^
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS
4603
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
PUBLICVTIONS OF THE
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
EDWARD HYATT, State Engineer
BULLETIN No. 44
SOUTH COASTAL BASIN INVESTIGATION
WATER LOSSES
UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS
FROM WET AREAS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
PART I
Report of a Cooperative Investigation by the
Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering,
United States Department of Agriculture.
PART II
Report of a Cooperative Investigation by the
Water Resources Branch Geological Survev,
United States Department of the Interior.
1933
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAV IS
FOREWORD
The value of water that can be put to beneficial use in southern
California is so great that it seems advisable to call attention to existing
wastage along streams and in other wet-surfaced areas of that region.
Studies that have been made recently lead to the conclusion that the
possibility of utilizing such sources of supply to advantage is worthy
of the most serious consideration. This bulletin gives basic data which
may be applied in evaluating water now wasted that might be put to
profitable uses.
The bulletin is in two parts: Part I, a report of investigations
made by the Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineer-
ing, U. S. Department of Agriculture, dealing with the disposal of
water by evaporation and transpiration in various parts of southern
California, and Part II, a report of investigations made by the Water
Resources Branch, Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior,
dealing with loss of water from Santa Ana River in lower Santa Ana
Canyon. Both reports were made cooperatively with the Division of
Water Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California.
It is believed that the publication of these two reports will throw needed
light upon the little-understood subject of waste of water through
natural causes.
( 5 )
PART I
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY NATIVE PLANTS
GROWING IN MOIST AREAS IN SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
By Harry F. Blaney
(1) At stations in Santa Ana Valley and Coastal Plain near Santa Ana,
Prado and San Bernardino,
(2) In the Mojave River Area near Victorville,
(3) In Coldwater Canyon near Arrowhead Springs, located in the San
Bernardino Mountains, and
(4) At Baldwin Park and other evaporation stations in southern California.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I
Page
FOREWORD 5
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 15
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 16
ORGANIZATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS 17
ORGANIZATION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 18
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 19
Introduction 19
Summary 20
Santa Ana, Prado, and San Bernardino Stations 20
Victorville Station 23
Coldwater Canyon Investigations 24
Evaporation from free water surfaces 25
Chapter II
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE SANTA ANA RIVER VALLEY AND COASTAL
PLAIN 26
Santa Ana Station 26
Description of site 26
Station equipment 28
Method of filling soil tanks 29
The Mariotte tank 30
San Bernardino Station 32
Description of site 32
Station equipment 33
Prado Station 34
Description of site 34
Station equipment 34
Meteorological records 35
Operation of tanks 40
Sources of errors in tank experiments 40
Santa Ana Station 41
San Bernardino Station 45
Prado Station — 45
Protection from rainfall 45
Soil alkali in tanks 47
Consumptive use of water 49
Evaporation from soil surfaces in tanks 49
Use of water by salt grass — 50
Use of water by Bermuda grass 53
Use of water by tules and cat-tails 58
Use of water by willows 64
Use of water by wire rush 66
Adjustment factors 67
Soil characteristics 68
Mechanical analyses 6 8
Moisture equivalent 69
Porosity, specific yield and specific retention 70
Apparent specific gravity "2
Chapter III
INVESTIGATIONS IN MOJAVE RIVER AREA 74
Procedure J6
Consumptive use of water 81
Chapter IV
INVESTIGATIONS IN COLDWATER CANYON 88
Equipment 93
Controls 93
Flume for winter measurements 94
Flow recorders 96
' Evaporimeter 97
Evaporation and transpiration losses along the stream channel 99
Loss from stream between controls 99
Loss from stream above the highest control 114
Comparison of use between controls with meteorological data 116
Yield of water from drained slopes on Arrowhead Mountain 119
(9)
10 CONTENTS — PART I
Chapter V
EVAPORATION PROM FREE WATER SURFACES 122
Baldwin Park Key Station 122
Miscellaneous evaporation records 124
PART II
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE VALLEY OF
SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN THE RIVERSIDE NARROWS AND
THE ORANGE COUNTY LINE 141
Table of Contents, Part II 142
PUBLICATIONS OF THE DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 173
CONTENTS — PART I
11
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page
Geographical locations of stations Frontispiece
I. Plan of Santa Ana Station 27
II. Mariotte tank connected to soil tank to maintain a constant water
level in the soil and supply water, evaporated or transpired, Santa
Ana station, 1929-1932 31
III. Board housing for Mariotte tanks at San Bernardino 33
IV. Circular metal covers to protect soil tanks from rainfall while allow-
ing free circulation of air over the tank surface 4G
V. Monthly use of water by salt grass in tanks having various depths
to water table 52
VI. Bermuda grass in tanks in field of similar growth at San Bernardino.
The tanks are in the center of the picture showing heavier growth 57
VII. Comparison of use of water by Bermuda grass at San Bernardino with
that of salt grass at Santa Ana and evaporation from water in
Tank No. 16 at Santa Ana_- 58
VIII. A. Tules growing in tank six feet in diameter at Santa Ana station,
1931, with small tanks of tules and cat-tails at the right GO
B. Cat-tails growing in small tank, Santa Ana station, 1931 60
C. Tules growing in small tank, Prado station, 1931 60
IX. Hourly rate of use of water by tules, evaporation from standard
Weather Bureau pan and air and water temperatures, Prado
station 61
X. Willow tree growing in 6-foot tank, Santa Ana station, 1931 65
XI. Moist area along the Mojave River above the Upper Narrows near
Victorville, California 76
XII. Plan of Victorville station 77
XIII. Arrangement for tank No. 2 to supply water and to measure amount
of evaporation and transpiration 7S
XIV. Arrangement for tank No. 3 to regulate supply of water and to
measure amount of evaporation and transpiration 78
XV. A. General view of Victorville station, taken October 31, 1931 79
B. View taken October 31, 1931, of swamp where two tanks were
located, the stadia rod being held between the two tanks 7 9
XVI. View of tank No. 1, taken October 31, 1931 80
XVII. Monthly evaporation and use of water from tanks No. 1, No. 2 and
No. 3, February, 19 31-February, 1932 : 81
XVIII. Mean monthlv evaporation and use of water from tanks No. 1,
No. 2 and No. 3 83
XIX. Aerial view of Coldwater Canyon showing location of the controls 89
XX. A. Alders in canyon bottom viewed from an overhanging cliff 91
B. Alders in canyon bottom about midway between the middle and
lower controls 91
XXI. Middle Coldwater control showing 3-inch Parshall measuring fluVne
and flow, recorder 93
XXII. Combination flume for measurement of water at both high and low
stages 95
XXIII. Flow recorder installation at lower Coldwater control 96
XXIV. A. Evaporimeter with shallow black pan 24 inches in diameter 98
B. Evaporimeter showing weighing mechanism and record cylinder 9 8
XXV. Evaporimeter charts 99
XXVI. Fluctuation in the water table in Coldwater Canyon, September 7-15,
1932 100
XXVII. Flow at Middle Coldwater Canyon control, August 9-15, 1931 102
XXVIII. A. Drop in flow in Coldwater Canyon, August 11-12, 1931 103
B. Daily evaporation-transpiration cycle, Ontario willow and reed tank,
September 11-12, 1930 103
XXIX. Use of water between controls In Coldwater Canyon and daily maxi-
mum temperatures at San Bernardino during 1932 113
XXX. Comparison of loss of water from evaporimeter and air temperature
near mouth of Coldwater Canyon, September 7-15, 1932 118
XXXI. East slope of Arrowhead Mountain draining into Coldwater Canyon — 120
12 CONTENTS — PART I
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Monthly temperatures, rainfall and miles of wind movement at Santa Ana
station 36
2. Monthly temperatures, rainfall and miles of wind movement at Prado station 37
3. Monthly temperatures, rainfall and miles of wind movement at San Ber-
nardino station 38
4. Rainfall by storms at Santa Ana station 39
5. Rainfall by storms at San Bernardino station 39
6. Installation data on tanks used at Santa Ana station 42
7. Installation data on tanks used at San Bernardino station 45
S. Analyses of station water supplies and water from annular spaces of soil
moisture tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino stations 47
9. Alkali salt concentrations and pH values of composite soil samples from
various depths in soil moisture tanks at the Santa Ana and San Bernar-
dino stations 48
10. Relation of soil moisture to depth of water table in tanks at Santa Ana
station 51
11. Record of weekly evaporation from soil and use of water by salt grass in
tanks at Santa Ana, California, May, 1929, to September, 1930__Between 52-53
12. Record of weekly use of water by salt grass in tanks at Santa Ana,
California, October, 1930, to November, 1931 Between 52-53
13. Summary showing monthly use of water by salt grass and tules and evapo-
ration from soil and water surfaces, May, 1929, to April, 1930, in tanks
at Santa Ana, California Between 52-53
14. Summary showing monthly use of water by salt grass, tules, cat-tails,
willows and wire rush and evaporation from soil and water surfaces,
May, 1930, to April, 1931, in tanks at Santa Ana, California__Between 52-53
15. Summary showing monthly use of water by salt grass, tules, cat-tails,
willows and wire ru.sh, and evaporation from water surfaces, May, 1931,
to April, 1932, in tank at Santa Ana, California Between 52-53
16. Record of weekly u.se of water bv Bermuda grass in tanks at San Bernar-
dino, California, May, 1929, to September, 1930 54-55
17. Record of weekly use of water by Bermuda grass in tanks at San Bernar-
dino, California, October, 1930, to November, 1931 56
18. Summary showing monthly use of water by Bermuda grass and evaporation
from "water surfaces. May, 1929, to April, 1930, in tanks at San Ber-
nardino, California Between 58-59
19. Summary showing monthly use of water by Bermuda grass and tules and
evaporation from water surfaces, May, 1930, to April, 1931, in tanks at
San Bernardino, California Between 58-59
20. Summary .showing monthly use of water by Bermuda grass and tules and
evaporation from water surfaces. May, 1931, to April, 1932, in tanks
at San Bernardino, California Between 58-59
21. Estimated consumptive use of water by tules and cat-tails in swamps based
upon tank experiments and percentage of swamp use to tank use 63
22. Summary of tank investigations showing estimated annual consumptive use
of water in moist areas •' 67
23. Mechanical analyses of soil from tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino
stations 68
24. Moisture equivalents of soil from tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino
stations 69
25. Comi>ari.son of the computed specific yield of soils in the absence of a water
table with the observed specific yield of the same soils having high water
tables — 71
26. Porosity, specific yield and specific retention of soils in tanks having high
water tables 72
27. Apparent specific gravity of soils in tanks at Santa Ana and San Bernardino
stations. 73
28. Monthly summary showing evaporation, consumptive use of water from
tule tanks, use of water expressed in per cent of evaporation, wind move-
ment, rainfall, and temperatures at Victorville station, February ], 1931,
to February 28, 1933 82
29. Evaporation from free water surfaces in the Weather Bureau pan and
tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3, December 5, 1930, to January 29, 1931 85
CONTENTS — PART I 13
Table Page
30. Summary by months of mean t(^mperatures, wind movement, evaporation,
and consumptive use of water from tule tanks Nos. 1, 2, ami 3, and use
of water from tule tank No. 3 expressed in per cent of evaporation at
Victorville station 87
31. Classification of trees between middle and lower controls in Coldwater
C^an.Non 90
32. Cla.ssilication of trees between upper and middle controls in Ooldwater
Canyon 92
33. Comparison of estimated loss by evaporation from stream and total loss
between middle and lower controls in Coldwater Canyon, September
S-14, 1932 101
34. Daily maximum and minimum temperatures in Coldwater Canyon of the air,
the stream, and the water in the evaporation pan, September 8-14, 1932 101
35. Daily maximum and minimum discharges at middle and lower controls in
Coldwater Canyon, August 1 to October 17, 1931 105
3G. Daily maximum and minimum discharges at each control in Coldwater
Canyon, June 24 to November 3, 1932 106-107
37. Daily loss of water from the stream between middle and lower controls
in Coldwater Canyon, August 1 to October 17, 1931 110
38. Daily loss of water from the stream between middle and branch controls
and lower control in Coldwater Canyon, June 25 to November 2, 1932 111
39. Daily loss of water from the stream between the upper and middle controls
in Coldwater Canyon, July 15 to November 2, 1932 112
40. Daily loss of water from the stream indicated by dips in discharge curve
at middle control in Coldwater Canyon, August i to October 17, 1931 114
41. Daily loss of water from the stream indicated by dips in discharge curve at
upper control in Coldwater Canyon, July 15 to November 2, 1932 115
42. Monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures at the mouth of Cold-
water Canyon, at Alpine, and at San Bernardino, June to October, 1931
and 1932 117
43. Loss of water from atmometers at Coldwater Canyon, July 18 to October
24, 1932 117
44. Com])arison of loss of water from atmometers, evaporimeter, and loss of
water between middle and lower controls, September 8-14, 1932 119
45. Precipitation 1931-32 season 120
46. Monthly evafporation records at cooperative key station at Baldwin Park,
California, 1932-1933 ___— 123
47. Monthly evaporation records at Santa Ana, California, 1929—1932. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture 125
48. Monthly evaporation records at San .Bernardino, California, 1929-1932.
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of
Agriculture 126
49. Monthly evaporation records at Prado, California, 1930-1933. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture 127
50. Monthly evaporation records at Ontario, California, 19,28-1931. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture 127
51. Monthly evaporation records at Victorville, California, 1931-1933. Observed
by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture 128
52. Monthly evaporation records near Pomona, California, 1903-1905. Observed
by the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture 128
53. Monthly evaporation records at Chula Vista, California, 1918-1933. Observed
by the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture 129
54. Monthly wind movement at Chula Vista, California, 1918-1930. Observed
by the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture 130
55. Monthly evaporation records at Riverside, California, 1924-1933. Observed
by the Citrus Experiment Station, University of California 131
56. Monthly evaporation records at South Haiwee Reservoir, California, 1924—
1932. Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los
Angeles 132
57. Monthly evaporation records at Fairmont Reservoir, California, 1923-1932.
Observed by Bureau of Water W^orks and Supply, City of Los Angeles. J 132
58. Monthly evaporation records at Silver Lake Reservoir, California, 1930-
1933. Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles_ 133
59. Monthly evaporation records at lower Fernando Reservoir, Callf<jrnia, 1930-
1933. Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles, 133
60. Monthly evaporation records at Chatsworth Reservoir, California, 1931-1933.
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles 134
61. Mt)nthly evaporation records at Encino Reservoir, California, 1930-1933.
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of I^o.s .\ngeles 134
14 CONTENTS PART I
Table Page
62. Monthly evaporation records at Azusa, Monrovia, Whlttier, Telegraph Road
and Collins Road, and Long Beach, California, 1929—1931. Observed by
the San Gabriel Valley Protective Association 135
63. Monthly evaporation records at Pine Canyon station, San Gabriel River,
1930-1933. Observed by the Pasadena Water Department 136
64. Monthly evaporation records at Little Cienaga, California, 1929—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 136
65. Monthly evaporation records at Big Dalton Dam, California, 1930—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control i)istrict 137
66. Monthly evaporation records at Pnddingstone Reservoir, California, 1929—
1933. Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 137
67. Monthly evaporation records at Pacolma Dam, California, 1930—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 138
68. Monthly evaporation records near Acton (Mellon), California, 1931—1933.
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 138
69. Monthly evaporation records at El Segundo, California, 1931-1933. Observed
by Los Angeles County Flood Control District 139
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Mr. Edward Hyatt,
State Engineer,
Sacramento, California.
Dear Sir : I have the pleasure to transmit herewith for publication a
report ' ' Consumptive Use of Water by Native Plants Growing in Moist
Areas in Southern California."
The report was prepared by Harry P. Blaney, assisted by Colin A.
Taylor, A. A. Young and Harry G. Nickle, and is, I believe, one of the
most comprehensive presentations of research data available dealing
witli the consumptive use of water by various uoncrop plants native of
southern California and the Southwest in general. It is of economic
and practical importance in considering problems of water conser-
vation and use.
As a final chapter there is brought together data on evaporation
from a free-water surface, that will be of great value to engineers and
others dealing with water utilization, especially its storage in open
reservoirs.
The investigations on which tlie report is based were siip|)orted by
and the report was prepared under cooperative agreement between the
Division of Water Resources of the California State Department of
Public Works and the Division of Irrigation of the P>ureau of Agricul-
tural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Respectfully submitted,
Berkeley, California,
June 3, 1933.
Chief, Division of Irrigation,
Bureau of Agricultural Engineering,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
( 15 )
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The aiithors acknowledge the assistance rendered by members of
the Division of Irrigation of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering,
United States Department of Agriculture, especially Dean W. Blood-
good, Associate Irrigation Engineer, Dean C. Muckel, Junior Civil
Engineer, and H. W. Kistner, who assisted in the preparation of the
manuscript, and A. Lincoln Fellows, Senior Irrigation Engineer, who
edited it.
The advice and assistance of Harold Conkling, Deputy State
Engineer, is recognized. Acknowledgment is made of the assistance
rendered by P. C. Ebert, Jarret Oliver, and K. R. Melin of the United
States Geological Survey. W. P. Rowe of the Board of Water Commis-
sioners, City of San Bernardino, and M. N. Thompson, Engineer of
the Orange County Flood Control District, also rendered valuable
assistance.
Acknowledgment is made to A. S. Amaral of the Appleton Land
and Water Company for providing the site for the experiment station
at Victorville, of the courtesies extended by II. S. Ward of the Arrow-
head Springs Company in the ColdAvater Canyon Investigations, and to
the Los Angeles County Flood Control District and San Gabriel Valley
Protective Association for furnishing the site for Baldwin Park Key
Station.
Scientific names for native plants were determined at the Herba-
rium of the University of California.
( 16 )
ORGANIZATION
STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Earl Lee Kelly Director of PuUic Worlis
Edward Hyatt State Engineer
The South Coastal Basin Investigation was
conducted under the supervision of
Harold Coxkling
Deputy State Engineer
2 — 4503 ( 1^
ORGANIZATION
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
DIVISION OF IRRIGATION
Cooperating in
South Coastal Basin Investigation
AV. AV. McLaughlin Chief of Division
This report "was prepared by
Harry F. Blaney
Irrigation Engineer
Assisted by
Colin A. Taylor Assistant Irrigation Engineer
A. A. Young Assistant Irrigation Engineer
Harry G. Nickle Junior Hydraulic Engineer
( IS )
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY NATIVE PLANTS
GROWING IN MOIST AREAS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
By Harry F. Blanet *
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
In southern California the natural water supply is exceedingly
limited, while the demands for water are great and its value is high.
In some sections the value of continuous-flow gravity water ranges
from $100,000 to as much as $200,000 per second-foot,** depending
upon its use. Both present and future agricultural, domestic, and
industrial development depends upon the adequacy of the water supply.
Under these circumstances it is economically important to utilize the
available water supply to the fullest extent. For this reason federal,
state, county, city, and other agencies are working along lines to deter-
mine ways and means by which water, now wasted, may be conserved
for beneficial use.
The Bureau of Agricultural Engineering in cooperation with vari-
ous agencies is making studies to determine the contributions of rainfall
to the ground water of valley floors, consumptive use of water by plant
life on both irrigated and nonirrigated lands, irrigation water require-
ments of different crops, replenishment of underground storage of
water by spreading, evaporation losses, and noneconomic use of water
by native plants growing in moist areas. This report deals with the
consumptive use of water by various types of indigenous vegetation
commonly found in meadows and swamps and along stream beds, evapo-
ration losses from soils without vegetative growth in areas of high
water table, and evaporation from free water surfaces.
In considering the adequacy of public water supplies in the past,
too little attention has been given to use of water by noncrop plants. In
most instances such plants are so located that they get their supplies
of water before settled communities get theirs, and therefore such use
must be considered in estimating water available for other purposes.
For areas where large amounts of money are spent to develop and
deliver water for irrigation at heavy annual cost to the irrigators, the
water that could be saved by preventing the growth of uneconomic
plants may be reckoned as approximating in value that of an equal
amount of water in storage. For citrus fruits the cost of water is
frequently as high as $15 to $20 per acre-foot and in some instances it
is much higher. Tules, willows, and alders growing in irrigation canals,
drainage ditches or stream channels or on their banks are usually
exposed in narrow strips to sun and wind so that their consumption of
* Irrigation Engineer, Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
** State of California Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 36, Cost of
Irrigation Water in California, by Harry F. Blaney and Martin R. Huberty. (1930.)
( 19 )
20 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
water is very liiyli. Linin<>' canals to check see})a^'e losses and' diverting
stream flows into conduits conserve water by eliminating losses due to
such aquatic growths as well as by decreasing the seepage.
In many instances irrigation and domestic supplies are obtained
by diverting water from the lower reaches of canyons, the bottoms of
which usually are covered with vegetation. The amount of water lost
through consumptive use by that vegetation may be of considerable
importance where the flow of the stream is relatively small and studies
have therefore been undertaken to measure such losses.
Evaporation records from standard Weather Bureau pans are
valuable in estimating evaporation losses from reservoirs and consump-
tive use of Avater by native vegetation growing in moist areas. Very
few data have been published on evajjoration in southern California,
accordingly all available records are included in this report. Among
these are those kept by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering at
several stations in cooperation with the State Engineer of California
and those kept in other localities by local agencies.
SUMMARY
Commencing in 1929 and continuing thereafter investigations of
evaporation and transpiration losses in moist areas have been conducted
by the Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering,
United States Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the
Division of Water Resources, Department of Public Works, State of
California, and other agencies. Stations were established at Santa Ana,
Prado, San Bernardino, Victorville, Coldwater Canyon and Baldwin
Park. The results obtained are summarized in the following discussion.
Santa Ana, Prado, and San Bernardino Stations
Data regarding evaporation from bare uncultivated soil and use
of w^ater by noneconomic native growth found in moist areas in Santa
Ana River Valley have been collected for the three-year period immedi-
ately preceding May 1, 1932. Results of the first year's work have
already been published.* Investigations were conducted at three sta-
tions, although the greater part of the work was done at Santa Ana,
with smaller stations at San Bernardino, 50 miles distant, and at Prado,
midway between the other two. The Prado station w^as established a
year after the others and work there is being continued. The other two
stations have been dismantled. The soil at the Santa Ana station is
classed as a Hanford fine sandy loam** and that at San Bernardino as
Chino silt loam. The work at Prado did not include soil moisture
studies and the soil class was not determined.
The investigation included studies of evaporation from soil, consump-
tive use of water by salt grass and Bermuda grass in tanks wdth pre-
determined water levels, use of water by tules and cat-tails in submerged
soil, and by willow and wire rush. Some experiments in evaporation
from water surfaces also were included. Soil evaporation and use of
water studies were carried on at Santa Ana in unbroken columns of soil
in 12 tanks and with disturbed soil in three tanks. All soil moisture
* California State Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33, Rainfall Pene-
tration and Consumptive Use of Water in the Santa Ana River "Valley and Coastal
Plain, bv Harrv F. Blaney, C. A. Taylor, and A. A. Young.
** Soil Survey of the Anaheim Area, California. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 21
experiments were carried on in triplicate to average errors and the
effects of soil differences. The following: snmraaries and conclusions
are given from the data obtained during the investigation :
1. ^Mariotte tanks Avere nsed with all soil tanks to supply and main-
tain a constant water table in the soil. Their value lies in the ease
with which periodic measurements of water used may be made as they
are automatic in operation. Great care is necessary to protect the
^Mariotte tank against temperature changes or from leakage of air
into the tank or the connecting pipe system.
2. Evaporation tests from bare soil were conducted with both dis-
turbed and undisturbed soil in tanks, separately. No evaporation
occurred from tanks of undisturbed soil having a water table 4 feet
below the surface. When the water table was raised to 3 feet from tlie
soil surface the evaporation averaged 0.1 acre-inch per acre per month.
Tanks of undisturbed soil having water tables at a depth of 2 feet lost
an average of 0.445 acre-inch per acre per month for 15 months. In
contrast with losses from undisturbed soil, three tanks filled with dis-
turbed soil having a 2-foot depth to water level had a mean monthly
loss by evaporation of 1.599 acre-inches per acre, while the average
loss from undisturbed soil for the same period was 0.404 acre-inch
per acre, or about 25 per cent. In disturbed soil the opportunity for
evaporation was greater as the soil contained more moisture. Evapora-
tion from undisturbed soil is more comparable to that lost under field
conditions than is that from disturbed soil. These data indicate that
there will be no evaporation from the light textured soils of the Hanford
series when the water table is 4 feet or more below the ground surface.
3. Use of water by both salt grass and Bermuda grass was influ-
enced by the availability of moisture in the soil and the depth to water
table. Grasses in tanks having the highest water tables used the most
water. During the year ending April 30, 1932, salt grass grown in
tanks having water tables 1 foot in depth used water at the rate of
42.75 acre-inches per acre; with a 2-foot depth, 36.23 acre-inches; and
with a 5-foot depth, 22.12 acre-inches per acre. In general, the ratio
of the use of water to depth of water table b}* Bermuda grass was about
the same as that of salt grass. From these data, it is concluded that
use of water by these grasses is not excessive and does not exceed the
amount that would be used by many cultivated crops grown under the
same conditions of soil moisture.
4. Consumptive use of water bj- tules or cat-tails grown in tanks
in exposed locations is not closely indicative of the true use by these
plants growing in their natural environment. Growths in exposed
tanks are subject to greater solar radiation, lower humidity and greater
wind movement conditions than are found under natural swamp condi-
tions; and use of water by swamp growth transplanted to exposed
locations is inordinately high. Numerous instances of tules in tanks
using an acre-inch or more of water per 24 hours at the Santa Ana
station and an extreme use of 3.6 acre-inches per acre per 24 hours
at Prado were noted. Taken as a percentage of evaporation from a
standard Weather Bureau pan the use of water by tules or cat-tails in
exposed tanks varied from 168.3 per cent for cat-tails at Santa Ana to
451.7 per cent for triangular stem tules at Prado. From other experi-
ments bv the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering it is evident that
22 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
if the size of tanks was extended to swamp areas the consumptive use
would decrease to a relatively small fraction of that used by exposed
tanks. Very little is known as to the proi^er factor to be applied, but
a limited investigation indicates that consumptive use of water by tules
or cat-tails in densely grown natural swamp areas may be as low as
30 per cent of the consumptive use by similar growth in isolated tanks
having extreme exposure to the elements.
5. Willow uses more water than either of the two wild grasses
with which tests were made. A single clump of willow used 52.71
acre-inches per acre with a water table at a depth of 2 feet during
an eleven-month period. This was 83.5 per cent of the evaporation
from a standard Weather Bureau pan. The willow was fully exposed
and the consumptive use may have been higher than would be the
case from an area of equal size in a willow thicket. As a moist area
noneconomic growth, the willow is responsible for Avaste of water which
might other-wise be put to a more beneficial use. On the other hand,
willows will grow in gravelly river bottoms Avhere they furnish protec-
tion against erosion. Any benefit obtained by removal of such
protection to increase the water supply may be offset by damage by
floods carrying sand and gravel into valuable farm communities. No
data are available indicating a factor for reduction of consumptive
use by wdllow^s grown in exposed and isolated tanks to that used by
natural growth in large areas.
6. Wire rush grows in a limited area in the Santa Ana Valley
where high ground water exists. Its consumptive use measured from a
2-foot water table is high, exceeding that from grasses or willow. In
July, 1931, it amounted to 13.75 acre-inches per acre, which was 2.8
times the amount used by salt grass during the same period and grow-
ing at the same location. As far as is known, wire rush has no value
for live stock and the water it consumes is an economic loss. No data
exists for determination of a factor to reduce consumptive use from
tank growth to that by natural field groAvth, but some factor should
be applied.
7. Soil tests were made to determine mechanical analysis, moisture
equivalent, porosity, and apparent specific gravity of soils in tanks.
About 20 per cent of the soil at the Santa Ana station was fine
enough to pass a No. 200 screen. Soil in the San Bernardino tanks was
considerably finer. Moisture-equivalent values as determined at Santa
Ana were not constant, varying from 5.8 to 13.0 per cent in different
tanks. The moisture equivalent of the top foot of soil at San Ber-
nardino was about 30 per cent, or nearly twice that of the subsoil at
a depth of 3 feet. Porosity tests of soil in tanks show an average of
40.2 per cent at Santa Ana and 47.4 per cent at San Bernardino.
8. Specific yield and specific retention in relation to high water
tables, the sum of the two equaling the total porosity, also were deter-
mined. Each of these varies with the depth to the water table, the
greater yield occurring with the least depth, and the greater retention
with the greater depth. Porosity of the disturbed soil is about the same
as in the undisturbed soil, but the specific yield is much less and
specific retention is correspondingly greater. In the Chino silt loam
at San Bernardino, the specific yield is small in comparison with the
specific retention. The percentages measured as specific yield and
WATER LOSSES P^ROM WET AREAS 23
specific retention are apparent rather than real, as they apply only to
conditions of hi^-h water table. True values can be obtained only
when measured from a high colunui of soil, disregarding the fringe
of capillary moisture.
9. Alkali deposits occurred on the surface of several soil moisture
tanks at the Santa Ana station, depending in amount on the depth
to water table in the tank, ^luch of this alkali was originally present
in the soil, but it was increased by the small amounts in solution in
the water consumed. During the first two seasons, when the soil tanks
were covered during rain storms. th(> concentration of alkali on the
surface increased month by month. During the third season, much
of the surface deposit was carried back into the soil by rainfall pene-
tration, causing a redistribution. Chemical analyses of soils taken from
the tanks at the end of the investigation show a high pH value and
where the water table was close to the tank surface a very high con-
centration of salts in the top inch of soil. As salt grass is alkali
resistar:iC it is doubtful if the rate of transpiration was affected.
Alkali was very much less in amount at the San Bernardino station,
and no deposits occurred on the tank surfaces. Water used in the
tests was from an artesian well and was relatively pure. The distribu-
tion of salts was greater in the top soil, decreasing in amounts toward
the water tables. The same was true of the pH values.
Victorville Station .
In November, 1930, an experiment station was established near
Victorville for the purpose of measuring evaporation and transpiration
losses from moist areas along the Mojave River and for recording
meteorological data. The work was correlated with the stream flow
measurements being made by the U. S. Geological Survey to determine
the consumptive use of water between gaging stations at several loca-
tions on the river.
The experiment station was located in and on the bank of a small
cienaga on the east side of the IMojave River. The equipment consisted
of three tule tanks, a standard Weather Bureau evaporation pan, an
anemometer, a set of standard maximum and minimum thermometers
and a thermograph housed in a standard shelter, a rain gage and a
ground well. Previous investigations regarding consumptive use of
water by native A^egetation along stream channels* indicate that if
data from tanks are to be used in estimating losses from larger areas
under field conditions, the tanks should be set in a field of natural
growth similar to that in the tanks. Two tule tanks were therefore
placed in the swamp, one 2 feet in diameter and the other 6 feet in
diameter. A third tule tank, similar to those used at the Santa Ana,
Prado, and San Bernardino stations, was set in the ground on the
bank for the purpose of demonstrating the effect of exposure on the
use of water by plants grown in tanks. The standard Weather Bureau
evaporation pan was also placed on the bank with similar exposure.
Observations were made on evaporation, consumptive use of water
from tules, "u-ind movement, rainfall, and temperatures from Febru-
ary 1, 1931, to February 28. 1933. The results indicate the following
conclusions :
* California State Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33, Rainfall Pene-
tration and Consumptive Use of Water in the Santa Ana River Valley and Coastal
i'lain, by Harry F. Blaney, C. A. Taylor, and A. A. Young. Chapter 4.
24 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
1. Based on the 25-month period of record, the mean annnal con-
sumptive use of -water by tules growing in a tank 6 feet in diameter,
located in a swamp with natural conditions replicated, was found to be
78.5 acre-inches per acre.
2. For the same period, the mean annual evaporation from a
standard Weather Bureau pan located on the bank near the swamp was
82.5 inches. By applying a conversion coefficient of 0.7 to this value,
the mean annual evaporation from a lake surface is indicated to be
58 inches.
3. The ratio of the mean annual consumptive use of water by the
tules to the mean annual evaporation from the standard Weather
Bureau pan for the period of record is 0.95.
4. Based on the mean record for the two growing seasons from
]\Iay to October, inclusive, the evaporation from a lake surface is
indicated to be 40 inches, while for the same period the consumptive
use of water by tules would be 62 acre-inches per acre. This exceeds
the loss by evaporation from the free water surface of a reservoir by
22 inches.
5. The investigation demonstrates the impracticability of applying
to field conditions records of tests made in isolated tanks of tules grown
apart from their natural environment.
Coldwater Canyon Investigations
The investigation into the lo.sses (tccurring along the stream chan-
nels above the usual points of diversion was started in Coldwater
Canyon near San Bernardino in 1931 and continued through 1932. The
combined evaporation and transpiration by the native vegetation grow-
ing in the canyon was determined by accurately measuring the water at
various points along the channel. The controls were on bed rock so that
the amount of water entering the upper end of each section of channel
was known as well as the amount leaving each section.
The losses from two sections of the canyon are reported, the average
elevation above sea level of one being 2400 feet and of the other 2800
feet. The average width of the canyon bottom fill in the lower section
is 49 feet, and in the upper section it is 44 feet.
The results of this study show a loss from the lower section of the
canyon of 72 acre-inches per 1000 feet of canyon for the six-month
period from May to October, inclusive, 1932. This is at the rate of
64 acre-inches per acre of canyon bottom fill. For the same period in the
upper section of canyon, the loss was found to be at the rate of 50 acre-
inches per acre of canyon bottom fill.
The evaporation from the water surface in the stream is shown
to he only a small part of the total loss by evaporation and transpira-
tion. The water surface of this stream is almost completely shaded
and the evaporation rate would be greater in open areas where the
water surface is exposed to the sun. The maximum loss in the canyon
occurred during the month of August. 1932, being at the average rate
of 0.44 acre-inch per acre per day in the lower section, and 0.35 acre-
inch per acre per day in the upper section. In October the average
rate of loss was 0.26 acre-inch per acre per day in the lower section
and 0.20 acre-inch per acre per day in the upper section.
Enough water is consumed during the growing season along each
mile of canvon similar to the lower section to meet the annual irrigation
WATER LOSSES PRO:\r WET AREAS 25
requirements of approximately 16 acres of citrus. For the upper
section, the loss in each mile wonld meet the irrigation requirements
of 11 acres of citrus.
Evaporation from Free Water Surfaces
The Bureau of Agricultural Engineering' has been keeping evapora-
tion records at several stations in southern California in cooperation
with the State Division of Water Resources, since 1928. Other agen-
cies also have been making observations. These agencies do not always
use the same type of evaporation pan and results from the different
types are not comparable. For this reason a cooperative, experimental
key station has been established at Baldwin Park for the purpose of
correlating the data being collected by the various organizations and
for determining factors that may be used to reduce the observations
on various types of evaporation pans to a comparable basis. This inves-
tigation is expected to continue for several years, until sufficient data
are available for the purpose.
The Los iVngeles County Flood Control District, the 8an Gabriel
Valley Protective Association, the Pasadena Water Department, the
California State Division of Water Resources, and the United States
Geological Survey are cooperating with the Division of Irrigation, U. S.
Bureau of xVgricultural Engineering, in conducting this investigation.
Three types of evaporation pans have been installed at the station :
1. Standard Weather Bureau pan, 4 feet in diameter by 10 inches
deep, set upon a wooden platform above ground.
2. U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering type, 6 feet in diam-
eter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
3. Los Angeles County Flood Control District type, 2 feet in
diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Records of evaporation from free water surfaces in pans and tanks,
collected by various agencies in southern California, are tabulated in
Chapter V.
AVith few exceptions all records of evaporation are comparatively
recent, the majority being obtained since 1929. The oldest record
available, that at Pomona, was of short duration — from 1903 to 1905.
One record Avas begun at South Haiwee Reservoir, Inyo County, in 1924,
and one at Fairmont Reservoir in Antelope Valley in 1923 by the City
of Los Ajigeles. Both records are continuous to the present date. The
longest record available is at Chula Vista, San Diego County, main-
tained bv the U. S. Weather Bureau continuouslv since 1918.
CHAPTER II
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE SANTA ANA RIVER VALLEY
AND COASTAL PLAIN
By A. A. Young *
This chapter deals ^vHh. the consumptive use of water in the Santa
Ana River basin by varions types of moist area native vegetation
commonly found along stream beds, swamps and cienagas, and the
evaporation from moist soil without vegetative growth.
As originally outlined the plan of the investigation was to deter-
mine by tank experiments the use of water by wild grasses, and evapo-
ration from bare soil in moist areas. Two experiment stations were
established, one at Santa Ana and one at San Bernardino in 1929, and
a third, at Prado, was added in the following year. In the vicinity of
each are certain areas with relatively high ground water supporting
moist area native growth from which samples were selected for trans-
planting into tanks for study.
A progress report giving results of studies at Santa Ana and San
Bernardino stations of consumptive use of water by salt grass and
Bermuda grass, and evaporation from uncultivated bare soil for the
year ending May 1, 1930, has been published.** Since that bulletin
was M-ritten several changes and additions have been made to the
original set-up and the experiments have been extended to include
the measurement of consumptive use of water by round stem tules and
triangular stem tules, cat-tails, wire rush and willows grown in tanks.
These studies were continued for an additional two years following the
published progress report in 1930, and the data assembled during that
period are presented herewith as a final report! of the investigations
made.
SANTA ANA STATION
Description of Site
Following a survey of western Orange County early in 1929, in
which a study was made of soil type and soil moisture conditions, a
small plot of ground was selected as the site for the Santa Ana experi-
ment station for studies of consumptive use of water by moist area
vegetation. The plot is in a level 10-aere field of small native vegeta-
tion, 4 miles west of Santa Ana and about 7 miles inland from the coast.
It is free from windbreaks and shade and is generally suitable in
regard to soil, climatic conditions, and exposure to the elements for
the studies undertaken. The station ground is 50 by 100 feet and is
surrounded bj' a tight woven Avire fence for protection. Plate I is a
general plan of the station showing the arrangement and uses of the
various tanks.
* Assistant Irrigation Engineer, Division of Irrigation, Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering, U. S. Department of AgricuUure.
** Part II. Bulletin No. 33, Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of
Water in the Santa Ana River Valley and Coastal Plain. 1930. State of California,
Department of Public "Works, Division of Water Resources.
t Credit is due to Dean C. Muckel, Junior Civil Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering, for valuable assistance in collection of data from October, 1930, to
December, 1.931, and in preparation of the report.
(26)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
27
PLATE I
\y
50 feet
I I
1 ,
23/ie
Thermometer
Shelter
2 o---e---------0
3 0---0------------------0
4 o=-Q---- ----- -=0 O— -— ------S-----0 13
to
50---S------0 ^ 0^'-"-"-"'-"^"-~0'^
6 0-- -B-- ---------- -O O"-"' =--"-"Q-"^"0 15
— O
Rain^a^e
7 0--€3--
8 0----Q-
BO--U-
-o
--0
II o-o---— ------ o
21 O
220I i2 0-^-====--^0
19 O leQ 23"Evap.tank
•7 0
^ G-O" -*
18 O
Oil tests
Well
Tules
24
-n
Willow
250
Y/ire rush
20 ( ) 4 ft. Pans
Anemometer No. 488
PLAN OF SANTA ANA STATION.
28 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
The climatic conditions at this point are representative of the
coastal climate of southern California. Summers are warm and dry
while winters are moderate. Coastal fog's are of frequent occurrence
and tend to modify evaporation from water surfaces and transpiration
losses by plants.
Soil at the station is of alluvial origin, classified as Ilanford fine
sandy loam which grades into coarse yellow sand at a depth of 6 to
7 feet.* It is probably lacking' in humus and contains a small amount
of alkali although not enough to affect the growth of the type of vege-
tation under investigation. An ample supply of good water for use
in the experiment tanks was found at a depth of a few feet.
Station Equipment
The equipment first installed early in 1929 consisted of 12 soil
tanks, each connected to a IMariotte supply tank, a set of maximum
and minimum thermometers and a thermograph set in an instrument
shelter, a standard rain gage, a standard Weather Bureau evaporation
pan, a circular sunken evaporation tank of the same diameter as the
soil tanks and a shallow well with a hand pump to supply water for
the various tanks. Later, two anemometers and three additional soil
tanks with Mariotte control were added, making 15 soil tanks in all.
Soil tanks are of the double type with an annular space between
the inner and outer shell. The inner tank, 23^^ inches in diameter by
6 feet in depth, is suspended in the outer tank by means of a heavy
angle-iron rim around the top. The bottom of the inner tank is
removable and bolted in place by long rods to the supporting top rim.
The inner tank holds soil, and the outer is a reservoir for water Avhich
passes into the soil through perforations in the tank wall and in the
bottom plate. Each soil tank unit is connected by a pipe to a INIariotte
supply tank which regulates the height of the water table in the
annular space between the inner and outer tank walls and supplies
water to the tank growth as needed.
From time to time additional tanks of simple construction were
added in which tules, cat-tails, willows and wire rush were grown in
order to measure consumptive use of water by each variety. One tule
tank and one tank for willows were each 6 feet in diameter by 3 feet
deep. Smaller tanks, used for other swamp growth, were each 25 1
inches in diameter by 2.7 feet deep. Each of the 6-foot tanks used
water in such quantities that it was necessary to provide them with
supply tanks equipped with automatic feed control to provide watey as
needed, and at the same time hold the water level in the crop tank at
a constant level. This could have been accomplished by i\Iariotte con-
trol, but in this case a needle valve operated by a float was found
satisfactory. When the water surface in the crop tank dropped, due
to transpiration and evaporation losses, the float dropped also, opening
the needle valve and admitting more water. When the water surface
returned to its original level, the valve closed and the flow ceased. A
water glass and a graduated scale on the side of tlie supply tank
allowed readings of amounts of Avater Avitlidrawn. This type of control
has been in use at all three stations during the investigations.
* Soil Survey of the Analiiim Area. California. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 29
The evaporalioii pan was set upon a \v()()(U'ii grillage in accordance
with iiistnictions issued by the Ignited States AVeather Bureau for pans
of this type. Evaporation losses Avere measured by a hook gage gradu-
ated to thousandths of a foot and mounted on the side of the pan. At
the northwest corner of the grillage an anemometer was mounted on a
stand so that the level of the cups was about V2 inches above the top
of the pan and about 24 inches above the ground surface. Originally,
a second anemometer was set 12 inches above the ground surface, mid-
way in the row of soil tanks, to measure ground winil, but it was used
only during the tir.st year of the investigation.
Method of Filling Soil Tanks
Heretofore a method frequently used for placing soil in experi-
ment tanks has been to separate layers of soil as excavated from a
trench and place them in the tank in the same order as originally found
in the ground. This process broke up the soil structure, increased the
volume, and changed the density. If tamped into the tank, alternate
layers of loose and dense material resulted, with structural arrange-
ments of soil particles entirely different' from the original. Soil mois-
ture experiments with soil so placed have not always proved satisfac-
tory. To rectify this condition the first tanks used in this investigation
were filled without materially changing the original soil structure. The
plan followed was to fill each tank by forcing the bottomless inner shell
over a core of soil of the same diameter of the tank until full, at the
same time excavating around the tank shell as the filling proceeded.
At first use was made of a heavy screw jack resting upon a crib
of timber blocks, which in turn rested upon the angle-iron rim, with
the jack working against an overhead cable anchored in the ground
on each side of the excavation. As the tank sank into the soil under the
pressure, a gradually increasing pile of cribbing was used to support
the jack against the cable. The anchors to which the cable was fas-
tened were of a type generally used to anchor gaw wires and were
set in auger holes bored in the ground.
Friction of soil against the outside of the tank was relieved by
excavating around the tank as the work proceeded. This excavation
generally kept a few inches ahead of the cutting edge of the tank,
cutting a core slightly larger than the tank diameter, the core being
shaved to the proper size as the cutting edge of the tank moved
doAvnward.
As the tank gradually filled, the skin friction on the inside rapidly
increased, tending to cause compression in the soil. After the first
two or three attempts, it was found that the tank shell would slide
over the trimmed core of soil more readily if a sharp blow was given
at the to]) of the tank, using a short piece of timber as a driver. This
impact broke the bond of the inside friction, resulting in less tendency
toward soil compression and allowed increased speed in the work.
A few of the last tanks to be filled were driven over the trimmed core
of soil by impact alone.
When the inner tank shell was filled, the soil column was cut off
l)y jacking the bottom plate across the bottom edge of the tank and
l)olting it to the angle-iron rim at the top. The whole was then hoisted
above the ground by chain block and tripod. The outer shell was ther.
set in place in the excavation, and the inner slu'U with its soil content
30 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
was lowered iuto the outer, where it hung suspended from the heavy
iron rim around the top.
As a means of comparing results of evaporation from similar soil
placed in tanks by different methods, three tanks of the same size as
those described were filled with loose soil taken from an excavation
made to a depth of 6 feet. In making the excavation each foot of soil
removed was kept separate from the others and placed in the tanks in
the original order, foot bj^ foot. Before the tank was completely filled,
it was flooded with water to compact and settle the material in a
uniform manner. Water was added from time to time until it drained
from the bottom through a pipe connection. Very little settlement
occurred after the initial settlement and there is no doubt as to this
method producing a more uniform soil density' than is obtained by
placing and tamping the soil in layers.
