VEGETABLE
GARDENING.
SAMUEL B. GREEN.
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VEGETABLE GARD: NING.
A Manual on the Growing of Vegetables for Home
Use and Marketing.
Prepared for the Classes of the School of Agriculture of the
University of Minnesota,
BY
SAMUEL B. GREEN,
Professor of Horticulture in the University of Minnesota.
Author of
‘‘Amateur Fruit Growing’’ and ‘‘Forestry in Minnesota.’’
WITH 123 ILLUSTRATI _NS:
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FIFTH EDITION.* 22+ 255-2259 3"
REVISED.
ST. PAUL.
WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY.
1903.
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Copyright Entry
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COPY
COPYRIGHT, 1901,
BY
SAMUEL B. GREEN.
Preface to Fifth Edition.
This book was prepared primarily for the School of Agri-
culture of the University of Minnesota, where it has been used
as a text book for four years. In this edition some changes
have been made to bring it up to date in the matter of methods
of culture and varieties recommended. The material has also
been re-arranged and more attention paid to the classification
of vegetables than in the first edition. A few other new minor
features have also been introduced which experience seemed to
show desirable.
I wish to acknowledge the kind assistance received in the
preparation of this manuscript from Prof. Harry Snyder and
my assistant, R. S. Mackintosh. In previous editions I have
taken pleasure, as I do now, in acknowledging the assistance
which I have received in many ways from Dr. Otto Lugger and
Major A. G. Wilcox, and it pains me now to have to record the
death of both within the past year, but the memory cof the many
pleasant associations with them will always be fresh in my mind.
Figures numbered 52, 67, 69 and 121 are from D. Landreth &
Sons; 26, 27, 31, 32 and 92 are from W. Atlee Burpee; Nos. 22,
23, 81 and 96 are reproduced from publications of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture; No. 5 is from Bateman Manufacturing Co.;
Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42 and 43 were loaned by Dr.
iuesser; Nes. 58, 61, 63.65, 66;. 106, 108; 1125-119; 120 and 122
from various sources. All other figures are original.
SAMUEL B. GREEN.
St. Anthony Park, Minn., February 1, 1903.
>
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
The Vegetable Garden.—Location and soil for early crops.
Location and soil for late crops.
Irrigation.—Cultivation and irrigation. Humus an aid to irri-
gation. Amount of water required for irrigating different crops.
Pumping water for irrigation. Making reservoirs. Application of
water. Rules for applying water. Sub-irrigation.,
Rotation of Crops.—Reasons for.
CHAPTER II.
Manures.—Most valuable elements in manures. Direct and
indirect manures. Composition of vegetables. Manures and fer- |
tilizers.
Animal Manures.—Horse manure. Hen manure. Cow and
Swine manure. Sheep manure. The manure pile. The compost
heap. Commercial manures. Tankage. Ground blood. Ground
bone. Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of ammonia. Superphosphate.
Wood ashes. Kainite. Lime. Land plaster. Effect of manures
on crops. Manures for early and late crops. Manures for legu-
minous crops. Manuring the growing crops. Liquid manure.
CHAPTER III.
Garden Tillage.—Prevention and killing of weeds. Im-
portance of not allowing weeds to go to seed. Weed seeds in
manure for the garden. Plowing. Subsoil plowing. Ridging
land. General cultivation of garden crops. Cultivation to de-
velop plant food.
Garden Implements.—Horse hoes and horse cultivators.
Hand cultivators. Seed drills. Combination seed drills and cul-
tivators. Markers. Scuffle attachment to hand garden cultiva-
tors. Scuffle hoe. Plant drag. Potato diggers. Spray pumps.
CHAPTER IV.
Seed Sowing.—Depth to plant. Time for sowing. Sowing
in stiff clay soils. Sowing seed with machine. Sowing seed by
hand. Using the feet for firming the soil around seeds. Thin-
ning. Protecting seeds against insects and birds. Transplant-
ing. Avoid transplanting as much as possible. Conditions of suc-
cess. Shortening the tops of plants. Firming the soil about the
roots of plants. Tomato cans for flower pots. The Farmer’s
Kitchen Garden.—Arrangement of.
CHAPTER V.
Seeds and Seed Growing.—Good pedigrees in seeds. Test-
ing seeds. Simple germinating apparatus. Curing and storing
seeds. Changing seed. Stock seed. Seedsmen’s specialties.
Seedsmen’s humbugs. Novelties. Development of varieties.—
Rules for improving plants. Cross and self-pollination of plants.
Mixing of varieties. Distance between varieties to prevent mix-
ing.
CHAPTER VI.
Glass Structures.—Cold frames. Hotbeds. Hotbed manure.
Fire hotbeds. A greenhouse hotbed.
Greenhouses.—Cheap kinds of. Methods of heating. Sash
for hotbeds and cold frames. Shutters. Mats. Ventilation and
temperature. Watering. Soil. Boxes. Substitutes for glass.
Shading the glass. Fifteen things to remember in connection
with building glass strucures.
CHAPTER VII.
Insects Injurious to Vegetables.—Insecticides and methods
of destroying insects. Pyrethrum. Paris green. London purple.
Tobacco. Kerosene emulsion with soap and with milk. Carbon
bisulphide. Catching insects by light at night. Application of
insecticides.
Common Garden Insects and Methods of Destroying Them.—
Colorado Potato Beetle. Imported and Native Cabbage Worms.
Cabbage Plusia. Wire Worms or Drill Worms. Cutworms.
Striped Cucumber Beetle. White Grub or May Beetle. Maggots.
Cabbage Flea Beetle. Leaf Lice or Aphis. Cabbage Lice or
Aphis. Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm. Parsley Worm or
Celery Caterpillar. Chinch Bugs. Bean and Pea Weevil.
Squash Vine Borer. Squash Bug.
CHAPTER VIII.
Classification of Vegetables—Warm and cold climate vege-
tables. Frost tender and frost hardy vegetables. Botanical
classification. Characteristics and directions for the cultiva-
tion of vegetables. Mushrooms. Corn. Asparagus. Onions.
Leeks. Garlic. Rhubarb. Beets. Swiss Chard. Spinach.
Cabbage. Cauliflower. Radishes. Rutabaga. Turnip. Brussels
Sprouts. Kale. Kohlrabi. Horseradish. Cress. Water Cress.
Beans. Peas. Okra. Parsnip. Parsley. Carrot. Celery. Cel-
ariac. Sweet Potato. Tomato. Potato. Egg Plant. Peppers.
Strawberry Tomato. Martynia. Cucumber. Squash. Musk-
melon. Watermelon. Pumpkin. Gourds. lLettuce. Salsify.
Endive. Dandelion.
Garden Herbs.—Balm. Catnip. Lavender. Peppermint.
Sage. Sweet Basil. Sweet Marjoram. Spearmint. Summer
Savory. Thyme. Winter Savory. Anise. Caraway. Coriander.
Dill. Borage. Rue.
Tables.—I. Weight of one quart of seeds and a number of
seeds.in one ounce. II. Longevity of garden seeds. III. Amount
of seed required to sow one acre. IV. Average time required for
garden seeds to germinate. V. Standards of Purity and Germina-
tion of Agricultural Seeds.
Monthly Calendar of Garden Operations,
Vegetable Gardening.
CHAPTER I.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.
Location and Soil.—The land for vegetable gardening should
be free from stones and stumps, and easily cultivated. Wet land
should be avoided unless it can be drained at a reasonable out-
lay; if it cannot be drained it is of little worth as scarcely any-
thing of value can be raised on it. All land for vegetable garden-
ing should be well drained either naturally or artificially, since
crops on well drained land suffer less from drought as well as
from excess of water. Drained land also gives best and most
uniform returns from the manure applied to it. When drainage
is lacking in the land, the raising of plants on it is so very
much a matter of chance that in the long run it will generally
prove unprofitable. Most of the land in cultivation is sufficiently
drained naturally, while some land that needs no drainage when
used for grass or grain would be greatly improved by being
under-drained when it is to be used for some garden crops.
Land which has a gently rolling or undulating surface with a
southern exposure is the most desirable for general gardening
operations, since it receives the full sunlight and allows the most
perfect control of the water that falls upon it. When irrigation
is to be practiced, such sloping surface aids very much in the
distribution of the water. For a few crops, such as celery, cab-
bage, etc., the slope makes very little difference, as flat and
even very moist (not wet) land is best. There is a very great
difference in the value of northern and southern slopes for vari-
ous crops. This difference will frequently amount to one crop
a year where the soil is closely tilled The soil on a southern
slope can be worked much earlier in the spring than that having
a northern exposure, and often by proper management two crops
may be grown in one year in such places, while on a northern
8 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
slope perhaps only one crop could be raised. Then again, such
crops as melons and tomatoes that require a long season and
a warm location to mature could do so On a southern slope,
while on a northern slope they might not ripen.
Location and Soil for Early Crops.—When the object in
vegetable gardening is to grow very early crops, it is important
to have quick-acting land. Such a soil contains a large amount
of sand in its composition. Soils of this class warm up very
quickly, and decomposition goes on very rapidly in them. They
also give the quickest returns from manures. If such land has
a southern slope, and, in addition, is protected from the north
and west winds, the situation will be an ideal one for the early
vegetable garden and for tropical plants, such as tomatoes,
beans, corn, etc. However, land and locations of this character
suffer most from drought, therefore every precaution should be
taken to protect them from it. Shndy soils are especially adapted
to irrigation, and sometimes what were barren sands become
very fertile when irrigated.
Location and Soil for Late Crops.—When the intention is
to raise cabbages, potatoes, turnips, beets, ete., for marketing
in ihe autumn and for crops that require but a short time to
mature or that prefer a cool location, a good clayey loam is
generally the best, and if it has a northern exposure so much
the better. If obliged to use a stiff clay soil, it will be found
to give best results if subsoiled and drained. Such land should
be fall-plowed and left in ridges. It will also be improved if
coarse manure is worked into it, since this has a tendency to
make the land open and more easily worked. A_ retentive
clayey loam will be more difficult to work than a sandy soil,
but will generally withstand drought much better, although a
somewhat sandy loam with a retentive, porous clay sub-soil
is often considered more desirable on account of the greater
ease with which it is worked, and it resists drought nearly as
well as a clayey loam if proper precautions are used in its
management.
IRRIGATION.
Irrigation is generally considered unnecessary in this sec-
tion, since we raise fair and even abundant crops nearly every
year without its aid, but in almost any season there are periods
IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 9
when if water could be applied to growing crops it would im-
prove them. It will seldom if ever pay to irrigate ordinary
farm crops, if it is necessary to pump the water used. In
order to have irrigation practical for farm crops the water should
be carried and distributed on the land by the force of grav-
ity. It may pay to pump water to irrigate some garden crops
if the conditions are favorable and the work is done intelli-
gently. In this section irrigation should be used to supple-
ment the rainfall which should ordinarily be kept from run-
ning off the surface of the land by every possible precaution.
Mulching the surface of the soil is practicable only around
trees and in the case of a very few garden crops, such as
strawberries and raspberries. The intelligent use of mulch
on land in well known cases has caused the soil under it to
hold an amount of water equal to thirty-three per cent more
than was retained in soil near by not mulched, the amount in
one case being equal to an increase of over two quarts of water
to every cubic foot of soil, or to an increase of over 680 barrels in
the upper one foot of soil of one acre. If this amount of water
had been applied at the critical stage in the growth of some
crops suffering for moisture, it might have made a success of
what would otherwise have been a failure. Where practicable
it is always desirable to have a good mulch on land that is
watered, since it retards evaporation and prevents the surface
soil from baking.
Cultivation of the land prevents evaporaticu and so saves
the moisture in it. In one instance the amount of increase
of water in a good soil due to cultivation was equal to thirty-
three per cent of what it contained when not cultivated. This
increase, however, is somewhat more than was found in other
trials, but in every instance there has been a marked increase
in the drought resisting qualities of the soil due to continued
cultivation. In some experiments made by Professor Levi Stock-
bridge in 1878, it was clearly shown that on one occasion in
eight days of very dry summer weather thorough cultivation
of the Jand resulted in saving 256 barrels of water in an acre
of heavy loam by preventing evaporation from its surface.
These facts show the great value of cultivation as an aid in
10 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
irrigating operations. Cultivation of the land or mulching
should always go with irrigation.
Humus is rotten organic matter. In the soil it increases
its retentive qualities. On this account new land which con-
tains much organic matter does not suffer as seriously from
drought as that which has been cultivated for some time with-
out manure. Likewise, land, heavily manured with rotten ma-
nure, which is largely humus, has its drought resisting quali-
ties increased, while the application of undecayed manure to
the land has a directly opposite result until it has been in the
soil long enough to become thoroughly rotted.
Amount of Water Required for Irrigating Different Crops.—
Sometimes a very small amount of water applied at the right
time will make the difference between a good crop and a total
failure, as, for instance, when dry weather comes on just as
the strawberry crop is almost ripe, when it has happened that
so small a quantity as 600 barrels of water per acre has been
sufficient to ripen the crop. In western Kansas it is esti-
mated that a storage capacity of 5,000 barrels per acre in ad-
dition to the ordinary rain supply is needed to mature a crop
in dry seasons. In this section a storage capacity of 1,500
barrels per acre would probably be enough to insure against
serious injury from drought in any but very exceptionally dry
years. Enough water to cover an acre one inch deep is termed
an acre inch. About $00 barrels equal one acre inch.
Pumping Water for Irrigationn—Where valuable crops are-
grown, it will sometimes pay to pump water for them. There
are many localities in this section where a large amount of
water may be controlled by lifting it less than thirty feet. In
such places windmills may be successfully used for pumping
the water, providing reservoirs of large capacity can be cheaply
made into which water may be pumped the year around to be
used as needed. Thresher engines, which are seldom used
except in the late summer and fall, may sometimes be used
to advantage for pumping water and often at very low cost.
Gasoline engines are occasionally used in some irrigation works.
They are very desirable, but at present the price is too high
to warrant their general use. In putting in a pumping plant
the pump should be put as near the water supply as possible.
IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 11
Reservoirs should be on some elevated point. They are
easily made by digging out the earth and puddling the bottom
and sides with thick clay, which should be at least one foot
in thickness and well packed when wet. A good way to pack
it is to drive horses over it. When clay cannot be obtained
the bottom may be made tight with a thin coating of coal tar and
sand, but clay is preferable, and what is known as blue clay is
generally best. Cement is liable to crack badly from frost
and is not adapted te this purpose. Made in this way, reser-
voirs are very cheap and easily repaired. It is important to
have them very large where the supply of water is limited;
where the supply is large, the reservoir may be much smaller.
Application of Water.—Sloping land is necessary for most
successful irrigation, as it is very difficult to apply water to
the surface of level land. The slope should be sufficient to
permit the water to flow quickly along its surface and yet not
enough to cause it to wash. For irrigation purposes the rows
should not be over 300 feet long. The best results are gener-
ally obtained from soils having considerable sand in their com-
position. Drifting sands may often be made to produce good
crops by irrigating and manuring, and lands having some sand
in their composition are much better adapted to irrigation than
clay soils, since the latter often bake badly or become sticky
so that they cannot be cultivated immediately after applying
water.
Rules for Applying Water to Land.—Water should not be
applied unless the crop is suffering for it, but the soil should be
eultivated thoroughly and frequently, and thus waste by evapo-
ration may be saved.
Cultivate at once after irrigating, if the land will permit
of it, so that the soil will not bake; evaporation will thus be
prevented, and water will be saved in the soil.
Do not apply more than enough water to nicely moisten
the land and avoid getting it water-soaked.
Do not think that irrigation will take the place of cultiva-
tion, for it will not, since without cultivation irrigation is sel-
dom successful.
Water for irrigating purposes should be somewhat warm
when applied. Cold springs do not afford a satisfactory supply
12 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
for some crops unless first pumped into a reservoir. A tem-
perature of 60 degrees is desirable, though not always necessary
for the best results.
Aim to wet the roots of the plants and avoid getting water
on the leaves.
Wooden troughs afford the cheapest conduits for water and
Figure 1.—One method of irrigating crop planted in rows.
should be used whenever practicable. Iron pipe is expensive
and much more difficult to manage than wooden troughs.
Sub-irrigation is a new term that refers to the application
of water to the roots of plants by means of underground chan-
nels, such as tile or other drains. It works best in sandy soils.
In clayey soil the water runs too slowly through the sides of
the tiles. Land tiles make as good channels: as any for this
purpose. They should be buried a few inches below or by the
side of the plants to be watered, being laid level with open
joints. Some experiments seem to show that it is a very waste-
ful way of using water, while others have shown this system
to be economical. As practiced for watering plants in green-
house benches, especially for lettuce, it has given excellent
results.
IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 13
ROTATION OF CROPS.
By rotation is meant the special succession of crops grow-
ing upon the land for a series of years. This is very desirable
even on land in the highest state of cultivation, but it is very
difficult to lay down exact rules to be followed.
Reasons for Rotating Crops.—We rotate crops for at least
six reasons. (1) To avoid -insect enemies, as in the case of
onions and turnips, which are often liable to serious insect in-
juries when grown more than one year on the same land. Tur-
nips are especially liable to injury from insects when grown
in the same place successively. (2) To avoid injuries from
fungous diseases, i. e., in case of potato and beet scab, onion and
melon rust, corn smut, etc. (3) To increase the amount of
humus in the soil, and for this purpose we may seed down the
land to grass or clover. (4) To deepen the soil and add nitro-
gen to it as well as humus, as when clover is grown on the land.
(5) To get rid of weed seeds in the soil. (6) To use the plant
food in the land to best advantage, since crops vary very much
in the amount of the different elements which enter into their
composition. Leguminous crops, like clover, peas, beans, etc.,
improve the land on which they grow, while most other crops
exhaust the soil. Some plants excel others in their power to
search for plant food, or to take plant food from the soil. Some
plants feed near the surface largely, while others take their
food mostly from a lower level. Root crops should not follow
root crops, nor should vines follow vines for many years in suc-
cession on the same land. .
CHAPTER IL
MANURES.
Most Valuable Elements in Manures.—While there are
twelve or more elements that enter into the composition of our
cultivated plants, yet only nitrogen, phosphorus and potash,
and in a few cases lime, are lacking from our agricultural soils.
These three elements enter largely into all our cultivated crops
and are necessary for their growth. The other elements are
usually present in abundance.
Humus.—While humus in itself is not a plant food, it is of
great importance in the soil. It is formed by the decay of
organic matter and is composed principally of carbon. It
promotes chemical action by which plant food is set free in
the soil, and it increases the power of the soil for holding the
water and gases which it gives up slowly to the roots of
plants. Rotten stable manure contains a large amount of humus-
forming materials, which undoubtedly add very much to its
value, and it is probably on this account that it often gives
better returns than commercial fertilizers containing the same
quantities of what are termed the essential elements.
The Action of Manures in the Soil can be and generally
is both direct and indirect. They act directly when they con-
tain actual available plant food or when by their decay they
yield it to the plant; they act indirectly when they start chem-
ical action in the soil and thus set free soluble plant food in
the soil itself. Almost all manures act in this indirect way to
some extent. A moderate application of stable manure by its
decomposition (which is chemical action) in the soil has been
known to increase the temperature of the soil by three degrees.
Lime in itself is a plant food and is largely used by some crops.
Most soils, however, contain it in great abundance, yet if quick
lime be added to a soil already rich in common limestone it
generally serves to increase growth. This is not due to the
plant taking up more lime, but rather to the fact that the
quick lime starts chemical action in the soil by which some
MANURES. 15
of the locked-up stores of plant food are made availab'c. The
same may be said of unleached ashes, though it contains much
more valuable fertilizing material than lime. Common salt also
acts to some extent indirectly as a fertilizer, while it is of very
little value as a plant food.
COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES, MANURES AND FERTILIZ-
ERS.
In the following tables is shown the amount of fertilizing
elements required by vegetables and the amount of these ma-
terials which is contained in the various farm manures and com-
mercial fertilizers. ‘These figures are from eastern United States
and European sources. The climatic conditions in these places
are quite different from those in many sections of the Western
states where the actual amount of ash ingredients in plants,
especially in dry years, may greatiy exceed the amounts here
given. The relation of these tables to one another is worthy of
special study, since they show what the plants need and what
the fertilizing materials supply.
TABLE I.—Composition of Vegetables.
: Phos-
W ater.| Ash. THEO phorie | Potash
25 acid
Per ct. | Per ct.| Perct. | Perct. | Perct
PGP UGHONES )-icccu sees stnas+oeteinasceadenenes 81.50 0.99 0.36 0.17 0.48
NSDAE AGUS SEEMS. yc ccucsetcteesescecees| 290.90 0.67 0.29 0.08 0.29
FR QONS ele ae aao cesses orchee onset cess one. 68.46 NEO Sa nelgaoal Nigecicitde! PobamAnt
IFCANSMSUMIM Seca nena Sae se iesceeccnecaseace 87.23 OO AS eecteelleobocdoel|ésqqncre
BEE ESTEE COS. concsccsses weave haere aineedaikoee 88,47 1.04 0.24 *0.09 #*0.44
WaDDAGeSietesccnsis tcsasscncesveosss secs ceuse 90.52 1.40 0.38 *0.11 *0,43
WAGE OUST creases ocesnecenascog st skaewaeaine: 88.59 1.02 0.16 0.09 0.51
C@AWHMOWET. cae os dsstese ccs ocnccnoaceccseae 90,82 0.81 0.13 0.16 0.36
CHOROID CES aeate cose aee tec cacanectecs 78.90 1.09 1.92 0.19 0.64
Choroci, whole plant: ....22.:<02+.c--0- 78.33 TEO2S lertrasceialoee on acsll eae
CWCWINDEUS ieee eer cce usa nctsnssecctescceeecor 95.99 0.46 0.16 0.12 0.24
Bolan saaees saccee ce oecene aes es Dee eaat cence 92.93 (OS (ed Maer tees oll maitre | ae ornate nc
FVORSE-TAGISH) VOOb. ccs. ssccoserecsseeess 76.68 1.87 0.36 0.07 1.16
COMER AD ees nec cae cos eee ese en cna cceaetaeaee 91.08 eos 0.48 0.27 0.43
WE CHICEs MO AVES ccractoveccatetscosuasersee 86.28 ae Peat octets: HE Bele
PIGS TOUIGE) SCOMSe so sac srs casccscsicccsevecsee 88.46 TENS lee ees celts kcorte ee ee
Lettuce, whole plant.............s00css. 93.68 1.61 0.23 *0.07 *0.37
Muskmelons, interior juice............ 92.61 1.01 Sore ee
Maske lonsh pul pzcessacees scuceces ecssrs 76.44 NEA We ee eave eee avctsiene teres aeto eave
Muskmelons, pulp juice................. 90.53 (Gia earners eet kant lie rere
MitSMteTONS. TING: mee. ceccaseseeneces's 91.15 OUGS Settee lteeeteeiecnres ace Se
WIGSTATG WANEBES.. 2 csccscoseessensenseteecs 84.19 2.25
Pale geacs ak cose sewelat's cae secoersseos wees soces 87.41 D7 eS i eri RS ee el eee carne
ATA OTIS. S20. s cases coboccsrecccesceseressasseesns 87.55 0.57 0.14 0.04 0.10
VESTN See aneen canes cesece meee ce oeeeces 80.34 1.03 0.22 0.19 0.62
HeasnCanagG@aflelae sis csscccsesssccceses 12.48 2.36 Pas at
CASH ALOCIER, cocicsccscscegnsessdectvewecss 12.62 Bei! 3.58 0.84 1.01
CASE E Ol) cos cciciewinscualeiee s peels soe eases 79.93 Oe7Suc less etree eaieerrnede
16 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Composition of Vegetables.+—( Continued.)
|
: Phos-
Water.| Ash. NEE phoric |Potash
Ben) | Agia:
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct,| Per ct.
Peas, smail (Lathyrus sativus),
WAhOLE LPIA .. cspencseeeseeceT a sees 5.80 5.94 2.50 0.59 1.99
1 Aui emo) kat oS ole Oe Saag ncobacdocdedoossodaeocoe 93.39 0.67 aye. ae |oyanerereerolei|| eee
Je(iloayo)tabalsh THUGKO laannsasAbbobranannoSonca sone 86.23 SO (eae ea ¥i|(o steie,yeterel ee Pteiae ere
Pumpkins, seeds and_ stringy
MAUL CL aaccniassosiscsmeessenncereee re 76.86 yo) lied Mee meareerl Mepeerers Gis if ch c a aistens
Pumpkins whole truitsecscsssscenesses 9227-5 = 0:63 *0.11 *0.16 *0.09
Lad NGO WAO 1OKONRS) Goonoesonbor 74.35 2.28 0.55 0.06 0.53
RMU AnD SEMIS sccoceecesoaeereenr cee 92.67 Uo Ca eter tater. linea acalduepiedl here oreo
Rhubarb, stems and leaves............ 91.67 ets 0.13 0.02 0.36
UTADA MASS. wee seceeccemecteehuetteteaet erence 88.61 1.15 0.19 0.12 | 0.49
SJ OME YO aetna rama in hee Re RR eae 92.42 1.94 0.49 0.16 0.27
SCMASMES MAES ee cae ean ete eee 88.09 APA BE Pat IROCB cSccad co
SGmashess rinGisccce cere seseuecer eee. 82.00 1220+ | Rcaieines lar enn ee
squashes, seeds and _= stringy
WVAUGETY nics ceseccaa case chiceeh weescncconne 74.03 DBO) h coccistsietsins|laustert ts ie Reet
Squashes, whole fruit ................. 94.88 OF 5 a Oe ma GOR cere O lcirog coo 5
IWC ba COMN = CODS scene enseene eee 80.10 0.59 0.21 0.05 0.22
Sweet corm, WUSKS scikeoessccene see 86.19 0.56 0.18 0.07 0.22
Sweetcorn) kernels. o.ieescssccscces $2.14 0.56 0.46 0.07 0.24
Sime etc Onur Sballkxs-cecseetecsa ese te eee 80.86 1225 0.28 0.14 0.41
Sweet potatoes. tubers...............| 71.26 1.00 *0.24 *0.08 *0.37
Sweet potatoes, vines.................. 41.55 Dito! leek vise alleen Perret:
MOMAtOeS Se trultieencsecstee ome nte see 93.64 0.47 0.16 0.05 0.27
MomatOeSSrOOtS:rcene cesar ececceceeee 73.31 Ae 0.24 0.06 0.29
Momavo SSavaiNeSnowecceieesseecce oak 83.61 3.00 0.32 0.07 0.50
ARISTA TOS Se weeee sete crc nen eek ieee aee Soseene 90.46 0.80 0,18 0.10 0.39
Wratermelonsy ji@eyns.ccsscssceecee: 93.05 0.20 eveve ill teverateieleate 5. snes
Mia eEEMelOnS nile ences nae eee 91.87 0.33 Sactic
Wid GeLMeloOnS niles ecco cece 89.97 1.24
Wratermelons, SC6GS:)c.sccs sc ecreenec 48.37 1.34
* W olff. +Sugar in fruit, 3.05 per cent; acid (malic), 0.46 per cent.
+Compiled by office of Experiment Station.
TABLE II.—Composition of Farm Manures.
: Phos-
Mois- | Nitro-| Pot- : :
ture. gen. ash pene Lime.
Per ct. | Perect. | Perct..| Perct, | Perct
Cattle excrement (solid, fresh).......|........0+ 0.29 0.10 OULT || sceeneenees
CattlemiminerGhreshi te aeccdesaecscecccests lneceeseeses 0.58 0:49) |: casasireetellemeemecenee
Fentmanune (GGeSh) iereeessceateers seers 0 60.00 1.10 0.56 O:8D ile zeesceeee
EIOTSeLEXCLeEMenite(SOMG) ie. sececean cence Nias thaaes 0.44 0.35 OMG cleat cereemer
FLOTSeUninieN(freshi) hark cnscteseteiece ccahitsaceece. L595) 1.50) | ieee deoctealtecsect tees
Human exerement ((Solid))..-...:.26+-..-- 77.20 1.00 0.25 1.09" |i cscsateaee
EUUMATMTINC UT ee nce sete tered Maohienanne 95.90 0.60 0.20 OWT Scoweapertr
Pigeon Manure (OGY) ec. vese-cenekcee. eet) VLOL00 3.20 1.00 1.90 2.10
Poudre tel (nigshtisoil)pesurecceoeettesse: 50.00 0.80 0.30 1.40 0.80
Composition of Farm Manures.—( Continued)
Phosphorie acid.
Mois- | Nitro- | Pot- Lime.
ture. gen. ash. pe eae a: Total.
LRA Gin || [AARC \\ JRAP Cig AG ee Per ct. Perct. | Perct-
Sheep excrement
(SONGMETES Di) pcncdeccal sscsowse ese 0.55 ONS cee geamean lees ste ies OrSIe Wecteesccess
Sheepurine (fresh)]........... 1.95 PRO GE eocceaa cael tecesec ees USO) al ph eeeeseere
Stable manure
(HVDC SG) ) Basaaeteoa seeps 73.27 0.50 OLGOV eee cncctecell eae cece ese OVSO eco ccs es
Swine excrement
(SoliGy TTESH) 2222-2. | +-.<0-< one 0.60 OST |e s.20 sae scullnsccesesnes OMA e Ne cece ceee
Swine urine ‘(fresh)|........... 0.43 OLB eeccacee cual nae deuce ste O075 Slececaclances
Barnyard manure
(AVETAZE) ........... 68.87 0.49 OFA Sel icconcseseel| cee Paice O32 Recescccces
TABLE Iil.—Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials.
PA Ue eee ta ar |r eae Mee all ters seo saaah laze daaieseiss Fe ener Gacneeecens BOLOB™ Wescescesees
Ashes (anthraicte
COMI rect ce ea scces cc tewelllecc eee ceets (Ua) Ol Beocsnocon| secnedeneen O10) iseusteeeas se
Ashes ee none
EXD ENG aes a ne eR ol aria Sea OFAOM Bente e ace vellsiacessniese’ 0:40) Jiikccestecsec
Ashes (lime kkiln),..//< 15:45. }2.-.:...... TIRBAOY bl boccesoeeas| Sebooabaced 1.14 48.50
Ashes (wood
econ: Eee oa SOL Uae ee ace 127s erseeee | ceaeats osiek 1.51 28.08
Ashes (wood, un-
He aehed)he.cecece ea) esaaasetions By) Nlonecocdanes nooenaeens- 1.70 34.00
Bat GUANO. .<..005.20+0: A0.09 8.20 1.31 2.37 1.24 Se an ieee ere
Bone ASH ccc sence: CUE bre Grneces| Vannocdcsppat cooccucnocal jboeoaasecaG 35.89 44.89
Boe (Ollie aes cetene AGO Picci cok [MACE AeP oe Mlaaacieaula cen, |aedaeeaes OSS ell cassaanes
one black (dis-
solved) ...... ( BES Pons setcceslSsaeowee ea icascen caces 15.40 1.30 17200" |. See
Bonemealemence ce. (aa ARQ lncesecneoce 0.40 7.60 DR ZW all scacesctece
Bone meal (dis- eS aS
rj 0.| rire 6) ee | Ae 2G ne sccaeees 13.53 EPsGO. Wecsers see =
Bone meal (free
ME OMS hat) secs sssk esses sees (BP lleadsabcecee| socoscoacds |Sconcadade? POT Dialeiseese tess
Bone meal (from
glue factory)...|..-........ TED) Neasescecosallecnncatoce lecaaccooane 29.90 stoaasapenc
Carribean guano.. Gs) || pedtesacecal Mebcccedasal décaonscosa | jeqsocosatce 26.77 39.95
Castor pomace..... 9.50 5.50 WOW ekecesceselhscceoceees TGS) aileapiten dete
Cotton-hull ashes.. Thatel0 ell Sesto 22.75 25 6.50 8:85 9.60
Cotton-seed meal
(decort)... ccs: 7.75 710 AGRON Be eaceece «= line scenenens SO) |seccenecs as
Cotton-seed meal
Gund ECOL fh) Sescce loses sean 4 30 RESO) Sone eececa| sence anos, B10 |seseeeseee
Cubaguwano......0.0-s: 24.27 1 eG Pa US As ae he a tT er IS Sm i eeccetesnee
Dried blood........... 12.50 OU esta ctetals liecsertecte sariticeteistors sees LO | escesees
Dried fish.. ee |e ASS (ae \oadaccmeee 0.55 2.60 S25 a aeescsues
GAS TUIMNE eassccce ita c ce PND i Meee e line SH EE Were cnce vel Sees corseacl| sees cidaiece’ 43.66
Horn and hoof
Wid SUC) eonccceeeces 17 FM one cece nel lose sincamrels [esate actress ARBs |beecercacae
LECT TINT oe eae eee ; S20 Mier ees B57 Gil ey ae eed Ieee ace Seal a ee 1.15
PERUGIA). 3.3 chccscass esas ASD hittes RAs eee de foe | aeenrct verge teacar ee cease 12.45
18 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials. —( Continued.)
Phosphorie acid.
Nitro-| Pot- Lime.
Solu- Re-
‘gen. ash. Se. aSoeadl. Total.
| Per ct. Per ct.| Per ct.\ Per ct..| Per ct. \ Per'ct.
Meat SCrap........-+s
Mono Island Guano.
WIIENCS BG) rarceceimsccle
Muriate of potash..
Navassa phosphate
Nitrate of potash...
Nitrate of soda......
Oleomargarine re-
Peruvian guano......
Phosphates from
OTIC aineccesecee
Plaster (DULe) iaeeeerilsecseesees hae aa tears legoosbcopnol gaapaacedaloasoscnaras| loonccesooada
Sewage sludge
(precipitated)..
SOOti ssc sees cesesecseee
Spent tanbark
USWES ee eeseacesece
Sumac waste........
Sulphate of am-
Sulphate of potash
and magnesia...
Sulphate of potash
(high grade)....
PANKAGC scccc-casodeinecs
Tobacco stalks......
Tobacco stems...... ; :
WiOOLSWBSHIN ES eae cel cteeserc css ateecace ents B92) tl Seestencctillacsness Rovallieccisewitin oviaeellteaigemeeieen -
Wool waste........... 15.80 6.50 FACQO Ni vate neniealiccsce Aaies 0.35 0.11
*Sometimes as high as 5 per cent.
*tNova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per
cent carbonate of lime; Onondaga and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum
and 18-28 per cent carbonate of lime.
Animal Manures.—Manure from the same animals may
vary greatly in quality according to the kind of food and the
condition and age of the animals from which it comes. Fat
animals fed on food rich in nitrogen (grains) produce the best
manures. Young growing animals that are fed on poor food,
such as straw, swale hay, etc., produce very inferior manure.
The manure from young growing animals or from milking cows
is much inferior to that from fat steers, since, in the case of
MANURES. 19
the young animals, a large amount of nitrogen and phosphoric
acid is required to build up the animal body. In the case of
the milking cow a large amount of nitrogen is required for
the production of the casein of the milk, while very little of
the nitrogen in the food is retained in the body of the fatten-
ing animal. The fats, oils and starchy materials which ani-
mals use largely are of no value as manures. The nitrogen,
potash and phosphorus are thrown off by the fat animal in the
waste products. Manures rich in nitrogen ferment most rap-
idly, other things being equal. The urine is generally rich in
nitrogen, and since all it contains is soluble it is of more
value than the solid excrements of animals, and special effort
should be made to save it.
The Heating of Manures and other organic material is gen-
erally due to the presence of ferments which are minute organ-
isms that break down the composition of the materials in
which they grow and produce chemical changes that result in
the formation of heat. They are nearly allied to the yeast that is
used in bread-making. Fire fanged is a term applied to ma-
nure which has heated to a very high temperature without suf-
ficient moisture and has dried out. It is generally white in
color and has lost much of its texture, and parts of it may
appear to have been burned to ashes. When in this condition
manure is of little value, for it has lost much if not all of its”
nitrogen and all the ferments which it contained are destroyed.
And it is probable that the ferments which are added to soils
by manure are often of much importance to them.
Horse Manure is loose and light, and ferments very quickly.
On this account it is especially valuable for early spring crops,
as it makes the soil loose, thus permitting the air to easily
penetrate it, while by its rapid fermentation it warms the land.
It is valuable to mix with cow and swine manure on account
of its hastening fermentation. On account of its heating quali-
ties it is used to warm hotbeds.
Hen Manure is one of the richest manures formed by
any of our domestic animals, for the reason that poultry live
on highly concentrated foods and the liquid and solid excre-
ments are voided together. It heats quite readily and vio-
lently and should be used very sparingly and with caution,
20 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
since if put in contact with the roots or stems of plants it is
very liable to burn them. It should be handled with great care
and be kept dry. If wet it ferments and parts with its nitrogen
in the form of ammonia gas, which is readily perceptible to
the nose. For the same reason it should not be mixed with
lime or wood ashes unless used at once. It acts very quickly
and on this account is valuable for early crops or to apply
during the growth of a crop when the available manure in the
land appears to have been exhausted. It may be composted with
dry peat or muck when it is more safely applied than if clear
and there is less danger of loss from heating. Twenty to
thirty bushels of hen manure is generally considered sufficient
for one acre when used with stable manure.
Cow and Swine Manures are rather slow in action, conse-
quently they are not as desirable for early crops as horse
manure, while they are excellent for late crops. For this latter
purpose they are often better than horse manure. If they are
mixed with horse manure they ferment very rapidly.
Sheep Manure is a very concentrated manure which heats
rapidly. It is one of the best farm manures.
Mixing Manures.—It may often be a good plan to mix
the different kinds of animal manures for general application,
as in this way all seem to be improved. Hen manure is an ex-
ception and, as a rule, should be applied separately. Lime, wood
ashes or other material of an alkaline nature should never be
mixed with stable manure of any kind unless a considerable
amount of loam, peat or other material is added to absorb the
ammonia, which is always liberated when nitrogenous and alka-
line substances are thus mixed. It is a good plan to mix
ground bone, tankage and other slow acting fertilizers with
heating stable manure, as by so doing the plant food they
contain is made more available and the stable manure is
greatly improved in quality.
The Manure Pile.—If early garden crops are to be grown,
it is necessary to have fine, well rotted. manure, and this makes
the manure pile necessary. It should be placed so that as little
waste as possible will occur from leaching by rains. When a
manure pile is to remain in one place for a considerable time
it should be made upon a bed of leaves, peat, loam, rotted sods
MANURE, 21
or other absorbent, about one foot in thickness, which will
catch and retain any fertilizing material that may leach through
the pile. If practicable, the pile should be made where it will
be protected from the sun and drying winds. The height of
the pile should depend somewhat on the kind of manure and
the season of the year when it is made. Manure that will heat
readily should be piled about six feet deep. When the pile is
quite warm the manure should be turned over. This operation
should be performed very thoroughly as often as the pile gets
very hot. All the lumps should be broken up and the whole
pile turned to the boitom of the bed on which it is placed. The
absorbents of the bed should be mixed evenly throughout ihe
pile and the cold manure from the outside be put on the inside
of the pile so that it may heat the more rapidly: If the pile ap-
pears dry on the inside water or, what is better, the urine
from the stable should be added to assist fermentation, as this
cannot take place satisfactorily in dry manure, and the lack of
water may result in serious loss. The’‘fAumber of times a ma-
nure pile should be turned over will dépend on the crop to
which it is to be applied and the kind and condition of the
manure. This is a matter which must be left to the good
judgment of the individual manager, but some of the factors
bearing on this will be found discussed farther on.
The Compost Heap can be made a prolific source of home
made manure. Every farm and garden should have one of
sufficiently large proportion to take care of all refuse organic
material about the place. It should be made about as follows:
Select a place handy to get at but where there is no standng
water and put down first a bed one foot deep of old sods or
muck and on this pile all the refuse material as it collects in
various places. It may consist of old straw, leaves, an occa-
sional load of heating manure, rotten vegetables, etc. This
should be turned over occasionally, by hand if necessary, but
the best plan is to have the compost heap in a hog yard and
to it haul manure as it collects near the stables. If manure
is piled upon a good bed of rotten sod it will not lose much
by leaching, nor will it lose anything by heating if a sufficient
number of hogs have the run of it to keep it well worked up.
Commercial Manures.—By commercial manures is meant
22 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
those manures which are commonly sold by the trade. When of
a high price they are generally of a guaranteed composition
and they should be bought at a valuation based on the amount
of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which they contain in
condition available to the roots of the plants. The most available
the form in which these materials exist in the fertilizer, the
more valuable it is generally considered. Most of the older states
require a guaranteed analysis to accompany the packages in
which the fertilizers are sold and exercise some supervision over
the business. Among the most common of this class of fertil-
izers are the following:
Tankage.—This is the refuse product from slaughtering
establishments, which after being relieved of its fat is brought
to dryness and ground. It is very rich in nitrogen and phos-
phoric acid, but contains very little potash. Most of the nitro-
gen and phosphoric acid which it contains is available to the
roots of plants. It is probably the cheapest source of nitrogen
and phosphoric acid to be found in the western states. It varies
considerably in composition, and this may sometimes be ac-
counted for by the fact that in some establishments the blood
is separated from the other offal, thus reducing the percentage
of nitrogen in the tankage. It is rather a slow acting fertilizer.
Tankage may be safely used in quantities of less than 1,000
pounds per acre if applied broadcast and worked into the soil.
Four hundred pounds per acre is generally considered a good
application. It may be safely used in these quantities around
growing plants of cabbage, corn, lettuce, etc., provided it is
spread out evenly and does not come in contact with the roots
of the plants.
Ground Blood is very rich in nitrogen and quite difficult
to dry thoroughly. If it is at all moist it is likely to heat badly.
It is a quick acting fertilizer, and is seldom used without being
mixed with other materials.
Ground Bones are always rich in phosphoric acid, but
round fresh bones are better than dry bones since in addition
to phosphoric acid they have quite a large percentage of nttro-
gen, which amount is very small in bones that are old and dry.
It is always best to break or grind the bones that are to be
used on the land and in many cases to then mix them with fer-
VEGETABLE GARDENING. 23
menting stable manure. Ground bone is said to be a lasting
fertilizer because its effect can be seen for several years. If
bones are burned the nitrogen is wasted. If fresh bones are
mixed with unleached wood ashes they will be made soft so they
can be easily broken up. It is generally applied in muzh the
same way and for the same purposes as tankage.
Nitrate of Soda, called also Chili saltpeter, is imported
from Chili. It looks like common salt and contains about 16
per cent of nitrogen that is perfectly soluble and in form most
available for the plant. On this account only very small quan-
tities should be applied at one time, because if not taken up
by the plant it may be washed deep into the soil out of reach
of the roots. It is especially desirable for early leaf crops such
as early spinach, cabbage and lettuce, and to apply when a cron
comes to a standstill. It acts with wonderfui quickness—-almos3t
like magic. It may be applied several times to the growing
crop at intervals of two weeks, using from 75 to 100 pounds per
acre at each application. It may be sown near the hills if ap-
plied to cabbage, but for spinach or similar crops it should be
suueieipaiaiannetaant
ae
fee ey
2 Be ea ae a a ed
=
gece ts
Figure 2.—Spinach plants grown on land rich in rotten stable manure. The
larger plant received in addition to the stable manure nitrate of soda at the
rate of one hundred and fifty pounds per acre.
24 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
sown broadcast when the plants are perfectly dry or during a
hard rain. If it sticks to the leaves it is:Iiable to burn them.
If sown during a hard rain it is quickly dissolved and washed
to the roots of the plants without injury to the leaves. It is
expensive and should never be used when a cheaper supply of
nitrogenous manure will do just as well. It may occasionally be
used to good advantage in water at the rate of one-half an
ounce of nitrate of soda to one gallon cf water. Such a solution
will not injure the foliage and is of sufficient strength.
The use of very large quantities of nitrate of soda on the
land has been found to make it necessary to continue using it
in large quantities, while if used at the rate given it is not
followed by such consequences. The supposed reason for this
is that so much nitric acid in the soil destroys the nitric acid-
forming ferments, and these must be slowly replenished before
the soil is able to continue yielding its ordinary supply of
nitrogen.
Sulphate of Ammonia is a by-product from gas works and
contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen. It does not act as
quickly as nitrate of soda, but for late crops, to be applied dur-
ing warm weather, it is one of the best sources of nitrogen,
Superphosphate is made by treating ground bone or nodu-
lar phosphate with sulphuric acid to render the phosphates
soluble. It is rich in phosphoric acid, and some kinds contain a
considerable quantity of nitrogen. They vary much in quality.
The better kinds are generally used at the rate of about 400
pounds per acre.
Wood Ashes is rich in potash and a valuable fertilizer in
many cases provided it has not been leached; if it has been
leached it is practically worthless as a fertilizer. Ashes from
hard wood is much more valuable than that from soft wood
on account of its containing much more potash. Ashes is one
of the best fertilizers for fruit trees and plants. About twenty
bushels of unleached hard wood ashes is generally sufficient for
one acre, but much more may be safely used.
Kainit.—Potash is also applied to the land in the form of
German Potash salts. a grade of which, known as kainit. is
very commonly used as a fertilizer. These salts are more or less
mixed with common table salt and other impurities and form
MANURES. 25
a cheap and very useful supply of potash. They are gener-
ally sold on a valuation based on the percentage of actual
potash they contain. Kainit contains 13 per cent of potash
which is more than twice as much as there is in ordinary un-
leached wood ashes. From 200 to 600 pounds of kainit is gen-
erally applied per acre.
Lime is found in abundance in most western soils, but
burned limestone, whether as freshly slacked or as quick lime,
may often be used to advantage in small quantities when large
amounts of stabl@ manure have been used upon the land for a
number of .years. It should not be used alone, because it ex-
hausts the soil.
Land Plaster is a sulphate of lime. It is not a direct
fertilizer, and its method of action is not exactly known. It
may occasionally be used to advantage for leguminous crops,
such as clover, beans, peas, etc., in applications of from 2900 to
600 pounds per acre spread broadcast.
There is Little Need for Commercial Fertilizers at present
in most of the western states and they should never be used until
the home sources of manure have been exhausted, and then they
should be used to supplement rather than replace farm manures,
and as aids in close cultivation of gardens. They are generally
expensive, and results from their use here have not been as
satisfactory as in the eastern states. Only the more common
kinds to be met with here have been mentioned.
Those who use commercial fertilizers of the better kinds
for the first time are very likely to use too much and Seriously
injure the crops to which they are applied. It is much better
to use too little than too much, and to experiment along this
line in a small and inexpensive way to begin with.
Effect of Manure on Crops.—The proportion of the various
plant foods used by diferent crops varies considerably, some
using a larger amount of one element and seme of another.
Their visible effects when in excess are also quite different.
Garden plants that are grown especially for their foliage use
large quantities of nitrogen and require it in order to be per-
fectly healthy, and seed producing plants use large quantities of
phosphoric acid and potash. Where nitrogen in a soluble form
is very abundant so as to be in excess in the soil it will be
26 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
found that the plants growing on it are noted for their dark
green color and rank leaf and stem growth, and for late ma-
turity of fruit and seed. In the case of small grain, it may
result in such a weak, soft, succulent growth that the stems
cannot support themselves and they become “lodged,” and such
growth may be gained without an increase in the yield of grain.
In the case of lawns a soft, thick sod is made; in the case of
spinach, cabbage and other leaf crops, vigorous, large plants
result; while tree and bush fruits, under such conditions, make
a soft, late-maturing growth that easily winter kills.
On the contrary, when soluble potash and phosphoric acid
are in excess in the soil, the plants will have a tendency to pro-
duce a large amount of seed and fruit in proportion to straw or
wood and to mature early. This is a desirable condition for
heaviest grain and seed crops. In the case of bush and tree
fruits, it conduces to fruitfulness, early maturity of wood and
hardiness. These qualities will be most evident if the nitrogen
is under a normal quantity in the soil.
It must not be understood from this that any of these ele-
ments are hurtful, for they ave absolutely necessary in proper
proportions to secure best results; but these effects follow when
they are greatly in excess.
Except in few instances, fresh manure in the soil is not
beneficial, and its presence prevents close cultivation and causes
the land to dry out very quickly. Such manure does not afford
plant food for some time, since it must first be thoroughly de-
cayed before it is of any value to plants. Rotten manure has
much of its plant food in an available condition.
Manure for Early and Late Crops.—Much more manure and
more thoroughly rotted manure is required for early than for
late crops. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that early in
the season fermentation goes on very slowly, and unless plant
food is supplied in a quickly available form it is of no immedi-
ate use to the plant. On account of the rapid fermentation
which goes on in the soil later in the season, crops that ma-
ture later than the middle of the summer may be able to use
the plant food that was locked up in fresh manure in the
spring. For instance, the results from fresh cow manure may
be almost nothing if applied in the spring to a crop of early
MANURES. 27
cabbage or spinach, while for a late crop of cabbage or for
corn it may answer very well. Where an abundance of well-
rotted manure cannot be obtained in the spring and it becomes
necessary to use partially rotted manure for an early crop, it
is a good plan to use nitrate of soda or some other quick acting
fertilizer to afford plant food until the manure has rotted.
Manures for Leguminous Crops.—Leguminous crops, such as
peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, etc., do not need as much nitro-
genous manure as most other crops that are so rich in nitro-
gen, since their presence encourages the growth of nitric acid
ferments in the soil. Such crops improve the land on which
they grow by increasing the amount of nitrogen in it, and in
this respect they are different from all other garden crops, and
are sometimes referred to as nitrogen producers and other
crops as nitrogen consumers.
Animal Manure should generally be spread evenly on the
land and then be thinly covered with the soil; yet for some
crops it may sometimes be most desirable to apply the manure
in the hill or furrow. The amount that should be applied per
acre varies with the crop, soil and manure, so no exact rule can
be given. For a midsummer or late maturing crop, probably
eight cords of well rotted stable manure per acre would be suf-
ficient in almost any case, and much less will sometimes be
enough, while for an early crop twice as much rotted manure
might be used to advantage. Well rotted manure should be
covered with soil soon after it is applied to the land, or it may
waste by drying. If it is put on frozen land it may waste by
the soluble parts being washed away. But in the case of fresh
animal manures there is little chance of loss in these ways.
The effect of the application of animal manures to the land
will remain apparent for several years. It is generally consid-
ered safe to estimate that not more than one-third the full value
of these manures is taken up by the crop growing on the land
the year it is applied.
