals,  thus  avoiding  the  risk  and  expense  of  ruling  them  directly,  for  she 
also  enjoys  over  Russia  the  great  advantage  derived  from  the  possession  of  accu- 
mulated capital.  Her  military  routes  are  being  rapidly  developed,  and  a  line  600 
miles  long  will  soon  connect  the  Indian  railway  system  with  Kandahar,  the  true 
key  to  Afghanistan.  Half  the  distance  separating  Alexandretta  from  Calcutta 
will  thus  be  traversed  hj  EngKsh  locomotives.  But  is  it  not  evident  from  such 
efibrts  that  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in  Asia  is  approaching  ? 

Slower  in  their  movements,  because  opposed  by  still  unsurmoimted  physical 
obstacles,  the  Russians  have,  as  a  militarj''  power,  advantages  of  another  description 
over  their  English  rivals.  Their  territory  is  not  composed  of  scattered  frag- 
ments, but  forms  from  the  shores  of  Lapland  to  the  Pamir  a  perfect  geogra- 
phical unity.  A  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are,  moreover,  of  Russian  stock, 
and  this  ethnical  element  is  yearly  increasing  by  colonisation.  Nor  ai-e  the 
native  tribes  anywhere  numerous  enough  to  cause  serious  alarm  to  the  Slav 
settlers,  who  have  become  diversely  intermingled  with  them,  and  who  do  not 
maintain  a  haughty  reserve  towards  the  former  owners  of  the  land.  Perfect 
fusion  Is  prevented  by  differences  of  social  habits,  and  amongst  the  Moham- 
medans by  religious  prejudice.  Still  the  Orthodox  Russians  and  the  Moslems  of 
Turkestan  do  not,  like  the  English  and  Hindus,  hold  aloof  from  each  other,  as  If 
they  belonged  to  two  distinct  orders  of  humanity.  Hence  national  cohesion  may 
be  ultimately  realised  In  Asiatic  as  easily  as  It  has  been  in  European  Russia. 
The  Russians  will  also,  like  the  English,  soon  doubtless  succeed  In  giving  greater 
material  cohesion  to  their  Asiatic  Empire  by  means  of  military  routes,  lines  of 
wells,  and  even  railways  across  the  Intervening  wastes.  The  railway  system,  now 
reaching  no  farther  than  the  Caucasus,  Atrek  valley,  and  river  Ural,  wIU  bo 
continued  to  the  foot  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  and  then  formidable  armies  may  in  a  few 
weeks  be  massed  on  the  frontiers  of  the  lands  hitherto  swayed  by  British  influence. 

D  2 


32  ASIATIC  EUSSLA.. 

But  these  frontiers  still  present  many  weak  points,  especially  on  the  Iranian  table- 
land and  in  the  upland  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Whether  the  two 
rivals  wish  it  or  not,  whether  they  seek  to  precipitate  or  avoid  the  conflict,  it  must 
sooner  or  later  inevitably  come.  All  the  petty  intermediate  states  are  already 
being  disintegrated  under  the  pressure  of  the  twofold  attraction,  and  on  both 
sides  the  intrigues,  rivalries,  political,  commercial,  and  religious  jealousies  have 
silently  begun  the  mighty  struggle  which  must  one  day  burst  into  open  warfare. 

Thus  are  being  prepared  revolutions  of  a  vital  character  in  the  heart  of  the 
Old  World.  The  Asiatic  lands,  where,  rightly  or  wrongly,  the  cultured  races  seek 
their  primeval  origins,  are  becoming  the  scene  of  a  supreme  political  struggle 
between  the  two  most  powerful  nations  in  Europe.  Whatever  be  the  issue,  the 
hope  may  be  entertained  that  Western  Asia  and  the  Indian  world  will  definitely 
belong  to  the  domain  of  Western  civilisation,  and  that  thenceforth  all  the  European 
and  Asiatic  peoples  will  accomplish  their  evolution  harmoniously  together,  so  that 
all  may  benefit  by  the  progress  of  each.  Thanks  to  the  reaction  of  Western 
culture  on  the  Eastern  world,  mankind,  conscious  of  its  unity,  has  already  been 
enlarged,  and  political  revolutions  are  preparing  for  the  world  a  common  destiny 
and  solution  of  the  problems  afiecting  the  life  of  nations. 


CHAPTEE  II 

CAUCASIA. 


-THE  PONTO-CASPIAN  MOUNTAIN  SYSTEM. 


HE  Caucasian  mountain  system  is  often  regarded  as  belonging  to 
Europe.  Rising  like  a  barrier  north  of  the  eastern  estremitj'  of 
the  Black  Sea,  it  must  have  seemed  to  the  Greek  navigators  dis- 
tinctly severed  from  Asia,  v^hereas  to  the  traders  settled  on  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Euxine  it  appeared  to  form  the  southern 
limits  of  the  great  Scythian  plains.  Since  that  time  geographers  have  discussed 
the  question  whether  the  natural  confines  of  the  two  continents  were  indicated  by 
the  bed  and  marsh  lands  of  the  Phasis  in  Colchis,  or  b}'  the  Kimmerian  Strait 
and  course  of  the  Tanais.  Apart  from  this  question,  Hellenic  tradition  constantly 
kept  in  view  these  mountains,  loftier  than  either  Olympus,  Etna,  Hemus,  or  the 
Alps.  The  history  of  Greece  itself  was  associated  in  legend  with  this  distant 
range,  where  the  first  germs  of  civilisation  were  sought.  Towards  the  shores  of 
Colchis  was  directed  the  famous  Argonautic  expedition  in  search  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  symbolizing  the  wealth  of  every  sort  flowing  both  from  science,  trade,  and 
industry.  Here,  also,  the  Hellenes  endeavoured  to  find  the  origin  of  their  race. 
Deucalion,  who  peopled  Greece,  was  son  of  Prometheus,  and  it  was  to  a  rock  in 
the  Caucasus  that  this  Titan  was  bound  for  having  stolen  the  fire  from  heaven. 
A  sort  of  superstition,  perhaps  associated  with  the  Promethean  myth,  formerly 
induced  savants  to  apply  the  term  Caucasian  to  all  the  fair  European  and  Asiatic 
races,  thus  testifying  to  the  instinctive  reverence  with  which  the  nations  have 
ever  regarded  these  mountains  forming  the  barrier  between  two  worlds.  This 
border-land  was  supposed  to  be  still  inhabited  by  the  purest  representatives  of  the 
race,  whose  beauty,  symmetry,  and  graceful  carriage  were  spoken  of  as  jjhysical 
advantages  peculiar  to  all  the  white  peoples.  Nor  has  this  term  Caucasian  yet 
quite  disappeared  from  ordinary  language  as  the  synonym  of  the  White,  Aryan,  or 
Indo-European  stock. 

Since  the  true  relief  of  the  land  has  been  determined  by  Pallas  and  other 
explorers,  there  can  be  no  longer  any  doubt  that  the  Caucasus  belongs  to  Asia. 
It  is  sharply  separated  from  Europe  by  the  deep  depression  now  traversed  by  the 


34  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Mauicli,  aud  formerly  filled  by  the  -waters  of  the  Ponto-Caspian  Strait.  In  the 
south  the  system,  while  preserving  its  character  of  a  distinct  chain,  is  connected  by 
spurs  and  a  lofty  transverse  ridge  with  the  Anatolian  mountains,  so  that  it  forms 
the  advanced  mass  of  the  whole  continent.  Historically,  also,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Caucasus  belong  to  the  Asiatic  world.  Before  the  iutervenfion  of  Russia  the 
Georgians,  Mingrelians,  Armenians,  Kurds,  Tatars,  and  other  Transcaucasian 
peoples  maintained  relations,  whether  friendly  or  hostile,  chiefly  with  the  inha- 
bitants of  Anatolia  and  Persia.  The  southern  slopes  facing  the  sun  are  also  much 
more  densely  peopled  than  those  turned  towards  the  arid  steppes  of  Europe. 
Hence,  even  after  their  annexation  to  Russia,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  these  Asiatic 
lands  was  naturally  found  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Caucasus,  where  is  concen- 
trated the  aggressive  force  of  the  empire  against  the  other  regions  of  Western 
Asia.  Recently  a  considerable  strip  of  Turkish  territory  has  been  forcibly  added 
to  Transcaucasia,  so  that  this  division  of  the  Caucasus,  already  the  most  populous, 
has  become  nearly  as  extensive  as  the  northern.  It  is  even  larger,  if  in  it  be 
included  the  province  of  Daghestan,  which,  though  lying  north  of  the  main  raujre. 
is  administratively  regarded  as  part  of  Transcaucasia.* 

The  Great  Catjcasus. 

Few  ranges  are  characterized  by  a  more  striking  unity  than  the  Caucasus,  tbe 
Kok-kaf  or  Kaf-dagh  of  the  Tui-ks  and  Tatars,  a  section  of  "  the  chain  that 
girdles  the  world,"  according  to  the  Oriental  mythologies.  Seen  from  the  distant 
steppes  of  Mozdok  or  Yekaterinogradsk,  stretching  from  horizon  to  horizon,  it 
seems  like  a  rampart  with  a  thousand  sparkling  battlements.  The  poets  call  it 
simply  the  Caucasus,  as  if  it  were  but  one  frowning  mass  reaching  from  sea  to  sea 
for  a  distance  of  720  miles.  It  is  also  called  the  "  Great  Caucasus,"  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  irregular  spurs  of  the  "Little,"  or  rather  "  Anti-Caucasus  "  beyond 
the  Kura  basin.  Approached  from  the  Euxine  or  the  Russian  steppes,  it  seems 
at  first  an  impalpable  vapour,  a  hazy  cloud  mingling  with  the  fogs  of  the  sur- 
rounding swamps ;  then  it  assumes  more  distinct  outlines,  breaking  into  snowy 
or  wooded  crests  and  deep  gorges,  the  whole  soon  bounding  the  horizon,  towering 
above  the  zone  of  cloud,  wind,  and  storm,  eclipsing  the  sun  midway  in  its  coiirse, 
threatening  the  lowlands  with  avalanches  and  widespread  ruin,  hurling  the 
foaming  torrents  in  cascades  and  rapids  down  to  the  plains.  Accustomed  to  the 
sight  of  boundless  steppes  or  slight  eminences,  the  Russians  could  not  fiiil  to 
be  struck  by  these  lofty  summits  which  seemed  to  belong  to  another  nature, 
whose    charm   was   enhanced   by    the   valour   and   beauty   of    its    inhabitants. 

*  Ai'ca  and  population  of  Eussian  Caucasia  :— 

Ai'ea  in  Square  Estimated  Population 

Miles.  (18S0). 

Ciscaucasia 88,900  1,920,000 

Daghestan 11,436  500,000 

Transcaucasia  with  Kuba      .         .         .        75,344  3,250,000 

Kecent  conquests 10,636  200,000 

Total 186,316  5,870,000 


THE  GEEAT  CAUCASUS. 


85 


Russian  literature  reflects  the  deep  impression  produced  on  the  imagination  by 
the  sight  of  the  Caucasus,  and  by  the  -warfare  waged  against  its  numerous  tribes. 
Pushkin  described  in  song  the  romantic  scenery  of  Circassia  ;  Lermontov  inter- 
preted the  traditions  of  the  inhabitants,  and  made  the  Caucasus  the  scene  of  his 
novel  the  "  Hero  of  the  Day,"  -which  had  such  a  large  share  in  the  intellectual 
development  of  the  rising  generation.  How  many  noble  spirits  have  perished, 
like  Lermontov  himself,  in  this  region,  persecuted  during  life,  all  the  more 
honoured  in  death ! 

The  general  south-east  and  north-'west  direction  of  the  range  suffers  but  slight 
deviations.  It  thus  foUo-ws  the  same  line  as  the  mountains  of  Persia,  Asia  Minor, 
and  so  many  other  Asiatic  systems.  Its  origin  is  therefore  associated  -with 
the  laws  by  which  a  large  portion  of  the  crust  of  the  Old  World  has  been  modified. 

Fig.  li. — Bed  op  the  Caspian. 
According  to  A.  Grimma.    Scale  1    5  500,900. 


E.oF  Gr: 


50' 


C^irron 


0  to  6  Fatlioms. 


to  GO. 


60  to  12a 


120  to  ISO.    ISO  and  upwards. 
.  90  Miles. 


In  the  formation  of  the  surrounding  lands  the  Caucasus  has  even  played  a  more 
important  part  than  is  evident  from  its  apparent  relief.  With  a  regularity  siu'- 
passiug  that  of  all  other  systems,  it  is  continued  beyond  the  main  ridge  by  argil- 
laceous hills  thro-wn  up  by  igneous  agencies.  At  either  extremity  low  peninsulas 
hea-ving  with  the  pressure  of  pent-up  forces  are  projected  seawards — those  of 
Taman  on  the  west,  and  Apsheron  on  the  east.  The  first  is  scarcely  separated 
from  another  peninsula,  that  of  Kertch,  advancing  from  the  Crimean  mountains, 
while  the  second  stretches  across  the  Caspian  in  a  line  marked  first  by  volcanic 
islets,  and  then  by  a  submerged  bank  separating  the  two  great  northern  and 
southern  marine  depressions.  On  both  sides  of  this  bank  the  lead  sinks  1,300 
feet  deeper  than  the  line  of  projection  of  the  Caucasus.  On  the  east  coast  the 
cape  north  of  the  Krasnovodsk  peninsula  is  the  starting-point  of  a  chain  of 


36  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

heifhts,  hills  or  single  escarpments  continuing  the  line  of  the  Caucasus  directly 
to  the  Murghab  valley  between  Merv  and  Herat.  Through  these  eminences  and 
those  of  North  Afghanistan  the  Caucasian  system  is  connected  with  that  of  the 
Hindu-Kush. 

The  Caucasus  resembles  the  Pyrenees  in  its  direction,  in  the  serrated  form  of 
the  main  range,  in  its  position  between  two  marine  basins,  and  like  them  also  it 
may  be  con'sidered  as  consisting  of  two  sections  of  unequal  length.  But  if  the 
o-ap  forming  the  natural  limit  between  the  western  and  eastern  sections  is  not 
situated  in  the  middle  of  the  range,  it  lies  at  all  events  almost  exactly  midway 
between  the  two  seas.  Through  this  depression  passes  the  great  military  high- 
way between  Russia  and  Tiflis.  On  the  meridian  of  this  pass  the  main  range 
contracts  on  either  side  to  a  width  of  about  60  miles  between  the  two  opposite 
plains,  while  east  and  west  the  highlands  spread  much  farther  north  and  south. 
The  western  section,  though  the  narrower,  is  the  higher  of  the  two,  for  here 
rise  the  loftiest  summits,  six  at  least  of  which  surpass  Mont  Blanc,  culminating 
point  of  Europe.*  Daghestan,  i.e.  "  the  Highlands,"  comprising  the  most 
important  region  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  is  lower,  but  more  irregular  and  rugged, 
than  the  western  section. 

The  old  geographers  supposed  that  the  system  consisted  of  a  simple  unbroken 
rido-e ;  but  the  investigations  of  Abish  and  others  show  that  the  general  relief  is 
much  more  intricate.  The  chain  is  almost  everywhere  formed  by  two  ridges,  and 
in  many  places  even  by  three  or  four  running  parallel,  or  nearly  so,  with  each 
other,  and  connected  at  intervals  by  nuclei,  thus  presenting  a  formation  analogous 
to  that  of  the  Andes.  The  upper  valleys  of  the  Caucasus  generally  take  the 
form  of  cirques,  or  elongated  craters,  in  which  are  collected  the  head-streams, 
and  from  which  they  escape  through  a  deep  lateral  gorge.  From  the  orographic 
point  of  view  the  Koshtan-tau  may  be  considered  the  culminating  point  of  the 
system  ;  for  this  peak,  which  has  never  been  scaled,  rises  on  the  parting-line 
between  the  two  slopes.  Between  the  sources  of  the  Kuban  and  of  the  Adal- 
kokh,  100  miles  farther  east,  the  watershed  presents  no  passes  lower  than  10,000 
feet.  The  first  breach  below  this  elevation  is  the  Mamisson  Pass  (9,540  feet), 
situated  at  one  of  the  sudden  breaks  in  the  main  range,  on  a  transverse  ridge 
branching  off  at  the  Zikari  Mountains.  East  of  this  pass  numerous  gaps  occur 
at  altitudes  ranging  from  6,500  to  10,000  feet.  Although  the  triangular  survey 
of  the  Caucasus  has  long  been  finished,  the  work  of  exploration  is  still  far  from 
complete.  Since  1868  the  Kazbek  and  Elbruz  have  been  ascended  by  Freshfield, 
Moore,  and  Tucker,  accompanied  by  the  Chamonix  guide  Devouassoud,  and 
several  other  peaks  have  also  been  scaled ;  yet  the  Alpine  Clubs  have  still  plenty 
of  work  before  them,  especially  in  the  Western  Caucasus. 

The  northern  and  southern  slopes  of  the  range  differ  greatly  in  their  general 


*  Chief  summits  of  the  Caucasus : — 

Feet. 

Elbruz    18,820 

Kashtan-tau 17,370 

Dikh-tau 17J90 


Feet. 


Kazbek 16,800 

Ushba  (Besoch-mta)  .         .         16,750  (?) 

Aghish-tau,  or  Adish-tau  .         .         16,250  (f) 


THE  GEEAT  CAUCASUS. 


87 


aspects.  Tlie  latter  is  on  the  whole  the  more  abrupt  of  the  two,  and  the  distance 
from  the  central  ridge  to  the  plains  watered  by  the  Kura  is  about  one-half  that 
which  intervenes  between  the  same  point  and  the  northern  valleys  of  the  Sulak 
and  Terek.  In  the  west  a  similar  contrast  is  presented  by  the  slopes  facino-  the 
Rion  and  Kuban  respectively.  The  descent  towards  the  Kuban  is  very  irre"-ular 
being  broken  first  by  a  series  of  parallel  crests,  and  then  lower  down  by  the  pro- 
jections of  the  upland  limestone  terraces  resembling  the  glacis  of  a  rampart,  which 
stretch  somewhat  confusedly  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Caspian,  but  which  present 

Fig.  15. — Geolooic.vl  Fokmatioxs  of  the  Central  Caucasus. 
According  to  E.  Favre.    Scale  1  : 1,400,000. 


Gianites 


Palseozorc 
Schists. 


C.  Perron 


Lower  Jurassic         "Upper  Jurnssic  Lower  Chalks. 

Lauds.  XjOnds. 


^  ^ 


Upper  Chalks. 


Tndetenniued 
Lower  Tertiaries. 


Angitie 
Porphyry. 

24  Miles, 


Andesine. 


remarkably  distinct  outlines  about  the  western  hemicycle  of  the  Upper  Terek, 
There  is  thus  developed  a  vast  intermediate  valley  between  the  main  range  and 
the  advanced  ridges  of  Jurassic  formation.  These  terraces  slope  very  gently 
toward  the  steppe,  whereas  the  side  facing  the  central  chain  is  broken  by  steep 
declivities,  some  of  which  present  nearly  vertical  walls  over  3,000  feet  high. 
These  broken  terraces,  intersected  by  rapid  torrents,  are  regarded  by  the  inha- 
bitants as  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  higher  eminences  of  the  main  range, 
for  the  pastures  and  woodlands  are  here  parcelled  out  as  landed  property.  Every 
prominence  has  its  name,  whereas  till  recently  the  Elbruz  and  Kazbek  were  the 
only  peaks  of  the  main  range  known  by  name  to  the  l®wlanders. 


38  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Geological  Formation — ^Volcanic  Action. 

Tlic  regularity  of  the  Caucasian  system  is  not  confined  to  the  general  relief, 
but  is  also  shown,  at  least  on  the  northern  slopes,  in  the  main  features  of  its 
geology.  The  chief  range  consists  principally  of  crystalline  schists,  resting  hero 
and  there  on  granites,  and  diminishing  in  extent  as  we  go  eastwards.  The 
Surara  transverse  ridge,  connecting  the  Caucasus  with  the  Anti-Caucasus,  also 
consists  of  crystalline  roehs  ;  but  here  the  strata  are  -far  less  regular  than  on  the 
northern  slopes.  Eight  and  left  of  the  great  central  chain,  the  prominences  on 
both  slopes  are  chiefly  composed  of  limestone  and  silicious  strata  of  Tarious  ages 
— Jurassic,  cretaceous,  or  eocene.  In  the  north  these  older  formations  are  covered 
by  the  jDliocene  and  more  recent  steppe  lands.  In  their  prevailing  characteristics 
the  Urukh,  Terek,  and  Baksan  valleys  all  closely  resemble  each  other.  Here  the 
streams  rise  in  wild  and  rugged  granitic  cirques,  thence  traversing  marls  and  sandy 
clays  between  glens  dotted  with  numerous  villages,  beyond  which  they  enter 
narrow  gorges,  above  whose  chalk  sides  are  visible  the  pastures  and  woodlands. 
Lower  down  stretches  the  steppe,  where  the  torrents  combine  to  form  the  Terek. 
About  the  middle  of  the  range,  between  Daghestan  and  the  Western  Caucasus, 
a  sort  of  geological  inlet  penetrates  into  the  Upper  Terek  valley,  where  a  vast 
horizontal  plateau  of  tertiary  grits  projects  like  a  peninsula  between  the  surroimd- 
ing  chalks.  Here  the  attraction  of  the  hills  is  unusually  active,  the  deviation  of 
the  plummet  towards  the  intermediate  rocks  amounting  to  thirty-eight  seconds 
between  Vladikavkaz,  at  the  northern  base,  and  Dushet,  south  of  the  range. 

Porphj'ries  cropping  out  in  the  upper  regions  raise  their  steep  crests  above  the 
snow-line,  while  in  the  central  regions  more  recent  lavas  have  broken  through  the 
crust,  especially  on  the  southern  slopes.  In  the  north  the  Elbruz,  culminating 
point  of  the  system,  is  an  old  volcano,  which  was  probably  active  when  the 
Euxine  and  Caspian  were  still  connected  by  the  Manich  Strait  towards  the  close 
of  the  tertiary  or  beginning  of  the  following  epoch.  This  mountain  terminates  in  a 
sort  of  horseshoe  cirque,  which  seems  to  be  a  crater  partly  fallen  in.  The  Kazbek 
also  is  a  trachyte  cone,  while  the  crests  of  the  "  Red  Hills,"  farther  south,  are  all 
volcanic,  and  the  route  skirting  the  Aragva  passes  along  the  foot  of  columnar 
basalt  rocks.  Nor  are  the  subterraneous  forces  still  extinct  in  the  Caucasus. 
Not  only  are  both  extremities  fringed  by  boiling  mud  volcanoes,  but  numerous 
mineral  and  naphtha  springs  bubble  ujj  from  underground  lakes  disposed  in 
symmetrical  order  on  both  sides  of  the  range.  The  hot  springs  are  amongst  the 
most  copious  in  the  world,  though  few  of  them  seem  to  be  associated  with  the 
igneous  forces  lying  beneath  the  main  chain. 

Earthquakes,  probably  of  volcanic  origin,  occur  at  frequent  intervals  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Kura  and  Araxis,  while  regular  upheavals  of  the  land  have  taken 
place  at  both  ends  of  the  range.  The  steep  clifls  overlooking  the  little  harbour 
of  Petrovsk,  in  Daghestan,  are  scored  by  horizontal  lines  produced  by  the  former 
action  of  the  waves,  although  they  are  now  some  300  feet  above  the  present  level 
of  the  Caspian.     On  the  Abkhasian  coast   there  are  also  distinct  evidences  of 


GEOLOGICAL  FOEMATION— VOLCANIC  ACTION. 


89 


clianges  of  level,  and  as  high  as  500  feet  there  are  visible  old  marine  snores  in 
every  respect  resembling  those  still  washed  bj'  the  waves  of  the  Black  Sea.  The 
marshy  springs  oozing  from  the  ground  at  this  elevation  contain  shell-fish,  such  as 
the  mijsis  and  gammarus,  of  the  same  species  as  those  now  inhabiting  the  Euxine, 
though  their  presence  has  been  attributed  either  to  a  former  communication  with 
that  sea,  or  to  the  action  of  water-fowl  carrying  the  spat  backwards  and  forwards 
in  their  plumage.  Lake  Abrau,  near  N'ovo-Rossiisk,  also  contains  a  semi-marine 
fauna,  which  has  gradually  adapted  itself  to  the  fresh  water.  The  remains  of 
buildings  in  the  alluvia  near  Sukhum-Kaleh,  both  above  and  below  the  surface, 
show  that   even   in  historic  times   the   land  has   first   subsided   and  then  been 


Fig.  16. — Hot  Spbings  and  Naphtha  Eegioxs  in  the  Caucasits. 
Scale  1  :  11.000,000. 


44' 


4Clt 


.,.-• 

T'^^i^JA      /'is         ! 

43' 


C.Parciin 


Vaphtha  Kegions.        Hot  .Springs.         Naphtha  Wells, 
i  ISO  Miles. 


upheaved,  and  that  it  is  now  again  subsiding.  The  ruins  of  a  fort  are  at  present 
15  to  18  feet  under  water,  and  a  large  wall  has  been  found  even  at  a  depth  of 
32  feet.  After  every  storm,  coins,  rings,  and  other  antique  objects  are  constantly 
thrown  up,  and  in  one  instance  a  gold  coronet  was  discovered  in  the  sands. 
Similar  oscillations  have  occurred  on  the  Baku  coast  of  the  Caspian,  where  the 
remains  of  a  building  are  still  visible  near  the  shore. 

The  advanced  spurs  of  the  Caucasus  are  not  high  enough  to  conceal  the 
central  chain  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  plains.  From  the  steppes  of  Stavropol, 
a  distance  of  120  miles,  the  snowy  Elbruz  is  distinctly  visible,  rising  in  solitary 
majesty  on  the  horizon.     Travellers  approaching  from  the  north  see  it  for  miles 


40 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


and  miles  along  the  route,  constantly  increasing  in  size  long  before  the  presence 
of  the  range  is  betraj-ed  by  any  other  peaks  to  the  right  or  left.  But  when  it 
suddenly  comes  in  sight  it  presents  a  stern,  almost  a  terrible  aspect,  snow-clad 
onlv  on  the  highest  crests,  here  and  there  furrowed  by  avalanches,  but  lacking 
the  charm  and  variety  of  the  Alpine  masses.  Being  much  narrower  and  simpler 
in  its  structure,  it  is  necessarily  more  uniform  than  the  Alpine  system.  It  is  also 
deficient  in  grand  cascades,  its  hills  having  already  been  furrowed  by  the  action 
of  water  into  regular  river  beds. 

"Water  Systems — Skow-line — Rainfall — Glaciers. 

The  absence  of  detached  masses  and  of  broad  intervening  valleys  deprives  the 
Caucasus  of  great  lakes  like  those  of  the  Alps.  No  such  lacustrine  tarns  even 
occur  as  are  so  frequently  met  in  the  Swiss  and  Tyrolese  highlands.  The  fresh- 
water lakes,  formerly  stretching  along  the  plains  at  both  sides  of  the  range,  have 
been  drained  since  the  glacial  period.     One  of  these  old  lakes,  contemporary  with 


Fig.  1". — Profile  of  the  Caucasus  as  seen  fkom  Patigoksk. 
According  to  Freshfield. 


C  Perron 


the  volcanic  eruptions,  is  now  replaced  by  the  cultivated  fields  of  Vladikavkaz  and 
Alagir  in  the  Terek  valley.  Another  of  equal  extent  on  the  south  filled  the 
Karthalian  basin  between  Suram  and  Mtzkhet,  disappearing  with  the  bursting  of 
the  embankments  that  confined  the  waters  of  the  Kura.  The  whole  of  the 
Alazan  valley,  with  that  of  its  tributary  the  A'iri-chai,  was  also  flooded  by  a 
lake,  which  ultimately  escaped  through  a  gorge  in  the  advanced  spurs  of  the 
Caucasus.  In  fact,  all  the  river  valleys,  those  of  the  Kuban  and  its  tributaries 
the  Zelenchuck,  the  Laba,  and  the  Belaya,  no  less  than  those  of  the  Kura  system, 
formerly  served  as  lacustrine  reservoirs,  so  that  the  Caucasian  streams,  like  so 
many  others,  may  be  regarded  as  reduced  lakes  or  contracted  fiords.  But  the 
Anti-Caucasus,  a  vast  hillj^  plateau,  or  rather  an  aggregate  of  irregular  masses 
with  axes  at  various  angles,  thus  presents  far  more  numerous  land-locked  depres- 
sions, and  this  system  accordingly  oflfers  in  its  lakes  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
Ponto-Caspian  chain. 

Although  with  a  greater  mean  elevation  than  those  of  the  Alps,  the  Caucasian 
peaks  are  far  less  covered  with  snow  and  ice,  not  onlj'  in  consequence  of  their 
more  southerly  latitude  and  other  climatic    conditions,  but  also   owing  to  the 


WATER  SYSTEMS— SNOW-LINE— RAINFALL— GLACIERS. 


41 


narrowness  of  the  upper  crests,  and  the  absence  of  cirques  where  the  accumulated 
snows  might  serve  as  reservoirs  of  glaciers.  The  snow-line  varies  considerably 
with  the  latitude,  exposure,  amount  of  snow  or  rainfall,  direction  and  force  of  the 
winds,  and  relative  position  of  the  several  mountain  masses.  The  extreme  limits 
would  appear  to  diSer  as  much  as  G,100  feet,  for,  according  to  Eadde,  the  line 
falls  to  8,460  feet  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Garibolo,  whereas  Parrot  fixes  it 
at  14,560  feet  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  Great  Ararat.  Mount  Alagoz,  rising 
to  a  height  of  13,660  feet  in  the  Anti-Caucasus,  is  entirely  free  of  snow  in 
summer,  and  even  in  the  Great  Caucasus  Ruprecht  ascended  to  an  elevation  of 
12,600  feet  on  the  south  side  without  meeting  a  single  snow-field  ;  but  this  was 
in  the  eastern  section  facing  the  Caspian.     Farther  west  the  moist  winds  from 


IS. — RAINF.4.LL    OP  THE    CAUCASUS. 
Sc-Ue  1  :  lO.MO.OOO. 


Under  10  Inches. 


10  to  20. 


20  to  40. 


40  to  80. 
.  240  Miles. 


C  Perron 


■■■!i 

so  and  upwards. 


the  Eux.ine  often  cover  the  southern  slopes  with  snow.  In  some  of  the  uj)per 
valleys  of  the  Eion  basin  the  snowfall  is  said  to  amount  to  from  16  to  23  feet. 
On  the  whole,  and  apart  from  local  differences,  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  would 
seem  to  oscillate  on  the  southern  slopes  between  9,600  and  11,600  feet,  and  on 
the  northern  between  11,000  and  13,000  feet.  Thus  the  mean  limit  is  about 
2,000  feet  higher  than  in  the  Pyrenees,  though  they  lie  in  the  same  latitude. 
This  contrast  must  be  attributed  to  the  greater  general  dryness  of  the  climate,  at 
least  on  th.e  northern  slopes,  and  to  the  greater  summer  heats  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  portion  under  perpetual  snow  begins  at  the  Oshtek.  or  Oshten,  in  the  west, 
and  extends  eastwards  to  the  Kazbek,  beyond  which  the  snow  rests  throughout 
the  year  only  on  isolated  peaks. 


42  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

The  various  meteorological  statious  establisteJ  along  the  range  have  approxi- 
mately determined  the  diminution  of  humidity,  owing  to  which  the  snow-line 
rises  gradually  eastwards,  according  as  the  moist  winds  recede  from  the  Euxine 
and  approach  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  where  the  continental  winds  prevail.  On  the 
slopes  facing  the  Black  Sea  the  snow  or  rain  fall  is  three  times  more  abundant 
than  in  the  centre,  and  six,  eight,  or  even  ten  times  more  so  than  in  the  Kura 
basin  and  the  Apsheron  peninsula.  At  times  not  a  drop  of  water  falls  for  six 
months  along  the  lower  course  of  the  Kura,  for  the  influence  of  the  west  winds 
from  the  Euxine  reaches  no  farther  than  the  Suram  Mountains,  which  connect 
the  main  range  with  the  Anti-Caucasus,  east  of  Kutais.  The  Caspian  itself 
supplies  very  little  moisture  to  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  because  the  limited  amount 
of  humidity  brought  by  north-east  winds  is  mostly  discharged  on  the  advanced 
spurs  at  the  foot  of  the  Daghestan  highlands. 

Notwithstanding  the  excessive  summer  heats  of  this  region  and  its  higher  snow- 
line, the  mean  annual  temperature  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  Pyrenees,  or  even 
of  the  Alps.  For  the  cold  north-east  winds,  being  untempered  by  the  warm 
south-westerly  breezes,  which  are  arrested  by  the  Anatolian  plateaux,  lower  the 
normal  temperature  of  the  Caucasus.  The  climates  of  Caucasia  and  Switzerland  have 
a  common  mean,  but  the  extremes  are  much  greater  in  the  Ponto-Caspian  region 
than  in  Central  Europe.  The  temperatui-e  in  summer  and  winter  varies  in  Switzer- 
land about  18°  or  19^,  whereas  there  was  a  difference  of  27°  at  Patigorsk  in  1876. 

The  absence  of  snow  jjroduces  a  corresponding  scarcity  of  glaciers.  Yet  they 
are  numerous  enough,  especially  about  the  Elbruz,  and  there  is  almost  continuous 
ice  for  a  distance  of  120  miles  between  the  Juman-tau  and  the  Xaltber,  above  the 
Ar-don  valley.  The  lowest  glacier  is  that  of  Kalchi-dou,  or  Karagan,  which 
drains  from  the  Adai-kokh  into  the  Upper  Urukh  valley.  According  to 
Freshfield  the  only  Swiss  glacier  of  equal  length  is  that  of  Alech.  But  as  a  rule 
the  frozen  streams  of  the  Caucasus  descend  no  farther  than  7,000  feet  above 
the  sea ;  that  is,  several  hundred  feet  above  the  corresponding  limits  in  the  Swiss 
Alps.  Unlike  the  snow,  they  reach  a  lower  point  on  the  northern  than  on  the 
southern  slopes,  a  fact  due  to  the  general  relief  of  the  mountains,  which  are  much 
more  abrupt  on  the  south  than  on  the  opposite  side,  where  they  slope  northwards  in 
long  valleys.  Unmistakable  evidences  of  the  passage  of  former  glaciers  show  that 
m  the  Caucasian,  as  in  the  European  mountain  systems,  the  frozen  streams  reached 
a  much  lower  depth  formerly  than  at  present.  About  the  outlets  of  the  Malka, 
Baksan,  and  Terek  vaUeys  there  occur  erratic  boulders  suspended  at  a  slight 
elevation  along  the  slopes  of  the  bluffs  overlooking  the  plains.  The  Yermolov 
stone,  near  the  northern  entrance  of  the  Darial  Gorge,  is  96  feet  long,  with  a  bulk 
of  197,900  cubic  feet,  and  similar  blocks  26  feet  long  are  met  at  Vladikavkaz,  and 
even  5  miles  forther  north.  In  Svania  the  upland  villages  now  standing  over 
a  mile  from  the  extremity  of  the  glaciers  are  built  with  the  detritus  of  the 
moraines  here  stranded  from  former  glaciers. 

At  present  the  best  known  and  most  frequently  visited  glacier  in  the  Caucasus 
is  the  Devdoraki,  or  Devdoravki,  one  of  the  eight  that  descend  from  the  Kazbek. 


/.•.*. 


;'v.-.^;:;:';'v.-.^^:-: 


LIBRARY 


VEGETATION— FAUNA. 


43 


It  is  visible  at  a  distance  of  over  5  miles  west  of  the  valley  watered  by  the  Terek, 
aud  crossed  by  the  military  route  between  Vladikavkaz  and  Tiflis.  Its  lo-s^er 
course  is  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  floodings,  and  while  most  of  the  other 
Caucasian  glaciers  are  retreating,  the  Devdoraki  has  advanced  770  feet  between 
the  years  1863  and  1876.     The  general  progress  of  the  ice  has  been  calculated 


19.;— This  Kazbek-  Vie-w  taken  prom  the  Kazdek  Statiok. 


not  to  exceed  4  inches  a  day,  whereas  the  average  velocity  on  Mont  Blanc  is 
about  12  inches. 

Vegetation — Fauna. 

While  the  lower  limit  of  the  ice-fields  is  higher  in  the  Caucasus  than  in  tlie 
Alps,  forest  vegetation  reaches  a  higher  point.  True  tiuiber  flourishes  at  a  mean 
elevation  of  7,730  feet.  Then  come  the  azalea  and  rhododendron,  the  dwarf 
laurel  and  bright  green  sorrel,  and  lastly,  the  Alpine  plants  of  the  pastures. 
The  zone  of  trees  is  higher  on  the  northern  than  on  the  southern  slopes,  thanks, 
doubtless,  to  their   greater  humidity ;    for,  although  they  receive  less  rain,  they 


44 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


lose  less  by  evaporation.  The  greatest  elevation  is  readied,  not  by  evergreen 
l^ines,  as  in  Central  Europe,  nor  by  the  cedar  and  larch,  as  iu  Siberia,  but  by  the 
birch,  while  the  great  forests  of  the  slopes  consist  chiefly  of  conifers,  the  maple, 
lime,  ash,  hornbeam,  beech,  oak,  and  chestnut.  The  valuable  box,  so  largely 
exported  to  England,  and  thence  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  forms  in  certain  parts  of 
Lower  Transcaucasia  impenetrable  masses  of  vegetation,  which,  especially  between 
Poti  and  Nikolaya,  covers  the  whole  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  queen  of 
Caucasian  shrubs  is  the  Azalea  Pontka,  one  of  the  glories  of  terrestrial  vegetation. 
This  lovely  plant,  whose  blood-red  autumn  foliage  contrasts  with  the  dark  green 
of  the  tir,  occupies  a  zone  at  least  6,U00  feet  in  vertical  height  between  the 


Fig.   20.— Kazbek    and    Detdoeaki    Glacieks. 
From  tho  Map  of  the  Eussian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  165,000. 


■■?Vv 


It. 


4j«e5- 


3  Miles. 


i 


C  Perron 


advanced  offshoots  and  the  slopes  upwards  of  6,600  feet  high.  In  some  places 
the  azalea  is  replaced  by  the  rhododendron.  The  traditional  belief  in  the  intoxi- 
cating and  even  maddening  effects  of  its  honey  has  not  been  confirmed  by  more 
recent  observation,  and  would  seem  to  rest  on  altogether  exceptional  facts.  In 
Eabarda,  where  bee-farming  is  largely  developed,  no  such  e^al  consequences  are 
attributed  to  the  honey  of  the  azalea. 

On  the  lower  slopes  the  wild  vine  twines  round  the  tnmks  of  the  trees,  whose 
branches  are  festooned  with  its  foliage,  intermingled  with  that  of  other  twining 
plants.  The  vine  is  probably  here  indigenous,  and  the  walnut  is  also  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  valleys  of  Imeria.  In  no  other  region  are  there  so  many  stone 
fruits,  several  species  of  which,  elsewhere  vm.known,  are  found  growing  wild  iu  the 


■\-EGETATION  -FAUNA. 


45 


forests  of  Karthalia,  soutli-west  of  the  Kazbek.  The  Caucasus  is,  in  fact,  the 
classic  land  of  fruit  trees,  and  the  gardens,  especially  of  Mingrelia,  abound  in 
flowers  and  fruits,  to  which  Western  culture  might  easily  impart  an  exquisite 
perfume  and  flavour.  But  as  we  proceed  eastwards  from  the  well- watered  shores 
of  the  Euxine  to  the  arid  Caspian  seaboard  the  vegetation  gradually  diminishes  ; 
the  forest  lands  become  less  numerous  as  we  approach  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  main  range  ;  the  dry  steppe  winds  burn  up  the  grass  itself,  and  the  solar  rays 
are  reflected  on  the  bare  rock.  Some  Russian  plants  grow  with  difficulty  even  at 
elevations  where  they  find  a  mean  temperature  answering  to  that  of  their  native 
homes.     The  Russian  soldiers   have  succeeded   in   acclimatizing   the    European 


Fig.  21. — Forests  of  the  Caucascs. 
According  to  Petermann.    Scale  1  :  11,000,000. 


40 


C. Perron 


.  ISO  Miles. 


vegetables  in  the  upper  valleys  of  Svania,  but  the  beloved  birch-tree,  which  might 
remind  them  of  their  distant  fatherland,  nowhere  acquires  a  vigorous  growth. 

The  cultivated  no  less  than  the  wild  plants  reach  a  much  higher  elevation  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  than  in  the  Alps,  a  fact  due  to  the  greater  summer 
heats  of  the  former  region.  In  the  district  destined  some  day,  perhaps,  to  be 
pierced  by  the  tunnel  of  the  future  Caucasian  trunk  line  between  the  Ar-don  and 
Lakhva  basins,  all  the  upland  villages  are  surrounded  by  barley- fields  to  an  alti- 
tude of  over  6,500  feet.  In  Ossetia  this  cereal  reaches  the  village  of  Kolota 
(8,230  feet),  and  farther  south  it  ripens  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alagoz  at  an  elevation 
of  8,300  feet.  Wheat  also  is  grown  as  high  as  6,700  feet,  or  3,300  feet  higher  than 
in  the  Alps  ;  maize  reaches  3,000  feet,  and  the  vine  3,630  feet,  near  the  village  of 

VOL.    VI.  E 


46  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Kurta,  in  Ossetia ;  but  the  best  vintages  of  Kakbetia  are  those  of  the  Alazan 
valley,  2,500  feet  above  sea-level. 

Many  Caucasian  forests  have  been  cleared  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  many 
,more  have  been  wantonly  destroyed,  and  the  destruction  is  still  going  on  in  the 
most  reckless  manner  where  timber  most  abounds.  To  save  the  labour  of  felling 
the  trees,  they  are  burnt  down  at  the  risk  of  setting  fire  to  whole  forests.  When 
fodder  fails,  the  trees  are  destroyed,  and  the  cattle  fed  with  their  leaves  and 
sprouts.  Hence  many  regions  formerly  densely  wooded  are  now  bare,  and  even 
on  the  upland  slopes  the  woodlands  are  rapidly  disappearing. 

In  spite  of  the  ravages  of  man,  most  of  the  original  wild  animals  of  the  Caucasus 
are  stiU  found  there.  The  chamois  and  the  tour,  a  species  of  wild  goat,  frequent 
the  upper  valleys,  and  some  herds  of  the  bison  or  wisant,  wronglj'  described  as  the 
aurochs,  roam  over  the  forests  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Kuban  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Elbruz.  The  Caucasian  bear,  less  formidable  than  the  Eussian,  is  found  no 
higher  than  5,000  feet,  the  limit  of  fruit  trees.  Like  the  wolf  and  lynx,  he  inhabits 
the  Abkhasian  forests,  and  Prendel  met  one  within  6  miles  of  Sukhum-Kaleh.  The 
wild  boar  haunts  the  thickets  of  the  lowlands,  especially  along  the  banks  of  tarns 
and  rivers.  The  tiger,  said  to  have  come  from  the  plateaux  of  Persia,  rarely 
ventures  to  show  himself  on  the  plains  of  Transcaucasia,  and  never  penetrates  into 
the  upland  valleys.  The  leopard,  hyena,  and  jackal  are  not  unfrequently  met 
about  the  Lower  Kura,  and  the  jackal  occasionally  finds  his  way  across  the  main 
range  to  the  forests  of  the  northern  slopes.  In  its  fauna  and  flora  Transcaucasia 
already  belongs  to  the  sub-tropical  Asiatic  world,  whereas  in  this  respect  Cis- 
caucasia must  still  be  included  in  the  European  zone. 

iNHABiTAinrs — Varied  Ethnical  axd  Lixguistic  Elements, 

The  well-watered  Transcaucasian  plains  might  support  as  great  a  population  as 
France,  and  two  thousand  years  ago  were  probably  abundantly  peopled.  The 
northern  valleys  are  also  fertile  enough  to  supply  the  wants  of  millions ;  yet  Caucasia 
is  on  the  whole  less  densely  peopled  than  Eussia  itself.  In  the  north  the  steppe 
prevails,  and  here  the  population  is  restricted  to  the  river  banks.  In  the  south  also 
the  plains  of  the  Araxis  and  Lower  Kura  have  remained  unpeopled,  owing  to  their 
extremely  unhealthy  climate,  while  in  the  highlands  nearly  all  the  region  above 
the  forest  zone  is  a  solitude  of  pasture,  rocks,  or  snows,  frequented  only  by  a  few 
herdsmen  and  hunters.  The  highest  Caucasian  village,  Kurush,  in  the  Daghestan 
highlands,  about  the  source  of  a  head-stream  of  the  Samur,  is  8,200  feet  above  sea- 
level,  an  elevation  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Hospice  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  in 
the  Swiss  Alps.  But  the  summits  of  the  chain  rise  from  6,000  to  9,000  feet  above 
this  last  inhabited  spot  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  most  healthy  zone  lies  between  2,500  and  6,650  feet,  and  here  are  situated 
the  sanitary  stations  where  most  of  the  officials  of  Tiflis,  Erivan,  and  Yelisabetpol 
spend  the  summer  months.  The  most  favourite  elevation  is  4,000  feet,  where  the 
vine,  mulberry,  and  southern  cereals  still  flourish,  and  where  the  pure  and  cool  air 


UBRARV 


ETHNOGRAPHICAL   MA 


3  cult? 


LONDON.  J.  S. 


OF  THE   CAUCASUS. 


r^Ba^^.. 


-\.'^/j^Sti 


600,000. 


idoMiIbs 


TU  E     &.   C=    LIMITED. 


INHABITANTS— VARIED  ETHNICAL  AND  LINGUISTIC  ELEMENTS.         -17 

from  the  glaciers  prevails.  The  Tatars  of  the  hot  valleys  harvest  their  maize  in 
May,  send  their  families  and  herds  to  the  hills,  and  soon  join  them  themselves, 
returning  to  the  plains  in  time  for  the  autumn  vintage.  Some  of  the  insalubrious 
districts  remain  uninhabited  except  by  a  few  of  the  peasantry  engaged  in  irrigating 
the  maize  and  rice  fields.  Still  the  population  is  densest,  not  in  the  healthy  region 
of  the  advanced  spurs,  but  in  the  valleys  watered  by  the  large  rivers  and  traversed 
by  the  main  highways.  Here  the  population  may  easily  be  doubled  as  soon  as  the 
now  forsaken  irrigating  canals  are  reopened,  thus  bringing  under  cultivation  all 
the  valleys  of  the  Araxis  and  Kura.  According  to  the  old  chronicles  Trans- 
caucasia was  formerly  six  times  more  populous  than  at  present.  "When  the 
Mongolian  prince,  Batu  Khan,  seized  the  land  in  the  thirteenth  century  he 
compelled  every  tenth  adult  male  to  serve  in  his  armies,  thus  raising  a  force  of 
800,000  men.  This  would  imply  a  population  of  16,000,000,  probably  about  the 
same  number  as  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  commercial  relations  had  fallen  oif  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  highways  leading  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Caspian,  formerly 
followed  by  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Genoese,  had  been  completely  abandoned.  In 
1823,  for  the  first  time  probably  for  centuries,  merchandise  was  transported  from 
Redout-Kaleh  to  Baku,  and  this  was  considered  a  memorable  event.  Even  now  the 
communications  between  the  two  slopes  of  the  main  range  are  beset  with  difficulties. 
It  is  stiU  untraversed  by  a  Hne  of  railway,  and  tiU  recently  the  two  divisions  of 
Caucasia  were  connected  by  one  carriage  road  only.  This  route,  frequently  out 
of  repair,  and  occasionally  even  destroyed  by  avalanches  and  detritus,  runs  east  of 
Mount  Kazbek  through  the  gorges  of  the  Darial,  at  all  times  so  important  in  the 
records  of  migration  and  conquest.  Known  to  the  ancients  as  the  "  Gate  of  the 
Caucasus,"  this  route  forms  in  reality  a  rocky  approach,  whose  issues  were  defended 
by  strongholds,  now  replaced  by  the  fortified  stations  of  the  Russians. 

East  of  the  range  the  narrow  strip  of  coast  commanded  on  the  one  hand  by  the 
escarpments  of  the  Caucasus,  limited  on  the  other  by  the  waters  of  the  Caspian, 
offered  a  second  and  easier  highway  to  the  invading  or  migrating  tribes  advancmg 
from  Asia  to  Europe,  or  from  Europe  to  Asia.  But  this  route  might  here  and 
there  be  blocked,  and  one  of  the  passes  at  the  extremity  of  a  ridge  in  Daghestan 
was  barred,  like  the  Darial  Gorge,  by  a  derbent,  or  "  fortified  gate,"  whence  the 
name  of  the  town  commanding  this  part  of  the  coast.  The  Euxine  seaboard 
skirting  the  "Western  Caucasus  seems  since  the  Roman  epoch  never  to  have  served 
as  an  historical  route.  But  at  that  time  the  two  divisions  of  the  kingdom  of 
Mithridates  were  connected  by  a  road  skirting  the  coast,  and  at  several  pomts 
milestones  are  still  standing,  which  the  Abkhasians  look  on  as  "  fairy  altars. 
But  this  road  has  been  deserted  since  the  Byzantine  epoch.  For  centuries  this 
coast- line,  some  250  miles  long,  has  been  beset  by  too  many  natural  obstacles,  and 
guarded  by  tribes  of  too  fierce  a  character,  to  serve  as  a  military  route,  more 
especially  as  the  sea  was  always  open  to  Greeks,  Genoese,  Turks,  and  Russians  to 
prosecute  their  commercial  or  warlike  enterprises  with  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  Genoese  roads,  of  which  traces  have  been  discovered,  did  not  follow  the  coast, 

E  2 


48  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

but  crossed  the  hills,  thus  connecting  the  inland  districts  with  the  Euxine 
seaports. 

But  these  great  highways  were  not  forced  without  a  struggle,  and  every  fresh 
invasion  scattered  fresh  fragments  of  nations  amongst  the  surrounding  upland 
valleys.  Thus  the  Caucasus  has  become,  in  the  language  of  Abulfeda,  "  The 
Mountain  of  Languages,"  an  expression  stiU  current  in  Persia.  Strabo  tells  us 
that  the  Greek  traders  frequenting  the  port  of  Dioscurias,  on  the  Euxine,  met  there 
no  less  than  seventy  peoples,  all  speaking  distinct  languages,  and  Pliny  adds  that 
in  his  time  one  hundred  and  thirty  different  idioms  were  current  in  the  same  place. 
A.t  present  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the  Caucasus  are  still  estimated  at  seventy. 
But  TTslar,  first  of  Caucasian  philologists,  points  out  that  every  local  variety  is 
regarded  as  a  distinct  language  by  traders  and  travellers,  and  that  in  reality  the 
numerous  Caucasian  dialects  may  be  grouped  in  a  small  number  of  families.  Thus 
the  thirty  of  Daghestan  are  reducible  to  five  radically  distinct.  Many  were  formerly 
spoken  by  powerful  and  widely  difi"used  peoples,  now  represented  only  by  a  few 
remnants  lost  amongst  the  hills,  and  whom  a  geologist  has  compared  to  erratic 
boidders,  the  scattered  fragments  of  now  vanished  mountains. 

The  Caucasus,  which  stands  out  so  boldly  against  the  boundless  and  monotonous 
Russian  steppes,  contrasts  no  less  strikingly  in  its  varied  peoples,  races,  and 
languages  with  the  vast  Slav  world  stretching  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Frozen 
Ocean.  Nevertheless  the  Russians  are  now  slowly  penetrating  into  the  valleys  on 
both  slopes  of  the  main  range,  where  they  already  number  about  1,400,000,  or 
nearly  one-fourth  of  the  whole  population.  They  are  in  a  decided  majority  in  the 
districts  bordering  on  Russia  proper ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  province  of  Kuban  and 
the  government  of  Stavropol.  Even  in  Transcaucasia  they  form  one  of  the  chief 
ethnical  elements,  especially  in  the  towns  and  military  stations,  and  here  and  there 
their  Cossack  or  nonconformist  settlements  give  a  great  local  preponderance  to 
the  Slav  race.  Whilst  many  native  tribes  are  disappearing  either  by  extermina- 
tion or  forced  or  voluntary  exile,  whilst  others  are  slowly  diminishing  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  with  the  Russian  invaders,  the  latter  are  steadily  Increasing 
in  the  north  by  ceaseless  encroachments  on  the  ethnical  frontier-lines,  in  the  south 
by  scattered  colonies  continually  expanding,  and  thus  approaching  each  other  and 
absorbing  the  intervening  spaces.* 

Russian  Conquests— Main  Physical  Divisions. 
The  long  and  laborious  conquest  of  the  Caucasus,  which  took  about  two  hundred 
years,  is  now  a  familiar  topic.     In  the  north  the  Russians  at  first  confined  them- 

*  Population  of  Caucasia  according  to  races  : — 

Estimated  Population, 
law.  1S80. 

^"ssians 840,000  1,410,000 


Georgians 

Tatars  and  Turks  . 

Armenians     .... 

Lezghians  and  other  Highlanders 

Persians,  Tats,  and  Talishes  . 

Other  races    . 


830,000  1,150,000 

825,000  1,330,000 

620,000  720,000 

1,400,000  1,050,000 

75,000  120,000 

36,000  90,000 


RUSSIAN  CONQUESTS— MLilN  PHYSICAL  DIVISIONS.  49 

selves  fo  a  line  of  fortified  stations,  where  the  Cossacks  kept  constant  guard,  ready 
at  the  first  signal  to  leap  into  the  saddle.  The  Transcaucasian  provinces  were 
originally  nothing  but  foreign  lands  possessing  no  cohesion  with  the  rest  of  the 
empire,  but  the  pressure  of  the  dominant  race  gradually  increased.  All  the 
lowland  tribes  were  finally  subdued,  while  those  of  the  uplands  were  compelled 
from  year  to  j'ear  to  contract  the  limits  of  their  warlike  incui'sions.  The  Russians 
not  only  commanded  both  seaboards,  enabling  them  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  their 
allies  or  subjects  in  Mingrelia,  Imeria,  and  Georgia,  but  they  were  from  the  first 
in  possession  of  the  breach  presented  by  the  Caucasus  between  the  Terek  and 
Aragva  valleys.  In  1769  the  Darial  Pass  was  crossed  by  400  Russians,  and  in 
1784,  1795,  1796,  and  1799  they  again  utilised  this  route.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  when  Georgia  became  an  integral  part  of  the  empire,  a 
military  route  connecting  Transcaucasia  with  the  north  was  constructed  along  the 
Terek  and  Aragva  valleys,  whereby  Caucasia  was  henceforth  divided  into  two 
distinct  fragments.  Pushkin  describes  the  risks  still  incurred  in  1829  by  travellers, 
traders,  and  others  on  this  highway.  The  daily  progress  under  armed  escort  from 
station  to  station  was  little  more  than  10  miles.  This  first  route  was  succeeded  by 
another  over  the  Mamisson  Pass,  between  the  Terek  and  Rion  valleys,  and  by  others 
through  the  lateral  valleys,  cutting  off  the  forests  in  which  the  highlanders  lurked 
to  fall  upon  the  Russian  foe.  "  I  should  Hke,"  said  Shamyl,  "  to  anoint  with  holy 
oil  the  trees  of  my  forest,  and  mingle  fragrant  honey  with  the  mud  of  my  hio-h- 
ways,  for  in  these  trees  and  this  mud  lies  my  strength."  But  although  the  bogs 
are  far  from  having  disappeared,  the  upland  forests  are  no  longer  inaccessible,  and 
their  inhabitants  have  been  subdued.  In  a  song  by  Lermontov  the  Kazbek  is 
represented  as  rising  in  its  majesty,  and  looking  with  scorn  on  the  puny  swarms 
approaching  from  the  northern  plains  to  scale  it.  But  when  it  sees  them  armed 
with  pickaxe,  shovel,  and  hatchet,  grubbing  in  the  soil  and  felling  the  trees,  it 
trembles  to  its  base,  for  it  now  understands  that  the  day  of  thraldom  is  at 
hand. 

Caucasia  consists  of  a  number  of  distinct  physical  and  ethnical  regions,  which 
must  be  described  ajDart,  although  they  are  becoming  daily  more  united  by  the 
bonds  of  common  interests.  AU  the  "Western  Caucasus,  tapering  towards  the  Sea 
of  Azov,  forms,  with  the  Kuban  basin  and  neighbouring  steppes,  one  of  these 
natui-al  regions ;  another  comprises  the  Central  Caucasus,  the  home  of  so  many 
different  tribes ;  while  a  third  embraces  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  whose  inhabitants 
are  sometimes  collectively  known  as  Gortzi,  or  "  Highlanders."  The  Terek  basin, 
the  plains  and  lakes  of  the  Kuma,  the  half-drained  bed  of  a  former  sea,  ofier  a 
marked  contrast  to  this  highland  region.  In  the  south  the  Rion  and  Chorukh 
basins,  partly  rescued  from  the  Turks,  are  inhabited  by  people  of  one  stock,  and 
constitute  a  fairly  well-defined  ethnical  province.  But  in  the  east  the  districts 
watered  by  the  Kura  ofier  no  such  racial  unity,  for  this  region  is  shared  by 
both  Georgians  and  Tatars.  StiU  it  forms  at  least  a  distinct  geographical  province, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Araxis  valley,  which  is  occupied  by  Tatars 
and  Armenians  in  common. 


60 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


II.— WESTERN  CAUCASUS:   KUBAN  BASIN. 

ABKHASIA^^S,  CIRCASSIANS,   COSSACKS  OF  THE  BLACK  SEA. 

"West  of  the  highlands  cxilminating  with  Mount  Elbruz,  the  Caucasus  becomes  a 
coast  range,  falling  in  abrupt  escarpments  towards  the  Black  Sea.  The  slope  is 
continued  to  a  great  depth  under  the  surface,  for  even  close  to  the  shore  the 
sounding-line  reveals  a  depth  of  over  12,000  feet.  The  first  section  of  the  coast 
range  west  of  Elbruz  retains  a  great  elevation,  and  is  commanded  by  snowy  crests 
10,000  to  12,000  feet  high.  Here  also,  as  in  the  Central  Caucasus,  the  main  ridge 
is  flanked  by  parallel  chains,  which  with  the  transverse  ridges  form  long  depres- 
sions, and  invariably  present  their  steep  sides  towards  the  middle  chain,  their 
gentler  slopes  towards  the  sea.  The  tracks  across  the  range  ascend  the  valleys 
parallel  with  it  until  they  reach  the  passes,  and  thus  easily  skirt  the  peaks.  Near 
Mount  Elbruz  the  range  rises  above  the  snow-line.  Here  are  the  Juman-tau,  the 
Marukh,  and  in  the  centre  the  magnificent  Oshten,  or  Oshtek,  beyond  which  the 

Fig.  22. — The  ■Westebn  Caucasus  seen  peom  off  Cafe  Kodor. 

According  to  Dubois  de  ilontp^reus. 


crests  diminish  rapidly  in  elevation  towards  the  north-west.  The  last  point  taking 
the  name  of  mountain  is  the  Idokopaz,  south-east  of  the  port  of  Novo-Rossiisk, 
after  which  there  are  nothing  but  hills,  whose  base  merges  with  the  alluvia  of  the 
Taman  peninsula.*  The  range  is  crossed  by  few  and  little-frequented  tracks,  and 
even  the  military  station  of  Sukhum-Kaleh  is  unconnected  by  any  direct  strategic 
route  with  the  Kuban  valley.  Pending  the  completion  in  1883  of  the  carriage 
road,  travellers  are  obliged  to  follow  the  coast  across  the  sandy  and  shingly 
beach. 

River  Systems — Kuban  Basin. 

Although  the  coast  climate  is  very  moist,  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Euxine  are 
too  short  to  be  very  copious.     They  are  mostly  mere  torrents,  which  carry  off  the 


•  Chief  elevations  in  the  Western  Caucasus : — 

Feet. 

Oshten 9,606 

Marukh  Pass 11,660 

Sancharo  Pass 8,000 


Nashar  Pass  (near  Mount  Elbruz) 

Psegashko  Pass 

Idokopaz         .... 


Feet. 
9,774 
6,360 
2,460 


lilVEE  SYSTEMS— KUBAN  BASIN.  61 

rain-water  falling  on  the  uplands.  But  a  few  rivers  in  the  southern  valleys,  such  as 
the  Kodar,  Bzib,  and  ilzimta,  acquire  a  certain  importance,  thanks  to  the  paral- 
lelism of  the  main  chain  and  side  ridges  enclosing  their  upper  courses.  Most  of 
these  upland  valleys  bear  the  traces  of  old  lakes,  which  have  been  drained  cither 
by  the  torrents  or  by  underground  streams  making  their  way  through  caverns 
excavated  in  the  Jurassic  limestone  rocks.  Thus  the  Michish,  represented  on  most 
maps  as  an  independent  river,  is  really  a  branch  of  the  Bzib,  passing  for  2  miles 
under  the  Pskhuv  Mountain,  and  escaping  through  an  outlet  near  the  coast.  The 
Pitzunda  River,  running  close  to  the  Bzib,  presents  a  phenomenon  of  a  different 
order,  for  it  seems  to  have  changed  its  course  within  the  historic  period  from  the 
south  to  the  north  of  Pitzunda. 

The  Abkhasian  streams  are  of  little  importance  except  for  irrigation  purposes 
in  the  lovely  gardens  and  orchards  on  the  coast.  Here  the  palm  is  associated  with 
European  plants,  beneath  whose  shade  wind  avenues  of  the  rose  and  jasmine.  But 
most  of  the  streams  flowing  from  the  hills  now  form  swamps  at  the  outlet  of  their 
vallej's,  where  they  poison  the  atmosphere  and  decimate  the  people.  Hence  the 
natives  generally  fix  their  homes  far  from  the  unhealthy  coast  lands,  either  in  the 
forests  or  on  the  bare  plateaux.  As  soon  as  the  cHmate  has  been  improved  by 
drainage  and  clearing  the  ground  of  its  rank  vegetation,  this  part  of  the  Euxine 
seaboard,  some  240  miles  long,  will  become  a  second  Crimea  for  the  Russians. 
Still  the  Abkhasian  coast,  while  warmer  and  less  subject  to  fogs  than  the  Crimean, 
has  the  disadvantage  of  being  less  sheltered  except  on  the  south  side  of  the  lateral 
ridges.  The  average  high  temperature  of  the  water  contributes  greatly  to  raise 
that  of  the  land,  which  till  the  end  of  November  stands  as  high  as  58°  or  59°  Fahr,, 
varving  at  Sukhum-Kaleh  in  winter  from  45°  to  46°  Fahr.  The  south-west  gales 
blow  with  great  violence  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  during  their  prevalence 
navigation  is  very  dangerous  on  a  coast  destitute  of  good  harbours  of  refuge.  The 
Abkhasian  seaboard  is  completely  sheltered  from  the  cold  north-east  blasts  which 
sweep  the  Caspian  and  Kuma  steppes.  But  at  its  northern  extremity  "Western 
Caucasia  is  not  sufEciently  elevated  to  arrest  this  horn  of  the  Euxine,  as  it  has  been 
called  by  the  Italian  and  Greek  sailors  frequenting  these  waters.  On  January  I2th, 
1848,  the  vessels  riding  at  anchor  off  Novo-Rossiisk  were  driven  seawards  or 
stranded,  and  one  of  them  sank  with  all  its  crew,  borne  down  by  the  weight  of  the 
dense  spray  suddenly  freezing  in  the  rigging  and  on  deck. 

The  northern  slope  of  the  coast  range  belongs  to  the  Kuban  basin.  This  river, 
the  Kuman  of  the  Nogai  Tatars,  and  Kubin  of  the  Abkhasians,  is  fed  by  the  Elbruz 
glaciers,  and  receives  all  the  torrents  and  streams  of  the  Western  Caucasian  valleys, 
except  a  few  rivulets  lost  in  the  steppe  before  reaching  the  main  stream.  Swollen 
three  times  during  the  year  by  the  spring  rains,  the  melting  of  the  snows  in 
summer,  and  the  autumn  downpours,  it  often  assumes  the  proportions  of  a  large 
river  from  700  to  over  1,200  feet  wide,  and  upwards  of  10  feet  deep.  But  at  low 
water  in  August  and  September  it  is  nowhere  more  than  4  feet  deep,  and  in  some 
years  the  northern  arm  of  its  delta  runs  dry.  All  attempts  have  hitherto  failed  to 
render  it  permanently  navigable,  although  since  1873  the  steamers  from  Kertch 


52 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


ascend  as  far  as  the  Tiflisskaya  stanitza  16  miles  west  of  the  Rostov- Vladikavkaz 
railway.     Beyond  this  point  it  is  navigable  only  for  flat-bottomed  boats. 

Thirty  miles  from  the  coast  the  Kuban,  which  has  a  mean  volume  estimated  at 
39,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  branches  off  into  two  arms,  and  these  again  ramify 
into  numerous  minor  channels.      The  Protok,  the  main  northern  branch,  flows 


Fig.  23. — The  Akhtaei  Limax, 
From  the  Map  of  the  Eussian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  610,000. 


C-Perrotl 


0  to  16  Feet. 


32  and  upwaids. 
.  12  llUes. 


towards  the  Akhtari  Hman,  an  inlet  in  the  Sea  of  Azov.  The  Kara-Kuban,  the 
southern  and  most  copious,  after  traversing  the  marshj'  lands  of  the  Taman 
peninsula,  again  ramifies  below  Temruk,  discharging  partly  into  the  Sea  of  Azov, 
partly  into  the  Euxine  through  a  shifting  hoghar,  or  sandy  channel  inaccessible  to 
large  craft.  The  two  mouths  are  distant  66  miles  in  a  straight  line,  and  at  least 
130  round  the  coast.     The  delta  itself,  which  resembles  that  of  the  Nile  in  form, 


TAMAN  TENINSULA.  53 

consists  of  alluvial  deposits  made  in  the  inner  basin  of  a  "  limau,"  or  lagoon, 
separated  by  an  older  strip  of  sand  from  tlie  Sea  of  Azov.  The  soil  held  in  solution 
by  the  Kuban  being  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  480,  these  deposits  would  have 
rapidly  filled  the  liman  were  they  not  carried  away  by  the  current  partly  to  the 
Sea  of  Azov,  and  partly  directly  to  the  Euxine. 

Taman  Peninsula. 

The  lower  stream  has  often  shifted  its  bed,  and  islands  and  channels  have  so 
frequently  changed  place  that  the  descriptions  of  the  old  writers  are  no  longer 
intelligible.  So  recently  as  the  fifteenth  century  the  chief  discharge  was  into  the 
Sea  of  Azov,  and  since  that  time  it  has  oscillated  between  the  two  branches,  every 
fresh  inundation  modifying  the  currents.  The  Taman  peninsula  is  everywhere 
studded  with  marshes  and  eriks,  or  false  rivers,  the  remains  of  former  freshets,  and 
with  river  beds  and  banks  showing  in  their  alluvial  strata  the  successive  levels  of 
the  stream.  Although  about  24  miles  broad,  the  whole  peninsula  is  frequently 
transformed  to  its  former  insular  condition  by  the  lakes  and  side  channels  of  the 
main  branch.  But  though  thus  surrounded  bj'  water,  this  is  not  a  lowland 
district,  for  it  consists  of  five  parallel  chains  of  hills,  occasionally  rising  480  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  separated  one  from  the  other  by  alluvial  tracts,  which  were 
formerly  inlets,  and  are  still  partly  covered  with  lakes. 

The  mud  volcanoes  of  the  Taman  peninsula  seem  to  have  been  at  one  time  far 
more  active  than  at  present.  They  run  exactly  in  the  line  of  the  axis  or  con- 
tinuation of  the  parallel  ridges,  and  it  was  in  the  same  line  that  a  volcanic  islet 
was  erupted  in  1799  near  the  town  of  Temruk.  This  mud  islet,  which  was 
about  1,330  feet  in  circumference,  with  an  elevation  of  13  feet  above  the  sea, 
soon  disappeared,  but  was  replaced  in  1814  by  a  second  cone,  which  remained 
some  time  above  the  surface.  These  mud  hills  of  the  Taman  peninsula  are 
amongst  the  most  remarkable  on  the  globe,  for  they  present  the  complete  succes- 
sion of  phenomena  from  the  simple  oozing  of  mud  to  distinct  volcanic  eruptions. 
The  Temruk  islet  is  said  to  have  vomited  smoke  and  flames  in  1799,  and  the 
Kuku-Oba,  or  "Blue  Hill,"  7  miles  north-west  of  Taman,  opened  its  crater  in 
1794,  ejecting  flames  and  fragments  of  frozen  earth  to  a  distance  of  over  half  a 
mile.  Other  volcanic  cones  cast  up  stones,  accompanied  by  argillaceous  muds, 
seaweed,  roots  of  rushes  and  other  aquatic  plants,  showing  that  they  evidently 
communicated  with  the  bed  of  the  limans  and  sea.  Formerly  numerous  frag- 
ments of  Greek  and  Scythian  pottery  were  found  amongst  the  erupted  matter, 
and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  cones.  In  explanation  of  this  fact  Pallas 
suggests  that  the  ancients  may  have  been  accustomed  to  throw  in  vases  and  other 
objects  as  ofi'erings  to  the  volcanoes. 

The  naphtha  springs  of  the  peninsula  and  north  side  of  Western  Caucasia 
also  run  in  the  line  of  the  mud  cones.  The  tertiary  lands  whose  clays  and  marls 
contain  this  valuable  substance  occupy  an  upheaved  area  of  at  least  620  square 
miles,  and  are  also  continued  under  the  limans.     Lake  Temruk  itself  contains  a 


54 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Fig.  24.— The  Kxiku-Oba  Mud  Volcano. 
According  to  Pallas.    Scale  1  :  23,000. 


small  quantity,  wliich,  however,  does  not  prevent  the  pike,  perch,  prawns,  and 
other  fish  from  living  in  its  waters.  Although  wells  have  been  sunk  only  in  the 
most  promising  sites,  the  results  have  been  so  far  quite  as  satisfactory  as  might  be 
expected.  The  works  were  begun  in  1866  in  the  Kuda-ko,  or  "Naphtha 
Valley,"  on  a  piece  of  ground  presented  by  the  Czar  to  one  of  his  generals. 
The  first  well  yielded  about  2,400  gallons  daily,  but  most  of  this  mineral  oil  was 
lost,  the  reservoir  having  been  swept  away  by  sudden  rains.  The  well  itself 
soon  ran  dry,  but  six  others  were  opened  in  1870,  which  jointly  yielded  62,000 
tons  a  year.     After  the  boring  the  jets  of  naphtha  often  rose  to  a  height  of 

50  feet  above  the  ground.  Were  the 
district  j)roperly  worked  and  con- 
nected by  rail  with  the  Anapa  coast 
and  Kuban  basin,  it  might  produce 
700,000,000  gallons  of  distilled  oil 
yearly. 


Inhabitants — The  Cherkesses. 

Few  regions  of  the  Old  World  have 
shifted  their  populations  more  fre- 
quently than  Western  Caucasia  and 
the  Kuban  basin.  Since  the  middle 
of  the  century  wars,  massacres,  and 
exile  have  caused  the  disappearance 
of  tribes  and  whole  nations  from  the 
valleys  limited  eastwards  by  the 
Elbruz,  where  they  have  been  replaced 
by  other  races.  The  course  of  history 
has  been  abruptly  arrested ;  traditions, 
languages,  dialects,  have  irrevocably 
perished,  nothing  remaining  in  the 
land  except  geographical  names  more 
or  less  distorted  in  the  untrained  mouth 
of  strangers. 
In  the  last  century  the  steppes  of  Circassia  were  still  mostly  peopled  by  the 
Cherkesses,  who  even  owned  grazing  lands  north  of  the  Kuma,  and  procured  their 
salt  from  the  lakes  in  the  Manich  depression.  In  1859  they  numbered  about 
500,000  in  Western  Caucasia,  and  even  in  1864,  after  the  wars  ending  in  the 
Russian  conquest,  they  were  still  estimated  at  300,000.  But  now  they  have 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  nationality  in  the  country,  and  in  all  Caucasia  they 
wUl  soon  be  represented  by  a  few  individuals  only.  The  Abkhasians  also  of  the 
Euxine  seaboard  and  southern  valleys  have  mostly  disappeared,  although  nomi- 
nally subjected  to  Russian  rule  since  1810,  and  treated  far  more  leniently  than 
the  Cherkesses.     They  were  reduced  from  about  150,000  in  1864  to  50,000  in 


CPecron 


1,650  Feet. 


INHABITAXTS— THE  CHEEKESSES.  55 

1877,  and  wtole  valleys  were  completely  deserted  when  oyer  20,000  emigrated 
in  mass  after  the  struggle  between  the  Eussians  and  Turks  for  the  possession  of 
Sukhum-Kaleh  during  the  late  war.  Their  place  has  been  partially  supplied  by- 
Russians,  and  the  sites  of  their  former  habitations  are  now  known  only  by  romantic 
graveyards  overgrown  with  the  wild  plum,  apple,  pear,  and  vine. 

Vanquished  by  the  armies  of  Nicholas,  the  Adigheh,  or  Cherkesses  of  the 
northern  slopes  and  Upper  Kuban  valleys,  preferred  exile  to  permanent  subjec- 
tion to  the  Russian  yoke,  76,000  alone  accepting  the  conditions  offered  them  by 
the  Russians.  Happy  to  be  rid  of  such  enemies,  the  Government  hastened  to 
facilitate  their  departure,  and  their  exodus  ended  in  wholesale  transportation.  A 
proclamation  issued  in  1864,  after  the  last  battle,  ordered  all  the  Adigheh  "  to 
quit  their  valleys  "  within  a  month's  time  under  pain  of  being  treated  as  prisoners 
of  war.  The  order  was  obeyed,  and  over  four-fifths  of  the  people  were  driven  at 
the  point  of  the  sword  from  valley  to  valley  until  they  found  refuge  in  Anatolia, 
Cyprus,  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  other  parts  of  Turkey.  Thus  were  260,000 
transported  by  sea  to  the  temporary  depots  at  Trebizond,  Samsun,  and  Sinope 
during  the  first  six  months  of  1864,  and  according  to  the  ofiicial  returns  398,000 
Cherkesses  emigrated  between  1858  and  1864.  It  is  easy  to  understand  what  the 
sufferings  and  mortality  must  have  been  of  these  refugees,  crowded  on  board  small 
craft,  or  exposed  in  wretched  hovels  to  hunger,  cold,  and  hardships  of  every  sort. 
In  many  places  more  than  half  had  perished  of  starvation  or  disease  a  few  months 
after  quitting  their  homes.  And  even  on  reaching  the  districts  assigned  to  them, 
thej-  found  themselves  surrounded  by  hostile  populations,  of  diffei'ent  race,  speech, 
religion,  and  customs.  They  themselves  assumed  the  air  of  conquerors,  con- 
tinuing their  warlike  or  predatory  habits,  and  seizing  with  the  sword  the  fruits  of 
the  plough.  The  exUe  of  the  Cherkesses  was  disastrous  alike  to  them  and  to  those 
with  whom  they  were  thrown. 

Although  but  few  Cherkesses  survive  in  the  Caucasus,  they  have  so  long  been 
regarded  as  typical  of  the  Caucasian  tribes  generally,  and  they  have  exercised  so 
much  influence  on  those  who  have  not  yet  emigrated,  that  they  require  to  be 
studied  as  they  existed  before  the  exodus  of  1864.  At  that  time  their  determined 
resistance  to  the  Russian  invader  had  earned  for  them  the  reputation  of  being 
one  of  the  most  heroic  peoples  on  the  globe.  Their  chivalrous  traditions,  the 
patriarchal  simpHcitj^  of  their  habits,  their  physical  beauty  and  symmetry  of  form, 
rendered  them  unquestionably  the  foremost  race  in  the  Caucasus,  so  that  their 
name  came  to  be  often  applied  in  a  general  way  to  all  the  highland  tribes. 
Unfortunately  they  lived  only  for  war,  and  the  verj-  word  Cherkess  was  usually 
explained  to  mean  "Brigands,"  "Banditti,"  or  "Highwaymen,"  although  it 
more  probably  derives  from  the  Kerketes  of  Strabo.  Strangers  find  extreme 
difiiculty  in  pronouncing  their  rude  and  guttural  language,  and  in  their  warlike 
expeditions  they  are  said  to  have  made  use  of  a  peculiar  dialect. 

The  Cherkesses  belong  probably  to  the  same  stock  as  the  Georgians,  Lezghlans, 
Chechenzes,  and  other  mixed  or  non- Aryan  tribes  of  Caucasia.  Mostly  very 
handsome,  they  are  tall,  slim,  and  broad-shouldered,  with  oval  features,   light 


56  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

complexion,  bright  eyes,  abundant  hair,  mostly  black,  but  occasionally  also 
chestnut  and  fair.  Both  sexes  consider  obesity  and  other  physical  defects  as 
disoraceful,  and  those  who  are  so  afflicted  abstain  from  appearing  at  the  public 
feasts  and  popular  gatherings.  Regarding  beauty  as  the  privilege  of  their  race, 
they  seldom  intermarried  with  aliens.  Their  dress,  of  a  remarkably  elegant  type, 
is  admirably  suited  to  these  erect  and  pliant  figures,  and  has  accordingly  become  a 
sort  of  national  costume  for  all  the  Caucasians,  including  even  the  Russian  Cossacks 
and  the  peaceful  Jews,  who  are  sometimes  found  wearing  the  cherJceuM,  with  its 
cartouch  pouch,  in.  their  case  "  more  ornamental  than  useful." 

Like  the  Albanians  of  the  Pindus  highlands,  with  whom  they  present  many 
points  of  resemblance,  the  Cherkesses  regard  the  vendetta  as  the  supreme  law. 
Blood  demands  blood,  and  the  murderer  must  die,  unless  he  purchase  redemption, 
or  succeed  in  kidnapping  a  child  from  the  family  of  his  enemy,  in  order  to  bring 
it  up  as  his  own,  and  then  restore  it  to  the  paternal  home.  Family  feuds  lasted 
for  geuerations  ;  yet,  unlike  his  Svanian  neighbour,  the  Cherkess  scorned  to  lurk 
in  stone  houses,  but,  trusting  to  his  strong  arm,  resided  only  in  slightly  constructed 
wooden  huts.  Vengeance,  however,  was  never  exacted  in  the  presence  of  women, 
sacred  beings,  who  might  with  a  gesture  arrest  the  hand  of  the  slayer,  and  who 
yet  belonged  themselves  to  fathers  or  husbands  claiming  the  right  to  kill  them 
with  impunity.  According  to  the  old  custom,  the  young  man  seized  by  force  his 
intended  bride.  The  daughter  of  the  Cherkess  knew  beforehand  that  she  must 
quit  the  paternal  home  either  by  a  real  or  feigned  abduction,  or  else  be  sold  in 
foreign  lands ;  yet  such  is  the  force  of  habit,  that  the  thought  of  exile  and  the  life 
of  the  harem  seldom  caused  her  any  dread.  Traditionally,  however,  they  con- 
fidently expected  that  their  beauty,  good  manners,  and  poetic  language  would 
insure  to  them  the  position  of  legitimate  wives  of  distinguished  persons.  The 
boys,  on  the  other  hand,  were  generally  brought  up,  not  by  their  parents,  but  by 
an  atalik,  or  "teacher,"  chosen  especially  for  his  physical  and  moral  qualities,  his 
courage,  politeness,  eloquence,  skill  in  arms  and  horsemanship.  When  his 
education  was  over  the  young  man  returned  to  his  home,  but  never  ceased  to 
regard  the  atalik  as  a  true  father.  Thanks  to  the  care  thus  taken  in  their 
education,  the  Cherkesses  claimed  to  have  become  "  the  most  polite  people  in  the 
world." 

Although  proud  of  their  national  freedom,  they  were  not  all  equal  amongst 
themselves.  Yet,  while  forming  three  castes  of  princes,  of  nobles  reduced  bj' 
intestine  feuds,  and  the  simple  peasantry,  all  were  grouped  in  feush,  or  "brother- 
hoods," and  it  was  these  associations  of  men  devoted  to  each  other  unto  death  that 
rendered  their  resistance  so  formidable  to  the  Russians.  The  authority  of  the 
nobles  prevailed  mostly  in  the  plains,  where  they  had  in  some  places  succeeded  in 
establishing  a  quasi-feudal  system.  But  their  peasantry  fled  to  the  highland 
Cherkesses  for  protection.  Hence  the  incessant  wars,  resulting  in  the  defeat  of 
the  nobles,  many  of  whom  adopted  the  fatal  policy  of  applying  to  strangers  for 
aid.  Below  the  three  classes  of  freemen  there  were  the  slaves,  consisting  exclu- 
sively of  refugees  and  prisoners  of  war.     The  will  of  the  freemen  expressed  in  the 


THE  ABKHASIANS  AND  COSSACES.  57 

public  gatherings  had  the  force  of  law,  and  the  princes  and  nobles  constituted  the 
executive.  The  priests,  though  ranking  with  the  lords,  had  but  little  influence, 
for,  owing  to  the  confusions  of  creeds,  the  Cherkesses  were  at  once  pagans, 
Christians,  and  Mohammedans.  As  pagans  they  worshipped  Shibleh,  god  of 
thunder,  war,  and  justice,  and  to  him  after  the  victory  were  sacrificed  the  fairest 
of  the  flock.  They  venerated  the  tree  blasted  by  lightning,  beneath  which  the 
criminal  found  a  safe  refuge.  The  gods  of  the  air,  water,  woodlands,  fruit  trees, 
and  herds,  all  animated  by  the  breath  of  the  Great  Spirit,  had  also  their  special 
worship,  and  received  offerings,  if  only  a  few  drops  solemnly  poured  out  from  the 
goblet.  To  soothe  the  stormy  sea,  and  induce  it  to  spare  the  mariner,  mother, 
wife,  or  betrothed  committed  her  votive  offerings  to  the  mountain  torrent,  by 
which  they  were  borne  to  the  Euxine,  whose  response  was  the  soughing  of  the 
winds  and  the  banking  up  of  the  clouds. 

Such  was  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Cherkesses ;  but  till  the  latter  half  of  tho 
eighteenth  century  the  nobles  mostly  claimed  to  be  Christians,  and  worshipped  in 
the  chapels,  whose  ruins  are  still  met  here  and  there  on  the  hill-tops.  But  the 
Sheikh  Mansur,  whom  the  Russians  afterwards  sent  to  die  in  the  island  of 
Solovetz,  in  the  White  Sea,  made  nearly  all  his  countrymen  Sunnite  Moham- 
medans. The  influence  of  the  Crimean  khans  worked  in  the  same  direction,  and  the 
faith  of  Islam  became  more  and  more  intensified  according  as  hatred  of  the 
Christian  Muscovite  invaders  increased.  Nevertheless  certain  Moslem  practices, 
especially  polygamy,  were  not  generally  introduced,  and  the  old  family  life  held 
its  ground.  In  religious  zeal  neither  the  Cherkesses  nor  other  western  high- 
landers  are  to  be  compared  with  the  Kara-chai,  or  "  Black  River  "  Tatars  of  the 
southern  Kuban  valleys,  west  of  Mount  Elbruz,  who  are  strict  Mohammedans, 
engaged  in  trade,  and  as  intermediaries  between  the  northern  and  southern 
Caucasian  tribes. 

The  Abkhasiaxs  and  Cossacks. 

The  Abkhasians,  who  still  retain  in  a  slightly  modified  form  the  name  of 
Abazes,  by  which  they  were  known  to  the  Greeks,  call  themselves  Absua,  or 
"  People."  Before  the  great  emigrations  they  occupied  nearly  all  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Caucasus  between  the  Ingur  and  Bzib  valleys,  and  at  certain  points 
encroached  on  the  Cherkess  territory  on  the  opposite  slope.  Their  speech 
resembles  that  of  the  Adigheh,  but  they  differ  greatly  from  them  in  appearance 
and  customs.  The  Absua  are  shorter,  of  browner  complexion  and  blacker  hair 
than  the  Cherkesses,  and  their  featufes  are  mostly  irregular,  with  a  harsh,  wild 
expression.  Hence  slaves  of  this  race  commanded  no  more  than  half  the  price  of 
their  Circassian  neighbours.  Though  of  less  chivalrous  appearance,  like  them 
they  preferred  to  live  by  the  sword,  or  scour  the  sea  as  corsairs.  Before  the 
Euxine  had  become  a  "  Russian  lake,"  their  long  gaUeys,  impelled  by  oar  or  sail, 
and  with  crews  of  from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  men,  ventured  along  all  the 
shores  of  Anatolia,  the  Crimea,  and  European  Turkey.  Many  also  took  service  or 
became  slaves  in  Egj'pt,  where  they  were  numerously  represented  amongst  tlie 


58 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Mamelukes,  and  where  not  a  few  celebrities  were  natives  of  some  upland  Abkhasian 
valley.  Like  tbe  Cherkesses,  they  formed  warlike  confederacies  with  their  princes, 
nobles,  and  freemen,  leaving  to  slaves  the  hardships  of  field  operations.  Some 
were  still  unacquainted  with  money  before  the  Russian  rule,  exchanges  being 
usually  effected  by  a  cow,  whose  calves  represented  the  interest.  It  thus  some- 
times happened  that  after  a  few  years  a  small  loan  had  to  bo  repaid  by  a  whole 
herd.  But  in  1867  this  primitive  mode  of  usury  was  replaced  by  that  which  is  in 
vogue  amongst  "  civilised  "  nations.  Like  the  Cherkessians  also,  they  were  still 
pagans  in  thought,  while  retaining  the  traces  of  the  old  Christian  worship  in  their 
Moslem  creed.  Thus  they  respected  churches  and  the  cross,  eat  pork,  and 
brought  to  their  temples  votive  oflPerings  of  arms,  coats  of  mail,  or  garments. 
Even  now  a  chapel,  traditionally  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  St.  Paul  on  an 

offshoot  of  the  Marukh,  is  one  of  their 
Fig.  25.— Abkhasian  Type.  chief  places  of  pilgrimage.     But   the 

most  revered  temple  was  still  the  forest, 
where  they  loved  to  pronounce  their 
solemn  vows,  and  suspend  their  offer- 
ings on  the  branches  of  the  sacred  oak. 
Here  were  also  formerly  placed  the 
coffins  of  their  dead,  in  the  belief  that 
the  gaseous  explosions  would  cause  the 
demons  to  respect  their  repose.  They  pay 
extreme  devotion  to  the  departed,  and 
their  burial-places  are  far  better  cared 
for  than  the  dwellings  of  the  living. 

Several  thousand  Abkhasians  still 
occupy  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Southern 
Caucasus,  whereas  the  Adigheh  have 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  nationality 
on  the  opposite  slopes.  Here  the 
Kara-chai  alone  have  succeeded  in 
hitherto  resisting  the  advancing  Muscovite  element.  Elsewhere  the  Russians  are 
encroaching  incessantly  on  the  domain  of  the  now  subdued  highlanders.  The 
natives  of  the  Caucasus  formerly  looked  towards  the  south  as  the  source  of 
civilisation,  and  they  received  mainly  from  Georgia  their  arms,  costly  stuffs,  and 
letters.  Now  they  are  fain  to  turn  towards  the  north,  whence  come  the  ukases, 
the  armies,  and  the  colonists  destined  one  day  to  absorb  them.  Great  Russians, 
Little  Russians,  Cossacks  of  both  branches,  take  part  in  this  migratory  movement, 
to  which  the  Government  has  imparted  a  distinctly  military  character  by  organ- 
izing the  settlers  in  companies,  battalions,  and  regiments.  All  Western  Caucasia 
may  be  said  to  be  already  Russian.  Bohemian  colonists  also,  who  have  received 
allotments  in  Circassia,  are  gradually  amalgamating  with  the  conquering  race,  and 
the  number  of  Slav  immigrants  in  the  Adigheh  territory  has  already  long 
surpassed  that  of  the  natives. 


THE  ABKHASIANS  AND  COSSACKS. 


69 


The  plains  of  the  Lower  Kuban  and  Taman  peninsula  have  been  more  subject 
than  most  regions  to  successive  changes  of  population,  unaccompanied  by  any 
appreciable  mingling  of  races.  The  affinities  can  no  longer  be  determined  of  the 
builders  of  the  dolmens  scattered  over  the  peninsula  and  neighbouring  lands,  but 
elsewhere  unknown  in  Caucasia.  These  dolmens  are  distinguished  from  those  of 
other  countries  by  the  circular  opening  in  the  anterior  slab,  large  enough  to  allow 
of  a  child's  head  being  passed  through.  The  history  of  the  Kuban  valley  does 
not  embrace  these  monuments  of  the  age  of  iron,  for  it  reaches  back  scarcely  more 
than  ten  centuries,  to  a  time  when  this  region  was  occupied  by  the  Khazars  and 
Polovtzi,  a  remnant  of  whom  were  the  Kumans,  who  settled  in  Hungary. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century  the  Eussian  colony  of  Tmutarakan  had 
already  been  established  in  the  Taman  district,  where  they  had  formed  relations 

Fig.  26.— Cossack  Sextixel. 


with  other  Russian  settlers  in  the  Crimea.  The  chronicles  describe  their  struggles 
with  the  Yasses  and  Kosogs,  predecessors  of  the  Cherkesses,  and  an  inscribed 
stone  found  near  Taman,  and  now  in  the  Hermitage  Museum,  St.  Petersburg, 
bears  witness  to  the  advanced  state  of  civilisation  of  the  early  Russian  settlers  in 
this  region.  But  they  were  not  numerous  enough  to  hold  their  ground  in  the 
midst  of  hostile  populations,  and  the  country  was  afterwards  occupied  by  Tatar 
tribes  under  Mongol  priaces.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  other 
Russians  made  their  appearance,  not  as  enemies,  but  as  refugees,  in  this  region. 
These  were  the  I^ekrasovtzi  Cossacks,  who  preferred  the  rule  of  the  Crimean  Khan  to 
that  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  who  were  afterwards  joined  by  numerous  Raskolniks 
from  various  parts  of  the  empire.  The  country  was  thus  soon  repeopled  by  Russians, 
who   cultivated  the   soil,   established   fisheries   on  the  rivers   and   lagoons,  and 


60  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

introduced  the  flue  TJkranian  cattle  since  propagated  in  the  Transcaucasian 
provinces.  But  these  industrious  settlers,  falling  under  the  Czar's  displeasure, 
were  compelled  to  seek  refuge  first  amongst  the  Cherkesses,  and  afterwards  in 
Asiatic  and  European  Turkey.  Most  of  them  became  ultimately  absorbed  in  the 
surrounding  Moslem  populations.  They  were  succeeded  by  some  two  thousand 
I^ogai  Tatar  families  from  the  Crimea,  who  were  in  their  turn  removed  in  mass 
by  the  Russian  conquerors  to  the  steppes  west  of  the  Don. 

Henceforth  the  country  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  empire,  and  was 
disposed  of  at  the  pleasure  of  Catherine  and  her  all-powerful  minister,  Potomkin. 
The  unfortunate  Lower  Dnieper  Cossacks,  after  many  vicissitudes,  were  trans- 
ferred, in  1793,  to  the  marshy  wastes  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kuban.  Numbering 
17,000  fighting-men,  they  were  at  first  well  received  by  the  Cherkesses,  but  soon 
changed  from  friends  to  foes  and  conquerors.  The  war  of  conquest  was  a  war  of 
surprises.  Eedoubts,  watch-towers,  and  fortified  stanitzas  were  established  at  all 
strategical  points  along  the  Kuban,  and  to  guard  against  the  enemy  lurking  in  its 
sedgy  banks  there  were  formed  those  formidable  phutunt  which  became  the  terror 
of  the  Cherkess  outposts  in  the  protracted  border  warfare.  During  these 
conflicts  the  Cossacks  became  gradually  assimilated  in  manners,  habits,  and  dress 
to  the  highland  Caucasians,  from  whom  they  could  not  always  be  easily  distin- 
guished. 

Hand  in  hand  with  this  hostile  struggle  of  some  seventy  years,  the  Cossacks 
maintained  another  against  the  outward  surrounding,  which  is  still  far  from 
concluded.  At  their  arrival  towns,  villages,  canals,  highways,  everything  had 
disappeared.  The  process  of  resettlement  also  progressed  very  slowly  In  steppe 
lands,  partly  destitute  of,  partly  covered  by  water.  In  the  Kuban  delta,  where 
fever  is  endemic,  the  rate  of  mortaKty  is  very  high,  in  some  years  often  greatly 
exceeding  that  of  the  births.  On  an  average  one-third  of  the  children  die  in  the 
first  year,  and  half  the  generation  has  disappeared  between  the  third  and  fifth 
years. 

Topography. 

Here  there  are  no  large  towns.  Emigration  has  carried  off  most  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  constant  wars  have  laid  waste  the  lands,  the  absence  of  roads 
prevents  the  transport  of  produce  to  the  coast,  and  the  coast  itself  is  still 
unhealthy,  and  nearly  destitute  of  sheltered  havens.  Thus  are  neutralised  the 
great  advantages  of  a  region  which  is,  nevertheless,  yet  destined  to  become  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  in  the  Old  World.  Even  Sitkhum-Kakh,  guarding  Its 
southern  approach,  although  chief  town  of  a  military  district,  and  notwithstanding 
its  deep  and  safe  harbour.  Is  still  an  insignificant  place.  Yet  it  is  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  Hellenic  town  dedicated  by  the  Milesians,  some  thirty -two 
centuries  ago,  to  the  Dioscuri,  and  afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  Sebastopol. 
The  ruins  of  a  Greek  city,  with  its  streets,  open  spaces,  and  the  foundations  of  its 
buildings,  are  still  partly  visible  at  a  depth  of  several  yards  in  the  Sukhum-Kaleh 
waters  ;  the  remains  of  canals,  roads,  and  ancient  structures  may  be  traced  in  the 


TOPOaEAPHY. 


61 


neiglibourliood  ;  and  the  debris  of  Greek  monuments  were  utilised  by  the  Turks  to 
rebuikl,  in  1787,  the  fortress  of  Sukhum,  after  it  had  been  destroyed  with  the  town 
in  1777.  The  imports  and  exports  of  the  place  have  never  in  the  best  years 
amounted  to  £40,000  ;  but  the  dolphin  fishery  is  productive,  and  in  1872  as  many 
as  3,800  were  taken  in  the  harbour  alone. 

The  village  of  Pitzunda,  the  Pythius  of  the  Byzantines,  was  also  at  one  time 
an  important  town,  as  is  evident  from  the  ruins  iu  the  neighbourhood.  A 
Byzantine  church  restored  by  the  Eussians  is  said  to  lave  been  built  by 
Justinian  in  551.  It  was  to  the  monastery  of  this  place  that  the  exiled  St. 
Chrysostora  withdrew  when  overtaken  by  death  in  407.  It  afterwards  became 
the  chief  Genoese  trading  station  on  this  coast,  and  from  it  most  of  the  Italian 
traders   and  missionaries    set   out,  who  have  left  in    the  "Western  Caucasus  so 


Fig.  27. — Valley  of  the  Bzib. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1 :  850,000. 


CPerroti 


la  Miles. 


many  traces  of  their  presence — churches,  watch-towers,  coins,  arms.  Many  of  the 
latter,  inscribed  with  Latin  or  French  legends,  were  still  met  with  down  to  the 
middle  of  the  present  century  in  these  highlands. 

Beyond  Pitzunda  follow  the  old  forts  of  Gagri,  Adler  or  Ardiller  (Arduvach), 
and  others.  Farther  on  is  the  deep  and  well-sheltered  roadstead  of  Twcqtse,  at 
present  a  mere  hamlet,  but  destined  probably  to  become  the  chief  trading-place 
on  this  seaboard.  Meantime,  Novo-Iiossiisk,  or  Sujuk,  is  the  first  town  on  the 
coast  near  the  extremity  of  the  Caucasus.  It  does  a  considerable  trade,  although 
the  roadstead,  like  the  neighbouring  Bay  of  Gelenjik,  is  exposed  to  the  north-east 
gales.  The  old  Turkish  town  of  Aiuipa  lies  on  a  still  more  dangerous  spot. 
Thrice  taken  by  the  Russians,  it  was  temporarily  suppressed  in  1860  in  favour  of 
Temruk,  administrative  capital  of  the  Taman  peninsula.     At  that  time  Temruk 

VOL.    VI.  F 


62 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


was  a  simple  Cossack  stanitza  on  a  hill  250  feet  high,  in  the  centre  of  the  isthmus 
stretching  between  two  lagoons  connected  with  the  Xuban.  In  its  -v-icinity  are 
the  chief  mud  volcanoes  of  the  Taman  peninsula,  forming  five  distinct  groups 
of  about  a  hundred  altogether.  For  some  years  past  the  mud  has  been  applied  to 
the  treatment  of  rheumatic  complaints.  The  village  of  Taman,  which  gives  its 
name  to  the  peninsiJa,  lies  near  the  strait  facing  Kertch  and  Yeni-Kaleh,  and  a 
little  south-west  of  the  fortress  of  Phanagoria,  which  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
Greek  city  of  that  name. 

The  stanitzas  founded  by  the  Cossacks  in  the  districts  watered  by  the  Kuban 
and  its  tributaries  have  over  the  coast  villages  the  advantage  of  lying  at  the 
junctions  of  the  natural  routes  across  the  steppes.  Several  have  grown  into  real 
towns,  although  the  houses  still  remain  scattered   over  a   large  area.     In   the 


Fig.  28.— The  Tamax  PEXixscLi.. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Sta£E.    Scale  1 : 1,100,000. 


C  Perrofi 


0  to  10  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feel. 


32  Feet  and  upwards. 
12  AUles. 


province  of  Xuban  alone  there  are  no  less  than  146,  each  with  upwards  of  2,000 
inhabitants,  a  vast  number  considering  the  short  period  since  the  colonisation 
began.  In  1872  the  population  of  the  Kuban  territory  rose  from  672,000  to 
733,000,  and,  as  the  normal  excess  of  births  over  deaths  was  only  6,000  or  7,000, 
the  immigration  could  not  have  been  less  than  54,000.  But  such  a  rapid  move- 
ment, directed  without  system  towards  marshy  lands,  necessarily  entails  fatal 
consequences  on  many  of  the  new  arrivals,  more  especially  as  the  best  tracts  are 
already  occupied  by  high  officials  and  members  of  the  imperial  family.  Between 
1860  and  1870  over  325,000  acres  were  thus  disposed  of  in  the  province  of  Kuban 
and  government  of  Stavropol. 

The  Cossacks  do  not  distribute  the  land  in  separate  holdings.      "  Together  we 
conquered  it,"  they  say,  "together  we  have  defended  it ;  it  belongs  to  all  of  us." 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


63 


The  commune  decides  every  year  how  the  several  districts  are  to  be  cultivated, 
and  market- garden  plots  alone  are  held  as  private  property.  Still  the  officers, 
being  no  longer  elected  by  their  Cossack  comrades,  have  received  with  their 
commission  parcels  of  land,  or  li-Judors,  intended  to  enhance  their  pi-estige.  The 
example  of  the  superior  officers  was  soon  followed  by  other  dignitaries,  and  the 
stanitzas  thus  became  surrounded  by  khutors,  from  which  the  herds  of  the  com- 
monalty were  excluded.  In  1842  the  Government  proceeded  with  the  regular 
distribution  of  the  land  according  to  the  rank  of  the  holders — 4,090  acres  for 


Fig.  29. — Vallets  of  Euosion  in  the  Kuban  Basdi. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Eussian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  750,000. 


EofG 


40°50 


•41  20 


12  Miles. 


C  Perron 


generals,  1,090  for  superior  officers,  545  for  subalterns,  82  for  siraijle  Cossacks. 
The  allotments  of  the  soldiers,  constituting  the  communal  domain,  were  thus  cut 
up  into  small  fragments,  and  the  peasantry  proteated  in  vain  against  a  distribution 
so  entirely  opposed  to  their  interests.  Of  late  years  the  Shalopiits  and  other 
sectarian  communities  have  acquired  a  great  development  in  this  region,  the 
habits  of  co-operation  giving  them  exceptional  strength,  and  enabling  them  to 
succeed  where  others  fail. 

The  most  populous  villages  are  found  in  the  fertile  valleys  formed  by  erosion 
in  the  limestone  terrace  facing  the  Caucasus.     The  most  important  of  the  stanitzas 

F  2 


64  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

lying  at  the  very  foot  of  the  Caucasian  spurs  is  Maikop,  formerly  a  first-class 
strategic  point,  now  a  chief  mart  for  the  produce  of  the  whole  country.  In  the 
Kubau  valley  are  also  the  trading  towns  of  Batalpasliinskaija ;  Nikolayev&kaga, 
near  the  Karakent  coal  mines ;  Ladovskaya ;  and  Tekaterinodar.  The  last  named,  now 
capital  of  the  province  of  Kuban,  does  a  considerable  trade,  and  at  its  September 
fairs,  frequented  by  25,000  of  the  peasantry,  the  exchanges  amount  to  about 
2,000,000  roubles.  Tckk,  founded  since  1848,  has  had  a  rapid  development, 
thanks  to  its  free  trade  and  productive  fisheries,  and  although  its  progress  has  been 
less  marked  since  its  privileges  have  ceased,  it  still  remains  the  most  populous  town 
on  the  Caucasian  seaboard. 

Stavropol,  capital  of  the  government  of  like  name,  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
2,000  feet  on  one  of  the  advanced  terraces  flanking  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus. 
Founded  as  a- mere  fort  in  1776,  it  long  remained  without  any  importance  except 
as  a  strategical  position  on  the  line  of  the  ten  fortresses  guarding  the  plains  of 
Ciscaucasia  between  the  Don  delta  and  the  town  of  Mozdok.  But  thanks  to  the 
fertile  lands  by  which  it  is  surrounded,  it  has  now  become  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing places  in  Russia.  North  of  it  stretch  a  number  of  populous  villages  in 
the  Yegorlik  and  Sredniy-Yegorlik  valleys,  founded  chiefly  by  peasantry  from  the 
centre  of  Russia ;  hence  forming  not  stanitzas,  but  selos,  a  circumstance  which 
explains  the  difference  of  terminations  presented  by  the  names  of  villages  in  the 
Kuban  and  Yegorlik  basins. 


HI.— CENTRAL   CAUCASUS. 

KUMA  AND  TEREK  BASINS. 


Between  Mounts  Elbruz  and  Kazbek  the  main  range  rises  for  a  distance  of 
108  miles  above  the  snow-line.  At,  certain  intervals  side  ridges,  with  the  summits 
of  the  range,  form  huge  masses  towering  like  glittering  citadels  of  ice  above  the 
surrounding  highlands.  The  Elbruz,  with  its  counterforts,  constitutes  the  most 
imposing  of  these  masses  in  the  Caucasus.  It  is  the  "  Holy  Mountain  "  of  the 
Cherkesses,  on  whose  snowy  peak  is  enthroned  the  "  Lord  of  the  "World,  Kino- 
of  Spirits."  The  Adish,  Kashtan-tau,  and  Dikh-tau  also  form  a  sort  of  promontory 
projecting  beyond  the  main  range,  and  succeeded  farther  east  by  a  similar 
group  consisting  of  the  Adai-kokh,  Tzea-kokh,  and  neighbouring  mountains. 
Immediately  east  of  this  group  the  chain  is  broken  by  the  deep  gap  through 
which  flows  the  Ar-don ;  but  the  gorge  is  blocked  by  a  ridge  running  parallel 
with  the  main  axis,  and  culminating  with  Mount  Zikari.  In  the  same  way 
the  Zilga-kokh  stands  at  the  southern  entrance  of  the  depression  formed  by 
the  torrents  flowing  between  the  masses  culminating  respectively  with  the  Tepli 
and  Kazbek.  The  latter,  which  is  the  Mkinvari  of  the  Georgians,  and  Urs-kokh, 
or  "  White  Mountain,"  of  the  Ossetes,  is  still  more  venerated  than  Mount  Elbruz, 
thanks  probably  to  its  position  near  the  gate  of  the  Caucasus,  now  known  as  the 


EIVEE  SYSTEMS— KLTMA  BASIN. 


65 


Darial  Pass.  Here  is  the  celebrated  grotto,  whence  the  hermits  could  ascend,  by 
means  of  an  iron  chain,  to  the  "  Cradle  of  Bethlehem  "  and  "  Abraham's  Tent," 
as  the  Kazbek  peak  is  variously  known  to  the  native  Christians.* 

River  Systems — Kuua  Basix. 

The  counterforts  and  terraces  falling  from  the  snowy  crest  of  the  Caucasus 
form  the  various  chains  of  the  "  Black  Mountains,"  beyond  which  they  develop 


Fig.  30. — PASSANAlhl,   ox  THE  TlFLtS-VLADIKAVKiZ   EoCIE. 


into  a  vast  semicircle  round  the  Kabarda  plains,  terminating  northwards  with 
the  isolated  mass  of  the  Besh-tau.     Here  the  streams  converge  towards  the  centre 

*  Mean  height  of  the  Caucasus  hetween  the  Elbruz  (18,820  feet)  and  Adai-kokh  (15,485  feet), 
1 2,670  feet.     Chief  peaks  :— 


Feet. 

Zikari 10,430 

Zilga-kokh 12,840 

Tepli     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         f4,000 


Mamisson  Pass 
Krestovaya  Gora 
Besh-tau 


Feet. 
9,540 
7,542 
4,670 


C6 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


of  the  amphitheatre,  like  the  Alpine  torrents  collected  in  the  plains  of  Piedmont, 
and  thus  is  formed  the  Terek,  the  Po  of  the  Caucasus,  flowing  thence  in  a  swift 
and  copious  stream  towards  the  Caspian.  Still  the  waters  descending  from  the 
more  advanced  spurs  of  the  Caucasus  do  not  join  the  Terek,  hut  drain  through 
the  Kalaus  and  Kuraa  north  and  north-eastwards  to  the  steppes. 

The  Kalaus  is  a  true  steppe  river.  With  the  melting  of  the  snows  in  spring 
it  overflows  its  hanks  far  and  wide;  in  summer  its  stream  contracts  more  and 
more  as  it  recedes  from  the  hQls,  and  at  last  runs  quite  dry  before   reaching 


Fig.  31. — The  Eleriz  Group. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Eussian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  430,000. 


C  Perron 


9  Miles. 


the  Mantch  depression.  It  also  presents  the  remarkable  phenomenon  of  a  double 
discharge  in  the  direction  of  the  Eusine  and  Caspian.  Entering  the  Manich 
depression  at  the  watcr-jsarting,  its  floods,  arrested  and  divided  into  two  streams 
by  a  small  eminence,  are  diverted  west  to  the  Manich  of  the  Don,  east  to  that 
which  flows  to  the  Kuma  delta.  Steep  banks  enclose  a  bed  2  to  3  miles  wide, 
bearing  witness  to  its  former  importance.  But  in  this  space,  large  enough  to  con- 
tain the  waters  of  the  Nile  or  Rhone,  nothing  now  flows  except  a  sluggish  stream 
winding  its  way  from  marsh  to  marsh  through  its  sedgy  channel. 


EIYEE  SYSTEMS -KUMA  BASIN. 


67 


The  Kuma  basin  is  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  Kalaus,  and  the  streams 
by  which  it  is  -watered  flow  from  more  elevated  ground,  some  of  them  from  moun- 
tains covered  with  snow  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  On  issuing  from  its 
upper  valley  the  Kuma  is  already  a  copious  river ;  but  after  receiving  its  last 
regular  affluent,  150  miles  from  the  Caspian,  it  gradually  contracts  as  it  winds 
through  the  steppe.  A  portion  of  its  waters  is  evaporated,  and  the  rest  is  diverted 
right  and  left  to  the  pastures  of  the  Nogai  Tatars  and  Kalmuks.  It  often  happens 
that  about  60  miles  above  its  former  mouth  the  last  drop  is  turned  aside  by  the 
dams  of  the  natives.  At  one  time  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  Kuma  basin  was 
much  greater  than  at  present,  and  a  delta  began  at  the  point  where  the  river  now 


Fig.  32. — Ramification  of  the  Kalaus. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  620,000. 


A  '  vi,  •■  •*..--.?-:- A>t:.,.,^  Ac- •"•■ 


LoFQ. 


43°50- 


44=20 


Kurgans. 


C   Perron 


_».  12  Miles. 


runs  dry.  The  northern  branch  flowed  to  the  Western  Manich,  whose  bed  is  now 
replaced  by  the  lakes  and  tarns  of  the  Huiduk,  strung  together  like  pearls  on  a 
necldace.  The  two  other  branches  of  the  Kuma,  also  indicated  by  fens,  pools, 
and  channels,  run  nearly  parallel  towards  a  bay  in  the  Caspian  still  known  as  the 
Kumskiy  Proran,  or  "Mouth  of  the  Kuma."  Exceptionally  high  floods  occa- 
sionally sweep  away  the  dams  constructed  by  the  Nogai  Tatars,  and  the  lower  beds 
are  then  temporarily  flushed,  as  in  1879,  when  the  yellow  waters  of  the  Kuma 
again  reached  the  Caspian. 

Neither  the  Kuma  nor  the  Kalaus  discharges  water  sufficient  to  feed  a  Ponto- 
Caspian  canal,  and  even  if  such  a  project  wore  carried  out,  Serebrakovskaya,  the 


68  ASIATIC  EITSSIA. 

intended  port  of  the  Kuma,  would  be  inaccessible  to  vessels  drawing  more  tban 
2  feet  of  water,  while  those  drawing  over  4  feet  could  not  approach  within  4  miles 
of  the  place. 

The  Terek. 

The  Terek  is  not  one  of  those  rivers  which,  like  the  Manich  and  Kuma,  run 
out  before  reaching  the  sea.  Its  chief  sources  rise  in  a  cirque  about  8,300  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  it  is  already  a  large  stream  before  issuing  from  the  region  of 


Fig.  33.  —Delta  axd  Flooded  Districts  of  the  Lower  Terek. 
According  to  Litvinov.    Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


r.ofG    46° 20 


47'QO- 


C  PerrOf* 


a^ 


Old  Beds  of  the  Terek. 


Flooded  Lands. 


Bursting  of  the  Dyke.    Terek  Delta  in  1841 . 
.  16  Maes. 


snows  and  upland  pastures.  After  skirting  the  Kazbek  group  on  the  south  and 
west,  it  flows  from  basin'  to  basin  through  a  series  of  gorges  down  to  the  plains 
below  Vladikavkaz.  At  the  foot  of  a  vast  declivity  fiUing  the  bed  of  an  old  lake 
it  collects  the  waters  of  the  Gusel-don,  Fiag-don,  Ar-don,  and  several  other  rapid 
streams,  beyond  which  it  is  joined  by  the  Urukh,  and  its  largest  tributary  the 
Malka,  with  its  affluents  the  Cherek  and  Baksu.  Above  the  Malka  junction  it 
already  discharges  17,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  during  its  further  course 
through  the  steppe  to  the  Caspian  it  is  joined  by  the  Sunja,  another  large  and 


THE  TEEEK. 


G9 


Fig.  34.— The  Tekek  Floods  of  1863. 
From  the  M,ap  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  650,000. 


rapid  river  flowing  through  the  country  of  the  Chechenzes,  and  fed  by  numerous 
suljAur  streams.  One  of  these  is  the  Melchihi,  which  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  five  copious  springs,  so  hot  that  several  miles  lower  down  it  is  still  unpotable. 

Below  the  Sunja,  notwithstanding  the  losses  caused  by  evaporation  and  irri- 
gation, the  Torek  is  still  copious  enough  to  form  a  vast  delta,  with  a  large  number 
of  permanent  or  intermittent  branches  frequently  shifting  with  the  floods,  and 
changing  their  relative  importance 
from  century  to  century.  One  of 
these  is  the  "  Old  Terek,"  formerly 
the  most  abundant,  but  now  sur- 
passed in  volume  by  the  "  New 
Terek."  The  delta  comprises  a 
coast-line  of  about  70  miles,  and  it 
seems  to  have  been  formerly  con- 
nected on  the  one  hand  with  the 
Kuma,  on  the  other  with  the  Sulak 
by  some  now  partly  obliterated 
channels.  "West  of  the  present 
delta  are  still  to  be  seen  the  old 
shores  of  the  Caspian,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  parallel  lines  of  elongated 
sand  dunes,  or  liigri,  exactly  similar 
to  those  of  the  Volga  delta,  and 
doubtless  formed  by  the  subsidence 
of  the  water  at  the  time  when  the 
Casjoian  became  separated  from  the 
Euxine.  According  to  Baer  the 
alluvia  of  the  Terek  are  encroaching 
on  the  Caspian  even  more  rapidly 
than  those  of  the  Volga.  Several 
inlets  have  already  been  choked  up, 
and  fishing  stations  which  in  182-3 
stood  on  the  coast  were,  thirty  years 
later  on,  nearly  10  miles  from  the 
sea.  The  whole  coast-line  between 
the  Kuma  and  Terek  has  advanced 
from  1,000  to  2,000  yards  since 
1841  ;  but  all  these  new  and  badly 
drained  tracts  are  still  very  unhealthy.  During  the  months  of  July  and  August 
the  labourers  and  gardeners  complain  of  swollen  heads,  and  the  marsh  fever 
subjects  them  to  hallucinations  of  all  sorts. 

The  stream  of  the  Terek  is  amply  sufiicient  to  contribute  its  share  towards  the 
navigable  canal  with  which  Danilov  proposes  to  connect  the  Euxine  and  Caspian. 
But  pending  this  somewhat  remote  contingency,  its  waters  and  those  of  its  tribu- 


E  oFG.'^5°I0' 


,.'46°50 


C  Perron. 


Old  Beds  of  the  Terek. 


KnrgaDS. 
.  12  Maes. 


70  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

taries  are  utilised  in  irrigating  the  bordering  steppe  lands.  The  Eristov  Canal, 
fed  by  the  Malka,  traverses  the  northern  plains,  joining  the  Terek  after  a  course 
of  140  miles.  Farther  north  the  Kurskiy  Canal,  also  flowing  from  the  Malka, 
turns  the  wheels  of  nineteen  mills,  and  during  the  floods  forms  a  stream  96  miles 
long.  A  third,  running  north  of  the  Sunja  junction,  irrigates  over  250,000  acres. 
If  skilfully  utilised,  the  waters  of  this  river  system,  which  abound  in  fertilising 
matter,  might  extend  far  north  and  north-east  the  rich  Kabarda  basin,  which 
promises  one  day  to  become  a  magnificent  agricultural  region. 

Inhabitants — The  Kabards. 

The  Kabards,  or  Kabardins,  who  call  themselves  Kabertai,  occupy  nearly  all 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Central  Caucasus  between  the  Elbruz  and  Kazbek. 
They  are  ethnically  closely  related  to  the  Cherkesses ;  like  them,  a  fine  race,  fonder 
of  wars  and  strife  than  of  peaceful  habits,  and  distinguished  from  them  only  by 
their  harsh  speech  full  of  gutturals  and  sibilants.  Their  princes  claim  Arab 
descent,  though  the  difierence  which  some  observers  have  detected  between  them 
and  their  subjects  is  probably  due  to  outward  circumstances  and  their  occasional 
alliances  with  foreign  families.  The  Kabards  seem  to  have  come  originally  from 
the  north-west,  probably  even  from  the  Crimea,  whence  they  have  been  gradually 
driven  towards  the  Terek,  first  by  the  JN'ogai  Tatars,  and  afterwards  by  the 
Russians.  They  have  retained  something  of  their  former  nomad  life,  and  are  even 
now  far  more  devoted  to  the  breeding  of  horses  and  sheep  than  to  agriculture.  The 
land  is  still  held  in  common,  the  woods  and  pastures  remain  undivided,  and  no 
one  has  any  claim  except  to  the  plot  tilled  by  himself.  Such  plots,  when  left 
uncultivated,  revert  immediately  to  the  commune.  Perhaps  more  than  elsewhere 
in  Caucasia  daring  robbery  is  held  in  honour,  but  on  the  condition  of  its  being 
committed  away  from  the  village  and  tribe,  and  provided  that  the  robber  escape 
detection.  In  the  latter  case  he  would  be  exposed  to  the  taunts  and  jeers  of  the 
community.  Notwithstanding  the  Russian  laws,  it  is  also  still  considered  highly 
honourable  for  the  young  man  to  carry  off  his  bride.  Some  days  before  the 
nuptials  he  steals  into  the  chamber  where  she  awaits  him,  and  whence  they  escape 
together.  On  returning  to  sue  for  pardon,  he  may  calculate  beforehand  on  the 
approval  of  all  who  still  respect  the  old  usages. 

The  Kabards  properly  so  called  number  about  32,000.  At  one  time  they  were 
the  leading  nation  in  Ciscaucasia  ;  but  owing  to  their  exposed  geographical  posi- 
tion, they  were  the  first  to  lose  their  independence.  The  Russians  easily  pene- 
trated through  the  Terek  valley  into  the  heart  of  their  domain.  Forts  erected 
at  intervals  along  the  river  divided  the  plains  into  two  distinct  regions — Great 
Kabarda  on  the  west,  and  Little  Kabarda  on  the  east.  Between  the  two  runs  the 
great  military  route  over  the  Caucasus,  and  here  the  Russians  consequently  strove, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  establish  their  power  on  a  solid  footing.  As  early  as  1763 
some  of  the  Kabards,  outwardly  Christians,  withdrew  to  Russian  territory, 
settling  in  the  steppe  along  the  middle  course  of  the  Terek.  '  At  the  beginning 


THE  OSSES  AND  XOGAI  TATARS.  71 

of  the  present  century  upwards  of  40,000,  flying  from  Russian  rule,  sought  a 
refuge  amongst  the  Kuban  Tatars,  who  welcomed  and  gave  them  lands,  which 
are  still  held  b}-  the  descendants  of  those  "  White  Kabards."  But  the  bulk  of 
the  nation  remained  in  the  Upper  Terek  basin,  and  their  yovmg  men  were  fain 
to  accept  service  in  the  imperial  armies.  Amongst  them  were  first  recruited 
those  magnificent  "  Cherkesses,"  as  they  are  called,  who  figure  so  conspicuously 
on  all  state  occasions.  Eeturning  to  their  hemes,  they  have  ceased  to  be  Kabards, 
and  take  pride  not  in  their  ancestral  freedom,  but  in  their  present  thraldom. 
The  ancient  usages  also  become  slowly  modified  by  constant  intercourse  with  the 
ruling  race,  while  their  national  unity  is  broken  by  the  intrusion  of  foreign 
elements.  Isolated  villages  are  already  occupied  by  Tatars,  Uruspievtzes, 
Balkars,  Nogais,  grouped  in  democratic  communities  administered  by  the  elders. 
The  country  is  also  traversed  by  Jewish  usurers  in  search  of  fresh  victims,  while 
groups  of  Germans  are  settled  here  and  there,  generally  on  the  more  fertile  lands. 
The  "  Scotch  "  colony  north  of  Patigorsk  has  even  been  already  completely  assi- 
milated to  these  Teutonic  settlers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  towns,  growing  daily 
in  size,  have  become  exclusively  Russian,  and  the  district  north  of  the  Malka 
has  been  en'Lrely  Slavonised  by  the  Cossacks,  who  began  to  make  their  appearance 
in  this  region  during  the  reign  of  Tvan  the  Terrible. 


The  Osses  and  Nogai  Tatars. 

The  Osses,  more  commonly  but  less  correctly  known  as  Ossetes,  are  as 
numerous  in  the  Terek  basin  as  the  Kabards,  but  they  have  scarcely  yet  ven- 
tured on  the  plains,  confining  themselves  mainly  to  the  upland  valleys  between 
Slounts  Adai-kokh  and  Kazbek,  west  and  east.  Two-fifths,  however,  of  this 
nation  dwell  not  on  the  northern,  but  on  the  southern  slopes,  in  the  valleys 
draining  to  the  Eion  and  Kura,  and  even  on  a  portion  of  the  Trialetes  Hills, 
south  of  the  Kura  plains.  They  are  estimated  at  upwards  of  110,000  altogether, 
thus  forming  one  of  the  most  important  nations  in  Caucasia.  But  their  fame  is 
due  not  so  much  to  their  power  as  to  the  various  theories  that  have  been  broached 
touching  their  origin  and  affinities.  Some  have  regarded  them  as  Alans ;  others 
as  the  purest  representatives  of  the  Aryans  in  the  Caucasus,  akin  either  to  the 
Teutons  or  to  the  Iranians ;  while  Yivien  de  Saint-Martin  suggests  that  they  may 
belong  to  the  race  of  the  A-ses,  like  those  who  migrated  to  Scandinavia.  Lastly, 
Pfafi"  thinks  that  they  are  at  least  partly  of  Semite  stock.  But,  judging  from  the 
great  variety  of  types  and  features,  ranging  from  the  ideal  beautiful  to  the  down- 
right ugly,  they  would  seem  to  be  a  very  mixed  people,  including  Georgian, 
Armenian,  Kabard,  and  other  elements.  In  the  Digor  district,  on  the  north 
slope,  several  noble  families  are  undoubtedly  of  Tatar  origin,  whilst  others  in  the 
southern  valley  of  the  Livash-don  are  of  Georgian  stock.  Apart  from  numerous 
exceptions,  the  bulk  of  the  people  are  decidedly  inferior  in  physical  appearance 
to  the  other  races  of  the  Caucasus.  Their  features  are  generally  angular,  their 
forms  heavy,  and  they  utterly  lack  that  pleasant  expression,  that  noble  air  and 


72  ASL\TIC  RUSSIA. 

graceful  carriage,  by  wliich  the  Cherkesses  and  Kabards  are  distinguished.  The 
fair  type  is  more  common  than  the  brown,  and  some  are  met  with  blue  eyes  like 
the  Scandinavians,  while  others  resemble  the  Jewish  dealers  in  their  black  or 
brown  eyes,  and  even  in  their  wheedling  voice. 

But  whatever  be  their  origin,  their  speech  belongs  unquestionably  to  the  Aryan 
family.  Their  national  name  is  Iron,  and  their  country  Ironiston,  words  sug- 
gesting the  Iran  of  Persia.  The  Digor  dialect  has  a  large  mixture  of  Tatar  and 
Cherkess  elements,  but  the  pure  speech  still  current  in  the  upland  vaUeys,  while 
ruder  than  that  of  the  lowlands,  abounds  in  Aryan  roots.  In  their  manners  and 
customs  the  Osses  seem  also  to  betray  their  relationship  with  the  Western  nations. 
They  differ  from  the  other  Caucasians  in  their  use  of  the  bed,  table,  and  chair ; 
they  salute  in  the  European  fashion,  embracing  and  shaking  hands  as  in  the 
West ;  lastly,  they  brew  from  barley,  and  drink  their  beer  from  tankards  exactly 
like  those  of  the  North  German  peasantry.  In  the  upper  valleys,  where  wood 
is  scarce,  they  live  in  stone  towers  of  great  age ;  but  lower  down  they  build 
little  wooden  houses  like  the  Ali^iue  barns,  shingle-roofed  and  weighted  with  heavy 
stones. 

On  the  whole  the  Osses  do  not  reflect  much  credit  on  the  Aryan  race. 
Physically  inferior  to  their  highland  neighbours,  they  cannot  compare  with 
tliem  in  pride,  dignity,  or  courage,  although  Freshfield  calls  them  the  "  Gentle- 
men of  the  Caucasus."  Like  their  neighbours,  thej'  have  always  been  ready  to 
offer  themselves  to  the  highest  bidder,  taking  service  xmder  the  Byzantines, 
Greeks,  or  Persians,  and  returning  to  their  homes  to  spend  in  revelry  the  fruits 
of  their  plundering  expeditions.  They  had  been  so  debased  by  this  mercenary 
trade  that  they  became  confirmed  marauders,  worshipping  Saiibareg,  god  of 
brigandage,  who  rides  a  black  horse,  accompanying  and  guiding  the  freebooters 
on  their  predatory  Incursions.  But  though  stUl  ready  for  murder  and  pillage 
when  no  danger  Is  rim,  they  took  care  not  to  defend  their  liberty  against  the 
Russians  at  the  risk  of  their  lives.  Although  masters  of  the  central  valleys,  and 
consequently  of  the  most  important  strategical  points  in  the  Caucasus,  they  left 
the  Cherkesses  in  the  west  and  the  Lezghians  of  Daghestan  to  fight  and  perish 
separately.  Instead  of  occupying  the  foremost  rank  In  the  wars  against  the 
aggressor,  they  waited  till  victory  had  decided  in  favour  of  the  Russians  to  make 
up  their  minds.  Poverty  had  made  them  the  prey  of  every  foreign  speculator, 
and  to  put  an  end  to  all  further  disputes  touching  the  ownership  of  the  land,  the 
Russian  Government  declared  all  the  lowlands  State  property,  and  removed 
thither  the  "  unsafe "  hUlmen.  Most  of  the  Osses  used  to  call  themselves 
Mohammedans,  but  now  they  pretend  to  be  Christians,  and  revere  St.  Nicholas 
no  less  devoutly  than  the  prophet  Ellas.  Besides,  they  had  already  changed 
their  religion  three  times  during  the  ten  last  centuries,  and  ia  spite  of  their 
present  Christianity  they  practise  polygamy,  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  the 
first  wife  treats  the  children  of  the  others  as  slaves.  Pagan  practices  even 
reappear  beneath  the  official  religion  and  the  remains  of  the  Moslem  creed.  During 
Holy  Week  they  make  offerings  of  bread-and-butter  on  the  altars  of  the  sacred 


Li8RAf?V 

OF  THE 

JNIVFRSiTV^f  ILLINOIS. 


4 

I; 


^: 


74 


ASIATIC  RUSSL4. 


the  highest  repute,  audis  more  frequented  than  all  the  rest  of  the  hundred  watering- 
places  in  Caucasia,  with  their  seven  hundred  different  mineral  springs,  as  enume- 
rated by  Ciiodzko.  Within  a  radius  of  24  miles  the  Patigorsk  medicinal  waters 
comi^rise  a  complete  series  of  such  as  are  recommended  by  modern  therapeutics. 
The  twenty  springs  in  Patigorsk  itself,  with  a  temperature  varying  from  85°  to 
110°  Fahr.,  and  yielding  on  the  average  2|  gallons  per  second,  are  typical  sulphur 
springs.  About  12  miles  to  the  north-east  the  station  of  Jelesnovochk — that  is, 
"  Iron  Water  " — indicates  by  its  very  name  the  nature  of  its  twenty  springs,  which 

Fig.  35. — Patigorsk  and  the  Eeoiok  of  Thermal  Wa-ers. 
From  Ihe  Hap  ot  the  Eiissiln  Staff.    Scale  1  :  600,000. 


?5^^?3?s: 


£eW'-c\ 


,  ■   =     r  .  '■ 

^JefeznovcK]^    , :  - 
y-,..   S  hotlanHskaya  .p( 


44 

in 


'  Patigorsk 


N- 


•n 


y^       w' 


od^^a^e 


j<rso 


qt':e^7- 


L  oFG 


''•B"55 


45 '5' 


C  Perron 


12  Slata. 


differ  greatly  in  temperature  and  the  amount  of  their  carbonic  acid,  while  varying 
in  the  quantity  of  their  discharge,  which  is  affected  by  the  earthquakes.  Near  the 
village  of  Yesentuki,  west  of  Patigorsk,  there  are  also  twenty  springs,  but  cold, 
alkaline,  and  containing  iodine  and  bromine.  In  the  hills  to  the  south-west  occurs 
the  magnificent  spring  known  to  the  Cherkesses  as  the  JYarznii,  or  "  Drink  of 
Heroes,"  and  now  distinguished  by  the  less  poetic  but  more  accurate  name 
Kislovodsk,  or  "  Acidulated  Water."  This  spring,  whose  proiDcrties  arc  unrivalled, 
yields  over  375,000  gallons  of  water,  and  liberates  190,000  cubic  feet  of  carbonic 
acid  daily.     The  approach  to  the  sacred  spring  was  formerly  defended  by  a  wall 


TOPOGEAPHY.  75 

several  miles  long,  flanked  by  grottoes  and  by  tombs,  the  traces  of  which  are  still 
visible.  Other  sources  that  have  not  yet  been  utilised  contain  chlorine,  magnesia, 
marine  salt,  while  the  lakes  and  pools  loft  in  the  stef)pcs  after  the  subsidence  of 
the  sea  have  their  saline  muds  filled  with  microscopic  alga^,  like  the  limans  of  the 
Euxine. 

Patigorsk  covers  a  large  space  in  the  valley  of  the  Podkumok,  a  southern 
affluent  of  the  Kuma.  It  stands  at  a  mean  altitude  of  1,580  feet  above  the 
imhealthy  atmosphere  of  the  plains,  and  its  climate  is  further  improved  by  extensive 
promenades,  parks,  and .  gardens.  Fine  hotels,  houses,  arcades,  and  elegant  shops 
well  stocked  with  Russian,  English,  French,  and  Oriental  wares,  give  it  the  aspect 
of  a  European  watering-place,  though  dating  onl}^  from  the  year  1830.  At  the 
end  of  the  last  century  invalids  came  to  take  the  waters  "  under  the  fire  of  the 
Cherkesses."  The  Russian  lords  arrived  with  retinues  of  some  hundred  cavaliers 
and  retainers,  long  lines  of  equipages,  tents,  and  supplies,  during  the  treatment 
encamping  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  spring. 

Georgi/Cfsk,  north-east  of  Patigorsk  and  in  the  same  river  basin,  was  the 
capital  of  Ciscaucasia  till  1824.  When  the  administration  was  removed  to 
Stavropol,  it  fell  to  the  rank  of  a  simple  village,  but  has  since  recovered  its 
importance  as  the  agricultural  centre  of  the  Kuma  basin,  and  as  a  station  of  the 
Caucasian  railway.  Its  prosperity  has  also  been  promoted  by  some  German 
colonies  in  the  neighbourhood.  Farther  down,  on  the  Kuma  and  its  western 
affluents,  there  are  merely  a  few  Cossack  stanitzas,  some  of  which,  such  as 
Othazndic,  Alexandrovsliaija,  Blagodarndie,  Prashoreya,  have  become  towns  and 
important  agricultural  centres.  East  of  Praskoveya  formerly  stood  the  famous 
city  of  Majar,  or  Majari,  on  both  banks  of  the  Kuma.  The  coincidence  of  names 
has  induced  some  writers  to  sujDpose  that  Majar  was  a  capital  of  the  Hungarian 
Magyars.  But  the  word,  which  is  of  Turki  origin,  meaning  "jmlace,"  "edifice," 
seems  to  have  been  the  name  of  one  of  the  four  chief  cities  of  the  Khazar  Empire. 
The  Kipchak  Tatars  were  settled  here,  and  various  recently  discovered  documents 
show  that  it  was  still  a  flourishing  place  in  the  fourteenth  century,  much 
frequented  by  Russian  traders.  In  the  time  of  Pallas  there  were  still  standing 
thix'ty-two  buildings  in  good  repair;  now  there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  but  the 
remains  of  towers  and  heaps  of  rubbish  covering  a  vast  space.  The  few  inscrip- 
tions that  occur  refer  all  of  them  to  the  Moslem  Tatars,  and  the  medals  that  have 
been  dug  up  had  all  been  struck  at  Sarai,  on  the  Volga.  Numerous  kurgans  are 
scattered  about,  and  the  Armenian  village  of  Svatoi-Krest  has  sprung  up  in  the 
midst  of  the  ruins. 

The  capital  of  Kabarda  and  the  chief  place  in  the  Terek  basin  is  Vludikavhaz, 
known  to  the  Osses  as  Kapkai,  or  "  Gate  of  the  Hills."  It  lies,  in  fact,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Black  Mountains,  guarding  the  entrance  to  the  deep  gorges  through  which 
the  Terek  escapes.  Standing  about  2,300  feet  above  sea-level  at  a  point 
commanding  the  military  route  through  Central  Caucasia,  it  enjoyed  paramount 
strategical  importance  during  all  the  wars  of  the  Caucasus,  and  since  the  reduction 
of  the  hillmen  it  has  become  a  large  commercial  emporium.     Yet  the  military 


76 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


and  oflScial  elements  are  still  predominant,  and  in  1874  the  male  was  more  than 
double  the  female  population. 

Till  recently    the  military  route  from  Vladikavkaz    across    the    Caucasus  to 

Fig.  36.-TheVladikavkaz.Axaxvr  Route  Tiflis   was   exposed   to   destruction   from   the 

THRouoH  THE  Terek  Vallet.  augry  watcrs  of  the   Terek,  while  avalanches 

From  the  Slap  of  the  Russian  Staif.   Scale  1  ;  040,000.      n  J      J    i    V  „,„   „(.        „„        V        i    j.1, 

01  snow  and  detritus  swept  over  it  at  the 
issues  of  the  mountain  torrents.  Even  now 
it  is  constantly  threatened  to  be  overwhelmed 
by  the  Devdoraki  glacier,  and  is  generally 
blocked  for  seventeen  days  in  the  year  for  a 
space  of  8  or  9  miles.  Hence  heavy  engineer- 
ing works  will  have  to  be  carried  out,  should 
the  project  be  persisted  in  of  running  a  line 
of  railway  through  the  Terek  valley  and  under 
the  Caucasus  from  Vladikavkaz  to  Tiflis.  The 
prosperity  of  Vladikavkaz  and  other  towns  on 
both  slopes  of  the  main  range  largely  depends 
on  the  ultimate  choice  that  may  be  made  of  the 
several  alternative  lines  that  have  been  pro- 
posed. It  is  probable,  however,  that,  before 
attacking  it  directly,  the  main  range  will  be 
skirted  at  its  eastern  extremity  by  a  line  con- 
necting the  towns  of  Petrovsk,  Derbent,  and 
Baku. 

Tekaterinograd,  on  the  Terek  below  Vladi- 
kavkaz, a  former  outj)ost  of  the  Cherkesses, 
still  occupies  a  vital  position  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Malka.  Here  Potomkin  founded  one 
of  the  chain  of  Russian  fortresses  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  seven  years  later  on  it  was 
chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  Muscovite  posses- 
sions in  this  region.  But  it  lost  this  position 
in  1790,  since  when  it  has  remained  a  simple 
Cossack  stanitza.  The  political  and  commer- 
cial centre  of  the  district  is  Mozdok,  or  "  Black 
Wood,"  founded  in  1759  by  a  chief  of  Little 
Kabarda  driven  by  the  fortunes  of  war  into 
exile.  From  the  first  it  was  a  haven  of  refuge 
for  fugitive  Kabards,  Osses,  Chechenzes,  xirme- 
nlans,  and  Georgians  from  Transcaucasia.  Till 
recently  the  Armenians  formed  by  far  the  most  numerous  element,  and  thanks  to 
them  Mozdok  had  become  the  chief  trading-place  in  Ciscaucasia.  The  Russian 
Government  had  oven  favoured  it  by  diverting  towards  it  the  military  route 
between  Stavropol  and  Tiflis ;  but  since  the  completion  of  the  railway  it  has  lost 


44°25: 


EoP.G.       44'45' 


C.  Pernio 


6  Miles. 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


77 


the  advantages  thereby  acquired.  Henceforth  its  prosperity  must  depend 
exclusively  on  its  position  as  the  natural  rally ing-point  of  the  surrounding 
l^opulations,  and  as  the  entrepot  of  the  agricultural  settlements  on  the  Middle 
Terek. 

Grozniy,  which  has  grown  up  round  the  fortress  of  Grozuaya,  is  now  the 


Fig.  37. — The  Tebulos-mta  Gkocp. 

From  the  Slap  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1 :  255,000. 


^g5^;^=»f,?S^pg^=^ 


^L 


4^ 


.4  - 


f!  ^        S^ 


...«*' 


EoFG  43°  15' 


45°  2  5 


C.  Perron 


,  6  lliles. 


natural  capital  of  all  the  Sunja  valley,  probably  the  most  fertile  in  Ciscaucasia. 
Its   mineral    waters,  known    since   the    middle    of  the    last    century,    are   much 
frequented,  but  the  neighbouring  naphtha  wells  have  no  great  commercial  value. 
VOL.  VI.  c; 


78  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Of  the  numerous  towns  and  villages  scattered  over  the  Groznij'  pl-jin  and 
surrounding  hills  the  most  important  are  Urits-Mnrtaii,  and  farther  east  the 
Moslem  town  of  Ah-sai,  in  a  well- watered  district  laid  out  in  gardens. 

Kizhir,  of  which  mention  occurs  so  early  as  1616,  was  also  a  place  of  refuge 
for  fugitives,  especially  Armenians,  who  gradually  monopolized  the  local  trade. 
It  is  happily  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Terek  delta  for  traffic  and  horticulture, 
the  river  and  its  branches  supplying  all  the  water  needed  for  irrigating  purposes. 
In  1861  there  were  in  this  district  over  1,250  flourishing  gardens,  supplying  the 
Russian  markets  with  all  sorts  of  spring  fruits  and  vegetables.  Kizlar  is  likewise 
noted  for  its  vineyards,  the  produce  of  which,  exported  from  the  neighbouring 
port  of  Eriansk,  or  Brianskoie,  is  used  by  the  Russians  in  the  manufacture  of 
"port,"  "sherry,"  "madeira,"  and  other  famous  southern  wines.  About 
1,200,000  gallons  are  yearly  sold  at  the  Nijni-Xovgorod  fair. 


lY.— EASTERN  CAUCASIA. 

DAGHESTAX. 


Ai.TiioroH  boasting  of  no  summits  rivalling  Mounts  Elbruz  and  Kazbek,  the 
general  relief  of  the  eastern  is  far  more  considerable  than  that  of  the  central 
section  of  the  Caucasus.  The  depressions  between  the  peaks  are  relatively  Aery 
high,  while  the  lateral  ridges  give  to  this  division  an  expansion  of  2°  of  latitude 
north  and  south.  Here  the  different  altitudes  and  dispositions  of  the  groups 
impart  far  greater  variety  to  the  scene,  and  in  manj'  valleys  snowy  or  wooded 
heights  rise  all  along  the  line  of  the  horizon.  The  rugged  and  tangled  masses 
long  afforded  a  shelter  to  the  native?  against  the  Russians,  who  were  unable  to 
penetrate  into  the  upper  valleys  except  through  the  winding  beds  of  the  mountain 
torrents  or  across  unknown  tracks,  where  they  were  exposed  to  the  ambuscades 
and  sudden  attacks  of  the  lurking  foe. 

Mount  Borbalo,  source  of  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Terek,  Sulak,  Kuma,  and 
Alazan,  is  usually  regarded  as  the  western  limit  of  Daghestau.  Here  the  Audi, 
or  principal  side  ridge,  branches  from  the  main  range,  forming  with  it  the 
triangular  space  of  the  Eastern  Cavicasus.  This  region  presents  somewhat  the 
aspect  of  a  vast  plateau  scooped  into  vallej's,  the  higher  of  which  nowhere  fall 
more  than  about  3,000  feet  below  the  surrounding  crests.  Abish  regards  the 
whole  of  Daghestan  as  a  system  of  sedimentarj',  Jurassic,  cretaceous,  and  tertiary 
rocks  overlapping  each  other,  and  whose  folds  have  been  rent  and  intersected  by 
crevasses.  The  culminating  point  of  this  system  is  the  Tebulos-rata,  rising  to  a 
height  of  14,990  feet  in  the  Andi  ridge.  Several  other  mta,  or  "  peaks,"  in  the 
same  chain  exceed  13,000  feet,  whereas  those  of  the  central  range  vary  from 
9,750  to  about  11,370  feet.  Still  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  reached  by  several, 
such  as  the  Sari-dagh,  Yitziri,  Bazardiuz,  Tkhfan-dagh,  Baba-dagh,  on  the  main 
range,  and  the  Alakhuu-dagh,  Shalbuz-dagh,  Shah-dagh,  or  Eastern  Elbruz,  and 
Kizil-Kaya,  in  the  northern  side  ridges.     East  of  the   Baba-dagh  the  mountains 


INHABITANTS— THE  CHECHENZES. 


79 


fall  rapidly  towards  the  Caspian,  sinking  to  mere  hills  in  the  Apsheron  peninsula. 
Nearly  all  these  moimtains  are  still  known  by  their  Turki  or  Georgian 
names.* 

Rheh  Systems. 

A  fow  of  the  torrents  rising  in  the  advanced  spurs  of  Daghestan  flow  to  the 
Suuja,  the  chief  southern  affluent  of  the  Terek  ;  but  most  of  these  waters  are 
collected  by  the  Sulak,  formed  b}-  the  four  torrents  which  bear  the  Tatar  name 
of  Koi-su.  Like  the  Terek  and  Ar-doii,  the  tSulak  emerges  through  magniflcent 
gorges  on  the  plains,  trending  thence  eastward  to  the  Caspian.  Like  them,  also, 
it  is  gradually  encroaching  on  the  sea,  and  during  the  floods  forms  a  temporary 
delta,  whose  waters  are  partly  mingled  wath  those  of  the  Terek  in  the  vast  Bay  of 
Agrakhan,  which  is  rather  a  lagoon  than  a  marine  inlet.  In  the  hope  of  deejjening 
its  channel,  Peter  the  Great  diverted  to  it  a  permanent  stream  from  the  Sidak,  but, 
like  so  many  similar  projects  imder taken  by  that  czar,  the  attempt  proved  abortive  : 
the  dykes  were  swept  away  by  the  floods,  and  the  na^dgable  canal  choked  bj'  the 
mud.  IMore  successful  have  been  the  irrigation  rills  formed  some  years  ago,  and 
bringing  under  cultivation  150,000  acres  about  the  Lower  Sulak. 

Of  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Caspian  south  of  the  Sulak,  the  Samur  alone 
assmues  the  proportion  of  a  river.  On  emerging  from  the  mountains  it  ramifies 
into  several  branches,  which  are  continually  shifting  their  beds  in  the  midst  of  the 
sands  and  shingle.  The  Samur,  and  all  the  torrents  traversing  the  Kuba  district, 
may  be  said  to  form  a  coirunon  delta,  intermingling  their  waters,  and  jointly 
encroaching  on  the  Caspian.  Like  the  fin  mi  and  finmare  of  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Apennines,  these  streams  are  constantly  cluinging  their  beds,  learaig  here  and 
there  old  channels,  false  rivers,  and  stagnant  pools  no  longer  traversed  by  running 
waters.  Hence  the  Lower  Samiu-  district,  whose  hydrographic  system  is  not  yet 
fully  developed,  is  one  of  the  most  unhealthy  in  the  Caucasus. 


IXHABITAXTS Thk    ChECHENZES. 

In  1868,  at  the  close  of  the  wars  that  had  laid  M'aste  the  Caucasian  valleys,  the 
Russian  Government  took  a  census  of  the  highland  pojjidation,  which  was  found  to 
number  908,000.  In  1872  it  was  estimated  at  995,000,  of  whom  nearlj-  one-half, 
or  about  478,000,  were  in  Daghestan  alone.  The  Chechenzes  and  Lezghians  of  the 
northern  slope  between  Kabarda  and  the  Caspian  form  at  present  an  aggregate 


*  Chief  altitudes  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus  : 


Mam  Saiic/e. 


Borbalo 

Sari-dagh 

Vitziri  . 

Bazai'diuz 

Tkhfan-dagli 

Baba-dagh     . 

Atesh-gah  (Apslicron) 


Audi  Hulge. 


Feet. 

Feet. 

11,120 

Tebulos-mta           .... 

14,990 

12,180 

Kachu 

14,220 

12,930 

Diklos-Dita 

13,930 

14,930 

Hciterri  HigJdands. 

13,970 

Alakhun-dagh       .... 

12,930 

12,100 

Shah-dagh 

14,160 

910 

Shalbuz-dagh         .... 

14,150 

Kizil-Kaya 

12,420 

80 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


of  at  least  G70,000  souls.  This  ijopulation  is  made  up  of  several  races  tliffering 
ill  origin,  religion,  manners,  and  speech,  though  it  is  now  ascertained  that  most 
of  the  idioms  here  current  are  merely  ^•aricties  of  a  coimuon  stock  language.  One 
of  them  is  restricted  to  the  single  A-illage  of  Inukh,  consisting  of  some  thirty  houses, 

Fig.  38. — 5I0UTHS  OF  THE  Terek  and  Lower  Sclak. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Ecale.l :  720,000. 


C.Perncr* 


0  to  65  Feet. 


Co  Feet  and  upwards. 
_^_  12Hile8. 


in  South-\vest  Daghestau,  and   none  of   them    possess  any  literature  except    the 
Avar,  which  hoasts  of  a  few  documents  written  in  the  xVrabic  character. 

Amongst  the  peoples  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus  the  Chechens,  or  Chechenzes, 
estimated  at  about  140,000,  are  di^N-ided  into  some  twenty  dilferent  groups,  each 
with  a  distinct  language.     Known  to  the  Lezghians  by  the  name  of  Misjcghi,  and  to 


INHABITANTS— THE  CHECHENZES. 


81 


the  Georgians  as  Kists,  the  Cheehenzes  occupy  the  wliole  of  "West  Daghestan,  east 
of  the  Osses  and  Kabards,  and  even  descend  from  the  advanced  spurs  down  to  the 
plains.  Their  territory  is  traversed  by  the  Sunja,  which  divides  it  into  "Little 
Chechniya,"  the  lowland  district,  and  "  Great  Chechniya,"  the  highland  region. 
Both  the  lowlanders  and  the  hillmen  fought  desperately  against  the  Russians  in 
the  last  centiu'y  under  Daud  Beg  and  Omar  Khan,  hi  the  present  under  Khazi- 
Mollah  and  Shamyl.  Suuuite  Mohanunedans  of  a  more  fanatical  t^-^ae  than  the 
Cherkesses  and  Abkhasians  of  the  west,  they  fought  with  the  devotion  inspired  by 
religious  enthusiasm,  combined  with  a  love  of  freedom  and  a  warlike  spirit.     Yet 

Fig.  39. — The  Kuba  Dlstrict. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Eussian  Staff.    Scale  1 :  810,000. 


4aM0- 


C  Perron 


.  13  Hiles. 


they  were  fain  to  jaeld  at  last,  and  since  1859  Chechniya,  the  most  fertile  and 
salubrious  region  in  Caucasia,  has  been  completely  subdued.  In  1819  the  fortress 
of  Groznaj'a,  now  grown  into  the  city  of  Gro.sniy,  had  been  built  by  the  invaders 
on  the  banks  of  the  Sunja  between  the  two  Chechenz  territories,  and  its  "threats," 
as  the  name  implies,  were  not  in  vain.  Like  the  Cherkesses,  most  of  the  highland 
Cheehenzes  were  compelled  to  forsake  their  ancestral  homes,  and  those  who  refused 
to  settle  in  the  plains  migrated  to  Turkish  Armenia  in  convoys  of  one  hundred  to 
two  himdred  families,  escorted  by  Russian  guards.  Here  fresh  misfortunes  awaited 
them.    After  sanguinary  struggles  with  their  new  neighbours  for  the  possession  of  the 


82  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

land,  the}-  were  several  times  reiuovcd,  and  the  graveyards  of  each  fresh,  place  of 
exile  retained  numbers  of  the  emigrants. 

The  Chechenzes  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  C'herkesses,  and,  like  them, 
are  haughty,  well  projjortioned,  active,  fond  of  rich  garments,  which  they  wear 
with  an  easy  grace.  Most  of  them  have  an  aquiline  nose,  and  a  restless,  almost 
sinister  glance  ;  yet  they  arc  generous,  and  always  maintain  a  certain  dignity  of 
speech  and  carriage :  they  kill,  but  never  insult.  The  women  of  the  better  classes 
^\car  an  elegant  robe  revealing  the  figure,  and  wide  silken  trousers  of  a  pink  coloitr. 
Yellow  sandals,  silver  bracelets,  and  a  piece  of  cloth  falling  over  theii-  shoidders 
and  partly  concealing  the  hair,  complete  their  attire.  The  Chechenz  dwellings  are 
nearly  all  veritable  hovels,  cold,  dank,  and  gloomy,  some  dug  out  of  the  groimd, 
others  formed  of  interwoven  branches,  or  of  stones  rudely  thro-\^-n  together.  A 
group  of  such  dwellings  forms  one  of  those  aids  often  seen  perched  on  some  steep 
bluff,  like  erratic  boidders  arrested  on  the  brink  of  the  precipice.  Before  the 
Russian  conquest  most  of  the  people  lived  in  republican  comtnimes,  governing 
themselves  by  popular  gatherings  like  those  of  the  primitive  Swiss  Cantons. 
Other  conunimities  were  subject  to  hereditary  khans,  whose  power  dated  from  the 
tune  of  the  Moslem  invasion.  But  all  alike  obeyed  the  adaf,  or  miwritten  code  of 
the  common  law. 

Although  much  dreaded  by  the  lowlanders  as  brigands  and  marauders,  the 
Daghestan  hillmcn,  and  especially  the  Chechenzes,  more,  joerhajos,  than  any  other 
warlike  people,  revealed  the  most  brilliant  qualities  of  freemen,  at  least  during  the 
final  struggle  with  the  Russians.  "AVe  are  all  equal,"  they  were  fond  of  rejDeat- 
ing,  and  in  point  of  fact  there  were  no  .slaves  aiuongst  them  except  prisoners  of 
war  or  their  descendants.  But  these  often  married  the  daughters  of  their-  masters, 
and  thus  became  members  of  the  family  and  the  equals  of  all.  The  Chechenzes 
carried  their  pride  to  a  pitch  of  fanaticism,  but  their  hospitality'  ^Aas  boundless, 
although  associated  «-ith  eccentric  practices.  The  traveller  is  often  met  by  a  band 
of  horsemen  swooping  ^^•ildly  do\^'n  from  the  camping  groimd,  firing  salvoes  over 
his  head,  then  suddenly  stopping  within  ten  or  fifteen  paces,  and  saluting  him  with 
a  profoimd  "  Salam  aleikum  !  "  In  such  a  society'  justice  was  necessarily  regulated 
bj'  the  law  of  life  for  life,  and,  notwithstanding  the  Russian  code,  this  law  is  still 
the  only  one  that  is  respected.  iSlurder,  pillage,  robbery  with  violence,  can  be 
expiated  only  by  death,  imless  the  offender  allow  his  hair  to  grow,  and  the  injured 
party  consent  to  .shave  it  vdih  his  own  hands,  and  make  him  talce  the  oath  of 
brotherhood  on  the  Koran.  It  also  happens  that  the  law  of  vendetta  is  at  times 
suspended  by  some  great  feasts.  A^^len  a  hillman  discovers  that  his  horse  has 
disappeared,  he  sets  out  in  search  of  it,  fidly  equipped,  wrapped  in  one  of  those 
white  woollen  .shrouds  which  serve  as  winding-sheets,  and  pvo\ided  with  a  piece 
of  money  to  pay  the  priest  who  has  to  utter  the  prayers  for  the  dead.  The  robber 
mostly  gets  lid  of  his  booty  liy  selling  it  in  some  remote  clan,  but  at  the  .sight  of 
the  rightful  owner  armed  for  a  deadly  fight  the  purchaser  restores  the  animal, 
takes  over  the  shroud  and  money,  and  jDresents  himself  before  the  vendor.  Shoidd 
he  haj)pcn  to  be  the  robber,  the  priest  is  called  in,  and  they  fight  it  out.     But  if 


THE  LEZGHIANS,  TATS,  AND  TATAES.  83 

the  vendor  has  himself  been  deceived,  he  sets  out  in  his  turn  \\ith  the  dread 
emblems  of  mortal  strife,  and  thus  death  at  last  hoiuids  do'\ra  its  quarr}',  unless 
the  horse-stealer  hajjpens  to  be  a  stranger  from  over  the  hills. 

Another  custom  peculiar  to  the  Ingush  tribe  illustrates  their  strong  belief  in  an 
after-life.  A^Tien  one  of  the  betrothed  dies  on  the  wedding-eve,  the  ceremouj^  is 
performed  all  the  same,  and  the  dead  is  joined  mth  the  living  in  a  union  to 
bo  ratified  in  heaven,  the  father  never  failing  to  pay  the  stipidated  dowry. 
Christianity  still  retains  a  certain  hold  on  the  Chechenzes,  although  all  have 
adopted  the  Simnite  creed  except  those  of  Bragimi,  on  the  Sunja.  Three  churches 
built  on  a  hill  near  Kistin  in  honour  of  SS.  George,  ilarina,  and  the  Virgin  are 
still  much- frequented  places  of  pilgrimage,  where  rams  are  offered  in  sacrifice  at 
certain  times.     These  buildings  are  choked  mth  animal  remains. 

The  Lezghians,  Tats,  axd  Tatars. 

,  Most  of  the  peoples  occuijying  the  valleys  east  of  the  Chechenzes  are  grouped 
under  the  collective  name  of  Lezghi,  or  Lezghians.  The  tenn  has  been  explained 
to  mean  "Brigands,"  or  "Marauders,"  in  Tatar,  although  it  seems  more  probable 
to  be  an  old  national  name,  for  the  Georgians  and  Armenians  have  from  time 
immemorial  applied  the  form  Lehld,  or  Lelsil:,  to  this  nation.  The  number  of 
Lezghian  tribes,  constantly  changing  with  wars  and  migrations,  is  estimated  at  from 
fifty  to  fifty-five,  although  Koniarov,  keeping  to  the  main  diA'isious,  indicates  the 
domain  of  twenty-seven  tribes  only  in  his  ethnological  map  of  Daghestan.  All 
these  have  distinct  dialects  marked  by  guttiu'al  sormds  extremely  difiicvdt  of 
utterance  I)}'  the  European  mouth.  They  have  been  grouioed  by  Uslar  and 
Schiefner  in  a  nmnber  of  linguistic  divisions,  the  chief  of  which  arc  the  language 
of  the  Avars  in  "West  Daghestan,  and  the  Dargo  and  Kura  in  the  east.  Most  of 
the  tribes  being  thus  unable  to  converse  together,  intercoiu'se  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  a  third  language — Arabic  usually  in  the  west,  and  the  Turki  dialect  of 
Azerbeijan  in  the  east.  Of  all  the  Lezghian  nations  the  most  renowned  are  the 
Avars,  bordering  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Chechenz  domain,  and  comprising 
over  one-fifth  of  the  whole  ijopulation.  Most  writers  think  they  may  probably  be 
the  Idnsmen  of  the  Avars  who  foimded  on  the  Danube  a  large  empire,  overthrown 
by  Charlemagne.  But  according  to  Komai'ov  xVvar  is  of  recent  origin,  meaning  in 
the  Lowland  Turki  "  Fugitive,"  or  "  Vagrant." 

Daghestan  has  too  little  arable  land  to  enable  its  hali-miUion  of  Lezghian 
population  to  live  on  agriculture  and  stock-breeding.  Yet  they  arc  skilled  tillers 
of  the  land,  their  walled  and  well-watered  plots  supplying  good  corn,  fruits,  and 
vegetables.  Still  they  had  to  de23end  on  emigration  and  plunder  to  make  good 
the  deficiency  of  the  local  suiiplies.  Settled  on  both  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  they 
were  able  to  swoop  down  on  the  Terek  and  Sulak  plains  in  the  north,  or  on  the 
fertile  southern  region  of  Georgia.  No  less  daring,  and  CAen  more  steadfast  than 
the  Chechenzes,  thej'  had  the  disadvantage  of  being  broken  up  into  a  great  number 
of  free  tribes  often  at  feud  with  each  other,  while  the  flower  of  their  youth  were 


84 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA, 


i''it>'.  40. — XoGAi  YoVTii. 


accustomed,  Hk(^  the  Swiss  aud  Albauiaiis  in  former  times,  to  hire  themselves  out 
as  mercenaries  to  all  the  surrounding-  kinglets.  In  their  warfare  they  displayed 
more  savag-ery  than  the  Cherkesses,  and,  unlike  them,  carried  off  as  a  trophy  llie 
right  hand  of  their  captives  when  forced  to  abandon  them. 

The  Lezg'hiaus  uever  fought  in  concert  till  during  the  final  struggles  against 
the  Russians  in  defence  of  their  hearths  and  altars.  All  are  Molunnmedans  except 
the  Dido  of  the  Upper  Koisu  vallev  in  Audi,  who  have  the  reputation  of  being 
de\il  worshipi:)ers,  because  they  endeavour  to  conjure  the  e\il  one  by  sacrifices. 
Although  much  given  to  \\-ine-drinking,  tobacco  smokers,  and  observers  of  tradi- 
tional Christian  and  pagan  rites,  the  Lczghiaus  are  none  the  less  zealotis  Smmites, 

and  it  was  o'U'ing  to  their  ardent  faith 
alone  that  they  were  able  for  many  years 
to  forget  their  tribal  and  family  rivalries, 
and  make  common  cause  in  the  ghazavat, 
or  holy  war  against  the  infidel.  Eally- 
ing  with  the  Chechenzes  round  their 
fellow-countrjTuau  Khazi-MoUah,  and 
afterwards  round  his  ward  Shaniyl 
(Samuel),  of  the  Koisu-bu  tribe,  they 
drove  the  Russians  more  than  once  liack 
to  the  plains,  often  conqjelling  them  to 
abandon  their  more  advanced  militar}' 
settlements  and  isolated  garrisons  in  the 
hills.  Their  strength  lay  mainly  in  the 
spirit  of  freedom  by  which  they  were 
inspired,  and  which  was  kept  ali^e  by 
the  deeds  of  their  legendary  hero  Ifaji- 
Mtu'ad,  renowned  in  the  wars  ^^•aged 
against  the  khans  of  the  Avars.  But 
when  the  aristocracj'  of  the  nmhs,  or 
governors,  was  gradually  restored,  the 
people,  becoming  enslaved  to  their 
chiefs,  ceased  to  struggle  with  the  same 
Surrounded  on  three  sides  by  an  ever-narrowing 
iron  circle  of  forts  aud  military  colunms,  and  seeing  their  territory  cut  up  by  great 
military  routes,  they  were  fain  to  yield  after  half  their  numbers  had  perished  from 
disease,  hunger,  and  the  sword.  When  Shamyl  surrendered  in  18-59  his  followers 
had  dTA-indlcd  to  about  four  hundred  armed  men. 

After  the  contpiest  the  old  family  jealousies  revived,  and  the  Ijczghian  districts 
are  now  the  chief  scene  of  sanguinary  strife  and  murder.  About  one  in  e^•ery  three 
himdred  of  the  pojjidation  is  either  killed  or  womided  diu'ing  the  year,  and  the 
circle  of  Kaitago-Tabasseran,  west  of  Derbent,  has  the  melancholy  distinction  of 
harbom-ing  more  assassins  than  any  other  district  in  the  em])ire.  Yet  in  their 
neighbourhood   dwell   the   peaceful    Ukhbukanes,    or   Kubichi,    \\ho    are    chiefly 


vigour  against  the  Russians. 


THE  LEZGHIAXS,  TATS,  AXD  TATARS. 


85 


cug-aged  in  forgiug  arms  for  the  surrounding  hillmen.  Indispensable  to  all,  tlicir 
neutrality  is  alike  respected  by  all.  This  industrious  tribe  claims  Em-opeau 
descent,  but  their  national  name  of  Frenghi,  orFreuki — that  is,  Franks — is  ju.stified 
neither  by  their  features  nor  their  speech,  which  is  a  Dargo  dialect.  In  any  case 
the}'  are  a  very  small  community,  consisting  in  1867  of  scarcely  2,000,  dwelling  in 
400  houses.  Some  of  the  itxtgal,  or  tribal  confederacies,  acquired  a  considerable 
degree  of  prosperity,  thanks  to  their  connnon  solidarity  and  individual  freedom. 


Fig.  41. — Mount  Glnib. 


Such  was  that  of  the  live  Dargo  elans,  whose  popular  gatherings,  which  resembled 
the  S^^"iss  landaycmcinden,  wei'e  held  in  a  plain  near  Akhusha.  This  magal  received 
refugees  from  all  nations,  and  their-  territory  was  the  most  densely  peopled  in  all 
Daghestan. 

The  Caspian  seaboard,  forming  the  historical  highway  of  niigration  and  conquest 
between  Europe  and  Asia,  was  natui-ally  occupied  by  a  motley  population,  in  which 
were  represented  all  the  races  who  had  made  use  of  this  military  and  commercial  route. 


86  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

Hence  Mongolians,  Semites,  Aryans,  and  Tatars  arc  now  found  crowded  together 
in  this  narrow  strip  of  coast.  The  Nogai  Tatars  have  fixed  their  tents  in  the 
northern  stej^pe  bordered  by  the  Sulak.  The  tract  stretching  thence  to  Derbcnt 
is  occupied  eluefiy  by  the  Kuniik  Tatars,  numbering  over  50,000,  and  many 
Armenian  traders.  Other  Tatars,  akin  to  those  of  Transcaucasia,  dwell  farther 
south  in  the  Kuba  district.  The  linrjita  franca  of  all  these  races  is  the  Turki 
dialect  of  Azerbcijan,  although  the  Persians,  Tats,  or  Tajiks,  about  Dcrbent 
and  between  Kuba  and  the  Gidf  of  Baku,  still  preserve  their  language  and  usages 
since  the  time  of  the  Sassanides,  when  they  settled  here.  "With  them  evidently 
came  the  Jews,  who  also  speak  Persian,  while  their  women  wear  the  Iranian  garb. 
But  their  Persian  dialect  is  mixed  with  many  old  Hebrew  and  Chaldean  terms, 
and  according  to  some  authorities  those  of  Kuba,  Baku,  and  Shemakha  are  descended 
from  the  Israelites,  who  were  removed  to  Persia  after  the  first  destruction  of  the 
Temple  by  Salmanazar  over  two  thousand  five  hundred  years  ago.  The  names  of  their 
children  are  those  in  vogue  during  the  time  of  the  judges,  and  which  have  elsewhere 
been  obsolete  for  the  last  twenty-fi\e  centuries,  ilost  of  the  Caucasian  Jews,  however, 
have  become  much  mingled  with,  and  c^"cn  absorbed  by,  the  Osses,  Georgians,  and 
especially  the  Tatars,  and  many  villages  kno^yn  by  the  name  of  Jiit-kend,  or 
"  Jewish  Town,"  arc  now  exclusively  occupied  by  communities  clainaing  to  be  of 
Tatar  stock. 

ToPOGUAPIIY. 

In  the  highland  districts  there  are  no  toivns,  though  the  Lezghian  afds  have 
often  been  crowded  by  thousands  attracted  by  local  festi\ities,  or  rallying  round 
their  warrior  chiefs.  Khunzah,  fonnerlj'  capital  of  the  Avar  Khans,  is  now  a 
mere  ruin,  on  a  bluff  commanding  a  tributary  of  the  Koisu,  and  itself  commanded 
by  the  guns  of  a  Russian  fort.  Ghimri,  above  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers 
Koisu,  retains  nothing  but  a  reminiscence  of  the  national  wars,  for  here  died 
Khazi-MoUali,  and  here  Shamyl  was  born.  Vedeno,  on  a  lofty  terrace  within 
the  Chechniya  territory,  is  an  important  village  overlooked  by  a  Russian  fort, 
which  stands  on  the  site  of  Shamjd's  former  citadel.  Near  it  is  Moimt  Gimib, 
whose  upper  terrace,  40  square  miles  in  extent,  served  as  the  last  refuge  of  the 
Lezghian  pi'ophet  and  prince. 

Temir-Khan-Slno-a,  in  the  Kumik  Tatar  coimtry,  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
1,540  feet  in  a  \i\\\q\  opening  towards  the  Caspian.  The  lake,  or  tarn,  whence  its 
name,  is  now  drained,  although  fever  is  here  still  endemic.  The  port  of  all  this 
district  is  Pefrovsk,  during  the  wars  a  place  of  some  strategic  importance,  and  with 
one  of  the  best  harbom-s  on  the  Caspian,  sheltered  from  the  west  and  south  winds, 
and  affording  good  anchorage  in  20  feet  of  water  within  800  yards  of  the  shore. 
Though  of  recent  origin,  Petrovsk  has  already  supplanted  its  southern  rival,  Tarhi, 
or  Tarku,  which,  with  a  Tatar  popidation  of  nearly  12,000  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  is  now  a  mere  village  dependent  on  Temir-Khan-Shura. 

The  narrow  defile  between  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Tabasseran  range  and 
the  coast  is  guarded  by  the  city  of    Dcrbent,  or  Derbcnd,  traditionally  founded 


TOPOGEAPHT. 


87 


either  by  the  Medes  or  by  Alexnncler  the  Great,  but  more  probably  by  one  of  the 
Sassanicles  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  centur}'.  This  imique  town  and  fortress  is 
enclosed  between  two  long  parallel  walls  rimning  from  the  hills  to  the  sea,  flanked 
by  towers  and  inscribed  sepulchral  stones.  Within  this  inclined  parallelogram 
the  houses  and  bazaar  form  in  reality  but  one  line  of  buildings  somewhat  imder 
2  miles  long.  As  implied  by  its  Persian  name,  Derbent  is  merely  a  large  forti- 
fied gateway,  whence  also  its  various  Tatar  and  Arabic  names.  All  the  mediaeval 
travellers  describe  its  walls  as  advancing  far  into  the  sea ;  but  nothing  is  now 
\'isible  of  this  marine  rampart,  which  may  be  due  to  a  local  upheaval.     Between 


Fig.  42. — Derbent. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


/;.. 


58M0 


58-20 


EoPG 


C  Perron 


Traces  of  Old  Wall,  accordinj?  to  Eichwald. 
3  Miles. 


the  town  and  the  present  coast-line  there  stretches  a  broad  strip  of  laud  which 
was  formerly  perhaps  imder  water.  West  of  Narin-Kaleh,  the  citadel  com- 
manding it  on  the  west,  the  wall,  here  also  flanked  with  towers,  foUows  the  crest 
of  the  hills  in  the  direction  of  some  distant  peak.  According  to  the  natives  this 
wall  formerly  crossed  the  whole  range  from  sea  to  sea,  and  in  any  case  it  guarded 
all  the  lowlands  at  the  foot  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  for  traces  of  it  are  still  met 
at  a  distance  of  18  miles  from  Derbent.  There  are  few  more  industrious  places 
in  Eussia  than  this  Persian  to'mi,  although  its  population  is  said  to  have  fallen 
from  26,000  in  1825  to  little  over  haK  that  number  in  1873.  In  the  district  are 
1,500  well- watered  garden  plots,  jaelding  wine,  saffron,  cotton,  tobacco,  madder, 


88  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

and  fruits  of  all  kinds.  Some  naphtha  wells  and  quarries  of  bituminous  schists  are 
■worked  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Less  pictui'esquelv  situated  than  Derbcnt,  Kuha  resembles  it  in  its  jioiralation 
and  pursuits,  its  inhabitants  consisting  chiefly  of  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiah  .sect 
engaged  in  gardening,  and  of  some  thousand  Jews  occupied  with  trade.  The 
climate  is  so  imhealthy  that  an  attempt  was  made  in  1825  to  remove  the  to-mi  to 
a  more  salubrious  site  some  10  miles  farther  north-west.  But  the  people  refused 
to  follow  the  Eussiau  officials,  who  were  fain  to  retiu-u  to  the  old  town,  ^\here, 
however,  they  reside  only  in  ■winter. 

In  the  Samiu'  valley  the  chief  town  is  AJc/ifl,  standing  at  the  jimction  of  two 
torrents  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains. 


v.— THE  INGUR,  RION,  AND  CHORUKH  BASINS. 

MINGRELTA,  IMERITIA,  SVANIA,  LAZISTAN. 

This  Transcaucasian  region,  recently  enlarged  by  a  slice  of  territory  from  Tui-key, 
has  long  been  politically  attached  to  Eiu'ope.  The  Greeks  had  thro^wn  a  huudi-ed  and 
twenty  bridges  over  the  Phasis,  and  constructed  a  fine  carriage  road  across  the  moun- 
tains between  the  town  of  Sarapanes,  the  present  Sharopan,  and  the  Kvira  valley. 
To  the  Greeks  and  Romans  succeeded  the  Genoese,  and  even  when  the  Tmks  seized 
the  seaboard  they  did  so  as  masters  of  Constantiuojjle  and  heirs  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  European  influence  has  also  made  itself  felt  in  religious  matters,  most 
of  the  inhabitants  ha^•ing  been  Christians  since  the  first  centiu'ies  of  the  Church, 
whereas  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Moslem  faith  have  j)revailed  elsewhere 
in  Caucasia.  Nevertheless  the  Ingur  and  Rion  basins  have  long  kept  aloof 
from  the  general  movement  of  modern  culture,  and  some  districts  are  still  in  a 
barbarous  state. 

This  region,  the  Colchis  of  the  ancients,  is  equalled  by  few  jjlaces  for  the 
sjjlendom-  of  its  vegetation,  its  natural  fertility  and  resoiu'ces  of  every  sort.  Yet 
it  is  but  scantily  peopled,  with  scarcelj-  one-half  of  the  relative  population  of 
France.  The  Ingur  and  Rion  basins  are  both  of  them  sharply  limited  by  the 
Caucasus,  Anti-Caucasus,  and  intermediate  Mesk  range.  From  Abkhasia  to 
Lazistan  the  hiUs  form  a  complete  semicircle,  whose  lowest  point,  except  near 
the  coast,  is  at  the  Suram  depression,  3,040  feet  above  sea-level.  This  vast 
semicircle  is  divided  by  ridges  running  parallel  with  the  Great  Caucasus  into 
secondary  segments,  some  of  Mhich  are  completely  isolated,  and  form  little  worlds 
apart. 

The  Ujipcr  Ingur  valley,  which  has  become  administratively  the  district  of 
Free  Svania,  forms  one  of  these  distinct  regions,  and  is  t^i^ical  of  those  elongated 
troughs  lying  between  two  parallel  crests  at  an  altitude  of  about  6,300  feet,  and 
skirted  north  and  south  by  snowy  ridges.  Here  the  glaciers  of  the  Truiber  have 
carried  their  advanced  moraines  to  ■within  2  miles  of  the  Svan  village  of  Jabeshi, 
in  the  coimuune  of  Mujal,  and  the  village  itself,  like  so  many  others,  is  built  on 


MINGEELIA,  IMEEITIA,  SVANIA,  LAZISTAN. 


89 


the  detritus  of  moraines  deposited  by  the  okl  glaciers.  The  glacial  torrents 
forming  the  lugur  are  collected  in  the  depression  of  Free  Svania,  which  is 
enclosed  by  a  transverse  barrier  rimning  south  of  Mount  Elbruz.  Hence  the 
Ingur  escapes  from  its  upper  valley  through  a  narrow  and  deep  rocky  defile,  in 
which  it  flows  south-west  and  south  for  a  distance  of  48  miles.  From  15  to  30 
feet  broad,  and  commanded  by  granitic  or  schist  escarpments  600  to  1,200  feet 
high,  this  gorge  presents,  nevertheless,  a  succession  of  smiling  landscapes,  thanks 
to  the  bushy  vegetation  of  the  river  banks  and  to  the  little  moimds  of  rocky  debris 
at  the  mouths  of  the  tributary  streamlets.     Previous  to  the  military  expedition  of 


Fig.  43. — MoVTII    01'   THE    liiox. 
Scale  1 :  400,000. 


C  JIUes. 


1858  no  route  had  penetrated  through  this  gorge,  and  Svania  communicated  ^vith 
the  Mingrelian  plains  only  by  a  dangerous  moimtain  path. 

The  gorges  of  the  Eion  and  its  head-streams  lack  the  sublimity  of  those  of  the 
Ingur,  although  all  of  them  present  some  delightful  ^•iews.  The  Eion  and 
Tskhenis,  the  two  chief  rivers  of  this  basin,  both  rise  amidst  the  snows  of  the 
Pasis-mta,  a  word  almost  identical  with  that  of  Phasis,  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
river  no^^•  kno\\n  by  the  Georgian  name  of  Eion,  or  Eioni.  Separated  at  their 
som'ce  by  the  Garibolo  ridge,  the  two  streams  diverge  more  and  more,  the 
Tskhenis  watering  the  Scania  of  the  Dadians  and  Mingrelia,  while  the  Eion  flows 
through  Eadsha  and  Imeritia.     From  the  eastern  valleys  comes  the  Kvirila,  which, 


90  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

after  joiuing  the  Khaiii  from  the  south,  unites -with  the  liiouiu  the  fertile  jjlain 
stretching  south  of  Kutais.  Here  begins  the  okl  inlet,  which  has  been  gradually 
filled  in  by  the  alluvia  of  these  mountain  torrents.  "Where  the  Eion  becomes 
navigable  it  is  skirted  by  broad  swamp}'  tracts,  mostly  concealed  by  their  dense 
aquatic  vegetation,  and  in  jjlaces  even  by  thickets  and  forests.  But  few  expanses 
of  still  water  remain  to  recall  the  time  when  all  this  disti'ict  was  covered  by 
the  .sea. 

JVevertheless,  near  the  coa.st  there  remains  a  renuiant  of  the  old  inlet,  still 
known  by  the  Greek  name  of  Palaeostom,  or  "  Old  Mouth,"  and  which  is  supj)osed 
to  have  formerly  received  the  ^\•aters  of  the  Pliasis.  In  the  last  century  it  seems 
to  haAe  commmiicated  by  a  navigable  channel  with  the  sea,  and  its  faima  is  still 
partly  marine,  although  the  water  is  no  longer  even  brackish.  It  is  in  some  places 
over  60  feet  deep,  and  is  separated  from  the  Euxine  by  a  straight  strip  of  dunes, 
which  the  Eion  has  pierced,  its  alluvia,  like  those  of  the  Ingur  and  other  Mingrelian 
coast  streams,  gradually  encroaching  beyond  it  seawards.  According  to  Strabo 
the  Eion  and  its  tributary,  the  Xvirila,  were  navigable  to  Sarapanes,  90  miles 
from  the  present  mouth,  whereas  boats  now  stop  at  Orpiri,  which  is  about  one- 
third  of  that  distance,  and  during  low  water,  from  July  to  December,  there  are 
scarcely  more  than  20  inches  in  the  channel. 

The  momitains  forming  the  watershed  between  the  Eiou  and  Kui'a  basins, 
towards  the  east  and  south-east,  are  continued  uninterruptedly  by  the  Suram  Hills 
westwards  to  the  Lazistan  coast  range.  These  mountains,  imposing  even  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  Great  Caucasus,  rise  above  the  forest  zone  to  the  region  of  pastures, 
some  reaching  an  elevation  of  8,000  feet,  but  all  falling  short  of  the  snow-line. 
Westwards  the  Ajara,  or  Akhaltzikh  rauge,  which  is  the  last  section  of  the  chain, 
skirts  the  Euxine  at  a  distance  of  little  over  half  a  mile  from  the  coast.*  Seen 
from  the  sunnuits  of  these  Lazistan  highlands,  which  were  annexed  to  Russia  in 
1878,  the  land  presents  the  aspect  of  a  storm-tossed  sea.  Here  the  highest  point 
is  the  Karch-shall,  south-east  of  Batum,  which  is  11,430  feet  above  sea-level,  while 
the  mean  elevation  scarcely  exceeds  8,000  feet,  or  about  2,000  feet  above  the 
forest  zone.  Mount  Arsiani  has  all  the  appearance  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and 
lava  streams  have  been  discharged  in  prehistoric  times  from  several  neighbour- 
ing summits.  Their  upper  slopes  are  clothed  with  rich  pastures,  whose  flora  is 
much  the  same  as  that  of  West  Europe,  while  the  fruit  trees  of  the  valleys  rival 
those  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus.  Lazistan  is  an  earthly  paradise, 
where  the  natives  have  generally  shown  a  keen  sense  of  natural  beauty  in  the 
choice  of  the  sites  for  their  villages.  Each  of  these  ^■illages  commands  a  lovely 
prospect  of  flowery  meads,  steep  rocks,  mountain  torrents,  cascades,  chimps  of  trees, 
and  scattered  hamlets. 

•  Chief  elevations  of  the  Ajara  range : — 

Feet. 

Nepis-tzkaro,  south  of  Kutais 9,485 

Xagebo 8,72« 

Sagalatlo 8,265 

Chekhatai 3,355 


CLIMATE— FLOEA  AND  FAI'XA.  91 

All  tlu'  waters  flow-iiig  fi-om  the  Arsiani  Hills  westwards  reacli  the  Chorukh 
either  thruugh  the  Ajara  or  the  Iiiiarshevi.  The  main  stream  rises  south  of 
Trebizond,  and  after  recei^•ing  its  lirst  affluents  flows  parallel  with  the  coast  and 
the  Upper  Eujjhrates  valleys.  In  this  part  of  Asia  Minor  all  the  hills,  plateaux, 
and  valleys  run  uniformly  south-west  and  north-east.  But  after  a  course  of  about 
180  miles  the  Chorukh,  now  swollen  by  the  imited  waters  of  the  Tortimi  and  Olti, 
eseajies  directlj'  towards  the  Eiixine  through  a  deep  gorge  intersecting  the  coast 
range.  Beyond  the  defile  it  has  formed  an  allm-ial  plain  projecting  beyond  the 
normal  coast-line,  and  thus  ser\'ing  to  shelter  the  harbour  of  BatCim  from  the 
west.  .Although  little  inferior  in  vohmie  to  the  Eion,  the  Lower  Chorukh  is  even 
less  navigable  than  the  ilingrelian  river.  This  is  due  to  its  ciu-rent,  which  is  so 
rapid  that  boats  taking  fom-  or  five  days  to  ascend  fi'om  Batum  to  Artvin  make 
the  return  trip  in  eight  hours. 

Climate — Fi.or.v  and  Favxa. 

-  The  climate  of  Transcaucasia  is  one  of  the  most  favom-able  for  vegetation  in 
the  temperate  zone.  Here  plants  are  intermingled  in  the  greatest  variety,  and 
assume  their  loveliest  forms.  Thanks  to  the  abundant  rainfall  and  to  the  barrier 
opposed  by  the  Great  Caucasus  to  the  parching  north-east  winds,  the  various  forest 
and  cidtivated  species  attain  a  greater  elevation  than  in  most  other  places  enjoying 
the  same  mean  temperature.  Thus  the  walnut  flom-ishes  at  5,500  feet  in  Svania, 
where  the  white  mulberry  and  the  vine  are  found  at  elevations  of  3,000  and  even 
3,400  feet,  while  in  the  Upper  Eion  valley  the  cotton-tree  is  met  as  high  as 
2,110  feet.  In  general  the  vegetation  of  West  Transcaucasia  resembles  that  of 
Central  Europe  and  the  French  Atlantic  seaboard  rather  than  that  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores,  although  in  many  respects  the  Mingrelian  flora  seems  to  belong  to 
both  zones.  The  indigo  plant  grows  by  the  side  of  the  cotton-tree  on  the  banks 
of  the  Eion,  where  maize  is  the  prevailing  cereal.  The  tea  plant  is  even  said  to 
occiu-  in  Lazistan,  where  the  camphor-tree  has  been  acclimatized.  In  the  flowering 
season  the  pomegranate  groves  give  to  this  region  the  aspect  of  a  vast  garden ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  eucah-ptus,  so  usefid  for  its  febrifugal  properties,  has 
failed,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  Caucasian  winters.  The  orange  also,  which 
formerly  flourished  at  Poti,  has  disappeared  from  Transcaucasia  since  the  middle 
of  the  last  century.  The  coast  region  is  subject  to  excessive  moisture,  while 
elsewhere  there  is  rather  an  excess  of  dryness.  The  mean  temperature  of  Kuta'is 
(58°  Fahr.)  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  of  the  coast  towns,  an  anomaly  due  to 
the  fierce  and  parching  east  wind  often  prevailing  in  the  Eion  valley.  This  wind 
loses  its  virulence  as  it  proceeds  westwards,  so  that  at  Poti  it  is  no  longer  disagree- 
able, and  ceases  altogether  at  Eedut-Kaleh. 

The  magnificent  Mingrelian  and  other  Western  Transcaucasian  forests  have 
been  exposed  to  fearful  ravages,  especially  since  the  finer  timbers  have  been  sought 
after  by  French  and  other  foreign  traders.  The  walnut  has  nearly  disappeared 
from  all  the  accessible  lowland  tracts,  while  the  destruction  of  the  upland  forests 


92  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

is  slowly  moclif  jing  the  aspect  of  the  country.  Yet  but  little  of  the  cleared  land 
is  brought  under  cultivation,  the  primitive  methods  of  tillage  still  prevail,  and  no 
pains  are  taken  to  improve  the  %"ine,  which  is  here  indigenous.  Under  the 
imivcrsal  apathy  many  cidtivated  tracts  liave  become  overgro\\m  with  bracken,  while 
the  proprietors,  after  an  absence  of  a  few  years,  no  longer  recognise  their  former 
farmsteads,  now  concealed  amidst  the  rank  vegetation. 

The  Ingiir  and  Eion  basins  are  no  less  noted  for  their  magnificent  faima  than 
for  tlieir  rich  and  varied  flora.  Free  Svania,  says  Eadde,  "  owns  the  finest  cattle 
in  the  world."  There  are  two  excellent  breed.s,  one  small  and  sprightly,  the  other 
strong,  majestic,  and  acbnirably  proportioned.  This  is  the  Ukranian  race  intro- 
duced b}'  the  Ciscaucasian  Tatar  traders  into  the  Upper  Ingur  valley,  where, 
imder  new  climatic  conditions,  its  coloiu'  has  become  modified,  often  assmning  the 
.shades  and  stripes  of  the  tiger.  The  horse,  although  not  niuuerous  in  the  upland 
valleys,  is  also  noted  for  his  strength  and  action,  while  the  Svanian  mules  and 
asses  fetch  three  or  four  times  the  price  of  the  lowland  breeds.  The  goat  and 
other  smaller  domestic  animals  are  likewise  distinguished  for  their  sjTumetrical 
forms  and  other  excellent  properties. 

In  the  lowlands  the  marsh  fevers  are  no  less  injm'ious  to  the  animals  than  to 
man.  Here  the  Mingrelian  peasantry  fail  even  to  rear  poidtry,  which  Toropov 
does  not  hesitate  to  attribute  to  the  malaria. 


IxHABiTAXTs — The  Svaxs  axd  Eachiaxs. 

