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WESTMINSTER
BIBLE DICTIONARY.
i2^>
THE
/
WESTMINSTER
BIBLE DICTIONARY.
PREPARED FOR THE BOARD
BY THE
Rev. THOMAS J. SHEPHERD, D.D.
PHILADELPHIA :
PRESBYTERIAN BOARD OF PUBLICATION,
1334 Chestnut Street.
Copyright, 1880, by
THE TRUSTEES OF THE
PRESBYTERIAN BOARD OF PUBLICATION.
Westcott a Thomson,
SUreotypert and Slectrotypera, PMlada.
INTRODUCTION.
The quickening of Bible study on the part of our Sabbath-school
teachers and scholars at the present time, in connection with the re-
markable additions recently made -to our knowledge on topics related
to Scripture interpretation, aifords abundant reason for the issue of the
Westminster Bible Dictionary. It will meet an existing: call for
a compact dictionary abreast of the times.
The work was entrusted by the Board of Publication to the Rev.
Thomas J, Shepherd, D. D,, who has devoted to it much study and
patient as well as skillful labor. Free use has been made by Dr.
Shepherd of all accessible authorities, and especially of Dr. William
Smith's invaluable, though not perfect, Dictionary of the Bible, as
well as of the Bible Dictionary prepared by the Rev. W, M. En-
gles, D. D., and previously published by the Board. The thanks
of the author and of the publishers are also given to Professor Isaac
H. Hall, by whom the sheets of the Dictionary were read, and
who, from his stores of Oriental, linguistic and archaeological infor-
mation, has rendered the work an important service.
Numerous engravings illustrating the articles are distributed
through the volume, and valuable maps are given at its close.
In the preparation of this Dictionary the leading aims have
been —
1. To make a Bible Dictionary, including only words in our An-
INTRODUCTION.
thorized Version of the Scriptures needing explanation. A few
proper names, such as " Dead Sea " and " Esdraelon," not occurring
in our English Bible, are given because of their common use and to
assist reference to their scriptural designations. Occasionally, also, a
word, such as "Games," has been admitted because of frequent allu-
sions made thereto in the Bible.
2. To indicate the precise sense in which each word treated is used
in the Scriptures. The root-ideas of the Hebrew and Greek originals,
and the English equivalents of these ideas, are carefully stated.
3. To embody the results of such recent explorations in Bible
lands, and of such study of the historic monuments of Egypt, As-
syria, Babylonia and Persia, as have thrown light upon the text
of Scripture.
4. To treat with entire freedom, and such fullness as the size of
the volume permitted, the words underlying the faith and order of
the Christian Church, as "Baptism," "Bishop," "Elder," "Elec-
tion," "Predestination" and the like.
5. And, in all, to put the largest amount of information into the
smallest space possible.
J. W. D.
THE WESTMINSTER
Bible Dictionary.
A 'a-ron [signification uncertain, prob-
ably enlightened^, eldest son of Amram
and Jochebed, both of the tribe of Levi,
and elder brother of Moses. He was
born B. c. 1574, according to the chronol-
ogy of Usher, three years before Moses
(Ex. 7:7), and probably one year before
Pharaoh's decree of death to the sons of
the enslaved Hebrews. His name occurs
first (Ex. 4 : 14) when the anger of the
Lord was kindled against Moses in Horeb
because of his reluctance to carry God's
message to the king of Egypt. The Lord
said, " Is not Aaron, the Levite, tiiy broth-
er? I know that he can speak well. And
also he cometh forth to meet thee. . . . He
shall be thy spokesman unto tlie people ;
he shall be to thee instead of a mouth, and
thou shalt be to him instead of God." Aa-
ron was then on his way, under a divine
call (Ex. 4 : 27), to invite the return of
Moses to Egypt. After a separation of
forty years, and when Aaron was eighty-
three years of age, they met in Horeb, and
together returned to fulfill their commis-
sion to their brethren of the house of Is-
rael and to Pharaoh.
From the first communication by Moses
to Aaron of the honorable but perilous
work to which God had called them, he
stood unflinchingly by his brother. He
introduced Moses to the elders of Israel,
rehearsed to them the divine message, and
then went with him into the presence of
the proud king of Egypt. All through the
interview with Pharaoh, Aaron stood at
his great brother's side, sustaining him
and acting as his spokesman. In the
Sinai wilderness, when the Israelites were
met and attacked by the Amalekites, we
find Aaron and Hur with Moses on the hill
from which he viewed the battle, uphold-
ing ills weary hands, and thus securing suc-
cess in the conflict (Ex. 17 : 8-13). When
Moses ascended Mount Sinai to receive the
law from God, Aaron and his sons, Nadab
and Abihu, with seventy elders of Israel,
were permitted, as a special token of the
divine favor, to accompany him a part of
the way, and to behold the symbol of God's
presence ( Ex. 24 : 9, 10). It was during his
absence that Moses received directions for
the organization of the ecclesiastical estab-
lishment, according to which Aaron was to
be constituted high priest, and his sons and
their descendants priests (Ex. 28). While
Moses was absent in the mount, Aaron and
Hur were entrusted with the direction and
control of tlie Israelites. In the interval
the people became impatient, and required
Aaron to make them gods to go before
them. Partly through timidity, partly
from an imperfect conviction of the sin
he was committing, he complied with their
7
8
AARON.
wicked suggestions, and constructed a gold-
en calf, in imitation of the Ivgvptian system
of idolatry, by wiiicli lie aflixcd an indelible
Ktainon iiisowu diaraoterand provoked the
displeasure of the Almighty. He attempt-
ed in vain to excuse liis conduct by transfer-
ring the guilt of it to those whose clamors
liad induced it. As a leader of the people
he should have indignantly rejected the
proposal (Ex. 32).
Having, however, repented of this sin,
he was received into favor, and was conse-
crated with imposing ceremonials the high
priest of tiie people (Lev. 8), and the of-
fice was confined to his family. Two of
his sons, Nadab and Abihu, shortly after
their consecration, probably under the in-
fluence of strong drink, were guilty of ir-
reverence in their ministrations, and were
destroyed by fire from the Lord (Lev. 10).
Aaron, though deeply wounded, accepted
the chastisement without a murmur.
When Miriam, through jealousy of
Moses' wife, revolted against his author-
ity, Aaron gave her his countenance (Num.
12). Miriam was stricken with leprosy.
Aaron promptly confessed his fault, and
was not similarly pimished ; but, as he had
thus questioned the authority of Moses,
his own authority in after yeai-s was re-
sisted by a consi)iracy headed by Korah,
Dathan and Abiram, who maintained that
he was not entitled to any exclusive priest-
ly rights. A fearful judgment from God
arrested this conspiracy and miserably de-
stroyed its chief actors. A rebellious spirit,
however, had taken jiossession of the peo-
ple, and now broke forth. The anger of
the Lord was kindled, and a grievous
plague destroyed upward of fourteen thou-
sand of them, and was only stayed by Aa-
ron's oflScial intercession (Num. 16). This
event afforded a striking attestation of
Aaron's authority. That he and liis family
might be recognized by the people as un-
doubtedly invested with this priestly pre-
rogative, the princes of the different tribes
were required to bring to Moses each a
rod inscribed with his name, Aaron's name
being placed on the rod of Levi. These
rods were deposited, by divine command,
in the tabernacle. On the following day
it was found tiiat while the rods of the
other tribes remained unchanged, that of
Aaron had budded, blossomed and brought
forth almonds. This rod was preserved as
a memorial, and for a long series of years
no instance of invasion of the priest's of-
fice was known (Num»17).
At the waters of Meribah, Aaron was
' implicated with Moses in the distrust of
God there evinced, and for this they were
forbidden to enter into the promised land
(Num. 20 : 8-13). Not many months af-
ter this the hosts of Israel came to Mount
Hor, and Aaron, accompanied by Closes
\ and by his son Eleazar, was directed to as-
cend to the top of the mountain, in view
of the people. Having been divested of
his priestly robes, which were transferred
to Eleazar, he there expired, being one
hundred and twenty-three years old. He
was buried on the mountain (Num. 20 :
22-29; 33 : 38, 39), and the Israelites
mourned for him thirty days. Mount
Hor is a rocky peak in the mountains of
i Edom, and is still known as " Mount
I Aaron." The Arabs show what they
I claim to be the tomb of Aaron on its sum-
mit, and manifest great reverence for his
memory. In Deut. 10 : 6, Aaron is said
to have died at Mosera (plural, Moseroih,
Num. 33 : 30), which appears to have been
the name of a station near Mount Hor.
Aaron married Elisheba, sister of Naa-
shon, a prince of the house of Judah. He
had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and
Ithamar (Ex. 6 : 23), of whom the first two
died before him. The high priesthood
pa.ssed to the descendants of the other
two.
Aaron was a man of true godliness. The
weak side of his character was a readiness
to be undulv influenced bv others. Whilst
AARONITES— ABDON.
with Moses he was brave, steadfast, unflinch-
ing, but away from him he was apt to fall
in with suggestions that he should have re-
sisted. This is noticeable in the affairs of
the golden calf and Miriam's revolt. Yet
is he to be honored for his long and noble
devotion to his work as a leader, for his
willingness to stand second to his younger
brother, for his submission to the rebukes
of the Lord, and for the unhesitating faith
with which he obeyed the commands of
the God of Israel. He was eminently
honored in receiving the high-priestly
office, which typified the nobler priesthood
of the Christ to come.
See Moses, Priest, Hor.
A'a-ron-ites, descendants of Aaron,
and therefore priests. Jehoiada led 3700
Aaronites in arms to the support of David
at Hebron ( 1 Chron. 1 2 : 27 ) ; later, Zadok
was their chief (1 Chron. 27 : 17).
Ab, the Hebrew word for father, which
enters into the composition of many prop-
er names, as Absalom, Abner, Abigail, A,bi-
jah, Moab, etc.
Ab, the name given after the Babylo-
nian captivity to one of the Jewish months,
being the fifth of the sacred and the elev-
enth of the civil year reckoning. It cor-
responded with parts of July and August,
and consisted of thirty days. See Month.
A-bad'don [destruction or the des-
iroyerl is the Hebrew equivalent of the
Greek ApoUyon, the title given in Rev.
9:11 to the angel of the bottomless pit
or abyss. In the Old Testament the term
Abaddon is applied to destruction (Job
31 : 12), and to the place of destruction (Job
26 : 6 ; Prov. 15 : 11). ApoUyon in Rev.
9:11 may be either the idea of destruc-
tion personified or a personal destroyer,
Satan, the angel of the bottomless pit.
Ab'a-na [in the margin Amana, still
preserved in Arabic and Greek, meaning
faithful, probably as continually flowing],
a river of Damascus, Syria, mentioned in
2 Kings 5 : 12. Naaman, spurning the
direction of Elisha to wash in Jordan for
the cure of his leprosy, indignantly asks,
"Are not Abana and Pharpar, rivers of
Damascus, better than all the waters of
Israel?" Its modern name is Barada.
It rises in the mountains west of Damas-
cus, some twenty-tliree miles from the
city. After flowing through the plain and
the city of Damascus, and carrying in its
flow an extraordinary fertility and beauty,
it loses itself in a marshy lake on the east.
(See engraving on p. 11.)
Ab^a-rim \_pasmfjex over fords], a range
of highlands on the east of the Jordan,
in Moab, facing Jericho and forming at
that part the eastern wall of the Jordan
valley. The range presents many distinct
masses and elevations, commanding exten-
sive and exquisite views of the country
west of the river. From one of the high-
est of these, called Mount Nebo, Moses
surveyed the Promised Land. From the
manner in which the names Abarim, Ne-
bo and Pisgah are associated in Deut.
32 : 49 and 34 : 1, it has been inferred
that Abarim is the general name for the
mountain-chain, Pisgah the specific name
of a ridge, and Nebo the topmost peak of
Pisgah. See Nebo and Pisgah.
Ab'ba [^father], from the Hebrew word
Ab, of which it is the Aramaic form, oc-
curs in Mark 14 : 3G ; Rom. 8 : 15 ; Gal.
4 : 6, where it is translated /a<Aer. It was
used as a term of endearment by children
in speaking to their fother, like our
"papa," and expresses trustful love. It
is a title given to priests of Oriental
churches; and the old I]nglish title of
abbot, the head or father of a religious
community, is derived from it, as is also
pope (papa). When believers receive the
Spirit of adoption, they are justified in ad-
dressing God as Abba, Father (Gal. 4:6).
Ab'don [.secviVe], the name of a judge
and of a city.
1. The tenth judge of Israel, who seems
to have enjoyed a peaceful government of
10
ABEDNEGO— ABEL-MIZRAIM.
eight years. He had forty sons and thirty
nephews who rode on young asses, an evi-
dence of the influence of liis family ( Judg.
12 : 13-15). The name was a common one,
as four other persons bearing it are men-
tioned (1 Chron. 8 : 2o, 30; 9 : 36; 2
Chron. 34 : 20).
2. A city of the tribe of Asher, given
to the Lovites (Josh. 21 : 30).
A-bed'ne-go [servant of Kego or
Nebol, the Chaldean name given to Aza-
riah, one of the three captive princes who
were companions, of Daniel at the court
of Babylon (Dan. 1:7). He, with Shad-
rach and Meshach, was cast into a fiery
furnace for refusing to worship the golden
image which Nebuchadnezzar had set up
in the ^^lain of Dura, and was miraculously
delivered (Dan. 3).
A'bel, Hebrew, Hebel {^breath, vapor,
tnaifiitoriness^, the second son of Adam
and Fve, born after their fall into sin and
their expulsion from Eden. His story is
told in Gen. 4. Abel, although inherit-
ing the corrupt nature of his parents, was
eminent for piety. Our Lord (Matt. 23 :
35) distinguishes him as the " righte^rs
Abel." He was the first of the human
family who endured the pains of death,
the first martyr who scaled his testimony
to the gospel with his blopd. In obedi-
ence to God's command, he offered in sac-
rifice the firstlings of his flock, wliilst
his elder brother, Cain, refused to do so,
and in the spirit of presumption and pride
brought a bloodle-ss ofi'ering of "fruit of
the ground." By some visible sign — such,
most likely, as the sending of fire from
heaven to consume the victim — God at-
tested the acceptance of Abel's oflTering
and the rejection of Cain's. This so en-
raged Cain that lie " rose up against Abel
his brotlicr and slew him" (Gen. 4: 8).
In Heb. 11:4 the superior excellence,
and the consequent acceptance, of Abel's
offering are referred to his " faith." Hence
we infer that God had revealed with
more or less clearness the grand doctrine
of redemption, and had required bloody
sacrifices as the significant types of the
one great sacrifice. This revelation Abel
received ; this requirement Abel met.
I Cain, however, rejected both, and was
himself rejected.
A'bel signifies a meadow or grassy plain,
and, with distinguishing additions, is asso-
ciated with several towns in Palestine.
A'bel-Beth-Ma^a-chah [Abel of
the bouse of Maachnh], a city in the north
[ of Palestine, within the limits of the tribe
of Naphtali, in the neighborhood of Dan.
From its importance it is designated (2
: Sam. 20 : 19) "a mother in Israel;" that
is, a metropolis. It was also called Abel-
I Maim, or "Abel on the waters." (Com-
pare 2 Sam. 20 : 14, 15 and 2 Chron. 16 :
4.) It was besieged by Joab on account
of its sheltering Sheba the son of Bichri,
a Benjamite, who had rebelled against
King David, but was saved from over-
throw by the compliance of its inhabit-
ants with the suggestion of a wise woman
! that the head of Sheba should be struck
off" and cast over the wall (2 Sam. 20 : 14-
22). It was afterward taken by Benha-
dad (1 Kings 15 : 20), and two hundred
years after by Tiglath-pileser, who car-
ried its inhabitants into captivity (2 Kings
15 : 29).
A'bel-Ce-ra'mim [plain of the vine-
yards'l. It is referred to, by a translation
of its name, in Judg. 11 : 33. It wiis a
village of the Ammonites, east of Jordan.
A'bel-Me-ho'lah [plain of the dance],
in the north part of the Jordan valley,
west of Jordan and ten miles south of
Bethshean (1 Kings 4 : 12). It was the
birthplace or residence of Elisiia (1 Kings
19 : 16). The Midianites fled thither to
reach the river when defeated by Gideon
(Judg. 7 : 22).
A'bel-Miz'ra-im [the mourning of
the Egypt iiins'l, the name given to the
threshing-floor of Atad, because there
12
A BEL-SH I TTI M— A BIB.
Joseph and the funeral procession tliat
aocompanied him from Egypt "mourned
with a great and very sore lamentation"
over the patriarch Jacob (Gen. 50: 11).
Its position lias been a question in dis-
pute. We should look for it in the
neighborhood of Hebron, where was the
cave of Maclipelah.
A'bel-Shit'tim [meadow of the acn-
r/fi.s-], a town in the plains of Moab, on the
east of Jordan, between which and Betli-
Jesimoth the Israelites made tlieir last
encampments before the passage of Jor-
dan (Num. 33 : 49). It is often called
Shitfini, as in Num. 25 : 1. From this
l>lace Joshua sent out spies to visit Jeri-
cho (Josh. 2:1). Here too the Israel-
ites were seduced by the daughters of
Moab into the obscene idolatries of Baal-
peor, and were punished tlierefor by a
plague (Num. 25 : 1-9).
A'bi, sliortened form of Abijah, the
mother of King Hezekiah. (Compare 2
Kings 18 : 2 with 2 Chron. 29 : 1.)
A-bi'a, the Greek form of the Hebrew
Abijah (Matt. 1:7). In Luke 1 : -5, Za-
charias the priest, and father of John the
Baptist, is spoken of as pertaining to the
"course of Abia." The priests were di-
vided into twenty-four courses or classes,
each in its turn to be engaged in the pub-
lic ministrations (1 Chron. 24). The
course of Abia or Abijah was the eighth
in order.
A-bi'ah, a less correct English form
of Abijah. It occurs four times in the
Old Testament, notably as the name of
the second son of tiie propliet Samuel, by
whom he was appointed a judge over Is-
rael, in connection with his brother Joel.
Their administration, however, was so
glaringly corrupt that tiie people beciime
disgusted, and demanded a king (1 Sam.
8 : 2-5).
A-bi'a-thar [fnlhcr of ahundance, or
liberal'], the sou of Ahimelech, liigh priest
of Israel, and loiitli in descent from Eli
in the line of Itliamar. When his father,
who was iiigli ])riest, was slain by the
conunand of Saul for his supposed friend-
siup for David (1 Sam. 22), Abiathar es-
caped the massacre to whicii his family
was doomed, and takinix witli iiim tlie
epliod, a priestly garment, he repaired to
David at the cave of Adullam. He be-
came the priest of David's party, and in-
quired of the Lord for him in times of
doubt and danger (1 Sam. 23 : 9 ; 30 : 7),
adhering to him in all his trials.
On David's accession to the throne he
seems to have recognized both Abiathar
and Zadok as high priests (1 Kings 4:4).
At the abdication of David in favor of Solo-
mon, Abiathar wrongly favored the succes-
sion of Adonijah to the throne. For this,
Solomon, on his accession, displaced him,
and recognized Zadok as having exclusive
possession of the office ( 1 Kings 2 : 26, 27).
The deposition of Abiathar was in strict
fulfilment of the doom pronounced by the
Lord against the house of Eli, he being
the last of the priests in that line (1 Sam.
2 : .30-36).
In Mark 2 : 26 there is a reference to
David's eating the shew-bread in the house
of God in the days of Abiathar the higli
priest, and in 1 Sam. 21 : 1-6 this is saiil
to have occurred when Ahimelech was
high priest. Abiathar was probably as-
sociated in service with his father at that
time, and, afterward becoming high priest
was spoken of as high priest in connection
with that event — {. e. " in the days of Abi-
athar, afterward high priest." In 2 Sam.
8 : 17; 1 Chron. 18 : 16; 24 : .3, 6, 31,
Ahimelech or Abimelecli is spoken of as
the son of Abiathar, or as high priest in
the days of David. The two names seem
to have been transposed by a copyist.
The Syriac and Arabic versions have
"Abiathar the son of Ahimelech" in
these places (Kitto). See Zadok.
A'bib [heads or ears of grain, green
ears}, one of the Hebrew months (Ex.
ABIDE— ABU AH.
13
13 : 4), afterward called Nisan (Neh. 2 :
1 ). As the montli of newly-ripe grain, it
indicates the season of spring, and is sup-
posed to correspond with part of March
and part of April. Because on its fifteenth
day the Israelites made their exodus from
Egypt, it was associated with the passover,
and was reckoned the first month in the
sacred year reckoning.
Abide, an old English word having
the sense of mvait (Acts 20 : 23), and
passing by easy transition to the sense of
bear, endure (Num. 31 : 23 ; Joel 2 : 11).
Ab'i-el [my father is God}, the father
of Kish, and grandfather of Saul the first
king of the Israelites (1 Sam. 9:1). An-
other of the same name was one of the
thirty of the most distinguished men of
David's army (1 Chron. 11 : 32).
A-bi-e''zer [my father is help, or help-
ful], a native of Anathoth, one of David's
thirty chief warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 27 ; 1
Chron. 11 : 28 ; 27 : 12). The military
exploits of a family of the same name,
d '■ ;ended from Manasseh (Josh. 17:2),
and to which Gideon belonged ( Judg. 6 :
11), are referred to in Judg. 8 : 2.
Ab'i-gail [my father is joy, joyous},
the name of two women.
1. David's sister, the wife of Jether or
Ithra, an Ishmaelite, and the mother of
Amasa (1 Chron. 2 : 17).
2. The wife of Nabal, a wealthy man with
large possessions in Carmel of Judah, about
ten miles south of Hebron. The dispositions
of the two were in striking contrast. Nabal
was churlish and selfish, while his wife was
not only distinguished for her personal
beauty, but for her discretion and kind-
ness. When David was fleeing from the
fury of Saul he came with his followers
to the mountainous country where Nabal's
flocks were fed, and his presence was the
means of their protection. On represent-
ing this to Nabal, and asking for some re-
turn of kindness, he was treated with rude-
ness and insult. This so exasperated David
that he would have visited Nabal with sig-
nal vengeance had not Abigail disarmed
him by kindness and delicate liberality.
David was so pleased with her beauty and
discretion that he married her after the
death of Nabal (1 Sam. 25). See Nabal.
A-bi-ha^il [my father is might, mighty},
the second wife of Rehoboam, king of
Judah. She is called the daughter of
Eliab, David's elder brother ; but as Da-
vid began to reign more than eighty years
before her marriage, and was thirty years
old when he became king, we are no doubt
to understand the expression as meaning
that she was a descendant of Eliab, the term
"daughter" often having this general sense
(2 Chron. 11 : 18).
Several other persons bear the same
name, as (1) Abihail, father of Zuriel,
the father of the Levitical families of
Merari (Num. 3 : 35) ; (2) the wife of
Abishur (1 Chron. 2 : 29); (3) Abihail,
one of the heads of families of the tribe
of Gad (1 Chron. 5:14); and (4) Abihail,
the father of Queen Esther and uncle of
Mordecai (Esth. 2 : 15).
A-bi'hu [my father is He — i. e. God,
meaning worshiper of God}, the second of
the sons of Aaron, who, with his three broth-
ers, was consecrated to the priesthood (Ex.
28 : 1). The priests were required, in
burning the daily incense, to use the per-
petual fire which was kept burning on the
great brazen altar. Nadab and Abihu used
common, or, as it is called in Scripture,
strange fire, and for this irreverence were
destroyed by fire from heaven (Lev. 10 :
1-1 ] ). The prohibition of wine and strong
drink to priests whose turn it should be to
enter the tabernacle, which follows the
narration of this judgment on Nadab and
Ablhu, leads to the belief that intoxica-
tion was the cause of their sin and punish-
ment. Both died childless (Num. 3: 4).
A-bi'jah [my father is Jah — /. e. wor-
shiper of Jehovah}, a common Hebrew name,
the same as Abia and Abiah (which see).
14
A RI LKN P:— ABINADAB.
1 . The son of Rehoboam and grandson
of Solomon, second king of the separate
kingdom of Judah. He began to reign
B. c. 958, and reigned three years. On
taking tlie throne he made an earnest at-
tempt to bring back the ten tribes to their
allegiance. Although he defeated the army
of Israel led by Jerol)oani, he failed to unite
the ten tribes with Judah (2 Chron. 13).
His speech to the army of Jeroboam shows
that he recognized Jehovah as the sove-
reign God, but his life was not that of a
child of God. "He walked in all the sins
of his father, and was not perfect with the
Lord" (1 Kings 15 : 3). In Kings he is
called Abijam, perhaps because deemed
unworthy of the title of a worshiper of
Jehovah.
2. A little son of Jeroboam, the story of
whose death is touchingly told in 1 Kings
14.
3. The daughter of Zechariah, mother
of King Hezekiah and wife of Ahaz (2
Chron. 29 : 1 ), called Abi (2 Kings 18:2).
A-bi-le'ne, a tract of country the ex-
tent of which is not precisely known, but
it is thought to have embraced the eastern
declivities of Anti-Libanus and the fertile
valleys at its base. In Luke 3 : 1, Lysa-
nias is referred to as the tetrarch of Abi-
lene, and Pococke mentions an inscription
among the ruins of Abila (now Su/c Warhj
Barada), the chief city of the province,
containing the words " Lysanias Tetrarch."
A-biin'e-lech [my father is king'], the
common title of the kings of Philistia,
as Pharaoh was that of the kings of
Egypt.
1. The first one of the name mentioned
in Scripture was Abimelech, king of Ge-
rar, who was contemporary with Abram.
In Gen. 20 is a narrative connected with
Abram's visit to Gerar. Abimelech, sup-
posing Sarai to be the sister, and not the
wife, of Abram, had her brought into his
harem, an act of violence quite in accord-
ance with Oriental ideas. In obedience to
a divine warning, Abimelech restored Sa-
rai to her husband.
2. At a subsequent period Isaac was driven
by stress of famine to visit the same place,
which was then governed by another king
of the same name, and, following his fa-
ther's evil example, he was guilty of a
similar deception in regard to his wife
Rebekah (Gen. 26).
3. A son of Gideon, one of the judges
of Israel. Gideon had seventy sons, among
whom Abimelech was the most enterpris-
ing and unprincipled. Having insinuated
himself into the favor of the Shechemites,
he slew all his brothers except Jotham, the
youngest, who escaped. After this barba-
rous massacre he was made king. Retrib-
utive justice awaited liim. Many of his
subjects revolted, and while he was at-
tempting to reduce Thebez, which was en-
gaged in the revolt, a woman threw down
from the tower a piece of millstone, which
fractured his skull. Finding himself mor-
tally wounded, he commanded his armor-
bearer to thrust him through the body,
lest it should be said that he fell by a
woman's hand (Judg. 9 : 54). For a war-
rior to be slain by a woman was regarded
as a terribly ignominious death. Vainly,
however, did Abimelech attempt to escape
this disgrace, for the fact of his death by
the hand of a woman was long after asso-
ciated with his memory (2 Sam. 11 : 21).
A-bin'a-dab [?»?/ father is noble —
noble], the name of several men.
1. The Levite of Kirjath-jearim in
whose house the ark was deposited after
the Philistines had restored it to the
Israelites. There it remained eighty
years, until removed by David (1 Sam.
7 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 3, 4; 1 Chron. 13 : 7).
2. One of Saul's sons, who was slain
with him at the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam.
31 : 2).
3. The second of the eight sons of Jes-
se, the flither of David (1 Sam. 16 : 8;
17 : 13).
ABIRAM— ABOMINABLE.
15
4. The father of one of the twelve offi-
cers appointed by Solomon to provide for
the royal household (1 Kings 4 : 11).
A-bi^ram [my father is exalted].
1. A chief of the tribe of Reuben, and
one of the conspirators against Moses in
the wilderness, for which crime he, with
Korah and Dathan, was engulfed by the
opening earth (Num. 16 : 1-33).
2. The eldest son of Hiel the Bethelite,
who died prematurely in fulfillment of the
curse pronounced against the man who
should rebuild Jericho (Josh. 6 : 26 and
1 Kings 16 : 34).
Ab'i-shag [meaning doubtful, per-
haps given to error], a fair young woman
of Shunem, in the tribe of Issachar, se-
lected to cherish David in his declining
age (1 Kings 1 : 3). After the death of
David, Adonijah, as a step to the throne,
engaged in an intrigue to marry Abishag,
and thereupon was put to death by Sol-
omon (1 Kings 2 : 17-25).
Ab'i-shai [my father is a gift — gifted],
a nephew of David, through his sister Ze-
ruiah, who zealously devoted himself to the
interests of his uncle. He was David's
companion in the daring exploit of pass-
ing through the sleeping guards to where
Saul slept (1 Sam. 26 : 5-9). When Shim-
ei reviled David, Abishai turned to slay
the foul-mouthed assailant of his king (2
Sam. 16 : 9). In suppressing the rebel-
lion of Absalom he commanded one of
the three divisions of David's army (2
Sam. 18 : 2). When David's life was en-
dangered by the giant Ishbi-benob, Abi-
shai interposed for his succor and killed
the giant (2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17). He was
distinguished as having slain three hun-
dred men (1 Chron. 11 : 20). The victory
over Edom in the Valley of Salt is ascribed
to him (1 Chron. 18 : 12) ; and he probably
was the one who gained the battle, al-
though in 2 Sam. 8:13 the achieve-
ment is ascribed to David as commander-
in-chief. He was a valiant man, chival-
rous and impetuous, and intensely attached
to David, who valued him more as a dar-
ing warrior than as a wise counsellor.
His history is closely associated with that
of his more politic brother, Joab.
Ab'ner [my father is light — tliat is, en-
lightener], the son of Ner and uncle of
Saul, of whose armies he was the chief
leader (1 Sam. 14 : 50; 17 : 55; 20 : 25;
26 : 5). Although it was known that Da-
vid had been divinely designated as the
successor of Saul, at that monarch's death
Abner, presuming on the great influence
he had acquired with the people, pro-
claimed Ishbosheth, Saul's feeble son (2
Sam. 2 : 8), and upheld his government
until it suited his schemes to abandon
him. The tribe of Judah adhered to
David, who appointed Joab his chief
captain. The two armies, led by Joab
and Abner, engaged in battle, which re-
sulted in the defeat of the latter. In his
flight Abner was pursued by Asahel,
Joab's brother. Notwithstanding the
warning of Abner, Asahel came so near
that Abner, by a back thrust of his spear,
pierced him through the body (2 Sam. 2 :
23). On a subsequent occasion Ishbo-
sheth enraged Abner by rebuking him
for marrying Eizpah, Saul's concubine,
and the treacherous captain immediately
made overtures to David to deliver up to
him the kingdom. While engaged in
settling the preliminaries, Joab availed
himself of a secret opportunity of killing
Abner in revenge for his brother Asahel's
death, and at the same time to remove a
rival. David lamented the death of Ab-
ner and paid him high fimeral honors
(2 Sam. 3 : 38). Abner left one son,
Jaasiel (1 Chron. 27 : 21), who was
made chief of the tribe of Benjamin
by Solomon.
A-bom'i-na-ble, A-bom-i-na'-
tion. These terms are applied in the
Scriptures to objects awakening disgust or
abhorrence, to impurity, falsehood, fraud,
16
ABRAHAM.
pride, but especially to idols and idolatry.
See Idolatry.
In Gen 4;5 : 32 it is said that it is an
abomination to the Efjyptians to eat bread
with the Hebrews. The P^gyptians were
ceremonially defiled by eating witli for-
eigners, and so with the Hebrews. This
feeling was intensified as to the Hebrews
by the fact that they offered in sacrifice the
cow and ate its flesh, whilst to the Egyp-
tians it was a sacred animal and an object
of worship (Ex. 8 : 26).
In Gen. 46 : 34, it is said that " every
shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyp-
tians." This seems to have reference to
nomads or wandering shepherds, such as
are the Bedouin of to-day, and to have
been due to an early invasion and oppres-
sion of the Egyptians by their nomadic
neiglibors on the north-east, and to the ir-
ritations of local depredations at a later
day. This feeling still exists between the
Egyptians and the Bedouin.
The Abomination of Desolation, or
" the abomination that maketh desolate,"
spoken of in Dan. 9 : 27 ; 11 : 31 ; and J 2 :
11, refers to the idolatrous symbols which
the desolating conqueror of Jerusalem
would set up in the holy place. These
prophecies were fulfilled, first, in the pol-
lution of the temple by Antiochus Epiph-
anes, who dedicated it to Jupiter, 170 B. c. ;
and secondly, a.s foretold by Christ in Matt.
24 : 15: "When ye, therefore, shall see
the abomination of desolation, spoken of
by Daniel the prophet, stand in the holy
place," in the advance of the Roman ar-
mies upon Jerusalem and their planting
in the temple their military standards.
These standards were crowned with im-
ages, were paid idolatrous homage by the
Romans and were regarded a.s idols by the
Jews. Such was the abomination of the
Jews for these standards that the Roman
soldiers quartered in Jerusalem did not
bring them into tlie city, even Pilate con-
ceding this point to its people. History
tells us that the Christians in Jerusalem,
admonished by their Master's words (Matt.
24 : 16), found opportunity to leave Jeru-
! salem on the approach of Vespasian, before
the siege had been beg\in by Titus, and
to take refuge in Pella. Titus surrounded
the city with a wall in three days, wlien
escape would have been impossible.
A'bra-hara [father of a multitude^,
originally called Abram [high father],
the son of Terah and a descendant of
I Shem in the ninth generation. He was
i the brother of Nahor and Haran. The
latter died young, leaving a son. Lot, to
the care of his uncle. Haran also left
two daughters, of whom one, Iscah, called
also Sarai, became the wife of Abraham.
He was born in "Ur of the Chaldees"
about B. c. 1996 (Gen. 11 : 27, 28). Obe-
dient to a divine call, he left the place of
his nativity, and abode in Haran or Char-
ran (Acts 7:4) until the death of his fa-
ther. After this event, when seventy-five
years old, in company with his wife Sarai
(afterward Sarah) and his nephew Lot, he
journeyed to the land of Canaan, then
thinly populated by the Canaanites, and
there lived a pastoral life, dwelling in
tents and feeding his flocks where the
pastures proved inviting.
On his arrival at Sichem the Lord ap-
1 peared to him and renewed his promise
that he would make of him a great nation
and secure Canaan as a heritage for his
posterity. The promise of God not only
respected his temporal greatness, but, inas-
much as it declared that in him should all
the families of the earth be blessed, it in-
cluded the spiritual blessings which should
' enrich the world on the coming of the Mes-
siah, who was to descend from him (Gen.
12:2, 3). A famine driving Abraham
1 into Egypt, then the granary of the world,
I he was guilty of deceit in relation to his
wife. Fear lest the beauty of Sarai might
prompt the Egyptians to kill him induced
him to call her his sister, and led to her
ABRAHAM.
17
being taken to the harem of the king (Gen.
12 : 10-20). Pharaoh, liowever, who had
been deceived by him, instead of punish-
ing him, loaded him with favors and sent
him away.
Having acquired considerable wealtli
(Gen. 13 : 2), he left Egypt with Lot,
and returned to Canaan. The extent of
their flocks was the occasion of a differ-
ence which induced them amicably to sep-
arate, the choice being nobly conceded
by Abraham to his nephew, who chose
the well-watered plain in which Sodom
was situated. Shortly after this the Lord
cheered Abraham by a repetition of his
promise that he should possess Canaan
with a numerous posterity (Gen. 13 : 14-
17). He then repaired to Mamre, near
Hebron. The country in which Lot dwelt
was at this time tributary to Chedorlao-
mer, king of Elam, east of the Euphrates.
This king invaded the land on its refusing
to pay him the customary tribute; Lot,
with his household and flocks, was, with
others, seized and carried into captivity.
Abraham, hearing of his disaster, armed
his servants to the number of three hun-
dred and eighteen, and, pursuing the cap-
tors, overtook them near the springs of the
Jordan, defeated them, liberated Lot and
recovered his property. Reaching Salem
on his return, he was met by its king and
priest, Melchizedek, to whom he presented
a tenth of the spoils. By strict right, ac-
cording to war-usages, all that had been
recovei'ed belonged to Abraham. This
was recognized by the king of Sodom,
but Abraham, with characteristic dignity
and generosity, positively refused to re-
ceive any compensation.
Abraham was at this time childless, and
the promise was again renewed that he
should have a posterity which, after be-
ing in bondage four hundred years, should
inherit the land. Sarai proposed that he
should take Hagar as a second wife, and
by her he had Ishmael. Thirteen years
2
after, when Abraham was ninety-nine years
old, he had a remarkable Vision, in which
God assured him that the heir of the prom-
ise was not yet born, and that Sarai should
bear him a son. At this time his name
was changed from Abram to Abraham,
and his wife's from Sarai to Sarah (Gen.
17). Circumcision was also appointed as
the seal of the covenant between God and
him, and the male members of his family
received the seal. A few months after this,
three persons, in appearance travellers, ap-
proached the tent of Abraham as he sat at
its door in the heat of the day. As the
language used on the occasion plainly
shows, one was the Lord, or, as may be in-
ferred, the Son of God, with two attend-
ant angels, who communicated to Abra-
ham the intention of the Lord to destroy
the cities of the plain. Abraham was
permitted to intercede for the doomed
cities, and if there had been ten righteous
persons found in them his intercession
would have availed for their safety. As
it was. Lot and his daughters were the
only persons saved from the cities of the
plain.
Abraham then went to Gerar, where he
was guilty of a duplicity similar to that
practiced by him in Egypt (Gen. 20). See
Abimelech.
About the year b. c. 1897, Isaac, the
child of promise, was born. This greatly
altered the situation of Ishmael in his fa-
ther's house, and resulted in the exile of
himself and his mother Hagar.
When Isaac was about twenty years old
the Lord was pleased to subject the faith
of Abraham to a very sore trial. He was
commanded to go to the mountainous coun-
try of Moriah, and there to offer up his son,
the child of promise, as a sacrifice. Being
assured that tlie commandment, mysterious
as it was, came from tlie Lord, he instant-
ly prepared to obey it, believing that " God
was able to raise him up even from the
dead" (Heb. 11 : 17-19). The Lord in-
IS
ABSALOM.
terposed after Isaac had been bound and
laid upon tlie altar, and a ram Wiis pro-
vided for the sacrifice (Gen. 22).
Eight years after this Sarah died at the
age of one hundred and twenty-seven, at
or near Hebron (Gen. 23 : 1, 2). This led
Abraham to take steps to secure a place
for burial. He purchased the cave of
Machpclah as a family -sepulchre, the only
possession he ever had in the land of prom-
ise (Gen. 23). The next care of the patri-
arch was to obtain a suitable wife for his
son Isaac. This was done by the embassy
of Eliezer, who was instructed to go to
Abraham's kindred in Haran (Gen. 24),
whence in due time he returned with
Rebekah, the daughter of iSTahor's son
Bethuel.
Abraham afterward married Keturah,
and had several children, to whom lie
gave portions, but Isaac was constituted
his heir and the head of his house. At
the age of one lumdred and seventy-five
the patriarcli died, and Avas buried by
Isaac and Ishmael in the same tomb
with Sarah at Hebron ((Jen. 25 : 8-10).
A Mohammedan mosque now covers the
spot.
Abraham's name is honored the world
over. Besides the Israelites, the Edom-
itcs, ^lidianites and Ishmaelites of ancient
time looked up to him as their progenitor.
He was honored with the title of " Friend
of God " (James 2 : 23), and by that title he
is still known and revered by the Moham-
medans of every land. All Cliristians are
accounted as his spiritual seed and are
heirs with him of the promise. As a
man he was the type of devotion, faith,
courtesy and magnanimity, but he is more
eminent for having been called of God to
be the head of the visible Church, to con-
serve the worsiiip of the true God, to be
the progenitor of Christ and the father of
the faithful in all lands and ages. Inter-
esting as is the study of his life for the
light it throws upon the patriarchal times.
ftir more important is it for its illustrations
of tlie divine plans and government.
Abraham's Bos'om. Our Lord, in
speaking of the condition of Lazarus after
death, represents it as that of one "carried
by the angels into Abraham's bosom" ( Luke
16 : 22). He thus conveys to the mind of
a Jew the very definite idea of a state cha-
racterized by equal happiness and honor,
the highest joys of paradise. His al-
lusion is to that Eastern mode of re-
clining at table by which tlie one who sat
next to tlie master of the feast was neces-
sarily brought almost into his bosom, and
was consequently regarded as occupying
the place of highest distinction.
Ab'sa-lom \_father of peace, or peace-
full, called also Abishalom \_7ny father
is peace], (1 Kings 15 : 2, 10), son of
David by Maachah, daughter of Tal-
mai, king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3 : 3).
He was distinguished by his beauty, in-
herited from both his father and mother,
and also by vanity, ambition and a reck-
lessness that stopped at no crime in the
pursuit of his aims. His personal for-
tunes were determined and darkened by
the fact that he was the son of one of
David's numerous wives.
Polygamy is a sin against the family as
well as against God. David's polygamy
cursed his home and himself. Rival in-
terests sprang up in the circle that God
meant for a unit. David's eldest son,
Amnon, who dishonored his half-sister
Tamar, and was in consequence murdered
by her full brother Absalom (2 Sam. 13 :
29), was the son of Ahinoam. His sec-
ond son, by Abigail, disappeared from his-
tory and probably died young. Absalom,
the third son, owned a third mother, Maa-
chah, daughter of a Syrian prince, "the
king of (jeshur." Doubtless David sought
by this alliance greater security, changing
his troublesome neighbors in the rocky
Lejah, on his north-eastern border, from
foes to kinsmen. But discord entered
ABSALOM.
19
David's household. Aninon might well
aspire to the throne by virtue of prior-
ity in birth, whilst Absalom, son of a
king and with a king's daughter for his
mother, would despise the son of the
hiunble Jezreelitess, wedded by David
whilst yet but a private person. But it
was yet another son of another mother
who was chosen by God to succeed his
father on the throne. Here entered dis-
cord, jealousy, enmity, to sow the seeds of
strife and assassination.
Absalom did not inherit from his
mother his peerless beauty alone. From
her, no doubt, he caught the traits of the
Syrian of the Lejali. Reckless, cunning,
ambitious, passionate, he reflected the
characteristics of the heathenism which
David brought into his harem. If the
mother determines the formative years of
the boy where tlie family is a unit, much
more will slie have this power wliere each
mother is the head of her own inner cir-
cle, and where the father to that circle is
but a fraction of a father. When with
his fatlier, Absalom was the spoiled boy
of beauty — the petted, the fondled, the
indulged, but not the disciplined son.
Tlius he grew to manhood, with the ele-
ments of evil stored away in his soul, and
ready in a moment to combine and to
burst into fearfid violence.
A spark at length dropped on the mag-
azine. Hitherto, Absalom had been the
brilliant, liandsome, fascinating prince.
Tlie cruel wrong done his sister Tamar
by his elder brother Amnon wa.s the
spark. But the explosion did not im-
mediately follow. With true Oriental
power of repression, for two long years
he locked his purpose of revenge within
his own breast. Month after month the
avenger's anger kept hot, whilst outward-
ly all was calm. At length his opportu-
nity came. Amnon ceased to be on his
guard, and the knives of his brother's re-
tainers were in his heart (2 Sam. 13 : 1-29).
Absalom's flight to his Syrian grand-
father's fastness secured his life, but did
not mend his morals. Three years at a
heathen court, with nothing good to do,
might spoil a better man than Absalom.
He returned to Jerusalem, to wait yet two
years for permission to enter his father's
presence, and to brood over his exclusion.
At length, by a contrivance of Joab, he
was admitted again to the presence of the
king (2 Sam. 14). But no sooner was he
received at court than he began to plot
for the usurpation of his Other's throne.
Pillar of Absalom,
When the plot was sufSciently matured
he repaired to Hebron and caused him-
self to be proclaimed king. Ahitliophel,
a man of great political sagacity, became
his counselor, and advised a prompt move-
ment against David before he could make
proper preparations for defence. Had
this counsel been followed, humanly
speaking, his success would liave been
certain. David, however, had prayed
that the counsel of Ahithophel might be
defeated, and through Husliai, the secret
friend of David, Absalom was prevailed
on to delay, by which he lost the oppor-
20
ABSTINENCE— ACCHO.
tunity of completing his revolution (2
Sam. 17).
David retired to the east of the Jordan,
and made his stand at Mahanaim, near
the ford of tlie torrent Jabbok. At the
end of three months Absalom moved
upon his father's army, and an engage-
ment took place in the wood of Ephraim,
which resulted in the defeat of the rebel-
lious son.
A company of David's men came upon
him riding on his mule. He turned aside
to escape, but his liead was caught and
jammed between tlie branches of a great
terebinth tree — Josephus says, entangled
by his flowing hair — so that he was held
fast, while the mule passed from imder
him and left him hanging " between
lieaven and earth." This situation was
speedily reported to Joab, who seized
three javelins, and, coming to the place,
thrust them into the swaying body, and
was soon followed by his armor-bearers,
who gave the finishing-strokes.
Joab with tlie trumj^et gave the signal
for a halt, and withdrew the army. The
rebellion ceased in the deatli of the rebel,
and no more blood was to be shed. The
body of Absalom was thrown into a pit
and stones were cast upon it (2 Sam. 18).
The name of Absalom is execrated
alike by Jew, Mohammedan and Chris-
tian. Having no male children, he had
erected in the King's Dale, near Jerusa-
lem, a column to perpetuate his memory.
A monument called " Absalom's Pillar" is
shown in the valley of Jehoshaphat,
wliich is unquestionably a structure of
mucli more modern date than tlie times
of Absalom, liut may stand on the site of
tiie original monument. Every Jew who
passes casts a stone at it in abhorrence of
the memory of the unnatural prince.
Ab'stinence [not eatiiir/'], a general
term to express the refraining from some-
thing to which we are inclined or in
which we find pleasure. It occurs but
once in the New Testament (Acts 27 : 21),
where it has the sense of refraining from
food. The verb abstain, from a diflferent
Greek root, is not infrequently met with,
and is associated with injunctions to re-
frain from numerous forms of evil (Acts
15 : 20 ; 1 Tliess. 4 : 3 ; 1 Pet. 2:11).
Ac'cad [fortress], one of tlie cities
built by Nimrod in the land of Shinar
(Gen. 10 : 10). About five miles from
Bagdad, in the midst of a marsh west of
the Tigris, there is a gigantic pile of ruins
which some suppose to be the site of an-
cient Accad. Another and perhaps a more
probable conjecture locates the city above
Babylon, near Sepharvaim. Before Bab-
ylon emerged from obscurity Accad was
prominent. About B. c. 1800, Sargon I. re-
built it, made it his capital and the seat of a
famous library of Accadian literature.
The city of Accad was the capital of a dis-
trict of tlie same name, and city and dis-
trict were thus denominated from their or-
iginal inhabitants, the Accadai or " High-
landers." These Accadai were Hamites,
who in the earliest times possessed them-
selves of a portion of Shinar, who orig-
inated the Tigro-Euphratean arts and
sciences, who developed a remarkable
agglutinative language and an equally
remarkable system of writing, and who
made their land the country of classical
cuneiform literature, from which, subse-
quently, all the great Assyrian works were
copied.
Ac^cho [hotsond], the modern Acca or
Acre. In the partition of the Holy Land
this place was assigned to the tribe of Asher,
but the original inhabitants were not dis-
possessed ( Judg. 1 : 31 ). It is situated
about thirty miles south of Tyre, on the
north-western point of a commodious bay
called the Bay of Acre, the southern point
of which is formed by Mount C'arniel. Its
western shore is washed by tlie Mediterra-
nean. Before the Christian era it fell into
the hands of one of the Ptolemies of Egypt,
ACCURSED— ACHISH.
21
probably Soter, who enlarged and beautified
it, and from him it received the name of
Ptolemais. Under this name it is referred
to (Acts 21 : 7) as a place in which the gos-
pel had met with some success. During
the Crusades it was known as Aeon, and the
knights of St. John of Jerusalem, having
taken possession of it, gave it the name of
St. Jean d'Acre. Modern travelers have
discovered many striking remains of this
ancient city, but these are rapidly disap-
pearing, being used as materials for other
structures. It is a place susceptible of
strong defence, and in its eventful history,
even down to very late times, it has fre-
quently been besieged. At present it con-
tains about eight thousand inhabitants, but
its internal does not correspond with its im-
posing external appearance. Its trade is
now nuich reduced and the bazaars are
deserted. The whole place has a desolate
appearance.
Ac-cur'sed [cherem in Hebrew, and
anathema in Greek] is a term signifying
primarily a devotion of persons or things
to Jehovah, to be his entirely. Persons
thus devoted were to die (Lev. 27 : 29 ; 1
Sam. 14 : 24, 44) ; cattle and other prop-
erty were to be given to the service of the
Lord in the tabernacle or by the priest-
hood (Lev. 27 : 2S ; Num. 18 : 14). The
law in respect to idolatrous cities is stated
in Deut. 1.3 : 12-17. Of an accursed city
and of an accursed man, Jericho and
Achan are examples respectively. Jer-
icho was accursed, devoted to destruction
(Josh. 6 : 17) ; Achan, having violated the
anathema (Josh. 7:11), was punished witli
death (Josh. 7 : 15-25). It has also a more
general sense, as in Rom. 9 : o ; 1 Cor. 12 :
3; 16: 22; Gal. 1 : 9.
Subsequently the same term was used to
signify excommunication, the casting of a
Jew out of the synagogue. See Anath-
ema.
A-ceUda-ma [field of blood], the field
near Jerusalem purchased with the money
which Judas received for betraying Our
Lord, and so called from his violent death
therein (Matt. 27 : 3-8; Acts 1 : 18, 19).
It was well known as the Potter's Field,
and was tlienceforward used as a burial-
place for strangers. The traditional site
of Aceldama is on the northern declivity
of the steep clifi" on the south of the valley
of Hinnom.
A-chai 'a, a province of ancient Greece,
of which Corinth was the capital. Under
the Romans, Greece was divided into the
two provinces of Macedonia and Achaia,
the former embracing Macedonia proper,
with Illyricum, Epirus and Thessaly, and
the latter all that lay south of that. The
New Testament references to it (such as
Acts 18 : 12; 19 : 21 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 10) are
made witli a view to this division.
A'chan [troubler], an Israelite of the
tribe of Judah, who when Jericho and all
that it contained were devoted to destruc-
tion, contrary to the express prohibition
of God and under the impulse of covet-
ousness, secreted in his tent some valu-
able articles from the spoils, presuming
that he could escape detection. The an-
ger of the Lord was revealed against the
community of which he was a member,
and they were defeated before Ai. A
search was then instituted for the oilend-
er, and, being discovered, he and his fam-
ily were devoted to destruction in the
valley of Aclior, so called from the
trouble which Achan had occasioned
(Josh. 7).
A'char, the same as Achan (1 Chron.
2:7).
Acll'bor [probably field-movse^, the
father of Baal-hanan, one of the kings
of Edom (Gen. 36 : 38). Another of the
same name is referred to in 2 Kings 22 :
12, who is also called Abdon (2 Chron. 34 :
20).
A'chish [perhaps anf/ry],the name of
two kings.
1. A Philistine king of Gath, to whom
22
ACHMETHA— ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.
David twice applied for protection when
fleeing from Saul. On the fii-st occasion,
thinkins: his life to be in danger, David
unjustitiably feigned madness (1 Sam.
21 : 10-13). On his returning again to
Gath, David asked for a residence, and
Ziklag was given to him by the Philis-
tine king (1 Sam. 27). Achish expressed
great confidence in David, and would
have promoted him to a command in
his army in the campaign which ended
in the deatli of Saul, had he not been de-
terred by the jealousy of the lords of
the Philistines (1 Sam. 29).
2. Another king of Gath at a later day,
bearing the same name or title, to whom
two servants of Shimei fled (1 Kings
2 : .39).
Ach'me-tha, the Ecbatana of clas-
sical writers and the capital of the Medes
( Ezra 6:2). It was a city of great strength
and of considerable architectural beauty.
Its ancient site is now occupied by the mod-
ern Hanmclan, Persia.
A'chor [trouble], the name of a valley
near Jericho, given because of the trouble
occasioned to the Israelites by the sin of
Achan, who wa.s stoned to death and bur-
ied there (Josh. 7 : 24-26). See Achan.
It is supposed to be identical with the
Wddy Kelt, running from the spring of
that name, and south of Eriha (Jericho),
Ijast Jiljulieh (Gilgal) into the Jordan.
Ach'sah [anklet], the daughter of
Caleb, whom he promised in marriage to
the leader who should attack Kirjath-
sepher, or Debir, in the southern part of
Judah, and take it from tlie Philistines.
His nephew, Othniel, took the place and
won Achsah as his wife (Josh. 1-5 : 16, 17).
Whilst being conducted to her new home
she asked and received from her father
the gift of the " upper and nether springs,"
which no doubt added much to the value
of her dower ( Judg. 1 : 15).
Ach'shaph Ifascmntion], a city with-
in the territory of Asher, originally the
seat of a Canaanite king (Josh. 11:1;
12 : 2U).
Ach'zib [Jalxehood], the name of two
places mentioned in Scripture.
1. A town in the plain of Judah (Josh.
15 : 44). At the Assyrian invasion it
proved faithless to the national cause, and
Micah the prophet taunts it by a play on
its name : " The houses of Achzib shall be
a lie to the kings of Israel" (Mic. 1 : 14).
2. A maritime town assigned to the
tribe of Asher (Josh. 19 : 29), but from
which the Canaanites were not expelled
(Judg. 1 : 31). It lay on the Mediterra-
nean coast some ten miles north of Accho
or Acre. An insignificant village called
Zib now occupies its ancient site.
A'cre, the rendering in our Author-
ized Version of a Hebrew word which has
the indefinite sense of a measure of ground
(Isa. 5 : 10), but of which the precise ex-
tent is not known. The Hebrew word
literally means "a yoke," and indicates
most likely as much land as a yoke of
oxen will plough in a day (1 Sam. 14 : 14).
Acts of the Apostles, the fifth
and last of the historical books of the
New Testament. An almost universal
consent and the very strongest internal
evidence asci'ibe the authorship to Luke,
the writer of the Gospel which bears his
name. In Col. 4:14, Luke is designated
" the beloved physician." He was a man
of education, and his style is regarded Ijy
critics as purer than that of the other
evangelists. A companion of Paul in
some of his missionary excursions, he
was an eye-witness of many of the events
he records. The book narrates the labors
of the early preachers of the gospel, more
especially those of Peter and Paul, and
the wonderful extension of Christianity
throughout the numerous countries then
subject to tlie Roman power. It was
written in the Greek language, about A. D.
63, and most likely at Eome. Designed
to supply by select and suitable instances
ADAH— ADAM.
23
an illustration of the divine power of
that religion which Jesus died to estab-
lish, it everywhere represents the risen
and enthroned Christ as the supreme
Sovereign and Saviour of men. Christ
appoints that twelfth witness who takes
the place of the fallen apostle (eh. 1 : 24).
Christ, liaving received "the promise of
the Father," sends down the Holy Spirit
(ch. 2 : 33), Christ turns the people
from their iniquities and adds them to
the membershii^ of his Church (chs. 2 :
47 ; 3 : 26). Christ works miracles from
time to time by the hands of the apostles
(chs. 3:6; 5:12); receives into glory
the spirit of the martyred Stephen (ch.
7 : 59) ; instructs Philip to go and meet
the Ethiopian (ch. 8 : 26) ; arrests Saul
in his career of persecution and makes
him a chosen vessel to the Gentiles (ch.
9:15); sends Peter to open the door of
faith to the Gentiles (ch. 10 : 45) ; and
tlirough all the marvellous history con-
tinually appears, presiding over the af-
fairs of his Cliurch, directing his ser-
vants in tlieir course, protecting them
from the hands of their enemies, and in
the midst of much that was adveree giv-
ing effect to their ministrations and caus-
ing the truth of the gospel to grow and
bear fruit. Hence, in the Acts we have
not merely a narrative of focts wliich fall
out at the beginning of the Christian
Church, but we have, first of all and in
all, the ever-present, controlling, adminis-
trative agency of the Lord Jesus Clirist
himself shedding forth the powers of his
risen life and giving shape and form to
his spiritual and everlasting kingdom.
A'dah [ornavient], one of the wives
of Lamech (Gen. 4:19); also one of the
wives of Esau (Gen. 36 : 2).
Ad'am [man, cognate with Edom,
rerf], the progenitor of the human fam-
ily. His body was formed of the dust
of the earth and animated by the
breath of God. His history is given
with great simplicity in the first four
chapters of Genesis. God having, by
the word of his power, called into exist-
ence the inanimate elements, then the
vegetable creation, then beings possessed
of mere animal life, at last produced man,
made in the divine image, endowed with
a rational and immortal soul and invested
with dominion over the inferior works of
creation. The maturity of his powers
was not attained by gradual progress.
He came at once from the hand of his
Creator, perfect in form and pure and sin-
less in nature.
A beautiful garden provided with every
object to charm the senses was the resi-
dence of the first man. The beasts of
the field were subject to him, and were
named by him. To complete his happi-
ness, Eve was formed as pure and inno-
cent as himself, and became his com-
panion.
It pleased God to subject this first pair
to a test of obedience simple and easy in
itself. They were forbidden to eat of the
fruit of one particular tree in the garden
called the " tree of tlie knowledge of good
and evil," whilst the fullest liberty to par-
take of all the rest was given to them.
Although they were created sinless,
they were nevertheless capable of sin-
ning ; and Satan, the great spirit of evil,
who had fallen from his own high state,
taking advantage of this peculiarity, by
the most artful devices induced Eve to
eat of the forbidden fruit, and she, in
her turn, became the successful tempter of
Adam. Thus they violated the covenant
wliich they had made with God, accord-
ing to the terms of which their obedience
would have secured to them the uninter-
rupted enjoyment of life, happiness and
the communion of their Maker, whilst
disobedience subjected them to the loss of
the divine image, the depravation of their
holy nature, the interruption of their
haijpiness and the loss of natural and
24
ADAM— ADDER.
spiritual life. Sad was the change!
God no longer talked with them as a
friend, hut in his anger drove them from
tlie garden under a heavy curse.
The curse was distinctly pronounced on
Adam and Eve, and the general tenor of
it, hy which its effects are transmitted to
tlieir latest posterity, clearly demonstrates
that Adam stood in the relation of a rep-
resentative of the human race, and that
they were so identified with liim in his
representative ciiaracter as to he liable to
all the disastrous consequences of his first
sin. We " sinned in him, and fell with
him in his first trangression." Thus was
sin introduced into the world, the taint of
which attaches to every human being,
while the earth groans under unnumbered
woes. The gloomy scene was cheered by
the first promise of Messiah, who as " the
seed of the woman" should "bruise the
serpent's head," and tlius repair the ruins
of the fall.
The history of Adam's subsequent life
is not noted with much particularity. He
lived long to suffer and repent. He be-
came a sorrowful spectator of the murder-
ed body of his second-born son ; saw his
first-born driven out as a wanderer; be-
held the corruption of his numerous and
increasing posterity ; felt conscious that
he was the guilty author of all ; and
when nine hundred and thirty years old
yielded his life to the touch of death
(Gen. 5:5).
Ad'am, a city mentioned in Josh. 3 :
16 as beside Zaretan, beyond which the
overflow of the Jordan extended when it
was crossed by the Israelites. As Zaretan
was near Bethshean (1 Kings 4:12), Adam
must have been flir up the Jordan and on
high ground on its west side.
Ad'a-mah [ground], a fortified city
of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 36).
Ad'a-mant. The Hebrew word thus
rendered in Ezek. 3 : 9 and Zcch. 7 : 12, is
in Jer. 17 : 1 rendered "diamond," and
represents some stone of excessive hard-
ness. As the Hebrews were unacquainted
apparently with the true diamond, it is
probable that the word rendered "ada-
mant" designates emery, a variety of co-
rundum, a mineral inferior only to the
diamond in hardness.
A'dar [aploultd], the sixth month of the
civil and the twelfth of the sacred year —
reckoning among the Jews, corresponding
with part of our February and March
(Esth. 3 : 7). The name was introduced
after the Captivity (Ezra. 6 : 15).
A'dar [t^plendor, or wide extent], a place
mentioned in Josh. 15 : 3 as marking the
border of Judah. It seems to be the same
as Hazar-addar (Num. 34 : 4).
Ad'der, a general name for several spe-
cies of venomous serpents belonging to the
viper family. In our English version of
the Old Testament it is the rendering of
Horned Cerastes.
four different Hebrew words, each indica-
tnig some specific difference. The first of
these words occurs only in Ps. 140 : 3, and
expresses the action of a serpent lurking
in ambush and coiling himself to strike.
The second of these words, twice rendered
adder (Ps. 58 : 4 ; 91 : 13), but elsewhere
asp, is from a root meaning to thrust out ;
in allusion, it is said, to the animal's cus-
tom of thrusting out its fangs. It is de-
scribed by the Psalmist (Ps. 58 : 4, 5) as
deaf, and hence as indifferent to the voice
of the charmer; from which we infer that
the art of charming serpents by music was
ADJUKE— ADONIZEDEK.
25
practiced in David's time. See Ser-
pent. Tlie tliird of these words, once
rendered adder (Pro v. 23 : 32) and four
times cockatrice (Isa. 11 : 8; 14 : 29; 59 :
5; Jer. 8 : 17), is derived from a root
meaning to hiss. The fourth of these
words, used but once (Gen. 49 : 17), wliere
it is rendered adder, comes from a root
which means to puncture or wound, and is
commonly supposed to be the Coluber Ce-
rastes, or horned viper of Linnaeus, a small
and very poisonous snake.
Ad-jure', a form of urgent appeal in
wliich one is required to speak or act as if
under the solemnity of an oath (Josh. G :
2G ; Matt. 26 : 63; Mark 5:7; Acts 19 :
13).
Ad^mah [earth], one of the five cities
in the vale of Siddim which had a king
of its own (Gen. 10 : 19). It was des-
troyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah
(Deut. 29 : 23).
Ad-mi-ra'tion, a word which when
our Authorized Version was made had the
simple sense of u-onder, and did not carry
with it that notion of approval, wh'wh our
modern usage does. In Rev. 17 : 6, "won-
dered with great admiration" is ec|Uivalent
to " wondered greatly."
A-do'ni-Be'zek \_the lord of Bezek'\,
a petty tyrant living not for from Jerusa-
lem at the time of the entrance of the Is-
raelites into Canaan. In his conquests of
neighboring chiefs he had mutilated sev-
enty of tliem by cutting off tiieir thumbs
and great toes, thus disqualifying them for
future warfare. He was the first of the Ca-
naanitish kings conquered by the Israelites
after the death of Joshua, and, as a right-
eous retribution, he was dealt with in tlie
same manner as lie had treated others.
He acknowledged the justice of his pun-
ishment, and afterward died a captive in
Jerusalem (Judg. 1 : 5-7).
Ad-o-ni'jah [my Lord is Jehovah'], the
fourtli son of David by Haggith, and I)orn
at Hebron (2 Sam. 3 : 4). After the death
of his brothers, Amnon, Chileab and Ab-
salom, Adonijah was by birth heir to the
throne, but his claims had been previously
set aside in favor of Solomon. He gathered
around him a number of influential men,
including Joab and Abiathar, and caused
himself to be proclaimed king. David,
who was then near the close of life, awa-
kened to the danger of the movement by
Bathsheba, counteracted it by proclaiming
Solomon as his successor and at once in-
vesting him with the regal dignity. This
prompt and timely measure dispirited the
followers of Adonijah, who immediately
forsook him. He himself fled, and laid
hold of the horns of the altar as a place
of safety. He was pardoned by Solomon,
with the reservation that his future course
should be loyal ; otherwise he should die.