The Mariotte Tank
This device consists essentially of a supply tank equipped on the
principle of the Mariotte flask to supply water to the soil tank through
a connecting pipe. A 12- by 36-inch galvanized-iron range boiler,
chosen because of its solid construction, rigidity of its connections,
and practicability of keeping it air-tight, was found satisfactory for
the purpose. Mounted upon the side of the supply tank is a vertical
length of glass tubing, each end of which is fitted with a rubber
stopper perforated to admit a small connecting pipe. The lower pipe
connects -svith the supply pipe between the Mariotte tank and the soil
tank, while the upper connects with the top of the supply tank. Upon
the glass tube is mounted a meter stick or scale upon which differences
in daily readings determine the amount of water withdrawn. A valve
in the connecting pipe makes it possible to shut off the flow of water
when the supply tank is being refilled. A waste pipe also is set into
the connecting pipe to discharge excess water from the soil tank into
a receiving vessel. The lip of the waste pipe is set at the level of the
water in the soil tank. The tank equipment is shown in Plate II.
A vent tube of small diameter passes through the rubber stopper at
the top of the glass gage. This tube is open at both ends and the level
of the soil water is determined bj' the elevation of the bottom end of
the vent. In Plate II, the water table in the soil tank is shown as
being at such a depth that it is necessary to extend the vent tube
downward into an extension well below the supply pipe.
Previous experience has determined that A'ariations in temperature
cause changes in the vapor pressure in the jMariotte tank above the
water surface, causing fluctuations in the water level. Every effort
was made, therefore, to insulate the IMariotte tanks against temperature
changes. The Santa Ana ]\Iariotte tanks were completely buried in
the ground except for a small entrance provided with a narrow door-
way for making readings of the graduated scale. They were further
protected from the cooling effect of rainfall on the surrounding soil
by a galvanized iron roof, beneath which was free circulation of air.
For the benefit of those who may be interested in the theory of
operation of the Mariotte tank, a brief description follows. The vent
tube provides the Mariotte control feature which maintains a constant
water level in the connected soil tank. In operation, the Mariotte tank
is filled -with water and the valve in the connecting pipe is opened.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
31
PLATE II
.0-9
^1^
I !
t--_-
ni c
i^*sii.r-^M<x^;li^^^^,ix!i>^,£S^^j^
^
VI ^ -,
D- -^ —
"5 ^
+- i-
C 3
0) VI
> .
<0
E S
o
v> t:
W "
hA (-1
K <
< ^
^ 2
^ 00
O
O
Z «
1-1 >-'
< 0-
IS <
< K
O «
H o
2
<
O
(/)
O
Q
H
O
[I)
2
2
O
u
2
<
U
H
O
Pi
<
s
32 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
allowing' water to fiow to the soil tank. As the water level drops in
the supply tank a partial vacuum is formed above the water surface
and the water drops in the vent tube from the original level to a point
depending- upon the degree of vacuum established. This point is
determined by the ditference in the pressure heads, due to atmospheric
pressure and the partial vacuum in the supply tank. Water will con-
tinue to fall in the vent tube, but at a greater rate than in the Mariotte
tank, until the pressure head corres])onding to the atmospheric pressure
minus the pressure head caused by the partial vacuum is balanced
by a column of water equal to the ditference in elevation between the
water surface in the Mariotte tank and the bottom of the vent. Water
will then stand in the vent at the bottom of the tube with the pressure
at this point atmospheric.
If the water continues to flow, air will enter the glass gage through
the vent tube, bubbling upward through the water in the gage to enter
the top of the supply tank. Water will continue to rise in the soil tank
up to the level of the lower end of the vent, at which point the atmos-
pheric pressure in the soil tank and the bottom of the vent tube is the
same. As there is no ditference in pressure and both points are at the
same level, there is no head to cause further flow and bubbling will cease.
AVhen the water table in the soil falls below the bottom of the vent,
the balance of pressures is again disturbed and a flow of water will
again start from the Mariotte tank, replacing the amount used.
Some of the difficulties in the accurate use of the Mariotte tank
should not be overlooked. As the partial vacuum in the tank must be
maintained at all times, pipe connections must be air-tight. Air leaks
through the many joints in the system disturb the balance of pressure
necessary for automatic control. Thorough insulation against tempera-
ture changes inside the tank have been previously mentioned. Such
changes cause expansion or contraction of the tank itself, of the water
in the tank and also of the air in the chamber above the water. The
combined result is to cause changes in the vapor pressure with a result-
ing influence upon effective regulation.
Water in the glass tube will fall with an increase in temperature
in the Mariotte tank, and readings on the scale taken at this time will
be erroneous. A test of the effect of temperature on scale readings
showed that an increase of 30° F. in air temperature caused a fall
of 1 cm. in the water surface in the glass gage. The temperature change
inside the Mariotte tank during the test was not measured. When the
temperature returned to the starting point the water in the gage
returned to its original position. If the gage readings are taken at an
early morning hour each day, the difference in the readings will repre-
sent a true rate of loss as early morning temperature changes are too
small to affect vapor pressure. Eeadings taken at other times of the
day may be in error unless complete insulation of the supply tank is
effected.
SAN BERNARDINO STATION
Description of Site
In choosing a site for tank experiments in the upper Santa Ana
River Valley, a small plot on the grounds of the Antil Pumping Plant
of the San Bernardino Water Department,* about 1 mile east of town,
* The Municipal Water Department of the City of San Bernardino, tlirougli tlie
courtesy of William Starke, as.sisted in maintaining this station.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
33
was selected after a stiidj^ of soil and ground-water conditions in the
vicinity. The plot lies in a level field of Bermuda grass, at some dis-
tance from any buildings, and has excellent exposure.
Climatic conditions at this point are representative of the interior
climate of southern California, and summers are hot and dry. Winter
temperatures are lower than at the Santa Ana station, and rainfall is
greater.
Soil used in the experiment tanks was taken in place at the station
site and is classified as Chino silt loam.* Although the location of the
station is in an area of high ground water, no evidence of alkali
appeared on the tank surfaces during the 3 years of operation. Fluc-
PLATE III
f
•.•^%r..-
,%
BOARD HOUSING FOR MARIOTTE TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO.
tuations of ground water level, varying from 2^ to 6 feet from the sur-
face, occur each year, being lowest during the summer months. The
station is supplied with artesian w^ater from the city pumps.
Station Equipment
Tank equipment at the San Bernardino station is similar to that
at Santa Ana, although not the same in number of tanks. Four soil
tanks, each 23^^ inches in diameter, were set with their tops level with
the ground surface. Because of existing high ground water, these
are 40 inches in depth instead of 6 feet. Each tank is connected with
a ]\rariotte supply tank to furnish water to the soil tank as needed
and to maintain a constant water level in the soil.
* Soil Survey of the Riverside Area, California. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
3 — 4503
34 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Because of ground water conditions, it was not deemed advisable
to set the Mariotte tanks under<;round for protection from temperature
changes as at Santa Ana. Instead, each tank was placed above ground
enclosed in a white painted board shelter. This is shown in Plate III.
Each shelter box has a narrow doorway opening before the glass gage
and a hinged top to allow access for refilling the tank when empty.
To provide insulation against temperature changes as much as possible,
the space between the tank and the sides of the box are filled with wood
shavings and the tank is wrapped with asbestos paper.
Evaporation was measured from a standard Weather Bureau pan
mounted on a timber grill and from a ground tank 23iV inches in
diameter by 2.7 feet in depth. This tank was set mth the rim 3 inches
above the ground surface and the water surface was held near the
ground level. All eva])oration readings were obtained with a hook
gage equipped with a vernier reading to thousandths of a foot. A
four-cup anemometer was mounted on the platform of the pan, with
the cups about 12 inches above the top of the pan.
A single tank, 23iV inches in diameter by 2.7 feet in depth, was
used in which consumptive use of water by round stem tules in sub-
merged soil was measured. It was set in the ground with about 3 inclies
of the rim exposed and connected to a supply tank through a float
arrangement, previously described. A glass gage and a graduated
scale mounted on the side of the supply tank allowed measurements
of water withdrawn for plant use.
Additional equipment consisted of maximum and minimum tlier-
mometers housed in a standard shelter and an 8-iuch rain, gage:
PRADO STATION
Description of Site
A small station was established near Prado on the Santa Ana River,
midway between Santa Ana and San Bernardino, during the sunnner
of 1930, for collection of meteorological records, measurement of evapo-
ration from a water surface, and consumptive use of water by trian-
gular stem tules. The site is on slightly sloping ground near the lower
end of the Prado basin and is fully exposed to sun and wind.
The climate is intermediate between the interior climate at the
San Bernardino station and the coastal climate at Santa Ana, as it is
tempered by the ocean breezes blowing through the Santa Ana canyon
into the Prado basin. This station Avas operated in cooperation with
the U. S. Geological Survey.
Station Equipment
The Prado station is equipped with a standard Weather Bureau
evaporation pan, a ground tank growing tules for measurement of
consumptive use of water, a thermograph housed in a standard shelter,
a rain gage, and an anemometer. The evaporation pan and the tule
tank are each equipped with a supply tank connection operating
through a float valve arrangement to supply and maintain a constant
water level in the pan or the tank. T'^se of water in each case is meas-
ured on the chart of a w^ater stage recorder mounted with a float in the
supply tank. This arrangement operates satisfactorily, the hourly
rate of use being computed from the chart. A barograph also is used
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 35
at iutervals. The station is protected from intrusion by a high wire
fence with a gate, which is kept locked.
METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS
The three experiment stations just described are spaced at nearly
equal intervals of about 25 miles along the Santa Ana River. While
the distances between the stations are not great, the topography of the
area is such as to cause material differences in climate. The Santa
Ana River Valley is divided into two distinct basins, known as the
upper and lower, connected by the lower Santa Ana canyon. The
Santa Ana station lies on the coastal plain of Orange County below
the canyon and has a distinctly coastal climate characterized by ocean
breezes and light summer fogs, both of which modify the summer tem-
peratures. The Prado station, in Prado basin, Riverside County, is
in the lower part of the upper basin at the upper end of the canyon.
It is slightly remote from the coast but not far enough away to be
removed entirely beyond the effect of the coastal breeze. The principal
difference is the absence of coastal fog, with some increase in tempera-
ture. The San Bernardino station, San Bernardino County, in the
upper basin, is removed farther from the effect of ocean modifying
influences. The climate is classed as interior and the temperature is
higher in summer than at either of the other two stations.
The prevailing winds are from the southwest, off the ocean, and
pass through the Santa Ana canyon by the Prado station. The total
yearly wind movements here and at Santa Ana are about equal, but
during the summer months the greatest movement occurs at Prado.
This condition combined M'ith higher summer temperature results in
a higher rate of evaporation than at the other stations.
Rainfall is deficient throughout the whole of the Santa Ana River
basin except in the higher mountain districts, and occurs almost entirely
between November and April, inclusive. Other months are almost
devoid of precipitation.
Meteorological data for the three stations for the period of the
investigation, showing monthly mean maximum, mean minimum and
mean temperatures, rainfall, and wind movement in miles per month
are given in Tables 1 to 3, inclusive. Rainfall at Santa Ana and San
Bernardino is shown for storm periods in Tables 4 and 5.
36
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 1
MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, RAINFALL, AND MILES OF WIND MOVEMENT AT SANTA
ANA STATION
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
Rainfall
in
inches
Wind
Month
Mean
maximum
Mean
minimum
Mean
Maxi-
mum
Mini-
mum
movement
in miles
1929—
74
76
81
85
79
80
77
72
62
66
68
72
70
75
81
82
77
80
77
70
68
68
76
76
77
81
85
84
84
79
68
63
61
62
69
72
51
53
60
60
58
52
41
41
40
44
46
47
48
55
57
59
54
47
43
36
40
45
42
49
56
56
64
62
55
50
42
37
37
40
41
42
63
65
71
73
69
66
59
57
51
55
57
60
58
65
69
71
66
64
60
53
54
57
69
63
67
69
75
73
70
65
55
50
49
51
55
57
91
95
89
96
98
101
91
86
76
87
89
88
83
88
95
93
90
95
95
82
85
75
92
88
92
99
94
96
97
97
83
73
77
87
87
89
41
43
52
51
42
36
33
30
30
33
33
39
40
47
48
51
48
39
30
24
30
49
33
41
50
49
57
56
43
39
28
30
30
29
33
35
0.03
.11
July
.35
1,695
October - -
1,745
November -
1,806
1,547
1930—
Januarv
5,55
.55
2.99
.80
1.23
.02
1,743
1,682
2,212
April -
1,970
May
2,228
June
1,871
July
1,671
Aiiffust -
1,518
Sentember -
.02
.07
1.47
1,381
1,322
1,534
December - _ _ _ -
1,389
1931-
Januarv
3.82
2.28
.03
2.68
,67
.07
1,382
1,378
March -
1,830
1,736
1,781
1,670
July
1,656
.43
.29
.09
1.69
4.70
2.04
4.53
---
1,415
1,201
1,121
November - - - -
1,223
December -
1,136
1932—
January
1,335
February ._
1,371
1,510
1,659
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
37
TABLE 2
MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, RAINFALL AND MILES OF WIND MOVEMENT
AT PRADO STATION
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
Rainfall
in
inches
Wind
Month
Mean
maximum
Mean
minimum
Mean
Maxi-
mum
Mini-
mum
movement
in miles
1930—
June
81
92
90
82
82
77
49
52
55
50
41
39
65
72
73
66
62
58
102
106
100
103
101
98
40
42
47
41
28
25
July
2,034
August
6"27"
1.43
1 858
September
1,540
October
1,232
1,438
1,950
November _ -
December
1931—
January -, . _
2.47
3.53
.09
2.17
.55
1,738
979
Febmarv
March
1,373
1,646
May - -
80
85
94
93
89
81
69
52
53
63
61
52
49
37
66
69
79
77
71
65
53
94
100
105
106
102
95
93
43
46
53
53
41
39
23
1970
June
1,840
July.
2,240
.16
.15
1.89
2.69
4.77
2.29
5.29
.12
.82
1,922
Septemb-er
1,496
1,249
1,257
1,223
1,679
October - __ __
November .
1932—
January' .. . -
February _ _
1,217
1,512
April -
1,313
Mav
2,116
June - ._
82
85
88
84
79
83
65
50
54
54
54
47
39
34
66
70
71
69
63
61
50
102
92
102
98
92
93
85
43
45
44
49
32
29
27
2,285
July -
2,418
August
2,304
1,892
October . .- .-
.73
1,743
1,398
December
1,578
38
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 3
MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, RAINFALL AND MILES OF WIND MOVEMENT
AT SAN BERNARDINO STATION
Month
1929-
May
June
July
August
September-
October
November-
December..
1930—
January
February.-.
March
April
May..
June --
July
August
September.
October
November.
December. .
1931—
January
February...
March
April
May
June
July
August
September -
October
November-
December- -
1932—
January
February...
March
April
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
Mean
Mean
maximum
mmimum
82
47
88
50
95
57
98
60
88
55
85
46
80
34
75
33
61
36
74
38
70
41
77
45
74
43
86
52
96
54
95
57
84
50
82
44
77
39
72
27
68
35
66
40
76
37
79
44
83
52
86
53
98
62
95
61
89
51
81
47
69
37
Mean
65
69
76
79
72
66
57
54
49
56
56
61
59
69
75
76
67
63
58
50
52
53
57
62
08
70
80
78
70
64
53
Maxi-
mum
94
108
106
106
107
98
91
85
76
87
88
95
95
101
106
104
102
94
90
79
82
73
92
94
95
101
107
108
99
100
93
Mini-
mum
37
39
49
51
41
31
26
25
24
31
28
35
34
42
43
50
42
34
28
19
25
30
24
35
42
46
53
51
40
37
23
Rainfall
in
inches
0.12
.53
4.71
1.06
3.99
1.33
1.76
1.24
2.08
2.15
3.73
.60
2.73
.89
.06
"i"57
.24
1.14
3.17
3.59
2.61
5.99
.20
.72
Wind
movement
in miles
1,012
1,183
1,589
1,255
1,434
1,357
1,864
1,143
947
900
679
879
895
1,086
1,257
748
798
890
816
797
1,177
1,013
902
1,168
1,391
1,391
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
39
TABLE 4
RAINFALL BY STORMS AT SANTA ANA STATION
1929-30
1930-31
1931-32
Storm period
Rainfall
in
inches
Storm period
Rainfall
in
inches
Storm period
Rainfall
in
inches
1930—
.Tan 5-6
0.80
4.27
.48
.45
.10
.41
2.51
.07
.80
1.19
.02
.02
.02
.02
1930—
Oct. 8-9
0.07
.65
.82
.40
2.49
.10
.03
.80
1.82
.04
.01
.41
.03
2.68
.67
.05
.02
.02
.41
.02
.04
.23
1931-
Oct. 1
0.01
Jan 9-19
Nov. 13-17
Oct. 8
.02
Jan 26-27
Nov. 26-29
Oct. 17-19
.06
Feb ''0-22
1931—
Nov. 1-2
.03
Feb 26-27
Nov. 7-11
.20
Mar 3-5
Nov. 14-15---
.83
Mar. 13-18
Jan. 5-8
Nov. 26-27
.63
Mir ''9
Jan. 13
Dec. 8
1.49
Anril ''9-30
Jan. 23
Dec. 10-11
.16
May 1-4
Jan. 30-31
Dec. 14
.50
May 8
Feb. 3-4
Dec. 20-25
.87
^Iay 16
Feb. 6
Dec. 29-31
1.68
June 20
Feb. 8
1932—
Jan. 1-3 - -
Sept. 30
Feb. 10-12
Mar. 11
.23
April 21-27
Jan. 12-15
.78
May 24-25
Jan. 26-
.03
Jiine 4—5
Jan. 31 -
1.00
June 25
Feb. 1-9
3.26
Aug. 12 - -
Feb. 13-18
April 24-26
1.27
Aug. 28
.35
Sept. 2-3
Sept. 24-25
Sept. 30 .
Totals, October 1 to
September 30
11.16
11.81
13.40
TABLE 5
RAINFALL BY STORMS AT SAN BERNARDINO STATION
1929-30
1930-31
1931-32
Storm period
Rainfall
in
inches
Storm period
Rainfall
in
inches
Storm period
Rainfall
in
inches
1930—
•Jan. 5-14
4.23
.48
1.06
.48
2.39
1.12
.02
1.31
1.54
.11
.11
1930—
Oct. 8-10
1.24
1.45
.63
.83
.33
.69
.30
.35
2.28
.05
.67
.38
.60
2.73
.89
.06
.36
1.21
.09
.09
.06
1931—
Oct. 1
0.13
Jan. 26-27
Nov. 13-17
Oct. 18
1.01
Feb. 19-26
Nov. 26-27
Nov. 7
.02
Mar. 4-5
1931—
Jan. 1-2
Nov. 10-11
.16
Mar. 14-16
Nov. 14-15 --
1.35
Mar. 30-31
Nov. 19
.25
April 13-14
Nov. 26-27
.99
\pri! 28-30
Jan. 7-8
Nov. 30
.40
.May 1-4
Jan. 31
Dec. 8
1.02
May 8
Feb. 1 -
Dec. 10-11
.42
May 17-18
Feb. 4-6
Dec. 14
.23
Feb. 8..
Dec. 20-21
.21
Feb. 11-15
Dec. 25..
.36
Feb. 19
Dec. 27-28
1.35
Mar. 24 .
1932—
April 22-29
May 25-26
.34
June 5
Jan. 12-13
.40
Aug. 10-11
Jan. 15
.49
Aug. 28-29
Jan. 26 -..
.06
Sept. 2
Jan. 31 .
1.32
Sept. 25 -•-.
Feb. 1
.53
Sept. 30
Feb. 6-9
2.95
Feb. 13-18
2.47
Feb. 29 .
.04
Mar. 2
.01
Mar. 14..
.19
April 24-27
.72
Totals, October 1 to
September 30
12.85
15.29
17.42
40 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
OPERATION OF TANKS
Sources of Errors in Tank Experiments
In conducting investigations of the consumptive use of water by-
plant life two methods, each of which has certain advantages when
used under the proper conditions, are available to the investigator.
These are as follows :
1. Determination of consumptive use by field-grown crops by-
studying soil samples taken with a soil tube.
2. Quantitative measurements of consumptive use by crops grown
in tanks.
Both methods have been used since studies were first begun in this
field, but as knowledge of the subject increased there have been improve-
ments in both method and equipment. The practice of taking field
soil samples at various depths by means of the soil tube for determina-
tion of soil moisture is applicable to practically all conditions of soil
and crop, and consumptive use of water data may be derived from
results so obtained. Similar results may be obtained by measurement of
water applied to crops grown in tanks. On account of limitations in
the size of tanks that may be used in experimental work, such experi-
ments generally include only field or other crops having limited root
systems.
Previous investigators have approved the tank method of studying
consumptive use of Avater, though it is subject to some errors which
must be overcome as far as possible to secure applicable results.
Hence, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the various sources
of error. The factors influencing transpiration determinations with
rooted plants in tanks as sources of experimental errors have been
outlined by Kiesselbach* as follows :
1. Character of potometer and contents.
a. Limitation of amount of soil.
1. Througli size of potometer.
2. Through number of plants grown in potometer.
b. Limitation of fertility of soil.
c. Improper distribution of soil moisture.
d. Evaporation from surface of soil.
e. Entrance of rain water.
f. Exposure of potometer and consequent effect on soil temperature.
g. Unintentional lack of uniformity in soil.
2. Environment.
a. Testing under unnatural habitat.
3. The plant.
a. Plant individuality.
1. Insuflicient number of replications.
2. Disease and injury.
b. Stage of maturity.
1. Insufficient development.
4. Errors due to methods of computation.
5. The personal element in drawing conclusions.
These factors apply also to transpiration plus soil evaporation,
which is termed consumptive use of water or sometimes use of water.
In the investigation reported herein a number of these sources of error
were anticipated and efforts were made to minimize them b}' the selec-
tion of tanks of sufficient size to provide soil capacity for proper growth
of the types of vegetation chosen for study, by the method of filling
the tanks with undisturbed soil and by protection from exposure to
* Transpiration as a Factor in Crop I'roduction, Nebraska Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Research Bulletin No. U, by T. A. Kiesselbach. 1916,
WATICR LOSSES FROi\[ WET AREAS 41
diurnal changes of temperature by setting all tanks in the ground
with tlie tops level with the ground surface. The growth in any tank
should not exceed the number of plants of the same crop ordinarilj^
grown in an equal area under normal field conditions. Not only should
the area per plant be maintained but also the volume of soil available
for plant roots is important. In tanks having high water tables the
soil volume is sometimes limited, curtailing growth of the root system
and likewise affecting the aerial growth. jMoreover, a small volume of
available soil will soon lose its fertility if heavily cropped. This is
especially true of anj^ investigation extending over, more than one
crop year when the soil in the tank is unchanged. A sufficient lack of
soil fertility may result in a higher water requirement per unit of
drv matter produced and be the cause of a considerable source of error.
A further error also exists when the spread of area of foliage grown
in a tank exceeds the tank area. Cases of this kind are found when
the groAvth droops or spreads beyond the tank limits. In such a case
computation of consumptive use per unit of tank area gives an amount
in excess of the true consumptive use as the crop area is in excess of the
tank area.
Experimental records of consumptive use of water by plant growth
in tanks include evaporation from the soil as well as water transpired
through the stomata of the plant leaf. To the agriculturist and
others interested in determining the amount of irrigation water which
should be applied to soil in order to produce a normal crop, a separation
of the water losses into evaporation and transpiration is not important
and the water requirement of a crop as determined by experiment
generally includes both soil evaporation and plant transpiration. In
making such experiments, evaporation and transpiration can not readily
be separated from each other except through the use of methods that
are inapplicable to field conditions. Evaporation from soil tanks having
the same climatic exposure varies with the degree of soil satura-
tion, soil texture, and crop shading. In the tanks used in the experi-
ments described herein both the degree of crop shading and the soil
moisture at the tank surface varied greatly. Both are greatest for
those tanks having the highest water tables. It is evident, therefore,
that it is not proper to subtract soil evaporation from consumptive
use of water by the crop to arrive at the transpiration alone.
Lack of natural euAdronment is also an important source of error
in conducting consumptive use of water studies by the tank method.
As transpiration and evaporation are closely related to climatic condi-
tions, tank experiments with crops nuist be conducted where the experi-
mental growths can be maintained in their natural environment.
Experiments with field crops should be carried on in fields of the same
crop variety, those with grasses should be in meadows where the same
kind of grass has a natural growth and experiments with swamp
growth must be conducted in a swamp area where humidity is high,
to obtain results that are at all comjiarable with actual swamp con-
sumptive use.
Santa Ana Station
Because of errors which might occur in the use of water by evapora-
tion or consumptive use of water by crops in different soil tanks, it was
thought best to operate all tanks in sets of three, the depth to water
42
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
level and variety and age of crop being identical in each. Twelve tanks
were filled with undisturbed soil and three with loose soil settled in
svater. Complete installation data on tanks in ^^se at the Santa Ana
station, giving the diameter, the use made, period covered by test,
content, and depth to water table are shown for each tank in Table 6.
TABLE 6
INSTALLATION DATA ON TANKS USED AT SANTA ANA STATION
Tank
number'
1-2-3
1-2-3
1-2-3
4-5-6
4-5-6
7-8-9
7-8-9.----
10-11-12..
10-11-12--
13-14-15..
13-14-15.-
16
17»
18"
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Dia
Beter
of tank
in inches
23 1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
25
1/2
48
25
1/2
25
1/2
72
72
25
1/2
48
Purpose
of tank
Evaporation .
Evaporation .
Use of water -
Evaporation _
Use of water -
Use of water -
Use of water.
Use of water -
Use of water -
Evaporation -
Use of water -
Evaporation -
Evaporation .
Evaporation -
Use of water.
Evaporation -
Use of water -
Use of water -
Use of water -
Use of water .
Use of water.
Evaporation .
Period of test
Beginning
May, 1929
Oct., 1929
Oct., 1930
May, 1929
Oct., 1930
May, 1929
Oct., 1930
May, 1929
Oct., 1930
July, 1929
Oct., 1930
May, 1929
.A.ug., 1929
\ug., 1929
Aug., 1929
Mav, 1929
Mav, 1930
May, 1930
May, 1930
Mav, 1930
Aug., 1930
May, 1931
Ending
Oct., 1929
Oct., 1930
April, 1932
Oct., 1930
.\pril, 1932
Oct., 1930
April, 1932
Oct., 1930
April, 1932
Oct.. 1930
April. 1932
April, 1932
Mav, 1930
May, 1930
April, 1932
April, 1932
.April, 1932
.April, 1932
April, 1932
April, 1932
April, 1932
April, 1932
Content of tank
Bare soil
Bare soil
Salt grass
Bare soil
Salt grass
Salt grass
Salt grass --
Salt grass
Salt grass
Bare soil
Salt grass
Free water surface
Water covered with oil film
Water covered with oil film
Round stem tules in water
Free water surface
Triangular stem tules in water
Cat-tails in water
Round stem tules in water
Willow
Wire rush
Five per cent sodium chloride solution.
Depth to
water
table in
feet
' Undisturbed soil was used in Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive; disturbed soil in Tanks Nos. 13, 14, and 15.
2 Results of these experiments are published in State of California. Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33.
When the station was first installed, in 1929, four tanks had an
original growth of salt grass growing on the column of soil enclosed in
them, two others had salt grass transplanted in them, and the rest had
bare surfaces. Use of water by salt grass and evaporation from bare,
uncultivated soil was measured from these tanks from May, 1929, to
October, 1930, when several changes in water levels were made and all
bare-soil tanks had salt grass transplanted in them. The new grass did
not make good growth at first, and until gro^\•th began in the following
spring the recorded use of water was largely due to soil evaporation
rather than to consumptive use by the transplanted gi'ass. No further
changes were made in the crop grown or in the depth to water table
in any soil tank after the changes noted in October, 1930.
For reasons which will be given later, measurements of evaporation
from bare, uncultivated soil surfaces in Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were
begun with an initial water table depth of 4 feet and were continued
thus throughout the summer of 1929. It soon became evident that this
water-table depth was greater than the limit of capillary rise of the
soil moisture. This was evidenced in part by the lack of soil moisture
in surface soil and proved beyond doubt by the fact that there was no
withdrawal of water from the Mariotte supply tanks during a five-
month period which included tlie warmest months of the year.
In October following the period during which no evaporation
occurred the water-table levels were raised from 4 to 3 feet from the
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 43
surface and the evaporation test was continued. There was immediate
response in loss of water from tlie supply tanks, but indications were
that the large initial losses from the JMariotte tank were partly absorbed
by the dry soil as capillary moisture, and that only a small part was
lost by soil evaporation. This adjustment of soil moisture continued
for a period of four to six weeks until the capillary demand was satis-
fied, after which a small but rather uniform rate of evaporation con-
tinued.
The evaporation test with water tables at a 3-foot level continued
for the following 12-month period to October, 1930, at which time a
number of changes in depth to water tables in some tanks were made
and all soil evaporation tanks were transplanted to salt grass. It was
rather hard to get this started and in some cases light surface irriga-
tions were applied as the tank surfaces were generally quite dry.
Moreover, the time of year was not the best for starting new growth
and the grass was slow in developing a root system. Consequently the
recorded use of water during the winter or dormant season by those
tanks in which grass was newly transplanted was almost entirely
caused by evaporation from the soil surface rather than l)y consumptive
use. The increase in use of water beginning in jNIarch, foUoAving trans-
planting, shows definitely that this was the end of the dormant period
for the salt grass in this set of tanks.
The second set of tanks, Nos. 4, 5, and 6, containing undisturbed
soil, were first used for measurement of evaporation from the soil
surface with the water table at a depth of 2 feet. As this depth was
well within the limit of capillary rise, evaporation began immediately
after the soil received water and continued until October, 1930, when
the soil evaporation tests were completed. The first two months of
record in 1929 showed a high rate of loss from the iMariotte supply
tank, which may be accounted for as ad.justment and increase of
moisture held in the soil following establishment of a fixed water table.
Such losses were observed in every case where the water table was
raised to a higher level.
Immediately following completion of the evaporation test, the tanks
in this set were transplanted to salt grass, the water table remaining
unchanged. As with the first set of tanks, the grass was slow to start
and some early surface irrigation was necessar}^ Consequently, the
water used during the following winter when the grass was in the dor-
mant stage was almost entirely soil evaporation. Increase in growth
began in the following February and these tanks were soon covered
with a luxuriant growth of grass which completely shaded their soil
surfaces. Kecords were made until April 30, 1932, when the investi-
gation was completed.
The third set, including Tanks Nos. 7, 8, and 9, was first operated
with a 2-foot water table, but with salt grass sod instead of bare sur-
faces. Tank No. 9 was the only one to have an original crop of grass at
the outset. In this tank the grass root system was fully developed
and remained undisturbed, exceept where the shell of the tank cut off
lateral roots as it was forced into the ground. The other two tanks
were bare, and it was necessary to transplant grass and tlevelop root
systems before the maximum use of water was attained. The trans-
planted grass showed a very heavy and healthy growth of 6 inches or
44 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
more. Tank No. 9. on the other hand, had a heavy mat of short
stemmed grass which did not compare in height with the new growth.
Records were kept of the consumptive nse of water nnder these
conditions from j\Ia.y, 1929, to October, 1930, when the water table
was raised from 2 feet to 1 foot, remaining at this level until the end
of the investigation. From the very beginiiing, these tanks had moist
soil surfaces on which accumulations of powdery alkali occurred, and
with the rise in the water table, this became more pronounced. The
concentration, however, was not sufficient to cause injury to the salt
grass, which increased in height and density with the higher water
table.
Tanks Xos. 10, 11, and 12, comprising the fourth set, were covered
with the original salt grass sod found growing on the surface when
the tanks Avere filled, and therefore had fully developed root systems
from the beginning. Prom the first this groAvth was very dry and
sparse and did not increase in density when additional water was sup-
plied. The initial water table was at a depth of 4 feet and consump-
tive use of water measurements were made under these conditions from
May, 1929. to October, 1930, when the water table was lowered to 5
feet. At this depth the experiment was continued until the investiga-
tion was completed. As the water table was always below the limit of
capillary rise, the tank surfaces remained dry in contrast with others
which were always moist. In consequence, there was little or no soil
evaporation and no surface deposit of alkali.
Tanks Nos. 13, 14, and 15 were installed during the summer of
1929, for the purpose of comparing evaporation from soil in tanks
filled by different methods. The comparisons were to be with Tanks
Nos. 4, 5, and 6, ]n-eviously described. Each set had the same depth
to water, the same bare surfaces, and contained the same type of soil,
except that Tanks Nos. 4, 5, and 6 contained undisturbed soil, while
Nos. 13, 14, and 15 were loosely tilled.
These comparisons of evaporation from soils of different structural
arrangement were continued until October, 1930. At this time the
soil evaporation studies were discontinued and all bare tanks were
transplanted to salt grass for further comparative studies. After both
sets of tanks were transplanted to salt grass, the comparison was con-
tinued without changes in depth of water tables until the investigation
was discontinued. Both sets of tanks produced good growths of grass,
although that grown in the loose soil was not as heavy as that grown
in the undisturbed soil.
In addition to use of soil tanks with ^Nlariotte connections for
evaporation and consumptive use of water studies, several tanks of
simple design were used for growths of tules, willows, and wire rush.
As tules are aquatic plants accustomed to grow in swamps with their
roots submerged, the tanks in which they were grown were maintained
with water tables about 2 inches above the soil level. The height of
the water table was determined by an index point in each tank. In
the smaller tanks the water table was raised to the index point each
morning by using a measured anu)unt of water. In larger tanks this
involved a greater amount of work and supply tanks were operated to
maintain llic proper water level and supply water as used. In the
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
45
willow and wire rush tanks, the water table was kept 2 feet below the
soil surface with sliglit fluctuations.
San Bernardino Station
The four tanks used at the Antil Plant of the San Bernardino
Water Department were installed for measurement of consumptive use
of water by Bermuda grass, of which there was a heavy crop growing
in the yard in which the tanks were set. As the tanks were filled with
undisturbed soil each had a good stand of grass with root systems fully
developed from the beginning of the investigation. At this station
tanks were operated in duplicate, one pair having a depth of water
table of 3 feet and the other of 2 feet below the soil surface. These
depths were unchanged throughout the investigation. Each soil tank
was connected to a ^Nlariotte supply tank from which the daily amounts
of water used were measured.
Besides the four soil tanks, one tank of round stem tules was
maintained to determine the consumptive use by this growth. This
tule tank was coimected with a supply tank through a float valve to
supply water as needed and hold the water table at an index point
about 2 inches above the soil level. Installation data giving the number
of tanks, periods of use, and content of each tank are shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7
INSTALLATION DATA FOR TANKS USED AT SAN BERNARDINO STATION
Tank
number'
1-2
3-4
5--
6-
7--
Diameter
of tank
in inches
23 1,16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
4S
Purpose
of tank
Use of water.
Use of water.
Evaporation .
Use of water.
Evaporation _
Period of test
Beginning Ending
May, 1929
May, 1929
Mav, 1929
April, 1930
May, 1929
Jan., 1932
Jan., 1932
April, 1932
April, 1932
April, 1932
Content of tank
Bermuda grass
Bermuda grass
Free water surface
Round stem tules in water.
Free water surface
Depth to
water
table in
feet
' Undisturbed Chino silt loam soil used in Bermuda grass tanks.
Prado Station*
Only one crop tank has been used at the Prado station in deter-
mination of consumptive use of water. This tank contains a dense
growth of triangular stem tules grown in submerged soil as at the
other stations. A supply tank is used in connection with the tule tank,
the connection being made through a float valve. Measurement of
water withdrawn from the suppl}' tank is shown on recorder charts by
means of a water stage recorder, and weekly or semiweekly visits are
made to the station to replenish the water supply and renew the charts.
This station is still in operation and will be continued.
Protection from Rainfall
During the wet seasons of 1929-30 and 1930-31, covers were pro-
vided for all soil tanks to prevent changes in soil moisture content due
to rainfall. The covers (Plate IV) were of light metal, circular in
design and ^\■^th sloping tops, and Avere set on legs a few inches high to
allow full circulation of air over the protected tank surface. While it
was impossible to keep all rainfall from the tanks be(!ause of absence
from the station at the exact beginning of each storm, they were set as
* Thf United States Geological Survey, cooperated in maintaining this station
through the courtesy of F. C. Ebert.
46
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
soon as possible and removed when the rain ceased. The amount of addi-
tional moisture the tanks received from rainfall Avas negligible and was
soon evaporated.
There is objection to using covers as the shade they give reduces
both evaporation and transpiration. At the time they w'ere used,
however, both evaporation and transpiration were at a minimum on
account of overcast sky and increased humidity. Also, because covers
were raised above the soil tanks by the legs on which they stood, normal
air movements were not restricted.
Beginning with the 1931-32 rainy season, it was decided to have
all soil tanks exposed to rainfall and covers were not used as during
PLATE IV
CIRCULAR METAL COVERS TO PROTECT SOIL TANKS FROM RAINFALL
WHILE ALLOWING FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR OVER THE
TANK SURFACE.
the two previous seasons. Under these conditions each rain changed
the water content of the soil. The additional soil moisture was dis-
posed of by evaporation and transpiration or the excess drained off
through the overflow outlet to be caught and mea,sured in a container.
On account of changes in soil moisture, withdrawals of water from
the Mariotte tanks did not give a correct index of consumptive use by
the soil tanks. Recourse to taking soil moisture samples from each tank
at the beginning of each month was therefore necessary. Consumptive
use was computed as the algebraic sum of the change in soil moisture,
rainfall during the period, water drawn from the supply tank, and
waste water measured in the overflow containers. Certain inaccuracies
inherent to this method could not be avoided. Probably the most
important of these was caused by inability to obtain soil moisture
samples immediately above the water table in the soil tank. This soil
was saturated to such an extent that it could not be held in the soil
tube, and the samples obtained indicated less moisture than actually
existed.
WATER LOSSES FRO^I WET AREAS
47
Since tanks were protected from rainfall durini>' the first two years
and exposed dnrinti- the third year, results from tank studies are not
entirely comparable. Greater evaporation occurred from tanks subject
to rainfall, both from the soil surface and from moisture intercepted
by the grass. On a heavy growth of grass, the latter item might be
considerable during an entire season. There was every reason to sup-
pose that consumptive use of water by crops grown in tanks exposed
ro rainfall during the wet season would exceed that used in tanks
protected from rain, and the records show this to be true.
SOIL ALKALI IN TANKS
Most western soils contain alkali salts in various amounts and the
soil at the Santa Ana station was no exception. As the station was pri-
marily for the investigation of consumptive use of water by salt grass,
which is tolerant of a considerable concentration of salts, no eifect on
the rate of transpiration was expected. Several tanks w'ere used for soil
evaporation studies, and it is probable that in a few of these gradual
deposition of alkali on the tank surface had some influence in reducing
the amount of evaporation. The greatest evaporation from any tanks
occurred from those holding disturbed soil, although the most alkali
was evident on their surfaces.
As the processes of evaporation and transpiration continued month
after month, the original amount of alkali in the soil was increased
by constant addition of water to the soil tanks. This water was obtained
at the station from a shallow Avell and chemical analysis showed it to be
relatively free from injurious salts and in every waj' suitable for
tank use. Water used in the experimental work at the San Bernardino
station was supplied from an artesian well and was even better for
the purpose than that at Santa Ana. Samples of water from the
annular spaces of a number of tanks at both stations also were analyzed
and the results of both anatyses are shown in parts per million in
Table 8. The carbonates are entirely lacking in both water supplies
and bicarbonates and sulphates are the principal salts. No accumula-
tion of salts is sho-\ra in the water of the annular space as they are
carried into the soil for distribution. Apparently water used at the
Santa Ana station is fair and the San Bernardino supply is good for
irrigation.
TABLE 8
ANALYSES OF STATION WATER SUPPLIES AND WATER FROM ANNULAR SPACES OF
SOIL MOISTURE TANKS AT SANTA ANA AND SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS'
Source of sample
Classification of salts in parts per million
Station
01
CO,
HCO,
SO,
Ca
Mg
Na
Santa Ana .
Shallow well
Shallow well
Tank No. 2
Tank No. 5.
Tank No. 8
Tank No. 11. -
Tank No. 14
Artesian well.
Tank No. 2
Tank No. 4
55
57
130
62
36
41
61
19
17
25
0
0
0
18
27
21
30
0
0
0
220
317
88
73
70
137
140
156
152
178
100
98
170
66
55
53
95
42
57
33
78
81
54
18
18
20
24
38
40
38
40
27
37
12
10
10
15
30
38
36
25
Santa Ana
76
Santa Ana
70
Santa .\na
75
Santa -\na _ -
75
Santa .\na .
85
Santa Ana.-
117
Sar Bernardino
10
San Bernardino
San Bernardino --
0
0
' Samples for analysis were collected during October, 1930, except the second well sample at Santa Ana which was
taken in January, 1932.
48
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
The migration of alkali salts through the soil, either upward or
downward, is dependent upon the movement of soil water, in both direc-
tion and amount. In the presence of a water table within the reach
of capillary action, this movement ordinarih' is upward and when there
is high evaporation there is a rapid concentration of salts at or near
the surface. If the movement of salts was always in one direction,
many fields would soon be ruined for production of crops. Fortunately,
heavy rains and the surface application of irrigation water tend to
carry the salts downward.
In the soil tanks at Santa Ana, soil alkali accumulated during the
dry season on the surface of those tanks having high water tables. In
some cases white deposits were noticeable. During the wet season of
1931-32, these deposits were carried downward into the soil by penetra-
tion of rainfall, and as the tanks were dismantled in May. 1932, much
of the alkali had little opportunity to return to the surface. Exceptions
occurred in Tanks Xos. 7, 8, and 9, in which the water tables were but
1 foot from the surface and a high concentration of salts was redeposited
TABLE 9
ALKALI SALT CONCENTRATIONS AND pH VALUES OF COMPOSITE SOIL SAMPLES
FROM VARIOUS DEPTHS IN SOIL MOISTURE TANKS AT THE SANTA ANA AND
SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS-
' Samples for analysis were collected during June, 1932.
WATER LOSSES FRO:\[ WET AREAS 49
iu the top inch of soil. About two months after the last heavy rain
in the spring of 1932, samples of horizontal sections of soil in various
tanks Avere collected for chemical analysis. The results of these analyses
are shown in Table 9. The salts shoAm are predominately sodium
salts, and extracts from the high carbonate soils were all black, indicat-
ing black alkali. There was no calcium present in the solution, due to
the high content of the carbonate ion. Also, the amount of sulphates
present is of no importance. The pH values at the Santa Aiia station
are very high, ranging from 8.4 to 10.6. These values indicate a highly
alkaline reaction.
In the tanks of undisturbed soil where depth to water table was
2, 3, or 5 feet, the surface concentration of salts in the top inch of
soil was not excessive. With a water table 1 foot from the surface,
there was an extremely heavy deposit of salts in the top inch, measur-
ing as high as 3200 parts per million of carbonate. In general, greater
deposits occurred at or near the surface in those tanks having the
highest water tables. The same was true at the San Bernardino station,
although the bicarbonates exceeded the carbonates in amount, which
was the opposite of the Santa Ana condition. The pH values do not
indicate an excessively alkaline reaction.
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
Evaporation from Soil Surfaces in Tanks
In making studies of evaporation from bare soils at the Santa Ana
station, distribution of soil moisture under natural conditions as found
at the station site determined the initial maximum depth to the water
table in the first set of tanks. In excavating around the tanks as they
were filled, the upper 15 inches of soil was observed to be moist from
previous rains, while the soil from 15 to 30 inches iu depth was found
to be extremely dry. Below this dry belt was capillary moisture arising
from the perched water table found at a depth of 6 to 7 feet. It was
evident, therefore, that the limit of capillary rise in undisturbed soil
with which the tanks were filled was the difference between the depth
to the water table and the lower limit of the dry area, or slightly less
than 4 feet. This measure was, therefore, adopted as the depth to
the lowest water tables in the soil evaporation tanks. From this
4-foot water table, no soil evaporation occurred at any time during
the warm summer months between May and October. Data regarding
Aveekly amounts of evaporation from- soil surfaces obtained at the
Santa Ana station, where water tables were at different depths, are
found in Table 11. Monthly data relating to the same tanks are given
in Tables 13 and 14.
No losses by evaporation occurred when the water table w'as at a
depth of 4 feet, but there were small losses when it was raised to 3
feet and still greater losses at 2-foot depths, confirming the initial
conclusion that the limit of capillary rise was about 4 feet. For a six-
month period during the winter of 1929-30, when evaporation was at
its lowest, the total evaporation from the tanks having 3-foot water
tables averaged but 0.913 acre-inch per acre. For the same period,
evaporation from tanks having water tables at a 2-foot depth was
1.775 acre-inches per acre.
4—4503
50 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
In order to liave a coniparisou of evaporations from both disturbed
and undisturbed soils, further tests were carried on with soil looselj^
settled in water as the tanks were filled. Diflt'erences due to the methods
of filling the tanks became apparent immediately at the outset. Although
both sets of tanks had water tables at the same depth, the moisture
content in the loosely filled soil was enough to keep the soil surface
moist, Avhile the surface in tanks of undisturbed soil was dry.
For comparison of monthly records of soil evaporation under the
two conditions of soil structure, further reference is made to Tables
13 and 14, which show the monthly use of water by all tanks. For the
same six -month winter period of 1929-80, during which evaporation
from undisturbed soil having a 2-foot depth to the water table was
1.775 acre-inches per acre, the disturbed soil with the same water table
evaporated 6.889 acre-inches per acre, or nearly four times as much.