The  natives  themselves  are  far  from  being  a  pure  race.  Amidst  a  great  variety 
of  tj^Des  the  contrast  presented  by  the  fair  and  bro^vn  iliugrelians  is  very  striking. 
The  former  are  distinguished  by  a  lofty  brow  and  oval  face,  the  latter  by  broad 
features  and  low  forehead,  though  both  are  alike  handsome  and  of  gracefid  car- 
riage. From  the  remotest  times  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Euxine  have  been 
visited  by  friends  and  foes  of  every  race,  many  of  whom  must  have  introduced 
fresh  ethnical  elements.  Arabs,  and  even  negroes,  fljang  from  their  Turkish 
masters,  have  contribiited  to  increase  the  confusion.  Yet,  however  numerous 
were  the  crossings,  all  have  become  blended  together,  jointl}'  tending  to  develop 
the  beauty  of  the  original  type.  In  the  Mingrelian  lowlands,  and  especially  on 
the  advanced  spiu's  up  to  an  altitude  of  about  3,700  feet,  nearly  all  the  men  are 
handsome.  But  in  the  heart  of  the  highlands,  where  the  struggle  for  existence 
becomes  more  intensified,  the  features,  especially  of  the  women,  are  often  even 
ugly.  Goitre  and  cretinism  are  frequent  amongst  the  Svans,  and  as  we  ascend  the 
Ingfir  from  the  region  of  maize  to  the  snowy  pastures,  the  change  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  inhabitants  is  analogous  to  that  which  is  observed  by  the  traveller 
passing  from  the  Italian  lakes  to  the  Alpine  gorges  of  the  Yalais. 

The  Svans,  who  occupy  (he  Upper  Ingur  and  Tskhenis  valleys,  are  evidently 
a  mixed  race,  although  fundamentally  akin  to  the  Georgians,  to  whom  they  are 
also  allied  in  speech.  They  were  formerly  a  powerful  nation  mentioned  by  Strabo, 
and  in  the  fifteenth  centiu-y  they  still  held  the  Upper  Eion  valley.     The  present 


INIIABITAKTS— THE  SVANS  AND  EACHIANS. 


93 


survivors  seem  to  descend  mainly  from  fugitives  driven  from  the  iJIingrelian 
plains  In'  oppression  and  the  calamities  of  ^-ar.  In  the  secluded  valleys  bor- 
dering on  the  glaciers  they  fo\md  a  secm-e  retreat,  ahnost  severed  by  physical 
barriers  from  the  rest  of  the  Tvorld.  More  accessible  are  those  of  the  Upper 
Tskhenis  basin,  who  have  consequently  had  to  endure  the  hardest  feudal  rule 
under  jjrinces  binding  them  to  the  glebe.  This  branch  take  the  name  of  Dadian 
Svans,  from  the  ancient  Georgian  princeh'  title  of  ''Dadian"  assumed  by  the 
governing  family.  They  are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  fi-om  their  Imeritiau 
neighbours,  and  their  speech  is  a  pure  Georgian  dialect.  The  Dadishkalian 
Svans.  in  the  western  division  of  the  Upper  Ingur  basin,  are  also  under  a  feudal 
lord  of  Kumik  Tatar  stock ;  but  being  regarded  as  serfs,  they  -were  emancipated 
at  the  expense  of  the  Russian  Government  when  serfdom  was  everywhere  officially 
abolished,     The  eastern  communities  of  the  Upper  Ingftr  have  long  maintained 


Fig.  44. — Upper  IsgCk  Valley. 
From  tte  Map  of  the  Eiissian  Staff.     Sc.-Ue  1  :  840,000. 


C  Perron 


.  12  Miles. 


their  independence,  and  are  still  often  distingui.shed  by  the  epithet  of  "  Free," 
although  they  took  the  oath  of  obedience  to  Russia  in  1853.  And  in  many 
respects  they  are  still  really  free,  recognising  neither  lord  nor  master,  and  rejecting 
even  the  control  of  the  clergy.  In  the  conmiunal  gatherings  all  have  an  equal 
voice,  and  important  decisions  require  to  be  adopted  imanimously,  the  opposition 
of  a  single  member  causing  the  whole  question  to  be  postponed  imtil  imanimity 
can  be  secured.  Nor  does  the  commime  interfere  in  personal  quarrels,  which  are 
regulated  by  the  lex  talionis.  J^owhere  else  in  the  Caucasus  are  the  laws  of 
vendetta  more  rigorously  adhered_to,  so  that  few  are  met  who  have  not  killed  their 
man.  All  the  houses  along  the  Upper  Ingiir  are  real  fortresses,  perched  on  rocky 
eminences,  and  commanded  by  square  watch-towers  60  to  80  feet  high.  The  doors 
of  these  keeps  are  on  the  second  or  third  story,  and  can  be  approached  only  by  rude 
ladders  formed  of  the  stems  of  trees. 

Hereditary  animosities  greatly  contribute  to  the  reduction  of  the  population 
pent  up  in  the  bleak  valley  of  Free  Svania,  or  Jabe-Shevi ;  yet  it  is  still  so  dense 

VOL.    VI.  H 


94  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

that  the  people  are  obliged  to  emigrate  to  the  neighbouring  tribes.  In  the  clays  of 
their  military  power  their  j-oung  men  left  their  homes  as  conquerors,  often  imder- 
taking  plundering  expeditions  to  the  plains,  and  even  in  the  fourteenth  centurj- 
they  were  strong  enough  to  burn  the  city  of  Kutais.  Till  recently  the  excessive 
popidation  was  also  checked  by  the  practice  of  infanticide,  in  which  most  of  the 
girls  perished,  while  in  hard  times  gro-mi-up  children  were  sold  at  prices  varjong 
from  £30  to  £50.  The  .small  amount  of  trade  carried  on  by  the  tribes  lower  down 
is  monopolized  by  the  Jews,  \\"ho  arc  grouped  in  the  ■\-illage  of  Lakhauiidi.  These 
Jews  are  distinguished  from  their  brethren  elsewhere  by  their  warlike  habits.  But 
although  practising  Christian  rites  and  calling  themselves  Svans,  the  hillmen  of  the 
Upper  Ingur  contract  no  alliances  -n-ith  them,  and  even  refiise  to  eat  at  their  table. 

All  the  Svans,  estimated  at  over  12,000,  are  classed  amongst  the  Christian  tribes 
of  Caucasia,  and  even  claim  a  sort  of  pre-eminence  amongst  their  co-religionists, 
jDretending  that  their  ancestry  were  baptized  by  Christ  himself.  But  their  Chris- 
tianit}'  has  been  develoijed  in  a  somewhat  original  manner  imder  the  influence  of 
older  rites.  Thus  their  little  chapels,  large  enough  to  accommodate  about  a  dozen, 
have  crj-pts  filled  with  the  horns  of  the  chamois  and  wild  goat,  which  are  objects 
of  great  veneration.  The  priests,  or  "  j)apas,"  form  a  distinct  hereditary  caste, 
though  their  only  jjrivilege  is  exemption  from  the  laws  of  vendetta.  Although  not 
obliged  to  keep  the  lower  part  of  the  face  covered,  the  women  pass  a  bandage  over 
their  mouths  when  singing  national  or  religious  songs,  possiblj'  to  prevent  the  devil 
from  entering.  All  the  Svans  are  also  bound  to  silence  when  on  the  march,  or 
chanting  sacred  hj-mns,  for  the  least  word  might  draw  down  the  tempest. 
Analogous  sujierstitions  occur  amongst  the  Norwegian  fishermen,  the  Buriats,  and 
the  American  hunting  tribes. 

The  district  of  Racha,  comprising  the  Upper  EIou  valley,  is  larger  and  more 
populous  than  the  western  basins  of  the  Tskhenis  and  Ingur,  and  has  always 
offered  a  route  to  graziers,  traders,  and  even  warlike  bands  crossing  the  Caucasus 
obliquely  from  the  Georgian  to  the  Terek  lowlands.  Hence  the  Eachians,  who,  like 
most  of  the  people  in  the  government  of  Kutais,  arc  of  Georgian  race  and  speech, 
are  more  civilised  than  their  Svanian  neighbours.  But  they  also  are  too  numerous 
for  their  largely  unproductive  territory,  so  that  thousands  are  forced  to  emigrate 
to  the  lowlands,  seldom  returning  ^vithout  ha-s-ing  amassed  a  small  fortune.  Most 
of  the  carpenters  and  sawj-ers  met  with  in  Imeria  and  Mingrelia  are  Eachians. 

The  Imeritians,  Mixgreliaxs,  a>"d  Lazes. 

The  Georgians  of  the  Upper  Eion  basin  bear  the  general  name  of  Imeritians, 
or  more  properly  Imerians ;  that  is,  "People  of  the  other  side,"  in  reference  to  the 
Suram  Mountains  separating  them  from  the  bidk  of  the  nation.  The  term  Imereth, 
or  Imeria,  has  been  applied,  with  the  shifting  of  the  border  peoples,  at  times  to  all 
"Western  Transcaucasia,  at  times  only  to  its  upper  section,  Mingrelia  being  usually 
reserved  for  the  low-lj'ing  region  comprising  the  alluvial  lauds  and  coast  district. 
Thanks  to  their  damp,  miasmatic,  and  enervating  climate,  the  Mingrclians  are 


17    -(^»\\ 


^■■M^'Jn^>-;^X 


•  1  )  ./^  '^  ',,/ ^  v^. 


i 


m 


v:v^-:S%v::-:- 
:-/:^;^:v.:;;:\Mv 


v.v^>*!  V. »^^! 


|V.V\*'-'V.'» 


>••• 


v.\  ^rv!' v.o J-;. 


'*".•» 


\».* 


>  .•  'J 


•-•  »J 


^••.•» 

v.**^ 


*  •   /-•-•.\ 


*v'v:-,o.' 


I 


xV 


'*%•» 


X'. 


.•»^^:* 


»  'J 


/Iv^  >••;•'/.•-•-»  **»1 


'*'«•»' 


96  ASIATIC  RITf?SIA. 

and  Greek  elements.  In  their  customs  also  the  Lazes  resemble  the  Imerians. 
Both  respect  old  age,  are  extremely  hospitable,  and,  -while  full  of  curiosity,  still 
maintain  a  dig'niiied  reserve.  Like  most  Caucasians,  they  are  fond  of  display 
and  rich  attire,  nor  do  they  deserve  the  charge  of  indolence  brought  against  them 
by  careless  observers,  for  their  fields  are  well  tilled  and  their  houses  kept  in  good 
order.  The  Laz  women  combine  Math  beauty  and  sjnmnetry  of  form  a  rare  repu- 
tation for  courage.  The  INfoslem  Lazes  have  emigrated  in  large  numbers  to  Turkish 
territorj-  since  the  annexation  to  Ilussia  in  1878,  while  the  Christians  will  no\N- 
l^robably  find  their  way  to  Tiflis  and  the  Russian  ports  on  the  Euxine. 

The  national  character  coidd  scarcely  fail  to  be  modified  under  the  Turkish 
reginac.  Three  centuries  ago  all  the  Tjazcs  of  the  Upper  Ajara  valleys  were 
Christians,  and  many  villages  still  boast  of  well-preserved  churches  in  the  best 
Bj'zantine  style  of  architecture.  Certain  commimes  did  not  conform  to  the  Moslem 
creed  till  about  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  several,  though  nominally 
followers  of  the  Prophet,  are  still  practically  Christian,  the  two  faiths  often  over- 
lapj)iug  to  such  an  extent  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  saj-  Avhere  the  one  ceases  and 
the  o'ther  begins.  "With  their  religion  the  Turks  also  introduced  their  language 
into  all  the  to^vns  and  large  villages,  so  that  the  Laz  dialect  ceased  to  be  current 
except  in  the  remote  rural  districts.  The  Armenian  colonies  scattered  over  the 
land  had  also  forgotten  their  mother  tongue  iu  favour  of  Turkish,  which  must  now 
in  its  turn  slowly  yield  to  Russian,  just  as  the  !Mohannnedau  must  give  way  to  the 
Christian  faith. 

ToPOfiRAPHY. 

The  Rion  valley,  whose  commercial  importance  -nas  already  recognised  by  the 
prehistoric  Argonauts,  and  where,  thirty  centuries  later  on,  the  Genoese  also  went  in 
search  of  the  "  Golden  Fleece,"  promises  once  more  to  play  a  large  part  in  the 
general  development  of  trade.  For  some  years  past  it  has  been  crossed  in  its  entire 
length  by  a  railway  connecting  Tiflis  with  the  Euxine,  and  this  is  but  a  first 
section  of  the  line  destined,  sooner  or  later,  to  reach  the  Indus.  But  the  site  of  the 
old  Greek  trading  route,  like  that  of  their  chief  emj)orimn  Colchis,  has  long  been 
forgotten.  The  village  of  Shriropan,  at  the  jimction  of  the  Kvirila  and  Dzirula, 
claims  to  stand  on  the  spot  where  grew  the  famous  grove  penetrated  \>y  the 
legendary  Jason  iu  search  of  the  "  Golden  Fleece."  At  the  gorges  of  the  Khani, 
south-east  of  Kutais,  are  the  extensive  ruins  of  the  former  Turkish  fortress  of 
Bagdad,  whose  Moslem  inhabitants  were  driven  into  exile  in  the  last  eenturv. 
Nevertheless  Bagdad  is  still  a  considerable  village. 

Kutais,  the  present  capital  of  the  province,  which  comprises  most  of  Western 
Transcaucasia,  is  happily  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  three  valleys  watered  by 
the  Rion,  Kvirila,  and  Khani,  and  at  the  head  of  the  alluvial  plain  stretching  thence 
to  the  coast.  Standing  on  the  first  rising  grounds  of  the  advanced  spurs  of  the 
Caucasus,  it  is  well  sheltered  from  the  north  ^^ind,  while  its  gardens  and  parks  are 
abundantly  watered  by  the  Rion,  which  traverses  the  iovra.  Kutais,  if  not  the 
traditional  city  of  Medea,  is  at  all  events  a  very  old  place,  for  it  is  mentioned  by 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


97 


Procopius  under  the  name  of  Kotatission,  and  it  eoustantly  figiu-es  in  Georgian 
history,  sometimes  even  as  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  ahvays  as  a  noted  strong- 
hold. The  old  tovra  stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Eion,  at  the  foot  of  the 
acropolis ;  but  the  modern  lies  maioly  on  the  opposite  bank.  Its  most  remarkable 
monimient  is  a  ruined  cathedi-al  built  by  the  Bagratides  early  in  the  eleventh 
century  on  the  acropolis.  On  it  have  been  modelled  most  of  the  other  religious 
edifices  in  the  coimtry,  so  that  it  is  rightly  regarded  as  the  most  precious  relic  of 
Georgian  art.  Thanks  to  its  trade  and  local  industry,  chiefly  hat-making,  Kutais 
has  recently  made  rapid  progress,  the   jjopulation  rising  from  4,000  to  r2,<)00 


Fig.  46. — KuTAis  A>'i>  the  Kion  and  Kvirlla  Jcxcthix. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Eossian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  440,000. 


U  Perrgp 


,  6  Miles. 


in  a  few  years.  In  the  district  is  fomid  a  species  of  jet  used  for  bracelets  and  other 
ornaments;  but  the  rich  Tk-N-ibula  coal-fields,  some  18  miles  to  the  north-east, 
have  been  but  little  worked.  Siuce  1879  the  manganese  deposits  of  the  Upper 
K^-ii-ila  valley,  estimated  at  several  millions  of  tons,  have  also  attracted  attention. 

Khoni,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Tskhenis  valley,  north-east  of  Kutais,  is  the  market 
town  of  the  Dadian  Svans,  and  lower  do^^  u  is  the  large  \-illage  of  Kulmhi,  near  the 
junction  of  the  Riou  and  Tskhenis,  in  the  most  densely  peopled  district  of  Caucasia. 

Orpin',  the  river  port  of  the  Riou,  at  the  junction  of  the  Tskhenis,  is  inhabited 
by  members  of  the  Skoptzi  sect,  who  arc  mostly  wealthy,  though  the  trade  of  the 
place  has  fallen  off  since  the  opening  of  the  railway.     The  two  seaports  of  Redout- 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


^'iiiiiip 

Is. 


I    ii  . 


i 


m 


Hi 


l!L 


Knkh  and  Foti  are  ratlicr  sliunncd  by  traders  c,u  accoiuit  of  the  local  Icver.s  and 
by  sailors  ou  account  of   tlicir  Lad  anchorage.      llcdout-Kaleli,   ^^■llose   name   is 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


99 


composed  of  u  Freucli  aud  Tiu-kish  word,  both  meaning  the  same  thing,  is  a  poor 
Eussian  village  foimded  in  the  present  ccutuiT  as  the  seaport  of  the  rich  Lower 
Ingur  district,  but  now  almost  forsaken  in  favoui-  of  Poti,  situated  farther  south,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  Its  houses,  raised  on  piles  and  sui-roimded  by  palisades, 
stretch  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  imhealthy  marshy  banks  of  the  river, 
whose  floodings  convert  the  to'mi  t^^•ice  a  year  into  a  peninsula.  The  harbour  is 
rendered  inaccessible  to  large  vessels  by  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eion,  all  the 
engineering  efforts  to  remove  which  have  hitherto  had  but  partial  success.  Hence 
it  is  little  used  except  for  shipping  cereals  aud  raw  silk.     The  exports  amounted  in 


Fig.  48.— Bati'M. 
From  the  Hap  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  320,000. 


ni»25 


6  Miles. 


C. Perron 


1876  to  nearly  5,000,000  roubles,  whQo  the   imports  average  scarcely  more  than 
800,000. 

A  much  finer  harboiu-  is  that  of  Batiim,  lyiug  30  miles  to  the  south-west,  and 
ceded  by  Tm-key  in  1878.  Even  before  the  annexation  it  was  far  more  a  Eussian 
than  a  Turkish  port,  for  here  the  large  Odes.sa  steamers  transhipped  their  cargoes 
in  60  feet  of  water  to  smaller  vessels  capable  of  crossing  the  bar  at  Poti.  Althoiigh 
declared  a  free  port  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  Batum  has  none  the  less  ah'eady 
become  a  strong  fortress.  But  with  aU  its  advantages,  the  peniasula  created  bj-  the 
allu^-ia  of  the  Chorukh  on  the  west  is  constantly  increasing,  and  threatening  to  stiU 
further  restrict  the  available  space  in  the  harbom-,  which  is  already  insufficient  to 
accommodate  more  than  twelve  large  vessels.  But  nothing  would  be  easier  than 
to  connect  the  port  with  the  river  by  a  canal,  which,  with  the  railway  now  being 
constructed  by  the  town  of  Uzm'geti  to  the  Poti-Tiflis  line,  will  render  Batum  the 


100  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

common  outport  of  the  liiou  aud  Clioriddi  basius.  The  extraordiuary  fertility  of 
this  region  -^^ill  thus  seciu'e  it  a  certain  commercial  imjjortauce  in  future.  The 
chief  exports  arc  cereals,  cotton,  the  excellent  apples  known  in  Russia  as  "  Crimean 
apples,"  and  the  od  yielded  by  the  dolphuLs  taken  in  the  baj'. 

The  chief  inland  towoi  of  Russian  Lazistau  is  Artvin,  standing  on  the  slope  of  a 
hill  at  the  outlet  of  the  gorge  of  the  Lower  Chorukh,  and  at  the  head  of  its 
navigation.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  with  a  circuit  of  not  less 
than  5  miles,  including  its  gardens.  Besides  dyeing,  which  is  its  staple  industry, 
it  manufactiu'es  silks  and  other  woven  stuffs.  Its  traders,  mostly  Ai-meniaus, 
have  relations  through  Batum  with  Constantinople  and  Marseilles.  Here  the  Laz 
race  is  said  to  reach  its  highest  physical  perfection,  aud  all  the  children  might 
serve  as  models  for  the  painter  or  scid^jtor. 

ArdanuJ,  on  a  plateau  south  of  xlrtvin,  was  formerly  capital  of  the  kingdom, 
and  higher  up  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains  is  Olti,  ceded  in  1878  by  Tm-key. 
Like  Art^•in,  it  is  a  city  of  fruits  and  flowers,  and  the  chief  trading-place  between 
Ardahan  and  Erzerum. 


VII.— THE  KURA  BASIN. 

GEORGIA,  TRANSCAUCASIAN  TATAEY. 


The  Kimi  and  Araxis  may  be  regarded  as  ivnn,  but  independent  streams.  Of 
nearly  equal  length,  and  draining  about  an  equal  area,  they  remain  separated 
throughout  their  iqjper  aiid  middle  course  by  plateaux  and  lofty  ranges.  In  the 
time  of  Strabo  they  had  even  separate  mouths,  and  at  j^reseut  unite  their  waters  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Caspian,  scarcely  more  than  20  feet  above  the  level  of 
that  sea.  Ethnically  also  the  two  river  basins  are  qiute  distinct.  Both  are  now 
no  doubt  occupied  by  Tatar  peoples,  but  the  Georgians  are  still  predominant  in  the 
Upper  and  Middle  Kura  valley,  while  the  Araxis  is  chiefly  occupied  by  Armenians. 
Politically  the  former  belongs  entirely  to  Russia,  whereas  the  latter  rises  in  Turkish 
territory,  and  for  about  half  its  course  its  right  bank,  with  all  its  southern  tribu- 
taries, waters  Persian  districts. 

RivEK  SvsTKMs — The  Kuka. 

The  Georgian  v'weY  known  as  tlie  Kura,  or  Kur,  names  recalling  the  Greek 
Kuros  (Anglicised  Cyrus),  has  its  farthest  source  in  the  "  Pearl  Brook,"  or  "Coral 
AVater,"  of  the  Turks,  a  torrent  flowing  from  a  cirque,  or  old  hill-encircled 
lakelet,  through  a  narrow  gorge  romid  the  east  foot  of  the  Arsiani  range.  It 
descends  thence  through  a  series  of  defiles  and  sudden  ^\■iuding•s  bet^veen  the  Ajara 
and  Trialetes  Hills,  west  and  east,  down  to  the  plains  of  Tiflis.  In  one  of  these 
defiles,  between  Atzkhur  and  Borjom,  it  falls  altogether  about  740  feet  through  a 
succession  of  rapids  in  the  space  of  15  miles.     The  plateau  whence  flow  its  head- 


EIVEE  SYSTEMS— THE  KI'EA. 


101 


streams  is  very  irieg-iJar,  but  it  becomes  much  more  uniform  between  Ardahan  and 
Akhaltzik,  Avhere  it  forms  the  ti-ue  water-paiting  between  the  Kiu-a  and  Araxis, 
■with  a  mean  elevation  of  fi-om  7,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  Black  Sea.  The 
depressions  on  this  monotonous  plateau  are  filled  with  lakes  draining  some  to  the 
Araxis,  some  to  the  Kui'a,  while  others  have  become  brackish  tarns  with  no  outflow, 
and  others  again  half  dried-up  fens  and  marshes.     The  aspect  of  the  land  still 


Fig.  49. — AXHALKALAKI    Pl..iTEAU. 

Fi-om  the  Map  of  the  Eussiao  Staff.    Scale  1  :  936,000. 


<:^.i^^/7?^^/%^^.  ' 


rSi- 


L  .  .  (  G 


C  Perron 


13  Miles, 


.speaks  of  a  time  when  it  foiiued  a  vast  lacusti-ine  basin  with  inlets  ramifj-ing  into 
the  sm-roimding  hills.  This  region  was  fonnerly  lit  up  by  a  double  line  of  active 
volcanoes  rising  to  the  east  of  Akhalkalaki,  and  running  north  and  south  vertically 
with  the  axis  of  the  Trialetes  range,  lloimt  Samsar,  one  of  these  volcanoes,  has  an 
oval  crater  nearly  2  miles  long,  and  its  lava  streams  stretch  north-west  over  a 
large  portion  of  the  plateau.  The  Great  and  Little  Abul,  rising  from  a  common 
base,  resemble   in   form    the   double    cones   of   Ai-arat,  and   fi-om  their  trachytic 


*^; 


102  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

jjorphyi-j'  summits  a  northern  \lew  is  afforded,  embracing  all  tlic  Caucasus  from 
Elbruz  to  the  Tebidos-mta.  Other  extinct  volcanoes  are  disposed  in  crescent  form 
roimd  the  cirque  enclosing  the  romantic  Lake  Tojjorovan,  •nhich,  with  its  remains  of 
lacustrine  dwellings,  itself  resembles  a  Aast  flooded  crater.  This  sublime  but 
gloomy  tableland,  -with  its  black  moimtains,  yawning  abysses,  and  ancient  lava 
streams,  "  still  haimted  by  demons  and  goblins,"  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
^^inding  valley  of  the  Kura,  with  its  leafy  shades  and  sparkling  running  waters, 

still  occasionally  broken  by  nar- 
Fijj.  .50.-TATAE  Type.  I'o^v   I'^'a    gorges    and    coliminar 

crystalline    cliffs   many   hxmdrcd 

feet  high,  and   capj)ed  with  the 

-^^^^  ruins  of  ancient  castles.    All  these 

volcanic  highlands  and  rugged 
terraces  rising  to  the  west  of  Tiflis 
form  a  sort  of  advanced  pro- 
montory of  Asia  Minor,  about 
60  miles  long,  within  whose  nar- 
row limits  are  brewed  nearly  all 
^'  the    fierce    tempests    and    hail- 

""^^  IMnhtJ  storms  that  bm-st  on  the  neigh- 

V       ^^^S 'j?^^^S)^1^«!*ii»^B^  bouring  Karthalian  plains.     The 

■^s^►^?V>^      Ji^^K         W  '^^'i^  frequency    of    these    hail-stonns 

x:  ^  / 1  l^^^K^'    <-^  M        —  ^^^   compelled  the    peasantry  to 

^  *J^         /I  '  ^^^S^^B|Lg^^i        -^i^  '-^       abandon  the  cultivation  of  certain 
^^5^^  ^iSS^^^^^''^   —  districts  in  this  region.    A  second 

M^  ■,        "^  ^^^^^v^,^^J^^JyT:;;^^-     zone  of  tempests  stretches  along 

V        ^,.,  --^      ^        \  ^^^^^^^      the     foot    of     the     Yelizavetpol 

1  *  ^      \  %  ~^         Moimtains,  preventing  the  exten- 

^ '  ,         *"  ^^^w^^fe  ^  ^^^^  of  sericulture  in  consequence 

'  /  i         "■ . . .  ".,'^^«  \  ^  of    the    great    mortality    caused 

by   thimder    amongst    the    silk- 
^  worms.* 

Before  its  junction  with  the 
Aragva,  which  is  scarcely  inferior  in  vohuue  to  the  main  stream,  the  Kura  flows 
south  and  south-east  mainlj-  in  a  line  with  the  Great  Caucasus  and  with  the  Yora 
and  Alazan,   the  two   tributaries  which  join   it   after  emerging  from   the  upper 

•  Chief  elevations  of  the  Upper  Kura  liusiu  :  — 

Feet. 

Kizil-Gjaduk,  source  of  the  Kura 10,350 

Great  Ahul 11,12.5 

Samsar ;         .  11,000 

Godorebi 10,030 

Enilekli 10,16.3 

Koyerctiu-dagh, -svest  of  the  ICura 10,11.5 

Arjevan 9,19i5 

Kanli  Pass,  between  the  Kura  and  ChoruUh 9,0.50 

Kojor  Pass,  between  the  Aklialtzik  plain  and  Titiis        ....  4,390 


EIVEE  SYSTEMS-THE  KUEA. 


103 


gorges.  At  tlic  point  wlicre  it  is  crossed  by  the  road  from  Yelizavetpol  to  Baku, 
a  little  below  the  couflueuce  of  these  streams,  the  Kiira  is  already  navigable  for 
craft  drawing  4  feet,  although,  owing  to  the  scant  popidation  along  its  banks,  the 
water  highway  of  some  450  miles  has  hitherto  been  little  utilised.  Fishing  is 
almost  the  only  industry  carried  on  along  its  lower  course,  which  teems  with  fish 

Fig.   ol. — TuE    KuiiA    AND    Araxis    Coxflvence. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  675,000. 


C    Perron 


Old  Canals. 


1-J  Miles. 


probably  more  than  any  other  spot  on  the  globe.  Hero  the  chartered  company 
captures  prodigious  quantities  of  "  \^-hite  fish "  and  sturgeon,  paj-ing  a  yearly 
revenue  to  the  Government  of  not  less  than  120,000  roubles.  Yet  according 
to  the  descriptions  of  Pallas  these  fisheries  were  even  still  more  productive  during 
the  last  century,  when  as  many  as  15,000  sturgeon  were  taken  in  a  single  day. 


104  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

"WTienever  the  fishing  had  to  bo  interrupted  for  four-and-tweuty  hours  the  Kura, 
here  -190  feet  wide  and  70  feet  deep,  became  one  moving  mass  of  fish.  The 
diminution  of  their  numbers  has  been  attributed  to  the  introduction  of  steam 
navigation,  which  frightens  away  the  shoals  ascending  the  river  to  the  spa■^^•uing 
grounds. 

The  miited  \ohune  of  the  Kura  and  .Vraxis  is  estimated  at  about  ^-1,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  which,  in  proiiortiou  to  tlie  area  of  their  basin,  is  much  less  than 
that  of  the  Eion,  a  difference  due  to  the  less  abundant  rainfall  and  greater  evapo- 
ration in  the  region  draining  to  the  Caspian.  A  large  portion  of  the  Kura  basin 
consists  of  almost  waterless  desert  incaj)able  of  cultivation,  though  rich  in  herbage 
after  the  i-ains,  and  in  spring  frequented  by  Tatar  graziers,  who  di-ive  their  herds 
to  the  upland  pastui'es  in  summer.  Even  in  the  heart  of  Georgia,  between  the 
Km-a  and  Yora,  and  thence  to  the  Alazan,  we  meet  with  rocky  steppes  destitute  of 
permanent  dwellings,  and  aboAe  the  triple  confluence  the  stony  and  argillaceous 
land  everywhere  presents  an  aspect  of  monotonous  aridity.  During  the  last 
century  rice  was  cultivated  bj'  the  Tatars  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Kiu-a,  north 
of  Yelizavetpol.  But  they  were  compelled  by  the  inroads  of  the  Lezghians  to 
abandon  their  fiields,  and  nothing  now  remains  except  traces  of  the  old  irrigating 
canals  from  the  Yora,  and  a  few  Tatar  herdsmen,  who  are  obliged  to  burrow  in 
the  groimd  to  shelter  themselves  from  the  cold  blasts  that  sweep  the  bare  Karayaz 
plateaux  in  winter.  With  the  first  spring  days  they  gladly  quit  their  wretched 
iindergroimd  hovels,  migrating  through  the  beech  forests  southwards  to  the  fine 
Alpine  pastures  of  the  Gok-chai. 

Agricultuke — lRRiG.vn<)-\  Works — CuM.vrE. 

In  these  lands  civilisation  has  retrograded,  since  agricultiu-e  has  been  replaced 
by  a  nomad  pastoral  life.  Yet  in  winter  during  the  low  waters  the  Kiira  and 
Araxis  together  have  a  total  volmue  of  6,800  cubic  feet,  and  in  smumer  about  35,000 
cubic  feet  jDer  second  might  be  raised  for  irrigation  purposes.  But  nothing  has 
been  done  beyond  constructing  the  so-called  "Mary  Canal"  across  the  Karayaz 
steppe  between  the  Kura  and  Yora.  Unfortunately  this  tract  is  very  mihealthy, 
so  that  few  venture  to  risk  their  lives  in  reclaiming  the  laud.  The  Tatar  popula- 
tions, who  have  retained  possession  of  their  lands  between  Nukha  and  Shemakha, 
are  still  able  to  show  the  Russians  how  a  jjroper  system  of  irrigation  may  transform 
the  desert  to  a  garden.  The  torrents  descending  from  the  gorges  of  the  Caucasus 
are  arrested,  on  entering  the  plains,  by  dams  which  divide  and  subdivide  them  into 
countless  rUls,  luitil  the  last  drojj  of  water  is  utilised  before  reaching  the  Kui'a. 
But  the  irrigation  works  might  be  met  by  channels  from  this  river,  by  which  the 
whole  steppe  could  be  brought  imder  cultivation.  Some  of  the  waste  spaces  are 
at  present  dangerous  for  caravans,  owing  to  the  want  of  fodder  and  the  poisonous 
herbs,  such  as  the  Pontine  wormwood,  fatal  to  horses.  The  army  sent  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1722  against  Shemakha  thus  lost  all  its  artillery  horses,  and  the  same 
disaster  overtook  General  Tzitzianov's  arniv  a.  ccnturv  thcreafteri 


AGEICT7T.TURE— lEEIGATION  WORKS- CLIMATE.  105 

A  portion  of  tlie  Karabagh  and  Shirikuni  steppes  between  the  Kura  and 
Araxis,  and  those  of  Mugan  stretching  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Araxis  and 
Lower  Kiira  to  the  foot  of  the  Talish  ^Mountains,  were  formerly  cultivated  and  well- 
peopled  difitricts.  The  great  city  of  Bilgan,  destroyed  by  Jenghis  Khan,  stood 
on  a  canal  constructed  fifteen  himdred  years  ago  across  the  Karabagh  steppe,  and 
when  Timiu-  restored  the  canal  two  centuries  afterwards  this  cit^-  reappeared  and 
continued  to  floiu-ish  till  the  last  centm-y.  East  of  the  Araxis  the  traces  have  been 
discovered  of  nimierous  canals  running  from  its  right  bank  eastwards  across  the 
steppe ;  but  these  could  not  be  restored  without  tapping  the  river  above  the  old 
dams,  either  because  its  mean  level  has  fallen,  or  because  the  land  has  been  raised 
by  its  alluvia.  One  of  the  canals  followed  by  Toropov  is  no  less  than  90  miles 
long,  and  on  its  banks  are  the  remains  of  a  vast  city.  Ruined  caravanserais  and 
ehoked-ujj  cisterns  also  mark  the  site  of  other  now  abandoned  trade  routes.  The 
plain  is  here  and  there  dotted  with  barrows,  and  throughout  the  peninsida,  formed 
by  the  jimction  of  the  Kura  and  Araxis,  there  are  ninnerous  lines  of  earthworks, 
flanked  by  redoubts  and  hiUocks  used  as  outposts.  The  general  disappearance  of 
the  population,  whose  presence  is  shown  by  all  these  remains,  dates  from  the 
Mongolian  invasion  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  those  who  escaped  service  in 
the  armies  of  Batu  Khan  abandoned  their  towns  and  land,  and  took  refuge  in  the 
mountains.  The  irrigating  canals  now  became  choked  with  mud,  and  the  waters 
of  the  Kura  and  Araxis  overflowed  into  the  surrounding  depressions,  where  they 
formed  imhealthj-  morasses,  and  even  real  lakes,  such  as  that  of  Makhmud-Chalassi, 
though  many  of  these  have  since  evaporated,  leaving  nothing  behind  except  saline 
tracts  frmged  ^\•ith  a  russet  border  of  sickly  vegetation.  Elsewhere  the  land  is 
covered  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  with  the  grey  mugwort  or  the  white-flowering 
delphinium.  Yet  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  restore  its  fertilitT  to  this 
region,  which  might  support  an  agricultural  popidation  of  at  least  two  millions. 
The  sm'vey  carried  out  in  1860  showed  that  in  the  lower  plains  there  are  over 
5,000,000  acres  capable  of  being  irrigated.  A  large  portion  of  the  steppe  is 
covered  with  a  black  loam,  which  only  awaits  the  fertilising  waters  to  become  one 
of  the  granaries  of  Western  Asia.  But  even  as  it  is  the  soil  at  the  foot  of  the 
Talish  ilountains  is  moist  enough  to  grow  vast  crops  of  cereals,  and  here  the 
Raskolniks  have  already  flourishing  villages,  which  have  begiui  to  do  a  large  trade 
since  the  restrictions  on  free  intercoiu'se  have  been  removed.  Xowhere  else  in 
Caucasia  has  Russian  colonisation  been  more  successful. 

Formerly  it  was  feared  that  the  maiu  obstacle  to  the  reclamation  of  the  land 
would  be  the  insalubrity  of  the  climate,  caused,  as  in  the  French  Camargue,  by  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  under  a  fierce  sun.  But  this  difficidty  seems  to 
have  been  exaggerated.  The  intense  heats  of  these  plains  appear  to  have  been 
fonuerly  spnbolized  by  the  midtitudes  of  venomous  .snakes  said  to  guard  their 
approach.  Even  Plutarch  tells  us  that  the  army  of  Pompey  was  arrested  by  fear 
of  these  reptiles,  and  so  recently  as  1800  the  Russians  imder  General  Zubov  are 
said  to  have  foimd  the  land  in  winter  covered  with  vipers  in  a  torpid  state.  But 
although  wild  beasts  were  even  supposed  to  avoid  this  region,  Toropov  and  other 


106 


ASLVTIC  EUSSIA. 


travellers  assure  us  tluit  serioeiits  and  scorpions  are  so  I'are  on  the  ^lugan  steppe 
that  they  cause  no  alarm  to  the  graziers  frequenting  it.  The}-  dig  up  the  ground, 
but  only  in  search  of  truffles,  which  here  abound.  Land  and  water  tortoises  are 
also  extrcmoly  numerous  ^vhcrc^■er  there   is  un\  moistiu'c,  and  flocks  of  antclojDCs 


Fig.  .52. — MoLTIIS    OF    THE    Klll.l. 

Fi'om  the  Slap  of  the  Eussian  Staff.    Scale  1 :  820,000. 


EofG 


48°50' 


49°  20' 


C  Pcrrpn 


12  Miles. 


are  occasionally  seen  bounding  over  the  plain,   while  the  marshes  and  running 
waters  of  the  delta  attract  vast  multitudes  of  birds. 


Lower  Kiu.i  Basin- — Apshekox  Pexixsii-a. 

Like  the  Piion,  the  Kura  is  continually  encroaching  on  the  sea,  which  it  colours 
for  a  great  distance  with  its  reddish-yellow  watei's.      In  the  thirty-three  years 


LOWEE  KUEA  BASIX— APSHEEON  PENINSULA.  107 

between  18"2n  and  1862  the  land  advanced  about  o4  square  miles.  The  main 
channel  has  also  pierced  the  line  of  dunes  continuing  the  normal  coast-line, 
beyond  -which  it  has  ramified  into  two  branches,  each  of  which  has  developed  a 
pcninsida  bj'  connecting  islets  and  sand-banks  with  the  mainland.  Between  the 
two  advanced  streams  of  the  delta  there  are  also  numerous  strips  of  laud,  evidently 
formed  by  the  alluvia  of  the  Kura.  Only  the  north-east  swell  created  by  the 
polar  \vinds  has  reacted  on  these  dejjosits,  causing  them  to  assume  a  crescent  form, 
\\ith  their  concave  sides  facing  seawards.  The  island  of  Sari,  h'ing  south-west  of 
the  extreme  peninsula  of  the  delta,  is  disposed  in  a  similar  manner  by  the  same 
waves.  All  the  Lenkoran  coast  has  also  been  enlarged  by  the  alluvia  first  carried 
seawards  with  the  current,  and  then  diiven  landwards  imder  the  action  of  the 
\\-inds.  In  the  same  way  a  broad  belt  of  marshy  land  has  been  formed  at  the  foot 
of  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Iranian  plateau.  But  these  imhealthy  tracts  are 
infested  by  such  dense  clouds  of  mosquitoes  that  the  Tatar  natives  are  obliged  to 
pass  the  night  in  pavilions  raised  like  picturesque  turrets  into  the  purer  atmosphere 
above  their  dwellings. 

The  hilly  district  of  Lenkoran,  -wrenched  by  Russia  from  Persia,  belongs 
geographically  to  that  state,  for  it  is  merely  the  escarpment  of  the  lofty  terraces 
rising  above  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian,  and  commanded  by  the  Savalau 
volcano.  By  holding  this  district  the  Russian  armies  are  able  to  reach  -within 
their  o-wn  territory  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet,  whence  they  have  no 
further  difiiculty  in  penetrating  into  the  Iranian  plateaux.  Here  the  land  being 
abundantly  watered  bj'  the  rains  brought  by  the  northern  winds  blo-wing  steadily 
from  the  Caspian,  its  flora  .and  famia  differ  from  those  of  the  Caucasus.  We  are 
alreadj'  -^vithin  the  domain  of  the  tiger,  while  some  of  the  plants  flourishing  in 
the  dense  forests  resemble  those  of  the  tropics.  Still  the  arborescent  vegetation 
covering  the  slopes  of  the  Talish  range  between  650  and  6,000  feet  corresponds 
rather  with  that  of  Central  Em-oiDC.  Few  regions  present  a  greater  contrast  in  theu- 
flora  than  do  the  slopes  of  the  Talish  and  the  Mugan  steppe,  the  arid  parts  of  which 
latter  yield  only  five  species  of  plants.  Ethnically,  also,  the  difference  is  equally 
marked,  for  the  Talish  highlands  already  belong  in  this  respect  to  the  Iranian 
domain. 

In  the  district  north  of  the  Kiu'a,  -n-hich  still  retains  its  old  Persian  name  of 
Shirvan,  a  few  eminences  isolated  in  the  midst  of  the  plain  seem  to  have  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Caucasian  system,  from  which  they  have  gradually  become  sepa- 
rated by  the  erosive  action  of  running  water.  But  this  region  has  also  been  sub- 
jected to  more  sudden  changes  by  underground  agencies.  Here  earthquakes 
are  stiU  frequent,  causing  great  damage,  especially  to  the  citj-  of  Shemakha, 
where  in  1669  as  many  as  8,000  jjersons  were  in  a  few  seconds  buried  under  a  heap 
of  ruins.  According  to  the  local  chronicles,  the  village  of  Lacha,  lying  farther 
south,  was  comijletely  swallowed  up,  with  all  its  inhabitants,  flocks,  and  herds. 
Shemakha,  with  the  industrious  village  of  Boskal,  was  again  wasted  in  May,  1859, 
after  which  the  seat  of  Government  was  transferred  to  Baku,  and  most  of  the 
inhabitants  left  the  place.      Those  who  remained  again  suifered  from  a  -violent 


108 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


shock  in  1872.  According  to  Abish  tlio  seismatic  waves  are  here  propagated 
north-west  and  south-east  in  a  line  with  the  continued  axis  of  the  Caucasus,  and 
Shemakha  consequently  lies  at  no  great  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  movement. 
Explosions  of  burning  naphtha  occasionally  throw  up  masses  of  earth  and  stones, 
accompanied  with  smoke  and  flames.  The  botanist  Koch  foimd  the  debris  of 
one  of  these  eruptions  covering  the  stejjpe  for  a  space  of  over  half  a  mile, 
where  all  the  crevasses  were  filled  In-  brackish  water  with  a  slight  flavour  of 
naphtha. 

The  Apsheron  peninsula,  forming  the  eastern  continuation  of  the  Caucasus, 
together  -n-ith  the  coast-line  stretching  thence  southwards  to  the  Kura  delta,  is  the 
scene  of  constant  igneous  activity.      Jets  of  gas,  hot  springs,  mineral  oils,  mud 

Fig.  53. — Chief  Regions  or  EARTHQu.iKES  ix  Caucasia. 
From  the  Memoirs  of  (he  Geografhkal  Soeitty  of  the  Canoasns.    Scale  1  :  8,000,000. 


C  Perrgo 


IIMJ 


May  2Ist,  1859.  June  20th,  1840.  M.iy  30th  and  31st,  1859. 

— — ^^^^^^^^^^— _  150  Miles. 


volcanoes,  and  even  lava  streams  bear  witness  to  the  internal  commotion  throughout 
the  region,  which,  like  the  segment  of  a  crater,  encircles  the  Gulf  of  Baku.  It 
would  seem  as  if  the  forces  by  which  the  Caucasus  was  upheaved  were  here  still  at 
work  endeavouring  to  continue  the  range  across  the  Caspian.  Yet  a  subsidence  has, 
on  the  contrary,  been  going  on  during  recent  times,  as  shown  by  the  building 
engidfed  in  the  harbour  of  Baku,  and  by  the  tradition  according  to  which  the 
island  of  Nargin  was  formerly  attached  to  the  mainland.  Khanikov  has  sho^^^l  that 
since  the  tenth  century  the  seaboard  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Caucasus  has 
been  subject  to  various  oscillations,  rising  60  feet  above  its  present  level,  then 
sinking  18  feet  below  it,  and  again  rising  and  falling  alternately.  The  whole 
Apsheron  peninsula,  with  the  various  islands  continiung  it  eastwards,  has  evidently 


LOW-ER  KUEA  BASIX— APSHERON  PENINSULA.  109 

been  uplieavod,  but  not  iiiiifonnly,  for  the  relief  of  tbe  laud  shows  traces  of 
nuuierous  folds,  due,  doubtless,  to  side  pressure.  Mud  volcanoes  are  dotted  over 
the  peniusida,  all  the  depressions  are  filled  with  marshy  soil,  and  the  coast-line  is 
disposed  in  curves,  like  those  of  the  Kura  delta.  The  "  Holy  Island,"  north  of 
Apsheron  Point,  which  assimies  an  analogous  form,  is  of  volcanic  origin,  like  all  those 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Kumani,  one  of  them,  rose  above  the  snrface  in  1864,  and 
Lozi,  another,  was  the  scene  of  three  eruptions  in  1876,  during  which  stones  were 
thro^vn  as  far  as  Cape  Alat,  on  the  mainland.  Shoals  of  seals*  frequent  the  coast 
of  the  peninsula,  but  most  fishes  are  driven  away  by  the  exhalations  of  gas  and 
naphtha. 

In  many  places  these  gases  are  liberated  by  simply  piercing  the  siu-face  of  the 
land,  and  they  are  so  inflanunable  that  a  mere  spark  suffices  to  set  them  burning 
till  extinguished  by  a  strong  wind  or  heavy  shower.  The  flames  will  at  times  even 
bui'st  forth  spontaneously,  and  during  boisterous  nights  the  hillsides  have  been 
swept  by  sheets  of  phosphorescent  light.  Even  in  the  middle  of  the  sea  the 
naphtha  streams  bubble  up,  clothing  the  rijDples  far  and  near  with  a  thin  iridescent 
coating.     Xear  Cape  Shikov,  south  of  Baku,  a  gas  jet  produces  such  a  violent  edd}' 

Fig.  .34.  — OsCJLLATIOXS    OF    THE    BaKU    Co.lST    Dl'RIXO    THE    LAST    1,500    Ye-VRS. 
According  to  Khanikov. 


tfff'         JVt  *3t  3tv  «W^         lii»  isrc  tleo 


^Rtt^ 


that  boats  are  obliged  to  cast  anchor  to  a^•oid  being  sucked  in.  Elsewhere  the 
underground  forces  not  only  throw  up  jets  of  gas,  iietroleum,  and  asjihalt,  but 
upheave  the  very  bed  of  the  sea,  as  was  lately  seen  when  an  islet  rose  to  the  surface 
near  Baku.  The  legend  of  Prometheus,  who  stole  fire  from  heaven,  may,  in  the 
popular  fancy,  be  possibly  associated  with  the  flaming  hills  and  waters"  of  this 
region. 

The  chief  focus  of  the  bm'nino'  gases  lies  some  9  miles  north-east  of  Baku, 
on  the  margin  of  a  considerable  saline  pool  near  the  ^"illages  of  Balakhan  and 
Surakhau.  The  district,  known  by  the  name  of  Atesh-gah,  has  become  famous  as  the 
liallowcd  shrine  of  the  fire  worshijjpers.  Yet  this  sanctuary,  at  least  in  its  j^resent 
form,  would  not  seem  to  be  as  old  as  is  generally  supposed,  dating  only  from  the 
seventeenth  centmy,  when  the  com-ts  of  the  Tatar  khans  of  Derbent,  Shemakha, 
and  Baku  were  much  frequented  by  Indian  traders.  The  "  Fire  Temple  "  is  now  a 
mere  redoubt,  tolerated  in  the  corner  of  a  vast  naphtha  and  asphalt  factory,  which  is 
directh'  fed  with  combustible  gas  fi'om  the  imderground  fii-es.     The  votaries  of  this 

*  The  Caspian  Seal  {Phoca  Caspica)  differs  specifically  froai  that  of  Lake  Baikal,  though  both  are 
related  to  theEinged  or  Arctic  Seal  (Phoca  futiila).  Both  are  also  referred  by  Joel  A.  AUen,  "  History  of 
North  American  Pinnipeds,"  to  a  pliocene  ancestor  from  the  south.— Ed. 

vol..    \l.  I 


110 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


temple  have  uo  longer  any  notion  of  a  ijositive  creed,  and  on  the  altai",  by  the  side  of 
Hindu  deities,  are  seen  the  vases  associated  -n-ith  Parsee  worshij),  Russian  images 
of  St.  ^Xicholas,  statues  of  the  Yii-gin,  Eoman  Catholic  crucitixes,  objects  which  are 
all  treated  Tvith  like  veneration. 

The  commercial  importance  of  this  great  natiu-al  workshop  has  been  much 
enhanced  of  late  years,  and  the  .sale  of  rich  najihtha  plots  has  already  yielded  over 
3,000,000  roubles  to  the  State.  Xothiug  can  be  imagined  more  .simple  than  the 
structm-e  of  these  lime-kilns.  It  sirffices  to  light  the  gas  escaping  from  the 
crevassed  calcareous  laj'ers,  and  the  stones  ai'e  gradually  reduced  by  the  heat  to  the 
state  desired  by  the  lime  burner.    In  private  houses  and  workshops  these  jets  are  used 


Fig.  oo. — The  Apshekox  Peninsula. 
Scale  1  :  450,000. 


49' 40 


LoFG 


50 -SO 


C  Pe, 


Mud  Volcanoes.        Naphtha  Wells. 


Gas  Jets.  Submerged  Enins. 

= —  S  MUes. 


for  heating,  lighting,  and  cooking,  though  the  iUumiuating  power  of  the  Balaklian 
gas  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  artificial  article,  for  it  possesses  far  less  carbon. 
To  the  internal  pressure  of  the  gas  is  due  the  rising  of  the  naphtha,  which  is  forced 
upwards  through  the  sandy  and  .shingly  layers  below  the  superficial  tertiarj'  strata. 
With  the  petroleum  stream  there  are  carried  up  large  quantities  of  .sand,  which 
accumulates  about  the  oriiice,  where  it  gradually  forms  conic  momids  50  feet  high. 
So  far  the  seven  himdi-ed  naphtha  wells  sunk  in  the  neighboiu'hood  of  Baku  have 
shown  uo  signs  of  exhaustion.  They  supply  over  five-sixths  of  the  peti'olemn  of  the 
Caucasus.  Between  1870  and  1S78  the  yield  was  increased  over  tenfold,  and  quite  a 
fleet  of  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  has  been  eqxiipped  for  the  export  of  this  pi'oduce. 


>!E 


112 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


b}-  tlie  form  of  the  several  districts,  all  of  whieli  arc  greatl\-  cloiigatod  cast  and 
west. 

The  Karthvel,  or  Karthalians,  jDrojicrlj'  so  called,  -who  have  retained  the  collective 
racial  name,  are  the  Georgians  dwelling  east  of  the  Suram  Mountains,  in  the  old 
lacustrine  plain  whose  centre  is  occuiiied  by  the  tovra  of  Gori,  and  which  terminates 
at  Mtzkhet,  ancient  cajaital  of  Karthalia.  They  become  blended  eastwards  with  the 
Grusians  of  Tiflis,  whose  name  is  frequently  applied  collectively  to  all  the  brandies 


Fig.  .50. — Mtzkhet,  Ancient  C.ipit.il  or  Georgia. 


of  the  Georgian  family.  The  Kakhctians,  the  easternmost  of  these  branches, 
occup}-  the  Yora  and  Alazan  'Nalleys ;  west  of  the  Suram  Mountains  dwell  the 
Imerians  and  Mingrclians  in  the  Eion,  Tskhcnis,  and  Lower  Ingur  basins;  the 
Gui'ians  hold  the'  northern  slopes  of  the  Ajara  Moimtains  ;  the  Lazes  a  portion  of 
the  Chorukh  basin  west  of  that  range  ;  lastlj',  the  Svans,  with  a  few  other  tribes, 
have  found  a  refuge  in  the  fa.stnesses  of  the  LTpper  Caucasus  valleys.  The  various 
branches  of  the  Karthaliau  family  cannot  all  of  them  converse  together,  largely 


INHABITANTS— THE  GEORGIANS.  113 

o^ving•  to  the  foreign  words  that  have  crept  luto  the  different  local  idioms.  But 
the  general  resemblance  is  very  marked  throughout  the  whole  region  from 
Trebizond  to  Tiflis,  while  amongst  the  educated  Karthalians  complete  unity  of 
speech  has  been  maintained  by  the  works  of  all  sorts  that  have  been  published  in 
Georgian.  At  least  since  the  tenth  century  there  has  flourished  a  Karthalian 
literature,  beginning  with  a  simple  translation  of  the  Bible  and  gradiuilly  enriched 
by  religious  treatises,  epic  poems,  songs,  dramas,  scientific  writings,  and  more 
reccutl}'  with  translations  of  foreign  works  and  periodical  publications.  Neverthe- 
less the  cidtivation  of  the  Georgian  language  and  the  intellectual  development  of 
the  nation  have  been  arrested  bj-  extreme  centralizing  tendencies.  Since  1807  the 
Georgian  archives  and  the  valuable  literary  and  historical  documents  found  in 
Tiflis  have  been  removed  to  St.  Petersburg.  Studied  efforts  are  also  being  made 
to  replace  Georgian  by  Russian,  and  the  latter  language  is  now  compidsorily 
taught  in  all  the  local  schools.  The  national  speech,  by  some  grouped  with  the 
Aryan,  by  others  with  the  Ural-.Utaic  family,  woidd  really  seem  to  stand  quite 
apart,  a  view  ah-eadj-  held  by  Klaproth,  and  since  confirmed  by  ZagareUi,  who  has 
paid  the  greatest  attention  to  the  structure  of  the  language.  Like  the  Basque  in 
Europe,  Georgian  apjjears  to  be  the  survi^-ing  representative  of  a  form  of  speech 
formerly  current  throughout  a  far  wider  area,  and  absolutely  distinct  from  the 
Aryan,  Semitic,  and  Uralian  linguistic  stocks.  The  alphabet  in  use,  at  least  since 
the  tenth  century,  is  derived,  like  the  Armenian,  through  the  Pahlvi  and  Zend  from 
the  Aramaean. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  Lazes,  who  are  mostly  Mohammedans,  the  Kai'tha- 
liaus  belong  to  the  Greek  rite,  and  to  their  patron  saint,  George,  is  with  some 
probability  attributed  the  name  of  Georgia,  whence  the  Russian  Grusia.  I^orth  of 
the  Rion  and  Kura  this  saint  is  held  in  greatest  veneration,  whereas  in  the  region 
south  of  those  rivers,  including  the  whole  of  Armenia,  the  worship  of  Mary  has 
everj'where  replaced  that  of  Ma,  or  Maya,  goddess  of  the  teeming  earth  and  of  the 
harvest.  The  Georgians  are  strongly  attached  to  their  faith,  and  notwithstanding 
their  naturally  gentle  disjjosition,  they  have  always  energeticallj^  resisted  the 
successive  religious  jDersecutions  of  the  Turks  and  Persians.  The  Byzantine  style 
of  their  churches,  introduced  from  Armenia,  assumed  in  mediaeval  times  a  certain 
originality,  still  represented  by  exquisite  naves,  belfries,  and  apses,  dating 
especially  from  the  tenth  and  two  following  centm-ies.  Even  in  the  remotest 
upland  valleys  the  traveller  is  siu'prised  to  meet  with  churches  in  a  remarkably 
pure  style,  mostly  standing  on  pleasant  hills  in  the  midst  of  leafy  thickets.  Nearly 
aU  are  so  built  as  to  serve  also  as  strongholds,  while  some  are  even  subterraneous, 
betrayed  by  no  outward  signs,  and  capable  of  sheltering  the  community  in  troubled 
times.  In  Kakhetia  the  rockj-  eminences  of  the  Karayaz  steppe  overlooking  the 
Yora  vallej-  are  pierced  with  caverns,  said  to  have  been  excavated  as  chiu'ches  and 
convents  in  the  sixth  centm-y.  In  all  the  hilly  districts  of  Karthalia  the  peasantry' 
are  also  acquainted  with  labyrinthine  caves,  the  former  abode  of  a  troglodytic 
people.  Hundreds  of  strange  towers  are  also  met,  recalling  the  numgld  of  Sardinia, 
but  of  unknown  origin  and  use,  although  each  is  associated  with  its  special  legend. 


114  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

The  old  luetliod  of  constructing  dwellings  has  persisted  fur  over  two  thousand 
years.  A^^lole  ^-illages  consist  of  nothing  but  holes  dug  in  the  ground  or  he^^^^  out 
of  the  rock,  revealed  from  -n-ithout  only  by  masses  of  foliage,  or  by  clay  roofs  on 
which  the  women  sit  in  the  cool  of  the  smiuner  evenings.  In  most  of  the  to^Tis 
many  houses  are  also  still  covered,  instead  of  a  roof,  with  a  layer  of  hardened 
earth  about  2  feet  thick,  and  inclined  just  sufficiently  to  allow  the  water  to  run 
off  through  the  openings  in  the  kjw  \\"an  enclosing  the  terrace.  On  this  surface 
there  grows  a  dense  leafy  vegetation,  in  which  the  Lepidiiim  vesicariiun,  a  species  of 
crucifera,  predominates ;  but  it  withers  up  in  summer,  and  is  got  rid  of  bj-  being  set 
on  fire,  these  nightly  bonfires  often  producing  a  very  startling  effect  as  they  blaze 
up  suddenly,  and  as  suddenly  die  out  on  the  housetops.  As  regards  health  the 
clay  terraces  are  far  preferable  to  the  Em-oi^eau  roofs,  as  they  maintain  a  warmer 
temperature  in  winter  and  a  cooler  in  siunmer.  Yet,  through  a  blind  love  of 
everj-thing  foreign,  the  upper  classes  in  Tiflis  have  begun  to  build  their  houses  in 
the  Western  style. 

The  Georgians  of  the  Kiu-a  basin,  like  their  Imerian,  Mingrelian,  and  Laz 
kindred,  fully  deserve  the  reputation  for  jDhysical  beauty  which  they  enjoy.  They 
have  the  same  abmidant  black  hair,  large  eyes,  white  teeth,  delicate  complexion, 
lithe  figures,  small  hands,  that  distinguish  their  western  neighbom-s.  Yet  the 
api^earance  especially  of  their  women,  who  mostly  paint,  can  scarcely  be  described 
as  prepossessing.  They  are  cold  and  imattractive,  their  featiu-es  lacking  the 
animated  expression  and  bright  smile  which  intellectual  development  might  be 
expected  to  have  produced.  Most  of  the  Georgians  have  a  high,  almost  flushed 
complexion,  due  doubtless  to  excessive  uididgence  in  wine,  of  which  they  are  ever 
ready  to  take  copious  di-aughts  in  honoiu-  of  their  friends,  generally  with  the  Tatar 
words,  Allah  Verdi,  "  the  gift  of  God  I  "  The  Kakbetians  especially,  proud  of 
their  excellent  ^-intages,  consume  large  quantities,  and  before  the  ravages  of  the 
o'idimu,  the  usual  allowance  of  the  field  labom-ers  was  here  about  half  a  gallon 
daily.  This  fiery  wine,  some  of  which  might  compare  favourably  with  the  best 
produced  in  Em-ope,  is  mostly  consimied  in  the  coim^try,  and  one  of  the  most 
familiar  sights  in  Kakhetia  is  the  well-fUled  ox  or  pig  skins  hanging  at  the  doors 
of  the  shojjs,  or  crossing  the  coimtry  in  waggon-loads.  In  order  to  preserve 
the  pliancy  of  the  skins  the  natives  have  the  horrible  practice  of  flaying  the 
beasts  alive,  and  then  smearing  the  hides  ^^■ith  naphtha.  This  imparts  a 
disagreeable  flavour  to  the  liquor,  to  which,  however,  even  strangers  soon  get 
accustomed. 

Notwithstanding  the  fertility  of  the  land  and  relatively  sparse  population,  the 
peasantry  of  the  Km-a  basin  are  generally  poor,  o-miing  little  beyond  a  few  mangy 
cattle  and  sheep,  whose  wool  looks  almost  like  hair.  Like  the  Mingrelians  and 
Imerians,  though  to  a  less  extent,  the  Georgians  have  suffered  from  the  feudal 
system.  However,  since  1864  and  1866  they  have  at  least  ceased  to  be  attached  to 
the  glebe,  and  serfdom  has  been  abolished  in  Transcaucasia,  as  elsewhere  throughout 
the  empii-e.  But  the  nobles,  who  have  remained  large  proprietors,  have  not  all  of 
them  yet  lost  the  habit  of  treating  the  peasantry  as  beasts  of  biu-den.  while  practices 


.IVtKSlTVoflLLINU.ci. 


I  liliiliii:' 


ll!!l»b 
i 


^ 


n|il  !lilllHI|'fl^!ll    !> 


ftttitaWlllii* 


ihlllllllfl: 


^  V.'.  'A  .^V. ..'.  ^■■\;7:7^■<v■^  A...W-....AV.'  Av> 


1^ 


I 


J 


v.\v>;v  v.-.^^i-.- 
v.vy.'v.v^-.- 


^v.^:::^::v.^^::^:;j 


K*V*^  v.'/ '•••** 


IIG  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

the  ample  folds  of  their  hiirhax,  or  doiming  their  imposing  ^(t/w*/^.?.  Formerly  the 
sham  fights  held  in  the  streets  of  Tiflis  in  commemoration  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Persians  ended  in  regular  battles,  often  accompanied  hy  loss  of  life. 


The  Khevsurs,  Psiiavs,  and  Tushes. 

4 

As  in  the  ■«-cst,  so  in  East  Georgia,  the  ethnical  picture  is  completed  by  a  group 
of  highlanders,  vrho  had  till  recently  maintained  their  independence  in  their  inac- 
cessible upland  retreats.  On  the  one  hand  are  the  already  described  Svans,  on 
the  other  their  Xhevsur,  Pshav,  and  Tush  neighbours.  The  highest  eastern 
valleys  about  Moimt  Borbalo  have  afforded  a  refuge  to  fugitives  of  diverse  race 
and  speech,  who,  amidst  these  secluded  upland  snows  and  pastures,  have  gradually 
acquired,  if  not  an  indcisendent  tvpe,  at  least  a  distinct  phj-.siognomy.  Chechenzes, 
Lezghians,  Georgians,  and,  according  to  tradition,  even  Jews  have  entered  into  the 
comjjosition  of  these  tribes,  although  the  chief  ethnical  element  is  no  doubt  the 
Georgian  from  the  south,  whose  presence  is  also  shown  by  the  prevailing  Christian 
practices.  ^Nevertheless  the  predominant  s^Deech  on  the  northern  .slojjes  is  of 
Chechcnz  origin. 

Mount  Borbalo  is  no  less  remarkable  as  an  ethnological  than  as  a  water  parting. 
Eastward  stretches  the  Tush  district,  watered  by  the  two  head-streams  of  the 
Koisu  of  Audi ;  on  the  south  the  Alazan  of  Kakhetia,  apart  from  a  few  Tu.shes, 
is  mainlj^  occupied  by  Georgians ;  on  the  soiith-west  the  soiu'ces  of  the  Yora  and 
Eastern  Aragva  rise  in  the  Pshav  territory ;  while  the  Khevsm-s,  or  "  People  of 
the  Gorges,"  dwell  in  the  west  and  north-west,  on  both  slopes  of  the  central  range, 
though  it  is  impossible  to  assign  definite  limits  to  all  these  peoples.*  They  fre- 
quently shift  their  quarters,  following  their  flocks  to  fresh  pastures  assigned  to 
them  hy  custom,  or  acquired  by  the  fortunes  of  war. 

The  Pshavs,  who  reach  farthest  down,  or  about  the  altitude  of  3,300  feet,  thus 
abutting  on  the  Southern  Georgians,  are  the  most  civilised  of  these  highlanders, 
and  s^jeak  a  Georgian  dialect.  They  have  greatly  increased  in  numbers  since 
the  pacification  of  the  land  has  enabled  them  to  bring  their  produce  to  the  Tiflis 
market.  The  Tushes,  though  less  nimierous  and  pent  up  in  their  rugged  valleys 
everywhere  enclosed  by  snowy  moimtains,  are  said  to  be  the  most  industrious  and 
intelligent  of  all  the  hillmen  in  this  part  of  the  Caucasus.  Most  of  the  men,  being 
obliged,  like  the  Savoyards,  to  emigrate  for  half  the  year,  bring  back  from  the  low- 
land populations  larger  ideas  and  more  enterprising  habits.  Many  have  even 
acquired  a  considerable  amount  of  instruction,  besides  several  foreign  languages. 
Their  o^vn  is  an  extremely  rude  dialect,  poor  in  ^-owels,  abounding  in  consonants, 
with  no  less  than  nine  sibilants  and  eight  gutturals,  one  of  which  combines  so  iuti- 

*  Population  of  Upland  Borbalo  valleys  in  1876,  accordiug  to  Seidlitz  : — 

Tshavs 8,150 

Khcvsurs 6,000 

Tushca 5,050 

Total 20,100 


THE  KHEVSUES,  PSHAVS,  AND  TIjSHES. 


117 


niately  ivltli  the  preceding  or  following  consonants  that  sjjecial  signs  had  to  be 
invented  to  represent  the  combined  letters. 

The  Khevsurs,  com2:)letely  isolated  from  each  other  during  the  winter  h\  the 
main  range,  are  still  in  a  very  rude  and  almost  barbarous  state,  although  in  some 


Fig.  57. — The  Kiievsub,  Tlsh,  and  Psii.iv  Lixds. 
Scale  1  :  850,000. 


EcfC        "W°50 


■45°i5- 


r  Perron 


Khevsurs. 


Txtehes. 


rsh.lvs. 


Georgians. 
15  Miles. 


'  Chechenzes. 


respects  one  of  the  most  remarkable  people  in  Asia.  Generally  of  a  lighter  brown 
complexion  than  the  Tushes,  the}-  are  evidently  a  very  mixed  race,  varying  con- 
siderabh'  in  stature,  featiu-es,  colour  of  hair  and  eyes,  and  in  the  shape  of  the 
cranium.      Most  of  them  have  a   savage  a.spcct ;    some  are  extremely  thin,  like 


118  ASLA.TIC  RUSSIA. 

AvaLkiiig  skeletons  witli  miraculously  animated  Deatli's  heads  on  their  shoulders, 
and  -with  large  hands  and  feet,  out  of  all  ^jroportion  with  the  rest  of  the  body. 
From  the  surroundings  they  have  acquired  muscles  of  steel,  enabling  them,  even 
when  heavily  burdened,  to  scale  the  steejDest  cliffs,  and  often  returning  across 
the  snows  and  rocks  from  "\'la(lika\"kaz  ^^•ith  a  hundredweight  of  salt  on  their 
backs. 

Some  of  the  still  sur\ i%mg  Khevsm-  and  Pshav  customs  resemble  those  of  many 
Red  Indian  and  African  wild  tribes.  Thus  the  wife  is  coufiued  in  an  isolated  hut, 
round  which  the  husband  prowls,  encouraging  her  to  support  the  pains  of  labour 
mth  voUevs  of  musketry.  After  the  deliver}'  young  girls  steal  to  the  place  at 
dawn  or  dusk  with  bread,  milk,  cheese,  and  other  comforts,  the  mother  reniain- 
ino-  for  a  month  in  her  retreat,  which  is  burnt  after  her  departure.  The  father  is 
congratulated  on  the  birth  of  a  son,  and  feasts  are  prepared  at  his  expense,  but  of 
which  he  maj'  not  partake.  The  struggle  for  existence  in  this  improductive 
land  has  introduced  many  practices  calculated  to  luiiit  the  number  of  children  to 
three ;  but  infanticide  does  not  prevail  as  it  formerly  did  amongst  the  Svans.  The 
Khevsurs  show  great  affection  for  their  offspring,  though  forbidden  by  custom  to 
caress  them  in  public.  The  boys  are  generally  named  after  some  wild  animal — 
Bear,  Lion,  AYolf,  Panther,  &c.,  emblems  of  their  future  valoui',  while  the  girls 
receive  such  tender  names  as  Rose,  Pearl,  Bright-one,  Daughter  of  the  Stm,  Little 
Sun,  Sun  of  mj-  Heart,  &c. 

Most  of  the  marriages  are  arranged  by  the  parents  while  the  children  are  yet 
in  "  long  clothes."  Nevertheless  a  formal  abduction  is  still  practised,  and  after 
the  wedding  and  attendant  rejoicings,  the  young  couple  avoid  being  seen  together 
for  weeks  and  months.  Yet  divorce  is  frequent,  and  the  example  of  the  Moham- 
medans has  even  introduced  polygamy  in  several  Khevsur  families.  The  funeral 
rites  are  not  practised  with  the  same  rigour  as  formerly,  when  none  were  allowed 
to  die  under  a  roof,  but  compelled  to  close  their  eyes  in  face  of  sun  or  stars,  and 
mingle  their  last  breath  mth  the  Avinds.  In  presence  of  the  body  the  relatives 
at  hrst  feigned  to  rejoice,  but  tears  and  wailings  soon  followed,  accompanied  by 
mournful  songs  for  the  departed. 

The  Khevsurs  are  verj^  proud  of  their  Christianity,  which  is  certainly  of  an 
original  type.  Their  chief  divinity  is  the  God  of  AVar,  and  amongst  their  other 
gods  and  angels  are  the  Mother  of  the  Earth,  the  Angel  of  the  Oak,  and  the 
Archangel  of  Projierty.  They  keep  the  Friday  lilvc  the  Mohaimnedans,  abstain 
from  pork,  worship  the  sacred  trees,  offer  sacrifices  to  the  genii  of  earth  and  air. 
They  have  priests  whose  duties  are  to  examine  the  sick,  sprinkle  the  ^-ictim's  blood 
over  the  people,  proclaim  the  future,  prepare  the  sacred  beer,  and  these  dignitaries 
end  by  becoming  possessed  of  all  the  precious  stones,  old  medals,  and  chased  silver 
vases  in  the  country.  The  Khevsurs  are  also,  perhaps,  the  only  people  in  the 
world  who  still  use  armour,  coats  of  mail,  arm-pieces,  and  hebnets  like  those  of 
mcdiiuval  knights,  and  formerl}'  general  amongst  all  the  Caucasian  tribes.  Do\\"U 
to  the  close  of  the  last  century  the  Chechenz  Ingushes  still  wore  the  shield 
and   coats  of  mail.     The  traveller  is  often  startled  bv  the  siuht  of  these  armed 


THE  TATAES,  TALISHES,  SLAYS,  AND  GERMANS.  119 

warriors,  v.]io  look  like  lineal  descendants  of  the  Crusaders,  but  whom  the  law  of 
vendetta  alone  compels  to  go  about  thus  cased  in  iron.  All  who  have  to  execute 
or  fear  an  act  of  vengeance  appear  abroad  with  all  their  offensive  and  defensive 
arms,  including  the  terrible  spiked  gauntlet,  which  has  left  its  mark  ou  the  features 
of  most  of  the  natives. 

TiiK  Tatars,  Talishes,  Slavs,  axb  Germans. 

Although  far  less  numerous  than  the  Georgians  in  the  Kui'a  basin,  the  Tatars 
still  occupy  nearly  aU  its  eastern  section  below  Tiflis.  In  several  districts  they 
are  grouped  in  compact  masses  of  a  far  jjurer  type  than  their  kinsmen,  the  Western 
Osmanli.  By  the  Byzantines  and  Arabs  they  were  all  confused,  imder  the  general 
name  of  Khazars,  with  the  peoples  at  that  time  predominating  on  the  banks  of  the 
Don  and  Volga.  Although  presenting  every  variety  of  type  from  the  coarsest  to 
the  noblest,  thej'  are  in  general  scarcely  less  sjimnetrical  than  their  Georgian 
neighbours,  while  harbouring,  under  a  serious  and  solemn  expression,  moral  qualities 
not  found  in  other  Caucasian  races.  Those  who  have  preserved  their  freedom  are 
remarkably  sincere,  ujDright,  and  liospitable,  generally  very  industrious,  and  superior 
to  their  neighbour's  as  stock-breeders,  agricidturists,  gardeners,  and  artisans. 
They  are  often  even  better  instructed  than  the  Russians  themselves,  for  most  of 
them  can  read,  while  many  write  Tui-kish  very  correctly,  and  some  show  themselves 
familiar  with  Arabic  and  Persian. 

In  some  respects  the  Tatars  are  the  ci\'ilising  element  in  Caucasia,  for  their 
■  language,  the  Turki  of  Azerbeijan,  is  the  general  mediimi  of  intercoui'se  between 
the  various  tribes,  so  that  all  the  natives  are  commonly  comprised  imder  the  col- 
lective name  of  Tatars.  Amongst  them  are  some  representatives  of  the  Kimians 
and  other  warlike  invaders  of  Southern  Europe,  and  they  could  not  fail  to 
have  acquired  a  decisive  influence  in  the  coimtry,  but  for  a  certaia  apathy  of 
character  which  has  caused  them  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Armenian  s^secidators 
and  money-lenders.  In  their  habits  those  of  the  Lower  Km-a,  Shirvau,  and  Baku 
approach  nearer  to  the  Persians  than  to  the  Tiu-ks.  They  seldom  practise  poly- 
gamy, and  their  women  generally  work  freely  with  imvciled  face.  On  the  whole 
they  are  remarkabl\-  tolerant,  nor  does  the  Shiah  sect  take  advantage  of  its  decided 
ascendancy  to  persecute  either  the  Sunnite  Mohammedans  or  their  Christian 
neighboui's.  In  some  mixed  villages  the  maj'ors  are  chosen  alternately  fi-om  the 
Armenians  and  Tatars,  and  even  on  the  Persian  frontier  the  Christians  assist  at 
the  Shiah  celebrations.  Thus  at  Shusha  the  funeral  processions  in  honour  of 
Hassan  and  Hussein  are  escorted  by  moxmted  Cossacks,  and  attended  by  military 
bands.  Yet  the  fanatical  actors  often  bewail  those  martyrs  of  the  Prophet's 
family  by  self-inflicted  tortm'es  of  a  most  atrocious  description,  slashing  their 
heads  with  knives  until  the}'  are  bathed  in  gore,  burying  wooden  pegs  in  their 
skull,  attaching  iron  clasps  to  the  cheek  bones  and  nostrils,  confining  the  shoulders 
between  two  sharp  swords  which  pierce  the  skin  at  every  step,  or  loading  the 
arms,  breast,  and  loins  with  chains  and  amulets  fastened  bv  means  of  iron  hooks 


120  ASIATIC  KUSSIA. 

siuik  into  the  flcisli.  The  luiliappy  victims  often  fall  from  exhaustion  or  loss  of 
hlood,  while  the  der\'ishes  and  joriests  continue  to  excite  the  populace  with  songs, 
prayers,  and  shouts. 

In  certain  eastern  districts  dwell  the  Tats,  also  zealous  Shiah  sectaries,  descend- 
ants of  the  former  Persian  rulers  of  the  covmtry,  and  whose  name  is  synom-mous 
i^-ith  that  of  Tajik,  current  throughout  Tiu'kestau.  They  are  found  in  compact 
groups  about  Baku,  and  as  far  north  as  Kuba.  Most  of  the  Lenkoran  district,  on 
the  Persian  frontier,  is  also  occujiied  by  an  Iranian  people  known  as  Talishes,  who 
have  long  dwelt  in  a  semi-barbarous  state  in  the  secluded  region  between  the 
highlands  and  the  swamps  of  the  Lower  Kura.  Their  language  is  not  a  Persian 
dialect,  but  an  independent  parallel  development,  showing  a  certain  affinity  to  the 
Afghan.  Next  to  the  Georgians  and  the  Tatars,  these  Tats  and  Talish  Iranians 
occupy  the  widest  ethnical  area  in  Caucasia,  although  outnumbered  bj'  the  Arme- 
nians, who  are  grouped  in  the  towns,  and  especially  in  Tiflis.  Besides  all  these 
races  there  are  a  few  [Mongol  tribes  in  the  Ijower  Kura  basin,  survivors  of  the  old 
invaders,  who  live  more  or  less  intermingled  with  the  Tatars  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  Alazan  between  Signakh  and  Zakatali.  The  hillj-  district  overlooking  Tiflis  on 
the  west  is  occupied  by  some  Osses,  and  even  Greeks,  invited  hither  to  replace  the 
Tatars  in  1829.  Lastly,  the  settled  population  of  Eastern  Transcaucasia  is  com- 
pleted by  several  Russian  and  German  colonists,  some  banished,  others  voluntary 
emigrants  to  this  region. 

The  Eus-sian  nonconformists,  compelled  in  1838  and  subsequent  years  to  settle 
in  Transcaucasia,  are  mostly  Molokane.s — that  is,  "  Feeders  on  Milk  " — or  Dukho- 
bortzi — that  is,  "  Wrestlers  in  Spirit " — from  Taurida.  Thanks  to  their  co-operative 
habits,  both  are  far  more  prosj)erous  than  their  Tatar  or  Georgian  neighbours, 
though  in  many  respects  inferior  to  other  Slav  colonists.  The  Germans  who,  like 
the  Russian  dissidents,  have  also  settled  near  Tiflis  and  Yelizavetpol,  live  entirely 
aloof  from  the  surroimding  populations,  and  by  their  agricidtural  skill  have  con- 
verted into  gardens  the  lauds  conceded  to  them  when  they  migrated  in  1817  from 
Wiirtemberg.  These  Suabian  colonists  seem,  in  the  coiu-se  of  two  generations,  to 
have  become  remarkably  modified  imder  the  influence  of  the  physical  siu-roundings. 
Although  they  have  contracted  no  alliances  with  their  Georgian,  Armenian,  or 
Tatar  neighbours,  they  no  longer  resemble  their  kinsmen  in  the  fatherland,  most 
of  them  being  now  distiuguished  by  dark  haii",  black  eyes,  oval  and  regvdar  featui-es, 
graceful  and  lithe  figui'es. 

Topography. 

The  highest  to-svn  in  the  Kura  basin  is  Ardahan,  a  stronghold  situated  in  a 
fertile  cirque  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  bluff  surmounted  by  the  fortress  of 
Ramazan.  By  its  captui-e  in  1877  the  Russians  became  masters  of  the  more 
important  passes  leading  towards  the  Chorukh  and  Araxis  valleys.  But  eastwards 
Ardahan  still  remains  unconnected  by  easy  routes  ■with  the  rest  of  Transcaucasia, 
the  volcanic  region  here  traversed  by  the  Kura  ojjjiosing  great  obstacles  to  trade. 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


121 


One  of  tlic  river  gorges  below  Ardahau  encloses  the  celebrated  convent  of  ^"ardzia, 
or  Yardzish — that  is,  "  Castle  of  Eoses  " — cntirelj'  excavated  in  the  soft  tufa,  which  is 
here  regnlarly  stratified  with  laj^ers  of  black  scoria.  The  undcrgroimd  town  contains 
innumerable  cells  disposed  in  stories,  and  connected  by  galleries  edging  the  preci- 
Y>icc  200  feet  above  the  Kura.  The  larger  spaces  form  either  chapels,  where  are 
still  to  be  seen  the  remains  of  frescoes,  or  the  so-called  summer  and  winter  palaces 
of  Queen  Tamara. 

East  of  these  defiles  stands  the  important  fortress  of  Akdlkahihi,  on  an  exposed 
but  fertile  plateau  5,630  feet  above  sea-level.    Akiska,  or  Akhaltzik — that  is,  "  New 


Fig-.  58. — The  Sukam  Pass  and  Mesk  Mountains. 
Soaltj  1  :  210,000. 


Kt^r^ 


4S« 
5,' 


.^-'- 


45"  25 


Sour'am 


C  Perron 


3  Miles. 


Fort  " — which  was  the  old  Turkish  town  of  Ak-hissar,  or  "  White  Fort,"  is  also  an 
imiDortunt  military  town,  commanding  several  of  the  frontier  routes,  and  in  peaceful 
times  the  centre  of  a  considerable  trade,  since  the  emigration  of  the  Turks  chiefly 
occupied  by  Armenians,  with  about  a  thousand  Jews.  The  old  mosque  of  its 
citadel,  now  a  church,  is  one  of  the  finest  monimients  in  Caucasia.  The  district 
abounds  in  hot  springs,  amongst  which  those  of  Aspiuza  below  Yardzia,  and  Abbas- 
Tmuan  to  the  north-west,  attract  numerous  bathers  to  one  of  the  most  mnbrageous 
and  romantic  valleys  in  this  region.  Descending  from  Akhaltzik  towards  Tiflis 
by  the  banks  of  the  Kura,  we  reach  the  magnificent  gorge,  whose  entrance  is 
guarded  by  the  pleasant  watering-place   of  Horjoiii,  2,665   feet  above   sea-level. 


122 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


This  is  the  sxunnier  resort  of  the  wealthy  ehisses  from  Tiflis,  anrl  the  ruined  build- 
ings intersjoersed  amongst  the  modern  palaces  and  villas  show  that  it  was  a  lai-gc 
centre  of  popidatiou  even  before  the  sixteenth  century.  Here  the  air  is  pure  and 
fresh,  water  flows  in  abundance,  and  every  eminence  is  clothed  with  forests  in  which 
the  ibex  and  wild  goat  are  still  hunted. 

Siirnji),  thouo-h  small  in  size,  is  a  busv  town,  well  known  to  travellers  as  a 
resting-place  on  the  route  and  railway  between  Poti  and  Tiflis.  It  is  commanded 
by  a  .strong  castle,  which,  according  to  the  legend,  the  o'\\'ner  endeavoured  to  render 
impregnable  by  laying  the  foundation  stone  on  the  only  son  of  a  widow.  Suram 
stands  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Karthalian  plain,  a  dried-up  lake  whose  bed 
is  now  extremely  fertile.     The  temporary  railway  at  iircsent  crossing  the  Suram 


Fig.  .59. — The  KruA  Vailey  hetween  Gori  and  ItiZKHET. 
From  llie  Map  of  the  Eussi.in  Staff.    Scale  1  :  oOO.COO. 


EoPG       -4-4    10 


44  40 


C  Pe 


.  B  Miles. 


Hills  will  probably  be  ultimately  rejilaced  by  another  running  farther  south,  and 
piercing  the  Mesk  I'ange  by  a  tunnel  in  the  A-icinity  of  Borjom. 

Goi-i,  capital  of  the  district,  and  ethnological  centre  of  Georgia,  stands  as  nearly 
as  jjossible  in  the  middle  of  the  old  lacustrine  basin,  not  far  from  the  junction  of 
the  Kura,  Lakhva,  and  Mejuda,  of  which  the  two  latter  streams  descend  from  the 
coimtry  of  the  Osses.  Gori  is  happily  situated  in  a  fertile  and  well- watered  district 
at  the  foot  of  a  bluff  crowned  by  an  old  citadel.  The  wheat  of  this  district  is  the 
best  in  Transcaucasia,  and  its  wines  are  used  in  Tiflis  for  temjjering  the  more 
fiery  vintages  of  Kakhetia.  C)n  a  tertiary  rock  of  molasse  formation,  5  miles  east 
of  Gori,  lies  the  troglodytic  town  of  Uflis-tzikhe,  no  less  remarkable  than  the  convent 
of  Vardzia,  and  much  more  accessible  to  -sisitors  by  the  railway  from  Tiflis.  The 
rock,  .some  6G0  feet  high,  consists  of  sti'ata  of  varying  hardness,  carved,  scidptured, 
and  excavated  from  base  to  smnmit,  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  a  pyramidal 
group  of  buildings.      These   Uflis  grottoes  were  probably  at   first   inhabited  by 


TOPOGRAPHY.  123 

barbarous  Iroglodytcs ;  but  their  successors  were  acquainted  Avith  the  arts  and 
comforts  of  life,  and  in  these  iiudergroimd  chambers  are  found  the  remains  of 
Greek,  Roman,  Arab,  and  Byzantine  architecture. 

Mfzk/ief,  standing  at  the  outlet  of  the  old  Lake  of  Karthalia,  though  now  an 
insignificant  \-illage,  was  the  residence  of  the  Georgian  kings  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries.  It  occupies  a  ^ital  position  at  the  junction  of  the  main  routes  from 
the  Darial  defile  through  the  Aragva  valley,  and  from  the  Caspian  and  Euxine 
through  the  Kura  and  Eion  basins.  Hence  after  its  destruction  the  new  capital  of 
Georgia  and  of  all  Caucasia  was  foimded  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  but  removed, 
about  a  thousand  years  ago,  some  13  miles  farther  south,  to  avoid  the  dangero\is  proxi- 
mity of  the  Osses.  The  jjiles  of  a  bridge  thro\^Ti  across  the  Kura  in  1841  arc  said  to 
rest  on  Roman  foimdations  dating  from  the  time  of  Pompey.  But  more  interesting 
are  the  ruins  of  the  cathedral  founded  by  King  Mirian  in  328,  and  since  then 
f requentlj'  restored. 

Tijlis,  capital  of  Caucasia  and  the  largest  city  in  Asiatic  Russia,  was  a  mere 
hamlet  on  the  banks  of  the  Kura  till  the  fifth  centurj',  when  the  seat  of  Govern- 
ment was  transferred  hither  from  Mtzkhet.  The  Georgian  term  Tiflis,  Tphilis,  or 
Tphilis-Kalaki,  means  "  Hot  Toaati,"  doubtless  in  reference  to  the  sidphm-  spring 
rising  near  the  Kura,  amidst  the  porphyries  and  schists  of  the  Tsavkissi  fissure. 
Yet  the  name  might  be  equally  well  applied  to  it  from  the  sultry  summer  heat 
reflected  by  the  bare  rocks  of  the  sui'roimding  heights  on  the  basin  enclosing  the 
city  at  an  elevation  of  1,220  feet  above  the  sea.  Nothing  is  visible  in  every  direc- 
tion except  the  slopes  of  hills  or  yellow  and  grey  schistous  mountains  stripped  of 
the  forests  formerly  covering  them,  and  even  of  the  vegetable  himius  carried  away 
by  the  winds  and  rains.  The  Russians  have  recently  endeavoured  to  restore  these 
forests,  but  they  have  succeeded  only  in  the  ravines,  on  the  flats  and  islands 
watered  by  the  Kura.  Above  the  quarter  where  stood  the  old  to^ni,  the  mono- 
tonous TUiiformity  of  the  rocky  landscape  is  broken  by  ramparts,  bastions,  and 
crmnbling  towers,  while  the  banks  of  the  Kura  present  a  picturesque  view  with 
their  three  bridges,  hanging  galleries,  low  many-colonred  housetops,  and  chm'ches 
flanlvcd  by  belfries  terminating  with  octagonal  pyramids.  Nevertheless  the  general 
aspect  of  the  place  is  not  cheerful,  the  grey  tones  of  the  brick  and  wood  work  con- 
tributing to  produce  a  depi-essing  effect  on  the  traveller.  In  1874  nearly  half  of 
the  houses  were  still  roofed  with  earth,  giving  them  the  appearance  of  huts,  and 
forming  a  strange  contrast  with  the  grand  edifices  in  their  midst.  North-west  of 
the  old  town  stretch  the  regidar  streets  of  the  new  quarter,  flanked  by  heavy 
buildings,  churches,  barracks,  palaces,  in  the  ultra-Caucasian  Russian  stj'le.  A 
broad  boulevard,  much  frequented  after  sunset,  ^-ies  in  the  splendour  of  its  ware- 
houses with  those  of  the  great  European  capitals.  The  town  is  also  constantly 
spreading  northwards,  especially  roimd  about  the  Poti  railway  tenninus,  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  Kura,  and  in  the  direction  of  Mtzldiet. 

In  its  motley  population  Tiflis  is  the  worthy  capital  of  the  Caucasian  regions. 
Although  lying  within  the  ethnological  limits  of  Georgia,  it  is  not  in  a  special 
sense  a  Georgian  city,  and  even  in  1803  of  2,700  houses  four  only  belonged  to  families 


12-i  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

of  that  nation.  The  Armenians,  constituting  one-third  of  the  inhabitants,  are  the 
most  numerous  element,  vrhile  neither  Prussians  nor  Georgians  amount  to  one-fifth, 
and  even  amongst  the  latter  must  be  included  the  Imerian  and  !MingreHan  "  hewers 
of  wood  and  di-awers  of  water."  *  A  large  uimiber  of  the  peoijle  are  unmarried 
immigrants,  temporary  residents  raising  the  male  pojDulation  to  about  two-thirds  of 
the  whole,  and  parth'  accounting  for  the  prevailing  depravity  noticed  by  all 
travellers.  The  bazaars  are  largely  frequented  and  well  stocked  ■n-ith  arms,  carpets, 
silks,  English  or  Russian  cottons,  Paris  fancy  goods,  and  other  wares.  The  skilful 
Armenian  jewellers  produce  various  articles  of  an  original  type.  The  baths  fonn 
another  centre  of  social  activity,  especially  for  the  Russian,  Armenian,  and 
Georgian  ladies,  who  here  occupy  themselves  with  the  pleasures  of  the  toilet. 
The  city  has  no  rcmai-kable  momuuents,  but  possesses  a  rich  uatm-al-hlstory 
collection,  and  in  the  governor's  jDalace  may  be  seen  a  fine  plan  in  relief  of  the 
Caucasus  range.  Amongst  the  numerous  learned  associations  noteworthy  is  the 
Geographical  Society,  which  is  attached  to  that  of  St.  Petersbm-g,  and  has  pixb- 
lished  valuable  documents  on  Caucasian  geography  and  ethnograjDhy.  Another 
institution  has  been  formed  to  collect  the  old  manuscripts  of  the  Transcaucasian 
languages. 

During  the  oppressive  summer  heats  the  parks,  pleasure  grounds,  and  botanic 
gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  are  frequented  by  thousands,  glad  to  escape  from  the 
close  and  foul  air  of  the  narrow  streets.  The  officials  and  wealthy  traders  now  also 
flock  to  the  villas  aud  hostelries  of  the  surrounding  uplands.  The  chief  "  Sani- 
toriimi "  is  Kojor,  whose  houses  are  scattered  at  an  elevation  of  from  4,400  to 
5,000  feet  along  the  slopes  of  a  mountain  conunaudiug  the  Tiflis  basiu,  and  where 
the  Georgian  kiugs  had  also  their  summer  residence.  Here  are  the  remains  of 
some  ancient  forests,  and  Manglis,  Beliy-Kliich,  aud  other  more  remote  retreats  in 
the  heart  of  the  hills  are  still  sm-roimded  by  extensive  woodlands.  The  nimierous 
alabaster  quarries  of  this  district  siq^ply  the  g_\iisum  required  by  the  Tiflis  builders. 
Farther  south  volcanoes  pierced  by  craters  aud  fiu-rowcd  \)\  crevasses  have  accu- 
mulated vast  terraces  of  la\a  above  the  fertile  Somkhet  district,  which  is  watered 
by  au  affluent  of  the  Kura.  This  country  \\as  long  the  domain  of  the  Orbeliani,  a 
princely  family  of  Chinese  origin,  who  some  twenty-three  ccntm-ies  ago  settled  here 
as  conquerors,  followed  by  Eastern  retainers  of  all  races.  Various  ruins  stiU  testify 
to  the  former  power  of  the  Orbeliani  in  this  region. 

On  one  of  the  numerous  streams  to  the  south-west  of  Tiflis  stands  the  famous 
Shamkhor  column,  already  mentioned  by  Abidfeda  in  the  thirteenth  century.  This 
finel}-  proportioned  minaret,  with  its  pedestal,  frieze,  capital,  and  terminal  piece,  is 
180  feet  high  ;  but  it  is  in  a  very  bad  state  of  repair,  already  inclining  from  the 


*  Population  of  Tiflis  in  1S76  according  to  nationalities  :- 

Armenians      .... 

Georgians  of  iill  branches 

Russians         .         .         .         .         , 

Germans        ..... 

Tatars  and  Turks  .... 

Persians  ..... 


37,308 

Poles       . 

21,623 

Jews 

19,.574 

Greeks   . 

2,005 

Osses 

2,310 

French  . 

1,692 

Sundries 

1,592 

1,145 

383 

293 

267 

1,354 


In  boarding-liouses,  barracks,  hospitals,  and  prisons,  14,473.     Of  these  66,147  are  males,  37,877  females. 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


12.j 


p3rpenclicular,  auti  tlie  Kiiiic  inscription  on  tlic  frieze  is  no  longer  legible.  It  dates 
probably  from  the  ninth  century.  The  ba^in  o;  the  Shamkhor,  which  flow.s  by  the 
^■illag■c  of  like  name,  is  the  most  important  in  Caucasia  for  its  mineral  wealth.  In 
a  cirque  in  these  porphyry  mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet,  are  situated  the 
Kcdabek  works  for  reduciug  the  copper  ores  extracted  from  the  neighbouring 
mines.     This  establishment,  purchased  in  18G3  by  some  German  engineer.?,  gives 


Fig.  GO.— TiFLis. 

Scale  1  :  36,000. 


l.OSO  Yards. 


constant  emploj-meut  to  1,000  Persian,  Ai'menian,  Tatar,  and  Greek  workmen,  and 
works  up,  on  an  average,  from  8,000  to  10,000  tons  of  ore  with  about  6  per  cent,  of 
metal,  partly  purchased  by  the  Government  for  the  artillery  service.  It  has 
developed  quite  a  network  of  railways,  and  disposes  of  about  35,000  acres  of  forests 
and  pastures,  and  one  of  the  shafts  has  already  been  sunlc  to  a  depth  of  nearly 
2,000  feet.    Kear  Soglik,  in  the  same  basin,  are  some  alimi  deposits,  as  rich  as  those 

VOL.    VI.  K 


12G 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


of  Tolfa,  near  Civita  Yeccliia,  and  covering  an  area  of  over  12  square  miles.  These 
mines  have  been  worked  since  the  time  of  the  Romaas,  as  shown  by  niuuerous 
remains  found  on  the  sjjot.  Iron  and  cobalt  are  also  worked  in  this  part  of  the 
Yelizavetpol  district. 

Some  1"20  miles  south-east  of  Tiflis  lies  the  old  city  of  Ganja,  formerly  capital 
of  a  khanate  of  like  name,  and  now  renamed  Yelizavetpol,  as  capital  of  the  Russian 
jiroviace  of  Yelizavetjwl.  It  existed  in  the  eleventh  centui-y,  but  some  miles  fi'om 
its  present  site,  where  are  still  to  be  seen  the  ruins  of  the  old  place,  popxdarly 
attributed  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who  never  visited  the  Kiira  basin.  A  little 
farther  south-cast  stood  Partav,  the  old   cajjital  of  the  kingdom  of  Agvania,  or 


Tig.  61. — Yeliza\etpol  and  ViCtXITY. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  600,000. 


C.ofG. 


46M0' 


C.  Perrcn 


12  JIUes. 


xVlbania,  in  the  district  watered  by  the  Terter  above  its  junction  with  the  Kura. 
Partav  was  destroyed  in  the  tenth  ccntmy,  according  to  the  Ai'ab  historians,  by 
"  Russi  "  adventurers  from  beyond  the  Caucasus,  and  its  site  is  now  iudicated  by 
the  village  of  Barda,  or  Berdaya.  This  region  was  certainly  far  more  denselj'- 
peopled  formerly  than  at  i)resent,  and  Yelizavetpol  itself,  rebuilt  in  the  sixteenth 
century  on  its  present  site,  was  evidently  a  considerable  place,  as  sho-vvn  by  its 
extensive  ruins  and  the  fine  Persian  mosque  erected  here  by  Shah  Abbas.  Most  of 
its  windowless  houses  arc  built  of  a  hardened  clay,  which  is  very  dm-able  in  this 
dry  climate,  but  which,  with  the  ruins,  contributes  to  give  the  place  an  appearance 
of  great  age.  "With  its  fine  plantations  it  covers  a  large  area,  some  12  irdles  in 
circumference  ;  yet  it  is  so  unhealthy  that  the  officials  are  all  obliged  to  remove  in 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


327 


suimiier  to  the  banks  of  the  roniautic  "  Blue  Lake  "  (Gok-gol),  to  Helonendorf,  and 
Haji-Kend,  near  the  wooded  hills  of  the  south.  Yelizavetpol  is  even  noted  for  a 
local  endemic,  the  so-called  godocik,  or  "  j-early  leprosy,"  so  named  because  it  lasts 
about  one  year  in  defiance  of  all  remedies.     This  loathsome  disease  is  probably  due 


Fig.  62.— The  Telav  Basin. 
Fi-om  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  400,000. 


45°5 


EoFb 


~15  35 


C  .Perron 


a  MUes. 


to  the  twenty-two  cemeteries  close  to  the  town,  mingling  their  contents  with  the 
numerous  irrigating  rills  from  the  river  Ganja,  whose  waters  are  often  absorbed  in 
this  way  before  reaching  the  Kiu-a.  The  skilfid  horticulture  of  its  Tatar,  Suabiau, 
iind  Slav  inhabitants  has  brought  the  fruits  of  this  district  to  great  perfection,  and 
its  cherries  especially  are  the  finest  in  Caucasia.     They  also  occupy  themselves ^^ith 

K  2 


128 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  cotton,  sericulture,  sijiuuiug,  uud  weuviug,  while  the  tiade 
of  Yelizavetpol  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenians. 

S/ni'^/ia,  the  largest  town  in  this  government,  is  also  2ieo2:)led  hy  Armenians  and 
Tatars.  Standing  8,000  feet  above  the  sea  on  an  augite  i^orphyrj-  terrace  enclosed 
bj'  an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  its  climate  is  one  of  the  severest  in  Caucasia,  M'hile  its 
flag-paved  streets,  stone  houses,  fortified  buildings,  towers,  and  posterns  give  it  the 

Fig.  63. — Baku  and  Cape  Bail-Bi'kxi. 


asjjcct  of  a  mediaeval  European  town.     Its  Armenian  traders,  who  deal  chiefly  in 
silk,  have  extensive  relations  with  Tiflis,  Moscow,  and  Marseilles. 

Telar,  capital  of  Kakhctia,  and  in  the  ele^•enth  century  the  residence  of  a  "  King 
of  Kings,"  is  now  merely  a  picturesque  village,  standing  with  its  ruined  forts  on  the 
summit  of  a  bluff  overlooking  the  Alazau  valley.  Yet  it  has  a  considerable  wino 
trade,  and  but  foi'  its  inconvenient  situation  might  possibly  recover  some  of  its  former 
importance.      8i(jita];h,  also   coiimiandiug   the  iVlazan  valley  from   an    eminence 


TOrOGEAPHY. 


129 


Fig.  6-1. — Lenkoran. 

Fi-om  the  Map  of  the  Eussian  Staff. 

Scale  1  :  600,000. 


2,G00  feet  high,  was  origiually  a  fortres-s  and  "  phico  of  refuge,"  as  iiulioated  by  its 

Tatar  name,  but  has  gradually  become  a  thriving  conmiercial  to^vn,  with  a  prepori' 

derating  Armenian  population.     Niikha,  at  the   foot  of   the  Great   Caucasus,  is 

peopled  chiefl}'  by  Tatars  engaged  mostly  in  sericulture  and  silk-weaving,     Hero 

the  Khan  Hussein   built  a  strong  fortress   in 

1765,  which  encloses   an  extreraelj'  handsome 

palace  in  Persian  style.     It  does  a  large  export 

trade  in  raw  siHv,  and  since  the  ravages  of  the 

silk  disease  in  the  European  nurseries  it  is  yearly 

visited   by   hundreds   of    French    and   Italian 

buyers. 

Shamallii,  the  Shemakha  of  the  Russians, 
capital  of  the  old  pro^•ince  of  Shirvan,  and 
formorl}'  the  largest  city  in  Transcaucasia,  was 
said  to  have  had  a  poj)ulatiou  of  100,000  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  But  it  has  suffered  much 
from  earthquakes,  and  still  more  from  the  hand 
of  man,  having  been  wasted  first  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  then  by  Xadir  Shah.  Yet  ever 
since  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  Government 
to  Baku  it  has  remained  the  most  populous  place 
in  the  province.  It  is  chiefly  engaged  in  wool- 
spinning,  dyeing,  and  weaving  carpets  in  the 
Persian  style,  said  to  be  the  best  and  most 
durable  in  all  Asia,  and  surpassing  even  those 
of  the  French  looms  in  beauty  of  design,  rich- 
ness of  colour,  and  cheapness.  Its  seedless 
pomegranates  are  also  famous  throughout  the 
East. 

Bal;i(,  the  present  capital  of  the  eastern 
province  of  Transcaucasia,  exhibits  quite  an 
Asiatic  appearance,  with  its  low  flat-roofed 
houses,  tall  minarets  and  palace  of  its  former 
khans.  Close  to  the  blue  waters  of  its  bay 
stands  the  so-called  "Maiden's  Tower,"  a 
truncated  cone,  originally,  doubtless,  a  watch- 
tower,  but  now  used  as  a  lighthouse.  But  being- 
otherwise    destitute  of   monuments,  the  dirty, 

irrcgvdar,  and  dust}'  town  of  Baku,  and  centre  of  the  naphtha  trade,  possesses  no 
imjjortance  except  as  the  Caspian  seaport  of  all  Transcaucasia.  In  its  deej)  and 
sheltered  roadstead  at  least  fifty  vessels  are  always  anchored,  some  in  20  feet  of 
water  within  a  few  yards  of  the  shore,  and  although  still  unconnected  by  rail  either 
with  Stavropol  or  Tiflis,  it  has  the  largest  trade  of  any  Caspian  port  except 
Astrakhan.     But  it  has  scarcely  any  industries,  and  even  all  the  naphtha  and 


130  ASIATIC  RTTSSTA. 

petroleum  refining  \voiks  are  carried  on  at  Balakhani  and  Mashtagi,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  "  fire  springs." 

Sdli/roii,  or  8alyan,  the  chief  \o\n\  of  the  Ivura  delta,  and  standing  near  its 
apex,  derives  considerable  importance  from  its  productive  fisheries  and  horticulture. 
Lcii/ioran,  or  Lenkorud,  a  maritime  town  near  the  Persian  frontier,  lacks  the 
natural  advantages  of  Baku;  for  although  its  Tatar  name  means  "  roadstead,"  it  is 
o-reatly  exposed  to  the  winds  and  surf,  and  its  shipping  is  obliged  to  cast  anchor 
about  2  miles  from  the  coast.  The  Mard-ab,  or  "  Dead  Waters,"  of  the  surround- 
ing district  also  render  its  climate  .very  unhealthj'.  In  these  swampy  grounds 
multitudes  of  ducks  and  other  aquatic  birds  are  taken  by  the  net,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  rice,  together  with  a  rich  Indian  flora,  has  been  introduced  by  the  Hindu 
traders. 

South  of  Lenkoran  stands  the  equally  inconvenient  and  insalubrious  little  port 
of  Astara,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  like  name,  which  here  marks  the  frontier  of 
the  Russian  and  Persian  Empires.  From  Persia,  Astara  imports  dried  fruits,  gall 
nuts,  and  raw  cotton,  in  exchange  for  cotton  stviffs,  iron  and  copper  ware,  and 
samovars.     It  has  a  yearly  trade  of  nearly  1,000,000  roubles. 


YII.— RUSSIAN  ARMENIA. 

ARARAT,  ALAGOZ,  PLATEAU  OF  LAKE  GOK-CHAI,  AND  AEAXIS  BASIN. 

The  Araxis  basin  presents  on  the  whole  a  marked  geographical  imitj-,  forming, 
north  of  the  Iranian  tableland,  a  broad  semicircidar  zone,  with  its  convex  side 
facing  southwards,  and  everywhere  enclosed  bj'  lofty  moiuitaius,  excej^t  near  the 
Caspian,  where  the  hills  fall  towards  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Kura  and  Araxis. 
Neither  of  these  rivers  forms  a  uniform  ethnological  domain,  for  Armenians, 
Georgians,  and  Tatars  dwell  on  the  banks  of  the  former,  while  the  Araxis  valley 
is  occupied  by  Armenians,  Km'ds,  and  other  Tatar  peoi^les.  Still  the  Armenians 
everjTvhere  preponderate  not  only  in  cidture  and  influence,  but  also  in  numbers. 
Politically  also  the  Araxis  basin  is  divided  between  the  three  converging  states, 
the  region  of  all  the  head-streams  belonging  to  Tui'key,  and  most  of  the  right  bank 
of  the  main  stream  to  Persia,  while  more  than  half  of  the  whole  basin,  including 
the  best  strategical  points  for  a  descent  on  the  Euphrates  valley,  are  now  Russian 
territory.  Russia  is  thus  mistress  of  the  famous  Mount  Ararat,  and  of  the  con- 
vent of  Echmiadzin,  the  religious  capital  of  the  Armenians,  and  centre  of  their 
nationality. 

Orography — Ararat — Ai.a-goz. 

North  of  the  sources  of  the  Araxis  the  mountains  sloj^ing- northwards  towards 
the  Euxine  are  cut  up  by  ravines  and  glens  into  irregular  chains  and  sj)urs,  such  as 
the  Kirechli,  Soghanli,  and  Childir-dagh,  which,  north  of  the  Kars  basin,  merge  in 
the  lacustrine  plateau  bordered  eastwards  by  the  Abul  and  Samsar  volcanoes. 
Although  presenting  serious  obstacles  to  intercommunication,  none  of  these  ranges 


OEOGEAPHY— AEAEAT— ALA-G()Z. 


131 


attain  the  altitude  of  the  Caucasus  and  Anti-Caucasus,  the  highest  summit  being 
the  Kizil-dagh,  or  "  Red  3Iountain,"  l)ct^vcen  the  Kars  basin  and  Lake  Childir, 
which  is  only  10,460  feet,  and  consequently  below  the  noi-mal  snow-line.  South  of 
the  region  of  the  Araxis  head-streams  the  highlands  become  narrower,  but  more 
elevated,  here  forming  a  single  parting  range  running  east  and  west  between  the 
Araxis  and  Eujihrates  or  Murad  valleys,  with  several  extinct  craters  over  10,000 
feet  high,  and  culminating  with  the  Pcrli-dagh  in  the  centre,  and  the  Chingil, 


Fig.  65. — Recent  RrssiAN  Con-quests. 
Scale  1  :  3,500,000. 


.,.!/' Bo r^jom   ' '      '  \  i 

J>--'  '  TifiisSi 


AA.'  EoFG. 


C   Per-ro- 


Ceded  by  the  treaty 
of  St.  Stefeno. 


Annexed 
in  ]S7S. 


Transcanca.=!ia  before 
the  War. 


,  CO  Mfles. 


near  the  eastern  pass  leading  fi-om  Erivan  to  Bayazid,  both  about  10,830  feet  above 
the  sea. 

Several  streamlets  flowing  to  the  Araxis  indicate,  by  their  name  of  Tuzla-su,  the 
nature  of  their  waters,  which  spring  from  extensive  salt  beds.  North  of  the 
Perli-dagh  stands  Mount  Kulpi,  one  of  the  largest  masses  of  rock-.salt  in  the  world, 
rising  on  a  tertiary  plain  near  the  point  where  the  Araxis  passes  through  a  narrow 
basalt  gorge  above  its  junction  with  the  Arpa-chai.  The  surrounding  hills, 
destitute  of  vegetation,  and  composed  of  red,  blue,  green,  or  grey  marls,  impart  to 


132 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


the  landscape  a  most  motley  appoarance.  Tlio  Kulpi  salt  mines,  wliicli  are 
confined  to  a  central  layer  from  100  to  210  feet  thick,  have  probably  been  longer 
worked  than  any  other  out  of  China.  The  Armenians  tell  us  ho^v  Noah  drew  his 
supplies  from  this  source,  and  even  show  the  very  spot  where  he  began  his  mining 
operations.  In  the  abandoned  parts  of  the  works  hammers  and  other  implements 
are  frcqiicntlj'  picked  wp,  dating  from  the  stone  age.  These  objects  are  all  made 
of  diorite,  a  rock  found  nowhere  in  the  district,  and  which  must  have  been  procured 
from  distant  countries.  The  mining  operations  are  still  carried  on  in  a  rude 
manner,  and  owing  to  the  absence  of  roads,  the  produce  is  limited  to  the  Tiflis  and 


Fig.  6G. — Aeahat. 
From  the  Map  of  tbe  Eiissian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  320,000.' 


I  f|'^    '%  '  flfTf^^ 


•7      * 


A 


.r  -  r/ 


•^    ...  >,<-^v'^-  •'"'..«»;.  V 


hB-'  t  t 


\ 


<  f 


'0  ti 


Ojel  al 


,  .3 


.-A.>MS£i)I.v     ^^   ,K  ^ 


E  oFG. 


,  G  Miles. 


Erivan  markets.     Between  1836  and  1876  the  average  yield  has  risen  from  4,000 
to  16,300  tons. 

Ararat,  "historical  centre  of  the  Armenian  plateau,"  and  central  point  of  the 
line  of  tablelands  stretching  across  the  eastern  hemisphere  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Bering  Strait,  rises  above  the  eastern  continuation  of  the  volcanic  chain 
rimning  between  the  Araxis  and  the  Euphrates.  But  its  snowy  crest  towers  to 
such  a  height  above  the  surrounding  moimtaius  that  they  become  dwarfed  to  mere 
hills,  while  the  hilly  plateaux  seem  to  stretch  like  plains  at  its  base.  Its  very 
name  of  Ararat,  probably  of  Aramaean  origin,  is  synonpnous  with  supereminence, 
while  its  Armenian  designation,  Masis,  is  also  said  to  mean  "  grand,"  or  "  sublime." 


OEOGEAPHT— AEAEAT— ALA-GOZ. 


133 


The  Turks  cull  it  Agri-dagh,  or  "Steep  Moimtain,"  and  the  Persians  Koh-i-Nuh, 
or  "Xoah's  Moimt."  This  superb  mass,  grander  than  the  Hellenic  Ohinpuses, 
naturally  became  a  sacred  object  to  the  peoples  of  the  plains,  the  mysterious 
smnmit  whence  men  and  animals  descended  to  people  the  world.  The  Armenians 
show  the  yery  spot  where  Noah's  ark  grounded,  and  where  it  is  still  guarded  by 
genii  armed  with  flaming  swords.* 

Viewed  from  Xakhicheyan,  Ararat  looks  like  a  compact  conic  mass  rising  on 
the  north-west  horizon  ;  but  from  Bayazid  on  the  south,  and  Eriyau  on  the  north, 
it  is  seen  to  consist  of  two  distinct  momitains  disposed  in  the  direction  of  the 
Caucasus — Great  Ararat,  with  a  double  peak  in  the  north-west ;  Little  Ararat,  with 
a  roimded  crest  in  the  south-east,  and  with  a  deep  interyening  depression.     Both 

Ficr.  67. — Mount  Akabat. 


masses,  with  their  counterforts,  occupy  an  area  of  about  380  square  miles  between 
the  plaius  of  Bayazid  and  Eriyan.  Like  those  of  Etna,  their  slopes  are  almost 
eyerj-where  gently  inclined,  although  the  ascent  is  rendered  yery  difScidt  lower 
down  by  occasional  laya  streams,  and  higher  up  by  the  snows,  nearly  always 
softened  imder  the  solar  rays  in  smnmer.  The  Armenians  speak  of  the  prodigies 
by  which  too  daring  shepherds  haye  eyer  been  i)reyented  from  scaling  the  "  ilother 
of  the  AVorld,"  and  the  failures  of  Tournefort  and  Morier  lent  a  colour  to  their 
statements.     When  Parrot  at  last  scaled  the  highest  crest  in  1829,  they  imani- 


*  Elevations  of  the  Araxis  and  neighljoui-ing  plains : — 

Feet. 


Great  Ararat 
Little  Ararat 
Intermediate  Col 


16,760 

11,680 

8,785 


Bayazid  (citadel) 
Echmiadzin    . 
Erivan  . 


Feet. 
6,634 
2,810 
3,200 


184  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

mously  denied  the  tnitli  of  his  account,  and  for  a  long  time  succeeded  in  casting  a 
doubt  on  his  veracity,  until  the  exploit  ^yas  repeated  by  other  adventurers.  In 
1850  Kliodzko  passed  five  whole  days  on  the  summit  in  order  to  prosecute  his  work 
of  triangulation  in  Caucasia.  Tie  jDassed  thence  south-cast  to  Moimt  Salivau, 
204  miles  off,  and  north-west  to  Jlount  Elbruz,  distant  264  miles,  corresponding  by 
means  of  heliotropic  signals  with  the  astronomers  stationed  on  Mount  Akh-dagh,  in 
the  centre  of  the  Gok-chai  plateau. 

At  an  elevation  of  11,600  feet,  Ararat  is  still  everywhere  clothed  with  vegeta- 
tion ;  but  herbage  ceases  at  12,500  feet,  while  nothing  occurs  except  an  Aljjine 
flora  between  13,200  and  14,300,  which  marks  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
sjiecics  of  the  Upper  Ararat  are  all  either  identical  with,  or  allied  to,  those  of  the 
Alps,  but  they  are  much  less  nimierous,  a  fact  doubtless  due  to  the  greater  dr3^less 
of  the  atmosjjhere  on  the  Armenian  mountain.  Its  faiuia  also  is  comparatively 
ver}^  poor.  The  wolf,  hyena,  and  perhaps  the  panther,  haunt  the  thickets  at  its 
base  about  the  Araxis ;  but  higher  up  nothing  is  met  except  an  ibex,  a  polecat,  and 
a  species  of  hare. 

Although  onlj^  8°  of  latitude  farther  south  than  the  Pyrenees,  the  lower 
slopes  are  free  of  snow  much  earlier,  and  the  snow-line  itself  is  about  a  mile  lower 
do^ra  than  on  the  Iberian  range.  Still  the  snow  reaches  much  further  down  in  the 
ravines  of  erosion  b}'  which  its  flanks  are  furrowed.  In  several  gorges  these  snows 
become  true  glaciers,  of  which  the  chief  is  that  of  St.  James,  whose  cirque  has 
imdoubtedly  been  formed  by  a  former  eru2:)tion  analogous  to  that  of  the  Val  del 
Bove  on  Mongibello.  In  more  remote  times  the  glaciers  reached  much  lower,  as 
shown  bj'  the  scored  and  jjolished  surface  of  the  trachite  rocks. 

Notwithstanding  the  vast  quantity  of  snow  lying  on  its  slopes,  Ararat  is  almost 
entirely  destitute  of  water.  "Wagner  failed  to  discover  anAiihing  bej'ond  two 
springs  at  its  base,  from  which  mere  rills  trickle  away  amongst  the  stones.  Hence 
its  sides  remain  arid  and  jiarched,  while  the  neighbouring  moimtains,  also  of 
volcanic  origin,  discharge  torrents  numerous  enough  to  form  vast  and  deejD  lakes 
at  their  feet.  During  drj-  seasons  Ararat  becomes  altogether  uninhabitable,  the 
want  of  shade  and  moisture  driving  away  the  flocks,  and  even  the  birds  of  the  air. 
It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  water  from  the  melting  snows  disappears  in 
crevasses,  or  beneath  the  ashes  and  lavas,  either  collecting  in  imderground  lakes, 
or  forming  a  network  of  hidden  streams.  These  waters,  transformed  to  steam  by 
the  subterraneous  fires,  may  perhaps  explain  the  terrible  eruption  of  1840,  when 
an  old  crater  above  the  convent  of  St.  James  suddenly  reopened,  ejecting  a  dense 
vajjour  far  above  the  smnmit  of  Ararat,  and  diffusing  sulphurous  exhalations 
roimd  about.  The  mountain  groaned  threateningly,  casting  up  from  the  fissure 
vast  quantities  of  stones  and  rocks,  some  weighing  as  much  as  5  tons.  Jets  of 
steam  escaped  through  nmnerous  crevasses,  and  sjirings  of  hot  water  biibbled  up  from 
the  bed  of  the  Araxis.  The  convent  itself  disappeared  beneath  the  debris,  together 
with  the  rich  and  populous  village  of  Arguri,  supposed  by  the  Armenians  to  be 
the  oldest  in  the  world,  and  to  mark  the  spot  where  Noah  planted  the  vine  on 
leaving  the  ark.      There  perished  on  this  occasion,  besides  the  2,000  inhabitants 


OEOGEAPHT— ARARAT— ALA-GOZ. 


133 


of  Arguri,  several  thousands  at  Erivan,  Nakhichevan,  and  Bayazld,  victims  of  the 
earthquake  felt  at  those  places.  Four  days  afterwards  a  fresh  disaster  destroyed 
nearly  all  the  land  imder  cidtivation  about  Arguri.  The  water  and  .slush,  collected 
in  the  crater  partly  from  the  melting  snows,  burst  their  barriers,  overflowing  in 
long  streams  of  mud  down  the  slopes,  and  converting  the  plain  into  a  vast  morass. 
The  Arguri  eruption  is  the  onlv  one  mentioned  in  historic  times,  though  Ararat 


Fig.  68.— Ala-guz. 
Fiom  the  Hap  of  the  Russian  Staff.;  Scale  1  :  300,000. 


■^^ 


-  jN 


E« 


CPerron 


,  6  Miles. 


has  been  the  scene  of  frequent  and  violent  earthquakes.  The  statement  of 
Eeineggs  that  he  saw  flames  and  smoke  emitted  from  the  summit  in  1785 
is  more  than  doubtful,  for  the  phenomenon  was  witnessed  by  none  of  the 
natives. 

The  Allah- ghoz,  or  rather  Ala-goz  ("Motley  Mountain"),  faces  Ararat  from 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Erivan  plain.  It  is  a  volcanic  mass,  with  a  truncated 
cone  13,900  feet  high,  but  with  its  counterforts  occupying  a  wider  area  than  its 


136 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


haughty  rival.  Its  lava  streams  descend  south  and  east  towards  the  Araxis 
valley — west  and  north  towards  ^Vlcxandrapol,  in  the  Arpa-chai  basin.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  di-^-erse  eolours  of  its  scoriae,  pumice,  and  obsidians,  varied  here  and 
there  with  herbage  and  bright  flowers.  Three  of  the  old  craters  now  form  as  many 
small  lakes,  although  but  few  streams  reach  the  plains,  the  running  waters  gene- 


Fig.  69. — Lake  Gok-ciiai.' 
From  (he  Map  of  the  Russian  Staff.    Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


44°  50 


45°50      C   qCG 


C   Perron 


18  Miles. 


rally  disappearing  beneath  the  scorioo,  and  feeding  the  Aiger-gol,  a  lake  lying 
south  of  the  mountain,  and  cbaining  through  the  Kara-su  to  the  Araxis. 


Lake  Gok-ch.\i — The  Kakakagh — Flora  and  Fauna. 

Isolated  like  Ararat,  the  Ala-goz  is  connected  only  by  low  ridges  with  the 
northern  highlands.  These  rim  parallel  with  the  Caucasus,  and  connect  the 
volcanic  chain  of  the  Akhalkalaki  plateau  ■^-ith  the  mountains  overlooking  Lake 


LAKE  GOK-CHAI— THE  KAEABAGH— FLOEA  AND  FAUNA. 


187 


Clok-chai,  east  of  Erivau.  These  mountains — Somkhet,  Pambak,  and  otlicrs  from 
8,000  to  10,000  feet  higli — stand  on  sucli  an  elevated  plateau  tliat  the  ridge  is 
easily  surmounted  by  passes  ajjproachcd  by  long  and  gently  sloping  inclines. 
The  Eshck-Maidau  Pass,  on  the  trade  route  between  Tiflis  and  Erivan,  stands  at 
an  altitude  of  7,230  feet  at  the  north-west  angle  of  a  hilly  plateau,  where  the 
iutersectiou  of  the  various  axes  of  the  Caucasus  fonns  a  labyrinth  of  chains  radi- 
ating in  all  directions,  although  niaiuly  running  north-west  and  south-east,  parallel 

with    the    Great    Caucasus. 

Fig-.  70. — The  Alapolakim  Lava  St.;eams. 
From  Dubois  ilc  Monlpcre  ix.    Scale  1  :  .303,000. 


I- 


1% 


The  ridges  maintain  a  mean 
uniform  elevation,  rising 
everywhere  about  3,300 
feet  above  the  plateau 
forming  their  common  base, 
although  a  few  extinct  cones 
attain  a  relative  height  of 
.3,000  feet,  or  about  13,330 
above  sea-level.  This  inter- 
section of  ridges  of  uniform 
elevation  cxplaius  the  forma- 
tion of  a  vast  lake  fiUini)-  a 
cavity  iu  the  plateau  6,440 
feet  abo\'c  the  Euxiue,  and 
in  summer  only  discharging 
its  waters  through  Zauga, 
south-west  towards  the 
xVraxis.  This  is  the  Gok- 
chai,  or  "Blue  "Water,"  of 
the  Tatars,  and  the  Sevanga 
of  the  Armenians.  Although 
550  square  miles  in  extent, 
or  two  and  a  half  times 
larger  than  Lake  Geneva, 
Chardiu  is  the  first  European 
traveller  who  nientions  it. 
The  mean  depth  varies  from 
150  to  250  feet,  but  its 
waters,  fresh  in  the  northern 

section,  slightly  brackish  in  the  south,  harbour  five  species  onlj'  of  fish,  including 
the  trout  and  salmon,  although  these  are  so  nmucrous  that  from  2,000  to  3,000 
trout  ha\-e  been  taken  at  one  haul. 

The  lake  forms  an  irregular  triaugle,  contracted  towards  the  centre  by  two 
advancing  headlands,  and  as  it  is  everywhere  encircled  by  grey  and  snowj-  moun- 
tains, the  landscape  presents  on  the  whole  a  grand  and  solemn,  though  somewhat 
sombre  aspect.     The  lava  and  porphyry   slopes  are  perfectly  bare  down  to  the 


Uc 


&«is 


C.of  G 


45°50' 


CPp 


—  G  Miles. 


138  ASL^TIC  EUSSIA. 

Avater's  edge,  while  of  the  old  cities  nothing  now  sui'vives  except  crumbling  masses, 
beneath  which  numerous  coins  have  been  found  dating  from  the  time  of  the 
Sassanides.  The  villages  also  lie  hidden  away  in  sheltered  nooks,  so  that  little  is 
visible  beyond  a  few  hamlets  half  buried  in  the  groimd,  and  the  so-called  "Tombs 
of  tlie  Giants,"  nmucrous  tumidi  scattered  over  the  plateau,  which  is  under  snow 
eight  months  in  the  year.  Nearly  all  the  cultivable  land  has  long  remained  fallow, 
so  that  the  country  has  again  become  a  desert.  Till  recently  no  craft  navigated 
the  lake,  wliich,  notwithstanding  the  fierce  storms  sweeping  down  from  the  hills, 
is  often  ice-boimd  in  winter.  On  a  volcanic  islet  in  the  north-west  corner  stands 
the  convent  of  Sevan,  noted  throughout  Annenia  since  the  ninth  century.  It  would 
be  hard  to  conceive  a  more  forlorn  place  of  exile  than  this  bleak  island  of  black 
rocks,  whose  inhabitants  are  condenmed  to  silence  except  fur  four  days  in  the  year. 
But  the  villages  of  the  neighbouring  plateau  have  become  convalescent  retreats  for 
the  people  of  the  imhealthy  town  of  Erivan,  where  dangerous  fevers  are  endemic. 

East  of  the  Gok-chai  and  its  eucii'cling  volcanoes,  conspicuous  amongst  which 
is  the  Alapolariin,  the  labyrinth  of  intersecting  ranges  is  continued  south-east- 
wards, imder  the  collective  name  of  Karabagh,  the  Eani  of  the  Georgians. 
Although  the  rapines  preserve  their  snows  throughout  the  year,  not  more  than 
three  or  four  of  the  crests  in  this  region  rise  above  the  snow-line.  Such  are  the 
Giimish  (^12,460  feet),  soiu'ce  of  the  Terter,  the  Kazangol-dagh,  and  its  southern 
neighbour,  the  Kapujish  (12,380  feet),  continued  southwards  towards  the  town  of 
Ordubat  by  steep  rugged  hiUs  crowned  with  peaks.  South  of  these  cubuinatiag 
points  of  Eastern  Armenia,  and  beyond  the  gorge  of  the  Araxis,  rise  other  moim- 
tains  of  equal  height,  and  sunilarlj'  furrowed  with  snowy  raA-ines.  Between  the 
chain  conuuanded  by  Moimt  Kapudish  and  the  Shusha  Momitaius' lies  the  Zaugezur 
basin,  at  a  mean  elevation  of  4,000  feet,  apparently  an  old  lacustrine  depression, 
like  the  Gok-chai,  whose  waters  have  been  di-awn  off  by  the  Bergushet  and 
Akera  Rivers,  which  unite  before  reaching  the  Araxis  valley.  In  the  centre  of 
this  basin  the  conic  Ishilvli,  or  Kachal-dagh,  rises  to  a  height  of  over  10,000  feet, 
and  the  scoria;  and  ashes  ejected  by  the  siuTOunding  volcanoes  have  been  accumu- 
lated on  the  bed  of  the  old  lake  to  a  thickness  of  several  hundred  yards,  since  deeply 
furrowed  by  torrents. 

The  flora  of  these  highlands  bears  a  remarkable  rcfcmblancc  to  that  of  the 
European  Alpine  regions.  Here  are  the  same  beeches,  oaks,  aspens,  imdergrowth, 
and  flowering  plants.  The  upland  valleys,  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  black 
loam,  are  very  fertile,  whence  probably  the  name  of  Karabagh,  or  "  Black  Garden," 
by  which  this  country  is  known.  But  on  the  arid  slopes,  with  the  thermometer 
at  104°  Fahr.  during  the  simamer  months,  little  grows  beyond  the  wild  sage 
and  other  aronuitic  plants,  while  the  faima  is  chiefly  represented  by  reptiles, 
scorpions,  and  formidable  tarantolos  (^PhalaiKjiuin  araneoides).  The  Karabagh 
horses,  howcA-er,  which  climb  the  cliffs  like  goats,  are  said  to  be  the  finest  in 
Transcaucasia. 


THE  AEAXIS  BASIN.  139 


The  Araxis  Basix. 


The  Aruxis,  or  Aras,  pre-eminently  the  Armenian  river,  rises  bej'ond  Russian 
territory  to  the  south  of  Erzerum,  and  receives  its  first  tributaries  from  the  Bingol- 
dagh  volcano,  the  "  Moimtain  of  the  Thousand  Streams,"  some  of  which  flow  south- 
wards to  the  Euphrates.  After  entering  Russian  Transcaucasia  its  still  feeble 
volume  is  doubled  bj'  the  jumctiou  of  the  Arpa-chai,  or  Akhurean,  descending 
from  the  volcanic  plateaux  of  Alexandrapol  and  the  Ala-goz.  Thanks  to  this 
supply,  it  is  enabled  to  contribute  largely  to  the  irrigation  of  the  Erivan  basin, 
which  woidd  else  become  a  desert  waste.  Diverted  southwards  bj-  the  Gok-chai 
and  Karabagh  highlands,  it  escapes  from  the  old  lacustrine  bed  thi'ough  a  narrow 
rocky  gorge  with  falls  from  200  to  270  feet  broad,  where  its  seething  waters 
descend  between  steep  rugged  cliffs  at  an  average  rate  of  15  feet  in  1,000  yards, 
falling  at  one  point  as  much  as  45  feet  in  the  same  distance.  Ordubat,  above  the 
Arasbar  gorge,  is  still  3,090  feet  above  the  Caspian,  yet  within  60  miles  of  this 
place  the  river  has  already  reached  the  lowlands.  After  receiving  the  Bergushet 
it  sweeps  roimd  the  southern  base  of  the  Diri-dagh,  bej^ond  which  it  is  joined  by 
several  torrents  from  the  Persian  highlands,  idtimately  joining  the  Kui-a  after  a 
course  of  about  470  miles.  At  the  Diri-dagh  it  is  crossed  by  the  Khudaferiu 
Bridge,  attributed  traditionally  to  Pompej',  but  which  is  certaiul}^  of  more  recent 
date.  Higher  up  are  the  ruins  of  another  bridge,  referred  by  the  natives  to 
Alexander  the  Great,  but  which  may  well  be  a  Roman  structure.  Below  that  of 
Khudafcrin  there  are  no  other  bridges,  and  here  the  former  hydraulic  works  and 
irrigation  canals  have  been  mostly  abandoned,  so  that  instead  of  promoting  the 
fertility  of  the  steppe,  they  combine  with  the  swamps  of  the  Kiu-a  to  render  this 
tract  of  the  Caspian  seaboard  all  but  uninhabitable.  The  Araxis  is  said  to  be 
showing  a  tendency  to  trend  more  to  the  right,  and  again  separate  itself  from  the 
Kura,  and  flow  independentlj^  to  the  sea,  as  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 

The  Araxis  basin  is  exposed  to  greater  extremes  of  temperature  than  most 
regions  in  Western  Asia.  The  climate  of  Erivan  is  even  more  severe  than  that 
of  Tiflis,  the  temperature  falling  in  winter  to  — 20°  Fahr.,  and  rising  in  simuuer  to 
104°  and  even  110°  Fahr.  Hence  the  frequency  of  malignant  fevers  and  other 
epidemics  in  Erivan.  "In  Tiflis,"  says  the  Armenian,  "the  yoimg  are  not  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  old ;  in  Erivan  the  living  are  no  better  than  the  dead." 
Fortmiately  during  the  simuner  heats  the  Erivan  plain  is  swept  at  nightfall  bj'  a 
cool  north  or  north-west  wind,  blowing  fiercely  from  the  Ala-goz  highlands.  It 
generally  begins  to  blow  about  five  p.m.  and  lasts  the  greater  jiart  of  the  night, 
but  is  accompanied  by  such  clouds  of  dust,  and  e\  en  sand,  that  the  inhabitants  are 
confined  to  their  houses  during  its  prevalence.  All  the  poplars  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Erivan  are  slightly  inclined  toward  the  south-east. 

These  pyramidal  poplars  are  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  landscape  in  the 
Araxis  basin.  But  a  more  remarkable  plant  is  the  nolbond,  a  species  of  ehn, 
whose  leafy  branches  form  a  vast  canopy  of  foliage  absolutely  impenetrable  to  the 
eolar  rays.     Although  one  of  the  finest  ornamental  trees  in  the  world,  it  is  foimd 


140  ASLITIC  RUSSIA. 

iiowliere  beyoud  tlie  limits  of  Russian  Armenia.  The  apricot  gro'ws  iu  all  the 
gardens,  and  rice,  cotton,  and  sesame  are 'also  cultivated,  besides  a  viae  producing  a 
strons:  wine  of  a  bro'vm  colour,  somewbat  like  sberrv  or  madeira.  But  tbis  vine 
bas  to  be  bxu'ied  underground  iu  winter,  and  regidarly  watered  in  summer.  In 
tbis  climate  everytbing  perisbes,  and  the  groimd  becomes  baked  like  burnt  cla}-, 
except  wbere  tbe  ii-rigating  channels  convert  tbc  desert  to  a  grecu  oasis.  Tbe 
former  irrigation  works  were  all  developed  by  tbe  Persians,  and  an  English 
engineer  now  proposes  to  distribute  tbe  waters  of  tbe  xVrpa-cbai  over  the 
desert  plains  of  Sardarabad.  ^Meantime  held  operations  are  carried  ou  in  tbe 
most  primiti\e  fashion.  Although  skilful  traders,  the  Annenians  arc  bad  agri- 
culturists, but  scarcely  worse  than  their  Tatar  neighbours.  In  several  districts 
the  land  is  also  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  wild  boars,  which  haunt  the  brush- 
wood and  sedgy  banks  of  tbe  Lower  Araxis.  Yet  the  zealous  Tatars  hold  these 
imclean  beasts  in  such  horror  that  they  will  neither  soil  tbeii-  hands  by  j'ursuing 
them  themselves,  nor  allow  others  to  interfere  with  them. 

IxnABiTAXTs — The  Armenians. 

The  chief  nation  in  the  Araxis  basin,  niunerically  tbe  fourth  in  Caucasia,  and 
second  to  tbe  Russians  alone  in  influence,  are  the  Armenians,  or  Hai,  Haik,  or 
Ilaikan,  as  they  call  themselves.  Tbe  term  Amienia,  of  Aramrean  origin  and 
probably  meaning  "highlands,"  is  extremely  vague,  and  applied  in  a  general 
wax  to  all  the  region  of  plateaux  overlooked  by  Ararat.  Armenia  proper,  or 
Ilayasdan — that  is,  land  of  the  Haik — has  shifted  its  borders  from  century  to 
centurj'  ■^^'itb  tbc  political  vicissitudes  and  juigratious  of  tbc  race.  At  present  it 
comprises  most  of  tbe  Araxis  basin,  a  large  portion  of  tbe  Kiu'a  valley,  all  tbe 
Upper  Euphrates  basin  as  far  as  the  jimction  of  the  two  main  head-streams,  tbe 
shores  of  Lake  Van,  and  a  few  isolated  tracts  in  Persia  about  Lake  L'rmniyab. 
Tbe  centre  of  gravity  of  the  nation  has  been  gradually  removed  northwards  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  ^'an  and  tbc  Eastern  Eujibratcs  valley,  where  a  ^Tillage 
stiU  bears  the  national  name  of  Haik.  But  from  all  parts  of  tbe  globe  tbe  scat- 
tered fragments  of  tbe  people  tm-n  their  eyes  towards  Ararat  and  the  jDlauis  of  the 
Araxis  as  their  true  fatherland.  Here  they  are  still  foimd  in  tbe  most  compact 
and  homogeneous  masses,  and  here  tbe  Armenian  tongue  is  spoken  in  the 
greatest  purity,  approaching  nearest  to  the  old  language  stiU.  employed  in  the 
churches,  but  which  bas  ceased  to  be  ciu-rent  since  tbe  close  of  tbc  fourteenth 
century. 

At  tbe  tune  of  tbc  Russian  conquest  in  1828 — 30,  about  130,000  Armenians  of 
Persia  and  Turkej'  migrated  to  tbe  Araxis  and  Kura  valleys,  here  replacing  the 
Kurds  and  Tatars,  who  in  their  turn  took  refuge  in  tbc  lands  that  had  remained 
in  tbe  power  of  the  Mohammedans.  During  tbc  war  of  1877-8  a  simihir  cross 
migration  took  place.  The  districts  of  Ardahan  in  tbe  Ujjper  Kura  valley,  and 
of  Kars  in  the  Araxis  basin,  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  Mussidman  inhabitants, 
receiving  iu  their  stead  a  midtitude  of  Armenians  from  tbc  Upper  Euphrates,  tbe 


INHABITANTS— THE  AEMENIANS.  141 

Clionikb,  and  especially  from  the  tract  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  St. 
Stefano,  but  restored  to  Turkey  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  These  national  move- 
ments were  doubtless  attended  by  a  frightful  loss  of  life,  and  even  now  religious 
and  racial  hatred  gi\es  rise  to  terrible  tragedies.  But  the  popidations  have,  on  the 
whole,  been  groujjed  more  in  conformity  with  their  natural  affinities. 

Hitherto  no  reliable  estimate  has  been  formed  of  the  number  of  Armenians  in 
Asia  Minor  imdcr  ^Moslem  ride,  but  they  are  probably  less  mimerous  than  those 
subject  to  Russia.*  The  whole  nation,  usually  estimated  at  three  and  even  four 
millions,  woidd  seem  scarcely  to  exceed  two  millions,  of  whom  no  less  than  200,000 
reside  in  Constantinople.  Tiflis,  the  second  Armenian  city  in  nimierical  impor- 
tance, lies  also  beyond  the  limits  of  Armenia  proper,  and  the  same  is  true  of  several 
other  Transcaucasian  to^\^ls  in  which  the  Armenian  element  preponderates. 

Deprived  for  centuries  of  all  political  unity  and  national  independence,  the 
Armenians  have  been  scattered  over  the  Eastern  world  since  the  days  of 
Herodotus,  who  met  them  in  Babylon.  When  their  country  fell  a  i^rey  to 
foreign  conquerors  they  preferred  to  become  "  strangers  amongst  strangers  than 
remain  slaves  in  their  native  land."  They  migrated  in  multitudes,  and  since  the 
eleventh  century  have  been  settled  in  Russia,  Poland,  Bukovina,  and  Galicia.  At 
present  they  are  found  in  all  the  large  emporiums  of  trade  from  London  to 
Singapore  and  Shanghae,  everywhere  distinguished  by  their  commercial  enter- 
prise. They  have  often  been  compared  with  the  Jews,  whom  they  certainly  equal 
in  religious  tenacity,  spirit  of  fellowship,  mercantile  instincts,  and  commercial  skill. 
But  they  are  less  adventurous,  and  whereas  individual  Jews  have  penetrated  to 
the  ends  of  the  earth,  sustaining  alone  the  struggle  for  existence,  the  Armenians 
seldom  advance  except  in  compact  groups.  The  majority  of  the  nation  have  also 
remained  in  their  original  homes,  where  they  are  far  from  showing  the  same 
aversion  as  do  the  Jews  to  agricultural  j^ursuits.  In  several  districts  of  Trans- 
caucasia all  the  peasantry  are  of  Armenian  stock,  and  in  some  of  their  villages  in 
the  Karabagh  district  they  are  occuijied  temporarily  as  masons  or  carpenters, 
pursuits  which  the  Jews  are  never  found  engaged  in. 

Nevertheless  the  Semitic  element  j)robably  entered  largely  into  the  formation  of 
the  Haik  race,  for  numerous  migrations  and  even  transportations  in  mass  have  taken 
place  from  Palestine  to  Armenia.  The  Haiks  may  in  a  general  way  be  regarded 
as  Aryans  closely  allied  to  the  Persians ;  but  during  the  incessant  wars,  conquests, 
and  migrations  of  the  last  four  thousand  j'cars  thej'  have  become  mingled  with 
all  the  neighboming  peo^jles,  and  especially  with  the  Jews,  midtitudes  of  whom 
were  removed  by  the  Assyrian  kings  to  the  Armenian  highlands.  The  Bagratides, 
the  most  famous  royal  race  that  has  ruled  over  Hayasdan  and  Georgia,  even  claim 

*  Proliable  number  of  Armenians  in  the  world  ;— 

Caucasia  and  European  Russia      .         .         .         .         .         .         .  840,000 

Asiatic  Turkey 760,000 

Persia 150,000 

European  Turkey 250,000 

Elsewhere 60,000 

Total 2,060,000 

VOL.    VI.  L 


142  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

to  be  descended  from  David  of  Israel.  Amongst  the  other  foreign  elements  said  to 
have  exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  the  nation,  mention  is  made  of  the  Mani- 
gonian  tribe,  introduced  in  the  third  ceutur_y  of  the  new  era  into  Somkhct,  in  Armenia, 
bv  a  prince  of  Jenasdan — that  is,  of  China.  But  the  chroniclers  show  clearly  that 
most  of  these  foreigners,  arriving,  like  th&  Normans  and  Varangians,  as  warriors  and 
mercenaries,  were  in  fact  Iranians,  probably  allied  to  the  Tajiks  of  the  Oxus  basin. 

The  Armenian  language  is  included  bj'  all  philologists  in  the  Aryan  family. 
Its  affinities  are  chiefly  with  the  Bactriau  ("Zend"),  its  sjTitax  is  completely 
Iranian,  and  its  vocabidary  greatly  resembles  the  Greek  and  Slavonic.  Although 
very  harsh  and  abounding  in  consonants,  it  rivals  the  Hellenic  in  its  wealth  of 
words  and  grammatical  forms,  as  well  as  in  its  flexible  structure  and  unlimited 
power  of  word-building.  Still  the  numerous  modern  varieties  have  borrowed 
largely  from  Turkish  and  Georgian,  and  the  speech  current  in  the  Lower  Araxis 
basin  is  a  veritable  jargon,  in  ANhich  the  Tatar  element  at  times  prevails  over  the 
Hai'kan,  while  in  Shirvan  numerous  Armenian  conimimities  have  forgotten  their 
mother  tongue  as  completely  as  have  the  more  distant  settlements  in  Bidco^'ina  and 
Transylvania.  In  the  convent  of  Echmiadzin,  where  it  is  spoken  in  its  jjurest 
form,  it  still  remains  a  purel)^  Iranian  dialect,  whose  origin  and  development  are 
well  illustrated  in  a  local  literature,  continued  iminterruptedly  over  a  period  of  two 
thousand  years.  Rock  inscriptions  in  the  cimciform  character  occur  in  the  Van 
district.  Other  Hai'kan  documents  are  extant  in  Persian  and  Greek  letters,  and  in 
the  flom'ishing  literary  period  (fifth  centurj'  a.d.),  when  three  hundred  schools  were 
open  in  the  coimtrj',  the  pecidiar  alphabet  now  in  use  was  introduced.  The  people 
still  show  a  great  love  of  instruction  ;  schools  are  supported  in  all  the  communes ; 
and  the  villagers  have  often  to  contend  either  -^ath  the  Russian  Government,  or 
with  the  clergy,  jealous  of  the  influence  exercised  by  their  teachers.  The  scientific 
and  literary  movement  has  become  very  active,  and  in  proportion  to  their  munbers 
the  Armenians  probably  print  more  books  than  anj'  other  people  in  the  empire. 
To  the  former  theological,  historical,  metaphysical,  and  grammatical  works  are  now 
added  translations  of  foreign  masterpieces,  and  even  in  Anatolia  are  found  close 
students  of  French  literature.  In  1854  about  twenty-two  Armenian  presses  were 
at  work  in  Europe  and  Asia,  issuing  periodicals  in  Tiflis,  Constantinople,  and  other 
towns,  and  publishing  the  old  monuments  of  the  language,  esi^ecially  in  Moscow, 
Vienna,  Paris,  and  Venice.  The  most  famous  establishment  of  this  sort  abroad  is 
the  convent  founded  in  1717  by  the  monk  Mekhitar,  or  the  "  Consoler,"  in  the 
island  of  San  Lazzaro,  near  Venice.  Here  are  published  niauj-  valuable  documents, 
and  in  the  library  are  preserved  some  rare  Oriental  manuscripts. 

The  Mekhitarists,  like  most  of  the  communities  residing  beyond  the  limits  of 
Transcaucasia  and  Turkey,  belong  to  the  United  Armenian  rite,  in  union  with  the 
Roman  Church,  while  preserving  some  of  their  traditional  practices.  But  the  bulk 
of  the  nation  in  the  Euphrates  and  Araxis  valleys  have  remained  faithful  to  the 
old  Orthodox  cult.  The  dogmatic  differences  dividing  the  nation  into  two  hostile 
religious  sects  turn  chiefly  on  the  nature  of  Christ,  hell,  and  purgatory,  the 
authority  of   the    councils,  the    ecclesiastical   hierarchy,  .and    simdry   rites.     But 


IN-HABITANTS— THE  AEMENIANS. 


143 


beneath  the  outward  teaching  of  both  forms  arc  preserved  numerous  symbols  datino- 
from  still  older  religions.  The  Armenian  was  the  first  nation  converted  in  mass  bj^ 
Gregory  the  "  Illuminator,"  about  the  beginning  of  the  fom-th  century.  But 
while  changing-  its  deities,  it  lost  few  of  its  traditions,  and  modified  its  worship 
very  gradually.  The  sacred  fire  is  even  still  commemorated,  as  in  the  days  of 
Zoroaster.  On  the  annual  feast  a  recently  married  couple  consume  in  a  copper 
basin  the  richest  fruits  of  the  earth,  flowers  of  all  sorts,  ears  of  corn,  the  vine  and 
laurel  branches.  On  all  important  occasions  the  people  turn  towards  the  sun  as  if 
to  seek  for  aid  from  that  som-ce.  Duriag  the  great  feasts  bulls  or  rams  cro^^^lcd 
with  wreaths  and  decorated  with  lighted  candles  are  led  into  the  churches  or  under 

Fig.  71. — Akasis  and  Zanga  Basik. 

From  the  Map  of  the  Etissian  StnfF.    Scale  1  :  COO.noi. 


C  Perron 


12  llUes. 


the  sacred  trees,  and  afterwards  sacrificed  with  songs  and  prayers — evidently  the 
sacrifice  of  Mithi-a  bequeathed  by  the  old  to  the  new  religion. 

The  "  Katholicos,"  or  sjjiritual  head  of  the  nation,  derives  his  power  from  the 
possession  of  a  precious  relic,  the  right  hand  of  the  martji-ed  Gregory.  Chosen  hj 
the  dignitaries  of  Echmiadzin  when  not  designated  by  his  predecessor,  he  is 
obeyed  by  all  his  co-religionists  of  the  Gregorian  rite ;  he  names  the  bishoj^s,  who 
are  nearly  always  selected  from  the  monkish  communities ;  and  he  addresses  the 
Patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  Jerusalem  as  a  superior.  Hence  the  extreme 
importance  attached  by  the  Russian  Government  to  the  possession  of  Ararat  and 
the  sacred  convent  of  Echmiadzin.  By  seizing  this  strip  of  territory,  so  renowned 
throughout  the  East,  the  ]Musco\-itcs  have  at  the  same  time  secured  the  sj^iritual 
ruler  of  over  :2,000,000  human  beings.  The  St.  Petersburg  authorities,  who 
usually  ^-iew  with  scant  favour  all  religions  antagonistic  to  the  Orthodox  Greek, 

L  2 


144 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


liavc  accordingly  been  careful  to  treat  the  Katliolicos  ^\'itli  the  greatest  respect, 
thus  acquiring  a  sort  of  protective  right  over  all  the  Armenians  settled  in  Tiu-kej'. 
On  several  occasions  excessive  zeal  for  the  "  Russification  "  of  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  empire  has  doubtless  led  to  acts  of  violence  and  oppression  even  in  Armenia. 
But  the  caprice  of  governors  and  political  dreams  do  not  j)revent  the  Armenians 
from,  on  the  whole,  exercising  a  considerable  influence  in  the  empire — an  influence 
due  to  their  knowledge  of  languages,  to  their  tact,  often  even  to  their  intrigiung 
spirit  and  adroitness  in  gaining  access  to  the  bureaucratic  circle.  They  have  long 
enjoyed  a  large  share  in  the  government  at  Constantinojile,  and  they  have  already 
begun   to   play  a   part  in  8t.   Petersburg  analogous  to   that  often  exercised  by 

wily  Italians  at  the  French 
Fig.  72.— Armenian-  '^''oman-.  coiirts.       Even    in    Trans- 

caucasia they  are  gradually 
taking  possession  of  the  soil, 
and  constantly  encroaching 
on  their  Tatar  neighbours. 

The  Armenians  of  Rus- 
sian Transcaucasia  differ 
little  in  their  physique  from 
the  Georgians,  except  that 
their  features  are  generally 
rounder,  their  neck  shorter 
and  thicker.  Many  are  in- 
clined to  obesity,  probably 
from  their  sedentary  habits. 
With  fine  heads  of  browni 
hair,  large,  black,  and 
languid  eyes,  they  seem  to 
be  of  a  gentle  and  abnost 
melancholy  temperament. 
Yet  they  do  not  lack  valour 
in  resisting  attacks,  as  sho'mi 
by  the  Seven  Years"  VTar  of 
Independence,  which  they  sustained  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century 
against  the  Persians  in  the  Karabagh  highlands,  and  since  then  in  many  local  revolts 
against  the  Turks.  Though  thej-  do  not  go  about  armed  with  an  assortment  of  pistols 
and  daggers,  like  the  Georgians  of  the  Rion  basin,  they  have  contrived  far  better  to 
preserve  their  liberties,  and  have  never  fallen  imder  the  hard  yoke  of  serfdom,  which 
has  been  the  lot  of  most  of  their  neighbours.  Notwithstanding  the  prevailing  igno- 
rance, they  betray  a  remarkable  degree  of  intelligence  and  aptitude,  especially  in  the 
acquisition  of  languages.  It  has  been  said  that  "  the  intelligence  of  the  Georgians 
is  only  in  their  looks,  whereas  that  of  the  Armenians  is  in  their  head."  But  on 
the  whole  they  seem  to  take  life  too  seriously,  and  are  somewhat  indifferent  to  the 
charms  of  poetry,  although  they  have  produced  some  good  poets  even  in  recent 


TOPOGRAPHY.  lio 

times.  Tlioir  favourite  studies  arc  theology,  metaphysics,  and  philology,  aud 
their  influence  has  been  chiefly  felt  in  the  more  solid  walks  of  litcratui-e. 
Fragments  of  Eusebius,  Philo,  Chrysostomus,  and  other  Greek  fathers,  which  were 
.supi)osed  to  have  been  irrevocably  lost,  have  been  found  in  old  Armenian  trans- 
lations bj^  the  ilekhitarists  of  Venice  and  Vienna. 

In  most  places  the  Armenians  keep  themselves  aloof  from  the  surroimding 
populations,  generally  forming  distinct  trading  communities,  and  in  the  Tatar  and 
Georgian  to'^^iis  rendering  themselves  no  less  indispensable,  hated,  and  despised  than 
the  Jews  in  East  Euroj^e  and  Germany.  But  popular  feeling  is  of  little  con- 
sequence to  men  living  quite  apart  in  the  seclusion  of  the  family  circle,  where  they 
still  practise  patriarchal  habits.  The  grandfather  commands — children,  sons-in-law, 
and  grandchildren  obey.  The  wife,  condemned  to  silence  till  the  birth  of  her  first 
child,  wears  round  her  neck  and  the  lower  part  of  her  face  a  thick  bandage  con- 
cealing the  mouth,  and  obliging  her  to  converse  in  signs  like  a  diunb  creature. 
Even  after  childbirth  she  speaks  only  in  a  low  voice  till  advanced  in  years,  but 
undertakes  all  the  household  duties  till  the  marriage  of  a  sister-in-law.  Strangers 
are  rarely  welcomed  into  the  domestic  circle,  and  many  villages  might  be  traversed 
without  suspecting  them  to  be  inhabited,  so  completely  are  dwelliugs  and  gardens 
walled  off  from  the  outer  world. 

The  Tatars  of  the  Lower  Araxis  vaUey  differ  in  no  respects  from  the  Turki 
tribes  of  the  Kura  basin.  Here  also  are  found  a  few  Gipsies,  besides  some  Kurdish 
herdsmen,  mostl}'  temporary  immigrants  from  I'crsian  aud  Turkish  Kurdistan. 
Amongst  them  are  several  hundred  Yezides,  regarded  by  all  their  neighbours  with 
a  sort  of  horror  as  devil-worshippers.  The  sedentary  Kui-ds  are  numerous  only  in 
the  Zangezur  district,  south-east  of  the  Gok-chai,  where  they  number  about  13,000, 
mostly  assimilated  in  dress,  and  often  even  in  speech,  to  the  Tatars. 

Topography. 

The  chief  town  uf  the  Ui3i5cr  Araxis  valley  is  Kdfjhizinaii,  pleasantly  situated 
in  the  midst  of  trailing  A'ines,  cherry,  apricot,  peach,  and  other  fruit  trees.  In 
the  same  district,  but  on  a  tributary  of  the  main  stream,  lies  the  capital  of  Vp^ier 
Russian  Armenia,  the  celebrated  citj-  and  fortress  of  luirs,  thrice  conquered  from 
the  Turks  in  1828,  1855,  and  1877,  and  definitely  ceded  to  Russia  in  1878.  Even 
before  the  Russo-Turkish  wars  it  had  often  been  exposed  to  attack.  Capital  of  an 
Armenian  kingdom  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  it  was  sacked  by 
Tamerlane,  by  Amurat  III.,  and  again  by  the  Persians,  its  strategical  importance 
constantly  attracting  the  attention  of  invaders.  For  it  occupies  a  central  position 
between  the  upper  basins  of  the  Kura,  Araxis,  Chorukh,  and  Euphrates,  com- 
manding all  the  mountain  passes  between  tho.se  valleys.  At  this  point  the 
Kars-chai,  confined  in  a  narrow  rocky  bed,  makes  a  double  bend,  first  jwirtly 
encircHug  the  town,  aud  then  sweeping  roimd  the  citadel.  Built  of  lava  blocks, 
and  standing  on  a  black  basalt  eminence,  Kars  could  formerly  defy  the  attacks  of  its 
assailants.  But  since  the  invention  of  artillery  it  was  foimd  necessary  to  fortifj- 
the    sui'rounding  heights,   and    during  the  late    war    the  eleven   detached   forts 


146 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


cnclosiug  au  cutrcuclied  camp  formed  a  Hue  of  defence  11  miles  in  circimifcrcnce. 
These  forts,  with  their  basalt  and  obsidian  rocks,  are  the  only  attractions  of  a  to-mi 
which,  although  6,150  feet  above  sea-level,  ciijoj-s  a  considerable  trade. 

A  carriage  road  descending  eastwards  from  the  Kars-chai  to  the  Arpa-chai 
valley  connects  Kars  with  Alexandrapol,  a  Russian  stronghold  whose  fortifications 
have  been  continued  almost  uninterruptedly  siace  1837.  At  that  time  nothing 
existed  here  except  the  village  of  Gumri,  peopled  hy  Armenian  refugees.  Situated 
near  the  east  bank  of  the  Ari^a-chai,  in  a  basin  commanded  on  the  south  hy  the 
Ala-goz,  and  1,330  feet  lower  do-mi  than  Kars,  Alcxaudrapol  lies  in  a  better- 
cultivated  district,  abundantly  watered  by  the  Arpa-chai.  It  succeeded  to  Ani, 
former  residence  of  the  Armenian  Bagratidcs,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1319,  and  whose  extensive  ruins  still  cover  a  triangiJar  headland 
overlooking  the  light  bank  of  the  Arpa-chai.     According  to  probably  exaggerated 

Fig.  73. — The  K.vrs-ciiai  Valley  :  Kars  and  Alexaxdrapol. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Russian  Stiff.    Sci'c  1  :  £00,r01. 


40 


E  .F     V-,         ..i 


45'50 


C  Per 


Ij  MUes. 


accounts  of  the  native  chroniclers,  Ani  had  at  one  time  a  jiopulation  of  100,000, 
with  1,000  churches  and  other  public  buildings. 

South-east  of  Ani  is  Talis//,  which  also  seems  to  have  been  an  Armenian  capital, 
the  ruins  of  whose  high  M-alls  and  towers  now  afford  .shelter  to  a  wretched  hamlet. 
The  whole  of  the  Lower  Arpa-chai  valley  is  a  land  of  ruins.  To  the  west  are  the 
remains  of  Pakarau,  or  "  Assembly  of  the  Gods,"  and  a  little  farther  south  those 
of  two  other  capitals,  Erovantashad  and  Erovantagcrd,  built  successively  by 
Erovan  II.  north  of  the  Araxis  and  Arpa-chai  confluence,  and  said  to  have  formerly 
contained  30,000  Jewish  and  20,000  xirmenian  houses.  Armarir,  also  founded  by 
the  same  king,  has  left  but  few  remains  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  plain  skirted 
by  the  Kara-su  Canal,  near  the  Araxis.  Lastly,  south  of  this  river  stands  Kara- 
Kalel),  the  "  Black  Castle,"  wronglj'  supposed  by  some  to  ha^•e  been  the  ancient 
Tigranocertes,  but  still  a  most  picturesque  object  perched  on  a  fro-\vning  precipice, 


TOPOGRAPHY.  U7 

^vith  towers  built  of  alternate  rows  of  red  porphp-y  and  black  lara,  at  wliose  feet 
rusli  the  foaming  waters  of  a  nioimtain  torrent. 

Echmiadzin,  the  present  religioiis  capital  of  the  Haikans,  lies  to  the  west  of 
Erivan,  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  plain.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  small  town 
of  Yagarshabad,  but  Echmiadzin  itself  is  little  more  than  a  vast  convent  s\irrounded 
by  a  cob-wall,  and  commanded  by  a  church  with  pp-amidal  bclfrj-  and  side  turrets. 
The  lower  storj-  of  the  buildings  is  concealed  by  a  plain  quadrangidar  enclosm-e  of 
dull  grey  walls,  so  that  there  is  nothing  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  these  heavj' 
masses  except  the  surrounding  thicket  of  poplars  and  fruit  trees,  a  few  ilower  beds, 
and  limpid  streams.  Yet  this  monastery,  whose  name  means  "the  onlj'  sou  has 
descended,"  is  the  capital  of  the  Ai-menian  world.  Here,  according  to  the  legend, 
the  "  Son  of  God  "  appeared  to  Gregory  the  Illiuninator,  and  at  one  thimder- stroke 
hurled  the  pagan  di^-irLitios  beneath  the  earth.  For  here  formerly  stood  Ardimet- 
Kaghat,  the  "  City  of  Ai-temis,"  the  "  Armenian  Yenus,"  to  whose  shrine  wor- 
shippers flocked  from  all  quarters.  The  deities  have  changed,  but  for  at  least  five- 
and-twenty  centiu-ies  this  has  remained  a  hallowed  spot.  The  library  contains 
six  himdred  and  thirty-five  old  manuscripts,  and  its  printing-press,  the  oldest  in 
Ai-menia  proper,  pubKshes  a  periodical  and  some  popular  works.  One  of  the  bells  bears 
a  Tibetan  inscription  with  the  famous  mj'stic  words,  om  manipadini  hum,  showing  that 
at  some  unkuo-wn  eiDoch  Armenia  must  have  had  relations  with  the  Buddhist  world. 

Erivan,  capital  of  the  chief  government  in  Russian  Armenia,  and  the  second 
city  of  the  Araxis  valley,  stands  at  the  north-east  angle  of  the  old  lacustrine  basin 
traversed  by  the  river,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Zanga,  hero  diverted  into  a  thousand 
irrigating  rills.  It  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  Armenians,  who  have  succeeded  to  the 
Tatars  occupj-ing  it  imder  the  Persian  ride.  It  holds  an  important  commercial 
and  strategical  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  upper  valley  leading  to  Tiflis  and 
the  Km-a  basin  over  the  Gok-chai  plateau,  and  its  fortress,  perched  on  a  columnar 
basalt  cliff,  has  been  the  scene  of  manj'  stirring  events.  Built  mostly  in  the 
Persian  style,  it  boasts  of  some  picturesque  structures,  including  a  handsome 
moscjue  decorated  with  arabesques,  and  shaded  with  magnificent  ebus.  The 
district,  commanding  a  superb  view  of  Ararat,  is  very  fertile  and  well  watered. 
But  the  wi-etched  climate,  with  its  "v-iolent  changes  of  temperatui-e,  dust,  and  fevers, 
woidd  soon  depopulate  the  jilace,  but  for  its  extreme  strategical  importance  on  the 
Tui-ko-Pcrsian  frontier  and  the  rich  rock-salt  mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  In 
simmier  the  Russian  officials  retire  to  Semonovka,  DeKjan,  and  other  sanitaria  among 
the  surroimding  hills.     The  copper  mines  of  this  region  are  no  longer  worked. 

East  of  Erivan  are  the  ruins  of  Bash-Kami,  or  Garni,  another  old  capital, 
which  the  natives  pretend  was  founded  four  thousand  years  ago,  and  which 
contains  the  remains  of  a  Greek  temple,  probably  dedicated  to  the  Armenian  Yenus. 
But  more  remarkable  than  its  ruins  are  its  basalt  columns,  blue,  green,  red,  and 
other  igneous  rocks,  the  scene  of  former  eruptions,  through  which  now  foams  a 
moimtain  stream.  In  the  same  wild  and  rugged  region  lies  Kcgarf,  Kergash,  or 
A'irivank,  the  "  Convent  of  Hell,"  half  of  which  is  hollowed  out  of  the  tufa  and 
lavas.     In  the  centre  of  the  plain,  watered  by  the  Karni-chai,  stood  Artajrates, 


148 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


built  by  Artaxias,  General  of  Antioclius,  on  tlie  jilains  of  Hannibal,  and  -n-liicb 
remained  the  capital  of  Armenia  till  destro-\-cd  bv  Corbido  in  tbc  reign  of  Nero. 


Lit:- 


150 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


VIII.— GENERAL  CONDITION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 
OF  THE  CAUCASUS. 

TitE  Russians  arc  not  recent  arrivals  in  Caucasia.  A  portion  of  tlie  Kubau  basin 
was  pcoi:)led  by  them  since  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  and  in  914  others  reached 
Berda,  at  the  foot  of  the  Karabagh  Mountains.  Over  two  hundred  years  ago 
Stei^hcn  Razin  sacked  Baku,  and  in  1723  Peter  the  Great  pushed  his  conquests 
to  the  Persian  frontier.     For  over  a  century  the  Musco\'ite  power  has  secured  a 

Fig.  75. — Pkogress  op  Russian  CoNauEST. 
Scale  1  :  10,500,000. 


C   Perron 


Seventeenth  Ccntmy.       1700—50.  1750—1800. 


fm 

X^,',.///,^. 


1S30— 5S. 


:859. 


1801. 


1S60— G4. 
.  210  Miles. 


Jil 


1878. 


footing  in  Transcaucasia,  which  has  been  gradually  annexed  to  the  empire  either 
by  conquest,  purchase,  or  volimtary  cession. 

In  spite  of  wars,  migrations,  wholesale  exiles,  and  the  insalubrity  of  certain 
districts,  the  popidation  of  Caucasia  has  rapidly  increased  since  the  conquest, 
although  still  relatively  inferior  to  that  of  Euroiican  Russia.  The  losses  have  been 
rcjwired  by  the  immigration  of  the  Cossacks,  Russian  peasantry,  and  Armenian 
fugitives,  while  the  population  of  all  ihc  provinces  has  been  increased  by  the 
normal  excess  of  births  over  deaths.  At  the  beginning  of  the  military  occxqiation 
Caucasia  was  a  Russian  tomb,  fevers  more  than  decimating  those  attacked  during 


GENERAL  CONDITION  AND  ADMINISTEATION  OF  THE  CAUCASUS.       1  51 

the  com-se  of  the  year.  But  experience,  quinine,  a  better  hygienic  system,  and 
here  and  there  the  draining  of  the  marshy  hmds,  have  brought  about  wonderfid 
improvements,  and  at  present  the  mortality  of  the  Russians  is  less  than  in  Russia 
proper.*  A  similar  j)henomcnon  has  been  observed  in  Algeria,  where  the  French 
and  Spanish  immigrants  ha^"c  gradually  become  acclimatized.  The  actual  rate 
of  mortality  is  less  in  Caucasia  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  empii-e,  and  in  this 
resjjcct  the  country  takes  a  foremost  position  in  the  ■world.  The  nimiber  of  suicides 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  rather  high,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  they  are  here  about 
equal  in  both  sexes,  -svhereas  iu  Europe  those  of  men  are  generally  three  or  four 


Fitr.  76. — Fever  Disteicts  ix  Caucasia. 


C  Perrcn 


'     Endem'cs. 


Frequent, 


Bare. 


times  greater  than  those  of  women.  Amongst  the  Armenians  and  Osses  the  cases 
of  female  suicides  are  even  more  frequent  than  those  of  males.  This  is,  perhaj)s, 
due  partly  to  the  enforced  silence  and  monotonous  lives  of  the  xli-menian  women, 
and  partly  to  the  brutal  treatment  to  which  the  Oss  women  are  subjected. 

A  large  portion  of  Caucasia  rising  above  the  zone  of  cereals  can  scarcely  be 
inhabited  except  by  a  pastoral  population.  But  there  are  also  extensive  tracts, 
formerly  imder  cultivation,  which  have  been  rendered  improductive  by  desolating 

•  Mortality  of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus:— 1837,  1  in  9  of  those  attacked;  1846,  1  in  17  of  those 
attackccl ;  1SG2.  1  in  41  of  those  attacked.  Total  mortaUty :— 1864,  25  in  the  1,000  ;  1872,  19-86  in  the 
1,000.     Total  mortality  in  the  Moscow  district,  41-11  in  the  1,000. 


152  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

wars  and  the  abandonment  of  tlae  irrigation  -^-orks.  The  vast  plains  of  Echmiadzin, 
the  Lower  Kura,  and  Araxis  ha\e  thus  been  partly  changed  to  deserts,  and  even  the 
region  confined  by  the  Alazan,  Yora,  and  Kura  is  now  a  barren  steppe,  notwith- 
standing the  cojjious  streams  surrounding  it  on  all  sides.  The  neglect  of  the 
irrigating  canals  has  caused  the  disappearance  of  millions,  but  the  population 
everywhere  reapj)ears  with  the  gradual  revival  of  these  works  and  with  the  progress 
of  the  drainage  sj'stem.  C'ldtivated  fields  thus  succeed  to  the  swamps,  and  the 
land  becomes  at  once  more  healthy  and  more  popidous. 


Land  Tenure — Agriculture. 

In  taking  possession  of  Caucasia  the  Russian  Government  introduced  great 
changes,  often  of  a  contradictory  character,  in  the  laws  affecting  landed  property. 
These  were  fiu'ther  complicated  by  all  the  vicissitudes  of  conquest,  the  wasting  of 
cultivated  districts,  destruction  of  nomad  encampments,  depopulation  and  whole- 
sale shifting  of  the  people,  military  and  agricultural  colonisation.  During  the  first 
period  of  Russian  rxde  all  the  colonies  were  of  a  military  character.  Composed  of 
Cossacks,  at  once  peasantry  and  soldiers,  they  had  to  build  villages  and  forts,  to  till 
the  land,  dig  canals,  open  up  highways,  and  keep  constant  watch  against  the  enemy. 
One  feels  amazed  at  the  vast  amount  of  work  performed  by  these  men,  thanks  to 
whom  all  the  western  division  of  Ciscaucasia  has  been  finally  settled.  Its  settle- 
ment would  have  been  even  still  more  thorough,  had  not  the  Government  long 
prevented  its  peaceful  colonisation  by  the  Russian  peasantry.  Millions  of  serfs 
might  have  migrated  to  this  region  had  they  been  free  to  do  so. 

In  all  the  already  peojiled  districts  of  Caucasia  the  Government  at  first  pursued 
the  simple  policy  of  securing  the  loyalty  of  the  native  princes  b}'  guaranteeing  to 
them  the  property  of  the  land,  though  occasionally  compelled,  as  in  Kabardia  and 
Daghestan,  to  favour  the  people  against  their  chiefs.  But  this  system  was  soon 
abandoned,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Nicholas  every  effort  was  made  to 
gain  over  the  local  aristocracj'.  In  many  places  serfdom  was  introduced,  and  large 
fiefs  granted  to  the  nobles.  Some  of  the  Kabard  princes  thus  received  domains  of 
30,000,  100,000,  and  even  250,000  acres,  so  that  the  State  was  afterwards  obliged 
to  repurchase  many  of  these  lauds  cither  for  the  Cossack  settlers,  or  for  the  com- 
munes after  the  abolition  of  serfdom.  The  principle  was  even  laid  down  in  1863 
that  the  whole  of  the  lands  should  belong  to  the  communes  ;  but  in  practice  the 
large  properties  were  maintained,  and  in  Kabardia  alone  140  lots,  each  of  about 
1,400  acres,  were  reserved  for  influential  persons  likelj-  to  be  usefid  to  the  Govern- 
ment. All  the  officers  of  the  army  also  received  freehold  allotments  independently 
of  the  lands  assigned  to  the  connuunes,  while  all  the  forests  and  pastures  remained 
undivided.  Thus  was  brought  about  a  state  of  things  analogous  to  that  of  Russia. 
Below  the  large  proprietary  class  came  that  of  the  peasantry,  sharing  the  land 
according  to  the  commimal  system  of  rotation,  and  paying  an  average  tax  to  the 
State  of  about  3  roubles  per  family. 

The  serfdom,  which  under  divers  forms  prevailed  throughout  most  of  Caucasia, 


LAND  TENUEE— AGEICULTTJEE. 


153 


was  at  first  aggravated  under  Russian  rule,  and  even  when  abolislied  in  1866  very 
harsh  conditions  were  imposed  on  the  emancipated.  In  virtue  of  "  fi-ee  contracts  " 
they  were  bound  to  pay  the  landlords  either  200  roubles  or  six  years'  manual 
labour,  children  under  fifteen  years  being  charged  150  roubles,  or  ten  years  of 
forced  labour'.  A^Tacn  the  serf  was  at  the  same  time  ov\nicr  of  cattle  or  movable 
property  this  was  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  one  part  only  was  assigned  to 
the  frcedman.     Hence  much  misery,  especially  in  the  lowland  districts. 

The  agricultural  j^roduce  of  Caucasia  alreadj-  suffices  for  a  considerable  export 
trade.   Laud  was  formerly  valued  in  Inieria  at  fi'om  22  to  28  roubles  the  hectare  (2 J 


Fi?.  77. — Dexsity  of  the  Popvlatiox  of  the  CArcAsrs  ly  1873  per  Square  Mile. 


C.  Pe'~r'Qn 


0  to  10. 


10  to  20 


20  to  40. 


40  to  60. 


60  to  SO. 


80  to  100.      100  and  upwaras. 


acres),  whereas  now  it  fetches  ten  times  that  amoimt ;  but  the  eastern  districts  of  the 
Kura  and  Araxis,  exposed  to  storms  and  locusts,  have  increased  less  rapidly  in  value. 
The  superabundant  cereals  are  largely  used  in  the  distillation  of  alcohols.  Far  more 
than  Bessarabia,  the  Crmiea,  or  the  Lower  Don  valley,  Caucasia  is  the  "  vineyard  of 
the  empire."  In  1875  the  land  under  vines  still  scarcely  exceeded  212,000  acres,  but 
the  districts  where  wine  might  be  grown  certainly  exceed  those  of  France,  and  they 
have  hitherto  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera,  though  not  those  of  the  oidium. 
Caucasia  supplies  most  of  the  wines  consmued  in  the  empire,  the  rich  vintages  of 
Kakhetia  being  used  chiefly  for  the  table,  those  of  Kislar  and  the  Lower  Terek  for 


154 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


mixing  with  otiier  vintages.  In  the  Alchaltzik  disti-ict  the  ^-iue  is  cultivated  to  a 
height  of  4,800  feet  ahove  the  sea.  Tobacco  is  also  becoming  an  important  crop, 
9,840  acres  having  yielded  1,700,000  kilogrammes  of  leaf  in  1876,  and  supjdyiug  the 
chief  article  of  export  from  the  Black  Sea  ports.  The  Transcaucasiau  plains 
produce  some  cotton,  which  during  the  American  yrar  increased  rapidly,  and  even 
found  its  way  for  a  time  to  the  markets  of  the  ^Vest.  At  present  the  mean  annual 
yield  scarcely  exceeds  480  tons.  The  raw  silks  of  Xidcha  and  Shemakha  are  highly 
ajjpreciated,  especially  bj-  the  French  weavers.  Since  the  spread  of  the  silk  disease 
in  the  south  of  France  Eastern  Caucasia  has  become  one  of  the  most  important 
fields  for  the  production  of  the  finer  qualities.   In  1848  a  number  of  French  female 


Fig.  78. — HiiinwATS  in  Caucasia. 
According  to  N.  de  Seidlitz.    Scale  1  :  7,6SU,000. 


42- 


40F 


Railways. 

Bailways  in  progress. 

Carriage  Rouds. 


,  120  Miles. 


spinners  settled  in  Zugdidi,  Niikha,  Shemaklia,  and  other  towns  to  teach  the  native 
women  the  art  of  winding  the  thread.  For  nianj'  other  products,  csiDccially  fruits 
and  spring  vegetables,  Caucasia  is  destined  to  take  the  same  position  as  regards 
Russia  as  Algeria  has  taken  towards  France.  Tropical  heats  prevail  in  the  Araxis 
valley,  and  wherever  sufficientlj'  watered  the  soil  produces  excellent  crops.  There 
is  also  a  succcs.sion  of  climates  on  the  momitain  slopes,  suitable  for  raising  produce 
of  the  most  varied  character. 


Population — Industries — Trade — Editation. 

The  popidation  of  Caucasia,  nowhere  as  dense  as  in  Western  Em'ope,  is  con- 
centrated esjjecially  on  the  Mingreliau  plains,  where  the  climate  and  vegetation 


POPULATION— INDUSTEIES—TEADE— EDUCATION. 


155 


most  resemble  those  of  tlie  -svest  of  France.  In  tlie  districts  of  this  region  it  amounts 
to  about  80  per  square  mile,  and  these  more  densely  peopled  tracts  are  at  the 
same  time  the  most  flom-ishiug,  and  have  most  to  spare  for  export. 

The  chase  and  forest  produce  have  ceased  to  be  of  any  economical  importance, 
since  most  of  the  plains  have  been  peopled  and  the  mountain  slopes  largely  cleared. 
But  the  fisheries  are  very  productive  in  the  Sea  of  Azov,  the  Euxine,  and  especially 
the  Caspian.  The  Akhtari  and  Yeisk  limans,  the  river  Kuban,  the  coasts  of  Poti 
and  Batum,  the  Lower  Terek,  and,  above  all,  the  Kura  and  Gulf  of  Kizil-Agach 
abomid  in  animal  life,  and  contribute  largely  to  the  support  of  the  people  and  to  the 
export  trade  to  Russia  and  Persia. 

Manufactures  are  stiU  mostly  confined  to  the  old  traditional  industries,  and  to 
those  connected  -n-ith  miuing  operations.  But  implements  datiug  from  the  stone  age 
are  still  found  in  use  side  by  side  with  the  powerful  modern  machinery  now  employed 
at  the  Baku  naphtha  wells,  the  Kedabek  copper  miues,  the  Saglik  akmi  works,  near 
yelizavetpol,  and  the  iron  works  of  Chasash,  in  the  Bohiis  valley,  14  miles  south- 
Fig.  79. — Section-  of  the  Eoi-te  fkom  Vladikavkaz  to  Jlta. 
Scale  1  :  8,000,000. 


— 

— V 

o 

l>  - 

c 
-o 

N 

..J£ -,., 

^        /           V 

.l,s|. .. 

"5  ./yys^ 

£ *- 

0 

B 
> 

Feet. 

6500 
5200 
3900 
2Cu0 
1300 
0 

3;;/.:;;:^ 

\:f^/^::j^j^ 

--.1_ 

Z^   z/^ 

,  Perron 


120  Sliles. 


Scale  of  Altitudes  fifty  tim  es  larger  than  that  of  Distances, 


west  of  Tiflis.*  This  state  of  things  must  necessarily  coutiuue  imtil  the  Caucasian 
jjroviaces  are  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  world  by  means  of  good  roads.  Each 
of  the  two  great  divisions  has  but  one  railway,  one  connectiug  Ciscaucasia  with  the 
Russian  .system  by  the  Rostov- Vladikavkaz  line,  the  other  connecting  Tiflis  ^vith 
the  Euxine.  But  both  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  are  crossed  only  bj-  the  military  routes 
j)assing  beneath  the  Kazbek  glaciers  and  over  the  Mamisson  Pass.  In  the  east  the 
range  is  skirted  by  the  road  from  Derbend  to  Baku,  and  in  the  west  the  Abkhasian 
coast  route  will  soon  be  opened  to  tratfic.  The  great  lines  of  railway  destined  to 
connect  ^T.adikavkaz  with  Tiflis,  Yclizavetgrad  with  Petrovsk  and  Baku,  Grozuaj-a 
with  Saratov  via,  Astrakhan,  Batum  with  Rostov,  have  only  just  been  begun.  The 
line  from  Tiflis  to  Baku,  ■\\hiLh  \iill  complete  the  jimction  of  the  two  seas,  has  also 

*  Steam-engines  in  the  Caucasian  mines  (1876),  91  horse-power.     Water  enginesin  the  Caucasian 
mines  (1876),  17i  horse-power. 
Mining  returns  (1876)  : — 


Silver 

Lead 

Copper 


810  Ihs. 

Alum 

1,785  cwt. 

Salt 

2,.550   „ 

Coal 

130  tons. 
24,.530    „ 
5,218    „ 


156 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


been  recently  taken  in  liand.  For  the  last  twenty  years  tlie  project  has  been 
entertained  of  a  great  intei-national  line  between  Europe  and  India,  to  follow  the 
west  coast  of  the  Caspian  via  Baku  and  Lenkoran  to  Reshd,  and  so  on  across  the 
Iranian  plateau.  Meantime  the  southern  plateaux  are  aj^proached  by  one  good 
road  only,  the  military  route  between  Kars  and  Erzerum  forming  a  continuation 
of  that  between  Tiflis  and  Kars  rid  Al(^andrapol,  One  branch  of  this  route 
descends  southwards  towards  Erivan  and  the  Persian  frontier  at  Jufa. 

The  general  trade  of  Caucasia  must  long  remain  inadequate  to  meet  the  expenses 
of  the  international  highways  to  Asia  Minor  and  Persia.     In  1878  the  imports  and 


F!g.  SO.— Shiahs  and  SurraixES  in  Eastern  Cavcasia. 
From  Official  Eetums.    Scale  1 :  2,000,000. 


C  Perron 


R^^ 
^^^ 


Christians. 


Shiahs.  Sunnites. 

^^^— ^  SO  Miles. 


exports  amoimted  altogether  to  about  12,000,000  roubles,  or  less  than  4  roubles  per 
head  of  the  population.  iUthough  Persia  commimicates  more  easily  with  Europe 
by  the  north  than  bj-  other  routes,  its  exchanges  with  Transcaucasia  and  Astrakhan 
faU  short  of  5,000,000  roubles. 

If  Caucasia  still  lacks  the  material  imity  imparted  by  a  well- developed  railway 


POPULATION— INDUSTEIES—TEADE- EDUCATION. 


157 


system  aud  large  commercial  marts,  it  is  stiU  more  deficient  in  that  moral  unity 
which  flows  from  the  sentiment  of  a  common  nationality  or  group  of  natioualities 
possessing  the  same  interests  and  aspu-ations.  Instruction  also  is  in  too  backward 
a  state  to  allow  the  youth  of  the  various  races  to  acquire  that  feeling  of  brotherhood 
derived  from  a  community  of  ideas.  Nevertheless  great  progress  has  been  made  in 
this  respect,  and  in  many  schools  the  Armenian  is  now  found  associated  with  the 
Tatar,  the  Russian  with  the  Georgian.  Moreover,  a  large  nimiber  of  the  middle 
and  upper  classes  send  their  children  abroad.  In  1879  there  were  no  less  than 
twenty-eight  Armenians  in  the  various  schools  and  colleges  of  Zurich.    But  a  great 

Fig.  81.— Baku  Hahbouiu 
Scale  1 :  260,000. 


C  Perron 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feet.  32  Feet  and  upwards. 
3  Miles. 


obstacle  to  instruction  in  common  is  caused  not  only  by  the  variety  of  languages, 
but  by  the  different  alphabets  in  cm-rent  use.  The  Abkhasians,  Osses,  and 
Daghestan  highlanders  were  altogether  unlettered  until  Lhiullier,  Schiefner,  Uslar, 
and  others  invented  writing  systems  suitable  to  express  the  fifty  distinct  sounds  of 
their  languages.  Caucasia,  more  perhaps  than  any  other  region,  stands  in  need  of 
some  such  common  system  as  that  proposed  by  Lepsius  in  1852,  and  subsequently 
imder  other  forms  by  Bell,  Coudereau,  and  others. 


VOL.    VI. 


M 


158  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Religions — Fixaxce — Admixistratiox. 

But  Caucasia  is  noted  for  its  diversity  of  creeds  quite  as  much  as  for  its  great 
variety  of  speech.  Paganism  under  many  forms  still  survives  amongst  the  hillmen. 
Here  are  found  the  two  great  Moslem  sects,  numerous  especially  in  the  government 
of  Baku,*  where  they  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  cut  of  the  hair  and 
by  other  practices.  Here  also  dwell  Jews,  converted  Israelites,  and  Judaizing 
Christians,  besides  Orthodox  Greeks,  Georgian  and  United  Armenians,  which  are 
the  prevailing  forms  of  Christianity.  But  dissidents  are  also  numerous,  far  more  so 
even  than  might  be  supposed  from  the  official  returns.  The  Molokanes  especially 
have  important  colonies  in  the  government  of  Stavropol,  near  Tiflis,  on  the  Akha- 
laki  plateau,  in  the  Mugan  steppe,  and  they  are  now  spreading  in  the  annexed 
territories. 

All  these  national  and  religious  differences  have  necessitated  diiferent  theories 
and  practices  in  the  administration  of  justice.  Hence,  after  many  useless  efforts,  the 
Government  has  been  compelled  to  abstain,  at  least  for  the  present,  from  intro- 
ducing a  common  system  of  jurisprudence.  Amongst  the  Moslem  highlanders  two 
codes  are  stUl  maintained — the  sliariaf,  or  religious  code  based  on  the  Koran,  and  the 
adof,  or  common  law.  The  fonner  is  appealed  to  only  ia  rehgious,  family,  and 
testamentary  questions,  while  the  latter  regxdates  the  ordinary  affairs  of  property 
and  commimal  interests.  Its  decisions  are  pronounced  in  public  by  elected  judges, 
and  certain  -s-illages  noted  for  their  scruijulous  administration  of  justice  have  been 
chosen  by  usage  as  veritable  coiu-ts  of  appeal  in  all  doubtfid  cases. 

Most  of  the  hiUmen  still  foster  a  feeling  of  animosity  against  their  conquerors, 
and  recall  with  pride  the  daj's  of  their  ancient  independence.  Amongst  the  low- 
landers,  some,  like  the  Nogai  Tatars  and  the  Tats,  know  that  thej-  have  kinsmen 
and  co-religionists  elsewhere,  and  regard  themselves  as  strangers  in  the  land. 
Others,  like  the  Kurd  shepherds,  are  immigrant  nomads,  always  ready  to  strike  their 
tents.  The  Georgians  feel  that  their  destiny  is  rather  to  serve  the  Russians  than 
become  their  equals,  while  the  Armenians  endeavour  to  make  themselves  masters  of 
all  by  the  power  of  money.  The  Slav  iuvaders,  although  already  the  most  numerous 
relatively,  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  giving  political  cohesion  to  the  popidation. 
Their  ascendancy  is  mainly  of  a  military  character,  and  Caucasus  remains  still  for 
them  campaigning  groimd  quite  as  much  as  a  field  for  colonisation. 

From  the  strategic  2)oint  of  ^-iew  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  are  completely  open  to 
the  armies  of  the  Czar.  The  Euxine  has  become  a  Russian  lake,  while  the  Caspian 
belongs  still  more  exclusively  to  the  northern  Power.  Here  the  fleet  at  anchor  in 
the  commodious  harbour  of  Baku  may  at  the  first  signal  ship  an  armed  force  for  the 
coast  of  Mazanderau.  Alcxaudrapol  and  Kars,  strongholds  and  arsenals  of  the  first 
importance,  threaten  the  upper  basin  of  the  Euphrates,  and  all  the  passes  are 
already  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  In  case  of  a  struggle  with  England  for 
supremacy  in  Western  Asia,  Russia  occupies  a  masterly  position.  The  Bosporus 
has  alrcadj'  been  three  times  threatened  from  the  north  ;  now  it  may  also  be  attacked 

*  Mohammedans  in  the  Baku  government  (1873) : — Shiah  sect,  270,787  ;  Sunnites,  206,121. 


■RELIGIONS— FINANCE— ADMINISTRATION. 