Subsequently he desired Abishag, the
young virgin concubine of his father
David, to be given to him as his wife ;
and Solomon, perceiving that his design
was thus to strengthen his pretensions to
the throne, ordered him to be put to death
(1 Kings 1 and 2).
Ad-o-ni'ram [lord of exaltation'], the
receiver-general of taxes under David and
Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 6; 2 Sam. 20 :
24), called also Adoram and Hadoram.
Wlien Rehoboam succeeded Solomon on the
throne, his refusal to lighten the burdens of
the people led to the revolt of ten tribes
and the murder of the obnoxious collector
of taxes (1 Kings 12 : 18; 2 Chron. 10 :
18).
Ad-O'ni-ze'dek [lord of rightrous-
nefts], the Canaanitish king of Jerusalem
when Palestine was invaded liy the Is-
raelites, and the first who seriously at-
tempted to arrest their progress. Secur-
ing the alliance of the other four Amor-
itish kings, he first made a descent on
the Gibeonites to punish them for entering
into a treaty with Joshua. When he heard
of it, Joshua made a forced march from
Gilgal, and coming unexpectedly on the
20
ADOPTION— ADRI EL.
Amorites defeated them. During the pur-
suit Josliua commanded the sun and moon
to stand still, that the day might be pro-
longed and tlie defeat be more signal.
The hostile kings were captured in a
cave in which they had concealed them-
selves, and after tlie Hebrew chiefs had
placed their feet on their necks, in token
of triuniph, according to tlie custom of
the times, they were hanged and their
bodies buried in the cave (Josh. 10 :
1-27).
A-dop'tion, the act by which a stran-
ger is received into a family as a child,
with a title to all the privileges of sonship.
Adoption was and still is common among
the Shemitic races. It was more rare
among the Hebrews, because the Mosaic
code of laws provided for the descent of
property where there were not sons to in-
herit it. Yet it was not a strange practice
to them. In the time of Christ and the
apostles the practice of adoption by the
Greeks and Romans rendered it a thing
familiarly understood. Hence the use of
it in the New Testament as an illustration
of God's dealings with his people.
In its spiritual application it denotes
the filial relation between God and the
believer, by which the latter is received
into the number, and has a right to all
the privileges, of the sons of God. It is
a dignity to Avhich believei's are predes-
tinated, not for any foreseen loveliness
or excellency in themselves, but of the
good pleasure of God (Epli. 1 : 5). It is
by the Holy Spirit that the believer is en-
aljled to ascertain and appreciate the re-
lation (Rom. 8 : 15, 16; Gal. 4 : 6). As
adopted children, believers become joint
lieirs with Christ, God's only-begotten
Son (Rom. 8 : 17). They are enabled as
little children to rest in their almighty
Father ; to approach his mercy-seat with
confidence ; to regard all the sorrows that
he may send or permit as fatherly chas-
tisements; and to look forward with as-
surance to the glorious inheritance laid
up for them in heaven.
A-do'ram. See Adoniram.
Ad-ram 'me-lech [ylonj of the kint/;
or, rather, in tlic liglit of recent discover-
ies, Adar is king, Adar being an Assyrian
deity].
1. The name of an idol worshiped by
the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, who were
transported from Assyria to Samaria. To
it children were offered as burnt sacrifices.
It is noticed in 2 Kings 17 : 31 in connec-
tion with Anammelech \^Anu is kiny], an-
otlier Assyrian deity. It is supposed to
represent the male power of the sun, as
Anammelecli is supposed to represent the
female power.
2. One of the sons and murderers of
Sennacherib, a king of Assyria (2 Kings
19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38).
Ad-ra-myt'ti-um, a city of Asia
Minor, on the coast of Mysia, facing the
island of Lesbos and at the foot of Mount
Ida. To it belonged the ship in wliich
Paul embarked when on liis way to Italy
as a prisoner (Acts 27 : 2). Its modern
name is Adrami/t, and it is still a place of
some commerce, but its general appear-
ance is poor.
Ad'ria. Luke, in his account of Paul's
journey to Italy, says (Acts 27 : 27), "As
we were driven up and down in Adria," a
name then applied to all t!i:it part of the
Mediterranean which lies between Crete
and Sicily.
The term "Adriatic " now designates only
the gulf which lies between Italy on the
one side and the coast of Dalmatia on the
other. The wider extension of the ancient
term removes the objection that jNIelita, or
Malta, where Paul was wrecked, is not
within the limits of the pi-esent Adriatic
Gulf; for whilst it lies beyond the gulf, it
is within the limits of the Adriatic Sea.
Ad'i'i-el [flock nf God], a son of Bar-
zillai, to whom Said gave in marriage his
daughter Merab, who had been promised
ADULLAM.
27
to David (1 Sam. xviii. 19). He had
five sons, who were given up to the Gibe-
onites, according to the principle of blood
revenge, on account of the cruelties exer-
cised toward that people by Saul. In 2
Sam. 21 ; 8 these five sons are said to be
tlie sons of Michal, whom "she brought
up for Adriel." The word properly
means "bare," or "'which
Michal bare to Adriel."
Some reconcile tlie difli-
culty by supposing that
tlie name of Michal was
substituted for that of
Merab by a mistake of
the copyist ; and others,
that Michal, having no
children, adopted those
of Merab, her sister, and
was hence regarded as
their mother.
A-dul'lam [justice
of the peoplel, the name
of a city and of a cave.
1. The city was in the
territory of Judah, be-
tween tlie highlands and
the sea. It had been one
of the royal cities of the
Canaaniles (Josh. 15 : 35).
It was fortified by Reho-
boam (2 Chron. 11 : 7),
and is styled the "glory
of Israel" (Mic. 1 : 15).
From its place in the list
of the cities which Reho-
boam fortified, it appears
to have been not very far
from the Philistine city
of (jatli. Lieutenant
Conder, of the English Survey Expedi-
tion, places its site on a high rounded
hill, almost isolated by valleys and cov-
ered with ruins, a natural fortress in near
vicinity to two ancient wells.
2. The Cave of Adullam, from the
circumstance that David with four hun-
dred followers took refuge in it (1 Sam.
22 : 1, 2), and from the persuasion that
no cave in the vicinity of the city was
sufficiently large to accommodate such a
body of men, has from very early times
been located in the mountainous wilder-
ness in the east of Judah, toward the
Dead Sea. Here numerous caves are
The Cave of Adullam.
found, one of which, about six miles
south-east of Bethleiiem, in the side of a
deep ravine, is tlie traditional Cave of
Adullam. It is an immense natural
cavern, the mouth of wliicli can be ap-
proached only on foot along the side of
the clifi'. It has large chambers and
28
ADULTERY— AGATE.
many winding passages, and is admirably
adapted not only to siieltcr, liut also to
hide, a much greater host than that of
David. Lieutenant Conder states that the
sides of the valley which anciently led to
the city of Adullam are lined with rows
of caves, some of them quite large, and
argues that if the city of Adullam were
near Gath, David upon hastily leaving
Gath (1 Sam. 21 : 12-15) would naturally
seek the nearest and most accessible ref-
uge. It is said, too, that if David occupied
a cave in the vicinity of the city of Adul-
lam, he was in position to cover the line
of Philistine advance on the cornfields
of Keilah, and in case of necessity to re-
treat to the thickets of Kareth, three
miles away. But tlie probabilities are
still in favor of the traditional site south-
east of Betlileliem.
A-dul'te-ry, unfoithfulness to the
marriage covenant on the part of the
husband or the wife. A crime of special
enormity, it was punished by the law of
Moses with death (Lev. 20 : 10). In Matt.
5 : 31, 32 it is represented by our Lord as
the true and justifiable ground of divorce.
From its sense of unfaithfulness to cove-
nant it is frequently employed in Scripture
as the symbol of idolatry and apostasy from
the worship of the true God ( Jer. 3 : 8, 9 ;
Ezek. 23:37). "An adulterous genera-
tion" (Matt. 12 : 39) means a faithless
and impious one, untrue to its God.
A-dum'tnim [the red ovbhodij place^,
a hill or ascending ground between Jerusa-
lem and Jericho, mentioned in Josh. 15 :
7 and 18 : 17. It is described as a difficult
and narrow pass much infested by robbers,
and was probably the place referred to by
our Lord in the parable of the man who
in his journey from .Jerusalem to Jericho
fell among thieves (Luke 10 : 30). It is
supposed to have been on tlio south foce
of the gorge of the Wudy Kelt.
Ad'ver-sa-ry, an opposer, an enemy
(1 Kings 11 : 14; Matt. 5 : 25). It is ap-
plied to Satan, the great adversary or en-
emy of man (1 Pet. 5 : 8).
Ad'vo-cate, one who pleads the
cause of another. Christ is the exalted
and successful Advocate of believers (1
John 2:1; Heb. 7 : 25).
^'non \_)^pruigR, fountains]. See Enon.
Af-fln'i-ty, relationship by marriage,
as distinguished from consanguinity or
blood-relationship (1 Kings 3 : 1 ; 2 Chron.
18 : 1). Thus, a woman is aunt to a man
by consanguinity when she is the sister of
his father, or she may become his aunt
by affinity by being the sister of his wife's
father. The Levitical law which specifies
the relations within which marriage may
be contracted is recorded in Lev. 18 : 6-17.
Ag'a-bus [perhaps beloved], a prophet
of the early Churcii who predicted the great
famine which should prevail tlu'ough the
tlien known world (Acts 11 : 28). He af-
terward predicted Paul's sufferings by the
hands of the Jews (Acts 21 : 10, 11).
A'gag [flamiiig\ tlie name of two kings
of the Amalekites, and probably a titular
name peculiar to tiieir kings (Num. 24 ;
7). When Saul defeated the Amalekites
he spared Agag, their king, contrary to the
express injunction of tlie Lord's prophet.
Samuel, when lie heard tlii:^, repaired to
Saul, and after rebuking him for his dis-
obedience, hewed Agag in pieces a.s a just
reward for his crimes, saying, " As thy
sword hath made women childless, so
shall thy mother be childless among
women" (1 Sam. 15 : 33). Hainan is
called the Agagite in Esth. 3 : 1, 10; 8 :
3, 5, and is held by the Jews to have been
a descendant of the king whom Samuel
slew, and to have had a hereditary hatred
of the Jewish people.
Ag'ate, an ornamental stone worn in
tiie breastj)late of the high priest (Ex.
28 : 19), and held in higli esteem for its
beauty (Isa. 54 : 12; Ezek. 27 : 16). It is
the representative of two Hebrew words,
the one meaning shining, the other spark-
AGE— AHAB.
29
ling. The stone now known by this name
is a semi-pelhicid, uncrvstallized species
of quartz, found in parallel or concentric
layers of various colors and presenting
many different tints in the same speci-
men. The finest agates were brought from
India, but equally beautiful specimens are
met with in Europe and America.
Age, Old. The attainment of old age
is in Scripture promised and represented
as a blessing (Gen. 15 : 15). Wisdom and
understanding are supposed to be the ac-
companiments of it (1 Kings 12 : 6, 8).
Cruelty to the aged is distinguished for
its peculiar enormity (2 Chron. 3G : 17).
Most of the Eastern nations paid a pro-
found respect to the aged. In tiie social
and political system of the Jews the aged
occupied a prominent place. In private
life they were looked up to as the deposi-
taries of knowledge (Job 15 : 10) , in their
presence the young were ordered to rise up
(Lev. 19 : 32) ; their opinion was given first
(Job 32 : 4) ; their gray hairs, especially
when associated with piety, were to be ac-
counted "a crown of glory" (Prov. 16 :
31 ). In pubhc affairs they were the rep-
resentatives of the people in all matters
of difficulty and deliberation. The old
men, or elders, thus became a class, the
title being used in an official sense wlien,
as was at length the case, it had ceased to
convey the notion of age.
Ag^o-ny [contesti, a word borrowed
from the Grecian games, and metaphor-
ically applied to a severe struggle or con-
flict with pain and suflfering. In Luke
22 ; 44 it is used to describe the fearfiil
and mysterious struggle which, in the
Garden of Gethsemane, our Lord passed
through. In this agony the si^ffering of
soul so wrought upon the body that " his
sweat was as it were great drops of blood
falling down to the ground."
A-grip^pa. The name of two mem-
bers of the Herodian family mentioned in
the New Testament.
1. The grandson of Herod the Great,
whose name he bore as a surname, and
under the emperor Caligula the king of
all Palestine. To conciliate the Jews he
slew with the sword the apostle James
and shut up in prison the apostle Peter
(Acts 12: 2, 4). His fate was a fearful
one. On a certain public occasion, when
giving audience to the people of Tyro and
Sidon, he made an address to them, which
they applauded by impiously saying it was
" the voice of a god, and not of a man."
Uplifted with pride, " he gave not God
the glory, and was eaten of worms " (Acts
12 : 20-23).
2. The son and successor of the fore-
going. He also bore the surname of Her-
od, but ruled a much smaller realm than
his father. It was before him that Paul
was brought (Acts 25 . 13, 26). He was
the last of his family, surviving the de-
struction of Jerusalem and dying at the
age of nearly seventy years.
A'gur [gathered], the son of Jakeh, an
unknown Israelite sage, the author of the
sayings contained in Prov. 30.
A-hab' [f(ither\<^ brother], the name of
two men.
1. The son of Omri, and the seventh
king of the separate kingdom of Israel.
He ascended the throne B. c. 919, and
reigned twenty-two years. He was a
weak man, and, surrendering himself to
the guidance of Jezebel, his resolute, un-
scrupulous and depraved wife, he sank to
an appalling depth of wickedness ( 1 Kings
16 : 30). Jezebel was the daughter of
Ethbaal, the king of Tyre, and success-
fully used her influence over Ahab for
the establishment in Israel of the impure
and demoralizing worship of Baal. In
obedience to her wislies, Ahab erected in
Samaria a temple in honor of Baal, and
consecrated to Astarte, the Phoenician Ve-
nus, the symbols or image used in her
worship. With a fixed determination
to extirpate the true religion, Jezebel
30
AHASUEKUS.
hunted down and put to death God's
prophets and utterly suppressed all pub-
lic worship of Jehovah. In this emer-
gency God raised up the prophet Elijah,
who boldly reproved the wicked king and
stood forth to vindicate the claims of the
true God. His triumph over the priests
of Baal at Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18 :
21-40) was a remarkable attestation of
his prophetical mission and of his supe-
riority to the idolatrous ministers. It
wrought, liowever, no change in Ahab,
and so exasperated Jezebel that Elijah
was compelled to flee for his life. One
of Ahab's leading tastes was that for
splendid architecture, which he indulged
in several cities of the kingdom, but
chiefly in the beautiful city of Jezreel
(now Zerin), where he built a palace and
laid out a park. Desiring to add to his
pleasure-grounds the vineyard of his
neighbor Naboth, he proposed to buy it
or give land in exchange for it; and,
when Naboth refused his proposals, he
secured against him a false accusation of
blasphemy, and caused him and his sons
to be stoned to death (1 Kings 21 : 13;
2 Kings 9 : 26). For this atrocious crime,
the crowning act of a long course of wick- !
edness, the judgments of God, involving the ^
entire extirpation of his house, Avere pro-
nounced U])on him by Elijah, and were
literally and terribly fulfilled (1 Kings '
21 ; 17-24; 2 Kings 9 : 3."); 10: 11).
2. A lying pro]ihet, who, with Zede-
kiah, a man of like character, deceived
the captive Israelites at Babylon by false
promises. Because of this wickedness he [
and his confederate were denounced by the
prophet Jeremiah, who predicted their vio-
lent death by Nebuchadnezzar, the king.
The literal fulfillment of Jeremiah's pre-
diction originated a common form of mal-
ediction, " The Lord make thee like Zed-
ekiah and like Ahab, whom the king of
Babylon roasted in the fire !" ( Jer. 29 : 21,
22).
A-has-u-e'rus, the Hebrew form of
Xerxes, and the name or title of one Me-
dian and two Persian kings mentioned in
the Old Testament. The orthography of
the name Xerxes has recently been ascer-
tained from the cuneiform inscripticms of
Persepolis, where it is written Khslnjursha
or Ksharsn, meaning "eye of the realm"
or "ruling eye."
1. The first Ahasuerus, mentioned in
Dan. 9 : 1 as the father of Darias the
Mede, is usually regarded as the Astyages
of profane history. He is regarded by
others, however, as Cyaxares, the father
of Astyages.
2. The second Ahasuerus, mentioned in
Ezra 4 : 6, is believed to be Cambyses, the
son and immediate successor of Cyrus,
B. c. 529. He was a man of furious tem-
per, and is not to be mistaken, as is some-
times done, for the third Ahasuerus.
3. The third Ahasuerus, introduced to
us in the book of Esther, is identified with
Xerxes, the Persian king who invaded
Greece. He reigned with great jwmp
and magnificence. In the third year
of his reign he made a sumptuous ban-
quet for his nobility, and prolonged the
feast for one hundred and eighty days.
Merry with wine on one occasion, he or-
dered his queen, Vashti, to appear be-
fore his guests for the public display
of her marvellous beauty. On her re-
fusal he immediately and indignantly
divorced her. In the seventh year of his
reign he married Esther, a Jewess, know-
ing not her parentage. In the twelfth
year of his reign he acceded to tlie re-
quest of his minister Haman, who had
received some slights from Mordecai the
Jew, that .on an appointed day the Jews
in all parts of the empire should be mas-
sacred. The wicked plot was defeated
through the agency of Esther, Mordecai's
niece. By righteous retribution, Haman
met a more ignominious doom than that
he had designed for Mordecai, while
AHAVA— AHAZIAH.
31
Mordecai was promoted to the highest
honors.
A-ha'va [probably waterl, tlie river
on the banks of which Ezra collected the
second expedition that relumed with him
from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezra 8 : 21).
Its position is not easily identified. The
latest researches are in favor of its being
the Euphrates itself at the point where
stands the modern Hil, due east of Da-
mascus.
A'haz [possessor], the eleventh king of
Judah, the son and successor of Jotham.
In 2 Kings 16 : 2 he is said to have as-
cended the throne at the age of twenty
years, a mistake of the copyist for twenty-
five years, and to have reigned sixteen
years. He surpassed all his predecessors
in wickedness. He was impious in his
total disregard of God and the institu-
tions of religion ; l.e was sacrilegious in
stripping the temple of all its valualile
utensils and ornaments and mutilating
its furniture; he was idolatrous in prin-
ciple and practice, scandalous in life, su-
perstitious in spirit, and infamous in every
respect. He made molten images for Baal ;
he sacrificed his children to Moloch in the
valley of Hinnom ; he closed the temple
against any who sought to worship there ;
in every city of Judah he erected high
places, and in every corner of Jerusa-
lem he reared idol altars. His punishment
quickly followed. The kings of Syria and
Israel, on the east and north of his king-
dom, formed a league against him ; tlie
Edomites attacked him from the south,
and the Philistines from the west ; on
every side the difficulties of his position
were multiplying and the dangers to his
life and crown steadily thickening. In
his dilemma he applied for help to Tig-
lath-pileser, king of Assyria, whose in-
tervention, although it freed him from
attack by the Syrians and Israelites, yet
availed him little. At length, worn down
by anxieties and excesses, he died at an
early age, and because of his impiety was
not honored with a burial in the sepul-
chres of the kings (2 Kings 16; 2 Chron.
28; Isa. 7).
A-ha-zi'ah [Jtliorah sustamsl, the
name of two Jewish kings.
1. The eighth king of the separate
kingdom of Israel, the son and successor
of Ahab, whose wickedness he emulated
(1 Kings 22 : 40). He reigned but two
years. His vassals, the Moabites, revolt-
ed against him and refused to pay trib-
ute ; but before he could take measures
to coerce them he received a serious bod-
ily injury by a fall through a lattice in his
palace at Samaria. In health he had wor-
sliiped the gods of his mother Jezebel,
and now he sent messengers to inquire
of the oracle of Baalzebub, in the Philis-
tine city of Ekron, whether he should re-
cover. On the way the messengers met
Elijah, who sent them back to tell the
I king he should certainly die. Exaspe-
rated at this, he despatched several com-
panies of men to arrest the prophet, who,
after destroying by fire from heaven two
companies of fifty men each, went to him
at the Lord's bidding and announced the
certainty of his speedy death (2 Kings 1 :
1-17).
2. The fifth king of Judah, son of Je-
horam and Athaliah, daughter of Ahab,
and therefore nephew of the preceding
Ahaziah. He is called Azariah (2 Chron.
22 : 6) and Jehoahaz (2 Chron. 21 : 17).
He reigned but one year, and, altogether
controlled by the wicked counsels of his
idolatrous mother, he did that which was
evil in the sight of the Lord (2 Kings 8 :
24-29). Pie joined his uncle, Jehoram of
Israel, in an expedition against Hazael,
king of Damascene Syria, and afterward
paid him a visit while he lay wounded in
his summer palace of Jezreel. Jehu hav-
ing meanwhile been proclaimed king of
Israel, Jehoram and Ahaziah went against
him in battle. Jehoram wa.s killed, and
32
AHIAH— AHIMELECH.
Ahaziah, mortally wounded, had only
strength to reach Megiddo, where he
died (2Kmgs9: 27).
A-hi'ah, a form of Ahijah (1 Sam.
14:3; 1 Kings 4:3; 1 Chron. 8:7).
See Ahijah.
A-hi'jah [my brother is JeJiovaK], the
name of several men, of whom two only
need special mention.
1. A son of Ahitub, and high priest in
the reign of Saul (1 Sam. 14 : 3). He
was probably the same as Ahimelech the
son of Ahitub, who was high priest at
Nob in the same reign (1 Sam. 21 : 1),
and was slain by Saul for assisting David
(1 Sam. 22 : 11-19).
2. A prophet of Shiloli (1 Kings 14 :
2), called the Shilonite (1 Kings 11 : 29),
in the days of Solomon and Jeroboam.
Of his prophecies two are extant ; the
one in 1 Kings 11 : 29-39, addressed
to Jeroboam, announcing the rending of
the ten tribes from Solomon in punish-
ment of his idolatries and the transfer of
the kingdom to Jeroboam, b. c. 973; the
other in 1 Kings 14 : 5-16, addressed to
Jeroboam's wife, announcing the destruc-
tion of Jeroboam's house and foretelling
the captivity of Israel " beyond the river
Euphrates," b. c. 952.
A-hi'kam [my brother arose], one of the
five distinguished persons sent by King
Josiah to consult Huldah the prophetess
concerning the book of the law found in
the temple (2 Kings 22 : 12-14) ; after-
ward protected the prophet Jeremiah from
the persecuting fury of King Jehoiakim
(Jer. 26 : 24).
A-him'a-az [_my brother i,s- anger],
son and successor of Zadok, the joint
high priest in David's time and sole high
priest in that of Solomon. During tlie re-
volt of Absalom, who took possession of
Jerusalem when David fled from it, the
two high priests, Zadok and Abiathar, re-
maining in the city with the ark, posted
their sons Ahimaaz and Jonathan outside
the walls, to be in readiness to bear off to
David any important information respect-
ing Absalom's movements and designs
wliich they might receive. When Hush-
ai, David's friend, had defeated that crafty
counsel of Ahithophel which, if Absalom
had followed it, would in all human prob-
ability have proved fatal to David, he
communicated the fact to the high priests,
and they in turn committed it to their
sons with directions to carry tiie news to
David. Absalom, being informed of the
flight of the messengers, caused tliem to
be pursued ; but, by the aid ol' a certain
woman who ingeniously concealed them,
they escaped (2 Sam. 15 : 24-37; 17 :
15-21 ). Ahimaaz was remarkably swift of
foot. On the defeat and death of Absalom,
Joab sent him with the tidings to David
(2 Sam. 18 ; 19-29).
A-hi'man [my brother is a gift],
one of the three giants of the race of
Anak who dwelt at Hebron when the
Hebrew spies explored Canaan (Num.
13 : 22).
A-him'e-lech [my brother is king], the
name of two men.
1. The son of Ahitub (1 Sam. 22 : 12),
and high priest at Nob in the days of Saul.
When David was fleeing from Saul, he came
to Nob, and, representing himself as on an
expedition for the king, he obtained from
Ahimelech the sword of Goliatli and a
portion of the tabernacle shew-bread.
Doeg the Edomite maliciously reported
this to Saul, who sent for Aliimelech and
the other priests then at Nob, and, not-
withstanding their declaration that tliey
were not aware of the position in which
David stood to the king, he cruelly or-
dered them to be slain, to the number of
eighty-five. Abiatliar was the only one
who escaped (1 Sam. 22 : 20). See Abi-
athar.
2. A Hittite, one of David's companions
whilst he was persecuted by Saul (1 Sam.
26 : 6).
AHINADAB— AIJALON.
33
A-hin'a-dab [my brother is noble'],
one of the twelve officers appointed by
Solomon to raise supplies for the royal
household (1 Kings 4 : 14).
A-hin^O-am [viy brother is pleasant-
ness, pleasant], the name of two women.
1. The daughter of Ahimaaz and wife
of King Saul (1 Sam. 14 : 50).
2. A woman of Jezreel, the wife of Da-
vid and mother of Amnon. When the
Amalekites plundered Ziklag she was
taken captive, but was recovered by Da-
vid (1 Sam. 30 : 5, 18).
A-hi'o [brotherly], one of the sons
of Abinadab, who with his brother Uz-
zah drove the new cart on wliich the ark
was placed when David attempted to re-
move it from their house to Jerusalem (2
Sam. 6:3).
A-hi'ra [my brother is evil], chief of
the tribe of Naplitali when the Israelites
left Egypt (Num. 1 : 15).
A-hi'shar [my brother sings], an of-
ficer set over the household of Solomon
(1 Kings 4 : 6), a station of high honor
and power.
A-hith^O-phel [my brother is folly],
an eminent counsellor, distinguished for
his political sagacity and wisdom (2 Sam.
16 : 23). Although he was the confi-
dential adviser of David, he suffered him-
self to be involved in the revolt of Absa-
lom. When David heard that Ahithophel
had joined the conspiracy, he prayed the
Lord to turn his counsel into foolishness
(2 Sam. 15 : 31), in allusion probably to
the signification of his name. This pray-
er was remarkably answered; for, when
Ahitliophel judiciously advised an im-
mediate prosecution of the war before Da-
vid could collect his forces, Hushai, the
secret friend of David, advised and ob-
tained delay. When Ahithophel saw that
Hushai's advice had prevailed, he de-
spaired of success and, returning to his
home at Giloh, hung himself (2 Sam. 17 :
1-23).
A-hi'tub [my brother is goodness], the
name of two priests.
1. The son of Phinehas and grandson
of Eli the high priest (1 Sam. 14:3).
His father Phinehas being slain when
the ark of God was taken by the Philis-
tines, he may have succeeded Eli in his
office, but this foct is not mentioned.
2. The father of Zadok the high priest
(1 Chron. 6:8; 2 Sam. 8 : 17).
A-ho'lah [in her my tent], and A-hoF-
i-bah [lent of loftiness], two fictitious or
symbolical names under which Ezekiel
represented Samaria and Judah (Ezek.
23 : 4).
A-ho'li-ab [father's tent] a man of
the tribe of Dan and a skillful weaver
and embroiderer, to wliom, with Bezaleel,
Moses entrusted the construction of the
tabernacle (Ex. 35 : 34).
A-huz'zath [possession], a friend of
Abimelech, the king of Gerar, who accom-
panied him on his visit to Isaac for the
purpose of forming an alliance (Gen. 26 :
26).
A'i [rM«?.s],aroyal city of the Canaanites,
lying east of Bethel. Its name is variously
written in Scripture. In the times of Abra-
ham, who built near it an altar (Gen. 12 :
8), it Avas called Hai. In the times of
Joshua, who utterly destroyed it, it was
called Ai (Josh. 8 : 28). In the times of
Isaiah, when a new town occupied its site,
it was called Aiath (Isa. 10 : 28). In the
times of Nehemiah it was called Aija (Neh.
11 : 31 ). The chief historical events which
Scripture associates with it are the repulse
before it of a part of Joshua's army be-
cause of Achan's sin, the ambuscade by
which Joshua surprised and stormed it,
and the utter extermination of its inhab-
itants (Josh. 7 and 8). It is located be-
tween the modern villages of Deir Diwdn
and Mukhmds, where are the remains of a
large ancient town.
Ai'ja-lon or Aj'a-lon [place of ga-
zelles], a town originally allotted to the tribe
34
AIN— ALEXANDRIA.
of Dan (Josh. 19 : 42), but held in posses-
sion by the Amorites ( Judg. 1 : 35). Being
on the frontier of the two kingdoms, Judah
and Israel, it is sometimes spoken of as in
Epliraim and sometimes as in Judah and
Benjamin. Its name is most familiar to us
from its mention in the celebrated speech
of Joshua during his pursuit of the Ca-
naanites (Josh. 10 : 12). It is represented
by the modern Ydlo, south of Beth-Horon,
now Beit- Ur.
A^in or A'en [cm eye], a city of the
tribe of Judah, and afterward of that of
Simeon (Josh. 15 : 32; 1 Chron. 4 : 32).
The word in Hebrew is used to denote a
spring or fountain, the eye of the landscape,
and is found combined with names of places,
usually rendered En in English, as En-
Gedi, fountain of kids; En-Ganiihn, foun-
tain of the gardens ; En-Haddah, swift
fountain.
Air, the atmosphere surrounding the
earth (1 Thess. 4: 17). "Speaking into
the air," as in 1 Cor. 14 : 9, is a pro-
verbial expression, denoting to speak in
vain ; as we say, " throwing his words to
the winds." " Beating the air," as in 1
(3or. 9 : 26, denotes an abortive effort, in
allusion to an ineffectual blow in a pugi-
listic combat. "The powers of the air,"
in Eph. 2 : 2 is an expression probably
allusive to a common opinion of the Jews
that the air or atmosphere was filled with
evil spirits.
Ak-rab'bim [.seorpi'ons], one of the
points designating the southern frontier-
line of the Promised Land (Josh. 15 : 3).
It was an ascent or chain of hills, prob-
ably infested with scorpions, according to
the signification of its name.
AFa-bas-ter. In Matt. 26 : 7 ; Mark
14 : 3; Luke 7 : 37 we have an account
of a woman who came to the house of
Simon, where Jesus was dining, and who,
in token of her profound regard, poured
upon his head from an alabaster vase a
most costly and precious ointment of
spikenard. In Mark 14 : 3 it is said she
broke the alabaster box, by which we are
evidently to understand that she broke the
seal, which had never before been disturb-
ed, and by which the perfume was pre-
served from evaporation. The alabaster
which was manufactured in ancient times
into pots for holding perfumes, and which
was so called from Alabastron, the town
in Egypt where the manufacture was first
begun, is supposed to have been a harder
and more compact stone than that beau-
tiful species of gypsum of the same name
which is now so well known as the mate-
rial of ornamental vases. From the ap-
plication of this substance to this partic-
ular use, eventually all kinds of pots and
vases used to hold perfume, although
made of gold, ivory or other substances,
were called alabaster vases.
AFa-moth [virrjinFi], a supposed mu-
sical term of unknown signification. It is
used in 1 Chron. 15 : 20 and in the title
to Ps. 46, where it is thought to be a di-
rection to the choristers to sing in the fe-
male voice, i. e. our treble or soprano.
Al-ex-an'der. The name of several
persons in the New Testament.
1 . The son of Simon the Cyrenian ( Mark
15 : 21).
2. A distinguished Jew, a member of
the council before which Peter and John
were interrogated for healing tb.e lame
man (Acts 4 : 6).
3. A Jew of Ephesus who took a prom-
inent part in the controversy between
Paul and the populace of the city, and
attempted without success to quell the
tumult (Acts 19 : 33).
4. A professed convert to Christianity,
who for apostasy was "delivered unto
Satan," that is, excommunicated by Paul
(1 Tim. 1 : 19, 20). This last was prob-
ably the same with " Alexander the cop-
persmith," mentioned 2 Tim. 4 : 14.
Al-ex-an'dri-a, mentioned Acts 18 :
24; 27 : 6. A celebrated city in Lower
ALEXANDRIANS— ALLIANCES.
36
Egypt, occupying a strip of land from the
Mediterranean on the north to Lake Ma-
reotis on the south. It was founded by
Alexander the Great, b. c. 332. It was
a place of great commercial enterprise
and wealth, and abounded in magnificent
buildings. According to Pliny the histo-
rian, its circuit was fifteen miles. After
the death of Alexander, who was buried
there, it became tlie regal city of Egypt,
and under the Ptolemies, a Greek dy-
nasty, its splendor rose to the highest
point. Its population was six hundred
thousand, half of which was composed
of slaves. Among other things it was
celebrated for its library of seven hun-
dred thousand volumes, which, guarded
for centuries with great care, was at length
destroyed by the torch of war.
At an early age Christianity was intro-
duced into Alexandria. Apollos, the elo-
quent convert, was a native of the city,
and two-fifths of the population were Jews.
Its history from the first has been eventful,
and, for centuries, disastrous. Its commer-
cial importance passed away; its popula-
tion deserted it ; its edifices fell into ruin
or were used to build up younger cities. In
the year 640 it was yet a great city, for
when Amru captured it he wrote to the
Moslem caliph Omar, " I have taken the
great city of the West, which contains four
thousand palaces, four thousand baths, four
hundred theatres, twelve thousand shops
and forty thousand tributary Jews." But
even this measure of greatness was soon lost.
In more recent times Alexandria has
again revived and become an important
centre of commerce. In 1870 its popula-
tion was estimated at 238,888, composed of
Arabs, Turks, Copts, French, Italians and
others.
Al-ex-an'dri-ans, Jews from Alex-
andria (Acts 6:9).
AFgum, a transposed form of the He-
brew term Almtjg (which see).
APle-gO-ry, a figure of speech re-
sembling the parable, and much used by
all Oriental peoples. It is a personifica-
tion either of irrational and inanimate ob-
jects or of moral qualities, and an illus-
tration and enforcement of truth by their
conduct or by a supposed conversation be-
tween them. The word occurs but once in
the Scriptures (Gal. 4 : 24) and there the
passage should be rendered " which things
are allegorized." Paul refers to certain
events in the history of Israel and Ish-
mael which he uses to foreshadow import-
ant gospel truths, and which, therefore,
he allegorizes. He does not mean to say
that the historic facts he cites are them-
selves an allegory.
Al-le-lu'ia [pra/se ye the Lordi, a
Grecised form (Rev. 19 : 1, 3, 4, 6) of the
Hebrew Hallelujah (which see).
Al-li'ances. In our Authorized
Vei-sion this word, as expressive of
the social and political relations which
the ancient people of God were or were
not permitted to form with strangers, ap-
pears but once in its verbal root " allied "
(Neh. 13 : 4), but the thought which it
embodies is found not infrequently.
In respect to social or family alliances the
Mosaic Law was explicit. The covenant
people of Jehovah could enter into no
marriage covenant Avith the daughters of
a strange god, for this was to poison their
life at the fountain-head. Such alliances
were expressly forbidden in the Law
(Deut. 7 : 3), and in actual life were stern-
ly denounced as violations of the funda-
mental principles of the covenant (Ezra 9 :
2; 10 : 2, 3; Neh. 13 : 23-25; Mai. 2 : 11,
12). It was allowable, however, for He-
brews to marry wives from other nations,
on condition that the person so wedded
renounced the gods and corrupt mannei's
of their country and embraced in tiieir
stead the faith and worship of Israel. Of
this several examples are recorded, as in
the cases of Zipporah, Rahab and Ruth.
In respect to political or national alii-
36
ALLON— ALMOND.
ances, the legislation of Moses laid down
nothing very explicit except as regards
the original inhabitants of the land of
Canaan. With them the Israelites were
enjoined to make no league, public or pri-
vate, but to carry into effect the decree of
God, wliich doomed them, because of their
enormous sins, to an utter destruction
(Deut. 7:2; Judg. 2 : 2). What was
said respecting the surrounding nations
bore upon the religion and manners preva-
lent among them, rather than upon the peo-
ple themselves. Israel was not to copy
their idolatrous and sinful practices, but
might cultivate with them peaceful and
friendly relations. Accordingly, when Is-
rael became an established commonwealth
formal alliances Avere entered into with
several of the neighboring states. Solo-
mon concluded two important treaties ex-
clusively for commercial purposes: the
first with Hiram, king of Tyre, originally
with the view of obtaining materials and
woi'kmen for the erection of the temple,
and afterward for the supply of shipbuild-
ers and sailors (1 Kings 5 : 2-12; 9 : 27) ;
the second with a Pharaoh, king of Egypt,
by which he secured a monopoly of the
trade in horses and other products of that
country (1 Kings 10 : 28, 29). After the
division of the kingdom the alliances were
of an offensive and defensive nature. When
war broke out between Amaziali and Jer-
oboam II., a coalition was formed between
Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah on the
one side, and Ahaz and Tiglatli-pileser,
king of Assyria, on the other (2 Kings
16 : 5-9). An opening for the advances
of Assyria was thus made ; and the king-
doms of Israel and Judah, as they were
successively attacked, sought the alliance
of the Egyptians, wlio were strongly inter-
ested in maintaining the independence of
the Jews as a barrier against the encroach-
ments of the Assyrian power (2 Kings 17 :
4; 19: 9, 36; Isa. 30: 2).
The formation of an alliance was at-
tended with various religious rites. A vic-
tim was slain and divided into two parts,
between which the contracting parties
passed (Gen. 15 : 10; Jer. 34 : 18-20).
Generally speaking, the oath alone is men-
tioned in the contracting of alliances either
between individuals (Gen. 26 : 28; 31 : 53 ;
1 Sam. 20 : 17 ; 2 Kings 11:4) or nations
(Josh. 9 : 15). The event was celebrated
by a feast (Ex. 24 : 11 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 12, 20).
Salt, the symbol of fidelity, was used, and
occasionally a memorial pillar or a heap
of stones was set up (Gen. 31 : 52). The
fidelity of the Jews to their engagements
was conspicuous at all periods of their his-
tory (.Josh. 9 : 18), and any breach of cov-
enant was visited with very severe punish-
ment (2 Sam. 21 : 1 ; Ezek. 17 : 16).
Al'lon [oak]. Large trees were com-
paratively rare in the plains of Palestine,
were naturally designated as landmarks,
and were favorite places for residence and
sepulture. The spot wliere Rebekah's nurse
was buried is called AUon-Bachuth, the
"oak of weeping" (Gen. 35 : 8).
Al'ra.on-Dib-la-tha'irQ [covering of
the two fig-cakes], one of the encampments
of the Israelites on their way from Mount
Hor to the plains of Moab (Num. 33 : 46).
Almond.
Al'mond, a well-known nut, the ker-
nel of which is esculent and nutritious.
ALMS— ALTAR.
37
In Palestine it is still cultivated and of
excellent quality. The tree on which it
grows resembles the peach tree in leaves
and blossoms, and is remarkable for the
rapidity with which it matures its fruit.
As it has its Hebrew name from a verb
signifying " to watch, to make haste," it is
strikingly alluded to in Jer. 1 : 11, 12 as a
symbol of the vigilance with which the
Lord watches over his word to fulfill it, or
of the haste with wliich he executes his
judgments.
Alms [alms-deeds], (Matt. 6:2; Acts
9 : 36), showings of kindness or pity to
the needy, gifts or deeds of charity. The
duty of almsgiving is much insisted on in
Scripture (Deut. 15 : 11 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 1-3),
and the deed of almsgiving is approvingly
associated with acceptable prayer (Acts 10 :
2). The provisions of the Jewish law for
the relief of tlie poor were singularly judi-
cious and kind ( Lev. 25 : 35-43 ; Deut.
15: 7-11).
Al'mug (or Argum) Trees, the
former occurring in 1 Kings 10 : 11, 12, the
latter in 2 Chron. 2:8; 9 : 10, 11. The
two words are evidently identical, and indi-
cate trees which furnished a rare and costly
wood in great demand for fine work. The
wood probably was the red sandal-wood of
India and Ceylon. It is very heavy, hard,
fine-grained and of a beautiful garnet col-
or, and used in the ornamental work of the
temple and for musical instruments.
AFoes, or Lign-Aroes, an East
Indian tree, the flower and wood of which
yielded an exquisite and expensive per-
fume (Num. 24 : 6; Ps. 45 : 8 ; Prov. 7 :
17 ; Song 4 : 14). Its wood was also used
for fine cabinet and ornamental work. An-
other species of aloes, the juice of wliicli
when boiled produces the resin which is
largely used in medicine, is supposed to
be referred to in John 19 : 89, where it is
mentioned in connection with the process
of embalming. It is doubtful, however,
whether the Scriptures refer to more than
one kind of aloes, the fragrant lign-aloes
of the East.
Arpha, the first letter in the Greek
alphabet, as Omega is the last. Our Lord
says of himself in expression of liis eterni-
ty of being, " I am Alpha and Omega, the
beginning and the ending, the first and
the la,st" (Rev. 1 : 8, 11 ; 21 : 6; 22 : 13).
The like form of expression to denote the
eternity of God is found in Isa. 41 : 4.
Al-phe^us, the name of two men in
the New Testament.
1. The father of the apostle James the
Less (Matt. 10 : 3; Acts 1 : 13), and the
husband of that Mary who, with the mother
of Jesus and others, was standing by the
cross during the crucifixion (John 19 : 25).
Alphens is the Greek, and Cleophas or Clo-
pas the Hebrew or Syriac, name of the
I same person.
! 2. The father of the evangelist Levi or
I Matthew (Mark 2 : 14).
Al'tar. This word is derived from the
Latin alius, high, lofty, and is used to desig-
; nate a raised or elevated structure on which
i offerings of any kind were made to God.
! The first altar of which we have any ac-
I count is that built by Noah when he left
[ the ark (Gen. 8 : 20). At first the altar
I was eitlier a heap of stones or a mound
! of earth, and in construction and form was
j quite rude. If made of stone, it was to be
I of unhewn stone ; upon it no iron tools
were to be employed and no figures or
images were to be sculptured (Ex. 20 : 25;
' Deut. 27 : 5, 6; Josh. 8 : 31). Moses was
1 directed to make two altars — the one the
' altar of burnt-ofi:ering (Ex. 27 : 1-8; 38 :
! 1-7), the other the altar of incense (Ex.
I 30: 1-10; 37 : 25-28).
; 1. The altar of burnt-oflfering. This was
ordinarily simply called the altar, but
I sometimes "the brazen altar" (Ex. 38 :
j 30). It differed in construction at differ-
! ent times. In the tabernacle it was com-
paratively small and portable. In shape it
I was square, five cubits in length, the same
38
ALTAR.
in breadth, and three cubits high. It was
made of phmks of shittim or acacia wood
overhiid witli brass. The interior was liol-
low. At tlic four corners were four projec-
tions called horns, made like the altar itself
Altar of Burnt-offerin
of acacia wood overlaid with brass. They
probably projected upward, and to them
the victim was bound when about to be
sacrificed (Ps. 118 : 27). Seized by one
in peril of his life, they also furnished an
asylum which was generally, but not al-
ways, respected (1 Kings 2 : 28-31). On
the occasion of the consecration of the
priests (Ex. 29 : 12) and the offering of
the sin-offering (Lev. 4:7) part of the
blood of the victim was applied to these
horns by the priest's finger, and the rest
was poured at the bottom of the altar.
Round the altar, midway between the
top and the bottom, ran a projecting ledge
("compass" in our Authorized Version,
Ex. 27 : 5), on which, perhaps, the priests
stood when they officiated. To the outer
edge of this again a grating or network
of brass was affixed, and reached to the
bottom of tlie altar, which thus present-
ed the appearance of being larger below
than above. At the four corners of the
network were four brazen rings, into
which were inserted the staves by which
the altar was carried. Those staves
were of the same material as the altar
itself. As the priests were forbidden
to ascend the altar by steps (Ex. 20 :
26), it has been conjectured that a slope
of earth led gradually up to the ledge
from which they officiated. The place
of the altar was at " the door of the taber-
nacle of the congregation" (Ex. 40 : 29).
In Solomon's temple the altar was consid-
erably larger in its dimensions. Like the
former, it was square, but the length and
breadth were now twenty cubits and the
heiglit ten (2 Chron. 4:1). It differed,
too, in the material of which it was made,
being entirely of brass (1 Kings 8 : 64; 2
Cliron. 7:7). It had no grating, and in-
stead of a single gradual slope, the ascent
to it was probably made by three succes-
sive platforms, to each of which steps led.
Upon it, twice each day, sacrifices were
offered, and were burned with fire mirac-
ulously kindled at the first, and guarded
from generation to generation with the
most assiduous care (Lev. 6:12, 13; 9:
24).
2. The altar of incense, called also the
golden altar (Ex. 39 : 33) to distinguish it
from the brazen altar of burnt-offering, was
in the tabernacle, made of acacia wood over-
laid with pure gold. In shape it was square,
being a cubit in length and breadth and
two cubits in height (Ex. 30 : 2). Like
Altar of Incense.
the altar of burnt-offering, it had horns at
the four corners, which were of one piece
AL-TASCHITH— AMAZIAH.
39
with the rest of the altar. Its appear-
ance may be illustrated by the annexed
figure.
This altar stood in the Holy Place, " be-
fore the vail that is by the ark of the tes-
timony" (Ex. 30 : 6; 40 : 5). In Solo-
mon's temple the altar was similar, but was
made of cedar overlaid with gold (1 Kings
6 : ] 8, 22 ; 7 : 48 ; 1 Chron. 28 : 1 8). Upon
this altar every morning and every even-
ing, in connection with the daily sacrifice,
incense was burnt, and the service was de-
nominated "a perpetual incense before
the Lord" (Ex. 30 : 8). Upon it neither
burnt-offering nor meat-offering nor drink-
offering was at any time allowed (Ex. 30 :
9), nor was it ever stained with blood ex-
cept once a year, when the priest made
atonement (Lev. IG : 18, 19).
Al-Tasch'ith, found in the introduc-
tory verse to Psalms 57, 58, 59, 75. It lit-
erally means " destroy not," and is probably
the beginning of some song or psalm to the
tune of which those psalms were to be
chanted.
Am'a-lek, a son of Eliphaz and grand-
son of Esau (Gen. 36 : 16). He was not the
father of the Amalekites, who are mentioned
as a powerful people long before the birth
of Amalek (Gen. 14 : 7).
Am'alek-ites, a powerful nomadic
people occupying the peninsula of Sinai
and the wilderness between Southern Pal-
estine and Egypt, and called in Num. 24 :
20 " the first of the nations." They be-
longed, not unlikely, to a branch of the
great Hamitic family. They came into
conflict with the Israelites at Rephidim
soon after the exodus from Egypt, were
signally defeated, and, for their guilt in
opposing the progress of God's people, be-
came the objects of terrible denunciations
and judgments (Ex. 17 : 8-14; Deut. 25 :
17-19). They were defeated by Gideon
(Judg. 7 : 12), by Saul (1 Sam. 15), and by
David (1 Sam. 30), and at last, in fulfill-
ment of the word of the Lord, their name
was blotted from the earth (1 Sam. 30 : 17
and 1 Chron. 4 : 43).
Am'a-na, the marginal reading in 2
Kings 5 : 12 of the stream near Damascus
called in the text Abana. It is used in
Song 4 : 8 to designate a mountain, the re-
sort of wild beasts. Mount Amana, appar-
ently, was the southern part or summit of
Anti-Libanus, and was so called, perhaps,
from containing the sources of the river
Amana or Abana. See Abana.
Am-a-ri'ah [Jehovah hath mid — i. e.
promised], the name of several distinct
but undistinguished persons mentioned in
Scripture (1 Chron. 6 : 7 ; 23 : 19 ; 2 Chron.
19 : 11 ; Ezra 7:3; 10 : 42; Neh. 10 : 3 ;
Zeph. 1:1).
Am'a-sa [burden], the name of two
men.
1. A nephew of King David and the
leader of Absalom's army in the rebel-
lion (2 Sam. 17 : 25). He was defeated by
Joab, but because of his valor and near re-
lationship to King David was not only par-
doned, but also promoted above Joab, who
subsequently and most treacherously slew
him (2 Sam. 20 : 4-10).
2. A chief of Ephraim, who with others
vehemently and successfully resisted the re-
tention as prisoners of the persons whom
Pekah, king of Israel, had taken captive
in a successful campaign against Ahaz,
king of Judah (2 Chron. 28 : 12).
Am-a'sa-i [burdeihsome^, the name of
several men, but especially of the leader
of a considerable company from the tribes
of Judah and Benjamin who came to Da-
vid at Ziklag, when he was fleeing from
Saul, and offered him their services (1
Chron. 12 : 16-18).
Ani-a-zi'ah [Jehovah has strength-
ened], the name of two men.
1. The son and successor of Joash,
and eighth king of Judah. He ascend-
ed the throne at the age of twenty-five,
about B. c. 837, and reigned twenty-
nine years (2 Kings 14 : 1-20). The
40
AMBASSADOK— AMEN.
first part of his reign promised well,
but the promise was soon darkened
by insincerity of soul. The record re-
specting him is, " He did that which was
right in the sight of the Lord, but not
with a perfect heart" (2 Chron. 25:2).
Resolving to subdue the Edomites, who
several years before his accession had re-
volted from the kingdom of Judah (2
Kings 8 : 20), and presuming tliat his own
army of three hundred thousand men would
not be sufficient, he lured one liundred thou-
sand men from the king of Israel, to whom
he paid one hundred thousand talents of
silver. Before he set out upon the expe-
dition he was bidden by a prophet of the
Lord to dismiss his hired soldiers, upon
pain, if he did not, of falling before his
enemies. After some hesitation lie sent
the Israelites home, and was rewarded by
a signal victory over the Edomites, slay-
ing ten thousand, taking ten thousand
prisoners, and capturing Petra the capital.
Elated by his success and alienated in
heart from Jehovah, he took tlie idols
which liis vanquislied enemy had wor-
shiped and made tliem liis gods. Tlie
anger of the Lord was kindled against
him, and he was given over to follow his
own devices. He sought an occasion of
war with the king of Israel, but, defeated
and made a prisoner, lie was compelled to
submit to the plundering of the temple
and the spoiling of Jerusalem. After
this disgraceful defeat he lived fifteen
years, despised by liis subjects and de-
rided by his neighbors. At length he
was murdered by conspirators at Lacliish,
whither he had fled for safety (2 Chron.
25 : 27).
2. The priest of the golden calves at
Bethel, who complained to Jeroboam II.,
king of Israel, of the prophecies of evil
which Amos was uttering, and who, by
the prophet, was tlireatened with degra-
dation and death (Amos 7 : 10-17).
Ara-bas'sa-dor, a person sent to a
foreign court as the representative of his
king (2 Chron. 32 : 31). In tlie Old Tes-
tament the word is of frequent occurrence,
and in tlie New Testament (2 Cor 5 : 20)
it is applied to tlie apostles in the sense
that they were sent forth by divine au-
thority and furnished with divine creden-
tials to proclaim the terms of pardon and
peace to the rebellious and condemned
subjects of God's government in this
world. Paul when a prisoner in Pome
styles himself " an ambassador in bonds "
(Eph. 6 : 20), with the intimation that the
outrage done to him is an outrage done to
his divine Sovereign.
Am'ber, in ordinary acceptation a
beautiful fossil resin, susceptible of a
fine polish and presenting several colors,
the most common being yellow and orange.
It is found in lumps near the shores of the
Baltic Sea. The word occurs in three pas-
sages (Ezek. 1 : 4, 27 ; 8 : 2), where the
reference is thought by some to be not to
the resin, but to a very brilliant metal
composed of silver and gold, and much
prized by the ancients ; but the prophet
speaks only of amber color, which resem-
bles that of fire.
Am'bush, or Ambushment (Josh.
8:2; 2C]iron. 13: 13), a military manoeuvre
by which a hostile party is exposed to cap-
ture or destruction by coming unawares
upon their hidden and waiting foes.
Joshua arranged such an ambush in the
vicinity of Ai, and by it signally defeat-
ed the inhabitants of that city (Josh. 8).
A'men [true, faithful]. This word,
when occurring at the close of a sentence,
singly or doubly, is an affirmative response
denoting assent or entire acquiescence. Af-
ter a creed it means " So it is ;" after a prayer
"So let it be" (Deut. 27 : 15; 1 Kings 1 :
36; Jer. 11 : 5; Ps. 41 : 13). It is some-
times translated verily, and by our Lord
is frequently used at the beginning of a
sentence to introduce some emphatic and
important truth. Its repetition, " Verily,
AMEKCE— AMON.
41
verilv, I say unto you," is intended to
strengthen the assertion. Among the
early Cliristians all the worshipers said
Amen at the close of the prayer or of the
giving of thanks (1 Cor. 14 : 16). As our
Lord is " the faithful and true Witness,"
Amen is one of his titles (Rev. 3 : 14).
A-merce', to punish by a fine (Deut.
22 : 19).
Am'e-thyst, the name of a beautiful
stone of a purple or violet color, greatly
esteemed by the ancients for rings and
cameos, and believed by them to possess
the power of dispelling drunkenness. It
was the ninth stone in the high priest's
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 19), and the twelfth
in the foundations of the New Jerusalem
(Eev. 21. 20).
Am 'mi [my people] and Ru-ha'mah
[having obtained merry'], figurative names
bestowed by Jehovah on the people of Is-
rael to indicate his mercy toward them
in their restoration (Hos. 2:1).
Am-min'a-dab [my people is noble^,
the father of Nahslion, who was the prince
of the tribe of Judah at the Exodus (Num.
1 : 7 ; 2 : 3). He was the fourth generation
after Judah, and one of our Lord's ances-
tors (Matt. 1:4).
In Solomon's Song (6 : 12) the chariots
of AmminacUb (the last syllable different-
ly spelled) are mentioned as proverbial
for their swiftness. The person referred
t(\was probably a celebrated charioteer.
Am'mion [of the peoplel, Am'mon-
ites, Children of Ammon, a peo-
ple descended from Ben-Ammi, the son
whom Lot's younger daughter bore to
him after the destruction of Sodom (Gen.
19 : 38). Although they dispossessed the
Rephaim or giants, called Zamzummim
(Deut. 2 : 20), of the territory lying east
of the Jordan between the rivers Jabbok
and Arnon and stretching indefinitely
into the desert of Arabia, yet through
most of their liistory they were not so
much residents on the soil as wanderers
and fierce marauders (1 Sam. 11 : 1-3).
They were gross idolaters (Judg. 10 : 6).
Their chief idol was Moloch, the same
with Baal and Milcom. They were al-
ways hostile to the Israelites, were fre-
quently denounced by the prophets, and
were finally swept away in the flood of
God's judgments (Jer. 49 : 1,2; Ezek.
25 : 3-7 ; Amos 1 : 13-15).
Am'non [faithful] the eldest son of
David, by Ahinoam of Jezreel (1 Chron.
3:1), born at Hebron (2 Sam. 3:2). He
is only known for his violation of his half
sister Tamar, and for his assassination there-
for by her full brother Absalom (2 Sam.
13 : 1-29). See Absalom.
A'mon, the name of a divinity and
of a king.
Anion.
1. An Egyptian and Libyan god, the
Zeus and Jupiter of the classical writers.
The name occurs in that of No-amon
(Nah. 3 : 8), in our Authorized Version
0
42
AMORITE— AMPHIPOLIS.
"populous No." The ancient Egyptian
name is Amen. He was the chief god of
the Theban triad, and was worshiped as
Amen-Ra, or " Amen the Sun."
2. A king of Judah, son and successor
of Manasseh. He reigned two years, Irom
B. c. G42 to 640. He devoted himself
wholly to the service of false gods, and
was assassinated in a court conspiracy.
He was avenged by the ^^eople, who jiut
the regicides to death and raised to the
tlirone his son Josiah, then eight years
old (2 Kings 21 : 1S-2G ; 2 Chron. 33:
20-25). To his reign is to be referred the
terrible picture wliich the prophet Zepha-
niah gives of the moral and religious state
of Jerusalem.
Am'or-ite [mountaineer], the Am^-
or-ites, one of the chief nations who
possessed the land of Canaan before its
conquest by the Israelites. In the gene-
alogical table of Gen. 10 " the Amorite "
is mentioned as the fourth son of Canaan.
Dwellers on the highlands of the country,
they are contrasted with the Canaanites or
dwellers on the lowlands. In the early
times they occupied the barren heights
immediately west of the Dead Sea (Gen.
14:7). From this point they stretched
west to Hebron, where Abram met with
them (Gen. 14 : 13). Thence they seem
to have extended eastward, crossing the
valley of the Jordan and dispossessing
the Moabites of the ricli pastuVe-lands
south of the Jabbok. Here we find them
at the date of the Israelitish invasion of
the country. Sihon, their king, refused the
request of the Israelites to pass tlirougli
the country to tlie fords of the Jordan,
and, aided by other kings, mustered an
immense host to dispute the passage.
The Amorites were signally defeated, and
their territory was apportioned to the
tribes of Reuben and Gad (Deut. 4 : 46-
49; Josh. 12 : 1-6 ; Judg. 11 : 19-22). Af-
ter the conquest of Canaan tlie Scriptures
are silent respecting the Amorites, with
the exception of an occasional mention
of their name among the early inhabit-
ants of the country.
A'mos [burden-bcarcr], one of the twelve
minor jjrophets, a contemporaiy of Isaiah
and Hosea. He was a native of Tekoa,
about six miles south of Bethlehem, in-
habited chiefly by slicpherds, to which
class he belonged. He was called by
God's Spirit to be a prophet, although not
trained in any of the regular prophetic
schools (Amos 1:1; 7 : 14, 15). He
traveled from Judah into the northern
kingdom of Israel, and there for a short
time exercised his ministry. He was
driven from Bethel upon false represen-
tations made to King Jeroboam II. by
the idolatrous priest Amaziah (Amos 7 :
10, 11). The time and manner of his
death are uncertain. His prophecy be-
gins with awful denunciation of the na-
tions surrounding Israel, and passes to a
terrific sketch of Israel's own punishment.
Thence he rises to a loftier, more evangel-
ical strain, and anticipates the time when
the hope of Messiah's kingdom shall be ful-
filled, and when the cliosen people shall
be forgiven and established in the enjoy-
ment of God's blessings. His style is viv-
id, combining great splendor of imagery
with powerful invective and appeal.
A'moz [■^frony'], the father of the
propliet Isaiah and, according to rabbin-
ical tradition, the brotlier of Amaziah,
king of Judah (2 Kings 19:2; Isa.
1:1).
Am-phip'O-lis [a city on both sidex],
a city of Macedonia, situated near the
mouth and witliin a bend of the river
Strymon. It was built by Cimon the
I Athenian about B. c. 470. Paul and Silas
passed tlirough this city on their way to
I Tliessalonica from Philippi (Acts 17 : 1).
It has long been in ruins, and a village of
! about one hundred houses, called in Turk-
ish Jeni-K'i'vi, or New Town, now occupies
part of its site. A miserable village near
AMPLIAS— ANANIAS.
43
it is called by the Turks Emboli, a corrup-
tion of the ancient name.
Am'pli-as, a Christian at Rome,
mentioned by Paul as one whom he es-
pecially loved (Rom. 16 : 8).
Am'ram [the people is exalted, lofty
people^, a Levite of the family of the
Kohathites, and father of Moses, Aaron
and Miriam (Ex. G : 18, 20; Num. 3 : 19;
1 Cliron. 6 : 2, 3, 18). He is called the
" son " of Kohath, and is said to have mar-
ried Jochebed, "his fatlier's sister;" but
inasmuch as from Joseph to Joshua ten
generations are recorded, whilst from Levi
to Moses there are but three ( 1 Chron. G :
IG, 18; 7 : 23, 25-27), it has been conjec-
tured that several generations between
Kohath and Amram have been omitted.
If such be the case, then tlie "son" is
simply the descendant of Kohath, and
Jochebed, " his father's sister," is a rela-
tive of the Koliathite family.
Am'ra-phel [ihe son is ruler, Babylo-
nian], a king (Ilamite probably) of Sliinar
or Babylonia, who confederated with Che-
dorlaomer, king of Elam, and two other
kings to make war on Sodom and the
neighboring cities, whicli tlicy plundered.
Among the captives whom they carried
off was Lot, Abraham's nephew. Abra-
ham pursued them, retook Lot and re-
covered the spoil (Gen. 14 : 1-lG).
Am^u-lets, charms or preservatives
against the power of evil. The word is
not found in our Authorized Version, but
is the proper rendering of the Hebrew
word which in Gen. 35 : 4 ; Isa. 3 : 20 and
Hos. 2 : 13 is translated " ear-rings." See
Ear-rings.
A^nah [nnsivering'l, the son of Zibeon,
the son of feeir the Horite (Gen. 3G : 20,
24), a " duke " or prince of his tribe, and
father of Aholibamah, one of the wives
of Esau (Gen. 36 : 2, 14, 25). While feed-
ing asses in the desert he discovered " hot
springs " (not " mules," as in our Author-
ized Version, Gen. 36 : 24), which in the
region east of the Dead Sea exist to this
day.
A'nak [long-necked, i. e. a giant'], the
son of Arba, wlio founded Kirjath-Arba
(afterward Hebron), the progenitor of a
race of giants (Josh. 15 : 13).
An'a-kim [gianta], a nomadic tribe
of giants descended from Arba and bear-
ing the name of Anak, their immediate
progenitor (Num. 13 : 22, 33; Deut. 9:2;
Josh. 14 : 15). They dwelt in the south-
1 ern part of Palestine, in the vicinity of
Hebron. Although their warlike appear-
ance terrified the spies whom Moses sent
to ascertain the defences of Canaan (Num.
13 : 28), they yet were easily dispossessed
by Joshua, and, except a small remnant
that found refuge in the Philistine cities,
Gaza, Gath and Ashdod (Josh. 11:21, 22),
were utterly driven from the land. Their
chief city, Hebron, became the possession
of Caleb (Josh. 15 : 13, 14; Judg. 1 : 20).
After the conquest they vanish from his-
tory.
An'a-mim, a tribe descending from
Mizraim (Gen. 10 : 13), supposed to be an
East African tribe contiguous to Egypt, but
their exact position is not known.
A-nam'mel-ech [in Assyrian, Anu-
melik — Ann, is fcingl, the companion idol to
Adrammelech, both of whom were wor-
shiped by the colonists introduced into Sa-
maria from Sepharvaim (2 Kings 17 : 31).
An-a-ni^as [Greek form of the He-
brew Atssani An, protected by Jehovali]. In
the New Testament it is the name of three
persons.
1. A Christian of Damascus (Acts 9 :
10-17) held in high repute (Acts 22 : 12),
who was sent to Saul of Tarsus after he had
been miraculously stricken blind on his
way to Damascus, and through whom his
sight was as miraculously restored.
2. A Jew of Jerusalem, who, professing
to be a convert to Christianity, conspired
with his wife Sapphira to deceive the
apostles by a willful falsehood (Acts 5 :
44
ANATHEMA— ANDREW.
1-1 1 ). Having sold his goods for the ben-
efit of the Church, he kept back a part of
the price, and alleged the part which he
brought to be the -whole. For this hy-
pocrisy and falsehood he and his wife were
struck dead, as an awful warning to all who
might be tempted to repeat their sin.
3. A son of Nebeda-us, made high priest
by Herod, king of Chalcis, about A. d. 48.
