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WESTERN RJRDS

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WESTERN BIRDS

Volume 9, Number 4, 1978

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL IN CALIFORNIA,
WITH NOTES ON FIELD IDENTIFICATION

LAURENCE C. BINFORD, California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San
Francisco, California 94118

On 14January 1978 Ronald L. Branson, Benjamin D. Parmeterjohn
Parmeter and I saw a British Lesser Black-backed Gull (Lams fuscus
graellsii) on the west side of Robert’s Lake, Monterey, Monterey Co.,
California, about 0.8 km inland from the Pacific Ocean beach. This is the
westernmost record for the species in North America; the only previous
western records are from Colorado, the Texas coast and the Northwest
Territories (see Discussion).

The only race collected in North America is L. f graellsii (American
Ornithologists’ Union 1957, Jehl 1958, Mumford and Rowe 1963,
Woolfenden and Schreiber 1974), although the Northwest Territories
bird and one observed at Newburyport, Massachusetts (Finch 1976)
were thought to be nominate/M.scizs.

SIGHTING

When discovered, the Monterey bird was loafing with about 80 other
gulls on a patch of bare ground near the lake edge and about 10m from
where we sat in our van. Included in the flock and thus available for
direct comparison were adults of the California Gull (L. califomicus) ,
Western Gull (both L. occidentalis wymani and L. o. occidentalis ) and
Glaucous-winged GullfX. glaucescens) , as well as several American Coots
(Fulica americana).

We scrutinized the bird for 1 0 minutes ( 1 500- 1510), using binoculars
and a 20x spotting scope. Although clouds obscured the sun and a slight
mist was falling, the fairly bright sky, open terrain and close range
afforded good lighting. Branson obtained four good Kodachrome slides
with the aid of a 400 mm lens set at f5.6, 1/60 sec.; analysis of the foot
colors of the various ages of California Gulls demonstrates that the color
fidelity of the slides is excellent.

Western Birds 9:141-150, 1978

141

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

The Lesser Black-backed Gull spent several minutes preening but
most of the time dozed with neck retracted and eyes often partially
closed, apparently much at ease. Eventually the arrival of another car
caused the flock to rise and scatter, only a few birds returning to the
loafing area. The Lesser Black-backed flew inland, circled twice over a
nearby pond and then flapped eastward alone until out of sight. When it
took off, two of us (L.C.B., B.D.P.) obtained views of the wing pattern.
Despite an intensive search during subsequent weeks, the bird could not
be found again.

DESCRIPTION

The following description of the Monterey bird was written using only our original
field notes and microscopic examination of the four photographs (Figure 1). A copy of
this paper and the original photographs are on file with the California Bird Records
Committee. References to the Herring Gull pertain to the North American subspe-
cies, L, argentatus smithsonianus . Age and molt: adult in fresh basic (winter) plumage; no
wear noticeable on wing or tail tips; when preening, bird twice spread left wing tip,
revealing an outermost ( l Oth) primary only about half-grown; slides indicate that the
9th primary was not fully grown, its white apical spot merging in part with that of the
normally much shorter 8 th; no other molt evident. Body size: length and bulk of body
(including wings and tail) slighdy larger than in California Gull, considerably smaller
than in Western Gull, and hence very similar to those of small Herring Gull. Body
shape: perhaps slightly more elongate than in California and thus about same as in
Herring; head larger in proportion to body than in most individuals of larger gull
species (e.g. Western Gull). Forehead: dove-shaped, slightly more vertical in relation
to culmen than in California and very much less sloped than in Western. Bill size and
shape: like that of small Herring or perhaps slightly finer throughout; field observa-
tions, supported by micrometer measurements of slide images, show bill was about 4
mm longer and 2 mm higher than bills of nearby Californias; upper and lower
outlines nearly parallel as in California, but culmen very slightly recurved in middle to
produce a very slightly bulbous tip; gonydeal angle very weak; compared to adult
Western’s bill, shorter and much shallower (hence also proportionately shallower), tip
less bulbous, and gonydeal angle much less pronounced. Head streaks (do not show
clearly in photographs): head white with narrow, sharply defined, rather short,
longitudinal streaks of dark gray on crown and face, lengthening, widening and
blurringon napeand hindneck; reminiscent of those of winter adult Ring-billed Gull
(L. delawarensis) but less sharp and numerous, and spots of latter species lacking.
Underparts and tail: solid snow white, with no suggestion of darkening that would
indicate immaturity. Mantle: Dark Neutral Gray (capitalized colors from Ridgway
1912; see beyond), paler than jet black of wing tips and about same “shade” (see
beyond) as upper back (with daylight reflections) of nearby American Coots; a half-
shade darker than in nearby adultZ,. o. wymani ; a full shade darker than in nearby adult
L o. occidentalis; two shades darker than in adult Californias; no tinge of brown could
be seen; scapulars broadly tipped with white. Primaries: above and below dark gray,
distally above jet black with white apical spots; outermost (10th) crossed by a
subterminal white mirror (band) about as wide as long, well separated (by about width
of mirror) from apical white, embracing both webs, and slighdy indented both
proximally and distally along rachis; no white tongues or mirrors visible on 9th or
other primaries when tips spread in preening or flying, although we could have
missed a small white spot on the 9th; wing tips extended well beyond tail tip.
Secondaries: above dark gray like mantle, with broad white tips; below (as seen in
flight) gray, about as in adult Western or perhaps even darker, with broad white tips;

142

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

wing linings white. Bill color: yellow with a bright red, orange-tinged gonydeal spot,
near Scarlet-Red, confined to lower mandible, not reaching tip or tomium, and very
large - about twice as long as high (shape unique in my experience) and thus nearly
twice the size of a Western’s. Eye: irides very' pale yellow with a few flecks of dusky
according to our field notes, but nearly grayish- white, tinged yellowish, in slides; in
proportion to head size, eye seemed about same size as California’s and larger than
Western’s. Eyelid color: bright red, the exact shade somewhat obscured by shadow of
brow but seeming in field and slides slightly darker and less orange than gonydeal
spot and near Spectrum Red. Leg and foot color: tarsi and toes buffy-yellow, not a
pure yellow nor tinged with greenish or pinkish, close to Buff-Yellow; color unique in
my experience with gulls; web color not noted. Voice: none heard.

IDENTIFICATION

Similarity to L. fuscus graellsii. The Monterey bird was identical to a
typical winter adult L. f graellsii in all characteristics.

Witherby et al. (1941) state that graellsii ends its molt in January with
replacement of the outer primaries, the condition exhibited by the
Monterey bird. Judging from the fragmentary literature on this subject,
most other large gulls terminate their basic molt in fall, while molt in the
Kelp Gull (L. dominicanus) is at its height in January and February.

Ridgway (1912) presents a standard color scheme with which mande
colors, very important to identification, can be compared. He pictures
six shades of gray between white and black: Pallid Neutral Gray, Light
Neutral Gray, Neutral Gray, Deep Neutral Gray, Dark Neutral Gray, and
Dusky Neutral Gray. I term these “full shades.” The colors halfway
between I term “half-shades,” which are easily seen both in the field and
hand when comparisons are available. In the forms with which I am
concerned herein, individuals vary no more than a quarter-shade on
each side of the average, or a total of one half-shade. All mantle colors
mentioned herein were determined from specimens, as many literature
designations, even those using Ridgway colors, were found to be
untrustworthy.

In Figure 1 , the reader may compare the mantle of the Monterey bird,
judged to be Dark Neutral Gray, with those of adult California Gulls
(Neutral Gray), a second-year L. o. occidental is (between Neutral Gray and
Deep Neutral Gray; second-year birds are about a half-shade paler than
adults), and an American Coot (upper back Dark Neutral Gray but
appearing darker in slide). To test our visual judgment of mantle colors, I
took light meter readings of museum study skins of various species,
including the California Gull, and correlated these with Ridgway colors.
I then took readings of the slide images of Californias and the Monterey
Lesser Black-backed and calculated a “specimen value” for the latter.
This figure was the same as that for the coot’s upper back (Dark Neutral
Gray), a half-shade darker than in L. o. wymani, and a half-shade paler
than in the Slaty-backed Gull (L schistisagus) , thus closely matching our
visual impression.

143

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

Witherby (1914) gives an excellent color plate of the head of an adult
summer graellsii. Our bird matched this plate almost exactly in bill
proportions, gonydeal spot color, shape and extent, iris and eyelid
colors, and eye-head proportions. In the Monterey bird, however, the
gonydeal angle was slighdy less pronounced (more like the third-winter
bird pictured), and the ground color of the bill was much yellower, less
orange; this latter difference probably is a reflection of the more
advanced breeding condition of the pictured bird.

Barnes (1952), in discussing the great variation in winter adult leg
color in graellsii, states that many immigrants to England in late February
and March have legs of “rich ochre yellow,” a phrase that except for the
word “rich” would well describe the Monterey bird.

Elimination of similar forms. Despite the fact that the Monterey bird
seemed identical to L. f graellsii, I deemed it necessary to eliminate all
other gulls of the world, because Monterey is well outside even the
known vagrancy range of that form. This required elimination on the
subspecific level, as several races of Herring Gull are similar to the Lesser

Figure 1. Adult British Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus graellsii-, darkest- mantled
bird, left center] at Monterey, California, 14 January 1978. Also shown are a second-
winter Western Gull (L. o. occidentalis; left foreground), American Coot (Fulica
americana j and California Gulls ( L . cahfomicus\ remainder of gulls).

Photo by Ronald L Branson

144

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

Black-backed Gull. I made a thorough search of the widely scattered
literature and examined specimens in the California Academy of
Sciences, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, and some from the
National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D, C. Eugene
Eisenmann kindly provided comments based on the collection of the
American Museum of Natural History, New York, and Jon Winter
loaned photographs of the Kelp Gull

This paper treats only those forms that are likely to be confused with
graellsii or are grossly similar but might be unfamiliar to the reader. Table
1 lists the characters that distinguish the most similar forms (those with
mantles darker than Neutral Gray) from the Monterey bird (and hence
from graellsii). The less similar forms are discussed below.

Four similar species, the Kelp Gull, Great Black-backed Gull (L.
marinus), Slaty-backed Gull and Western Gull, were easily eliminated by
their characters as listed in Table 1. Thayer’s Gull (L. thayeri) differs
markedly from the Monterey bird in its dark pink legs and feet, magenta
eyelids, darker irides, much paler mantle (between Pale and Light
Neutral Gray), and white wing tips ventrallv.

The Holarctic Herring- Lesser Black-backed (argentatus-fiuscus) group,
which is much discussed but poorly understood, caused the greatest
difficulties. The prevalent school of thought (e.g.Vaurie 1965) holds that
there are only two Lesser Black-backed Gulls in the world, graellsii and
nominate/kscws, while the remaining ten or so forms are subspecies ofL.
argentatus. On the opposite end of the spectrum, some authors (e.g.
Voous 1960) believe that there are only two Herring Gulls, smithsonianus
and nominate argentatus, while all other forms are subspecies of L. fuscus.
Some authors (e.g. Stegmann 1934) consider the two species conspecific,
even though they are sympatric over parts of their ranges. Dwight ( 1 925)
takes an intermediate position, treating the “Yellow-legged Gull,”
cachinnans, as a separate species, vegae and thayeri as races ofl. argentatus,
and taimyrensis and atlantis as subspecies of L. fuscus; his monograph,
however, loses considerable usefulness because it does not deal with all
presendy recognized forms of the complex.

For the purpose of identifying the Monterey bird, I have taken the
most conservative view, that ofVaurie (1965), who recognizes two races
of the Lesser Black-backed Gull, Lf graellsii (Iceland, British Isles) andl.
f fuscus (Scandinavia, northwestern Russia), and ten subspecies of the
Herring Gull, divided into two groups. Included in the northern
circumpolar group of Herring Gulls, listed from west to east, are: a.
argentatus (Iceland, British Isles, Scandinavia, northwestern Russia;
includes argenteus and omissus); heuglini (northern Russia, northwestern
Siberia; includes antelius); taimyrensis (north-central Siberia); vegae (north-
eastern Siberia; includes birulae ); and smithsonianus (North America). The
southern group, listed from west to east, includes the following: atlantis

145

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

(Azores, Canaries); michahellis (Mediterranean); armenicus (Armenia);
cachinnans (middle East, southwestern Siberia; includes barabensis and
ponticus ); and mongolicus (Mongolia, Manchuria), The above ranges are
very incomplete; the reader may consult Vaurie (1965) for details.

Of the ten Herring Gull races, only argentatus and smithsonianus
consistently have pink legs and feet. In heuglini , atlantis, michahellis ,
cachinnans and armenicus, these parts are always some shade of yellow,
while taimyrensis, vegae and mongolicus may have either color (Vaurie 1 965).

The Herring Gull races smithsonianus, argentatus, taimyrensis , vegae ,
michahellis, armenicus, cachinnans and mongolicus were easily eliminated by
their pale mantles, which range from Pallid Neutral Gray to Neutral Gray
and thus are at least two shades paler than that of the Monterey bird.
Additional distinguishing characters are as follows: smithsonianus and
argentatus have orange eyelids and pink legs and feet; taimyrensis is said to
have orange to orange-vermilion eyelids, little or no winter head
streaking, and a larger body; vegae is larger in body bulk; michahellis is
sedentary and usually has a slighdy larger mirror on the 10th primary;
armenicus has a very small population (and may not be a valid race) and is
sedentary; cachinnans has the head streaking absent or restricted to the
hindneck and completes its basic molt in the fall; and mongolicus is
considerably larger in body and bill.

The remaining two races of Herring Gull, heuglini and atlantis, are the
forms most similar to the Lesser Black-backed Gull, but nevertheless can
be eliminated with certainty on the basis of their paler mandes and the
other distinguishing characters listed in Table 1 .

Separation of graellsii from nominate fuscus is, of course, difficult in
the field, but I believe possible in typical birds. In the latter race, the
mande is one shade darker, nearly as dark as the primary tips (Witherby
et al. 1941), and slightly tinged with brown to prod uce a shade of Fuscous
rather than Neutral Gray. Also, in fuscus the “Head and neck in winter
[are] considerably less streaked” (Witherby et al. 1941).

DISCUSSION

Every characteristic of the Monterey bird perfectly matches typical
examples of L. fuscus graellsii, and every other gull form in the world is
eliminated by two or more characters.