Manure the Growing Crop.—Sometimes a crop comes to a
standstill on account of having exhausted the available ferti-
lizing material in the soil. In such cases it may be a good
plan to fertilize the growing crop with hen manure, nitrate of
soda or other quick acting fertilizer and cultivate the land at
28 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
once. This may be done in many cases by applying such ma-
terials to the crop during a hard rain or in a dry time by
plowing a furrow near the crop and placing the fertilizer in the
furrow. But in any case it should be cultivated into the soil so
as to become well mixed through it, and much care must be
taken to prevent the dry fertilizer from coming in contact with
the roots of the plants.
Rotating Manures.—It is a good plan to _ occasionally
change the manures applied to land, i. e. when stable manure has
been largely used for some years apply some commercial ferti-
lizer, lime or land plaster, and when commercial fertilizers have
been used for some time recourse should be had to stable
manure.
Liquid Manure.—Liquid manure is sometimes used for en-
couraging the growth of plants. It should never be made from
fresh manure, but from that which is thoroughly rotted. Urine
may be used as a liquid manure if well decomposed, but it
should always be used with great caution and never applied to
plants if fresh or undiluted. Cow and horse manure are gener-
ally preferred for making liquid manure. The, vessel in which
it is to be made should be one-third full of manure and filled
up with water. The whole should then be stirred and allowed
to settle. The clear water is then used for watering plants.
Liquid fertilizer is also made by dissolving nitrate of soda
in water as mentioned under that head. Ammonia is sometimes
used in very small quantities in water applied to plants, espe- -
cially to house plants, with good results.
CHAPTER III.
GARDEN TILLAGE.
By the proper cultivation of the garden we accomplish
three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not
shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the
plants which we desire to perfect. (2) The surface soil is
brought into best condition to resist drought, that is, into the
best condition to avail itself to the utmost of the stores of
water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water
from the surface soil. (3) The inert plant food in the soil is
made soluble by cnemical action, which is increased by the
cultivation of the soil.
Prevention and Killing of Weeds.—The methods _ best
adapted for keeping weeds out of the garden are many and
varied. They depend much upon the condition and kind of soil
in which the weeds grow, and upon the kind of crop and the
habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in
making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the har-
rowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before the
planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. If this is done
thoroughly the weeds do not have any better chance than the
crop. If this is not done the weeds will be ahead of the
crop in growth, and if started ever so little when the crop is
planted the result generally is that the crop is seriously over-
grown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated.
When garden seeds that require a long time to germinate
are sown, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with
an ordinary fine-toothed rake even before the crop appears above
the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to dis-
turb the seeds. This is an easy matter in case of the larger
garden seeds, while it would be impossible with the finer seeds,
as they are invariably planted shallow. When the seed is
sown with a drill the line of the row may be plainly seen even
before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cul-
30 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
tivating in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as car-
rots, onions, beets and parsnips, which are quite delicate when
young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden culti-
vator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate it with a horse
implement and the crop is planted with this purpose in view.
Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse im-
plement now in use as with the best hand implements. Careful
early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since if the weeds
are removed when they are young the work of weeding is small.
If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a
very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early
stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a
question whether to remove them or to plow under the whole
crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter
alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds,
early cultivation is of the greatest value in breaking up the
crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of
plants and which seriously interferes with their growth. Like
all surface cultivation it is also an aid in the conservation of
moisture in the soil.
Importance of Not Allowing Weeds to go to Seed.—A com-
mon source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds
that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing
season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gath-
ered. To some persons it often seems a small matter to allow a
few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other
kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should
be the rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economi-
cal in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and
saves much useless expense if the weeds that are going to seed
are destroyed. If the preventives for weeds here suggested are
closely followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum
-and will often be unnecessary with any crop.
Weed Seeds in Manure for the Garden.—While the dis-
cussion of the subject of manures for the garden is not the
special object of this chapter, yet some reference to the subject
is quite necessary in considering the subject of weed eradica-
tion. The people of this section have not yet learned the great
yalue of barnyard manure and its proper preparation for best
GARDEN TILLAGE. $1
results in the soil. This is a subject of vast importance and
one that in the future will receive far more thought than at
present. The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and
contains many weed seeds and is a fruitful source of weed in-
fection. If the manure intended for the garden contains the
seeds of weeds it should be piled up and allowed to ferment until
the whole mass is thoroughly rotted, which process will kill the
weed seeds in it. It is seldom advisable to use fresh manure
in the garden, and it should only be applied in this condition
when free from weeds and then only for some late maturing
crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the
crops need it.
Plowing.—In the western states, where the summers are
often very dry, vegetable land should generally be plowed in
the autumn so that the subsoil may become sufficiently com-
pacted by spring to readily transmit the subsoil moisture to the
surface. Such treatment, by forming a dust blanket, retards
evaporation from the land during dry autumns and dry winters
when there is no snow on the ground. Fall plowing also puts
the land in the best shape for the action of the elements and
the development of plant food, and may ve a means of killing
very many cut worms, white grubs and other insects that winter
over in the soil. If plowing is left until spring in this climate
it should be done as early as practicable and not so deep as
when done in the fall. Deep spring plowing leaves too much of
the upper soil loose and not sufficiently compact to enable the
subsoil water to easily reach the surface roots—but where irri-
gation is practiced there is not much difference in this respect.
The soil for the garden should ordinarily be plowed to a depth
of about eight inches, yet in the case of some light soils half
this depth may be preferable.
Subsoil Plowing or Subsoiling, are terms applied to the
loosening of the land just below where the plow ordinarily goes.
In doing this, the subsoil is not brought to the surface, but
a special plow is used which follows an ordinary plow. This
has no mold board, but has a good point and shoe, and these
loosen the subsoil without raising it. This process may be
hurtful or of no value to subsoils already so loose as to permit
the roots of plants to readily push into them, and should not
32 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
be applied to them, but for some of the very stiff subsoils of
this section it is a great improvement, since it deepens the till-
able land so that the roots of the plants can push more readily
into it. This loosening of the stiff subsoil also puts it into just
the right condition for receiving and holding water. It is thus
sometimes a great help in carrying plants over droughty periods.
Subsoiling gives best results when performed in the autumn.
If done in the spring and the operation is followed by dry
weather, the land is apt to be left too loose to hold moisture
well that year and consequently will suffer from drought. It is
seldom, even on stiff land, that subsoiling is needed more than
Figure 3.—Root of onion plant with earth washed off. The roots went
to the depth of eighteen inches in the earth.
once in four or five years, for after being once loosened the
roots of plants penetrate it and keep it open. The roots of our
garden crops push deeper into the land than is generally known;
even the onion, which is, perhaps, as shallow rooted as any gar-
den crop grown, often pushes its roots to a depth of eighteen
inches in good soil, while corn roots have been followed to a
GARDEN TILLAGH®. 33
depth of four feet. It is probable that in good land almost any of
our garden crops will send their roots eighteen or more inches
deep.
Ridging the Land.—If the land is liable to be too wet for
planting in early spring, it is sometimes a good practice in plow-
ing it to turn several furrows back to back and thus leave the
land in ridges over winter. If these ridges or “lands” are made
fifteen or twenty feet wide, they may be dragged and planted
in the spring without further plowing. For some crops it is
often best to open the furrows again in the spring and thus leave
the land level. This method of treatment permits of working
Figure 4—Cross section of ridged land.
the land much earlier in the spring than it otherwise could be
worked if plowed flat. It also leaves the soil in very good shape
for the action of frost on its particles during the winter. For
early crops on flat or heavy soils it is a most desirable treat-
ment. The objection to it is that if not turned back in the
spring the dead furrows interfere with cultivation; if the land is
thus turned back in the spring, it may be left too loose.
But admitting these objections, even then there are often cases
where this treatment would be very desirable. It snould be
borne in mind, too, in cultivating the garden that, while the
soil in it may be too loose, it cannot be too rich nor too deep,
nor can the subscil, if not of too impervious a nature, be too
compact, and yet it must be loose enough to permit. of the
roots entering it and the water percolating through it.
General Cultivation of Garden Crops.—The methods to be
pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops vary some-
what according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is
very important to remember that the destruction of weeds is but
a small part of the work of cultivation. The most important
part in this section is to so fit the soil that it may best with
34 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
stand drought. This is accomplished by frequent shallow culti-
vation during the period of drought. The first implements to use
in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand
are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth close to
the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings
are breaking ground. As soon as’the plants have gained some
little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper,
until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked with-
out endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants
with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever
be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain
that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to
the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper
ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of
drought results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on
the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from pass-
ing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow dust blanket, say
three inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. A compact sub-
soil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil in
Figure 5.—Iron Age horse hoe.
the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame.
At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by
the blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper sub-
soil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots
of the crop. Loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water.
During the growth of a crop the surface soil should never be left
long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or
artificial watering.
GARDEN TILLAGE. 35
Cultivation to Develop Plant Food.—Nearly all land in this
section contains immense quantities of plant food. Professor
Snyder has shown that our average wheat-producing soils con-
tain enough nitrogen to raise one hundred and twenty-five suc-
cessive crops of wheat. But only a very little of this material
is ever at one time in a condition in which the plant can take
it up; nearly all of it is insoluble. By chemical action and
fermentation in the soil, plant food is set free. This is increased
and made more complete by admitting air into the soil. Hence
the reason for deep plowing in the fall, which allows the air
and water to enter and thus develop plant food. This, also, is
an important fact to be kept in mind in cultivating land. Where
the soil can be kept moist through the summer deep spring
plowing is an advantage as it opens the soil to the air; but on
account of the liability to injury from droughts to soils thus
worked the practice is generally a poor one for this section.
Figure 6.—Planet Jr. fine tooth cultivator.
GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.
Implements, such as plows, harrows, ete., used for prepar-
ing the land for ordinary farm crops are also used in fitting
the land for garden crops. In addition, however, there are a
26 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
number of tools and implements which are not commonly used
in growing the farm crops. These may be roughly classed as
follows:
Horse Hoes and Horse Cultivators are much alike in general
construction, but each is adapted to special purposes, and both
are very desirable. The horse hoes are for use when the land
is very hard and weedy; they may also be used for ridging
the land and drawing the earth from or harrowing it towards
the plants. For this purpose they have various attachments.
The cultivators are especially for the purpose of stirring the
surface soil and ping a dust blanket; they do not remove
weeds that are well established. They throw very little soil side-
ways and on this account may be used for cultivating very
close to small plants. Among the best of these are those
known under the names of Planet Jr. and Iron Age.
Figure 7.—Opening and closing furrows with hand garden cultivators.
Hand Cultivators.—There are many good forms of hand cul-
tivators on the market, and they are a necessity in every garden
containing over a quarter of an acre. They are made so as to
be adjusted to various widths between the rows, and kinds
called “straddle cultivators” are made so as to cut on two sides
of a row of plants at one time, which is often quite an advantage.
They also have various attachments for special purposes. Among
GARDEN TILLAGE. oy)
the best of these are Jewel wheel hoe, New Universal whcel hoe,
Gem garden cultivator and the several kinds manufactured by
the Planet Jr. Co.
Seed Drills—These are necessary in every garden. There
are many good kinds offered by dealers. Among the best are
the New Model drill, Planet Jr. Hill-Dropping drill and Mat-
thews drill.
Combined Seed Drills and Cultivators.—These are very eco:
nomical and useful implements for a small garden; for a large
garden it is important to have the seed drill and cultivator sep-
Figure 8.—Garden drills. (1) A. H. Mathews. (2) Planet Jr. combined drill.
(2) Mathews combined drill. (4) New Model drill. (5) Planet Jr. Hill
Dropping drill.
arate, but in a small garden these combined machines can be
used to good advantage, and thereby make a saving in first cost.
Among the best of these is the combination drill and cultivator
made by the Ames Plow Co., of Boston, Mass., and the Planet
Jr. combined drill and cultivator.
Figure 9.—A simple garden marker.
38 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Marker.—The illustration shows a good form of a marker
for the garden. It is easily made by any one who is handy with
tools and is used for marking out rows.
Figure 10.—Common wooden Figure 11.—Improved flat
dibber. steel dibber.
Dibbers are generally made from a crooked stick shod with
iron and are very useful in transplanting (Fig. 10). A better
form made of steel is shown in figure 11.
Scuffle Attachments for Hand Garden Cultivators.—Fig. 11
shows two sets of implements designed to be attached to the
Figure 12.—Home made attach- Figure 13.—Scuffle hoe.
meuts for garden cultivators.
ordinary wheel cultivators which will work close up to the
young plants so as to cut off the weeds just under the surface of
the soil, and will be found very useful in many places. They
GARDEN ‘TILLAGE. 39
should be made out of tool steel and any geod blacksmith can
make them. The length of blades may be made to suit the work.
The Scuffle Hoe, shown in Fig. 13, is an excellent old-fash-
ioned implement for shallow cultivation, such as is needed in
early spring in the garden. Besides, it is very cheap and simple
and can be made by any handy blacksmith. It cannot be recom-
mended to take the place of the improved wheel hoes for large
gardens, but in small gardens it may be used for the work of
shallow cultivation to good advantage. It does not work the
soil deep enough for the best summer cultivation.
Fignre 14.—Plank drag for smoothing the surface of land.
Plank Drag or Smoothing Board.—The form of this is clear-
ly shown in Fig. 14. It is used for crushing lumpy soil and
smoothing off and levelling the land preparatory to seed sowing
or planting and will be found very useful. It can be made by
any one. The planks are two by ten inches on the ends and
eight feet long, lapped two inches and nailed. These are
strengthened by two six-inch cleats securely bolted on. It is
drawn by a chain fastened at the front corners.
Potato Diggers.—Of the cheaper forms of potato diggers,
probably the Hallock Improved is the most perfect. It does very
good work, and where not over five acres of potatoes are to
be dug it is probably all that is needed. Where the potato is
raised on a large scale, however, it is generally desirable to
use an elevating digger. Of these the Hoover and the Dowden
are probably the best to be had. They both work on the same
principle.
Spray Pumps.—Almost every farmer and gardener needs a
good spray pump for applying Paris green to potatoes and
vines and for spraying trees, vines, etc., with fungicides or in-
secticides. For this purpose some form of the knapsack spray
40 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
pump is most desirable where the work to be done is not very
extensive. Hor applying these subtances on a large scale some
special apparatus is needed, and there are many kinds offered
by manufacturers. In Fig. 15 is shown the barrel spray pump,
which has been found most convenient at the Minnesota Exxperi-
ment Station for general work about the grounds, such as
spraying trees of different kinds where the knapsack sprayer is
Figure 15.—Barrel spray pump, showing cone shaped strainer to the left.
insufficient. The barrel is fastened to a wooden frame and
may be placed in a wagon or on a stone boat when it is to be
used.
The essential parts are a good hardwood barrel, such as a
linseed oil barrel mounted on and securely fastened to a light
framework of oak. At one end of the barrel is mounted a
powerful force pump with attachments capable of throwing two
GARDEN TILLAGE. 41
or three fine strong sprays at one time. The liquid in the barrel
is kept agitated by a small stream of water passing through a
one-fourth inch pipe, having a one-sixteenth inch wide opening
near the feed p.pe of the pump, in the bottom of the barrel.
On one end of the barrel is shown a cone shaped strainer which
is much the best form to use. There are many styles of spray
nozzles on the market. For general use the McGowen, Vermorel
or Bordeaux are best.
The lower end of the feed pipe is covered with a fine
brass screen. In the center of the side of the barrel is an open-
ing eight inches in diameter with a tight fitting cover. This is so
large that the barrel may be easily cleaned. The whole expense
of making this machine was as follows: One linseed oil bar-
rel, $1; pump, $6.50; 50 feet of one-half inch hose, $3; strainer,
$1.50; two nozzles, $1.25; bolts, etc., 50 cents. Total cost, not
including labor, $13.75.
In buying machinery it is well to regard with suspicion
those that are very complicated, as the simplest is generally the
most durable in the end.
CHAPTER IV.
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING FARMER'S KITCHEN
GARDEN.
For the Successful Germination of Seed in the land it
should be placed so as to have a reasonable amount of heat,
moisture and air. To secure these conditions in practice, the
seed should be imbedded in mellow soil, and this packed around
it just firm enough to bring it into actual contact with and
make sure capillary action in the soil. If the soil is left loose
over and around the seed, capillary action cannot continue, and
the seed is liable to dry out unless the season is very wet; on
the other hand, the soil must not be allowed to become too com-
pact over the seed, or the young seedling will not be able to push
through it. No matter how carefully the sowing may have been
done, the successful germination of the seed is largely dependent
upon the condition of the ground. Unless the seed is carefully
and properly placed and covered, the crop cannot get a good start
no matter how well the land has been prepared or how good
the seed is. Seed will not sprout in the absence of air, and on
this account when deeply buried some weed seeds may retain
their germinating power for many years. Cases are on record of_
yellow mustard seeds germinating after remaining in the land
for eighteen years. Very frequently, on plowing land that has
not been stirred for a long time, the weeds of certain kinds are
very abundant, showing that they must have been in the soil a
long time, but could not germinate away from the air.
Depth to Plant.—Most of the common, smaller garden seeds
are planted one inch deep; celery and some other fine seeds
cannot be planted nearly so deep. Peas and corn are generally
planted from two to three inches deep. Peas, however, are some-
times planted as deep as six inches. These matters will be
found referred to under their respective heads.
Always Sow in Freshly Stirred Ground, as the seed is far
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 43
more liable to get a good start in it than in soil that has lain
untilled long enough to become crusty and lumpy. Then, if the
seeds are planted immediately after cultivation has been given
and while the soil is still moist, the weeds will hardly get the
start of the crop planted if reasonable care is used. In fact,
following this rule will generally insure success as long as there
is life in the seed and moisture in the soil. Again, it is preferable
to sow seeds immediately after a rain rather than just before it
comes, since in the case of the finer seeds the crust which forms
immediately after a rain may be so compact that the young
seedlings cannot push through. When a crust thus forms over
seeds it is sometimes a good plan to go over the land before the
crust is very compact and break it up with rakes, but this should
be done in a most careful manner so as not to disturb the seeds.
If a crust forms over fine seeds, such as celery, tobacco and
others, it is a good plan to keep the crust moist, at least, until
the seeds have pushed through it. Soil that is much dried out in
midsummer is often quite an obstacle to the ready germina-
tion of seed sown at that time, but if the seed is sown shortly
after the ground is plowed and somewhat deeper than it is
generally sown, in the early spring and care is taken to firm
the earth very carefully immediately after sowing, the seed will
generally come up very quickly at this season. But the land
should not be worked for seed sowing or for any other purpose
when very wet and sticky, as seeds cannot be properly planted
in soil in such condition. :
The Time for Sowing the various seeds varies greatly and
will be founnd referred to separately under the several heads.
Some seeds, such as spinach, onion, lettuce and radish may be
sown as soon cs the ground can be worked, while the seed
of such tropical plants as corn, cucumber and squash should not
be sown until the ground is well warmed. The early sown
hardier seeds are often frozen up in the ground and, perhaps,
covered with snow without injury; in fact, a covering of snow
seems to help seeds of the hardy kinds to grow.
Sowing in Stiff Clay Soils.—It is comparatively easy to make
seeds germinate in sand, sandy loam, muck or soil rich in humus,
provided they contain a reasonable amount of moisture, but in
stiff clay soils this is often quite a different matter, as the land
44 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
becomes crusted over so completely as to prevent the smaller
seedlings from pushing through. For such land it is desirable to
use rather more seed than would be needed in more porous soil
for the reason that while a few plants could not push up the
crusted surface yet the many can do so; and while thick seed-
ing increases the total cost of seed, yet the certainty of thus
securing a full stand is so great an advantage as to well repay
this additional outlay and the expense for thinning, if it has to
be done at all, is about the same for thick as for thin seeding.
Sowing Seed With Machine.—When the soil is prepared for
best work with a garden drill it is generally in the best condition
for the germination of seeds. The whole surface should be
fine, mellow and even. There are only one or two garden seeds
that cannot readily be sown with any of the half dozen good
garden drills that are offered in the market. Garden drills when
properly used will sow and cover seed much more uniformly than
it can possibly be sown and covered by hand, and they are a
necessity in any well-managed garden. It is of the utmost im-
portance to have straight rows in the garden, for they are more
economical of space than crooked rows and are more perfectly
cultivated with the wheel hoes and cultivator, besides, crooked
rows are unsightly and slovenly. It is generally desirable in
using a garden drill to mark off the first row with a line to get
it straight. If this is done to begin with the subsequent rows
may be kept parallel by using the marker always found on such
machines, providing constant care is used. Some growers
prefer to mark out all the rows with a marker and then run the
seed sower in the marks, but for a careful workman this is
useless labor. Seed drills are made with a point to open fur-
rows, a coverer for filling in after the drill, a wheel for compact-
ing the soil on the seed and a marker for the next row. To use
a garden seed drill most successfully requires good judgment,
but a little careful experimenting will soon enable any one ac-
customed to tools to handle these most useful implements to good
advantage. Sometimes it is desirable to sow seed when the
ground is so wet that it is not safe to firm the soil over it.
When such is the case the rear wheel is removed in sowing.
In other cases when it is desirable to firm the soil more com-
pactly, the press wheel may be used for this purpose, by going
° +
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 45
over the rows a second time. It is a good plan in doing this
to remove the drill point or else tip the machine until the
point is off the ground. In the case of a few seeds that are
rather delicate about germinating, it is a good plan to sow the
rows a second time with the seed drill and thus mix the seed
up with the soil. This method puts in a large amount of seed,
leaves the seed at various depths, and some of it is sure to
grow.
Sowing Seed by Hand.—When only a very small quantity of
seed is to be sown it is often best to sow it by hand. When this
is the plan the rows are made by the garden maker and the
seed distributed in them evenly by hand. The rows are then
eovered by the soil being drawn into them with a rake and are
firmed by passing over the seed with the feet. If the soil is
dry it cannot be made too firm; if moist, care must be used
to prevent packing it too hard. In the case of very fine seed
sown in dry weather, many devices are used to bring about
germination such as watering, shading the soil with boards,
covering the earth with cloths and the like.
Using the Feet for Firming the Soil Around the Seeds.—
Many seeds are lost from the failure to properly firm the soil
over those sown during dry weather. Many devices have been
suggested and used for securing this desirable condition, but
for general garden purposes no method or implement ever used
can vie with the proper use of the feet for this purpose. While
this matter is referred to elsewhere, it is put under this special
head to call attention to this useful fact. Peter Henderson was
the first to call attention to the importance of this method, and
describes it as follows: “After plowing, harrowing and leveling
the land smoothly, lines are drawn by the ‘markers,’ which
make furrows about two inches deep and a foot apart. After
the man who sows the seed follows another who, with the ball
of his right foot, presses down his full weight on every inch
of soil where the seed has been sown; the rows are then
slightly levelled longitudinally with the rake, a light roller is
passed over them and the work is done.’ Those who have
practiced this method know it gives most excellent results. In
my own practice, in sowing seed in dry weather, even with a
46 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
seed drill which has a wheel for ‘firming the soil, I have fre-
quently, and to advantage, walked the rows with the heel of one
foot close to and in front of the toe of the other, pressing
down on the row.
Thinning.—It is generally best to sow the seed of most gar-
den vegetables much more thickly than the plants should stand
when mature. This is done to make sure of having enough
plants to stock the land, and it is a good practice. It is im-
portant, also, to let every young plant in the garden have room
enough for perfect development, and this can only be secured,
where thick seeding is practiced, by thinning out. It is a very
general fault of beginners in gardening that they try to grow
too many plants on their land. This is a common mistake
and is no better in result than permitting weeds to grow. Every
plant in excess of what can properly mature on the land is in its
effect a weed and should be treated as such. In the home gar-
den, where the thinnings are valuable, as in the case of beets,
lettuce, etc., the work of thinning need not be done all at once
but as the plants need room. In the market garden it is best
to thin out the full distance at one time. Do not allow the
seedlings to get drawn and spindling before thinning, but do
it while they are young and before they crowd one another.
The proper distances between plants seem very large when the
plants are small, but it must be remembered that later on any-
thing less than the proper distance injures the crop. One must
have determination enough to throw away many nice plants in
order to make room for those that are to mature. It is better
to give too much than too little room to plants.
Protection to Newly Planted Seeds against insects and
birds may often be given by slightly moistening them and then
stirring in red lead until all the seeds are Larousse coateil.
The seed should be dried before sowing.
Crows and Gophers May be Kept From Eating Corn by coat-
ing it with coal tar as follows: Wet the corn with hot water
and drain off all surplus. Spread it out about four inches deep
on the floor of a warm room and sprinkle it with hot coal tar
using about a tablespoonful to a half bushel of corn and stir
thoroughly until every kernel has a thin coat of tar on it. Then
ny
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 47
dry the corn by coating it with dry ground plaster or other fine
absorbent. This treatment does not seem to hinder germination.
TRANSPLANTING.
Avoid transplanting as much as possible.—Whatever may
be said of its merits elsewhere does not apply in this section,
since the dry weather so common here in the season when
transplanting is done often makes the operation unsuccessful.
Undoubtedly one of the reasons why transplanted plants some-
times give better results than seedlings allowed to grow where
the seed is sown, is that they are allowed more room to develop
in, but if seedlings that are not moved are given the proper room
to develop they are just as good and generally far superior to
those that are transplanted. Transplanting, as a rule, is an in-
jury to plants and yet it is a necessary operation in the growing
of some of our most valuable vegetables.
Figure 16.—A box of young lettuce plants after being transplanted from the seed
box. These plauts may be moved tothe open ground or to hotbeds or cold
frames as soon as they crowd oneanother. Thisis a convenient way to grow
plants in dwelling houses and in front of windows. This style of box is
often referred to as a “‘flat.’’
Success in Transplanting is dependent on a variety of con:
ditions. In moist weather the setting of plants in the open
ground is a very simple operation and any One can succeed with
it without much effort, but during dry weather the gardener’s
skill is taxed to the utmost to move plants successfully. One of
the most important elements for success in transplanting is a
48 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
supply 3f first-class stocky plants that have not been crowded
in the seed bed. Such plants make success reasonably certain.
A most important requirement in any case is that the soil be
moist and not wet and sticky. If it is very dry it must be
watered or failure will be a sure result.
Shortening the Tops of Plants.—It is a good plan to shorten
the tops of cabbage, celery, cauliflower and similar plants when
they are to be moved. This may be done by twisting or cutting
off a third or even one-half of the tops. If the plants have ex-
cessively long roots it is a good plan to shorten them enough
to permit of their being handled easily.
Migure 17. 1.—Cabbage plant with long stem set deep. 2—Cabbage
plant with top twisted off before planting. 3—Cabbage plant
wrapped in manilla paper to protect from cut worms.
The Digging of Plants should be done carefully and every
precaution taken to get good roots. If the bed is very dry the
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 49
soil should be thoroughly wet before digging so that the small
roots will not be broken in separating the plants. The best
time of day for transplanting is generally after 4 p. m., as after
that time the moisture in the air increases rapidly and the
plants have the cool night air in which to recover before being
subjected to the intense rays of the sun. Of course if the
weather is cloudy the plants may be set out at any time of the
day. If a little shade can be provided for the newly set plants
so much the better. This may consist of boxes, boards slightly
raised from the ground, shingles, inverted flower pots, paper bags,
Figure 18.—Tomato plants grown in a compartment box to facilitate
; transplanting. Such boxes can be bought for a very low price and
are very convenient aids for transplanting many kinds of plants.
They are especially desirable when plants are to be sold at retail.
a handful of green grass, strawberry boxes or similar material
that will protect the plants from the fierce rays of the sun.
Firming the soil about the roots is fully as important as
firming the soil over the seeds and for the same reasons. It
should be so firmly and closely packed that the plants cannot
be pulled up without considerable effort. ‘The drier the soil
50 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the greater the necessity for packing it firmly about the roots.
If the soil is wet and inclined to pack hard it should receive only
moderate pressure until somewhat dried out. The firming is gen-
erally done by pressing with a dibber or the ball of the foot
against the soil on one side of the roots of the plant. When the
transplanting is finished it is a good plan to give the plants
a good hoeing at once, drawing a little loose, dry soil around
them to act as mulch and prevent evaporation. The holes for
the plants are generally made with a dibber (Fig. 10 or 11.) A
spade is often used for this pur-
pose and such plants as small on-
ions are most conveniently set in
small furrows made with a wheel
hoe. In every case, however, the
plants should be set a little deeper
than they grew in the seed bed and
in the case of spindling tomato,
cabbage and
some other
plants itis
a good plan
to bend the
stems and
bury a large
part of them
im the seid
as shown in
figure 17.
Figure 19.—Transplanting aided by the Balbridge transplanter, which takes up
a ball of earth with each plant. The illustration shows a box of strawberry
plants just taken up and ready for planting out. In planting out the holes
are made with the same implement. There are several other similar
implements for the same purpose.
Hardening off the Plants.—Hardening off is a term used to
denote the checking of the growth of plants in such a way as to
cause their tissues to become firm and hard. It is very important
to have the plants accustomed to cold weather when they are
transplanted to the open ground, or they may be killed by a frost
that otherwise would do them no harm. This is true of the
SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANT 51
cauliflower, celery and of course of all our native frost tender
trees and many other plants. When cabbage plants are properly
hardened they take on a dull blue color that at once indicates
their condition to one acquainted with their peculiarities. This
hardening off of the plants is accomplished by gradually subject-
ing them to a lower temperature than that in which they grow
freely or by drying them a little, and, finally, thus nearly check-
ing their growth. The result is a sort of ripening up of the
tissues of the plants and, in consequence, they will stand great
hardship.
Tomato Cans are very convenient substitutes for flower pots
when plants are grown for transplanting. The cover on the
end openzd may be melted off and a half inch hole made in the
Figure 20.—Use of tomato cans as an aid in transplanting. A box of
plants in the cans, ready for removal to the field and one can
opened, showing the ball of roots. The cans are held together by
wire twisted around them.
bottom for drainage. Another way to use them is to melt all
the joints and use the body of the can by tying it together with
a piece of wire. Thus prepared the tins may be set in the hot-
bed or cold frame and filled with earth into which the seed or
VEGETABLE GARDENING.
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SEED SOWING AND 7RANSPLANTING. 53
the plants may be placed. When the time comes for planting
into the open ground the tine with the plants in them may be
lifted with a trowel and placed in boxes, to be carried to the
field where the plants are easily placed in the ground. The
tins may also be set around the plans on top of the ground
to protect them from the sun and wind. (See Fig. 20.)
FARMER’S KITCHEN GARDEN.
When Properly Conducted the kitchen garden should be the
most profitable part of the farm. Too often its confined area
and the laborious methods employed in its management makes
the labor of cultivating it out of all proportion to the returns.
Instead of confining the garden to a small area, it is better to
enclose one or two acres of good rich land with a good wind-
break of some kind so that it will make a garden plot twice as
long as wide. Leave a headland in grass about fifteen feet wide
all around as good crops cannot be grown next to a windbreak.
The rows should run the long way of the land, somewhat as
shown in figure 21. If the garden is surrounded by a fence it is
found a good plan to have the part at the ends of the rows made
of movable panels, so they may be removed when cultivating.
The Arrangement of a vegetable garden in the manner
shown in figure 21 makes it large enough for practicing some-
thing of a rotation of crops in it and permits of hand labor being
reduced to a minimum by the use of horse implements. The
land should be cultivated flat, except for a few special crops
such as celery. There is no advantage to be gained from hilling
up around plants and it is a laborious process that can be dis-
pensed with as well as not. When irrigation cannot be prac-
ticed it is important to have such crops as celery and late cab-
bage on moist soil, but for general gardening purposes a porous
clay soil overlaid with a sandy loam is best, although @ good
clay. loam will do very well when properly cultivated. Light
sandy soils, especially those that are underlaid with sand or
gravel, are too liable to injury from drought to be reliable for
general garden operations. The garden should be near the
house, so as to be easily accessible.
In planning the garden it is important to put all the peren-
nial crops together, and so arrange the other crops that those
54 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
that grow best in rows of the same width will come together.
The accompanying figure shows one plan by which this may be
done; it also provides for a part of the garden to be kept in
clover, to be broken up about once in three or four years and
used for vegetables in alternation with that shown laid out in
rows, which part should then be seeded down for a while. This
is a very desirable feature of this plan.
CHAPTER V.
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. DEVELOPMENT OF VARIE-
TIES.
Good pedigrees in seeds are of the utmost importance in
order to grow good crops. No single factor that enters into pro-
duction of a crop is more important. Where many kinds of
plants are grown it is better and cheaper as a rule to depend on
some careful seed grower for seeds than to go to the expense of
raising them, although it may be best to raise a few of the more
important kinds of seeds for which one’s conditions are best
adapted. When one makes a specialty of crops like onions, cab-
bage and some other vegetables, it is often advantageous to raise
the seed oneself, since their purity and pedigree are then known
and no risk is taken about it.
Some seeds can be grown to better advantage in one section
than in another. For instance, cauliflower seed cannot be raised
profitably in many parts of the United States, but near Puget
Sound and in a few other places in this country it can be raised
to good advantage. Most of the cauliflower seed used in this
country is still imported from southern Europe. As a general
rule, however, the seeds raised in one’s own vicinity or in a
similar climate elsewhere are best to plant if they are properly
selected. Experience seems to show that seed grown in cold
climates generally produces an earlier crop than seed grown in
warm sections.
Testing Seeds.—No matter how carefully our seeds may
have been raised or who the person is from whom Wwe received
jthem it may save much trouble and loss to test them before
‘sowing. This may be done by sowing them in a box of fine
loam kept at a temperature of from 60 to 70 degrees. The
temperature of an ordinary living room is about right. For
,this purpose use a box about four inches deep and the size of
‘a soap box; sow the seed in shallow drills and cover the box
i]
|
56 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
with grass to prevent rapid evaporation. One hundred seed
should be counted out just as they come, and be sown. By count-
ing the seedlings the per cent of germination of the seed is
easily obtained.
A Simple Germinating Apparatus.—A simple method of test-
ing seed is as follows:—Take two plates and in one of them
Figure 22.—Simple device for seed testing (open).
place a folded cloth, woolen flannel is preferable, since it must
remain moist for a long time, but any cloth will do. The cloth
should be free from dye stuffs since they may contain injurious
chemicals. Wet the cloth, pressing out the surplus water, leav-
ing it very damp, but not soaked. Place the counted seeds be-
tween its folds and mark plainly with a pencil on a piece of
paper the number of seeds put in and the date. Then cover with
the second plate, as shown in figure 23. Plenty of air will get in
Figure 23.—Simple device for seed testing (closed).
between the plates, and the upper one will prevent evaporation.
The temperature should average as recommended. Common
newspaper or wrapping paper may take the place of the cloth,
but requires much more attention.
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 57
Sometimes seeds that barely germinate under the excep-
tionally good conditions that exist in a sitting room or green-
house will not grow readily when planted outdoors, so that in
testing seeds it is very important to note the vigor of the sprouts.
Seeds that start strongly in the house may be safely planted at
their proper season outdoors, while those that start only weak
sprouts indoors may be worthless for outdoor planting. An in-
stance bearing on this occurred a few years ago at Chester,
N. Y., where an onion grower planted seeds three years old
which germinated fairly well in his conservatory but failed to
grow outdoors, while fresher onion seed sown at the same time
grew perfectiy.
The Curing and Storing of Seeds are matters of much im-
portance and greatly influence their germinating qualities.
Seeds should be thoroughly ventilated while being cured, or
they will mould or sprout, either of which seriously injures their
value. Seeds of some kinds will sprout several times before
entirely losing their germinating qualities, but they lose much of
their vitality, even by once sprouting. Moulded seeds may some-
ttmes retain their vitality unimpaired, but if to be offered for
sale their dark color is objectionable, for it must always be re-
garded as an evidence of neglect in curing. It is important also
to prevent seeds, especially tropical seeds as those of melons,
squashes, corn, cucumbers, tomatoes, etc., from being frozen un-
til fully dry. The freezing of green or half cured seeds in-
jures their vitality and often destroys it. This is well known in
the case of corn where the seed taken from an ordinary crib in
the spring often fails to grow while seed corn from the same crop
properly cured in a dry warm room grows perfectly.
Seeds are much influenced by the temperature and humidity
of the place in which they are kept. A dry place is absolutely
necessary for successfully keeping garden seeds, and if warm
so much the better for tropical seeds The temperature and con-
dition of a good living room are almost ideal for storing all kinds
of garden seeds. Most if not all our garden seeds are unimpair-
ed by even severe freezing while perfectly dry. In a moist place
garden seeds lose their germinating qualities much quicker than
when they are kept dry.
Changing Seed.—There are locations so well adapted to cer-
58 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
tain particular crops that some varieties seem to lose nothing
of their pristine vigor and productiveness when grown there for
many years, or they may be greatly improved in such locations;
but, as a rule it is a good plan to change seed occasionally and
it often results in increased productiveness. This sems to be
a fact while the reason for it is not so plain.
Stock Seed.—When seed raising is a large business it is
out of the question to have all the specimens planted, perfect
in every respect, but nothing should be planted except it is near
the desired type. Each year enough perfect specimens, or those
closely approximating perfection, should be selected to raise the
seed for the grower’s use the following season. In this way the
quality of the grower’s seed stock is kept up and without such
care the stock of seed is liable to seriously deteriorate. Seed
so selected and improved from year to year is termed stock
seed. (
Seedsmen’s Specialties.—Most seed growers and dealers have
some few kinds of seed in which they are especially interested.
These they select with more than ordinary care. It is always
desirable to order seed of our specialties from those making
a specialty of our favorite kinds unless we raise them ourselves.
To secure the best it is well to order early in the season.
Seedsmen’s Humbugs.—Almost without exception every
dealer in seeds sells humbugs, that is, worthless or very inferior
varieties. If he is honest he offers them simply because his
customers want them. If he is dishonest he is very apt to mis-
represent and praise them in order to make customers pay a big
profit.
Novelties.—It is desirable to test novelties in seeds and
plants, but this should be done cautiously and, as a rule, it is
best not to be in too great haste to try new things. It is the
general experience of growers that not more than one in ten
of the novelties in seeds, fruits and plants is any better than
those generally cultivated. In the history of the Minnesota
Experiment Station the average of desirable seed novelties has
been even less than this.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIETIES.
There are laws that govern heredity and descent in plants
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 59
as well as in animals, and by intelligent selection and breeding
one may greatly improve or even originate new varieties of
vegetable as well as of other plants. The seed stock of desirable
new or improved varieties may often be sold at profitable prices,
or by retaining the sole ownership of suc new or improved
kinds, one may perhaps raise crops that have highly esteemed
qualities as to size, shape, color, flavor, hardiness, season of
maturity or other features, and so command an advanced price.
Thus a grower may sometimes be well rewarded for his care
and attention in improving his specialties, but careful study and
persistence is necessary to success and few persons are keen
enough in their powers of observation, to succeed in this line
of work.
There is constant tendency for cultivated plants to vary
widely from the original form, though this feature may not mani-
fest itself for many generations after cultivation has com-
menced. The higher the state of cultivation to which a plant
is subjected, the higher are the chances of its producing new
features. In nature plants grow under fixed conditions, so they do
not vary much. When a plant once commences to vary from the
original type, the changes ofttimes come very rapidly, and the
possibilities are endless. Thus from a wild plant two or more
feet high with only a few leaves has been developed (1) the
modern cabbage of (a) the wrinkled, (b) the smooth, (c) the
red-leaved, and (d) the many ornamental kinds; (2) Brussels
sprouts with numerous small cabbage heads on a stem two or
more feet high; (3) cauliflowers, in which the inflorescence
becomes thick and fleshy; (4) the various kinds of kale; and (5)
cow cabbage, which in the Jersey Islands has been known to
grow to the height of sixteen feet and strong enough for rafters
of cow sheds. The many varieties of garden and field plants
are conclusive evidence of the variation of plants under cultiva-
tion.
All of our valuable garden vegetables are the result of al-
most endless care in selection and in a few cases of artificial
as well as chance crossing. They must be regarded as artificial
productions having a constant tendency to revert to the inferior
wild state, which we must constantly try to overcome if their
desirable qualities are to be maintained.
60 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
It is necessary for the most successful breedinng of plants
to have in view a well defined purpose and in selecting seed not
to vary the ideal standard of excellence sought, for such varia-
tion increases the difficuliy of fixing desired characteristics.
It is found to be quite a general law obtaining among plants
that the qualities of the parent are much more potent and thus
more liable to be transmitted than some especially desirable
qualities of a few individual fruits, which may occur on a plant
otherwise defective. For instance, Liivingstone, who has done
much to improve the tomato, selected seed for fifteen years from
the best tomatoes that approached most nearly in size and other
qualities the best modern tomatoes without noting much im-
provement. He says, “I was then no nearer the goal than
when I started. Such stock seed would reproduce every trace
of their ancestry, viz: thin fleshed, rough, undesirable fruits.”
It finally occurred to him to select from the special merits of
the plants as a whole instead of from the best fruits without re-
gard to the plants on which they grew. Improvement then came
easily and rapidly and in a few years he obtained the Paragon,
Acme and Perfection, varieties which were vastly superior to
and have entirely supplanted the old varieties of tomatoes.
Again, in selecting seed corn it is more important to save seed
from plants having ears approaching the desired size of cob, kKer-
nel, etc., rather than to select the largest kernels alone or to
select from ears after they have been pulled.
When it is desired to hasten the ripening period of a variety,
only the seed from the earliest maturing specimens from a plant
having the largest number of early specimens should be planted.
In order to fix late maturing qualities, seed should be saved
from the late maturing fruits on plants possessing these feat-
ures to the greatest extent.
The continued selection of any seed from inferior specimens
results in the fixing of the poorer qualities even more surely
than the selection of seed from the better plants results in im-
provement. By judicious selection the cabbage has sometimes
been changed from a biennial to an annual producing no head
at all but going to seed the first year. When cabbage has been
grown for several generations from stem sprouts and not from
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 61
head sprouts the effect has sometimes been to lengthen the
stem at the expense of the head, until the seed stock becomes run
out entirely and is in effect no longer true modern cabbage seed,
since it has partly reverted to the original type. An instance of
this occurred in a neighborhood in Nova Scotia where, for the
sake of economy for a number of years cabbage seed was grown
by cutting off the heads and planting out the stumps only until
the stems became nearly two feet long and the heads not much
bigger than twice the size of a man’s fist.
The practice of sowing the seed from plants remaining in
the garden after the best specimens have been gathered for
home usé, as often happens, is a very poor one. Under such
treatment there is a very general tendency for the stock to
degenerate. Where seed is to be saved in a mixed garden, a few
hills of plants should be allowed to go to seed for this special
purpose, without being picked at all. It is very important to
save seed from well ripened fruits Very immature seeds will
often grow but they give a weak though perhaps very early
maturing plant and are very liable to disease. According to
Professor Arthur, it is not the slightly unripe seeds that give a
noticeable increase in earliness but very unripe seeds gathered
from fruit (tomatoes) scarcely of full size and still very green.
Such seeds weigh scarcely more than two-thirds as much as
those fully ripe; they grow readily but lack constitutional vigor.
Professor E. S. Goff has made a great number of experiments
along this line and remarks that the increase in earliness in
tomatoes following the use of very immature seeds, “is accom-
panied by a marked decrease in the vigor of the plant and in the
size, firmness and keeping quality of the fruit.”
A few years of careful observation and experience in follow-
ing out these principles in the breeding of plants with a special
object in view, will convince the most skeptical of the wonderful
power which man possesses to adapt plants to his needs.
Cross and Self-pollination of Plants.— The flowers of plants
are said to be either ~elf-pollenized or crossed. By self-pollina-
tion is meant the pollination of the female organ (pistil)
by the male element (pollen) of the same flower or, in some
cases of the same plant but different flowers as in-corn and
62 MONTHLY CALENDAR.
squashes, which have two kinds of flowers. By crossing or
cross-pollination is meant the pollinization of the female organ
by pollen from another plant. The crossing of different varie-
ties generally gives increased vigor in the progeny, but its
effect is variable and may result in the loss as well as in the
increase of their desirable qualities. Most of our cultivated
plants are crossed by natural processes. The crossing of differ-
ent seed stocks of the same varieties of plants is generally a
great advantage, since it generally results in increased vigor .
without loss of desirable qualities. Seeds from self-pollenized
flowers are not as productive as crossed flowers. Darwin '
found that cabbage plants from seeds that had been crossed
produced nearly three times the weight produced by self-pollen-
ized seeds. In the case of Indian corn, experiments made at the
Illinois Experiment Station show that while cross-fertilization
is not necessary, it is very desirable. Corn grown from crossed
seed in nearly all cases was clearly increased in size as the
result of crossing. “Plants grown from self-fertilized seed corn
were in most cases notably inferior in size and vigor to the
plants grown from hand crossed seed or from seed simply select-
ed which was probably naturally crossed.” “One plat from self-
fertilized seed had nearly half the stalks deformed in such a
manner that instead of standing up straight they turned off at
a right angle at or near the point where the ear was produced,
thus showing the tassel on a level with the ear. Many of the
tassels were very deficient in pollen.” In another plot from |
self-fertilized seed, nearly all the tassels were abortive. All the
plants. from self-fertilized seed produced a greater proportion
of barren stalks or poorly filled ears than plants of the same
varieties from hand crossed seed or from seed naturally fertil-
ized. On the other hand the flowers of barley and wheat are so
constructed that their flowers seldom open and hence are natu-
rally self-fertilized, but even here artificial crossing results in
increased productiveness.
The Effect of Cross-pollination is not always apparent in the
progeny of the first generation, but is frequently plainly to be
seen in the crossed fruit or seed the first year. However, differ-
ences may appear as the result of the cross the second or later
generation which were not suspected. When corn is crossed it
SEEDS AND SEED GROWING. 63
is generally believed that the effect of the cross is apparent the
first year in the grain, but careful experiments plainly show that
this is not so, and that flint corn grains which do not show a
trace of the admixture of sweet corn the first generation may
produce ears the second generation, showing some of the char-
acteristics of the sweet corn, and the same is true of other
kinds that are crossed. The same truth undoubtedly holds as
good in the case of other plants.
Mixing Varieties.—Practically varieties of plants can be
mixed only in the blossom; and in order to mix the different
varieties both must be in blossom at the same time. On this
account potatoes do not mix in the hill. The varieties of some
species of plants are much inclined to mix. Any two varieties
of corn, melons, squashes and cucumbers are especially liable to
be crossed if growing in the same field and in flower at the same
time. However, two kinds of corn, of beans and of other plants
may be grown on adjoining pieces of land withut danger of mix-
ing, providing that they are not in flower at the same time: e. g.,
Cory and Evergreen sweet corn if planted at the same time
may be grown for seed close together and will not mix, since
the Cory would be entirely out of flower when the Evergreen
came into flower. Melons and squashes never mix together, for
although this belief is widespread the most careful experiments
have failed in getting any fruit when the one has been pollen-
ized by the other. Neither do musk-melons and water-melons
mix together.
Distance Between Varieties.—The distance which should in-
tervene between varieties liable to mix is variously estimated by
different growers and is influenced by various conditions. The
pollen of corn, grasses and many other plants is moved by the
wind; and when different varieties of corn flowering at the same
time are planted for seed there will be more liablity of their
mixing when the pieces of land on which they grow are in line of
the prevailing winds than when east and west of each other. If
a grove or hill intervenes between varieties it will often prevent
crossing. When varieties of each plant are not on a line of pre-
vailing winds, they are reasonably free from mixing if 500 feet
apart: otherwise, at least 1,000 feet should intervene.
64 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Such plants as melons, cucumbers, squashes and onions and
most other plants with conspicuous flowers, are pollenized by
insects to whose bodies the pollen becomes attached and is thus
carried from one flower to another. This pollen is not light and
powdery as in corn and many other plants but is rather heavy.
It is obvious then that the direction of the wind has little effect
in crossing such plants. It is generally agreed that different
varieties of plants pollenized by insects should have at least 1,000
feet between them to prevent mixing, but which will often occur |
to some extent even with these precautions. The greatest care
should be taken to keep stock seed from being mixed.
CHAPTER V1.
GLASS STRUCTURES.
Glass structures are becoming more numerous each season
for raising vegetables and flowers, and are destined to continue
to increase in use as the wealth of the country increases. They
are referred to here under the head of cold frames, hotbeds and
greenhouses.
Cold Frames.—The term cold frame is applied to frames cov-
ered with glass and used to protect plants in winter, or for for-
warding them without any heat other than that derived from
the sun. It is the simplest form of glass structure. They are
SG, Z
) le
No co
Figure 24.—Movable frame which may be stored out ofthe way in the summer.
It is generally made of one inch boards and is very cunvenieut for those
using only a few sashes.
generally made 4% or 6 feet wide and of any length or depth
which convenience may suggest. The sashes for covering them
are generally 4x4% feet or 3x6 in size. The location should be
near to water and the house, preferably sloping to the south and
well protected on the north and west by buildings, trees, etc. If
there is no protection on the north and west, a tight board fence
six feet high will answer the purpose. In making the bed the
following are requisites: Enough 2x12 in. plank to go the length
of the north side and the same length of 2x6 in. plank for the
south side of the bed and 2x4 in. stakes, two or more feet long,
vo VEGETABLE GARDENING.
for each corner and to support the sides firmly in place and sash
and shutters to cover. The plants should be made into a box
with its width equal to the length of the sash and extending east
and west. See figure 24. Those forming the north side should
be six inches above ground, and the top edge of the plank forming
the southerly side should be five inches lower. Thus when the
sash is put on, it will slope five inches to the south, as shown in
figure. The planks should be nailed to the stakes, and end pieces
put in. The earth inside the frame should be thrown out to the
bottom of the planks and used to bank up the outside of the
frame. The soil of the frame should be of the best quality if
plants are to be grown init. The frame is now ready for the sash
and plants. More durable and expensive frames are sometimes
made of brick or stone for the sides, and sometimes four-inch
strips are put on wherever two of the sashes come together, to
serve aS a support. Frames are also frequently made several
feet deep, but the same general rule applies in the building of
them as are here given.
Cold frames are used in the middle states to winter over
cabbage and lettuce plants. The plants are started in September
and planted into them when grown to a good transplanting size.
In severe climates this is not a safe method.
Cold frames are used here in the spring for forwarding let-
tuce and other early crops, and still later for melons, cucumbers
and other tropical plants. They are also used to extend the
season of growth during the autumn months and to protect some
of the half-hardy plants, such as spinach, during the winter.
They require ventilation during the day in mild weather, and on
cold nights should be covered with mats and shutters or shutters
alone. They are very inexpensive and very useful in the garden,
but where the materials for making them can be had at low cost
hotbeds are much more satisfactory for forcing vegetables.