When Paul was brought before him, he
commanded the officers to strike the apostle
in the face for saying that " he had lived in
all good conscience before God until that
day" (Acts 23 : 1, 2). Indignant at his in-
justice, Paul fearlessly replied, " God shall
smite thee, thou whited wall." This predic-
tion was literally and terribly fulfilled. Af-
ter his displacement from the high priest-
hood, and amid his lavish expenditure of
ill-gotten wealth, he was assailed in his pal-
ace by a band of assassins and murdered.
A-nath'e-ma, a Greek word which
literally means something laid up or sus-
pended as a votive offering, and which is the
equivalent of a Hebrew word signifying a
thing or person devoted. Whatever was thus
devoted to Jeliovah was irredeemable. If
inanimate, it was to be given to the priests
(Num. 18 : 14) ; if living, it was to be slain
(Lev. 27 : 28, 29). Hence, with a thing de-
voted there came to be associated the two
ideas of curse and extermination. Hence,
too, the word anathema received that rab-
binical sense of it which connects it with ex-
coiHiaunicalion. Among the Jews, accord-
ing to the rabbins, there were three forms
of excommunication. The first and sliglit-
est was the separation of an individual for
thirty days from the privileges of the syn-
agogue and intercourse with his brethren.
If this failed to bring him to repentance,
the second form, entitled "the curse," was
resorted to, and tliis was pronounced more
solemnly, with imprecations. By this the
excomnumicated person was completely
cut oft' from all social and religious priv-
ileges, and it was unlawful to eat, drink
or deal with him. If the offender re-
mained still impenitent, a sentence of a
still severer kind was pronounced against
him. This most formidable ban was tan-
tamount to an utter excision from the
Church and the giving up of the criminal
to the justice of God and final perdition.
The ANATHEMA MARAN-ATHA wllicll
Paul denounces against all who love not
the Lord Jesus (1 Cor. 16 : 22) is a Syriac
exclamation, signifying Accursed, our Lord
Cometh. The words "maran-atha" add
weight to the " anathema ;" they affirm
that the curse will remain, for the Lord
who Cometh will take vengeance on those
who reject him. See Accursed.
An'a-thoth [answers, that is, to
prayers], a priests' city in the tribe of
Benjamin, about four miles north-east of
Jerusalem (Josh. 21 : 18). It was mem-
orable as the birtliplace of Jeremiah ( Jer.
1:1). On the return of the captives from
Babylon only one hundred and twenty-
eight of the men of this place returned
(Ezra 2 : 23). Dr. Robinson identifies it
with the present village of Anafa, where
the remains of an ancient wall and the
foundations of ancient buildings are still
to be seen.
An'ohor, an instrument which, fast-
ened in the bottom of the sea, holds a ves-
sel firm during a storm. From tlie pas-
sage in Acts 27 : 29, 30 it appears that the
vessels of Roman commerce carried each
several anchors, some attached to tlie
stern and others to the prow. The word
anchor is used metaphorically to denote
what sustains the soul amid tlie storms
of earthly griefs and fears (Heb. 6 : 19).
An'cient of Days, a title applied
to God the Fatlicr, denoting his eternity
(Dan. 7 : 9, 13, 22).
An'drew [maniiil, one of the twelve
apostles and brother of Simon Peter (.John
1 : 40). He was a native of Betlisaida in
Galilee, and by occupation a fisiierman.
Originally a disciple of John the Baptist,
ANDEONICUS— ANNAS.
45
he attached himself to our Lord on hear-
ing John style him " the Lamb of God,"
and, seeking forthwith his brother Simon,
brought him also to Jesus (John 1 : 41, 42).
He is several times referred to by the
evangelists, but of the scene of his labors
and the place of his death there is no reli-
able record. It is generally agreed that he
suffered martyrdom.
An-dro-ni^cus [man of victory'], a
kinsman and fellow-prisoner of Paul
(Rom. 16 : 7),
A^ner. 1. A Canaanite chief who,
with Eshcol and Mamre, joined Abraham
in pursuing the host of Chedorlaomer (Gen.
14 : 24). 2. The name of a Levitical town
in the tribe of Manasseh (1 Cliron. 6 : 70).
An^gels [messengers], a race of spir-
itual beings of a nature exalted far above
tliat of man, altliough infinitely removed
from that of God, whose office is "to do
Jehovah service in heaven, and by his
appointment to succor and defend men on
earth." Our knowledge of them is derived
wholly from revelation, and that rather in-
cidentally. Tlieir appearance is majestic
(Gen. 19:1; Judg. 13 : 6; Matt. 28 : 2-7 ;
Eev, 22 : 8). Their eviployment is benev-
olent (Ps. 34 : 7 ; 91 : 11 ; Matt. 18 : 10 ;
Heb. 1 : 14). Their number is vast (Ps.
68 : 17 ; Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26 : 53 ; Heb.
12 : 22). Their strenyih is great (Ps. 103 :
20; Dan. 6 : 22; 2 Pet. 2 : 11 ; Rev. 18 :
21 ). Their activity is wonderful (Isa. 6:6;
Dan. 9:21; Acts 27 : 23 ; Rev. 8 : 13).
Such, in some few particulars, are the
intimations which revelation gives of
the angels of God.
But according to the Scriptures there is
also an order of evil spirits, called angels
(Matt. 25 : 41) and devils (Luke 8 : 27),
fallen from their first estate, ministering
to the will of the prince of darkness, and
both active and powerful in their opposi-
tion to God's will and government. Among
them, as among the holy angels, differences
of rank and power exist i^Eph. 6 : 12).
An'g-er, a strong emotion of dis-
pleasure against a real or supposed injury.
It is not evil in itself, but when inordinate
and excessive it becomes evil. It is as-
scribed to God (Ps. 7 : 11; 90 : 11) and
to good men (Neh. 5:6; 2 Pet. 2 : 7, 8)
in the sense of displeasure against sin.
Anger, degenerating into malignity and
revenge, is severely denounced (Eph. 4 :
31; Col. 3 : 8).
An'gle, An^gling, the capture of
fisli by the use of hook and line. That
this method of taking fish Avas well known
to the ancients is evident from Isa. 19:8;
Hab. 1 : 15, as well as from ancient Egyp-
tian monuments.
An'ise, an annual plant witli aro-
matic fragrance. The word in the original,
it is thought, should have been translated
dill. It was an herb which grew abun-
dantly in Judasa, of which the Pharisees,
wliile neglecting the weightier matters of
the Law, Avere careful to devote a tithe or
tenth to the service of religion (Matt. 23 :
23).
An'na, a prophetess, the daughter of
Phanuel of the tribe of Asher. During
her long widowhood she devoutly and con-
stantly attended the temple-service. She
was eighty-four years of age when the in-
fant Jesus was brought into the temple,
and as Simeon pronounced the proplietic
blessing she united in it with great fervor
(Luke 2 : 36-38).
An'nas, a liigh priest of the Jews.
He is spoken of as joint high priest with
Caiaplias (Luke 3:2). He held this of-
fice under Quirinus, proconsul of Syria,
but was deprived of it at the beginning
of the reign of Tiberius. Having held
the office, he still bore the title, and prob-
ably assisted Caiaphas, who was properly
tlie incumbent, and who was his son-in-
law. He was a man of great influence.
To him Our Lord, when apprehended, was
first carried in order to secure his sanction
of the purposed death, and by him Our
46
ANOINTING— ANT.
Lord was sent in bonds to Caiaphas
(John 18 : 13-24).
A-noint'ing-, the custom of pouring
perfumed oils on persons, places and things.
In the East it was of extensive use and wide
application.
1. Ordinary Anointixg. "With the
Jews, as with ether Oriental nations, it
was a common practice to anoint the body
or head (Deut. 28 : 40; Ruth 3:3; Mic.
6 : 15). Abstinence from it was a sign
of mourning (2 Sam. 14 : 2; Dan. 10 : 3;
Matt. 6 : 17). Anointing the head was
also a mark of respect sometimes paid
by a host to his guests (Luke 7 : 4G; Ps.
23 : 5).
2. Official Anointing. Anointing
was a principal ceremony in the rite of
inauguration into each of the three typical
offices of the Jewish commonwealth — that
of prophets, that of priests and that of
kings (1 Kings 19:16; Ps. 105:15;
Ex. 40 : 15; Lev. 16 : 32; 1 Sam. 9 : 16;
1 Kings 1 : 34, 39).
3. CONSECRATORY ANOINTING. Inan-
imate objects were anointed in token of
their being set apart for religious ser-
vice. Thus Jacob anointed a pillar at
Bethel (Gen. 31 : 13), and thus, too, in
the wilderness the tabernacle and all its
furniture were anointed (Ex. 30 : 26-28'.
4. EcCLESIASTICAIi ANOINTING. The
apostle James prescribes anointing in the
name of the Lord and with prayer by the
elders of tiie Church for the recovery of
the sick (James 5 : 14). Analogous to
this is the anointing practiced by the
twelve (Mark 6 : 13) and by our Lord
in restoring a blind man to sight (John
9: 6, 11).
5. SpiRiTrAi. Anointing. The ideas
associated with official and consecratory
anointing re.adily and by metaphor passed
into the higher idea of spiritual anointing.
With this the Scriptures connect two con-
ceptions.
a. In the Old Testament a deliverer is
promised under the title of Messiah or
Anointed (Ps. 2:2; Dan. 9 : 25, 26), and
the nature of his anointing is described to be
spiritual, with the Holy Ghost (Isa. 01 : 1).
In the New Testament, Jesus of Nazareth
is shown to be the Messiah or Christ or
Anointed of the Old Testament (John 1 :
41 ; Acts 9 : 22 ; 17 : 2, 3 ; 18:4, 28), and
the historical fact of his being anointed
with the Holy Ghost is asserted and re-
corded (John 1 : 32, 33; Acts 4 : 27 ; 10 :
38).
b. Spiritual anointing with the Holy
Ghost is conferred by God upon Chris-
tians (2 Cor. 1 : 21), who, in consequence
thereof, are described as having an unc-
tion from the Holy One by which they
know all things (1 John 2 : 20, 27).
Ant, a small and well-known insect.
It is mentioned but twice in Scripture
(Prov. 6:6; 30 : 25) : First, as an exam-
ple of dilif/eyice in "gathering food in the
harvest;" second, as an examjde oi tcisclom
in " preparing meat in the summer." Both
passages imply that the ant anticipates its
need of food in the winter, and makes in
the summer the requisite provision. This
obvious sense of the two passages has been
represented as inconsistent with an alleged
finding of science that the ant is dormant
in winter, and needs no food. Biblical
critics, too, have so far yielded to these
representations as to apologize for King
Solomon and the Scriptures by alleging
that the two passages mean not a pro-
vision for the winter in summer, but
a general provision of food in season.
Prominent among these apologies for the
assumed mistake of Scrii ture is that con-
tained in Smith's Didiovary of the Bible.
But a profounder science has at length
vindicated Scripture. Moggridge of Eng-
land and McCook of Philadelphia, by their
studies of the habits of the harvesting ant,
two species of which are found in Pales-
tine, have abundantly corroborated the
statements of Solomon in the Proverbs,
ANTICHRIST— ANTIPATRIS.
47
and have conclusively shown that in in-
stinct and industry the ant surpasses most
insects. Thus the ant in diligently and
wisely improving the opportunity to gather
food which summer gives, very pointedly
rebukes the sluggard, who, in the indul-
gence of sloth and idleness, lets the sum-
mer pass and the harvest end.
An^tichrist [against Christ], a word
occurring only in the Epistles of John,
where it characterizes certain false teach-
ers who denied the real humanity of our
Lord (1 John 2 : 18, 22 ; 4:3; 2 John 7).
The denial of Christ " in the flesh " was
the capital error of that Gnostic heresy
which existed in the times of John and
whicli wrought great havoc in the Church.
Although the term Antichrist has in John's
Epistles a specific sense, it has yet been
adopted by theologians as a convenient
designation of some great power which,
according to Scripture hints, is to arise
in the future, and which is to oppose with
great virulence and blasphemy the doc-
trines and the disciples of Christ. It has
been applied to the " little horn " of the
"king of fierce countenance" (Dan. 7 and
8) ; to the false Christ predicted by our
Lord (Matt. 24); to the "man of sin"
whom Paul describes (2 Thess. 2 : 3-10) ;
and to the "beasts" of the Apocalypse
(Rev. 13 and 17). The adequate discus-
sion of the theme transcends the limits
of a brief article. See "Man of Sin"
under Man.
An'ti-och, the name of two cities
mentioned in the New Testament.
1. Antioch in Syria, the capital of
the Greek kings of Syria, and afterward
the residence of the Roman governors of
the province, which bore the same name.
It was situated on the river Orontes, and
about thirty miles from the Mediterra-
nean, seven hundred from Alexandria,
and the same from Constantinople. It
was founded in the year B. c. 300 by
Seleucus Nicator, and named in honor
of his father, Antiochus. It was cele-
brated for its opulence, luxury and licen-
tiousness, and at the same time for its
cultivation of the fine arts. No city, af-
ter Jerusalem, is so intimately connected
with the apostolic Church. Here the first
Gentile church was gathered (Acts 11 : 20,
21) ; here Barnabas and Paul preached "a
whole year" (Acts 11 : 26) ; and here the
disciples of Jesus Christ were first called
Christians (Acts 11 : 26). Whether the
name Christians, like that of Nazarenes,
was given by way of reproach or not, is
uncertain ; it seems, however, to have
been adopted by the disciples (1 Pet. 4 :
16), and has ever since been retained as
an appropriate distinguishing name. In
the time of Chrysostom, at tlie close of the
fourth century, the population of Antioch
was computed at two hundred thousand, of
which one half professed to be Christians.
The city afterward passed through mani-
fold convulsions and changes, and at length
by war, pestilence and earthquake was con-
verted into what it now is, a heap of ruins.
The present town, called Anlakia by the
Arabs, a shrunken and miserable place,
occupies but a small portion of the site
of the ancient city.
2. Antioch in Pisidia, the capital
of the province of Pisidia in Asia Minor.
It was also founded by Seleucus Nicator.
Its site has been identified by Arundell
and Hamilton with a place called Yalo-
batch. Here Paul and Barnabas preached,
and here they encountered such violent
persecution that they were compelled to
flee for their lives (Acts 13 : 14-51 ; 2
Tim. 3 : 11).
An'ti-pas, a faithful martyr of the
church of Pergamos (Rev. 2 : 13). He
is said to have been one of Our Lord's
first disciples, and to have been burned in
a brazen bull during the reign of the empe-
ror Domitian.
An-tip'a-tris, a town of Palestine,
situated on a fertile plain between Caesa-
48
APE— APOSTLE.
rea and Jerusalem. It was built by Her-
od the Great, and named after his father,
Antipater. To this place Paul was brought
by the Roman guard when on his way to
Csesarea to escape the Jewish conspirators
(Acts 23 : 31). The remains of a Roman
road from Jerusalem, by Beth-Horon, to
Antipatris are still plainly visible.
Ape, an animal of the monkey tribe
mentioned in 1 Kings 10: 22 and 2 Chron.
9 : 21 among the merchandise brought by
the fleets of Solomon and Hiram once in
every three years. The name in Hebrew
has been borrowed from the Sanskrit, and
points to Ceylon or India.
A-pel'les, a Christian at Rome whom
Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 10). His history
is unknown, but his character is given in
three words : approved in Christ.
A-phar'sa-chites, otherwise
A-phar'sath-chites and A-phar'-
sites, the name of the nation to which
belonged one portion of the colonists
whom the Assyrian leader Asnapper
planted in Samaria in place of the ex-
patriated northern tribes, and who vio-
lently opposed the Jews in rebuilding
Jerusalem (Ezra 4:9; 5:6; 6:6).
A'phek {firmness], the name of seve-
ral cities.
1. A city of the tribe of Asher (Josh.
19 : 30). It was the same with Aphik,
which the Israelites were unable to cap-
ture from the Canaanites (Judg. 1 : 31),
and the site of a famous temple of Venus.
It is now Af/ca.
2. A city in the tribe of Issachar, not
far from Jezreel. Here the Philistines
twice encamped before joining battle with
the Israelites (1 Sam. 4 : 1 and 29 : 1).
3. A city on the military road between
Damascus and Palestine. Near it Ben-
hadad, king of Syria, was defeated by the
Israelites, and in it took refuge (1 Kings
20 : 29, 30). It is now called Fik; and is
six miles east of the Sea of Galilee.
A-pol-lo'ni-a, a city of Macedonia,
situated between Amphipolis and Thessa-
lonica, and about thirty miles from the for-
mer. Paul passed through this place on
his way to Thessalonica (Acts 17 : 1).
A-porios, a Jew from Alexandria,
described as a learned or eloquent man,
well versed in the Scriptures and the
Jewish religion (Acts 18 : 24). He was
a disciple of John the Baptist, but, com-
ing to Ephesus and taught by Aquila and
Priscilla, whom Paul had left there dur-
ing his temporary absence, that Jesus was
the Christ, he espoused with great ardor
the higher doctrine, and proclaimed it
with extraordinary zeal and power. He
labored in the gospel, first in Achaia and
then in Corinth (Acts 18 : 27; 19 : 1),
where he watered that which Paul had
planted. When Paul wrote his first Epis-
tle to the Corintliians, Apollos was with
or near him (1 Cor. 16 : 12). He is men-
tioned but once more in the New Testa-
ment (Tit. 3 : 13). A doubtful tradition
makes him bishop of Csesarea, and he is
thought by some scholars to be the author
of the Epistle to the Hebrews.
A-poll'yon, the Greek equivalent
(Rev. 9 : 11) of the Hebrew Abaddon
(which see).
A-pos'tle [one sent forth]. Our Lord,
the Christ, who was God's great ambassador
to reconcile a fallen and rebellious world,
is called an apostle (Heb. 3:1). The
term, however, particularly designates
those twelve disciples whom our Lord
selected and invested with authority to
preach the gospel, administer the sacra-
ments, work miracles and build up the
Church. The office was evidently an ex-
traordinary one, and differed materially
from tliat of the ordinary minister of tlie
gospel. This appears from its character-
istic features.
1 . It was essential that those who exer-
cised this office should have seen the Lord,
that they might be both eye and ear wit-
nesses of that to which thev testified
APOTHECARY— APPLE TREE.
49
(John 15 : 27) ; and tliis was laid down
as a requisite in the one who was to be
chosen to succeed Judas (Acts 1 : 21, 22).
Paul refers to this mark of an apostle in
his own case (1 Cor. 9:1; 15 : 8).
2. It was necessary that tlie apostles
should be immediately called to the othce
by Our Lord himself; this was the case
with all of them (Luke 6 : 13). Paul
was no exception, for he was called by
Christ on his way to Damascus ; neither
was Matthias, for the lot by which he was
chosen was by the disposal of the Lord
(Acts 1 : 26).
3. They were infallibly inspired to ex-
pound the Old Testament and to give
forth the revelation of the New. Our
Lord promised to "teach them all
things;" to "bring all things to their
remembrance" (John 14 : 26) ; to "guide
them into all truth ;" and to " show them
things to come" (John 16:13). Their
word, therefore, was to be received, " not
as the word of man, but, as it is in truth,
the word of God" (1 Thess. 2 : 13).
4. The working of miracles, the speak-
ing with tongues and the conferring mirac-
ulous gifts on others were apostolical quali-
fications (Mark 16 : 20 ; Acts 2 : 43). Paul
said, " Truly the signs of an apostle were
wrought among you in all patience, in
signs and wonders and mighty deeds" (2
Cor. 12: 12).
5. The universality of their mission was
a characteristic of the office. They were
not to be confined to any particular place
as ordinary pastore (2 Cor. 11 : 28).
Now, as these marks of an apostle can-
not possibly meet in any one at the pres-
ent time, it is presumption in any branch
of the Church to claim that their ministers
are, in office, the successors of the apostles.
Their office as an extraordinary one ceased
witli them, and tliere is not a particle of
proof that tlie Head of the Cliurch de-
signed to perpetuate it.
The apostles of our Lord were — 1, Si-
4
mon Peter; 2, Andrew; 3, James; 4,
John; 5, Philip; 6, Bartholomew; 7,
Thomas ; 8, Matthew, also called Levi :
9, James the Less; 10, Jude, also called
Lebbeus and Thaddeus, and (in John 14 :
22) Judas; 11, Simon the Canaanite; 12,
Judas Iscariot. When Judas Iscariot had
destroyed himself, Matthias was chosen in
his place, and Paul was afterward added
to the college of the apostles.
A-poth'e-ca-ry, a perfumer or deal-
er in perfumes (Ex. 30 : 25, 35 ; 37 : 29 ;
Eccles. 10 : 1). See Ointment.
Ap-par^eL See Clothes.
Ap-pe^al, a legal provision by which
a cause is carried up from an inferior
judge or court to a superior one. The
principle was recognized by the Mosaic
Law (Deut. 17 : 8, 9), and through all
the ages of the Jewish commonwealtli
was incorporated in permanently-estab-
lished courts ( Judg. 4 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 3 ;
2 Chron. 19 : 8; Ezra 7 : 25). After the
institution of the Sanhedrim the final
appeal lay to it. Paul, as a Roman citizen,
exercised his right of appeal from the jur-
isdiction of the local court to the empe-
ror at Rome (Acts 25 : 11).
Ap'pi-i Fo'rura, a market-town . in
Italy, on the Appian Way, forty-three
miles from Rome. When Paul was taken
to Italy, some of the Christians of Rome
journeyed to meet him as far as "Appii
Forum," and others as far as the " Three
Taverns" (Acts 28 : 15). Three Taverns
(Tres Taberna;) was the title of a place
ten miles nearer to Rome than Appii
Forum.
Ap'ple Tree, Ap'ple. The apple
tree is mentioned in tlie Song 2:3; 8:5;
Joel 1 : 12; the apple is alluded to in
Prov. 25 : 11 and the Song 2:5; 7:8.
What the specific tree and fruit really are
it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say.
The quince, whose fragrance was held in
high esteem by the ancients, has some
plausible arguments in its favor. The
50
AQUILA— ARABIA.
general opinion, however, inclines to the
citron, whose ricli color, fragrant odor and
handsome appearance, meet well the re-
quii'ements of Scripture allusion, wliilst
Canon Tristram prefers tlie apricot tree.
Aq'ui-la, a Jew whom Paul found at
Corinth on his first visit to that city (Acts
18 : 1-3). He was a native of Pontus in
Asia Minor, and by occupation a tent-
maker. He and liis wife Priscilla liad
embraced Christianity at Eome, but, in
consequence of an oi'der by tiie emperor
Claudius that all Jews on pain of deatli
must leave the capital, liad fled to Cor-
inth. They became efficient helpers to
Paul, who lield them in liigli esteem (Rom.
16 : 3). They had a cliurch in their house
(Rom. 16:5; 1 Cor. 16: 19).
Ar [city'], or Ar of Moab, the capi-
tal city of the Moabites (Num. '21 : 28 ; Isa.
15 : 1), south of and near tlie river Arnon
(Deut. 2: 18, 24; Num. 21 : 13-15). It
was also called Rabbah and Rabbath-Moab,
to distinguisii it from Rabbath of Amnion.
In later times its name was Grecized Are-
opoUs, '' city of Ares or Mars." The site
is still called Eabba. It is about seventeen
miles east of tlie Dead Sea, ten miles south
of .the Arnon, and about the same distance
north of Kerak.
Ar'a-bah [rfe.s-eri place], the name of
a region and of a town.
1. As the name of a region it occurs
but once in our Version (Josh. 18 : 18),
but repeatedly in the original, and is
translated in our Version " plain," " wil-
derness," "desert" (Deut. 1:1; 2:8; 3 :
17 ; 4 : 49 ; Josh. 3:16; 12:3; 2 Kings
14 : 25 ; Amos 6 : 14). In its widest usage
the Arabali designates that deep depression
or valley which stretclies from the moun-
tains of Lebanon on the north to the Ela-
nitic or Eastern Gulf of the Red Sea on
the soutli, a distance of two hundred and
fifty miles. Its northern half is the chan-
nel of the Jordan ; its middle portion, tlie
basin of tlie Dead Sea ; and its southern
portion, a frightful desert. It is restricted
by the modern Arabs to the valley south
of the Dead Sea. The wiiole valley north
and south of the Dead Sea is the most re-
markable depression known to exist on the
surface of the globe.
2. As the name of a town it is mentioned
in Josh. 18:18. It belongefl to the tribe
of Benjamin, and was ordinarily called
Beth-Arabah (.Josh. 15 : 61 and 18 : 22).
A-ra'bi-a, an extensive region of
country occupying the south-western ex-
tremity of Asia, bounded on the nortii
by a part of Syria, on the east by the
Persian Gulf and the Euphrates, on the
south by the Indian Ocean, and on tlie
west by the Red Sea. It lies south and
south-east from Palestine. It is a country
sacred from its associations. It was the
residence of Job, the temporary refuge of
Moses and Elijah, and the scene of tlie re-
markable vicissitudes through which the
Israelites passed in their protracted joui'-
ney to the Holy Land. The inhabitants,
deriving their origin from Ishmael and
from Joktan, son of Heber, of the family
of Sliem, are among the most interesting
peoples of the world, and amid changes
which have proved destructive to other
nations have retained possession of their
original territory and much of their orig-
inal cliaracter.
Arabia comes to view in the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures under two designations :
I. The eaH country (Gen. 25 : 6), or
perhaps the east (Gen. 10: 30), and land of
the people of the east (Gen. 29 : 1) ; Gentile
name, children or men of the east ( Judg. 6 :
3 ; 7:12; 1 Kings 4 : 30 ; Job 1:3; Isa.
11 : 14; Jer. 49 : 28; Ezek. 25 : 4). From
these passages it is clear that the land of
the east and children of the east indicate,
primarily, the country east of Palestine
and the tribes descended from Ishmael
and from Keturah, and tli;it this original
signification may have become gradually
extended to Arabia and its inhabitants
ARABIA— ARAM.
51
generally, though without any strict lim-
itation.
II. 'Ardb and ^Arab, whence Arabia (1
Kings 10 : 15; 2 Chron. 9 : 14; Isa. 21 :
U; Jer. 25:24; Ezek. 27 : 21). This
name seems to have the same geograph-
ical reference as the former name to tlie
country and tribes east of the Jordan and
chiefly north of the Arabian peninsula.
In the New Testament, Arabia is men-
tioned twice (Gal. 1:17; 4 : 25). In the
first passage the reference is probably to
tlie tract adjacent to Damascene Syria ; in
the second, to the region about Mount
Sinai.
Of the several divisions into which
Arabia is distributed, the most conve-
nient and characteristic are those of tlie
Gteek geographers — namely, Arabia J)e-
serla, or desert ; Arabia Petrcea, or rocky ;
and Arabia Felix, or happy.
1. Arabia Deserta — or, as the Arabs call
it, El-Bad ieh — is bounded on tlie nortli-
east by the river Euplirates, on tlie north-
west by Syria, and on tlie west by Pales-
tine. It is a vast and burning waste of
sand, almost wholly destitute of water and
vegetation, without fixed liabitations, and
relieved only by the tents of tlie wander-
ing Arab tribes called Bedouin. Its early
inliabitants were the Rephaim, the Emim,
the Zuzim and the Zamzumniim (Gen. 14 :
5; Deut. 2: 10, 11), succeeded by tlie Am-
monites, the Moabites, the Edomites, the
Hagarenes, the Nabatheans and the peo-
pile of Kedar.
2. Arabia Pelnea lies soutli of tlie Holy
Land. It is the peninsula between tlie
gulfs of Suez and Akabah. Mount Sinai
is witliin its bounds, and wliat is now call-
ed the Desert of Mount Sinai was the scene
of the wanderings of tlie tribes of Israel.
Its chief cliaracteristics are wildernesses
of rocks and craggy precipices, interspersed
witli narrow defiles and innumerable sandy
valleys, many of which are nearly as bar-
ren as the rocks. Its ancient inhabitants
were the southern Edomites, the Amalek-
ites and the Hivites. Petra, the rock-city
whose ruins are so remarkable and so cele-
brated, was its principal city and, at one
time, the strong capital of its chief prov-
ince, Edom.
3. Arabia Felix — or, according to its
Arabic name, Yemen — is the region which
lies between tlie Red Sea on the west and
the Persian Gulf on the east ; and as it
is not near tlie Holy Land, it is not so
frequently referred to in Scripture as the
other divisions. Although called Happy
Arabia, or, in the language of the poets,
" Araby tlie blest," it is only so in compar-
ison with the other parts of Arabia. Tlie
population, consisting cliiefly of Ishmael-
ites, is of a more fixed character, and
sustains itself by agriculture and com-
merce. Witliin its boundaries were Seba
and Sheba, wliose kings are mentioned in
Ps. 72 : 10, and whence it is surmised
came the queen of Sheba wlio visited
Solomon (1 Kings 10 : 1 ; 2 Cliron. 9:1).
The country was ricli in gems and gold,
in spices, odoriferous slirubs and fragrant
gums, the articles of a varied and valu-
able trade (1 Kings 10 : 10 ; Ezek. 27 : 22).
Tlie famous cities of Mecca and Medina
(the first the birth-place, the second the
burial-place, of Mohammed) are within
its limits. But, whilst tliis division em-
braces the greater portion of the country
known to us as Arabia, it is to a very
large extent an unknown land. Its ac-
cessible districts have been but imper-
fectly explored, and very little of its in-
terior has been visited as yet by any Eu-
ropean traveler.
A'rad, an ancient city of Palestine,
twenty miles soutli of Hebron. Its king
opposed the passage of the Israelites, and
for this he with his people was utterly de-
stroyed (Num. 21 : 1-3).
A^ram \_hi(jh rer/lon'], (Num. 23 : 7),
tlie Hebrew designation of Syria (which
.see).
52
ARARAT— ARCHANGEL.
ilouut Aiaiiii.
Ar'a-rat, a name sometimes applied
to a province and sometimes to the whole
country of Armenia. When in Gen.
8 : 4 we read that "the ark rested on
the mountains of Ararat," we are to
understand that great Armenian plateau
which rises as a rocky island out of a sea
of plain to a height of six or seven thou-
sand feet, whence, as from a fresh base,
spring lofty mountain-ranges. In one of
these ranges there is a peak which is com-
monly but erroneously regarded as the
resting-place of the ark. Its summit is
upward of seventeen thousand feet above
the level of the sea, and in comparison
with it all the surrounding peaks dwin-
dle into insignificance. It is grand and
imposing in its appearance, and its top
is capped with everlasting snow. In the
year 1829, Professor Parrot of Germany,
after repeated failures, succeeded in reach-
ing its top, and he describes it as being a
circular platform about tAVO hundred and
twenty feet in diameter, which descends
steeply on all sides. It has been ascended
several times since, and Parrot's descrip-
tion of it has been fully confirmed. It
could not have been the peak where the
ark grounded, since the safe descent from
it of Noah and liis family, with all the
"living creatures" committed to their
care, would have been a greater miracle
than their deliverance from the Flood.
Most likely the ark touched earth on
some one of the lower Armenian hills
or plains.
A-rau'nah, a Jebusite, one of the
people who inhabited Jerusalem before
it was occupied by the Israelites. He
owned on Mount Moriah a threshing-
floor, which, with his oxen, he sold to
David wlien the king was commanded to
offer there a sacrifice in order to stay the
desolating plague brought on -Jerusalem
by his presumptuous sin. The thresh-
ing-floor became the site of the temple
which Solomon built (2 Sara. 24 : 18).
In 1 Chron. 21 : 18, Arannah is called
Oman.
Ar'ba, or Kirjath-Ar'ba [city of
Arba}, the ancient name of Hebron (Gen.
35 : 27 ; Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21 : 11). See He-
bron.
Arch-an'gel [chief angell. The word
occurs in the New Testament but twice
(1 Thess. 4 : 16; Jude 9). It is supposed
ARCHELAUS— ARIEL.
53
to denote tliose angels who occupy the
highest rank in tlie celestial order or
hierarchy. Of these there are said to be
seven who stand immediately before the
throne of God (Eev .8:2), who have au-
tiiority over other angels, and are the pa-
trons of particular nations (Rev. 12:7;
Dan. 10 : 13). The names of two only
are found in Scripture — Michael, the pa-
tron of the Jewish nation (Dan. 10 : 13,
21 ; 12:1; Jude 9; Rev. 12 : 7), and Ga-
briel (Dan. 8 : 16; 9 : 21 ; Luke 1 : 19, 26).
Ar-che-la'us [ruler of the people], a
son of Herod the Great, and his successor
in the kingdom (Matt. 2 : 22). Like his
father, he was a man of malignant and
cruel disposition, and after enjoying his
dignity for ten years he was accused be-
fore the Roman emperor for his cruel-
ties, and banished to Vienne in Gaul,
where he died.
Ar^cher, one skilled in the use of the
bow (Gen. 21 : 20). Before the invention
of firearms tlie bow was much used in
war and hunting. See Arms, Armor.
Ar-chip'pus [ruler of (he horse'], a
Christian minister whom Paul styles his
"fellow-soldier" (Philem. 2), and to whom
on another occasion he sends a message to
take heed to tlie ministry that he had re-
ceived, and to fulfill it (Col. 4:17).
Arc-tu'rus [bear-warden]. This name
is found twice in the book of Job (9:9 and
38 : 32). The etymology of the original
word is obscure. Most critics regard it as
denoting the principal star in the tail of the
Great Bear, and of course take the "sons"
of Arcturus in the sense of the smaller stars
near it. Other critics, however, suppose
that Arcturus and the other stars men-
tioned in Job were the leading constella-
tions of spring and autumn in tlie days
of the patriarcli, and they seek, by calcu-
lations based upon the precession of the
equinoxes, to fix the time when the book
of Job was written.
Ar-e-op'a-gus [the hill of Ares or
Mars], (Acts 17 : 19), a rocky height in
Athens opposite the western end of the
Acropolis. It had its name from the
legend that Ares (Mars), the god of war,
was hei-e tried by the other gods on a
cliarge of murder. Here was held that
noted council, the Areopagus, which took
cognizance of questions of religion, edu-
cation and politics, and which considered
and determined all kinds of oflfences, but
especially such as related to religion. Be-
fore this court, on the hill of Mars, the
apostle Paul was arraigned on the charge
of being "a setter-forth of strange gods"
(Acts 17 : 18). His noble defence of him-
self and his clear exposition of the grand
facts and doctrines of the gospel resulted
in the conversion of one of his judges,
" Dionysius the Areopagite," and in his
dismissal without rebuke (Acts 17 : 32-
34).
A-re'tas, the name of several kings
of Arabia Petraea, one only of whom is
referred to in Scripture. Having made
an incursion upon Damascus, he took the
city and appointed a governor over it. It
was during the incumbency of this subor-
dinate officer that the attempt was made,
at the instigation of the Jews, to seize and
imprison the apostle Paul, of which wlien
his friends were apprised, they let him
down from the walls at night in a basket
(2 Cor. 11 : 32 and Acts 9 : 24, 25).
Ar'gob [stone-heap], a district in
Baslian, east of the Lake of Gennesa-
ret, which was given to the half-tribe of
Manasseh (Deut. 3 : 4, 13 ; 1 Kings 4 : 13).
In later times it was called Trachonitis
[the rough] ; now it is the Lejdh, south
of Damascus. The region is a very re-
markable one. It is oval in shape, twenty-
two miles by fourteen, and is thickly stud-
ded with ruined cities and villages. It is
described as an "ocean of basaltic rocks."
A'ri-el [lion of God], a designation of
Jerusalem (Isa. 29 : 1, 2, 7), originating,
probably, from the fact that Jerusalem
54
ARIMATHEA— ARK.
was the chief city of the tribe of Judah,
whose emblem was a lion (Gen. 49 : 9).
Ar-i-ma-the'a, probably the birth-
place, certainly the residence, of Joseph,
the rich counselor in whose sepulchre Our
Lord was laid (Matt. 27 : 57-60). It is
called in Luke 23 : 51 "a city of the
Jews" or of Judaea. Some identify it
with Raraah, Samuel's birthplace ; others
with the modern Ramleh, on the road
from Jaffa to Jerusalem.
Ar-is-tar^chus [bed ruler], a native
of Thessalonica and a faithful and esteemed
co-laborer with Paul (Acts 20 : 4 ; 27 : 2),
In Col. 4 : 10, Paul styles him his "fel-
low-prisoner ;" in Philem. 24, his " fellow-
laborer." In the tumult raised against
Paul by the silversmiths of Ephesus he
was nearly killed (Acts 19 : 29). He was
a companion of Paul on the perilous voy-
age to Rome and during his first impris-
onment there. According to tradition, he
was finally beheaded at Rome.
Ark [coffer, chesti, the designation in
the Scriptures of three specially important
vessels :
1. Ark of Noah. This
was built by Noah, at God's
command, for the preserva-
tion of himself and family
when the earth was devas-
tated by the Flood. Accord-
ing to ordinary calculation,
it was four hundred and fifty
feet in length, seventy-five in
breadth and forty-five in
height, but most probably its
real dimensions were very
mucli greater. Its form
is supposed to have been
tiiat of an oblonor floatina:
house, witii a roof either flat
or only sliglitly inclined. It
was constructed with three
stories, and with a door in the side. It
had sufficient capacity for its purposed
use, and kept alive those human beings
and those selected animals which floated
in it. As the second cradle of the human
race the ark entered largely into the tra-
ditions of the ancient world, and reap-
peared in the mysteries and religious cer-
emonies of many primeval nations.
2. Ark of Bulrushes. In Ex. 2 : 3 we
read that Moses was exposed among the
flags of the Nile in an ark or boat of bul-
rushes daubed with slime and with pitch.
Tlie bulrush was the papyrus reed, which,
grew abundantly in Egypt, and which,
with many other uses, was largely em-
ployed in the weaving of boats. These
boats were noted for lightness and swift-
ness, and are alluded to in Isa. 18 : 2.
3. Ark of the Covenant. This was the
first piece of the tabernacle's furniture for
which precise directions were delivered
(I']x. 25). It appears to liave been an
oblong chest of acacia wood, two and a
half cubits long by one and a half broad
and deep. Within and without gold was
overlaid on the wood, and on the upper
side or lid, which was edged around
Ark of the Covenant.
about with gold, tlie mercy-seat was
placed. It was fitted witli rings, one at
each of the four cornel's, througli wliich
ARKITE— ARMS.
55
were passed the acacia staves, overlaid
witli gold, whereby it was carried (Num.
7:9; 10 : 21). When transported, it was
enveloped in tlie veil of the dismantled
tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers'
skins and in a blue cloth overall ; it was
tiierefore not seen. It contained the two
tables of the moral law, that covenant be-
tween God and his people from wiiicli it
derived its title (1 Kings 8 : 9). Occupy-
ing the Most Holy Place of the sanctuary,
it excluded every idol from the centre of
worsliip. It was also the support of the
mercy-seat, symbolizing materially, per-
liaps, the grand truth that the " covenant "
was that on which mercy rested.
After the children of Israel had passed
the Jordan the ark in the tabernacle was
placed at Gilgal. Thence it was removed
to Shiloh, where it was stationary some
three or four hundred years. When taken
out and borne before the army — which,
renouncing faith in God, thus degraded
the symbol of his presence into a magical
charm — it fell into the hands of the Phil-
istines at the defeat of the Israelites near
Aphek (1 Sam. 4). The Philistines took
it to Ashdod, and placed it by the side of
their idol-god Dagon (1 Sam. 5). They
were taught, however, in a very surprising
manner that their profane use of it was
highly displeasing to God, and they re-
turned it to the people of Israel, who
lodged it at Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. 6, 7).
When David had fixed his residence at
Jerusalem it was removed thither, and
kept until the temple was prepared to re-
ceive it. When Jerusalem was sacked by
Nebucliadnezzar it was either carried away
or destroyed.
Ark'ite, one of the families of the Ca-
naanites, located in the north of Phoenicia
(Gen. 10 : 17; 1 Chron. 1 : 15). The site
which now bears the name of Ar/;a lies on
the coast, some five miles from the sea and
about twelve miles north of Tripoli.
Arm, the common instrument of hu-
j man strength and power, and so the sym-
bol of God's almightiness (Ps. 89 : 13;
I Isa. 53 : 1). To break the arm of any
[ one is to destroy his power (Ezek. 30 :
21). The expressions "making bare the
arm " and " redeeming with an outstretcheil
arm " refer to the action of warriors or other
persons employed in vigorous and energet-
ic working, who, in order to accomplisli
their purpose, must have fidl and free
scope for the arm.
Ar-ma-ged'don, a name used em-
blematically for a place of slaughter and
mourning (Rev. 16 : 16). It means the
mountain of Megiddo, on which stood the
city of the same name, on tlie soutliern
border of the plain of Jezi-eel or Es-
draelon, that great battle-field where Ba-
rak and Gideon conquered ( Judg. 5:19;
6 : 33), and where Saul and Josiah fell
(1 Sara. 29 : 1 ; 31:8; 2 Sam. 4:4;
2 Chron. 35 : 20-24). It is to be under-
stood as pointing prophetically to the utter
overthrow of the marshaled hosts of Anti-
christ at some place which shall revive the
memories of Megiddo, and at some time in
the future.
Ar-ine''ni-a, a country of Western Asia
between the Caucasus and Taurus Moun-
tains and the Mediterranean, the Black
and the Caspian seas. It is an elevated
table-land triangular in shape, and the
base from which rises the gigantic Ararat.
In it the great rivers Euphrates and Ti-
gris have their springs, and through it
flow the Araxes and Kur. It is men-
tioned in Scripture in connection witli
but one event, tiie death of Sennacherib,
king of Assyria (2 Kings 19:37; Isa.
37 : 38). Christianity was introduced
into it in the fourtli century, but, in the
present Armenian Church, is greatly cor-
rupted.
Arms, Ar^mor, the weapons of of-
fence and the equipment for defence.
1. Arms, or the Weapons of Of-
fence.— These were the sword, the spear.
56
ARMS.
the javelin, the dart, the lance, the sling,
the bow and arrow and the battle-axe.
The sword was the earliest known and
the most widely-used weapon (Gen. 27 :
40). Little can be ascertained as to its
shape, size, material or mode of use. It
was j)robably a ligliter and shorter weapon
than the modern sword, resembling w^hat
we call a dagger. It was carried in a
sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17 : 51 ; 1
Chron 21 : 27 ; Jer. 47 : 6), slung by a
girdle (1 Sam. 25 : 13), and rested upon
the thigh (Judg. 3 : 16) or upon the hip
(2 Sam. 20 : 8). From allusions to its
l)rightness and "glittering" (Deut. 32 :
41) we infer that its material was metal.
Shield, Axe, Sword, Bow and Quiver.
The spear (Josh. 8 : 18), the javelin
(Num. 25 : 7, 8), the dart (2 Sam. 18 : 14)
and the lance f Jer. 50 : 42) differed chief-
ly in length and size. The spear was a
long wooden staff with a stout metal point
at one end. Tlie lance was shaped like
the spear, but was a lighter Avcapon. The
javelin w;is a short spear, and was cast
with the hand (1 Sam. 18 : 11). The dart
was still smaller than the javelin, and was
used in like manner.
The sling (1 Sam. 17 : 40) was an early
weapon of war, by which stones were thrown
with great force and surprising accuracy of
aim (Judg. 20 : 15, 16).
The bow and arrow held the foremost
place among the missile weapons of of-
fence. From the earliest times they were
in use both for the chase and for war (Gen.
21 : 20 ; 48 : 22). Tlie bows were made of
flexible wood or steel (Ps. 18 : 34), and the
bow-string of leather, horse-hair or the ten-
dons of animals. The arrows were orig-
inally made of reeds, and afterward of any
light wood ; they were carried in a case or
box called a "quiver," slung over the
shoulders in such a position that the ar-
rows could be readily drawn out when
wanted. Those who shot them were called
archers.
The battle-axe (Jer. 51 : 20) was a pow-
erful weapon of war, but of its form and
manner of use we have now no definite
knowledge.
Coats-of-Maii.
2. Armor, or the Equipment for
Defence. — This comprised tlie sliield or
buckler or target, the coat-of-mail or ha-
bergeon or breastplate or brigandine, the
greaves and the helmet.
The shield or buckler or target, differ-
ing in size and perhaps in form, was a de-
fence against sword-blows and spear-thrusts,
and such missiles as stones, javelins, darts
and arrows. It was one of the earliest
pieces of armor (Gen. 15 : 1 ; Ps. 5:12).
It was usually made of light wood, and
covered with several folds or thicknesses
ARMOR-BEAEER— ARPAD.
57
of stout hides. Sometimes osiers or reeds
woven like basket-work were used to stretch
tlie hide upon. Sometimes the shield was
either made entirely of brass or gold, or
covered with thick plates of those metals
(1 Kings 14 : 26, 27). It was held by the
left 'arm, and sometimes was attached to
the neck by a thong.
The coat-of-mail (1 Sam. 17 : 5) or ha-
bergeon (Neh. 4: 16) or breastplate (Rev.
9:9) covered the body upon and below
the breast and back. It consisted of two
parts, and was fastened together at the
sides. As it was the principal and most
complete part of the armor, it is an ap-
propriate emblem of defence and safety
(Isa. 59 : 17; Eph. 6 : 14).
The greaves (1 Sam. 17 : 6) resembled
boots without feet, and protected the legs.
They were usually made of brass.
Helmets and Swords.
The helmet was a cap to protect the
head. It was made of thick, tough hide,
sometimes of plated brass, and was often
ornamented with a crest or plume.
Arms and armor, the weapons of of-
fence and the equipment for defence, fur-
nish some of the most vivid Scripture al-
lusions and figures. A fine example is in
Eph. 6 : 11-18, where the Christian is rep-
resented as clothed in the panoply (or whole
armor) of God, and as so using the sword
of the Spirit that in the good fight of faith
he achieves a certain and glorious triumph.
Ar'mor-Bear^er, a soldier selected
by a king or general from the bravest of
his followers to carry his armor until he
was ready to equip himself for battle, and
during the contest to stand beside him ( 1
Sam. 16 : 21 ; Judg. 9 : 54).
Ar'mo-ry, the place where, in times
of peace, arms and armor were deposited
(Song 4 : 4).
Army. See Soldier and War.
Ar'non [rushiny, roarivf/], a river
rising in the mountains of Gilead east of
Jordan, and flowing into the Dead Sea
(Num. 22 : 36; Deut. 2 : 24). It was
originally the boundary between the Mo-
abites and Amorites (Num. 21 : 13), and
afterward between Moab and the tribe
of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 15, 16). It is
now called El-Mojeh, and is described as
flowing in a deep ravine or chasm cut
through red and brown and yellow sand-
stone. The stream, although rapid and
wild in winter, is nearly dried up in sum-
mer. See Moab for a picture of the Arnon.
Ar'oer, the name of several places.
1. A city on the north bank of the tor-
rent Arnon, assigned after the conquest of
Sihon, king of the Amorites, to the tribe
of Reuben (Deut. 2:32-36; Josh. 13:
15, 16), but later again in the possession
of Moab (Jer. 48 : 16-20). Near this city
Jephthah defeated the Ammonites (Judg.
11 : 33). The site, marked by ruins, with
the name ^A-rd'ir, is on the old Roman
road, upon the very edge of the precipi-
tous north bank of Wady-ti-Mojeb.
2. One of the towns " built " or probably
rebuilt by the tribe of Gad (Num. 32 : 34).
3. A city in the south of Judah, to
which David sent presents after recov-
ering from the Amalekites the spoil of
Ziklag (1 Sam. 30 : 26-28). It aiipears
to have been the native city of two of
David's warriors (1 Chron. 11 : 44).
! Ar^pad, sometimes Ar^phad, a city
58
AEPHAXAD— ASAHEL.
of Syria, always mentioned in connection
with Hamath, and probably in the vicin-
ity of Dani;iscus, but its exact site is now
unknown (2 Kings IS : 34 ; Isa. 10 : 9 ; 36 :
19; 37 : 13; Jer. 49 : 23).
Ar-phax'ad, a son of Shem, born
two years after the Flood (Gen. 11:10).
Ar'row (see Arms, Armor), a word
of extended symbolical use. As a means
of domestic power and self-defence chil-
dren are called arrows (Ps. 127 : 4, 5).
Lightnings are described as Jehovah's
arrows (Ps. 18 : 14; Hab. 3 : 11) ; so also
are providential calamities (Job 6 : 4; Ps.
38 : 2). Words of bitterness and false-
hood are strikingly compared to arrows
(Ps. 64: 3; 120: 3, 4).
Ar-ta-xerx'es [great ivarrior'], the
name of two Persian monarchs mentioned
in Scripture.
1. The monarch who obstructed the
building of tlie temple (Ezra 4 : 7-21).
He is supposed, with good reason, to have
been the Magian impostor Smerdis, who
usurped the throne B. c. 522 and reigned
eight months.
2. The monarch who in the seventh
year of his reign permitted Ezra to re-
turn into Judaea with such of his country-
men as chose to follow him (Ezra 7 : 1,7),
and who, fourteen years afterward, allowed
Nehemiah to return and build Jerusalem
(Neh. 2:1). He has been identified with
Artaxerxes Longimanus, the son and suc-
cessor of Xerxes.
Ar^te-mas, an esteemed disciple
whom Paul proposed to send to Crete
to supply the place of Titus, while the
latter should visit the apostle at Nicop-
olis (Tit. 3 : 12).
Ar-tirie-ry. This word, found in 1
Sam. 20 : 40, is applied to the arrows which
Jonathan had been shooting. It is Old
English for offensive, especially missile,
weapons ; it must not be confounded with
modern artillery, of which the ancients
had no knowledge.
A-ru'raah or Ru'mah, a village
near Shechem where Abimelech lived
(Judg. 9 : 41 ; 2 Kings 23 : 30).
Ar 'vad, a small island and city on the
coast of Syria, still known under the name
of Ruad. The inhabitants, who are called
Arvadites (Gen. 10 : 18), were celebrated
as mariners (Ezek. 27 : 8-11).
A'sa [healing or physician], the third
king of Judah, son and successor of Abi-
jam. He began to reign about B. c. 956,
and reigned forty-one yeai-s in Jerusalem
(1 Kings 15 : 9, 10). When he assumed
the government he displayed a commend-
able zeal in suppressing all idolatrous prac-
tices and the gross immoralities which be-
fore had been tolerated (1 Kings 15 : 12).
He did not spare his grandmother Maa-
chah, who occupied the special dignity of
" king's mother." He burnt the symbol
of her religion (1 Kings 15 : 13), and
threw its ashes into the brook Kidron ;
he then deposed Maachah from her dig-
nity. He strengthened the kingdom and
made the best use of his resources. His
reliance on the divine aid was rewarded
by a signal victory over Zerah the Ethio-
pian (2 Chron. 14 : 9-15). Although it is
said, " Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord
all his days," we are to understand tliis not
of every particular act of his life, but of
his continuing to maintain the sound prin-
ciples with which he began his career.
His alliance with tlie king of Syria in his
war with Israel evinced a distrust of God,
and his treatment of the Lord's prophet
for faithfully rebuking him on this ac-
count was inexcusable (2 Chron. 16 :
1-10). In tlie latter part of his life he
suffered from the gout, and, to his re-
proach, relied more on the skill of his
physicians than on God's help (2 Chron.
16 : 12). He died, greatly loved and hon-
ored, in the forty-first year of his reign,
and was buried with extraordinary pomj).
A'sa-hel [(lod. Aas* made], nepiiew
of David and brother of Joab, distin-
ASAPH— ASHDOD.
59
guislied for his swiftness in running. At
the battle of Gibeon he pursued Abner,
who, in self-defence, was obliged to kill
him (2 Sam. 2 : 19-23).
A'saph lassemblei-l, the name of three
persons.
1. A Levite of the family of Gershom,
son of Berachiah (1 Chron. 6 : 39; 15 :
17), eminent as a musician, and appoint-
ed by David to preside over the sacred
choral services which he organized (1
Chron. 16 : 5). The office appears to
have been hereditary, for his sons are
mentioned as choristers in the temple
(1 Chron. 25 : 1, 2). To twelve of the
Psalms, the fiftieth and the seventy-third
to the eighty-third inclusive, his name is
prefixed, but his authorship of them all
is, on good grounds, disputed. He may
have been the founder of a school of
poets and musical composers, who were
called after him "the sons of Asaph."
2. The " father " of Joah, the " recorder "
in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18 : 18,
37 ; Isa. 36 : 3, 22).
3. A "keeper of the king's forests" (in
Lebanon probably), to whom Nehemiah
requested of Artaxerxes Longimanus an
order for timber to rebuild the temple at
Jerusalem (Neb. 2:8).
As-cen^sion, our Lord's. See Christ.
As'e-nath, daughter of Potipherah,
priest (or possibly prince) of On, wife of
Joseph (Gen. 41 : 45) and mother of Ma-
nasseh and Ephraim (Gen. 41 : 50; 46 : 20).
Ash. This word occurs but once in
Scripture (Isa. 44 : 14). Whether it des-
ignates the ash-tree or a pine is uncertain.
Ash'an [smokel, a city in the plain,
spoken of as belonging sometimes to Ju-
dah (Josh. 15 : 42), sometimes to Simeon
(Josh. 19 : 7 and 1 Chron. 4 : 32), and
sometimes to the sons of Aaron (1 Chron.
6 : 59). Its site has not been identified.
The Modem AsliUod.
Ash'dod [s^tronghold, castle'], one of to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15 : 47), but
the five cities of the Philistines assigned not permanently conquered. The Greeks
60
ASHER— ASHTAROTH.
called it Azotus (Acts 8 : 40). It was sit-
uated about three miles from the Mediter-
ranean, midway between Gaza and Joppa.
In it was the temple of Dagon, to which
the Pliilistines bore the captured ark (1
Sam. 5 : 2). It is now an insignificant vil-
lage called Esdiid, the prophetic denun-
ciations (Amos 1 : 8, Zeph. 2 : 4) having
been literally fulfilled.
Asli'er [happy one'}, the name of a man,
of the tribe descended from him and of a
city.
1. One of the sons of Jacob by Zilpah,
Leah's handmaid (Gen. 30 : 13). No par-
ticulars of his personal history are re-
corded.
2. The tribe descended from Asher has
a-s little prominence in Scripture history
as Asher himself After the conquest it
took the territory allotted to it without
any special mention, and, so far as the rec-
ords show, participated in none of the stir-
ring events of succeeding times. Its gen-
eral position was on the seashore from
Carmel northward, with Manasseh on the
south, Zebulun and Issachar on the south-
east and Naphtali on the north-east. Its
territory, some sixty miles long by ten
broad, contained some of the richest soil
in all Palestine, and to this fact, and to
the tribe's proximity to the commercial
and luxurious Phoenician cities, may pos-
sibly be attributed the degeneracy of the
Asher ites (Judg. 1 : 31, 32).
3. A city on the boundary of the tribe
of Manasseh (Josh. 17 : 7).
Ash'es. As in the East persons in
deep ailliction were accustomed to scatter
(lust or ashes on their heads or in their
hair, and to sit or lie, or even roll, in
ashes, so it was not unnatural that ashes
should become the symbol of penitential
mourning (Job 42 : 6 ; Matt. 11 : 21), and
should contribute to many figurative forms
of expression. "When the Psalmist (Ps.
102:9) says, "I have eaten ashes like
bread, and mingled my drink with weep-
ing," he means that he has eaten the
bread of humiliation and drunk the water
of affliction. When, too, Isaiah (44 : 20)
says of the idolater, " He feedeth on ashes,"
his meaning evidently is that idolatry can
afford no spiritual nourishment, and that
to practice it is to die.
Ash'i-raa, the idol-god of the people
of Hamath, whose worsliip the colonists
settled by Shalmanezer introduced into
Samaria (2 Kings 17 : 30). It is said to
have had the form of a goat, and to have
been the same as the Pan of the Greeks
and the Phoenician god Esmun. Probably
it is the Persian Asuman.
Ash^ke-lon. See Askelon.
Ash'ke-naz, son of Gomer and grand-
son of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 3), the probable
ancestor of those who irihabited a country
of the same name (Jer. 51 : 27) lying
along the northern and south-eastern
shores of the Black Sea.
Ash'ta-roth, the name of a goddess
and the designation of two cities.
1. As the name of a goddess, Ashta-
ROTii is the plural form of Ashtoreth,
the great female divinity of the Canaan-
itish nations, the partner of Baal, the
great male divinity. She was called /s-
tar by the Assyrians and Astarte by tlie
Greeks and Romans. The singular form,
Ashtoreth (1 Kings 11 : 5, 33; 2 Kings
23 : 13), is coupled with the title "goddess
of the Zidonians," and evidently implies
that Zidon, if not the principal seat, was
one of the principal seats, of her worship.
The plural form of the name is the form
of more frequent occurrence (Judg. 2 : 13 ;
10:6; 1 Sam. 7 : 3, 4; 12 : 10 ; 31 : 10),
and is often associated with Baalim.
The worship of the goddess, consisting
of impure rites and libidinous orgies,
was very ancient and very widely spread.
The four hundred priests wiiich ate "at
Jezebel's table" (1 Kings 18 : 19) were
most likely employed in her service.
2. As the name of a city, Ashtarotk
ASHTOKETH— ASS.
61
(once AsTAROTH, Deut. 1 : 4) has the sense '
of "shrines of Astarte," and is plainly ;
designed to indicate a city where the
worship of the goddess was maintained
with imposing magnificence. The city
was on the east of Jordan, in Baslian,
and was the residence of King Og (Josh.
9 : 10; 12 : 4; 13 : 12). After the con-
quest of Bashan by the Israelites the city
was allotted to the half-tribe of Manasseh
(Josh. 13 : 31).
3. A very ancient city of the Rephaim,
or giants (Gen. 14 : 5), is called Ashte-
koth-Karnaim {two-horned Astarte). It
shows in the spelling a slight variation
from the usual form, and is certainly the
name of a different city from that in
Bashan. Possibly it is the modern Meza-
reib, on the great pilgrim-road from Da-
mascus to Mecca.
Ash'to-reth. See Ashtaroth.
A'sia, the name in the New Testament,
not of the continent and not of the whole
peninsula known now as Asia Minor, but
of the west-coast provinces of Asia Minor,
with a good portion of that vague region in
the interior which was usually denomina-
ted " Phrygia." As designating a geo-
graphical division, Asia is quite an indef-
inite term, for with frequent changes of mas-
ters its boundaries were continually chang-
ing. In its widest sense, Asia is refer-
red to in Acts 19 : 26, 27 and 20 : 16, 18.
In a more restricted sense, Asia meant
Proconsular Asia, or the section embra- '
cing the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, Ca-
ria, Lydia and Ionia (Acts 27 : 2). In a '
more restricted sense still, Asia is spoken
of in one place (Acts 2 : 9) as not includ-
ing Phrygia ; in another place (Acts 16:6, ]
7 ) as not including eitlier Phrygia or Mysia ; i
in all such places it is to be understood as '
referring to Ionia and the western coast, ,
of which Ephesus was the capital, and in
which the Seven Churches were situated.
As'ke-lon (Judg. 1 : 18), sometimes
AsHKELON (Judg. 14 : 19), one of the
five cities of the Philistines (1 Sam. 6 :
17), situated on the Mediterranean coast
between Ashdod and Gaza, about forty
miles west of Jerusalem. In post-biblical
times it rose to a position of considerable
importance. In the struggles of the Cru-
sades it played a memorable part. Its
desolation, predicted in Zech. 9:5, is
now complete.
Asnap'per, mentioned in Ezra 4 : 10
as the person who settled the Cuthseans in
the cities of Samaria. He was probably a
general of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria.
Asp [Heb. pethen, so called probably
from extending itself], a serpent remarkable
for the venom and the instantaneously fatal
effect of its poison. The Hebrew word oc-
curs in six passages : Deut. 32 : 33 ; Job
20 : 14, 16 ; Ps. 58 : 4 ; 91 : 13 ; Isa. 11 :
8. In the two passages from the Psalms
the word is rendered in our Authorized
Version adder; in the other passages it
is rendered asp. See Adder. The pas-
sage in Isaiah intimates that the pethen
was a dweller in the holes of walls ; and
as this is a characteristic of the cobra, it
is commonly supposed that the cobra is
meant. There is, however, a serpent in
Syria, called beten by the Arabs, wliich
answers well to the rec^uisitions of Scrip-
ture. It is thus described : " Spotted all
over with black and white ; a foot long,
and about twice as thick as one's thumb ;
oviparous ; the bite instantly fatal, causing
the body to swell." The passage in Isa-
iah strikingly represents the security of
Messiah's reign under the figure of a child
playing safely " on the hole of the asp."
Ass. There are five words in the He-
brew which are translated ass, and which
express some of the characteristic differ-
ences in a well-known class of animals.
Two of these words are applied to the
domestic male ass and the domestic female
ass respectively. Tlie other three words
describe as many species of the icild ass.
The domestic ass was not only valuable as
62
ASSHUR— ASSYRIA.
a beast of burden, but also for its sure-foot-
edness. It occupied the place of the horse,
and was used in traveling. The nobles of
the land rode upon asses, especially upon
white ones, whicli were usually appropri-
ated to persons of dignity (Judg. 5 : 10).
The domestic ass constituted a valuable
portion of Eastern wealth (Job 1 : 3).
The wild ass is often mentioned in Scrip-
ture, and is much more spirited and beau-
Wild Ass.
tiful than the domestic kind (Job 39 : 5-
8). In their wild state tliese asses herd
like wild horses, having their leaders and
sentinels, and show an extraordinary shy-
ness and vigilance. They are captured
with difficulty. In fleetness they equal
the gazelle, and successfully defy the ef-
forts of the swiftest Arab horses to over-
take them. Mr. Morier, the Eastern trav-
eler, says : " We gave chase to two wild
asses, which had so much the speed of our
horses that when they had got at some dis-
tance they stood still and looked beliind at
US, snorting with their noses in the air, as
if in contempt of our endeavors to catch
them."
Assh^ur [a step], the second son of
Shem (Gen. 10 : 22), who gave name to
the city (not mentioned in Scripture)
which was the first capital of Assyria,
and to the country which, at one time
designating Asshur (Num. 24 : 22; Hos.
14 : 3), at another time Assyria (Isa.
7 : 18; Zech. 10 : 10), holds a prominent
place in Old Testament records. The
monuments indicate that in the later
times of Assyrian history Asshur was
worshiped as the chief god of Assyria.
As'sos, a seaport town of Mysia, over
against tiie island of Lesljos. Paul came
to this place on foot from Troas to take
ship for Mitylene (Acts 20 : 13, 14). It
is now an insignificant village.
As-sur'ance is the persuasion of tlie
certainty of anything or the confident ex-
pectation of something future. Tlius
our Lord's resurrection affords the as-
surance that he will hereafter judge
the world (Acts 17 : 31). In Col. 2 :
2, Paul speaks of the " full assurance
of understanding," by which he evi-
dently means an unalterable convic-
tion of the truth of the mysteries of
redemption. The " full assurance of
5? faith" mentioned in Heb. 10: 22 is
the unwavering, confident and realiz-
ing belief in divine things ; and to
have it in our approaches to the throne of
grace enables us to realize that God is, and
that he is the rewarder of them that dili-
gently seek him. The " full assurance of
hope " spoken of in Heb. 6:11 is that con-
fident personal expectation of tlie believer
that God will confer on him the blessings
which he has promised. Paul illustrates
tliis kind of assurance in his own case in
Rom. 8 : 38, 39. Ahhough the doctrine
of assurance, in either of the senses above
mentioned, may be perverted to a fanatic-
al presumption, yet assurance is attainable,
and may be regarded as that precious priv-
ilege of the believer in which his mind is
brought into a state of perfect peace. As-
surance itself can never, in its gospel sense,
be found associated with any allowed sin.
As-sy'-ria, a country and an empire
of Western Asia.