Despite the unusual locality, our conclusion is supported also
geographically, as none of the three most similar forms (L f fuscus, L. a.
heuglini and L. a. atlantis) has been definitely recorded in North America,
whereas graellsii has. Furthermore, the Lesser Black-backed Gull seems
to be undergoing rapid expansion in North America, although the
recent increase in records may be at least in part a function of improved
awareness and coverage on the part of observers. In recent years, L. fuscus
has been reported more frequently in Texas (Watson and Goldman

146

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

Table 1 . Characteristics of selected adult winter gulls that distinguish them from the
British Lesser Black-backed Gull ( Larus fuscus graellsii), including the one photo-
graphed atMonterey, Californiaon 14January 1978. Key: N. = Neutral; G. = Gray; g.
a. = gonydeal angle.

Lesser Black-backed Gull
L fuscus fuscus

Head streaks fewer or absent; mande one shade darker
and tinged brown (dusky Fuscous-Black [ = Dusky N.
G.]) and nearly as dark as primary tips.

Herring Gull

L argentatus heuglini

Head streaks on hindneckonly; mantle one shade paler
(Deep N. G.); basic molt ends Sep. -Oct.

L a. atlantis

Mantle 1 14 shades paler (between N. G. and Deep N.
G.); iris perhaps amber; eyelids perhaps orange;
sedentary.

Kelp Gull

L dominicanus

Forehead more sloped; bill actually and proportion-
ately higher; g. a. usually much stronger; head streaks
absent or on crown only; mantle two shades darker
and tinged brown (very dusky Fuscous-Black [ = nearly
Black]) and as dark as primary tips; gonydeal spot
rounder and extends to tomium and almost to tip; legs
and feet variable but usually with greenish tinge; basic
molt at height (old feathers worn) in Jan. -Feb.

Great Black-backed Gull
L. marinus

Body much larger; forehead more sloped; bill actually
much longer and higher and proportionately higher; g.
a. much stronger; head streaks fewer or absent; mantle
one shade darker and tinged brown (dusky Fuscous-
Black] — Dusky N. G.]); mirror on 10th primary merges
or nearly merges with white apical spot; mirror on 9th
primary large; eyelid color somewhat more orange;
legs and feet pink; basic molt ends in fall; eye smaller
relative to head.

Slaty-backed Gull
L. schistisagus

Body much larger; bill actually longer and higher and
proportionately higher; g. a. stronger; mande one half-
shade darker (between Dark and Dusky N. G.); mirror
on 10th primary larger and nearly merging with white
apical spot; usually large mirror on 9th primary; white
tongues on 8th-6th primaries; legs and feet pink to
reddish; basic molt ends in fall; eye smaller relative to
head.

147

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

Table 1 (cont)

Western Gull

L occidentalis, all races

L o. occidentalis

L o. urymani

L o. livens

Body larger; forehead more sloped; bill actually longer
and much higher and proportionately higher; g. a.
much stronger; bill tip more bulbous; gonydeal spot
smaller and rounder; basic molt ends in fall; eye
smaller relative to head.

Head streaks usually absent, or when present, wide and
not sharp; mantle one shade paler (Deep N. G.); iris
darker, richer amber-yellow; eyelids rich orangish-
yellow; legs and feet pink.

Head streaks absent; mantle one half-shade paler (be-
tween Deep and Dark N. G.); iris darker, richer amber-
yellow; eyelids rich orangish-yellow; legs and feet pink.

Head streaks absent; mantle one half-shade paler
(between Deep and Dark N. G.); iris clear, unflecked
lemon yellow; eyelids lemon yellow.

1952; Webster 1970, 1977) and Florida (Woolfenden and Schreiber
1974; Stevenson 1976); appeared once in Colorado (Denver, 11 Dec.
1976-1 Jan. 1977; Webb and Corny 1978); and has become regular
enough in the northeast (Buckley et al. 1977), middle Adantic coast (Scott
1977), and southern Adantic coast (Teulings 1976) that it no longer
merits great attention. Godfrey ( 1 966) did not list the species for Canada,
but it has since been noted in the Northwest Territories (near Albert
Edward Bay on Victoria Island, 17 July 1972; Alsop and Jones 1973),
Manitoba (5 June 1968; Ross and Cooke 1969), Quebec (David and
Gosselin 1977), and Ontario (twice) and Nova Scotia (Alsop and Jones
1973).

Currently, the Lesser Black-backed Gull is considered primarily a
winter visitor in North America; it is not known to nest closer than
Greenland. It may, however, be following the same historical pattern as
the Litde GullfZ. rninutus) and perhaps Black-headed GullfX. ridibundus ) ,
both of which invaded eastern North America, slowly then rapidly
increased in number, established breeding colonies, and are now
appearing with increased regularity on the Pacific coast (Winter and
Manolis 1978). The Lesser Black- backed invaded in the 1930s, increased
slowly at first, then rapidly in the last 1 0 years, and recently has occurred
a few times in summer. The Monterey bird may well be a forerunner of a
Pacific coast invasion.

The adult age suggests that our bird had visited Monterey in previous
years, either as a transient or winter resident. Most winter residents,
including vagrants, occur first as juveniles and then return to the same
area in subsequent winters. Such behavior in Lfuscus is demonstrated by
148

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

the Texas City Dike, Texas, bird that appeared during three consecutive
winters (Webster 1970), and the Digby, Nova Scotia, bird that has
wintered for the last 8 years (Vickery 1977). The Monterey individual
should be sought in future years, especially (in case it is a transient) in
mid-January.

The unworn plumage and absence of leg bands argue against an
escape, and I doubt there are any capdveZ. fuscus in North America. The
aspect of the bird gives no indication of hybrid origin . The combination
of body and bill size, mantle, leg, and eyelid color, and primary' pattern
rule out any geographically and/or biologically reasonable hybrid
combination. That a hybrid would be identical to graellsii is also very
unlikelv.

Identification of adult dark-mantled gulls of the world is difficult but
not impossible, given an exhaustive description made at close range and
preferably supported by color transparencies; softpart colors, head
shape and body bulk, not visible in study skins, are very useful. West
coast observers encountering an unknown dark-backed gull should note
in extreme detail as many of the following characteristics as possible:
shade of mantle compared to all nearby adult gulls, especially the
Western Gull; shapes of head and bill, including the development of the
gonydeal angle and the overall height of the bill in relation to its length;
color and shape of the gonydeal spot; color of the irides, legs, feet and
especially eyelids; width, sharpness and distribution of head streaks, and
if possible the pattern of white on the outer primaries, especially the size
and location of mirrors and the extent of white or gray tongues on the
inner webs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Ned K. Johnson for access to the collections of the Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology', Berkeley, Richard L. Zusi for carefully selecting and
loaning specimens from the National Museum of Natural History,
Washington, D. C., and Eugene Eisenmann for comments on specimens
in the American Museum of Natural History', N. Y. Robert Andrews,
Ronald L. Le Valley, Esther M. Serr, Bruce E. Webb and Glen E.
Woolfenden generously provided information on gulls, and Jon Winter
aided in specimen research. Ronald L. Branson took the photographs
and, together with Benjamin D. and John Parmeter, provided valuable
expertise and enjoyable companionship in the field.

LITERATURE CITED

Alsop, F. J., Ill and E. T. Jones. 1973. The Lesser Black-backed Gull in the Canadian

Arctic. Can. Field-Nat, 87:61-62.

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th ed.

AOU, Baltimore, MD.

149

LESSER BLACK- BACKED GULL

Barnes, J. A. G. 1952. The status of the Lesser Black-backed Gull. Brit. Birds 45:3-17.
Buckley, P, A., R. O. Paxton and D. A. Cuder. 1977. Hudson-Delaware region. Am.
Birds 31:311-316.

David, N. and M. Gosselin. 1977. Quebec region. Am. Birds 31:310-311.

Dwight, J. 1925. The gulls (Laridae) of the world; their plumages, moults, variations,
relationships and distribution. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 52:63-401.

Finch, D. W. 1976. Northeastern maritime region. Am. Birds 30:690-695.

Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The birds of Canada. Natl. Mus. Canada Bull. 203, Biol. Ser. 73.
Jehl, J. R., Jr. 1958. The Lesser Black-backed Gull in the New York City area. Auk
75:349-350.

Mumford, R. E. and W. S. Rowe. 1963. The Lesser Black-backed Gull in Indiana.
Wilson Bull. 75:93.

Ridgway, R. 1912. Color standards and color nomenclature. Publ. by the author,
Washington, D. C.

Ross, R. K. and F. Cooke. 1969. Lesser Black-backed Gull at Churchill, Manitoba. A
new bird for Canada. Can. Field-Nat. 83:399.

Scott, F. R. 1977. Middle Atlantic coast region. Am. Birds 31:316-319.

Stegmann, B. 1934. Ueber die Formen der grossen Mowen (“subgenus Lams”) und
ihre gegenseitigen Beziehungen. J. Ornithol. 82:340-380.

Stevenson, H. M. 1976. Florida region. Am. Birds 30:708-711.

Teulings, R. P. 1976. Southern Atlantic coast region. Am. Birds 30:51-54.

Vaurie, C. 1965. The birds of the Palearctic fauna, non-Passeriformes. H. F. and G.
Witherby, Ltd., London.

Vickery, P. D. 1977, Northeastern maritime region. Am. Birds 31:304-309.

Voous, K. H. 1960. Atlas of European birds. T. Nelson and Sons, Ltd., Amsterdam.
Watson, F. G. and L. C. Goldman. 1952. South Texas region, Audubon Field Notes
6:254-257.

Webb, B. E. and J. A. Corny. 1978. First record of a Lesser Black-backed Gull in
Colorado. West. Birds 9:171-173.

Webster, F. S., Jr. 1970. South Texas region. Audubon Field Notes 24:518-521.
Webster, F. S., Jr. 1977. South Texas region. Am. Birds 31:349-351.

Winter, J. and T. Manolis. 1978. Middle Pacific coast region. Am. Birds 32:394-397.
Witherby, IT. F. 1914. A student of gulls. Brit. Birds 7:306-312, color Plate 18.
Witherby, H. F., F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst and B. W. Tucker. 1941. The
handbook of British birds, Vol. 5. H. F. and G. Witherby, Ltd., London.
Woolfenden, G. E. and R. W. Schreiber. 1974. Lesser Black-backed Gull in Florida.
Florida Field Nat. 2:20-21.

Accepted 7 December 1978

150

STATUS OF THE BLACK RAIL
IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA

TIM MANOLIS, EPO Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309

The California Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicemis cotumiculus) is classified
“Rare” by the California Fish and Game Commission, but this secretive
rail’s status always has been difficult to assess. Wilbur (1974) and Gill
(1977) concluded that records of singing birds in spring and immatures
in late summer indicated probable breeding by Black Rails in the San
Francisco Bay area. Within recent years, calling Black Rails were located
in spring and summer in Solano, Napa and San Joaquin counties (Jurek
1976, Department of Fish and Game files). These findings prompted this
study, which began 25 March 1977 and concluded on 14 July 1977. Its
purpose was to clarify the status of the species in northern and central
California and attempt to identify its habitat requirements.

METHODS

Census sites were selected based on the historical distribution of
Black Rails in central California. An attempt was also made to census as
wide a variety of different marsh types as possible. Censusing involved
walking through or adjacent to suspected Black Rail habitat while
playing tape-recorded Black Rail calls in an attempt to elicit responses
from birds on territories. Calls were broadcast using a cassette tape
recorder connected to a 1 5 watt power horn. A standard census tape,
with alternating “grr” and“kic-kic-kerr” call sequences (Repking and
Ohmart 1977) separated by 1 minute pauses, was used most frequently,
particularly during the first visit to a site. Information recorded for each
sitecensused included: date, time, weather, habitat description, number
and kinds of responses and other relevant data. The locations of calling
birds were plotted on photocopies of U.S. Geological Survey topo-
graphic maps. A number of visits to representative marshes around San
Francisco Bay were made during peak high tide periods in late May and
June to view the effects of these tides on the habitat.

DISTRIBUTION

At least 32 Black Rails were heard during this survey in 1 4 localities in
the northern San Francisco Bay area and the delta of the Sacramento- San
Joaquin river system. Only one Black Rail was seen. Twenty-two of the
birds found in this area were in marshes bordering San Pablo Bay or the
river systems (Napa and Petaluma) that empty into San Pablo Bay from
the north. No Black Rails were found in marshes bordering the Pacific
Ocean, or in San Francisco Bay south of the Richmond-San Rafael
Bridge (Figure 1). Seven Black Rails were heard in a census of marshes
bordering Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County, on 14 and 15 April.

Western Birds 9:151-158, 1978 151

BLACK RAIL

The following area- by- area review of the past and present distribution
of Black Rails in northern and central California is based primarily on
the results of this study and the following sources: Wilbur (1974);
specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (MVZ), Berkeley, and

Figure 1, Locations where Black Rails were heard (numbers in solid circles) and
searched for but not found (uncircled numbers) in the San Francisco Bay area,
California, during spring and summer 1977. Broken circles indicate where birds were
heard by others in 1976 and 1977 (see text). Locations are: 1 = Kehoe Marsh;
2= Inverness; 3= Olema Marsh; 4 = San Antonio Creek mouth; 5= Black Point;
6 = Tolay Creek; 7 = Midshipman’s Pt., Tubbs 1.; 8 = north shore San Pablo Bay;
9 = South Slough; 10 = Napa Slough; 1 1 = Fly Bay; 12 = Fagan Slough; 13 = China
Slough; 14 = South Slough mouth; 15 = White Slough; 16 = Dutchman’s Slough;
17 = Southampton Bay; 18 = Cordelia (vicinity); 19 = Peytoriia Slough; 20 = Duck
Slough; 21 = Joice I.; 22 = Grizzley I.; 23 = Mallard I.; 24 = Port Chicago (vicinity);
25 = Martinez Marina; 26 = Pinole; 27 = Pinole Pt.; 28 = San Leandro Bay:
29 = Coyote Hills Regional Park; 30= Ideal Cement Marsh; 31 = Dumbarton Pt.;
32 = Mowry Slough; 33 = Albrae Slough; 34 = Triangle Marsh; 35 = Palo Alto
Baylands; 36= Greco I.; 37 = Corkscrew Slough, Bair I..