In applying the results of these experiments to field conditions,
it is obvious that only data secured from experiments with undisturbed
soil should be used, and that measurements of evaporation from dis-
turbed soil do not represent a true criterion for natural soil moisture
losses. The large difference in the rate of evaporation for disturbed
and undisturbed soils, indicates the advisability of further experimental
work of this character. It also seems to cast doubt on the accuracy of
results of some previous experiments along the same line.
Use of Water by Salt Grass
Salt grass {Distichlis spicata) is most often found in somewhat
alkalied areas of shallow water table, the limit of depth from which the
roots may draw moisture depending upon the soil type. In various
investigations the limiting depth to water at which it has been found
has varied. In one small locality with heavy soil, in the lower Santa
Ana River basin, it was observed where the ground water was at a depth
of 11 to 12 feet, but in general the limiting depth in lighter soils is
about 6 feet. Moreover, it was found to exist only in those areas that
were classified by the United States Bureau of Soils as containing some
alkali.
The growth of the plant is spread by means of a thick creeping
root stalk within the upper few inches of soil from which finer roots
extend downward in search of moisture. The stifle, light green leaves
rise from each joint of the root stalk and sometimes spread to form a
considerable sod. The grass has a distinctly salty taste and, although
it is sometimes used for pasture, stock do not thrive on it. The grow-
ing period in southern California is from February to December and
although the grass dies or becomes dormant in the Avinter, there is some
discharge from the water table throughout the winter months. Salt
grass is not an excessive user of water. Its habit of growth in alkali
soils has caused the plant to protect itself against toxic effects of alkali
salts by a decreased rate of transpiration.
Until recent years, the area devoted to salt grass in the lower Santa
Ana River basin has been considerable, but the advent of drainage
systems and extension of the cultivated area has crowded out the salt
grass from a number of districts. Various salt-grass areas still exist,
however, especially where the ground water continues to remain near
the surface. This investigation was begun to measure the consumptive
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
51
use of water by salt grass for comparison with nse of water by other
wild growths in order to determine the net draft on the ground water
supply by native vegetation.
In experiments with salt grass grown in tanks at the Santa Ana
station, distribution of moisture above the water table was determined
by means of soil-moisture samples. Depth to water in the different
tanks ranged from 1 to 5 feet. Reference to Table 10 shows the average
soil moisture in the top foot of soil, when the water table was 1 foot
from the ground surface, to be 27.1 per cent and that it decreased
rapidly until the water table was 3 feet in depth, or near the limit of
the capillary rise. With the water table below 3 feet there was little
difference in the moisture content of the top foot of soil.
It is evident, then, that there was greater soil evaporation in the
tanks having the highest water tables. In the same tanks there was
also greater transpiration because of a heavier crop of grass, due, in
turn, to a higher moisture content. As consumptive use of water
includes both soil evaporation and plant transpiration, it follows that
plant growth in tanks having the highest water tables has the higher
TABLE 10
RELATION OF SOIL MOISTURE TO DEPTH OF WATER TABLE IN TANKS
AT SANTA ANA STATION
Average soil moisture content in per cent
Depth of
sample
in feet
Depth to water table in soil tanks, in feet
1
2
3
5
1
2
27.1
15.5
21.3
6.7
9.7
21.4
7.6
10.7
3
18.7
4
20 5
5 . .
29 5
consumptive use. This is indicated in Plate V, which shows a compari-
son of monthly use of water by each set of salt grass tanlvs. The set
having the highest water table, shown by the solid bar, used the most
water. It will be noted that bars representing tanks of disturbed soil
show a greater use of water than do tanks of undisturbed soil, when
both have the same depth to water table.
The draft of salt grass on the ground water supply depends upon
the depth to the water table and the soil structure. This may be
estimated by comparison with results of tank experiments made dur-
ing this investigation. When an irrigated area is extended to include
uncultivated lands, the resulting net draft on the ground water supply
is the difference between the amount of water required by cultivated
crops and by the indigenous growth which the cultivation replaces.
If the cultivated crop uses no more water than the native growth in
the same area, no depletion results because of the change. Practical
experience and scientifie experiments have indicated the necessary
water requirements of crops, but little information is available as to
the consumptive use of water by noneconomic plant life.
52
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PLATE V
MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS IN TANKS HAVING VARIOUS
DEPTHS TO WATER TABLE.
Although the presence of salt grass is always an indicator of
ground water, these experiments have demonstrated that its consump-
tive use is not excessive when compared with water requirements of
many cultivated crops. In general, farming operations are conducted
on water-free soil of sufficient depth to allow ample root development.
The average depth to free water naturally varies with each locality,
but a minimum of 5 or 6 feet is considered a safe depth for many field
crops. For the 12-month period ending April 30, 1932, salt grass
grown in tanks having a depth of 5 feet to water table, used an average
of about 22 acre-inches of water, including rainfall. During this
period, conditions were the same as in natural salt-grass areas. This
consumptive use is no more than that used by various crops of low
water requirement, and is less than amounts required by alfalfa, citrus,
or walnuts. In tanks having a water-table depth of 2 feet, the 12-month
consumptive use for the same period was about 36 acre-inches per acre,
which is sufficient, with careful management, to produce a fair crop of
alfalfa. In most salt-grass areas in the Santa Ana basin the ground
water occurs at depths exceeding 4 feet and the average seasonal draft
is, therefore, Ioav. It is concluded, therefore, that the yearly water
requirement of salt grass in this area is generally less than that of
cropped lands.
Data on the weekly use of water by salt grass at the Santa Ana
station from May 7, 1929, to November 3, 1931, are given in Tables 11
and 12. On the latter date, readings at the station were discontinued,
■ORNIA, MAY,
1929, TO SEPTEMBER, 1930
1
e
(ith fixed water table four feet
Bare soil with fi-\ed water table two feet
iw the ground surface
below the ground surface
Tank
Tank
Mean
Tank
Tank
Tank
Me&n
No. 11
No. 12
No. 13
No. 14
No. 15
0.000
0 180
0.095
.000
000
.000
.277
.127
.066
.117
.060
.042
.022
.021
115
.191
.333
265
.444
.462
.551
.508
.508
.097
.179
.234
.519
.482
.366
.587
.636
.823
.944
.870
.057
.088
.138
.311
.344
.315
.482
.621
.790
.742
.716
' '"o'^i"
""'"0'449"
" ' 6"353"
0'352
.439
.373
.620
.848
.866
1 465
1.060
579
.561
.518
.542
.824
1.197
.854
593
.689
.657
.392
.738
1 336
.822
.308
.625
.512
.488
.514
.749
.584
.466
.276
.419
.552
.450
.685
.562
.273
.270
.295
.318
.524
.546
.463
.138
.515
.352
.531
.479
.748
.5S6
415
.737
.574
.572
372
696
.547
.243
.646
.431
.499
.502
.588
.530
.259
.487
.326
.490
.385
.546
.474
147
.343
.188
.403
.438
641
.494
297
.123
.278
.511
.417
.600
.509
196
.021
.186
435
.385
.492
.437
.173
.000
.139
.403
.309
.491
.401
.177
.000
.139
.371
.310
.395
.359
.138
.036
.148
.295
.245
.197
.246
.107
.070
.131
.159
.266
.324
.250
.138
.022
.109
.128
.246
.175
.183
.099
.222
.172
.211
.192
.386
.263
.114
.117
.136
.286
.267
.363
.305
1 .148
.095
.169
.272
.287
277
.275
.043
.063
.063
.137
.234
.085
.152
.000
.010
.021
.063
.140
.097
.100
.000
Oil
.039
.137
.288
.160
.195
.021
.010
.067
.042
^ .235
.160
.146
.053
.000
.046
.106
.277
.181
.188
.125
.032
.095
.126
.211
.256
.198
063
.010
.081
.148
.171
.255
.191
.127
.021
.105
.169
265
.203
.212
.095
.000
.081
.181
.203
.331
.238
.074
.000
.046
.203
.448
.159
.270
.084
.074
.091
.192
.320
.201
.238
201
.064
.209
.234
.288
.385
.302
159
.115
.172
.256
.320
.330
.302
148
.159
.251
.290
.394
.417
.367
276
.190
.297
.278
.331
.341
.317
212
.212
.240
.299
.351
.471
.374
191
.168
.198
.299
.246
.268
.271
180
.170
.247
.332
.278
.394
.335
179
.168
.246
.437
.373
.416
.409
306
.233
.318
.362
.426
534
.441
.305
.180
.320
.383
.471
.578
.477
.295
.222
.342
.373
.449
.524
.449
255
.222
.329
.340
.309
.426
358
.319
.243
.335
.361
.202
.439
.334
329
.274
.381
.394
. 277
.589
.420
.306
.316
.391
.405
.342
514
.420
.404
.349
.470
.405
.406
.503
.438
382
371
.463
.459
.514
.727
.567
.456
360
.488
.415
.428
.514
.452
318
.382
.467
.426
.469
.621
.505
445
.284
.395
.395
.405
.438
.413
318
.284
.332
.321
352
.383
.352
276
.349
.413
.375
.427
.535
.446
349
338
.438
.427
.427
.514
.456
414
320
.418
.386
437
.492
.438
265
267
.322
.342
.288
.405
.345
.339
244
.328
.322
.247
.352
.307
286
233
.300
.311
.299
.394
.335
1
TABLE 11
RECORD OF WEEKLY EVAPORATION FROM SOIL AND USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNU, MAY, 1929. TO SEPTEMBER, 1930>
Week ending
1929-
May
May
May
May
June
JuDe
June
June
July
July
July
July
July
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Sept.
Sept.
Spet.
Sept.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.
Evaporation from bare soil and use of water by salt grass in acre-incbes per acre
Dec. 10
Dec. 17 -
Dec. 24
Dec. 31
30-
Jan. 14 .
Jan. 21 .
Jan. 28
Feb. 4
Feb. 11
Feb. 18
Feb. 25
Mar. 4
Mar. 11.. ..
Mar. 18 ... .
Mar. 25 ....
April 1
April 8 '
April 15
April22
April 29
May 6
May 13
May 20
May 27
June 3 _
June 10 .
June 17.. .
June 24. ..
July 1
July 8
July 15...
July 22
July 29-...
Aug. 12 .
Aug. 19... .
Aug. 26
Sept. 2
Sept. 9
Sept. 16
Sept.23
Sept.30...
Bare soil with fi-\ed water table three feet
below the ground surface
Tank
No. 1
Tank
No. 2
Tank
No. 3
Mean
Xo evaporation from Tanks Nos.
1, 2 and 3 with water table at depth
of four feet, May 1 to October 1,
1929
0.115
.084
.084
.074
.075
.105
.074
.081
.074
.004
.063
.053
.074
.074
.074
.011
.010
.010
.032
.031
.021
.064
.043
.021
.021
.021
.021
.000
.021
.000
.084
.042
.010
.032
.000
.011
.000
.042
.022
Oil
.042
.021
.064
.010
.042
.042
.042
.033
.126
,021
.032
.031
0 890
0.413
306
.499
.180
.254
064
,095
.106
.180
.053
.064
.084
.126
032
.042
.084
094
,031
,074
.043
.085
.000
.021
,000
.075
,000
.032
,000
.042
,000
.010
.000
.032
,000
.010
,000
.021
.000
.021
.000
,021
,000
,022
,000
,042
.000
021
OOO
,032
,000
,052
000
,000
000
,053
,000
031
.000
,032
.021
,032
.011
.042
,000
.052
oil
,021
.000
.000
oil
,032
.000
,000
.000
.011
.010
.000
.021
,000
.021
,063
.000
.003
.032
.084
.000
.053
,000
.032
,000
.000
,000
.042
.000
.011
.000
,042
,000
,042
,000
,073
,000
.074
.473
,296
.173
.078
,120
,074
,095
,053
,084
.056
.064
.025
.060
,036
,039
007
,014
.007
.018
.017
,014
,029
,028
OH
018
,024
007
018
017
,011
,046
,032
.021
,021
.000
,018
,000
.018
Oil
.010
042
.028
.060
.021
025
.014
028
.015
056
,021
036
035
Bare soil with fixed water table two feet
below the ground surface
Tank
No 4
.561
.445
.359
.275
,296
,233
.222
.232
085
.190
,169
,180
,169
.170
.158
.157
.159
.158
.094
,032
.105
.127
,126
,106
.147
.127
.126
,106
,127
,075
.053
.053
.106
,063
,116
,074
,031
.021
.032
.021
.052
.074
,021
.031
,064
.010
,053
,032
,063
.074
.084
143
.063
,074
,042
,095
,073
105
.105
.074
095
,095
.095
.137
.105
.116
.084
.105
.086
127
,074
,094
095
Tank
No. 5
0 600
,597
,523
.450
.449
.449
.355
.323
,251
.229
,188
,177
,167
293
.251
,249
,218
.241
,261
,177
,W6
,157
.166
,156
,125
,178
,187
.156
,135
,104
.137
.074
,063
.104
.116
.105
.074
,010
,000
.043
.031
.063
.042
,021
.043
.074
.041
,064
,063
115
,095
178
,146
,053
,106
.104
116
126
.145
.105
146
.156
.094
.125
.125
.125
,136
,137
,135
,157
,177
,137
104
125
Tank
No. 6
0 274
263
.232
,223
,210
.136
,158
,115
.180
,168
,180
-147
,169
,136
,158
.126
157
155
184
.020
.084
105
,073
.084
,106
,115
,096
,095
,095
,096
,064
,074
.042
.096
.063
.074
.073
.032
.042
.032
.021
.063
.063
.042
.042
.032
,031
,042
.064
.021
,073
,063
,116
063
063
,031
,063
064
084
,084
,053
,094
,084
,085
,126
,053
094
074
073
085
085
105
074
084
0,541
,470
,400
,344
,311
,294
,249
,220
,221
,161
.186
.164
.172
.199
.193
.178
.177
.185
.201
097
084
,122
.122
.122
.112
.147
.137
,126
.112
.109
.092
.067
.053
.101
.081
.098
.074
.024
.021
Salt grass with fixed water table two feet
below the ground surface
Tank
No. 7
.024
.059
.060
,028
,039
.057
.027
,053
053
.066
.081
.108
, 135
,060
077
,059
,091
,088
111
,098
.091
.115
,091
.102
,129
094
.115
,098
,104
,109
,133
.105
091
101
0 296
,275
275
.371
,626
964
,975
1 632
I 281
1 217
1 282
1 325
1 208
1 154
1 048
1,165
1,101
1 144
,744
816
.646
.785
890
,667
.848
,636
.647
.521
.413
.317
.286
.434
.435
■ .297
.148
.137
.192
.243
.211
,286
,222
,201
265
,223
,328
,435
.499
,540
,668
678
,382
.647
.721
,953
954
1 134
,890
,974
1 174
1,133
1 521
1,454
1 155
1 303
1 228
1,068
1 453
1 312
1 250
996
,891
Tank
No. 8
0 862
,561
,293
.429
.481
,398
.670
1 167
1 178
1 251
I 442
1,462
1 315
1 283
1 271
1 314
1 314
1,430
840
.945
.661
,881
,998
735
,736
,840
,923
.661
.713
,565
.429
,324
,313
,471
,460
.345
.031
.000
.105
.250
,187
,313
,136
,188
.281
229
,387
.491
,544
,650
.800
.756
.386
,713
,788
1.062
1 050
1.231
944
1,051
1 336
1.272
1 703
1 555
1 513
1 597
1 125
1,167
1 578
1 410
1 314
1 050
Tank
No. 9
.801
0 699
1,003
,624
,741
1 111
1 007
.975
1,461
1,154
1,132
1 323
1 335
1.176
1,334
1,166
1,282
1-227
1 292
868
,890
,605
,838
933
689
,689
,817
,784
572
.593
.478
.392
.265
.307
,434
,392
,329
,127
063
.148
.244
.169
.318
.146
,211
,275
233
,392
,520
,539
,732
,943
921
478
764
.953
1,048
,995
1 228
890
964
1 227
I 217
1 579
1 505
1 398
1 452
1 187
1 123
1 527
1 389
1 314
1,049
953
818
0 619
613
397
514
,739
,790
873
1,420
1,204
1 200
1,349
1,374
1 233
1 257
1 162
1 254
1,214
1 289
,817
,884
637
835
940
697
,698
,831
,852
,623
,651
621
,411
,302
,302
,446
,429
.324
.102
.067
.148
.246
,189
,306
.169
.200
.274
228
,369
,482
,527
,641
,804
,785
,415
,708
,821
1,021
1 000
1 198
908
,996
I 246
1 207
1 601
1 505
1 355
1,451
1 180
1 119
1 519
1 370
1 293
1,032
937
,846
Salt grass with fixed water table four feet
below the ground surface
Tank
No. 10
Tank
.No. 11
0 105
074
,053
.032
,053
,063
,064
,223
216
,314
,414
764
,996
,773
,770
1,049
,413
,690
,604
,514
,343
.403
540
403
,233
,073
,414
,340
243
.240
.270
217
.166
,196
,176
,265
.084
052
,106
,169
084
,127
,169
.168
.147
.063
.116
.361
,243
446
424
,297
234
392
,393
.415
.476
510
510
444
540
552
656
637
647
,700
457
,393
,615
626
,520
.435
402
,382
0 000
000
000
000
022
021
115
191
333
265
444
462
561
508
508
439
579
593
308
-466
-273
-138
445
-243
259
147
297
196
173
177
-138
-107
-138
099
114
148
-043
000
000
021
-053
125
063
127
095
074
084
201
159
148
276
212
191
180
179
306
305
295
255
319
329
306
404
382
456
318
445
318
276
349
414
265
339
286
Tank
No. 12
0 180
277
-127
.096
.097
,179
.234
.519
,482
.366
587
,636
,823
,944
870
373
.561
,689
,625
,276
,270
,515
.737
.646
.487
,343
,123
,021
.000
.000
.036
.070
.022
.222
.117
.095
.063
,010
Oil
,010
.000
.032
.010
.021
.000
.000
,074
,064
,115
,159
,190
,212
.168
.170
.168
,233
,180
,222
,222
,243
274
316
,349
371
360
382
284
,284
349
338
320
,267
244
233
0 095
.117
,060
.042
.057
.088
.138
.311
.344
.315
.482
.621
.790
742
716
620
518
,657
512
,419
,295
,352
674
.431
,326
.188
,278
.186
,139
.139
,148
.131
.109
.172
.136
.169
.063
.021
,039
,067
,046
095
,081
105
,081
,046
.091
.209
,172
251
,297
.240
.108
247
246
.318
.320
,342
,329
,335
.381
391
470
,463
.488
.467
.395
.332
.413
.438
,418
,322
,328
300
Bare soil with fixed water table two feet
below the ground surface
Tank
No. 13
,542
,392
.488
,552
,318
,531
572
,499
,490
,403
511
435
403
371
,295
,159
,128
,211
,286
.137
.063
.137
.042
.106
.126
.148
,169
,181
,203
.192
,234
,256
.290
278
.299
299
332
,437
,362
,383
373
,340
,361
,394
,405
.405
,459
415
.426
395
.321
375
,427
386
,342
.322
.311
Tank
Xo. 14
Tank
Xo. 15
0 449
866
824
738
514
450
524
479
372
502
,385
,438
.417
,385
,309
310
245
,206
,246
192
267
234
.140
.235
.277
.211
.171
,265
,203
,448
320
,288
320
394
331
351
,246
278
,373
426
471
449
309
,202
.277
342
406
,514
428
469
405
352
427
427
437
288
247
299
0 353
1 465
1 197
1 336
749
685
546
748
696
588
,546
641
600
,492
,491
395
,197
,324
,175
386
,363
.277
085
.097
.160
.160
.181
.256
,255
203
331
.159
,201
385
330
,417
,341
,471
,268
.394
.416
534
578
.524
,426
,439
589
514
.503
.727
514
.621
.438
.383
535
514
,492
.405
.352
.394
' All tanks covered during rains. Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contain undisturbed soil. Tanks Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contain disturbed soil.
4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
TABLE 12
RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA, OCTOBER, 1930, TO NOVEMBER, 1931'
Week ending
1930-
Oct. 7.
Oct. 14.
Oct. 21-
Oct. 28.
Nov. 4.
Nov. 11.
Nov. 18.
Nov. 25.
Dec. 2.
Dec. 9.
Deo. 16.
Dec. 23..
Dec. 30..
1931-
Jan. 6..
Jan. 13..
Jan. 20..
Jan. 27..
Feb. 3..
Feb. 10..
Feb. 17..
Feb. 24..
Mar. 3..
Mar. 10..
Mar. 17..
Mar. 24..
Mar. 31..
April 7..
April 14..
April 21..
April 28..
May 5..
May 12..
May 19..
May 26..
June 2..
June 9..
June 16..
June 23..
June 30..
July 7..
July 14-.
July 21--
July 28--
Aug. 4--
Aug. 11--
Aug. 18-.
Aug. 25..
Sept. 1..
Sept. 8..
Sept. 15..
.Sept. 22..
Sept. 29..
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
No
13.
20.
27.
3.
Use of water by salt grass in acre-inches per acre
Salt grass with fixed water table
three feet below the ground surface
Tank
No.l
0 022
063
063
052
.064
.031
.085
.094
.032
075
044
,032
.053
.042
.021
Oil
042
Oil
.010
Oil
.021
.063
.063
073
.158
.265
.709
.583
,636
763
,826
646
637
509
678
520
467
,318
,530
382
424
458
.466
,414
.403
329
.338
.286
,361
Tank
No. 2
0 021
021
Oil
00
00
00
00
.00
00
00
00
,021
021
021
00
,00
021
00
00
,00
021
.148
137
042
074
116
,085
126
159
.116
Tank
No. 3
0 021
032
,021
,00
.00
00
00
00
,021
032
021
063
,010
Oil
,021
063
042
021
Oil
00
,073
158
,064
126
105
032
095
169
,243
,064
.074
,128
,212
.179
666
602
614
572
635
561
487
404
615
308
424
424
403
402
360
361
256
317
,371
0 021
039
032
017
,021
010
028
031
018
036
022
039
028
025
014
.025
035
Oil
007
004
038
123
088
080
112
138
090
148
.201
.090
,300
,276
,322
427
,621
536
569
530
622
547
477
372
566
354
417
436
421
402
382
336
307
296
354
Salt grass with fixed water table
two feet below the ground surface
Tank
No. 4
0,063
095
085
063
096
084
127
,084
,032
084
042
095
105
073
042
042
063
053
063
117
105
170
264
244
303
403
.530
,647
688
,477
328
,593
698
,762
732
679
,774
,944
1 163
1 038
1 028
1 060
1 164
1 102
923
710
1 059
891
837
859
815
783
784
572
552
477
,709
Tank
No. 5
0 084
156
063
084
lib
094
136
073
Oil
074
031
053
146
063
021
053
104
137
094
198
219
,281
408
399
492
807
757
955
1 016
431
,397
862
,997
912
987
817
966
1 219
1,419
1 261
1 272
1 252
1 387
1 251
1 062
293
997
978
999
914
831
839
629
534
525
Tank
No. 6
0 063
116
063
126
032
,063
094
064
031
053
063
063
,116
042
053
031
,043
042
,126
042
052
,201
275
371
255
,192
327
,456
510
552
508
604
794
911
890
869
912
995
043
839
679
857
753
721
742
720
646
658
519
552
370
594
0 070
,122
070
091
081
080
1.9
074
,025
,070
.045
,070
.122
,059
.039
042
070
077
,094
,119
.125
,226
,336
,322
,398
,605
496
626
693
388
306
694
.717
726
,767
,668
781
986
1 164
I 060
1 056
1 075
1 182
1 099
,941
732
1 070
880
845
867
,816
,753
,760
573
,546
457
,701
Salt grass with fixed water table
one foot below the ground surface
Tank
No. 7
0 668
656
551
478
424
446
317
180
232
253
318
286
180
222
318
372
425
392
476
561
625
.763
806
350
360
615
742
806
901
817
1 048
1 387
1 769
1 568
1 642
1 685
1 845
1 707
1 409
1 282
1 747
1 302
1 240
1 218
1 081
974
837
722
658
530
.783
Tank
No. 8
0 649
880
685
482
409
692
344
083
230
283
376
230
021
199
355
397
418
335
493
629
,619
777
829
346
252
894
1 072
975
1 262
1 031
1 303
1 725
1 923
1 650
1 756
1 702
1 818
1 577
1 347
1 018
1,618
1 051
1 061
1 061
966
819
682
619
555
503
713
Tank
No. 9
0 605
646
.509
605
445
509
327
234
,275
,275
,411
,266
211
,274
359
423
425
424
530
635
699
880
901
287
381
912
1 038
933
1 132
912
I 101
1 536
1 727
1 546
1 674
1 676
1 824
1 601
1 389
1 060
1 717
1 165
1 240
1 134
1 039
732
763
710
625
642
.784
0 641
727
582
522
426
649
,329
,246
270
,368
260
,137
,232
344
397
423
384
500
60S
,845
,327
,331
807
951
906
1 098
920
1 161
1 549
1 806
1 588
1 691
1 687
1 829
1 628
1,382
1 120
1,094
1 169
1 180
1 134
1 029
842
,761
684
613
526
760
Salt grass with fixed water table
five feet below the ground surface
Tank
No. 10
0,264
,213
,191
148
158
.213
.074
,095
,073
,074
.042
.107
.202
.224
.180
,213
.234
.191
.190
.191
.415
,477
488
,169
,213
351
435
.404
,433
478
563
,646
,774
721
594
520
,751
550
563
636
,456
650
608
,572
444
,327
393
Tank
No. 11
0 169
213
221
105
096
116
084
063
062
053
,084
074
148
180
191
147
138
212
275
095
202
245
318
371
222
126
232
403
509
340
457
466
572
488
413
393
466
349
360
457
361
295
338
316
244
274
,316
Tank
No. 12
0,234
,200
095
,180
,126
106
074
,096
,126
,052
.131
.148
148
095
148
191
063
,159
169
181
117
,159
,148
,00
084
,201
147
200
551
,413
,445
426
404
389
,456
,338
,467
668
244
264
,307
286
,285
294
254
234
226
0 219
209
,169
144
126
,145
,077
086
084
060
086
127
175
160
164
159
148
177
183
173
223
283
304
088
208
298
377
388
246
268
314
416
611
480
580
531
606
533
488
417
558
522
389
449
371
377
377
394
314
278
,312
Salt grass with fixed water table
two feet below the ground surface
Tank
No. 13
0 268
310
267
.276
.311
.278
449
391
181
321
320
383
374
236
159
191
235
267
189
266
329
393
493
437
524
567
599
718
759
577
371
557
729
718
792
,727
,824
.908
1,015
1 005
I 026
1 080
1 111
I 134
984
866
1 026
1 144
1 261
1 145
973
899
866
664
,643
557
771
Tank
No. 14
0 244
319
244
,288
,396
,395
439
,431
,298
,395
471
,588
492
235
128
192
224
236
,140
362
342
459
689
656
689
,610
,654
.769
,844
535
373
535
674
706
611
654
717
824
,985
1 006
973
1 060
1,048
983
866
728
919
889
673
856
759
792
739
600
556
492
610
Tank
No. 15
0 266
299
322
320
406
405
427
492
266
374
406
,513
,395
,234
084
169
256
,299
,160
,364
503
,695
867
685
663
652
,739
910
867
480
364
600
791
866
941
856
1 037
1 348
I 486
1 401
1 346
1 454
I 369
1 348
1 153
930
I 411
1 069
I 047
1 036
995
388
878
656
689
512
770
'Tanks Nos. 1 to 15 inclusive covered during rains. Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contained undisturbed soil; Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contained disturbed soil.
4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
TABLE 13
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS AND TULES AND EVAPORATION FROM SOIL AND WATER SURFACES, MAY,
1929, TO APRIL, 1930, IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA"
Tank
No.
Content of tank
Deptli to
water
table, in
feet
Diameter
of tank,
in inches
Amount of water used in inches of depth
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used, in
inches
Per cent of
May June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
Tank
No. 16
Tank
No. 20
1
4-3
4-3
4-3
4-3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
25 1/2
48
No evaporation from Tanks Nos. 1, 2
and 3 with water table at depth of four
feet. May 1 to October 1, 1929
(=)
(=)
(')
0 474
815
453
581
3 319
3.737
3 571
3 542
1 907
1 408
1.792
1.702
2.069
2.256
3,038
2 454
5,762
23,750
5.654
0.399
1.493
1,399
1 097
559
708
,421
563
3 413
3 696
3 447
3 519
1 377
1 164
2 457
1,666
2 221
1 857
2,770
2 283
5.640
28.380
6.060
0.370
.338
.443
384
444
552
371
456
2 662
2 861
2 458
2.660
1.326
869
.117
.771
1,695
1.431
1.957
1.694
4 884
23,350
5.256
0.275
.074
.265
,205
339
,462
,307
,369
1 630
1,736
1 557
1.641
.914
.621
.467
,634
.911
1.067
1.263
1 080
3 060
11.300
3 444
0.179
.000
.126
.102
.242
.200
.242
.228
.858
.554
.752
.721
.549
.191
.189
.310
.651
1.067
.673
.797
1,860
1,860
2.280
0 148
000
074
074
189
.189
179
186
984
896
867
.916
612
347
042
334
454
1 829
916
733
2 436
3.610
2.872
0,085
,000
,137
.074
148
201
.147
.165
1 293
1 441
1,473
1,402
,729
454
,148
.444
862
1.418
1,118
1 133
3 384
6 020
4 476
0 084
000
.137
,074
316
536
,263
371
2 502
2 862
3,326
2.897
1.463
,837
,719
1 006
1,219
1,460
1.677
1.452
4 968
17 590
6 048
7
7
7
7
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
9
9
9
9
liH
9
12
2
3
2.010
7.7
6.7
4
2 160
2 418
1 076
1 885
1 440
2.417
3,501
2 453
.275
000
.702
.326
1 099
1 555
,663
1.106
4 916
3 296
4 978
4.397
.477
.592
1 304
.791
0.709
.908
.727
.781
5.630
5 964
5 410
5 635
2,714
1,866
2 714
2,431
0 696
1.084
.651
810
5 019
5.908
5 666
5 531
3.451
2 330
3 097
2 959
1.834
2 792
4.223
2,950
8,328
23.460
8.904
5
7.501
11 2
10 6
7
8 --
9 -
Salt grass sod
36 314
56 0
50. 0
10
11
12-
Mean
13
Salt grass sod
Baresoil
13.374
21.4
19.0
14
15
Mean
Bare soil
14 576
62.002
139.320
70.514
36 2
100 0
345 5
110,4
32 5
16-
5 574
7,910
8.196
19
Round stem tules in submerged soil*
309 7
20
Water in standard Weather Bureau pan
8 394
8 234
8 892
100.0
'Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contained undisturbed soil; tanks Nos. 13 to 15. inclusive, contained disturbed soil.
All tanks covered during rains.
- Water table raised from four to three feet, October 1, 1929.
' Record began May 8, 1929.
' Not applicable to field conditione.
4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
TABLE 14
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS. TULES, CAT-TAILS, WILLOWS, AND WIRE RUSH, AND EVAPORATION FROM
SOIL AND WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1930, TO APRIL, 1931. IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA* '
Tank
No.
I---
2.--
3 --
Mean.
4 --
6..-
6..-
Mean.
9
Mean
10...
11 .
12 -
Mean
13 .,
14 ..
15 .
Mean
16 ..
19 ..
20 -.
21...
22- -
23 -.
24-..
25 ..
Content of tank
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930
Bare soil planted to salt grass October. 1930
Salt grass sod'.
Halt grass sod'-
Salt grass sod'
Salt grass sod' -
Salt grass sod=.
Salt grass sod-.
Salt grass sod ^
Salt grass sod*.
Bnre soil planted to salt grass October. 1930-
Baresoil planted to salt grass October. 1930-
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930-
Bare soil planted to salt grass October, 1930^
\Vater in circular sunken tank
Hound stem tides in submerged soil'
Water in s andard Weather Bureau pan.
Triangular stem tules in submerged soil'
Cat-tails in submerged soil'.
Round stem tulea in submerged soil'
Willow* -
Wire rush*
Depth to
water
table, in
feet
2-1
2-1
2-1
4-5
4-5
4-5
4-5
Diameter
of tank.
in inches
2S
1/16
2H
1/lfi
23
1/16
23
1 16
23
Mfi
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23
1/16
23 1/10
25 1/2
48
25 1/2
25 1/2
72
72
25 1/2
Amount of water used in inches of depth
May
0 147
043
147
358
398
.284
3 180
3 485
3 709
3 458
1 655
1 003
.792
1 600
1 590
1.880
1 090
5 988
22 565
6 792
12 301
11 875
10 230
3 275
June
0 075
021
.043
368
.564
295
4 426
4 834
4 563
2 173
1 292
1 024
1 575
1.366
2.138
1 C93
li 440
23 088
6 948
15 896
13 520
12 428
4.988
July
0 138
074
242
485
573
421
5 740
6 664
0 281
2 720
1 707
1 545
1 854
1 914
2 472
2 080
7 824
28 595
8 544
23 286
16 906
17 211
7 343
August
0 158
.000
095
.084
422
586
326
5 697
6 056
5 894
2,461
1 473
1 414
1 699
1 792
2 213
1 901
6.744
24 793
7 392
24 292
14 924
15 946
7 803
5 735
September
0 221
000
242
154
422
595
390
4 314
4 600
4 505
1 898
1 410
1,170
1 489
1 399
1 782
1 557
5 588
19 754
5.828
21 942
11.210
13 058
6 628
6 427
October
0 232
.053
074
349
.429
368
.382
1 250
1 288
1 308
1 302
5 032
18 352
5 500
21 012
10 140
12 043
5 359
5 682
November December
0 274
.000
021
.380
388
285
I 187
881
,784
,951
1 407
1 741
1,751
1 033
3 816
12 956
4 262
15 031
7 427
8 602
3 545
5,031
0 204
042
,126
336
314
295
1 834
2 084
2 066
1 995
635
430
,549
538
1 515
2 063
1 805
1 794
3 144
8 024
3 312
6 405
5 214
3 322
2,115
4 233
January
0 116
043
158
,221
,305
1,141
1 129
1 344
274
.242
.938
.896
.882
.905
2.194
3 730
2 890
2 894
3 007
2 587
2^654
February
0 074
084
168
444
.730
336
830
508
1 263
2.472
2,365
2,736
2 165
2 100
2 201
2 005
2,950
March
0 601
,454
.401
1.267
2.231
1 749
2.035
2 084
2.247
2.122
.891
729
710
2 191
2 514
3,199
2,635
5 454
5 183
5 778
5 901
0 847
8 553
3 922
6 781
April
0-517
,571
2 426
3,214
1 145
2,262
2 618
2 581
2 820
1,602
773
,450
2 759
2,909
3,081
2 916
5 212
8 386
6,016
9 789
7 891
11 508
5 724
7 761
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used, in
inches
59 908
177 790
65 998
160 974
111 067
117 689
52 707
40,260
Per cent of
Tank
No. 16
100 0
290 8
110 2
268 7
185 4
190 4
91 3
110,7
Tank
No. 20
90 8
269 4
100,0
243 9
168 3
178 3
83 5
105 8
1 Water table raised from two feet to one foot October, 1930,
> Water table lowered from four to 6ve feet October, 1930.
■ Tanks Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, contain undi.sturbcd soil. Tanks Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contain disturbed soil.
* Rainfallinckided in water used but changes in soil moisture on account of rainfall disregarded.
'Tanks Nos. 1 to 15, inclusive, covered during rains,
• Totals are not given for soil moisture tanks as conditions are not comparable throughout the vear due to changing water levels and planting new grass,
» Not applicable to field conditions.
4503 — Bet, pp. 52-53
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY SALT GRASS, TULES, CAT-TAILS, WILLOWS AND WIRE RUSH, AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1931, TO APRIL, 1932; IN
TANKS AT SANTA ANA, CALIFORNIA ' •
Content of tank
Depth to
water
table, in
feet
Diameter
of tank,
in inches
Amount of water used in inches of depth
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used. in
inches
Per cent of
Tank
No.
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
Tank
No. 16
Tank
No. 20
1
2
3
Mean
i
6
Salt grass sod-
3
3
3
3
2
'2
2
2
1
1
1
1
S
5
5
5
2
2
2
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1, 16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/10
23 1/16
23 1/16
25 1/2
48
25 1/2
25 1/2
72
72
25 1/2
48
3 041
.964
1 238
1 748
3 815
4 747
2 997
3 853
5 318
6 382
5 636
5 779
2 608
1.312
1 099
1.673
3.731
3 382
5 037
4 043
6.850
27 057
8 050
24 777
14.940
19.073
4 484
10 304
7 318
2.725
2.153
2.667
2 515
4 809
5.771
4.111
4 »97
7 546
7,683
7 482
7,570
3 415
2 037
1 814
2 422
4 725
4 514
6 222
5 154
8 100
31 564
8,904
31,697
20,208
19 681
4 602
13,752
8,148
1,909
2,079
2 099
2 029
4 049
4 695
3,552
4 099
6.482
5.707
6 Oil
6 067
2 744
1.845
2.183
2.257
4 404
3 851
5 152
4 469
7 102
25 746
7.462
30 823
17,429
14 885
3,306
12 702
7,018
1 868
1 740
1 770
1 793
3 549
3 974
3 041
3 521
4 799
4 170
4 420
4 463
2 363
1 558
1 166
1 696
4 684
3 283
4 212
4 060
5,942
19. 372
6,206
29 382
14 978
12 431
2 702
10 729
5 834
1 558
I 483
1 453
1 498
2 786
2 990
2 343
2 706
3 202
2 768
3 106
3 025
1 968
1 309
1 154
1 477
3 105
2 676
2 663
2 915
4 266
14 240
4,698
20 408
12 055
7 304
1 476
8 254
4,642
1,831
1 832
1 841
1 835
2 225
2 367
2 266
2 286
2 101
1 782
1 964
1 949
2 086
1 683
1 558
1,769
2 633
2 546
2 288
2 489
2 734
6 089
3 094
6 015
5 307
5 063
1 655
4 853
2,698
1.436
1.834
2 329
1 647
2 132
1 748
I 842
" : 950
1 950
"' 1 893
1 294
1 594
■2 557
1 215
-' 364
2 046
,401
"761
581
1 602
3 509
2 730
1 568
2 397
,815
1,065
1 583
1 902
2 643
3 288
3 652
3 194
2 947
2 626
3 646
3 040
2 578
2 212
1 740
2 177
2 164
2 720
2 612
2 499
2 811
1 657
2 312
2 260
3 504
6.052
-! 980
5 830
6 031
4 775
2 850
4 106
4 536
4.166
3.042
2 771
3.326
3 476
3 574
3 025
3 358
4 202
3 608
3.140
3 650
2 521
1 186
1 733
1 813
4 017
4.822
3 886
4 242
4 442
11 717
5 858
11 832
11 180
8 717
4 035
8 649
5.126
11
10
10
n
11
11
12
12
11
11
12
12
11
12
11
12
12
11
12
12
12
11
12
12
11
11
12
10
12
2 445
1,941
1,604
1 487
1 214
1 435
2 046
1,067
1,191
1 435
1547
1,685
1 616
840
1,108
1 010
.986
1 448
i 988
1 971
2 082
2.789
2.424
1 690
2 301
1.628
23 803
49 3
42.2
2,764
3 777
1 814
2 785
3 043
4 044
3 983
3 690
1 637
1.263
1 450
2.804
2,609
3 164
2.859
5 746
17 372
6 886
17 198
11 214
15 714
4 760
8.621
6 334
36 231
Mean
67 7
57 3
7
g
42.748
9
1 069
1 349
1.011
1.664
1.538
1 404
1.870
1 055
1 230
1.385
1.788
1 267
2 376
2.431
1.744
1,346
1,275
79 9
67 0
10
11 - ..-
Salt grass sod
22 121
12 . ...
41 3
Salt grass sod. ...
35 0
13
Salt grass sod
14
36 443
53 524
162 986
63 232
183 992
117 483
109 804
32 915
S3 453
57 004
15
Salt grass sod
Salt grass sod
Water :n circular sunken tank
Round stem tules in submerged soil'_
Water in standard Weather Bureau pan
Triangular stem tules in submerged soil'
Mean...._
16
19
20 -
21
22
66 2
100 0
313 0
118.1
343 8
225 6
210 9
61 5
165 9
106 5
56 1
84.7
266.1
100.0
291.0
23
Round stem tules in submerged soil*
Willow"
'2
2
179.2
52 1
24 ---
.705
25
Wire rush* _ . _
5% NaCI solution in standard W. B. pan
28
1.484
2,004
90.2
'Tanks Nor. 1 to 12. inclusive contain undisturbed soil. Tanks Nos. 13 to 15, inclusive, contain disturbed soil.
' Wil!ow unhealthy and lost most of its leaves during latter part of the sumraer.
'Tanks Nos. 1 to 15, inclusive, covered during rains prior to December 1, I93I. except during the first half of November, 1931.
' Rainfall included in water used but changes in soil moisture on account of rainfall disregarded.
' Not appplicable to field conditions.
From December 1, 1931 to May 1, 1932. all tanks were exposed to rainfall.
4503— Bet. pp. 52-53
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 53
althoug'li sufficient data were collected to obtain monthly totals through-
out the following spring. Some weekly totals were omitted. Because
of changes in depths to water tables in October, 1930, true records
could not be obtained pending soil moisture adjustments and data for
these periods are not included. At other times accident or failure of
the Mariotte tanks to function properly is responsible for omissions.
A complete summary of all work done at the Santa Ana station
for each of the three years of the investigation is given in Tables 13, 14
and 15, which show the monthly use of water by all soil and water
tanks. Descriptions of contents of tanks are included, and percentages
of use of water by each moist area growtli with reference to evaporation
from water surfaces is likewise tabulated. These data are the most
valuable of the report.
Use of Water by Bermuda Grass
Bermuda grass {Cynodon dactylon) is a perennial with long, creep-
ing, jointed stems, often several feet in length. It spreads largely by
rooting at the nodes, although it also seeds abundantly. Where condi-
tions are favorable it forms a dense turf, frequently becoming a pest in
lawns by driving out or smothering other laAvn grass. It is found groov-
ing wild in many localities, always in exposed places, as it is intolerant
of shade. Bermuda grass is not an indicator of ground water, as is
salt grass, although the experiments indicate that it may use slightly
more water than salt grass when it is available. It is frequently used
for pasture and makes good feed for stock.
Excellent conditions for experimenting with Bermuda grass were
found at the San Bernardino station. The yard in which the tanks
were set was covered with a dense growth of the grass, so that tests of
consumptive use of water were made with tank crops surrounded by a
natural growth of the same variety. The principal difference between
tank and field conditions was in depth to water table. In the tanks, the
water table was fixed at definite levels during the three years of record,
while the outside ground water fluctuated between 2^ and 6 feet below
the ground surface.
Data on weekly use of water by Bermuda grass grown in tanks
at San Bernardino are given in Tables 16 and 17. In November, 1931,
daily readings at the station were discontinued, because of high ground
water entering the tanks through the waste pipes and changing the
water levels. Records of weekly and monthly use of water immediately
before and after the first week in October, 1930, are not comparable
as at this time the grass was maliciously burned off from all four tanks.
Previous to the burning, each tank had a heavy crop of grass which
used over \ acre-inch of water per week. Immediately after the burn-
ing, this loss was reduced over one-half. As the burning was done in
the fall, no recovery was possible until the following spring when new
growth a])i)eared on all tanks. In spite of the loss of grass, there was
a small but continuous loss of water from each tank throughout the
winter months. Plate VI shows the appearance of the grass in the
tanks and in the surrounding field before burning took place. Tank
growth is showni in the center of the picture as being higher than the
surrounding grass.
54
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 16
RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS AT SAN BERNAR-
DINO, CALIFORNIA, MAY, 1929, TO SEPTEMBER, 1930i
Week ending
192»-
May 14
May 21
May 28
June 4
June 11
June 18
June 25
July 2
July 9
July 16
July 23
July 30
Aug. 6
Aug. 13
Aug. 20
Aug. 27
Sept. 3
Sept. 10
Sept. 17
Sept. 24
Oct. 1
Oct. 8
Oct. 15
Oct. 22
Oct. 29
Nov. 5
Nov. 12
Nov. 19
Nov. 26
Dec. 3
Dec. 10
Dec. 17
Dec. 24
Dec. 31
Use of water by Bermuda grass, in acre-inches per acre
Fixed water table three feet
below ground surface
Tank No. 1 Tank No. 2
1.155
1 006
.828
1.198
.879
.828
1.558
1.389
1.187
1.175
1.497
1.137
1.490
1.121
1.212
1.098
1.118
.688
.742
.508
.582
.656
.901
.542
.466
.406
.400
.264
.232
.074
.149
.200
.205
.167
Mean
Note: — Records for tank
No. 2 could not be relied
upon before October.