159 


from  tlie  east.  If  England  reigns  supreme  in  tlie  Mediterranean,  she  would  still 
look  in  vain  for  armies  strong  enough  to  oppose  the  Russians  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  of 
which  she  has,  perhaps  imjDrudentlj',  guaranteed  the  present  limits.  Through  the 
Euphrates  Aallcy  Russia  may  also  at  her  pleasure  advance  towards  the  "  holy 
places  "  once  conquered  by  the  Crusaders,  and  over  which  Christians  of  all  sects 
are  endeavouring  to  acquire  a  religious  preponderance.  Is  it  not  further  evident 
that  the  influence  of  Russia  must  increase  in  that  direction  ^vith  the  growth  of 
population  in  Caucasia  ?  At  all  times  the  peoples  of  the  Ararat  and  Anti-Caucasus 
highlands  took  a  large  part  in  the  poKtical  movements  of  Western  Asia,  and  these 
j)eo23les  have  now  become  the  van  of  the  immense  Slavonic  nation.  Against  this 
formidable  power  the  only  barrier  would  be  an  alliance  of  free  peoples.  But  it  can 
scarcely  be  hoped  that  the  Armenians,  Xm-ds,  Turks,  and  Arabs  of  the  Tigris  and 


Fig.  82. — Stavropol. 

Scale  1  :  800,000. 


43' 


4I°50 


EofG  42  50' 


C\^errQn 


■  15  Miles. 


Euphrates  basins  will  soon  become  emancipated,  and  forget  their  religious  hatreds 
and  national  rivalries  sufficiently  to  vmite  against  the  common  foe. 

The  Caucasian  f)Coples  possess  no  political  pri\ileges  over  the  Slav  inhabitants 
of  the  empire.  All  alike  are  subjected  to  the  same  autocratic  will  of  the  Czar, 
whom  all  are  equally  boimd  to  obey  "  in  spirit  no  less  than  in  act."  None  of  them 
enjoy  constitutions  guaranteeing  their  rights,  though  several  are  still  more  or  less 
protected  by  wi-itten  or  unwi-itten  codes.  The  Czar  is  represented  in  Caucasia  by 
a  lieutenant-general,  or  viceroy,  with  full  administrative  powers.  The  families  of 
the  former  native  rulers,  while  deprived  of  all  political  authority,  are  still  in  the 
enjojTnent  of  pensions,  privileges,  and  honours,  thanks  to  the  "  eternal  and  faithful 
submission  "  sworn  by  them  to  the  Czar. 

The  Caucasian  budget,  whose  receipts  amoimted  in  1878  to  6,750,000  roubles, 
is  included  in  the  general  finances  of  the  empire.     Transcaucasia  alone,  including 

M  2 


160  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Daghestan,  has  a  general  budget,  which  increased  from  5,358,470  roubles  iu  1870 
to  8,784,980  in  1880,  and  which  woidd  amply  suffice  for  the  local  expenditure, 
were  this  not  doubled  and  occasionally  quadrui^led  by  the  maintenance  of  consider- 
able forces  in  the  frontier  fortresses.  The  deiicit  therebj-  created  varies  in  time  of 
peace  from  18,000,000  to  40,000,000  roubles,  rising  in  time  of  war  to  55,000,000  and 
xipwards,  and  amounting  in  the  ten  years  between  1869  and  1878  altogether  to  no  less 
than  343,131,000.  The  receipts  in  the  whole  of  Caucasia  amoimted  in  1878  to 
16,339,703  roubles,  and  the  expenditiu-e  to  71,660,325,  leaying  a  deficit  of 
55,320,622.  The  chief  receipts  are  derived  from  the  excise  on  alcohol,  which 
averages  about  one-third  of  the  whole  income. 

Caiicasia  is  administratively  divided  into  proviaces  of  very  imequal  extent,  all 
of  military  origin,  and  officially  designated  either  as  governments,  provinces, 
circles,  or  divisions.  Tiflis,  capital  of  all  Caucasia,  is  at  the  same  time  the  chief 
town  of  Transcaucasia,  while  Stavropol,  advantageously  situated  on  the  line  of 
aiiproach  to  the  centre  of  the  main  range,  is  the  chief  administrative  capital  of 
Ciscaucasia.  Daghestan,  which  would  seem  to  belong  properly  to  the  northern, 
has  been  included  in  the  southern  division.  So  also  the  district  of  Kuba  is  com- 
prised in  the  Transcaucasian  government  of  Baku,  doubtless  owing  to  the  ethnical 
and  religious  unity  of  the  popidations  dwelling  on  both  slopes  in  the  eastern 
division  of  the  range.  Derbend,  or  "  The  Gate,"  thus  remains  the  political  limit 
of  the  two  regions  north  and  south  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  Appendix  contains  a  table  of  all  the  pro-s-inces,  ^\'ith  their  districts,  areas,  and 
popidations  according  to  the  official  returns  for  1873 — 7.  Here  Daghestan  has  been 
separated  from  Transcaucasia  proper.  The  Trans-Caspian  district,  depending 
administratively  on  the  militarj-  government  of  Caucasia,  and  comprising  a  portion 
of  the  still  unsettled  Turkoman  countiy,  belongs  geographically  to  the  Aralo- 
Caspian  region,  from  which  it  cannot  properly  be  separated. 


^1^^ 


ai^} 


<^ 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  AEALO-CASPIAN  BASIN. 

BussiAN  Turkestan,  the  Tiirkoman  Country,  Khiva,  Bokhara,  Region  of  the  Upper  Oxus. 


I.— GENERAL    SURVEY. 

lEST  of  the  Caspian  the  limits  of  Europe  are  clearly  defined  by  the 
ancient  Ponto-Caspian  Strait,  which  runs  as  a  natural  dividing  line 
along  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus.  But  north  and  east  of  the  Caspian 
Europe  and  Asia  are  merged  together  iu  a  vast  plain,  where  dreary 
wastes  of  sand,  clay,  or  rock,  saline  stejDpes  and  muddy  swamps, 
stretch  from  horizon  to  horizon.  Here  the  only  natural  limit  of  the  two  continents 
is  the  low'est  part  of  the  elevated  tract  between  the  Aral  basin  and  the  Ob  vallej'. 
Both  sides  of  this  ridge  are  studded  with  countless  ill-defined  lakelets,  the  remains 
of  dried-up  seas.  But  beyond  it  the  lowlands  stretch  away  to  the  foot  of  the 
plateaux  and  highlands  forming  part  of  the  main  continental  mountain  system. 

Thus  the  Aralo-Caspian  slope  of  the  Central  Asiatic  tablelands  blends  north- 
westwards with  the  Russian  steppes  between  Ural  and  Caspian,  while  scarcely 
separated  northwards  from  the  Ob  vallc}'.  But  everywhere  else  it  is  sharply 
defined  westwards  by  the  Caspian,  southwards  by  the  highlands  separating  it  from 
Persia  and  Afghanistan,  and  stretching  in  an  elongated  cvu've  from  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  Caspian  to  the  Hindu-Kush.  Eastwards  and  north-eastwards  rise  the 
upland  pastiu-es  and  snowy  peaks  of  the  Pamir,  the  Tian-shan,  and  Tarbagatai 
ranges.  The  whole  region,  including  the  Russian  protected  states,  "Wakhan, 
Badakshan,  Balkh,  and  the  Turkoman  country,  has  an  estimated  area  of  over 
1,200,000  square  miles,  and  to  this  has  now  been  added  a  tract  of  over  400,000 
square  miles  in  the  Ob  basin,  henceforth  administratively  included  in  the  general 
government  of  Russian  Turkestan.* 


*  Area  and  population  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  lands  : — 

Russian  possessions  from  the  .\trpk  to  the  Irtish  . 
Khiva  ....... 

Bokhara        .         .  .... 

Turkoman  country        ...... 

Afghan  Turkestan        ...... 

Total 


Are.a  in  Square 
Miles. 
1,520,000 
23,000 
95,500 
60,000 
54,000 


Probable  Populalion 

in  1880. 
4,500,000 

300,000 
2,150,000 

200,000 

950,000 


1,752,500 


8,100,000 


162  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

This  region,  wliicli  slopes  westwards  and  northwards  to  the  Caspian,  Aral,  and 
Balkhash,  is  about  equally  divided  into  a  lowland  and  highland  district.  Climate, 
flora,  and  fauna  vary  as  much  as  the  geological  formations  in  a  land  rising  in  some 
places  to  elevations  of  20,000  and  22,000  feet ;  in  others,  as  along  the  Caspian  shores, 
sinking  below  sea-level.  Nevertheless  a  certain  analogy  is  maintained  between  the 
eastern  highlands  and  the  western  lowlands.  In  both  cases  the  annual  variation  of 
temperature  is  greater  than  in  Europe  or  any  other  sea-girt  land.  In  autumn  and 
winter  the  north-east  polar  blasts  prevail  on  the  jjlains  and  uplands,  giving  place 
in  spring  and  simimer  to  the  hot  equatorial  winds  from  the  south-west.  Thus  the 
normal  climate  of  each  season  becomes  intensified  here  as  elsewhere  in  the  interior 
of  the  continent,  so  that  in  Jidy  this  region  is  included  in  the  isothermals  of  20°  to 
25°  Centigrade,  a  temperature  answering  to  that  of  the  Cape  Verd  Islands, 
1,650  miles  nearer  to  the  equator,  while  in  January  the  isothermals  are  those  of 
Canada,  South  Greenland,  and  Spitzbergen,  some  1,800  miles  nearer  to  the  North 
Pole.  But  the  variation  between  the  hottest  and  coldest  days  is  even  stUl  greater, 
averasinff  no  less  than  130°,  or  from  about  111°  to  — 12°  and  even  — 20°  Fahr.  On 
the  j)lains  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  absence  of  dew  add  to  the  rigours  of 
the  climate.  "Whole  years  have  passed  without  any  rainfall,  and  in  1858  the  rains 
lasted  only  four  hours  altogether  in  the  Kara-kum  Desert.  The  moistiu-e  borne  by 
the  south-west  breezes  is  precipitated  on  the  slopes  of  the  Pamir  and  in  the  Tian- 
shan  valleys  ;  but  even  here  the  discharge  is  relatively  far  less  than  on  the  European 
and  Indian  highlands. 

Another  characteristic  of  Russian  Turkestan  is  the  continuous  drying  up  of  the 
soil  going  on  throughout  the  whole  of  the  jDresent  geological  epoch.  The  twin  rivers, 
Oxus  and  Sir-daria,  flowing  from  the  Pamir  and  Tian-shan  nearly  paralj^l  to  each 
other,  at  present  discharge  their  waters  into  the  Aral  Sea ;  but  these  formerly  far 
more  copious  streams  united  in  a  common  channel,  disemboguing  in  the  Caspian. 
Though  still  ranking  in  length  amongst  the  great  Asiatic  rivers — over  1,200  miles 
each — they  are  far  inferior  in  volume  to  the  Siberian,  Chinese,  and  Indian  streams 
flowing  seawards.  Their  basins  show  evident  signs  of  gradual  absorption — old 
channels  now  partially  filled  up,  numerous  rivers  formerly  reaching  the  main  streams, 
but  now  lost  in  the  sands,  or  expanding  into  brackish  morasses,  thousands  of  lakelets 
now  indicated  only  by  saline  incrustations.  Even  the  large  inland  seas,  such  as  Aral 
and  Balkhash,  have  diminished  in  size,  while  others  have  been  replaced  by  the  Kulja 
and  Ferghana  plains.  Owing  to  this  continually  increasing  dryness  a  large  portion 
of  the  comitry  has  been  transformed  to  steppe  lands  even  on  the  higher  grounds,  as 
on  the  Pamir,  Tian-shan,  and  Tarbagatai,  where  the  growth  of  vegetation  is  limited 
to  three  months,  partly  by  the  winter  snows,  partly  by  the  summer  droughts. 

Such  a  region  is  necessarily  but  thinly  inhabited,  the  average  being  rather  less 
than  four  persons  to  the  square  mile,  or  six  or  seven  times  less  than  in  Caucasia, 
notwithstanding  its  vast  extent  of  waste  lands.  But  the  local  traditions,  historical 
records,  and  the  ruins  of  nirmerous  cities  leave  no  doubt  that  the  country  was 
formerly  far  more  densely  peopled.  The  inhabitants  have  disappeared  with  the 
running  waters.     The  powerfid  empires  of  the  Oxus  and  Sogdiana  basins  have 


GENERAL  SUEVET. 


163 


vanished ;  the  great  centres  of  Eastern  civilisation  have  become  eclipsed ;  many 
cultured  peojjles  have  reverted  to  barbarism ;  and  the  nomad  has  triumphed  over  the 
agricultural  state.  Even  the  ruling  race  has  changed,  the  original  Arvan  element 
having  been  largely  replaced  by  Turkomans,  Kirghiz,  and  other  Turki  peoples.* 
The  upland  Pamii-  valleys  from  Xarateghin  to  Wakhan  are  still  occupied  by  Aryan 
agricidtural  tribes,  some  probably  autochthonous,  others  di-iven  to  the  highlands 
when  the  plaias  were  over- 
rim    by    the    nomads    from       ^'S'  83.— Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Ahalo-Caspian  Basin. 

the  north-east.   The  ethnical 


Scale  17  :  400,000. 


evolution  begun  by  climatic 
changes  was  hastened  by 
wars  and  massacres.  But 
the  m-bau  populations  were 
rendered  partly  independent 
of  the  changed  outward 
conditions  by  trade  and  in- 
dustry, so  that  the  original 
stock,  diversely  intermingled 
with  the  intruders,  has  here 
held  its  groimd  to  the  pre- 
sent time.  Aryan  and  TCirki 
peoples  thus  continue  to 
dwell  in  the  same  towns, 
forming  distinct  commimi- 
ties,  which  adapt  themselves 
to  the  sui-roimdings  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  tem- 
peraments and  hereditary 
habits.  Hence,  in  a  political 
sense  alone,  the  Oxus  has 
for  ages  served  as  the  limit 
between  Iran  and  Turau. 
North  of  this  river  Iran  has 
at  aU  times  maintained  a 
footing  in  the  midst  of  the 
Txu'anian  peoples. 

And  now  the  incentive  to  a  higher  development  flows  once  more  from  a  race  of 
Aryan  stock.  The  Russians,  strong  in  the  power  imparted  by  a  superior  cidture, 
are  enabled  to  grapple  with  the  diiBculties  of  climate  and  vast  distances  in  con- 
solidating their  new  Aralo-Caspian  conquests.     After  haA-ing  surveyed  the  land  as 


40 


,  300  Miles. 


•  Throughout  this  work  the  term  TurH  ig  to  he  taken  as  practically  synonj-mcus  with  the  popular 
hut  less  accurate  Tatar,  or  "Tartar."  Farther  on  occurs  the  expression  "  Turanian,"  used  in  a  very 
vague  way  hy  most  ethnologists.  Here  it  will  he  strictly  limited  to  the  Turki  nomad  as  opposed  to  the 
Ii'anian  settled  populations. — Ed. 


ir.1 


ASTATIC  RUSSIA. 


naturalists,  traders,  or  envoys,  they  have  settled  do\\Tias  its  political  masters.  They 
establish  themselves  in  the  already  existing  towns,  foimd  others  on  more  favourable 
commercial  and  strategical  sites,  and  have  even  begun  a  more  systematic  colonisa- 
tion in  the  upland  valleys  east  of  the  Tatar  plains,  thus  assigning  definite  limits  to 
the  nomad  regions.  Lines  of  steamers  on  the  two  main  streams,  roads,  and,  later 
on,  railways,  will  cause  the  hitherto  insurmountable  distances  to  vanish,  thus 
enabling  the  Slav  element  aU  the  more  easily  to  establish  its  political  and  social 
predominance.     In  the  midst  of  Tajilis,  Sartes,  and  Uzbcgs,  Tashkend  and  Samar- 


Fig.  84. — ExssiAN  Encroachments  is  Tvrkestan. 
Scale  1  :  2-2,000,000. 


rV^  ~  V  SanvarKanci  ■      y^  __^ 


C  oFG  55" 


70' 


'^   ''^srrQn 


Possessions  in  1865 . 


In  1875.  In  ISSl. 

^^-^^  300  Miles. 


kand  are  becoming  Kussian  cities,  just  as  Kazan  has  been  Eussified  in  the  midst  of 
the  Tatars,  Chuvashes,  and  Cheremissians  of  the  Volga  basin. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  present  century  the  Russian  power  has  rapidly  advanced 
in  this  region,  notwithstanding  the  final  limits  fi'om  time  to  time  laid  down  by  the 
St.  Petersburg  authorities.  Since  the  capture  of  Ak-Mejid,  on  the  Sii-,  in  1853,  a 
territory  of  about  400,000  square  miles  has  been  acquired,  jDartly  through  the 
caprice  of  some  ambitious  captain,  partly  imder  pretext  of  chastising  some  unruly 
tribe.  Gorchakov's  circular  of  1864  limited  the  farther  advance  of  the  imperial 
arms  to  a  few  settled  tracts  beyond  the  nomad  districts,  "  where  both  interest  and 
reason  required  them  to  stoj)."  But  since  then  vast  strides  have  been  made  towards 
the  subjection  of  the  whole  Aralo-Caspian  basin,  and  by  the  fall  of  Geok-tepe  in 
Januarj',  1881,  the  independence  of  Merv  and  of  the  few  remaining  Turkoman  tribes 
is  directly  menaced.  An  official  treaty  concluded  in  1873  between  Russia  and 
England  includes  a  large  portion  of  their  territorj'  in  the  Afghan  states.    But  such 


THE  PAMIE  AND  ALAI.  165 

diplomatic  triflings  cannot  jirevent  Russian  influence  from  making  itself  more  and 
more  felt  in  these  regions,  wLicli  arc  cut  off  from  Afghanistan  proper  by  the 
Iliudu-Kush,  and  which  belong  physically  and  ethnically  to  the  Aralo-Caspian 
basin.  All  the  lowlands  stretching  from  the  Caspian  to  the  foot  of  the  Pamir,  and 
from  the  Iranian  tableland  to  the  sources  of  the  Ob  and  Irtish,  may  already  be 
considered  as  practically  Russian  territory,  separated  by  a  single  range  from 
British  India  or  its  immediate  dependencies. 

East  of  Turkestan  the  Russians  have  for  neighbours  the  Chinese,  whose  empire 
is  separated  from  them  by  the  Pamir,  the  Tian-shan,  and  farther  east  by  a  con- 
ventional lino  rmming  through  the  gates  of  Zimgaria,  and  at  many  points  offering 
no  obstacle  to  invasion.  But  so  far  from  having  anything  to  fear  from  the  possible 
irruption  of  some  modem  Jenghis  Khan,  here  the  advantage  is  entirely  on  the  side 
of  the  Russians,  both  in  arms,  resom'ces,  strategical  positions,  and  military  science. 


II.— THE  PAMIR  AND  ALAI. 

The  Pamir  and  Tibet,  which  converge  north  of  India  and  east  of  the  Oxus,  form 
jointly  the  culminating  land  of  the  continent.  Disposed  at  right  angles,  and 
parallel,  the  one  to  the  equator,  the  other  to  the  meridian,  they  constitute  the  so- 
called  "  Roof,"  or  "  Crown  of  the  "World,"  though  this  expression  is  more  usually 
restricted  to  the  Pamir  alone. 

With  its  escarpments,  rising  above  the  Oxus  and  Tarim  plains  west  and  east, 
the  Pamir  occupies,  in  the  heart  of  the  continent,  an  estimated  area  of  30,000  square 
miles.  "With  its  coimterforts  projecting  some  300  miles,  it  forms  the  western 
headland  of  all  the  plateaux  and  moimtain  systems  skirting  the  Chinese  Empire ; 
it  completely  separates  the  two  halves  of  Asia,  and  forms  an  almost  impassable 
barrier  to  migration  and  warlike  incursions.  Yet  notwithstanding  its  mean 
elevation  of  13,000  feet  above  arable  land,  it  has  been  frequently  crossed  by  small 
caravans  of  traders  or  travellers,  and  by  light  colmnns  of  troops.  The  attempt 
could  not  fail  to  be  frequently  made  to  take  the  shortest  route  across  the  region 
separating  the  Oxus  from  Kashgaria,  and  Europe  from  China.  Hence  the  Pamir 
has  often  been  traversed  bj'  Greeks,  Romans,  Ai'abs,  Italians,  Chinese,  some  as 
traders,  some  as  explorers,  some  inspired  by  religious  zeal.  But  of  these  travellers 
very  few  have  left  any  record  of  their  journey,  and  all  took  the  lowest  routes 
across  the  plateau.  Here  are  neither  towns  nor  cultivated  land,  so  that  it  becomes 
difiicult  to  identif  J'  anj^  of  the  former  routes.  It  was  reserved  for  modern  explorers 
to  convey  a  general  idea  of  the  plateau,  by  their  methodic  surveys  introducing 
order  into  the  confused  nomenclature  of  the  ancients,  reconstructing  the  geography 
of  Central  Asia,  and  getting  rid  of  the  fanciful  mountain  ranges  traced  at  hap- 
hazard on  the  maps.  The  imaginary  "  Bolor,"  which,  according  to  Hmuboldt, 
formed  the  axis  of  the  continent,  has  already  vanished,  at  least  as  a  line  of  crested 
heights,  and,  like  the  Imaus  of  the  ancients,  it  is  now  merged  in  the  broad  table- 
land of  the  Pamir.  The  name  itself  wovdd  seem  to  have  been  restricted  to  a 
district  near  the  Hindu-Kush,  probably  identical  with  the  present  Dardistan. 


166 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Traders  from  Greece  began,  about  the  twelfth  century  of  the  new  era,  if 
not  earlier,  to  become  acquainted  with  the  routes  over  the  Pamir  to  Serica,  or 
"  the  Land  of  Silk."  Being  ab-eady  established  in  Baktriana,  on  the  valley  of  the 
Middle  Oxus,  the  Greeks  naturally  sought  to  cross  the  plateau  by  ascending  the 
Oxus  until  stopped  by  some  impassable  gorge.  Ptolemy,  relying  on  older  documents, 
tells  us,  in  fact,  that  they  proceeded  northwards  to  the  country  of  the  Comedes, 
whose  name  possibly  survives  in  that  of  the  town  of  Kabadian.     Farther  on  the 


Fig.  85. — Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Eastern  Pamir. 

Scale  1  :  4,500,000. 


C.  PerrofT 


00  llUes. 


road  followed  the  foot  of  the  plateau  by  the  valley  of  the  Oxus,  and  probably  of 
its  tributary  the  Surgh-ab,  riuming  thence  towards  the  "  Stone  Tower,"  the  chief 
station  and  resting-place  on  this  drearj'  jomiie^-.  This  tower  Eawlinson  seems 
inclined  to  identify  with  one  of  the  nmnerous  tash-kurgan,  or  cairns,  scattered  over 
this  region.  It  stands  11,000  feet  above  the  sea,  on  a  head-stream  of  the 
Yarkand,  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Pamir  in  Sirikol.  But  it  does  not  seem 
probable  that,  in  order  to  pass  from  the  Surgh-ab  to  the  Tarim  (Oechardes)  valley, 


THE  PAMIE  AND  ALAI.  167 

the  cara-\  ans  -vrould  have  tiu-ned  so  far  to  the  south-east,  besides  which  Gordon 
regards  this  cairn  as  in  any  case  of  recent  origin. 

T\70  hundred  years  before  the  Greeks  had  crossed  the  Pamir  the  Chinese  had 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  peoples  dwelling  on  the  Sir  and  Oxus,  ^vith  whom 
they  had  established  relations  through  the  passes  of  the  Tsuug-ling,  or  Pamir  of 
the  Russian  geographers.  After  Chang- Eien's  expedition  (probably  about  128  a.d.) 
trade  was  rapidly  developed,  and  large  Chinese  caravans  soon  found  their  way 
dii'ectly  fi-om  the  Tarim  to  the  Sir  basin  in  the  "Tavan"  country.  To  these 
caravans  has  been  attributed  the  introduction  into  China  of  the  ^-ine,  walnut, 
pomegranate,  bean,  cucumber,  parsley,  lucern,  saffron,  and  sesame.  Coming  from 
the  Tarim  valley,  the  Chinese  traders  naturally  sought  to  cross  the  heights  at  their 
narrowest  point.  They  skirted  on  the  north-east  the  Pamir  and  Ala'i  by  the  Terek- 
davan,  but  we  also  know  from  contemporary  records  that  they  crossed  the  Pamir 
directly  by  the  southern  passes  in  order  to  reach  the  Oxus  and  Ki-pin,  or 
Kabulistan. 

This  direct  commercial  movement  between  east  and  west  was  interrupted  by 
ci^^l  wars  and  migrations.  But  the  routes  over  the  Pamir  were  reopened  by  the 
Buddhist  missionaries  and  pilgrims.  Hwen-T'sang,  the  most  famous  of  these 
pilgrims,  describes  the  journey  of  sixteen  years'  dm'ation  which  he  made  across 
Central  Asia  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century,  and  a  sufficient  number  of 
names  in  his  itinerarj'  have  been  identified  to  enable  us  to  follow  him  over  the 
Southern  Pamir  through  Sirikol,  TTakhan,  and  Badakshan.  This  is  nearly  the 
same  route  as  that  taken  by  Marco  Polo  in  company  with  his  father  and  uncle  in 
1'27'2 — o.  But  this  traveller  seems  to  have  passed  more  to  the  north,  instead  of 
ascending  the  Upper  Oxus  crossing  the  Pamir  in  a  north-easterly  direction, 
travelling  "  twelve  days  on  horseback  "  in  a  region  "  without  dwellings  or  pasture." 
In  1603  the  Catholic  missionary,  Benedict  Goes,  also  crossed  the  Southern  Pamir, 
probablj'  by  the  same  route  as  Hwen-T'sang.  But  two  hundi-ed  3-ears  elapsed  before 
it  was  agam  approached  by  a  European  traveller.  In  1838  Wood  ascended  a  head- 
stream  of  the  Oxus  to  the  Sari-kul,  or  Kul-kaHan,  and  with  this  journey  begins  the 
era  of  modern  scientific  exploration.  In  1868  Haj-ward  visited  the  south-east  corner 
of  the  plateau  ;  the  Hindu  emissaries  of  the  Indian  Topographic  Bureau  also  traversed 
the  "  Great "  and  "  Little  "  Pamir ;  the  Greek  Potagos  penetrated,  in  1871,  from 
Badakshan  to  Kashgar;  and  in  1873  Forsyth,  Gordon,  and  Trotter  crossed  the 
plateau  to  Badakshan,  and  sent  a  Hindu  geometrician  to  visit  Shignan  and  Roshan. 

But  the  Northern  Pamir  has  ceased  to  be  ■\'isited  ever  since  the  epoch  of 
Chinese  supremacy.  The  Arabs,  masters  of  the  Sir  valley,  sent  their  trading- 
expeditions  by  relatively  easier  routes  round  the  northern  base  of  the  Tian-shan, 
and  the  same  route  was  followed  by  the  Em-opean  envoys  to  the  Mongol  coiirt. 
The  rediscover}'  of  the  Xorthern  Pamir  is  due  to  the  Hindu  Abdid  Mejid,  who 
was  the  first  to  cross  the  Pamir  from  south  to  north  in  1861,  and  to  the  Russian 
explorers,  Fedchenko,  Kostenko,  MusiLketov,  Sieverzov,  Oshanin,  and  others.  Over 
four-fifths  of  the  whole  area  have  already  been  surveyed,  and  Sieverzov's  expedition 
of  1878  came  ^\"ithin  some  30  miles  of  the  English  exploration  of  1873.     About 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


i'MJiiJ 


'■■  Pitt, 


I,  ,1 


'I  I 


II  Li 


1  m      %^, 


'  'i B>iiiliilM     " 

I    i|||ilVii  III 


iiiliillll  ii  I   I 


I   I    I 
1 1 1 


'  "i'  I 
I'll 


I |ii'"j 


V    i|i'|i 
'"I'-i  i|i,i 


o 


H 
p 

«! 


s 


to 


a '"i"i!.iNiii.>iiiiniiii.iii'i!r.!aiiii;jii,:;i:iiji;i;i'||jii;,;Li'Ji: 


t^venty  important  points  have  been  determined  astronomically;  t],e  elevations  of 
t^^■o  thousand  places  have  been  accurately  taken  ;  and  it  is  now  certain  that  no 
heights  of  any  consequence  have  escaped  observation. 


FLORA,  FAUNA.  LAKES  OF  THE  PAMIR.  1G9 

Althougli  rising  13,000  feet  above  the  Turkestan  plains,  the  Pamir  is  limited 
north  and  south  by  ranges  towering  7,000  and  even  10,000  feet  higher.  On  the 
south  the  Hindu-Kush,  continued  bj'  the  mountains  connecting  it  with  the  Kuen- 
lim,  forms  the  great  parting-line  of  the  Indus  basin.  On  the  north  the  Trans- 
Alai  and  the  Alai,  fonning  geographically  a  section  of  the  Tian-shan,  separate 
the  Pamir  from  the  slopes  draining  to  the  Sir-daria.  But  the  region  thus  com- 
prised between  two  escarpments  rmming  west-south-west  and  east-north-east  is 
far  from  presenting  a  uniform  surface,  for  it  is  divided  into  a  nimiber  of  smaller 
Pamii's  bj-  ridges  and  deep  ravines,  through  which  the  streams  drain,  west  to  the 
Oxus,  east  to  the  Tarim,  T\-ithout  any  well-defined  water-parting.  The  relief  of 
the  uplands,  even  excluding  the  distinct  ridges,  presents  deviations  of  over  3,000 
feet,  which  suffice  to  produce  a  certain  variety  in  the  climate  and  scanty  flora  of 
the  plateau.  Still  the  ridges  offer  no  effectual  barrier  to  the  nomad  Kirghiz 
pastors  or  travellers,  and  the  Pamii-  is  crossed  in  every  direction  by  a  thousand 
tracks.  In  the  north  the  eminences  attain  a  relative  height  of  no  more  than  1,000 
to  1,500  feet,  while  in  the  centre  and  between  the  Eang-kul  and  Yashil-kid  the 
routes  may  be  compared  to  artificial  highways.  In  the  west  General  Abramov  was 
able  to  transport  a  battery  over  the  Alai,  so  that  with  modern  appliances  the  Pamir 
presents  no  instu-mountable  obstacles  even  to  weU-aiipointed  military  expeditions,  at 
least  dm-ing  the  fom-  months  from  June  to  September.  At  other  times  the  sm'face  is 
covered  with  snow  and  exposed  to  fierce  gales,  rendering  the  Pamir  imiuhabitable. 

Below  the  upper  clays  and  sands  the  Alai'  rocks  consist  of  granites  and  crystal- 
line schists.  The  granites  run  precisely  in  the  same  dii'ection  as  the  Tian-shan 
and  the  spurs  projecting  westwards  into  the  Turkestan  lowlands.  But  the  inter- 
vening spaces  are  occupied  by  triassic  and  other  more  recent  formations.  The 
general  tilt  of  the  land  is  towards  the  west  and  south-west,  and  the  somewhat 
ill-deiined  water-parting  lies  much  nearer  to  the  Eastern  Tarim  than  to  the 
Western  Ai-alo- Caspian  basia.  On  its  eastern  verge  also  rises  Moimt  Tagharma, 
or  Taghalma,  culminating  point  of  the  land.  This  mountaia,  known  also  as  the 
Wi-tagh  ("House  Mount")  and  Muz-tagh-ata  ("Father  of  the  Ice  Moimts"), 
rises,  according  to  Trotter  and  Kosteuko,  to  a  height  of  25,500  feet,  and  is  con- 
tinued south-eastwards  by  the  Chichiklik,  which  is  itself  about  20,000  feet  high. 
These  highlands,  which  run  transversely  with  the  Tian-shan,  are  the  Tsung-ling, 
or  "  Onion  Mountains,"  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  Kizil-art  of  the  Kashgarians. 

The  Pamir  is  often  swept  by  terrific  gales  from  the  north-east,  where  its 
sheltering  moimtaia  bai-rier  is  broken  at  several  points.  On  the  shores  of  the 
Kara-kid  and  in  the  sandy  gorge  of  the  KizU-art  the  very  rocks  are  worn  by  the 
sands  incessantly  plaj-ing  on  them  from  the  north.  In  these  lofty  regions  the  air 
is  generally  very  dry  and  clear,  except  when  clouded  by  the  powdered  mists  of 
the  desert  winds.  The  extremes  of  temperatm-e  occasioned  by  this  transparent 
atmosphere,  combined  with  the  snow-storms,  which  prevail  chiefly  ia  February 
and  March,  are  amongst  the  princijjal  dangers  to  which  travellers  are  exposed. 
They  also  suffer  much  from  "mountain  sickness  "  and  distressing;  headaches. 


170  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Flora,  Fauxa,  Lakes  of  the  Pajmir. 

The  Pamir  is  frequented  ia  summer  by  Kirghiz  nomads,  \rith  their  flocks  from 
Khokand  and  Karateghin  in  the  north,  an^  from  Shignan  in  the  west.  Cairns  are 
scattered  here  and  there,  marking  old  camping  grounds,  or  the  graves  of  Kirghiz 
"  saints,"  decked  with  sheep's  horns  and  fluttering  rags.  Abore  the  line  of 
arborescent  vegetation,  indicated  by  the  vrillow,  dwarf  birch,  jumper,  and  thorny 
shrubs,  the  only  available  fuel  is  that  afforded  by  the  wood  of  roots  of  a  species 
of  lavender,  while  stiU.  higher  up  even  this  resource  fails.  Yet  ia  many  places, 
even  at  altitudes  of  13,000  feet,  the  grass  is  as  thick  as  on  the  grazing  grounds  of 
West  Europe,  and  perhaps  richer.  Marco  Polo's  statement  that  the  Pamir  affords 
the  best  pasture  ru  the  world,  fattening  a  lean  hack  in  ten  days,  is  confirmed  by  recent 
explorers  and  their  Wakhi  guides.  In  the  upland  Sirikol  valley  sloping  towards 
Kashgaria  barley,  haricots,  and  other  plants  are  cultivated  as  high  as  10,300  feet. 
Yet  the  parallel  ridges,  especially  ia  the  north,  are  almost  destitute  of  vegetation,  and 
here  nothing  grows  except  in  the  moist  hollows  on  the  banks  of  the  lakes  and  rivulets. 

The  fauna  is  much  richer  than  was  formerly  supposed.  Sieverzov  found  in 
1878  no  less  than  112  species  of  birds  at  an  elevation  at  which  on  the  Alps  there 

Fig.  87. — Eelief  or  the  TTtrwt  tvng  axd  Plateavx  betsteex  the  Hixdv-Kush  axd  Tiax-shan. 

Scale  1 :  13,900.000. 


^ 

^ 

ii 

^ 

ii 

^ 

1 

1 

J5_____ 

^ 

1 

1 
_^1           ^ 

Ls-^-oe 

-;■ 

Atr 

55- 

r  h  i  r  n    -     S  /i   M  n        famin  Plciteaa. 


■  o'r'O  Miles. 


are  no  more  than  a  dozen.  The  muddy  shores  of  the  lakes  show  traces  of  the 
chamois,  hare,  deer,  fox,  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  leopard,  and  on  the  Great  Pamir  are 
wild  goats  like  tho.se  of  the  Himalayas.  But  the  typical  auimal  of  the  plateau  is 
the  so-caUed  kachhar,  or  arhhar  {^Oiis  poll),  a  species  of  sheep  over  3  feet  high, 
weighiag  from  400  to  430  lbs.,  and  distinguished  by  enormous  horns  iacUned 
backwards  in  a  double  spiral.  Formerly  very  numerous,  the  kachkar  seems  to  be 
disappearing  from  the  Pamir,  and  in  the  north  it  was  nearly  swept  away  by  the 
epidemic  of  1869.  Potagos  appears  to  have  met  a  small  species  of  monkey  ia 
the  upland  valleys  of  the  south ;  but  the  bear  has  vanished  from  the  north,  and  the 
tiger  spoken  of  by  some  travellers  was  more  probably  a  leopard. 

Traces  of  increasiag  aridity  are  no  less  evident  on  the  Pamir  than  elsewhere  in 
the  Aralo-Caspian  basin.  A  great  many  lakes  have  already  ceased  to  overflow, 
and  have  been  gradually  changed  to  isolated  saHne  or  brackish  tarns.     Such  is  the 


THE  ALAI  HIGHLAND.  171 

Sussik-kiil  in  the  south,  though  the  Eang-kul  still  retains  its  sweetness,  thanks  to 
the  stream  through  which  it  drains  to  a  tributai'y  of  the  Oxus.  In  many  places 
the  old  lakes  are  now  indicated  by  incrustations  of  salt  and  magnesia. 

The  Kara-kul,  or  "  Black  Lake,"  so  called  from  its  deep  blue  colour,  is  the 
largest  on  the  Pamir,  but  seems  at  present  to  be  passing  through  a  transition 
l^eriod.  Situated  immediately  south  of  the  Kizil-art,  it  is  everywhere  enclosed  by 
snowy  mountains,  but  its  vast  basin  is  no  longer  entirely  flooded.  Its  present  area 
is  about  120  square  miles,  but  its  former  extent  is  clearly  marked  by  numerous 
islands,  peninsulas,  swampy  flats,  and  the  dazzling  white  incrustations  of  magnesia 
met  with  along  its  shores.  It  is  divided  into  two  halves  by  a  ridge  rimning  north 
and  south,  and  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  strip  of  sand.  Its  feeders  no 
longer  compensate  for  the  loss  by  evaporation,  the  rainfall  is  very  sHght,  and 
nearly  all  the  moisture  is  discharged  either  as  hail  in  summer  or  snow  in  winter. 
Before  Kostenko's  \'isit  the  lake  was  represented  as  draining  either  to  the  Kashgar 
or  to  the  Oxus,  or  even  to  both  basins.  But  if  it  ever  existed  the  outlet  through 
the  Markan-su  north-east  to  the  Kashgar  has  long  been  dried  ujd,  while  that  flow- 
ing south  to  the  Oxus  seems  to  be  intermittent,  during  high  floods  still  sending  a 
little  water  through  the  Chou-su  or  Ak-baital  to  that  river.  Being  thus  without 
a  regular  outflow,  its  waters  have  become  so  bitter  that  animals  will  only  drink 
them  when  sufEeriug  from  extreme  thirst.  But  they  are  always  clear,  and 
apparently  stocked  with  fish.  According  to  the  nomads  the  level  of  the  lake  rises 
regularly  every  Fridaj^  a  belief  Xostenko  seems  half  inclined  to  credit.  Koros- 
tovzev  also  speaks  of  regular  risings,  without,  however,  indicating  their  duration. 

The  Alai  Highland. 

North  of  the  Pamir  the  two  i3arallel  ramparts  of  the  Trans-Ala'i  and  Alai 
belong  to  the  Tian-shan  system,  and  their  geological  structure,  according  to 
Mushketov,  is  the  same.  But  these  diorite  and  granite  masses  being  sej)arated  by 
the  Kog-art  and  Terek-davan  *  Passes  from  that  range,  they  may  be  regarded  as 
forming  an  independent  system.  This  western  section  of  the  Tian-shan,  merging 
in  the  Turkestan  plains  between  the  Sir  and  Oxus  basins,  has  a  length  of  420  miles, 
and,  like  the  Tian-shan  proper,  consists  of  various  ridges  running  either  east-north- 
east or  north-west,  and  crossing  each  other  at  intervals. 

At  the  north-east  corner  of  the  Pamir  the  two  ranges  present  a  remarkably 
regular  appearance.  The  Ala'i,  or  Kichi-Alai,  forming  the  water-parting  between 
the  Sir,  Oxus,  and  Tarim  basins,  sharply  limits  the  Ferghana  depression  by  a 
barrier  of  crests  with  a  mean  elevation  of  from  13,000  to  18,000  feet,  which 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  elevated  passes.  Of  these  one  of  the  lowest  is 
the  Isfai'ram  Pass,  12,000  feet  high,  at  one  of  the  "breaks"  in  the  Alai,  where 
the  chain  suddenly  takes  a  westerly  direction.  From  a  neighbouring  bluff  a  view 
is  afforded  of  the  snowy  monarch  of  the  Trans-Ala'i,  which  Fedchenko  has  named 

*  The  Tian-shan  passes  hear  the  Tatar  names  of  dman  or  dahan,  art  or  yart,  bel  and  kutal.  The 
dnvttn  is  a  difficult  rocky  defile,  the  art  a  dangerous  gap  at  a  high  elevation,  the  bel  a  low  and  easy  pass, 
the  hital  a  hroad  opening  hetween  low  hills  (Fedchenko). 


172 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


the  Kaufmann  Peak,  and  wLicli  is  jirobably  the  culminating  point  of  the  whole 
Tian-shan  S3'stem.  A  little  farther  east  rises  a  group  of  three  other  crests,  of 
nearly  equal  elevation,  the  Gurumdi  of  the  Kirghiz. 

The  space  between  the  Alai  and  Trans- Alai  is  regarded  as  forming  a  separate 
plateau,  a  sort  of  advanced  platform  or  landing-place  in  the  descent  from  the 
"  Roof  of  the  World"  down  to  the  F«rghaua  valley.  It  forms  the  bed  of  a  dried- 
up  lake,  at  its  most  elevated  j^lace,  no  less  than  24  miles  broad,  and  stretching  in  a 
narrower  channel  north-east  and  south-west.  The  upper  part,  known  as  the 
Bash- Alai,  or  "  Head  of  the  Alai,"  is  the  "  Paradise  "  of  the  Kirghiz,  though  a 


Fig.  88.— The  Alai  PL.iTEAU. 

Scile  1  :  640,000. 


E.oP  G., 


7Q'Q0 


72  50 


C    Perron 


12  Miles. 


paradise  they  can  visit  only  for  three  or  four  months  in  the  j'^ear.  It  forms  the 
water-parting  between  the  Oxus  and  Kashgar  basins,  and  the  two  streams  that 
here  take  their  rise  are  both  called  the  Kizil-su,  or  "  Ped  River,"  from  the  colour 
of  their  banlcs.  Most  of  their  tributary  rivnlets  have  also  a  reddish  tinge,  due  no 
doubt  to  the  clays  deposited  by  the  old  glaciers.  In  those  flou-ing  towards  the 
Western  Kizil-su,  the  Surgh-ab  of  the  Tajiks,  Fedchenko  discovered  a  species  of  trout 
not  met  with  in  any  other  Turkestan  river,  and  jjrobably  allied  to  that  found  by 
Griffith  in  another  tributary  of  the  Oxus  near  Bamian.  This  fish  seems  to  have 
been  driven  by  the  change  of  climate  from  the  plains  to  the  mountain  torrents. 


M 

I 

1 1, 1 1 


174 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Muk-sii,  which  is  formed  by  throe  head-streams,  one  of  which  is  fed  by  a  glacier 
over  a  mile  broad,  and  at  its  lower  extremity  about  100  feet  thick.  The  Sel-su 
valley  is  fiUed  by  a  stiU  larger  glacier,  at  least  10  miles  long,  which  Oshanin,  the 
fii-st  explorer  of  this  region,  has  named  after  the  celebrated  traveUer  Fedchenko. 


p-jo-.  90.— EOI-TES    OF    ExrLOKERS    IN   THE   WESTERN"   PaMIR. 

Acfoiding  to  Kmrntkin.    Scale  1  :  3,600,000. 


E.of  G 


C.Perrpo 


.  60  Miles. 


West  of  the  Alai,  where  all  the  parallel  chains  converge  in  a  snowy  plateau 
sending  down  glaciers  to  the  surrounding  cirques,  the  two  parallel  Zarafshan  and 
Hissar  ranges  are  also  pierced  by  river  valleys.  But  here  the  chains  begin  to 
branch  off  like  a  fan,  gradually  falling  towards  the  plains,  where  they  reappear 
here  and  there  in  isolated  rocky  eminences.     Between  Samarkand  and  Hissar  some 


THE  TIAN-SHAN. 


175 


of  the  peaks  still  rise  above  the  snow-line,  and  although  less  elevated  than  the 
Kaufmann  Peak  of  the  Trans- Ala'i,  they  perhaps  present  a  grander  appearance, 
thanks  to  their  greater  relative  height  above  the  surrounding  district.* 


III.— THE  TIAN-SH.iN. 


Of  the  Asiatic  mountain  sj'steins  sloping  northwards  this  is  the  largest  both  in 
extent,  elevation,  the  abundance  of  its  snows  and  glacier  masses.  The  title  of 
Tian-shan,  or  "Celestial  Mountaias,"  was  conferred  on  it  by  the  Chinese,  doubtless 
from  the  elevation  of  its  snowj'  peaks  blendiag  with  the  fleecy  welkin.  Its  lofty  crests 
have  ever  formed  one  of  the  chief  barriers  to  migration,  conquest,  and  commercial 
intercourse,  and  these  mountains  have  at  all  times  been  avoided  eastwards  by  the 
Zungarian  passes.  Till  recently  the  Eussians  themselves,  notwithstanding  their 
mUitary  resources  and  superior  culture,  have  stopped  short  at  the  northern  base  of 


Fig.  91. — Relative  Aee,\  of  the  Ti,\x-shax,  Alps,  A^■D  Pykexees. 

Scale  1  :  *24,00n.00<1. 


^, -.  s^;>*^^^^^ 


Pyrenees. 


Alps. 


Tian-shan. 
,  600  Miles. 


the  range,  which  for  them  formed  the  limit  of  tbe  known  world,  and  which  was 
masked  by  vast  deserts,  swamps,  and  shallow  lakes.  Its  pas.ses  are  approached 
by  no  great  river  valley  except  that  of  the  Su--darla,  which,  like  all  the  other 
streams  flowing  from  the  Tian-shan,  is  lost  in  a  land-locked  lake.  Although 
forming  the  chief  mountain  mass  of  Asia  nortb  of  the  Himalayas  and  Kuen-lun, 
this  range  is  nevertheless  of  far  less  hydrographic   importance  than  the  secondaiy 


*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Pamir  and  Alai  system 

: — 

Tamir. 

Feet. 

Bash-Alai 

Feet. 
11,000 

Kizil-nrt  Pass 

14,240 

AlaT-tagh.  highest  point 

19,330 

Kara-kul 

13,400 

Alai-tagh,  mean  height  . 

16,000 

Uz-hel  Pass,  south  of  Kara-kiil      . 

15,100 

ShchuroTskiy  Glacier,  lower  extremity 

11,900 

Snow-line 

. 

15,500 

Kaufmann  Peak,  Trans-Alai 
Ters-agar  Pass       . 

25,000 
9,850 

Alai. 

Trans- .-Vlai  snow-line     . 

14,160 

Teret-daran 

10,460 

Shelveli 

25,000 

Isfairani 

12,000 

Saud.al 

25,000 

Kavuk  . 

. 

13,.300 

Chabdara  (Hissar  Mountains) 

18,600 

Kara-kazik    . 

• 

14,630 

N 

Hasreti-Sultan       .... 

2 

15,000 

176 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


masses,  where  rise  the  great  Siberian  rivers — Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena.  The  Tian- 
shan  is,  in  fact,  entirely  comprised  within  the  central  region  of  the  continent,  which 
has  an  exclusively  inland  drainage.  It  belongs  to  the  region  of  steppes,  deserts, 
half  dried-up  lakes  and  saline  marshes,  which  form  the  "  inner  continent  "  enclosed 
within  the  Asiatic  mainland.  Nor  is  it  inhabited  except  verj-  thinly  in  the  valleys, 
on  its  outskii'ts,  and  on  some  of  its  plateaux,  so  that  while  twenty-five  times  larger, 
it  has  less  than  one-tenth  the  population  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  It  also  forms  an 
ethnical  and  political  parting-line,  on  the  one  hand  limiting  the  domain  of  the 
Mongolians,  Kirghiz,  Zungarians,  and  Tajiks,  on  the  other  forming  almost  every- 
where the  political  frontier  of  the  Russian  and  Chinese  Empires. 

According  to  the  most  recent  surveys  this  system  forms  altogether  a  more 
extensive  highland  mass  than  all  the  Em-opean  moimtains  collectively,  from  the 
Eastern  Carpathians  to  the  Sierra  Xevada.  The  term  Tian-shan,  restricted  by 
Semyonov  to  the  crests  north  of  the  Issik-kid,  and  by  Humboldt  to  the  chains 
between  the  rivers  Xarin  and  Kashgar,  is  extended  by  Hwen-T'sang  to  the  region 


Fig.  92. — Eelative  Relief  of  the  Tiax-9h.\>-,  Alps,  and  Ptkexees. 
Scale  1  :  24.000,(100. 


---■-A 


yAi'A.- 


Pyr-mnima 


t*/*-»-XA«» 


izm 
isso: 

IS2CC! 
liCC 
3750 
(SCO 
32SC 


SEA 


Verticiil  fift^-  times  Lxrger  than  the  Horizont.il  Sc.ile. 
^^^^^—^—^^^^—^^—  600  ^ililes. 


C  Perron 


east  of  the  Kian-tengri,  and  the  geographic  miity  of  the  vast  highland  tract 
stretching  from  Zungaria  to  the  Tm-kestan  ranges  has  now  for  the  first  time 
been  recognised  by  Sieverzov.  "As  I  proceeded  south-westwards,"  says  this 
traveller,  "  I  had  snowy  crests  for  months  together  on  my  left.  After  passing 
the  Ala-tau  of  Semirechinsk,  I  sighted  the  white  Talgar  and  the  other  peaks  of  the 
Ala-tau  bej-ond  the  Hi.  The  Alexander  Chain  was  succeeded  still  by  others  and 
others,  and  the  Celestial  iloimtains  seemed  to  continue  in  an  endless  line  of  sierras." 


Orogeaphtc  System. 

The  Tian-shan  begins  in  Mongolia  with  a  simple  rocky  crest  rising  above  the 
bed  of  the  "  Dried-up  Sea,"  the  Han-hai  of  the  Chinese.  But  this  crest,  which 
rims  west-south-westwards,  is  soon  joined  by  a  second,  and  then  by  several  others, 
connected  by  intermediate  plateaux,  and  broadening  their  bases  till  they  have 
stretched  across  8^  of  latitude.  Towards  the  centre  the  plateau  sujjporting  the  ranges 
gradually  narrows,  and  the  parallel  ridges  become  reduced  in  nimibers,  until  at 
last  the  Tian-shan,  towards  its  western  extremity,  loses  its  name  and  merges  with 
a  few  rocky  eminences  in  the  Titrkestan  lowlands.     The  various  chains  running 


OROGRAPHIC  SYSTEM. 


177 


east  and  west  are  collective!}'  about  1,500  miles  long,  witli  a  mean  breadtli  of  at 
least  240  miles,  and  a  total  area  of  400,000  square  miles. 

All  the  ridges  do  not  run  miiformly  east-north-east  and  west-south-west,  or 
simply  east  and  west,  for  several  stretch  rn  parallel  lines  south-east  and  north-west, 
or  else  east-south-east  and  west-south-west.  These  last  are  formed  of  diorites,  while 
the  main  chain  consists  of  granites  and  syenites.  The  whole  sj'stem  is  intersected 
by  one  only  of  the  secondary  chains,  that  which  skirts  the  Ferghana  plains  on  the 
east,  forming  the  western  escarpment  of  all  the  central  plateau.  The  outer  chains 
spread  out  like  a  fan  beyond  the  main  range,  thus  enclosing  valleys  of  triangular 
shape.  The  Sir-daria  and  its  tributaries,  like  the  other  streams  flo^raig  to  the  stepjje 
lakes,  run  first  eastwards  through  one  of  the  intermediate  valleys  of  the  Tian- 
shan  proper,  and  are  then  deflected  north-west  by  the  outer  chains.     In  the  heart 


Fig.  93. — Chief  Crests  of  the  Tian-shan. 
Scale  1  :  22,000,000. 


43 


Turkestan. 


4Cf 


E  ofG  ^0- 


90" 


C  Penncn 


\^^'  Old  Lakes. 


COO  Miles. 


of  the  system  all  the  valleys,  like  those  of  the  Alai,  Pamir,  and  East  Siberia,  belong 
to  very  old  geological  ej)ochs,  for  triassic  and  Jurassic  strata  have  here  been  regularly 
deposited  between  the  cr}'stalline,  Devonian,  and  carboniferous  crests  of  the  main 
ranges.  Here  are  also  vast  layers  of  loess,  in  some  places  1,000  feet  thick,  and  by 
their  uniform  yellow-grey  colour  imparting  a  wearisome  monotony  to  the  landscape. 
Till  the  middle  of  the  present  century  the  Tian-.shan  was  one  of  the  least-known 
regions  on  the  globe.  But  since  then  the  steady  progress  of  Russian  power  and 
influence  has  enabled  many  explorers  to  traverse  it  in  every  direction,  so  that 
little  remains  to  be  done  bevond  makinjj  a  more  exhaustive  study  of  its  structure 
and  products.  The  work  of  exploration  begim  in  1856  bj^  Semyonov  has  been  ably 
continued  by  YalOihanov,  Golubev,  Venj'idiov,  Sieverzov,  Eointhal,  Mushketov, 
Prejvalsky,  Regel,  &c.  Valuable  itineraries  remain  still  to  be  published,  which  will 
probablj'  clear  up  many  doubtful  points,  and  help  to  remove  the  confusion  occasioned 


178 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


by  the  various  Tatar,  Zungarian,  Russian,  and  Chinese  nomenchrtures.  Great  uncer- 
tainty also  sometimes  prevails  regarding  measurements,  the  various  barometrical  and 
other  estimates  of  altitudes  often  presenting  discrejjancies  of  several  hundred  feet. 

The  Tian-shan  proper  begins  about  120  miles  east  of  the  town  of  Hami 
(Khamil),  and  soon  reaches  an  elevation  of  from  7,000  to  10,000  feet.  The 
Kosheti-davan  Pass,  on  the  route  between  ITami  and  Barkid  north  and  south,  is  no 
less  than  9,100  feet  high,  an  altitude  probablj'  maintained  as  far  west  as  the  Bogdo 
Mountains.     But   innncdiately  beyond    this   point    there   occurs  a  profound   gap 


Fig.  94. — Eastern  Chains  of  the  Tux-sh^in. 
.Scale  1  :  8,600,000. 


w 


Kouldj 

Kul(a  Basin        -^.^a^Ji  Vg//^^ 


klO* 


C  Pt 


'240  Miles. 


through  which  runs  the  road  from  Urunitsi  (Umritsi)  to  Turf  an  and  Pishau.  All 
this  section  is  encircled  by  a  narrow  belt  of  verdure,  watered  by  streams  flowing  in 
j)arallel  channels  from  the  gorges,  and  soon  losing  themselves  in  the  sands,  or 
expanding  into  morasses  on  the  lowlands.  Around  this  green  belt  there  stretch 
westwards  two  inlets  of  the  old  Asiatic  Mediterranean,  which  have  been  gradually 
changed  to  gohU  or  deserts.  The  hills  between  Barkid  and  Hami,  thus  rising- 
like  a  headland  above  the  wastes,  have  played  a  jjrominent  jjart  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  Standing  like  a  barrier  between  two  great  historical  highways,  they 
deflected  the  westward  waves  of  migration,  some  to  (lie  Turim  basin  and  Kashgaria, 


KATUX  AND  YULDUZ  HIGHLANDS.  179 

others  through  flic  narrow  Nomin-niingin-gobi  gateway  between  the  Barkul  Hills 
and  the  advanced  sjjui's  of  the  Altai'  north-westwards  to  Zungaria.  Here  the 
Mongolians  were  easily  enabled  to  skirt  on  the  north  the  whole  Tian-shan  system 
by  availing  themselves  of  the  numerous  passes  opening  westwards  to  the  Hi  basin, 
north-westwards  to  Lake  Balkhash,  north\\ards  to  the  Black  Irtish  and  Lake  Zaisan. 
These  depressions  between  MongoKa  and  JSibcria  have  a  mean  altitude  of  probably 
not  more  than  3,300  feet,  and  the  highest  point  on  the  route  from  Barkul  north- 
west to  the  Black  Irtish  is  only  2,545  feet.  The  existence  of  an  oblique  chain,  sup- 
jjosed  by  Eiehthofeu  to  rim  north-west  from  Barkul  to  the  Tarbagatai  Mountains, 
has  not  been  conlirmed  by  Potautin's  explorations,  though  a  small  ridge  rims  from 
the  extremity  of  the  Tian-shan  at  Barkul  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  again  joining 
the  main  range  west  of  the  town.  This  is  the  outer  rim  of  an  ancient  lake,  of 
which  nothing  now  remains  excej^t  the  small  Barkul  basin,  to  which  this  town  owes 
its  Tatar  name.  Beyond  the  Barkid  heights  nothing  occurs  in  the  north- west  as  far 
as  the  valley  of  the  Black  Irtish,  excejjt  irregular  masses  representing  the  islands 
and  peninsulas  of  the  old  sea  flowing  between  the  Altai  and  Tian-shan  highlands. 

Katun  and  Yulduz  Highlands. 

West  of  the  Urumtsi  defile  and  of  the  old  Turfan  inlet  the  main  range  rises 
above  the  snow-line,  and  takes  the  name  of  Katim,  or  Katin.  This  section,  one  of 
the  least  kno-\va  in  the  system,  is  probably  one  of  the  highest,  and  undoubtedly 
exceeds  16,000  feet.  No  mention  is  made  by  the  Chinese  WTiters  of  any  pass  over 
it,  and  all  the  caravan  routes  skirt  it  east  and  west,  while  the  lakes  on  both  sides 
of  the  chain  seem  to  jjoint  at  extensive  snow-fields  on  the  uplands.  Eegel  recently 
found  vast  glaciers  about  the  som-ces  of  the  Kash,  which  flows  from  the  Katun 
highlands  westwards  to  the  Kunges  and  Hi.  Here  the  Tian-shan  system  develops 
into  several  parallel  ridges,  while  south  of  the  Katun  runs  another  chain  through 
whose  gorges  the  torrents  from  the  main  range  escape  to  the  plains.  West  of  one 
of  these  gorges,  traversed  by  an  aftliieut  of  Lake  Bogla-nor  (Bostan-nor,  or 
Bagrach-kul),  the  Tian-shan  forms  four  parallel  snowy  ridges,  known,  like  the 
neighbouring  lake,  by  several  different  names,  and  enclosing  two  vast  basins  over 
7,000  feet  high.  These  so-called  "  stars  "  (Great  and  Little  Yulduz)  are  the  beds 
of  old  lakes,  which  aiow  form  uatiu-al  pasture-lands  watered  by  streams  flowing  to 
Lake  Bogla-nor.  It  was  in  one  of  these  vast  cirques  that  Tamerlane,  on  his  expe- 
dition against  Kashgaria,  assembled  five  armies  from  five  different  points  of  the 
Tian-shan,  and  ordered  them  to  exterminate  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  between 
Lakes  Zaisan  and  Bogia-nor  north  and  south.  The  imperial  tent  stood  in  the 
middle  of  the  plain,  and  the  "  Destroyer  of  the  Univer.se  "  ascended  his  golden 
throne  ghttering  with  gems,  and  round  about  were  the  less  sumptuous,  but  still 
gorgeous  tents  of  his  emirs.  All  received  rich  presents,  and  the  troops  were 
inflamed  with  rapture-  These  grazing  grounds  are  the  "  Promised  Land  "  of  the 
nomad  pastors,  who  here  find  the  richest  pastures  for  their  flocks,  and  the  finest 
climate,  free  even  in  summer  from  flies  and  mosqiutoes.    Yet  Prejvalsk}'  found  this 


180 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


magnificent  region  completely  abandoned  in  1876.  Plundered  iu  1865  hy  the 
Moslem  Zungarians,  the  50,000  Yidduz  nomads  had  been  driven,  some  south-east- 
wards to  Lake  Bogla-nor,  others  north-westwards  to  the  Hi  valley.  Left  thus 
masters  of  the  \vilderness,  the  wild  ruminants  have  here  become  very  numerous. 
Among  them  are  the  Ovis  jwli  in  flocks  of  thirty  to  forty,  the  mountain  goat  (Capra 
Sibirica),  the  ninral,  a  species  of  deer.*  But  neither  the  Oeis  karelini,  the  Oris poli, 
nor  the  argali  is  anj^svhere  met  in  the  Eastern  Tian-shan.  The  wolf,  fox,  and  other 
beasts  of  prey  are  also  numerous  in  this  section  of  the  range,  which  is  the  exclusive 
home  of  the  white-clawed  bear  (  Vrsus  leticoni/x). 

According  to  their  aspect,  the  mean  direction  of  the  winds,  and  amomit  of  rain- 


Fig.  95. — KOVTES   OF  ExPLOKEBS   IX  THE  EaSTEKN   TiAN-SHAN. 
Scale  1  :  9,670,000. 


-—- ►•"■^■'  Prejv.ilsky,  1876. 
«— I — I—,—'  Kuiopiilkin,  1S76-7. 
r. ...,1 ,.  Rafailov,  1S74. 


C  Perron 


.— -   Sosnosky,  1874—9. 

Hegel,  1876-9. 

. —  Great  Chinese  Highway 


.  120  Miles. 


fall,  the  slopes  of  the  Eastern  Tian-shan  present  many  striking  contrasts.  The 
southern  and  generally  more  abrupt  slopes,  being  imable  to  retain  much  moisture, 
are  nearly  all  treeless,  while  the  northern  are  well  wooded,  the  pine  flourishing  in 
some  places  as  high  as  8,000  feet,  the  upper  limit  of  arborescent  vegetation.  On 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Narat,  or  Nara-tau,  running  north  of  the  Little  Yulduz, 

*  Sieverzov  tells  us  that  the  young  horns  of  the  maral,  -while  still  filled  with  blood  and  not  yet 
hardened,  are  higldy  esteemed  by  the  Chinese,  who  pay  from  £6  to  £20  the  pair  for  them  on  the  Siberian 
frontier.  Hence  the  maral  has  always  been  eagerly  chased ;  and  since  the  wild  animal  lias  become  rare, 
the  Cossacks  of  the  Kiakhta  disti-ict  have  succeeded  in  domesticating  it.  Polakoff  has  recently  stated 
that  this  industry  has  become  widely  diflfused  in  Western  Siberia,  where  tame  herds  of  fifty  to  seventy 
head  are  now  to  be  met.  Unfortunately  the  horns  of  the  domesticated  animal  have  lost  many  of  the 
qualities  for  which  they  are  chiefly  valued  as  an  article  of  trade. — Editor. 


KATUN  AND  YULDUZ  HIGHLANDS. 


181 


I 


II     I'l 


I    |l|l|      Vnl'llttllll 

l,lll  I  llll, 

nftjilLllfl    If* 


hi  il    i|' If 

II ' ii  1 1  ii  i'iii' ' , 

L)i  V  iii'i  ir 

W'''|';!ii'ii:liii|! 


i'  iiiiii'ii  1 1, 

'i  iiiii'ii'i'iii'  iill'llii'i     'ill 


:ii    III. 


to 


l!iiiii!ii{iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiil!ii!{|' 


iiiiiiiiiii. 


the  forests  on  the  banlvs  of  the  Zanma  consist  ahnost  exclusively  of  the  "  Tian-shan 
pine"  and  of  a  species  of  ash,  -while  the  ajiple,  apricot,  and  other  fruit  trees 
abound  in  the  Kiuiges  valley,  and  in  most  of  the  basins  north  of  these  mountains. 


182  ASIATIC  RirSSIA. 

Semirechixsk  Region. 

After  branching  off  towards  tlic  north-west  from  the  main  range  the  northern 
section  of  the  Tian-shan  takes  successively  various  names,  such  as  those  of  the 
Iren-khabirgan,  Boro-khoro,  and  Talki.  North  of  the  Kidja  phiin,  separating  it 
from  the  Tian-shan  proper,  it  imites  ^^•ith  other  parallel  ridges  in  a  hilly  plateau 
furrowed  by  rmming  waters,  and  forming  a  promontory  above  the  plains  and 
steppes  of  Semirechiusk,  the  "  Country  of  the  Seven  Pavers."  "Westwards  this 
plateau  ramifies  into  peninsidar  chains  continued  by  isolated  masses,  between 
which  the  streams  flow  to  Lake  Balkhash,  or  are  lost  in  the  desert.  The  principal 
of  these  masses,  which  still  attain  an  elevation  of  over  8,000  feet,  rises  like  a  rocky 
wall  between  Semirechinsk  and  the  Hi  valley,  but  is  crossed  by  several  available 
passes.  Like  the  main  range,  it  runs  south-west  and  north-cast,  and  this  is  also 
the  direction  of  the  Zungarian  Ala-tau,  which  branches  from  the  plateau  at  an 
acute  angle  with  the  Iren-khabirgan  chain.  This  range,  which  is  over  180  miles 
long,  forms  the  natm-al  frontier  of  the  Russian  and  Chinese  Empires,  and  is  crossed 
only  by  two  serviceable  passes,  those  of  Tentek  and  Lepsa.  The  system  is  con- 
tinued through  Chinese  territory  eastwards  to  the  Tarbagatai  Mountains  by  the 
Barluk  range,  which  is  over  G,000  feet  high. 

The  sj)ace  between  the  Zungarian  Ala-tau  and  the  Tian-shan  proj^er  forms  the 
Tian-shan-pelu  plain,  formerly  a  marine  basin,  which  rises  gradually  westwards  to 
the  elongated  plateau,  whose  northern  and  southern  escarpments  are  formed  by  the 
Ala-tau  and  the  Boro-khoro  with  the  Tallci  respectively.  Lake  Sa'iram,  occupying 
a  dejjression  between  wooded  heights  in  this  plateau,  is  scarcely  700  feet  from  the 
Talki  Pass,  and  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  escarpment,  formerly  followed  by  the  imperial 
route  from  Pekin  to  Kulja.  The  lake  is  slightly  brackish,  and  is  150  square  miles 
in  extent,  -with,  an  altitude,  according  to  Ma-tveyev,  of  6,000  feet.  It  is  very  dee23, 
and  exposed  to  fierce  storms,  much  di-eaded  by  the  Mongolians,  who  call  it  the 
Seri-ob-nor,  or  "  Great  Water." 

One  of  the  most  majestic  ranges  in  the  whole  Tian-shan  system  is  the  Nian- 
shan,  or  Temurlilv,  rising  abruptly  above  the  Kulja  plains  over  against  the  Boro- 
khoro  escarpments.  It  is  sharply  defined  east  and  west  by  the  rivers  Tekes  and 
Kegen,  flowing  from  the  south.  The  Tekes  valley  communicates  with  the  Issik-kul 
basin  by  the  low  Santash  Pass,  on  which  stands  a  huge  saii-tas,  or  cairn,  traditionally 
attributed  to  the  army  of  Tamerlane.  North  of  this  pass  the  Kegen  escapes  from 
its  upper  valley  through  the  most  formidable  gorge  yet  discovered  La  the  Tian-shan. 
This  cleft  in  the  rocks  has  a  depth  of  from  1,000  to  1,600  feet,  between  walls  in  many 
places  rising  vertically  from  the  foaming  stream.  The  Kegen  is  here  joined  by 
three  other  torrents,  the  three  Merke,  also  rushing  through  profoimd  canons  of 
crj-stalline  conglomerates.  Through  the  greater  part  of  the  gorge  the  main  stream, 
here  known  as  the  Aktogoi,  and  lower  down  as  the  Charin,  falls  from  ledge  to  ledge 
in  white  masses  of  foam,  while  elsewhere  its  black  waters  are  collected  in  deep  and 
apparently  motionless  pools.  From  the  bottom  of  this  abyss  the  projecting  rocks 
complctel)-  shut  out  tht>  hca\ens,  and  the  explorer  seems  lost  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 


ALA-TAU  HIGHLAXD. 


183 


The  Cliarin,  whicli  is  the  largest  afflueut  of  the  IH,  is  accompanied  on  the  west 
by  another  river,  the  Chilik,  separated  from  it  b}'  the  Jalanash  phiteau,  a  lofty 
steppe  said  to  be  4,000  feet  high,  and  contrasting  with  the  surroimding  mountains 
in  the  total  absence  of  trees  and  the  general  poverty  of  its  faima  and  flora. 

Ala-tau  Highland. 

The  two  parallel  ranges  rimuing  north  of  the  Issik-knl  basin  are  both  known  by 
the  somewhat  common  Tatar  name  of  Ala-tau,  or  "  Chequered  Moimtains,"  that  on 
the  north  being  the  Ala-tau  beyond  the  Hi,  the  other  the  Ala-tau  Kimgei.  They 
really  form  but  one  granite  ridge,  intersected  longitudinalh'  by  a  limestone  vaUey, 


Fig.  97.^The  Aktogoi  Defile. 
Scale  1  :  SOn.OOO. 


e^    , 


-J    \ 


,-«l 


L^av 


.V 


E   cFG      78° 30'      70 


C  Psr-rjO 


,  12  Miles. 


whence  flow,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Chilik,  on  the  other  the  Great  Kebin,  a  main 
head-stream  of  the  Chu.  Thanks  to  the  neighbom-hood  of  Yerniy,  these  highlands  are 
amongst  the  best  known  in  the  whole  Tian-shan  system.  Consisting  chiefly  of  granites, 
with  some  metamorphous  schists,  limestones,  and  sandstones,  the  Northern  Ala-tau 
is  flanked  towards  the  stejjj)©  by  low  porjihyry  hills  strewn  with  erratic  boidders 
from  the  main  range.  The  remains  of  moraines  are  still  visible  in  several  vallej^s, 
and  an  enorraoiis  glacier  formerly  fiulled  all  the  uj^per  cirques  whence  flows  the 
Turgen.  At  present  there  is  not  a  single  glacier  in  either  of  the  Ala-tau  ranges, 
although  rising  towards  the  centre  above  the  snow-line,  which  is  here  about 
11,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Here  the  pine  flourishes  between  5,800  and  8,600  feefe 
But  the  apple  and  other  leafy  trees  have  been  mostly  destroyed  by  the  improvident 
Cossacks  and  other  Russian  settlers  in  this  region. 


184  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

The  two  Ala-tau  chains,  -nhich  have  a  total  length  of  about  150  miles,  are 
limited  eastwards  by  the  San-tash  Pass  and  the  Aktogo'i  defile,  westwards  by  the 
Biiam  defile,  which  is  traversed  by  the  river  Chu,  and  which  sej^arates  them 
abruptly  from  the  Alexander  Mountains.  This  gloomy  gorge  is  stre\^-n  with 
enormous  blocks,  between  which  rise  fantastic  porphj-ry  pillars.  But  it  lacks  the 
savage  grandeur  of  the  Aktogoi  gorge.  Below  the  jimction  of  the  Great  Kebin  the 
Chu  crosses  the  western  continuation  of  the  Xorthern  Ala-tau,  after  which  it  receives 
the  Little  Kebin  at  the  head  of  a  broad  plain  skirted  by  two  detached  branches  of 
the  Tian-shan,  which  merge  gradually  with  the  desert.  The  southernmost  of  these 
chains,  another  Ala-tau,  now  more  usually  kno\vn  as  the  Alexander  Moimtains,  is 
a  snow3'  range  running  east  and  west  over  180  miles,  and  cuhninating  with  the 
Hamish,  or  Mount  Semyonov  of  the  Russians. 

Lake  Issik-kii.  and  "Westerx  Tiax-shan  Highlaxijs. 

The  geographical  centre  of  the  whole  Tian-shan  sj'stem  is  the  Great  Issik-kul,  or 
"  Hot  Lake,"  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives.  It  is  encircled  on  all  sides  by  mountains, 
on  the  north  by  the  Ala-tau  Kungei,  on  the  south  by  the  Ala-tau  Terskei,  the  vast 
amphitheatre  forming  an  oval  tract  of  over  400  miles  in  circmnference.  The  Issik- 
kul  is  not  only  the  largest  lake  in  the  Tian-shan  highlands,  but  the  only  great 
survivor  of  the  numerous  reservoii-s  that  formerly  filled  the  basins  between  the 
parallel  ridges.  But  it  was  at  one  time  far  larger  than  at  present,  as  shown  by  the 
water  marks  on  the  hULsides  200  feet  above  its  actual  level,  and  in  the  Biiam  defile, 
30  miles  west  of  its  present  limits.  Even  in  the  ten  years  from  18G7  to  1877  it  has 
fallen  nearly  7  feet,  implj-ing  at  least  a  temporary,  if  not  a  permanent,  drying  up 
of  the  land.  The  river  Chu,  which  foimerly  flowed  to  its  western  corner,  now 
reaches  it  only  through  the  sluggish  and  intermittent  Kutemaldi,  which  is  flooded 
only  during  the  freshets  and  melting  of  the  snows.  According  to  a  Kirghiz 
tradition  the  Kutemaldi  was  dug  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  anxious  to  get 
rid  of  the  Issik-kul,  but,  owing  to  a  miscalculation,  they  gave  a  new  affluent  instead 
of  an  outlet  to  the  lake.  Yet,  although  it  has  no  present  o\itflow,  it  is  about  ten 
times  larger  than  Lake  Geneva,  its  area  being  estimated  at  2,300  square  miles. 

It  stands  some  5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  but  never  freezes,  whence,  according 
to  Sieverzov,  its  name  the  "  Hot  Lake,"  though  this  title  is  more  probably  due  to 
the  numerous  hot  sjjrings  round  its  shores.  The  lake  is  slightly  brackish  and  teems 
with  fish,  of  which,  however,  not  more  than  four  species  have  been  discovered  in  its 
clear  blue  waters.  In  1872  the  first  boat  worthy  of  the  name  was  launched  on  its 
surface  ;  yet  its  desert  shores  seem  to  have  been  formerly  thicklj'  peopled.  Crania, 
bones,  and  various  objects  of  himian  industry  are  occasionally  thrown  iij)  by  the 
waves,  and  bits  of  iron  and  potsherds  have  been  found  by  Koljjakovsky  at  a  depth 
of  3  or  4  feet. 

East  of  Lake  Issik-kul  are  groui^ed  the  Khan-tengri  Moxmtains,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  dominant  mass  of  the  whole  Tian-shan  system.  Although  exceeded 
in  height  by  the  principal  Trans- Alai  peaks,  the  Khan-tengri  contains  the  greatest 


LAKE  ISSIK-KUL.  185 

number  of  snowy  crests,  glaciers,  and  streams  flowing  to  the  four. points  of  the 
compass,  and  it  is  also  crossed  by  the  most  frequented  pass  between  the  northern 
and  southern  slopes,  and  leading  from  Kulja  to  Eastern  Turkestan. 

The  Khan-tengri  forms  part  of  the  southern  chain,  which  begins  south  of  the 
Great  Yulduz  basin,  and  runs  under  divers  names  thence  westwards.  To  the 
Kok-teke  succeeds  the  Geshili-hashi,  bej'ond  which  follow  the  Shalik-tau  and  the 
Muz-art-tau,  which  last  is  crossed  by  the  broad  but  dangerous  Muz-art  Pass,  at  a 
height,  according  to  Regel,  of  about  11,600  feet.  The  passage  is  easier  in  winter 
than  simimer,  the  crevasses  being  then  filled  with  frozen  snow,  but  although  it  has 
been  crossed  by  Kaulbars,  Kostenko,  Dilke,  Regel,  and  others,  no  European  travelled 
has  hitherto  continued  the  journey  southwards  to  Kashgaria. 

West  of  the  Muz-art  stretches  a  world  of  glaciers  and  lofty  crests  in  a  highland 
region,  of  which  little  is  known  beyond  the  fact  that  several  of  its  glaciers,  especially 
that  at  the  source  of  the  Sari-jassi,  a  tributary  of  the  Tarim,  are  comparable  in 
length  to  the  Aletsch  glacier  in  the  Valais  Alps.  From  the  Muz-art-tau  to  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Sari-jassin-tau  the  snowy  range  maintains  for  over 
60  miles  a  mean  elevation  of  more  than  16,500  feet.  All  the  peaks  overtoj)  Mont 
Blanc  by  at  least  3,000  feet,  and  southwards  rises  in  solitary  grandeur  the  Khan- 
tengri,  or  Kara-gol-bas. 

Beyond  a  chaos  of  peaks,  whence  flow  the  head-streams  of  the  Tarim  and  Sir, 
the  mountains  i-esvmie  their  normal  direction  from  east  to  west.  They  form  with 
their  jDarallel  chains  an  enormous  mass,  no  less  than  210  miles  broad  north  of 
Kashgar.  The  outer  are  far  more  elevated  than  the  central  ridges,  between  which 
flows  the  Narin,  the  chief  affluent  of  the  Sir.  Although  pierced  at  intervals  by 
streams  running  south-eastwards  to  Kashgaria,  the  Kok-shaal,  or  southern  range, 
maintains  a  mean  altitude  of  over  15,000  feet,  while  several  summits  in  the  Kok- 
kiya  section  exceed  16,600  feet.  These  highlands,  whose  escarpments  slope 
towards  Chinese  Turkestan,  are  amongst  the  least-known  regions  of  the  continent, 
although  crossed  towards  their  western  extremitj-  by  the  Turug-art,  an  easy  pass 
well  known  to  traders.  It  is  a  very  barren  region,  with  bare  hiUs  and  scattered 
ridges,  between  which  are  the  channels  of  dried-up  rivers.  The  slope  is  very  gentle 
even  northwards  to  the  Ak-sai  plateau  and  the  Chatir-kul.  This  lake,  which  is 
said  to  be  destitute  of  fish,  is  all  that  remains  of  an  extensive  inland  sea  formerly 
flo^ving  between  the  southern  range  and  the  jDarallel  Kubergenti,  Ak-bash,  and 
Kara-koin  chains  on  the  north.  Although  it  has  no  apparent  outlet,  its  waters  are 
still  quite  fresh.  The  hills  skirting  it  northwards  are  crossed  by  the  Tash-robat 
Pass,  which,  like  the  Turug-art,  is  open  all  the  year  romid  to  the  caravans  between 
Verniy  and  Kashgaria. 

West  of  the  Turug-art  the  southern  range  attains  a  great  elevation,  and  from 
a  pass  on  a  parallel  chain  north  of  it  Osten-Sacken  distinguished  no  less  than  sixty- 
three  snowy  peaks.  It  runs  at  first  north-east  and  south-west,  then  turning  west  and 
north-west  in  a  line  with  the  extreme  spurs  of  the  northern  chains,  and  intersecting 
the  parallel  ridges  of  the  Central  Tian-shan  in  such  a  way  as  to  intercept  their 
waters.    But  the  innumerable  lakes  thus  fonned  have  now  rim  dry,  mainly  through 


18G 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


the  defile  by  wliicli  tlic  Xarin  escapes  westwards.  Here  the  Tian-shan  system  is 
completely  limited  by  the  Ferghana  plains,  but  at  the  .south-west  corner  of  the 
Tian-shan  proper  various  offshoots  run  south-westwards,  connecting  the  main 
range  with  the  Alai  and  the  Pamir.  But  till  the  beginning  of  the  tertiary  period 
a  large  marine  strait  still  connected  Ferghana  and  Kashgaria  through  the  Kog-art, 
thus  completely  separating  the  Pamir  from  the  Tian-shan  plateau.  The  whole 
Tian-shan  sj'stem  was  at  that   time  crossed  from  north-east  to  south-west  by  a 


Fig.  98. — Westebn  Chaixs  of  the  Ti.ix-SH.iX. 
Scale  1  :  9,000,000. 


40' 


/.  Sa/MtisA 


L  oFG 


Tachi<end 


.  240  Miles. 


chain  of  inland  seas,  of  which  all  that   now  remains  is  the  Issik-kid.     Those  of 
Kidja  and  Ferghana  have  long  been  drained  off. 

North  of  the  Upper  N"arin  valley  the  main  range  is  known  as  the  Terskei  Ala-tau, 
or  Ala-tau  "  of  the  Shade,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  Kmigei  Ala-tau,  or  Ala-tau 
"  of  the  Sun,"  skirting  the  other  side  of  the  Issik-kul.  0^^'ing  to  the  greater 
moisture  of  its  slopes  the  former  is  far  better  wooded,  the  pine  forests  and  pastures 
at  many  points  reaching  the  snow-line.  It  culminates  with  the  Ugus-bas,  which 
attains  an  elevation  of  over  10,500  feet.  Near  the  Barskauu  Pass,  on  its  southern 
slopes,  rises  the  Xarui,  chief  head-stream  of  the  Sir,  while  other  affluents  flow  from 
the  southern  region  of  the  Ak-shiirak  glaciers,  south  of  which  rise  the  farthest  sources 
of  the  Kashgarian  Ak-su.  A  large  portion  of  the  country  comprised  between  the 
Terskei  Ala-tau  and  the  Kok-shaal  north  and  south  forms  an  extensive  plain,  or 


WESTERN  TIAN-SHAN. 


187 


sirt,  stre^v^l  witli  sandstones,  many-coloured  marls,  g\'[isum,  and  saline  incrustations, 
and  studded  with  tarns,  but  nearly  destitute  of  vegetation.  This  bleak  region  is 
exposed  to  snow-stonns  even  in  Jime  and  July,  and  in  some  years  the  snow  never 
melts  in  the  hollows  throughout  the  summer. 

The  Terskei  Ala-tau  is  continued  westwards  under  divers  names,  as  are  all  the 
parallel  chains  ^nth  which  it  is  connected  by  transverse  ridges.  The  lacustrine 
plains  are  jarobably  more  numerous  here  than  elsewhere  in  the  Tian-shan  system. 
But  of  all  the  formerly  flooded  basins  one  only  remains,  the  Son-kul,  a  fresh-water 
lake  about  the  size  of  Lake  Geneva,  encircled  by  steep  sides  of  green  porphyry,  and 

Fig.  99. — Routes  of  Explorers  in  the  Western  Tian-shan. 
Scale  1  :  9  Oon.ooo. 


E.ofG 


Postal  Hif^hways. 
Divers  Routes. 
Valikhanov,  1858. 
Golubev,  1839. 
Venyukov,  1859-60. 
Sieverzov,  1854—68. 
Osten-Saeken,  1867. 


EeinfhnI,  ISi.S. 
Kaulbars.  1869. 
Kosteuko,  1876. 
KTiropatkin,  1S7G-7. 
Prejvalsky,  1877. 
Eegel,  1876-9. 
Forsyth,  1874. 


C  Perran 


,  120  Miles. 


draininsr  through  a  small  stream  to  the  Narin.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  dried-up  plains  is  the  Eashkar  valley,  source  of  the  Kashkar,  the  main  head- 
stream  of  the  Chu.  It  commimicates  by  the  Shamsi  Pass  with  the  northern  plain. 
North  of  Kokan  the  Tian-shan  is  continued  by  the  Talas-tau,  from  2,600  to 
3,000  feet  high,  which  branches  off  in  several  ridges  from  the  Alexander  Mountains, 
and  falls  gradually  south-west,  west,  and  north-westwards  to  the  stej)pcs.  The 
Kara-tau,  or  "Black  Moimtain,"  the  last  spur  of  the  Tian-shan  towards  the  north- 
west, seldom  exceeds  6,500  feet  in  height,  but  is  geographically  of  great  imj)ortance, 
as  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Sir  and  Chu  basins.  It  also  abounds 
most  in  coal,  iron,  copper,  and  argentiferous  lead. 


188 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


The  contrast  between  the  Eastern  and  AVestein  Tian-shan  highlands  i.s,  on  the 
whole,  obvious  enough.  The  former  are  far  more  eomjDact,  with  fewer  lateral 
ridges  and  vallej's,  and  presenting  more  the  appearance  of  a  jjlateau  crossed  by 
lofty  parallel  chains.  Notwithstanding  the  great  age  of  its  rocks,  the  Tian-shan 
has  jDreserved  its  primitive  aspect  far  better  than  the  Swiss  Alps.  It  is  less  worn 
by  rains,  snows,  and  glaciers,  and  its  slopes  have  been  clothed  with  a  broad  belt  of 
forest  vegetation  rising  at  least  2,.500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  .seas,  which 
formerly  washed  its  base.  Hence  considerable  differences  have  arisen  in  the  way  in 
which  its  flora  and  fauna  have  been  distributed.  "WTiilst  the  Alps  have  been 
invaded  by  the  forest  species  of  the  surrounding  plain  after  the  retreat  of  the  ice, 
the  lower  zone  of  the  Tian-shan  has  been  the  point  of  dispersion  for  the  species 
spreading  upwards  to  the  higher  valleys,  and  downwards  to  the  surrounding  steppes, 
according  as  the  waters  subsided. 

The  history  of  their  inhabitants  may  also  be  explained  by  the  relief  and 
geographical  position  of  these  highlands.  The  steppes,  or  ancient  lacustrine  basins 
encircling  them,  being  mostly  incapable  of  cultivation,  are  mainly  occupied  by 
nomad  pastors,  who  have  even  prevented  agricultural  peoples  from  settling  in  the 
upland  valleys.  Hither  they  resort  themselves  with  their  flocks  in  summer,  so  that 
the  whole  region  has  been  held  by  these  nomad  tribes  from  time  inunemorial. 
Split  up  into  small  communities  by  their  conflicting  interests,  and  constantlj^  at 
feud  for  the  possession  of  the  richer  pastures,  they  were  imable  to  imite  in  compact 
masses  against  the  common  enemy,  and  Chinese,  Mongolians,  and  Russians  have 
thus  easily  succeeded  in  successively  subduing  the  Tian-shan  hig-hlands.  The 
Russians  took  a  hundred  j-ears  to  subdue  the  Caucasus,  whereas  a  few  sotnias  of 
Cossacks  overran  the  vallej's  of  the  boundless  Tian-shan  almost  without  exchanging 
a  shot.  Historically  as  well  as  hycbographically  this  region  belongs  to  a  land- 
locked basin.* 


*  CMef  elevations  of  the  Tian-shan 

system:— 

Feet. 

Eastern  Tian-shan. 

Kosheti  Pass         .... 

9,100 

KatiiQ  Mountains 

1.5,660 

Little  Yuliluz  Plateau  . 

8,000 

Great  Yulduz       „         .         .         . 

6,000 

Narat  Pass 

9,950 

Tian-shan,  north  of  Knlja. 

Boro-khoro  Jlountains,  mean  height 

6,500 

Sitirti  Pass 

6,860 

Talki       „ 

6,360 

Altin-imel  Pass    .... 

6,050 

K;iptaga'i        ,,.... 

4,430 

Town  of  Kulja      .... 

2,100 

Central  Tian-shan. 

San-tash  Pass        .... 

6,750 

Kban-tengri          .... 

24,000 

Muz-art 

11,160 

Ugus-bas 

17,760 

Barskau  Pass         .... 

12,000 

Zaiika       „            .... 

12,975 

Feet. 

Upper  Narin  Valley     ....  11,660 

Talgar  (Ala-tau  heyond  the  Di)    .         .  15,300 

Almati             „               ,,                 .         .  14,000 

Lake  Issik-kul 4,380 

Fort  Narin 6,870 

Verniy           ......  3,100 

Western  Tian-shan. 

Turug-art  Pass 11,660 

Kara-bel       „ 12,940 

Kog-art        , 10,675 

Tash-robat  „ 13,100 

Chatir-kul    „ 11,130 

Son-kul         „ 9,550 

Shanisi          , 12,025 

Hamish  (Alexander  Chain)   .         .         .  15,550 

Kara-bura  (Talas-tau) .         .         .         .  11,000 

Min-jiike  (Kara-tan)     ....  7,000 

Kokan 1,310 

Tashkend 1,506 

Tapper  limit  of  trees       .         .          9,000  to  10,000 


TARBAGATAl  HIGHLANDS  AND  BALKHASH  BASIN.  189 

IV.— TARBAGATAI  HIGHLANDS  AND  BALKHASH  BASIN. 

The  space,  about  240  miles  broad,  separating  the  extreme  Eastern  Tian-shan  and 
the  Zungarian  Ahi-tau  from  the  Altai  system,  doubtless  offers  wide  oj^eniiigs 
between  Mongolia  and  Asiatic  Russia.  But  aj^art  from  these  historically  impor- 
tant routes,  the  plateaux  and  moimtains  are  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
isthmus  between  the  Tian-shan  and  Altai  highlands.  Of  this  isthmus  the  cen- 
tral mass  is  the  Tarbagatai — that  is,  the  "  Tarbagan,"  or  "  Marmot  "  Mountains — 
which  rmi  mainly  east  and  west,  and  are  about  equal  to  the  Pyrenees  iu  length 
and  elevation,  their  chief  peaks  scarcely  exceeding  the  Nethu  or  Mout  Perdu  of  that 
range. 

Like  the  Tian-shan,  the  Tarbagatai  presents  two  different  axes,  one  running 
north-east  and  south-west,  the  other  north-west  and  south-east.  The  first,  which 
is  ijarallel  with  the  Southern  Tian-shan,  is  followed  by  the  Barluk  and  Ur-koshar, 
forming  the  southern  range,  and  with  some  of  its  crests  reaching  the  region  of 
perjDetual  snows.  The  northern  or  main  chain  rims  parallel  with  the  Northern 
Tian-shan,  and  both  axes  converge  eastwards,  here  culminating  above  the  plains 
of  the  Irtish  with  Mounts  Sauru  and  Muz-tau.  The  ravines  of  these  snowy  moun- 
tains are  filled  with  glaciers,  which  at  some  points  descend  below  the  forest  zone. 
But  in  all  other  dii'ections  the  range  rapidly  falls,  westwards  with  the  volcanic 
Mantak,  eastwards  with  the  Kara-adir  ridges,  and  northwards  oifering  an  easy 
passage  from  the  Balkhash  slope  to  that  of  the  Orkhu-nor  in  Mongolia. 

The  Tarbagatai  proper  is  separated  from  the  other  chains  by  low  depressions, 
scarcely  more  than  3,300  feet  above  sea-level.  Here  we  ascend  the  streams  flow- 
ing from  the  water-parting  almost  imperceptibly,  and  no  mountains  are  visible 
excej)t  at  a  great  distance ;  but  the  heaps  of  stones  disposed  like  moraines  bear 
evidence  of  former  glacial  action.  West  of  these  depressions  the  Tarbagatai  rises 
gradually,  though  even  here  few  of  its  peaks  reach  the  snow-line.  •  On  the  southern 
slope  the  only  snowy  crest  is  the  Tas-tau,  culminating  point  of  the  Marmot  system. 
Except  along  the  banks  of  the  torrents  the  heights  are  mostly  treeless,  but 
covered  with,  rich  Alpine  jaastiu-es,  the  common  resort  of  the  nomads  from  both 
slopes. 

The  Tas-tau,  which  has  been  ascended  several  times  since  the  journey  of 
Schrenck  in  1840,  ends  in  two  peaks,  one  of  which  is  known  to  the  Chinese  as 
the  Bannar  Moimt,  from  the  yearly  practice  they  had  of  hoisting  a  flag  on  its 
summit.  Both  are  composed  of  dolomite  and  argillaceous  schists.  Granites  and 
porphyi-ies  also  enter  largely  into  the  constitution  of  the  Tarbagatai  rocks,  though 
the  most  extensive  formations  seem  to  be  carboniferous  lunestones,  schists,  and 
sandstones.  Coal  has  been  discovered  on  the  southern  slope  near  the  Chinese 
town  of  Chuguchak,  and  the  Russian  explorers  have  fomid  large  masses  of  native 
copper  and  iron  ores  in  the  ravines.  In  the  northern  vaUey  of  the  Ters-airik, 
sloj)ing  towards  Lake  Zaisan,  about  one  hmidred  Chinese  gold- washers  are  employed 
in  collecting  the  gold  dust  here  mixed  with  the  old  alluvia.  Some  of  the  numerous 
mounds  scattered  over  the  heights  and  j)lains,  and  which  have  caused  the  term  oho, 

VOL.    VI.  o 


190 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


or  oba  (tomb,  oaini),  to  enter  so  largely  into  the  local  geograi)hieul  nomenclature, 
still  contain  many  gold  objects,  often  collected  by  the  Kirghiz. 

The  Tarbagatai  is  nsually  supposed  to  terminate  at  the  Kara-k(jl  Pass,  or 
fiirther  west,  at  the  bluffs  overlooking  the  town  of  Sergiopol.  But  the  system  is 
still  continued  westwards  by  the  Deng'liiz-tau,  running  north  of  Lake  Balkhash,  and 
merging  with  the  water-parting  between  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob  basins.  To 
this  system  also  belong  the  picturesque  Arkat  rocks  stretching  northwards  in  the 
direction  of  Semipalatinsk.  All  these  mountains  are  crossed  by  easy  passes,  allov,'- 
iug  travellers  to  avoid  the  higher  portion  of  the  range  between  the  plains  of  the 
great  Lakes  Alu-kiJ  and  Zaisan.      Nevertheless  this  very  section  is  crossed  by 


Fig.   100. — S.irRU  AND  T.4RH.40AT.U. 
Scale  1  : 1,900,000. 


7'"r 


EoPb  &4°20 


o'QO 


C  Perror> 


3Q  Miles. 


the  Khahnr-assu,  the  most  frecpiented  and  historically  the  most  important  of  all 
the  passes.  It  runs  east  of  the  Tas-tau,  and  has  always  been  imieh  used  by  the 
Kashgar  traders  proceeding  to  the  Troitzk,  Orenburg,  and  Irbit  fairs,  and  by  the 
Tatars  and  Russians  making  their  way  southwards  from  the  8iberiau  lowlands. 
Factories  of  Bukhariot  merchants  were  formerly  established  at  Tumen,  Tobolsk, 
Tara,  and  Tomsk,  and  a  colony  of  300  Mohammedans  near  Tomsk  still  recalls  these 
commercial  relations.  But  the  progress  of  this  country  was  arrested  in  1745  by 
the  vexatious  measures  of  the  Russian  (Tovenniient,  which  established  frontier 
custom-houses,  prohibited  the  trade  in  rlmbarb  under  pain  of  death,  and  finally 
put  a  stop  to  all  passenger  tiaflfic  Tint  trade  has  since  somewhat  re'vaved,  and  a 
rich  Kirghiz   has  built  a  caravanserai    on   the  pass  for   the  convenience  of  the 


LAKES     BALKH;6B 


'73? 


;'i 


■ , ,.  ^- 


JrP-^$ 


:V^^^-^  . 

_  > 

yv^>*-^. 

1^ 

A- 

i> 

M'^ 

A# 

1^ 

[  -   ■  \  »■ 

7/ 


IC 

a   i 

.-1 

a'~ 

\>» 

1 

7.S    t   . 

llr^iivn  bvA.Slom. 


Heiglit    aijove     Sea    Level 

I 

10n0to3iV0ft  3300to6eo0n  Ih-erSeoOf! 


Scu.l. 


LONDON.  J.S.V 


Hand    ISSIK-KU  L. 


>00,000. 


Pepth    of     Lakes 


lOOEJffiles 


liiderie/>  IS  to  SO n  Overboet- 


lE     &    C9    LIliITE,D. 


LAKE  BALKHASH.  '    191 

Sarte  mercliants,  wlio   serve   as   agents  for   tlie  exchanges   between    Russia   and 
China.* 

The  Paiuir  and  Tian-shan  have  both  an  inhiud  drainage  eastwards  to  the  Tarim, 
westwards  to  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin.  The  Tarbagatai  alone  sends  eastwards  a 
few  streams  to  the  Irtish,  thus  belonging  partly  to  the  Arctic  basin.  With  this 
single  exception  all  the  Turkestan  highlands  are  comprised  in  the  Central  Asiatic 
inland  water  systems.  Most  of  their  streams  flow  naturally  from  the  convex  side 
of  the  vast  crescent  of  plateaux  and  mountains  facing  the  moist  west  winds.  Hence 
the  largest  rivers  flow  to  the  Tiu'kestan  and  Semirechensk  plains,  and  here  also  are 
the  largest  lakes,  some  of  which  are  vast  enough  to  deserve  the  name  of  seas. 
Nevertheless  this  hydi-ographic  system  is  far  less  important  even  than  that  of  East 
Russia,  where  the  Caspian  is  fed  by  the  Volga,  whereas  here  the  Sir  and  Oxus  are 
lost  in  the  Aral,  and  the  Hi  in  Lake  Balkhash. 

Lake  Balkhash 

But  the  o'coloffical  structure  of  the  land  shows  that  it  was  formerly  far  more 
abuudautl}'  watered.  Apart  from  the  seas  of  the  tertiary  epoch,  it  is  certain  that 
even  recentlj^  the  Balkhash  stretched  240  miles  farther  east  and  south-east  to  the 
depression  of  the  plateau  now  partly  filled  by  the  Ebi-nor,  and  that  towards  the 
west  it  was  four  times  broader  than  at  present.  At  that  time  the  Zungarian  Ala- 
tau  projected  like  a  promontory  in  the  middle  of  a  continuous  sea,  now  divided 
into  a  number  of  distinct  lakes  and  morasses.  The  regions  formerly  under  water 
are  indicated  by  their  argillaceous  soil,  saline  wastes,  and  shifting  sands.  Even 
within  the  historic  period  the  Balkhash  formed  a  single  sheet  of  water  wath  the 
8assik-kul,  Ala  kid,  and  Jalana.sh-kul.  In  the  seventeenth  century  it  is  said  to 
have  filled  all  the  ca\ity  separating  it  from  the  Aral,  according  to  one  authoritj' 
sending  two  affluents  to  this  basin.  But  this  statement  is  highly  improbable,  for 
certain  sjiecies  of  its  fauna  imply  a  long  period  of  isolation. 

The  Balkhash  has  still  a  very  large  area.  The  Chinese  knew  it  as  the  Si-hai, 
or  "  Western  Sea,"  though  this  name  has  also  been  applied  to  the  Aral  and  the 
Casj)ian.  The  neighbouring  Kirghiz  tribes  call  it  either  the  Denghiz,  or  "  sea  " 
simply,  as  if  there  were  no  other,  or  the  Ak-denghiz  or  Ala-denghiz,  the  "  WTiite 
Sea,"  or  "  Motley  Sea,"  probably  on  accoimt  of  the  islands  by  which  its  surface  is 
diversified.  Third  in  size  of  the  land-locked  basins  of  the  contLuent,  it  has  an 
estimated  mean  area  of  about  8,700  square  miles.  But  no  very  exact  measure- 
ment can  be  taken  of  a  lake  without  A^ell-deflned  contoiu's  or  soKd  banks,  whose 
southern  shores  especially  shift  with  the  shifting  north  and  south  -N^inds.    Its  limits 

*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Tarbagatai : — 


Feet. 

Feet. 

Barluk  Mountains,  mean 

height   . 

4,660 

Alet  Pass      .... 

6,000 

Jairsty  Pass 

6,036 

Tarbagatai,  mean  height 

6,000 

Muz-tau  (Sailrvi)  . 

11,330 

,,            snow-line*. 

9,200 

Manrak,  highest  peaks 

6,000 

Saiii-u,  snow-line  . 

10,956 

Chagan-obo  Pass 

4,755 

Denghiz-tau,  mean  height    . 

4,non 

Khahar-as'^ii    ,, 

9,570 

Arkat 

2,560 

Tas-tau 

9,860 
O 

2 

192  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

are  lost  in  one  place  in  extensive  marshes  and  flats,  in  another  in  forests  of  reeds 
from  12  to  IG  feet  high,  the  haimt  of  the  wild  boar  and  of  myriads  of  water-fowl. 
But  the  northern  shores,  formed  b}'  the  escarpments  of  a  plateau  rising  in  two 
terraces  above  the  water,  are  more  sharply  defined,  and  are  even  varied  by  a  few 
rocky  headlands.  Here  the  lake  is  deep,  but  elsewhere  it  is  so  shallow  as  to  pre- 
sent the  ajjpearance  rather  of  a  vast  flooded  morass.  The  depth  nowhere  exceeds 
70  feet,  and  as  the  average  seems  to  be  about  30  feet,  its  volume  may  be  estimated 
at  some  200,000,000  of  cubic  yards,  or  twice  that  of  Lake  Geneva,  which  is  never- 
theless thirty-six  times  less  extensive  in  superficial  area.  Its  water,  which  is 
usually  ice-boimd  from  the  end  of  November  to  the  beginning  of  April,  is  clear, 
and  abounds  in  fish,  but  is  so  salt,  especially  in  its  southern  division,  that  it  proves 
fatal  to  animals  driven  by  thirst  to  di'ink  it.  Of  the  other  reservoirs  in  this  lacus- 
trine region  the  Ala-kid  is  the  most  saline,  while  the  Sassik-kul  is  scarcely  brackish. 
The  contrast  presented  by  the  two  shores  of  the  Balkhash  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
relative  amoimt  of  running  water  discharged  into  each.  Along  the  whole  northern 
coast,  which,  even  excluding  the  thousand  little  inlets,  is  about  420  miles  long,  the 
lake  does  not  receive  a  single  permanent  stream.  The  Tokrvm  nms  completely  dry 
after  periods  of  long  drought,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  steppe  "  wadies  " 
of  the  southern  shore.  But  the  Zungarian  and  Trans-Ilian  Ala-tau  also  di-aiii  to 
these  plains,  and  the  streams  sent  down  by  them  are  sufiiciently  copious  to  reach 
the  lake  with  their  alluvia.  The  vast  semicircle  of  low  tracts  formed  by  these 
deposits  is  a  striking  witness  to  the  influence  these  waters  have  had  in  modifying  the 
geological  aspect  of  the  land.  At  no  distant  future  the  sand  and  soil  brought  down 
cannot  fail  to  divide  the  Balkhash  into  separate  basins,  such  as  those  of  the  lacus- 
trine Ala-kul  group. 

Semirechinsk  Ei\ee  System — The  III 

The  IK,  chief  afiluent  of  the  Balkhash,  is  a  large  river,  at  least  as  regards  its 
course,  which  is  no  less  than  900  miles  long.  Formed  by  the  jimction  of  the 
Tekes  and  Kunges,  it  receives  through  the  first  the  icy  waters  of  the  Muz-art  and 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  Central  Tian-shan,  while  the  Kunges  brings  it  the  torrents 
from  the  Narat  and  other  chains  of  the  Eastern  Tian-shan.  In  the  Xulja  plain 
the  Hi  flows  in  a  rapid  stream  in  a  bed  200  to  400  yards  wide,  and  from  3  to  20 
feet  deep,  skirted  northwards  by  a  high  cliff,  which  is  formed  by  the  coimterforts 
of  the  Altin-imel  chain.  It  is  navigable  for  small  boats  for  over  half  its  course, 
and  Iliisk,  where  it  is  deflected  north-westwards  by  the  outer  Tian-shan  ridges,  is 
reached  during  the  floods  by  larger  craft  from  the  lake.  At  a  defile  marking  the 
limit  of  its  middle  and  lower  course  certain  Buddhist  figm-es  and  Tibetan  inscrip- 
tions on  the  porphyry  rocks  seem  to  indicate  that  the  empire  of  the  Duugans 
foi-merly  stopped  at  this  point.  Farther  down,  the  stream,  already  reduced  by 
evaporation,  enters  its  delta,  which  during  the  floods  covers  a  triangular  space  of 
over  5,000  square  miles,  although  at  other  times  the  southern  branch  alone  is  filled. 

Of  the  other  feeders  of  the  Ballchash  none  are  navigable  for  any  considerable 
portion  of  the  year,  and  several  are  even  cut  off  from  the  lake  by  strips  of  sand 


THE  AEALO-CASPIAN  HYDEOGRAPHIC  SYSTEM.  193 

for  several  months  togetlier.  The  Karu-tal,  fed  by  the  suows  of  the  Zungarian 
Ala-tau,  is  one  of  the  "  seven  rivers,"  whence  the  region  comprised  between  that 
range  and  the  Balkhash  takes  the  name  of  Semirechinskiy  Krai,  though  the  terms 
Country  of  the  Three,  Ten,  or  Twenty  Rivers  might  be  just  as  aiJiDrojjriate  according 
to  the  number  of  streams  taken  into  account.  The  seven  more  important  are  the 
Kara-tal  and  its  tributary  the  Kok-su,  the  Biyen,  Ak-su  and  Sarkan,  Baskan 
and  Lcpsa.  The  Hi  is  sometimes  added  to  the  number,  because  the  administrative 
province  of  Seniirechinsk  also  comprises  that  basin.  The  Kara-tal,  the  longest, 
though  not  the  most  copious,  of  the  seven  streams,  seems  to  have  been  formerly  - 
largely  utilised  for  irrigating  purposes.  The  Lepsa,  which  is  the  largest  in  volume 
of  the  Ala-tau  rivers,  unites  ■ndth  the  Ak-su  at  its  mouth,  and  forms  a  vast  delta  of 
shifting  channels.  Its  swamps  are  the  most  northern  haunts  of  the  tiger.  The 
Aya-guz,  sometimes  included  in  the  nmnbor  of  the  "  seven  rivers,"  flows  from  the 
Tarbagatai  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  lake,  to  which  it  carries  do^vn  some  gold 
dust.     Its  now  desert  banks  are  strewn  with  the  ruins  of  ancient  Buddhist  cities. 

Lakes  Sassik-kul  and  Ala-kid  are  also  fed  by  streams  from  the  Ala-tau,  though 
the  largest  affluent  of  this  double  basin  is  the  Churtu,  Emil,  or  Imil,  flowing  west- 
wards from  the  Tarbagatai.  Notwithstanding  the  general  tendency  to  subsidence, 
these  streams  occasionally  produce  the  opposite  phenomenon  in  the  Ala-kid,  whose 
level,  according  to  the  Kirghiz,  steadily  rose  from  the  year  1850  to  18G2.  The 
districts  formerly  imder  water  are  usually  the  most  sterile,  owing  to  the  sands  and 
hard  clays  mixed  with  saline  particles  of  which  they  largely  consist.  The  lakes 
have  thus  become  deserts,  and  vegetation  has  ceased  along  the  shores  of  the  old 
lacustrine  basin.  West  of  the  Balkhash  the  contours  of  a  dried-ujD  sea,  ecpial  in 
extent  to  that  lake,  may  still  be  traced  north  of  the  Western  Tian-shan  from  the 
Alexander  Mountains  to  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Kara-tau.  This  basin  is  now 
replaced  by  the  sands  and  clays  of  the  Mu^n^n-klun,  or  Ak-kum  stej)pe. 


v.— THE  AEALO-CASPIAN  HYDROGRAPHIC   SYSTEM. 

The  Sir  and  Oxus,  the  Aral  Sea  and  Trans-Caspian  District. 

The  wilderness  of  lakes,  swamps,  and  streams,  which  run  dr}'  in  summer,  and 
which  are  partly  avoided  even  by  the  nomads,  forms,  at  the  foot  of  the  wooded 
Tian-shan  slopes,  the  approach  to  the  vast  region  of  lowland  stejjpes  stretching 
thence  across  the  whole  of  Turkestan,  and  beyond  the  river  L^ral  into  the  heart  of 
Russia.  These  ste^ji^es  j)resent  almost  everj'where  the  appearance  of  boundless  and 
perfectly  level  arid  tracts,  though  most  of  them  are  really  rolling  lands  undidating 
as  regularlj'  as  a  tropical  sea  under  the  influence  of  the  trade  winds.  But  the  very 
imiformity  of  these  waves  tends  to  conceal  the  intervening  troughs,  and  the 
traveller  is  often  startled  by  the  sudden  disapjjearance  of  horsemen,  and  even  of 
whole  caravans,  in  these  depressions.  The  absence  of  any  landmarks,  trees,  or 
buildings  which  might  serve  as  points  of  comparison,  prevents  the  cj"e  from 
forming  any  estimate  of  the  heights  and  hollows,  while  the   refraction   of   the 


104  ASLiTIC  RUSSIA. 

lumiuoiis  rays  iu  the  morumg  siui  teucls  to  magnify  the  size  of  evciv  couspicuous 
object,  nilloek.s  scaicely  200  feet  high  appear  like  imjjosiiig  eiuiueneeK,  an  eagle 
on  the  wHug  revive.s  our  reminiscences  of  the  fabulous  roc,  tufts  of  herbage  assume 
the  proportions  of  forest  trees.  AVith  the  rising  sun  the  heated  and  mostly 
cloudless  atmosphere  quiver^  incessantly  like  the  blasts  of  a  furnace,  imparting 
to  ever\'thing  a  waving  and  shifting  form,  and  when  the  sky  is  overcast  the  dense 
clouds  of  burning  sands  envelop  all  objects  in  a  ruddy  glamour. 

The  monotonous  appearance  of  the  steppes  is  intensified  in  winter,  when  the 
broken  surface  is  smoothed  over  by  the  snows.  But  their  diverse  aspects  are 
revealed  in  the  early  spring,  when  the  swollen  streams  and  meres  have  assumed 
their  normal  level,  and  the  nomads  have  fired  the  dry  brushwood  of  the  pastures. 
Now  the  young  plants  spring  up  rapidly,  and  the  arid  surface  of  the  land  is 
clothed  as  by  enchantment  with  verdure  and  prairie  flowers.  The  variety  is 
enhanced  by  the  varjnng  tints  of  sands,  clays,  rocks,  sweet  and  saline  waters,  and 
the  different  character  of  the  soil  is  clearly  reflected  in  its  diversified  fauna  and  flora. 

But  this  springtide  splendour  and  wealth  of  coloiu-  soon  disappear.  The 
extremes  of  temperatm-e,  sultry  in  the  hot  season,  and  Arctic  in  the  cold,  allow- 
but  a  few  species  of  jilants  to  flourish,  and  even  these  are  presently  burnt  up  by  the 
scorching  stms.  Many  grey  and  dustj'  tracts  then  resmne  their  monotonous  aspect, 
again  broken  only  by  a  brief  re\-ival  of  vegetation  during  the  few  rainy  days  of 
autimm.  But  this  promised  return  of  spring  is  soon  arrested  by  the  keen  winter 
blasts,  nipping  the  tender  herbage  and  muffling  all  nature  in  a  snowy  mantle.  The 
absence  of  running  waters  and  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  tend  to  increase  the 
miiformity  imparted  to  the  land  b}^  the  boundless  extent  of  the  plains.  The  desert 
begins  within  1  or  2  miles  of  the  river  banks,  stretching  thence  beyond  the  horizon 
in  a  dreary  succession  of  moving  sands,  reedy  tracts,  saline  moors  or  muddj^ 
swamps,  treacherous  quagmires  in  winter,  baked  hard  as  the  rock  in  summer.  Yet 
with  endless  labour  and  a  carefid  system  of  irrigation  the  Kirghiz  contrives  to 
bring  a  few  strips  of  land  imder  cultivation.  By  a  system  of  low  embankments 
the  land  is  parcelled  into  a  nimaber  of  square  plots  like  those  of  marine  salines,  and 
when  these  are  flooded  they  are  successively  draiticd  off  by  openings  in  the  parting- 
dykes.     The  method  of  cultivation  somewhat  resembles  that  practised  in  Egypt. 

The  Turkestan  Desekts. 

The  deserts  properly  so  called  occupy  probably  about  half  of  the  whole 
Turkestan  steppe  between  the  Ob  basin  and  the  Iranian  plateau.  In  the  north  the 
region  limited  by  the  lower  course  of  the  Chu  and  Sari-su  is  usually  known  to  the 
natives  as  the  Bek-pak-dala,  and  to  the  Russians  as  the  Golodnaj-a  steppe,  or 
"Hxmger  Steppe."  South  of  the  Chu  stretches  the  Ak-kmn  ("WTiite  Sands"), 
while  a  large  portion  of  the  country,  limited  by  the  Sir  and  Oxus  north  and  south, 
is  occupied  b}'  the  Kizil-kum,  or  "  Red  Sands."  Between  the  Sir  and  Ui-al  Rivers 
are  the  Kara-kuni,  or  "  Black  Sands,"  but  another  and  far  more  extensive  region 
of  "Black  Sands"  occupies  most  of  the  triangidar  sjiaee  bordered  north-west  by 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  OF  TURKESTAN.  135 

the  Uzboi  valloy,  north-east  by  the  <  ).\iis,  south  by  the  oases  stretching  along  the 
foot  of  the  Iraniim  plateau.  iSeveral  other  s-iuallcr  sandy  wastes  are  scattered  over 
the  rest  of  Turkestan. 

Of  these  desert  regions,  which,  notwithstanding  their  different  names,  are  all 
alike  of  a  greyish  colour,  few  are  more  dreaded  by  the  Kirghiz  than  the  Bek-pak- 
dala,  whose  limestone  or  argillaceous  bed  is  here  and  there  crossed  b}^  barh-ham,  or 
sandy  dimes.  It  is  traversed  by  the  road  from  Tashkend  to  Akmolinsk,  but  the 
absence  of  water  and  fodder  obliges  the  caravans  to  make  long  detours.  Here  the 
summer  temperature  rises  in  the  shade  of  the  tent  to  97°  Fahr.,  and  in  the  open  to 
111°  and  112°.  Even  in  the  cool  of  the  evening  the  soles  of  the  wayfarer's  feet 
become  scorched,  and  the  dog  accomjpanyiug  hun  finds  no  repose  till  he  has 
burrowed  below  the  burning  surface.  Some  of  the  southern  deserts  are  still  more 
terrible.  During  the  early  expeditions  against  the  Tekke  Turkomans  himdreds  were 
killed  by  the  heat  of  the  sands,  while  the  mortality  of  those  nioimted  on  camels 
was  still  greater.  The  "  Black  Sands "  north  of  the  Aral  are  more  easily 
accessible,  thanks  to  the  parallel  depressions  rimning  north-west  and  south-east 
between  lines  of  dunes  25  to  30  feet  high.  These  dejDressions  are  covered  with  a 
fine  herbage,  and  even  with  a  few  jjlants,  such  as  the  sand  osier  and  the  wild  olive. 
They  were  formerly  cultivated,  as  ajjpears  from  the  still  visible  traces  of  irrigating 
canals.  The  dunes  themselves  have  a  flora,  consisting  of  plants  whose  roots 
penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil  in  search  of  moisture.  Springs  of  pure  water,  sujjplied 
by  the  infiltration  of  snow  and  rain,  occur  here  and  there  at  their  feet.  In  some 
places  frozen  masses  have  even  been  discovered  beneath  the  accumulated  sands,  by 
which  they  were  preserved  for  years  from  the  summer  heats. 

Many  of  the  argillaceous  and  salt-strewn  stejipes  are  dreaded  even  far  more 
than  the  sandy  wastes.  Here  are  the  most  dangerous  quagmires,  where  the  camels 
sink  in  the  mud  after  the  slightest  shower.  Here  also  the  caravans  suffer  most 
from  thirst,  and  although  the  stages  are  marked  by  weUs,  it  often  happens  that 
the  water  has  been  poisoned  by  the  carcasses  of  animals.  The  wells  are  usually 
sunk  about  12,  but  occasionally  to  a  depth  of  40  feet. 

Flora  and  Fauna  of  Turkestan. 

The  feeble  Aralo-Casplan  flora  is  limited  chiefly  to  shrubs  an.,  thorny  plants, 
the  soil  being  neither  rich  nor  moist  enough  to  develoj)  a  forest  vegetation.  True 
forests  occur  only  in  the  north- western  tracts  watered  by  the  Ural  and  Eraba. 
The  Russians  everywhere  fell  the  trees  impro\'idently,  while  the  Kirghiz  are 
never  at  their  ease  till  they  have  cleared  the  land  of  its  timber.  But  both  races 
alike  wiU  resjject  and  regard  with  a  sort  of  veneration  the  few  solitary  trees 
occurring  at  intervals  in  the  desert.  The  branches  are  often  covered  with  ribbons, 
horsehair,  medals,  and  other  votive  offerings,  and  in  passing  every  devout  Kirghiz 
will  piously  mutter  the  name  of  Allah. 

While  in  some  respects  resembling  those  of  Russia,  the  Orenburg  steppes  have 
a  far  less  varied  flora.     As  we  proceed  eastwards  and  southwards  in  Tiu'kestan  the 


]9C 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


vegetation  everywlicre  becomes  poorer,  until  we  reach  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
where  another  zone  begins.  In  the  whole  of  this  region  no  more  than  1,152  species 
of  phanerogamic  plants  have  been  discovered,  and  in  the  oj)on  steppe  far  fi-oni  the 
rivers  the  flora  is  reduced  to  a  few  tyi^cal  species,  "brown  as  the  camel's  hair," 
covering  hmidrcds  and  thousands  of  square  miles.  In  certain  tracts  nothing  is  met 
except  a  mugwort  of  a  blackish  colour ;  in  others  the  soil  is  covered  with  a  blood- red 
alkaline  vegetation.  In  the  sj)ace  comprised  between  the  Aral  and  Caspian  east  and 
west,  and  stretching  from  the  Emba  to  the  Atrek  north  and  south,  there  are  only 
329  species  altogether,  less  than  are  found  in  the  smallest  French  canton. 

The  Turkestan  flora,  such  as  it  is,  is  geologically  of  recent  origin.     The  si^ecies 
have  all  advanced  from  the  surrouudiug  regions  according  as  the  waters  subsided. 

Fisr.  101. — Vegetation  of  the  Kizil-kum. 


But  in  the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  land  the  southern  have  prevailed  over 
the  northern  species.  Thus  the  s(il,-sati/  (^Anabasis  aiiunodciidron)  and  the  Jidn,  or 
wild  olive,  are  constantly  advancing  from  Persia,  and  driving  the  poj)lars  back  to 
their  northern  homes.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  aU  these  plants  adapt 
themselves  to  the  changed  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  in  the  steppe.  To  resist 
the  wind  they  acquire  a  more  pliant  stem,  or  present  a  smaller  surface  to  its  fury 
bj-  dropping  their  foliage.  To  diminish  the  evaporation  their  bark  becomes  a 
veritable  carapace,  and  their  pith  is  mingled  with  saline  substances.  Thej' 
clothe  themselves   with  hairs  and  tliorns,  distilling   gums  and  oils,  whereby  the 


FLOrxA  AND  FAUNA  OP  TUEKESTAX. 


197 


evaporation  is  stQl  further  reduced.  Thus  are  able  to  flourish  far  from  running 
waters  such  phuits  as  the  saksaul,  which,  though  jjerfectly  leafless,  produces  both 
flowers  and  fruits.  So  close  is  its  grain  that  it  sinks  in  water,  and  emits  sparks 
when  struck  with  the  axe.  The  grass)^  steppes  are  not  covered  imifonnly  with 
herbage,  as  in  the  western  praii'ies,  but  produce  isolated  tufts  occupj-ing  scarcely  a 
third  of  the  whole  surface.  The  short  jjeriod  of  growth  and  bloom  is  utilised  by 
the  jjlants  -n-ith  remarkable  energj-.  ^^'ith  the  first  warm  daj-s  of  spring  the 
Orenburg  steppes  become  covered  with  tulips,  mingled  here  and  there  "with,  the  lily 

Fig.  102. — Kaxge  of  Vegetation  in  Turkestan. 
Scale  1  :  15,000,000. 


^ 


ra 


Grassy 
Steppe. 


AririllTCeous 
iJeserts. 


Saline 
Desei-ts. 


Sands. 


Znrnfshan 
Floi-a. 
300  MUes. 


Khivan 
Oasis. 


Forests. 


and  iris.     But  in  a  few  weeks  the  land  has  resumed  its  wonted  didl  grey  aspect ; 
the  plants  have  withered  and  been  scattered  by  the  winds. 

Like  its  flora,  tlie  Turkestan  fauna  presents  a  singiJar  uuiforinit^'of  t}'pes  through- 
out vast  spaces.  But  thanks  to  the  variety  of  relief  between  the  steppe  and  the 
mountains,  the  species  are  relative^  more  numerous.  In  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin 
aloue  Sieverzov  reckons  forty-seven  species  of  mammalia  and  ninety-seA'en  of  birds, 
while  all  the  crevasses  in  the  ground  are  alive  wilh  snakes,  lizards,  and  scorpions. 
The  thickets  skirting  the  rivers  harboiu*  most  of   the  ipiadrupcds — tiger,  ounce, 


108 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


wild  cat,  wolf,  fox,  wild  boar;  but  on  the  open  plain  notiiiui^  lives  except  p^regarioiis 
aiiimuls,  such  ais  tlic  <>azellc  and  wild  ass,  wliicli  are  able  rapidly  to  traverse  great 
distances  in  search  of  food  and  moisture.  The  domestic  animals  are  limited  hy  the 
n;itui-e  of  the  climate  to  the  camel,  horse,  ass,  and  sheep.  The  only  settled  parts  of 
the  land  consist  of  narrow  oases  constantly  threatened  by  the  sands,  and  often  wasted 
by  the  locust.    Eut  the  whole  country  is  inhabited  or  at  least  traversed,  by  the  nomads 

Fig.  103. — Petrov  Glacier. 
Scale  1  :  216,000. 


L  or  G        78°IS 


76  J5 


C.  P^r ron 


shifting  theii'  camping  grounds  with  the  seasons,  and  tending  their  flocks  now  in  the 
open  plain,  now  at  the  foot  of  hills  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  streams  and  wells. 

Water  Sy.stem — The  Sir. 

The  Aralo- Caspian  basin  is  studded  with  lacustrine  spaces,  remnants  of  the  old 
inland  sea  of  Turkestan.  Niunerous  funnel- shajDed  cavities  also  occur,  especially 
north  and  north-east  of  the  Aral,  many  from  80  to  100  feet  deep,  and  filled  mostly 
with  salt  or  brackish  water,  while  marine  shells  are  embedded  in  the  claj-s  and 
sands  of  their  sides.  Saline  marshes,  strewn  over  the  stepj)e  side  by  side  with  the 
fresh-water  lakes  and  tarns,  also  contain  thick  layers  formed  by  the  remains  of 
marine  organisms.  These  shells  of  the  cardimii,  nnjfilu.^,  fuvrifclla,  and  others  still 
common  in  the  Aral,  seem  to  prove  that  this  sea  formerly  reached  nearlj'  to  the 
present  water-j^arting  between  the  Ob  and  Aralo-Caspian  basins.  This  is  a  strong 
argument  in  favour  of  the  theory  that  the  Caspian  itself  was  at  one  lune  connected 
by  a  marine  inlet  with  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Of  the  former  influents  of  the  Aral,  the  Sir  and  Oxus  alone  now  reach  its  shores. 
The  Sir,  or  Yaxartes  of  the  ancients,  and  the  Shash,  or  Sihim  of  the  Arabs,  ri.ses  in 
the  heart  of  the  Tian-shan.  One  of  its  head-streams  flows  from  a  lake  in  the 
Ala-tau  Terskei  on  the  Barskaun  Pass ;  another  drains  the  marshes  of  the  Zanka 
Pass.  But  the  most  copious  toi'ient  escapes  from  the  Petrov  glacier,  whose  crj'stal- 
liiie  mass,  some  9  miles  long,  and  scored  by  five  moraines,  fills  a  crevasse  of 
astonishing  regidarity  in  the  Ak-shiirak  Hills.     Another  glacier  of  smaller  proper- 


WATEE  SYSTiat—TKE  SIE. 


199 


tious,  the  lir-tawli,  is  remarkable  for  tlie  shape  of  its  basiu,  the  entrance  of  \\hich 
is  lihicked  by  rocks. 

lu  its  upper  com-se  the  8ir  changCvS  its  name  with  every  fresh  triluitary.  On 
leaving  the  Petrov  glacier  it  is  the  Yak-tash,  then  the  Taragai  to  the  junction  of 
the  Karasai,  and  after  receiving  the  Karakol  it  becomes  the  Great  Narin.  Eelow 
the  double  confluence  of  the  Ulan  and  Kurmekti  the  Narin  enters  the  Kapchegai 
defile,  which  no  explorer  has  yet  succeeded  in  penetrating  to  siu-vcj'  the  falls, 
which  must  here  be  very  fine,  for  the  river  descends,  in  this  space  of  about  46  miles, 
altogether  from  3,000  to  3,220  feet. 
United  with  the  Little  Narin,   the      Fig.  104.— Low£r  Pakt  of  the  Iik-tash  Glacier, 

n  •      1        ii  1  Scale  1  ;  13,000. 

stream  flows  successively  through 
several  of  those  ancient  lacustrme 
beds  which  are  so  common  in  the 
"Western  Tian-shan,  and  then  passes 
through  two  other  romantic  gorges 
before  emerging  from  the  highlands 
on  to  the  Ferghana  plains.  South 
of  the  town  of  Namangan  it  receives 
the  muddy  Kara-daria,  at  whose  con- 
fluence it  at  last  takes  the  name  of  Sir. 

But  no  sooner  does  it  acquire 
majestic  jjroportions  than  it  begins 
to  be  impoverished.  Notwithstand- 
ing' the  tributaries  still  flowins:  to  it 
from  the  moimtains  skirting  it  on 
the  north,  its  volume  is  continuously 
diiuinished  in  the  Ferghana  plain 
and  lower  down.  In  the  vast  amphi- 
theatre of  plateaux  and  hills  en- 
closing Ferghana  its  afiluents  are 
mostly  absorbed  in  a  system  of  irri- 
gation works,  which  has  converted  a 
large  portion  of  the  plain  into  a 
blooming  garden.  The  triangular 
space  comprised  between  the  Sir  and 
the  Kara-daria    is  the  mo.st  fertile 

tract  in  all  Turkestan.  But  most  of  the  streams  arc  absorbed  in  irrigation  works  before 
reaching  the  banks  of  the  Sir.  The  climate  of  Ferghana,  though  severe,  is  subject  to 
less  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  than  the  more  exposed  lowland  stejDpes.  Here  the  pre- 
vailing colour  is  blue.  "  Everything,"  saj's  M.  de  Ujfalv}%  "assmnes  a  tm-quoise  hue — 
sky,  rocks,  the  pkmiage  of  raven  and  blackbird,  and  even  the  walls  of  the  buildings." 

Above  Khojend  the  Sir  escapes  from  the  old  Ferghana  lake  bj'  skirting  the 
Choktal  ^Mountains,  thence  pursuing  a  north-westerl}-  com-se  parallel  with  the  Oxus 
and  the  Kara-tau  range.     It  seems  to  flow  farther  north  than  formerly,  and  at  one 


.Perron 


C60  Feet. 


200  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

time  probaUj'  traversed  the  Tus-kane  morass,  which  forms  a  curve  of  over  120  miles 
north  of  the  Nura-tau  Mountains,  and  which  presents  the  appearance  of  a  river 
hed.  It  seems  to  have  then  effected  a  junction  with  the  Oxus,  near  the  Sheik- jeili 
eminence,  where  traces  still  remain  of  an  old  channel.  Like  the  Chu,  its  lower  course 
at  present  describes  a  wide  circuit  round  the  basin  of  an  ancient  sea,  for  the  Kizil-kum, 
no  less  than  the  Ak-kum  and  the  Kara-kum,  is  a  di-ied-up  sea-hed,  formerly  united 
in  a  single  sheet  of  water  with  the  Aral. 

The  Chu,  which  is  the  main  stream  of  the  Terskei  xUa-tau  and  ^ycxandcr  range, 
no  longer  reaches  the  lower  course  of  the  Sir.  Although  verj'  copious  in  its  upper 
reaches,  it  receives  no  permanent  affluents  below  Karagati,  where  it  branches  off  into 
several  channels,  which  gradually  run  dry  in  the  sands.  The  Talas  also,  which  escapes 
from  the  Tian-shan  through  the  Auli-ata  defile,  expands  into  extensive  morasses 
before  reachius  the  Chu.  But  below  both  of  these  rivers  fresh  water  is  foimd  at  a 
depth  of  from  4  to  6  feet,  showing  that  their  streams  still  filter  through  under- 
ground. West  of  the  Chu  the  Sari-su,  kno^vn  in  its  upper  course  as  the  Yaman-su, 
and  in  its  lower  as  the  Yan-su,  was  also  at  one  time  a  tributary'  of  the  Sir,  but  is 
now  lost  in  the  stejjije  sands  after  a  course  of  over  480  miles.  It  rises  north  of  Lake 
Balkhash,  on  a  plateau  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Ob  basin  and  the  region 
of  inland  drainage.  Several  other  rivers  rising  in  the  same  district  become  exhausted 
before  reaching  the  Sir  or  the  Aral  Sea.  Amongst  them  are  a  number  of  Kara-su,  or 
"  Black  "Waters,"  flowing  through  peat  beds,  and  noted  amongst  all  the  Tm-kestan 
streams  for  their  resistance  to  the  action  of  frost,  apparently  never  freezing  in  winter. 

Throughout  its  lower  course  the  Sit  has  frequently  shifted  its  channel  even  in 
recent  times.  Sidtan  Baber,  who  flourished  earh'  in  the  sixteenth  century,  teUs  us 
that  the  Sihim  (Sir)  at  that  time  ran  dry  in  the  sands  before  reaching  any  other 
body  of  -natcr.  At  present  the  Yaui,  or  Jani-daria,  branches  off  fi'om  the  main 
stream  about  7  miles  below  Fort  Perovsky,  and  disappears  intermittently  with  the 
natural  changes  of  the  principal  current  and  the  irrigation  works  of  the  Kirghiz. 
After  ceasing  to  flow  from  1820  to  1848  it  resmned  its  south-westerly  course  in  the 
latter  j'ear,  without,  however,  reaching  either  the  Oxus  or  the  Aral,  and  at  present  it 
is  lost  in  Lake  Kiicha-denghiz  after  a  course  of  some  180  miles.  But  below  this  basin 
there  is  abundant  evidence  that  it  formerly  flowed  to  Lakes  Kungrad  and  Dau-kara 
in  the  Oxus  delta.  On  the  otlier  hand,  the  present  relief  of  the  land  is  altogether 
opposed  to  the  statement  of  old  writers  that  at  one  time  the  Sir  even  reached  the 
Caspian.     At  least,  it  can  have  done  so  only  through  the  Yani-daria  and  the  Oxus. 

The  main  channel  of  the  Sir  at  present  ramifies  again  a  little  below  the  Yani- 
daria  outlet  into  two  streams,  both  of  which  have  chaneed  their  com-se  and  volume. 
The  southern  branch  was  formerly  the  more  copious,  but  it  has  gradually  fallen  off 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  now  known  as  the  Jaman-daria,  or  "Bad  Paver," 
mostly  evaporating  in  the  swamps.  The  Kara-uzak,  or  northern  branch,  at  first  a 
mere  irrigation  canal,  now  carries  the  main  stream  north-west  to  the  north-east  end 
of  the  Aral.  The  average  amount  of  water  discharged  into  this  sea  is  at  present 
estimated  at  no  more  than  one-half  of  its  whole  volume  above  the  triple  ramification 
at   the  head  of  the  delta.     Here  the  discharge  at  lo^^•  water  seems  to  be  about 


THE  OXUS  EIVEE  SYSTEM. 


201 


31,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  mean  about  90,000  cubic  feet.  But  farther 
down  a  vast  amount  is  lost  by  evaporation  in  the  channels,  false  rivers,  and  extensive 
marshes  of  the  delta.  This  is  the  paradise  of  hmiters,  abounding  in  wolves,  deer, 
the  wild  boar,  fox,  hare,  wild  goat,  badger,  besides  the  pheasant,  heron,  ibis,  crane, 
goose,  duck,  and  a  species  of  flamingo.  But  the  tiger  seems  to  have  disappeared 
since  the  middle  of  the  present  centm-y. 

The  navigation  of  the  Lower  Sir  is  at  once  imcertain  and  dangerous.  The 
Russian  flotilla  is  seldom  able  to  cross  the  bar,  which  at  times  has  scarcely  3  feet  of 
water.  The  steamers  often  run  aground  on  the  sand-banks,  the  stream  is  blocked 
by  ice  for  four  months  in  winter,  and  infested  by  dense  clouds  of  midges  in  summer, 
while  the  rapid  cui'rent  and  the  want  of  fuel  increase  the  obstacles  opposed  to  a  regular 

Fig.  105.— The  Sir  Delta. 
Scale  1  :  712,000. 


C  Perron 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  Feet  and  upw-irds. 
12  Miles. 


system  of  navigation.  The  attempts  hitherto  made  have  been  in  the  interests  of  war 
and  conquest  rather  than  of  trade,  and  in  the  actual  conditions  the  waters  of  the  Sir 
are  much  more  capable  of  being  utilised  for  irrigation  than  for  any  other  purpose. 
By  a  well-devised  system  vast  tracts  might  be  reclaimed  from  the  desert,  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  cidtivated  land  was  formerly  far  more  extensive  than  at  present.  A 
network  of  canalisation  has  already  been  projected,  which,  if  carried  out,  wiU  draw  off 
over  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  order  to  water  about  250,000  acres  of  waste  lands. 


The  Oxus  Eiver  Sy.stem. 

The  western  slope  of  the  Pamir  drains  entirely  to  the  Amu-daria,  or  Oxus,  whose 
head-streams  thus  occupy  a  si^ace  over  180  miles  broad  between  the  Ilindu-Kush  and 
the  Alai  south  and  north.      From  this  region  come  all  the  suppKes  of  the  main 


202  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

stream,  which  for  over  one-half  of  a  course  estimated  altogether  at  about  1,;jOO  miles 
does  not  receive  a  single  tributary. 

The  chief  source  of  this  famous  river,  known  to  the  Arabs  as  the  Jihun,  still 
remains  to  be  determined.  The  relative  size  of  its  Pamir  head-streams  has  not  yet 
been  ascertained.  When  "Wood  vi.sitcd  Lake  Victoria  (Sari-kul)  in  1838,  he  had 
no  doubt  that  he  had  discovered  the  long-sought  source  of  the  Oxus ;  but  it  now 
seems  more  probable  that  the  chief  bianch  is  the  Ak-su,  or  "  White  River  "  of  the 
Kiro-hiz,  which  rises  east  of  the  Great  I'amir  and  of  Lake  Victoria.  This  Ak-su 
may  possibly  be  the  Vak-shu  of  Sanscrit  writers,  which  name  may  have  been 
changed  to  Oxsos  (Oxus)  by  the  Greeks.  If  so,  this  plateau  must  have  been 
frequented  by  Kirghiz  or  other  Tiirki  nomad.s  long  before  the  time  of  Alexander,  for 
the  name  of  the  river  has  no  meaning  except  in  their  language. 

Southernmost  of  the  LTpper  Oxus  head-streams  is  the  Sarhad,  a  river  of  the  Little 
Pamir,  first  scientifically  explored  by  the  Mirza  Suja,  in  the  service  of  the  Indian 
Government.  It  rises  in  the  same  depression  as  the  Ak-su,  but  flows  in  the  opposite 
direction  south-westwards  to  the  main  stream  at  Langar-kisht.  The  Ak-su  itself, 
known  in  a  j)ortion  of  its  course  as  the  Murgh-ab,  rises  in  Lake  Gaz-kid,  or  Oi-kul, 
\\hich  often  disappears  under  the  avalanches  of  snow  from  the  Ak-tash  and 
neighbouring  hills.  Flo^^'ing  from  this  lake,  first  eastwards,  as  if  to  the  Taiini 
basin,  the  Ak-su  soon  trends  northwards,  and  after  receiving  a  tributary  from 
Mount  Tagharma  takes  a  westerly  course,  joining  the  Southern  Oxus  after  it  has 
traversed  the  Wakhan,  Badakshan,  Shignan,  and  Roshan  highlands.  Farther 
down  the  united  streanns  are  joined  by  their  last  great  affluent,  the  Surgh-ab, 
flowing  from  the  Trans-Alai  and  Karateghin  Mountains.  Beyond  this  point  the 
Oxus,  escaping  from  the  gorges  of  the  advanced  Pamir  plateaux,  receives  no  more 
contributions  from  the  south,  and  very  little  on  its  right  bank. 

Even  the  Zarafshan  is  exhausted  before  reaching  the  Oxus.  It  rises  at  the  foot 
of  the  Zarafshan  glacier,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alai'-tagh,  which,  according  to  Mishen- 
kov,  is  30  miles  long.  From  every  snowy  cirque  of  the  surrounding  moimtaius 
the  Zarafshan  receives  nimierous  torrents,  besides  a  considerable  tributaiy  which 
Hows  at  an  elevation  of  7,350  feet  through  the  romantic  Lake  Iskander,  so  named  in 
memory  of  Alexander  the  Great.  This  fresh-water  basin,  which  is  encircled  by  hills 
over  3,000  feet  high,  has  a  present  depth  of  200  feet,  but  the  water-marks  on  the 
surrounding  slopes  show  that  its  former  level  was  over  300  feet  higher.  After 
entering  the  Samarkand  plain  the  Zarafshan,  whose  Persian  name  means  the  "  Gold 
Distributor,"  in  reference  either  to  its  auriferous  sands,  or  more  probably  to  the 
fertilising  properties  of  its  waters,  is  divided  into  coinitless  irrigation  rivulets, 
watering  over  1,200,000  acres  of  arable  land.  Within  60  miles  of  the  Oxus  it  is 
completely  exhausted,  though  the  extent  to  which  its  natural  and  artificial  channels 
are  flooded  varies  considerably  with  the  amount  of  .snow  and  rain,  and  even  with 
the  vicissitudes  of  peace  and  war,  by  which  agricultural  operations  are  so  largely 
affected. 

South  of  the  Oxus  amitlier  large  I'ivcr,  the  Murgh-ab  of  Merv,  also  nms  dry  long 
before  reaching  the  main  stream,  of  which  it  was  fonnorlv  an  afHnont,  but  from 


LIBRARY 


THE  OXUS  RIVER  SYSTEM. 


203 


lillt^'\-W!«»«¥r''^ 


CO 


which  it  i.s  now  separated  by  a  desert.  Rising  iu  the  GarjistauMoimtains,  Afghau- 
istan,  the  Murgh-ab  receiyes  all  the  streams  from  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Herat 
highlands,  after   «-hieh    it   branches   off   into    numerous   channels   in   the   plain, 


204  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

ultimately  losing  itself  in  the  sands  beyond  tlio  Merv  oasis.  To  the  same  basin  also 
belongs  the  Heri-rud,  or  river  of  Herat,  which  pierces  the  border  range  of  the 
Iranian  plateau,  but  rmis  dry  before  reaching  the  Murgh-ab.  The  sands  blown 
about  by  the  winds  north  of  the  irrigation  deltas  of  these  two  rivers  have  so 
completely  effaced  the  ancient  beds  that  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  tell  in  which 
direction  they  ran.  Judging  from  the  general  tilt  of  the  land  towards  the  north- 
west, parallel  with  the  Gulistan  and  Tiu-kmenian  Mountains,  they  would  seem  to 
have  flowed  not  to  the  jireseut  Oxus,  but  to  the  western  branch,  which  at  one  time 
reached  the  Caspian.  The  lines  of  wells  across  the  desert  follow  the  same  direction. 
Throughout  its  lower  course  below  Balkh  the  Amu  follows  a  normal  north- 
westerly course.  At  Kilip,  where  the  Russians  have  commenced  its  regular 
embankment,  its  bod  is  narrowed  to  about  1,000  feet  by  the  last  advancing  spurs  of 
the  Hissar  Mountains.  Bvit  in  the  plains  it  broadens  to  an  average  width  of  over 
2,300  feet,  with  a  depth  of  20  feet,  and  a  velocity  in  the  flood  of  from  5,500  to 
11,000  yards  per  hour.  In  some  places  it  is  considerably  over  a  mile  wide  even  at 
low  water ;  but  here  it  is  studded  with  low  islands  overgrown  with  willows  and  tall 
grasses.  Its  banks,  eaten  away  by  the  ciuTent,  are  nearly  everywhere  steep,  and 
before  reaching  the  cultivated  districts  it  even  passes  a  belt  of  fossiliferous  chalk 
rocks,  pierced  by  a  gorge  1,100  feet  wide  at  Toyu-bojrin.  The  current  presses 
generally  on  the  right  bank,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Volga  and  Siberian  rivers,  all 
being  alike  affected  by  the  lateral  movement  j)roduced  by  the  rotation  of  the 
earth. 

The  Amu  brings  down  a  considerable  quantity  of  alluvia,  causing  its  waters  to 
be  usually  of  a  muddy  yellow  colour,  though  not  de^Driving  them  of  their  pleasant 
taste.  Like  the  Nile,  it  has  its  regular  risings,  caused  by  the  melting  of  the  snow, 
and  lasting  from  May  to  October.  Dm-ing  the  cold  season  it  is  at  times  completely 
ice-boimd,  and  may  then  be  crossed  by  the  caravans  proceeding  from  Merv  to 
Bokhara.  Since  1874  regular  measurements  have  been  taken  of  its  discharge, 
which  at  Pitniak,  just  below  Toyu-boyin,  is  estimated  at  125,000  cubic  feet  per 
second.  For  its  total  area  of  drainage,  amounting  without  the  Zarafshan  and 
Murgh-ab  to  about  120,000  square  miles,  this  would  represent  an  annual  rainfall  of 
about  12  inches  per  square  mile  in  excess  of  the  quantity  lost  bj'  evaporation,  an 
excess  mainly  due  to  the  abundant  snows  of  the  Pamir.  The  actual  discharge  is 
exceeded  in  Europe  only  by  the  Volga  and  Danube,  and  while  only  one-half  that 
of  the  Shat-el-Arab  (Euj)hrates  and  Tigris),  it  nearly  equals  that  of  the  Nile. 
During  exceptional  floods,  such  as  that  of  1878,  it  even  siu'passes  the  mean  of  the 
Mississippi. 

At  Nukus,  where  it  ramifies  into  several  branches  to  reach  the  Aral,  it  has 
already  lost  half  the  volume  discharged  at  Tojoi-boyin,  a  loss  due  mainly  to  the 
amount  diverted  from  its  left  bank  to  water  the  oasis  of  Khiva.  During  the 
irrigating  season,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  end  of  July,  the  cultivated  lauds 
of  Kharezm,  estimated  at  about  4,250  square  miles,  absorb  some  250  billion  cubic 
feet  of  water,  or  one-seventh  of  the  entire  annual  discharge,  while  the  sedimentary 
deposits  are  estimated  at  16,GG0,000  tons,  a  quantity  sufficient  to  raise  the  level  of 


THE  DELTA    01 

E.ofr. 

|o6' 

57° 

1       ■                                                                  ■""        -- 

/       ;      "^ 

^         /C   ^'^ss 

/      ^^"^"-^^    ;^  'M 

'^n^^^               § 

/   .^•"     X:  -r^ 

*^     j^     y 

o 

jr^        "^  \4    ;^ 

H 

I — -- — Tx^            "^          ^  - 

^H  .-"^  ,...• 

"'"'^'^^^^K 

\    ^^""^-^---^a           h  "^^^ 

5^^'-----   ^ 

/           \ 

.^^^^^^^^^  \^  xj^ 

^ 

>5^^i^3  ,3-^^l^^-— ' 

//^ 

^^^i^,\^ 

^>-E-r:-^^    ■.         .\ 

43' 

/ 

/ 

fi^^^.^^ 

B.iisa  - 

"^fell^^^^i^ 

>  ^ 

fes^' y^  j*> 

y^^^^M^-.,'    -^ 

i^V^W 

^^m^P^km 

^ 

t  \^^    S  .-<  v^  ^ 

b 

\^Vr-r5^^^_---^»^  ^•■" 

]L'/f    ■'  / 

^^^"i^^^^^c: 

""  1iUiodj5^^ 

^*--^i>ii^"~~~^  "A^Ja^o 

^mi^- lSi|6rHl  J  V   v;^"\^at? 

=    -          \^^^--^ 

^ — \       _Ziiii^^^^'''S^^^^^  fLj 

^       \             "^^'^^ 

3^so\  >-^!^rr^ 

J^^^^^J^  ^  'f^^'^^^^'^^x 

''  .--'.'"^^^W^      ""'T  ~""^ 

^ 

„(»*JC^      ,  >^   "v^w       -^             \ 

V  J)5t§^^%5^ 

,42° 

/  w 

■^^»\ 

'  l^^'^K 

/■-.-■- 

\,^^^^Cl  \k,^v^ 

£  W^i-  >'■■"''' 

K.iDiisTi                                                       ^. — ^'        ■■■ 

^S^'siSl^^ 

gg^^ 

.-•■"Tr   "^ 

K^^ 

'' ^I^— ^ 

\ 

X"^    1 

REFERENCE 

/ 

!•';",'■  1  Sn/t/u, 

A lioattf 

y 

r^^^^^J  Sn-afiips 

Dried  -vp  Tb'yer 
cfuuuwla 

J^ 

1          J  Arid  Steppes  S-     1 1   Oil/ivatei/  anJ 

^^ 

•uiriil  wastes                           cidtli'nhle  Land 

^/^ 

|58" 

59" 

Orawii  >iv  A-Stom. 


Scale 


LONDON.  J.  S.V 


FHE    AMU    DARIA, 


§t  C  9    LIMITED 


THE  OXUS  EIVEE  SYSTEM.  205 

the  laud  eight-tenths  of  a  millimetre  every  year.  But  while  the  alluvia  thus 
deposited  in  the  artificial  canals  are  annually  cleared  out,  never  obstructing  the  free 
circidation  in  the  irrigating  rills,  the  natiu-al  beds  winding  towards  the  Aral 
become  yearly  more  and  more  choked  up.  Here  are  formed  sand-banks  and 
shifting  bars  dangerous  to  na-\-igation,  and  imparting  to  the  stream  a  natiu-al 
tendency  to  overflow  into  the  irrigating  works. 

Geologically  speaking,  the  Oxiis  delta  consists  properly  of  the  alluvial  plain 
yearly  fertilised  by  its  waters.  The  triangular  space  comprised  between  the  Aral 
and  the  two  exterior  branches,  Taldik  on  the  west  and  Yani-su  on  the  east,  is  a 
delta  only  in  appearance,  for  this  tract  does  not  consist  of  alluvial  deposits  at  all. 
They  are  older  formations,  through  which  the  stream  has  cut  various  fortuitous 
channels,  and  in  which  the  mean  slope  is  much  greater  than  in  the  true  alluvial 
plains.  From  Xukus  to  the  mouths,  a  distance  of  over  70  miles  in  a  straight  line,  the 
total  fall  exceeds  60  feet,  whereas  fi'om  New  Orleans  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a 
much  greater  distance,  it  amoimts  to  no  more  than  a  few  inches  at  low  water.  True 
deltas  are  formed  only  at  the  mouths  of  the  several  branches  in  the  Aral,  where 
the  bars  ab-eady  exclude  vessels  drawing  over  4  feet  of  water,  while  farther  up  the 
dense  growth  of  reeds,  from  20  to  25  feet  high,  stops  all  craft  except  the  skiffs  of  the 
Khiva  fishennen.  Nevertheless  the  steamer  Perovsky,  di-awing  rather  more  than 
40  inches,  succeeded  iu  1875  in  forcing  its  way  by  the  Yani-su,  Lake  Dau-kara,  and 
the  Kuvan-jerma,  or  "  Xew  Cut,"  up  to  Xukus,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the 
natives.  Siace  then  the  navigation  of  the  Lower  Oxus  has  never  been  interrupted, 
notwithstanding  the  obstacles  at  the  entrance  and  the  swift  cui-rent,  which  the 
steamers  often  find  great  difficulty  in  surmounting.  Formerly  the  Taldik,  or  western 
branch,  was  the  deepest ;  but  like  the  Darialik,  lying  still  farther  westwards,  it 
has  been  gradually  choked  up  b}'  the  natiu-al  tendencj-  of  the  river  to  be  deflected 
more  and  more  towards  the  east. 

The  great  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  course  of  the  Oxus  withiQ  the 
historic  period  are  amongst  the  most  remarkable  phj-siographic  phenomena,  com- 
parable in  recent  times  only  to  the  periodical  displacements  of  the  Hoang-ho.  That 
the  region  of  the  Lower  Oxus  is  not  a  true  delta,  and  that  the  river  has  not  yet  cut 
regular  channels  through  it,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Amu  has  flowed  in 
this  direction  only  during  a  recent  epoch,  or  probably  for  not  over  three  himdi-ed  and 
fifty  years.  Diu-ing  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was,  in  fact,  an  affluent 
of  the  Caspian.  But  even  that  was  but  a  temporary  phenomenon,  the  Oxus  ha\-ing 
oscillated  twice  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Aral  since  the  time  of  the  Greek  historians. 

In  the  days  of  Strabo  the  Oxiis,  "  largest  of  all  Asiatic  rivers  except  those  of 
India,"  flowed  to  the  Caspian,  and  the  trade  between  the  Euxine  and  India  followed 
this  river,  continuing  the  valley  of  the  Km-  eastwards  of  the  Hp-canian  Sea.  But 
in  the  time  of  the  fli-st  Arab  and  Turkish  wi'iters  the  Oxus,  described  by  Edrisi  as 
"  sujjerior  in  volimie,  dejjth,  and  breadth,  to  all  the  rivers  of  the  world,"  had  been 
diverted  northwards  to  the  Aral.  In  the  fourteenth  centui-j'  it  had  again  resumed 
its  course  to  the  Caspian,  towards  which  there  is  a  relatively  steep  incline,  for  the 
bifurcation  of  the  present  and  the  old  bed  below  Yani-urgenj  is  140  feet  above  the 

VOL.    VI.  p 


206 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


level  of  the  Aral,  and  380  feet  above  that  of  the  Caspian.  The  new  channel  was 
blocked  for  about  two  hundred  years  ;  but  towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  Amu,  for  the  second  time  during  the  historic  epoch,  shifted  its  course  from  the 
Caspian  to  the  Aral. 

Few  geographical  questions  have  given  rise  to  more  discussion  than  these 
periodical  displacements  of  the  Oxus.  Some  have  even  denied  that  it  reached  the 
Caspian  in  the  time  of  the  Greeks,  attributing  the  old  bed  to  prehistoric  times. 
The  dimes  and  clay  eminences  here  and  there  obstructing  the  channel  have  been 
appealed  to  in  proof  that  the  Caspian  branch  has  been  diied  up  for  ages,  notwith- 
standing the  unanimoiis  testimony  of  the  natives  to  the  contrary.  The  difference 
in  the  faimas  of  the  two  seas,  -^vhich  have  in  common  only  one  species  of  salmon, 
have  also  been  referred  to  in  support  of  the  same  view.  Keverthclcss  the  historic 
evidence  on  the  subject  is  complete,  and  the  docimients  quoted  by  RawKnson,  Yule, 
and  others  place  it  beyond  doubt  that  the  Western  peoples  were  perfectly  acquainted 


Fig.  107. — Map  in  the  Catalonian  Atlas  of  1375. 
E  educed  Scale. 


y/fith  the  "  river  of  Urgenj ' ' — that  is,  the  Oxus — as  a  tributary  of  the  "  Sea  of  Baku  " — 
that  is,  the  Caspian.  A  map  in  the  Catalonian  atlas  of  1375  even  shows  the  Sir 
and  Amu  as  united  in  one  stream,  and  this  is  in  accordance  with  contemporary  state- 
ments. At  the  same  time  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  precise  date  of  the  return  of  the 
Oxus  to  the  Aral.  In  1559,  when  Jenkinson  -sasited  Turkestan,  it  liad  already 
ceased  to  flow  to  the  Caspian,  but  it  still  watered  the  fields  west  of  Kimia- urgenj, 
and  the  traveller  himself  was  able  to  embark  at  this  city.  A  little  later  on  Abid- 
Ghazi,  Khan  of  Urgenj  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  tells  lis  that  about 
1575  the  river,  being  deflected  constantly  eastwards,  at  last  abandoned  the  Urgenj 
oasis  and  discharged  all  its  waters  into  the  Aral. 

The  old  Caspian  branch,  which  has  an  average  ^\-idth  of  1,100  yards,  has  now 
been  thoroughly  surveyed,  and  is  as  well  known  as  if  it  were  stiU  flooded.  Its 
steep  argillaceous  banks  are  cut  by  the  stream  to  a  depth  of  from  60  to  70  feet ; 
the  sand-banks  rising  to  the  surface  and  the  islands  in  the  midst  of  the  riv«r  may 
still  be  recognised,  while  the  deeper  depressions  arc  often  filled  with  long  lakes 


THE  OXUS  EIVEE  SYSTEM. 


207 


following  the  mndings  of  the  stream.  But  the  water  has  mostly  become  salt,  and 
the  banks  are  covered  with  crystalline  deposits.  A  few  fresh- water  pools  even  remain, 
often  surroimded  with  poplar  and  wild  olive  thickets.  The  TJzboi,  as  this  branch  is 
called,  was  at  one  time  siij^iDosed  to  have  a  second  mouth  south  of  the  island  of 
Cheleken,  in  the  so-called  Khiva  Bay.  But  Stebnitzky  failed  to  discover  any 
traces  of  this  branch,  though  another,  forming  the  true  delta  of  the  Old  Amu, 
certainly  flowed  south  of  the  Darja  peninsula.  The  Turkomans  still  show  the 
traces  of  the  irrigating  rills  diverted  from  the  Lower  Oxus,  which  did  not  end  its 
course  in  the  plam,  but  made  its  way  through  a  defile  flanked  north  and  south  by  the 
Great  and  Little  Balkan  respectively.  The  different  sections  of  this  abandoned 
branch  were  formerly  known  by  various  names — Laudan,  Darialik,  Kuuia-daria, 
Uzboi,  Engiunj,  Deudan  ;  but  it  is  now  generally  named  the  Uzboi  from  the  Khiva 
coimtry  to  the  Balkan  Gulf.    It  begins  east  of  the  Amu  delta  with  three  channels,  the 

Fig.  108. — Valley  op  the  Uzboi  at  the  Aidin  Wells. 
Scale  1  :  146,240. 


54?  55  ■ 


^.oFG. 


54.°4S' 


C.Pemort 


Darialik,  Deudan,  and  Tonu,  of  which  the  first  two  reunite  near  Lake  Sari-kamish. 
Beyond  this  double  lake,  which  was  formerly  a  vast  lacustrine  basin  far  more  salt 
than  the  sea  itself,  the  Uzboi  flows  southwards  to  turn  the  TJst-urt  escarpments, 
after  which  it  trends  westwards,  piercing  the  moimtain  chain  which  forms  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Caucasus  east  of  the  Caspian.  Beyond  this  point  it  joins  the  Ak- 
tam  "  wady,"  and  falls  into  the  fiord-like  Gulf  of  Balkan  in  the  South  Caspian, 
after  a  total  course  of  about  480  miles.  The  ruins  of  towns  and  villages  on  its 
upper  course  between  the  Amu  delta  and  Sari-kamish  belong  evidently  to  two 
epochs  answering  to  the  two  periods  during  which  it  flowed  to  the  Caspian.  The 
older  towns  imply  a  far  higher  degree  of  culture  and  wealth  than  the  more  recent, 
which  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  of  the  modern  khanate  of  Khiva.  Accord- 
ing to  the  natives  another  channel  branched  off  near  Charjui  far  above  the  present 
delta,  and  flowed  due  west  across  the  now  desert  Kara-kum  stepi^es. 

p  2 


208 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


The  Aral  Sea. 

The  Balkan  Gulf  penetrates  far  inland,  and  the  sandy  tracts,  saline  depressions, 
and  extensive  morasses  found  along  the  course  of  the  Uzboi  give  it  rather  the  appear- 
ance of  an  old  marine  strait  or  chain  of  lakes  than  of  a  simple  river  bed.  At  some 
remote  geological  epoch,  and  before  serving  to  carry  off  the  waters  of  the  Oxus,  the 
Uzboi  probably  received  those  of  the  Aral  Sea,  which  at  that  time  stood  at  a 
higher  level  than  at  present,  and  may  have  thus  communicated  directly  with  the 
Caspian.  When  this  region  was  well  wooded,  as  is  expressly  stated  by  Strabo  and 
rejjeated  by  the  Arab  writers  of  the  tenth  centiuy,  the  Aral  basin  no  doubt 
stretched  south-westwards  to  the  TJst-urt  plateau.  Its  level  was  naturally  subject 
to  considerable  vicissitudes  from  century  to  century,  not  only  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  rainfall,  but  also  in  consequence  of  the  changes  in  the  course  of  the 
Oxus.     Hence,  while  some  featm-es  point  at  a  higher,  others  imply  a  lower  level 


Fig.  109.— The  Balkan  Gdlp. 
.  Scale  1  : 1,750,000. 


^%^ 

m^^ 


/?^/~crys 


to 


acr 


52- 50' 


54°Q0 


C    Perroo 


30  Miles. 


than  at  present.  It  no  doubt  takes  the  title  of  "sea,"  which  it  in  some  respects 
deserves,  if  not  for  its  depth,  at  least  for  its  extent.  Still  it  dejDends  for  its  very 
existence  on  its  two  great  feeders,  the  Oxus  and  the  Sir,  and  shoidd  these  shift 
their  course  again  to  the  Caspian,  it  would  disappear  in  a  few  years.  But  the 
Oxus  has  certainly  failed  to  reach  it  twice  in  historic  times,  while  one  branch  of 
the  Sir  has  also  flowed  through  the  Oxus  to  the  Caspian.  Consequently  there  can 
be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  Aral  has  at  various  times  been  reduced  to  the 
proportions  of  a  small  steppe  lake.  In  1870  Stebnitzky  estimated  its  area,  exclusive 
of  its  four  chief  islands,  at  26,300  square  miles.  Its  deepest  part,  washing  the 
eastern  cliffs  of  the  Ust-urt  plateau,  is  nowhere  more  than  225  feet ;  in  the  centre 
it  falls  to  170  feet ;  but  elsewhere,  and  especially  on  its  southern  and  eastern  shores, 
it  is  little  more  than  a  flooded  morass,  shifting  its  limits  with  the  direction  of  the 
winds.     Taking  the  moan  depth  at  40  or  even  50  feet,  its  volmne  cannot  exceed 


If  ^^v.' v.\^^;*. 


:nv"v:>:-! 


I 


•  xv// /!.:!>  w/ 

\V.' 


'•N%'' 


:-^:-:-:"*v*^::*:': 


•  •  •  .»  •  »     »  •  - 

v.v^:;;:;v.v  . 


THE  AEAL  SEA. 


209 


1,233,434,000,000  cubic  j^arcls,  or  only  11  times  that  of  Lake  Geneva,  which  is 
nevertheless  116  times  smaller  in  extent. 

The  mean  discharge  of  the  Oxus  amoimtlng  to  35,000,  and  of  the  Sir  to  42,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  the  quantity  contributed  by  both  of  these  feeders,  inde- 
pendently of  smaller  affluents,  which  are  dry  for  most  of  the  year,  is  consequently 
about  77,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  But  this  is  preciselj^  the  quantity  which 
would  be  lost  by  a  yearly  evaj)oration  of  1,020  millimetres.  The  actual  evaporation 
is  estimated  by  Schmidt  and  Dohrandt  at   1,150  millimetres,  so  that  even  after 


Fig.  110. — I^•u^•DATION  of  the  Oxus  in  1878. 
Scale  1 :  2,500,000. 


Land  flooded. 


,  36  Miles. 


allowing  for  the  slight  rainfall  on  the  basin  the  evaporation  must  be  In  excess  of 
the  inflow.  Hence  the  lake  is  diminishing  in  size,  and  the  Gulf  of  Aibughir,  west 
of  the  Oxus  delta,  which  had  nearly  4  feet  of  water  hi  1848,  had  been  reduced  in 
1870  to  a  mere  swamp,  completely  separated  from  the  Aral  by  an  isthmus  of  mud 
and  reeds,  and  in  1872  it  had  disappeared  altogether.  It  is  now  partly  wooded, 
and  occasionally  flooded  from  the  Oxus.  The  basiii  has  thus  in  a  few  years  been 
reduced  in  size  by  about  1,400  square  miles.  A  vast  extent  of  sands  on  the 
northern  shores  forms  part  of  the  lake  on  Gladishev  and  Muravin's  map  prepared  in 
1740,  and  on  the  slopes  of   the  western  cliffs  the    old  water-marks  are  visible 


210 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


1-iO  and  even  250  feet  above  the  present  level.  On  the  east  side  the  Kirghiz 
show  a  mosque  originally  built  at  the  water's  edge,  but  now  standing  many  luiles 
from  the  lake.  The  sands  are  thus  incessantly  encroaching  on  the  waters,  and  the 
progress  of  the  dunes  along  their  shores  maj'  be  followed  ^nth  the  eye.     Numerous 


Fig.  111. — The  Aral  Sea. 
Scale  1  :  4,000,000. 


^ 


/C/x/^'  /Coi-fry^ 


E-oFG    D8' 


@g- 


C.PefTon 


0to32 
Feet. 


32  to  64 

Feet. 


IGO  Feet 
and  upwards 


.  30  Miles. 


islands,  formerly  mere  shoals  and  banks,  now  contribute  to  justify  the  Turki  name 
of  the  Lake  Aral-denghiz,  or  "  Sea  of  Islands." 

But  far  more  rapid  must  have  been  the  change  when  the  Oxus  shifted  its 
channel  to  the  Caspian.  "Were  such  an  event  to  recur,  the  lake  would  lose  one- 
twentieth  of  its  volume  in  the  very  first  year,  and  in  a  quarter  of  a  century  the 


THE  ARAL  SEA. 


211 


water  would  have  everywhere  disappeared  except  from  five  depressions  reduced  to 
tlie  proi)ortions  of  the  other  steppe  lakes.  The  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  who 
describe  the  Oxus  as  an  affluent  of  the  Caspian,  make  no  mention  at  all  of  the  Aral, 
which  they  could  not  have  possibly  overlooked,  had  it  at  that  time  occuj^icd  anything 
like  so  large  an  area  as  at  present.  But  at  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest,  when  the 
Oxus  had  again  abandoned  the  Caspian,  the  Aral  is  known  to  contemporary  writers, 
one  of  whom,  Khorezmi,  a  native  of  the  country,  gives  it  a  circmuference  of  about 
100  leagues.  This  is  about  one-third  of  its  actual  jDcriphery,  which,  apart  from 
the  smaller  indentations,  may  be  estimated  at  800  miles.     But  with  the  return  of 

Fig.  112. — Old  Kiver  Beds  of  the  Aralo-Caspiak  Basin. 
Scale  1  :  13,900,000. 


E  o"-  G  55 


C.  Perron 


Old  Watercourses. 
^_^___^  240  Milea. 


the  Oxus  to  the  Caspian  the  Aral  again  di-ops  out  of  sight.  Even  Marco  Polo,  who 
crossed  from  the  Volga  to  the  Oxus  steppes,  makes  no  allusion  to  its  existence. 
Hence  we  may  conclude  that  with  the  shifting  of  its  affluents  the  Aral  oscillated 
between  the  conditions  of  a  sea  and  a  steppe  swamp. 

The  quantity  of  salt  contained  in  its  waters  also  depends  upon  its  volmne.  At 
present  .it  is  so  slightly  brackish  that  wild  and  domestic  animals  freely  di-iuk  it, 
and  11  in  1,000  may  be  taken  as  the  mean  proportion  of  aU  the  salts  held 
in  solution,  which  is  about  one-third  less  than  in  the  Caspian,  while  it  contains 
nearly  three  times  the  quantity  of  gj'jjsum.  Hence  the  composition  of  its  waters 
shows  clearly  that  the  Ai'al  is  not  a  remnant  of  an  oceanic  basin.      In  its  fauna, 


212 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


which  has  only  recently  been  carefully  studied,  both  fresh  and  salt  water  species 
are  represented.  The  former,  however,  prevail,  although  not  including  the  sturgeon 
and  sterlet  of  the  Caspian.  Falk,  Pallas,  and  others  have  spoken  of  seals,  which 
woidd  have  a  more  intimate  connection  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Caspian.  But 
Maksheyev  has  shown  that  this  animal  is  unknown  in  the  Aral,  which  has  altogether 
only  one-third  of  all  the  species  found  in  the  Caspian.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
sccqihirhynchus,  a  species  of  iish  supposed  to  have  been  exclusively  American,  has 
been  found  both  in  the  Sir  and  the  Oxus. 

The  shallows,  sudden  storms,  and  scanty  popidation  of  its  shores  prevent  the 
navigation  of  the  Aral  from  acquiring  any  great  expansion.  Hitherto  it  has  been 
utilised  mainly  for  military  purposes  ;  but  a  project  has  been  spoken  of  which  would 
connect  this  basin  with  the  inland  navigation  of  Europe  by  restoring  the  old  com-se 
of  the  Uzboi  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Balkan.  This  project,  already  entertained  by 
Peter  the  Great,  has  even  been  partly  commenced,  and  a  portion  of  the  Oxus  has 


Fig.  113. — Ak-tau  and  Moktviy-kultuk. 
Scale  1 :  4,000,000. 


43 


"'''^^k^^M^. 


44' 


^4.'         E  of  G 


C   Perron 


60  MUea. 


again  been  directed  towards  the  Caspian.  During  the  great  floods  of  1878  the 
Uzboi  received  a  discharge  of  31,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  most  of  which  was  lost 
in  the  sm-roimding  swamps,  a  current  of  13  feet  alone  reaching  the  Sari-kamish 
lakes.  In  1879  the  sujDply  from  the  canal  constructed  to  the  Uzboi  scarcely 
exceeded  2,100  cubic  feet  per  second,  but  by  means  of  side  dykes  the  new  river  was 
diverted  to  the  Sari-kamish  basins.  Nevertheless,  these  basins  being  nearly  50  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Cas^Diau,  it  would  be  necessary  to  flood  a  space  of  about  400 
square  miles  before  their  waters  would  be  raised  high  enough  to  flow  to  the  Caspian. 
They  might  doubtless  be  avoided  by  means  of  an  artificial  canal.  But  unless  the 
bars  of  the  Amu  are  removed,  and  the  course  of  this  river  and  of  the  Sir  regidated 
by  embankments,  the  advantage  of  restoring  the  Uzboi  is  not  apparent.  In  a  region 
where  the  few  oases  are  exposed  to  the  advancing  sands  every  di-op  of  water  should 
be  employed  for  irrigation  purposes. 


THE  TUEKOMAN  DESEETS  iWD  HIGHLANDS. 


213 


The  Turkoman  Deserts  and  Highlands. 

The  Kara-kum,  or  "  Black  Sands,"  a  vast  triangular  space  stretching  south  of  the 
Ai-al  hetween  the  Amu,  the  Uzboi,  the  Tekke  Tui'koman  hills,  and  the  Merv  oasis, 
might  again  he  changed  by  the  fei'tllising  waters  to  a  productive  land.  These  soli- 
tudes, strewn  with  the  ruins  of  many  popidous  cities,  are  now  scarcely  traversed  by 
a  few  difhcidt  tracks  lined  at  long  intervals  with  wells,  which  are  often  found 


Fig.    ll-l. — ExTRANCE    TO    THE   KaKA-EOGHAZ. 

EciUe  1  :  91,000. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feet.  32  Feet  and  upwards. 

^^^_—  li  Miles. 


empty  or  too  brackish  to  be  potable.  Here  "  every  di-op  of  water  is  a  drop  of  life." 
Shifting  sands,  carefully  avoided  by  the  caravans,  sweep  in  a  succession  of  dunes 
over  vast  distances.  Elsewhere  the  argillaceous  soil,  hard  and  crevassed,  re-echoes 
under  the  horse's  hoof,  or  saline  quagmires  beguile  by  their  mirages  the  unwary 
traveller  to  their  treacherous  beds.  The  land  is  mostly  bare,  producing  little  beyond 
a  few  tufts  of  thistles  or  dwartish  thorny  plants.  The  saksaul  thickets  are  now 
rare  in  the  desert  south  of  the  Oxus,  having  been  mostly  destroyed  during  the  last 


214 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Fig.  115. — The  Tuk-karagan  Lakes. 
ScTle  1  :  500,000. 


centairy.  But  some  of  the  slopes  skii'tiag  the  wilderness  on  the  south-west  are 
almost  verdant,  thanks  to  the  slight  rainfall  and  the  few  springs  rising  at  the  foot 
of  these  heights.  A  zone  of  cultivated  lands  thus  sejDarates  the  desert  from  the 
Iranian  highlands.  These  are  the  so-caUed  Atok,  the  home  of  the  Tekke  Turko- 
mans— the  Akhal-atok  in  the  west,  the  Deregez-atok  in  the  centre,  and  the  Kelat- 
atok  in  the  east. 

The  Great  Balkan,  north  of  the  old  mouth  of  the  Oxus  in  the  Caspian,  is  the 

chief  summit  in  those  u^Dlauds,  which 
might  be  called  the  "  Tm-koman 
Caucasus,"  forming  as  they  do  a  con- 
tiauation  of  the  Great  Caucasus  east 
of  the  Caspian.  North  of  the  Great 
Balkan  and  of  its  western  extension  to 
the  peninsida  enclosing  the  entrance  of 
the  Krasnovodsk  Bay,  there  stretches 
a  hilly  region,  which  blends  in  the 
so-called  "  Trans-Caspian  territoiy " 
with  the  TJst-m't  jjlateau.  Southwards 
the  less  imposing  Little  Balkan,  clothed 
with  a  few  patches  of  scant  vegetation, 
forms  the  extremity  of  the  frontier 
chain  of  the  Iranian  plateau,  which 
rims  with  remarkable  uniformity  in  a 
south-easterly  direction,  and  which  is 
known  to  the  Turkomans  on  the  north, 
and  the  Persians  on  the  south,  by 
different  names.  Nearest  to  the  Little 
Balkan  is  the  Km'an-dagh,  followed 
successively  by  the  Kopet  (Kopepet- 
dagh),  or  Daman-i-koh,  and  the 
Gulistan  Mountains,  highest  of  the 
range,  and  interrupted  eastwards  by  the  Heri-rud  and  Mm-gh-ab  valleys. 


Co-F  G. 50 


C  Perroo 


15  Miles, 


The  Atrek  axd  Gurg.\n  Rivers. 

Although  the  Kiu-an  and  Kopet-dagh  may  be  regarded  as  the  outer  rim  of  the 
southern  uplands,  there  nevertheless  intervenes  betw'een  them  and  the  plateau 
proi:)er  a  broad  vaUey  watered  by  the  river  Atrek.  Here,  also,  as  in  the  Tiau-shan 
system,  the  crests  cross  each  other,  one  running  north-west  and  south-east,  the 
other  taking  nearly  the  line  of  the  meridian,  and  in  the  angle  formed  by  these  two 
ridges  is  developed  an  irregidar  and  hilly  plain  sloping  towards  the  Caspian. 
Although  over  300  miles  long,  the  Atrek,  even  near  its  mouth,  is  usually  but  a  feeble 
stream  some  30  feet  broad.  It  has  been  almost  completely  exhausted  by  irrigation 
works  and  evaporation  before  reaching  the  Caspian.     But  dui-ing  the  spring  floods 


THE  UST-UET  PLATEAU. 


215 


its  waters  expand  to  a  width  of  from  6,500  to  over  8,000  feet.  Farther  south 
flows  a  smaller  stream,  which,  however,  never  rim^s  dry,  and  which  abuudautly 
waters  the  Astrabad  i^lains  about  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Caspian.  This  is  the 
Gui'gan  (Jorjau,  Hurgau,  Vchkrau),  or  "  Wolf  Eiver,"  which  abounds  in  fish,  and 
which,  although  less  than  120  miles  long,  has  acquired  great  historical  importance, 
and  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole  region  vaguely  known  to  the  ancients  as 
Hyrcania.  At  one  time  the  lower  course  of  this  rivei",  at  another  that  of  the 
Atrek,  is  taken  as  the  natui-al  frontier  of  Persia,  and  it  was  by  ascending  their 
valleys  that  the  Russians  have  been  able  to  tiu-n  the  Turkoman  positions  in  their 
natural  strongholds  of  the  Daman-i-koh. 

Formerly  the  passage  of  the  Gurgan  was  defended  by  the  Kizil-alan,  or  "  Red 
Wall,"  intended  to  protect  the  agricultural  populations  of  Persia  against  the 
Turkoman  nomads,  the  accursed  Yajug  and  Majug  ("Gog  and  Magog"),  as  they 
were  called  by  the  mediaaval  Arab  writers.     Like  most  of  the  ruined  structures  of 


Fig.  116. — Tentiak-sor. 
Scale  1  :  770,000. 


CPerraa 


120  Miles. 


Central  Asia,  this  waU  was  attributed  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who,  according  to  the 
legend,  erected  it  in  a  few  days  with  the  aid  of  an  army  of  genii.  But  it  seems 
rather  to  have  been  the  woik  of  Khosroes  Anurshivan,  and  when  it  was  built  the 
level  of  the  Caspian  appears  to  have  been  lower  than  at  jaresent,  for  its  western 
section  advances  some  miles  into  the  sea.  Its  ruins  may  be  traced  to  the  soiu'ces  of 
the  Gurgan,  and  even  to  Bujnurd,  in  the  Upper  Atrek  valley,  so  that  it  must  have 
been  over  310  miles  long  altogether.  Little  now  remains  of  it  except  a  line  of 
moimds  4  to  6  feet  high  and  30  feet  broad,  commanded  at  intervals  of  1,000  paces 
by  ruined  towers. 


The  TJst-urt  Plateau. 

Between  the  Aral  and  the  Casjoian  a  plateau  of  limited  extent  stands  like  a 
rocky  island  between  the  marine  waters  and  the  low  stej^pes  formerly  flooded  by 
the  great  inland  sea  of  Turkestan.     This  is  the  TJst-urt,  or  "High  Plain,"  so 


216 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Fig.  117. — Ogcrchinskit  Island. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


named  in  contradistinction  to  the  Ast-urt,  or  "Low  Plain,"  of  tlie  Kirghiz.  It 
is  a  tji^ical  tableland  in  its  isolation  and  steep  escarpments.  The  inequalities 
of  the  surface  are  due  chiefly  to  the  snows  and  rains,  which  have  worn  the  upper 

strata  and  excavated  coxmtless  little  ca^•ities 
with  no  outlets  either  to  the  Aral  or  the 
Caspian.  Nearly  everj'where  the  Ust-urt  is 
limited  by  a  chinl-,  or  cliff,  which  would 
render  it  inaccessible  but  for  the  ravines  by 
which  it  is  pierced  at  intervals.  From  its 
base  spring  a  nimiber  of  fresh-water  streams 
with  a  slight  taste  of  sidphur.  West  of 
the  Aral  Sea  the  chink  forms  a  continuous 
wall,  in  some  places  over  330  feet  high,  and 
certain  mysterious  structures  in  the  form 
of  truncated  pyramids  occur  here  and  there 
along  the  edge  of  the  cliffs.  The  plateau 
consists  entirely  of  tertiary  rocks,  thus  con- 
trasting sharply  with  the  plains  stretching 
east  of  the  Aral.  Its  chief  eminences  attain 
an  altitude  of  660  feet  above  the  lake, 
consequently  over  830  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean,  besides  which  the  Ak-tau, 
or  "  White  Mountain,"  forms  a  small  rocky 
chain  running  south-east  and  north-west 
beyond  the  plateau  far  into  the  Caspian, 
where  it  forms  the  Mangishlak  peninsida. 
Most  of  the  parts  hitherto  visited  by 
Russian  explorers  have  been  found  destitute 
of  vegetation.  But  there  are  numerous 
pastures  in  the  flats,  and  the  southern 
portion  of  the  plateau  deserves  rather  the 
title  of  "  Plaiu  of  the  Gazelle,"  or  of  the 
"  Wild  Horse,"  or  of  the  "  Wild  Ass," 
than  that  of  Kaflaukir,  or  "Plain  of  the 
Tiger,"  conferred  on  it  by  the  Tiu-komans. 
This  region  is  even  occupied  by  a  Kirghiz 
population,  who,  however,  are  obliged  con- 
stantly to  shift  their  qiiarters.  The  shortest 
road  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Oxus  delta 
runs  from  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Mortviy-kultuk  Bay  north-east  across  the  Ust-ui-t  to  Kungrad,  a  distance  in  a 
straight  line  of  250  miles.  It  was  utilised  by  the  Russian  traders  for  the  first 
time  in  1878,  and  was  found  to  present  no  obstacles  to  caravans.  It  is  lined  at 
intervals  by  twelve  wells,  sufficient   for   two  hundred   camels.      A  railway  has 


0  to  32  Feet. 


32  Feet  and  upwards. 
-^— —  6  Miles. 


I 


EAST  COAST  OF  THE  CASPIAN. 


217 


recently  been  projected  to  connect  the  Caspian  and  Aral  by  tbe  line  of  lakes 
and  saline  marshes,  which  probably  represent  a  strait,  at  one  time  running  between 
the  Mortviy-kidtuk  Bay  on  the  Caspian,  and  the  Chernichev  inlet  on  the  Aral. 


Fis 


118. — KULALI  ISLA>(D. 
Scale  1  :  270,000. 


East  Co.\st  of  the  Caspi.^x. 

Some  of  the  ba.sins  on  the  east  side  of  the  Caspian,  penetrating  far  into  the 
steppe,  ma}-  be  regarded  as  distinct  lakes,  forming  the  transition  between  that  sea 
and  the  saline  waters  scattered 
oyer  the  Turkestan  desert. 
One  of  these  is  the  Kara- 
boghaz,  or  "  Black  Abyss," 
which  is  nearly  isolated  from 
the  Caspian,  forming  an  oyal 
expanse  some  6,400  square 
miles  in  extent.  Limited 
westwards  by  a  slight  sand 
embankment,  it  communicates 
with  the  sea  only  through  a 
channel  from  650  to  2,650 
feet  broad,  and  scarcely  4  feet 
deep  at  its  entrance.  A  eiu-rent 
fi-om  the  Caspian  sets  steadily 
across  the  strait  at  the  rate  of 
from  3  to  4  miles  an  hour. 
This  dangerous  channel  is 
carefully  ayoided  eyen  by 
explorers,  and  Jerebtzoy  was 
the  first  to  penetrate  through 
it  to  suryey  the  shores  of  the 
inner  basin.  The  cause  of  the 
rapid  ciuTcnt  has  been  ex- 
plained hj  Baer.  The  Kara- 
boghaz  has  only  a  mean  dejJth 
of  fi'om  12  to  40  feet,  and 
is  eyei-ywhere  exposed  to  the 
winds  and  summer  heats,  so 
that  here"  the  eyaporation  is 
excessiye,  necessitating  a  con^ 
stant  inflow  to  repair  the  loss. 

But  while  eyaporating  the  moisture,  the  inland  basin  retains  the  salt  from  the  Caspian, 
and  thus  becomes  constantly  more  saline.  It  is  said  to  be  already  iminhabitable,  and 
the  fish  carried  through  from  the  Caspian  become  blind  in  fiye  days.  Saline  incrusta- 
tions are  beginning  to  be  deposited  on  the  bottom,  and  the  basin  is  fast  becoming 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  Feet  and  upwards. 
^—^^^—  6  Miles. 


218  ASIATIC  ETTSSIA. 

a  vast  salt-pau,  drawing  from  the  Caspian  a  daily  supply  estimated  by  Baer  at 
350,000  tons  of  salt,  or  about  as  much  as  is  consumed  in  the  whole  Russian  Empire 
in  six  months. 

The  other  basins  on  the  east  coast,  and  especially  about  the  Mangishlak 
peninsula  and  the  Tidi-karagan  headland,  offer  every  degree  of  salinity  according  to 
the  amount  of  evajDoration  and  of  salt  water  received  from  the  Caspian.  Some, 
like  the  Ashchai-sai,  between  the  Kara-boghaz  and  the  Mangishlak  peninsida, 
having  already  ceased  to  communicate  with  that  sea,  have  di'ied  up,  and  their 
basins  are  now  fiUed  with  salt,  in  some  instances  covered  by  sand. 

The  Kara-boghaz  is  connected  bj^  a  chain  of  swamps,  saline  depressions,  and 
lakelets  with  the  Mortvij'-kultuk,  another  saline  reservoir,  which  is  gradually 
being  cut  off  from  the  north-west  gulf  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  already  little  more 
than  a  steppe  lake,  with  a  mean  depth  of  less  than  7  feet ;  it  is  being  constantly 
invaded  by  the  sands  of  the  desert,  raising  its  level,  and  rajaidly  changing  it  to  a 
vast  salt  marsh.  But  before  it  becomes  completely  detached  from  the  Caspian,  the 
Kaidak,  or  Kara-su  ("  Black  "Water  ")  channel,  stretching  south-westwards  towards 
the  Kara-boghaz,  will  itself  have  been  changed  to  a  salt  lake.  It  fills  a  long  and 
deep  fissure  commanded  by  the  steep  cliffs,  which  form  a  continuation  of  the  Ust- 
urt  chinlj.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  steppe  tribes  were  stdl  independent 
of  Russia,  the  great  international  fair  was  held  on  the  shores  of  the  Kara-su.  At 
that  time  the  bar  separating  this  fiord  from  the  Mortviy-kidtuk  could  be  easily 
crossed,  but  it  is  now  almost  inaccessible,  and  in  1843  the  Russians  were  obliged 
to  abandon  the  fortress  of  Novo-Alexandrovsk,  which  they  had  erected  in  182G  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Kara-su.  The  Mortviy-kultuk  is  already  twice  as  salt  as  the 
Caspian,  while  the  salinity  of  the  Kara-su  even  exceeds  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
the  most  intensely  salt  of  all  basins  commimicating  directly  ■n-ith  the  ocean. 

The  whole  region  stretching  north-east  of  the  Caspian,  and  connected  by  a 
chain  of  swamps  with  the  Aral  basin,  presents  the  same  evidences  of  transition 
from  the  sea  to  steppe  lakes.  Here  are  nothing  but  low-lying,  marshy,  and  reedy 
tracts,  which  again  become  flooded  after  the  prevalence  for  a  few  daj's  of  the  fierce 
west  winds.  Until  the  year  1879  the  Russian  officials  were  in  the  habit  of 
avoiding  the  swampy  and  saline  region  of  the  Tentiak-sor  by  skirting  its  northern 
limits,  and  the  Astrakhan  and  Gurj^ev  fishermen  had  taken  advantage  of  this 
negligence  to  ciu'e  their  fish  without  paying  the  rcgidar  tax. 

Notwithstanding  the  vast  alluvial  deposits  brought  down  by  the  Volga  and 
other  rivers  from  the  west,  this  side  of  the  Caspian  is  still  much  deeper  than  the 
opposite.  Off  the  Turkoman  coast,  between  Krasnovodsk  and  Chikishlar,  depths  of 
28  fathoms  do  not  occur  within  distances  of  from  30  to  45  miles  of  the  shore, 
whereas  on  the  European  side  330  fathoms  are  reached  at  corresponding  distances 
from  the  coast.  A  submerged  .shore  stretches  from  the  Krasnovodsk  peninsula  to 
the  coast  of  Mazenderan,  and  the  long  island  of  Ogurchinskiy,  or  the  ''  Cuciuuber," 
as  the  Russians  call  it,  is  evidently  a  remnant  of  that  shore.  North  of  the 
Mangishlak  peninsida  the  island  of  Kulali  forms  a  similar  sandy  dune  of  the 
characteristic  crescent  shape   so   common   to  shifting    sands.      The    Caspian   has 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  AEALO-CASPIAN  EEGIONS.  219 

evidently  been  subject  to  frequent  changes  of  level  since  its  separation  from  the 
Euxine.  While  the  bugri  of  the  Tolga  delta  show  that  at  one  time  the  waters 
subsided  rapidly,  the  contours  of  the  Cuciunber  and  Kiilali  Islands,  moulded  by  the 
regular  action  of  the  waves,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  a  proof  of  a  period  of  upheaval. 
The  direct  observations  taken  between  1830  and  1863,  compared  with  the  marks 
scored  by  Lenz  in  a  rock  near  Baku,  show  a  subsidence  of  46  inches.  The  two 
trigonometrical  surveys  of  the  Caucasus  made  in  1830  and  1860  show  almost 
identical  results,  so  that  in  1860  the  Caspian  must  have  been  more  than  86  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Euxine. 