1. The country of Assyria lay chiefly
along the eastern or left bank of the
Tigris, and in the earliest times was con-
fined, most probably, to a small tract of
low-lying land. It derived its name from
ASSYEIANS.
63
the progenitor of the aboriginal inhabit-
ants, Asshur, the second son of Shem (Gen.
10 : 22; 1 Chron. 1 : 17). The Assyrian
monuments place the beginning of the
monarchy about B. c. 1850. The first
capital of the monarchy was Asshur ;
the second capital was Calah ; the later
and more illustrious capital was Nineveh.
Asshur (tlie modern KUeh-Shergat) stood
on the right bank of the Tigris, sixty
miles south of Nineveh. At this place
have been found bricks and fragments of
vases bearing the names and titles of
apparently the earliest known Assyrian
kings.
2. The empire of Assyria embraced not
only the original country of Assyria, but
the populous and powerful countries be-
tween the Tigris and Euphrates, common-
ly known as Mesopotamia and Babylonia.
The cuneiform records place the beginning
of the empire about b. c. 1300, when Tig-
lathi-Nin (the Ninus, perhaps, of the
Greeks) took Babylon and established
the predominance of Assyria over Lower
as well as Upper Mesopotamia. In the
times of Jonah, about B. c. 800, Nineveh,
the metropolis of the empire, had become
"an exceeding great city of three days'
journey," and pre-eminent in wickedness
(Jon. 1 : 2 ; 3 : 3 ; 4 : 1 1 ). See Nineveh.
In later times Assyria became the oppres-
sor of Israel and Judah, and was terribly
denounced by the prophets (Isa. 10 : 5-
19; Nah. 3 : 1-19; Zeph. 2 : 13-15). It
finally fell beneath the blows of the Medes
and other revolting and combining nations,
B. c. 625. Recent researches have added
greatly to our knowledge of Assyrian his-
tory and have contributed much to tlie
illustration of Old Testament Scripture.
The cuneiform inscriptions give the
names of fifty-two Assyrian kings be-
tween B. c. 1850 and B. c. 625, but leave
imfilled several gaps in the succession.
Tiiese inscriptions indicate that Assyria
gained a prominent place in the world
much earlier than has been commonly
supposed, and through many centuries ex-
ercised a dominant influence over the af-
fairs of AVestern Asia.
Assyrian Sculpture.
As-sy'ri-ans (2 Kings 19 : 35; Isa.
37 : 36), the children of Asshur and the
first settlers of Assyria proper. Of all the
descendants of Shem, they were the most
prominent and powerful. The monarchy
and empire which they founded lasted
more than twelve centuries, and during
the period of imperial greatness comprised
all Western Asia as far as the Mediterra-
nean and the confines of Egypt. The
prophet Ezekiel (31 : 3-9) likens the em-
pire to "a cedar in Lebanon exalted above
all the trees of the field, fair in greatness
and in the length of his branches, so that
all the trees that were in the garden of
God envied him, and not one was like
unto him in beauty." The Assyrians are
characterized in Scripture as "a fierce
people" (Isa. 33 : 19). Their victories
64
ASTROLOGEES— ATH A LI AH.
were due to their combining individual
bravery and hardihood with a skill and
proficiency in the arts of war not possess-
ed by tlieir more uncivilized neighbors.
Tlieir courage was undeniably tinged with
ferocity. The track of an Assyrian army
was marked by carnage, ruin and desola-
tion (Isa. 28 : 2). The capital of the coun-
try was denominated "the bloody city"
(Nah. 3:1). Treachery, too, and pride,
are in Scripture attributed to the Assyr-
ians (Isa. 33 : 1 ; Ezek. 31 : 10, 11). Their
pride calls forth the sternest denunciations,
and is declared to be that which brings
down the divine judgments upon them
(Isa. 10 : 7-14; 37 : 24-28; Zeph. 2 : 15).
But, whilst the character of the Assyrians
embodied a number of very unpleasant
features, their mental power certainly
placed them among the foremost peoples
of their times. They had not perhaps so
much originality as the Chaldseans, from
whom they derived tlie greater part of
their civilization, but in many respects
they surpassed their instructors, and intro-
duced improvements which gave a great-
ly-increased value, and almost a new cha-
racter, to arts previously discovered. To
appreciate the Assyrians fully one needs
to compare them with the much-lauded
Egyptians, who, in important points, are
very decidedly their inferiors. Their
language and alphabet are greatly in ad-
vance of the Egyptian. Their religion is
more earnest and less degraded. In cour-
age and military genius their superiority
is very striking. The one point of advan-
tage to which Egypt may fairly lay claim
is the grandeur and durability of her ar-
chitecture. The Assyrian palaces, mag-
nificent as they undoubtedly were, must
yield tlie palm to the vast structures of
Egyptian Thebes. But, except in this one
respect, the great African kingdom must
be regarded as inferior to her Asiatic ri-
val.
As-trol'O-gers, a class of men who
pretended to foretell future events by ob-
serving the motions of the stars. Astrol-
ogy is said to have originated in Chaldjea,
where, as we know, it was universally
practiced. A learned caste, styled " Chal-
dseans," excelled in it (Dan. 2. 2). The
practice of astrology still holds sway in
the East, especially among Mohammedans,
nor has it utterly ceased in professedly
Christian countries.
A'tad [« ^/ioni],the name of the man
on whose threshing-floor the sons of Jacob
and the Egyptians who accompanied them
performed the final solemnities of mourn-
ing for the dead patriarch (Gen. 50 : 10,
11). See Abel-Mizraim.
At'a-roth [erownsi, the name of seve-
ral places in Palestine.
1. A city east of Jordan, not far from
Gilead, in the vicinity of Dibon, Jazer
and Aroer, in a fertile grazing district
(Num. 32 : 3).
2. A city on the border of Ephraim and
Benjamin (Josh. 16 : 2, 7). Dr. Robinson
thinks it identical with the modern Atara,
a large village on the summit of a hill
about six miles north by west of Bethel.
3. A city, called sometimes Ataroth-
Addar and sometimes Atarotii-Adar,
and supposed to be the same as Ataroth,
No. 2 (Josh. 16:5; 18: 13).
4. A city in the tribe of Judah, found-
ed by the descendants of Salma (1 Chron.
2 : 54).
Ath-a-li'ah [Jehovah oppresneii],
daughter of King Ahab of Israel and
the infamous Jezebel, sister to Ahaziah,
king of Israel, wife of Jehoram, king of
Judah, motlier of Ahaziah, king of Ju-
dah, and, after her son's brief reign of
one year, usurper of the crown of Ju-
dah. She is one of the most odious
and revolting characters of all history.
She instigated her husband to put his six
brothers to death and to introduce the
worship of Baal into Judah. She ad-
vised and aided her own son in schemes
ATHENS— ATONEMENT.
65
of wickedness, and when that son was
slain by Jehu, the usurping king of Is-
rael, she murdered all his children but
one, and all the children of her late hus-
band. The one child saved was the in-
fant Joash, whom his aunt Jehosheba
and her husband Jehoiada, the high priest,
secreted in the temple, and with his nurse
kept there six years (2 Chron. 22 : 10-12).
During these six years Athaliah occupied
the throne. When, at length, the young
king was presented to the people by Jeho-
iada, he was received and inaugurated with
shouts of acclamation, whilst the wretched
queen was seized and hurried to instant
death (2 Chron. 23 : 11-15).
Ath'ens, a celebrated city, the capital
of Attica and the seat of the Greek liter-
ature in the golden period of ancient
Greece. Its inhabitants had the reputa-
tion of being fond of novelty and of being
remarkably zealous in the worship of the
gods (Acts 17 : lG-21). It was visited by
Paul on his second missionary journey,
and, most probably, was the apostle's resi-
dence for a time. Whilst there he de-
livered that memorable discourse (Acts
17 : 21-31) which resulted in the founda-
tion of a Christian church (Acts 17 : 34).
A-tone'ment, the means or agency
whereby the reconciliation of two who
have been at variance is brought about.
The word is used with great frequency in
the Old Testament Scriptures, especially in
the very common phrase " to make atone-
ment," in the sense of to give or to do that
which removes estrangement and re-estab-
lishes peace (Ex. 30 : 10; Lev. 9:7; 16 :
10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 24, 30, 32; Num. 8 : 19,
21 ; 16 : 46 ; 28 : 22). Occasionally in the
Old Testament Scriptures the original He- \
brew phrase which is rendered " to make
atonement " is translated in our Authorized
Version by the alternative phrase, " to make j
reconciliation" (Lev. 8:15; Ezek. 45:15;
Dan. 9 : 24). Hence, as used in our Eng-
lish Bible, reconcile and reconciliution are
5
synonymous with atone and atonement. In
the New Testament the word " atonement "
occurs but once (Rom. 5 : 11), but flie
equivalent words, "reconcile" and "rec-
onciliation," often (Rom. 5 : 10; 11 : 15;
2 Cor. 5 : 18-20 ; Eph. 2:16; Col. 1 : 20,
21 ; Heb. 2 : 17). In both Testaments the
matter of atonement, or the means which,
in pre-eminence, effect reconciliation be-
tween the holy God and the sinning
human soul, is an offered and accepted
sacrifice (Lev. 17 : 11 ; Heb. 9 : 22). The
lambs and bullocks of the Levitical Law
simply served to type " the Lamb of God,"
the one great Victim, who "once in the
end of the world hath appeared to put
away sin by the sacrifice of himself"
(Heb. 9 : 26). The Hebrew verb which
is rendered " to atone " literally means
"to cover," in the sense that the atone-
ment made by our Lord Jesus Chn. t
is "the covering" or the hiding of sin
(Ps. 32 : 1 ; Acts 5 : 30, 31 ). With this
covering of sin two ideas are necessarily
connected : the one having respect to God's
justice, and represented by the word pro-
pitiation; the other having resjject to the
sinner's guilt, and represented by the
word expiation. Our Lord's self-sacri-
fice embodies not only that on account of
which (pro-pitiation) the wrath of a holy
God against sin is appeased and the en-
mity of the sinner's soul is removed, but
also that by which the guilt of sin is
cleansed from the soul (ez-piation) and
the obligation of punishment is canceled.
These two ideas pervade the whole New
Testament (Rom. 3 : 25 ; 1 John 2:2; 4 :
10 ; 1 Cor. 6:11; Heb. 9 : 14 ; 1 John 1 :
7 ; Rev. 1 : 5, 6). They justify the em-
phatic statements in Scripture that our
Lord's atonement is in fact a substitution,
for he sufl'ered in our stead (Lev. 1:4;
7 : 18; Gal. 3 : 13; Heb. 7 : 27), and a
satisfaction, for he has vindicated the bro-
ken law and answered all the purposes
of punisliRient with honor to the Law-
CO
ATONEMENT, DAY OF— AVENGER OF BLOOD.
giver and eventual holiness to every par-
doned sinner (Isa. 53 : 4, 5, 6, 10, 11;
Rom. 8 : 3, 4 ; Gal. 1:4; Heb. 9:14; 10 :
10; 1 Pet. 2 : 24). They justify, more-
over, the equally emphatic statements in
Scripture that because of our Lord's
atonement his penitent, believing and
obedient people are reconciled to God
(Rom. 5 : 10; 2 Cor. 5 : 18), are redeem-
ed from all evil (Luke 1 : 68 ; 1 Pet. 1 :
18), and are saved with an everlasting
salvation (Rom. 5:9; 1 Tim. 1:15;
Heb. 7 : 25).
A-tone'ment, Day of, the great
(lay of national humiliation, and the only
one commanded in the Mosaic Law. The
mode of its observance is described in Lev.
16, and the conduct of the people is em-
phatically enjoined in Lev. 23 : 26-32. It
was kept by the people as a high solemn
Sabbath, though not necessarily on a Sab-
bath-day, five days before the feast of tab-
ernacles. In the particular rites of the
day three points appear to be of a very
distinctive character : the white garments
of the high priest ; his entrance into the
Holy of Holies ; and the scape-goat. The
writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (9 :
7-25) teaches us to apply the first two par-
ticulars. The high priest himself, with his
person cleansed and dressed in white gar-
ments, was the best outward type which a
living man could present in his own per-
son of the pure and holy One who was to
purify his people and to cleanse them from
their sins. But respecting the meaning of
the scape-goat we have no such light to
guide us. The common view is perhaps
the true one, namely this: the goat was
dismissed to signify the carrying away of
the sins of the people, as it were, out of
the sight of Jehovah. If we keep in
view that the two goats in the prescribed
service are spoken of as parts of one and
the same sin-offering, we shall not have
much difficulty in seeing that they form
together but one symbol'cal exnress'.on ;
the slain goat setting forth the act of sac-
rifice in giving up its own life for others
"to Jehovah," and the goat which car-
ried oft' its load of sin " for complete re-
moval," as signifying the cleansing influ-
ence of faith in that sacrifice.
At-ta-li'a, a coast-town of Pamphy-
lia in Asia Minor. It was built by Atta-
ins Philadelphus, king of Pergamas, and
named after that monarch. Paul and
Barnabas made a visit to it (Acts 14 : 25).
It is still known by the name of Satalia,
and, from the ruins in its neighborhood,
was evidently at one time a place of con-
siderable importance.
Ati-gus'tus [venerable'], nephew and
successor of Julius Cassar, and emperor
of Rome at the time of our Lord's birth.
He ordered the enrollment which requir-
ed the presence of Joseph and Mai-y at
Bethlehem, where the child Jesus was
bom (Luke 2 : 1-4). He reigned forty-
one years, and, dying in A. D. 14, was
succeeded by Tiberius Caesar (Luke 3:1).
A^va, a place in the empire of Assyria,
apparently the same as Ivah (2 Kings 17 :
24; 18 : 34; 19 : 13\ on the Euphrates,
at the extreme northern limit of Baby-
lonia.
A''ven \_notkingness ; hence iniquity,
idolatry, and, concretely, an idol itself], a
contemptuous name given to three places
on account of the idolatry practiced there-
in.
1. A plain in Syria (Amos 1 : 5), called
also the Valley of Lebanon (Josh. 11 : 17),
because lying between the two ranges of
the mountains of Lebanon. It is the sup-
posed site of the present stupendous ruins
of Baalbek.
2. A city in the kingdom of Israel (Hos.
10 : 8), called also Beih-avm (Hos. 4 : 15).
It is but another name for Bethel, the seat
of Israelitish idolatry.
3. A city in Egypt (Ezek. 30 : 17), tlie
same as On or Heliopolis.
Aveng'er of Blood. According to
AVIM— AZZAH.
67
the Jewish law, a murderer was to be put
to death, and tlie nearest male relative of
the person killed was properly the avenger
of blood. Cities of refuge were appointed
for the security of those who had commit-
ted accidental homicide, into which the
avenger of blood could not pursue them
(Josh. 20 : 3). See Blood, Revenger
OF, and Cities of Refuge.
A' vim, supposed to be the same as the
Avites or Hivites, a people occupying the
southern part of Palestine, on the Mediter-
ranean coast, who were afterward dispos-
sessed by the Caplitorim or Philistines
(Deut. 2 : 23; Josh. 13 : 3).
A'vouch, to make a solemn and de-
liberate act of recognition and choice (Deut.
xxvi. 17).
A'wl, a tool of which we do not know
the ancient form. The only notice of it is
in connection with the custom of boring the
ear of the slave (Ex. 21 : 6 ; Deut. 15 : 17).
Axe. In our Authorized Version seven
Hebrew words are rendered " axe," the one
1, 2. Ancient Egyptian Axes; 3, 4. Ancient
Assyrian Axes.
of most common occurrence being garzen,
from a root signifying " to cut or sever."
It consisted of a head of iron fastened with
thongs or otherwise upon a handle of wood,
and so liable to slip off (Deut. 19:5; 2
Kings 6 : 5^. It was used for felling trees
(Deut. 20 : 19), and also for shaping the
wood when felled (1 Kings 6:7). The
other words represent implements which
were lighter, and which were employed
in the various processes of carving or
fashioning. The battle-axe (Jer. 51 : 20)
was probably a heavy mace or maul.
Az-a-ri'ah [helped of Jehovah'], a com-
mon name among the Hebrews, borne by
nineteen persons mentioned in the Old Tes-
: tament. The principal are these :
1. A son of Ahimaaz (1 Chron. 6:9),
and the high priest at the dedication of
the temple.
2. A son of Oded (2 Chron. 15 : 1), and
a remarkable prophet in the days of King
Asa.
3. A king of Judah, commonly called
Uzziah (2 Kings 15 : 1 ; 2 Chron. 26 : 1 ),
the son and successor of Amaziah. He
reigned fifty-two years. He was remark-
ably prospered so long as he did that which
was right in the sight of the Lord ; but at
length, elated by his successes, he aspired
to execute the office of a priest, entering
the temple and essaying to burn incense.
He was thereupon struck with leprosy,
which remained upon him through all
his subsequent life, and confined him in
solitude to his palace (2 Kings 15 : 5 ; 2
Chron. 26 : 16-21).
A-ze'kah, a city of Judah, situated
south of Jerusalem. It is noticed in the
defeat of the Amorltish kings (.Josh. 10 :
10), and in the slaughter of the Philis-
tines after the death of Goliath (1 Sam.
17 : 1).
Az'mon [slrovcj], a place on the south-
ern border of Palestine (Num. 34 : 4, 5 ;
Josh. 15 : 4). It has not yet been identi-
fied.
A-zo^tus (Acts 8 : 40), the Greek name
of AsHDOD (which see).
Azzah, an unusual but more correct
mode of anglicising Gaza (Deut. 2 : 23 ;
1 Kings 4 : 24 ; Jer. 25 : 20).
68
BAAL.
B.
Ba'al [lord or master], a generic term
for (jod in many of the Syro-Arabian lan-
guages. It is usually appropriated to the
supreme male divinity of the Phoenicians,
as Ashtoreth is appropriated to their su-
preme female divinity ; and under these
names the sun and the moon are supposed
to have been worshiped. The principal seat
of Baal's worship was Tyre. The worship
itself was very old and ver\' widespread. It
prevailed throughout the countries where
the social and commercial influences of
the Babylonians, Carthaginians and Phoe-
nicians were felt ; it penetrated the wilds
of Scandinavia, and was general over all
the British islands. At the present day
names of places in Ireland and Scotland,
and superstitious observances everywhere
in Britain, attest the prevalence and power
of the ancient faith. It was introduced
among the Israelites in the times of the
judges (Judg. 2 : 13). It was continued
in the reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh, kings
of Judah (2 Chron. 28 : 2 ; 2 Kings 21 : 3).
Ahab, king of Israel, through the instiga-
tion of his wife, set up Baal as his god (1
Kings 16 : 31). The altars of Baal were
generally erected on eminences. Jere-
miah refers to those who offered homage
to this idol on the housetops (.Jer. 32 : 29).
As to the particular rites of worship, in-
cense was burned to him (2 Kings 23 :
5), bullocks were sacrificed at his shrine
(1 Kings 18 : 26), and even children were
offered to him as burnt-ofTerings (.ler. 19 :
5). Homage was also paid by bowing the
knee and kissing his image (1 Kings 19 :
18). His name, as that of M\shtoreth,
has the peculiarity of being used in the
plural (Ba'al-im'i, and wiien so used is
not to be regarded as designating his im-
ages or statues, but some of the numerous
modifications of his divinity (Judg.
2: 11; 10: 10; 1 Kings 18 : 18; Jer.
9: 14).
The word Baal is frequently found in
composition with names of divinities,
names of places and names of persons.
1. Ivames of Divinities. — 1. Ba''al-be-
RITH [lord of the covenant], (Judg. 9 : 4),
an idol of the Shechemites, and cliosen as
their god by the Israelites in tiie times of
the judges (Judg. 8 : 33).
2. Ba'al-pe-or [lord of Peor], (Num.
25 : 3), an idol of the Moabites, whose li-
centious rites are frequently alluded to in
Scripture.
3. Ba'al-ze-bub [lord of the fly], (2
Kings 1 : 2), a god of Ekron, and wor-
shiped as a protector against tlie fly or
gnat. In Matt. 12 : 24, Beelzebub is the
name given to the prince of the devils.
II. Names of Places. — 1. Ba'a-lah, a
city of Judah (Josh. 15 : 29), called also
Kirjath-jearim (Josh. 15 : 9).
2. Ba''al-ath, a town in the tribe of
Dan (Josh. 19 : 44).
3. Ba^al-ath-beer, a city of Simeon
(Josh. 19 : 8).
4. Ba'al-gad, a city "in the valley of
Lebanon, under Mount Hernion" (Josh.
11 : 17).
5. Ba''al-ha''mox, a place where Sol-
omon had a vineyard (Song 8 : 11).
6. Ba'al-ha^zor, the place where Ab-
salom had his shearing-feast wlien he mur-
dered Amnon (2 Sam. 13 : 23).
7. Ba'al-her'mox, a place in or near
Mount Hermon (1 Chron.
J3).
8. Ba'al-me'ox, a town in the tribe of
Reuben (Num. 32 : 38) called Beth-meon
(Jer. 48 : 23), and which was in possession
of the Moabites in the time of Ezekiel
(Ezek. 25 : 9). Tiie vast ruins of ^Min,
about three miles south-west of Medeba,
represent the ancient Baal-nieon.
BAANAH— BABEL.
69
9. Ba''al-per'a-zim, a place where Da-
vid routed the Philistines (2 Sam. 5 : 20),
and which he thus named in commemora-
tion of his victory over the idol gods of an
idolatrous people.
10. BA^AL-SHAii''i-SHA, a place supposed
to be near Mount Ephraira, from which
came the man who brouglit provisions for
the prophet Elisha (2 Kings 4 : 42).
11. Ba''al-ta''mar, a place near Gibeah,
where there was a grove of palm trees sacred
to Baal, and where the tribe of Benjamin
was nearly annihilated by the other tribes
(Judg. 20 : 33-35).
12. Ba'al-ze^phon, one of the resting-
places of the Israelites after leaving Egypt,,
on the border of tlie Red Sea (Ex. 14 : 2).
III. Names of Persons. — Sometimes at the
end: Etii-baal (1 Kings 16: 31); Jenib-
baal (Judg. 6 : 32). Sometimes at the be-
ginning: Baal-hanan (Gen. 36:38, 39);
Baal-is (Jer. 40 : 14).
Ba'a-nah. [son of ufflictlon], a captain
in the service of Ishboslieth, son of Saul,
who with Jiis brother Eechab treacherous-
ly slew Ishboslieth, and carried his head
to David in hope of receiving a reward.
David, indignant at the treachery of the
brotliers, ordered them to be put to death
and their mutilated bodies to be hung up
over the pool in Hebron (2 Sam. 4 : 2-
12).
Ba'a-sha, the son of Ahijah and com-
mander of the army of Nadab, king of Is-
rael. At the siege of Gibbethon he treach-
erously slew his master and usurped his
throne, which lie held for twenty-four
years (1 Kings 15 : 27). To secure liim-
self in Iiis usurpation, he exterminated
the whole race of Jeroboam, and thus un-
designedly fulfilled the prophecy respect-
ing Jeroboam's posterity (1 Kings 14 : 10).
He walked, however, in the ways of Jero-
boam, and was visited with fearful divine
judgments (1 Kings 16 : 3, 4).
Barbel [confusion]. The Tower of
Babel was the name of a structure erect-
ed in the plain of Shinar by the descend-
ants of Noah, to serve as a national rally-
ing-point and as a barrier against their
dispersion (Gen. 11 : 1-9). The builders
of this tower proposed to form a mighty
empire whose centre and metropolis should
be this gigantic edifice and the city around
it. Their design was frustrated by the mi-
raculous interposition of God, who, before
the completion of the tower, confounded
their language and compelled their sepa-
ration. (See Tongues, Confusion of.)
The incomplete tower was probably never
finished, and, built of sun-dried brick, was
early reduced to a sliapeless ruin. When
tlie Jews, however, many centuries after-
ward, were carried captive into Babylonia,
they were struck with the vast magnitude
and peculiar character of cei'tain of the
Babylonian temples, and were naturally
inclined to think that with one or other of
these the very tower itself might be iden-
tified. The predominant opinion favored
the great temple of Kebo at Borsippa, the
modern Birs-Nimrud. But, although the
Birs-Nimrud cannot be the tower of Babel
itself, it yet may well be taken to show the
probable shape and character of the ancient
and famous edifice. This building appears
to have been a sort of oblique pyramid built
in seven receding stages. Rawlinson de-
scribes it thus : " Upon a platform of crude
brick, raised a few feet above the level of
tlie alluvial plain, was built of burnt brick
the first or basement stage, an exact square
of two hundred and seventy-two feet each
way and twenty-six feet in perpendicular
heiglit. Upon this stage was erected a
second, two hundred and thirty feet each
way, and likewise twenty-six feet high ;
which, however, was not placed exactly
in the middle of the first, but consider-
ably nearer to the south-western end,
which constituted the back of the build-
ing. The other stages were arranged
similarly, the third being one hundred
and eighty-eight feet, and again twenty-
70
BABYLON.
six feet high ; the fourth, one liundred and
forty-six feet square and fifteen feet high ;
the fiftli, one hundred and four feet square,
and tlie same lieight as the fourtli ; the
sixth, sixty-two feet square, and again the
same heiglit ; and the seventh, twenty feet
square, and once more the same heiglit.
On the seventh stage there was probably
placed the ark or tabernacle, which seems
to have been again fifteen feet high, and
must have nearly, if not entirely, covered
the top of tlie seventh story. The entire
original height, allowing three feet for the
platform, would thus have been one hun-
dred and fifty-six feet, or, without the
platform, one hundred and fifty-tlire'e feet.
Birs Niiurfld, the Tempi
The whole formed a sort of oblique pyra- i
mid, the gentler slope Hieing the north-
east, and tlie steeper inclining to the
south-west. On the north-east side was
the grand entrance, and here stood the
vestibule, a separate building, the debris
from which, having joined those from the
temple itself, fill up the intermediate space,
and very remarkably prolong the mound in
tliis direction."
Bab'y-lon, the capital city of the
country which is called in Genesis Shx-
nar, and in the later books of Scripture
Chaldcea, or the land of the Chaldseans.
The name Babylon is the Greek form of
" Babel," one of the four cities which
Nimrod built (Gen. 10 : 10), and which
! of Nebo, at Borsippa.
the giant conqueror called Bub-il, " gate
of God." The architectural remains dis-
covered in Southern Babylonia, taken in
conjunction with the monumental records,
indicate that it was not at first the capital,
nor indeed a town of very great import-
ance. The beginnings of the ChahUean
power were in the region close upon the
Pei-sian Gulf; thence the nation spread
northward up the course of the river,
and the seat of government moved in the
same direction, and became finally fixed
at Babylon, not earlier perhaps than B. c.
1700. The city was situated upon a wide
plain on both sides the river Euphrates.
In its glory, immediately subsequent to
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, it was prob-
BABYLONIA.
71
ably the largest and most splendid city our
earth has ever seen. Herodotus, an eye-
witness of its greatness and glory, describes
it as a city incomparable for extent, strength,
beauty and wealth. In form it was a par-
allelogram, the four sides measuring fifty-
six miles and enclosing an area of nearly
two hundred square miles. Its walls were
very wide and very high ; its temples and
palaces were triumphs of architectural art
and skill, and its " hanging gardens," borne
up by many tiers of arches built on one an-
other, were universally regarded as one of
the Seven Wonders of the world. The
Scrijstures recognize its pre-eminence by
styling it ■' the great " (Rev. 17 : 5), " the
glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chal-
dees' excellency" (Isa. 13 : 19). Nor was
it more noted for strength and splendor
than for luxury and licentiousness. Its
religion was a depraving idolatry ; its
morals were exceedingly low. After its
capture by Cyrus its glory steadily waned,
and for generations now vast masses of
ruins have been all that remains to attest
its former greatness. The terrific predic-
tions of Isaiah and Jeremiah (Isa. 13, 14,
47; Jer. 51) have been literally and aw-
fully accomplished in its utter desola-
tion.
The Kasr, or
As Babylon was at once the centre of
the ancient idolatry and the seat of enor-
mous wickedness, its name is employed in
Eev. 17 : 5 to denote Rome, the modern
centre and seat of Antichristian corrup-
tion.
Bab'y-lo'ni-a, the province anciently
called Shinar (Gen. 10 : 10), of which Bab-
ylon became the metropolis. It is an ex-
tensive alluvial plain between the Eu-
Palace, Babylon.
phrates and Tigris, uninterrupted by hill
or mountain, and subject to inundation
from the annual rise in the two rivers.
From its later and very famous capital
its inhabitants were denominated " Bab-
ylonians" (Ezek. 23 : 15, 17). It was the
seat of an ancient Hamitic empire found-
ed by Nimrod, and of a remarkable civil-
ization coeval, perhaps, with that of Egypt,
and intimately connected with the origin
72
BABYLONISH GARMENT— BAKING.
of our own civilization. From Babylonia
civilization spread into Assyria, thence
into Phoenicia and Asia Minor, thence
into Greece and Rome, and thence into
modern Europe. See CHALDiEA and
Shinar.
Bab'y-lo'nish Gar'ment (Josh. 7 :
21). This, in the original Hebrew, is lit-
erally "robe of Shinar." It designated
an ample robe, made, probably, of the
skin or fur of an animal and ornamented
with embroidery, or perhaps it was a robe
or garment variegated witli figures inwo-
ven, in the fashion for which the Baby-
lonians were celebrated. The object of
Achan's coveting, it had apparently a
large money-value.
Ba'ca [iceepingl. This word occurs in
Ps. 84 : 6 : " who passing through the val-
ley of Baca make it a well." It is disput-
ed whether the reference is to a valley of
that name, or to any unpleasant and toil-
some road which, in figure, may well be
designated a valley of weeping. The
psalm was written by David when in ex-
ile from the Holy City, and when his
principal sorrow was his absence from
the house of the Lord : " My soul long-
eth, yea even fainteth, for the courts of
the Lord." As, in thought, he contem-
plates the companies of pious Israelites
who make the usual pilgrimage to Jeru-
salem in order to worship there the God
of their fathers, he conceives and beauti-
fully represents their privilege and hap-
piness to be such that the most sterile val-
ley anywhere traversed is straightway con-
verted into a fruitful field.
Bad'gers' Skins, the external cover-
ing of the tabernacle (Ex. 26 : 14). The
animal furnishing these skins, and ren-
dered " badger " in our Authorized Ver-
sion, is quite uncertain. It could not
have been what is known to us as the
badger, for this animal is not found in
Bible lands. Tlie most probable conjec-
tiire is tluit the animal was a species of
seal, as seems to be intimated in Ezek.
16 : 10.
Bag', a pouch or purse. It was an an-
cient custom, before coined money was in
use, to keep money in bags of various
sizes, tlie amount in each having been
weighed by a proper officer, who also ai-
fixed his seal. While the seal remained
unbroken the true value of the purse w;is
known, and thus paid from hand to hand.
This saved the trouble of relocated weigh-
ings. The custom is still observed in some
Eastern countries, and furnishes an illus-
tration of various passages of Scripture,
as 2 Kings 5 : 23; 12 : 10; Job 14 : 17;
Luke 12 : 33.
Ba-hu'rim, a place not far from Jeru-
salem, on the road to .Jordan, where Shim-
ei cursed and threw stones at David (2
Sam. 16 : 5, 6), and where David's two
spies hid themselves in a well (2 Sam.
17 : IS).
Baking. The art of baking consists
in heating anything in an oven or fire so
as to harden it or prepare it for food.
It is illustrated in the manufacture of
bread, porcelain, pottery and bricks ;
but in Scripture it is usually associated
with the manufacture of bread (Gen.
19:3; Ex. 16 : 23 ; Lev. 24 : 5 ; Num.
11:8; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8;
Jer. 37:21); once with tlie dressing or
cooking of animal food (Gen. 40 : 17).
The origin of baking, as of most arts of
primary importance, precedes the period
of history, and is involved in the obscu-
rity of the first ages of the Imman race.
In Egypt, which led the way to one
of the forms of early civilization, the
art of baking bread and meats was car-
ried to high perfection, and tlie chief
baker of Pharaoh in the time of .Joseph
was an important government official
(Gen. 40 : 2). From Egypt the Hebrews
bore away a practical knowledge of the
art (Lev. 20 : 26 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 13), and the
best illustratioas of the Scripture refer-
BALAAM— BALANCE.
73
ences to the processes of kneading and
rolling dough, and of forming and baking
cakes and loaves, are found portrayed on
the p]gyptian monuments. See Oven.
Ba'laara Idevourer^, the son of Beor
or Bosor, and a resident at Pethor, a
city of Mesopotamia (Num. 22 : 5 ; Deut.
23 : 4). lie was an eminent "sooth-
sayer" or diviner (Josh. 13 : 22) ; a man
of genius and of rare poetic power
(Num. 23 : 18-24) ; a prophet who, among
heathen peoples, possessed a greater than
ordinary knowledge of the one true God,
and whom Jehovah used to accomplish
certain gracious purposes toward Israel
(Num. 24 : 2-9). Conscious of his great
gifts, and elated by the extraordinary in-
fluence which these gifts gave him, he
conceived the thought of making mer-
chandise of them ; of acquiring by means
of them both fame and fortune. Among
many nations of antiquity there existed
the custom of devoting enemies to destruc-
tion before entering upon a war with them.
When the Israelites were marching to the
occupation of Palestine, and had signally
defeated and dispossessed of their lands
the warlike Amorites, Balak, the king of
Moab, apprehending a similar doom if en-
ergetic measures were not employed to avert
it, entered into a league with five kings of
the Midianites. Whilst the confederate
kings were mustering their armies, Balak,
to leave no expedient untried, sent once
and again an embassage to Balaam with
promises of money-gifts and distinguish-
ed honors if he would come and curse the
dreaded foes. Balaam now saw the golden
opportunity he had long coveted, and, al-
though he was forbidden by the Lord to
accede to Balak's wishes, he yet stifled the
convictions of conscience and undertook
the commission. He yielded himself body
and soul to his royal employer. He re-
sorted to enchantments. He built altars
and sacrificed oxen and sheep. He as-
cended liigli places and put himself pro-
fessedly in direct communication with
Heaven. He did everything he could do
to impress with awe the superstitious
Moabites and to further the ends of the
crafty monarch. He was not permitted,
however, to utter the desired curse. He
was restrained by the overmastering in-
fluence of God's Spirit, and in the stead
of a curse was forced to pronounce on Is-
rael a blessing. Foiled in the project of
cursing, he conceived another and, as he
judged, a more effectual stratagem. At
his suggestion, Balak threw into the way
of the Israelites the most alluring temp-
tations to idolatry and lewdness. Assum-
ing that he, and no one else, could curse
the Israelites so long as they remained
faithful to God, Balaam would make
them curse themselves by a wicked de-
parture from the ways of righteousness.
The stratagem succeeded only too well.
Israel was ensnared by the impure and
idolatrous worship of Baal-Peor, and in
the visitation of God's anger therefor
twenty-four thousand of the people were
cut off" by plague (Num. 25 : 9). The
punishment of the covetous prophet was
signal and sudden. Accompanying the
armies of Midian to the battle-field, Ba-
laam, with the five Midianite kings, was
slain with the sword (Num. 31 : 8).
Ba'lak [empty, void'], the king of Moab
who hired Balaam to curse the Israelites,
and who, upon Balaam's failure to curse, it
is conjectured, made no militaiy attempt
to oppose the chosen people ( Vlic. 6:5;
Rev. 2: 14).
Bal'ance, an instrument usei ( in weigh-
ing. The word " balance " repi esents two
Hebrew words — the one of dual fi irra, point-
ing to the double scales (Gen. 2! : 16) ; the
other, the word generally used for a meas-
uring-rod, and denoting the tongue or beam
of a balance (Prov. 16:11). Before money
was coined silver and gold were made cur-
rent according to weight, and some dealers
were accustomed to carry a balance or scales
74
B ALDX ESS— BA NN ER.
witli them for the purpose of weighing
these precious metals. Frequent alhision
is made to the bahuice. A false or fraud-
ulent one — by wliich is meant the wicked-
ness of folse dealings — is called an "abom-
ination to tiie Lord" (Prov. 11 : 1). To
be " weighed in the balance," referring ta
character, is to have the character tried
by infallible tests. Thus, Belshazzar was
weighed and found wanting (Dan. 5 : 27).
According to Roberts, expressions of like
kind are still familiar in the East, such as
" the judge has been weighing the prison-
ers, and they are all wanting."
Bald'ness, bareness of hair on the top
or back of the liead. It is spoken of in
Scripture as of two kinds, natural and ar-
tificial.
1. Natural. — This seems to have been
uncommon, since it exposed people to
public derision, and is perpetually al-
luded to as a mark of squalor and misery
(Isa. 3 : 24 ; Jer. 47 : 5 ; Ezek. 7:18). The
Jews prided themselves in a luxuriant
growth of hair, wliich they perfumed
and arranged with much care (Song. 5 :
11 ; Ps. 23 : 5). Elisha was ridiculed for
his baldness (2 Kings 2 : 23). The gen-
eral sentiment was that baldness implied
a leprous taint. This opinion prevailed
so extensively among the Jews that tlie
Levitical Law required other accompany-
ing symptoms before baldness should be
accounted a conclusive proof of leprosy
(Lev. 13 : 40-44).
2. Artificial. — This was made by sha-
ving the head, and was an ancient and
wellnigli universal sign of mourning (Job
1 : 20; Jer. 16 : 6). It also marked the
conclusion of a Nazarite's vow (Num. 6 :
9; Acts 18 : 18).
Balm, the gum or inspissated juice of
a tree which cannot be identified witli cer-
tainty, l)ut wliii'li, growing in Gilead, is
commonly referred to as the "balm of
Gilead" (Jer. 8 : 22; 46 : 11). Its scent
was pungent and exceedingly fragrant.
When applied to wounds it was highly
esteemed for its healing properties. It
was a costly article of connuerce (Gen.
37 : 25; Ezek. 27 : 17).
Ba'raah [hir/h place], the general name
of any height (Ezek. 20 : 29). The plural
Bamoth, " high places," occurs in connection
with Baal (Josh. 13 : 17 ; Num. 21 : 19, 20).
Band. In the New Testament this
word designates a cohort of Roman foot-
soldiers (Matt. 27 : 27; Mark 15 : 16; Acts
10:1; 21:31; 27 : 1 ), and also a company
from the guards of the temple (John 18:3,
12). In the Old Testament, besides its
common application to a troop or com-
pany, the word band, in its plural form,
is frequently used in a metaphorical sense.
In IIos. 11:4 "bands of love" indicate per-
suasive arguments or influences ; in Ps. 73 :
4 the prosperous wicked are described as
having " no bands in their death ;" that
is, no bonds or chains of which appar-
ently they are conscious.
Bank, tlie rendering in our Author-
ized Version of two Hebrew words and
one Greek word.
1. A Hebrew word which means the
shore of a river or sea (Gen. 41 : 17).
2. A Hebrew word which designates the
mound raised against a besieged city (2 Sam.
20 : 15; 2 Kings 19 : 32; Isa. 37 : 33).
3. A Greek word which, having the gen-
eral sense of table, is applied to tlie table or
bfiich of a money-changer (Matt. 21 : 12;
Mark 11 : 15 ; John 2 : 15). In Luke 19 :
23 the word has the modern sense of the
word bank, or the place where money is
deposited and loaned out.
Banner, Ensign, Standard, de-
vices for rallying soldiers and preserv-
ing ranks. The words are used indis-
criminately by the sacred writers (Isa.
13 : 2 ; 5 : 26 ; 49 : 22). They corresponded
to the flags of modern warfare. The tribes
of Israel, when marching through the wil-
derness, had their respective standards and
ensigns (Num. 2:2).
BANQUET— BAPTISM.
75
Ban'quet. See Feast.
Bap^tism, one of tlie two sacraments
instituted by our Lord in his Church. It
is a solemn, significant ordinance, intro-
ducing its recipient into cliurch-meniber-
ship. In its administration water is ap-
plied to the person "in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost" (Matt. 28 : 19), in sign of the na-
tive impurity of the human soul and of
the cleansing efficacy of Christ's blood.
It is an emblem of regeneration, not regen-
eration itself. As the rite of initiation into
the Christian Chui'ch it is a covenanting
ordinance, whereby is pledged an alle-
giance to the Triune Jehovah in the sev-
eral relations which the three Persons in
the Godhead sustain to the scheme of re-
demption. Its administration involves two
points, namely, its subjects, or those who
are to receive it, and its mode, or how the
water is to be applied.
1. Its Subjects. — These are the mem-
bers of that visible Church which consists
of "all those throughout the world that
profess the true religion, together with
their children." The Scrijatures plainly
teach that they who make a credible pro-
fession of their faith in the Lord Jesus
' Christ as their Saviour are to be baptized
(Mark 16 : 16; Acts 2 : 41 ; 8 : 12, 36-38;
18 : 8). The Scriptures quite as plainly
teach that the children of believers are
to be baptized (Acts 2 : 38, 39 ; 16:15, 33;
1 Cor. 1:16). The covenant of grace which
defines the visible Church was with Abra-
ham and his " seed after him in all their
generations," and as " an everlasting cov-
enant" still exists (Gen. 17 : 7). The duty
of teaching and training was engrafted
on the covenant (Gen. 18 : 18, 19), and the
Church became a school or training in-
stitution (Deut. 6 : 6-9). Accordingly, our
Lord commissioned his apostles to disciple
all nations, "baptizing tiiem" and "teach-
ing them" (Matt. 28 : 19, 20), and the apos-
tles taught that, inasmuch as the Abrahamic
covenant was still in force. Gentile believers
in Christ liad a right to a place in the Church
on equal terms with the Jews (Gal. 3 : 6-29).
If, therefore, the children of Jewish parents
were entitled to the sign of the covenant,
the children of Christian parents are
equally entitled to that changed sign of
the same covenant which our Lord him-
self established. The assumption that
Christianity has diminished the privileges
of God's people is certainly a violent and
unscriptural assumption.
2. Its Mode. — As baptism is the symbol
of a spiritual cleansing, the mode of ap-
Ancient representation of the Baptism of Clirist,
from a cliurch in Ravenna. Johu stands on the
river-bank, our Lord in the water. The river
Jordan is symbolized by tlie sitting figure.
plying the water is not definitely stated in
Scripture. Yet, as baptism is at once the
visible sign of an invisible grace, and the
appointed seal of the believer's interest
in the covenant of redem])tion, its mode
probably corres;ionds with the mode in
which the redemptive grace is repre-
sented as operating. Now, that blood of
the ancient sacrifices wliich types the
blood of Christ, and that blood of God's
Son which cleanseth from all sin, are uni-
formly represented as sprinkled (Ex. 12 :
22; Lev. 16 : 14; Isa. 52 : 15; Pleb. 11 :
28 ; 12 : 24 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 2). Moreover, those
76
BARABBAS— BAREFOOT.
spiritual influences of God's Spirit which
enlighten and renew and sanctify and com-
fort are sometimes represented as sprinkled
and sometimes as poured (Isa. 4-1:3; Ezek.
36 : 25-27 ; Joel 2 : 28, 29 ; Acts 2 : 17, 18 ;
10 : 44-48 ; 11 : 15, 16). These representa-
tions of Scripture are strikingly supported
by all the recorded instances of baptism.
The baptism of the three tliousand con-
verts in Jerusalem on the day of Pen-
tecost (Acts 2 : 38-41) was, from lack of a
running stream or other available water in
the city, and from the relations of the new
sect of Christians to the mass of the people,
an impracticable achievement if immer-
sion were the mode, but if sprinkling or
pouring were the mode an easily-accom-
plished feat. The baptism of the eunuch
by Philip (Acts 8 : 26-39) took place on
the " desert " way from Jerusalem to
Gaza, and where no body of water suffi-
ciently large and deep for immersion ex-
isted. The baptism of Paul by Ananias
(Acts 9 : 17, 18 ; 22 : 12-16) was in the sol-
itary chamber where the penitent man was
fasting and praying, and was received stand-
inc). The baptism of Cornelius (Acts 10 :
44-48) was administered in the centurion's
own house, upon the descent of the Holy
(iliost during Peter's sermon, and with
no intimation that for such a purpose any
one had left the room where the company
was assembled. Tlie baptism of the jailer
at Philippi (Acts 16 : 32-34) was at night
and in tiie jail, at a time and in a place
which forbade the use of other mode than
that of sprinkling or pouring. In every
one of tliese instances the strong presump-
tion is against immersion.
Bar-ab'bas [.von of Abbci], a robber,
(Jolm 18 : 40) who liad committed nnir-
der in an insurrection in Jerusalem (Mark
15:7; Luke 23 : 19), and who, at the time
of our Lord's trial before Pilate, was lying
in prison. Pilate, anxious to release our
Ijord, and accustomed at tlie time of the
passover, in order to conciliate the Jewish
people, to set free some prisoner, proposed
to chastise Jesus and to let him go (Luke
23 : 22) ; but the proposition was vehe-
mently rejected, and, instead, the release
of Barabbas was clamorously demanded.
Bar-a-chi'as [the Greek form of
the name Barachiah, meaning Jehovnh
has blessed^, father of the Zacharias (Zecli-
ariah) mentioned in Matt. 23 : 35 as hav-
ing been murdered by the Jews. See
Zacharias.
Ba^rak [lightning^, son of Abinoam
of Kedesh-Naphtali, a Galilean city of
refuge in the tribe of Naphtali ( Judg. 4 :
6). He was summoned by the prophet-
ess Deborah to take the field against the
army of the Canaanitisli king Jabin, com-
manded by Sisera. Accompanied by Deb-
orah, and at the head of ten thousand
men from the tribes of Naphtali and Zeb-
ulon, he gained a decisive victory. In
commemoration of the signal deliverance
the victors composed and sang a magnif-
icent ode of triumph (Judg. 5).
Bar-ba^ri-an, a term used in the
New Testament, as in classical writers, to
denote nations distinct from the Greeks.
Paul refers to tlie distinction in Rom. 1 :
14 : " I am debtor both to the Greeks and
to the barbarians." Luke styles tlie in-
habitants of Melita barbarians (Acts 28 :
4), because they were originally a Cartha-
ginian colony and spoke a Phcenician dia-
lect. As the term in classical writers does
not imply a rude and savage state in tliose
to whom it is applied, so in Scripture it is
not to be understood as a term of contempt
or reproach.
Barbed. A "barbed iron" (Job 41 :
7) is an instrument the edges of which
are armed with sharp points, so arranged
that when it is struck into a body the
points prevent it from being withdrawn.
Bare 'foot. To go barefoot was a sign
of great distress (Isa. 20 : 2-4). In the
description of David's grief at the rebel-
lion of Absalom the custom is referred to
BARJESUS— BARZILLAI.
77
(2 Sam. 15 : 30). According to Roberts,
the Hindoos, on occasions of great sor-
row, cover the face and go barefoot.
Bar-je'sus [son of Jesus or Joshua'],
also called Elymas the sorcerer, was a Jew-
ish magician resident in the island of Cy-
prus. When Paul and Barnabas visited
Cyprus, and Sergius Paulus, the deputy or
proconsul, was anxious to hear their doc-
trine, Elymas opposed them and endeav-
ored to counteract their influence. Paul
severely rebuked him, and he was struck
with blindness. This judgment, so evi-
dently inflicted by a divine power, pro-
duced the most salutary effect on the pro-
consul's mind, and he became a believer
(Acts 13 : 6-12).
Bar-jo 'na [son of Jonas], the Syriac
designation of Peter (Matt. 16 : 17).
Bar'ley, a species of grain sown in
Palestine in the autumn and reaped in
the spring (Ruth 1 : 22), as is the case
with almost everything sown and reaped
in that country. Bread was made of it
(Judg. 7:13; 2 Kings 4 : 42), and it was
the common food not only of people, but
also of horses, asses and draught oxen,
oats being unknown.
Bar'na-bas [son of consolation or
exhortation or prophecy], an eminent
and successful preacher of the gospel
in the early Church. He was a native
of the island of Cyprus. His original
name, Joses, was changed into Barnabas
by the apostles, because of the ability
in proclaiming the truth which he dis-
played. When he embraced the gospel
lie sold all his property and placed the
avails of it at the disposal of the apostles
(Acts 4 : 36, 37). He became an active
missionary, and his name is connected
with tliat of Paul in many of the promi-
nent incidents noticed in the book of Acts.
In consequence of a dispute between him
and Paul relative to Mark, the nephew of
Barnabas, they separated, Paul going to
Asia, and Barnabas to Cyjjrus (Acts 15 :
36-41). His subsequent history is not
known. Although on one occasion he
was guilty of dissimulation (Gal. 2 : 13),
yet " he was a good man and full of the
Holy Ghost," and through his ministry
" much people was added to the Lord "
(Acts 11 : 24).
Bar^sa-bas, the surname of two men.
1. Of Joseph, nominated with Matthias
to fill the apostleship rendered vacant by
the death of Judas (Acts 1 : 23).
2. Of Judas, referred to as one of the
chief men among the brethren (Acts 15 :
22).
Bar-thoPo-me'W [son of Tolmni],
one of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10 : 3;
Mark 3 : 18 ; Luke 6 : 14). He is sup-
posed, from several circumstances, to have
been the same person whom John calls
Nathanael (John 1 : 45; 21 : 2).
Bar-ti-me'us [son of Timeus], the
blind beggar of Jericho whom Christ
restored to sight (Mark 10 : 46).
Ba^ruch [blessed], the faithful friend
and secretary of Jeremiah the propliet,
who wrote the prophecies at the dictation
of Jeremiah, and at his personal risk read
them to the princes of the people. King
Jehoiakim destroyed this roll, being of-
fended with its contents, and, at the dic-
tation of Jeremiah, Baruch wrote out an-
other, with some additions. This second
roll is the volume of prophecies which we
now have (Jer. 36). He was imprisoned
during the siege of Jerusalem, and releas-
ed on its capture. W^hen and Avhere he
died is not known.
Bar-ziPlai [of iron, i. e. strong], a
wealthy Gileadite of Rogelim who evinced
the sincerity of his attachment to David by
entertaining him when fleeing from Absa-
lom. Every necessary comfort was provid-
ed by him for the afflicted king and liis
followers (2 Sam. 17 : 27-29). The king
on his triumphant return was anxious
to requite this friendship, and urged Bar-
zillai to spend the I'esidue of his life with
78
BASHAN— BASKET.
him at Jerusalem. This he declined,
urging as a reason his great age, tlie com-
forts of whicli could not be promoted by
such a change. He permitted his son,
however, to accompany David to his court
(2 Sam. 19 : 31-39). David, in his dying
charge to Solomon, sliowed that he still
affectionately remembered this kindness
of Barzillai ( 1 Kings 2:7).
Ba'shan [rich, fertile soil], a district of
country east of the Jordan, embracing the
I four later provinces — Gaulonitis, the mod-
! ern Jaulan ; Trachonitis, the ancient Ar-
gob, now the Lejdh ; Auranitis, tlie Jlaii-
raii; and Batansea, now Ard-el Bataniyeh. It
abounds in rich woodlands and pastures.
References in Scripture to its oaks and
cattle and flocks are numerous. Its early
inliabitants were Amorites and men of gi-
gantic stature (Deut. 3 : 11-13 ; 4 : 47). It
was conquered by the Israelites, and as-
signed to tlie lialf-tribe of Manasseh (Num.
^~
^^Tilitf,;—
Stone Door of Stone House iu Bashan.
21 : 24, 35). Modern explorations bear em-
phatic testimony to the accuracy of the of-
ten-ridiculed Bible description of ancient
Bashan. No longer can it be alleged that
" sixty fenced cities and unwalled towns a
great many" (Deut. 3 : 5) could have had
none other than an imaginary existence,
for the whole land is to-day literally
crowded with cities and towns which are
deserted, but not ruined. Many of these
cities are in almost perfect condition, yet
without an inhabitant.
Ba'sin, a small vessel used for hand
and feet Avashing and for receiving from
sacrificed victims the blood which was to
be sprinkled for purification. Tlie form
and material of these several vessels can
only be conjectured. The " basin " from
which our Lord washed the disciples'
feet (John 13 : 5) was probably deeper
and larger than the hand-basin for sprink-
ling.
Bas''ket. Five different M'ords in the
Old Testament and three in the New Tes-
BAT— BATTERING-RAM.
79
lament have this rendering in our English
Version. They indicated, probably, the
different uses to which the basket was ap-
plied, such as liolding bread, holding fruit,
carrying corn to the mill, carrying grapes
to the press and carrying clay to the brick-
yard. They were made of various mate-
rials, often of twigs, and were of many
forms and sizes (Ex. 29 : 3 ; Num. 6 : 15,
17 ; Jer. 6:9; Amos 8:1; Matt. 14 : 20 ;
Acts 9 : 25). It illustrates the difference j
in the size of the baskets mentioned in
the New Testament to observe that the j
" baskets " spoken of in Mark 6 : 43 were j
the comparatively small baskets in one
of which a Jew when on a journey would
carry his mid-day meal, and that the
" baskets " spoken of in Mark 8 : 8 were
the very large baskets used for storing
grain. In a basket of this latter kind
Paul was let down by the wall of Da-
mascus (Acts 9 : 25).
Bat [Hebrew, 'atalleph, flying in the
dark^, the connecting link between birds
Bat.
and quadrupeds. In the Levitical Law
(Lev. 11 : 19; Deut. 14 : 18) it is named
as an unclean bird ; in reality, however, it
has no resemblance to a bird except that
it can fly. It belongs to the class of mam-
mi ferous quadrupeds, comprising a great
number of genera, si^ecies and varieties.
The whole race, according to their Hebrew
name, fly in the dark. They vary in size
from that of the smallest common mouse
up to that of the vampire, whose body is as
large as the squirrel's. Tliey haunt cav-
erns, vaults, old ruins, deserted buildings
and desolate places. Their well-known
habits afford a forcible illustration of
Isaiah's fearful picture (Isa. 2 : 20) of
the day wlien the Lord shall arise "to
shake terribly the earth ;" " a man shall
cast his idols of silver and his idols of
gold to the moles and to the bats ;" that
is, "for fear of the Lord" he shall cast
his idols into those dark and desolate
places Avhich moles and bats frequent,
and in which he himself would be glad
to find a refuge.
Bath, a Hebi-ew measure for liquids
(Isa. 5 : 10; Ezek. 45 : 11), with a ca-
pacity of eight gallons and three quarts,
nearly.
Bathe, Ba'thing. This was a pre-
scribed part of the Jewish ritual of puri-
fication in the cases of uncleanness sjaeci-
fied in the Law (Lev. 15, 16: 28; 22: 6;
Num. 19: 7, 19; 2 Sam. 11:2, 4; 2 Kings
5 : 10), as also after mourning, which al-
ways implied defilement (Ruth 3:3; 2
Sam. 12 : 20). With bathing anointing
was customarily joined, the climate mak-
ing both these essential to health and
pleasure, to which luxury added the use
of perfumes (Esth. 2 : 12).
Bath'she-ba [daughter of the nath'[,
wife of Uriah tlie Hittite, and after his
death wife of King David and mother
of Solomon. The narrative of David's
connection Avith this woman, wliile ex-
hibiting the strict impartiality of Scrip-
ture history, presents a deplorable pic-
ture of human depravity when the re-
straints of divine grace are withdrawn
(2 Sam. 11).
Bat^ter-ing"-Rani, an ancient imple-
ment of warfare for making breaches in the
walls of fenced cities. It was a heavy beam
suspended on a frame by the middle, so as
80
BATTLEMENT— BEAR
to swing to and fro. One end was armed
with a thick metallic head, often, but not
always, fasliioned like that of a ram, and
this was struck heavily against the wall
i'MMII' ■'llllia""' m^m
Battering-Eam.
by the swinging of the beam after the
force which drew it back was removed
(Ezek. 4:2; 21 : 22). See Eam, Bat-
TERIXG.
Bat'tle-ment, a parapet or balustrade
which surrounded the flat roofs of Oriental
houses to prevent accidents. This pre-
caution was rendered the more neces-
sary from the circumstance that people
in Eastern countries often resorted to ;
the flat roofs of their houses for re-
pose or amusement (Deut. 22 : 8).
Bay Tree. The Jewish doctors
understand by the Hebrew word thus
rendered in Ps. 37 : 35 " a tree wliich
grows in its own soil ;" that is, one
that has never been transplanted, and
so is strong and branchy and beauti-
ful. What tree is meant is uncer-
tain, but if it were the bay {Laiirus
7ioblliK), it would furnish a very admi-
rable symbol of a prosperous world- "*
ling.
Bdel^li-um is generally supposed
to be an odoriferous resin or gum ; by some,
however, it is imderstood to mean a pre-
cious stone, and to designate either the
pearl, the carbuncle or the beryl (Gen. 2 •
12; Num. 11 : 7).
Bea'con, a pole or standard erected on
a hill or mountain-top as a signal for tlie
assembling of the people — sometimes on
the invasion of an enemy, and sometimes
after a defeat. In bold figure the prophet
Isaiah (30 : 17) represents the Jews, when
suffering God's severe judgments upon their
sins, as a beacon to all otlier peoples and
nations.
Beans (2 Sam. 17 : 28 ; Ezek. 4 : 9) are
cultivated in Palestine, where are grown
many of the leguminous order of plants,
such as lentiles, kidney-beans, vetches
and the like. Beans are in blossom in
January ; they have been noticed in flower
at Lydda on the twenty-third, and at Sidon
and Acre even earlier ; they continue in
flower till March.
Bear. The Syrian bear is a savage
and rapacious animal, dwelling in soli-
tary places, and still found on the higlier
mountains of Palestine. David showed
his courage and strength in successfully
defending his flock against the attack of
Svrian Bear.
one of these animals (1 Sam. 17 : 34-36).
The impious children who mocked tlie
prophet Elislia were destroyed by bears
BEARD— BED.
81
(2 Kings 2 : 24). These animals are par-
ticularly ferocious when deprived of their
young or when assailed. Thus the divine
anger is forcibly depicted by Hosea (13:8),
" I will meet them as a bear that is bereaved
of her wiielps."
Beard. The Oriental nations from time
immemorial have attached great import-
ance to the beard as a feature of beauty '
and a mark of distinction. Its growth
was promoted in every way, and its dress-
ing, trimming and anointing were per-
formed with much ceremony by persons
of wealth and rank (Ps. 133 : 2). The
custom was and is to shave it off or to
pluck it out in mourning (Isa. 15 : 2; Jer.
41 : 5 ; Ezra 9 : 3), to neglect it in seasons
of permanent affliction (2 Sam. 19 : 24), and
to regard any insult to it a.s the last outrage
which enmity can inflict (2 Sam. 10 ; 4, 5).
To take hold of a man's beard in order to
kiss it was an especial mark of respect and
affection. Hence, when Joab under the
pretence of friendsliip took Amasa's beard
in his right hand to kiss it, and, instead
of kissing him, plunged a sword into
Amasa's heart (2 Sam. 20 : 9, 10), he
perpetrated a deed of the basest treach-
ery.
Beast. In the Scriptures this word,
when used in contradistinction to man
(Ps. 36 : 6), denotes a brute creature gener-
ally ; when in contradistinction to creeping
things (Lev. 11 : 2-7 ; 27 : 26), it has ref-
erence to four-footed animals ; and when
to wild mammalia (Gen. 1 : 25), it means
tamed cattle. The Mosaic regulations re-
specting domestic animals forbade all hai-sh
and cruel usage, and were eminently con-
siderate and humane (Ex. 23 : 12; Lev.
25 : 7 ; Deut. 25 : 4). Wild beasts furnish
the writers of Scripture with numerous
metaphors and figures. Paul describes
some of his opposers as wild beasts, so fu-
rious and brutal were they in their treat-
ment of him (1 Cor. 15 : 32). A similar
use of the word occurs in Ps. 22 : 12, 16;
6
2 Pet. 2 : 12; Jude 10. Daniel represents
the four tyrannical world-powers which he
saw in vision as so many wild beasts (Dan.
7 : 3-23). By an infelicitous translation,
the four living creatures whom John saw
before tlie throne (Rev. 4 : 6) are repre-
sented as " four beasts." They correspond
to the " four living creatures," or cherubim,
which Ezekiel saw (1 : 5), and they sym-
bolize tlie providential agencies of the Al-
mighty.
Bed. In the Jewish bed five principal
parts are to be distinguished : 1. The mat-
tress, a mere mat or one or more quilts.
2. The covering, a finer quilt than that
laid on the floor. In summer a thin
blanket or the outer garment worn by
day (1 Sam. 19 : 13) sufficed. Hence, the
Law provided that it should not be kept
in pledge after sunset, else the poor man
miglit lack his needful covering (Deut.
24 : 13). 3. The pillow, some fabric woven
or plaited of goats' hair. Such pillows are
common to tliis day in the East, formed of
sheep's fleece or goat's skin with a stuffing
of cotton. 4. The bedstead. This was not
always necessary, tlie divan or platform
along the side or end of an Oriental
room sufficing as a support for the bed-
ding. Yet some slight and portable frame
seems implied among the senses of the word;
which is used for a "bier" (2 Sam. 3 : 31)
and for the ordinary bed (2 Kings 4 : 10),
for the litter on which a sick person might
be carried (1 Sam. 19 : 15) and for Jacob's
bed of sickness (Gen. 47 : 31). 5. The or-
namental portions, pillars and a canopy,
ivory carvings, gold and silver, mosaic-
work, purple and fine linen (Esth. 1:6;
Song 3 : 9, 10). The ordinary furniture
of a bed-chamber in private life is given
in 2 Kings 4 : 10. The "bed-chamber"
in the temple where Joash was hidden
was probably a store-chamber for keep-
ing beds (2 Kings 11 : 2; 2 Chron. 22 :
11). The position of the bed-chamber in
the most remote and secret parts of the
82
BEDAN— BEEK.
palace is indicated in Ex. 8 : 3 ; 2 Kings
6: 12.
Be'dan [aervile'], a judge of Israel (1
Sam. 12: 11), between Jerubbaal (Gideon)
and Jephthah. He is not mentioned in
the Judges, and his name is therefore
supposed to be a corrupted form either
of Samson or of Barak or of Abdon.
Bee. The Hebrew word thus rendered
in our Authorized Version is from a root
meaning to swarm, and is a generic term, the
species being very numerous. The honey-
bee, to which frequent allusion is made in
Scripture, is an insect noted for its remark-
able instincts, its untiring industry, its
fierceness Avhen assailed and the valuable
products of its labors. It abounded in
Palestine, and its honey was highly es-
teemed. A land flowing with milk and
honey was one particularly desirable (Lev.
20 : 24). In their wild state bees deposited
their honey in the clefts of the rocks (Ps.
81:16). It has been thought to be entirely
opposed to the usual habits of the bee for
it to have chosen the carcass of a lion as
a place of deposit for its honey, as men-
tioned in Judg. 14 : 8 ; but as the interval
at which Samson visited the remains of
the lion might have been long enough for
the consumption of the flesh by wild ani-
mals or the heat of the climate, it may be
presumed that it was the skeleton, and par-
ticularly the head, that had been selected
as a hive. When David says of his ene-
mies, "They compassed me about like
bees" (Ps. 118 : 12), he refers to the fierce-
ness of these formidable little creatures
when their hive is disturbed. Isaiah
compares the Assyrians who should be
commissioned to attack Israel to the bee
(Isa. 7 : 18). The expression in this con-
nection, "The Lord shall hiss for the bee,"
merely denotes his call upon those repre-
sented by it to execute the assigned work,
and can have no allusion, as some suppose,
to any ancient custom, similar to those
adopted in modern days, of gatliering a
swarm of bees by various sounds or
noises.