0.942
.403
.762
.902
.540
.382
.365
.261
.126
.286
.127
.201
.084
0.799
.652
.652
.684
.473
.391
.315
.246
.100
.217
.164
.203
.125
Fixed water table two feet
below ground surface
Tank No. 3
1.293
1.112
1.081
1.621
1.292
1.070
1.993
1.653
1.537
1.622
1.823
1.315
1.631
1.601
1.495
1.494
1 548
.837
1.219
.520
.636
.912
.667
.594
.772
.317
.498
.424
.327
.212
.266
.212
.201
.201
Tank No. 4
1
325
.964
.869
1.072
.859
.921
1.451
1.336
1.314
1.356
1.655
.964
1.388
1.304
1.281
1.273
1.177
.869
.911
.497
.636
.742
.645
.583
.593
.286
.392
.372
.349
.128
.255
.137
.233
.181
Mean
1.309
1 038
.975
1.347
1.075
.996
1.722
1.495
1.425
1.489
1.739
1.140
1.510
1.452
1.388
1.383
1.362
.853
1.065
.508
.636
.827
.656
.588
.683
.301
.445
.398
.338
.170
.260
.175
.217
.191
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
55
TABLE 16— Continued
RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS AT SAN BERNAR-
DINO, CALIFORNIA, MAY, 1929, TO SEPTEMBER, 1930'
Week ending
1930-
Jan. 7
Jan. 14
Jan. 21
Jan. 28
Feb. 4
Feb. 11
Feb. 18
Feb. 25
Mar. 4
Mar. 11
Mar. 18
Mar. 25
April 1
April 8
April 15
April 22
.\pril29
Mav 6
Mav 13
May 20
May 27
June 3
June 10
June 17
June 24
July 1
July 8
Julv 15
July 22
July 29
Aug. 5
Aug. 12
Aug. 19
Aug. 26
Sept. 2
Sept. 9
Sept. 16
Sept. 23
Sept. 30
Use of water by Bermuda grass, in acre-inches per acre
Fixed water table three feet
below ground surface
Tank No. 1 Tank No. 2
.105
.139
.202
.160
.044
.063
.138
.265
.298
.373
.285
.180
.213
.211
.466
.571
.774
.287
.362
.448
.648
.741
1.258
.625
.953
1.256
1.186
.816
1.452
1.217
.573
.689
.974
.994
.890
.678
.783
.468
.403
.222
.188
.190
.148
.180
.074
.222
.232
.264
.264
.106
.105
.329
.201
.159
.688
.624
.370
.370
.338
.830
.870
.965
.955
.995
1.312
1.334
1.441
1.558
1.112
1.483
.858
1.007
.531
.890
Mean
.169
.163
.186
.154
.112
.068
.180
.249
.281
.318
.196
.143
.271
.206
.312
.630
.699
.329
.366
.393
.739
.806
1.112
.790
.974
1,284
1.260
1.129
1.505
1.165
1.187
.768
.895
.500
.647
Fixed water table two feet
below ground surface
Tank No. 3 Tank No. 4
.148
.190
.127
.010
.064
.147
.212
.276
.181
.201
.074
.116
.614
.561
.657
1 039
.785
.296
.255
.627
1.058
1.167
1 345
1.175
1.219
1.515
1.399
1.633
1.578
1.496
1.409
1.093
1.146
1.473
1.249
1.145
.775
.753
.498
.179
.116
.106
.032
.042
.106
.125
.297
.233
.265
.191
.222
!l91
.223
.381
.901
.773
.626
.317
.339
.794
.933
1.271
1.208
1.166
1.484
1.271
1.398
1 452
1.346
1.071
1.123
.933
1.408
1.167
.985
.826
.561
.689
Mean
.164
.153
.117
.021
.053
.126
.168
.287
.212
.233
.132
.169
.402
.392
.519
.970
.779
.461
.286
.483
.926
1.050
1.308
1.192
1.193
1.500
1.335
1.516
1.515
1.421
1.240
1.108
1.040
1.441
1.208
1.065
.801
.657
.594
' All tanks covered during rains. Tanks contain undisturbed soil.
56
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 17
RECORD OF WEEKLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS AT
SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA, OCTOBER, 1930, TO NOVEMBER, 1931'
Week ending
1930-
^Oct.
7
Oct
14 -
Oct.
21 .
Oct.
28
Nov.
4 ..
Nov
11 '
Nov.
18
Nov,
25 ,
Dec.
2
Dec.
9
Dec.
16--,
Dec.
23
Dec.
30--.- — 1
1931—
Jan. 6-
Jan. 13-
Jan. 20-
Jan. 27-
Feb. 3-
Feb. 10-
Feb. 17-
Feb. 24-
Mar. 3-
Mar. 10-
Mar. 17-
Mar. 24.
Mar. 31-
April 7-
April 14-
April21_
April 28-
May 5-
May 12-
May 19-
May 26-
June 2-
June 9-
June 16-
June 23-
June 30-
July 7-
July 14-
July 21-
July 28-
Aug. 4-
Aug. 11-
Aug. 18-
Aug. 25.
Sept. 1-
Sept. 8-
Sept. 15-
Sept. 22.
Sept. 29.
Oct. 6-
Oct. 13-
Oct. 20-
Oct. 27.
Nov. 3.
Nov. 10-
Use of water by Bermuda grass, in acre-inches per acre
Fixed water table three feet
below ground surface
Tank No. 1 Tank No. 2
0 319
.137
.105
.096
.169
.126
.083
.116
.137
.116
.095
.084
.148
.021
.042
.043
.042
.021
.159
.148
.264
.274
.231
.392
.562
.435
.519
.317
.382
.795
1.145
.966
.816
1.420
1.281
.996
.858
.858
1.144
.658
.404
.563
.806
.731
.487
.424
.371
.435
.200
.306
0.297
.168
.212
.127
.276
.244
.294
.274
.169
.181
.148
.116
.073
.011
.042
.117
.126
.095
.382
.720
.668
.480
.414
.499
.762
.743
.605
797
.786
.817
1.389
1.409
1.633
1.410
1.335
1.304
1.336
.594
1.155
.858
.562
.679
.655
.445
.508
.615
.522
.233
.212
Mean
D 308
.153
.159
.112
.223
.185
.189
.195
.153
.149
.122
.100
.111
.016
.042
.080
.084
.058
.271
.434
.466
.377
.323
.446
.662
.589
.562
.557
.584
.806
1 267
1.188
1.225
1.415
1.308
1.150
1,097
.726
1.150
.758
.483
.621
.731
.588
.498
.520
.447
.217
.259
Fixed water table two feet
below ground surface
Tank No. 3 Tank No. 4
0.457
222
^233
.340
.340
.413
.202
.255
.074
.170
.169
.147
.105
.043
.052
.147
.147
.212
.402
.403
.563
.562
.689
.836
.911
.222
.412
.985
.049
.860
.689
.615
.763
377
749
527
674
876
1.666
1.568
.420
.144
.419
.849
.625
.155
.836
.721
.594
.583
.476
.392
.742
.297
0.276
.371
.294
.224
.244
.244
.202
.190
.127
.126
.116
.116
.136
.042
.053
.021
.063
.138
.307
.328
.509
.434
.488
.836
.837
.254
.360
.710
.934
.711
.773
.456
.679
.293
1.516
1.409
1.687
1.538
1 345
1 322
1.239
.678
1.442
.605
.551
.859
.784
.752
.666
.266
.253
.541
.425
Mean
0.367
.297
.264
.282
.292
.329
.202
.223
.101
.148
.143
.132
.121
.043
.053
.084
.105
.175
.355
.366
.536
.498
.589
.836
.874
.238
.386
.848
.992
.786
.731
.536
.721
1 335
1.633
1.468
1.681
1.707
1 506
1.445
1.330
.911
1.431
.727
.588
1.007
.810
.737
.630
.371
.323
.642
.361
• All tanks covered during rains.
' Grass burned off tanks.
Tanks contain undisturbed soil.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
57
Plate A'll sliOAvs a comparison of the consumptive use of water by
Bermuda grass and salt grass, and also evaporation from the water
surface of a ground tank of the same size as the soil tanks. The ground
tank was No. 16 at the Santa Ana station. The water table in each
case was 2 feet in depth during the period indicated, and the results
PLATE VI
ietk
■■■«
W-
BERMUDA GRASS IN TANKS IN FIELD OF SIMILAR GROWTH
AT SAN BERNARDINO. THE TANKS ARE IN THE CENTER
OF THE PICTURE SHOWING HEAVIER GROWTH.
given are the averages of three tanks of salt grass and of two tanks
of Bermuda grass. respectiA^ely. During the period of record the total
use of water by salt gra.ss was 29.6 acre-inches per acre, while that by
Bermuda grass was 34.7 acre-inches per acre.
Although consumptive use by Bermuda grass is the greater, the
maximum 12-month record from ]May to April during the three years
of measurement was but little more than 3 acre-feet per acre in a year
58
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
when the tanks were protected from rainfall. If there had been no
protection consumptive use would have been slightly increased. The
San Bernardino district has an interior climate which increases evapora-
tion and consumptive use of water to an amount greater than that in
the coastal climate of Orange County, and irrigation requirements also
are higher. The use of water by Bermuda grass is probably somewhat
higher than the use by citrus, but less than that by alfalfa. Bermuda
grass, therefore, does not make an excessive demand upon the ground
water supply.
Monthly consumptive use of water by Bermuda grass for the
period covered by the investigation is shown in Tables 18, 19 and 20.
These tables also show the total use of water for each year, ending
April 30. Some months are omitted, but percentages of use for the
PLATE VII
vap
I Ai pa/7 Bernardino (Bermuda)
" At Santa /}na (Salt Grass)
I. from ground iank
>. 16 a/ San fa ^na
5
Apr.
:
I
May- iJune.lJuly.
^ ^-
\
Aug.
R
<
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
1931
COMPARISON OF USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AT SAN BERNARDINO
WITH THAT OF SALT GRASS AT SANTA ANA AND EVAPORATION FROM
WATER IN TANK NO. 16 AT SANTA ANA.
months of record, based on the evaporation from both the circular
sunken evaporation tank and the Weather Bureau pan, separately, are
given for the same period. It is through these percentages that com-
parisons of consumptive use with the same or different crops grown
under different climatic conditions may be made.
Use of Water by Tules and Cat-Tails
A study of consumptive use of water by aquatic growth was begun
in the summer of 1929 at the Santa Ana station by transplanting rooted
plants of round stem tules into a single tank. In the following spring
investigation of triangular stem tules and cat-tails was begun at Santa
Ana and later one tank of triangular stem tules at Prado and one tank
of round stem tules at San Bernardino were included.
The round stem tule or common bulrush (Scirpus acutus) is a
perennial plant with a round, dark green stem which grows to a height
of 6 to 12 feet. It is found in abundance in some sections where water
VCES, MAY, 1929, TO APRIL,
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used
Per cent of
;iary
March
April
Tank
No. 5
Tank
No. 7
1 647
V676
1.662
'742
^.676
1.709
1 .676
1 136
.877
1.006
1.122
.975
1 048
3.912
2 139
1.798
1.968
3.063
2.373
2 718
5.400
12
6
12
12
12
12
2
12
32.526
51.2
45 5
37 266
63 572
13 858
71 490
58.6
100.0
105 3
112 5
52.1
88.9
95 6
'456
5 016
5.376
100.0
IR SI
JRFACES
, MAY, 1<
)30, TO
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used
Per cent of
nary
March
April
Tank
No. 5
Tank
No. 7
1
.495
.211
.353
.253
(•)
.058
0.169
.391
.280
2.036
1.674
, 1.855
4 953
8 883
5 766
9
9
10
11
11
11
12
11
12
'2
2.334
2 334
2.700
2.457
2.579
4 064
13 399
4-892
I
3
23 833
49 3
43.0
4
5
6
7
31 010
53 396
170 880
61.594
61 3
100.0
334.1
115 4
53.0
86 7
291.9
100 0
TABLE 18
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1929, TO APRIL,
1930, IN TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA'
Tank
No.
Content of tank
Depth to
water
table, in
feet
Diameter
of tank,
in inches
Amount of water used, in inches
of depth
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used
Per cent of
Ma>-=
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
Tank
No. 5
Tank
No. 7
1
3
3
3
2
2
2
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/18
23 1/16
48
4 280
5 216
5 489
S 345
2 901
2,771
1 255
1 505
1 380
1 641
1 410
1 525
4 704
' 4 980
0 719
.761
.740
1 007
849
928
3 480
s'sie"
0 650
886
,768
,475
433
454
2 220
"2 316
0 647
676
B62
742
876
709
2 676
3 456"
1.136
.877
1,006
1 122
,975
I 048
3,912
5 016'
2,139
1,798
1,968
3,063
2,373
2 718
5,400
12
6
2
Mean
32.526
51 2
4.280
5 340
4 840
5,090
6,090
5 216
6 348
4 854
5,601
7.596
5 489
7 144
5 872
6 508
8 892
5 345
6 804
5 660
6 232
7 740
8 296
8 808
2 901
3 785
3 337
3 561
5 426
5 562
5 690
2,771
3 061
2 722
2 892
5 436
5 580
3
12
12
12
12
2
12
4
37 266
63 672
13 858
71 490
58.6
100 0
105 3
112 5
52 1
88.9
95.6
100 0
6
7
Water in standard Weather Bureau pan
7.780
8.892
9 780
' Tanks contained undisturbed soil. All grass tanks covered during rains.
^Records began May 8. 1929. but May totals are proportioned for full month.
TABLE 19
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY' USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AND TULES AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1930, TO
APRIL, 1931, IN TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA' '
Tank
No.
Content of tank
Depth to
water
table, in
feet
Diameter
of tank,
in inches
Amount of water used, in inches of depth
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used
Per cent of
May
June
July
August
September
October'
November
December
January
February
March
April
Tank
No. 5
Tank
No. 7
1
Bermuda grass. _.
3
3
3
2
2
2
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
48
2.031
2 163
2.097
2.916
2 500
2.708
4 572
16 935
5 496
4 552
4.524
4.538
5.560
5.235
5 393
5 976
22.125
6 588
4 872
5 997
5 435
6.710
8 135
8 423
8 804
30 052
8 078
3,898
2 533
3,625
3,079
3 520
3 358
3 439
5,124
17.417
6 472
0 720
.963
.842
1 337
1 261
1 299
4,860
'13,989
5 208
0 626
1 034
,780
1 188
,890
1 039
3 506
'12 860
3 788
0 506
593
550
,623
.547
585
2 851
'5 365
2 634
0 169
.391
,280
2 036
1,674
, 1,855
4 953
8 883
5 788
9
9
10
11
11
11
12
11
12
2 .
0 495
211
353
2 253
(•)
3 058
2 334
2,334
2,700
2 457
2 579
4 064
13 399
4 892
23 833
49 3
Mean
Bermudagrass
3 898
5 608
5 066
5 337
6,844
26,108
7 536
43 0
3
Bermuda grass
4
Bermudagrass
Mean
Bermudagrass.
31 010
53 396
170 880
81 594
61 3
100 0
334 1
115 4
63 0
6
2 789
4.047
3 100
86 7
6
291 9
7 . .
Water in standard Weather Bureau pan ....
100 0
' Tanks contained undisturbed soil.
*Grass burned off Tanks Nos. 1 to 4, October 4, 1930.
» Use for November computed from 21-day record.
* Ijse for December computed from 20-day record.
^Use for January computed from 25-day record.
•Heavy rains ruined record.
'.411 grass tanks covered during rains.
•Not applicable to field conditions.
4503 — Bet pp. 58-59
TABLE 20
SUMMARY SHOWING MONTHLY USE OF WATER BY BERMUDA GRASS AND TULES AND EVAPORATION FROM WATER SURFACES, MAY, 1931,
TO APRIL, 1932, IN TANKS AT SAN BERNARDINO, CALIFORNIA' '
Tank
No.
CoDtent of tank
Depth to
water
table, iu
feet
Diameter
of tank,
in inches
Amount of water used, in inches of depth
Number
of months
of record
Total
amount
used
Per cent of
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
('1
April
Tank
No. 5
Tank
No. 7
1
3
3
3
2
2
2
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
23 1/16
48
1 959
2 759
2.359
3 677
3 086
3 382
4 850
18 067
6,794
2.798
3,969
3 384
4 780
4 304
4 .542
5.734
21 705
7 384
6 002
6 168
5.585
7 474
6 646
7 060
6 727
29 250
8 918
3 931
4.813
4 372
5 595
4 566
5 081
fi 886
23 233
8 062
2.653
2 465
2 559
3 528
3,306
3,417
5,448
'12,876
5,808
1 759
1 919
1,839
2 332
2 456
2 204
2,330
2 425
2 523
2 474
2,674
5 381
3 482
1,886
.757
1 322
2 057
1,854
1 986
2,786
5 050
2 098
1.129
9
8
9
9
8
9
12
11
12
2 .
Mean
Bermuda grass
Bermuda grass
Bermuda grass
Bermuda grass
1.129
1 540
1 573
1 557
3 008
4 151
3.126
24 879
58 3
49 3
3_
4
2 332
4 596
7 575
4 812
31 801
54 933
141 922
65 134
74 5
100 0
272,7
118,6
63 0
5
2,892
'3 134
4 232
5 839
5,240
5 100
8 795
6 276
84 3
6_
228 9
7.-
100.0
' Tanks contained undisturbed soil.
' All grass tanks covered during rains prior to December 1, 1931.
*Tules eaten off by stock in September.
* Hea\'j' rains ruined record for Bermuda grass tanks.
' Not applicable to field conditions.
4503— Bet. pp. 58-59
WATER LOSSES FRO:\r WET AREAS 59
is plentiful and grows with its roots submerged in the shallow water
along the edges of stream channels and in swamps. It is a great
nuisance in drainage ditches.
The triangular stem tule (Scirpus olncyi) is similar to the round
stem variety, being an aquatic plant that grows in areas of shallow
water. The stems are three cornered and grow with considerable
density, but are not generally as tall as the round stem tules. The
cat-tail {Typha lati folia) is a perennial marsh plant with flat leaves
that is frequently classed as a tule, although it belongs to an entirely
different family. Its cylindrical head is filled with thousands of small
cottony seeds which are spread by the wind. The cat-tail is found
wherever there is sluggish water. It spreads rapidly from seed and is
hard to eradicate.
Both tules and cat-tails were grown in tanks set in the ground
with 2 inches of rim surface exposed. Water was held on the tank
surface to a depth of approximately 2 inches so that the roots were
entirely submerged. It seems probable that air is supplied to the root
systems of growths of this type through the coarse cellular structure
of the stems. The surrounding ground surface w^as free from vegeta-
tion during the first season, but later was covered with grass.
All tule or cat-tail tanks were in exposed locations, subject to the
full effect of solar radiation and wind movement. In this respect,
tules grown at the stations differed from tules in swamps where a
certain degree of protection is afforded by increased vegetation and a
larger growing area. Consumptive use by swamp growth is partly
controlled by greater humidity overlying the swamp area. It is
probably true, too, that temperatures within the swamp are lower
than those outside. Both factors would combine to cause a lower use
of water by swamp plants than by those in exposed tanks.
In general, it appears that aquatic plants in exposed tanks do not
attain the maximum height of stalk growth that is found under natural
conditions. Tank growth rarely exceeds 5 or 6 feet in height when
fully exposed, and more often is less, whereas natural swamp growth
of tules or cat-tails frequently grow to a height of 10 or 12 feet. The
highest growth occurs in the swamp interior, with shortej' stalks around
the water's edge. In this respect the outside growth in a swamp is com-
parable to that in experimental tanks.
To determine whether size of tank had an effect on consumptive
use of water, an additional tank, 6 feet in diameter, was transplanted
to round stem tules at the Santa Ana station. The density of growth
at no time equalled that in the smaller tank and the consumptive use
per unit of area was consequently less. A comparison of the data
obtained from two tanks for tlie month of September, 1931, shows that
the smaller tank had a density of 87 stems per square foot of tank area,
which used water at the rate of 19.37 acre-inches per acre per month,
M-hilo the larger tank had only 57 stems per square foot of area using
12.43 acre-inches. The exposure of both tanks was identical. Carrying
the comparison further to determine the consumptive use per individual
stalk indicates that each tule used tlie same amount of water, regardless
of density of growth or size of tank in which it grew. Plate VIII-A
shows the 6-foot tule tank, No. 23, with the small tule tank. No. 19, at
the right.
60
DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
PLATE VIII
if*
1 (
A^
It,
•^, i,0>C
S
Q
»<..^
4
^l:,
A. TULES GROWING IN TANK SIX FEET IN DIAMETER AT SANTA ANA
STATION, 1931, WITH SMALL TANKS OF TULES AND CAT-TAILS
AT THE RIGHT.
Hi'
ir'i.-»i
;.i^
B. CAT-TAILS GROWING IN SMALL
TANK, SANTA ANA STATION, 1931.
C. TULES GROWING IN SMALL
TANK, PRADO STATION, 1931,
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
61
The cooperative station at Prado was intended principally to deter-
mine the rate of use of water by tales in connection with a study of
the flow of the Santa Ana Kiver that was being made by the United
States Geological Survey. As the station was isolated and daily visits
were not practicable, recording devices were attached to both tule tank
and Weather Bureau evaporation pan. From the records so obtained
the hourly rates of consumptive use and of evaporation have been
computed. These are plotted in Plate IX, which shows air and
water temperatures, consumptive use of water by tules in an isolated
tank, and evaporation from a four-foot pan for each hour of the day
from August 21 to August 28, 1931, inclusive. There were periods
during the early morning hours when the loss of w^ater was too small
to be recorded and evaporation or transpiration, during those hours, has
been listed as zero. Characteristic of both evaporation and transpiration
is the daily increase or decrease with a rising or falling temperature.
The minimum rate occurs near sunrise and the maximum is in the after-
noon. Consumptive use is greater than evaporation and responds more
readily to sunlight and changes of temperature. The rate of evapora-
tion does not increase rapidly until water in the pan has been warmed
PLATE IX
HOURLY RATE OF USE OF WATER BY TULES, EVAPORATION FROM
STANDARD WEATHER BUREAU PAN AND AIR AND WATER
TEMPERATURES, PRADO STATION.
by the sun and is relatively slow in comparison with the rate of con-
sumptive use, which increases rapidly, comes to a peak sooner, and
declines more quickly.
On the morning of August 28 temperature was less than normal
and a light rain occurred shortly after noon. The effect of the rain in
deferring the morning increase in consumptive use and in evaporation
from water until about 2 p.m. is shown on the chart. The rain was
apparently the cause of a small decrease in the rate of evaporation
until its effect was overcome by a rise in temperature. In general, the
highest air temperature occurred at about 1 or 2 p.m., while the highest
water temperature occurred about two hours later. The same interval
also is noticeable in minimum temperatures. Observations in other
localities have shown that the highest consumptive use of water by tules
62 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
occurs at approximately the time of highest air temperatures, although
such is not the case in this instance.
Coastal Avinds continuing through several hours each day pass over
the Prado station and, in combination with high temperatures, are
responsible for a continued increase in both evaporation and transpira-
tion until 3 or 4 o'clock in the afternoon. This accounts for a larger
consumptive use than at other localities in the Santa Ana basin.
Because of their exposure and abnormal conditions affecting
growth, use of water by tules grown in tanks was excessive. At Santa
Ana station, round stem tules used more water than did the triangular
stem tules or the cat-tails, their gro-\\i;h being greater in point of density
and height of stems. Their consumptive use frequently amounted to
more than 1| inches in depth per day and at one time averaged an inch
a day for a period of six weeks. Tules at the Prado station had a
higher consumptive use than did those of the same A-ariety at Santa
Ana, partly because of slight climatic differences, but also because
of differences in height and number of stems. The maximum daily
use at Prado was 3.6 acre-inches per acre on a day of high temperature
and wind movement.
Intensive investigations near Victorsdlle, undertaken to determine
the proper adjustment factor to be used in reducing consumptive use
of water by tules groAvn in tanks to the actual amount used by swamps,
are discussed in the folloAAdng chapter. In this study, one 2-foot tank
containing tules Avas fully exposed to Avind and sunshine Avith a result-
ing large use of Avater. A large tank set in a protected area of a SAvamp
used a much smaller amount. Further investigation by the Bureau of
Agricultural Engineering in the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta indi-
cates a factor of 0.46 for cat-tails and tules for a 20-day period in
August, 1930. Reporting on this and other Avork, Charles H. Lee* has
adopted a tentative factor of 0.50 for making the reduction, admitting
that the value may be changed Avhen further data are available. By
applying the results of the Victorville investigation to the measured
losses from isolated tanks used in southern California, it is found that
the adjustment factor ranges in these experiments from 0.29 to 0.55
as shoAvn in Table 21.
AYliile the relation betAveen the Avater requirement of a crop and
evaporation from a Avater surface during the groAving season is not
constant, month by month, it is the most practical means of making
comparisons of consumptive use, not only from year to j'ear, but between
localities having different rates of evaporation. For this purpose the
best records for comparison are those of standard Weather Bureau
eA^aporation pans, which are in more general use in investigational Avork
than pans of other sizes or depths. For the Victorville station, where
tules were grown in a swamp area, the percentage of consumptive use in
the swamp with reference to CA^aporation from the "Weather Bureau pan
is computed for an average year, the result being about 95 per cent. In
the average year the consumptive use for each month is taken as the
average of all records for that month. Neglecting other factors, such
as variety, density of groAvth, and seasonal variations in evaporation
and transpiration, this percentage has been applied to evaporation
* BuUetin No. 28, Economic Aspects of a Salt AA'ater Barrier Below Confluence
of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, Division of Water Resources, 1931.
WATER liOSSES FROM WET AREAS
63
records at Santa Ana, i'rado, and San Bernardino. In other words,
95 per cent of the evaporation at a station is estimated to be the con-
sumptive use of water by aquatic growth in a natural swamp area in
tliat locality. Ilaviuir computed the estimated consumptive use in a
swamp, the percentage of computed swamp use to the observed tank
use, mav be determined. This was the method followed in compiling
Table 2i.
TABLE 21
ESTIMATED CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY TULES AND CAT-TAILS IN SWAMPS
BASED UPON TANK EXPERIMENTS, AND PERCENTAGE OF SWAMP USE
TO TANK USE
Station
Tank
number
Aquatic growth
Observed
consumptive
use from
exposed
tank, in
acre-inches
per acre
per year
Evaporation
from
Weather
Bureau
pan, in
inches
per year
Computed
consumptive
use from
swamp, in
acre-inches
per acre
per year
Swamp
consumptive
use, in
per cent of
observed
consumptive
use
Victorville .
Triangular stem tules- _
Round stem tules
TriangTilar stem tules. .
Cat-tails
272.2
188.3
172.5
116.9
115.4
251.3
162.1
'82.5
66.6
66.6
66.6
66.6
77.4
66.1
'78.5
63 4
63.4
63.4
63.4
73.6
62.9
28.8
19
21
22
23
33 7
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
36 8
54 2
Santa Ana
Round stem tules
Triangular stem tiiles- -
Round stem tules
55.0
Prado
29.3
San Bernardino
6
38.8
Mean percentage .
39.5
' The observed swamp consumptive use at Victorville is 95.2 per cent of the evaporation from the Weather Bureau
pan. This percentage multiplied by the evaporation at each station equals the computed swamp use for that locality.
In the last column of the table there is a large difference in per-
centages. These are due in part to differences in density of gro^^i:h
in each tank. Disregarding small dift'erences in rates of transpira-
tion, which may exist in different varieties of aquatic growth, the total
use of water by adjacent tanks should correspond rather closely, pro-
vided that the dry weight of crop matter is nearly the same. Trans-
piration is nearly proportional to the transpiring area and is conse-
quently more where there is a heavy growth than where the growth is
light. Each tank used had different density of growth and a different
consumptive use. In Tank No. 22 cat-tails did not spread and produce
as thick a growth as is natural in .swamp areas, nor did they reach the
height of stems found in swamps. The same is true of round stem tules
in Tank No. 23. In both cases, the observed consumptive use is less
than that of triangular stem tules at Santa Ana or of round stem tules
at San Bernardino, and the percentage of computed swamp use to
observed tank use is much higher than the average for other tanks.
Likewise, consumptive use by tules at Prado is high and its relation
to swamp use is correspondingly low.
The results of the tule tank experiments indicate the impractica-
bility of applying to field conditions records of tests made in isolated
tanks of tules grown apart from their natural environment.
64 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Use of Water by Willows
Willows are water-loving shrubs or trees found in areas of com-
paratively high ground water. They often grow in the coarse material
forming di'y stream channels, where they draw moisture from the
underflow. The root system of some varieties includes a long tap root
which enables the plant to receive moisture from a water table at a
considerable depth. Willows have been observed in a very sandy soil
where depth to water table was about 10 feet.
Investigation of consumptive use of water by a single willow {Salix
laevigata) bush was begun at the Santa Ana station in 1930. The bush
consisted of a single clump of 20 stems from one-half to an inch and one-
quarter in diameter growing from the same root. The average height
was about 7 feet. This bush was transplanted into a metal tank, 6 feet
in diameter hy 3 feet deep. Measurement of consumptive use was begun
in May, 1930, and continued for two years. The spread of bush area
was the same as the tank area and consumptive use was computed on
that basis. The soil in the tank was bare, consequently the total use
includes soil evaporation. Water in the soil stood 2 feet below the
surface. As the soil in the tank was shaded by the willow growth
and grass and weeds grew up around the tank, evaporation was
probably no more than occurs under ordinarj^ conditions of scattered
brush growth. Previous experiments with evaporation from disturbed
soil having the same water table depth show losses ranging from less
than 1 to nearly 3 inches per month, depending upon the season.
Evaporation from the willow tank should be relative^ small on account
of shade and protection due to overhanging branches.
During both years of the investigation stems and leaves of the
willow were heavily infested with aphis and the red ants that are found
with them. During 1930 the tree was sprayed regularly, every effort
being made to control the pest, and apparently no harm was done. In
the following year, defoliation began early in the summer and was com-
plete by September, several weeks earlier than is normal. During this
period consumptive use records are not for a healthy tree in full leaf.
In the following spring of 1932, the third of the investigation, a normal
growth of new leaves appeared at the regular time, indicating that no
permanent damage to the tree had occurred. Plate X shows the Avillow
growing in a 6-foot tank at Santa Ana in May, 1930, before vegetative
growth surrounded the tank.
Soil in the willow tank originally contained some alkali. During
the summer months, when evaporation was at a maximum, white alkali
was deposited on the tank surface. As the daily amount of water was
added to the tank the total amount of alkali increased. These salts
went through seasonal changes in location in alternate wet and dry
seasons as they were carried down to the water table by winter rains
and returned to the surface by summer evaporation. During the
period when the tree was losing its leaves alkali was visible on the tank
surface, but apparently not to exceed the amount of the previous year
when no defoliation occurred. The willow is normally a user of
relatively pure water and does not grow where salts are found in high
concentration. The defoliation may have been due either to presence
of alkali or to infestation.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
65
Consiiniptive use of water by the willow groAvth by months is shown
in Tables 14 and 15. The maximum monthly use in the year in which
the growth was in good condition, amounting to 7.8 acre-inches per
{'cre, occurred in August. In comparison with evaporation from a
Weather Bureau pan, consumptive use exceeded evaporation only dur-
ing the months of August and September. The total use during a
period of eleven months, shown in Table 14. was 52.7 acre-inches per
PLATE X
WILLOW TREE GROWING IN 6-FOOT TANK, SANTA ANA
STATION, 1931.
acre or 83.5 per cent of the evaporation from a Weather Bureau pan
for the same period. It is evident that willows grown in tanks under
the conditions of this experiment, are fairly large users of ground
water. The amounts used exceed consumptive u.se by either salt grass
or Bermuda gra.ss, but are less than consumptive use by tules under
natural swamp conditions.
An adjustment factor has been computed for tules to adjust con-
sumptive use of water by tank growth to similar growth in large areas,
5 — 4503
66 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
but no basis exists for computing the proper factor for use with willows.
Because there is a great natural difference in the habits of growth of
tules and willows, the same factor will not apply to both. Tules
naturally grow in swamp areas, whereas willows are found in scattered
areas of dry land, sometimes in isolated clumps, small groups, or in
large bodies of ))rush. AVhere isolated growth occurs, conditions of
temperature, sunlight, and wind movement are the same as for tank
growth, and consumptive use is nearly the same in all cases. In dense
grovrths of brush, however, conditions are changed to reduce the
factors mentioned and transpiration also is less. In this case, an adjust-
ment factor should be applied to the observed consumptive use by
willoM'S grown in tanks to arrive at the correct figure for field con-
ditions. In many instances willows grow as a fringe along water
courses, and endjankments of ditches. They are also found in large
areas interspersed with open places that are sometimes of considerable
size. Considering differences in the spread of willow growth it is evi-
dent that an adjustment factor is not a constant that can be used under
all conditions, but is a variable depending upon density and size of
brush. Due to the present lack of data, any factor arrived at must be
only an estimate, subject to revision later when further evidence is
available. For willow growth in the Santa Ana Kiver basin, which is
]iartly in solid blocks of brush and partly scattering, it is estimated
that consumptive use is 75 to 100 per cent of the amount of water
necessary for isolated tank growth, with an average of 85 per cent.
Use of Water by Wire Rush
Wire rush (Juncus hallicus) grows in limited areas of high ground
water in the Prado basin where it is found in association with salt grass.
In appearance it is a heavy, tough, Avire-like grass growing from a thick
creeping rootstalk. In places where it was observed, it did not exceed 10
or 12 inches in height. Some of this growth was transplanted into a
small tank at the Santa Ana station in the summer of 1930 for the pur-
pose of making a consumptive use of water study, as indications were
that it might be a large user of water. During the first year of the
study a considerable amount of salt grass Avas included with the wire
rush, but in the following year the heavier growth had croAvded out
the salt grass.
A fixed water level was maintained at a depth of 2 feet in the
tank, although where a natural growth occurred in tlie fields there were
seasonal fluctuations of ground water at greater depths. This depth
was the same as that chosen for investigations of consumptive use by
salt grass, Bermuda grass, and willows. During the first winter, the
wire rush tank was protected from rainfall, as were all soil moisture
tanks, but during the second year it was exposed to all rains.
A summary showing monthly use of water b,y wire rush is given
in Tables 14 and 15. The maximum use for any month was 13.75 acre-
inches per acre during July, 1931. The total use for a ten-month
period was 83.45 acre-inches per acre or 141.8 ])er cent of the evapora-
tion from a Weather Bureau pan for the same period. In comparison
with consumptive use by grasses and willows, the wire rush has
appeared to be a heavy user of water and it is fortunate that the area
restricted to its growth is limited.
WATER T,OSSES FRO:\r WET AREAS
67
Adjustment Factors
Previous tables have shown weekly' or monthl_y use of water by
each oTowtli at tlie several stations, but Table 22 contains the observed
average yeai'ly eonsumplive use and also an estimated factor for adjust-
ment of such use to consumptive use over large areas. This factor for
tules and cat-tails is based upon experiments carried on at Victorville
and reported in Chapter III. No experiments have been made to deter-
mine a factor for grasses, but conditions of tank growth are so nearly
those of the tield, that factors for these crops have been taken as 100
per cent. A tentative factor of 85 per cent has been adoi)ted for
willow as previously stated.
TABLE 22
SUMMARY OF TANK INVESTIGATIONS SHOWING ESTIMATED ANNUAL
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER IN MOIST AREAS
Type of vegetation
Depth to
water
table,
in feet
Location
Length of
effective
record, in
months
Observed
average
consumptive
use, by
vegetation
in tanks, in
acre-inches
per acre
per year
Estimated
factor for
adjustment
to large
areas, in
per cent
Estimated
annual
depth of
consumptive
use, in
acre-inches
per acre
per year
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
2
3
19
11
5
17
31
11
17
10
32
31
22
33
24
23
24
28
17
19
4.7
1.6
0.0
42.1
36 0
24.8
13 2
19.6
36,2
28.8
162 1
188.3
115.4
116.9
172 5
251.3
52.7
84.5
100 0
100.0
100.0
100 0
100 0
100.0
100.0
100 0
100.0
100.0
'38,8
'33.7
<55.0
'54. 2
'36.8
•29.3
85 0
4 7
Santa Ana ...
1 6
Santa Ana
0 0
Salt grass
Santa Ana _
42 1
Salt grass .
Santa Ana
36 0
24 8
Santa Ana...
13.2
Salt grass
Bermuda grass
Bermuda grass
Round stem tules _
Santa Ana
San Bernardino
San Bernardino
San Bernardino
19.6
36.2
28.8
62 9
63.4
Santa Ana
63.4
Cat-tails
Santa Ana
63 4
Triangular stem tules.
Triangular stem tules.
Willow
Santa Ana
63.4
2
2
Prado ,.
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
73.6
47.8
Wire rush
1 Evaporation from surface of bare soil.
2 Tules grown in tank 251^ inches in diameter.
' Tules grown in tank 6 feet in diameter.
'See Table 21.
No data are available for estimating an adjustment factor for wire
rusli. While the tank in which it grew was not set in a field of similar
groAAih, it Avas surrounded by grass and weeds. It is possible, since it
did not grow in its natural habitat as did the salt grass, that change of
environment was responsible for an increased consumptive use as is the
ease with tules in isolated tanks.
In Table 22 there are also presented estimates, based upon experi-
ments, of the annual drafts upon the ground water by noneconomic
native growths found in moist areas in the Santa Ana basin. These
estimates are only for those depths to ground water at which the
68
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
experiments were conducted and are not applicable to other localities
with markedly different climatic conditions.
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
The top soil at the Santa Ana station was overlying a coarse water
bearing sand at a depth of 6 to 7 feet. It contained considerable mica
and some alkali in qnantities not detrimental to the varieties of vege-
tation nsed in the investigation. A thin layer of finer than average
material lay at a depth of about 4 feet in all Santa Ana tanks, a
mechanical analysis of which showed that 29 per cent should be classed
as very fine sand and 59 per cent as silt. This fine material was unim-
portant, as in all tests except one it lay below the water table and
could have no effect on capillary rise of moisture or rate of transpira-
tion. In the one case referred to, where it was a few inches above
the water table, it apparently had no influence on rate of movement
of soil moisture. Soil at the San Bernardino station is classed as Chino
silt loam and is relatively free from alkali.
Mechanical Analyses
Mechanical analyses of soil from five tanks at the Santa Ana
station and from two tanks at the San Bernardino station were made,
and the percentages of different sized soil particles are shown in Table
23. Each sample of soil, representing 1 foot in depth and weighing
TABLE 23
MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF SOIL FROM TANKS AT SANTA ANA AND
SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS
Tank
number
Depth of
sample,
in feet
Per cent of material retained on screens of the following s'zes
No. 14
No. 28
No. 48
No. 100
No. 200
Per cent
of material
passing
screen
No. 200
SANTA ANA STATION
3
1
0
0
14
42
21
21
3
2
0
2
23
46
14
15
3
3
0
1
17
39
21
22
3
4
0
2
13
49
16
20
5
1
0
2
22
43
15
18
5
2
0
1
13
45
19
22
5
3
0
1
12
36
20
31
7
1
0
2
17
42
16
23
7
2
0
1
16
42
18
23
7
3
0
1
14
42
16
27
12
1
0
2
13
35
20
30
12
2
0
1
1(1
33
21
29
12
3
0
1
18
32
19
30
12
4
0
1
17
47
13
22
12
5
0
3
13
51
20
13
12
6
1
12
45
22
4
10
15
1
0
4
20
47
14
15
15
2
0
2
18
44
18
18
15
3
0
2
16
46
19
17
2
1
2
2
2
3
4
1
4
. 2
SAN BERNARDINO STATION
0
2
16
28
13
41
0
2
21
23
13
41
1
4
18
38
13
26
0
1
29
30
14
26
0
1
20
29
19
31
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
69
TABLE 24
MOISTURE EQUIVALENTS OF SOIL
FROM TANKS
AT SANTA ANA AND
SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS
Tank
Depth of sample,
Moisture equiv-
Tank
Depth of .sample,
Moisture equiv-
number
in feet
alent in per cent
number
in feet
alent, in per cent
SANTA ANA STATION
SANTA ANA STATION
1
1
5.8
11
1
10.4
2
8.1
2
11.0
3
8.7
3
12.2
4
6.2
4
11.9
2
1
6 5
12
1
11.0
2
8.2
2
13.0
3
9.4
3
12.3
4
7.8
4
12.2
3
1
6.6
'13
1
6.3
2
7.1
2
6.2
3
9.2
4
8.9
'14
1
2
6.2
6.7
4
1
7.0
2
8.3
'15
1
2
6.5
6.6
5
1
8.3
2
9.0
SAN BERNARDINO STATION
6
1
8.7
1
1
30.6
2
8.4
2
3
19.7
15.2
7
1
8.6
2
9 0
2
1
2
31.2
21.4
8
1
2
10.3
9.8
3
16.3
3
1
29.4
9
1
2
11.4
11.7
2
19.8
4
1
28.6
10
1
2
3
4
9.9
12.6
12.0
9.4
2
19.3
' Tank Nos. 13, 14 and 15 contained disturbed soil, all others contained soil in place.
about 1000 gTams, was air dried and screened to the point of refusal.
Results at Santa Ana show that about 40 per cent of the sample was
retained on a No. 100 screen and nearly half that amount passed the
No. 200 screen.
Soil at the San Bernardino station was finer and a larger per-
centage passed the No. 200 screen.
Moisture Equivalent
Moisture equivalent is a measure of the value of the moisture
retentiveness of a soil and is obtained by subjecting a sample of 80
grams to a constant centrifugal force of 1000 times the force of gravity
for a period of 30 minutes. Experiments by many investigators have
determined that moisture equivalent is a close measure of the field
capacity. Tt is more easily interpreted as regards soil moisture reten-
tion than is possible by sej)aration of soil particles into groups as
determined by mechanical analysis. Colloidal matter in the soil, as an
important factor in affecting specific yield or s])ecific retention, is not
apparent in determinations of mechanical analysis, but does affect the
percentage of moisture retained. High moisture equivalents are
obtained from fine grained soils containing quantities of colloidal
70 DIVISION OF NYATER RESOURCES
matter, while low values come from coarse materials of low water
holding capacity.
Soil moisture samples at the Santa Ana station, outside of soil
tanks, show average moisture of 2 to 3 per cent in the upper soil after
a long dry period and about 12 per cent four days after a heavy rain.
The former percentage is the Avilting point for this soil, while the
latter is near field capacity. Samples taken from soil tanks show
moisture equivalents that approximately agree with field capacities
previously determined. This is shown in Table 24 of moisture equiva-
lents, as determined from samples taken from above the water tables in
tanks at both Santa Ana and San Bernardino.
Moisture equivalents of Chino silt loam at San Bernardino are
higher than at Santa Ana because of fine soil particles, as evidenced
in Table 23, and a greater variation occurs at the different depths.
The San Bernardino top soil has a high moisture equivalent, while for
subsoil it is decreased one-half.
Porosity, Specific Yield, and Specific Retention
At the end of three years of investigation at the Santa Ana
station and previous to dismantling the soil tanks, tests were made of
the soils in various tanks to determine (1) porosity, (2) specific reten-
tion, and (3) specific yield.
Porosity is a measure of the total voids in a soil and is represented
as a percentage of the total volume. It varies inversely with the size
of soil particles and is greater for clay soils than it is for sand or
gravel.
Specific retention is a measure of the water holding capacity of a
soil and is recorded as a percentage of the total volume. In deter-
mining specific retention, it is necessary to consider the depth to water
table, as more water is held in a soil in close proximity to the water
table than at several feet above it.
Specific yield is the amount of water which will drain from a soil
by gravity. It also is measured as a percentage of the total volume. It
is influenced by the size of soil particles and is greater for soils of coarse
material than for soils composed of finer grains. It depends also upon
the amount of capillary moisture resulting from a high water table.
It is evident that both specific retention and specific yield are entirely
relative and not altogether functions of the soil, as they depend on the
depth to ground water and are different with each change in depth
within the capillary fringe. Stearns* sa,ys, "Obviously, in any direct
test, whether made in the laboratory or in the field, the true specific
retention of the material can be ascertained only by using a high
column of the material and disregarding the lower part that lies
within the capillary fringe." In considering these characteristics, it
is obvious that the specific retention is the complement of the specific
yield and that the sum of the two is equal to the total porosity.
Water tables in the tanks in which these tests were made were from
2 to 5 feet below the surface, or mostly within the limits of capillary
rise, and therefore the specific yield and specific retention as given in
this report refer only to the conditions nnder which the tests were
* Laboratory Tests on Phv.sical Properties of Water Bearing Materials, by
Norah D. Stearns. (U. S. Geol. Sur. Water Supply Paper 596-F, p. 13S.) 1927.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
71
made. Tliey are not true results as would be found in the absence of a
water table. For example, the true speciiic yield of a soil is measured
by the quantity of water which it will yield after it lias been saturated
and allowed to drain. Where a high water table exists, there can not
be complete drainage.
A measure of specific yield is approximated by the difference
between the porosity of a soil and its moisture equivalent by volunu".
This represents the pore space remaining in a soil sample after it has
TABLE 25
COMPARISON OF THE COMPUTED SPECIFIC YIELD OF SOILS IN THE ABSENCE OF A
WATER TABLE WITH THE OBSERVED SPECIFIC YIELD OF THE
SAME SOILS HAVING HIGH WATER TABLES
Tank
number
Porosity,
in per cent
Moisture
equivalent,
in per cent
by volume
Specific yield, in per cent
Station
Computed
(without
water
table)'
Observed
(with
high water
table) 2
1
2
10
U
314
1
3
38.3
44.8
39 5
36 4
41.9
43.5
51.3
11.5
13 5
17.4
16.8
9.1
31.2
36.9
26 8
31.3
22.1
19.6
32.8
12.3
14.4
23 0
24.5
Santa Ana
15 2
15 5
Santa Ana _ _ _ _ -
9.8
San Bernardino . _ __ -
9.9
San Bernardino _ - .
6.6
' Computed specific yield equals porosity minus moisture equivalent by volume.
= Observed specific yield equals porosity minus specific retention.
' Tank No. 14 contained disturbed soil. In all other tanks the original soil column was ujibroken.
been centrifuged. To show the difference between the computed spe-
cific yield and the observed specific yield as measured in the tank tests,
Table 25 has been prepared. Here the porosity as determined by meas-
urement minus the moisture equivalent equals the computed spe-
cific yield. In the adjoining column the observed porosity minus the
specific retention equals the measured specific yield. The variation in
the two values is due entirely to capillary moisture resulting from a
high water table.