152

BLACK RAIL

the California Academy of Sciences (CAS), San Francisco; Audubon Field
Notes (AFN) and American Birds (AB); and information obtained by
Department of Fish and Game personnel and compiled in the Depart-
ment’s California Black Rail file in Sacramento (DFG.)

WESTERN MARIN COUNTY. Black Rails were frequently collected during high
flood tides in the fall and winter (September through February) in salt marshes on the
edge of Tomales Bay near Marshall and Point Reyes Station from 1897 to at least 1 940
(Wilbur 1974, MVZ, CAS), and one was observed during a high tide at the head of
the bay on 5 February 1974 (DFG). From 1965 to 1967, one pair inhabited a small,
brackish marsh near Inverness and apparently bred, as chicks were reported seen
one summer (AFN 21:73, 1967; Gerald Brady pers. comm.). Salt marshes around
Tomales Bay, not checked in this study, may yet harbor nesting Black Rails. Black
Rails have been found at Kehoe Marsh and Olema Marsh between October and Feb-
ruary and have been heard calling at Olema Marsh in April and May in recent years
(AB 29:903, 1975;DFG). In this study, one was calling at the upper end of Olema
Marsh on 5 April 1977, and it is possible that they breed at this location. A Black Rail
collected at Elk Valley on 13 March 1945 (MVZ) was probably a migrant or non-
breeding wanderer.

PETALUMA RIVER MARSHES. No records from these marshes existed prior to
this study. Six birds were heard at the mouth of San Antonio Creek, Marin and
Sonoma counties on 4 May 1977, indicating that a potentially large, previously
unsuspected population inhabits these marshes.

NAPA RIVER MARSHES. There appear to be no records for these marshes prior
to 1976;two responded to taped calls near Fagan Slough, Napa County, on 14 July of
that year (DFG). In this study, Black Rails responded to taped calls at five locations in
the Napa Marshes: a minimum of three birds along Tolay Creek, Sonoma County;
one along Napa Slough, Napa County; one along South Slough and two to three along
the Napa River at the mouth of South Slough, Solano County; and one at the mouth of
White Slough, Solano County. A substantial breeding population is indicated.

SAN PABLO BAY MARSHES. Prior to the 1970s, there seem to have been no
records of Black Rails around this bay. Five were seen at the mouth of Gallinas Creek,
Marin County, on 11 December 1973; onewas seen thereon 7january 1974, and one
was seen at Pinole, Contra Costa County, on 19 November 1975 (DFG). An
abandoned nest, reportedly of this species, was found at Pinole in fall 1976 (AB
31:1184, 1977). A single bird was seen or heard at Midshipman’s Point, Tubbs Island,
Sonoma County, on 14 and 26 February, 21 July and 10 September 1977 (Gail Scott
and Jack Arnold pers. comm.); two birds were found there 19 May 1978 (AB 32:1050,
1978); and a calling bird was at Black Point, Marin County, on 24 May 1977 (Robert M.
Stewart pers. comm.). During this study, at least three singing birds were heard in a
marsh at Pinole, Contra Costa County; a single bird was heard at Pinole Point, Contra
Costa County; and at least three birds were heard in a section of the extensive marsh
bordering the northeast shore of San Pablo Bay in Solano County. Much of the
remaining marsh fringing San Pablo Bay appears suitable for Black Rails.

SOUTHAMPTON BAY MARSH. Two were observed in this marsh on 2 April
1958 (AFN 12:383, 1958) and there have been numerous sightings during high win-
ter tides since 1973 (AB regional files, DFG). One was heard in the marsh on 22 May
1975 (Roberson 1975) and single calling birds were heard on 2 and 26 June 1976
(DFG). During frequent censusing in summer 1977, as many as three birds were call-
ing at one time, and four pairs were estimated present (Frank Beyer pers. comm,). One
found in nearby Benicia, Solano County, on 1 8 July 1941 (Stoner 1 945) was probably a
migrant or post-breeding wanderer.

153

BLACK RAIL

SUISUN MARSHES and NORTHERN CONTRA COSTA COUNTY. Black Rails
were collected in the Suisun Marshes, Solano County, on 11 September 1913, 19
October 1910 and 15 January 1911 (MVZ). Individuals were reported seen on 13
December 1975 and 29 December 1976 near Cutoff Slough, and 28 December 1974
near Suisun Slough, both in Solano County {fide Frank Beyer pers. comm,). In Contra
Costa County there is an old winter record for Martinez (Grinnell and Wythe 1927)
and there are recent {1975-76) winter sightings, probably valid, near Port Chicago
(DFG). During this survey, one Black Rail was heard at Pevtonia Slough, Solano
County, on 5 July 1977 and two or three birds were heard and one was seen on
Mallard Island, Contra Costa County, on 2 July 1977. An immature Black Rail was
found dead near Peytonia Slough on 1 1 August 1977 (DFG). Three calling Black Rails
were in a marsh bordering the Big Break near Oakley, Contra Costa County, on 18
May 1978 (AB 32:1050, 1978). Black Rails apparently breed in the limited suitable
habitat remaining in this area.

SAN FRANCISCO BAY. Black Rails were frequently collected in fall and winter
(October through February) at Alameda, Bay Farm Island and Newark, Alameda
County; Alviso and Palo Alto, Santa Clara County; and Redwood City, San Mateo
County, between 1 892 and 1913 (Wilbur 1 97 4, CAS, MVZ). Sight records in the years
since have been in approximately the same areas in the same months (AB regional
files, DFG). There is one definite specimen (CAS 208), and another possibly
mislabeled (bearing two conflicting specimen labels, CAS 207 and 12938), for Palo
Alto on 24 May 1930. One was seen along Belmont Slough, San Mateo County, in
August 1972 (Barry Sauppe pers. comm.) and another was seen on 7 August 1958 at
Dumbarton Point, Alameda County (AB regional files). Wheelock (1916) claimed,
without presenting evidence, that Black Rails nested at Alviso. A nest with eggs
collected near Newark in 1911 is the first proof of nesting by Black Rails in northern
California (Kiff 1978). Black Rails were not found in marshes around San Francisco
Bay proper during this study, and the lack of suitable habitat (high marsh) indicates
that they may no longer nest around this bay. There are two specimens from north San
Francisco Bay, both in Marin County: one found dead near Manzanitaon 1 1 August
1929 (MVZ) and one from Kentfield on 8 February' 1932 (CAS). High marsh habitat in
this area has been reduced greatly since the time of these records.

Of 12 records of Black Rails away from tidal marshes in the San Francisco Bay
region, 6 are from San Francisco, 2 are from upland sites in Alameda County and 4 are
from the Farallon Islands (Wilbur 1974, CAS and MVZ). Six of the mainland records
are for the period August through October and suggest migration or post-breeding
wandering.

CENTRAL VALLEY. Belding (1879) vaguely recollected possibly collecting a
Black Rail near Stockton, San Joaquin County, in the mid 19th century. One was
found dead near there on 26 August 1959 (Arnold 1960). Department of Fish and
Game personnel discovered Black Rails calling in summer 1 97 4 in a marsh near Lodi,
San Joaquin County, and three were heard there during this study. Although suitable
habitat is fairly limited there now, Black Rails should be expected elsewhere in the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta where high, tidal marsh occurs. One other definite
record exists for the Central Valley; a bird, most likely a. vagrant, was found dead at
Gray Lodge Wildlife Management Area, Butte County, in March 1962 (AFN 23:516,
1969). Sightings have been reported from Colusa (AB regional files) and Yolo
(Kimball 1974) counties, but breeding season surveys at Sacramento National Wildlife
Refuge, Glenn County, at Gray Lodge, and at Los Banos Wildlife Area, Merced
County, have yielded negative results in recent years (DFG).

MONTEREY BAY. Black Rails were collected at Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz County,
on 19 July 1930 and 25 August 1941 (MVZ), and one was found dead there in Sep-
tember 1903 (Emerson 1904). One was found dead in Pacific Grove, Monterey

154

BLACK RAIL

County, on 29 September 1967 (Vernal Yadon pers. comm.)- These are probably
records of post-breeding wanderers or migrants.

MORRO BAY. A Black Rail was collected in Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County,
on22April 1961 (AFN 15:439, 1961); one was found dead thereon 18 December 1972
(Aryan Roest pers. comm.); and singles were seen there 30 November 1968 (AFN
23:107, 1969) and 2January 1969 (AFN 23:521, 1969). Seven Black Rails were heard in
marshes around Morro Bay during this study, and the evidence points to a resident
population.

HABITAT

Grinnell and Miller (1944) described the habitat preferred by Black
Rails as “chiefly tidal salt marshes, where associated characteristically
with heavy growths of pickleweed fSa/fcorata). But also occurs in brackish
and freshwater marshes . . .” This study confirmed their description.
Thirty-seven of the 39 Black Rails found were in marshes dominated by
either Salicomia virginica or bulrush (Scirpus spp.}, and 7 of the 13 birds in
S«r/>w5-dominated marshes were in or near parts of the marsh where
Salicomia virginica was present and fairly abundant. The types of Scirpus
frequented by Black Rails are low-growing forms (e.g., S. americanus at the
Big Break, Contra Costa County; David Gaines pers. comm.) found in
the higher parts of marshes. The bird at Peytonia Slough was in an area
where matted salt grass (Distichlis spicata) merged with a stand of cattails
(Typha sp.) and Scirpus , and the bird in Olema Marsh was calling from a
stand of Typha. The frequent association of Black Rails with pickleweed is
probably a reflection of their preference for high marshes, but the
importance of pickleweed, and possibly salt grass, as sources of nesting
materials and substrates remains to be examined.

Except for the bird at Olema Marsh, all Black Rails found in this study
were in tidal marshes. Areas within these marshes where Black Rails were
heard are near the upper limits of tidal flooding. No Black Rails re-
sponded in salt or brackish marshes that are no longer under tidal
influence (e.g., Figure 1: sites 18, 20, 21 in part, 22, 29), or in low marshes
that are dominated by Scirpus spp. (sites 11, 21 in part, 34) or Salicomia
virginica and/or Spartina foliosa (sites 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37) but are
frequently covered by high tides.

Post and Enders (1969) hypothesized that Black Rails find tidal
marshes more attractive than diked marshes with similar vegetation
possibly because of higher food resource levels in tidal marshes. Little is
known about Black Rail food habits (Wilbur 1974) but apparently they
feed on arthropods (Huey 1916). The variety and abundance of arthro-
pods in a marsh are probably affected considerably by the frequency and
magnitude of water level fluctuations in the marsh. Black Rails found in
this study were often in the immediate vicinity of tidal sloughs, indicating
a concentration of activity in this part of the marsh. These sloughs teem
with invertebrates, a feature noticeably lacking in diked marshes.

155

BLACK RAIL

In a survey of marshes along the lower Colorado River, Repking and
Ohmart (1977) found a definite relationship, similar to that observed in
this study, between Black Rail distribution and marsh elevation. They
found Black Rails in high, shallow water marshes with little annual
and/or daily fluctuations in water level, but not in low, deep water
narshes or marshes with considerable fluctuations in water level.
Ingersoll (1909), Huey (1916) and Stephens (1919) found evidence of
profound effects by high tides on Black Rail populations, andGrinnell
and Miller (1944) felt that the “most important hazards to existence [of
Black Rails] on salt marshes appear to be extra high tides.”

The fact that Black Rails were not found around San Francisco Bay
proper in this study may reflect the lack of high marsh habitat around
this bay. Many areas of salt marsh in south San Francisco Bay have sub-
sided in the past quarter-century because of human removal of ground
water (Conradson 1966) and large tracts of low-lying marsh in this area
abut abruptly against salt pond dikes and other human-made structures,
instead of gradually merging into upland habitats as they formerly did.
Nearly all the remaining salt marsh in the south bay is completely
covered by peak high tides, and often extensively flooded by even
moderately high tides ifide San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge
personnel, pers. obs.). Similarly, in areas such as the Suisun Marshes and
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, where dikes have reclaimed much
tidal marshland and left only narrow borders of deep water tidal marsh,
Black Rails were probably much more common in the past than at
present. Suitable high marsh vegetation for nesting, then, appears to be
the most limiting factor in determining the current distribution of
breeding Black Rails in the San Francisco Bay area.

This study was conducted during a severe drought in northern Cali-
fornia. A major effect of the drought was an increase in salinity levels
throughout the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and San Francisco Bay
area. The salinity of marshes in which Black Rails were heard was not
measured, but it no doubt varied considerably from very low (Olema
Marsh and the marsh near Lodi) to rather high (San Pablo Bay) levels.
Salinity did not appear to be a factor affecting the distribution of Black
Rails in the area.

This survey found Black Rails in a number of marshes in the San
Francisco Bay area, but many bay marshes that may have summer
populations of Black Rails have yet to be checked for this species. Effec-
tive management programs to preserve suitable nesting habitat for
California Black Rails require more survey work and a better under-
standing of the interrelationships between this species and other
elements, living and non-living, of the marsh ecosystem.

156

BLACK RAIL

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
through the Endangered Wildlife Program, Nongame Wildlife Investi-
gations, California Department of Fish and Game. Ron Jurek provided
the groundwork and assisted in programming the study; Charles
Repking provided the taped calls used; and Laurence Binford, Frank
Beyer, Jack Booth, Jerry Cawthon, Dick Erickson, Kent Fickett, Don
Grider, Susanne Luther, Jim Michaels, Cathy Osugi, Bob Personius,
Aryan Roest, Glen Rollins and R. M. Wineman were of indispensable
help. Jeanne Corny' and Alan Craig provided helpful comments on
drafts of this paper. My special thanks to those I failed to mention but
w r ho helped in anyway, and to Howard Leach, California Fish and Game
Nongame Wildlife Investigations, for allowing me to work on such an
enjoyable project.

LITERATURE CITED

Arnold, J. R. 1960. Black Rail in San Joaquin Valley of California. Condor 62:405.
Belding, L. 1 879. A partial list of the birds of central California. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus.
1:388-449.

Conradson, D. R. 1966. Exploring our baylands. The Palo Alto Chamber of
Commerce, Palo Alto. 60 pp.

Emerson, W. O. 1904. Destruction of birds by wires. Condor 6:37-38.

Gill, R. Jr. 1977. Breeding avifauna of the South San Francisco Bay estuary. West.
Birds 8:1-12.