Hotbeds.—Hotbeds are made very much like cold frames,
only they are warmed by fermenting horse manure or other
material placed under the soil, and hence they must be dug out
deep enough to make room for it. The amount of manure neces-
sary to properly warm a hotbed will depend very much on the
season of the year at which the bed is made up and the crop
to be grown. In the colder northern states when the hotbeds are
GLASS STRUCTURES. 67
made up at the beginning of March from 24 to 30 inches of ma-
nure should be used, and covered with six or eight inches of rich
soil. Later in the season 18 inches or even one foot of manure
Figure 25.—Cross section of hotbed.
may be sufficient. In favorable locations hotbeds may be used
all winter for growing lettuce, radishes, ete. This is not often
practicable in the extreme northern states and cheap greenhouses
are generally used there during winter and hotbeds only during
the spring.
The Hotbed and Frames for Early Spring Use should be pre-
pared in the autumn, so that no digging will have to be done in
the spring. The soil for spring use should generally be put into
them, covered with leaves, and the shutters and mats put on
to keep out the frost. If this has not been done the sash may
be put on in the early spring, which will partially thaw out the
soil in the bed; or, by another method, more manure may be
used, putting it on the surface of the frozen land, and the frame
may be set on top of it. In the latter case the manure should ex-
tend at least one foot beyond the sides of the frame and be one-
half again as deep as when placed in a pit and the frame should
be banked up with manure. It is quite common practice to
make movable frames of one-inch boards large enough for three
or four sash, as shown in figure 24. These are kept from year to
year, being set om top of the manure and the earth put into them.
Hotbed Manure.—The material generally used for heating
hotbeds is fresh horse manure, but sheep manure and even spent
hops may serve the purpose. Of animal manures, that. from
horses fed on highly nitrogenous foods, i. e., on grain foods, will
68 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
heat best. The preparation of the manure is very simple. It
should be gathered together in a pile, as fresh as may be,
when if moist it will generally heat, no matter how cold the
weather. If it does not start to heat readily, a few buckets of hot
water poured into the center of the pile will often start it. When
it gets nicely started the pile should be turned over, throwing the
outside manure into the center of the pile and breaking up all
the lumps. In a few days it will heat again and will then. be
ready to go into the frames, but do not put it into the frames
until it is heating thoroughly. Clear horse manure heats too
violently and should be mixed with about its own bulk of leaves
or fine straw. The leaves used to keep frost out of the frames
during winter now come in to good advantage for mixing with the
manure. Of course, if the manure gathered has considerable
straw in it this admixture is not necessary.
The way of putting manure in the frames calls for some
little care. It should be broken up very fine, mixed with leaves
or other material and spread as evenly as possible over the
whole bed, taking special pains to have the frame well filled in
the center, as it settles there much quicker than at the sides.
As the manure is put in it should be packed down quite firmly by
the feet, taking great care to have it evenly packed throughout.
Now put on the sash and cover until it heats well all through
the bed. If it does not start to heating quickly enough, a few
buckets of hot water should be added. When well warmed
through, level off the top of the manure and cover with soil six
inches deep. This soil should have been prepared in the autumn
and protected from frost by mulching or put under the leaves in
ithe bed; but if this provision has not been made the soil may be
searched for in cellars, under strawstacks, in the woods under
leaves or elsewhere, or the soil may be thawed out by the use
of sash and manure. As this latter process is tedious all experi-
cneed growers prepare their soil in autumn.
After the soil is put on it should be left until it is warmed
through and the weed seeds near the surface have germinated.
Then remove the sashes and make the surface fine with a rake
and the bed is ready to receive the seed. A hotbed made up
in this way in March will continue to give out heat five or six
weeks, after which it will be practically a cold frame, but since
GLASS STRUCTURES. 69
after the middle of April the sun is pretty high and the bed well
warmed, the plants will continue to flourish.
Hotbeds require more water than cold frames and more care
in the matter of ventilation. They should not be started until
a short time before one is ready to use them. If seedlings are to
be raised in them to be later on transplanted, start only enough
sashes to grow the seedlings and do not start other hotbeds
until the seedlings are big enough to be removed into them.
For the ordinary farm garden four or five hotbed sashes are
a great plenty and no more should be started than can be prop-
Figure 26.—Fire hotbed.
erly attended to. These should be started about the first of
March. This number will be found sufficient for all the early
radishes, onions, lettuce, cress and other greens for the table in
early spring, and for raising tomatoes, cabbage and other vege:
table plants to be set out later in the open ground.
Shutters and mats are used for covering the sash of hot-
beds and cold frames at night to prevent too rapid radiation of
the heat.
Fire Hotbeds.—Horse manure will undoubtedly continue to
70 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
be used for warming hotbeds, no matter how much greenhouse
construction or means of artificial heating may be cheapened,
but there are some situations where it may be more economical
and convenient to use a forcing bed or what is sometimes
called a fire hotbed. This closeky resembles a hotbed in out-
ward appearance, but instead of being heated with manure a
flue is used to take its
Be coe aces place, and it is warmed
pecan «Cee aes by the smoke of wood,
item, Mab en Nan a2 aot coal or other fuel. In
| gerne mon necwens.,
TH] LW is case a pit shou
. — v4 ie excav 4, A pat,
\. XS: nished with permanent
\
Sy
.
<> walls and a_ good
strong floor to support
the soil in which the
crops grow. Ten inch terra cotta or glazed drain tile is a cheap
material for the flue, or brick may be used for this purpose.
The furnace and the first eight or ten feet of the flue should be
made oi common hard brick and have a lining of fire brick set
in fire clay. If the pit is not over thirty feet long the fire box
should be at one end and the chimney at the other; but if much
longer it is better to have the chimney over the fire-box and to
run the tile to the end of the house and return back to the chim-
ney. This chimney should have dampers so arranged that when
kindling the fire a direct draft may be had into it, and after
starting the fire the heat and smoke can then be forced to go
through the whole length of the pipe. This arrangement is de-
sirable on account of the difficulty in getting a draft through a
long, flat, cold flue. In laying such a flue, it should rise slightly
throughout its whole length from firebox to chimney. The fur-
nace should vary in size according to whether coal or wood is to
‘be used for fuel. For wood the furnace should be 18 inches wide
and arched over the required length, generally 4% feet, with cast
iron grate bars set in the walls. There should be an ash pit of
suitable size, and both it and the fire-box should have suitable
iron doors set in brick. The illustrations herewith show the gen:
eral arrangement of such a house. It is a good plan to build
a low shed for fuel on the end where the furnace is located.
GLASS STRUCTURES. 71
The heat from a fiue is very dry, and much more water is
required when hotbeds are heated in this way than when manure
is used as the source of heat.
A Greenhouse Hotbed.—A greenhouse may be heated by
manure or a combination of manure and other artificial heat.
In the following lines and illustrations is given the plan of what
may be called a greenhouse hotbed which has been in very suc-
cessful operation at the Minnesota Agriculaural School. The de-
scription is from an article on the subject by R.S. Mackintosh, of
the Division of Horticulture.
“There are disadvantages in hotbeds, as, for instance, the
transplanting, ventilating, watering, etc., must be done from the
outside even in severe weather, while in a house like the one
.
ee
P BLEVATION..
PLAN.
Figure 28.—Plan and elevation of hotbed greenhouse.
shown in the figure these operations can be carried on easily.
The house is simply a hotbed built so as to allow a person to go
72 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
inside to do all the work of caring for the plants. Figure 28
shows the general plan of the house. The size is 12x24 feet.
The roof consists of sixteen sashes, each 3x6 feet. Any number
of sashes may be used according to the size of the house desired. ~
To receive the most sunlight the house should extend north and
south; the light will then strike both sides of the plants. The
south end of the house is glazed from the surface of the bed up
to the rafters. It is not necessary to excavate the full depth
of four feet, because the earth that is thrown out can be used
to bank up with on either side, making a terrace as sloping as
desired.
The heat is furnished by two to three feet of well prepared
manure in each bed, over which is placed five inches of soil.
SECTIONAL VIEW. _
— 7 Seote inge.— ~ 75
ir aes Ta DL
Figure 29.—Sectional view of hotbed greenhouse.
The sashes are fastened to the rafters by screws which prevents
their being lifted by heavy winds and at the same time allows
them to be removed very easily when desired to replace soil or
manure. Ventilation is provided for by fastening one or more
sashes with hinges at the bottom so they may be raised as high
as necessary at the top.
Many kinds of building material may be used in the con:
GLASS STRUCTURES. 73
struction of the wall, beds, etc. Lumber is used in the building
shown in the figure, but brick or stone would be more durable,
though it would add considerable to the first cost. The posts
are three feet apart, extend about two feet below the planks
and are braced. The inside rows of posts need not be quite
so strong as the outside ones, and need not be braced. When
a house is not more than twenty-four feet long it will not be
necessary to support the roof in more than one place. This is
done by extending two of the middle posts to the rafters.
In figure 29 is shown a cross section of this greenhouse and
the way the sashes and rafters are joined at top and bottom.
The sashes are cut so as to fit tightly at the top and the plate
is beveled a little so as to allow water to run off quickly.
There are sixteen wooden shutters for covering the sashes
on cold nights. These are made the same width as the sashes
but six inches_ longer.
One cleat is put on the
upper side at one end,
and the other on the
lower side at the other
end. When put on, the
upper cleat is against the
ridge pole which leaves
the shutters clear for the
water to run off. They
are made of second fenc-
ing matched and dressed.
In this house there is
glass over. the _ path,
which is not necessary
in the lean-to plan,
shown in figure 30, where
the sash is all on the
Figure 30.—Cross section of lean-to green- a ge ou NS gL
house hotbed. It is important to have
crops grow as close to
the glass as may be, and this fact should be carefully borne in
mind. This style of house is susceptible of many modifications.
It may be used as a lean-to on the south side of the dwelling,
74 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
where it may receive a little heat from the house. Its limita-
tions are about the same as those of hotbeds. When such a
house is intended for use in winter, it might be an advantage
to so plan it that the manure from one-half could be renewed
every five or six weeks.
GREENHOUSES.
Greenhouse is a term applied rather loosely to glass strue-
tures of the larger sort having special heating apparatus, and
used for growing plants. The more expensive structures are
not referred to here, but only the simpler ones such as are most
economical for use in the market and home garden.
A Very Cheap, and Yet Withal Serviceable Greenhouse, is
described in “How to Make the Garden Pay” and the publishers
of it have kindly con-
sented to the use of it
here. It is called the
“Model . Foreme fi.
Figure 13 shows a cross
section of this house
which is made with a
valley in the center, so
that in point of fact it
is two houses. The
total width of both houses is twenty-six feet. The alleys are
dug into the ground in each house eighteen inches wide and
eighteen inches deep and boarded up on each side. The beds
on each side are four feet wide, and the attendant can cultivate
them when standing in the alley. The peak of the green-
house is only four and a half feet above the ground level or six
feet from the bottom of the alleys. The sides are only one foot
above the ground, and are made of plank nailed to cedar posts
and banked upen the outside with horse manure in winter.
The roof is covered with movable sashes 7 or 7% feet long
and of any convenient width. Common hotbed sash (3x6 feet)
might be made to answer, but sash having larger glass than is
generally put in them is best. Large sized glass is preferable,
12x16 inches being a good size. <A light framework for the
sash to rest on, similar in construction to that shown in figure
igure 31.—Market gardeners’ greenhouse.
GLASS STRUCTURE 75
of a greenhouse hotbed is necessary, and the sashes should
be screwed down and ventilation secured in the same way as
there explained. In the center of B, where the two roof sections
meet, the sashes rest on a plank 12 inches wide cut out % by 8
inches, to form a guiter to carry off water as shown in figure 32.
The center planks rest on two rows of 2x3 inch posts, two and a
half feet long and twelve inches above the beds; these posts
are four feet apart in each row. The total length of the houses
here described may vary according to circumstances. The house
from which this plan is taken was 100 feet long. It was heated
with a second hand tubular steam boiler which at an outside
temperature of zero, has
io) scarry about: “five
pounds pressure to main-
tain a temperature of 65
or 70 degrees. Two inch
pipes conduct the heat
from the boiler, one line
of pipe running up each
side of the house and
both returning through
the center at B, back to
the boiler. The furnace Figure 32.—Valley ia market gardeners’
room is an excavation greenhouse showing the way the
Ben eee atdcix feck sashbars are attached to the plate.
deep at the northerly end of the house, built with a good wall
and roof. The length of pipe required is 450 feet. In the ex-
treme northern states more pipe radiating surface would per-
haps be required for best results. The entire cost of material
for a structure of these dimensions, boiler and pipes included,
amounts to about $450. The cost of steam fitting will have to be
added to this, but the rest of the work can be done by any man
of ordinary intelligence. Mr. Greiner, whose description has
been largely foilowed in the above, says that he likes the pipes
all above ground as here recommended for forcing vegetables,
but if wanted for starting seedlings and for general propagating
purposes the pipe had better be placed ten to twelve inches
under the surface, and encased in an ordinary three inch drain
76 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
tile as shown at D, figure 31. In sections where fuel is high
priced the beds might be partially heated with manure.
Figure 33 shows a cross section of a lean-to house that is -
easily adapted to most locations, but especially suited to side-
hills. It is twenty feet wide and may be made of any length
desired. It should have a boiler room on one end or at the back
side as is most convenient. It should, of course, extend east
and west so that the slope will be entirely to the south or south-
east. The walls are made of cedar posts tightly boarded up on
both sides. The alleys are two feet wide and planked on each
side. The roof is shown made of permanent sash bars but these
Scale in§t-
1
Figure 33.—Cross section of lean-to greenhouse,
might be made of movable sash as recommended for the model
forcing pit. One ventilator is at the top of the roof and another
is in the side wall. Two purlins extending the length of the
house are supported by small gas pipe posts. The northerly
bench is four feet wide, raised three feet above the alley and
is filled with six inches of soil or it may be used for seed boxes.
The center bench is 2ight feet wide and may be solid or raised.
The southerly bench is shown filled with stable manure and is
practically a hotbed. The same treatment may also be given
the center bench. But where the plan is followed of making up
a part of the benches with manure, it is well to have some or all
of the roof glazed with movable sash, to facilitate the work ot
GLASS STRUCTURES. 77
putting in and taking out the manure. The use of stable manure
to supplement the heating apparatus is a practice that may be
economically followed in locations where coal is high priced and
stable manure abundant. The heating arrangement could be
either steam or hot water with the flow pipes high up near the
roof, as shown at A and B and the returns at C and D.
Methods of Heating.—There are practically three methods of
heating greenhouses, viz.: by smoke flue, by hot water and by
steam. Heating by smoke flue is described under the head of
fire hotbeds. It has the merit of being easily and cheaply con-
structed by anyone having some little ingenuity. Even when
made on the best principles it is probably more wasteful of fuel
than a good steam or hot water apparatus, but where inferior
fuel can be cheaply obtained a smoke flue may often be used
to advantage. As for the relative merits of hot water and
steam apparatus for heating, it is probably enough to say that
each system nas its earnest advocates and that very often there
is little advantage in favor of either. Where a very large heat-
ing plant must be used, making a night watchman necessary, it
is best to plan for steam heating at low pressure. For small
greenhouses perhaps a hot water plant is best. It costs more to
put in the hot water apparatus because it requires more radi-
ating surface since the pipes are not heated as hot as when
steam is used. Some exclusive merits are perhaps justly claimed
for a combination of hot water and steam, in which system hot
water is used for heating in mild weather, while in severe
weather the water is lowered in the boiler, a regulator is put on
and the pipes are filled with steam. It is probable that an ordi-
nary tubular steam boiler is the most practical kind to use
either for a hot water or steam heating apparatus.
The amount of radiating surface necessary for heating a
greenhouse wiil depend on the temperature to be maintained and
the location of the house. In a general way, one should figure
that glass houses will require at least four times as much radi-
ating surface as an ordinary dwelling house similarly situated
and enclosing the same number of cubic feet of space. In
estimating the amount of radiating surface necessary it is always
advisable to consult some practical person acquainted with such
problems,
78 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH THE
BUILDING AND CARE OF HOTBEDS AND GREENHOUSES.
The Sash for Hotbeds or Cold Frames should be about 3x6
feet or 4x4%% feet in size; the glass free from blisters, of double
strength and lapped not more than one-fourth of an inch. If
lapped more than this water is liable to freeze the laps and crack
the glass, and dirt will collect largely between the glass. It
should be bedded in putty and nailed in, not puttied ine Common
window sash might be used for the purpose in a small way and
temporarily, but it is not strong enough to last well and besides
as the sash bars run both ways and project beyond the glass
the rain water cannot run off, but soaks the wood and leaks
through into the hotbed, making it too wet in places. Also, the
cross bars in common window sash make a needless extra
shadow that is objectionable. Regular hotbed sash is made with
sash bars running only one way so that the water falling on it
runs off easily and quickly. Hotbed sash can be bought of sash
manufacturers or may be made at home by any person having a
fair amount of mechanical ingenuity.
Shutters are desirable for covering the glass of hotbeds and
cold frames. ‘lhey are generally made of second fencing, match-
ed and dressed, and in size of the same width as the sash but
about six inches longer with a six-inch cleat on each end.
The Mats are often made of straw, but cloth and burlap
mats are sometimes used. Straw mats are probably as good as
any kind and are easily made as follows Make a frame of |
2x4 inch lumber the size of the mats desired; four feet wide and
one foot longer than the sash is a convenient size. Stand this
frame up against a wall and tightly stretch four or five tarred
strings eight to ten inches apart from top to bottom so as to
evenly divide the four feet of width. Have as many balls of
lighter tarred strings as there are strings fastened to the frame
and fasten one to each upright string at the bottom. Commence
at the lower end by laying a wisp of straw, cut ends out, on the
string at the bottom and fasten it there by twisting each of the
smaller strings once around the straw and the upright strings.
Next put on another wisp of straw and so continue until the
frame is covered. Mats thus made are an admirable protection
GLASS STRUCTURES. 79
against frost and far better than shutters alone. The advantage
of having shutters in addition to the mats is that they keep the
mats from getting wet, which makes them so heavy that they
break easily in handling or they freeze solid and do not lie close
or are clumsy to handle. Rye straw is best for mats and it
is most tough and durable when cut partially green. It is often
threshed by hand so that the straw can be kept straight, but it
- may be cleaned by a threshing machine by holding the bundle
and only putting the heads into the machine.
Ventilation and Temperature are subjects of greatest impor-
tance in growing plants under glass. The various classes of
plants require different degrees of heat to reach their best
development. For instance, lettuce, radish, cress and similar
plants grow best at a low temperature, say about 75 degrees in
the day and 40 to 50 degrees at night, and may even be frozen
without serious injury, while tomatoes, egg plants, cucumbers
and melons grow best at the higher temperature of 85 to 90 de-
grees in the day and 60 degrees at night. If the former plants
are kept at a higher temperature than that given they are liable
to become diseased and infested with insects. This is especially
true of lettuce. On the other hand if the high temperature
plants are kept much cooler they become sickly and weak, al-
though tomato plants will grow in quite cool temperature. In ad-
mitting air to glass structures care should be taken that the
wind does not blow in on the plants. This is generally best ac-
complished in hotbeds and frames by blocking up the sash at the
ends or sides with notched pieces of wood.
The temperature of any place, unless otherwise specified, is
the temperature there of a thermometer in the shade. A ther-
mometer with the full sunlight shining on it, will record about
fifteen degrees higher than in the shade, which is a point always
to be borne in mind in ventilating.
In the weather of early spring when the sun is getting high
the middle of the days will be very warm and the nights still
quite cool and frosty. It is then that a beginner often makes
the mistake of leaving the sashes of his hotbeds open late in
the afternoon, and the beds cool off more than is desirable. At
this season of the year but little ventilation is necessary, and
frames and greenhouses should be shut up quite early in the
80 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
afternoon, and the covering put on to retain the heat as soon
as the sun is low. In the warm weather of later spring, the
sash of the hotbeds and frames may be removed in the day and
kept on only at night. No exact rules can be laid down for
ventilating, but it is quite a simple matter to learn, if one is
observant and uses constant vigilance. Many persons just be-
ginning to use greenhouses and hotbeds fail to get best results
from them because they neglect the matter of ventilation. On
cloudy mornings it may not be needed, but if the sun comes
through the clouds it may warm the house or the beds in a
very short time, so that when they are examined the whole crop
has been injured by the heat. This is a most common cause of
failure by amateurs in charge of greenhouses and hotbeds.
In nature the night temperature in which plants grow aver-
ages from fifteen to twenty degrees below that of the day, and
it has been found in practice that when this condition is reversed
the plants do not do well. This, of course, can be easily avoided
by a little forethought. It is a bad plan, generally speaking, to
ventilate much in cold weather, when the leaves are wet. On
this account it is best to water early in the day, so that the
leaves may dry cff before much ventilation is required.
Watering.—Plants that are growing slowly do not need much
water, while those that are growing vigorously need a great deal
of it. Growing plants need water whenever they are dry. In
bright warm weather a rapid growing crop in hotbed or cold
frame will need watering every day while in cloudy moist
weather perhaps no water will be needed for a week. In fact,
watering in cloudy weather seems to encourage disease. When
applying water see that the soil is wet as far down as the roots
extend. It is only the beginner who just wets the surface soil
and thinks the plants sufficiently watered.. If plants are wilting
for want of water in the soil give it to them no matter what
time of day, but it is always a great advantage in such cases
to shade as well as water them if the sun is shining. If a long
continued spell of cloudy weather is followed by a period of
bright sunshine it is not uncommon to see plants wilting that
have plenty of water in the soil surrounding them. In such a
case it may be desirable to shade them somewhat in the middle
of the day until they get used to the sunlight. In cold weather
GLASS STRUCTURES. 81
it is a poor plan to water most of our plants at night since the
water will cool off the air and the plants may be checked in
growth, but in hot weather the reverse is true and plants seem
to get more benefit from a good soaking in the evening, when
they can have all night to take the water in, than if it is applied
in the morning and followed by a hot sun. In watering hotbeds
in very cold weather use a fine rose sprinkler and if practicable
tepid water. At other seasons good lake or cistern water is
perfectly safe, and is generally used by commercial growers at
all seasons of the year. Avoid getting the soil water-soaked.
The leaves of lettuce and some other plants are liable to
burn if watered when the sun is shining brightly on them.
The Soil should vary somewhat in texture for different
plants, but all garden vegetables will flourish in much the same
kind of soil. For use in glass structures a light, friable rich,
sandy loam is best. This is easily obtained when one has been
using hotbeds by mixing some of the old rotted manure which
has been used for heating them the preceding year with any
good sandy loam. If sandy loam cannot be had, clay loam may
be used and sand added to the mixture. The manure from old
hotbeds is especially good for this purpose and should form about
one-third of the bulk of the soil.
Boxes.—In the case of many plants having small seeds, it
is a good plan to start them in boxes instead of growing them
in beds, on account of the better care that may thus be given
them. When plants are to be marketed it is often best to grow
them in the boxes in which they are to be sold. Frequently, too,
where plants are started in the greenhouse and then moved to
the open ground it is must convenient to have them in boxes.
For this purpose boxes should be about four inches deep and
the size of a soap or cracker box, Which may be cut down for tke
purpose and thus make very cheap boxes. Of course where the
market demands a certain number of plants in “boxes, they will
have to be made for the purpose. The lumber for these can be
obtained at any box factory and what would perhaps be other-
wise idle moments may be used in putting it together at trifling
expense.
Substitutes for Glass.—Frames of the same size as hotbed
sash are sometimes covered with prepared cloth or paper sub-
82 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
stitutes for glass. Such covering, however, will not allow the
sun’s rays to penetrate it easily nor is it so effective in prevent-
ing radiation of the heat as glass, but under some circumstances
it may be very desirable. Sash thus covered may often be used
to advantage in the latter part of spring by alternating it on
the frames and thus doubling the amount of sash at small ex-
pense. Or, they may be used in the warm weather of spring
when the sash needs to be removed entirely in the middle of the
day. They are excellent for covering beds filled, with recently
transplanted crops, since the light is less intense and evapora-
tion less under them than under glass. A convenient way of
forming these sashes is to make frames without sash bars but
with one or two wires stretched across them to support the cloth
or paper covering. Unbleached heavy cotton cloth may be used
for this purpose, and the material for dressing it should be made
of three pints pale linseed oil, one ounce acetate of lead and
four ounces white resin. Grind the acetate in a little oil, then
add the resin and the rest of the oil. Melt in an iron kettle
over a gentle fire until well mixed and apply warm to the cloth.
When paper is used it should be what is known as manilla
wrapping paper. Paste this firmly and tightly on the frame with
fresh flour paste. Dry in a warm place. Then wipe the whole
of the paper with a damp sponge to cause it to stretch evenly.
Dry it again, and apply boiled linseed oil to both sides of it and
dry in a warm place. Use linseed oil that is free from cotton
seed oil. )
Shading the Glass.—In the hot weather of late spring or sum-
mer the sunlight is too warm for many plants in the greenhouse
and it is customary to shade them. The amount of shade neces-
sary will depend somewhat on circumstances. This shade may
consist of lath screens laid on the roof, but more commonly it
is given by sprinkling the glass on the outside, with a wash
made of white lead and gasoline, put on with a spray pump or
syringe. This is easily and cheaply done. It will generally
come off by autumn or may be rubbed off with a coarse rag or
brush. Whitewash is sometimes used for this purpose but it
is too easily washed off by heavy rains to be desirable.
———_
GLASS STRUCTURES. 83
SOME THINGS TO REMEMBER IN CONNECTION WITH
BUILDING GLASS HOUSES FOR PLANTS.
(1) That all joints should be made tight and so far as pos-
sible so placed that water will not lodge in them.
(2) There should be just aS much room in the beds and
as little in the paths as possible.
(3) The glass should be as close to the beds as it can be
and allow room to manage the crops grown in them. It should
be of larger size for greenhouses than for hotbeds and in size not
smaller than 10x12 inches, laid on sash bars 11 inches apart. The
larger the glass the better. There is not so much breakage in
large as in small glass.
(4) A permanent water supply is very desirable.
(5) The glass should be of good quality, free from blisters,
bad waves or other imperfections and what is known as double
strength glass.
(6) The heating arrangements should be sufficient to heat
the house easily in coldest weather; in other words, it should
be more than sufficient to maintain the proper temperature if
crowded.
(7) Having the heating plant insufficient and then crowd-
ing it in severe weather, injures the heating plant and wastes
fuel besides being a trial of patience.
(8) The ventilators should be large and carefully fitted so
they will close tightly. When in the roof they should be open at
the top. If they open at the bottom the moisture that condenses
on the glass forms an ice ridge on them in cold weather and
prevents their shutting tight.
(9) The smaller the sash bars and framing material in the
roof the more sunlight can reach the crop.
(10) The greenhouse roof may be covered with movable
sash, but it is generally found most desirable to use permanent
sash bars. Where severe hail storms are frequent it might be
well to use movable sash and take them off in the summer, but
such places are rare exceptions. It requires a very severe hail-
storm to break double strength glass, when at an angle, as in
a roof, and practically there is little risk from this source.
(11) In the framing of greenhouses, for instances for pur-
84 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
lins and posts, gas pipe can be used to good advantage. It is
cheap and durable.
(12) All joints should be painted before being put together;
all wood and iron work should be kept well painted.
(13) If putty is used in glazing the glass it should be
bedded in it and nailed in, in this way: paint the sash bars,
then run a thin coat of putty along them; bed the glass in it
commencing at the bottom of the sash and lapping the glass one-
fourth of an inch, on the same plan that shingles are laid on a
roof. Fasten the glass with round three-quarter inch brads, us-
ing four to each glass; put more liquid putty along the glass
next to the sash bars and smooth it off with a knife even with
the glass,
(14) Liquid putty is made by mixing one-third boiled lin-
seed oil, one-third white lead and one-third common putty. If
too thick, as may be the case in cold weather, add a little tur-
pentine or benzine. It may be applied with a brush but the best
way is to put it on with a bulb bought for the purpose; or a bulb
may be made with leather, having a large quill through which to
squeeze the putty. In the latter case there must be a hole in
the side or end by which the bulb is filled and which may be
drawn together by a string.
(15) Perhaps the most popular way of setting glass in
greenhouses at present is by using square glass and butting the
ends together. To do this to hest advantage no nails or putty
are used and a special wooden cap is put on the sash bar which
holds the glass in place. If desired to have the glass tight the
abutting edges may be just touched with white lead before being
put together. This makes a very satisfactory roof.
CHAPTER VII.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLES.
In this chapter only the more common insects infesting
garden vegetables are referred to. There are many others that
almost yearly cause some damage to our crops and which in
occasional years cause serious loss. But to enumerate them
would require more space than can be afforded here. In dealing
with them it is well to remember that biting insects, such as
potato beetles and blister beetles, are generally most surely de-
stroyed by arsenical poisons such as Paris green and London
purple; while sucking insects, such as plant lice and chinch
bugs are not affected by them but are most readily destroyed by
external applications such as tobacco water and kerosene emul-
sion. We should also remember that in our war upon injurious
insects we have the support of most of the birds and of the moles
and shrews, and these should be protected as the friends of
man rather than be destroyed as is too often the case among
thoughtless or ignorant people. Moles and shrews are especially
useful since they work under ground, and feed largely on various
insects that are difficult to destroy on account of their living
in the soil. It is perhaps no exaggeration to say that the shrew
(often called mole) will eat its weight of insects each day. In-
sects are also liable to attacks of parasites or of fungus and
other diseases, which destroy them in large numbers and often
in a very short time. _
When insects appear in small numbers hand picking is often
a very efficient remedy, but when they become very abundant
some other method of destroying them must be devised.
INSECTICIDES AND METHODS OF DESTROYING INSECTS.
Pyrethrum is the insect powder of the stores. It is made
by grinding the flowers of the pyrethrum plant which closely
resembles the common oxeye daisy. It is not poisonous to higher
organized animals although very destructive to many kinds of
insects. It is frequently adulterated and can seldom be obtained
86 INJURIOUS INSECTS.
of good quality. It also deteriorates very quickly when exposed
to the air. On these accounts it is often very difficult to get sat-
isfactory results from that obtained at the stores. When used it
should be diluted with about five times its bulk of flour, with
which it should be kept in a tight vessel for at least twenty-four
hours before using in order to get best results. When thus con-
fined it takes up the poisonous principle of the pyrethrum. It
should always be kept in an air-tight receptacle.
Paris green is a refuse product composed of arsenious acid
and copper and is probably as safe as any arsenic compound.
It is only very slightly soluble in water, and is used with water
at the rate of one pound to one hundred or more gallons of
water; it is also used when mixed with dry substances, at the
rate of one pound to fifty pounds of flour or one hundred pounds
of land plaster, road dust or sifted coal ashes. In using it with
water the addition of an equal amount of milk of lime often
prevents injury to leaves.
London purple is composed of arsenious acid and lime. It is
often much cheaper than Paris green but varies more in its com-
position. On account of its being lighter than Paris green it
does not settle so quickly when put in water. It is used in the
same manner as that substance. When used in water an equal
amount of milk of lime should always be added to neutralize the
free acid which it sometimes contains in injurious quantities,
and which may burn the foilage of tender plants. London purple
adheres to the foilage of plants longer than Paris green.
Tobacco 's very useful for destroying some kinds of insects
in the garden and greenhouse. It is especially effective aginst
plant lice and soft-skinned hairless caterpillars. Where smoke
from it can be confined around the plants, as in greenhouses and
hotbeds, it is common to use it in a smudge, but when thus used
it should be kept from blazing. It is also used in powdered form
to keep off some insects. A more common and effective way of
using it, is as a decoction in water at the rate of one pound of
tobacco stems, leaves or dust to two gallons of water. The
tobacco should be boiled in the water for twenty minutes. When
cold the decoction should be used undiluted with a syringe, spray
or otherwise. The decoction will not keep more than a few days
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 87
without spoiling. Tobacco is an excellent fertilizer as well as
insecticide.
Kerosene emulsion is a valuable insecticide. It kills by con-
tact and is of greatest importance for destroying sucking insects
such as lice, scale insects and soft caterpillars, but also kills
many biting insects. It is made as follows:
Kerosene oil, 2 gallons, 67 per cent; common soap, or whale
oil soap; % pound, 33 per cent.
Two pounds of soft soap may be used in place of the soap
recommended.
Dissolve the soap over a brisk fire, remove and add the kero-
sene while the water is hot. Churn the mixture or stir rapidly
until a creamlike emulsion is secured. If well made the kero-
sene will not separate but on cooling the emulsion will thicken
into a jelly-like paste that adheres without oiliness to the sur-
face of glass. Soft water will give far better results than hard
water for making kerosene emulsion, and soap that is made with
potash or soda lye, such as home made soap, is far better than
most of the soap of the stores, as they do not emulsify easily.
For plant lice, dilute the emulsion recommended with from
twenty to twenty-five parts of cold water. The strength of the
application will necessarily depend on the insects to which it is
to be applied. For such insects as soft-skinned caterpillars the
emulsion should be diluted with not more than ten parts of
water.
Kerosene and milk emulsion may be used as follows:
PMOTE SOMES pac oiehits wcierthal Wel stare cre''e "se a6 « 2 gallons.
SETI E Tots 000 UN ap eae ae ae ore ee Oe er ee 1 gallon.
These readily form an emulsion when thoroughly churned
together. It should be used the same as other soap and kerosene
emulsion mentioned. Sweet milk does not emulsify readily but
if a little sour or even if very sour, it unites easily with the kero-
sene. This is the best emulsion where the water is very hard.
Carbon bisulphide is a very inflammable material with a
disagreeble odor and readily vaporizes. It should be handled
with the same precaution as gasoline which resembles it in
appearance. The fumes which it gives off are very heavy and
are poisonous to animal life when confined with it. On account ™
of these properties it is used for killing weevils in grain or peas,
88 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
beans and other seeds, and for killing gophers, mice or other
creatures in their holes. The method of using it for grain
weevils, is to fill a barrel or other tight receptacle nearly ful] of
seed, then sprinkle on an ounce of the liquid for each one hun-
dred pounds of seed and cover the vessel tightly for several
hours. It does not hurt the grain which is just as good and
looks as nice as ever after being treated. The germinating
qualities of the seed are not injured by this treatment. When
used for killing moles, gophers and mice, the material should be
put on cotton or other absorbent and placed in their holes closed
with earth over the cotton.
Catching Insects by Light at Night.—By suspending a lan-
tern at night over a tub of water having its surface coated with
kerosene many night flying insects can be destroyed. Among
those that can be caught in this way are cut worm moths, the
clicking beetle (which is the mature form of the wire worm),
and the May beetle (which is the mature form of the white
grub). When these insects become especially abundant this
method of catching them is worthy of trial. The objections to
it are: (1) that it is the larvae and not the flying form of these
insects that do serious injury; (2) few persons are so far sighted
that they can be persuaded to attack insect enemies until they
are suffering from their ravages, and the benefits of this method
will not be felt until perhaps the following year. (3) The obser-
vations of Dr. Otto Lugger show that insects have generally laid
their eggs before they fly much, and only the male insects of
some species fly, and the females are nearly or quite wingless.
It is obvious that in such cases catching the flying insects will do
little if any good.
Applications of Insecticides.—In applying insecticides it is
generally important to begin their use as soon as the insects
appear and not wait until the plants have been weakened and
set back by their attacks. There are many and various machines
for distributing insecticides. The machine best adapted to this
purpose will cepend much on the insecticide used and the extent
of the operations contemplated. For applying liquid compounds
some of the many forms of spray pumps will be found best.
For the small garden where there is a variety of crops grown,
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 89
perhaps what is known as knapsack spray pump is as convenient
Figure 34.—Colorado potato bee-
tle in all stages.
as any general purpose ma-
chine. Where potatoes are
grown on a large scale some
special spray pump that can be
geared to the wheels of a wag-
on may often be the best to
use. Where insecticides are
used in powder form it is a
good plan to scatter them on
the plants through a coarse lin-
en bag or fine wire cloth. When
such material needs to be eject-
ed with force, a fan or bellows
may be used. It is always best
to use poisons in a liquid form
when practicable since it is the
most economical and effective
method of applying them. No
insecticide should ever be used
in a large way, until it has
been tried on a small scale to
see what its effect will be on
the crop to be treated, since
plants may be more susceptible
at one time than at another to
applications of this nature.
COMMON GARDEN INSECTS AND METHODS OF
DESTROYING THEM.
The Colorado Potato Beetle (Doryphora decemlineata.)—
The Colorado potato beetle is so common and so well known by
every farmer and gardener in this country that it needs no
description here.
It came originally from the Rocky Mountain
region where it fed on the native sandbur (Solanum rostratum)
which is closely allied to the potato, but when this insect came to
know the cultivated potato it preferred it to its original food
and has since become a very dangerous pest to this vegetable.
The orange colored eggs, varying in number from a dozen to
fifty, are generally laid on the under side of the potato leaf.
90 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
They hatch in about a week into sluggish larvae which feed upon
the leaves, never leaving a plant until all the leaves are gone.
They also feed to some extent upon tomato and egg plants. When
fully developed the larvae descend to the ground where they
pupate and emerge as perfect beetles. There are three broods
each season. The beevles winter over in potato fields.
Remedies.—The number of these pests varies greatly from
year to year. The chief remedies are arsenical poisons applied
to the foilage. For this purpose Paris green and London purple
are commonly used. The method of applying them varies much.
It is a common practice to use one pound of Paris green to 150
gallons of water. This must be constantly agitated while in use
or the poison wiil settle to the bottom of the vessel. London
purple may also be applied in water, but as it varies somewhat
in composition and is liable to contain a dangerous amount
of free acid, it is safest to use with it an equal amount of milk
of lime. It is also a good plan to use milk of lime with Paris
green. Some experiments show that about one pound of lime,
one pound London purple and about seventy gallons of water, is
a safe and satisfactory formula to use for this crop. When thus
applied the work may be done with a spraying machine, a water-
ing pot or brush broom, but the spray pump is the most eco-
nomical. On a large scale, some kind of a spraying apparatus
is necessary.
These poisons may also be safely applied when mixed with
one hundred times their bulk of flour, sifted ashes or road dust
or mixed with one hundred pounds of land plaster. When thus
used they are easily applied by means of a coarse linen bag.
There are a number of proprietary insecticides for the potato
beetle but they generally depend for their success on the arsenic
they contain. But no matter what insecticide is applied, in order
to do the most good it should be used as soon as the young larvae
can be seen on the leaves.
The Imported and Native Cabbage Worm (Pieris sp.).—
The imported cabbage worm resembles our native species and
both of them are very cestructive to cabbage, turnip, cauliflower
and similar vegetables and to such flowering plants as mignon-
ette, stocks and nasturtiums. They feed on the leaves and
will often destroy the cabbage crop unless preventive measures
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 91
are taken. The worms of the imported species are green in
color, while our native species are bluish with yellow stripes.
The butterflies of both species are much alike. They are gener-
Pe
Ree ee
jl
ia
F
13
ty
‘9
ws
Pw der vy ! i |
Ss ak’ ie ao SS
ie of ae
a ~:
4
Fig, 35. ‘Imported Cabbage Wérm. fa) Latve. (b) Chrysalis. 1¢) Male
butterfly.
ally white with indefinite black marks above and yellow or green
markings on the underside,
and are commonly seen filit-
ting over fields of cabbage or
of other of its food plants
during the day time. The full
grown caterpillar is about
an ine -and--a, bali done.
The winter is passed in the
chrysalis stage hidden away
in sheltered places and from
these the adult butterfly emerges in the spring and lays her eggs
on the under side of the leaves where they hatch in about one
week. There are several broods in a season.
Remedies.—Pyrethrum powder, mixed with five times its
bulk of flour and dusted into the cabbage just at nightfall is
a good remedy. The flour should be mixed with the pyrethrum
overnight. In a small way hand picking may be successfully
resorted to. If the worms are troublesome where cabbage is
grown on a large scale it is customary to use arsenical poison
mixed with flour as recommended for the potato bug. The poison
cannot be applied in water as it will not stick to the leaves.
92 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
These, it is evident to anyone, can be safely applied before the
plants commence to head, and recent careful trials and analy-
ses of cabbage thus treated with Paris green, show there is very
little danger in using it at any stage of the plants. It is the sim-
plest of remedies and effective yet not dangerous. There are
parasites that attack and kill the worms and chrysalides, and Dr.
Lugger has shown clearly that they sometimes may be destroyed
very rapidly by disease as well as insect parasites. It is not
uncommon to have nearly all these worms die in the latter part
of any season from one or both of these causes.
Cabbage Plusia. (Plusia brassicae.)—The cabbage plusia eats
irregular holes in the leaves, and burrows into the heads of
the cabbage. The parent insect is a moth of a dark-gray color
Figure 37.—Snapping beetle or wire worm with larvae.
distinguished by a silver mark on each wing. The eggs are laid
on the upper surface of the leaves singly or in clusters. They
soon hatch into pale green translucent worms, marked with
paler longitudinal stripes on the back and sides. When full
grown these are about two inches long. They resemble span
worms in their mode of locomotion, hence are easily distinguished
from the cabbage worm. The full grown caterpillar spins a
cocoon, generally on the under side of the cabbage leaf, in which
it undergoes its changes. The insect winters over in the pupai
state. The remedies for this pest are the same as those
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 93
recommended for cabbage worms and it is also subject to dis-
eases and parasites.
Wire Worms or Drill Worms (Elator).—Wire worms cause
damage by boring into potatoes and some seeds in the ground.
They are the larvae of a snapping or clicking beetle, so called
from the ease with which, if laid on their backs, they spring
into the air with a clicking noise. The larvae are slender wire-
like worms having a glassy tough skin of a yellowish or brown-
ish color. The larvae stage lasts for two and possibly five years;
it is therefore no small job to clear a piece of land badly in-
fested with the pest. Naturally, wire worms live in grass land
where the harm they do is not apparent, but when such land is
planted to corn or potatoes and the worms are thus depived of
their natural food they may become very troublesome.
Remedies.—Late fall plowing is desirable for land infested
with wire worms since it exposes and thus kills all that are
ready to pupate. By clean summer fallowing the land one season
the worms are starved out, if no plants whatever are permitted
to grow on it.
Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.).—Cut worms often cause serious
injury by eating vegetable plants. They are generally most in-
Figure 38.—Cut worm and moth.
jurious while the plants are small, when they often bite off
young cabbage, bean, corn or other plants close to or just under
the ground and thus destroy them. Their work is most percep-
tible in the spring on account of the small amount of growing
vegetation at that time, yet they also work in the autumn. True
cut worms are the larvae of several night flying moths which
appear late in summer. The female deposits her eggs late in
the summer. These soon hatch into worms which enter the
94 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
ground and live near the surface on the tender =30ts of grass
and other plants until the approach of cold weather. They then
descend deeper into the ground and remain torpid until spring,
when they come to the surface and again commence their depre-
dations. Cut worms when full grown, are from one and a quarter
to one and three-quarter inches long and rather large in diameter
as compared with the length. Their skin is of some dull color,
smooth, with often dull stripes and bands.
Remedies.—Cut worms are most injurious in sod land or land
on which weeds have been permitted to grow in autumn, or in
land adjacent thereto. They are not liable to winter over on any
land that is kept free from weeds and grass in autumn, since
there is no food for them in such places. The worms feed almost
entirely by night and hide during the day time under clods or
just under the surface of the ground near where they have
been working. In a small way they may be dug out and destroy-
ed, but in fields and on a large scale this is impossible and a good
remedy is to scatter baits of poisoned clover through the fields.
This is easily prepared by dipping clover into Paris green or Lon-
don purple and water. A dough made of bran and Paris green
sprinkled about the plants will often be found very satisfactory
in destroying cut worms, and sometimes will work even better
than clover for this purpose. Where cut worms are abundant a
larger amount than usual of seed should be planted that a good
stand may be secured even if the worms do get some of it.
When plants such as cabbage, cauliflower and tomatoes are plant-
ed out, it is a good plan to wrap the plants with pieces of stout
paper extending about an inch below and three inches above
the ground. When boxes or tomato cans are set around plants
for shade, they afford a good protection from this pest. Protec-
tion from cut worms to hills of melons, cucumbers and similar
plants, may be given by pieces of pasteboard or tin. These
should be cut about three inches wide and sufficiently long to
encircle the hill. They should be set about an inch deep in the
ground. Spraying the plants with London purple or Paris green
is a good remedy. The moths of cut worms, as well as such
insects as adult wire worms and grub worms may be killed at
night by means of a lantern. suspended over a tub of water having
a little kerosene on its surface. This should be done late in the
summer when the moths of cut worms are abundant,
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 95
Striped Cucumber Beetle. (Diabrotica vittata.)—This little
beetle attacks squashes, cucumbers and melons
when they are young. By eating the foliage
and tender stems they may cause the death of
the young plants. When abundant it is a very
difficult pest to combat. It appears in the spring
pieee eee at just about the time the young squash plants
are out of the ground, having wintered over in brush piles or
other places affording protection. The beetle lays its eggs on the
roots of corn where the young do considerable damage. These
worms, are full grown in about one month from hatching
They then leave the roots, make a little cavity in the earth near
by, and undergo their changes. The insects spend the winter in
the beetle stage. The beetle is about a quarter of en inch long
and is striped with yellow and black. It is very quick in its
movements but does not fly much except in the middle of the
day.
Remedies.—An extra amount of seed should be sown so as
to secure a good stand
and still allow some for
the beetles. Dusting the
vines, stems and leaves
when they are moist,
with air slaked lime,
road dust or similar
material containing a
little Paris green or
other poison, is quite a
protection, and if per-
Ssistently followed up aft-
er every rain will gen-
erally prevent serious
loss. But care’ should
be taken to put the dust
on the stems as well as
the leaves. Paris green
and water is also a good
Figure 40—Cheese cloth screen for protecting Temedy and is applied
cucumber, squashes and melon vines from the same as for the
the striped beetle when young.
96 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
potato beetle. Tobacco dust is also an excellent preventative
used in this way. Some gardeners having quite extensive plant-
ings, and many who are working in a small way, prefer to cover
each hill with a box or frame covered with cheese cloth. In this
case, the edges of the box or frame should be sunk an inch or so
in the ground to keep out the bugs. Frames for this purpose are
readily made of barrel hoops cut in halves and fastened together
or of three slender sticks forming a sort of tent. This method
allows the light and air to circulate freely around the plants,
while at the same time they are perfectly protected and at slight
cost.
White Grub or May
Beetles (Lachnosterna
fusca.—Theinsect
known as_the_ white
grub is the larval stage
of the May beetle. It
lives in the land where
it feeds on the roots of
plants. The mature in-
sect is a dark brown
beetle, often nearly
black with breast cover-
ed with yellowish hairs.
The body is three-
fourths of an inch long
and about a half inch in
diameter. They fly at
night and are well-
known insects of the
spring of the year. AS
beetles they feed on the
leaves of various plants.
The females lay their
eggs among the grass
roots in a ball of earth.
These hatch in about a
month and the grubs be:
gin to feed on the roots near by. It requires two or three years
fer the grubs to get their full growth and they then undergo their
Figure 41.—May beetles at night.
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 97
changes and emerge in the spring of the third or fourth year as
the beetle described.
Remedies.—The grubs are eaten by birds, moles and skunks.
They are not apt to be abundant in any but grass land recently
broken up. They are exceedingly hard to destroy on account of
their remaining so long in the soil. When young plants are seen
to be wilting from the effects of the grub, they may sometimes
be taken up, the grub removed and the plant reset. When lawns
or other grass lands are badly affected they should be broken up
and grown in some cultivated crop for two years. The beetles
should be trapped when they become very abundant as recom-
mended for cut worm moths. Such animals as moles and shrews
should generally be permitted or even encouraged in our lawns
and gardens and the little damage they generally do suffered
patiently, since they are among our best friends and destroy im-
mense numbers of white grubs and other insects that live in the
ground and are difficult for us to reach. They are seldom
abundant except where insects are numerous.
Bat Maggots (Anthomyia
sp.)—They are often de
structive to the seed or
7? roots of a variety of plants
pe including onions, cabbage,
\/PX ‘ cauliflower and _ similar
4 ee plants; they also attack the
, seed of corn, peas, beans
and other vegetables in
some seasons.
Life History.—The mag-
got here referred to is the
larvae of a fly somewhat
resembling the house ily,
but brown in color. The
gr 7 a eggs are laid in cr near the
Tiere Beni and onion “mar surface of the ground, gen-
gots on young bean plants. erally on the food plants
and hatch out in about two weeks into maggots, that commence
to feed at once and finally become one-half inch long; these
98 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
change in two weeks more to flies. This insect winters over in
the pupa state in the ground.
Remedies.—When this insect attacks onions the infested
plant turns yellow and looks sickly and they should be pulled
and destroyed. The same treatment should be given to any
onions that may be found infested at harvest time. When onion
land becomes badly infested with this pest crop rotation should
be practiced and no onions should be raised near it for a year
or two. When beans, corn and peas are affected, the seed should
be treated with a very thin coating of coal tar and afterwards
rolled in plaster or other dust. The coal tar may be applied as
follows: Spread the grain out in a warm room on the floor
about six inches deep and wet it with warm water; sprinkle on a
very little warm coal tar (about one tablespoonful to one-half
bushel) until each grain is coated; then roll it in plaster to
dry it off. If this is carefully done the grains will not stick
together and may be planted by seed planter. This treatment
also prevents crows, gophers and squirrels from pulling newly
planted corn.
When it attacks cabbage, cauliflower and similar plants it
may be destroyed by kerosene emulsion, since the maggots work
on the stem and roots of the plant near the surface of the
ground and such an application would be practicable in this
case, while in the case of many other crops such as onions,
beans, etc., it might be quite out of the question on account of
the large number of plants that would have to be treated to
make it effectual. In the case of cabbage however it may be
prevented from entering by inserting the plant through a small
piece of tarred paper, that is allowed to remain flat on the sur-
face of the ground.
Cabbage Flea Beetle (Halticus sp.)—There are several in-
sects closely resembling each other and known as cabbage flea
beetles that feed on the surface of the leaves of cabbage, tur-
nips, radish, cauliflower, etce., and various wild plants. They
are very injurious to the very young plants if allowed to have
their way, but when the plants are nicely started they do not
seem to be seriously incommoded by this pest. These beetles
are very small and move very quickly. The adult insect is
black or nearly so; some of them lay their eggs near the roots
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 99
of the food plants, where the larvae do some damage; in other
cases the eggs are laid on the under side of the leaves and the
larvae mine into them and live between the upper and lower
surfaces. But their chief damage is as beetles, in which form
they pass the winter. One species of flea beetle is sometimes
destructive to potato vines.