In making these tests, soil moisture was first determined in each
tank and the water content of the soil was computed. Measured quan-
tities of water were poured into the tanks, raising the water level until
the soil was saturated. The volume of water required for saturation
added to the capillary moisture was then equal to the total pore space,
and fi'om this the percentage of porosity was computed. The capillary
moisture above the water tables was incapable of further drainage and
was, therefore, equal to the specific retention. Specific yield is the
difference between total porosity and specific retention. These quan-
tities are given in Table 26 for soils in various tanks at both the Santa
Ana and San Bernardino stations.
It is shown in this table that both specific yield and specific reten-
tion vary with depth to water. The higher yields occur in those tanks
having the sliallower water tables. It will be observed that porosity of
disturbed soil in Tank No. 14 was close to the average of all tanks, but
that the specific retention greatly exceeded that of undisturbed soil.
72
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
This accounts for the frequently moist surface in this tank and for the
high rate of soil evaporation from disturbed soil. One column of
Table 26 includes a check of porosity by computation using the formula
As
P^lOO (1 ), where P is porosity, As is apparent specific
Sp. gr.
gravity, and Sp. gr. is the real specific gravity, which has been assumed
to have a value of 2.65.
Chino silt loam is composed of finer material than is Hanford
fine sandy loam and, therefore, the porosity is greater. The finer
material holds a larger proportion of soil moisture which results in an
TABLE 26
POROSITY, SPECIFIC YIELD AND SPECIFIC RETENTION OF SOIL IN TANKS
HAVING HIGH WATER TABLES
Station
Tank
number
Depth to
water
table,
in feet
Depth of
soil
tested, in
inches
Specific
jield,
in per cent
Specific
retention,
in per cent
Observed
porosity,
in per cent
Computed
porosity,
in per cent'
1
2
Mean
10
1!
Mean
=14
ks
3
3
3
5
5
5
2
36 0
34.08
35.04
61.2
58 44
59.82
30 12
23 0
24.5
23.75
15 2
15 5
15.35
9.8
15 3
20.3
17 8
24 3
20 9
22.6
32 1
38.3
44.8
41 55
39 5
38 4
37.95
41.9
39.6
Santa Ana -- -
36.2
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
37.9
40.4
Santa Ana -
44.5
Santa Ana
Santa Ana - - ..
42.45
46 9
Santa \na, Mean of all tan
40.2
41.5
San Bernardino -
1
3
11 tanks
3
2
34.56
22.2
9.9
6.6
33.6
44.7
43.5
51 3
49.8
San Bernardino- -.
43.3
San Bernardino Mean of a
47.4
46.6
> Computed by formula: Porosity=100| 1
;ity=100l ]
Apparent specific gravity
Real specific gravity
' Tank Xo. 14 contained disturbed soil. In all other tanks, the original soil column was unbroken.
)
increased specific retention and a smaller specific yield. For tanks
having a water-table depth of 3 feet in fine sandy loam, the specific yield
averaged 23.75 per cent of the volume of soil tested, but for Chino silt
loam, the yield was but 9.9 per cent. The computed porosity of this soil
agrees verv closelv with that found bv actual test.
Apparent Specific Gravity
Apparent specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of
a unit of dry soil to that of an equal volume of water. It is sometimes
called volume weight. It varies with the soil material and is highest
for soils having the lowest porosity. It is always less than the real
specific gravity.
Apparent specific gravity of the soils in a majority of tanks at
both stations was determined for use in computing the equivalent
depth of water in inches above the water table in each tank. These
WATER LOSSES PROM WET AREAS
73
determinations were not made until the winter of 1931-32, when it
became necessary to measure the change in water content in the soil
each month, due to soil moisture increases from rainfall. Determina-
tions were made fi'om samples taken from each foot of depth, using- a
new soil tube. The weight and volume of each sample was obtained
and apparent specific gravity computed by dividing the dry weight of
the sample in grams by its volume in cubic centimeters.
There is considerable variation in the results and this may account
for some discrepancies in consumptive use by different soil tanks,
although the majority of values are close to the mean at each station.
Check determinations made at points outside the tanks agree with
those in the tanks. Values found in tanks containing disturbed soil
are somewhat less than those in undisturbed soil, as might be expected.
It will be noticed that the top foot of soil at San Bernardino has a
lower apparent specific gravity than the second or third foot. Results
of all apparent specific gravity determinations at both stations are
given in Table 27.
TABLE 17
APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOILS IN TANKS AT SANTA ANA AND
SAN BERNARDINO STATIONS
Tank number or loca-
tion of sample
Apparent specific gravity at
Station
Depth in feet
1
2
3
4
Mean
1
2
5
6
10
11
12
14
15
5 feet north of Tank No. 1
4 feet south of Tank No. 8
5 feet south of Tank No. 12
4 feet north of Tank No. 6
Mean
1
2
3
4
Mean
1 61
1 07
1.41
1.51
1.56
1 54
1.48
1 34
1 42
1 57
1 50
1 44
1 49
1 50
1.35
1 33
1.37
1 34
1 35
1.60
1 70
1.63
1.46
1 57
1 40
1 49
1.46
1 28
1.47
1 53
1 47
1 47
1 50
1 50
1 52
1 62
1 58
1.56
1.58
1.70
1.60
Santa .A.na
1.69
1.52
1 49
Santa .\na
Santa Ana
Santa .\na
Santa .\na
1.64
1 45
1.44
1.46
1.53
1 49
1 48
1 58
1.47
1.47
1 42
1.35
Santa .\na
1.44
1.36
1.46
1.52
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
San Bernardino -.
San Bernardino
1.57
1.56
1 54
1.44
1 51
1.58
1 44
1.48
1.52
1.49
1.51
1.43
1.45
1.50
1 46
San Bernardino.. -
1.48
1.46
CHAPTER III
INVESTIGATIONS IN MOJAVE RIVER AREA
By Colin A. Taylor and Harry G. Xickle *
Along the ]\Iojave River there are moist areas where the non-
economic use of water by natural vegetation is considerable. In Octo-
ber, 1930, the State Engineer of California requested that cooperative
investigations be undertaken as follows: (1) That the U. S. Bureau of
Agricultural Engineering establish an experiment station along the
Mojave River near Victorville for the purpose of measuring the
evaporation and transpiration losses from moist areas and of recording
meteorological data; (2) that the U. S. Geological Survey establish
additional gaging stations along the ]\Iojave River, and an effort be
made to determine consumptive use of water between stations by stream
flow measurements. The work as outlined was started in November,
1930, by the cooperating agencies. Stream flow measurements along
the river are still being made, but the experiment station has been dis-
continued. This chapter presents the data collected at the Victorville
experiment station on evaporation and transpiration losses from moist
areas along the IMojave River.
The Mojave River** is situated in San Bernardino County, Cali-
fornia, and constitutes the chief drainage system of the northern slopes
of the San Bernardino Mountains. The mountain headwaters comprise
two distinct branches. East Fork, or Deep Creek, and West Fork,
which unite at the base of the mountains to form the main river. This
junction is known as the Forks. Below it, the river, in its course of
90 miles across the desert plain, receives no surface tributary of con-
sequence, but there is an underground contribution from springs. The
course of the river is first northward 30 miles, then northeastward 20
miles, and finally eastward 40 miles. The river ends in dry lakes at an
elevation of less than 1000 feet above sea level. The mountain water-
shed of the river, 217 square miles in area, extends from an elevation of
8000 feet at the summit of the range to 3000 feet at the Forks. The
upper portion has heavy precipitation and the main tributaries are
never dry where they leave the mountains. In summer the water sinks
in the river a short distance below the Forks but appears again as ^sur-
face flow several miles below, reaching the Upper Narrows at Victor-
ville, 14 miles below the Forks. The surface flow continues through
the Lower Narrows 4 miles farther down stream and during the
summer again sinks several miles below Oro Grande after supplying
several irrigation ditches. The water is then brought to the surface
for short distances at a number of other points, these points being
farther apart and the flow diminishing in ([uantity toward the lower
* Prepared by C. A. Taylor, Assistant Irrigation Engineer, and Harry G. Niclcle,
Junior Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department
of Agriculture. K. R. Melin of the U. S. Geological Survey assisted in conducting
field work.
** Bulletin No. 5. Report on the Utilization of Mojave River for Irrigation in
Victor Valley, California. State of California, Department of Engineering. (1918.)
(74)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 75
end of the stream. At each point of reappearance the water supports
a considerable amount of noneeonomic vegetation. Tn describing these
points in tlie rivei-, Thompson* states:
''Wherever the water is at or close to the surface there is more or
less evaporation, not only from the surface streams but also from the
ground water supply through direct upward capillary movement and
by transpiration from the plants. In some places as summer approaches
the evaporation becomes so great that the water is disposed of more
rapidly than it reaches the surface, and the stream dwindles and
disappears. But even when the stream no longer exists water is gen-
erally present a few feet below the surface, except in places where the
ground water is not held near -the surface by submerged rock "dikes"
or dams. xVs the end of the dry season approaches and evaporation
becomes less, more water reaches the surface and the stream becomes
wider and deeper and has a greater linear extent. The end of the
stream may be seen to advance on cool daj's and at night and to retreat
on warm days. ' '
One of the moist areas adjacent to the river extends for several
miles above the Upper Narrows at Victorville. Both surface and under-
ground flow must pass over the bedrock at the Upper Xarrows, and the
level of the underground water immediatelv above this obstruction
fluctuates little, the water being brought to the surface by the con-
striction of the channel. The ground water, therefore, is usually at
or near the surface over much of the area.
Several flood channels have been cut through this moist area by
the river during periods of high water. After careful consideration of
possible sites, one of these channels, located on the east side of the
river just above the Upper Narrows, was selected as the site of the
Victorville station. The only surface water that enters this channel is
flood water from the river and flood waters due to torrential rain storms
falling upon the adjacent higher areas. The bottom of the channel has
been cut down below the general ground-water level, so that there is a
free stream flow of the raised water and a swampy area (cienaga) is
formed. This channel is about 1600 feet in length and from 10 to 70
feet in width, is not isolated from the main moist area, and contains a
dense growth of tules. The outflow from the cienaga joins the main
channel of the river at the Narrows. The altitude of the station is
about 2700 feet above sea level.
A low earth dam was built at the lower end of the channel chosen
and a Parshall measuring flume with a water-stage recorder was
installed to measure the outflow. The records obtained are not given in
this report but it is believed that when analyzed they may be found
useful in correlating the results of the tank experiments presented in
this chapter with the stream-flow measurements made by the U. S.
Geological Survey in the main channel of ]Mojave River.
During the latter part of November, 1930, evaporation and trans-
piration apparatus was established for the purpose of obtaining basic
data. Evaporation, temperature, rainfall, and wind movement records
were started November 22, 1930, but no tules were planted in the tanks
* "The Mohave Desert Region, California," by David G. Thompson, U. S. Geo-
logical Survey Water-supply Paper 578, p. 375.
76
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
until January 29, 1931. Records were continued until March 1, 1933,
when the station was dismantled.
PROCEDURE
A general view of the moivst area above the Upper Narrows is
shown in Plate XI. The small flood channel on which the station is
located is designated by an X marked on the plate. About midway of
the length of this small channel, previously described, a section of the
swamp and an area of the adjacent higher ground were inclosed with
a fence for protection against animals. The bank is 4 to 5 feet higher
than the level of the swamp. The enclosure is approximately 20 feet
PLATE XI
MOIST AREA ALONG THE MOJAVE RIVER ABOVE THE UPPER NARROWS
NEAR VICTORVILLE, CALIFORNIA.
by 64 feet and includes space in the swamp for the tule tanks, and
space on the bank for a tule tank, supply tanks, a ground water well,
and evaporation station equipment. The plan of the station is shown
in Plate XXL The equipment consists of three tule tanks, a standard
Weather Bureau evaporation pan, a four-cup anemometer, a set of
standard maximum and minimum thermometers and a thermograph
housed in a standard shelter, a rain gage, and a ground-water well.
Previous investigations by Blaney and Taylor on consumptive use
of water by native vegetation along stream channels* indicate that if
data from tanks are to be used in estimating losses from larger areas
under field conditions, the tanks should be set in a field of natural
growth similar to that in the tanks. The native vegetation should
completely surround the growth in the tanks so that the exposure is
normal. Otherwise it is necessary to use large reduction factors the
* "Bulletin No. 33, Chapter 4, "Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of
Water In the Santa Ana River Valley and Coastal Plain," Division of Water
Resources, California State Department of Public Works.
WATER LOSSES PRO"M WET AREAS
77
PLATE XII
Lotver bench of Mojave Rive
Direction of flow.
\
\
^'#.'"
- X %-
_\_..
eal-e
Swamp
Water line at \
edqe of sm/an^p^
I C ■
Thermomefer'i
shelter I
^
-X X X X
Ram <
Supply Tank .
Ground wsten
; A \
Tank NO I. , y
PLAN OF VICTORVILLE STATION.
values of which are difficult to determine, and which at best can be
only very approximate. Therefore, besides the primary purpose of
determining- the consumptive use of water by tules, it was desired to
demonstrate the impracticability of attempting- to determine their use
of water in swamps from experiments conducted with tules planted
in isolated tanks outside their natural environment.
Tule Tank No. 1, 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep, was set in
the ground on the bank for the purpose of demonstrating the effect of
exposure on the use of water by plants grown in tanks. The rim of
this tank was set 1 inch above the surrounding ground surface. This
tank was filled with soil taken from the swamp. A sparse growth of
salt grass around Tank No. 1 did not reach higher than an inch at any
time during the season, so that the growth in the tank had a full
exposure. The evaporation pan was placed on the bank in the standard
manner and had good exposure, similar to that of Tank No. 1.
Two tule tanks were placed in the swamp. Tank No. 2 being 2 feet
in diameter, and Tank No. 3, 6 feet in diameter. Both tanks are 3 feet
deep and set in the swamp 30 feet from the bank. Cradles for the
tanks were made of 2-inch redwood planks and supported on piling so
that the elevation of the rims of the tanks was approximately 4 inches
above the water surface of the surrounding swamp. Pipe lines wei-e
connected to the tanks 1 foot below the rim and extended to supply
tanks located in a sheltered dug-out in the bank. The tanks were filled
with swamp soil.
A ground water well was sunk in the northeast corner of the plot
with a casing extending 30 inches below the ground water into a coarse
^and. Records of the height of the ground water were kept at this
well, but the fluctuations were very slight. The water supply for the
various tanks was obtained from a cased well about 2 feet in diameter
and 3 feet deep, located near the edge of the swamp.
78
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
- Jt was necessary to use a supply tank with each tule tank to main-
tain the water level between narrow limits. Tule Tanks Nos. 1 and 2
are directly connected to separate water supply tanks, 4 feet in
diameter and about 1 foot deep. A cone-shaped metal cover with an
air vent was fitted over the supply tanks, and a second cover was placed
over the sui')ply tanks to eliminate evaporation. With this arrangement
the fluctuations in the water surfaces of the tule tanks are reduced by
the replenishment of water from the supply tanks. Plate XIII shows
PLATE XIII
$yvamp water surface r^fi/jyyQH
^■h=-=^
TanH N92
/
dank
P'P^^ \ %'p>P^
Supply tank B
(O
4
ARRANGEMENT FOR TANK NO. 2 TO SUPPLY WATER AND TO MEASURE
AMOUNT OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION.
PLATE XIV
^-
3y/amp wafer surface
ace-^
TanH No- 3.
» VaJve
I 5fillyyell
r=75^
ARRANGEMENT FOR TANK NO. 3 TO REGULATE SUPPLY OF WATER AND
TO MEASURE AMOUNT OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION.
WATER LOSSES PROM WET AREAS
79
PLATE XV
W.
A. GENERAL VIEW OF VICTORVILLE STATION, TAKEN OCTOBER 31, 1931.
B. VIEW TAKEN OCTOBER 31, 1931, OF SWAMP WHERE TWO TANKS WERE
LOCATED, THE STADIA ROD BEING HELD BETWEEN THE TWO TANKS.
80
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
the arrangement to supi)ly water for tule Tank No. 2 and also 'the still
well for measuring- the amonnt of water used. Because of the volume
of water required to supply tule Tank No. :>, a different arrangement
was necessary there. This tank was supplied through an automatic
float-valve feed connected to a supply tank of larger capacity. Plate
XIV shows the arrangement for regulating the supply of water and
measuring the amount used in tule Tank No. 3.
Beginning November 22, 1930, Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were main-
tained with free water surfaces until January 29, 1931, when they
w'ere planted with tules {Scir])iis olnciji). During the installation of
the equipment, the old tules around the tanks were broken down and
the tanks were not completely surrounded with new growth until about
]\Iay, 1931. Prior to May 15 the side exposure of Tank No. 2 was some-
what greater than that of Tank No. 3 but after that date the surround-
ing growth completely hid the rims of both tanks and thereafter the
exposure of the tules in Tanks Nos. 2 and 3 Avas similar to tliat of the
natural swamp tules.
PLATE XVI
1,%^
•i
-.^>
ft.
VIEW OF TANK NO. 1, TAKEN OCTOBER 31, 1931.
WATER LOSSES F^ROM WET AREAS
81
Plate XV-A is a general view of the station taken October 31, 1931,
showing the location of the cliniatolopieal apparatus, while Plate XV-B
shows the location of Tanks Xos. 2 and 3, in the swamp, where they are
surrounded by natural swamp growth. Plate XVI, taken on the same
date, shows the tule growth in Tank No. 1.
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
Table 28 records, by months, for the period from February 1, 1931,
to February 28, 1933 ; the evaporation from a standard Weather Bureau
pan ; the consumptive use of water from tule Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3 ;
a percentage comparison of the consumptive use of water from the
tule tanks expressed in per cent of the evaporation ; the wind move-
ment ; the rainfall ; and average daily maximum and minimum tempera-
tures. A comparison of the losses, from February, 1931, to February,
1932, from the three tule tanks and from the evaporation pan is shown
graphically in Plate XVII.
PLATE XVII
60
C 01
30
Or 20-
O'T
Q-O)
10-
DIM
m
Feb. 1 Mar. Apn , May Jui'^g ; July Aug. |Sept. j Oct. ) Nov. | Dec.
0
Standard Weather Bureau Fi
evaporation pan 4ft in diameter:[j
-Tank No I, Two ft. in diameter,
located on bank.
Tank N^Z, Two ft. in diameter;
located in swamp.
Tank N03, Six ft. in diameter,
located in swamp.
1931
'"1 \~m7inrr^M~h^M~y^
Jan.
Feb.
1932
MONTHLY EVAPORATION AND USE OF WATER FROM TANKS NO. 1, NO. 2.
AND NO. 3, FEBRUARY, 1931-FEBRUARY, 1932.
In April the tules in Tank No. 1, located on the bank, began to
use water at a relatively high rate that increased rapidly until the
highest use Avas reached in July, when it amounted to 4.55 times the
evajioration, or 55.83 acre-inches per acre. After reaching a peak in
July and August the use dropped until the plants were killed by
frost in November, after which there was a continued loss by evapora-
tion. There was practically no green growth in this tank until May,
1932, as indicated in Table 28, the use being shown to be much less than
the evaporation from the AVeather Bureau pan in March and April.
After the tules .started to grow in 1932 they used Avater rapidly until
the highest use was reached in August, when it amounted to 78.99
acre-inches per acre, which was 6.77 times as great as the evaporation
from the Weather Bureau pan.
The use of water from tule Tank No. 2, located in the swamp, was
found to be considerably less than that from Tank No. 1 as the growing
season advanced, although the tanks were of the same diameter. In
6 — 4503
82
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LO^iRES FRf^r WET AREAS
83
1931 the highest use from Tank No. 2 occurred in May, before the
tank was entirely surrounded by swamp growth, and amounted to 16.03
acre-inches per acre, while the highest use for Tank No. 1 occurred in
July, and amounted to 55.83 acre-inches per acre. The use in July
from Tank No. 2 was 14.37 acre-inches per acre, which is approximately
one-fourth of the use from Tank No. 1 for that month. This difference
must be due to the relative exposures of the two tanks, since the density
of stalks was not materially different. When the tules were set out in
1931 the plants in Tank No. 2 started to grow and use water earlier
than the plants in Tank No. 1, because they were warmed by the rising
water that flowed around the tanks in the swamp. A flood in May,
1932, damaged Tank No. 2 and the connected supply tank, so that the
record from this tank is incomplete for 1932. The record for 1931,
however, supplied the data necessary for the principal objective —
demonstration of the effect of exposure on the use of water from 2-foot
tanks. This is shown graphically in Plate XVII. A comparison on a
mean monthlv basis for the entire period of record is shown in
Plate XVIII. *
PLATE XVIII
Jan.
\ Indicating excessive use
44*^ of tvafer, due to plants
y//y_ \in no I Tank being _
away from natural
environmenf.
Nov. Dec.
MEAN MONTHLY EVAPORATION AND USE OF WATER FROM TANKS NO.
NO. 2, AND NO. 3.
1,
A complete record was obtained from tule Tank No. 3 during both
the 1931 and 1932 seasons. This tank was 6 feet in diameter and had
a normal swamp expo.sure with a growth of tules completely surround-
ing the tank, so that there was a replication of natural conditions. The
highest monthly use of water from this tank occurred during July in
each year, amounting to 14.65 acre-inches per acre in July, 1931, and
13.61 acre-inches per acre in Juh% 1932. The mean annual use of
water from this tank based on the 25-month period from February,
1931, to February, 1933, is 78.45 acre-inches per acre. This value was
84 mvisTox OF water resources
obtained by averaging the monthly values for each calendar month and
then totalino- these twelve monthly averages.
. This value, 78.45 acre-inches per acre per year, represents the
average annual loss of water dnring this period from tule swamps of
the area with the water table at the ground surface or above. No reduc-
tion factor should be applied to this value, since the tank was set in a
SAvamp and completely surrounded by a growth similar to that in the
tank. The rim of the tank Avas completely hidden from the rays of
the sun so there conld be no rim effect, and the tank was bedded nearly
3 feet deep so that there conld be no abnormal temperature variation
or restriction of root activity.
^Measured losses from the moist area on Temescal Creek compare
favorably' with the losses from the 6-foot tank at Victorville. The
loss for\he 30-day period from April 28 to May 27, 1929, for the
swamp growth on Temescal Creek was 12.9 acre-inches per acre.*
For the month of May, 1931, tule Tank No. 3 at Victorville nsed water
at the rate of 11.62 acre-inches per acre per month, and the maximum
rate measured in July, 1931, was 14.65 acre-inches per acre per month.
The cross-hatched area on Plate XVIII shows the relatively large
loss of water from Tank No. 1 as compared with Tanks Nos. 2 and 3,
where natural conditions were replicated. In this connection, it will be
noted in Plate XV that the tule growth in the tanks in the swamp was
6 feet high, whereas the growth in Tank No. 1 on the bank (Plate XVI)
averaged approximately 3 feet in height. These pictures were taken
October 31, 1931. This indicates that the number of pounds of dry
matter produced in the different tanks bears no rational relationship
to the amount of water consumed when tules are grown in exposed
tanks, such as tule Tank No. 1. That is, the loss of water from a
natural swamp can not be computed from the relation of pounds of
water used per pound of dry matter produced as determined from
tules grown in isolated tanlcs. During July and August, 1931, Tank
No. 1 used between three and four times as much water as either Tank
No. 2 or Tank No. 3, yet the ultimate size of the plants produced in
Tank No. 1 was only one-half the size of the plants in the swamp tanks.
The results indicate that the controlling factor in the consumption of
water is the exposure of the tanks and demonstrates, quite forcibly,
that natural conditioixs must be replicated before data are of value in
estimating field losses.
The diameter of a tank is a factor of importance when evaporation
from a free water surface is being measured, as demonstrated by R. B.
Sleight.** For the period from March 5 to November 13, 1916, Sleight
found the evaporation from a 2-foot tank to be 117 per cent of that
from a tank 6 feet in diameter.
However, with plants growing in a tank set in a similar growth of
sufficient density so that radiation from the sun does not strike the
edges of the tanks, the size of the tank should not materially affect
the rate of loss per unit area from like densities of plant growth.
Before May 15, 1931, the surrounding swamp growth had not shielded
* Bulletin No. .3 3, "Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water In the
Santa Ana Hiver Valley and Coastal Plain," Division of Water Resources, California
State Department of Public Works (Page 68).
** "p:vaporation from the Surface of Water and River-bed Material," (Journal
of Agricultural Research, Vol. X, No. 5, July, 1917.)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
85
the tank rims fully and tiile Tank No. 2 shows the higher rate of loss.
Thereafter, differences in losses from the two tule tanks may be
ascribed to a variation in the density of growth. By comparing the
losses from tnle Tanks Xos. 2 and 3, from Juno 1 to October 31, 1931,
it is found that the loss is 49.93 acre-inches per acre from the 2-foot
tank, and 55.08 acre-inches per acre from the 6-foot tank. For this
period, the loss from the 2-foot tank is 91 per cent of the loss from the
G-foot tank, as compared to Sleight's ratio of 117 per cent for free
water surfaces. The correlation of tank size is negative and diffci-ence
in use must be due to some other factor such as density of growth.
Prior to the planting of tules in the tanks on January 29, 1931,
all three tanks were maintained with free water surfaces. The evapora-
tion in inches and rate of evaporation in inches per 30 days for the
Weather Bureau pan and Tanks Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and also the evapora-
tion from Tanks Xos. 1, 2, and 3, expressed as percentages of the evapo-
ration from the Weather Bureau pan for the period, December 5, 1930,
to January 29, 1931, are given in Table 29. During the period of these
TABLE 29
EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES IN THE WEATHER BUREAU
PAN AND TANKS NOS. 1, 2, AND 3
December 5. 1930, to January 29, 1931
Pan or tank
Standard Weather Bureau pan (4 feet in diameter)
Tank No. 1 (2 feet in diameter) located on bank near Weather Bureau
pan
Tank No. 2 (2 feet in diameter) located in swamp ._
Tank No. 3 (6 feet in diameter) located in swamp
Total
evaporation
in inches
4 20
2.16
6 91
4.19
Rate of
evaporation
in inches
per 30 days
2.29
1.18
3.77
2.29
Per cent of
evaporation
from standard
Weather
Bureau pan
100
51
165
100
evaporation .studies from free water surfaces, the mean daily maximum
temperature was 65 degrees Fahrenheit, the mean daily minimum tem-
perature was 11.5 degrees Fahrenheit, and the total wind movement
was 1389 miles. The evaporation from the 6-foot tank (Tank No. 3),
located in the swamp, was practically the same as that from the Weather
Bureau pan (4 feet in diameter), the values being 4.19 and 4.20 inches,
respectively, while the loss from the 2-foot tank (Tank No. 2), located
in the swamp, was 165 per cent of that from the Weather Bureau pan.
The 2-foot tank (Tank No. 1), located on the bank near the evaporation
pan and set in the ground so that its rim was 1 incli above the sur-
rounding ground surface, lost 51 per cent as much as the Weather
Bureau pan.
This demonstrates the effect of exi)osure and location on the rates
of loss from the different tanks. Tanks Nos. 2 and 3 were located in
the .swamp and the rising ground water from the swamp channel
flowed around them continuously. Tlie rising water in the swamp
carried .sufficient heat so that no ice formed on the water surface around
the two tanks, even though a minimum air temperature of zero degrees
Fahrenheit was recorded on December 23, 1930. The heat from this
swamp water was transmitted to the water in the tanks most effectively
86 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
in the case of the small tank 2 feet in diameter and to a less extent in
the case of the 6-foot tank. The Weather Bureau pan, 4 feet in diameter
and 10 inches deep, is set entirely above the ground, and receives heat
from the sun on its sides as well as on the water surface, and it has also
a maximum exposure to air movement. The 2-foot tank, located on the
l)ank and sunk in the ground, could receive but very little heat energy
from the dry cold ground surrounding it, but probably some of the
heat received on its water surface was conducted down through the
water and away into the soil. Accordingly, the evaporation from the
2-foot tank on the bank was least ; and that from the 2-foot tank in the
swamp was greatest, the latter being, in fact, 8.2 times as much as the
former. The water in Tank No. 2 received enough heat energy from
the swamp water to keep it relatively warm, while the water surface
in Tank No. 1 remained relatively cold. The fact that the rate of
evaporation is relatively high when the temperature of the water is
greater than that of the air, has l)een pointed out by Rohwer.*
A comparison of the evaporation from Tanks Nos. 2 and 3 shows the
loss from Tank No. 2 to be 1.65 times that from Tank No. 3. It is of
interest to note that studies at the Salton Sea in 1910, using exposed
tanks, showed a ratio of 1.48 to 1 for the loss from a 2-foot tank com-
pared to that from a 6-foot tank.** In 1916, Sleight found the ratio of
the loss from a 2-foot tank to that from a 6-foot tank to be 1.17 to 1
for tanks sunk in the ground. The higher ratio found at the Victor-
ville station is luidoubtedly due to the heating effect of the surrounding
water as noted above.
As stated above, Table 29 indicates that the loss by evaporation
from the free water surfaces in the cienega is relatively high during
tlie winter. The reason for the high losses is that the rising water is
relatively warmer than the air during the winter months.
In further demonstration of the extreme effect of exposure on
rates of evaporation and transjnration from tanks, it should be noted
that during December and January Tank No. 1 lost b.y evaporation less
than one-third as much as Tank No. 2, but, in Jul.v, 1931, conditions
were reversed and the consumptive use by evaporation and transpira-
tion from the tules in Tank No. 1 was nearlv four times as much as from
Tank No. 2.
Mean monthly values for the entire period of record, for the
evaporation and use of water from tule Tanks Nos. 1, 2 and 3, together
with the climatological data, are given in Table 30. The mean annual
evaporation from the Weather Bureau pan, as shown in Table 30,
was 82.46 inches. Tlie mean annual consumptive use of water from
tule Tank No. 1, which liad the same ex]iosure on the bank as the
evaporation pan, was 272.24 acre-inches per acre, Avhile from tule
Tanks Nos. 2 and 3, located in the swamp and characteristic of swamp
conditions, there were used 84.45 acre-inches per acre and 78.45 acre-
inches per acre, respectively. Plate XVTTI shows the mean monthly
evaporation and use of water from Tanks Nos. 1, 2 and 3.
* "Kvai^oration from Free Water Surfaces," by Carl Rohwer, United States
Department of ARriciiUure, Technical Bulletin, No. 271. (1931.)
** Studies on the Phenomena of Evaporation of Water Over Lakes and Reservoir.s.
Summary of the Results of the Salton Sea Campaign. By F. H. Bigelow. Monthly
Weather Review, Vol. 38, No. 7. (1910.)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
87
TABLE 30
SUMMARY BY MONTHS OF MEAN TEMPERATURES, WIND MOVEMENT, EVAPORATION,
AND CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER FROM TULE TANKS NOS. 1, 2, AND 3, AND
USE OF WATER FROM TULE TANK NO. 3, EXPRESSED IN PER CENT
OF EVAPORATION AT VICTORVILLE STATION'
Temperature, in
degrees Fahrenheit
Wind
move-
ment,
in miles
Evapora-
tion
from a
standard
Weather
Bureau pan
(4 feet in
diameter)
in inches
Use of water, in acre-
inches, per acre
Use of
water from
tule tank
No. 3, in
per cent of
evaporation
from
standard
Weather
Bureau pan
Month
Mean
maximum
Mean
minimum
Tule tank
No. I (2
feet in
diameter)
located
on bank
Tule tank
No. 2 (2
feet in
diameter)
located
in swamp
Tule tank
No. 3 (6
feet in
diameter)
located
in swamp
.Tanuarv
52
55
70
74
81
86
97
94
88
76
66
52
21
24
30
35
42
46
52
52
44
37
26
22
1,458
1,299
1,680
1,818
1,746
1,396
1,245
1,114
1,044
1,020
897
1.120
2.40
3.32
6.67
7.79
9.92
10 38
12.12
10.68
8.22
5.44
3.52
2.00
2.81
2 54
4.61
7.25
17.62
35 47
63.38
59.54
46 38
25.28
4 61
2.75
1.74
3.08
5.26
8.16
11.11
14.21
14 37
9 87
7.17
4.31
3 05
2.12
1.74
2.02
3.82
5 08
8.78
10.80
14 13
12 32
10 04
5.86
2.42
1.44
72
February
March
.\pril
May
61
57
65
89
104
.Julv
117
.August...
115
Seotember . . .
122
October
108
NovemI:)er
69
December
72
Totals per year
15,837
82.46
272.24
84.45
78.45
^5
' This table is based on all data from February 1, 1931, to February 28, 1933.
' Per cent based on totals per year.
As tule Tank No. 3 replicated SAvamp conditions, the mean annual
use of water from this tank was employed in determining a factor to
be applied in calculating- swamp use from an evaporation pan record.
As the mean annual evaporation from the standard Weather Bureau
pan was 82.46 inches and the mean annual use of water from tule Tank
Xo. 3 was 78.45 acre-inches per acre, the use of Avater from the tule
swamp area Avould be 95 per cent of the eA^aporation from the Weather
Bureau pan.
The evaporation from a lake surface may be estimated as 0.7 of
the mea.sured loss from a standard Weather Bureau pan. The mean
annual evaporation from a lake surface is, therefore, indicated to be
58 inches. The mean annual loss from tule Tank No. 3, Avhich replicated
natural conditions, Avas 78.45 inches. This indicates that the annual
use by tules would be 20 inches more than the loss from a lake surface.
Tliis is probably a maximum differential and Avould be expected in a
swamp area completely coA^ered Avith tules groAving in water.
It may be seen from Plate XI that a considerable portion of the
moist area aboA'e the Narrows is coA'ered Avith a scattered groAvth of
cottonwoods interspersed with patches of open sandy areas. The dense
tule groAvths are restricted principally to sections along the main chan-
nel of the riA'er and in the swampy areas such as the one on which the
station Avas located. The mean annual consum]:)tiA'e use for the entire
moist area Avould undoubtedly be appreciably less than the value of
78 acre-inches per acre per year determined for the tule sAvamp areas.
If the period from ]May to October, inclusive, be considered, and
a comparison made for that interval, it is found that tlie use of Avater
by the tules Avas 61.93 inches, and the estimated evaporation from a
lake surface, 40 inches. The difference is 22 inches, and for this period,
the loss of water from a tule sAvani]) area would be 155 per cent of the
loss from a free Avater lake surface.
CHAPTER IV
INVESTIGATIONS IN COLDWATER CANYON
By Colin A. Taylor and Harry G. Nickle*
In many instances water supplies for irrigation, domestic, and
industrial uses are diverted from the lower reaches of canyons and the
water is allowed to flow through many miles of open channel bordered
by growing vegetation. A large portion of the water used originates
in the mountain watersheds and must pass through the canyons before
it reaches the irrigated areas of the valleys. There is little information
available as to the amount of water lost in such canyons through
evaporation and transpiration from the native vegetation.
Losses from the moist land bordering the lower sections of Temescal
Creek, four miles southeast of Corona, were investigated by the Divi-
sion of Irrigation of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering early in
1929. The growth was typical of the moist areas bordering the streams
in the valleys, with willows and tules predominating. The results **
indicated that large losses must occur from similar growths along the
Santa Ana River and that the supply of water diverted in the lower
Santa Ana Canyon for irrigation in Orange County must be consider-
ably diminished because of the loss of water in the moist areas
adjacent to the river.
Since the losses from the areas supporting willows, tules, and
kindred moist land growths were indicated to be of considerable magni-
tude, it was deemed advisable to extend the study to canyon reaches
in which alder growths predominated, above the usual points of diver-
sion from the streams. It was the purpose of this study to obtain data
on the loss of water during the growing season by evaporation and
transpiration from a typical small canyon and on the amount of addi-
tional water which might be derived were the water supply diverted at
a higher point on the stream.
The experimental data for this stud}' were obtained in Coldwater
Canyon, located near ArroAvhead Springs in the San Bernardino
Mountains in the upper basin of the Santa Ana River, approximately
7 miles north of the city of San Bernardino. This canyon was chosen
as being representative of many of the smaller canyons of southern
California.
The data were collected during the growing seasons of 1931 and
1932. In 1931, two bedrock stations, hereinafter called "controls,"
were installed in the canyon. The "lower control" was located about
one mile above the mouth of the canyon, and the other, designated as the
"middle control," was located 2090 feet upstream from the lower
* Prepared by C. A. Taylor, Assistant Irrigation Engineer, and Harry G. Nickle,
Junior Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.
** "Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water in Santa Ana River
Vallev and Coastal Plain," by Harry F. Blaney and C. A. Taylor, State of California,
Department of Public Works Bulletin No. 33, Chapter IV, 1930.
(SS)
WATER LOSSES FRO'Sl WET AREAS
89
PLATE XIX
n
'-'(•. ^^:
73
J
o
X
z
o
o
a
H
O
•-V
Z
o
<
y
o
J
o
2
O
Z
o
>
z
<
u
H
<
„...,^,j^
r
.^
4, V ■ ^^**.
,>i '\>Si^^-
Q
o
u
<
en
a
<
90
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
control. In 1932 the same controls were continued and, in addition,
another bedrock control, designated as the "npper control," was
installed 5875 feet npstream from the middle control, and a snpple-
mentary bedrock control was installed on the only branch entering- the
main canyon from the east between the middle and lower controls, at a
point about 300 feet above its month. This branch canyon enters the
main canyon 800 feet above the lower control.
The approximate elevations above sea level of the conti'ols are
2300 feet for the lower control, 2500 feet for the middle control, and
3100 feet for the upper control.
A general view of Coldwater Canyon is shown in Plate XIX, the
white marks indicating the location of the controls.
The canyon bottom vegetation between the controls is composed
mostly of alders, bay (California laurel), sycamore, willow, and maple,
with a few oak, mountain mahogany, cedar. si:)ruce, and cottonwood
trees. Also, there is considerable smaller growth of grapevine, black-
berry, poison oak, ferns, etc. Table 31 shows the number and kinds
TABLE 31
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER CONTROLS
IN COLDWATER CANYON
Number of trees
Diameter, in inches
Alder
Sycamore
Bay
Willow
Maple
Oak
Mountain
mahog-
any
Total
Less than 2
33
159
144
150
105
59
33
16
13
13
11
1
3
16
10
8
ti
3
4
10
1
1
2
4
30
2
1
14
2
7
4
6
1
1
2
2
51
2- 4
1
227
4- 6
162
6- 8
166
8-10
112
10-12
64
12-14
1
40
14-16
23
16-18
23
18-20 .--
2
16
20-22
12
22-24
3
36-38
1
1
Totals
Per cent
737
81 9
71
7.9
37
4 1
25
2.8
23
2 5
5
0.6
2
0.2
900
100 0
of trees between the middle and lower controls, and Table 32 is a
similar table of the trees between the upper and middle controls.
These two tables show the difference in vegetation of the two sections
of the canyon. In the lower section the alders constitute 81.9 per cent
of the total number of trees, while in the upper section they consti-
tute only 47.9 per cent of the total number. The lower percentage of
alders in the upper section is accounted for principally by the increased
number of bays which constitute but 4.1 per cent in the lower section,
but make up 26.1 per cent of the total in the upper section. The lower
section has a higher percentage of larger trees, while between the upper
and middle controls the percentage of smaller trees is the greater
and also the number of different kinds is greater. Views of the canyon
bottom vegetation between the middle and loAver controls are shown in
Plate XX.
WATER LOSSES FROM NVKT AREAS
91
PLATE XX
A. ALDERS IN CANYON BOTTOM VIEWED FROM AN OVERHANGING CLIFF.
B. ALDERS IN CANYON BOTTOM ABOUT MIDWAY BETWEEN THE MIDDLE
AND LOWER CONTROLS.
92 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 32
CLASSIFICATION OF TREES BETWEEN UPPER AND MIDDLE CONTROLS
IN COLDWATER CANYON
Number of trees
Diameter,
in inches
Alder
Bay
Maple
Willow
Syca-
more
Oak
Moun-
tain
mahog-
any
Cedar
Spruce
Cotton-
wood
Total
Tjpco than 2
67
222
193
242
184
175
84
48
26
15
13
12
3
2
258
371
52
11
5
3
1
48
81
56
26
10
5
5
1
1
62
82
24
8
3
1
1
11
60
34
24
15
18
32
4
2
30
8
1
5
1
1
495
2- 4
861
4- 6
364
6 -8
314
8-10
1
218
10-12
184
12-14
9
7
2
3
3
1
3
101
14-16
59
16-18
29
18-20 . -
1
19
20-22
1
17
22-24
1
13
26-28 -
3
28-30
2
30-32
1
2
1
1
2
3
34-36
1
2
36-38
1
38-40
1
3
Totals..
Per cent
1,286
47.9
701
26 1
234
8.7
181
6.7
169
6 3
63'
2 4
38
14
9
0.3
6
0.2
1
0.0
2,688
100.0
Above the upper control the growth in the main canyon bottom
is principally alders, with some sycamores, willow, maple, bay, etc.
The main canyon divides into two main branches, at a point 1920 feet
above the upper control. Many of the smaller branch canyons above
the forks have dense groAvths of ferns and underbrush.
Between the middle and low^er controls there are only two branches
entering" the main canyon, one from the east on which the branch con-
trol was located, and one from the west vhich has an excellent bedrock
exposure just as it enters the canyon. The west branch canyon con-
tributed no water during the periods recorded in this report. There
were no visible indications of water entering the canyon between the
middle and lower controls during the period of record, except during
the first part of the 1932 season as measured at the branch control.
There are several branch canyons entering the main canyon betw^een
the upper and middle controls. There were no visible indications of
any water entering- the canyon betAveon these controls at any time
during the 1932 season.
The material filling the main canyon bottom between the middle and
lower controls ranges in width from 25 to 80 feet for the most part, and
has an average width of 49 feet and an area of 2.36 acres. Between the
upper and middle controls, tiie material filling the canyon bottom
ranges in width from 15 to 80 feet for the most part, and has an
average width of 44 feet and an area of 5.89 acres. On both sides the
canyon walls are very precipitons.
The length of canvon in which surface water flowed was measured
in October, 1931, after the flow had recovered to its maximum connected
flow for the season. Above the forks, 1920 feet from the upper control,
there were 13,170 linear feet of branch canyons in which surface water
WATER LOSSES FR01\T WET AREAS
93
was flowin<i>. Tliis makes a total above tlie upper control of 15,090
linear feet of canyon, including' all the branches, that had flowing water
at the end of the 19;?1 p'l'owing season.
Above the lower control the area of the watershed is 3.4 square
miles, of which area the east branch, on which the branch control is
located, drains 0.9 s(}uare mile.
Records were obtained during the 19)11 season at the middle and
lower controls on the main canyon, from August 1 to October 17, and
also during the 1932 season at the three controls on the main canyon,
from June 24 to November 3. Water was also measured at the branch
control from June 24 to July 9, 1932, no water passing this branch
control at any other time during the periods of record.
EQUIPMENT
Controls
In 1931, the two bedrock controls were established in Coldwater
Canyon at the locations previously described. At each of these con-
trols, a low concrete dam was biiilt on bedrock across the bed of the
stream. The flow of water was passed through a 3-incli Parshall meas-
uring flume placed in one end of each dam, and water stage recorders
were installed to record the head on each flume. On September 17 of
the same year a flow recorder for recording the discharge directly
was installed at the lower control and Avas operated during the
remainder of the season. The flow recorder is described in detail on
page 96.
PLATE XXI
MIDDLE COLDWATER CONTROL SHOWING 3-INCH PARSHALL MEASURING
FLUME AND FLOW RECORDER.
94 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
In 1932, flow recorders operated with 30-inch floats were installed
at the two controls operated in 1931 and bedrock exposures were
selected for the locations of the upper and branch controls. Low con-
crete dams were built on these sites and the flow passed through flumes
in the dams, water stage recorders being set for recording the gage
heights.
Plate XXI is a view of the middle control showing the 3-inch
Parshall measuring flume and the flow recorder.
Flume for Winter Measurements
In order to measure small summer floAvs accurately and also to
obtain a record of large winter flows, a combination flume, such as is
shown in Plate XXII, was found desirable. This combination flume
consists of two Parshall measuring flumes, one large and one small, so
arranged that both large and small flows pass through the converging
section of the large flume, but the small flows are by-passed from the
dip in the large flume into a basin above the small flume and thence
through this latter flume, while the greater part of the large flows
continues on through the larger flume.
A record of the larger discharges is obtained by a recorder operated
by a float in a still well connected to a larger flume, and a record of
the smaller discharges is obtained by a flow recorder operated by a
float in a still well connected to the smaller flume. Some overlap is
j)rovided so there is a small range during which a record may be
obtained from both flumes. Two separate recorders may be used, or
one duiDlex recorder is sufficient if it is desired to record gage heights
only.
Plate XXII shows a combination of 3-inch and 2-foot Parshall
measuring flumes, providing a range in discharge up to 23 second-
feet. The sizes of both flumes may vary according to the accuracy
and range desired. It should be recognized, however, that there are
certain limitations on the accuracy of measurements over very wide
variations in flows, and the selection of sizes should depend on whether
the greatest accuracy is desired at very high, medium, or low stages.
The application of Parshall measuring flumes to measurements in
mountain canyons involves problems not ordinarily met with in valley
areas. The stream gradient is steep, often 10 per cent or more, and the
water tends to cut a narrow channel and travel at a relatively high
velocity and carry a large bed load as well as a considerable amount
of suspended material.