Grinnell, J. and M. W. Wythe. 1927. Directory of the bird-life of the San Francisco Bav
region. Pac. Coast Avif. 18.

Grinnell, J. and A. H. Miller. 1944. The distribution of the birds of California. Pac.
Coast Avif. 27.

Huey, L. M. 1916, The Farallon rails of San Diego County. Condor 18:58-62.
Ingersoll, A. M. 1909. The only known breeding ground of Creciscus coturmculus.
Condor 11:123-127.

Jurek, R. M. 1976. California Black Rail survey. Proj. No. W-54-R-8, Job 1-1.3. Job
Progress Report. California Dept. Fish and Game, Nongame Wildl. Invest. 3 pp.
Kiff, L. 1978. Probable Black Rail nesting record for Alameda County, California.
West. Birds 9:169-170.

Kimball, B. 1974. Seasonal observations. Observer 24:40.

Post, W. and F. Enders. 1969. Reappearance of the Black Rail on Long Island.
Kingbird 19:189-191.

Repking, C. F. and R. D. Ohmart. 1977. Distribution and density of Black Rail
populations along the lower Colorado River. Condor 79:486-489.

Roberson, D. 1975. May and June observations. Gull 57:88.

Stephens, F. 1919. Random notes. Condor 21:123-124,

Stoner, E. A. 1945. The Black Rail at Benicia, California. Condor 47:81.

Wheelock, I. G. 1916. Birds of California. A. C. McClurg and Co., Chicago.
Wilbur, S. R. 1974. The literature of the California Black Rail. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv.
Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 179. 17 pp.

Accepted 25 October 1978

157

Sketch by Tim Manoiis

158

THE STATUS OF THE NORTHERN SHRIKE
IN NEW MEXICO

JOHN P. HUBBARD, 2016 Valle Rio, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501

The Northern Shrike (Lanius excubitor) reaches the southern limits of
its regular North American winter range in New Mexico, where it was
first reported in November 1 846 (Bailey 1928). Although such authors as
Bailey (1928) and Ligon (1961) have discussed the species in a general
way, no detailed study of its status in that state has ever been done. The
present paper presents an analysis of the frequency and season of
occurrence, numbers, distribution, habitat selection, age/sex ratios and
subspecific allocation of the Northern Shrike in New Mexico.

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

To date, records of the Northern Shrike in New Mexico span 131
winters, from that of 1846-47 through 1977-78. Over this period, this
species has been recorded in only 30 (22.996) of the winters in question
(Table 1). This is an average of once every 4.5 winters, with the actual gap
between records being 0 to 35 winters. On the basis of 10 year
increments, starting in 1846-47, this averages about two winters of
occurrence per decade, with the range from zero to nine (Table 2).

There have been no more than four reported winters of occurrence of
Northern Shrike in New Mexico in any decade except the most recent
one. In that exceptional period, i.e. 1966-67 through 1975-76, there
were records in all but one of the 10 years, the exception being 1973-74.
In fact, 1973-74 is the only winter over the last 1 2, i.e. 1966-67 through
1977-78, in which no Northern Shrikes were reported in the state.
Contrasted to earlier decades, the most recent decade has seen the
known status of the Northern Shrike change from an “occasional” to a
“regular” winter visitant, to use the terminology of Hubbard (1978).

The apparent increase in the frequency of occurrence of the Northern
Shrike in New Mexico could be an artifact to some degree. There are now
more field-trained observers operating in the state than there were
through the mid-20th century, and there are also more outlets for
publishing sight records. However, the increase in frequency over the
last decade contrasts sharply with the immediately preceding decade,
1956-57 through 1965-66, which had no paucity of observers and
publication outlets, yet few shrikes were reported. In comparing these
two decades, it would appear that the difference in the reported
frequency of occurrence in this species is real and not an artifact. In

Western Birds 9:159-168, 1978 159

NORTHERN SHRIKE

Table 1. Winters

of reported

occurrences

of Northern

Shrikes in New Mexico.

Number

of Interval 1

Interval

Winter

records

(years)

Winter

records

(years)

1846-47

1933-40

1882-83

1950-51

1883-84

1951-52

1884-85

1956-57

1893-94

1966-67

1899-1900

1967-68

1901-02

1968-69

1902-03

1969-70

1903-04

1970-71

1913-14

1971-72

1915-16

1972-73

1917-18

1974-75

1918-19

1975-76

1922-23

1976-77

1938-39

1977-78

defers to number of years that elapsed between winters of reported occurrence.

previous decades, the numbers of observers and publication outlets
were definitely smaller than since the mid- 1 950s, and the validity of the
number of shrikes reported as an indicator of actual frequency of
occurrence is accordingly less.

The status of the Northern Shrike as a regular winter visitant to New
Mexico dates from the mid-1960s, whereas the period of occasional
occurrence dates back through at least the mid- 1940s. Occurrence may
also have been more frequent around the turn of the century, as shrikes
were recorded in four winters between 1896-97 and 1 905-06. This spate
of records was followed by a decrease in reports at least through the teens
and 20s, years marked by significant ornithological activity in the state by
members of the U. S. Biological Survey,

SEASON OF OCCURRENCE

Reports of Northern Shrikes in New Mexico all fall within the 6 month
period from October through March (Table 3). The peak month for
records is December, which encompasses about a third of all reports.
This is to be expected, as National Audubon Society Christmas Bird
Counts take many observers into the field at this time of the year.

160

NORTHERN SHRIKE

Table 2. Number of winters of reported occurrence of Northern Shrikes in New
Mexico, by decade.

Decade (winter through winter)
1846-47 through 1855-56
1856-57 through 1865-66
1866-67 through 1875-76
1876-77 through 1885-86
1886-87 through 1895-96
1896-97 through 1905-06
1906-07 through 1915-16
1916-17 through 1925-26
1926-27 through 1935-36
1936-37 through 1945-46
1946-47 through 1955-56
1956-57 through 1965-66
1966-67 through 1975-76
1976-77 and 1977-78

Number of winters
occurrence reported
1
0
0
1
1
4
2
3
0
2
2
1
9
2

November and February' yield only about half as many reports as
December, but whether a scarcity of bird observers accounts for this is
unknown. Only 3.1% of the reports are from October and 7.0% from
March; these are the extreme months in the period of occurrence of
Northern Shrikes in New Mexico. The latter figures almost certainly
reflect a genuine scarcity of Northern Shrikes in the state during these
months, although neither is a period of particularly high activity for
observers. The earliest autumn record is 14 October 1977 (Chaves
County) and the latest is 22 March 1 978 (Mora County); records verified
by specimens or photographs are from 23 October 1913 (Colfax County)
to 2 March 1969 (Bernalillo County). (See Figure 1 for locations of
counties.)

Table 3. Reported occurrences by month of Northern Shrikes in New Mexico.

Month

Number of records

October 4

November 21

December 44

January 31

February 20

March 9

Total 129

161

NORTHERN SHRIKE

NUMBERS

Numbers of Northern Shrikes recorded in New Mexico per winter are
shown in Table 1 ; in most winters the species occurs in very low densities
in the state with seldom more than 5 or 6 birds reported in any year.
Notable exceptions to this trend are apparent for the winters of 1976-77
(26 records) and 1977-78 (49 records). During these two winters,
Northern Shrikes were numerous enough to be termed locally common
in some areas. For example, in 1976-77 there were 8 records from Rio
Arriba County, and in 1977-78 there were 14 from San Juan, 7 from
Valencia and 5 each from Sandoval and Socorro counties.

/ " ! r~ f

San J U on i Rio ARRfoa ( J |

o I ' 14 (Taos f Colfax • Union

21 j 1 j 2 3

' Los 7 ! , J

I t Alamos \ ,) Mona \

3 j

4 p

8 |san- 1 San Miguel
Sandoual I fa I

: _ ; lo

\BeRnaliT"l he I \

— 1

I "IbctRance

K. r-^

i Oteno 1

Chaoes 8

I | 1

D* i

50 miles

Figure 1. Counties of New Mexico, showing numbers of reported occurrences of
Northern Shrikes (Lanius excubitor) in each (dark line separates northern from southern
half of the state}. A=Silver City, B= Las Cruces, C=Las Cruces and D=Loving,

162

NORTHERN SHRIKE

Table 4. Numbers of shrikes recorded from October through March in the northern
half of New Mexico in roadside counts.

1974-75

1975-76

1976-77

1977-78

Total

NORTHERN SHRIKE
Number seen

Number/100 miles

.01

0.2

0.3

0.1

Miles per shrike

6895

4971 +

558

309

685

LOGGERHEAD
SHRIKE
Number seen

127

Number/ 100 miles

0.8

0.3

0.4

0.5

Miles per shrike

125

355

312

234

216

SHRIKE spp. 1
Number seen

139

Number/ 100 miles

0.7

0.3

0.4

0.5

Miles per shrike

133

134

355

276

183

Total miles,
roadside counts

6895

4971

7807

7731

27,404

’The vast majority of these were certainly Loggerheads.

Another way of looking at numbers of Northern Shrikes recorded in
New Mexico is from roadside counts compiled by the New Mexico
Department of Game and Fish (Table 4). In the northern half of the state
(see Figure 1 ) between October and March, a total of 40 Northern Shrikes
was counted in 27,404 miles from 1974-75 through 1977-78. This is
about 0. 1 shrike per 100 miles, or one shrike per 685 miles. Loggerhead
Shrikes averaged about 0.5 per 100 miles, or one per 216 miles.
Unidentified shrikes (almost certainly dominantly Loggerheads which
were too poorly seen to identify to species) averaged about 0.5 per 100
miles, or one per 183 miles. These figures show that Northern Shrikes
were identified only about 20% as often as Loggerheads, and if most
unidentified shrikes were of the latter species, then Northerns were even
rarer, i.e. less than 10% as frequent. In two winters (1974-75 and 1975-
76), Loggerheads out-numbered Northerns 69:1 among identified
shrikes, whereas in the two most recent winters the disparity decreased to
1.5:1.

DISTRIBUTION

It is obvious, and not unexpected, that the bulk of the records of
Northern Shrikes in New Mexico are from the northern half of the state
(Figure 1). Of the 129 records, 100 (76.9%) are from the north; an
additional 25 records are from the next more southerly quarter of the

163

NORTHERN SHRIKE

state, whereas only 4 are from the southernmost quarter. In general the
records are concentrated in the northwestern quadrant, but coverage in
the northeast has not been extensive, especially in the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains where the birds are more likely to occur. Southward,
Northern Shrikes occur most regularly to the Mogollon Plateau (e.g.
Catron County) and along the Rio Grande and Pecos valleys, southward
to the respective vicinities of Socorro and Roswell. Single records farther
south are from the areas of Silver City, Grant County; Las Cruces, Dona
Ana County; Tularosa, Otero County; and Carlsbad, Eddy County. All
but the last of these records are verified by photographs or specimens.

HABITAT SELECTION

Where habitat data are available for occurrences of Northern Shrikes,
there is a frequent association of this species with rather open wooded
habitats. Most frequent are pinyon-juniper and lowland riparian
woodlands, with occasional occurrences in open Ponderosa Pine (Pinus
ponderosa) stands. Occasional birds have been noted in grasslands and
low shrublands, but such occurrences appear to be infrequent. These
shrikes tend to perch relatively high, including in the tops of trees and on
utility lines. Very little study of habits, prey and other aspects of the
biology has been done in New Mexico, but the data to date agree
generally with observations from farther north.

AGE/SEX RATIOS

Among the 1 29 records of Northern Shrike from New Mexico, 80 are
of birds that were aged by the observer or are ageable. Of these, 49
(61.296) are classed as adult, versus 31 (38.8%) that are classed as
immatures. Twenty- four of these records are based on specimens, which
show a 50:50 ratio. Possibly this is somewhat biased, in that the more
distinctive immature may be somewhat more often identified and taken
by collectors. The age ratio for all records from 1946-47 through 1976-77
shows an adult dominance of 54.8%, whereas in 1977-78 it was 68.4%.
The latter figure suggests that in the exceptional winter of 1977-78, a
greater than normal incursion of adults occurred into New Mexico.

The sex ratio in a sample of 21 specimens examined by me is 66.7%
female. If adults and immatures are segregated, the ratio is 70.096 in the
former (n=10) and 63.6% in the latter (n=ll). This is an interesting
preponderance of females, and it parallels a random sample of Northern
Shrikes taken in Michigan. In the latter, 6 of 9 (66.7%) are females;
conversely, in a random sample from Idaho, 7 of 10 (70.0%) are males.
These data may indicate that females tend to winter more frequendy at
the periphery of the regular winter range (e.g. New Mexico and
Michigan), whereas males may predominate farther north (e.g. Idaho).

164

NORTHERN SHRIKE

SUBSPECIFIC ALLOCATION

Two races of Northern Shrike have been recognized in North
America: L. e. invictus breeds in the western part of the continent, from
Alaska east to Manitoba; and/,. e. borealis breeds in the eastern part, from
Ontario to Labrador (AOU 1957), Winter ranges of these two forms
retain this orientation, with overlap occurring in the area between the
Great Lakes and the Upper Great Plains. Intergradation between
breeding invictus and borealis is thought (Miller 193 1) to occur along the
western side of Hudson Bay, with this population moving southward to
winter in the overlap zone indicated above.

Based on the above information, one might expect both races and
their intergrades to occur in the general vicinity of the Great Plains,
including in New Mexico. Recent literature, in fact, suggests that such is
the case, as borealis is listed from Oklahoma (Sutton 1967), invictus from
Colorado (Bailey and Niedrach 1967) and Texas (Oberholser 1974), and
both races in Kansas (Johnston 1 965). In order to examine the question
of populational occurrence in New Mexico, I carried out an analysis of
the available material of Lanius excubitor from there.

Geographic variation in the Northern Shrike in North America seems
to have been treated in detail only by Miller (1931), who characterized
birds from western populations (invictus) as being paler and larger than
eastern ones (borealis) and in having more white in the tail and
superciliary. Miller was hampered in his assessment by small sample
sizes, with only 25 adults and 104 immatures available to assess a species
that breeds from Alaska to Labrador! In view of this paucity of material,
any attempt to use Miller’s findings to assess subspecies occurrence in
New Mexico will obviously be tentative and subject to future clarifica-
tion. Furthermore, as indicated below, certain characters by which these
races are said to differ are too poorly understood or are too inconsistent
to be used for this purpose; therefore, I have not used them in deciding
which names to place on New Mexican material.