S
do
—
Figure 43.—Different species of flea beetles with their larvae.
Remedies.—Since these are biting insects they are readily
killed by Paris green or London purple in’ the usual propor-
tions. If the plants are kept dusted with air slaked lime or
plaster they are measurably protected from this insect. But the
latter applications are greatly improved by adding a little poisor
to them.
Leaf Lice or Aphides (Aphis sp.)—The various kinds of
leaf lice, otherwise called aphides, that live on plants have very
much the same general habits. They are all sucking insects and
increase with great rapidity when their food plants are abund-
L of C.
100 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
ant. They generally winter over in the egg state. The summer
broods are often brought forth alive without the intervention
of the egg state. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco water are
the usual remedies, but hot water and pyrethrum will also de-
stroy them. Leaf lice are eaten by the larvae of lady bugs and
they are also subject to attacks of parasites. When the lice
are coated with a meal-like covering that sheds water and pre-
vents their being wet by insectides, they should first be sprayed
with strong soap suds to remove the mealy covering and then
the insecticide may be applied successfully.
Cabbage Lice or Aphides (Aphis brassicae).—These are
light brown insects covered with a floury substance. They at-
tack turnips, cauliflower, rutabagas and similar plants, as well
as the cabbage. They work generally on the lower side of the
leaves where they collect most abundantly. They are most
numerous in dry seasons. The remedies for them are those given
under the general head of leaf lice but in addition to those it
is a good plan to burn or compost all the old cabbage leaves
and stumps, since the eggs winter over attached to them.
Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm (Heliophila unipucta.)—
This is the boll-worm of the south. It eats into the green grain
of the corn. But is seldom very troublesome at the north. Dr.
Lugger thinks that it does not winter over in the extreme north-
ern States, but that the moths come from the south each year.
The only remedy is hand picking. It is doubtful if they will
ever become very injurious in the northern states, since they do
not begin their work there until late in the season.
Parsley Worm or Celery Caterpillar (Papilio asterias.)—This
worm eats the foliage of celery, carrot, parsley and allied plants,
but is not very often injurious. The mature insect is a beautiful
large black butterfly having yellow and blue spots on its wings.
The eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch into small caterpil-
lars less than one-tenth of an inch long, which when full grown
are one and a half inches long. It has bright yellow mark-
ings. The remedy is to hand pick the worms, which are seldom
abundant.
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 101
Chinch Bugs (Blissus leucopteris.)—The chinch bug does
tt trouble any of our garden products except corn, but is some-
times very injurious to this vegetable and
may kill it in a very few days if neglected.
This is a sucking insect that winters over
in the adult state under leaves and in dry pro-
tected places generally. When full grown
it is about one-seventh of an inch long with
white upper wings which have two well de-
fined black spots on them. When crushed
they have an offensive bed-bug-like odor,
This insect is not affected py cold weather,
but succumbs quickly to moisture. The fe-
male deposits her eggs near the ground upon
the stem or roots of wheat, oats, grasses, etc.
Remedies.—The burning of rubbish accumulations along
headlands, fences, etc., in the winter or early spring in infested
localities will destroy many. They always infest the small
grains before they do corn.
While these insects have wings they use them but little in
their migration in summer, but they travel on foot and often in
sreat numbers. Taking advantage of these peculiarities they
may be kept from corn fields by piowing deep furrows in their
way, which should be turned back as soon as filled with bugs
and new furrows made. Fences of boards six inches high with
the upper edge kept covered with tar will keep them out, but
holes in the ground should be made at intervals along the line
of the boards, which when full of bugs should be filled in with
earth, and new holes made. A dusty headland or road is very
difficult for them to go through. If they finally reach the corn
they will readily succumb to kerosene emulsion. Much is being
done to rid the grain fields of this pest by infecting the bugs
with disease. This works most rapidly in moist weather, but
other remedies should not be put aside for this one.
Bean and Pea Weevil (Bruchus sp.)—The insects known
as weevil are quite common in some sections. They work in
the seed of beans and peas. The adult insects are small beetles
which lay their eggs in the flowers where they soon hatch and
102 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the young larvae eat their way into the immature seeds. The
hole by which the larva enters the seed grows completely over,
so that the seed appears unimpaired externally. In the seed the
larva does not touch the germ, though it may eat up a large
part of the starch. The larva undergoes its changes in the
seed, and when these have been completed the beetles emerge
through quite large holes in the shell of the seed. While seed
that is infested may germinate it forms only weak plants that
are very sure to fail to mature a full crop. Similar insects also
attack corn. There is another species that breeds in stored
grain, peas and beans, etc., but it is not common here as yet.
Remedies.—These insects are generally somewhat local in
range. Whenever any locality is infested the date of planting
should be delayed two weeks, by which means the beetle fail to
find the crop ready when they are ready to lay their eggs. This
trouble generally comes from sowing infested seeds. These
may be separated from the good seed by throwing them into
water, when the good will sink, but those infested will float. —
Another method is to treat the seed with carbon bisulphide as
recommended under that head. If the seed is kept over two
years the beetles will have come out. The species that breeds
in the grain is most easily destroyed and kept out of the seed
by using bisulphide of carbon as recommended.
Squash Vine Borer (Aegeria cucurbitae.)—The squash vine
borer is the larva of a moth. The eggs are laid on the stems
of the young plants near the roots of cucumber,squash and melon
vines. The larvae on hatching burrow into the stem and follow
along the center, which causes the plants to wilt ané4 finally to
die. The full grown borer measures about one inch in length
and has a whitish body with a brown head. The borers leave
the stem the latter part of the summer and winter over near
the surface of the ground in cocoons composed partly of earth.
The moth emerges the following spring.
Remedies.—This insect is not yet found in this section but
is common in the eastern states, and where it is found all
withered or dead vines should be destroyed. When vines have
only commenced to wilt the borer may often be cut out and
the vine recover. It is also a good plan to cover several of the
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 103
lower joints of squash vines with earth to encourage the for-
mation of extra sets of roots at these places.
The Squash Bug (Anasa tristis.)—This insect makes its
appearance the latter part of June or the first of July. The
females deposit their brownish-yellow eggs in small patches on
the under side of the leaves. These hatch into nymphs that suck
the sap of the leaves, often seriously injuring them. The full
grown bug is a little over one-half inch long and a rusty black
color above and yellowish beneath. They emit a disagreeable
odor when touched. They winter over in rubbish, under boards
or anywhere they can find protection.
Remedies.—Hand picking in the morning and evening at
which times the bugs are somewhat torpid, is the most practical
remedy. Boards laid among the plants at night will be found to
have many bugs under them in the morning, and these may be
crushed or otherwise destroyed. Large numbers may be killed
in this way.
CHAPTER VIII.
GARDEN VEGETABLES.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES.
Vegetables may be classified in many ways, but perhaps the
most helpful way is to divide them according to the conditions
under which they grow best into (1) warm and (2) cold climate
vegetables:
(1) Among warm climate vegetables (often called tropical)
we have tomato, corn, beans, pepper, egg plant, cucumber, musk
melon, watermelon, squash, pumpkin, and okra. These plants all
require hot weather for their growth, are severely injured by first
hard frost and should not be planted in open ground until warm
weather is assured. They are generally at their best on a warm
southern exposure and in soil having a little sand in its com-
position. These plants are all natives of hot climates and will
not survive long in cold climates when left to themselves.
(2) Among cold climate vegetables, we have practically all
those commonly grown not mentioned above (1) such as aspara-
gus, rhubarb, horseradish, safsify and parsnip, which stand our
severest winters without injury, and those that are less hardy,
such as onions, leeks, peas, beets, spinach, cabbage, Brussels
sprouts, cauliflower, cress, kale, kohl rabi, radishes, rutabaga,
turnip, carrot, parsley, celery, celariac, lettuce, endive, potato,
strawberry, tomato, and others. These all grow well at a cool
temperature and most of them will stand some frost without
injury. They may be divided into those with tops that are frost
hardy or frost tender as follows:
By frost tender is meant those whose tops are injured by
a light hard frost such as potato. asparagus, strawberry, tomato,
and of course all the tropical plants mentioned above (1).
Some plants like asparagus and our native oak tree may have
foliage that is very susceptible to frost but are hardy in winter.
MUSHROOM. 105
By frost hardy is meant those having foliage that is not
injured by light frost, such as horseradish, rhubarb, onions, leeks,
garlic, peas, spinach, beets, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauli-
flower, cress, kale, kohl rabi, radishes, rutabaga, turnip, carrot,
parsley, celery, lettuce, endive and most of the garden herbs.
Botanical Classification.—All plants may be divided into fam-
ilies, each of which has its distinguishing features. Our garden
vegetables and herbs belong to at least seventeen families. The
special features of each of which will be found with the cuitural
directions for the plants grouped under them, but for convenience
a list is here given of all the vegetables referred to herein, ar-
ranged under their proper family names:
The Fungi Group or Family, mushrooms or toadstools.
The Grass Family (Gramineae), corn.
The Lily Family (Liliaceae) asparagus, onion, leeks, garlic.
The Buckwheat Family (Polygonaceae), rhubarb or pie
plant.
The Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae), beet, Swiss chard
and spinach.
The Cabbage Family (Cruciferae), cabbage, cauliflower, rad-
ishes, rutabaga, turnip, Brussels sprouts, kale, kohl rabi, horse
radish, cress and watercress.
The Clover Family (Leguminosae), beans and peas.
The Mallow Family (Malvaceae), okra.
The Parsnip Family (Umbelliferae), parsnip, parsley, carrot,
celery, calariac, caraway, dill, anise, coriander and fennel.
The Morning Glory Family (Convolvulaceae), sweet potato.
The Mint Family (Labiatae), sweet basil, lavender, balm,
spearmint, peppermint, summer savory, winter savory, sweet
marjoram, thyme, sage and catnip.
_ The Potato Family (Solanaceae), tomato, potato, egg plant,
peppers and strawberry tomato.
The Martynia Family (Martiniaceae), Martynia.
The Gourd Family (Cucurbitaceae), cucumber, squash,
muskmelons, watermelons, pumpkin and gourd.
The Sunflower Family (Compositae), lettuce, salsify, endive
and dandelion.
106 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
The Rue Family (Rutaceae), rue.
The Borage Family (Boraginaceae), borage.
THE FUNGI.
The Fungi group includes a large number of flowerless
plants which are propagated by division and by spores. Besides
the cultivated and wild mushrooms, which are below referred
to, this group includes some that are poisonous, although they
form but a small proportion of the whole number of species
that are liabie to be taken for edible kinds. The wheat rusts,
mildews, grain smuts and other similar diseases also come in
under this head. The spores (seed bodies) are distributed in
various ways, but very commonly by their becoming light and
powdery and being blown about by the wind as in the case of
the common puff ball and corn smut. There is no sure way of
telling the poisonous mushroom from the edible kinds but most
of the species have been studied and their value for food is well
known.
MUSHROOMS. (Agaricus campestris.)
There are many edible wild mushrooms, and they differ in
no particular from the so-called toadstools, but the species re-
ferred to above is the kind commonly cultivated. The part
eaten is really the fruit bearing portion and not, as many sup-
pose, the plant itself. The true plant is the white network of
fibres which grow in the soil, and it is this part that is used in
propagating them.
Culture.—The cultivation of the mushroom is often attended
with uncertainty. It is, however, being grown on an increas-
ingly larger scale, and the demand for it constantly increases.
The conditions essential to success in growing it are a rich
soil and a steady temperature of from 50 to 75 degrees. It is for
the purpose of securing this latter requisite that cellars and old
caves are often utilized in its culture, as light Is not necessary.
Horse manure is a practically indispensable material for the
growth of mushrooms. If possible, it should be from animals
fed on rich, nitrogenous food and as free from straw or other
litter as it can be obtained. This should be thoroughly mixed
with a fourth or fifth part of good garden soil and is then ready
MUSHROOM. 107
to go into the beds. Care should be taken that the beds are in a
well drained damp place. They may be of any size or shape de-
sired but should be about ten inches deep. Some of the largest
growers use tiers of shelves or boxes, each one of which is
eight or ten inches deep, into which they put the soil. What-
ever the shape of the beds, the soil should be packed into them
firmly and evenly and be left smooth on the outside. A ther-
mometer should then be inserted in the center of the mass. As
soon as fermentation sets in, the temperature will rise until
probably over 100 degrees will be indicated, and when it falls to
80 degrees the bed is ready to receive the spawn. This may
sometimes be obtained from old mushroom beds, but it is best to
depend on that sold by seedsmen, as it is more certain to be free
from other fungi. The operation of spawning consists in put-
ting pieces of the spawn bricks the size of small hens’ eggs in
holes made about two inches deep and ten or twelve Inches apart.
Afterwards the holes should be filled with the soil and the sur-
face firmed and smoothed off.
If the work has been well done and the conditions are fav-
orable, the spawn should commence to grow in seven or eight
days; at the end of that time it should be examined and any
pieces that have not started should be removed and be replace¢e
by fresh spawn. A failure in germination is indicated by the
absence of white threads in the manure around the spawn.
When the spawn has nicely started and begins to show itself
on the surface, the bed should be covered with a layer one inch.
thick of fine, slightly moist soil, which should be pressed down
smoothly and firmly. In damp cellars mushroom beds do not
need water, but if the surface gets dry they should be watered
with tepid water from a fine rose watering pot. The mush-
rooms should show in from five to eight weeks, and the bed
continue to yield for two or three months. The spawn bricks,
as they are termed by seedsmen, are simply flat square pieces
of a mixture of manure and loam into which spawn has been
put and has grown until it fills the whole piece. Afterwards
these bricks are dried and form the mushroom bricks or spawn
of commerce.
Native Mushrooms.—There are quite a number of native
108 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
mushrooms that are edible, but since there are also several
poisonous kinds one should be careful about trying unknown
sorts. Among the edible kinds are the several sorts known as
puff balls (Lycoperdon). When these first appear, they are
white balls of a fleshy texture with little or no stalks; as they
ripen the flesh turns gradually to a dark brown, and finally
the speres are ejected by the ball being crushed or naturally
breaking open. They are not fit to eat after the flesh begins
to turn brown. The smaller sorts are most common, but the
giant puff ball is occasionally met with and is often ten or more
inches in diameter.
Another common native mushroom is shown in figure 45.
Figure 45.—Native Mushrooms. On the left is shown the giant puff
ball (Lycoperdon giganteum); on the right Maned Agaric (Coprin-
us comatus), in various stages of maturity.
It has a stem several inches high, but the top does not expand
and is one of the most delicious of all the mushroom tribe when
young. It is called the Maned Agaric (Coprinus comatus.) It
srows in waste and grassy places, lawns and meadows. The
cills (layers on the under part of the head) are at first white
or pink, melting into an inky, fluid-like substance when more
mature.
Little attention has ever been paid in this country to
crowing our native species. They could undoubtedly be propa:
gated by digging up some of the earth where they grow abun-
dantly and mixing it with the soil where it is desired to grow
U
THE GRASS FAMILY. 109
them. The kinds mentioned mature in the latter part of sum-
mer and are especially abundant in old pastures or other places
containing much decaying organic matter and during moist
weather. If an attempt was made to grow them, it would prob-
ably be necessary to keep the ground moist all summer to se-
cure the best results.
THE GRASS FAMILY. .(Oder Gramineae.)
The Grass Family has many well known general character-
istics. It includes many species and produces the greater part
of the food of the human race either directly as seed or indireci-
ly as meat and yet only corn is ordinarily grown in vegetable
gardens. Among the most important food plants belonging here
are wheat, rye, oats, barley, rice, corn, sorghum and sugar cane.
The wild rice grows in great abundance in some portions of this
state and is an important article of food among the Indians.
CORN. (Zea mays.)
Native of America.—Annual. The male flowers are in the
tassel and the female flower on the cob. While cross-fertiliza-
tion is not absolutely necessary for the production of seed, it
is necessary for a good crop. The varieties of corn may be
easily grouped under four classes: (1) Sweet corn, which in-
cludes varieties with soft and generally much wrinkled kernels,
that are especially desirable for use in a green state on ac-
count of their being sweeter and more delicate in fiavor than
other kinds. (2) Flint corn, which includes field varieties hav-
ing a very hard, smooth grain. (3) Dent corn, which includes
field varieties rather softer in texture than the flint corn, each
kernel having a depression in the end of it. (4) Pop corn, which
has a kernel of flinty hardness and is used almost entirely for
popping purposes. These classes will all cross together. But
there are numerous verieties in each of the classes varying from
one another in height of stalk, size and color of the ear and ker-
nel, time of ripening and various minor particulars. The color
of the grains may be white, yellow, red or purple, but white and
yellow are most common. Corn is quickly improved by judi-
cious selection, and new varieties are frequently originated in
this way.
110 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Cultivation.—For early use, the seed should be sown as soon
as the ground begins to get warm in the spring. Very early
planting is not desirable for the main crop, since in cold, wet
weather the seed is liable to rot in the ground, or the plants
may be frozen on coming up. It may, however, be desirable to
plant some of the earliest kinds as soon as the weather is
warm, and, selecting the most favorable location, run the risk
of failure, as the profits are correspondingly large if the crop
is very early, while the expense of planting is a small matter.
The main crop of corn should be planted from the middle to
the last of May. The land can hardly be too ric’ for corn,
and it should be in a finely pulverized condition. The seed
may be planted in rows at about nine-inch intervals, with rows
three to four feet apart, or in hills three to four feet apart
each way, according to the growth of the plants and method of
cultivation to be followed. It should be covered above two inches.
If grown in hills, three or four plants should be left in a place,
which means planting about six seeds to the hill. If planted in
hills, they may be cultivated both ways, which is an advantage
over planting in rows. In rows, however, the plants develop
rather better than in hills, and it is the method preferred by
many good growers, though field corn is generally planted in
hills. Corn should be cultivated shallow and never deep
enough to cut the roots; until it is six inches high it may be
harrowed with a slant tooth harrow. In order to have a long
season of this vegetable in its best condition for table use, plant-
ings of the very early and some good second early kind should be
made at the same time; and then plantings of the second early
kinds should be made once in two weeks, thereafter up to about
the twentieth of June. If planted later than this there is much
doubt about its getting large enough for table use before the
autumn frosts set in. The very early kinds, however, may be
planted in this section as late as the fourth of July, with good
prospects of their becoming of marketable size; but the very
early varieties are small in size and not as sweet and desirable
as the larger second early or late kinds, and a few varieties re-
quire the whole season in which to obtain table size. If properly
planted, sweet corn may be had in a young and tender condition
from the middle of July until the cold weather of autumn.
CORN. 111
Marketing.—There is a large demand for green corn in
every city and village. It is marketable as soon as the’ kernels
are well formed and is generally sold in the husk, by the doz-
en or by the barrel. There are several canning factories in this
section and many in other parts of the country that make a
specialty of canning sweet corn. Grown for this purpose or
for evaporating, it is a farm crop that may be made to pay
very well in some locations, and extensive tracts of land are de-
voted to raising it. Where the crop is marketed at canning
factories the fodder is left on the farm and is in admirable
condition for feeding. The ears are best for table use when
first picked and quickly lose in quality after gathering; if they
heat in piles or packages they are of very inferior quality.
Varieties—For very early use the White or Red Cob Cory is
a general favorite and is probably earlier than any other kind.
Figure 46.—Early Cory Corn.
It will often mature in eight weeks. Early Minnesota is a little
later, but a much better table variety. For second early and
mid-season use, Perry’s Hybrid, Moore’s Concord, Potter’s Excel-
sior and Landreth’s Sugar are excellent. Perhaps the Perry’s
Hybrid is the most popular second early market sort.
| For late use, requiring a long season, Stowell’s Evergreen,
and Egyptian Mammoth are desirable. These kinds have large
ears and are particularly desirable for canning purposes. The
Country Gentleman is a peculiar late variety of great merit. The
112 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
kernels are narrow and long and not arranged in rows but irreg-
ularly on the ear. It has, perhaps, the smallest cob of any
known variety. While it requires a long season to get it to
Figure 47.—Late Sweet Corn.
an edible size, it is of fine quality and very desirable for home
use.
Pop corn is grown in the same way as sweet corn. For
home use, a very little will suffice; in some sections, however,
it is raised in large quantities. It is usually marketed on the
cob and is seldom salable until at least one year old. Among
the best varieties are White Rice and Golden Pop.
Varieties of corn run out and change very quickly, and there
is often much difference in the strains of different kinds. Those
that it is desired to keep pure should be grown at least 1000
feet away from other kinds that flower at the same period. Va-
rieties of corn of every description, including all those belonging
to the sweet, dent. flint and pop corn classes, will mix together
when near by each other.
Curing Seed of Sweet Corn.—The seed of the late varieties
CORN. 113
of sweet corn is difficult to cure thoroughly and is very liable to
mould during drying process, unless it is given plenty of light
and air. A good way is to tie the ears in small bunches and
Suspend in a dry, hot, airy room after it has ripened as nearly as
may be on the stalk.
Preserving Green Corn.—Green corn is often preserved in a
small way by cooking and then cutting it from the cob and
drying it in the sun, oven or evaporator. It is also preserved
in brine by first cooking it and then treating the same as
recommended for cucumber pickles. It may also be cut from
the cob after cooking and packed in a vessel ia layers alter-
nating with salt, using about seven pounds of salt to a bushel
of kernels.
Mrs. T. T. Batchelor has been very successful in canning corn
for winter use as follows:
When the Stowell’s Evergreen corn is ripe, the fresh pulled
ears are slightly shaved with a sharp knife, so as to take off the
ends of the kernels. The corn is then scraped from the cob and
packed solidly in Mason jars. The covers are put on, leaving
them only a little lose so water will not get in. The cans are
set in a boiler, covered with cold water, which is brought to
the boiling point and allowed to boil for two hours. The tops
are then screwed tight, and they are allowed to boil for two
hours longer. No water is used with the corn, and no salt. They
have been very successfull in keeping it when put up in this way.
Cutting off the Tassels.—It has been recommended to cut off
half of the tassels from the young corn, on the ground that
one-half the tassels would produce all the pollen needed by all
the kernels. While some experiments have shown this to be
true, many other experiments show there is little if anything to
be gained by the practice.
Insects.—Corn is quite free from serious injury, either from
insects or diseases. The most injurious insects are the cut
worms and boll worms, for discussion of which see chapter on in-
sects.
Smut (Ustilago maydis) is almost the only disease seriously
114 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
injurious to corn. It is a fungous disease that works in almost
any part of the plant,
causing swellings which
contain black _ spores.
When ripe, the swellings
burst and the spores are
scattered to continue the
disease another’ year.
There can be no question
but that gathering and
destroying the bunches
of spores by burning or
burying them deeply in
the ground would result
Figure 48.—Corn Snut. (Ustilago Maydis.) in greatly lessening the
loss from this cause. It is, however, such an expensive remedy
as to seem almost impracticable. Some experiments seem tc
show that soaking the seed in a solution of sulphate of coppe1
may assist in prevexting this trouble in corn as well as smut ir
wheat, but other experiments apparently prove the contrary.
and it may be taken as a doubtful matter at the best. Prac
tically, then, we know of no sure remedy for smut in corn.
THE LILY FAMILY. (Order Liliaceae.)
The Lily Family is made up of plants that with few excep
tions have parallel veined leaves. The flowers are regular
and symmetrical with perianth of six parts, six stamens and a
superior three-celled ovary. Fruit a many-seeded dry pod or
soft berry. Besides the asparagus, onion, garlic and leek, whose
cultural directions are here given, there occurs in this family the
tiger and other lilies, the hyacinth, tulip, Spanish bayonet, cen-
tury plant, smilax, lily of the valley and many other familiar
flowering plants.
ASPARAGUS. (Asparagus ° officinalis.)
Native of Europe.—Perennial.—The asparagus is an her:
baceous plant, growing to the height of about four feet. The
ASPARAGUS. 115
flowars are small and generally yellow. They are perfect
but in many plants
the pistils are abor-
tive, so that only
about half of the
plants produce seed.
The seed is produced
in spherical berries,
that are vermilion
in color when they
ripen in the autumn.
The seeds are black
and triangular, num-
bering about 1400 to
theounce. Asparagus
is one of the most
valuable garden veg-
etables. It is per-
Figure 49.—Asparagus plant full grown. fectly hardy, never
fails to produce a crop, is one of the first vegetables to be
obtained in the spring and may be used until the middle of
June. Perhaps, no other vegetable is more highly esteemed
by those who are accustomed to its use. It may be grown
with success in any good corn land, but is worthy of the best
of care, as it responds readily to rich manure and high culti-
vation. On sandy loam the crop is much earlier than on clay
soils; wet land is not suited to it.
Propagation.—It grows readily from seed, and one ounce of
seed is sufficient for about fifty feet of drill and should pro-
duce with good care about four hundred plants, though no
particular care is necessary for success. The seed should be
sown in good soil early in the spring, in drills which may
be as close as sixteen inches, and it should be covered about
one inch deep. As asparagus seed starts slowly, it is a good
plan to sow radishes or other early appearing crops with it,
so that the rows may be seen and weeding commenced early.
This practice does not interfere with the growth of the aspara-
gus as the radishes will be ready for use and out of the way
before it needs much room. The seedling’ asparagus ‘roots
116 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
will be large enough for transplanting to the permanent
plantation when one year old, and it is the best plan to do so,
but they may be allowed to stand two years in the seed bed.
The young seedling plants which often come up in or near
asparagus beds may be transplanted in July of the first year
directly to the permanent bed and will do very well if handled
carefuny. At whatever age they are transplanted the plants
should be dug and set out in the spring or early summer, as
they are likely to fail when removed in the autumn. Aspar-
Figure 50.—Asparagus root with edible shoots.
agus may be increased by dividing the crowns, but this is an
expensive process, and plants so grown have no peculiar merit
over those from seed. By buying the plants instead of sow-
ing the seed to start with, one or two years’ time may be saved,
and frequently it is cheaper to buy the plants than to raise
them. It is said that plants that do not bear seed produce
ASPARAGUS. 117
more sprouts than those that do. Such plants may be increased
by divisions.
Planting—wWhile asparagus should always be moved in
the spring, it is not necessary to move it very early, though
it is better to do so; but it may be successfully transplanted as
late as. the first of June. Any long sprouts that may have
started should be broken off when the plants are set out.
The land for planting should be heavily manured, deeply
plowed and finely pulverized, and it is important to do this
work well, as asparagus beds well made should last at least
twenty years. The opinions of different growers as to dis-
tance between plants vary much. It has been advocated to
set the plants four feet apart each way and if the soil is re-
markably fertile this distance will not be too great; if the
land is not very rich, it is customary to put the plants at in-
tervals of three feet in rows four feet apart. If a bed for a
family garden is desired where space is limited, it is probably
best to set the plants three by three feet apart. About 100
plants will produce all the sprouts needed in an ordinary home
garden.
Depth to Plant.—For ordinary purposes asparagus roots
should be planted about six inches deep; the deeper they are
planted the later they will be about starting in the spring; if
planted much less than six inches deep, the roots citen push up
to the surface and interfere with cultivation. The piants should
not be covered to the full depth of six inches at once or tke
shoots may never be able to push up to the surface. The fur-
rows should ke made with a plow to the proper depth, the plauts
placed in the bottom of the furrow and covered about three
inches to begin with, and the furrows filled in by after cultiva-
tion as the tops grow. By the middle of the summer the fur-
rows should be level full.
Cultivation during the first year can be done almost entirely
with a horse, though some hand hoeing will be necessary be-
tween the plants. By autumn of the first year, the tops should
be three feet high. As soon as they are dead they should be
cut off close to the ground with a heavy, sharp hoe or similar
tool, and then the land should have a light plowing or be worked
118 | VEGETABLE GARDENING.
up with a harrow to a depth of four inches. No care need to be
taken about the plants when cultivating at this season of the
year, but the whole surface may be cultivated or plowed three
inches deep as though no crop was in the land. In the spring
the land should be cultivated as soon as it will work well in
order that it may warm up quickly. There will be no crop to cut
until the spring of the third year; a very little, however, may
be safely cut the second year after planting if the plants do well.
The cultivation in subsequent years should be very much the
same as that given above, but in addition, when the crop has
been all harvested and cutting is to cease, which will be about
the middle or last of June in the northern states, the whole
bed should have a thorough cultivation to the depth of three
inches without regard to the rows, and if manure is to be used
it should be put on at this time. Under this method of treat-
ment it is unnecessary to do much hand weeding, and it is
very easy to keep the soil in the best condition by horse power.
After the thorough cultivation in June, all the sprouts that come
up from the roots should be permitted to grow until autumn,
by that time they should be about five feet high if in good
soil and will have ripe seed. It is necessary to allow the top
to grow to this extent in order that plant food may be stored up
in the roots. Very late cutting weakens the growth of the
plants.
Cutting.—When the crop is grown for marketing, it is not
desirable to cut the shoots until the third season after plant-
ing the roots; however, in the case of small beds in the gar-
den where the planter is very anxious to test the fruit of his
labor, it may be well to note that no harm is liable to come
from a very slight cutting the second season. The sprouts
should be cut as they appear in the spring, and all of them
should be cut when of the proper size, although they may not
be needed at that time. If permitted to grow they interfere
with subsequent cutting and prevent the growth of new sprouts.
They will also be in the way of cultivation later in the season.
The sprouts are generally cut off about two inches below the
surface when they are about six inches high above the ground,
and in this case all but two inches of the asparagus is green,
ASPARAGUS. 119
which is the right condition for most markets. Some people
prefer to have white sprouts and in such cases they should be cut
four or five inches deep in the ground. In case white sprouts
are wanted it is also a good plan to mound up around the hills
or to cover them with fine manure to keep the sunlight away
from the shoots. The time between the cuttings is largely de-
pendent on the weather. In early spring, if the weather is rather
cold, the plants may not give more than one cutting per week,
but later in the season a good cutting will perhaps be secured
once in two days. A severe frost will kill all the shoots above
ground but will not injure subsequent cuttings. Asparagus is
Fi ure 51.—Method of bunching asparagus, showing loose sprouts, boxes for
tying up in and completed bunches.
marketed by tying the sprouts in bunches, and the size of the
bunches depends much upon the market and, in some places,
on the season and whether the supply is pientiful or not. It
is very desirable, however, to have all the bunches of one size.
It is preferable to tie the sprouts when they are just a little
wilted and then set them in water to swell and make the bands
tight. Thc shoots will easily keep for a week if kept cold and
moist. It is customary to stand the bunches on end in water in
keeping them.
Manuring.—If manure is applied to the asparagus bed in
autumn or before the frost is out of the ground in the spring,
it prevents the frost from coming out of the ground and so
keeps back the growth unless the manure applied is very fine
120 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
and is at once cultivated into the soil. Sometimes such treat-
ment will keep the sprouts from starting for a week or more
at a season when it is most relished and the market price is
the highest. On this account it is an excellent plan to manure
asparagus in June at the close of the cutting season, as it can
then be thoroughly cultivated into the soil and does not inter-
fere in any way with the growth of the plants in the spring.
Asparagus is a rank feeder and needs lots of manure for the
best results. Salt may be applied to asparagus to such an
extent as to kill all the weeds without injuring the plants and
yet careful experiments seem to show that salt is of no special
value as a manure for this crop.
Asparagus seed is readily taken from the fruit in which it
grows by macerating the fruit in water and then drying it.
Forcing Asparagus for early use is being done to some ex-
tent near large cities where it is often a profitable undertak-
ing. For this purpose the roots must be dug in the fall and
carefully stored in earth in a cellar. In March, make a good,
slow hotbed and put the roots in it in good soil. It is im-
portant to start the roots slowly or the shoots will be spind-
ling and weak. The roots stored as recommended may also
be forced into growth in a warm cellar, shed, greenhousee, or a
part of a permanent bed may be enclosed in glass or cotton
sheeting.
Varieties.—-There are a number of varieties, and they are
all desirable when given good cultivation. Among the best
kinds are Conover’s Colossal, Moore’s and Palmetto.
ONIONS. (Allium Cepa.)
Native of Central or Western Asia.— Biennial, sometimes
perennial. The original home of the onion is not known. It
has no true stem, but this is represented by the base of the
bulb. The form, color and shape of onions vary greatly in dif-
ferent varieties. The free portion of the leaves is elongated
and swollen in the lower part. The flowers, which are white
or litac in color, are borne in dense, round heads on long, slen-
der, hollow stalks; sometimes, instead of flowers, a head of
small bulbs is produced and no seed at all. This may occur oc-
casionally in all kinds, but is the almost invariable characteris-
ONIONS. 121
tic of the tree and top onions. The seeds are black, angular
and flattish. Usually the plant after seeding dies and disap-
pears entirely, but sometimes seed onions produce peculiar
pointed bulbs, called cloves, as well as seeds. Such plants may
be considered perennial as well as the potato onion which never
seeds and is propagated by the division of its bulbs. The onion
has been cultivated from remote antiquity, and there are very
many varieties that have been developed for different purposes.
These are almost without exception grown for their bulbs, but
in a few cases no bulbs are formed. The bulbs in color are
white, red and yellow, with intermediate shades. In the suc-
cessful raising of the onion, good judgment and experience play
an important part. Perhaps no vegetable crop is more certain
to pay the skillful grower for his time and labor and none more
liable to cause trouble to the careless beginner, and yet its cul-
tivation is quite simple. The prices for onions vary greatly.
They seldom are so cheap as to make the crop unprofitable; but
occasionally they get down to fifteen cents per bushel, at which
price they cannot be grown at a profit. There are few cu nals
that eat onions, and if not sold they cannot be fed to stock on a
large scale, as is the case with most vegetables. As a money
crop for careful growers in many sections they are among the
most reliable, and if a reasonable amount of them is raised each
year without regard to the price the preceding year, it is a crop
that will generally average a good profit.
Land.—Onions may be raised on any good retentive soil.
Sandy land is too apt to dry out in summer for best results. On
drained muck land, large crops may be easily raised; although
onions grown on such soil are often a little looser in texture than
those raised on drier land. The land should be rich, fine and
free from weeds and any strawy manure or other material that
would interfere with close cultivation. Too much stress cannot
be put on having the land free from weed seeds, since it is a
crop that requires much hand weeding and the plants are quite
delicate when young. The soil should be rather firm for onions
and plowed in the fall rather than in the spring. Fall plowing
leaves the soil firm and in excellent condition for the crop..
Sometimes when the land is rich it is desirable not to plow at
all, especially it is was in onions the preceding year, but instead
122 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to make a seed bed by the use of a disk or other good harrow
and plant at once; in fact, better results will generally be ob-
tained from spring. harrowing than from spring plowing of land
to be used for onions. Of course, if the land is to be harrowed
only to prepare it for the crop, it is very important, if manure is.
to be used, that this be very fine, so that the harrow will
cover it.
Old land is generally preferred for onions, and this crop is
often successfully raised on the same land for many years.
From the fact that onion land is always most carefully attended
to and gets much manure and tillage, it is generally in better
condition for onions than land used for almost any other crop.
However, it is a good plan to occasionally change the land for
onions, since on new land there is far less danger from disease
and insect enemies than on old land. Land that has grown any
crop requiring high culture and heavy manuring and is free
from weed seeds will generally grow good onions. Sometimes
onions are raised on newly cleared woodland or prairie sod with
greatest success, simply by sowing the seed broadcast and har-
rowing it in; but this is seldom attempted. -
Sowing the Seed.—Before sowing the seed the land should
be made very smooth. It is very important to get the seed in
the ground as early in the spring as possible. As soon as the
land can be worked in the spring, the seed should be sown and
the earlier it is sown the better. The seed of some kinds can
be sown in the autumn to advantage, but on land that is in-
clined to “bake,” it is a bad practice and is seldom attempted.
There is, however, a fair chance of a crop even if the seed is
sown as late as the first of June, but a first-class crop from seed
sown as late as this is almost out of the question. By the mid-
dle of May, all onion land should have been sown. The distance
between the rows will depend somewhat on the variety grown,
but for ordinary purposes the seed should be sown in rows fif-
teen inches apart and covered one inch deep. About eighteen
good seed should be sown to each foot of row, which will make
it necessary to use four or five pounds of seed per acre. If
there is danger of much loss from the depredations of the onion
maggot, more than this amount of seed should be used; where
maggots are very troublesome some growers use as much as six
ONIONS. 123
pounds per acre. The seed sower should be carefully tested on
a floor or other smooth surface before using it in the field to see
how it works. It is very important to know the germinating
qualities of the seed sown, since if it is of low germination more
must be used than if it is of best quality. Ninety per cent of
good onion seed ought to germinate if the conditions are favor-
able. It is important to closely study these matters, as it is de-
sirable to have the land well stocked with plants and yet not
over stocked. It is better to fail of getting quite so much seed on
the land as is desired than it is to get very much more than is
wanted, for in the first case the onions, although somewhat
scattering, will be of good size, while if the plants are too thick
they must be thinned out, or the onions will be small and in-
ferior. The work of thinning onions on a large scale is a very
expensive operation, and every precaution should be taken to
avoid having to do it. If the seed is sown only a little thicker
than the plants ought to stand, it is sometimes a good plan in-
stead of thinning them out, to put on an extra dressing of some
quick-acting, easily-applied manure, such as hen manure, which
will probably make it possible for the land to mature the whole
crop in good shape. Onions have the quality of crowding out
to the sides of the rows and on top of one another, so that they
may grow pretty thick and still be of good size, providing other
conditions are favorable to their development. It is important
to have the seed sown in straight rows. If the first row is laid
off with a line or otherwise made straight, the subsequent rows
are easily made parallel to it by means of the marker on the
seed sower. If there are found to be some vacancies in the
rows after the onions appear, these may be filled by sowing
onion seed in them by hand; late in the season such vacancies
may be sown with carrot seed.
Cultivation.—As soon as the plants commence to break the
surface soil, cultivation should be commenced with a hand cul-
tivator that will work both sides of the row at one time and
throw a little earth from the plant; hand weeding should fol-
low at once. At the second hoeing, the plants being now pretty
strong, the soil should be cultivated somewhat deeper. This
will enable a careful man to work the soil very close to the
plants. Onions naturally grow in the surface of the land and
124 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
not below it and should never be hilled up. The onion crop
should be hoed and weeded as often as the weeds appear or
whenever the ground packs hard around the growing plants.
The weeds should be destroyed when small. This means that
until early summer the onions should be hoed about once every
two weeks. When the plants get so large that they will no
longer pass under the straddle cultivator without being bruised
the work of cultivation must be continued between the rows
until the bulbs commence to form, after which it is not a good
plan to work much among them, since pushing the tops about
tends to make them die down quicker than otherwise. When
the onions are about the size of a half dollar and before the tops
fall over, it is a good plan, if the land is not very rich, to apply
some quick-acting fertilizer such as hen manure or a commer-
cial fertilizer broadcast over the crop. This should be done
just before or during a rain if possible. For this purpose dry,
fine hen manure is good, but any rich, nitrogenous fertilizer will
answer.
If the plants are going to make good onions they will be-
come weak in the neck just above the bulb when nearly grown
and fall flat on the ground, where they should be allowed to lie
undisturbed until the tops and roots are entirely dried, then the
bulbs can be easily pulled out of the ground with a rake or
onion puller. In the vicinity of St. Paul, this time will be in
August or the early part of September. About four rows of
bulbs should be thrown together, and they should be turned with
a rake every few days until perfectly dry and then be put under
cover to protect them from rain. If they are allowed to get wet
several times after being pulled, the outer skins are liable to
come off and thus make the bulbs unsightly. If not pulled for
some little time after they are ripe, especially if the season is
moist, new roots are very sure to start and the roots become
grown so firmly into the soil that the work of pulling and dry-
ing them is increased. The work of cutting or twisting off the
tops, called topping, may be left until the onions are marketed,
but they will be found to keep much better if “topped,” since if
the tops are left on they prevent a free circulation of the air
through the bulbs. :
“Scallions” or “Thick Necks.”—Sometimes, too, the tops of
ONIONS. 125
the plant do not die down as they should, but remain green and
continue to grow after the bulbs are well formed, and become
what are called “scallions” or “thick necks.” This is generaily
due to the planting of poorly selected seed, but sometimes it is
not to be accounted for. In such cases it is generally recom-
mended to break the tops down, which certainly does no harm,
but it is of doubtful value. A better way is to pull such plants
as soon as they begin to grow vigorously after once having
formed good bulbs, dry them as much as possible and remove
the tops. However, such onions do not generally keep well and
had better be used during autumn and early winter.
Keeping Onions.—Onions should be kept in a dry, cool
place. In a damp cellar they will sprout and grow no matter if
the temperature there is near the freezing point. They will
stand quite a little frost without much injury, but if frozen and
thawed several times they become soft and do not keep well,
but start to grow very quickly. The best way of keeping onions
is in a cold, dry room in slatted bins or on shelves so arranged
that the air can circulate through them. A very practical plan
is to put them in barrels without heads, having holes in the bot-
tom and sides and pile these on top of one another two tiers
high, first putting down scantling or other material to allow the
air to circulate under and around them. If our common onions
are frozen solid in the autumn and kept so all winter, they will
generally come out right in the spring. A good way to do this
is to lay them eighteen inches thick on the floor of a loft and
cover with a foot or so of hay. Thus arranged they will not
freeze until severe weather sets in and will remain frozen until
spring. They may also be put in water-proof bins in the field
where grown and treated in the same way. They should never
be handled when frozen, as they are apt to bruise. Freezing
and. thawing several times seriously injures them, but if kept
frozen and gradually thawed out they come out in very nice
condition. After thawing out, they will not keep well, but
quickly start to grow, and should be disposed of at once. They
Prizetaker and similar kinds are an exception to this rule and
are liable to be ruined if frozen.
Onion Sets is a term applied to small onions which are
planted out in the spring instead of seeds. If onions under
126 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
three-fourths of an inch in diameter are planted out in the
spring, they do not go to seed as do larger onions, but form a
new bulb, and form it much earlier than they are formed when
grown from seed. Taking advantage of this fact, it has become
a common practice to raise these small onions (sets) and plant
them out for early summer use. It does not matter how small
the set is, and one the size of a pea is as good as one much
larger. The size generally preferred is about one-half an inch
in diameter.
Planting Onion Sets.—The method of planting sets is to
have the land in the same condition as recommended for onion
seed and plant the sets as soon as the soil can be worked in the
spring. In doing this mark off the land in drills twelve inches
apart and push each set down firmly three inches deep into the
mellow soil, leaving them three inches apart. This is done by
hand, and each set is handled separately, so as to have them
right side up. The drill is then closed in with the feet or rake,
so that each set is entirely covered up. If the ground is dry,
it is sometimes rolled to make it still more compact around the
bulbs, but it is generally quite moist when the sets are planted
in early spring. As soon as the rows can be seen, the wheel hoe
is used, and the plants kept free from weeds and the soil well
stirred. By this method we will have onions of good table size
by the first of July, and some may be marketed in bunches in a
green state in June. Onion sets seldom, if ever, fail to produce
good crops and are well adapted for use in the home garden and
by those who will not take the pains necessary to grow onions
from seed. No matter how poor the soil or the cultivation
where the sets are planted, they always increase in size and
ripen early. There is no danger of their being injured by freez-
ing after being planted. From six to ten bushels of sets are re-
quired per acre, depending on their size.
The raising of onion sets is carried on to a large extent in
some localities, and it is a crop that requires much skill in
handling. Sandy soil of rather inferior quality but free from
weeds and in fine tilth is best for this purpose. To keep the
sets from growing too large, it is customary to plant from
thirty to fifty pounds of seed per acre, and not plant it until the
latter part of May. This treatment crowds the seedlings so
ONIONS. 127
that they cannot grow large. In sowing the seed, it is best to
go over the rows with the seed sower three or four times, sow-
ing only a part of the seed each time. This spreads the seed
out in wide drills and permits of more even work than would
be possible were it attempted to sow all the seed by going over
the rows once. If onion sets grow too large it is often almost
impossiple to use them for any purpose, since they are too
small to sell well except for pickling, and the demand for this
purpose is very limited. On this account, if it is feared the sets
Figure 52.—At the left: onion plants asdug. Onthe right: omion plants trim
med and ready for transplanting.
will grow too large, they are pulled when of the proper size, even
if still quite green. The further cultivation of plants for sets is
the same as for a field crop of onions. The sets should be taken
up in August, or as soon as ripe, with a rake or onion set puller.
When dry they should be stored, tops and all, about four inches
deep, in a loft, where they should be covered with a foot of hay
or straw on the approach of hard frost and left until wanted for
planting in the spring. In other words, they should be kept
128 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
frozen all winter. Treated in this way they will require to be
cleaned in the spring, and this is done by rubbing them in the
hands to loosen the dirt and tops and then running them through
a fanning mill. After this they are run over a screen with a
three-fourths inch mesh, and only those that go through it are
saved for sets. This work of cleaning may be done in autumn
before storing and the sets mixed with chaff to aid in keeping
them over winter.
Transplanting Onions.—Within a few years some market
gardeners have adopted a plan of raising onions by sowing the
seed in March in a hotbed and then transplanting the seedlings
Figure 53.—Transplanting Onions in the Fiela.
to the open ground as soon as it works well. This system has
the merit of doing away with the first few weedings in the open
ground, reduces the expense of seed to a minimum and makes
it possible to raise some of the more delicate foreign varieties
of onions, which command the highest price in the market. It
is, however, very doubtful if the common field onions can be
raised at a profit under this method, but it is desirable if the
ONIONS. 129
Spanish kinds are to be raised in this section. The selection
and preparation of the land for this purpose is the same as for a
field crop. The seed is sown in a hotbed in rows three inches
apart, or on a small scale a few plants may be raised in a box
in the window of the living room. The soil for this purpose
should be a somewhat sandy loam of only moderate quality, and
that which has no manure in it is most certain to grow healthy
plants. If very thick in the row, the plants must be thinned
out so as not to crowd one another too much, but still they may
be grown very thickly; as many as twelve to fifteen plants to
the inch of row is about right, and to secure this amount about
twice as many seeds will have to be sown to the inch. Too
much importance cannot he attached to the raising of strong
plants, since those that are weak and spindling are very cer-
tain to fail when moved.
For a week or two previous to setting out the plants, they
should have plenty of fresh air, and it is a good plan to remove
the sashes entirely from over them except when there is dan-
ger of frost, so that the plants may become hardened off, as
otherwise they are liable to serious injury by freezing when
moved to the open ground, although they stand some freezing
when hardened off. They do not transplant so well when soft
and succulent as when properly hardened. The land and prep-
aration required is the same as for a field crop of onions. The
plants should be set two or three inches apart in rows twelve
inches apart. Before setting them out the tops should be most-
ly cut off, and this is especially important if they are weak and
spindling, as they are then very sure to turn yellow and die. If
the roots are excessively long, they may be shortened to facil-
tate transplanting. The plants are generally set in small fur-
rows opened with a hand cultivator or with a marker. The
lower part of the bulb should be about an inch deep in the
ground. ‘Tae plants are easily moved, and if the soil is well
firmed they are very sure to live. About 150,000 plants are re-
quired for an acre, and it is a big job to transplant them. For
this purpose children can generally be employed at low wages
and they will do the work very well if carefully looked after.
The expense of transplanting is variously estimated at from $25
130 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to $50 per acre. Subsequent cultivation is the same as for a
field crop of onions.
Marketing.—In a general way the directions for marketing
onions apply to any other crop. They should be sold as soon
as a fair price can be obtained for them and not stored unless
there is a good chance of a rise. In some lacalities there is a
large demand for onions for bunching purposes before the bulbs
are formed. In these places it will sometimes pay to pull and
sell the crop before the tops have died down, but generally it
shouid be allowed to ripen. The foreign kinds, such as can only
be raised here by the transplanting method, are generally high-
est in price in early autumn and should then be sold. The tops
should always be removed before the bulbs are marketed, and
all small bulbs should be picked out and sold separately for
pickling purposes. Most markets prefer onions of medium size,
globular rather than flat in shape, and yellow or white in color
rather than red. Very large onions of the common type are not
so salable as those of medium size; but of the foreign kinds, the
larger the better, and good specimens sometimes weigh as much
as two pounds.
Figure 54.—Varieties of Onions. 1—Southport Yellow Globe. 2—Silver Skin.
3—Red Globe. 4—Prizetaker. 5- Yellow Danvers.
~ Onions for the Home Garden should be raised partly from
seed and partly from sets or transplanting. The small onions
picked out from one season’s crop may be used as sets the next
ONIONS. 131
year, when they will give a much earlier crop than those
grown from seed. ;
Varieties-—For general field crops in this section no onion
is more certain than Red Wethersfield. The Yellow Danvers is
the best yellow kind for this purpose. The earliest maturing
large kind is Extra Early Red. For raising sets the Yellow
Dutch, called also Yellow Strasburg, is the best kind, but any
variety may be used for this purpose. For growing in hotbeds,
greenhouses or window boxes to be transplanted to the open
ground, the Prizetaker and Southport Yellow Globe are most in
demand.
Potato Onions and Shallots are always grown from the bulbs,
which increase in size and also produce a cluster of bulbs
(cloves) around the one that.is planted. They are especially
adapted to early marketing in the same way as onion sets.
Egyptian, or Perennial Tree, Onion.—This kind is perfectly
hardy and does not form bulbs, but the bleached stem is used in
a green state. It produces no seed, but instead has a small clus-
ter of bulblets where the seed cluster should be. These bulb-
lets are planted in September in the same way as recommended
for onion sets and are ready for use as bunch onions very early
the following season.
Top Onions is a name applied to a class of onions that pro-
duce no seed, but where the seed should be have a cluster of
small bulbs. These small bulbs when planted grow into large
common onions and when these common onions are planted they
produce a crop of sets.
Onion Seed is raised by planting out the bulbs in the spring
in rows four feet apart, and for this purpose, bulbs of the great-
est excellence are used. It is best to set the bulbs about
six inches deep and six inches apart in each furrow, and to do
this planting out very early in the spring. The seed stalks will
attain a height of about three feet. The seed clusters ripen
somewhat unevenly, but should be gathered before they are quite
dry, or the seed will shell out and be lost. When gathered, they
should be dried in airy chambers and afterwards threshed out
and cleaned with a fanning mill or they may be cleaned by being
thrown into water. The latter method secures the best seed.