Be-el'ze-bub is the name applied to
"the prince of the devils" in ^latt. 12:
24. It probably refers to Baalzebub, the
fly-god of the Ekronites (2 Kings 1 : 2,
16), or, according to a more correct read-
ing, to Beelzebul llord of filth].
Be'er {iL-eW], or Beeroth [wells], a
local proper name, denoting the presence
of water.
Beer designated — 1. A halting-place of
the Israelites after they had crossed the
Arnon (Num. 21 : 16-18), identical, prob-
ably, with Beer-Elim. 2. A town in Ju-
dah to which Jotham fled (Judg. 9 : 21) ;
site not certainly known.
Be-e'roth designated a city of the Gib-
eonites (Josh. 9 : 17) in the tribe of Ben-
j jamin. It is now identified as el-Bireh,
a village of seven hundred inhabitants,
ten miles north of Jerusalem. Here, ac-
cording to tradition, our Lord was missed
by his parents when returning from Jeru-
salem (Luke 2 : 44).
j Be'er was frequently combined with a
descriptive word in order to designate a
place made memorable by some important
event. The principal names of places in
which this combination appeai-s are the
following :
1. Be'er-e''i.im [well of heroes], (Isa.
15 : 8), supposed to he the same as the
well referred to in Num. 21 : 16-18.
2. Be'er-la-ha'i-roi [the well of the
Living One who seeth me], (Gen. 16 : 13, 14),
the well which the angel of the Lord
pointed out to Hagar.
3. Be'er-siie-ba [the well of the oath],
the place where Abraham formed an al-
liance with Abimelech (Gen. 21 : 31);
where Isaac dwelt (Gen. 26 : 23-25) ;
I whence Jacob set out for Haran (Gen.
I 28 : 10) ; and where Jacob more than a
half century later, on his way to Egypt,
offered sacrifices unto the God of his fa-
1 ther Isaac (Gen. 46 : 1). A town of some
BEETLE— BEL.
83
consequence was afterward built at this
place, twenty-six miles south of Hebron,
at the southern extremity of Palestine.
Dan being at the northern extremity and
Beersheba at the southern, " from Dan even
to Beersheba " ( Judg. 20 : 1 ) became a pro-
verbial expression to denote the whole ex-
tent of the country. Dr. Robinson visited
the site of this city, which still goes under
the name of £ir-es-Seba. He found two
circular wells of water over forty feet in
depth, around which were the ruins of
what, at one time, must have been a place
of considerable size and importance. The
latest visitor to Beersheba who has pub-
lished his observations is President Bart-
lett, who thus speaks of the two wells de-
scribed by Dr. Robinson : " The smaller
of the two wells still in use was about five
feet and a half in diameter, well stoned
and the stones fluted by bucket-ropes. It
seemed forty feet to the water. From
this we passed perhaps sixty rods to the
principal well, which was twelve and a
half feet in diameter, and the water
stood, as we judged, about forty feet from
the top. It was thoroughly walled with
massive stones, and these were cut with
the ropes of ages into 'one hundred and
forty-three flutings' (according to Tris-
tram's count), 'the shallowest of them
four inches deep.' We were by the wells
of Abraham."
Bee'tle, only mentioned in Lev. 11 :
22, where some species of locust is prob-
ably meant.
Beeves, the plural of beef. The word,
collectively, signifies horned cattle (Lev.
22: 19).
Beg'gar, one dependent on charity
through misfortune, improvidence or
vice — causes which effectually prevent
a perfect equality of condition among
men. Even among the Israelites tliere
were those who depended on alms, and
liberality to the poor was urged as a duty
(Deut. 15:11). Tlie Psalmist states it
as his experience that the posterity of the
godly were never reduced to beggary (Ps.
37 : 25), while he regards poverty as an
appropriate curse on the wicked (Ps. 109 :
10). In the times of our Lord instances
are mentioned of diseased and maimed
persons being laid in the highways, at the
doors of the temple and at the gates of the
rich to solicit alms (Mark 10 : 46; Luke
16 : 20, 21 ; Acts 3 : 2). It is a peculiarity
' of the Christian religion that, in propor-
I tion to its prevalence, the sorrows of the
poor are mitigated and their wants sup-
[ plied.
Be 'he-moth. The word thus ren-
dered in Job 40 : 15 is elsewhere render-
ed beast (Job 35 : 11 ; Ps. 73 : 22) and
cattle (Ps. 50 : 10). That it primarily
and properly designates the hippopota-
mus or river-horse of Egypt there can
be little doubt. All the details descrip-
The Hippopotamus.
tive of the behemoth accord entirely with
the ascertained habits of that animal.
The hippopotamus is of great bulk and
amazing strength. Often it is above six-
teen feet in length and seven feet in
height, with a large head, short feet and
huge flat muzzle. It is herbivorous and
exceedingly voracious.
Beka, half of the shekel. See Weights
AND Measures.
Bel, the name under which the national
84
BELA— BENHADAD.
god of the Babylonians is cursorily men-
tioned (Isa. 46 : 1 ; Jer. 50 : 2; 51 : 44),
and the same as Baal( which see).
Bela [svcdimred, or destruction^, the
name of one place and three men.
1. A small city on the shores of the Dead
Sea, not far from Sodom, afterward called
Zoar, to which Lot retreated from the de-
struction of the cities of the plain, and
for the sparing of wliich lie interceded
(Gen. 14: 2, 8; 19: 20-23).
2. The eldest son of Benjamin (Gen. 46:
21 ; Num. 26 : 38 ; 1 Chron. 7 : 6) and head
of the family of Belaites.
3. A king of Edom before the institution
of royalty among the Israelites (Gen. 36 :
32 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 43).
4. A son of Azaz, a Reubenite and a man
of wealtli and consequence in the land of
Gilead (1 Chron. 5 : 8, 9).
Be'li-al \_worthlessness, recklessness, law-
lessness, wickednessi, a designation of such
lewd, profligate and vile persons as regard
neither God nor man (Judg. 19: 22; 1 Sam.
2 : 12). In tlie Old Testament it is not a
proper name, but in one passage in the
New Testament (2 Cor. 6 : 15) it is, and
is applied to Satan, as the embodiment
of all that is vile and worthless.
Bell. The fii-st bells known in history
were tlie small golden bells attached to
tlie lower part of the blue robe which
formed part of the high priest's dress
when engaged in ministrations (Ex. 28 :
33-35). Tlieir design was to announce
the high priest's entrance into the Holy
Place, the presence-chamber of Jehovah,
and to summon the people outside to en-
gage in prayer. In the East great use
has always been made of small bells.
They are attached to the anklets of dan-
cing-girls, to tlie roofs and spires and pro-
jecting points of temples — where they are
rung by the winds — and to the bridles and
neck-belts of horses. To the bells on the
horses Zechariah (14 : 20) alludes when
predicting that the spirit of true religion
is to be so prevalent in our world as to
pervade all interests and pursuits.
Bel'ly, a figurative expression in Scrip-
ture for carnal indulgence (Rom. 16 : 18;
Phil. 3 : 19) ; once, for the soul's inmost
recesses (John 7 : 38). The gluttonous
and indolent Cretans are described as
"slow bellies" (Tit. 1 : 12).
Bel-shaz'zar [the prince of Bel], the
last king of the Chaldees, under whom
Babylon was taken by the Medes and
Persians (Dan. 5 : 1 ; 7 : 1 ; 8 : 1). He
was a descendant of Nebuchadnezzar, and
by Nabonadius, his father, was associated
in the government of the empire, and was
allowed the royal title, lie conducted,
probably, the defence of Babylon against
Cyrus, and was slain in the massacre which
followed the capture of the city. His name
appears on the inscriptions as Bil-sar-uzur.
The only events of his history recorded in
Scripture are his impious feast and his vio-
lent death, b. c. 538.
Bel-te-shaz'zar [whom Bel favors'],
the Chaldee name given to Daniel at the
court of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon (Dan.
1:7).
Ben-ai'ah [Jehovah prospers], the son
of Jehoiada, a chief priest (1 Chron.
27 : 5), and distinguished on several oc-
casions for his enterprise and bravery (2
Sam. 23 : 20-23). He adhered to Solo-
mon against the pretensions of Adonijah
(1 Kings 1 : 36), and, after putting Joab
to death, succeeded to the command of
the army (1 Kings 2 : 29-35).
Ben-ha'dad [Bin (an Assyrian god)
is exalted], the name of three kings of Dam-
ascene Syria.
1. The king who was subsidized by Asa,
king of Judah, to invade Israel, and there-
by compel Baasha, who had invaded ,7udah,
to return for the defence of his own king-
dom (1 Kings 15 : 18). He seems to have
been an energetic and powerful sovereign.
2. The son of the preceding. His reign
was characterized bv long wars with Israel,
BENJAMIN- BESOR.
85
in which he suffered some signal defeats.
Besieging Samaria, he pressed the siege so
closely that there was a terrible famine
in the city. Suddenly and mysteriously,
however, his army was panic-stricken in
the night, and fled in utter disorder. Soon
after he fell sick, and sent Hazael, an offi-
cer of distinction, to consult the prophet
Elisha as to the issue of his malady. The
interview with Elisha brought Hazael's
ambitious projects to a head, for upon his
return he murdered Benhahad and seized
his throne (2 Kings, chs. 6, 7, 8).
3. The son and successor of usurping
Hazael. His reign was disastrous for
Damascus, and the vast power wielded
by his father was wrenched from his
hand (2 King-s 13 : 25).
Ben'ja-min [son of the right hand], the
youngest of Jacob's children and the only
one born in Palestine. His birth took
place on the road between Bethel and
Bethlehem, a short distance from the
latter. His mother, Rachel, died in the
act of giving him birth, and with her
last breath named him Bennni, "son of
my sorrow," which Jacob afterward
changed to Benjamin (Gen. 35 : 16-18).
The tribe descending from him numbered
in the desert 35,400 warriors (Num. 1 : 36,
37). The territory allotted to the tribe lay
immediately south of Ephraim and be-
tween Ephraim and Judah. It formed
almost a parallelogram of about twenty
miles in length by ten in breadth. Its
eastern boundary was the Jordan, and
from thence it extended to tlie wooded
district of Kirjath-jearim, a point about
eight miles west of Jerusalem, while in
the other direction it stretched from the
Valley of Hinnom on the south to Bethel
on the nortii. In the time of the judges
the tribe was nearly exterminated by the
other tribes in a war excited against them
for acts of atrocious wickedness ( Judg. 20).
The tribe, however, was afterward revived,
and in the time of Jehoshaphat it num-
bered 200,000 warriors (2 Chron. 17 : 17).
When the kingdom was severed Benjamin
united with Judah in forming the kingdom
of Judah (1 Kings 12 : 21).
Ben-0''ni [son of my sorrow], the name
which the dying Rachel gave to her new-
ly-born son, but which by his father Jacob
was changed into Benjamin (Gen. 35 : 18).
Be-re'a, a city of Macedonia, not far
from Pella and some twenty miles west
of Thessalonica. To this city Paul and
Silas, when persecuted in Thessalonica,
returned, and finding there a large Jew-
ish population singularly free from preju-
dice, they preached the gospel with great
success (Acts 17 : 10-12). It is now known
as Verria, in Roumelia, and has a popu-
lation of from fifteen to twenty thousand.
Ber-ni'ce, otherwise Ber-e-ni'ce,
the eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I.
and sister of Herod Agrippa II. She was
first married to her uncle Herod, king of
Chalcis, and after his death she lived under
circumstances of great suspicion with her
brother Agrippa, Ivith whom she is men-
tioned (Acts 25 : 13, 23; 26 : 30) as visit-
ing Festus on his appointment to the pro-
curatorship of Judfea.
Be-ro'dach-BaPa-dan, a king of
Assyria (2 Kings 20 : 12) to whose mes-
sengers Ilezekiah, king of Judah, impru-
dently displayed all his treasures. He is
also called Merodach-baladan (Isa. 39 : 1).
Ber'yl, the rendering into English of
the obscure Hebrew word Tarskish, and
the designation of a precious stone whose
precise character is not known. It was
the tenth stone on the high priest's breast-
plate (Ex. 28 : 20), and is mentioned as
one of the foundations of the heavenly
Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 20).
Bes'om, a brush for sweeping, used
metaphorically for a sweeping destruction
(Isa. 14: 23).
Be'sor [the cnol], a brook flowing into
the Mediterranean near Gaza. Here two
hundred of David's men, exhausted and
86
BESTEAD— BETH-ARBEL.
faint, halted for rest and refreshment,
whilst he, at the head of four hundred,
continued the pursuit of the Amalekites
who had plundered and burned the town
of Ziklag (1 Sam. 30 : 9, 10, 21).
Be-stead', an obsolete word meaning
situated. It occurs in Isa. 8 : 21, where it
has the sense of roughly situated, placed in
difficulty.
Beth-ab'a-ra \_the house or place of
passage, the Jerry or ford'\ a place beyond
Jordan where John the Baptist baptized
(John 1 : 28). A point ea^jt of the Jor-
dan, and near one of the main fords of that
river, just above tlie place where, on the
west side, the Jalud River enters it, has
been recently indicated as the ancient
Bethabara. It has been heretofore iden-
tified with Beth-nimra, a little above Jer-
icho.
Beth'a-ny \_house of dates'], a village
on tlie eastern slope of the Mount of
Olives, two miles from Jerusalem, on the
road to Jericho. Many fruit and forest
trees — olives, pomegranates, almonds, oaks
— give the place to-day, as in long-past.
Modern
times, an aspect of seclusion and repose.
Its scriptural associations are peculiarly
interesting. Here dwelt Mary and Mar-
tha and their brother Lazarus (John 11 :
1 ) ; here our Lord, after the labors of
the day in the city, frequently found a
hospitable and quiet home (Matt. 21 : 17) ;
here our Lord raised Lazarus from the
grave (John 11 : 43, 44); here our Lord
was anointed by Mary for his burial ( Matt.
26 : 12 ; .Jolm 12:3, 7) ; and near here, in
close vicinity and in full view, our Loi'd
Bethany.
" was parted from his disciples and car-
ried up into heaven" (Luke 24 : 50, 51 j.
It is now an insignificant village of twen-
ty poor families, but its modern Arabic
name, el- Azariyeh (from el-Azar, the pop-
ular corruption of Lazarus), echoes very
impressively the story which has given it
an imperishable distinction.
Beth-Ar'bel [house of the snares (or
ambush) of God], a place mentioned only
in IIos. 10 : 14, and supposed to have
been a strongly-fortified rock-fortress, de-
BETH-AVEN— BETH-HOKON.
87
spoiled and destroyed by Shalmaneser,
king of Assyria, with circumstances of
appalling atrocity. The weight of opin-
ion inclines to identify it with the Arbela
of Josephus, a village in Galilee, near
which were fortified caverns situated on
the sides of precipitous cliffs, to which
the only access was by a steep, narrow
and easily-defended jjath.
Beth-A'ven [house of idolatry']. See
AVEN.
Beth'el [house of God], a town and
sanctuary in Central Palestine, about ten
English miles north of Jerusalem. It
was thus named by Jacob, wlio, journey-
ing from Beersheba to Haran, and lying
down here to sleep, had a marvelous vis-
ion, which he commemorated by setting
up and consecrating a stone pillar (Gen.
28 : 11-22). When Jacob returned from
Padan-Aram, some thirty years after the
time of his vision, he revisited the spot,
built an altar to Jehovah, and, consecra-
ting another stone pillar, renewed and
confirmed tlie name he had before given
it (Gen. 35 : 6-15). After the conquest
of the land by Joshua, Bethel became a
holy city, and, as a sanctuary, a place of
commanding influence. Here Jeroboam,
upon the revolt of the ten tribes and the
formation of the kingdom of Israel, set
up idolatrous calves (1 Kings 12 : 29-33).
Here the kings of Israel occasionally held
their courts and celebrated with great pomp
the rites of an infamous worship (Amos 7 :
10-13). It now is, and for many genera-
tions has been, one of the most desolate-
looking places in Palestine. Its modern
name is Beiiin.
Beth-es'da [house of mercy], a pool of
water situated near tlie sheep-gate of Jeru-
salem, and the scene of one of our Lord's
miracles (John 5 : 2-16). It is supposed
to be the pool now called Birkel- Israel,
within the city walls and near St. Ste-
phen's Gate. It is memorable from the
fact that at certain times an angel im-
parted a miraculous efficacy to its waters
for the cure of all kinds of diseases. After
the troubling of the water the first diseased
person that stepped in was healed. This
shows that the water itself possessed no
medicinal virtues, and that the cures ef-
fected by it were truly miraculous.
Beth-Gam'ul [house of the camel], a
town of Moab (Jer. 48 : 23), about forty-
five miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee.
Its modern name is Um d-Jemcd. "Al-
though it has been deserted for centu-
ries," says Prof. Osborn, "the massive
houses look as though the inhabitants
had just left them."
Beth-ha'ran [house of the height], a
fenced city of the tribe of Gad (Num. 32 :
36), called Beth-aram in Josh. 13 : 27.
Beth-hog'la [partridge-house], a place
I on the border of Benjamin and Judah (Josh.
I 15 : 6; 18 : 21). A fountain called Hajla,
\ on the road between Jerusalem and Jeri-
cho, according to Dr. Robinson, may indi-
cate the site of the ancient Beth-hogla.
Beth-Ho'ron [house of the hollow; per-
haps of the hollow way], the name of two
towns of the tribe of Ephraim, one of
which, called "the Upper," was situated
in the northern part of that tribe (Josh.
16 : 5; 21 : 22) ; the other, "the Nether,"
was situated on the border of Benjamin
(Josh. 16:3; 18:13). Both were on
the road from Jerusalem by Gibeon to
the coast-plain. Upper Beth-Horon was
about twelve miles from Jerusalem, and
Nether Beth-Horon some two miles far-
ther on, in a precipitous valley. Upper
Betli-Horon stands upon a rocky head-
land overlooking this valley. The "de-
scent of Beth-Horon " is the way passing
these places, and was the great road of
communication — especially when heavy
baggage was to be transported — between
Jerusalem and the sea-coast. The road
connecting the Upper and Nether Beth-
Horon is memorable in sacred history as
! the scene of the very complete victory
88
BETH-JESIMOTH— BETH-SHAN.
achieved by Joshua over the five kings
of the Amorites (Josh. 10). The two
Beth-Horons still survive in the modern
villages of Beit-ur, "Upper" and "Low-
er." On the mountain which lies to the
southward of the nether village is still
preserved tlie name Yalo or Ajlun, the an-
cient Ajalon, the city so closely connected
with the proudest memories of Beth-Horon
(Josh. 10 : 12).
Beth-jes'i-moth Ihouse of desolation^'],
a city on tlie etxst of Jordan and assigned to
the tribe of Reuben (Num. 33 : 49 ; Josh.
13 : 20).
Beth-leb'a-oth [house of Imiesses'}, a
city in the tribe of Simeon (Josh. 19 : 6).
Beth'le-hera \_house of bread^, a city
of Judali, nearly six miles south of Jeru-
salem. It was called Bethlehem-Judali
to distinguish it from another Bethlehem
in Zebulun (Judg. 17:7; Josh. 19 : 15, 16).
It was also called Ephratah [</ie fruitful'],
{ Mic. 5:2). It was the residence of Boaz,
of Naomi and of Ruth. As David was
born here (1 Sam. 17 : 12) and here was
anointed king (1 Sam. 16 : 1-13), it was
sometimes denominated "the city of Da-
vid" (Luke 2:4). But the chief glory
of Bethlehem is in the fact that here was
born the most illustrious personage of all
history, the Son of man and the Son of
(iod, the Saviour and the Sovereign of
the world (Matt. 2 : 1, 6 ; Luke 2 : 6-12).
Its modern name is Beii-Lahm. It has a
population of about five thousand souls,
the most of them Christians, and noted for
their enterprise and energy in trade. It
is situated on a hill of limestone which
runs east and west. The east end of the
hill is bold, whilst the west end slopes
gradually to the valley. On the sides of
this hill, which is about a mile in length,
are terraced gardens, with olive trees, fig
trees and vines. Altogether, Bethlehem
is one of the most attractive and thriving
towns in Palestine.
Beth-me'on [hoiise of BaaVs habita-
tion], a city of the Moabites in the ter-
ritory of the tribe of Reuben, denounced
by the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. 48 : 23).
Beth-nim'ra [house of sweet water],
now called Nimrin, of which some ruins
remain, situated near the junction of the
brook Nimrin with the Jordan (Num.
32 : 36). Here is still a fountain corre-
sponding with the "waters of Nimrim"
(Isa. 15 : 6).
Beth-pe'or [house or temple of Peor],
a city in Moab not far from the Jordan,
and near which Moses was buried (Deut.
4:46; 34: G).
Beth'pha-ge [house of nnripe fi(j-'i], a
small village south-east of Jerusalem.
Our Lord in coming from Jericho visited
it before reaching Bethany (Mark 11 : 1).
Beth're-hob. See Rehob.
Beth-sa'i-da [house or pfoce of fish-
ing], the name of two places not far from
each other, at the head and on the oppo-
site shores of the Sea of Galilee.
1. A town in Galilee (John 12 : 21), on
the western side of the sea and not far from
Capernaum. It was the birthplace of the
apostles Peter, Andrew and Philip and tlie
frequent residence of our Lord. The site
of the town is placed by Dr. Robinson at
'Ain et-Tabirjah, a short distance north of
Khan Minyeh, and recent explorations
strongly sustain his view. It was one of
the cities upon which our Lord pronounced
a woe for its ol)stinate unbelief in spite
of the mighty works he performed there
(Matt. 11 : 21).
2. A town on the eastern side of the
same sea or lake, near the point where
the Jordan enters. In the neighborhood
of this place our Lord fed the five thou-
j sand (Luke 9 : 10). This Bethsaida w:us
greatly enlarged by Philip the tetrarch,
I and named Julias. The supposed site at
et-Ttll, three miles north of the sea or
lake, is covered with ruins.
Beth'shan or Beth'she-an [house
of qidet or security], a city belonging to
BETH-SHEMESH— BEWKAY.
89
the half-tribe of Manasseh, (1 Sam. 31 :
10; Josh. 17 : 11), on the west of Jordan,
three miles from the river and sixteen
miles from the southern end of the Sea
of Galilee, just where the plain of J]sdra-
elon begins its slope to the Jordan Valley.
The Greeks called it Scythopolis, because a
colony from the great Scythian irruption
in tlie times of King Josiah was left here.
It is now called Beisan, and is a miserable
hamlet of mud hovels. The ruins of the
ancient city are still to be seen, and are of
considerable extent. After the battle of
Gilboa, in the near neighborhood, the
Philistines fastened the dead bodies of
King Saul and his three sons to the walls
of this city, whence the valiant men of
Jabesh-Gilead, in a successful night-ex-
pedition, bore them to a sad yet reverent
burial (1 Sam. 31 : 8-13).
Beth-sh.ein'esh [house of the sun'],
the name of four cities mentioned in
Scripture.
1. .\ sacerdotal city on the borders of
Dan and Judah (Josh. 15 : 10; 21 : 13,
16), about fourteen miles west of .Jerusa-
lem. When the Philistines were plagued
on account of their retaining the captured
ark, they sent it to Beth-shemesh, whose
inliabitants, irreverently prying into it,
were smitten by the Lord to the number
of fifty thousand and seventy. As this
number appears very great, some suppose
that the transcriber has mistaken an arith-
metical sign, writing this number instead
of five thousand and seventy. Others,
with Bochart, render it, " he smote three-
score and ten men, fifty out of a thou-
sand ;" tliat is, it was only in this pro-
portion that the people suffered. A bat-
tle between Judah and Israel, disastrous
to Judah, was fought at this place (2
Kings 14 : 11-13). Dr. Robinson has iden-
tified this city with Ain-Shems, an insig-
nificant Arab village constructed of an-
cient materials. Extensive ruins over-
spread the neighborhood.
2. A fenced city in Naphtali ( Judg. 1 :
33).
3. A" city of Issachar (Josh. 19: 22).
4. A city in Egypt, the seat of an idol-
temple (Jer. 43: 13) ; called by the Greeks
Heliopolis ; by the Egyptians, On.
Beth-u^el [vian of God}, son of Na-
lior, nephew of Abraham and father of
Rebekah, whom Isaac married (Gen. 22 :
23; 24: 15; 28: 5).
Beth-zur, now Beit-Sur, 4 m. N. of
Hebron. 2 Chron. 11:7; Neh. 3:11.
Be-troth'ing, an engagement of mar-
riage between a man and woman. An-
ciently, these engagenien/^3 were made or
arranged by the parents of the parties,
often when they were mere children and
when they had not seen each other. It
is still one of the customs of Oriental
countries. Although after this betroth-
ment the parties lived apart until the
day appointed for their marriage, they
were nevertheless regarded as so bound
together that separation could be efl^ected
only by death or divorce. Mary, our
Lord's mother, was tlius betrothed to
Joseph, and, according to the history
(Matt. 1 : 18-20), the engagement was
considered as equivalent to marriage.
Beu^lah. [viarriecQ, a symbolical name
applied to tlie land of Israel, which, ac-
cording to the prediction of Isaiah (62 :
4), is to be recovered from desolation and
is to be again the Lord's delight. In In-
dia, according to Roberts, a sovereign is
familiarly represented as married to his
dominions.
Be-'Witch'', to lead astray by trick and
jugglery. Thus Simon bewitched the peo-
ple of Samaria by his arts, making them
believe he was some great person (Acts 8:
9). False teachers, wlio are generally the
most artful among men, are charged Avith
bewitching those who fall into their snares,
by so fascinating them tliat they cannot
form a right judgment (Gal. 3:1).
Be-'wray'', an antiquated word, signi-
90
BEYOND— BIRTHDAYS.
fyiug to " expose, discover." Thus, Peter's
speech bewrayed or exposed him, his dialect
being peculiar to the place from which he
came (Matt. 20 : 73). Thus, too, the per-
fumed ointment bewrays or reveals its
presence by its fragrance (Prov. 27 : 16).
The word is also sometimes used in the
sense of betray, or to discover treacher-
ously (Isa. 16 : 3).
Be-yond'. The phrase "beyond Jor-
dan " frequently occurs in Scripture, and
to determine its meaning we must take
into considei'ation the writer's situation.
For example, in the writings of Moses
" beyond Jordan " means the west side of
the river, as he wrote on the east side;
with Josliua it means on the east side, as
he lived on the west side.
Bez-al'eel [in the ahadmc of God], the
son of Cri, the son of Hur, of the tribe
of .Judah, an eminent artificer who was
employed in constructing the tabernacle
and its furniture (Ex. 31 : 1-11).
Be'zek [liyhtnimj], a city in tlie lot of
Judah, where the Canaanites were routed
and their king, Adonibezek, taken and
punished (Judg. 1 : 4-6). It was prob-
ably among the hills not far from Jeru-
salem.
Be'zer [we of yold or tiilverl, one of the
cities of refuge east of the Jordan, near the
nortli bank of the Arnon and a few miles
west of Aroer. It is called " Bezer in the
wilderness" (Deut. 4 : 41-43).
Bib'ber. A "wine-bibber" is an
habitual and excessive drinker of wine
(Prov. 23: 20; Matt. 11 : 19).
Bil'dad [son of contention], one of the
three friends who visited Job in his afflic-
tions. He is called " the Shuhite " (Job
2: 11), which connects him with Shuah,
the sixth son of Abraham by Keturah
(Gen. 25 : 2).
Bil'hah [bashfulnessi, the handmaid of
Rachel, concubine of Jacob and mother of
Dan and Naphtali (Gen. 35 : 25).
Biriows, heavy waves of the sea,
used metaphorically to denote over-
whelming afflictions (Ps. 42 : 7 ; 88 : 7).
Bind, to tie firmly together. Meta-
phorically, the word is used to denote the
obligation of an oath or vow (Num. 30 :
2-13); also restraint (Job 28: 11); the
power of Satan in inflibting physical
evils (Luke 13 : 16) ; arbitrary stretch of
power without authority (Matt. 23 : 4) ;
the infliction and ratification of church
censures (Matt. 16 : 19).
Birds. Under the Levitical Law there
j was a distinction of birds into clean and
unclean, and the respective classes are
given. There is no certainty that our
Authorized Version has properly identi-
fied these (Lev. 11 : 13-20). It was a
benevolent provision in the Jewish law
that when young birds were taken from
a nest the mother-bird should be permit-
ted to escape (Deut. 22 : 6). It is not im-
probable that singing birds, as in modern
times, were kept in cages, as bird-cages are
referred to (Jer. 5 : 27). The art of snar-
ing birds was also known (Prov. 7 : 23;
Eccles. 9 : 12). The bird is frequently
spoken of in a metaphorical sense: thus
I the Chaldseans are compared to ravenous
I birds (Isa. 46 : 11) ; thus, too, David was
hunted by Saul as a partridge on the moun-
tains (1 Sam. 26 : 20) ; and thus, too, our
I Lord's followers are enjoined to be as
" harmless as doves" (Matt. 10 : 16).
! Birth'days. The custom of observ-
ing birthdays is very ancient (Gen. 40 : 20 ;
Job 1:4). In Persia they were celebrated
with peculiar honors and banquets, and in
Egypt the king's birthdays were kept with
great pomp. The Scriptures record no in-
stance of a birthday-celebration among the
Jews themselves, and from other sources we
learn that the later Hebrews associated such
celebrations with idolatrous worship, be-
cause of the rites universally observed in
honor of the gods, who were accounted
patrons of the day. The example of Her-
od the tetrarch (Matt. 14 : 6) can scarcely
BIRTHRIGHT— BITHYNIA.
91
be regarded as in the line of a Jewish j
birthday-celebration, since the family to
which he belonged was notorious for its
adoption of heathen customs.
Birth'rig'ht, a word denoting the spe-
cial privileges and advantages belonging
to the first-born among the Hebrews (Gen.
25 : 31). See First-Boen.
Bish'op [an overseer]. The term in
the New Testament designates spiritual
rulers, and when applied to the ministers
of the gospel it simply and exclusively
signifies a pastor or presbyter, and never
a superior order among the clergy. The
term originated tlius : When the organi-
zation of the Christian churches in Gen-
tile cities involvsd the assignment of the
work of pastoral superintendence to a dis-
tinct order, the tide bishop presented itself
as at once convenient and familiar, and was
therefore adopted as readily as the word
elder had been in the mother-church of
Jerusalem. That the two titles were or-
iginally equivalent is clear from the fol-
lowing facts:
1. Bishops and elders are nowhere
named together as orders distinct from
each other.
2. Bishops and deacons are named as
apparently an exhaustive division of the
oflScers of the church (Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim.
3 : 1-15). Deacons were not. officially
preachers, though they might have indi-
vidually become preachers ; tliey relieved
preachers from the duty of serving tables,
and they ministered to the worthy poor the
alms collected for that purpose (Acts 6 :
1-6).
3. " Bishops " and " elders " are terms
descriptive of the same persons (Acts 20 :
17,28; Tit. 1 : 5, 7).
4. Elders discharge functions which, as
involving pastoral superintendence, are es-
sentially episcopal (1 Tim. 5 : 17 ; 1 Pet.
5:1,2).
As to the relation which existed between
the two titles, there can be no doubt that,
in the order of time, "elders" had the pri-
ority. The order itself is recognized in
Acts 11 : 30 and Acts 15:2. On the other
hand, the earliest use of the word "bish-
ops" or overseers is in the address of
Paul at Miletus to the elders of Ephesus
(Acts 20 : 28) ; and there the word is not
so nuich a title as a description of func-
tions. The earliest Epistle in which the
word bishops is formally used as equivalent
to the word elders is that to the Philippians,
as late as the time of Paul's first imprison-
ment at Rome. It was natural, indeed,
that the use of the word bishop — which
was borrowed from the constitution of a
Greek state— should not precede the use
of the word elder, which was derived
from the usages of the synagogues of
Palestine. And if the word bishop dis-
placed in time the word elder, it must
have been because there was a life in the
organization of the church higher than
that of the synagogue, and because there
were functions of pastoral superintendence
devolving on the elders of the Christian
congregation which the elders of the Jew-
ish congregation had never known. The
word bisliop had the merit of being de-
scriptive as well as titular. It indicated
office not less than honor. It could be as-
sociated, as the word elder could not be, with
the thought of the highest pastoral super-
intendence— even that of Christ him-
self, the Shepherd and Bishop of souls (1
Pet. 2 : 25). It hinted, however, at no su-
periority of rank. It was confined to the
individual church, in which there might
be, and often were, several bishops. Its
association with the word diocesan was al-
together subsequent to New Testament
times ; and in its early and wellnigh uni-
versal reception in the churches it fur-
nished a very striking illustration of
the widely-extended influence of Greek
thought and expression.
Bi-thyn'i-a, a province of Asia Minor,
on the shore of the Euxine or Black Sea,
92
BITTERN— BLEMISH.
bounded on the west by Mysia and on the
south by Phrygia and Galatia. It was op-
posite Constantinople. Peter names the
Bithynians, with others, in the salutation
of liis first Epistle (1 Pet. 1 : 1). It
was to this i)rovince that Paul essayed
to go, but the Spirit suffered him not
(Acts 16 : 7). In subsequent times Pliny
was governor of this province, and from
it wrote his celebrated letter to the em-
l)eror Trajan on the subject of persecut-
ing the Christians, to whose good charac-
ter he bore honorable testimony. The
capital of the province was Niccea, where
was held the council (a. d. 325) which con-
demned Arianism.
Bit'tern, a fowl of the same genus
with the heron, and about the same size.
Its resorts are in fens and swamps, and it
generally flies in the dusk of the evening.
Nineveh and Babylon became a " posses-
sion for the bittern," according to predic-
tion (Isa. 14 : 23; 34 : 11 ; Zeph. 2 : 14).
Biblical critics, however, differ much as to
the true meaning of the Hebrew word ren-
dered bittern. Some suppose it to designate
the porcupine, and others the hedgehog,
but the weight of opinion inclines to the
rendering in our English Version.
Black, Black'ness, used metaphor-
ically to denote terror and dismay ; " all
faces shall gather blackness" (Joel 2:6;
Nah: 2 : 10). Hell is called the "black-
ness of darkness" ( Jnde 13).
Blains, burning boils or eruptions, con-
stituting the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex. 9:
9), and hence called, in Deut. 28 : 27, 35,
"the botch of p]gypt." It seems to have
been the black leprosy.
Blas'phe-my. In the Scriptures this
word signifies the irreverent and reproach-
ful speaking of God and his attributes. The
blasphemer is the calumniator of the most
high God, and so is a sinner of the most
daring and impious kind. Under the Jew-
ish law it was enacted " that he that blas-
phemeth the name of the Lord shall sure-
ly be put to death " (Lev. 24 : 16). On this
charge both our Lord and the martyr Ste-
phen were condemned to death by the Jews
(Mark 14 : 64 ; Acts 6:11). Profane swear-
ing, however thoughtlessly practiced, is ob-
viously a near approach to this sin.
The " blasphemy against the Holy Ghost"
(Matt. 12 : 31), which is represented as an
unpardonable sin, is supposed by some to
have consisted in the wicked jiscription of
Christ's miracles to the agency of the devil ;
by others it is regarded as a malicious and
persevering rejection of Christ, including
a determined and infidel reviling of the
work of tlie Holy Spirit. As many per-
sons of sensitive consciences are filled
with apprehensions that they are charge-
able with this sin, it may be remarked
that their fear is groundless. The ex-
istence of fear is proof that they are free
from the sin. In all cases of its actual
commission there is an obdurate insensi-
bility of heart which effectually iirevents
the sinner from seeking j)ardon or from
feeling any anxiety about his personal sal-
vation.
Blast. The word is used as a verb and
as a noun. As a verb it means to wither or
parch up (Hag. 2 : 17) ; as a noun it rep-
resents the sound of a horn or trumpet
(Josh. 6:5); the anger of God (2 Kings
19 : 7) ; the violent and futile assaults of
the wicked (Isa. 25 : 4).
Blas'tus, Herod's chamberlain, whose
interest was secured by the Tyrians and 8i-
donians (Acts 12 : 20).
Blem 'ish. No person could be a priest
under tlie Levitical Law who had any blem-
ish or bodily defect (Lev. 21 : 17-21). The
animals offered to God in sacrifice were re-
quired to be perfect and without blemish
(Deut. 15 : 21). This corporeal jierfection
of priests and victims typified the s|)irit-
ual perfection of our Lord Christ, who, as
Priest and Victim, was "without blemish
and without spot" (1 Pet. 1 : 19). Like
our Lord Christ, the Church, washed from
BLESS— BLOOD.
93
sin in his own blood, is to be "without
blemish" (Eph. 5 : 27).
Bless, Blessing. When God blesses
man, the blessing includes the multiplied
bestowments of temporal and eternal hap-
piness (Job 42:12; Ps. 45:2). When
man blesses God, the blessing extols the
perfections of the Most High and renders
thanks for divine mercies (Ps. 104 : 1 ;
16 : 7). When man blesses his fellow-
man, the blessing implies good wishes
and hearty prayers (Ps. 129 : 8 ; Luke 6 :
28). The form of blessing prescribed by
the Jewish ritual (Num. 6 : 23-27) is ad-
mirably simple and sublime. It was pro-
nounced by the priest standing and with
uplifted hands. Our Lord, tlie High
Priest of his people, when ascending to
heaven from Olivet, " lifted up his hands
and blessed" his disciples (Luke 24 : 50).
Blind'ness, the privation of sight.
From many causes it was and is ex-
tremely common in the East. Our Lord
displayed his power in removing it. Un-
der the Jewish Law it was highly criminal
to annoy or mislead the blind ( Lev. 19:14;
Deut. 27 : 18). Spiritual blindness is the
want of discernment in spiritual things
(Matt. 15 : 14). The indulgence of im-
proper tempers is denominated blindness
(1 John 2 : 11). Those who are under
the power of Satan are blinded to the ex-
cellences of the gospel (2 Cor. 4:4). This
spiritual blindness is often sent on men in
the way of judgment from God (John 9 :
39; 12: 40).
Blood, the fluid of life in the animal
body [Ex. 29 : 11, 12\ and by figure the
life itself i^Lev. 17 : 11). Its use for food
was expressly forbidden to Noah (Gen. 9 :
4) when everything else was freely given
him, and was solemnly interdicted by the
Levitical Law (Lev. 17 : 10). It has in
Scripture many and varied applications.
Watering the land with blood (Ezek. 32 :
6) or pouring out fury in blood (Ezek. 14 :
19 j denotes great slaughter. To wash the
feet in blood (Ps. 58 : 10) expresses signal
triumph over enemies. To build a town
with blood (Hab. 2:12) imports the wicked
and murderous means through which it is
done. To stop the ears from hearing blood
(Isa. 33 : 15) is to reject proposals for taking
away life. These examples are sufficient
to show the method of interpreting other
similar expressions. The Jewish ritual
made large use of blood (Heb. 9 : 22) with
the design of prefiguring the atoning effi-
cacy of our Lord's self-sacrifice (Heb. 7 :
27). To our Lord's blood are ascribed
cleansing (1 John 1:7; Rev. 1:5), justi-
fication (Rom. 5 : 9), sanctification (Heb. 10:
29), redemption (Eph. 1:7; Col. 1 : 14), eter-
nal life (John 6 : 54).
Blood, Reveng-er of. Among na-
tions of patriarchal habits it was, and still
is, a common practice for the nearest of
kin, as a matter of duty, to avenge the
death of a murdered relative. The Ko-
ran allows murder to be compensated by
the payment of a price agreed on, but
among the Bedouin and other Arab tribes,
should the offer of blood-money be refused,
the law of blood-revenge comes into opera-
tion, and any person within the fifth degree
of blood from the manslayer may be legally
killed by any one within the same degree
of consanguinity to the victim. The right
to blood-revenge is never lost except as
annulled by compensation ; it descends
to the latest generation. The Mosaic
Law contains the following precise regu-
lations of the custom of blood-revenge,
the effect of which was to modify very
greatly the violence of passion and to
bring the whole matter of manslaughter
under the salutary control of public jus-
tice : 1. The willful murderer was to be
put to death without permission of com-
pensation. The nearest relative of the
deceased became the authorized avenger
of blood (Num. 35 : 19). 2. The law of
retaliation was not to extend beyond the
immediate offender (Deut. 24 : 16 ; 2 Kings
94
BOANEEGES— BOOK.
14 : 6 ; 2 Chron. 25 : 4 ; Jer. 31 : 30). 3.
The involiintiiry blood-shedder was per-
mitted to flee to one of six Levitical
cities specially appointed as cities of ref-
uge (Num. 35 : 11-28; Deut. 19 : 4-10).
Bo-a-ner'ges [t^ons of thunder}, a sur-
name given by our Lord to James and
John (Mark 3 : 17), probably on account
of their fervid, impetuous S2:)irit.
Boar. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in Ps. 80 : 13 is in every other pas-
sage rendered Swine (which see). In the
Syrian Boar.
wild state the boar is a very ferocious and
formidable animal. Its common haunt is
the depths of forest and jungle, but when
the grain is nearly ripe or when the grapes
are maturing it commits great ravages in
the fields and vineyards, ploughing over
the ground with its snout and breaking
the vines with its sharp tusks. To it are
aptly compared the powers that subverted
the Jewish nation.
Bo'az [in him is strength], a wealthy
Bethlehemite and kinsman of the first
husband of Ruth, whom he afterward
married (Ruth 2:1). By this marriage
he became one of the direct ancestors of
Christ (Matt. 1 : 5). His character ap-
pears to great advantage in the book of
Ruth.
BoAZ was also the name given to the left
hand one of the two brazen jjillars which
Solomon erected in the court of the tem-
ple (1 Kings 7 : 21).
Bo'chim[o/<Aei(;ee;3e?-s],thenamegiven
to a place where "an angel of the Lord"
reproved the assembled Israelites for their
disobedience in forming alliances with the
heathen. This caused profound grief and
weei^ing among the people, from which
circumstance the place took its name
( Judg. 2 : 4, 5). "An angel " is thought
L, to have the ordinary sense of " a mes-
senger," and he is supposed to have
been a prophet.
Body. In our Authorized Ver-
sion this word is the rendering of sev-
eral Hebrew words and of one Greek
word, all of which are employed to
designate the animal frame of man as
distinguished from his spiritual na-
ture (1 Sam. 31 : 12; Prov. 5 : 11 ;
Isa. 51 : 23 ; Matt. 6 : 22 ; 2 Cor. 5 :
8 ; James 2 : 26). At the resurrec-
tion the body is to be changed ( 1 Cor.
15 : 42, 51-53 ; Phil. 3 : 21 ). Tropi-
cally, the body, as something substan-
tial, is opposed to shadow, figure (Col.
2 : 17), and as an organized whole it is
used to image the Church of Christ (Rom.
12:5; 1 Cor. 10:17; Eph. 1 : 23 ; Col. 3 :
15).
Boll'ed (Ex. 9 : 31). When the flax
was in the pod, or nearly ready for gath-
ering, it was said to be boiled.
Book. In ancient times tablets of
metal, wood, stone and bark were used
for writing upon. The law from Sinai
was inscribed on stone. A tal)let was of-
ten coated over with a thin layer of wax,
to facilitate the operation of writing with
an iron style or pen. The thin bark of
the maple, ash, beech and other trees was
also used instead of paper. The word
book is supposed to be related to beech,
BOOTH— BOOTY.
95
because in the northern countries of Eu-
rope books were anciently made of the
bark or thin smooth slices of beech-
wood. The Latins used the word liber
Ancient Rolls.
in the double sense of inner bark, or
bast-fibre, and book. These barks, in-
stead of being made into leaves, were
united in a continuous sheet, and from
their being rolled up were called volii-
mev, whence our word volume. One of
the most ancient materials used for wri-
ting on was a slieet prepared from a reed
called the papyrufi, whence our name of
paper. At still later periods the skins of
animals and parchment were used. The
invention of paper made of linen only
Method of Unrolling Ancient Manuscripts.
dates back to a. d. 1300, but of cotton
to A. D. 1000 or 1100, and printing was
not introduced until the middle of the fif-
teenth century. When, therefore, we read
of books used in Scripture times, we are not
to suppose they were like the convenient
volumes now used, but either tablets fas-
tened together at the edges by rings,
through which a stick was passed for
convenience in carrying, or rolls of a
continuous sheet, which were unfolded
backward or forward until the place was
found which tlie reader wanted. The
Book of the Law which is read in the
Jewish synagogues at the present time is
written on such rolls. In some nations
writings took the form of pages laid to-
gether, but not bound.
A sealed book (Rev. 5 : 1-3) is a book
or roll whose contents are not made
known. A book of remembrance (Mai.
3 : 16) may allude to the custom of kings
in registering the services rendered to
them by individuals. The book of life
(Rev. 21 : 27) denotes the certainty of
the salvation of those who are redeemed
by Christ. To eat a book ( Jer. 15 : 16 ;
Rev. 10 : 9, 10) may refer to the careful
reading of it and digesting its contents.
The names of men are registered in the
books of judgment (Dan. 7 : 10 ; Rev. 20 :
12), and they are judged out of them ac-
cording to their deeds, whether good or
evil ; by which Ave are to understand that
God has a perfect remembrance of the
character and acts of all men, and
will judge them accordingly.
Booth, a hut made of green
boughs fixed on upright poles, and
thus distinguished from a tent, in
which the Israelites were directed
to celebrate the feast of tabernacles
(Lev. 23 : 40). This was done in
commemoration of their abode in
the wilderness.
Boo'ty. This word is used in our
Authorized Version to denote the cap-
tives of both sexes, the cattle and what-
ever a captured city might contain, espe-
cially metallic treasures (Num. 31 : 32).
Within the limits of Canaan no captives
96
BORROW— BOTTLE.
were to be made (Deut. 20 : 12-17) ; be-
yond these limits, in case of warlike re-
sistance, all the women and children were
to be made captives and the men put to
death. The law of booty is given in
Num. .31 : 26-47. As regarded the army,
David added a regulation that the baggage-
guard should share equally with the troops
engaged (1 Sam. 30: 24, 25).
Bor'row. The word translated bor-
row in Ex. 11:2 has the general sense
of ask, request, demand, and does not im-
ply any promise to return. The Hebrews
had rendered the Egyptians a long and se-
vere servitude, and on the eve of leaving
the country they demanded compensation,
which, in the panic, was promptly given.
They left behind them much real proper-
ty in the houses and lands they had occu-
pied.
Bos'om. It is usual with the West-
ern Asiatics to carry various sorts of
things in the bosom of their dress, which,
from its loose construction around the
neck, is both convenient and easy. In
allusion to this Christ is beautifully rep-
resented as carrying the lambs in his bos-
om (Isa. 40 : 11). To be pressed to the
bosom, to lie in the bosom, denotes inti-
macy, affection, security and confidence
(Gen. 16 : 5; John 1 : 18 ; 13: 23).
Boss'es, the projecting points on the
face of a buckler or shield (Job 15 : 26).
Botcll. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in our Authorized Version (Deut.
28 : 27, 35) is elsewhere rendered "boil"
(Ex. 9 : 9, 10), and has the sense of a cu-
taneous inflammatory eruption.
Bot'tle. It was and is still customary
among Eastern nations to convert the skins
of slaughtered animals into vessels for
holding wine or water. The skin being
stripped off without any incision in the
lower part, and properly dressed, it was
only necessary to tie up those parts
through which the legs passed, and leave
the neck open for the mouth of the vessel.
It is necessary to bear this in mind in in-
terpreting those scriptures which refer to
bottles. Thus, the Gibeonites, in pre-
tending to Joshua that they had traveled
a great distance, took among other things
" wine-bottles old and rent, and bound
up" (Josh. 9:4); these must necessarily
have been skin-bottles. Thus, too, ac-
cording to Matt. 9 : 17, men do not put
Skin-Bottle.
new and fermenting wine into old skin-
bottles, for fear of their bursting. A pas-
sage apparently contradictory to this is the
' word of Elihu (Job 32 : 19)," " My belly is
as wine which hath no vent ; it is ready to
burst like neio bottles." He may be sup-
posed to say that, although new wine is
not apt to burst new skins, yet it may
do even this when there is no vent and
the fermentation is powerful ; so witli me,
my impatience to utter the fullness of my
mind is so great that I am ready to burst.
In Ps. 119 : 83, David compares himself to
a bottle in the smoke. A skin-bottle hung
up and exposed to the smoke of an Arab
tent would become dingy and shriveled,
and so would properly represent the ap-
pearance of one who, by distress, had be-
come sadly altered. Bottles of earthen-
' ware are also spoken of (Jer. 19 : 1, 10).
Metaphorically, the clouds are called "the
bottles of heaven" (Job 38 : 37) and by a
beautiful figure the "tears" of suffering
BOW— BRACELET.
saints are represented as preserved in the
treasure-bottle of Jehovah (Ps. 56 : 8).
Bo\v". See Arms, Armor.
Bow, Rainbow, See Eainbow.
Bow'els ai-e often spoken of in the
Scriptures as the seat of certain emotions,
and as we speak of tlie heart. Thus " bow-
els of mercies" (Col. 3 : 12), "bowels of
compassion" (1 John 3 : 17). Sometimes,
also, the bowels are made the seat of wis-
dom and understanding (Job 38 : 3G ; Ps.
51 : 10; Isa. 16: 11).
Bowling. As an attitude indicative
of respect and reverence,- bowing was in
use from the earliest times (Gen. 23 : 7 ;
33 : 3 ; 43 : 28), and is still in use among
Three Postures in Buwiug.
the peoples of the East. The attitude is
more or less profound, in accordance with
the dignity and station of the person sa-
luted and the feeling of homage in the
person saluting. Before tlie great and
noble, Eastern people of to-day incline
themselves almost to the earth ; before
princes and kings, they prostrate them-
selves at full length upon the ground.
Similar were the customs of the ancient
Hebrews (Ex. 4:31; 1 Sam. 24:8; 1
Kings 1 : 53; 2 : 19). In addition to its
use as a gesture of courtesy, bowing is fre-
quently mentioned in Scripture as an act
of adoration to idols (Josh. 23 : 7 ; Judg.
7
2:19; 2 Kings 5: 18; Isa. 44:15, 17, 19;
46 : 6), and also to the supreme God (Josh.
5 : 14 ; Ps. 95 : 6 ; Mic. 6:0; Eph. 3 :
14).
Box Tree. This tree is mentioned
but twice in Scripture— in Isa. 41 : 19 and
60 : 13. The Hebrew name for it has the
sense of erednexs, tallness. Tlie Talmud-
ical and Jewish writers generally are of
opinion that the box tree is intended, but
the more probable opinion identifies it
with the i<herbin, a sjjecies of cedar.
Boz'rah [e?ic/os»re]. In most of the
passages in which this place is mentioned
it is referred to as a city of Edom, as in
Isa. 34 : 6 ; 63 : 1, but in Jer. 48 : 24 it is
represented as a city of Moab. This has
given rise to the question whether there
were not two places of the same name.
Some critics contend that but one place is
intended, and that the seeming reference
I to two places has been occasioned by that
1 change of mastere which war so often
[ brings about. The weight of opinion,
however, inclines to the existence of two
i
places bearing the same name — the one in
Edom, the modern el-Bnsaireh, a village
I of about fifty houses standing on a height
south-east of the Dead Sea and halfway
between the sea and Petra; the other, the
modern Busrah, in Hauran, the Buslra of
the Greeks and Eomans, situated in an
open plain some sixty miles south of
Damascus, and once, as evidenced to-day
by extensive ruins, a city of considerable
note.
Bracelet, an ornament for the wrist
worn by botli sexes, but particularly by
women (Gen. 24 : 30 ; 38 : 18). Similar
ornaments were worn on the arm above
the elbow and on the ankle. Layard says
of tlie Assyrian kings : " The arms were
encircled by armlets and the wrists by
bracelets." Representations of bracelets
worn by the Egyptians, and most likely
by the Hebrews, are found on tlie tombs
at Thebes.
98
BE A MBLE— BEE AD.
Bram^ble. This word is not the rep-
resentative of a trailing plant, but of a
thorny shrub. Such shrubs are abun-
dant in Palestine ( Judg. 9 : 14, 15 ; Luke
6 : 44). See Thokns and Thistles.
Branch. As trees in Scripture often
denote great men and princes, so branches,
boughs, sprouts, plants, denote their ofi-
spring. In conformity with this mode of
speaking, Christ, in respect of his human
nature, is styled " a rod out of the stem of
Jesse, and a branch out of his roots" (Isa.
11 : 1). He is styled also the Branch
in Zech. 3 : 8. As only a vigorous tree
can send forth vigorous branches, a branch
is used as a general symbol of prosperity
(Job 8 : 16). The rejection of the Jews is
compared to branches broken off (Rom.
11 : 17, 21). "Putting the branch to the
nose" was a ceremonial act in the wor-
ship of the ancient fire or sun-worshipers,
and is referred to by the prophet Ezekiel
(8:16,17).
Brass l_the shining or hai-d or s^ro??*/].
The Hebrew word rendered thus in
our English Bible is not brass, but
most generally copper, sometimes bronze,
a compound of copper and tin (Deut.
8:9; 33 : 25; Job 28 : 2). Copper
was known at a very early period
(Gen. 4 : 22), and bronze is frequently
found in ancient tombs. In figure
the word brass is used to symbolize
strength (Mic. 4 : 13), obstinacy (Isa.
48 : 4) and baseness (Jer. 6 : 28). The
"fine brass" of Eev. 1:15; 2:18 is
a brilliant compound, probably of gold
and silver, like the famous "Corinthian
brass."
Brav'e-ry, a term used in our Eng-
lish Vei-sion only in its early sense of
finery (Isa. 3 : 18).
Bra"Wl'er, a quarrelsome man (1 Tim.
3:3; Tit. 3: 2).
Bray, the peculiar cry of an ass (Job
6:5). It means also to beat to pieces in
a mortar (Prov. 27 : 22). Braying in a
mortar is a punishment still in use among
Oriental nations.
Bra'zen Ser'pent. See Serpent.
Bread. The tirst mention in the Scrip-
tures of the preparation of bread as an ar-
ticle of food is in Gen. 18 : 5, 6, where
Abraham, offering refreshment to the
three angels on the plain of Mamre,
proposes to "fetch a morsel of bread,"
and hastens into Sarah's tent to say to
her, as the mistress of his household,
" Make ready quickly three measures of
fine meal (wheaten flour), knead it, and
make cakes upon the hearth." The cakes
thus quickly made were obviously unleav-
ened, but the use of the word unleavened
in the account of Lot's entertainment of
two angels immediately succeeding the in-
terview with Abraham (Gen. 19 : 3) im-
plies that in those early times the two
great classes of bread, leavened and un-
leavened, were known and used. Tlie
best bread was made of wheat, which,
after being ground, produced the "flour"
or "meal" (Judg. 6 : 19; 1 Sam. 1 : 24;
1 Kings 4 : 22 ; 17 : 12, 14), and wlien
sifted the "fine flour" usually emj^loyed
in the sacred offerings (Ex. 29 : 40; Lev.
2:1; Ezek. 46 : 14) and in the meals of
the wealthy (1 Kings 4 : 22; 2 Kings 7 :
1 ; Ezek. 16 : 13, 19 T Rev. 18 : 13). The
process of making bread was as follows :
Tlie flour was first mixed with water, or
perhaps milk ; it was then kneaded with
the hands in a small wooden bowl or
"kneading-trough" until it became dough
(E.X. 12 : 34, 39; 2 Sam. 13 : 8; Jer. 7 :
18 ; Hos. 7 : 4). When the kneading was
completed, leaven was generally added,
but when the time for preparation was
short it was omitted, and unleavened
cakes, hastily baketl, were eaten, as is
still the prevalent custom among the Be-
douin. The leavened mass was allowed
to stand for some time (Matt. 13:33;
Luke 13 : 21). The dough was then di-
, vided into round cakes (Ex. 29 : 23;
BEEASTPLATE— BEICK.
99
Judg. 7 : 13; 8:5; 1 Sam. 10 : 3; Prov.
6 : 26), not unlike flat stones in shape and
appearance (Matt. 7 : 9), and these cakes
were baked in an oven heated with wood
(1 Kings 17 : 12; Isa. 44 : 15) or dried
grass and flower-stalks (Matt. 6 : 30).
Tlie cakes when eaten were broken, and
not cut with a knife. From this circum-
stance arose the familiar expression
" breaking of bread," signifying to take
a repast (Luke 24 : 35). Breaking of
bread also denotes the celebration of
the Lord's Supper (Acts 2 : 42). Bread
was baked in the ashes, on the hearth,
on metal plates and in ovens. The
Arabs, from scarcity of fuel, sometimes
bake their bread with fires made of cow-
dung (Ezek. 4 : 15), but oftener with the
dung of camels and asses. The "crack-
nels" mentioned in 1 Kings 14 : 3 were
a hard kind of biscuit.
Shew-Bread.
The SHE"W-BREAD, or bread of the pres-
ence, is described in Lev. 24 : 5-9. It was
presented every Sabbath day before the
Lord, the stale loaves being removed as
the fresh ones were laid on the table. It
was not lawful for any but the priests to
eat of it (Matt. 12 : 4).
Breast'plate, a term applied in our
English Version to two very different
pieces of equipment.
1. Sacerdotal. — This was a beautiful
part of the dress of the Jewish high priest,
covering his breast and composed of rich-
ly embroidered cloth, in which were set, in
four rows, twelve precious stones, whereon
were engraved the names of the twelve
tribes of Israel (Ex. 28 : 15-29 ; 39 : 8-
21). It was suspended to the neck by
Breastplate.
rich chains of gold. In wearing it the
high priest became, in a certain sense,
the representative of the tribes of Israel
in his holy ministrations, and Avas thus a
type of Christ, the great High Priest, who,
in his continual intercession for his people,
carries their names on his heart.
2. Military. — This was a piece of de-
fensive armor. See Arms, Armor.
Brick, a kind of artificial stone made
of baked clay. The art of brickmaking
dates from the earliest times (Gen. 11 : 3),
and was probably the invention of the an-
cient inhabitants of the alluvial plain of
Shinar. The bricks of Babylon were
commonly burned in kilns, but those of
Nineveh and Egypt, because made with
straw to prevent cracking, were univer-
i sally sun-dried. Most of the Babylonian
100
BEICK.
bricks now found bear the name inscribed
in cuneiform characters of Nebuchadnez-
whose buildings doubtless replaced
zar.
Egyptian Brickmaking.
those of an earlier age. A similar custom
of stamping bricks with the name of the
monarch in whose reign they were made
existed in Egypt, and Wilkinson states
that there have been discovered more
bricks bearing the name of Thothmes
III. (a Pharaoh who reigned a short
time before the Exodus) than of any
other period. Lately-discovered and re-
cently-deciphered monuments of the reign
of Thothmes III. furnish abundant illus-
trations of the hard bondage of the He-
brews in Egypt. Brickmaking, as the
work of prisoners and slaves, and as the
source whence came the material for the
building of temples and storehouses, is in
every stage of the work viv-
iilly pictured on walk. Some
of the unfortunate workers
carry water in jugs from
the tank hard by ; otliers
knead and cut up the loamy
earth; others, again, by the
help of a wooden form, make
the bricks or place them care-
fully in long rows to dry.
Overseers urge the workers
to complete their tasks ; one
of these overseers is repre-
sented as speaking to the
workers thus: "The stick
is in my hand ; be not idle."
The ancient Egyptians es-
teemed brickmaking an un-
healthy and exhausting em-
ployment, and accordingly
imposed it upon captives and
slaves. In common w i t h
other captives, the Israelites
in Egypt were forced to make
bricks (Ex. 1 : 14; 5:6-19),
and were so cruelly oppressed
that " their cry came up unto
God " (Ex. 2 : 23), and Moses
was sent to bring them out of
the house of bondage (Ex. 3 r
7-10). The Egyptian monu-
ments of the period contain many repre-
sentations of light-colored bondsmen en-
Brick stamped with Kanie of Thothmes III.
gaged in brickmaking, who, possibly, were
Hebrews, but who, if not Hebrews, resem-
BRIDE— BULL.
101
bled closely God's ancient people in servi-
tude and suflering.
As to the use of bricks by tlie Hebrews
in Palestine, tlie notices in Scripture are
very slight. The brick-kiln is referred
to in David's time (2 Sam. 12 : 31), and
Isaiah complains tliat the people built
altars of brick instead of unhewn stone,
as directed by the Law (Isa. 05 : 3 ; Ex.
20 : 25).
Bride, Bride'groora. See Mar-
riage.
Bribers. See Thorns and Thistles.
Brig'an-dine, a coat-of-mail (Jer.
46 : 4; 51 : 3). See Arms, Armor.
Brim'stone [bia-ning-stone^, the ohl
English designation of sulphur, a highly
inflammable mineral found in the neigh-
borhood of volcanoes, and one of the in-
gredients used in the manufacture of gun-
powder. With fire and brimstone God
destroyed the cities of Sodom and Go-
morrah (Gen. 19 : 24). It is used as a
symbol of desolation : " brimstone shall
be scattered upon his habitation" (Job
18:15; Deut. 29:23). In India they
still designate a barren and arid soil as
a place of brimstone. It is also used to
express great suflfering and pain (Ps. 11 :
6). It is descriptive, too, of the torments
of hell rRev. 21 : 8).
Bi'OOk, the rendering in our Author-
ized Version of four Hebrew words — the
first denoting a violent torrent sweeping
through a mountain-gorge (Ps. 42 : 1) ;
the second, an Egyptian word applied
to the Nile or to the canals by which
Egypt was watered (Isa. 19 : 6, 7, 8) ;
the third, occurring but once and sig-
nifying a "rivulet" or small stream of
water (2 Sam. 17 : 20) ; the fourth, a term
applied to the dry torrent-bed and ren-
dered "valley" (Num. 21 : 12 ; Judg. 16:
4), and to the torrent itself (1 Kings 17 :
3).
Brother. The Hebrew word thus
rendered in our Authorized Version is
used in various senses in the Old Testa-
ment: 1. Any kinsman, and not a mere
brother; for example, nephew (Gen. 14 :
16), husband (Song 4 : 9) ; 2. One of the
same tribe (2 Sam. 19 : 12, 13) ; 3. Of the
same people (Ex. 2 : 11), or even of a
cognate people (Num. 20 : 14) ; 4. An ally
(Amos 1 : 9) ; 5. Any friend (Job 6:15);
6. One of the same office (1 Kings 9:13);
7. A fellow-man (Lev. 19 : 17); 8. Meta-
phorically of any similarity, as in Job 30 :
29. The Greek word rendered "brother"
in the New Testament has a similar range
of meanings.
Bruit, an old word meaning a report
or rumor (Jer. 10 : 22; Nah. 3 : 19).
Buck'ler. See Arms, Armor.
Buffet, to beat, to harass (1 Cor. 4 :
11; 2 Cor. 12:7).
Build. This word, with its derivatives,
is used frequently in a figurative sense.
For example, the saints are built on Christ
as the true foundation (Col. 2:7; Eph. 2 :
20) ; the people of God are built on faith
(Jude 20) ; the apostles are called wise
master-builders (1 Cor. 3 : 10) ; to build
up the walls of Jerusalem is to give se-
curity and strength to the Church (Ps. 51 :
18). In its figurative use, therefore, it
denotes security, enlargement, successful
enterprise.
Bui [ products or /r«i<] , the eighth month
of the Jewish sacred year reckoning and
second of their civil, corresponding to our
October or November (1 Kings 6 : 38).