YI.— IXHABITA:s'TS  of  the  AEALO-CASPIAIf  REGIONS. 

ALTHorcn  commonly  known  as  Tm-kestan  or  Tatary,  this  part  of  the  Asiatic 
continent  is  not  exclusively  occupied  by  peoples  of  Turki  stock,  and  it  is  even 
probable  that  the  original  population  was  Aryan.  But  however  this  be,  these 
boundless  steppe  lands  are  ethnically  a  region  of  contrasts.  The  opposition 
presented  by  the  wonderful  gardens  watered  by  the  Amu  and  the  Sir  to  the 
frightfid  wildernesses  of  the  "  Red "  and  "  Black  Sands "  reappears  in  the 
inhabitants  themselves,  some  occupied  with  agricidture  and  industrj-,  other  nomad 
pastors  sweeping  the  desert  and  ever  prej-ing  on  the  wealth  amassed  bv  their 
sedentary  neighbours  in  the  fertile  oases.  Commercial  relations  are  established 
from  town  to  town,  but  between  townsfolk  and  nomads  incessant  warfare  was 
fonnerly  the  normal  and  natural  state.  The  desert  encroaches  on  the  oasis,  and  the 
wandering  shepherd  threatens  the  tiller  of  the  soil.  Such  was  the  struggle  carried 
on  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  interrupted  only  by  foreign  conquest,  which  for  a 
time  associated  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin  with  other  regions,  but  which  also  swept 
away  all  local  civilisation  by  wholesale  slaughter.  ISTowhere  else  have  the 
conflicting  elements  been  more  evenly  balanced ;  nowhere  else  has  even  religion 
assumed  such  a  decided  dualistic  character.  It  was  in  the  land  of  the  Baktrians — 
a  paradise  of  verdure  encompassed  by  a  wilderness  of  sands — that  was  developed 
the  Iranian  Mazdcism,  the  worship  of  the  tvrm  and  irreconcilable  principles  of  good 
and  evil  engaged  in  a  ceaseless  struggle  for  the  ascendancy.  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman 
have  each  their  hosts  of  spirits  who  do  battle  in  the  heavens,  while  mankind  takes 
part  in  the  everlasting  conflict  on  earth. 

At  the  same  time  the  division  into  a  nomad  and  a  settled  element  is  far  more 
an  ethical  and  traditional  than  an  ethnical  distinction.  Iran  and  Turan  are 
symbolic  expressions  rather  than  terms  answering  to  an  outward  reality.  Amongst 
the  sedentary  and  cultured  races  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  regions  the  Turki  and  even 
the  ilongol  elements  are  strongly  represented,  while  the  Ai-yans,  descendants  of 
Parthian  and  Persian,  also  form  a  certain  section  of  the  wandering  population  in 
the  Oxus  basin.  According  to  the  political  vicissitudes,  corresponding  largely  with 
those  of  the  local  climate,  the  cultured  agricultural  nations  and  the  pastoral  steppe 
tribes  each  prevailed  in  their  turn,  while  now  one,  now  another  of  the  contending 


220  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

elements  was  favoured  by  the  foreign  conquerors — Iranians,  Macedonians,  Arabs, 
Mongols,  Russians.  Thanks  to  the  Slav  preponderance,  the  Aryans  are  now  once 
more  in  the  ascendancy,  but  there  is  room  for  all  in  a  land  whose  resources,  if 
properly  utilised,  would  largely  suffice  for  Iranian  and  Turanian  alike.  The  actual 
population  of  the  whole  region,  about  which  the  greatest  uncertainty  still  prevails, 
is  roughly  estimated  at  about  7,000,000,  or  less  than  4  to  the  square  mile.  Still 
more  imcertain  arc  the  attempts  at  classification  according  to  speech  and  origin. 
All  that  can  be  positively  asserted  is  that  the  "  Turanian"  element  is  the  strongest, 
forming  jDrobably  over  two-thirds  of  the  entire  population. 

The  TrRKOMAXs. 

Of  the  Turanians  the  chief  branches  are  the  Kirghiz  and  the  Tui'komans,  or 
Turkmenians,  the  latter  of  whom  roam  over  the  south-western  parts  from  the 
TJst-urt  plateau  to  Balkh,  a  vast  domain  of  altogether  about  200,000  square 
miles.  Estimated  at  nearly  1,000,000,  they  are  divided  into  nimierous  tribes  and 
sub-tribes,  grouped  in  hordes,  each  of  which  again  comprises  a  number  of  clans  or 
families.  These  are  again  often  further  modified  by  conquest  and  migrations,  but 
the  main  di^■isions  are  maintained,  and  from  political  causes  often  acquire  a 
distinctive  character.  Since  the  fall  of  Geok-tepe  and  the  submission  of  the  Akhal 
Tekkes  in  1881,  the  whole  of  the  Turkoman  race  may  be  regarded  as  either  directly 
or  indirectly  subject  to  Hussian  control.  About  200,000  are  nominal  subjects  of 
the  Khan  of  Khiva,  and  these  are  gradually  blending  with  the  sedentary  Sartes  and 
the  Uzbegs.  Most  of  the  Yomuds  are  no  doubt  tributaries  of  Persia,  but  for  eight 
months  in  the  year  they  camp  north  of  the  Atrek,  and  are  then  obliged  to  select  a 
Eiian  responsible  to  the  Russian  Government.  The  Ersari  recognise  the  authority 
of  the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  himself  dependent  on  the  Muscovites,  and  the  El-Eli  owe 
an  enforced  allegiance  to  the  ephemeral  rulers  of  Afghan  Turkestan.  The  Tekkes 
and  Sariks  of  Merv  still  maintain  their  political  independence,  but  the  Salors, 
originally  also  of  Merv,  and  claiming  to  be  the  noblest  of  the  race,  are  now  subject 
to  the  Tekkes.  The  classification  of  all  these  tribes  is  beset  with  difficulties,  and 
the  greatest  discrepancies  prevail  in  the  different  estimates  of  travellers  and 
explorers.     According  to  Petrusevich  the  chief  divisions  are  as  under : — 

Tekkes  of  Merv .50,000  Kibitkas,  or  250,000  souls. 

Telckcs  of  the  Atok        ....  30,000  ,,  1.50,000  „ 

Ersari 40,000  „  200,000  ,, 

Yomuds 20,000  „  100,000  „ 

Sariks 20,000  „  100,000  „ 

Goklans 9,000  „  45,000  „ 

Chudors 6.000  ,.  30,000  „ 

El-Eli 3,000  „  15,000  „ 

Salors 3,000  „  15,000  „ 

Most  of  the  Turkomans,  especially  those  on  the  skirts  of  the  desert  between  the 
Atrek  and  Oxus,  have  preserved  the  characteristic  traits  of  the  race — broad  brow, 
small  and  piercing  oblique  eyes,  small  nose,  rather  thick  lips,  ears  projecting  from 
the  head,  black  and  scant  beard,  short  thick  hair.     In  the  Atrek  valley  and  the 


THE  TLrRKOXIANS. 


221 


higliluuds  skirting  tlie  Iranian  plateau  there  is  a  large  mixture  of  Persian  blood, 
due  to  the  women  carried  off  in  their  constant  raids  on  the  frontier.  But  while 
thus  partly  losing  his  Tatar  expression,  the  Atrek  Turkoman  still  retains  his 
piercing  glance,  proud  and  martial  bearing,  by  which  he  is  distinguished  from  the 
Kirghiz,  Uzbegs,  Kara-Kalpaks,  and  other  branches  of  the  race.     They  are  mostly 


Fi?.  119. — Turkoman  Fbmale  Heab-dbess. 


ri  .i.  •,  !iM, 
■  i'.'  ifiiii'  ■' 


i,!:i!|| 


1     I  : 


'Hijiijinnni'/i': 

D'liiiiMiiiil'i' 

;pUi'l(i|j''!i 
'qliili'jlji' 


'ilSHiiiiii 

-^'.i  1.^5' ill''     i  , 

mm 


also  of  tall  stature,  Tery  vigorous  and  active.  Except  in  Merv  and  a  few  other 
places,  all  dwell  in  the  kibitka,  or  felt  tent,  and  the  strength  of  the  tribe  is  estimated 
according  to  the  nimiber  of  these  tents,  which  are  reckoned  to  contain  about  five  souls 
each.  Their  whole  furniture  is  restricted  to  a  few  rugs  and  couches.  The  national 
dress  consists  for  both  sexes  of  a  long  silk  smock  reaching  fi-om  the  shoulders  to  the 
ankles,  to  which   the  men  add  the  chapan,  or  khalni,  somewhat  like  a  European 

VOL.    VI.  Q 


222  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

dressing-gown,  and  as  head-di'ess  a  light  fur  cap.  The  women  usually  wear  nothing 
but  the  long  smock,  adding  on  .special  occasions  a  largo  shawl,  girdle,  red  or  yellow 
boots,  bracelets,  necklaces,  and  earrings.  They  vnl\  sometimes  even  pass  rings 
through  the  cartilage  of  the  nostrils,  and  commonly  attach  to  the  breast  little 
caskets  of  amulets  resembling  cartouch  boxes,  and  which  accompany  their  move- 
ments ■with  a  metalKc  cliuk.  Coias,  coloured  gems,  true  or  false,  gold  and  silver 
ornaments,  deck  their  head-di'ess,  which  occasionally  assmues  such  jjroportions  that 
the  face  seems  to  be  enframed  like  a  holy  image  ia  its  shrine.  They  do  not  veil 
their  features,  like  other  Mohammedan  women,  for,  as  they  say,  "  how  can  we,  poor 
steppe  people,  conform  to  town  usages  ?  " 

The  Tiu'komans  of  the  Daman-i-koh  oasis  recognise  no  chiefs.  "  We  are  a 
people  without  a  head,"  they  say  haughtily  ;  "  we  are  all  equal,  and  each  of  us  is 
a  kine  !  We  can  endure  neither  the  shade  of  a  tree  nor  the  shadow  of  a  chief." 
Some  members  of  the  tribe  no  doubt  take  the  title  of  ak-saJ;al,  or  "  White  Beard," 
btti/,  bii  (Bey),  or  even  Khan.  But  this  is  mere  make-belief,  and  no  one  dreams  of 
showing  them  any  more  deference  than  to  other  warriors,  unless  specially  distin- 
guished for  courage  or  other  virtues,  or  unless  they  have  secured  a  following  by 
the  sale  of  corn  on  credit.  Those  known  as  the  "  Good  " — tlmt  is,  the  wealthy,  the 
men  of  experience,  the  bravest  in  the  field — enjoy  great  influence  in  the  council, 
when  weighty  matters  are  imder  discussion.  But  they  have  no  judicial  authority, 
and  nobody  ever  appeals  to  any  one  in  case  of  theft,  injury,  or  other  wrongs.  He 
avenges  himseK  as  best  he  can,  and  feuds  are  thus  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  imless  the  original  offence  is  repaired  by  a  monetary  comjDensation. 
The  steppe  life  is  mainly  regulated  by  the  clcb,  or  imwritten  code,  which  requires 
all  to  respect  their  jjeacefi-d  neighbours,  to  practise  hospitality,  and  to  keep  their 
pledged  word.  The  Turkomans  are  distinguished  from  the  surroimding  peoples — 
Persians,  Afghans,  Bokhariots — by  greater  ujjrightuess  and  less  corrupt  morals. 
In  war  alone  they  give  fidl  bent  to  their  innate  ferocity,  while  in  the  ordinary 
relations  of  life  distinguishing  themselves  for  their  strict  honesty.  Amongst  them 
it  is  the  debtor,  not  the  creditor,  who  keeps  the  receipts  for  borrowed  money,  in 
oi'der  not  to  forget  the  extent  of  his  obligations.  The  docmnent  is  no  concern  of 
the  creditor,  though  it  may  be  feared  that  the  "  civilisation  "  introduced  by  the 
Russians  will  tend  to  modify  these  customs. 

Amongst  the  Turkomans  the  practice  of  simidated  abduction  still  prevails. 
The  intended  bride,  enveloped  in  a  long  veil  and  with  a  kid  or  lamb  in  her  arms, 
moimts  on  horseback,  gallops  off  at  full  speed,  and  by  sudden  turns  pretends  to 
escape  from  the  abductor  pursuing  her  at  the  head  of  a  troop  of  friends.  Two  or 
three  days  after  the  wedding  she  feigns  a  fresh  escape,  remaining  a  fidl  year  with 
her  parents,  in  order  to  give  her  husband  time  to  go  kidnapping,  and  thus  pay  her 
dowry  in  captive  slaves.  Other  social  events  are  associated  with  old  sjonbolic 
customs.  Thus  it  is  not  suflScient  to  weep  for  the  dead,  but  every  day  for  a  twelve- 
month the  relations  and  friends  are  expected  to  vent  their  grief  in  dismal  bowlings 
at  the  very  hour  when  the  death  took  j)lace,  without,  however,  for  a  moment 
interrupting  their  ordinary  pursuits.     They  thus  often  take  to  howling  in  the  very 


I 


•»s 


nV/av^.V" 


m*.»  • 


^•••:  V.V 


\" 


tvXVA,twX'/ -^ 


I*  * 


rA^'» 


'v.v 


M 


iPiSWPii^iilB 


LISRARY 

TF  THE 


THE  TURKOMANS. 


223 


act  of  eating,  drinking,  or  smoking,  to  the  great  amazement  of  the  uninformed 
"  stranger  within  their  gates."  If  the  departed  was  a  famous  warrior,  a  yolsa,  or 
barrow,  is  raised  over  his  grave.  Every  bravo  of  the  tribe  contributes  at  least  seven 
bushelfids  of  earth  to  the  mound,  whence  those  hillocks  25  to  30  feet  high  dotted 
over  the  steppe. 

All  the  Turkomans  speak  closely  related  varieties  of  the  Jagatai  Turki  language, 
and  all  are  Sunnite  Mussidmans.  The  most  zealous  are  probably  those  of  the 
Persian  frontier,  who  find  in  their  pious  hatred  of  the  Shiah  sectaries  a  pretext  for 
their  forays  and  the  hard  fate  thej^  impose  upon  the  captives.  They  also  claim  the 
right  of  plundering  and  murdering  the  orthodox  Khivans  and  Bokhariots,  but  onlv  in 


Fig.  120. — Tekke  Turkoman  Oasis  in  the  Atok. 
Scale  1  :  4,200,000. 


59", 


■  KizTl-Arvat 


39' 


Nai 


/T 


Cen^li  tepo  f 

U  .Askhabad  *? 


r^-^^:-- 


C.  Perron 


.  60  Miles- 


virtue  of  the  lex  talionis  calling  upon  them  to  avenge  former  massacres.  So  recently 
as  1830  they  ventured  in  frail  barks  on  the  CasjDian,  to  capture  slaves  on  the  Baku 
coast,  and  the  Russian  naval  station  of  Ashu-rade  was  founded  to  check  their 
incursions.  Since  then  their  ships  of  war  have  become  fishing  craft.  Certain 
Persian  districts  have  become  completely  depopulated  by  these  raids,  and  elsewhere 
the  sur-\-iving  inhabitants  .shut  themselves  up  in  villages  resembling  fortresses, 
where  the  scouts  watch  day  and  night  to  give  the  alarm.  In  more  exposed  places 
towers  are  erected  at  intervals  of  100  paces.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  precautions 
the  number  of  Per.sians  cajDtured  during  one  century  has  been  estimated  at  a 
million,  and  as  many  as  200,000  slaves  were  at  one  time  in  bondage  in 
Tiu'kestan. 

Q  2 


224 


ASLVTIC  RUSSIA. 


Marauder  by  profession,  the  "black"  Turkoman  devotes  himself  entirely  to 
this  one  pursuit.  He  tends  and  trains  his  horse,  his  comrade  in  toil  and  danger, 
leaving  all  other  work  to  the  women  and  slaves.  In  the  saddle  he  "  knows  neither 
father  nor  mother,"  and  his  highest  ambition  is  to  bring  back  captives  to  the  camp. 
AVTien  he  starts  on  an  alaman,  or  foray,  at  midnight — for  he  loves  darkness  like  the 
beast  of  prey — an  ishau,  or  itinerant  dervish,  never  fails  to  bless  him  and  beg  the 
favour  of  heaven  on  his  noble  enterprise.     All   feeble  or  decrepit   caj)tives  are 

slaughtered,   the   rest   are   chained   iu 

Fig.   121.— Area  of  the  Turkoman  Raids  South  of    gangs    and   driven   away   at    the    point 

of  the  spear.  The  priest  alone  is  spared, 
lest  his  fate  might  bring  ill-luck  on 
the  freebooters. 

Formerly  most  of  the  prisoners 
were  destined  to  perish  miserably  iu 
bondage.  But  many  of  then-  sons,  and 
often  the  slaves  themselves,  gradually 
bettered  their  condition  by  their  tact 
or  intelligence,  mostly  far  superior  to 


-Area  of  the  Turkoman  Raids  South  of 

KlZIL-ARVAT. 

Scale  1  :  3,320,000. 


se 


^-^^.*^  ^_^_ 


■A'-P'U'f--  ■''JVw'^J^V^ 


^vit^^-aK 


in 
becoming  traders,  high  officials,  or 
governors  of  districts.  In  the  still 
semi- independent  khanates  to  them  are 
usually  intrusted  the  more  delicate  and 
best-paid  duties.  Although  originally 
Shiah  heretics,  they  soon  confonn  to 
the  prevalent  Sunnite  fonu  of  worship. 
Since  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade 
in  the  khanates,  caj^tures  are  now  made 
only  with  a  view  to  their  ransom,  a 
trade  formerly  carried  on  by  some  of 
the  Khorassan  chiefs  themselves,  who 
often  made  handsome  profits  by  the  sale 
of  their  o^vn  subjects. 

Of  late  years  the  raids  have  greatly 
diminished,. owing  mainly  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Russians  on  the  west,  north,  and  north-east,  but  also  partly  to  a  more 
systematic  resistance  on  the  side  of  Persia.  Here  the  Turkomans  now  find  them- 
selves opposed  by  Kurd  colonists  settled  by  the  Persian  Government  in  the  upland 
valleys,  and  who  bravely  defend  their  new  homes.  The  Turkomans,  seeing  them- 
selves thus  hemmed  in  on  all  sides,  are  gradually  obliged  to  turn  from  pillage  to 
farming.  The  Goklans  are  already  mostly  peaceful  agriculturists,  and  cultivate 
the  silkworm  with  success.     Numerous  Tekke  hordes  also  are  now  settled  on  the 


EcfG 


that  of  their  masters.  After  being  sold 
in  the  Khiva  and  Bokhara  markets, 
many  Persian   captives    succeeded 


Furts 


.  00  MUes. 


THE  KARA-KALPAKS  AND  KIEGHIZ.  225 

land,  and  enlarging  the  domain  of  their  oasis  by  means  of  irrigating  works.  Their 
moral  tone  has  even  unproved,  and  in  their  interviews  with  Em-opean  travellers 
they  will  warmly  defend  themselves  against  the  charge  of  brigandage.  The 
national  sav-ing,  "  If  marauders  attack  thy  father's  tent,  take  part  in  the  phmder," 
has  lost  all  significance,  and  most  of  the  tribes  easily  pass  from  the  nomad  to  the 
settled  state.  The  cultivation  of  certain  alimentary  plants  is  even  consistent  with 
a  semi-nomad  existence.  To  raise  the  cereal  known  from  them  as  the  Polygonum 
Tartaricum  (sarrasin),  the  Tatars  fire  the  surface  vegetation,  sow  and  reap  within 
two  or  three  months,  and  then  betake  themselves  elsewhere.  The  herd.smen  migrate 
regularly  with  the  seasons  between  the  same  pastures  on  the  Iranian  tableland  and 
in  the  plains,  and  are  thus  in  a  transition  state  between  a  nomad  and  settled  life. 
Hence  the  Eussians  cxi^cct  to  reduce  the  tribes  of  South  Turkestan  as  thej-  have 
already  reduced  their  northern  kinsmen,  hy  erecting  forts  commanding  their  winter 
camping  groimds.  They  have  also  established  depots  for  provisions  at  certain 
intervals,  and  are  pushing  on  the  line  of  railway  rimning  from  the  south-east  corner 
of  the  Caspian  towards  Askhabad  and  Merv. 

The  horse  and  camel,  inseparable  companions  of  the  nomad  Turkoman,  must 
naturally  diminish  in  numbers,  at  first  through  the  hopeless  struggle  with  the 
Russians,  and  then  through  the  increasing  development  of  agriculture.  Most  of 
the  native  camels  are  of  the  Baktrian  or  dromedary  species,  with  one  himip  only, 
smaller  and  weaker  than  the  Arabian,  but  more  capable  of  endm-ing  heat.  They 
can  make  24  miles  a  day  under  a  burden  of  400  or  even  500  lbs.  Thej-  move 
imtrammelled  about  the  tents,  and  will  occasionally  return  to  the  steppe  for  months 
at  a  time.  The  Tiu'koman  horses,  a  cross  between  the  Arab  and  the  native  breed, 
although  unshapelj-,  have  scarcely  their  equals  for  stajdng  power.  Instances  have 
been  cited  of  600  miles  covered  in  five  or  six  consecutive  days ;  for,  as  the  proverb 
goes,  "  One  brigand's  journey  is  better  than  two  of  a  merchant."  These  horses, 
highly  esteemed  by  the  Russian  officers,  have  longer  heads,  narrower  chests,  more 
shaggy  legs  than  the  pure  Arab,  but  they  are  less  affected  by  climate,  hungei',  and 
thirst.  Brought  up  with  the  children  in  the  tent,  and  caressed  by  woman's  hand, 
they  are  remarkably  gentle  and  intelligent,  and  carry  their  heads  well.  The 
Turkoman  horse  is  well  cared  for,  and  he  may  often  be  seen  with  a  wann  felt 
housing  when  the  tent  is  in  shreds  and  the  family  in  rags. 

The  K.\ra-Kai,p.\ks  and  Kirghiz. 

The  Kara-Kalpaks,  or  "  Black  Caps,"  form  geographically  the  transition  between 
the  southern  Turkomans  and  northern  Kii'ghiz.  Survivors  of  a  powerful  nation, 
they  are  still  represented  in  a  fragmentary  way  throughout  a  vast  area — in  the 
Russian  Govei-nments  of  Astrakhan,  Perm,  and  Orenburg,  in  the  Caucasian  province 
of  Kuban,  and  in  Tobolsk,  Siberia.  Scattered  by  forced  or  volimtary  migrations  over 
these  extensive  regions,  they  still  claim  to  belong  originally  to  the  Kharezm.  A 
few  small  groups  are  found  in  the  Zarafshan  valley,  but  the  bulk  of  the  race  still 
forms  a  compact  body  in  the  humid  plains  of  the  Lower  Oxus,  and  along  the  east 


226  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

coast  of  the  Aral  Sea.  Here  they  number  probably  50,000,  and  in  the  whole 
Russian  Empire  about  300,000.  On  the  Ai-d\  ISea  the  Black  Caps,  so  named  from 
their  high  sheepskin  head-dress,  are  mostly  tall  and  robust,  with  broad  flat  face, 
large  eyes,  short  nose,  prominent  chin,  broad  hands.  Yet  their  women  have  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  beautiful  in  Turkestan.  But  they  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  present  a  distinct  racial  type.  Widel}-  diffused  as  they  are  amongst 
different  peoples,  they  seem  to  have  been  diversely  mixed,  and  in  Tatary  they 
blend  imperceptibly  with  the  hybrid  Sartes.  Of  a  gentle,  peaceful  disposition, 
and  devoted  to  agricultm-c,  they  are  generally  the  butt  of  their  nomad  neigh- 
bours, who  regard  them  as  the  dullest  of  mankind.  And  there  are  certainly  some 
groimds  for  this  ^-iew,  for  their  expression  lacks  fire,  and  they  generally  look 
stolidlj'  on  with  open  mouth  and  hanging  lower  lij).  In  a  few  generations  this 
lethargic  race  will  probably  have  ceased  to  exist  as  an  indeiDcndcnt  nationality  in 
Turkestan. 

The  great  Kirghiz  nation,  nimibering  perhaps  2,000,000,  according  to 
Krasovsky  even  3,000,000  souls,  and  whose  domain,  as  large  as  aU  Eiu'opean 
Russia,  stretches  from  the  Lower  Volga  to  the  Tarim  basin,  and  from  the  Oxus 
delta  to  the  Irtish  river,  is  numerically  the  most  important  nomad  race  in  Asia. 
But  it  has  no  ethnical  cohesion,  and  is  split  up  into  endless  subdivisions.  The 
people  compare  themselves  to  the  sea-sands,  scattered  far  and  near  by  the  winds,  but 
never  dimiuisliiug  in  nmnbers.  The  two  main  divisions  of  the  race  answer  to 
the  relief  of  the  land.  In  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob  basins  dwell  the  Kirghiz- 
Kazaks,  b}'  far  the  more  numerous.  In  the  upland  Tian-shan,  Alai,  and  Pamir 
valleys  roam  the  Bm-ut,  or  Kara-Kirghiz  ("Black  Kii'ghiz  "),  called  also  Biko- 
kmnennie  Kinjhizi,  or  "Wild  Mountain  Kirghiz,"  the  "Block  Kirghiz"  of 
English  writers. 

The  Kirghiz  caU  themselves  Kaizaks,  or  Kazaks,  although  the  term  Kirghiz, 
or  rather  Krghiz,  is  not  imknown,  and  Luterpreted  h\  them  to  mean  "  Forty 
Girls,"  in  reference  to  their  legendary  descent  from  forty  yoimg  women  and  a 
red  dog.  They  are  divided  into  four  hordes :  the  Great  Horde  (Ulu-Yuz),  the 
oldest,  chiefly  south  of  Lake  Balkash  and  near  the  Tian-shan ;  the  Middle  Horde 
(Urta-Yuz),  mainly  in  the  low  hilh'  region  between  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob 
basins ;  the  Bukej-evskaya,  or  Inner  Horde,  in  the  Orenbm-g  stej^pes ;  the  Little 
Horde  (Kachi-Yuz),  stretching  westwards  far  into  European  Russia.  In  spite  of 
its  name  this  horde  is  by  far  the  most  important  in  nimibers,  socially  and  politi- 
cally. As  wdth  the  Turkomans,  the  soyuz,  or  confederacy,  is  divided  into  secondary 
groups,  and  these  into  clans  and  families  comprising  from  fi\e  to  fifteen  tents  each. 
Each  of  these  aids,  or  little  communities,  lives  in  absolute  independence,  reluctantly 
acknowledging  the  supreme  control  of  the  Russiaus,  but  recognising  no  other 
authorit}'  except  that  of  the  heads  of  families  and  the  arbitrators  chosen  by  them- 
selves to  settle  their  differences.  The  Russians  are  satisfied  with  imposing  a  tax 
of  about  five  shillings  per  tent ;  but  they  find  some  difiiculty  in  discovering  all 
the  encampments  hid  a\\ay  in  the  hollows,  between  sand  dunes,  amongst  the 
reedy  marshes,  or  imder  cover  of  the  forests,  and  the  camping  grounds  they  come 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 


THE  KARA-KALPAES  AND  KIRGHIZ. 


227 


Fig.   122. — A  Wealthy  Kirghiz. 


upon  are  often  found  abandoned  bj-  the  tribes  migrating  to  and  fro  with  the 
seasons.  Hence  the  official  returns  are  always  under  the  truth,  although  fresh 
defaulters  yearly  come  to  light.  In  LS-37,  the  fu'st  year  of  the  impost,  15, 500 
tents  only  could  be  discovered  in  Orenbm-g,  but  these  had  increased  in  1846  tn 
67,280,  and  in  1862  to  upwards  of  155,000.  In  1872  the  first  census  taken  in 
the  provinces  of  Turgai  and  tlralsk  returned  605,000  nomads,  and  the  Buke- 
yevskaya  horde,  we.st  of  the  Ural  Eiver,  is  variously  estimated  at  from  160,000  to 
over  200,000  .souls. 

Being  without  chiefs,  all  the  Ku'ghiz  consider  themselves  as  more  or  less 
nobles.  AYhen  two  meet  together,  the  first  question  is,  "  Who  are  your  seven 
ancestors  ?  "  and  all,  do^^^l  to  the  children  eight  years  old,  can  rejDeat  in  reply 
their  genealogies  to  the  seventh  generation.  Those  on  whom  the  Russians  have 
conferred  certain  jirivileges,  and  whom  they  have  made  "  sultans,"  without,  how- 
ever, exempting  them  from  the  poll  tax,  are  surrounded  by  a  riff-raff  of  Teleguts, 
or  refugees,  strangers,  and  slaves,  forming  bands  of  armed  retainers  during  the 
former  intestine  wars,  and  who  now  tend 
their  masters'  flocks  and  till  his  land.  This 
class  is  much  despised  by  the  free  nomads, 
and  is  excluded  from  all  clanship,  living 
apart  from  the  tribe  in  separate  camps  ■^-ith 
their  masters,  who  are  equally  hated  by  the 
people.  The  hiis,  or  "elders,"  arc  the  judges 
elected  by  the  clan,  to  whom  all  appeal  for 
a  settlement  of  their  disputes.  Each  tribe 
is  distinguished  by  a  particular  rallpng 
cry  used  by  the  members  in  their  festive 
and  ho.stile  gatherings. 

The  Kirghiz  language,  which  is  spoken 
with    great    uniformity   by   all    the    tribes, 

is  of  pm-e  Turki  stock,  unaffected  by  foreign  influences,  beyond  a  few 
Mongol,  ^\j'ab,  and  Persian  words.  In  the  north  Russian  has  already  made  some 
encroachment  on  its  domain,  and  the  Orenburgr  Kirffhiz  even  converse  in  this 
language.  But  the  Slav  colonists  have  probably  borrowed  more  in  theii-  colloquial 
speech  from  the  nomads  than  these  have  from  theii'  conquerors.  Of  all  the 
Eirghiz  tribes,  the  Kipchaps  of  the  Middle  Horde  seem  to  have  best  preserved 
their  original  type,  ancient  usages,  and  purity  of  speech.  The  origin  of  the  race 
has  been  much  discussed  by  ethnologists,  some  of  whom  have  even  regarded  them 
as  Aryan  Sc^■thians  like  those  of  the  Euxine  shores.  But  their  most  marked 
affinities  are  now  with  the  Mongols  and  Tatars,  with  whom  they  form  one 
linguistic  group.  They  have  squat  figm-es,  short  thick  necks,  small  and  oblique 
eyes,  scant  beard,  tawny  or  dirty  brown  complexion.  Obesity  is  common  amongst 
the  Orenburg  tribes,  and  is  considered  by  the  nobles  as  a  sort  of  distinctive  mark 
enhancing  their  dignity.  They  are  mostly  very  robust,  but  indolent  and  soft 
uncouth,  and  heavj-  in  their  carriage,   and  slightly  bandy-legged  from  passing 


228 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


half  their  time  in  the  saddle.  Like  the  Nogai  Tatars,  they  are  often  dull  and 
morose,  and  few  amongst  them  have  the  courtesy,  heartiness,  and  good-humour  of 
the  Bashkirs,  or  the  defiant  look  of  the  Turkomans.  In  their  songs  the  women 
celebrate  the  indolence  of  the  men  and  their  own  laborious  life.  Accustomed 
to  regular  work,  they  are  generally  more  graceful  than  the  men,  whom  they  also 
surpass  in  moral  qualities.  On  feast  daj-s  they  love  to  deck  themselves  in  high 
velvet  or  brocaded  caps  adorned  with  plaques  of  metal,  pearls,  and  embroidery, 

and  jjrolong  their  tresses  to 
Fig.  123.-A  Kirghiz  Woman.  the     ground    by     means    of 

ribbons  and  horsehair.  They 
use  rouge  and  other  cosmetics 
even  more  freely  than  Euro- 
pean women. 

The  steppe  Kirghiz  are 
essentiallj'  nomads,  shifting 
their  quarters  on  the  slightest 
pretext,  a  bad  omen,  a  storm, 
and  the  like.  In  1820  most 
of  the  Astrakhan  tribes  left 
their  camping  grounds  in 
order  to  return  to  Asia,  on 
the  simple  report  that  the 
Government  was  preparing 
to  have  their  census  taken. 
Even  the  "  .sidtans "  have 
declined  to  occupy  the  fixed 
dwellings  erected  for  them, 
and  continue  to  live  in  tents, 
locking  up  all  their  valuable 
effects  in  the  houses,  for  all 
alike  feel  that  a  sedentary 
life  in  settled  abodes  woidd 
eventually  entail  loss  of  freedom.  The  Kirghiz  yurt,  like  those  of  the  Kaknuksand 
the  Turkoman  kibitkas,  is  a  simple  framework  of  wood,  covered  with  red  cloth  for 
some  of  the  "sultans,"  ■n'ith  white  felt  for  the  wealthy,  and  with  ordinary  felt  for 
the  common  folk,  the  very  poor  substituting  for  felt  bark  of  trees,  reed,  or  grass 
matting.  In  haH  an  hour  a  whole  aul  has  vanished,  migrating  northwards  in 
summer  and  southwards  in  winter. 

The  Kirghiz-Kazaks  lack  the  warlike  spirit  of  their  Tm-koman  kinsmen. 
Kevertheless  they  long  resisted  the  Slav  invaders,  and  even  when  accepting  the 
Czar's  supremacy  in  1734,  thej-  fancied  they  were  merely  perfonning  an  idle 
formality.  Hence,  when  they  foimd  that  the  Russians  meant  it  seriously,  the 
wai  was  renewed,  and  lasted  intermittently  for  over  a  century.  A  last  revolt 
took   place  in  1870,  when    they  destroyed  a  Russian  village  and    besieged   Fort 


•iV  THE 

'SnYoflLliiv 


fn 


^» « 


«.•.♦/ 


AV/^/AV^V'V/AVXVlW* 


^>!-!:v^^:J;- 


0»»    •     •".'.    v\*»' 


Lv\ 


\V.V 


u\\ 


>v 


v»-'.f 


/♦vo 


/^..vx^'*' 


V4VX»"V.V' 


230  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

hills  are  entirely  covered  with  pj'ramids,  turrets,  domes,  porticos,  and  other  monu- 
ments in  honour  of  the  dead.  These  monuments  will  sometimes  take  the  form  of 
cradles  for  infants,  or  of  the  tents  in  which  their  parents  lived.  Numerous  barrows 
occur  also  on  the  o^yen  steppe,  one  of  which,  on  the  banks  of  the  Turgai,  is  106 
feet  high  and  966  feet  round.  At  these  places  the  peoj)^  make  their  genuflexions, 
offering  clothes,  provisions,  and  money  to  their  departed  friends.  These  gifts  are 
appropriated  by  the  poor  waj'farers  as  presents  from  the  dead ;  but  they  are 
themselves  expected  to  make  some  slight  offering  in  return. 

Although  in  the  general  development  of  human  cultm-e  husbandly  is  regarded 
as  an  advance  upon  the  pastoral  state,  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  Kirghiz. 
Amongst  them  the  farm  labourer  is  a  person  fallen  from  a  better  position,  who  has 
lost  all  the  pleasures  of  life  and  freedom.  Most  of  them  are  still  nomads,  and 
those  who  are  compelled,  for  want  of  herds,  to  till  the  laud  about  the  Eussian  can- 
tonments in  the  second  generation  relinquish  the  name  of  Kazak,  dress  in  the 
Russian  fashion,  and  call  themselves  Christians.  Along  the  outskirts  of  the 
Kirghiz  domain  the  Russian  traders  get  the  natives  into  their  power  by  means  of 
loans  at  exorbitant  rates  of  interest,  and  their  example  finds  faithful  imitators  in 
the  interior  of  the  stej^pe  amongst  the  "khans,"  or  wealthy  Kazaks.  Some  of 
these  khans  are  owners  of  hundreds  of  camels,  thousands  of  horses,  and  as  many 
as  20,000  sheep.  The  horned  cattle  introduced  since  about  1750  are  rather 
less  numerous,  and  ill  adapted  to  the  climate.  In  1872  the  live  stock  included 
altogether  120,000  camels,  1,720,000  horses,  600,000  oxen,  2,000,000  sheep,  and 
180,000  goats. 

Unacclimatized  animals  perish  from  the  rigour  of  the  climate.  The  attempts 
to  introduce  the  Baktrian  dromedary  have  failed,  the  two-humped  camel  alone 
thriving  on  these  stepj^es.  The  sheep,  all  of  the  fat-tailed  breed,  are  usually  so 
strong  and  tall  that  the  children  amuse  themselves  by  mounting  them.  The  flocks 
are  always  guided  by  a  few  goats,  and  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  before  the 
streams  are  frozen  hard  enough  to  bear  their  weight,  hundreds  sometimes  perish 
in  the  attempt  to  follow  their  light-footed  leaders.  The  Kirghiz  horse,  though  of 
sorry  appearance,  does  his  50  and  even  60  miles  a  day  at  a  trot,  eats  what  he  can 
pick  lip,  .sleeps  on  the  sands,  and  resists  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  In  their 
baif/as,  or  races,  the  Kirghiz  and  Kalmuk  jockeys  easily  do  12  miles  in  half  an 
hour,  and  some  riders  have  been  known,  by  relays  of  horses,  to  cover  180  miles  in 
34  hours.  The  finer  breeds,  karabdir,  ov  "half  blood,"  and  argamak,  or  "full 
blood,"  have  less  staying  powers. 

The  Kara-Kirghiz,  or  Buruts,  numbering  from  350,000  to  400,000  on  both 
slopes  of  the  Tian-shan,  differ  but  slightlj'  in  type,  speech,  and  customs  from  their 
steppe  kindred.  Nevertheless  they  are  evidently  more  affected  by  Mongol  influ- 
ences, and  are  not  to  be  distinguished  physically  from  the  Kalmuks.  j\Iost  of 
their  women  are  regarded  hy  the  Russians  as  very  ugly.  Thej'  do  not  veil  their 
features,  and  on  gala  days  wear  a  head-dress  like  that  of  their  Turkoman  sisters, 
covered  with  coins  and  medals,  and  making  a  jingling  noise  at  every  step.  Of 
drunken  and  dirty  habits,  they  never  wash,  and  merely  wipe  their  kitchen  utensils 


THE  TAEANCHIS  AND  DUNGANS.  231 

■with  the  finger,  for  fear  of  "wilful  waste."  The  Bunits  are  altogether  ruder  and 
more  ignorant  than  the  steppe  Kirghiz,  but  have  the  reputation  of  being  more 
honest  and  ojjen.  JVotwithstanding  their  present  debased  condition  they  seem  to 
have  been  formerh-  a  civilised  people,  and  the  Chinese  speak  of  the  "  Ki-si-li- 
tzi "  as  a  powerful  industrious  nation  in  commercial  relations  with  distant  lands. 
But  multitudes  were  swept  south  and  west  by  the  waves  of  migration,  and  those 
who  remained  behind  were  gradually  driven  to  the  uj^land  valleys.  Then  came 
the  Russians,  who  extenninated  all  the  Siberian  steppe  Kirghiz  east  of  the 
Irtish.  Of  theii-  old  ci\-ilisation  they  have  retained  several  industries,  and  they 
can  still  build  windmills,  forge  iron,  and  weave  fine  materials.  Though  lacking 
the  aristocratic  vanity  of  the  Kazaks,  their  w?a««/;s,  or  chiefs,  have  acquired  great 
power  in  some  tribes,  disposing  even  of  the  lives  of  their  subjects.  The  memory 
of  their  past  glories  has  not  quite  perished,  and  their  poets  and  improvisatori  still 
sing  of  the  heroes  {batir\  who  pierced  a  thousand  men  at  a  spear's  thi'ust,  and 
raised  up  the  moimtain  on  which  slumbered  their  bride.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  discover  in  these  songs  the  fragments  of  epic  poems,  and  some  of  their 
invocations  breathe  a  Tedic  spirit. 

"  O,  thou  on  high.  Lord  of  heaven !  thou  who  causest  the  verdure  to  spring 
from  the  grovmd,  and  the  leaves  from  the  tree ;  thou  who  clothest  the  bones  ^vith 
flesh  and  the  head  with  hair,  heaven,  who  hast  given  birth  to  the  stars ! 

"  You,  rulers  sixty,  who  have  given  us  father,  and  thou,  Pai  Ulguen,  who  hast 
given  us  mother ! 

"  Give  us  cattle,  give  us  bread,  give  a  chief  to  the  house,  give  us  a  blessing !  " 

The  Kara-Kirghiz  are  divided  into  many  tribes.  Those  of  the  west  are 
grouped  under  the  collective  name  of  On,  or  "  Eight,"  those  of  the  Tian-shan 
slopes  forming  the  Sol,  or  "  Left "  branch.  The  latter  are  in  close  contact  with 
the  Tian-shan  Kalmiis,  jiarth'  descended  from  those  who  escaped  from  the 
Astrakhan  steppes  in  1771,  and  large  numbers  of  whom  perished  on  the  route. 
Vanquished  h\  the  Kirghiz  in  a  battle  fought  south  of  Lake  Balkhash,  the 
Kalmuks  took  refuge  in  the  Eastern  Tian-shan  valleys  by  the  side  of  their  kins- 
men, the  Torgs,  or  Torguts,  Buddhists  like  themselves,  and  of  kindi-ed  speech. 
The  Asiatic  Kalmuks  differ  little  from  their  European  brethren.  They  have  the 
same  flat  face,  narrow  oblique  eyes,  pale  lips,  sad  smile,  massive  frame.  The 
women  of  man}-  tribes  dye  their  teeth  black.  The  Kalmuks  have  trained  the  ox 
as  a  beast  of  burden  and  for  the  saddle.  N^o  people  have  suffered  more  from  the 
ravages  of  small-pox.  A  family  attacked  in  winter  is  a  family  lost,  and  should 
any  one  enter  the  tent  unguardedly  he  gets  drunk  on  brand}^  while  his  friends 
drive  the  evil  one  out  of  his  body  with  scourges.  The  Kalmuks  pay  little  heed  to 
the  dead,  seldom  burying  them,  and  usually  leaving  the  bodies  to  be  devoured  by 
the  camp  dogs. 

The  Taranchis  and  Dixgaxs. 

In  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Hi  the  predominant  people  are  the  Taranchis,  an 
agricultural  nation  of  Turki  stock,  but  evidently  largely  affected  by  Aryan  elements. 


282 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


The}'  are  descended  from  Kasligarian  colonists  settled  hci-e  l)_y  the  Chinese  in  the 
middle  of  last  century.  Although  nominal  IMussulmans,  they  have  little  know- 
ledge of  the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  and  the  women  never  veil  their  features.  All 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Ili  basin  except  a  few  Russians  came  originally  from  Chinese 
territory  in  the  south  and  east.  The  best  known  are  the  Dungans,  who  dwell 
chiefly  in  the  toT\Tis.  The  Scions,  descended  from  military  Tungus  colonists 
settled  here  in  the  eighteenth  century,  are  dying  out  from  the  effects  of  opium. 
The  Sibos,  or  Shibos,  who  formed  with  the  Solons  an  army  of  eight "  banners,"  were 
of  pure  Manchu  stock,  but  have  now  become  much  mixed  with  native  elements. 
This  region  of  Kulja  has  in  modern  times  been  the  scene  of  the  most  frightful 
massacres,  often  ending  in  the  extermination  of  whole  races.     In  1758  the  Manchus 

Fig.  124. — Populations  of  the  Ili  Basin. 
Scale  1  :  6,000,000. 


■ 


C  Perron 


Russians.      Kirgbiz-Kazaks.     Kalrauks. 


Kara -Kirghiz.       Taranchis 
60  Miles. 


Dungans.         Kashgariana. 


are  said  to  have  put  to  death  all  the  Kabnuks  of  the  Ili  plain  -without  distinction 
of  age  or  sex.  Over  a  million  hiiman  beings  appear  to  have  perished  on  this  occa- 
sion. A  century  afterwards  the  Taranchis  and  Dimgans,  introduced  by  the 
Manchus  to  replace  the  Kalmuks,  avenged  on  their  masters  the  blood  they  had 
caused  to  flow.  A  ci^-il  war,  in  which  no  prisoner  was  spared,  raged  between  the 
colonists  and  their  riders,  ending  in  1865  with  the  wholesale  massacre  of  the 
Manchus,  Solons,  and  Shibos,  the  young  women  alone  escaping.  Popidous  cities 
were  changed  to  heaps  of  ruins,  and  according  to  the  native  accounts  nearly 
2,000,000  perished  altogether.  "VMien  the  Taranchi  and  Dungau  rule  succeeded 
to  the  Chinese  no  more  than  130,000  people  remained  in  the  formerly  populous 
valley  of  the  Ili. 


THE  UZBEGS. 


233 


The  Uzbegs. 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians  in  the  Sir  and  Amu  basins  the  political 
suj^remacy  in  the  civilised  states  belonged  to  the  Uzbegs  of  TCirki  stock,  speaking 
the  Jagatai  or  Uigur,  one  of  the  most  polished  languages  of  the  Tatar  family.  But 
of  the  million  Uzbegs  dwelling  in  the  Aralo-Caspian  lands  a  large  jjortion  are 
certainly  mixed  with  Iranian  elements,  as  shown  by  their  features,  carriage,  and 
character.  From  Ferghana  to  Khiva,  and  thence  to  Afghan  Turkestan,  the  contrast 
between  the  different  tribes  calling  themselves  Uzbegs  is  often  as  great  as  between 
diiierent  races.  The  most  striking  trait  of  those  crossed  with  Persians  is  the  full 
Iranian  beard  associated  with  the  flat 

features  and  oblique  eyes  of  the  Turki  Fig.  125.— Saete  Type. 

race. 

The  Uzbegs  claim  descent  from  the 
famous  Golden  Horde,  so  named 
apparently  from  the  gold  leaf  covering 
the  poles  of  the  royal  tent.  But  the 
Mongol  and  Tatar  elements  had  evidently 
long  been  intermingled  in  their  race. 
The  famous  Uigurs,  from  whom  they 
take  their  present  speech,  form  jjrobably 
the  chief  Tatar  element  in  the  Uzbeg 
populations  of  the  present  day.  The 
national  name  means  "  freeman,"  unless 
it  comes  from  one  of  their  rvders  of  the 
Jenghis  Khan  dynasty,  by  whom  they 
were  converted  to  Islam  early  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  But  such  as  they 
are,  the  Uzbegs  still  present  a  marked 
contrast,  on  the  one  hand  with  the 
pure   nomads    of   the   country,    on    the 

other  with  the  completely  sedentary  Aryans.  Formerly  more  civilised  and 
agricultural  than  at  present,  they  have  again  partly  returned  to  the  nomad 
state,  some  even  passing  the  whole  year  in  a  tent  set  up  in  the  garden,  and 
using  their  house  as  a  granary.  Still  divided  into  tribes  and  clans,  some  bearing 
the  same  name  as  those  of  the  Kirghiz,  they  reckon  as  jiart  of  their  nation  certain 
clans  which  might  equally  be  claimed  by  the  Kara-Kirghiz.  Such  are  the  Turuks,  or 
Turks,  of  Ferghana,  possibly  the  near  kinsmen  of  those  of  like  name  who  have  risen 
to  such  historical  importance  farther  west.  Of  all  the  Uzbeg  tribes  the  Manghits, 
to  whom  belong  the  Khans  of  Bokhara,  claim  to  be  the  oldest  and  noblest.  They 
are  zealous  Sunnites,  and  nearly  all  the  "  saints,"  as  well  as  the  brigands,  over 
nine- tenths  of  the  entire  popidation,  are  Uzbegs.  Yet  the  MoUahs,  or  sacerdotal  class, 
are  nearly  all  Tajiks,  especially  in  the  Zarafshan  district.  Although  the  political 
masters  of  the  country  for  centuries,  the  Uzbegs  have  remained  honest  and  upright 


234 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


compared  w-ith  the  Iranians,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  officials  and  tax-gatherers. 
The  contrast  between  the  character  of  the  two  races  is  illustrated  by  the  legend  of  a 
princess,  who  had  promised  her  hand  to  whoever  of  her  two  suitors  should  dig  an 
irrigation  canal  across  the  Bek-pok-dala  steppe.  The  Uzbeg  set  to  work  honestly, 
and  continued  to  dig  till  he  came  to  a  cascade,  which  is  still  shown.  But  he  lacked 
the  time  to  finish  the  work.  The  Tajik  took  things  more  easily.  Before  the 
appointed  day  he  had  spread  reed  matting  over  the  surface  of  the  desert,  and  when 
the  princess  ascended  her  tower  to  see  the  waters  of  the  canal  sparkling  in  the 

Fig.  126. — PopvL.iTioN  OP  Fkrghaxa. 

Scale  1  :  8.000,000. 


n  1  iiiiiiiii'ri:iriii|iii|iiii 

ipii  i|i|iiii!iirii 

"I  '  llll'lll Illllll 


^^M^':l 


158' 


E.  oFG 


3 


III 


Russians. 


Sartes. 


Tajiks      Kara-Kirghiz.    Sartes  and     Turkomans. 
(Galchas).  Uzbegs. 


Kirghiz- 
Kazaks. 


distance  he  showed  her  his  work  glittering  in  the  svm.  The  imsuccessful  rival  in 
despair  hurled  his  spade  into  the  air,  and  in  its  fall  the  instrument  cleaved  his  head 
from  his  body. 

The  Sartes,  Tajiks,  and  Galch.\s. 

The  loss  of  political  power  wiU  probably  tend  to  bring  the  Uzbegs  into  closer 
contact  with  the  Sartes,  and  in  some  places  even  blend  them  into  one  nationality. 
The  Sartes  are  a  mixed  people,  in  whom  the  Iranian  element  prevails.  The  term, 
however,  has  a  social  rather  than  an  ethnical  meaning,  all  the  settled  inhabitants 
of  the  towns  and  villages  excejjt  the  cultured  Tajiks  being  called  Sartes,  irre- 
spective of  their  origin.  Some  writers  even  include  the  Tajiks  in  this  class,  which 
would  thus  comi>rise  all  the  civic  population  of  Turkestan.  "  When  a  stranger 
presents  himself  and  eats  your  bread  call  him  a  Tajik  ;  when  he  is  gone  you  may 


o!  ILLiNu. 


THE  SAETES,  TAJIKS,  AND  GALCHAS. 


235 


Fig.  127.— A  Tajik  Mollak. 


call  him  a  Sarte."     Such  is  the  local  etiquette  in  the  matter.     As  soon  as  the 

Kirghiz  or  Uzbeg  nomad  settles  in  a  town  his  children  become  Sartes.     The  term 

is  also  ajjplied  to  the  Mazang  or  sedentary  Gipsies,  as  opposed  to  the  Luli,  or  nomad 

Gipsies,  and  to  the  Kiirams  of  various  stock — Uzbeg,  Kazak,  Kara-Kalpak — settled 

in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tashkend.      Most  of  the  Ferghana  pooijle  call  themselves 

Kuram,  or  "  confused,"  or  "  mixed,"  so  conscious  are  they  of  their  varied  origin. 

The  language  of  the  Sartes  varies  with  the  locality — Turki  in  Ferghana  and  Kulja, 

Persian  in  Khojend  and  Samarkand.     Representing  the  mixed  element  in  these 

regions,  the  Sartes  are  increasing  most  raj)idly,  and  although  now  despised  by  those 

of   pm-er  race,  are   destined  ultimately 

to  prevail.    The  Kirghiz,  making  a  play 

of   words  with   their  name,   call   them 

Sari-it,  or  "  Yellow  Dogs,"  and  would 

feel  dishonoured   by  an    alliance    with 

them.     They  have  a  general  resemblance 

to  the  Jews  in  character,  and  even  in 

features,  and  fidly  deserve  their  name, 

if  it  really  means  "  broker,"   although, 

according  to  Lerch,  it   has  simply  the 

sense  of  "  citizen."   Like  the  Jews,  also, 

they  are   fond  of   instruction,  and    are 

far  more  enlightened  than  the  Uzbegs. 

They  are  gradually  tiu'uing  to  agricid- 

ture  and  reclaiming   the  uplands,  and, 

according  to  Fedchenko,  their  colonies 

thrive  best. 

The  Aryan   race   is   represented   in 

Turkestan  mainly  by  the  Tajiks,  kinsmen 

of  those  who,  imder  the  name  of  Tates, 
dwell  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Caspian. 
The  word  Tajik,  meaning  "  Crowned," 
seems  to  show  that  when  so  named  the  race 
held  the  political  supremacy.  It  still 
belongs  to  them  from  the  economic  point 

of  view,  for  most  of  the  merchants,  bankers,  and  landed  proprietors  belong  to  this 
class.  In  several  districts  they  call  themselves  Parsivan — that  is,  Persians  ;  and  they 
are  really  Iranians,  differing  but  slightly  from  those  of  Persia,  and  even  their  sj^eech 
is  but  little  afPected  by  Turki,  Arabic,  or  Mongol  elements.  Nevertheless  their 
frame  is  somewhat  more  massive  than  that  of  the  Persian  proper,  while  the  tj'pe  of 
features  remains  much  the  same.  They  have  a  long  head  and  high  brow,  oxjjressive 
eyes  shaded  by  dark  eyebrows,  finely  chiselled  nose,  florid  complexion,  full  brown 
hair  and  beard.  Those  of  the  Upper  Oxus  vaUey  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to 
the  Kashmirians.  The  Tajiks  form  evidently  the  intellectual  aristocracy  of 
Turkestan,  where  all  who  pride  themselves  on  polite  manners  endeavour  to  imitate 


236  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

their  speecli.  But  beueatli  tlie  exterior  culture  are  concealed  many  social  vices — 
a\'arice,  rapacity,  gambling,  and  licentious  morals. 

The  Galchas,  agricultural  highlanders  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Pamir,  in 
Kohistan,  Wakhan,  Karateghin,  Shignan,  Darvaz,  and  Badakshan,  are  also  of 
Iranian  stock,  but  of  a  purer  type  than  the  Tajiks.  Their  chiefs  claim  descent  from 
Alexander,  and  the  people  from  the  armies  of  the  ilacedonian  king,  and  they  are 
noted  especially  for  their  broad  head,  the  delicacy  and  beauty  of  their  slightly 
arched  nose,  and  firm  lips.  De  Ujfalvy  has  met  with  some  closely  resembling  the 
Celtic  peasantry  of  Savoy.  Of  the  five  Kohistan  tribes  four  are  able  to  converse 
together,  while  the  fifth,  the  Yagnaubs  of  the  Yagnaub  valley,  have  a  distinct 
Aryan  speech,  unintelligible  to  the  others.  The  Galchas  contrast  favourably 
with  the  Sartes  and  Tajiks  in  their  simple  habits  and  upright  character.  Amongst 
them  hospitality  is  a  sacred  duty,  and  every  village  contains  a  house  reserved  for 
strangers.  Slavery  has  never  existed  in  any  Galcha  land,  where  all  arc  alike  free 
and  in  the  enjoyment  of  self-government.  Although  polygamy  is  authorised  by 
their  religion,  they  seldom  have  more  than  one  wife.  Still  women  are  not  con- 
sidered the  eqvials  of  the  men,  and  of  the  inheritance  the  sons  take  two-thirds,  the 
daughters  one-third  only. 

The  Tajik  Mussulmans  of  Upper  Turkestan  have  preserved  some  traces  of  the 
old  fire-worship,  and  it  was  probably  through  them  that  certain  practices  associated 
^nth  this  cidt  have  been  propagated  to  the  extremities  of  Siberia.  During  the  feast 
of  the  fire  or  sun  bonfires  are  kindled  like  those  of  the  Bal-tinne  in  Ireland, 
supposed,  like  them,  to  purify  all  passing  through  the  flames.  The  sick  make  the 
romid  of  the  fire  and  pass  over  it  thrice,  and  when  too  weak  to  do  this  they  fix  their 
gaze  on  the  flames  while  being  exorcised.  Amongst  most  of  the  Galchas  lights  must 
not  be  blown  out,  and  torches  are  kept  burning  roimd  the  cradle  of  the  new-born  and 
the  couch  of  the  dying.  Here  and  there  along  the  banks  of  the  Panja,  or  southern 
branch  of  the  Upper  Oxus,  are  still  to  be  seen  certain  towers  attributed  to  the 
Zardushti,  or  Fire-worshippers. 

To  the  numerous  races  of  this  region  have  recently  been  added  some  Great 
Russians,  Little  Russians,  Poles,  and  other  Slavs.  Though  numbering  scarcely  a 
tenth  of  the  population,  the  political  supremacy  of  their  race  secures  for  them  an 
influence  out  of  all  jDro^Dortion  with  their  numbers.  Yet,  apart  from  the  military 
element,  the  Russian  colonists  proper  have  hitherto  played  a  very  subordinate  part 
in  the  development  of  the  laud.  The  Cossacks  have  even  become  more  assimilated 
to  the  Kirghiz  than  these  to  their  conquerors.  In  many  places  they  have  adopted 
the  dress  and  habits  of  the  natives,  even  dwelling  like  them  in  tents. 

Nevertheless  the  Russification  of  these  races  has  already  begun  at  certain  points, 
usually  the  farthest  removed  from  Europe.  To  the  Cossack  soldiery  occupying 
isolated  stanitzas  in  the  Tian-shan  highlands  have  here  and  there  succeeded  free 
colonists  engaged  in  reclaiming  the  laud.  A  peasant  from  the  centre  of  Russia, 
sent  in  1865  by  his  commune  to  explore  the  Issik-kid  districts,  settled  there,  and 
in  two  years  was  joined  by  a  hundred  others.  Since  then  fresh  colonies  have  been 
established  in  the  Tian-shan  valleys,  and  the  work  of  the  plundering  Cossacks  has 


BAKTEIANA,  OR  AFGHAN  TURKESTAN.  237 

now  been  replaced  by  a  systematic  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Groups  of  Eussian 
settlers  are  spreading  regularly  between  the  Irtish  and  Nariu  vaUej's,  and  this  line 
will  doubtless  be  soon  extended  through  Ferghana  towards  the  Western  Pamir 
valleys.  The  Russians  ah-eady  form,  from  Caucasia  to  the  Urals  and  thence  to  the 
Tian-shan,  a  complete  semicircle  round  the  Turkestan  populations,  and  this  zone 
grows  yearly  broader  and  longer.  Kirghiz  and  Turkomans,  Uzbegs,  Sartes,  and 
Tajiks,  enclosed  within  the  compass  of  the  advancing  Slav  popidations,  must  sooner 
or  later  undergo  the  fate  of  the  Kazan  Tatars,  Chuvashes,  and  Mordvinians  of  the 
Volga. 


VII.— STATES  OF  THE  AEALO-CASPIAN  BASIN. 

I.— BAKTEIANA,  OR  AFGHAN  TURKESTAN. 

The  states  or  provinces  of  this  region  can  have  no  well-defined  frontiers.  A 
plateau  on  the  east,  highlands  on  the  south  and  western  deserts  form  their  natural 
limits,  and  these  limits  advance  or  recede  with  the  abundance  of  the  snows,  the 
rich  pastm-es,  the  progress  of  irrigation,  the  encroachments  of  the  sands.  For  a 
portion  only  of  its  course  the  Oxus  serves  as  northern  fi'ontier  to  these  Turkestan 
districts,  here  separating  them  fi-om  Bokhara.  Of  the  populations  of  the  VTestem 
Pamir  those  in  the  north  are  regarded  as  gravitating  towards  Bokhara,  those  in  the 
south  towards  Afghanistan.  But  above  these  minor  states  there  is  already  cast  the 
double  shadow  of  the  rival  powers  aiming  at  the  supremacy  in  Asia.  Behind 
Bokhara  looms  Russia,  ah-eady  mistress  of  that  land ;  beyond  Afghanistan,  England 
reigns  supreme  over  the  Indian  peninsula,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  intermediate 
region,  although  still  enjopng  a  semi- independent  status,  feel  none  the  less  that 
their  futui-e  destiny  is  involved  in  the  rivalry  of  these  two  powers.  The  diplomatic 
negotiations  between  London  and  St.  Petersburg  had  in  1872-3  provisionally 
arrauofed  that  the  northern  limits  of  Afghanistan  should  include  north  of  the 
natural  frontiers  formed  by  the  Hindu-Kush  and  its  western  extensions,  the  districts 
of  Wakhan,  Badakshan,  Kunduz,  Khulm,  Balk,  and  Maimene.  The  two  states 
thus  disposed  of  territories  and  peoples  seldom  even  visited  by  European  travellers, 
and  still  but  partially  explored.  VThile  seizing  the  strategic  points  in  Afghanistan 
near  the  Indian  frontier,  England  naturall}'  seeks  to  extend  this  state  northwards, 
and  thus  so  far  reduce  the  futirre  domain  of  Russia.  But  Russia  herself,  pending 
the  complete  conquest  and  assimilation  of  the  ah'eady-acquired  possessions,  can 
afford  to  wait.  Geographically  the  Upper  Oxus  and  aU  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Iranian  and  Afghan  plateau  belong  to  the  Ai-alo- Caspian  basin,  and  the  growing 
influence  of  the  Slav  power  cannot  fail  sooner  or  later  to  unite  in  a  single  political 
group  the  various  parts  of  this  vast  region.  During  several  months  of  the  year 
Afghan  Turkestan  is  completely  cut  oif  from  Afghanistan  proper,  and  thus  remains 
exposed  to  the  fi'ee  advance  of  the  Russian  anns. 

The  historical  importance  of  this  region  is  well  kno^vn.  Here  are,  west  of  the 
innnense  semicircle  of  highlands  and  plateaux  enclosing  the  Chinese  Empire,  the 
first  dej)ressions  affording  a  passage  over  the  great  "  divide  "  between  the  north  and 

VOL.    VI.  R 


238  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

soutH  of  the  continent.  Here  passed  pilgrims,  traders,  migratory  tribes,  and  con- 
quering armies.  Here  converged  the  various  civilisations,  with  their  religions, 
customs,  and  products.  Here  crossed  the  great  highwaj's  of  the  Asiatic  nations,  all 
the  more  important  at  a  time  when  the  ocean  highways  were  still  unavailable  for 
the  commerce  of  the  world.  The  routes  connecting  the  Oxus  and  Indus  vallej's 
have  further  the  immense  advantage  over  those  between  Tui-kestan  and  Persia  that 
they  nearly  everjTvhere  traverse  cultivated  and  inhabited  lands,  and  avoid  the  great 
waterless  deserts.  Hence  large  and  opulent  cities  could  not  fail  to  spring  up  along 
the  line  of  these  main  continental  routes.  Here  have  reigned  mighty  rulers  whose 
estates  have  stretched  from  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Siberian  plains, 
and  whose  capitals  coimted  their  inhabitants  by  hundreds  of  thousands.  A  rich 
harvest  of  discoveries  may  be  anticipated  in  these  Asiatic  lands,  destined  possibly 
to  throw  light  on  many  doubtful  points  in  the  world's  historj-.  And  in  this  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  whole  continent  rather  than  at  Constantinople  may  we  not  expect 
to  see  iiltimately  solved  the  great  problem  of  political  equilibrium  between  Europe 
and  Asia  known  as  the  "  Eastern  Question  ?  " 

"Wakhan. 

In  the  Oxus  basin  the  easternmost  state  is  "Wakhan,  which  is  traversed  by  the 
Panja,  or  Sarkad,  the  southern  branch  of  the  Amu,  for  a  distance  of  150  miles  from 
its  source  on  the  Little  Pamir  to  the  great  bend  of  Ishkashim.  But  this  extensive 
tract  is  so  elevated,  cold,  and  unproductive,  that  it  is  uninhabitable  excejjt  in  the 
sheltered  spots  along  the  river  banks.  The  lowest  hamlet  is  no  less  than  9,000,  and 
Sarkad,  the  highest,  12,000  feet  above  sea-level.  A  few  scattered  dwellings  rising 
stiU  higher  are  occupied  in  summer.  The  only  trees  growing  in  these  uplands  are 
^villows  and  dwarf  shrubs,  and  nothing  is  cultivated  except  pulse  and  barley.  Fat- 
tailed  sheep,  however,  besides  3'aks  and  other  horned  cattle,  are  reared,  and  the 
people  take  pleasure  in  the  pm-suit  of  the  wild  goat,  deer,  OvispoK,  and  in  falconry. 

The  Wakhi  people  are  of  mixed  Tajik  and  Uzbeg  stock,  speaking  both  a  Turki 
dialect,  which  is  their  mother  tongue,  and  Persian  with  strangers.  Many  of  them 
are  of  a  handsome  tj'pe,  with  the  deKcate  featiu'es  of  the  Iranians,  nor  are  light  hair 
and  blue  eyes  by  any  means  rare  amongst  them.  All  are  devout  Shiite  Mussulmans, 
sending  their  tithes  regularly  to  their  spiritual  head  at  Bombay,  though  still  retaining 
traces  of  the  old  fire-worship  and  of  customs  distinguishing  them  from  other 
Mohammedans.  They  show  greater  respect  than  most  Eastern  peoples  towards 
their  women,  and  the  wife  generally  takes  charge  of  the  household  expenditure. 

Forsyth  estimates  the  population  at  about  3,000,  which  corresponds  with  a  Russian 
document,  according  to  which  there  are  altogether  550  dwellings  in  Wakhan.  The 
countrj-  is  said  to  have  been  formerlj'  much  more  populous,  and  even  recently 
Wakhi  colonists  have  settled  in  Sirakol  and  Kashgaria.  But  the  importance  of 
Wakhan  is  obviously  due,  not  to  its  inhabitants,  but  to  its  geographical  position  on 
the  main  route  between  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Tarim  basins.  Through  this  valley 
lies  the  easiest  approach  to  the  Pamir,  followed  of  late  years  bj'  Wood,  Forsyth, 
Gordon,  and  others,  probably  in  the  footsteps  of  Marco  Polo.     Comparatively  easy 


WAKHAN. 


239 


passes,  used  throughout  the  year  by  the  Kirghiz  and  natives,  lead  southwards  across 
the  Hindu-Kush  to  Chitral  and  Kaujud ;   that  is,  to  the  FjDper  Indus  basin.     To 


protect  the  caravan  trade  from  pillage,  strongholds  have  been  erected  in  this  desolate 
Sarhad  vaUey,  and  two  well-preserved  towers  are  still  standing  at  Kila-panja,  or 

u  2 


240  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

the  "  Five  Forts,"  a  few  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  two  streams  from  the 
Great  and  Little  Pamir.  Here  resides  the  Jlir  of  "VTakhan,  who,  like  all  the  other 
chiefs  of  this  region,  claims  descent  from  Alexander  the  Great.  "\Mien  "Wood 
visited  the  country-  in  1838  it  was  practically  independent  of  Badakshan,  a  tributary 
of  Afghanistan.  Before  1873  the  yearly  tribute  consisted  of  slaves,  generally 
obtained  by  border  raids.  The  constant  warfare  resulting  from  this  system  explains 
the  depopulation  of  the  land  and  the  solitude  of  the  Pamir  pastures,  formerly  much 
frequented  by  the  Kirghiz  nomads  in  summer. 

Badakshan. 

Since  1869  Badakshan  has  been  dependent  on  Afghanistan,  sending  it  a  j'earh' 
tribute  of  about  £7,200  and  500  horses.  But  its  geographical  limits  are  so  clearly 
defined  that  this  state  cannot  fail  to  retain  a  certain  political  importance.  It  is 
separated  fi-oni  Chitral  and  Kafiristan  by  the  Hiudu-Kush,  here  crossed  by  foot 
passes  only,  at  elevations  of  over  16,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  area  of  Badakshan 
is  estimated  at  about  8,000  square  nules,  and  its  population  at  150,  000,  concentrated 
mostly  in  the  lower  valleys  sloping  gently  towards  the  Oxus.  The  Badakshani 
are  nearly  all  Tajiks,  Persian  in  speech,  and  Sunnites  in  religion.  A  few  Fzbegs  and 
other  Turki  peoples  have  settled  in  the  interior,  but  on  the  whole  the  race  has 
preserved  the  purity  of  its  fine  Iranian  t}-pe. 

Badakshan  is  di^-ided  naturally  into  two  parts,  an  eastern  section,  bordering  on 
Wakhan  and  traversed  by  the  Panja,  here  trending  northwards,  and  a  western, 
watered  by  the  Kokcha,  or  Kuchka,  i.e.  "  Green  "  River,  flo-«-ing  to  the  Middle  Oxus. 
Southwards  runs  the  crest  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  crossed  by  the  Nuskan  Pass  (17,000 
feet)  and  the  somewhat  ea.sier  Dora  Pass  (16,000  feet).  The  two  natural  divisions  of 
the  country  are  separated  by  an  elevated  spur  of  the  Hindu-Kush  rimning  northwards 
to  the  high  plateaux  skirted  bj'  the  Oxus.  This  ridge  is  usually  crossed  by  a 
difficult  pass  over  11,000  feet  high,  connecting  the  Kokcha  and  Panja  valleys,  often 
blocked  by  snow,  and  from  the  end  of  autumn  to  the  middle  of  spring  exposed  to 
the  fierce  east  or  "  Wakhan"  wind.  The  chief  centre  of  population  in  this  region 
is  the  village  of  Ishkashim,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Panja,  where  it  turns  north- 
wards to  Shignan  and  Roshan.  Ishkashim  thus  lies  at  the  intersection  of  the 
natural  routes  riuming  east  and  west  and  north  and  south,  and  acquires  additional 
importance  fi-oni  the  famous  ruby  mines  situated  19  miles  farther  do^Ti  the  river. 
These  gems,  the  more  highly  prized  of  which  are  of  a  fine  rose-red  tint,  were 
formerly  known  as  balas,  or  balais  rubies,  a  word  derived  from  Balakshan,  a  corrupt 
form  of  Badakshan.  The  Emir  of  Kimduz,  having  acquired  possession  of  the 
mines  by  conquest,  and  being  dissatisfied  with  the  yield,  seized  all  the  inhabitants, 
and  sold  them,  to  the  number  of  five  hundred  families,  into  bondage.  TMien  "Wood 
visited  the  district  it  was  still  almost  deserted  and  the  mines  abandoned.  But  the 
works  have  since  been  rcsmned  for  the  benefit  of  the  Amir  of  Afghanistan. 

South  Badakshan  also  possesses  mines  famous  throughout  the  East,  the 
turquoise  and  lapis  lazuli  deposits  in  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Kokcha,  in  the  Lajurd,  or  Lazurd  district,  whence  the  terms 


BADAKSHAN. 


241 


InzuH  and  azure.  Tu  the  black  and  white  limestone  rocks  the  mines  open  here  and 
there  irregularly  about  1,600  feet  above  the  river.  But  none  of  them  run  very  far 
in,  o'O'iug  to  the  frequent  subsidence  of  the  galleries,  none  of  which  are  propped 
up.     The  finest  lapis  lazuli  occurs  generally  in  the  black  limestone.     Less  valued 


Fig.  129.— East  Badakshax. 
Scile  1  : 1,500,000. 


Cvf^erro.c* 


M  Miles. 


are  the  ni/i,  of  a  fine  indigo  colour ;  the  asmani,  a  light  blue ;  and  the  suvsi,  of  a 
greenish  hue.  The  works  have  been  frequently  interrupted  from  wars  and  other 
causes ;  yet  the  stones  are  always  in  the  hands  of  the  Bokhara,  Kabul,  and  Kashgar 
dealers.     The  annual  vield  varies  from  about  1/2-jO   to  '2/^00  lbs.  weight.     The 


242 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Ivokcha  basin,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  Asia  for  its  mineral  wealth,  is  usually 
known  by  the  name  of  Hamah-kan,  or  "All  Mines,"  for  it  also  contains  rich 
copper,  lead,  alimi,  sulphur,  and  iron  deposits,  which  have  been  worked  from 
the  remotest  times.  Copj^er  and  lead  are  likewise  found  in  the  momitains  farther 
north,  and  ia  the  Hoja-Mohamnied  chain,  stretching  northwards  to  the  great  bend 
of  the  Oxus.  Several  of  the  mountain  torrents  also  wash  down  gold  dust.  Thanks 
to  these  resources  and  to  the  influence  of  the  Greek  artists  of  the  Ilellenic  period 
in  Baktriana,  the  Badakshani  have  become  the  best  metal-workers  in  the  East. 

Badakshan  is  also  exceptionally  favoui'ed  by  its  healthj'  climate,  the  purity  of 
its  waters,  its  leafy  vegetation  and  fertile  valleys.  Its  apples,  peaches,  grapes,  and 
melons  are  famous  in  all  the  surrormding  lands.  Its  horses,  too,  are  highly  prized 
by  the  Afghan  Government  for  their  strength  and  sure-footedness,  while  its  sheep 


Fig.  130. — Badakshan  and  Kunduz. 
Scale  1  : 3,600,000. 


56° 
50 


Eof  G 


C    Perron 


,  60  Miles. 


supjDly  a  portion  of  the  wool  used  in  weaving  the  wonderful  Kashmir  shawls. 
Herds  of  swine  also  aboimd  in  the  less  popidous  districts ;  yet  with  all  these 
resources  the  people  remain  mostly  miserably  poor,  owing  largely  to  the  stiU 
prevalent  feudal  system,  the  devastating  wars,  the  raids  of  the  Kunduz  Uzbegs, 
and  the  heavy  taxes  of  the  Amir  of  Kabul,  aggravated  by  his  local  vassal.  Till 
recently  these  princes  were  engaged  in  the  slave  trade,  seizing  even  travellers 
passing  through  the  countrj'.  Theoretically  "  infidels"  alone  could  be  enslaved,  but 
imder  this  term  were  included  the  Shiah  heretics,  and  many  good  Simnites  were  often 
compelled  by  torture  to  confess  themselves  followers  of  Ali.  However,  the  exigencies 
of  trade  relieved  the  Hindki  and  Jewish  merchants  from  the  risk  of  capture. 

In  spite  of  ^^'ars,  oppression,  and  slavery,  the  Badakshan  Tajiks  are  described 
in  flattering  terras  by  the  few  travellers  that  have  visited  the  land.  They  are 
generally  courteous,  respectful  to  their  elders,  and  upright.     The  women,  often  of 


BADAKSHAN. 


243 


a  very  fair  type,  are  attractive,  indixstrious,  good  house\\'ives,  and  although 
Mohammedans,  the  poorer,  at  least,  amongst  them  are  not  obliged  to  go  about 
veiled,  and  enjoy  free  intercourse  with  their  fi-iends. 

In  Wood's  time  the  capital  of  Badakshan  was  Jurm,  or  Jerm,  a  group  of 
scattered  hamlets  with  over  1,500  inhabitants.  Faizabad,  the  old  capital,  some 
30  miles  to  the  north-west,  and  also  in  the  Kokcha  valley,  was  then  a  mere  heap  of 
ruins,  with  the  walls  of  a  fortress 

Fig.  131. — Bamian  Pass  axd  Kunduz  Route. 
Scale  1  :  2,500,000. 


still  standing  on  a  bluff  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river.  Faizabad  has 
somewhat  revived  since  it  has  again 
become  the  capital,  yet  in  1866  it 
had  only  four  hundred  houses.  The 
country  suffered  much  from  the 
invasion  of  the  Kunduzi  in  1829, 
and  in  1832  an  earthquake  destroyed 
most  of  the  villages.  Packs  of  wolves 
replaced  the  poj)ulation  of  many 
districts,  and  travellers  did  not 
venture  to  cross  the  land  without 
escorts. 

The  site  is  still  unkno^^'n  of  the 
citj'  of  Badakshan,  at  one  time  the 
capital  of  the  state,  and  often 
wrongly  identified  with  Faizabad. 
It  stood,  probably,  farther  east  in 
the  Da.sht-i-baharak  jjlain,  about  the 
confluence  of  the  three  rivers,  Zardeo, 
Sarghilan,  and  Yardoj,  or  Badak- 
shan. Here  is,  at  present,  a  suimner 
residence  of  the  emir.  In  the 
western  division  of  the  coimtry  rises 
a  magnificent  peak  .south  of  the 
to^ni  of  Meshed,  and  known  as  the 
Takht-i-Suliman,  or  "  Soliman's 
Throne,"  so  called  from  a  king  who, 
according  to  the  lecfend,  took  refuae 
here  from  the  scorpions  of  the  plain. 
A  chain  of  hands,  reaching  from  the 
base  to  the  smuanit  of  the  moimtain, 

passed  his  food  up  ;  but  the  scorpions  were  not  to  be  done,  for  one  of  them,  concealing 
himself  in  a  bunch  of  grapes,  was  passed  up  also,  and  thus  contrived  to  inflict  the 
deadly  sting. 

The  present   caj^ital  lies  too  much  in  the  heart  of  the  moimtains  to  become 
a  large  trading-place.     Eustak,  rendezvous  of  the  Hindki,  Afghan,  and  Bokhara 


EofG 


30  lUles. 


244 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Fig.  132. — Euixs  OF  Balkh  and  Mazar-i-sheuif. 
Scale  1  :  1,300,000. 


merchants,  is  better  situated  on  the  filain,  some  25  miles  east  of  the  Kokcha  and 
Oxiis  confluence,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  Kashgar,  Chitral,  Balkh,  and  Hissar 
caravan  routes. 

KUNDUZ    AXD    BaMIAX. 

West  of  Badakshan,  the  region  comprised  between  the  Oxus  and  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Hindu-Kush  depends  also  on  Afghanistan  politically,  but  a  sharp 
contrast  still  exists  between  the  popidations  of  both  slopes.  The  comjiarativelj'' 
easy  passes  connecting  the  Oxus  and  Indus  basins    have  at  all  times  attracted 

divers  races  towards  Baktriana. 
Through  this  route  the  Aryan  invaders 
passed  in  prehistoric  times  towards 
India.  Alexander  also  crossed  the 
Paropamisus,  or  Indian  Caucasus,  to 
annex  Sogdiana  to  his  empire.  The 
^Mongols  and  kindred  races  followed 
the  same  road  from  the  north,  and  in 
subsequent  times  retraced  their  steps 
through  these  passes  from  the  south. 
Here  the  Afghan  Iranians  have  retained 
the  predominance ;  but  in  the  north 
the  Uzbeg  Tatars  have  acquired  the 
political  supremacy,  and  in  all  the 
provinces  west  of  Badakshan  they  now 
form  the  most  niunerous  element. 
Lastly,  most  of  the  passes,  including 
that  of  Bamian,  the  most  important  of 
all,  are  guarded  by  the  Hazarahs, 
Shiah  tribes  of  Mongol  stock,  but,  since 
the  sixteenth  century,  of  Persian  speech. 
The  Surgh-ab  river  of  Kunduz, 
kno\^'n  as  the  Ak-serai,  in  its  lower 
course  receives  its  first  waters  from  the 
Koh-i-baba,  or  "Father  of  the  Moun- 
tains." One  of  its  head-streams  rises  at  the  Haji-kak  Pass,  not  the  lo^\-est,  but  the 
easiest  of  the  "Indian  Caucasus,"  and  open  seven  months  in  the  year.  East  of  this 
pass,  which  is  better  kno^vn  as  the  "  Gate  of  Bamian,"  the  Sui-gh-ab  skirts  the 
northern  foot  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  and  here  the  valleys  of  several  of  its  tributaries 
also  lead  to  passes  over  the  main  range.  From  the  comparativelj'  low  Kauak  Pass 
the  Tndar-ab  flows  west  to  the  Surgh-ab,  and  in  a  distance  of  about  130  miles  between 
the  Kauak  and  Haji-kak  Passes,  Markham  enimierates  sixteen  others  over  the  Hindu- 
Kush.  Seen  from  the  depression  in  which  the  Indar-ab  and  Surgh-ab  approach  each 
other,  the  range  appears  in  all  its  majesty,  from  its  dark  base  to  its  snowy  peaks. 
The  crest  has  an  elevation  of  20,000  feet,  but  ^\"itli  depressions  of  6,600  and  even 


67-50    EofG 


.  24  Miles. 


.    O.'.V. 


|..vv^**'*''/«%V 


246 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Fig.   133. — Saripul  and  SniBiRKHix  Valley. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


56 

50 


attached  to  this  point.  Altogether  these  northern  slopes  of  the  Indian  Caucasus 
are  more  in%-iting  and  verdant  than  the  rugged  heights  of  Afghanistan.  But  the 
marshy  plains  at  their  feet,  especially  the  low-lying  Kunduz,  or  Ak-serai  valley, 
are  amongst  the  most  unhealthy  in  Central  Asia.     "  If  you  want  to  die  go  to  the 

Kunduz,"  says  the  Badakshan  pro- 
verb, and  of  100,000  Badakshani 
forcibly  removed  hither  by  Mvirad  Beg 
in  1830,  all  but  6,000  are  said  to  have 
perished  within  eight  years. 

The  town  of  Kimduz  itself,  although 
capital  of  a  state,  even  in  the  time  of 
Murad  Beg  consisted  merely  of  a  few 
hiindred  mud  houses,  some  reed  huts, 
and  Uzbeg  tents  scattered  over  gardens, 
wheat-fields,  and  swamps.  Talikhan, 
lying  farther  east  at  the  foot  of  the 
range  between  Kunduz  and  Badak- 
.shan,  seems  to  have  been  a  far  more 
important  place.  It  held  out  for  seven 
months  against  Jenghis  Khan,  and 
ISIarco  Polo  describes  it  as  a  large  city 
and  a  great  corn,  fruit,  and  salt  mart. 
The  salt  moimtains  whence  it  drew  its 
supplies  lay  to  the  east  and  south-east, 
especially  near  Ak-bulak  ia  Badak- 
shan. Here  also  is  the  Lattabaud  Pass, 
followed  by  the  caravans  proceeding 
fi-om  Kunduz  to  Badakshan  and  the 
Pamir.  It  commands  a  view  of  the 
Koh-i-ambar,  a  remarkably  regular 
cone  rising  2,660  feet  above  the  plaias, 
which  according  to  the  legend  was 
brought  from  India,  and  which  is 
consequently  said  to  grow  none  but 
Indian  plants.  The  lion  haunts  the 
plaias  stretching  north  of  these  hills, 
but  he  is  met  nowhere  north  of  the 
Oxus. 

The  population  of  Kunduz  is  esti- 
mated by  the  Russian  officials  at  400,000,  or  about  36  per  square  mile  in  a  total 
area  of  some  11,000  square  miles.  Though  not  much  for  a  country  abounding  in 
fertile  and  well- watered  valleys,  this  is  a  vasth'  higher  proportion  than  prevails  in 
the  Russian  possessions,  on  which  account  this  territory,  so  conveniently  situated  at 
the  gates  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  natiirally  seems  to  the  Musco^'ites  the  necessary 


C  y'errQrt 


.  6  ililes. 


KHULM,  BALKH,  ANDKHOI. 


247 


complement  of  their  Turkestan  domain.  Travellers  sjoeak  favourably  especially 
of  the  Kimduz  women,  as  excellent  housewives,  although  held  by  the  men  in  less 
consideration  than  their  dogs. 


Khulm,  Balkh,  Andkhoi. 

Khulm,  or  Khnlimi,  is  not  so  large,  but  is  relatively  as  densely  peopled,  as 
Kimduz,  although  not  so  well  watered  as  that  region.  The  Kvmduz,  or  Ak-serai 
River,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Hindu-Kush  and  the  Koh-i-baba,  is  copious  enough 
to  reach  the  Oxus,  whereas  the  Khulra  River,  flowing  from  advanced  s^nirs  of  the 
Kara-koh,  is  absorbed  by  irrigation  works  on  entering  the  plains.  But  the 
geographical  jjosition  of  Khulm,  occupying  the  centre  of  the  old  Baktriana,  is  one 
of  vital  importance.  Here  converges  the  highway  of  Persia  and  India  over  the 
IBamian  Pass,  and  here  is  the  natural  centre  of  the  vast  amphitheatre  of  highlands 


Fig.  134.^The  Maimene  Valley. 
Sctde  1  :  370,000. 


35- 
50 

=       ;   Ma  imene,    , 

55° 
50 

r-^AIni-ar' 

''-■.— v-J'                           „ 

55 
45 

J        .4 

•  •■'■■■- 

'.-.    -. ;■ «.>..        .^4'      1  ^k...^ 

04"  5' 

'64'e5  tof  G 

6  Miles. 


and  plateaux  stretching  from  Meshed  in  Persia  to  Bokhara.  Balkh,  "  the  Mother 
of  Cities,"  was  formerly  the  converging  point  of  all  the  great  commercial  highways 
of  this  region.  But  after  its  destruction  by  Jenghis  Khan  in  1220  it  ceased  to  be 
the  centre  of  traffic,  and  before  the  middle  of  the  present  centurj^  Khulm  was  the 
most  important  place  in  Baktriana.  Its  Tajik  population  of  10,000  had  a  large 
trade  in  skins  of  dogs,  cats,  foxes,  and  lambs.  It  is  encircled  by  extensive  gardens 
and  orchards,  and  even  the  bed  of  the  intermittent  stream  is  periodically  converted 
into  a  garden.  The  present  town  is  a  modern  place  lying  about  5  miles  from  the 
ancient  Khulm,  now  a  heajj  of  ruins. 

Balkh,  formerly  so  famous  as  an  imperial  capital  and  holy  place,  the  city  in 
which  Zoroaster  preached,  later  on  a  centre  of  Hellenic  culture  and  of  Buddhism, 
is  now  little  more  than  a  vast  ruin.  For  a  circuit  of  over  18  miles  nothing  is 
visible  except  heaps  of  bricks,  enamelled  tiles,  and  other  debris.  The  marble 
temples  seen  by  the  j)ilgrim  Hwen-T'sang  in  all  their  beauty,  and  whose  ruins  were 
admired  by  Marco    Polo,   have    disappeared    altogether.      Even   the    few  Uzbeg 


248 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


encampments  and  Tajik  hamlets  scattered  over  the  phiin  were  completely  abandoned 
after  the  \'isitation  of  cholera  in  1872,  and  "  when  Balkh  shall  rise  from  its  ruins," 
saj'  the  natives,  "  the  world  will  soon  end."  Since  1858  Takht-i-pul,  some 
12  miles  farther  east,  has  been  the  political  centre  of  Afghan  Tui-kestan.  But  the 
urban  popidation,  according  to  Grodekov  amoimting  in  1878  to  25,000,  has 
removed  to  the  neighbouring  sanctuary  of  Mazar-i-sherif  ("Tomb  of  the  Sherif  "), 
famous  even  beyond  the  Hindu-Kush  for  the  ceaseless  miracles  here  wrought  at 
the  shrine  of  the  proi^het  Ali.  Mazar-i-sherif,  whose  four  blue  minarets  are 
visible  in  the  distance,  lies  still  within  the  limits  of  the  region  watered  by 
the  Balkh,  or  Dehas  River,  whose  farthest  head-streams  rise  in  the  Koh-i-baba 
and  Sufid-koh.  In  the  lowlands  this  stream,  though  still  rapid,  becomes  a  mere 
embanked  canal,  the  Bend-i-barbari,  or  "  Dyke  of  the  Barbarians,"  which,  after  a 

Fig.  135. — Khaxates  of  Afghan  Turkestan  West  of  the  Oxrs. 
Scale  1  ;  1,780,000. 


56' 


58' 


iiiiirrfr,fe 


Ak  tchi 


56 


EufG 


65- 


70° 


C    l-'erron 


course  of  over  180  miles,  runs  dry  in  the  gardens  of  Sujagird,  north  of  Balkh. 
Whether  Sujagird  was  a  suburb  of  Balkh  or  an  independent  city,  its  ruins  still 
cover  a  vast  space,  some  8  miles  long,  north  and  south  on  the  road  to  the  Oxus. 

Farther  west  other  streams  also  flowing  through  Afghan  territorj'  fail  to  reach 
the  Oxus,  though  their  waters  serve  to  clothe  with  verdure  the  oases  around  the 
towns  of  Ak-cha,  Saripul,  Shibirkhan,  and  Andkhoi,  pcoiiled  by  Iranians,  Turko- 
mans, and  Uzbegs.  Thanks  to  the  abundance  of  its  waters,  the  most  flourishing 
of  these  places  is  said  to  be  Shibirkhan,  whose  melons  Marco  Polo  described  as  the 
finest  in  the  world.  When  Ferrier  visited  it  in  1845  it  had  a  population  of  12,000. 
Saripul  had  3,000  in  1818,  but  being  pent  up  by  the  hiUs  in  a  cirque  subject  to 
malaria,  it  is  a  very  xmhealthy  place.  The  only  trees  flourishing  in  the  Saripul 
and  Shibirkhan  valley  are  the  saksaul  and  the  tamarind,  though  a  few  plants  have 
been  recently  brought  from  Bokhara. 


KHULM,  BAJ.KH,  ANDKHOI.  249 

Next  to  ilazar-i-sherif  the  most  populous  to-wn  iu  Afghan  Turkestan  is  And- 
khoi,  ^rhich,  according  to  Yambery,  had  15,000  inhabitants  in  1863.  But  most  of 
them  Tvere  living  in  tents  amid  the  ruins  of  a  citj'  encompassed  by  the  desert. 
The  ^laimene,  a  stream  flowing  through  its  gardens,  has  very  little  water  in  its 
bed,  and  this  is  so  brackish  that  strangers  cannot  drink  it.  "  Salt  water,  burning 
sands,  venomous  flies  and  scorpions,  such  is  Andkhoi,  and  such  is  hell,"  says  a 
Persian  poet  quoted  by  Yarabery.  Yet  its  horses,  whose  genealogy  the  natives 
trace  back  to  the  steed  of  the  Persian  Hercules,  Eustem,  are  renowned  throughout 
Tatary,  as  is  also  the  so-called  ner  or  iiar  breed  of  dromedaries,  distinguished  for 
their  flowing  manes,  elegant  forms,  and  great  strength.  Andkhoi  also  formerly  sent  to 
Persia  those  black  lambskins  known  in  Europeas  "Astrakhans,"  but  since  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  place  bj-  the  Afghans  in  1840  its  trade  in  these  articles  has  not  revived. 

Maimene,  lying  amongst  the  hills,  is  watered  by  the  same  river  Nari,  which 
nearly  runs  dry  in  the  gardens  of  Andkhoi.  Its  brave  Uzbeg  inhabitants  long 
maintained  their  indejDendence  amidst  the  rival  claims  of  Persia,  Bokhara,  and 
Afghanistan,  but  they  are  now  tributary'  to  Kabid,  though  soon  probably  destined 
to  become  an  advanced  outpost  of  the  northern  colossus  at  the  thresliold  of  the 
Iranian  jilateau.  Here  Maimene  occupies  an  important  strategical  position,  and 
according  to  Rawlinson,  if  Herat  is  the  key  to  India,  Maimene  is  the  key  to 
Herat.  On  the  other  hand,  Grodekov  asserts  from  personal  knowledge  that  the 
route  from  Maimene  to  Herat  is  too  difhcidt  for  military  purposes.  But  however 
this  be,  Maioiene  is  the  chief  trading  station  between  Herat  and  Bokhara,  and 
commands  several  mountain  passes,  so  that  its  possession  would  be  a  great  prize  in 
the  hands  of  either  of  the  rival  powers  contending  for  the  mastery  in  Asia.  In 
1863  Yambery  gave  it  a  population  of  from  15,000  to  18,000,  which  more  recent, 
but  probably  exaggerated,  Pussian  estimates  raised  to  60,000.  But  in  1874  it  was 
besieged  by  an  Afghan  army  of  10,000  and  twentj'  guns,  which  had  already  taken 
Saripul  and  Shibirkhan.  The  siege  lasted  six  months,  ending  in  the  slaiighter  of 
18,000  of  its  inhabitants,  since  when  Maimene  has  remained  a  decayed  village  exposed 
to  Turkoman  raids.  The  pojjidation  of  the  whole  khanate,  estimated  by  Yambery 
at  300,000,  is  reduced  bj-  the  Russian  oflacers  to  100,000.  A  brisk  trade  in  horses, 
cai-pets,  dried  fi-uits,  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  is  carried  on  at  the  Maimene  fairs. 

All  the  khanates  between  the  Indian  Caucasus  and  the  Oxus  are  at  present 
subject  to  Afghanistan,  except  that  of  Andlchoi,  which  is  still  semi-indeijendent. 
The  geographical  divisions  have  remained  imaltered,  and  the  ^-illage  of  Gurzivan 
and  the  small  centres  of  the  population  in  the  Darzab  valley,  in  the  mountains 
south  and  south-west  of  Saripid,  have  preserved  the  title  of  khanate,  though  they 
have  lost  their  autonomy.  The  Uzbeg  natives  are  not  required  to  render  militarj- 
service,  their  Afghan  masters  fearing  they  might  use  their  arms  to  recover  their 
independence.  But  the  weight  of  taxation  falls  aU  the  more  heavily  on  them. 
According  to  Grodekov  they  are  impatiently  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  Russians ; 
but  they  do  nothing  for  their  own  fi-eedom,  and  can  scarcely  defend  themselves 
from  the  Turkoman  marauders.  Thus  have  a  hundred  years  of  oppression  broken 
the  spirit  of  these  Turki  peoples,  fonnerly  so  renowned  for  their  bravery. 


250  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


II.— MERV— THE  SOUTITERN  TURKOMAN.S. 


"  Independent  Tatary,"  whicli  till  recently  covered  suc-h  a  wide  area,  is  now 
reduced  to  a  single  narrow  oasis  encompassed  by  the  sands,  and  already  menaced  on 
three  sides  by  the  Russian  arms.  One  famous  spot  alone  still  lies  beyond  the 
Afghan  fi'ontier,  or  the  territory  directly  or  indii'ectly  subject  to  Riissia.  This  is 
the  ancient  Merv  of  the  Persians,  the  JIaur  of  the  Uzbcgs,  which  occupies  a 
strategic  position  of  some  importance,  which  disputes  with  Balkh  the  title  of 
"  Mother  of  the  Cities  of  Asia,"  and  which  formerly  called  itself  "  King  of  the 
VniyeTse"  (^S/iah-i-Jehany  In  the  neighboui-hood  are  still  to  be  seen  the  ruias 
of  Antiochia  Margiaua,  or  ilerv-i-mukan,  as  it  is  now  called,  the  ancient  Helleuic 
city  foimded  by  Antiochus  Soter.  Dm-ing  the  Arab  ascendancy  Merv,  like  Samar- 
kand and  Bokhara,  became  a  great  centre  of  learning,  and  the  famous  historian 
Yakut  stiidied  in  its  libraries.  But  the  place  fell  a  prey  to  the  ruthless  Mongols 
under  Jenghis  Khan,  and  its  inhabitants,  to  the  number,  it  is  said,  of  700,000, 
were  led  out  of  the  city,  told  off  in  batches  like  beasts  for  the  shambles,  and  all 
slaughtered  in  cold  blood.  Yet  Merv  revived  from  this  fearful  disaster,  and  was 
again  a  popidous  place  in  1795,  when  Murad,  Emir  of  Bokhara,  destroyed  the 
embankment  retaining  the  waters  of  the  Murgh-ab  in  an  artificial  lake,  ruined  the 
town  and  its  gardens,  and  restored  a  great  part  of  the  country  to  the  desert.  Some 
40,000  of  the  people,  chiefly  siUs-weavers  and  other  artisans,  were  removed  to 
Bokhara,  where  their  descendants  still  occupy  a  separate  quarter.  Merv  passed 
subsequently  into  the  hands  of  the  Khan  of  Khiva,  but  since  1834  it  has  been  held 
by  the  Tekke  Turkomans,  and  its  normal  population  now  consists  of  2,000  or 
3,000  Uzbegs,  while  the  Tekkes,  Sariks,  and  Salors  have  camping  groimds  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  is  the  chief  rall^-ing-point  of  the  Turkoman  nomads,  who, 
according  to  Petrusevich,  have  50,000  tents  in  the  Merv  oasis.  But  the  views 
hitherto  entertained  regarding  its  great  strategical  importance  have  been  consider- 
ably modified  since  the  advance  of  the  Russians  along  the  northern  face  of  the 
Attok.  Mr.  Donovan,  correspondent  of  the  Dailij  Xews,  imprisoned  here  for  some 
weeks  during  the  sxmimer  of  1881,  also  foimd  that  Merv  still  remains  the 
assemblage  of  wretched  mud  huts  described  by  ConoUy  in  1840.  The  opinion  is 
now  generally  held  that  in  theii-  advance  on  Herat  the  Russians  can  safely  leave 
Merv  on  the  left  until  it  suits  their  convenience  to  occupy  it,  meantime  availing 
themselves  of  the  easier  and  more  direct  route  along  the  valley  of  the  river 
T'ejend.  The  oasis  of  cidtivated  land,  which  Strabo  tells  us  was  surrounded  by 
Antiochus  mth  a  wall  186  miles  in  circumference,  stretches  75  miles  north  and 
south,  with  a  mean  width  of  7  miles.  Its  fertility  is  famous  throughout  the 
East,  and  is  maintained  by  2,000  Tui-koman  labourers,  who  attend  throughout 
the  year  to  the  irrigation  works. 

Great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  Merv  country  since  the  people  have 
become  more  independent  of  the  Khivan  and  Bokhara  rulers.  The  reputation  they 
formerly  enjoyed  amongst  their  neighbours  is  reflected  in  the  local  proverb,  "  If 
you  meet  a  viper  and   a  Mervi,  kill  the  Mervi  first,  and  tlicn  crush  the  viper." 


THE  SOUTHEEN  TUEEOMANS. 


251 


Fearing  to  extend  their  foraj-s  to  the  Oxus,  now  held  by  the  Russians,  and  com- 
pelled to  come  to  terms  with  the  Persians,  Daman-i-koh  Kxirds,  and  Afghans,  the 
Merv  j)eople  have  mostly  relinquished  their  marauding  habits  ;  jjillage  and  miu'der 
are  no  longer  held  in  honour  as  formerly ;   and  some  moralising  preachers  have 

already  ventui'ed  to  broach 

Fig.  136. — Meet  and  Sarakhs  Oases. 
Scale  1 :  310,000. 


Merv 


Naoukala 


37 


the  doctrine  that  there  is 
no  glorj'  in  slaughtering- 
one's  neighboiu's.  Houses 
have  been  built  in  the  oasis, 
irrigating  rills  have  been 
dug,  and  the  zone  of  cul- 
ture extended.  Fruit  trees 
are  being  brought  bj'  the 
caravans  fi'om  Bokhara, 
trade  has  been  somewhat 
revived,  and  dealers  from 
Meshed  and  Bokhara  are 
now  settled  in  the  district. 

Between  Merv  and 
Meshed  the  Tekkes  and 
their  allies,  the  Salors,  press 
hard  upon  the  Persian 
stronghold  of  Sarakhs 
(Sharaks),  situated  in  an 
oasis  watered  by  the  Heri- 
rud,  or  Ten j  en,  the  river  of 
Herat.  Like  Merv  and 
Maimene,  this  is  one  of  the 
strategical  points  which,  in 
the  hands  of  a  military 
power,  may  have  the  most 
vital  consequences  for  the 
peoples  of  the  Iranian 
plateau.  The  Jews  of 
Meshed,  trading  with  the 
neighboui'ing  Tiu'kouians, 
have  here  erected  a  few  mud 
houses  ;  but  till  recently  the 
only  dwellings  were  the  so- 
caUed  kirghas,  wood  or  reed  huts  covered  with  felt.  The  sm-rounding  oasis  is  no  less 
productive  than  that  of  Merv,  and  the  two  places  dispute  the  honour  of  having  given 
birth  to  the  first  husbandman. 

West  of  Sarakhs,  for  a  stretch  of  over  360  miles,  the  Turkomans  have  no  towns 
properly  so  called.     But  some  of  their  camping  grounds  on  the  banks  of  the  streams 


erat  /^^l^l' 


61° 


62° 


E.of  G. 


C.  Perron 


30  Miles. 


252  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

are  encircled  by  defensive  walls,  often  enclosing  thousands  of  kibitkas.  Eight 
villages  of  Eshabad  have  each  apopiilatiou  of  about  2,000,  and  before  its  capture  by 
the  Russians  in  1881  Geok-tepe  had  some  15,000  inhabitants.  Of  the  old  Parthian 
towns  nothing  now  remains,  or  at  least  their  ruins  have  not  yet  been  discovered. 
The  city  of  Nissa,  containiug  the  tombs  of  the  Parthian  kings,  is  said  to  have  stood  at 
the  issue  of  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Daman-i-koh.  It  may  perhaps  be  the  present 
Nias,  lying  east  of  the  Turkoman  fortress  of  Kizil-arvat,  or  rather  Kizil-robat — that 
is,  the  "Red  Caravanserai" — in  a  district  recently  visited  by  Baker  and  Gill. 

Since  the  fall  of  Geok-tepe  all  the  Tui'koman  tribes  of  this  region  have 
practicallj'  accepted  Russian  sovereignty.  The  limits  of  the  Trans-Caspian 
territor}^  have  been  extended  eastwards  to  Askabad,  and  every  effort  is  being  made 
to  complete  the  line  of  railway  from  the  Caspian  to  Bami,  the  new  capital  of  this 
province.  In  -^-irtue  of  an  imperial  idcase  issued  in  May,  1881,  all  the  Akhal 
Tekke  country  is  now  incorporated  in  the  Trans-Caspian  territory,  which  is  itself 
placed  imder  the  supreme  administration  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Caucasus.  It  is  also  stated  that  in  a  short  time  Russia  will  accept  the  Protectorate 
of  the  Merv  Turkomans,  a  delegate  from  whom  visited  St.  Petersburg  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  1881.  It  is  obvious  that  the  time  is  rajjidly  approaching  when 
the  whole  of  the  Tm-koman  domain  will  fonn  an  integral  jjart  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  whose  southern  limits  will  then  stretch  nearly  in  a  straight  line  along  the 
northern  frontiers  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan  from  the  south-east  end  of  the 
Caspian  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Hindu-Kush. 

III.— BOKHARA. 

Still  nominally  independent,  this  state  is  one  of  those  which  must  henceforth  con- 
form their  policy  to  the  will  of  the  Czar.  "Without  being  obliged  to  keep  gar- 
risons iu  its  fortresses  or  to  j)ay  the  salaries  of  civil  administrators,  Russia  nevertheless 
holds  the  routes  leading  through  Bokhara  to  the  Hindu-Kush.  Hence,  in  advancing 
ixpon  Merv  or  Herat,  her  armies  can  now  di-aw  their  supplies  as  well  from  the 
Bokhara  oasis  as  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Bokhara 
Government,  protected  b}'  its  j)owerfid  lord  paramount,  has  no  longer  aught  to 
fear  from  Turkoman  or  Afghan,  and  whole  provinces  have  even  been  made  over  to  it 
by  a  stroke  of  the  pen.  Thus  by  the  will  of  Russia  several  states  of  the  Upper  Oxus 
- — Shignan,  Roshan,  Darvaz,  Karateghiu — formerly  depending  partly  on  Kimduz 
or  Badakshan,  are  now  incorporated  in  Bokhara,  and  the  Russians  have  thus 
become  the  masters  of  the  Pamir  passes.  "VYithin  its  new  limits  Bokhara  occupies 
a  space  about  half  the  size  of  France,  with  a  j^opidation  of  over  2,000,000.*  It  lies 
nearly  altogether  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Oxus,  whence  its  old  name  of  Trans- 
oxiana,  or  Maverannahr,  a  word  having  precisely  the  same  meaning.  The  term 
Sogdiana  is  properly  limited  to  the  valley  of  the  Sogd,  or  present  Zarafshan, 
henceforth  shared  by  the  Russian  and  Bokhara  Governments  between  them. 

The  U2)land  regions  of  the  Bokhara  Pamir,  traversed  by  the  Panja,  Murgh-ab, 
and  Surgh-ab,  are  nearly  uninhabitable,  or  visited  only  in  simimer  by  the  Kirghiz 

•  Area  of  Bokhara,  9o,600  square  miles:  probable  population,  2,130,000. 


DAEVAZ  AND  KAEATEGHIN.  253 

nomads.  In  the  centre  of  the  Pamir  there  are  uo  villages  above  Tash-kurgan,  aud 
the  Miirgh-ab  (Ak-tu)  may  be  followed  for  over  120  miles  to  the  snow-line  aud 
the  Ak-tash  Mountain  without  meeting  a  single  hamlet. 

Below  the  Ishkashim  bend  in  Badakshan  the  Panja,  or  Sarhad,  continues  to 
flow  northwards  to  the  Murgh-ab  and  other  streams  of  the  "Western  Pamir,  whose 
jmiction  forms  the  Amu-daria.  In  this  part  of  the  Oxus  basin  are  the  three  petty 
states  of  Shignan,  Poshan,  and  Darvaz,  which  since  mediasval  times  have  been 
\asited  by  no  Em-opean  travellers.  A'et  the  communications  between  Badakshan 
and  the  Upper  Oxus  valleys  are  fi-equent,  aud  iu  1875  Captain  Trotter  was  able  to 
send  his  native  assistant,  Abdul  Subhan,  to  explore  the  course  of  the  Panja  for  a 
distance  of  96  miles  below  the  Ishkashim  bend  to  Wamur,  capital  of  Poshan.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Hindu  explorer,  Subadar  Shah,  ascended  the  Oxus  in  1874  from 
Western  Badakshan  to  the  Roshan  frontier,  leaving  but  a  small  aud  unimjjortant 
gap  between  the  two  itineraries. 

Shigxax  .\xd  Roshan. 

Shignan  (Shuguan,  Shugdan)  and  Roshan,  no  part  of  which  is  probably  lower 
than  G,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  have  received  from  the  lowlands  the  name  of 
Zuchau — that  is,  "  Land  of  Two  Lives  " — as  if  the  piu-e  air  and  water  of  this  region 
insured  to  its  inhabitants  twice  the  average  term  of  life.  But  there  are  few  to 
enjoy  this  excellent  climate.  According  to  Wood  there  were  in  1838  only  300 
families  in  Shignan  and  1,000  in  Roshan,  all  Iranians  ;  but  in  1873  the  population 
increased  altogether  to  4,700  families,  or  about  25,000  souls.  As  in  "Wakhan,  the 
slave  trade  was  the  cause  of  the  depletion  of  the  land.  In  1869  the  prince  still 
trafficked  in  his  own  subjects,  an  adult  man  or  woman  being  valued  at  from  £12 
to  £18,  which  was  equivalent  to  10  to  15  bidls,  5  to  8  j-aks,  or  2  Kii-ghiz  muskets. 

At  the  time  of  Forsyth's  visit  the  two  states  had  only  one  emir,  residing  at 
Wamiu'  (Yamar),  capital  of  Roshan.  Kila-bar-panja,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
consists  of  1,500  houses.  Wamur,  like  most  of  the  other  villages,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  with  a  western  aspect,  which  is  here  brighter  and  warmer  than  that 
facing  eastwards. 

Darvaz  axd  Karateghix. 

Darvaz,  bordering  on  Roshan  below  the  junction  of  the  Panja  and  Murgh-ab, 
is  also  peopled  by  Tajiks,  speaking  Persian  and  preserving  many  Mazdean 
traditions,  although  now  Sunnite  Mussulmans.  In  Darvaz  the  Oxus  begins  to 
trend  westwards,  and  on  its  more  sheltered  banks  the  cultivated  plants  of  the 
temperate  zone,  and  even  cotton,  begin  to  appear.  Nib-kumb,  KHa-kumb,  or 
Kaleh-i-kumb,  the  capital,  is  sometimes  laiowu  as  the  "Prison  of  Iskander," 
ha^-ing  been  traditionally  built  by  Alexander  of  Macedon  to  confine  the  rebels.  A 
garrison  of  5,000  Bokhariots  occujDies  Darvaz,  whoso  inhabitants  energetically 
resisted  the  conquest. 

Karateghin,  separated  from  Ferghana  by  "the  Alai-tagh  range,  is  a  romantic 
land  of  mountains,  glaciers,  waterfalls,  traversed  by  the  Kizil-su,  or  "  Red  River," 

VOL.    VI.  s 


254 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


S 


lilllilNHi-iilHliiill'ivl' 


which  lower  down  is  known  successively  as  the  Surgh-ab  and  Waksh  (Vaksh,  or 
Yakhsh).  Here  also  the  old  Aryan  population  has  held  its  ground,  and  the 
Galchas,  although  officially  converted  to  Islam,  have  preser\cd  their  old  customs 


HISSAE— THE  lEON  GATE.  255 

retalliaig  those  of  Zoroastriau  tiiues,  aud  coutiuue  to  speak  Persian.  They  are 
very  industrious,  engaged  in  weaving,  metal-working,  gold-washing,  and  rock-salt 
mining,  while  in  summer  they  do  a  considerable  trade  with  Kokan,  Bokhara,  and 
Kashgaria.  But  these  pui-suits  are  insuiRcient  for  the  support  of  the  people,  all  of 
whom  being  proprietors,  and  reluctant  to  divide  the  land  indefinitely,  many  are 
obliged  to  emigrate  to  the  lowlands.  All  the  water-carriers  of  Tashkend  are 
natives  of  Karateghin,  and  many  schoolmasters  in  Tiu-kestan  are  from  the  same 
place.  Although  the  country  has  a  mean  elevation  of  6,500  feet,  Fedchenko 
estimates  the  popidation  at  upwards  of  100,000,  occupying  over  400  kishlaks, 
generally  surroim^ded  by  orchards.  The  prince,  another  "descendant  of  Alexander," 
resides  in  Garm  (Harm),  a  cluster  of  3-50  houses  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Surgh-ab. 
In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  copious  hot  spring  of  carbonated  water. 

HissAR — The  Iron  Gate. 

The  district  of  Hissar,  lying  west  of  Karateghia,  was  for  the  first  time 
accurately  snrveyed  by  the  Russians,  Vishnevsky,  Mayev,  and  Schwarz,  iu  1875. 
We  now  know  that  its  eastern  division  is  traversed  by  the  Surgh-ab,  or  Waksh, 
flowiag  to  the  Oxns  below  Hazret-imam  in  Kunduz.  West  of  this  river  the 
country  is  divided  into  jjarallel  zones  by  the  broad  valleys  of  the  Kafij-nahan, 
Surkhan,  and  Shirabad-daria.  Below  Garm  there  are  no  towns  except  Kui-gan-tube 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  But  a  little  farther  down  are  the  ruins  of  Lakman, 
which  seems  to  have  been  formerly  a  considerable  place,  and  where  are  the  remaius 
of  a  bridge  across  the  Waksh.  Opposite  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the  Oxus 
stood  Takhta-kuvat,  associated  with  many  local  legends.  Lastly,  near  the  Patta- 
hissar  Pass,  on  the  caravan  route  fi-om  Bokhara  to  Mazar-i-sherif,  are  the  ruins  of 
Termez,  which  stretched  for  15  miles  along  the  Oxus  between  the  river  Sarkhan 
and  the  ruins  of  ^luja,  another  city  abandoned  ui  recent  times,  but  stiU  overlooked 
by  a  taR  minaret.  Termez  was  formerly  known  bj-  the  Tajik  name  of  Gul-gida, 
the  "  Xoisy,"  the  noise  of  its  bazaars  ha\Tng  been  heard  at  Baktra  (Balkh), 
54  miles  off  !  In  the  ruins  of  these  cities  many  gold  and  silver  objects,  especially 
Greek  coins,  have  been  discovered,  nearly  all  of  which  find  their  way  to  India. 
Gold-washing  is  actively  carried  on  along  the  banks  of  the  Waksh. 

All  the  towns  of  Hissar — Faizabad,  Kafirnahan,  Dushambe,  Hissar,  Karatagh, 
Eegar,  Sari-chus,  Yurchi,  Denau,  Baisun,  Shirabad — stand  on  tributaries  of  the 
Oxus,  and  most  of  them  near  the  region  of  snows  and  glaciers.  The  low-lying 
riverain  tracts  are  here  as  unhealthy  as  on  the  Kunduz  side,  and  to  guard  against 
the  fevers  and  rheumatism  caused  by  the  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  the 
natives  never  lay  aside  their  fur  robes  even  in  the  height  of  summer.  Hissar, 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  disti'ict,  lies  96  miles  north  of  the  Oxus,  in  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Kafirnahan,  and  above  the  fever  zone.  Its  inhabitants, 
estimated  at  10,000,  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  production  of  arms,  knives,  and 
hardware,  exported  by  the  pilgrims  to  Persia,  Tui-key,  and  Arabia.  Some  of  the 
damascened  blades  with  chased  gold  or  silver  hilts  are  of  exquisite  workmanship, 
and  unequalled  even  in  Europe  for  the  temper  of  the  .steel. 

s  2 


256 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA, 


The  original  Aryan  population  of  Hissar  has  been  mostly  displaced  by  intruders 
of  Turki  stock.  Tlie  Galchas  are  still  found  in  some  upland  viUages,  and  Faizabad, 
Kafirnahan,  and  a  few  more  towns  are  peopled  by  Tajiks ;  but  elsewhere  the  Uzbegs 
and  Sartes  form  the  chief  element.    Hence,  in  Bokhara,  Hissar  is  called  Uzbekistan. 

West  of  the  Hissar  Mountains  several  broad  valleys  running  in  the  direction  of 
the  Oxus  are  watered  by  streams  whose  jim.ction  forms  the  Kashka.  Here  have 
been  foimded  some  states  which  have  often  played  an  important  part  iu  history. 
Shehr-i-sebs  (Shakh-i-sabz),  on  a  torrent  flowing  from  Mount  Hazret-i-Sultan  at 
the  southern  issue  of  a  pass  over  the  Samarkand-tau  Mountaias,  is  one  of  those 
capitals  which  for  a  tune  acquired  great  influence  in  Turkestan.  It  consists  in 
reality  of  two  fortified  towns,  Kdab  above,  and  Shehr  below,  formerly  enclosed  by 
one  wall,  but  separated  by  extensive  intervening  gardens,  whence  their  common 


Fig.  138. — Shehh-i-sebs  and  Kakshi. 

Scale  1  :  1,200,000. 


39 


-"^fmr 


65°50' 


.Hourar 


66'50'        EOf  G 


C   Perron 


.  21  Miles. 


name  of  Shehr-i-sebs,  or  "  City  of  Verdui-e."  The  larger  of  the  two  is  Shehr,  with 
a  population  of  about  20,000  and  90  mosques  ;  KUab  has  some  15,000  inhabitants. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  village  of  Kesh,  birthplace  of 
Tamerlane,  occupied  the  site  of  the  present  Shehr-i-sebs.  The  master  of  Asia, 
wishing  to  make  it  the  capital  of  his  empire,  built  many  edifices  here,  but  soon 
recognised  the  superior  advantages  of  Samarkand,  to  which  he  transferred  his 
residence.  Of  his  palace,  the  Ak-serai,  or  ""White  Castle,"  one  of  the  "seven 
wonders  of  the  world,"  nothing  now  remains  except  some  towers  and  the  huge 
brick  pillars  flanking  the  main  entrance.  Their  walls  are  still  lined  with  white 
and  blue  porcelain  slabs,  embellished  with  arabesques  and  Persian  and  Arabic 
inscriptions.  Tradition  jjoints  to  one  of  these  towers  as  that  from  which  fort)' 
courtiers  sprang  spontaneously  after  a  paper  which  a  gust  of  wind  had  blown  from 
the  hands  of  their  dread  sovereign. 


•"•■ERSlTyof! 


THE  IRON  GATE  DETILE  CN  THE  ICAIiSHI-DEEBEXT  nOUTE. 


258  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

former  junctiou  of  tlic  Zarafsliaii.  rhai'jiu  has  become  tlie  entrepot  of  trade 
between  Bokhara  and  Khiva. 

By  seizing  Samarkand  and  the  upper  and  middle  valley  of  the  Zarafshau, 
Russia  has  placed  at  her  mercy  the  city  of  Bokhara  and  all  the  other  towns  on  the 
lower  course  of  the  river.  The  con.struction  of  an  embankment  to  retain  the 
waters  of  the  Zarafshan  in  a  large  reservoir  would  sufBcc  to  dry  up  all  the  arable 
lands  of  Bokhara  proper,  and  compel  the  inhabitants  to  emigrate.  The  extension 
of  tillage  in  the  Samarkand  district  has  analogous  consequences,  a  larger  quantity  of 
water  being  needed  for  the  works  of  irrigation.  Hence,  since  the  Russian  occupa- 
tion of  Samarkand,  Bokhara  has  suffered  from  a  steadily  diminishing  .supph', 
residting  in  a  gradual  migration  of  the  people  up  stream.  Thus,  apart  from  her 
immeasurably  superior  military  strength,  the  mere  possession  of  Samarkand  insures 
for  Russia  the  absolute  control  of  Bokhara. 

Bokhara,  "  the  Noble  "  (Sherif),  as  it  is  called  on  the  coins  struck  by  the  emir, 
is  not  one  of  the  fine  cities  of  the  East ;  nor  is  it  even  one  of  the  old  cities  of 
Sogdiana,  although  traditionally  supposed  to  have  been  foimded  hy  Alexander. 
Its  narrow,  winding,  and  now  nearly  deserted  .streets,  its  dllaj)idated  and  grimj' 
monuments,  the  sluggish  waters  of  its  canals  often  rvmning  drj-  altogether,  its 
dreary  and  shadeless  open  spaces,  do  not  recall  the  days  when  its  emir  was  the 
mightiest  ruler  in  Central  Asia.  The  chief  mosque  is  overlooked  by  a  minaret 
160  feet  high,  whence  criminals  were  precipitated,  and  to  which  access  was  allowed 
only  to  the  mollahs  and  executioners  with  their  victims. 

The  bazaars  of  Bokhara  still  attract  traders  from  every  quarter.  At  least 
two-thirds  of  the  population,  reduced  from  140,000  in  1830  to  70,000  in  1880,  are 
Tajiks.  Turkomans  and  Uzbegs,  more  or  less  mixed  with  Iranian  elements,  are 
also  numerous,  while  the  Kirghiz  pitch  their  tents  in  the  open  spaces  as  if  they 
were  in  the  middle  of  the  desert.  Russians  likewise,  and  other  Europeans  in  their 
wake,  begin  to  show  themselves  in  the  streets,  and  the  bazaars  are  occupied  by 
man}'  Jews  and  Hindus,  or  "  JMultani,"  as  they  are  here  called,  from  the  city  of 
Multan,  regarded  in  Turkestan  as  the  metropolis  of  India. 

Bokhara  is  especially  famous  as  a  centre  of  learning.  "  Elsewhere  the  light 
descends  from  above ;  in  Bokhara  it  radiates  upwards,"  as  Mohammed  himself 
certified  when  translated  to  heaven.  At  any  rate  an  intense  love  of  letters  was 
here  developed  at  various  epochs  between  the  ninth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  As 
in  Spain,  the  mingling  of  Arjan  and  Arab  cultures  had  the  happiest  resvdts  for 
science,  and  the  Iranians  of  Bokhara  converted  to  Islam,  and  more  or  less  assimilated 
to  the  Arabs,  became  the  poets,  doctors,  and  shining  lights  of  Transoxiana. 
Bokhara,  the  "  City  of  Temples,"  as  the  name  means  in  Mongolian,  is  still  a  city  of 
schools,  containing,  besides  360  mosques,  over  100  medresseh,  or  colleges,  where 
the  pupils  leani  to  read  the  Koran.  But  traditional  methods  and  mere  routine 
have  killed  science,  and  little  now  is  taught  beyond  empty  formidas.  The  fervid 
faith  of  this  "Rome  of  Islam"  has  itself  degenerated  to  a  system  of  shams,  veiling 
corruption  and  hollowness  beneath  the  outward  forms  of  worship.  The  decrees 
of  the  priesthood  are  faithfully  observed ;  the  people  always  wear  their  winding- 


i^' 


•*w 


v*v^ 


■-'MY 


TOrOGRArHY— BOKHARA. 


259 


sliect  as  a  turban  rf>uufl  the  head ;  they  con  the  prescrihed  prayers,  regidarly  visit 
the  shrine  of  Baha-eddin,  the  national  saint  of  Turkestan.  But  meantime  friend- 
ship is  poisoned  by  treason,  espionage  has  become  the  chief  instrvuuent  of  govern- 
ment, and  vice  in  every  form  is  installed  at  the  gates  of  the  mosques. 

Although  far  less  flourishing  than  fomierly,  the  industry  of  Bokhara  is  still 
considerable,  and  the  bazaars  are  stocked  with  many  objects  of  local  produce. 
Here  ai"e  fabricated  the  beautifid  strijied  cotton  goods  known  by  the  name  of  alaja, 

Fig.  139. — Bokhara:  Euixs  in  the  Intekior  of  the  Cut. 


excellent  leather  for  the  native  boots  and  slippers,  silken  tissues  "  delicate  as  the 
spider's  web."  Nor  has  the  Russian  occupation  of  Samarkand  or  the  rising  com- 
mercial importance  of  Tashkend  yet  deprived  Bokhara  of  its  extensive  inter- 
national trade.  It  stiU  remains  the  great  central  mart  between  Nijni- Novgorod 
and  Peshawar  ;  India  and  Afghanistan  send  hither  their  drugs  and  dyes,  tea, 
earthenware,  books,  and  especially  the  so-called  kabti/i,  or  English  wares.  From 
Persia  come  other  woven  goods,  arms,  and  books ;  fi'om  Merv,  arms  and  valuable 


260 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


horses  ;  from  Herat,  fruits,  wool,  skins ;  while  through  Khiva  most  of  the 
manufactm-ed  articles  are  forwarded  to  the  Volga  basin.  Eussian  merchandise 
is  naturally  foimd  in  the  greatest  quantity  in  the  Bokhara  bazaars,  pui-chased, 
however,  by  the  native  dealers  in  Moscow,  Nijni-Novgorod,  or  Orenburg,  and  by 
them  brought  to  the  great  mart  of  the  Zarafshan.  The  whole  of  this  important 
traffic,  valued  at  nearly  £6,000,000,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Bokhara,  Afghan,  Hindu, 
and  Jewish  traders.  In  1876  there  was  only  one  Russian  merchant  in  the  j)lace, 
and  certain  branches  of  commerce  formerly  monopolized  by  the  Russians  have  now 
been  appropriated  by  the  natives. 

Hence  Bokhara  is  threatened  with  ruin  not  bj-  the  commercial  rivalry  of 
Samarkand  or  other  towns  occupied  by  the  Russians,  but  by  the  gradual  loss  of 
water  from  the  uplands.  The  shifting  dunes  are  already  yearly  encroaching  on 
the  oasis,   filling   the    irrigation   canals,  and    slowly  changing  the  countrv  to  a 


Fig.  140. — Oasis  of  Bokhara. 
Scale  1  :  2,000,000. 


4Cf 


.-.■V-ardahdz 


Romdao-; 


Kar-a-KouU<-',  'Pa'-kend 
,:    /        Daikound 


' iUrni-lthaul  Sfypfic \ 


l\ 


C-i' 


65' 


EofG 


C    Perrcn 


.  2i  Miles. 


desert.  The  destruction  of  the  saksaul  forests  resulted  in  changing  the  firmly 
bound  hillocks  into  moving  sands,  driven  by  the  winds  to  the  conquest  of  the 
arable  tracts.  The  canals  formerly  derived  from  the  Sir  have  also  long  been 
abandoned,  and  the  time  when  the  whole  oasis  will  be  restored  to  the  desert  is 
merely  a  question  of  calculation.  Quite  recently  the  rich  Yardandzi  territory 
has  been  invaded  ;  the  Romitan  district,  west  of  Bokhara,  was  swallowed  up  in 
1868,  when  16,000  families  are  said  to  have  been  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
Khiva.  Tens  of  thousands  have  migrated  in  the  same  way  to  Samarkand  and 
the  Zarafshan  valle5\  The  city  of  Boldiara  itself  is  seriously  threatened,  the 
pcoi)le  awaiting  the  catastrojihe  as  an  immutable  dispensation  of  Allah,  and  imless 
the  jjrogress  of  the  dunes  can  be  arrested  their  ruin  is  really  inevitable.  Thus 
in  former  times  have  perished  Khoju-oba,  24  miles  north-west  of  Bokhara,  and 
the  famous  Ba'ikimd,  20  miles  west  of  it.      Bokhara  suffers  also  from  the  bad 


TOPOGRAPUY— LuKUAlLV. 


261 


quality  of  its  waters,  aud  from  its  uuhealthj-  climate.  Ulcers  of  all  kiuds  are 
very  common,  especially  amongst  the  women,  and  in  simmier  one-tenth  or  even 
one- fourth  of  the  people  are  attacked  hy  the  Jilan'a  medinensis,  a  parasite  bred  in 
the  flesh  of  the  feet  or  arms,  and  which  can  scarcely  be  got  rid  of  except  bv 
excision,  a  surgical  operation  skilfully  performed  by  the  local  barbers. 

Besides  the  caj)ital  several  other  to^vns  have  been  founded  in  the  Zarafshau 
valley,  and  especially  in  the  Miankal  district  towards  the  Russian  frontier.  Here 
village  succeeds  village,  and  the  whole  country  is  a  vast  garden,  still  justifying 
the  saying  formerly  applied  to  all  the  country  between  Tashkend  and  Khiva, 
that  "a  cat  could  pass  along  the  roofs  from  town  to  town."      The  largest  places 

Fig.  141. — Khita. 

Scale  1  :  26,000. 


Mosques.        Palace  of  the  Khan.        Schools.  C;u"avansei'ai.  Baz.iar. 

^__^_^_^^^.^^__^__  l.OSO  Yards. 


Gibbet. 


in  Miankal  are  Ziyaweddin,  Tani-kurgan,  and  Kcrmineh,  peopled  chiefly  by 
Uzbegs,  who  are  here  excellent  agricidturists. 

Below  Bokhara  the  chief  station  on  the  route  to  Charjui  is  Kai-a-kul,  or  "  Black 
Lake."  During  the  floods  the  river  reaches  this  point,  where  a  basin  still  known 
as  the  Denghiz,  or  "  Sea,"  receives  the  overflow,  which  evaporates  without  cross- 
ing the  sands  to  the  Oxus.  In  1820,  when  the  water  must  have  been  far  more 
abimdant  than  at  present,  Kara-kul  is  said  to  have  had  a  population  of  20,000, 
a  number  which  would  now  inevitably  perish  of  thirst  in  a  district  formerly 
irrigated  by  a  network  of  canals  fi'om  the  Oxus,  Zarafshan,  and  Sir. 

The  khanate  of  Bokhara  still  maintains  its  local  administration  and  the 
outward  forms  of  government.  But  the  substance  has  vanished,  the  Emir,  or 
"  Head  of  the  Faithful  "  and  master  of   the  lives  of  his   subjects,  having  now  to' 


2G2 


ASIATIC  BirsSIA. 


reckon  with  ouc  more  powerful  than  hiniseli' — the  Governor-General  of  Russian 
Turkestan.  Even  within  his  borders  the  Russian  fort  of  St.  George  was  erected 
in  1872  at  Kala-ata,  to  guard  the  direct  route  between  Tashkend  and  Khiva. 
Henceforth  Christian  stranger-s  have  to  fear  neither  torture  nor  imprisonment, 
and  even  the  much-abused  Jews  now  find  protection  from  extortion,  while  the 
slave  markets  are  closed  and  the  traffic  in  human  flesh  at  least  outwardlj'  sup- 
pressed. The  treaty  of  1873  abolishing  the  slave  trade  also  secm-ed  to  the 
Russians  the  free  navigation  of  the  Oxus,  and  the  right   to  construct  quays  and 


Fig.  142. — A  Minaret  in  Khiva. 


■^-%:^~SiJ 


depots  along  its  banks.  All  the  towns  of  Bokhara  were  thrown  open  to  Russian 
trade,  the  subjects  of  the  Czar  were  authorised  to  exercise  every  indiistrj'  on  an 
equal  footing  with  the  natives,  and  were  allowed  to  settle  as  landowners  in  the 
khanate.  A  Russian  minister  was  also  accredited  to  the  emir's  coiu-t,  intrusted 
to  watch  over  the  execution  of  the  treaty,  while  police  regulations  were  framed 
to  prevent  any  one  from  passing  from  Russian  to  Bokhara  territory  without  the 
formal  authori.satiou  of  the  imperial  Government.  The  jjolice  of  Russia  thus 
penetrates  farther  than  her  armies  into  the  heart  of  the  continent,  and   through 


KHIVA. 


213 


her  vassal  state  she  can  now  make  herself  felt  on  the  Kashmir  and  Afghan 
frontiers.  Of  the  commercial  advantages  secm-ed  to  her  by  the  treatj'  .she  has  so 
far  scarcely  made  any  use. 

The  Bokhara  army,  now  useless  for  military  purposes,  has  become  a  sort  of 
irregular  police,  comj^osed  of  Sarte  volunteers  and  Persian  freedmen  formerly 
sold  b}-  the  Turkomans  in  the  Bokhara  market.  The  words  of  conmiand,  framed 
by  the  Cossack  deserter  Popov,  who  became  commander-in-chief,  are  delivered  in 

Fig.  143. — Khiva:  Exteriok  of  a  MosauE. 


Russian,  but  mixed  with  some  English  and  Tiaki  terms,  and  the  imiform  of  the 
troops  is  a  distant  imitation  of  that  of  the  Indian  sepoys. 


IV.— KHIVA. 

Khiva,  like  Bokhara,  is  also  a  vassal  state ;  but  owing  to  its  geographical  posi- 
tion much  more  directly  dependent  on  Russia.  The  right  bank  of  the  Amu, 
which  separates  the  khanate  from  the  Russian  possessions,  is  lined  with  forts 
and  fortilications,  whence  the  troops  of  the  Czar  might  in  fom'-and-twenty  hours 
reduce  the  whole  oasis.  Although  the  official  area  of  the  comitry  is  stated  to  be 
23,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  700,000,  most  of  the  land  is  a  desert, 
blending  imperceptibly  with  the  irrigated   tracts.      Where    the  canals    stop    the 


2G-i 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


last  pcrmaiieut  villages  cease,  so  that  the  whole  settled  pojjulatiou  is,  so  to  say, 
groiqjed  under  the  guns  of  the  Russian  strongholds.  It  took  the  Muscovites 
over  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  to  finallj-  subdue  a  region  defended  on  the  south, 
west,  and  north-west  by  almost  impassable  wastes.  On  two  occasions,  in  1703 
and  1740,  the  khans  had  declared  themselves  Russian  subjects,  but  the  treaties 

Fig.  144. — Krasnovodsk  B.iy. 
Scalf  1  :  210,000. 


of  G 


5S°55' 


55°  5' 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feet. 


32  Feet  and  upwards. 
6  Miles. 


had  remained  inoperative,  and  the  people  persisted  in  their  hostility  to  the 
foreigner.  In  1717  the  Kabardian  Prince  Bekovich  Cherkaskiy,  sent  by  Peter 
the  Great  to  give  a  body-guard  to  the  khan,  and  thus  j^rcpare  for  Russian 
supremac}',  made  a  first  cxjDcditiou  against  the  coimtrj',  which  ended  in  a  com- 
plete disaster.  In  1839  the  campaign  conducted  by  Perovskiy,  at  the  head  of 
20,000  men  and  a  train  of  10,000  camels,  also  ended  in  faihu-e.     But  a  decisive 


osiryof  I! 


••-H 


266 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


But  on  the  routes  across  the  desert  thousands  fell  victims  to  disease,  exhaustion,  and 
the  Turkoman  marauders. 

At  the  time  of  the  Russian  occupation  the  population  of  the  city  of  Khiva  was 
estimated  at  4,000  or  5,000  souls,  chiefly  half-caste  Uzhegs  and  Iranians,  besides 
Sartes  and  emancipated  Persians,  speaking  the  local  TurkI  dialect.  Most  of  the 
Khivans  are  of  disagreeable  and  even  harsh  appearance,  their  features  being 
generaUy  marked  by  small-pox,  cutaneous  eruptions,  ophthabuic  affections,  the 
abuse  of  opimu  or  "hashish.  The  children  have  a  pleasant  expression,  but  all 
vivacity  disappears  with  age,  and  decrepitude  soon  sets   in.     Owing  to  the  high 


Fig.  145. — Cheleken  Island  and  Michael  Gulp. 
Scale  1  :  810,000. 


E  of  G, 53°  10 


53°  50 


0  to  16  Feet.                 16  to  32  Teet.  32  Feet  and  upwards. 
12  Miles. 


Persian  caps  worn  all  the  year  round,  the  ears  of  the  men  stand  out  from  the  head, 
a  trait  by  which  they  may  be  recognised  at  a  glance  amongst  the  other  Inhabitants 
of  Turkestan.     The  turban  is  worn  only  by  the  clergy. 

The  trade  and  industry  of  Khiva  are  unimportant.  Some  inferior  silks  and 
strong  cottons  are  manufactured;  but  most  of  the  woven  and  other  goods  are 
imported  from  Russia.  In  the  bazaars  may  also  be  purchased  some  English 
cottons,  and  the  green  tea  imported  from  India  through  Kabid  and  Bokhara.  The 
chief  merchants  trading  with  Russia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan  reside,  not  In  Khiva 
itself,  but  iu  Urgenj,  the  largest  city  of  the  khanate,  24  miles  north-west  of  the 


KH[VA. 


267 


capital,  near  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  ITrgeuj  is  surrouuded  by  mud  walls,  and 
has  a  present  popidation  of  30,000.  It  was  till  recently  known  as  Yani-urgenj,  or 
"  New  Urgenj,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Kmiia-urgeuj,  or  old  town,  destroyed  by 
Tamerlane,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  utterly  ruined,  when  the  Oxus  receded 
farther  east.      The  famous  town   of  Kungrad,   on  the   Taldik,   is  threatened   by 


Fig.  146.— Hass.vn-kaleh  Bay. 
Scale  1  :  3i»,00O, 


E  oFa 


54°  10  . 


0  to  Ifi  Feet. 


IG  Feet  and  upwards 
6  MUes.1 


a  similar  fate,  since  this  branch  has  dwindled  to  a  slug'gi.sh  stream  lost  amidst  the 
reeds.  Khojeili,  at  the  head  of  the  delta  proper,  over  against  the  fortress  of 
Nukus,  has,  on  the  other  hand,  acquired  some  importance  through  its  traffic  with  the 
surrounding  nomads.  It  is  said  to  bo  entirely  peopled  by  Hajis,  Mecca  pilgrims, 
here  called  Hoja,  or  Khoja,  whence  its  name. 


268 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


The  Khan  of  Khiva,  like  the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  is  in  theory  master  of  the  hmd 
and  life  of  his  subjects,  and  tiU  recently  he  made  terrible  use  of  his  j^ower  by  the 
still  remembered  torture,  "  bug  pits,"  sword,  rope,  and  stake.  But  these  horrors, 
on  which  custom  had  always  imposed  certain  limits,  are  now  at  an  end.  The  true 
master  of  the  land  is  now  the  Russian  resident,  armed  with  the  treaty  of  1873,  in 
which  the  khan  declares  himself  "  the  humble  servant  of  the  Eniijcror  of  aU  the 
Russias."  To  the  Czar's  subjects  he  grants  free  trade  in  all  his  cities,  besides  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Oxus,  engaging  to  supply  sites  for  the  Russian  depots,  and 
to  keep  in  good  repair  the  artificial  works  executed  by  his  conquerors  along  the 
course  of  the  river.  He  recognises  the  jJi'ior  claim  of  aU  Russian  creditors,  and 
constitutes   himself  a  debtor  to   the  St.   Petersburg  Government  in  the  siun  of 


Fis 


147. — AsHt'R-ABEH. 

Scale  1  :  770,000. 


C    Pe'-roQ 


0  to  IC  Feet.  IG  to  32  Feet.        32  Feet  and  upwards. 

_^^.^_^_^_^__^—  12  Miles. 


2,200,000  roubles,  the  last  instalment  of  which  will  be  paid  off  in  1893.     If  not,  the 
whole  khanate  is  pledged  for  the  amount.     Khiva  is,  in  fact,  a  Russian  province. 


though  still  imgarrisoned. 


v.— RUSSIAN  TURKESTAN. 

The  portion  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin  actually  annexed  to  Russia  is  far  more 
extensive,  though  relatively  more  scantily  peopled,  than  the  tributary  or  less  inde- 
pendent states.  Lying  more  to  the  north,  it  comprises  less  fertile  tracts,  while  the 
regions  towards  which  Slav  colonisation  is  being  attracted  are  the  farthest  removed 
from  Russia  proper.  Steppes  900  miles  broad  separate  these  New  Russias  from 
the  mother  country,  and  the  forts  and  postal  stations  connecting  the  colonics  with 
the  Ural  and  Volga  basins  very  slowly  grow  into  villages  and  towns. 

Amongst  the  lands  still  lacking  a  sedentary  population,  the  least  Inhabited  is 
the  vast  province  stretching  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Aral  west  and  cast,  and  from 


EUSSIAN  TUEKESTAN. 


2G9 


the  Ural  to  the  Atrek  river,  north  and  south.  This  region,  officially  known  as  the 
"  Trans-Casijian  Division,"  depends  on  the  government  of  Caucasia,  and  has 
hitherto  been  regarded  as  little  more  than  a  simjole  coast  district  over  against 
ISaku,  whence  troops  and  supplies  are  most  easily  forwarded.  The  only  fixed 
establishments  are  a  few  fortresses  and  entrenched  camps  at  the  more  accessible 
jooints  on  the  coast,  or  the  most  convenient  as  centres  of  attack  against  the  nomads 
of  the  interior.  Some  of  the  forts  have  already  been  abandoned,  either  for  want  of 
^\■ater,  their  imhealthy  climate,  or  utter  uselessness.  Several  fortified  stations  on 
the  Manghishlak  peninsula  are  now   a  mere  heap  of  ruins  ;   but  the  somewhat 

Fig.  148. — Valleys  of  the  Atrek  and  GrROEN. 
Scale  1  ;  2,905,000. 


57' 


-...^^S^fi^"- 


^ 


C  Per'^on 


0  to  IB  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feet. 


32  Feet  and  upwards. 

60  Miles. 


thriving  fishing  \allage  of  NLkolayev.sk  has  sprvmg  up  near  Fort  Alexandi'ov.sk, 
under  shelter  of  the  Tuk-km-agan  headland. 

Of  all  the  coast  stations  the  most  important  is  Krasnovodul;,  the  old  Kizd-su,  or 
"  Red  "Water,"  at  the  head  of  the  peninsula  running  west  of  the  Balkan  Gulf. 
The  neighbouring  pastures,  springs,  and  arable  lands,  besides  the  deep  water  of 
the  bay,  which  scarcely  ever  freezes,  insure  to  Krasnovodsk  a  lasting  importance. 
"When  the  harbour  works  are  completed  a  commercial  city  may  here  be  rapidly 
developed.  Although  with  scarcely  500  inhaibitants,  Krasnovodsk  took  rank  as 
a  town  in  1877.  It  has  abeady  some  stone  houses,  a  club,  and  a  public  garden,  but 
stiU  lacks  perfectly  fresh  water.  Pending  the  construction  of  an  aqueduct,  it 
depends  for  its  supply  on  sea-water  distilled  by  condensing  apparatus. 

VOL.    VI.  T 


270 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


The  naphtha  wells,  at  the  foot  of  the  neighbouriug  Little  Balkan  hills,  have 
been  hitherto  little  worked,  tkrough  fear  of  the  maraxicliug  Turkomans.  But  over 
2,000  wells  have  been  sunk  in  the  island  of  Chelekeu,  at  the  southern  entrance  of 
the  Balkan  Gulf.  The  naphtha  is  here  remarkably  pure  and  abundant.  A  single 
well,  opened  in  1874,  pelded  100  tons  per  day,  and  the  whole  island  maybe  said  to 
rest  on  a  vast  bitumiuous  lake.  Krasnovodsk  also  exports  sulphur  from  the  south 
of  the  Kara-boghaz,  and  salt  fi-om  the  coast  lagoons.  It  is  now  the  chief  outport 
of  Khiva  on  the  Casj)ian,  having  replaced  Kohneh-bazar,  lying  farther  south  on 
the  so-called   Bav  of   Khiva.     Lastlv,  it  may  serve  as  the  base  of  the  military 


Fig.  149. — Samaekand. 

Scale  1  :  170,000. 


E  ofG. 


66°55' 


CPe 


.  3  Miles. 


operations  which   will  probably  ere  long  be  dii-ected  fiom  the   Caspian  towards 
Merv,  Meshed,  or  Herat.* 

The  camp  of  Chikishlar,  near  the  Bay  of  Hassan-kaleh,  which  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Ati'ek,  is  much  less  favourably  situated.  Troops  can  here  be  landed 
only  on  flat-bottomed  boats,  and  the  neighboiu'hood  }-ields  no  suppKes  of  anj'  sort. 
The  desert  begins  at  the  very  gates  of  the  fort ;  yet  nimierous  scattered  ruins  show 
that  this  region  was  formerly  covered  with  towns  and  villages.  One  emporium 
has  succeeded  another  in  this  south-eastern  corner  of  the  Caspian,  which  is 
traversed  hy  a  great  historical  route  leading  from  Western  Asia  to  the  Tian-shan 

*  Yearly  movement  between  Krasnovodsk  and  Kliiva  (1874 — 7),  32  caravans,  5,164  camel-loads. 
Jleau  annual  \-ield  of  naphtha  (1874 — 7),  3,840  tons. 


EUSSIAN  TURKESTAN. 


271 


and  China.  Ahtmknn,  wlio.'so  ruins  are  now  niarkcd  by  tlie  Chunish-tepe,  or 
"  Silver  Cliff,"'  between  the  Ila.s.san-kaleh  Bay  and  the  nicnith  of  the  Gurgeu,  was 
an  important  mart  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  eenturie.s.  Its  destruction  is  said  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  rising  of  the  Caspian,  produced  by  the  inundations  of  the 
(-)xus,  when  this  river  had  resumed  its  course  to  the  Balkan  Bay.  Abu.skun  was 
successively  replaced  by  Niui-mardan,  a  few  miles  south  of  the  Gurg-en,  and  Alhom, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Astrabud.  At  present  Ashur-adch,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  long  peninsula  enclosing  this  bay,  would  be  the  natural  harbour  of  these 
waters  but  for  the  extremely  unhealthy  climate  of  the  surrounding  low-lying 
swamjjy  district.     North  of  Chikishlar  are  Ah-tcpc,  or  the  "  White  Cliff,"  and 

Fig.  150.— Samaukand  :  ArpiioAcu  to  the  Citadel. 


G':uk-tq)e,  or  the  "  Yellow  Cliff,"  round  which  the  Yomuds  have  often  jDitched 
their  tents. 

In  the  Gurgen  valley  are  the  ruins  of  Jordan,  the  ancient  Hyrcaniapolis,  or 
"  WoK  Town,"  a  name  which  passed  to  the  whole  country  and  to  the  Caspian  itself, 
often  called  the  Hj-rcaniau  Sea.  About  70  miles  north-east  of  Chikishlar  lies  the 
ruined  city  of  Mazduran,  whose  Persian  name  indicates  its  ijosition  between  Iran 
and  Turan.  According  to  the  legend  an  archer  endowed  with  suj)ernatural  force 
shot  an  arrow  from  the  banks  of  the  Gurgen,  which  fell  on  the  site  of  Mazdiu-an, 
and  thus  determined  the  limits  of  the  two  empires.  The  former  importance  of  this 
place  is  shown  by  its  extensive  ruins,  especially  those  of  its  aqueducts,  which,  at 
least  in  length,  were  surpassed  only  by  those  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  Ganges 
basin.  One  of  these  aqueducts  traversed  the  district  between  the  Atrek  and  its 
tributary  the  Sumbar,  crossed  the  latter  river,  and  after  watering  the  plains  of 
Mazduran  discharged  into  the  Caspian  after  a  total  cour.se  of  95  miles. 

T  2 


272 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Ferghana  Basix — Topography. 

In  the  Russian  possessions  in  Turkestan  east  of  the  Oxus  is  the  Zaral'shan 
valley.  After  leaving  the  highlands  this  river  is  distributed  by  numerous  irriga- 
tion rills  over  the  Penjakent  district,  beyond  which  the  system  of  canals  is  still 
farther  developed  to  the  north  of  Samarkand  and  to  the  south-west  towards 
ISokhara.  To  these  fertilising  waters  of  the  Sogol,  or  Zarafshan,  the  ancient  Sogdiana 
was  indebted  for  its  fertilitj'  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  semicircle  of  sands,  and  to  the 

Fig.  151. — Samarkaxd:  The  Gur-emir  Tomb  op  Tamerlase. 


same  cause  is  due  its  present  population  of  S0,000,  of  whom  two-thirds  are  of 
Uzbeg  stock.  According  to  the  Mazdean  legend  the  Sogol  is  the  second  Eden, 
"  created  by  the  word  of  Ormuzd." 

Samarhvid,  capital  of  this  famous  land,  lies  either  on  the  site  or  close  to  the 
old  city  of  Marcanda,  whence  its  name,  which,  however,  some  refer  to  the  Arab 
Saniar,  who  took  the  place  and  introduced  the  Moslem  religion  in  643.  Residence 
of  the  Samanides  from  the  middle  of  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century,  it  became 
imder  that  dynasty  "  the  asylum  of  peace  and  science,"  and  one  of  the  largest  cities 
in  Asia.  It  was  defended  by  110,000  men  against  Jcnghis  Khan,  but  after  its 
overthrow  bj-  him  the  population  was  reduced  to  2o,000  families.  Later  on  it 
became  the  centre  of  Tamerlane's  vast  empire,  but  it  was  again  wasted  by  the 


FEEGHANA  BASIN— TOPOGEAPHT. 


273 


nomads,  and  in  the  year  1700  had  only  one  Inhabitant.    The  ruins  of  the  oM  city  are 
the  phiin  and  surrounding  heights  ;  but  its  chief  moniunents  date  from 


strerni  over 


271  ASL\TIC  EUS?IA. 

tbe  time  of  Tamerlane  and  liis  successiors.  From  a  distance  are  visible  above  its 
walls  the  large  blue  domes  and  tbe  minarets  of  its  mosques,  its  palaces  and  colleges. 
In  the  north-east  it  is  conMnandcd  by  the  Chupan-ata  eminence,  crowned  with 
picturesque  ruins  and  the  tomb  of  a  saint.  At  the  foot  of  this  hill  the  great  canals 
of  irriffation  branch  off  in  all  directions. 

Since  the  Russian  occuiwtion  a  new  quarter  has  .sprung  up  west  of  the  citadel, 
regularly  laid  out  with  streets  and  avenues  radiating  like  a  fan  towards  the  desert. 
But  we  must  visit  tbe  lab}Tinth  of  narrow  lanes  in  the  Moslem  quarter  to  realise 
what  Samarkand  was  in  the  days  of  its  greatness.  Its  magnificent  schools,  now 
schools  only  in  name,  are  unrivalled  for  the  splendour  of  their  architecture,  tbe 
details  of  which  betray  the  Persian  origin  of  their  first  designers.  Most  of  the 
palaces  dating  fi-om  tbe  Timur  djTiasty  are  now  in  ruins,  though  the  facades,  towers, 
or  domes  of  a  few  are  still  in  good  repair.  The  chief  public  square,  tbe  Eighistan, 
is  flanked  on  three  sides  by  the  finest  colleges  in  the  jjlace,  including  the  Ulug-beg, 
foimded  in  1420,  the  renowTied  school  of  mathematics  and  astronomy,  which  in  the 
fifteenth  century  made  Samarkand  one  of  the  holy  places  of  science.  The  most 
magniticent  mosque  in  tbe  city  and  in  all  Central  Asia  is  the  Shah  Zindeh,  or 
"  Ijiving  King,"  so  called  from  a  defender  of  Islam,  now  buried  in  the  building, 
but  destined  one  day  to  rise  again  and  reconquer  the  world  to  the  faith  of  tbe 
Prophet.  Tamerlane  rests  under  the  crypt  of  another  mosqiie,  the  Gur-emir,  on  an 
eminence  near  the  citadel,  and  still  commanded  by  a  minaret  of  rare  elegance.  In 
the  ^^cinity  are  the  tombs  of  bis  wives,  with  inscriptions  commemorating  his 
fame. 

The  citadel,  comprising  a  whole  quarter  of  the  to■^\^l,  and  in  which  the  Russians 
have  set  up  their  administrative  and  military  bureaux,  also  contains  mosques, 
tombs,  and  tbe  old  palace  of  the  emir,  now  a  hospital.  In  a  court  of  this  palace 
stands  a  large  marble  block,  5  feet  high  and  10  feet  long,  said  to  have  been  brought 
by  Tamerlane  from  Brusa,  and  to  have  been  used  by  him  and  his  successors 
as  a  throne,  and  on  it  were  also  beheaded  the  unsuccessful  pretenders  to  tbe 
sovereignty. 

The  inhabitants  of  Samarkand,  more  than  half  of  whom  are  Tajiks,  are  more 
zealous  "  believers  "  than  those  of  Tashkend  and  other  places  in  Russian  Turkestan. 
According  to  the  old  saying,  while  Mecca  is  the  "  Heart,"  Samarkand  is  the  "  Head 
of  Islam."  At  the  same  time  their  religious  fervour  does  not  prevent  the  people 
from  driving  a  brisk  trade  with  their  Russian  masters,  though  the  chief  traders  are 
Jews,  Hindus,  and  Afghans.  Almost  the  sole  Ladustry  of  the  place  is  agriculture, 
which  has  converted  tbe  surrounding  plain  to  a  garden  in  the  wilderness.  The 
population  has  risen  from  about  8,000  in  1834  to  over  30,000  in  1880,  and,  thanks  to 
its  happy  situation  in  the  neighbourhood  of  hills  and  healthy  valleys,  Samarkand 
cannot  fail  to  become  a  chief  centre  of  European  civilisation  in  Turkestan. 

Ascending  tbe  valley  of  tbe  Zarafshan  by  tbe  fortress  of  Pcujakent,  the 
traveller  reaches  Kohistau,  tbe  romantic  land  of  the  Galchas,  with  its  gorges, 
cascades,  and  snowy  ranges.  Here  are  also  some  remarkable  phenomena  resembling 
those  of  volcanoes  in  eruption.     The  Kaiilagli  Jfnuntain  contains  rh-h  coal  beds  in 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


275 


combustion,  emitting  dense  volumes  of  smoke  and  racpliitic  gases,  and  at  niglit 
casting  a  lurid  light  against  the  skj'.  In  the  higher  valleys  of  this  region  pastures, 
crops,  and  thickets  fringe  the  river  banks,  or,  as  at  Varzaminor,  clothe  the  upland 
alluvial  terraces  forming  the  basins  of  di-ied-up  lakes.  The  auriferous  sands  of 
the  Zarafshan  are  now  searched  only  by  a  few  wretched  gold-washers. 

The  most  popidous  part  of  the  oasis  is  that  which  forms  a  continuation  of  tho 
Miankal  district  of  Bokhara.  Here  the  villages  foiiu  almost  a  continuous  town 
from  Katti-kiu'gan  to  Penshambe,  while  the  orchards  present  from  a  distance  the 
appearance  of  extensive  woodlands.  Some  24  miles  south-east  of  Samarkand  lies 
the  town  of  Urguf,  noted  for  its  heroic  defence  against  the  Russians.  Farther 
south  a  defile  leads  over  the  Samarkaud-tau  down  to  Shehr-i-sebs,  while  in  tho 


Fig.  153. — 0.\sis  OF  THE  Zarafshan. 
Scale  1 :  560,000. 


■■■"  '^L^'     ■■    ■        ,'(*'' 


•~Pend|akenfli(J 


E.OfG,  66°Q0 


67'2Cr 


C  Pe'**fO^ 


.  30  Miles. 


north-east  a  large  gap  in  the  Eara-tau  range  is  traversed  by  the  route  from 
Samarkand  to  Tashkend  and  the  little  river  Jizak.  This  is  the  defile  of  Jilanuti, 
or  of  the  "  Snakes,"  so  named  either  from  its  meandering  stream  or  from  the 
reptiles  gliding  amid  its  rocks.  This  important  pass,  guarded  on  the  north  by 
the  town  of  Jizak,  or  the  "  Key,"  is  one  of  the  historic  highways  of  Asia,  and  the 
scene  of  man)'  a  sanguinary  struggle  for  the  possession  of  Zarafshan  or  Sir-daria. 
West  of  it  rises  to  a  height  of  -100  feet  a  p^Tamidal  slaty  rock  known  as  the  "  Gate 
of  Tamerlane,"  though  the  two  Persian  inscriptions  on  its  face  make  no  allusion 
to  this  conqueror. 

The  abundance  of  water  flowing  from  the  Tian-shau  valleys  to  Ferghana  gives 
to  this  basin  a  great  agricultural  value.     In  the  heart  of  the  mountains  the  Narin 


276  •  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

flows  at  too  great  an  elevation  above  the  sea  to  pennit  of  any  large  towns  springing 
up  on  its  banks  ;  but  on  emerging  from  tbe  ujojjer  gorges  and  entering  the  north- 
east part  of  the  Ferghana  basin  it  soon  becomes  skirted  with  towns  and  villages. 
On  its  left  bank  stands  the  town  of  Uch-kurgan,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  oasis. 
But  the  valleys  watered  bj'  the  torrents  from  the  Toshktal  Movmtains  are  more 
productive  than  the  lauds  fringing  the  northern  bank  of  the  main  stream.  They 
are  laid  out  chiefly  in  gardens  and  orchards,  while  the  oases  on  the  left  side  are 
mostly  iinder  cereals.  The  banks  of  the  Sir  between  the  two  zones  are  occupied 
by  steppes.  Hence  the  necessity  of  an  exchange  of  commodities  between  the 
northern  vallej's  and  the  southern  plains. 

Namangan  is  the  chief  town  of  the  oasis  lying  at  a  distance  from  the  river.  It 
is  a  large  place,  with  a  bazaar  containing  one  thousand  shops,  and  with  a  cotton- 
spinning  industrj'  for  the  materials  worn  by  the  natives.  As  many  as  300,000 
sheep  from  the  northern  stei^jjes  are  yearlj^  sold  at  this  place,  and  hero  also  are 
constructed  wooden  floats  on  which  fruits,  skins,  and  felts  are  sent  down  the  Sir  to 
Perovsk  and  Kazalinsk.  In  the  neighboui'hood  are  rich  naphtha  springs  and  coal 
beds.  Kasmn,  Ij'ing  north-west  of  Namangan,  in  a  well-cultivated  district,  claims 
to  be  the  oldest  town  in  Ferghana,  and  its  Tajik  inhabitants  ai'c  the  finest  of  their 
race  in  Turkestan.  Chmf,  on  a  stream  flowing  from  the  Choktal  Mountains,  is  a 
busy  place,  producing  knives  almost  as  highly  prized  as  those  of  Hissar.  Of  the 
mineral  wealth  in  the  neighboiu'ing  hills  the  salt  mines  alone  have  hitherto  been 
worked.  On  a  steej)  cliff  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sir  stands  Ak-si,  at  one  time 
capital  of  Kokan,  and  famous  for  its  melons. 

Populoiis  towns  are  also  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Kara-daria,  or  "  Black 
River,"  whose  jimction  with  the  Narin  below  Balikchi  forms  the  Sir.  Uzghenf,  at 
the  issue  of  the  Tian-shan  defiles,  has  become  famous  from  the  shrine  of  Ilaji 
Yusuf,  the  frequent  resort  of  pilgrims.  In  this  district  is  the  frontier  stronghold  of 
Gulcha,  guarding  the  Terek-davan  Pass  against  the  Chinese.  Andijan,  the  chief 
town  in  this  basin,  though  at  a  distance  from  the  river,  receives  its  waters  through 
the  irrigation  canals.  It  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  places  in  Ferghana,  thanks  to  its 
shady  gardens  and  deer  park  in  the  middle  of  the  town.  In  the  Kugaran  valley, 
lying  to  the  north-east,  are  the  carbonated  an^  sidphur  hot  springs  of  Jalabad-aj-up, 
much  frequented  by  the  Sartes. 

OhJi,  south-east  of  Andijan,  and  on  the  same  river  Ak-bara,  a  tributary  of  the 
Kara-su,  occupies  the  issue  of  a  fertile  and  healthy  valley  leading  to  the  Alai  and 
Pamir.  Here  is  the  famous  Takht-i-Suleiman  ("  Solomon's  Throne  "),  a  mountain 
the  theme  of  so  many  Eastern  legends ;  and  here,  according  to  some,  the  wise  king 
summoned  the  genii  to  execute  his  mandates,  while  according  to  others  it  was  here 
that  he  was  assassinated.  The  rock,  which  is  much  frequented  by  pilgrims,  com- 
mands a  superb  view  of  the  surrounding  highlands. 

Several  important  towns  are  scattered  over  the  Ferghana  basin  west  of  the  Ak- 
bara  valley.  Naiikaf,  Amran,  and  Assakch  stand  on  a  stream  flowing  to  the  plain 
south  of  Andijan.  Farther  on  are  Sharikhan,  now  much  reduced,  and  Marghilan, 
in  the  midst  of  extensive  gardens,  at  the  point  where  the  Shah-i-mardan  Eiver, 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


277 


flowing  from  the  Ala'i  glaciers,  ramifies  into  a  nmnber  of  ii-rigating  rills.  Owing 
to  its  liealtby  climate  Marghilan  has  been  chosen  for  the  capital  of  Ferghana, 
although  the  new  Eussian  town  springing  np  here  lies  some  9  miles  from  the  old 
Sarte  town.  Besides  gardening  the  chief  industiy  of  the  local  Sartes  is  camel-hair, 
wool,  and  silk  weaving. 

South-west  of  Marghilan  is  the  picturesque  ralley  of  the  Isfa'iran,  the  entrance 


Fig.  154. — Fkom  Kokan  to  SIarghilan. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


Lore 


C   Perron. 


15  Miles. 


to  which  is  guarded  by  the  small  town  of  Uch-ktirgan.  Farther  south  is  Vadil,  a 
pleasant  summer  retreat  on  the  Shah-i-mardan  River,  leading  to  the  town  of  like 
name,  one  of  the  most  frequented  places  of  pilgrimage  in  Ferghana,  thanks  to  the 
tomb  of  AH,  which  it  claims  to  possess  in  common  with  so  many  other  Moslem 
towns. 


278  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

The  route  from  Tadil  to  Kohan,  or  rather  KhiJcand,  runs  north-west  bj'  the  foot 
oi  the  mountains  to  Rishtan,  where  it  enters  the  plain,  here  watered  by  innumerable 
rills  from  the  river  Sokh.  Kokan,  formerly  capital  of  the  state  of  like  name,  which 
has  now  become  the  Russian  province  of  Ferghana,  is  still  the  chief  place  in  the 
countrj'  in  population,  trade,  and  social  cidture.  It  was  founded  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  ago,  and  is  well  laid  out  with  broad,  regidar,  and  tolerabl}'  clean 
streets,  with  extensive  gardens  in  some  quarters.  Its  Tajik  inhabitants  speak  a 
remarkably  pure  Persian  dialect.  They  are  skilled  artisans,  largely  engaged  in 
paper-making,  weaving,  minting,  gold  and  silver  work,  and  other  industries.  The 
coin  most  generally  current  in  Turkestan,  and  even  bej'ond  the  Tian-shan,  is  the 
koJion,  worth  about  sixpence,  and  struck,  as  stated  in  the  legend,  in  "  Kokan  the 
Delightful  "  (Kholmndi  Latif).  The  inhabitants  suffer  much  from  goitre,  and  it 
was  owing  to  this  malady  that  the  Russians  removed  the  seat  of  Government  from 
Kokan.  Its  bazaar  is  nevertheless  still  the  best  stocked  in  Russian  Turkestan, 
containing,  besides  the  local  produce,  English,  Russian,  Persian,  and  Indian  wares, 
antique  jewellery,  and  genuine  works  of  art.  The  chief  monuments  are  some 
mosques  and  the  old  palace  of  the  khans,  all  in  good  style  and  in  far  better 
preservation  than  those  of  Samarkand. 

Khojend,  the  nearest  town  on  the  Sir  to  Ferghana,  and  the  outlet  for  the 
produce  of  that  province,  has  abeady  become  a  double  city.  The  Mohammedan 
quarters,  occupied  almost  exclusively  by  Tajiks,  stretch  southwards  along  both 
banks  of  the  Hoja-bakargan,  flowing  from  the  Alai  range.  In  the  north  the 
steadily  increasing  Russian  quarter  occupies  the  space  between  the  old  towTi  and 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sir.  In  siunmer  the  heat  is  intense,  the  solar  rays  being 
reflected  on  the  town  from  the  white  cliffs  of  the  Mogol-tau,  near  the  north  bank 
of  the  river,  while  the  atmosphere  is  charged  with  the  dust  from  the  surrounding 
steppe.  The  Hoja-bakargan  often  runs  dry,  and  then  the  women  have  to  fetch  the 
water  from  the  steep  banks  of  the  Sir.  Khojend  is  one  of  the  oldest  places  in 
Turkestan,  and  till  recently  occuj)ied  an  important  strategical  position  near  the  old 
frontier,  over  against  the  fortress  of  Makhram,  and  not  far  from  the  ppint  where  the 
Sir  bends  north-westward  to  the  Aral.  South-west  of  it  stands  Irjar,  scene  of  the 
decisive  battle  which  in  1866  rendered  the  Russians  masters  of  the  land.  Another 
place  frequently  mentioned  in  the  records  of  the  local  wars  is  the  fortified  town  of 
Ura-tepe,  on  the  route  between  Samarkand  and  Jizak. 

Yani-chinaz,  or  New  Chinaz,  at  the  junction  of  the  Chirchik  and  Sir,  is  a  mere 
hamlet,  which  the  Russians  hoped  to  make  a  flourishing  city  at  the  head  of  the 
navigation  of  the  river.  But  this  project  was  defeated  by  the  difficulties  encoimtered 
in  this  part  of  the  stream,  and  Eski-chinaz,  or  Old  Chinaz,  some  distance  off,  still 
remains  the  more  populous  of  the  two.  On  the  other  hand,  Eski-tashkend,  lying  to 
the  north-east  on  the  same  route,  has  been  abandoned  altogether  for  the  new  Taskketul, 
the  present  capitalof  Russian  Turkestan,  and  one  of  the  first  cities  in  the  empire. 
Covering  a  space  as  large  as  Paris,  nearly  8  miles  long  and  over  4  broad,  Tashkend,  or 
the  "  Stone  Castle,"  consists  mostly  of  low  houses  buried  amidst  a  dense  vegetation, 
in  which  the  jiojjlars,  willows,  and  other  trees  lining  the  canals  are  to^jpcd  onl}'  by 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


279 


the  larger  Paissian  buildings  and  the   domes   of  a  few   minarets.     Although  not 
standius  on  a  large  river,  its  site  is  well  chosen  on  the  banks  of  the  Chirchik, 


280 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


which  is  abundantly  suppliett  with  water  from  the  snows  of  the  Ala-Tau  and  the 
torrents  from  the  Choktal  Mountains.  It  occupies  the  centre  of  the  irrigated  and 
arable  lands  stretching  from  Samarkand  to  the  valleys  of  the  "  Seven  Eivers," 
while  communicating  by  easy  routes  with  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Sir,  Talas,  and 
Chu.  After  its  easy  capture  by  Chernaiev  numerous  adventurers  were  attracted  to 
the  new  city,  which  in  18G5  had  become  the  centre  of  Russian  authority  in 
Turkestan.  The  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  traders  thought  they  had  discovered 
a  new  Eldorado,  and  rapid  fortunes  were  at  first  made  by  wars  and  commerce.  But 
the  good  times  of  wild  speculation  soon  passed ;  most  of  the  Russians  now  resident 
here  are  the  Government  officials  and  the  military,  and  trade  has  again  fallen  mainly 


Fig.  156. — Khojend  and  Neighbourhood. 
Scale  1 :  460,000. 


fl.Perrorv 


24  MUes. 


into  the  hands  of  the  native  Sartes  and  Jews.      Immigrants  from  every  part  of 
Central  Asia  are  met  in  the  streets  of  Tashkend,  and  there  is  even  a  considerable 
Nogai  Tatar  commimity  from  Caucasia.     In  1871 — 5  the  population  was  estimated 
at  82,986,  composed   of   the   following  heterogeneous  elements : — Sartes,   75,176 
Russians  in  the  Asiatic  quarter,  1,289 ;  Russians  in  the  European  quarter,  -4,860 
Uzbeg.s,  708;  Kirghiz,  375  ;  Jews,  293  ;  Germans,  110;  Hindus,  93  ;  Afghans,  25 
Chinese,  3  ;  Nogais  and  others,  64.     Now  the  population  exceeds  100,000. 

The  broad  dusty  streets  lined  with  trees  and  white  houses  in  the  Russian 
quarter  form  a  striking  contrast  with  the  low  flat-roofed  buildings  of  the  Sarte 
districts.     The  roofs  are  generally  composed  of  willow  branches  and  reeds,  covered 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


281 


with  a  layer  of  earth  laid  out  in  grass-plots  or  flower  beds.  In  the  dry  season 
this  answers  very  well,  but  during  the  heavy  rains  the  whole  framework  is  apt  to 
eollaj)se,  burying  the  inmates  in  its  ruins.  The  houses  have  generally  one  story  only, 
high  buildings,  such  as  jjalaces  and  mosques,  rmming  great  risks  from  the  frequent 
earthquakes.  In  summer  the  Russians  retire  to  Zangi-ata  and  other  pleasant 
retreats,  where  they  camjj  out  like  the  Uzbegs  in  the  midst  of  sj-lvan  scenery, 
jjure  air,  fragrant  flowers,  purling  streams,  and  warbling  songsters. 

The  growth  of  Tashkcnd  has  outstripped  that  of  its  industries,  which  are  still 
mainly  restricted  to  silk- weaving,  tanning,  the  manufacture  of  china  (c/iiiii),  felt. 

Fig.  157. — Plain  of  Tashkexd. 
Scale  1  :  800,000. 


C.  Pe 


and  camel-hair  goods.  But  the  local  artisans  are  no  longer  able  to  compete  with 
the  products  imported  from  Russia,  consisting  chiefly  of  cottons,  silks,  hardware, 
wood  and  leather  ware,  and  colonial  produce.  In  return  Tashkcnd  exj^orts  raw 
cotton  and  silk,  and  its  yearly  increasing  exchanges  now  amount  to  about  £4,000,000. 
Its  trade  was  represented  in  1873  by  82,500  camel-loads,  4,296  horse-loads,  and 
8,648  waggon-loads.  Great  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Government  to  establish 
an  international  fair  at  Tashkcnd,  such  as  those  of  Nijni-Novgorod  and  Irbit.  Rut 
although  recourse  was  even  had  to  fines  and  other  coercive  measures,  the  commercial 
stream  refused  to  enter  the  new  bed  prepared  for  it,  and  the  site  of  the  fair,  about 


282 


ASIATIC  EUSSL\.. 


5  miles  from  the  regular  bazaar,  opeued  iu  1870,  liad  been  comjjletely  abandoned 
fciiir  years  afterwards. 

Tashkeud  boasts  of  a  club  Avith  a  library  of  10,0U0  volumes,  an  observatory, 
a  school  of  sericultm-e,  a  normal  school,  and  an  Official  Gazette  containing  useful 
documents  on  Turkestan  and  the  sm-rounding  lands.  In  1879  a  branch  of  the 
Russian  Geographical  Society  was  established  here.  But  of  the  two  other  scientific 
bodies  one  was  killed  by  official  patronage,  the  other  by  official  ojjpression. 

Cliinkent,  north  of  the  capital,  occupies  an  analogous  j)osition  in  a  well-watered 
district,  and  is  a  place  of  some  commercial  and  strategic  importance,  standing  in  the 
western  issue  of  the  broad  opening  between  the  Kara-tau  and  the  Alexander  range 


Fig.  158. — A  Street  in  Tashkend. 


which  connects  the  Sir  and  Balkhash  basins.     The  kumis  prepared  by  the  Kirghiz 
ir  the  neighboiu'hood  is  said  to  be  the  best  in  Turkestan. 

Following  the  postal  route  from  Tashkend  to  Orenburg  along  the  southern  foot 
oi  the  metalliferous  Kara-tau  range,  the  traveller  reaches  the  old  city  of  Ymi, 
where  Timur  founded  a  famous  mosque  in  1397  in  honour  of  Hazret  Yasavi,  special 
patron  of  the  Kirghiz.  This  mosque,  which  has  suffered  both  from  earthquakes 
and  the  Russian  guns  in  1864,  was  left  unfinished  by  its  Persian  architect.  Yet, 
such  as  it  is,  this  vast  ruin,  the  most  sacred  spot  in  Central  Asia,  stiU  produces  an 
imposing  effect,  especially  when  seen  from  the  stcp2Je,  towering  with  its  square 
masses  above  the  ruined  walls  of  the  town.     This  region  of  Tatarv  is  a  laud  of 


TOPOGRAPUY.  283 

ruius.  Numerous  fortresses,  formerly  defencliug  the  fords  of  tlae  Sir,  are  now 
al);uidoued,  and  the  plains  are  strewn  with  kur»ans.  Otntr,  on  the  Sir  south  of 
Turkestan  (Yasi)  witnessed  the  death  of  Timur  in  1405,  and  the  site  of  Suran,  or 
iSavrun,  another  ruined  city  west  of  the  same  place,  was  till  recently  marked  by 
two  elegant  minarets. 

The  ancient  Ak-incchcd,  or  "  White  Mosque,"  on  the  Lower  Sir,  takes  its  present 
name  of  Pcromk  from  the  Russian  General  Perovsky,  who  captured  it  in  1853, 
and  made  it  a  military  station,  round  which  a  new  town  has  sprung  up.  Standing 
at  the  head  of  the  old  delta  near  the  Yani-daria  branch,  it  lies  on  the  direct  route 
fi'om  Persia  through  Khiva  to  Siberia,  and  is  doubtless  destined  one  day  to  become 
a  great  commercial  cmporimu.  Meantime  its  trade  is  less  active  than  that  of 
Kazalinsk,  on  the  main  branch  of  the  Sir.  This  town,  formerly  known  as  Fort 
No.  1,  succeeded  in  1855  to  Ra'im,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  as  the  military  station 
of  this  district.  It  lies  in  a  cidtivated  and  well-watered  tract  at  the  intersection 
of  the  main  routes  from  Orenburg  to  Tashkcnd,  and  from  Herat  through  Khiva  to 
Yekaterinburg,  and  has  already  become  a  thriving  trading-place. 

On  the  Lower  Oxus  there  are  nothing  but  military  posts  such  as  Petro- 
Alexandrovsk  and  Nukus,  commanding  the  banks  of  the  river,  or  villages  such 
as  Chambai,  mostly  deserted  in  sununer,  in  winter  often  crowded  by  thousands 
of  Kara-Kalpak  nomads.  The  now  desert  tract  between  the  Sir  and  Oxus,  for- 
merly watered  by  the  Yani-daria,  was  at  one  time  dotted  with  nimierous  towns, 
of  which  Yani-kend,  or  "  Newcastle,"  was  still  standing  when  Gladishev  passed 
this  way  in  1742. 

In  the  Kirghiz  steppes  stretching  north  of  the  Aral  Sea  Turgai  and  Irghiz 
are  small  towns,  deriving  some  importance  from  their  position  as  centres  of 
administration.  They  are  stations  gladly  hailed  by  the  traveller  after  his  long  and 
weary  journey  across  the  sands  and  steppes. 

Along  the  northern  foot  of  the  Tian-shan  there  stretches  a  zone  of  cultivated 
lands  comparable  to  that  of  the  western  slope,  but  containing  no  large  towns 
since  the  massacres  that  have  changed  most  of  the  Hi  basin  to  a  wilderness. 
Auli-ata,  on  the  Talas,  the  first  post  occu2iied  by  the  Russians  east  of  the  Kara- 
tau,  although  not  yet  ranking  as  a  town,  does  a  brisk  trade  in  wheat  and  cattle. 
About  9  miles  farther  north  are  the  ruins  of  Tiunkent,  also  on  the  Talas,  and 
30  miles  higher  up  are  the  far  more  remarkable  ruins  of  a  vast  structure,  whose 
blocks  of  red  sandstone,  6  or  7  feet  long,  cover  a  space  of  nearly  8  acres.  They  are 
said  to  have  been  hewn  for  a  Buddhist  monastery,  though  the  Chinese  traveller 
Chang-Chun,  who  visited  the  place  in  1221,  speaks  of  a  "  red  stone  town."  He 
also  mentions  the  great  tmuuli  "  disjDOsed  like  the  stars  of  the  Great  Bear,"  and  known 
to  the  Kirghiz  as  the  "  Seven  Moxmds,"  although  there  are  sixteen  altogether. 

The  region  stretching  east  of  Auli-ata  along  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Alexander  range  is  the  country  of  the  "  Thousand  Sjjrings "  mentioned  by  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  Hwen-T'sang,  and  where  was  established  the  kingdom  of  Kara- 
kitai,  or  "  Black  China,"  by  many  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  those  kingdoms 
of   "Prester  John,"   long  sought  for  in  Abj'ssinia,   Caucasia,  and  Central  Asia. 


284  ASIATIC  EUSSLV. 

Here  rims  the  great  historical  route  between  China  and  the  "West ;  but  the  cities 
founded  along  this  route  by  one  conqueror  were  overthrown  by  another,  and 
nothing  now  remains  but  ruins.  Such  is  Tolnnak,  the  old  capital  of  the  Kipchak 
state,  16  miles  above  the  new  Tokmak,  centre  of  the  chief  Russian  colony  in 
the  valley  on  the  route  leading  through  the  Kaslek  Pass  to  Verniy.  This  place, 
now  capital  of  the  province  of  the  "  Seven  Eivers,"  is  the  old  Almati,  dating 
as  a  Russian  town  only  from  18G7.  Consisting  of  separate  quarters  gradually 
approaching  each  other,  it  presents  quite  a  Siberian  aspect  with  its  broad  streets, 
low  wood  or  brick  houses,  and  Russian  sign-boards.  Yet  the  population  is  far 
from  being  exclusively  Russian,  including  re23resentatives  of  nearly  all  the  Central 
and  Northern  Asiatic  races,  besides  Afghans,  Mordvinians,  Chuvashes,  and  Chere- 
missians.  Trade  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  who  have  several  indus- 
trial establishments  here.  Veniii/  is  the  depot  of  the  copper  utensils  of  Russian 
manufacture  used  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  Central  Asia  as  far  as  the  confines  of 
Tibet.  North  of  it  are  the  village  and  fort  of  Iliisk,  giiarding  the  passage  of 
the  river  and  the  routes  to  Kulja  and  the  territory  of  the  "Seven  Rivers." 

In  the  latter  region  the  most  populous  place  is  the  city  of  Kopal,  at  the 
northern  foot  of  the  Zungarian  Ala-tau,  and  on  the  river  Kopal,  which  is  lost 
in  the  swamps  some  60  miles  south  of  Lake  Balkhash.  Lepsiiisk,  chief  town  of 
the  Lepsa  valley,  is  a  thriving  place,  and  ITJarskaya,  beyond  the  Sassik-kul  and 
Ala-kid  Lakes,  docs  a  considerable  trade  with  the  nomads.  Sercjiopol,  the  old 
Aya-guz  of  the  Tatars,  is  conveniently  situated  on  the  Aj-a-guz,  flowing  to  the 
east  end  of  Lake  Balkhash.  Lastly,  in  the  heart  of  the  Tian-shan  the  centre  of 
Russian  civilisation  is  Karahol,  nearly  10  miles  from  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Lake  Issik-kul. 

So  long  as  the  Slav  population  of  the  coimtry  was  limited  to  Cossack  detach- 
ments settled  here  as  military  colonists,  every  Russian  village  was  the  scene  of 
di'unkenness  and  excesses  of  every  sort.  Instead  of  cultivating  their  own  gardens 
the  Cossacks  plundered  those  of  their  neighbours,  cutting  do'nm  their  orchai'ds  f(jr 
fuel.  So  far  from  civilising  the  Kahnuks,  thej'  gradually  became  assimilated  to 
those  nomads,  not  in  their  honesty,  but  in  the  rudeness  of  their  manners.  To 
give  themselves  grand  airs  they  sjjoke  Mongolian  like  them,  as  if  their  Slav 
origin  were  a  mark  of  inferioi'ity.  But  the  free  immigration  of  the  Russian 
peasantry  has  entirely  changed  the  system  of  colonisation,  which  is  now  making- 
rapid  progress.  The  mir,  or  communal  system,  has  penetrated  into  these  fertile 
valleys,  where  Russian  is  replacing  Mongolian  cultm'e,  though  many  years  must 
pass  before  the  land  can  be  as  extensively  culti\ated  and  peopled  as  formerl}'. 
Everj'where  are  visible  the  remains  of  towns  and  Buddhist  monuments,  the  traces 
of  canals,  funeral  mounds,  many  of  which  contain  gold  vases  incrustated  with 
precious  stones. 

Kulja  Basix — Topography. 

East  of  Verniy  the  river  Hi  waters  the  fertile  province  of  Kulja,  which  before 
the  terrible  events  of  1869  is  said  to  have  had  a  population  of  2,500,000.     But 


KULJA  BASIN— TOPOGEAPHY. 


285 


after  the  massacres  the  country  was  changed  to  a  vast  necropolis.  On  all  sides 
nothing  is  A-isible  but  canals  choked  or  changed  to  swamps,  abandoned  fields, 
wasted  forests,  towns  and  ^•iUages  in  ruins.  Ascending  the  lU  valley  beyond 
the  fort  of  Borokhudzir  and  the  forest  of  dnarf  ehns  planted  by  the  Chinese, 
piles  of  stone  mark  in  succession  the  sites  of  tlie  towns  of  Tiu-gen,  Jar-kend, 
Ak-kend,  Khorgos,  Alim-tu.  The  walls  and  towers  of  .some  old  fortresses  are 
still  standing,    but   through    the 

Fig.  1.59. — KrLJA  AXD  Neighbocring  Mines. 
Scale  1  :  1,500,000. 


^:^^:ymi^f^^^'r:^^m'^^ 


breeches  nothing  is  visible  except 
heaps  of  ruins  half  concealed 
beneath  the  rank  vegetation  and 
roots  of  trees.  The  city,  founded 
by  the  Chinese  in  1764  as  the 
capital  of  the  province  imder  the 
various  names  of  Hi,  Xew  Kidja, 
Manchu  Kulja,  Hoi-j-uan,  pre- 
sents a  woeful  spectacle.  Thewalls 
of  the  forti'ess  are  still  standing ; 
here  and  there  is  seen  a  dilapi- 
dated tower  ;  sculptured  gateways 
and  walls  covered  with  frescoes 
contrast  with  the  confused  masses 
of  debris;  while  in  some  places  the 
ground  is  strewn  with  bleached 
bones.  After  the  Taranchi  but- 
chers had  done  their  work  the 
streets  of  111  were  choked  with 
80,000  bodies  of  their  victims, 
and  even  in  187G  the  only  symp- 
toms of  revival  were  two  or 
three  houses  occupied  by  Dun- 
gans.  Bayandai,  farther  east, 
said  to  have  had  150,000  soids, 
has  now  nothing  but  a  few  frag- 
ments of  walls ;  but  the  little  town 
of  Suidun,  Ijnng  north  of  it,  is  still 
inhabited. 

Old   Kulja,    known    also    as 
Tatar  Kulja,  !Pfin-yuan  and  Ku- 

ren,  standing  like  Ili  on  the  right  bank,  is  the  present  capital ;  but  it  enjoyed  this 
position  before  Ili  itself.  Like  all  the  towns  built  by  the  Chinese,  it  forms  a 
regular  square  sm-rounded  by  a  high  crenellated  wall,  broad  enough  on  top  to  serve 
as  a  carriage  drive.  Two  main  streets  leading  to  the  four  gates  intersect  each  other 
at  right  angles,  thus  forming  four  smaller  squares  of  equal  size,  and  themselves 
subdivided  into  others  by  streets  and  lanes.     But  although  laid  out  by  the  Chinese, 

VOL.    VI.  u 


EoFG. 


Lead. 
SilTer. 

ILirble. 
Graphite. 


Copper. 
Coal  Mine. 

Abandoned  Iron 

Foundry. 
Abindoned  Gold- 

■vrnshing. 


i 

♦ 

21  Miles. 


C. Perron 

Coal  Bed. 
Iron  Ore. 
Manganese, 
Coal-fieldr. 


286 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Kulja  retains  the  appearance  of  a  Turkestan  city  in  tlic  arohitecture  of  its  monu- 
ments, and  in  its  bakcd-carth  houses  covered  with  clay  roofs  like  those  of  the  Uzbegs 
and  Sartes  of  Central  Asia.  The  Dungans  and  Chinese  of  this  place  do  a  considerable 
trade,  and  even  possess  some  industrial  establishments,  mills,  and  the  like.  But  the 
marbles,  iron,  sulphur,  coal,  and  other  minerals  of  the  neighbouring  hills  are  little 
worked.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Mohammedans,  and  amidst  the  numerous 
mosques  there  are  but  two  Buddhist  temples  besides  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel, 
served  by  French  missionaries,  and,  siace  the  Muscovite  occupation,  some  Russian 
churches. 

The  Russian  Government  having  occupied  Kulja  only  pending  the  pacification 
of  the  coimtry  by  the  Chinese,  the  Slav  colonists  have  not  been  authorised  to  settle 
in  the  country.    A  few  soldiers,  traders,  and  travellers  have  been  the  only  Eui'opeans 


Fig.  160. — DispL-TED  Terkitort  in  Kolja. 
Scale  1  :  6,500,000. 


CPerron 


120  JUles. 


in  the  Hi  valley,  in  the  midst  of  its  Tatar,  Kalmuk,  Taranchi,  Dimgan,  and 
Chinese  inhabitants.  After  tedious  diplomatic  negotiations  a  treat}-  was  at  last 
ratified  in  August,  1881,  in  -vdrtue  of  which  Russia  restores  to  China  the  Kulja 
territory  as  far  as  the  river  Khorgos,  but  retains  a  strip  of  land  for  the  settlement 
of  those  who  may  become  Russian  subjects  within  the  year.  The  threatened  war 
having  thus  been  averted,  it  is  probable  that  other  settlers  from  the  "West  will 
now  also  begin  to  make  their  api3earance  in  the  fertile  valleys  watered  by  the 
affluents  of  the  Upper  Hi.  On  the  streams  in  this  part  of  the  Tian-shan  high- 
lands there  are  no  more  to^^^ls  or  villages,  but  the  numerous  rivers  show  that 
the  country  was  formerly  well  jaeopled.  In  the  valley  of  the  Tekes,  south-east  of 
Kulja,  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  capital  of  the  Mongol  khans,  now  known  to  the 
Kirghiz  as  the  Ak-kurgan,  or  "  "White  Mound."  Buildings  belonging  to  diverse 
civilisations   still    give   evidence  of    the  struggles  formerly  engaged   in    for   the 


ADMIXISTRATIOX  OF  TUEKESTAX. 


287 


Fig.  161. — Chinese  Tvpe,  Kllja. 


possession  of  this  magiiiticcnt  region.  In  the  valley  of  the  Kash  are  seen  many 
idols  and  blocks  bearing-  Tibetan  inscriptions,  and  near  Khorgos,  east  of  Kuija, 
stands  a  mosque,  in  its  style  resembKug  those  of  Samarkand. 