To assess supposed differences between the two races, I assembled a
series of probable invictus (7 adults, 3 immatures) from Idaho and one of
probable borealis (5 adults, 4 immatures) from Michigan. These two series
differed consistently in that adults and immatures of invictus are dorsally
paler than borealis, with the latter group often buffier (less grayish brown)
above than their counterparts. Given this assessment, I then compared
the available 12 adult and 10 immature specimens from New Mexico
with the appropriate age groups in the two series. The New Mexico
specimens agreed consistendy with invictus from Idaho, being dorsally
pale in adults and pale and/or buffy in immatures. There were several
specimens that were slightly darker than the Idaho birds, these being an
adult from Mora County and single immatures from McKinley and
Valencia counties. Such specimens could be intergrades of invictus with

165

NORTHERN SHRIKE

borealis , but more likely they represent individual variants within the
former; none shows any other sign of borealis influence. Several birds in a
series from San Miguel County are also somewhat dark, but these
specimens are soiled, and as a result they cannot be accurately assessed.

Miller’s (1931) conclusions that invictus averages longer in wing and
tail and has more white in the tail than borealis are borne out by his data,
but the differences are generally small. Thus, in average wing length
invictus ranges from 0.5 to 4.3 mm greater and in tail length from 1.7 to

4.4 mm greater than borealis. Given that the standard deviations range up
to 2. 1 mm in wing length and 2.8 mm in tail length, it is doubtful that the
differences between the two races are significant. In regard to the
amount of white in the tail, which Miller calculated as the ratio between
tail length and linear extent of white on the inner web of the outer
rectrices, the differences range from 4.4 to 9.7 greater in invictus. Again,
these differences are probably not significant, as standard deviations
range up to 5.5. In addition, I have already mentioned that sample
sizes - especially of adults - used in compiling these data were very
small, and both an increase in the number and the areal distribution of
specimens would be apt to undermine differences even further.

The Idaho and Michigan specimens that I assembled show mixed
results when compared to Miller’s (1931) measurements, at least in
rergardsto wing length. Six of the 10 Idaho specimens are larger than any
of his measurements of borealis, while the remaining four fall in the range
of overlap; thus, this sample is 60.0% assignable to invictus in this
character. Three of the nine Michigan specimens are smaller than
Miller’s invictus, but the remaining six are in the range of overlap; thus,
this sample is 33.3% assignable to borealis. Of the 21 sexed specimens
from New Mexico, fully 1 4 fall in the range of overlap; of the remainder,
5 are in the exclusive class of large invictus and two in that of small borealis .
The latter two are both adult males (one each from San Juan and
Bernalillo counties) that otherwise agree in their pallor with invictus, and
this is the name that I would apply to them. From this discussion, I
conclude that wing length is not a conclusive means of distinguishing
invictus and borealis.

I am unable to duplicate Miller’s (1931) measurements for tail length,
inasmuch as I obtain consistently smaller values for any age, sex or
subspecies group than he did. For example, Miller’s mean for adult male
(n=l 1) invictus is 117.6 mm, versus mine of 1 10.7 (n=6) for that race from
Idaho; also, his value for adult female borealis is 1 1 1.3 (n=6), while mine is

106.4 (n=4). Under the circumstances, I do not believe that our data are
comparable and thus should not be compared. In addition, our
measurements of the amount of white in the tails of specimens cannot be
compared directly, as Miller’s values are computed as a ratio with tail
length. Thus, because of this disparity in data and because my samples of

166

NORTHERN SHRIKE

probable invictus and borealis specimens are small, I cannot carry through
on any comparisons of tail length and “tail white” in assigning the New
Mexico material to race. However, I suspect that were the data available
assignment on these characters would be as unsatisfactory as that based
on wing length.

To summarize, specimens of Northern Shrike from New Mexico
agree closely with presumed invictus from Idaho in the pallor of the
upperparts of all age classes, as well as in the buffy dorsum of immatures.
Therefore, I assign New Mexico birds to this race, which breeds from
Alaska eastward to Manitoba and winters in western North America.

SUMMARY

The Northern Shrike was first recorded in New Mexico in the winter
of 1846-47 and has been recorded in 30 different winters beginning at
that time. Until recently, the species appears to have been mainly an
occasional winter visitant to the state, but since 1966-67 it has become
essentially regular there. The period of occurrence is from 14 October
through 22 March, with most records from December - associated with
Christmas Bird Counts. Except for the winters of 1976-77 and 1977-78,
when the species was locally numerous, it has been a low density visitor
to New Mexico, as indicated bv the total of 129 individuals recorded in
1 3 1 winters. Most records for the state are in the northern half, with only
four from the southernmost quarter. Adults equal or slightly outnumber
immatures, except that in 1977-78 they comprised about two-thirds of
the birds observed. Females outnumber males by that same ratio. The
race occurring in New Mexico is Lanius excubitor invictus, distinguished by
being paler than/,. e. borealis \ mensural characters supposedly separating
these races overlap and may not be definitive.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank curatorial staffs at the following institutions for the
loan of material: Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University;
Museum of Southwest Biolog} 7 , University of New Mexico; Museum of
Zoology, University of Michigan; and United States National Museum of
Natural History. I also appreciate reviews of various drafts of this paper
by Lawrence Binford, Allan R. Phillips and Dale A. Zimmerman; Greg
Schmitt and Claudia Hubbard also helped in ways for which I am
grateful.

LITERATURE CITED

American Ornighologists’ Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th ed.

Am. Ornithol. Union, Baltimore, Maryland.

Bailey, F. M. 1 928. Birds of New Mexico. New Mexico Dept. Game and Fish, Santa Fe.

167

NORTHERN SHRIKE

Bailey, A. M, and R. J. Niedrach, 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver
Mus. Nat. Hist., Denver.

Hubbard, J. P. 1978. Revised check-list of the birds of New Mexico. New Mexico
Ornithol. Soc. Publ. No. 6.

Johnston, R. E. 1965. A directory to the birds of Kansas. Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist.
Misc. Publ. 41.

Ligon,J. S. 1961. New Mexico birds and where to find them. Univ. New Mexico Press,
Albuquerque.

Miller, A. H. 1931. Systematic revision and natural history of the American shrikes
(Lanius). Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 38:11-242.

Oberholser, H. C. 1974. The bird life of Texas. Univ. Texas Press, Austin.

Sutton, G. M. 1967. Oklahoma birds. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Accepted 4 September 1978

dAr;k

Sketch by Narca Moore

168

NOTES

PROBABLE BLACK RAIL NESTING RECORD
FOR ALAMEDA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA

LLOYD F. KIFF, Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, 1 100 Glendon Avenue,
Los Angeles, California 90024

Despite numerous occurrences of the Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicensis) in central
coastal California, there is still no documented nesting record for the species in the
State north of Ventura County (Wilbur 1974). Because nearly all historical records of
Black Rails in central California have been in fall or winter months, certain authorities
(Bent 1926, AOU 1957) have stated or implied that the species winters north of its
breeding range.

The large egg collection of the late Henry A. Snow, formerly housed at the Snow
Museum in Oakland, was transferred to the Western Foundation of Vertebrate
Zoology by the Oakland Museum in 1976. While recendy curating this collection, I
found a set of eggs taken by Snow on 10 April 1911 at Newark, Alameda Co.,
California. Snow identified the eggs as belonging to the “Little Yellow Rail.” The data
slip accompanying the set also bears the AOU number, 215, of the Yellow Rail
( Cotumicops noveboracensis ) .

Snow noted on the data slip that the species identity was “Certain,” but this was a
routine designation by many collectors of the period, regardless of the method of
identification (Storer 1930). On the basis of their appearance and on grounds of
geographical probability, I have concluded that Snow’s “Yellow Rail” eggs are actually
those of a Black Rail.

Figure 1. Eggs taken by Snow at Newark, Alameda Co., California on 10 April 1911
(middle row) compared with eggs of the Black Rail (above) and the Yellow Rail (below).
Scale is in centimeters.

Western Birds 9:169-170, 1978

Photo by Sam Sumida

169

NOTES

There were originally eight eggs in the set, but incubation was so advanced that the
collector was able to prepare only four of them . The remaini ng eggs are white with tiny
spots of reddish brown and medium brown liberally sprinkled over their entire
surfaces, but slighdy concentrated at the larger ends. They are ovate and slightly
glossy. One egg is cracked, and two are heavily nest stained. The eggs measure 25.53 x
19. 10, 24. 39x18. 88, 24. 5 8x18. 53, and 24.36 x 18.60 mm. The set is No. 99670 in the
Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology collection.

In size, color, shape and texture these eggs agree with the description Bent (1 926)
gave of California Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicensis cotumiculm) eggs, and they cannot be
distinguished from the eggs in 26 sets of that race in the WFVZ collection.

In contrast, the eggs of the Yellow Rail are a distinctive “rich, warm buff,” and their
superficial markings are generally confined to a wreath of fine spots of “pale sepia or
bright cinnamon” around the large end of the egg (Peabody in Bent 1926). All of the
eggs in the Snow set are smaller than the extreme measurements Bent gave for 32
Yellow Rail eggs.

The nest containing the eggs was stated to have been “placed in the dry matted salt
grass about l A of a mile up from the marsh; in fact it was almost pasture land. Nest
under one of those salt bushes on side of little trail. . .” These details are similar to
those described by Ingersoll (1909) and Huey (1916) for Black Rail nests in San Diego
County. The Yellow Rail breeds only in fresh water marshes (Ripley 1977), and in
California it is known to have nested only in Mono Co., east of the Sierra Nevada,
occurring in coastal salt marshes only in winter (Small 1974).

Wheelock (1920) stated that the “Black Rail nests in the marshes at Alviso” (Santa
Clara Co., California), but did not provide further details. This statement was
evidently discounted or overlooked by Grinnell and Miller (1944), since they did not
mention it. The occurrence of juvenile Black Rails at Manzanita, Marin Co., on 1 1
August 1929 (Kibbe 1929) and at Golden Gate Park, San Francisco Co., on 9 August
1945 (Orr 1947), and the recent confirmation of the presence of the species in several
central California marshes during March-May 1977 (Manolis 1978), strongly suggest
that it may be a long overlooked breeding resident of central California.

LITERATURE CITED

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th ed.
Am. Ornithol. Union, Baltimore, MD.

Bent, A. C. 1 926. Life histories of North American marsh birds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull.
135.

Grinnell, J. and A. H. Miller. 1944. The distribution of the birds of California. Pac.
Coast Avif. No. 27.

Huey, L. M. 1916. The Farallon rails of San Diego County. Condor 18:58-62.
Ingersoll, A. M. 1909. The only known breeding ground of Cresciscus cotumiculus.
Condor 1 1:123 127.

Kibbe, B. W. 1 929. California Black Rail in Marin County, California, in August.
Condor 31:252.

Manolis, T D. 1978. Status of the Black Rail in central California. West. Birds 9:
151-158.

Orr, R. T. 1947. Occurrence of Black Rail in San Francisco. Condor 49:41.

Ripley, S. D. 1977. Rails of the world. David R. Godine, Boston.

Small, A. 1974. The birds of California. Winchester Press, New York.

Storer, T. I. 1930. A critique of oological data. Auk 47:329-334.

Wheelock, L G. 1920. Birds of California. A. C. McClurg and Co., Chicago.
Wilbur, S. R. 1974. The literature of the California Black Rail. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv.
Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 179.

170

Accepted 7 November 1978

NOTES

FIRST RECORD OF A LESSER BLACK-BACKED
GULL IN COLORADO

BRUCE E. WEBB, Department of Environmental, Population and Organismic
Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309

JEANNE A. CONRY, Department of Biology, University of Colorado, Denver,
Colorado 80202

On 1 1 December 1976 we found an adult Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus)
standing on the ice at Lake Sangraco, a small sand and gravel borrow area 2.5 km
north of Interstate 70 along Lowell Boulevard, northwest of Denver, in Adams Co.,
Colorado. When first observed it was in a flock of gulls consisting of 15 adult
Herring (L. argentatus), 5 adult California (L californicus) and 50 adult Ring-billed (L.
delawarensis) gulls. Later in the week, a first-winter Glaucous Gull (L. hyperboreus) and
an adult Thayer’s Gull ,(L. thayeri) were also present for comparison. The Lesser Black-
backed Gull remained at Lake Sangraco through 1 January 1977. This, the first
recorded occurrence of the species in Colorado, was also the first record from the
deep interior of the United States.

Description: Body color: entire ventral plumage immaculate white. Body bulk:
slightly smaller than adult argentatus. Mantle color: deep slate-gray, distinctly
paler than primaries. Mantle much darker than that of californicus . Wing length: at
rest the wing-tip extended slightly beyond the tip of tail. Tail color: pure white.
Wing color: primary tips dorsally as black as those of adjacent delawarensis and
argentatus , With the wing folded, the primaries were white-tipped, indicating
relatively recent renewal. Two flight photographs verify our observations that
white subterminal mirrors were absent from distal primaries. Either these mirrors
were lacking or the outermost primaries might have been in molt. When seen from
below in flight, the dorsal darkness of the primaries and secondaries was visible
through the extended wing, as noticeably as on one of the darker races of the
Western Gull (L occidentalis wymani). Secondary color same as mantle, the color
shade transition from black primary tips to the slate gray of the secondaries
gradual. Head shape: forecrown angularity and supraocular ridge similar to
argentatus. Crown streaking: strongest on pileum with some streaking above and
below eye at base of lower mandible. No streaking on forecrown or chest, or from
eye to bill. Iris color: pale straw-yellow, appearing whiter than that of delawarensis.
Eyelid color: very conspicuous red, providing sharp contrast with iris color and
face. Tarsus color: legs, carefully compared with delawarensis and argentatus j were
pale yellow, with no hint of pinkish along tarsi; intensity of leg color was slightly
more yellow than adjacent delawarensis, whose tarsi at this time had a tinge of
pinkish color, especially at the “knee.” Tarsus size: only slightly thicker in
diameter than delawarensis and noticeably less stout than argentatus. Left foot
damaged, causing the bird to walk with the toes in a closed position. Bill color:
bright yellow with very extensive oval red spot at the gonydeal angle. Bill shape:
relatively long and shallow; gonydeal angle not as acute as californicus or argenta-
tus, but more angular than delawarensis. Comparisons indicated bill about as long
as the longest argentatus bill nearby.