Bull, Bui 'lock. These terms, used
synonymously with " ox," " oxen," in our
Authorized Version, represent several He-
brew words which may be thus describ-
ed: 1. The most common word {bakar) is
properly a generic name for horned cattle
when of full age and fit for the plough. It
is rendered sometimes bullock (Isa. 65 : 25),
sometimes cow (Ezek. 4 : 15) and some-
times oxen (Gen. 12 : 16). 2. The next
most common word (slior) embodies the
idea of size, and is used interchange-
102
BULRUSH— BURI A L.
ably with hakar for domestic cattle in a
generic sense (Gen. 32 : 5, 7 ; Ex. 22 : 1 ;
1 Kings 1 : 9, 19). 3. Another word {par)
is extensively employed, especially in the
Syrian Bull.
directions for sacrifices, and appears to
mean specifically a young bull or one in
tlie prime of his vigor — a " bullock," but
not emasculated (Gen. 32:15; Ps. 22:
12). 4. Still another word (abbir^) has
the general sense strong, and describes
those ferocious, semi-wild bovine races
which roamed througli the forest-pastures
of Western Asia (Ps. 50 : 1 3 ; 68 : 30 ; Isa.
34 : 7 ; Jer. 50 : 11). 5. The word (to)
rendered " wild bull " in Isa. 51 : 20 is
rendered "wild ox" in Deut. 14 : 5, and
is supposed to liave been one of the larger
species of antelope, taking its name from
its siviftness. Tlie term " bulls " is figura-
tively used to denote ferocious and power-
ful enemies. David compares his enemies
to the bulls of Bashan, which, from being
full fed in their rich pastures, exhibited
great strengtli and ferocity (Ps. 22 : 12).
Bui 'rush, a species of reed growing
in tlie marshy places of the Nile — the
papyrun, out of the bark of which the
ancient paper was made. The little ark
in which Moses was exposed in the river
by his mother was made of tliis material
(Ex. 2 : 3). The bulrush grew to tlie
height of ten or twelve feet, and was eas-
ily bowed by the wind ; hence hanging
down the head in token of sorrow is
compared to the bending of the bul-
rush (Isa. 58 : 5). See Reed.
Bun'dle. Things bound together
constitute a bundle. Thus bundles of
tares represent the wicked gathered to-
gether to be cast into hell (Matt. 13 :
30). The soul bound up in the bundle
of life denotes its being secured and
preserved (1 Sam. 25 : 29).
Bur'den. The word in Hebrew
thus rendered means a lifting up ; that
is, of the voice. It is used in prophecy
to indicate the prediction of heavy judg-
ments ; thus the burden of Moab (Isa.
15 : 1), the burden of Dam;iscus (Isa.
17 : 1 ), the burden of Egypt (Isa. 19 :
1).
Bur'ial. In this article will be pre-
sented a lirief notice of the ancient treat-
ment of the dead.
1. When a person died, immediate
preparations were made for the burial,
which was hastened in consequence of
the heat of the climate. The eyes being
closed, the near relatives aflectionatcly
kissed the corpse. The ceremony of clo-
sing the eyes by a near kinsman is refer-
red to in Gen. 46 : 4 ; and in Gen. 50 : 1
we are told that when Jacob died "Jo-
seph fell upon his father's face, and wept
upon him and kissed him." The corpse
was then washed with water and laid in
an upper room (2 Kings 4 : 21 ; Acts 9 :
37). Then the body wa.s wrapped round
with many folds of linen, and the head
bound up in a separate napkin, as in the
case of Lazarus (.John 11 : 44). So also
in the burial of our Lord (John 20 : 6, 7).
2. Embalming the Body.— Among the
Egyptians the process of embalming the
dead was committed to a particular class
of persons, whose office was deemed sa-
BURIAL.
103
cred. The internal and soft parts of the
body were removed, and the cavities filled
^rith aromatic spices. Many folds of linen
were wrapped round the body, enveloping
it entirely, and were glued together with
a gum, over which rich perfumes were
spread. The body thus embalmed was
placed in a carved and painted mummy-
case or coffin. These preparations cor-
responded to the wealth of the deceased,
Mummy and Mummy-cases.
and they were often very costly. The body
of Jacob was thus embalmed in Kgypt
(Gen. 50 : 2, 3). The Hebrews, it would
seem, did not adopt this very difficult and
expensive mode of embalming, but a sim-
pler though less efficacious one. They
wrapped the body in spices, which would
retard the progress of decay. Thus, Nic-
odemus and Joseph of Arimathea brought
the most costly spices, with which in linen
clothes they wound up the body of Jesus
(John 19 : 38-40).
3. MOUKNING FOE, THE DeAD. — The
death of friends was attended with great
lamentation and wailing, as in the case
of the daughter of Jairus (Mark 5 : 38).
Grief was sometimes expressed by shaving
the head and plucking out the hair of the
head or beard ( P^zra 9:3; Job 1 : 20 ; Jer.
7 : 29), but cutting the flesh, a custom as-
sociated with idolatrous practices, was
strictly prohibited (Lev. 19 : 28). It was
' an abuse of this natural custom of ex-
pressing grief at the death of friends
! that hired mourners were employed to in-
crease the appearance of it (Jer. 9 : 17 ;
2 Chron. 35 : 25). A more sincere grief
was evidenced in rending the clothes and
sitting in sackcloth (Gen. 37 : 34). It does
not appear that any period was fixed for
the continuance of this mourning. The
mourning for Jacob was threescore and
ten days before he was carried to the
place of sepulture, and seven days in ad-
dition (Gen. 50 : 3, 10). That for Moses
and Aaron was each thirty days (Num.
20 : 29; Deut. 34 : 8). It was customary
also to go to the grave of a deceased
friend to mourn there, as in the case of
Mary weeping for her brother Lazarus
(John 11 : 31). See Mourning.
4. Carrying to the Grave. — The
dead body was not usually placed in a coffin,
although sometimes coffins were used, es-
pecially for the rich (Gen. 50 : 26), but,
enveloped in its grave-clothes, it was laid
on a bier or bed, and thus carried to the
grave. It would seem that Lazarus was
not enclosed in a coffin, for at the com-
mand of our Lord he came forth " bound
hand and foot with grave-clothes" (John
11 : 44). Thus, too, the son of the widow
of Nain at the command of Jesus sat up on
the bier (Luke 7 : 14, 15). The funeral
procession was composed of relatives and
friends. When the widow of Nain was
following her son to the tomb "much
people of the city were with her" (Luke
7 : 12).
5. Places of Burial. — The places of
sepulture among the Jews, with the excep-
tion of those for the royal family and per-
sons of distinction, were always beyond the
limits of cities. Affection for the dead
prompted the desire for family burying-
places. Abraham manifested this desire
in his treaty with the sons of Heth for
the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 23 : 20), and
3
o
H
a
BURIAL.
105
Jacob evinced tlie strength of tlie feeling
when lie charged his sons to bury him
with his fathers (Gen. 49 : 29-31). To be
Eolliiig away the Stoue.
left unburied was esteemed a great calam-
ity (Ps. 79 : 2, 3; Isa. 14 : 20). Various
were the situations selected for tombs.
Deborah was buried beneath an oak
(Gen. 35 : 8) ; Abraham and Sarah, Isaac
and Kebekah, Jacob and Leah, were buried
! in a cave (Gen. 49 : 31 ) ; Mana-sseh in his
own garden (2 Kings 21 : 18) ; our Lord in
I a tomb excavated from the solid rock ( Matt.
27 : 60). An ordinary rock-
hewn tomb was a cavern about
nine feet square, or nine feet
by twelve feet, from three
sides of which were recessed
longitudinally several shelf-
like vaults, each large enough
for a corpse. On the fourth
or front side the cavern was
approached through a small
open covered court or por-
tico, of a size to receive the
bier and bearers. The entry
from this court to the cavern
and vaults was closed by a
large round stone set in a
groove and capable of being
rolled. Many rock-hewn
tombs are still to be seen, in
Palestine, especially around
Jerusalem. Of the tombs in the neigh-
borhood of Jerusalem, the "Tombs of
the Kings" are quite celebrated, and in
their structure quite remarkable. They
are excavated out of the rock. The
traveler passes through a low arched
„.,.««
pIsK,
-^ z
r"c(i do
OPEK COURT
Plan of the tombs called "Tombs of the Kings."
doorway into a court ninety-two feet long i wide. The open front was supported by
by eighty-seven feet wide. On the western two columns in the middle. Along the
side is a vestibule or porch thirty-nine feet I front extend a deep frieze and cornice, the
106
BURNT-OFFERING— BUZ.
former richly ornamented. At the south-
ern side of the vestibule is the entrance to
the tomb. The first room is a mere ante-
chamber, eighteen and a half feet by nine-
teen feet. On the south side are two doors
leading to other chambers, and on the west,
one. These three chambers have re-
cesses running into the rock at right
angles and intended for bodies.
Sepulchres were sometimes distinguished
by a column. Thus, Jacob erected a pillar
over the grave of Rachel (Gen. 35 : 20).
It was a practice with the Jews to adorn
their tombs (Matt. 23 : 29), and sometimes
to whiten them (Matt. 23 : 27). This lat-
ter custom was intended, it is thought, to
warn persons coming to the feasts at Je-
rusalem not to contract ceremonial defile-
ment by too near approach to the dead.
Sepulchres were, as they still are in the
East, situated without the precincts of
cities.
Burnt -Offering. See Offering.
Bush.. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in our Autliorized Version occurs
only in those passages which refer to Je-
hovah's appearance to Moses " in the flame
of fire in the bush" (Ex. 3 : 2, 3, 4 ; Deut.
33 : 16). It has commonly been associated
with the thorny acacia of the Sinaitic pen-
insula, but it more properly designates a
brier or bramble.
Bushel (Matt. 5 : 15). The word so
translated here and in parallel passages
(Greek, modios) was a dry measure of
nearly one peck.
But'ler, an officer in the house of a
king or noble, who had tlie charge of
his entertainments, and who acted as
cup-bearer in furnishing the wine at
feasts (Gen. 40: 21).
But'ter. In most instances in which
butter is referred to in Scripture, curdled
milk of a cheesy consistence is to be un-
derstood (Gen. 18 : 8; Judg. 5 : 25; Job
20 : 17). Indeed, it may be doubted whether
it denotes butter in any place besides Deut.
32 : 14 and Prov. 30 : 33. All the otlier
texts will apply better to curdled milk
tlian to butter. And yet butter, in the
sense which we associate with the word,
was known to the Hebrews, as it is at
present known to the Arabs. Hassel-
quist describes thus the method which,
in making butter, tlie Arab women em-
ploy : " They made butter in a leather
bag, hung on three poles erected for the
purpose in the form of a cone, and drawn
to and fro by two women." The butter of
the Arabs, having the consistency of lard,
and of the same color, is usually rancid and
quite unpalatable to foreigners, but the na-
tives of the wilderness eat it in large quan-
tities and with relish. It is eaten witii
bread ; not spread out thinly over the
surface as with us, but taken in mass with
the separate morsels of bread. The but-
ter of the Hebrews was sometimes clari-
fied and preserved in skins or jars, as at
the present day in Asia, and when poured
out it resembled rich oil (Job 20 : 17).
Butter and honey were used together, and
were esteemed among the richest produc-
tions of the land (Isa. 7 : 15). The Arabs
of the present day account cream or new
butter mixed with honey a principal deli-
cacy.
Butter in abundance was an evidence of
prosperity. Thus, Job, in expressing the
abundance wliicli once was his, says, " I
waslied my steps with butter" (Job 29:6).
Buz lconlcmpt'\, the second son of Mil-
cah and Nahor (Gen. 22 : 21). Elihu
"the Buzite" (Job 32 : 2) was probably a
descendant of Buz. Judgments are de-
nounced upon the tribe of Buz by Jere-
miah (25 : 23), wlio, as he connects them
witli Dedan and Tenia, apparently locates
tlic tribe in Arabia Deserta. Some con-
nect the territory of Buz with the Roman
fort Biimn ; others with Basia in Arabia
Petrsea.
CAB— C^SAREA.
107
C.
Cab [holloivl, a measure for things dry,
mentioned in 2 Kings 6 : 25. Its capacity
is estimated to be nearly two quarts, English
measure.
Cab 'ins [cells']. The word thus ren-
dered in our English Version occurs in
Jer. 37 : 16, and refers to vaults or arched
apartments within a dungeon for the sepa-
rate confinement of prisoners. The idea
conveyed is that the prophet suffered
the most severe and loathsome imprison-
ment.
Ca'bul [displeasing, or as vanity], tlie
name which Hiram, king of Tyre, applied
to the district of twenty cities in Galilee
wliich Solomon had given him for services
rendered in erecting the temple, and with
whicli he wa.s dissatisfied (1 Kings 9 : 13).
Josephus locates tliis district in the north-
west part of Galilee, adjacent to Tyre.
Cae'sar, a name assumed Ijy or con-
ferred upon all the Roman emperors after
Julius Csesar. It thus became a sort of
title, like Pharaoh, and as such is usually
applied to the emperors in the New Tes-
tament as the sovereign of Judaea (John
19 : 15; Acts 17 : 7), without their dis-
tinctive proper names. To the emperor
tlie Jews paid tribute (Matt. 22 : 17 ;
Luke 20 : 22) ; to him such Jews as were
Roman citizens had the right of appeal
(Acts 25 : 11 ; 26 : 32; 28 : 19), in which
case, if their cause was a criminal one,
they were sent to Rome (Acts 25 : 12, 21),
wliere was the emperor's court. The Cae-
sars mentioned or alluded to in tlie New
Testament are Augustus (Luke 2:1), Ti-
berius (Luke 3:1; 20 : 22), Claudius (Acts
11 : 28), Nero (Acts 25 : 8). Caligula, the
successor of Tiberius, is not at all referred to.
^ f ,*««
RegioQ about Csesarea Philippi.
Cses-a-re'a, the name of two cele-
brated cities in Palestine.
1. C^sAREA Philippi, a city at the
source of tlie Jordan. Its first name was
108
CAGE.
Paneas, from the worship of the heathen
god Pan. It was greatly beautified by
Herod the Great, who built a temple to
Augustus. Later, it was enlarged and
embellished by Philip the tetrarcli, who
gave it the name of Oesarea, in honor
of the emperor Tiberius Caesar, adding
Philippi to distinguish it from Csesarea
on the Mediterranean. Later still, Agrip-
pa II. made some extensive improvements
and called it Neronian, in honor of the em-
peror Nero. But tlie oldest name survived
and still survives in the modern Bcmiax.
Its site, on an elevated plain, where one
of the sources of the Jordan gushes in a
profuse spring from the foot of a rocky
hillock, witli the snowy crown of Her-
mon towering seven thousand feet above
it, is singularly beautiful and attractive.
Its distance from Jerusalem is about one
hundred and twenty miles. It was ap-
parently the extreme northern limit of
our Lord's travels (Matt. IG: 13; Mark
8: 27).
2. C^SAREA, a city on the Mediterra-
nean, about thirty miles south-west of
Acre and fifty-five north-west from Jeru-
salem. It was built by Herod the Great,
Euins of Csesarea Palestina.
who during ten years spared no expense
to make it a city of equal splendor and
strength. In the reigns of Herod the
Great and Herod Agrippa it was the
capital of Judsa; under the government
of Rome it was the residence of the Ro-
man, procurator. Now it is, as for gener-
ations it has been, a desolation. Its ex-
tensive ruins bear the modern Arabic
name Kaisariyeh, but their only inhabit-
ants are wild beasts and reptiles. In the
Acts of the Apostles, Csesarea is very
frequently alluded to. It was the resi-
dence of Philip the Evangelist (Acts 8 :
40; 21 : 8, 16) and of Cornelius (10 : 1,
24; 11 : 11). It was the scene of Herod
Agrippa's death (12 : 19). It was. visited
by Paul (9:30; 18:22) and by Peter
(10 : 24). It was especially the scene
where, before Felix, Paul reasoned of
righteousness, temperance and judgment
to come, and where, subsequently, in the
presence of Festus the procurator and
Agrippa the king, Paul made his noble
defence (Acts 24 and 25).
Cage. The Hebrew term thus ren-
CAIAPHAS— CALEB.
109
dered in Jer. 5 : 27 is more properly a
trap in which decoy-birds were placed.
In Eev. 18 : 2 the Greek term tlms ren-
dered means a prison.
Cai'a-phas Idepression'], called by
Josephus Joseph Caiaphas, was high priest
of the Jews in the reign of Tiberius Cae-
sar, at the beginning of our Lord's pub-
lic ministry (Luke 3 : 2), and also at the
time of his condemnation and crucifixion
(Matt. 26 : 3, 57; John 11 : 49; 18 : 13,
1-4, 24, 28 ; Acts 4 : 6). He was son-in-
law of Annas, who had formerly been
high priest, and who, after his deposi-
tion from the office, possessed great influ-
ence and control in sacerdotal matters.
Two years after our Lord's crucifixion
Caiaphas himself was deposed from the
high priesthood.
Cain [_ possession'], tlie first-born child
of Adam and Eve, the first-born child of
the human race, the first murderer and
the first fratricide. Tlie historical focts
in his life are recorded in Gen. 4, and are
briefly these : He followed the business
of agriculture ; in a fit of jealousy, roused
by the rejection of Ids own sacrifice and
the acceptance of Abel's, he committed the
crime of murder, for which lie was expel-
led " from the presence of the Lord " and
" from the foce of the eai'th," and made " a
fugitive and a vagabond ;" he settled in
the land of Nod, on the east of Eden, and
built a city which he named after his son
Enoch ; his descendants are enumerated,
together with the inventions for which
they were remarkable. To Cain occa-
sional references are made in the New
Testament (Heb. 11 : 4 ; 1 John 3:12; Jude
11). All the Scripture accounts agree in
representing him as proud, petulant, mo-
rose, malicious, revengeful, wicked. See
Abel.
Cai'nan [possessor or smith'], the fourth
antediluvian patriarch, eldest son of Enos.
He died at the age of nine hundred and ten
(Gen. 5 : 9-14). The name occurs again
in Luke 3 : 36 as the son of Arphaxad and
grandson of Shem. As, however, it is not
found in the Hebrew text, but only in the
Septuagint, it is commonly accounted an
unreliable addition to our Lord's geneal-
ogy.
Oa^lah [strength or toughness], one of the
most ancient cities of Assyria (Gen. 10 : 11),
twenty miles south of Nineveh. Rawlinson
regards the site as marked by the Nimrud
ruins, and the city itself as at one time the
capital of the empire.
Cal'a-raus (thus called in Song 4 :
14 and Ezek. 27 : 19; Sweet Calamus
in Ex. 30 : 23 ; Sweet Cane in Isa. 43 :
24; Jer. 6 : 20), a i)lant which is thought
to be identical with the Acorus calamus of
Linnaeus, which has a rush-like stem, and
which, when bruised, is exceedingly fra-
grant. It grows in moist places in Egypt
and Judaea. It was an article of Syrian
commerce and an ingredient in the rich-
est perfumes.
Cal'dron, a vessel for boiling flesh,
either for ceremonial or domestic use
(Job 41:20; 1 Sam. 2:14; 2 Chron.
35: 13; Mic. 3: 3).
Ca'leb, the son of Jephunneh, of the
tribe of Judah (Num. 13 : 6). He was
commissioned by Moses, in company with
Joshua and ten others, to explore the
Promised Land, and to report what they
should see. On their return Caleb and
Joshua gave a most favorable report of
the land, but the other ten gave such a
discouraging account of the difficulties
which would have to be surmounted be-
fore the land could be possessed that the
people rebelled against Moses and deter-
mined to proceed no farther. For this in-
excusable unbelief God signally punished
them by decreeing that none over twenty
years of age should enter into the Prom-
ised Land, and that their whole genera-
tion should die in tlie wilderness except
Caleb and Joshua (Num. 13, 14). Forty-
five years afterward Caleb came to Joshua
110
CALF— CALVARY.
and claimed as his portion the land of the
Anakim or the hill-country around He-
bron (Josh. 14 : 6-15). His claim was im-
mediately granted, and was quickly made
good by the expulsion of the ancient
owners.
Calf. Tlie calf was an object of idol-
atrous worship among the Egyptians, and
with this worship the Hebrews whom
Moses led from Egypt must have been fa-
The Egyptian Apis.
miliar. In Ex. 32 : 4 we are told that Aa-
ron, constrained by the people in the ab-
sence of Moses, made a molten calf to rep-
resent the gods which brought Israel out of
Egypt. This calf was perhaps a wooden
figure plated with gold, a process which is
known to have existed in Egypt. To pun-
ish the apostasy, Moses burnt the calf, and
then grinding it to powder scattered it over
the water, which he made the people drink.
Of the three kinds of sacred bulls worshiped
in Egypt, Apis, Basis and Mnevis, Sir G.
Wilkinson fixes on the latter, the repre-
sentative of the sun, as the prototype of
the golden calf. This figure of Mnevis
was subsequently set up by Jeroboam,
the first king of the divided kingdom of
Israel, at Dan and at Bethel. The calf at
Dan was carried away by Tiglath-pileser,
and that at Bethel ten years after by his
son, Shalmaneser.
As calves were prominent among the
animals offered in sacrifice, by a bold
figure of speech " the calves of our lips "
denoted the offering of praise and thanks-
giving (IIos. 14 : 2).
Call, Calling-. The Hebrew and Greek
words thus rendered in our Authorized Ver-
sion contain the same root as their English
equivalents, and are used in the following
senses: 1. To give a name (Gen. 1:5; 2 :
19 ; Luke 1 : 13, 31) ; 2. To cry to another
for help, hence to pray (Gen. 4 : 26 ; Acts
2 : 21 ) ; 3. To speak to any one in order
that he may come or go anywhere (Judg.
16 : 25; Mark 1 : 20) ; 4. To send for (1
Sam. 16 : 3; Matt. 2:7); 5. To summon
authoritatively (Isa. 48 : 13 ; Eom. 4:17);
6. To invite (Prov. 1 : 24; Kev. 19 : 9) ;
7. To appoint (Isa. 51:2; Heb. 5 : 4). The
most important sense of the words is that
Avhich expresses God's call in the gospel
to the souls whom he chooses to become
the heirs of salvation. This call or call-
ing is according to God's purpose (Rom.
8 : 28-30; 2 Tim. 1 : 9), is sovereign (1
Cor. 1 : 26-28), is high and heavenly (Phil.
3 : 14; Heb. 3 : 1), is holy (2 Pet. 1 : 3),
and is certain to issue in eternal life (Rom.
11 : 29; 1 Tim. 6 : 12).
CaPneh [stronghold of Anu], a city built
by Nimrod in the land of Shinar or Bab-
ylonia (Gen. 10 : 10). It is probably the
same witli Calno (Isa. 10 : 9) and Canneh
(Ezek. 27 : 23). Its site is supposed to
have been on tlie left bank of the Eu-
phrates, sixty miles south-east of Baby-
lon. It is considered to be identical with
tlie modern ^'iffer, where extensive ruins
exist.
Cal'va-ry [a hare sk'iU], the place
where our Lord was crucified (Luke 23 :
33). Its name is the Latip equivalent of the
Hebrew Gnlr/oiha. It was so named either
because it was the place of public execu-
tion, or because it was a bare round spot
resembling a skull in shape. Its locality
is much disputed, and perhaps will never
be determined. Since it was outside the
city gate (Matt. 27 : 32 ; Heb. 13:12),
CAMEL.
Ill
yet near the city (John 19 : 20), near a
public road (Mark 15 : 21 ; Luke 23 : 26),
and near Joseph's garden (John 19 : 41),
the topographical evidence against the
identification of its site with that of the
modern Church of the Holy Sepulchre
is apparently very strong. The whole
question, so far as the Cluirch of the Holy
Sepulchre is concerned, turns upon the pre-
cise location of the city-walls at the time
our Lord was crucified. If at that time
the site of the church were inside the city-
walls, as it is to-day and has been for gen-
erations, then it could not have been the
spot of tlie crucifixion. But were we cer-
tain tliat the site of the church was not
the site of the crucifixion, we should still
be unable to determine the actual site.
Arguments more or less plausible for
three other sites are pressed by their
respective advocates : for a promontory of
land projecting south-eastwardly into the
Kidron Valley, a short distance above
Gethsemane ; for a locality on the north of
Jerusalem, not far from the Damascus gate,
above the Grotto of Jeremiah ; and for a
spot on Mount Moriah. Careful observa-
tions of the rock-levels of Jerusalem and
military considerations bearing on the lo-
cation of the ancient second wall of the
city seem to justify the conclusion that
the site of the Church of the Holy Sep-
ulchre is not, and could not have been,
Calvary. The real site of Calvary will,
perhaps, never be identified, but of the
four sites named we incline to the one
above the Grotto of Jeremiah, wliich is
a rounded knoll with a precipice on its
south side ; it was the ancient place of
execution, and is still denominated "the
Place of Stoning."
Cam'el. The Hebrew term gamal
is almost the same in pronunciation
with the English word camel, and, ac-
cording to Gesenius, has the sense of car-
rier. Of the animal there are two spe-
cies— the Bactrian camel, which has two
humps or protuberances on its back, and
the Arabian camel or dromedary, which
has a single hump. Of tliis latter species
there are two races : the one of very strong
frame and slow pace, used chiefly for car-
rying burdens ; the other of lighter form
and much fleeter, used for tlie saddle with
single riders. Their adaptation for desert
life is striking evidence of the wisdom of
Providence. Without them there could
be no traveling or commerce across those
The Camel.
extended and arid plains, and hence they
have been apjiropriately styled " the ships
of the desert." They are endowed with
strength and docility to fit them for the
service of man. Their structure too, es-
pecially the conformation of the cushioned
foot, enables them to travel through the
sands with facility ; but in a more especial
manner the ease with which they are sus-
tained adapts them for the particular ser-
vice to which they are called. A pound
of dates or barley will suffice one for twen-
ty-four hours, together with the thistles and
thorny plants it may snatch up, without
stopping, while traveling ; and for four
or five days together it will endure fa-
tigue and heat witliout drinking. From
Gen. 12 : 16 it is evident that camels were
early known to the Egyptians, though no
representation of the animal has yet been
discovered in the paintings or hieroglyph-
ics. The Ethiopians had "camels in
112
CAMELEON— CAMPHIRE.
abundance" (2 Chron. 14 : 15). The
queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem " with
camels that ))are spices and gold and pre-
cious stones" (1 Kings 10 : 2). The men
of Kedar and of Hazor possessed
camels (Jer. 49 : 29, 32). David
took away the camels from the
Geshurites and Amalekitcs (1
Sam. 27 : 9; 30 : 17). Job had
three thousand camels before his
affliction, and six thousand after-
ward (Job 1:3; 42: 12). All
the Scripture notices of camels,
indeed, imply that the animal was an im-
portant element of tlie wealth of individ-
ual men and of powerful nations.
The camel has a fine hair, which is
•wrought into beautiful and costly fabrics.
Its coarse hair is also woven into gar-
ments, which are worn by men whose em-
ployments expose tliem to rough and
changeful weather. The raiment of John
the Baptist (Matt. 3 : 4) was of this coarse
kind, for it is put in opposition to soft rai-
ment (Matt. 11:8; Luke 7 : 25).
The expression in Matt. 19 : 24, of a
camel passing through the eye of a nee-
dle, is a proverbial one, denoting .an im-
possibility. That also in Matt. 23 : 24, of
straining at, or out, a gnat and swallowing
a camel, is of similar import, since it
shows the glaring inconsistency of one
who, particular about a trifle, is yet not
particular about a matter of real moment ;
who scrupulously strains out of the wine
the small unclean gnat, but takes no pains
to strain out the huge unclean camel ; who
is strictly legal in little things, and shock-
ingly lawless in great things.
Ca-me'le-on or Cha-me'le-on, a
species of lizard of very singular con-
struction and appearance, reckoned in
the Levitical Law among unclean ani-
mals (Lev. 11 : 30). Its tail is long
and prehensile, and, being wound round
the branches of trees, assists the ani-
on insects, wliich it catches on a
long tongue covered with a glutinous
substance. It has the curious property
of changing its color, which is supposed
mal in
retammg
its hold. It feeds
The Cameleon.
to result, not from the color of the object
on wliich tlie animal rests, as is common-
ly believed, but from the respiratory or-
gans acting upon a transparent skin and
on the blood of the animal.
Camp, an encampment, whether of
troops or nomads, especially of the Is-
raelites in the desert (Ex. 16 : 13) ; hence
also put for troops or a company itself. Of
the Jewish system of encampment the Mo-
saic books contain a detailed description.
From the period of the sojourn in the
wilderness to the crossing of the Jordan
the twelve tribes were formed into four
great armies, wliich encamped in as many
fronts, facing tlie cardinal points and form-
ing a square, with a great space in the rear,
wliere was placed the tabernacle of the
Lord surrounded by the tribe of Levi
and the bodies of carriers, by the stalls
of the cattle and the baggage. During
this time it does not appear that Israel
ever had lines of defence thrown up ; but
in after ages, when only single armies came
into the field, it is probable that the castral
disposition was not invariably quadrangu-
lar, and that the fronts were adajjted to the
character of the ground and to the space
necessary to be occupied. Tlie rear of
such positions was enclosed with a line
of carts or chariots, Avliich, from the re-
motest period, was a practice among all
the nomad nations of the North.
Cam'phire, mentioned in Solomon's
CANA OF GALILEE— CANAAN.
113
Song 1 : 14 and 4:13, is not the gum
camphor of the apothecary, but the cy-
press plant, the Laivsonia alba of botanists
and the henna of Arabian naturalists. It
grows in Egypt, Syria, Arabia and North
India, and is fi-om four to six feet high.
It resembles the myrtle, has small and
beautiful white flowers of a very fragrant
odor and hanging in clusters. Oriental
ladies are not only partial to the flower
for its perfume, but of the dried leaves
ground to powder they make a paste with
which they dye the nails of their fingers
and toes of an orange-brown color.
Ca'na of Galilee [once in Gali-
lee], the native place of Nathanael (John
21 : 2) and the scene of two of our Lord's
miracles — that of converting water into
wine (John 2 : 1-11), and that of curing
with a word the nobleman's son who was
sick at Capernaum (John 4 : 46-54). Tra-
dition locates the site at the modern village
of Kefr Kenna, about four English miles
north-east of Nazareth, and on the way
from Nazareth to the Sea of Galilee.
Dr. Robinson preferred the now deserted
village of KaiKi-el-Jelil, about eight miles
north-east of Nazareth. The Scripture text
does not afford facts by which the claims
of either can be decisively maintained.
Ca'naan [lowlandl, the fourth son of
Ham and grandson of Noah (Gen. 10 :
6; 1 Chron. 1 : 8). He was connected in
some unknown way with the transgression
of his father (Gen. 9 : 22-27), and brought
upon his descendants that doom which
Noah predicted, and which in after ages
was literally and most arrestingly fulfilled.
His posterity was numerous. His eldest
son, Zidon, founded the city of that name,
and his ten other sons were the fathers of
as many tribes dwelling in Palestine and
Syria (Gen. 10 : 15-19; 1 Chron. 1 : 13).
It is believed that Canaan lived and died
in Palestine, which from him was called
"the land of Canaan."
Ca'naan, Land of [low land], orig-
8
inally peopled by the descendants of Ca-
naan, but subsequently conquered and
possessed by the descendants of Abraham.
It received its name from its first settler,
whose eleven sons became the heads of
separate and numerous tribes (Gen. 10 :
15-18). The land of Canaan is desig-
nated in Scripture by various other names :
1. The land of Israel (1 Sam. 13 : 19), be-
cause of the name given by Jehovah to
•Jacob. 2. The /and of promise (Heb. 11 :
9), because it was promised to Abraham
and his posterity. 3. The land of the He-
brews (Gen. 40 : 15), because Heber was
an ancestor of Abraham. 4. The holy land
(Zech. 2 : 12), because it was the residence
of God's chosen people. 5. Palestine (Ex.
15 : 14), the Greek mode of writing Phi-
listia, the land of the Philistines. At pres-
ent this and the Holy Land are the most
common designations. 6. The land of Ju-
dah or Judcea (2 Chron. 9 : 11). 7. Iin-
manuel's land (Isa. 8 : 8).
The precise extent of the country inhab-
ited by the Israelites is not easily deter-
mined, in consequence of the variation
of the boundaries at different periods of
their history. These, however, were its
general boimdaries: the Mediterranean
Sea on the west; the mountains of Leb-
anon and Syria on the north ; Arabia De-
serta, land of the Ammonites and Dead
Sea on the east ; and the Desert of Sin (fn
the south. From the names of the two
cities on the extreme north and south,
Dan and Beersheba, it was customary to
express the length of the country by the
phrase, "from Dan even to Beersheba"
(Judg. 20:1; 1 Sam. 3:20; 2 Chron.
30 : 5). This was about one hundred and
eighty miles, while the width was about
sixty miles.
.Toshua divided the land, when he took
possession of it, among the twelve tribes.
Solomon divided it into twelve convenient
districts (1 Kings 4 : 7-19) ; and on the ac-
cession of King Rehoboam and the revolt
114
CANAANITE, THE— CANDLESTICK.
of ten tribes it was divided into two king-
doms, that of Juclnh, embracing the tribes
of Judah and Benjamin, and that of Israel,
embracing the other ten tribes. At subse-
(juent periods it was conquered by the Bab-
ylonians, the Syrians and the Romans. At
the time of our Lord's birth it was divided
into five Roman provinces — Galilee, Sa-
maria, Judaea, Peraea and Idumaea. Subse-
quently, the whole land was frequently re-
ferred to as " the land of Judaea."
The face of the country is beautifully
diversified with mountains, plains, valleys
and rivers. The chief mountains are Leb-
anon, Carmel, Tabor, Hermon, Ebal, Geri-
zim, Gilboa, Olivet ; the principal streams,
Jordan, Arnon, Kishon, Jabbok. Its lakes
are the Dead Sea, the Lake of Tiberias or
Sea of Galilee, and Lake Merom.
While some portions of the country are
barren, the larger part is susceptible of a
high degree of cultivation. As it once sup-
ported a large population, and had within
its limits numerous towns and cities, it must
have been extremely fertile, justifying its
ancient description as a land flowing with
milk and honey. Its present condition,
under the withering curse of God and the
grinding despotism of Turkey, is truly de-
plorable. Tlie traveler is only occasion-
ally reminded of what the land once was.
Ca'naan-ite, The, tlie designation
i}i the apostle Simon, otherwise known as
" Simon Zelotes." The word does not sig-
nify a descendant of Canaan, as from its
form it might be understood. It occurs in
Matt. 10 : 4; Mark 3 : 18, and is derived
from a Chaldee or Syriac word by which
the Jewish sect or faction of " the Zealots "
was designated. The Greek equivalent to
the word rendered Canaanite is zelotes ( Luke
6: 15; Acts 1 : 13).
Ca'naan-ites, The, a word used in
two senses, for a tribe and for the non-Is-
raelite inhabitants of the land of Canaan.
1. As the name of a tribe the Canaaii-
ites were the dwellers in the lowland.
The whole of the country west of Jordan
was a " low land " as compared with the
loftier and more extended tracts on the
east, but there was a part of this western
country which was still more emphatically
a " low land." It was " by the sea and by
the side of Jordan" (Num. 13 : 29). In
Gen. 10 : 18-20 the seats of the Canaanite
tribe are given as on the sea-shore and in
the Jordan Valley.
2. As the general name of the non-
Israelite inhabitants of the land of Ca-
naan the Canaanites were the " seven na-
tions greater and mightier than" Israel,
whom the Lord delivered into Israel's
hands. Of these seven nations, the tribe
of " the Canaanites " is one, and the other
six are " the Hittites, and the Girgashites,
and the Amorites, and the Perizzites, and
the Hivites, and the Jebusites" (Deut. 7 :
1). The Canaanites, especially those along
the sea-shore, were largely engaged in com-
merce, and their name in later times became
an occasional synonym for a merchant ( Job
41 : 6; Prov. 31 : 24).
1 Can'da-ce, a queen of Ethiopia, or
that region in Upper Nubia which was
called by the Greeks Meroe. She is men-
tioned in Acts 8 : 27. Candace is not a
proper name, but the name of a dynasty
of Ethiopian queens.
Can'dle. In our Authorized Version
I this word represents a word in Hebrew
and also a word in Greek, which would
have been more accurately represented, as
indeed it is frequently rendered, by the
wonl Lamp or Light (see Lamp). It is
largely used in Scripture in a metaphor-
ical sense: as an image of consrience (Prov.
20 : 27 1, of prosperity (Job 18 : 6 ; 21 : 17 ;
29 : 3 ; Ps. 18 : 28 ; Jer. 25 : 10 ; Rev. 18 :
23), of a godly example (Matt. 5 : 15; Mark
4 : 21 ; Luke 8 : 16 ; 11 : 33), of God's om-
niscience (Zeph. 1 : 12), of heaven's splen-
dor (Rev. 22 : 5).
Can'dle-stick, the splendid cande-
labrum which Moses was commanded to
CANE— CAPERNAUM.
115
make for the tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 31-37;
37 : 17-24). With its various appurte-
nances it required a talent of "pure
gold," and it was not moulded, but "of
beaten work." It consisted of a shaft or
The Golden Candlestick.
stem supposed to have been five feet high,
with six branches. The branches came
out from the shaft at three points, two at
each point, and the width of the whole
candlestick across the top was about three
and a half feet. It was richly adorned
with raised work representing flowers,
with knops or knobs, and with little
bowls resembling half an almond shell.
At the extremity of each branch there
was a socket for the lamp, and also at
the top of the main shaft, making in
all seven sockets and lamps (Rev. 1:12,
13, 20). It was placed on the south side
of the first apartment of the tabernacle,
opposite the table of shew-bread (Ex. 25 :
37), and was lighted every evening and
dressed every morning (Ex. 27 : 20, 21 ;
30 : 8). Each lamp was supplied with
cotton and about four ounces of the pTirest
olive oil, which was sufficient to keep it
burning during a long night. In Solo-
mon's temple, instead of this candlestick,
there were ten golden candlesticks simi-
larly embossed, five on the right and five
on the left ( 1 Kings 7 : 49 ; 2 Chron. 4 : 7j.
Cane. See Calamus, Reed.
Cank'er-worra. See Locust.
Can'neh, another form of Calxeh
(which see).
Tell Hum — Capernaum.
Ca-per'na-um \y\Uage of Nahum, or I Gennesaret (comp. Matt. 14 : 34 with John
of comfort^, a city in or near the district of I 6 : 17, 21, 24), on the north-western shore of
116
CAPHTOR— CAPTA IN.
the Sea of Galilee and on the borders of the
tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali. In our
Lord's times it was a populous and prospe-
rous place. It lay on the great tlioroughfare
between Damascus and the Mediterranean,
and was the centre of a flourishing local
trade. It had a synagogue, built by the
centurion who in our Lord's times com-
manded the detachment of Roman sol-
diers there quartered (Matt. 8 : 5-9 ; Luke
7 : 1-8) ; it had also a customs station,
where the dues were gathered both by
stationary (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14; Luke
5 : 27) and by itinerant (Matt. 17 : 24) of-
ficers. Here during his public ministry
our Lord chiefly dwelt (Matt. 4 : 13), here
he performed some of his most wonderful
miracles (Matt. 8 : 5, 14 ; 9:1; Mark 1 :
33 ; Luke 4 : 33 ; John 4 : 46-54), and
here he uttered some of his most mem-
orable discourses (John 6 : 59). Its in-
habitants, disbelieving our Lord's words
and works, were terribly denounced (Matt.
11 : 23; Luke 10 : 15). The prophetic
doom of the once-fovored city has been
so literally fulfilled that the spot where
Capernaum stood is matter of controversy.
Two localities, Khan Minyeh and Tell Hum,
lay claim to its site, and each has a long
array of advocates. Khan Minyeh, with its
ruined Saracenic khan or caravanserai, is
situated close upon the sea-shore at the
north-eastern extremity of the plain of
Gennesaret. Tell Hum is a larger site,
some three miles north of Khan Minyeh,
where ruins of houses, walls and founda-
tions cover a space of half a mile long by
a quarter wide on a point of the shore pro-
jecting into the lake and backed by a very
gently rising ground. Conspicuous among
the ruins are the fragments of a noble syn-
agogue, which many scholars hold to be
the one which echoed the words of our
Lord. Happily, it is not of importance
that this question be settled.
Caph'tor \^Phomicinn'\, the original
seat of the Philistines, whence they came
to the land of Canaan (Deut. 2 : 23 ; Jer.
47 : 4 ; Amos 9:7). As to the locality
indicated by the word Caphtor, opinions
greatly vary. Cappadocia, the island of
Cyprus, the island of Crete, the Egyptian
Delta and Upper Egypt have their advo-
cates, but the weight of evidence connects
Caphtor with the Phoenician colonies on
the Delta and the islands and coasts of
the Mediterranean.
Caph'to-rim. See Nations, under
MiZRAIM.
Cap-pa-do'cia, an ancient and the
easternmost province of Asia Minor,
bounded on the north by Pontus, on the
east by the Euphrates and Armenia Mi-
nor, on the south by Mount Taurus (beyond
which are Cilicia and Syria), on the west
by Phrygia and Galatia. The country is
mountainous and abounds in water, and
was celebrated for its production of wheat,
for its fine pastures and for its excellent
horses, asses and sheep. In Cappadocia,
Christianity was very early propagated, for
the apostle Peter names it in addressing the
Christian churches in Asia Minor ( 1 Pet.
1:1). Cappadocians were present at Je-
rusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2 :
9), were converted to the faith of Christ,
and were the agents, doubtless, through
whom the knowledge of the truth was
extended over the province.
Cap'tain. This word represents in
our Authorized Version several Hebrew
and Greek words of variant shades of
meaning, but the root-idea of them all
may, with sufficient accuracy, be regarded
as that of one at the head, whether such
one be a prince, a judge, a leader of an
army, a leader of a military company or
a leader of a civil guard. In Gen. 21 :
22 ; Job 39 : 25; Acts 28 : 16 ; Rev. 19 :
18, and in many other passages, the word
captain designates a military officer; in
Luke 22 : 4 ; Acts 4:1; 5 : 24, a civil of-
ficer. The "captain of the temple" su-
perintended the guard of priests and Le-
C APTI VITY— CAKBUNCLE.
117
vites who kept watch by night in the tem-
ple. The office appears to have existed
from an early date (2 Kings 12 : 9). In
Heb. 2 : 10 our Lord is designated " the
Captain" of his people's salvation, be-
cause he is the Head of the Church and
the Leader of the sacramental host to the
blessedness and glory of heaven.
Cap-tiv'i-ty, that state of bondage
to which, as the result of war, an individ-
ual or a nation is reduced. In ancient
warfare the inhabitants of a conquered
country were made captives, and almost
always slaves. This was done for the
purpose of efTectually destroying the power
of an enemy and preventing any future
hostile organization ; probably, too, it was
resorted to as a means of supplying popu-
lation for new provinces or cities under the
control of the concpieror. The wealthiest
and most distinguished families, and the
best-skilled artisans of every kind, would
be among the first thus carried away. On
more than one occasion the inhabitants of
Palestine were subjected to this treatment.
In this way the two kingdoms of Judah
and Israel were several times almost de-
populated ; and, as used in Scripture, the
term captivity is commonly applied to the
forced expatriations of the Israelites by
foreign conquerors. God expressly threat-
ens his people (Deut. 28) that if they would
not obey his word he would deliver them
into the hands of their enemies, who would
carry them as captives into distant lands.
The disobedience of Israel becoming more
and more confirmed, the divine threatening
was at length terribly fulfilled. The most
remarkable of these captivities are these :
1. Of Israel. In the year b. c. 740,
Tiglath-pileser took various cities and
carried their inhabitants to Assyria (2
Kings 15 : 29). About twenty years af-
ter, Shalmaneser, son of Tiglath-pileser,
destroyed Samaria and carried its inhab-
itants captive to Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 5,
6). Some are of opinion that the ten
tribes never returned from this captivity,
but were absorbed by intermarriages with
their conquerors, and thus lost. The lan-
guage of the prophets, in the opinion of
others, implies that many of them did
actually return (Amos 9 : 14; Isa. 11 : 12,
13 ; Jer. 3 : 18 ; Ezek. 37 : 16 ; Hos. 1 : 10,
11; Mic. 2: 12; Zech. 9 : 13).
2. Of Judah. Three captivities of Ju-
dah are enumerated. The first by Nebu-
chadnezzar, king of Babylon, during the
reign of Jehoiakim, when Daniel and
others were carried into Babylon, b. c. 606
(Dan. 1 : 1, 2). The second, also under
Jehoiakim, or probably during the reign
of Jehoiachin, b. c. 598 (2 Kings 24 : 8-
16). The third under Zedekiah, b. c. 588
(2 Kings 25). This last was the seventy
years' captivity (Jer. 25 : 9-11 ). By the
decree of Cyrus and Darius Hystaspes,
the exiles, after this captivity, were per-
mitted to return and rebuild the temple.
The last Jewish captivity was under the
Romans, in which many of the Jews, af-
ter the destruction of their nation, were
sold into bondage. At the present time
the Jews are scattered among all nations,
where, as a standing miracle, they pre-
serve their distinctive character.
In its spiritual application the term
"captivity" denotes two opposite condi-
tions, namely, that grievous state of servi-
tude into which sin brings us (Rom. 7 :
23 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 26), and that gracious
state of freedom into which the gospel
introduces us (2 Cor. 10 : 5). Our Lord
is said to lead "captivity captive" (Ps.
68 : 18 ; Eph. 4 : 8), in the sense that he
makes captives of the enemies who once
led his people captive; he vanquishes
the capturing power and subdues all his
people's spiritual enemies.
Car'bun-cle, a precious stone. Two
different words in Hebrew are thus ren-
dered in our English Version, but neither
gives us such exact information in respect
to the character of the stone as enables us
118
CARCHEMISH— CARPENTER.
to identify it with the carbuncle known to
us. Tlie fii-st word is a general term to
denote any bright, sparkling gem, and is
found in Isa. 54 : 12; the second word is
from a verbal root which means to flash, and
which points to a stone of a bright
cornscant color. The second word is
found in Ex. 28 : 17 ; 39 : 10; Ezek.
28 : 13, and in the Septuagint is uni-
formly rendered by a word which rep- I
resents the emerald. '
Car^che-raisli [perhaps fort of -s
Chemosh'l, a fortified city on the Eu- *
phrates, commanding the passage of
the river, and marking the scene of
frequent conflict between Egypt and
Assyria (Isa. 10:9; Jer. 46 : 2). It
is usually identified witli the place
which the Greeks termed Kirkesion,
the modern Kerkesiyeh, but Rawlinson
locates it higher up the river, near "'-
Hierapolis. The Assyrian monuments
show that before its conquest by As-
syria it was a chief city of the Hit-
tites, who between b. c. 1100 and 850
were the masters of all Syria, from
the borders of Damascus to the Euphrates
at Bir. It is also mentioned on the Egyp-
tian hieroglyphical sculptures.
Ca'ri-a, the southern part of the re-
gion which in the New Testament is call-
ed Asia, and the south-western part of the
peninsula of Asia Minor. The name does
not occur in the Scriptures, but two of the
cities of the province, Miletus and Cnidus,
are mentioned (Acts 20 : 15; 27 : 7).
Car''inel {^garden'], the name of a moun-
tain-range and of a city.
1 . A celebrated mountain-range running
inland some twenty-eight miles, in a south-
east direction, from the bold promontory
which forms the southern shore of the Bay
of Acre. The average height of the range
is about fifteen hundred feet. It separates
the plain of Esdraelon from the great south-
ern coast-plain. It once abounded in fruit
and forest trees, and the Scriptures are
crowded with allusions to its productive-
ness and beauty ( Song 7:5; Isa. 33 : 9 ;
35 : 2 ; Jer. 46 : 18 ; 50 : 19 ; Mic. 7:14;
Nah. 1 : 4 ; 2 Kings 19 : 23). It was the
scene, moreover, of the remarkable con-
Carmel and the Mediterranean.
test between the prophet Elijah and the
priests of Baal, and of the prophet's im-
portunate prayer for rain ( 1 Kings 18).
Indeed, tradition has so connected it with
Elijah that its modern Arabic name is Jebel
Mar Elyas.
2. A city in the mountains of Judah
(Josh. 15 : 55). Here Saul set up a tro-
phy of victory over Amalek (1 Sam. 15 :
12). Here Abigail and Nabal dwelt (1
Sam. 25 : 2, 5, 7, 40) ; and from her asso-
ciation with this place Abigail was termed
"the Carmelitess" (1 Sam. 27 : 3). It is
now identified with Kurmul, ten miles
south-east of Hebron, a poor village amid
extensive ruins.
Car'pen-ter. The original word thus
rendered in Matt. 13 : 55 ; Mark. 6 : 3, des-
ignates an artisan or mechanic or builder,
and is generally applied to a worker in
wood. According to Justin, our Lord's re-
CAEPUS— CATTLE.
119
puted father made " ploughs and yokes,"
and was assisted in the labor by our Lord
himself. The Son of God, in becoming
man and in earning his bread by the
sweat 01 his brow, has consecrated those
manual toils which are the lot of the
great majority of mankind.
Oar'pus, a disciple of Paul who dwelt
at Troas (2 Tim. 4 : 1.3).
Car^riag-es. This word, as used in
Scripture, does not mean a species of ve-
hicle, as in the present day, but that load
or burden which man or beast carries ( Isa.
10 : 28 ; Acts 21 : 15). We call such a
load luggage or baggage. The expression
in Acts 21 : 15, "took up our carriages,"
may be translated "having packed our
Asiatic Cart.
Cart, or Wag 'on, a vehicle on wheels
for carrying burdens, drawn by cattle in dis-
tinction from the chariot drawn by horses
(Gen. 45 : 1 9 ; 1 Sam. 6:7). The cart now
used in Western Asia has two wheels of
solid wood, and is an exact copy of that
used in Syria from the earliest times.
Carts with spokes in the wheels were an-
ciently in common use in Egypt and As-
syria. The expression in Isa. 5 : 18,
" Woe unto them that draw iniquity
with cords of vanity, and sin as \i. e.
as with] a cart-rope !" expresses in strong
figure the determined purpose and the
severe labor with whicli evil-workers pur-
sue their schemes of wickedness. Resolv-
ed to succeed, these evil-workers employ
not single threads, but strongly-twisted cart-
ropes.
Case'inent, a kind of barrier of open-
work placed before windows in the East,
which, being open in summer down to the
floor, require some such defence (Prov. 7 :
6). The word lattice represents it with
sufficient exactness (Judg. 5 : 28).
Cas'lu-him. See Nations, under
MiZRAIM.
Cas'sia, an aromatic but unknown
shrub or tree whose bark or root formed
an ingredient in costly unguents (p]x. 30 :
24). It is supposed to be the same as the
koost of the Arabs, the Castas Arabicus,
of the ginger tribe.
Cast, "a stone's cast," the distance a
stone is thrown (Luke 22 : 41). To cast
is to mould melted metal (Ex. 25 : 12).
To cast out of the synagogue means an
act of excommunication (John 9 : 22 and
34). God casting men's sins behind his
back or into the depths of the sea denotes
his forgiveness of them (Isa. 38 : 17 ; Mic.
7 : 19). A castaway is one doomed to per-
dition (1 Cor. 9 : 27).
Cas'tle, a fortified tower (1 Chron. 11 :
5, 7). In Acts 21 : 34 it refers to the fort-
ress Antonia, the quarters of the Roman
soldiery in Jerusalem.
Cas'tor and Pol'lux, two heroes of
Greek and Roman mythology, the twin
sons of Jupiter and Leda. They were
regarded as the tutelary divinities of
sailors. The ship which carried Paul
(Acts 28 : 1 1 ) bore their names, and at its
bow, most likely, were their sculptured
images.
Cat'er-pil'lar. The Hebrew word
commonly translated thus (1 Kings 8 :
37 ; Isa. 33 : 4) literally signifies a sti~ip-
per off of leaves, and is supposed to indi-
cate a locust.
Cat'tle, a general word for tame quad-
120
CAUL— CEILING.
rupeds employed by mankind, as oxen,
horses, sheep, camels, goats (Gen. 13:2;
Ex. 12 : 29; 34 : 19; Num. 20 : 19; 32 :
16 ; Ps. 50 : 10). In the pastoral countries
of the East cattle constituted the wealth
of the inhabitants (Job 1:3; 42:12).
The owners themselves superintended the
feeding of them, and were there-
fore exposed to all vicissitudes of
weather (Gen. 31 : 40). Moses fed
the flocks of his father-in-law, and
David was brought from the sheep-
fold to the throne of Israel. Amos
the prophet was a herdsman, and
from the same occupation Shamgar
was raised to be one of the judges
or delivereis of Israel (Amos 1:1;
Judg. 3 : 31).
Caul, a membrane of network
covering most of the intestines, and
called by anatomists the omentum
(Ex. 29:13; Hos. 13: 8). The
name also of a head-dress of net-
work worn by Jewish women (Isa. 3 : 18).
Cause 'way, a highroad or beaten
path (1 Chron. 2G : 16, 18).
Cave, an excavation in a rock, either
natural or artificial. There were many
such in Palestine, as in all countries of
limestone formation. They were some-
times used as dwellings, sometimes as
places of concealment, and sometimes as
the resorts of banditti. These caves are
still used at tlie present day, as always,
as human abodes, as sheepfolds and as
stables. The capaciousness of the cave of
Adullam may be inferred from the fact
that it afibrded accommodation for Da-
vid and four hundred followers (1 Sam.
22 : 1, 2) ; and in the cave of Engedi he
and six hundred men concealed them-
selves (1 Sam. 23: 13; 24 : 1-3).
Ce'dar. The word in Hebrew ren-
dered tlius does not always apply to the
same tree, but is a generic expression for
the class of evergreens. In most of the
passages, however, where the word oc-
curs it denotes the cedar in strict sense,
the " firmly-rooted and strong tree," as
its verbal root imports. Of the cedars,
that of Lebanon is the most celebrated
for beauty, majesty and longevity (Song 5 :
15). At the present time the cedar trees
of Lebanon are only a few hundred in
The Syrian Cedar.
number, but some of them are very large
and old. Maundrell measured one which
was thirty-six feet six inches in the girth
and one hundred and eleven feet in the
spread of its boughs. The wood is of a
white color and bitter taste, is not very
liable to the attacks of insects nor much
affected by moisture, and is so durable
that it has been known to last, as histo-
rians assert, upward of two thousand years.
Solomon used it for rafters and beams in
the construction of the temple and of his
palace (1 Kings 6 : 36 ; 7 : 12).
Ce'dron. See Kidron.
Ceiring. The Oriental ceiling in
costly buildings was generally made of
cedar planks applied to the beams or
joists crossing from wall to wall, prob-
ably with sunk panels, edged and orna-
mented with gold, and carved witli in-
cised or other patterns, and painted (1
Kings 6 : 9, 15; 7:3; Jer. 22 : 14; Ilag.
1 : 4). Ordinary ceilings were of fir and
cheaper woods. The Egyptian monuments
CELLARS— CHAFF.
121
furnish many of the richly-painted patterns
whicli were used in ornamenting them.
Cellars. This word occurs but once
in our Authorized Version (1 Chron. 27 :
27), and the Hebrew word it represents
does not designate what we term "cel-
lars," but wliat is laid up, a store, stock
of fruits, produce, provisions and the like.
The Hebrew word is properly rendered
"store" in 2 Chron. 11 : 11, but is more
commonly rendered "treasures."
Cen'chre-a, a port on the south east
of the Isthmus of Corinth, and about nine
miles from the city. Paul sailed from this
port for Ephcsus (Acts 18 : 18), and in
writing subsequently to the Eomans from
Corinth alluded to a Christian church as
tlien existing at Cenchrea (Rom. IG : 1).
The ruins of the place are still to be seen
at the modern village of Kekchries, which
occupies the ancient site.
Cen'ser, a small portable vessel of met-
al fitted to receive those burning coals from
the altar on which, in tlie tabernacle and
temple service, incense was sprinkled (2
Chron. 26 : 19 ; Luke 1 : 9). The word ren-
dered censer in Heb. 9 : 4 means the altar of
incense. The censer was sometimes made
of brass (Num. 16 : 39), and sometimes of
gold (1 Kings 7 : 50). The form of the
ancient Jewish censer is not known, un-
less we conclude it to have been similar
to those figured on tlie Egyptian monu-
ments, consisting of a cup attached to a
shaft or handle, with the extremity formed
into the shape of a hand.
Cen-tu'ri-on, a Roman military cap-
tain having originally the command of a
hundred men. With scarcely an exception
the centurions mentioned in the New Tes-
tament are favorably noticed. Their pro-
motion to the command of one hundred
men was usually the reward of that good
conduct which is the result of thoughtful-
ness and self-restraint, whilst the truthful-
ness and straightforwardness of their cha-
racter would naturally dispose them to
be fair-minded and just. One of them is
commended by our Lord for the greatness
of his faith (Matt. 8 : 5-10) ; another cen-
turion, Cornelius, is described as " devout,
fearing God with all his house, giving
much alms to the people and praying to
Roman Centurion.
God always" (Acts 10 : 2); another cen-
turion, Julius, entreated Paul courteously,
and saved his life when threatened by the
soldiers (Acts 27 : 1, 3, 42, 43) ; and still
another centurion, when witnessing our
Lord's extraordinary death upon the cross,
exclaimed, as Luke (23 : 47) records, "Cer-
tainly this Avas a righteous man," and as
Matthew (27 : 54) records, " Truly this
was the Son of God."
Ce'phas, a surname applied by our
Lord to Simon Peter (John 1 : 42). It
is the Greek form of the Aramaic word
which is the equivalent to the Greek
petra, "rock."
Cer'e-mo-nies, the rites or forms of
worsliip observed by the Jews (Num. 9 :
3; Heb. 9:1). These have now given
way to the simple, spiritual worship of the
Christian Church (Col. 2 : 17).
Chaflf. Two words in Hebrew are thus
rendered in our Authorized Version. One,
having the sense of dry grass or hay, occurs
twice only (Isa. 5 : 24; 33: 11) and here
122
CHAIN— CHALD^A.
in connection witii burning; the other
is what we commonly denominate chaff,
namely, tlie husk of" tlie wheat separated
from tlie grain by winnowing. The car-
rying away of chafl" by the wind is an or-
dinary Scripture image of the destruction
of the wicked and of their powerlessness
to resist God's judgments (Ps. 1:4; Isa.
17 : 13; Hos. 13 : 3 ; Zeph. 2: 2).
Chain. Chains were used as badges
of office, for ornament and for confining
prisoners.
1. As Badges of Office. — The gold
chain placed about Joseph's neck (Gen.
41 : 42) and that promised to Daniel (Dan.
5:7) are instances of this use. In Ezek.
10:11 the chain is mentioned as the sym-
bol of sovereignty.
2. For Ornament. — Chains for orna-
mental purposes were worn by men as
well as women in many countries, and the
like custom prevailed, probably, among
the Hebrews (Prov. 1 : 9). The necklace
consisted of pearls, corals, etc., threaded
on a string. Besides the necklace, other
chains were worn, hanging down as far
as the waist, or even lower. Some were
adorned with pieces of metal shaped in
the form of the moon (Isa. 3 : 18), and
from some were suspended various trink-
ets, as scent-bottles (Isa. 3 : 20) and mir-
rors (Isa. 3 : 23).
3. For confining Prisoners. — These,
among the Jews, were fetters similar to some
of our handcufls (Judg. IG : 21 ; 2 Sam. 3 :
34; 2 Kings 25 : 7 ; Jer. 39 : 7). Among
the Romans the prisoner was handcuffed
to one, and occasionally to two, guards
(Acts 12:6,7; 21 : 33)."
Chal-ce-do'ny or Chal-ced'o-ny
[from Chalredovl, a precious stone, men-
tioned in Rev. 21 : 19 only. In modern
mineralogy the name is applied to one of
the varieties of agate, and if it were not
so applied anciently, the kind of stone
meant is not known.
Chal-dae'a, at first a small district in
the southern part of Babylonia, on the
right bank of the Euphrates, but after-
ward an immense country, embracing the
vast alluvial plain between the Tigris and
Euphrates and the extensive region that
stretched westward from the Euphrates to
the desert of Aral)ia. In this later and
wider sense it is equivalent to the Bab-
ylonian empire. Its early limited terri-
tory was originally called Sliinar, and
upon its soil Nimrod built the four most
ancient cities of the world, " Babel, and
Erech, and Accad, and Calneh" (Gen.
10 : 10). As Nimrod, the builder of its first
cities, was a son of Cush (Gen. 10 : 8), its
first inhabitants were undoubtedly Cush-
ites, as the earliest inscriptions found in
the country indicate. The early colonists
of Chalda?a were thus of tlie same race with
the inhabitants of the upper Nile. The
monumental records of this old Cushite
empire place its beginnings about twen-
ty-four centuries B. c. The empire lasted
about seven centuries, when it was over-
turned by a foreign Semitic race, supposed
to have come from the country afterward
known as Arabia. Their old language,
however, was preserved by a learned caste
noted as the Chaldfeans among the sooth-
sayers and astrologers in the book of Dan-
iel. (See CiiALDiEANS.) The Arab con-
querors ruled for about two centuries and
a half, and were followed by the Assyr-
ians, Shemites also. At length, what is
commonly known as the Babylonian em-
pire displaced the Assyrian power. The
Median kingdom had for some time been
coming into prominence under Cyaxares,
who, in alliance with Nabopolassar, the
Assyrian governor of Babylonia, threw
ofT the yoke of Nineveh, which for one
hundred and fifty years had rested heav-
ily on "the land of the Chaldees." Na-
bopola-ssar then became the actual king
of Bal)vlon, associating with him in the
government of the country Nebuchadnez-
zar, his son. After the Babylonian rule
CHALD.EANS— CHAMBEKLAIN.
123
came successively that of Persia, that of
Greece and that of Eome. From the ear-
liest to the latest ages the religion of Chal-
daea was chiefly Sabseism, or the worship of
the heavenly bodies, and naturally tended
to convert astronomy into a stupendous sys-
tem of astrology. The later language of the
country, the Chaldee, has long ceased to
be spoken, but, closely related to the He-
brew, it is represented in our Scriptures
by portions of the books of Ezra and
Daniel.
Chal-dae'ans, Chal'dees, in early
times, and until the captivity of Judah,
the people of the country which is termed
Shinar, and which has Babylon for its cap-
ital. They were Hamites, closely related
to the Hamites of Upper Egypt. They
exhibited a fertility of invention, a ge-
nius and an energy which place them
high in the scale of nations, and more
especially in the list of those descended
from an Hamitic stock. It is an arresting
fact that in the first ages the world was
mainly indebted for its advancement to
Hamites. Egypt and Babylon, Mizraim
and Cush, both descendants of Ham, led
the way, and acted as the pioneers of man-
kind in the various untrodden fields of art,
literature and science. Alphabetic wri-
ting, astronomy, history, chronology, ar-
chitecture, plastic art, sculpture, naviga-
tion, agriculture, textile industry, seem,
all of them, to have had their origin in
one or other of these two countries. To
the Chaldiieans especially the ancient world
was very largely indebted. With great as-
siduity they cultivated the sciences and
developed the arts. For centuries they
were the men of progress, and their name
w;is intimately associated with all the in-
terests of an advanced civilization.