132 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
All the seed that is full and plump will sink in water, and as
the chaff and light-
er seeds float they
are readily separated
from the good seed
Some of the seed
that floats will
grow,- but. it isnot
very desirable for
planting. The same
land that grows a
crop of onion seed is
sometimes used for
growing acrop of cu-
cumbersor melonsat
the same time, since
the onions do not
shade the land or
take much nourish-
ment from it except
early in the spring.
Figure 55—Onion plants in flower.
COMMON GARLIC. (Allium sativum.)
Native of southern Europe.—Perennial.—All parts of the
plant have the well-known strong burning taste. The bulbs
or beads are composed of about ten cloves enveloped by a very
thin, white or rose-colored membranous skin. The plant
hardly ever flowers and is grown by means of the cloves,
for which purpose those on the outside of the cluster should
be used. These should be planted in good rich soil in about
the same way as onion sets. They should be gathered after the
bulb clusters are well formed. This vegetable is scarcely used
at the north, while in southern European countries it is quite
common. It is said that it has a much stronger burning taste
ONIONS. 133
when grown at the north than when grown in the south. What
is known as common garlic is the kind most generally used.
Figure 56.—1—French Shallots. 2—Top Onions (red). 3—Jersey Shallots.
4—Garlic. 5—Potato Onions.
LEEKS. (Allium porrum.)
Said to be a native of Switzer-
land.—Biennial.—The leek is closely
allied to the onion, which it resem-
bles in flavor, color of seed and flower.
However, it does not form a bulb but
a straight bunch of leaves, that are
used almost entirely in a fresh or un-
cooked condition. The leaves are flat
instead of round and hollow, as is the
case with onions. As yet this vege-
table is little grown in this country,
except around the large cities.
Cultivation.—Its requirements are
Figure 57—Leek. about the same, and it may be culti-
vated in much the same way as the onion, but it is more
1-4 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
common to sow the seed early in spring and transplant in
summer, settling plants very deep, as the market value de-
pends on the blanched condition of the stem; and for the same
reason in hoeing the soil is drawn up over the stem. They
transplant very easily when the soil is moist, but should have
the tops trimmed off as recommended in transplanting onions.
If they are not transplanted, especial care should be taken to
draw the soil towards the plants in hoeing. They may be stored
in the same manner as celery, and are marketed in bunches
the same as green onions.
Varieties.—There are several varieties which vary in form
and color.
Large Flag leek is a popular sort and, perhaps, more largely
grown than any other.
Scotch Flag or Musselburgh leek is longer than the above,
but not quite so thick.
CHIVES. (Allium schoenoprasum.)
Native of Europe.—Perennial.—A hardy plant growing in ‘
thick tufts. Bulbs oval, scarcely as large as a hazelnut, forming
compact masses; leaves very numerous, grass-like in appear-
ance and hollow. Flower stems in terminal clusters of violet-
red flowers and usually barren. The tops have an onion-like
flavor and are used in seasoning.
Culture.—Chives are propagated by dividing the tufts. They
are not much used and are generally grown as edgings for beds
in the garden. Of the easiest culture.
THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. (Order Polygonaceae.)
The buckwheat family includes herbs which alternate entire
leaves and stipules in the form of sheaths above the swollen
joints of the stem. Flowers mostly perfect with a one-celled
ovary bearing two or three styles or stigmas. Fruit usually an
achene either flattened or three or four-angled or winged. Some-
times agreeably acid as in sorrel and sometimes cathartic as
the roots of rhubarb. Only rhubarb is here discussed, but other
familiar plants that belong to this order are Sorrel, Bitter
Curled and other docks, Knotwood, Smartweed, Bindweed or
Wild Buckwheat and Field Buckwheat.
RHUBARB. 135
RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT. (Rheum rhaponticum.)
The cultivated varieties of rhubarb are generally supposed to
have come from Mongolia, though it is quite possible that some
varieties may have sprung from a North American species. The
plant is an herbaceous perennial whose leaf stalks are used for
sauce, pies, etc. It sends up a flower stalk often four feet high,
and produces a large amount of seed each year. It is perfectly
hardy in gardens, even in very severe situations, and when once
planted continues to yield abundant crops for many years. The
seeds are large and triangular.
Culture.—Rhubarb is readly increased from the seed, which
germinates quickly. Seedlings vary considerably but not enough
to prevent this method of
propagation from _ being
the one most commonly
practiced. They attain
good transplanting size in
one year. It is customary
to sow the seed in rows
three feet apart early in
the spring, and set out the
plants when one year old
where they are to grow;
the plants may also be
thinned out and a few ail-
lowed to remain where
the seeds aresown. When
Figure 58.—Rhubarb plant in flower, it is desired to propagate
the specially valuable
qualities of individual plants, it is done by dividing the roots,
using care to take at least one good bud with each piece of root.
This is the only sure way of getting the best plants.
It is preferable to set the plants out in the fall where they
are to grow, but spring planting is often followed. They should
be set in the richest of land four feet apart each way. The
stalks should not be pulled up untii the spring of the second
year and then only to a small extent; the third year they should
give a good crop. The only culture needed is to keep the ground
136 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
free from weeds and loose, and to use plenty of manure. In
gathering rhubarb the stalks should be removed from the crown
by a jerk downward and sideways, and care should be taken not
to be so rough about it as to pull the buds from the crown at
the same time. There is little danger of pulling more leaves
than the plant can stand without injury, but in the case of a
young plantation it would not be well to remove more than one-
half of the leaves at any one time. The stalks are most in de
Figure 59—Pieces of rhubarb roots cut off for planting out.
mand early in the spring, but there is more or less call for
them all summer. The seed stalks should be cut off as soon
as they appear, so as to throw their strength into leaves and
to prevent the formation of seed, if the largest amount of stalks
is wanted.
Forcing Rhubarb.—For winter and spring use rhubarb is
often forced in greenhouses and cold frames. The roots of any
age are taken up in autumn, crowded together under the benches
in greenhouses or placed in boxes or barrels with a little soil be-
tween them, and put in any convenient place in the greenhouse
or a warm light room or cellar where they start into growth in
February. They are also planted out in warm sheds. Still an-
other way of forcing rhubarb is by putting a cold frame over the
plants in the early spring where they are growing in the open
BEETS. 137
ground. This method may be improved by heavily mulching the
plants so as to keep out the frost in winter. The roots are some-
times lifted in autumn, planted close together in a deep cold
frame and covered with leaves to keep out frost. In March the
leaves are removed and the sashes put on. This method has the
advantage of using the sashes to the best advantage, but roots .
that are dug and then forced are worthless for further planting.
In order to increase the length of the stalks it is a common
practice where but a small amount is grown to put headless bar-
rels over each plant in the spring when the leaves are starting
into growth, and in striving to reach the light the leaf stalks
naturally grow long and-tender. An old sash laid over the bar-
rel is an improvement on this method. :
Varieties.—There are several varieties, but the following
kinds are the most highly esteemed:
Myatt’s Linneus.—An early sort having deep green stalks
and attaining to a large size.
Myatt’s Victoria——A much later kind than the preceding.
Stalks red, very thick and large.
THE GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. (Order Chenopodiaceae.)
The Goosefoot Family includes chiefly homely herbs, with in-
conspicuous greenish flowers. The ovary is one-celled and one-
seeded. Leaves chiefly alternate. Besides the beet, mangel wurt-
zel, Swiss chard and spinach, whose cultural directions are here
given, it includes such weeds as Russian thistle, goosefoot and
lamb’s quarter or pigweed.
BEET. (Beta Vulgaris.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial—This plant in the first year of
its growth forms a fleshy root, and goes to seed the second year.
The seed stalk is about four feet high. What is usually sold
and planted as beet seed is in reality a fruit and is made up
of several seeds imbedded in corn-like calyxes; the seed itself
is very small and kidney-shaped, with a thin brown skin. The
roots vary greatly in form and size and in color from a reddish
white to a deep dark red. Some varieties have special] quali-
ties for table use, while others are valuable for feeding stock
or for sugar only.
The garden beet is easily grown and is a very reliable crop.
138 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
It prefers a very rich, sandy, well-worked soil, but will grow in
any land that is fit for corn. For early use some early-ma-
turing kind should be selected and the seeds should be sown in
rows sixteen inches apart in the open ground as scon as the
soil can be worked in the
spring. Ten seeds should be
sown to each foot of row and
covered one inch deep. The
young plants will stand quite
a severe frost without injury.
As soon as the seedlings ap-
pear they should ve cultivat-
ed with a wheel hoe, and the
cultivation repeated at fre-
quent intervals. When they
are eight or ten inches high,
thinning should be commenc-
ed and continued until the
plants are six inches apart in
the rows. These thinnings
make excellent greens. If
sown as recommended, they
will be large enough for
table use in June and will
Figure 60.—Bunch of Eclipse beetS. be good for use the rest of
the summer. For winter use, the seed should not be sown
mntil. the Jast of May “ior first;-of-— June For late plant-
ing some growers’ prefer to put the rows two _ feet
or more apart so that when the plants are nicely
started they can be cultivated by horse power. Stock and
sugar beets should be sown in rows about thirty inches apart,
to allow of easy cultivation. These should be sown from the
middle to the last of May and ccvered somewhat deeper than
is recommended for early table beets, perhaps one and one-
half inches deep. The importance of very early and constant
cultivation cannot be too strongly insisted on. Beet seed may
be sown by a machine seed sower, but most of the sowers in
use will need a little more careful watching when sowing this
ea : —
i
1
}
|
i
BEETS. 139
than with most other seeds, as the rough seeds (fruit) are liable
to clog the feed hole. There are a few beet seed sowing ma-
chines adapted for horse power thai it will probably pay one
to use where a large amount of land is to be cultivated in
beets. About six pounds of seed is required per acre, and it
is always a good plan to sow an abundance of seed, as it does
not start very uniformly.
Forcing Beets.—Beets are easily forced by sowing the early
maturing kinds in February or March in hotbeds, where they
may be left to mature or may be transplanted when of proper
size. It is, however, best to allow them to grow to table size
without transplanting, as this always puts the plants back, and
they recover from it slowly.
Harvesting and Keeping Beets.—On the approach of severe
weather—in this section about the middle of October—beets
should be pulled and the tops cut or twisted off, but the top of
the root should not be cut off. Light frosts do not hurt them
much especially when they are protected with a heavy growth
of foliage, but when the surface of the ground freezes hard there
is danger of permanent injury to the roots. Beets are easily
kept in a cold cellar. It is generally best to put them outside
when dug and allow them to remain there until severe weather
sets in. If the air of the cellar is very dry the beets should
be covered with earth after being put in bins, or they will wilt
and become corky. Beet seed is grown by planting out the
roots about the middle of May, two feet apart in rows three
feet apart. The seed ripens in the summer and is generally
threshed off as soon as ripe.
Varieties.—There are many varieties of garden beets, and
they vary considerably in size, form and color, time of matur-
ing and other characteristics. Among the most valuable are
the following:
Eclipse—A very early dark-red turnip-shaped beet of good
quality. Valuable for early or late sowing. A favorite with
market gardeners.
Egyptian.—Valuable for early sowing.
Bastian’s Early Turnip Beet.—A valuable early sort, tender,
sweet and good in every way; one of the best for early or late
planting.
140 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Dewing’s Improved Blood Turnip Beet.—A first-class beet in
every respect; valuable for winter or summer use.
Diseases of Beets.—The beet is subject to several diseases,
and it is most healthy when grown on new land.
Beet Scab is a disease which ruptures the skin of the
beet in a manner similar to scab on potatoes. Recent investiga-
tions show that this disease is the same as potato scab. On
this account, beets should not follow potatoes on land that has
grown a scabby crop unless there is an interval of several years
between them. Beets are sometimes subject to a rust that in-
jures the foliage, but seldom very seriously.
Stock Beets (often called Mangel Wurzel). Stock beets are
gross feeders and prefer rich soil. They require the same care
as table beets, but the rows should be thirty inches apart, so
as to allow of cultivating them
with horse implements. The seed
may be sown with any common
* garden seed drill after first laying
off the rows with a marker, or it
may be sown with a common grain
drill by stopping the flow of seed
through a part of the holes. It is
a very good plan to sow radish or
rutabaga seed with the beet seed,
as it starts quickly and the line of
the row is thus easily seen, so that
cultivation may be started early.
Bigare 6 Seeae Bee This is very important in land that
is somewhat weedy. About six pounds of seed to the acre will
give about twelve seeds (fruits) to a foot.
There are many good varieties of stock beets. Among the
best are Long Red, Yellow, or Golden Tankard, Yellow Globe
and American Sugar. The latter is not a true sugar beet, but is
much richer in sugar than the ordinary varieties of stock beets
and, possibly, of better feeding value.
Sugar Beets, from which is made a large amount of the
sugar of commerce, are grown in a similar way to stock beets,
but on a large scale require a rather different and special
BEETS. 141
treatment. There is no trouble about raising them with a
large percentage of sugar in any of the northern states, but
the drawbacks to its becoming a more general industry are the
very expensive machinery required to extract the sugar eco-
nomically on a large scale, the small margin of profit and the
low price the manufacturers have been willing to pay for the
beets. Sugar beets grow entirely below ground, which makes
them difficult to dig, and they do not grow to large size, seldom
weighing more than four pounds. The part of a beet above
ground does not contain much sugar. It is recommended to sow
about 18 lbs. of seed of sugar beets per acre.
LEAF BEET OR SWISS CHARD.
Native of Southern Europe.—Biennial.——This appears to
be exactly the same plant as the
beet root, except that in its
case cultivation has developed
the leaves instead of the root.
The botanical characteristics, es-
pecially those of the fruit seed
and flowers are precisely alike
in both plants. The root is
branched and not very fleshy,
while the leaves are large and
numerous, with the stalk and
midrib fleshy and very large.
The plants vary in color from
deep red to nearly white. The
fleshy leaf stalks are cooked and
served like asparagus.
Culture.—The plants are grown
in the same manner as the com-
mon table beets. Among the best varieties is one known as the
Silvery Swiss chard.
Figure 62.—Swiss Chard.
SPINACH. (Spinacia oleracea.)
Properly a native of Western Asia.—An annual plant cul-
tivated for its leaves which form popular spring and early sum:
142 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
mer greens. It has a seed stalk about two feet high. The
varieties. are divided according to their seeds into round and
prickly -seeded sorts.
The latter have sharp,
hard prickles on the
seeds. This division is
so pronounced that
some botanists have
treated these classes
as distinct species. The
prickly-seeded sorts are
considered the hardiest,
while among the round-
Figure 63.—Spinach. seeded kinds are _ per-
haps the most desirable
varieties for table use, but this difference is not always very
clear.
Culture.—The seed of spinach may be sown in hotbeds or
cold frames very early in the spring or outdoors as soon as
the ground can be worked. It is of the easiest culture. A
supply may be had during the whole growing season by making
a succession of sowings at intervals of about two weeks.
Under good conditions it will be ready for table use in about six
weeks from the time of sowing the seed. In planting it outdoors
the rows should be about twelve inches apart. The seed should
be covered about one inch deep and about forty seeds or more
sown to the foot or row. It is well to use plenty of seed and
since it often starts poorly in dry weather extra precautions are
taken when sowing it at that time. The plants may be thinned
out when too thick, and, no matter how small they are they form
a good vegetable. Spinach is often sown in the spring between
early peas; cabbage, potatoes or other slow growing crops. For
early spring use the seeds of the hardiest kinds should be
sown in this section in the latter part of August. The plants
should grow well and attain a good size during the cool weather
of autumn, and on the approach of winter they should be covered
with about two inches of straw, hay or similar material. When
thus treated the crop generally comes through the winter in this
SPINACH. 143
section without serious injury and after making a little growth in
the spring is marketable. It is harvested by cutting the plants
off at the top of the ground. For this purpose a short push hoe
is run under the plants. They are then freed from dead leaves,
and after being washed are ready for marketing. Spinach
requires a very rich soil and plenty of well-rotted manure. To
secure the best results from early spring sowings, it will pay
those raising it for market, to use nitrate of soda on the land in
small quantities, say, two applications at the rate of seventy-five
pounds per acre at intervals of two weeks after the crop has
started. This material has a wonderful effect on early leaf crops.
Where nitrate of soda is not used hen manure is very desirable
The effect of nitrate of soda on this crop is very marked and
often results in more than doubling its size. Spinach generally
is very free from insects and fungous diseases.
Varieties.—There are a number of varieties of spinach dif-
fering in earliness, hardiness and in the time they remain in
edible condition, as well as in many minor matters. Among
the best are the following:
Long Standing.—An excellent sort for spring and summer
sowing, since it stands longer than any other sort before going
to seed.
Prickly, or Winter.—A prickly seed variety that is very
popular. It will withstand very severe weather without serious
injury if lightly protected by hay or straw and is probably the
best sort for autumn planting in this section.
Bloomsdale.—A nice hardy sort with long, curled leaves of
excellent quality. Very hardy.
THE CABBAGE FAMILY. (Order Cruciferae.)
The cabbage family is made up of herbaceous plants having
watery juice, a pungent (peppery) taste, and floral envelopes
arranged on the plan of four, with their petals generally spread
out in the form of a cross. Stamens six, two of which are short-
er than the other four. Seed all embryo. This is a large family
and includes besides the cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel’s sprouts,
kale, kohl-rabi, horseradish, cress, water cress, whose cultural
directions are given under this head, among common weeds, the
mustard, French weed, false flax, pepper cress, shepherd’s purse
144 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
and many garden flowers such as nasturtium, gillyflower, candy-
tuft and alyssum.
CABBAGE. (Brassica oleracea.)
Native of Europe and Western Asia.—Biennial.—It grows
naturally to the neight of three or four feet and scarcely resem-
bles any of our cultivated kinds. The part eaten is termed the
head and is simply a cluster of leaves enwrapping the top of the
stem, or in other words, a large bud. It attains the height of
three or four feet when it goes to seed. The flowers are gener-
ally yellow in color and conspicuous, though uot large. There
are three great groups of cabbages distinguished respectively by
their (1) red leaves, (2) smooth leaves and (38) wrinkled leaves.
Red cabbages are chiefly esteemed for pickling. The varieties
with smooth, light green leaves (common cabbage) are com:
‘ie
ac ec a Bee |
Figure 64—Cross section of cabbage head, showing arrangement of stem and
leaves and that it is simply a big terminal bud.
monly cultivated, while the Savoy cabbage, which has wrinkled
leaves, and is of the best quality, is little grown because it does
not produce so abundantly as the common kinds. The original
species from which the cabbage has sprung is also the parent of
the cauliflower, kale and Brussel’s sprouts. The seed of the cab.
bage is dark brown in color, smooth and round.
CABBAGE. 145
Soil.—The best soil for cabbage is a rich alluvial or prairie
loam, moist, yet well drained and in fine condition. While some
varieties will mature on poor soil yet they all require the highest
cultivation for the best development. This is especially true
of early cabbage, which needs mucu richer soil than the late
crop. It is a good plan to occasionally change the land used for
cabbage; in some eastern sections it is necessary to do this each
year on account of the prevalence of the disease called club-
root, which is not yet found in this section.
Manure.—The cabbage is a gross feeder and needs lots of
rich manure. Most of our best growers apply manure broadcast,
but when there is a necessity of economizing with the manure,
it may be applied to better advantage in the hill, providing the
land is in good condition. In growing early cabbage it is an ex-
cellent plan to apply a handful or so of dry hen manure aroun!
the hills when the plants are half grown. This should not be put
close to the plants, but scattered over a radius of a foot or more
from the plants and then cultivated into the soil.
Early Cabbage.—The methods of cultivating adapted to the
growing of early cabbage are quite different from those followed
in raising late cabbage, and the subject of cultivation naturally
groups itself under these heads. The soil preferred for early
cabbage is a light, rich, sandy loam, well drained and sloping to
the south, providing it is not too liable to injury from drouth.
In milder sections of the country it is customary to sow the
seed for early cabbage in September, and winter the plants over
in cold frames. This method is impracticable in the extreme
Northern states, and the best plan to follow in such sections is
that of sowing the seed in greenhouses or hotbeds from the mid-
dle to the last of February. As the plants need room they are
transplanted so as not to be crowded. If they are kept growing
freely they will be large enough to transplant to the open ground
by tke first of April.
Setting the Plants.—Cabbage plants will grow at a low tem-
perature, and it is a great advantage to plant them out early
in the spring, although the weather may be damp and cold. At
this season of the year they may not show any great increase
in leaf surface, but they form roots rapidly, and these are a great
146 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
help in providing a vigorous growth later in the season. As a
rule, early cabbage should be set out as soon as the frost is out
in the spring and the ground nicely settled. It is important to
set the plants deep in the ground at this season, and since the
stem is the part most liable to injury from hard frosts, it should
be set deep enough to bring the base of the leaves below the
ground. This is very important and frequently mukcs the differ-
ence between success and failure in growing the early crop. I?
severe weather is threatened after the plants are set out, it is a
good plan to draw a hoe-ful of earth over each plant, for if frozen
when they are covered with earth they will not be injured, and
they can remain buried in the ground several days in cold weath-
er without serious injury. However, the earth should be removed
as soon as good weather is assured. The distance between
the plants will depend somewhat on the varieties to be culti-
vated; under ordinary conditions the large, early kinds should
be set out two feet apart in rows three feet apart. This arrange-
ment permits of horse cultivation both ways when the plants
are young and one way when they are full grown.
Cultivation s’iould cemmence as soon as the rows Can be
clearly seen, and should be repeated after each rain or at least
once a week until the crop is grown. For this purpose a fine-
tooth horse cultivator is the most desirable instrument, and if
the work is carefully done there will be very little need of hand
hoeing. It is a good plan to draw the earth slightly toward the
plants when they are about half grown.
Harvesting the Crop.—Treated in this way, under ordinary
conditions they will be nicely “headed up” by the first of July
and ready for marketing. The season for marketing, however,
will depend largely on the kinds grown. If the land is at once
plowed when the crop is harvested, it can be used for growing
some late crop, as late beans, spinach or celery. By care in
sowing and the selection of varieties early cabbage may be con-
tinued till late cabbage is in the market.
Retarding the Heading of cabbages may be accomplished by
starting the roots on one side of the head or by slightly pulling
the plant so as to break some of the roots. This is very impor-
tant some seasons, as it is not uncommon to find the market over-
stocked with this vegetable just as the crop is full grown, and
CABBAGE. 147
if the plants are allowed to remain growing when once a hard
head is formed they are very sure to burst and be spoiled. By
starting the roots a little, the growth is checked and heads may
be kept from spoiling for a week or more.
Late Cabbage is a term generally given to cabbage grown
from seed sown in the open ground. It may be ready for use in
September or in the late autumn and be kept all winter.
Soil_—Any land that will produce a good crop of corn is in
good condition for late cabbage, but the richer the land the bet-
ter the chances of success. Less manure is required for late
than for early cabbage. Late cabbage is generally raised by sow-
ing the seed in the hills, or by sowing it in a seed bed and set-
ting the plants in the field when of sufficient size. Each of these
methods has its advantages and will be referred to separately
further on.
Sowing Cabbage Seed.—Late cabbage may be raised by sow-
ing the seed in a seedbed, in rows twelve inches apart, in
the spring, and when the plants are large enough transplanting
them to the field where they are to be grown. ‘This is the com-
mon way of growing cabbage. Its advantages are that the plants
may be set out on land that has grown some early crop, as peas,
or on sod land after cutting the hay. It also ensures having the
plants all together in a small space, where they can be easily
cultivated and guarded when they are young and most liable to
serious injury from cut worms, flea beetles and other insects
and from dry weather. It has the disadvantage of requiring the
plants to be moved during the dry weather of early summer,
when they are very liable to fail from lack of water in the soil.
Sowing the seed of cabbage in the field where the plants are to
mature and then thinning out to one plant to a hill, has the
advantage of not requiring the transplanting of the plants during
dry weather, and as the plants are not set back by transplant
ing they. mature in a shorter time than transplanted plants.
This makes it practicable to sow the seed later than when the
plants are to be removed and is sometimes an advantage. It has
the disadvantage, however, of having the plants scattered over
a large area when they are small and are liable to serious in-
sect enemies, and they are more difficult to cultivate than when
148 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
in a seed bed. The thinnings from the land where seed is sown
in the hill may be set elsewhere.
Raising Cabbage by Transplanting.—If the plants are to be
raised in a seedbed and then transplanted to the open ground
the seed of such varieties as Late Flat Dutch should be sown
about the 10th of May; but if Fotler’s Improved Brunswick or
other second early kind is to be grown, the seed should not be
sown until at least ten days later; and such large, early heading
varieties as Early Summer may be successfully raised for winter
use when its seed is sown as late as the first of June. In any
case the plants should be ready to set out by the last of June,
when they should be carefully transplanted. The land should
be thoroughly pulverized and marked out three feet apart each
way, unless it is to be manured in the hiils, when it should be
furrowed out one way and marked the other way. The plants
should be set at the intersections of the marks, but it is not a
good plan to sé. them on top of the manure, but rather to put
them a little to one side of it. This is especially important if the
manure is not well rotted. The cultivation and after treatment
are the same for late as for early sabbage.
Cabbage from Seed Sown in the Hill.—If the seed is to be
sown in the hills, the land should be treated as recommended
when the plants are to be transplanted. It is generally neces-
sary for success to have the soil moist wren the seed is sown.
After the land is marked out, seven or cight seeds should be
sown at each intersection covered with about half an inch of soil ©
and pressed down with the sole of the foot. The plants gen-
erally come up inside of a week and should be hand-hoed at
once, and when large enough cultivated with a horse implement.
When big enough to stand alone take out all but one plant from
each hill and treat as directed for those that have been trans-
planted.
Harvesting Late Cabbage may be done by selling directly
trom the field or by storing for marketing during the winter. If
the heads are nearly ready to burst they cannot be kept long
and should be disposed of at once. There is generally a good
demand in the late autumn for this vegetable for general mar-
keting and also by the pickling factories for making sauer kraut.
Cabbages will stand ten degrees or more of frost, but severe
CABBAGE. ; 14¢
freezing is very injurious; they are seldom injured by frost un-
less the stump is frozen solid. If there is danger of severe freez-
ing before the crop can be marketed or stored, it is a good plan
to pull the plants and put them into piles, with the stumps in-
side, and cover the whole with straw litter. Piled and covered
this way, they may be left in the field until severe freezing
weather and will generally be safe in such a condition in this
section until the first of December. At harvesting there may be
some heads that are quite too loose for marketing, and such cab-
bage will often improve very much if stored as recommended for
seed cabbage.
Storing Cabbage.—In order to have cabbage keep well far
into the winter, they must not be headed very solid when gath-
Figure 65.—Cabbage pitted for winter.
ered but should be a trifie soft, but there is quite a difference
in the keeping qualities of the different varieties. If late varie-
ties are sown too early, they will not keep well and if early va-
rieties are sown late so as to be in good keeping condition when
harvested they often keep very well. In order to store cabbages
successfully, they must be kept cold and moist but never allowed
to get warm or wet. Providing the cabbage is in good condition
for storing it will generally keep until spring if the heads are
set together with the roots up, in a trench and covered with
from six inches to a foot of soil and mulch enough to prevent
hard freezing. If they are frozen while buried and thawed out
in the ground they are seldom seriously injured. In this sec-
tion, however, a better plan is to keep them in a cold, damp cel-
lar, stored in bins about four feet wide so as to allow a circula-
tion of air through them. For commercial purposes, it is a good
150 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
plan to build store houses, half in and half out of the ground; in
a small way, they may be kept by burying the heads in sand in
a cellar, or a few cabbages for home use, may be heeled in by
the roots in the cellar—but it should be borne in mind that de-
caying cabbage is dangerous material to have under a dwelling
house, and it should not be permitted under any circumstances.
In storing cabbage the loose outside leaves should be removed
and the stumps always left on, except when they are to be stored
in bins.
Cabbage Seed is a somewhat difficult crop to raise in this
section, the trouble being in keeping the plants over winter.
However, it may be done if care is used. For this purpose heads
should not be permitted to get very hard; they should be gath-
ered before the stumps have been frozen and be set close to-
gether, heads up, in a trench and covered with about a foot of
soil and mulching enough to prevent severe freezing. Cabbage
Yr Ay, 7/7,
UW MIs
GUM ISM YS BST G fa
eine IU Sfp
HMA YD y ty Ly MY)
Figure 66.—Seed cabbages pitted for winter.
seed may be raised from the stumps after the heads are cut off,
and this is a very simple matter as the stumps can be buried like
turnips or even kept in bins, providing they are covered with
earth and kept cold, but such seed is not desirable, as the evi-
dence seems to show that there is a tendency to increase the
length of the stump at the expense of the head under such treat-
ment. It is generally agreed among our best seed growers that
cabbage seed should be saved from the terminal buds of the
stem which are in the cabbage head. Providing the seed cab-
bage are successfully wintered over, they should then be planted
about the 1st of May in deep furrows about three feet apart, in
rows four feet apart.
Figure 67.—Part of cabbage
stalk showing seed p
Landreth).
other early kinds, since
the head is of good
size. The Early Win-
ningstadt is a very de-
sirable variety, form-
ing very solid heads. It
is the most reliable of
ai! varieties for early
or late use in unfavor-
able situations. Fotler’s
Improved Brunswick is
a valuable variety for
CABBAGE.
151
Sometimes the seed stalk cannot burst
seed
ods. (After
through the head leaves,
and it is a good plan
where the outer leaves
are very thick and tough
to cut through the outside
leaves on the top of the
head a little so as to allow
it to push through. The
seed is gathered branch
by branch as the pods be-
gin to turn yellow, and it
generally takes several
cuttings to harvest the
seed pods. These are
dried in buildings having
tight floors and the seed
is then threshed out.
Varieties. — For very
early use the Early Jer-
sey Wakefield is perhaps
the most popular variety,
but the head is quite
small. For second early
the Early Summer is per-
haps the best and is gen-
erally more profitable than
Figure 68.
—Early Winningstadt cabbage.
152 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
second early use or for winter use, and it is the earliest of the
large heading kinds.
Flat Dutch and Stone Mason are desirable winter sorts and
ere good keepers. The best red cabbage is perhaps the Mam-
moth Red Rock. The Savoys
are of better quality than the
ordinary drumheads but do not
produce so heavily. Tney are
desirable for home use. The
best of this class is the Ameri-
ean Drumhead Savoy.
Insects.—The insects injuri-
ous to the cabbage are the flea
Fig. 69—Premium flat Dutch cabbage. beetle, . cabbage worms, cut
worms and flea, for treatment of which see chapter on insects.
Diseases.—There are very few diseases that seriously injure
the cabbage. The most common is club-root, also called club-
foot. The life history of this disease is not known. It attacks
the roots of cabbage, cauliflower, turnips and other plants of
the same family, causing them to form large irregular swell-
ings. The plant is checked in growth and often dies from the
effects of the disease. This is not yet a common disease in this
section, but in some of the Eastern and Middle states it is very
common. The best way of avoiding it is to not use the same land
for cabbage or similar crop without at least three years interven-
ing, during which time it is preferable to have the land in grass
or clover. This disease is also transmitted by Pepper Cress,-
shepherd’s Purse, Candytuft and similar plants. This disease
may also be distributed in manure from animals fed on diseased
plants.
Sauer Kraut.—The following recipe for sauer kraut is a very
excellent one: Slice cabbage fine in a slaw cutter; line the
bottom and sides of an oaken barrel or keg with cabbage leaves,
put in a layer of the sliced cabbage about six inches in depth,
sprinkle lightly with salt, and pound with a wooden beetle until
the cabbage is a compact mass; add another layer of cabbage.
etc., repeating the operation, pounding well each layer until the
barrel is full to within six inches of the top; cover with leaves,
then a cloth, next a board cut to fit loosely on the inside of the
CABBAGE. 153
barrel, kept well down with a heavy weight. If the brine has
not raised within two days, add-enough water with just salt
enough to taste to cover the cabbage; examine every two days
and add water as before, until brine rises and scum forms, then
lift off the cloth carefully so the scum may adhere, wash well in
several cold waters, wring dry and replace, repeating this opera-
tion as the scum arises, at first every other day, and then once
a week, until the acetous fermentation ceases, which will take
three to six weeks. Up to this time keep warm in the kitchen,
then remove to a dry, good cellar unless made early in the fall,
when it may be at once set in the pantry or cellar. One pint of
salt to a full barrel of cabbage is a good proportion; some also
sprinkle in whole black pepper. Or, to keep until summer: In
April squeeze out of brine and pack tightly with the hands in
a stone jar, with the bottom lightly sprinkled with salt; make
brine enough to well cover the kraut in the proportion of a table-
spoon of salt to a quart of water; boil, skim, cool and pour over;
cover with cloth, then a plate, weight and another cloth tied
closely down; keep in a cool place, and it will be good as late
as June. Neither pound nor salt the cabbage too much, watch
closely and keep clear from scum for good sauer kraut.—Buck-
eye Cook Book.
Black Rot of Cabbage is a disease that has not attracted
much attention until the last few years but has during that time
caused much damage to cabbage and cauliflower.
The first indication of this disease is upon the outer leaves
of the plant which turn yellow and die in spots usually near the
margins. Such leaves are also liable to wilt and careful exami-
nation will show that the veins in and near the dead areas are
. blackened. These spots enlarge and gradually involve the whole
leaf, from which it passes to the stem and to the rest of the
plant, causing it to rot. The dark colored veins in the freshly
cut stem and leaves are the best indications of this disease and
are its characteristic marks.
Cabbage that is even slightly affected will not keep, for this
rot spreads rapidly in stored cabbage, and in selecting cabbage
for storage, the stems and outer leaves should be examined for
the blackened vein so characteristic of this disease.
154 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
The germs of the disease may pass the winter in the soil
and reinfect cabbage, cauliflower, turnips or similar crops and
even such nearly allied weeds as Pepper Cress and Shepherd’s
Purse the following season. If diseased cabbage is fed to stock
the disease may be distributed by the manure.
Remedial Measures.—In view of the above facts, it seems
reasonable to take the following precautions: (1) Do not plant
cabbage a second year on land where the disease is observed
without several years intervening, during which no nearly allied
crop has been grown on it. The seed bed should also be made in
new soil each year as the plants may become diseased when
vary young. (2) Do not use manure for cabbage crops from
animals that have been fed uncooked diseased cabbage. (3)
Since the disease may be spread by insects which fly from one
plant to another, they should be
kept in check aS much as possi-
ble. (4) When the disease ap-
pears the field should be gone
over systematically and all dis-
eased leaves removed and de-
stroyed as soon as they appear.
If the disease has entered the
stem the whole plant should be
destroyed This destruction
should consist of burning or deep
burial. (5)Since this disease may -
be continued on Wild Mustard,
Pepper Cress, Shepherd’s Purse
Figure 70.—Brussells Sprouts. 0d other allied plants, they
should be carefully kept out of
land that has been once infested if it is intended for cabbage.
BRUSSELS SPROUTS. (Brassica oleracea.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial.—This is one of the many varia-
tions which the cabbage has taken on under cultivation. In this
case where the head of the cabbage is ordinarily found there are
loose green leaves and seldom a head. The stem is generally
two feet or more high, with leaves, and at the base of each leaf
is a small cabbage which seldom attains a diameter of over two
inches. These little cabbages are the parts eaten; they are
CAULIFLOWER. 155
much more delicate than the common cabbage and highly es-
teemed by many. The plant requires the same treatment as cab-
bage except the plants can be grown nearer together. While
easily grown it is doubtful about its becoming a popular vegeta-
ble, since in most of our markets very little attention is paid to
quality, and the common cabbage will probably continue to take
the place of this vegetable on most tables. The variety most
esteemed is known as Dwarf Brussels Sprouts.
CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica oleracea.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial.—Cauliflower is a form of cap.
bage in which the inflorescence becomes fleshy and distorted.
Figure 7i—Snowball cauliflower.
It is, however, considered much more delicate than cabbage and
brings a higher price. It is grown in much the same manner
as cabbage; the plants, however, are not so hardy in resisting
cold weather as cabbage, are more sensitive to adverse condi:
tions and should have more manure in the soil. As soon as the
head commences to form, the outside leaves of the plant should
be drawn together over the head so as to keep the sunlight away
from it. Treated in this way the heads will be nearly snow
156 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
white, while if not protected they become brown in color and are
Figure 72.—Cauliflower plant with leaves
tied together to keep the sunlight off
the head. This should
soon as the head can be seen, and the
leaves should remain tied until the
head is cut out.
be done as
KALE, or BORECOLE.
Native of Europe and Asia.—Annual or biennial.—The seea
is like that of the cabbage or kohl-rabi. Under this head is
grouped a number of
vegetables closely re-
lated to the cabbage
and _ kohl-rabi_ that
are used for greens.
None of them are
sufficiently hardy in
the extreme north to
stand out over winter.
They are here cul-
tivated in the same
Figure
not as salable. The crop
ripens somewhat irregu-
larly When danger
of hard frost is appar-
ent the immature heads
Should be pulled with
roots and leaves and be
planted out in a cold
cellar or cold frame,
where many of them
will form good salable
heads. The insect ene-
mies are the same as
those of the cabbage.
Varieties.—There are
many varieties, but per-
haps, the most desir-
able are the Snowball
and the Early Dwart
Erfurt.
(Brassica oleracea var.)
73.—Dwarf Purple Kale.
manner as turnips. In sections where the winters are mild, some
of them are esteemed for planting in autumn for early spring use.
KOHL-RABi. Lae
KOHL-RABI. (Brassica oleracea var.)
Kohl-rabi has been derived from a plant nearly allied to the
cabbage, and its seed resembles cabbage seed. Its peculiarity is
its swollen stem just above the ground, which is used for the
same purpose and grown in the Same general way as the turnip.
It is more highly es-
teemed than turnips
for early summer use
where well known.
Liketurnips it shouid
be sown where it is
to mature and used
when young and ten-
der. It may be stored
in winter like tur-
nips.
Varieties.—There
are small tender va-
rieties especially de-
pg signed for table use
S TAINS and others that grow
to large size and are
valuable for feeding
stock. Two of the
best for table use
are the White and
Figure 74.—Kohl-Rabi. Purple Vienna.
" i ee
Se
TURNIP (Brassica napus) and RUTABAGA, or SWEDISH TUR-
NIP (Brassica campestris.)
Native of Europe or Asia.—Biennial.—Cultivated for their
swollen, fleshy roots. The varieties of turnip and rutabaga vary
much in form, size and color of the skin, and the flesh is white
or yellow, pungent or slightly acid. There is more difference in
the varieties of the turnip than of the rutabaga. The flower
stalks are produced the second year and bear a large number of
yellow flowers. The seeds are smooth and round like the seed
of the cabbage and cauliflower and in similar shaped pods.
158 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Turnip.—The turnip is essentially a cold weather plant and
does best when most of its growth is made during the autumn.
It is grown to some extent in the spring, but there is very little
call for it until cool weather.
Figure 75.—White Strap Leaved Turnip.
Culture.—The turnip needs to be grown very rapidly to have
the best quaiity. The best soil for it is a friable, rich, sandy
loam, free from fresh manure; sod land that has been recently
broken up is excellent for this purpose, but on old land, i. e.,
that which has been cultivated for several years, or where there
is fresh manure, the roots are often wormy. When grown for
early use some quick maturing kinds should be planted as early
in the spring as the soil can be worked in rows fifteen inches
apart. The seed should be sown rather thickly and the seedlings
thinned out two or three inches apart after all danger from the
flea beetle has passed. (This insect is the same as that which
attacks the cabbage.) Turnips grown for late use generally
come in as a second crop after grain, strawberries, early pota-
toes, cabbage or other crop that is off the land by the first of
August, since after this time a good crop of many varieties of
late turnips will mature before winter, though some of the large
kinds need to be sown earlier in the season. The seed is some-
times sown broadcast just before a shower or else it is harrowed
TURNIP AND RUTABAGA. 159
in. It is also grown in rows about two feet apart and cultivated
by a horse cultivator, or the rows may be put nearer together
and a hand cultivator used.
Varieties.—Some of the best varieties of turnips are: Early
Flat and Extra Early Milan for early use; Red Top Strap Leaf
and White Egg or White Globe for autumn use.
Rutabagas, (also called Swedish Turnips), are grown in the
same manner as the common turnips, but require about four
weeks longer to attain edible
Size, and, on this account,
should be planted by the mid-
dle of June or first of July.
They are grown in rows thir-
ty inches apart and culti-
vated with a horse hoe. Ruta-
bagas are sometimes grown
in beds and transplanted, but
this is seldom, if ever, done
with turnips.
The seed of both turnips
and rutabagas is so smooth
and fine that it is generally
sown too thick. Mixing the
seed with flour is a good way
to prevent its running too rapidly through the seed sower. The
crop should be aliowed to stay in the ground until the approach
of severe cold weather. They will stand some little freezing
without injury, but will not live in the land over winter. They
should be stored in frost proof pits or cellars. In dry cellars
they should be covered with a few inches of sand or other ma-
terial to prevent wilting. (See directions for keeping carrots.)
Figure ‘6—Rutabaga.
Varieties.—Improved Purple Top Swede, and White Rock,
are both excellent varieties of rutabagas.
HORSERADISH. (Nasturtium armoracia.)
Native of Europe.—Perennial,—Flowers white and small, in
160 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
long clusters; seed vessels small, rounded and almost always
barren. Propagated by cuttings of the roots.
Cultivation.—This plant delights in deep, moist soil, but will
grow in almost any situation and is very hardy. For home use
it is customary to let it remain in some neglected corner, where
it kills out everything else, and though treated in this way it
yields sufficient roots for home use; yet the roots are so crowded
that they are scarcely salable. When grown as a market crop
it is planted anew each year. Straight pieces of roots six or
eight inches long, called “sets” are planted about twelve inches
apart, in rows two feet apart early in the spring. The roots
must be set right end uppermost or they will not grow smooth
or straight. An iron bar is the most convenient tool for planting
the ‘‘sets.” The top of the sets should be about two inches
below the surface. It is customary to grow horseradish as a sec-
ond crop after peas or cabbage, by setting the roots between
the rows of the first crop and cultivating the soil without re-
gard to them until the first crop is harvested. It does not seem
to hurt horseradish ‘sets’ much if they are cut off a few times
in cultivating early in the season. When the first crop is gath-
ered the land is thoroughly cultivated, and the horseradish
plants given good care. This plant makes its greatest growth
in autumn a”d is dug on the approach of winter or can be left
until spring. It must never be left two years on the same land,
or else great labor will be required to get rid of it, and the roots
will be so crooked as to be almost unsalable. Horseradish is
used almost entirely after grinding or grating the roots and mix--
ing with vinegar. It will keep for any length of time when thus
prepared and kept in air-tight packages. It is also ground and
dried, and the young leaves are sometimes used for greens. The
demand is limited, though considerable quantities are sold each
year. Under some conditions it is a paying crop, but the busi-
ness is very apt to be overdone. There are no varieties.
WATER CRESS. (Nasturtium officinale.)
Native of Europe.—Perennial.—An aquatic plant with long
stems, which readily take root in moist soil or water. It is es-
teemed for use as a salad on account of its pleasant pungent
flavor. Leaves are compound, with roundish divisions; flowers
WATER CRESS. 161
small, white, in terminal spikes; seeds, usually few, very fine,
in slightly curved pods.
Culture.—It can only be cultivated successfully in moist sit-
uations and generally does best along the edges of streams,
where it grows partially in the water. It may, however, be
grown successfully in any moist soil, even in a greenhouse. It
is very hardy, but for best results should be covered with water
during winter. Most of the supply for our markets comes from
along the courses of natural streams. In Europe, trenches from
16 to 20 feet wide for growing water cress are often excavated,
into which running water may be turned at pleasure. In the
bottom of these trenches, the roots of the cress are planted. The
water is then let in, and the plants are not interfered with until
they have grown strong enough to yield a crop of leaves. It is
often practicable to make narrow beds about springs or slow
running streams for this purpose.
CRESS, or PEPPER GRASS. (Lepidium sativum.)
Native of Persia—Annual.—An early spring vegetable, used
as a salad and for garnishing, and of the easiest culture. It
should be sown very early in the spring in the hotbed or out-
doors in rows one foot or less apart. As it quickly runs to seed,
a succession of sowings should be made every eight or ten days.
It is only in demand in the early spring or in winter. It can
easily be grown in a window box in a dwelling house. Flowers
white and small; seeds comparatively large.
RADISHES. (Raphanus sativus.)
Probably a native of Asia.—Annual or, in the case of the
winter radish, biennial.—The flower stalks are branched, about
three feet high and have white or lilac-colored flowers, but never
yellow. The seed is roundish or oval, but somewhat flattened
and much larger than cabbage or turnip seed and much more
variable in size. Some recent experiments show that the large
radish seeds germinate better and produce marketable roots
sooner and more uniform in shape than small seed.
Culture.—The radish is a vegetable of very easy culture.
The roots of some kinds reach edible size in three weeks when
grown in best conditions and are a favorite vegetable of early
ees
é
162 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
spring. It is a common practice to sow the seed of early kinds
in hotbeds between rows of lettuce and outdoors between, or in
the rows of beets, carrots, parsnips, etc. They will grow in a)l-
most any soil, but new land is best for them. The seed may be
sown as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring, and if
sowings are made once every two weeks thereafter a succession
of tender roots may be had.
Winter radishes are grown and stored in the same manner
and fully as easily as turnips. The seed is sown in June or July.
and the roots gath-
ered in autumn and
stored in cellars or
pitted outdoors. They
keep very well. Win-
ter radishes closely
resemble the early
kinds in quality, but
are firmer in texture,
Thecabbage flea bee-
tle affects the young
radish plants in the
late spring and sum-
mer. (See chapter
on insects for reme-
dies.) The roots are
sometimes infested
with maggots, but
these are. seldom
troublesome except
S Oe where fresh manure
Figure 77.—White Strasburg Radish. is used or in land
where radishes have been grown for several: years. It is Dest
not to manure the land for radishes but use rich soil that has
been put in good order by some previous crop.
Varieties——There are many kinds, differing from each other
in color, form, size time of maturity and taste. They are gen-
erally divided into early or forcing varieties, summer and au-
x
RADISHES. 163
tumn varieties and winter kinds. A few of each are here men-
tioned:
French Breakfast.—One of the best very early radishes for
the market, but small. It remains in good condition for only a
short time, consequently is not desirable for the home garden.
Early White Tipped Scarlet Turnip Shaped.—A handsome,
round, early, popular
radish, maturing very
quickly.
Early Deep Scarlet.
—Very early,round and
of deep scarlet color.
Long Scarlet Short
Top.—A well known de-
sirable early kind hav-
ing long scarlet roots.
White Strasburg.—
One of the finest half
long kinds for summer
use. Grows to good
size; white and tender.
Figure 78.—French Breakfast Radish.
Rose.—The most popular of the winter sorts. Skin pink.
Black Spanish.—Skin very black, flesh white, firm, tender
but very pungent. A good winter sort.
THE CLOVER FAMILY. (Order Leguminosae.)
The Clover family is made up of trees, shrubs or herbs
which with few exceptions have a butterfly-shaped corolla, 10
stamens, 9 of which are generally grown together. The fruit
is known as a legume and is a pod that opens like the pea or
bean pods. The leaves are alternate, chiefly campound, and
have stipules. Besides the beans and peas, whose cultural di-
rections are here given, the following are members of this fam-
ily: Clovers, Vetch, Alfalfa and Lupine among farm crops, and
the Common Locust, Kentucky Coffee Tree, Honey Locust and
Yellow Wood among trees.
164 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Annual. The common beans in this country are natives of
the warmer parts of South America. They are sometimes re-
ferred to as kidney or French beans (P. vulgaris). Besides
these, the Lima beans
(P. lunatus) are culti-
vated to a limited ex-
tent. The common broad
bean of Europe is an
entirely different vege-
table from the kinds
generally grown here
and is not sufficiently
prolific in this section
to make it worthy of
cultivation. There are
many varieties of beans,
and the varieties ofeach
species readily cross
together, the flowers
being especially adapt-
Figure 79.—Bush Bean. ed to crossing. They
vary from one another
in many particulars; some are low, bushy and erect, while others
are twining and have stems that grow ten or more feet in a season.
There are many gradations between these extremes, as well
as in size, color and shape of seed and plant. The twining
stem kinds always twine from right to left around any support
they can lay hold of. MHorticulturally, beans are divided into the
bush and pole varieties. Under the first class are included all
the field varieties that are grown to be used as shelled beans and
some snap and string beans. They have stout, erect or slightly
running stems. Under pole beans are classed all the kinds
that have twining stems and which are benefited by having sup-
port of some kind. There are, however, dwarf bunch beans havy-
ing the same general features as the pole kinds except the tall
stem. While this division is by no means distinct, yet the
methods of cultivation adapted to each growth are different. Ati
BEANS. 165
beans are quite tender and should not be planted untiil the soil
is warm and all danger of frost is over. They are sown for early
use about the time for general corn planting. For the main crop
they should be planted about the first of June.
Bush Beans.—These are very easily grown and are adapted
to a great variety of purposes. For a field crop on a large scale,
the seed is generally sown with a horse drill or with a hand
garden drill, in rows three feet apart. It is sometimes best to
mark out the land first and then follow with the drill in the
marks. Seed should be sown two or three inches deep. On a
smaller scale, the land may be furrowed out with a one-horse
plow or with a wheel hoe and the seed sowed by hand. After
culture consists in keeping the land well cultivated with a horse
hoe and free from weeds. Varieties of dwarf beans for use in a
green state, such as string or snap beans, may be sown
at any time from the middle of May to the first of August
and with good prospects of a good crop of green pods even at
the latter date. Some kinds have edible pods in less than six
weeks from the time the seed is sown.
Harvesting Beans.—For use in a green state, the pods of
some kinds of beans are picked as soon as large enough to use
and when they are tender and fresh; in other cases the beans
are used when still fresh, but not until they are large enough
to shell from the pods. Field beans are harvested by being
pulled by hand or gathered with a bean gatherer when they are
ripe, laid in rows until dry enough for threshing, then threshed
at once or stored for threshing later on. Great care should be
taken in storing the pods to prevent molding of the beans, and
in threshing no’ to break the beans. In a small way beans
may be threshed out by hand, but on a large scale any common
threshing machine may be used, providing suitable changes are
made in it so it will not break the beans.
Varieties of Bush Beans.—There are many varieties of bush
beans having desirable qualities, but only a few of the most
valuable are mentioned here:
Field Beans.—White Marrow, Burlingame Medium, Navy and
Snowflake.
166 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Waxen Podded Beans.—Dwarf Golden Wax and Dwarf Black
Wax.