A large flume placed, for example, directly in a stream channel
where the grade is as high as 10 per cent will have a rating curve quite
different from the standard calibration. It may pass as much as 30
per cent less water than that given for the lowest gage heights in the
standard tables. The reason for this is that a small stream of Avater
entering the center of a wide flume at high velocity tends to proceed
through the center of the flume without changing its cross section
greatl}', leaving dead water along each side of the wide flume. . At high
stages, the flume may pass more water than is indicated by the gage
height in the standard tables, because of the high velocity of approach
WATER LOSSES FRO.Ar WET AREAS
95
PLATE XXII
COMBINATION FLUME FOR MEASUREMENT OF WATER AT BOTH HIGH
AND LOW STAGES.
across the entire width of the flume. The large flumes should, therefore,
be rated iu place when the conditions are extreme, such as are indicated
in the example cited.
With clear water it is best to set the gaging station so that there
is the least possible grade in the approach channel to the flume. "Where
heavy loads of detritus are being transi)orted, deposition will occur in
tlie entrance to the flume where the grade is flattened at the installa-
tion, and enough debris may lodge to affect the measurement. Usually,
however, other conditions, sucli as bedrock exposure in the channel,
will determine the location of the station, and it will be found more
economical to rate the large flume for the given set of conditions after
other factors have determined its location.
%
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Flow Recorders
At first when ordinary water stage recorders were used it was
necessary, in order to obtain sufficient accuracy, to take off hourly
values from the water-stage recorder charts. The work of taking off
these hourly values and from these values computing the loss each day
was found to be a long and laborious process. In order to eliminate
a large part of this routine work, thereby saving much time, it was
decided to use flow recorder attachments on the recorders at the controls.
Accordingly, a flow recorder attachment was purchased and
installed in Coldwater Canyon in conjunction with the water stage
recorder at one of the controls in September, 1931. This flow recorder
attachment consisted essentially of an adjustable spiral cam that
mechanically solved the flow formula. The cam was geared to a float
pulley wheel and the pencil cord was attached to the cam. The float
turned the pulley wheel and. through the cam, moved the pencil to
record the flow directly in units of discharge. A flow recorder installa-
tion is shown in Plate XXIII.
PLATE XXIII
FLOW RECORDER INSTALLATION AT LUWKK CULUVVATh-K
CONTROL.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 97
This first flow recorder attaeliment was installed to operate by a
12-incli float. After testing in the field, it was found that the pencil
lag- on the record chart was too great for tlie work being undertaken.
This lag amounted to as much as 0.020 second-foot and as the fluctua-
tions that were being measured amounted to 0.200 second-foot and
less, the error was 10 per cent or more.
In order to secure greater sensitiveness, the gears were eliminated,
the cam was balanced, and a 30-inch float was used. Nonadjustable
cams were designed and made for use with 3-inch Parshall measuring
flumes. With the improved flow recorder attachment, the pencil lag
was reduced to 0.002 second-foot for flows above 0.50 second-foot, and
for flows of less than 0.20 second-foot no lag could be detected.
By using these flow recorder charts, the loss per day may be
obtained directly by superimposing two charts, one from each control,
on top of a light-table, and planimetering the area between the two
curves. This area represents the daily loss between controls and, when
multiplied by the proper constant, can be converted into whatever units
are desired.
Evaporimeter
It became apparent, during the course of the investigation of the
loss of water along stream channels by evaporation and transpiration,
that the study would be materially aided if a continuous record could
be obtained of the transpiration opportunity. Briggs and Shaiitz*
showed that the evaporation from a shallow black pan correlated more
closely with actual transpiration than that from any of the other
devices which they tested. Loss of water from deep paas is affected
by heat storage within the water. During the morning much of the
heat received from the sun is used in raising the temperature of the
water, and if the tank is 10 inches or more deep there is a lag of several
hours in the curve of evaporation, behind the cycle of insolation. As
the depth is decreased, the lag becomes less. The practical lower limit
for the depth to be used appeared to be that depth which would be
sufficient for one complete day's record on the hotter days. The 4-foot
pan maintained at Ontario from 1928 to 1930 showed a peak rate of
slightly less than 0.50 inch per day; therefore 0.60 inch was chosen as
the most practical maximum depth for the water in the evaporimeter.
A Fergusson recording rain gage was used as the recording device.
The evaporimeter pan was made 2 feet in diameter and 0.7 inch deep.
This pan was attached to a cylinder that would fit inside tlie rain gage
and take the place of the usual rain-gage bucket. The pan and recorder
were then placed in a box 30 inches square by 27 inches high, to
provide lateral heat insulation. The evaporimeter is shown in opera-
tion in Plate XXIV-A with a standard 8-inch rain gage to the right.
The recording mechanism is shown in Plate XXIV-B. The chart scale
is 9 to 1 ; that is, 9 inches on the chart is equivalent to 1 inch of evapo-
ration. Record charts are shown in Plate XXV for typical days in
August and October, 1931.
* Reprint from Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. IX, No. 9, May, 1917.
"Comparison of the Hourly Evaporation Rate of Atriiometers and Free Water Sur-
faces with the Transpiration Rate of Medicago Sativa," by Lyman J. Briggs and
H. L. Shantz.
7—4503
98
DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
PLATE XXIV
A. EVAPORIMETER WITH SHALLOW BLACK-PAN 24 INCHES IN DIAMETER.
B. EVAPORIMETER SHOWING WEIGHING MECHANISM AND RECORD
CYLINDER.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
99
Wind action affects the instrument, since the change in air pressure,
as each gust passes, causes a vertical movement of the pan and pro-
duces a wavy line on the chart. In this way a continuous record is
obtained of the time the wind blows and also a relative indication of
its intensity.
During cold winter months the water in the shallow pan freezes
solid, and an accurate record of the evaporation from an ice surface
may be obtained since the mechanism is of the weighing type.
PLATE XXV
>'
re o .fl ,. V.--. t i 3 «
- " ■ - ' ,- ■ o
r
"v
t J:
X.
n t--tf7C7 o/'v ■ :■ vd? T-~--
EVAPORIMETER CHARTS.
EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION LOSSES ALONG THE
STREAM CHANNEL
Loss from Stream Between Controls
The loss from a section of canyon was obtained by subtracting the
volume of water leaving from the volume of water entering the section.
Because of a possible storage differential in the section between the
beginning and the end of any period, this method will result in small
departures from the true dift'erences in short periods, such as a 24-hour
period, but in longer periods this difference will be negligible.
That this differential storage exists is shown by Plate XXVI,
which presents a graph of the fluctuation in the water table September
100
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
7-15, 1932, in a ground-water pit located a short distance upstream
from the lower control and about ten feet from the stream. From this
graph it is seen that there would be a small storage differential each
day between September 9 and 12, but that this diiferential is almost
zero between September 8 and 9 and from September 12 to 15, and
that the storage differential over the entire period would be only an
extremely small portion of the use of water during the period. As
between September 8 and 15, the storage differential is represented by
0.85 inch. Assuming the specific yield to be 8 per cent, this represents a
depth of water of 0.068 inch which spread over 2.36 acres — the area
between the middle and lower controls — gives a volume of 0.16 acre-inch.
The total use between those controls for this period was 7.39 acre-inches.
Hence the differential storage over the entire period is only 2.2 per
cent of the total use of water for this period of one week, which is no
doubt higher than usual as a hot wind was blowing during the early
morning hours of September 8. For longer periods, such as a month,
the percentage would be considerably less.
PLATE .
XXVI
September 1932
Change in ground water
elevation, in inches.
8 th
9 tin
loth
II th
12 th
13 th
14 th
Noon
Rising sfac,
v\
Fall!r
f
a stage
<--\
/-
^-^
\ /
^
/
\J
\y
Ky
V
\
vy
1 , 1
V
FLUCTUATION IN THE WATER TABLE IN COLDWATER CANYON,
SEPTEMBER 7-15, 1932.
To obtain the volumes of water passing each control not equipped
with a flow recorder it was necessary, in order to attain sufficient
accuracy, to take off hourly values from the water-stage recorder
charts. Later, when the flow recorders were installed, the daily volumes
of water passing each control could be planimetered directly from the
flow recorder charts.
A section of the discharge curve at the middle control is shown in
Plate XXVII. This plate shows the record of discharge at the middle
control from August 9 to August 15, 1931. It includes four warm days,
August 9, 10, 11, and 15 ; one day on which rain fell, August 12 ; and
two cool, cloudy days, August 13 and 14.
The eft'ect of evaporation is indicated by a comparison of the
evaporation from an evaporation pan, placed in the middle of the
stream so that water of the stream entirely surrounded the pan, and
the loss between the middle and lower controls. During the period
from September 8 to 14, inclusive, 1932, the average depth of evapora-
tion from this pan was 0.0076 foot per day. Assuming an average
width of stream surface of 3 feet the total volume whicli Mould be
evaporated in the length of 2090 feet between the middle and lower
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
101
controls, if the same rate were maintained, would be 0.013 acre-inch
per day. Between these controls the average measured loss of water
per day durino; this period was 1.06 acre-inches. Therefore the evapo-
ration would be only 1.2 per cent of the total measured loss. These
values are shown in Table 33 together with the daily comparisons
during the period.
TABLE 33
COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED LOSS BY EVAPORATION FROM STREAM AND TOTAL
LOSS BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON
September 8-14, 1932
Date
1932—
September 8
September 9
September 10
September 11,
September 12
September 13
September 14
Averages
Depth of
evaporation
from tank
2 feet in
diameter
surrounded
by stream,
in feet
0.015
.007
.000
.007
.008
.005
.005
.0076
Estimated
evaporation
from stream
in acre-inches'
0.026
.012
.010
.012
.014
.009
.009
.013
Loss between
middle and
lower controls,
in acre-inches
1.44
1.19
.91
.86
1.01
.97
1.01
1.06
Estimated
evaporation
loss expressed
as a percentage
of total loss
1.8
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.4
.9
.9
1.2
tank.
> Evaporation computed for a stream surface 3 feet wide by 2,080 feet long at same rate as evaporation from 2-foot
The true rate of evaporation from the stream would no doubt be
less than the rate from the evaporation tank, as the average daily
maximum temperature for the period was 2.4 degrees higher in the
tank than in the stream. Air and water temperatures for this period
are given in Table 34. It can be seen from Plate XX, which shows a
typical section of the canyon, that the water surface of this stream is
TABLE 34
DAILY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES IN COLDWATER CANYON OF THE
AIR, THE STREAM, AND THE WATER IN THE EVAPORATION PAN
September 8-14, 1932
Date
1932—
September 8
September 9
September 10
September 11
September 12
September 13
September 14
Averages
Temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit
Water in stream
Maximum
68
68
67
66
66
66
65
66.6
Minimum
62
64
60
58
58
58
00
60.0
Water in the
evaporation pan
Maximum
71
72
69
68
67
68
68
69.0
Minimum
62
64
61
60
59
58
59
60.4
Air
Maximum
100
93
86
85
87
85
83
88.4
Minimum
87
81
60
58
60
63
59
66.9
102
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PLATE
XXVII
August 1931
0.6
0.5
in
C
--0.3
o
c»th
10 -th
II th
12 th
i?4th
14. th
l"i*h
ri
/'
--
-^
\
t
V ^
V
y
\
\
\
/^
-
^
r-
/
/
\
r
V
1
\
/
1
/
\
/
r
/
^0.2
/
/
'
/
ii Rain. 21 in.
\
noon to 2 1
1 1 1
>M.
\
/
0.1
0.
i
\
/
\
i
\
/
/
\
/
\
^
1 1
1
1 1
1
FLOW AT MIDDLE COLDWATER CANYON CONTROL, AUGUST 9-15, 1931.
almost completely shaded and the indicated evaporation rate can not
be applied to open areas where the water surface is exposed to the sun.
If transpiration is the main factor in causing the daily drop in a
stream flow, the demand on the stream for water to take care of the
transpiration needs of the vegetation growing in the canyon might be
expected to follow a typical rate of transpiration curve. That it does
tend to do this is shown by a comparison of a daily cycle of loss in
discharge from Coldwater Canj'on to the daily cycle of a typical rate
of transpiration curve.
A graph of the drop in stream flow occurring at the upper and
lower controls is shown in Plate XXVIII-A. Plate XXVIII-B shows
a record of the loss of water by evaporation and transpiration on
September 11-12, 1930, from a tank of mixed swamp vegetation, chiefly
wire rush, tule, and willow at Ontario.
The Ontario tank record shows 94 per cent of the loss occurring
betAveen 8 a.m and 8 p.m. or between 2| hours after sunrise and 2
hours after sunset, and the peak rate of loss occurring between 1 and
2 p.m. Only 6 per cent of the loss occurs between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m.,
and the loss between midnight and sunrise is very low. The supply of
heat energy available for vaporizing this water comes from the sun,
and the insolation reaches a peak at noon and drops to zero at sunset;
but there is some storage of heat in the ground and the overlying air,
and therefore the cycle of transpiration lags behind the radiation cj^cle.
Air temperature is an index of the heat energy available and, in Plate
XXVIII-B, it is shown to have a good correlation with the rate of
transpiration during the daylight hours. Both of the curves for the
drop in stream flow have the same general shape as the rate of transpi-
ration curve. The cross-hatched area between the two curves repre-
sents the loss of Avater suffered by the stream as it passed from the
middle to the lower control.
The demand of transpiration first affects the water table under-
lying the soil in which the trees are rooted and, as the water table
drops, water moves from the stream to replenish the draft. The maxi-
mum rate of drop in flow would be expected shortly after the time of
maximum transpiration opportunity. The discharge curves shown in
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
103
PLATE XXVIII
0.3
+:
o
15
C0.2
O
0
0)
(/)
■OA
0
Ll
o
Uaximum
rates of
change in ^
in flow past
lower control
^rop m flow past
' middle control.
A
Lu SAM
85
jr
80 c
JZ
\ Evaporation -franspiraf ion
/7/,'^ temperature
8 P.M.
B. ;
/
75
70
65
a;
i_
OJ
X!
u
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Mdt 4Al;r.~' 8AM.
A. DROP IN FLOW IN COLDWATER CANYON, AUGUST 11-12, 1931.
B. DAILY EVAPORATION-TRANSPIRATION CYCLE, ONTARIO WILLOW AND
REED TANK, SEPTEMBER 11-12, 1930.
104 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Plate XXVII I- A have the maximum rats of change in flow occurring
shortly after noon ; that is, there is a point of inflection on each dis-
charge curve between 12 noon and 1 p.m. However, an elemental
section of the stream passing the upper control at noon will not reach
the lower control until approximately 3 p.m. It will lose water continu-
ously as it passes down the channel to replenish the draft on the water
table caused by transpiration. The maximum rate of loss should occur
at approximately the same time at all points on the stream, but the effect
of the time taken for each elemental section to move down the canyon
is to displace the point of minimum flow to the right, as shown in the
graph. For this reason, the loss in flow curve for the middle control,
sho-s^ai in Plate XXVIII-A, is moved to the right 45 minutes, the time
taken for an elemental section of water to move from the middle to the
lower control. The curve of difference in flows, which is a measure of
the evaporation and transpiration between controls, rises rapidly to
a peak shortly after noon and then, as the water table is recharged,
it gradually falls and approaches zero before sunrise of the next day.
The position of the water table depends largely on the relation
of the rate of use from the water table by the vegetation to the rate
of recharge of the water table from the stream. The change in this
relation is the chief reason for such fluctuations in the ground water
as are shown on Plate XXVI, the water table reaching a maximum
level in the morning and a minimum in the afternoon.
If the water table is completely recharged at the time of maximum
stream flow early in the morning, and there is no transpiration or
evaporation at that time, the total flow into the section must equal the
total flow from the section. The total flow into the section is the total
of the observed surface inflow and any underground inflow, as from
hidden springs. The total flow from the section is the total observed
surface outflow plus any underground seepage which leaves the section.
If there is neither any underground inflow nor any underground
seepage, it follows that in the stated case the observed inflow and the
observed outflow must be equal.
As long as there is no inflow into a section between controls the
water table is supplied only from the stream, and therefore the water
table will never be higher than the water in the stream. From this
it follows that the stream wall never drain the water table and can
not gain in flow as it passes through a section where there is no under-
ground inflow.
The daily maximum and minimum discharges at each of the con-
trols for the days of record are given in Tables 35 and 36. An exami-
nation of these tables shows that during all the period of record in
1931 and during the periods in 1932 from June 25 to July 26 and
from August 19 to November 3 the maximum daily discharge at the
lower control never exceeded by any significant amount the combined
discharges at the middle and branch controls. From this it follows
that there could be no underground inflow between these controls
during those periods, unless there was deep percolation as well.
It is possible that a combination of underground inflow and deep
percolation might result in a daily difference of zero or thereabouts
in maximum discharges at the controls, but the deep percolation, if it
existed, would be approximately the same for different stages during
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
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106
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 36
DAILY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM DISCHARGES AT EACH CONTROL IN COLDWATER
CANYON
June 24, to November 3, 1932
Date
June 24.
June 25-
June 26-
June 27-
June 28-
June 29-
June 30.
1932
10.
11-
12.
13-
14-
15-
16-
17-
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July 25
July 26
July 27
July 28
July 29
July 30
July 31
August
August
August
August
August
August
August
August
August
August 10
August 11
Augast 12
August 13
August 14
August 15
August 16
August 17
August 18
August 19
August 20
August 21
August 22
August 23
August 24
August 25
August 26
August 27
August 28
August 29
August 30
August 31
Maximum discharge in second-feet
Upper
control
0.682
.682
.651
.665
.690
.653
.641
.626
.615
.621
.615
.615
626
.607
.616
.615
.612
.608
.603
.586
.577
.578
.572
.568
.570
.576
.603
.618
.615
.603
.596
.591
.589
.559
.539
.528
.528
.527
.516
.507
.503
.503
.514
.551
.593
.605
.626
.579
Middle
control
0.742
.735
.750
.737
.705
.705
.710
.726
.734
.734
.719
.687
.666
.697
.702
.703
.705
.703
.714
.667
.655
.639
.628
.648
.660
.633
.606
.600
.594
.593
.595
.576
.592
.572
.574
.578
.574
.570
.563
.547
.539
.526
.523
.523
.530
.540
.577
.589
.579
.567
.569
.558
.553
.517
.490
.480
.478
.476
.462
.455
.454
.455
.469
.517
.566
.583
.606
.555
Lower
control
0.737
.726
.733
.719
.681
.680
.689
.713
.724
.727
.710
.673
.648
.677
.680
.682
.687
.683
• .699
.653
.630
.614
.600
.624
.641
.612
.578
.571
.562
.557
.559
.557
.575
.557
.561
.568
.554
.549
.559
.540
.536
.528
.519
.522
.528
.543
.591
.601
.586
.573
.580
.567
.556
.513
.479
.452
.453
.449
.433
.426
.424
.426
.440
.495
.553
.569
.593
.548
Branch
control
0.010
.009
.008
.007
.008
.005
.004
.003
.002
.002
.002
.001
.001
.001
.001
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flaw
No flow
No flew
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
Minimum discharge in second-feet
Upper
control
0.407
.397
.395
.434
.430
.380
.363
.360
.356
.358
.356
.356
.348
.330
.337
.333
.329
.327
.320
.307
.304
.296
.296
.296
.297
.318
.366
.371
.358
.348
.342
.329
.308
.283
.271
.273
.269
.266
.260
.256
.259
.268
.284
.389
.415
.421
.443
Middle
control
0 394
.364
.408
.384
.343
.334
.321
.344
.386
.402
.397
.356
.310
.312
.321
.332
.337
.337
.402
.368
.290
.259
.245
.245
.313
.314
.240
.211
.196
.193
.198
.188
.199
.197
.172
.171
.173
.166
.171
.160
.142
.135
.123
.128
.140
.139
.172
.240
.237
.226
.221
.218
.194
.156
.121
.099
.107
.104
.102
.088
.081
.080
.080
.136
.284
.316
.324
.358
.193
Lower
control
0.335
.316
.360
.331
.283
.262
.255
.285
.336
.356
.353
.308
.256
.252
.260
.272
.282
.277
.355
.324
.226
.193
.177
.176
.255
.260
.175
.144
.128
.125
.126
.123
.138
.135
.119
.115
.122
.118
.122
.110
.090
.084
.075
.077
.092
.098
.141
.222
.206
.198
.194
.187
.157
.115
.069
.051
.058
.057
.056
.036
.035
.035
.036
.091
.241
.277
.282
.324
.147
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
107
TABLE 36 — Continued
DAILY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM DISCHARGES AT EACH CONTROL IN COLDWATER
CANYON
June 24, to November 3, 1932
Date
1932
9.
September
September
September
September
September
September
September
September
September
September 10
September 11
September 12
September 13
September 14
September 15
September 16
September 17
September 18
September 19
September 20
September 21
September 22
September 23
September 24
September 25
September 26
September 27
September 28
September 29
September 30
October 1 . .
October
October
October
October
October
October
October 8
October 9
October 10
October 11
October 12
October 13
October 14
October 15
October 16
October 17
October 18
October 19
October 20
October 21
October 22
October 23
October 24
October 25
October 26
October 27
October 28
October 29
October 30
October 31
November
November
November
Maximum discharge in second-feet
Upper
control
.522
.523
.506
.490
.480
.451
.446
.438
.458
.470
.468
.453
.477
.544
.555
.520
.509
.500
.485
.481
.503
.510
.526
.523
.510
.416
.452
.527
.570
.646
.624
.535
.509
.504
.490
.457
.463
.514
.530
.505
.514
.506
.523
.524
.510
.466
.466
466
.483
.484
.494
.493
.488
.522
.553
Middle
control
.498
.482
.474
.457
.441
.430
.385
.370
.365
.412
.429
.436
.422
.397
.414
.427
.423
.454
.458
.448
.443
.457
.460
.462
.458
.483
.498
.518
.514
.501
.393
.433
.519
.564
.646
.629
.517
.487
.480
.475
.423
.443
.503
.515
.486
.466
.475
.495
.491
.473
.422
.428
.428
.459
.465
.479
.474
.468
510
.548
Lower
control
.476
.462
.451
.431
.412
.417
.364
.320
.322
.384
.411
.408
.394
.373
.386
.413
.409
.440
.526
.542
.492
.459
.437
.428
.424
.439
.444
.458
.451
.467
.486
.509
.502
.486
.363
.405
.502
.548
.631
.618
.493
.460
.462
.453
.385
.418
.487
.499
.467
.447
.462
.487
.488
.465
.414
.414
.415
.448
.453
.470
.460
.458
.504
.548
Branch
control
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
Minimum discharge in second-feet
Upper
control
.279
.268
.261
.254
.247
.243
.230
.240
.256
.246
.265
.255
.351
.470
.347
.322
.305
.283
.276
.291
.305
.355
.369
.356
.244
.243
.290
.473
.400
.551
.391
.328
.317
.327
.292
^282
.300
.438
.389
.417
.408
.372
.368
.374
.360
.366
.340
.335
.354
.372
.386
.368
.394
.512
Middle
control
.130
.121
.110
.089
.076
.073
.069
.052
.074
.113
.097
.098
.093
.103
.086
.098
.110
164
.131
.118
.142
.181
.166
.244
.183
.263
.244
.295
.265
.135
111
,174
.465
.346
.291
.208
.216
.237
.195
.160
,197
.405
.311
.346
.330
.292
.286
.295
.251
.284
.267
.257
.283
.312
.334
.298
.345
.505
Lower
control
.083
.077
.064
.042
.034
.031
.029
.013
.034
.084
.068
.061
.057
.063
.053
.062
.082
.219
.429
.204
.163
.125
.087
.077
.106
.140
.129
.216
.141
.233
.206
.269
.232
.104
.072
.137
.437
.309
.244
.161
.178
.206
.157
.119
.159
.379
.280
.309
.301
.266
.265
.276
.244
.261
.240
.227
.255
287
.313
.269
.323
.497
Branch
control
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
No flow
108 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
the periods of measurement, since the changes occurring in the head
are very slight. Therefore, either the inflow and deep percolation
would continue to be equal during the season, or else the inflow would
fall off because of the drying of shallow springs. The former would not
affect the results, and the latter would result in a constantly gaining
difference in the discharges at the time of daily maximum flow which
would not return to earlier values. An examination of Tables 35 and 36
shoAvs that the latter case did not occur, and that no combination of
deep percolation and inflow from shallow springs existed.
If deep percolation existed it would be the same approximately
throughout the season, as has already been stated in the previous para-
graph. It is not conceivable that it would change from day to day,
since the temperature of the underflow does not vary appreciably.
Hence, if percolation did exist, it would prohibit the values of daily
differences in maximum discharges at the controls from ever reaching
a zero value. This is not the case, as a zero value was reached several
times in 1931, and in 1932 a value of 0.004 was reached on September
28, 0.003 on October 23, and zero on November 3. Hence, no deep
percolation could exist by itself.
In case evaporation and transpiration are occurring at a time of
daily maximum discharges, the flow from the section will be less than
the flow into the section and the difference in maximum discharges will
have a positive value. The same effect also will be caused by the water
table's not being completely recharged from the stream by a time of
daily maximum discharges. It takes time for this recharge to take
place, and if the use by the vegetation has been high in the previous
day the water table will not be completely recharged during the night.
These two cases, either separately or together, account for the large
number of daj^s when there was a greater maximum discharge at the
middle control than at the lower control, as shown in Tables 35 and 36.
This difference in daily maximum discharges reached high values of
0.038 second-foot on August 26, 1931, after an excessively hot period,
and 0.050 second-foot on September 8, 1932, after a hot night during
which a hot wind was blowing doAvn the canyon.
The growing seasons of 1931 and 1932 differed materially. During
1931 there were several summer rains accompanied by cloudy weather
at about the time of the rains. These conditions caused the use by the
vegetation to be less, on the average, this result being due not only
to the cloudy weather's preventing as much sunshine from reaching the
vegetation as would otherwise have occurred, but also to the fact that
the rain itself reduced use from the water table by the vegetation.
During 1932, no summer rains occurred and a greater amount of sun-
shine reached the vegetation, these conditions being more favorable to
a large use from the water table, which in turn is fed by the stream.
An examination of Tables 35 and 36 shows that the values in
these tables during the two seasons reflect the different conditions of
the two seasons. In 1931 only a few days show any appreciably larger
daily maximum discharges at the middle control than at the lower
control, while in 1932 a great many of the days show daily maximum
discharges which are appreciably larger at the middle control than at
the lower control, because of tlie continued high use by the vegetation.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 109
Also, the seasonal rainfall prior to the two growing seasons
differed. The rainfall for the year ju-ior to the 1931 season was 15.31
inches at San Bernardino and 2S.98 inches at Alpine. For the year
prior to the 1932 season it was 21.96 inches at San Bernardino and
55.83 inches at Alpine. The increase in rainfall varies from over 40
per cent during the second year at San Bernardino to over 90 per cent
at Alpine. The Coldwater Canyon watershed lies between the two, but
closer to Alpine and the average rainfall over the watershed was per-
haps 70 per cent greater in the 1931-32 rainy season than it was in
1930-31.
As a result of the greater rainfall in the 1931-32 season, the
stream flow was sustained at a much greater volume in 1932 than in
1931. The flow during the spring months was beyond the capacity of
the flumes installed and it was not deemed advisable to make the large
additional outlay necessary to measure the larger flows accurately.
For this reason and also because of possible complications resulting
from side inflow, records were not started in 1932 until June 24.
Inflow from the east branch Avas measured from June 24 to July 9 at
the branch control, which was on bedrock, but no more water passed
the control after that date. A survey of the main canyon at that
time showed no surface indications of springs between the middle and
lower controls.
However, during the period from July 26 to August 19, 1932,
there is evidence that there was some underground inflow between the
middle and lower controls. That this was the ease during a part of this
period is shown by the greater daily maximum discharges at the lower
control than at the middle control for some of the dates for the period,
as shown in Table 36.
To evaluate this underground inflow during the period between
July 26 and August 19, 1932, the differences in daily maximum dis-
charges at the controls in question were compared with the maximum
temperature recorded at San Bernardino on the preceding day, using
all values during 1932 except the period in question. This showed that
the amount of water charged to side inflow increased slowly and uni-
formly until about August 11, after which it dropped off quite rapidly.
The daily loss between the middle and lower controls Avas corrected
accordingly from July 26 to August 19. On nine days during this
period, the side inflow was sufficient to make the daily maximum dis-
charges slightly higher at the lower control than at the middle control.
However, the measured flow at the lower control was never at any
time as great as the flow at the upper control.
In. 1931 the lowest dail}^ maximum discharge at the lower control
was 0.210 second-foot on August 26, and the absolute minimum flow
was 0.002 second-foot during several days in August. In the following
year the lowest daily maximum discharge at the same control was but
0.320 second-foot on September 8, and the absolute minimum flow was
but 0.013 on the same date. On October 17, 1931, the last date on
which measurements were taken in that season, the daily maximum
discharge at the lower control was 0.380 second-foot with a daily mini-
mum discharge of 0.258 second-foot, while on the same date a year
later the daily maximum discharge had recovered to 0.487 second-foot
with a daily minimum discharge of 0.379 second-foot.
110
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
In the preceding paragraphs the effect of the various factors
affecting the measurement of the evaporation and transpiration from
the canyon bottom on tlie section between the lower control and the
middle and branch controls has been discussed. The same factors and
conditions have a similar etfect on the section between the middle con-
trol and the upper control.
An examination of Table 36 shows that the daily maximum dis-
charge at the middle control never exceeded the daily maxinnim dis-
charge at the upper control, except on October 10, when it was due to
rain causing surface run-off between the controls. Hence there is no
inflow unless there is also deep percolation. Deep percolation is elim-
inated as a po.ssibility, except for the remote chance that the intiov.'
and outflow would balance, by the occurrence of equal daily maximum
discharges at the two controls on the cloudy morning of October 9.
The daily losses between the middle and branch controls and ^he
lower control are given for 1931 in Table 37 and for 1932 in Table 38
and between the upper control and middle control for the 1932 season
in Table 39.
TABLE 37
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER
CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON
August 1, to October 17. 1931
Date
Loss in
acre-inches
Date
Loss in
acre-inches
Date
Loss in
acre-inches
1931
Aug. 1
*0.55
.76
.60
.78
.76
.57
.65
.73
.66
.56
.49
*.87
.97
.87
..3
.88
.91
1.04
.99
.96
1.00
.38
.47
.56
1931
Sept. 1
Sept. 2
0.33
'.23
.74
.62
.49
.40
.37
.55
.57
.63
.22
27
.47
.42
.65
.25
.29
.32
.25
.08
*.20
1931
Oct. 2
Oct. 3
0 22
Aug 2
*
*
31
Aug. 3
Sept. 6 --
Oct. 4
42
Aug 4
Sept. 7
Oct. 5
39
Sept. 8
Spet. 9 -. ---
Oct. 6
Oct. 7
34
19
Aug. 7
Sept. 10
Sept. 11
Oct. 9
Oct. 10
01
Aug 8
OS
Aug. 9
Sept. 12
Sept. 13
Oct. 11
n?,
Aug. 10
Oct. 12
Oct. 13
Oct. 14
Oct. 15
15
Aug. 11
Sept. 14
.■^l
Aug. 17
Sept. 15
30
Aug. 18
Aug. 19
Sept 16
35
Sept. 17
Oct. 16
Oct. 17
34
Aug. 20
Sept. 18 ---
Sept. 19
17
Aug. 21 -
Aug 22
Sept. 26
Aug. 23
Sept. 27
Aug. 24 -
Sept. 28
Aug. 25
Sept. 29
Aug. 26
Sept. 30 - -
Aug. 29
Aug. 30
Aug. 31 ---
Average per day (for
complete days)
Average per day per
1,000 feet of canyon.
.75
.36
.42
.20
.25
.12
•Portion of day only.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
111
TABLE 38
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM BETWEEN MIDDLE AND BRANCH
CONTROLS AND LOWER CONTROL IN COLDWATER CANYON
June 25, to November 2, 1932
Day of month
Loss in acre-inches
June
July
August
September
October
November
1
0 85
.75
.66
.64
.68
. 1 07
.83
1 02
.96
.92
.96
.83
.61
.94
1.05
1.09
1.15
98
.91
1.05
1.16
1.17
1 33
1.32
1 26
1 20
1.07
.91
1 04
1 04
1.07
1.10
1.11
1.15
1.21
1.20
1.27
1.22
1.19
.92
.76
.91
1.01
.92
.86
.95
1.08
1.31
1.38
1.41
1.29
1.25
1.28
1.15
1.18
1.15
.99
.71
.60
.58
.50
.69
1.07
.97
.95
1.12
1.01
1.03
1.28
1.44
1.19
.91
.86
1.01
.97
1.01
.95
.78
.61
0.64
.48
.60
.70
1.00
.76
.51
.64
0.40
0
.12
3
4
5
6 --.
7
8
9 -
10
.92
.96
.82
.58
.85
1.01
.76
.44
.58
.69
.54
.45
.33
.29
.31
.44
.54
.58
.48
.42
.43
.52
11
12
13 ..-
14
15
16 - -
17
18
19
20
.94
.94
.81
.68
.58
.42
.83
.54
21
22
23 --
24
25
26
0.70
.72
.76
.82
1.04
.95
27
28
29
30
31
Average per day
Average tier day
per 1.000 feet
of canyon
.83
.40
.98
.47
1.04
.50
.91
.44
.61
.29
During' the 54 days of full record in August, September, and
October, 1931, that is, during the latter half of the growing season,
the average loss from the stream between middle and lower controls
per 1000 feet of canyon per day was 0.25 acre-inch.
For the 1932 season the record begins earlier, and during 124 days
of record in June, July, August, September, and October the average
loss from the stream between middle and lower controls per 1000
feet of canyon per day was 0.42 acre-inch.
The record for 1932 is more complete and it was not interrupted
by rainy periods such as occurred in 1931. A graph of the use of
water in acre-inches between the middle and lower controls in 1932
is sliown on Plate XXIX. The measured daily use between controls
is shown, and through these points a smooth average curve has been
drawn. Ordinates to this smooth curve give the average daily use
between the middle and lower controls in acre-inches during any part
of the season, and the area between this curve and the baseline for
any period of time represents to scale the total use during that period.
112
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 39
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM BETWEEN THE UPPER AND MIDDLE
CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON
July 15, to November 2, 1932
Day of month
Loss in acre-inches
July
August
September
October
November
1
2.04
2.12
2 23
2.25
2 53
2 36
2.23
2.13
2.09
1.53
1.76
1.79
1.62
1.66
1.70
2.11
2.29
2.55
2.32
2 40
2.43
2.51
2.67
2.54
2.67
2 15
1.47
1.11
1.38
.75
0.98
.60
.75
1.65
1.91
1.04
.14
.47
0.73
2
2.08
2.28
2.43
2 50
2.52
2.73
2.81
2 54
1.88
.16
3 .
4
5
6
7 .
8
9
10
.89
1.53
1.38
1 14
1.36
1.71
1.64
.95
1.00
1.22
1.30
1.36
1 30
1.31
1.58
1.38
1.44
1.30
1.03
.88
.77
1.02
11
12
13
14
15
1.90
1 80
1.93
1.41
1.00
1.74
1.96
2.11
1.96
1.77
2.05
2.10
1.96
2.05
2.24
2.18
2.29
-----
1.89
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
1.70
1.97
2.12
1.96
23
24
25
26 -
27
28 -
29 -
30
31
Average per day per 1,000 feet
1.91
.33
2.05
.35
2.23
.38
1.19
.20
The total use of water between the middle and low^er controls for
the six months, May to October, 1932, is indicated as 72 acre-inches per
1000 feet of canyon or 64 acre-inches per acre of canyon bottom.
During 1931, the greatest daily loss from the stream between
middle and lower controls was 0.50 acre-inch per 1000 feet of canyon
on August 23, and during 1932 it was 0.69 acre-inch per 1000 feet of
canyon on September 8. In the latter case the loss is ecjual to 0.61
acre-inch per acre, the maximum daily loss for both seasons.
During August, 1932, the average daily loss from the stream
between middle and lower controls per 1000 feet of canyon per day
was eciuivalent to 1.05 southern California miner's inches, continuous
flow.
During the 92 days of record during July, August, September,
and October of the 1932 season the average daily loss from the stream
between the upper and middle controls was 1.77 acre-inches per day,
or 0.30 acre-inch per day for each 1000 feet of canyon between the
controls. As the area between these controls is 5.89 acres, the loss
per day per acre was 0.30 acre-inch.
A graph of daily use of water for this section, similar to the graph
for the lower section of the canyon, is also shown on Plate XXIX.
The area below the average curve in this graph indicates the total use
(
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
113
PLATE XXIX
......
Ul 120
\/)
Qj 100
^ 80
(V
^ 60
3
in
Q) r>
_C '^
U
_C 1
gi 0
o
c
■ 1.5
QJ
"^
Z) 1-0
0.5
o
Da
. 1 I.I
ilv maximunr
1 !
II III 1^ 1 ^1 1 1,
T temperatures at San Bernardino
\ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
■
{\
n^
yi
V
L/L
A
1
J
W
Sa«
Jl
ll
.f^
11
U'
\
"1
1
1
1
1
1
of wai
1
er
be
tw(
sen
Up
pet
'• and Middle
1 1 1
C(
Dntrob
n-.n^-'
A,
/"
n
/^
— "
1
'\)^
1
J
Li Lt^
JS
"^
L
If
^
Jse of
1
wate
1
r b
>et
1
/veen
1
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dd
le c
and
Voy
/vet
-Cc
)ntr
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_/lr
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r
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ii
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L>
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'V
\
yii_i
^
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/F
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■--rn
u
u^
May June Jurly Auq^. Sept. Oct
1932
USE OF WATER BETWEEN CONTROLS IN COLDWATER CANYON AND
DAILY MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES AT SAN BERNARDINO DURING 1932.
of water between the upper and middle controls for the months May
to October, inclusive. This use is indicated to be 50 acre-inches per
1000 feet of canyon and. since the canyon bottom area averages one
acre for each 1000 feet of canyon, the use of water in the canyon
bottom is 50 acre-inches per acre.
During August, 1932, the average daily loss from the stream
between the upper and middle controls per 1000 feet of canyon was
equivalent to 0.74 southern California miner's inch, continuous flow.
From the graphs on Plate XXIX, a comparison by months can be
made of the losses in the two sections of canyon. The average rate of
use of water per 1000 feet of canyon between the middle and lower
controls was 0.47 acre-inch per day during July, 0.49 acre-inch per
day during August, 0.42 acre-inch per day during September, and
0.30 acre-inch per day during October in 1932. Between the upper and
middle controls, the average rate of use of water per 1000 feet of
canyon was 0.33 acre-inch per day during July, 0.35 acre-inch per day
during August. 0.30 acre-inch per day during September, and 0.20
acre-inch per day during October.
8 — 4503
114
DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES
The averag-e rate of use of water ])er acre of canyon bottom fill
between the middle and lower controls in 1932 was 0.42 acre-inch per
day during July, 0.44 acre-inch per day during August, 0.37 acre-inch
per day during September, and 0.26 acre-inch per day during October.
Between the upper and middle controls, the average rate of use of
water per acre of canyon bottom fill was 0.33 acre-inch per day during
July, 0.35 acre-inch per day during August, 0.30 acre-inch per day dur-
ing September, and 0.20 acre-inch per day during October. In the
upper section, each 1000 feet of canyon has one acre of canyon bottom
fill.
Loss from Stream Above the Highest Control
The highest control on the stream during the 1931 season was the
control which later was called the middle control. During the 1932
season the upper control was the highest control on the stream.
The losses indicated by the daily cycle in the discharge curves
at the middle control in the 1931 season and at the upper control in
the 1932 season were evaluated in the following manner. The actual
volume passing the control was subtracted from that volume which
would have passed the control had a sustained flow occurred throughout
the day equal to the average of the maximum flow on the day considered
and the maximum of the next succeeding day. This value does not
represent all of the loss by evaporation and transpiration occurring
in the canyon bottoms above the control. It may, however, be con-
sidered as a fair approximation of the loss that might be reclaimed most
readily by carrjang the water down the main canyon in pipes. Table
40 shows the amount of water during the days of record in 1931 that
TABLE 40
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM INDICATED BY DIPS IN DISCHARGE
CURVE AT MIDDLE CONTROL IN COLDWATER CANYON
August 1, to October 17, 1931
Date
Loss above
middle
control in
acre-inches
Date
Loss above
middle
control in
acre-inches
Date
Loss above
middle
control in
acre-inches
1931
Aug. 1
*2.02
3.35
1.78
3.33
2,89
3.21
3.27
3.29
3.00
2.88
2.69
*2.47
3.25
3.19
2.98
3.25
3.18
3.15
3.04
3.19
2.98
1.40
2 54
2.27
1931
Sept. 1
Sept. 2
Sept. 5
1 54
*1.64
*1.81
2.34
2.37
1.93
2.05
1.64
2,24
2.19
2.44
1.01
1.32
2.06
1.89
2.22
.62
1.72
1.65
1.74
1.57
*1.70
1931
Oct. 2
Oct. 3
Oct. 4
Oct. 5
1.70
Aug. 2 -
1.68
Aug 3
1.81
Sept. 6
1.82
Aiiff .5
Sept. 7 --
Oct. 6
Oct. 7
1.42
Alicr ^
Sept. 8 -
.66
Aue 7
Sept. 9
Oct. 9
.27
Aiiff 8
Sept. 10
Oct. 10
Oct. 11
Oct. 12
.98
Aug 9
Sept. 11
1.24
Aug 10
Sept. 12
1.52
Aug. 11
Sept. 13
Sect. 14
Oct. 13
Oct. 14
1.53
Aug 17
1.45
Auf 18
Sept. 15
Oct. 15
1.30
Aug. 19
Sept. 16--
Oct. 16
Oct. 17 ----
1.48
Aug 20
Sept. 17
*1.01
Aug 21
Sept. 18 --
Aug. 22
Sept. 19---
Aug. 23
Sept. 26
Aug 24
Sept. 27 --.
Aug. 25
Sept. 28
Aug. 26
Sept. 29
Aug 29
Sept. 30
Aug. 30
Aug. 31 - -
Average per day (for
2.91
1.82
1.35
•Portion of day only.
WATER LOSSES PROM WET AREAS
115
iiiig-ht be reclaimed above tbe middle control, if the water from the
larger springs were carried in pipes and the stream bed kept dry.
Table 41 similarly shows the amount of water during the days of
record in 1932 that might be reclaimed above the upper control, if the
TABLE 41
DAILY LOSS OF WATER FROM THE STREAM INDICATED BY DIPS IN DISCHARGE
CURVE AT UPPER CONTROL IN COLDWATER CANYON
July 1 5, to November 2
1932
Day of month
Loss in acre-inch«
s
July
August
September
October
November
1
2.85
2.81
2.81
2.88
2.84
2.71
2.68
2.74
2.62
2.30
2.35
2.40
2.46
2.44
2.59
2.69
2.78
2.71
2.55
2.62
2.60
2.65
2.59
2.50
2.66
2.39
1.42
1.54
1.74
1.25
1.57
1 48
1.56
2.48
1.76
2.04
.32
1.50
.02
1.45
2.05
1.81
1.70
1.66
1.79
1.86
.74
1.30
1.11
1.11
1.33
1.46
1.34
1.50
1.02
1.19
1.33
1.30
1.06
1.04
1.20
1 03
9
2.50
2.57
2.55
2.42
2.29
2.10
2.34
2.12
1.95
.13
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 - -
11
12
13
14
15
2.84
2.79
2.64
2.29
2.32
2.72
2.72
2.62
2.62
2.62
2.58
2.69
2.86
2.92
2.88
2.83
2.80
16
1.93
2.38
1.28
.48
1.85
1.97
2.10
2.24
2.20
2.08
17
18
19
20 . .
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28 - .
29
30
31 . .
Average per day
2.69
2.47
2.07
1.39
water from the larger springs were carried in pipes and the stream bed
kept dry. There are, however, many small springs in branch canyons
or on hillsides from which the water seeps slowly through a mantle of
soil toward the main canyon. When there is little or no evaporation
and transpiration, water from these small springs reaches the main
canyon and contributes to the flow in the main channel, but on warm
days the water from these small springs may not reach the main
canyon at all, as it may be intercepted and used to meet the transpira-
tion needs of the vegetation which has roots in the soil through or over
which the water must pass. During periods of increased transpiration,
more and more of these small springs are cut off from the main canyon
and the maximum flow measured at a control on the main canyon
becomes less each succeeding day. When the days are cloudy and cool,
transpiration is decreased and the soil reservoirs that have intercepted
these flows become filled and water from the smaller springs again
reaches the main canyon. Then the maximum flow in the main canyon
increases from day to day. This is a factor that operates to cause a
116 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
seasonal drop in the discharge to a low point in August and a recovery
during September and October before any rain of importance has
occurred.
October 9, 10, 11, 1931, were cool cloudy days and the transpira-
tion loss was very low and the maximum daily flow increased to 0.46
second-foot at the middle control. In contrast to this, August 24, 25,
and 26, in the same year, were three days at the end of a long period
of hot weather, and on the mornings of August 25, 26, and 27 the maxi-
mum flow was only 0.25 second-foot at the middle control. The dif-
ference between 0.46 second-foot and 0.25 second-foot, or 0.21 second-
foot, represents a loss of water originating in these small springs, but
this flow was entirelj- intercepted so that none of the water represented
by this value of 0.21 second-foot reached the middle control at any
time on August 24, 25, and 26. A flow of 0.21 second-foot is equiva-
lent to 5.0 acre-inches per da3\ This is a loss that might be reclaimed
if each spring were sought out and developed at its source. The draft
on the connected flow measurable by the dip in the discharge curve at
the middle control on August 24, 25, and 26 is given in Table 40
and averages 3.1 acre-inches per day. The loss between the middle and
lower controls on those three days averaged 1.0 acre-inch per day.