All other adult dark- mantled North American gull species could be
ruled out on the basis of numerous characteristics, but most readily by: (1) Leg color
pinkish to pinkish-white in Great Black-backed (L. marinus) and Slaty-backed (L.
schistisagus) gulls, as well as the two Western Gull races (L. o. wymani and L. o. occiden-
talis). (2) Eyelid color yellow in the Yellow-legged Western Gull (L. occidentalis livens).

Western Birds 9:171-173, 1978 17 1

NOTES

The likelihood of the similar Dominican or Kelp Gull /.. dominicanus), a coastal South
American gull, or one of the dark-backed yellow-legged Middle Eastern races of the
Herring Gull finding its way to the deep interior United States seems extremely
remote. Also, dominicanus should be in worn plumage in December.

Two observers experienced with L. fuscus, P. Gent and W, Brockner,
concurred with our identification, as did most other observers who studied the bird.
Judging from the overwhelming number of typical L. fuscus features, particularly
tarsus color and thickness, eyering and iris color, bill shape, body shape, size and
mantle coloration, the possibilities that it was a dark- backed argentatus or was of hybrid
origin (“an intergrade”) seem remote. The statement that it “lacked several diagnostic
features” (Kingerv 1977) thus seems unfounded. Based on examination of studv skins,
photographs and descriptions of L fuscus in the literature (Dwight 1925, Witherby et
al. 1941, Dement’ ev et al. 1951, Voous 1963), consideration of probable hybrid
characteristics of dark-backed gulls (Jehl 1960, Andrle 1972), and discussions with
individuals familiar with the species, we feel that the Colorado Lesser Black-backed
Gull best fits the British race Larus fuscus graellsii.

The seasonal pattern of many North American winter and spring Lesser Black-
backed Gull records corresponds well with the migration pattern of the Old World
populations. In the Old World, Wallace (1973) observed coastal wintering of L. f
fuscus and L. f. graellsii, mainly adults, at Lagos, Nigeria (7°N,5°E), far south of the
breeding range. He found a general increase in numbers from November through
February, with L. f. graellsii peaking in January and dropping off sharply (presumably
as birds returned north) in February and March. Details of the species’ inland passage
through southern Europe are summarized by Voous (1963), where in his discussion
of the long distance transcontinental route of L.f fuscus he mentions its occurrence on
central African lakes.

Figure 1. Adult Lesser Black-backed Gull (Lojus fuscus , probably L. f graellsii). 11
December 1976 through 1 January 1977, Lake Sangraco, Adams Co., Colorado.

Photo by Mike Pogue, courtesy Denver Museum of Natural History.

172

NOTES

Table 1. Summary of 67 Lesser Black-backed Gull records in North America north
and south of 39° latitude, 1968 through 1977.

North

South

November-

December

29 (82.996)
9 (28.196)

January-

February

3 (8.6%)
14 (43.8%)

M arch-
April

3 (8.6%)
9 (28.1%)

Based on a survey of 1 0 years of eastern United States Lfuscus records in Audubon
Field Notes and American Birds (1968-1977), there is an indication of movement south
during January through February (Table 1). The test for equality of percentages (Sokal
and Rohlf 1969:608) indicates significant north-south differences (p<0,05) between
each of the three 2-month periods of November through December, January' through
February, and March through April. In the northern region (north of 39° latitude), 83
percent of the 35 records occurred during November and December, but in the
southern region the highest numbers were recorded during J anuary and February,
when 43 percent of the 32 records occurred. In northern localities, 35 percent of all
records involved birds remaining longer than two weeks (i.e. probably overwintering
individuals); whereas, in southern localities only 13 percent of the records involved
birds remaining longer than two weeks. The short duration of most records at
southern United States coastal localities suggests that Lfuscus is transient there. This
leads us to the speculation that some individuals of the North American L. fuscus
population may migrate through the United States, perhaps to winter farther south
along the coasts of Mexico, Central and South America, and in the Caribbean Islands.
Based on the correspondence between distributional patterns of the United States and
the Old World, we feel that occasional Lesser Black-backed Gulls can be expected in
the interior United States in passage from their northeastern summer localities to
distant coastal wintering localities.

We gratefully thank Robert Andrews, Laurence C. Binford, Winston Brockner,
Davis Finch, Tom Gatz, Peter Gent, Will Russell and Ronald LeValley for useful
discussions and comments.

LITERATURE CITED

Andrle, R. F. 1972. Another probable hybrid of Larus marinus and L. argentatus. Auk
89:669-671.

Dement’ ev, G. P., N. A. Gladkov and E. P. Spangenberg, eds. 1951. Birds of the Soviet
Union, Vol. 3. English translation by A. Birron, Z. S. Cole and E. D, Gordon, Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1969.

Dwight, J. 1925. The gulls (Laridae) of the world; their plumages, moults, variations,
relationships and distribution. Bull, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 52: 63-409.

Jehl, J. R.Jr. 1960. Aprobable hybrid of Larus argentatus and L. marinus. Auk 77:343-
345.

Kingery, H. E. 1977. The winter season. Mountain west [region]. Am. Birds 31:356.

Sokal, R. R. and F. J. Rohlf. 1969. Biometry. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.

Voous, K. H. 1963. Geographic variation of Larus fuscus in northwestern Europe.
Ardea 51:16-24.

Wallace, D. I. M. 1973. Sea-birds at Lagos and in the Gulf of Guinea. Ibis 1 15:559-571 .

Witherbv, H. F., F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst and B. W. Tucker. 1941. The
handbook of British birds. Vol 5. H. F. and G. Witherby, Ltd., London.

Accepted 25 October 1978

173

NOTES

POLYGYNY IN UTAH DIPPERS

CARL D. MARTI and STEPHEN W. EVERETT, Department of Zoology, Weber State
College, Ogden, Utah 84408

Prior to Price and Bock’s (1973) findings of polygyny in Colorado, the Dipper
(Cinclus mexicanus j had been considered to be monogamous. This paper reports
polygyny in a second geographical area.

We have been studying reproduction, movements and mortality of Dippers from
1976 to the present. These observations are being made on 8 km of the Ogden River
from the mouth of Ogden Canyon to Pineview Reservoir and on 9 km of the South
Fork of the Ogden River below Causey Reservoir, both in Weber County, Utah. Adult
and nestling Dippers were banded with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands and
combinations of colored plastic leg bands to allow individual recognition.

We found a single polygynous male (3.4% of the breeding males) compared to 29
monogamous males in the combined 1976 and 1977 breeding seasons. The incidence
of polygyny in Colorado was higher at 12.8% of the breeding males. We observed the
male copulating with one of the females, feeding broods at both nests on numerous
occasions, and defending the area containing both nests. Both females successfully
fledged two broods each; a total of 19 young was “fathered” by the single male. This
number compares to an average of 8.75 ± 4.27 young fledged by four polygynous
males in Colorado. Egg laying for the first clutches of both females began about 25
April 1977, and the young of the second clutches fledged from 4 to 8 July 1977. Price
and Bock (1973) found that territories of the polygynous Dippers they studied were
not bordered closely by other territories. In contrast, the territory of our polygynous
male was bordered on both sides by other Dipper territories. Price and Bock (1973)
observed that nests of the mates of polygynous males were from 180 to 3220 m apart.
Nests of the two females in our study were only 100 m apart; one was built under a
bridge and the other under a house overhanging the river. The same male and one of
the females fledged two broods (total of 9 young) in the same territory in 1976.

Potential Dipper nest sites on the Ogden River were abundant and fairly evenly
spaced; several Dipper territories contained two or more. We have no reason to
believe that the quality of the territory where polygyny occurred was higher than that
of other areas, nor was the territory larger than others.

Our observation supports Price and Bock’s (1973) prediction that polygyny in
Dippers occurs in other populations.

LITERATURE CITED

Price, F. E. and C. E. Bock. 1973. Polygyny in the Dipper. Condor 75:457-459.

Accepted 11 December 1978

174

Western Birds 9:174, 1978

NOTES

FIRST RECORD OF THE BLUE-FACED BOOBY
FROM THE PACIFIC COAST OFTHE UNITED STATES

DAVID B. LEWIS and W. BRECK TYLER, Center for Coastal Marine Studies,
University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064

On 10 January 1977, while conducting marine bird and mammal surveys in the
Southern California Bight, we observed a Blue-faced Booby (Sula dactylatra). To our
knowledge this represents the first record of this species from the Pacific coast of the
United States. All other Blue- faced Booby records over coastal waters of the U.S. are
from the southern Atlantic coast and along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico (Palmer
1975).

Late in the afternoon of 10 January our vessel, the Kona Princess, was proceeding
northeast from Bishop Rock (Cortes Bank) as part of bimonthly transect surveys of the
Southern California Bight (Briggs etal. 1976). At 1645 our position was approximately
32°37.5'N, 118°44'W, some 35 km southwest of the south end of San Clemente
Island. Four observers (D.B.L., W.B.T., David H. Dettman and Mark O. Pierson) were
recording bird and mammal sighting data from the flying bridge 6 m above sea level.
The booby was first sighted about 75 m away, approaching from the northeast, flying
low over the water. It drew to within 20 m, circled the boat once at close range, then
followed briefly over the wake. It then proceeded along the starboard side to within 3
m of the observers and finally departed back to the northeast. During its 3 minute visit
the booby was seen clearly by the four observers, all of whom were equipped with
7x35 mm binoculars.

We compiled the following description of the bird from all four observers: a very
large robust white and black bird; face (mask), scapular tips and flight feathers
(primaries, secondaries, rectrices) black or very dark; head, neck, body and most wing
and tail coverts white. Total length was estimated at 8 5-90 cm. The greenish yellow bill
was long and pointed, with a stout base. The legs were dull greenish blue. We did not
note eye color, and no photographs were taken.

The very similar light morph Red-footed Booby ( Sula sula ; dark-tailed form) has
red feet, a bluish bill with pink-flesh base, and no mask. Huber and Lewis (MS)
recently documented the separate occurrences of two Red-footed Boobies on South
Farallon Island during summer and autumn 1975, one of which was a light morph,
dark-tailed bird. The Blue-footed Booby (S. nebouxii), occasionally seen in southern
California, has a dark mantle and bill, and bright chalk blue feet. The Brown Booby (S.
leueogaster) , also rarely reported from southern California, has all dark upperparts
including the entire head and neck. Gannets [Morus spp.), with white secondaries and
yellowish heads, are birds of the Atlantic Ocean and the southern hemisphere.

The Blue-faced Booby is a cosmopolitan resident of tropical marine waters. As is
typical of tropical members of the Sulidae, it is nonmigratory. Although adult birds
prefer to forage well offshore, they do not actually disperse after the breeding season
(Palmer 1975). Five subspecies of Sula dactylatra are currently delineated as follows:
dactylatra from the western Atlantic, califomica from the Pacific coast of Mexico and
Central America, granti from the Pacific coast of South America, including the
Galapagos archipelago (although the latter two forms are probably not validly
separable; J. B. Nelson pers. comm.), melanops from the Indian Ocean arid personata
from the central Pacific, including the Hawaiian Islands (Palmer 1975, Nelson 1978;
but see also Rothschild 1915, Matthews 1921, Murphy 1936). Morphological
differences between these races include soft parts coloration (bill, legs, mask, iris), size
and shape of bill, and overall body size. However, since variations occurring with age,
sex and season are poorly documented, race determination by soft part coloration is
potentially unreliable.

Western Birds 9:175-176, 1978

175

NOTES

The task of determining the origin of this Blue-faced Booby is therefore a difficult
one. Of the five subspecies only californica exhibits a geographic range proximal to
southern California. Birds of this race breed on Alijos Rocks, situated 265 km off che
west coast of Baja California and just 875 km south of the U.S.-Mexico border (R. L.
Pitman pers. comm.). This sighting might be attributed to the personata race of the
mid-Pacific (and Hawaiian Islands). Though the nearest nesting sites are 4000 km
away, that is not considered an extreme range for a sulid. Also, considerable shipping
traffic transits between the Hawaiian Islands and southern California, and sulids are
well-documented shipboard hitch-hikers (Huber and Lewis MS). Furthermore, the
physical characteristics described for personata agree well with those of our sighting.
Atlantic coast records are of the nominate race, but this and the remaining races can
be discounted on the basis of distant geography and/or characteristic physical
differences as noted. Therefore, we believe our Blue-faced Booby to be probably the
Mexican 5. d. californica or possibly the Hawaiian S. d. personata.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following people aided materially in compiling this note. Mark Pierson and
Dave Dettman participated in the original observation. Roy Raynor and his crew on
theR. V. Kona Princess carried us on this and many other successful transect voyages.
Bob Pitman shared some of his well-rounded knowledge of boobies with us. Ken
Briggs added editorial assistance and incentive. The sighting was made during a
regularly scheduled standard transect of the Southern California Bight under the
United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management Contract #AA550
CT6-26, K. S. Norris, G. L. Hunt, Jr., and B. J. LeBoeuf, principal investigators.

LITERATURE CITED

Briggs, K. T., H. L. Jones, G. L. Hunt, Jr., D. B. Lewis, W. B. Tyler and E. W. Chu.
1976. Distribution, numbers, and population movements. Pages 373-561 in
Marine mammal and seabird survey of the Southern California Bight area, Vol.
III. Principal Investigators’ Reports, Book II: Seabirds. Univ. California, Santa
Cruz.

Huber, H. R. and T. J. Lewis. MS. First records of the Red-footed Booby in western
LJnited States. West. Birds in press.

Matthews, G. M. and T. Iredale. 1921. A manual of the birds of Australia. Vol. I.

Orders Casuarii to Columbae. H. F. Sc G. Witherby, London.

Murphy, R. C. 1936. Oceanic birds of South America. Vol. II. MacMillan Co., New
York.

Nelson, J. B. 1978. The Sulidae. Aberdeen Univ. Stud. Ser. 154. Oxford Univ. Press,
London.

Palmer, R. S. 1962. Handbook of North American birds. Vol. I. Yale Univ. Press, New
Haven.

Rothschild, W. 1915. Notes on the genus Sula. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 35:41-45.