Administration  of  Turkestax. 

Most  of  Russian  Turkestan  consists  of  pastures,  desert,  and  other  waste  lands,  the 
arable  space  being  estimated  at  present  at  no  more  than  one-fifteenth  of  the  whole 
area.  But  although  the  water  supply  is  less  abundant  than  formerly,  the  rivers  now 
flowing  to  saline  basins  or  unhealthy  marshes  might  be  utilised  in  reclaiming  vast 
tracts  from  the  desert.  Estimating  such  tracts  at-  about  one-sixth  of  the  whole 
Aralo-Caspian  region,  this  woidd  still  represent  an  area  larger  than  France,  and 
sufficient  to  support  40,000,000  people.  Most  of  the  required  irrigation  works 
would  also  consist  of  restorations 
of  older  systems.  The  banks  of  the 
Sir  north  and  west  of  Bokhara,  and 
nearly  all  the  .space  between  the  two 
main  arteries,  were  formerly  under 
cultivation,  and  the  stepj)eof  "Hun- 
ger "  has  borne  this  name  only  since 
the  sands  have  invaded  the  ariks, 
by  which  it  was  at  one  time  fur- 
rowed in  all  directions,  and  which  it 
is  now  proposed  to  repair. 

The  lands  brought  under  irriga- 
tion give  excellent  results,  even 
imder  the  rude  system  jjractised  by 
the  natives.  All  the  oases  laid  out 
as  gardens  support  one  or  more 
toT\Tis,  and  it  is  by  gardening  rather 
than  by  ordinary  tillage  that  the 
people  chiefly  live.  In  the  Bok- 
hara plains  the  gardens   are    seven 

times  more  extensive  than  the  land  ipiaer  crojjs,  which  occupy  large  spaces  only 
on  the  slopes  of  the  hills. 

The  cotton  crop,  which  has  considerabh*  increased  of  late  years,  is  valued  at 
50,000  tons,  of  which  two-thirds  come  from  Bokhara.  This  plant  grows  as  far  as 
Kazalinsk,  on  the  Lower  Sir,  but  the  Asiatic  fibre  is  much  inferior  to  the  American, 
and  is  also  prepared  in  such  a  slovenly  way  as  to  exclude  it  altogether  from  the  West 
European  market.  The  quantity  exported  to  Russia  rose  from  677,000  roubles  in 
1858  to  5,513,000  in  1867.  Silk  has  made  still  more  rapid  progress,  the  export  to 
Russia  having  increased  fi-om  69,000  to  1,273,900  roubles  between  the  same  years. 
The  Bokhara  crojj  alone  now  amounts  to  about  "2,500,000  lbs.  In  some  districts 
the  mulberry  is  the  ordinary  tree  everywhere  lining  the  hedges  and  fields.  The 
native  wool  is  very  coarse,  and  so  badly  sorted  and  washed  that  it  is  useless  except 

r  2 


288  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

for  weaving  inferior  elotli.  Yet  some  of  the  carpets  are  remarkable  for  their 
strength,  and  esiiccially  for  the  beauty  and  originality  of  their  designs.  They  are 
woven  by  the  Turkoman  women  under  the  guidance  of  a  matron,  who  traces  the 
design  on  the  sand,  counts  the  number  of  threads,  and  selects  the  colours  and 
shades.  The  camel-hair  fabrics,  also  very  solid,  have  replaced  linen  for  sacking, 
soldiers'  blouses,  and  other  piu'poses. 

But  the  chief  wealth  of  the  comitrj^  is  its  live  stock,  A'alued  altogether  at 
100,000,000  roubles.  The  fat-tailed  sheep  supply  a  large  quantity  of  the  tallow 
required  for  local  consumption.  The  Kirghiz  yearly  export  to  Russia  about 
500,000  roubles'  worth  of  wool,  while  the  sale  of  the  animals  themselves  all  along 
the  line  between  Troitzk  and  Semipalatinsk  amounts  to  3,500,000  roubles.  The 
Ku'ghiz  derive  an  annual  revenue  of  over  5,000,000  roubles  from  their  horses,  and 
altogether  the  "balance  of  trade"  is  in  favour  of  these  nomads  as  against  their 
Eussian  masters.  Yet  the  live  stock  is  diminishing  from  the  effects  of  cold,  storms, 
disease,  and  other  causes.  The  importation  of  corn  into  the  steppes  has  also  fallen  off, 
owing  to  the  increasing  poverty  of  the  nomads.  In  the  province  of  Turgai  the  cattle 
are  said  to  have  been  reduced  in  the  winter  of  1879-80  from  800,000  to  50,000. 

In  theory  the  soil  of  Turkestan  cannot  be  held  absolutclj-,  the  right  of  posses- 
sion existing  only  so  long  as  it  is  kept  under  cultivation.  If  allowed  to  lie  fallow 
for  thi-ee  years  it  reverts  to  the  State,  which  again  disposes  of  it  to  whoever  is 
willing  to  jiay  the  tax.  The  land  incapable  of  tillage  may  be  said  to  be  common 
property,  all  having  unrestricted  right  to  its  pastures  and  timber.  The  cultivated 
land  is  inherited  from  father  to  son  without  the  intervention  of  the  State,  except 
where  it  is  enjoyed  in  usufruct,  as  with  the  rrtA-;// lands,  whose  revenues  belong  to 
religioixs  or  educational  bodies.  The  State  allows  the  o^Ticrs  the  right  to  a  certain 
quantity  of  water  for  irrigation  f)urposes,  but  may  regulate  the  rotation  of  the 
crops  according  to  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  the  sujiply. 

Comprising  so  many  desert  tracts  and  so  few  inhabitants  and  towns,  the  adminis- 
tration of  Russian  Turkestan  presents  special  dilRculties,  Owing  to  the  absence 
of  any  common  centre,  the  people  easily  escape  from  the  direct  control  of  the  autho- 
rities, and  tiU  recently  many  were  able  to  maintain  their  independence,  thanks  to 
their  nomad  life  and  the  vast  regions  over  which  they  roamed.  The  sedentary 
populations  also  occujDy  the  territories  farthest  removed  from  the  centre  of  the 
empire,  and  if  left  to  themselves  they  would  soon  form  new  political  groiqjs  without 
much  regretting  their  release  from  the  Slav  j'oke.  The  annexation  of  these  lands 
to  Russia  is  a  question  of  brute  force,  and  has  its  justification  neither  in  the 
sjmipathy  of  the  people  for  their  conquerors,  nor  in  any  resemblance  in  origin, 
speech,  culture,  habits,  or  customs.  In  everj'  respect  the  racial  antagonism  is 
complete,  But  for  the  ultimate  goal  of  India,  and,  perhaps,  China,  the  Russians 
would  never  have  cared  to  penetrate  much  beyond  the  banks  of  the  Ural  and  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian, 

Central  Asia  is  meantime  held  in  military  tenure.  Hence  the  necessity  of  con- 
necting tliis  region  with  European  Russia  by  means  of  good  highways.  The 
small  trade  and  resources  of  the  Aralo-Ca.spian  provinces  arc  far  from  sufficing  to 


RAILWAY  PROJECTS. 


289 


pay  tlie  cost  and  maintenance  of  a  great  line  of  railwav,  and  tlie  requirements  even 
for  a  greatly  increased  traffic  would  still  be  met  by  the  caravan  service  across  the 
natm-al  routes  of  the  steppe  and  desert.  The  new  lines  now  projected  are  accord- 
ingly mainly  intended  to  connect  Tatary  ^'ith  Eussia,  and  secure  the  absolute 
ascendancy  of  the  Czar  in  Central  Asia.  For  such  a  purpose  the  rivers  and  seas 
of  the  land  are  of  little  u.se.  The  Oxus  no  longer  flows  to  the  Caspian,  while  the 
Aral  and  its  affluents  are  navigable  only  for  light  craft  and  for  a  part  of  the 
year.  The  cost  of  this  navigation  ali-eady  far  exceeds  the  miKtary  and  commercial 
ad\antages  to  be  derived  fi-om  it.  Hence  the  project  of  a  trimk  line  to  connect 
Tashkeud,  Samarkand,  and  Bokhara  fldth  the  European  railway  system.     This  line 


Fig.  1G2. — Projected  Kailway  Lines  is  Westers  Asia. 
Scale  1  :  W.iXiO.OOO. 


50 


C--^ 


'■'^«gaidi"ct-.„_ ■"H^St^":.'/'"       S(tefJ^ei^ 


EoPG 


C  PeTpp 


Open. 

In  PrcgTess. 


Enssian  Projects 
English  Projects 


.  900  Miles. 


has  already  l\v  anticipation  been  named  the  "  Great  Central  Asiatic,"  and  hopes 
are  entertained  that  some  day  the  trade  of  India  may  be  attracted  this  way. 

But  this  question  of  the  futm-e  trunk  line  to  India  is  affected  by  political 
rivalries.  The  Russians  on  the  one  hand,  the  English  on  the  other,  have  a 
national  interest  in  looking  at  things  fi'om  different  points  of  view ;  and  the  line 
oscillates  between  north  and  south  according  to  the  nationalit)'  of  the  engineers. 
To  the  projects  of  Lesseps  and  Baranovsky,  favoured  by  Eussia,  are  opjiosed  those 
of  Ilochstetter  and  Eawlinsou,  more  convenient  for  Austro-Hmigary  and  England. 
But  viewing  the  question  from  the  higher  standpoint  of  the  general  interest  of 
mankind,  apart  from  the  political  balance  of  the  states  struggling  for  exclusive  sway 


290  ASLiTIC  EUSSIA. 

in  Asia,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  best  route  is  that  which  follows  the  most 
direct  line  fi'om  the  great  centres  of  trade  and  popvdatiou  in  Eui-ope  to  the  Ganges 
basin.  This  line  is  ob^-iously  that  which,  starting  from  Calais  and  Ostend,  wiU  ere 
long  connect  the  Atlantic  seaboard  with  Constantinople,  and  Constantinople 
idtimately  with  India  through  Xandahar  and  Kurachi.  To  this  line  the  Caucasian 
might  be  connected  by  a  junction  or  branch  line.  "With  the  north  Eussia  will  also 
possess  one  of  the  great  highwaj's  of  the  world's  trade,  rimning  from  the  Yolga  to 
the  Hoang-ho  basin  by  the  historic  route  through  the  Zimgarian  depression.  Thus 
the  projected  Tm-kestan  lines  must  always  remain  subordinate  as  comiecting  links 
between  the  two  great  trunk  lines  from  Eiu'ope  to  India  and  from  Eussia  to  China.* 

However  useful  it  may  prove  from  the  commercial  point  of  view,  the  Tm-kestan 
line  will  at  all  events  have  no  great  physical  difficidties  to  overcome.  The  chief 
obstacle  occurs  at  Orenburg  itself,  its  western  terminus,  where  the  Ural  Eiver  will 
have  to  be  crossed  by  a  bridge  over  1,330  feet  long.  The  "  Black  Sands  "  north  of 
the  Aral  will  not  prove  so  difficult  as  was  formerly  supposed,  the  dunes  being  here 
separated  from  each  other  by  level  tracts  rimning  south-eastwards  right  ui  the 
direction  of  the  line.  Another  route  crossiug  the  Emba  morass  follows  the  Ust-urt 
depressions  and  the  plains  of  Khiva,  ascending  the  Oxus  valley  towards  Afghan 
Turkestan  and  the  passes  in  the  Indian  Caucasus.  Other  projects  consist  in  turn- 
ing the  Kara-kmn  desert  on  the  north,  with  a  junction  to  the  future  Siberian 
system  via  Troi'tzk  and  Yekaterinburg.  The  section  from  Orenburg  to  Tashkend 
might  probably  be  laid  down  for  £8,000,000.  But  bej-ond  that  point  towards  the 
Indian  frontier  many  serious  difficulties  present  themselves,  nor  have  any  prelimi- 
nary surveys  yet  determined  the  best  route  through  Baktriaua  and  over  the  Hindu- 
Kush. 

The  government  of  Tm-kestan  is  jorn'oly  militar}'.  The  Governor-General, 
known  to  the  natives  as  the  "  Yarin-i^adishah,"  or  "  Half  Kiug,"  di.sposes  of  royal 
powers  over  his  subjects.  He  is  at  once  the  head  of  the  administration,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  military  forces,  plenipotentiary  of  the  Czar  m  aU  dijjlomatic  relations 
with  the  neighbouring  lands.  His  salarj'  is  fixed  by  no  regidations,  dejjending 
entirely  on  the  will  of  the  Czar.  In  order  to  increase  his  power  the  Siberian 
provinces  of  Semirechinsk,  Turgai,  Akmolinsk,  and  Semipalatinsk  have  been  attached 
to  Turkestan,  which  is  now  nearly  as  extensive  as  the  ^^•hole  of  European  Eussia. 

The  various  pro^-inces  are  administered  on  the  model  of  the  Jlussian  govern- 
ments, with  such  modifications  as  are  occasioned  bj'  the  preponderance  of  the 
military  element.  The  governors  of  the  provinces  are  named  by  the  Minister 
of  War,  and  assisted  by  a  pro^'incial  coimcil  chosen  by  the  Governor-General.     At 

*  Eespoctlve  length  of  the  pi-njectej  lines  of  railways  and  navigation  hetwccu  London  and 
Calcutta  ; — 

Miles. 

By  Calais,  Constantinople,  and  Kandahar         .....  5,470 

„    Ostend,  AVarsaw,  Baku,  and  Teheran 5,880 

„                   .,                  Orenburg,  and  Taslikend           ....  6,480 

„    Brindisi,  Alexandretta,  and  Bassorah 0,885 

,,          ,,         Suez,  and  Bombay 7,200 

,,    the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 12,870 


FINANCE.  291 

the  head  of  the  "  circles  "  is  a  prefect,  who  is  responsible  for  the  taxes  and  the 
maintenance  of  i^eace.  At  the  same  time  the  autonomy  of  the  tribes  is  not 
altogether  ignored,  and  their  usages  are  respected  so  far  as  is  comjjatible  with  the 
general  interests.  The  Kirghiz,  groiiped  in  aiik  of  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  families,  and  in  larger  communities  known  by  the  Russian  name  of  ro/ost, 
or  "  bailiwick,"  choose  their  own  elders  and  judges  for  all  tribal  affairs.  The 
Uzbegs,  Sartes,  and  Tajiks  of  the  towns  also  appoint  their  akmk  a  I,  or  "white 
beards ;  "  but  this  privilege  depends  on  the  will  of  .the  Governor- General,  who  may 
set  asid^  any  of  the  elected  magistrates.  Hence  the  urban  elections  have  mostly 
become  a  mere  formality,  and  all  the  military,  administrative,  and  judicial  functions 
may  be  said  to  be  practically  in  the  hands  of  the  Russian  officer  of  highest 
rank  in  'the  Turkestan  cities.  Freedom  of  worship  is  absolute,  and  the  absence  of 
persecution  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  diminished  zeal  of  the  Mussuhnans. 
Public  instruction  is  still  but  slightly  aj)preciated  by  the  j)eoi3le,  and  in  the  whole 
of  Turkestan  there  are  scarcely  more  than  5,000  Moslem  children  receiving 
a  regular  education.  Secondary  instruction  is  represented  by  the  medresse/i,  or 
"colleges,"  where  little  is  learnt  except  the  reading  of  the  Koran.  In  some  of 
the  primary  schools  the  Russian  language  is  already  taught. 

The  chief  source  of  expense  is  the  army,  which  averages  30,000  men, 
but  which,  as  in  1880,  may  be  raised  to  80,000.  All  supjjlies  have  to  be 
drawn  from  Russia,  a  distance  of  2,400  miles,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the 
Tm-kestan  budget  always  shows  a  yearly  deficit  of  from  2,000,000  to  10,000,000 
roubles.  The  expenditure  is  about  four  times  the  income,  and  three-fourths  of  this 
expenditure  are  absorbed  by  the  army.  The  land  tax,  which  gives  rise  to  great 
waste,  jDroduces  about  1,275,000  roubles,  and  the  whole  revenue  scarcely  exceeds 
2,500,000  roubles,  while  the  expenditure  averages  8,000,000  roubles.  The  income 
of  the  khanate  of  Kokan  alone  amounted,  before  the  Russian  conquest,  to  2,290,000 
roubles. 


CH^VPTER  IV. 

SIBERIA. 


I.— SIBERIA. 

IBERIA  Is  emphatically  the  "  Land  of  the  North."  Its  name  has  hj 
some  et^^nologists  been  identified  with  "  Severia,"  a  term  foimerly 
ajjjjlied  to  various  northern  regions  of  European  Russia.  The  city 
of  Sibil-,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole  of  Xorth  Asia,  was 
so  called  only  by  the  Russians,  its  native  name  being  Isker.  The 
Cossacks,  coming  from  the  south  and  centre  of  Russia,  may  have  natm-ally  regarded 
as  pre-eminently  the  "Northern  Land"  those  cold  regions  of  the  Ob  basiu  Ij'ing 
beyond  the  snowy  mountains  which  form  the  "  girdle  of  the  world." 

Long  before  the  conquest  of  Sibir  by  the  Cossacks,  this  region  was  known  to 
the  Arab  traders  and  missionaries.  The  Tatars  of  Sibir  were  Mohammedans,  and 
this  town  was  the  centre  of  a  great  fur  trade.  The  Russians  themselves  had 
constant  relations  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  Asiatic  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and  the 
Novgorodians  were  acquainted  with  the  regions  stretching  "  beyond  the  portages." 
Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  Moscow  Czars,  heirs  of  the  Novgorod  power, 
called  themselves  lords  of  Obdoria  and  Kondiaia  ;  that  is,  of  all  the  Lower  Ob  basin 
between  the  Konda  and  Irtish  confluence,  and  the  station  of  Obdorsk,  imder  the 
Arctic  Circle.  Their  possessions — that  is,  the  himting  grounds  ^-isited  h\  the  Russian 
agents  of  the  Strogonov  family — consequently  skirted  the  great  river  for  a  distance 
of  600  miles.  But  the  Slav  power  was  destined  soon  to  be  consolidated  by 
conquest,  and  such  is  the  respect  inspired  by  force  that  the  successful  expedition  of 
a  Cossack  brigand,  on  whose  head  a  jDrico  had  been  set,  was  supposed  to  have  led  to 
the  discovery  of  Siberia,  although  really  preceded  by  many  A^isits  of  a  peaceful 
character.  Even  stUl  the  conquering  Yermak  is  often  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
explorer  of  the  lands  beyond  the  Urals.  But  he  merely  established  himself  as  a 
master  where  the  Strogonov  traders  had  been  received  as  guests.  Maps  of  the  Ob 
and  of  the  O.stiak  country  had  already  been  jniblished  by  Sebastian  Mmister  and  by 
Herberstein  a  generation  before  the  Cossacks  entered  Sibir.  The  verj^  name  of  this 
to\TO  is  marked  on  Munster's  map. 


PROGEESS  OF  CONQUEST  AND  DISCOVERY. 


293 


Progress  of  Conquest  axd  Discovery. 

In  1579  Yermak  began  the  second  iilundering  expedition,  whicli  in  two 
years  residted  in  tlie  caj)ture  of  the  capital  of  the  Tatar  kingdom.  When  the 
conquerors  entered  Sibir  they  had  been  reduced  from  over  800  to  about  400 
men.  But  this  hauclfid  represented  the  power  of  the  Czars,  and  Yermak  could 
sue  for  pardon,  with  the  offer  of  a  kingdom  as  his  ransom.      Before  the  close 

Fig.  163. — West  SiEEraA,  accokdixg  to  Hereeestein. 


of  the  sixteenth  century  the  land  had  been  finally  subdued.  Sibir  itself,  which 
stood  on  a  high  bluff  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irtish,  exists  no  more,  ha^'ing 
probably  been  swept  away  by  the  erosions  of  the  stream.  But  10  miles  farther 
do^\-n  another  capital,  Tobolsk,  arose,  also  on  the  right  bank,  and  the  whole  of  the 
north  was  gradually  added  to  the  Czar's  dominions.  The  fur  trappers,  more  even 
than  the  soldiers,  were  the  real  conquerors  of  Siberia.  Nevertheless,  many  battles 
had  to  be  fought  do\^-n  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  Bm-iats  of 
the  Angora  basin,  the  Koriaks,  and  other  tribes  long  held  out ;    but  most  of  the 


294  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

laud  was  peacefully  acquired,  and  jjennancntly  secured  by  the  forts  erected  by  the 
Cossacks  at  the  junctions  of  the  rivers,  at  the  entrance  of  the  mountain  passes,  and 
other  strategic  points.  History  records  no  other  instance  of  such  a  vast  dominion 
so  rapidly  acquired,  and  with  such  slender  means,  by  a  handful  of  men  acting  mostly 
on  their  own  impulse,  without  chiefs  or  instructions  from  the  centre  of  authority. 

Even  China  allowed  the  Cossacks  to  settle  on  the  banks  of  the  Amur,  though 
the  treaty  of  Nerchinsk  required  the  Russians  to  withdi-aw  from  that  basin  in  1689. 
But  during  the  present  centm'y  they  have  been  again  attracted  to  this  region,  and 
the  Government  of  St.  Petersbm-g  is  now  fully  alive  to  the  advantages  of  a  free  access 
by  a  large  navigable  stream  to  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Hence  in  1851  Miu'aviov 
established  the  factory  of  Nikolaievsk,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  and  those  of 
Mariinsk  and  Alexandrovsk  at  either  end  of  the  jjortage  connecting  that  river  with 
the  Ba}'  of  Castries.  Dm-ing  the  Crimean  war  its  left  bank  was  definitely  secm-ed 
by  a  line  of  fortified  posts,  and  in  1859  a  ukase  confirmed  the  possession  of  a  terri- 
tory torn  from  China  in  time  of  peace.  Lastly,  in  1860,  whUe  the  Anglo-French 
forces  were  entering  Pekin,  Russia  obtained  without  a  blow  the  cession  of  the 
region  south  of  the  Amur  and  east  of  the  Ussuri,  stretching  along  the  coast  to  the 
Corean  frontier. 

And  thus  was  completed  the  reduction  of  the  whole  of  North  Asia,  a  territory 
of  itself  alone  far  more  extensive  than  the  European  continent.  In  other  respects 
there  is,  of  course,  no  point  of  comijarison  between  these  two  regions.  This 
Siberian  world,  where  vast  wildernesses  still  remain  to  be  exi^lored,  has  a  foreign 
trade  sm-passed  by  that  of  many  a  third-rate  European  seaport,  such  as  Dover  or 
Boulogne.  Embracing  a  thirteenth  part  of  the  dry  land  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  its  jDojDulation  falls  short  of  that  of  London  alone  ;  it  is  even  more  sparsely 
peopled  than  Caucasia  and  Tm-kestan,  having  little  over  one  inhabitant  to  1,000 
acres. 

Accurate  surveys  of  the  physical  features  and  frontier-lines  are  still  far  from 
complete.  Only  quite  recently  the  first  circimma^-igation  of  the  Old  ^^'orld  round 
the  northern  shores  of  Siberia  has  been  accomplished  by  the  Swedish  exjilorer, 
Nordenskjold.  The  early  attempts  made  by  Willoughby,  Chancellor,  and  Burrough 
failed  even  to  reach  the  Siberian  coast.  Hoijiug  later  on  to  reach  China  by 
ascending  the  Ob  to  the  imaginary  Lake  Kitai — that  is,  Kathay,  or  China — the 
English  renewed  their  efforts  to  discover  the  "  north-east  passage,"  and  in  1580 
two  vessels,  commanded  by  Arthur  Ket  and  Charles  Jackman,  sailed  for  the  Arctic 
Ocean ;  but  they  never  got  beyond  the  Kara  Sea.  The  Dutch  succeeded  no  better, 
none  of  the  voyages  imdertaken  by. Barents  and  others  between  1594  and  1597 
reaching  farther  than  the  Spitzbergen  and  Novaya  Zemlya  waters.  Nor  were 
these  limits  exceeded  by  Hcndrich  Hudson  in  1608.  This  was  the  last  attempt 
made  by  the  navigators  of  West  Europe  ;  but  the  Russian  trader^  and  fishers  of  the 
White  Sea  were  familiar  with  the  routes  to  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  Gulfs,  as  is  evident 
from  a  map  jjublished  in  1600  by  Boris  Godimov.  However,  sixteen  j'ears  after- 
^^•ards  the  navigation  of  these  waters  was  interdicted  imder  pain  of  death,  lest 
foreigners  shoidd  discovfr  the  way  to  the  Siberian  coast. 


PROGRESS  OF  CONQUEST  AND  DISCOVERY. 


295 


164.  —  SAKH.A.I.IX,    ACCORDING    TO    L.\   PeROCSE. 

Scale  1 :  11,110,000. 


The  exjjloration  of  this  seaboard  had  thus  to  be  prosecuted  in  Siberia  itself  by 
meaiis  of  vessels  built  for  the  river  navigation.  In  1648  the  Cossack  Dejnev 
sailed  with  a  flotilla  of  small  craft  from  the  Kolima  roimd  the  north-east  extremity 
of  Asia,  passing  long  before  the  bii'th  of  Bering  through  the  strait  which  now  bears 
the  name  of  that  navigator.  Stadukhin  also  explored  these  eastern  seas  in  search 
of  the  islands  full  of  fossil  ivory,  of  which  ho  had  heard  from  the  natives.  In  1735 
Pronchishehev  and  Lasinius  embarked  at  Yakutsk  and  sailed  do-mi  the  Lena,  explor- 
ing its  delta  and  neighbouring- 
coasts.  Pronchishehev  reached  a  Fig 
point  east  of  the  Taimir  jieiiin- 
sula,  but  failed  to  double  the 
headlands  between  the  Lena  and 
Yenisei  estuaries.  The  expedition 
begun  by  Laptiev  in  1739,  after 
suffering  shipwreck,  was  continued 
overland,  resulting  in  the  explora- 
tion of  the  Taimir  peninsula  and 
the  discovery  of  the  Xoi-th  Cape 
of  the  Old  World,  PHny's  Tabin, 
and  the  Cheluskin  of  modern 
maps,  so  named  fi-om  the  pilot 
who  accompanied  Pronchishehev 
and  Laptiev.-  The  western  sea- 
board between  the  Yenisei  and 
Ob  estuaries  had  already  been 
surveyed  by  Ovtzin  and  Minin  in 
1737_9. 

But  the  problem  was  already 
being  attacked  from  the  side  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  In  1728  the  Danish 
navigator  Bering  in  the  ser\-ice 
of  Eussia,  crossed  )Siberia  overland 
to  the  Pacific,  whence  he  sailed 
through    the    strait   now  named 

from   him,  and  by  him  first  re-  iso  Jiiaes. 

vealed     to    the    "West,     though 

known  to  the  Siberian  Cossacks  eighty  years  previously.  Even  Bering  himself, 
hugging  the  Asiatic  coast,  had  not  descried  the  opposite  shores  of  America,  and  was 
uncertain  as  to  the  exact  position  of  the  strait.  This  point  was  not  cleared  up  till 
Cook's  voyage  of  1778,  and  even  after  that  the  Sakhalin,  Yesso,  and  Kiirile  waters 
still  remained  to  be  explored.  The  shores  of  the  mainland  and  islands  were  first 
traced  bj-  La  Perouse,  who  determined  the  insular  character  of  Sakhalin,  and 
ascertained  the  existence  of  a  strait  connecting  the  Japanese  Sea  with  that  of 
Okhotsk.     This  completed  the  general  survey  of  the  whole  Siberian  seaboard. 


29G 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Tlie  scientific  exploration  of  the  interior  began  in  the  eighteenth  century  with 
Messerschmidt,   followed    h\   Gmelin,  Muller,   and    Delislc    do  la    Croyere,  who 


WATER  HIGHWAYS— POETAGES— HIGHLANDS.  297 

determined  many  important  physical  points  between  the  j^ears  1733  and  1742.  The 
region  stretching  beyond  Lake  Baikal  was  explored  by  Pallas  and  his  associates  in 
1770 — 3.  The  expeditions,  interrupted  by  the  great  wars  following  on  the  French 
Revolution,  were  resimied  in  1828  by  the  Norwegian  Hansteen,  whose  memorable 
expedition  in  companj'  with  Erman  had  such  imjjortant  results  for  the  study  of 
terrestrial  magnetism.  "While  Hansteen  and  Erman  wore  still  prosecuting  tlieii- 
labours  in  every  branch  of  natural  science,  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  Ehrenbcrg, 
and  Gustav  Rose  made  a  short  visit  to  Siberia,  which,  however,  I'emained  one  of 
the  most  important  in  the  history  of  science.  Middendoril's  journeys  to  North  and 
East  Siberia  had  also  some  very  valuable  results,  and  were  soon  followed,  in  1854,  by 
the  "  expedition  to  Siberia  "  imdertaken  by  Schwartz,  Schmidt,  Glehn,  TJsoltzev, 
and  associates,  extending  over  the  whole  region  of  the  Transbaikal  to  the  Lena  and 
northern  tributaries  of  the  Amiu-.  Thus  began  the  uninterrupted  series  of  modern 
joui-neys,  which  are  now  being  systematically  continued  in  every  part  of  Siberia, 
and  which  promise  soon  to  leave  no  blanks  on  the  chart  of  that  region. 

The  work  of  geographical  discovery,  projierly  so  called,  may  be  said  to  have 
been  brought  to  a  close  by  Nordenskjold's  recent  dotennination  of  the  north-east 
passage,  vainlj''  attempted  by  Willoughbj',  Burrough,  and  so  many  other  illustrious 


navigators. 


"Water  Highways — Portages — Highlands. 


A  large  portion  of  Asiatic  Russia  is  no  less  uniform  than  Russia  in  Europe 
itself  in  the  general  features  of  its  relief.  East  and  west  of  the  Urals  alike  there 
stretch  vast  plains  or  rolling  praii'ies  offering  no  obstacles  to  free  migration.  To 
traverse  Siberia  from  end  to  end  the  sole  difEcidties  man  had  had  to  contend  with 
were  the  boiuidless  distances  themselves,  the  severity  of  the  climate,  dense  forests,  and 
swampy  wastes.  Instead  of  arresting  their  progress,  the  great  streams  were  the 
natural  highwaj's  by  which  the  Cossacks  were  enabled  to  overrun  these  solitudes 
as  far  as  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Owing  to  the  slight  elevation  of  the  land  the  main 
river  basins  merge  imperceptibly  with  each  other,  and  Cossacks  and  natives  alike 
generallj'  followed  these  routes  in  their  migratory  movements,  warlike  or  peacefid 
expeditions.  Hamlets,  -s-illages,  towns,  have  thus  .sprung  up  along  the  river  banks 
wherever  productive  lands  invited  colonisation.  From  the  Ural  to  Yakutsk,  a 
distance  of  about  6,000  miles,  the  contiuuous  water  highway  is  broken  only  by  two 
portages,  the  first  between  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  basius,  the  second  between  the  latter 
and  that  of  the  Lena. 

On  leaving  the  Ural  valleys  the  chief  navigable  route  follows  successively  the 
com-se  of  the  Tura,  Tobol,  Irtish,  Ob,  Eet,  Yenisei,  Uj^per  Tunguska  or  Angara, 
Lena,  and  Aldan.  Farther  north  other  rivers,  also  connected  by  portages,  lay 
open  to  the  conquerors  of  Siberia  ;  but  between  the  Middle  Lena  and  Amur  basins 
many  Cossack  expeditions  were  defeated  by  the  obstacles  presented  hy  the  reefs 
and  rapids,  dense  woodlands,  morasses,  and  the  unproductive  character  of  this  region. 
Their  jdans  were  often  badly  conceived,  and  in  their  search  for  the  "  White 
Fountain"  or  the  "Land  of  Gold,"  they  often  proceeded  in  the  wrong  direction. 


298 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Thus  Lake  Eailial  was  long  sought  for,  not  in  the  Yenisei  basin,  but  cast  of  the 
Lena  towards  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Poyarkov,  the  first  Russian  who  in  1673  reached 
the  Amur  valley,  ascended  the  river  Aldan,  and  then  crossing  the  Stanovoi  range, 
followed  the  southern  course  of  the  Zieya ;  but  he  lost  one-third  of  his  130  men 
on  the  road,  and  the  survivors  had  to  live  on  their  dead  comrades  or  on  the  natives 
slain  in  battle. 

The  journeys  by  water,  which  rendered  the  conquest  of  Siberia  so  eas}%  can 
scarcely  be  made  except  in  the  middle  region  running  east  and  west.  Southwards 
the  river  basins  are  separated  from  each  other  by  plateaux,  highlands,  and  moimtain 
ranges ;  farther  north  the  main  streams  have  already  received  all  their  chief 
affluents,  so  that  here  there  are  no  more  available  water  b^-ways,  while  in  any 
case  these  frozen  wastes  are  too  inhospitable  to  be  easily  traversed  by  the  most 
daring  adventurers.    East  of  the  Yenisei,  again,  the  lowlands  change  their  character, 


Fig.  166. — Water  Hirhways  and  Portages  across  Siberia. 

Scale  1  ;  35,000,000. 


EofG 


50' 


:eO' 


C -  Perron 


000  Miles. 


the  low-lying,  fertile,  or  lacustrine  tracts,  swamps,  and  trembling  prairies  being  here 
succeeded  by  hilly  and  gravelly  lands,  here  and  there  crossed  by  rocky  ridges,  and 
rising  even  to  groups  of  eminences  difficidt  of  access.  The  Yenisei  and  Lena  basins 
are,  in  fact,  separated  by  a  real  plateau  of  palteozoic  rocks,  compelling  the  traveller 
to  turn  southwards.  Hence  the  administrative  division  of  the  land  into  West  and 
Ea.st  Siberia  is  fully  justified  by  the  physical  contrast  between  the  two  regions,  a 
contrast  extending  to  their  flora,  fauna,  and  inhabitants. 

Even  in  the  extreme  north  the  monotony  of  the  plains  is  sometimes  interrupted 
by  clusters  of  elevated  hills.  MiddendorfE  has  given  the  name  of  "  mountains  "  to 
the  Siverma  chain  running  west  of  the  Yenisei  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  to 
the  P>irranga  range,  which  occupies  the  northern  part  of  the  continent  between  the 
Yenisei  and  the  Khatanga,  and  which  forms  the  double  Taimir  peninsula  projecting 
far  into  the  Frozen  Ocean.     Some  of  the  summits  on  the  east  coast  of  this  peninsula 


AVATEE  HIGHWAYS-POETAGES— HIGHLANDS.  299 

ai'e  said  to  have  an  elevation  of  no  less  than  3,000  feet.  Still  Siberia  may,  on  the 
whole,  be  described  as  a  plain  sloping  imiformlj-  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  A 
distinct  water-parting  between  the  rivers  flowing,  on  the  one  hand,  northwards  to 
the  Arctic,  on  the  other  to  the  inland  basins  of  Central  Mongolia  and  to  the  Pacific, 
is  formed  by  the  gi-eat  orographic  system  comprising  the  Tiau-shan  and  Zungarian 
Ala-tau,  the  Tarbagatai  and  Altai,  the  Sayan  Mountains,  the  Baikal  highlands,  the 
Yitim  plateau,  the  parallel  Yablonoi  ranges,  and  the  north-east  section  of  the 
Stanovoi,  or  "Dorsal  Chain,"  rimning  towards  Bering  Strait. 

This  vast  system  is  itself  composed  of  distinct  sections,  clearly  separated  one 
from  the  other.  Xorth  of  the  Tian-shan  is  the  Zungarian  depression,  where  at 
one  time  flowed  a  marine  strait.  The  Upper  Irtish  vallej',  between  the  Tarbagatai 
and  Altai  ranges,  also  forms  a  broad  opening  connecting  the  Kirghiz  and  ilongolian 
domains  west  and  east.  Between  the  Altai  and  Sayan  ilountains  the  northern  and 
southern  basins  are  connected  by  similar  depressions,  while  farther  east,  about  the 
sources  of  the  Yenisei  and  its  western  afiluents,  uplands  with  a  mean  elevation  of 
from  7,000  to  10,000  feet  form  the  frontier  chain  skirting  the  Mongolian  plateaux, 
every  stream  here  affording  easy  access  from  Siberia  to  the  Chinese  Empire. 
Transbaikal  is  itseli  a  hilly  plateau,  limited  south-west  by  two  eminences — the 
Kamar-daban,  at  the  extrcmitv'  of  the  lake,  and  the  Sokhondo,  commandins'  one  of 
the  main  ridges  of  the  Yablonoi  system,  on  the  Mongolian  frontier.  From  this 
plateau  the  ascent  is  almost  imperceptible  to  the  hills  from  3,500  to  4,000  feet 
high,  which  lead  from  the  Selenga  to  the  Amiu- ;  that  is,  from  the  Arctic  to  the 
Pacific  basin.  Xorth-eastwards  the  water-2:)artings  diminish  in  height,  and  beyond 
the  Sokhondo  none  of  the  Yablonoi  or  Stanovoi  summits  would  appear  to  reach 
9,.500  feet,  which  is  about  the  elevation  of  that  momitain.  Xorth  of  the  Amur  and 
Ud  basins  the  loftj-  ranges  figiu'ing  on  the  maps  as  portions  of  the  "  Great  DiA-ide  " 
are  often  in  reality  little  more  than  marshy  tracts  with  undecided  inclination.  But 
the  whole  of  Eastern  Siberia  skii-ting  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  north-eastwards  to  the 
Bering  Sea  is  mountainous,  or  at  least  very  diversified,  and  here  the  land  every- 
where rises  highest  near  the  sea-coast. 

South  of  the  Stanovoi  highlands  the  region  watered  by  the  Amur  and  its 
afiluents  may,  on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  a  mere  continuation  of  the  Mongolian 
plateau.  The  land  slopes  towards  the  Pacific  in  a  series  of  terraces  intersected  by 
a  number  of  nearlj-  parallel  ridges,  including  the  Great  Khingan,  the  Little 
Khingan,  and  the  coast  range  rimning  north  of  the  Corean  peninsvda.  These 
Eastern  Asiatic  river  and  coast  ranges  are  regidarly  disposed  in  curves,  with  their 
convex  sides  facing  east  and  south-east,  and  often  describing  perfectl}-  equal  seg- 
ments of  a  circle.  Some  are  connected  at  their  extremities  in  a  series  of  continuous 
chains  festooned  at  imiform  intervals ;  others  are  disjoosed  in  parallel  concentric 
arcs,  while  the  more  important  are  rooted  at  one  end  with  different  systems.  Thus 
the  Kamchatka  peninsida  and  Kurile  Archipelago  (the  most  geometrical  of  all) 
are  connected  ^-ith  the  hiUs  of  the  Chukchi  coimtry.  This  jjrevailing  uniformity 
m  the  disposition  of  the  Xorth-eastern  Asiatic  mountain  systems  must  be  largely 
due  to  volcanic  agencies.     While  old  sedimeutarj-  foi-mations  prevail  in  the  South 


800 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Siberian  highliaid  ranges  bordering  on  the  Mongolian  plateau,  the  JSikhota-aHn, 
as  well  as  various  Manchui'ian  mountains,  in  former  times  ejected  lava  streams, 
and  still-active  volcanoes  fringe  the  east  coast  of  Kamchatka.  These  Kamchatka 
moimtains  arc,  however,  totally  distinct  from  the  East  Siberian  systems,  and  are  the 
most  elevated  in  Asiatic  Russia  next  to  the  Tian-shan.  ^One  of  the  volcanoes  in 
the  peninsula  is  nearly  as  high  as  Mont  Blanc. 

lin-ER  Systems. 

The  rivers  rising  in  the  glaciers  and  perpetual  snows  of  the  Altai  and  Sayan, 
or  on  the  slopes  of  the  less  elevated  ranges  fallLag  short  of  the  snow-line,  are 
remarkable  for  the  great  uniformity  of  their  windings.  Owing  to  the  general  tilt 
of  the  land  they  flow  mainly  north  and  north-west  in  the  whole  of  Siberia, 
limited  southwards  by  the  ranges  stretching  from  the  Tian-shan  to  the  Stanovoi.' 
Not  only  the  three  main  streams,  Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  but  nearly  all  the  other 


Fig.  1G7. — Dui!,VTioN  OF  the  Fuost  and  Thaw  ox  the  Yenisei  and  Lena. 


January . 
February 
March  .'.. 
April     ... 

May  

June 

July  

August... 
Septemb. 
October  . 
Novemb . 
Decemb  . 


M|rl||liil'll'i,|iV'll!l"'!ll|,"'' 


N 


-.---.-■■■,r,,7rsmasm!^^ 


"  January 
Febru^iiy 

April 
May 
June 
lijuly 
'  August 

!  Septerab 

IMililMiliiaiiaWff?  ;■: '"4^ October 

'   ■'  '  ■                   '  '■''  Novenib 
Decemb 


Thaw  on  the      Yenisei 
Yenisei.       Ice-bound. 


Thaw  on  the         Lena 
Lena.         Ice-bound. 


rivers,  foUow  the  line  of  the  meridian  in  their  northerly  course.  The  Lena,  how- 
ever, SO  far  contrasts  with  its  two  western  rivals  that  it  is  deflected  a  long  way 
eastwards  by  the  palaeozoic  rocks  of  Central  Siberia  before  resuming  its  northern 
course  parallel  with  the  neighbouring  Olonek  and  Yana. 

These  great  arteries  rank  with  the  largest  rivers  on  the  globe,  both  in  volume  and 
the  extent  of  their  basins.  In  these  respects  the  Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena  surpass  all 
the  Eiu'opcan  streams.  Yet  the  mean  annual  rainfall  in  all  the  Siberian  lands 
draining  northwards  scarcely  exceeds  8  inches.  But  the  ground  being  frozen  to 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface,  there  is  no  loss  by  infiltration,  so  that  wherever 
the  land  slopes  ever  so  slightly  everj'  drop  of  water  from  the  rains  or  melting 
snows  must  necessarilj'  find  its  way  to  the  afliuents  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Else- 
where it  remains  in  flats,  marshes,  or  shallow  lakes,  which  form  a  labyi-inth  of 
land  and  water,  constantly  shifting  its  outlines  with  the  abundance  of  the  rains 
and  intensity  of  the  evaporation.  The  Taimir  peninsula  has  thus  become  a  lacus- 
trine region  of  stagnant  waters. 

Estimating  at  about  half  of  the  annual  snow  and  rain  fall  the  quantity  discharged 


EIVEE  SYSTEMS. 


301 


by  the  three  main  streams,  tlic  mean  volume  of  each  mvist  ba  at  least  equal  to 
350,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  four  times  that  of  the  Rhine  or  Rhone.  But  the 
discharge  is  very  unevenly  distributed  over  the  year,  being  much  reduced  m  the 
ice-boimd  beds  of  the  streams  in  winter,  when  the  smaller  rivers  are  frozen  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  large  streams  and  lakes  to  a  depth  of  from  4  to  7  feet.  Except 
those  fed  by  imderground  rivulets  from  the  great  lakes,  all  the  rivers  rising  within 
the  Arctic  Cii'cle  thus  cease  to  flow  in  winter.  But  with  the  melting  of  the 
snows  the  river  beds  are  soon  filled  again,  often  overflo\nng  their  banks  to  great 
distances. 

In  winter  the  water  flowing  beneath  its  thick  icy  covering  is  said  gradually  to 
"  die,"  and  the  fish  are  no  longer  able  to  live  in  the  vitiated  atmosphere  at  these 
depths.  Towards  the  end  of  autmnn  they  escape  in  multitudes  either  to  the  lakes 
and  deep  pools  or  to  the  estuaries.  Then  they  maj'  be  easily  taken  in  large  cpiantities 
by  simply  breaking  the  ice  wherever  the  water  has  remained  "  ali^e."     Inunediately 


Fig.   IGS. — DiuKT  Ice  on  the  Banks  of  the  Yenisei. 
Scale  1  :  6,400. 


CvPercarr 


220  Yards. 


after  the  thaw  they  ascend  the  streams  in  vast  shoals,  and  sj)read  over  the  flooded 
plains  and  forests.  Here  also  they  are  captured  in  great  nmnbers  by  means  of  the 
system  of  weirs  set  up  at  fhe  mouths  of  the  affluents. 

The  flow  of  the  Siberian  rivers  along  the  line  of  the  meridian  causes  the  break- 
up of  the  ice  to  assume  a  special  character.  In  the  extreme  south,  or  at  the  base  of 
the  Altai,  they  are  ice-boimd  for  from  three  to  five  months  only ;  but  this  period  is 
extended  as  they  flow  northwards,  and  the  estuaries  between  the  72nd  and  75th 
parallels  are  free  only  for  periods  varying  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  days  in  the 
year.  Free  navigation  can,  in  fact,  be  depended  upon  only  from  about  the  end  of 
Jidy  to  the  middle  of  Sejjtember.  Middendorff  has  calculated  that  for  every  degree 
of  latitude  between  the  56th  and  72nd,  the  ice-boimd  period  increases  on  an  average 
rather  more  than  nine  days.  But  farther  south  the  increase  is  not  qiute  seven 
days,  this  discrepancj'  being  largeh^  due  to  the  absence  of  springs  in  the  north. 

In  spring,  when  the  ciu'rent  begins  to  resume  its  coiu'sc  and  break  through  its 

VOL.    VI.  X 


302 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


wintry  fetters,  it  soon  floods  both  its  banks,  thus  forming  two  zaberegi,  or  lateral 
channels,  while  the  main  stream  is  still  frozen  on  the  surface.  Here  the  ice  then 
begins  gradually  to  arch  upwards  until  it  breaks  into  huge  irregular  fragments, 
which  are  swept  along  by  the  continuall}^  rising  stream.  These  fragments  torn 
from  the  river  banks  carrj-  with  them  mud,  cla}',  gravel,  and  even  large  boulders, 
which  in  their  northward  course  soon  meet  with  still  unbroken  masses  strong  enough 
to  resist  their  pressure.     The  moving  masses  are  also  at  times  retarded  h\  the 


Fie;.   169. — Shores  of  the  Yenisei  worn  by  Glacial  Action. 


fierce  polar  winds,  and  perhaps  lodged  at  the  foot  of  some  projecting  bluff. 
Here  the  blocks  are  piled  one  on  the  other,  damming  up  the  river,  and  causing  it  to 
rise  3  or  4  feet  in  a  few  hours.  Finding  no  escape,  ice  and  water  spread  laterally, 
dashing  against  the  banks,  sweeping  away  the  shingle,  in  one  place  forming  fresh 
dams,  in  another  scoring  the  ground  with  deep  furrows.  Thus  are  the  river  banks 
yearly  modified  bj'  glacial  action. 

Even  more  than  the  rivers  of  European  Russia,  those  of  Siberia,  flowing  nearer 


ETHNOGRAPHICAL    M' 


^^ 


?? 


Hep 

I  LiOuumiaru--.  Letts  ^BB  ^ 
b*  1    Geritiona  I  it    I  gj' '    S(t/iu 

Scandi/itn-ian£     I  <fc    I  »   I 

Persitvt^  .-i/Qh/iii.-  rute.y   j       f  litlci. 
TajOzs ,  f'aJchas . 


/J/V(h7/ /n- ^1  Sl(t/ii,nJ'frr  Cnslreit ,  M{<ideiid<H'tf.Venviih<n-.  Jiittirh  inu!  Chitvimnt^. 


Srnlf    I 


LONDON,  J    S.V 


P    OF    NORTHERN    ASIA 


;.iMi  0(10. 


NOETHERN  SEABOARD.  803 

to  the  pole,  present  the  remarkable  phenomenon  of  a  normal  lateral  pressure  on 
their  right  banks.  This  side  thus  becomes  continually  sapped  and  corroded,  while 
the  left  bank,  covered  with  alluvia,  and  here  and  there  furrowed  bj'old  channels,  is 
steadily  abandoned  by  the  receding  waters.  Hence  the  contrast  presented  by  the 
relief  of  both  banks.  The  left,  still  swept  by  the  current  and  gradually  formed  by 
alluvial  deposits,  is  flat,  and  generally  at  the  level  of  high  water.  The  right, 
constantly  eroded  by  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  stream,  and  representing  the 
original  soil,  rises  in  hills  or  steep  cliffs  along  the  course  of  the  river.  So  universal 
is  this  feature  that  even  before  sighting  a  river  the  natives  will  speak  by  anticipa- 
tion of  its  "  high  bank  "  and  "  low  bank."  As  in  Russia,  the  towns  are  usually 
erected  on  the  "  high,"  or  right  bank,  which  is  less  exposed  to  inundations.  But 
this  advantage  is  dearl}'  jDurchased,  and  several  recently  founded  towns,  such  as 
Tobolsk,  Semipalatinsk,  and  Narim,  have  already  had  to  be  partially  reconstructed. 

Northern  Seaboard. 

The  northern  seaboard  of  Siberia,  though  washed  by  colder  waters,  is  less 
indented  by  fiords  than  those  of  Norway  and  Scotland.  The  inlets  resemble  those 
of  Scandinavia  only  between  the  Kara  and  Yenisei  mouths.  The  Kara  Sea,  the  Ob 
and  Taz  estuaries,  the  Gulf  of  Yenisei,  and  their  various  indentations ;  lastly,  the 
lakes,  at  one  time  marine  bays,  but  now  separated  from  the  sea,  give  a  Norwegian 
aspect  to  this  region.  But  east  of  the  Yenisei  the  coast-line  becomes  far  more 
uniform,  broken  hj  rare  inlets,  few  of  which  penetrate  far  inland.  This  dearth  of 
fiords  is  due  to  the  slight  inclination  of  the  mainland  and  of  its  submarine  con- 
tinuations, precluding  the  formation  of  true  glaciers  on  the  coast,  the  action 
of  which  might  have  prevented  the  original  indentation  from  being  gradually 
effaced. 

The  j)resent  seaboard  itself  is  an  old  marine  bed  gradualh'  upheaved  above  the 
Arctic  waters.  The  old  coast-line  has  been  traced  by  Erman,  Middendorff,  and 
others  over  120  miles  inland,  and  uj)wards  of  330  feet  above  the  present  sea-level. 
Quantities  of  drift-wood,  the  so-called  "Adam's"  or  "Noah's  wood,"  have  been 
found  at  great  distances  from  the  ocean.  Here  also  have  been  met  numerous  baj^s 
which  have  become  lakes,  or  quite  dried  up,  besides  perfectlj' preserved  frozen  banks 
of  shell-fish  in  no  resjject  differing  from  the  species  now  inhabiting  the  Arctic  seas. 
Headlands  have  even  been  recognised  which  were  islands  when  seen  by  earlier 
exjilorers.  Several  phenomena  of  a  like  character  were  recently  observed  by  Bove, 
of  the  Nordenskjold  expedition,  near  Bering  Strait.  The  disappearance  of  the 
whale  has  by  some  been  attributed  to  the  upheaval  of  the  sea-bed,  while  Erman, 
with  others,  has  suggested  that  the  remains  of  trees  occurring  on  the  coast  represent 
the  forests  that  flourished  on  the  spot  at  a  time  when  the  climate  was  much  warmer 
than  at  jDresent.  But  the  condition  in  which  this  "  Adam's  wood  "  is  found  shows 
that  it  is  really  so  much  drift-wood,  barked  and  otherwise  affected  by  glacial  action. 
It  consists  of  conifers  like  those  which  are  still  floated  down  the  great  Siberian 
rivers.     In  the  course  of  ages  "  mountains  of  timber  "  have  thus  been  accmnulated 

X  2 


304 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


almost  everj'wliere  along  the  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean  and  around  the  coasts  of 
Xcw  .Siberia,  Novaya  Zemlya,  Franz-Joseph  Land,  and  Spitzbergen. 

The  current  of  the  Siberian  rivers  is  strong  enough  percejjtiblj'  to  uii'oct  the 
nonnal  marine  currents.  On  entering  the  sea  the  streams  have  natiu-ally  an 
eastward  tendenc\%  derived  from  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  But  this  is 
also  the  direction  of  the  waters  from  the  trojjical  seas,  which,  after  roimding 
ScaudinaA-ia  and  Xovaya  Zemh^a,  continue  to  flow  slowly  eastwards  along  the 
Sibei"ian  seaboard.  This  tendency  is  doubtless  preserved  by  the  action  of  the  flu\-ial 
currents,  for  near  the  coast  the  water  is  far  less  salt  than  in.  the  Atlantic.    Between 

Fig.  170. — Banks  of  the  YrxisEi;  ItE-FOKMEn  Letee. 


the  Khatanga  Fiord  and  the  Lena  estuary  the  proportion  of  salt  is  only  as  1  to  100, 
or  about  one-third  of  the  noi-mal  quantitj".  On  these  shores  the  sea  is  so  shallow 
that  two-thirds  of  its  volume  are  probably  of  flu-sdal  origin. 


P.vciFic  Seaboakd — Transbaikai,i.\. 

Along  the  shores  of  the  Okhotsk  and  Bering  Seas  the  slope  is  too  short  to  allow 
of  any  large  rivers.  Here  the  ranges  forming  the  water-parting  run  near  the 
Pacific  seaboard,  and  some  head-streams  of  the  Lena  rise  actuallj-  within  GO  miles 
of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.      The  only  important  river  north  of  the  Amiu"  di-aining  to 


CLnrATE.  305 

the  Pacific  is  the  Anadir,  which  falls  into  the  gnlf  of  like  name  between  Bering- 
Strait  and  Kamchatka.  But  south  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  the  Amur,  draining  all 
the  lacustrine  basins  which  formerly  covered  the  plateaux  of  Dauria  and  Mongolia, 
escapes  through  a  gap  in  the  coast  range  to  the  Pacific. 

Tlie  middle  course  of  this  river,  forming  the  frontier-line  between  Russia  and 
China,  is  free  of  ice  for  six  or  seven  months  in  the  year.  But  the  lower  reaches 
flowing  north-east  and  north  j)resent  the  same  jjhenomena  as  the  rivers  of  North 
Siberia.  The  annual  break-up  is  retarded  down  stream ;  the  ice  forming  temjiorary 
dams  on  the  reefs  and  ledges  arrests  the  floods,  causing  them  to  overflow  and  break 
down  their  banks,  uproot  the  forests,  and  cover  the  laud  with  mud  and  stones. 

The  ijlateaux  separating  the  Lena  and  Amur  basins  seem  of  all  the  Siberian 
lands  to  have  best  preser^•ed  the  aspect  of  the  coiuitry  after  the  glacial  period. 
Here  every  cavity  is  still  filled  with  a  lake  or  a  marsh  ;  the  rivulets  and  rivers  are 
mere  links  in  a  chain  of  lacustrine  basins  of  all  sizes  ;  pine-covered  moraines  here 
and  there,  cleared  by  the  action  of  water,  recall  the  presence  of  ancient  glaciers ;  and 
there  is  altogether  something  unfinished  in  the  general  aspect  of  the  land,  as  if  the 
transition  were  not  yet  com2)leted  from  one  geological  epoch  to  another.  The  risers 
have  not  yet  scooped  out  their  valleys  or  rcgidated  the  fall  of  their  beds.  In  all 
these  respects  the  Siberian  plateaux  resemble  those  of  Finland  and  Scandinavia, 
which,  like  them,  are  mainly  composed  of  granites,  schists,  and  other  crystalh'jio 
rocks. 

Most  of  the  myriad  lakes  and  lakelets  of  these  tablelands  have  already 
disappeared,  either  drained  off  by  the  rivers  or  filled  in  bj'  their  alluvia.  But  Lake 
Baikal,  one  of  the  largest,  still  remains.  This  great  inland  sea,  occupying  two 
continuous  cavities  in  the  plateau  between  the  Yenisei,  Lena,  and  Amur  basins,  stood 
formerly  at  a  far  higher  level  than  at  present.  It  drains  now  through  the  Angara 
to  the  Yenisei.  But  it  is  nevertheless  geographically  distinct  from  that  basin.  Its 
valley  runs  nearl}^  at  right  angles  with  the  Angara,  and  its  bed  sinks  sevci'al 
liundred  vards  below  sea-le^-el.     Its  outlet  mcrclv  carries  off  the  surface  waters. 


Climate. 

Such  a  vast  region  as  Siberia,  affected  in  the  west  by  Atlantic,  in  the  east  by 
Pacific  influences,  and  stretching  north  and  south  across  29'''  of  latitude,  must 
obviously  present  great  diversities  of  climate.  Even  this  bleak  land  has  its  temperate 
zones,  which  the  Slav  colonists  of  the  north  are  fond  of  calling  their  "  Italics." 
Nevertheless,  as  compared  with  Europe,  Siberia  may,  on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  a 
coimtry  of  extreme  temi^eratures — relativelj'  great  heats,  and,  above  all,  intense 
colds.  The  very  term  "  Siberian  "  has  justly  become  s^^lonymous  with  a  land  of 
winds,  frosts,  and  snows.  The  mean  annual  temperature  in  this  region  comprised 
between  the  rivers  Anabara  and  Indigirka  is  20°  Fahr.  below  freezing  pomt.  The 
pole  of  cold,  oscillating  diversely  with  the  force  of  the  lateral  pressure  from 
Yakutsk  to  the  Lena  estuar}^,  is  the  meteorological  centre  round  which  the 
atmosphere  revolves.      Here  are  to  a  large  extent  jjrepared  the  eleiiients  of  the 


306 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


climate  of  "West  Europe.  Owing  to  the  general  movements  of  the  atmosphere, 
alternating  between  north-east  and  south-west,  and  between  south-west  and  north- 
east, constant  relations  are  maintained  between  the  European  seaboard  and  Siberia, 
the  former  exchanging  its  moisture  and  mild  temperature  for  the  cold  and  bright 
skies  of  the  latter. 

In  Northern  Siberia  the  thermometer  remains  in  winter  below  20°  Fahr.,  and 
even  falls  at  times  to  55°  Fahr.  On  December  31st,  1871,  the  glass  marked  —  69° 
Fahr.  at  Yeniseisk.     During  the  three  summer  months  the  average  is  59°  Fahr., 


Fig.  171.— Cllmate  of  Yakutsk. 


\ 


■^^S 


Ocf.\ 


>^^^ 


i__' i__L-.  \Ppnl 

»•    /O'   Sp"    50'   ■^p-    5i}' 


'      /      /    -y^ay 


/li/jT-'.^ 


i/c/JI^ 


^Wjr 


C  Perron 


often  exceeding  8G°  and  occasionally  101°  at  Yakutsk,  a  greater  heat  than  usually 
prevails  some  2,000  miles  nearer  the  equator.  As  in  Lapland,  the  baked  surface  of 
the  tmidras  is  so  hot  as  to  be  almost  ixnendurable  to  pedestrians.  Altogether 
the  climate  of  Yakutsk,  or  rather  of  the  Lower  Lena  basin,  is  the  most  tj^ical  on 
the  globe  of  extreme  or  continental  temperature. 

Altitude  compensating  for  latitude,  the  South  Siberian  highlands  might  at  first 
sight  be  supposed  to  be  as  cold  as  the  northern  tundras.  But  such  is  not  the  case, 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  the  higher  we  ascend  towards  the  southern  ranges  the 
warmer  it  becomes.     Thus  up  to  a  certaiu  still  undetermined  point  the  tempera- 


CLIMATE.  807 

tui'e  rises  with  the  elevatiou  of  the  hmd.  Similar  observations  have  been  made  in 
the  Alps  and  Pp-enees ;  but  what  is  the  exception  in  Europe  is  the  normal  condi- 
tion in  East  Siberia,  where  it  is  caused  by  the  brightness  and  calmness  of  the 
atmosjjhere.  The  hot  air  radiates  into  space,  while  the  cold  and  denser  atmo- 
spheric strata  sink  with  their  weight  to  the  sui-face  of  the  earth.  Thus  all  the 
meteorological  conditions  here  combine  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  higher  and 
diminish  that  of  the  lower  strata.  Relatively  warm  currents  of  air  prevail  in  the 
upper  regions  above  the  cold  air  resting  on  the  lowland  plains,  and  on  Mount 
Alibert  (7,400  feet)  the  wind  in  winter  sets  steadily  from  the  comparatively  warm 
north-west,  south-west,  and  west  quarters.  Such,  combined  with  the  dry  climate, 
are  the  causes  which  prevent  the  formation  of  glaciers  on  the  Daurian,  Aldan, 
and  Stanovoi  highlands.  Even  the  mountains  2,000  to  3,000  feet  high  on  the 
north  coast,  east  of  the  Taimir  peninsula,  have  but  few  snow-iields,  and  Nor- 
denskjold  could  not  positively  determine  the  presence  of  any  real  glaciers.  These 
eminences  fall  short  even  of  the  snow-line,  and  in  summer  are  quite  free  of  snow, 
except  perhaps  where  it  is  lodged  in  the  deep  ravines. 

Travellers  speak  of  the  Siberian  winters  vdth.  mingled  feelings  of  terror  and 
rapture.  An  infinite  silence  broods  over  the  land — all  is  biuied  in  deep  sleep  ;  the 
animals  hibernate  in  their  dens,  the  streams  have  ceased  to  flow,  disappearing 
beneath  the  ice  and  snow ;  the  earth,  of  a  dazzling  whiteness  in  the  centre  of  the 
landscajje,  but  grey  in  the  distance,  nowhere  offers  a  single  object  to  arrest  the 
gaze.  The  monotony  of  endless  space  is  broken  hj  no  abrupt  lines  or  ^•i^-id  tints. 
The  only  contrast  -n-ith  the  dull  expanse  of  land  is  the  everlasting  azure  sky, 
along  which  the  sun  creeps  at  a  few  degrees  only  above  the  horizon.  In  these 
intensely  cold  latitudes  it  rises  and  sets  with  hard  outlines,  unsoftened  by  the  ruddy 
haze  elsewhere  encircling  it  on  the  edge  of  the  horizon.  Yet  such  is  the  strength 
of  its  rays  that  the  snow  melts  on  the  housetop  exposed  to  its  glare,  while  in  the 
shade  the  temperature  is  40°  to  50°  below  freezing  point.  At  night,  when 
the  firmament  is  not  aglow  with  the  many-tinted  lights  and  silent  coruscations  of 
the  aurora  borealis,  the  zodiacal  light  and  the  stars  still  shine  with  intense  biight- 
ness.  Probably  no  other  region  of  the  globe  is  so  favom-ably  circumstanced  for 
astronomic  observation.  Here  the  atmosphere  is  absolutely  pure,  unsullied  except 
perhajjs  on  the  river  banks,  whence  rises  a  dense  fog  charged  with  icy  particles, 
or  in  the  neighboiu'hood  of  the  vast  herds  shrouded  in  their  vapoury  exhalations. 
And  man  dares  to  face  these  tremendous  frosts,  while  animals  seek  shelter  in  their 
lairs.  The  raven  alone  risks  the  open  air  with  a  feeble  and  slow  flight,  its  wake 
marked  by  a  slender  haz}-  streak.  Yet  these  Siberian  winters  are  less  unendur- 
able than  strangers  might  suppose.  If  well  nom-ished,  warmly  clad,  and  wrapped 
in  furs,  they  have  nought  to  fear,  for  few  climates  are  more  healthy  than  that  of 
East  Siberia,  with  its  perfectly  dry,  still,  and  pure  atmosphere.  JVo  case'  of  con- 
sumption has  ever  occm'red  at  Chita,  in  the  bleak  Transbaikal  province,  where  the 
mercury  remains  frozen  for  weeks  together. 

To  this  severe  winter,  which  fissures  the  surface  and  rends  the  rocks  of  the 
rivers  into  regular  basalt-like  columns,  there  succeeds  a  sudden  and  delightful 


308  ASIATIC  EtrSSIA. 

spring.  So  instantaneous  is  llie  change  that  nature  seems  as  if  taken  by  surprise 
and  rudely  awakened.  The  delicate  green  of  the  opening  leaf,  the  fragrance  of 
the  budding  flowers,  the  intoxicating  babn  of  the  atmosphere,  the  radiant  bright- 
ness of  the  heavens,  all  combine  to  impart  to  mere  existence  a  voluptuoiis  gladness. 
To  Siberians  visiting  the  temperate  climes  of  Western  Europe  spring  seems  to  hs 
unknown  beyond  their  lands.  But  these  first  days  of  new  life  are  followed  by  a 
chill,  gusty,  and  changeful  interval,  arising  from  the  atmospheric  disturbances 
caused  by  the  tha\ving  of  the  vast  snowy  wastes.  A  relapse  is  then  experienced 
analogous  to  that  too  often  produced  in  England  by  late  east  winds.  The  apple 
blossom  is  now  nipped  by  the  night  frosts  falling  in  the  latter  part  of  May.  Hence 
no  apples  can  be  had  in  East  Siberia,  although  the  summer  heats  are  other«-isc 
amply  sufficient  for  the  rijjening  of  fruits.  i\iter  the  fleeting  summer  winter 
weather  again  soon  sets  in.  It  will  often  fi-eeze  at  night  in  the  middle  of  July  ; 
after  the  10th  of  August  the  sear  leaf  begins  to  fall,  and  in  a  few  days  all  are 
gone,  except  perhaps  the  foliage  of  the  larch.  The  snow  will  even  sometimes  settle 
early  in  August  on  the  still  leafy  branches,  bending  and  breaking  them  with  its 
weight. 

Below  the  surface  of  the  ground  winter  reigns  iminterrupted  even  bj-  the 
hottest  simuners.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  Gmelin  revealed  to  science 
the  astonishing  fact  that  from  about  6  or  7  feet  from  the  surface  to  a  depth  of 
over  30  yards  the  groimd  remains  permanently  frozen.  But  this  phenomenon  was 
in  seeming  opposition  to  the  normal  increase  of  terrestrial  temperature  dox^nnvards, 
and  it  was  asked  how  the  frozen  soil  of  Yakutsk  could  grow  plants  and  ripen 
cereals.  Hence  Gmelin's  statement  was  at  first  rejected ;  but  it  has  since  been 
fully  coufinued  by  the  observations  of  Erman  and  Middendorff.  A  boring  of 
385  feet  deep  through  the  sandstone  of  Yakutsk  failed  to  penetrate  beyond  the 
congealed  strata,  and  had  to  be  abandoned  before  water  coidd  be  reached.  But 
the  assertion  that  the  groimd  in  North  Siberia  is  uniformly  frozen  to  depths  of 
from  450  to  500  feet  cannot  be  accej)ted  without  more  exhaustive  observations.  In 
some  places,  possibly  from  the  presence  of  springs  and  other  local  causes,  the 
tmcongealed  soil  has  been  reached  at  depths  of  even  3  to  4  feet. 

In  winter  the  atmosjihere  is  usually  still  in  the  zone  of  intensest  cold ;  but 
not  so  in  the  siuToimding  regions.  From  the  Urals  to  the  Yenisei,  and  from  the 
Sayan  highlands  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  south  and  especially  the  south-west 
winds  jjrevail  in  winter,  while  farther  south  the  Kirghiz  and  Astrakhan  steppes  are 
swept  by  j)olar  winds.  East  and  west  of  the  Urals  the  atmospheric  currents  from 
the  tropics  and  Arctic  zone  meet  midway ;  but  east  of  the  Yenisei,  and  especially 
in  the  Lena  basin,  the  direction  is  in  winter  generally  fi'om  the  north-west 
towards  the  Pacific.  The  Sea  of  Okhot.sk  is  then  lashed  bj-  fierce  storms  for  months 
together.  At  Udskoi,  near  the  coast,  these  furious  monsoons  blow  steadily  from  the 
north-west  from  September  to  April,  preventing  all  access  to  the  Stauovoi  high- 
lands, and  at  sea  deflecting  the  Kuro-sivo  current  and  causing  vessels  to  alter 
their  course  between  the  two  continents.  The  same  glacial  north-west  wind  pro- 
vails  also  in  the  Amui'  basin  and  on   the  ^fongolian  jilatcaux,  compelling  travellers 


CLIMATE. 


809 


and  conductors  of  caravans  going  westward  to  protect  their  faces  with  felt  masks 
from  its  fury.  During  the  winter  of  1878-9  Nordeuskjiild  and  his  associates 
found  that  it  blew  almost  uninterruptedly  along  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
though  not  so  violently  as  elsewhere.  In  sunrmer  also  the  polar  winds  ai'e  attracted 
to  the  Siberian  seaboard  by  the  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  heated 
tundras.  But  in  the  east  the  continent  is  during  this  season  visited  by  east 
and  south-east  breezes  from  the  Pacific,  which  are  often  felt  as  far  inland  as  the 
Baikal  basin,  where  thej^  bring  an  abundant  supjjly  of  moisture.  The  shores  of 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  are  then  constantly  o^'ercast,  and  the  Kurile  waters  en veloj^ed 
for  weeks  together  in  dense  fogs.  Here  the  mean  annual  rainfall  exceeds  40  inches, 
while  in  many  places  in  the  interior  it  scai'cely  amounts  to  10  inches.  In 
certain  parts  of  South  Siberia,  and  especially  in  the  Transbaikalia,  whole  ^-inters 
pass  without  any  snowfall.     Elsewhere,  as  in  the  Krasnoyarsk  district,  the  plains 


Fig.   172. — North  EUK  Limit  of  Fohest  Vegetation. 
Scile  1  :  .IS.OOI.OOO. 


L  of" 


C    Perron 


.  GOO  Miles. 


are  swept  of  their  snows  by  the  storms,  and  the  autumn-so^ni  corn  dispersed  by  the 
winds.* 

Under  the  action  of  the  regidar  monsoons  the  snow  is  often  disposed  in  parallel 
dunes  succeeding  each  other  like  the  ocean  waves.  During  the  long  winter 
nights  the  Chukchis  are  able  to  guide  themselves  as  with  a  compass  by  the  direc- 
tion of  these  zasfrugi,  which,  however,  have  to  be  j'early  renewed  after  their 
dispersion  hy  the  storms.  The  most  dreaded  of  these  storms  are  the  hurans,  which 
rage  in  the  midst  of  the  plains  like  tropical  hurricanes,  sweeping  with  them  snow, 
ice,  gravel,  branches,  debris  of  every  sort,  and  often  man  liimself. 


*  Annual  rainfall  in  Siberia  :- 

Aryan  (Sea  of  Okhotsk)  , 
Yakutsk  .... 
Kiakhtn     .... 


Inches. 
36 
10 


Bernaiil 

Nerchinskiy-zavod 
Tobolsk     . 


Indies. 
13 
IG 
18 


810 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Flora. 

With  its  vast  extent  and  varied  climate  Siberia  naturally  embraces  several 
vegetable  zones,  diiTering  more  from  each  other  even  than  those  of  Europe.  The 
southern  steppes  have  a  characteristic  and  well-marked  flora,  forming  a  continua- 
tion of  that  of  the  Aral,  Caspian,  and  Yolga  plains.  The  treeless  northern  tundras 
also  constitute  a  vegetable  domain  as  sharply  defined  as  the  desert  itself,  while 
between  these  two  zones  of  steppe  and  tundra  the  forest  region  of  Eui-ope  stretches, 


Fig.  173. — Tkailixg  Larch   1.50  Years  old  :  Quarter  of  the  natvr.al  Size. 


with  many  subdivisions,  west  and  east  right  across  the  continent.     Of  these  sub- 
divisions the  chief  are  those  of  the  Ob,  Yenisei,  Lena,  and  Amur  basins. 

The  northern  limit  of  forest  vegetation  is  generally  drawn  at  too  great  a 
distance  from  the  Frozen  Ocean.  In  Siberia  the  tree  line,  everj-where  formed 
by  the  larch  (^Larix  Daitrica  Sibirica^,  so  far  from  running  east  and  west  along  the 
same  parallel  of  latitude,  is  deflected  northwards  mainly  with  the  coast-line.  Thus 
it  coincides  in  the  Ob  basin  nearly  with  the  Arctic  Circle,  crosses  the  Yenisei  about 
70°  N.  lat.,  and  in  the  Taimir  peninsula  inclines  along  the  banks  of  the  Khatanga 
170  miles  still  farther  north.  East  of  this  point  it  graduallj-  falls  again  towards 
the  Polar  Circle,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  Bering  peninsula  is  excluded  from  the 
forest  zone.  But  long  before  reaching  its  extreme  limits  forest  vegetation  every- 
where becomes  dwarfed.  Beyond  the  60th  parallel  no  trees  occur-  with  stems  more 
than  4  feet  thick,  and  beyond  the  Gist  they  scarcely  average  12  or  14  inches,  and 
near  the  tundra  shrink  to  half  a  foot.  From  a  distance  the  forests  two  or  three 
himdred  years  old,  consisting  of  such  slender  trees,  look  Ulie  fresh  plantations. 


FLOE  A.  811 

The  grouud  being  frozen  to  withiu  a  short  distance  of  the  surface,  prevents  the 
roots  from  penetrating  vertically  in  search  of  moisture,  while  for  a  great  part  of 
the  year  the  superinciunbent  snows  deprive  the  branches  of  all  communication 
with  the  atmosphere.  In  winter  trimk  and  roots  alike  remain  completely  frozen, 
hibernatiug,  so  to  say,  like  the  wild  beasts,  till  the  fii-st  warm  days  of  spring.  Its 
slow  growth  imparts  to  the  fibre  an  extraordinary  hardness,  but  the  timber  thus 
becomes  less  elastic  and  more  brittle.  The  last  struggling  larches  are  \mable  to 
put  forth  true  branches,  throwing  off  nothing  but  a  few  hard,  almost  thorny,  limbs 
and  shoots.  In  this  incessant  struggle  between  life  and  death  most  of  the  few 
trees  that  approach  the  tundra  soon  lose  all  their  sap.  Moss-covered  and  branch- 
less, they  look  like  aged  and  dead  trunks.  Yet  beyond  these  larches,  which  still 
stand  erect,  there  come  others  which  trail  along  the  ground  half  hidden  by  their 
mossy  mantles.  "Within  GO  miles  of  the  forest  line  these  rampant  species  are  met, 
which  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  have  scarcely  grown  4  feet,  and  which  look 
more  like  exposed  roots  than  veritable  trees. 

Throughout  Xorth  Siberia,  as  well  as  on  the  slopes  of  the  southern  highlands, 
abundant  traces  occur  of  a  former  forest  zone  reaching  far  beyond  the  present 
limits  of  timber.  In  some  parts  of  the  north  the  trees  have  retreated  from  12 
to  15  miles,  a  fact  attributed  rather  to  frequent  summer  frosts  than  to  an  increased 
intensity  of  cold  iu  winter.  Hence  trees  thrive  perfectly  well  in  the  Lena 
basin,  where  the  winter  is  most  severe,  but  the  summer  less  exposed  to  frosts. 
Stm  the  climate  of  North  Siberia,  like  that  of  other  Arctic  regions,  has  certainly 
increased  in  severity  duriag  the  last  few  hundred  years. 

Beyond  the  forest  zone  stretch  the  tundi-as,  where  the  only  vegetation  is 
herbage,  mosses,  and  lichens.  The  tundi-a  is  not  composed  exclusively  of  low 
plaias,  but  also  comprises  hilly  districts,  and  on  the  whole  is  rather  a  rolling 
land,  in  ^\-hich  eminences  rising  300  feet  above  the  plaias  follow  each  other 
beyond  the  horizon  like  the  ocean  waves.  Although  of  different  origin,  the 
tundra  ia  many  respects  resembles  the  steppe.  The  latter  is  produced  by  lack 
of  moisture,  the  former  by  lack  of  heat.  But  both  alike  have  the  same  cheerless 
aspect,  and  produce  the  same  mournful  impression  on  the  miud.  The  species  of 
plants  growing  along  the  Arctic  seaboard  are  found  also  on  the  shores  of  the 
Ural  Sea,  30°  farther  south.  In  the  peninsula  of  Taimir  alone  there  are  no 
less  than  ten  genera  and  twenty-one  species  of  phanerogamous  plants.  Still 
the  mosses  prevail,  and  for  vast  spaces  seem  to  occupy  the  field  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  all  other  t}-]3es.  AVTiere  the  pohjtrichuin  predominates  the  tundras  are  of 
a  dirty  yellow ;  where  the  reindeer  moss  forms  the  chief  element  they  assume  a 
faded  white  Kue.  The  monotony  of  these  dull  white  or  yellow  expanses  is  broken 
only  here  and  there  by  a  patch  of  green  herbage,  marking  the  site  of  some 
abandoned  Samoj-ede  camp,  or  the  lair  of  an  Arctic  fox.  A  few  "  trembling " 
pastiu'e  lands  also  occur,  but  as  a  ride  onl}'  near  running  waters. 

Between  the  northern  tundras  and  southern  steppes  by  far  the  greatest  space 
is  occupied  by  the  forest  zone.  From  the  Urals  to  Kamchatka  the  dense  taiga,  or 
woodlands,  are  interrupted  only  by  the  streams,  a  few  natural  glades,  and  some 


312 


ASIATIC  ETJSSIA. 


>|i||iiiii>;iiiii 


60 


tracts  uucler  cultivation.  The  term  faii/a  is  used  in  a  general  \\"ay  for  all  lauds 
under  timber,  but  east  of  the  Altai  it  is  applied  more  esiDccially  to  the  moist  and 
spongy  regions  overgrown  with   tangled  roots  and   thickets,  ■\\here   the  i/iari.  oi' 


FLOEA. 


813 


peat  bogs,  and  luarslies  alternate  with  the  padi,  or  narrow  ravines.  The  miners 
call  by  this  name  the  wooded  mountains  where  they  go  in  search  of  auriferous 
sands.  But  everywhere  the  taiga  is  the  same  dreary  forest,  without  grass,  birds, 
or  insects,  gloomy  and  lifeless,  and  noiseless  but  for  the  soughing  of  the  wind  and 
crackling  of  the  branches. 

The  conifers  are  the  prevailing  trees,  and  these  comprise  all  the  species  common 
to  Europe,  besides  the  Pinus  picJita,  peculiar  to  East  Siberia.  This  species  is.  very 
tall  and  slender,  about  90  feet  high,  and  seldom  over  10  inches  in  diameter,  with 


Fig.  173. — Eange  of  Animal  Species  in  Noinu  Asia. 
AccordiDsr  to  Seyertzov.    Scale  1  :  42,750,000. 


E.OFG. 


II.  III.  IV. 


VI.         VII.       VIII. 


'  C.  PerrQO 


XII.        XIII. 


I.  Arctic  Zoxk. — Xortherx  Zose.  Eegiftns:  II.  North-European;  HT.  Uralo-Siberi;»n ;  IV.  East  Siberian ;  V.  Inter- 
mediate.— Middle  Zove.  Rtginns  :  VI.  Uralo-Barabian  ;  VII.  Dauiian  ;  VIII.  Intermediate.  —  1)esert  Zonk. 
R'^gions :  IX.  West  Asiatic;  X.  Central  Asiatic ;  XI.  Intermediate. — Seric  Zose.  Itegions:  "VTT.  North  China  ; 
y  T IT.  Japan. 


.  600  Miles. 


smooth  bark,  and  in  the  large  central  forests  noted  for  its  bluish-green  foKage. 
Though  a  noble  plant,  it  is  of  but  slight  economic  value,  being  too  fragile  for 
building  purposes,  and  not  verj-  useful  even  as  fuel.  The  so-called  "  Siberian  Cedar  " 
[PiiiHS  ccmhrci)  is  in  every  respect  the  best  and  most  used  for  furnitiu-e,  wearing 
well,  and  never  rotting  unless  expcsed  to  sudden  changes  of  temperatui-e. 

The  most  common  tree  in  the  ttiiga  is  the  larch,  which  best  resists  the  «-inter 
frost  and  summer  chiUs.  The  various  species  range  from  the  extreme  limits  of 
forest  vegetation  to  the  Upper  Ussiu-i  basin,  in  South  Siberia.     But  the  Siberian 


314  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

woodlands  also  include  most  of  the  trees  common  to  temperate  Eurojie — the  linden, 
alder,  juniper,  service,  willow,  aspen,  poj)lar,  birch,  cherry,  apricot — whose  areas  are 
regulated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  elevation  or  aspect  of  the  land. 
Towards  the  south-east,  on  the  Chinese  frontier,  the  birch  is  encroaching  on  the 
indigenous  species,  and  the  natives  regard  this  as  a  sure  prognostic  of  the  approach- 
ing rule  of  the  "  white  Czar." 

Conflagrations  are  very  frequent  in  the  Siberian  forests,  caused  either  by  light- 
ning, the  woodmen,  or  himters,  and  sometimes  spreading  over  vast  spaces  till 
arrested  by  rivers,  lakes,  or  morasses.  One  of  the  pleasures  of  Siberian  travelling 
is  the  faint  odour  of  the  woods  burning  in  the  distance. 

The  native  flora  is  extremely  rich  in  berries  of  every  kind,  supplying  food  for 
men  and  animals.  Collected  in  vast  quantities  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  towns, 
they  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  preserves  and  liqueiirs,  which  partly  replace 
fruits  in  the  native  diet.  Poisonous  plants  are  rare,  and  disappear  altogether  in 
the  north.  Some  cultivated  species  have  been  introduced  even  into  the  tundra 
and  all  the  camping  grounds  along  the  Arctic  seaboard.  The  soil  of  this  region 
spontaneously  produces  varioiis  anti- scorbutics,  and  the  so-called  "  water  plums," 
an  edible  gelatinous  substance,  may  be  collected  in  abimdance  in  all  fresh-water 
basins.  Thus,  as  Yon  Baer  remarks,  in  the  tropics  man  gathers  his  food  from  the 
trees,  in  the  temperate  zone  from  the  soil,  in  the  polar  regions  from  the  water. 

Fauxa, 

The  natural  limits  of  the  land  faima  coincide  with  those  of  forest  vegetation  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Still  the  mouse  and  other  rodents,  preyed 
on  by  the  white  bear  in  summer,  reach  beyond  the  tree  Hue  into  the  timdra.  South 
of  this  line  stretches  the  zone  of  the  European  species,  gradually  modified  as  they 
proceed  eastwards.  The  steppes  and  the  Dadrian  highlands  occupy  the  southern 
region,  while  towards  the  south-east  a  portion  of  the  Amur  basin  and  all  Russian 
Manchuria  belong  already  to  the  Chinese  domain. 

Within  a  recent  geological  ejioch  Siberia  was  still  inhabited  by  a  large  species 
of  rhinoceros,  and  by  the  mammoth,  an  elephant  larger  and  stronger  than  any  now 
existing.  These  monsters  also  roamed  over  the  plains  and  forests  of  Europe,  where, 
as  in  Siberia,  they  were  the  contemjDoraries  of  man.  But  in  Europe  they  are 
now  represented  only  by  fragments  of  their  skeletons,  whereas  in  Xorth  Asia  their 
very  carcasses  have  been  foimd  still  covered  with  the  flesh  and  hides.  In  1771 
Pallas  assisted  at  the  removal  of  a  rhinoceros  from  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Tilin, 
west  of  Yakutsk.  Portions  of  the  head  and  feet  are  still  preserved  in  St.  Petersburg, 
together  with  similar  remains  foimd  in  1877  on  the  Bitantai,  near  the  Yana.  In 
1799  a  frozen  mass  floating  down  the  Lena  grounded  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
where  it  released  the  body  of  a  mammoth  as  it  gradually  melted  from  summer  to 
summer.  When  found  by  the  naturalist  Adams  the  native  Tunguses  had  already 
carried  off  the  tusks,  but  the  eyes,  brain,  and  much  of  the  flesh  still  remained,  and 
the  skeleton  is  now  in  the  St.  Petersburg  Museiun.      A  second  mammoth,  now  in 


TAUNA.  315 

tile  Moscow  3Iuscum,  was  cHscoA'cred  in  1839,  and  a  third  was  brought  to  light  in 
1866  by  Schmidt  near  the  estuary  of  the  Taz.  The  "  ivory  hunters  "  have  long 
been  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  Arctic  seaboard  and  the  archipelago  of  New  Siberia 
in  search  of  mammoths,  and  such  was  formerly  the  abundance  of  these  animals  that 
the  annual  yield  of  fossil  ivory  amounted  to  40,000  lbs.  In  1840  Middendorff 
calculated  that  up  to  that  time  the  remains  of  about  20,000  mammoths  had  been 
discovered  about  the  Siberian  river  banks. 

"^Tiether  the  climate  of  the  country  was  warmer  when  these  animals  flourished 
than  at  present  is  a  moot  question  with  geologists.  Being  covered  with  long  hair, 
the  mammoth  could  certainly  endure  the  rigours  of  a  Siberian  winter.  But  in  the 
tundras  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  now  strewia  with  his  tusks,  he 
coidd  not  have  found  the  foliage  necessary  for  his  sustenance.  Are  we  then  to 
conclude  that  the  country  was  at  that  time  wooded,  or  rather  that  the  real  home  of 
the  mammoth  was  South  Siberia,  whence  his  remains  di-ifted  with  the  streams 
northwards  ?  Various  traditions  associated  with  these  animals  have  been  diffused 
throughout  Siberia  and  China.  In  the  Chinese  annals  mention  is  made  of  the 
mnmcntova,  a  rat  as  large  as  an  elephant,  burrowing  undergroinid,  and  sviddenly 
killed  by  contact  with  the  air.  The  Sanioyedcs  saj-  that  the  mammoth  still  exists, 
haunting  the  streams  and  coast,  and  living  on  the  dead  bodies  cast  up  by  the 
waves.  They  speak  of  the  rhinoceros  as  a  gigantic  biixl,  whose  talons  were  the 
tusks  purchased  bj-  the  ivory  hunters.  Their  legends  also  describe  the  terrific 
combats  that  formerly  took  place  between  their  forefathers  and  these  birds.  A 
microscopic  examination  of  the  vegetable  remains  adhering  to  the  molars  of  the 
rhinoceros  in  the  Irkutsk  Museum  has  revealed  the  fibres  of  the  larch,  birch, 
willow,  closelj'  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the  species  still  growing  in  northern 
latitudes.  The  oj^iuion  is  thus  confirmed  that  these  pachydermata  lived  in  the 
middle  zone,  south  of  the  extreme  limits  of  the  northern  regions  where  their 
remains  are  now  found. 

These  remains  are  often  found  associated  with  those  of  the  horse,  ox,  and 
sheep  ;  but  the  same  gradual  evolution  has  taken  place  in  Siberia  as  in  Em-ope, 
and  all  these  species  have  been  similarly  modified.  The  extreme  eastern  regions  of 
the  Amur  basin  and  Russian  Manchuria,  being  warmer,  more  humid  and  fertile, 
also  aboimd  more  in  animal  life  than  the  other  parts  of  Asiatic  Russia.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Siberian  bear,  deer,  roebuck,  hare,  squirrel,  marmot,  and  mole  are 
about  one-third  larger,  and  often  half  as  heavy  again  as  their  European  congeners. 
This  is  doubtless  due  partly  to  the  greater  abundance  of  nourishment  along  the 
rivers  and  shores  of  Siberia,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  for  ages  the  western 
species  have  been  more  prej-ed  upon  by  man,  living  in  a  constant  state  of  fear, 
and  mostly  perishing  before  attaining  their  full  development. 

The  Arctic  Seas  abound  probably  as  much  as  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  marine 
animals.  Nordenskjold  found  the  Siberian  waters  very  rich  in  molluscs  and  other 
lower  organisms,  implying  a  corresponding  abimdance  of  larger  animals.  Hence 
fishing,  perhaps  more  than  navigation,  will  be  the  future  industry  of  the  Siberian 
coast  populations.    Cetacea,  fishes,  molluscs,  and  other  marine  organisms  are  cast  up 


316  "         ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

in  such  quantities  along  both  sides  of  Bering  Strait  that  the  bears  and  other 
omnivorous  creatures  have  here  become  veiy  choice  as  to  their  food.  But  on  some 
parts  of  the  coast  in  the  Chukchi  country  whales  are  never  sti'anded,  and  since  the 
arrival  of  the  Russians  certain  species  threaten  to  disappear  altogether.  The 
Ehytina  stelleri,  a  sjjecics  of  walrus  formerly  frequenting  Bering  Strait  in  millions, 
was  conipletel_v  exterminated  between  the  years  1741 — G8.  Manj^  of  the  fur- 
bearing  animals,  which  attracted  the  Cossacks  from  the  Urals  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
and  M'hich  were  the  true  cause  of  the  conquest  of  Siberia,  have  become- extremely 
rare.  Their  skins  are  distinguished,  above  all  others,  for  their  great  softness, 
warmth,  lightness,  and  bright  colours.  The  more  Alpine  or  continental  the  climate, 
the  more  beautiful  and  highly  prized  become  the  furs,  which  diminish  in  gloss 
towards  the  coast  and  in  West  Siberia,  where  the  south-west  winds  prevail.  The 
sables  of  the  North  Urals  are  of  small  value,  while  those  of  the  Upper  Lena,  15^ 
farther  south,  are  worth  a  king's  ransom.  Many  species  assume  a  white  coat  in 
winter,  whereby  they  are  difficult  to  be  distinguished  from  the  surroimding  snows. 
Amongst  these  are  the  polar  hare  and  fox,  the  ermine,  the  campagnol,  often  even 
the  wolf  and  reindeer,  besides  the  owl,  yellow-hammer,  and  some  other  birds. 
Those  which  retain  their  brown  or  black  colour  are  mostly  such  as  do  not  show 
themselves  in  winter.  The  fur  of  the  squirrels  also  varies  with  the  sui-rounding 
foliage,  those  of  the  pine  forests  being  ruddy,  those  of  the  cedar,  taiga,  and  firs 
inclining  to  brown,  and  all  varying  in  intensity  of  coloiu-  with  that  of  the 
vegetation. 

Other  species  besides  the  peltry-bearing  animals  have  diminished  in  muubers 
since  the  arrival  of  the  Russian  hunters.  The  reindeer,  which  frequented  the  South 
Siberian  highlands,  and  whose  domain  encroached  on  that  of  the  camel,  is  now 
found  only  in  the  domestic  state  amongst  the  Soyotes  of  the  Uj^per  Yenisei,  and  is 
met  with  in  the  wild  state  only  in  the  dwarf  forests  and  tundras  of  the  far  north. 
The  argali  has  withdi-awn  to  Mongolia  from  the  Siberian  mountains  and  plains, 
where  he  was  still  very  common  at  the  end  of  the  last  century.  On  the  other  hand, 
cold  and  want  of  food  yearly  di-ive  great  nxunbers  of  antelopes  and  wild  horses 
from  the  Gobi  steppes  towards  the  Siberian  lowlands,  tigers,  wolves,  and  other 
beasts  of  prey  following  in  their  track,  and  returning  with  them  in  the  early 
spring.  Brute  creation  seems  well  acquainted  with  the  political  frontiers  of  the 
two  regions,  and  many  birds,  which  in  Siberia  start  at  the  least  sound,  allow  them- 
selves to  be  approached  without  betraying  any  sjnnptoms  of  fear  in  Mongolia. 
This  is  specially  the  case  with  water- fowl,  which  the  Mongolian  nomads  never  dare 
to  attack  in  the  "  sacred  element."  For  the  universal  belief  prevails  that  "  shoidd 
the  blood  of  a  bird  mingle  with  the  pure  stream,  it  becomes  fatal  to  all  the  flock 
di-inkiug  of  it." 

Hitherto  the  hand  of  man  seems  to  have  made  no  impression  on  certain  sociable 
animals  uimierous  in  various  parts  of  South  Siberia.  The  Irtish,  Yenisei,  and 
Transbaikul  steppes  are  honey-combed  with  galleries  expanding  to  underground 
cities,  wherever  the  soil  is  at  once  sandj^  and  consistent  enough  to  resist  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.     Such  districts  are  peopled  by  the  biurowing  tribes,  and 


o 


IXHABITANTS-THE  CHUDES.  817 

the  surface  is  often  covered  for  miles  with  regular  mounds  thrown  up  by  millions 
of  troglodj-tes  from  their  endless  subterranean  labyriaths.  Here  it  is  the  Tarbagan 
marmot  {^Ardomijs  bobac),  there  the  whistling  hare  (^Lagomys  agodonans),  elsewhere 
the  mole  or  other  creatures  w"ith  similar  habits.  In  the  cool  of  the  evening  every 
hiUock  is  occupied  by  some  little  rodent  erect  on  its  hind  legs,  sui'veyiug  the 
surrounding  landscape,  suddenly  disappearing  at  the  least  noise,  and  as  suddenly 
reaijpeariug  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  its  fright.  The  lines  of  tarbagans  mounting 
guard  at  their  palace  gates  sometimes  stretch  beyond  the  horizon,  like  the  sentineb: 
of  a  comitless  army.  Colonies  of  these  marmots  also  people  some  of  the  treeless 
Kamchatka,  Baikal,  and  Vitim  highlands  beyond  the  forest  zone,  ha\-ing  probably 
crossed  the  intervening  wooded  tracts  before  they  were  covered  with  timber. 

Several  new  species  of  animals  have  been  introduced  by  man,  and  modified  by 
crossings  in  the  domestic  state.  In  the  north  the  Samoyedes,  Chukchis,  and  Kam- 
chadales  have  the  reindeer  and  dog,  while  the  horse  and  ox  are  everywhere  the 
companions  of  man  in  the  peopled  regions  of  Siberia.  The  yak  has  been  tamed  by 
the  So3*otes  of  the  Upper  Yenisei,  and  the  camel,  tj-pical  of  a  distinctly  Eastern 
civilisation,  follows  the  nomads  of  the  Kii'ghiz  and  Mongolian  steppes.  All  these 
domesticated  animals  seem  to  have  acquired  special  qualities  and  habits  from  the 
various  indigenous  or  Eussian  peoples  of  Siberia.  The  Samoyede  dog  differs  as 
much  from  the  Cossack  as  the  latter  does  fiom  the  Mauchu  species. 

IxHAiiiTAXTS — The  ChCdes. 

All  the  local  traditions,  confinncd  by  manj-  objects  found  in  the  old  bui'ial- 
places,  .<peak  of  civilised  peof)les  formerly  occupying  Siberia,  and  collectively 
known  as  Chudes,  whether  of  Aryan,  Tui-ki,  Finnish,  or  Mongol  stock.  Their 
kurgans,  or  barrows,  aboimd  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Urals,  in  the  Altai  valleys, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Yenisei,  and  especially  in  the  Minusinsk  district.  In  the 
mineral  regions  abandoned  excavations  are  usually  known  as  "  Chude  mines."  On 
the  western  spurs  of  the  Altai'  certain  stone  landmarks  about  5  or  6  feet  high, 
and  inscribed  with  still  imdecii^hered  characters,  are  regarded  by  the  present 
inhabitants  as  the  "limits"  of  the  Chudes;  and  on  the  banks  of  a  sacred  lake 
in  the  Altai  highlands  are  to  be  seen  two  rudely  carved  granite  horsemen, 
supposed  to  be  the  "  gods "  of  the  same  mysterious  people.  Various  objects, 
and  especially  arms  and  copper  armour,  fotind  under  the  peat  and  along  the  rivers 
where  gold  was  formerly  washed,  show  that  they  were  possessed  both  of  taste  and 
great  skill  in  metal-working.  The  remains  of  canals  several  miles  long,  the 
foimdations  of  sluices  and  windmills,  bespeak  a  really  advanced  state  of  civilisation, 
which  cultivated  fruit  trees  that  have  since  perished,  and  which  reared  an  excellent 
In-eed  of  swine  still  bearing  the  name  of  "  Chiide,"  and  traditionally  attributed  to 
these  ancient  possessors  of  the  land.  The  chief  centre  of  their  ci\"iKsation  seems  to 
have  been  in  the  highlands  about  the  Yenisei,  where  the  richest  and  most  artistic 
objects  have  been  found.  The  implements  and  arms  occm-ring  in  the  kurgans  of 
the  TTestem  Altai  and  Irtish  valley  are  of  a  rude  t}'pe  and  less  original  in  design. 

VOL.    VI.  T 


318  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

On  the  other  hand,  tho  "  Chude  "  antiquities  of  the  Altai  betray  a  great  resem- 
blance to  many  "  >Sc}'thian  "  objects  from  the  Dniejun-  and  Euxine  districts.  The 
civilised  Chudes,  -who  are  generally  believed  to  have  been  of  Finnish  stock,  were 
in  all  probability  exterminated  during  the  long  wars  which  preceded  the  barbaric 
migrations.  The  Mongols,  by  whom  they  have  been  replaced,  recognise  their 
own  foreign  origin — when  asked  whence  thej'  came,  pointing  in\ariably  to  the 
south-cast. 

But  although  the  Chudes  as  a  nation  have  vanished,  they  still  doubtless  sur\4ve, 
intermingled  with  the  indigenous  semi-barbarous  populations,  themselves  destined 
cither  to  merge  with  or  disaj^pear  before  the  Russians.  Although  their  dialects 
enable  us  still  to  group  the  various  Siberian  peoples,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
there  has  been  a  great  mixture  of  races  in  this  region.  From  the  Urals  to  the 
Corean  frontier  a  gradual  transition  of  types  may  be  traced,  while  isolated  groups 
everywhere  occiu-,  which  may  be  regarded  as  representing  Mongol  or  Tiaki  tribes 
dwelling  thousands  of  miles  off.  The  Mongol  tj^pe  is  most  pronounced  in  the 
women.  Even  in  North-west  Siberia  we  frequently  see  young  girls  with  almost 
Chinese  features.  Intermixture  has  been  much  promoted  by  the  usages  of  the 
Siberian  nomads.  Enforced  displacements  of  whole  tribes  often  remove  them  from 
the  parent  stock,  and  bring  Ihem  into  contact  with  other  races.  In  their  long 
journej's  across  large  tracts  of  the  continent  the  Yakut  or  Buriat  traders  purchase 
their  wives,  now  in  one,  now  in  another  tribe,  and  not  unfrequentlj'  maintain 
separate  "establishments"  in  the  various  countries  visited  by  them.  The  wives 
are  also  let  out  on  hire,  the  children  sold  to  strangers,  orphans  adopted  by  strange 
tribes  or  by  the  Hussian  settlers  and  traders.  Although  the  Slav  type,  especially 
amongst  the  Little  Russians  and  Easkolniks,  has  been  perfectly  preserved  in  some 
settlements,  a  general  fusion  of  all  the  Siberian  peoples  is  gradually  taking  place. 
While  the  Russian  emigrants  become  assimilated  to  the  Yakuts,  many  Tunguses 
are  being  slowly  Russified.  According  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  elements 
in  contact,  the  features  and  habits  of  one  or  other  approach  the  prevailing  type. 
Thus  the  Finns  and  Turks  of  the  west  have  acquired  a  European  appearance,  while 
in  the  east  preserving  their  Asiatic  features. 

Throughout  Siberia  proper,  from  the  Urals  to  the  Pacific,  the  Russians,  either 
pure  or  sprung  of  Cossack  alliances  with  the  native  women,  have  already  become  the 
most  important  element  both  numerically  and  socially.  The  Siberian  Slavs  number 
over  3,000,000,  and  those  of  the  Ural  districts  over  4,000,000,  while  the  scattered 
native  tribes  cannot  be  estimated  at  much  more  than  700,000,  exclusive  of  the 
Kirghiz,  whose  steppes  are  now  administratively  included  in  "  Central  Asia."  Some 
groups  occupying  a  domain  larger  than  France  consist  only  of  a  few  nomad  families 
receding  before  the  foreign  settlers.  The  Russians  hold  in  compact  masses  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and  the  Tobol,  Irtish,  and  Upper  Ob  basins.  They  are 
also  predominant  in  the  Yenisei  and  Angara  valleys  and  in  Transbaikalia,  and 
have  occupied  all  the  arable  tracts  along  the  river  banks.  Since  1S60  they  have  been 
spreading  over  the  fertile  Altai  valleys,  which  were  in  that  year  thrown  open  to 
free  immigration. 


I  i!   I":' 


7|^-' 


y^\*K. 


5^^K!?w^s^':;'^S-:^ 


K»^s 


'•V* 


\V/'/.v«^ 


X%-».*l 


,A%'.V,/*, 


v»»^ 


\V.V/^V»^ 


v«  • '-/^V»^ 


k»A»# 


U*»s 


\V 


xV.Vv, 


\V// 


4 


V.VvtvxV.* 

'.v./V.\xV/ 


v»> 


'••••' V.\x^»^ 

kV.Vy  ..^x'.i 

.C.-VvlvxV 

xVAvtvvV 

IxV.V/^VxX'^**' 

>V/v.vxV 

.xVA,.v^s^» 
x%Vv,.v»%^!i 

LxV.V/,^v*^ 

LxV.V,,VO^ 

,x%-.Vv.v*^' 
xV///^..v' 


320 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Eussia  and  China.  On  either  side  of  this  line  the  contrast  is  complete,  the  northern 
slopes  being  clothed  with  forests  of  conifers,  while  southwards  the  rocky  wnderness 
stretches  beyond  the  horizon.    The  waters  escape  on  both  sides  in  opposite  directions, 


THE  ALTAI  HIGHLANDS. 


321 


and  the  inliabitants  belong  to  distinct  ethnical  groups — Mongols  o"i  the  Chinese, 
Telenguts  or  Kalnudcs  on  the  Russian  sloi^es. 

The  Altai  system  consists  of  numerous  chains  running  mainlj'  west-north-west 
and  east-south-cast  parallel   with   the  Tarbagatal  and  many  other  Central  Asiatic 


Fig.   177. — Lake  Teletzkoye. 
Sc.ile  1  :  200,000. 


"     \" 


4=  " 


# 


■  ■  j^  ■j-.-"#"."t:  i""-^^:?"^  7n-,7 


EofG 


,.ti.t7.^g?,j»..n>. 


8a"40 


89°I0 


C.P,-'a.-. 


3  Miles. 


ridges.  These  Bi/clhi,  or  "  Alps,"  are  connected  by  irregular  transverse  ridges  and 
plateaux,  forming  collectively  a  winding  north-easterly  watershed  between  the  Ob 
basin  and  the  Gobi  desert.  The  Altai,  however,  does  not  form  a  complete  water- 
parting,  for  the  Ulungur,  a  head-stream  of  the  Irtish,  rises  in  the  Gobi,  making  its 


322  ASIATIC  EUSSLV. 

way  tliencc  nortlnvards  round  tlic  western  Lighlands.  The  whole  system,  including 
the  intermediate  valleys  and  southern  plateaux,  has  a  mean  elevation  of  scarcely 
more  than  from  4,000  to  5,000  feet,  though  the  chief  crests  rise  to  from  6,000  to 
9,000  feet.  The  Ulau-dabas,  forming  the  central  nucleus,  whence  flow  northwards 
several  affluents  of  the  Katun,  westwards  the  Bukhtarma,  southwards  the  Oigur, 
a  tributary  of  the  Ikc-eral,  is  intersected  by  a  pass  which,  according  to  Miroshni- 
chenko,  is  no  less  than  9,400  feet  high.  North-west  of  this  formidable  j^ass  the 
Altai  system  culminates  with  the  Bielukha,  or  "  White  "  Moimtain,  whose  two  peaks 
are  each  about  11,100  feet  high.  The  highland  mass  commanded  bj-  this  mountain 
is  comijletcly  severed  from  the  rest  of  the  Altai  on  the  south,  west,  and  north  by 
the  Katun,  or  Katuniya,  which  is  the  true  Upper  Ob.  It  receives  numerous  head- 
streams,  one  of  which,  the  Kok-su,  flows  eastwards  through  the  narrow  fissure  of 
the  Korgon  jjlatcau,  about  0,500  feet  high.  The  Bielukha  or  Katim  Mountains 
have  the  best  claim  to  the  title  of  the  "  Great  Altai,"  usuall}'  given  to  the  still 
little-known  region  of  the  Mongolian  Altai.  The  "Great  Altai"  of  most 
geograjjhers  is  called  the  "  Little  Altai "  by  Yenyukov.  It  forms  the  western 
frontier  chain  of  the  Kobdo  plateau,  whose  escarpments  slope  south-westwards  to 
the  Ulungur  and  Black  Irtish  vallej's.  Several  of  its  smmnits  rise  above  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow. 

East  of  the  Russian  Altai',  whose  various  sections  are  usually  named  from  their 
chief  rivers  or  nearest  villages,  the  Tannu-ola  range  runs  in  ^longolia  between  the 
Yenisei  head-streams  and  the  waters  flowing  towards  the  Ubsa-nor.  Farther  north 
the  wooded  Sayan  Mountains  sweep  in  a  bold  curve  towards  the  Yenisei,  above 
which  they  terminate  with  the  Shabin-dabag.  The  lower  Kuznetzkiy  Ala-tau 
ridges,  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Ob  and  the  Yenisei  basins,  still 
maintain  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to  5,000  feet.  Several  small  lakes  are  dotted 
over  the  highland  region  where  the  Altai  and  Saj-an  converge.  But  the  largest 
and  finest  lacustrine  basin  in  the  Altai  regions  is  Lake  Teletzkoye,  fed  bj'  the 
Chulishman,  and  draining  through  the  Biya  westwards  to  the  Ob.  In  the  beauty 
of  its  scenery  this  basin  resembles  Lake  Geneva,  and,  like  it,  consists  of  two  divisions, 
but  more  abruptly  disposed.  It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  1,G00  feet,  and  has  an 
area  of  110  square  miles,  with  a  depth  of  about  140  fathoms.  At  its  southern 
extremity  rises  the  snowy  Altin-tau,  or  "  Gold  Mt)iuitain,"  a  sacred  spot  in  the  ej'cs 
of  the  Kabuidis,  who  call  it  the  "  Father  of  the  Momitains  and  Lake,"  and  pretend 
that  it  has  always  punished  with  death  the  profane  adventurers  who  have  dared  tu 
scale  its  heights. 

The  Bielidcha  also,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  rises  above  the  snow-lino,  and  even 
develops  a  glacier  about  2,800  yards  long,  whence  flow  the  first  head-streams  of 
the  Katun.  A  few  limited  snow-fields  descend  from  the  neighbouring  mountains, 
remnants  of  the  extensive  glaciers  that  formerly  covered  these  highlands.  The 
snow-line  on  the  slopes  of  the  Altin-tau,  recently  fixed  at  about  7,500  feet,  has 
now  been  raised  to  8,600  feet;  yet  it  still  remains  at  a  lower  elevation  than  the 
corresponding  line  on  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

The  heights  below  the  snow-line  are  partly  covered  with  marshy  tracts  sti'ewn 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  OF  THE  ALtAL  323 

with  granite  boulders.  These  heights,  flattened  on  top,  but  with  very  steep  sides, 
are  separated  by  deep  valleys,  which  seem  to  have  been  hollowed  out  by  erosion  in 
the  softer  schistose  rocks  embedded  in  the  granite  masses,  of  which  the  Altai 
system  is  mainly  composed.  Some  porphp-ies  and  serpentines  have  here  and  there 
intruded  in  the  crystalline  and  schist  formations ;  but  there  are  nowhere  any 
c\ddences  of  volcanic  action.  The  Altai  is  e^•idently  a  very  ancient  system,  without 
any  of  the  dyassic,  triassic,  Jurassic,  chalk,  or  tertiary  strata.  Since  the  formation 
of  the  palaeozoic  rocks,  its  crests  have  always  been  raised  above  the  seas  and  lower 
steppes.  The  coal-fields  discovered  ui  the  Kuzuetzk  Moimtains,  on  the  banks  of  tlie 
Tom,  and  the  rich  metalliferous  veins,  which  have  given  such  economic  importance 
to  the  Altai  region,  date  from  these  geological  epochs. 

Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Altai. 

Compared  with  that  of  the  surroimding  steppes,  the  flora  of  the  Altai  is 
extremely  rich,  though  still  inferior  to  that  of  Central  Europe  in  the  number  of  its 
species.  Ledebour,  who  has  collected  about  1,600  flowering  plants  in  this  region, 
estimates  at  about  four-sevenths  of  the  species  indigenous  in  Gennany  those 
composing  the  wild  flora  of  the  Altai,  which  lies  under  the  same  latitude  as  the 
Bohemian  highlands,  and  is  exposed  to  the  same  alternating  south-west  and  north- 
east winds.  AU  the  families,  except  those  growing  on  the  shores  of  salt  lakes,  are 
represented  in  the  Altai  by  fewer  species  than  in  Central  Europe.  The  maple  is 
wanting  altogether,  the  lime-tree  occurs  only  in  isolated  clusters,  and  the  alder  is 
very  rare.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  peculiar  species,  such  as  the  hedge 
cherry  (^Luiikera  Tatarica)  and  the  pea-tree  {^Caragana  arborcscens^,  whose  whitish 
and  acacia-Kke  foliage  is  seen  on  most  of  the  less  productive  slopes. 

The  steppe  flora  encroaches  on  the  Altai  flora  proper  to  a  height  of  about 
1,000  feet  along  the  advancing  spurs.  It  is  very  poor,  especially  in  the  saline 
tracts,  and  imparts  a  grey  or  j-ellowish  tone  to  the  landscape,  here  and  there 
relieved  by  pale  green  tints.  Grassy  lauds  occur  only  on  the  well-watered  low- 
lying  flats,  and  this  tall  herbage,  heaving  like  the  waves  under  the  action  of  the 
winds,  is  said  to  produce  something  like  the  efEect  of  sea-sickness  on  the  natives 
accustomed  to  the  sombre  motionless  aspect  of  the  bare  steppe.  Along  the  river 
banks  the  steppe  flora  is  interrupted  by  arborescent  vegetation,  including  the  birch 
and  other  rapidly  growing  species,  and  occasionally  the  pine,  where  it  has  not 
escaped  the  conflagrations  it  is  exposed  to  in  the  neighbom-hood  of  hmuau 
habitations.  Of  the  jiojilars  and  wUlows,  aboimding  most  in  the  rivers  rising 
in  the  Altai,  some  species  seem  to  have  originated  in  the  Upper  Ob  basin. 

The  black  birch  and  medlar  reach  an  altitude  of  6,800  feet,  whereas  the  forest 
zone  proper  is  comprised  between  ■i,oOO  and  6,600  feet.  But  in  all  the  iuhabited 
districts  it  has  been  considerably  encroached  upon  by  the  woodman's  axe,  and  in 
some  places  nothuig  but  saplings  are  met  for  himdreds  of  square  miles.  In  the 
valleys  sheltered  from  the  diy  south-west  winds,  and  at  a  distance  from  the  mining 
districts,  the  pine   "  taiga  "   are  still  met,  and  higher  up  forests  of  firs  and  other 


324  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

conifers  finer  than  those  of  Europe,  o\\-ing  to  the  richness  and  variety  of  the 
undergrowth.  The  Alpine  plants,  reaching  from  the  forest  zone  to  the  snow-Hne, 
are  noted  for  their  bright  colours  and  pungent  odour.  They  are  intermingled  first 
with  the  last  stimted  growth  of  dwarf  trees,  and  then  with  the  mosses  and  lichens, 
which  finally  disappear  under  the  snows. 

The  mountaia  fauna,  like  the  flora,  is  relatively  very  rich,  and  the  Kahnuk 
sings,  "  The  White  Altai,  with  its  four  valleys  and  six,  of  sixty  birds  is  the  home, 
and  of  countless  deer."  In  the  section  explored  by  him,  Ledebour  collected 
twenty-one  species  of  manunals,  sixty-fom*  of  birds,  twenty-eight  of  amphibia,  but 
seven  only  of  fish.  On  the  Chinese  frontier  there  are  some  animals  belonging  to  the 
Central  Asiatic  faima ;  but  on  the  whole  the  species  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Tian-shan  and  Siberia.  The  stuffed  tigers  ia  the  Barnaul  Museimi  were  intruders 
from  a  foreign  domain,  and  do  not  seem  to  have  been  here  indigenous.  Some 
animals,  formerly  very  common,  have  either  disappeared  or  become  very  scarce. 
Such  are  the  beaver,  now  foimd  only  on  the  Black  Irtish,  and  the  elk,  so  numerous 
ill  the  time  of  Pallas  that  the  tribute  was  often  paid  with  its  skias,  valued  at  about 
half  a  rouble  each.  But  while  some  have  been  exterminated  by  the  himter,  others 
have  been  introduced  by  the  Eussian  and  Tatar  peasants.  The  Russians  of  the 
Bukhtarma  valley  have  succeeded  in  taming,  and  thus  preserving,  the  marali,  which 
has  elsewhere  been  nearly  extirpated  by  the  less  provident  settlers.  This  ruminant 
is  more  valued  than  the  horse,  because  of  its  greater  docility,  and  because  it 
consumes  less  hay,  if  supplied  with  plenty  of  salt.  The  horns  of  the  male  are  sawn 
in  spring,  yielding  on  an  average  about  £8  worth  of  the  gelatinous  substance 
so  highly  prized  by  the  Chinese.  The  skin  and  flesh  have  also  a  great  economic 
value. 

The  bee,  said  by  Ledebour  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Russians  towards  the 
close  of  last  century,  seems  to  be  indigenous,  at  least  in  the  region  of  Lake 
Teletzkoye,  where  it  is  foimd  in  the  -^^-ild  state,  and  has  a  native  name.  In  any 
case  agriculture  has  become  one  of  the  great  industries  of  the  Altai,  and  as  many 
as  2,000  hives  are  grouped  aroimd  some  farmsteads.  In  several  Aillages  the 
annual  yield  amovmts  to  125,000  lbs.  of  honey,  and  500,000  lbs.  of  honey  and 
825,000  lbs.  of  wax  are  yearly  exported  from  the  Bukhtarma  valley.  This  highly 
perfumed  honey  is  largely  consmned  in  the  Altai  regions,  where,  as  iu  Russia,  it  is 
eaten  with  candied  frmts  and  cuciunbers. 


IxiLiBiTAXTS — The  K.4iMrKs,  Tatars,  and  Russians. 

The  prehistoric  races  of  the  Altai  have  left  traces  of  their  ci\alisation,  and  the 
local  mines  had  from  the  remotest  times  been  worked  by  one  of  those  mysterious 
races  known  as  "  Chudes."  The  hills  and  plains  are  strewn  with  their  barrows, 
generally  sui'rounded  with  stones  and  gooseberry  thickets.  TVlicn  the  Russians 
discovered  the  rich  mineral  treasures  of  the  Altai,  they  foimd  that  mines  had 
everywhere  been  opened,  and  Pallas  tells  us  that  iu  one  of  them  the  skeleton  was 
foimd  of  one  of  those  prehistoric  miners,  with  a  leather  sack  full  of  ores  by  his  side. 


INHABITANTS— THE  KALMUKS,  TATAES,  AND  RUSSIANS.  325 

In  many  places  the  lioney-combccl  ground  has  given  way,  fonning  large  basins,  now 
2)artly  filled  with  water.  In  the  agricultui-al  districts  also  human  skeletons  have 
been  found  beneath  the  "  black  earth,"  associated  -nith  the  remains  of  horses,  and 
delicately  wrought  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron  objects.  These  ancient  miners  of 
the  Altai'  and  Yenisei,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Urals,  were  amongst  the  ancestors  of 
the  debased  populations  occupying  the  Altai  valleys  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Russians,  and  who  belonged  to  the  Ural-Altaic  stock.  Omng  to  the  common 
tendency  to  seek  the  cradle  of  races  in  highland  regions,  the  terms  Ural  and  Altai, 
like  that  of  the  Caucasus,  have  been  employed  to  designate  the  various  Tatar, 
Finnish,  and  even  MongoKau  nations  of  North  Asia. 

The  Mongols  occu^jy  all  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Altai  and  surrounding 
plateaux.  But  they  have  also  crossed  the  fi-ontier,  and  dwell  in  the  midst  of  the 
Russians  and  Tatars  of  the  northern  vallej-s,  though  they  are  here  chiefly  repre- 
sented by  the  Kalmidis,  variously  estimated  at  from  12,000  to  20,000.  These 
commimities,  who  call  themselves  Telingit,  or  Telengut,  and  some  of  whom  are 
even  ignorant  of  the  name  of  Kalmulc,  are  described  as  "  the  most  honest  of  Asiatic 
peoples."  The  Teletzes  of  the  Chulishmau  valley,  from  whom  Lake  Teletzkoye  takes 
its  name,  form  a  "family  of  brothers,"  far  superior  to  their  more  "  ci-^-ilised " 
conquerors  in  simplicity,  uprightness,  and  hospitality.  Till  receuti}'  they  were 
subjects  both  of  China  and  Russia,  knowing  no  political  frontier,  and  pajTng 
tribute  to  two  masters.  But  since  I8G9  their  allegiance  has  been  confined  to  the 
White  Czar.  They  formerly  occupied  a  far  more  extensive  territory,  stretching 
even  beyond  the  Irtish  ;  but  they  are  now  limited  to  the  Biisk  and  Kuznetzk 
districts  of  the  Eastern  Altai.  Although  of  Mongol  stock,  they  now  speak  a  Turki 
dialect,  aboimding  in  Mongolian  terms. 

The  Altai  Kahuulcs  are  pure  Shamanists,  freely  practising  their  rites,  and  on 
grand  occasions  sacrificing  animals.  Their  idols  or  symbolic  images  consist  of 
blocks  of  wood  or  bark  representing  men  with  outstretched  arms,  not  imlike  the 
votive  offerings  often  lining  the  walls  of  churches  in  the  south  of  Em-ope.  These 
many-coloured  images  represent  the  good  and  bad  sjnrits,  who  dwell  between 
heaven  and  earth,  in  the  mountains  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  lakes.  Hare-skins, 
regarded  by  the  Orthodox  Russians  as  impure,  are  sacred  objects  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Kalmuks,  who  spread  them  over  wooden  crosses,  also  revered  as  holy  spnbols. 
The  ghosts  of  their  forefathers  are  represented  by  partj'-colom-cd  ribbons  attached 
to  the  branches  or  streaming  from  poles,  and  every  Kalmuk  knows  his  ribbon  by 
the  name  of  one  of  his  ancestors.  He  understands  the  language  of  the  ^\•ind, 
listens  to  its  ad-s-ice,  but  never  reveals  to  strangers  what  the  voice  from  bej-ond  the 
grave  has  told  him.  Nevertheless  thousands  of  these  Shamanist  Kahnidis  are 
officially  classed  as  Christians.  The  harsh  treatment  of  their  \^-ives  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  conversions  amongst  the  frontier  popidations.  To 
escape  from  the  blows  of  their  husbands  these  women  take  refuge  with  the 
missionary,  and  allow  themselves  to  be  baptized.  Then  the  husbands  come  forward 
and  cause  themselves  also  to  be  baptized,  in  order  to  recover  possession  of  their 
spouses,  and  thus  two  souls  are  gained  to  the  "  true  faith."     Most  of  the  Tatars  iu 


e 


32G  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

the  Ru.ssiim  \-allo3's  arc  also  baptized  and  ofRcially  regarded  as  Cliristiaiis,  although 
they  are  really  Sharaanists,  and  have  often  forgotten  their  Christian  names,  still 
calling  themselves  "Dog,"  "Wolf,"  "Raven,"  "Vulture,"  after  the  national 
fashion.  The  chief  missionary  station  in  the  Altai  regions  is  Ulida,  a  village  in  the 
Upper  Katun  valle}',  some  GO  miles  above  Biisk.  Here  is  a  curious  collection  of 
native  documents,  religious  works  published  in  Tatar,  and  popular  songs  collected 
by  Radlov  and  Chivalkov. 

Of  all  the  non-Slav  races  the  Tatars  are,  on  the  whole,  those  who  offer  the  greatest 
inert  resistance  to  the  progress  of  Russian  civilising  influences.  Yet  of  many 
Tatar  tribes  little  now  survives  bej^ond  their  names.  The  Kirghiz  of  the  Upper 
Katim  valley,  completely  isolated  from  their  kinsmen  of  the  western  steppes,  have 
become  Russians  in  their  agricultural  habits,  though  still  sj^eaking  Turki  or  the 
Mongolian  dialect  of  their  Kalmuk  neighbours.  The  Teleuts  of  the  Biya  vallej', 
and  the  Kumandes,  besides  various  groups  of  "  Black "  Tatars,  are  also  being 
gradually  Russified.  Helmersen  and  Radlov  think  the  Teleuts  are  of  Finnish  race, 
although  now  speaking  a  Tiirki  dialect  resembling  that  of  the  Telcnguts. 

Over  nine-tenths  of  the  poindation  in  the  Altai  regions  are  Russians,  descended 
from  traders,  officials,  Cossacks,  miners,  soldiers,  and  exiles.  Till  1865  the 
Russian  peasantry  were  not  permitted  to  colonise  these  highlands,  which  were  the 
special  domain  of  the  Czar,  reserved  for  the  mining  industr}-.  Still  the  valleys 
are  so  fertile,  and  the  demand  for  agricidtural  produce  so  urgent,  that  thousands 
settled  here  even  before  that  year.  The  Raskolniks  especially  possess  several  large 
villages,  surrounded  by  floiu'ishing  farms,  and  they  already  form  about  one-fifteenth 
part  of  the  entire  population.  At  present  colonisation  is  making  rajjid  strides, 
and  numerous  new  commimes  ha^e  been  founded  in  the  Biisk  district,  and  even  in 
the  Kalmids  territory.  Some  of  the  better  class  of  villages  belong  to  the  descend- 
ants of  fugitives  said  to  have  been  criminals,  but  who  must  have  mostly  been 
Bezpopovtzi  Raskolniks,  all  the  inhabitants  now  belonging  to  that  sect  of  Old 
Believers.  They  retreated  before  the  advance  of  the  miners,  and  formerl}'  lived 
like  savages  in  the  more  inaccessible  valleys,  some  penetrating  even  into  the 
Mongolian  steppes,  where  they  are  believed  still  to  survive.  These  were  the  so-called 
Kamenshiki,  or  "  Rock  People,"  most  of  whom  accepted  the  Czar's  authority  in 
1791,  and  built  regular  villages,  where  their  descendants  now  lead  honest,  sober,  and 
industrious  lives.  But  in  1862  about  fifty  of  them  quitted  the  country  in  search 
of  the  mysterious  "  "WTiite  "Water,"  probably  the  Lob-nor,  ^^•hcre  Prjevalsky  heard 
of  an  independent  Russian  conunimity  during  his  recent  tra\els. 

Formerly  the  only  advantage  dcii^ed  by  the  Russians  from  the  Altai  regions 
was  due  to  the  mines,  all  of  which  were  discovered  on  the  site  of  old  "  Chude  " 
works.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Russians  have  sought 
for  gold  in  the  auriferous  sands  of  the  Altai  rivers  ;  in  172o  the  first  foundry  was 
opened,  and  in  17-36  the  argentiferous  lead  mines  were  discovered,  which  proved  to 
be  the  most  productive  in  the  world  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  German  miners,  invited  about  1750  to  these  regions  in  order  to  instruct  the 
Crown    serfs   in    the    various  branches  of  the   industry,  have  become  completely 


TOPOGEArnT.  327 

absorbed  iu  tlie  Slav  population,  and  are  now  recognised  only  by  a  few  Gennan 
technical  expressions  current  in  the  local  dialect. 

The  Chinese  slopes  of  the  moimtains  are  not  worked,  nor  are  there  any  mines 
in  the  Eastern  Altai  districts,  where  crystalline  rocks  are  of  less  frequent  occnrrence. 
Most  of  the  ores  in  the  west  and  north  are  found  in  the  palmozoic  rocks,  associated 
with  granites,  poi-phj-ries,  diorites,  or  serpentines.  The  most  abundant  metals  are 
silver  and  copper,  besides  gold,  lead,  zinc,  iron,  and  in  one  place  telluriiuu.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  nickel,  and  iron  alone  are  at  present  extracted,  but  since  the  abolition 
of  serfdom  and  the  substitution  of  paid  labour  in  1861,  the  expenses,  formerly  less 
than  half  the  profits,  have  gone  on  increasing  at  such  a  rate  that  several  of  the 
deeper  mines  have  already  had  to  be  abandoned.  The  importance  of  the  Altai  as  a 
mineral  region  wiU  probably  continue  to  decline,  at  least  imtil  the  coal-iields  of 
the  Upper  Tom  basin  are  opened  and  connected  by  rail  with  the  metal  works. 
Meanwhile,  agriculture  and  stock-breeding  must  be  regarded  as  the  chief  resources 
of  the  Altai.  In  1804  the  course  of  the  Irtish  was  first  utilised  for  forwarding  the 
metals  to  Russia.  But  craft  of  3"2  tons,  which  reach  Ust-Kamenogorsk  from  the 
port  of  the  Tcrkniy-pristen  mines  in  one  day,  take  three  days  and  often  a  week  to 
return,  so  that  during  the  open  season  a  boat  can  at  most  make  nine  or  ten  trips. 
Of  the  land  routes  between  the  Ob  basin  and  Mongolia,  the  most  important  is  that 
between  Biisk  and  Kobdo  thi-ough  the  Chu3-a  valley  and  Suok  Pass.  Yet  Ugodai, 
the  last  iDcrmanent  Russian  station  on  this  historic  route,  is  a  mere  hamlet  of 
twenty  huts,  some  loO  miles  from  the  smnmit  of  the  pass.  Even  the  Russian 
encampment  in  the  Upper  Chuya  valley  is  left  in  charge  of  the  Kalmidis  during 
winter. 

Topography. 

Although  the  Altai  region  is  very  sparsely  peopled  even  in  the  neighbom-hood 
of  the  mines,  still  the  Russian  towns  and  A"illages  are  comparatively  large.  Barnaul, 
capital  of  all  the  Altai  colonies,  is  one  of  the  gayest  and  most  flourishing  towns  in 
Siberia.  Its  industries  are  second  in  importance  only  to  those  of  Irkutsk,  west  of 
the  Ural  provinces.  As  indicated  by  its  name,  it  was  a  mere  Kirghiz  aul  when 
Demidov  founded  his  mining  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ob,  and  in  1771  it 
became  the  capital  of  all  the  mineral  region  in  the  Altai.  The  great  imperial 
foundr}'  stands  on  an  embankment  damming  the  waters  of  the  Barnaulka,  above 
its  junction  with  the  Ob.  But  the  works  have  been  frequently  at  a  standstill  since  the 
produce  of  the  mines  has  fallen  off.  Here  are  also  sOme  free  industries,  such  as 
tanneries,  leather  di-essing,  bullet  casting,  and  other  establishments.  The  ioyra.  also 
possesses  a  meteorological  and  magnetic  observatory,  and  a  public  musemu  of  natural 
history  and  antiquities.  In  the  district  is  the  copper  foundiy  of  Suzunskij'-zavod, 
on  a  small  aiHuent  of  the  Ob,  producing  about  540  tons  of  metal  yearly. 

Zmeinogor&k,  or  "Snake  Momit,"  formerly  the  rival  of  Barnaul,  is  now  much 
reduced,  its  poiDulation  having  fallen  from  about  20,000  to  10,000.  Standing  on  a 
bare  hiU  1,100  feet  above  the  Korbalikha  torrent,  which  flows  thi'ough  the  Alei  to 
the  Ob,  Zmeinogorsk  was  long  the  chief  centre  of  the  Altai  mining  industry.   About 


328 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


half  of  the  silver  produced  in  this  region  down  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  came  from  the  neighbouring  mines,  most  of  which  are  now  half  full  of 
water.  These  mines  were  finally  abandoned  in  1869,  and  the  large  smelting  works 
are  now  supplied  with  ores  from  the  Upper  Altai  valleys  farther  south. 

At  present  the  most  active  mining  town  is  Zinja)iovsl;,  at  the  foot  of  the 
"Eagle  Mountains,"  in  the  heart  of  the  Altai',  in  the  mihealthy  valley  of  the 
Beryozovka,  a  tributary  of  the  Bukhtarma.  Hitherto  Ziryanovsk  has  produced 
about  one-fourth  of  all  the  silver  extracted  from  the  Altai',*  and  with  the  tillage  of 
Bukliturmin.sk  it  is  also  the  chief  centre  of  bee-fanning  in  this  region.  Riddcmk, 
so  named  from  Bidder,  who  first  sm-veyed  its  argentiferous  load  deposits,  lies  mid- 
way between  Zmeinogorsk  and  Ziryanovsk,  about  the  sources  of  the  Ulba  and  Uba, 


Fig.  178. — Zmeinogoksk. 
Scale  1  :  70,000. 


3,330  TarOs. 


and  is  the  richest  lead-producing  district  of  the  Ural.  Near  it  is  the  famous  granite 
peak  of  Ivanovskiy-belok,  6,730  feet  high.  LolicvsJny,  at  the  chief  bend  of  the 
Alei,  west  of  Zmeinogorsk,  is  a  busy  place,  which  formerly  employed  J, '200  free 
hands  and  over  27,000  serfs,  and  which  about  1860  annually  produced  on  an 
average  12,800  lbs.  of  silver  and  600,000  lbs.  of  lead. 

North-west  of  Barnaul,  between  the  Ob  and  the  Tom,  are  the  numerous 
argentiferous  mines  of  Salair,  whose  annual  j'ield  averages  about  £8,000.  The 
coal  and  iron  wealth  of  Kuznetzk,  on  the  Tom,  is  very  little  worked.  But,  besides 
its  metal  ores,  the  Altai  is  rich  in  valuable  rocks,  some  of  which  are  worked  up  in 

•  Yield  of  the  Ziryanovsk  mines  from  1796  to  18.54  : — 

Silver 1,025,000  lbs.,  value  21,860.000  roubles. 

Lead 35,000,000     „      „        2,162,100      „ 


OB  BASIN.         -  829 

the  Government  works  of  Kolivan,  19  miles  north-west  of  Zmemogorsk.  Here  are 
prepared  some  magnificent  blocks  of  brown  and  smoked  jaspar,  marble,  quartz, 
porphyry,  and  serpentine.  But,  as  iu  most  of  the  Government  works,  the  expenses 
greatly  exceed  the  income. 

The  chief  trading-place  in  the  Eastern  Altai  and  Saj-an  highlands  is  Biislc,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Birza,  near  its  jimction  with  the  Katun,  the  main  head-stream 
of  the  Ob.  It  is  thus  conveniently  situated  for  carrying  on  trading  relations  with 
Barnaul  and  the  steppe  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  with  the  Altai  ^-alleys, 
and  through  the  Suok  Pass  with  Mongolia.  Its  merchants  meet  the  Chinese 
dealers  every  year  in  a  camping  ground  iu  the  middle  of  the  swamps  of  the  Chuya 
steppe,  where  they  obtain  their  supplies  of  furs,  cattle,  and  horses.  But  the 
exchanges,  which  in  1865  amounted  to  200,000  roubles,  have  been  greatlj^  reduced 
since  Kashgaria  has  lost  its  independence. 

Ktiznetzh,  or  the  "  Blacksmith's  Town,"  lying  in  the  Upper  Tom  basin,  opposite 
the  confluence  of  the  Kondora,  has  gradually  lost  its  former  importance.  But  since 
it  has  become  the  chief  town  of  a  district  its  locksmith  and  hardware  industries  and 
general  prosperity  have  somewhat  revived.  Its  coal-fields,  stUl  unworked,  have  an 
estimated  area  of  2,000  square  miles. 

Of  the  summer  retreats  and  towns  devoted  to  pleasure  the  most  important  is 
AUaiskfDja  sianitza,  the  Koton-karagai  of  the  Kalmuks,  founded  in  1871  in  the 
Upper  Bukhtarma  vallc}',  3,520  feet  above  the  sea.  Notwithstanding  its  great 
elevation,  wheat,  hemp,  and  flax  are  gro^ra  in  the  surrounding  district,  while  oats 
and  barley  yield  returns  up  to  4,000  feet. 


III.— THE  OB  BASIISr. 

GovERN'MEXTS     OF    Akmoxinsk,     Semipalatinsk,     Tomsk,     TunoLSK — Eastern     Districts    of    the 

GOVEKXMEN'TS    OF    PeUM    AND    OREMIURG. 

The  vast  basin  of  the  Ob,  embracing  an  area  of  over  1,400,000  square  miles, 
comprises  all  West  Siberia,  half  of  the  Kirghiz  domain,  and  even  stretches  south 
of  the  Altai  into  Chinese  territorj^  But  the  northern  portion  of  this  inunense 
region,  seven  times  larger  than  France,  is  still  little  more  than  a  frozen  solitude. 
The  population,  concentrated  chiefly  on  the  Asiatic  sloi^e  of  the  Urals,  and  in  the 
central  zone  between  the  southern  steppes  and  northern  tundras,  is  so  sparse  that,  if 
evenly  distributed,  it  would  give  scarcely  two  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile. 

Few  of  the  streams  flowing  through  the  Ob  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  have  their 
sources  in  the  snowy  valleys  of  the  uplands.  In  the  east  the  watershed  between 
the  Ob  and  Yenisei  is  in  many  places  imperceptible,  the  tundra  discharging  its 
surface  waters  in  both  directions  without  any  distinct  parting-line.  The  inter- 
mediate zone  is  often  occupied  even  hy  swamps  draining  either  way,  according  to 
the  direction  of  the  winds  on  the  local  rainfall.  Farther  south  the  watershed  between 
the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob  basins  is  irregularly  indicated  by  rolling  tracts  or  even 
hills.      But  this  water-parting  is  diversely  interrupted,  and  here  also  there  occur 


330 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


marsh}'  tracts,  whose  drainage  has  taken  a  northern  or  a  southern  coui'se  under  the 
slightest  oscillations  of  the'  land.  The  hydrograjDhy  of  the  Ob  is,  in  fact,  clearly 
defined  only  towards  the  west  by  the  Ural  range,  and  south-eastwards  by  the  Altai 
highlands  and  plateaux.  It  is  in  these  uplands  on  the  Chinese  frontier  that  we  meet 
with  the  Belukha  glacier,  the  onlj'  one  occurring  in  the  Ob  basin. 

The  Irtish  Basin. 

The  true  head-stream  of  the  main  river  is  not  the  Upper  Ob,  which  rises  in  the 
Eussian  Altai,  but  the  Irtish,  fed  by  the  waters  of  the  Chinese  Altai.      The  Irtish 

Fig.  179.— Lake  Zaisan. 
Scale  1 ;  1,300,000. 


u/an   Steji/ie  '  '■'■/^,!}-:,;t,,,a.a»^,-;!m 


4P 


E.orr, 


i.'£:¥f^ 


aitso' 


84- 20' 


C.Perci"a 


24  Miles, 


itself,  the  correct  Mongol  form  of  which  is  Erchis,  is  only  an  affluent  of  a  partly 
underground  river,  which  rises  on  the  Kobdo  plateau,  and  sweeps  round  the  advanced 
spurs  of  the  Altai  north-westwards  towards  the  great  Lake  Ulmigur,  one  of  the 
largest  in  Asia.  A  small  chain  of  hills  runs  between  the  east  side  of  this  lake  and 
the  Irtish;  but  the  hills  gradually  disappear  northwards,  and  near  an -isthmus, 
where  the  stream  is  withiu  2  miles  of  the  lake,  there  is  seen  the  dry  bed  of  an 
outlet,  said  to  be  filled  every  spring  ^rith  the  rising  of  the  Uliuigm-.  Beneath  this 
superficial  bed  a  hidden  stream  certainly  flows,  as  sho^^Ti  by  the  comparative 
observations  made  on  the  discharge  of  the  Irtish  above  and  below  the  intermittent 
outlet.  Some  12  miles  higher  up  the  volimic  of  the  Irtish  is  about  635  cubic  feet 
per  second,  whereas  farther  clo^vn  it  is  three  times  greater  without  having  received 


THE  IRTISH  BASIN. 


831 


any  visible  fresh  affluent.  This  great  increase  must  evidently  be  due  to  an  under- 
ground tributary,  which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  Upper  TJlungur  River  by 
flo'«'ing  from  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 

The  Irtish,  or  "  Black  Irtish,"  which  ought  to  be  called  the  Ulungur,  is  already 
a  considerable  stream  before  entering  Russian  territory,  and  even  before  receiving 
the  overflow  of  the  Alpine  Lake  Marka  through  the  Kaljir.  Its  mean  dejith  is 
nearly  10  feet,  with  a  breadth  of  from  300  to  5G0  feet,  and  a  mean  discharge  of 
about  13,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  After  its  junction  with  the  Kaljir  it  enters 
Russian  territorj',  here  forming  several  marshy  branches,  which  slowlj^  make  their 
way  to  Lake  Zaisan,  a  still  larger  sheet  of  water  than  the  TJlungur.  This  lake  is  about 
60  miles  long,  at  least  during  the  floods,  with  a  mean  area  of  730  square  miles.  But 
though  three  times  larger,  it  is  far  shallower  than  Lake  Geneva,  averaging  little 


Fig.  ISO. — The  Ust-K.\mexogorsk  Defile. 
Scale  1  :  980,000. 


"^..    "'        z' 


^■^^JT 


TCZ^ 


^^-jCfVw^'*"';' 


Oulbinsk  , 


Dust  KameriS^brsk'N         if   *^'j^{ 


1.  v/J 


ivV-at,-sr^ 


-Bpukhtarminsk 


^■s:s^ 


—  12  Miles. 


over  25  feet  deep.  The  Zaisan  is  not  an  Alpine,  but  rather  a  vast  steppe  lake, 
■although  the  snowy  crests  of  the  Altai  and  Sauru  ranges  are  visible  through  the 
poplars,  -nollows,  and  aspens  fringing  its  shores.  It  teems  with  fish  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  haids  of  the  Kirghiz  or  Cossack  fi.shermen  seem  Kke  "  miraculous 
draughts  "  to  the  stranger.  Besides  the  species  common  to  the  lacustrine  waters  of 
Eurojje,  it  contains  the  nyelma,  an  excellent  salmon,  and  carps  much  finer  than 
those  of  the  "West.  The  annual  yield  of  fish  amounts  altogether  to  about  1,625,000  lbs., 
and  its  present  name  of  Zaisan,  or  "  Noble,"  is  said  to  have  been  conferred  on 
this  lake  by  the  Kalmuks,  whom  the  sujjerabundant  suppl}^  of  fish  saved  from 
starvation  in  1650.  Water-fowl  also  frequent  it  in  multitudes,  but  its  shores  are 
almost  destitute  of  inhabitants.  A  steamer  ascended  the  Irtish  in  1864,  to  explore 
its  waters  and  penetrate  up  the  Black  Irtish  to  the  station  of  Ak-tubeh,  on  the 
Chinese  frontier,  and  in  1880  the  project  was  discussed  of  establishing  a  regular 


832 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


steam  ser\ace  between  Tumen,  the  ZaTsan,  and  Black  Irtish,  a  distance  by  water  of 
about  9G0  mUes. 

At  an  elevation  of  1,380  feet  the  "White"  Irtish  issues  from  the  north  side  of 
the  lake  in  a  slow  current,  but  after  its  junction  with  the  Kui-chum,  the  jS'arim, 
and  liukhtarma  it  becomes  more  rapid,  and  soon  enters  one  of  the  wildest  and  most 
romantic  gorges  in  the  world,  the  Ust-Kamenogorsk  defile,  beyond  which  it 
assumes  its  normal  north-westerly  course.  At  this  point,  which  formerly  marked 
the  southern  limit  of  the  Ob  basin,  it  is  about  1,1G0  feet  above  sea-level,  and  below 
Ust-Kamenogorsk  the  stream  ramifies  into  several  branches,  enclosing  grassy 
islands  from  10  to  40  square  miles  in  extent.  During  its  lower  coui-se  from  the 
Altai  defile  to  its  confluence  with  the  Ob,  the  Irtish  receives  over  one  thousand 


Fig.   181. — Lakes  Chany  and  Sakilasi  is  1870. 
Scale  1  ;  1,500,000. 


C.  ore.  49 


C-Percorj 


.  H,330  yards. 


affluents  of  all  sizes,  although  hundrcd.-j  of  streams  which  formerly  reached  its 
banks  are  now  lost  in  the  swamps  of  the  salt  and  arid  steppes. 

A  large  portion  of  the  level  tract  comprised  between  the  Ob  on  the  east,  the 
Irtish  and  Om  on  the  west  and  north,  is  kuo^^^l  as  the  Baraba  steppe,  although 
rarely  presenting  the  aspect  of  a  true  stcpj)e.  Not  a  rock  is  anywhere  to  be  seen, 
and  the  surface  is  pleasantly  di^"crsLfied  with  groves  and  clusters  of  pine  and  birch, 
disposed  as  if  by  the  hand  of  an  artist  in  picturesque  disorder.  This  natural  park 
presents  an  endless  variety  of  landscajies,  and  yet  the  only  elements  in  the  scene 
are  its  pines,  birches,  grass,  and  prairie  flowers.  In  some  places,  however,  this 
region  assumes  the  apiiearaucc  of  a  true  stejDpe,  with  salt  and  marshy  tracts, 
crossed  by  the  great  Siberian  military  route  for  a  distance  of  400  miles,  from  Omsk 
to  Kolivan.  But  even  here  the  cultivated  lands  are  gi-aduall}-  encroaching  on  the 
stepjie,  and  ninncrous  colonists  from  Yoronej,  Simbirsk,  and  Samai'a  have  already 
settled  iu  this  "  birch  steppe,"  whose  fertility  is  justly  extolled,  although  the  soil 


THE  IRTISH  BASIX.  S38 

consists  ouly  of  a  thin  layer  of  black  loam,  resting  on  a  bed  of  disintegrated 
micaceous  schists.  Since  the  middle  of  the  century  the  Baraba  has  lost  much  of  its 
moistiu-e,  and  some  districts  are  already  beginning  to  suffer  from  droughts.  Yet 
the  depressions  are  stUl  covered  with  extensive  shallow  lakes.  Of  these  the  largest 
is  Lake  Chany,  which  has  an  area  of  1,200  square  miles,  but  is  nowhere  over 
26  feet  deep,  and  though  teeming  \vith  fish  when  visited  by  Pallas,  is  now  almost 
uninhabited.  The  deepest  is  Sartlam,  which  in  some  places  is  over  30  feet,  and  all 
present  forms  analogous  to  those  of  Sweden  and  Finland.  Thus  the  Chany  is 
divided  into  secondary  basins  by  long  parallel  peninsidas  with  several  islands,  all 
disposed  in  the  same  north-easterly  and  south-westerly  direction.  The  rivers 
flowing  to  Lake  Chany,  the  mar.shes,  and  the  low  ridges  separating  the  river  basins 
also  follow  the  same  line.  This  remarkable  imiformity  may  possibly  be  due  to  a 
great  marine  current,  formerly  setting  towards  the  Aral  Sea,  though  some 
geologists  are  inclined  to  attribute  it  to  the  action  of  the  glaciers,  which  maj-  at 
one  time  have  reached  these  plains  fi-om  the  Urals  and  Altai,  here  producing  the 
same  effects  as  have  been  observed  in  Finland  and  the  Russian  governments  of 
Olonetz  and  Archangelsk. 

Lake  Chany,  like  most  of  the  lacustrine  basins  in  the  Baraba  steppe,  has  no 
visible  outflow  to  the  Irtish,  and,  as  the  evaporation  is  greater  than  the  rainfall, 
some  saline  reservoirs  have  been  formed  here  and  there.  The  water  is  still  fresh' 
in  the  .south,  where  the  rivers  Kargat  and  ChuKm  join  the  lake  ;  but  in  the  centre 
it  has  become  brackish,  and  in  the  western  extremity  quite  salt.  Yet  there  must 
be  an  underground  outflow  to  the  Irtish,  either  from  the  Chany  or  from  some  other 
neighbouring  lakes,  for  near  the  village  of  Jelyezimskaya,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  there  are  copious  springs,  by  which  the  voliune  of  the  Irtish  is  sensiblj^ 
increased. 

After  its  junction  with  the  Om  the  Irtish  describes  a  long  curve  towards  the 
east,  and  then  resumes  its  north-west  course  to  its  confluence  ^"ith  the  Ishim  and 
Tobol.  Of  these  great  tributaries  the  longest  is  the  Ishim,  the  Isel  of  the 
Kii'ghiz,  which  has  a  course  of  about  1,000  miles.  The  region  through  which  it 
flows  has  greatly  diminished  in  moisture,  as  is  evident  from  the  numerous  dried-up 
lakes  and  marshes,  much  reduced  in  size,  which  formerly  drained  to  the  Ishim. 
Although  inferior  to  the  Irtish  in  volvmie,  the  Tobol  might  be  regarded  as  the  real 
main  stream  of  the  Ob  basin,  the  general  direction  of  its  valley  being  the  same  as 
those  both  of  the  Irtish  and  the  Ob  itself,  below  its  confluence.  Throughout  its 
com-se  it  skirts  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and  it  thus  receives  the  larger 
streams  flowing  eastwards  from  this  water-parting  between  the  Ob  and  Volga 
basins.  One  of  these  streams  is  the  Tura,  whose  course  was  followed  by  the  first 
invaders  of  Siberia,  and  which,  since  the  time  of  Yermak,  has  remained  the  chief 
historical  highway-  between  European  and  Asiatic  Russia.  Formerly  the  Tobol 
joined  the  Irtish  opposite  the  high  cliff  on  which  stands  Tobolsk.  But  the  rock 
being  constantly  undermined  by  the  current,  this  city  was  threatened  sooner  or  later 
with  the  fate  of  the  old  town  of  Sibir,  which  also  stood  on  the  "  high  " — that  is,  the 
right — bank  of  the  Irtish.      To  avoid  this  danger  Governor  Gagarin,   in  1716, 

VOL.    VI.  z 


834 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


emploj-ed  the  Swedish  prisoners  of  war  confined  there  to  dig  a  canal  about  2  miles 
long,  which  removed  the  mouth  of  the  Tobol  farther  down,  and  thus  enabled  the 
engineers  successfully  to  protect  the  base  of  the  Tobolsk  escarpments  from  the 
erosive  action  of  the  stream. 

Course  of  the  Ob. 

The  Upper  Ob,  which  rises  in  the  Altai,  joins  the  Irtish  300  miles  below 
Tobolsk.  Its  chief  head-stream,  the  Katun,  or  "  Queen,"  flows  from  the  glaciers  in  the 
highest  part  of  the  range,  but  the  main  stream  does  not  take  the  name  of  Ob  till 
the  confluence  of  the  Katun  and  Biya,  390  miles  below  the  Bielukha  glacier.     After 


Fig.  182. — Dkied-vp  Streams  ix  the  Bahnac'l  District. 
Scale  1 :  3,170,050. 


'63'  I.oFG. 


60  MUes. 


emerging  from  the  highlands,  and  at  its  junction  with  the  Barnaulka,  opposite 
Barnaul,  capital  of  the  Altai  regions,  it  is  little  over  300  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Here  the  steppe  is  already  so  level  that,  as  in  the  Irtish  valley,  manj'  streams 
expand  into  lakes  and  swamps  before  reaching  the  Ob.  But  it  is  probable  that  in 
former  times,  and  under  a  more  himiid  climate,  the  more  copious  rivers,  now  repre- 
sented only  by  chains  of  small  lakes,  possessed  more  regular  channels.  The  course  of 
many  of  them  towards  the  Ob  is,  so  to  say,  little  more  than  faintly  traced,  varying 
in  length  and  distiuctness  with  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  moisture  from 
Pear  to  year. 

Owing  to  its  slight  incline,  the  Ob  itself  assumes  in  many  places  a  lacustrine 


COURSE  OF  TKE  OB. 


335 


character,  ramifying  into  numerous  branches,  and  widcnuig  into  permanent  island- 
studded  expanses.  Its  mean  breadth  varies  from  2,650  feet  to  nearly  2  miles,  and 
in  the  spring  floods  fi-om  20  to  25  miles,  now  assuming  the  proportions  of  a  o-reat 
inland  sea,  as  at  Kolivan,  where  the  opposite  banks  are  invisible.  Below  the 
jimction  of  the  Tom  and  Chulim  it  ramifies  into  a  great  number  of  branches, 
forming  a  continually  shifting  labj-rinth  of  channels,  covering  the  whole  plain. 
Duriag  the  five  or  six  winter  months  these  low-lj-ing  waters  are  divided  by  the  ice 
into  a  number  of  separate  basins,  which  cease  to  flow  and  become  stagnant  lakes 
unfit  for  human  use,  and  cut  oif  from  all  commimication  with  each  other  like  the 
surface  tarns  often  left  on  the  steppes  by  dried-up  rivers. 

The  Ket,  which  joins  the  Ob  above  Narim,  though  not  one  of  its  great 
tributaries,  is  nevertheless  na\-igable  for  nearly  600  miles,  thus  affording  the  best 
natural  highway  between  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  basins.  During  the  first  invasion  of 
Siberia  the  Cossacks  followed  this  route,  and  ia  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 

Fig.  183. — Projected  Cwals  between  the  Ob  axd  Yexisei. 
Scale  1  :  7,400,030. 


PoTpakh( 


E.of6 


CPerron 


60  Miles. 


century  the  Eussians  erected  two  forts,  one  at  its  mouth,  and  the  other  at  the  head 
of  its  na^^gation,  to  protect  their  peltry  stations  from  the  attacks  of  the  natives. 
Between  the  upper  station  and  the  Yenisei  below  Yeniseisk  there  is  only  a  portage 
62  miles  long,  and  this  is  the  only  break  in  the  vast  network  of  navigable  channels 
connecting  the  TJral  rivers  with  the  Baikal  basin  across  50°  of  the  meridian,  or 
nearlj'  one-sixth  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  The  project  of  bridging  over 
this  gap  is  now  being  entertained,  and  since  1872  the  scientific  exploration  has 
been  resumed  of  all  the  rivers  in  the  district  enclosed  by  the  Ob  and  Yenisei,  where 
their  courses  approach  nearest  to  each  other.  Careful  surveys  have  already  been 
made  of  the  Chulim,  which  is  navigable  for  steamboats  as  far  as  Achinsk,  north- 
west of  Krasnoyark,  on  the  Yenisei,  and  of  the  Tim  and  Vakh,  by  which  the  two 
affluents  of  the  Yenisei,  the  Sim  and  Yelogui,  may  be  respectively  reached.  The 
Ket  still  seems  to  afford  the  greatest  facilities  for  effecting  a  junction  between  the 
two  main  streams.      But  instead  of  ascending  it  to  Makovskoye,  near  its  source,  it 

7.   2 


336 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


is  proposed  to  utilise  the  little  Yazeva  affluent,  passing  thence  bj'  a  canal  across  a 
level  marshy  tract  to  the  Kas,  a  tributary  of  the  Yenisei.  Here  the  portage  is  only 
4,220  yards  long,  between  two  lakes  standing  at  the  same  elevation  above  the  sea. 
A  junction  canal,  4  feet  deep  and  50  feet  wide,  would  give  access  to  boats  of  about 
30  tons  burden,  and  the  incUne  either  way  is  so  slight  that  no  locks  woidd  be  needed. 
The  only  obstacles  to  the  navigation  would  be  the  so-called  lorn,  or  snags,  which 
form  dams  at  the  windings  of  the  stream,  but  which  might  easily  be  removed,  as 
all  of  them  rest  on  mud  beds.  "\Then  this  canal  is  completed  there  •n-ill  be  a  great 
reduction  in  the  freights,  amounting  possible  to  as  much  as  5  roubles  per  tea-chest. 
In  1825,  when  all  the  tea  brought  fi-oni  Kiatkha  to  !\ijni- Novgorod  was  conveyed 


Fig.  184.— Network  of  Streams  at  the  Ob  and  Ket  Ju.vction. 
Scale  1  :  2,000,000. 


C.  Pcrrcn 


30  Miles. 


b}^  the  rivers  and  portages,  the  merchandise  passing  by  the  village  of  Makovskoye 
was  estimated  at  over  10,000,000  roubles. 

Below  the  Narim  the  Ob,  after  receiving  the  Tim,  Yakh,  and  others  scarcely 
less  important  than  the  Ket,  continues  its  sluggish  course  first  north-west  and  then 
west  to  the  Irtish,  which  it  joins  through  a  network  of  intricate  channels,  whose 
navigation  demands  the  most  skilfid  piloting.  After  their  junction  the  two  rivers, 
each  about  equal  to  the  Danube  in  volume,  again  divide,  as  if  a  common  bed  were 
insufficient  to  contain  this  moving  sea.  The  two  streams,  now  respectively  called 
the  Great  and  Little  Ob,  continue  their  winding  course  to  the  estuary  at  distances, 
in  some  places,  of  from  20  to  25  miles,  but  everywhere  connected  by  coimtless  inter- 


COURSE  OP  THE  OB. 


837 


mediate  channels.  The  Little  Ob,  which  is  the  left  stream,  is  the  narrowest  and 
shallowest,  but  owing  to  its  less  raj^id  current  is  preferred  by  craft  ascending 
inland.  The  na^agation  of  the  Great  Ob,  used  chiefly  by  boats  going  seawards,  is 
at  times  endangered  by  the  north  wind  raising  high  waves  against  the  down 
current.  The  confluence  of  the  Ob  and  Irtish  lies  beyond  the  zone  of  cereals ;  but 
the  Lower  Ob  remains  to  its  mouth  within  the  limits  of  forest  vegetation,  its  banks 
being  fringed  throughout  with  pines,  firs,  the  larch,  birch,  and  willow.  Although 
less  brilliant  and  varied  in  coloui'  than  those  of  Xorth  America,  the  autmnnal  tints 
of  the  Ob  forests  are  still  brighter  than  the  foliage  on  the  European  seaboard. 

The  banks  of  the  Lower  Ob  everywhere  consist  of  claj-s  and  sands,  which  are 
being  constantly  undermined  by  the  current.  Those  of  the  Little  Ob  are  very 
low,  and  often  concealed  by  a  dense  growth  of  reeds,  carex,  and  other  aqiiatic  plants. 
But  those  of  the  Great  Ob  rise  in  some  places  200  feet  above  the  stream,  and  are 
pierced  at  intervals  by  ravines  through  which  the  scrub  descends  to  the  water's 


185. — Lower  Course  asd  JIocth  of  the  Ob. 
Scale  1 :  1,160,1X0. 


.  30  Miles. 


edge.  Trunks  of  trees  strewn  along  the  foot  of  the  cliff  mark  the  limits  of  the 
last  floods,  while  heaps  of  stones,  granites,  syenites,  porphyries,  schists,  and 
conglomerates  are  yearly  deposited  by  the  ice,  to  be  agaia  swept  farther  on 
the  following  year  when  already  embedded  ia  the  banks. 

The  Ob  enters  its  vast  estuary  through  a  single  mouth  nearly  2  miles  wide, 
and  from  30  to  90  feet  deep.  The  section  of  the  gulf  running  west  and  east 
is  often  regarded  as  still  belonging  to  the  river  itself;  but  ia  this  bay,  some 
30  miles  wide,  the  normal  current  has  entirely  ceased.  Other  minor  iulets 
are  formed  at  the  mouth  of  every  influent.  But  the  vast  fiord  of  the  Ob,  stretching 
for  over  480  miles  towards  the  pole,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Taz  joining  its  east 
side,  is  still  but  partially  explored,  although  formerly  visited  by  the  Khohnogori 
fishers  from  the  Petchora,  and  again  sm-veyed  in  recent  times.  In  1877  Dahl 
penetrated  from  the  Kara  Sea  round  the  Yabnal  peninsula,  and  through  the 
gulf  into  the  river.     The  commercial  route  to  the  Ob  basin  was  thus  thrown  open, 


338  ASIATIC  EUSSL\. 

and  its  cereals,  wool,  tallow,  hides,  and  furs  may  henceforth  be  shipped  direct  for 
the  ports  of  West  Europe.  The  river  itself  is  navigable  throughout  nearlj"-  the 
whole  of  its  course,  which,  including  the  Ulungur  as  its  farthest  head-stream,  may 
be  estimated  at  about  3,400  miles  in  length.*  But  the  na^•igable  waterway  is  far 
more  extensive.  In  simuuer  all  the  large,  and  dm-ing  the  spring  floods  most  of  the 
secondar}'',  affluents  give  access  to  flat-bottomed  craft  and  steamers,  affording  a 
navigable  highway  of  not  less  than  9,000  miles.  Since  1844,  when  the  first 
steamer  was  laimched  on  the  Tura,  the  steam  fleet  has  gone  on  yearly  increasing, 
and  in  1877  nimibered  34  vessels  of  2,655  horse-power.  On  the  other  hand,  none 
of  the  various  schemes  of  canalisation  between  the  Ob  and  Volga  basins,  and  between 
the  Ob  and  Kara  Sea,  have  proved  feasible.  But  Struve  thinks  the  Petchora 
and  Ob  basins  might  be  connected  by  a  canal  50  miles  long  between  the  Kokj)ela 
and  Voikar  tributaries  of  the  two  main  streams  respectivelj'.  It  would  be  still 
easier  to  connect  the  Taz  and  the  Yenisei  by  a  canal  running  along  the  66th 
parallel  from  the  hamlet  of  Tazovka  to  Turukhansk. 

Inhabitants  of  the  Ob  Basin — The  Vogitls. 

About  half  of  the  population  of  Siberia  is  concentrated  in  the  southern  regions 
of  the  Ob  basin,  in  an  irregidar  zone  stretching  along  both  sides  of  the  old  historic 
highway  and  its  modern  continuation  eastwards.  This  popidation  consists  exclu- 
sively of  Slav  elements,  forming  an  Asiatic  Russia  in  speech,  manners,  and  cidtiire. 
Here  the  Russians  have  comj^letely  replaced  the  Tatars,  formerly  the  dominant 
race,  but  now  scattered  in  detached  groups  over  the  steppes  far  from  the  towns  and 
river  banks.  Some  of  these  moi-e  or  less  Russified  Tatar  communities  are  still  met 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tobolsk,  west  of  the  Irtish,  near  the  seat  of  theii'  former 
empire.  On  the  Irtish  itself  there  also  dwell  certain  Russian  peasantry  traditionally 
said  to  be  of  Tatar  origin,  but  also  resembling  their  ancestors  only  in  the  traits  of 
their  features.  East  of  the  Ob  the  Chulim  valley  is  occupied  by  the  Kizil,  or 
"Red"  Tatars,  so  called  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Kara,  or  "Black"  Tatars 
of  Biisk.  Their  speech,  one  of  the  purest  of  Turki  dialects  in  its  structui'e,  is 
largely  affected  by  Mongol  elements,  and  has  recently  adopted  many  Russian  tenns. 
But,  like  the  Telengut  dialect,  it  is  distinguished  from  most  other  idioms  of  Turki 
stock  by  a  complete  absence  of  Arabic  or  Persian  words.  Never  having  adopted 
the  faith  of  Islam,  these  Red  Tatar  Shamanists,  who  have  now  become  orthodox 
Christians,  have  never  had  any  relations  with  the  Mussulmans  of  the  south,  and 
have  thus  remained  free  from  all  Mohammedan  influences.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Kazaks  or  Kirghiz  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  Ob  basin  and  about  the  soui'ces 
of  the  Irtish  form  an  ethnical  group  with  the  Kirghiz  hordes  of  the  Aralo-Casj)ian 


Course  of  the  Ulungur  .... 
Black  Irtish  to  Lake  Zaisan  . 
Irtish  from  Lake  Zaisan  to  the  Ob 
Oh  from  the  Irtish  junction  of  the  Gulf 

Total 


MUes. 

300  (?) 

360  (?) 

2,000 

750 

3,410  miles. 

INHABITANTS  OF  THE  OB  BASIN— THE  VOGULS.  839 

region.  Manj^  of  these  nomad  tribes  have  pastures  and  camping  grounds  in  both 
basins,  though  the  administrative  divisions  here  coincide  on  the  whole  with 
the  ethnical  limits.  Thus  the  territory  of  the  Kirghiz,  even  where  it  encroaches 
on  the  Irtish  valley,  is  assigned  to  the  general  government  of  Central  Asia, 
while  the  Bashkirs  of  the  Asiatic  Ural  districts  are  iacluded,  with  theu-  kinsmen  of 
the  western  slopes,  in  the  European  governments  of  Orenburg  and  Perm. 

In  the  northern  division  of  the  Ob  basin  all  the  aborigines,  whether  Voguls, 
Ostiuks,  or  Samoyedes,  belong  not  to  the  Turki,  but  to  the  Finnish  stock.  Since 
they  have  been  di'iven  east  by  the  Russians  the  Yoguls  have  dwelt  chiefly  on  the 
Siberian  slopes  of  the  Urals  north  of  Yekaterinburg,  and  especially  in  the  valley  of 
the  Konda,  a  tributary  of  the  Irtish.  .A  few  families  reside  on  the  European  side  of 
the  mountains,  but  most  of  those  who  are  here  met  are  hunters  in  pui'suit  of  game  from 
the  east.  The  Vogids  are  of  the  same  branch  of  the  Finnish  race  as  the  Ostiaks, 
and  both  were  tiU  recently  collectively  known  by  the  common  name  of  Manzi. 
The  former  stdl  retain  the  small  oblique  eyes  characteristic  of  the  race,  but  most 
of  them  have  become  Eussified  in  di-ess,  habits,  and  pm-suits.  Hence  the  difficulty 
of  ascertaining  their  real  number,  which  is  officially  stated  to  be  4,500,  but  is  by 
different  observers  variously  estimated  at  18,000  to  30,000. 

The  Yogul  hmiters  have  best  preserved  the  customs  of  the  tribes  which  Yermak 
had  to  overcome  on  his  way  to  the  kingdom  of  Sibir.  With  their  thick  fm-s  and 
hoods  adorned  with  the  ears  of  animals,  they  look  at  a  distance  like  wild  beasts  of 
the  forest.  But  they  are  really  a  harmless  and  even  timid  race,  whose  mUd  expres- 
sion is  increased  by  their  shaven  faces,  which  would  else  in  winter  be  changed  by 
their  frozen  breath  to  one  mass  of  ice.  They  are  never  kuo^Ti  to  rebel  against  the 
orders  of  the  traders  by  whom  they  are  employed,  and  treated  as  genuine  serfs. 
They  spontaneously  pay  the  taxes  to  the  civil  authorities,  and  bind  themselves 
beforehand  to  do  all  that  may  be  required  of  them.  Hence  they  naturally  accepted 
Christianity,  at  least  in  appearance,  when  ordered  to  do  so  in  1722.  But  every 
family  still  cherishes  its  household  gods,  represented  either  by  quadi-ujjeds  with 
scaly  tails,  or  by  the  masked  figure  of  a  man  with  a  tall  head-dress.  These  rude 
figm-es  are  attached  to  the  bark  of  a  pine,  fir,  or  birch  tree,  whence  the  Russian 
term  Shaitanka,  or  Shaitanskaya  ("  Satanstead  "),  applied  to  so  many  forest  clear- 
ances. The  Yoguls  also  worship  a  great  national  idol,  doubtless  the  "  Old  Woman 
of  Gold  "  mentioned  by  Herberstein.  Its  sanctuary,  say  the  hunters,  is  found  in 
the  midst  of  swamps  and  gloomy  forests  ia  some  upj)er  valley  of  the  Urals.  Women 
passing  near  the  haUowed  site  dare  not  even  look  upwards  to  the  trees  shading  the 
deity,  for  a  single  glance  would  cost  them  their  lives.  During  the  night  of  the 
feast  the  men  gather  round  the  idol  and  kindle  a  scaffolding  of  stakes,  which  burns 
like  a  huge  torch.  On  the  return  of  darkness  a  member  of  the  tribe  ajjproaches  a 
horse  tethered  to  a  tree,  and  strikes  him  with,  a  pointed  knife.  The  blood  is 
received  in  a  sacred  goblet,  of  which  every  Yogul  drinks.  The  rite  is  supposed  to 
have  failed  should  the  horse  die  at  once,  or  before  all  have  bad  their  share  of  the 
blood.  The  Yoguls  are  also  said  to  worship  the  sun,  invoking  it  for  fine  weather 
either  directly  or  through  their  Shamauist  priest,  iu  whom  they  have  great  confi- 


310  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

dence.     "  Our  shamans,"  they  say,  "  are  bcttei'  ihuu  the  popes.     Tlic  popes  foretell 
the  things  of  death,  the  shamans  those  of  life." 

Like  so  many  other  Finnish  peoples,  the  Voguls  have  their  family  totems 
tattooed  on  their  heads,  arms,  and  legs.  These  figui-es,  mostly  representing  bows 
and  arrows,  squares,  circles,  or  arabesques,  are  not  merely  ornamental,  but  possess 
a  sacred  character,  symbolizing  the  family  traditions  and  genealogies  from  genera- 
tion to  genei-ation.  In  the  forest  the  Yogul  carves  his  totem  on  the  trees  to 
indicate  his  passage  to  those  who  may  pass  by  after  him.  He  also  attaches  it  to 
the  religious  or  civil  documents  presented  to  him  by  the  priests  or  Government 
officials,  and  he  endeavoiu's  to  cui'e  sores  and  ulcers  by  tattooing  the  skin  close  to 
the  part  affected.  But,  in  spite  of  all  these  sj-mbolic  tattooings,  the  Yoguls  are 
probably  the  least  sociable  of  the  Siberian  aborigines.  In  summer  they  live  in 
isolated  families,  each  pursuing  the  forest  game  ;  in  winter  they  pitch  their  tents 
or  build  their  huts  at  considerable  distances  one  from  the  other,  being  nowhere 
grouiDed  together  in  villages.  Even  the  family  spirit  seems  but  slightly  developed. 
The  himter  may  have  one  or  more  -wives  according  to  his  means,  but  the  least  dis- 
tui-bance  dissolves  the  imion,  and  the  husband  will  then  often  live  quite  alone, 
accompanied  only  by  his  reindeer  and  dog.  Most  of  the  old  men  thus  forsaken 
by  their  wives  die  a  solitary  death,  victims  generally  either  of  himger  or  cold. 
Hence  burials  also  are  attended  with  little  ceremony.  A  grave  is  dug  on  the  spot 
where  the  body  is  found,  and  with  it  are  buried  the  arms  of  the  departed  together, 
with  a  supply  of  tobacco  and  brandy,  but  no  salt,  which  is  uukiiQ-mi  in  the  Yogul 
cuisine. 

The  Ostiaks. 

The  chief  nation  in  North-west  Siberia  is  that  of  the  Ostiaks  of  Eussian  and  other 
Em'opean  wi-iters,  but  who  call  themselves  Kondi-Khu  ("People  of  the  Khonda 
River  "),  As-Khu,  As- Yak  ("  People  of  the  Ob  "),  or  simpty  Manzi — that  is,  "  Men." 
To  As- Yak  some  trace  the  term  Ostiak,  which  others  identify  with  the  Tatar 
Ushtiak,  or  "  Stranger,"  or  to  the  Russian  "  Chud,"  which  has  the  same  sense,  and 
which  is  generally  applied  b\'  the  Slavs  to  the  ancient  races  of  Siberia.  According 
to  the  ethnographic  charts  the  Ostiaks  would  appear  to  occupy  a  vast  domain 
stretching  from  the  Ob  estuary  to  the  middle  com-se  of  the  Irtish,  and  from  the 
Urals  to  Nijnyaya  Tunguska.  But  this  region,  of  some  400,000  square  miles,  is 
mostly  a  solitude,  in  which  the  Ostiaks,  according  to  the  latest  estimates,  number 
scarcely  25,000  souls  altogether.  The  names  of  many  tribes  mentioned  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  seem  to  have  vanished  with  the  tribes  themselves. 
The  important  memoirs  of  Castren  and  Radlov  on  the  languages  of  these  peoples 
are  aU  the  more  precious  that  they  all  seem  destined  to  rapid  extinction  as  inde- 
pendent ethnical  groups.  Several  Ostiak  communities  near  the  Russian  settlement* 
have  already  lost  their  national  speech,  and  are  known  only  by  tradition  to  have 
belonged  to  the  old  stock.  The  Russified  Ostiaks  are  said  to  be  generally  of 
smaller  stature,  but  more  prolific,  than  those  who  have  preserved  their  racial  purity. 

When   the  Cossacks  conquered  Siberia  the  Ostiaks,  who  opposed  them  with 


THE  OSTIAKS.  341 

uumerous  armies,  had  a  complete  uatioual  orgaiiizatiou,  aud  dwelt  iu  regularly  built 
towns.  In  the  single  expedition  of  1501  the  Russians  destroyed  forty-one  of  these 
fortilied  places,  the  ruins  of  some  of  which  are  still  to  he  seen  in  the  Obdorsk 
district.  Kow  the  Ostiaks  have  become  mere  hunters  and  fishers,  dwellinsr  in 
wretched  hovels,  abjectly  submissive  to  their  liussian  masters,  and  only  too  glad  to 
pay  their  taxes  whenever  they  are  not  prevented  by  their  extreme  poverty.  So 
rapid  is  the  decrease  of  the  race  in  some  districts  that  it  has  been  attributed  not 
only  to  famine,  but  to  the  sterility  of  the  women  and  mortality  of  the  children,  two- 
thirds  of  whom  j)erish  in  their  first  year.  The  births  are  also  diminished,  on  the  one 
hand,  bj'  polygamy,  on  the  other  by  celibacy,  occasioned  by  the  difficulty  of  paying 
the  kalim.  Yet  hunger  and  roisery  would  alone  suffice  to  explain  the  decay  of  the 
race.  The  tribute  exacted  by  the  Russian  Government  had  formerly  to  be  paid  in 
jjeltry.  But  the  fiu'-bcaring  animals  disappear  with  the  destruction  of  the  forests, 
and  the  Ostiaks  are  now  bound  to  pay  in  specie.  Being  thus  unable  to  refund  the 
advances  made  for  corn,  their  ^^^nter  supplies  are  often  stopped,  and  then  whole 
families  jjerish  of  famine  fever.  The  extinction  of  the  race  is  also  accelerated  by 
their  love  of  di'ink,  and  the  condition  of  some  tribes  is  altogether  so  deplorable, 
and  their  approaching  extinction  so  inevitable,  that  it  has  been  proposed  to 
distribute  the  children  amongst  the  Russian  families  and  leave  the  adults  to  their 
fate. 

Although  on  the  old  maps  their  territory  bears  the  name  of  Yugria,  the  ^Jresent 
Ostiaks  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  pure  representatives  of  the  Ugrian  family,  of 
which  the  Himgarian  Magyars  are  a  branch.  No  pure  Ostiaks  are  found  south  of 
the  60th  parallel,  where  the  crania  present  different  types,  although  all  are  more 
or  less  brachycephalic,  some  approaching  the  Mongol,  others  the  Lapj)  form.  The 
Ostiak  dialects  also,  which  of  all  the  Finnish  idioms  most  resemble  the  Magyar, 
show  obvious  relations,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  Tatar,  on  the  other  to  the  Mongolian. 
Relying  on  this  twofold  relationship,  Castren  assigns  to  the  race  an  Altaic  origin, 
for  in  the  Altai  highlands  alone  they  coidd  have  come  in  contact  both  with  Tatars 
and  Mongols.  Like  other  Finnish  dialects,  the  Ostiak  language  is  very  harmonious. 
Its  phonetics  include  a  sibilant  analogous  to  the  English  th,  but  the  letter  /  is 
wanting. 

The  Ostiaks  are  physically  rather  smaller,  but  when  well  fed  quite  as  robust  as 
the  Russians.  They  have  round  features,  arched  forehead,  prominent  cheek  bones, 
short  and  round  chin,  black  and  slightly  oblique,  but  very  sparkling  eyes.  The 
hair  is  black  and  pliant,  and  the  beard  very  thin,  as  amongst  most  Asiatics.  As 
with  other  Finnish  peoples,  the  t}'pe  of  the  young  women  approaches  far  nearer  to 
the  Mongolian  than  does  that  of  the  adults. 

The  district  of  Obdorsk,  chief  centre  of  the  Ostiak  tribes,  represents,  both 
ethnically  and  geographically,  the  conditions  which  prevailed  in  Europe  during  the 
reindeer  period.  Like  the  Europeans  of  that  epoch,  the  Ostiaks  eat  both  carnivorous 
and  graminivorous  animals,  the  fox  and  allied  species  being  their  favourite  food. 
They  devour  the  raw  flesh,  as  did  the  troglodytes  of  the  Weser  valley,  alwaj-s 
beginning  with  the  intestines,  which  are  regarded  as  the  tit-bits.     Stone,  horn,  aud 


842  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

bone  arc  still  cliieflj-  used  in  the  fabrication  of  their  implements,  which  are  cxactlj^ 
like  those  of  the  old  European  cave  men.  The  bear's  tooth  is  their  amulet,  the 
symbol  of  their  pledged  word,  the  remedy  for  most  complaints.  The  mats  plaited 
by  the  Ostiak  women  resemble  those  of  the  Swiss  lake  dwellers  quite  as  much  as  they 
do  those  of  the  modern  Kamchadale  tribes,  just  as  the  instruments  used  by  them  in 
weaving  their  yarns  are  identical  with  those  still  foimd  in  North  Russia,  and  which 
certainly  date  from  prehistoric  times. 

Political  oppression  and  usury  have  destroyed  the  national  imity  and  civilisa- 
tion of  the  Ostiaks,  and  caused  them  to  abaudou  their  old  to\\-ns.  Still  many  large 
communities  have  retained  the  old  spirit  of  solidarity,  the  members  regarding 
themselves  as  relatives,  and  mutually  aiding  each  other.  Thus  the  successful 
hunter  shares  the  spoils  of  the  chase  with  those  who  return  empty-handed.  Owing 
to  their  strict  honesty,  differences  are  rare  between  members  of  the  federation  ;  but 
when  they  arise  appeal  is  made  to  an  elder,  whose  decision  is  final.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Obdorsk  family  quarrels  are  settled  by  the  prince  descended  in 
direct  line  from  the  chief  appointed  by  Catherine  II.  The  prince  and  elders  receive 
no  subsidy  from  the  peojile,  but  neither  they  nor  the  shamans  are  above  accepting 
presents  from  their  subjects. 

From  time  immemorial  every  Ostiak  federation  has  had  its  special  gods,  protectors 
of  the  race,  guarded  by  the  shamans,  who  are  at  once  the  jiriests,  prophets,  doctors 
and  hazards  of  the  tribe.      The  sacred  groves  contain  himdrcds  of  these  deities, 
rudely  carved  fignres  of  divers  forms,  often  resembling  the  Polynesian  idols.    Each 
family  has  also  its  gods,  cut,  like  the  others,  out  of  wooden  blocks,  and  mostly 
dressed  in  red  garments,  with  tin  heads,  and  often  armed  with  swords  and  coats  of 
mail.      But  above  aU.  these  tribal  and  familjr  divinities  the  great  god  is  throned  in 
the  "  seventh  world,"  clothed  in  the  light  of  dawn,  and  speaking  with  the  voice 
of  thunder  and  the  storm.     This  is  Turm,  or  Tiu-um,  whose  name  recalls  that  of 
the  Scandinavian  Tor,  or  the  Taraun  of  the  Gauls.      No  one  dare  invoke  him, 
for  he  hears  not  even  the  shaman's  praj'er,  and  is  guided  only  by  the  immutable 
laws  of  justice  or  of  destinj\     Hence  no  offerings  are  made  to  him,  and  to  his  sons 
and  other  inferior  deities,  including  the  St.  Nicholas  of  the  Russians,  are  reserved 
the  sacrifices  of  reindeer  and  sheep  (sometimes  immolated  in  the  church  itself),  the 
presents  of  furs,  antlers,  and  other  precious  objects.     At  the  same  time  the  shaman 
alone  can  render  these  offerings  acceptable  ;  he  alone  can  make  his  voice  reach  the 
ears  of  the  gods  in  his  chants  and  beating  of  the  drum.     A  ribbon  at  the  end  of  a 
pole  held  before  the  idol's  mouth  indicates  by  its  flutterings  the  divine  will.     The 
shamans  also  are  alone  authorised  to  work  miracles,  which  are  regarded  as  such  not 
only  by  the  natives,  but   by  the   Russians  themselves.      For   them  the  "black 
religion  "  is  no  less  etficacious  than  theii-  ovm,  although  it  acts  in  virtue  of  the  e^-il 
spirit.     Amongst  most  of  the  Siberian  populations  the  shamans  are  a  sort  of  half- 
divine  beings,  controlling  the  hidden  forces  of  nature,  conjm-ing   the  elements, 
healing  maladies,  detecting  the  secrets  of  the  future,  holding  familiar  converse  with 
the  good  and  evil  spirits  of  heaven  and  earth.      "  To  the  hero  brute  force,  but  to 
the  shaman  the  words  that  give  strength  ;  to  the  hero  bow  and  arrow,  but  to  the 


THE  OSTIAKS.  843 

sliaman  the  power  in  virtue  of  which  the  arrow  hits  or  misses  the  mark,  the  wound 
kills  or  not.  To  the  hero  noise  and  clatter,  what  we  see  and  what  we  hear,  but  to 
the  shaman  what  we  neither  hear  nor  see,  silent  ■wisdom,  the  science  of  causes  and 
the  knowledge  of  things."  Wrangell  himself  admits  that  he  could  never  look  on  a 
shaman  without  a  sort  of  awe.  But  this  superhmuan  power  is  not  hereditary,  nor 
does  the  shaman  select  his  disciples  from  his  own  family.  If  he  observes  in  the  tribe 
a  yoimg  man,  thiu,  pale,  and  haggard,  subject  to  sudden  paroxj-sms  of  fury  or 
epUepsj-,  fond  of  solitude,  holding  nightly  vigils,  him  he  chooses  as  his  successor. 
He  first  strives  to  regulate  his  fits  by  magic  remedies,  then  subjects  him  to  a  period 
of  novitiate,  and  teaches  him  the  art  of  working  wonders.  The  shaman's  magic  is 
a  veritable  science,  in  so  far  as  it  imparts  an  understanding  of  certain  physiological 
phenomena  with  a  view  to  profit. 

Occasionally  the  gods  of  one  family  or  tribe  pay  a  visit  to  those  of  another. 
Then  take  place  the  great  ceremonies,  warlike  dances  that  have  lost  their  meaning, 
mimicry  of  hunting  scenes,  much  playing  on  the  domhra,  a  stringed  instrument  like 
the  tombora,  borrowed  by  the  Magyars  from  the  Southern  Slavs.  Dancing  ends  with 
a  banquet,  of  which  the  gods  partake,  and  at  which  the  shamans  smear  their  faces 
with  blood.  But  the  deity  must  show  his  gratitude  for  the  offering ;  its  \o\\xe  is 
discussed  with  him,  and  he  is  sometimes  induced  to  be  more  moderate  in  his 
demands,  more  generous  in  his  dealings.  There  are  also  wicked  gods,  such  as  the 
water  god,  who  is  sometimes  appeased  by  di'owning  a  reindeer  in  the  river.  Ideas 
of  sanctity  or  magic  are  associated  with  everything  in  nature  distinguished  by  its 
strength,  size,  or  solitary  grandeur.  The  cedar  towering  above  the  forest  pines  is 
a  sacred  object,  as  is  also  the  bear,  "  son  of  Tm'um,"  and  representative  of  justice 
on  earth.  T\'hen  he  is  slain  in  the  chase  the  hunter  implores  forgiveness,  for  five 
daj's  afterwards  performing  divers  ceremonies  in  presence  of  the  body,  intermingled 
in  some  tribes  with  blows  and  insults.  No  oath  is  so  sacred  as  that  taken  "  by  the 
jaw  of  the  bear,"  for  he  sees  everything,  knows  all  things,  whether  alive  or  dead. 
Like  most  of  the  Finnish  tribes,  the  Ostiaks  pay  great  respect  to  their  departed 
brethren,  taking  care  to  provide  them  with  everything  they  needed  on  earth — 
sleigh,  javeUn,  harpoon,  axe,  knife,  hearth-stone,  fuel,  and  at  least  a  semblance  of 
food.  Parents  also  keep  a  figure  of  the  dead,  di'essing  and  imdi-essing  it,  placing 
it  at  the  table  and  putting  it  to  bed.  But  after  three  years  they  regard  the  death 
as  a  settled  point,  for  the  body  is  now  decomposed,  and  the  puppet  buried  with  the 
remains  in  a  grave  decked  with  reindeer  horns,  carved  images,  tinkling  bells,  and 
streaming  ribbons.  In  the  "  third  world  "  there  are  no  more  ailments,  no  more 
Russian  officials,  no  more  taxes  to  paj-.  Unfortimately  the  Ostiaks  never  enter 
this  heaven,  but  remain  in  the  "  second  world,"  which  lies  beyond  the  Gulf  of  the 
Ob,  at  the  other  side  of  the  ocean. 

The  Ostiak  wife  is  purchased  like  an  ox,  and  always  regarded  as  impui'e.  She 
is  even  nameless,  and,  as  with  the  Samoyedes,  she  is  excluded  from  the  part  of  the 
tent  reserved  for  the  provisions.  In  some  tribes  the  husband  and  her  own  children 
are  even  accustomed  to  fumigate  the  place  she  has  occupied.  She  never  inherits 
anj-thing,  but  herself  forms  part  of  the  family  inheritance.     Nevertheless  the  mild 


344  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

cliaracter  of  the  race  protects  her  from  all  violence,  and  for  the  genial  good-liuniour 
and  kindliness  of  the  husbands  many  Ostiak  families  might  serve  as  models  to  their 
Russian  neighbours.  In  the  south  and  along  the  Ob,  where  Tatar  influences 
preceded  those  of  the  Slavs,  the  women  are  obliged  to  go  veiled,  or  else  to  turn 
aside  in  the  presence  of  the  men.  In  other  res^jects  all  the  Ostiaks  resemble  the 
Samoyedes  in  their  habits,  di-ess,  and  speech,  and,  like  them,  live  on  their  reindeer 
herds. 

The  Samoyedes  of  the  Ob  and  Taz  estuaries  and  Lower  Yenisei  valley  belong  to 
the  Ym-ak  stock,  and  are  consequently  allied  to  those  of  Xorth-east  Europe.  They 
are  the  same  small,  timid,  moody,  and  hospitable  race,  though  they  still  practise, 
the  reliffion  of  blood,  and  force  bits  of  raw  flesh  between  the  teeth  of  their  idols. 
The  Eastern  Samoyedes,  met  here  and  there  south  of  the  Taimir  peninsiila  as  far  as 
the  Khatanga  Fiord,  form  another  group,  that  of  the  Tavgi,  ofteuer  knowoi  to  the 
Russians  as  the  Dikaya  Orda,  or  "  Savage  Horde,"  not  because  less  civilised,  but 
because  they  have  not  yet  been  baptized,  and  have  remained  more  independent 
than  the  other  Samoyedes.  They  keep  aloof  from  the  Russian  traders,  priests,  and 
officials  ;  but  in  their  progress  northwards,  beyond  the  Slavs,  Timguses,  and  Yakuts, 
they  have  nowhere  reached  the  sea.  The  coast  region  they  regard  as  belonging  by 
right  to  the  "  white  bear  people,"  and  seriously  relate  how  their  frequent  attempts 
to  conquer  that  territory  were  defeated  by  the  bears,  who  always  unfairly  pitted 
twelve  of  their  men  against  eight  Samoyede  warriors. 