Shell and String Beans.—Yellow Six Weeks, Early Mohawk,
Cranberry and Dwarf Horticultural.
Japanese, Soy or Soja Beans.—These are easily grown, but
on account of their inferior quality are not much used here.
Dwarf Lima Beans are highly esteemed by those who
know them and, although smaller in size than the pole Limas,
are supplanting them in this section and coming into quite gen-
eral use, on account of their being more certain to mature well
and requiring less labor in cul-
tivation. They require the same
methods of cultivation as other
dwarf beans but should not be
planted until the land is thor-
oughly warmed. The best va-
rieties are known as Hender-
son’s Dwarf, Durpee’s Dwarf,
Jackson Wonder (black spotted)
and Kumerle Dwarf Lima. The
common dwarf sheil beans are
early, productive and good, but
not so rich in quality as these.
Pole Beans.—The twining va-
rieties of beans are little grown
in this section, as the improved
dwarf kinds take their place
to a great extent. However, tall Lima beans are highly esteemed
by many and the dwarf varieties of this class are not so desirable
as the pole kinds. There is also a demand for such shell beans
as the pole Horticultural, Cranberry and Caseknife varieties.
Pole beans require stronger land than do the dwarf kinds. The
ordinary way of growing pole beans is to set poles six feet long
in hills four feet apart each way. It is customary to put a shovel-
ful of good compost or rotted manure in each hill if the land is
poor. Seed should not be planted till the ground is quite warm—
the pole varieties are more particular in this respect than the
dwarf kinds. About six seeds should be planted two or three
Figure 80—Dwarf Lima beans.
BEANS. 167
inches deep around each pole. In the case of Lima beans the
general belief is that the beans should be planted edgeways with
the eye downwards, but good results are often obtained by
sowing the seeds without regard to this matter. This latter
method is customary in sowing the dwarf Lima, and some who
sow the large Lima beans in furrows and train them to trellises
pay no regard to the position of the seed in the soil, but sow an
abundance of seed so as to be sure of a good stand. Lima beans
are generally shelled by hand when fresh but full grown and
are sold by the quart. In warm climates they are sold in large
quantities after being dried. The Cranberry and Horticultural
kinds are generally sold in the pod. As soon as the seedlings
commence to “run,” it is customary to assist them in getting
started, and some seasons’it is necessary to tie the Lima beans
to the poles until they are well started. Lima beans require an
extra warm !ocation and soil.
+9
Beans may be Transplanted if removed with much care when
the soil is moist. Some very successful gardeners find that it
Ts a pays them to start their pole Lima
pee” Ge E beans on pieces of sod or in pots
or boxes in hotbeds and in this
way they advance the period of
ripening two weeks or more. This
is a very desirable practice with
pole Lima beans in this climate,
since the short season often fails to
mature much of the crop when the
seed is planted in the open ground.
The varieties of pole Lima beans
best adapted to this section are
probably the Large Lima and
Dreer’s Lima; both of these are of
fine quality and productive. The
small Lima or Sieva bean is
Mie el Anthracnose of hea sarlier than those mentioned but
pod. Mf inferior quality.
Preserving Beans in Salt.—String beans are easily preserved
168 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
in salt for winter use, using about seven pounds to the bushel
of pods. In doing this the fresh
tender pods are put at once into the
brine as they come from the field.
When wanted for use, they should
be freshened out and cooked in the
ordinary way. They are very good,
and are nearly as desirable as the
best canned beans.
Diseases and Insects.—-Beans are
quite free from the attacks of any
injurious insects or diseases. An-
thracnose of the bean (Gloeospori-
um lindemuthianum) shows itself
by black spots on the stems or pods
or both. It is sometimes very in-
jurious in moist weather, but only
in occasional years have we any-
thing to fear from it. It is not gen-
erally considered profitable to ise
any of the fungicides, such as Bor-
deaux mixture, which would read-
ily prevent it. Beans grown in Jo-
cations where there is a good cir-
culation of air are less liable to
injury than those protected from a good circulation of air.
Figure 82—Nott’s Excelsior pea.
PEAS. (Pisum sutivum.)
The pea is an annual plant of uncertain origin, but probably
a native of central Europe. The flowers are either white or
violet colored, but the most desirable garden kinds, almost with-
out exception, bear white flowers.
Varieties of peas are divided into three classes, those having
wrinkled seed, those having round, small seed, and those having
edible pods. Wrinkled seeded varieties do not germinate as
well as the smooth skinned or round sorts, nor do their germinat-
ing powers last so long, nor are they ‘so hardy in resisting the
adverse conditions of early spring. On account of the latter
reason, gardeners plant the round seed first in the spring, and
PEAS. 169
do not plant the wrinkled kinds until the soil is in best condi-
tion and somewhat warm. The wrinkled kinds are better in
quality than the round and smooth varieties. Peas having
edible pods are not popular in this country, probably because of
the ease with which string beans are grown.
Culture.—Peas may be grown successfully in almost any
good soil; they even do well on rather poor soil. The kinds hav-
ing smooth seeds should be planted as soon as the ground can
be worked in the spring—even a hard freeze does not hurt the
plants as they are coming out of the ground, and they will stand
considerable frost when well up The distance between the rows
and the seeds in the row depend somewhat on the kinds grown.
Some kinds branch out far more than others and, con-
sequently, need more room in the _ row. They also
vary in length of stem from a few inches to _ six
or seven feet. The tall kinds require the rows to be five or
six feet apart, while dwarf varieties are generally planted in
rows thirty inches to three feet apart. The growing of tall kinds
is mostly confined to private gardens, where it is customary to
use brush or other material in the rows for support. Formerly,
among tall varieties, were those far excelling in quality any-
thing found among those of a dwarf habit, but recent introduc-
tions of the latter kinds have shown a great improvement in
quality, until now the dwarf sorts are generally grown, even
by the most fastidious. In common practice, the seed is
sown about four inches deep, in rows three feet apart, putting
about ten seeds to each foot of row. It is best to sow plenty of
seed in order to secure a good stand. The land should be well
cultivated between the rows. Unleached wood ashes or some
other fertilizer rich in potash and phosphoric acid is most bene-
ficial for this crop. As it belongs to the leguminous section of
plants, it is a nitrogen producer and, consequently, does not need
much nitrogen in the soil. Early peas as generally grown are out
of the way in time to allow the land to be used for late cabbage
or string beans. When it is desired to extend the season of table
peas, successive showings should be made at intervals of two
weeks, up to the tenth of June. During the summer the vines are
too liable to mildew to make late spring planting successful.
The pea is distinctively a cool weather Piant and on this account
170 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
it will often do well when sown in the latter part of summer for
use in autumn.
The Canning of Peas is an important industry in some sec-
tions and could be more generally introduced into this section to
advantage. In sowing peas for canneries it is the practice in
some sections t- sow them with a common grain drill, leaving a
path between each strip for the pickers.
Varieties.—Of the many varieties only a few of the best are
referred to here. For very early use, almost every seedman has a
strain of smooth, round peas, which he sends out under his own
peculiar name. The early sorts are generally derived from the
old Daniel O’Rourke, and among them are varieties known as the
First and Best, Earliest of All and Improved Extra Early. Asa
rule, these should be used for first planting only, to be followed
by plantings of the wrinkled sorts.
American Wonder is a very dwarf early pea of unsur-
passed quality and very hardy for a wrinkled sort. A rich soil
and extra cultivation are required to get the best results from it.
If only one variety is to be grown, this is perhaps the best to
plant.
Stratagem.—Very productive and
justly very popular, having remar-:-
ably large pods filled with rich, sweet
peas. It does better on light than on
heavy soils.
Yorkshire Hero.—An_ excellent
variety.
Marrowfat.—Among the most pop-
ular of the old varieties.
Champion of England.—A (all
growing, popular sort, of best quality,
that does best when supported by
brush or wire netting. Late.
Telephone.—Of excellent quality.
Pods and seeds large. One of the
most productive and, consequently, very poplar. Late.
Figure 83—Dwarf Okra.
OKRA. 171
Bliss’s Abundance.—Half-dwarf, branching, of excellent qual-
ity and very productive. Late.
Nott’s Execlsior.—A new, very productive, early dwarf va-
riety that is becoming very popular, and in some sections much
preferred to the American Wonder.
THE MALLOW FAMILY. (Order Malvaceae.)
The mallow family is known by its numerous stamens which
have their filaments grown together and are attached to the base
of the petals. The petals are twisted together in the bud. Seeds
kidney-shaped. Herbs or shrubs mucilaginous with very tough
fibrous bark, none of them poisonous. Okra is the only plant
of this family which is frequently grown in gardens, but the
common cotton plant also belongs here as well as the abutilon
mallow, hibiscus, althaea and hollyhock of our gardens,
OKRA. (Hibiscus esculentus.)
Native of South America.—Annual.—The seed is round and
of medium size. It is cultivated for its green seed pods, which
are highly esteemed for soup. Little grown except at the south.
It is of the easiest culture. The seed should be sown about two
inches apart in rows two feet apart and in rich, warm soil, at
about the time for planting beans. The pods are produced abun-
dantly but are perhaps not as tender when grown in our dry
atmosphere as they are in the south. The flowers are large, yel-
low and very pretty.
The varieties known as Dwarf Green and Long Green are
best for our climate,
THE PARSNIP FAMILY. (Order umbelliferae.)
The parsnip family is made up of herbaceous plants some
of which are aromatic and others that are acid-narcotic poisons.
172 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
The flowers are small and generally arranged in compound um-
bels; no calyx, but in place often have five minute teech, five
petals, five stamens and
two pistils. The dry fruit
usually splits into two
parts and the seed of most
species has oil tubes. The
leaves are alternate and
more commonly compound
or decompound. Besides
the parsnips, parsley, car-
rot, celery, whose cultural
directions are here given,
dill, anise, caraway, cori-
ander and fennel will be
found under the head of
garden herbs.
PARSNIPS.
(Pastinaca sativa.)
Native of Hurope.—Blen-
nial.—Cultivated for its
long, tender root. Seeds
light brown in color, flat
and marked with five rais-
ed lines or ridges. Seed
stalks three to five feet
high with large umbels of greenish flowers.
Culture.—The parsnip is grown in the same manner as the
carrot, but is rather more particular about the soil on which it
grows. Then, too, in manuring the land for this crop, it is
important to use only manure which is well rotted, as the ap-
plication of fresh manure seems to encourage the formation of
side roots. Also on hard jand. there is often a tendency for the
roots to form side roots, and, aS what is desired is a rather
thick tap root, side roots are to be avoided. lt is important *
Figure 84.—Parsnip plant in flower.
PARSNIPS. 173
sow the seed early and quite thick and then to thin out in order
to be sure of having a good stand of
plants. The seed germinates rather slow-
ly. It is a very hardy crop and may be
left in the ground until late autumn or
even over winter. In fact, many believe
that freezing parsnips in the ground im-
proves their quality. They may be safely
pitted outdoors by putting them in heaps,
covering with a few inches of hay or
straw and then a foot of earth. Treated in
this way, they can be taken out at any
time during the winter or early spring.
It is not advisable to leave the crop in
the ground over winter, since it cannot
then be dug out until the frost is out of
the ground in the spring, by which time
the demand for parsnips will have consid-
erably lessened. If kept in an ordinary
cellar, they should be covered with earth
or sand to prevent wilting.
Figure 85—Hollow In marketing the parsnip, it is often
Crown Parsnip. customary after trimming off all side
shoots, to sell them by the basket without washing. A ‘ar bet-
ter and more equitable plan is to sell them by weight. In some
of the best markets, the roots, after being carefully washed
and trimmed, are packed evenly in boxes, sixteen inches square
and eight inches deep, which hold just a bushel. Packed in this
way, they present a very neat appearance.
The Hollow Crown or Student Parsnip is the best kind to
grow for table use.
Turnip Rooted Parsnip, which is short and round, is used
to some extent. It is a good form on light soils, but for rich land
the Hollow Crown is to be preferred.
PARSLEY. (Carum petroselinum.)
Native of Sardinia—Biennial.—The leaves of some varieties
of this plant are used in a fresh state for garnishing and sea-
soning, and in the case of a few kinds the fleshy roots are used. In
174 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
habit of growth parsley resembles the parsnip, to which it is
closely related. The leaves, however, are variously cut and di-
vided. A few varieties are grown for their fleshy roots.
Culture.—Parsley is grown in much the same manner as the
parsnip, and, like, it, its seed germinates rather slowly. The
seed is often sown for winter and early spring use in green-
houses and hotbeds. The leaves may be used as soon as big
enough. The roots may be taken up in autumn and grown ina
greenhouse or in
a box in a sunny
window for “2
winter supply.
The demand is
quite limited. It
is sold in small
bunches and may
be found in the
larger markets at
any season of the
Figure 86.—Fine curled parsley. year. It seldom
comes through our winters safely when left exposed outdoors
but sometimes does so when well protected.
The Varieties commonly grown are the Double Curled and
Fine Leaved, either of which makes a border that is pretty enough
for a flower garden, and it is often used as an edging for small
kitchen gardens.
CARROTS. (Daucus carota.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial——In the wild state this root is
valueless, being slend*r and woody, and the plant is a bad weed.
Under cultivation it exhibits the widest difference in shape, size
and color. Some kinds have roots that are broader than long
and extend not over two or three inches in the ground, while
others attain a length of two feet, and still others may be found
having the various intermediate forms between these extremes.
There are also varieties having red, white and yellow flesh. The
leaves are very much divided and deeply cut. The flowers are
white and crowded together in compound umbels on stalks two to
five feet high. The roots of the cultivated kind will stand con-
CARROT. 175
siderable frost, but not severe freezing. Two seeds are pro-
duced by each flower; they are flat on one side and convex on
the other, and are partly covered by minute bristles. When sold,
the bristles have generally been removed. Carrots are used to
some extent as a table vegetable, but they are especially valuable
as a food for horses and other stock.
Cultivation.—The carrot is of the easiest culture. It re-
quires a fine mellow, rich, upland soil. On moist land the roots
are apt to branch and
are much liable to dis-
ease. The _ seedlings
are quite delicate when
they first come up and
every precaution should
be taken to have the
land clean, so that the
small seedlings will not
be overrun with weeds;
the surface soil should
be kept loose and mel-
low throughout the sea-
son. It is a good plan
to sow a few radish
seeds with the carrot
seed so that cultivation
may be commenced
early, as the latter
start slowly. Tt. the
Figure 87—Carrot plant in flower. seed of the small kinds
are sown very early in
spring they will pro-
duce roots big enough for table use by early summer;
but for the main crop the seed should be sown about the middle
of May in rows fourteen inches apart. A fair crop may be ex-
pected even if the seed is not sown until the middle of June,
although the dry weather which generally prevails at that time
of the year is liable to prevent or retard the germination of the
seed or to burn up the seedlings just as they are pushing out
176 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
of the ground. The crop is sometimes sown in rows two feet
apart and cultivated with a horse implement. If the seed is good,
two pounds per acre, or about fourteen seeds to the foot of row,
is plenty to sow. Very thick seeding is not desirable, as the cost
of thinning in such a case is considerable. It is best for the
experienced grower to have all the conditions just right and
then to sow the seed so that little, if any, thinning will be neces-
sary. However, the beginner will very likely find it safest to sow
a large amount of seed, perhaps three pounds per acre, and thin
out so that the plants will stand three inches apart in the row.
The richer the soil the more room the roots require in the row;
if small roots are wanted they may be left an inch apart in the
row.
Gathering.—One of the greatest outlays in raising carrots
is in gathering and topping the crop. .The topping may be done
Figure 88.—Harvesting long carrots and parsnips by plowing the earth away on
one side, and then pulling the roots by hand.
by hand, after being plowed out, but hand labor is very costly.
Some growers go over the rows and cut the tops off with a sharp
hand hoe. If the tops of the roots are cut off a little no harm is
done, as it does not increase the liability to rot as is the case
with beets. The roots are, perhaps, most easily dug by plowing
close to each row and then pulling them out by hand. For this
purpose a subsoil plow is best, but any good plow will answer
the purpose fairly well. If a short rooted variety is grown and
CARROT. 177
the land is mellow, the plow may often be run soastoturn the
roots out on top of the furrow slice.
Storing.—Carrots are easily kept over winter in cellars,
Figure 89.—Varieties of Carrots. 1—White Belgian. 2—lLong Orange.
3—Orange Danvers. 4—Ox-Heart. 5—Pointed-Rooted. 6—Blunt-
Rooted Horn. 7—Extra Early Forcing. (After Landreth.)
providing they are in a temperature near the freezing point and
are not too ripe when dug. If the seed has been planted too
early, the roots will ripen up early in the fall and will cease to
grow, and many of the leaves will turn yellow. Such roots do
not keep well, but are liable to sprout badly long before spring,
178 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
even if kept cold. To have the roots keep best they should be
growing rapidly when dug. In dry cellars, it may be necessary
to cover with loam or sand to prevent those on top of the bin or
pile from wilting. If they are to be fed early in the winter, they
may perhaps be piled in the barn and covered with chaff and
straw sufficient to keep out the frost until used.
Carrot seed is raised by planting out the roots in the spring,
about two feet apart, in rows four feet apart. The seed heads
ripen irregularly and are gathered as they ripen and threshed
when dry. The seed is generally rubbed against a sieve having a
fine mesh to take the bristles off, otherwise it would be a difficult
matter to sow it in a machine.
The torcing of carrots is carried on to a limited extent, for
which purpose they may be sown between rows of radishes in
the hotbed or greenhouse.
Varieties.—For very early table use the Short Scarlet is best.
For general use in summer and for winter use, perhaps there
is no better variety than the Danvers. The Guerande Half
Long, or Oxheart, is a variety that is very thick and short and
yields nearly as much as the Danvers. It has the advantage,
moreover, of being easily pulled by hand without any digging.
The White Belgian is a large cropper, but only of value as food
for stock. Thirty tons of carrots are sometimes raised on one
acre, but in ordinary practice seldom more than half that amount
is raised.
CELERY. (Apium graveolens.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial.—The plants are grown for the
fleshy leaf stalks, which are very tender when blanched; one
form is also grown for the large fleshy roots. The whole plant
has a pleasant aromatic flavor. The seed stalks are branching
and grow from two to three feet high, and have very smal] yel-
lowish or greenish flowers in compound umbels. The seed is
small, triangle and five-ribbed, having the characteristic aro-
matic flavor of the plant.
Celery is a crop that is very liable to suffer from the want
of rich, nitrogenous marures and from a superabundance of or
a lack of moisture in the soil. On this account it should be
CELERY. 179
grown on retentive, yet well drained, rich land. Well drained
bog land with the water about eighteen inches from the surface is
often excellent for this purpose.
Early Celery.—The seed for early celery is generally sown
Figure 90.—Celery plants. Those on left have been transplanted and
show in consequence an improved root system for planting out.
Those on right were only grown in seed bed without transplanting
and have not as good roots for planting out. The plants with tops
trimmed are ready for planting out.
the latter part of February or early in March in boxes in a green-
180 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
house. As soon as the plants are of sufficient size to handle
well, they are pricked out into other boxes or into hotbeds, where
they remain until large enough for planting out, which is some-
time in May. The tops of the plants should be sheared off once
before they are pricked out and again before they are planted to
the open ground, as this makes them stocky and helps them to
recover from transplanting. If the leaves are all left on the
plants when they are set out, they generally dry up an in so
doing take away much moisture from the roots. The plants
should be hardened off before being set out. Karly celery should
be bleached by being covered with boards or with boards and
Straw, since the ordinary way of bleaching it by banking with
earth is liable to bring on disease in warm weather.
Late Celery.—The greatest demand for celery is during the
autumn -and_ winter
months, and very little is
marketed during the sum-
mer. The seed for au-
tumn and winter celery is
generally sown in April in
the open_ ground, al-
though some of our best
growers sow the seed in
3 Me hotbeds or cold frames
April, before the land outdoors can be
all. If the seed is sown outside, a piece
land is generally selected. The seed is
drills about nine inches apart and one-
deep, and the soil is well firmed over it
ing. Some growers do not cover cel-
ery seed at all, except by rolling or patting it
down with Bas j the back of a spade. If there is dan-
ger of the ' ~ seed drying out, some growers shade
the bed with Fig. 91.—White cotton cloth or with a lath screen rais-
ed about Plume Celery. one foot from the ground and so made
as to keep off about one-half the sunlight. Another plan
is to cover the bed with burlap after sowing the seed and water
the seed through it; in this latter case, however, it is very im-
early in
worked at SRR
of fine rich
SiOuWall. ion)
quarter inch
after cover-
CELERY. 18]
portant to watch carefully and remove the cloth covering as soon
as the plants appear. The seed germinates slowly. The seed-
lings are quite weak and should receive almost constant cultiva-
tion. The tops should be sheared off once or twice, as recom-
mended for early celery, to make the plants stocky; they should
also be thinned out so that there will not be over twenty or thirty
plants to the foot of row. When sufficiently large, they should
be moved to the field where they are to grow. Treated in this
way, the plants will be strong and stocky; if left to crowd one
another, they probably will be weak and poor. Some successful
growers prefer to transplant once to narrow rows before setting
in the field where the crop is to mature. This makes the final
transplanting most certain by increasing the fibrous roots, but is
not generally necessary, although a good plan under unfavorable
conditions.
In the growing of celery plants it will often be a good plan
at the first transplanting to make up a special bed for them.
This should be done as follows: A place feur feet wide and of
any length should be selected, the top soil to the depth of about
three inches thrown off, and then rotten manure such as that
which comes from spent hotbeds or similar material put in to
the depth of about three inches. The topsoil should then be
returned and the plants set out in it. Treated in this way the
young plants will develop a compact root system in the manure,
and may be transplanted with a ball of roots almost as well as
if they had been grown in pots. Plants grown in this way are
especially desirable when transplanting must be done in a dry
time, but seedbeds require much water.
Planting.—Having good plants, the next thing is to set them
so as to get a good crop. It is quite a common practice in some
sections to grow celery as a second crop after early peas, lettuce,
cabbage or beets. In such a case the plants, perhaps, had better
not be set out until the first crop has been gathered; but where
only one crop is to be grown the plants may be set as soon as
big enough. This will generally be from the middle to the latter
part of June anc for latest use the latter part of July. The land
should be thoroughly plowed, harrowed and smoothed off. Fur-
rows six inches deep should then be made where the plants are
182 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to go, and in these about three inches of fine, well-rotted ma-
nure or compost should be placed. This manure should be thor-
oughly mixed with the soil, and the furrow nearly filled. For
mixing the manure and soil perhaps there is no better imple-
ment than a one horse cultivator with the teeth set close to-
gether. If the land is unusually rich in plant food, there is no
need of going to this trouble, but the plants may be set right
after the marker. In any case the rows should be four or five
feet apart for the common kinds that have to be bleached by
banking up with earth, but the self-bleaching and dwarf kinds
can be managed in rows three feet apart. The plants should be
about six inches apart in the rows.
Before the plants are dug from the seedbed, it should be
thoroughly soaked with water; the plants should have the tops
cut off, trimmed, and the roots dipped in water. If the roots are
very long they should be shortened so they may be easily han-
dled. The place where they are to be planted should be moist,
and every precaution taken to prevent the plants drying out
when they are being moved. Special attention should be given to
planting on freshly plowed land and to firming the soil around
the roots. If the land is dry it must be watered before it is safe
to set out celery plants, and if the weather is very hot and dry
the plants must also be shaded from the sun. The ground should
be kept clean and mellow between the plants with a horse culti-
vator throughout the season.
If, while the crop is growing, it is thought the plants re-
quire more food, it may be supplied by plowing a shallow fur-
row away from them on one side and putting in fine well-rotted
stable manure, hen manure or compost and covering it with soil.
This treatment supplies the food directly to the roots and is very
effective. Nitrate of soda or other nitrogenous fertilizer may
also be used to advantage in this way.
Celery and Onions Together.—In some sections celery is
grown as a second crop with onions. In this case every fourth
or fifth row is left vacant when the onion seed is sown, and this
space is set out to late celery plants at the proper time. If the
onion seed is sown by the 20th of April, almost any of the well-
known commercial sorts like Yellow Danvers or Red Wethers-
CELERY. 183
field will be ripe by the middle of August, when they can be
harvested; and then the celery can occupy all the land during
the caol weather of autumn, when it makes its most rapid
growth.
Figure No 92.—Celery plants which have been transplanted from the
seed box into moist soil that is rich in rotted manure. Thus treat-
ed, the celery forms a close, compact root system, to which the
soil adheres in lumps when taken up, and on this account the
plea sane very sure to start well when set out permanently in
e field.
Handling.—As celery grows naturally it spreads on the sur-
face of the ground, like the carrot. The term handling refers to
the process by which the leaf stalks of each plant are drawn
together and some earth pressed firmly around them by the
hands, to hold them in an upright position. After this is done
more earth is drawn towards the plants with a hoe, until there
is enough to prevent their spreading open. All celery plants
should have this upright form before being stored, and it is all
184 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the bleaching treatment necessary for the self-blanching kinds.
The land should be thoroughly cultivated and a furrow turned
towards the plants on each side of the row before the handling
process is begun, so there may be plenty of loose earth to work
with.
Bleaching with Earth or “Banking.”—If the celery is in-
tended for marketing previous to the first of December, it should
be banked up or otherwise bleached in the field. Banking up
is done immediately after “handling.” It consists in plowing
earth against the celery to begin with and then finishing it off
with a shovel or wide hoe until the earth is banked up to the
full height of the celery. This had better be done in several
operations as the plants grow and need it.
= as <a sas Dig, 4
ZB Cae SAN
Z
“Wo
Uy
ff,
7} ZT
WIZ
l
Wy
: CLARK : \
WN WA By \
Was
LM fst
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Figure 93—Celery banked up for bleaching.
Bleaching with Boards.—Celery that is to be marketed early
should be bleached with boards, because if “banked” with earth
it is more liable to become diseased. Boards ten inches wide
are the best but narrower boards may be used nearly as well,
providing the earth is first drawn towards the plants for them
to rest on. The plants are generally handled before the boards
are put on, but this is not absolutely necessary, although desira-
ble. A board should be put upon each side of the row quite
close to the plants and be held in place with a peg. If for any
reason there are vacancies in the row or the plants are not
close enough to exclude light from the stalks when the boards
are put up, the vacancies may be filled with hay or straw. For
CELERY. 185
late autumn use it is probably best to bleach the plants with
earth, as it also protects from frost and is much cheaper than
bleaching with boards when the first cost of the boards and
the handling of them is considered. In fact, almost all growers
use earth to bleach their late celery.
Planting in Beds.—Some growers prefer to plant celery in
beds four feet wide and to have the plants set ten inches apart
each way in the beds; in which case a four foot path is left
Figure 94—Celery grown in beds and earthed up to bleach.
between the beds for convenience in cultivation and weeding.
In this way a very large amount of celery can be grown on a
very small piece of land. By putting boards up on both sides of
the paths, the plants will take on the upright form, so that
handling will be unnecessary. For late use the plants may be
taken directly from the bed to the cellar without banking, but it
will generally be found a good plan late in the fall to pack the
spaces between the plants with hay or fill them with earth from
the paths, as they will then be protected from frosts. If the
celery is to be blanched in the bed, this, of course, would be
necessary. To grow plants so close together successfully requires
the utmost care in the preparation of the land. It should be
covered with fine rich manure, preferably in the spring; the
plants also require to be frequently and heavily watered, since
the land will be free of roots.
186 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Digging Celery.—Celery will stand many light frosts, but
hard freezing is liable to injure it, and it should never be han-
dled when frozen. It is seldom safe to allow it to remain un-
protected in the ground in this section after the middle of Octo-
ber, but by covering the plants with straw or other material they
may often be safely left in the field until the middle of Novem-
ber if well banked up. The plants are generally lifted with a
spade after a furrow has been plowed away from the row on one
side. Most of the soil should be shaken off the roots and the
old outside leaves removed before storing. In this section, to
keep well, celery should be stored in a cold, moist cellar or frost-
proof shed. If it does not whiten quickly enough the plants may
be watered and kept warm and thus started into growth, which
results in forming the tender white shoots very quickly.
Storing Celery.—For home use a good way to keep celery is
to pack the plants closely together, upright, in boxes twelve to
eighteen inches wide, with the bottom covered with several
inches of moist sand, a little of which should be worked in
among the roots. There is no need of having sand between the
plants. These boxes, when packed, should be kept in a cold,
damp cellar. In storing for market use, where there is plenty
of storage room, the plants are sometimes “heeled in” in sand on
the floor; the cheapest practicable way, however, is to pack them
between boards about nine inches apart. To do this, place the
first board on one side of the cellar or shed nine inches from
she wall, with its upper edge at a height from the floor a little
less than the length of the cellar. The boards may be supported
by stakes and should not rest on the ground. In this narrow di-
vision the celery should be packed upright, as described for pack-
ing in boxes. As soon as the first tier is filled, erect another
board division at nine inches from the first, and so continue
until the whole surface is covered. No soil or sand is packed
among the stalks of celery, but three or four inches of either is
placed on the floor, into which the roots are bedded. The temper-
ature of the celery should be kept very low, and even a little
frost in the cellar will not hurt it. If dry, it must be watered,
but water must not be put upon the leaves, as it may bring on
rot. If celery is wanted for immediate use, it may be stored in
CELERY. 187
barrels or troughs containing an inch or two of water. This is
also a very good way of hastening the bleaching process.
The green stalks of celery do not become white, and the
term “bleaching” is a misnomer. The “bleaching” of celery is
simply the result of the plant making growth in the dark.
Bleached celery will keep but a short time and should be used
as soon as white. Celery for use in the latter part of winter
should be quite green in color when put into winter storage; for
early winter use it should be partly bleached when stored. For
winter use celery should be left out as late as is safe in the
fall, so that the cellar or pit where it is to be stored may be
thoroughly cooled off before it is put in.
The Time Required for Bleaching Celery in the field will de-
pend upon whether it is growing rapidly or not. During the first
part of September, when it is making a rapid growth, it will
probably be fit to use in three weeks from the time it is banked
up; while later on, when the weather is cool and the celery is
growing slowly, four weeks will be found necessary. The same
conditions affect the bleaching process after storing. In an
ordinary frost proof cellar, it may easily be bleached in three
weeks by watering it and then raising the temperature to fifty
degrees.
Celery Seed is raised by wintering the roots and planting
them out in the spring, in much the same way that seed of the
carrot and other biennial plants is grown.
Diseases.—There are two diseases, rust and leaf blight, that
sometimes seriously injure celery, but they are not commonly
very troublesome. As a rule, celery growers do not attempt to
fight them, but select the healthiest varieties and trust to good
cultivation to enable the plants to resist them. The diseases re-
ferred to are described as follows:
Leaf Blight. (Septoria Petroselini var. apii.) All parts of
‘he celery plant except the roots are liable to the attacks of this
fungous disease. Watery spots appear on the stems and leaves,
vhich soon show small, black dots. This disease may be spread
ny the seeds, which are likely to become infected.
Treatment.—The first precaution is to plant clean seed.
That which is spotted or speckled with the black spots of disease
188 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
should be avoided. In addition it would be a good plan to spray
the young plants with Bordeaux mixture on the first appear-
ance of the disease.
Celery Blight, Rust or Sun-Scald. (Cercospora apli.—[Fries.])
The first indication of
this disease is the ap-
pearance of yellowish
spots on the _ leaves.
These finally run _ to-
gether and turn the en-
tire leaves yellow and
then brown.
Treatment.—Secure as
healthful conditions as
possible. Where the
plants are somewhat
shaded, they are less lia-
ble to the disease than
if in the full sunlight.
This disease is especial-
ly bad in very dry loca-
tions. It is reported that the Bordeaux mixture and other
standard fungicides will entirely prevent it.
Varieties of Celery.—The dwarf kinds are the best to grow;
the red varieties are of excellent quality but do not take well
in the markets. For early marketing the White Plume is highly
esteemed and probably the most profitable variety for general
marketing. Its stalks and leaves are white without going through
the bleaching process but are not of as good flavor as when
bleached. Golden Self Blanching is another similar variety, that
is considered by some growers superior to White Plume. One
of the best flavored as well as best keeping kinds is the Golden
Dwarf, or Golden Hearted Dwarf. Other good varieties are the
Perfection, Hartwell, Giant Pascal and the Boston Market.
Celeriac, or Turnip-Rooted Celery, is a form of celery culti-
vated for its roots, which are eaten either cooked or raw. The
stalks are generally hollow and quite worthless. The plants are
raised by the same method as that for celery but may be planted
Figure 95—Turnip-rooted celery or celeriac.
SWEET POTATOES. 189
in rows not over twelve inches apart. The roots are generally
kept by storing them in moist sand the same as carrots.
Marketing.—Celery is marketed when well blanched. In
preparing it for market most of the roots are trimmed off and
the green and decaying leaves are removed. About a dozen roots
are generally tied together for a bunch, although the size of the
bunch varies in different markets. Celery can be easily shipped
long distances when trimmed:and packed in tight boxes. Much
of that which is supplied to the markets of this section comes
from Kalamazoo, Michigan, where it is raised on drained swamp
land.
THE MORNING GLORY FAMILY. (Order convolvulaceae.)
The Morning Glory Family includes mostly twining, trailing
or rarely erect plants (some tropical species are shrubs or trees,
ours are herbs.) Commonly with some milky juice, alternate
leaves, no stipules, regular gamopetalous flowers; fruit a 2-4-
valved capsule. The Sweet Potato is the only vegetable that
occurs in this group which is here mentioned. This family also
includes the Morning Glory, Bindweed and Man of the Earth.
SWEET POTATO. (Ipomea batatas.)
Native of South America.—Perennial, but cultivated as an
annual.—It is a near relative of the morning glory and scarcely
resembles the common potato in any particular. It probably can-
not be profitably raised in the extreme northern states, but may
be grown in a small way in warm, sandy soil as far north as
Minnesota and will produce even there very large tubers. The
plant never flowers at the North and is never cultivated from
seed.
Culture.—The sweet potato is raised from sprouts, which
are produced abundantly if the tubers are planted in a hotbed
in the early spring. The sprouts are carefully pulled from the
tubers and are planted out after the soil has become warm.
They should be set two feet apart in rows four feet apart. They
need considerable care until started, after which they require
good cultivation only and are easily grown. The vines spread
on the ground and have a tendency to root at the joints, which
should be discouraged by moving them at every hoeing. They
are very susceptible to cold weather and should be pulled as soon
190 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
as the tops are frosted. There are many cultivated varieties in
the South. For the northern states, Early Carolina is perhaps
the best.
THE POTATO FAMILY. (Order Solanaceae.)
The Potato Family is made up of mostly herbaceous plants
with rank-scented herbage (this and the fruit more commonly
narcotic-poisonous/, colorless juice, alternate leaves, regular
flowers with the parts usually in fives. There are many poison-
ous plants in this group, which fact led to the tomato being re-
garded with much sus-
picion for many years
and the tops of pota-
toes and even tubers
that have become green
by exposure to sunlight
contain a poisonous
principle. Besides the
potato, tomato, egg
plant, pepper and
strawberry tomato,
whose cultural direc-
tions are here given,
the Tobacco, Petunia,
Nightshade, Datura,
Salpiglossis, Jerusalem
Cherry and Nierem-
bergia of the gardens,
belong to this family.
Fig. 96—Sweet potatoes and piece of vine.
POTATO. (Solanum tuberosum.)
Native of the high mountain regions of South America.—
Grown as an annual, but truly a perennial through its tubers.
Its stems are more or less four angled. The flowers vary ir
color from white to purplish. Many kinds do not flower, and
most varieties seldom if ever produce fruit. The fruit is a round:
ish or slightly oval berry, of a green color or tinged with violet
brown and averaging about an inch in diameter. The puip is
POTATO. 191
green and very acrid. The seeds are white, kidney-Shaped and
flat. The seed is never sown except for producing new varie-
ties. Seedlings vary greatly and often do not obtain full size
until three years old.
The tubers are com-
monly referred to as
“seed,” but they should
be regardedas cuttings
or sets; they are only
swollen underground
branches filled with
starchy matter. They
vary much in size and
shape and in color of
skin, from white to al-
most black, including
yellow, red and blue.
There are a thousand
or more of named va-
rieties, but many of
tu.em are scarcely dis-
tinguishable from oth-
er named kinds.
Figure 97—Potate plant showing tubers and roots
Origin of the Modern Potate.—Fifty years ago potato rot can
over western Europe and the United States to such an extent as
to bring starvation in regions where potatoes were the princi-
pal article of diet; no one knows where the potato came from
that was cultivated previous to that time. Rev. Chauncey Good-
rich, of Utica, N. Y., urged before agricultural societies and the
agricultural committees of the New York legislature that potato
rot resulted from lowered vitality of the potato plant, due to its
being grown under high cultivation and in climate; and soils
not wholly congenial to a sub-tropical plant, native to a small
section only of the earth’s surface; and he claimed that the
way to restore its vigor would be to get warieties from the part
of South America that was the home of the potato. His thecries
“were laughed at by scientific men, and the legislative committee
told him he knew more about theology than abcut plant diseases.
192 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Being thus repulsed, he attempted on his own account what he
felt should be undertaken by the state. Mr. Goodrich commenced
his experiments about 1848 and at various times for many years
imported potatoes from South America, and from these and their
progeny he raised many seedlings. Among eight kinds reteived
at one importation (probably from Chili) was a variety that he
called the Rough Purple Chili. It ripened late in the season and
was generally hollow, but it had flesh of fine texture and was
free from rot. From seed saved from this he raised the Garnet
Chili, which was a popular variety for many years in New York
state. The Garnet Chili was parent of the Early Rose and of
Brazee’s Prolific and other Brazee seedlings and, indeed, of
nearly all of the desirable varieties of Europe and America which
have been prized for half a century. Although from some of his
other importations he also raised a few very good sorts, yet the
progeny of the Rough Purple Chili gave him the most valuable
kinds. Among Goodrich’s other seedlings were Gleason, Calico,
Harrison and Early Goodrich. The latter was the parent of
the Chicago Market.
Mr. Goodrich is said to have raised about sixteen thousand
seedling potatoes from 1848 to 1864. Out of this large number
he found only about one in a thousand that he thought enough
better than the old sorts to make it appear probable that they
would be desirable for cultivation. The work that he did in this
line has been of great value to Europe and America.
Soil and Manure.—If given proper treatment, potatoes can
be grown on soil of almost any composition, provided it is well
drained, but a light, rich soil is best. The kind of soil to
some extent affects the quality of the tubers; grown on sandy
soil, they are generally of better table quality than on clay soils,
and when grown on muck land the skin is generally dark col-
ored and the flesh not mealy. New soil is most desirable, and in
it the tubers are generally healthy; sod land is most excellent
for this crop, but the “seed” should always be under the sod and
not on top of it. If planted on the sod the crop is very certain
to suffer from drouth in dry seasons. It ts not generally advisa-
ble to manure the land the season of planting potatoes, but
preferably to apply it to some previous crop, but if manure is to
POTATO. 193
be applied, it should be well rotted. Raw stable manure is gener-
ally to be avoided, unless it can be applied a year in advance.
In applying manure, it is very important not to use that from
animals which have been fed on scabby potatoes, as such ma-
nure is liable to cause scabbiness in the crop.
The Sets (commonly called “Seed.’”)—The tubers for plant-
ing should be sound and not sprouted—though if sprouted they
may do well; sprouting injures the vitality of the potatoes and is
harmful. We should regard the potato much as we do a willow
or other plant that grows freely from dormant cuttings if it has
the right soil conditions, for the tuber is truly a stem. Given
good sound seed potatoes for planting and good soil conditions,
it matters little how the sets are cut, provided that every eye
that grows is on a piece of potato large enough to nourish the
young sprout until it has a good root system and enough ex-
panded leaves to gather and digest its own food. In practice
the “sets” should have one, two or three eyes according to
whether the tubers have few or many eyes. Varieties with few
eyes such as:-the Rural New Yorker No. 2, should be cut to
about one eye to a piece, while those having many eyes should
have two or three to each piece. Very small seed pieces will
not give a full crop, consequently large pieces are desirable. The
biggest crops are not likely to come from the planting of whole
tubers, but such sets generally give a larger proportion of small
potatoes than cuttings made as recommended. The constant use
of small tubers for sets undoubtedly causes varieties to “run out,”
and, although it is a practice that may be occasionally followed
without serious results, it should generally be avoided.
Varieties of potatoes seldom retain their pristine vigor and
productiveness many years except in very favorable locations.
On some land, even with the best of care, they are apt to “run
out,” and, as a rule, it is a good plan to occasionally get seed
stock from locations very favorable to the best development of
the potato or, at least, to change for seed potatoes grown on a
different kind of lend.
In saving potatoes for seed, it is desirable to select them
in the field from hills having the largest number of marketable
tubers, as there is then a tendency to fix this desirable quality.
194 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
When selecting from the bin, take smooth, even, medium-sized
potatoes; the largest tubers will not necessarily give the largest
yield. If planting is done on a small scale it will probably be
found more economical to cut them by hand. Some of the auto-
matic seed potato cutting machines leave a good many pieces
without eyes, and on this account hand fed potato cutters are
most desirable for general use, although where land is very cheap
the automatic feed machines may sometimes be the more eco-
nomical.
Early Planting.—For early use potatoes should be planted as
soon as the ground is nicely settled. Light, sandy loam is best
for this purpose. The tops are quite sensitive to frost, but, as
they start slowly, they seldom get up until all danger from frost
is past. If when pushing out of the ground there is danger
from frost, the tops are easily protected from it by covering
them lightly with loose earth from between the rows, through
which they soon push again. If frozen off when several inches
high the crop is generally seriously lessened, even though new
sprouts take the place of those injured. For early crops, the
ground may be plowed several times in the spring to expose it to
the air and to warm it before planting. The sets for the early
crop should not be covered quite so deep as for the main crop,
but in other particulars the crop should be treated the same
way, and the quickest maturing kinds only should be planted. If
the tubers for early sets are spread out in a light, warm room for
three or four weeks before planting, healthy green sprouts will
start from the eyes, and, if in cutting these sprouts are care-
fully handled so as not to break them off, the crop will be much
earlier than if the sets were not thus started; they may also be
started in a hotbed before or after being cut and afterwards
transplanted to the open ground; but these methods are seldom
practiced except i. avery small way, although in some sections
they might perhaps be made profitable.
Main Crop.—For the main crop of potatoes, it is desirable to
have the seed in the ground pretty early. It is customary in
this section to plant from the middle of May to the first of June.
When planted later they are liable to suffer seriously from
drought, and earlier planting is more desirable. The results of
Many experiments show that the sets should be planted about
POTATO. 195
four inches deep, at sixteen inch intervals, in rows three feet
apart. This work may be done by furrowing out with the plow
or horse hoe, planting by hand and covering the sets with the
plow, though when planted on a large scale the work is generally
done by a potato planter. There are several excellent potato
planters on the market. Some good growers prefer to plant the
sets in check rows three feet apart each way when the land is
weedy, but so much space between the plants is not generally
desirable, since under ordinary circumstances thorough harrow-
ing when the crop is young will destroy alt weeds. If the sets
are planted four inches deep, very little hilling up is required;
if planted much deeper the digging is quite difficult; if planted
nearer the surface, the tubers are liable to push out of the
ground and require to be hilled up, which is not desirable. The
land should be harrowed or thoroughly cultivated with a Breed’s
Weeder as soon as the smallest weeds can be seen or a crust
forms on the land after planting. It is entirely practicable to
harrow potatoes at least three times, the first time just before
the plants show, the second when they are just above ground
and the third when the plants are three or four inches high.
Little if any harm will be done the plants by this work, provid-
ing a slanting tooth harrow is used. Such treatment will do
more to remove weeds than a good hand hoeing, and the expense
of the operation is almost nothing. If the work is properly done,
there is seldom any need o* hand work with this crop. Subse-
quent cultivation should consist in keeping the soil loose between
the rows, and a little earth should be thrown against the plants.
For this purpose a good horse hoe will do excellent work, but a
still better implement is a two-horse cultivator that works both
sides of the row at one operation. It is not a good plan to hill
up potatoes, and it should not be done unless they are pushing
out of the ground, when they will turn green if not covered up.
Cultivation should be thorough when the plants are young but
is not desirable after the tops have made most of their growth.
Digging Potatoes.—Early potatoes are generally dug as soon
as they are big enough for cooking if there is a good market for
them; for winter use it is very desirable to have the tubers well
ripened; if not ripe the skin will peel off when handled, and
they do not look well. When potatoes are high in price it may
196 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
pay to dig them by hand, for which purpose tined garden forks
are desirable; the best potato diggers, however, do as good
work as can be done by hand, and are generally used by those
who raise this crop on a large scale. When potatoes are cheap,
they should be dug with a potato digger or plowed out; though
when pivwed out some tubers will get covered up, most of
these may be brought to the surface by the use of a straight
tooth harrow. If the tubers are keeping well in the ground, it
is a good plan to delay the digging until the cool weather of
autumn, when they may be carried directly from the field to the
cellar. If they are rotting in the ground or are “scabby,” they
Should be dug at once, and if the cellar is cool they may be put
at once into it, but, otherwise, it is a good plan to pit them in
the field until cool weather comes.
Pitting in mild weather is done by putting the tubers into
heaps and covering them with straw or hay and a few inches
of loam. The straw should be allowed to stick out along the top
IM
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othe
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ays
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ale
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Figure 98.—Potatoes pitted for winter.
of the heap for ventilation, so as to allow the moisture to pass
off. In the colder weather of late autumn, the covering, ot
course, should be heavier, and when potatoes have ceased to
sweat there is no need of ventilation. In milder sections, pota-
toes are stored through the winter in such pits, but it is imprac:
ticable here. However, even in Minnesota, potatoes may be safe-
POTATO. 197
ly kept over ‘~vinter in trenches or pits made below the ground,
although a good cellar is a more desirable place. For this
purpose the pit should not be large; a good size is four feet wide
and deep and not more than six feet long. It should be filled
heaping full with the potatoes and covered with six inches of
straw and eighteen of soil. Ventilation is given until cold weath-
er sets in and the potatoes are cooled off. The whole pit should
then be covered with enough litter or manure (generally about
two feet) to keep out the frost. Such pits can only be opened in
mild weather. If this work is well done, the potatoes will be in
fine condition in the spring, but beginners are very apt to fail
of success in this method of storing, and they should attempt it
only on a small scale. It is better to make several pits close
|
.
A
|
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ade ®
Figure 99.—Six good varieties of early potatoes. 1—Ohio Jr. 2—Early Ohio
3—Buroee’s Extra Early. 4—Early Harvest. 5—Freeman. 6—Good News.
together rather than one large one, since in a large one the pota-
toes are more likely to sweat. The sunlight should not be al-
lowed to shine on them for any length of time, since it causes
them to turn green and develops a poisonous substance in them.
If kept in a cellar, the bins are improved by having slatted floors
and sides, so that there may be some circulation of air through
them to prevent heating at the bottom. The bins should not be
large nor more than five feet deep. There is a great difference
in the keeping qualities of varieties; as a rule the early kinds are
198 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
hard to keep from sprouting in the latter part of winter, and the
late kinds keep the best.
Starch.—When potatoes are low in price, they can often be
profitably worked into starch, but for this purpose starch fac-
tories must be near by. Such factories are not expensive and
should be more common in this section.
The demand for potatoes seems destined to increase very
much. There is a growing demand each year from the eastern
and southern states for northwestern grown potatoes. Under
ordinary cultivation, in this section, they seldom yield more than
150 bushels per acre of marketable tubers, and the average even
in favorable years is probably not over 120 bushels per acre.
There are, however, recorded yields here of 800 bushels per acre,
and they often yield over 400 bushels.
Sp er — =
Figure 100.—Six good varieties of late potatoes. 1—Rural New Yorker No. 2.
2—American Worder. 3—Irish Cobbler. 4—World’s Fair. 5—Woodbury
White. 6—Carman No. 1.
Varieties.—There is a very great difference in varieties, but
many kinds closely resemble one another. There is quite a
difference in the adaptability of varieties to soils. The large
coarser kinds are good for starch but not desirable for table use.
Most markets prefer a white or pink potato, rather long, oval in
form and smooth, but the fashions change and vary considerably.
Some of the varieties at present regarded with much favor are
the following:
PULEATU. 199
Early Ohio.—The most popular early kind and a good sort
for the general crop, productive and very early.
Burbank, or Burbank’s Seedling, is an excellent late kind
and a good keeper, but seems to be running out in some sections.
It cooks a little soggy until winter, when it is of excellent table
quality. Form long and ~ound.
Rural New Yorker No. 2.—Form flat, roundish oblong, very
productive. Quality a little inferior and sometimes inclined to
be hollow. Very popular in some sections. It is undoubtedly
much influenced by the soil in which it grows.
Early Rose is the progenitor of most of our good kinds. It
was introduced into cultivation about 1868 and is still productive
in the best potato districts of this section but is not now adapted
to general use.
Other varieties of special merit of the early kinds are Early
Acme; of medium and late kinds are American Wonder and
White Prolific.
Note on Propagation.—New varieties of potatoes are gener-
ally high in price, and it is desirable to increase them rapidly.
This may be done as follows: Place the tubers in rich soil in
boxes or in pots, without cutting them, in a warm, light room,
hotbed or greenhouse. As soon as the sprouts are nicely fur-
nished with roots, break them off at the surface of the potato
below the roots and plant separately in pots. New sprouts will
start from the eyes again, and the process may be repeated until
the tuber is exhausted. By another way, the tubers are cut up
and planted in good rich loam. As soon as the shoots are six
inches or more high, about three inches is cut off the top of each.
These pieces are put in moist sand, watered frequently and al-
lowed all the sunlight they will stand without wilting and treat-
ed the same as it is common to treat cuttings of house plants.
In two or three weeks they will be rooted and may be potted in
rich soil. These shoots may again be cut when nicely started,
and so on. The plants thus grown are planted out when the
weather is settled in the spring. For best success with these
methods of propagation, the work should begin in the late winter
or very early spring.
Insects.—There are but few insects that do serious injury to
200 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the potato in this section, and the most important of these is the
Colorado potato beetle, or “potato-bug,” but it may also be in-
jured by blister beetles, wire worms and white grubs. (For reme-
dies for these pests, see chapter on insects.)
Diseases.—There are several diseases that sometimes injure
the potato. The most common of these are known as the scab
and the blight. Scab is a term used to refer to the rough patches
with which potatoes are frequently covered. Potatoes so infected
are lessened in yield, and on account of being unsightly and
rough do not sell readily. The term blight refers to a disease
that kills the tops.