This makes a total of 9.1 acre-inches per day, for the average loss per
day on August 24, 25, and 26 in 1931, and is chargeable to evaporation
and transpiration between the springs, where the water first comes to
the surface, and the lower control.
The source of the summer flow is within an area of 0.2 square
mile between elevations of 3100 and 4250 feet in the stream bed. The
drainage area back of the stream bed elevation of 3100 feet is 1.3
square miles and the elevation of the divide ranges from 5200 to 5800
feet. The seasonal precipitation recorded at Alpine at an elevation
of 5750 feet was 53.66 inches in 1931-32, yet the first steady spring
flow in Coldwater Canyon is below an elevation of 4250 feet.
The flow at the lower control was never as great as that measured
at the upper control during the period of measurement from July 15
to November 3, 1932. The significance of this fact is that there was no
effective yield of water as summer flow from the portion of the water-
shed tributary to the stream below the upper control, which portion is
62 per cent of the watershed area above the lower control. Since there
was no gradual gain in flow as the stream passed through the 7965 feet
of canyon between the upper and lower controls, it indicates that prac-
tically all the moisture from rainfall that might have been slowly
moving downhill through the soil mantle over this lower portion of
the watershed was intercepted by the vegetation before it reached the
canyon bottom.
COMPARISON OF USE BETWEEN CONTROLS WITH
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
During the 1932 season records were obtained from an air
thermograph, maximum and minimum thermometers, and an atmometer
located near the mouth of the canyon, and also from an atmometer
located near the lower control in the canyon.
Monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures are shown in
Table 42 for the months of record in 1932 at the mouth of the canyon.
4
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
117
TABLE 42
MONTHLY MEAN MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT THE MOUTH OF
COLDWATER CANYON, AT ALPINE, AND AT SAN BERNARDINO
June to October,
1931 and 1932
Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Month
Alpine, United States Weather
Bureau, Squirrel Inn Station,
elevation, 5,750 feet
San Bernardino, United States
Weather Bureau Station, ele-
vation 1,150 feet
Arrowhead
Springs near
mouth of Cold-
water Canyon,
elevation
2,000 feet
1931
1931
1932
1932
1931
1931
1932
1932
1932
1932
Mean
maxi-
mum
Mean
mini-
mum
Mean
maxi-
mum
Mean
mini-
mum
Mean
maxi-
mum
Mean
mini-
mum
Mean
maxi-
mum
Mean
mini-
mum
Mean
maxi-
mum
Mean
mini-
mum
June
71.5
85.1
79.2
74.8
71.9
46.5
62.6
60.8
47.6
39.4
74 5
80 6
81.1
83.4
66.9
42.3
51.1
53 6
53.7
41.5
90.5
103.2
100.0
92 3
83.3
55.4
65.0
63.0
54.1
50.0
86.0
92 9
93.7
91.2
82.0
48 4
52.0
51.9
48.7
43.7
July
94.5
92.9
79.9
61.4
September
60.5
October
56.8
. Average June to
n(>t.nhpr
76 5
51.4
77.3
48.4
93.9
57 5
89.2
48.9
TABLE 43
LOSS OF WATER FROM ATMOMETERS AT COLDWATER CANYON
July 18. to October 24, 1932
Loss in cubic centi-
Loss in cubic centi-
meters from atmo-
meters from atmo-
Period
meter "A" with full
meter "B" under
Ratio B/A
exposure located near
trees in canyon bot-
mouth of canyon
tom near lower control
July 18-Aug. 1
1,077
962
0.89
Aug. 1-Sept. 1
2,274
1,767
.78
Sept. 1-Oct. 1
1.898
1,588
.84
Oct. 1-Oct. 24
1,382
1,013
.73
July 18-Oct. 24
6,631
5,330
.80
Values are also given in Table 42 of the monthly mean maximum and
minimum temperatures at the Squirrel Inn and San Bernardino
"Weather Bureau stations for June to October, inclusive, during 1931
and 1932.
Table 43 gives the use from each of the atmometers during the
periods between readings from July 18 to October 24, 1932.
For the period from September 7 to 15, 1932, a more intensive
study was made of the meteorological data at Coldwater Canyon. An
eva])orimeter (described in detail on page 97), a hygro-thermograph,
and a second atmometer were placed near the mouth of the canyon
in addition to the maximum and minimum thermometers, rain gage,
and atmometer already there. Two thermographs, one to record the
air temperature and the other to record the temperature of the stream,
and an additional atmometer were placed near the lower control in the
canyon. There were also installed at the same location an evaporation
118
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
pan sunk in the stream channel and completely surrounded by the
stream, and a recorder on a ground water pit about 10 feet away from
the stream.
Readings were taken at all installations throughout this period
each day near sunrise, near sunset, and at various other times. Rela-
tive humidity was determined with a sling-psychrometer near the mouth
of the canyon and at various locations in the canyon. The maximum
and minimum discharges at the middle and the lower controls also were
carefully checked each morning and evening.
PLATE XXX
September 1932
UJ
COMPARISON OF LOSS OF Vi'ATER FROM EVAPORIMETER AND AIR
TEMPERATURE NEAR MOUTH OF COLDWATER CANYON,
SEPTEMBER 7-15, 1932.
Plate XXX shows the comparison, during the period, of the air
temperature near the mouth of the canyon with the evaporation from
the evaporimeter at the same location. Note that insolation is the
primary causative factor controlling the loss from the evaporimeter,
since it is very nearly in phase with the radiant energy cycle and
reaches a maximum each day just about noon. The air temperature
lags behind and does not reach a maximum generally until around
2 p.m.
The daily evaporation from the evaporimeter compared with the
daily loss from the atmometers, both in the canyon and at the mouth
of the canj^on, is given in Table 44 together with the daily loss between
the middle and the lower controls.
The record of the fluctuations during this period in the ground
water pit has alreadj^ been referred to and is shown on Plate XXVI.
The evaporation from the evaporation pan also has been discussed and
the dailj^ values given in Table 33.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
119
TABLE 44
COMPARISON OF LOSS OF WATER FROM ATMOMETERS, EVAPORIMETER, AND LOSS
OF WATER BETWEEN MIDDLE AND LOWER CONTROLS
September 8-14, 1932
Loss in
cubic
centimeters
from
atmometer
near
mouth of
canyon
Loss in
cubic
centimeters
from
atmometer
in canyon
Loss in
inches
from
evapo-
rimetcr
near
mouth of
canyon
Loss in
acre-inches
from
stream
between
middle
and lower
controls
Per cent of average loss
for the week
Date
Atmometer
near
mouth of
canyon
Evapori-
meter near
mouth of
canyon
Loss from
stream
between
middle
and lower
controls
1932
September 8
September 9
September 10
September 11
September 12
September 13
September 14
129
70
45
54
65
61
52
---
42
54
54
45
44
0 50
.34
.25
.28
.30
.28
.24
1.44
1.19
.91
.86
1.01
.97
1.01
190
103
66
79
96
90
76
160
109
80
89
96
89
77
136
113
86
81
96
92
96
Average
68
.31
1.06
100
100
100
The daily maximum and minimum temperatures of the water, both
in the stream and in the evaporation pan sunk in the stream, and the
daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in the canyon are given
in Table 34.
YIELD OF WATER FROM DRAINED SLOPES ON ARROWHEAD
MOUNTAIN
During the last mile of its course, Coldwater Creek skirts the east
slope of Arrowhead Mountain, which may be identified in Plate XIX
by the natural outline of an arrowhead on the southwest face of the
mountain. The cutting of the main canyon has proceeded more rapidly
than that of the side canyons so that the side canyons drop off on a
very steep grade as they enter the main channel. This has left excellent
bedrock exposures at the lower ends of many of the side canyons and
there was therefore an opportunity to observe the yield of water from
the drained slope above these bedrock exposures.
Plate XXXI is a vieAv of the east slope of Arrowhead Mountain
taken from a point across Coldwater Canyon on the divide between
that canyon and Strawberry Canyon. The elevation of the trail shown
at the bottom of the view is approximately 2300 feet and of the moun-
tain peak 3510 feet.
Seasonal rainfall records for 1931-32 to February 19 are given
in Table 45. On February 19, 1932, each side canyon was explored
for evidence of water flowing in its bed. No evidence of any yield
of water was found in any of the canyons to the left of the point
marked A in Plate XXXI. To the right of the point marked A,
every channel had flowing water in it. It may be noted from Plate
XXXI that there is a marked change in the density of the vegetation
to the right of the line marked A-B. To the right of this line, the
vegetation is less dense and there are more rock outcrops than to the
left of the line. The elevation of the point marked B is approximately
120
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 45
PRECIPITATION 1931-32 SEASON
Station
Distance
from
Arrowhead Mt.
Elevation
above sea
level
Total rain
July 1, 1931, to
Feb. 19, 1932
■
Miles
Feet
Inches
San Bernardino (U. S. Weather Bureau)
Newmark Reservoir (San Bernardino Water Dept.)
6.5
3.5
4.5
4.5
3.0
0.5
1,150
1,400
1,850
2,700
5,750
2,000
20.87
24 30
Devil Canyon Gate (San Bernardino Water Dept.) _ _ ^
28 47
Devil Canyon Nursery (U. S. Forest Service) .-
32 76
Alpine (U. S. Weather Bureau Squirrel Inn Station)
53.66
'24 39
' No record prior to October IS, 1931.
3000 feet. Probably more rainfall was received at the higher eleva-
tions and water percolating downward from the higher areas found
its way into the channels in which the flow was observed. There was no
further rain of importance after February 19 and three weeks later
all of the channels had dried up and there was no more flow in them
during the season of 1931-32.
It therefore appears that the soil mantle on the slopes to the left
of the line A-B had sufficient capacity to intercept and hold all of the
rain that fell during the 1931-32 season. This amounted to at least
24.39 inches as recorded at Arrowhead Springs Hotel, and in the
19-day period from February 1 to February 19, 11.55 inches fell. It
may appear rather astonishing that this large amount of rain coming
■\\dthin a period of 19 days at the end of the 1931-32 rainy season, was
held without storm run-off by the soil mantle to the left of the line
PLATE XXXI
EAST SLOPE OF ARROWHEAD MOUNTAIN DRAINING INTO COLDWATER
CANYON.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 121
A-B. However, the imderljing rock is granite and it has apparently
been weathered to considerable depth. The rock was found to be
weathered and seamed to depths of 30 feet and more in the road cuts
along the new Arrowhead high-gear road opposite the entrance to
Arrowhead Springs one mile west of the area. Hoots of chamise were
found in seams along the faces of the road cuts as deep as 29 feet
below the top of the cut.
The capaeit}' of the soil mantle to hold moisture on the slope of a
mountain depends, among other things, on the soil depth. If the
average thickness of the soil mantle on a 45-degree slope were 2 feet,
the equivalent depth for the same volume of soil on a horizontal plane
would be 2.8 feet. Rainfall is measured by the amount falling on a
horizontal plane and if equivalent depth of the soil mantle on the same
plane be considered, it is apparent that the capacity for the storage
of water from rainfall as soil moisture on a slope is relatively large.
Water from rainfall in its movement downhill after penetrating to
bedrock may be intercepted and held in the pockets of deeper soil that
lie in the depressions through which the water moves in its progress
towards lower elevations. In the canyon bottom, though the rate of
loss is high, the area of the canyon bottom fill is but a small portion of
the watershed and the actual loss by evaporation and transpiration
from the canyon bottom vegetation is less than 2 per cent of the
seasonal precipitation falling on the watershed. The larger portion of
the precipitation must be accounted for on the drained slopes.
Most of the steady spring flow that feeds Coldwater Creek comes
from the higher reaches of the canyon above an elevation of 3500 feet
where the seasonal precipitation is high. The source of all of the
steady summer flow was found to come from within an area of 0.2
square mile between elevations of 3100 and 4250 feet in the stream bed.
The area contributing to the surface drainage back of the stream bed
elevation of 3100 feet is 1.3 square miles and the elevation of the
divide ranges from 5200 to 5800 feet. The first steady stream flow in
Coldwater Canyon is found at an elevation of 4250 feet, yet a precipi-
tation of 53.66 inches was recorded at Alpine during the 1931-32 season.
Alpine is at an elevation of 5750 feet. There is a considerable area
over the divide that lies above an elevation of 4250 feet from which the
surface drainage waters flow northward. The close proximity of the
larger springs to this area of high elevation that receives a relatively
large amount of precipitation suggests that a considerable amount of
deep seepage must be occurring over this upland area. The results of
this investigation point to deep seepage from these upland areas above
an elevation of about 3500 feet as the source of most of the summer flow.
A more complete study should be made of this problem by tracing the
source of all of the summer flow coming from all of the drainage systems
radiating from Strawberry Peak.
CHAPTER V
EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES*
In any study of water supply a knowledge of unavoidable losses
occurring in transmission and storage is important, and in this connec-
tion evaporation from free water surfaces is of primary importance.
The rate and amount of evaporation are dependent upon climatological
factors and vary with each locality in conformity with atmospheric
conditions. Evaporation losses from reservoirs used for storage of
W'ater materially reduce the quantities available for domestic, indus-
trial and agricultural uses. Although much of such losses can not be
prevented, a knowledge of their magnitude and of the factors which
influence evaporation is desirable for use in devising means of reducing
them to a minimum, in estimating the available supply, and in deter-
inining the economic feasibility of a project, taking into consideration
the evaporation losses from proposed reservoirs. For these reasons the
Division of Irrigation of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering has
been making evaporation studies** in the AVest for many years.
Evaporation data are also valuable in estimating consumptive use
of water by native vegetation growing in moist areas. Since 1928 the
Bureau of Agricultural Engineering has been keeping evaporation
records at several stations in cooperation with the State Division of
"Water Resources and other agencies also have been making such obser-
vations. Not all of these agencies use the same type of evaporation
pan, and results from the different types are not ahvays comparable.
For this reason, a cooperative key station was established at Baldwin
Park in 1932 for the purpose of correlating the data that are being
collected by the various organizations and for determining factors
that may be used to reduce the observations on various types of
evaporation pans to a comparable basis. Heretofore, very few data on
evaporation in southern California have been published and it is the
purpose of this chapter to bring together such records and make them
available for general use.
BALDWIN PARK KEY STATION
The Los Angeles County Flood Control District, the San Gabriel
Valley Protective Association, the Pasadena Water Department, the
California State Division of Water Resources, and the United States
Geological Survey are cooperating with the Bureau of Agi'icultural
Engineering, in conducting this investigation. Three types of evapora-
tion pans have been installed at the station :
1. Standard Weather Bureau type of pan, 4 feet in diameter by 10
inches deep, set upon a wooden platform above ground.
!
* Prepared by Harry F. Blaney, Irrigation Engineer, Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture.
** "Evaporation from the Surfaces of AVater and River-bed Materials," by
R. B. Sleight (Journal of Agricultural Research. Vol. X, No. 5. July .30, 1917) and
"Evaporation from Free Water Surfaces," by Carl Rohwer, IJ. S. Department of
Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 271.
(122)
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
123
2. U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering type, 6 feet in
diameter bj^ 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
3. Los Angeles County Flood Control District type, 2 feet in
diameter by 3 feet de^p, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
The standard Weather Bureau pan is the one most commonly used
throughout the west and the one from wliich the majority of records
are available. In southern California the Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering has used this type of pan at each of its experiment stations.
The 6-foot tank set in the ground is used in various localities on the
valley floor, while the 2-foot tank is used in the mountain watersheds.
Other equipment at the Baldwin Park station consists of a Livingston
spherical atmometer, maximum and minimum thermometers, a thermo-
graph for recording temperatures, a barograph for barometric pressure,
an anemometer for wind movement, and both automatic and standard
rain gages.
Monthly evaporation records obtained from the three types of
pans at the Baldmn Park station are given in Table 46.
TABLE 46
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT COOPERATIVE KEY STATION AT
BALDWIN PARK, CALIFORNIA, 1932-1933
Depth in inches
Month
Standard Weather
Bureau
pan
Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering
pan
Los Angeles County
Flood Control
District pan
1932
1933
1932
1933
1932
1933
2.47
3.49
4.79
5.28
6.89
8.15
9.49
1.89
2.38
3.61
4.16
6.43
6.89
7.75
2 213
February.- -- -.-
3 145
March
4 880
April - -
5 8^5
May
7 750
June
-----
7.26
4.81
4 43
4.06
2.22
9 085
July -----
8.30
8.02
5.64
5.00
4.23
2.07
9 310
9 395
6.565
5 630
4.805
2.367
10 040
August
September
November--
December -.-
Description of pans:
Standard AYeather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Bureau of .Agricultural Engineering pan — 6 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Los .Angeles County Flood Control District pan — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground. Gage
held in center of pan by metal cross bar below water surface.
Elevation of station: Approximately 400 feet.
Remarks: This station is operated cooperatively by the following agencies: Bureau of .Agricultural Engineering,
U. S. Department of Agriculture; Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior; Los Angeles County Flood
Control District; Pasadena Water Department: San Gabriel Valley Protective Association; Division of Water Ilesources,
Department of Public Works, State of California.
It is expected that this investigation will be continued for several
years, until sufficient data are available for correlating the evapora-
tion records that are being collected by the various agencies. The
value of many of these records will be greatly enhanced if the proper
coefficients can be determined to reduce the measured los.ses to the
equivalent evaporation from a lake surface. It is hoped that eventually
every type of pan in common use will be installed at Baldwin Park key
station, and that the proper conversion coefficients will be determined.
124 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
No definite conclusions should be drawn at this time from the
results of the first year's work. However, the data presented in Table
46 indicate that the evaporation loss from the Los Angeles County
Flood Control pan is greater than that from the standard Weather
Bureau pan at Baldwin Park during 1932. The cause of this result
is not apparent at this time as Sleight * found that the loss from a
standard Weather Bureau pan was greater than that from his 2-foot
pan, but it is possible that the discrepancy is due to differences in con-
struction and especially to the use of a cross bar in the Los Angeles
pan that was not used in the Sleight type. This cross bar was intro-
duced to make possible measurements of depth in the center of the
pan.
MISCELLANEOUS EVAPORATION RECORDS
Evaporation stations maintained by the Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering at locations other than Baldwin Park have been previously
described in Chapters II and III.
In addition to observations of evaporation from standard Weather
Bureau pans at the Santa Ana and San Bernardino stations, records
were obtained from circular tanks 23 inches in diameter by 32 inches
deep, set 30 inches in the ground. Measurements were made with a
hook gage in a still well to prevent inaccuracies due to surface move-
ment. The normal rate of evaporation from the sunken tank was more
uniform than that from the Weather Bureau pan as the water in the
tank maintained a more even temperature. The total evaporation,
however, was less than that from the pan. Experiments by Sleight*
at Denver indicate that evaporation from a similar tank 24 inches
in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75 feet in the ground was 86.2 per
cent of that from an adjacent standard Weather Bureau pan for the
period April to November 1916. This agrees closely with the average
ratio of 88.8 per cent derived at Santa Ana and 86.6 per cent at San
Bernardino for the three-year period ending April 30, 1932. The
difference in depths of the tank at Denver and those in California
is probably of no importance, but the difference of one inch in diameter
may have had a slight effect on the evaporation.
Evaporation data collected by the Bureau of Agricultural Engi-
neering at Santa Ana, San Bernardino, Prado, Ontario, and Victorville
stations are summarized in Tables 47 to 51, inclusive.
A canvass was made for other evaporation records and these are
published herewith as Tables 52 to 69, inclusive, through the courtesy
of agencies collecting them.
* "Evaporation from the Surfaces of Water and River-bed Materials," by R. B.
Sleight, Journal of Agi'icultural Research, Vol. X, No. 5, July 30, 1917.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
125
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DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
127
TABLE 49
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PRADO, CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture
Month
Depth in inches
1930
1931
1932
1933
4 028
2.432
5.748
6.077
7.762
9.124
11.518
9 855
7.627
5.391
3.558
2.501
4.208
5.'m
6.028
8.180
9.137
9.985
10.470
7 051
5.999
5 389
2.746
3.129
4.391
March - _ - - - - -
5 261
April
5 426
May
7 514
9.016
Julv - - - -
11.003
9.852
October
November
5.018
3.804
Total
75.621
Type of pan — Standard Weather Bureau pan.
Description of pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Elevation of station — 480 feet (approximately^.
Remarks: In cooperation with the Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior; and the Division of Water
Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California.
TABLE 50
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT ONTARIO, CALIFORNIA, 1928-1931
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture
Month
Depth in inches
1928
1929
1930
1931
January
February...
March
April
May --
June
July
August
September.
October
November..
December..
Totals.
3.39
6.28
6.04
7.37
9.74
9.28
8.25
4.44
3.46
1.96
1.87
1.85
3.53
3.83
7.31
8.59
10.17
10 55
6.39
6.21
4.96
3.32
1.51
2.57
3.54
5.19
5.25
6.76
8.43
7.65
4.98
3.48
2.95
1.74
68.58
54.05
2.17
2.19
5.02
5.23
6.11
6.70
Type of pan — Standard Weather Bureau pan. Description of pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Elevation of station — Approximately 1,000 feet.
Remarks: The record for 1930 and 1931 represents evaporation within the city limits where buildings are reasonably
close together, limiting both wind movement and hours ot sunshine at the pan. It does not represent conditions in open
agricultural districts as does the record for 1928 and 1929. In cooperation with Division of Water Resources, Department
of Public Works, State of California.
128
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 51
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT VICTORVILLE, CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture
Month
Depth in inches
1931
1932
1933
January
2.52
2.79
6.51
7.75
9.20
10.22
11.99
11.67
8.34
5.72
3.89
2.08
2 29
February _
3.28
6.83
7.83
10.63
10.55
12.26
9.68
8.10
5.17
3.14
1.92
3 88
March
April
May
June - - .
July
August-
September
October
November-
December- _
Total,.
82.68
Type of pan — Standard Weather Bureau pan. Description — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Elevation of station — 2,700 feet (approximately).
Remarks: In cooperation with the Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior; and the Division of Water
Resources, Department of Public Works, State of California.
TABLE 52
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS NEAR POMONA, CALIFORNIA, 1903-1905
Observed by the Ofifice of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture
Month
Depth in inches
1903
1904
1905
January
2.78
2.57
3.69
5.00
6,50
8.20
9.34
9.37
7.23
5 37
4 05
2.94
1.93
February - _
1.65
March -
3.73
April . -
4 08
May . - - -
5 98
June
7.73
July
August
9.07
9.37
6.29
6.63
4 25
2.51
8.93
9 02
September
7 45
October
5.28
November...
December . ...
Total
67.04
Description of tank — Rectangular tank 22 by 36 inches by 30 inches deep, set 29 inches in the ground.
Elevation of station — Approximately 870 feet.
Reference: Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 177.
Remarks: In cooperation with the State of California.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
129
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130
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
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132
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 56
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT SOUTH HAIWEE RESERVOIR, CALIFORNIA,
1924-1932
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
Month
Depth in inches
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
January
*1.68
3.22
*5 32
5.33
9 04
9 30
10.85
9.98
7.10
*3.31
*2.28
*1.68
1.75
2.27
3.19
6.49
6.46
9 15
9.28
7.07
6 35
3.53
2 45
1.24
1 91
1.97
3.73
4.84
6.89
8.00
8.90
6 80
5 50
3.92
3.80
*2.54
*1.75
*3.10
5 76
4.30
6.80
7.00
7.85
7.70
6,72
3.80
1.64
*1.35
*1 00
*1.18
3 39
5.26
5 02
7.36
8.35
6.00
6.25
3 15
2 00
*1.65
n.75
1 94
3.71
4 22
6.10
5 80
8.15
7.11
6 61
4 70
2.50
1 81
n.oo
*2.31
3.13
3 67
5.87
5.94
8 00
7.80
6.70
3.17
2.48
*1.13
*1.75
*2.15
2 23
3.13
3 90
7.14
8.00
6.94
6 10
3 56
♦2.57
*1.00
*1.00
February -
*1.52
March
5.10
6 95
May
7.00
June - --
8.05
July
12.80
Auffust
11.63
September
October
8,45
3.95
2.24
1.76
Totals -. ---
69.09
59.23
58 80
57.77
50 61
54 40
51 20
48.47
70.45
Type of pan— Colorado land pan. Description of pan— 3 by 3 by IJ^ feet deep, set in the ground.
Elevation of station — 3,800 feet.
Record furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
Remarks: 'Portion of record'estimated.
TABLE 57
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT FAIRMONT RESERVOIR, CALIFORNIA,
1923-1932
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los
Angeles
Month
Depth in inches
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
*2.88
*3.57
5.75
7.31
14.15
15.75
16.67
17.91
14 35
7.70
4.42
*2.91
3.46
4.11
6.92
7.14
9.14
12.16
*17.48
n5.92
*11.02
*7.42
4.20
2.85
3 02
3.02
4.97
4.53
10.58
16.26
18.51
16.47
12.12
8.43
5.75
2.09
3 02
3.82
4 89
7 52
11.31
12.74
16.89
15.34
9.64
8.14
3.99
1.73
2.14
3.58
5.09
7.61
10 51
13.64
16.27
16 44
11.83
7 33
4.12
2.50
2 94
3.24
5.22
6.48
12.25
11.67
18.08
16.08
10.13
7.84
5.51
4.44
2.81
4.10
4.59
8.06
8.79
14.24
17.69
14.92
9.47
6.10
4.54
1.81
2.74
3.13
6.85
7.56
12.12
12.76
18.26
14 27
9 63
6 41
3.42
2.26
2.39
2.67
March
5.98
April - -
7.66
May - -
9.42
14.36
July
17.62
August
16 00
Septennber
12 15
7.63
5.38
3.34
5 70
December
2.24
Totals- ...
113.37
101.82
105.75
99.03
101.06
103.88
97.12
99.41
103.82
Type of pan— Colorado land pan. Description of pan— 3 by 3 by 1}4 feet deep, set in the ground.
Elevation of station— 3,050 feet.
Record furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and Genera! Manager.
Remarks: 'Portion of record estimated.
WATER LOSSES FRO:\I WET AREAS
133
TABLE 58
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT SILVER LAKE RESERVOIR,
CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
January. --
Februa^y.-
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November-
December..
Month
1930
7.58
6.21
5.75
4,13
2.93
Depth in inches
1931
4.80
4.74
6.28
5,68
7.01
8.22
7.32
6.10
4 89
3.89
1932
3.43
4.30
5.63
5.50
6.27
7.19
7.52
5.16
4.62
3.49
2.28
1933
2.65
3.72
Type of pan — Floating pan. Description of pan — 30 inches square by 18 inches deep.
Elevation of station — Approximately 440 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
TABLE 59
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT LOWER- FERNANDO RESERVOIR,
CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
Depth in inches
Month
Standard Weather Bureau pan
Floating pan
1930
1931
1932
1933
1930
1931
9 06
7.54
11.62
8.72
7.51
9.45
11.71
9.76
9.33
8.07
6.23
8.23
February
8.20
8.09
March ......1
8.48
9.37
4.49
6.30
9.72
10.32
8.13
8.64
13.02
6.02
April . . -
May .
5.06
Jme .
6.93
july -
8.94
August
8.32
September
8 13
October ..---.
10.97
12 94
10 69
8.25
7.97
6.43
6.37
November
4.65
December.
Description of pans:
Standard Weather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep. Floating pan — 30 inches square by 18
inches deep.
Elevation of station — .\pproMmate!y 1,140 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. \'an Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
134
DIVISION OP WATER EESOURCES
TABLE 60
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT CHATSWORTH RESERVOIR,
CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
Month
January. --
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. --
November.
December.
Total -
Depth in inches
1931
10.106
8.260
7.475
5.245
3.686
1932
4.095
3.302
5.890
7.235
7.615
8.410
10.100
10.350
7.355
7.655
7.600
4.310
83.917
1933
4.688
5.425
6.605
5.705
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control District.
Description of tank: 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — Approximately 900 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
TABLE 61
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT ENCINO RESERVOIR,
CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Bureau of Water Works and Supply, City of Los Angeles
Depth in inches
Month
Standard
Weather
Bureau pan
Floating pan
Los Angeles
County Flood
Control Dis-
trict tank
1932
1933
1930
1931
1932
1933
1932
1933
.Taniiarv
4.36
6.19
5.66
4.90
6 07
7,84
9 60
8.91
7.84
5.95
4.79
4.19
"FpKriiarv
5.00
6.85
3.59
4.93
5.22
March
5.14
6.64
6 16
7.65
8.39
10.04
7.10
6.25
5,41
3.39
7.38
May
8.48
9.56
10.16
13.00
8.14
7,58
7.49
3.70
July
9.98
11.14
7.21
6.56
7.15
3.32
.
9.19
7.14
6.47
4.56
3.95
October
November
Description of pans:
Standard Weather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Floating pan — 30 inches square by 18 inches deep.
Los Angeles County Flood Control District tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — Approximately 1,020 feet.
Records furnished by H. A. Van Norman, Chief Engineer and General Manager.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
135
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136
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 63
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PINE CANYON STATION,
SAN GABRIEL RIVER, 1930-1933
Observed by the Pasadena Water Department
Depth
in inches
Month
Standard Weather Bureau
pan
Bureau of Agricultural Enginee
ring tank
1930
1931
1932
1933
1930
1931
1932
1933
2.844
2.892
6.420
5.832
7.140
7.788
10.368
9.264
7.596
5 436
3.624
1.764
1.956
2.724
5 220
6.324
6.492
7.176
9.756
9 216
7.752
6 312
5 556
2.676
3.120
3.684
5.604
5.340
2.232
2.400
4.992
4.488
5.460
6 384
8.796
7.692
6 300
4.356
2.796
1.416
1 536
1.788
3-888
5 040
5.256
6.216
7.644
7.512
6,168
5,016
4,212
2 028
2.388
Februarv - -
3.012
March -
4 212
3 744
June
July
October
6.036
5.220
3 156
4,896
4.152
2.760
November - - -
Totals
70.968
71.160
57 312
56 304
Description of pan and tank:
Standard Weather Bureau pan — 48 inches in diameter by 10 inches deep.
Bureau of Agricultural Engineering tank — 6 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station— 950 feet, U. S. G. S.
Record furnished by C. W. Sopp.
TABLE 64
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT LITTLE CIENAGA, CALIFORNIA, 1929-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
Month
Depth in inches
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
January
1.12
2.78
.62
2.53
0.971
0.945
3.816
4.130
4.930
5.110
6.838
6.540
6.475
4.095
3.445
1.045
48.340
1.150
February.
1.691
1.23
1.67
3.120
April
May - - -
3.87
3.62
4.12
2.62
3 90
4.85
3.95
3.10
2.80
1.54
July
5.51
4.98
3.40
2.78
2.52
1.71
August
3.96
3.245
2.073
.901
November
Total
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control.
Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep; set 2.75 feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 4,650 feet.
Record furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Located 1 mile north of Colbrook Camp.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
137
TABLE 65
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT BIG DALTON DAM, CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
January
February --
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December..
Totals.
Month
Depth in inches
1930
10.44
9 61
14 45
9 14
10.22
9.17
5.84
1931
4.66
3.86
8.86
7.74
8 02
9 80
12.76
11.97
11.16
7.32
5.085
3.025
94.260
1932
3.210
2.710
6.020
7.195
7.150
8 410
11.025
11 835
8,855
6.785
7.885
3.100
84.180
1933
4.250
4.350
6.470
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control,
feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 1,500 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2 . 75
TABLE 66
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PUDDINGSTONE RESERVOIR, CALIFORNIA,
1929-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
January.. -
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. _-
November.
December.
Month
1929
6 99
7 90
7.73
5 32
Depth in inches
1930
1931
*2.29
*3.25
*2.76
*1.67
*3 60
5.78
4.52
*5 27
*4.64
5.86
6.73
7.29
11.65
10.17
10 52
9.16
7.37
8.66
7 43
6.04
*3 30
*3.74
5.24
*2.33
1932
♦2.24
*1.61
4.20
5.47
5.50
6.65
9.42
9.30
6.70
6 53
6.76
3.38
1933
3.30
3.88
5 32
5.18
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control. Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75
feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 1,030 feet.
Record furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: *Incomplete for days of rain.
138
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 67
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT PACOIMA DAM, CALIFORNIA, 1930-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
January
February.-.
March
April
May
June
July -.
August
September.
October
November.
December..
Totals.
Month
Depth in inches
1930
4.85
9 80
9 06
9.29
9.06
6 07
7.10
4.46
1931
9.54
8.58
8.64
7.28
5 93
2.51
74.32
1932
2 330
1.915
5.435
6.565
5 280
7.815
9.285
9.045
7.830
7.290
7.810
3.355
73.955
1933
3.415
4 320
5 640
4 940
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control.
feet in the ground.
Elevation of station— 1,900 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Located at mouth of the canyon.
Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75
TABLE 68
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS NEAR ACTON (MELLON), CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
Month
January
February..
March
April
May
June
July..
August
September.
October
November.
December-
Total.
Depth in inches
1931
11.38
9.40
6.81
4 325
2.185
1932
2.636
1.945
5.885
6.925
7.795
10.180
13.375
13.980
10.935
7.940
6.490
3.130
91.216
1933
045
415
260
860
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control. Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.75
feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 3,100 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton, Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Located at North Branch of Escondido Canyon.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
139
TABLE 69
MONTHLY EVAPORATION RECORDS AT EL SEGUNDO, CALIFORNIA, 1931-1933
Observed by Los Angeles County Flood Control District
Month
I
January -.-
February..
March
April
May -
June
July -
August
September.
October
November.
December. .
Total.
Depth in inches
1931
6.940
5.670
4.434
2.960
1932
3.210
2.845
5.415
6.945
7.525
7.450
7.650
7.435
5.445
5.005
4.395
3.529
66.849
1933
2.875
3 895
5.145
6.085
»
Type of tank — Los Angeles County Flood Control. Description of tank — 2 feet in diameter by 3 feet deep, set 2.7
feet in the ground.
Elevation of station — 135 feet.
Records furnished by E. C. Eaton. Chief Engineer.
Remarks: Location at Standard Oil Company.
I
PART II
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE
VALLEY OF SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN THE
RIVERSIDE NARROWS AND THE ORANGE
COUNTY LINE
By Harold C. Troxell
A record of noneconomic loss of water along Santa Ana River from Riverside
Narrows to the Orange County line together with an estimate of inflow from ground
water above Lower Santa Ana Canyon.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART II
Page
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAlL. 143
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 144
■ORGANIZATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OP PUBLIC WORKS 145
ORGANIZATION, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 146
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE VALLEY OiF
THE SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN RIVERSIDE NARROWS AND
THE ORANGE COUNTY LINE 147
Description of area 147
Purpose of investigation 14S
Classification of bottom land 148
Stream flow records 149
Effect of natural losses on inflow 150
Computation of changes in storage and corrected outflow 155
Computation of natural losses and inflow between Hamner Avenue and
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway bridge stations 157
Relation of natural losses to evaporation - 168
Natural losses and inflow between Riverside Narrows and the Prado gaging
station 168
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Classification of bottom land along Santa Ana River, 1933 148
2. Measurements of Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado,
1931 150
3. Natural losses and inflow, in second feet, on Santa Ana River from Hamner
Avenue to Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway bridge 160-167
4. Relation between evaporation and natural losses for area between Hamner
Avenue and Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway bridge on Santa
Ana River 169
5. Estimated water supply of the valley of the Santa Ana River above the
Prado gaging station, 1930-1932 171
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page
I. Map of Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado showing
area of natural losses, 1933 Between 148-149
II. Typical cross-section of river channel 150
III. Relationship of outflow to transpiration, temperature and evaporation 151
IV. Typical gage-height record 153
V. Location of E series of wells 154
VI. Typical ground-water record 154
VII. Method used in computing changes in ground-water storage Between 156-157
VIII. Relationship between temperature, evaporation and corrected outflow
from Hamner Avenue to Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway 158
IX. Estimated inflow between Hamner Avenue and A., T. and S. F. Ry.
Bridge, 1931 159
X. Estimated inflow between Hamner Avenue and A., T. and S. F. Ry.
Bridge, 1932 159
XI. Water supply of Santa Ana River above Prado gaging station, 1932 170
(142)
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Mr. Edward Hyatt
State Engineer
Sacramento, California
Dear Mr. Hyatt :
I am transmitting to you for publication by the State a report
jirepared by Harold V. Troxell, entitled "Ground water supply and
natural losses in the valley of the Santa Ana River between Riverside
Narrows and the Orange County line." The report presents the results
of an intensive study to determine the quantity of ground water that
percolates into this stretch of the valley and is discharged either as
surface flow or by evaporation or transpiration of the vegetation in the
valley. The report is believed to be of value both because of the use
tliat can be made of the data and conclusions which it contains in the
further development of the water supply of the drainage basin of the
Santa Ana River and because of the contribution which it makes to
(liiantitative methods in ground water hydrology.
Very truly yours,
Washington, D. C, July 31, 1933.
Chief Hydraulic Engineer
Water Resources Branch,
U. S. Geological Survey.
(143)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to acknowledge the cooperation and help
rendered by F. C. Ebert and R. S. Lord, of the United States Geological
Survey, and C. A. Taylor, of the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering,
United States Department of Agriculture, in preparing this report.
Valuable aid was also rendered by the Orange County Flood Control
District, through M. N. Thompson, chief engineer, in collecting part of
the field data. The report was reviewed by W. G. Hoyt, A. C.
Spencer, C. H. Pierce, and 0. E. ]\leinzer, and was edited by B. H.
Lane, all of the United States Geological Survev.
(144)
ORGANIZATION
STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Earl Lee Kelly Director of Public WorTis
Edward Hyatt State Engineer
The South Coastal Basin Investigation was
conducted under the supervision of
Harold Conkling
Deputy State Engineer
10—4503 ( 145 )
ORGANIZATION
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER RESOURCES BRANCH
N. C. Grover Chief Hydraulic Engineer
11. D. McGlashan District Engineer
F. C. Ebert Senior Hydraulic Engineer
This report was prepared by
Harold C. Troxell
Associate Engineer
(146)
GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND NATURAL LOSSES IN THE
VALLEY OF SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN RIVERSIDE
NARROWS AND THE ORANGE COUNTY LINE
By Harold C. Troxell *
Description of area.
One of the most useful streams in southern California is the Santa
Ana River. It rises in the heart of the San Bernardino Mountains
above San Bernardino and flows westward across the San Bernardino
Valley, southwestward through the Jurupa Basin and along the south
edge of the Chino Basin, through the lower canyon in the Santa Ana
Mountains, and across the coastal plain to the Pacific Ocean near New-
port Beach. Flow through this channel from the mountains to the
ocean is continuous only during the winter flood periods. The section
of the river channel involved in this report extends from Riverside
Narrows to the Orange-Riverside County line.
South of the Jurupa Mountains and northwest of the city of
Riverside the Santa Ana River passes through a granite canyon known
as Riverside Narrows. This bedrock obstruction forces most of the
water to the surface, forming a stream that flows continuously as far
as the intake of the canal companies in Orange County. Most of this
water at Riverside Narrows is return water from the irrigated areas
around Riverside. According to old settlers the channel was drj^ dur-
ing summer periods prior to the irrigation developments. The earlier
measurements of discharge at this point showing the increase in dis-
charge are given by W. C. Mendenhall in "Hydrology of San Ber-
nardino Valley," (U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 142).
About 16 miles down stream from Riverside Narrows the Santa
Ana River passes through a secondary coast range, the Santa Ana
Mountains. These mountains are made up of shale and sandstone and
form a barrier that concentrates and forces to the surface most of the
underflow. In this 16-mile stretch the Chino Basin drains into the
river along the north bank. The mountain streams of this area are
exceedingly steep and flow over bare rock. Many of the storms that
occur in southern California are violent and, falling on these mountain
drainage basins, produce floods that rush across the plains, carrv^ing
large quantities of granitic detritus. In this way the Chino Basin
has been built up. These great beds of gravel and boulders have a
high percentage of voids, and the flood waters passing over them are
greatl}^ reduced, if not entireh- absorbed, adding to the supply in the
imderground reservoir. The outlet of this underground reservoir is
by seepage into the Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and
Prado and by evaporation and transpiration in the bottom land of this
stretch of the river. The velocity with which the water passes through
the gravel is very slow, and the water is doubtless delivered to the river
valley at a nearly uniform rate.
The Santa Ana Mountains and Temescal Basin, which drain into
the river along the south bank, undoubtedly make a much smaller
contribution, except possibly during storm periods.
* Associate Engineer, Water Resources Branch, U. S. Geological Survey.
(147)
148
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Between Riverside Narrows and the Prado gaging station the
Santa Ana flows tlirough an inner valley or flood channel in most
places less than a mile wide, cut in the old alluvial deposits. Flood
flows have deposited in this channel very absorptive gravelly material
to a depth of 80 to 100 feet. ]\Iost of this bottom land is now over-
grown with plant life, as shown on Plate I.
Purpose of investigation.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the total
quantity of ground water that reaches the valley or flood channel of
the river in this area. It may be represented as the water passing
the points marked a in Plate II. This quantity of water would be equal
to the gain in the flow of the river if the losses by evaporation and
transpiration were reduced to zero.
Classification of bottom land.
The character of the plant cover of the bottom land between River-
side Narrows and the Prado gaging station is indicated on Plate I.
The various areas on this plate have been computed and the results
are given in Table 1. Between Hamner Avenue and The Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge there are 2110 acres of river
bottom land, classed as the area of natural losses. Throughout this
area the water table ranges from ground surface to about 5 feet
below it.
TABLE 1
CLASSIFICATION OF BOTTOM LAND ALONG SANTA ANA RIVER, 1933
Classification
Water surface
Swamp plants, sedges, rushes, etc.
Hea\'y brush cover
Light brush cover.
Heavj' tree cover
Light tree cover
Grass
Cultivated
Bare sand
Total area, acres
Hamner Avenue
to Atchison,
Topeka and
Santa Fe Rail-
way bridge
Per cent
5.5
6.4
7.1
10.1
34.9
1.1
23.7
4.8
6.4
100.0
2,110
Riverside
Narrows to
Prado gaging
station
Per cent
5.2
6.0
8.8
11.9
37.6
2.3
18.6
3.4
6.2
100.0
4,040
Howell ^ amply describes part of the area between the RiA-erside
Narrows and Prado gaging stations. He classifies the flora as follows :
"Submerged aquatics of the ponds include Potamogeton crispus, Zannichellia
palustris, Lenina trisulca, and Myriophyllum spicaUom, and the floating flora is com-
posed of such widely distributed species as Azolla fllicioloides, Lemna minor, and
Wolfiella Ungulata. In the shallow water of the marshes are found Typha angusti-
folia, Cyperus melanostacliyus, Eleocharis rostellata, Scirpus validus, Scirpus ameri-
canus. Polygonum hydropiperoides, Radicula luisturtinm-aquaticum,, Jussiaea cali-
fomica, Oenanthe sarm&itosa, Samolus floribundus, Lycopus aviericanus, Bidens
levis, and Helenium puherulum,. A large number of sedges and rushes are found on
« Howell, J. T., The Flora of Santa Ana Canyon Region : Madrono, Vol. 1,
December, 1929.
PLATE I
Map of
NTA ANA RIVER between Riverside Narrows and Prado
showing
Area of Natural Losses
1933
WATER SURFACE
SWAMP PLANT UFE:
TULES, MARSH GRASS, BRUSH, ETC-
HEAVY BRUSH COVER
GRASS
CULTIVATED AREA
BARE SAND
LIGHT BRUSH COVER
HEAVY TREE COVER
• MISC MEAS
LIGHT TREE COVER
SCALE
© USG.S. GAC
0 1/4
1 1
1/2
1
1 1
MILES
HAMNtR AVE-
SANTA ANA RIVER
AT HAMNER AVE.
Map of
SANTA ANA RIVER between Riverside
Narrows and Prado
showing
Area of Natural
Losses
1933
1 1 WATER SURFACE
fill
CRASS
^^ SWAMP PLANT LIFC
^B TULES, MARSH CRASS, BRUSH, ETC'
m
CULTIVATED AREA
tM3 HEAVY BRUSH COVER
s
BARE SAND
V///\ ^(CHT BRUSH COVER
EJ^ HEAVY TREE COVER
•
MISC MEAS SECTION
t^ tlGHT TREE COVER
o
uses. CACINC STATION
SCALE
,
/' ,
MILCS
■lo03— Bet. pp. 118-145
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 149
the moist flats of the rivei- bottom, anions which are Ci/pcnts laeviaatus, Cyperus
esculcjitus, Elcocharis capitata, Elrocharis acicularis, Elcocharis montana, ticirpun
vernus, Carex praegracilis, JuncJis balticus, Juncus hufonius,, Juncus torreyi, Junc^is
ruoiUosus, and Juncus xiphioides. Other plants gi-owing on the moist flats with the
sedges and rushes are Equisflion funst<niii, Dislichlis spicaiu, ISporobolus aspcrijolius,
Sporobulus airoidcs, Cynodon davtylon. Paspaluvi distichum, Ccnchrus pauviflorus,
Anemopsis cdUfornica. Jxanuiiculus cymbakiris, Psoralea orbicularis, Psoralea macros-
tachya. Lythrutn califoruicu»i. Kpilubiu»i californicum, llydrocotyle ranunculoides,
Hydrocotylc umbcUata, Hydrocutyle vcrticillata, Eustoma silcnijolimn, Lippia lanceo-
lata. Petunia parviflora. Mirnulus cardinalis, Plantago hirteUa. Solidaffo occidentalis.