Some  few  tribes  are  scattered  much  farther  south  in  the  Upper  Yenisei  basin 
beyond  the  districts  settled  by  the  Russians.  These  are  the  Kamasses,  or  Kamas- 
sintzes,  who  occupy  the  banks  of  the  Kan  and  Mana,  south-east  of  Krasnoyarsk. 
Castren  regards  them  as  the  purest  of  the  race,  being  those  who  have  remained 
in  their  primitive  homes  near  the  Altai  Mountains.  Several  of  the  surrounding 
Tatarized  or  Mongolized  tribes  state  that  their  forefathers  spoke  a  different 
language  from  theii-  present  speech,  and  Castren  assumes  that  this  must  have  been 
of  Same  or  Finnish  stock.  Driven  by  the  Tatars  from  their  native  vaUe3-s,  the 
Samoyedes  followed  the  Yenisei  and  Ob  north  and  north-west,  leaving  colonies 
here  and  there  in  the  regions  less  exposed  to  attack,  but  obliged  in  many  places 
to  change  their  name,  language,  and  usages,  according  to  the  populations  with 
whom  they  came  in  contact.  Thus  during  the  Tatar  rule  most  of  them  became 
absorbed  in  the  Tiirki  element.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Ob  and  in  the  valleys 
of  its  eastern  tributaries,  the  Chulim,  Ket,  and  Tim,  there  are  about  4,000 
Samoyedes,  usually  grouped  with  the  Ostiaks,  and  who  will  probably  ere  long  come 
to  be  regarded  as  Russians. 

The  Ural  Mining  Districts. 

The  Slav  element  is  relatively  very  dense  in  the  portion  of  the  government  of 
Perm  comprised  in  the  Ob  basin,  and  which  has  already  a  population  of  about  one 
million.  While  naturally  benefiting  by  the  advantages  derived  from  its  proximity 
to  Europe,  this  region  still  relies  on  its  own  resources  for  its  relative  importance  m 


THE  URAL  MINING  DISTRICTS. 


345 


the  empire.  The  Central  Urals  are  the  chief  mining  country  in  Russia,  vieldino- 
the  precious  metals,  iron,  coal,  and  salt  in  abundance.  As  on  the  European  slopes, 
the  crj-stalline  rocks,  and  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  triassic  formations  of  the 
higher  ridges  and  lateral  spurs,  have  been  partially  disintegrated  and  strewn  alono- 
the  eastern  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  amongst  these  masses  of  debris  are  foinid 
the  valuable  minerals  bj'  which  the  Slavs  have  been  attracted  to  this  region.  Fiscal 
reasons  have  induced  the  Government  to  groujo  in  one  administrative  pro^'ince  the 


Fig.   186. — Lakes  and  Marshes  ix  the  Iset  Basin. 
Scale  1  :  453,000. 


erscr 


E.of  G 


erso' 


ji 


C-  Perron 


GMiles. 


mining  districts  of  both  slopes,  whereas  the  natural  limits  ought  to  foUow  either 
the  water-parting  between  the  Ob,  Petchora,  and  Volga  basins,  or  else  the  depres- 
sion of  the  Irtish,  coinciding  with  the  ancient  maritime  strait  between  the 
Caspian  and  Arctic  Ocean.  The  actual  administrative  frontiers  between  the  two 
continents  have  been  traced  almost  at  haphazard,  obliquely  crossing  the  rivers, 
and  intersecting  without  any  geographical  system  the  region  of  lakes,  swamps, 
fore.sts,  and  uncertain  slopes  which  stretch  east  of  the  Ural  range. 


810  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

About  the  begkuiiug  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  mineral  wealth  of  this 
country  began  first  to  be  utilised  by  the  establishment  of  smelting  works  on 
the  sites  of  the  old  "  Chude  "  mines.  The  growing  importance  of  the  district,  the 
large  revenue  derived  by  the  Government  from  its  resources,  and  especially  the 
colossal  fortunes  rapidly  made  by  a  few  lucky  speculators,  soon  drew  attention  to 
these  highlands,  which  have  since  become  one  of  the  classic  lands  of  geology.  As 
many  as  100,000  hands  have  here  been  employed  at  a  time  ;  but  since  the  discovery 
of  the  Califoruian  and  Australian  "  El  Dorados  "  the  relative  importance  of  the 
Urals  as  a  mineral-producing  land  has  been  greatly  reduced.  Still,  although  the 
copper  ores  of  the  Yekaterinburg  district  cannot  compete  in  the  European  market 
with  those  of  Australia,  Chili,  or  Boll^-ia,  the  iron  ores  of  the  Urals,  equalling 
in  value  the  best  fomid  in  Sweden,  must  always  retain  their  value  for  Russia, 
while  for  its  beautiful  malachites  and  other  rocks  the  Ural  range  stiU  holds  the 
first  place.  The  railway  now  connecting  the  two  chief  towns  of  the  province, 
Perm  and  Yekaterinburg,  wUl  aid  in  the  more  rapid  development  of  these  treasures, 
which  have  scarcely  been  hitherto  utilised  except  for  roj'al  residences  and  some 
jDrivileged  musemns.  The  malachite  deposits  are  conveniently  situated  near  the 
railway  station,  which  bears  the  name  of  "  Asia,"  as  if  to  remind  the  European 
traveller  that  he  has  entered  another  continent.  At  Nijne-Tagilsk,  already  noted 
for  its  gold,  platinum,  and  iron,  a  pure  block  of  magnificent  malachite  weighing  over 
300  tons  has  been  found  at  a  depth  of  300  feet  from  the  surface.  The  Yisokaya- 
gora  Hill,  which  has  supplied  the  furnaces  of  TagUsk  and  Neviansk  since  1720, 
consists  of  a  huge  mass  of  iron,  containing  at  least  6,000,000,000  cwt.  of  ores,  about 
two-thirds  of  which  are  pure  metal. 

Topography  of  "West  Siberia. 

The  old  cajjital  of  this  mining  district  is  Vcrkho-Tiirie,  .so  called  from  its  position 
in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Tui-a.  It  was  foimded  in  1598  on  the  site  of  Nerom- 
kura,  the  Gorodishche  of  the  Chudes  or  Yoguls,  and  remained  for  over  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  the  commercial  centre  of  all  the  mining  districts.  Here  Is  the  oldest 
monastery  in  Asiatic  Russia.  But  It  lost  all  its  Importance  when,  in  1763,  the  new 
route  was  opened  much  farther  south  between  Perm  and  Yekaterinburg.  From  the 
same  cause  its  neighbour  Pelim,  on  the  Tavda,  was  soon  reduced  to  an  obscure  hamlet. 
All  the  mines  and  metal  works  of  the  Upper  Tura  basin  constitute  the  Goro- 
Blagodat  district.  The  mountain  of  this  name  is  a  mass  of  magnetic  ii'on,  1,560 
feet  high,  on  the  frontier  of  Em-ope  and  Asia.  According  to  the  legend  this 
remarkable  lodestone  mountain  was  revealed  to  the  Russians  by  a  Yog\il,  who 
was  burnt  alive  by  his  countrymen,  for  having  thus  attracted  the  foreigners  into 
the  land.  Strong  native  magnets  are  now  seldom  found  here,  the  best  specimens 
coming  from  Mount  Kashkanar  (2,800  feet),  overlooking  the  town  of  Nljne- 
Turinsk. 

The  valley  of  the  Tagil,  which  joins  the  Tura  within  the  limits  of  the  Perm 
government,  is  richer  In  metal  works  even  than  the  Upper  Tiu-a  basin ;  but  the 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  WEST  SIBERIA.  347 

iniuiug  iiidiistiy  has  also  been  extended  to  the  valley  of  the  Upjaer  Noiva,  which 
rises  a  little  east  of  the  source  of  the  Tagil  in  the  same  uplands.  Here  are  the 
famous  Neviansk,  or  Neivinsk  works,  established  in  1699.  In  1702  Peter  the  Great 
secured  thom  in  "  perpetuity "  to  the  miner  Dcmidov,  including  in  the  grant  a 
tract  of  3,212,000  acres.  Like  Pisa,  Neviausk  boasts  of  its  leaning  tower,  a  heavy 
pile  lacldng  the  elegance  of  the  Italian  structiu-e. 

Alapayevsk,  east  of  N^eviansk  and  on  the  same  river  Neiva,  is  also  an  active 
mining  centre,  its  iron  and  copper  works  employing  thousands  of  smelters  and 
miners.  The  chief  entrepot  of  all  these  highland  towns  and  villages  is  Irhit,  at 
the  junction  of  the  rivers  Irbit  and  Nitza.  Originally  a  mere  Tatar  sloboda 
surrounded  by  waste  tracts  and  woodlands,  Irbit  took  rank  as  a  city  in  1775,  in 
recompense  for  its  loj'alty  to  Catherine  II.  during  the  insurrection  of  Pugachov. 
Since  then  it  has  not  greatly  increased  in  size,  but  during  the  month  of  February 
it  becomes  every  year  the  Nijni- Novgorod  of  Asiatic  Russia.  Its  empty  houses 
are  now  filled  with  visitors  fi-om  every  part  of  the  empire,  numbering,  according  to 
the  state  of  trade,  from  12,000  to  20,000.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  century  its 
trade  has  increased  more  than  tenfold,  and  its  exchanges  amounted  in  1879 
altogether  to  99,263,000  roubles.  Irbit  has  gradually  become  the  great  provision 
market  for  the  whole  of  Siberia,  and  through  it  European  Russia  supplies  its 
inhabitants  as  far  as  the  Pacific  seaboard  ^^th  all  their  requirements,  recei\'ing  in 
exchange  chiefly  fui's  and  hides.  But  the  fair  once  over,  Irbit  sinks  to  the  position 
of  a  dull  provincial  town.  The  neighbouring  iron  mines  have  lost  much  of  thcii' 
former  importance,  though  the  "  Irbitskiy-zavod  "  smelting  works,  40  miles  south- 
west of  the  town,  still  jDroduce  about  12,000  tons  of  iron  yearly. 

After  watering  the  Turinsk  district  and  receiving  the  Nitza,  the  Tura  flows 
north-east  towards  Tumen,  one  of  the  great  cities  of  Siberia.  This  place  was 
already  famous  before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians,  and  its  old  walls  figure  on 
Herberstein's  map  of  1549.  The  Siberian  Tatars  stiU  know  it  by  the  name  of 
Jenghiz-tora,  or  "  City  of  Jenghis,"  attributing  its  foundation  to  the  Mongolian 
conqueror.  Situated  at  the  converging  point  of  numerous  routes,  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  chief  water  highway  in  Siberia,  and  forming  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  great  birch  avenue  planted  by  Catherine  II.  from  Nijni-Novgorod  to  the 
Ural  mining  districts,  Tumen  has  become  one  of  the  chief  trading-places  in  the 
Ob  basin.  Like  Irbit,  it  has  its  yearly  fairs,  at  which  the  exchanges  in  tea  and  other 
merchandise  amount  to  upwards  of  a  million  roubles.  But  it  is  chiefly  a  manu- 
facturing town,  growing  yearly  in  importance,  and  already  claiming  to  be  the 
"  Manchester  of  Siberia."  It  produces  most  of  the  carpets  sold  in  Russia,  and 
amongst  its  numerous  factories  are  steam-engine  works,  a  tannery  in  which  hides 
are  prepared  to  the  yearly  value  of  about  a  million  roubles,  and  building  yards  for 
the  steam  fleet  of  the  Ob  basin.  The  surrounding  towns  and  villages  also  produce 
quantities  of  wooden  wares,  household  utensils,  and  boxes  of  all  sorts,  and  about 
50,000  sleighs  and  carts  are  annually  made  in  the  district.  Tumen  is  the  chief 
depot  of  the  steamers  pljTiig  on  the  Ob,  although  connected  with  the  river  na%aga- 
tion  only  during  the  spring  floods.     In  summer  the  boats  are  seldom  able  to  ascend 


343 


ASIATIC  EUSSL\.. 


Fig.  187. — Yekaterinburg  and  Berezovskiy. 
Scale  1 :  430,000. 


the  Turn,  niid  u.sually  stop  at  Artonionoia,  on  tlie  Tobol,  midway  between  Tumcn 
and  Tobolsk. 

Still  less  advantageously  situated  for  fluvial  navigation  is  Yel-aterinhurg,  lying 
at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Urals,  which,  however,  here  rise  scarcely  more  than 
6-50  feet  above  the  town.  But  it  is  conveniently  placed  for  overland  communica- 
tion, and  forms  at  present  the  Asiatic  terminus  of  the  European  railwaj^  S5'stem. 
It  also  occupies  a  central  position  between  the  northern  and  southern  raining 
districts  of  the  Urals,  6  miles  south-west  of  Beryozov,  or  Beresoi-Hkiij-zaro'l,  which 
till  recently  derived  much  importance  from  its  gold  and  platinum  mines,  discovered 

in  1820.  The  metal  works  of  Yerkh- 
Isetskiy,  forming  a  north-western 
suburb  of  the  city,  and  tho.se  of  Nijne- 
Isetskiy  a  little  south-east  of  it,  have 
also  acquired  considerable  importance, 
especially  from  their  blast  furnaces. 
Yekaterinburg,  which  is  one  of  the 
finest  cities  in  the  empire,  occupies  a 
gentle  slope  on  the  banks  of  the  Iset, 
which  here  broadens  to  a  navigable 
lake  fringed  with  verdure.  Lofty 
white  houses,  with  green  sheet-iron 
roofs  resembling  slabs  of  malachite, 
rise  above  the  picturesque  wood  cot- 
tages, and  are  themselves  overlooked 
b}^  the  domes  and  belfries  of  the 
churches,  from  which  a  view  may  be 
had  of  the  Urals  in  the  distance. 
Founded  in  1722,  Yekaterinbiu-g  soon 
rose  to  importance  as  the  centre  of  an 
extensive  mining  district.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  inspectors  of  mines, 
forming  a  sort  of  government  apart, 
and  its  stone  polishers  forward  to 
Europe  porphj'ry  vases,  malachite  and 
rhodonite  tables,  and  a  thousand  objects  in  topaz,  ja.spar,  and  rock  crystal, 
all  admirably  cut,  but  betraying  little  variety  of  design.  The  Government 
mint,  where  copj)er  and  even  gold  and  platinum  coins  were  struck,  has 
been  abandoned ;  but  its  loss  has  been  compensated  by  large  machinery  and  other 
private  works.  Here  are  a  meteorological  observatory,  and  the  Society  of 
the  "  Natiu-alists  of  the  Urals,"  which  publishes  interesting  memoirs  on  the 
geology,  flora,  fauna,  and  ethnologj^  of  these  highlands.  The  society  was  founded 
in  1872,  and  in  1876  it  had  already  nearly  seventy  stations  in  various  parts  of  the 
Urals,  whose  comparative  tables  are  of  great  vise  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
the  local  climate.     In  the  neighbourhood  are  many  objects  of  interest,  such  as  the 


■  6  Miles. 


^*^s^is^ 


\V/  /^V.^^  *'' '  v«v 


.•»•.•» 


/♦♦4V 


W.Vv, 


.♦.••* 


.v» 


.nV 


Itinj 

tiffl 
ska- 

liicli 
'ered 
iki- 
aeni 
ijne- 
lure 
m-f, 
m. 

■a 

*lir 
ina 
liite, 
cot- 
M 
tbe 
fbe 
UK. 


i 


V4V 


xV.i 


\%-.' 


''V4V 


\V' 


v.vV. 


v.vV.i 

V4vj;, 

v.vV 


L'.f 


'/^< 
'^^/, 


V4V 


,xVJ 


/♦v*^ 


NV 


v.v^*' 


/*V4^^ 


••*''v.\^ 


V4V^'*'*'''V/*^''J 


>#v% 


cxV.V/^vA 


*»*•.* 


v«-o 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  WEST  SIBERIA.  349 

numerous  blocks  of  stratified  granite  between  2  and  3  miles  south  of  Lake  Shartash, 
and  from  their  form  known  as  "  stone  tents."  One  of  the  rocks  on  the  river 
Pishma  bears  inscriptions  in  an  unknown  language,  and  in  a  character  far  more 
elegant  than  those  in  use  amongst  the  Altai'  and  Yenisei  peoples. 

The  other  towns  east  of  Yekaterinburg  in  the  Perm  government  are  Kamishlov 
on  the  Pishma,  Dalmatov  and  Shadrinsk  on  the  Iset.  In  the  south  the  most 
important  place  is  Trditzh,  conveniently  situated  on  the  Orenburg-Omsk  route  at 
the  junction  of  two  fertile  valleys,  and  on  the  edge  of  the  steppe.  But  since  the 
Orenburg-Tashkend  route  has  become  the  maiu  highway  between  Europe  and 
Turkestan,  Troitzk  has  lost  much  of  its  former  importance.  In  the  Shadi'iusk 
district  is  the  small  town  of  Krestovoye,  whose  fair,  next  to  that  of  Irbit,  is  the  best 
attended  on  the  Asiatic  slope  of  the  Urals.  Its  exchanges  amounted  in  1875  to 
8,350,000  roubles. 

Kurgan,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tobol,  but  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Perm 
government,  recalls  the  former  existence  of  a  royal  burial-place  560  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  ditch.  After  extracting  a  quantity  of  gold 
and  sUver  objects  the  Russians  converted  the  mound  into  a  fortress,  which, 
however,  they  were  obliged  to  abandon,  owing  to  the  erosions  of  the  Tobol.  The 
mditary  colony  was  then  removed  5  miles  farther  down,  and  gradually  developed 
into  a  flourishing  trading-place.  Yalutorovsk,  also  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tobol, 
was  foimded  in  1641  on  the  ruins  of  an  old  Tatar  city,  and  is  a  busy  place  during 
the  horse  fair.  The  surrounding  district,  the  most  densely  peopled  in  Siberia,  is 
very  productive  in  corn,  cattle,  tallow,  and  hides. 

On  the  Ishim,  which  flows  parallel  with  the  Tobol  to  the  Irtish,  are  several 
important  places.  Akmolinsk,  capital  of  a  district  near  the  sources  of  the  river,  is 
much  fi-equented  by  the  surrounding  Kirghiz  tribes.  Farther  west  is  the  old 
Cossack  stanitza  of  Athasar,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ishim  and  Atbasar.  Petropavlovsk, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ishim,  although  beyond  the  Kirghiz  territory,  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  trade  with  the  nomads,  over  3,000  of  whom  have  here  settled 
down  iu  sedentary  commimities.  Ishim,  about  midway  between  Petropavlovsk 
and  the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  visited  by  over  10,000  strangers  during  the 
December  fair,  at  which  the  exchanges  amount  to  5,000,000  roubles.  In  the 
siUTounding  lacustrine  steppe  there  are  over  300  basins,  which  are  alternately  lakes 
well  stocked  with  fish  and  rich  meadow  lands.  They  were  dry  in  1841,  began  to  be 
flooded  in  1859,  and  in  1864  the  water  had  everywhere  resumed  its  normal  level. 

The  first  place  on  the  Irtish  deserving  the  name  of  town  is  Ust-Kamenogorsk, 
situated,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  at  the  "  issue  of  the  mountain  gorge,"  near  the 
mining  region.  The  copper  mines  of  Bielo-  Udovskiy,  in  the  vaUey  of  the  Glubokaya 
to  the  north-east,  employ  about  1,000  hands.  Lower  down,  Semvpalatuisk,  capital 
of  a  government,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  but  has  often  had  to  change 
its  site,  owing  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  stream  and  the  encroachment  of  the  sand 
dunes.  Its  Russian  name  of  Semi-Palat,  or  "  Seven  Buildings,"  is  due  to  the  seven 
neighbouring  heaps  of  ruins,  formerly  used  as  temples  by  the  surrounding 
Kalmuks.     In  the  adjoining  Ablaikit  valley  are  the  ruins  of  another  Buddhist 

VOL.    VI.  A  A 


350  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

temple.  The  large  trade  formerly  carried  on  by  Semipalatinsk  with  the  Chinese 
town  of  Chiiguchak  has  been  abnost  comjjletely  suppressed  by  the  recent  troubles 
in  Kashgaria.  Its  commercial  relations  are  now  chiefly  with  Tashkend  and  Bokhara. 

Below  Semijjalatinsk  there  are  no  towns  till  we  reach  Omsk,  which  occupies 
both  banks  of  the  Om  at  its  junction  with  the  Irtish,  and  on  the  main  Siberian 
highway  in  the  zone  of  Russian  colonisation,  between  the  Southern  Kirghiz  and 
Northern  Tatar  populations.  Omsk  is  the  present  capital  of  West  Siberia,  and  its 
old  fortress  has  become  the  residence  of  the  civil  and  military  administrators.  Here 
are  a  military  gj-nmasium  with  350  students,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and 
since  1877  a  branch  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society. 

East  of  Omsk  the  main  route  ascends  the  Om  valley  to  Kainsk,  midway  between 
the  Irtish  and  Ob,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  Baraba  steppe.  Amongst  its  inha- 
bitants are  several  himdi'ed  Jews,  banished  to  this  part  of  Siberia  for  smuggling. 
For  a  distance  of  600  miles  along  the  Irtish  between  Omsk  and  Tobolsk  the  only 
town  is  Tara,  standing  on  the  left  bank,  opposite  the  confluence  of  the  river  Tara. 
It  is  a  much  older  place  than  Omsk,  and  was  formerlj'  the  head-quarters  of  the 
military  expeditions  organized  to  reduce  the  Kirghiz.  Peter  the  Great  caused 
700  of  its  Raskolnik  inhabitants  to  be  butchered  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  since  then  Tara,  h'ing  beyond  the  great  Siberian  highway,  has 
remained  nearlj'  stationary. 

Tobolsk,  former  capital  of  all  Asiatic  Russia,  and  still  the  chief  town  of  a 
government,  is  also  a  decaj^ed  place,  taking  for  population  the  sixth  rank  onJij^ 
amongst  Siberian  cities.  Yet  it  occupies  a  position  of  vital  importance  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Irtish  and  Tobol,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  West  Siberian  fluvial 
na\-igation.  But  it  lies  beyond  the  58th  parallel,  near  the  limits  of  cereal 
vegetation,  and  has  ceased  to  be  a  station  on  the  main  Siberian  highway,  which 
was  formerly  deflected  northwards  to  pass  by  the  governor's  palace,  and  which  now 
runs  from  Tunien,  through  Yalutorovsk  and  Ishim,  straight  to  Omsk.  But  it  stiU 
remains  the  rallying-place  of  the  Russians  banished  to  Siberia,  and  the  seat  of  the 
"  administration  of  the  exiles."  When  visited  by  Falk  in  1772  it  had  a  population 
of  15,000,  which  has  since  then  remained  nearly  stationary.  All  its  old  Tatar 
and  early  Russian  monmnents  have  disappeared,  destroyed  either  by  the  Cossacks 
or  by  the  two  fires  which  wasted  the  place  in  the  eighteenth  centmy.  But  with 
its  painted  domes  and  kreml,  or  citadel,  commanding  the  lower  quarters  on  the 
banks  of  the  Irtish,  Tobolsk  still  remains  one  of  the  most  imposing  cities  in 
Siberia.  Its  fish  market  is  one  of  the  best  supplied  in  the  world,  annually  drawing 
about  8,900  tons  from  the  Lower  Ob,  for  which  the  Ostiak  fishers  receive  probabh^ 
no  more  than  10,000  roubles,  but  which  realise  on  the  spot  at  least  1,000,000 
roubles. 

Below  Tobolsk  there  are  no  towns  on  the  Irtish ;  but  Samarova,  on  a  hiU 
commanding  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Irtish  and  Ob,  which  are  lower  down  con- 
nected hj  a  network  of  canals,  is  a  noted  place,  occupj-ing  the  site  of  a  former 
Ostiak  capital.  But  the  aborigines  have  long  been  replaced  by  the  Russian 
Tamshchiki,  or  "  conductors,"  engaged  in  the  transport  trade. 


a^W 


V4\ 


l^^72♦^^v^v/./.v%^^^:•?/•^v 


u*.*/ 


v»v 


\V.*'V4V 


v*.«# 


v«»"/*V.^ 


\V.V/^^V 


%v 


'/♦V»^ 


vV.V 


v/* 


xv«*/!w^>>!v*vv,YV*v 


/V,\^ 


•      \V. 


LIBRARV 

:■=■■  THE 


'••» 


ISV» 


^^  •*».•  •J 


y/v;%:«:v\V'V/Xv>:v?v>v 


.:v\v/'. 


IH 


I 


r'V.v 


»v^vV/.' 


L%v 


852  ASIATIC  fiUtfSlA. 


IV.— YENISEI-BAIKAL  BASIN. 


The  waters  flowing  through  the  Yenisei  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  belong,  like  those 
of  the  Ob,  to  two  different  basins.  The  Uluugur  and  Black  Irtish  are  prof)erly 
MongoKau  rivers,  which  have  been  enabled  to  drain  northwards  through  a  break 
in  the  surrounding  mountains.  In  the  same  way  the  Selenga  rises  in  the  uplands 
fringing  the  Gobi  desert,  and  pui-sues  a  winding  course  through  a  depression  of 
the  hilly  plateau,  whence  flow  east  and  north-east  various  head-streams  both  of 
the  Lena  and  .^Vmur.  The  Selenga  falls  into  the  great  transverse  trough  now 
filled  by  Lake  BaUcal,  and  through  a  depression  lying  at  an  angle  with  this  vast 
lacustrine  basin  the  Angara  also  escapes  to  the  Yenisei.  The  emissary  flows  at 
first  parallel  with  the  Lena,  and  these  two  rivers  were  probably  at  one  time  con- 
nected through  a  lateral  breach.  But  the  Angara  is  now  deflected  northwards, 
descending  in  a  series  of  rapids  through  a  still  imperfectly  excavated  channel. 
After  receiving  the  Oka  and  other  tributaries  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Upper 
Timguska,  as  if  it  were  really  a  different  stream,  and  after  describing  a  great 
curve  towards  the  north  and  west,  it  flows  in  a  gentle  current  to  the  Yenisei. 

The  Yenisei  itself  rises  in  a  mountain  cirque  east  of  the  Altai  range,  escaping 
from  its  upper  basin  through  a  succession  of  defiles  in  the  parallel  Sayan  ridges, 
and  flowing  thence  regularly  northwards  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  iminterrupted  by 
the  numerous  geological  breaks  obstructing  the  course  of  its  great  afiluent  from 
the  east.  Hence  it  rightly  retains  the  same  name  from  its  entrance  into  Russian 
territory  to  its  estuary,  and  it  thus  resembles  the  main  trunk  of  a  tree,  which 
throws  off  a  side  branch  longer,  stronger,  and  more  ramified  than  itself.*  In 
the  history  of  their  inhabitants  the  two  basins  of  the  "\^^estern  Yenisei  and 
of  the  Baikal  also  differ  from  each  other,  and  require  to  be  studied  apart. 


BASIN  OF  THE  AVESTERN  YENISEI. 

The  Yenisei  receives  its  first  waters  from  the  Chinese  district  comprised 
between  the  Saj-an  and  Tannu-ola  ranges  north  and  south,  and  bordered  cast- 
wards  by  the  lacustrine  plateau  where  rise  the  farthest  head-streams  of  the 
Selenga.  None  of  the  rivers  rising  in  this  district,  which  has  a  mean  elevation 
•of  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  have  received  from  the  natives  the  name  of  Yenisei.  But 
the  true  main  stream  seems  to  be  the  Bei-kem,  which  is  the  "  Great  Yenisei  "  of 
some  writers,  and  which  is  fed  by  niunerous  brooks  from  the  Eastern  Sayan,  better 
known  as  the  Ergik-targak  taiga.  The  Khua-kem,  or  "  Little  Yenisei,"  rises 
farther  south  on  the  heights  near  the  great  Lake  Koso-gol,  and  receives  on  its  left 
the  waters  flowing  from  the  Tannu-ola  valleys.  The  miited  stream,  which  now 
takes  the  name  of  Ulu-kcm,  forms  the  real  Yenisei,  which  soon  receives  the 
Kemchik  from  the  converging  point  of  the  Altai,  Tannu,  and  Sayan  ranges. 
Although  there  seem  to  be  no  glaciers  in  these  highlands,  some  of  the  crests  rise 

•  Probable  length  of  tho  Western  Yenisei,  2,58n  milos ;  probable  length  of  the  Selenga-Angara- 
Y'eniaei,  3,300  miles.     Probable  area  of  di-ainage,  1,180,000  square  miles. 


BASm  OF  THE  WESTERN  YENISEI. 


353 


here  and  there  above  tlie  snow-line,  while  most  of  them  are  snow-clad  for  eio-ht 
months  in  the  year.  Those  of  the  Ergik-targak  are  certainly  10,000  feet  high,  and 
passes  leading  over  this  chain  from  Russia  to  China  are  at  elevations  of  7,400  feet. 
With  its  northern  incline  the  Upper  Yenisei  basin  really  forms  part  of  Siberia 
in  its  climate,  flora,  fauna,  and  general  aspect,  but  not  in  its  inhabitants,  who  are 
exclusively  of  Mongol  stock.  The  slopes  are  covered  with  forests  of  the  Siberian 
cedar  and  larch,  beyond  which  stretch  thickets  of  the  rhododendron  and  other 
Alpine  plants,  while  the  rivers  and  lakes  are  fringed  with  poplars  and  willows. 


Fig.  1S8. — Upper  Yenisei  Basin  and  Minusinsk  Steppes. 
Scale  1  :  3,400,000. 


A  -.  'JJitas^iijoSJiSfe ', 


,S' 


^v. 


-i 


«-j^ 


ii  .- 


54? 


i--l 


52 


Eof  G 


94° 


Cj:w  mjoi 


-  GO  Miles. 


The  deer  is  chased  iii  the  upland  forests,  and  the  grassy  plains  are  honey-combed 
with  the  imderground  dweUiugs  of  the  tarbagan.  Still  the  transition  from  cHmate 
to  climate  may  be  observed  in  many  places,  and  especially  in  the  east,  where  the 
uncertain  water-parting  between  the  Yenisei  and  Selenga  is  strewn  with  lacustrine 
basins,  some  filled  ^-ith  salt  water,  others  containing  magnesia  and  mineral  sub- 
stances in  divers  proportions. 

About  half  a  mile  below  its  junction  with  the  Kemchik  in  Russian  territory, 
the  "Great  River" — for  such  appears  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  Tungus  word 
Yoanesi,  whence  the  Russian  Yenisei — passes  in  a  bom,  or  narrow  defile,  through  a 


354  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

series  of  parallel  ridges,  ruimiiig  south-west  and  north-east  on  the  Sayan  plateau. 
About  10  miles  from  the  frontier  the  stream  enters  a  gorge  scarcely  100  feet  vride 
and  330  yards  long,  through  which  a  lake  was  di-ained  which  formerly  filled  the 
whole  upper  basin.  Here  the  current  is  so  rapid  that  it  scarcely  ever  freezes, 
though  a  little  lower  down  usually  ice-bound  for  over  five  months  in  the  year. 
Further  on  the  stream  is  interrupted  by  other  rapids  in  its  passage  through  the 
parallel  chains,  which  are  all  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  valleys  formerly 
filled  with  water.  Of  these  rapids,  none  of  which  entirely  obstruct  the  navigation, 
the  most  dangerous  is  the  "  Groat  Eapid  "  below  the  junction  of  the  Us.  Beyond 
the  Sayan  highlands  the  scene  changes  abruptly,  grassy  steppes  succeeding  to  moun- 
tain cra»s.  Between  Krasnoyarsk  and  Yeniseisk  some  reefs  and  rapids  also  cover 
the  surface  with  foam,  and  cause  a  din  that  drowns  the  boatmen's  voices.  The 
lono-est  of  these  is  nearly  7  nules  in  length,  and  is  traversed  by  boats  descending 
the  stream  in  about  half  an  hour.  But  on  the  whole  throughout  its  middle  and 
lower  course  the  Yenisei  is  a  placid  stream,  with  a  fall  scarcely  exceeding  that  of 
the  Ob.  At  Krasnoyarsk,  over  1,800  miles  fi-om  its  mouth,  its  mean  elevation  is 
only  530  feet  above  the  sea,  and  at  Yeniseisk,  below  the  rapids,  230  feet. 

Like  the  Ob,  the  Yenisei  traverses  some  tracts  dry  enough  to  be  regarded  as 
steppes.  Here  the  Tatars  pitch  their  tents  as  on  the  Turkestan  plains.  Thus 
the  Abakan  steppe  stretches  for  over  30  miles  along  the  left  bank  above 
Minusinsk,  while  west  of  the  same  place  the  Kachinskaya  steppe  comprises  most 
of  the  plain  skirted  southwards  by  the  river  Abakan.  But  these  dried-up  tracts 
are  the  exception  in  the  Yenisei  basin,  where  the  main  sti'eam  is  swollen  by 
numerous  affluents,  especially  from  the  east,  making  it  one  of  the  great  rivers  of 
Asia  even  before  its  junction  with  the  Upper  Tunguska.  Here  its  mean  breadth 
varies  from  5,000  to  6,500  feet,  expanding  to  4  miles  during  the  spring  floods, 
when  it  increases  in  dejjth  from  about  40  to  82  feet.  Its  volimie,  apparent^  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  Danube,  is  more  than  doubled  by  its  union  with  the  Upper 
Tunguska,  and  imder  the  pressure  of  this  current  the  main  stream  is  deflected 
westwards.  For  several  miles  the  turbid  and  yellow  waters  of  the  Yenisei  flow 
in  the  same  bed  side  by  side  with  the  dark  blue  Tmiguska,  gradually  merging  in 
a  common  alluvial  stream.  The  faima  of  the  two  rivers  also  differs,  the  sturgeons 
and  sterlets  of  the  Tunguska  having  black  backs,  while  those  of  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Yenisei  are  of  a  grejdsh  colour. 

Below  the  confluence  the  Yenisei,  like  most  Siberian  rivers,  flows  between  a 
low  bank  on  the  left  and  a  steep  cliff  on  the  right.  But  below  the  SinI  jimction 
both  sides  are  high,  and  the  stream  is  here  obstructed  by  a  rocky  barrier,  causing 
it  to  expand  to  a  basiu  about  10  miles  in  circumference,  and  studded  with  over 
fifty  islets.  This  Is  the  only  obstacle  presented  to  the  navigation  of  large  steamers 
throughout  its  lower  course,  which  In  many  places  is  over  130  feet  deep. 

In  the  forest  region  below  the  Great  Tunguska  the  Yenisei  is  joined  by  two 
other  Tunguskas,  the  Podkamenyaya,  or  "Highland,"  and  the  Nijnyaya,  or 
"  Low,"  besides  the  Bakhta,  Yelogui,  Kure'ika,  and  other  affluents  scarcely  inferior 
in  volume.     The  Nijnyaya  is  about  1,620  miles  long,  and  over  half  a  mUe  \\'ide  at 


INHABITANTS— THE  CHCDES.  355 

its  mouth.  In  a  -wanner  latitude  it  would  form  a  magnificent  water  highway 
between  the  Yenisei  and  Lena  basins.  For  it  rises  near  the  latter  river,  with 
which  it  at  first  runs  parallel,  approaching  it,  near  Kirensk,  to  within  13  miles, 
but  then  tui-ning  abruptly  north-west  to  the  Yenisei.  The  Taimura,  one  of  its 
affluents,  traverses  a  region  abounding  in  coal  beds,  one  of  which  has  been  con- 
sumed by  imderground  fires. 

In  its  lower  course  through  the  glacial  zone  of  the  tundras  the  Yenisei 
receives  no  more  affluents.  But  here  it  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  a 
marine  estuary,  the  stream  being  at  times  arrested  by  the  joint  action  of  the 
tide  and  north  wind  300  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  expanding  over  a  space  30 
and  even  40  mQes  wide.  In  this  vast  fresh-water  fiord,  studded  with  low  islands 
and  exposed  to  the  full  violence  of  the  fierce  winds  sweeping  over  the  tundra,  the 
navigation  is  very  dangerous  for  the  ordinary  flat-bottomed  fishing- smacks,  which 
seldom  venture  far  from  the  banks.  But  before  reaching  the  sea  the  stream 
again  contracts,  and  is  only  12  or  1-1  miles  wide  at  its  mouth.  During  severe 
seasons  it  is  open  for  navigation  only  about  fiJty  days,  from  July  10th  to  the  end 
of  August.  Its  waters  are  less  rich  in  fish  than  the  Ob,  although  certain  portions, 
especially  of  the  estuary,  aboimd  in  animal  life,  including  multitudes  of  tench, 
lote,  perch,  taken  chiefly  as  food  for  the  dogs,  besides  sturgeon,  salmon,  and  other 
more  valuable  species.  Nearly  all  the  river  population  are  fishers,  agricultm-e 
and  stock-breeding  being  but  slightly  developed  except  in  the  Minusinsk  steppes. 
Hence  the  navigation  of  the  Yenisei  has  hitherto  been  of  little  use  except  for 
transporting  the  produce  of  the  fisheries.  Yet  the  region  traversed  by  it  abounds 
in  minerals,  forests,  and  game,  whilst  the  southern  districts  might  produce  food 
enough  for  the  sustenance  of  millions.  The  navigable  waterway,  which,  exclusive 
of  the  Baikal,  cannot  be  estimated  at  less  than  5,000  miles,  was  used  so  late  as 
1876  only  by  a  flotilla  of  four  steamers  and  two  sailing  vessels  under  50  tons 
burden.  Most  of  the  other  craft  consisted  merely  of  flat-bottomed  boats,  rafts,  and 
pontoons  taken  in  tow  by  the  tugs.  After  bringing  down  com  and  other  produce 
from  the  south  most  of  these  craft  are  taken  to  pieces,  and  the  timber  used  as  fuel 
or  for  building  purposes.  But  since  Nordenskjcild  has  foimd  the  way  from  Europe 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei,  and  discovered  the  excellent  harbour  of  Dicksonhavn 
on  its  right  bank,  at  the  entrance  of  the  estuary,  trade  cannot  fail  to  be  developed 
on  this  great  artery  of  Central  Siberia.  'Some  experimental  trips  have  even  already 
been  made  by  English,  Scandina^"ian,  and  Siberian  traders. 

INHABITANTS — The  ChCdes. 

Doubtless  the  Yenisei  basin,  more  mountainous  in  the  south,  deficient  in  "  black 
loam,"  lying  at  a  greater  distance  from  European  Russia,  and  stretching  less  towards 
the  south,  can  scarcely  ever  sustain  so  large  a  population  as  that  of  the  Ob.  At 
the  same  time  all  the  region  comprised  between  the  Sayan  highlands  and  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Yenisei  and  Angara  has  already  been  almost  exclusively  settled  by 
Russian  communities,   scattered  in  groups  along  the  river  banks  and  the  great 


356  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

Siberian  overland  route.  The  antiquities  found  in  this  country  show  that  it 
formerly  possessed  a  considerable  population.  AVhen  visited  by  Gmelin  in  1735 
the  gold,  silver,  and  copper  objects  found  in  the  graves  were  numerous  enough  to 
be  met  with  in  every  household.  In  the  Abakan  steppe,  on  both  banks  of  the  river 
of  like  name,  and  along  the  Yenisei  for  120  miles  below  Abakansk,  the  barrows  are 
grouped  in  hundreds  and  thousands,  especially  in  the  fertile  tracts.  Certain  parts 
of  the  steppe  are  like  vast  cities  of  the  dead,  where  the  mounds  are  so  crowded 
together  as  to  look  at  a  distance  like  herds  of  gigantic  animals.  Amongst  them  are 
some  of  recent  origin,  which  are  still  being  erected  on  the  occasion  of  great  religious 
ceremonies,  not  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  in  them  the  remains  of  renowned 
heroes,  but  only  as  receptacles  of  coats  of  mail,  stone  axes,  copper  implements, 
coins,  and  other  objects  dating  from  heroic  times.  Most  of  them,  however,  are 
ancient  kuro-ans  26  to  30  feet  high,  containing  either  chiefs  with  their  arms  and 
horses,  or  entire  families,  or  heaps  of  human  remains  thrown  in,  doubtless,  after 
some  great  battle.  These  are  the  so-caUed  "black"  kurgans.  But  the  most 
remarkable  tombs  are  those  enclosed  by  circles  of  stones,  some  of  which  are  carved 
in  the  foi-m  of  men,  women,  and  children.  These  sculptured  stones  are  by  the 
Russians  called  haha,  the  same  name  that  they  give  to  the  nude  figures  surmoimting 
the  km-gans  of  South  Eussia.  But  most  of  the  figures  have  disappeared,  and, 
judging  from  what  remains,  they  would  seem  to  represent  men  of  Mongol  race,  and 
the  camels  that  accompanied  them  on  their  expeditions.  The  populations  whose 
remains  were  consigned  to  these  tumuli  were  in  other  respects  more  ci\-ilised  than 
the  Europeans  of  the  corresponding  bronze  epoch.  Amongst  their  jewellery  have 
been  found  genuine  works  of  art  in  beaten  gold,  besides  porcelain  and  bronze  vases 
embellished  with  bas-reliefs  of  animals,  such  as  the  argali,  deer,  eagle,  wolf,  and 
winged  monsters  like  griffins  or  flj'ing  dragons.  Numerous  metal  mirrors  occur, 
resembling  those  still  used  by  the  Biu-iats  and  Mongolians  in  their  Buddbist  rites  ; 
but  iron  objects  are  found  only  in  the  barrows  of  recent  origin.  Figures  of  the 
duck,  an  animal  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Finns,  are  common.  According  to  the 
general  tradition  the  men  buried  in  these  tombs  are  "  Chudes,"  who  consigned 
themselves  alive  to  the  grave  on  the  appearance  of  the  birch,  emblem  of  Russian 
dominion,  in  their  woodlands. 


The  Soyots  and  Karagasses. 

The  indigenous  population  of  the  Upper  Yenisei  basin,  both  in  China  and  Siberia, 
consists  of  Mongols,  Finns,  Tatars,  diversely  intermingled,  and  confounded  one 
with  the  other  by  nearly  all  travellers.  Most  of  the  peoples  living  in  the  Ob  basin 
are  also  met  in  various  parts  of  the  Yenisei  region.  Thus  the  Tatars  stretch  east- 
wards to  the  gates  of  Minusinsk,  Kansk,  and  Krasnoyarsk.  The  Ostiaks  roam  over 
the  forests  on  both  banks  of  the  river  north  of  the  Angara  confluence,  while  the 
Samoyedes  pitch  their  tents  in  the  tundras  about  the  estuary.  Some  Samoyede 
families  are  even  found  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Ergik-targak,  in  the  valleys  of 
the  upper  affluents,  who  are  supposed  to  have  remained  in  their  primeval  homes 


THE  SOTOTS  AND  KAEAGASSES.  857 

after  their  kinsmen  had  mig-rated  northwards.  At  the  time  of  Castren's  visit  in 
1847  these  rejjresentativcs  of  an  ancient  race,  known  in  the  comitry  as  Motors,  and 
calling  themselves  Tubalars,  seemed  to  be  dying  out.  Small-pox  had  made  great 
ravages  amongst  them,  and  most  of  the  survivors  had  migrated  to  Chinese  territory. 
Others  have  been  absorbed  in  the  surroimding  Tatars  and  Soyots,  and  the  old 
Samoyede  dialect  had  perislicd  even  before  the  race  itself. 

The  Soyots,  said  to  number  from  7,000  to  8,000,  are  Finns  like  the  Motors, 
and  speak  a  dialect  resembling  that  of  the  Samoyedes.  They  are  divided  into 
several  distinct  tribes,  occujjying  two  or  three  valleys  in  Russian  territorv ;  but  thov 
are  far  more  numerous  in  the  Kcm  and  Selenga  basins  within  the  Chinese  frontier. 
Having  had  formerly  to  pay  their  tribute  of  furs  to  both  Governments,  they  have 
obviated  the  inconvenience  by  withdrawing  farther  from  the  borders,  and  leaving  a 
wide  unoccupied  space  between.  The  Soyots,  who  seem  to  have  become  mixed  with 
the  Tatar  race,  have  mostly  regular  features,  with  straight  nose,  small  and  very 
slightly  oblique  piercing  eyes,  broad  forehead,  pointed  chin,  an  intelKgent,  resolute, 
and  thoughtfiil  expression.  They  joractise  several  industries  with  very  great  skill, 
notwithstanding  their  primitive  implements.  They  extract  iron  from  the  ore, 
casting  it  into  bars  or  bidlets,  make  their  own  powder,  and  repair  their  rifles.  They 
also  navigate  the  lakes  and  rivers  on  rafts,  but  occupy  themselves  rarely  with 
agriculture,  being  mostly  nomads,  whose  chief  wealth  consists  in  their  sheep,  cattle, 
yaks,  and  horses.  The  latter  are  verj^  shapely  and  much  valued  by  the  Minusinsk 
dealers.  Milk,  cheese,  butter,  and  kumiss  form  their  chief  diet,  but  they  are 
unfortunately  much  too  fond  of  a'lraJi,  a  strongly  intoxicating  fermented  drink. 

More  numerous  than  the  Soyots  are  the  Uriankhs,  who  call  themselves  Donva, 
and  who  are  supposed  to  be  of  Tui'ki  stock.  They  resemble  this  race  in  features, 
and  most  of  them  speak  Tatar  dialects,  but,  unlike  most  Turki  people,  they  are 
Buddhists  in  religion.  Their  tribes  intermingle  with  the  Soyots,  though  the  bidk 
of  them  dwell  farther  east  in  the  Bei-kem  vaUey,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Koso-gol, 
and  about  the  head-streams  of  the  Selenga  and  Angara.  Some  are  hunters,  but 
most  of  them  are  stock-breeders,  living,  like  the  Soyots,  mainly  on  a  milk  diet.  But 
they  excel  them  as  agriculturists,  cultivating  barley  and  millet,  and  irrigating  their 
fields  with  canals  over  a  mile  long,  skilfully  traced  along  the  momitain  slopes.  But 
under  a  feudal  system  the  race  has  become  impoverished.  The  dainan,  or  chief, 
and  the  aristocrats  own  herds  of  several  himdred  and  even  a  thousand  cattle,  while 
all  the  rest  are  nearly  destitute  and  reduced  to  a  state  of  serfdom.  Every  lord  is 
surrounded  by  retainers,  who  attend  slavishly  to  aU  his  personal  wants,  and  the 
nation  has  thus  become  divided  into  two  hostile  political  factions.  The  poor  are 
drawn  by  their  interests  towards  the  Russians,  whereas  the  nobles  and  lamas, 
belonging  mostly  to  the  same  families,  and  enjojang  the  same  privileges,  look  for 
support  from  the  Chinese  and  Mongol  officials.  Hence  Russian  explorers  are  very 
badly  received  bj'  the  dainan,  and  Mongol  influence  is  stiU.  paramount  throughout 
his  territory.  The  Darkhats,  or  "Freemen,"  who  dwell  farther  south  and  belong 
to  the  same  ethnical  group,  have  been  assimilated  even  in  speech  to  the  Mongolians. 
On  the  west  and   south-west  are  the  Soyons,  of  the  same  stock,  but  more  or  less 


358  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

mixed  with  Kirghiz  blood,  and  also  assimilated  in  speech  and  habits  to  the  iTon- 
golians.  The  Shamanist  practices  of  the  "  Yellow  "  Soyons,  who  dwell  together 
in  Mongolia,  are  being  gradually  adapted  to  the  orthodox  Buddhist  rite,  and 
monasteries  of  lamas  are  already  springing  up  in  the  midst  of  these  nomads. 
Amongst  the  Darkhats  there  are  no  less  than  1,400  monks  in  a  total  jjopulation  of 
7,000.  The  old  customs  have  been  better  preserved  by  the  "  Black  "  Soyons,  who 
live  nearer  to  the  Russian  fi-ontier,  and  who,  like  the  Soyots  and  Kalmuks,  prefer 
the  ox  to  the  horse  for  riding,  and  even  himting.  On  these  beasts  they  are  said  to 
hold  their  o-svn  against  the  best  horsemen. 

A  district  occupied  exclusively  by  Russian  colonists  separates  the  Soyot  and 
TJriankh  territorv  from  the  Yenisei  Tatar  domain.  The  Karagasses  of  the  Northern 
Sayan  slopes  have  alreadv  d^vindled  to  a  few  himdred,  and  their  women  are  even  said 
to  be  no  lono-er  fruitful.  The  Sagai,  Kachines,  and  other  Tatar  peojjles,  who  occupy 
the  basin  of  the  Abakan  to  the  nimiber  of  14,000  or  15,000,  are  being  gradually 
Russified.  Most  of  those  living  in  the  steppes  west  of  the  Yenisei  are  very  com- 
fortable, many  of  them  counting  their  cattle  not  by  heads,  but  by  herds,  of  which 
some  possess  as  many  as  seventy,  averaging  fifty  head  each.  The  Yenisei  Tatars 
belong  mostly  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church ;  but  beneath  this  outward  show  the 
primitive  ideas  continue  to  flourish,  and  the  evil  spii'it  is  still  worshipped. 

The  TrxorsEs. 

North  of  the  Russians  and  Yenisei  Tatars  the  dominant  people  are  the  Tunguses, 
already  mentioned  by  the  Dutch  writer  Massa  in  1612,  and  who  now  occupy  nearly 
all  the  region  limited  westwards  bj-  the  Yenisei,  but  especially  the  basins  of  the 
three  rivers  Tunguska  named  from  them,  and  most  of  the  Amur  valley.  Kinsmen 
of  the  Manchus,  and,  like  them,  originally  from  the  Amur  basin,  they  gradually 
stretched  eastwards  to  the  Yenisei  and  northwards  to  the  Frozen  Ocean.  The 
Samoyedes  call  them  Aiya,  or  "  Yoimg  Brothers,"  a  term  pointing  to  their  recent 
arrival  and  jjoacefid  relations  with  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  land.  About  the 
middle  of  its  course  they  have  crossed  the  Yenisei,  advancing  along  the  left  bank 
into  the  Ostiak  domain.  But  towards  the  centre  of  their  territory,  between  Lake 
Baikal  and  the  Lena,  they  are  hemmed  in  on  the  north  by  the  Yakuts,  southwards 
by  the  Buriats  and  Russians.  Beiug  mostly  nomads,  the  Tunguses  nimiber  probably 
not  more  than  60,000  or  70,000  iu  the  whole  of  Siberia,  but  their  courage,  activity, 
and  ready  wit  give  them  a  decided  moral  pre-eminence  over  the  other  natives. 
The  most  general  national  name  is  Donki,  which,  like  that  of  Boye,  one  of  their 
chief  tribes,  means  "Men."  The  Russian  form  Tungus  is  either  a  Tatar  word 
meaning  "  Lake  People,"  or  more  probably  from  the  Chinese  Timghu,  "  Eastern 
Barbarians." 

According  to  their  pm-suits  and  mode  of  Hfe  the  Russians  have  di-\dded  them 
into  "  Horse,"  "  Cattle,"  "  Reindeer,"  "Dog,"  "  Steppe,"  and  "  Forest  "  Tunguses. 
Some  families  who  have  become  settled  have  adopted  Russian  ways,  and,  thanks  to 
their  superior  intelligence,  make  better  husbandmen  than  the  other  aborigines. 


y*  -^  avi  I 


SCO  ASIATIC  KUSSIA. 

cheeks  from  the  corner  of  the  eye  to  the  side  of  the  mouth,  with  transverse  lines 
outside  the  curves,  bearing  a  vague  resemblance  to  little  butterflies  ■with  folded 
wings. 

Since  the  time  of  Brand,  who  visited  Siberia  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  all  travellers  have  been  loud  in  their  praise  of  the  mental  qualities  of  the 
Tunguses.  Full  of  animation  and  native  impulse,  always  cheerful  even  in  the  deepest 
misery,  holding  themselves  and  others  in  like  respect,  of  gentle  manners  and  poetic 
speech,  obliging  without  scr\-ility,  unaffectedly  proud,  scorning  falsehood,  and 
indifferent  to  suffering  and  death,  the  Tunguses  are  imquestionablj'  an  heroic  j)eople. 
They  neither  exact  the  price  of  blood,  nor  do  they  practise  the  vendetta,  like  most 
barbarous  tribes.  But  in  accordance  with  the  code  of  chivalry  the}'  challenge  each 
other  to  niortal  combat,  and  their  meetings  are  regulated  with  a  scrupulous  cere- 
monial. Dwelling  in  the  same  climate  as  the  cimning  Yakut,  the  dull  Buriat  and 
profoimdly  silent  Samoyede,  the  Tunguses  afford  a  striking  instance  of  the  per- 
sistence of  racial  traits  under  the  most  diverse  surroundings.  For  their  manner  of 
life  has  been  little  modified  by  contact  with  the  Russians.  Christians  in  appear- 
ance, they  have  preserved  their  religious  practices,  usages,  and  rude  freedom. 
"  Our  faith  bids  us  live  and  die  in  the  woods,"  they  say ;  and  so,  content  with  little 
and  extremely  temperate,  they  can  suffer  hunger  and  thirst  for  days  together 
uncomplainingly,  and  even  endure  the  privations  of  their  long  winters  with 
unabated  cheerfulness.  For  their  wants  one  animal,  the  reindeer,  one  tree,  the  birch, 
amply  suffice.  The  reindeer  gives  them  his  flesh  in  food,  his  skin  in  dress,  his 
sinews  and  entrails  as  thongs  and  cords,  his  bones  to  carve  into  implements  of  all 
sorts.  From  the  birch  comes  the  bark  wherewith  to  make  their  boxes,  baskets, 
cradles,  and  tents.  If  at  times  they  accompany  the  Russian  ex^jlorers  for  days  and 
weeks,  and  regularly  partake  of  their  meals,  in  this  they  do  but  comply  with  the 
national  custom,  which  makes  hospitality  the  first  of  duties,  and  j)ermits  all  to  share 
alike  in  the  food  of  each.  Amongst  them  there  were  formerlj-  neither  rich  nor 
poor,  although  the  sense  of  property,  consisting  in  the  exclusi^■e  right  to  hunt  in 
certain  districts,  had  already  been  fully  developed.  But  now  each  family  has  its 
herd  of  reindeer,  and  its  credit,  or  rather  debt,  account  with  the  Russian  or  Yakut 
trader. 

Notwithstanding  their  buoyant  character  and  innate  force  of  resistance,  the 
Tunguses,  hemmed  in,  so  to  say,  between  the  Russians  and  Yakuts,  are  threatened 
with  extinction  as  an  independent  nationality.  Although  their  numerous  offspring 
are  well  cared  for,  the  rate  of  mortality  is  very  high,  and  whole  families  are  at 
times  swept  away  by  smaU-pox,  measles,  scarlatina,  and  esf)eciaUy  famine,  their 
most  formidable  foe.  Always  exposed  to  this  danger,  they  speak  of  death  by  hunger 
with  remarkable  indifference,  as  if  such  an  evil  were  quite  in  the  natural  order. 
Of  the  former  camping  grounds  in  many  forests  nothing  is  now  to  be  seen  except 
the  remains  of  cabins  and  biers  suspended  between  two  boughs  a  few  yards  from  the 
ground.  The  Tungus  tribe,  which  opposed  the  longest  resistance  to  the  Russians, 
has  entirely  disappeared,  leaxing  nothing  behind  except  its  name,  given  to  the 
village  of  Taseievskoye,  on  the  river  Usolka,  north  of  Kansk. 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


861 


ToroGRAPiiy. 

Their  geographical  iwsition,  relatively  mild  climate,  and  fertile  soil  must  secure 
for  some  of  the  Yenisei  regions  an  important  future.  But  meantime  there  are  in 
this  basin  but  few  towns,  and,  with  the  exception  of  three  or  four,  even  these  are 
little  more  than  villages.  MiDuniiisk,  lying  farthest  south,  and  centre  of  a  con- 
siderable trade  between  the  Upper  Yenisei  and  JMongolia,  had  4,000  inhabitants  in 
1863,  and  diuing  the  ten  following  j^ears  this  number  had  not  increased  by  500. 
It  is  well  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yenisei,  in  one  of  the  richest  mineral 
districts  in  Siberia.      Since  1835  the  tributary  streams  have  been  worked  for  gold, 


Fig.  189. — Rock  Inscription  on  the  Banks  of  the  Yenisei. 


of  which  about  8,775,000  roubles'  worth  was  collected  between  1845  and  1859,  the 
present  mean  amiual  jdeld  being  about  600,000  roubles.  The  lead  and  copper 
mines  of  the  neighbouring  moimtains  have  not  been  utiKsed  since  the  abolition  of 
forced  labour,  the  attention  of  the  free  miners  being  directed  mainly  to  the  precious 
metal.  Nor  have  the  coal  beds  an}'  present  value,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  wood, 
the  few  industries,  and  lack  of  easy  communication.  The  salt  lakes  near  Minu- 
sinsk are  used  for  the  local  supply  alone,  and  the  iron  ores  are  worked  only  by  the 
Soj'ots,  the  produce  of  the  Urals  being  amply  sufficient  for  the  present  demands  of  the 
Russians  of  the  Yenisei.  But  in  certain  parts  of  these  highlands  there  is  not  a 
single  mountain  but  affords  ample  evidence  of  the  activity  of  the  ancient  native 


3G2 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


miners.    la  the  Uba  valley,  north-east  of  Minusinsk,  there  occurs  a  block  of  native 
iron  weighing  over  1,700  lbs.,  ■which  Pallas  believes  to  be  of  meteoric  origia. 

The  village  of  Ahakansk,  48  miles  below  Minusiask,  was  an  important  strong- 
hold during  the  last  century,  before  the  foundation  of  Minusinsk.  Here  the  cliffs 
on  the  left  bank  are  covered  with  well-preserved  inscriptions,  two  in  Tatar,  and  all 
the  rest  in  Mongolian.  Hundreds  of  stone  tombs  disposed  in  twos  occupy  a  large 
space  in  the  neighbourhood.     Lower  do^vn  another  rock,  near  the  village  of  Xovo- 


Fig.  190. — Region-  of  the  Yenisei  C4old  Mixes. 
Scale  1  :  2,001,00'?. 


.*--: 


Tl 


^ 


??> 


SI 


%.    ^ 


fie  >' 


E,  Qf  G. 


CP&f^rQn 


,  30  Miles. 


selovo,  also  bears  ancient  writings,  and  a  clifE  on  the  banks  of  the  Sizim  is  inscribed 
with  hieroglyphics  representing  birds,  wild  beasts,  and  horsemen.  Another  rock 
on  the  Yenisei,  near  Krasnoyarsk,  is  covered  with  figures  of  men  painted  in  red. 

JTrasiwi/aisk,  or  the  "  Red  Cliff,"  capital  of  the  Yenisei  government,  stands  at 
the  foot  of  the  red  Afontova  escarpments,  on  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Yenisei  and  Kacha.  Standing  on  a  na^"igable  river  where  it  is  crossed  by  the 
great  Siberian  highway,  and  forming  the  administrative  centre  of  a  vast  province, 
Krasnoyarsk  has  had  a  rapid  development,  its  population  having  more  than  doubled 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


863 


since  the  miclcUe  of  the  century.  It  is  the  kirgest  place  between  Tomsk  and 
Irlcutsk,  but,  omng  to  its  bleak  climate,  is  avoided  by  travellers  in  winter.  Although 
the  neighbouring  coal  beds  are  not  worked,  it  is  the  chief  trading-place  for  all  the 
surrounding  mineral  districts.  In  the  vicinity  are  some  iron  and  sulphur  springs 
on  the  banks  of  the  Kacha. 

Yeniseisk,  though  taking  the  name  of  the  river,  ranks  onlj^  as  the  second  place 
on  its  banks.  It  stands  on  the  left  side,  below  the  Upper  Tunguska  junction.  But 
this  advantageous  position  is  neutralised  by  the  fact  that  it  lies  abnost  beyond  the 
zone  of  Russian  j)opulation,  in  the  midst  of  lakes  and  swamps,  on  a  low  ground 
often  covered  with  water  and  ice  during  the  thaw.  More  than  once  it  has  been 
threatened  with  complete  destruction.  During  the  last  century,  when  goods  were 
forwarded  mostly  by  water,  Yeniseisk  had  one  of  the  most  important  fairs  in 
Siberia  ;  but  the  current  of  trade  has  been  diverted  southwards  by  the  opening  of 
the  great  overland  route.    Yeniseisk  stands  in  a  rich  iron  district,  and  farther  north 


Fig.  191. — From  Krasnoyarsk  to  Kavsk. 
Scale  1  :  2.300,000. 


Smij   ' 


Kansk 


9s=  EofG 


iff 


C  Perron. 


30  MUes. 


the  streams  flowing  to  the  Yenisei  between  the  Upper  and  Moimtain  Tunguska  are 
worked  for  gold.  Here  are  collected  over  two-thirds  of  all  the  gold  found  in  the 
Yeniseisk  government,  though  the  jaeld  of  late  years  has  fallen  off.*  Over  one- 
fourth  of  the  wTctched  gold- washers  are  invalids,  and  of  the  16,000  hands  usually 
employed  about  1,000  yearly  attempt  to  escape.  The  districts  of  Kansk  and  Nijne- 
Udinsk,  watered  by  the  various  streams  flo\ving  from  the  highlands  between  the 
Yenisei  and  the  Angara,  are  also  auriferous,  and  the  salt  springs  north  of  Kansk 
yield  from  eleven  to  twelve  parts  pure  salt. 

North  of  Yeniseisk  we  enter  the  wilderness,  in  which  the  few  wretched  hamlets 
fringing  the  river  banks  become  rarer  and  rarer  as  we  proceed  northwards.  Never- 
theless Turukhansk,  one  of  these  villages,  ranks  as  a  town,  wheret  he  officials, 
famished  almost  as  much  as  the  unhappy  exiles  themselves,  administer  the  affairs 
of  the  nomad  Tungus,  Ostiak,  Samoyede,  and  Yakut  tribes,  and  the  few  settled 
traders  and  fi.shers  of  the  district.     Turukhansk,  capital  of  a  territory  with  scarcely 

•  Yield  of  gold  in  the  Yeniseisk  government  (1875),  4,9.50,000  roubles;  hands  employed,  16,450. 


364  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

2,200  settled  inhabitants,  in  a  space  three  times  the  size  of  France,  contains  of  itself 
alone  over  one-fifth  of  the  entire  population.  Its  little  houses  are  scattered  over  an 
island  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tuinikhan  and  Yenisei,  here  communicating  Avith 
vast  tundra  lakes.  A  harboiu-,  a  few  stores  and  sheds,  await  the  trade  that  must 
some  day  be  developed  between  Eui-ope  and  Siberia  b}'  the  Yenisei  estuary.  Mean- 
while a  peltry  fair  attracts  the  Samoyedes  and  Ostiaks  of  the  extreme  north  between 
the  Ob  and  Lena.  The  severity  of  the  climate  and  the  frozen  surface  have  hitherto 
prevented  the  working  of  the  vast  deposits  of  graphite  discovered  east  of  Turu- 
khansk,  between  the  rivers  Turyeika  and  Xijnyaya  Tunguska.  One  alone  of  these 
beds  is  said  to  contain  at  least  200,000  tons  of  graphite,  which  at  the  London 
exhibition  of  18-j1  was  recognised  as  the  best  in  the  world. 

Near  the  small  port  of  Duudinka,  on  the  Lower  Yenisei,  recently  visited  by 
Nordenskjold,  there  is  a  colony  of  skoptzi,  banished  from  Russia,  and  all  of  Finnish 
origin. 


THE  BAIKAL-ANGARA  BASIN. 

The  Selenga,  main  head-stream  of  the  Upper  Angara  basin,  rises,  like  the  Irtish 
and  Yenisei,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  mountains  skirting  the  Siberian  plains  on 
the  south,  and,  like  them,  it  escapes  northwards  through  a  gap  in  those  highlands. 
But  the  Yenisei  falls  regularly  from  its  source  to  its  mouth  without  forming  any 
lacustrine  reservoir,  and  the  Irtish  expands  only  in  the  shallow  depression  of  Lake 
Zaisan,  whereas  the  Selenga  plunges  into  the  deep  trough  of  the  Baikal,  which  is 
completely  encircled  by  mountains.  Moreover,  the  Angara,  forming  the  outlet  of 
this  lake,  is  probably  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  and  does  not  constitute  a 
direct  continuation  of  the  Selenga.  As  an  inland  sea  Lake  Baikal  completely 
separates  the  Siberian  basin  which  drains  northwards  from  the  southern  region, 
which  has  received  the  name  of  Transbaikalia. 

The  mountains  rising  west  of  the  great  lake,  and  which  throw  off  the  head- 
streams  of  the  Selenga  southwards,  and  those  of  the  Angara  northwards,  belong  to 
the  Sayan  system,  itself  a  continuation  of  the  Altai'.  The  Ergik-targak  chain, 
forming  the  Russo- Chinese  frontier-line,  is  attached  to  the  Baikal  highlands  by  a 
group  of  lofty  summits,  which  rise  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  but  which 
were  none  the  less  unknovm  till  recently.  In  1832  Carl  Ritter  was  imaware  of 
their  existence,  and  although  the  chain  is  mentioned  by  Humboldt  imder  the 
Mongolian  name  of  Mondorgon-ula,  it  is  by  hiiu  confused  with  other  groups,  and 
reduced  to  one-third  of  its  true  elevation.  It  was  ascended  for  the  first  time  by  the 
naturalist  Radde  in  18o9.  Here  the  Munku-sardik,  or  "  Silver  Mount,"  is  covered 
with  everlasting  snows  and  ice,  whereas  all  the  other  crests  are  bare  in  summer — a 
fact  that  can  only  be  explained  by  the  presence  of  a  warm  atmospheric  current 
blowong  from  the  west  towards  these  uplands.  The  Mongolians  never  ascend  the 
Silver  Mount,  always  stopping  at  the  place  of  worship  Ipng  at  the  foot  of  the 
southern  glacier.  Here  they  bathe  their  temples  in  the  ri\Tilet  trickling  from 
the  glacier,  make  their  obeisance  several  times  before  the  invisible  genius  of  the 


THE  BALKAL-aNGAEA  BASIN. 


a 


to 


mountain,  murmur  tlie  prescribed  orisons,  and  throw  a  few  drops  of  brandy  towards 
the  four  cardinal  points.     This  glacier,  the  only  one  on  the  Mongolian  side  of  the 

VOL.    VI.  B  B 


3G6  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

mountain,  covers  an  area  of  about  4  square  miles.  But  on  the  Siberian  or  northern 
side  there  is  a  double  glacier  of  much  larger  size,  which  sends  its  advanced  moraines 
2  5  miles  from  the  crest,  damming  up  the  waters  flowing  from  the  blue  and  icy 
Lake  Yekhoi.  From  the  narrow  extremitj'  of  the  Munku-sardik  the  view  stretches 
west,  north,  and  east  over  a  world  of  crests,  crags,  and  woodlands,  while  the  gaze 
is  lost  southwards  in  the  boundless  region  of  the  desert,  blending  in  the  distance 
with  the  sky.  The  blue  waters  of  the  great  Lake  Kosio  (Koso-gol),  and  the  large 
forests  on  the  lower  slope  of  the  mountain,  contrast  with  the  bright  red  tints  of  the 
bare  escarpments  and  the  snowy  peaks.  In  the  middle  of  the  lake,  which  stretches 
southwards  for  a  distance  of  about  70  miles  over  an  area  estimated  at  1,320  square 
miles,  the  eye  is  arrested  by  the  white  rocks  of  the  Dalai-kui,  or  "  Navel  of  the 
Sea,"  an  island  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  all  Buddhists. 

The  pyramidal  Munku-sardik  forms  an  important  water-parting.  On  the 
south-west  rise  various  streams  which,  from  aflfluent  to  afiluent,  ultimately  find 
their  way  to  the  Yenisei.  In  the  north-west  the  river  Oka,  whose  first  waters  are 
collected  in  Lake  Yekhoi,  skirts  the  foot  of  the  Ergik-targak  range,  thence  trend- 
ing north  and  north-eastwards  to  the  Angara,  and  forming  with  it  the  Upper 
Tunguska.  In  the  east  the  Black  and  White  Irkut  also  rise  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  sacred  Mount  Nuku-daban,  whither  the  natives  bring  their  offerings  of  furs, 
bits  of  cloth,  gun  flints,  and  old  coins.  Lastly,  in  the  south  the  head-streams  of  the 
Selenga  are  collected  in  the  great  reservoir  of  Lake  Koso-gol.  But  the  streams 
flowing  in  these  various  directions  differ  greatly  in  volume,  the  annual  snow  and 
rain  fall  varying  considerably  according  to  the  aspect  of  the  hills  and  the  atmospheric 
currents.  Thanks  to  the  deposits  of  graphite  discovered  by  Alibert  about  1850,  and 
lying  above  the  zone  of  forest  vegetation,  meteorological  observations  have  been  regu- 
larly taken  on  one  of  the  highest  points  of  these  highlands.  Alibert's  mine  con- 
tains many  thousand  tons  of  excellent  graphite,  already  well  known  to  artists,  and  now 
the  property  of  a  large  pencil  manufactiu-er  near  Nuremberg.  Unfortunately  the 
severity  of  the  climate  has  occasioned  the  temporary  abandonment  of  the  works. 

The  Tunka  Highlands. 

To  the  same  orographic  system  belong  the  mountains  stretching  eastwards  from 
the  Mimku-sardik,  and  which  slope  down  to  the  banks  of  the  Irkut  near  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Baikal.  These  are  the  Goltzi,  or  "  Treeless  Rocks  "  of 
Tunka,  north  of  which  other  parallel  chains  are  developed  between  the  Oka  and 
Angara  valleys.  The  Goltzi  range  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  Sayan 
highlands.  The  jagged  peaks  of  the  Goltzi  rise  pyramid  above  pyramid  north  of 
the  intervening  Irkut  vaUey,  south  of  which  the  Sayan  range  is  developed  in  long 
rounded  crests.  Yet  both  are  composed  of  the  same  crystalline  and  palaeozoic 
rocks,  and  lava  streams  have  been  discharged  from  each.  Lava  beds  skirt  a  great 
part  of  the  Irkut  valley,  and  though  there  may  be  no  true  volcanic  cones  in  this 
region,  molten  rocks  have  been  erupted  in  the  Tunka  valley  near  Lake  Baikal,  as 
well  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Selenga  in  Transbaikalia.  Deceived  as  to  the  character 
of  certain  so-called  trachyte  rocks,  many  travellers  have  exaggerated  the  impor- 


THE  TUNKA  HIGHLANDS. 


8G7 


tauce  of  volcanic  action  in  this  j^art  of  Siberia,  tliougli  it  is  remarkable  enough  that 
any  igneous  jjhenoniena  should  have  occui-red  so  far  from  the  sea-coast,  near  the 
great  fresh- water  basins  of  Lakes  Baikal  and  Koso-gol.  The  only  undoubted  craters 
that  have  here  been  discovered  are  the  two  "  cups  "  in  the  Sayan  highlands  about 
the  som-ces  of  the  Jun-bulak,  a  left  tributary  of  the  Oka  near  the  Chinese  frontier. 
Rising  415  feet  above  a  plateau  itself  about  6,600  feet  above  the  sea-level,  these 
heights  seem  to  be  of  sKght  importance  in  the  midst  of  the  surroimding  mountains  ; 
but  the  lava  stream  that  has  flowed  from  the  chief  crater  is  no  less  than  12  miles 
long.  Huge  blocks  of  granite  rest  on  the  bed,  which  seem  to  show  that  it  dates 
from  the  pre-glacial  period.  Earthquakes  occur  most  frequentlj^,  and  with  the 
greatest  violence,  in  the  region  of  the  Irkut,  Angara,  Baikal,  and  Munku-sardik, 

Fig.   193. — MVNKU-SARDIK  AND  Kamak-habax. 
Scale  1  :  3,500,000. 


OEam 


.  GO  Miles. 


and  Irkutsk  itself  lies  in  the  chief  centre  of  seismic  action  in  Siberia,  as  Khojend 
does  in  that  of  Tiu-kestan.  Great  subsidence  of  the  ground  has  also  taken  place  in 
the  Selenga  and  Angara  valleys. 

The  Tunka  highlands  are  clothed  by  the  same  forest  vegetation  as  the  Sayan, 
and  both  systems  are  inhabited  by  the  same  animal  species.  But  the  lower  range 
skirting  the  Irkut  valley  on  the  south  differs  in  its  forest-clad  crests,  and  in  some 
features  of  its  geology  and  zoology,  from  the  Sayan.  With  it  begins  the  system  of 
the  Baikal,  which  develops  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  lake  into  the  Kamar- 
daban,  highest  of  all  the  mountains  on  the  shores  of  the  Baikal.  It  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  7,100  feet,  and  is  covered  in  winter  with  vast  quantities  of  snow.* 


*  Various  altitudes  in  the  Munku-sardik  system,  according  to  Radde  : — 

Feet. 


Culminating  point       .         .         .  11,600 

Base  of  the  Southern  glacier        .  10,750 

Upper  limit  of  flowering  plants  .  10,660 

Upper  limit  of  forests          .         .  7,400 


Alihert  Mine 
Nuku-dahan 
Lake  Koso-gol 


Feet. 
7,450 
7,200 
4,470 


B  B  2 


SG8 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Lake  Baikal. 

The  heights  encircling  Lake  Baikal  have  a  mean  altitude  of  not  more  than 
from  3,000 -to  4,000  feet.  Although  presenting  from  the  surface  of  the  water  the 
appearance  of  distinct  parallel  chains,  they  must  be  regarded  rather  as  forming 
part  of  the  hiUy  plateau  whose  ridges  stretch  south-west  and  north-east  between 
the  Lena  and  Argun  basins.  The  lake  itself  partly  fills  two  cavities  in  the  plateau. 
Tor  it  really  forms  a  double  lake,  whose  two  nearly  equal  basins  were  formerly 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  chain,  of  which  the  large  island  of  Olkhon  on  the 
west  side,  and  the  "Holyhead"  promontory  on  the  east,  are  survi\ang  fragments. 
The  great  subsidence  of  the  land  that  has  here  taken  place  is  sho-s\-n  by  sheer  cliffs 
continued  in  a  vertical  line  to  a  vast  depth  below  the  surface.      Most  savants 

Fig-  194. — The  "Cup"  at  the  Source  of  the  Oka. 


formerly  regarded  the  formation  of  the  lake  as  due  to  a  crevasse  of  volcanic  origin. 
But  a  geological  study  of  its  shores  has  proved  that  igneous  eruptions  have  had 
but  a  slight  effect  in  modifying  its  outlines.  No  lava  streams  have  been  discovered 
except  in  the  plain  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  lake,  north-west  of  the  Kamar- 
daban.  Nearly  all  the  hills  overlooking  its  waters  are  composed,  like  those  of  the 
southern  plateau,  of  coarse-grained  granites,  syenites,  crystalline  schists,  and 
porphyries,  alternating  here  and  there  with  old  chalks,  sandstones,  and  very  thick 
beds  of  conglomerates. 

Lake  Baikal,  whose  name  is  probably  derived  from  the  Yakut  Bai-khai,  "  Rich" 
or  "  Fortmiate  Sea,"  is  known  to  the  Mongolians  by  the  name  of  Dalai-nor,  or 
"  Holy  Sea,"  and  the  Russian  settlers  themselves  give  it  the  same  title  {^Sv'atoye 
More\  pretending  that  no  Christian  has  ever  perished  in  it  except  in  a  state  of 
mortal  sin.     But  all  alike,  Mongols,  Uriankhs,  Buriats,  and  Russians,  are  indig- 


LAKE  BAIKAL. 

nant  at  hearing  it  being  called  a  lake.  For  them  it  is  a  fresh-water  sea,  equal 
almost  in  maje.stj-  to  the  salt  ocean  itself.  The  fishermen  formerly  assured  Gmelin 
that  it  was  very  angry  at  being  called  "  lake,"  and  they  were  themselves  always 
careful  to  speak  of  it  in  terms  of  marked  respect.  Thus  it  is  that  everywhere 
barbarous  peoples,  helpless  in  the  presence  of  the  imbridled  forces  of  nature,  have 
learned  to  fear  and  worship  them.  A  number  of  dangerous  reefs  are  regarded  as 
sacred,  and  when  the  wind  was  favourable  for  landing,  the  natives  were  formerly 
wont  to  come  and  offer  their  sacrifices.  One  of  these  holy  rocks  is  the  throne  of 
the  "  ^Miite  God,"  near  the  outlet  of  the  Angara.  But  the  most  hallowed  spot  is 
the  headland  projecting  from  the  cast  coast,  and  terminating  with  the  cliffs  of  Cape 
Shaman,  rising  in  the  form  of  columns  or  rudely  fashioned  statues  some  150  feet 
above  the  surface.  In  the  eyes  of  the  Tunguses  these  rocks  are  gods,  rulers  of  the 
waters  that  bathe  their  feet,  protectors  of  the  birds  hovering  in  the  vast  cavity  of 
their  mouths. 

But  whether  sea  or  lake,  the  Baikal  is  the  largest  fresh- water  basin  in  Asia,  and 
in  most  of  the  popular  geographies  in  Russia  it  still  ranks  as  the  first  lake  in  the 
world,  as  if  the  great  inland  seas  of  North  America  and  Central  Africa  had  not  yet 
been  discovered.  But  though  yielding  in  extent  to  these  vast  lacustrine  basins,  it 
surpasses  most  of  them  in  volume,*  for  it  is  of  prodigious  depth,  its  lowest  cavities 
reaching  far  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Even  close  in  shore,  at  the  foot  of  the  sheer 
cliffs,  it  is  over  330  feet  deep,  while  the  mean  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  850  feet,  and 
the  extreme,  as  determined  by  Dibowski  and  Godlewski  in  1876,  at  no  less  than 
4,550.  For  distances  of  several  miles  there  stretch  uniform  plains  3,950,  4,000,  and 
4,050  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  soundings  have  recently  revealed  a  rocky 
ridge  over  3,300  feet  high,  running  parallel  to  the  Irkutsk  and  Transbaikal  shores, 
in  the  centre  of  the  basin,  which  is  thus  divided  into  two  secondary  depressions. 
Navigators  had  often  spoken  of  elevated  grounds  where  they  had  even  been  able  to 
cast  anchor  in  bad  weather.  But  no  credence  was  attached  to  these  reports  tiU 
Dibowski  and  Godlewski  showed  that  the  tradition  rested  on  actual  facts,  and  that 
there  is  a  depth  of  only  200  feet  above  the  sub-lacustrine  ridge.  Near  the  great 
ca^-ities  rise  the  highest  coast  mountains,  so  that  here,  as  ia  the  ocean,  the  depth  of 
water  corresponds,  as  a  ride,  with  the  elevation  of  the  shores.  The  water  is 
shallowest  and  the  land  least  abrupt  in  the  part  of  the  basin  to  the  north  of  the 
island  of  Olkhon  and  of  the  "  Holyhead  "  promontory,  and  the  depth  is  little  over 
200  feet  in  the  "  Little  Sea,"  as  the  gulf  is  called,  which  is  formed  by  the  island  of 

*  Comparative  table  of  the  great  fresh-water  lakes : — • 


Area. 
Sq,  Miles. 

Extreme  Depth. 
Feet. 

Mean  Depth. 
Feet. 

Approximate 
Volume. 
Cubic  Kil. 

Baikal      . 

14,000 

4,5.50 

8.50 

8,743 

Victoria  Nyanza 

33,000 

— 

— 

— 

Tanganyika 

1.5,000 

— 

— 

— 

Superior  . 

32,000 

1,030 

500 

17,820 

Michigan . 

23,000 

860 

300 

.5,130 

Huron 

22,000 

"00 

230 

3,900 

Erie 

9,000 

200 

50 

369 

Ontario     . 

6,.500 

600 

400  (?) 

1,944 

Geneva     . 

230 

1,100 

500 

87 

370 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Olkhon  and  the  mainland.  Thank.s  to  its  enormous  volume,  the  tcmijerature  of  the 
lake  is  very  uniform,  varving  at  the  surface  no  more  than  IT""  Fahr.  throughout 
the  year. 

Notwithstanding  its  vast  size  and  volume,  the  present  lake  is  merel)^  a  remnant 
of  a  far  larger  basin.  The  steejD  sides  and  more  sloping  beach  everj'where  show 
traces  of  former  and  higher  levels.  The  .shingl}'  strand  that  occurs  at  intervals  all 
round  the  coast  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  influents  shows  that  even  recently  the 
lake  was  at  least  20  feet  higher  than  at  present.  But  in  still  more  remote  times  it 
was  much  larger,  communicating  with  the  old  lake  of  the  Irkvit  vallev  through  a 
channel  distinct  from  the  fissure  through  whicli  the  Angara  now  flows  to  the 
Yenisei.  The  portion  of  this  emissary  comprised  between  the  Baikal  and  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Irkut  was  formerly  a  mere  rixmlet  flowing  to  the  Irkut,  and 
separated  by  a  sandstone  barrier  from  the  great  lake.  But  while  the  work  of 
erosion  was  going  on  north  of  this  barrier,  the  pressure  of  the  waters  of  the  basin 
was  acting  on  the  south,  till  a  time  came  when  an  opening  was  effected  in  the 
rocks,  through  which  the  lake  made  its  waj',  and  converted  the  Angara  into  one  of 


Fths 

R 

Fig.   19.5.- 

—Depths 

OF 

THE    W 

ESTERV 

B. 

LIKAL. 

54 
lOS 
162 

^ 

_ 

^ 

|V=— =^ 

w 

-^ 

s 

-^ 

^ 

^ 

= 

p- 

- 

216 

~^ 

-r" 

■ 

" 

270 

/ 

L                               ^ 

380 

?■ 

432 

/ 

5«0 
594 
64.S 

1 

==— =—                               .' 

- 

l'-...                                         ,.--T— " 

r"- 

l_ 

L 

1  1  r^n  ri 

_J 

J 

_^ 

u 

J 

_ 

— 1 

u 



,..,, 

L 

u 

_ 

U 

u 

_ 

_l 

LI 

G  Miles.  12  18 

'Ihe  depths  are  i  epresenttd  in  decuples  of  their  real  proportions. 


30 


the  great  rivers  of  the  world.  The  very  word  Angara  is  said  to  mean  in  Tungus 
"  water  escape,"  and  may  possibly  recall  the  sudden  outburst  through  the  fissure 
in  the  northern  edge  of  the  lake.  The  channel  was  gradually  enlarged  and 
deepened,  and  the  lake  thus  reduced  by  the  outflow  to  more  narrow  limits.  The 
difference  between  the  summer  and  winter  levels  scarcely  now  exceeds  3  or  4  feet, 
though  in  exceptional  years  the  floods  produced  by  the  melting  snows  cause  a  rising 
in  summer  of  from  6  to  7  feet.  These  slight  variations  of  level,  as  compared  ■nath 
those  of  Maggiore  and  other  Alpine  lakes,  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  inimdations 
of  the  Selenga,  Barguzin,  Upper  Angara,  and  a  hundred  other  influents  have  time 
to  subside  before  reaching  the  common  reservoir,  ^^-hile  they  receive  less  sedi- 
mentary matter  than  the  Alpine  lakes.  Hence  the  water  is  far  more  transparent 
than  that  of  Maggiore  or  Geneva.  The  smallest  pebble  is  perfectly  Aasible  36  feet 
below  the  surface,  while  the  large  rocks  disappear  from  sight  only  at  depths  of  50 
or  52  feet.  Even  after  hea'N'y  rains  the  water  remains  clear  near  the  strand  and 
the  rivulets. 

To  the  same  absence  of  alluvia  from  the  surrounding  granitic  valleys  is  due  the 
sharpness  of  outline  presented  by  the  angles  and  crests  of  the  coast  hills.     The 


I 


LAKE  BAIKAL.  371 

shores  still  seem  to  preserve  their  original  architecture,  and  the  view  of  the  steep 
cliffs,  for  unknown  ages  resisting  the  erosive  action  of  the  water,  seems  to  carry  us 
back  thousands  of  centm-ies  to  a  stiU  more  primitive  state.  Yet  there  is  no  absolute 
lack  of  recent  formations,  especially  towards  the  shallow  northern  extremity  of  the 
basin.  Here  the  Upper  Angara  and  some  neighboiu-Lng  streams  unite  in  a  common 
marshj'  delta,  separated  from  the  open  water  by  lines  of  dunes  from  6  to  30  feet 
high,  and  mostly  overgrown  with  thickets  of  trailing  pines  and  other  timber.  In 
the  southern  basin  the  Selenga  delta  also  breaks  the  old  coast-line  by  its  alluvial 
deposits. 

The  cliffs  assume  their  grandest  and  most  picturesque  appearance  along  the 
western  shores,  and  especially  between  the  island  of  Olkhon  and  the  outlet  of  the 
Angara.  Here  the  irregular  tower-shaped  headlands  rise  from  700  to  1,000  feet 
above  the  surface,  clothed  here  and  there  with  pines  and  shrubs.  Between  these 
wave-beaten  and  grottoed  headlands  the  strata  of  the  softer  formations  have  partly 
fallen  in,  revealing  through  their  openings  the  amphitheatre  of  the  riverain  ranges 
towering  above  the  terraced  plateaux.  But,  in  spite  of  their  majesty,  these  land- 
scapes seldom  fad  to  produce  a  depressing  effect  on  the  traveller.  No  dwellings, 
no  cultivated  lands,  nothing  is  anywhere  visible  except  savage  nature  and  the 
wilderness.  As  we  skirt  its  desolate  shores  the  aspect  of  the  hills  undergoes  little 
change,  headland  succeeding  headland,  rockj'  inlet  to  rocky  inlet,  in  endless  mono- 
tony, the  scene  changing  so  slightly  that  we  seem  to  be  still  in  the  same  place. 
The  forests  covering  the  slopes  and  narrow  strips  of  shore  consist  exclusively  of 
pines,  firs,  the  larch,  and  other  Siberian  species.  Nowhere  do  we  meet  the  ash, 
the  elm,  or  oak,  whose  abundant  foKage,  varied  tints,  and  majestic  forms  impart 
such  a  charm  to  the  scenery  in  the  West.  The  dull  and  monotonous  green  of  the 
pine  becomes  in  the  end  as  depressing  as  the  blackish  crags  themselves,  rusted  in 
the  distance  by  the  red  blossom  and  brown  stems  of  the  rhododendron.  The  poplar 
balsam  if  era  alone,  with  its  green  branches  resembling  those  of  the  walnut,  recalls 
the  leafy  trees  of  Europe. 

Lake  Baikal  is  too  vast  to  be  perceptibly  affected  by  its  tributaries ;  hence  the 
surface  waters  drift  from  shore  to  shore  entirely  according  to  the  dii-ection  of  the 
atmospheric  currents.  The  general  movement  towards  the  south-west,  spoken  of  by 
Hess,  lasts  only  during  the  prevalence  of  the  polar  wind,  which,  ia  the  southern 
part  of  the  lake,  is  called  bargttzin,  because  it  seems  to  come  from  the  bay  to 
which  the  river  Barguzin  flows.  The  contrary  wind,  blowing  from  the  west  and 
south-west,  takes  the  name  of  kultuh,  from  the  village  standing  at  the  western 
angle  of  the  lake.  Besides  these  more  prevalent  winds,  sudden  squalls  and  storms 
sweep  down  through  the  valleys  and  side  gorges,  frequently  changing  the  direction 
of  the  waves,  or  raising  streaks  of  surface  foam  across  the  heavy  groimd  swell. 

Lake  Baikal  freezes  regularly  in  winter  from  about  the  end  of  November  to  the 
month  of  May.  But  fierce  gales  often  break  its  icj'  fetters.  Even  when  frozen 
throughout  to  the  normal  thickness  of  from  4  to  5  feet,  and  crossed  -without  danger 
by  swift  postal  sleighs,  the  crust  never  ceases  to  heave  with  the  liquid  mass  sup- 
porting it.     The  traveller  hears  the  muffled  sound  of  the  waters  rolling  beneath 


872  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

their  solid  roof,  and  producing  a  slow  wavy  motion.  At  times  a  sudden  .shock 
causes  the  ice  to  vibrate  with  a  metallic  sonnd,  or  to  break  into  long  narrow  fissui'es 
cleared  by  the  trained  horses  at  a  bound.  It  is  probably  through  these  temporary 
rents  that  the  air  penetrates  to  the  deep,  enabling  the  fishes  and  seals  to  live 
through  the  long  winter  in  the  ice-bound  waters. 

To  the  winter  frosts  succeed  the  fogs  of  spring  and  summer.  When  the  cold 
water,  liberated  by  the  storms  from  the  crust  separating  it  from  the  air,  begins 
freely  to  diffuse  its  vapours  throughout  space,  the  lake  immediately  becomes  like  a 
vast  seething  caldron.  Every  morning  in  spring  it  is  covered  by  a  dense  haze, 
which,  in  the  afternoon,  is  dissipated  with  the  increased  temperature  of  the  surface 
waters.  For  the  same  reason  the  atmosphere  agaiii  becomes  bright  about  the 
end  of  summer  and  beginning  of  autumn,  when  the  temperatm-e  of  the  waters 
approaches,  and  at  last  even  surpasses,  that  of  the  air. 

The  Baikal  fauna  is  relatively  poor  in  distinct  species.  The  lack  of  alluvial 
lands  on  the  coast,  and  the  rapid  fall  of  the  clifPs  into  depths  of  several  hundred 
yards,  have  prevented  the  development  of  Crustacea  and  other  in-shore  animals. 
Aquatic  birds  are  consequently  also  somewhat  rare.  Few  birds  are  seen  in  summer 
besides  the  fishing  cormorants  and  flocks  of  mews,  one  species  of  which  is  elsewhere 
tmknown  except  in  Iceland  and  West  Europe.  But  in  spring  and  autiunn  the 
surrounding  woodlands  are  temporarily  enlivened  by  flights  of  birds  of  passage 
migrating  to  and  fro  between  Central  Asia  and  Siberia.  The  lake  abounds  chiefly 
in  varieties  of  the  sturgeon  and  salmon,  especially  the  so-called  omul  species.  But 
the  myriads  of  fishes  spoken  of  by  Pallas  and  other  early  travellers  as  ascending 
from  the  lake  have  disappeared,  and  so  great  is  the  destruction  of  .spawn  by  the 
fishermen  that  whole  species  are  threatened  with  extinction,  unless  measures  be 
taken  for  their  preservation.  Some  have  already  disappeared  at  some  imknown 
period,  and  are  now  foimd  only  in  the  Little  Frolika,  or  "  Trout  Lake,"  the  JDara- 
chanda  amui  of  the  Timguses,  situated  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  great 
basin.  This  reservoir  is  extremely  deep,  and  abounds  in  trout,  which  have  not  yet 
been  foimd  either  in  Lake  Baikal  or  in  any  of  its  tributaries,  and  in  its  fauna  are 
included  many  other  peculiar  sjiecies  of  fish.  The  seals  are  not  evenly  distributed 
over  the  whole  of  Lake  Baikal,  being  mainly  confined  to  the  west  coast.  In  suimner 
they  are  met  chiefly  on  the  east  side  of  Olkhon  Island,  whereas  in  autumn  they 
frequent  the  southern  shores  between  the  Barguzin  and  Selenga  Rivers.  Whether 
belonging  to  the  oceanic  faima  or  altogether  to  a  peculiar  species,  they  are  undis- 
tinguishable  from  the  Phoca  foetida  of  Spitzbergen.  Being  eagerly  piu'sued  for 
their  skins,  sold  at  large  profits  to  the  Chinese  traders,  they  seldom  show  themselves 
above  the  surface,  nor  do  they  swarm  on  the  beach  like  those  of  the  polar  seas,  but 
bring  forth  their  young  on  ice  floes. 

An  inland  sea,  where  fishing  is  decaying,  where  there  are  no  villages  or  any 
centres  of  industry,  is  naturally  but  little  navigated.  The  first  steamer  seen  in 
Siberia  was  no  doubt  laimched  on  its  waters  in  1844,  but  only  for  the  local  service 
between  the  Irkutsk  coast  and  the  Selenga  delta.  All  the  trade  of  the  lake  is 
concentrated    in    this   corner,    through    which    travellers    and    merchandise   are 


THE  AJ^GAEA.  WATER  SYSTEM.  373 

forwarded  from  Siberia  to  China  and  the  Amur  basin.  Before  the  introduction 
of  steam,  the  sailing  vessels,  buffeted  by  the  winds  or  lost  in  the  fogs,  often  took 
over  a  fortnight  to  make  the  passage  of  about  60  miles  across  the  lake.  Durino- 
the  time  intervening  between  the  open  navigation  and  sleighing  the  traders  follow 
the  land  route  roimd  the  western  extremity  of  the  lake,  along  the  foot  of  the 
Kamar-daban  range. 

Lake  Baikal  drains  a  region  estimated  at  about  128,000  square  miles,  of  which 
the  Selenga  basin  in  Mongolia  and  TransbaikaKa  comprises  at  least  two-thirds. 
The  semicircle  formed  by  the  contour  of  this  basin,  a  vast  plain  covered  with  a 
bro^^^l  and  porous  porphjTy  resembHng  lava  in  appearance,  is  no  less  than  1,530 
miles  in  circmiiference.  Here  the  main  stream,  which  rises  in  Lake  Koso-gol,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Mmiku-sardik,  and  which,  after  recei\ing  various  names,  at  last  takes  that 
of  the  Selenga,  describes  a  large  curve  some  660  mUes  long.  This  river  is  navigable 
for  flat-bottomed  boats  throughout  its  lower  course  below  the  junction  of  the 
Orkhon,  and  the  Kiakhta  dealers  make  use  of  it  to  forward  their  teas.  Thus  from 
the  Chinese  frontier  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  for  a  distance  of  over  2,700  miles,  an 
uninterrupted  na\-igable  waterway  may  be  followed  from  the  Selenga  to  Lake 
Baikal,  and  thence  through  the  Angara  and  Yenisei  to  the  sea.  The  Selenga 
receives  some  large  tributaries,  notably  the  Uda  from  Transbaikalia,  whose  broad 
valley,  descending  from  the  Stanovoi  range,  begins  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
Amur.  The  alluvial  plain  formed  by  ihe  Selenga  at  its  mouth  skirts  the  shores 
of  the  lake  for  a  distance  of  over  18  mUes,  and  here  the  river  ramifies  into  eight 
or  ten  branches,  varying  in  relative  importance  according  to  the  erosions  and 
floods.     Recently  the  surface  of  the  delta  subsided  over  a  considerable  space. 

The  Angara  Water  System. 

The  Selenga,  the  Barguzin,  and  the  Yerkhnaj-a  Angara,  traversing  the  moun- 
tainous country  of  the  Tunguses,  jointly  with  other  smaller  affluents  and  the  rains, 
discharge  an  excess  of  water  into  the  lake,  which  is  carried  off  by  the  Angara, 
one  of  the  great  rivers  of  Asia,  with  a  volimie  of  certainly  not  less  than  105,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  Emerging  from  a  wide  ba}-,  whose  shores  are  covered 
with  larch  groves,  its  seething  waters  encircle  the  "Shaman  Rock,"  and  flow 
rapidly  through  a  bed  falling  from  20  to  30  inches  in  the  mile,  beyond  which  they 
are  joined  by  the  Irkut,  Kuda,  Eitoi,  and  Bieleya,  without  appearing  to  be  greatly 
swollen  by  these  affluents.  So  swift  is  the  current  that  its  deep  blue  and  almost 
black  waters  sweep  by  the  cliffs  of  Irkutsk  after  its  tributaries  have  been  covered 
with  a  thick  crust  of  ice.  Long  after  the  intensely  cold  winter  has  set  in  the 
stream  remains  free  from  floes,  but  is  wrapped  in  a  dense  fog  aknost  concealing 
the  surface  fi-om  view.  The  Angara  begins  to  freeze  onlj-  after  the  glass  has 
stood  at  —  20^  Fahr.  for  several  days  ;  but  then  it  becomes  ice-bound  so  rapidly  that 
it  may  be  safely  crossed  in  twelve  hours  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  crystals. 
At  the  break-up  the  floating  masses  are  dashed  violently  against  the  still  frozen 
crust  of  the  more  placid  stream  lower  down,  and  are  accumulated  at  the  entrance 


ASIATIC  EUSSLV. 


of  the  gorges,  where  thej'  are  at  times  heaped  up  over  130  feet  above  the  surface. 
AVhen  these  masses  give  way  they  are  carried  down,  together  with  fragments  of 
rock  torn  from  the  cliifs  along  the  banks  of  the  river. 


INHABITANTS-THE  BURIATS. 


875 


Fig.   197- — Rapids  of  the  Angara. 
Scale  1  :  G75.O0O. 


Of  the  flefiles  the  most  famous  is  that  iu  which  the  stream  descends  in  rapids, 
and  even  forms  amidst  tlie  reefs  veritable  falls  avoided  by  ordinary  craft.  For  a 
space  of  over  40  miles  below  the  Oka  confluence  the  Angara,  henceforth  known 
as  the  Verkhnaj-a  Timguska,  rushes  between 
its  granite  and  sj-enite  walls  over  a 
series  of  nine  rapids.  Hero  the  continu- 
ous uproar  produced  by  the  waves  dash- 
ing against  the  rocky  islets  is  heard  at  a 
distance  of  several  miles.  Yet  the.se  rapids 
are  safely  run  by  the  steamers,  the  fury  and 
din  of  the  angry  waters  merely  causing  a 
passing  feeling  of  excitement  amongst  the 
passengers.  Below  the  confluence  of  the 
Him  the  Angara  flows  through  another 
gorge,  whose  serpentine  and  basalt  sides 
rise  some  600  feet  above  the  surface.  These 
are  its  last  escarpments,  although  beyond 
tliem  the  stream,  unable  to  pierce  the 
northern  plateau,  is  deflected  westwards  to 
its  junction  with  the  Yenisei.  Not  far  from 
the  confluence  it  receives  the  large  river 
Chuna,  which  drains  a  vast  basin  watered  by 
the  auriferous  torrents  from  the  Sayan  high- 
lands. Amongst  the  tributaries  of  the  An- 
gara are  also  some  "  salt  "  rivers,  and  even 
in  one  of  its  islands,  about  40  miles  below 
the  Irkutsk,  several  salt  springs  flow  from 
rocks  everywhere  surrounded  bj'  fresh  water. 
Many  coal-fields  are  also  embedded  in  its 
rocky  sides,  forming  a  reserve  of  future 
Avealth  for  this  res-ion. 


Inhabitants — The  Btriats. 

As  on  the  Yenisei,  the  Russians  are  the 
dominant  element  in  the  Selenga  valley,  on 
Lake  Baikal,  and  along  the   banks  of  the 
Angara.     But  many  forest  tracts  are  still  exclusively  occupied  by  the  Buriats  and 
Tunguses,  from  the  latter  of  whom  the  Angara  takes  one  of  its  names. 

These  two  indigenous  peoples  present  a  remarkable  contrast  to  each  other. 
The  Tungus  is  brave,  cheerful,  modest,  respectfid,  and  upright,  whereas  the  Buriat 
is  generally  timid,  peevish,  rude,  impassive,  treacherous,  and  especiallj'  lazy,  more 
so  even  than  the  tarbagan,  from  which  animal  he  steals  in  winter  its  store  of 
roots  concealed  in  its  burrows.     His  broad  features,  with  their  high  cheek  bones, 


roFG       I02°50  t02°45 


C  Perron 


>  30  Miles. 


876  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

are  seldom  lit  up  with  a  bright  opcu  cxf)rcssion.  He  rarelj'  opens  wide  his  small, 
slant  eyes,  while  his  thick  lips  protrude  beyond  a  broad  snub  nose.  Most  of  the 
Buriats  are  robust  and  broad-shouldered,  but  inclined  to  stoutness,  awkward,  and  of 
heavy  carriage,  like  their  Mongolian  kinsmen.  Their  besetting  sin  is  intemperance, 
and,  as  thej^  are  imable  to  resist  the  action  of  alcohols  so  well  as  the  Russians, 
a  glass  even  of  the  weakest  brandy,  or  a  few  draughts  of  fermented  milk,  suffice 
to  completely  upset  them.  A\Tien  not  compelled  by  poverty  to  dispense  with  all 
household  comforts,  and  dress  in  rags  or  the  rude  skins  bequeathed  to  him  bj'  his 
elders,  the  Buriat  is  fond  of  display.  Bugs  are  spread  on  the  floor,  or  hung  on 
the  walls  of  his  hut ;  he  decks  himself  in  a  silken  robe  fastened  by  a  girdle,  in 
^\•hich  he  sticks  his  pipe  and  teacup.  His  wives  and  children  wear  embroidered 
garments,  adorned  with  metal,  and  the  horsehair  tufts  hanging  on  the  breast  are 
interlaced  with  mother-of-pearl  beads,  gold  coins,  bits  of  malachite,  and  silver 
fringes. 

Like  their  Kalmuk  brethren,  of  Mongol  stock,  and  near  the  Chinese  frontier 
entirely  assimilated  to  the  Mongolian  nomads,  the  Hunns,  or  "  Men,"  as  the 
Buriats  call  themselves,  speak  various  Mongolian  dialects,  and  their  civilisation, 
such  as  it  is,  has  evidently  come,  and  still  comes,  from  the  south.  The  men  shave 
their  heads  and  wear  the  Chinese  pig-tail.  The  lettered  classes  have  various 
religious  books  translated  from  Tibetan,  Mongolian,  and  Tangut,  and  their 
religious  practices  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  of  the  Buddhists  bej'ond  the 
frontier.  They  have  also  their  lamas  dressed  in  red  robes,  with  yellow  head- 
dresses and  party-coloured  girdles,  and  they  are  fond  of  processions,  musical  fetes, 
and  frequent  ceremonial  gatherings.  There  is  scarcely  a  single  Buriat  family  in 
Transbaikalia  without  at  least  one  priest,  and,  as  a  rule,  every  third  son  "  enters 
the  chiirch."  On  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  especially  in.  the  neighbourhood 
of  Irkutsk,  the  Buriats  have  become  Russified,  and  thousands  of  them  have  even 
accepted  baptism.  The  two  races  have  also  become  to  some  extent  intermingled, 
so  that  while  the  Buriats  were  becoming  Russians,  the  opposite  process  was  also 
going  on.  In  many  villages  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the  true  origin  of  the  people, 
especially  as  both  Cossacks  and  Buriats  speak  both  languages.  In  the  ^-illages 
the  peasantry  are  jDroud  of  speaking  Mongolian,  just  as  in  the  to'mis  the  civilised 
Russian  parades  his  knowledge  of  French.  In  the  Baikal  basin  the  Buriats  are 
found  in  the  purest  state  probably  in  the  island  of  Olkhon,  where  they  are  seldom 
visited  by  travellers  or  traders. 

The  Tungus  is  a  hunter,  whereas  the  Buriat,  coming  from  the  Mongolian 
steppes,  is  above  all  a  stock-breeder,  though  also  a  fisher  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes. 
Like  the  Kalmuk,  he  uses  the  ox  for  riding,  but,  unlike  him,  prefers  the  horse,  and 
the  animals  of  this  race  are  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  in  Siberia,  not  for  their 
beauty,  but  for  their  marvellous  powers  of  abstinence  and  endurance.  The  Buriat 
horses  cover  30  or  even  60  miles  at  a  trot,  without  eating  or  drinkins:,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  journey  seem  still  fresh.  In  winter  it  is  usual  to  expose  the  horse 
during  the  night  in  a  perfectly  open  court,  and  thus  accustom  him  to  intense  cold, 
which  would  soon  destroj-  horses  of  any  other  breed.     The  Buriats  highly  value 


INHABITAKTS— THE  BUEIATS.  377 

these  inseparable  companions,  which  bear  them  so  swifth'  over  the  steppe  and 
through  the  forest,  and  from  long-established  usage  they  never  kill  and 
eat  the  saddle  horse,  but  those  onl}-  ^^hich  have  never  been  used  as  mounts. 
According  to  religious  tradition  the  riding  horse  must  accompany  his  master  on 
his  long  jom-ney  beyond  the  tomb.  But  care  is  taken  to  cheat  the  Deit^-  by  sub- 
stituting an  old  broken-down  hack,  or  tethering  a  young  steed  to  the  grave  with 
a  slight  string  easily  broken.  Thus  the  terrified  animal  easily  snaps  his  bonds 
and  trots  o£E  to  join  the  herd.  "  We  have  given  him  to  God ;  God  has  given  him 
back  to  us !  "  is  the  excuse  for  the  pious  fraud.  In  some  districts  the  Buriats  have 
also  learnt  from  the  Russians  the  art  of  hay-making  and  tilling  the  laud,  and  in  the 
government  of  Irkutsk  they  have  even  become  more  skilful  husbandmen  than  their 
teachers.  The}'  manure  and  irrigate  the  land  more  regularly,  and  own  more  live 
stock.  In  industrious  habits  they  are  surpassed  only  by  the  Raskolnik  colonists,  the 
most  intelligent  and  laborious  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia. 

In  the  direction  of  the  Tunguses  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Buriats  is  sharply 
defined.  To  the  Tunguses  belongs  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  Baikal,  whereas 
the  rest  of  the  lake,  from  Olkhon  Island  and  the  Sacred  Headland  to  the  Gulf  of 
Kidtuk,  is  Buriat  domain.  The  Buriats  are  di^-ided  into  tribes,  named  mostly  from 
the  district  occupied  by  them,  and  subdivided  into  aimals,  each  with  its  prince 
{taisha^  and  elders,  fonning  and  governing  itself  according  to  its  o'mi  usages. 
Some  of  the  aimaks  have  fonued  confederacies,  which  hold  assemblies  in  the  forest 
glades,  or  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes,  to  discuss  their  common  interests.  The  Govern- 
ment abstains  from  interfering  ia  their  local  affairs  and  differences,  except  in  the 
case  of  disputes  between  the  tribal  chiefs.  No  recruits  have  hitherto  been  raised 
amongst  them,  and  although  strips  of  the  vast  domain  ceded  to  them  by 
Catherine  II.  "  for  ever  "  are  from  time  to  time  ajjpropriated  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Russian  settlers,  there  still  remains  more  than  they  can  cultivate. 

Proceeding  from  north  to  south,  the  Buriat  Shamanism  merges  by  imperceiDtible 
stages  in  Buddhism.  The  influence  of  Russian  orthodoxy  has  also  made  itself  felt, 
especially  hy  the  introduction  into  the  Bxu-iat  pantheon  of  the  legendary  St.  Nicholas, 
whose  myth  corresponds  exactly  with  that  of  the  Mongolian  Tsagan  ITbukgun,  or 
"  Old  Man  iu  "SATiite."  Hence  the  image  of  the  latter  is  worshipped  by  the  Rus- 
sians themselves,  just  as  the  Buiiats  bring  their  offerings  for  St.  Nicholas  to  the 
Russian  churches.  Although  very  religious,  the  Northern  Buriats  have  but  a  small 
number  of  shamans,  beiug  too  poor  to  support  them ;  but  they  do  not  fail  them- 
selves to  perform  all  the  prescribed  rites  before  their  household  gods  woven  in 
camel-hair,  and  before  the  di-\-iiiities  of  the  headlands  and  sacred  rocks  on  the  lakes, 
streams,  and  springs,  conciliating  the  good  and  evil  genii  by  offerings  of  furs, 
ribbons,  mirrors,  or  horsehair.  In  the  world  in  which  they  live  every  object  seems 
aUve,  looking  do^\Ti  on  them,  listening  to  their  prayers,  animated  by  friendly  or 
hostile  feelings  towards  them.  Hence  the  Buriat  passes  with  a  sort  of  awe  by 
these  formidable  rocks,  springs,  or  woodlands.  For  at  times  a  single  word  or  any 
unseemly  laughter  was  sufficient  to  rouse  their  anger  and  stir  up  the  sleeping 
storm. 


878  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

The  Buriuts  were  long  kuowu  by  the  name  of  Bratskiye,  or  "  Brotherly," 
given  to  them  by  the  Siberian  colonists,  doubtless  through  an  unintentional  play  of 
words.  The  fort  raised  for  their  reduction  at  the  confluence  of  the  Angara  and 
Oka,  and  which  has  since  become  a  .small  town,  still  bears  the  name  of  Bratskiy- 
ostrog.  But  for  the  last  two  centui-ies  the  Bm'iats,  who  nimaber  altogether  about 
250,000  (114,000  in  Irkutsk,  and  136,000  in  Transbaikalia),  have  given  up  all 
idea  of  revolting,  and  are  now  reckoned  amongst  the  most  peaceful  subjects  of  the 
Czar.  They  had  at  one  time  even  to  endure  a  police  administration  of  extreme 
riffour.  In  virtue  of  the  conventions  signed  between  China  and  Eussia  limiting 
the  frontiers  of  the  two  empires  in  1727  and  1768,  the  greatest  precautions  had 
been  taken  to  prevent  the  migration  of  the  nomads  from  one  territory  to  the  other. 
It  thus  happened  that  the  regulations  had  to  be  most  strictly  enforced  in  the 
Bui-iat  and  Mongol  districts,  in  consequence  of  the  commercial  relations  carried  on 
across  the  frontier  of  Maimachin.  The  intermediate  neutral  zone  varied  in  width 
from  6  to  36  miles  according  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  and  pillars  were  set  up 
as  landmarks  all  along  the  line.  This  line  had  to  be  daily  visited  by  the  respective 
frontier  guards,  and  wherever  any  traces  of  tresi^assers  were  detected  the  spot  was 
carefully  surrounded  by  stones  or  sods,  in  order  to  preserve  this  proof  of  guilt  until 
the  culprits  were  denounced  and  punished.  Wherever  the  frontier  was  crossed  by 
streams,  stakes  were  planted  on  either  side,  between  which  were  stretched  horsehair 
ropes  from  bank  to  bank.  Thus  no  one  could  cross  the  line  imder  pretence  that  he 
had  not  perceived  it.  These  regidations  were  strictly  observed  till  1852,  but  since 
then  the  ropes  have  been  neglected,  the  imperial  seal  attached  to  the  posts  has  been 
broken,  and  most  of  the  landmarks  have  disappeared.  Twice  a  year  some  Cossack 
horsemen  still  ride  up  to  the  Mongolian  station.s,  with  their  passports  consisting  of 
tablets  which  correspond  exactly  wdth  other  bits  of  wood  taken  by  the  Mongolians 
from  the  same  block.  The  two  pieces  are  fitted  together,  and,  when  all  is  fomid  to 
be  right,  Cossacks  and  Mongols  salute  each  other,  and  with  mutual  blessings  drink 
copious  libations  to  the  glory  of  their  respective  sovereigns. 


T0P0GE.\PHY. 

The  city  which  guards  the  frontier  in  the  Selenga  basin  has  long  enjoyed  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  with  China.  In  1728,  after  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of 
peace  between  the  two  empires,  the  two  factories  of  the  Russian  and  Chinese  traders 
were  founded  at  a  distance  of  650  feet  from  each  other.  In  the  south  was  Mai-mei- 
chcn  (Maimachin),  or  the  "  Chinese  Mart ;  "  in  the  north  Kiakhta,  commanded  by 
the  fortified  Cossack  station.  Between  the  two,  although  both  are  built  of  wood, 
the  contrast  is  complete,  and  it  woidd  be  elsewhere  difficult  to  find  a  more  striking 
instance  of  diversity  in  the  appearance  of  two  neighbouring  towns.  Kiakhta 
resembles  the  elegant  quarter  of  a  European  city,  and  its  principal  church,  siu'- 
mounted  by  a  bright  dome,  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Siberia.  Maimachin  looks  more 
like  a  suburb  of  Pekin,  but  much  better  kept  than  the  other  towns  in  the  northern 
provinces  of  China.     The  doors  are  covered  with  carvings,  and  strips  of  red  paper 


TOrOGEAPHT.  879 

are  jDasted  on  the  walls.  Singing  birds  are  kept  in  all  tlie  houses,  and  little  bells 
chiming  in  the  wind  hang  from  the  upturned  corners  of  the  roof.  In  the  inter- 
vening space  between  the  two  towns  the  Chinese  have  disposed  large  planks  in  the 
form  of  a  screen,  to  protect  their  dwellings  from  the  baleful  influences  of  the  Rus- 
sian atmosphere,  and  on  this  screen  was  formerly  jjainted  the  character  meaning 
"  good  luck."  Thus  every  noxious  breath  from  Kiakhta  and  every  profane  expres- 
sion uttered  by  the  Russians  was  stopped  half-way,  and  driven  back  to  the  desert. 
A  "  pigeon  "  trading  jargon,  which  is  neither  Chinese  nor  Russian,  has  sprung  up 
in  this  frontier  emporium  between  the  Chinese,  or  Nikandzi,  and  the  Russians,  or 
0-lo-lo-seh. 

The  prosperity  of  Kiakhta  and  Maimachin  has  greatly  varied  with  the  political 
vicissitudes.  All  trade  has  at  times  been  interrupted  for  years,  but  the  enormous 
profits  of  the  monopoly  enabled  the  Kiakhta  dealers  soon  to  recover  their  former 
opulence.  China,  which  sells  to  Russia  much  more  than  it  buys,  exported  at  first 
nothing  but  gold,  silver,  rhubarb,  and  silks.  But  tea  gradually  became  the  staple 
of  her  export  trade,  and  the  Russians  long  boasted  of  enjoying  the  best  tea  in  the 
world,  thanks  to  the  "  Kiakhta  Caravan,"  which  took  eighteen  months  to  reach  the 
Nijni-Novgorod  fair  from  the  Chinese  frontier.  The  first-class  teas  brought  to 
Kiakhta,  and  which  the  high  ofiicials  and  guests  of  the  dealers  are  privileged  to 
taste,  have  undoubtedly  an  exquisite  flavour.  They  come  directly  from  the  planta- 
tions where  the  veiy  best  crops  are  raised,  and  these  jjlantations  are  owned  by  the 
Russian  dealers  themselves.  But  adulteration  goes  on  all  along  the  line  of  the 
great  overland  route,  at  first  at  Irkutsk,  then  at  Tomsk  and  Nijni-Novgorod,  and 
lastly  at  Moscow.  The  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  of  1858,  in  any  case,  put  an  end  to  the 
commercial  monopoly  of  Kiakhta,  and  at  the  Nijni-Novgorod  fair  in  1880  the  tea 
from  that  quarter  represented  no  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  whole  amoimt  disposed 
of.  At  present  Russia  receives  by  sea  and  from  foreign  countries  most  of  the  pro- 
duce she  formerly  imported  dii-ectly  from  China  through  Maimachin.  Other  routes 
have  also  been  ojjened  towards  Pekin  and  the  Yang-tse-kiang  at  various  points  of 
the  frontier,  and  especiallj^  through  Kobdo,  so  that  the  trade  is  no  longer  obliged  to 
stop  before  the  mystic  screen  of  Maimachin.  Yet,  though  the  exchanges  of  Kiakhta 
have  consequently  considerably  fallen  off,  it  stiU  does  a  large  trade  of  a  miscel- 
laneous character,  and  the  fairs  of  the  "  white  month  " — that  is,  of  February — are 
much  frequented  by  the  Chinese  and  Mongolians.  Including  the  neighbouring 
town  of  Troi'tzko-savsk,  lying  over  a  mile  to  the  north,  and  the  residence  of  most 
of  the  officials,  Kiakhta  is  the  most  populous  place  in  Transbaikalia,  and  the  richest 
in  all  East  Siberia.  On  the  Selenga  is  its  port  of  Ud-Kidkhta,  or  "  Kiakhta 
Mouth,"  so  named  from  the  rivulet  which  here  joins  the  main  stream.* 

The  two  towns  of  Selenginsk,  "  Old  "  and  "  New,"  lying  at  a  short  distance 
from  each  other,  have  not  the  importance  which  might  be  supposed  to  attach  to  the 
central  towns  of  such  a  large  basin  as  that  of  the  Selenga.  But  the  sm-rouudiug 
districts  are  xmproductive  except  along  the  banks  of  the  auriferous  Chikoi.     Vast 

*  Average  yearly  trade  of  Kiakhta  :— 1824— 30,  13,680,450  roubles  ;  1830—49,  13,313,410  roubles; 
1849—59,  13,313,410  roubles.     Trade  of  Kiakhta  and  the  Amur  district  in  1872,  10,840,000  roubles. 


880  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

tracts  consist  of  sandy  and  saline  stejDpes,  some  of  whose  lakes  are  even  brackish. 
South-west  of  Selenginsk,  near  the  south  side  of  the  so-called  "  Goose  Lake,"  stands 
the  chief  temple  of  the  Buriats,  in  which  resides  the  Khamba-lama,  ^\ath  as  many 
as  two  hundred  monks,  under  the  direct  authority  of  a  priest  of  Urga.  Elephant 
tusks,  huge  shells  from  the  Indian  Ocean  used  as  holy- water  fonts,  tiger  and  leopard 
skins,  bear  e\'idence  to  the  constant  relations  formerly  maintained  between  the 
Baikal  lamas  and  Buddhists  of  India  through  Tibet. 

I^ext  to  Kiakhta  the  chief  towTi  in  Transbaikalia  is  Verk/uii/e-Udinsk,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Uda  and  Selenga,  na^^gable  for  steamers  to  this  point.  Its  jDort 
on  Lake  Baikal  is  the  tillage  of  Posohkoye,  whose  houses  cluster  round  a  wealthy 
monastery  west  of  the  river  mouths.  None  of  the  tillages  on  the  .shores  of  Lake 
Baikal  have  yet  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  town.  Lintcoiichnaya,  on  the  gulf  at 
the  Angara  outlet,  is  a  landing  station  for  the  people  of  Irkutsk ;  Ku/tid;  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  lake,  is  a  small  fishing  haven ;  and  Dush-kachan,  at  the 
north  end,  is  another  little  jjort,  ^\•here  the  Tunguses  come  to  pay  their  tribute  in 
peltry.  Tttrka,  on  the  east  coast  over  against  Olkhon  Island,  is  a  mere  thermal 
station  with  sulj)hur  and  iron  springs,  utilised  by  a  few  invalids  from  Irkutsk. 
Baryuzin,  l3'ing  on  the  river  of  like  name  and  at  some  distance  from  the  east  coast, 
is  imjjortant  only  as  the  capital  of  a  district.  Tuiika,  in  the  valley  of  the  Irkut,  is 
a  large  straggling  village,  whose  houses  are  scattered  over  a  vast  space  in  the  midst 
of  fields  and  meadows. 

Irkutsk,  capital  of  East  Siberia,  and  probably  the  largest  city  in  Asiatic  Russia 
north  of  Tashkend,  does  not  stand  on  the  river  Irkut,  as  its  name  might  imply. 
No  doubt  a  peltry  factory  was  established  on  the  Angara  at  the  junction  of  the 
Irkut  in  1652,  nine  years  after  the  discovery  of  the  former  river.  But  in  1669  the 
trading  station  was  removed  to  the  other  side,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ushakovka 
rivulet,  and  here  was  rapidly  developed  a  city  which  now  covers  a  space  of  several 
square  miles.  When  Gmelin  ^-isited  it  in  173o  Irkutsk  had  already  a  popidation 
of  6,500,  comj)osed,  however,  mainly  of  ofiicials,  soldiers,  traders,  servants,  with 
scarcely  any  women.  Hence  no  families  could  be  founded,  and  the  population  had 
to  be  constantly  recruited  with  fresh  elements.  The  mortality  has  at  all  times  been 
higher  than  the  birth  rate,  but  in  winter  the  place  is  crowded  with  thousands  of 
gold-seekers  from  the  surrounding  uj)land  valleys.* 

The  town,  with  its  broad  straight  streets  lined  by  old  houses,  has  no  remarkable 
monuments.  It  boasts  of  possessing  the  oldest  building  in  all  Siberia,  but  this  is 
merel}^  the  fragment  of  a  fort  on  which  is  legible  the  date  1661.  On  a  triumphal 
arch  erected  in  1858  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Aigun  is  inscribed  the 
haughty  legend,  "  Eoad  to  the  Great  Ocean  " — words,  however,  justified  by  conquest. 
A  section  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society,  founded  here  in  1869,  publishes 
important  memoirs  ;  but  some  of  its  most  precious  documents  have  perished  in  a 
recent  fire,  which  at  the  same  time  destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  town.     Irkutsk  is 

•  Population  of  Irkutsk  in  1S38,  16,569  ;  in  1857,  23,989.  Excess  of  mortality  between  1830—57, 
1,425.  Immigration  same  period,  8,845.  Population  in  1875,  32,514,  of  whom  12,870  were  officials,  soldiers, 
priests,  monks,  convicts,  and  servants. 


I 

i 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


381 


an  iudustrial  centre,  and  the  number  of  its  factories,  amongst  whicli  distniories,  as 
in  the  rest  of  the  empire,  hold  a  prominent  position,  has  been  rapidly  augmented. 
A  porcelain  and  faience  manufactory,  sujjpKed  with  clays  of  excellent  qualit}^,  has 
been  established  in  the  district,  and  its  products  are  exported  to  Transbaikalia. 
Various  smaller  industries,  started  by  Polish  exiles,  have  largely  contributed  to  the 
progress  of  Irkutsk  and  East  Siberia.  But  the  city  is  distinguished  especially  as 
an  intellectual  centre  above  all  other  Siberian  towTis.     Its  inhabitants  study  much, 


Fig.  19S. — Populations  op  the  Ikkutsk  GovEiiXMENT. 
According  to  Chudovsky.    Scale  1 :  12,700,000. 


C  OfG 


Bussians. 


Yakuts. 


Tunguses 

—^  300  Miles. 


discuss  the  current  events  and  ideas,  and  at  times  betray  symptoms  of  opposition 
with  which  the  Government  will  have  to  reckon.  Here  is  published  the  only 
independent  periodical  in  Siberia. 

So  thiulj'  peopled  is  the  coimtry  that  for  900  miles  below  Irkutsk  there  are  no 
towns  on  the  Angara,  although  the  -\411age  of  Balagansk  is  dignified  with  the 
name.  The  only  town  in  the  whole  basin  at  a  distance  from  the  main  stream  is 
Nijne-  TJdimk,  on  the  Uda  and  on  the  great  route  to  Moscow,  in  the  centre  of  a 

VOL.    VI. 


c  c 


382  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

gold-washing  and  iron-mining  region,  of  which  it  is  the  entrepot.  More  than  haK 
of  the  province  is  still  altogether  uninhabited,  and  elsewhere  the  various  ethnical 
groups  of  Russians,  Buriats,  Tunguses,  Tatars,  and  Karagasses  are  scattered  in 
isolated  eommunities  over  the  land.  Goitre  is  a  very  prevalent  affection  in  certain 
parts  of  the  Irkutsk  government,  especially  those  watered  by  the  Lena.  Compared 
-svith  the  whole  population,  the  sufferers  represent  scarcely  more  than  1  per  cent,  of 
the  inhabitants,  but  in  some  districts  the  proportion  is  as  high  as  one-tenth,  while 
in  certain  villages  it  rises  to  a  third  and  even  one-half  of  the  peasantry.  All  these 
cretins  are  of  Russian  descent,  the  non-Slav  native  elements  never  being  attacked. 
The  cause  of  this  immunity  must  be  attributed,  not  to  any  ethnical  privilege,  but  to 
the  care  taken  by  the  Bm-iats  and  Tunguses  to  avoid  the  districts  where  the 
malady  is  endemic.  Even  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Irkutsk  a  magnificent  vaUey, 
one  of  the  most  fertile  and  best  sheltered  from  cold  winds  in  the  whole  province, 
the  Russians  were  surprised  to  find  completely  deserted,  and  hastened  to  settle  in  it. 
Hence  all  the  villages  here  bear  Russian  names,  and  form,  so  to  say,  a  sort  of 
linguistic  as  well  as  a  pathological  enclave  in  the  midst  of  the  surrotmding  popula- 
tions.    Here  goitre  is  very  common. 


T.— BASIN  OF  THE  LEXA— SHORES  OF  THE  ARCTIC  OCEAN. 

East  of  the  Yenisei  several  important  rivers  take  their  rise  in  the  uplands  limited 
northwards  by  the  basin  of  the  Nijnyaya  Tunguska,  and  flow  thence  in  a  winding 
course  throuo'h  the  tundra  solitudes  to  large  estuaries  on  the  Frozen  Ocean.  These 
streams,  and  the  lakes  traversed  by  them,  are  as  yet  known  only  in  their  main 
features,  although  they  have  been  visited  for  over  two  himdred  and  iifty  years  bj"^ 
htmters  and  the  officials  to  whom  Ostiaks,  Samojedes,  Tunguses,  and  Yakuts  are 
obliged  to  pay  their  tribute  of  peltries.  The  few  natives  of  the  country  are 
designated  mainly  by  the  names  of  these  rivers,  whose  frozen  surfaces  are  used  bj'' 
them  as  highways  dxu'ing  the  winter  season.  Hence  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the 
Pyasina  or  Pyasida,  Taimira,  Balakhna,  Anabara,  Khatanga,  and  its  tributary,  the 
Boganida,  in  earlj'  Siberian  records.  But  although  many  of  these  rivers  are  over 
600  miles  long,  their  economic  value  may  be  regarded  as  of  no  account.  The 
official  returns  give  less  than  500  inhabitants  to  the  vast  basins  of  the  Pyasina  and 
Khatanga,  belonging  to  the  Yenisei  government,  and  the  Russian  "  ^-illages " 
figuring  on  the  maps  are  merelj-  clusters  of  two  or  three  zimoviye,  or  winter  cabins, 
with  an  average  of  from  five  to  ten  occupants  each.  Khatangskoye,  on  the 
Khatanga,  capital  of  all  this  region,  consisted  in  1865  of  a  chapel  and  five  cabins, 
inhabited  by  nine  persons.  Should  navigation  ever  be  developed  on  the  Arctic  sea- 
board, some  new  centres  of  population  will  certainly  spring  up  on  the  banks  of  the 
Khatanga,  whose  fiord,  ISO  miles  long,  offers  an  excellent  haven,  in  which  the  first 
explorers  of  the  polar  seas  foimd  refuge.  A  comparison  of  the  earlier  charts  with 
that  drawn  up  by  Bove,  of  the  Nordenskjold  expedition,  shows  how  Kttle  was  known 
of  the  Tainiir  region,  notwithstanding  Middendorff's  survey  and  the  voyages  of  the 
peltry  traders,     The  different  charts  show  discrepancies  of  several  degrees. 


BASIN  OP  THE  LENA— SHOEES  OP  THE  AECTIC  OCEAN. 


383 


The  Olcnyok,  whose  lower  coiu'se  flows  for  over  5°  of  latitude  parallel  with  the 
Lena,  is  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in  Siberia  next  to  the  Ob,  Yenisei,  Lena,  and 
Aniur.  With  its  windings  it  is  no  less  than  1,200  miles  long,  and  emioties  into  the 
sea  through  a  mouth  6  miles  wide,  and  from  20  to  24  feet  deep,  offering  a  good 


Fig.  199. — Coast  of  the  Taimir  Peninsula. 
Scale  1 :  6,300,000. 


C    Perron 


Old  Coast-line. 

Coast  surveyed  by  Falander. 


-    Eoute  of  the  Vega  and  Lena. 
■ "    Probable  Coast-line. 


120  Miles. 


harbour  immediately  west  of  the  low-ljong  peninsula  fonned  by  the  aUuvia  of  the 
Lena.  Explored  throughout  most  of  its  course  by  Czekanowski  and  MiiUer  in 
1874,  this  river  is  not  merely  a  waterway  traversing  the  tundi-a,  and  fringed  here 
and  there  by  dwarf  shrubs.     For  it  rises  in  the  middle  of  a  forest  region,  and  it 

c  c  2 


884 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


carries  seawards  numbers  of  trees,  which  arc  stranded  on  the  shores  of  the  largo 
islands  and  mainland.  Besides  timber  the  Olenyok  A'alley  also  aboimds  in  mineral 
wealth,  as  well  as  naphtha  springs  and  fishes  in  great  variety.  The  camping  grounds 
of  fishers  and  hunters  are  more  numerous  on  its  banks  than  on  the  western  rivers 
flowing  through  the  frozen  peninsula  of  Taimii-.  There  is  even  a  true  ^-illage,  that 
of  Bolkalak,  or  Ust-Olenskoye,  on  its  estuary.  Here  were  found,  in  1863,  sixty- 
two  half-castes  descended  from  Yakut  women  and  Russian  exiles,  who  had 
completely  forgotten  their  Slav  mother  tongue.  On  the  right  bank,  over  against 
Bolkalak,  Anjou  found,  in  1822,  the  traces  of  the  encampment  where  the  members 
of  the  Pronchishchev  expedition  passed  the  winter  of  1737,  and  the  graves  where 
most   of   them   were   buried.      The   observations  made  by   MiiUer   on    terrestrial 

Fig.  200. — Old  L.ike  traversed  by  the  Vitim. 

According  lo  Kropotkin.    Scale  1  ;  1,660,000. 


24  Miles. 


magnetism  during  his  Olenyok  expedition  have  sho\\-n  that  the  pole  of  magnetic 
intensity  lies  approximately  between  the  64th  and  65th  parallels,  and  about  114° 
east  longitude  between  the  Olenyok  and  Vilui. 


The  Lena  .vxn  its  Ixhabitants. 

The  Lena,  rival  of  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  in  volume,  and  the  most  copious  river  in 
East  Siberia,  belongs  entirely  to  the  basin  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  does  not  rise, 
like  the  Irtish,  Yenisei,  and  Selenga,  south  of  the  ranges  bordering  the  Mongolian 
plateau ;  hence  it  has  no  deep  defiles  to  pass  through  in  order  to  reach  the  Siberian 
plains.  Its  basin  is  connected  with  that  of  the  Angara  by  a  depression  which 
seems  to  have  been  formerly  traversed  by  a  large  river.  But  at  present  its  first 
head-streams  rise  at  a  relatively  slight  ele^-ation  above  the  sea,  the  highest  crests  of 
the  Baikal  coast  range  whence  they  flow  having  an  altitude  of  no  more  than  from 
3,000  to  4,000  feet.  Nevertheless  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Lena  are  ^ery  picturesque. 
Its  narrow  stream  here    flows  at  first   between  schist   formations,,  succeeded   at 


THE  LENA  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS.  385 

Kachuga  bj^  red  sandstones,  belonging  probablj'  to  the  Permian  sj-steni.  The 
steep  rocks  rise  from  200  to  300  feet  above  the  current,  terminating  in  jagged  and 
creneUated  crests.  These  cliffs  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  the  advanced  spurs  of  a 
lofty  range,  but  when  ascended  thej^  arc  found  to  form  merely  the  edge  of  an 
almost  level  plateau.  While  those  on  the  left  bank  are  almost  destitute  of  vegeta- 
tion, the  recesses  and  terraces  of  those  on  the  opposite  side  are  overgrown  with  leafy 
trees  and  conifers.  Between  these  steep  and  rocky  walls  the  stream  flows  rapidly, 
but  is  everywhere  navigable  below  the  village  of  Kachuga,  some  96  miles  from  its 
source.  North  of  the  sandstone  formations  begins  the  so-called  "  Cheek  Defile," 
where  the  swift  current  of  the  Lena  is  commanded  by  chalk  cliffs  100  feet  hio-h, 
and  pierced  with  grottoes.  Here  the  river  is  no  less  than  70  feet  deep,  but  navi- 
gation is  endangered  by  its  abrupt  ^^andings,  reefs,  and  rapid  flow.  One  of  the 
rocks  in  this  defile  is  the  chief  divinity  of  the  siu-rounding  Buriats. 

Farther  down  the  volume  of  the  Lena  is  doubled,  and  its  width  increased  to 
1,400  feet  by  its  junction  with  the  Vitira.  Of  the  two  rivers  the  latter  is,  in  fact, 
the  larger,  both  in  length  and  volume,  flowing  as  it  does  from  a  region  more 
exposed  to  the  moist  monsoons  of  the  Pacific*  But  its  course  being  more  irregidar 
and  less  suited  for  navigation,  the  Lena  was  naturally  regarded  by  the  riverain 
poijulation  as  the  main  branch.  The  Vitim  rises  east  of  Lake  Bailval,  in  the  hilly 
plateau  stretching  from  this  lake  to  the  Yablonoi  highlands,  and  crossed  by  parallel 
ridges  rimning  north-east  and  south-west.  The  river  and  its  numerous  head- 
streams  flow  at  first  in  the  depressions  of  the  plateau,  and  then  unite  in  a  common 
stream  through  fissures  opened  transversely  between  the  intervening  ridges.  Even 
where  the  Vitim  has  assumed  the  aspect  of  a  large  river  the  main  valley  and  those 
of  its  affluents  alternately  follow  the  normal  direction  of  the  plateau  from  south- 
west to  north-east,  while  the  side  valle^ys  rmi  south-east  and  north-west.  Owing  to 
its  sharp  windings  and  swift  current,  the  Vitim  remains  unnavigable  till  it  has 
passed  the  falls  by  which  its  course  is  interrupted,  about  340  miles  above  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Lena.  The  depressions  which  it  traverses  were  formerly  filled  by 
terraced  lakes,  most  of  which  have  been  successively  replaced  by  alluvial  plains. 
Some,  however,  still  remain,  notably  the  great  Lake  Oron,  connected  with  the  Vitim 
by  a  short  emissary.  West  of  the  main  stream  travellers  have  had  to  cross 
extensive  lava  beds  stretching  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  one  of  which  is 
no  less  than  70  miles  long. 

Below  the  peninsida  formed  by  their  confluence  the  united  streams  flow  between 
low  banks,  here  and  there  still  interrujjtcd  by  sandstone  and  chalk  cliffs,  rising  in 
some  places  160  feet  and  upwards,  and  reflecting  their  hanging  branches  in  the 
stream.  The  most  romantic  scenery  in  this  section  is  noted  for  the  so-called 
"  Colonnades  of  the  Lena,"  resembling  ruined  castles,  whose  ramparts  and  towers 
stretch  for  several  miles  along  the  right  bank.     Here  the  Lena  is  swollen  by  the 

*  Length  of  the  Lena  from  source  to  (ho  Vitim  junction        .  876  miles. 

Vitim 1,280     „ 

Lena- Vitim  to  the  Arctic  Ocean    .         .         .  3,280     „ 

Area  of  drainage 1,000,000  square  miles. 


380 


ASIATIC  EirSSIA. 


copious  Olokma  affluent,  whose  rapid  current  is  felt  18  miles  below  the  confluence. 
Farther  down  it  is  fed  by  still  larger  tributaries — the  Aldan  on  its  right,  and  the 
Vilui  on  its  left  bank,  marking  the  limits  of  its  middle  course.  Henceforth  ceasing 
to  wind  eastwards  round  the  plateaux  of  Central  Siberia,  it  pursues  its  normal  north- 
westerly course  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  an  island-studded  channel,  -n-ith  a  mean  widtli 
of  from  -4  to  5  miles,  and  in  some  places  expanding  to  broad  inland  seas.  At  the 
Aldan  junction  it  is  over  12  miles  wide  from  bank  to  bank.  The  valley  of  the 
Vilui  may,  in  a  general  way,  be  regarded  as  forming  an  easterly  continuation  of  that 
of  the  Nijnyaya  Timguska,  and  as  extended  towards  the  Pacific  by  the  basin  of 
the  Aldan.  The  coiu-se  of  the  Lena  is  consequently  here  crossed  by  a  transverse 
depression,  which  at  all  times  afforded  an  important  highway  of  local  migration 


Fig.  201.- 
According  to  Norden?kj61d. 


-Lena  Delta. 

According  to  Wrangell  and  Anjon. 


E  fifG    135' 


C  Perron 


gcnle  1 :  4,450,000. 

.  60  Miles. 


and  commercial  intercom-se,  and  which  now  presents  certain  advantages  to  the 
Russians,  the  valley  of  the  Aldan  offering  the  shortest  route  from  the  Lena  basin 
to  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Under  a  milder  climate  such  a  geograjjliical  position  must 
have  given  rise  to  a  first-class  jjolitical  or  trading  capital. 

After  the  Aldan  and  Yilui  the  great  river  of  East  Siberia  has  acquired  its  fidl 
bulk,  being  henceforth  joined  only  by  insignificant  affluents.  The  forest  vegetation 
along  its  banks  also  becomes  gradually  stunted  and  impoverished  in  species  until 
they  are  at  last  succeeded  by  the  lichens  and  mosses  of  the  tundra.  The  islands 
grow  nothing  but  scrub,  though  the  Titari,  or  "  Larch  Island,"  the  last  of  them, 
contams,  besides  the  larch  whence  it  is  named,  a  little  park  of  firs,  birches,  and 
poplars.  Below  this  plot  of  verdure  begins  the  vast  delta  of  the  Lena,  comprising 
an  area  oi  about  8,800  square  miles.      But  all  this  watery-  region  is  not  formed 


THE  LENA  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS.  887 

entii-ely  by  alluvial  deposits.  lu  the  north-west  the  Khangalat  district,  limited  on 
one  side  by  the  west  flank  of  the  delta,  on  the  other  by  a  branch  of  the  river,  is  an 
uneven  tract  strewn  with  lakes  and  hills.  This  is,  in  fact,  an  ancient  marine  island, 
or  group  of  islands,  which  have  been  gradually  connected  with  the  mainland  partly 
by  the  allm-ia  of  the  river,  jDartly  also  by  the  upheaval  of  the  land.  Hence  the 
sedimentary  matter  brought  down  by  the  stream  no  longer  finds  a  free  passage  to 
the  sea  in  the  direction  of  the  north-west,  the  rocky  escarpments  of  the  Siberian 
coast  and  the  Khangalat  ujjlands  here  forming  a  natural  limit  to  the  delta. 
Conseqviently  the  chief  branches  of  the  Lena,  with  their  alluvia,  have  been  deflected 
eastwards,  and  it  is  here  that  the  outlines  of  the  islands,  the  winding  and  ramifica- 
tions of  the  fluvial  channels,  are  most  frequently  modified.  Off  the  estuary  the 
water  is  but  slightly  brackish,  but  very  dangerous  to  navigation,  averaging  no  more 
than  from  30  to  45  feet  deep.  The  form  of  the  delta  is  being  changed  from  year 
to  year  by  the  alluvial  deposits,  drift-wood,  storms,  and  especially  by  the  floating 
ice,  which  at  the  break-up  sweeps  whole  islands  bodily  seawards.  The  charts  pre- 
pared at  various  periods  fi'om  more  or  less  hasty  coast  surveys  ofPer  discrepancies 
far  too  serious  to  be  regarded  as  the  personal  errors  of  the  cartographers.  But 
since  the  Russians  have  been  acquainted  with  the  delta  the  chief  channel  of  naviga- 
tion is  that  which  flows  roimd  the  eastern  headland  of  the  continent,  opening 
towards  the  south-east  on  the  south  side  of  a  triangidar  peninsula.  Under  pressure 
of  the  in-shore  current  setting  west  and  east  in  continuation  of  the  warm  cui-rent 
from  the  Atlantic,  the  whole  of  the  peninsida  formed  by  the  alluvia  of  the  Lena 
has  been  deflected  eastwards,  thus  diverting  the  fluvial  waters  to  the  eastern  sea- 
board. North  of  the  delta  the  Tumaskiy  branch,  though  much  obstructed  with  sand- 
banks, has  maintained  its  channel  near  a  landmark  set  up  byLajjtyevon  its  banks  in 
1739.  The  channel  at  the  western  extremitj-  of  the  delta  region  is  recognised  by 
mariners  by  the  Ice  Cape,  a  headland  so  named  from  the  snow  and  floes  which 
here  persist  throughout  the  year  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  imexposed  to  the  solar 
rays. 

The  vast  basin  of  the  Lena  has  only  been  brought  into  water  communication 
with  Europe  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  its  occupation  by  the  Russians.  In 
1878  the  steamer  if  Hff,  commanded  by  the  Norwegian  Johannsen,  penetrated  the  river 
and  ascended  as  far  as  Yakutsk.  The  way  has  now  been  opened,  and  it  is  hoped  may 
be  occasionally  used,  notwithstanding  the  serious  obstacles  opposed  to  the  naviga- 
tion by  the  floating  ice  roimd  the  Taimir  peninsula,  and  even  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Lena  mouths.  In  the  delta  branches  the  thaw  does  not  set  in  till  the  end  of  Jime, 
or  even  the  beginning  of  July,  and  the  floes  massed  together  and  driven  inland  by 
the  polar  winds  are  said  to  completely  block  the  entrance  sometimes  throughout 
the  whole  siunmer.  Hence  no  regular  navigation  can  be  established  between  the 
Lena  and  West  Europe  tmtU  the  circumpolar  observatories  proj)osed  by  Wey- 
precht  have  been  established,  and  the  general  movement  of  the  ice  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  duly  signalled  to  the  western  ports.  The  Lena  is  far  less  accessible  to 
shipping  than  the  Ob  or  Yenisei ;  but  although  it  can  never  have  the  same 
importance   for   international  trade,   it  none  the  less  offers  certain  facUities  for 


388  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

effecting  exclianges  witli  the  interior,  -wliero  its  basin  offers  a  navigaUe  waterway 
of  altogether  not  less  than  6, 000  miles.* 

The  natural  resources  of  this  basin,  whose  entire  population  scarcely  exceeds 
300,000,  rival  those  of  "West  Siberia.  The  river  itself  abounds  in  fish  no  less 
than  the  Ob,  while  its  forests  are  more  extensive.  It  is  also  skirted  by  fertile 
plains  and  plateaux  affording  excellent  pasture.  The  auriferous  sands  of  the 
Vitim  and  Olokma  are  the  richest  in  all  Asia  ;  argentiferous  lead,  copper,  and 
iron  ores  are  met  in  various  places,  although  no  systematic  survey  has  yet  been 
made  of  these  treasures.  Salt  in  superabundance  is  yielded  by  many  lakes,  saline 
springs,  and  whole  mountains  of  chloride  of  sodium.  Sulphur  springs  rise  along 
the  river  banks,  and  are  lost  in  the  stream.  Lastly,  coal  beds  belonging  to  the 
same  formation  as  those  of  the  Nijnyaya  Tunguska  basin  crop  out  along  the 
banks  of  the  Vilui,  and  skirt  the  Lena  almost  uninterruptedly  for  over  900  miles 
below  the  "  Colonnades."  Some  of  these  coal-fields,  kindled  by  the  forest  fires, 
have  been  burning  for  years,  and  the  smoke  rising  from  the  eminences  have 
given  occasion  to  the  local  traditions  regarding  the  existence  of  volcanoes  in  North 
Siberia. 

The  Yaxa,  Kolima,  axd  Indigirka  Rivers — The  Arctic  Islands — 

New  Siberia. 

The  Kharaulakh  Hills,  raising  their  snowj^,  or  at  least  snow-streaked,  crests  here 
and  there  to  a  height  of  1,300  feet,  separate  the  Lower  Lena  from  the  Yaua, 
which  flows  directly  to  the  north,  and  enters  the  Arctic  Ocean  through  a  vast 
delta  over  90  miles  broad  east  and  west.  The  southern  entremity  of  the  Kharau- 
lakh  Hills  Is  connected  by  the  Yerkho-Yansk  range  eastwards  with  the  Stanovoi 
plateau  along  the  northern  edge  of  the  Aldan  valley.  The  route  from  Yakutsk  to 
Nijne-Kolimsk,  on  the  Lower  Kolima,  crosses  this  range  by  a  pass  2,150  feet  high, 
commanded  by  crests  rising  to  an  elevation  of  from  830  to  1,000  feet.  The  road 
to  Yerkho-Yansk,  on  the  Upper  Yana,  also  follows  a  jiass  4,600  feet  high,  winding 
through  a  defile  660  feet  deep.  The  Indigirka  and  the  Kolima,  which,  like  the 
Yana,  rise  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Yerkho-Yansk  range,  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  this  river  in  the  length  and  direction  of  their  course,  the  volume 
of  their  stream,  the  rapids  formed  in  their  upper  reaches,  and  the  islands  of  their 
deltas.  All  rise  in  the  same  wooded  highlands,  and  flow  northwards  through  the 
level  plain  of  the  tundras ;  but,  although  navigable,  none  of  them  are  frequented 
except  by  the  fishing  craft  of  the  Yakuts,  Yukaghirs,  and  a  few  Russian  settlers. 

Jliles. 

•  Navigable  course  of  the  Lena 2,920 

„                 „            Vitim 345 

„                „           Olokma COO 

„                 „            Aldan 900 

„                 „            Amga 300 

„                 ,,            jraya 300 

„            Vilui 728        ' 

Total 6,085  Miles. 


nniSES— THE  ARCTIC  ISLANDS— NEW  SIBERIA. 


389 


The  most  abundant  in  animal  life  is  the   Kolima,   which,   like  the   two  Anyui 
joining  its  cast  bank  in  a  common  delta,  teems  with  fishes  of  various  kinds. 

A  few  of  the  islands  ofE  the  neighbom'ing  coast  have  been  laiowu  from  time 
immemorial  to  the  natives,  and  by  them  jjointed  out  to  the  early  Russian  explorers. 
Such  are  the  "  Bear  Islands,"  north  of  the  Kolima  estuary,  occupied  during  the 
last  century  by  numerous  winter  fishing  huts.  The  so-called  "  Four  Pillars,"  one 
of  this  group,  forms  a  conspicuous  landmark  with  its  four  detached  basalt  colimins, 
almost  as  regular  as  if  they  had  been  carved  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  sailors  of 
the  Xordenskjold  expedition  took  them  for  lighthouses  erected  by  the  Russian 
Government  for  the  guidance  of  explorers  in  the  polar  waters.  Another  of  the 
Bear  Islands  abounds  in  the  remains  of  mammoths  to  such  an  extent  that  when 
seen  from  the  southern  mainland  it  seemed  composed  entirely  of  the  tusks  of  these 


Fig.  202. — Archipelago  of  New  Siberia. 
Scale  1  :  4,120,000. 


C-  Perro  r^ 


.  e  lliles. 


pachydermata.  Some  of  the  larger  polar  i.slands  said  to  have  been  discovered  in 
the  last  century,  or  even  more  recently,  woiJd  also  seem  to  have  been  visited  by 
the  natives.  Thus  the  so-called  "  Xear "  or  "First"  Island  of  the  Lyakhov 
Archipelago  (Xew  Siberia)  cannot  have  been  completely  unknown,  as  the  magni- 
ficent basalt  columns  forming  the  Kiselyak  headland  and  Jlount  Keptagai,  several 
hundred  yards  high,  are  only  45  miles  from  Cape  Svyatoi,  and  are  consequently,  in 
clear  weather,  always  visible  to  the  piercing  gaze  of  the  Tunguses  and  Yukaghirs. 
The  wild  reindeer,  as  well  as  the  white  bear  and  other  animals,  including  even  the 
smaller  rodents,  visit  it  across  the  ice  from  the  mainland,  and  the  hunters  had  only 
to  follow  in  their  wake  to  discover  "  Near  Island."  From  this  poiat  to  "  Second 
Island  "  the  passage  is  also  very  easy ;  but  the  "  Third,"  or  Kotyelniy  Ostrov, 
besides  several  others  lying  farther  west,  must  have  remained  long  unknown, 
although  in  one  of  them  a  Russian  grave  was  discovered  in   1811.     Hedenstrom 


390 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


here  found  a  Yukaghir  sleigh  and  a  stone  knife,  pointing  to  a  remote  period,  for 
the  Yukaghirs  have  long  used  iron  knives,  which  they  procure  from  the  Russians. 
Kotyelniy  Ostrov  is  a  very  large  island,  ■n^th  an  area  estimated  by  Anjou  at  8,000, 
and  by  Hedenstrom  at  no  less  than  24,000  square  miles.  It  is  generally  connected 
by  a  barrier  of  reefs  and  extensive  sand-banks  -n-ith  the  island  of  Fadde3'ev 
(Thaddaeus),  lying  farther  east,  with  an  intervening  channel  560  feet  wide,  through 


Fig.  203. — Routes  op  Axjou  axd  'Wranoell. 
Scale  1  :  566,000. 


72- 


72' 


Y&angcU's 
IhnJcciitreJJslenJ 


Bearklahd, 


E.  ofG, 


.  120  Miles. 


which  the  tides  rush  to  and  fro  with  great  velocity.     During  stormy  weather  the 
connecting  sand-bank  is  washed  by  the  waves. 

The  most  recently  discovered,  or  rather  rediscovered,  laud  in  these  waters  is 
the  island  known  as  New  Siberia,  a  name  frequently  applied  to  the  whole  group 
of  islands  on  the  north  coast  between  the  mouths  of  the  Lena  and  Indigirka.  It 
was  first  sighted  by  the  trader  Sirovatsky  in  1806,  and  was  carefully  explored 
in  1809-10  by  Hedenstrom,  Sannikov,  and  Kojevin.  It  was  again  visited  in 
1820 — 3  during  the  Wrangell  expedition,  and  since  then  hxmters  have  never 
ceased  to  pass  the  winter  there  in  the  huts  bvult  for  the  purpose  by  Sannikov. 
Like  the  neighbouring  islands,  New  Siberia  is  tolerably  rich  in  animal  species, 
thanks  to  the  bridge  of  ice  by  which  it  is  ^-earlv  coimected  with  the  mainland. 


ElYEES— THE  AECTIC  ISLANDS— NEW  SIBEEIA.  393 

Its  fauna    comprises    the  white  bear,  reindeer,  Arctic  fox,   glutton,  some  small 


rodents,  and  nnmerous  species  of  birds.     Here  the  hunters  also  tind  the  remains  of 
extinct  animals,  maimnoth  and   rhinoceros  ivorv,  buffalo  horns,  horse  hoofs,  and 


392  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Hedenstrom  picked  up  an  axe  made  of  a  mammoth's  tusk.  The  beach  is  strewn 
with  the  stems-  of  the  hireh  and  j^ophir  stranded  by  the  waves,  but  the  great 
curiosity  of  the  island  is  a  I'ow  of  hills  fringing  the  south  coast  for  a  distance  of 
over  3  miles,  whose  sandstone  and  gravel  formations  contain  considerable  masses 
of  carbonised  timber,  referred  by  some  to  the  Jurassic  epoch,  but  regarded  by  others 
merely  as  di'ift-wood  of  recent  date.  Although  these  "  AVood  Hills  "  are  only  from 
100  to  200  feet  above  sea-level,  the  mirage  sometimes  renders  them  visible  from  the 
Siberian  coast,  1G8  miles  off. 

During  his  numerous  exploring  expeditions  east  of  New  Siberia,  Wrangell  had 
his  mind  steadily  fixed  on  a  northern  hind  of  which  the  natives  had  spoken,  and 
towards  which  he  saw  the  birds  of  passage  directing  their  flight.  A  chart  also, 
preserved  amongst  the  foreign  archives  of  JIoscow,  figured  an  island  in  these 
northern  latitudes.  During  his  three  trips  across  the  Siberian  ice  he  was  arrested 
by  a  po/hu'a,  or  "  clearing,"  such  as  all  other  Arctic  navigators  have  foimd,  and 
which  have  caused  the  name  of  Pohiiia  to  be  given  to  the  open  sea  met  by  Hayes 
in  the  American  polar  seas  north  of  Smith  Sound.  The  ice  at  the  edge  of  the 
polinia  was  too  weak  to  carry  sleighs  farther  north,  and  the  sea  was  distinctly  felt 
surging  in  long  billows  imderneath.  Wrangell's  explorations  onlj'  ended  in  a 
negative  result,  or  in  the  conclusion  that  the  sought-for  land  could  have  no  exist- 
ence.  Nevertheless  it  has  been  found  in  the  very  place  where  its  outlines  had 
been  drawn  by  Wrangell  on  the  reports  of  the  natives.  The  large  island,  which 
has  been  named  "  Wrangell  Land "  in  posthumous  honour  of  the  illustrious 
navigator,  rises  high  above  the  water  to  the  north  of  the  Chukchi  country,  near  the 
northern  entrance  to  Bering  Strait.  Discovered  for  the  first  time  by  Kellett  in 
1849,  and  sighted  by  the  whale  fisher  Long  in  1867,  this  land  is  still  only  faintly 
traced  on  the  charts.  How  far  it  may  stretch  northwards  is  still  undetermined, 
nor  is  it  known  whether  it  forms  part  of  the  land  again  seen  by  Kellett  in 
1867.  Mount  Long,  at  its  southernmost  extremity,  has  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet, 
and  its  regidar  conic  form  has  caused  it  to  be  classed  with  the  extinct  volcanoes. 
Nordenskjold  and  Palander  were  prevented  by  the  ice  from  visiting  these  islands. 

The  whole  space  stretching  north  of  New  Siberia  and  Wrangell  Land,  and 
between  Franz-Joseph  Land  and  the  American  polar  archipelagos,  remains  to  be 
explored,  nor  is  it  yet  known  whether  it  is  partly  occupied  by  any  northern  exten- 
sion of  Greenland,  as  Petermann  supposed,  or  whether  these  waters  encircle  islands 
or  archijjclagos  alone.  In  any  case  no  erratic  boulders  are  fomid  on  the  northern 
seaboard  of  Siberia,  from  which  Nordenskjold  concludes  that  there  are  no  exten- 
sive lands  in  the  Siberian  polar  seas,  or  rather  that  the  icebergs  carry  scarcely  any 
rocky  detritus  with  them,  as  indeed  has  hitherto  been  admitted  b}'  most  geographers. 
North-west  of  the  Tairair  ^Jeninsula  the  Norwegian  na%'igator  Johannsen  discovered, 
in  1878,  an  island  to  which  he  gave  the  fully  justified  name  of  Ensomheden,  or  "Lone 
Land."  This  dreary  ice-bound  land  has  an  area  of  about  80  square  miles,  terminating 
westwards  with  high  cliffs,  above  which  rises  a  peak  510  feet  high.  The  sands  of 
the  low-lying  east  shore  are  strewn  with  drift-wood  stranded  here  bj-  the  current. 
This  island  was  probably  sighted  by  Laptyev  in  1741. 


THE  Y.lKUTd,  YUKAGEIES,  AND  CUUVANTZES.  393 

Imiahitaxts — The  Yakuts,  Yikaghirs,  and  CiirvAXXzES. 

The  Bui-iats  are  very  numerous  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  Lena  hasiu.  Of 
all  the  natives  of  Siberia  they  have  best  preserved  the  forms  of  the  old  commime, 
greatly  to  the  sui'prise  of  the  Enssian  peasantry,  amongst  -nhom  the  iafluence  of 
tlie  mir  is  far  less  felt  iii  private  Kfe.  The  poorest  Buriat  claims  the  right  of  bed 
and  board  with  the  rich,  and  when  an  animal  goes  to  the  shambles  aU  share  aUke 
in  the  feast,  only  the  owner  helps  himself  last.  Even  the  iron  ornaments  worn 
by  the  damsels  in  their  hair  are  taken  without  ceremony  fi-om  the  communal  smith, 
who  sells  his  wares  only  to  strangers.  The  corn  harvest  is  made  for  the  benefit  of 
all,  and  aU  help  themselves  freely  from  the  common  granary.  Every  five  or  six 
years  the  Biu-iats  of  the  district  join  in  a  common  himting  party.  Chiefs  for  the 
occasion  are  chosen,  and  they  form  groups  of  twenty  or  so  to  beat  the  forest ;  but 
the  produce  is  shared  equally  amongst  all  the  members  of  the  aba. 

But  the  dominant  race  in  the  Lena  basin  are  the  Yakuts,  whose  territory,  at 
least  twice  the  size  of  France,  comprises  a  large  portion  of  the  Middle  Lena  basin, 
the  banks  of  this  river  along  its  northern  com-se,  and  the  Arctic  seaboard  between 
the  Khatanga  Fiord  and  the  Lena  delta.  They  also  dwell  farther  east  on  the  banks 
of  the  Yana,  Indigii-ka,  and  Eolima,  and  are  found  here  and  there  iu  isolated 
groups  hundreds,  of  miles  from  their  domain  proper.  Thus  a  few  Yakut  families 
reside  as  far  west  as  the  Yenisei -below  Turukhansk,  and  their  camping  grounds 
are  met  La  the  south-east,  even  in  the  Amiu'  basin.  Stdl  these  northern  regions  of 
Siberia  are  not  their  primeval  home.  They  occupied  the  country  about  Lake 
Baikal  when  the  pressure  of  the  Bmiats  compelled  them  to  migrate  northwards, 
and  adapt  themselves  to  the  rigours  of  an  Arctic  climate.  Many  Tatar  names  in 
the  Baikal  district  still  recall  their  presence  there.  About  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  they  had  to  confront  other  enemies,  and  the  Russian  adven- 
turers soon  forced  them  to  continue  their  northern  movement  towards  the  Frozen 
Ocean.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  made  their  apj)earance  for 
the  first  time  in  the  Taimir  peniusula,  and  diu-iug  the  present  centui-y  they  have 
reached  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Eoluna.  Dm'iug  these  migrations,  which  were 
spread  over  several  hundred  years,  the  Yakuts  had  not  only  to  acclimatize  them- 
selves, but  even  to  modify  their  social  habits.  Formerly  a  race  of  pastors  and 
horsemen,  like  their  Eirghiz  kinsmen,  they  have  also  had  to  become  fishers,  hunters, 
and  reindeer  keepers.  A  few  words  in  their  language  serve  to  illustrate  the 
difference  that  exists  between  their  old  and  modern  usages. 

However,  the  present  Yakuts  are  not  a  pm-e  race,  and  since  theii-  first  migra- 
tions from  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal  thej'  have  become  largely  intermingled  with 
the  other  peoples  whom  they  met  in  theii'  new  homes.  They  have  crossed  espe- 
cially with  the  Tunguses,  who  in  many  places  frequent  the  .same  hunting  grounds, 
and  with  whom  they  have  constant  trading  relations.  Custom,  and  even  religious 
prescription,  oblige  them  to  choose  their  wives  outside  the  family,  and  in  certain 
cases  even  outside  the  clan.  These  exogamous  habits  have  thus  changed  many 
Yakut  families  to  genuine  ilongoKans,  while  in  the  Aldan  highlands  south-east  of 


394  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

Yakutsk  they  have  become  Timguses  in  featui-es  and  aspect.  Elsewhere  they  have 
been  Russified,  though  the  reverse  process  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence,  the 
Russians  who  marry  Yakut  wives  gradually  becoming  assimilated  to  that  race.  In 
many  camping  grounds  hunters  are  met  of  Slav  origin,  but  of  Yakut  appearance 
and  habits.     In  this  case  the  Tatar  prevails  over  the  Russian  culture. 

According  to  ]iIiddendorli  the  full-blood  Yakut  has  an  oval  face,  with  straight 
nose,  slightly  promiuent  cheek  bones,  on  the  whole  resembling  a  Kirghiz  much 
more  than  a  Mongolian.  In  height  he  holds  a  middle  position  between  the  Russian 
and  Timgus,*  and  his  costume  scarcely  differs  from  that  of  his  northern  neighbours, 
except  for  a  kind  of  high  head-di-ess  Hke  the  kalpak  of  the  Kirghiz  and  Khivans. 
This  shaggy  covering  is  evidently  modelled  on  that  worn  by  his  ancestors  before 
separating  from  their  southern  kinsmen. 

The  Yakut  language,  which  has  been  studied  by  Bohtlingk,  Yambery,  and 
others,  also  bears  e^-idence  to  the  relationship  of  this  nation  with  the  different 
peoples  of  Turki  or  Tatar  stock.  The  Frisian  of  Xorth  Hanover  and  the  Transyl- 
vanian  Saxon  would  have  greater  difficulty  in  imderstanding  each  other  than  woidd 
the  Yakut  of  the  Lena  and  the  Osmanli  of  Anatolia  or  Constantinople.  Doubtless 
the  Tatars  and  Yakuts  might  have  some  trouble  in  holding  converse  together,  but 
a  slight  knowledge  of  the  respective  grammars  would  make  intercom-se  easy  enough. 
The  Yakut  geographical  tei-minology  differs  somewhat  from  that  of  the  Turkestan 
people,  but  the  family  relationship  is  unmistakable,  and  in  many  cases  the  nomen- 
clature is  much  alike  from  the  Bosporus  to  the  Lena  delta.  Yakutish  is  extremely 
rich  in  terms  denoting  the  various  fonns  of  moimtains,  forests,  watercoui-ses,  and 
all  the  features  of  the  earth's  sui'face.  The  great  nrmiber  of  almost  synonymous 
expressions  is  even  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  which  the  Russian  finds  in  learning 
this  language.  Nevertheless  many  Russians  and  Timguses  employ  Yakutish  more 
commonly  than  their  mother  tongue,  and  even  in  Yakutsk,  capital  of  the  Russian 
rule  in  the  Lena  basin,  the  native  speech  was  twenty  years  ago  the  language  of 
conversation  in  the  salons  of  many  Russian  officials.  It  has  no  doubt  adopted 
manv  Slav  terms  connected  with  the  bureaucracy  and  modern  technical  arts,  but 
Russian  has  borrowed  even  more  freeh'  from  Yakutish.  Thus  in  speech  as  well  as 
in  other  respects  the  Yakuts  have  prevailed  over  the  Slavs,  and  cases  are  mentioned 
even  of  the  families  of  Russian  priests  who  have  become  Tatarized  in  language  and 
usages,  retaining  nothing  of  their  nationality  except  their  Slav  names  and  religious 
practices. 

The  Yakuts  have  been  called  the  "  Jews  of  Siberia."  They  have  a  genius  for 
trade,  and  the  Tungus,  thi'ough  his  improvidence,  has  become  their  prey.  The 
Yakut  is  the  real  owner  of  the  Tungus  reindeers,  and  claims  in  advance  the  martens 
trapped  b}-  the  Timgus  himter.  But  the  speculative  spii-it  of  the  Yakut  gets  the 
better  not  only  of  the  natives,  but  even  of  the  Cossacks,  and  several  local  proverbs 
throw  ridicule  on  the  absm-d  attempts  of  the  Russian  to  diive  a  bargain  with  the 

*  Mean  height  of  tlie  Russians  at  Yakutsk S -9  inches. 

„  Yakuts  ,,  ......        5-7      „ 

„  TuDRUses         ,,  5'4      ,, 


THE  YAKUTS,  YUKAGHLRS,  AND  CHUVANTZES.  395 

Yakut.  "  Let  him  be  ever  so  knowing,  he  is  cheated  at  hist,"  says  Uvarovskiy. 
Full  of  confidence  in  his  genius,  the  Yakut  finds  no  rival  in  the  art  of  trickery 
until  he  meets  the  Chinese  Da  urians  of  Transbaikalia.  The  latter  are  f  idly  his  equals 
in  caution,  cunning,  knowledge  of  mankind,  feigned  simplicity,  skill  in  touching  the 
secret  springs  of  vanity,  while  surpassing  him  in  temperance,  love  of  order,  and 
thrift.  In  fact,  the  Yakut,  satisfied  with  the  triumph  of  the  moment,  is  heedless 
of  the  future,  repeating  the  local  saying,  "  Eat  well  and  grow  fat ;  you  can  do  no 
better !  "  A\Tiile  compelled  to  work  he  will  apply  hunself  ynth  the  same  diligence 
as  the  Jew  or  Chinese,  enduring  hunger  and  toil  with  the  resignation  of  a  Tungus, 
frightened  by  no  danger,  disheartened  by  no  difiicidt3\  But  when  the  time  comes 
to  xmbend  he  lajDses  into  lazy  ways  -n-ith  a  sottish  indifference,  indulging  especially 
in  reckless  gambling,  and  risking  the  fruits  of  the  j^ear,  and  even  of  his  life,  on  the 
hazard  of  the  die.  Ruined  by  an  unlucky  throw,  he  again  becomes  the  skilfid 
himter  or  shrewd  dealer,  and  resumes  his  wandering  life  of  toil  and  hardship. 

In  spite  of  his  shortcomings,  the  Yakut  is  the  most  progressive  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Siberia,  thanks  mainly  to  his  remarkable  powers  of  assimilation.  He 
adapts  himself  readily  to  the  surrounding  physical  conditions  and  popidations. 
During  the  long  Arctic  nights  he  sleeps  away  the  time  Kke  the  white  bear  buried 
in  the  snows  ;  but  as  long  as  the  summer  sun  shines  above  the  horizon  he  toils 
incessantly.  He  makes  himself  as  comfortable  in  the  Samoyede  tent  as  in  the 
Russian  hut  formed  of  logs  piled  one  above  the  other  in  successive  horizontal  rows. 
Sedentary  or  nomad  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  situation,  he  is  always  ready 
to  turn  to  whatever  work  is  requii'ed  of  him.  With  the  Samoyede  or  Tungus  he 
becomes  a  Samoyede  or  Tungus,  while  still  preserving  in  this  evolution  a  natiiral 
genius  in  vii'tue  of  which  he  takes  the  foremost  place  amongst  his  new  associates. 
With  the  Russian  he  also  becomes  a  Russian,  and  accommodates  himself  to  bureau- 
cratic routine  and  jaractices  with  astonishing  facility.  In  the  struggle  for  existence 
this  race  has  not  hitherto  run  any  danger  of  disajjpearing  before  the  Slav.  In 
many  villages  the  Yakuts  are  the  most  prosperous,  and  owners  of  the  best-kept 
houses,  the  young  Russians  gladly  coming  to  them  in  search  of  wives.  Although 
thousands  have  become  Russified,  yet  their  numbers  have  more  than  doubled,  if  not 
increased  fourfold,  since  the  beginning  of  the  century.  At  that  time  they  are  said 
to  have  numbered  only  50,000,  whereas  aU  recent  statistics  estimate  them  at  over 
200,000.  Outside  the  towns  they  have  preserved  their  administrative  independence, 
still  living  under  their  toi/oii,  or  princes,  who  are  supported,  by  "  voluntarj'  contri- 
butions." 

Under  the  rude  climate  of  North  Siberia  the  Yakuts  cannot  everjrwhere  occupy 
themselves  with  agricultm-al  pursuits,  but  as  stock-breeders  they  have  succeeded  in 
doing  what  the  Russians  have  not  hitherto  attempted.  They  have  contrived  to 
keep  their  cattle  and  horses  alive  in  their  dwellings  beyond  the  Polar  Circle,  and  do 
not  fear  to  go  in  search  of  fodder  himdreds  of  miles  off.  They  have  even  suc- 
ceeded in  developing  a  special  breed  of  "  milch  mares,"  which  yield  as  much  milk 
as  the  cows,  and  may  be  milked  several  times  a  day.  The  small  breed  of  horses 
they  sell  to  the  gold-washers  are  highly  esteemed  for  theii-  strength  and  powers  of 


396  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

endurance.  The  Yakuts  are  flesh-eaters,  preferring  lioi  se  to  beef,  but  are  very  sparing 
of  their  animals,  never  killing  them  except  on  state  occasions.  As  craftsmen  they 
are  almost  imri vailed,  and  succeed  well  in  all  trades.  Their  manual  skill  enables 
them  with  the  most  primitive  implements  to  make  all  kinds  of  utensils,  and  even  gold 
and  silver  plated  wares  and  jewellery.  They  smelt  the  iron  ores,  and  with  the 
metal  mauufact\u-e  better  instruments  than  those  of  the  Russian  dealers.  In  Yakutsk 
all  the  artisans,  carpenters,  joiners,  painters,  even  carvers,  are  Yakuts.  They  make 
samovars  and  rifles,  and  can  imitate  anything,  but  with  an  original  faculty.  One  of 
the  curiosities  of  their  industry  is  a  species  of  basket  made  of  osiers,  with  all  the 
meshes  fiUed  in  with  clay,  and  then  dipped  in  cold  water  to  give  it  a  transparent 
coatino-  of  ice.  For  more  than  half  the  year  this  basket  has  thus  the  appearance  of 
a  crystal  vase. 

Most  of  the  Yakuts,  baptized  at  least  in  form,  have  Eussian,  Polish,  or  German 
names,  though  so  disguised  as  to  be  imrecognisable.  The  formerly  prevalent 
female  infanticide  has  disappeared,  though  the  old  shamanistic  rites  have  not  yet 
been  quite  abandoned.  The  Yakuts  still  believe  in  witchcraft,  invoke  the  good  and 
conjui-e  the  evil  spirits.  Great  changes  have  doubtless  taken  place  in  theii-  habits 
since  the  time  of  GmeHn's  visit  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  their 
religion  has  remained  substantially  the  same.  The  mountain  passes  are  the  scene 
of  the  most  imposing  ceremonies,  and  here  the  shaman  speaks  most  earnestly  to 
the  air  and  water  gods,  to  the  "  little  ancestral  stream,  the  ancient  of  ages,"  to  the 
"  mountain  grandmother,"  to  the  "dwarfs  sought  on  the  right  in  the  eight  valleys, 
and  who  are  suddenly  found  on  the  left  in  the  nine  moimtains."  Then  he  appeals 
to  the  wicked  genius :  "And  thou,  Shandai,  old  as  the  rocks,  do  not  let  us  be  lag- 
gards, strike  not  oui-  youth,  do  not  wink  at  us,  do  not  turn  thy  looks  against  us, 
and  hold  thy  tongue !  "  Then  the  shaman  throws  spoonfuls  of  melted  butter  in 
the  air  in  thanksgiving  to  the  gods  and  to  appease  the  demons,  and  he  ties  horse- 
hair round  the  trunks  of  the  trees  or  to  stakes  set  up  on  the  cliffs.  To  all  theii- 
gods  the  Yakuts  have  given  Eussian  names,  especially  that  of  St.  Nicholas,  and  to 
their  demons  those  of  the  Eussian  devils,  and  thus  their  pantheon  and  pandemonium 
have  become  enriched.  They  also  speak  of  a  one  God,  universal  father  of  all,  but 
he  is  too  high  and  too  far  off  to  be  worshipped  by  them.  He  it  was  who  made  the 
earth,  at  first  small  and  level,  then  the  evil  spii-it  came  and  scratched  the  sm-facc, 
tearing  it  up  like  a  dog,  and  thus  were  formed  the  hills  and  valleys.  The  earth 
constantly  growing  in  size,  the  vallcj-s  became  the  beds  of  rivers  and  seas,  and  "  the 
continents  rose  amid  the  waters." 

The  Bolgans,  a  few  hundred  of  whom  dwell  in  the  forests  and  northern  tundras 
between  the  Pvasiua  and  Khatanga  Eivers,  are  frequently  classed  with  the  Tunguses. 
Yet  their  type  and  dialect  show  that  thej-  are  Yakuts,  like  those  of  the  Lena  basin, 
though  diversely  intermingled  with  Timguses,  Samoj'edes,  and  Eussians.  Giving 
to  the  intervening  distance  they  have  long  ceased  to  hold  any  intercourse  with  the 
other  Yakuts,  from  whom  small-pox  and  tji^hus  seem  to  have  fonnerly  separated 
them. 

"With  the  Yakuts  GmeHn  classes  the  Yukayhirs,  whose  tents  are  grouped  in  a 


THE  YAKUTS,  YUKAGHIES,  AND  CHUVANTZES. 


397 


few  hamlets  in  the  tiindras  watered  by  the  rivers  Yaua,  Indigirka,  and  Kolima ; 
but  Billings  and  Middendorff  affiliate  them  to  the  Timguses,  while  Schiefner 
regards  them  as  constituting  a  distinct  stock  in  the  midst  of  the  Siberian  popula- 
tions. Their  speech  is  radically  different  fi'om  all  other  native  idioms,  but  they  are 
obvioiisly  a  very  mixed  race,  and  even  now  readily  intermingle  with  their  Siberian 


Fig.  20.5.— Yakvtsk. 
According  to  Middendorff.    Scale  1  :  150.000. 


n,ofG 


150° 


C.  Penfoa 


3  Miles. 


and  Russian  neighbom-s.  Formerly  numerous  "  as  the  stars  of  a  clear  night,"  they 
are  certainly  disappearing,  and  soon  nothing  will  be  left  of  them  except  theu* 
barrows  and  the  ruins  of  their  log  forts.  Yenjiikov  estimates  them  at  about  1,600, 
other  authorities  at  still  less,  and  the  old  language  is  said  now  to  be  spoken  by  no 
more  than  a  dozen  Yukaghirs.  The  Chuvantzes,  another  neighbouring  nation, 
also  very  powerful,  were  reduced  in  1860  to  267  souls. 

TOL.    VI.  D    D 


398  ASLiTIC  EUSSIA. 

Topography. 

The  scanty  population  of  the  Lena  basin  and  northern  tundras  is  ahnost  every- 
where scattered  in  villages  and  hamlets  at  great  distances  from  each  other.  "With 
the  exception  of  Yakutsk,  none  of  these  places  bearing  the  name  of  towns  would  be 
regarded  even  as  -villages  in  more  thickly  peopled  countries.  Yet  they  often  occupy 
a  considerable  space,  owing  to  their  broad  streets,  large  squares,  courts,  and  gardens. 
But  except  on  feast  and  market  days  they  are  silent  and  lifeless,  and  almost 
disappear  altogether,  or  become  blended  in  the  surrounding  scenery,  when  ground, 
plants,  and  houses  are  alike  buried  in  snow. 

Verliho-Lensh,  whose  name  indicates  its  position  on  the  Uiiper  Lena,  is  one  of 
those  administrative  villages  which  have  taken  the  name  of  town.  Inhabited  by  a 
few  himdi'ed  Russians,  and  surrounded  by  Buriat  and  Timgus  encampments,  it  is 
important  only  as  the  first  trading  station  between  Irkutsk  and  Yakutsk,  at  the 
head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Lena.  Kirensk,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kirenga  and 
Lena,  also  enjoys  some  commercial  advantage  from  its  position  near  the  portage 
connecting  the  Lena  with  the  Nijnyaya  Tunguska  basin.  Olokminsk,  which  in  the 
moraine  deposits  of  the  district  possesses  the  richest  auriferous  fields  in  all  Siberia, 
is  even  a  smaller  place  than  the  two  preceding  "  towns."  Yet  it  stands  at  the  issue 
of  the  long  valley  of  the  Olokma,  which  leads  by  the  shortest  route  from  Yakutsk 
to  the  northern  bend  of  the  Amur.  The  distance  from  this  group  of  eighty  huts 
to  Yakutsk,  the  nearest  town,  is  37-1  miles,  and  throughout  this  long  waterway 
there  are  nothing  but  fishing  hamlets  and  inns  frequented  by  the  boatmen. 

Yakutsk,  the  "  city  of  the  Yakuts,"  well  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Lena, 
at  the  point  where  it  approaches  nearest  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  not  far  from  the 
Aldan  and  Vilfii  jimctions,  has  grown  into  a  real  town,  especially  if  accoimt  be 
taken  of  the  hard  struggle  man  has  here  to  make  with  the  climate.  Doubtless  the 
two  more  populous  towns  of  Archangel  and  Trondhjem  lie  nearer  to  the  pole,  but 
the  cold  is  far  less  intense,  nor  is  the  ground  constantly  frozen  in  tlieir  districts. 
With  the  exception  of  Verkho-Yansk,  Yakutsk  is  the  coldest  town  in  the  world,* 
with  a  mean  temperature  about  the  same  as  on  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc.  Yet  5,000 
people  are  permanently  settled  here,  and  thousands  of  hunters  and  traders  are 
temporarily  attracted  to  the  place  by  its  fair,  at  which  exchanges  in  peltries  and 
provisions  are  effected  to  the  yearly  value  of  over  1,000,000  roubles.  Many  of  the 
residents,  however,  such  as  soldiers,  officials,  and  exiles,  remain  here  against  their 

•  ITp  to  the  present  time  Yakutsk,  in  North-east  Siberia,  has  been  cited  as  the  place  of  our  earth 
■where  the  winter  is  coldest,  while  the  minima  observed  during  Arctic  expeditions  are  believed  to  be  the 
lowest  known.  Neither  the  one  nor  the  other  is  true.  In  Maak's  book,  "  Olekminski  Okrug,"  I  find 
many  data  which  prove  that  the  coldest  winter  as  well  as  the  lowest  weU-authenticated  minima  were 
observed  at  Verkho-Yansk,  to  the  north-east  of  Yakutsk.  I  give  below  the  minima  and  mean  at  some  places 
cited  by  Maak  ;^ 

Minima  (Fahr.).  Mean. 

Serdze-Kamen  (Nordenskjold) —60-3  f 

Yakutsk  (Maak) —77-3  12-2 

Wiljuisk  (Maak) —76-3  ? 

"Werkhojansk  (Maak) —81-0  4-3 

A.  Woeikof  in  Nature,  March  lOtb,  1881,  p.  437. 


BERING  PENINSULA,  BASIN  OF  THE  ANADIE,  AND  KAMCHATKA.      399 

vnll.  During  the  reign  of  Nicholas  this  -(vas  one  of  the  chief  places  of  banishment 
for  political  ofEenders,  but  since  then  religious  criminals  have  been  mostlj'  interned 
here. 

Yiluisk,  the  chief  place  in  the  great  vallej'  of  the  Yilui,  to  which  the  famous 
political  economist  Chernichevsky  was  banished;  VerkJio-Yanak,  on  the  Yana  ; 
Sredne-KoUmsk,  on  the  Kolima ;  and  Nijiie-Kolimsk,  founded  in  1644,  on  the  same 
river,  are  also  officially  classed  as  towns.  But  Bulun,  port  of  the  Lower  Lena,  has 
not  yet  been  promoted  to  this  rank,  while  the  G-overnment  has  dej)rived  of  the  title 
Jignmk,  on  the  Lena,  midway  between  Yakutsk  and  Bulun. 


YL— BERING  PENINSULA,  BASIN  OF  THE  ANADIR,  AND 

KAMCHATEA. 

North-east  Siberia  and  the  Kamchatka  peninsula  lie  in  some  respects  beyond  the 
Asiatic  mainland.  These  lands  are  tm-ned  towards  America,  and  some  of  their 
inlets  are  even  better  known  to,  and  more  frequented  by,  American  than  by  Russian 
craft.  Yarious  points  of  the  coast  about  Bering  Strait  bear  English  names,  given 
to  them  by  the  New  England  and  Californian  whalers.  Some  of  the  local  tribes 
seem  also  to  be  connected  rather  ■with  the  American  than  the  Asiatic  aborigines. 
Notwithstanding  its  political  subjection  to  Russia,  this  region  has  remained  more 
foreign  to  the  Slav  world  than  any  other  part  of  Siberia. 

The  crest  of  the  continental  "  backbone  "  is  connected  only  by  irregidar  ridges 
and  Ul-dcfined  plateaux  vrvih.  the  highlands  of  the  Chukchi  and  Kamchadale 
territories.  The  range  which  best  presents  the  aspect  of  a  regular  chain  runs  east 
and  west  to  the  south  of  the  Polar  Circle,  separating  the  northern  affluents  of  the 
Anadir  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  apparently  rising  in  some  places  to  an  altitude 
of  5,000  feet.  The  hiUy  plateau  comprised  between  the  two  border  ranges  of 
Stanovoi  and  Yerkho-Yansk  may,  in  a  general  way,  be  said  to  teiTninate  west  of  the 
Anadir  basin  in  a  sort  of  elongated  ridge  with  a  mean  elevation  of  2,000  feet,  and 
with  jjeaks  about  3,000  feet  high.  This  is  the  extreme  link  in  the  continental 
orographic  system,  beyond  which  the  heights  begin  to  assume  an  isolated  character. 
The  fiords  indenting  the  eastern  portion  of  Bering  peninsula  may  be  regarded  as 
the  remains  of  straits  fonnerly  separating  the  islands  from  the  mainland.  Thus 
the  Bering  peninsula,  properly  so  called,  is  di-\-ided  into  two  secondary  peninsidas, 
rooted  to  the  continent  at  a  point  only  60  miles  broad.  But  the  relief  of  the 
whole  of  this  peninsular  region  is  extremely  irregular.  The  Serdze-Kamen,  the  last 
headland  on  the  coast  facing  northwards,  is  over  1,000  feet  high,  while  East  Cape, 
at  the  northern  entrance  of  Bering  Strait,  rises  to  an  elevation  of  2,350  feet.  The 
Chvdiotskoi  Nos,  projecting  into  the  Pacific  over  against  St.  Lawrence  Island,  has  an 
altitude  of  2,760  feet,  and  other  headlands  are  still  higher,  cidminating  with  Mount 
Makachinga,  8,900  feet,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Etelkuyum  Bay,  north  side 
of  the  Gidf  of  Anadir.  This  is  the  loftiest  eminence  in  the  Old  or  New  World 
imder  the  Polar  Circle. 

D    D    2 


400 


ASTATIC  EUSSIA. 


The  mountains  connecting  the  Kamchatka  peninsula  with  the  mainland  also 
form  a  distinct  orographic  system.  Their  general  direction  seems  to  run  paniUel 
with  the  last  spurs  of  the  Stanovoi ;  that  is  to  say,  south-west  and  north-east.  Thus 
the  range  beginning  on  the  west  coast  in  the  broadest  part  of  the  peninsula  skirts 
the  coast  of  the  Bering  Sea  as  far  as  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Anadir.  Still  this 
range  should  be  regarded  mainly  as  the  border  chain  of  a  hilly  plateau  forming  a 


Fig.  206. — Volcanoes  at  Cape  Potokotnoii,  Soriii  of  Atacha  Bay. 
According  to  the  English  Admiralty  Chart.    Scale  1 :  675,000. 


'=;2' 


X 


4*X  f 


./^ 


/  m  unia  n 


b^>^fe^ 


b     '  ^    '' 


E  CfG 


I58°20 


I56°40- 


C. Perron 


6  Miles. 


western  continuation  of  that  of  the  Upper  Anadir,  and  in  many  places  presenting 
the  aspect  of  a  veritable  steppe.  Here  are  the  summer  pastm-e  lands  of  the 
numerous  reindeer  herds  belonging  to  the  Koriaks.  In  the  Kamchatka  peninsula 
itself  the  western  highlands  conmianding  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  are  more  elevated 
than  those  of  the  east  side  washed  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  But  these  granite, 
porphjTy,  and  palaeozoic  schistose  crests,  forming  the  ancient  backbone  of  the 
peninsula,  have  been  joined  by  more  recent  volcanic  formations,  trachytes,  basalts, 


BEEINa  PENINSULA,  BASIN  OF  THE  ANADIE,  AND  KAMCHATKA.      401 

lavas,  and  scoria,  rising  to  a  far  greater  elevation  than  the  other  mountains. 
These  modern  cones  have  indented  the  east  coast  with  capes  and  inlets  by  the  lava 
streams  thej-  have  discharged  into  the  sea.  Hence,  -while  the  coast-line  of  the 
peninsula  facing  westwards  is  remarkably  imiform,  the  opposite  side  is  varied  with 
nimierous  baj-s  and  creeks.  One  of  these  inlets  near  the  southern  extremity  of 
Kamchatka,  the  famous  Bay  of  Avacha,  ranks  with  those  of  Eio  de  Janeiro  and 
San  Francisco  as  one  of  the  "best  harbours  ia  the  world." 