Scab of Potatoes is caused by a fungous plant working in
the surface of the potato. The germs of it are very abundant and
live for many years in the soil and also over winter on the pota-
toes. If these germs are fed to stock they undoubtedly grow in
the manure, and the use of such manure may often be the cause
of infection. Also they may be spread in the soil by natural
drainage and land receiving the drainage from infected fields may
become infected with tne disease without ever having had pota-
toes on them. Scabby seed potatoes when planted on new or old
potato land will generaity produce a scabby crop, but the amount
of the disease will generally be much more on the old land than
on the new.
Perfectly clean seed potatoes planted on land which is free
from the scab fungus will always and in any season produce a
crop of smooth, clean potatoes, no matter what may be the char-
acter of the soil; but apparently clean seed potatoes may have
the germs of the scab fungus on their surface. This is often the
case where they have been sorted out from a lot that is some-
what infected with scab. In this latter case the tubers should,
at least, be thoroughly washed in running water to remove any
germs that may be present or, what is better yet, be treated with
corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichloride) as recommended be-
low.
Land infected by the germs of potato scab will produce a
more or less scabby crop, no matter how clean and smooth the
seed used.
Scabby potatoes should be dug as soon as mature, since the
POTATO. 201
scab fungus continues to grow on the potatoes as long as they are
in the ground.
Treated. Figure 101—Potato Scab. Not Treated.
Both plates grown from the same lot of scabby seed.
Scabby potatoes may be safely used for seed provided they
are first treated in such a way as to destroy the germs of the
scab that adhere to them. There are many methods of doing
this but the most practical now used are as follows:
Corrosive Sublimate Treatment.—Procure from a druggist
two ounces of powdered corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichlor-
ide); put this into two gallons of hot water in a wooden or
earthenware vessel and allow it to stand until dissolved. Place
thirteen gallons of water in a clean barrel, pour in the solution
of corrosive sublimate and allow it to stand two or three hours,
with frequent stirrings in order to have the solution uniform.
Select potatoes as nearly free from scab as can be obtained;
put the seed potatoes into bags, either before or after cutting
them, and then dip them into the corrosive sublimate solution
and allow them to stay in for an hour and a half. If seed pota-
toes are treated in this way and then planted on land free from
scab, the resultant crop will seldom be seriously injured by scab.
The expense of this treatment, including labor, should not ex-
ceed one dollar per acre, as the material may be used repeatedly.
202 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
But the treated potatoes should never be fed to animals, as cor-
rosive sublimate is a deadly poison.
Formaline Treatment.—This material should be mixed with
water at the rate of eight ounces (one half pint) cf commercial
formaline to fifteen gallons of water. The potatoes should be
soaked two hours in it. If this methcd is used the seed should
be planted within two or three days after treatment. This ma-
terial gives equally as good results as corrosive sublimate. It is
slightly more expensive, but the expense is light in any case. it
has, however, great advantages over the latter in that it is not
poisonous and being a liquid is easily diluted for use and may
be placed in any kind of a receptacle. This material does not in
any way injure the tubers or make them dangerously poisonous.
One pound of formaline, costing not more than 50 cents, will
make thirty gallons of the disinfecting solution and is enough to
treat fifty bushels of potatoes. If the solution stands a long time
it will probably lose strength.
Exposing to Light.—If the tubers are exposed to the full sun-
light for several weeks before planting the scab germs will be
largely destroyed. It would be a good plan to turn such potatoes
occasionally in order to expose them fully to the light.
Blight of Potatoes is a disease which attacks the leaves and
stems of potatoes, and sometimes even the tubers are affected.
It is most prevalent during moist, warm weather, when some-
times the fungus may be seen as a delicate white mildew on the
stems and leaves of the potato vines. In seasons favorable to it,
the tops of an entire field may be killed in a few days from the
time the disease was first noticed; at other times the tops die so
gradually that it is mistaken for a natural dying of the vines.
Rotting of the tubers often follows the dying of the tops. It has
been quite clearly shown that this disease may be kept in check
or the trouble entirely prevented by spraying the tops with the
Bordeaux mixture occasionally. It is, however, somewhat doubt-
ful about the benefits being sufficiently certain in this section to
justify the expense; but should this disease become more abun-
dant it may prove to be a paying operation. The cost of treating
one acre with the Bordeaux mixture is about $5. There is lit-
tle use of applying this material after the damage from the dis-
POTATO. 203
ease is apparent, as it must be used as a preventive and used
before the disease is seen.
Bordeaux Mixture is made as follows: Dissolve five pounds
of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in ten gallons of water in a
wooden or earthenware vessel. As this substance dissolves very
slowly in cold water and solutions of it are very heavy, it is well
to suspend it near the top of the water. (It dissolves more
quickly in hot water.) In another vessel, slake five pounds of
good fresh quicklime in ten gallons of water. When the mixture
is wanted, pour the blue vitriol and lime slowly at the same time
into a barrel containing thirty gallons of water, stirring all the
time. When thoroughly stirred the mixture should be of a clear
sky blue color. After being mixed for a day or two the mixture
loses much of its strength, so it is well to use only that which
has been mixed for a short time. There are many formulas used,
which vary as to the amount of lime and water, but the above
gives good satisfaction when used properly.
Internal Brown Rot is the name given to a disease which
has recently appeared in a few potato growing sections of this
country. It is first noticed by the darkening more or less of the
starchy portion of the tubers, without any manifestation of its
presence on the outside; later
on the potato rots. The life
history of this disease is not
known, nor are any remedies
known for it. Ordinary pru-
dence, however, would indi-
se cate that seed potatoes in the
Figure lv2.—Internal brown rot of the least affected with this trou-
Be ble should not be planted.
EGG PLANT. (Solanum melongena.)
Native of South America.—Annual.—Stem erect and branch-
ing; flowers solitary and violet in color; seeds flat, of medium
size. The egg plant is but little used in this section, but can be
grown to perfection in our hot, dry summers. The seed must
be sown, even earlier than tomato seed, in the greenhouse or hot-
bed, but when only a few plants are wanted it will be found best
204 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
to buy the plants, as they require delicate handling. The plants
are set in rows three by two feet apart, after
the ground is well warmed up, which is seldom
before the 10th of June.
The fruit attains marketable size by the
last of August. The plants are very liable to
the attacks of the potato beetle. The best
variety is the New York Purple, but the variety
grown asthe Long Purple is somewhat earlier.
Figure 103.—_Egg
Plant.
TOMATO. (Lycopersicum esculentum. )
Native of South America.—Perennial, but generally treated
as an annual.—The tomato is a branching plant, generally with
flexible stems that require support to grow erect. Its flowers are
yellowish and grow in loose clusters on the stem, opposite or
nearly opposite leaves, not axiliary; fruit, a true berry, red,
pink or yellow in color; seed, kidney-shaped, flat, with a rough-
ened surface. In many parts of this section, the tomato can be
successfully grown as a market crop, and there is no place
where it cannot be grown in sufficient quantities for home use.
The cultivation of this vegetable for canning purposes is already
occupying the attention of farmers in a few localities in this sec-
tion, and it is an industry that is destined to greatly increase in
the future. It is ome of the easiest and surest crops to grow,
providing one has good plants to start with.
Growing the Plants.—It is especially important to sow the
seed before the first of April, and the middle of March is thought
about the right time by most growers. The seed grows easily
but needs considerable heat and rich soil to do its best. The
plants should be transplanted after they have their second leaves
and again when they get crowded, so that they may become
stocky and strong. The seed may be started in greenhouses or
hotbeds; it is also easily grown in window boxes. If too close
together, they grow weak and poor. It is very important that
the plants should be well hardened off before they are set in
the open ground.
The land preferred for tomatoes is a rich, retentive sandy
loam, but they will do fairly well on almost any well drained
TOMATO. 205
soil, and even if on rather poor soil will do better than most
crops. A southern slope is preferable, but they will ripen almost
anywhere if properly managed. The tomato pre-eminently needs
a warm place, and if rich manure is plowed into the soil it is
beneficial, since by its fermentation it raises the temperature of
the land.
Transplanting and After-cultivation.—The plants should be
moved to the open ground as soon as all danger of severe frost
is past, which will senerally be about the 20th of May in south-
ern Minnesota and not until the Ist of June in more northern
sections. They should be set about five feet apart each way
and about six inches deep. If the stems of the plants when
planted out are very long, they should be partly buriec under
ground. They need thorough cultivation, which can best be given
by a horse cultivator on a large scale.
Pruning and Training.—Tomato plants under field cultivation
are generally allowed
to run over the ground
in any direction and
are nottrained; but even
under this method of
management itis a good
plan to cut off a foot or
more of the ends of all
growing shoots about
the middle of August if
they are growing rap-
idly, so that all the
strength of the plant
may go toripen the fruit
that is well formed and
still green. Some grow-
ers advise pruning off
all but one main stem
and two or three laterals
and training to a stake,
Figure 104.—Tomato plant growing in a and then pinching off all
pilieee trained against side of flower clusters after a
few have set fruit. The result of this practice here is still some-
=
206 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
what doubtful. It is a good plan in a small garden to cover the
land under the vines after they set fruit with a little hay, so
that the fruit may be kept from getting dirty in case they are
not trained. This covering should not be heavy enough to keep
the ground from getting plenty of sunlight.
Tomatoes in Very Severe Locations.—When there is danger
of frost in August, a sufficient supply of tomatoes for family use
may be grown on the south side of a house, wall or other protec-
Figure 105.—Varieties of Tomatoes. 1—Dwarf Champion. 2—New Imperial.
3—Thorburn. 4—Virginia Corker. 5-Landreth’s110 Days. 6—Wandreth’s
95 Days. JT—Landreth’s 100 Days. 8—Landreth’s 105 Days. 9—lWLandreth’s
1145 Days. 10—Waldorf. 11—Qandreth’s 105 Days. 12—Fordhook First.
13—Early Wilcox. 14—Clover Crest Giant. ;
tion, especially if the plants are covered on cold nights. Where
this seems to be impracticable, a most excellent way is to grow
a few plants in barrels placed in warm corners about the build-
ings. To do this, at planting time select a barrel as large as a
coal oil barrel, bore three or four holes in the bottom, sink the
barrel about one-third its depth in the ground and pack the
earth around it. Fill it about half full of fresh horse manure well
tramped down and pour a bucketful of hot water on this manure.
Then put on eight inches of good soil and then a mixture of well-
rotted manure and rich black loam in about equal quantities,
until you reach within about twelve inches of the top of the
TOMATO. 207
barrel; then heap up manure around the outside. Set three
plants in this and trim to two shoots each. Train one of these
shoots from each plant to stakes or near-by building, but allow
the other three shoots to grow naturally over the sides of the
barrel. Be careful to give plenty of water daily—a gallon each
day will be none too much. Three or four old barrels treated in
this way and placed in sunny exposure will produce all the toma-
toes needed by a family of four or five persons.
Prolonging the Tomato Season.—In autumn the tomato sea-
son may be prolonged by pulling the plants with the unripened
fruit on them and hanging them in a shed, where they will
continue to ripen fruit for some time. The larger tomatoes will
ripen very well if picked off and kept in a shady place.
Saving Tomato Seed.—Tomato seed should be saved from
the best tomatoes from vines producing the largest amount of
good fruit. The tomatoes should be thrown into a barrel as
fast as they ripen and be allowed to ferment until the seed
separates readily from the pulp, when they should be put into
water and thoroughly stirred. The skin and pulp being lighter,
the seed is readily separated from it. The seed should be dried
at once by spreading it out thinly in a dry place.
Varieties.—There are many varieties of tomatoes adapted
to general cultivation. Among the best of these are Acme and
Dwarf Champion, which are early, smooth kinds having a
pink skin. Of the red-skinned sorts Perfection and Beauty are
very good. The-earliest varieties are not always the best to
grow for a general crop, as they are inferior to the varieties men-
tioned. However, in many unfavorable locations it may be best
to grow them, as they do very well for home use. Of these
the earliest is called Earliest of All, but there are several other
very early kinds.
Insects.—The tomato is subject to few insect pests. It is
sometimes attacked by the potato beetle. The remedy is Paris
green and water, as recommended for the same insect when it
attacks the potato.
Tomato Rot.—There are several diseases that attack the
tomato when grown in greenhouses, but only that known as the
“rot” is often seriously injurious to plants grown in the open
208 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
field. This is a fungous disease, the germs of which lodge in
the end of the fruit when it is very small, probably often just
as the flowers fall off. By their growth, they rot the end of the
tomato and often cause much loss.
Figure 106—Tomato rot.
Remedies.—The disease lives over winter in the ground
where the rotten tomatoes have fallen. The diseased fruit should
therefore be gathered and burned or buried a foot or more
deep, where they will not be disturbed in the spring. Some varie-
ties are much more liable to rot than others. The Dwarf Cham-
pion is perhaps less affected than many other kinds. Experi-
ments with spraying the young fruit with Bordeaux mixture or a
solution of sulphide of potassium at the rate of one-half ounce
per gallon, are said to Lave given good results in some cases, but
it is generally considered impracticable to do this, on account
of the labor necessary to do the work well. They are less liable
to rot when growing on new land than on land that has been
used for several years in tomatoes.
GROUND CHERRY, or STRAWBERRY TOMATO. (Physalis sp.)
Native of North and South America.—Perennial.—There are
several species of Physalis that produce edible fruit. Among
those indigenous to northern United States is one quite common
in old timber land in northern Minnesota and elsewhere. The
PEPPERS. 209
fruit resembles a tomato but is about the size of a cherry and is
enclosed in a husk formed of the
calyx. The seed is dark colored, flat
and round. The fruit is used for pre-
Serves and sauces.
Culture.—It is a plant of the earli-
est culture and when once sown gen-
erally covers the ground in following
years from self sown seed. The seed
should be planted about the first of
May. The plants spread about thirty
inches.
PEPPERS. (Capsicum annuum.)
Native of South America.—Peren-
nial, but in cultivation grown as an
annual.—There are many varieties,
\ differing chiefly in the shape of their
Figure 107--Ground Cherry fruit. All of them have erect,
or Strawberry Tomato, branching stems, which become al-
most woody. The leaves are spear-
shaped; flowers, white, star-shaped, solitary in the axils of the
leaves; fruit generally hollow with a somewhat fleshy skin, at
first dark green, but when ripe turning yellow, red or dark
violet. The seeds are flat, and, like the flesh of the pods, have
a very acrid, burning taste, for which the plant is cultivated and
used in giving flavor to pickles, etc. Their germinating power
lasts about four years after being separated, but if left in the
pods they will keep much longer without injury.
Culture.—Peppers need practically the same cultivation as
the tomato or egg plant, except that they may be planted two
feet apart, in rows three feet apart.
Varieties vary much in the shape of the pods and the acridity
of their juice. The kinds most commonly grown are as follows:
Ruby King.—Fruit very large, bright red, smooth, mild fla-
vored and prolific. The best for general use.
210 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Long Red Cayenne.—Fruit long and slender. Very pungent.
Figure 108—Varieties of Peppers. 1—Bird’s Eye. 2—TomiatoShaped. 3—New
Crieans. 4—Golden Bell. 5—Very Small Cayenne. 6—Sweet Spanish.
7—-Cluster. 8—Ruby King. g9—Celestial. (Ajter Landreth.)
THE MARTYNA FAMILY. (Order Martiniaceae.)
MARTYNIA. (Martynia probosidea.)
Native of southwestern United States.—Annual.—A coarse-
growing, spreading plant, having a peculiar shaped fruit that is
used for pickles. The flowers are large, irregular and rather
pretty. The fruit is tender when young
but is nearly as hard as horn when ripe.
The seeds are black with a rough surface.
Culture.—This is a plant of the easi-
est culture. The seed should be sown as
soon as the soil settles in the spring, in
hills about three feet apart each way.
Where seeds are allowed to ripen, plants
usually appear the following spring.
There is only one kind.
Figure 109—Martynia.
THE GOURD FAMILY. (Order Cucurbitaceae. )
The gourd family is made up of mostly tendril bearing herbs,
SQUASH. 2i1
with succulent but not fleshy herbage, watery juice, alternate
palmately ribbed and mostly angled or lobed leaves, pistillate
and staminate flowers separate and both kinds generally on the
same plant. Calyx grown to ovary, petals commonly united,
stamens usually three, of which one has a one-celled and the
others two-celled anthers, but commonly the anthers are much
twisted and often all combined into a head and the filaments are
sometimes grown into a column. The fruit is unusually fleshy
and the seed is flat and made up entirely of embryo. It is
commonly believed that some of the species in this group readily
cross, but if it occurs at all it is but rarely, and squash and
pumpkins have never been successfully crossed with melons.
Besides the squash, pumpkin, muskmelon, watermelon and
cucumbers, whose cultural directions are here given, there occurs
here the gourds and wild cucumbers of the gardens.
SQUASH. (Cucurbita.)
The term squash does not signify any botanical division,
but is an American name that is applied to a large number of
varieties of gourds which in common parlance have come to
be classified separately. The term often includes what are
sometimes called pumpkins.
The term gourd is applied to all the members of Cucurbita
pepo and includes the Scallop and Crookneck Squashes, field
pumpkins and the small, very hard-shelled fruits of many
shapes and colors borne on slender vines that are grown chiefly
as curiosities under the name of gourds. The latter are what are
commonly known as gourds.
Pollerizing the Flowers.—The flowers resemble those of the
cucumber and melon, being separate on the same vine. The
pistillate flower is produced at the end of the miniature squash;
the staminate flower is often called the ‘false blossom,” and its
office is to produce pollen only. They are naturally pollenized by
insects.
The crop is made more certain by having bees near by to
pollenize the flowers. In some places, the absence of many in-
sects is the reason why cucumbers, melons and squashes, which
are similar in the construction of their flowers, fail to produce
much fruit, though the vines may grow freely. This is a
212 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
common complaint in some new prairie sections, as there is
often a deficiency of pollenizing insects in such places. Where
small cucumbers, squashes and melons fall off and fail to mature,
Figure 110.—Flowers on the Squash. To the left two staminate (male
flowers; to the right two pistillate (female) flowers.
this matter of pollenization should be closely looked into, and if
insects are not present the work can be quickly and easily done
by hand. For this purpose a rather large camel’s hair brush 1s
used which can be filled at one time with enough pollen from a
few male flowers to pollenize twenty or more female flowers.
The seed is oval and flat generally white or yellow, but
varies greatly in size. There is a common belief among garden-
ers that vines from old seed do not grow so strong as those
from new seed and produce more fruit. This seems to be borne
out by some experiments.
Cultivation.—The cultivation of the squash and the pumpkin
SQUASH. 213
is much the same as for cucumbers. About six seeds should
be put in each hill. The hills should be eight feet apart each
way for the longer growing kinds and five feet apart for the
bush sorts. The plants should be thinned out after they are
established so as to allow two plants to each hill. They are
affected by the same insect pests as the cucumber and the
same remedies are in order. In addition, however, to these,
some kinds are affected in the eastern states by a borer which
works in the stem, and by the squash bug. (See chapter on in-
sects.)
The early varieties of the squash are sometimes started in
hotbeds or cold frames to advance them and thus avoid serious
injury from the striped beetle.
Harvesting.—Summer squash are not grown for storing and
are not desirable for table use except before the skin hardens,
when they are used entire. Winter squash are excellent for use
in a green state but are not gathered for storing until the skin
is hard. They should always be gathered upon the approach of
frosty weather, as a very little frost injures their keeping quali-
ties, although the injury may not be apparent when gathered.
It is a good plan in harvesting them to place them in piles in the
field, leaving them exposed to the sun during the day and
covering them with the vines or other material every frosty
night until they are thoroughly dried and the skins have become
hard and flinty. In gathering, cut the stem off not over an inch
from the squash, for it the stem is left on it is liable to be used as
a handle and be broken off and thus leave a spot that is very
sure to start to rotting. Squashes should be handled with the
greatest care if they are to be kept successfully, and each one
should be placed in the wagon or on the shelf separately; if
handled roughly they will not keep. They should be carried in a
spring wagon or on a bed of hay or straw.
Storing.—Winter squash keep best in a dry atmosphere and
at a cool temperature. They will, however, keep well in a warm
or even hot cellar or room, providing it is dry, but will quickly
rot in a moist atmosphere. They will shrink more in weight in
a warm than in a cool place. They should be laid on shelves
one tier deep, and never piled up if it is desired to keep them
214 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
long. When well hardened without exposure to frost before stor-
ing and kept dry, many of the winter sorts are easily kept until
March.
The quality of squash varies somewhat according to the
land on which it is grown. Sandy loam is generally believed to
produce the best fiavored dry flesh squash, but the quality also
varies according to the season.
Summer Varieties.—(Cucurbita pepo.)—Summer Crookneck
Figure 111.—Varieties of summer squashes.
Crookneck. Boston Marrow. Scalloped.
is a summer sort, generally with a crooked neck, that is highly
esteemed. A form of this with a straight neck is also grown.
Bush Scalloped.—Yellow and white varieties of this for
summer use are much grown by market gardeners, differing from
each other only ir color of the skin. They are round-flat and
have a scalloped edge.
Boston Marrow.—Much grown for marketing and very highly
esteemed for summer and fall use.
Orange Marrow—A form of the Boston Marrow.
Fall and Winter Varieties.——(Cucurbita maxima.)—Hub-
bard.—This is the best known and most largely grown of the
winter varieties. It varies somewhat in form, is generally dark
green in color and sometimes marked with red. When well
grown it has a rough shell of flinty hardness and thick, heavy
flesh that cooks dry. The quality varies much according to the
quality of the land on which it is grown, sandy loam generally
producing the best.
SQUASH. 215
Marblehead is a variety that resembles the Hubbard in qual-
ity of flesh, and by many is considered superior. It differs from
the Hubbard in form and color, is ashy gray and the flesh is
. Pe eee ea eee Ge eee ae
Figure 112—Hubbard Squash.
much thinner. It yields less in weight but generally produces
more squashes per acre.
Essex Hybrid.—Very fine grained, rich, sweet, and a good
keeper; excellent for autumn and winter.
Bay State.—A good variety.
Miscellaneous Varieties —Winter Crookneck.—One of the
hardiest, most reliable and best keeping squashes, but in
quality no better than some of the pumpkins. Very little in
demand for marketing, but popular in some sections for home
use.
Cocoanut, Perfect Gem and Chestnut are varieties produc-
ing a large number of small squashes of excellent quality and
are very easily raised.
PUMPKIN. (Cucurbita pepo.)
Native of warm climates.—Annual.—Under the name of
pumpkin are grouped a number of gourds, greatly varying in
shape, color, size and quality. Some of them are very good for
ooking purposes, but they are not generally esteemed for table
216 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
use by those who have become accustomed to the better kinds
of squashes; some of them are great yielders and are used for
feeding cattle. They may be grown as recommended for squash
or, as is most commonly
practiced, grown amongst
the corn, where the seed is
planted aS soon as warm
weather is assured. The
seed varies much in size.
For remarks on its flowers
== ‘and pollination see squash
Figure 113—Cheese Pumpkin. with which they are nearly
identical.
The variety most generally grown is known as Connecticut
Field, which is of large size and is used mainly for feeding stock.
Sugar and Cheese pumpkins are varieties much grown for cook-
ing purposes.
MUSKMELON. (Cucumis melo.)
Native of the warm parts of Asia.—Annual.—Cultivated from
a very remote period of antiquity. It resembles the cucumber
in habit of growth, and, like it and the squash, the different
sexes of flowers are separate on the same plant and in nature re-
quire the agency of insects to pollenize them; however, they may
be pollenized by hand, and the directions for pollenizing cucumber
flowers apply here. In quite a few cases the flowers of the musk-
melon are perfect, that is, have both stamens and pistils; but
it is likely that even in these cases cross-fertilization is neces-
sary. The seed resembles cucumber seed in size and form.
The fruit varies in shape but is commonly round or oval. The
flesh varies in color from nearly white to deep orange. This is
one of the most healthful and delicious of fruits, and our warm,
bright summers are especially favorable to its growth. As far
north as Minneapolis, this fruit is often so plentiful as to glut
the markets in September.
Culture.—The culture of muskmelons is practically the same
as that recommended for cucumbers, and the insect pests are
also the same. A warm soil is, if anything, more desirable for
this crop than for cucumbers, and in moist seasons it does
MUSKMELON. 217
especially well on very sandy land, providing it has been well
manured. It is a good plan to pinch off the ends of the vines
after they have grown several feet for the purpose of forcing out
the laterals on which the fruit is borne, although this is not
customary in growing them on a large scale. Late settings of
fruit may be removed to advantage in September, as they then
have not time to mature. The fruit is not ripe until the stem
separates easily from it. Fruit ripened on the vine is of the best
Figure 114—Muskmelons. 1—California Citron. 2—White Japan. 3—Miller’s
Cream. 4--Extra Early.
quality, but for shipping purposes it should be picked when still
green. Almost without exception, melons with finely netted skins
are of better quality than those with smooth or coarsely netted
skins. So true is this that buyers often refuse to buy the smooth
kinds. In order to make the fruit ripen earlier and to avoid the
attacks of the striped beetle, the plants are often started in pots
and on sods in hotbeds or frames, as recommended for cucum-
bers. It is a good plan also to place a piece of glass or board
under the melons when those of the best quality are desired,
since this keeps them off the ground, and they ripen more evenly
in consequence.
_ Varieties——Melons vary much in size, form, color of skin
and flesh and in quality. There are many kinds, but only a few
are referred to here. Z
Christiana, or Early Christiana is a popular melon, of extra
good quality, with salmon colored flesh.
218 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Osage, or Miller’s Cream.—A iarge melon kaving firm
salmon colored flesh, very productive and highly esteemed for
the market and home garden. Perhaps, the best shipping sort
now grown.
California Citron muskmelon is a variety especially popular
in some northern markets for home market and for shipping.
Emerald Gem is a very prolific melon, with smaii but very
superior fruit that is valuable for home use.
WATERMELON. (Citrullis vulgaris.)
Native of Africa—Annual.—A vine of the same general
habit as the muskmelon, but the leaves are deeply lobed,
Figure 115—Varieties of Watermelons. 1—fron Clad. 2—Cuban Queen. 3—
Light Ice Rind. 4—Monte Cristo. 5—Dark Ice Rind.
and the whole plant is covered with soft, grayish hairs that
give it a grayish aspect. The flowers are the same in general
structure as those of the cucumber or muskmelon. The seeds are
WATERMELON. 219
large but vary much in size, color and markings. The fruit
varies in color of skin from pale yellow to deep green and is
often mottled; the flesh varies from white to pink or yellow.
Some are tasteless and insipid and others are sugary and re-
tieshing. The fruit often weighs as much as fifty pounds in good
seasons when grown in favorable locations, even in the extreme
northern states.
Culture.—The method of culture is the same as for the
cucumber and muskmelon, with the exception that the vines
should not be pinched, and they require rather more room in
which to grow. They should be planted about eight feet apart
each way.
Varieties——There are many kinds of watermelons offered by
seedsmen, diiffering from one another in many particulars. Sev-
eral of the most esteemed are the following:
Dark and Light Icing, or Ice Rind.—The best two varieties
for general use. Well adapted for home use or marketing.
Hungarian.—A melon of good quality, adapted for the home
garden.
Volga.—An early variety with light colored skin and very
red flesh. Fruit rather small but of excellent quality and very
productive.
Citron, or Preserving Melon.—Resembles watermelon, but the
flesh is hard and only fit for preserves. There is but a limited
demand for it.
CUCUMBER. (Cucumis sativus.)
Native of the East Indies.—Annual.—A creeping plant with
angular, flexible stems, rough to touch and furnished with ten-
drils. The tiowers are yellow, in the axils of the leaves, some
male, others female; the latter flowers are on the ovary, which
later becomes the cucumber. The plants produce flowers and
fruit in succession over a long season, and these are naturally
Lollenized by insects. The seed is long-oval in form and yellow-
ish-white in color.
: Cultivation.—The land for cucuinbers should be a deep, rich.
i scraewbat retentive loam, and yet this vegetable will do very well
‘with only moderately favorable conditions. For ordinary use
and for the home garden, cucumber seed should be planted after
220 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
the ground is warm, say from the middle to the last of May,
but it may be planted with good results as late as the middle of
June. HF is quite customary to furrow out the land six feet
apart one way, mark crossways of the furrows with a six foot
marker, and put a shovelful of well rotted manure or compost
in each intersection. Cover this manure with soil and plant the
cucumber seed. Of course, when the land is in the best condition,
it is not necessary to put manure in the hills; in such cases, all
that is necessary is to mark out both ways and plant at the
intersections. About ten or a dozen seeds should be put in
each hill and covered about one inch deep, and the soil packed
over the seeds. As soon as the plants are up, and after each rain,
they should have the soil loosened around them ‘They should
also be kept dusted until well established with Paris green, land
plaster or some other dust, to keep off the striped beetles, which
are often very troublesome and may destroy the plants when
they are small unless preventive measures are used. (See
chapter on insects.) The land should be cultivated both ways
until the vines prevent it, so that very litle work will have to be
done by hand. About three good plants are enough for each
hill, and the rest should be removed after the danger from serious
insect injuries has passed.
Gathering the Crop.—If for table use or for marketing in a
green state, the cucumbers are gathered when full grown but still
green; if for pickles, the cucumbers are gathered as soon as of
the required size, which is generally when they are about three
inches long. Some factories put up larger and some smaller-
pickles than this size. To gather them of just the right size
requires that the whole bed be picked over about once in two
days. This is a matter of much labor and is generally paid for by
the piece. No cucumbers should be allowed to go to seed if pickles
or table cucumbers are wanted, for as soon as seed is ripened the
plants commence to die off, while if constantly gathered when
green and not allowed to ripen, the plants will continue bearing
a long time. In the vicinity of pickling factories, cucumbers for
pickles are often raised in large quantities as a farm crop and
are contracted for at a specified price per thousand or per hun-
dred pounds, for the season. For home use or for storing and
CUCUMBER. 221
marketing in the winter, the cucumbers are packed in salt or salt
brine when gathered. Growers generally use about seven pounds
of salt to a bushel of cucumbers. They may also be packed in dry
salt in layers, which has the effect of taking the water out of the
cucumbers, causing them to shrivel up and lie in their own
juice. When wanted for use they are freshened out in water,
which causes those that are shriveled to swell up plump; they
are then put in vinegar. Cucumber pickles are easily kept until
the following spring in this way, but when kept later than spring
they get soft and are not so desirable. Cucumbers will stand a
great amount of dry weather without injury, if frequently cul-
tivated.
Starting Cucumbers in cold frames and hotbeds and then
transplanting them to the open ground when all danger of frost
Figure 116—Chicage Pickling Cucumber.
iS over is a common practice where they are wanted for early
use. Under this system the seed is sown in old strawberry boxes,
tomato cans, flower pots, etc. Square pieces of inverted sod are
also used for the same purpose, four or five seeds being sown on
each piece five inches ¢quare and covered with good soil. The
plants in this latter case root into the sod and are easily moved.
Starting cucumbers this way has the merit of advancing the
period of maturity of the plants, and as they are well started
222 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
when set out there is little danger of attacks of the striped
beetle, and the fruit is earlier than when sown in the open
ground. In following out this plan, the seed should not be sown
before the first of May, or the plants will be too large to move
well. Before the plants are removed from the frames to the
open ground, they should be exposed without the sash for several
days until well hardened off. When these plants are moved to the
open ground, they should be set rather deeper than they grew in
the frames. They then are cultivated the same as plants from
seed sown in the hill. Another way for advancing the cucumber
season when hotbed sash is used is by planting a hill of them
very early, in the center of each sash of the hotbed, while the
rest of each sash may be used for an early crop. The cucumbers
will not need much room for several weeks, which will give time
to grow the early crop and get it out of the way of the cucumbers.
The sashes should be removed when warm weather comes, and
the vines allowed to grow in the frames all summer.
Insects.—The cucumber has a serious enemy in the striped
beetle and is also liable to injury from the cut worm. (For reme-
dies see chapter on insects.)
Seed.—Cucumber seed is easily raised, and in some _ loca-
tions it is a product of some importance. In raising seed it is
important to save it from the early fruit, which in a small way
are easily saved; on a large scale, however, the fruits are allowed
to ripen but not to rot on the ground. When the vines are dead,
the ripe cucumbers are split open, the pulp scooped out with the
seed and allowed to ferment for a few days, when it readily sepa-
rates from the seed. The whole mass is then thrown into a
sieve with a mesh small enough to not allow the seeds to pass
through, and the pulp is washed through the sieve, leaving the
clean seed, which is carefully dried. If the cucumbers are al-
lowed to get rotten before the seed is taken out, the skins will
become mixed with the seed, and the seed will be discolored, and
such seed is very liable to sprout in the cleaning and curing pro-
cess.
Varieties.—For general home use and marketing, the White
Spine is a favorite variety. For pickles the most profitable kinds
are those producing many small cucumbers, such as the variety
LETTUCE. 223
known as the Boston Pickling. There are many good varieties
of cucumbers and they are offered under various names. For
earliest use the Early Russian is perhaps the best, but it is
small and seedy.
THE SUNFLOWER FAMILY. (Order Compositae.)
The sunflower family (order compositae) is the largest group
of flowering plants, yet it has given us only a very few garden
vegetables and those are of little importance. Its plants are
distinguished by what the older betanists termed the “compound
flower.” This consists of several or many flowers in a head, sur-
rounded by a set of bracts. Stamens as many as the lobes of
the corolla (generally five), their anthers grown together by their
edges. Ovary one-celled, inferior, containing a single seed. Be-
sides the artichoke, lettuce, salsify, endive, and dandelion, whose
cultural directions are here given, there occur here the tansy,
sunflower, daisies, corn-flower, ageratum, cineraria, chicory, bur-
dock, thistle, wild lettuce, compass plant, ragweed, fireweed,
chrysanthemum, marigold, goldenrod, aster, yarrow, zinnia, dahlia
and many other well known plants.
LETTUCE. (Lactuca sativa.)
Native of India or Central Asia.—Annual.—Flowers yellow,
on seed stalks two or more feet high; seeds small, flat, white or
black, but sometimes yellow or reddish brown in color. The
shape and size of the leaves also vary greatly; sometimes they
form a head like the cabbage and again only a loose bunch. The
foliage is generally of some shade of green, but some varieties
have leaves of a reddish color.
Cultivation.—Lettuce is largely grown in greenhouses during
the winter, in hotbeds and cold frames in the early spring
and outdoors in the late spring and until severe weather in
autumn. It is a very important crop for the market gardener,
as there is some demand for it at all seasons of the year and
a large call ior it in the spring. Some growers making a spe-
cialty of this crop have it in marketable condition every month
of the year. In some sections, the plants may be start-
ed in September and when of good size transplanted to a cold
frame, where they may be safely wintered over. In the spring
224 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
they are used for planting in hotbeds and in the open ground:
In the extreme Northern states, however, although plants fre!
quently come through the winter safely when thus protected,
it is not a method to be depended upon. It is customary here
to raise the plants for spring planting, in greenhouses or early
hotbeds. Lettuce may be transplanted to the open ground as
Figure 117—Black-seeded Simpson Lettuce. (Typical curley sort.)
soon as the soil will work easily in the spring, but it should
be well hardened off before being planted out; it will, however,
stand quite a severe freeze if properly hardened off, and, as ‘is
the case with many other crops, the plants may be protected
with earth on the approach of hard frost, providing it does not
remain over them more than a day or two. In the open ground,
lettuce plants should be set out about twelve inches apart each
way. It is frequently grown between rows of early cabbage,
cauliflower or other plants where it fills up otherwise unoccupied
space and comes off the land long before other crops need the
room it occupies. For late use, the seed is often sown in the
open ground in drills one foot apart and the plants thinned to the
same distance apart. It is customary also in the home garden to
sow the seed and then cut off the young plants as soon as they are
LETTUCE. 225
large enough to use; such lettuce, however, is not nearly so good
as head lettuce where the center is white, crisp and tender. It
is a far better plan to thin out the young plants so that they
stand three or four inches apart in the rows and in cutting con-
Figure 118—Head Lettuce.
tinue the thinning process so that the later plants will form good
heads. Of course, it is necessary to make successive sowings of
lettuce in order to have it fit for table use over a long season.
Like all leaf crops, lettuce needs plenty of rich, easily avail-
able nitrogenous manure and responds very quickly to small ap-
plications of nitrate of soda.
Varieties —here are many varieties and each year finds
many additions to the list of those offered by seedsmen. In
the matter of quality, those forming a head like the cabbage
have the preference. Varieties that form only a bunch of leaves
are largely raised by market gardeners to supply the common
demand, since they are more easily grown and are less liable to
injury in handling than the heading varieties. Some of the most
desirable kinds are as follows:
White Tennis Ball, or Boston Market.—A very popular
market variety adapted for hotbed and early spring use only.
It forms a solid head of medium size but quickly goes to seed
in warm weather.
*
226 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Hanson.—Forms large solid heads and is a general favorite;
excellent for spring or summer use.
Black-Seeded Simpson.—A popular -forcing variety that
stands well without going to seed and does not form a head but a
mass of curled leaves.
Grand Rapids.—A very desirable lettuce for forcing. It re-
sembles Black-Seeded Simpson, but is a better shipping variety.
Black-Seeded Tennis Ball.—A popular sort for forcing or
early garden culture. It forms large, solid heads and is highly
esteemed.
Salamander.—A good heading sort for summer use.
Buttercup.—Bright chrome yellow in color, very beautiful;
tender and desirable. A popular new sort.
Insects and Diseases.—There are few insects or diseases that
seriously affect the lettuce when grown outdoors. In the green-
house and occasionally in the hotbeds, it is sometimes attacked
by the aphis and mildew. For remedies for aphis, see chapter
on insects.
Mildew frequently injures the lettuce crop when it is grown
in greenhouses in winter. It is most liable to be caused by over-
watering and especially by frequent watering in cold or cloudy
weather, which keeps the leaves wet much of the time. It is a
good plan to water heavily when the crop is planted and to avoid
repeating it until the soil is quite dry and then water heavily
again in the morning of a bright day, so that the foliage may dry
off before night. Sub-irrigation has been used with excellent suc-
cess for this crop in greenhouses in winter.
SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. (Tragopogon porrifolius.)
Native of Europe.—Biennial.—A plant with long fleshy tap-
root and grass-like leaves. The flower stalks grow three feet
high; the seed is long, ridged, generally curved and pointed at
both ends. It is rather difficult to plant with a seed sower be-
cause of its peculiar form, but when the points are rubbed off it is
often so planted.
Culture.—The cultural directions given for the parsnip apply
to this plant. It is very easily grown and hardy, and generally
comes through the winter in the extreme northern states without
injury; it is safer, however, to dig the roots in autumn, and put in
SALSIFY. 227
pits until spring or for use during winter. The root is highly es-
teemed and has the flavor of oysters; it is used for soups, but may
be cooked in the same manner as parsnips.
The best variety is the Mammoth Sandwich Island, which is
far superior to any other.
ENDIVE. (Cichorium endivia.)
Native of East India.—Annual.—Endive resembles the dan-
_delion in habit and growth. It is esteemed by some as a de-
Sarees ae sirable fall and winter salad since
it has a pleasant bitter taste when
blanched. It is of very simple
culture and may be grown in much
the same manner as lettuce. For
summer use, sow the seed early in
the spring; for autumn and winter
use, sow in July. It is blanched be-
fore being eaten. This is accom-
plished by tying the leaves lightly
together when the plants have
nearly completed their growth.
After this treatment, the leaves in
the center of the plant will have
become blanched in about three
weeks. Do not tie the plants too
rapidly, since the hearts are liable
to rot scon after blanching, espe-
cially if the weather is warm. On
the approach of severe weather, the
plants may be set in boxes in a cold
cellar, where they will continue to
produce nice blanched leaves dur-
ing the early part of the winter.
Varieties—A variety known as
Green Curled Endive is generally
grown, but other varieties are of-
g. 119—Sandwich Island Salsify. fered by seedsmen.
DANDELION. (Taraxacum officinale.)
Native cf Europe.—Perennial.—The dandelion is a familiar
228 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
plant to almost every one. It is now of spontaneous growth here
and is used for greens in its wild
state; but the cultivated varie-
ties are quite an improvement on
the wild plants. The best method
of growing it is by sowing the
seed in the spring in drills ten
inches apart and thinning out the
plants to three inches apart in
rows. The seed is somewhat dif-
ficult to start, and it is a good
plan to go over each row twice
with the seed sower, So as to mix
the seed up with the soil, since
by this method some of it will be
sure to be properly covered. It
Fig. 120.—Curled Endive. is Sometimes used in the fall, but
not generally until spring. It is often forced by covering the bed
with the hotbed sash or by transplanting to hotbeds or cold
frames. It is sometimes blanch-
ed and used as a salad, for which
purpose it is much like endive.
While the plant is a perennial,
yet only one crop should be har-
vested from each sowing, since
after the first cutting there are
many sprouts produced from
each root so that none of them
are large enough for good mar-
ket plants. The plants should
always be plowed in before they
ripen seed unless seed is to be
saved, to prevent its scattering and becoming a nuisance. A va-
riety called the Improved Thick-Leaved is the most esteemed.
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. (Helianthus tuberosus.)
Native of North America.—Perennial.—Stems herbaceous,
six or more feet high, roots tuberous. Flowers yellow, resem-
bling those of the common sunflower, but comparatively small.
5 1A is
Figure 121.—Dandelion.
ARTICHOKE. 229
For best results the artichoke requires exceedingly rich soil. it
can be grown from the seed, although this is seldom attempted,
but it is customary to grow it by planting the small tubers whole
or cut the large tubers in the same way as potatoes. They
should be planted about four inches deep at twelve inch intervals
in rows three feet apart. They are used chiefly for feeding
stock and are often harvested by turning hogs into the field.
They will frequently remain in the land many years even if not
cultivated. They are easily injured by frost when not covered
with earth but in the ground they are perfectly hardy.
GLOBE ARTICHOKE. (Cynara scolymus.)
Native of Barbary and South Europe.—Perennial.—A large
thistle-like plant growing two to three feet high, producing large
flower heads, the scales of which are large and thick, and are
highly esteemed as a garden vegetable in England and Southern
Europe. It has, however, never become popular in this country
and is rarely grown. In Southern Europe it is grown by divisions
and there are many varieties. It may also be grown from seed,
but seedlings are generally very much inferior to the best named
sorts. The roots must be very carefully protected in order to
bring them through our winters.
GARDEN HERBS.
Under this head are grouped a number of sweet culinary and
medicinal plants that are cultivated to some extent in gardens.
They are generally easily grown in mellow, open soil. Those
having foliage that is esteemed for its aroma should generally
be cut on a dry day, just as they reach full flowering stage, and
should be dried quickly in the shade. As a rule, herbs should be
cut before being frozen, though freezing does not always injure
them. When dry they should be kept in dry air-tight boxes or
vessels. The demand is very limited for most of them. Only a
few of the most common kinds are referred to here. In the ex-
treme northern states, many of the perennial kinds will kill out
in severe winters unless protected.
THE MINT FAMILY. (Order Labiatae.)
The Mint Family includes little other than herbs (with few
exceptions) which have aromatic herbage, square stems, op-
230 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
posite simple leaves, 2-lipped corolla and a deeply 4-parted ovary
which separates into the same number of seeds. Besides balm,
SUMMER : 5
SAGE SAVORY DILL CARAWAY FENNEL LAVENDE
a : ’ ee
BORAGE THYME RUE ANISE CORIANDER SAVORY
Figure 122—Characteristic portions of garden herbs.
catnip, lavender, peppermint, sage, sweet basil, sweet marjoram,
spearmint, Summer savory, thyme, and winter savory whose
cultural directions are here given, this order includes garden
coleus, hyssop, flowering sage or salvia, and horse mint. The
plants of this group are mostly grown for their aromatic herb-
age.
Balm.—(Melissa officinalis.)—A native of the south of Eu-
rope.—Perennial.—A plant growing about eighteen inches high
having aromatic herbage. The seed is very small. Sow in spring
where the plants are to remain.
Catnip.—(Nepeta cataria.)—Native of Europe.—Perennial.—
Often a common weed around buildings and along roadsides here,
It is used in a small way for seasoning. Easily grown from seed
or by division.
THE MINT FAMILY. 231
Lavender.—(Lavendula spica.)—Native of southern Europe.—
Perennial.—A low undershrub grown chiefly for its flowers
which are used in the manufacture of perfumery. Generally in-
creased by dividing the old roots. It delights in a fine, rich,
rather calcareous soil.
Peppermint.— (Mentha piperita.)—Native of northern Europe.
—Perennial.—Propagated by divisions of the stems; occasionally
a roadside weed in moist places. It is cultivated in the same
way as spearmint. Used mostly for its essential oil which is ob-
tained by distillation. The raising of this plant forms a con-
siderable industry in a few locations in the northern states.
Sage.— (Salvia officinalis.)—Native of southern Europe.—Per-
ennial.—Plants forming broad tufts about sixteen inches high;
flowers in heads of three or four in terminal clusters, usually
bluish white but sometimes white or pink. The seeds are round
and of medium size. Plants come readily from seed, which should
be sown in early spring. It is cus-
tomary in a small way to sow the
seed outdoors and allow the plants
to remain where they grow for sev-
eral years. Where it is grown on a
large scale, however, the plants are
generally put out as a_ second
crop, following early peas or cab-
bage. There is some uncertainty
about its coming through very se-
vere winters in the northern states,
but it generally does so in good
shape; it is more reliable if banked
with earth or covered with litter in
winter. Broad-leaved sage is an
improved kind.
Fig. 123—Branch of sage plant.
Sweet Basil.—(Ocymum basilicum.)—Native of India.—An-
nual.—Stem about one foot high; very branching. The leaves
and other green parts have an agreeable aromatic odor and are
used in seasoning. Sow indoors in March or April and trans-
plant as soon as the weather is settled. It may also be sown in
the open ground early in the spring.
232 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
Sweet Marjoram.—(Origanum marjorana.)—Native of Asia.—
Perennial but generally grows as an annual.—The leaves and
other green parts are used for seasoning. The seeds are very
small. Sow early in spring in any good garden soil.
Mint or Spearmint.—(Mentha viridis.)—Native of Europe.—
Perennial——A plant with vigorous creeping root stock, very
hardy and sometimes a troublesome weed in moist soil. It is —
grown by planting the roots in the spring. There is a small de-
mand for this plant in winter as well as in summer, which is met
by a greenhouse supply. The leaves and young shoots are used
for seasoning.
Summer Savory.—(Satureia hortensis.)—Native of southern
Europe.—Annual.—A small plant eight or ten inches high. The
seed, which is very small, should be sown the latter part of April
or in May. The leaves and young shoots are used for flavoring.
Thyme.—(Thymus vulgaris.)—Native of southern Hurope.—
Perennial.—A small plant with small aromatic leaves and stems.
It starts easily if sown in early spring. It is customary to sow
the seed where the plants are to remain but it may be trans-
planted. It is in demand for flavoring and is generally hardy at
the north. Eroad-leaved thyme is the only variety worth grow-
ing.
Winter Savory.—(Satureia montana.)—Native of southern
EKurope.—Perennial.—Stems woody, at least near the base; twelve
to sixteen inches high. Used for the same purposes as Summer
Savory. Not hardy here unless well protected.
PARSNIP FAMILY. (Order Umbelliferae.)
For characteristics see page 172.
Anise.—(Pimpinella anisum).—A native of Asia Minor.—An-
nual.—Attains a height of sixteen inches. The seeds are aromatic
and used in medicine and confections. Sow in April or May
where the plants are to remain during the season.
Caraway.—(Carum carui.)—Native of HEurope.—Biennial.—
Stem straight; two or three feet high. The seeds resemble those
of carrots and are esteemed for flavoring. It should be sown in
May in drills and does not produce seed until the following sea-
son; very hardy and of the easiest culture.
PARSNIP FAMILY. Zoo
Coriander.—(Coriandrum sativum.)—Native of southern Eu-
rope.—Annual.—Two to two and one-half feet high. Stem leaves
much divided. Grown from the seed which should be sown in
the spring. ‘he seed is used for flavoring purposes; the foliage
exhales a very rank odor.
Dill_—(Ane:hum graveolens.)—Native of souchern Europe.—
Annual.—Height, from two to two and a half feet. It is of the
easiest culture. The seed is much used as flavoring for pickles
of various kinds. It should be sown in the spring in rows about
one foot apart and cultivated the same as for carrots. Where the
seed ripens, an abundance of plants generally spring up the fol-
lowing year. Probably botanically the same as fennel but the
latter is more in use in the green stage for its foliage.
BORAGE FAMILY. (Order Boraginaceae. )
Borage.— (Borage officinalis.)—Native of Europe and North
Africa.—Annual.—Twelve to eighteen inches high. Used in the
manufacture of cordials. Flowers blue, pretty. Of the easiest
culture, growing freely from spring sown seeds.
RUE FAMILY. (Order Rutaceae.)
Common Rue.—(Ruta graveoleus.)—A bushy herb, woody, or
almost shrubby at its base. The leaves are very bitter and some-
times used in seaconing. Grown from seed or by division of the
roots.
234
VEGETABLE GARDENING.
TABLE I.—WEIGHT OF ONE QUART OF SEEDS AND NUMBER OF
SEEDS IN ONE OUNCE.
KIND OF SEED. aes Seeds in
| Ounces. Cne Ounce.