Aster exilis, Baccharis emoryi, Bacchai-is viminea, Pluchea camphorata, Antemisia
vnlc/aris. var. hcterophylla. On the sandy flats of the liver bottom grow four species
of Willow — Salix laevigata, Salix nigra var. valUcola, Salix argophylla, and Salix lasio-
lepis, besides Populus frcmontii, I'opulus trichocarpa, Alnus rhombifolia, and Pla-
tanus racemosa."
The species found in this area are representative of the entire area
between the Riverside Narrows and Prado gaging stations.
Stream flow records.
In the area discussed in this report tliere are five gaging stations
maintained by the United States Geological Survey. The first of these
stations, established in 1919 at the Orange-Riverside County line, is
known as the station on the Santa Ana River near Prado. In 1929 a
station was established at Riverside Narrows. During the summer
periods since 1930 stations have been maintained at Hamner Avenue,
the Auburndale Bridge and The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway
Bridge. The installations at these three stations are removed during
the winter, and the location of the stations is subject to a slight change
from vear to vear because of changes in the character of the channel.
The approximate location of each of these stations is shown on
Plate I.
In order to determine the source of the gain in discharge of the
Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado, two series
of discharge measurements, in June and August, 1931, were made
at numerous points along the river. The results are given in Table 2.
Additional miscellaneous measurements were made at many of these
points during 1931 by the Orange County Flood Control District and
the United States Geological Survey, and the results are given in
Water-Supply Paper 721 of the Geological Survey.
Table 2 shows that the minimum flow is at some point below the J
diversion ditch and above the old Pedley power house of the Southern
California Edison Company. On both dates the flow decreased 10
second-feet or more in the first 6-mile stretch of the river channel below
Riverside Narrows. Much of this loss might have been caused by
the demand made on the water supply by the trees and other vegetation
along the river. Not only was the 10 second-feet lost, but any addition
that might have been made to the flow of the river in this area from
underground sources w^as also consumed.
This table shows that from tlie Pedley power house to The Atchison,
To|)eka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge the Santa Ana River is a gaining
stream. The point of maximum flow is at or near the railway bridge.
There are very few visible springs in the area, most of the water enter-
ing the gravel in the bed of the stream. Hamner Spring is the only
spring of any size that contributes to the flow.
If it were not for the natural losses, which are accounted for by
plant life, the gains showm in Table 2 would represent the entire con-
tribution of the areas adjacent to the river on the two days given. As
this contribution, during the summer, is entirely in the form of ground
1
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 149
the moist flats of the river bottom, among which are Cy penis laevigatus, Cyperus
esciilentus, Eieocharis capitata, Eleorharis acic^dai-is, Eleocharis mantana, Scirpus
cernus, Carex praegracilis, Jimciis baltims, Junctis hufonius, Juncus torreyi, Juncus
rugulosus, and Juncus xiphioides. Other plants growing on the moist flats with the
sedges and rushes are Equisetum funstvnii, Distichlis spicata, Spoi-obolus asperijolius,
Sporobolus airoides, Cynodon dactylon, Pasp<ilum distichum, Ccnchrus pauciflorus,
Aneinopsis caUfomica, Ranunculus cymbalaris, Psoralea orbicularis, Psoralea macros-
tachya, Lythrum calif ornicuni. Epilobiuni californicum, Uydrocotyle ranu7iculo-ides,
Hydrocotyle vmbellata, Hydrocotyle vcrticillata, Eustoma silenifoliurn, Lippia lanceo-
lata. Petunia parviflora. Mimulus cardi)ialis, Plantago hirtella, SoUdago occidentalis.
Aster exilis, Baccharis emoryi, Baccliaris viminea, Pluchea camphorata, Artemisia
lulgaris, var. heterophylla. On the sandy flats of the river bottom grow four species
of willow — Salix laevigata, Salix nigra var. vallicola, Salix argophylla, and Salix lasio-
lepis, besides Populus fremontii, Populus trichocarpa, Alnus rliombifolia, and Pki-
tanus racemosa."
The species found in this area are representative of the entire area
between the Kiverside Narrows and Prado gaging stations.
Stream flow records.
In the area discussed in this report there are five gaging stations
maintained by the United States Geological Survey. The first of these
stations, established in 1919 at the Orange-Eiverside County line, is
kno\^^l as the station on the Santa Ana River near Prado. In 1929 a
station was established at Riverside Narrows. During the summer
periods since 1930 stations have been maintained at Hamner Avenue,
the Auburndale Bridge and The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway
Bridge. The installations at these three stations are removed during
the winter, and the location of the stations is subject to a slight change
from year to year because of changes in the character of the channel.
The approximate location of each of these stations is shown on
Plate I.
In order to determine the source of the gain in discharge of the
Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows and Prado, two series
of discharge measurements, in June and August, 1931, were made
at numerous points along the river. The results are given in Table 2.
Additional miscellaneous measurements were made at many of these
points during 1931 by the Orange County Flood Control District and
the United States Geological Survey, and the results are given in
Water-Supply Paper 721 of the Geological Survey.
Table 2 shows that the minimum flow is at some point below the J
diA'ersion ditch and above the old Pedley power house of the Southern
California Edison Company. On both dates the flow decreased 10
second-feet or more in the first 6-mile stretch of the river channel below
Riverside Narrows. IMuch of this loss might have been caused by
the demand made on the water supply by the trees and other vegetation
along the river. Not only was the 10 second-feet lost, but any addition
that might have been made to the flow of the river in this area from
underground .sources was also consumed.
This table shows that from the Pedley power house to The Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge tlie Santa Ana River is a gaining
stream. The point of maximum flow is at or near the railway bridge.
There are very few visible springs in the area, most of the water enter-
ing the gravel in the bed of the stream. Hamner Spring is the only
spring of any size that contributes to the flow.
If it were not for the natural losses, Avhich are accounted for by
plant life, the gains showTi in Table 2 would represent the entire con-
tribution of the areas adjacent to the river on the two days given. As
this contribution, during the summer, is entirelv in the form of ground
150
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
TABLE 2
MEASUREMENTS OF SANTA ANA RIVER BETWEEN RIVERSIDE NARROWS
AND PRADO, 1931
Miles
0
1.3
4.9
6.2
8.2
8.7
9.5
11.4
11.8
13.3
15.4
15.8
16.6
19.2
Location
Riverside Narrows station
Pedley Bridge -.
Above J ditch; 1 mile above Pedley power house
Diversion by J ditch
Pedley power house
Hamner Avenue station
Below Hamner Avenue Bridge
1 mile below Hamner Avenue Bridge
Above Hamner Springs
Inflow from Hamner Spring
Diversion Durkee Ditch
Auburndale Bridge station
IJ^ miles below Auburndale Bridge
Inflow from Lilliebridge pumps
Rincon Bridge
Inflow from Chino Creek
Below Chino Creek ---
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge station
Prado station
June 3
Time
.10 a.m.
.40 a.m.
.00 a.m.
.40 a.m.
.05 a.m.
.30 a.m.
.10 a.m.
.15 a.m.
.10 a.m.
.45 a.m.
55 a.m.
20 a.m.
.00 a.m.
00 a.m.
00 a.m.
.05 a.m.
.30 a.m.
.30 a.m.
30 a.m.
Discharge
(sec.-ft.)
36
33
30
5.
25
34
36
37
46
5.
4.
50
53
11
75
3.
78
84
79
August 21
Time
7.15 a.m.
7.55 a.m.
8.55 a.m.
9.30 a.m.
8.20 a.m.
7.10 a.m.
8.40 a.m.
7.40 a.m.
7.40 a.m.
8.30 a.m.
9.55 a.m.
9.20 a.m.
10.00 a.m.
8.25 a.m.
9.00 a.m.
7.40 a.m.
7.10 a.m.
7.55 a.m.
Discharge
(sec.-ft.)
27
27
25
5.4
17
24
29
31
34
3.8
4.2
29
30
7.5
46
2.6
48
45
38
water, it must pass a mass of root systems before appearing in the
river as surface water. A typical cross section of the river channel is
shown on Plate II. The quantity of water passing the points marked
* would represent the gain of water in the river if the losses along
the channel were reduced to zero.
Effect of natural losses on inflow.
The area along the river channel between the Hamner Avenue
and The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge gaging stations
was selected for a more detailed study of these natural losses. Graph D
on Plate III represents the amount of water that drained out of the
PLATE II
Typical cross-section of river channel
INFLOW
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
151
PLATE in
I
1932
SANTA ANA RIVER
Relationship of Outflow (Hamner Ave. to A. !& SFRy Bridge)
to Transpiratwn, Temperature, and Evaporation.
® TRANSPIRATION BASED ON WELL 0 RECORD.
® TEMPERATURE AT PRADO ■
© EVAPORATION AT POMONA.
© OUTFLOW HAMNER AVE- TO AT&S-F. RY. BRIDGE-
NOTE; 3 DAY MEAN VALUES USED.
152 DIVISION 0J<' WATER RESOURCES
area between Hamner Avenue and the railway bridge as surface flow
in July, August, and September, 1932. This outflow was computed by
subtracting the discharge measured at the Hamner Avenue gaging
station from the discharge measured at the railway bridge station. If
there had been no losses by evaporation and transpiration in this
stretch, this water would have represented the ground water inflow to
the area.
During this period weekly observations were made at Well B-3,
just outside the zone of natural losses. These observations show that
the water t<ible gradually declined from the middle of May, 1932 (when
the observations were laegun) to September 8. The weekly decline
ranged from 0.05 to 0.10 foot. After September 8 the water table
showed a gradual rise until December 1, when observations were dis-
continued. If the stage of the water table is an indication of the rate
of inflow, then the rate of inflow gradually decreased from the middle
of May until September 8. Therefore, it would seem that the fluctua-
tions in the outflow, as shown on graph D, must have been developed
by the evaporation and transpiration in the area of natural losses,
between the points marked ^ on Plate II.
In computing the daily outflow numerous errors arise because of
the time elements and inaccuracies in the data. The effect on the water
table of either a day of very heavy natural losses or a day of light
losses might not be completely transmitted to the discharge into the
river for several hours. For these reasons it was decided to compute
all the daily data of discharge into means for overlapping three-day
periods. The records for temperature, evaporation, and transpiration
were converted into corresponding three-day means.
During the summer all the flow in the Santa Ana River below
Riverside comes from underground sources except during periods of
direct run-off due to rainfall. Records for 3 years at the summer
stations seem to indicate that the water surface of the river fluctuates
practically in unison at all the stations, unless affected by other than
natural conditions. A 10-day period of these records has been plotted
on Plate IV, which shows how closely each record follows the others.
The numerous minor fluctuations exhibited in these gage-height records
are caused mainly by the movement of sand waves past the stations.
To some extent the scouring and building up of the do^^^lstream chan-
nel will likewise cause such fluctuations. The river is seldom more
than 2 feet deep and usually less than 50 feet wide at each of these
stations. Plate IV shows that the daily cycle is fairly uniform at all
points. At each station the maximum stage occurs a few hours before
noon and the minimum stage between 3 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon.
The river can be compared to a long reservoir, the water surface of
which passes through a daily cycle. Not only do the daily fluctuations
occur in unison throughout this stretch of the river, but the longer
cycles, such as that indicated by the record for August 5 to 25, show
almost uniform change in the water surface of the river at the several
gaging stations.
The E series of wells were dug and water-stage recorders installed
on them during the spring of 1932, through aid furnished by the
Orange County Flood Control District. Well E-1 was dug at the toe
of a small bench parallel to the river channel, 1000 feet from the river.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
SANTA ANA RIVER-- Typical Gage- height Record
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
SANTA ANA RIVER AT
RIVERSIDE NARROWS
HAMNER AVE.
AUBURNOALE BRIDGE
AT iS.F. RY. BRIDGE
GROUND WATER AT WELL E-3
The root systems uear this well form the outside edge of the zone of
natural losses. The well is surrounded by a heavy growth of salt grass.
Well E-2, situated 430 feet from the river, is surrounded bv voung
trees. Well E-3 is only 30 feet from the edge of the river. Well E-4
was placed in the river at a point where it is about 130 feet wide. The
locations of the wells in the E group are plotted on Plate V, which
shows also the maximum and minimum altitude of the water table for
July 20, 1932. as plotted from the records obtained in these wells.
This plate shows the slope of the water table toward the river. Ten-
day records of three of these wells, together with the gage-height record
of the station at The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Bridge, have
been plotted on Plate YI.
An inspection of plates TV and VI shows the marked similarities
between the ground water table at well E-3 and the gage-height record
at the railway bridge station. It appears likely that the daily fluctua-
tions in the river are caused chiefly by the fluctuations in the discharge
of ground water into the river.
As shown on Plate I, the Lilliebridge Ditch discharges water into
the river above the E group of wells. For a short time on both Sep-
tember 5 and 6 the discharge from the ditch to the river was shut
down. As a result the discharge in the river dropped. Plate VI shows
that the water table at well E-3 immediately dropped also, even though
it was several tenths of a foot higher than the water in the river. As
shown on Plate IV. the shutting down of the ditch on July 17 caused a
-imilar change in the water level in well E-3. Here again, the close
interrelationship of the ground water and the surface water of the
river is apparent.
The site of well E-t was selected because all the recorders along
the river were at relatively narrow sections, and it was desirable to
determine whether or not the daily river fluctuations at wade sections
would be similar to those shown on Plate IV. The season's record at
this well showed that daily fluctuations were entirely obscured bv tlie
154
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PLATE V
SANTA ANA RIVER
Location E series of wells
- LARGE TREES ••
Z
o
I-
488
,-- 487
,- 486
485
484
V- 483
PLATE VI
SANTA ANA RIVER- Typical Ground Water Record
© GROUND WATER AT WELL E ■ I
® GROUND WATER AT WELL E-2
© GROUND WATER AT WELL E-3
® SANTA ANA RIVER AT AT & S.F RY BRIDGE
i
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 155
movements of sand waves and scour in the channel. The record seemed
to have little if any relationsliip to the records at well E-3 or to those
of the other river stations. This would seem to indicate that on very-
wide sections of river channel the effect of ground water fluctuations
on the stage of the water in the river is greatly reduced. In wells
located along the river, such as well E-4, the condition of the channel
do-vATistream from the station apparently controls, to a major degree,
the level of the water surface at the well. Plate I shows that in this
stretch of the river, sections as wide as that at well E-4 are few and
cover only short distances of river channel.
Computations of changes in storage and corrected outflow.
The following equation gives the entire disposal of all the Avater
entering any area along the river :
inflow = Natural losses ± Change in ground water storage + Outflow.
On Plate II the different members of this equation are illustrated.
The inflow is the quantity of ground water passing the points marked
^; the natural losses are the quantity of water discharged through
transpiration and through evaporation of both ground water and river
water ; and the outflow is the measured gain in the flow of the river in
the area.
It is possible for the natural losses to occur either from the ground
water storage or from the inflow. If the losses are drawn entirely
from storage, then the measured outflow will represent the inflow to the
area. On the other hand, if the losses are drawn entirely from the
inflow the storage will remain unchanged, and the outflow will be
equal to the inflow minus the natural losses. Practically' the entire
period of record falls between these two extremes. Possibly these rela-
tions can best be illustrated by inserting figures in the basic formula
as follows:
Inflow = Natural losses ± Change in storage + Outflow.
Second feet Second feet Second feet Second feet
(a) 50 = 10 + 5 4- 35
(ft) 50 = 10 + 0 +40
(c) 50 = 10 — 5 + 45
In each of these computations the inflow and natural losses remain
constant, yet the measured outflow varies from 35 to 45 second-feet.
In ^, 5 second-feet of the inflow was placed in storage, leaving 35
second-feet as outflow. In **, the storage did not change ; consequently
the outflow represents inflow minus the natural losses. In °, 5 second-
feet of the 10 second-feet of natural losses was drawn from storage,
which would leave 45 second-feet of the inflow to appear as outflow.
From these computations it is evident that if the inflow remains con-
stant, then the outflow plus or minus the change in storage must vary
inversely with the natural losses. Also, on days when the changes in
storage are equal, then the outflow will vary inversely with the natural
losses.
Tlie change in storage to be used in this equation was determined
by the following method :
156 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
White,'' in his work on daily fluctuations of the water table in
the Escalante Valley, Utah, developed the formula q = y (24r ± s) in
which q is the depth of water used by the plants, y is the specific yield
of the water-bearing material, r is the hourly rate of rise of the water
table from midnight to 4 a.m., and s is the net fall or rise of the water
table during- the 24-hour period. The hours of midnight to 4 a.m.
were selected in determining the rate r, because during these hours the
transpiration and evaporation losses would be at a minimum.
As shoT^Ti at the left on Plate VII, the measured daily outflow
between Hamner Avenue and The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Rail-
way Bridge was plotted against the daily tran.spiration ( 24r ± s) as
computed from the record of well D. The (24r ± s) expressed in feet
of ground water represents the amount the water table would have
dropped if there was no recharge. The figure opposite each observa-
tion represents the day of the month. The observations were next
classified as to rising or falling water table, representing increase or
decrease in storage. A curve was drawn such that it represents the
average slope of a series of shorter lines drawn through consecutive
points, having much the same change in storage. As a rule most of
the observations to the left of the curve showed a drop in storage,
while those to the right showed a gain.
As stated before, outflow ± change in storage should vary
inversely with natural losses, provided the inflow does not change. It
was next assumed that the difference between the quantity computed
from this curve and the actual outflow represented the change in stor-
age. For example, on September 30 the outflow was 35.7 second-feet.
The curve shows that the outflow should have been about 37.2 second-
feet if there had not been any change in storage. On this day the
water table at well D came up 0.020 foot. The assumption was made
that the building up of this storage by 0.020 foot required the 1.5
second-feet that failed to appear in the river. Likewise on August 19
the water table dropped 0.040 foot. The outflow for this day was 27.7
second-feet. The curve indicates that the discharge should have been
23.8 second-feet if there had been no change in storage. It was there-
fore assumed that on this day the outflow was 3.9 second-feet greater
than that shown by the curve, because its equivalent was drawn from
storage to satisfy the demands represented by the natural losses.
The records of ground water fluctuations obtained on a few other
wells in this area indicate that as a rule the daily change in storage
was about in direct proportion to the change in storage at well D.
It was therefore assumed that the changes shown by the record obtained
at well D were in direct proportion to the mean changes in storage in
the entire area between the Hamner Avenue and The Atchison. Topeka
and Santa Fe Railway Bridge gaging stations. The daily changes in
storage at Avell D were then plotted against the excess or deficiency in
the outflow. If the inflow to the area had remained constant and the
changes in storage at well D had been representative of the area, these
points .should have plotted a well-defined curve. The movement of
certain plotted points from the left of the curve to the right indicates
a White, W. N., A method of estimating ground water supplies based on di.s-
charge by plants and evaporation from soil : U. S. Geol. Surv-ey "Water-Supply Paper
6.'>9, pp. i-105, 1932. MTiite states that the principle underlying this formula was in
part suggested by G. E. P. Smith in his earlier work (p. 8).
PLATE VII
4503 — Bet. pp. 156-157
PLATE VII
^0.02
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Correc
tions .
SECOND- FEET
-i
-4 -2 0 +2 +4
te 1
SANTA ANA RIVER
1932
Method used in computing changes in- ground -water storage-
Based on the records from well D-
4603— Bet. pp. 156-157
WATER LOSSE.S FRO:\r WET AREAS 157
that the inflow decreased during the period. For this reason, curves
were drawn through small groups of consecutive observations, as the
change in inflow would be little for short periods.
The average slope of these curves indicates that a change in stage
of the water table amounting to 0.001 foot represents the equivalent of
a change in outflow of 0.11 second-foot. If the changes in stage at
well D represent the average for the area, then the average specific
yield for the section of the gravel unwatered during the season is
about 12 per cent. Using the factor of 0.11 second-foot per 0.001 foot
of change in water level, the change in storage for the entire record
was converted into second-feet. The daily measured outflow was then
corrected for changes in storage. • The term "corrected outflow" as
used throughout the remainder of this report represents the measured
outflow plus or minus the change in storage.
Computations of natural losses and inflow between Hamner Avenue
and The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge stations.
In discussing the basic formula for the inflow, it was stated that
if the inflow remains constant, the outflow plus or minus changes in
storage will vary inversely with the natural losses. On Plate VIII are
plotted the relations between the daily corrected outflow and the daily
evaporation and temperature for July, August, and September, 1932.
The figure opposite each point represents the day of the month. The
fact that the observations as i3lotted shifted to the right is apparently
due to gradual decrease in rate of inflow as the season progressed. The
trend of consecutive observations had more to do in the development
of the slope of the monthly curves than the mere averaging of the
points, because during short periods the inflow would change little,
leading only two principal variables — namely, corrected outflow and
natural losses. Thus the third variable is practically eliminated, leav-
ing a close relation between corrected outflow and temperature or
evaporation, as represented by the slope of the curve. Curves similar
to those on Plate VIII were also drawn for 1931.
The temperature record was obtained from the thermograph record
at the Prado evaporation station. A stud}' of the ground water fluctua-
tions showed that practically all the transpiration occurred between the
hours of 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. each day. For this reason the daily tempera-
ture figures here used represent the average temperature for the period
of 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The data seem to indicate that little or no trans-
piration occurs in this area when the average daily temperature is
below 60°. If the natui'al losses in this area varied in direct pro-
portion with the temperature above 60°, then for each 10° more than
60° the loss would have amounted to 7.7 second-feet in 1931 and 8.0
second-feet in 1932.
For the period in 1931 the records from the evaporation pan at
Prado were used in plotting the relation of evaporation to corrected
outflow. In 1932, however, 0T\dng to imperfect operation of the
apparatus, the daily evaporation record at Prado was not entirely
satisfactory. For this reason, the record from the evaporimeter at
Pomona, operated by C. A. Taylor, of the Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering, was used for 1932. This evaporimeter is less than 15
miles from the Santa Ana River area, and the evaporation there should
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS 157
that the inflow decreased during the period. For this reason, curves
were drawn through small groups of consecutive observations, as the
change in inflow would be little for short periods.
The average slope of these curves indicates that a change in stage
of the water table amounting to 0.001 foot represents the equivalent of
a change in outflow of 0.11 second-foot. If the changes in stage at
well D represent the average for the area, then the average specific
yield for the section of the gravel unwatered during the season is
about 12 per cent. Using the factor of 0.11 second-foot per 0.001 foot
of change in water level, the change in storage for the entire record
was converted into second-feet. The daily measured outflow was then
corrected for changes in storage. • The term "corrected outflow" as
used throughout the remainder of this report represents the measured
outflow plus or minus the change in storage.
Computations of natural losses and inflow between Hamner Avenue
and The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge stations.
In discussing the basic formula for the inflow, it was stated that
if the inflow remains constant, the outflow plus or minus changes in
storage A^all vary inversely with the natural losses. On Plate VIII are
plotted the relations between the daily corrected outflow and the daily
evaporation and temperature for Julj^ August, and September, 1932.
The figure opposite each point represents the day of the month. The
fact that the observations as plotted shifted to the right is apparently
due to gradual decrease in rate of inflow as the season progressed. The
trend of consecutive observations had more to do in the development
of the slope of the monthly curves than the mere averaging of the
points, because during short periods the inflow would change little,
leaving only two principal variables — namely, corrected outflow and
natural losses. Thus the third variable is practically eliminated, leav-
ing a close relation between corrected outflow and temperature or
evaporation, as represented by the slope of the curve. Curves similar
to those on Plate VIII were also dra^^ii for 1931.
The temperature record was obtained from the thermograph record
at the Prado evaporation station. A study of the ground water fluctua-
tions showed that practically all the transpiration occurred between the
hours of 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. each day. For this reason the daily tempera-
ture figures here used represent the average temperature for the period
of 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The data seem to indicate that little or no trans-
piration occurs in this area when the average daily temperature is
below 60°. If the natui*al losses in this area varied in direct pro-
portion with, the temperature above 60°, then for each 10° more than
60° the loss would have amounted to 7.7 second-feet in 1931 and 8.0
second-feet in 1932.
For the period in 1931 the records from the evaporation pan at
Prado were used in plotting the relation of evaporation to corrected
outflow. In 1932, however, owing to imperfect operation of the
ap]iaratus, the daily evaporation record at Pi'ado was not entirely
satisfactory. For this reason, the record from the evaporimeter at
Pomona, operated by C. A. Taylor, of the Bureau of Agricultural
Engineering, was used for 1932. This evaporimeter is less than 15
miles from the Santa Ana River area, and the evaporation there should
158
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PLATE VIII
< _ ^
q; 6Vi 90"
JULY
/:
SEPT
z •
o
!<
IT
o
a. 3
SEPT
CORRECTED OUTFLOW
CORRECTED OUTFLOW
SANTA ANA RIVER
1932
Relationship between Temperature, Evaporation
and Corrected Outflow from Hamner Ave. to A.T&S.F Ry.
vary directly v;^itli the evaporation at Prado. The 1931 data (Prado)
seem to indicate that for each 0.10 inch of evaporation from the stand-
ard Weather Bureau gage the corrected outflow is reduced 6.0 second-
feet. The 1932 data (Pomona) gave 6.3 second-feet for each 0.10
inch of evaporation from the evaporimeter.
Next, the relation of the transpiration at well D to the corrected
outflow was determined by the use of the formula (24r ± s), taken from
the equation q = y (24r ±: s) . The results showed that for each 0.10
foot of ground water transpired, as computed by the formula
(24r ±: s), there was a loss of 15.4 second-feet in the corrected outflow
in 1931 and 17.6 second-feet in 1932.
From the data determined from Plate VTII and similar graphs
Table 3 has been developed. This table gives the estimated inflow
between the gaging stations at Hamner Avenue and The Atchison.
Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge. Column A represents the daily
measured outflow from the area, that is, the gain in the flow of the
river between the two gaging stations. The daily corrected outflow^
(outflow ± change in storage) is given in column B. If the natural
losses in the area varied in direct proportion to the transpiration
recorded at well D, the figures in column C represent these losses in
second-feet. Then hy adding columns B and C, the daily inflow is
determined.
Likewise, columns D and E represent the natural losses in the area
if evaporation and temperature, respectively, are taken as indicators
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
159
of these losses. After these daily figures of natural losses were obtained,
the means for each 5-day period were determined for each of the three
methods. Then these results were in turn averaged. The addition of
the natural losses to the corrected outflow gives the inflow to the area.
The data given in Table 3 have been plotted on plates IX and X.
The estimated inflow represents the amount of water passing the points
marked ^ on Plate II, or the outside edge of the area of natural losses.
On plates IX and X the difference between the graphs marked ' ' mean
PLATE IX
llii
«.-♦■'
tt
fri
SANTA ANA RIVER - 193
Estimated Inflow between Hamner Ave. and AT. &S.F. Ry. Bridge
§MEAN INFLOW
MEASURED OUTFLOW
CORRECTED OUTFLOW
JULY
S 10 IS 20 25
• BASED ON TEMPERATURE AT PRADO
* BASED ON EVAPORATION AT PRADO
♦ BASED ON WELL 0
! AUGUST
10 15 20 25
I SEPTEMBER
10 15 20 25
PLATE X
-T !♦'
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:>*
♦r^».
tA
I ♦'
f-n
:e:
SANTA ANA RIVER - 1932 .
Estimated Inflow between Hamner Ave. and A-T&S.R Ry. Bridge
"® MEAN INFLOW
® MEASURED OUTFLOW
© CORRECTED OUTFLOW
I JULY I I
5 10 15 20 25
♦ BASED ON TEMPERATURE AT PRAOO
♦ BASED ON EVAPORATION AT POMONA
♦ BASED ON WELL 0
I
31
AUGUST I
Jfi >i 20 25
-il.
SEPTEMBER
_!fl LI 2a 2i_
160
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
161
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162
DI VISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LOSSES FROJI WET AREAS
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DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
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WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
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168 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
inflow" and ''measured outflow" g'ives the quantity of water con-
sumed in the area of natural losses. Tlie inflow has been plotted for
every da.y b,y use of the three methods on these plates. ]\Iost of the
apparent irregularities during Aug'ust and September, 1931, were
due to surface run-off from rainfall, which could not be evaluated. The
true relation holds only when all tlie water comes from subsurface
sources.
Relation of natural losses to evaporation.
In order to make the data computed in Table 3 applicable else-
where on the Santa Ana River, the natural losses over the area were
determined as a function of evaporation. The resvilts are given in
Table 4, in which the natural losses for each 5-day period have been
converted into acre-feet. The average loss in feet over the whole area
was computed by dividing the losses in acre-feet by the area in acres.
This average was compared with the evaporation from a standard
"Weather Bureau pan at Prado for the same periods, expressed in feet,
and the ratio computed. This ratio gives the losses as a percentage
of evaporation. For example, for the period July 1-5, 1931, the
natural losses amounted to 0.109 foot, or 61 per cent of the evaporation
from a standard Weather Bureau pan for the same period. The means
of these percentages were computed for the three months in both 1931
and 1932. They were 68 per cent for 1931 and 64 per cent for 1932.
The average for the two seasons was 66 per cent. These ratios do not,
however, apply w^here the natural losses are compared to evaporation
from a reservoir or other relatively large free water surface. By using
the coefficient of 1.427 determined by Rohwer ■'' for the correction of
the standard pan record, the natural losses for 1931 and 1932 are found
to be nearly equal to the evaporation from a reservoir or other large
free water surface.
Natural losses and inflow between Riverside Narrows and the
Prado gaging station.
Between the gaging stations at Riverside Narrows and Prado there
is 4040 acres of land subject to substantial natural losses. By means of
the coefficient determined in the preceding tables, the natural losses
within this area were computed and converted into acre-feet for each
5-day period from January to November, 1932. The results of these
computations are expressed graphically on Plate XI.
A check on the computations for inflow for the area above the
Prado gaging station was made by using the data collected at The
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Bridge for the period May to
November. The area of natural losses above this station is 3580 acres.
With the coefficient of 66 per cent the natural losses were computed
from the evaporation pan record at Prado. The addition of these
losses to the flow at the railway bridge gaging station gave the total
inflow for the area between Riverside Narrows and the railway bridge.
These results have been plotted on the graph in the form of a dotted
line.
The 2| miles of river channel between The Atchison, Topeka and
Santa Fe Railway Bridge and the Prado gaging stations is cut through
" Rohwer, Carl, Evaporation from free water surfaces : U. S. Dept. Agri., Bull.
271, 1932.
WATER LOSSES FROIM WET AREAS
169
TABLE 4
RELATION BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND NATURAL LOSSES FOR AREA BETWEEN
HAMNER AVENUE AND THE ATCHISON TOPEKA AND SANTA FE RAILWAY BRIDGE
ON THE SANTA ANA RIVER
(.'\rea, 2,1 10 acres)
Natural losses
Evaporation at Prado
Date
Mean
(second-feet)
Acre-feet
Feet
Inches
Feet
Ratio
1931—
July 1- 5
July 6-10.
July 11-15
July 16-20
July 21-25
July 26-31
.Aug. 1-5
Aug. 6-10
Aug. 11-15
.Aug. 16-20
.■^ug. 21-25
Aug. 26-31
Sept. 1- 5...
Sept. 6-10
Sept. 11-15
Sept. 16-20
Sept. 21-25
Sept. 26-30
23 3
20.5
21.4
21.7
23.8
23.4
19.5
19.4
13.7
21.2
26.5
20.0
14.4
18.6
15.3
12.6
15.1
16.3
231
203
212
215
236
279
193
192
136
210
263
238
143
184
152
125
150
162
0 109
.096
.100
.102
.112
.132
.092
091
.064
.100
.125
113
.068
.087
.072
.059
.071
.077
2.12
1.76
1.80
1.74
1.92
2.22
1 57
1.70
1.10
1.71
2 24
L72
1 12
1 57
1 35
1.07
1.07
1.56
0.178
.147
.150
.145
.160
.185
.131
.142
.092
.142
.187
.143
.093
.131
.112
.089
.089
.130
0.61
.65
.67
.70
.70
.71
.70
.64
.70
.70
.67
.79
.73
.66
.64
.66
.80
.59
Mean
.68
1932^
July 1-5
July 6-10
July 11-15
July 16-20
July 21-25
July 26-31
Aug. 1- 5
Aug. 6-10
Aug. 11-15
.Aug. 16-20
Aug. 21-25
Aug. 26-31
Sept. 1- 5
Sept. 6-10
Sept. 11-15
Sept. 16-20
Sept. 21-25
Sept. 26-30
15.3
16,5
17.8
17.4
18.3
20.8
23.2
17.9
14.3
22.5
24.3
14.8
20.5
20 3
14.0
10.7
12.0
8.7
152
164
177
173
182
248
230
178
142
224
241
176
204
201
139
106
119
86
0 072
078
.084
.082
,086
.118
109
,084
067
.106
114
083
097
.095
.066
.050
056
.041
i:362
1.565
1 571
1.528
2.056
2.203
2.205
1.578
1.112
1.980
2.085
1.523
1.622
1.327
1.225
.978
1.004
.884
0.114
.131
.131
.127
.172
.184
.184
.132
.093
.165
.174
.127
.135
.110
.102
.082
.084
.074
0.63
.60
.64
.65
.50
.64
.59
.64
.72
.64
.65
.65
.72
.86
.65
.61
.67
.55
Mean .
.64
the Santa Ana Mountains. There are no live streams feeding the river
in this section. If there is little inflow during the summer between
these stations, the inflow for the area above the railway bridge gaging
station should be nearly the same as that above the Prado gaging station.
Plate XI shows that the two sets of figures for inflow agree remarkably
well, the decrease in stream flow between the two stations being about
equal to the computed natural losses.
One purpose of this plate is to show the extent of the losses between
Riverside Narrows and the Prado gaging station. Of an inflow which
was computed to be 48.5 second-feet, only 12.8 second-feet left the area
as surface Avater during the 5-day period August 21-25, 1932. During
the period August 1-5, 1930, only 5 second-feet were recovered from an
inflow equally great.
170
DIVISION OF WATER KESOURCES
PLATE XI
WATER SUPPLY
of
SANTA ANA RIVER
above
PRADO GAGING STATION
1932
In order to show more clearly the disposition of all the rising-
water above Prado, Table 5 was prepared. This table shows the esti-
mated water supply above the Prado gaging station for two seasons,
1930-31 and 1931-32. The natural losses were computed, based on the
evaporation pan record collected at Prado, except for three months,
October, 1930, and February and May. 1932. During these months
the record at Prado was incomplete. For the month of October, 1930,
the record collected by the Bureau of Agricultural Engineering at
Santa Ana was used. The record collected by the same bureau at
Pomona was used for the months of February and May, 1932.
During the season of 1930-31 there was very little storm run-off
due to rainfall, consequently the main source of the water passing the
Prado gaging station was from the ground water inflow. Table 5 shows
that of the 74,900 acre-feet of inflow into the area above Prado for this
season, 17,500 acre-feet, or 23.4 per cent, were consumed by the natural
losses in this area.
If the water of the Santa Ana River is more A^aluable at any one
period of the year than another, it is during the summer irrigation
season. During this period the entire flow of the river is diverted by
the Santa Ana Valley Irrigation and Anaheim Union water companies.
To augment this supply additional water is pumped along the canal
systems in Orange County. An inspection of Table 5 shows that for
the months of ]\Iay to September, 18,090 acre-feet entered the valley
or flood channel of the Santa Ana River between Riverside Narrows
and Prado during the season of 1930-31. Of these 18,090 acre-feet,
10,180 acre-feet were consumed by natural losses. This represents a
loss of 56 per cent. For the same period during 1931-32, 18,280 acre-
feet entered the flood channel of the river. During this season 9790
acre-feet were consumed by natural losses, or a loss of 54 per cent.
WATER LOSSES FROM WET AREAS
171
Q.
3
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S^:
oor^ccic*— '^-ificoc^oooi^
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172' DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Utilization of Water Supply.
The water which under natural conditions is consumed by uneco-
nomic plant life could in large part be recovered by pumping from
wells, Avhereby the ground water table would be drawn down below the
root zone. The installation of pumps in this area would make available
the large underground reservoir that now lies unused. The storage in
this underground reservoir, as well as the summer inflow, could be
drawn upon to meet the fluctuating demands for irrigation. During
the winter the underground reservoir would be replenished by the
inflow from the sides and also by at least some of the storm run-off that
may otherwise be wasted into the ocean.
PUBLICATIONS
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
PUBLICATIONS OF THE
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
When the Department of Public Works was created In July, 1921, the State Water Commission was succeeded
by the Division of Water Rights, and the Department of Engineering was succeeded by the Division of Engineer-
ing and Irrigation in all duties except those pertaining to State Architect. Both the Division of Water Rights
ind the Division of Engineering and Irrigation functioned until August, 1929, when they were consolidated to
form the Division of Water Resources.
STATE WATER COMMISSION
First Report, State Water Commission, March 24 to November 1, 1912.
Second Report, State Water Commission, November 1, 1912 to April 1, 1914.
•Biennial Report, State Water Commission, March 1, 1915, to December 1, 1916.
Biennial Report, State Water Commission, December 1, 1916, to September 1, 1918.
Biennial Report, State Water Commission, September 1, 191S, to September 1, 1920.
DIVISION OF WATER RIGHTS
♦Bulletin No. 1 — Hydrographic Investigation of San Joaquin River, 1920-1923.
♦Bulletin No. 2 — Kings River Investigation, Water Master's Reports, 1918-1923.
•Bulletin No. 3 — Proceedings First Sacramento-San Joaquin River Problems Con-
ference, 1924.
•Bulletin No. 4 — Proceedings Second Sacramento-San Joaquin River Problems Con-
ference, and Water Supervisor's Report, 1924.
•Bulletin No. 5— San Gabriel Investigation— Basic Data, 1923-1926.
Bulletin No. 6— San Gabriel Investigation— Basic Data, 1926-1928.
Bulletin No. 7 — San Gabriel Investigation — Analysis and Conclusions, 1929.
•Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1920-1922.
•Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1922-1924.
Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1924-1926.
Biennial Report, Division of Water Rights, 1926-1928.
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
♦Bulletin No. 1 — Cooperative Irrigation Investigations in California, 1912-1914.
♦Bulletin No. 2— Irrigation Districts in California, 1887-1915.
Bulletin No. 3 — Investigations of Economic Duty of Water for Alfalfa in Sacra-
mento Valley, California, 1915.
♦Bulletin No. 4 — Preliminary Report on Conservation and Control of Flood Waters
in Coachella Valley, California, 1917.
♦Bulletin No. 5 — Report on the Utilization of Mojave River for Irrigation in Victor
Valley, California, 1918.
♦Bulletin No. 6 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1919 (now obsolete).
Bulletin No. 7 — Use of water from Kings River, California, 1918.
•Bulletin No. 8 — Flood Problems of the Calaveras River, 1919.
Bulletin No. 9 — Water Resources of Kern River and Adjacent Streams and Their
Utilization. 1920.
♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1907-1908.
♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1908-1910.
♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1910-1912.
•Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1912-1914.
•Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1914-1916.
♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1916-1918.
♦Biennial Report, Department of Engineering, 1918-1920.
• Reports and Bulletins out of print. These may be borrowed by your local library from the California State
Library at Sacramento, California.
( 174 )
•Bulletin
No.
•Bulletin
No.
Bulletin
No.
Bulletin
No.
Bulletin
No.
Bulletin
No.
•Bulletin
No.
•Bulletin
No.
Bulletin
No.
•Bulletin
No.
Bulletin
No.
Bulletin
No.
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 175
DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES
Including Reports of the Former Division of Engineering and Irrigation
1 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1921 (now obsolete).
2 — Formation of Irrigation Districts, Issuance of Bonds, etc., 1922.
3 — Water Resources of Tulare County and Their Utilization, 1922.
4 — Water Resources of California, 1923.
5 — Flow in California Streams, 1923.
6 — Irrigation Requirements of California Lands, 1923.
7 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1923 (now obsolete).
S — Cost of Water to Irrigators in California. 1925.
9 — Supplemental Report on Water Resources of California, 1925.
10 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1925 (now obsolete).
11 — Ground Water Resources of Southern San Joaquin Valley. 1927.
in No. 12 — Summary Report on the Water Resources of California and a Coor-
dinated Plan for Their Development. 1927.
Bulletin No. 13 — The Development of the Upper Sacramento River, containing U. S.
R. S. Cooperative Report on Iron Canyon Project, 1927.
Bulletin No. 14 — The Control of Floods by Reservoirs, 192S.
•Bulletin No. 18 — California Irrigation District Laws, 1927 (now obsolete).
♦Bulletin No. 18-A — California Irrigation District Laws, 1929 Revision (now obsolete).
Bulletin No. 18-B — California Irrigation District Laws, 1931 Revision (now obsolete).
Bulletin No. 18-C — California Irrigation District Laws, 1933 Revision.
Bulletin No. 19 — Santa Ana Investigation, Flood Control and Conservation (with
packet of maps). 192S.
Bulletin No. 20 — Kennett Reservoir Development, an Analysis of Methods and
Extent of Financing by Electric Power Revenue, 1929.
Bulletin No. 21 — Irrigation Districts in California, 1929.
Bulletin No. 21-A — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 1929.
Bulletin No. 21-B — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 1930.
Bulletin No. 21-C — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 19 31.
(Mimeographed.)
Bulletin No. 21-D — Report on Irrigation Districts in California for the Year 1932.
(Mimeographed.)
Bulletin No. 22 — Report on Salt Water Barrier (two volumes). 1929.
Bulletin No. 23 — Report of Sacramento-San Joaquin Water Supervisor, 1924-1928.
Bulletin No. 24 — A Proposed Major Development on American River, 1929.
Bulletin No. 25 — Report to Legislature of 1931 on State Water Plan, 1930.
Bulletin No. 26 — Sacramento River Basin, 1931.
Bulletin No. 27 — Variation and Control of Salinity in Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta
and Upper San Francisco Bay, 1931.
Bulletin No. 28 — Economic Aspects of a Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of
Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, 1931.
Bulletin No. 28-A — Industrial Survey of TTpper San Francisco Bay Area, 1930.
Bulletin No. 31— Santa Ana River Basin, 1930.
Bulletin No. 32 — South Coastal Basin, a Cooperative Symposium, 1930.
Bulletin No. 33 — Rainfall Penetration and Consumptive Use of Water in Santa Ana
River Valley and Coastal Plain, 1930.
Bulletin No. 34 — Permissible Annual Charges for Irrigation Water in Upper San
Joaquin Valley, 1930.
Bulletin No. 35 — Permissible Economic Rate of Irrigation Development in California.
1930.
Bulletin No. 36 — Cost of Irrigation Water in California, 1930.
Bulletin No. 37 — Financial and General Data Pertaining to Irrigation, Reclamation
and Other Public Districts in California, 1930.
Bulletin No. 38 — Report of Kings River Water Master for the period 1918-1930.
Bulletin No. 39 — South Coastal Basin Investigation, Records of Ground Water Levels
at Wells, 1932.
Bulletin No. 40 — South Coastal Basin Investigation, Quality of Irrigation Waters,
1933.
Bulletin No. 41 — Pit River Investigation, 1933.
Bulletin No. 42 — Santa Clara Investigation, 1933.
• Reports and Bulletins oiit of print. Tliese may be borrowed by your local library from the California State
Library at Sacramento. California.
176 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Bulletin No. 43 — Value and Cost of Water for Irrigation in Coastal Plain of South-
ern California, 1933.
Bulletin No. 44 — ^Water Losses Under Natural Conditions from Wet Areas in
Southern California, 1933.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1920-1922.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1922-1924.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1924-1926.
Biennial Report, Division of Engineering and Irrigation, 1926—1928.
PAMPHLETS
Act Governing Supervision of Dams in California, with Revised Rules and Regula-
tions, 1933.
Water Commission Act with Amendments Thereto, 1933.
Rules, Regulations and Information Pertaining to Appropriation of Water in Cali-
fornia, 1933.
Rules and Regulations Governing the Determination of Rights to Use of Water In
Accordance with the Water Commission Act. 1925.
Tables of Discharge for Parshall Measuring Flumes. 192S.
General Plans, Specifications and Bills of Material for Six and Nine Inch Parshall
Measuring Flumes. 1930.
COOPERATIVE AND MISCELLANEOUS REPORTS
•Report of the Conservation Commission of California, 1912.
•Irrigation Resources of California and Their ITtilization (Bui. 254. OflSce of Exp
U. S. D. A.) 1913.
•Report, State Water Problems Conference, November 25, 1916.
•Report on Pit River Basin. April. 1915.
•Report on Lower Pit River Project, July, 1915.
•Report on Iron Canyon Project, 1914.
•Report on Iron Canyon Project, California, May, 1920.
•Sacramento Flood Control Project (Revised Plans), 1925.
Report of Commission Appointed to Investigate Causes Leading to the Failure of
St. Francis Dam, 192S.
Report of the California Joint Federal-State Water Resources Commission, 1930.
Conclusions and Recommendations of the Report of the California Irrigation and
Reclamation Financing and Refinancing Commission, 1930.
•Report of California Water Resources Commission to the Governor of California on
State Water Plan, 1932.
♦Booklet of Information on California and the State Water Plan Prepared for
United States House of Representatives' Subcommittee on Appro-
priations, 1931.
•Bulletin on Great Central "Valley Project of State Water Plan of California Prepared
for United States Senate Committee on Irrigation and Reclama- m
tion, 1932. f
* Reports and Bulletins out of print. These may be borrowed by your local library from the California State
Library at Sacramento, California.
I
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