Accepted 6 October 1978

176

NOTES

YELLOW-CROWNED NIGHT HERON
IN CALIFORNIA

DON HOECHLIN, 11712 Gary St., Garden Grove, California 92640

According to the work of Dawson (1923) and Grinnell and Miller (1944), there
were no records of the Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa vioiacea) occurring
in California. Grinnell and Miller did state, however, that there was “ground to expect
stragglers from the south across the Mexican line into San Diego County.” Since the
time of these works there have been five or six California records (McCaskie 1964,
Small 1974), none of which are from Orange County’. All sightings have been from
coastal California, except the Claremont-l-Iarbor Park bird(s) of 1963 (see Appendix).

Because of the paucity of sightings of this species, I was astonished to see a Yellow-
crowned Night Heron while driving with Ken Hoffman through the San Joaquin
Marsh, Irvine, Orange County, on the morning of 1 1 May 1977. The bird was an adult
in full breeding plumage (Figure 1), and was standing on a bare branch about 7 m
above ground in a tree next to the road. The bird was first observed at 0745, but was

Figure 1. Adult Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa vioiacea ), San Joaquin
Marsh, Irvine, Orange County, California, 11 May 1977.

Photo by Don Hoechlin

Western Birds 9:177-178, 1978 1 77

NOTES

shortly lost from view for approximately 1 hour. The bird then reappeared on a snag
where it remained for approximately 4 hours, being closely observed and photo-
graphed. The bird then moved deeper into the marsh and continued to do so for the
remainder of the afternoon, being last seen at 1630.

The Yellow-crowned Night Heron occurs throughout much of the eastern United
States, around the Gulf of Mexico and in parts of South America with a separate
population, N. v. hancrofti, in western Mexico (Palmer 1962). A bird collected at
Imperial Beach in 1963 (McCaskie 1964) was identified as N. v. bancrofti, and it is
suspected that the other birds found in California were of this same race.

Although rare in California, the Yellow-crowned Night Heron may occur
somewhat more often than the records indicate because immature birds (only adults
and subadults have so far been identified) *can be easily overlooked and dismissed as
immature Black-crowned Night Herons. But field identification can be made if the
longer-legged appearance and the shorter wider bill are appreciated. The greyer
coloration and lesser amount of spotting on the back and wings are less easily
discerned. In flight, one of the best field marks is the extension of the entire foot and a
portion of the tarsus beyond the end of the tail. Only a portion of the foot extends
beyond the tail in the Black-crowned Night Heron, if the tail feathers are fully grown.

I would like to thank Alan Craig and Guy McCaskie for their helpful criticism of
the rough draft of this article.

LITERATURE CITED

Dawson, W. 1923. Birds of California. Vol. IV. South Moulton Co., San Francisco.
Grinnell, J. and A. H. Miller. 1944. The distribution of the birds of California. Pac.
Coast Avif. 27.

McCaskie, R. G. 1964. Three southern herons in California. Condor 66:442-443.
Palmer, R. 1962. Handbook of North American birds. Vol. 1. Yale Univ. Press, New
Haven, CT.

Small, A. 1974. The birds of California. Winchester Press, New York.

APPENDIX

Records of Yellow-crowned Night Heron in California are listed in chronological
order. AFN refers to Audubon Field Notes and AB to American Birds.

1. Venice, Los Angeles Co., last week June 1951. AFN 5:308, 1951.

2. Imperial Beach, San Diego Co., 3 Nov 1962, one adult. AFN 17:67, 1963.

3. Claremont, Los Angeles Co., 27 Mar-3 Apr 1963. AFN 17:357, 434, 1963.

4. Harbor Park, Los Angeles Co., 30 May-2June 1963, may have been the same bird
reported from Claremont. AFN 17:434, 1963.

5. Imperial Beach, San Diego Co., 22-25 Oct 1963, adult male (specimen). AFN
18:73,1964.

6. San Rafael, Marin Co., 12 July 1968-25 Aug 1968; 3 May 1969-3 Sept 1969; 10 Mav
1970-27 July 1970; 29 May 1971; 28 May 1972; 5 Nov 1972; 29 June 1973-Oct
1973, one adult. AFN 22:643, 1968; AFN 23:100, 1969; AFN 23:620, 1969; AFN
23:690, 1969;AFN 24:89, 1 970; AFN 24:639, 1970; AFN 24:712, 1970; AB 25:794,
1971; AB 26:803, 1972; AB 27:1 13, 1973; AB 27:9 13, 1973; AB 28:100, 1974. One
was present at this locality for six consecutive summers (AB 27:913, 1973),
presumably the same individual. A subadult was reported in 1968 and 1969, and
an adult thereafter.

7. Irvine, Orange Co., 11 May 1977, adult. AB 31:1047, 1977.

8. Tomales Bay, Marin Co., 5 July 1977. AB 31:1 183, 1977.

Accepted 13 November 1978

178

INDEX, WESTERN BIRDS, VOLUME 9, 1978

Compiled by Mildred Comar

Aethia cristatella, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
pusilla , 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
pygmaea, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
Akialoa, Lanai, 72

Albatross, Black-footed, 48, 50, 52, 56, 63
Laysan, 48, 50, 52, 56, 61, 62, 63
Amakihi, 76
Amazilia verticals , 91-92
v. subspecies, 91
Amphispiza bilineata, 85-89
Anas poecilorhyncha zonorhyncha, 127-128
Annear, John T., see Henny, C.

Anous stolidus, 75
tenuirostns, 75
Apapane, 76
Aphelocoma coerulescens, 42
Ardea herodias, 106
Arenaria inter pres, 75
Asio flammeus, 111
f. sandwickensis, 76
otus, 16, 17, 18

Auklet, Cassin’s, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
Crested, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
Least, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
Parakeet, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
Rhinoceros, 55

Whiskered, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62, 63
Aunparus flaviceps, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19
Banks, Richard C. and Robert W. Dicker-
man, Mexican nesting records for the
American Bittern, 130
Barrett, Michael, see Boswall, J.

Barrows, Cameron and Katherine Barrows,
Roost characteristics and behavioral
thermo-regulation in the Spotted Owl,
1-8

Binford, Laurence C., Lesser Black-backed
Gull in California, with notes on field
identification, 141-150
Bittern, American, 130
Bleich, Vernon C. and Bonnar Blong,
Magnificent Frigatebird in San Bernar-
dino County, California, A, 129
Blong, Bonnar, see Bleich, V.

Bluebird, Mountain, 21-32
Western, 21-32
Bonasa umbellus, 121-126
Booby, Blue- faced, 175-176
Blue-footed, 106, 175
Brown, 75, 106, 175
Red-footed, 175

180

Boswall, Jeffery and Michael Barrett,
Notes on the breeding birds of Isla
Raza, Baja California, 93-108
Botaurus lentiginosus, 130
Brachyramphus brevirostris, 55
marmoratus, 55

Braun, Clait E., see Hoffman, R.

Bubo virginianus, 82
Bucephala clangula , 118
Bulweria bulwerii, 74
Buteo jamaicensis, 15, 82
suiainsoni, 82
Calidris alba, 76, 106
mauri, 115

Calonectris leucomelas, 55
Calypte costae, 1 6

Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus, 16, 18
Carduelis flammea, 61
Carpodacus cassinii, 80
mexicanus, 16, 17, 18
Casmerodius albus, 106
Catharacta maccormicki, 48, 50, 54
Cathartes aura, 15
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus, 106
Cepphus columba, 49, 55
Cerorhinca monocerata, 55
Chickadee, Chestnut-backed, 41-42
Mountain, 41

Chordeiles acutipennis, 16, 17
Cinclus mexicanus, 1 74
Circus cyaneus, 15, 114
Colaptes auratus cafer, 69
Columbina passerina, 1 5
Conry, Jeanne, see Webb, B.

Coot, American, 141-144
Copper, William A., Clifford P, Ohmart
and Donald L. Dahlsten, Predation by
a Rubber Boa on Chestnut-backed
Chickadees in an artificial nesting site,
41-42

Cormorant, Brandt’s, 106
Double-crested, 38, 39
Japanese, 55
Pelagic, 55
Red-faced, 48, 53
Corvus corax, 106
Cotumicops noveboracensis, 169
Creeper, Lanai, 72

Crockett, Allen B. and Paula L. Hanslev,
Apparent response of Picoides wood-
peckers to outbreak of the Pine Bark
Beetle, 67-70

Western Birds 9:180-184, 1978

Crossbill, Red, 79-81
White-winged, 79-81
Curlew, Bristle-thighed, 75
Cyclonhynchus psittacula, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60,
62, 63

Dahlsten, Donald L.,.see Copper, W.
Dendragapus obscurus, 121-126
Dickerman, Robert W., see Banks, R.
Diomedea immutabilis, 48, 50, 52, 56, 61, 62,
63

nigripes, 48, 50, 52, 56, 63
Dipper, 174
Dove, Ground, 15
Mourning, 15
White-winged, 15
Dowitcher, Long-billed, 117
Duck, Harlequin, 48, 53
Spotbill, 127-128
Eagle, Bald, 35-37

Egger, Mark, probable nesting record of
the Northern Waterthrush in Oregon,
A, 83-84

Egret, Great, 106
Snowy, 33, 38
Egretta thula, 33, 38
Eider, Common, 55
Elanus leucurus, 131-133
Endomychura craven, 93, 106
Everett, Stephen, see Marti, C.

Falco mexicanus, 15
peregrinus, 100, 106
sparvenus, 15

Falcon, Peregrine, 100, 106
Prairie, 15
Finch, Cassin’s, 80
House, 16, 17, 18
Flicker, Common, 69
Florida caerulea, 33-34
Flycatcher, Ash-throated, 16, 18
Nutting’s, 135-136

Franzreb, Kathleen E., Breeding bird
densities, species composition, and
bird species diversity of the Algodones
Dunes, 9-20

Fratercula comiculata, 49-64
Fregata magnificens, 106, 129
minor, 75

Frigatebird, Great, 75
Magnificent, 106, 129
Fulica americana, 141-144
Fulmar, Northern, 48, 50, 51, 52, 56, 61,
63

Fulmarus gladalis, 48, 50, 51, 52, 56, 61, 63
Gardiner, Kenneth W., Bird photography,
110-120

Geococcyx califomianus, 16

Gnatcatcher, Black-tailed, 11, 16, 17, 19
Godwit, Marbled, 106, 120
Goldeneye, Common, 118
Goose, Emperor, 137, 138
Grebe, Eared, 97, 106
Grouse, Blue, 121-126
Ruffed, 121-126
Sharp-tailed, 123, 125
Guillemot, Pigeon, 49, 55
Gull, Black-headed, 48, 54, 148
Black-tailed, 55
California, 141-144, 171
Glaucous, 171

Glaucous-winged, 48, 50, 54, 141, 171
Great Black-backed, 145, 147, 171
Heermann’s, 93, 96, 98-101, 102, 105
Herring, 55, 142, 144-147, 171; sub-
species, 145-147
Kelp, 143, 145, 147
Lesser Black-backed, 141-150, 171-173
Little, 148
Mew, 55

Ring-billed, 38, 106, 142, 171
Sabine’s, 49, 54

Slaty-backed, 55, 143, 145, 147, 171
Thayer’s, 145, 171

Western, 93, 97-98, 141-145, 148, 149,
171

Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus, 80
Haematopus palliatus, 97
Haliaeetus leucocephalus, 35-37
Hansley, Paula L., see Crockett, A.

Hawk, Marsh, 15, 114
Red-tailed, 15, 82
Swainson’s, 82

Hemignathus obscurus lanaiensis, 72
Henny, Charles J. and John T. Annear,
White-tailed Kite breeding record for
Oregon, A, 131-133

Herlugson, Christopher J., Comments on
the status and distribution of Western
and Mountain bluebirds in Washing-
ton, 21-32

Heron, Black-crowned Night, 38, 75
Great Blue, 106
Little Blue, 33-34
Yellow-crowned Night, 177-178
Heteroscelus incanus, 75, 106; H. sp., 48, 53
Himantione sanguined, 76
Hirai, Lawrence T',, Native birds of Lanai,
Hawaii, 71-77

Histrionicus histrionicus, 48, 53
Hoechlin, Don, Yellow-crowned Night
Heron in California, 177-178

181

Hoffman, Richard W., and Clait E. Braun,
Characteristics and status of Ruffed
Grouse and Blue Grouse in Colorado,
121-126

Hubbard, John P., status of the Northern
Shrike in New Mexico, The, 159-168
Hummingbird, Costa’s, 16
Violet-crowned, 91-92
Hunn, Eugene S., Black-throated Sparrow
vagrants in the Pacific Northwest, 85-
89; see Weber, W.

Iiwi, 72

Jaeger, Long-tailed, 48, 50, 54, 58
Parasitic, 48, 50, 54, 58
Pomarine, 48, 50, 53, 58
Jay, Pinon, 80
Scrub, 42

Johnson, Jerome A. and Fred R. Ziegler,
Violet-crowned Hummingbird in Cali-
fornia, A, 91-92
Kennedy, Joseph L,, see Tail, 1.

Kestrel, American, 15
Kiff, Lloyd F,, Probable Black Rail nesting
record for Alameda County, Califor-
nia, 169-170

Kite, White-tailed, 131-133

Kittiwake, Black-legged, 49, 50, 51, 54, 58,

Red-legged, 49, 50, 51, 54, 59, 63
Knopf, Fritz L., see Tait, I.