ASDATAQUS, scscls. votocscses tive nc accdeesencecrreceieces 32 1,400
AIIM ace v ences cesccscscea cece os cceveccsecceue Oscosvecerases 20 56,600
gS 1 Rei am one ees Re ne eae ee eRe 20 22,665
BGAN eeee rene ae vee scceds ce cv scaasiec aves oeesevsenie essere 24 to 33 200 to 225
BEG iivesicaeceesceesc eee ees ease eee 10 1,400
Borecole, OPUG ale sissiecc eo ccsose een ceeestenecseseee 25 8,500
IBN SCO lS se ce cerca ce con cree ce eae este Sie 25 10,525
Cana wes. i cc eee eocseec Sete 25 8,500
CAT AW.AY jesceeccscccovesccsascsoess ce cate core cucetcaseauss 15 9,915
Carrot, WILK, SPINES, --.----2.-<-<seccaneseererensuss 9 19,835
NVIEMOME SPINICS) 22. :oncsaeseesece= co-stars 13 26,915
Gabimiintireccct cocere seccr ace aren en cent cdoene de eoncae 28 3,400
Gailifl Owen. scccocc-cnccocstcccseecsccsccsescrescon es 25 10,525
WelOR ii. Secces costs ecsteteccc eae ante crore doen eee 17 70,835
CHICORG eso eer ere eee eee once 14 19,830
Cress; ,AMmeriGan,*.-.c- cs acsteressecee eawsasee ea 20 16,915
2s Common Parden c----ccc-cssesonesen esse 28 ee
+ WiAtehiecsclticadtoivececdccactevees seen cue oees 2024 HS 335
Cucumber, CONMMLON Eas acceccscs~svesesesees deeseees 18 1,103
prickly fruited her kin, Steeeees 20 3,680
ID Amedelio mene ee cnicaeccce nese teas eon eee oe aheanene 9% 34,000 to 42,500
DDI oeceneceas casanote cee ase es scuaen eine Goose ieee 11 25,500
BS Se PI AIM E stcosc cence coe seceseseceseedeeueteawecsaseen: 18 6,520
IB NGives. ::2sccesesceeces Gibas caccsenawate sacosmetweeous .a25 12 18,000
Koh Ga Dive ecoareeree eee eos eee eae ees 25 8,500
WOOK i cs ccerkeesecoesns Rest sAacap icine cesar: se cuneslooedanne 20 TAC S35
ACO ECU CEG stocces cc cccccsee ue ceren eter caecceotes stereo ceouies 1514 22,665
Maize, of Indian’ COrnh.-1-..ccccccee tee eecsen ee PHS} 113 to 140
Marjoram, SWGCOU sic c55 sescosscscsnevesetesercsescecse 20 113,355
winter, woomasetane secaieteeedcenesencees 24 340,000
WATE VIN A otc ccecsccssececconeceuscaccodenes Seieseueonts 1014 565
NES Kar OlOn ere ssccece coe scaccaeecenaetac tens ceeeeenaeee 13 1,560
Okita ee. sritectsetecsdcwncctccuscssoas st ndviessoacwedeeueenr 22 425 to 510
ONION ei cesreces cccsenseessesccecteteescenswieaeeseeweoeel 18 7,080
PG aire ocncasceauus cus ts eos bheccs dees ensesennes sn seeseseeeee 25 to 2814 56 to 142
Ss BRAY oOM Meld ius. - coc cecosdecscoceccoe encctsetence 21 to 28% 142 to 225
IPAESNIP ye: coe via nce ae v5. cece acsetiessdacenalos ces Sealed soncacall Seerceecee ase eesaee 6,605
PEP POE) -cccbsccscnssceretestesthestides soceectacaaiscces ose 16 4,205
Pst PRN 5252 s2 5 cnc cocccececsscstsncsdecseeceteactiovec coscs 9 85
FRA GMISH Sic rcscacceoscoccacteuer ave ae eee ost eaten Pas 700,835
RAM PION oowceseessaccecesoscasere cn ceceeeeceessuecereov 28% 3,400
RhuBar Di ateceeseccccbesscaccbe scores conocer etessemace ...| 3to4l 1,415
SABC Ki scisecstewadecdaacccse saeco eer e cue eoaeoatenoniae 191% 7,080
Sal Sify: fc oveatacecscuonesenace epee es ean ote eae eens 8 2,835
Saviory,.SUmmeneccccssesscecceseseeee haececcsseaecant 18 42,500
“¢ WTEC 8 sase Seice tence coun teee os denseoeeeeann alUES 70,835
Spinach, prickly-seed €G)i-2..<..ccmsaecceceesccuces 13% 2,550
“8 round-seeded Ldonvesedechcsecseioteaeeneeact 14% roy sto)
“ New Zealand 2... ccsecccccececetecccscavces 8 280 to "34.0
Sqtiash,-Mubbardl:..2..c-..2ccoss<scecccesesccsereree 14 93
iy Bush Sealloped ..22.32.2:..-ceccssoccccces 1514 280
Strawberry TOmMaALtCO sss. ic.c.ccccccccressdusctess 23 28,335
SPAY ING :ei oc scccccowes socvionesrubecesceceasneececeh net eneaes 24 170,000
TOMATO S scsccc.ccosccresoascecaccecead nS ee en atest! 8,500 to 11,335
CBUENIP 2 oo. idscccceesecesecsssavaeees ecuceecnaenousenraceen 24 12,715
Watermelon’ «...55..cceoesasee ae edidenaciersesduanaune 18% 113 to 150
Weight of a
Number of
KIND OF SEED.
TABLES.
TABLE II.—LONGEVITY OF GARDEN SEED WHEN PROPERLY
CURED AND STORED.
235
Average
Years.
SPR OeweRe meee ee ee eee eeteeetes
SOR eee eee et ee eset sereeeeee
ss NVAEOR Gocck seaccecressve.
Cucumber common........
oe
Prickly-fruited
Gherkitee--)-.es
BW SL= PIANC. H.cecssecducseeeecees
ESIC Gs ccesccecessaes oo oe conde ces
Wetince commorn--:.-:..cs
Maize, or Indian Corn....
10
CUS Co kor (Ol Cd) Cr
PPP eee ee ere ee. ee 2 err
KIND OF SEED. gales
Ma TEV NIA. <..<.c2-ceeseseenceseee lor2
Nia SKM elOn.c...csccesceee eae 5
Mustard, white or salad | 4
OURTAR scses casesiccavseuectseseeccses 5
ONTO 5. catet sncsetessccesensetes 2
IPATSHIP: 2 \s.c2s<08-5- ac Odean 3050 2
IA TSIEE nce. cocesccevescossevosles | 3
Pea. Gardenor field......| 3
REP PGhieccrs -acpsesoessebesvsacecs os
Pei p Kiten yc cactosesiscexs ness 4or5
IaH S bt oreccscaseercdeev scones scese
UAT POM cass ssaassosetercecececs 5
Rta tb irscsoccss~cseroccers sens 3
ROSCRIATY) .c.cecsenscee<aantseses! r
Ste vemenelnceswenenaseeces Senasseosee | 2
SAVE eacceetaes beenecessecowees 3
SAIS EY? const cchoce ceseaus secsn acess | 2
Savory,summer or wint'r 3
Spinach, all-kinds.,.......... 5
Squash, Hubbard........... 6
wer Bush scalloped.. 6
Strawbery PONIBtO.. 56.052 8
Bi 2 6:5 00 Sera ore Ree ee rere 3
Tomato....... ccpagosctenacecacco 4
LUENUD: cs ssseeeeseesbasaceceecenee 5
Wiatermielon®..c-..5<-s-0--5-5:6 6
VEGETABLE GARDENING.
TABLE III.—AMOUNT OF SEED REQUIRED TO SOW AN ACRE.
KIND OF SEED
METHOD OF SOWING
Amt. per Acre
4 to 5 Ibs.
11% bus.
10 to 12 qts.
& to 6 lbs.
yy |b.
2to 4 Ibs.
2 lbs.
Cee e emer terest eee| weet ere eeeeoreeeseuee
30 lbs.
6 to 12bus.
4 to 6 Ibs.
1to 2bus.
2to 3bus.
7 to10bus.
4to 5 lbs.
8 to 10 Ibs.
8 to 10 lbs.
8 to 10 lbs.
1 to
BAIS WA TalP tS yal cacuesesweadeeeeces 1OZ MOT OOM Old rillemOteeeaeee.
Beans Mow ati seco ascstece Dra Pls res, soeneeccotwieen eoteaeewene ae
a POlE eit. ieatenweces Be Mee edsshcinencnina whack oscoaunictracaseeneee
BG Gti acesannece ii acconcanesaeneasce Vit 4 § Whsilaears gt aja Seales see seee Cason ane
CA DDA LES accrasdeteeoseees vce: Injbeds!to transplaniticrc.-csresccers
ALT Oly oedews ine desseeesninen seal Maa rillsytececcseeotentes aewstceoeen acs ene ae
Walitlowererecacteevecsesees AO Ze fOr LOOO) plants Heise. cdessss sone cadececsteeceeeeeeee
WS CLE Ry aoa See scacceeessometcces ATO ZALOT ZOOODOIAICS cenecscocwusesaase|eses-eeesemeceneetnas
COED fain dedi test esiccmbacosenss Merah dan Sore chet ateeecssecaeteatoawenveeaners
MW CUNDIDET cccesennitsseecccesee Rood tere cu meta tets newaisieesetat cea seas en ese lerenr
Cress wateror uplands || Maya eiliste cre. cccsstscssccctoscseaccnceecessees
igen lamtyccescses sesecnacer 1502, 108 LOOO) plamwts ec saresdessesse ac |dosten see cuaeeoeet ones
i<ale} Or SProiwts:..cessees. Mins rill sreseeecc sa seehees set swan ciaseweciosees
MCLE CE Was rostcerccceesecevneeen 1 oz. for 1000 plants
Mitts Kirt lO tay eens cose berone Tora vall Sree aes, Sone thes oo ot aoourcheeenccesenes
ENGCLOTS MWe tet cccceccsceweeee Teg She oh tete wchece ce saeosescoeessectenscwes
MONVONER 4 laa eanmatantddoiedeoss DG ole lo) CARR asap eco cetmarpe erence tuncontet er
s seed for sets........ Praia lS) sssee.cteweceaccemensoeescecuseeoeeees
Pease SEUSS aiotaet escalate pee smuiaaiavecta des inn asetraadnasptesesiteen
PPALSINI Di woccececcssicecssoesce: eh SR SABIE SORES RARER e Oneness
WE AS tijsas cat cusancen ceeubniesoorerae PRLWes pa onie So saa< Cacaeace nickclnwineme moeaeehenae
SD dete aw seeanislealeesiauleweecee weiss Broadealstiisecccsscosccscsecccsorsechonserss
Potato (Gut ul Ders) zs cccclisgeaetesnactoscchccctisa necctssecneine becotonatoactece
Prmp kink erccessueseccsseesec Eh 6 0 80 oD Kee eee auistegestoeecaaceceeen
TVG SH toy secnceadesnnscoses aes IGTuGhSN)ICy aes eMeaone NBeSecce Rar cosa anne Pearce
ADO acre scacasceacuceevaseseseee Dee pb ahaa Beinn aideciaseusien eSeame case caeemeen ne
AUS fyyicaeontsccwacareusen oven nt SGilt | Baaedhsicwcsueacsacs miceneieme daciedeecons
S Pilla chy Lex cnaceeaseeneese. US. ip Sathaa kh swueduatsnicane'e nes degmaee aces saeeh
Squash, Bush ijissoiises cass Tiga: US sateack seen detocnace segeacioe seesisenmeeee
Running, Laie meee See So CaRb econ teciase dacne nceustoatenvoea eee
SL OMA TO hawdedcaadasee se saceetvs TOUCH ANIS PLAC eee caceca ners smsanectnens
SE UTD odes «seco seceescue sees Letra Seek aosaseeccewsscaeweceesescestencs
rid) a Caleaeaneiebet aeenoeeeee ee Broadeals Cir winwewaceticcdaccnoteneuteee
TABLE IV.—AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEEDS TO
GERMINATE UNDER GOOD CONDITIONS,
aa
KIND OF SEED.
eee eee eee eee ee eee ee)
Cabbage,...... eneninee yeep tikaad,
Carrot;
Cucumber,
Endive,
Peres ewwweeerssesses
Ce
Ce er er ry
No. Days.| KIND OF SEED. No. Days.
a} ey EOL Olli, ett CO me cansasicececcciasts<lsaterels 6 to 8
sult “eater 249 lll OkebWOr es soacomoconch anooneacaacoone 7 to 10
Bea W ae Sit © tals Oilll ee SA ects araciiasisieitecisiecierecinciose «sls 6 toed
epol| UZAY Koy ais} I eke Weyl O)jpbaonecnoospnoanodaseca 10 to 20
Apa) etsy Xo) 3 CONN 2250015 eoannconaqndoodocoobncedere: 9 to 14
Be LOPE Owe Olli Wa GIS pec eetenciecinsie aetseerreee 33 jo) AS:
sali Br C0) Sl Sallsifiy jocscacc cco cctane-tiercticrrar @ EO n2
eal, Be £OeLO)lil TOMA} n-ccceiescsiccinciean siyeess 6 to 12
ceo OPO! LO) | AEN py. ewacmeraeeriacescnnast 4to 8
TABLES. 23
TABLE V.—STANDARDS OF PURITY AND GERMINATION
OF AGRICULTURAL SEEDS.
The United States Department of Agriculture has adopted
the following standards as the base for its decisions as to the
value of seeds:
The seeds must be true to name, and practically free from
smut, bunt, ergot, insects or their eggs or larvae, and the seeds
of dodder (Cuscuta spp.), wild mustard (Brassica spp.), wild flax
(Camelina spp.), Russian thistle (Salsola kali tragus), Canada
thistle (Carduus arvensis), cockle (Agrostemma githago), chess
(Bromus secalinus),quack grass (Agropyron repens), penny cress
(Thlaspi arvense), wild oats (Avena fatua), and the bulblets of
wild onion (Allium vineale). It must not contain more than one
per cent of other weed seeds, and should come up to the percent-
ages of purity! and germination given in the foliowing table:
SSS SSE :
— atta aa Sees ne
KIND OF SEED. !Purity,| Geum : <3
ae: “f *) uation KIND OF SEED.
See ——— Fd ee oe
bang Der cent,
Otatanceen se ok ete 98 $5-90 Melous water. oe.
EXSPAL AGUS s. sees cae oN 80-85 Millet,common(Chae-
Barley.. ora Bo eh i 99 90-95 tochloat ttalica}....
CaS ceases: 99 90-95 |! Millet, hog Tac
CGD Fanon ove on 299 140-150t milraceum)...... .--
Blue grass, Canadian 90 45-50 Minit peatlen s.r soar
Blue grass, Kentucky. 90 | 45-50 (ORUIGE 5546 sposHe coco
Brome, awniless....... 90 75-80 Olas jGee ano es :
Duclwitteat.----.. 52.0. 99 90-95 Quitonks st pecs 9.
'Cabbages- ce. 2. %s.0es,: 99 90-95 PAGS Sines oir cesses 99° 70-75
Carrot sso. sis Noes 5 95 80-85 JPR NESTy acon cedwedocc 95. 7TU-1>
eeetonee 99 80-85 REASte ce ety meee: 99 90-95
Celety. 0) sidan oh. 198 60-65 Paimpicims] 22h saan 99 85-90
Clover, alsike....... 95 75-80 Radish.........--=+--- 99 90-95.
Clover, crimisow....... 98 85-90. WRAPCsos. es co oo ria~ emciec 99 - 90-95
WlOverwued ss ee vac 98 85-90 [Rah ae ane deccnaond ox 99 90-95
Clover, white. .... >... 95 75-80 Salsify.: ..-. : 98 75-80
ROMANE es oc oisoes ee rath oT OD, 90-95 Sore siitic. co25 + ose 98 85-90
Corn, held... 20.22.55. = 99 90-95 Spitiaeh - 2. <.~.<.-=* 99 80-85
@Cocuy sweet. .<..0.0.- 99 85-90 Satiashe reece teresa 99 85-90
Cotton; ....'5- saccsces 3: 99 85-90 Lb Mir(odilyia5e=nnocmedcc 98 85-90
Cow Peas. a mens «sie == 99 85-90 Tomato.. B 98 -85-90
Cucwmberuer- sce: 9s 85-90 Turnip... 99 90-95
Wee? Platte .s. ce. . 99 75-80 Mobacco...5 .--.--+>. 98 75-80
‘Fescue, meadow...... 95 85-90 Vetch, hairy.......-. 98 70-75
dhetttceine ccs selec, ce 99 85-90 Vetch: kidttey......-.- 95 85-90
Katincorn: a.....s 98 85-90 WI G@ALS cece secicisieieie ser er A | 90-95
Melon, musk.......... 99 85-90 Rie ee aE OT |
*Impurity allowed refers to inert matter and one per ceut (only) of weed seeds
other than those practically prohibited, as above noted. pee aes ares
tEach beet fruit, or “ball,” is likely to contain from 2 to 7. seeds. “One hundred
balls should yield 150 sprouts. a
iThis means purity of grain, not purity of stock.
238 VEGETABLE GARDENING.
TABLE VI.—QUANTITY !OF SEED REQUIRED FOR A
GIVEN NUMBER OF HILLS:
Cot UP RRR cP ERE EE arian ener cornea Rea Bn 1 qt. to 200 hills
GN Ge TLIO ES oe ose cle neato nee ek eet ersearee te eareee cater oat OZ bO moms
AVE as Fearn OM ao eee oa eee ee hare OZ tOm GOs
[Bey ce Byeren ever) yi eilhe \ ea epe ne ene cceebodsoccoseaciaga ncoscan so 1 qt. to 100 “
Pole Beans, Wax IGG toml50ke ws
(Erol oat o} rela peeeeapose emacs choses a a
rSJ0 RU sl aepeenoe ce pneaeaac acer euncge Koy YD) YY
UU eIeINne | Oras ie oo oue clon. caaetaasena siete nos satane cdr easepersicen Oo sau eee
TABLE VII.—QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED FOR A
GIVEN LENGTH OF DRILL:
TING) Oe Was US cake Be nesoc deed secu aba: oer ore sec euee tech ecaseee 1 oz. 50 feet of drill
TOY EYS Be eer HOD ENS EEE Mago Sa dbac cont canoacemarnd ean oe RnAGoBnean: il OYA, Pe
Beans. waiter ccce notice once see creer ee 1 qt. 100 Ee
GO Geese orcs one ign esenec nario es et anette 1 oz. 100 st
TNT VO MATS) eM Nate cecalpeasdt co adedaurl sodcleu cuiaeeo be sn sebetDane 1 oz. 100 :
(Ov Fal ls oadeenoAne Hoa ou pabesnoen succtase bate enrseacoR spnedcscnaded 1 oz. 40 re
76 AC oe eRe Pere PERE coir oeeeer Sencraenrre Se Rene a 1 oz. 100 of
TOM GELS coi cor- cs eer eeete sete nce es eeeeeoseeen tere 1 qt. 50 -
[Er ell jp seeponconeb ant onpaene ap pecocceo-r sna -ereeeacrea Bas. 1 oz. 125
Decl) So eayeectisd oten Ue eepodeuce “edhe hc Uodanr ceca 1 oz. 200 .
[ CPECNIS) Suge Wee hey. saan User ORMBEEEse ata arrer arena oeceetan cy Iqt. & is
TEdY(o ltl aY hero BonBeeer ab cbnedece costed aaocaneoenhoaanemnseaco 1 oz. 100 BS
re Elhetiits 7a ouuaeiser dee nasa 9,0n0a0 @ bean accaducpsa saaBen ee snos IWO75 e400
NTT (011 eee eee Sete Sa ee eae See eer eee eenae 1 oz. 100 S
MONTHLY CALENDAR.
Under this head some of the principal operations of the year
in the more northern states are referred to, but these can be re-
garded only as suggestive, since individual conditions as well as
the weather vary from year to year. The point should be borne
in mind that it is of the utmost importance, and for the greatest
profit, to have all garden worx done at the proper time; and to
do this considerable planning and studying will be necessary in
laying out each day’s work, as well as the work of the season, so
as to make the most of the opportunities offered by weather and
season.
January.—The outdoor work is generally quite at a stand-
still this month, except that manure may be drawn from the
stable to the fields needing it, where it may be piled and forked
over. Plan out the work of the season, aiming to have the
ground and the time of your help occupied all the time. In do-
ing this it is generally best to plan to raise those crops that will
not require a large amount of work at the same season, but
rather those that will give a succession of work. Market any
celery, squash or other vegetables for which there is a demand.
Send for seed catalogues of leading dealers. Decide what
you are going to want. Test the quality of the seeds you have
on hand and get your new stock of seed early. Test the seeds
received for planting. ;
February.—The work of this month differs but little from
that of January, but, in addition, the following may be men-
tioned: During the latter part of the month prepare manure
for early hotbeds to be started the first of March. Inspect tools,
wagons, harness, boxes and crates for marketing and hotbed
sash, and get them into shape for the busy season. In the green-
house, cabbage and cauliflower plants may be started; and as
2!uU MONTHLY CALENDAR.
soon as of transplanting size they should be removed to cold
frames, where they should remain until the ground is ready for
planting out.
March.—Make up hotbeds and sow in them tomatoes, pep-
pers, cabbage, lettuce, radishes, cress, onions for transplanting,
carrots, beets, celery, etc. In the latter part of the month
cold frames may be used for the hardy vegetables.
If the ground is fit to work, onion sets may be planted and
spinach, hardy peas, and other plants which are generally not
sown until April may be sown at this time. Harden off the
early cabbage and cauliflower plants.
April.—The hotbeds and cold frames should be in constant
use. Plantations of asparagus and rhubarb may be made during
this and the following month. Plant onion sets.
Sow hardy (smooth) peas, lettuce, celery, radishes, cabbage,
cauliflower, turnips, onions and spinach, and plant early pota-
toes as soon as the land is fit to be worked. By the end of the
month, wrinkled peas, salsify and parsnips may be sown. See
that tomatoes sown last month are transplanted into beds or,
boxes so as to have plenty of room. Transplant cabbage plants
for the early crop, putting them in deep enough to completely
cover the stems.
In the latter part of the month, all the early planted crops
may need cultivating and some of them thinning though but lit-
tle of this is generally necessary until May. Radishes, lettuce,
spinach and onions from sets and from seed sown in hotbeds 7"
March should be fit to eat or to market.
Haul out manure and plow land for planting next month.
Transplant onion plants from the hotbeds to open ground.
May is the month when the larger part of the vegetables are
planted.
By the middle of the month it is often safe to plant the more
tender vegetables, sucu. as cucumbers, squash, melons and beans,
in the open ground, althovgh nothing is gainea by so doing if
the ground is cold, waen it would be better to wait until ten
days later. Corn is frequently planted by the middle of the
month, and in early seasons it is a good plan to venture a little
VEGETABLE GARDENING. 241
of some very early kind during the first week of May. Plant po-
tatoes for general crops.
All the early planted crops need cultivating trequently, and
those in drills need te be thinned.
Plantings for succession may be made of all vegetable seeds
and sets put in last month.
Sow cabbage for winter use.
Lettuce, radishes, beets, spinach, asparagus, rhubarb and
bunch onions should now be large enough for use.
Harden off tomato plants and set them out the first part of
next month.
June.—Set out tomatoes, celery for early use, peppers, egg
plant, late cabbage and cauliflower plants and sow winter beets.
Plant cucumbers for pickles and beans for main crop. Plant
Lima beans the early part of the month. Market the same vege-
tables as last month and in addition early peas and, perhaps,
early cabbage.
Weeding commences in earnest this month and should be-
gin early, since if neglected it may be cheaper to plow up the
whole crop rather than weed it out.
Keep the soil well stirred with the cultivator.
Sow rutabaga turnips.
Stop cutting asparagus by the twentieth of the month. Clean
up the bed, manure and plow it.
July.—Plant celery for main and late crop.
Sow string beans, winter radish and rutabaga turnips.
Early potatoes, string beans, cabbage, summer squashes, cu-
cumbers, green corn, onions from sets and cauliflowers are now
of edible size in addition to those vegetables nearing maturity
iast month.
Continued cultivation is necessary to protect from drought
and to keep plants growing.
August.—Sow string beans and flat early turnips, spinach for
spring use, winter radishes and early peas.
The late crops are now maturing, and we have tomatoes,
squashes, the better kinds of sweet corn and egg-plant, onions
from early sown seed, and those transplanted are now dry and
242 MONTHLY CALENDAR.
marketable. Lima beans will be ready for use the latter part
of the month.
Keep weeds from going to seed.
Sow lettuce for growing in hotbeds or cold frames for
Thanksgiving.
September.—The cool nights of this month are especially
favorable to such crops as celery, cabbage and cauliflower, and
they should be carefully cultivated.
Melons, winter squash and celery are now marketable.
Handle celery; i. e., partially earth up around it.
First frosts may now be expected by the fifteenth of the
month, and the half-ripened tomatoes should be picked and al-
lowed to ripen in some shady place. Winter squash should be
gathered before it is at all injured by frost.
Dig potatoes.
Transplant lettuce to hotbeds or cold frames. Plant out
hardy perennial onions for bunching in the early spring.
October.—Winter celery should be banked up to protect it
from severe frosts, and on severe nights it should be covered
with straw or hay for protection. It should all be stored away
by the end of the month unless plenty of protection is provided
in the shape of straw, in which case it is safe to leave it out un-
til the 10th of November. Such crops will not stand with im-
munity as much frost in the western states as in the eastern
states. Pull and store cabbage, dig beets, carrots, parsnips, sal-
sify and potatoes and store in pits or put at once into the celiar.
Some parsnips and salsify may be left on high land to be dug in
the spring. Plant out rhubarb roots.
Attend to fall plowing and leave in ridges any very heavy
land that is needed for early spring use.
November.—Inthe more northern states this month generally
closes up the work of the season. All the crops should be gath-
ered in the early part of the month.
Clean up the garden, frames and hotbeds and get them
ready for spring work.
The lettuce sown in August and transplanted to hotbeds or
cold frames should be mt to market this month.
Market all the vegetables on hand that will bring a fair
VEGETABLE GARDENING. 243
price, unless wanted for some special purpose or at an assured
price.
Cover winter spinach and hardy onion sets with hay as soon
as the ground begins to freeze hard at night, to prev2nt freezing
and thawing.
December.—Clean up the garden and continue the marketing
of vegetables if it is not already attended to.
Carefully study the season’s work, note the profits or losses
en the last crop, and what has been learned that will be useful
another year.
At Odd Times the following may be attended to:—Gather
manure, make crates and boxes for marketing fruits, vegetables
and plants, repair tools, wagons, harnesses, sashes, hotbeds and
cold frames. Clean up!
INDEX.
Page
Acre inch of water.........- 10
NG SY aE ors Sean CROSSED CRCNGEO 232
Artichokes Glope ssi... == 229
Artichoke, Jerusalem........ 228
Ash, per cent in vegetables. 15
ANEAOUEEAIE) oeislo se colori. 00 OOS 114
UMC frac s. 2 is erletle oe ie 119
GuILVANoOe spotondenaaooe os I Ur
Guibtime Settee mc ts eee ee 118
HOCUS are ol ate csvede sie ceere nc eiesa, aixane 120
TMUAVTNC TNS yaye crotsetovarsiees aortowe 119
Toe ey tial = See Weis ceseloc ckctoeimocic ity
OLOpPaAgacionwe ose eek cee iLIUss
VATICTICS! Aexesance eters orca rcneusisueuets 120
LIM, Yaerererevarexe.o-acone) svalevana eenererstcts 128
Beans Bott os ac haleyei eran lee 164
MOUSTD Fiersiars ces essens) sha ote tere. 5 ate 165
(OLIVEROS "Gon Pum Go a aime D Oe 168
lavshiayeiobaves 5 dob ao ood moO Oo 165
NORV Socmgu ob ooo o do bole o 168
Ole sodeocooouco UN OnoDOmO OF 164
HEshasaeyANvOVe” Soon oodoq0bgos 167
preserving in Salt... .. 35. - 167
WA OLLO Seen sva wierenenslicie tes eels </ore 164
| EY YS) ee eee aio oo CIRO OREO OES cacoat eo eBE 132
GISGASCS Mee acid cierecchcvene cuatienens ais 8
PON CUI eye eee sete oven rehetenets 139
NATVEStiNG shes eects cack 139
KEG DIN fens crores etn ees 139
SWISS ACHALG 45 cies cpereins 141
SO CLO iaverere oie enotic oie eraneus ciewacuens 140
VEAL EGUTOS® lire; 2 oretererehstetoayerene aces 139
Ui toewalet oxesenekonoererai sre meuenene 140
IBOrTrarinaceae’ ~ sa-isesciee ae 233
WOPALS. Sao oo eee cetasonr dase 233
Borage Bamiullys (isi... 106-233
Bordeauss IMmixtune. =. 203
IBOKEGCOlSY 246 oe iens avoir tue. cretortone 156
Botanical classification...... 105
Brussels” Sprouts] o.- sce 154
Buckwheat Family....... 105-134
Cab baAG eee i rercetets cieekeroree oer 144
CON]Y: eS ae aussie tes selec 145
Cabbage—Cont’d. rage
1212 ae RR ETE orc a 5.5 0 0 < 147
StOrING oc. ese eee 149
GISGASES? sh5.286 aS oe 152
harvesting. = o40.culon see 146
Hill. Sowansie sano 148
INSECTS: <1. 55)3y00e oars eee 152
manure “for fs ies aoe 145
DPCUIN GE «0:55 Fee ere eee 149
retarding heading of...... 146
TOU oS Scn iw sua releve’ s/s, scevolese ore eee 115)34
sauer Krauts 22.4 5.5.0.inn ee 152
Seed “raisins co.) 150
Seed SOWIMES seo series Lord AN,
Settings plamits) ssceneutenernean 145
SOll. Sass Soh bee sine 145
Varieties... o<.. d.0tc.ee eee 143
Cabbage: Hamill Vere mecrrere 105-143
@alendar monthly ieee 238
Caraway sscasses sehen EEeer 232
Carbon bisulphide esc ecer 87
Carrot! c.clswieie tds ce eee 174
Cultivation a... 175
TOY CIWE x !5 ore acdsee ore ne 178
gathering’ S6)4..-\ coe oer 176
SCEQ> ci cucs ooh 3 Rika eene eee 178
StOrIN Gs)... Sue ss tiorets eee UTC
Varieties. 2.5... Oona 178
Catnipr 2 ...css5 hese ener 230
Cauliflower singe 155
VarietieS -<. ccs: «sere ee 156
Celaria@: ocisvkiastnce ents ears 188
Gelery™= 85.0 ho shoe eee 178
bleaching with boards. ...184
bleaching with earth. ....184
bleaching, time req: 2d
TOR a0 s4. sel ee .187
Gigeing: aacupassaeee .186
diSGaASES” 23.22 shan aeets .187
6arly cece Eee 179
handling > poe 3 .183
Late ia pescien mee oleae .180
Marketing «is. 16sec .189
INDEX. 245
Celery—Cont’d. Page | Page
GHione With «s0< decswras soe Cultivation, general.....29-33-35
PIAHEIN SE? 5 csi os oie oan ve woe LO Dandelion «....60 “<5%% Sets tietensieten
RLOTING A cieccisleiclersierelsisiasts Sraltel® DDD revaqe Shave ores creas svececdapsretoushereteo Oo
seed Sars teiaerabelenens oe ci Diseases—
WEIGH eeos Goododon oc 188 anthracnose of bean....... 168
(Sinneol way Sageuacsq00Unt 219 DEE SCA Se... ce o2es-es eteweterererere 140
Whenonpodiaceare s.cc cis she a 137 blight or rust of celery..... 188
GiNVeSe ite es) sieves G aetfoue one berene 134 club root of cabbage....... a2
CUNIUINES syejse) shen shene a shoe keffens 134 leaf blight of celery....... 187
Classification of Vegetables. .104 lettuce’ mildew <1). vic... suis 26
Clover Hamily, si sc! 105-163 pouro) DSH E se cee. ec cic ere 202
Cold Climate Vegetables..... 104 DOLAEONSCADE sien. eco 2e choral steve 200
Cold frames (see greenhouses) 65 SMUG OL) COL. wieicrete cous st tee alee
Cold frames, for early spring Hees plant ies pr austepatevamavais 2038
WSC ceegane suaieu verSisaste sheroress 66 IBIVGIGVG over voter stMeneteter oheis bi duapeye eran
Sais nh Oeesiaaeicrad over are ange 78 FON MEL c5i rece seuavecevessueusnake aioe aa ee O
Commercial fertilizers ...... zal Formaline for Potato Scab...202
OTN BOSILOIC ates cee aie > a Sais oueds 223 Frost Hardy Vegetables...... 105
Compost Neapy.<.... so 5.2 sissuere © 21 Frost Tender Vegetables..... 104
ConvolviulaeceaAe i ee -1ec ers ere 189 DTN US ea te eas so vetsiecnreucgek eo eMereue 106
Garis... ROME ne vayes | 8 bate 109 Garden herbs ...... Ste 1s kersne te 229
PINROA Cen Cee ic os ee 109 Garlic, common..... Petree
GWitivatloncas. Gewese eee ns 110 Glass structures ..... ceeeeee 65
eurine Seed ji. kes els Sis 119 Germinating apparatus ...... 56
cutting off tassels......... 113 Germination, conditions for
MIRBHSER) ui selene i.e omer 101 successful ..... ......-- 42
INHCCER cs bt ees r 113 Gourde Sueleyetartnwe iehone eee ZA
marketing ..... ...... beetle Gourdshamily..-se.es = ol Os-210
TLIC A nd let en gE 112 Goosefoot Family .......105-137
MTPRELVING <S ¢ 1 cc, seu es alee é T1383 GramineGhe: s.52-,« werelew uvielcals 109
pth Be eee aI eee ce 113 Grass Family ...... cee e 105-109
varieties run out.......... nial? Greenhouse hotbed .......... 71
Gavimndde .. k. Pica ius ; 233 Greenhouses ..... scGoanons Us
“OS ee ee 111 BOKER: «oe see nc sissies eines Bl
Corrosive for Potato Scab....201 eee Sikeastia ae peo rage
CST tel arn ne ey en er Se 161 sip ct ama is Seea ast hee
heating. sa. sce aierevevcvarencte muah ll
WALLETS Sorates ax<lernys = %/a0 wile oxeye = 160 leanctor cnc. : 73
PUCILERERG «S008 o Anns 6 diavercs 2 143 ai ee Rak haar Wate - “78
Mucumbers s..) bases sees 219 imcnlinncnes ey t Sheers “3 78
emMbAONAsars 2 wei ea: 219 rare eine ue ty 8
: radiating surface ........ 77
gathering the crop ........ 220 fon 78
EN SECHS, «snk sa <0 Sec Sa ee e FO i i ae Ni ee i yc
ees. =u Eee te SEAMING) <ivrsrd nino ineie oY Ree 82
ee oie oe eS SHUGiCRE +. 6 oS ke eee cvs
starting in cold frames... .221 SO iat eeyrs fie eye eee ee ole o! SL
WAAR BeBe. SL eb es ok 299 substitutes for glass....... 81
Gueurbitaecese .... ......:5. 210
temperature < Ru ienete: LO
246 INDEX.
Greenhouses—Cont’d. Page
WET ETOMU scciel sister ea leNeltene- 7
WKN S64 GomccodoooDS 80
Ground Cherry. oes sss) e) deter er 208
Uardening off of plants...... 50
PTGPDS) Sere oh ieiieus, ss oc! thei olonenel 229
Elorseradish 22. <.....---- = 159
Hotbeds (see also greenhouses) 66
12 Royle eY216 (tere, ode woud? UsoecanuorDag cioud cl 66
PEHAINRS AOR gag blo go poo Se oc 67
early spring use.......... 67
HUTEG ae a ay oatocdotenette eiSoke eke tere 69
SEYSb 1HOe pac Ow pend Ob thOow TO 78
SHWMECCES LOLs rene) leer «le uene er 78
TVIDUSMLOT: worcutieres tease aioe eae eve 78
1B Rohani0lsto taacareeaotonokce abecee oko oe 10-14
jhany SEV TAVENNEE SS SG bl ico oo 8 Oe bac 35
combined drills and cultiva-
LOLSES se Tae he ee aa es 37
GUNNS Ao op. acho colo dai 38
ATG. «is 602 nce eie ee eee 36
MOLESCresmiccne) sects: aresuse Leteemeeene ss 36
PONSA NE 6S Wes hea eGia ctd.o'S oo Guest 38
DIDMK ARAL ae wecta GS ciete's Sono = 39
potato Wigsersen..s 6. se ss 39
NONGO INGS Sodbe00 coo mood 39
SCUMEFHOCW cree paso eras uae @ ene 39
Rereol volillis 555 oe 6 om oon oc om
SPLAY. PUN Sy ewe tecswero ee oqar rene 39
IMSECEICIGES Since cle gece 85
ADP MCALONGOL wie. i =) toto et 88
carbon bisulphide ......... 87
kerosene emulsion ........ 87
london purples eeees oe 86
Bans Tereeme tres) ds tis sere eu 86
OVARY BS oe coe) Beno 85
CODA CCOLg. feccveto len reve ses ane eeleceners 86
TRUSE CES rer verenatiel musket enol tokememctonod 85
AP WIS Gs Aes a. is ers fo Ge Olen e eremehe 99
beamswieevill jini tercrotesohobovene ie 101
cabbage flea beetle........ 98
cabbaeealicer irr... ciewrainc: 100
cabbage worms ........... 90
CACHING? 500642! seas dole eee 88
celery caterpillar ....4.... 100
GhinchG buss eyo set ce noe 101
cucumber beetle .......... 95
CHER WOLDIS occas escne ereneiconek. 3
Insects—Cont’d. Page
COrn ‘Moth: 2.5 J see eee 100
leat Mee. ¢ sac i. cone 99
MASCOTS A Acs «ois eee 97
May. beetle ..¢ i =< oi acne 96
parsley wool +2.) .-seene 100
potato beetle: ':.x. 2s one 89
pea weevil .........-...::; 101
squash bug .:..:.5: + setcneeee
squash vine borer ........ 102
tassel “worm ~. 2 22s 100
WHITE STUD” J. fare colleen eee 96
Wine. WOLIMS' as... teste mere 93
[rrigation.— (9%... c..cce enone 8
acre inch of water
amount of water needed.... 10
application of water ..... aa
cultivation as an aid to.... 9
humus; an aid) toa. eee 10
pumping “water tore. are 10
TOSEIVOILS. 2h ..uceieley hereto ean iti!
rules’. fOr sc os sa soe ee ifn
storage capacity for....... 10
SUD=1Prigation’ \.-1.) eee cree 1p
temperature of water...... 11
15 @2 i (eee INT Occ L010 6.6 156
Kerosene emulsion .......... 87
Kitchen garden. =... = see 53
Kohlsrabi-s sc. 2 ee 157
VarietieS <a. sis «2 eee LU SIFE
Liabiataé. oS. .a4.. (2s oe 229
PiAVENGEL: cass < ssod aes | olen 230
TiO: she ido ss 0) oe eee 133
eultivations 0.4025 = ae 133
VALICCICS. c.. s.seas0 cee Bee 134
UsUMINOSAe sei. 5 eee 168
Te@ttwCe@ns cs ks Ahonen 228
Guilbting NAOT woo! odooc cere ee
MUlGEW ©. olbielete ee 226
varieties: 5. ..: 40s ae 225
TiaecGae < 22h .055-— oh as oe 114
Tail yeramillliyo Wwe enone eee os all Opal
Lima, beans... 2c 3« eeeteeee 166
London. pULbple ee eee 86
Malvaceae™ + oo.) tans onnteneteee Wy
Manure <pille@) cerersncss orcs etn eit 20
Manure, hotbed ~..<...2. fan 2 GF
Manures ...... 3 a eietel mee Perera
INDEX. 247
7
Manures—Cont’d. Page Page
PEELOWU OE. = si csicneiel = jepeitorsrel 14 Morning Glory Family. ..105-189
SUIDUMIAA Fe cacvonelc y cisisr sie shonebaras 18 Monthly calendar .......... 238
POMMOETCIAL...coes as Saree col MEGHAN. Wooo, ee ome
(NiNNOPS a caplene ere Bn td eee 25 Mushrooms.) 5 sce os oo -106
composition of ........--- aE native species of ..... serene On
composition of farm....... 16 INOVEIGIES eys)ecc.0 oc S60 cooce Se
compost heap .......-++-+- 21 ADE ras er a seo. es, eer Meee (2.
GOWN A bidio Bolo tcc ade eaters Sees 20 WEL PIGLIGS cfs 's, 59k? eovosena tae son nd lt(2
, for early and late crops .. 26 Onions for home garden......130
for leguminous crops...... 20 (OIL IVON IIS, 20s eo eee re Ge ae tee 120
ground blood ...........-- De, enltnyationy ca... sh
ground bones ......-.+++-- 22 Keeps ooo. i. Sobuaa Riayees we 125
egbinter Ol 2 aac wes pes ei 19 LAM OOT OP iain Sacem oi tan eA
GTi eee Ee cao speccce, LG MAGKetn Oy es era scohee wi ske Se 131
MOLES Dy (ba Bcteen eS Oe nO oe 19 PETen nT alley ars sia eeettere Seo.cllsa
(MEBUOLS I on OS CPS caaLe ist DOCAEOM sera wile ek bee 5 ata odiou
ea oie = aroints bon. nnjaere ins 24 Scallionsiee. «5 2,<:28 oS Set oF
RA, GASLORs occ ciacons 6 ee Sees + 25 sets.. Siete, matakoere : ~125
aM Curses is ee he nah seh rszers 25 SCCM nr cress aw Aan sate 131
iGO! Reo eo tag oc sa codocd 28 BOWIE = BCE e-bay oe kee 122
NICE Do hs, oe 2 Snepee ae 20 SLOPINg 5.5" Ghee a aes oe 125
most valuable element in... 14 EOD een ee Se eee 131
MitraerO fr SOUdn c1-.- «ors 0-0) secs 23 Eransplantine: Am pee 128
FC) Sane nS Pe an stare Oe VATICUIEN(.. ahrerT pose & see oe 131
SVG C Teaver cig crak sik se ance terete aecce 20 Ovster. plant? ccc. «01. sa see 226
sulphate of ammonia ...... 24 Parsnip Family ..... sae lOsS sik
superphosphates...... cose 24 Leis Veh ae Sa OCR Mee, Fe 173
SWAMC!E. een) oles ES OCRCIOO OE e520 CWNEMTEn ae ee ee .174
(F250) 2 er 22 WATICRIOSS Or oc ete s somes 174
HISEJOF ECCS oo 2 oro de wece«8s,0 26 | if: ci OD 6 ee er ee in welslae
WOOG WASHERS. 25's clss.5 oc. cs,48 24 eCulmuines ase sheies oatedcwabe hie 2
Mallow Family ... .2.... 105-171 Veit CERO yea, tie Ode eee 173
Manuring growing crops..... 2. PATIS +20EOW <a ainn sei ered - . 86
MATEY DIACCAC) ve -.re-s-<:c5ei ste cies 2 210 WCBS, Ficerege oie ee ee 168
MEST EVAUTAT coe phe iore osie cveustbecetecs 210 CUILUNC 2. 5 nt eee Supe cd G8)
culture ..... Sita Bu stetts AeLO canning of..... ......... 170
Martynia Family........105-210 te Ree, gh - i re oe sara
Melon. “musk: 7 So paesis:ejeed 3 sie 3 216 culture ...... Me Oe SNe
CUNLURG. © <tiee is os ae plea LG apts
De ae) Ceding J. \ & aes 217 VE@RICLICS irs sre eisves ethcha seers 209
Melon, Preservilie =. eds... 217 PEPPErMiInte. ss srne er eee. Dei
RECTOR OG AVAECE. oR wine bc voce ess 218 ICs PATE eters ecb orahaustionone oder ace Ue
culture .....-.. ......0e. 219 Plow Hie yn: s Ss Gost ere 31
yg : aoe | 55 feMad ae gone rene aaaes A
Mint aWamitly ec. | 63... 105-229 POLE ZRH Se BOW EES te oa se eie G1
Mixing varieties ........ See eo Polygonaeceae a. . 562.2 eee 2 134
48 INDEX
Potato Family ..........105-190
PGOtHtOGS) 6. dive we sce eee iekoO
OMIM GEA modaonao coo 202
digging 2:5. Se Stee al ih eancale-s 195
GHES@RISES) Vas cule Riera eave ere ahere 200
sphoky jilininhiee 4s occ o6 194
NIVS CELA e. cue one Tenatederoreherctwielers 199
HVA CLOP Mercy cieeie eso) srerene 194
TIVADAUTLN OS weal cre etere! cous etielets 192
ORME. ve ecereustc ceneler el oie! el eke 191
OPEN ONS = Bon ees rio © Opeloloro-cicun ceOic 196
propagation, notes on ..... 199
[RUNNING OWL TOL. . sian sess 193
SAVIMSUSCCOS ces fe letetrenclsie ss 193
SCA Shuscsre Siti eas) ala eachetetes ee 200
Seustone SCS? <2 che cos es cneils 193
SOM C itreets ett soto wis Kew ore 192
SEATON: .csevs, aioe eels et aiaeeess 198
use for seed of scabby ..... 201
VATUCEIGS: osteitis feteremssienae 198
Protection to newly planted
seeds against insects.... 46
against crows and gophers. 46
RGU KINGS yeneyeve 6 s,e1ete.e. ss eee ee 215
Py rebnrumi cess cic + NEE OC: CR RORD RS 85
FVATHISIIES IS soe roc yaverefgtenl ste sree 161
CUEUTE Bares rsiekoretalete, eaccre ete- ss 161
WATIO CIC Se cvesetsye usc e neers 6 suave 162
FUTURA DY octaves: eterors tous share sins 135
CAUNGAIEE (5) crete eve’e © oreo iecosouent 135
PORCH Pens) << hav oubtes sheushor eke ers 136
WEUTIE CICS see cieveuexe © ors ecenare ¢ 1337/
Ridsino lands ot. @ 4 srasensre sere 33
Rotating of manures........ 28
Roration sof crops) =. cic sae cle 13
FEASOMS TOD ciarclsve ec ciere ae als:
RUG ws. cece ets ji Sitch need easha lees 233
Rue = Pamily, (ieecc. «sce sOG=239
FUCA CCH: a's = cee ser woe eee eelo 233
RUUD DAZAS) cereeccts arctan cise eae oie a RSI7¢
Saeco acs.s aioe’ a cheve Piet oieieteeK 231
SAME VKCAUE secre «eet eee ee TZ
Saviony, wittter.. css sacs 232
DNPIIOES 2% ete soe) iste) tele 133
SCCQ Acie sie eo es one fe mee cee ee a8 ay
Seeds—Cont’d. Page
CUTING cers +s 85s mole) olensietohelersmnenn
germinating apparatus .... 56
germinating standards ....257
SUOCK. gevcjee.c. siefelelsteuenenenenoneas 58
STOTING” ..<<.0c + ose crete ei eeterenneae
EQSTING crepe 0 ce se: crake pean renrmmeyE
Seed sowing ..ssessvnsuus 3 oe ee
GePth sissies weiecs Creech 42
IGLETLCY caver citciieteevevane: one henner ee oe
firming by feet ....... sisters LO
in Stilt SOUS) 2. eee es eeetene 43
with machine <5... siais erence
by hand... </.cc vas) bereueeoienete 45
Seedmen’s humbugs ..... cits
Seedmen’s specialties ........ 58
Seed: tables: 2... <2 ste een 234-237
aAMouUmE fOr ACLs. -neteneneerene 236
LON @PVITY.-..2~...<.2.sre seeneneueeens 235
DULity, Standards... - eee Zo
number of seeds in an ounce.234
time tO Serminaiee ace 236
weight of seeds...... be c2oe
Seeds, pedigrees of ...... sefelee SOD
NOVeILICS 2. .'.. 6 serenntene en oe
Solanaceae 4...) ..c1s a ctarcte cies 190
NOllSeno oer sis e) She Stele egemeneles 8
for early. crops: : s..aneenee 8
for Jate- crops... eee as 8
elements necessary ....... 14
elements lacking in..... .. 14
Spearmint woes exe BUG, Seewatene 232
Spinaches ce. oie | Slenelelaneievenehens 141
CULTURES «ye steers Sle, oe Metoponcenee ees
VALICCIES!. «15.000 cic é Svcrevette seme
SqQuashi =... o-ceetee soe oyauene Zieh
CulGlivatlone sei Aig On oe
HATVESEING -oc16< s teeeae sper eiles
pollenizing flowers ...... ari lil
Storing .-.. 55 ise sister
WATICTICS'. 200. .2.. ces 3 hee 214
Sunflower Family........ 105-243
Strawberry tomato .......... 208
Culture «... . dsc ce eee 209
Sub-irrigation: .. 2... .2.5eeee 12
SUDSOMIN Saw ee poe oetac. a2!
Summer savory ........ Be ees2
Sweet basil 45 5c. cone eee 231
Sweet marjoram, ... «+= enaneete
INDEX. 249
Page Transplanting—Cont’d. Page
eel ba LELOLEGTUON emp Ricco canoe & 189 shortening the tops in..... 48
(Siaissiy Celatehecl=“baog Boowoe Gbd non 141 diesines plamits sOr. se: sc 48
AMattovaiines OleNshE “Senne occaod: 46 firmins) the Soi: im... eee 49
BAe rinse ae ae ee th eee ar 232 =| with tomato cans.......... 51
bili eres wreate hae eal wo Gre ueacr caw On 29 AAUEEYD DP! £2 (2's, shone: atone’ shes atelayetoreroie ten 157
RG TMO TAN eye eye races ele cr ale eta eto sere 30 (UU RUNGE chor Grtiticke Gan Oko Store 158
Tomato, prolonging season. .207 PUCADAP AN Fes ce evederone scetare oars 159
EMOMMVAL OM ere vas decd <isisceeieve secre sels 204 VALICTIES “sia « cities oiele esreteres oh 159
Uta OMs were osisetsre ororere one fe 204 Waminelliterecae, A. s.s6 cco -1en 171-232
BISCACC Ra ele, cer ccschet iow ae rales 207 Varieties, Gevelopment of... 58
UMS ECES EME cot ks Le aee eee 207 mixing Of ...,......sesees. 3
in severe locations......... 206 distance between ......... 3
TRNEVSES CT gain Arete af Oeil Nae 204. | Vegetable oyster (see sal-
DEOVASACIOME erates tat Sen 204 | STEaya) I asec nev ole sans cee ave oteten crapecenaice 226
SEMIN ES ig sd = ctevcrere Neo oeke Di tality, (Of - SECS, 222. e-.rie.- 235
pave ese yon fc do osc 207. +| Vegetables, composition of.. 15
healt ee eek 205 | Warm Climate Vegetables. ..104
ELAM STATUE MAS conse eet ee sk 205 | WCE US i ictste rd oe euckche eres tare atenas 30
STP LSS a ae ea 2004 cultivation to Kill.......... 29
eaten ee Gia Le. xo ee ate 86 Ci Killing of ..............+6. 29
Beane plantine in ae tce:. Oe AT PEE VEMILIONT. Ol wa elete s/eie los) s0ste 29
PinOnliint ao nate we ehh os wes seeds in manure........... 30
conditions of success...... 47 AMAL PESE NANA? Go adaouonoe.s AB OLY
Weights of seeds............204
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