The  Kamchatka  volcanoes  form  a  northern  continuation  of  the  curved  chaia  of 
the  Kurile  Archipelago,  whose  convex  side,  like  the  similarly  disposed  chains  of 
the  PhilippLaes,  Liu-Khieu,  Japan,  and  the  Aleutian  group,  is  turned  towards  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  east  coast  of  Kamchatka  two  arcs  of  a 
circle  converge  at  a  point  where  are  situated  the  highest  and  most  active  volcanoes 
of  the  peninsula.  Nearlj'  fortj-  moimtains  in  Kamchatka  are  of  volcanic  origiu,  as 
is  evident  from  their  conic  form,  the  craters  on  their  crests  or  flanks,  the  lava 
streams  that  have  been  discharged  from  their  crevasses.  But  of  these  not  more 
than  twelve  still  vomit  scorice,  ashes,  and  vapoui-s.*  They  cvdminate  with  Mount 
Klyuchevskoi,  which  rises  near  the  sea,  immediately  south  of  the  large  valley 
traversed  by  the  river  Kamchatka.  Several  rows  of  terraces  and  secondary 
smnmits  cluster  round  its  base,  which  is  no  less  than  200  miles  in  circumference. 
The  crest,  which  is  fissui'ed  in  every  direction,  constantly  emits  smoke  and  ashes, 
sometimes  as  often  as  two  or  three  times  a  year,  and  dense  volumes  of  dust  have 
occasionally  been  wafted  ISO  miles  over  the  land.  An  eruption  mentioned  by 
Krashenianikov  lasted  four  years,  from  1727  to  1731,  and  that  of  1737,  which  was 
far  more  ^-iolent,  discharged  vast  lava  streams,  melting  the  glaciers  and  sweeping 
avalanches  of  ice  and  water  into  the  sm-rounding  valleys.  Another  distiirbance 
took  place  in  1854  ;  but  these  events,  however  grand  in  themselves,  being  witnessed 
only  b}-  a  few  natives  or  Russian  officials,  awaken  but  little  attention  ia  the  West. 

Kamchatka  and  the  neighboui'ing  seas  are  often  agitated  by  ^-iolent  earthquakes. 
In  1737  a  shock  is  said  to  have  raised  the  waves  to  a  height  of  200  (?)  feet,  flood- 
ing the  coast,  sweeping  away  the  tents  of  the  natives,  and  laying  bare  the  bed  of 
the  sea.  The  northern  part  of  the  peninsula,  IjTUg  beyond  the  focus  formed  by  the 
jimction  of  the  cui've  of  the  Kuriles  with  that  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  seems  to  have 
suffered  much  less  than  the  southern  districts  from  these  con-^-ulsions.  But  there 
are  nmnerous  hot  springs,  both  here  and  in  the  Bering  peninsula,  where  they  form 
little  rivulets  in  the  centre  of  the  isthmus. 

The  Anadir  is  the  only  river  of  North-east  Siberia  comparable  in  the  extent  of 
its  di-ainage  and  the  length  of  its  course  -nith  the  larger  streams  of  "West  Europe. 
But  flowing  partly  under  the  Polar  Circle  near  the  verge  of  forest  vegetation,  the 


•  Eleration  of  the  Kamchatka  Tolcanoes  : — 

Feet. 

Klyucherskoi  (actiTe) 15,610 

Kor)-akoi-skiy       „ 11,120 

Dshkin  (extinct) 10,890 

Shevelynch  (active) 10,445 

Kronotz  fextinct) 9,860 


Feet. 

Krestov  (extinct) 8,770 

Jupanov  (active) 8,410 

Avacha         „  8,210 

Great  Tolbacha  (active) 7,730 

Viluchinekiy  „     .  6,690 


402  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

land  traversed  by  it  is  mainly  a  solitude.  The  small  fort  of  Anadirsk,  erected  at 
the  bco-inning  of  the  eighteenth  century  as  a  depot  for  the  peltry  trade,  had  to  he 
abandoned  by  its  Russian  garrison,  after  which  it  was  bui-nt  by  the  Chiikchis.  It 
is  now  replaced  by  four-  small  villages,  with  a  total  population  of  about  200  souls, 
Chuvantzes,  Yukaghirs,  and  Cossacks,  all  speaking  Russian,  but  aU  li^-ing  in  a 
half-savao-e  state.  Like  most  other  rivers  in  the  Chukchi  and  Kamchadale 
territories,  the  Anadir  abounds  in  fish  at  the  time  of  high  water  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  seems  one  Hving  mass.  "When  the  shoals  of  salmon  ascend  the  streams,  they 
drive  the  water  before  them  lilie  a  moving  wall,  and  they  are  packed  so  closely 
together  that  they  may  be  taken  by  the  hand.  At  times  the  water  even  ceases  to  be 
potable,  owing  to  the  intolerable  stench  and  taste  imparted  to  it  from  millions  of 
animals  in  decomposition. 

The  river  Kamchatka,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  peninsula,  is  less  than  half 
the  leno-th  of  the  Anadir.  But  flowing  much  farther  south  through  naturally 
fertile  plains,  still  more  enriched  by  volcanic  debris,  it  waters  some  cultivated 
tracts,  and  nearly  twenty  Kamchadale  and  Russian  villages  have  sprimg  up  along 
its  banks.  This  is  the  true  Bolchaya  Ri/cka,  or  "  Great  River "  of  Kamchatka, 
althouo-h  this  title  has  been  given  by  the  Russian  settlers  to  another  stream,  which 
flows  west  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  near  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula. 


Bering  Strait  and  Sea. 

The  seas  which  bathe  the  shores  of  the  north-eastern  peninsulas  of  Siberia  are 
not  deep.  If  the  coast  is  here  broken  into  fragments  by  fiords,  struggling,  so  to 
say,  to  become  straits,  the  bed  of  the  sea  is,  on  the  other  hand,  so  near  the  surface 
that  it  may  be  regarded  as  almost  forming  part  of  the  mainland.  The  shallows 
skirting  the  northern  seaboard  of  Siberia,  from  the  Taimir  headlands  to  "WrangeU 
Land,  are  contiaued  to  the  extremity  of  Bering  peninsula,  and  beyond  the  strait 
along  the  coast  of  North  America.  The  Chukchis  themselves  are  quite  aware  that 
the  two  continents  are  connected  by  submarine  banks,  even  asserting  that  they  were 
formerly  joined  by  an  isthmus.  Two  native  hunters  related  to  Neumann  how  the 
land  subsided  dm-ing  a  terrific  fight  between  a  warrior  and  a  white  bear.  The 
greatest  depth  reached  by  the  plummet  between  the  two  extreme  peninsulas  of  the 
Old  and  New  "World  is  less  than  32  fathoms,  while  the  mean  result  of  the  soundings 
in  all  the  Asiatic  and  American  waters  comprised  between  the  strait,  St.  Lawrence 
Island,  and  the  Yukon  delta  falls  short  of  22  fathoms.  The  true  ocean,  with  its 
profound  abysses,  begias,  on  the  one  hand,  north  of  WrangeU  Land ;  on  the  other, 
otf  the  Kamchatka  coast,  between  the  peninsula  and  the  Aleutian  Islands,  where  a 
depression  occurs  of  over  270  fathoms.  StiU  farther  south,  off  the  Japanese  coast, 
the  soimding-line  plunges  into  the  greatest  ascertained  depth  on  the  sm-face  of  the 
globe.  Here  it  registers  27,860  fathoms,  whereas  in  the  almost  land-locked  basin 
of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  it  nowhere  shows  more  than  350  fathoms. 

Although  a  mere  scratch  on  the  earth's  sui-face,  Bering  Strait  has  acquired  a 
paramount  interest  in  the  history  of  discovery.     Yet  the  fii'st  voyage  of  Dyejnyev 


BERING  STRAIT  AXD  SEA. 


403 


long  remained  forgotten,  and  eighty  years  passed  before  new  attempts  were  made 
in  tliis  direction  under  the  advice  of  Leibnitz.  Bering  now  coasted  the  peninsula 
named  from  him,  from  the  Gulf  of  Anadir  to  the  Serdtze-Kamen,  and  in  1741  again 
Aasited  these  waters  for  the  piu-pose  of  exploriag  the  American  seaboard.  But  on 
his  return  he  was  shipwrecked,  and  perished  on  the  largest  island  of  the  group  fi-om 
Viim  named  the  Commander's  Archipelago.  His  grave  may  stUl  be  seen  on  Bering 
Island,  a  long  ridge  of  high  lava  rocks,  evidently  forming  the  western  buttress  of 
the  curved  bridge  of  the  Aleutian  chain,  thrown  by  the  Alaska  volcanoes  across  the 
water  to  the  great  bm-ning  moimtaui  of  Klyuchevskoi,  in  Kamchatka.  Cook  also 
navigated  the  Bering  Sea,  and  surveyed  all  the  northern  entrance  of  the  strait,  but 
without  penetrating  to  WrangeU  Land.     These  waters  were  soon  after  visited  by 

Fig.  207.— BEKDiG  Sea. 

Scale  1  :  30,000,000. 


C.  Psr^i* 


0  to  4S0 
Fathoms. 


480  to  960 
Fathoms. 


980  to  1,440 
Fathoms. 


1,440  to  1,920 

Fathoms. 


)  Miles. 


1,920  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


Liitke,  Kotzebue,  and  other  illustrious  explorers,  and  later  on  as  many  as  four 
himdi'ed  whalers  have  assembled  in  these  seas.  Lastly,  MacClure,  after  traversing 
Bering  Strait,  completed  in  1850  the  circumnavigation  of  America,  and  in  1879 
Nordenskjold  doubled  East  Cape,  thus  showing  that  by  the  aid  of  steam  the  long- 
sought-for  "  ^orth-East  Passage  "  is  practicable. 

Forming  the  central  gap  in  the  vast  semicircle  stretching  for  a  distance  of  24,000 
miles,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Cape  Horn,  Bering  Strait  is  natiirally  one  of  the 
most  important  oceanic  regions  in  regulating  the  winds  and  cui-rents.  The  winds 
arrested  on  the  Asiatic  and  American  continents  by  plateaux  and  mountain  ranges 
find  a  free  passage  through  the  strait.  The  masses  of  hot  air  resting  on  the  Pacific, 
and  the  cold  atmospheric  ciu-rents  from  the  pole,  here  move  in  opposite  directions, 
contending  for  the  upper  hand.       Opposite  cm-rents  are  produced,  which,  owing 


404 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


to  their  different  density,  become  regularly  superimposed,  like  the  draughts  felt 
on  opening  the  doors  between  two  rooms  of  different  temperature.  During  the 
winter  of  1879,  passed  by  him  near  the  northern  entrance  of  Bering  Strait, 
Nordenskjold  ascertained  that  a  glacial  wind  from  the  north-west  set  steadily 
along   the   surface   of  the  water   from  the  Fi'ozen  Ocean  to  the  Pacific,  while 


Fig.  208. — Bering  Stkait. 
According  to  Bove.    Scale  1  : 1,200,000. 


W.OfG. 


C  Perron 


0  to  10  Fathoms. 


10  to  20. 


30  Fathoms  and  upwards. 


higher  up  the  cloiids  di-ifting  incessantly  northwards  proved  the  existence  of 
an  opposite  atmospheric  ciu-rent.  In  the  same  way  two  oceanic  streams  here 
meet,  though  they  are  imable  freely  to  develop  in  the  confined  and  shallow 
space  separating  the  two  continents.  The  mass  of  tropical  waters  flowing  from  the 
South  Seas  to  the  North  Pacific  sets  steadily  from  the  Japanese  waters  towards 
Bering  Sea,  through  the  niimerous  openings  between  the  Aleutian  Islands.     But 


BERING  STEAIT  AND  SEA. 


405 


being  arrested  by  the  submarine  banks  connecting  Asia  and  America,  this  stream  is 
ahnost  entii'ely  again  deflected  southwards  along  the  North  American  seaboard. 
The  cold  waters  from  the  Frozen  Ocean  are  also  collected  at  the  northern  entrance 
of  the  strait,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  rotation  of  the  globe,  they  de\-iate  towards 
the  right,  follo^\"ing  mainlj'  the  Asiatic  coast  above  the  trough  of  deeper  waters 
passing  between  Bering  peninsula  and  St.  Lawi-ence  Island.     In  another  directioa 

Fig.  209. CUEREXTS    OF    THE    BERING    WaTERS. 

Scale  1  :  3,300,000. 


C  Pefroi) 


Black  Flow  from  north  to  south.         Stream  flowing  northwards. 
COO  :Mjles. 


some  of  the  tepid  water  impelled  towards  the  Aleutian  Archipelago  by  the  Kuro-sivo, 
or  "  Black  Stream  "  of  the  Japanese,  flows  northwards  through  the  strait.  Thus 
Onatzevich  detected  a  small  ciu-rent  of  relatively  warm  water  running  fi-om  East 
Cape  to  the  Serdtze-Kamen.  Hence,  during  the  short  smnmer  which  breaks  up 
the  crust  between  the  two  worlds,  long  lines  of  floating  ice  are  seen  di'if  ting  south- 
wards along  the  Asiatic  coast,  whilst  smaller  masses  are  carried  in  the  opposite 
direction  northwards  to  the  American  side.     None  of  these  floes,  however,  deserve 


40G  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

the  name  of  icebergs.  The  portion  belo\y  the  surface  being  on  an  average  seven 
times  thicker  than  the  portion  above  it,  masses  rising  more  than  16  feet  above  sea- 
level  are  necessarily  arrested  by  the  submarine  banks  before  reaching  the  strait. 
In  the  nearly  land-locked  basins  of  the  Seas  of  Okhotsk  and  Japan  the  waters  flow 
in  a  similar  manner,  every  cm-rent  from  the  south  haA-ing  its  counter-current  from 
the  north. 

Climate — Faixa  and  Flora. 

The  difierence  in  the  climate  is  reflected  in  the  appearance  of  the  vegetation  on 
both  sides  of  the  strait.  AVhile  the  American  coast  is  wooded  to  a  considerable 
distance  north  of  Prince  of  "Wales  Cape,  nothing  grows  on  the  Asiatic  coast  except 
mosses  and  lichens,  and  in  the  sheltered  nooks  a  few  stunted  shrubs.  Seen  from  a 
distance,  this  coast  seems  quite  bare.  Here  the  treeless  zone  comprises  aU  the 
Bering  peninsula,  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Anadir,  and  the  land  as  far  south  as 
the  neck  of  the  Kamchatka  peninsida.  But  this  peninsula  itself,  although  Ijong 
almost  entirely  beyond  the  isothermal  of  freezing  point,  is  very  wooded,  and  even 
supplies  timber  for  the  navy.  Its  flora  includes  most  of  the  Siberian  trees,  larch, 
various  species  of  conifers,  birch,  sorb,  poplar,  and  willow.  In  the  underwood  are 
several  species  of  berries  contributing  to  the  sustenance  of  the  inhabitants,  who  also 
dig  for  roots  and  tubers,  from  some  of  which  they  prepare  intoxicating  drinks.  A 
pecvdiar  article  of  diet  is  the  green  bark  of  the  birch  mixed  with  caviar.  In  some 
of  the  fertile  valleys,  especially  in  Kamchatka,  the  hay  often  grows  5  or  6  feet 
high,  and  is  sometimes  mown  three  times  a  year  by  the  Russian  settlers.  But  the 
repeated  attempts  to  grow  cereals  have  mostly  failed.  Although  the  cHmate  is 
equable  enough,  thanks  to  the  surrounding  seas,  the  fogs  and  hoar  frosts  coiaciding 
with  the  flowering  time  have  nearly  always  killed  the  plants.  Oats  succeed  best, 
and  some  hemp  is  also  cultivated,  though  not  ia  sufficient  quantities  to  dispense 
with  the  thistle  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  Kamchadale  nets.  Gardening  has 
succeeded  better  than  the  raising  of  crops,  and  the  cabbage,  potato,  beet,  tui-nip, 
carrot,  and  other  vegetables  introduced  from  Russia  in  the  eighteenth  centui-y  are 
now  cultivated  in  thousands  of  native  gardens.  Yet  all  these  sources  supply  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  food  required  by  the  Kamchadales  and  their  dogs,  without 
which  they  could  scarcely  leave  their  huts  in  -n-inter.  During  the  fom-  summer 
months  they  have  to  lay  up  their  stock  of  di-ied  fish  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  Fish 
is  the  regular  wiater  food  of  the  dogs,  six  of  which,  forming  the  usual  team  of  a 
sleigh,  will  consmne  over  one  hundred  thousand  herrings  in  the  cold  season.  The 
family  has  also  to  be  provided  for,  and  iu  hard  times,  when  the  chase  and  fishing  fail 
to  supply  sufficient  store  for  winter,  many  perish  ine^^tably.  "Winter  and  want  are 
synonymous  terms  for  most  of  the  natives. 

The  famia  of  North-east  Siberia  is  richer  than  that  of  the  ^Vrctic  regions  farther 
west.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  form  of  the  continent,  which,  bj^  contracting 
towards  Bering  Strait,  brings  the  animals  migrating  from  the  west  in  contact  with 
those  coming  from  the  south.  To  these  have  been  added  some  American  species, 
such  as  birds  and  quadrupeds  crossing  the  strait  on  the  ice.     The  most  numerous 


CLIMATE— FAUNA  AND  FLOEA.  407 

mammal  is  the  Alpine  hare,  which  wiU  even  approach  the  tents  notwithstanding 
the  half-famished  dogs  jirowling  about.  The  bear,  marmot,  weasel,  and  otter  are 
also  common,  and  the  wild  reindeer  roams  in  herds  of  thousands  in  the  hUly  regions 
of  the  Upper  Anadir  basin.  Snakes,  frogs,  and  toads  are  nowhere  met,  but  the 
fauna  includes  the  lizard,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as  an  animal  of  ill  omen,  and 
as  the  spy  of  the  evil  spirits.  When  seen  they  were  always  set  ujDon  and  cut  to 
pieces  to  prevent  them  from  reporting  on  whom  their  evil  eye  had  fallen. 

Thanks  to  the  relative  advantages  of  its  climate,  Kamchatka  naturally  abounds 
far  more  in  animal  species  than  the  Bering  peninsula  and  the  Anadir  basin.  The 
lemmings  [^Mi/odes  torquatus^  and  other  small  rodents  swarm  in  countless  millions, 
their  hosts  crossing  rivers,  lakes,  and  even  inlets  of  the  sea  in  straight  lines,  and 
are  decimated  on  the  route  by  shoals  of  voracious  fish.  At  certain  points  travellers 
have  been  arrested  for  houi-s  while  these  vast  armies  were  marching  past.  Their 
migrations  last  several  months,  covering  distances  of  over  600  miles.  Thus  the 
Kamchatka  lemmings  set  out  in  spring,  and  after  skirting  the  Gulf  of  Penjina, 
north  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  reach  their  summer  camping  grounds  on  the  west 
coast  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  generally  get  back  to  Kamchatka  in  October. 
However,  the  migrations  are  not  regular,  and,  according  to  Bove,  the  lemmings  of 
the  Chukchi  coast  are  sedentary  and  non-gregarious.  The  Kamchadales  are  greatly 
rejoiced  when  the  animals  make  no  preparations  for  quitting  their  ^\'inter  quarters 
at  the  usual  time,  anticipating  from  this  sj-mptom  a  good  season  and  abundance  of 
everything.  The  industrious  and  provident  lemmings  store  up  their  supplies  of 
corn  and  roots  in  large  underground  depots,  which  they  are  said  to  cover  with 
poisonous  herbs  when  setting  out,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  the  depredations 
of  other  species  of  rodents.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  statement  of  Krasheninnikov, 
who,  however,  does  not  vouch  for  its  truth.  In  hard  times  the  Kamchadales  draw 
from  these  storehouses,  but  never  fail  to  replace  what  they  have  taken  with  caviar 
or  fish,  in  order  not  to  di-ive  these  beneficent  purveyors  to  despair. 

Many  animal  species  have  been  reduced  in  numbers  since  the  Russian  hunters 
have  begim  the  systematic  work  of  extermination  in  these  regions.  The  bearers  of 
valuable  furs,  sables,  ermines,  gluttons,  foxes,  are  now  seldom  met,  and  many  hunt- 
ing stations  have  been  abandoned  since  the  disappearance  of  the  game.  But  in 
Kamchatka  from  6,000  to  9,000  sables  are  yearly  taken  and  exported  to  Russia  by 
American  traders  settled  at  Petropavlovsk  and  on  the  Okhotsk  coast.  The  various 
species  of  foxes  were  so  plentiful  in  the  eighteenth  century  that  though  driven 
from  the  Kamchadale  tents  with  blows  of  sticks,  they  would  still  retm-n  to  share 
the  meal  with  the  dogs.  But  now  they  have  become  very  scarce,  and  the  costly 
blue  species  is  said  to  have  been  replaced  by  one  bearing  a  white  fur  of  little  value. 

The  work  of  extermination  has  been  even  more  thorough  in  the  seas,  from  which 
some  species  have  disapjDcared  altogether.  Till  the  middle  of  the  present  centmy 
the  whales  were  met  in  most  abtmdance  in  the  Bering  waters,  which  were  visited  by 
hundreds  of  American  whalers,  especially  from  New  Bedford  and  other  New  Eng- 
land ports.  But  these  waters,  like  those  of  Spitzbergen  and  other  parts  of  the  Atlantic, 
are  now  frequented  only  by  a  few  stray  specimens,  and  none  at  all  are  said  to  be 


408  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

found  west  of  Serdtze-Kamen.  The  soa-otters,  whose  fur  is  very  valuable,  are  no 
louo'er  met  on  the  shores  of  Bering  Island,  where  Steller  and  his  associates  killed 
700  of  these  animals  dui-ing  the  eight  months  of  their  residence  there.  The  sea- 
lion  ( Otaria  Stelleri),  formidable  in  appearance,  but  really  a  timid  creature,  is  only 
met  here  and  there  on  a  few  isolated  spots,  though  formerly  abounding  in  these 
waters.  The  great  sea-cow  also,  which  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  lamentin 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  which  was  so  called  by  certain  naturalists,  has  been 
completely  exterminated.  Seen  for  the  first  time  by  Steller  in  174:1,  the  last 
specimens  are  supposed  to  have  been  killed  about  1780.  In  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  centmy  this  huge  monster,  28  to  30  feet  long  and  weighing  over  3  tons, 
was  abundant  enough  to  supply  food  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  Kamchatka ;  but  its 
range  was  limited  by  the  Commander's  Archipekgo,  where  the  bed  of  the  sea  was 
covered  with  forests  of  algas  growing  80  to  100  feet  high,  and  forming  their  chief 
grazing  grounds.  Being  thus  confined  to  a  restricted  area,  the  whole  species  was 
destroyed  in  less  than  half  a  century. 

The  sea-bear  (Otaria  ursina)  was  also  threatened  with  speedy  extinction,  when 
an  American  Company  owning  the  Pribilov  Islands  obtained  from  the  Russian 
Govermnent  the  exclusive  right  to  hunt  this  animal  in  the  Bering  waters  for  a  tax 
of  two  roubles  for  each  capture.  A  village  of  300  Aleutians  from  Atcha  Island 
has  been  built  by  the  company  on  the  north-west  side  of  Bering  Island,  which  was 
uninhabited  till  then.  Reared  in  herds  almost  Hke  domestic  animals,  and  protected 
from  indiscriminate  slaughter,  the  sea-bears  have  multiplied  prodigiously  dui'ing 
the  last  twenty  years,  and  whereas  formerly  the  hunt  never  yielded  more  than 
3,200  in  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian  and  Commander's  Ai'chipelagos,  from  12,000 
to  13,000  are  now  annually  killed  in  Bering  Island  alone.  These  animals  have  the 
sense  of  property  developed  to  a  remarkable  degree.  Each  head  of  a  family,  con- 
sisting of  from  100  to  150  members,  selects  some  camping  ground  on  the  rocks, 
and  immediately  attacks  the  first  stranger  who  attempts  to  encroach  in  his 
domain.  Spectators  assemble  fi-om  all  quarters,  and  generally  end  by  taking  part 
in  the  fight,  which  thus  often  rages  over  spaces  several  hundred  yards  in  extent. 
The  male  is  very  tender  and  watchful,  but  also  very  irritable,  and  should  a  female 
let  her  little  one  fall,  he  bangs  her  against  the  rocks  and  knocks  her  about  unmerci- 
fully.    But  the  quarrel  is  soon  over,  and  followed  by  much  mutual  weeping. 

Inhabitants — The  Chukchis. 

Being  almost  exclusively  fishers,  hmiters,  or  pastors,  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Bering  peninsula,  of  Kamchatka  and  neighboui-ing  islands,  regulate  their  pursuit 
entirely  according  to  the  climatic  conditions,  almost  everywhere  changing  their 
di-ess,  diet,  dwellings,  and  camping  groimds  with  the  seasons.  The  Chukchis,  or 
Chauktus — that  is  to  say,  "  Men  "  * — who  are  the  most  numerous  nation  in  north- 
east Siberia,  follow  their  reindeer  herds  over  the  whole  of  the  Bering  peninsula,  the 

*  But  Hooper  ("  Ten  Months  among  the  Tents  of  the  Tusk:  ")  says  that  their  real  name  is  Tuaki ; 
that  is,  "Brothers,"  or  "  Confederates." 


.'^^ 


r*r%^ 


t 


THE  CHUKCHIS.  409 

Anadir  basin,  and  beyond  the  last  spurs  of  the  Stanovoi,  in  the  tundras  watered  by 
the  rivers  Kolima  and  Indigirka.  The  limits  of  their  territory  south  of  the 
Yukaghir  coimtiy  were  fixed  in  1869  bj-  an  imperial  decree.  But  although  their 
domain  thus  comprises  altogether  about  320,000  square  miles,  it  contains  a  popula- 
tion of  not  more  than  12,000.  Bove,  of  the  Nordenskjold  expedition,  estimates  the 
Chukchis  themselves  at  from  3,000  to  5,000  only ;  but  he  made  no  extensive  incur- 
sions into  the  interior,  and  was  acquainted  with  the  coast  tribes  alone.  He  traces 
them  originally  to  the  Amur  basin,  while  Neumann  brings  them  from  the  northern 
parts  of  the  New  World. 

The  Chukchi  type  is  that  of  the  round-headed  Mongolian,  with  broad,  flat 
featm-es  and  high  cheek  bones.  The  nose  is  often  so  deejjly  embedded  between  the 
puffed  cheeks  that  a  ruler  might  be  placed  across  the  face  without  touching  it. 
The  lips  are  thick,  and  the  black  hair  falling  over  a  low  brow  renders  it  still  lower 
in  appearance.  The  Chvikchis  have  a  strong  neck,  vigorous  muscles,  fine  and 
delicate  extremities,  and  are  mostly  of  low  size,  though  some  of  tall  stature  are  met. 
They  have,  on  the  whole,  a  decided  physical  resemblance  to  the  American  Eskimo, 
and  by  means  of  these  two  nations  the  transition  is  imperceptibly  effected  between 
the  aborigines  of  the  Old  and  New  "World.  From  the  Red  Skins  to  the  Yakuts 
and  Bm-iats,  constant  interminglings  have  produced  all  the  intermediate  links, 
bringing  the  relationship  closer  and  closer,  although  the  languages  stiU  present 
fimdamental  differences  Some  of  the  Chukchis  perfectly  resemble  the  Dakotah 
Indians,  while  the  obvious  analogy  of  type  between  them  and  the  Eskimo,  their 
common  usages  and  implements  Kke  those  of  the  stone  age  in  Europe  and  America, 
have  induced  some  anthropologists  to  suppose  that  these  two  sub- Arctic  peoples  are 
the  survivors  of  a  prehistoric  race,  gradually  di'iven  northwards  by  pressure  from 
the  south.  Thus  their  ancestors  would  have  to  be  sought  not  in  their  present 
domain,  but  in  the  southern  regions  where  the  vestiges  are  stiU  found  of  arts  and 
industries  analogous  to  their  own. 

However  this  may  be,  the  present  Chukchis  do  not  look  like  a  people  in  decay, 
but  hold  their  own  well  amongst  the  other  natives  of  the  Siberian  seaboard.  Their 
relations  with  the  Slavs  are  of  too  slight  a  character  to  make  the  Russian  rule  much 
felt,  and  many  of  them  are  even  xmaware  of  the  existence  of  the  "  White  Czar," 
who  is  spoken  of  with  such  awe  and  respect  by  the  Mongolians  of  the  Chinese 
frontier.  Owing  to  their  contact  with  the  American  whalers  they  are  better 
acquainted  with  the  United  States  than  with  Russia,  and  many  English  words  have 
been  introduced  into  their  language.  They  pay  the  yassak  in  fox  or  other  skins, 
and  understand  that  this  tax  passes  from  hand  to  hand  to  the  feet  of  a  great 
potentate  enthroned  in  Irkutsk ;  but  they  do  not  know  that  this  chief  is  the 
servant  of  one  more  powerful  still. 

The  Chukchi  nation  is  naturally  divided  into  two  distinct  groups,  the  inland 
and  the  coast  people,  differing  not  onlj-  in  habits  and  piirsuits,  but  even  in  speech. 
Those  of  the  timdras,  living  on  the  flesh  and  milk  of  their  reindeer,  are  generally 
more  comfortable  than  the  fishing  tribes,  although  even  amongst  the  latter  great 
disparity  of  fortunes  often  prevails.     According  to  Bove  there  are  stiU  herds  of 


410  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

from  20,000  to  30,000  belonging  to  one  person,  while  KrasheninnLkov  speaks  of 
Koriak  chiefs  owners  of  as  many  as  100,000  reindeer.  The  reindeer  pastors  are 
constantly  on  the  move,  migrating  across  the  timdras  for  hundreds  of  miles  between 
the  rivers  Kolima  and  Anadir.  From  these  roaming  habits  they  hare  developed  a 
remarkable  talent  for  tracing  charts  of  the  coimtry  on  the  ground.  Many  travellers 
speak  with  admiration  of  these  plans,  by  the  help  of  which  they  have  often  been 
enabled  to  traverse  the  wilderness  with  perfect  confidence.  The  herdsmen  have 
also  the  faculty  of  gaining  the  attachment  of  their  herds.  They  generally  despise 
the  fishing  tribes,  who  are  more  sedentary,  less  brave  and  careful  of  their  personal 
appearance,  and  also  much  poorer  than  the  reindeer  Chiikchis,  from  whom  they 
are  obliged  to  beg  for  hides  to  make  their  tents  and  garments.  The  two  great 
di%-isions  may  possibly  even  belong  to  distinct  races,  for  they  difier  both  in  type 
and  speech.  The  fisher  is  more  exposed  to  the  risk  of  himger  during  winter,  and 
is  compelled  to  be  more  provident  in  lapng  in  supplies.  He  dries  the  fish,  and 
collects  the  sprouts  of  the  dwarf  willow  and  of  several  other  plants,  which,  after 
being  fermented  and  then  frozen,  supply  him  with  a  winter  salad  and  soup.  He 
also  digs  for  various  roots  and  tubers,  and  the  old  women  remove  from  the  stomach 
of  the  reindeer  the  stiU  imdigested  green  stuff,  which,  as  with  the  Eskimo,  fonns 
one  of  their  most  keenly  relished  dishes.  But  the  staple  of  their  food  is  fish.  The 
smeU  of  the  seal  oil  used  for  heating  and  lighting  pui-poses  contributes  to  render 
life  amongst  them  almost  intolerable  to  Europeans. 

The  Chukchis  were  formerly  a  warlike  and  conquering  people.  They  fought 
valiantly  against  the  Russians,  and  when  they  at  last  consented  to  enter  into  com- 
mercial relations  with  them,  they  presented  their  wares  on  the  point  of  the  spear. 
Even  recently  the  Onkilon  nation,  dwelling  on  the  coast  about  Cape  North,  has  been 
expelled  by  the  Chukchis.  Nordenskjold  saw  an  abandoned  -^-iUage  belonging  to 
the  vanquished  tribe,  the  survivors  from  which  had  fled  to  the  south  of  Bering 
Strait,  near  the  Anadir  delta,  and  are  known  to  most  Russian  writers  imder  the 
name  of  Ankali  or  Namollo.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  agglutinant 
language  from  the  siu-roimding  Chukchi  tribes,  who,  according  to  Bove,  speak  a 
dialect  of  Mongolian  orig-in.  The  Chukchis  wore  cuii'asses  of  whale-skin  or  other 
armour  of  wood  and  ivory  like  that  of  the  Japanese,  but  have  laid  all  this  aside 
with  their  warlike  habits.  At  present  thej-  are  the  most  peaceful  people  in  the 
world,  devotedly  attached  to  each  other,  full  of  kindly  feeling  and  good-humour 
under  all  their  trials,  and  extremely  gentle  in  their  familj'  relations.  They  no 
longer  kill  off  the  old  people,  as  formerly  required  by  filial  devotion,  in  order  thus 
to  spare  them  the  inevitable  struggle  -with  cold  and  hunger.  According  to 
Onatzevich  most  of  the  old  men  now  make  away  with  themselves  to  relieve  their 
children  from  the  pain  of  having  to  give  the  fatal  blow.  In  1848  Hooper  met  a 
young  man  who  had  just  dispatched  his  mother  at  her  own  request,  and  whose 
obedience  had  been  approved  by  all. 

Having  become  Christians  and  "  civilised "  by  their  intercourse  with  the 
American  whalers,  the  Chukchis  have  given  up  some  of  their  old  rites ;  biit  they 
etill  bum  their  dead,  or  expose  them  on  platforms  to  be  devoured  by  the  ravens. 


THE  CHUXCHIS.  411 

They  also  sacrifice  animals  to  the  genii  of  the  hills,  rivers,  and  hot  springs,  and 
purchase  two  or  more  wives  when  rich  enough  in  reindeer  to  justify  this  expensive 
luxury.  Thanks  to  the  women,  who  set  up  the  tents,  dress  the  food,  span  the 
reindeer,  the  men  are  able  to  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  fishing,  hunting,  and 
trade.  But  although  apparently  slaves,  the  women  are  the  real  masters.  The 
children  are  treated  with  great  kindness,  are  carried  about  by  father  and  mother 
alternately,  and  never  allowed  to  suffer  from  cold  or  hunger.  They  are  so  wrapped 
in  skins  as  to  resemble  a  round  ball  crossed  by  a  bar,  their  outstretched  arms  being 
imable  to  hang  down  the  sides  of  their  packing-cases. 

The  Chukchis  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  Timguses  more  than  by  any 
other  Siberian  people.  The  costume  of  both  is  alike  in  cut  and  ornamental  details, 
and  many  Chukchi  women  are  tattooed  in  Tungus  fashion  with  two  black-blue 
convex  lines  running  from  the  eye  to  the  chin,  and  serving  as  a  stem  for  a  rich 
floriated  design  ramifying  towards  nose  and  mouth.  Amongst  others  the  pattern 
is  reversed,  the  primary  lines  from  temple  to  chin  following  the  anterior  swelling 
of  the  cheek,  with  circles  and  other  cm-ves  branching  to  the  lobe  of  the  ear.  Since 
they  have  been  baptized  some  of  the  men  have  the  chin  painted  with  a  Latin  cross 
in  black,  which  replaces  the  tooth  of  the  sea-horse  thrust  by  their  forefathers 
through  the  cheek,  and  regarded  as  the  most  highly  prized  ornament  by  the 
warriors.  A  rude  representation  of  fighting  or  hunting  exploits  is  also  tattooed  on 
the  breast.  The  search  made  by  Nordenskjold  and  his  associates  amongst  the  old 
kitchen  refuse  of  the  Chukchis  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  ornaments  and  utensils 
of  stone,  bone,  or  fish  and  manunoth  teeth.  The  resemblance  between  most  of  these 
objects  and  those  in  use  amongst  the  Greenlanders  is  complete,  the  coincidence 
being  too  great  to  be  accoimted  for  by  the  like  surroimdings.  Hence  they  must  be 
regarded  as  the  result  of  commercial  relations  carried  on  from  tribe  to  tribe  from 
the  Bering  peninsula  through  the  Eskimo  coimtry  to  Labrador  and  Greenland.  In 
the  same  way  the  Turki  word  for  boat  or  skiff  has  passed  under  the  form  of  hayak, 
on  the  one  hand,  from  the  Yakuts  to  the  Chukchis,  and  so  on  to  the  Eskimo  and 
Greenlander ;  on  the  other,  through  the  Osmanli  Tui'ks,  to  the  elegant  caique  of  the 
Bosporus,  whence  it  has  been  transmitted  under  Spanish  influence  to  the  cayuco  of 
the  American  aborigines. 

As  forming  the  medium  of  trade  between  Siberia  and  America,  the  Chidcchis 
seem  to  have  been  formerly  very  powerful  on  the  coasts  of  Bering  Strait.  They 
held  the  foremost  position  amongst  the  Eskimo  and  other  traders,  who  met  for 
barter  especially  in  one  of  the  Diomede  or  Gvozdeva  group,  in  the  middle  of  the 
strait.  But  the  commercial  supremacy  has  now  passed  to  the  Americans,  who 
have  supplied  the  Chukchis  with  iron  instruments  to  replace  those  of  stone  or  bone, 
and  who  have  brought  them  into  relation  wdth  the  industrial  world.  American 
implements  and  fishing  gear,  revolvers  and  breech-loaders,  have  already  foimd  their 
way  to  the  strait,  accomjianied,  unf ortimately,  by  the  fatal  brandy,  for  a  small  glass 
of  which  adulterated  stuff  the  Chukchis  will  eagerly  exchange  all  the  produce  of 
the  chase  and  fisheries.  But  when  sober  they  scarcely  yield  to  theii-  Yakut  neigh- 
bours in  driving  a  bargain. 


412  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

Since  the  above  was  passed  through  the  press  Mr.  W.  H.  Dall,  of  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey,  has  communicated  a  letter  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  for  September,  1881,  in  which  he  argues  against  Lieutenant 
Nordqvist,  of  the  Vega  expedition,  that  the  Chukchis  are  simply  a  branch  of  the 
Koriak  race.  The  Chukchi  peninsida,  he  writes,  "  is  inhabited  by  two  races  who 
live  in  intimate  commercial  imion,  but  who  possess  radically  different  languages, 
who  do  not  intermarry,  and  whose  modes  of  life  are  for  the  most  part  perfectly 
distinct.  They  communicate  with  each  other,  and  with  the  whalers  and  traders,  by 
means  of  an  imgrammatical  jargon  composed  of  words  of  both  languages,  and  this 
jargon,  being  written  down  by  travellers  as  the  real  language  of  the  people,  has  been 
the  main  agent  in  producing  the  present  confusion."  The  two  races  in  question  are 
the  Eskimo  and  the  Koriaks.  The  Eskimo,  settled  exclusively  on  the  coast,  are 
comparatively  recent  arrivals  from  the  opposite  shores  of  America,  and  call  them- 
selves Yuit — that  is,  "People" — a  contracted  form  of  the  American  Eskimo  word 
Innult.  The}^  occupy  a  far  more  extensive  strip  of  territory  than  is  usually  sup- 
posed.    "  The  supposition  that  the  Innuit  race  are  only  foimd  west  and  south  of 

Cape  Chukotski  is  erroneous The  East  Cape  village  is  essentiallj^  an  Innuit 

settlement,  though  it  may  contain  some  Korak  (Koriak)  residents.  I  .suspect  that 
they  extend  much  farther  to  the  westward  on  the  North  Siberian  coast,  but  of  this 
I  have  only  the  evidence  of  intelligent  whalers  and  traders,  such  as  Captains  Rad- 
field,  Owen,  Smith,  and  Herendeen,  who  have  had  ten  or  fifteen  years'  experience 
with  them,  and  who  all  clearly  recognise  the  racial  distinctions." 

The  rest  of  the  seaboard  and  all  the  interior  are  peoijled  with  "  roving  bands 
belonging  to  different  branches  of  the  Korak,  or  Koriak  nation,  who  are  distin- 
guished by  different  names,  as  Deer  Koraks,  Dog  Koraks,  Chukches,  Reindeer 
Men,   "Wandering    Chukches,    &c.     They   all   speak    dialects   of   the    Korak 

TONGUE,  and  chiefly  depend  upon  the  reindeer  for  their  subsistence It  being 

remembered  that  the  Korak  people  inhabit  the  whole  of  the  interior,  that  some  of 
them  are  almost  alwaj^s  present  in  the  Innuit  villages  on  commercial  or  other  bu.si- 
ness,  and  accompany  the  parties  of  Inniiit  who  board  the  whalers  and  traders  for 
barter,  that  each  locality  has  both  a  Korak  and  Innuit  name,  and  that  the  jargon 
of  both  languages  is  the  means  of  communication,  it  will  be  realised  how  great  the 
difficulty  is  for  a  transient  ^■isitor  to  disentangle. 

"  "We  learn  from  Erman  that  the  so-called  '  Chukchis  '  in  the  west  of  the  penin- 
sula call  themselves  Tsau-chu.  At  Plover  Bay  I  ascertained  that  those  in  that 
vicinity  call  themselves  Tsau-yu  (plural,  Tsau-yu-at).  According  to  Stimpson, 
those  of  Semavini  Strait  call  themselves  Tsati-  (or  Tsii^  tsin,  whence  the  word 
Chukche  might  easilj'  be  derived.  Those  of  St.  Lawrence  Bay  call  themselves 
Tsau-gu ;  and  on  the  north  coast,  according  to  Nordqvist,  they  call  themselves 
'  Chau-chau '  (plural  -nfe^,  which  I  suspect  to  be  merely  a  rendering  of  the  term 
given  by  Erman."  To  this  it  may  be  added  that,  according  to  Hooper,*  the  true 
form  of  the  word  is  Tiiski,  which  means  "  Brothers,"  or  "  Confederates." 

*  "Ten  Months  among  the  Tents  of  the  Tuski." 


THE  KOEIAKS  AND  KAMCHADALES.  413 

The  Kokiaks  and  Kamchadales. 

The  Chxikchi  ethnical  domain  seems  to  stretch  beyond  the  strait  to  the  American 
mainland,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  some  Eskimo  communities  are  settled  on  the 
Asiatic  side,  at  least  if  the  Ankali  or  NamoUos  belong,  as  is  generally  supposed,  to 
this  stock.  The  Koriaks,  who  dwcU  south  of  the  Anadir  basin,  about  the  neck  of 
the  Kamchatka  peninsula,  in  the  PeujLaa  valley,  and  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  seem  to  be  related  to  the  Chukchis,  and  speak  a  dialect  closely 
resembling  theirs.  Estimated  at  over  5,000,  they  are  di^dded,  lilie  the  Chukchis, 
into  settled  fishing  tribes  and  nomad  reindeer  keej^ers  and  hmiters.  The  southern 
limit  of  their  territory  in  Kamchatka  is  the  village  of  Tigil,  on  the  river  Syedonka, 
where  they  go  once  a  year  to  barter  with  the  Kamchadales  and  Russians.  Tigil  is 
the  commercial  centre  of  the  west  coast  of  the  peniusida. 

Travellers  do  not  speak  very  highly  of  the  sedentary  Koriaks,  who  live  mostly 
on  the  northern  bays  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  Descended  from  ruined  nomads 
deprived  of  their  reindeer  herds,  their  only  resource  is  fishing  and  trade  with 
foreign  sailors  and  Russian  dealers.  From  the  former  they  have  acquired  drimken 
and  dissipated  habits,  from  the  latter  lying  and  thievish  projiensities.  Thej'  are 
eaten  up  by  vice  and  squalor,  and  are  probably  the  most  degraded  of  aU  Siberian 
tribes.  But  the  Koriak  nomads,  still  owning  nimierous  reindeer  herds,  accustomed 
to  a  free  and  independent  life,  and  with  the  fvill  consciousness  of  their  equality,  do 
not  jdeld  to  the  Tunguses  in  intelligence,  uprightness,  natural  dignity,  and  manly 
bearing.  They  recognise  neither  government  nor  outward  laws,  the  owner  of  even 
a  dozen  reindeer  being  a  master  and  "  law  unto  himself."  The  families  are  gene- 
rally associated  in  groujjs  of  sixes  or  sevens,  forming  small  commonwealths,  in 
which  all  have  an  equal  voice,  and  join  or  leave  at  pleasure.  The  Layon,  as  the 
wealthiest  member  of  the  community  is  usually  called,  is  generally  consulted  by  the 
rest  on  the  choice  of  a  camping  groimd,  or  on  the  best  time  for  breaking  up,  but  he  has 
no  personal  authority.  In  other  respects  the  Koriak  nomads  are  the  most  obliging 
and  hospitable  of  Siberians,  and  in  their  domestic  relations  the  best  of  husbands 
and  fathers.  During  two  years  and  a  half's  residence  amongst  them  Kennan 
never  saw  a  Koriak  nomad  beat  any  of  his  family.  They  also  treat  their  animals 
very  gentlj',  and  so  attached  are  they  to  their  herds  that  they  wiU  refuse  to  sell  a 
live  reindeer  to  strangers  at  any  price.  Even  for  their  own  use  they  abstain  from 
killing  them  except  under  severe  pressure,  and  they  are  consequently,  in  a  relative 
sense,  the  largest  owners  of  reindeer  in  Siberia. 

In  their  habits  the  Koriaks  naturally  show  points  of  contact  with  the  Chidichis 
and  Kamchadales,  between  whom  they  live,  and  with  whom  they  have  frequent 
trading  relations.  They  have  also  great  confidence  in  their  shamans,  able  conjurers 
who  perform  the  most  surprising  tricks  in  the  open  air.  The  Koriaks  offer  sacri- 
fices to  the  evil  spirits,  considering  it  useless  to  propitiate  the  favourable  deities. 
The  heads  of  the  victims  are  stuck  on  stones  facing  the  rising  sun.  Like  the 
Kamchadales,  they  are  obliged  to  earn  their  wives  by  working  one  or  more  years 
under  the  father-in-law's  roof.     Till  the  wedding-day,  brought  about  by  a  feigned 

VOL.    VI.  E    E 


414  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

abduction,  the  betrothed  is  guarded  by  vigilant  duennas,  -who  drive  ofE  the  too 
importunate  suitor  livith  thongs,  whips,  and  sticks.  The  custom  still  prevails  of 
killing  the  aged  and  sickly  in  order  to  spare  them  protracted  sufferings.  All 
Koriaks  regard  this  kind  of  death  as  the  natural  end  of  their  existence,  and  when 
the  time  seems  at  hand  they  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  they  desire  this  supreme 
proof  of  filial  affection  to  be  carried  out.  Some  prefer  stoning,  while  others  choose 
the  axe  or  knife.  All  yoimg  Koriaks  practise  the  art  of  gi'S'ing  the  fatal  blow  in 
such  a  way  as  to  inflict  the  least  pain  on  the  victim.  Immediately  after  death  the 
body  is  burnt,  so  that  the  spirit  may  escape  into  the  air.  At  the  time  of  Krashenin- 
nikov's  visit  infanticide  was  common,  and  of  twins  one  was  always  sacrificed. 

A  number  of  the  Koriaks  have  hitherto  contrived  to  completely  maintain  their 
independence,  and  do  not  even  pay  the  tribute  to  the  Russian  officials.  No  other 
Siberian  people  have  struggled  so  manfully  to  preserve  their  freedom  from  the  Rus- 
sians. In  their  warfare  with  the  Cossacks  they  always  proved  the  most  formidable 
of  adversaries,  because  they  had  really  "  made  a  bargain  with  death."  When  they 
foimd  themselves  surroimded  by  enemies  too  nimierous  and  too  well  armed  to  be 
overcome,  they  took  an  oath  to  "  lose  the  sun,"  slaughtered  their  women  and  chil- 
dren to  save  them  from  slavery  or  torture,  burnt  all  they  possessed,  then  rushed 
into  the  midst  of  the  carnage.  No  one  thought  of  flying,  all  fighting  to  the  last, 
and  falling  side  by  side  amidst  heaps  of  the  slain. 

The  Kamchadales,  or  Itehnen,  by  the  Koriaks  called  Konchalo,  probably  owe 
their  Russian  name  to  that  of  the  river  Kamchatka,  which  has  also  become  that  of 
the  whole  peninsula.  They  are  quite  distinct,  both  from  the  Chukchis  and 
Koriaks,  and  evidently  belong  to  another  stock,  although  under  like  climatic 
conditions  all  these  peoples  have  adopted  analogous  habits.  They  are  generally 
smaller  than  the  Koriaks,  whom  they  otherwise  resemble  in  their  roimd,  broad 
features,  prominent  cheek  bones,  small  deep-set  eyes,  flat  nose,  black  hair,  swarthy 
complexion.  Their  language,  which  is  A'ery  guttural,  differs  in  its  syntax  from 
that  of  the  Koriaks,  and  is  composed  of  imchangeable  roots,  whose  sense  is  modified 
by  prefixes.  But  this  peculiar  idiom  is  rapidly  disappearing,  like  the  race  itself. 
In  certain  places,  and  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Kamchatka  River,  the  popula- 
tion has  become  almost  thoroughly  Russified,  and  the  old  speech  is  here  no  longer 
current.  Having  become  "orthodox"  Christians,  and  diversely  iatermingled  by 
marriage  with  the  Russian  settlers,  the  Kamchadales  are  becoming  gradually 
absorbed  in  their  masters,  and  the  national  type  has  even  been  effaced.  The 
Kuriles,  as  those  of  the  south  are  called,  have  not  yet  entirely  lost  their  native 
speech,  and  those  of  the  Penjina  valley  are  the  least  Slavonized  of  the  native  tribes, 
their  language  ha%'ing  adopted  but  few  Russian  elements. 

The  number  of  still  remaining  full-blood  Kamchadales  is  estimated  at  about 
3,000.  They  are  mostly  of  a  remarkably  gentle  disposition,  and  very  honest, 
except  in  the  villages,  where,  by  dint  of  cheating  them,  the  Russians  have  taught 
them  deceitful  habits.  Their  house  is  open  winter  and  sxmimer  to  all  comers,  they 
never  weary  of  being  useful,  and  soon  forget  injuries,  preserving  an  astonishing 
equanimity  of  temperament  in  the  midst  of  much   suffering  and    ill-treatment. 


THE  KOEIAKS  AND  KAMCHADALES. 


415 


Before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians  they  were  their  own  masters,  but  the  oppression 
of  the  first  conquerors  drove  them  to  rebel  in  1731  and  1740.  Since  then, 
however,  they  have  abandoned  all  thoughts  of  resistance,  ■  and  the  humblest 
representative  of  authority  is  now  received  with  a  respect  bordering  on  veneration. 
Pre-eminently  conservative  in  all  their  ways,  they  never  abandon  a  track  once  laid 


Fig.  210.— AvACHA  Bat. 
Scale  1  :  280,000. 


LOFG^  158*30 


I58°50' 


Oto  5  Fathoms. 


5  to  13  Fathoms.  13  Fathoms  and  upwards. 
^^.^-^—  3  Miles. 


down  by  their  fathers  until  it  has  been  trodden  iato  an  absolutely  impassable  rut. 
There  is  nothing  of  the  heroic  temperament  of  the  Koriaks  about  them,  and  the 
burden  of  their  plaintive  songs,  which  seem  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  mournful 
cry  of  certain  sea-birds,  is  not  the  warlike  deeds  of  their  forefathers,  but  the 
hxmibler  themes  of  love,  labour,  sleighing  trips,  hunting  and  fishing  expeditions. 
In  their  imitative  dances  they  mimic  the  movements  of  animals  with  wonderful 

E    E    2 


416  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

skill,  bounding  like  the  reiadeer,  trotting  off  Uke  the  fox,  and  even  plunging  into 
the  water  and  swimming  like  the  seal.  Their  old  religious  practices  have  heen 
discontinued,  though  the  report  is  still  occasionally  heard  of  a  dog  sacriiiced  here 
and  there  to  the  evil  spirits,  who  scare  away  the  fish  and  the  game.  Many 
ceremonies,  which  were  formerly  religious  acts,  have  gradually  become  dramatic 
entertainments,  and  their  superstitions  are  scarcely  any  longer  to  be  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  Slav,  Finn,  Manchu,  or  other  inhabitants  of  Siberia. 

But  for  their  dogs,  the  life  of  the  Kamchadales  would  have  to  be  completely 
modified  during  the  eight  winter  months.  These  animals,  which  are  wolfish  in 
appearance,  size,  fm-,  and  even  voice,  seek  their  food  in  simmier  along  the  river 
banks  and  in  the  forests.  But  with  the  first  snow-flakes  they  return  faithfulh'  to 
their  master's  ba lagan.  In  courage  and  power  of  endui-ing  hardships  and  hunger 
they  are  surpassed  by  no  other  animal.  They  have  been  known  at  times  to  drag 
the  sleio-h  for  fortj'-elght  hours  at  a  stretch  without  any  food  beyond  the  bits  of 
leather  torn  from  their  harness.  A  team  of  eleven  dogs  will  generally  make  from 
36  to  48  nules  a  day,  yoked  to  a  sleigh  carrying  one  man  and  a  load  of  450  lbs., 
and  some  have  covered  twice  and  even  thrice  the  distance  in  the  same  time. 
Durino-  the  long  winter  months,  when  the  rivers  are  ice-bound  and  the  sea  wrapped 
in  foes  or  tossed  by  storms,  social  intercourse  between  the  Kamchadale  villages  is 
kept  up  entirely  by  the  dogs.  But  for  them  almost  every  family  group  would  find 
itself  blocked  up  in  its  underground  dwelling  dui-ing  that  season. 

Topography. 

In  the  vast  region  comprising  the  Chukchi  and  Kamchatka  peninsulas  no  large 
centres  of  population  have  been  developed.  Nevertheless,  Petropavlovsk,  although 
no  larger  than  a  small  European  town,  had  recently  taken  rank  as  an  important 
stronghold.  Lying  on  the  east  coast  of  the  magnificent  Avacha  Bay,  this  capital 
is  completely  sheltered  from  aU  winds,  and  large  vessels  may  lie  at  anchor  close  in 
shore.  In  more  favourable  latitudes,  and  near  populous  lands,  it  might  become  one 
of  the  great  emporiums  of  the  world.  But  since  the  whale  fisheries  of  the 
surrounding  seas  have  lost  their  importance,  and  the  peltry  trade  has  been  mono- 
polized by  a  few  dealers.  Petropavlovsk  has  been  greatly  reduced,  its  popidation 
rapidly  falling  from  about  1,000  to  500.  The  skins  of  the  sea-bear  taken  in  the 
Commander's  Archipelago  are  forwarded  by  the  American  Company  from  this 
port  to  San  Francisco,  where  they  are  dressed  for  the  market.  This  capital  of 
Kamchatka  is  proud  of  its  monuments,  erected  to  the  two  illustrious  na\-igators, 
Bering  and  La  Perouse,  whose  names  still  sur\'ive,  one  in  that  of  the  strait  flowing 
between  the  two  worlds,  the  other  in  that  of  the  channel  connecting  the  Seas  of 
Okhotsk  and  Japan.  The  old  fortifications  of  Petropavlovsk,  now  laid  out  in 
grass-plots  and  flower  beds,  recall  the  defeat  of  the  Anglo-French,  who  during 
the  Crimean  war  attacked  this  Kamchadale  village  at  the  extremity  of  the  Old 
World. 


:--:i^--- 


i 


STANOVOI  HIGHLANDS,  AMUE  BASIN,  EUSSIAN  MANCHUEIA.         417 

YII.— STAXOVOI  HIGHLANDS,  AiirR  BASIN,  EUSSIAN  MANCHURIA. 

Of  all  the  geographical  divisions  of  Siberia,  that  of  the  Amur  basin  and  neighbour- 
ing coast  lands  seems  destined  to  the  greatest  political  future.     "Washed  by  the 
Sea  of  Japan,  projecting  southwards  between  China  and  Corea,  and  bordering  on 
China  itself  in  the  neighboui-hood  of  the  "Great  TTall"   formerly  raised  as  a 
barrier  against  the  northern  barbarians,  the  valleys  of  the  Amur  and  of  its  southern 
affluents,  together  with  the  coast  of  Russian  Manchuria,  represent  in  the  extreme 
east  the  military  strength  of  a  nation  of  100,000,000  souls.     Here  also  is  the  only 
strip  of  vast  Russian  seaboard  bordering  on  a  sea  which  is  freely  open  for  nearly 
the  whole  year  to  the  oceanic  waters.     The  vessels  sailing  from  the  Manchurian 
ports  have  no  Bosporus  or  Sund  to  pass  through,  nor  are  they  ice-bound,  like 
those  of  Archangel,  for  some  eight  months  ia  the  year.     Although  lying  under  the 
same  parallels  as  the  Provence  and  Catalonian  shores,  the  inner  bays  of  Possiet  and 
Peter  the  Great  are  doubtless  blocked  by  ice  in  the  heart  of  -n-inter.     But  this 
circumstance  scarcely  impau-s  the  aggressive  power  of  their  fleets,  which  in  any 
case  might  winter  ia  some  friendly  port  farther  south.      What  Russian  Manchuria 
wants  before  it  can  acquire  the  political  ascendancy  claimed  for  it  by  Russia  is  a 
civilised  popvdation,  enriched  by  agricultiire,  trade,   and  industry.      Meanwhile 
these  regions  have  not  increased  in  population  as  rapidly  as  Russian  patriotism  had 
expected ;  highways  of  commxmication  are  still  lacking — distance  has  not  yet  been 
overcome.    The  line  connecting  Vladivostok  with  Kronstadt  exists  rather  iu  theory 
than  ia  reality,  for  the  chain  of  Russian  towns  and  cultivated  lands  intended  one 
day  to  connect  them  is  still  interrupted  by  broad  gaps  throughout  its  eastern 
section.     Nor  is  it  likeh-  to  be  rapidly  completed,  for  most  of  the  Amur  basin  is 
occupied  with  rugged  highlands,  lakes,  and  swamps,  and  here  there  are  even  many 
tracts  still  altogether  unexplored.     In  Asia  the  Czar  may  still  be  said  to  possess 
little  more  than  the  framework  of  an  empire. 

The  heights,  hills,  moimtains,  and  plateaux  limitiug  the  A  mm-  basin  on  the 
north  fonn  collectively  one  of  those  little-known  regions  which  are  still  vaguely 
figured  on  our  maps  by  the  process  of  connecting  together  the  already  explored 
sections  by  means  of  shadowy  crests  sketched  at  random.  The  winding  range 
traced  from  the  Transbaikal  plateau  to  the  Chukchi  peninsula  for  a  distance  of  over 
2,400  miles  is  in  reality  nothing  more  than  a  "  Great  Di^-ide."  Hence  Middendorff 
proposes  to  call  it  the  Stanovoi  Yodorazdyel,  or  "  Main  "Water-parting,"  instead 
of  the  Stanovoi  Khrebet,  or  "Dorsal  Chain,"  as  it  has  hitherto  been  wrongly 
named.  We  know  how  greatly  the  watersheds  maj'  differ  from  mountaia  ranges, 
which  in  many  places  are  crossed  by  them  at  right  angles.  A  slight  protuberance, 
the  mere  shiftiag  of  a  rock,  the  damming  up  of  a  morass  with  decayed  vegetation, 
or  a  dense  growth  of  reeds  will  at  times  suffice  to  change  the  di^-iding  line  between 
two  areas  of  di'ainage,  whereas  the  dii'ection  of  the  main  ranges  is  laid  down  for 
ages  by  the  great  disturbances,  foldings,  fractures,  or  upheavals  that  have  taken 
place  in  past  geological  epochs  on  the  earth's  crust.  These  ranges  themselves  are 
doubtless  modified  from  age  to  age  under  the  action  of  the  various  terrestrial  and 


418 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


atmospheric  agencies ;  but  their  axis  remains  none  the  less  unchanged.  It  reveals 
itself  by  the  imderground  rocks  wherever  the  mountain  has  disappeared ;  it  is  con- 
tinued beneath  the  watercourses  crossing  it  from  side  to  side  ;  its  presence  is  even 
conjectured  imder  broad  marine  inlets.  According  to  !N'yerchinsk,  the  conventional 
frontier  between  China  and  Russian  Siberia  was  intended  to  run  along  the  crest  of 
the  Stanovoi ;  but  this  was  never  anything  more  than  a  fictitious  limit.  Natural 
frontiers  are  not  formed  by  hypsometrical  lines,  but  by  distinct  climatic,  animal, 
and  vegetable  zones.     On  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Stanovoi,  as  well  as  in  the 

Fig.  211. — Plateaux  and  Highlaxes  of  East  Siberia. 
Scale  1  :  21,800,000. 


Lowlands       Plains  from   Low  Platean,  High  Plateau, 

above  500  to  2.300  to  above 

500  Feet.         1,000  Feet.       2,600  Feet.       3,000  Feet. 


300  Miles. 


Alpine 
Begiona. 


Lena  basin,  the  hillsides  and  the  low-lying  tracts  are  alike  covered  with  conifers, 
mosses,  and  lichens.  Hence  this  properly  forms  part  of  the  reindeer  domain. 
Notwithstanding  the  treaties  the  "Reindeer  Tunguses "  roamed  south  of  the 
Stanovoi  to  the  neighboui-hood  of  the  Amur,  at  least  4°  beyond  the  conventional 
frontier.  On  the  other  hand,  the  valleys  of  the  Zieya,  Bm-eya,  and  other  affluents 
of  the  main  stream  offer  vast  pasture  lands  far  more  suited  for  horse-breeding  than 
for  reindeer  herding.  Habits  and  culture  are  here  accordingly  modified.  In  these 
grazing  grounds  live  the  "Horse  Tunguses,"  a  sedentary  people  averse  to  the  visits 
of  their  nomad  kinsmen,  and  who  formerly  paid    the    tribute  regularly  to  the 


THE  STANOVOI  UPLANDS— THE  YABLONOI  EANGE.        419 

Chinese  authorities.  But  the  Chinese  Government  had  set  up  the  frontier  land- 
marks, not  in  the  forests  of  the  Stanovoi  uplands,  but  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
about  the  natural  limits  of  the  prairie  region  between  the  Horse  and  Reindeer 
Timguses. 

The  Staxovoi  TJplaxds — The  Yabloxoi  Range. 

The  explorations  of  JSIiddendorfE,  Schwartz,  Ustoltzev,  Kropotkin,  and  others 
have  clearly  shown  that  the  Stanovoi  does  not  follow  the  ■winding  course  given  to 
it  by  the  early  travellers.  The  highland  masses  forming  the  "  backbone  "  of  East 
Siberia  consist  rather  of  a  broad  tableland  intersected  by  ridges  running  jjarallel 
in  some  places,  in  others  at  slightly  converging  angles.  The  whole  of  the  Mongo- 
lian plateau,  from  the  Eoso-gol  to  the  Great  Kingan,  forms  the  common  base  above 
which  rise  the  various  crests  conventionally  grouped  on  the  maps  as  more  or  less 
winding  mountain  ranges.  These  uplands  run  mainly  towards  the  north-east,  in 
which  direction  they  gradually  contract.  The  rivers,  also,  which  rise  between  the 
various  ridges  of  the  plateau  run  at  fii'st  ia  the  same  general  direction  from  the 
south-west  to  the  north-east,  or  from  the  north-east  to  the  south-west,  and  then 
make  their  way  through  the  mountaiu  gorges  either  towards  the  Lena  and  Amur, 
or  else  directly  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  The  chains  rising  east  of 
the  Stanovoi  transversely  to  the  Amur,  and  still  farther  east  along  the  Pacific 
seaboard,  belong  to  the  same  orographic  system,  and  follow  the  same  general  north- 
easterly direction. 

The  highland  region  stretching  south  of  Lake  Baikal  is  limited  towards  the 
Chinese  frontier  by  the  highest  section  of  the  Stanovoi,  known  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Dauria  as  the  Tahlojiovoi  Khrebet,  or  "  Apple  Mountains,"  probably  fr-om  their 
crab-apple  groves.  They  foi-m  a  continuation  of  the  Kentei  of  the  Mongolians, 
but  are  in  reality  merely  the  edge  of  a  plateau,  and  present  the  appearance  of 
moimtains  only  on  their  east  side,  above  the  Ingoda  and  Shilka.  The  western  route, 
connecting  Lake  Baikal  with  Chita,  rises  to  the  summit  of  the  Yablonovoi  by  an  easy 
ascent,  along  which  a  railway  might  be  constructed,  and  which  terminates  east- 
wards in  lakes  and  swamps.  The  upper  portion  of  the  frontier  range  consists  of 
granitic  and  palfeozoic  rocks  covered  with  conifers,  and  strewn  on  their  simmut 
with  chaotic  masses  of  granite  boulders.  The  rain,  which  falls  abundantly  on  the 
simimits,  immediately  disappears  between  these  blocks,  flowing  under  the  rocks  and 
the  roots  of  the  trees  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  where  the  imdergroimd  rivulets 
reappear  and  expand  into  broad  morasses,  rendering  the  approach  to  the  uplands 
very  difficult  for  travellers.  These  Yablonovoi  crests  are  developed  with  great 
iiniformity,  nowhere  presenting  the  romantic  aspect  of  limestone  ranges.  Their 
vegetation  is  also  equally  monotonous,  the  sombre  foliage  of  the  pine  forests  being 
varied  only  by  the  lighter  tints  of  the  birch. 

The  Sokhondo,  or  Chokhondo  range,  rising  south  of  the  Yablonovoi,  near  the 
Mongolian  frontier,  is  commanded  by  the  culminating  point  of  the  whole  system. 
This  granite  mass  raises  its  double-crested  summit  above  a  terrace  strewn  with 
huge  boulders,  and  containing  two  lakes  in  which  are  collected  the  melting  snows. 


420  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

In  summer  a  few  patches  of  snow  still  lodge  on  the  upper  slopes  of  the  Sokhondo ; 
but  the  loftiest  peak,  although  12,000  feet  high,  does  not  reach  the  snow-line. 
None  even  of  the  northernmost  Stanovoi  crests  are  covered  throughout  the 
summer,  although  the  Sokhondo  receives  a  great  quantity  of  snow  in  winter,  and 
is  nearly  always  enveloped  in  mists.  The  Timguses  and  Buriats  regard  it  as  a 
formidable  divinity,  doubtless  because  of  its  generally  cloud-capped  and  threatening 
aspect.     Few  of  their  hunters  even  venture  to  approach  its  stonny  slopes. 

The  Daukian  Plateau. 

The  range  beginning  with  the  Sokhondo  nms,  like  the  Yablonovoi,  north-east- 
wards to  the  plateau  of  the  Yitim,  while  the  chains  follow  the  same  direction 
towards  the  confluence  of  the  Shilka  and  Argun.  The  Adon-cholon,  one  of  these 
chains,  which  rises  from  the  foggy  plains  as  if  from  the  midst  of  the  deep,  is 
limited  at  its  southern  base  by  a  region  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  fragment  of 
the  Gobi  in  Russian  territory.  This  is  the  plateau  kno'mi  to  the  Slav  colonists  as 
the  "  Daurian  Steppes  :  "  not  that  they  bear  any  resemblance  to  the  lowland  plains 
of  the  Dnieper  and  Aralo-Caspian  basin,  but  because  of  their  barren  slopes  and 
brackish  waters.  They  were  formerly  crossed  from  the  Stanovoi  to  the  Khingan 
by  an  earthen  rampart,  the  remains  of  which  are  stiQ  visible  here  and  there.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  raised  by  Jenghis  Khan  to  protect  the  settled  populations  from 
the  incursions  of  the  nomads.  This  steppe  region,  which  has  a  mean  elevation  of 
from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  is  separated  from  the  river  Onon,  the  main  branch  of  the 
Shilka,  by  vast  pine  forests,  which  arrest  the  moist  winds.  Hence  the  steppe  itself 
is  extremely  dry,  in  many  places  lacking  sufiicient  moisture  to  support  the  peonies, 
aconites,  and  lilies  which  impart  such  a  chann  to  the  Nyerchinsk  steppe.  In  some 
districts  water  occurs  only  at  intervals  of  9  or  10  nules,  and  aU  the  lakes  on  the 
plateau  are  brackish,  with  here  and  there  incrustations  of  salt  or  magnesia,  which 
looks  like  recently  fallen  snow  around  their  shores.  The  Tarei,  one  of  these  basins, 
is  usually  figiu-ed  on  the  maps  as  a  double  lake  with  an  intervening  strip  of  land. 
But  the  larger  of  these  two  reservoirs,  although  some  400  square  miles  in  extent, 
is  frequently  dry,  as  when  %'isited  by  Pallas  in  1772,  and  again  by  Piadde  in  1856. 
An  old  channel  connecting  the  two  lakes,  and  the  water-marks  still  visible  round 
the  shores  of  the  nmnerous  islands,  are  evidence  of  the  far  greater  abundance  of 
water  in  this  basin  in  former  times.  At  present  the  Dzun-tarei,  the  smaller  of  the 
two  reservoirs,  which  is  thoroughly  saturated  with  salt  and  surrounded  by  a  growth 
of  reddish  plants,  is  much  reduced  in  size,  while  the  Barun-tarei,  the  larger  of  the 
two,  is  merely  a  collection  of  stagnant  pools,  beds  of  salt,  and  vast  reedy  tracts, 
whence  the  Mongolian  name  of  the  Russian  station  Khulussutai  (Ulussutai),  or 
"  Reed  Town." 

The  surface  of  the  Daurian  steppes  is  in  several  places  thickly  strewn  with 
small  pebbles  of  white  quartz,  jaspar,  or  agate,  coming  from  the  disintegration  of 
the  neighboiu-ing  rocks.  Still  there  is  a  scant  growth  of  grass  sufiicient  to  attract 
flocks  of  a  few  species  of  gregarious  animals.     This  is  the  only  part  of  Dauria 


THE  DAUEIAN  PLATEAU.  421 

where  tlie  antelope  gutturosa  is  mot,  and  this  country  is  also  visited  by  the  tiger, 
and  by  numerous  herds  of  the  jaggetai,  or  wild  horse,  no  doubt  allied  to  the  Equus 
Prjevahki/,  a  new  species  recently  discovered  and  killed  by  hunters  sent  from 
Zaisan.*  The  Cossacks  have  hitherto  failed  to  tame  these  magnificent  animals,  as 
the  Chinese  of  the  Hoang-ho  have  done.  But  the  natives  eagerly  himt  them  for 
their  flesh  and  for  their  skin,  and  especially  their  taUs,  which  are  sold  to  the  Mon- 
golians, and  by  them  used  as  a  imiversal  remedy  for  all  the  diseases  to  which  their 
domestic  animals  are  subject.  Wild  beasts  are  constantly  migrating  northwards 
across  the  Daurian  steppes,  which  accounts  for  the  quantities  of  game  here  annually 
met  by  the  himter.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Amiu-  analogous  movements  take 
place,  also  caused  by  the  changes  of  climate.  The  wild  goats  are  always  able  to 
foresee  severe  winters,  and  especially  heavy  falls  of  snow,  when  they  migrate  in 
great  numbers  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur.  In  1867,  when  the  forests  of 
Bureya  were  suddenly  buried  imder  large  quantities  of  snow,  they  passed  into 
Manchuiia  at  a  time  when  the  Amur  was  ah-eady  full  of  floating  ice.  Taking 
refuge  on  these  floes,  the  animals,  exhausted  by  fatigue,  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  stanitzas.  From  the  skins  of  these  wild  goats  are  made  the 
dahha,  or  pelisses,  imiversally  worn  in  Siberia,  always  with  the  hairy  side  out,  as  a 
protection  against  the  cold,  and  especially  the  wind. 

The  Daurian  ranges  skirting  the  desert  are  destitute  of  vegetation  on  their 
southern  slopes,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  Altai,  the  Tian-shan,  and  even  some 
regions  of  the  Caucasus.  The  moisture  necessary  for  forest  vegetation  is  maintained 
better  on  the  shaded  than  on  the  sunny  side  of  these  ranges.  The  fires  kindled  by 
the  graziers  in  the  spring  of  the  year  are  also  much  more  destructive  on  the  escarp- 
ments facing  southwards,  where  the  dry  grasses  and  brushwood  burn  to  the  top 
unhindered  bj'  the  snows.  But  north  of  Dauria  and  the  Shilka  ra\ane  the  Stanovoi 
crests  are  equally  wooded  on  both  sides.  Here  the  humidity  is  everywhere  sufii- 
cient  to  support  ahnost  impenetrable  forests,  thanks  to  the  fens  and  quagmires, 
the  remains  of  old  lakes  which  formerly  washed  the  foot  of  these  moimtains.  But 
above  the  forest  zone  there  rise  greyish  granite  crests,  furrowed  here  and  there  by 
deep  fissui'cs.  These  are  the  bare  ridges  which  have  caused  the  Cossacks  to  apply 
the  name  of  Goltzi,  or  "  Naked  Eocks,"  to  the  Stanovoi  and  aU  the  East  Siberian 
highlands. 

North  of  the  Amui-  the  chief  sections  of  the  Stanovoi  rise  between  the  Zyeya 
and  Aldan  basins.  Here  several  peaks  are  over  2,300  feet  high,  although  none  of 
them  attain  the  elevation  of  the  Sokhondo.  Copious  streams  and  rivers  flow  from 
their  flanks  towards  the  Amur,  the  Lena,  and  various  direct  affluents  of  the  Pacific. 
Beyond  the  marshy  plateau  separating  the  Aldan  and  Ud  basins,  the  ridge,  which  is 
much  steeper  on  the  side  facing  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  than  on  that  turned  landwards, 
takes  the  name  of  Aldan  or  Jugjur,  but  none  of  its  crests  are  much  more  than 
3,250  feet.     Yet,  notwithstanding  this  slight  elevation,  this  section  of  the  main 

*  The  skull  and  skin  of  one  of  these  animals,  now  in  the  St.  Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences,  have  been 
examined  by  M.  Poliakoff,  who,  in  a  memoir  published  in  March,  1881,  by  the  St.  Petersburg  Geo- 
graphical Society,  discusses  the  relations  of  this  new  species  to  the  domestic  horse. 


422  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

range  is  one  of  the  ricliest  in  geological  formations,  granites,  gneiss,  and  porphyries 
being  here  covered  with  old  schists,  and  in  some  places  even  by  Jurassic  rocks. 
Towards  the  north,  where  it  approaches  the  recent  Yerkho-Yansk  formations,  the 
Aldan  range  aboimds  in  coal-iields,  while  basalts  and  trachytes  occur  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  over  against  the  volcanic  peninsula  of  Kamchatka. 
The  lead,  iron,  gold,  and  silver  ores  that  have  here  been  discovered  could  not  fail 
to  develop  a  large  mining  industry  but  for  the  severity^  of  the  climate. 

"West  of  Okhotsk  and  north  of  the  depression,  followed  by  the  route  from 
Yakutsk  to  the  coast,  is  situated  Mount  Kapitan,  so  called  by  the  Timguses  either 
in  honour  of  some  Russian  captain,  or  possibly  as  the  "  Captain  "  of  all  this  high- 
land region.  It  marks  the  northern  limits  of  the  larch,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
zone  of  lichens  and  reindeer  moss.  Yet  there  are  no  glaciers,  and  the  crests  are 
even  completely  free  of  snow,  although  these  Stanovoi  Moimtains  overlook  valleys 
which  are  entirely  filled  with  permanent  ice.  This  remarkable  contrast  between 
the  uplands  and  lowlands  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the  great  difference  in 
atmospheric  pressure,  snow  and  rain  fall,  and  direction  of  the  winds  prevailing  in 
Europe  and  Asia.  The  snows  swept  by  the  winds  from  neighbom-ing  heights  are 
banked  up  at  the  foot  of  the  "  Captain  "  in  crevasses  seldom  lit  up  by^  the  sxm, 
where  they  are  graduallj-  converted  into  extensive  ice-fields.  Even  the  streams 
and  rivulets  of  the  neighbouring  valleys  freeze  as  they  flow  over  their  crystaUine 
surface.  These  low-lying  ice-covered  tracts  are  the  natural  resort  of  the  reindeer, 
which  here  find  a  refuge  from  the  mosquitoes. 

East  of  the  Stanovoi  another  chain  rising  in  Manchu  territory,  and  variously 
named  by  Chinese,  Mongolians,  Golds,  and  Russians,  runs  south-west  and  south- 
east, terminating  south  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  in  headlands  indented  by  deep  inlets, 
and  continued  seawards  by  the  Shantar  Ai-chipelago.  This  Dauss-alin  range  has 
received  from  MiddendorfE  the  name  of  the  Bureya  Mountains,  from  the  large 
affluent  of  the  Amur  which  flows  westwards  parallel  with  the  ridge.  The  Russians 
usually  call  it  the  "Little  Khingan."  The  forests  covering  its  slopes  belong  to  a 
different  vegetable  domain  from  that  of  the  rest  of  Siberia.  The  oak,  unknown  in 
the  Lena  and  Yenesei  valleys,  prevails  in  many  parts  of  the  Biu-eya  highlands,  and 
on  the  whole  deciduous  trees  are  more  common  than  the  evergreen  conifers.  Here 
also  begins  the  domain  of  the  tiger,  which  haunts  the  thickets,  and  is  known  to  the 
natives  as  the  "  lordly  beast." 

All  the  region  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  TJsuri  and  Lower  Amur  is  occupied 
as  far  as  the  coast  by  hills  and  mountains,  usually  known  collectively  as  the 
"  Manchu  Highlands."  It  forms  a  jDlateau  divided  into  innimierable  sections,  and 
rising  eastwards  to  a  coast  range,  which  presents  its  steepest  sides  to  the  Sea  of 
Japan.  Like  the  Aldan  ridge,  which  it  resembles  in  its  elevation,  bare  crests,  wooded 
slopes,  and  general  north-easterly  direction,  the  Manchu  or  Sikhota-alin  system  is 
crossed  by  but  few  passes,  while  the  swamps  and  forests  of  the  western  slopes 
gi-eatly  impede  the  communications  between  the  Usm-i  valley  and  the  sea-coast. 
But  in  the  south  a  large  depression,  in  which  the  rain-waters  are  collected,  enables 
the  great  Lake  Khanka  to  commxinicate  with  the  Suif  uu  coast  stream,  north  of  the 


THE  AiTUE  EIYER  SYSTEM.  423 

Gulf  of  Peter  tlie  Great.  The  SiMiota-alin  has  often  been  represented  as  partially 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  basalt  streams  have  been  described  as  having  flowed  from 
the  assumed  craters  of  the  range  do^-n  to  the  Strait  of  Tataiy,  here  fonning  steep 
headlands  fi-om  400  to  600  feet  above  the  sea.  But  the  volcanoes  supposed  to 
have  been  seen  near  Castries  Bay  seem  to  be  nothing  but  sedentary  sandstone 
rocks.* 

The  Amur  Eiver  System. 

Of  the  four  great  Siberian  rivers  the  Amur,  although  di-aining  the  smallest 
area,  promises  one  day  to  become  the  most  important  water  highway.  In  this 
respect,  however,  it  is  still  far  inferior  to  the  rivers  of  the  Ob  basin,  where  all  the 
riverain  towns  already  communicate  with  each  other  by  means  of  a  regular  and 
frequent  steam  ser\-ice.  While  the  Ob,  Yenesei,  and  Lena  flow  south  and  north 
across  the  line  of  migration  from  east  to  west,  and  discharge  their  waters  into  the 
Frozen  Ocean,  the  Amur  winds  mainly  west  and  east,  in  the  dii-ection  of  the  great 
historic  routes,  and  disembogues  in  a  sea  open  to  navigation  for  the  greater  j^art  of 
the  year.  Few  other  rivers  have  to  traverse  a  greater  niimber  of  rocky  barriers  in 
their  gradual  descent  seawards.  Rising  on  the  Daiirian  plateau,  it  has  fii'st  to  pierce 
the  eastern  escarpments  of  this  region  in  order  to  reach  the  plains  of  its  middle 
course,  which  are  still  about  2,000  feet  above  sea-level.  It  then  flows  through  a  gap 
in  the  Little  Khingan  range  down  to  the  lower  plains  separated  by  the  Sikhota-alin 
hiUs  fi-om  the  sea.  Even  after  forcing  its  way  through  this  barrier  to  the  ocean  it 
is  still  confi-onted  by  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  di-vidiug  its  channel  into  two  branches, 
one  of  which  flows  round  the  north  end  of  the  island,  while  the  other  penetrates  south- 
wards into  the  Gulf  of  Tatary.  Equal  in  volume  to  the  three  other  great  rivers 
of  2\^orth  Siberia,  the  Amur  at  all  times  occujjied  a  position  of  paramount  impor- 
tance as  an  historic  highway.  It  was  the  route  followed  by  the  Mongolians, 
Manchus,  and  all  migrating  peoples  from  the  east  of  Asia,  and  it  has  now  become 
the  continuation  of  the  South  Siberian  overland  route,  pm-sued  in  an  opposite 
direction  by  the  Russian  conquerors  and  colonists.  The  lower  coui'se  of  the  Amur 
thus  completes  the  natural  highway,  which  begins  some  6,000  miles  farther  west, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  The  regions  traversed  by  it  have  the  further  advantage 
of  lying  in  a  more  temperate  climate  than  the  rest  of  Siberia.  Some  of  its  southern 
afiluents  even  rise  in  the  Chinese  Empire  under  the  -lOth  parallel,  and  consequently 
much  nearer  to  the  equator  than  to  the  pole. 

More  than  half  of  the  Amur  basin  being  comprised  in  the  still  imperfectly 
explored  regions  of  Mongolia  and  Manchui-ia,  it  is  impossible  to  form  a  correct 
estimate  of  the  area  of  the  lands  draining  through  this  channel  to  the  Pacific. 
They  are  roughly  estimated  at  from  800,000  to  820,000  square  miles,  or  about  four 
times  the  sui-face  of  France.     If  the  Kerulen,  or  Kurulun,  be  included  in   this 

*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Stanovoi,  Bureya,  and  llanchu  highlands  : — 

•  Feet.  Feet. 


Sokhondo  (according  to  Radde) ....  8,170 

Stanovoi,  between  the  Aldan  and  Zyeya  .  6,810 

Mean  height  of  the  Aldan  ridge .     .     .     .  2,915 

Mount  Kapitan 4,200 


Kapitan  Pass 4,175 

Lagar-aul  (Bureya  range) 3,326 

Mean  height  of  the  Sikhota-alin      .     .     .  2,915 

Mount  Galoya,  its  highest  peak ....  5,5£0 


424  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

basin,  to  wliicli,  however,  It  belongs  intermittently,  tbe  Amur,  from  its  farthest 
soiu-ce  to  the  sea,  will  have  a  total  length  of  3,000  miles.  The  Kuridim  rises  ou 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Kentei  Mountains,  a  Mongolian  continuation  of  the 
"  Apple  "  range,  and  after  skirting  on  the  north  one  of  the  terraces  of  the  Gobi 
desert,  discharges  into  the  Dalai.  This  "  Holy  Sea  " — for  such  is  the  meaning  of 
the  word — also  receives  the  Ursiin,  an  emissary  of  Lake  Biiir-nor.  But  these 
affluents  fi-om  the  desert  contribute  but  a  small  quantity  of  water,  most  of  which  is 
lost  by  evaporation  in  the  lacustrine  reservoir.  Hence  the  tiirbid  and  sluggish 
Dalai- gol,  the  outlet  of  the  lake,  is  a  narrow  stream,  which,  however,  is  soon 
enlarged  by  the  rapid  Khailar,  the  true  head-stream  of  the  Argun.  During  the 
sirring  freshets  of  this  torrent,  which  lises  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Great 
Khingan  range,  a  portion  of  us  water »  flows  back  lo  the  Dalai-gol,  and  through  it 
to  Lake  Dalai,  whence  large  shoals  of  fish  penetrate  through  the  Argun  into 
Russian  territory.  Thiis,  although  the  "  Holy  Sea  "  is  situated  in  Mongolia,  the 
Russian  fishers  indirectly  benefit  by  the  abundance  of  its  animal  life,  of  which  the 
Mongolians  themselves  make  no  use. 

After  its  junction  with  the  Dalai-gol  the  Khailar  takes  the  name  of  Argim,  and 
flows  north-east  parallel  with  the  various  Stanovoi  ridges,  and  along  the  political 
fi'outier  of  Chiua  and  Russia  to  its  confluence  with  the  Shilka.     The  latter  river 
lies  mostly  within  Russian  territory,  although  the  Onon,  which,  with  the  Ingoda, 
is  its  chief  afiluent,  rises  in  Mongolia,  and  enters  Russian  Dauria  after  skirting  the 
southern  base  of  the  Sokhondo.     The  united  Argun  and  Shilka  form  the  Amur 
projjer,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  say  which  should  be  regarded  as  the  main  head-stream. 
The  Argim  has  the  longer  course,  while  the  Shilka,  flowing  through  a  moister 
region,  has  probably  a  larger  volimie,  and  its  waters  are  less  charged  with  sedi- 
mentary matter.     Historically  also  the  Shilka  is  the  more  important  of  the  two,  for 
on  it  the  Cossacks  embarked  in  their  repeated  attempts  to  obtain  a  footing  on  the 
banks  of  the  Amur,  or  maintain  their  settlement  in  this  valley  pre\-ious  to  its  final 
conquest  by  Muraviov  in  1853.     In  the  south  the  Mongols,  ever  in  the  saddle,  take 
the  road  across  the  ringing  stej^pe,  while  the  Russians  ascend  and  descend  the  water 
highways,  and  the  ShOlia,  navigable  throughout  its  lower  coui'se,  offered  them  a 
direct  route  eastwards  beyond  the   Khingan  Moimtains.      The  Timguses  of  the 
Shilka  also  apply  this  name  to  all  the  lower  streajn  below  the  confluence  of  the 
Argun.     The  name  Amur  itself  is  of  unknown  origin,  being  derived  by  some  from 
the  Giliak  words  Ya-mur — that  is,  "Great  River" — while  others  regard  it  as  a 
modification  of  Mamu,  the  name  current  amongst  the  natives  along  its  lower  course. 
Others,  again,  suppose  that  the  first  Russian  invaders,  encamped  at  Albazin  on  the 
little  river  Emm-i,  gradually  extended  the  name  of  Emur  or  Ajniu-  to  the  whole 
region,  and  to  the  river  watered  by  it.     However  this  may  be,  each  of  the  nations 
settled  in  its  valley  gives  it  a  different  name.     For  the  Golds  it  is  the  Mango  ;  for 
the  Yakuts  the  Kara-turan,  or  "Black  River;  "  for  the  Manchus  the  Sakhalin-ula, 
or  "  Blackwater ;  "  for  the  Chinese  the  Helong-kiang,  or  "  River   of  the  Black 
Dragon,"  doubtless  in  reference  to  the  dark  colour  of  its  waters. 

At  the  Stryelka  ferry,  where  the  two  head-streams  meet,  the  Amur  is  already 


THE   SUNGAEI  AND  USUEI  EIVEES.  425 

from  20  to  24  feet  deep,  with  a  breadth  of  nearly  540  yards.  Narrowing  between 
the  spurs  of  the  Great  Khingan  and  the  side  ridges  of  the  Stanovoi,  it  trends 
eastwards  through  a  series  of  defiles,  beyond  which  it  flows  to  the  south-east  along 
the  base  of  the  volcanic  Ilkuri-alin  range.  Lower  down  extensive  plains,  compared 
by  Middendorfl  to  the  prairies  of  the  New  "World,  stretch  along  both  its  banks,  but 
especially  on  the  left  between  the  Zyeya  and  Bureya  affluents.  But  instead  of 
beiug  covered  with  grasses,  they  are  clothed  for  vast  distances  with  thickets  of 
dwarf  oaks,  hazels,  and  other  bushy  growths.  Like  the  American  prairies,  they 
yield  excellent  crops  wherever  cleared. 

Like  those  of  the  other  great  Siberian  rivers,  the  right  bank  of  the  Anmr  has 
normally  a  higher  mean  elevation  than  the  left.  After  receiving  the  Bureya  the 
Amur  pierces  the  Little  Khingan  range  thi-ough  a  defile  100  miles  long,  and 
grander  than  that  of  the  Rhine  between  Bingen  and  Coblentz,  though  lacking  the 
chai-m  imparted  by  riveraia  towns,  cultivated  slopes,  and  craggy  heights  covered 
with  ruined  or  restored  castles.  No  regular  highway  has  j-et  been  laid  down 
through  this  ravine,  where  the  beaten  path  is  under  water  dui-ing  the  floods. 
Hence  horsemen  wishing  to  cross  the  Bureya  range  are  obliged  to  turn  aside  from 
the  Amur  and  make  their  way  through  the  forests,  in  order  to  avoid  the  headlands, 
often  several  hundred  yards  high,  projecting  into  the  deep  waters  of  the  river. 
Beyond  the  defile,  which  runs  north  and  south,  the  Amur  again  turns  eastwards, 
and  then  north-eastwards,  thus  following  the  impulse  given  to  it  by  the  great 
Sungari  or  Kuen-tong  aflluent,  which  the  Chinese  regard  as  the  main  stream.  Like 
the  Ob-Irtish,  the  Yenisei- Angara  and  the  Ai'gun-Shilka,  or  Amur,  the  Sungari  is 
formed  by  the  jimction  of  two  rivers  nearly  equal  in  volume,  the  Upper  Sungari 
and  the  Nonyi. 

The  Sungari  axd  UsrRi  Rivers. 

The  Sungari  is  really  the  main  branch  of  this  fluvial  system,  if  not  in  length 
and  volume,  at  least  in  the  direction  of  its  valley,  which  rims  parallel  to  the 
Khingan,  the  Manchu  iTountains,  and  generally  to  the  axis  of  all  North-east  Asia. 
At  the  confluence  the  turbid  waters  of  the  Sungari,  now  of  a  greenish,  now  of  a 
milky  hue,  occupy  about  two-thirds  of  the  common  bed.  Above  the  confluence  the 
Amur  and  its  tributaries  are  subject  to  great  vicissitudes,  and  fall  rapidly  in 
summer,  a  circvmistance  which  shows  that  the  highlands  of  the  upper  basin  are  not 
elevated  enough  to  bear  any  large  quantities  of  perpetual  snow.  The  stream^s  from 
the  melting  snow-fields  are  insufiicient  to  maintain  the  normal  level  of  the  river 
during  the  dry  season,  so  that  at  this  time  the  navigation  is  much  endangered  by 
the  rapids.  The  mountains  enclosing  the  Sungari  basin  are  not  suSiciently  known 
to  estimate  the  importance  of  the  contributions  from  their  melting  snows.  But  it 
is  probable  that  the  Shan-alin,  or  ""White  Mountains,"  forming  the  eastern  limit 
of  the  basin,  reach  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  as  is  indeed  indicated  bj'  their  name, 
and  thus  contribute  to  increase  the  annual  inundations.  But  the  floodings  of  the 
Sungari  and  other  East  Siberian  streams  are  due  mainly  to  the  rains  brought  by 
the  summer  monsoons,  which  blow  from  the  north-east  towards  the  Mongolian 


426 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


plateaux.  Below  the  confluence  the  Amur  then  assumes  the  aspect  of  an  inland 
sea.  Its  islands  disappear,  and  all  its  ramifications  for  a  distance  of  10  or  12  miles 
are  blended  in  a  single  stream.  Villages  are  swept  away,  with  the  very  banks  on 
which  they  stood,  and  whole  forests  are  uprooted  and  carried  along  with  the 
current.     Since  the  colonisation  of  the  Lower  Amur  by  the  Russians  it  has  been 


Fig.  212. — Lake  Khanka. 
Scale  1  : 1,500,000. 


^-.1  jliMW^^^j^      w'^y:~^  .iw„w^g.^>i..j^](i!,^i)i.  .»-   -.^^j  ^^J^ 


C.Pef raa 


,  30  Miles. 


found  necessary  frequently  to  shift  the  sites  of  the  stanitzas  to  higher  ground,  less 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  stream. 

Nevertheless  the  question  of  a  more  systematic  settlement  of  the  Amur  regions, 
chiefly  by  communities  of  Slav  origin,  is  now  engaging  the  serious  attention  of  the 
authorities.  Since  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  with  China,  settling  the  Kulja 
frontier,  the  Amur  basin  has  naturally  acquired  fresh  importance,  and  the  Russian 
Government,  it  is  expected,  will  soon  bring  forward  a  comprehensive  scheme  of 
colonisation  in  a  country  which  holds  out  far  brighter  prospects  to  the  peasantry 
than  many  of  the  bleak  and  arid  steppe  lands  of  European  Russia.     Projects  have 


THE  SUNGAEI  AND  USUEI  EIYEES.  427 

already  been  discussed  and  partly  adopted,  whicli  are  calculated  to  encourage  whole- 
sale immigration  by  the  promise  of  pecuniarj^  aid  and  free  grants  of  good  land 
along  the  fertile  banks  of  the  Amur  and  its  numerous  tributaries. 

Flowing  entirely  within  Chinese  territory,  the  Simgari  belongs  historically  and 
socially  to  a  verj'  different  world  from  that  of  the  Amur.  "While  the  latter  flowed 
till  recently  beyond  the  domain  of  cultured  nations,  and  until  the  Russian  conquest 
was  navigated  only  by  the  boats  of  the  Tmiguses  and  Golds,  the  Sungari  waters  a 
basin  studded  with  nmnerous  cities,  traversed  ia  various  directions  by  regular 
highways  of  communication,  and  covered  with  extensive  cultivated  tracts.  The 
basin  of  the  Amur  jjroper  throughout  its  course  is  little  more  than  an  unex- 
plored wilderness,  while  dense  populations  are  crowded  in  the  districts  above  Sian- 
sin,  on  the  ^Middle  Sungari.  Although  forming  part  of  the  same  hydrographic 
basin,  the  valleys  of  the  Ajuur  and  Simgari  have  different  and  even  hostile  centres 
of  attraction.  On  the  Amur  the  current  of  migration  and  trade  flows  west  and 
east  from  Irkutsk  to  Khabarovka  and  the  Pacific  seaboard,  whereas  the  teeming 
populations  of  the  Sungari  turn  southwards  towards  Mukden,  Pekin,  and  the 
Yellow  Sea.  There  is  little  communication  between  the  Chinese  Sungari  and  the 
Russian  possessions,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Maximovich,  Usoltzev,  Kro- 
potkin,  and  Khilkovskiy  penetrated  from  that  river  into  the  Celestial  Empire. 

But  the  Usuri,  which  next  to  the  Sungari  is  the  chief  afiluent  of  the  Lower 
Amur,  belongs  henceforth  to  the  Russian  world.  Chosen  ia  1860  as  the  limit 
between  the  two  emjsires,  this  river  flows  south-west  and  north-east  between  the 
two  parallel  crests  of  the  Shan-alin  and  Sikhota-alin,  and  its  Aalley  has  become  the 
military  and  trade  route  leading  from  the  Amur  to  the  southern  ports  of  Russian 
Manchuria.  The  Usuri  takes  this  name  only  in  its  middle  course  below  all  the 
upper  tributaries.  One  of  these,  the  Simgacha,  flows  from  an  "inland  sea,"  for 
such  is  the  meaning  of  the  Chinese  word  Khan-kai  (Han-hai),  which  has  been 
modified  by  the  Russians  to  Khanka,  or  Khinka.  This  great  lake,  whose  mean  area 
exceeds  1,200  square  miles,  must,  notwithstanding  its  name,  be  regarded  as  merely 
a  permanent  floodiug,  for  its  depth  seems  nowhere  to  be  more  than  32  feet,  while 
in  manj'  places  there  are  scarcely  12  laches  of  water  at  half  a  mile  from  the  shore. 
But  during  the  summer  monsoons,  which  briag  such  a  quantity  of  moisture  to  the 
Lower  Amur  region,  the  Khanka  overflows  far  and  wide,  flooding  the  surrounding 
low-lyiug  tracts,  and  for  the  time  becoming  a  veritable  "  inland  sea."  In  its 
normal  state  it  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  "  Great "  and  the  "  Little  "  Lake, 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  perfectlj  regular  strip  of  sand,  which  is  rounded  off 
towards  the  north  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  an  exact  continuation  of  the  curve  of 
the  shore  running  east  and  west.  This  geometrical  formation,  which  resembles  so 
many  others  of  analogous  form  on  the  Pacific  seaboard,  is  a  rare  phenomenon  in 
inland  basins  of  small  extent,  which  are  mostly  sheltered  from  the  winds,  while  the 
winds  themselves  seldom  blow  regularlj^  from  the  same  quarter.  But  Lake  Khanka 
is  completely  exposed  to  the  southern  winds,  which  prevail  during  a  great  part  of 
the  year.  Thus  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  basia  a  regular  swell  setting  north- 
wards, and  developiag  the  ciu'ved  outline  of  the  shore.     Lake  Khanka  aboimds  in 


428 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


fish.  Dui-ing  the  early  years  of  the  Russian  occupation  the  Usuri  also  was  rich  in 
every  sort  of  fish,  especially  carp,  sterlet,  and  salmon.  In  fording  the  channels  hy 
which  it  commimicates  with  the  lake,  travellers  took  them  with  the  hand  by  the 
dozen,  and  in  some  places  they  were  so  numerous  that  the  dull  murmur  of  their  fins 
was  heard  from  the  shore. 

The  Lower  Amur  and  its  Delta. 

After  receiving  the  Usui-i  the  Amur  flows  altogether  in  Eussian  territory.  It 
is  still  joined  on  both  sides  by  important  tributaries,  which,  however,  seem  to  add 
little  to  its  voliune.  Eamifj-ing  into  various  branches  enclosing  grassy  islands,  it 
winds  along  its  broad  vaUey,  at  intervals  impinging  against  the  foot  of  the  hiUs 
which  skirt  its  right  bank.     Its  coui-se  is  fringed  by  lakes  and  extensive  marshes, 


Fig.  213. — IsTHMVs  OF  Kizi. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


51' 


E.Ofb. 


140' 


140=50 


C Perron 


0  to  10  Fathoms. 


10  Fathoms  and  upwards. 
24  Miles. 


especially  on  its  left  side,  and  these  serve  to  receive  its  overflow  during  the  floods. 
The  Kizi,  one  of  these  lakes,  occupies  east  of  the  river  a  great  part  of  a  transverse 
depression  which  runs  in  the  direction  of  the  Gulf  of  Castries.  Here  the  valley  of 
the  Lower  Amur  resembles  in  its  form  that  of  the  Lower  Danube,  which  runs 
towards  the  Isthmus  of  Kustenje,  as  if  to  fall  directly  into  the  Black  Sea,  but  which, 
nevertheless,  takes  a  sudden  bend  at  right  angles  to  the  west,  and  then  to  the  north 
round  the  peninsula  of  the  Dobruja.  In  the  same  way  the  Anim-,  although  half 
filling  the  Isthmus  of  Kizi  by  a  lateral  discharge,  deflects  its  main  channel  north- 
wards to  a  point  where  it  at  last  finds  an  opening  to  the  Pacific.  Lake  Kizi  itself 
is  only  2  feet  deep  in  winter  at  low  water,  rising  during  the  summer  floods  to 
nearly  10  feet.  A  low  ridge  10  miles  broad  separates  the  lake  from  the  coast ;  but 
the  native  canoes  are  able  to  utilise  the  small  river  Taba  flowing  from  this  ridge, 
whereby  the  portage  between  the  two  slopes  is  reduced  to  little  over  a  mile.     Since 


THE  LOWER  AMUR  AND  ITS  DELTA. 


429 


1857  tlie  engineer  Romanov  has  been  surveying  this  portage  -witli  a  view  to  the 
construction  of  a  railway  30  miles  long,  by  which  travellers  would  be  enabled  to 
avoid  a  detour  of  300  miles  by  the  dangerous  mouth  of  the  Amur.  But  such  an 
undertaking  will  be  of  little  use  so  long  as  the  local  Russian  settlements  remain  in 
their  present  undeveloped  state.  In  1878  there  was  not  even  a  good  carriage  road 
across  the  isthmus. 

After  being  deflected  northwards  the  Amur  still  communicates  right  and  left 
with  several  lakes,  which  recall  an  ejjoch  when  the  river  sought  a  more  direct 
outlet  seawards.  In  this  part  of  its  course  the  Amui-  is,  so  to  say,  still  incomplete. 
Its  waters  form  a  labyrinth  of  swift  currents,  sluggish  channels  and  lakes,  constituting 
a  sort  of  debatable  ground  between  the  river  and  the  sea.  Here  the  large  river 
Amguu,  flowing  from  the  Bureya  Mountains,  joins  it  in  a  sort  of  inner  delta,  where 

Fig.  214. — Mouths  of  the  Amur. 

According  to  the  Admiralty  Chart,  186S. 

Scale  1 :  740,000. 


\ 


^'■«i„ 


E.ofG 


I40M0 


IMO' 


C  Perron 


0  to  2i  FathomB. 


2^  Fathoms  and  upwards. 
15  Miles. 


the  currents  are  displaced  with  every  freshet,  thus  incessantly  changing  the  form 
of  the  islands  and  sand-banks.  Near  the  Giliak  village  of  Tir,  over  against  this 
delta  of  the  Amgun,  there  stands  a  cliff  on  the  right  bank,  on  which  have  been 
erected  three  columns  of  marble,  porphyry,  and  granite,  covered  with  Mongolian 
inscriptions.  They  mark  the  limits  of  the  empire  imder  the  Yoan  dj-nasty,  when 
China  was  subject  to  the  Mongolians,  towards  the  end  of  the  thii-teenth  and  dm-ing 
the  fourteenth  centuiy.  On  Remozov's  chart,  published  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, a  town  is  indicated  at  this  spot  as  marking  the  limits  of  Alexander  the  Great's 
conquests,  who  "buried  his  arms  and  left  a  tower  here."  Such  was  at  that  time 
the  tradition  of  the  Cossacks.  In  any  case  the  clifE  of  Tir  is  well  situated  as  the 
frontier  landmark  of  an  empire,  for  immediately  below  it  the  Amur  bends  towards 
the  north-east,  and  then  eastwards,  in  search  of  the  gap  through  which  it  discharges 

A-QL.    VI.  F    F 


430  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

seawards,  or  rather  into  the  estuary  obstructed  with  sand-banks  which  forms  the 


W 

o 

o 

O 

H 

a 


5 


60 


Gulf  of  Tatary.     From  the  mainland  to  the  island  of  Sakhalin  the  sea  is  occupied 
by  shoals  intersected  by  navigable  channels,  whose  windings  are  shifted  with  every 


THE  ^r.iXCHUEIA2f  SEABOAED.  431 

storm,  and  tbrougli  -uliich  the  jjilots  thread  their  -way  soimding-line  in  hand.  These 
difficidties  at  the  entrance,  combined  with  the  annual  frosts  which  close  the  mouth 
of  the  Amur-  for  six  months,  are  the  great  obstacles  to  trade,  and  partly  neutralise 
the  advantages  presented  by  the  river  and  its  affluents,  which  have  a  total  navigable 
waterway  estimated  at  upwards  of  6,000  miles.  In  tlie  lacustrine  labyrinth  of  the 
lower  coui-se,  which  is  still  but  little  known,  the  navigation  is  extremely  dangerous 
in  rough  weather.  In  a  single  storm  over  forty  Eussian  craft  laden  with  com  were 
wrecked,  and  most  of  the  supplies  for  Kikolayevsk  and  the  posts  on  the  Usuri 
swallowed  up. 

The  ilAXCHUKiAX  Seaboard. 

North  of  the  Amur  lagoon  a  few  streams,  rising  in  the  hilly  region  bounded 
north-west  by  the  Stanovoi  and  south-east  by  the  continuation  of  the  Biu-eya 
Mountains,  flow  to  the  fiords  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  Facing  these  inlets  are  the 
numerous  islands  of  the  mountainous  Shantar  Archipelago.  In  another  climate,  or 
in  the  ncighboui'hood  of  well-peopled  coast  lands,  these  islands  would  have  a  great 
commercial  and  strategic  importance,  as  sheltering  the  inner  bays  and  their  innu- 
merable creeks.  But  amid  the  cold  fogs  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  all  these  excellent 
havens  are  utilised  only  by  a  few  local  fishermen.  On  the  more  favoui-ed  southern 
seaboard  stretching  south  of  the  Amur  the  Eussians  must  seek  for  harbours  capable 
of  entering  into  commercial  relations  with  the  whole  world.  This  is  the  secret  of 
the  diplomatic  activity  displaj'ed  by  them  to  obtain  in  1858  a  joint  right  with  the 
Chinese  to  aU  the  coast  region  between  the  Amur  and  Corea,  and  then  to  acquire 
its  exclusive  possession  in  1860. 

Even  the  rocky  seaboard  facing  Sakhalin  possesses  a  few  good  ports,  which 
mijjht  have  a  certain  commercial  utility  were  the  surrounding'  res-ions  colonised, 
and  easy  means  of  communication  opened  uj)  across  the  coast  range  and  forests. 
Thus  the  Baj'  of  Castries,  first  Aisited  by  La  Perouse  in  1787,  and  so  named  by  him, 
might  accommodate  a  large  number  of  vessels  of  light  di-aught.  Its  position  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Amur  must  sooner  or  later  render  it  an  important  place. 
Farther  south.  Stark  Bay,  the  Imperial  Port,  the  Gulf  of  Plastun,  and  those  of 
"Sladimir  and  Olga,  follow  successively  along  the  coast,  which  the  Chinese  and  Eus- 
sian traders  have  already  learnt  to  frequent,  notwithstanding  the  fogs  and  storms 
prevailing  in  this  dangerous  Sea  of  Japan.  Here  the  staple  export  is  the  "  sea- 
cabbage,"  a  species  of  seaweed  forwarded  to  China  and  Japan,  where  it  forms  an 
article  of  food  for  the  poor,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glue. 

The  Yladimir  and  Olga  coasts  have  been  compared  to  those  of  Finland,  owing 
to  their  indentations,  the  granite  reefs  surrounding  them,  and  the  evident  traces 
of  upheaval  that  have  here  been  observed.  The  old  beach  may  still  be  seen  at 
various  elevations  above  the  present  sea-level.  But  whether  or  not  it  lies  within 
the  zone  of  slow  upheaval,  the  portion  of  the  coast  bending  due  west  to  the  neck 
of  the  Corean  peninsida  presents  the  asjject  of  those  Finland  or  Scandinavian  shores, 
which  are  cut  iip  and  indented  w ith  endless  gulfs,  bays,  and  creeks,  and  varied 
with  innumerable  groups  of  islands,  islets,  and  reefs.     One  of  these  inlets,  120 

F   F  2 


482 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


miles  broad  east  and  west,  forms  the  gulf  named  after  Queen  Victoria  by  the 
English,  but  which  the  Russians  have  dedicated  to  Peter  the  Great.  It  forms 
quite  an  inland  sea,  in  which  the  conquerors  had  an  embarrassing  choice  of  sites 
for  a  good  naval  and  trading  station.  In  the  east  lies  America  Bay,  which  receives 
the  waters  of  the  Su-chan,  a  navigable  river  whose  two  branches  form  the  two 
convenient  ports  of  WrangeU  and  Nakhodka.  In  the  centre  are  the  Gulfs  of  Usuri 
and  Amur  (  U&uriskiy  and  Amurskii/'),  between  which  projects  the  peninsula  on 
which  stands  Vladivostok.  Lastly,  in  the  west  are  the  wiudiag  bays  of  Possiet, 
better  defended  even  than  the  harbour  of  Toulon  by  rocky  peninsulas,  tongues  of 


Fig.  216.— Bay  of  Castries. 
Scale  1  :  157,000. 


5in- 
sol. 


«*Ki3S7>T'rv^r^:;;j33rr"<!:}5'?^^^^ 


=J 


I40'4g' 


l4-0'55' 


C  PerroB 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feet. 


32  to  64  Feet.    64  Feet  and  upwards. 
3  Miles. 


land,  and  strips  of  sand  curved  like  the  claws  of  a  crab.  This  military  station, 
with  its  guns  always  turned  southwards,  forms  the  present  limit  of  the  Russian 
Empire  towards  China  and  Japan. 


Climate  of  Manchuria. 

Even  in  the  southernmost  part  of  Russian  Manchuria,  the  winter  climate  is  very 
severe.  Although  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great  is  never  frozen  at  a  certain  distance 
from  the  shore,  all  the  creeks  penetrating  inland  are  ice-boimd  from  December  to 
March,  and  for  over  one  hundred  days  the  port  of  Vladivostok  is  blocked.     At  this 


i 

VICTORIA    BAY    OR    Cl| 


~[l29' 


So 


^.J» 


^.^ 


*?*^       0 


^      - 

a 


(V 


■"^; 


i  M,ADIVO.ST0K 


'^\ 


^ 


\ 


k: 


& 


%  €- 


'h:'-  (.1. 


ojBonosoy 


t 


•v= 


^: 


GOf  " 

of 
Slavanka. 


h 


So- 


nedcHffl. 


Depth        I 

VndarSOfeet  :'-i' ;c  t;jj  I'eet  Si 

Scale 


LONDON.  J    S.' 


OF      PETER    THE    GREAT. 


\ 


^    ■ 


lSO»Kqf?^ 


«■- 


V^ 


rtsi 


\ 


\ 


V 

.4. 


A^ 


\         0 


^ 


V 


^  \^- 


^:.Mm 


,sa 


iprato 


iiih  L 


.\«*  -^^^ 


4 


'%,^  /'% 


So' 


,i;v:" 


|i  t  h  .■       S  e  a 
feel  l:Wu>200feel        200feet£heyond 


165,000. 


ibsiaJVGles. 


Askoldl. 


132°3«'E  offtr. 


Vi   C°    LIMITED 


CLIMATE  OF  MANCHUEIA. 


433 


place  the  annual  temperature  is  more  than  17°  lower  than  under  the  same  parallel 
in  West  Europe.*  For  five  months  Lake  Khanka  is  covered  yrith  ice,  which  at 
times  acquires  a  thickness  of  over  3  feet.  In  the  Amur  basin  the  glass  not  unfre- 
quentl}'  falls  to  38^  Fahr.,  -and  at  the  Nj-erchinsk  works  it  has  fallen  even  as  low  as 
46°  Fahr.      On  the  other  hand,  the  summer  heats  are  almost  tropical,  even  on  the 

Fig.  217. — HAKBOrR  of  Olga. 
Scale  1  :  165,000. 


C.f^££lS 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  32  Feet. 


32  Feet  and  upwards. 
3  Miles. 


sea-coast  the  temperature  rising,  as  at  the  port  of  Olga,  to  96°  or  97°  Fahr.  Although 
bordering  on  the  Pacific,  this  part  of  Siberia  is  stUl  included  in  the  continental 
climate,  a  circumstance  due  to  the  mean  direction  of  the  atmospheric  and  marine 

•  Mean  temperature  of  Vladivostok  (43'  05'  north  latitude),  40'  Fahr. ;  of  Marseilles  ^43'  17'  50"  north 
latitude),  58'  Fahr. 


434  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

cuiTcnts.  The  warm  watoi'f5  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  flowing  along  the  east  coast  of 
Japan  are  deflected  to  the  north-east,  thus  avoiding  Sakhalin  and  the  Kurile 
Islands,  and  returning  southwards  along  the  shores  of  Vancouver,  Oregon,  and 
California.  Hence  the  Asiatic  seaboard  is  dej^rived  of  the  influence  of  the  warm 
currents  from  the  south,  while  the  ice  accumulating  in  winter  in  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  and  Gulf  of  Tatary  tends  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  maritime 
regions  throughout  the  season.  In  winter  also  the  prevailing  winds  blow  from  the 
north,  in  summer  from  the  south,  so  that  the  normal  temperature  of  both  seasons 
becomes  intensified,  producing  those  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  ■nhich  are  every- 
where characteristic  of  the  true  continental  climate.  The  chief  contrast  between 
the  inland  regions  of  the  Upper  Amur  basin  and  the  coast  districts  of  the  Lower 
Amur  and  Manchuria  rises  from  the  action  of  the  Central  Asiatic  plateaux  and  of 
the  Pacific  waters  on  the  atmospheric  currents.  In  the  Upper  Amur  region  the 
north-west  polar  winds  and  the  south-west  trade  winds  prevail  regidarly  in  winter 
and  summer  respectiveh',  whereas  the  atmospheric  currents  of  the  eastern  seaboard 
blow  from  the  north-west  and  south-east  during  the  corresponding  seasons.  We 
know  what  vast  quantities  of  moisture  are  brought  by  these  south-easterly 
monsoons  to  the  Amiu'  basin,  and  to  the  shores  of  the  Aryan  and  Okhotsk.  Diu-ing 
their  prevalence  the  storm-tossed  waters  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  are  wi'apped  in 
dense  fogs,  through  which  the  solar  rays  seldom  penetrate. 

But  while  the  climate  of  East  Siberia  is  thus  distinguished  by  its  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  of  drjTiess  and  humiditj',  it  has  at  least  the  advantage  of  a  great 
regularity  in  its  annual  changes,  and  is  entlrelj^  free  from  those  sudden  transitions 
of  temperature  which  are  observed  in  "West  Siberia.  The  diy  colds  of  winter,  the 
moist  summer  heats,  prevail  throughout  those  seasons  without  any  violent  change. 
In  Februarj',  the  driest  month  in  the  year,  the  snow  or  rain  fall  at  Nyerchinskiy 
Zavod  is  fiity-eight  times  less  than  the  rainfall  of  the  wet  season.  At  Vladivostok 
the  difference  between  the  winter  snows  and  summer  rains  is  even  still  greater,  the 
former  being  about  eight  hundred  and  forty  times  less  than  the  latter.  In  1858, 
Venyukov  experienced  forty-five  daj^s  of  incessant  rains  in  the  Usm'i  valley.  In 
this  district,  and  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Amur,  these  annual  downpours  rot 
the  crops  of  the  Cossacks,  who  have  not  j'et  learnt  to  imitate  the  Chinese  in.  adapt- 
ing their  agricultural  system  to  the  climatic  conditions. 

Manchirian  Fauna  and  Flora. 

With  the  phenomena  of  the  peculiar  East  Siberian  climate  natm-aUy  correspond 
certain  special  features  of  its  flora  and  faima.  The  forests  of  the  Amur  basin  are 
not  uniformly  composed  of  the  same  species  of  conifers,  like  the  taiga  of  the  regions 
draining  to  the  Frozen  Ocean.  There  is  a  great  diversity  of  forms,  but  little  variety 
in  their  distribution,  pines,  firs,  cedars,  and  larches  mingling  freeh',  not  onh'  ■with 
the  Russian  birch,  but  also  with  such  deciduous  plants  as  the  oak,  elm,  hornbeam, 
ash,  maple,  linden,  aspen  ;  and  amongst  these  forest  trees  there  are  some  which 
grow   to  a  height  of  100  feet,  with  stems  nearly  4  feet  thick.     In  the  southern 


MAXCHUELVN  FAUNA  AND  FLORA. 


435 


parts  of  the  Usuri  plains,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  Siihota-alm,  the  leafy  species 
prevail  over  the  evergreen  conifers.  In  the  forests  of  the  Amur  the  wild  ^ine 
twines  its  tendrils  round  the  pines,  and  brings  its  fruit  to  maturit}',  although  the 
domestic  vine  has  not  yet  been  profitably  cultivated.  On  the  Upper  Usuri  the 
Chinese  have  plantations  of  the  ginseng  (Panax  ginseng),  that  valuable  plant  whose 
root,  "a  specific  against  all  disorders,"  fetches  its  weight  in  gold.  The  walnut, 
peach,  and  -n-ild  pear  interlace  their  branches  in  the  woods,  and  the  attempts 
already  made  at  horticulture  roiuid  about  the  villages  show  that  the  Usuri  region 
might  become  one  of  the  finest  f nut- growing  countries  in  the  world.  Altogether 
the  flora  of  the  Amur  approaches  that  of  China,  and  even  of  Indo-Chiua,  while 

Fig.  218. — Herbaceous  Vegetation  ox  the  Islands  of  the  Amvr. 


many  of  its  species  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  vegetation  of  the  Old  and 
New  "World.  But  the  pride  of  East  Siberia  are  the  thickets  of  herbaceous  plants 
growing  in  the  alluvial  lands,  along  the  banks  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Amur  and 
its  great  tributaries.  Here  the  umbeUifers,  mugwort,  reeds,  and  various  species  of 
cereals  intert-«-iue  to  a  height  of  10  feet  their  stalks,  bloom,  and  fruits,  and  are 
often  still  further  interlaced  by  the  manifold  coils  of  tall  creepers.  There  are 
mauy  densely  covered  tracts  impenetrable  except  with  the  axe  in  hand,  and  those 
who  venture  into  these  thickets  have  usually  to  foUow  the  tracks  opened  through 
them  by  the  wild  beasts,  for  the  wild  boar,  deer,  and  wild  goat  find  a  better 
cover  in  these  tall  grasses  even  than  in  the  forest  itself.  The  woodlands  of  the 
Usuri  are  also  haunted  by  the  Ijger,  fierce  as  the  royal  beast  of  the  Bengal  jungles. 


43G  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

aud  he  is  here  associated  with  the  panther,  bear,  and  sable.  Thus  are  the  southern 
types  interruingled  with  those  of  the  north  in  the  rich  animal  kingdom  of  this 
region,  which  is  allied  at  once  to  those  of  Siberia  and  of  China. 

Inhabitants — The  Golds  and  other  Tungus  Tribes. 

Ethnically  speaking,  the  Amm-  is  still  a  Timgus  river.  Apart  fi-om  the 
civilised  Chinese  and  Russians,  all  the  riverain  popxdation,  from  the  Ai-gun  and 
Shilka  confluence  to  the  Usuri  jimction,  consists  of  Tungus  elements.  But  the 
Lower  Amur  and  coast  regions  belong  to  the  Giliaks,  a  people  of  a  different  race, 
allied  to  the  Kuriles  and  Kamchadales. 

The  Tuuguses  of  the  Amur  are  divided  into  several  distinct  tribes,  some  of 
which  maintain  few  relations,  except  of  a  hostile  character,  with  each  other.  The 
Lamuts,  who  occupy  the  west  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  are  for  the  others  simply 
the  "People  of  the  Sea."  The  Oroches,  or  Orochons,  who  had  dwindled  to  about 
260  in  1875,  form  a  few  family  groups  on  the  banks  of  the  Shilka  and  Upper 
Amur.  From  the  Manegrs,  their  eastern  neighbours,  they  are  distinguished  only 
by  the  traditional  custom  of  using  the  reindeer  as  mounts.  Both  the  Oroches  and 
Manegrs,  although  mostly  baptized,  none  the  less  preserve  their  shamans  and 
domestic  idols,  as  well  as  the  teeth  and  claws  of  animals  used  as  amulets.  Hitherto 
the  Chinese  have  had  greater  influence  over  them  than  the  Russians.  Their  dress 
and  ornaments  are  evidentl}^  copied  from  southern  models,  while  their  features  are 
clearly  the  result  of  aUiauces  between  the  Tungus  women  and  Chinese  colonists. 
This  process  of  assimilation,  which  is  gradually  transforming  the  native  tribes,  is 
seen,  especially  on  the  right  or  Chinese  bank  of  the  Amur,  in  the  neighbom-hood 
of  the  tovni  of  Aigim,  which  is  the  civilising  centre  of  the  whole  couutrj'.  The 
Daurs,  descendants  of  nomads  of  like  name,  who  formerly  lived  farther  west  in  the 
present  Darlria,  have  become  sedentary  and  agricultural.  Most  of  their  houses 
are  built  in  the  Chinese  style,  with  vegetable  gardens,  orchards,  well-tilled  fields, 
and  their  religious  rites  are  chiefly  borrowed  from  the  Buddhist  systems.  They 
regard  as  inferiors  the  Birars — that  is,  the  "River  "  Tunguses — horse  and  cattle 
breeders,  who  still  dwell  north  of  the  Amur,  over  against  the  Daiir  settlements. 

The  Golds,  another  Tungus  people,  residing  chiefly  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Amur,  and  along  the  Sungari  and  Usuii  Rivers,  also  occupy  a  few  villages  on  the 
left  or  Russian  side,  between  the  ford  of  the  Usuri  and  the  junction  of  the  Gorin. 
They  are  a  timid  race,  who  generally  shrink  from  all  contact  with  the  Chinese, 
Manchus,  and  Russians.  Yet  they  have  already  borrowed  some  of  the  usages  of 
their  ci\'ilised  neighbours,  and,  like  the  Chinese,  shave  the  hair,  leaving  nothing  but 
a  "  pigtail "  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  Golds  live  almost  exclusively  on  the  fish 
which  abounds  in  the  streams  of  their  territorj^  They  are  excellent  boatmen,  and  live 
on  the  water  as  on  the  land.  When  the  river  is  rough  they  use  large  vessels  with 
square  bows,  and  in  cabn  weather  light  craft  made  of  birch  bark.  They  never  till  the 
soil,  and  have  but  few  vegetables,  but  occasionall}'  barter  their  sable  furs  with  the 
Manchus  for  rice  and  honey.      They  are  very  fond  of  animals,  and  surroimd  their 


KV 


w 


V 

At 


■I. 


'ERSITyoftLUNOIS. 


THE  TAZi,  MANDZI,  GILIAKS,  AND  RUSSIANS.  437 

dwellings  with  multitudes  of  dogs  and  swine,  which  live,  like  themselves,  on  a  fish 
diet.  They  also  keep  menageries  of  bears,  wolves,  and  foxes,  as  well  as  aviaries 
of  geese,  wild  duck,  and  eagles.  Various  religious  superstitions  associated  with  the 
last-mentioned  birds  of  prev  have  even  earned  for  them  the  title  of  "  Eaglets  " 
conferred  on  this  tribe  by  the  Manchus.  ■  In'  the  peninsular  region,  comprised 
between  the  Simgari,  Amm-,  and  Usuri,  the  tiger  makes  frequent  visits  to  their 
■villages,  nor  do  they  always  venture  to  resist  the  "  lord,"  who,  they  suppose, 
represents  a  royal  tribe,  ruled  over  by  the  "  Spii-it  of  the  Moimtains,"  the  Shan- 
shen  of  the  Manchurian  Chinese.  A  traveller  relates  that  during  the  winter  of 
1857-8  a  tiger  came  every  night  for  his  meal,  consisting  of  two  dogs,  which  the 
Golds  tied  up  tt)  a  tree  outside  the  village.  But  when  thej'  had  no  more  victims 
for  their  terrible  visitor,  they  were  making  preparations  to  sacrifice  their  o^ti 
children,  when  some  Cossacks  happening  to  pass  that  way  rescued  them  from  theii 
importunate  guest. 

Xorth  of  the  Golds  are  other  Tuugus  tribes,  the  JIangims,  Samagirs,  jN'gatkons, 
Xigidals,  and  others  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Amiu-  and  Amgim.  The 
Manguns  resemble  the  Golds  in  speech,  religion,  habits,  and  fondness  for  caged 
eagles  and  other  animals.  But  they  are  more  cultured,  thanks  to  the  influence  of 
the  Manchus,  now  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Eussians.  The  little  houses  erected 
by  them  on  the  graves  of  the  dead  are  adorned  with  curious  carvings  in  exqiusite 
taste.  The  Nigidals,  who  dwell  quite  apart  on  a  tributary  of  the  Amgun,  seem  to 
be  descended  from  a  people  who  were  formerly  far  more  ci-vilised  than  at  present. 
The  men  of  this  tribe  are  perhaps  the  most  honest  and  trustworthy  of  the  noble 
Timgus  race.  In  order  to  keep  aloof  as  far  as  possible  fi-om  the  Yakut,  Eussian, 
and  Manchu  traders,  they  have  been  obliged  to  «-ithdi-aw  to  regions  of  difficult 
access.  Possessing  a  large  quantity  of  precious  objects  and  of  textile  fabrics 
embroidered  ia  the  Chinese  taste,  and  testifjing  to  the  influence  formerly  exerted 
over  them  by  that  race,  they  refuse  to  part  with  these  highly  valued  articles,  with 
which  they  are  accustomed  to  array  the  bride  and  their  dead. 

The  stone  age  still  survived  till  quite  recently  in  this  region,  and  even  much 
farther  south  on  the  Manchurian  seaboard,  where  it  was  continued  down  to  the 
beginning  of  the  present  era.  Some  of  the  Usuri  tribes  were  accustomed  to  send 
hundi-eds  of  thousands  of  arrows  to  the  Coreans,  doubtless  in  consequence  of  the 
excellent  quality  of  the  stone  supplied  by  their  quarries  for  the  manufacture  of  arms. 


The  Tazi,  Mandzi,  Giliaks,  and  Eussiaxs. 

The  Timguses  of  the  coast  between  the  Amm"  and  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great, 
branches  of  the  Oroches  and  Golds,  are  by  the  Chinese  called  Yu-pi-ta-tz' ;  that  is, 
"  Fish-skin-clad  People,"  a  name  which  the  Eussians  have  shortened  to  Tazi.  Those 
who  have  preserved  the  old  fashions  stUl  wear  garments  of  salmon  skin,  adorned 
■with  very  elegant  designs.  But  in  the  hiUs  and  on  the  west  slojie  of  the  Sikhota- 
alin  the  Tazi  no  longer  deserve  their  Chinese  appellation,  for  they  now  dress 
like  the  other  Tunguses,  either  in  the  skins  of  animals  or  in  Eussian  and  Chinese 


438  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

clothes.  The  Tazi  are  honest  and  iipright,  and,  like  most  of  the  Tunguses,  very 
liospitable.  But  they  have  not  succeeded  in  preserving  their  independence,  having 
for  the  most  part  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Mandzi.  These  Mandzi,  or  Mant-zi', 
are  Chinese  immigrants  who  have  in  an  economic  sense  become  the  masters  of  the 
land,  and  who  till  recently  had  a  separate  government,  which,  to  the  great  relief  of 
the  people,  has  now  been  abolished.  The  chiefs  claimed  the  privilege  of  inflicting 
barbarous  punishments  on  their  subjects,  cropping  their  ears  or  even  burying  them 
alive  for  real  or  imaginary  offences.  They  have  no  doubt  taught  the  Tazi  a  good 
method  of  agriculture,  but  they  take  care  to  profit  by  them  as  money-lenders  and 
traders.  They  are  also  the  owners  of  the  mines  and  the  outfitters  of  the  fishing- 
smacks,  and  in  their  interest  the  sands  of  the  streams  are  washed  for  gold,  and  the 
"  sea-cabbage  "  and  trepang  collected  for  export.  The  Tazi  are  required  bj'  usage 
to  obtain  their  marriage  licenses  from  the  Mandzi  trader,  who  sells  at  a  high  figure 
the  oflScial  yellow  paper.  He  also  presides  at  biu-ials,  and  "  for  a  consideration  " 
embellishes  the  Tazi  dwelling  with  tapestries  representing  the  god  Buddha. 
Crushed  by  this  oppressive  system,  the  Tazi  are  rapidly  diminishing.  In  1874 
they  had  been  reduced  to  250  souls,  and,  as  the  Mandzi  all  take  native  wives,  the 
Tazi  will  have  probably  ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  nationality  in  a  single  genera- 
tion. AU  the  Timguses  of  South-east  Siberia  are  variously  estimated  at  from 
10,000  to  13,000. 

Travellers  and  Government  officials  calcidated  that  in  1873  there  were  from 
3,000  to  upwards  of  7,000  Chinese  on  the  Russian  seaboard.  But  this  element  is 
rapidlj-  increasing,  and  tens,  if  not  himdreds  of  thousands,  of  "  Celestials  "  would 
flock  to  this  region  under  a  free  system  of  migration.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
the  country  was  occupied  by  nimierous  colonies  of  Chinese,  who  possessed  towns 
and  forts  in  many  places.  But  in  1605 — 7  the}'  were  five  times  attacked  by  the 
Manchus,  who  bm-nt  their  cities  and  villages,  slaughtered  most  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  carried  off  the  rest  into  slavery.  There  remained  but  a  few  fugitives  hidden  in 
the  woods  and  marshes,  afterwards  joined  by  fresh  immigrants  attracted  by  the 
cidtivation  of  the  ginseng  and  the  gold-washings.  It  is  the  descendants  of  these 
Chinese  intruders  who  at  present  occupy  the  country  imder  the  name  of  Mandzi — 
that  is,  "  Free  Men  " — although  PaUadius  regards  this  name  as  a  term  of  reproach 
given  by  the  Chinese  to  their  expatriated  fellow-countrymen.  The  Mandzi  call 
themselves  Pao-tui-tz' ;  that  is,  "  Walkers,"  or  "  Runners."  In  1861,  after  the 
cession  of  the  maritime  region  to  Russia,  the  Chinese  Government  forbade  its  subjects 
to  migrate  with  their  wives  and  families  to  this  region.  The  richest  amongst  those 
already  settled  here  returned  to  China ;  the  poor  alone  remained,  and  were  after- 
wards joined  bj'  vagrants  and  brigands  from  Manchuria.  Such  are  the  chief  elements 
of  the  Chinese  population  in  the  maritime  province.  Some  Corean  immigrants 
have  also  foimd  refuge  in  Russian  territory,  notwithstanding  the  sentence  of  death 
issued  against  them.  In  1868  they  already  numbered  over  1,400,  all  industrious 
husbandmen.  But  the  inundations  of  the  following  j-ear  having  driven  multitudes 
of  victims  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Russia,  the  Corean  iimnigration  was  temporarily 
interdicted.     Some  of  the  fugitives  were  even  sent  back,  and  beheaded  on  their 


I 


THE  TAZi,  MANDZI,  GILIAKS,  AND  RUSSIANS.  439 

return,  \vliile  others  were  banislied  to  tlie  ports  on  tlie  Gulf  of  Tatary  and  to  tlie 
banks  of  the  Amur.  In  1873  the  Coreans  settled  in  the  maritime  province -num^- 
bered  altogether  about  3,500,  over  half  of  whom  had  allowed  themselves  to  be 
baptized. 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians  the  inhabitants  of  the  Lower  Amur  were  the 
Giliaks,  or  KUe,  kinsmen  of  those  liATng  in  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  and  allied  to 
those  mysterious  Ainos  who  are  the  subject  of  so  much  discussion  amongst  ethno- 
logists. The}-  hick  the  open  and  bright  expression  of  most  of  the  Tungus  tribes, 
and  their  small  eyes  sparkle  with  a  dull  glitter.  They  have  a  flat  nose,  thick  lips, 
prominent  cheek  bones,  black  hair,  and  tolerably  full  beard.  Dwelling  farther 
from  the  ilanchus  than  do  the  Timguses  of  the  Amur,  they  are  also  far  more  savage, 
although  amongst  them  are  found  blacksmiths,  mechanics,  and  even  skilfid  carvers. 
The  travellers  who  have  come  in  contact  with  them  are  not  eloquent  in  their  praise, 
describing  them  as  false,  thievish,  and  vindictive.  But  the  Giliaks  have  at  least 
a  highly  developed  sense  of  freedom,  recognising  no  masters,  and  governing  them- 
selves according  to  usage  alone.  Tradition  regulates  their  feasts,  marriages,  f  imerals, 
and  ceremonies  observed  when  setting  out  for  the  chase  and  on  other  imjDortant 
occasions.  The  betrothed,  pm-chased  by  her  father-in-law  in  her  fourth  or  fifth 
year,  is  brought  up  with  her  futm-e  husband  till  her  majority.  In  some  commu- 
nities the  dead  are  bm-nt ;  in  others  the  coffins  are  su.spended  to  the  trees,  or  placed 
on  platforms  near  their  cabins.  The  soul  of  the  departed  takes  refuge  in  the  body 
of  his  favoui-ite  dog,^  which  is  consequently  fattened  up  and  immolated  on  the  grave 
of  its  master. 

Fire  is  held  in  no  less  respect  by  the  Giliaks  than  by  the  Tajiks  of  the  Pamir. 
No  consideration  in  the  world  would  induce  them  to  remove  the  Hve  coal  from  one 
hut  to  another,  for  the  fii-e  once  kindled  must  never  leave  the  hearth  which  it  has 
consecrated.  The  hohr,  or  bear,  representing  the  Kur,  or  lord  of  the  heavens,  is 
one  of  their  chief  divinities,  whom,  however,  circiunstances  occasionally  compel 
them  to  devour.  They  trap  it  in  winter  in  its  lair,  and,  after  securing  it  with  a 
leather  noose,  di-ag  it  along  with  shouts  and  cries  intended  to  stupefy  their  half- 
awakened  but  still  formidable  victim.  It  is  then  kept  in  confinement,  nourished 
and  fattened  on  fish,  and  at  last  slain  on  its  feast-day,  after  a  fight  in  which  the 
assembled  miiltitude  attack  it  without  arms.  With  this  may  be  compared  what 
Miss  Isabella  Bird  tells  us  regarding  a  similar  practice  amongst  the  Ainos  of  Yezo  : 
"  The  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  this  rude  mythology  is  the  '  wor.ship '  of  the  bear, 
the  Yezo  bear  being  one  of  the  finest  of  his  species.  But  it  is  impossible  to  imder- 
stand  the  feelings  by  which  it  is  prompted,  for  they  worship  it  after  their  fashion, 
and  set  up  its  head  in  their  villages,  yet  they  trajD  it,  kill  it,  eat  it,  and  sell  its  skin. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  this  wild  beast  inspires  more  of  the  feeling  which  prompts 
worship  than  the  inanimate  forces  of  nature,  and  the  Ainos  may  be  distinguished 
as  bear- worshippers,  and  their  greatest  religious  festival,  or  Saturnalia,  as  the  Festival 
of  the  Bear.  Gentle  and  peacefid  as  they  are,  they  have  a  great  admiration  for 
fierceness  and  courage,  and  the  bear,  which  is  the  strongest,  fiercest,  and  most 
courageous  aninial  known  to  them,  has  probably  in  all  ages  inspired  them  with 


440  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

veneration.  Some  of  their  rude  chants  are  in  praise  of  the  bear,  and  their  highest 
eulogy  on  a  man  is  to  compare  him  to  a  bear."  *  Like  the  Golds,  the  Giliaks  keep 
eagles  in  cages,  giving  them  the  same  food  as  the  bears.  But  they  do  not  hunt  the 
wolf,  to  which  they  ascribe  baneful  influences. 

Golds  and  Giliaks,  Oroches  and  Manegrs,  are  all  alike  destined  to  disappear 
before  the  Russians.  No  doubt  colonisation,  properly  so  called,  is  proceeding  very 
slowly,  and  many  settlements,  unfavourably  placed  in  the  neighbom-hood  of  marshes 
or  thickets  too  difiicult  to  be  cleared,  have  had  to  be  abandoned.  Nevertheless  the 
military  posts,  fishing  stations,  and  pro\'ision  depots  afford  solid  rallying-points  to 
the  Slav  popidations.  The  seaports  and  reclaimed  lands  are  so  many  "  New  Rus- 
sias,"  which  are  inch  by  inch  absorbing  all  the  surrounding  region.  The  prairies 
of  the  Amur  and  the  southern  districts  watered  by  the  Usuri  are  amongst  the 
countries  where  the  Russian  element  is  increasing  and  flourishing,  while  the  Cos- 
sacks, stationed  on  the  Lower  Usuri  in  colonies  at  intervals  of  from  15  to  20  miles, 
have  fallen  into  the  most  abject  poverty.  They  have  neither  corn  nor  cattle,  and 
in  1867  every  "  soul "  had  less  than  an  acre  of  land  under  cultivation.  Some  Fin- 
nish families,  which  had  received  grants  of  lands  from  the  Government  on  the 
Upper  Usuri,  have  been  obliged  to  abandon  them  and  take  refuge  in  Vladivostok. 
A  few  Bohemians  had  also  offered  to  colonise  the  Usuri  valley  and  the  Manchurian 
maritime  districts,  but  on  condition  of  enjoying  free  mimicipal  institutions.  How- 
ever, the  Russian  Government  rejected  these  offers  as  too  dangerous,  and,  speaking 
generally,  the  colonies  of  the  Amm-  basin  must  so  far  be  pronoimced  a  failure.  In 
order  at  any  cost  to  occupy  the  whole  "  line  "  from  Transbaikalia  to  Vladivostok  in 
two  years,  military  posts  had  been  founded  at  regrdar  intervals,  but  aU  the  sites 
thus  chosen  did  not  prove  suitable  for  agricultural  settlements.  As  a  rule,  the 
colonies  flourish  in  proportion  as  they  are  more  freely  develoj^ed  and  removed  from 
the  meddlesome  interference  of  the  authorities.  A  large  number  of  the  Russian 
villages  in  the  Amur  basin  have  been  named  after  the  travellers  who  have  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  explorations  in  Siberia. 

The  Kajiexshiki. 

Recently,  also,  some  of  the  "  Old  BelieA'ers "  have  fotmd  their  waj'  from  the 
Altai  highlands  to  the  Amur  basin.  An  interesting  accoimt  of  these  little-known 
Siberian  "  Kamenshiki  "  has  been  communicated  by  M.  Printz  to  Mr.  E.  D.  Morgan, 
and  by  him  published  in  his  English  edition  of  Prjevalsky's  "  Jom'ney  to  the  Lob- 
Nor."  After  the  year  1747,  when  the  Government  took  over  from  Demidoff  the 
Altai  mines,  many  new  settlements  were  founded  in  the  mountains,  and  a  chain  of 
forts  was  erected  to  protect  the  works  from  the  inroads  of  the  Zimgarian  Kalmuks. 
But  many  of  the  miners  and  settlers  from  various  quarters  soon  crossed  the  frontier, 
so  that  in  1764  a  second  line  had  to  be  formed  towards  the  south-east.  In  order  to 
secure  themselves  from  the  Tatars  and  Kahnuks  the  new  settlers  foimded  their  first 
stations  in  the  impenetrable  forests  of  Kuznetsk,  where  the  Old  Believers  made  for 

*  "  Unbeaten  Tracts  in  Japan,"  ii.  p.  73. 


THE  KAMENSHIKI.  441 

themselves  caves  (skiti)  and  hermitages,  which  later  on  became  villages,  subject  to 
taxation  and  liable  to  furnish  hands  for  the  mines.  To  escape  from  these  exactions 
the  settlers  agaiu  moved  farther  towards  the  Chinese  frontier,  where  they  were 
joined  by  others  who  belonged  to  no  f)articular  sect,  but  were  mostly  rimaway 
miners  and  others  anxious  to  avoid  labour  and  taxation. 

To  this  day  there  are  ravines  in  the  Altai  called  "  Kamen  "  (rock),  and  their 
inhabitants  are  spoken  of  as  living  "in the  rock,"  or  "beyond  the  rock,"  whence 
their  name  of  Kamenshiki,  or  "Eock  People."  The  first  Kamenshiki  lived  for  a 
time  in  the  secluded  Bukhtarma  hills,  where  their  holiness  and  humility,  real  or 
feigned,  soon  began  to  attract  the  other  inhabitants  towards  them.  Many  of  the 
serfs  were  also  induced  to  join  them,  obtaining  leave  to  go  on  himting  expeditions, 
and  then  staying  away  altogether.  They  lived  peaceably  together,  observing  strictly 
the  rites  of  their  religion,  tilling  the  land,  and  enriching  themselves  by  the  sale  of 
costly  furs.  In  the  hunting  districts  they  passed  the  winter  in  rude  huts,  occupied 
exclusively  in  trapping  fur-bearing  animals.  The  huts  were  often  completely 
buried  in  snow-drifts  several  yards  deep,  with  a  small  opening  for  the  entrance. 
The  only  signs  of  life  in  these  snowy  wastes  and  dense  forests  were  the  stack  of 
fire- wood,  the  black  bath,  and  the  saira,  or  larder,  supported  on  four  trees,  and  about 
15  feet  from  the  ground.  They  also  visited  the  Narim,  a  tributarj'  of  the  Irtish, 
where  they  caught  the  sturgeon  and  sterlet,  which  they  di-ied  or  jerked  in  the  sun. 

The  Government,  although  aware  of  the  colonj' of  "outlaws"  in  the  Bukh- 
tarma district,  was  unable  to  take  effectual  measures  against  them,  owing  to  the 
inaccessible  natiire  of  the  coimtry.  But  in  1791  they  voluntarity  submitted  and 
received  the  imperial  pardon,  and  were  then  made  liable  to  a  small  poU-tax,  changed 
later  on  to  a  tribute  in  kind.  In  the  early  stage  of  their  existence  their  lives  were 
patriarchal  in  the  extreme,  and  being  cut  off  fi'om  the  world,  and  united  by  a  com- 
mon lot,  they  formed  a  religious  brotherhood,  living  together  in  peace  and  har- 
mony. Disputes  were  referred  to  the  "  Best  Men,"  those  who  possessed  the  general 
confidence,  and  were  distinguished  for  their  moral  qualities.  But  after  they  were 
joined  by  outcasts  and  runaways  of  all  sorts,  every  kind  of  unbridled  license 
broke  out  amongst  them.  Robbery,  rape,  and  murder  became  rife,  and  the  prepon- 
derance of  the  men  over  the  other  sex  led  to  much  discord  and  vice.  Some  of  theur 
number,  caught  red-handed,  were  condemned  in  1788  to  an  extraordinary  pimish- 
ment :  two  of  the  criminals  were  boimd  to  small  rafts  and  set  adrift  in  the  rapid 
Bukhtarma  River,  each  with  a  pole  to  save  himself  from  di'owning,  and  a  loaf  of  bread 
for  food.     One  was  di-owned,  and  the  other  washed  to  the  bank  and  j^ardoned. 

After  their  submission  to  the  authorities  in  1791  they  abandoned  their 
"  rocks,"  and  removed  to  places  suited  for  tillage,  stock-breeding,  and  industrial 
pursuits.  When  visited  in  1863  by  Printz,  they  were  a  thriving  commimitj',  with . 
numerous  herds  and  flocks,  and  much  land  under  tUlage.  They  are  daring  hunters, 
and  have  been  known  single-handed  to  attack  and  dispatch  the  bear,  armed  only 
with  an  axe.  They  claim  to  belong  to  the  old  priestless  sect — hence  have  no 
"popes"  of  their  own.  Nothing  but  necessity  drives  them  to  the  Orthodox  Church 
before  marriage,  when  they  are  obliged  to  sign  a  wi'itten  engagement  never  to 


442  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

retuiu  to  the  "  raskol."  This,  however,  they  do  not  observe,  ou  the  ground  that  it 
was  obtained  on  compulsion,  nor  do  they  ever  bring  their  chiltb-en  to  be  baptized,  or 
comply  with  any  of  the  observances  of  the  orthodox  faith. 

The  volost,  a  district  of  Bukhtarma,  has  a  present  population  of  1,438,  living  in 
eight  villages  in  an  extremely  fertile  district.  In  1805  a  party  of  sixty  left  the 
community  in  search  of  the  "  promised  land "  of  which  their  traditions  sjDeak. 
But  after  two  years  of  fruitless  wanderings  on  the  Russo- Chinese  border  nearly  all 
returned  to  their  homes.  Since  then  another  party  was  met  by  Prjevalsky  on 
the  desolate  shores  of  Lob-uor,  and  others  are  now  luigratiug  to  the  more  inviting 
region  of  the  Amur  basin. 

Topography. 

The  few  Russian  towns  scattered  over  the  coimtry  of  the  Tunguses  and  Giliaks 
on  the  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  Gulf  of  Tatary,  and  Sea  of  Japan  are  still 
in  their  infancy.  Scarcely  more  than  two  or  three  of  them  would  be  regarded  as 
anj'thing  more  than  simple  villages,  were  they  suddenly  transported  to  the  populous 
regions  of  European  Russia.  Still  they  derive  a  certain  historic  importance  from 
their  very  position  as  the  advanced  outposts  of  the  empire  on  the  Pacific  seaboard 
over  against  the  New  World. 

The  town  of  Olihotsh,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  great  land-locked  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  has  never  had  more  than  a  few  hundred  inhabitants.  Yet  its  incon- 
venient harbour,  situated  on  a  lagoon  at  the  jimction  of  the  Okhota  and  Kukhtuya, 
enjoys  a  certain  amoimt  of  trade.  Previous  to  the  year  1807,  when  a  ship  was 
sent  directly  from  Russia  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Okhotsk,  all  the  pro- 
visions and  other  supplies  for  the  Russian  fleet  in  the  Pacific  had  to  be  forwarded 
overland  from  Yakutsk.  The  Government  and  the  trading  company  of  Russian 
America  emplo3-ed  every  year  13,000  horses  in  this  carrying  trade  over  the  Aldan 
Mountains.  In  1844  the  "  American  "  fishing  and  peltry  company  removed  its 
factories  and  docks  from  Okhotsk  to  the  port  of  Aijan,  more  favourably  situated  on 
the  same  coast,  and  3°  farther  south,  in  a  less  severe,  though  not  a  less  humid  and 
boisterous  climate.  Udskoij  Osfrog,  one  of  the  oldest  Cossack  stations  in  this  region, 
and  situated  near  the  south-west  corner  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  also  ranks  as  a  town, 
though  consisting  only  of  a  few  dozen  houses.  Other  so-called  "  toMTis  "  are  Gijiga, 
or  Gijigimk,  and  Penjina,  or  Penjinsk,  mere  groups  of  huts,  standing  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  each  on  one  of  the  inlets  terminating 
this  inland  sea. 

The  Russian  towns  of  the  Amur  basin,  although  founded  long  after  Okhotsk, 
have  nevertheless  outstripj)ed  the  ancient  city,  which  at  one  time  enjoyed  a 
monopoly  of  the  Russian  trade  on  the  Pacific.  Chita,  capital  of  Transbaikalia,  has 
the  administrative  importance  imparted  to  it  by  its  rank  and  position  as  a  central 
station  on  the  route  between  Lake  Baikal  and  the  Amur.  But  the  Ingoda,  which 
below  Chita  plunges  into  a  deep  gorge,  is  navigable  only  during  the  spring  floods, 
when  it  sends  down  the  flotilla  of  boats  laden  with  corn,  salt,  preserved  meat,  and 
manufactured  goods  for  all  the  settlements  in  the  Amur  basin  as  far  as  Niko- 


KV 


IVERiiiTVo' 


TOPOGEAPHT.  443 

laj'cvsk.  The  boats  used  iu  this  service  are  built  iu  the  vast  forests  stretching 
aloug  the  river  above  Chita.  Nyerchinsk  no  longer  stands  on  the  banks  of  a 
navigable  river,  the  inundations  of  1812  having  caused  it  to  be  removed  to  the 
north  of  the  Nyercha,  over  2  miles  from  the  Shilka,  which,  though  foi-med  by  the 
junction  of  the  Onon  and  lugoda,  is  accessible  only  to  light  craft.  The  true  head 
of  the  navigation  is  some  90  miles  farther  do^^^l  at  Sfrefeiisk,  a  flom-ishing  village 
which  possesses  some  warehouses  and  workshops.  Here  most  of  the  Eussian  boats 
on  the  Amm-  put  up  for  the  winter.  Nyerchinsk  is  a  trading-place,  which  has 
become  the  emporium  for  the  whole  region,  whose  future  prosperity  and  impor- 
tance are  insured  by  its  nmnerous  argentiferous  lead,  quicksilver,  copper,  iron,  tin, 
and  zinc  mines,  its  gold-washings,  precious  stones,  coal-fields,  and  mineral  waters. 
Historically  the  name  of  Nyerchinsk  recalls  the  treaty  that  was  here  concluded  in 
1689  between  Eussia  and  China  to  the  advantage  of  the  latter  power.  It  also 
recalls  the  sufferings  of  the  nmnerous  political  exiles  condemned  to  work  in  the 
neighbouring  mines.  The  chief  penal  settlement  of  the  district  is  situated  at  the 
gold-washings  of  Kara,  on  the  Shilka,  some  60  miles  below  Stretensk  Over  2,000 
persons,  including  a  certain  number  of  political  convicts,  are  here  condemned  to 
hard  labom-.  These  gold-washings,  like  all  those  of  the  Argim  and  Shilka  valleys, 
are  often  kno'wn  by  the  name  of  Nyerchinskiye  Priiski*  and  the  term  Nyerchinsk 
is  also  current  in  the  meteorological  works  of  Ni/erchinskiy  Zarod,  a  silver 
foundry,  situated  175  miles  east  of  the  to-mi  on  a  small  affluent  of  the  Argun. 
Here  were  made  the  imiDortant  observations  which  have  supplied  the  principal  data 
for  the  study  of  the  climate  of  East  Siberia.  It  is  a  pleasant  little  place,  surrounded 
by  metallurgic  establishments. 

Since  the  first  incm'sions  of  the  Russians  the  banks  of  the  Amm'  already  boast 
of  their  ruined  cities.  Such  is  A/basin,  founded  in  1651  by  the  Cossack  chief 
Khabarov,  and  which  the  Chinese  armies  had  to  besiege  and  capture  three  times 
before  the  Russians  finally  ceded  it  in  the  treaty  of  Nyerchinsk.  A  modern 
stanitza  has  sprmig  up  at  the  foot  of  the  rmned  fortress,  which  is  now  overgrown 
with  trees  and  shrubs.  The  j)resent  capital  of  the  reconquered  Russian  territory 
on  the  Middle  Amur  is  Blayoryeshchensk,  which  was  founded  in  1856  on  the 
peninsidar  terrace  formed  by  the  jimction  of  the  Amur  and  Zyeya,  18  miles  above 
the  confluence.  The  brand-new  Russian  town,  with  its  governor's  palace,  broad 
streets,  low  red-roofed  houses,  all  built  by  the  soldiers  on  one  plan,  contrasts 
unfavourably  with  the  populous  Chinese  town  of  Ai'guu,  lying  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  some  20  miles  farther  down.  But  it  does  a  brisk  trade  with  Manchuria, 
which  even  in  1869  was  already  estimated  at  nearly  500,000  roubles  yearly.  Even 
within  the  Russian  frontier  there  reside  over  10,000  Chinese  subjects,  who  pay 
their  taxes  to  the  officials  on  the  right  bank.  The  Blagovyeshchensk  district  is 
destined  to  become  the  future  granary  of  the  Amiu-  region.  Most  of  the  Slav 
squatters,  belonging  to  the  sect  of  the  Dukhahortzi,  or  "  Spiritual  Wrestlers,"  are 
free  colonists,  having  selected  the  sites  of  their  villages  on  the  Zyeya  and  Zavitaya 

*  Yield  of  gold  in  the  Amur  basin  in  1878,  2,075,000  roubles;  hands  employed,  39,250,  of  whom 
1,935  escaped. 


444  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

without  tlie  intervention  of  the  military  authorities.     Fu-st  came  the  yoimg  men  in 


the  spring,  provided  with  supplies,  and  accompanied  with  their  horses,  which  they 
bartered  with  the  Manchus  for  workino-  oxen.     On  the  arrival  of  the  families  a 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


445 


few  montlis  later  on,  the  cabins  were  already  built,  and  long  yokes  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  cattle  had  already  cleared  the  thickets  of  dwarf  oaks.  These  villages  are 
now  flourishing,  and  with  their  cheerful  aspect  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
wretched  settlements  established  by  order  of  the  authorities  in  the  midst  of  scrub, 
rooks,  and  swamps.  One  of  the  most  thriving  colonies  is  that  of  Mikha'ilo- 
Scmyonorsk,  situated  at  the  issue  of  the  gorge  of  the  Burej^a  River. 

The  present  capital  of  all  the  Lower  Amur  region  and  of  the  maritime  province 
is  Khabarovha,  thus  named  in  honour  of  the  daring  Cossack  who  first  descended 
the  Amur  nearl}'  to  its  mouth.  Built  on  the  steep  side  of  a  hill  overlooking  the 
right  bank  of  the  Amur  at  its  confluence  with  the  Usuri,  Khabarovka  consisted  till 


Fig.  220.— ISTlKOLAYEVSK. 

Scale  1  :  62,000. 


»^ 


£.nf  Vi        UoMP 


140*45 


C  Pefroti 


0  to  32  Feet. 


32  Feet  and  npwarda. 
2,160  Yards. 


recently  of  little  more  than  a  few  barracks  and  stores.  But  its  happy  position  at 
the  diverging  point  of  the  three  great  waterways  of  the  Middle  and  Lower  Amur 
and  Usuri,  and  under  one  of  the  least  rigoroiis  climates  in  Siberia,  seems  to  insure 
for  this  place  a  prosperous  commercial  future.  About  20,000  sable  skins  are 
annually  brought  to  this  market.  But  the  surrounding  marshes  and  woodlands 
present  great  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  agricidture. 

Of  all  the  Russian  colonies  in  Siberia  those  of  the  Lower  Amur-  are  the  most 
backward.  Some  of  them  have  even  had  to  be  abandoned,  the.  hopes  of  the  Slav 
peasantry  having  been  completely  baffled  by  the  rainy  climate,  thankless  soil, 
swampy  lowlands,  and  rocky  or  wooded  slopes.     Sofiisk  and  Mariinsk  derive  some 


VOL.    VI. 


G    G 


446 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


importance  from  their  position  on  the  Amur,  at  the  entrance  of  tlie  depression 
leading  to  the  Gulf  of  Castries.  Niholayersk,  the  old  Cherbakh  of  the  Giliaks,  docs 
some  trade  during  the  fine  season  as  the  port  of  entry  to  the  river.  Some  American 
dealers  are  settled  here,  but  most  of  the  population  consists  of  soldiers  and  officials. 
Even  the  free  townsfolk  consider  themselves  as  exiles,  and  few  of  them  settle  here 
permanently.     The  women  are  in  a  large  minority  in  this  log-hut  settlement.     The 

Fig.  221. — America  Bay. 
Scale  1  :  180,000. 


I 


C  Perron 


0  to  32  Feet. 


32  to  80  Feet. 


80  Feet  and  upwards. 


3  Miles. 


difficulties  presented  by  the  bar  and  inconvenient  roadstead,  the  five  months'  block 
during  the  winter  season,  and  the  absolute  interruption  of  all  relations  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  even  in  spring  and  autimm,  prevent  Nikolayevsk  from  benefiting 
by  its  advantages  as  the  port  of  entry  of  the  great  East  Siberian  river.  Its 
wretched  climate  also  renders  it  one  of  the  most  uninviting  places  of  residence  on 
the    globe.      The  sun  shines  for    mouths  together  behind  the  clouds;  the  air  is 


TOPOGEAPnY. 


417 


constantl_y  charged  with  drizzling  mists,  accomjDauiod  by  dense  fogs,  and  in  winter 
fierce  snow-storms  almost  completely  interrupt  all  commmiication  from  house  to 
house.  Owing  to  these  causes  Nikolaj-evsk  has  fallen  into  decay,  and  the  capital 
has  been  removed  to  Khabarovka. 

The  ports  on  the  Manchurian  seaboard  have  benefited  by  the  disadvantages  of 
Nikolayevsk,  and  many  emigrants  from  the  Lower  Amur  have  settled  in  Fort 
Imperial,  Vladimir,  and  Olga,  in  the  ports  on  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great,  and 
especially  in  Vladivostol;,  to  which  the  military  establishments  of  Nikolayevsk  have 
been  removed.  The  very  name  of  Vladivostok,  which  means  "  Euler  of  the  East," 
and  which  recalls  Vladikavkaz,  "Ruler  of  the  Caucasus,"  at  the  other  extremity  of 
Asia,  betrays  the  futiu'e  aspirations  of  those  who  founded  this  station  in  1860. 
The  strait  connecting  the  Gulf  of  the  Amur  wilh  that  of  the  Usuri  has  been  named 


Fig.  222. — The  Possiet  Inlets. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


**;.*-  ^-Js5'  '^^\/Si'**"'-^^'*''^*5a5-^ 


t"  of  G 


I30"^0- 


I50'55' 


C    Perron 


0  to  16  Feet. 


I6to82Feet. 


32  Feet  and  upwards, 
G  Miles. 


the  "  Eastern  Bosporus,"  and  the  harbour,  which  forms  a  semicircxdar  inlet  at  the 
extremity  of  the  Muraviov  Amurskiy  peninsida,  bears  the  title  of  the  "  Golden 
Horn."  Vladivostok  is  thus  intended  to  become  a  second  Constantinople.  But 
whether  such  aspii-ations  be  realised  or  not,  it  is  beyond  doubt  already  the  chief 
city  of  all  Asiatic  Russia  east  of  Yakutsk,  and  must  maintain  this  position  until  the 
Russians  shall  have  occupied  other  ports  in  more  southern  latitudes.  The  idea  has 
also  been  entertained  of  making  it  a  winter  station  for  the  foreign  merchants  from 
Shang-hae  and  Ning-po.  In  1880  the  strained  relations  with  China  rendered  it 
for  a  time  the  most  animated  naval  station  in  the  extreme  east,  and,  thanks  to  its 
armaments,  Russia  foimd  herself  for  the  first  time  more  powerful  than  Great 
Britain  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  waters.  But  the  importance  of  Vladivostok  is 
far  more  of  a  military  than  a  commercial  character,  and  the  outlay  for  all  the  great 
works  undertaken  on  the  shores  of  the  "  Golden  Horn  " — piers,  docks,  arsenals — 

G   G   2 


448  •     ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

has  been  defraj-ed,  not  by  private  enterprise,  but  by  the  imperial  exchequer.  Half 
of  the  population  is  composed  of  soldiers,  officials,  liberated  convicts,  and  the  other 
half  of  IMandzi,  Chinese,  and  Coreans,  whose  junks,  wooden  houses,  sheds,  and 
other  surroundings  impart  a  very  different  aspect  to  the  place  from  that  of  most 
Slav  cities.  The  free  Russian  element  is  scarcelj'  represented  except  by  a  few 
artisans,  and  very  few  women  are  met  in  the  streets,  '\1adivostok  is  still  little 
more  than  an  encampment,  in  which  the  normal  family  life  is  the  exception.  Its 
small  export  trade  in  hartshorn,  trepang,  mushrooms,  and  other  fungi  used  in 
tanning,  is  entirely  monopolized  by  the  Chinese,  and  amounted  in  1879  to  little 
over  104,000  roubles.  Some  of  the  ports  on  the  Manchu  coast,  especially  those  of 
America  Bay  and  of  the  Possiet  Soimds  east  and  west,  might  easily  develop  a  greater 
commercial  acti\'ity.  The  latter  exported  in  1866  as  much  as  400,000  roubles' 
worth  of  sea-cabbages  alone.  Vladivostok  is  still  imconnected  by  any  good  high- 
ways of  communication  \n.th.  the  inland  districts.  In  summer  aU  the  traffic  with 
the  Usuri  valley  is  carried  on  by  the  Bay  of  the  Amur  and  the  Suifun  waterway, 
which  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  for  a  distance  of  over  30  miles.  But  in 
winter  the  "  Bosporus  "  is  blocked  with  ice,  although  the  waters  of  the  gulf  itself 
remain  ojjen  throughout  the  year.  Vladivostok  promises  one  daj'  to  become  the 
Pacific  terminus  of  the  great  trunk  line  across  the  eastern  hemisphere,  as  it  has 
long  been  that  of  the  "Danish"  telegraphic  system,  whose  central  point  is  in 
Copenhagen,  and  whose  ramifications  already  stretch  over  half  the  globe. 

A  writer  in  a  recent  number  of  the  North  C/iina  Herald  recommends  Vladivostok 
as  a  sort  of  sanitariiun  or  summer  retreat  for  EngKsh  residents  in  China.  He 
states  that  the  summer  temperatui-e  is  about  65°  Fahr.,  with  invigorating  mountain 
breezes,  splendid  scenery,  and  extensive  oak,  beech,  and  pine  forests  in  the  district. 
From  Nagasaki,  in  Japan,  the  route  lies  along  the  Japanese  coast,  close  to  the 
lovely  islands  of  Hirado,  Ikutski,  and  Iki.  From  Iki  it  rims  about  230  miles  east 
of  Tsu-shima  to  Dagelet  in  the  full  strength  of  the  Km-o-sivo  oceanic  current- 
Dagelet  is  a  picturesque  island,  wooded  to  the  very  summit  of  its  highest  peak, 
4,000  feet  above  sea-level.  From  Dagelet  the  course  is  due  north  for  340  miles  to 
the  island  of  Skryplef,  within  6  miles  of  Vladivostok.  The  soil  of  this  part  of 
Russian  Manchuria  he  describes  as  extremely  productive,  with  abundance  of  the 
very  finest  forest  trees,  besides  gold,  iron,  coal,  and  other  minerals.  The  surroimd- 
ing  waters  also  teem  with  fish,  while  the  reefs  are  covered  with  edible  seaweed. 
Between  Arkold  and  St.  Vladimir  Bay  there  are  several  fairly  good  harbom-s,  some 
of  them  quite  sheltered.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  bracing,  but  too  severe  for  a 
winter  residence. 


VIII.— SAKHALIN. 


This  island,  although  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  with  an  area  of  about 
25,000  square  miles,  has  remained  almost  imknown  to  Europeans  till  within  the 
last  hundred  years.  The  Dutch  navigator,  Martin  Gerrits,  of  Vries,  had  coasted 
its  eastern  seaboard  in  1645,  and  cast  anchor  in  the  Gulf  of  Patience ;   but  he 


SAKHALIN. 


449 


supposed  that  he  was  following  the  coast-line  of  the  Japanese  land  of  Yezo.  Even 
on  Cook's  chart,  published  in  London  in  178-lr,  Sakhalin  figures  merely  as  a  small 
island  near  the  Gulf  of  the  Amur.  Buache  alone  had  succeeded  in  tracing  its 
northern  outlines  with  some  approach  to  accuracy,  but  even  he  attributed  more  than 
half  of  the  whole  island  to  Yezo.  The  very  name  of  Sakhalin  betrays  the  ignorance 
till  quite  recently  prevailing  in  regard  of  this  terra  incognita.  It  is  a  contracted 
form  of  the  Manchu  term,  Sakhalan  anda  Kanda,  or  "  Rock  of  the  Amur  Estuarv," 
applied  originally  to  an  islet  at  the  mouth  of  this  rivei',  and  not  to  the  extensive 


Fig.  223. — La  PERorsE  Strait. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


C-Perron 


Oto  160  Feet. 


160  to  320  Feet.  320  Feet  and  upwards. 
30  Miles. 


insidar  region  stretching  along  the  Manchu  seaboard  for  a  distance  of  570  miles 
north  and  south.  The  Japanese  and  Ainos  of  the  Kurile  Archipelago  gave,  and 
still  give,  to  this  island  the  name  of  Krafto,  Karaftu,  or  Karaf  utu,  which  it  ought  to 
have  retained.  Mamia  Einzo  simply  calls  it  Kita  Yezo,  or  "  IS^orth  Yezo,"  while 
such  terms  as  Tarakai,  Choca,  and  Sisam  seem  to  refer  only  to  portions  of  the  land, 
or  to  its  inhabitants. 

So  far  back  as  1787,  La  Perouse,  while  navigating  the  strait  bearing  his  name 
and  separating  Yezo  from  Sakhalin,  had  penetrated  into  the  Gulf  of  Tatary  and 
surveyed  all  the  coasts  of  island  and  mainland  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  Castries.     But 


450  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

althougli  Sakhalin  seemed  to  be  obviouslj'  an  island,  the  I'eports  of  tlie  natives 


o 

< 


to 


,iP,li;:;:^ 

m 

regarding  a  portage,  over  which,  they  carried  their  sleighs,  referred,  according-  to 
some  geographers,  to  an  isthmus  connecting  Sakhalin  with  the  continent.     For  at 


SAKHALIN. 


451 


that  time  the  existence  Teas  still  luikno-mi  of  the  Kizi  bank,  tying  between  the 
Amur  and  Gulf  of  Castries.  These  reports  might  also,  perhaps,  have  referred  to 
the  bridge  of  ice  by  which  Sakhalin  is  every  year  connected  with  the  mainland. 
In  1797  Broughton,  after  visiting  the  west  coast,  and  in  1805  Krusenstern,  after 
doubling  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  still  supposed  that  it  might  be 


Fig.  225.— JIamia  Einzo  Strait. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


R 


52*  ■ 


521/' 

[ 


''-'- Sf^i 


ar^y^S^/C-u' 


Kl^^ii 


EofG.. 


-^ 


i4-ir4a 


C.  Perron 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  SO  Feet.  SO  Feet  and  upwaiOs. 
6  Miles. 


joined  to  the  continent  by  a  sand-bank.  TiU  about  the  middle  of  the  present 
century  most  of  the  European  charts  represented  Sakhalin  as  a  peninsula,  although 
the  Japanese  pilot,  31amia  Rinzo,  had  already,  a  few  years  after  the  voyage  of 
Xruseustern,  explored  the  Gulf  of  Tatarj^,  and  penetrated  by  this  route  into  the 
Amur  estuary.  At  last  the  hydi-ograjihic  labours  of  NeveLskoi  during  the  years 
1849 — 52  revealed  the  correct  outlines  of  the  shores  of  Sakhalin  and  the  Mamia 


452  ASIATIC  EUSSLi. 

Rinzo  Strait.  Vessels  dranving  16  feet  of  water  have  room  to  tack  about  between 
the  sand-bauks  in  these  waters.  At  the  same  time  this  passage  is  completely 
ice-boxmd  for  four  months  in  the  year,  and  it  is  obstructed  by  floes  till  the  month  of 
June. 

Since  1875  the  whole  island  has  belonged  to  Russia  as  far  as  La  Perouse  Strait, 
the  southern  portion  having  been  ceded  by  Japan  to  that  power  in  exchange  for  the 
Kurile  Archipelago.  But  its  thorough  sui'vej-  had  already  been  commenced  by 
Vo.shnj-ak,  Orlov,  Rudanovskiy,  Schrenck,  Schmidt,  Glehn,  Brilkin,  and  others, 
who  carefully  explored  its  shores,  and  studied  its  relief,  climate,  inhabitants,  mines, 
and  harboui's.  Russian  geographical  terms  are  already  supplantmg  the  native 
Aino  and  Giliak  names,  and  several  French  appellations  given  by  La  Perouse  to 
capes,  islands,  bays,  and  coast  ranges  have  been  either  distorted  or  forgotten. 

Highlands. 

In  its  relief  Sakhalin  resembles  the  mainland  of  ITanchm-ia.  Were  the  land 
suddenly  to  subside  a  few  himdred  yards,  the  Sikhota-alin  chain  woidd  also 
become  an  insidar  region,  with  a  crest  running  across  several  parallels  of  latitude. 
On  the  other  hand,  were  the  bed  of  the  sea  to  be  ujjheaved,  Sakhalin  would  be 
converted  into  a  long  escarpment  of  the  continent.  Its  hills  and  mountains,  which 
seem  on  the  whole  to  be  of  more  recent  formation  than  those  of  the  mainland,  are 
disposed  in  long  ridges  running  parallel  with  the  meridian.  The  western  chain, 
which  skirts  the  whole  coast  from  north  to  south,  and  which  is  by  far  the  most 
elevated,  rises  here  and  there  to  heights  of  from  3,000  to  nearly  5,000  feet.  But 
in  some  places  it  sinks  as  low  as  580  feet,  and  is  here  crossed  without  the  slightest 
difficidty.  East  of  this  main  range,  consisting  of  cretaceous  and  tertiary  rocks, 
there  stretch  other  j)arallel  chains,  or  fi-agments  of  chains,  with  a  mean  elevation  of 
scarcely  more  than  640  feet,  and  with  gently  rounded  crests,  few  of  which  deserve 
the  name  of  mountain.  The  Tiara  alone,  cidminating  point  of  the  eastern  ridge, 
which  terminates  in  a  long  peninsida  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Patience,  is  an  imposing 
peak,  comparable  to  those  of  the  western  range.  The  Sakhalin  Mountains  nowhere 
reach  the  snow-Hne,  but  several  rise  above  the  limits  of  vegetation,  blending  theii" 
bare  greWsh  crags  with  the  watery  clouds  of  those  latitudes.* 

The  chains  rimning  north  and  south  are  separated  hj  intervening  plains  or 
valleys  disposed  in  the  same  direction,  and  watered  by  streams  flowing  either 
northwards  or  southwards.  Thus  the  Poronai,  or  Plii,  the  great  river  of  Sakhalin, 
after  winding  through  a  broad  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  western  range,  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Patience,  and  in  the   same  depression  rise  the  head-streams  of  the  river 

*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Sakhalin  Mountains,  according  to  Schmidt  and  Glehn  : — 

Feet, 

Mean  height  of  the  west  CO" st  range  (Schmidt) 2,920 

La  Martiniere  or  Ktonspal  Peak,  centre  of  the  range  (Glehn)          .         .         .  4,865 

Bernizet,  south  end  of  the  island  (Glehn) 3,890 

Arkai-pal,  east  of  Dui  (Glehn) 680 

Tiara,  east  range  (Glehn) 1,940 

Paaa  between  Kusunai  and  Manue 730 


CLIMATE,  FAUNA,  FLORA. 


453 


Fig.  226.- 
Pcale  1 


-Sakhalin. 
:  1,750,000. 


Tim,   which   runs   northwards   to   the   Sea  of   Olchotsk.      In   these  Intervening 

depressions  are  also  found  the  hikes  and  the  regaihir  curves  of  the  gulfs  and  bays, 

which  are  limited  right  and  left  by  the  headlands  of  the  ranges  running  north  and 

south.     As  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Khanka, 

the  constant  action  of  the   surf  under  the 

influence  of  the  prevailing  south  winds  has 

perceptibly  modified  the  coast  of   Sakhalin. 

Thus   the   sandy  beach   forming  a   perfect 

crescent  round   the    Gidf   of   Patience   has 

separated    from    the   sea  several    lakes  and 

marshes  which  recall  the  prexdous  outlines 

of  the  coast,  and  in  which  are  discharged 

the  waters  of  the  Poronai.     The  formation 

of  the  coast-Hne  has  probably  been  facilitated 

by  the  upheaval  of  the  land,  for  quantities 

of  marine  remains  have  been  found  in  places 

which  are  at  present  from  8  to  10  feet  above 

the  level  of  the  sea. 


Climate,  F.\uxa,  Flora. 


From  its  position  Sakhalin  naturally 
joartakes  of  the  East  Siberian  climate. 
Broken  masses  of  ice  have  been  known  to 
remain  heaped  up  round  the  eastern  head- 
lands till  the  month  of  Jvdy,  and  during  the 
month  of  AprU  sleighs  are  still  able  to  make 
their  way  along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Patience.  Here  the  thermometer  often 
remains  66'^  below  freezing  point  in  January, 
whereas  on  the  west  coast,  which  is  well 
sheltered  by  the  neighbouring  range  running 
north  and  south,  the  temj)erature  is  fully 
20°  warmer.  But  whatever  be  its  relative 
advantages,  even  on  this  coast  the  climate 
is  very  severe.  Although  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  island  lies  rmder  the 
46th  parallel  of  latitude,  or  about  the 
same  distance  from  the  pole  as  the  Lombard 
towTis   nestling   at    the   foot   of   the    Alps, 

its  temperatm-e  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  Archangel  or  Haparanda,  at  the  head 
of  the  Baltic.  The  station  of  Kusunai,  situated  in  48'^  N.  lat.,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Tatary,  is  crossed,  according  to  Dobrotvorskiy,  by  the  isothermal  of  2°  23.  In 
other  words,  its  mean  temperature  is  lower  than  that  of  the  ^Norwegian  town  of 


Cf  crran 


120  Miles. 


454 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Tromsb,  wliich  lies  some  22°  nearer  to  the  pole.  In  July,  the  warmei3t  month  in 
the  year,  the  mean  temperature  of  Kusunai  is  only  from  60^  to  62°  Fahr.,  and  in  the 
hottest  seasons  the  glass  never  rises  beyond  77°  Fahr.  Even  the  shores  of  Aniva 
Bay,  notwithstanding  their  sunny  aspect,  have  a  very  severe  climate,  o^ving  to  the 
northern  winds,  which  sweep  through  the  broad  depressions  between  the  momitain 
ranges.  The  disagreeable  character  of  the  clbnatic  conditions  is  intensified  by  the 
extreme  humidity,  fogs,  rains,  and  snows  of  these  northern  skies.  At  Kusunai, 
which  enjoys  an  exceptionally  favourable  position,  thanks  to  the  continental  winds, 


Fig.  227.— AiNO  Girl. 


,'7'///l, 


A,.^ 


by  which  its  atmosphere  is  frequently  cleared  of  clouds,  the  rainy  or  foggy  days 
average  253,  so  that  fine  weather  does  not  prevail  for  a  third  of  a  year.  On 
the  east  coast  the  proportion  of  bright  daj's  is  far  less  considerable.  Throughout 
its  vast  empire,  where  the  St.  Petersburg  Government  has  discovered  so  many 
dreary  places  of  exile,  there  are  scarcely  any  more  terrible  than  those  of  Sakhalin, 
exposed  as  they  are  to  icy  rains  and  raging  snow-storms  for  a  great  part  of  the  j-car. 
The  flora  of  this  Siberian  island  naturally  resembles  that  of  the  Manchurian 
coast  lands,  from  which  it  is  separated  onlj^  by  the  narrow  Mamia  Rinzo  Channel. 
Most  of  the  extensive  forests  covering  the  mountain  slopes  belong  to  the  Siberian 


INIIABITANTS— THE  AINOS  AXD  OEOKS.  455 

and  ilancliuriau  flora.  But  some  species  have  also  found  their  way  into  the  island 
from  the  Jaixinese  Archipelago,  and  there  even  occurs  a  sort  of  hamhoo  (Anoidiiiaria 
Kuriknm)  covering  whole  mountains,  and  growing  to  man's  heiglit  on  the  uplands 
side  by  side  with  the  dwarf  birch  of  Kamchatka.  Some  American  species  are  also 
intermingled  with  the  Asiatic  vegetation  of  the  island,  and  according  to  Schmidt, 
Sakhalin  formed  part  of  the  New  World  during  the  miocene  epoch.  Thus  it  is 
that  plants  from  the  most  opposite  portions  of  the  globe  become  associated  together 
in  masses  of  a  sti-ikingly  original  vegetation.  Of  seven  hundi-ed  flowering  species 
scarcely  twenty  are  peculiar  to  the  island.  The  forest  trees  and  under-growths, 
which  flourish  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  form  a  continuation  of  those  of  the  mainland. 
Higher  up,  the  vegetable  zone,  as  far  as  1,500  or  1,600  feet,  consists  mainly  of 
conifers,  while  a  third  and  still  more  elevated  zone  is  chiefly  composed  of  bii-ches 
and  willows,  beyond  ^\hich  comes  a  dense  growth  of  trailing  species  of  an  ahuost 
blackish  hue,  and  reaching  nearh'  to  the  simimit. 

The  animals  frequenting  these  woodlands  are  the  same  as  on  the  neighbouring 
mainland.  On  both  sides  of  the  strait  the  bear,  wild  reindeer,  and  sable  are  hunted, 
and  the  tiger  often  visits  tte  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  which  he  reaches 
across  the  ice-bound  Mamia  Einzo  Strait  in  winter.  But  he  has  never  been  seen  in 
the  southern  districts,  and  before  the  arrival  of  the  Eussiaus  the  Ainos  are  said  not 
to  have  kno'wu  him  even  by  name. 

Inhabitants — The  Aixos  anit  Oroks. 

The  population  of  Sakhalin,  estimated  altogether  at  scarcely  more  than  15,000 
souls,  or  considerably  less  than  1  to  2  square  miles,  consists  exclusively  of  immigrants 
from  the  continent  and  neighbouring  islands.  The  Giliaks,  who  occupy  aU  the 
northern  districts  to  the  number  of  about  2,000,  in  no  way  differ  from  their  kins- 
men of  the  Lower  Amur.  The  Oroks  of  the  east  coast  are  Txmguses  of  the  same 
stock  as  the  Orochons  and  ilanguns  of  the  Amur,  and  call  themselves  by  the  same 
name  of  Olcha.  The  Ainos,  a  bearded  and  gentle  race,  who  are  supposed  to  have 
been  the  aborio-ines  of  tbe  Kiu-ile  and  Japanese  Archipelago,  are  now  restricted 
to  the  southern  districts  of  Sakhalin.  But  the  Aino  geograjDhical  terms  occurring 
even  in  the  extreme  north  show  that  this  race  formerly  occupied  a  much  wider 
ranjje.  Thev  have  been  di-iven  south  bv  the  Giliaks  aud  Oroks,  and  since  the 
middle  of  the  present  century  some  of  their  villages  have  been  con  pletely  wasted 
by  small-pox.  The  slavery  to  which  aU  the  Ainos  have  been  reduced  by  the  Japa- 
nese fishers  has  also  contributed  to  diminish  their  numbers  as  well  as  to  increase 
their  moral  debasement. 

The  civilised  element  is  represented  by  the  Japanese  and  Russians.  The  former 
are  eno-ased  chieflv  in  the  fishing  industrv,  and  have  founded  settlements  and  fac- 
tories  at  ratervals  along  the  coast,  where  few  are  met  except  as  temporary  iimnigrants 
imaccompanied  by  then-  families.  The  Russians,  whether  military  oflicials,  police, 
or  exiles,  have  all  arrived  against  their  wiR  in  this  inhospitable  land  of  rains,  snows, 
and  fogs,  where  they  have  to  be  supported  by  the  Government,  the  resources  of  the 


456 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


< 


a 


to 


island  being   totally  insufficient  for  their  wants.     The  Ainos  and  Giliaks  are  able 


to  live  on  the  produce  of  their  fisheries,  but  the  Russians  need  many  other  things 
to  render  existence  possible,  especially  in  such  a  dismal  region  as  this.     In  any 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


457 


case  even  the  marine  animals  have  greatly  diminished  in  these  waters,  and  Seal 
Island,  a  vast  bank  in  the  south-east  of  the  Giilf  of  Patience,  is  no  longer  covered, 
as  formerly,  by  multitudes  of  cetacea,  thousands  of  vhich  fell  a  prey  to  a  few  seal- 
hunters  on  every  expedition.  The  cultivation  of  cereals  and  vegetables  and  stock- 
breeding  has  not  yet  made  much  progress,  nor  is  it  likely  ever  to  succeed  except  in 
a  few  of  the  more  sheltered  valleys.  Hence  the  flom-  required  by  the  inhabitants 
has  still  to  be  brought  fi'om  the  mainland,  and  even  fi-om  Eussia  itself.  No  doubt 
Sakhalin  possesses  considerable  latent  resources  in  its  numerous  coal-fields,  which 
are  being  constantly  more  and  more  developed  by  the  Russian  convicts,  and  which 

Fig.  229. — PoKT  OF  McKATior. 
Scale  1  :  123,000. 


E  of  6    W5'  IG 


^  *-£rOtia 


Under  10  Feet. 


10  to  20  Feet. 


20  Feet  and  upwards. 
_  3  Miles. 


are  highly  appreciated  by  seafarers  in  the  Pacific.  But  this  coal  costs  more  than 
that  of  Japan  and  Australia,  and  the  yearly  output  does  not  even  yet  suffice  for  the 
local  demand.  The  mortality  of  the  immigrants  greatly  exceeds  the  bii'th  rate, 
and  Sakhalin,  which  has  not  yet  been  constituted  a  colony,  remains  for  the  Russians 
a  mere  prison  or  place  of  banishment. 

Topography. 

The  Russian  stations  are  all  situated  on  the  coast.  Du'i,  near  La  Jonquiere  Bay, 
about  the  middle  of  the  west  side,  is  the  most  important  village.  Its  quarries  and 
coal  mines,  the  first  opened  in  the  island,  employ  2,000  convicts,  hired  out  by  the 


458  ASIATIC  nUSSIA. 

Government  to  tte  owners  at  the  rate  of  from  Is.  to  2s.  6d.  a  day.  The  harbour 
of  this  convict  station  is  formed  by  a  gentle  curve  in  the  land,  ^vith  a  bold  cupe  at 
each  extremity  ;  and  the  shore  is  lined  by  lofty  cliffs  of  ironstone  and  limestone, 
with  seams  of  coal  at  an  angle  of  about  30°.  Kusunal  and  Mamie  have  the 
advantage  of  being  connected  together  by  the  route  which  crosses  the  island 
at  its  narrowest  point,  and  this  circumstance  greatly  facilitates  their  exchanges. 
Farther  south  some  700  Chinese,  under  the  control  of  a  few  Japanese,  are  engaged 
in  the  Mauka  Cove,  on  the  east  coast,  in  the  trejjang  and  sea-cabbage  fisheries. 

Some  interesting  inform.ation  regarding  Mauka  Cove,  on  the  east  coast,  has 
been  recently  commmiicated  to  the  British  Hydrographic  Office  by  Captain 
Anderson,  of  the  steamer  Appin.  Mauka  Cove  (47°  3'  N.,  142°  6'  E.)  is  the 
head-quarters  of  a  companj%  which  has  acquired  from  the  Russian  Government  the 
right  to  collect  along  the  sea-coast  seaweed,  beche  de  mer,  fish,  &c.,  for  a  term  of 
ten  years.  The  cove  is  about  two  cables  in  length,  east  and  west,  and  has  the 
reputation  of  affording  the  safest  anchorage  in  this  part  of  the  island.  The 
population  consists  of  3  Europeans,  a  small  guard  of  7  Russian  soldiers,  and 
about  700  coolies,  chiefly  Ainos,  Coreans,  and  Chinese.  The  Aiaos  are  said  to 
be  excellent  hunters,  and  a  quiet,  good-natured,  hardy  race.  Although  cold,  the 
climate  is  very  fine,  the  summer  temperature  not  exceeding  60°  Fahr.,  and  falling  in 
Avinter  at  times  to  24°  below  zero.  Fine  weather  prevails  from  May  to  the  autumn 
equinox :  when  the  storms  set  in,  June  and  July  are  very  foggj^  months,  with 
occasional  east  and  south-east  winds,  which  bring  rain  from  the  uplands.  But 
even  then  there  is  often  a  clear  zone  along  the  coast  free  from  fogs,  extending 
4  or  5  miles  off  shore.  There  is  an  abundance  of  fine  timber  in  the  valleys — j'ellow 
pine,  cedar,  spruce,  ash,  oak.  Coal  crops  out  about  a  mile  inland  from  the  cove, 
and  there  are  also  evident  indications  of  the  presence  of  iron.  Bears,  hares, 
grouse,  and  in  Avinter  sables  and  fine- furred  foxes  are  numerous,  and  the  herring, 
cod,  salmon,  trout,  and  flounders  aboimd  on  the  coast.  Communication  with  the 
east  side  of  the  island  is  maintained  by  means  of  dog-sledges,  which  the  Ainos  are 
expert  in  driving.  South  of  Mauka  Cove  there  are  about  a  dozen  trading  stations 
along  the  coast,  each  with  its  mountain  stream  and  settlement  of  Coreans  and 
Ainos,  who  are  employed  by  the  Em-opean  traders. 

On  Aniva  Bay,  at  the  other  side  of  the  peninsida,  are  situated  the  bar- 
racks of  Korsakor,  mUitarj'  capital  of  the  island.  Here  there  is  a  garrison  of  about 
500  men.  Muraviov,  another  military  station,  facinghe  Japanese  waters,  lies 
near  the  same  coast,  on  a  lake  which  communicates  by  a  narrow  channel  with  Aniva 
Bay.  Notwithstanding  the  difliculties  of  its  bar,  this  post  is  perhaps  the  least 
inconvenient  in  the  island.  But  along  its  entire  coast-line  of  about  1,200  miles 
Sakhalin  has  not  a  single  thoroughly  sheltered  harbour.  Nevertheless  this  island 
promises  to  be  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  Russians,  owing  to  its  abimdant  and 
varied  resources.  Including  excellent  timber,  coal.  Iron,  seaweed,  whales  and  seals, 
sables,  and  other  fur-bearing  animals.     The  soil  also  In  some  of  the  most  favom-ed 

spots  is  extremely  fertile,  and  capable  of  growing  all  the  useful  plants  of  the 

temperate  zone. 