Butduringthecaptivity of Judah in Bab-
ylon another sense of the word " Chaldse-
ans " begins to appear. From Daniel (2:2)
we learn that the Chaldaeans are classed
with the magicians and astrologers, and
that they form a sort of priest-class who
have a peculiar "tongue" and "learning"
(Dan. 1 : 4), and whom the king consults
on religious subjects. As the type of
speech which at this time was prevalent
in Babylon for civil purposes was She-
mitic, the Chaldaeans must have retained
their ancient Cushite dialect for all the
uses of science and religion. Their learn-
ing and their tongue had gradually become
inaccessible to the great mass of the people,
and were prized and pursued by studious
men, who, whatever their race, were de-
nominated Chaldaeans. In this sense Dan-
iel himself, the " master of the Chaldaeans "
(Dan. 5 : 11), would no doubt have been
reckoned among them. It may be doubted
whether the Chaldaeans at any time were all
priests, though the priests were at all times
required to be Chaldaeans. They were really
the learned class, who by their acquaint-
ance with the language of science had be-
come its depositaries. They were priests,
or magicians, or astronomers, as their pref-
erences for one or other of those occupa-
tions inclined them ; and in tiie last of
the three capacities they probably effected
discoveries of great importance. In later
times they seem to have degenerated into
mere fortune-tellers, but this reproach is
not justly leveled against the Chaldaeans
of the empire.
Cham'ber-lain, a term in Scripture
of diverse significations. At the close of
the Epistle to the Romans (Bom. 16 : 23)
Erastus, "the chamberlain of the city"
of Corinth unites in the salutations. His
office was that of public treasurer, an in-
ferior magistrate who had charge of the
public chest and was under the authority
of the senate. His employment was sim-
ply to keep the accounts of the public
revenues. Vastly different from this of-
fice was that held by Blastus, " the king's
chamberlain" (Acts 12 : 20). His was a
post of honor involving great intimacy
and influence with the king. The mar-
124
CHAMELEON— CHARIOT.
gin of our English Version gives, "that
was over the king's bed-chamber." For
" chambeHain " as used in the Old Tes-
tament see f]vxrcH.
Cha-me'le-on. See Cameleox.
Oham'ois, the translation of a He-
brew word occurring only in Deut. 14 : 5.
There is no evidence that the chamois,
which inhabits the Alpine regions of Eu-
rope, has ever been seen in Palestine or the
Lebanon. It is probable that some species
of mountain-slieep or goat is referred to.
Cham-paign', a flat, open country
(Deut. 11 : 30).
Chara'pi-on, a single combatant of
trusted bravery. Goliath, who challenged
the army of Israel to select their most
noted warrior to meet him in single com-
I bat, was such a champion (1 Sam. 17 : 4).
I In this instance David became the suc-
cessful champion of Israel, and struck
i tlie Philistines with panic and dismay by
killing Goliath, whom they had regarded
{IS invincible.
Chan'cel-lor, an official title (Ezra
4:8, 17). The particular duties of the
office referred to are not known.
Chant, a style in singing (Amos 6 : 5).
Chap'i-ters, the upper part of a col-
umn, or wluit is styled in architecture tlie
capital (1 Kings 7 : 16).
Chap 'men, merchants or traders (2
Chron. 9 : 14).
Chapt, cleft with fissures or openings
by heat and drought (Jer. 14 : 4).
Char'ger, a large, shallow vessel for
receiving water or blood, and for present-
ing oflerings of line flour with oil (Num.
7 : 13, 79). The daughter of Herodias
brought to her mother tlie head of John
the Baptist in a charger (Matt. 14:8),
probably a trencher or platter.
~— ^ RS.G ^ .
Egyptian Chariot.
Char'iot, a vcliicle for riding, and
used eitlier for warlike or peaceful pur-
poses, but most commonly for the former.
The earliest mention of chariots in Scrip-
ture is in Egypt, where Josepli, as a mark
of distinction, was jjlaced in Pharaoh's sec-
ond chariot (Gen. 41 : 43), and later when
he went in his own chariot to meet his la-
ther on the arrival of Jacob from Canaan
(Gen. 46 : 29). In the funeral procession
of Jacob chariots also formed a part, pos-
sibly by way of escort or as a guard of
CHARITY— CHEMARIMS, THE.
125
honor (Gen. 50 : 9). The next mention
of Egyptian chariots is for a warlike pur-
pose (Ex. 14 : 7). War-chariots, in ancient
times, filled the place, apparently, of heavy
artillery in modern times, and indicated
the military power of a nation. Thus,
Pharaoh in pursuing Israel took with him
six hundred chariots. The Canaanites of
the valleys of Palestine were enabled to
resist the Israelites successfully in conse-
quence of the number of their chariots of
iron, or chariots armed with iron scythes
(Josh. 17 : 18 ; Judg. 1 : 19). Jabin, king of
Canaan, had nine hundred chariots (Judg.
4:3). The Philistines in Saul's time had
thirty thousand (1 Sam. 13 : 5). David
took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, one
thousand chariots (2 Sam. 8 : 4), and from
the Syrians, a little later, seven hundred (2
Sam. 10 : 18), who, in order to recover their
ground, collected thirty-two thousand char-
iots (1 Chron. 19 : 7). Among the Israelites
the supplies of chariots and horses were
mainly drawn from Egypt (2 Kings 18 :
24; Isa. 31 : 1). Commonly, two persons,
and sometimes three, rode in the chariot.
The prophets frequently allude to char-
iots as types of power (Ps. 20 : 7 ; 104 : 3 ;
Jer. 51 : 21; Zech. 6 : 1).
Char^i-ty, one of the three chief Chris-
tian graces, aiad the old English word for
love (1 Cor. 13: 1, 13).
Ohar^ran (Acts 7 : 2, 4) ; elsewhere
Hakan (which see).
Ohe^bar, a river of Mesopotamia
which empties into the Euphrates. It is
supposed by some to be the Chaboras of
the Greek geographers, and which now
bears the name of Khabour; but by others
it is identified with the Nalir Malcha, or
royal canal of Nebuchadnezzar, which the
Jewish exiles assisted, perhaps, in cutting,
and on the banks of which a Jewish col-
ony, among whom was the prophet Eze-
kiel, was certainly planted (Ezek. 1:1).
Here Ezekiel saw his earlier visions (Ezek.
1:3; 3: 15, 23).
Ohed-or-la'o-mer, a king of Elam
in the time of Abraham, who with three
other chiefs made war upon the cities of
the plain and reduced them to servitude
(Gen. 14 : 17). Upon bricks recently dis-
covered in Chaldffia is the name of a king
v,'hich is read Kudurlagamar {servant of
Lacfumar, a Susianian god), and which is
identified with the name of the Elamite
king. This king was emiihatically a
great conqueror. Twenty centuries before
our era he extended his dominion over
Chaldsea and the adjacent regions, and,
marching an army twelve hundred miles,
from the Persian Gulf to the Dead Sea,
held Palestine and Syria in subjection for
twelve years (Gen. 14 : 4), thus effecting
conquests which were not again made from
the same quarter till the time of Nebu-
chadnezzar, fourteen hundred years later.
He is the forerunner and prototyjie of all
those great Oriental conquerors who, from
time to time, have built up vast empires
in Asia out of such heterogeneous materials
as necessitated, sooner or later, an inevita-
ble crumbling into decay.
Cheese, mentioned only three times in
the Scriptures (Job 10 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 18 ;
2 Sam. 17 : 29), and on each occasion un-
der a difTerent name in Hebrew. These
three words express various degrees of
coagulation, and neither of them gives
the modern and common notion of cheese.
The Bedouin Arabs have a coagulated
buttermilk, which is dried until it be-
comes quite hard, and which, when used,
is ground into powder. This resembles
most nearly the cheese mentioned in the
two books of Samuel at the places cited
above.
Cheni'arims, The. This word, trans-
ferred from the Hebrew into our English
Version, occurs but once in the English
Old Testament (Zeph. 1 : 4). In 2 Kings
23 : 5 the word is rendered " idolatrous
priests," and in Hos. 10:5, "priests." In
Hebrew usage it is restricted to the priests
126
CHEMOSH— C H ERl'B.
of a false worsliip, and in all probability
it was a term of foreign origin.
Che'mosh [subduer], the national
deity of the Moabites (Num. 21 : 29; Jer.
48 : 7, 13, 46). In Judg. 11 : 24 he also
appears as the god of the Ammonites.
Solomon introduced and Josiah abol-
ished the worship of Chemosh at Jeru-
salem (1 Kings 11 : 7; 2 Kings 23 : 13).
Ctier'ethites, associated most gener-
ally with the Pelethites, and supposed
to be King David's life-guards (2 Sam. 8 :
18; 15: 18; 20:7, 23; 1 Kings 1 : 38,
4^; 1 Chron. 18 : 17). These royal guards
were sometimes employed as executioners
(2 Kings 11:4) and as couriers (1 Kings
14 : 27). They are thought to have been
foreign mercenaries. They are connected
with the Gittites, a foreign tribe (2 Sam.
15 : 18) ; and the Cherethites are men-
tioned as a nation (1 Sam. 30 : 14) dwell-
ing, apparently, on the coast (Zeph. 2 :
5), and therefore, prol)ably, Philistines,
of which name " Pelethites " may be
only another form.
Che'rith [« ciittingl. the name of a
brook or winter-torrent falling into the
Jordan, the precise yiosition not known.
The argument from probability has been
thought to favor its being on the east of
Jordan, but learned authorities believe
that it is to be identified with Wady
Kelt, a deep ravine opening into the
Jordan plain below Jericho, through
which flows a purling brook. Within
its deep ravine Elijah hid himself from
King Ahab during the early part of the
three years' drought (1 Kings 17 : 3, 5).
Cher'ub, plural Cher'ubim. The
word "cherubim" occurs first in Gen. 3 :
24, and is applied to that guard of angelic
beings which was placed over Eden after
the expulsion of Adam and Eve. From
the office of these cherubim as the guar-
dians of Eden, the underlying idea of the
word has been thought to be that of grasp-
ing, guarding, protecting, and the conjec-
ture receives strong confirmation from the
fact that many Semitic and Aryan tongues
I have substantially the same word and con-
nect with it the like sense. Moses was di-
rected to make of gold two cherubim, or
symbolic figures of composite form, and to
place them on the mercy-seat, so that their
wings should cover it, and their faces,turned
I the one to the other, should look toward it
(Ex. 25 : 18-20). It is remarkable tliat no
j minute and special description of these
cherubim is given, and hence it is infer-
red that their form was well known to
Bezaleel and to the whole congregation
of Israel. Their position on the mercy-
seat indicated that they were guardians
j of the covenant and avengers of its
; breach. In the visions of Ezekiel we
have a description of their appearance
as compound figures, unlike any living
animals or real object in Nature, but a
combination, in one nondescript artificial
image, of the distinguishing features and
properties of several. The ox as chief
among the domestic animals, the lion
among the wild ones, the eagle among
the birds, and the man as head over all,
were the animals composing the cheru-
bic figure. Each cherub had four dis-
tinct faces on one neck — that of a man
in front, that of a lion on the right side,
that of an ox on the left, and that of an
j eagle behind. Each cherub, too, had
four wings, the two under ones covering
the lower extremities, and the two upper
ones extended as in flight. But whilst
the cherubim, as Ezekiel saw them, pre-
sented those composite creature-forms of
which the man, lion, ox and eagle were
the elements, they represented, probably
to the prophet's mind some peculiar,
mystical form which he, being a priest,
knew and recognized as " the face of a
cherub" (Ezek. 10 : 14), but which, from
all others, was kept secret. What this
peculiar clicrubic form was is perhaps
an impenetrable mystery. It might be
CHESTNUT TREE— CHIOS.
127
the symbol of Him whom none could
behold and live, for doubtless the true
conception of the cherubim is of them
not as representations of actual beings,
but as symbols of divine attributes, om-
niscience, omnipotence, omnipresence.
Chest 'nut Tree. The word which
in our p]nglish Version is translated chest-
nut tree (Gen. 30 : 37 ; Ezek. 31 : 8) is
not the tree known to us by that name,
but the plane tree of the East. It is a
majestic tree, growing to a great height.
The outer bark annually peels off.
Chi'don. The threshing-floor of Chi-
don was the place where Uzzah was struck
dead for touching the ark (1 Chron. 13 : 9).
It is called Nachon in 2 Sam. 6:6. It is,
however, uncertain whether these names
are applied to the owner or to the thresh-
ing-floor itself.
Child, Children. The blessing of
offspring, of males especially, is highly
valued among all Eastern nations, while
their absence is regarded as one of the
severest punishments (Gen. 16 : 2; Deut.
7 : 14; 2 Kings 4 : 14; Ps. 127 : 3, 5; Isa.
47 : 9). Mothers in the earliest times nursed
their own children, but in cases of neces-
sity nurses were employed (Ex. 2 : 9; 2
Sam. 4:4). The time of weaning was
an occasion of rejoicing (Gen. 21 : 8).
Both boys and girls in their early years
were under the care of the women (Prov.
31 : 1). Afterward the boys Avere taken
by the father under his charge. Those
in wealthy families had tutors or govern-
ors. Daughters usually remained in the
women's apartments till marriage ; among
the lower classes they were employed in
household work (1 Sam. 9:11; Prov. 31 :
19, 23). The first-born male children were
regarded as devoted to God, and were to
be redeemed by an oflTering (Ex. 13 : 13;
Num. 18:15; Luke 2 : 22). The author-
ity of parents, especially of the father, over
children was very great, as was also tlie
reverence enjoined by the Law to be paid
to parents. The disobedient child, the
striker or reviler of a parent, was liable
to capital punishment, but, before such
punishment could be inflicted, the sen-
tence of the father must be confirmed by
a judge. The inheritance was divided
equally between all the sons except the
eldest, who received a double portion
(Deut. 21 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 1, 2). Daugh-
ters had by right no portion in the in-
heritance, but if a man had no son his
inheritance passed to his daughters,
who were forbidden to marry out of
their father's tribe (Num. 27 : 1-7 ; 36 :
2,8).
Chim'hara, a follower, probably a son,
of Barzillai the Gileadite, who returned
from beyond Jordan with David (2 Sam.
19 : 37, 38, 40). David appears to have
bestowed on him a possession at Bethle-
hem, on which, in later times, an inn or
khan was standing (Jer. 41 : 17).
Chim'ney. The word rendered
"chimney" (Hos. 13 : 3) means an open-
ing covered with lattice-work, through
which the smoke passes out. The same
word is elsewhere rendered window.
Chin'ne-reth, Cin^ne-reth,
Ohin'ne-roth, Cin'ne-roth (Num.
34 : 11 ; Josh. 11 : 2; 13 : 27 ; 1 Kings
15 : 20), the Old Testament names of that
sea or lake which in the New Testament
is called the Sea of Tiberias, the Sea of
Galilee (see Galilee) and the Lake of
Gennesaret. The same names designated
also one of the fenced cities of Naphtali
(.Tosh. 19 : 35), but wliether the city gave
its name to, or received it from, the lake
is uncertain.
Ohi'os, now called Scio, a mountainous
island in the Grecian Archipelago, on the
coast of Asia Minor, and famous in ancient
times for its figs, vines and marbles. It
was passed by Paul as he sailed from Mit-
ylene to Samos (Acts 20 : 15). The place
has been rendered memorable in modern
times by the horrible massacre there per-
128
CHISLEU— CHRIST.
petrated by the Turks on the Greeks in
the year 1822.
Chis'leu, the ninth month of the Jew-
ish sacred and the third of the civil year
reckoning (Keh. 1:1). It corresponded
with November or December, according
to some, and December, according to
others.
Chit'tim, a brancli of the descendants
of Javan, the son of Japheth (Gen. 10 :
4; 1 Chron. 1:7), closely related to the
Dodanim and remotely to the other de-
scendants of Javan. According to Jo-
sephus, they emigrated from Phoenicia to
Cyprus, and their name, originally applied
to the island of Cyprus, afterward became
a general name for the maritime countries
and islands of the Mediterranean. The
Scripture notices of Chittim have evident
reference to lands washed by the sea.
Thus (Num. 24 : 24), " ships shall come
from the coast of Chittim." Thus, too,
Ezekiel (27 : 6) speaks of "the isles of
Chittim," and Daniel (11:30) of "the
ships of Chittim." The best explanation,
perhaps, of these Scripture notices is that
the name Chittim, which in the first in-
stance had applied to Phoenicians only,
passed over to the islands which they had
occupied, and thence to the people who
succeeded the Phoenicians in the occupa-
tion of them.
Ohi^un, an idol worshiped by the Is-
raelites in the desert (Amos 5 : 26). It is
conjectured to have been the planet Sat-
urn. Stephen (Acts 7 : 43), quoting tlie
Septuagint, gives the name Remphan,
which is said to be the Coptic appella-
tion of Saturn. Star-worship was a very
early form of idolatry. See Remphan.
Chlc'e, a Christian woman at Corinth,
some of whose family had informed Paul
of the divisions existing in the church at
that place (1 Cor. 1 : 11).
Chora 'zin, a town of Galilee men-
tioned with Bethsaida and Capernaum as
greatly privileged and as terribly de-
nounced (Matt. 11:21; Luke 10: 13).
Its site is dispijted, but the probabilities
point to Kerazeh, two miles nortli of 'JWI
Hum, which it equals in the extent of
ruins.
Christ [Anowted], a Greek translation
of the Hebrew Messiah, the official title of
our Lord, who is the one illustrious per-
sonage fitted by the plenary unction of the
Holy Spirit for the work of redemption,
the consecrated Prophet, Priest and Prince
of his people. It distinguishes also the
individual Je.sus, our Lord's human ap-
pellation, from others of the same name.
Its import, as given in Smpture, can only
be stated in brief.
1. Christ is the same person as "the
Seed of the woman " who was to " bruise
the head of the serpent" (Gen. 3:15);
"the seed of Abraham, in whom all tho
nations of the earth were to be blessed"
(Gen. 22 : 18) ; the great "prophet to be
raised up like unto Moses," whom all were
to be required to hear and obey (Deut.
18:15); the "pr'est forever after the
order of Melchizedek" (Ps. 110 : 4) ; the
"rod out of the stem of Jesse which
should stand for an ensign of the people,
to which the Gentiles should seek" (Isa.
11 : 1, 10) ; the Virgin's son whose name
was to be " Immanuel " (Isa. 7:14); "the
branch of Jehovah" (Isa. 4:2); "the
Angel of the Covenant," "the Lord of
the temple" (Mai. 3 : 1). According to
prophecy, Christ is to belong to the very
highest order of being, and yet is to stoop
to the low conditions of a human being.
He is to be one who has a right to the
incommunicable name Jehovah ( Jer. 23 :
6), who is essentially eternal (\Mic. 5:2),
and who is properly denominated " Won-
derful, Counselor, the Mighty God" (Isa.
9:6). He is to assume human nature
and become " a child born " (Isa. 9:6); he
is to appear thus on earth for the salva-
tion of mankind, Jews and Gentiles (Isa.
49 : 6) ; he is to be "despised and reject-
CHRISTIANS— CHRISTS, FALSE.
129
ed of men," to be " wounded for our trans-
gressions and bruised for our iniquities,"
to be " oppressed and afflicted," and to be
" cut off out of the land of the living "
(Isa. 53 : 3, 5, 7, 8) ; he is to be "cut off,
but not for himself" (Dan. 9 : 26), and
after his vicarious and atoning death he
is to " be exalted and extolled and made
very high " (Isa. 52 : 13 \ and is to receive
from the Ancient of Days " dominion and
glory, and a kingdom, that all people and
nations and languages should serve him,
an everlasting kingdom that shall not
pass away, a kingdom that shall not be
destroyed" (Dan. 7 : 14).
2. Christ is the name distinguishing
Jesus, the Son of Mary, from all other
persons who have ever appeared in our
world. It claims, therefore, that Jesus is
both God and man, the Son of God and
the Son of man, the infallible Prophet,
the sinless and sympathetic Priest, the
infinitely mighty and merciful Prince of
his people. It challenges the closest com-
parison of our Lord's person and work
with the requirements of prophecy, and
affirms tliat of Jesus of Nazareth " Moses
in the law and the prophets did write "
(John 1 : 45). It thus makes the New
Testament the complement of the Old.
Nor is that testimony of history to which
it appeals different from that testimony of
prophecy on which it relies. Jesus the
Christ is very God : the names and titles
of God are applied to him (Rom. 9:5; 1
John 5 : 20 ; Rev. 1 : 11); the peculiar
attributes of God are ascribed to him, as
ETERNITY (John 1:1; 8 : 58 ; Rev. 22
13), OMNISCIENCE (Matt. 9:4; John 16
30), OMNIPOTENCE (Phil. 3 : 21 ; Col. 2
9, 10), OMNIPRESENCE (Matt. 18 : 20
John 3: 13*, tjnchangeableness (Heb.
13:8). The distinctive works and pre-
rogatives of God are his, for he creates
all things (John 1:3; Col. 1 : 16, 17);
he preserves all things (Heb. 1:3); he
forgives sins (Matt. 9:2, 6; Col. 3 : iS) ;
he raises the dead (Matt. 9 : 25 ; Luke 7 :
15 ; John 11 : 44) ; he is to judge the world
(Matt. 25 : 31-33 ; John 5 : 22-29 ; Rom.
14 : 10; 2 Cor. 5 : 10); the worship due
to God alone is yielded to him (Phil. 2 :
10, 11 ; Heb. 1:6; Rev. 5 : 9-13). Jesus
the Christ is very man. He is born of a
virgin (Matt. 1 : 25 ; Luke 1 : 31 ; 2:7);
he grows in stature and strength ( Luke 1 :
80 ; 2 : 52) ; he labors as a man (Matt. 14 :
55 ; Mark 6:2); lie journeys as a man
(Matt. 9:1; Mark 5:1; Luke 7:11;
John 5:1); he teaches as a man (Matt.
5:1, 2; Mark 4 : 1, 2) ; he loves as a
man (John 11:5, 36) ; he dies as a man
(Matt. 27 : 50 ; Mark 15 : 37 ; Luke 23 :
46; John 19:30). Jesus the Christ is
the infallible Teacher (John 1 : 9; 3 : 2),
the atoning and interceding Priest (Heb.
4 : 14; 7 : 25-27), and the almighty King
(Matt. 28 : 18; Rev. 19 : 16) of his peo-
ple. Jesus the Christ is the sovereign
Saviour of an innumerable multitude " of
all nations and kindr ds and peoples and
tongues" (Rev. 7:9).
Chris'tians, tlie followers and disci-
ples of Christ. This name was first given
to the disciples of Christ at Antioch (Acts
11 : 26) about A. d. 43. The followers of
Christ were also contemptuously called
Nazarenes and Galileans. They were ac-
customed to speak of each other as breth-
ren-, saints, believers. Christian is now a
term employed — 1. In contradistinction to
pagans and Mohammedans ; 2. To denote
the open professors of religion in contrast
with those who are not professors. In some
countries it is still a term of bitter reproach,
and the assumption of it, at least by certain
classes, is followed by persecution, cruelty
and death.
Christs, False, referred to by our
Lord (Matt. 24:24), were impostors who,
taking advantage of the expectation by
the Jews of a Messiah, undertook to im-
pose upon them their false pretensions.
No fewer than twenty-four different per-
130
CHEONICLES— CHUEGH.
sons have appeared, each claiming to be
the Christ. They have appeared at dif-
ferent times, from an early date in the
second century till 1G82. The first was
called Akiba, but after his pretensions
were exposed, Caziba, son of a lie. Tlie
name he assumed, and by which his fol-
lowers designated him, was Bar-Chocheba,
son of a star. In defence of his claims
the Jews lost between five and six hun-
dred thousand souls. The last who gain-
ed any considerable number of converts was
Mordecai, a Jew of Germany, who lived in
1682.
Chron'i-cles. This is the name
given to two books of the Old Testa-
ment. Some suppose that Ezra was the
chief compiler of these annals, but this,
whilst probable, is by no means certain.
Their object is to exhibit the genealogies,
rank and functions of the Levites ; to show
how the lands were di8tril)uted among the
Israelites ; to present a condensed history
of the kings of Jiidah from the time of
Solomon to the return from the Babylon-
ish captivity, with but little reference to
the kingdom of Israel. In some parts the
Chronicles are but a repetition of the two
books of Kings, and in others they are sup-
plemental, embracing further particulars.
The period embraced in them is about
three thousand five hundred years.
Chrys'o-lite [r/old-stone'], (Rev. 21-:
20). It is identical with the modern
Oriental topaz, the taishkh of the Hebrew
Bible.
Chrys-o-pra'sus [r/old-leek'\, (Rev.
21 : 20). In other scriptures it is ren-
dered beryl. It is a precious stone of a
greenish-golden color, and is probably the
modern beryl.
Chub, a country mentioned in Ezek.
30 : 5 in connection with Egypt and Cash,
and conjectured to be Nubia.
Chun, a Syrian city mentioned in con-
nection with Tibhath as one of the " cities
of Hadarezer," from which David pro-
cured brass for building the temple (1
Chron. 18 : 8). In 2 Sam. 8 : 8 it is called
Berothai. Site unknown.
Church. The Greek word ecclesia,
translated " church," denotes in its largest
signification an assembly called together
for any purpose, civil or religious. "Whilst
it is once employed (Acts 19 : 32) to des-
ignate a riotous assembly, and once (Acts
19 : 39) to designate a lawful assembly, it
is most often employed to designate re-
ligious assemblies met together for wor-
ship. With this latter sense of the word
the apostles were t;\miliar, for in the Sep-
tuagint the word ecclesia is the equivalent
of the Hebrew word which designates "the
congregation of Israel," whether summon-
ed in assembly or not. The New Testa-
ment directly inherits ecclesia as the Avord
for the whole household of foith. Thus
the people who met for worship in the
house of Priscilla and Aquila are called
a church (Rom. 16 : 3-5). In a larger
sense the religious community in a partic-
ular city is denominated a church, as tlie
church in Jerusalem (Acts 8:1), the
cluirch in Antioch (Acts 11 : 26). The
whole body of believers constitute the
universal Church (1 Cor. 12 : 28 ; Eph. 1 :
22). The vi.vble Church is made up of the
professed followers of Christ, and the invis-
ible Church of all true believers, wherever
they are found, and whose names are writ-
ten in heaven (Heb. 12 : 23).
As our Lord Jesus Christ is the corner-
stone and the sole head and governor of
the true Church (Col. 1 : 18), it is presump-
tuous, and indeed impious, to ascribe the
headship of the Church to a mere mortal.
Nor is it other tlian extremely arrogant for
any one Christian denomination to set up
an exclusive claim to be the ti'ue Church.
The possession of the truth " as it is in Je-
sus " ( Eph. 4 ; 21 ) is essential to any Church
claiming to be a Church of Christ. In re-
spect to church-government, however, a
greater latitude of ojiinion may obtain.
CHUKL— CIRCUIT.
131
Our Lord's faithful and devout followers '
belong to the true Church, whether the
government be episcopal, presbyterial or
congregational ; and yet the presbyterial
form is believed to approach nearest the
apostolic model. The proper officers in
the Christian Church are pastors, ruling
elders and deacons.
The spirit of the Church is in such de-
cided opposition to the spirit of the world
that the Church has ever been an object
of bitter persecution. Multitudes of true
believers have been called to seal with
blood their testimony to the truth of
Christ. In the darkest days of trial,
when the fagot and the axe have been
busy and when defections and apostasies
have been many, there has always been
a remnant of sincere believers. The
preservation of the Church despite the
malice and the might of devils and men
is conclusive evidence that it has the pe-
culiar protection of Almighty God. It
shall eventually triumph and overspread
the world ; and when the design of its es-
tablishment on earth is accomplished it
shall become the Church triumphant in
heaven.
Churl. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in Isa. 32 : 5, 7 means a deceiver. In
1 Sam. 25 : 3 churlish is the representative
of a different Hebrew word, descriptive of
one who is rough, coarse, ill-natured.
Churning-, the method of producing
butter from milk (Prov. 30 : 33).
Chush'an-rish-a-tha'im, a king
of Mesopotamia who oppressed the Israel-
ites for eight years, until the deliverance
effected by Othniel (Judg. 3 : 8-10).
CieFing. See Ceiling.
Ci-licl-a, a province of Asia Minor,
bounded on the north by Cappadocia and
Lycaonia, south by the Mediterranean, east
by Syria and west by Pamphylia. An-
ciently, the eastern part was called " Ci-
licia the level," and the western part
" Cilicia the rough," or mountainous. Its
capital wa-s Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul
(Acts 21 : 39). Into it Christianity was
early and effectively introduced. To its
churches, with those of Antioch and
Syria, the apostles and elders sent the
important letter respecting circumcision
and the Jewish Law (Acts 15 : 23-29).
Upon its churches, moreover, Paul be-
stowed much labor (Acts 15 : 41 ; Gal.
1 : 21).
Cin'na-mon, a well-known aromatic
substance, the inner bark of a tree which
grows chiefly in Ceylon. The tree is a
species of laurel; its bark, when peeled
off and cut into strips, curls up in the
form in which it is usually seen. It is
mentioned in Ex. 30 : 23 as one of the
component parts of the holy anointing
oil which Moses was commanded to pre-
pare ; in Prov. 7 : 17 as a perfume for the
bed ; and in the Song 4 : 14 as one of the
plants of the garden which is the image
of the spouse. In Rev. 18 : 13 it is enu-
merated among the merchandise of the
great Babylon.
Cin'ne-reth. See Chinnereth.
Cir'cle, any part of a curve, an arch.
The Hebrew word thus rendered is applied
in Job 22 : 14 (where, however, it is trans-
lated circuit) to the heavens, which the an-
cients supposed to be a hollow sphere.
They imagined that the sky was solid
and extended like an arch over the earth.
The word is also referred to the earth in
Isa. 40 : 22, and to the surface of the
ocean in Prov. 8 : 27, where it is ren-
dered conrpasis; in both these passages it
apparently means the celestial vault as
spanning earth and ocean. See Cir-
cuit.
Cir''cuit, the act of going round, the
apparent diurnal revolution of the sun
around the earth (Ps. 19 : 6). In Job 22 :
14 the word, in the sense of circle, is applied
to the heavens, and is used to represent in
figure the foolish conception of wicked
men, Avho, wishing concealment from the
132
CIRCUMCISION— CITY.
divine omniscience, persuade themselves
that God confines his presence to the
reahn on liigh. The word is also used
to describe the path or route which a
civil judge follows in going his annual
round (1 Sam. 7 : 16).
Cir-cum-cis'ion [cutting around'^, the
custom of many Eastern nations of cutting
oil' part of the prepuce as a religious ceremo-
ny. The Jews, through Abraham, received
the rite from Jehovah (Gen. 17 : 10) ; Mo-
ses established it as a national ordinance
(Lev. 12 : 3); and Joshua carried it into
eflect before the Israelites entered the
land of Canaan (Josh. 5:2). As the
seal of the Abrahamic covenant and the
necessary condition of Jewish nationality
it has always been scrupulously observed
by the Jews, who in the New Testament
are called the circumcision, whilst the
Gentiles are called the uncircumcision
(Rom. 4:9). Under the Christian dis-
pensation it gave way to tliat more gen-
eral and more significant ordinance of
baptism, through which children and
adults are introduced into the visible
Church.
Cis, the father of Saul (Acts 13 : 21),
iLsually called Kish.
Cis'tern, a receptacle for water, con-
ducted thither from springs or gathered
there from rainfalls. The dryness of the
summer months between May and Septem-
ber in Syria, and the scarcity of springs in
many parts of the country, make it neces-
sary to collect in reservoirs and cisterns
the rain-water, of wliicli, in the interme-
diate period, an abundance falls. The
larger sort of public tanks or reservoirs
are usually called in our English Version
" pools," wliile for the smaller and more
j)rivate it is convenient to reserve the
name " cistern." Tlirougliout the whole
of Syria and Palestine both pools and cis-
terns are frequent. Jerusalem depends
mainly for water upon its ciste»n&, of
which almost every private house pos-
sesses one or more, excavated in the rock
on which the city is built. The cisterns
have usually a round opening at the top,
sometimes built up with stone-work above,
and furnished with a curb and a wlieel for
the bucket (f^ccles. 12:6), so tliat they have
externally much the appearance of an or-
dinary well. The water is conducted into
them from the roofs of the houses during
the rainy season, and with care remains
sweet during tlie whole summer and au-
tumn. In this manner most of the larger
houses and public buildings are supplied.
Empty cisterns were sometimes used as
prisons and places of confinement. Jo-
seph was cast into a " pit " or cistern
(Gen. 37:22), and his "dungeon" in
Egypt is called l)y the same name (Gen.
41 : 14). Jeremiah was thrown into a
miry though empty cistern (.Jer. 38 : 6),
whose depth is indicated by tlie cords
used to let him down. Broken cisterns,
incapable of holding water, are the em-
blems of that common folly which for-
sakes God and has recourse to the world
for a satisfying happiness (Jer. 2 : 13).
Cit^y, Town. Tlie primary tendency
of men was to distribute themselves over
a large extent of country, since thus they
could best care for the flocks and herds
which constituted their main subsistence
and their chief source of wealth. With the
increase of population, and especially for
the purposes of mutual protection, safety
and luxury, men became aggregated and
built cities and towns (Gen. 4 : 17; 11 :4).
These were generally situated on hills or
elevations, because of the focilities for de-
fence which such positions furnished. In
Palestine there were many of these forti-
fied cities, the sites of wliich are still
known, and still adapted to repel the
attacks of wandering tribes. More or
less populous, they were all built for
strength, with high walls surmounted by
towers, with heavy gates enclosing smaller
ones, with narrow streets, and with flat-
CITIES OF REFUGE— CLAY.
133
roofed houses. From the fixedness of cus-
toms in Eastern countries it may fairly be
presumed that a modern town in Palestine
is often a good general model of an an-
cient one; yet the many changes through
which the Holy Land has passed have
necessarily thrown into obscurity much
that we would now be glad to know, and
much that, because we cannot know, must
deprive us of accurate and adequate no-
tions respecting the size, form, government
and resources of the numerous towns which
dotted the surface of that once flourishing
region.
Cit'ies of Refuge. It was a law
of God, early promulgated, "Whosoever
sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his
blood be shed" (Gen. 9 : 6). In cases of
homicide it appears to have been an an-
cient custom for tlie near kinsman of the
slain to execute summary justice on the
murderer. As this was likely to be done
in the heat of passion, when the avenger
would not discriminate between willful
murder and unintentional homicide, the
establishment of cities of refuge, to which
the slayer might flee, and where he should
be safe until the facts in his case were de-
liberately and judicially determined, was
a proper and most humane provision. A
ivilljul murderer, although he should reach
one of these cities, was not protected against
the doom he had merited, but within its
walls the man who had accidentally slain
his neighbor was perfectly secure. Under
the Levitical Law there were six of these
cities, so distributed as to be convenient to
all portions of the population ; and to fa-
cilitate the escape of the slayer the roads
to them were required to be kept always
in repair (Deut. 19 : 7-9 ; Josh. 20). The
law on the subject is fully recorded in Num.
35.
Cit'i-zen-ship. The use of this term
in Scripture has exclusive reference to the
usages of the Roman empire. The privilege
of Roman citizenship was originally acquir-
I ed in various ways, as by purchase (Acts
22 : 28), by military services, by favor or by
I manumission. The right, once obtained,
descended to a man's children (Acts 22 :
I 28). Among the privileges of citizen-
ship were these : exemption from bonds
and imprisonment before an adjudgment
thereto by formal trial (Acts 22 : 29) ;
exemption from scourging under any and
' all circumstances (Acts 16 : 37) ; the right
of appeal from a provincial tribunal to the
emperor at Rome (Acts 25 : 11).
Clau'da, a small island off the south-
west coast of Crete, which now bears the
name of Gozzo. It is mentioned in the
account of Paul's stormy voyage to Rome
(Acts 27 : 16).
Clau'di-a, a Christian female convert
in Rome referred to by Paul (2 Tim. 4 :
21). She is supposed to have been a
British maiden and the daughter of a
British king. Pudens, mentioned in the
same vei'se, is thought to have become
her husband.
Clau'di-us Oae'sar, the fourth Ro-
man emperor and successor of Caligula( Acts
18 : 2). He reigned from 41 to 54 a. d.
During his reign there were several fam-
ines, arising from unfavorable harvests,
and one such occurred in Palestine and
Syria (Acts 11 : 28-30). A tumult hav-
ing been caused by the Jews in Rome, he
expelled them from the city (Acts 18 : 2).
After a weak, foolish and dissolute reign
he was poisoned by his fourth wife, Agrip-
pina, the mother of Nero.
Clau'di-us Fe'lix. See Felix.
Clau'di-us Lys'i-as. See Lysias.
Clay. As the sediment of water re-
maining in pits or in streets the word is
frequently used in the Old Testament
(Isa. 57 : 20; Jer. 38 : 6 ; Ps. 18 : 42),
and in the New Testament (John 9:6)
the word is applied to a mixture of sand
or dust with spittle. It is also found in
the common sense of potter's clay (Isa.
41 : 25), and with its uses in making
134
CLEAN— CLOTHES.
brick and pottery the Jews were evident-
ly acquainted (Ex. 1 : 14; Jer. 18: 3).
Clay was often employed for sealing (Job
38 : 14). With it wine-jars, granaries and
mummy-pits were sealed in Egypt. With
it our Lord's tomb was probably sealed
(Matt. 27 : 66), and with it that earthen
vessel which contained the evidences of
Jeremiah's purchase (Jer. 32 : 14).
Clean and Unclean. The Levitical
Law (Lev. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) contained
specific regulations in regard to ceremo-
nial cleanness. As these related to per-
sons, animals and things, they were signif-
icant in a religious sense, and had their
uses in promoting health and comfort.
If the accepted worshiper was to be free
from ceremonial defilement, how much
more must his heart be pure and upright
in the sight of God ! The one implied
and demanded the other. We may not
be able precisely to see the reasons of
the distinction between clean and un-
clean animals, yet it is probable that
such distinction, whilst subserving some
economical purposes, prompted the Jews
to be wary of familiar intercourse with
the heathen, and guajxled them against
that vain idolatry which found gods
among the animals which they were
permitted to eat or which by their law
were interdicted as unclean.
Clear, bright and shining as the sun
(Song 6 : 10) ; innocent or blameless (Ex.
34:7).
Cleave, to divide a thing into parts,
as wood (Gen. 22 : 3). It also means to
adljere closely (Gen. 2 : 24 ; Acts 11 : 23).
Clefts or Clifts, openings, fissures or
narrow passages in a rock (Isa. 2 : 21 ; Jer.
49 : 16).
Clem'en-cy, mildness or mercifulness
(Acts 24 : 4).
Clem'ent, a fellow-laborer of Paul,
whose piety he commends (Phil. 4 : 3).
It was generally believed in the ancient
Church that he was identical with the
bishop of Rome who afterward became
so celebrated, and who wrote an Epistle to
the Corinthians, still extant.
Cle'o-pas (Luke 24 : 18), different,
probably, from Cle'o-phas ; for the lat-
ter see Alpheus.
Clos'et, a secret place, a private cham-
ber (Matt. 6 : 6).
Oriental Dress, Male.
Clothes. The costumes of the Bedouin
Arabs at the present day furnish very cor-
rect notions of what those costumes were in
ancient times. In the general features the
dress of both sexes was similar ; that of
the female, however, was of finer mate-
rial and more tasteful in form and finish.
Tlve chief garments of the Hebrews were
the tunic, or inner garment, and the mantle,
or outer garment. The tunic was of linen,
and was worn next the skin, supplying the
place of the modern shirt. It iiad armholes,
and sometimes sleeves, and extended to the
knees, or, in the case of females, to the an-
kles. This inner garment was ordinarily
fitted to the person by sewing the seams,
and sometimes was woven in a single piece
without seams, like that worn by our Lord
(John 19 : 23). When the tunic was full
and flowing a girdle around the loins kept
it close to the person, and prevented the
wearer from being impeded by it. Hence
the expression "girding up the loins" de-
noted preparation for active duty. The
CLOUD.
135
mantle or outer garment was of woolen
cloth, nearly square, of several yards in
length and breadth. As may be sup-
posed, there were diiierent modes of
Orieatal Dress, Female.
wearing it, sometimes as a cloak, clasped
around the neck, and sometimes as a sash
thrown over one shoulder and brought
round under the opposite arm. It could
be so brought round tiie waist as to
form a poucli or pocket in which various
articles could be carried. This article of
dress could be easily detached from the
person, and it was often used as the only
covering of the wearer when he slept by
being so wrapped around him as entirely
to envelop his body. To the poor it was
essential to comfort and health as a bed-
covering in the chilly nights, and hence
the law of Moses humanely enacted that
if a man's raiment was taken in pledge, it
must he restored to him at the going down
of the sun (Ex. 22 : 26). The girdle was,
according to the rank of the wearer, more
or less costly in material and ornament.
The poniard or knife was secured to the
side by it, and its folds answered the pur-
poses of a purse. These were the ordina-
ry Hebrew garments, and they constituted
what was called a " change of raiment."
Besides these, the Hebrews sometimes
wore a robe of cotton or linen between the
tunic and mantle which was without sleeves.
As a covering for the head, one edge of the
mantle could be thrown over to shield it
from the weather, and turbans and caps
were probably worn. Mitres or bonnets
were a part of the priest's dress (Ex. 39 :
28). The females wore veils in different
styles and of different forms. One form
was the "muffler" (Isa. 3 : 19), covering
the lower part of the face from the eyes.
As a covering for the feet the sandal was
used, which was either simple or orna-
mented, and was a sole of various mate-
rials for the bot-
tom of the foot,
and strapped
over the upper
part. It may be
presumed that in
coustrueting and
arranging these
general articles
of dress the He-
brews could, ac-
cording to their
taste and wealtli,
obtain variety in
fashion, although
it is evident they
were not so much
the slaves to ca-
pricious changes
in dress as mod-
ern Europeans and Americans. It was
a custom with the rich to have their
wardrobes well stored with garments, and
these were a part of their hoarded treas-
ures which were subject to tiie moth
(Matt. 6:19; James. 5 : 1, 2). White rai-
ment was held in high estimation, and
from its emblematic purity the saints and
angels in heaven are represented as thus
clothed (Rev. 7 : 9, 13, 14). Mourning
garments were of coarse fabric and som-
bre colors, and in seasons of deep grief it
was a custom to tear or rend the garments
(Gen. 37 : 29).
Cloud. The shelter afforded and the
Dress of Bedouin Arabs.
136
CLOUD, PILLAR OF— COCK.
rain promised by clouds give thera their
peculiar prominence in Oriental imagery.
When a cloud appears, rain is ordinarily
expected, and thus "the cloud without
rain " becomes a proverb for the man of
promise without performance (Prov. 16 :
15; Isa. 18:4; 25 : o ; Jude 12). The
cloud is an emblem of transitoriness (Job
30 : 15; Hos. 6 : 4). Being the least sub-
stantial of visible forms, it is that among
material things which suggests most eas-
ily spiritual being. Hence it uniformly
forms part of the machinery by which
supernatural appearances are introduced
(Isa. 19 : 1 ; Ezek. 1:4; Eev. 1:7). A
bright cloud at times rested on the mercy-
seat (Ex. 29 : 42,43 ; 1 Kings 8 : 10, 11 ; 2
Chron. 5 : 14 ; Ezek. 43 : 4).
Cloud, Piriar of. This was the ac-
tive form of the symbolical glory-cloud,
betokening God's presence with his ancient
people. The luminous cloud of the sanc-
tuary, or the Shechinah, exhibited the
same under an aspect of rei^ose. The
cloud which became a pillar when the
host of Israel moved seems to Jiave rest-
ed at other times on the tabernacle (Ex.
33 : 9, 10 ; Num. 12:5). It preceded the
host, apparently resting on the ark which
led the way (Ex. 13 : 21 ; 40 : 3C ; Num.
9 : 15-23 ; 10 : 34).
Clout'ed, patched (Josh. 9 : 5).
Cni'dus [pronounced nidiisl, a city at
the extreme south-west of Asia Minor, in
Caria, on a promontory which projects be-
tween the islands of Rhodes and Cos. It
was passed by Paul in his voyage to Rome
(Acts 27 : 7).
Coal. This word in our Authorized
Version of tiie Old Testament represents
two Hebrew words, of which the one sig-
nifies an ignited or live coal (2 Sam. 14 : 7 ;
22:9; Job 41 : 21 ; Ps. 18:8; 120:4;
Isa. 44 : 19; 47 : 14; Ezek. 24 : 11 ), and
the other, with the literal meaning black,
properly signifies a coal quenched and not
re-ignited, or what we term charcoal (Prov.
26 : 21). In the New Testament the " fire
of coals" (John 18 : 18) evidently means
a mass of live charcoal in a chafing-dish.
See Fuel.
Cock.
Cock, Cock-crow'ing. In the New
Testament, the " cock " is mentioned in
reference to Peter's denial of our Lord,
and is alluded to in the word " cock-
crowing" (Matt. 26:34; Mark 14:30).
As in the Old Testament no allusion is
made to the " cock," it has been conjec-
tured that the bird was introduced into
Judaea by the Romans. Cock-crowing is
used in Scripture to denote a measure of
time. The ancient Hebrews divided the
night into three ivatches, called the first
watch (Lam. 2 : 19), the middle or second
ivatch (Judg. 7 : 19), and the morning or
third watch (Ex. 14 : 24). When the Jews
became subject to the Romans they appear
to have adopted their method of dividing
the night into four ivatches of three hours
each — viz., from six in the evening to
nine, from nine to twelve, from twelve to
three, and from three to the morning.
That from twelve to three was called the
cock-crowincj, because in that interval the
cock was accustomed to crow. Our Lord
alludes to this division when (IMark 13 :
35) he speaks of "even, or at midnight,
or at the cock-crowing, or in the morn-
ing." There is evidence also that tlie
Jews were accustomed to sj^eak of the
second cock-crowing — that is, from three
o'clock until the morning. This will
COCKATRICE— COLOSSE.
137
serve to explain an apparent discrepancy
between Matt. 26 : 3i, where it is said,
"before the cock crow thou shalt deny
me thrice," and Mark 14 : 30, where it
is said, " before the cock crow twice tliou
shalt deny me thrice." The first evan-
gelist refers, in a general way, to the
period in which the denial should take
place ; the other is more specific in say-
ing it should be between the two watches
or cock-crowings. Thus the cock-crowing
and the two cock-crowings were well un-
derstood as embracing the same periods of
time or the same watches of the night.
Cock'a-trice. See Adder.
Oock'le. Tlie word occurs only in Job
31 : 40. It represents a Hebrew word which
means an offensive plant, and is supposed to
be a general expression for tveeds and tares.
Coffin. See Burial.
Col'leg-e, The. In 2 Kings 22: 14,
Iluldah is said to have " dwelt in a college,"
but the margin has, more correctly. " in the
second part," that is, in the lower city, on
the hill Akra, alluded to in Zeph. 1:10.
CoFlops, thick pieces of flesh, an em-
blem of prosperity (Job 15 : 27).
Col'o-ny, a city or province planted
or occupied by Roman citizens, as Philip-
pi (Acts 16 : 12). After the battle of
Actium, Augustus assigned to his vete-
rans those parts of Italy which had es-
poused the cause of Antony, and trans-
ported many of the expelled inhabitants
to Philippi and other cities. A colony
thus created had all the rights and priv-
ileges of an Italian city.
Col'or, the symbol in Scripture of
the nature of the thing to which it is
applied. Thus, black is the symbol of
anguish and affliction (Job 30 : 30 ; Rev.
6 : 5-12) ; pale, of mortal disease (Rev.
6:8); red, of bloodshed or victory (Zech.
6:2; Rev. 12:3); white, of beauty and
holiness (Eccles. 9:8; Rev. 3:4). The
red. color is spoken of as if in a pre-emi-
nent sense the fast or fixed one ( Isa. 1 :
18). White and shining was the Jewish
royal and priestly color, as purple was the
Roman.
Modern Colosse.
Co-los'se, a city of Phrygia, in Asia
Minor, not far from the junction of the
Lycus with the Meander, and nearly equi-
distant from Laodicea and Hierapolis. A
138
COMFORTER— CONFESSION.
Christian church was formed here at an
early period, to which Paul addressetl an
Epistle; and shortly after, according to
Eusebius, the city w;is destroyed or great-
ly injured by an earthquake, about A. d. 65.
A few ruins alone remain of the ancient city,
and the village now occupying its site is
called Clionas. Paul's Epistle to the Co-
lossians was written from Rome about
A. D. 62, and the occasion of it seems to
have been the report of certain disorders
which had arisen there througli the agen-
cy of false teachers (Col. 1 : 7, 8 ; 2 : 8-23).
From Col. 2 : 18 it has been inferred that
angel-worship was one of the errors wliich
the apostle sought to correct.
Coni'fort-er. This word is the ren-
dering of a Greek word which signifies,
literally, one called to the side of another
as an advocate. It is descriptive of the
Holy Ghost (John 14:16, 26; 15:26;
16 : 7) ; once it is applied to our Lord
(1 John 2 : 1), where it is translated Ad-
vocate.
Com-mand'ments. See Law and
Ten Commaxdjients.
Com^mon. The Greek word thus
rendered in Acts 10 : 14 properly signifies
what be/one/s to all; hence, what is
of promiscuous use or not holy ;
and hence, with reference to meats,
what is forbidden or unclean.
Com-mun'ion, intimate fel-
lowship and communication ( 1 Cor.
10:16; 2 Cor. 13 : 14). As the or-
dinance of the Lord's Supper fur-
nislies both the opportunity and
the motive to this mutual love and
confidence (John 13: 34; 15: 12), it is called,
by way of distinction, "the communion."
Con-cis'ion [cuttiiu/ doivu], a con-
temptuous term used by Paul in Phil. 3 :
2 to designate the zealots for circumcision.
The apostle means to say that, since the
reality of circumcision has passed over
into those who believe in Christ and are
renewed in the spirit of their minds, to
insist on the rite as on something of per-
petual obligation is to stickle for a mere
concision, a profitless ilesh-cutting.
Con^cu-bine. In the Old Testament
the word denotes a woman conjugally
united to a man in a relation inferior
to that of the regular wife (Gen. 22 : 24 ;
Judg. 2U : 4). Such a woman was not be-
trothed or wedded with the solemnities and
ceremonies usual upon marriage, and she
could be dismissed without a bill of di-
vorce. She had no share in the family
government, and her children were not
entitled to inherit with the children of
the wife. The custom of concubinage was
opposed to the original law of marriage,
and was exceedingly liable to abiise. The
Law of Moses corrected many of its evils,
and the gospel of Christ gives it no tole-
ration whatever. Under the Christian dis-
pensation one man is to have but one wife,
and one woman but one husband (Matt. 19 :
5; 1 Cor. 7 : 2-4).
Con'duit, the aqueduct made by King
Ilezekiah for conveying the waters from
the upper pool in the valley of Gihon
into the western part of Jerusalem (2
Kings 18 : 17 ; 20 : 20 ; Isa. 7:3; 3G : 2).
Coney — Hyrax Syriacus.
Co'ney, a small gregarious animal
(Ps. 104 : 18; Prov. 30 : 26) erroneously
identified with the rabbit. It lives in the
caves and clefts of the rocks. It is mild
and timid in its deportment, and is gentle
and easily tamed. It is known in natural
history as the Ili/rax sSyriacv.^.
Con-fes'sion, the hearty ackiiow-
ledgment of sin (1 John 1:9) and the
CONFIRMATION— CONVERSION.
139
public profession of Christ (Luke 12 : 8).
As the acknowledgment of sin, confession
is to be made to God, who only can for-
give (Ps. 51 : 3, 4). Auricular confession,
or confession to a priest, has no sanction in
Scripture.
Con-fir-ma^tion, the strengthening
and establishing the faith of believers by
gospel ministrations (Acts 14:22; 15:
32). The rite of confirmation, as prac-
ticed in some churches, has no scriptu-
ral warrant.
Con-gre-ga'tion, the Hebrew peo-
ple in its collective capacity as a holy
community, held together by religious
rather than by political bonds (Num. 15 :
15). In the Septuagint the Hebrew word
for congregation is rendered generally by
eccleaia, the New Testament word for
" church," and thus the visible Church
among the Israelites is the true parent
and original of the Christian Church.
When Stephen sj'oke of " the church in
the wilderness" (Acts 7 : 38) he used no
different term or meaning than that gene-
rally implied in the "congregation;" and
as the congregation was also governed by
elders, the Jews were the original Presby-
terians. Every circumcised Hebrew was a
member of the congregation, and took part
in its proceedings probably from the time
that he bore arms. Under the theocracy
the congregation was invested with legis-
lative and judicial powers, each house,
family and tribe being represented by its
head or father. The number of these rep-
resentatives being inconveniently large for
ordinary business, a selection was made by
Moses of seventy, who formed a kind of
standing committee (Num. 11 : 16). Oc-
casionally the whole body of the people
was assembled at the door of the taberna-
cle, hence usually called the tabernacle of
the congregation ( Num. 10 : 3). The people
were strictly bound by the acts of their
representatives, even in cases where they
disapproved of these acts (Josh. 9 : 18).
After the occupation of Canaan the con-
gregation was assembled only on matters
of the highest importance. In the later
periods of Jewish history the congrega-
tion was represented by the Sanhedrim.
Co-ni^ah, Jec-o-ni'ah. SeeJEHO-
lACHlN.
Oon^science, that within us which
judges the moral character of our actions,
comparing them with the precepts of the
moral law, and approving or censuring us
as these actions are consciously right or
wrong (Acts 24 : 16; Rom. 2 : 15). This
moral sense may be weakened, perverted,
stupefied, defiled and hardened in various
ways ; hence its decisions are more or less
clear, just and imperative according to the
degree of improvement in the understand-
ing and heart, and especially according to
the degree in which its purity and sensi-
tiveness liave been preserved and culti-
vated (John 8:9; Acts 23 : 1 ; Rom. 9 :
1 ; 1 Tim. 1 : 5).
Consecrate, Consecration. Tlie
verbal idea in the Hebrew is to " fill the
hands" — /. e. with authority aqd special
ap[)ropriation, and so, " to consecrate "
is to set apart or devote a person or
a thing to the service of God (Ex.
32 : 29; Lev. 7 : 37). Thus, the tribe of
Levi was consecrated to the priesthood
with the most solemn and imposing cere-
monies (Ex. 28 : 29). Thus, too, vessels
(Josh. 6 : 19), fields (Lev. 27 : 28), cattle
(2 Chron. 29 : 33) and other things were
set apart or devoted to sacred uses.
Con-ver-sa'tion. This word, as
used in Gal. 1:13, Phil. 1 : 27, does not
mean, as now, colloquial intercourse, but
the course and tenor of one's life. In
Phil. 3 : 20 it has the sense of citizen-
!>liip, or the acting of Christians as citi-
zens.
Con-ver'sion, the turning of a sinner
to God (Acts 15 : 3). As regeneration is
the renewment of the soul's nature by the
power of the Holy Ghost, so conversion is
140
CONVOCATION— CORBAN.
tlie forthputting in act of tliat new nature,
a positive turning " fron> darkness to light,
and from the power of Satan unto God"
(Acts 2() : 18). In common usage it de-
notes tlie change of heart and life experi-
enced by one who becomes a true believer.
The institution of the ministry and em-
ployment of the various means of grace
have as their principal aim the produc-
tion of this great change, without which
no one can be saved. And since the con-
vert has new feelings, new principles and
new pleasures, so he has new objects of
pursuit and leads a new life. With him
"old things are passed away, behold, all
things are become new" (2 Cor. 5 : 17).
Con-vo-ca'tion. This term is ap-
plied invariably to meetings of a religious
character in contradistinction to congrega-
tion. It is the congregation in assembly,
whereas congregation alone means the
body of members, whether in assembly
or not. With one exception (Isa. 1 : 13)
the word convocation is peculiar to the
Pentateuch.
Co'os, otherwise Cos, now called Stan-
chio, a small and fertile island in the ^Egean
Sea, near the coast of Caria in Asia Minor.
It was celebrated for its wines, ointments
and beautifid stufTs of silk and cotton. It
w:is the birthplace of Hippocrates, and in
its chief city (bearing the same name) was
a famous temple of Jisculapius. Paul
passed it in his voyage to Jerusalem
(Acts 21 : 1).
Copingr, the top-finishing of a wall ( 1
Kings 7 : 9).
Cop'per, a primitive metal, very duc-
tile and malleable. In our English Ver-
sion the Hebrew word which designates
it is uniformly and incorrectly rendered
"brass." In two passages (2 Sam. 22 : 35
and Jer. 15 : 12) it is rendered "steel ;" in
one passage only (Ezra 8 : 27) is it prop-
erly rendered "copper." By the ancients
it was almost exclusively used for common
purposes. The vessels in the tabernacle
and temple were made of it (Num. 16 : 39).
Chains (Judg. IG : 21), pillars (1 Kings 7 :
15-21), lavers (2 Kings 25: 13), mirrors
(Ex. 38 : 8; Job 37 : 18), and even arms,
helmets, spears, etc. (1 Sam. 17 : 5, 6, 38),
were made of it.
Cor, a liquid measure containing, ac-
cording to Josephus, eighty-nine gallons
(Ezek. 45 : 14).
Cor'al, a hard cretaceous marine pro-
duction, of which there are many beauti-
ful varieties. It arises from the deposit
of calcareous matter by a minute animal
known as the coral inject. The extent
of the labors of these minute animals may
be judged from the fact that coral forms the
basis of many large islands. Coral reefs
and coral islands abound in the Red Sea,
whence the Hebrews readily obtained it.
The more beautiful and rarer kinds of
coral are formed into ornamental articles
of jewelry. In Job 28 : 18 and Ezek. 27 :
16 (the only two passages in which the word
occurs in our English Vei-sion) coral is
ranked among precious stones.
Cor'ban, a gift or offering to God in
fulfillment of a vow. The Jews often con-
secrated a portion of their property to the
service of religion, and what was thus de-
voted became sacred, and could not be taken
for ordinary uses. The custom was liable
to great abuses. A person might thus ex-
empt himself from any inconvenient obli-
gation under plea of corhan, or devoted to
God. A debtor might deprive his cred-
itor of his just rights by declaring his
property corban; and our Lord refers to
another and still more heartless abuse, by
Avhich an unnatural son might, under the
pretence of having devoted liis property
to God, evade his obligation to mainta'n
his parents (Mark 7:11). Should tiie
parents, under the pressure of necessity,
ask the son for pecuniary aid which lie
was unwilling to give, their claim could
be successfully resisted and his obligation
efiectuallv annulled if he affirmed of his
COR E— CORMOR A NT.
141
property, "It is corban ; it is consecrated
to the service of God."
Co're (Jude 11), tlie same as Ko'rah
(which see).
Co-ri-an'der, the small, round, white
seed of an aromatic plant. The form and
color of the manna which fell in the wil-
derness are comi)ared to coriander-seed
(Ex. 16: 31; Num. 11 : 7).
Cor^inth, a noted city of Greece, sit-
uated on the narrow isthmus whicli con-
nects the Morea or Peloponnesus with the
mainland. According to Homer, its ear-
liest name was Ephyrci. It had two har-
bors, Cenchrea, on the south-eastern side,
eight miles distant, and Lechseum, on the
north-western side, a mile and a half dis-
tant. Situated thus advantageously, it
took high rank as a commercial city, and
became exceedingly populous and wealthy.
It was celebrated for the architectural ele-
gance of its public buildings, and still more
for the dissolute habits of its people. Its
citadel stood upon the Acrocorinthus,
which rose nearly two thousand feet
above the city, and was itself a gigantic
natural fortress. In the year b. c. 146
this beautiful city was destroyed by
the Romans, who for a century pre-
vented its rebuilding. In the year
B. c. 46, Julius Csesar restored it, and
made it the Roman capital of the
province of Achaia. It was repeo-
pled in part by freedmen from Rome.
Its former sjalendor and licentious-
ness soon returned. Magnificent tem-
ples, palaces, baths, altars and statues
adorned it. Its fortress was thought to
be the strongest in Greece. This new
city was the Corinth of the Ncav Tes-
tament. About a century after its restora-
tion, in A. D. 52, Paul visited it, and, from
its heterogeneous population of Romans,
Greeks and Jews gathered a Christian
church (Acts 18: 1-11).
To this church, between A. d. 56 and 58,
the apostle addressed two Epistles, which
set in strong light the peculiar social con-
dition of the city. The design of the Epis-
tles was threefold : to correct some errors
in doctrine which false teachers had per-
suaded the church to embrace ; to coun-
teract a spirit of schism which was sepa-
rating the church into parties ; and to
condemn certain irregular and immoral
practices which, without proper rebuke
from the Church, were injuriously affect-
ing its growth and power for good.
Subsequently, disaster and change came
to Corinth. For more than a dozen cen-
turies now the once splendid city lias been
a miserable ruin. Amid the sad and shat-
tered remnants of its ancient architectural
glory a wretched village called Gortho, in-
habited by a few forlorn families, is all that
marks the site.
Cor'mo-rant. Two Hebrew words
are thus rendered in our English Ver-
sion.
1. Shalak, that which casfs itself doicn,
occurring only in Lev. 11 : 17 ; Dent. 14 :
17. According to the passages where the
term occurs, the t'hulak was an unclean
Cormorant.
bird. It is supposed to have been a spe-
cies of " tern " or sea-swallow, and to have
had the habit of rising high into the air,
and, after partially closing its wings, fall-
ing straight as an arrow on its prey, and
in a few seconds emerging again from the
water.
142
CORN— COUNSEL.
2. Kaath, rendered "cormorant" in Isa.
34 : 11 ; Zeph. 2 : 14, is elsewhere trans-
lated " pelican." It belongs to the pelican
family, and lives on fish. It is remark-
ably voracious, and has such a quick di-
gestion that its appetite appears insati-
able. It is trained to fish for man's use
in Cliina. It is common on the coasts of
Syria and Palestine.
Corn. This word, in the English Scrip-
tures as still in England, is the general
name for all sorts of grain, including
even some species of pulse (Gen. 27 : 28-
37 ; Num. 18 : 27). Palestine was a corn-
exporting country, and her grain was
largely taken by her commercial neigh-
bor. Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 17).
Cor-ne'li-us, a Roman centurion of
the Italian cohort stationed in Csesarea
(Acts 10 : 1-8), a man full of good works
and alms-deeds. With his household he
was baptized by the apostle Peter, and
thus became the first-fruits of the Gentile
world to Christ.
Cor'ner, an angle (Prov. 7:8); the
extreme boundary (Isa. 11 : 12; Jer. 48 :
45) ; a secret place (Acts 26 : 26) ; a pow-
erful ruler or leader (Zech. 10 : 4; Num.
24 : 17, 19).
Cor'ner-Stone, a principal stone in
the foundation of a building (.Job 38 : 6)
or at the front angle (Ps. 1 18 : 22). Some
of tlie corner-stones in tlie ancient work
of the temple foimdations are nineteen
feet long and seven and a half feet thick.
Our Lord, as the foundation of the Church,
is denominated the chief Corner-stone (Isa.
28: 16; Eph. 2 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 2:6, 7).
Cor'net [Hebrew shdphdr], a loud-
sounding instrument of music, made of
the horn of a ram or of a chamois
(sometimes of an ox), and used by the
ancient Hebrews for signals ; for proclaim-
ing the jubilee year (Lev. 25 : 9) ; for an-
nouncing the approach of an enemy (Ezek.
33: 4, 5) ; for use in war (Jer. 4 : 5, 19). The
W'Ord thus rendered in our English Ver-
sion is commonly rendered "trumpet,"
but its rendering as "cornet" occurs in 1
Chron. 15 : 28; 2 Chiron. 15 : 14; Ps. 98 :
6 ; Hos. 5 : 8.
Cotes, properly cribs, hence pens or en-
closures for flocks (2 Chron 32 : 28). The
word is still preserved in dovecote. It is
the root of our common terms cot, cottage.