Lanius excubitor, 159-168
e. borealis , 165-167

e. invictus, 159-168
ludovicianus, 16, 163

Larus argentatus, 55, 142-147, 171
a. argentatus, 145
a. smithsonianus, 142, 145-147
a. subspecies, 142-147
califomicus, 141-144, 171
canus, 55
crassirostris, 55

delawarensis, 38, 106, 142, 171
dominicanus, 143, 145, 147
fuscus, 141-150, 171-173
f fuscus, 145-147

f. graellsii, 141-150, 171-173
glaucescens, 48, 50, 54, 141, 171
heermanni, 93, 96, 98-101, 102, 105
hyperboreus, 171

marinus, 145, 147, 171
minutus, 148

occidentalis, 93, 97-98, 141-145, 148,
149, 171

o. livens, 93, 97-98, 148, 171
o. occuientalis, 141-145, 148, 149, 171

182

o. wymani, 141-143, 148, 171
ridibundus, 48, 54
schistisagus, 55, 143, 145, 147, 171
thayeri, 145, 171

Laterallus jamaicensis, 151-158, 169-170
j. cotumiculus, 151-158, 169-170
Lewis, David B, and W. Breck Tyler, First
record of the Blue-faced Booby from the
Pacific Coast of the United States, 175-176
Limnodromus scolopaceus, 117
Limosa fedoa, 106, 120
Lophortyx douglasii, 134
gambelii, 11, 15, 18
Loxia cwrvirostra, 79-81
leucoptera, 79-81
Loxops maculata montana, 72
virens, 76

Lunda cirrhata, 49-64
Macintosh, Richard A., see Trapp, J.
Manolis, Tim, Status of the Black Rail in
central California, 151-158
Marti, Carl D. and Stephen W. Everett,
Polygyny in Utah Dippers, 174
Murre, Common, 49, 50, 54, 59
Thick-billed, 49, 50, 54, 59
Murrelet, Ancient, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60, 62,
63

Craveri’s, 93, 106
Japanese, 62
Kittlitz’s, 55
Marbled, 55

Myiarchus cinerascens, 16, 18
nutting, 135-136
Nighthawk, Lesser, 16, 17
Noddy, Common, 75
White-capped, 75
Numenius phaeopus, 106
tahitiensis, 75

Nyctanassa violacea, 177-178
Nycticorax nycticorax, 38
n. hoactli, 75

Oceanodroma castro, 49, 50, 53, 62
furcata, 49, 50, 53, 58, 63
leucorhoa, 49, 50, 53, 5 7
inelania, 97
monorhis, 49, 53
tristrami, 49, 53

Ohmart, Clifford P,, see Copper, W.

Olor buccinator, 90
Osprey, 94, 97, 104
Ou, 72

Owl, Barn, 82

Great-horned, 82
Long-eared, 16, 17, 18
Short-eared, 76, 111
Spotted, 1-8

Oystercatcher, American, 97
Pandion haliaetus, 94, 97, 104
Parus gambeli, 41
rufescens, 41-42
Passer domesticus, 1 8
Pedioecetes phasianellus, 123, 125
Pelecanus erythTorhynchos, 38-40
occidentals, 1 06, 119
Pelican, Brown, 106, 119
White, 38-40
Petrel, Bulwer’s 74
Cook’s, 48, 53
Dark-rumped, 72, 74
Kermadec, 48, 53
Mottled, 48, 50, 52, 57
Solander’s, 48, 50, 53, 57, 62
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota, 16
Phaeomis obscurus lanaiensis, 72
Phaethon lepturus darotheae, 74
rubricauda rothsckildi, 75
Phalacrocorax auritus, 38, 39
capillatus, 55
pelagicus, 55
penicillatus, 106
urile, 48, 53

Philacte canagica, 137, 138
Phoebe, Black, 16
Say’s, 16

Picoides pubescens, 6 7- 70
scalaris, 16, 18
tridactylus, 67-70
villosus, 67-70
Plover, Golden, 75
Pluvialis dominica fulva, 75
Podiceps nigricollis, 97, 106
Polioptila melanura, 11, 16, 17, 19
Psittirostra psittacea, 72
Pterodroma cookii, 48, 53

inexpectata, 48, 50, 52, 5 7
neglecta, 48, 53

phaeopygia sandwichensis, 72, 74
solandn, 48, 50, 53, 57, 62
Ptychoramphus aleuticus, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60,
62, 63

Puffin, Horned, 49-64
Tufted, 49-64
Puffinus bulleri, 62
cameipes, 55
griseus, 48, 50, 52, 5 7
leucomelas, 55
pacificus chlororhynchus, 74
puffinus, 97

tenuirostris, 48, 50, 52, 5 7, 63
Quail, Elegant, 134
Gambel’s, 11, 15, 18

Rail, Black, California, 151-158, 169-170
Clapper, 112
Yellow, 169
Rallus longirostris, 112
Raven, Common, 106
Redpoll, Common, 61
Rissa brevirostris, 49, 50, 51, 54, 58, 63
tridactyla, 49, 50, 51, 54, 59, 63
Roadrunner, 16
Sanderling, 76, 106
Sandpiper, Western, 115
Sayomis nigricans, 16
saya, 16

Seiurus noveboracensis, 83-84
n. subspecies, 83

Shea, David S., Bald Eagle concentrations
in Glacier National Park, 35-37
Shearwater, Buller’s, 62
Flesh-footed, 55
Manx, 97

Short-tailed, 48, 50, 52, 57, 63
Sooty, 48, 50, 52, 57
Streaked, 55
Wedge- tailed, 74
Shrike, Loggerhead, 16, 163
Northern, 159-168
Siaha currucoides, 21-32
mexicana, 21-32
Skua, South Polar, 48, 50, 54
Small, Arnold, Western bird photograph-
ers, 109

Smith, Kimberly G., White-winged Cross-
bills breed in northern Utah, 79-81
Somateria mollissima, 55
Sparrow, Black-throated, 85-89
House, 18
Starling, 16, 28, 29
Stercorarius longicaudus, 48, 50, 54, 58
parasiticus, 48, 50, 54, 58
pomarinus, 48, 50, 53, 58
Sterna aleutica, 55
caspia, 38

elegans, 93, 101-106
forsteri, 113, 116
fuscata, 75

maxima, 93, 101-106
paradisaea, 49, 54
Storm-Petrel, Black, 97

Fork-tailed, 49, 50, 53, 58, 63
Harcourt’s, 49, 50, 53, 62
Leach’s, 49, 50, 53, 57
Swinhoe’s, 49, 53
Tristram’s, 49, 53
Strix occidentals, 1-8
Stumus vulgaris, 16, 28, 29

183

Sula dactylatra, 175-176
d. subspecies, 175-176
leucogaster, 75, 106, 175
nebouxii, 106, 175
sula, 175

Swallow, Cliff, 16
Swan, Trumpeter, 90
Synthliboramphus antiquus, 49, 50, 55, 56, 60,
62, 63

wumizusume, 62

Tait, Ian C., Fritz L. Knopf and Joseph L.
Kennedy, White Pelicans nesting at
Honey Lake, California, 38-40
Tattler, Wandering, 75, 106; sp., 48, 53
Tern, Aleutian, 55
Arctic, 49, 54
Caspian, 38
Elegant, 93, 101-106
Forster’s, 113, 116
Royal, 93, 101-106
Sooty, 75

Thrasher, Crissal, 16, 18
Le Conte’s, 16
Thrush, Lanai, 72
Toxostoma dor sale, 16, 18
lecontei, 16

Trapp, John L. and Richard A. Macintosh,
First North American specimen of the
Spotbill Duck, 127-128
Tropicbird, Red-tailed, 75
White- tailed, 74
Turnstone, Ruddy, 75
Tyler, Jack D., Elegant Quail in Barranca
de Cobre, Chihuahua, 134
Tyler, W, Breck, see Lewis, D.

Tyto alba, 82

Uria aalge, 49, 50, 54, 59
lomvia, 49, 50, 54, 59
Verdin, 11, 16-19
Vestiaria cocdnea, 72
Vulture, Turkey, 15

Wahl, Terence, R., Seabirds in the north-
western Pacific Ocean and south cen-
tral Bering Sea in June, 1975, 45-66
Walton, Brian James, Nesting of Swain-
son’s Hawk in San Luis Obispo County,
California, in 1977, 82
Waterthrush, Northern, 83-84
Webb, Bruce E. and Jeanne A. Conry, First
record of a Lesser Black-backed Gull in
Colorado, 171-173

Weber, Wayne C. and Eugene S. Hunn,
First record of the Little Blue Heron for
British Columbia and Washington, 33-
34

Whimbrel, 106
Willet, 106

Woodpecker, Downy, 67-70
Hairy, 67-70
Ladder- backed, 16, 18
Northern Three-toed, 67-70
Wren, Cactus, 16, 18
Xema sabini, 49, 54
Zenaida asiatica, 15
macroura, 15

Ziegler, Fred R., see Johnson, J.
Zimmerman, Dale A., definite record of
the Trumpeter Swan from New Mexi-
co, A, 90; probable Nutting’s Flycatch-
er in southwestern New Mexico, A,
135-136

184

WESTERN BIRDS

Quarterly Journal of Western Field Ornithologists

President: Richard W. Stallcup Vice-President: John S. Luther

Treasurer: Phil Schaeffer Membership Secretary: Margaret Schaeffer

Secretary: Bob Yutzy Special Projects Secretary: Linda Delaney

Directors: Laurence C. Binford, John S. Luther, Guy McCaskie, Arnold Small,
Richard W. Stallcup, Terence R. Wahl, Bruce Webb, Jon Winter, Janet
Witzeman

Editor: Alan M. Craig

Editorial Board: Robert Andrews, Alan Baldridge, William H, Behle, Andrew J.

Berger, Laurence C. Binford (Chairman), Jeanne Corny, Linda Delaney,
David F. DeSante, Dick Erickson, Joseph Greenberg, Joseph R.Jehl,Jr.,
Ned K. Johnson, Virginia P. Johnson, Brina Kessel, Charles S. Lawson,
Stephen A. Laymon.John S. Luther, Tim Manolis, Guy McCaskie, Narca
A. Moore, M. Timothy Myres, Harry B. Nehls, Thomas L. Rodgers,
Stephen M. Russell, Oliver K. Scott, P. David Skaar, Richard W. Stallcup,
David Stirling, G. Shumway Suffel, Charles Trost, Terence R. Wahl,
Roland H. Wauer, Bruce Webb, Dale A. Zimmerman

Layout and cover design by Virginia P. Johnson

TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME 9, 1978

Volume 9, Number 1, 1978

Roost Characteristics and Behavioral Thermoregulation in the

Spotted Owl Cameron Barrows and Katherine Barrows 1

Breeding Bird Densities, Species Composition, and Bird Species

Diversity of the Algodones Dunes Kathleen E. Franzreb 9

Comments on the Status and Distribution of Western and

Mountain Bluebirds in Washington Christopher J. Herlugson 21

NOTES

First Record of the Little Blue Heron for British Columbia

and Washington Wayne C. Weber and Eugene S. Hunn 33

Bald Eagle Concentrations in Glacier National Park David S. Shea 35

White Pelicans Nesting at Honey Lake, California Ian C. Tail,

Fritz L. Knopf and Joseph L. Kennedy 38

Predation by a Rubber Boa on Chestnut -backed Chickadees
in an Artificial Nesting Site William A. Copper, Clifford
P. Ohmart and Donald L. Dahlsten 41

Treasurer’s Report Phil Schaeffer 43

Volume 9, Number 2, 1978

Seabirds in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean and South

Centred Bering Sea in June 1975 Terence R. Wahl 45

Apparent Response of Pkoides Woodpeckers to Outbreaks

of the Pine Bark Beetle Allen B. Crockett and Paula L. Hansley 67

Native Birds of Lanai, Hawaii Lawrence T. Hirai 7 1

NOTES

White- winged Crossbills Breed in Northern Utah

Kimberly G. Smith 79

Nesting of Swainson’s Hawk in San Luis Obispo County,

California in 1977 Brian James Walton 82

A Probable Nesting Record of the Northern Waterthrush

in Oregon Mark Egger 83

Black-throated Sparrow Vagrants in the Pacific

Northwest Eugene S. Hunn 85

A Definite Record of the Trumpeter Swan from

New Mexico Dale A. Zimmerman 90

A Violet-crowned Hummingbird in California

Jerome A. Johnson and Fred R. Ziegler 9 1

Volume 9, Number 3, 1978

Notes on the Breeding Birds of Isla Raza, Baja

California Jeffery Boswall and Michael Barrett 93

Western Bird Photographers Arnold Small 109

Bird Photography Kenneth W. Gardiner 110

Characteristics and Status of Ruffed Grouse in

Colorado Richard W. Hoffman and Clait E. Braun 121

NOTES

First North American Specimen of the Spotbill Duck

John L. Trapp and Richard A. Macintosh 127

A Magnificent Frigatebird in San Bernardino County,

California Vernon C. Bleich and Bonnar Blong 129

Mexican Nesting Records for the American Bittern

Richard C. Banks and Robert W. Dickerman 130

A White-tailed Kite Breeding Record for Oregon

Charles J. Henny and John T. Annear 131

Elegant Quail in Barranca del Cobre, Chihuahua

Jack D. Tyler 134

A Probable Nutting’s Flycatcher in Southwestern

New Mexico Dale A. Zimmerman 135

Volume 9, Number 4, 1978

Lesser Black-backed Gull in California, with Notes

on Field Identification Laurence C. Binford 141

Status of the Black Rail in Central California Tim Manolis 151

The Status of the Northern Shrike in New Mexico
John P. Hubbard 159

NOTES

Probable Black Rail Nesting Record for Alameda

County, California Lloyd F. Kiff 169

iii

First Record of a Lesser Black-backed Gull in Colorado

Bruce E. Webb and Jeanne A. Cowry 171

Polygyny in Utah Dippers Carl D. Marti

and Stephen W. Everett 1 7 4

First Record of the Blue-faced Booby from the
Pacific Coast of the United States

David B. Lewis and W. Breck Tyler 175

Yellow-crowned Night Heron in California Don Hoechlin 177

BULLETIN BOARD 179

INDEX Mildred Comar 180

Sketch by Narca Moore

■

Vulmne 9, Number III 7 8

f t-EMT Blatik-hdi Uvt\ Cr.Lll a 1 1 Califuniut with Note*

on Firirl friemifir aiiors kiumtce ( Rwjttfi HI

The Matus ufth' Nwrihrm Shrike in New 1 Vk*xh.o
.John f\ / / ubiMjrf J 59

NOTES

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Ctjunn. Cdtfomiil Ik yd F KifJ 1fc9

Yiist Rail'd 1 1 ,i I riwr ^Biatik-b^cfced Gull hi Cralcmidta

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T hit i fit C tALi > t cl 1 1 h - I i ivl r i. -i L S’ , i res

/Mi.f/i' /?. £flgjk tfftfl! B r , filw* TWer 175

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Hf llJ#riN BOARD J7#

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npbiTutted tq Stephen A- l^mnOD. 5^£): Acklt^' Row! likrptMt, CA

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