SOCIAL  ELEMENTS— THE  EXILES  AND  OUTLAWS.  459 

IX.— MATERIAL   COXDITIOX  AJS'D  ADMIXISTRATION  OF  SIBERIA. 

For  upwards  of  a  liundred  years  the  Russians  have  formed  by  far  the  most 
considerable  element  of  the  Siberian  population.  Those  who  claim  to  be  Russians 
and  arc  really  Slavs,  either  by  direct  descent  or  by  crossings  and  a  gradual  process 
of  assimilation  in  manners  or  speech,  reiDresent  altogether  about  seven-eighths  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  proportion  is  rapidly  increasing  to  their  advantage  not 
only  by  their  natural  exjjansion,  but  also  by  the  disajipearance  or  Russification  of 
the  native  elements.  Amongst  the  ruling  people,  of  whom  the  Great  Russians 
form  the  vast  majority,  the  distinction  of  Russians  proper,  Lithuanians,  Esthonians, 
Germans  of  the  Baltic  Pro-\-inces,  and  others  have  already  almost  entirely  disap- 
peared, so  that  the}'  may  be  regarded  as  far  more  homogeneous  even  than  the 
popidation  of  European  Russia.  Slavs  of  every  branch  except  the  Poles  are  all 
Russians  alike  in  the  eyes  of  Yakuts  and  Tunguses,  as  are  also  the  Germans  and 
Finns,  most  of  whom  now  speak  the  language  of  the  Muscovite. 

The  origin  of  the  first  Siberian  immigrants  is  well  known.  The  early  traders 
were  himters,  or  prom/s/iloiiii/c,  from  the  Novgorod  settlements  in  the  north  of 
Russia.  Yennak  was  accompanied  by  Cossacks  in  his  conquest  of  Sibir,  but  very 
few  either  of  the  traders  or  Cossacks  brought  their  families  with  them,  and  when 
they  settled  in  the  coimtry  they  generally  married  native  women.  The  vast  majority 
of  the  subsequent  arrivals  down  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
colonists  against  their  will,  either  soldiers  and  officials  or  exiles,  and  of  these  the 
latter  element  was  perhaps  the  most  numerous.  But  the  death  rate  was  much 
higher  amongst  them  than  amongst  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  most 
of  them  perished  before  they  could  become  foimders  of  families.  Taking  an  average 
only  of  those  returned  by  the  official  documents  as  exiles,  or  say  from  8,000  to 
9,000  a  year,  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  more  than  1,000,000  of  human  beings  have 
been  banished  to  Siberia  during  the  last  two  himdi'ed  and  fifty  years,  exclusive  of  those 
simply  interned  in  this  region.*  With  the  exception  of  a  few  isolated,  the  first  groups 
of  free  colonists  were  the  peasantry  who  migrated  to  the  Lower  Amur  immediately 
after  the  annexation  of  Korth  Manchuria  to  the  Russian  Empire.  No  free  immigration 
had  been  possible  imtil  the  abolition  of  serfdom.  The  Crovm  and  landowners  kejDt  their 
peasants  for  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  only  sending  to  Siberia  the  unfortunate 
wretches  whom  they  wished  to  get  rid  of.  At  the  same  time,  these  exiles,  ceasing 
to  be  serfs,  soon  acquired  a  greater  degree  of  comfort  than  they  ever  knew  in  theii- 
native  land. 

SoaAL  Elements — The  Exiles  and  Outla^vs. 

The  Korth  Asiatic  regions  were  peopled  by  Russian  settlers  in  the  same  way 
that  the  governments  of  Yiatka,  Perm,  and  Orenburg  had  been  peopled.  But  to 
criminals,  habitual  vagrants,  "  loafers,"  and  outcasts  of  every  sort  the  Government 
here  superadded  schismatics  and  rebels.  The  hardships  of  the  journey — epidemics, 
scuTA-y,  the  rigours  of  the  climate,  the  horrors  of  bondage,  and  enforced  domicile, 

*  Exiles  from  1823  to  1858  :  Men,  238,482  ;  women,  42,844  ;  women  and  children  following  the  heads 
of  families,  23,285.     Total,  304,618. 


460 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


combined  vrith  a  contmual  inquisitorial  regime  and  the  weariness  of  Lome  sickness — 
sufficiently  account  for  the  excessive  mortality  of  the  exiles,  while  the  small  pro- 
portion of  the  women  accompanying  them  prevents  the  rapid  re-estahlishment  of 
domestic  circles.  No  doubt  the  Russian  population  of  Siberia  has  been  more  than 
trebled  during  the  last  hundred  years.  But  compared  with  certain  other  colonial 
settlements  Asiatic  Russia  has  been  very  slowly  peopled  during  the  three  centuries 
which  have  elapsed  since  the  conquest.  If  the  returns  can  be  trusted,  some  districts 
would  even  seem  to  have  occasionally  lost  ground.  Thus,  while  the  government 
of  Tomsk  shows  a  yearly  increase  of  over  20,000  by  the  natural  excess  of  the  birth 

Fig.  230. — Density  op  the  Siberian  Population. 
Scale  1  :  70,000,000. 


C  Perron 


0  to2. 


Inhabitants  to  the  Pqmrp  !\[ile. 
2  to  4.  4  to  20.  20  to  40. 


80  to  1-20. 


120  to  160. 


Uninhabited. 
600  Miles. 


rate,  that  of  Irkutsk  would  appear  to  have  had  12,000  less  inhabitants  in  1873 
than  twelve  years  previously,  the  numbers  having  fallen,  according  to  the  Eussische 
Revue,  from  370,455  in  1861  to  358,700  in  1873.  In  most  of  the  to^iis  the  popu- 
lation would  decrease  were  it  not  kept  up  by  constant  immigration,  but  in  the  rural 
districts  there  is  a  steady  normal  increase.  It  is  evident  that  on  the  whole  the 
expansion  of  the  Slav  element  has  largely  compensated  for  the  retrograde  move- 
ment amongst  the  indigenous  peoples,  all  of  whom,  except  the  Yakuts,  have  fallen 
off  in  many  Siberian  regions.  The  proportion  of  men  is  naturally  greater  than 
that  of  women,  because  Siberia  is  at  once  a  land  of  exile  and  of  immigration.  Yet 
the  disparity  of  the  sexes  is  much  less  than  in  Aiistralia  and  in  the  lands  of  the  far 


SOCIAL  ELEMENTS— THE  EXILES  AND  OUTLAWS.  461 

■West,  and  at  least  in  East  Siberia  males  and  females  stand  in  the  average  propor- 
tion of  10  to  9. 

The  name  of  Siberia  has  become  synonj-mous  ^-ith  a  "land  of  exile."  Each 
successive  stage  in  the  progress  of  Russian  dominion  ia  Asia  has  been  marked  by  a 
line  of  penal  settlements.  At  everj' fresh  annexation  transported  convicts,  drao-o-inw 
their  chains  through  steppe  and  forest,  carried  to  the  extreme  limits  of  the  empire 
the  proofs  of  the  Czar's  omnipotence.  Under  the  shadow  of  every  fortlet  and 
convent  erected  in  the  vast  Siberian  domain  there  were  opened  dungeons  for  the 
reception  of  the  exiled.  At  their  very  birth  the  colonies  of  PeHm,  Beryozov, 
Selengiask,  and  Albazin  were  already  marked  off  as  convict  stations,  and  on  the 
report  of  every  fresh  discovery  at  St.  Petersbm-g,  a  gang  of  banished  victims  was 
immediately  marched  to  the  spot.  The  historj-  of  the  laud  is  inseparably  asso- 
ciated with  the  mournful  history  of  transjDortation. 

The  iii-st  decree  of  banisluuent  struck  the  church  bell  of  Uglich  guilty  of 
having  summoned  the  jjeojjle  to  ai-ms  at  the  time  of  the  mm-der  of  Dunitri  bv  Boris 
Gudonov  ia  1591.  It  was  condemned  to  "lose  its  tongue  and  ear,"  Idee  ordinary 
criminals,  and  to  be  transported  to  Pelim,  whither  it  was  soon  followed  by  many 
citizens  of  the  same  place,  and  later  on  by  everj-body  suspected  by  Boris.  Duriug 
the  first  centuiy  of  Eussian  colonisation  the  exiles  consisted  ahnost  exclusively  of 
State  prisoners.  But  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  conquered 
Little  Russians  of  Ukrania  had  to  follow  ia  the  footsteps  of  the  exiles  fi-om  Great 
Russia.  These  Little  Russians,  having  been  sent  away  in  numerous  batches,  have 
best  preserved  the  customs  of  the  mother  coimtry.  Then  the  numbers  were 
swollen  by  the  unliappy  Raskolnik  dissenters,  many  of  whom  perished  on  the  road 
of  hardships,  hunger,  and  tortm-e,  re-echoing  the  words  of  "  Father  "  Awakum  ia 
his  memoirs,  "  The  rafts  are  wearily  stemmed  against  the  current ;  the  headmen 
are  relentless,  their  sticks  are  heavy,  their  knouts  cut  the  skia,  and  om-  food  is  the 
carrion  rejected  by  the  wolf  !  "  "  And  must  these  sufEeriags  last  long  ?  "  asked  the 
wife  of  the  "  pope,"  as  she  fell  wora  out  with  fatigue.  "  Unto  death,"  gently 
answered  Father  Awakum.  "Be  it  so,  father,"  she  said,  taking  fresh  courage. 
Amongst  these  Raskolniks  of  Siberia  there  were  men  whose  first  trial,  on  entering 
the  commimity,  was  to  endure  the  torture  of  burning  coals  in  the  ear. 

The  Stryeltzi,  also  dissenters,  were  banished  by  Peter  the  Great  to  mount 
guard  in  the  remotest  fortresses  of  the  empire,  as  far  as  Okhotsk  and  Kamchatka. 
Then-  dii-ect  descendants  are  still  met  in  the  settlements  along  the  banks  of  the 
Lena.  After  Peter's  death  the  palace  inti-igues  sent  other  unwiUing  exiles  to 
Siberia — the  ilenshikovs,  Dolgorukis,  Birons,  Miinichs,  Tolstois,  Buturlius,  and 
other  great  names.  "  Fare  thee  well,  and  if  for  ever,  still  for  ever  fare  thee  well," 
were  words  ia  their  hearts,  if  not  on  their  Kps,  for  they  knew  that,  like  all  doomed 
to  Siberia,  they  woidd  soon  be  forgotten.  Some  perished  without  leaving  a  trace 
behind  them,  and  when  a  turn  ia  fortime's  wheel  brought  their  fi-iends  back  to 
j)ower  the  wi-etched  victims  were  sought  for  in  vara  amidst  the  forests  and  wastes 
of  the  tundra.  So'imonov,  one  of  the  few  who  were  discovered,  was  immediately 
installed  as  Governor  of  Siberia. 

VOL.    VI.  TI     H 


462  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

In  1658  began  the  transportation  of  the  Poles,  but  the  wholesale  banishments 
from  this  land  date  only  from  the  time  of  Catherine  II.,  vdth  the  confederates  of 
Bar  and  the  associates  of  Kosciuzko.  Of  the  Poles  who  had  taken  service  under 
Napoleon,  nine  hundred  were  sent  to  Siberia,  and  these  were  followed  by  numerous 
convoys,  especially  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  the  various  insurrections 
which  have  taken  place  in  Poland  since  that  time.*  These  PoUsh  exiles  have  taken 
a  large  share  in  the  progress  of  the  country.  They  have  unproved  the  manage- 
ment of  the  mines,  created  several  local  industries,  taught  horticulture,  and 
developed  family  instruction. 

The  exiles  whose  memory  awakens  most  sjTnpathy  amongst  the  Russians  are 
the  so-called  "  Dekabrists,"  or  "  Decembrists,"  who  reached  Siberia  in  1826.  At 
first  they  had  much  to  suffer,  but  their  condition  was  gradually  improved,  thanks  to 
the  self-sacrifice  of  the  women,  who  resolved  to  share  the  lot  of  their  husbands — 
thanks  also  to  the  influence  of  the  Decembrists  themselves,  or  their  gaolers,  and  to 
the  spirit  of  association  which  they  developed.  They  were  all  grouped  in  a  com- 
mimal  s^-stem  organized  in  such  a  way  that  none  could  be  reduced  to  want,  and  all 
alike  were  provided  with  books,  periodicals,  and  some  of  the  comforts  of  civilised 
existence.  Their  influence  is  even  still  felt  in  some  of  the  towns  of  East  Siberia. 
Since  then  other  political  victims  have  been  added  to  the  Siberian  population ;  but 
none  of  them  have  aroused  the  same  feelings  of  sympathy  as  did  the  Dekabrists. 
They  move  about  on  foot  like  the  ordinary  convicts,  and,  like  them,  work  in  the 
prisons,  mines,  and  Government  establishments.  They  are  allowed  neither  to  read, 
associate  together,  nor  select  the  work  most  suited  to  their  own  taste. 

Formerly  the  gangs  of  convicts,  whether  condemned  by  common  law  or  for 
political  causes,  were  joined  together  by  a  long  iron  bar,  and  in  this  way  were 
obliged  to  traverse  on  foot  the  3,500  miles  that  separate  the  Russian  prisons  from 
TransbaikaKa.  The  joui-ney  generally  lasted  about  two  years.  They  are  still 
marched  from  Tomsk  to  Chita  on  foot.  On  entering  a  village  they  intone,  it 
permitted,  the  moui'nfid  chant,  or  rather  long  wail,  of  the  Misericordia  (^Milo- 
serdnyaya),  and  then  the  peasantry  bring  theu-  offerings  to  the  "unfortunates" 
(^nyeschastniye),  as  the  exiles  are  called  by  all  the  Siberians,  who  refuse  to  regard 
them  as  criminals.  Even  the  katorjniye,  or  convicts  condemned  for  crimes  against 
society,  are  everjT\'here  well  received,  and  their  reconciliation  with  the  comniimity 
is  much  facilitated  by  a  certain  feeling  of  esteem  entertained  for  them,  as  for  men 
of  resolution.  But  the  jwselenetz,  or  ordinary  petty  thief,  is  usually  regarded  with 
contempt,  so  that  in  Russia  it  is  almost  better  to  be  "  hanged  for  a  sheep  than  for  a 
lamb."  Attempts  at  escape  might  easily  be  made,  but  there  is  a  traditional  code 
of  honour  amongst  the  exiles,  in  accordance  with  which  the  attempt  must  not  be 
made  en  route,  lest  their  comrades  suffer  in  their  place.  Even  on  the  march  they 
group  themselves  in  commimes  and  appoint  their  own  starosta. 

•  In  1863  alone  as  many  aa  18,023  Poles  were  banished  to  Siberia. 


THE  SIBERIAN  ETJSSIANS— THE  COMMUNE.  463 

The  Siberian  Russians — The  Commune. 

The  Siberians,  being  recruited  at  once  from  the  best  and  worst  classes  of 
Russian  society,  naturally  present  great  contrasts  in  many  respects  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  mother  country.  Their  inherited  qualities,  developed  under  new 
conditions,  necessarily  tended  to  constitute  them  a  special  group  in  the  great  family 
of  the  Russian  Slavs.  Their  natural  intelligence,  though  seldom  quickened  by 
education,  is  perhaps  even  more  acute  than  that  of  the  European  Russians.  The 
pleasure  of  "  interviewing  "  strangers  has  much  to  do  with  the  welcome  reception 
all  receive  in  their  izbas,  which  are  generally  both  sj)acious  and  cleanly,  and  with 
better-fui'nished  tables  than  many  of  those  of  the  poverty-stricken  Western  Mujiks. 
Never  having  endm'ed  serfdom,  except  perhaps  in  the  mines  and  factories,  enjoying 
more  room  than  Russian  peasantry,  and  generally  more  exempt  from  official  inter- 
meddling of  all  sorts,  the  "  Sibiryaks  "  have  developed  a  keener  sense  of  freedom. 
But  although  there  is  nothing  cringing  in  their  voice  or  manners,  they  lack  the 
natural  gentleness  and  genuine  kindliness  of  the  Western  Slavs.  They  are,  on  the 
whole,  inferior  to  the  Russians  proper  in  morals,  no  less  than  in  natural  disposition 
and  industrial  habits.  Their  great  defect  is  apathy.  Shrewd  calculators,  they  yield 
neither  to  the  impidses  of  religious  zeal  nor  to  political  theories ;  hence  scarcely 
any  poets  or  musicians  are  found  amongst  them.  They  are  inquisitive  without 
taking  the  trouble  to  learn ;  they  are  fond  of  comfort,  but  shrink  from  the  labour 
necessary  to  procure  it ;  they  call  themselves  the  equals  of  all,  but  never  dream  of 
striking  for  freedom.  Nevertheless,  the  example  of  the  sublime  acts  of  self- 
sacrifice  with  which  the  history  of  the  Siberian  exiles  is  full  has  not  been  lost,  and, 
like  the  veins  of  gold  in  the  crumbling  rock,  noble  types  are  here  and  there 
revealed  in  the  midst  of  the  prevailing  mediocrity.  Should  Siberia  ever  acquire 
any  great  importance  in  the  civilised  world,  as  may  be  expected  from  the  natural 
resources  of  a  large  portion  of  her  territory,  she  wiU  not  fail  to  make  her  influence 
felt  in  the  cause  of  local  self-government  and  political  freedom. 

As  in  European  Russia,  the  bulk  of  the  people  are  grouped  in  commimes.  The 
whole  of  the  land,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  properties  conceded  under  special 
conditions,  still  belongs  to  the  State,  so  that  the  communes  enjoy  its  usufruct  only. 
Thus  in  the  government  of  Krasnoyarsk  there  is  only  one  landed  estate,  whose 
privileges  date  from  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.  But  properties  are  ali-eady  being 
indirectly  created  by  the  concession  of  long  leases  of  eighty  years  and  upwards,  as 
in  England. 

In  Siberia  as  in  Russia  the  mir,  as  a  whole,  is  responsible  to  the  Government  for 
the  taxes,  and  distributes  the  land  according  to  the  number  of  "  souls  " — that  is,  of 
able  adults — who  in  their  turn  become  bound  to  the  commune  for  the  family  taxes. 
The  Siberian  mir  is  usually  composed  of  several  villages,  each  with  its  allotment  of 
lands,  answering  more  or  less  to  the  number  of  its  inhabitants.  Thus  each  "  soul " 
has  the  use  of  about  14  acres,  an  extent  of  land  which,  if  well  cultivated,  would 
amply  suffice  for  the  support  of  several  families.  But  the  prevailing  system  is 
ruinous  to  the  land  itself     The  Siberian  peasant  never  manures  his  farm,  when 

H  H  2 


464  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

exhausted  simply  allowing  the  soil  to  lie  fallow.  Hence  he  scarcely  utilises  more 
than  a  third  of  the  land,  and  when  he  has  raised  three  or  four  crops  in  succession 
in  one  place  he  passes  on  to  another.  Under  this  system  the  arable  land  cannot 
be  redistributed  except  at  long  intervals  of  time,  or  when  the  census  is  taken, 
whereas  the  tracts  imder  grass,  producing  hay  unintermittently,  are  parcelled  out 
every  year.  The  forest  remains  common  property,  although  every  peasant  is  free 
to  settle  there,  clear  a  certain  extent  of  land,  and  sow  his  crops.  But  even  then  he 
does  not  become  the  owner,  and  the  State  removes  him  at  pleasure,  merely  granting 
him  a  few  roubles  per  acre  as  compensation  for  disturbance. 

The  commune  is  bound  to  receive  into  its  organization  all  the  exiles  that  become 
colonists  after  the  expiration  of  their  sentence.  They  obtain  a  site  for  their  house, 
an  acre  and  a  quarter  for  their  garden,  and  theii-  due  proportion  of  the  fields  and 
meadows.  But  many  remain  outcasts,  receiving  neither  lands  nor  rights.  This 
floating  element  constitutes  the  hrodyagi,  or  vagrant  class,  whose  number  is,  of 
course,  imknown  to  the  census  takers,  but  who  are  supposed  to  average  about  one- 
fourth  of  those  condemned  to  hard  labom-.  In  1848  and  1849  as  many  as  3,104 
prisoners  escaped  from  Nyerchinsk  alone.  These  outcasts  thus  avoid  the  hardships 
of  mining  and  the  monotonous  life  of  the  cantonments,  but  in  so  doing  they 
volimtarily  adopt  a  career  which  woidd  be  intolerable  to  any  but  the  condemned 
convict.  Kor  does  the  pleasure  of  being  their  own  masters  last  very  long,  for 
during  the  hard  winter  season  the  only  resource  in  most  cases  left  them,  is  to  allow 
themselves  to  be  confined,  under  a  false  name,  in  some  prison  far  from  that  whence 
they  have  escaped. 

To  prevent  such  evasions,  the  Russian  authorities  of  Transbaikalia  and  the  other 
Siberian  countries  were  formerly  accustomed  to  destroy  the  cartilage  of  the  nostrils 
of  all  the  condemned.  Until  1864  they  were  branded  on  the  forehead  and  both 
cheeks  with  letters  burnt  into  the  flesh ;  but  at  present  the  authorities  limit  them- 
selves to  declaring  aU  those  as  outlaws  who  escape  from  the  mines,  thus  gi^-ing 
everyone,  evenTunguses  and  Buriats,  the  right  to  shoot  them  down  with  impunity. 
This  has  rendered  the  natives  themselves  more  cruel,  and  human  life  is  now  held 
in  little  account  in  those  regions.  The  crack  of  the  rifle  is  soon  lost  in  the  silence 
of  the  forest.  "The  antelope,"  says  the  Buriat,  "  j-ields  but  one  skin;  but  the 
chaMon  (outlaw)  yields  thi-ee — his  pelisse,  his  coat,  and  his  shirt."  Yet  there  is  no 
lack  of  vagrants  even  in  these  districts.  They  learn  to  avoid  the  dangerous  places, 
they  take  the  right  direction  through  the  virgin  forest  by  instinct,  and  they 
quickly  recognise  the  marks  left  by  the  Timguses,  or  by  other  outlaws  who  have 
preceded  them.  From  one  end  of  Siberia  to  the  other  all  the  brodyagi  have  thus 
covered  the  land  with  signs  unintelligible,  or  even  invisible  to  others,  but  perfectly 
clear  to  themselves.  They  are,  moreover,  protected  by  the  villagers,  who  derive  a 
profit  by  employing  them  on  their  farms,  in  retui-n  for  their  food  alone.  In 
isolated  houses  the  outlaw  always  finds  bread,  milk,  salt,  rude  garments,  left  here 
by  the  peasantry  for  their  unhappy  countrymen.  There  are  many  villages  where 
they  may  reside  without  fear,  and  even  cultivate  the  land  and  foimd  a  family, 
confidently  relying  on  the  connivance  of  aU  the  inhabitants.     They  have  even 


AGRICULTURE— THE  CHASE  AND  FISHERIES.  465 

formed  villages  aU  to  themselves,  and .  in  imf oreseen  circiunstances,  requiring  an 
extra  amoimt  of  laboiu-,  the  authorities  themselves  have  appealed  to  the  vagrants, 
on  the  tacit  imderstauding  of  "askiug  no  questions,"  or  demanding  their  passports. 
On  such  occasions  hundreds  of  persons  mysteriously  emerge  from  the  surrounding 
forests  and  midcrtake  the  required  work.  According  to  the  official  statistics,  the 
proportion  of  centenarians  -will  seem  to  be  far  greater  in  Siberia  than  in  European 
Russia,  although  the  average  death  rate  is  lower  in  the  latter  country.*  But  it 
may  be  asked  whether  these  pretended  Siberian  centenarians  are  not  simply  outlaws 
who  have  been  substituted  for  defunct  peasants  in  the  commime.  The  homeless 
fugitive,  "Ivan  the  Nameless,"  or  "Michael  Know-nothing,"  has  received  the 
papers  which,  in  the  eyes  of  all,  constitute  him  the  official  rejireseutative  of  a  known 
family.  What  can  it  matter  if  these  documents  add  some  twenty  or  thirty  years 
to  his  age  ? 

Eeligious  Sects — The  Stranniki. 

The  brodyagi,  who  have  escaped  from  prison  or  from  their  place  of  internment, 
are  not  the  only  "  vagabonds  "  in  the  land.  In  these  boimdless  regions  immensity 
itself  has  its  attractions.  Thus  the  sect  of  the  Stranniki,  or  "  Wanderers,"  has 
many  representatives  in  Siberia,  where  they  are  ceaselessly  roaming  over  woodlands 
and  highlands  in  search  of  that  "  White  Water  "  which  cleanses  from  all  sin,  and 
at  the  same  time  insures  them  everlasting  bliss.  In  most  of  the  towns  and 
villages  they  find  friends,  who,  though  really  members  of  the  sect,  lead  a 
sedentary  life,  and  outwardly  conform  to  the  orthodox  religion.  Their  sole  mission 
is  to  give  hospitality  to  theii'  "  wandering  "  brethren,  and  screen  them  from  the 
police.  When  they  are  discovered  and  thrown  into  prison,  the  Stranniki  thank  the 
Lord  for  the  trial  which  has  overtaken  them,  and  which  must  pm-ify  their  faith. 
But  as  a  rule  the  "  raskol,"  or  "  dissent,"  finds  a  less  propitious  soil  in  Siberia  than 
in  Euroijean  Russia,  and  the  indifference  of  the  Sibiryaks  in  religious  matters  has 
ended  by  reacting  on  the  Raskolniks  themselves.  Except  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Altai  and  the  colonies  of  the  Amur-,  foimded  by  the  Didihobortzi,  the  great 
majority  of  the  Slav  popidation  consists  of  Orthodox  Greeks.  In  all  Siberia  there 
are  only  five  Protestant  churches,  and  according  to  the  official  returns  the  Siberian 
Protestants  nimiber  altogether  only  6,990  from  Tobolsk  to  Vladivostok.  A 
missionary  establishment  founded  at  Ii-kutsk  is  engaged  in  converting  the  natives 
to  the  orthodox  religion. 

Agriculture — The  CmiSE  axd  Fisheries. 

Stni  in  a  rudimentary  state,  the  agriculture  of  Siberia  scarcely  suffices  for  the 
wants  of  the  population.  Yet  ^n  the  southern  regions  there  are  excellent  lands, 
which  might  be  made  to  jiold  hi  abundance  aU  the  products  of  the  temperate  zone 
in  Europe.  In  a  description  of  Russia  translated  from  the  Chinese  by  Klaproth, 
the  writer  expresses  his  amazement  that  although  they  know  how  to  sow,  the 
Russians  "  do  not  understand  the  art  of  weeding  their  fields."  This  remark  of  the 
*  One  centenarian  to  805  inhabitants  in  Siberia  ;  one  to  2,702  in  Russia. 


406 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Chinese  observer  holds  good  now,  and  the  Siberians  still  repeat  the  saying  quoted 
by  Gmelin,  "  All  that  work  yields  is  bad,  for  it  comes  not  of  God."  No  doubt 
some  Russian  Raskolniks  and  Chinese  or  Corean  immigrants  in  the  maritime 
province  have  set  the  example  of  systematic  tillage,  but  they  have  found  few- 
imitators  amongst  the  Siberian  peasantry.  Almost  everywhere  the  fields  and 
gardens  have  a  neglected  look.  But  the  grassy  lands  are  naturally  very  fine, 
abounding  in  savoury  herbs,  and  supporting  large  herds  of  cattle.  The  horses, 
although  ill-cared  for  and  living  in  herds  almost  in  a  wild  state,  are  also  very 
numerous  in  Siberia,  where  they  reckon  nearly  one  horse  to  every  inhabitant.  The 
"  Siberian  plague,"  which  makes  great  ravages  amongst  the  herds,  is  said  to  have 
origiaated  in  the  Baraba  steppe. 

The  chase,  which  has  here  an  historic  interest,  having  led  to  the  discovery  and 
settlement  of  Siberia,  has  remained  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  Asiatic  Russia. 


Fig.  231. — Produce  op  East  Sikerian  Sable  Huntino  from  1850  to  1855. 
Scale  1  :  25,000,000. 


f  of  G  lOS' 


^^__/ ^^i^^tai^ ^.I   liJ 


Satles  per  Trapper. 


1  to  3  Feet. 


3  to  6  Feet.  6  to  40  Feet.      40  Feet  and  upwards. 

.  300  Miles. 


The  Yakuts  and  Timguses  still  continue,  as  they  did  two  hundred  years  ago,  to 
yield  to  their  conquerors  that  tribute  of  peltries  which  has  been  the  source  of  so 
many  atrocities  and  infamous  speculations.  Nevertheless,  this  industry  is  still 
followed  by  entire  villages  oi  promhhlonhjc,  who  are  the  noblest,  most  upright,  and 
daring  hunters  in  Siberia.  Nearly  fifty  different  species  of  animals  are  trapped 
for  their  furs,  and  they  perish  by  the  million  during  the  hunting  season.  The 
yearly  export  of  peltries  from  Siberia,  exclusive  of  those  taken  from  marine 
animals,  represents  a  gross  value  of  from  4,000,000  to  5,000,000  roubles.  The 
standard  price  of  all  the  Siberian  skins  is  regulated  by  that  of  the  sable,  which 
averages  from  8  to  10  roubles,  though  the  finest,  of  a  very  deep  colour,  and 
sprinkled  with  white  hairs,  fetch  as  much  as  80  roubles  even  on  the  sjjot.  But 
the  sable  is  a  very  little  animal,  smaller  than  the  European  marten,  and,  as  the  skin 
of  the  back  alone  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  costly  pelisses,  as  many  as  eighty 
skins  are  required  for  one  robe  alone,  which  thus  comes  to  cost  nearly  5,000 


r 


MINING  INDUSTRIES.  467 

roubles.  The  fur  of  the  black  fox  is  even  more  bighly  prized  tban  that  of  the 
sable,  and  some  of  the  finer  specimens  have  been  sold  for  over  300  roubles.  The 
skins  of  the  squirrel  alone  furnish  about  a  third  part  of  the  revenue  of  Siberia  from 
this  source,  and  from  ten  to  twelve,  and  even  fifteen  millions  of  these  rodents  have 
been  killed  in  a  single  year  diu-iug  theii'  migrations.  Through  Kiakhta,  China 
receives  a  considerable  portion  of  these  peltries,  but  a  far  larger  quantity  is  pui'chased 
by  Europe.  At  the  Irbit  fair  the  Russian,  Polish,  and  German  dealers  compete  for 
these  costly  spoils,  whose  value  is  increased  tenfold  before  it  reaches  the  consumer.* 
Several  species,  especially  of  the  more  highly  esteemed  fur-beariag  animals,  are 
known  to  have  considerably  decreased  since  the  taiga,  or  Siberian  woodlands,  have 
been  brought  within  the  influence  of  the  European  markets.  ^Nevertheless,  none 
of  the  land  species  pursued  by  the  Siberian  trappers  have  entirely  disappeared. 
The  forest  offers  them  better  shelter  than  the  marine  animals  find  on  the  shores  of 
the  ocean. 

The  Siberian  fisheries  possess  an  economic  value  of  the  first  importance,  for 
they  supply  their  chief  support  to  entire  populations,  not  only  amongst  the  natives, 
but  even  in  many  communities  of  Russian  origin.  But  the  capture  of  large  species 
has  considerably  fallen  off,  at  least  in  Lake  Baikal.  Nor  do  the  Russians  any 
longer  foUow  the  whale  in  the  Arctic  waters,  while  in  the  pursuit  of  the  smaller 
cetacea  they  have  been  succeeded  by  the  Americans  in  the  North  Pacific,  and  in 
the  Kara  Sea  by  the  Norwegians.  Hence,  apart  fi-om  the  local  consimiption, 
which  is  enormous,  the  j-ield  of  the  Siberian  fisheries  for  the  export  trade  is 
insignificant.  In  this  respect  Siberia,  with  its  thousands  of  miles  of  coast-line,  its 
great  lakes  and  countless  rivers,  is  of  less  importance  than  the  basins  of  the  Kuban, 
Terek,  and  Kur  alone,  on  both  sides  of  the  Caucasus. 


Mining  Industries. 

The  mining  industry  has  also  fallen  off  considerably  since  the  middle  of  the 
present  centiuy.  But  the  extent  of  her  metalliferous  deposits  none  the  less  insures 
to  Siberia  a  high  position  amongst  the  coxmtries  producing  the  precious  metals. 
On  an  average  the  Russian  Empire  supplies  to  trade  the  eighth  part  of  the  annual 
gold  j-ield  of  the  whole  world,  and  three-fourths  of  this  quantity,  or  about  the 
eleventh  jDart  of  the  total  production,  comes  fi-om  Siberia.  The  first  gold- washings 
occurred  about  the  beginning  of  this  centurj'  in  the  torrents  of  the  Siberian  Urals, 
and  the  mines  of  the  Altai  had  already  become  profitable  to  their  owner,  the  Czar. 
But  the  period  of  prosperity  set  in  about  1825,  and  lasted  tiQ  the  middle  of  the 
century.  Since  that  time  the  number  of  mines  and  gold-washings  has  no  doubt 
increased,  but  the  profits  of  these  undertakings  have  greatly  diminished.     The 

*  Peltries  brought  to  the  Irbit  market  in  1876  : — 

Skins.  Skins. 

Squirrels  (small  grey)    ....    5,000,000      Martens  of  divers  species       .        .        .  750,000 

Ermine 215,000       Sables 12,000 

Hares 300,000      Sundries 200,000 

Foxes  of  divers  species  .        .        .         82,000 


468 


ASIATIC  EUSSl^V. 


managers  of  the  various  works  generall}'  lack  the  necessary  instruction,  and  are 
even  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the  rocks  which  produce  the  auriferous  sands. 
These  sands  have  become  impoverished  in  most  of  the  rivers,  since  thousands  of 
gold-seekers  have  begun  to  work  them.  Thus  the  mean  proportion  of  metal  in  the 
auriferous  sands  of  the  Yenisei  government  has  gradually  decreased  from  the 
three-thousandth  part  gold  to  one-fifth  or  one-tenth  of  that  quantity.  Moreover, 
the  owners  of  mines  have  lost  the  monopoly  which  formerly  enriched  them,  and 
they  no  longer  command  the  services  of  thousands  of  serfs  given  to  them  by  the 
Crown.  Labom'  is  now  free,  and  while  the  value  of  gold  is  gradually  diminish- 
ing in  the  market  compared  with  that  of  pro^visions  and  industrial  produce,  the 
wages  of  the  miners  are  increasing.  Yet  the  wretched  condition  of  the  latter  has 
scarcely  improved.  Working  in  the  half- frozen  water  of  the  streams,  exposed  to 
the  inclemency  of  an  excessively  severe  climate,  devoured  by  mosquitoes,  obliged  to 


Fig.  232. — Gold-washings  in  the  Amur  Ba.sin. 
S.ale  1  :  lO.OOO.OQO. 


^■^r"  'JJi^  >i?iii'--l»'/ 


"1 


^      f 


Eo'GlgQ' 


i«f*^Jb^^^.ji,atr'^.*<H!tmf^ 


154" 


C    Perron 


■<./- 


,  120  Miles. 


pass  the  night  in  foul  outhouses,  thej^  are  supplied  with  insufficient  food,  washed 
do^^-n  with  pernicious  alcoholic  di'inks,  which  they  are  compelled  to  pm'chase  at 
three  or  four  times  their  value  in  the  booths  of  their  employers.  At  the  end  of  the 
season,  when  the  sands  again  become  hardened  by  the  frost,  most  of  them  are  no 
better  off  than  when  they  set  out  for  the  mine,  and  those  who  have  managed  to 
save  a  little  money  immediately  squander  it  in  the  taverns  of  "  London,"  "  Paris," 
and  the  other  neighbouring  villages  of  the  Olokminsk  district.  There  are  altogether 
about  a  thousand  gold- washings,  jdelding  80  lbs.  of  gold,  or  perhaps  100  lbs.  includ- 
ing the  metal  concealed  from  the  fiscal  officers  in  order  to  avoid  paying  the  tax. 
Since  1726,  when  the  Siberian  gold-fields  first  began  to  be  worked,  the  total  yield 
cannot  be  estimated  at  less  than  £120,000,000.*  Next  to  the  Urals  and  Altai,  the 
most  jjroductive  auriferous  regions  are  those  of  the  Uj)per  Yenisei,  Angara,  Yitiin, 

*  Yield  of  gold  in  European  and  Asiatic  Russia  from  1720  to  1876,   3,128,580  lbs.,  valued  at 
£176,800,000.     Gold-seekers  in  East  Siberia  in  1877,  51,272. 


MANUPACTUEES— TEADE.  469 

and  Olokma  basins.     The  present  annual  yield  of  gold  in  Siberia  is  valued  at 
£1,200,000. 

The  yield  of  silver  is  iDroportionately  far  less  considerable.  Nevertheless  the 
mines  of  Transbaikalia,  which  are  the  most  important,  and  which  have  been  worked 
since  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  have  produced  argentiferous  lead 
ores,  from  which  have  been  extracted  over  7,500,000  lbs.  of  silver,  valued  at  upwards 
of  £20,000,000.  The  present  yearly  average  is  about  £200,000.  Copjier  mining  has 
also  acquired  some  importance  in  the  Ural  and  Altai'  regions,  but  the  great  metaUm-gic 
industrj'  is  that  of  iron.  The  first  works  were  founded  on  the  Siberian  slopes  of  the 
Urals  two  hmidred  and  fifty  j^ears  ago,  and  nearly  100,000  hands  are  now  employed 
in  the  various  factories  of  the  Yekaterinburg  mining  district,  which  yields  some  of 
the  finest  iron  in  the  world.  The  annual  production  of  the  Ural  region  has  been 
trebled  since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  At  the  same  time  the  increase 
during  the  same  period  in  most  civilised  coimtries  has  been  far  more  considerable.* 
Graphite  is  also  mined  in  the  Urals,  as  it  was  till  recently  in  Moimt  Alibert,  near 
Irkutsk.  Siberia  draws  from  her  salt  lakes,  rivers,  and  mines  sufficient  of  that 
article  for  the  local  demand,  while  she  also  possesses  extensive  coal  measures  in  the 
Kusnetzk  district,  in  the  Lena  and  Amur  basins,  and  in  Sakhalin.  But  all  these 
resources  have  hitherto  been  but  little  utilised.  Such  vast  accimiulations  of  fuel 
necessarily  lie  idle  in  a  country  without  industries,  and  almost  destitute  of  inha- 
bitants. 

Max  ufactures — Trade. 

Manufactures,  such  as  those  which  flourish  in  Europe,  could  naturally  be  deve- 
loped only  in  the  southern  regions  of  Siberia,  where  the  Russian  poj)idation  has 
been  concentrated.  But  even  here  they  are  far  from  nmnerous,  and  their  total 
j-ield  still  represents  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  various  manufactured  wares 
required  to  meet  the  annual  local  demand.  The  enterprising  members  of  the  com- 
munitj'  prefer  the  chance  of  rich  "  finds  "  in  the  gold-fields  to  steady  manual  labom*, 
and  most  of  the  available  monc}^  of  small  capitalists  is  absorbed  in  these  ventm'es. 
Hence  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants  still  continue  to  be  supplied  from  abroad. 
Hardware  comes  from  the  Urals  ;  china,  woven  goods,  and  leathers  from  Eiu'opean 
Russia  ;  genuine  or  sham  fancy  wares  from  the  far  West.  The  people  of  East  Siberia 
eagerly  purchase  the  most  trimipery  objects  of  this  class  in  the  markets  lying  to 
the  west  of  the  Irtish  and  Tobol  Rivers. 

Most  of  the  local  factories  formerly  commanded  the  labour  of  the  convicts,  and, 
having  thus  no  M'ages  to  pay,  they  were  able  to  comj)ete  in  the  production  of  certain 
articles  with  their  foreign  rivals.  But  at  present  manual  labour  is  quite  as  dear  in 
Siberia  as  elsewhere  in  the  Russian  Empire,  and  even  in  the  Yenisei  and  Amur 
basins  the  rate  of  wages  is  higher  than  in  European  Russia.  The  only  really 
important  local  manufacturing  industry  is  the  distilleries.     In  Asia,  as  in  Em-ope, 

*  Annual  yield  of  iron  in  the  Urala  and  Siberia  from  1707  to  1857,  169,000  tons  ;  from  1867  to  1877, 
•  492,000  tons. 


470  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

large  quantities  of  grain  and  potatoes  are  converted  into  alcolioKc  drinks,  which 
are  retailed  in  innumerable  taverns.  Yet  di-unkenness  is  perhaps  less  prevalent 
in  Siberia  than  in  Russia  proper.  Including  these  distilleries,  the  number  of 
industrial  estabUshments  between  the  Ob  and  the  Amur  amounted  in  1876, 
according  to  Subbotin,  to  1,100,  employing  4,000  hands,  and  producing  jnanu- 
factui-ed  goods  valued  at  8,000,000  roubles,  or  nearly  2  roubles  per  head  of  the 
population. 

But  industry  must  necessarily  remain  in  a  rudimentary  state  in  a  country  almost 
destitute  of  towns,  the  natural  markets  for  labour  of  all  sorts,  as  well  as  the  true 
nurseries  of  study,  refinement,  and  social  amenities.  Even  including  the  mining  dis- 
tricts of  the  Eastern  Urals,  the  whole  of  Siberia,  a  region  larger  than  the  continent  of 
Europe,  contains  no  more  than  seventeen  towns  with  a  population  of  upwards  of  5,000. 
In  other  words,  there  is,  on  the  average,  only  one  such  town  to  a  space  as  large  as 
France  and  Italy  combined.  And  even  these  towns  are  more  like  large  villages, 
most  of  the  houses  being  constructed  of  wood.  So  rare  are  stone  buildings  in 
Siberia  that  in  1875  more  than  half  the  towns,  or  18  in  31,  were  destitute  of  a  single 
structure  of  this  material,  and  where  such  did  exist  they  rarely  amounted  to  more 
than  ten  or  twelve.  In  some  parts  of  East  Siberia  the  fear  of  earthquakes  would 
appear  to  have  a  certain  influence  in  keeping  up  the  practice  of  erecting  exclusively 
wooden  houses,  but  this  method  of  building  is  undoubtedly  due  mainly  to  the  rudi- 
mentary state  of  Siberian  civiKsation.  In  any  case  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable 
that  the  towns  in  this  region  increase  very  slowly  in  population,  the  actual  growth 
in  this  respect  being  mostly  limited  to  the  rural  districts.  Such  expansion  as  does 
take  place  is  due  in  the  towns  far  more  to  the  arrival  of  Russian  settlers  than  to 
the  natural  excess  of  the  birth  rate. 

Important  fairs  are  stUl  held  in  the  open  country,  and  certain  clearings  along 
the  banks  of  the  Amur  and  Lena  become  at  definite  times  of  the  year  a  rendezvous 
for  thousands  of  Yakuts,  Tunguses,  and  Russians.  Even  the  famous  fair  of  Irbit 
was  originally  nothing  but  a  great  "  camp  meeting "  in  the  midst  of  the  forest. 
The  Siberian  dealers  are  nearly  all  Russians,  either  hawkers  from  Yladimir,  who 
visit  in  succession  all  the  markets  as  far  as  the  Yakut  and  Buriat  territories,  or  else 
shopkeepers  or  clerks  from  Xorth  Russia,  who  have  been  hired  out,  or  rather  sold 
by  their  families  while  still  mere  children.  The  town  of  Cherdin  alone,  in  the 
government  of  Perm,  annually  supplies  to  this  trafiic  from  twenty  to  forty  chil- 
dren, whom  the  carriers  cart  away  at  a  fixed  price  to  the  Irbit  fair,  and  who  are 
then  engaged  as  unpaid  apprentices  for  a  term  of  three  years  by  some  remote 
master  tradesmen,  proprietors,  or  merchants. 

Siberia  naturally  does  a  considerable  trade  with  European  Russia,  as  most  of  the 
manufactured  goods  and  fancy  articles  arrive  from  beyond  the  Urals.  But  the  annual 
exchanges  with  China  are  still  relatively  of  slight  importance,  and  have  even  dimi- 
nished when  compared  with  the  general  movement  of  the  empire,  although  the  two 
states  have  a  common  frontier  of  some  thousands  of  mUes  in  extent.  The  exchanges, 
such  as  they  are,  are  greatly  in  favour  of  China,  which  is  chiefly  an  exporting 
country.     But  the  quantity  of  tea  forwarded  through  the  Siberian  custom-houses 


I 


HIGHWAYS  OF  COMMUNICATION— THE  TEAKT— EAILWAT  PEOJECTS.    471 

increases  very  slowly,  owing  to  the  constantly  increasiag  competition  of  the  sea 
route  through  the  Suez  Canal  with  the  overland  commercial  highways.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  products  of  the  Russian  and  Siberian  factories  are  more  suited  to 
the  taste  of  the  Kirghiz  and  Mongolians  than  to  that  of  the  Chinese,  who  are 
more  difhcidt  to  please,  and  who  ia  any  case  receive  through  their  seaports  all  the 
European  wares  which  they  require.  No  doubt  the  Russian  maritime  province  sup- 
plies "sea-cabbage,"  trepang,  and  fish  to  the  siu-roimding  Chinese  districts.  But 
this  international  trade  can  have  but  a  slight  economic  importance  so  long  as  Rus- 
sian Manchuria  remains  uniahabited  except  by  a  few  scattered  communities.*  The 
absence  of  commercial  relations  between  Siberia  and  the  neijjhbouriae:  eastern 
regions  is  betrayed  by  the  small  number  of  telegraphic  dispatches  transmitted  from 
Russia  to  China  and  Japan,  which  in  1878  amounted  altogether  only  to  l,110.t  The 
messages  forwarded  in  transit  between  West  Em'ope  and  China  and  Japan  via 
Vladivostok  are  far  more  numerous  than  those  of  Russia  itself.J 


Highways  of  Commiinicatiox — The  Teakt — Railway  Projects. 

With  the  gradual  development  of  her  means  of  communication  the  trade  and 
population  of  Siberia  cannot  fail  to  increase.  The  traht,  as  the  great  highway  from 
Perm  to  Kiakhta  is  usuaHj'  called,  has  already  done  more  for  the  civilisation  of 
these  regions  than  the  waterways  themselves.  The  inhabitants  have  become  con- 
centrated in  groups  along  this  route,  and  at  certain  distances  from  both  sides  of  it. 
It  is  traversed  by  long  lines  of  waggons  and  sleighs  while  the  fairs  are  being  held, 
and,  although  sinking  here  and  there  in  the  quagmii-es,  the  carts  ■rtH  cover  from 
45  to  60  miles  a  day.  The  horses,  which  are  of  a  special  breed,  feed  en  route 
from  a  crib  attached  to  the  preceding  cart,  and  exposed  to  the  weather,  so  that  the 
oats  often  get  mixed  with  the  snow.  At  the  head  of  the  convoy  is  the  head-man's 
waggon,  decorated  with  a  small  shi'ine,  a  sort  of  ambulatory  chapel  containing  a 
sacred  image.  This  izvos,  or  carriage  trafilc,  has  caused  thriving  ■\-illages  to  spring 
up  by  the  roadside,  generally  consisting  of  a  single  line  of  houses  from  1  to  Ig 
miles  long.  These  two-storied  houses,  with  their  cheerful  balconies,  present  a  remark- 
able contrast  to  the  wretched  izbas  of  Central  Russia.  Some  of  the  stages  occurring 
at  longer  intervals  along  the  trakt  have  grown  into  towns,  of  which  those  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  and  consequentlj-  at  the  converging  point  of  several  routes,  are  natu- 
rally the  most  important.  On  the  other  hand,  the  windings  of  the  trakt  itself  have 
caused  the  decay  of  other  towns,  which  have  thus  become  abandoned  in  favour  of 

*  Trade  of  Russia  with  CSiina,  according  to  Subbotin  : — 


age  from  1827  to  1831 

Exports. 
1,200,000 

Imports. 
200,000 

Total. 
1,400,000 

Proportion  to  the 
total  Trade  of 
the  Empire. 
1  per  cent. 

„              1842  to  1846 

6,500,000 

6,500,000 

13,000,000 

8         „ 

„              1864  to  1868 

5,800,000 

4,500,000 

10,300,000 

2-5      „ 

Year  1876  .     .     . 

2,500,000 

14,100,000 

16,600,000 

2         „ 

t  To  China  595,  to  Japan  515. 

+  Dispatches  in  transit  via.  Vladivostok,  246,332  words,  or  about  20,000  messages. 


472  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

more  convenient  sites,  and  fresli  centres  of  population  liave  in  tliis  way  sprung  up 
in  the  midst  of  the  steppe  or  forest. 

The  future  railways,  with  their  various  side  branches,  will  have  analogous  results, 
but  their  construction  must  be  long  delayed  by  the  very  immensitj'  of  the  distances 
and  the  sparse  population  of  the  regions  to  be  traversed  by  them.  No  doubt  a  line 
has  already  crossed  the  Urals,  on  either  side  of  which  are  two  stations,  respectively 
known  as  "Europe"  and  "Asia."  But  this  line  is  not  yet  connected  with  the 
European  system.  The  branch  idtimately  destined  to  unite  the  European  and 
Central  Asiatic  with  the  great  trunk  line  from  Yekaterinburg  to  Pekin  wUl  probably 
pass  through  Orenbiu'g.  The  distance  from  the  Urals  to  the  capital  of  China  is 
estimated  bj'  Bogdanovich  at  about  3,480  miles,  of  which  rather  more  than  660 
lie  within  the  Chinese  fi'ontier. 

The  first  section  of  this  main  line  between  Yekaterinburg  and  Tumen  has 
already  been  begim,  and  although  only  225  miles  long,  it  is  expected  to  cost  about 
25,000,000  roubles.  The  capital  required  to  construct  the  whole  line  from  the  Urals 
to  the  Pacific  seaboard  cannot  be  estimated  at  less  than  £80,000,000.  Siberia  has 
hitherto  remaiaed  beyond  the  influence  of  international  movement,  but  when  it  has 
become  the  direct  and  necessary  line  of  passage  for  most  travellers  between  Eirrope 
and  the  extreme  cast  a  genuine  revolution  will  have  been  accomplished  in  the  his- 
tory of  mankind.  China  cannot  be  easily  brought  withiu  the  sj)here  of  a  imiversal 
international  railway  system  except  through  Siberian  territory.  The  southern  and 
western  frontiers  of  the  "  Middle  Empire  "  are  fringed  bj-  plateaux  and  highlands 
rising  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  But  towards  the  north  "broad  gaps  and 
regularly  sloping  depressions  give  access  at  several  points  from  the  Irtish  and  Amur 
basins  to  that  of  the  Hoang-ho.  The  highway  of  the  ancient  military  migrations  of 
Hims  and  Mongols  might  easily  be  reopened,  to  be  henceforth  traversed  rather  by 
locomotives  and  express  trains  than  by  conquering  hosts.  What  nations  and  races 
'  are  destined  most  to  benefit  by  this  future  highway  crossing  the  eastern  hemisphere 
is  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  stiU.  awaiting  solution. 

Educatiox — Admixistratiox. 

The  Siberian  people  are  not  preparing  themselves  by  a  solid  system  of  educa- 
tion for  their  high  destinies  in  the  civilised  world.  This  region  is  stiU  far  below 
Europe  in  the  relative  number  of  its  schools  and  scholars.  In  some  towns  there 
are  scarcely  ten  children  receiving  regular  instruction,  and  in  1870  the  whole  of 
East  Siberia  had  only  283  schools,  attended  by  8,610  pupils,  in  a  total  population  of 
1,500,000.  In  many  districts  the  Eussian  colonists,  lost  amidst  the  surrounding 
Yakut  jjeoples,  have  even  forgotten  their  mother  tongiie  and  national  usages,  and 
thej-  now  purchase  their  wives  by  paying  the  kaVim  like  the  other  natives.  Never- 
theless several  Siberians  have  already  distinguished  themselves  by  their  scientific 
attainments  and  literary  labours.  Among  contemporary  Eussian  savants  and  men 
of  letters  there  are  some  even  with  Buriat  and  Yakut  blood  in  their  veins,  and 
their  works  have  already  penetrated  to  the  masses.     But  the  yoimg  men  of  Asiatic 


EDUCATION—ADMINISTRATION— POLITICAL  LIFE. 


473 


Russia,  anxious  to  prosecute  their  studies,  are  still  obliged  to  proceed  to  Europe. 
The  university  so  long  expected,  and  which  was  endowed  by  anticipation  some  fifty 
j'cars  ago,  is  only  just  beginning  to  rise  above  its  foundations.  Its  erection  was  not 
definitely  decided  on  by  the  Coimcil  of  State  and  approved  of  by  the  late  Czar, 
Alexander  II.,  tiU  the  year  1878.  In  the  same  year  throughout  the  whole  of 
Siberia,  with  a  population  of  4,000,000  scattered  over  an  area  larger  than  all 

Pig.  233. — Vladitostok  and  the  Eastekn  Bospokus. 
Scale  1  :  86,000. 


Vtadiyostok 


lorss 


E  of  G. 


151 -SS' 


CEerron 


6  to  16  Feet.  16  to  80  Feet.  80  Feet  and  upwards. 

^^— — _^— —  2,150  Y.irds. 


Europe,  there  were  only  two  periodicals,  one  weekly  and  one  monthly,  apart  from 
the  official  notices  published  in  each  of  the  provincial  capitals. 

Siberia  comprises  two  great  governments,  that  of  "West  Siberia,  with  Omsk  for 
its  capital,  and  East  Siberia,  whose  capital  is  Irkutsk.  Each  of  these  main  divi- 
sions is  subdivided  into  governments  and  provinces,  which  are  again  distributed 
into  districts  and  circles.  The  province  of  the  Amur,  whose  adniiuistration  par- 
takes more  of  a  military  character  than  any  other  part  of  this  vast  domain,  is  diWded 


474  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

into  Cossack  "  regiments  "  and  "  battalions."  But  on  the  wliole  the  Govemment 
of  Siberia  may  be  said  to  be  modelled  on  that  of  European  Russia.  Mimicipal, 
judicial,  religious  institutions  are  all  based  on  the  same  uniform  plan,  and  the  dif- 
ferences arising  out  of  the  vastness  of  the  distances  and  the  local  customs  are  being 
gradually  effaced.  Formerly  the  true  masters  of  the  land  beyond  the  urban 
districts  were  the  dealers,  who,  through  their  monopoly  of  the  peltry  trade, 
disposed  of  the  very  lives  of  entire  populations.  But  although  they  have  still 
great  power,  their  authority  is  now,  at  all  events,  second  to  that  of  the  commanding 
officers  and  higher  Government  functionaries.  Practically  the  representatives  of 
the  Czar  possess  almost  absolute  control,  and  their  wiU  or  caprice  is  implicitly 
obeyed.  A  region  of  banishment  and  prisons,  peopled  by  convicts  and  the  children 
of  exiles,  far  too  few  in  numbers  and  too  scattered  to  form  communities  capable  of 
combined  resistance,  Siberia  has  never  yet  thought  of  asserting  its  autonomy. 
Even  were  she  one  day  to  assert  her  independence,  her  inhabitants  are  too  closely 
allied  to  the  Eui-opean  Russians  by  the  ties  of  a  common  origin  and  civilisation  to 
allow  the  future  of  both  countries  ever  to  be  separated.  From  the  Danube  to  the 
Amur,  Russia  and  Siberia  have  the  same  political  destinies,  and  the  same  social 
spirit  must  continue  to  animate  both  nations,  even  though  one  autocrat  may  some 
day  cease  to  control  the  aggressive  forces  of  each. 

Siberian  Political  Life. 

The  people  of  Siberia,  as  Kolb  well  observed,  has  hitherto  led  a  life  of  its  own, 
troubling  itself  little  about  the  remote  centres  of  government  in  St.  Petersburg  or 
Moscow.  A  Polish  exile  wrote  some  thirty  years  ago,  "  This  country  will  soon 
cease  to  be  a  region  of  terror  and  captivity,  for  it  possesses  all  the  means  (with 
the  exception  of  its  being  a  very  cold  country)  of  becoming  in  time  a  land  of  pros- 
perity and  freedom.  Siberia  has  no  nobility,  no  peculiarly  privileged  classes,  very 
few  officials,  and  a  population  which  has  never  been  in  bondage,  and  knows  how  to 
govern  itself."  Another  circumstance  has  since  been  added,  viz.  the  powerful, 
ever-increasing  influence  of  the  neighbouring  country  of  North  America  and  its 
republican  institutions,  which  reach  as  far  as  Bering  Strait,  since  the  sale  of  the 
Russo- American  colony.  Among  the  admirers  and  advocates  of  these  institu- 
tions are  those  Poles  who  were  sent  to  Siberia  by  tens  of  thousands  after  the  last 
insurrection,  and  who  find  here  more  freedom  and  liberty  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Europe.  The  communication  between  Novo-Nikolayevsk  and  the  rapidly  growing 
city  of  Francisco  constantly  increases.  Professor  Kachenusky,  of  Charkov,  has 
remarked  that  "  the  further  we  advance  towards  the  east  the  fr-eer  and  more 
independent  do  we  find  life  and  opinions  among  us.  The  principle  of  independ- 
ence is  infinitely  farther  advanced  in  Moscow  than  in  St.  Petersburg,  but  most  of 
all  in  ill-fated  Siberia." 


GEOWTH  OP  THE  EUSSIAN  EMPIRE.  475 


GROWTH  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 

Orp.  account  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia  may  be  fittingly  concluded  with  a 
brief  retrospect  of  the  steps  by  which  the  empii-e  has  gradually  acquired  its 
present  enormous  expansion.  Its  colossal  growth,  remarks  Kolb,  began  in  1581, 
in  which  year  the  Cossack  Hetman  Yermak  Temogefev  sm-rendered  to  Czar 
Ivan  II.  the  vast  regions  of  "West  Siberia,  which  he  had  overr\m  with  amazing 
rapidity.  But  it  was  not  till  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great  that  Russia  began  to  be 
held  in  any  regard  by  the  more  civilised  states  of  Christendom.  In  1707  Peter 
took  possession  of  the  recently  discovered  peninsula  of  Kamchatka,  and,  what  was 
of  far  more  importance,  by  the  Peace  of  Nystadt,  in  1721,  Russia  wrenched  fi-om 
Sweden  parts  of  Finland,  Ingria,  Karelia,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia.  Azov,  which 
was  taken  fi-om  the  Tiu'ks  in  1699,  was  again  lost  in  1711.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Czar  took  from  the  Persians  Daghestan,  Shirvan,  Ghilan,  and  Derbent, 
large  portions  of  which  were,  however,  restored  to  the  Shah  in  1732  and  1736. 

The  Kirghiz  Kasaks  were  subdued  in  1730,  and  the  Ossetes  of  the  Central 
Caucasus  in  1742.  The  easternmost  portion  of  Siberia,  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and 
the  Bering  Archipelago  were  also  incorporated  in  the  same  year.  The  Finnish 
province  of  KjTnenegard  was  secured  by  the  treaty  of  Abo  in  1743.  Then 
followed  the  three  partitions  of  Poland,  under  Catherine  II.,  in  1772,  1793,  and 
1795,  Russia  thereby  acquiring  nearly  two-thii'ds  of  this  once  powerful  monarchy. 

By  the  Peace  of  Kuchuk-Kainarji,  July  22nd,  1774,  the  Ttu-ks  finally  surrendered 
Azov,  part  of  the  Crimea,  and  Kabardia  in  Caucasia.  The  rest  of  the  Crimea 
followed  in  1783,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Yassy,  January  9th,  1792,  Oczakov  was 
absorbed.  Georgia  also  came  imder  the  protection  of  the  Czar  in  1783,  and 
Kurland  and  Leni  in  1793. 

In  1793  also  followed  the  conquest  of  Persian  territory  as  far  as  the  river  Kur, 
while  the  formal  annexation  of  Georgia  was  effected  in  1801.  Although  worsted 
in  the  war  of  1807  by  the  French,  Russia  nevertheless  acquired  bj'  the  Peace  of 
Tilsit,  Jul}'  7th,  the  province  of  Byalistok,  which  had  been  taken  fi-om  her  ally 
Prussia.  The  Peace  of  Vienna,  October  14th,  1809,  transferred  the  Circle  of 
Turnopol  and  part  of  East  Galicia  from  Austria  to  Russia.  The  Peace  of 
Friedi-ichshaven,  November  17th,  1809,  deprived  Sweden  of  what  remained  to  her 
of  Finland ;  the  Peace  of  Bucharest,  May  2Sth,  1812,  took  Bessarabia  from  the 
Turks ;  that  of  Tiflis,  in  1813,  robbed  Persia  of  parts  of  the  Caucasus ;  and  two 
years  later  the  Congress  of  Vienna  gave  Poland  to  her  ancient  rival. 

After  fresh  wars  the  Persians  lost  the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Nakhichevan 
(now  called  Russian  Armenia)  by  the  Peace  of  Tm-kmansheii",  February  22nd,  1828  ; 
and  the  following  year,  by  the  Peace  of  Adi-ianople,  the  Tm-ks  sui-rendered  Anapa, 
Poti,  Akhaltzik,  and  Akhalkalaka.  The  desire  to  precipitate  the  dissolution  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire  led  to  the  Crimean  war  of  1853,  in  which  England  and  France 
joined  in  1854,  and  Sardinia  in  1855,  and  which  ended  in  the  Peace  of  Paris, 
March  31st,  1856.     The  Russians  were  now  compelled,  for  the  first  time  for  over  a 


476  ASIATIC  ETJSSIA. 

century,  to  agree  to  a  cession  of  territory,  restoring  to  Rumania  the  left  bank  of 
the  Danube  in  Bessarabia,  in  which  tract  were  included  Ismail  and  Kiala. 

The  final  subjection  of  the  whole  of  Caucasia  was  eifected  in  18o9  and  1864, 
when  the  Cii'cassian  people  migrated  in  a  body  to  Tuikey.  Then  followed,  by 
agreement  with  China,  the  annexation  of  Manchuria  as  far  as  the  left  bank  of  the 
Amur.  A  ukase  of  February  29th,  1868,  extinguished  the  last  spark  of  Polish 
political  life.  The  khanates  of  "Western  Turkestan  (Bokhara,  Khiva,  and  Kokhan) 
were  subdued  in  the  next  few  years,  and,  while  a  semblance  of  freedom  was  left  to 
Bokhara  and  Khiva,  Kokhan  was  completely  absorbed  imder  its  old  name  of 
Ferghana.  On  the  other  hand,  Russia  ^-ithdi-ew  fi-ora  the  Xew  "World  in  1867, 
when  Russian  America  (Alaska)  was  sold  to  the  United  States.  This  vast  region, 
however,  had  never  been  formaUj-  incori^orated,  having  been  rather  the  property  of 
a  chartered  trading  company. 

The  late  Russo-Turkish  war  brought  the  Czar's  forces  to  the  gates  of 
Constantinople,  and  although  British  intervention  prevented  the  occupation  of  that 
famous  capital,  the  ensuing  Congress  of  Berlin,  July,  1878,  awarded  to  Russia  fresh 
territory  in  Asia — ^Batum,  on  the  Euxine,  and  the  fortress  and  district  of  Kars, 
besides  restoring  to  her  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  she  had  been  forced  to  surrender 
to  Rumania  after  the  Crimean  war. 

Lastly,  after  repeated  failm-es,  the  Czar's  troojDS  triumphed  early  in  the  year 
1881  over  the  Tekke  Turkomans  of  the  Daman-i-koh,  and  the  Tm-koman  country, 
from  the  Caspian  nearly  to  the  Herat  district,  was  in  the  same  year  incoi-porated  in 
the  newlj'  organized  Trans-Caspian  territory,  dependent  on  the  Govei-nmeut  of  the 
Caucasus.  This  makes  Russia  absolute  mistress  of  all  "Western  Tm-kestan,  the 
Merv  oasis  alone  excepted.  The  changes  caused  b_y  these  movements  have 
necessitated  a  rectification  of  the  Russo-Persian  frontier  between  the  Caspian  and 
Afghanistan.  The  Boundarj-  Commission  charged  to  lay  down  the  new  line  has 
not  yet  concluded  its  labom-s,  but  the  British  Government  is  not  represented  on 
this  commission,  which,  it  is  understood,  will  award  to  Russia  all  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Km-en-dagh,  including  the  fertile  Dera-goz  district,  and  the  Persian 
town  of  Askabad,  if  not  Sarakhs,  bringing  the  Russian  fi'ontier  close  to  Herat. 
Thus  disappear  the  vast  spaces  which  certain  British  statesmen,  till  quite 
recently,  supposed  would  continue  to  intervene  between  the  Russian  and  British 
dominions  in  the  East. 

Meantime,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  recall  the  warning  words  of  Arminius 
Vambery,  wi-itten  at  a  time  when  Russia  had  not  yet  advanced  beyond  the  Ai-al  and 
Caspian  Seas,  and  while  the  Turkestan  khanates  and  the  Turkoman  coimtrv  were  stiU 
independent : — "The  drama  of  a  collision  of  the  two  great  colossi  in  Central  Asia,  which 
political  dreamers  imagined  years  ago,  continues  still  far  from  actual  performance. 
The  question  moves,  it  is  true,  slowly,  but  still  always  in  a  forward  direction.  Let 
me,  following  the  natural  coiu'se  of  events,  without  undue  warmth,  endeavour  to 
acquaint  the  reader  with  the  motives  that  influence  me  when  I  disapprove  of  the 
indiSerence  of  the  English  to  the  Russian  policy  in  Central  Asia 

"  The  real  progress  of  the  Russian  designs  is  beyond  aU  doubt.     As  I  before 


GEOWTH  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 


477 


( 


said,  the  interests  of  civilisation  make  us  wish,  the  most  entire  success  to  the 
Russian  army  ;  but  still  the  remote  consequences  of  an  acquisition  once  made 
suggest  a  highly  important  and  complicated  inquiry.  The  question  whether 
Russia  will  content  herself  even  with  Bokhara,  or  will  allow  the  Oxus  to  heconoB 
the  final  boundary  of  her  influence  and  of  her  designs,  is  difhcult  to  answer. 
Without  plimging  into  any  deep  considerations  of  policy,  I  may  remark  that  it 
seems  very  probable  that  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg,  in  return  for  her  persevering 
policy  of  sacrifices  pursued  across  the  deserts  for  years  and  years,  at  great  expense 
and  labour,  will  seek  some  richer  compensation  than  is  to  be  foimd  in  the  oases  of 
Tm'kestan.  I  should  like,  indeed,  to  see  the  politician  who  woidd  venture  to  affirm 
that  Russia,  once  in  possession  of  Turkestan,  woidd  be  able  to  withstand  the  temp- 
tation of  advancing,  either  personally  or  by  her  rejoresentatives,  into  Afghanistan 
and  Northern  India,  where  political  intrigues  are  said  to  find  alwaj's  a  fruitful  soil. 
At  the  time  when  the  Russian  columns,  rmder  the  orders  of  Peroffsky,  threw  their 
ominous  shadow  from  the  west  shore  of  the  Aral  Sea  as  far  as  Kabul — at  the 
time  when  the  spectre  of  Vitkovich*  appeared  in  that  city  and  in  Kandahar, 
the  possibility  of  such  complications  as  those  alluded  to  was  foreseen.  And  cannot 
that  which  has  once  occurred,  when  the  necessity  arises,  occur  a  second  time  ?  t 

"  Without,  therefore,  lending  to  the  question  the  foul  colouring  of  envy  or 
jealousy,  I  consider  myself  justified  in  disapproving  of  England's  indifference  to 
the  plans  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia.  Such  is  my  humble  O23inion ;  but  whether 
the  British  Lion  is  to  come  into  direct  hostile  collision  with  the  Russian  Bear  in 
those  regions,  or  in  brotherly  fashion  they  are  to  share  and  share  alike,  is  a  question 
which  I  will  not  ventm'e  nearer  to  approach."  + 

The  foregoing  rapid  sketch  of  the  continuous  growth  of  the  Russian  Empire 
during  the  last  three  centuries  may  be  summed  up  in  the  subjoined  table : — 

Area  in  Square  Miles. 
382,000 
510,000 
1,530,000 
5,039,000 
5,953,000 
6,888,000 
7,122,770 
7,866,000 
7,950,000 


Bussian  Empire  under 

Date. 

Ivan  Vasilii'ich  ] 

. 

1462 

Vasili  Ivanovich 

. 

1505 

Ivau  Vasilivich  II.        .         .         . 

1584 

Alexis  Michaelovich 

1650 

Peter  the  Great 

1689 

Anne    . 

1730 

Catherine  II. 

1775 

Alexander  II. 

1868 

Alexander  III. 

1881 

Increase  or 

Population. 

1722    . 

.     14,000,000 

1829     . 

1742 

.     16,000,000 

1838     . 

1762 

.     19,000,000 

1851     . 

17S2 

.     27,500,000 

1870     . 

1793 

.     34,000,000 

1877     . 

1803 

.     36,000,000 

1878    . 

1811 

.     42,000,000 

1881    . 

1815 

.     45,000,000 

50,500,000 
59,000,000 
65,000,000 
78,000,000 
86,250,000 
87,722,500 
88,500,000 


*  This  -was  the  name  of  the  Russian  agent  sent  by  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg  to  Afghanistan  in. 
1838,  with  large  sums  of  money  to  be  employed  in  intrigues  against  England. 

t  These  prophetic  words  were  fully  verified  in  1878  by  the  an-ival  of  a  Russian  mission  in  Kdhvi, 
an  event  which  brought  about  the  late  war  between  the  British  and  the  unfortunate  Amir  of  Afghanistan, 
Shir  All. 

t  "  Travels  in  Central  Asia,"  1864,  p.  440. 

VOL.    VI.  I   I 


478  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Tlie  three  districts  directly  aifected  by  the  recent  annexations  ia  Turkestan  are 
Merv,  the  Persian  frontier  territory  of  Dera-goz,  and  the  Athal  Tekke  counti-v  on 
its  border.  Regarding  all  three  interesting  and  valuable  information  has  been 
received  dui'ing  the  present  year,  and  is  here  subjoined. 

Merv. 

Dui-ing  the  summer  of  1881  Mr.  O'Donovan  was  detained  a  prisoner  in  this 
oasis,  respecting  the  present  state  of  which  Colonel  E.  C.  Stewart  also  collected 
some  particulars  in  1880-1,  while  residing  in  the  Dera-gdz. 

"  Meru,  or  Merv,"  wi'ites  Colonel  Stewart,  "  the  city  on  the  Murghab,  is  men- 
tioned in  the  earliest  records  of  the  Aryan  race.  Balkh,  Merv,  and  Seistan  were 
the  places  where  Iranian  history  begias.  The  coimtry,  watered  by  the  Murghab 
and  Tejend  Rivers,  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Margiana,  and  it  was  visited  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  Antiochus  Meator  ruled  on  the  Murghab.  Merv  was 
the  seat  of  a  Christian  Ai-chbishop  of  the  Xestorian  Chui'ch  during  the  reigns  of 
the  Sassanian  dynasty  of  Zoroastrian  Kiags  of  Persia,  ps  was  also  Toos,  near 
Meshed  in  Khorasan. 

"  The  Ai'abs  captured  Merv  about  a.d.  666,  and  foimd  it  a  very  rich  city.  Until 
this  period  it  had  a  Chi-istian  Ai-chbishop.  At  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  the 
Salor  and  Saluk  tribes  of  Turkomans  were  in  the  country.  The  Keutenants  of 
the  Khalifs  of  Bagdad  ruled  Khorasan,  with  Merv  as  theii'  capital. 

"  On  the  25th  of  February,  1221,  Merv  was  besieged  by  a  Mog\il  army  under 
Tidin,  a  son  of  Jenghiz  Khan  ;  the  place  was  captm-ed  and  the  population  put  to 
death  with  very  few  exceptions.  It  is  said  by  Ibn-ul-Ether  that  700,000  dead 
bodies  were  counted.  This  is  probably  an  exaggeration,  but  it  shows  how  large  a 
city  Merv  must  have  been  that  a  writer  could  suggest  that  700,000  persons  were  put 
to  death  in  it.  The  Moguls  had  a  curious  and  methodical  way  of  numbering  the 
slain.  When  a  thousand  dead  had  been  completed,  thev  placed  one  body  with  its 
head  buried  in  the  ground  and  its  feet  upwards,  so  that  the  thousands  might  be 
conveniently  counted. 

"  The  last  Merv  was  the  city  so  bravely  held  by  Baii-am  Ali  Khan  Kajar.  A 
branch  of  the  Kajar  family  who  now  rule  Persia  had  been  placed  in  Merv  by  Shah 
Tamasp  to  defend  this  outlying  province,  as  they  were  renowned  for  their  courage. 
During  the  troubles  that  followed  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah,  Merv  was  attacked  and 
captured  fi-om  the  Persians  by  Begge  Jan,  called  also  Amir  Masum,  the  Amir  of 
Bokhara,  m  1784.  Bairam  Ali  Khan  was  slain  outside  the  town,  and  his  son, 
Mahomed  Hussein  Khan,  who  made  a  glorious  defence — even  the  women  joining 
in  it — was  carried  captive,  with  the  popidation  that  were  spared,  to  Bokhara.  Since 
that  date  there  has  properly  been  no  such  town  as  Merv.  The  Merv  coimtry  still 
exists,  but  there  is  nothing  worthy  the  name  of  to^Ti  there.  The  Amir  of  Bokhara 
broke  down  the  great  dam  on  the  Murghab,  which  filled  the  nmnerous  canals  and 
fertilised  the  whole  country,  in  the  hope  of  rendering  it  a  desert  inaccessible  to 
Persia. 


MEEV.  479 

"  After  1784  it  belonged  to  Bokhara  for  some  years,  and  tlie  Salor  and  Saruk 
Turkomans  encamped  on  it.  It  was  subsequently  taken  from  the  Amii'  of  Bokhara 
by  the  Khan  of  Khiva,  whose  officials  were  found  here  living  in  a  poor  village 
called  Merv  when  the  place  was  visited  by  Abbott  early  in  1840.  This  place, 
which  was  a  possession  of  the  Saruk  tribe,  and  which  is  described  by  Abbott  as 
consisting  of  about  one  himdi-ed  mud  hiits,  has  been  destroyed  by  the  Tokke  Tui-ko- 
mans,  who  began  to  settle  in  this  coimtry  about  1830,  and  finally  di-ove  the  Saruks 
further  up  the  Mm-ghab  to  Yulutan  and  Panj  Deh.  I  have  not  been  able  to  dis- 
cover the  date  of  the  destruction  of  this  last  and  most  wretched  of  places  which 
have  borne  the  name  of  Merv,  but  it  was  probably  about  1855. 

"This  deserted  place  was  occupied  by  Persian  armies  in  1857,  under  Sultan 
Murad  Mirza  Hissam-i-Sultunut,  and  again  in  1860  by  Hamza  Mirza  Hashmat- 
ud-Dowlah,  whose  army  was  disastrously  defeated  in  an  attack  on  Kala  Kaushid 
Khan,  then  only  just  commenced  and  in  a  very  rudimentary  state. 

"  The  Tekke  Tui-komans  have  possessed  themselves  of  the  best  part  of  the  country. 
They  have  built  a  large  fort  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  most  westerly  branch  of  the 
Miu'ghab.  It  is  situated  25  miles  below  the  great  hand,  or  dam,  which  di\-ides  the 
Mui'ghab  into  many  canals  or  branches.  The  place  where  the  great  band  is  situated 
is  called  Allahsha,  where  there  is  a  ferry  over  the  Murghab,  which  is  used  for  a  few 
weeks  in  the  spring  when  the  river  is  in  high  flood.  At  other  times  there  are 
wooden  bridges. 

"  The  fort  of  Kaushid  Khan,  which  is  very  strong  indeed,  is  protected  by  the 
Murghab  Kiver  on  two  sides,  being  built  in  the  loop  of  the  river.  It  is  about 
2^  miles  long  and  1^  wide.  The  Tekke  have  most  wonderful  confidence  in  the 
strength  of  the  place,  which  -will  contain,  they  say,  50,000  alajaks,  or  Tm-koman 
tents.  It  is  called  Kala  Kaushid  Khan  from  the  name  of  its  foimder,  Kaushid 
Khan,  the  chief  of  the  Beg  clan  of  the  Tekke  tribe.  It  was  commenced  in  1860, 
and  the  Tekke  have  worked  at  it  by  fits  and  starts  ever  since. 

"  WTien  the  Persians  now  speak  of  Maur,  or  Merv,  they  mean  Kala  Kaushid  Khan. 
Turkomans  themselves  never  speak  of  Maur  as  a  town  ;  when  they  use  the  term  at 
all  they  mean  the  district  where  Merv  was  formerly  situated.  The  fact  of  the 
Persians  spealdng  of  Merv  as  a  town,  and  as  a  place  captured  by  their  armies,  has 
led  to  endless  confusion.  There  are  no  signs  of  a  town  about  Kala  Kaushid  Khan. 
There  are  about  6,000  tents  of  the  Beg  tribe  generally  pitched  near  it,  and  each 
chief  man  has  a  guest-house  of  mud  or  sunburnt  brick,  but  they  themselves  live 
either  in  felt  tents,  or  in  places  where  reeds  are  plentiful,  in  reed  or  mat-huts,  which 
can  be  carried  away  on  camels. 

"  Near  Kala  Kaushid  Khan  there  is  a  boys'  school,  with  five  or  six  houses  for  the 
mollahs,  or  priests,  who  teach  in  it,  belonging  to  Mollah  Turah,  the  chief  mollah  of 
the  Beg  tribe.  A  market  is  held  on  the  river  bank  near  the  fort,  and  here  the  Jew 
traders  who  frequent  the  place,  each  trader  being  imder  the  protection  of  some 
powerful  Tm-koman,  have  built  small  open  enclosures,  without  any  roofs,  where 
they  expose  their  goods  for  sale  on  the  two  days  in  a  week  when  a  market  is  held. 

"  When  Persians  speak  of  the  bazaar  of  Merv  they  mean  this  open  market-place. 

I  I  2 


480  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

Inside  the  fort  some  alajalis  are  pitched,  and  the  family  of  Kaushid  Khan  have  a 
guest-house  there.  The  fort,  however,  is  kept  more  as  a  place  of  refuge  than  as  an 
ordinary  habitation.  From  ■\\-hat  I  could  gather  the  portion  of  the  countrj-  lit  for 
cultivation  is  about  90  miles  long,  and  extends  to  about  11  miles  on  each  side  of 
the  river.  The  groimd  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  melons  and  water-melons  in 
plenty  and  of  great  excellence.  Melons  constitute  one  of  the  exports  to  Dera-goz, 
both  fresh  and  dried.  Even  at  Meshed  the  melons  of  Merv  are  much  liked,  and 
are  sent  by  rich  people  as  presents  to  one  another. 

"  General  Abbott,  who  visited  this  coimtry  in  1840,  says,  '  The  profusion  of 
water  renders  the  soil  productive,  but  it  has  not  strength  to  bear  any  but  the 
poorer  sorts  of  grain.'  In  a  pre^^ous  paragraph  he  says,  '  During  the  misrule 
and  anarchy  of  the  past  sixty  years  the  ancient  dam  of  the  Murghab  was  neglected 
and  carried  away.  The  dam  is  again  set  up,  and  the  lands  are  brought  under  culture.' 
I  gather  from  this  that  the  dam  had  not  long  been  rej^aired  when  Abbott  saw  it. 

"  From  the  Tejend  River,  to  where  the  first  canal  from  the  Mm-ghab  is  reached, 
a  space  of  some  85  miles  has  to  be  passed  over  either  without  water  at  all,  or  on 
feme  of  the  roads  there  are  wells  of  brackish  water  at  about  66  miles  after  passing 
the  Tejend.  The  only  easy  road  to  the  Merv  country  without  constructing  a 
canal  is  from  Herat  and  up  the  Kushk  stream  to  its  jimctiou  with  the  Murghab. 
In  former  days  Herat  as  well  as  Merv  belonged  to  Persia,  and  this  road  was  much 
used.  Also  in  former  days  canals  from  the  Tejend  near  Sarakhs  ran  out  a  long 
way  into  the  desert,  and  made  the  joiu-ney  by  Sarakhs  a  comparatively  easy  one, 
which  it  certainly  is  not  now.  There  are  still  water  reservoirs  and  caravanserais 
in  ruins  on  the  road,  showing  where  the  old  road  to  Merv  ran. 

"A  canal  which  formerly  existed,  and  which  led  fi'om  the  Tejend  River  near 
Sarakhs  to  Kacha  Kimi  (within  20  miles  of  the  Merv  oasis),  could  be  easily 
reconstructed.  Kacha  can  be  still  traced  from  the  Tejend  to  this  place,  and  in  1860 
Hamza  Mirza  Hashmat-ud-Dowlat,  the  Persian  general,  employed  his  army  for  a 
few  days  in  damming  up  the  Tejend  and  turning  it  into  the  bed  of  the  old  canal. 
His  efforts  were  successful,  and  the  water  ran  for  many  miles  in  the  bed  of  the  old 
canal  and  supplied  his  army  for  several  days.  The  water  did  not  reach  so  far  as 
it  formerly  did,  but  only  to  a  place  called  Kui-k  Tepe,  or  the  Wolf's  Mound.  Still 
this  was  an  immense  assistance.  A  little  more  time  and  a  little  more  engineering 
skill  would  no  doubt  have  sent  the  water  as  far  as  it  formerly  went,  to  Kacha  Kimi, 
from  whence  it  is  only  about  20  miles  across  the  desert  to  the  first  canal  from  the 
Murghab."  * 

It  thus  appears  that  Merv  has  been  living  on  its  reputation  since  the  year  1784, 
when  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Amir  of  Bokhara.  Since  then  it  has  absolutely 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  centre  of  population,  and  although  it  has  been  succeeded  by  a 
strong  fort,  both  the  fort  and  the  oasis  have  lost  aU  strategic  importance  since  the 
advance  of  the  Russians  in  the  spring  of  1881  along  the  Daman-i-koh  frontier  of 
Khorasan.  The  railway  in  their  newly  organized  Trans-Caspian  territory  was 
completed  in  September  of  the  same  year  as  far  as  Kizil-Aiwat,  and  the  whole 
•  Proceedings  oftheRoyal  Geographical  Society,  September,  18S1 


I 


THE  DERA-GOZ.  481 

country  as  far  as  Sarakhs,  on  the  Perso- Afghan  frontier,  is  being  rapidly  reduced  to 
order.  From  this  extreme  poiat  the  natural  route  to  the  interior  of  Afghanistan 
lies  through  the  Tejend  and  Hari-rud  River  vaUey  as  far  as  Herat,  and  thence  in  a 
direct  liue  across  the  Hehuand  to  Kandahar,  and  £0  on  over  the  Khojak  and  Gwaja 
Passes  of  the  Khoja  Amran  range  to  the  Pishin  valley,  which  is  now  British 
territory.  There  is  another,  though  far  more  difficult,  route  from  the  Oxus  through 
Balkh  and  over  the  Bamian  Pass  of  the  Hindu-Kush  down  to  the  Kabul  River 
vaUey.  But  the  Tejend  is  a  long  way  west,  the  Bamian  a  long  way  east  of  Merv, 
so  that  Merv  lies,  not  on  the  route,  but  between  the  routes  leading  from  Russian 
Turkestan  to  Afghanistan  and  India. 

In  any  case,  Merv,  or  rather  the  fort  of  Kala  Kaushid  Khan,  could  easily  be 
either  masked  or  occupied  whenever  that  step  may  seem  expedient  to  the  rulers  of 
the  Aralo-Caspian  basin.  What  the  Persians  did  twice  in  this  century  the 
Russians  wiU.  not  fail  to  do  when  it  suits  their  convenience.  B}'  nearly  floodino-  the 
old  canal  from  the  Tejend  they  can  arrive  within  20  miles,  or  a  day's  march,  of  the 
oasis.  Hence  nothing  now  remains  of  any  moment  between  the  two  great  Asiatic 
powers,  whose  frontiers  are  practically  conterminous  all  along  the  line  from  Herat 
to  the  Hindu-Kush. 

The  consequences  of  these  altered  conditions  are  thoroughly  imderstood  and 
already  openly  discussed  in  Russia.  A  writer  in  the  Novoije  Vremya  recently 
observed  significantly  that  "  the  annexation  of  the  Turkoman  country  occurs 
opport\mely  with  the  cession  of  Kulja  to  China.  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
our  new  acquisition  are  principally  strategical.  The  importance  which  the  new 
territory  possesses  is  threefold,  as  affecting  the  routes  leading  into  Central  Asia, 
the  pacification  of  the  Trans-Caspian  region,  and,  lastly,  our  new  relations  to  the 
neighbouring  Asiatic  States  on  our  extended  southern  fi'ontier.  It  is  well  ascertained 
that  the  route  along  the  river  Atrek,  and  up  the  Tejend  vaUey  to  Herat  and 
Kandahar,  is  by  far  the  best,  if  not  the  only  one,  in  the  event  of  a  Russian  expedi- 
tion against  British  India.  The  occupation  of  a  strong  base  on  this  route  is  of 
vast  importance  in  a  military  sense,  and  must  naturally  influence  the  friendly  dis- 
position of  England  towards  Russia.  The  more  resolutely  we  take  up  an  advanced 
position  on  the  road  to  India,  the  more  yielding  becomes  England's  policy  in  the 
Eastern  Question.  Hence  the  occupation  of  the  Daman-i-Koh  by  the  Russians  has 
been  followed  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  British  from  Kandahar." 

The  Dera-goz. 

In  view  of  its  probable  peaceful  acquisition  by  Russia,  the  reader  may  be  glad 
to  have  the  subjoined  brief  accoimt  of  this  little-known  tract  by  Colonel  V. 
Baker,  one  of  the  few  Europeans  who  have  visited  it  in  recent  times  : — 

"  The  Dera-goz  instead  of  being  a  town,  as  marked  on  all  old  maps,  is  a  province 
containing  more  than  a  hundred  villages,  the  chief  town  being  Mohamedabad, 
nine  miles'  distance  from  Chepishli ;  this  town,  together  with  Nowhandan  and 
many  villages,  lies  on  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  main  range,  surrounded  by  small 


V 


482  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

mountains  which,  separate  it  from  the  desert ;  and  beyond  these  mountains,  and  on 
the  verge  of  the  desert,  lie  important  forts,  such  as  Khosrabad,  Sarun,  and  many 
others.  In  the  middle  of  the  plain  there  is  a  spring,  but  the  main  water  supply  is 
derived  from  a  rapid  river  which  descends  from  the  Kuren-Dagh  range  near 
Duriuga,  and  then  waters  several  villages  and  also  the  towns  on  the  plains.  In 
tracino-  Persian  rivers  on  the  map  the  student  must  ever  remember  that,  through  the 
water  being  taken  for  irrigation,  they  usually  become  less  and  less  after  they  leave 
the  moimtains,  and  are  eventually  so  expended. 

"Dera-goz  certainly  has  a  more  verdant  well-to-do  aspect  than  any  Persian 
province  that  I  have  seen  except  Ghilan  and  Mazandaran,  where  nature  has  done 
everything,  but  man  nothing.  Even  the  face  of  the  mountain  has  a  freshness  not 
seen  from  the  southern  side.  The  people  are  Kurds,  they  have  been  ruled  by  the 
same  family  for  150  years,  and  there  is  a  manliness  about  them,  combined  with 
a  deo-ree  of  order  and  cleanliness,  that  is  quite  imusual  in  Persia.  In  case  of 
emero-ency  Dera-goz  can  turn  out  about  a  thousand  mounted  men,  and  about  three 
thousand  armed  infantry  moimtaineers  could  be  assembled  from  the  different  villages. 
But  infantry  are  never  considered  in  these  countries,  where  cavahy  only  are 
thought  of  any  importance."  * 

The  Dera-goz  was  again  visited  in  1881  by  Colonel  E.  C.  Stewart,  who  travelled 
through  Persia,  disguised  as  an  American  horse-dealer,  from  Calcutta.  He  reached 
it  from  the  Meshed-Kuchan  valley,  by  the  Maidan-Kuni  and  Allaho- Akhbar  Passes 
over  the  Hazar-Masj id  Moimtains,  which  here  culminate  in  a  peak  10,500  feet  high. 
The  Maidan-Kimi,  or  "  Bloody  Plateau,"  is  so  named  fi'om  the  number  of  jDeople 
who  perish  here  in  the  winter  when  trying  to  cross  over  during  the  heavy 
snow.  "  This  is  the  easiest  road  into  the  district  of  Dera-goz,  but  for  weeks  in  the 
winter,  when  there  is  snow,  there  is  no  communication  between  Dera-goz  and  the 
rest  of  Khorasan.  As  soon  as  the  Maidan-Kvmi  is  jjassed,  there  is  a  sharp  descent, 
and  then  there  are  three  small  villages  of  the  name  of  Derbendi,  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Dera-goz  district.  From  Derbendi  I  continued  to  Mahomedabad, 
the  capital,  crossing  the  Allaho- Alvhbar  Pass  en  route.  The  AUaho- Akhbar  is  lower 
than  the  Maidan-Kuni  Pass,  being  only  4,200  feet  high,  and  it  can  abnost  always 
be  crossed  without  difficulty,  even  in  winter.  Several  low  ranges  of  hills  cross  the 
Dera-goz  plain,  but  no  moimtain  ranges,  while  beyond  the  Turkoman  plain  is  seen 
extending  away  to  the  blue  horizon.  In  every  direction  villages  and  cultivation 
are  seen,  showing  it  to  be  a  fertile  land ;  and  every  one  says,  '  If  we  had  only 
peace  we  should  indeed  be  rich.'  But  in  every  direction  the  plain  is  dotted  with 
towers,  as  refuges  from  the  formerly  dreaded  Turkoman. 

"  After  descending  the  plain  the  flourishing  village  of  Chapashli  is  passed.  Cha- 
pashli  is  surrounded  by  Aoneyards,  which  are  famed  all  over  the  coimtry.  Grapes 
are  so  plentiful  that  45  lbs.  of  the  finest  can  be  purchased  for  ninepence. 

"  Near  the  village  of  Hakwerdi,  a  little  further  on,  the  refuge  towers  are  very 
close  together,  every  square  of  150  yards  of  the  fields  ha\Tng  one.  In  other  parts 
of  Khorasan  I  had  seen  a  few  of  these  towers,  but  here  the  whole  coimtry  is  so 

*  "  Clouds  in  tho  East,"  p.  229. 


\ 


THE  AKFTATi  TEKKE  COUNTRY.  483 

thickly  dotted  with  them  as  to  look  like  a  chess-board  covered  with  chessmen. 
The  towers  are  small  roimd  biiildmgs,  built  of  unbaked  clay,  about  12  feet  high  ; 
they  are  roofed  over,  and  have  no  opening  whatever  except  a  small  roimd  hole  at 
the  bottom,  through  which  a  not  too  stout  person  may  wriggle  himself  in  like  a 
snake.  If  surprised  by  Turkomans,  the  cultivator  or  traveller  creeps  through  this 
hole,  and  closes  it  with  two  large  stones,  which  are  there  for  the  purpose.  Even 
if  these  stones  are  wanting,  the  occupant  is  safe,  as  it  would  indeed  be  a  daring 
Turkoman  who  would  try  and  force  himself  through  the  hole,  with  the  certainty  of 
having  his  brains  beaten  out  with  a  stone  while  struggling  to  get  through,  even 
supposing  the  person  inside  had  no  better  weapon ;  but  almost  every  one  here  goes 
armed. 

"  The  defence  towers  are  higher  and  larger,  and  have  a  parapet  at  the  top,  with 
loopholes  to  fire  through,  and  a  ladder  for  ascending  to  the  top.  Each  vineyard  or 
orchard  has  its  one  or  more  towers. 

"  The  Dera-goz  district  has  a  length  of  some  65  miles  and  a  breadth  of  about  40. 
There  is  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Shah,  though  the  appointment  is  hereditary 
in  one  family.  He  bears  the  title  of  Begler  Begi,  and  the  people  speak  of  him 
familiarly  as  the  Khan.  His  name  is  Mahomed  Ali  Khan.  He  is  of  Tm-k  origin, 
as  are  a  large  portion  of  his  subjects."  * 

It  may  be  added  that  the  Trans-Caspian  railway  running  from  the  south-east 
side  of  the  Caspian  along  the  northern  foot  of  the  Kuren-dagh  in  the  direction  of 
the  Tejend  River  and  Herat  was  completed  as  far  as  Kizil-Arvat  in  September,  1881. 
Kizil-Arvat  lies  about  180  miles  from  Mikhailovsk,  the  terminus  on  the  Caspian, 
and  about  the  same  distance  from  Mohamedabad,  in  the  heart  of  the  Dera-goz, 
which  will  probably  form  the  next  stage  on  the  road  to  Herat. 

The  Akhal  Tekke  Couxtrt. 

Beyond  Dera-goz  lies  the  Akhal  Tekke  country,  stretching  along  the  Daman-i- 
koh,  or  "  Skirts  of  the  Hills,"  incorporated  in  the  year  1881  in  the  new  Eussian 
Trans-Caspian  province.  It  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  fertile  land  intervening 
between  the  Kuren-dagh  range  and  the  Turkestan  desert.  Although  not  very 
productive,  it  is  stiU.  far  from  being  the  arid  waste  that  it  has  been  described. 
From  the  northern  slopes  of  the  moimtains  a  considerable  number  of  streams  flow 
down  to  the  plain,  where  they  are  all  absorbed  for  irrigation  pm'poses  before 
reaching  the  sands  of  the  desert.  The  productive  tract  extends  from  Kizil-Arvat 
to  Gawars,  and  the  Russian  railway,  as  abeady  stated,  is  now  completed  from  the 
Caspian  to  Kizil-Arvat. 

For  the  new  capital  of  the  Trans-Caspian  territory  the  Russians  have  chosen 
Bami,  In  the  Akhal  Tekke  country,  and  to  this  point  the  railway  is  to  be  continued 
at  once.  The  district  through  which  it  runs  is  rich  and  productive  enough  to 
support  a  population  estimated  at  25,000  tents,  or  125,000  souls,  besides  a  large 
number  of  horses  of  excellent  breed  and  numerous  flocks  of  sheep.  The  new 
*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  September,  1881. 


484  ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 

province  has  also  anotlier  source  of  wealth  in  the  fisheries  of  sturgeon  and  other 
fish  on  the  Caspian  coast,  which  are  very  productive  and  yield  considerable 
quantities  of  ca-\-iar.  But  a  still  more  valuable  conmiodity  is  petroleum,  of  which 
vast  stores  are  known  to  exist  ia  this  region,  which  belongs  geologically  to  the 
same  formation  as  the  Baku  district,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Caspian.  In  the 
island  of  Cheleken,  near  Mikhailovsk,  are  found,  besides  petroleum,  large  quantities 
of  mineral  wax,  which  is  a  very  valuable  substance. 

To  these  resources  must  be  added  the  industries  of  the  Turkoman  tribes,  of 
which  Colonel  Stewart  speaks  very  highly.  "They  manufacture  carpets  that 
cannot  be  surpassed  or  equalled  in  Persia,  and  are  similar  to  the  ancient  Persian 
carpets,  which  fetch  so  large  a  price,  and  cannot  now  be  made  in  Persia.  They 
have  powder  mills  worked  by  water-power  which  turn  out  very  good  gimpowder, 
and  they  are  clever  in  manufacturing  false  Persian  money,  with  which  they  flood 
the  bazaar  in  Mahomedabad.  Their  felts  and  the  rough  cloths  they  manufacture 
from  sheep's  wool  are  far  superior  to  any  made  in  Persia  ;  and  they  also  make 
a  stuiE  that  looks  somethiag  like  alpaca,  only  thicker,  which  fetches  a  high  price. 
Aniline  dyes,  which  are  ruining  the  Persian  carpets,  have  not  yet  reached  the 
Turkomans,  and  as  the  materials  they  use  are  good,  the  carpets  last  almost  for 
ever.  In  fact,  everything  the  Turkomans  make,  except  their  money,  is  thoroughly 
good." 

This  traveller  estimates  the  strength  of  the  Tekke  and  other  Turkoman  tribes  in 
this  district  and  the  stUl  independent  territory  of  Merv  as  under : — 

Tents. 

"  Akhal  Tekke,  in  Daman-i-kuh,  now  'belonging  to  Bussia      ....        25,000 

Merv  Tekke,  on  Murghab,  and  a  few  on  Tejend  River  .....        40,000 

Salor,  in  Merv  Tekke  oasis 5,000 

Saruk,  at  Yulutan,  and  Panj-Deh  on  the  Murghab  Eiver     ....  6,000 

Total "76^00 

"  The  number  of  inhabitants  per  tent  may  be  taken  at  five.  This  will  give  for 
the  Daman-i-kuh  and  Merv  country  a  population  of  380,000,  and  I  do  not  think 
this  is  an  excessive  estimate." 

Of  these  the  Akhal  Tekke  are  now  Russian  subjects,  and  the  others  are 
expected  soon  to  accept  the  Russian  protectorate. 


THE  RACES  OF  ASIATIC  RUSSIA  GROUPED  ACCORDING  TO  THEIR 
AFFINITIES  AND  RELIGIONS.* 

All  the  peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia  belong  ethnically  to  three  distinct  types — the 
Caucasic,  Mongol,  and  Suh-Arctic.  The  Caucasic,  or  Fair  type,  is  represented  chiefly 
by  the  Russian  Slavs ;  by  the  Armenian,  Kurdish,  and  Persian  Iranians ;  by  the  Jcw'sh 
and  Arab  Semites ;  and  by  the  numerous  tribes  of  the  Caucasus,  who  are  taken  as  the 
typical  members  of  the  family.  The  Mongol,  or  YeUow  type,  is  represented  mainly 
by  the  Tm-koman,  Usbeg,  Kara-Kalpak,  Nogai,  Yakut,  and  Kirghiz  Tatars ;  by  the 
Kalmidv  and  Bm-iat  Mongolians  ;  bj'  the  Soyot,  Ostiak,  and  Samoyede  Finns ;  by 
the  Tmiguses,  Lamuts,  Golds,  and  others  of  Manchu  stock ;  and  by  the  Chinese  and 
Coreans  of  the  Amur  basin.  The  Sub-Ai'ctic  type,  whose  position  and  affinities 
present  many  difficidt  problems,  comprises  provisionally  the  Giliaks,  Koriaks, 
and  a  few  other  nomad  tribes  in  the  extreme  north-east  of  the  continent. 

The  prevailing  religions  are  the  Buddhist,  diversely  modiiied,  professed  chiefly 
by  the  Kahnidis,  Bm-iats,  Chinese,  and  Coreans ;  the  Mohammedan,  adopted  by 
nearly  all  the  Tatar  peoples,  as  well  as  by  the  Kurdish  and  Persian  Iranians ;  Chris- 
tianity, restricted  mainly  to  the  Slavs,  Armenians,  and  Georgians  of  the  Caucasus  ; 
Paganism  and  Shamanism,  stOl  jDractised  by  some  Caucasian  tribes,  by  the  Samoy- 
edes,  Ostiaks,  and  other  nomads  of  Siberia,  and  by  nearly  all  the  Sub-Arctic  peoples. 

Far  more  numerous  are  the  languages,  of  which  there  are  probably  not  less 
than  a  dozen  fimdamentally  distinct  stocks.  But  most  of  these  are  concentrated 
in  the  Caucasus  and  the  extreme  north-east.  The  dialects  elsewhere  current  are 
all  reducible  to  two  great  families — the  Aryan  and  the  Ural-Altaic  or  Finno- 
Tataric.  Of  the  Aryan  four  branches  are  represented  in  Asiatic  Russia — the 
Slavonic,  Iranic,  Galcha,t  and  Teutonic.  Of  the  Ural-Altaic  all  the  four  main 
divisions  are  represented,  as  shown  in  the  subjoined  scheme.  Of  the  other  distinct 
stock  languages  the  principal  are  the  Georgian,  Cherkess,  and  Chechenz  of  the 
Caucasus ;  the  Yukaghir,  Koriak,  and  Aino  of  the  north-eastern  regions,  besides 
the  Semitic  and  Chinese. 

I.— CAUCASIC  RACES. 
CAUCASIANS. 


Kaetveli 
Family 


"West 

Caucasus 


Georgians 
Imeritians 
Mingrelians 
Gurians . 
Lazes 
Svans 
Eachiana 
Khevsurs 
L  Pshavs   . 
Cherkesses 
Abkhasians 
Kabards 


'  Orthodox  and  Latin  Christians 

f 
Sunmtes 

V  Nominal  Christians    .... 

Sunnites 

Sunnites  ...:.... 
Orthodox  Chi-istians  .... 


850,000 


138,000 


*  It  is  right  to  state  that  the  Editor  alone  is  responsible  for  the  subjoined  classifications,  which  depart 
in  some  respects  from  those  generally  adopted  by  the  Author. 

t  The  Galchas,  whom  M.  Ch.  de  Ujfalvy  calls  "  Highland  Tajiks,"  are  commonly  classed  with  the 
Iranians.  But  they  seem  rather  to  hold  an  intermediate  position  between  the  Iranic  and  Indie  branches 
of  the  Aryan  family. 


486 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


East 

Caucasus 

(Daghestan) 


loANUNS 


Slats 


Galchas 


Tectons 


Lesghians 


Checienzea 


Osses  (Iron) 
Armenians  . 
Kurds  . 
Talyshes  . 
Tats  .  .  . 
Tajiks  .  . 
Sartes     .     . 

{Great  Russians 
Little  Russians 
Polrs  .  . 
Maghians  . 
Kslituts 
Falghars  . 
Machas  .  . 
Fans .  .  . 
Yagnobs  . 
,  Karateehins 
Germans     . 


Arabs 
Jews . 


["Avars;  Kurini    .  .n  ^ 

j  Kazi-Kumyksh  .  .  i  AH  Sunnites  except  the  Dido,  said  !     ^,.,  nnn 

■  1  Audi ;  Ude ;  Dido  .r     to  be  "DeTJl-worshippers"     .     .(    517,000 

I  Dargo ;  Duodez  .  .  J  J 


•  Inguish  . 

Galgai.  . 

Kist     .  .     .  f" 

I  Tosh    .  .     J 


I  inguisn     .     .  1  1 

J  Galgai.     .     •  I  Sunnites  mostly I    i65,000 


AETAN'S. 

Kominal  Christians 110,000 

Cliristians,  Gregorian  rite 722,000 

Sunnites 16,000 


Shiahs 


}     120,1 

I  Sunnites  mostly 2  000  i 

1 


000 
,000 


Orthodox  Church 

Orthodox  and  Kcman  Catholic 


Lutherans 


SEMITES. 


Sunnites . 
Judaism  . 


9,000,000 


Sunnites,  Pagans,  and  Fire-worshippers 250,000 


50,000 

? 

30,000 


Mixed 

Tatars 


TURKOMAXS 


n.— MONGOLIO  EACES. 
TURKI  OR  TATAR  FAMILY. 


Kimiuks 
N'ogais  . 
Telents  . 
Bashkirs 


.Kumandes  .     . 
Tatars  of  Siberia 


/  Kara-Nogai 
I  Kalaus-Sabla 
( Kalaiis-Jembuluk 


;i 


Sunnites 


Tangaur 


I  Karagai-Kipchak  J  Sunnites 


(  Bursian 


is 


50,000 
.  [       35,000 

i 


Chaudors 


Ersari  . 
AH-Eli  . 
Kara 


("  Red  "  and  "  Black ' 
r  Abdal ;  Bozagi  . 
J  IgdjT;  Burunjuk 

■  \  Essenlu  ;  Sheikh  . 
I  Kara-Chaudor 


Christians      .     , 
')  Mostly  Christians  . 


750,000 
I      60,000 


UZBEGS 


Salor      . 

Sarik  . 
Tekke  . 
Goklan  . 

Yomud  . 

[•  Kungrad 
Kaiman  . 

'  Kipchak 
Jalair 
Andijani 


1  Yalavaj  .     . 
.  <  Karaman 

(Ana  Bcilegi 

C  Khorasanii . 

J  Biraj  ;  Herzegi 
•  I  Sokhti    .     . 

'  Alasha    . 

(  Akhal ;  Otamish  . 
■  (  MeiT ;  Toktamish 

,Chakir;  BegdUi  . 

j  Kayi ;  Karabalkan 
' )  K^Tvk ;  Bajindir 

t  Gerkez ;  Yandak . 

(  Atabay ;  Yafer     . 

<  Sheref  Juni 

( Ogiirjali      .     .     . 


'  Sunnites 


/ 1,000,000 


;  Sunnites ;  3,000,000 

J 


MONGOLIC  EACES. 


4S7 


Kara- 
Kalpaks 


KlKOHIZ- 

Kasaks 


'  Baj-matle   . 
Khandelki  . 
Terstamgali 
Achamayli . 
Kaychili-Kitai 
Ingakli  . 
Kenedoz 
Tomboyun  . 
Shaku     .     . 
Outonturuk 

Great  Horde  (Ulu 
Yuz)   .     .     . 

Middle         Hord? 
(Urta-Tuz)  .     . 

Little  Horde 

(Kachi-Tuz) 

Inner  Horde    .     . 


;  Sunnitea . 


K.iKA- 
KiKGHIZ 

(Buruts) 


On(" Eight")  Sec- 
tion   .     .     .     . 


Sol  ("Left")  Sec. 
tion     .     . 


E.Turkestan  (^'^^^S'^^^s    . 

gha-naTataks  1  1>'^^°^?    ;  ,  • 
>-  fsarte-Kipchaks 

Yakuts   .     .     . 


J 


Uisiun    .     . 
Tulatai  .     . 
Sargam  .     . 
Arghyne 
Naiman  . 
Kipchak 
Uvak-Ghirei 
Alimiily 
Baiuly    .     . 
Jetir-XJnig 
Bukeyevskaya 
Bogu ;  Sultu 
Son  Bagish 
Sary  Bagish 
Cherik;  Jadigar 
Sayak ;   Timgatar 
Bassuiz  . 
Monandyr 
Adygina 
Kokcha  . 
Soru  .     . 
Mundus . 
Kitai.     . 


300,000 


450,000 


Nominal   Sunnites,   with   Shaman 
Pagan  observances 


,] 


and  11,100,000 


i  Sunnites  and  Shamans 


1,000,000 
200,000 


>    400,000 


;  Sunnites 


.1, 


Kalmuks 


BtTRIATS 

(East  branch) 


BrEIATS 

(Westbranch) 


TnNOusES 


Samotedes 


Dolgans 


Zungars 

Torguts . 

Ivhoshods 

Turbets  . 

Chorasses 

Teletzes . 

Kudara  . 

Selengha 

Khorinsk 
I  Barguzin 
I  Tunka    . 

Yerkho-Lensk 

Olkhon  . 

Kuda ;  Ida 
I  Balagansk  . 
I  Alarsk    .     , 

rLamuts  .     . 

Oroches .     . 

Golds      .     . 

Chapoghirs 

Manegrs 

Mangims     . 

Samagirs     . 

Ngatkons    , 

Nigidals ;  Negda 
,  Tazi ;  Olenes  . 

'Chfldes  (extinct) 

Yuraks  .     , 

Tagurs  .     . 

Abators .     . 

Koibals .     . 

Soyots    .     . 

Motors  .     . 

Karagasses 

Kamasses  . 
vTagris  .     . 


Nominal  Christians 
Shamans  .... 


MONGOLIAN  FAMILY. 

\  Buddhists  and  Shamanists  . 


00,000 

200,000 
1,000 


>      20,000 


Shamans,  Buddhists,  and  Christians  . 


i    250,000 


MANCHU  FAMILr. 


l  Shamans  and  Nominal  Christians 


FINNISH  FAMILY. 


Shamans  and  Nominal  Christians 


i      80,000 


/      20,000 


488 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Darkhats     . 

Soyons  .  . 
)  Assan     .     . 

Arinzi  .  . 
(  Kottish  .     . 

Mixed 

I'lNNO- 

Tatars 

t'r.RIAN 

(  Ostiaks  .      . 

Finns 

Voguls  .     . 

. 

>  Buddhists |  13,000 

Shamans (  5,000 

Shamans 2.5,000 

Nominal  Christians 20,000 


KORIAKS 


Of  douhtful 
Affinities 


SUKDRTES 


( Koriaks  proper 
\  Chukchis    .     . 

IChuvantzes 
Yukaghirs  .  . 
Kamchadales  . 
Onkilon,  or  Ankali 
GiUaks  .  .  . 
Ainos  .  .  . 
Chuklukmu 

Eskimos  .  . 
Chinese  .  . 
Coreans . 
Manchurians  . 
Japanese  .  . 
Europeans  .  . 
Hindus  .  .  . 
Gipsies  .     .     . 


m.— SUB-AECTIC  EACES. 

UKCLASSIFIED. 

Shamans 5,000 

Pagans  and  Nominal  Christians 12,000 

I  „,                                                                                               f  Extinct 

j  onamans ■»  ,  /-qq 

Nominal  Christians         3,000 

Pagans     — 

Pagans 6,000 

Pagans 2,500 

I  Pagans |  500 

1                                                                        r  10,000 

Buddhists h''" 

I         _    _                                                                        ■                     [  400 

Christians — 

Brahmans  and  Sunnit'  s — 

Pagans    — 


APPENDIX. 


STATISTICAL    TABLES. 


CAUCASIA. 


Provinces. 


Difitricts,  Ciiclea,  and  Captaincies. 


Area  in 
Square  Miles. 


Population. 


I. — GOVERXMENT  OF  ST.iVEOP0L  . 


II.— Province  of  the  Tekek 


III. — Protin'CE  of  Kuban 


rV. — CracLE  OP  THE  Black  Sea 
V. — Division  of  Sckuni    .    .    . 


North,  or  Ciscaucasia. 

District  of  Stavropol 

„  Alexandrovskaya 

„  Kovo-Grigoryevskiy     . 

„  Medviejlnskiy      .     . 

Detached  town  of  Sviatoi-Krest     . 

Territory  of  the  Nomad  Kahnuks . 

Territory  of  the   Turkomans   and 
others    

Total 

Circle  of  Vladikavkaz      .... 

Argun 

Vedeno 

Khasav-Yurt     .... 

Kizlar 

Grozniy    

Patigorsk 

Town  of  Mozdok 

„       Georgyevsk 

Total 


f  District  of  Tekaterinodar 

,,  Yeisk 

„  Temruk       .     . 

„  Zakubanskiy  . 

„  Maikop  .     .     . 

„  Batalpashinsk 

„  Kavkazskaya  . 


Total 
Ciscaucasia 


South,  or  Transcaucasia. 


4,535 
7,015 
7,42i 
4,320 

3,174 
14,602 


41,070 

6,487 
1,687 
869 
3,336 
4,030 
6,373 
13,739 


35,521 

7,095 
7,400 
6,440 
5,204 
10,603 
10,335 
9,570 


56,647 
133,238 

3,172 
4,390 


92,619 

83,333 

99,301 

106,433 

3,785 

88,505 

473,976 

137,027 

22,620 

22,002 

65,760 

24,972 

120,695 

136.280 

8,b79 

3,345 

530,980 

171,731 
121,064 
100,034 
38,293 
147,408 
127,462 
137,315 

843,307 

1,848,263 


15,735 
74,442 


490 


APPENDIX. 


CAncAsiA — continued. 


Provinces. 


Districts,  Circles,  and  Captaincies, 


yi. — Government  of  Kvtais  — 

(Imeria,  MingjeUa,  iSTania, 
Eacha,  Lechgum,  Guria, 
Samurzakan) 


VII. — Government  of  Tiflis— 

(Karthalia,  Kakhctia,  Ossetia, 
Sukhet,  Meskliia)     .     .     . 


Till. — Circle  of  Zaxatalia 


IX. — Government  of  Eiuvan  . 


X.— Government  of  Yelizavetpol 


XI. — Government  of  Baku- 
(Shirvan,  iScc.)    .     . 


XU. — Daghestan 


XIII. — Province  of  BatCm. 
XIV. — Province  of  Kars  . 


1^ 


( District  of  Kutaia 

„         Ozurgeti 

„  Sharopan    

„  Eacha 

„         Zugdidi     and    Eedout- 

kaleh 

„  Senaki 

„         Lechgum  and  Svania    . 
Town  of  Poti 

Total 

District  of  Tiflis 

Signakh      

Telav 

Tioneti  .  .     .     .     . 

Gori 

Dushet 

Akhaltzik 

Akhalkalaki    .     .     .     . 


Total 


^District  ofErivan 

„         Nakhichevan  . 
„  Alcxandrapol  .     .     . 

„  Novo-Bayazid 

„  Echmiadzin 

„  Surmalin    .     .     .     . 

„  Sharruro-Daralagoz 

Detached  town  of  Ordubat  .     . 

Total      ........ 

District  ofTelizavetpol    .    ■ .     . 

„         Nukha 

„  Areshki      .     .     .     . 

„         Shusha 

„  Jevanshir   .     .     .     . 

„  Jehrail 

„  Zangezur    .     .     .     . 

„         Kazakh 


Total      .     .     . 
District  of  Baku 

„  Shemakha 


,,         Kuba 

,,  Lenkoran 

„  Jevat  and  Salyan 

„  Gbk-chai 

^Islands 

Total 

Transcaucasia  (without  Kars  and 
Batum) 

l'  Town  and  Captaincy  of  Derbend  . 
Circle  of  Temir-Khan-Shura     .     . 

,,        Gunib 

„       Kazi-Kumukh   .... 

„        Andi 

„        Avaria 

District  of  Kaitago-Tahasai-an  .     . 

„  Cargo 

„  Kurinskiy 

.,  Samur 

Town  and  Port  of  Petrovsk  .     .     . 

Total 

(  District  of  Batum "] 

\  „  Artvin | 

(  „  Ajara S 

f  „  Childir | 

I         „         Ears J 

Total  op  Caucasu  .... 


Area  in 
Sqxiare  Aliles. 


2,02.3 
1,317 
1,830 
3,170 

1,758 
1,008 
1,387 


12,493 

6,538 
3,730 
1,468 
2,922 
3,908 
2,360 
1,614 
1.681 


24,281 

2,388 

1,870 
2,608 
2,309 
3,694 
2,200 
2,150 
1,800 


16,691 

5,734 
2,242 
1,927 
3,036 
2,665 
1,876 
4,536 
4,160 


26,176 

2,362 
4,670 
4,302 
3,230 
6,717 
2,105 
24 


23,410 
110,613 


17,148 


176,953         5,826,506 


Population. 


141  933 
54,191 

109,685 
50,641 

89,296 

86,759 

35,160 

3,026 


570,691 

221,042 
81,328 
52,412 
32,404 

124,829 
57,558 
43,377 
49,909 


662,859 

68,839 

95,163 
66,776 
109,690 
76,651 
84,303 
59,230 
52,955 
3,525 


548,293 

98,587 
94,336 
38,776 
105,465 
49,005 
41,329 
88,685 
77,601 


593,784 

59,154 
99,986 
148,258 
97,244 
73,691 
61,050 


639,383 
307,342 


165 

16,552 

3,658 

68,110 

2,224 

47,916 

1,242 

36,056 

2,085 

41,108 

912 

38,910 

1,754 

42,768 

988 

65,450 

1,920 

60,482 

2,200 

59,819 

— 

3,883 

481,414 


15,954     184,300 


APPENDIX. 


491 


CavcasiA — continued. 
Towxs  IN  THE  KuRA  Basd.'  axd  Easterm  TRANSOArcAsiA  -vnTU  OVER  5,000  Inhabitants  in  1874. 


Ardahan 

jRecent  Conquests. 

Tiflis     - 
Akhaltzik 
Sionakh 
Telav     . 
Gori       . 

Government  of  Tifis. 

Government  of  Bahu. 

Baku     . 

5,000 

104,750 

13,250 

9,250 

7,025 

5,000 

14,575 


Salyani  ...... 

Mashtagi       .        .        ,         .        . 

Governmetit  of  Yelisavetpol. 

Shusha 

Nukha 

YeKzavetpol  ..... 


Tali       . 
Belokani 


Circle  of  Zalcatali. 


9,050 
5,075 


24,550 
20,900 
18,500 


6,950 
6,550 


Towns  of  the  Kcsla.  and  Terek  Basins  with  o\t:r  5,000  IsiiAniTAN'TS. 


Government  of  Stavropol. 

Terrifonj  of  the  Terek. 

Pati^orsk  (1875)      .... 

13,650 

Vladikavkaz  (1875) 

.       20,000 

PraskoTcva 

8,000 

Kizlar(1876) 

9,175 

Alexandrovskavn     .... 

7,400 

Grozniy  .         .         . 

8,4.50 

Blagodamoie 

6,050 

Mozdok 

8,380 

Otkaznoie 

5,150 

XJrus-lIartan 

6,900 

Ak-sai 

5,000 

Towns  and  Villages  of  Eastern  Caucasia  -with  over  4,000  iNHABrrAKTS  in  1875. 
Daqhestnn. 


Derbend 
Gubden  . 
Akhti^  . 
Kazanish 


13,775 

6,500 
5,650 
4,400 


Tarki      . 
Tpmir-KTinn.STnira. 


Kuba 
Ki'iz 


Government  of  Baku. 


4,100 
5,100 

11,300 
4,800 


Towns  of  the  Araxis  Basin  ■with  a  Population  op  over  5,000  Inhabitants. 


Kara 

KagHzman  . 
Alexandrapol 
Erivan  . 


10,000 

6,000 

20,450 

12,500 


Erivan  and  suburbs 
Nakhichevan 
Novo-Bayazid 
Ordubat 


12,500 
6,900 
5,350 
3,500 


Towns,  St-ujitzas,  and  Villages  op  Western  Caucasia  with  over  5,000  Inhabitants  in  1874. 


Province  of  the  Kuban 


Tekaterinodar 
Yeisk 
JIaikop    . 
Temriik  . 

Novo-Petrovskaya  . 
Pashkovskaya 
Novo-Michastovskaya 
Staro-Minskaya 
Ladovskaya     . 
Novo-Troitzkaya     . 
Petrovskaya    . 
Ivanovskaya    . 
Staro-Shcherbinovskaya 
Umanskaya 
TJspenskaya     . 
Temirgoyevskaya    . 
Ilyinskaya 
Batalpashinskaya    . 


32,500 
28,500 
22,550 
11,150 
7,000 
6,600 
6,550 
6,250 
6,175 
6,150 
6,050 
5,950 
6,900 
5,650 
5,600 
5,420 
5,400 
5,320 


Grigoropolisskaya   . 

5,300 

Bekeshevskaya 5,100 

Circle  of  the  BInck  Sea. 

Anapa 5,200 

Government  of  Stavropol. 

Stavropol         .        .         .        .        .         .      29,600 

Belaglina 

11,220 

Bezopazno'ie     . 

6,850 

Krasnapolana  . 

6,500 

Ladovskava  Balka  . 

6,200 

Novo-Dmitrevskoie 

5,800 

Donsko'ie 

5,775 

Novo-Georgvevsko'ie 

6,600 

Sredne-Yegorliksko'ie 

5,450 

Kugulta  . 

5,400 

PeschanookopskoVe  . 

6,300 

Sandata  . 

5,200 

Medvejie 

5,150 

492 


APPENDIX. 


TUEKESTAX. 

Pbovixces   ajjd   DisTBicra   op   Russian  Turkestax,  inclcdino   the  Traxs-Caspian    District,    the 
Territory  of  Tralsk  east  of  the  Ural,  and   the  Northern   Districts  of  Central  Asia, 

NOW   ADMrSISTEBED    BT    THE    GoTERSOE-GeXERAL. 


Provinces. 


DifitrictB. 


Area. 
So.  Sliles. 


Protince  of  Sir-dama  (1870) 


f  City  of  Tashkend   . 

I  District  of  Kurama 

„  Auli-ata 


Chimkent   .     .     . 
TurkeBtan  .     . 
Perovsk 
Kazalinsk  . 
Khojend  and  Jizak 


Total 


Ciecle  of  the  Amc-daeia 


CiECLE  OP  Zakapshax  (1871) 


r  District  of  Penjakent  .     . 
<  „  Katti-kurgan . 


Samarkand 


Total 


Protixce  of  Fehghaka 


Peovikce  of  Semieechissk  (1869) 


r  District  of  Sergiopol 
I  „         Kopal    . 

>(  ,,  Vemiy  . 

I  „  Tok-mak 

L         „         Issik-kul 
Total      .     .     . 


KcLJA  . 


Teans-Casplan  Teeritoey  (1S77) 


Peovince  of  Uealsk,  east   op  the 
Ukai  Eiver 


Province   op    Turgai  (exclusive  of 
the  Nikolayevsk  District)     .     .     . 


Province  of  Akmolinsk    . 


■:.  :  ;1 


Bailiwick  of  Turkomans  . 

„  Mangishlak 

„  Busachi    .     .     .     .    y 

„  Tuk-Earagan   .     .    | 

District  of  Krasnovodsk  ...  J 

New     Akhal     Tekke      District   \ 

(_     (Daman-i-koh),  18S1     .     .     .   j 

Total 


rPart  of  the  District  of  Tralsk  . 
J  „  ,,  Gurzev   . 

1  ,,  ,,  Kahnikov 

(^District  of  Emhinsk     .... 

Total 


{District  of  Turgai 
,,  Iletzk 

„  Irghi^ 

Total      .     . 


District  of  Sari-Suisk  , 


17,760 

27,480 
24,730 
32,320 
43,750 
25,480 
10,470 


181,990 

41,400 

5,680 
1,990 
2,170 


9,840 

34,300 

31,630 
43,550 
30,350 
34,090 
17,230 


156,850 
26,000 

130,820 

15,000  :- 


145,820 

19,7201 
20,540  ! 
23,710  f 
55,510j 


119,480 

64,6.30 1 
23,650  )■ 
62,420  J 


150,700 
92,400 


Grand  Total I     943,780 


Population, 

186»— 77. 


76,053 
195,685 
103,835 
176,205 
115,832 
100,090 

61,790 
122,190 


951,700 

107,200 

70,760 

95,465 

121,725 

287,950 

729,690 

100,9.52 
106,474 
160,631 
128,000 
43,443 


539,500 
139,680 

4,000 
10,000 
16,780 

1,500 
107,400 

250,000 
389,680 


275,000  ? 


200,000  ? 


150.000  ? 


3,529,400 


Population    of    the    Chief   Towns 


Frovince  of  Sir-daria 

Tashkend  (1874)      . 
„         (1880)        . 
Khojend  (1879) 
Ura-tepe  and  suburbs 
Jizak 
Pangaa     . 
Turkestan  (Tasi) 
CHmkent 
Pskent     . 
Ash. 
Perovsk   . 


in    Russian    Tukkestan    exclusive   op   Ferghana  and    the 
Sajiaekand  District. 

Auli-ata 3,300 

Kazalinsk         .....  2,950 

province  of  Amu-daria. 

Chimbai  (in  summer)       .        .         .  700 

Semirechinsk. 

Vemiy  (1879) 14,850 

Sepsinsk 3,000 

Kopal 2,700 

Karakol 2,275 


86,250 

100,000 

29,000 

15,000 

7,000 

6,000 

6,500 

5,400 

6,000 

5,000 

3,400 


Kulja. 
Old  Kulja  and  suburbs    . 
Suidum   .... 


1.5,000 
4,000 


APPENDIX. 


498 


Turk  est  ax — cent  m  md. 
AGEirri,Trit.iL  Domalv  ot  Kussian  Tukkestan  in  Agues. 


Provinces. 
Semirechiiisk 
Sir-daria 
Ferghana 
Zarafshan 
Amu-daria 


Provinces. 

Semirechinsk 

■Sir-d:iria 

Zarafshan 

Ferghiina 

Amu-daria 


Total 


Under  Cultivation. 

Pustare. 

Desert  and  Waste. 

Total. 

2,3.Dti,000 

OU.OUd.OOO 

60,000,000 

102,356,000 

984,000 

50,000,000 

6S,512,(>00 

119,496,000 

1,6.50,000 

S,2.J0,000 

8,52.5,000 

18,42.5,000 

026,000 

3,625,000 

2,497,000 

0,784,000 

126,000 

3,625,000 

19,949,000 

23,690,000 

Lite  Stock  op  Rissux  Tirkestan. 

Camels. 

Uorses. 

Cattle. 

Sheep. 

97,412 

892,007 

523,200 

6,296,000 

242,130 

395,56;i 

29  i,550 

3,183,000 

1,248 

51,991 

84,463 

2S:j.OOO 

38,294 

213.760 

220,717 

1,260.000 

11,267 

48,000 

38,070 

329,000 

390,351 

1,601,311 

1,160,000 

11,351,000 

"Wakhan 

Badakshaa 
Kunduz 
Balkh  . 
Aadkhoi 


PopcL.\Tiox  OF  Afghan  Tubkestax,  according  to  GaoTiKov. 


3,000 

158,000 

400,000 

64,000 

60,000 


Shibirkhan 

Ak-eha 

Saripul 

Maimene 

Gurzivan 

Darzab 

Total 


270,000 

5,000 
960,000 


Khita. 


Oasis     . 
Steppes,  &c. 

Tota 


Area  in 

Sqxiare  Allies. 

Popnlation 

5,400 

300,000 

17,700 

400,000 

23,100 


700,000 


Chief  Towxs  of  the  Province  of  Ferghana,  with  their  estimated  Populations  in  1876-7. 


Kokan    . 

Kamangan 

MarghUan 

Andijan 

Osh 

Kavikat  . 

Hassan  . 


60,000 
50,000 
40,000 
20,000 
20,000 
15,000 
10,000 


Chust  (Tus) 
TJzghent  . 
Assakeh  . 
Sharikhan 
Balikchi  . 
Isfara 
VadU 


7,500 
6,000 
5,000 
5,000 
6,000 
5,000 
3,000 


Tashkend 
Sam.arkand 
Khojend 
TJra-tepe 
Jizak    . 


Schools  in  Tiiekestan  (1879). 

Schools. 

118 

80 

20 

13 

7 


Pupils. 

2,360 

1,600 

400 

280 

140 


SIBEEIA. 


Provinces. 


Asiatic  Slope  of  the  Government 
of  Perm  :  5  Districts      .... 


Asiatic  portion  of  the  Gtovesnment 
of  Orenburg  :  4  Districts   .     .     . 


VOL.    VI. 


Districts,  Circles,  and  Captaincies. 

Districts  attributed  to  Europe. 
f  Terkho-Turie 

Yekaterinburg 

!  Irbit 

j  Kamishlov 

Shadrinsk 

l-     Total 

rTroitzk 

Chelabinsk 

^  Orsk 

I  Verkhnye-Uralsk 

l-     Total 

K    K 


7,410 
15,620 
17,580 
21,4.50 


62,060 


Population  in 
1870—77. 


189,515 
318,317 
122,135 
214,797 
260.597 

1,105,361 

103,.363 
277.561 
113,302 
132,834 


627,120 


494 


APPENDIX. 


SiBEEIA — continued. 


ProvinceB. 


Districts,  Circles,  and  Captaincies. 


Government  op  Torgai    . 


Government  of  Akmolinsk  : 
4  Districts 


Central  Asia  {Ob  Baxin) 
Nikolayevsk 


C  Akmolinsk  . 
I  Kokohetar  . 
^  Omsk  .  .  . 
I  Petropavlovsk 

L     Total     .     . 


Government  op  Semipalatinsk  : 


/  Semipalatinsk 
I  Karkaralinsk 


4  Districts )  Kokbekti . 

Pavlodar  . 


West  Siberia. 


'Tobolsk    . 
Beryozov  \ 
Surgut      1 
Ishim  . 
Kurgan 


Government  op  Tobolsk  .  10  Circles 

(Oh-ugi) <(  Tukalinsk  (Omsk)  , 

Tara 


Turinsk    . 

Tumen 

Yalutorovsk 

Total     .     , 


Goverkment  op  Tomsk  :  6  Circles 


Tomsk      . 
Barnaul    . 
Biisk    .     . 
^  Kainsk 
Kuznetzk 
Mariinsk   . 


L 


Total 


Government  op  Yeniseisk  :  6  Circles 


East  Siberia. 
r  Krasnoyarsk      .     .     . 
Yeniseisk       .... 

Kansk 

Achinsk 

Minusinsk      .... 
Turukhansk  .... 

Total 


Government  op  Irkutsk  :  5  Circles  < 


f  Irkutsk     . 
Balagansk 
Nijnc-Udinsk 
Verkho-Lensk 
Kirensk    .     . 

Total     .     . 


r 


Yakutsk 


Province  op  Yakutsk  :  5  Circles 


Olokminsk     . 
Vilui    .     .     . 
Verkho-Yansk 
I  Kolima 

I.    Total    .     . 


ProvinceopTransbaikaiia;  6  Circles  < 


I. 


Chita 

Nyerchinsk   .     .     .  ' 
Nyerchinskiy-Zavod 
Verkhnye-Udinsk   . 
Selenginsk     .     .     . 
Barguzin  .... 

Total     .... 


Province  or  the  Amur 


Area  in  Square 
MUes. 


33,990 

50,300 
28,990 
18,680 
27,740 


159,700 

29,000 
80,000 
39,000 
46,000 


194,000 

48,530 

404,250 

16,450 

9,3G0 

26,530 

32,030 

34,780 

7,760 

8,970 


588,660 

119,500 
61,210 
74,950 
30,580 
39,170 
29,540 


344,950 


8,190 

181,630 

33,220 

23,290 

42,560 

739,650 


1,028,540 

31,940 
17,470 
48,610 
37,230 
187,040 


322,290 

346,750 
144,660 
435,150 
321,966 
304,910 


1,553,430 

11,430 
10,630 
14,420 
16,580 
15,560 
17,180 


85,800 
112,840 


Population  in 
1870—77. 


90,000  ? 


232,000  ? 


510,000  ? 

110,268 

23,763 

7,348 

200,049 

196,889 

119,064 

113,479 

55,463 

94,389 

166,136 


1,086,848 

175,820 
185,912 
187,127 
106,067 
113,933 
69,907 


838,756 


84,473 

59,197 

64,588 

70,810 

110,288 

7,427 


396,783 

116,598 

108,341 

41,784 

55,851 

36,055 


358,629 

140,435 

13,817 

61,212 

31,802 

6,811 


236,067 

72,981 
28,841 
130,372 
109,026 
70,144 
19,416 


430,780 


28,589 


APPENDIX. 


495 


SiBEKTA — continued. 


Provinces. 


Districts,  Circles,  and  Captaincies. 


IIaeitlme  PnovrsxE  :  6  Circles 


Nikolayevsk . 
Sofiisk  .  . 
Petropavlovsk 
Okhotsk  .  . 
Gijiginsk  .  . 
Ud.     .     .     . 


rUauri 

Suifiin 

Terkitoky  of  the  XTscri  :  5  Circles  \  Khanka 

Avvakumov 

l^Suchan 

Total  (Maritime  Prov.  and  Usuri) 


Approximate  PoprLATiox  of  Siberia,  accoedixg  to  Eaces  (1S80). 


Finnish 
Stock 


Jlongol 
Stock 


Vogvds 

Samoyedes 

Ostiaks    . 

Soyots     . 

Tunguses 

Buriats   . 

Kalmuks 

Chinese  and  Manchus 

Coreans  . 

Yukaghirs 


4,500 
2.5,000 
25,000 

8,000 

25,000 

250,000 

20,000 

10,000 

3,000 

1,600 


Turki 

Stock 


Sundries 


Slavs 


50,510 


1  Yakuts 

200,000 

I  Dolgana 
(  Tatars 

500 

80,000 

rChukchia     . 
Koriaks 

12,000 

5,000 

]  Kamchadales 
1  Giliaks 

3,000 

5,000 

1  Aiiios  . 
[  Gipsies 

3,000 

5,000 

4,500,000 

Yield  of  the  Altai  Mixes  from  1745  to  1860. 
3,568,750  Ihs.,  valued  at  £10,000,000. 


PRODrcT  of  the  Altai  Mixes  ix  1876, 

Silver  . 
Gold  . 
Copper 

Kickel  . 

Pig  and  Cast  Iron 


Total  Value 


25,250  Ihs. 
2,665    „ 
1,380,000    „ 

64,050  „ 
1,730,750  „ 
2,000,000  roubles. 


Bamaill   . 
Biisk 

Zme'inogorsk    . 

Suzunskiy-zavod 

Loktevskia-zavod 


Chief  Tottxs  in  the  Altai  Districts  (1873). 
Pop. 

13,525  Zirvanovsk 

6,350  Kuinetzk 

6,000  Salair 

6,400  Eiddersk 
5,000 


Pop. 

4,500 
3,250 
3,000 
2,500 


Area  and  Populatiox  of  the  Ob  Basdi 

Government  of  Tobolsk 

„  Tomsk ........ 

„  Semipalatinsk       ...... 

Asiatic  portion  of  the  Perm  and  Orenburg  Governments 
Portion  of  the  Oh  Basin  in  the  Turgai  and  Akmohnsk  Govmts. 
District  of  Achinsk,  G  ovemment  of  Yeniseisk 
Basin  of  the  Black  Irtish  in  Mongolia  ..... 

Total 1,495,560 


•eain  Sq.  Miles. 

Pop. 1873. 

551,100 

1,US8,850 

340,870 

838,750 

195,000 

510,160 

60,900 

1,350,000 

274,400 

321,830 

23,290 

70,810 

40,000? 

100,000? 

4,280,400 


ToTVxs  n.'  the  Yenesei-Angara  Basin. 


Yenisei. 


Pop. 

Krasnoyarsk  (1873) . 

.       14,150 

Yeniseisk            „     . 

7,180 

Minusinsk           „     . 

4,440 

Kansk                  ,, 

2,270 

Turukhansk       „     . 

216 

Angara. 


i-^    (  Kiakhta  and  suburbs  (1873) . 
1^    I  Verkhnye-Udinsk  „ 

t^J    (  Xovo-Selenginsk  „ 

•gi-a  (Irkutsk  (1875)       . 

jgi^  iXijne-ITdinsk  (1875)     . 


Pop. 
9,050 
3,475 
1,050 
32.520 
3,320 


496 


APPENDIX. 


SiBESiA — continued. 
Towns  rx  thb  Basins  of  Lena  axu  Eastern  Kivers. 
Poi). 

Yakutsk  (1S73) 4,830    j   Olobninsk  (1873) 

A"erkho-Lensk  (1873) ....         970       A'iluisk  „ 

Kirensk                  ,,     .         .         .         .         820       Verkho-Yansk  „ 
Sredne-Kolimsk    , 590    |  Kijne-KoUmsk  (1873) 


Pop. 
600 
390 
330 
200 


Kyerchinsk  (1873) 

NverchiQskiy-Zavod  „ 
Chita  „ 

Blagovyeshchensk     „ 
Kikolayevsk  „ 

KhabarOTka  „ 


Towns  in  the  Amur  Basdj  and  on  the  East  Coast  of  Siberia. 
Amur  Basin.  Maritime  District. 

(1873) 


Pop. 
3,700 
2,100 
2,750 
3,900 
5,300 
770 


Okhotsk 
Ay  an 
Gijiirinsk      „ 
Vladivostok  (1879) 


Pop. 

210 

200 

200 

8,850 


Giliaks 

Ainos 

Oroches 


Population  of  Sakhalin. 


2,000 

2,500 

400 


Japanese  . 
Chinese  . 
Hussians  . 


400 

700 

5,000 


Population  of  Siberia  at  various  Epochs,  exclusive  of  the  Asiatic  Slopes  of  the  Urals. 


1796 
1816 
1869 


1,193,145 
1,540,424 
3,327,627 


1870—73    . 

1880  .         .         .         . 

1880,  with  the  Trals 


3,340,362 
3,900.000? 
5,200,000  ? 


Public  Instruction  in  Siberia,  exclusfve  of  the  Eastern  Slopes  op  the  Ur.4ls. 

Elementary  Schools,  1876 :— 600.    Attendance,  16,200,  of  whom  14,000  hoys,  2,200  girls. 

Higher  Schools,  96.    Attendance,  3,800. 


INDEX. 


Abakan  River,  354 

Steppe,  334,  356 
Abakansk,  356,  362 
Abkhasians,  57 
Ablaikit  River,  349 
Abraii,  Lake,  39 
AbiU,  MouBt,  101,  102,  130 
Abuskim,  271 
Achinsk,  351 
Adai-kokh,  Mount,  42,  G4 
Adigheh,  55 
Adish,  Mount,  64 
Adler  Fort,  61 
Administration  of  the  Caucasus  150 

Turkestan,  287 

Siberia,  472 
Afghan  Turkestan,  237 
Afontova  Mountains,  362 
Aghish-tau,  Mount,  36 
Agrakhan  Bay,  79 
Agri-dagh,  133 
Agvania,  126 
Aibughir  Gulf,  209 
Aiger-gol,  Lake,  136 
Aigun,  380,  443 
Ainos,  455 
Airi-chai  River,  40 
Airivansk,  147 
Aiya,  358 
Ajara  Mountains,  90 

River,  95 
Ak-bara  River,  276 
Ak-baital  River,  171 
Ak-bash,  Mount,  185 
Ak-bulak,  246 
Ak-cha,  248 
Ak-donghiz,  Lake,  191 
Akera  River,  138 
Akhal-atok,  214,  252 
Akhalkalak-i,  101,  121 
Akhal  Tekke,  478,  483 
Akhaltzik,  121,  154 
Ak-hissar,  121 
Akhtari  Liman,  52 
Akhti,  88 
Akiska,  121 
Ak-kend,  285 
Ak-kum,  193,  194 
Ak-kurgan,  286 
Ak-meched,  283 
Ak-Mejid,  164 
Akmolinsk,  349 

VOL.  VT. 


Ak-robat,  246 

Ak-sai,  78 

Plateau,  185 
Ak-serai  River,  244,  247 
Ak-shiirak,  186,  199 
Ak-si,  276 
Ak-su,  202 

River,  193,  202 
Ak-tash,  253,  254 
Ak-tiiu,  202 
Ak-tepe,  271 
Aktogoi  River,  182 
Ak-tubeh,  331 
Akulisi,  149 
Akusha,  85 

Ala-denghiz,  Lake,  191 
Ala-goz,  Mount,  41,  45,  130,  135 
Alai  Mountains,  168,  171 
Alai-tagh  Mountains,  175,  202 
Ala-kul,  Lake,  190 
Alakhiin-dagh,  78,  79 
Alapayevsk,  347 
Alapolarim,  137-8 
Alaska,  7 
Alat,  Cape,  109 
Ala-tau  Mountains,  182,  183 

Kungei  Mountains,  183,  184 

Terskei  Mountains,  184 
Alazan  River,  78,  102 
Albania,  126 
Albazin,  443 
.Aldan  Mountains,  420 

River,  386,  420 
Alet  Pass,  191 
Aleutian  Islands,  401 
Alexander  Mountains,  176,  184 
Alexandrapol,  146 
Alexandrovsk,  269 
Alexandrovskaya,  75 
Alhom,  271 
Alibert,  Mount,  469 
Alim-tu,  285 
Allaho-Akhbar,  482 
Almati,  Mount,  188 

Town,  284 
Altai  Mountains,  319 

Great,  322 

Little,  322 
Altaiskaya,  329 
Altin-imel  Pass,  188 
Altin-tau  Mountains,  322 
America  Bay,  446 

L   L 


Amga  River,  388 
Amgun  River,  428 
Amu-daria  River,  202 
Amur  Gulf,  432 

River,  422 
Anabara  River,  305,  382 
Anadir  Gulf,  399 

River,  401 
Anadirsk,  402 
Anapa,  54,  61 
Andaman  Islands,  19 
Andi  Slountains,  79 
Andijan,  276 
Andkhoi,  248,  249 
Angara  IJasin,  364 

River,  352,  370,  373 
Ani,  146 
Aniva  Bay,  454 
Ankali,  410 

Anti-Caucasus  Mountains,  34 
Apsheron  Peninsula,  97,  106 
Arabs,  220 
Aragova  River,  102 
Ai-al  Sea,  208 
Aralo-Caspian  Basin,  193 
Ararat,  Mount,  130,  132 
Aravan,  276 

Araxis  River,  100,  104,  139 
Ardahan,  120,  140 
Ardaniij,  100 
Ardimet-Kaghak,  147 
Ar-don  River,  64,  68 
Argun  River,  419,  423 
Arguri,  134 
Arjevan,  Mount,  102 
Arkat  Mountain,  190,  191 
Armavir,  147 
Armenia,  140 

Russian,  130 
Armenians,  140 
Arpa-chai  River.  140 
Arsiani  Mountains,  91 
Artomonova,  348 
Artaxates,  148 
Artvin,  100 
Aryans,  20 
Ashur-adeh,  271 
Asia  Station,  346 
Assakeh,  276 
Astara,  130 
Astrabad,  215 
Ast-urt,  216 


198 


INDEX. 


Atbasar,  349 
Atesh-gah,  109 
Atok,  214 
Atrek  River,  214 
AuU-ata,  283 
Avacha  Bay,  400,  414 

MouDt,  401 
A%-ars,  23 

Ava-guz  Riyer,  193 
Ayan,  442 

Baba-dagh,  78 
Badakshan,  240 

River,  243 

Town,  243 
Badakhshani,  240 
Bagarash-kul,  179 
Bagdad  Fort,  96 
Baikal,  Lake,  368 
Baikimd,  260 
Baisun,  255 
Bakhta  River,  364 
Baksu  River,  68 
Baktriana,  166,  237 
Baku,  129 
Balagansk,  381 
Balakhan,  109,  111 
Balakhna  River,  382 
Balkan  Gulf,  207 
Balkans,  3,  214 
Baikh,  247 

River,  248 
Balkhash,  Lake,  191 
Baluchistan,  2 
Bami,  252,  483 
Bamian,  245 
Bannar,  Mount,  189 
Baraba  Steppe,  332 
Barda,  126 

Barguzin  River,  370,  373 
Barkul,  178 

Mountains,  179 
Barluk  Mountains,  182,  189 
Barnaul,  327 
Bamaulka  River,  334 
Barskaun  Pass,  186,  188 
Bash-Alai,  175 
Bash-Kami,  147 
Bashkirs,  339 
Baskan  River,  193 
Batalpashinskaya,  64 
Batum,  99 
Bayandai,  285 
Bazardiiiz,  Mount,  78 
Bear  Island,  389 
Besh-tau,  Mount,  65 
Bei-kem  River,  352 
Bek-pak-dala  Steppe,  194 
Belaya  River,  40 
Beliy-KMch,  124 
Bend-i-barbari  River,  248 
Berda,  150 

Beresovsldy-zavod,  348 
Bergushet  River,  138 
Bering  Island,  408 

Peninsula,  399 

Sea,  402 

Strait,  402 
Berozov,  348,  351 
Beryozov,  348 
Beryozovka  River,  328 
Besh-tau,  65 
Bielo-Udovskiy,  349 
Bielukha,  Mount,  322 
Biisk,  329 
Bingol-dagh,  1 39 
Birza  River,  329 


Biya  River,  334 

Biyen  River,  193 
Blagodarnoie,  75 
Blagos'yeshchensk,  443 
Bogdo  Mountains,  178 
Bogla-nor,  179 
Bokhara,  252 

City,  258 
Bolchava  Ryeka  River,  402 
Bolkalak,  384 
Bolnis,  155 

Bolor  Mountains,  4,  165 
Borbalo,  Mount,  78 
Borjom,  100,  121 
Boro-khoro  Mountains,  182 
Borokhudzir,  285 
Boskal,  107 

Bosporus,  Eastern,  473 
Bostan-nor,  179 
Braguni,  83 
Brahmaputra  River,  13 
Bratskiy-ostrog,  378 
Briansk,  78 
Bujnurd,  215 
Bukhtarminsk,  328 
Bulun,  399 
Bureya  Mountains,  422 

River,  425 
Buriats,  375,  393 
Buruts,  324 
Bzib  River,  51 

Caspian  Sea,  217 

Castries  Bay,  296,  431 

Caucasia,  33 

Caucasians,  46 

Caucasus  Mountains,  337 

Chabdara,  Mount,  175 

Chagan-obo,  191 

Chagos  Bank,  8 

Chamo,  9 

Chani,  Lake,  332-3 

Charin  River,  182 

Charjui,  207,  257 

Chasash,  155 

Chatir-kul,  185,  188 

Chechenzes,  79 

Chekhata'i,  Mount,  90 

Cheleken  Island,  207,  270 ,  484 

Cheluskin,  Cape,  295 

Chepishli,  481 

Cherdin,  470 

Cherek  River,  68 

Cheremissians,  164 

Cherkesses,  54 

Chemishev  Bay,  217 

Chiber  Pass,  245 

Chichiklik  Mountains,  169 

Chikishlar,  218,  270 

Chikoi  River,  379 

Childir,  Lake,  131 

Childir-dagh,  130 

Chilik  River,  183 

Chimkent,  282 

Chindagatin  River.  320 

Chingif,  Mount,  131 

Chirchik  River,  279 

Chita,  307,  442 

Chitral,  244 

Choktal  Mountains,  199,  279 

Chon-su  River,  171 

Chorukh  River,  91,  95 

Chu  River,  184,  200 

Chudes,  317,  355 

Chudors,  220 

Chuguchak,  189,  350 

Chukchis,  408 


Chukotskoi  Nos,  Cape,  399 
Chulim  River,  333 
Churtu  River,  193 
Chust  (Tus),  276 
Chuvantzes,  396 
Chuvashes,  164 
Chuya  River,  327 
Climate  of  Asia,  8 

Caucasus,  40 

Georgia,  100 

Manchuria,  432 

Mingrelia,  91 

Pamir,  162 

Sakhalin,  453 

Siberia,  305 

Turkestan,  213 
Cochin- China,  8 
Colchis,  33,  88,  96 
Comedes,  166 

Commander's  Archipelago,  408 
Commune,  463 
Coreans,  438 
Cossacks,  59 
Cucumber  Island,  219 

Daghestan,  78 

Dalai,  Lake,  424 

Dalai-kui  Island,  366 

Dalai-nor,  368 

Dabuatov,  349 

Daman-i-koh,  215 

Dandan-shikan,  245 

Dapsang  Mountains,  2 

Darial  Gorge,  42 

Darja  Peninsula,  207 

Darjo,  83 

Darkhats,  367 

Darvaz,  252,  253 

Dasht-i-Bakara, 

Dau-kara,  Lake,  200 

Dailria,  419 

Daurs,  436 

Dadss-alin,  422 

Dehas  River,  248 

Dekabrists,  462 

DeKjan,  147 

Denau,  255 

Denghiz-tau,  190,  191 

Dera-goz,  476,  481 

Derbend,  86,  160 

Derbendi,  482 

Deregez-atok,  214 

Devdoraki  Glacier,  42,  476 

Dicksonshavn,  355 

Dido,  84 

Digorin,  71 

Dikh-tau,  36,  64 

Diklos-mta,  Mount,  79 

Diomode  Island,  411 

Diri-dagh,  139 

Discovery,  progress  of,  in  Asia,  25 

Dolgans,  396 

Donva,  357 

Dora  Pass,  240 

Dui,  456-7 

Dukhobortzi,  466 

Dundinka,  364 

Dungan,  232 

Dushambe,  255 

Dush-kachan,  380 

Dzii-illa  River,  96 

Dzun-tarei,  Lake,  i20 

"Eagle"  Mountains,  328 
East  Cape,  403 
Ebi-nor,  191 
Echmiadzin,  147 


INDEX. 


499 


Elbruz  Mountains,  36,  04 

El-Kli.  'i20 

Emba  Marsh,  290 

Emil  Kiver,  193 

Emleki,  Mount,  102 

Ensomheden  Island,  392 

Ergik-targak  Mountains,  352,  366 

Erivan,  147 

Erovantagerd,  146 

Erovantashad,  146 

Ersari,  220 

Eshabad,  251 

Eshek-Maidan  Pass,  137 

Eski-chinaz,  278 

Etelkuyum  Bay,  399 

Euphrates,  13 

Everest,  Mount,  3 

Exiles,  463 

Faddeyev  Island,  390 
Fauna  of  the  Caucasus,  46 

East  Caucasus,  91 

Manchmia.  434 

Sakhalin,  453 

Siberia,  314 

Turkestan,  195 
Faizabad,  Badakshan,  243 

Bokhara,  255 
Ferghana,  199 
Fiag-don  River,  68 
Finno-Tatars,  19 
Finns,  356 
Fisheries,  466 
Flora  of  Armenia,  136 

Asia,  14 

Caucasus,  43 

East  Caucasus,  91 

Manchuria.  434 

Sakhalin,  453 

Siberia,  310 

Turkestan,  195 
Franz-Joseph     Archipelago,     304, 

392 

Gagri  Fort,  61 
Galchas,  236,  484 
Garnish,  Mount,  138 
Ganges,  13 
Ganja,  126 

Garjistan  Mountains,  2"3 
Gate  of  Bamian  Pass,  244 
Gaurisankar,  Mount,  3 
Garibolo  Mountains,  41 
Garni,  14S,  255 
Gaz-kul,  202 
Geok-tepe,  164,  252,  271 
Geology  of  Asia,  6 
Georgia,  100 
Georgians,  111 
Georgyevsk,  75 
Germans,  119 
Geshik-hashi,  Mount,  185 
Ghimri,  86 
Gijiginsk,  442 
Gi'liaks,  439 
Giriisi,  149 
Godorebi,  Mount,  102 
Gog  and  Magog,  215 
Gok-chai,  Lake,  136 

Plateau,  147 
Gbk-gbl,  Lake,  127 
Goklans,  220 
Golden  Horn  Bay,  430 
Golds,  436 
Gold-washings,  468 
Golodnaya  Steppe,  194 
Goltzi  Mountains,  360,  42U 


Gori,  122 

Goro-Blagodat,  346 
Gorodishche,  346 
Gortzi,  49 
Groznaya,  81 
Grozniy,  77 
Grusians,  112 
Guleha,  276 
GuUstan,  214 
Gunib,  Mount,  85 
Gui-gan  Eiver,  215,  271 
Gurian,  112 
Gurumdi,  172 
Gusel-don  River,  68 
Gvozdeva  Islands,  411 

Hai,  Haiks,  140 
Haji-kak  Pass,  244 
Haji-Kend,  127 
Hakwerdi,  482 
Hamah-kan,  242 
Hami,  178 

Mount.ains,  179 
Hamish,  Mount,  184 
Han-hai,  8,  176 
Harm,  255 
Hassan-dagh,  6 
Hassan-kaleh,  270 
Hayasdan,  140 
Hazar,  250 

Hazar-Masjid  Mountains,  482 
Hazreti-Sultan,  Mount,  175 
Helenendorf,  127 
Hellenes,  21 
Helmand  River,  6 
Helong-kiang  River,  424 
Herat,  481 

Heri-rud  River,  204,  251 
Himalaya  Mountains,  2 
Hindu-kush,  170,  244 
Hissar,  255 
Hoang-hai,  11 
Hoang-ho,  11 
Hoang-tu,  11 
Hoi-yuan,  285 
Hqja-bakargan,  278 
Hoja-Mohammed  Mountains,  242 
Huiduk  Lakes,  67 
"  Hunger"  Steppe,  194 
Hiinns,  376 
Huns,  23 
Hyreania,  215 

Sea  of,  205,  271 
Hyrcanopolis,  271 

Iberians,  46 
Idokopaz,  50 
lir-tash  Glacier,  199 
Ike-eral  River,  322 
Hi,  285 

River,  192,  284 
Iliisk,  192 
Imaus,  165 
Imeria,  94 
Imerians,  94 
Indar-ab  River,  244 
Indigirka  River,  388 
Indus,  13 
Industries  of  the  Caucasus,  154 

Siberia,  467 
Ingoda  River,  442 
Ingur  River,  88 
Ingushes,  83 
Inhabitants  of  Armenia,  140 

Asia,  18 

Caucasus,  46 

East  Caucasus,  79 


Inhabitants  of  Georgia,  111 
K;.michatka,  399 
Lazistan,  92 
Lena  Basin,  384 
Manchuria,  436 
Sakhalin,  455 
Siberia,  317 
Turkestan,  220 
West  Caucasus,  54 
West  Siberia,  338 
Yenesei  Basir   355 

Irak  Pass,  265 

Iran,  2,  163 

Iranians,  19,  220 

Irbit  River,  347 
Town,  347 

Iren-khabirgan,  182 

Irjar,  278 

Irkut  River,  366,  373 

Irkutsk,  380 

Iron,  71 

Irtish  Basin,  330 

Irtish,  Black,  River,  331 
"^Tiite,  332 

Iset  River,  345,  349 

Isfairam,  171,  277 

IshikU,  "Mount,  138 

Ishim,  349 

Ishkashim,  240 

Iskander-kul,  202 

Issik-kul,  Lake,  184 

Itelmen,  414 

Ivanovskaya,  491 

Jabe-Sheri,  93 
Jabeshi,  88 
Jagatai,  233 
Jairsky  Pass,  191 
Jalanash,  183,  191 
Jaman-daria,  200 
Jani-daria,  200 
Japanese,  458 
Jar-keud,  285 
Jelesnovodsk,  74 
Jerm,  243 
Jews,  280 
Jigansk,  399 
Jihiin  River,  202 
Jizak,  275 

River,  275 
Jonquiere  Bay,  450 
Jufa,  149 

Jugjur  Mountains,  420 
Julan  Mountains,  173 
Juman-tau,  42,  50 
Jun-bulak,  367 

Kabadian,  166 
Kabarda,  69 
Kabards,  69 
Kabul,  477 
Kacha  River,  363 
Kacha-kum,  480 
Kachal-dagh,  138 
Kaehines,  358 
Kachu,  JNlount,  79 
Kachuga,  3S5 
Kafimahan,  255 
Kaflankir,  216 
Kaghizman,  145 
Kaidak,  218 
Kalnsk,  350 
Kaitago-Tabasseran,  84 
Kakhetia,  1 1 3 
Kakhetians,  112 
Kala  Kaushid  Khan,  479 


500 


INDEX. 


Kalafls  River,  66-7 
Kaljir  Kiver,  331 
Kaleh-i-kumb,  263 
Kalmuts,  325 
Kaltber,  Mount,  42 
Kamar-daban,  367 
Kamassea,  314 
Kamenshiki,  326,  440 
Kamishlov,  349 
Kamchadalcs,  413 
Kamchatka,  401 

River,  401,  402 
Kandahar,  477 
Kanli  Pas3,  102 
Kansk,  363 
Kapchegai,  199 
Kapitan,  Mount,  421 
Kaptagai,  Mount,  188 
Kapujish,  Mount,  138 
Kara-adir  Blountains,  189 
Karahagh  Mountains,  138 

Steppes,  105 
Kara-boghaz,  Lake,  212,  217 
Karabura,  Mount,  188 
Kara-daria  River,  199,  276 
Karagasses,  358 
Karagati  River,  333 
Kara-gol-bas,  INIount,  185 
Kara-Irtish  River,  331 
Kara-Kaleh,  146 
Kara-Kalpaks,  225 
Kara-kazik,  175 
Kara-Kirghiz,  226 
Kara-koh,  247 
Kara-koin  Slountains,  185 
Karakorum  Mountains,  2 
Kara-kotal  Pass,  245 
Kara-Kuban  River,  52 
Kara-kul,  175 

Lake,  171 
Kara-kum  Desert,  162,  212 

Steppe,  195 
Karasai  River,  199 
Kara  Sea,  303 
Kara-su,  218 

River,  300 
Karatagh,  255 
Kara-tal  River,  193 
Kara-tau  Mountains,  173,  187,  188 
Karateghin,  173,  252,  263 
Kara-uzak  River,  201 
Karikji,  257 
Kami-chai,  147 
Kars,  145 

Kars-chai  River,  145 
Kaithvelian,  111 
Kas  River,  336 
Kashan-tau,  35,  64 
Kashgar,  187 
Kashgaiians,  232 
Kas-hka  River,  256 
Karshi,  257 
Kassia  Mountains,  15 
Katholicos,  143 
Katti-kurgan,  275 
Katun  Mountains,  179,  322 

liivcr,  322,  326,  334 
Kauifraann  Peak,  171 
Kaushid  Khan,  479 
Kavuk,  175 
Kazaks,  226 
Kazalinsk,  270,  283 
Kazangbl-dagh,  138 
Kazhek,  Caucasus,  36 
Kcbin,  Great,  River,  183 

Little,  River,  184 
Kcdabek,  155 


Kegart,  147 

Kegen  River,  182 

Kelat-atok,  214 

Kemchik  River,  352 

Kentei  Mountains,  423 

Keptagai  Mountains,  389 

Kerch  Peninsula,  35 

Kergash,  147 

Keiki,  257 

Kerulen  Biver,  422 

Ket  River,  335 

Khabar-assu,  190 

Khabarovka,  427,  444 

Khailar  River,  423 

Khamil,  178 

Khangalat,  387 

Khani  River,  96 

Khanka,  Lake,  421,  425 

Khan-tengri,  Mountains,  176,  184 

Kharanlakh  Hills,  388 

Kharezm,  204 

Khatanga  River,  382 

Khazars,  59 

Khevsars,  116 

Khingan  Moimtains,  421,  424 

Khinzirak,  149 

Khiva,  263 

City,  265 
Khojend,  200,  278 
Khoju-oba,  260 
Khoimogori,  337 
Khoni,  97 
Khorasan,  478 
Khorgos,  285 
Khosheti-Javan,  178 
Khosrabad,  482 
Khotur-tau,  173 
Khua-kem  River,  352 
Khulm,  247 

River,  245 
Khulussutai,  419 
Khunzak,  86 
Kiakhta,  375 
Kichi-Alai,  171 
Kila-bar-panja,  253 
Kila-kumb,  253 
Kila-panja,  239 
KQeh,  439 
Kilif,  257 
Kilip,  204 
Kipchak,  227 
Ki-piu,  167 
Kirechli-dagh,  130 
Kirenga  River,  398 
Kirensk,  355,  398 
Kirghiz,  226 
Kirghiz-Kazaks,  226 
Kistin,  83 
Kists,  81 
Kitoi  River,  373 
Kizi.  Lake,  428 
Kizil-agach  Gulf,  155 
Kizil-alan,  215 
Kizil-art  Mountains,  171 

Pass,  175 
Kizil-arvat,  252,  480,  483 
Kizil-dagh,  131 
Kizil-gyaduk,  Mount,  102 
Kizil-Kaya,  Mount,  78-9 
KizU-kum  Steppe,  194-5 
Kizil-robat,  252 
Kizilau,  269 

River,  172,  254 
Kizil-yart,  4 
Kizlar,  78 

Klvuchevskoi,  Mount,  401 
Kobdo,  327 


Kobdo  Plateau,  322,  330 
Kodor  River,  51 
Kof-dagh,  34 
Kog-art-tau,  171,  180 
Koh-i-amber,  246 
Koh-i-baba,  244 
Koh-i-Nuh,  133 
Kohiatan,  274 
Kojor  Pass,  102 

Town,  124 
Kokan,  278 
Kokcha  River,  240 
Kok-kiya,  185 
Kok-shaal,  Mount,  185 
Kok-su  River,  193,  322 
Kok-teke  Mountains,  185 
Kolima  River,  388 
Kolivan,  329,  351 
Kolota,  45 
Konchalo,  414 
Konda  River,  339 
Kondora  River,  329 
Konyam  Bay,  391 
Kopal,  284 
Kopet-dagh,  214 
Koriaks,  413 
Koriss,  149 
Korsakov,  458 
Kosheti-davan,  178 
Kosio,  Lake,  366 
Koso-gol,  Lake,  352,  357 
Kospeti  Pass,  188 
Kotatission,  97 
Koton-karagai,  329 
Kotyelniy  Ostrov,  389 
Koyeretiu-dagh,  102 
Krafto  Island,  449 
Krasnovodsk,  218,  269 

Plains,  269 
Krasnoyarsk,  354,  362 
Krestovaya  Gora,  65 
Krestovoye,  349 
Kronotz,  Mount,  401 
Kuba,  88 
Kuban  Basin,  50 

River,  51 
Kubergenti  Mountains,  185 
Kubichi,  84 
Kuchka,  240 
Kuda  River,  373 
Kuda-ko,  54 
Kuen-lun  Mountains,  2 
Kugaran  River,  276 
Kukcha-denghiz,  200 
Kukhtuya  River,  442 
Kulali  Island,  217,  218 
Kulashi,  97 
Kulja,  284 
'New,  285 

Old,  285 
Kul-kalian,  167 
Kulpi,  Mount,  132 
Kultuk  Gulf,  377 

Town,  380 
Kunia  River,  04-5,  67 
Kumaui  Island,  109 
Kumans,  23,  59 
Kuniskiy  Proran,  67 
Kunduz,  244 

River,  247 

Tow-n,  246 
Kungei  Ala-tau,  186 
Kunges  Kiver,  192 
Kungrad,  216 

Lake,  200 
Kunia-urgrnj,  206 
Kur  or  Kura  lii\'iT,  100 


INDEX. 


501 


Kuram,  235 
Kuran-dagh,  214 
Kurchum  Kiver,  332 
Kurdistan,  2 
Km-ds,  482,  485 
Kureika  Eiver,  354 
Kuren-dagh,  476,  483 
Kurgan,  349 
Kurgan-tube,  255 
Kuriles  Islands,  18,  401 
Kurk-tepe,  480 
Kurmekti  River,  19'J 
Kuro-sivo  Stream,  448 
Kurush,  46 
Kui'ulum  River,  422 
Kusimai,  453 
Kushk  Eiver,  480 
Kutais,  96 
Kutemaldi,  184 
Kuvan-jerma,  205 
Kuznetzk,  319,  322,  329 
Kuznetzkiy  Alataii,  322 
K™ila  Eiver,  96 

Lata  Eiver,  40 

Laoha,  107 

Ladovskaya,  64 

Lajurd,  240 

Lakhva  Eiver,  45 

Lamuts,  436 

Langar-kisht,  202 

La  Perouse  Strait,  449 

Lazes,  95 

Lazistan,  90 

Lekhi,  83 

Lena  River,  300,  382,  384 

Lenkoran,  107,  130 

Lenkorud,  130 

Lepsa,  182,  193 

LepsLnsk,  284 

Lezghians,  83 

Li-hai,  10 

Listvenichnaya,  380 

Lob-nor,  10 

Loktevskiy  Zavod,  328 

Long,  Mount,  392 

Lozi  Island,  109 

Luli,  235 

Lyakhov  Archipelago,  389 

Magyars,  23 

Maidan-Kuni,  482 

Maikop,  64 

Maimachin,  378 

Maimene,  247,  249 

Majari,  75 

Majuj,  215 

Makaehinga,  Mount,  399 

Makhram,  278 

Malays,  20 

Malaysia,  1 

Malka  Eiver,  68 

Mamia  Einzo  Strait,  451 

Mamisson  Pass,  36,  65 

Manchuria,  417 

Mandzi,  438 

Manegrs,  436 

Slangazeya,  351 

Manghishlak  Peninsula,  216,  269 

Manghits,  233 

Manglis,  124 

Mango  Eiver,  424 

Manguns,  437 

Manich  River,  67 

Manigonians,  147 

Manrap,  Mount,  191 


Manue,  458 

Marcanda,  272 

Mard-ab,  130 

Mai-ghilan,  276 

Margiana,  478 

Mariinsk,  351,  445 

Marka-kul,  331 

Markan-su  Eiver,  171 

Marukh,  Mount,  50 

Miishtagi,  130 

Masis,  Mount,  132 

Maskovskoye,  335 

Mauka  Cove,  458 

Maverannahr,  252 

Maya  Eiver,  388 

Mazaug,  235 

Mazar-i-sherif,  248 

Mazduran,  271 

Mejuda  Eiver,  122 

Mekran,  6 

Mekhitarists,  147 

Merke  Eiver,  182 

Me-khong  River,  13 

Melchihi  River,  69 

Meru,  478 

Merv,  250,  476,  478 

Meshed,  480 

Mesk  Mountains,  86 

Jliankal,  261 

Michish  Eiver,  51 

Migrations,  Asiatic,  13 

Migri,  149 

Mikha'ilo-Semyonovosk,  445 

Mikhailovsk,  483 

MingOke,  Mount,  188 

JlingreUans,  94 

Mining  Industries,  467 

Minusinsk,  353,  302 

Mir,  463 

Misjeghi,  80 

Mkinvari,  Mount,  64 

Mogol-tau,  278 

Mohamedabad,  481 

Molokanes,  120 

Mongols,  23,  325 

Mortviy-kultuk,  212,  218 

Motors,  357 

Mozdok,  64,  76 

Mtzkhet,  112,  123 

Mugan,  105 

Mujal,  88 

Muk-su  River,  173 

Munku-sardik,  Mount,  364,  367 

Murad,  131 

Muraviov,  457-8 

Murgh-ab,  Slerv,  203,  250 

Pamir,  202 
Muyun-kuni,  193 
Muz-art  Pass,  185,  188 
Muz-art-tau,  185 
Muztagh-ata,  Mount,  169 
Muz-tau,  Mount,  189 
Mzimta  Eiver,  51 

Najebo,  Mount,  90 
Nakhichevan,  149 
Namangan,  270 
Namolio,  410 
Narat  Mountains,  181 
Nara-tau,  181 
Nargiri  Island,  108 
Nari  River,  249 
Narim,  332,  336,  351 
Narin  Fort,  188 

River,  185,  199 
Narin-kaleh,  87 
Narzan,  74 


Naukat,  276 
Neiva  River,  347 
Nepis-tzkaro,  Mount,  90 
Nerom-kura,  346 
Neronia,  148 
Neviansk,  346.  347 
New  Siberia,  389 
Nian-shan  Mountains,  1 82 
Nias,  252 
Nib-kumb,  253 
Nigidals,  437 
Nijne-Tagilsk,  346 
Nijne-Cdinsk,  363,  381 
Nijnyaya-Tunguska,  354,  304 
Nikobar  Island,  18 
Nikolaya,  44 

Amur,  446-7 
Nikolayevskaya,  64 
Nini-Mardan,  271 
Nin-yuan, 285 
Nissa,  252 
Nitza  River,  347 
Nogai  Tatars,  73 
Nohwandan,  481 
Nomin-mingin-gobi,  179 
Novaya  Zemlya,  304 
Novo- Alexandre vsk,  213 

Bayazet,  491 

Dmitryevskoie,  491 

Georgyevskoie,  491 

Nikolayevsk,  474 

Rossiisk,  3£,  61 

Troitzkaya,  491 
Nukha,  128 

Nuku-daban,  Mount,  SO' 
Nukus,  204,  283 
Nura-tau,  173,  200 
Nuskan  Pass,  240 
Nyerchinsk,  443 

Steppe,  420 
Nyerchinskiy  Zavod,  443 

Ob  Basin,  329 

Eiver,  300,  329,  334 
Obdorsk,  351 

Ogurchinskiy  Island,  216,  218 
Oigur  River,  322 
Oi-kul,  202 
Oka  River,  352,  368 
Okhota  River,  442 
Okhotsk,  442 

Mountains,  7 

Sea,  431 
Olenyok  River,  383 
Olga,  447 

Gulf,  431,  433 
Olkhon  Island,  368 
Olokma  River.  380,  388 
Olokminsk,  398,  468 
Olti,  100 

River,  91 
Om  Eiver,  333 
Omsk,  350 

"  Onion  "  Mountains,  4 
Onkilon,  410 
Onon  Eiver,  420 
Ordubat,  138.  149 
Orkhon  River,  419 
Orkhu-nor,  189 
Oroches,  436 
Oroks,  455 
Orpiri,  97 
Osh,  270 

Oshtek,  Mount,  41,  50 
Oshten,  41 
"Osses,  67 
Ostiaks,  340 


502 


ENDEX. 


OtkaznoVe,  75 
Oxus  River,  202 

Pakaran,   146 
Pala'oslom,  Lake,  90 
Pamtak,  Mount,  137 
Pamir,  165 
Panja  Eiver,  2i0 
Panj  Deh,  479 
Pao-tui-tze,  438 
Partav,  126 
Passanaur,  65 
Passis-mta,  Mount,  89 
Patience,  (Julf  of,  448 
Patigorsk,  73 
Pecheneghs,  23 
Pechora  Eiver,  338 
PeUm,  346,  461 
Peninsulas  of  Asia,  15 
Penjakent,  272 
Penjina,  442 

Gulf,  407 
Penshambe,  275 
Perli-dagh,  131 
Perm,  1 

Perovsky,  Fort,  200 
Persians,  234 
Petro-Alexandrovsk,  283 
Petropavlovsk,  349,  416 
Petrov  Glacier,  198 
Petrovsk,  86 
Phasis  Eiver,  68 
Pishan,  178 
Pitniak,  204 
Pitzunda,  51,  61 
Plastun  Gulf,  431 
Plateaux  of  Asia,  1 
Podkumok  River,  75 
Poronai  River,  452 
Posolskoye,  380 
Possiet  Bay,  417,  447-8 
Poti,  98-9 
Port  Imperial,  447 
Praskoveya,  75 
Pribilov  Islands,  408 
Protok  Eiver,  52 
Pshavs,  116 
Pskhuv,  Mount,  51 
Pjasina  Eiver,  382 

Eacha,  94 
Eachians,  94 
Eailway  Projects,  472 
EaimT  283 
Rainfall  of  Asia,  14 

Caucasus,  40 
Eang-kul,  169 
Rani  Mountains,  138 
Redout-Kaleh,  98 
Regar,  255 
Reshd,  156 
Riddersk,  328 
Eion  River,  96 
River  Systems  of  Armenia,  139 

Asia,  12 

Central  Caucasus,  65 

East  Caucasus,  79 

Georgia,  101 

Kulja,  192 

Manchuria,  422 

Siberia,  300,  330,  334,  352,  373, 
384,  388 

Turkestan,  193 

West  Caucasus,  50 
Roshan,  202,  253 

River,  253 
Russians,  120,  236,  318,  326,  440 


Sagai,  358 

Sagalatlo,  Mount,  90 

Saglik,  155 

Sairam,  Lake,  182 

Sakhalin  Island,  448 

Salair  Mountains,  328 

Salor,  220 

Salyani,  130 

Samagirs,  437 

Samarkand,  272 

Samarkand-tau,  257 

Samarova,  350 

Samoyedes,  344 

Samsar  Volcano,  101 

Samur  River,  79 

Sancharo,  50 

Santash  Pass,  182 

Sarakhs,  251,  480 

Sarapanes,  90 

Sardarabad,  140 

Sarghilan  Eiver,  243 

Sari-dagh,  78 

Sari-jassi  River,  185 

Sari-jassi-tau,  185 

Sari-kamish,  207,  212 

Sariks,  220 

Sari-kul,  202-3 

Saripul,  246,  248 

Sari-su  River,  194,  200 

Sarkad,  238 

River,  238-9 

Sarkan  Eiver,  193,  255 

Sartes,  234 

Sartlam,  Lake,  332 

Sassik-kul,  192 

Saudal,  175 

Saiiru,  Mount,  189 

Sayan  Mountains,  322,  S64,  366 

Selenga  River,  352,  364 

Selenginsk,  379 

Sel-su  Eiver,  174 

Semipalatinsk,  349 

Semirechinsk,  182,  192 

Semirechinskiy  Krai,  193 

Semonovka,  147 

Semur  River,  79 

Semyonov,  Mount,  184 

Serdze-Kamen,  399 

Serebrakovskaya,  67 

Sergiopol,  284' 
Seri-ob-nor,  182 
Severia,  293 

Shabin-dabag,  Mount,  322 
Shadrinsk,  349 
Shah-dagh,  78 
Shah-i-mardan  River,  276 
Shalbuz-dagh,  78 
Shalik-tau,  185 
Shamakhi,  129 
Shamkhor  Column,  124 
Shamsi  Pass,  188 
Shan-alin  Mountains,  425 
Shantar  Archipelago,  431 
Sharikhan,  276 
Sharopan,  96 
Shartash,  Lake,  349 
Shash  Eiver,  199 
Shchurovskiy  Glacier,  173 
Shehr-i-sebs,  256 
Sheik -jeili,  Mount,  200 
Shelveli,  Mount,  175 
Shemakha,  107,  109,  129 
Shevelvnch  A^olcano,  401 
Shiahs,"  156 
Shibirkhan,  246,  24S 
Shibo,  232 
Shiguan,  169,  202,  253 


Shikov,  Cape,  109 

Shilka  River,  420 

Shirabad,  255 

Shirabad-daria  Eiver,  255 

Shirikum,  105 

Shusha,  128 

Mountains,  138 

Siberia,  293    . 

New,  Island,  388 

Siberians,  463 

Sibir,  293 

Sibiryaks,  463 

Sibos,  232 

Signakh,  128 

Si-hai,  Lake,  191 

Sihun  River,  200 

Sikhota-alin  Mountains,  422 

Sim  River,  334,  354 

Sir-daria  River,  198 

Sirikol,  167 

Sitirti  Pass,  188 

Sizim  Eiver,  362 

Slavs,  119 

Sofiisk,  445 

Sogd  River,  212,  252 

Sogdiana,  252 

Soghauli-dagh,  130 

Soglik,  125 

Sogol  River,  272 

Sokhondo  Moimtains,  419,  423 

Solons,  232 

Somkhet  Mountains,  137 

Son-kul,  187 

Soyons,  358 

Soyots,  356 

Sredne-Kolimsk,  399 

Sredne-Yegorlik  River,  64 

Stanovoi  Mountains,  399,  417 

Stark  Bay,  431 

Stavropol,  64 

Stretensk,  443 

Sufid-koh,  248 

Suifun  River,  422 

Sujagird,  248 

Sukhum-Kaleh,  39,  60 

Sulak  River,  78-9 

Sunga  River,  68 

Sungacha  Eiver,  427 

Sungari  River,  425 

Suunites,  156 

Surakhan,  109 

Suram,  122 

Mountains,  42 
Surgh-ab  Eiver,  172,  202,  244 
Surgut,  351 
Sussik-kul,  171 
Svania,  92 
Svans,  92-3 

Taghamia  Mountains,  4,  169 
Tagil  River,  346 
Taimir  Peninsula,  299,  382 
Taimira  Eiver,  382 
Taimura  Eiver,  355 
Tajiks,  234 
Takhta-kuvat,  255 
Takht-i-pul,  248 
Takht-i-Suliman,  243,  276 
Talas-tau,  187 
Taldik  Eiver,  205 
Talgar,  Mount,  176,  188 
Talikhan,  246 
Talish  Jlountains,  107 

Town,  146 
Talishes,  119 
Talki  Mountains,  182 
Taman,  02 


INDEX. 


503 


Taman  Peninsula,  50,  53 

Tannu-ola  Moimtains,  352 

Tara,  350 

Taragai  River,  199 

Taranchi,  232 

Tarbagatai  Mountains,  1 89 

Tarei,  Lalce,  420 

Tarim  River,  10,  167 

Tarki,  86 

Taseievskove,  360 

Tashkent!,  "278 

Tash-kurgan,  26,  166 

Tash-robat,  188 

Tas-tau  Jtoimtains,  189 

Tatars,  19,  56,  119,  326,  338,  356 

Kumik,  93,  86 

Nogai,  485 
Tatary  Strait,  434,  449 
Tats,  86 
Taurus,  3 
Tavda  River,  346 
Tavgi,  344 
Taz  River,  337,  351 
Tazi,  437 
Tazovka,  351 
Tebulos-mta,  77,  78 
Tekes  River,  1S2,  192 
TeUke,  220,  476 
Teletzkoye,  Lake,  322 
Telev,  127-8 
Temir-Khan-Shura,  86 
Temurlik  Mountains,  182 
Temnik,  52,  61 
Tenjen  River,  251 
Teutek  Pass,  182 
Teutiak-sor,  215 
TepU  ISIouutains,  64 
Terek  River,  68 
Terek-da  van,  175,  276 
Termez,  255 
Ters-agar,  175 
Ters-airik  River,  189 
Terskei  Ala-tau,  187 
Terter  River,  138 
Tian-shan  Mountains,  2,  175 
Tiara,  Mount,  452 
Tibet,  2 
Tibetans,  20 
Tiflis,  123 
Tigris  River,  13 
Tim  River,  453 
Tir,  429 

Titari  Island,  386 
Tkhfan-dagh,  78 
Tobol  River,  333 
Tobolsk,  333,  350 
Tokmak,  284 
Tokran  River,  192 
Tolbacha,  Mount,  401 
Tom  River,  351 
Tomsk,  351 
Ton-Mn,  8 
Tonu  River,  207 
Topography,  Altai',  327 

Bering  Peninsula,  415 

Bokhara,  257 

Central  Caucasus,  73 
^  East  Caucasus,  86 

Georgia,  120 

Kulja,  284 

Lena  Basin,  398 

Manchuria,  442 

Rion  Basin,  96 

Russian  Armenia,  145 

SakhaUn, 457 

Turkestan,  272 

AVest  Caucasus,  60 


Topography,  West  Siberia,  346 

Yenisei  Basin,  378 
Toporovan,  Lake,  102 
Tortum  River,  90 
Tomsk,  190 
Toyu-boyin,  204 
Trade  of  the  Caucasus,  154 

Siberia,  469 
Trakt,  471 

Trans- Alai  Mountains,  168,  175 
Transbaikalia,  304,  364 
Trans-Caspian  Territory,  480-] 
Transcaucasia,  34 
Trialetes  Mountains,  101 
Troitzk,  349 
Troitzko-savsk,  379 
Truiber,  Mount,  88 
Tsung-ling  Mountains,  4 
Tubalars,  357 
Tuk-karagan,  218 
Tumatskiy  River,  387 
Tumen,  347 
Tumkent,  283 
Tunguses,  358,  375,  436 
Tunguska  River,  354 
Tunka,  366,  380 
Tura  River,  333,  347 
Turan,  1S3 
Turanians,  220 
Turfan,  178 
Turgen  River,  183 

Town,  285 
Turinsk,  347 
Turka,  380 
Turkestan,  161 

Afghan,  160,  237 

Russian,  160,  268 

Town,  283 
Turkey,  233 
Tflrki  Race,  19 
Turkmansheir,  475 
Turkmenians,  220 
Turkomans,  73,  220 
Turug-art,  188 
Turukhan  River,  364 
Turukhansk,  363 
Turuks.  233 
Tmreika  River,  364 
Tiishes,  116 
Tuskane,  200 
Tuz-altin-dara  River,  173 
Twapse,  61 
Tzea-kokh.  Mountains,  64 


Uba  River,  328,  362 
TJbsa-nor  River,  322 
TJch-kurgan,  276-7 
Ud  River,  421 
TJda  River,  381 
Udskoy  Ostrog,  442 
Ugodai,  327 
Uglich,  461 
XJgus-bas,  Mount,  186 
Uigurs,  233 
TJjarskaya,  284 
Ukhbukanes,  84 
Ulan  River,  199 
Ulba  River,  328 
Uliasutai,  41 
Ulu-kem  River,  352 
Ulungur,  Lake,  330 

River,  321,  331 
University,  473 
Ura-tepe,  278 

Moimtains,  173 
Urals,  469 


Urgenj,  205 
Uriankhs,  357 
Ur-koshar  Jlountains,  189 
Urs-kokh,  Mount,  64 
Urul^h  River,  68 
Urumtsi,  178 
Urus-Martan,  78 
Us  River,  354 
Ushba,  Mount,  36 
Usolka  River,  360 
Ust-Kamenogorsk,  327,  332,  349 
Ust-Kiakhta,  379 
Ust-Olenskoie,  384 
Ust-urt  Plateau,  208,  215 
Usuri  Gulf,  432 
River,  427 
Uzbegs,  233 
Uz-bel  Pass,  175 
Uzboi  River,  207 
Uzghent,  276 

Vadil,  277 
Tagarshabad,  147 
Vakh,  324 
Vakhsh  River,  254 
Vak-shu  River,  202 
Vardandzi,  260 
Vardoj  River,  243 
Varzaminor,  275 
Vedeno,  86 

Verkhnaya  Timguska,  375 
Verkhnye-Udiuak,  380 
Veskhniy-pristen,  327 
Verkho-Lensk,  398 

Turie,  346 

Tansk,  15,  398-9 
Mountains,  388 
Vemiy,  284 
Victoria  Gulf,  432 

Lake,  202 
Viliii  River,  384,  386 
Viluisk,  399 
Vitim  River,  385 

Plateau,  385 
Vitziri,  Mount,  78 
Vladikavkaz,  75 
Vladimir,  447 

Gulf,  431 
Vladivostok,  447 
Voguls,  338 
Voikar  River,  338 


Wakhan,  238 
Wakhi,  238 
Waksh  River,  254 
Wamur,  253 
Wi-tagh,  169 
Wrangell  Land,  392 


Yablonoi  Mountains,  419 

Yagnaubs,  236 

Yajuj,  215 

Yakuts,  393 

Yakutsk,  398 

Yak-tash  Mountains,  199 

River,  199 
Yalmal  Peninsula,  337 
Yalutorovsk,  349-50 
Yaman-su  River,  200 
Yana  River,  388 
Yang-tse-kiang,  13 
Yani-chinaz,  278 
Yani-daria  River,  200 
Yani-su  River,  205 
Y'ani-urgenj,  205,  267 


504 


INDEX. 


Tashil-kul,  1C9 

Yasi,  282 
Yasses,  59 
Yaxartes  River,  199 
Yazeva  Eiver,  336 
Yegorlik,  64 
Y'ekaterinburg,  348 
Y'ekaterinodar,  64 
Yekaterinograd,  76 
Yeisk,  65 
Yekhoi,  Lake,  366 

Eiver,  334 
Yelizavetpol,  126 
Yelogm,  354 
Y^enieei  Eiver,  300,  352 


Yeniseisk,  363 
Y''esentuki,  74 
Yezides,  145 
Yomuds,  220 
Yora  Eiver,  104 
Yukaghirs,  396 
Y'ulduz  Lakes,  179 

Mountains,  179 
Yulutan,  479 
Yu-pi-ta-tz',  437 
Yuraks,  344 
Yurchi,  255 

Zaisan,  331 

Lake,  179,  331 


Zanga  Eiver,  147 
Zanma  River,  181 
Zarafshan  Glacier,  202 

Eiver,  202,  272 
Zardeo  Eiver,  243 
Zaiika  Mount,  1S8 
Zaritaya  Eiver,  443 
Zelenciiuk  Eiver,  40 
Zilga-kokh  Alountains,  64-5 
Zikiiri  Mountains,  36,  64-5 
Ziryanovsk,  328 
Zmeinogorsk,  327 
Zuchan,  253 
Zungaria,  165 
Zyeya  River,  421,  425 


END   OF    VOL,    VI. 


I 


PRINTED  BY  J.   S.   VIKTUE  AND   CO.,   LIMITED,   CITY  KOAD.,  LONDON. 


( 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILUNOIS-URBANA 


I  a  ill 
3  0112  055300732 


"**#<^>k 


^^i^ 


#l*'^-l* 


13-i' 


■s^) 


r;^.^' 


'^^fi^: 


#^^ 


mj^l