Cot^tage, the rendering in our Eng-
lish Version of three Hebrew words.
The first Hebrew word {sukkah') signifies
a hut made of boughs (Isa. 1 : 8), and is
usually translated booth. The second He-
brew word {melunah') signifies a lodging-
place, and occurs in Isa. 24 : 20, where it
denotes a hanging bed or hammock sus-
pended from trees, in which travelers, and
especially the watchmen in gardens, were
accustomed to sleep in summer, so as to be
out of tlie reach of wild beasts. The third
Hel)rew word [keroth') signifies pits for
holding water, and occurs in Zeph. 2 : 6,
where, instead of the rendering "dwellings
and cottages for shepherds," the rendering
should be " fields full of shepherds' cisterns "
for the purpose of watering flocks.
Couch, something spread (Gen. 49 : 4) ;
something to lie upon (Job 7 : 13) ; a Utile
bed ( Luke 5:19, 24) ; a pallet (Acts 5:15).
The verb " to couch " has the sense of to
lie (Gen. 49 : 9 ; Deut. 33 : 13 ; Job 38 :
40).
Conifer, the fore-iron of a plougli that
cuts the earth (1 Sam. 13 : 20).
Coun'cil, an assembly of men convened
for consultation and deliberation (John 11 :
47). Tlie Avord in the Gospels refers, first,
to the Sanliedrim or supreme council of
the Jews (Matt. 5 : 22 ; Mark 15:1); and,
second, to the smaller tribunals in the
cities of Palestine subordinate to the San-
hedrim (Matt. 10 : 17 ; Mark 13 : 9).
Coun'eel. This word, besides its com-
mon signification as advice or ojiinion giv-
en upon deliberation or consultation, is used
to denote the secret purpose and determi-
nation of God. Thus, our Lord was deliv-
COUNSELLOE— COVENANT.
143
ered up " by the determinate counsel and
foreknowledge of God" (Acts 2 : 23; 4 :
28). Thus, too, our Lord's followers are
said to obtain in him "an inheritance,
being predestinated according to the pur-
pose of Him who worketh all things after
the counsel of his own will" (Eph. 1 :
11).
Coun'sel-lor, one who from his wis-
dom and experience is supposed to be able
to give judicious advice (2 Sam. 15 : 12).
Our Lord Jesus Christ, who with the Fa-
ther devised the plan of salvation, and
who is possessed of all knowledge and
wisdom, is called Counsellor (Isa. 9 :
6).
Coun'te-nance. See Face.
Coup'ling", a connecting loop, chain
or bar (Ex. 2G : 4; 2 Chron. 34 : 11).
Course. See Abia.
Court, an open enclosure, applied in
our English Version most commonly to
the enclosures of the tabernacle and the
temple (Ex. 27 : 9 ; Lev. 6 : 16; Jer. 19 :
14). It also designates the quadrangular
area in Eastern houses denominated in
the New Testament "the midst" or centre
(Luke 5:19). This court was frequently
paved with marble, was sometimes orna-
mented with a fountain and sometimes
was roofed (Luke 7 : 6). See House.
Cov'e-nant, a mutual contract or
agreement between two parties, each of
which is bound to fulfill certain engage-
ments to the other. An ancient mode of
ratifying a covenant was the passing of
the contracting parties between the di-
vided parts of a slain animal, and is re-
ferred to in Jer. 34 : 18.
The word testamentmn, in Latin, is often
used to express the HebrcAV word which
means covenant, and hence we have the
Old and New Testaments, instead of the
more proper designations. Old and New
Covenants.
Of the various special covenants into
which, in the history of our race, God has
j entered, the two most prominent and most
significant are the covenant of works and
the covenant of grace.
1. The Covenant OF Works. — This is
well described in the answer to the twelfth
question of the Shorter Catechism : " Wlien
God had created man, he entered into a
covenant of life with him, upon condition
of perfect obedience ; forbidding him to
eat of the tree of knowledge of good and
evil, upon the pain of death." As this
covenant was not between equals, the
terms being proposed by a sovereign Law-
giver, it is also called the law and the law
of ivorks (Eom. 3 : 27 ; Gal. 2 : 19). In
this transaction are all the essential parts
of a covenant. (1) There are covenant-
ing parties — viz. God and Adam. (2)
There is the condition — viz. perfect obe-
dience, upon which Adam is to secure life,
the blessing of the covenant. (3) There
are the sanctions or confirmations of the
covenant engagements. The result of dis-
obedience in Adam is to be death ; the re-
ward of obedience in Adam is to be life.
God proposes a simple test of obedience ;
Adam is fully able to comply. God binds
himself by promise ; Adam binds himself
under penalty. And as Adam is the rep-
resentative of the human race, his obedi-
ence or disobedience is to aflfect beneficial-
ly or disastrously the whole of his descend-
ants. Adam disobeys and transmits the
curse to all his children (Rom. 5 : 12; 1
Cor. 15 : 21). His breach of covenant has
rendered salvation by obedience to the law
an utter impossibility. Human nature is
now corrupt, "being alienated from the
life of God" (Eph. 4 : 18).
2. The Covenant of Grace. — This
is also well described in the answer to
the twentieth question of the Shorter
Catechism, " God, having, out of his mere
good pleasure, from all eternity, elected
some to everlasting life, did enter into a
covenant of grace, to deliver them out of
the estate of sin and misery, and to bring
144
COVENANT OF SALT— CRAFT.
them into an estate of salvation by a Re-
deemer." In tliis covenant the parties
contracting are the Fatlier on tlie one
side, and the Son, our Lord Jesus Christ,
on the otlier. The Father engages to save
his elect people, and for them our Lord
engages to satisfy the law. In fulfill-
ing his covenant engagements our Lord
assumes human nature, and as the second
Adam becomes the representative of his
people. He obeys the law's precepts and
suffers the law's penalty. He "makes
reconciliation for iniquity and brings in
everlasting righteousness" (Dan. 9 : 24).
He thus becomes " the mediator of a bet-
ter covenant" (Heb. 8 : 6).
Cov'e-nant of Salt. As salt is an
emblem of incorr\(ptibiUiij and permanence,
so a covenant of salt is an everlasting cov-
enant. The phrase occurs in Num. 18 ;
19; 2 Chron. 13 : 5; comp. Lev. 2 : 13.
Cov'ert. This word does not occur
in our Authorized Vei-sion of the New
Testament, but in that of the Old Testa-
ment it occurs nine times, and is the ren-
dering of several Plebrew words. In 1 Sam.
25 : 20 ; Job 40 : 21 ; Ps. 61:4; Isa. 16 : 4 ; 32 .
2, it represents a Hebrew word which has
the general sense of something hidden, pri-
vate, secret, and is used to designate a secret
place or shelter. In Isa. 4 : 6 it represents
a Hebrew word which has the general
sense of protection. In Job 38 : 40 ; Jer.
25 : 38, it represents a Hebrew word which
has the general sense of a booth or hut, and
which is figuratively applied to the thicket
or lair where wild beasts hide. In 2 Kings
16 : 18 we read that Ahaz, when spoiling
the temple, " took down the covert for the
Sabbath that they had built in the house."
The word covert in this passage represents
a form of the Hebrew word which means a
booth, and evidently designates a covered
place, a platform or hall, in the fore-court
of the temple, set apart for the king when
he visited the temple Avith his retinue
on the Sabbaths or feast-days.
Cov'e-tous-ness, in a general sense
an inordinate desire of worldly possessions ;
in a more restricted sense, the desire of
increasing one's substance by appropria-
ting that of others. Closely allied to sel-
fishness and readily degenerating into
avarice, it is strongly condenuied and
denounced in Scripture, where it is al-
most always associated witli vices of
bodily impurity (1 Cor. 6:10; Eph. 5 :
5 ; Col. 3:5; 1 Tim. 6 : 10).
Crack'nels, a species of hard cake or
bread (1 Kings 14 : 3).
Craft. This word is used in the Scrip-
tures in two senses.
I. Cunning, deceit, guile (Dan. 8 : 25 ;
Mark 14: 1).
II. Trade, occupation, business (Acts
18: 3; 19 : 25, 27; Rev. 18 : 22). A
slight sketch of the principal trades men-
tioned in Scripture is subjoined.
1. Metal- WORKIXG. — The preparation
of iron for use either in war, in agriculture
or for domestic purposes, and the work-
ing in bronze, an alloy of copper and tin
("brass" in our Authorized Version), were
among the earliest applications of labor
(Gen. 4 : 22). In the construction of the
tabernacle copper, not iron, was employed,
although at the time the use of iron must
have been familiar to the Jews (Ex. 20 :
25; 27 : 19). After the conquest the oc-
cupation of a smith was recognized as a
distinct employment (1 Sam. 13 : 19, 20).
The smith's work and its results are often
mentioned in Scripture (2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1
Kings 6 : 7 ; 2 Chron. 26 : 1 4 ; Isa. 44 : 12 ;
54 : 16). The worker in gold and silver
must have found employment both among
the Hebrews and the neighboring nations
in very early times, as appears from the
ornaments sent by Abraham to Rebekaii,
and from numerous other facts (Gen. 24 :
22, 53 ; 35 : 4 ; 38 : 18 ; Dent. 7 : 25).
2. "Wood -WORKING. — The carpenter
and his work have frequent mention in
Scripture (Gen. 6:14; Ex. 37 ; Isa. 41 : 7 ;
CRAG— CRETE.
145
44 : 13). The references in Isaiah are
proofs that the Jewish carpenters were
able to carve with some siiill. In the
New Testament the occupation of a car-
penter is mentioned in connection with
Joseph, and by way of reproach, or per-
haps of wonder, is ascribed to our Lord
(Matt. 13: 55; Mark 6: 3).
3. Stone-workixg.— The masons em-
ployed by David and Solomon, at least
the chief of them, were Phoenicians (1
Kings 5:18; 1 Chron. 22 : 2). The larger
stones used in Solomon's temple are said
by Josephus to have been fitted together
exactly without mortar or cramps, but
the foundation-stones to have been fas-
tened with lead. For ordinary buildings
mortar was used ; sometimes bitumen, as
was the case at Babylon (Gen. 11 : 3).
The lime, clay and straw of which mortar
is generally composed in the East require
to be very carefully mixed and united so as
to resist storms. The wall " daubed with
untempered mortar" of Ezek. 13 : 10 was
perhaps a wall of mud or clay without
lime, which under heavy rain would give
Avay. These mud walls are only common
where rains are infrequent.
4. Spinning and Weaving. — The arts
of spinning and weaving wool and flax
were carried on in early times, as now
among the Bedouin, by women. The
good housewife was noted for her skill
and industry in these arts (Ex. 35 : 25,
26; Lev. 19 : 19; Deut. 22 : 11 ; 2 Kings
23 : 7; Prov. 31 : 13, 24; Ezek. 16 : 16).
When the loom, with its beam (1 Sam.
17 : 7), pin (Judg. 16 : 14) and shuttle
(Job 7:6), was introduced we do not
know, but pictures of it older than the
Exodus are now found in Egypt. To-
gether with weaving we read also of cm-
broidery, in which gold and silver threads
were interwoven with the body of the stuff,
sometimes in figure-patterns or with pre-
cious stones set in the needlework (Ex.
26: 1; 28 : 4; 39 : 6-13).
10
5. Dyeing and Dressing CiiOTH, Tan-
ning AND Dressing Leather. — These
arts and trades were extensively followed
in Palestine (Josh. 2 : 15-21 ; 2 Kings 1 :
8 ; Matt. 3:4; Acts 9 : 43).
6. Tent-making. — This was a common
occupation, and in the Roman empire fur-
nished a liveliiiood to many Jews (Acts
18 : 3).
7. Boat and Ship-building. — Fish-
ing-boats were largely used on the Sea of
Galilee (Matt. 8 : 23; 9:1; John 21 : 3,
8). Solomon built at Ezion-Geber ships
for his foreign trade, which were manned
by Phoenician crews — an experiment which
Jehoshaphat endeavored in vain to renew
(1 Kings 9 : 26, 27 ; 22 : 48 ; 2 Chron. 20 :
36, 37).
In addition to the above, there were
shoemakers, tailors, barbers, perfumers,
plasterers, glaziers, painters, potters, brick-
makers, butchers, bakers, cheesemongers.
Crag', the top or pinnacle of a rock
(Job 39 : 28) ; literally, "the tooth of the
cliff."
Crane. The word so translated is
found only in Isa. 38 : 14 and Jer. 8 : 7,
and critics are not agreed whether the
term is rightly appropriated. It cannot
well be the crane, for while this bird is
migratory, it is not a chatterer, as one of
the above passages intimates. According
to the testimony of most of the ancient
versions, it is a "swallow."
Crave, to desire earnestly (Prov. 16 :
26).
Cre-a'te, to call into being what never
existed in any form or manner before (Gen.
1:1; Col. 1 : 16). It is also employed in
Scripture to express the reproduction in
the human soul of those holy qualities
and dispositions which sin destroyed (Ps.
51 : 10; Eph. 2: 10; 4: 24).
Cres'cens, one of Paul's fellow-labor-
ers (2 Tim. 4 : 10), said to have been one
of the seventy disciples.
Crete, one of the largest islands in the
146
CEIB— CROSS.
Mediterranean, now called Candia, and by
the Turks, Kirid. It is about one hundred
and sixty miles long and from six to thirty-
five miles wide. Although mountainous,
it yet has many fruitful valleys. It is
particularly productive in olives, grapes, i
figs and pistachio-nuts. Its inhabitants j
were represented in the great throng
which heard the gospel in Jerusalem on
the day of Pentecost (Acts 2 : 11). The
Cretans claim a very ancient ancestry, and
from time immemorial have been intelli-
gent, active, enterprising, skillful. Their
moral characteristics, however, have ever
been much inferior to their mental. To-
day, as in every past age, they illustrate
the quotation from Epimenides, one of
their own poets, which Paul gives: "The
Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, slow
bellies" (Tit. 1 : 12). A Christian cluirch
was established in Crete, of which Titus
was the minister (Tit. 1:5). In Paul's
voyage to Italy the vessel which bore him
was driven out of its course, and sailing 1
"under Crete, over against Salmone," a
promontory on the eastern side of the
island, "came unto a place called the
Fair Havens, nigh whereunto was the
city of Lasea" (Acts 27 : 7, 8). Here j
Paul advised the centurion who had him
and other prisoners in charge, and the
master and owner of the ship, to winter. I
His advice was disregarded, and in at-
tempting to make the harbor of Phenice,
one of tlie best in Crete, the vessel was to- '
tally wrecked (Acts 27). Since the New
Testament times the fortunes of Crete
have been diverse, and, in the main, dis-
astrous. In 1866 the Cretans made an
unsuccessful effort to throw off the Turk-
ish yoke and to secure annexation to
Greece. Though defeated then, tliey have
the conviction that they will not always be.
They bide their time, and from present ap-
pearances their time is not distant.
Crib, the rack or manger in a cattle-
stall (Prov. 14: 4; Isa. 1 : 3).
Crim'son, a well-known and admired
shade of red (2 Chron. 2:7), thus called
from kei-mes, the Arabian name of the in-
sect that produces the dye. Some sliades
of crimson and scarlet are such fjast colors
that they cannot, by any processes known to
modern chemistry, be waslied out. Hence
the propriety and beauty of the figure in
Isa. 1:18, where God otlers the most free
and perfect forgiveness to guilt of the
deepest stain.
Crisp'ing-Pins (Isa. 3 : 22), supposed
to be a female ornament, like the modern
reticule, richly ornamented and attached to
the girdle. The equivalent word in Ara-
bic means a money-purse.
Oris 'pus, the chief of the Jewish
synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18 : 8), who
after his conversion was baptized by Paul
(1 Cor. 1 : 14).
Cross, a gibbet made of two beams of
wood placed transversely in the shape of
a T or X or -t- , on which criminals were
executed. This mode of punishment was
not practiced by the Jews ; among the Ro-
mans it was reserved for slaves or the most
atrocious criminals. The victim, with out-
stretched arms, was either bound with cords
or nailed through the hands and feet to the
cross as it lay on the ground, and from the
uplifting of the upright beam, and the
thrusting it into the hole prepared for it,
was made to suffer the acutest agony.
Death-pains thus inflicted were not only
excruciating, but lingering, the unhappy
person often surviving for several days.
In the narrative of our Saviour's endur-
ing this ignominious death the various
circumstances are mentioned which it is
supposed were the usual attendants of the
punishment. He was scourged ; compel-
led to bear the transverse beam of his cross
to the place of execution ; his garments
were distributed among his executioners ;
a stupefying drink was offered to him ;
and a title or superscription, indicating
the accusation against him, was placed
CEOWN— CUP.
147
at the top of the cross. By this humil-
iating, painful and accursed death the
Son of God made expiation for sin ; and
hence the cross is used to designate the
great work of redemption (1 Cor. 1 : 17,
18 ; Col. 1 : 20 ; Gal. 6 : 14). The cross is
also figuratively used as expressive of the
reproaches and trials which the followers
of Christ must endure (Matt. 16 : 24).
Crown, the top of the head (Jer. 2 :
16). Also an ornament for the head,
chiefly worn by royal personages as a
symbol of their power. Anciently it was
a simple fillet bound round the head, but
afterward assumed various and expensive
forms (2 Sam. 12 : 30). Upon the head
of our blessed Lord, in cruel mockery of
his kingly claim, a crown of thorns was
placed (Matt. 27 : 29).
Cru'ci-fy. See Cross.
Cruse, a small vessel or flask for hold-
ing water and other liquids (1 Sam. 26 :
11; 1 Kings 19: 6).
Crys^tal, a beautifully clear and trans-
parent stone, a colorless quartz, found un-
der regular forms or in masses. In Job
38 : 29 the word is translated ice, to which
the rock-crystal bears a strong resemblance.
The ancients indeed supposed rock-crystal
to be merely ice congealed by intense cold.
Its transparency is referred to in Eev. 4 :
6. The Greek word thus rendered in the
New Testament means originally ice, and
then any substance equally transparent.
Cu'bit, a measure of length not accu-
rately determined, because its standard, the
length of the lower arm, is a variable one.
Under the name two measures of length
seem to be referred to — the ordinary one,
eighteen inches; the longer one, twenty-
one inches.
Cuck'oo. The Hebrew word thus
rendered occurs twice only (Lev. 11 : 16;
Deut. 14 : 15) as the name of some un-
clean bird, and probably indicates some
of the larger petrels which abound in
the east of the Mediterranean.
Cu'cum-taer. This word first occurs
in Num. 11 : 5, as one of the good things
of Egypt for which the Israelites in the
wilderness longed. Cucumbers and mel-
ons were, and still are, abundant in Egypt.
The cucumber is especially refreshing, and
is possessed of so much nutritive property
as to make it a general favorite. The
" lodge in a garden of cucumbers " ( Isa. 1 :
8) is a rude temporary shelter erected in
the open grounds where vines, cucumbers,
gourds, etc. are grown, in which some lone-
ly man or boy is set to watch, either to
guard the plants from robbers or to scare
away the foxes and jackals.
Cud. Animals that chew their cud are
referred to in Lev. 11 : 3-7 ; Deut. 14:6-
8. By a wonderful contrivance some ani-
mals are provided with several stomachs.
When grazing their food is swallowed
without mastication, and when at rest
they can throw up from one of their
stomachs to their mouth round balls of
this food, which they can then chew at
their leisure. An observer can see in a
ruminating or cud-chewing animal the
muscular impulse in its throat by which
the cud is thrown up.
Cum'min, an umbelliferous plant, the
seeds of which contain an oil of a grate-
ful and stimulating nature, used medicinal-
ly and as a condiment. It seems to have
been extensively cultivated in ancient times
in the East (Isa. 28 : 25), as it is at present.
It is one of the articles which the self-right-
eous Pharisees tithed, while they neglected
the weightier matters of the Law (Matt. 23 :
23).
Cup. The cups of the Jews, whether
of metal or earthenware, were similar,
most likely, to those of Egypt, as pictured
on the monuments or seen in specimens
dug from the ruins of cities. They were
various in shape, material and embellish-
ment. In Solomon's time all his drink-
ing-vessels were of gold, none of silver (1
Kings 10 : 21). Figuratively, the cup is
148
CUPBEARER— CUTH.
used to denote blessing or misfortune.
Tlius, "my cup runneth over" (Ps. 23:5)
is eloquent of abundant mercy ; and thus,
too, "the cup of trembling" (Isa. 51 : 17)
is equally eloquent of sore judgment. In
like manner the Psalmist speaks of " the
Egj-ptian Cups.
cup of salvation" (Ps. 116 : 13), and the
apostle Paul of "the cup of blessing" (1
Cor. 10 : 16). In like manner also the
bitter sufferings of our Lord in the gar-
den and on the cross are spoken of as a
" cup " of which it was necessary for him
to drink (Matt. 26 : 39).
Cup'bear-er, an officer of high rank
with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, as well
as Jewish monarchs (1 Kings 10 : 5).
The cliief cupbearer or butler to the
king of Egypt was the means of raising
Joseph to his high position (Gen. 40 : 1,
21 ; 41 : 9). Rabshakeh, from his name
which is properly that of his title, and
signifies chief cupbearer, filled a like
office in the Assyrian court (2 Kings 18 :
17). Nehemiah was cupbearer to Artax-
erxes Longimanus, king of Persia (Neh.
1 : 11; 2:1).
Curse. In Scripture the word curse is
the opposite of the word bless. The sense
of the word is to imprecate evil upon any
one (Gen. 9:25; 27:12; Neh. 13:2;
Matt. 5 : 44 ; John 7 : 49 ; James 3:9).
The curses pronounced by Noah, Moses,
Joshua, David and others, as recorded in
Scripture, are not the utterances of jxis-
sion or the suggestions of revenge. Tliev
were pronounced under the immediate in-
fluence of God's Spirit, and are to be re-
garded as predictions of evil in
the form of imprecation. The
"curse of the law" indicates
that state of condemnation in
which every human being is
found, and from which our
Lord redeems us by "being
made a curse for us" (Gal. 3 :
13).
Cush, the name of a region
inhabited by tribes of the Ham-
ite family (Gen. 10 : 6-8; 1
Chron. 1 : 8-10; Isa. 11 : 11).
In the majority of instances in
which the word occurs, Cush is
associated with Egypt in Africa,
but is sometimes found in close connection
with Elam in Asia. Hence the conjectures
as to its precise geographical position have
been many and conflicting. The transla-
tors of our Version make it most gener-
ally the equivalent of Ethiopia. In tlie
ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia,
: above Egypt, is denominated Kush hun-
j dreds of times, as P^bers, tlie Egyptologist,
! says, and its territory corresponds, beyond
a doubt, with the African Cush of onr
Scriptures.
Cusli'an (Hab. 3 : 7), the same, proba-
bly, as CrsH. See Ethiopia.
Cus'toms. The word means repeated
acts whicli acquire the power of law, and
is specially given to .Jewish ceremonial
observances so tenaciously observed (Acts
21 : 21). It also signifies tax or revenue
(Ezra 4 : 20; Matt. 17 : 25; Rom. 13 : 7).
Cuth or Cu'thah, one of the cities
whence Shalmaneser introduced colonists
into Samaria (2 Kings 17 : 24, 30). Its
position was long undetermined, but an
ancient Babvlonian citv of the name has
CUTTINGS— CYKENIUS.
149
recently been discovered at the distance
of about fifteen miles from Babylon it-
self.
Out'ting-s in the Flesh. Tlie pro-
hibition (Lev. 19 : 28) against marks or
cuttings in the flesh for the dead must be
taken in connection with the parallel pas-
sages (Lev. 21 : 5; Deut. 14 : 1), in which
shaving the head with the same view is
equally forbidden. The ground of the
prohibition will be found in the super-
stitious or inhuman practices prevailing
among heathen nations. The priests of
Baal cut themselves with knives to pro-
pitiate the god "after their manner" (1
Kings 18 : 28). The prohibition, there-
fore, is directed against practices prevail-
ing not among the Egyptians, whom the
Israelites were leaving, but among the
Syrians, to whom they were about to be-
come neighbors. Another usage contem-
plated, probably, by the prohibition was
that of printing marks (tattooing) to indi-
cate allegiance to a deity, in the same man-
ner as soldiers and slaves bore tattooed
marks to indicate allegiance or adscrip-
tion. This is evidently alluded to in
Rev. 13 : 16 ; 17 : 5 ; 19 : 20, and (al-
though in a contrary direction) in Ezek.
9:4; Gal. 6: 17; Rev. 7 : 3.
Cym'bal, a musical instrument con-
sisting of two convex pieces of brass,
which are struck together to mark the
rhythm or time, and which can produce
a loud clanging or a tinkling, soft sound
(2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150:5).
Cy^press. The Hebrew word thus
rendered is found only in Isa. 44 : 14. It
points to some tree with a hard grain, and
this is all that can be positively said of it.
Cy'prus, a large and well-known island
in the Mediterranean, off" the coast of Syria.
Its length is about one hundred and forty
miles ; its width varies from five to fifty
miles. It was celebrated for its fertility,
abounding in corn, wine and oil ; it was
equally celebrated for its mineral products.
In early times it was closely connected
commercially with Phoenicia, and there is
little doubt that it is referred to in such pas-
sages of the Old Testament as Ezek. 27 : 6.
Its inhabitants were luxurious and licen-
tious. In Paphos, one of its principal
cities, stood a far-famed temple dedicated
to Venus. The island and its principal
cities, Salamis and Paphos, are mentioned
several times in the New Testament. Cy-
prus was the native place of Barnabas
(Acts 4 : 36). The Christians who were
dispersed during the persecution which
arose after the martyrdom of Stephen
carried the gospel to the Jews of Cyprus
(Acts 11 : 19). Paul and Barnabas began
with Cyprus their first missionary journey,
so grandly rewarded by the conversion of
Sergius Paulus, the Roman deputy (Acts
13 : 4-13). Hither Barnabas, after he
had separated from Paul, came again in
company with Mark (Acts 15 : 39). Its
history for many centuries now has been
one of oppression and struggle, but its
recent cession by Turkey to England is
perhaps the opening of a new era of prog-
ress and prosperity. Its present popula-
tion numbers about one hundred thousand
souls, of whom one-third are Mohamme-
dans.
Cy-re'ne, a city in LTpper Libya, in
Africa, and the capital of a district called
from it Cyrenaica. It was founded by a
Greek colony about b. c. 632. After the
death of Alexander the Great it became
a dependency of Egypt and the residence
of many Jews. Simon, a Cyrenian Jew,
bore our Lord's cross to the place of exe-
cution (Mark 15 : 21). Men of Cyrene
were present in Jerusalem on the day of
Pentecost (Acts 2 : 10). Cyrenian Jews
had a synagogue at Jerusalem, and were
prominent in persecuting the early Chris-
tians (Acts 6 : 9-13). The city is now an
utter desolation, frequented only by wild
beasts and wandering Arabs.
Cy-re^ni-us (Luke 2 : 2), the literal
150
CYRUS.
MEDITERRANEAN s^.
^> r^
®.
c^^
xrfT^f;
Wi: ■■■;;:•'■••.• i^^'^'SA^ R . POL f^;'."\ ^
>' '"^^^ ,-'— '5\>'^'^ ■ ■' Jiipiteirf '^''■'Ammon : ■ \
^;
Map of
English translation of the Greek name,
which is itself the Greek form of the
Roman name Quirinus. The full name
is Publius Sulpicius Quirinus. He was
consul B. c. 12, and made governor of
Syria after the banishment of Archelaus
in A. D. 6. He was sent to make an en-
rollment of property and people in Syria.
As an enrollment took place at the time
of our Lord's birth, some difficulty in
settling the chronology has arisen, but it
disappears when we consider that there is
good reason for believing that Quirinus,
or Cyrenius, was twice governor of Syria,
and that his first governorship extended
from B. c. 4 (the year of our Lord's birth)
to B. c. 1, when he was succeeded by M.
Lollius.
Cyprus [the hrilUancy of the sun], a
prince, conqueror and statesman of great
renown, and an instrument chosen by Je-
hovah to execute his pur})oses of mercy
toward the Jews (Isa. 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1 ; Dan.
6 : 28). The early life of Cyrus is involved
in obscurity. According to the common le-
gend, he was the son of Mandane, the daugh-
ter of Astyages, the last king of Media, and
Cambyses, a Persian of the royal family of
Achfemenidae. In consequence of a dream,
Astyages, it is said, designed the death of
Cyrene.
his infant grandson, but the child was
spared by tliose whom he charged with
the commission of the crime, and was
reared in obscurity under the name of
Agradates. When he grew up to man-
hood his courage and genius placed him
at the head of the Persians. The tyranny
of Astyages had, at that time, alienated
a large faction of the Medes, and Cyrus
headed a revolt which ended in the de-
feat and capture of the Median king, b. c.
559. Afterconsolidating the empire which
he had tlius gained, Cyrus entered on that
career of conquest which has made him
the hero of the East. His conquests ex-
tended over all Western Asia, but the most
brilliant of them was that of Babylon, b. c.
538. After the reduction of Babylon he
ordered a return to their own land of the
Jews, who had been seventy years in cap-
tivity, and furnislied them very liberally
with tlie means of rebuilding their tem-
ple (Ezra 1 : 1-4). Hitherto, the great
kings with whom the Jews had been
brought into contact had been open op-
pressors or seductive allies, but Cyrus was
a generous liberator and a just guardian
of their rights. He fell in battle B. c. 529,
and his tomb is still shown at Pasargadae,
the scene of his victory over Astyages.
DABERATH— DAMASCUS.
151
D.
Dagon.
Dab'e-rath. [camel's hump'\, or Dab'-
a-reh, a town in the tribe of Issachar,
near the boundary of Zebulun (Josh. 19 :
12; 21 : 28). It was assigned to the Le-
vites. Under the name of Debavieh it
still lies at the western foot of Tabor.
Dag'ger, a sliort sword, usually made
with a double edge and suspended from
the girdle (Judg. 3 : 16, 21, 22). See
Arms.
Da^gon [a great fish], the national god
of tlie Philistines. He was represented
witli the face and
hands of a man
and the tail of a
fish (1 Sam. 5: 5).
The fish-like form
was a natural em-
blem of fruitful-
ness, and as such
was likely to be
adopted by seafar-
ing tribes. His most famous temples were
at Gaza (Judg. 16 : 21-30) and Ashdod (1
Sam. 5:5, 6; 1 Chron. 10:10).
Dal-ma-nu'tha. This place is men-
tioned in Mark 8 : 10 as "tlie parts of
Dalmanutha," and in the corresponding
passage in Matt. 15 : 39 we find the place
referred to as "the coast of Magdala."
These were probably neighboring towns
on tlie western shore of the Lake of Gen-
nesaret. Mary Magdalene was a native
of the latter place, hence her name, Mary
Magdalene, or Mary of Magdala.
Dal-ma'tia, a province of Europe on
the east of the Adriatic Sea, forming part
of Ulyricum and contiguous to Macedo-
nia. Paul sent Titus there to spread the
gospel (2 Tim. 4 : 10).
Dara'a-ris, an Athenian woman con-
verted to Christianity by Paul's preaching
(Acts 17 : 34). Chrysostom and others
held her to have been the wife of Dionys-
ius the Areopagite.
Da-mas'cus, a city of Syria, and one
of the oldest cities in the world. It is men-
tioned in Gen. 15 : 2 as the native place
of Eliezer, the steward of Abraham. It
is frequently referred to in the Old Testa-
ment and in the New. On his way to this
city Saul of Tarsus was converted, and from
it he subsequently made a remarkable es-
cape (Acts 9; 2 Cor. 11 : 32, 33). To the
great apostle belongs the unquestioned
honor of introducing Christianity into
Damascus (Acts 9 : 20; Gal. 1 : 12). At
the time of Paul's conversion many Jews
were residing in the city (Acts 9 : 2), and
many became Christians (Acts 11 : 19), but
the larger proportion of converts was from
the Gentiles. So rapidly did the gospel
spread among the population that in the
time of Constantine the great temple of
the city was converted into a cathedral
church. Now, as always, in regard to
beauty of site Damascus is one of the
most delightful and attractive spots in
the East. As you approach it you trav-
erse a parched and desolate country where
nothing refreshes the eye; "but," to use
the language of a traveler, " how changed
is the scene when, dazzled with the glare
of the sun and oppressed by heat, you
clamber up the rocks to seek a moment's
rest and shade under a small arched build-
ing called Kobbet-el-Nazzar, which crowns
the summit of the hill ! The instant you
reach it one of the most magnificent pros-
pects in the world bursts suddenly upon
you. You look directly down from an
elevation of a thousand feet on the city
of Damascus and its unrivaled plain with
a revulsion of feeling almost amounting to
ecstasy. ... In the foreground an unbroken
expanse of gardens and orchards advances
DAMNATION— DAN.
153
up to the very foot of the cliff on which you
stand, forming a circuit of more than fifty
miles ; in the midst of it, about two miles
from tlie western hills, is the beautiful city,
witli its picturesque minarets, its domes and
glittering crescents, like a fleet riding at an-
chor upon a little sea of the most richly- va-
riegated foliage." Although such is the ex-
ternal view, the traveler is disappointed on
his entrance into the city with its narrow
streets and not very inviting liouses. The
public buildings are, however, very splen-
did. One of tlie streets, a mile in length,
is still, as in the days of Paul, "call-
ed Straight" (Acts 9 : 11). The popula-
tion is estimated at one hundred and forty
thousand, Jews, Christians and Mohamme-
dans. Tlie latter are very fanatical, and in
1860 rose against the defenceless Chris-
tians, murdering six thousand of them in
cold blood. The plain of Damascus is in-
debted for its fertility to the river Barada,
the Abana to which Naaman the Syrian re-
ferred (2 Kings 5 : 12).
Dara-na'tion. This word is com-
monly employed to denote tlie final loss
of the soul, but in this sense it is not
always to be understood in Scripture.
Thus it is said in Rom. 13:2," They that
resist shall receive to themselves damna-
tion" (that is, judgment) "from the rulers,
who are not a terror to good works, but
to the evil." Again, in 1 Cor. 11 : 29,
"He that eatetli and drinketh unwortliily
eatetli and drinketh damnation to himself"
(that is, judgment) ; he exposes himself to
severe temporal judgments from God and
to tlie judgment and censure of the wise
and good. Again, Rom. 14 : 23, "He that
doubteth is damned if he eat" (that is, he
is condemned both by his own conscience
and the word of God).
Dan [judge'], the name of a son of Ja-
cob, of one of the Hebrew tribes and of a
city in Northern Palestine.
1. Dan was the fifth son of Jacob and
the first of Billiah, Rachel's maid (Gen.
30 : 6). The origin of the name is given
in the exclamation of Rachel, " God hath
judged me and given me a son, therefore
she called his name Dan," that is, "judge."
In the blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49 : 10) this
play on the name is repeated, " Dan shall
judge his people." The records of Dan
are unusually meagre. Only one son is
attributed to him (Gen. 46 : 23) ; but when
the people were numbered in the wilder-
ness of Sinai his tribe was, with the ex-
ception of Judah, the most numerous of
all, containing sixty-four thousand four
hundred able-bodied men fit for military
service (Num. 26 : 43).
2. The tribe of Dan had their allotment
in the south-western part of Palestine, in
the neighborhood of the Amorites and
Philistines, wliom they could not dispos-
sess. Their portion was the smallest of
any of the twelve tribes. Their great
representative warrior was Samson, whose
feats of strength and conflicts with the
Philistines form the materials of an in-
teresting chapter in the story of ancient
Israel (Judg. 13-16). Finding the terri-
tory assigned them too limited for their
number or too securely held by their ene-
mies to be availing, the Danites marched
northward, and, seizing the rich and flour-
ishing city of Laish, at the sources of the
Jordan, with the adjacent country, settled
themselves in new and more desirable
homes. They changed the name of Laish
to Dan, whicli is often mentioned in con-
nection with Beersheba, on the southern
extremity of Palestine, to indicate the
extent of the country (Judg. 20 : 1).
3. The city of Dan, the ancient Laish,
was not only the capital of the tribe of
Dan, but also the centre of an influential
image-worship. When the Danites were
marching to the conquest of Laish they
robbed Micah the Ephraimite of some
graven images, and persuaded a Levite
who had been serving Micah as priest to
join them. At Laish (or Dan) they set
154
DANCE.
up these graven images as objects of wor-
ship, establishing a priesthood and insti-
tuting a" ritual (Judg. 18). Subsequently,
Jeroboam, the first king of the separate
kingdom of Israel, chose Dan as the shrine
of one of the calves which he had conse-
crated to religious uses ( 1 Kings 12 : 29,
30). The site of Dan is identified with a
place now called Tell el-Kady, " the judge's
mound," near one of the fountains or
sources of the Jordan.
Dance, the motion of one or more
persons in steps regulated by music, and
the name of a musical instrument of per-
cussion.
1. Four words in Hebrew are rendered
in our English Version by the word dance,
in the sense of motion regulated by music.
The first and most frequently-employed
word is some form of the verbal root,
which literally signifies to twist, and which
refers most likely to the whirling motions
of the Oriental sacred dances (Ex. 15 : 20 ;
Judg. 21 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 6). The second
word embodies the idea of moving in a
cirde (1 Sam. 30 : 16). The third word
(Eccles. 3 : 4; Job 21 : 11 ; Isa. 13: 21;
1 Chron. 15 : 29) simply means to skip or
leap for joy, as it is elsewhere rendered,
and is nearly equivalent to the fourth
word (2 Sam. (i : 14, 16), which has the
radical sense of jumping or springing.
The verbal root of the words in the
New Testament translated to dance and
dancing literally means to leap by rule,
and its derivatives are used to denote a reg-
ular dance, either in concert (]Matt. 11:17;
Luke 7 : 32) or by a single pei-son, espe-
cially in the elaborate pantomime dance of
Roman times (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6 : 22).
The Jewish dances were generally ex-
pressions of religious joy and gratitude.
Sometimes they were practiced in honor of
a conqueror (1 Sam. 18 : 6, 7). In the re-
ligious service the timbrel or tambourine
regulated the dance, which was led by
some individual, whom the rest followed
with measured step and devotional song
(Ps. 150 : 4). When the Hebrews had
crossed the Red Sea, and had seen the
returning waves overwhelm their proud
pursuers, the women, headed by Miriam,
expressed the exultant feelmg of gratitude
"with timbrels and with dances" (Ex. 15 :
20, 21) ; and in after times the women, to
whom the dance seems to have been
largely left, made it the especial means
of expressing joyous emotions. From a
collection of the passages in Scripture re-
lating to the dance the following inferences
are warranted ;
(1.) That in true and idolatrous wor-
ship dancing was a religious act.
(2.) That on joyful occasions, such as
national festivals, great victories or fam-
ily festivities, dancing was resorted to as
an expression of rejoicing.
(3.) That on public occasions dancing
was performed only by one of the sexes.
(4.) That dancing was performed usually
in the daytime, in the open air, in high-
ways, fields and groves.
(5.) That no instances of dancing are
found upon record in which the two sexes
united in the exercise, either in worship or
amusement.
(6.) That no instances of social dancing
for mere amusement are found upon record,
except that of the "vain fellows" void of
shame alluded to by Michal, David's wife
(2 Sam. 6 ; 20); that of the wicked (Job
21 : 11-1 3 >, which produced impiety and
ended in destruction; and that of Herodias
(Mark 6 : 24-28), which terminated in the
rash vow of Herod and the murder of John
the Baptist.
2. The word dance is the rendering, in
our English Version, of a Hebrew Avord
which denotes a musical instrument of
jiercussion, and which is supposed to have
been used by the Hebrews at an early pe-
riod of their history. In the grand halle-
lujah psalm (150) the sacred poet exhorts
mankind to praise Jehovah in his sanctu-
DANIEL— DARIUS.
155
ary with all kinds of music, and he enu-
merates among the instruments (vs. 3-5)
one which in the fourth verse is trans-
lated " dance." This instrument is gener-
ally helieved to have been made of metal,
open like a ring ; it had many small bells
attached to its border, and at weddings and
merrymakings was played by women, who
accompanied it with the voice.
Dan'iel [God is my Judge], the name
of three persons mentioned in Scripture.
1. The second son of David by Abigail
the Carmelitess (1 Chron. 3 ; 1). In 2 Sam.
3 : 3 he is called Chileab.
2. A priest of the family of Ithamar,
who returned from the exile in the time
of " Artaxerxes," b. c. 469 (Ezra 8 : 2).
3. The fourth of " the greater prophets."
Nothing is certainly known of liis parent-
age and family, but lie appears to have
been of royal or noble descent (Dan. 1 :
3). In his early youth he was carried
captive from Jerusalem to Babylon, to-
gether with three other Hebrew youths
of rank, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah
(Dan. 1 : 6). This occurred " in the third
year of .Jehoiakim," king of Judah, B. c.
604. He, together with his companions,
was selected for his personal qualities to
reside at the court of Nebuchadnezzar,
and, having received the Chaldsean name
of Belteshazzar, he was thoroughly in-
structed in all the learning of the Chal-
dseans (Dan. 1 : 4). The prophet Ezekiel
(14 : 14; 28 : 3) speaks of him as distin-
guished for liis piety and wisdom. His
conscientiousness and firmness of charac-
ter were fully tested in his bold and pos-
itive refusal to receive his supplies from
the royal table, which, according to his
strict notions as a Jew, might have been
ceremonially unclean or prepared for idol-
atrous banquets (Dan. 1 : 8). This was a
remarkable instance of the strength of vir-
tue in one who had been removed at so
early an age from the salutary influences
of home and exposed to the powerful
temptations of a luxurious court. On an-
other occasion (Dan. 6 : 4-23), rather than
abandon or conceal his religious principles,
he exposed himself to the horrors of a cruel
and violent death. God, however, was
with him, and even ferocious beasts of
prey had no power to injure him. Hav-
ing the Spirit of God in him, he was en-
abled to interpret several remarkable
dreams and visions of Nebuchadnezzar
and Belshazzar, and thus to show his
superiority to all the learned magicians
and astrologers of Chaldfea. For these
services he was rewarded with the high-
est offices of state. The powerful combi-
nations formed for his destruction were
signally defeated, and a happy illustra-
tion furnished of the security of those
who maintain unshaken confidence in
God. Of the time and place of his death
we have no authentic account. He lived,
most likely, to a good old age, for he re-
tained his high honors after Babylon had
been subdued by the Medes and Persians
under Cyaxares and Cyrus.
Dan'i-el, Book of. This book was
undoubtedly written by Daniel. Besides
the deeply interesting historical narratives
which it contains, it embraces the most re-
markable prophecies on record, some of
which have been literally fulfilled, while
others refer to times still future. These
relate to the fate of monarchies, the ad-
vent and death of the Messiah, the resto-
ration of the Jews and the conversion of
the Gentiles. Part of this book is written
in the Chaldee, and the rest in the Hebrew
language.
Da-ri'us, the name of several kings
of Media and Persia.
1. Darius the Mede (Dan. 11 : 1), a
Median noble entrusted by Cyrus with the
government of Babylon. He succeeded
Belshazzar, king of the Chaldaeans (Dan.
5 : 30, 31).
2. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, the
founder of the Perso-Arian dynasty. Upon
156
DARKNESS— DAVID.
the usurpation of the Magian Smerdis he
conspired with six other Persian chiefs to
overthrow the impostor, and on the suc-
cess of his plot was placed upon tlie throne,
B. c. 521. With regard to the Jews he
pursued the same policy as Cyrus, and re-
stored to them the privileges they had lost
(Ezra 6 : 1-12; Hag. 1:1; Zech. 7 : 1).
3. Darius the Persian (Neh. 12: 22).
He is commonly identified with Darius II.,
surnamed Xothus, who died B. c. 405.
Dark'ness, the opposite of light. It
enshrouded the chaotic mass on the first
day of creation (Gen. 1:2). It also en-
shrouded the land of Egypt with a gloom
so dense that it might be felt (Ex. 10 : 21-
23). It enshrouded, moreover, our Lord
upon the cross, emblem of the blindness
and malice and cruelty which wrought
his death (Luke 23 : 44). It has in Scrip-
ture an extended figurative use. It denotes
adversity (Ps. 107 : 10), iniquity (Eph. 5:
11), the state of the dead (Job 10 : 21), ig-
norance, error, unbelief (John 3 : 19), the
place of future punishment (Matt. 8 : 12).
Dart. See Arms, Armor.
Da'than, a Reubenite chieftain, son
of Eliab, who joined the conspiracy of
Korah the Levite against Moses and'\a-
ron, and who, with all the conspirators,
w:is fearfully punished (Num. 16 : 1 ; 26 :
9; Deut. 11 : 6; Ps. 106: 17).
Daugh'ter, a word used in Scripture
in a variety of senses.
1. It is used not only for a daughter
proper, but for granddaughter or other
female descendant, much in the same
way and like extent with "son" (Gen.
24: 48; 31 : 43).
2. The female inhabitants of a city, of a
country and of a particular race are called
daughters (Gen. 6:2; 27 : 46 ; 28 : 6 ; 36 :
2 ; Num. 25 : 1 ; Deut. 23 : 17 ; Isa. 3:16;
Jer. 46 : 11 ; 49 : 2, 3, 4; Luke 23 : 28).
3. The same notion of descent explains
the phrase " daughters of music," that is,
singing birds (Eccles. 12:4); the use of
the word for branches of a tree (Gen. 49 :
22) and for the pupil of the eye (Lam.
2 : 18; Ps. 17 : 8); and the expression
" daughter of ninety years " to denote the
age of Sarah (Gen. 17 : 17).
4. It is also used of cities, either as a
personification or in the sense of suburbs
(Isa. 10 : 32 ; 23 : 12 ; Jer. 6 : 2, 20 ; Zech.
9:9).
5. More specifically, it is used of de-
pendent towns or hamlets, while to the
principal city the correlative " mother "
is applied (Num. 21 : 25 ; Josh. 17 : 11, 16;
Judg. 1 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 7 : 28).
Da'vid [the beloved], the youngest son
of Jesse of the tribe of Judah, the second
and most prominent of the line of Jewish
kings. His life is commonlv divided into
three portions — namely, his youth before
his introduction to the court of Saul, his
relations with Saul and his reign.
1. David's Youth. He was the young-
est son, probably the youngest child, of a
family of ten.' His mother's name is un-
known. When he was still young his fa-
ther was of a great age (1 Sam. 17 : 12).
His parents both lived till after his final
rupture with Saul (1 Sam. 22 : 3). His
great-grandmother was Ruth the Moab-
itess, and the connection with Moab which
thus was formed he remembered and rec-
ognized when, embarrassed by difficulties
and environed by foes, he escaped thither
and entrusted his aged parents to the care
of the king (1 Sam. 22 : 3). His birth-
place was Bethlehem, and for it he re-
tained through life the strongest affection ;
his recollection of thfe well at its gate is
one of the most touching incidents of his
later years (1 Chron. 11 : 17). The fact
that he was the youngest of his family
may possibly have prompted his parents
to give him the name David, or the be-
loved, and possibly, too, liis youth and his
name may have reared those insurmount-
able barriers against intimacy with his
brothers which beyond question existed.
DAVID.
157
He had from his nephews, however, the
confidence and esteem which his brothers
withheld. Tlie three sons of his sister
Zeruiali and the one son of his sister Abi-
gail were probably near his own age, and
were numbered among his best friends.
When Samuel appeared at Bethlehem to
anoint that son of Jesse as successor to
Saul whom the Lord should indicate (1
Sam. 16 : 1), David was a lad of fifteen
years, and, after the rejection by the
prophet of all his brothers, was summon-
ed from the sheepfold to receive the con-
secrating oil. He was of short stature,
with a ruddy countenance, such as is not
unfrequently seen in his countrymen of the
East at the present day. His bright eyes
are especially mentioned (1 Sam. 16 : 12),
and generally he was remarkable for the
grace of his figure and countenance, well
made and of immense strength and agil-
ity. His swiftness and activity made him
like a wild gazelle, his feet like harts' feet
and his arms strong enough to break a bow
of steel (Ps. 18 : 33, 3-4). His consecration
brought no immediate change in his em-
ployments. He pursued the life of a shep-
herd, developing that extraordinary genius
for music and poetry which was afterward
enshrined in the Psalms, and that daring
and courage which frequent contests with
wild beasts demanded, and which subse-
quently were so conspicuously shown in
his contest with Goliath. The splendid
victory which crowned this contest was
the turning-point of his career. At the
age of twenty he became a member of
Saul's family and an officer of Saul's
army, and his peculiar and painful rela-
tions with the king began.
2. David's Kelations with Saul.
David had not been long a resident at
court before his prowess and popularity
laid the foundation in Saul's heart of an
unhappy jealousy. The king's dislike to
him assumed on several occasions the form
of violence. He was no longer safe in the
king's presence, and accordingly, under
cover of night, he fled from the court, and
thenceforward, until Saul's death, a period
of about seven years, was a fugitive and an
outlaw. This portion of his life abounded
in hardships and hairbreadth escapes, and
was an important preparation for his after
career as king. It developed in him three
admirable qualities — namely, prudence, for-
bearance and a sense of dependence on God's
help. It qualified him, as perhaps nothing
else could have done, for the responsibilities
of the throne when to it the death of Saul
and his three sons in the disastrous battle
of Gilboa (1 Sam. 31 : C) opened the way.
3. David's Reign. David was thirty
years old when the single tribe of Judah
proclaimed him king. Over this tribe he
reigned at Hebron seven and a half years,
j and over all Israel he reigned at Jerusa-
j lem thirty-three years; the whole length
1 of his reign was therefore something more
than forty years (2 Sam. 5 : 4, 5). The
prominent events of his reign were these :
the conquest of Jerusalem, and the mak-
ing it the capital of the whole land (2
Sam. 5:9); the founding of an imperial
dominion, which for the first time realized
the prophetic description of the bounds of
the chosen people (Gen. 15 : 18-21); the
organization of the army and the estab-
lishment of social and religious institu-
tions (2 Sam. 23 : 8-39; 1 Chron. 24 : 3 ;
25 : 1-31 ; 26 : 1-28) ; the subjection of
numerous hostile peoples, the Philistines
on the west (2 Sam. 8:1), the Moabites
on the east (2 Sam. 8 : 2), the Syrians on
the north-east as far as the Euphrates (2
Sam. 8 : 3), the Edomites on tlie south (2
Sam. 8 : 14), and the Ammonites, who had
broken their ancient alliance and had made
one grand resistance to the advance of his
empire (2 Sam. 10:1-19; 12:26-31); the
crimes of adultery and murder which black-
ened his character and plagued his family
(2 Sam. 12 : 10) ; the rebellion and death
of his son Absalom (2 Sara. 18 : 9-17) ; the
158
DAY— DEACON.
preparation for building the temple in Je-
rusalem (1 Chron. 29 : 2) ; the nomination
of his son Solomon to be his successor and
the proclamation of Solomon as king (1
Chron. 29 : 22-24).
The character of David presents many
diverse features, yet, on the whole, is noble
and true. In the complexity of its ele-
ments, passion, tenderness, generosity,
fierceness ; the soldier, the shepherd, the
poet, the statesman, the priest, the proph-
et, the king ; the romantic friend, the chiv-
alrous leader, the devoted father, — no cha-
racter in the Old Testament can be at all
compared to it. To his own people his
was the name most dearly cherished after
their first ancestor Abraham. " The city
of David," "the house of David," "the
throne of David," "the seed of David,"
"the oath sworn unto David," are ex-
pressions which pervade the whole of the
( )ld Testament and all the figurative lan-
guage of the New. In a very peculiar
sense David is the type and the prophecy
of our Lord Jesus Christ. Our Lord is
not called the son of Abraham or the son
of Jacob, but he is called "the Son of
David " (Matt. 9 : 27 ; 15 : 22 ; 22 : 42 ;
Mark 10 : 47, 48 ; Rom. 1 : 3 ; 2 Tim.
2 : 8).
Day, a measure of time, and the earli-
est of whicli we liave any account (Gen.
1:5). The day is distinguished into nat-
ural and civil. The variable length of the
natural day at different seasons led in the
very earliest times to the adoption of the
civil day, or one revolution of the sun, as
tlie standard of time. The beginning of
the civil day varies in different nations.
The Babylonians reckoned it from sunrise
to sunrise ; the Umbrians, from noon to
noon ; the Athenians, from sunset to sun-
set ; the Romans, from midnight to mid-
night. The Hebrews naturally adopted
the reckoning from sunset to sunset (Lev.
23 : 32). After tlie captivity in Babylon
the Jews divided the dav into twelve
hours. To this (John 11:9) our Lord
refers : " Are there not twelve hours in
the day?" According to this computa-
tion, the first hour of the day began at
sunrise ; hence the sixth hour was at noon
and the twelfth hour at sunset. These
hours were of course variable in length
according to the season of the year, being
longer in summer than in winter. The
days of the week had no proper names
among the Hebrews, but were distin-
guished in their numerical order, as
the first day of the week, the second
day, etc.
In prophetic language a day is put for a
year, and so a week is put for seven years
(Ezek. 4 : 5).
A day sometimes indicates an indeter-
minate period of time. Thus " the day of
temptation in the wilderness" was forty
years. As God's existence is not marked
by a succession of years, it is said, " One
day is with the Lord as a thousand years,
and a thousand years as one day" (2 Pet.
3:8).
"The day of the Lord" (Isa. 2 : 12) de-
notes the time when he afflicts by his judg-
ments. Signal judgments against the wick-
ed are spoken of as the great day of God's
wrath (Rev. 6 : 17).
" The Lord's day " is the Christian Sab-
bath (Rev. 1 : 10).
Days'man, an old English term mean-
ing umpire or arbitrator (Job 9 : 33), but the
Hebrew word which it represents means ar-
guer or reprover.
Day 'spring signifies the first streaks
of daylight, the daybreak, the dawn (Job
38 : 12). In Luke 1 : 78 the word is, in
beautiful figure, applied to our Lord Jesus
Christ.
Dea'con [a servant'], the term applied
to those office-bearers in the Christian
Church (Acts 6 : 1-4) who were appoint-
ed over the business of serving tables, in
order that the apostles might be at lib-
erty to give themselves continually to
DEAD SEA— DEBIE,
159
prayer and the ministry of the word.
Although two of the seven in the tirst
appointment, Stephen and Philip, are
afterward mentioned as evangelists, or as
doing the work of evangelists, the deacon,
as such, was not a preacher, but simply
an alms-distributer. Deaconesses were also
employed in attending upon those of their
own sex (Eom. 16 : 6, 12 ; Phil. 4 : 2, 3 ; 1
Tim. 3:11; Tit. 2 : 3), the seclusion of fe-
males in the East making such an arrange-
ment especially necessary.
Dead Sea. This name nowhere oc-
curs in the Scriptures, and was not in use
until the second century after Christ. In
the Old Testament the lake is called " the
Salt Sea " and " the Sea of the Plain." See
Sea, the Salt.
Death, the termination of life. It is
affirmed of the body and of the soul.
1. As respects the body, death is a ces-
sation of its appropriate functions and a
dissolution of its structure. When it oc-
curs, the immaterial, immortal part is sep-
arated from the material and mortal ; " the
dust returns to the earth as it was, and the
spirit returns unto God who gave it"
(Eccles. 12 : 7). It is described as a dis-
solving of the earthly house of this tab-
ernacle (2 Cor. 5:1); as a departure from
the world (Job 10 : 21) ; as a sleep (John
11 : 11). It is an inevitable and universal
doom ; out of the millions of men that
have lived on the earth, two only, Enoch
and Elijah, have escaped it. Its cause is
sin (Rom. 5 : 12), and its dread power is
wielded by the devil (Heb. 2 : 14), who
was the instigator of the sin which intro-
duced it, and who is the constant tempter
to that which perpetuates it.
2. As respects the soul, death is the loss
of holiness, and so the loss of happiness.
It is described as carnal-mindedness (Rom.
8:6); as alienation from the life of God
(Eph. 4 : 18) ; as a subjection to the power
of darkness (Col. 1 : 13) ; as an ignorance
of God and a disobedience to the gospel of
our Lord Jesus Christ (2 Thess. 1:8). It
also is universal ; " there is none righteous,
no, not one ; there is none that understand-
eth, there is none that seeketh after God ;
they are all gone out of tiie way, they are
together become unprofitable ; there is none
that doeth good, no, not one " (Rom. 3:10-
12). This spiritual death, unless remedied
before the death of the body occurs, results
in eternal death, or the soul's eternal un-
holiness and unhappiness. This is em-
phatically the second death (Rev. 21 : 8).
' Now, the work of our Lord in the gospel
I is to abolish death (2 Tim. 1:10). To
them who trust, love and obey him he
makes the death of the body the gate of
heaven ; substitutes for the death of the
soul, or spiritual death, the grandest spir-
itual life ; and, raising the dead body and
uniting with it the glorified soul, intro-
duces body and soul into an unending
blessedness (Rom. 8 : 10-23).
De'bir \_oracle'], the name of three
places.
1. A town in the mountains of Judah.
Its earlier name was Kirjath-sepher, "city
I of the book" (Josh. 15 : 15; Judg. 1 : 11),
I It was also called Kirjath-sannah, " city of
the palm" (Josh. 15 : 49). It was taken
by Joshua (Josh. 10 : 38, 39), and after-
ward retaken by the Canaanites. Caleb,
to whom it was assigned, gave his daugh-
ter Achsah in marriage to Othniel for his
bravery in subduing it (Josh. 15 : 16, 17).
It was one of the cities given with their
"suburbs" to the priests (Josh. 21 : 15).
Its ancient site is supposed to be on a
spur running from a long ridge about
three miles west from Hebron. It was
one of the towns of the Anakim.
2. A place on the north boundary ( '
Judah, near the " valley of Achor " (Josh.
15 : 7), and therefore somewhere in the
complications of hills and ravines behind
Jericho.
3. The " border of Debir " is named as
forming part of the boundary of Gad
160
DEBOK A H— DEDICATION.
(Josh. 13 : 26), and as apparently not far
from Mahanaim.
Deb'o-rah [« bee], the name of two
women.
1. The nurse of Eebekah, whom she
accompanied to the land of Canaan. She
died at an advanced age near Bethel, and
with great kimentation was buried under
an oak which was called AUon-bachuth,
the oak of weeping (Gen. 35 : 8).
2. A prophetess who judged Israel, and
dwelt under a palm tree between Ramah
and Bethel ( Judg. 4 : 4, 5). Her hus-
band's name was Lapidoth. She pos-
sessed great authority and influence with
the people, and was the honored instru-
ment of delivering them from grievous
oppression. She summoned Barak to lead
the forces against Jabin, the head of the
Canaanitish confederacy, but he, discour-
aged by the prospect, refused to go unless
she accompanied him. To this she con-
sented, apprising him at the same time
that he would thus lose the credit of the
victory. Under her direction Barak en-
camped on the broad summit of Tabor,
and gained over Sisera. Jabin's general,
and the immense army which Sisera led,
a victory which secured to Israel a rest
of forty years. Deborah's title of proph-
etess includes the notion of inspired poetry,
and in this sense the glorious triumphal
ode (Judg. 5) well vindicates her claim to
the office.
Debt, Debtor. See Loan.
De-cap 'o-lis [ten cities], a region con-
taining ten cities, from which great num-
bers of the inhabitants came to hear our
Lord's words and to see our Lord's works
(Matt. 4 : 25 ; Mark 5 : 20 ). These cities
were situated in the north-eastern part of
Palestine, near the Sea of Galilee, and on
both sides of the Jordan. Their inhabit-
ants are supposed to have been Gentiles
chiefly. There is a dlflference of opinion
as to their enumeration ; the following,
however, is most generally agreed on ;
viz. 1. Scythopolis or Bethshan; 2. Ga-
dara; 3. Gerasa; 4. Pella; 5. Hippos; 6.
Kanatha ; 7. Dion or Dios ; 8. Philadel-
phia; 9. Raphana; 10. Capitolias. It is
possible that Decapolis, a.s the name of a
region, may have been retained after the
actual number of cities in it had been in-
creased ; and this may account for discrep-
ancies in the list, one ancient writer enu-
' merating not less than fourteen Decapoli-
tan cities. The whole region in the times
of our Lord was exceedingly populous and
prosperous. It is now an uninhabited wil-
derness.
Decrees of God. See Elect, Elec-
tion, Predestination.
De'dan, the name of two tribal pro-
genitors.
1. A son of Raamah, son of Cush (Gen.
10 : 7; 1 Chron. 1 : 9). His descendants
are supposed to have settled on the shores
of the Persian Gulf, and to have been car-
avan-merchants between that coast and Pal-
estine.
2. A son of Jokshan, son of Abraham
by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 3; 1 Chron. 1 : 32).
His descendants are supposed to have in-
termarried with the descendants of the
Cushite Dedan, to have formed a tribe
of the same name, to have had their chief
settlement in the borders of Idumaea and
to have led a pastoral life.
The passages in the Scriptures in which
Dedan is mentioned (besides the genealo-
gies cited above) are Isa. 21 : 13 ; Jer. 25 :
23 ; 49 : 8 ; Ezek. 25 : 13 ; 27 : 15, 20 ; 38 :
13, and are in every case obscure.
Ded-i-ca'tion, a religious ceremony
whereby anything is dedicated or conse-
crated to the service of God. It oiig-
inated, most likely, in the desire to com-
mence with peculiar solemnity the prac-
tical use and application of whatever had
been set apart to the divine service. Thus
Moses dedicated the tabernacle in the wil-
derness (Ex. 40; Num. 7), Solomon Jiis
temple (1 Kings 8), the returned exiles
DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE— DERBE.
161
their rebuilt house of God (Ezra 6 : 16,
17).
Ded-i-ca'tion, Feast of the, the
festival instituted to commemorate the
purging of the temple and the rel)uilding
of the altar after Judas Maccabaeus had
driven out the Syrians, b. c. 164. It is
named only once in the Scriptures (John
10 : 22). It began on the twenty-fifth of
Chisleu, the anniversary of tlie pollution
of the temple by Antiochus Epiphanes,
B. c. 167. Like the great Mosaic feasts,
it lasted eight days, but did not require
attendance at Jerusalem.
Deep, the rendering sometimes of words
in the Old and New Testaments which des-
ignate a measurable depth (Gen. 7 : 11;
Job 41 : 31 ; Luke 5 : 4; 2 Cor. 11 : 25),
but sometimes of a Hebrew word and of
its Greek ecpiivalent which literally mean
without bottom. In the latter sense it is used
to designate — 1. Hell, the place of punish-
ment, the bottomless pit (Luke 8 : 31 ; Rev.
9:1; 11:7); 2. The common receptacle of
the dead, the grave, the deep or depths
of the earth under which the body is de-
posited (Rom. 10:7); 3. The deepest parts
of the sea (Ps. 69 : 15 ; 107 : 26; Jon. 2 :
3) ; 4. The chaos which in the beginning
of the world was unformed and vacant
(Gen. 1 : 2). See Pit.
De-file'. Under the Mosaic law many
blemishes of person and conduct were es-
teemed defilements, which rendered those
upon whom they were found unclean, and
which subjected them to many civil and
religious disabilities (Mark 7:2). Some
of these defilements were voluntary, others
involuntary ; some originated with the in-
dividual, others were received by him ;
some were inevitable because the effect
of nature, others were the consequences
of personal transgression. Under the gos-
pel, defilements are those of the heart, of
the mind, the temper and the conduct.
Moral defilements are as numerous and
as thoroughly prohibited under the gos-
11
pel as ever, but ceremonial defilements
no longer require any religious rites to
remove them (Matt. 15 : 18 ; James 3:6).
De-grees', Songs of, a title given
to fifteen psalms, 120 to 134 inclusive.
Four of them are attributed to David, one
to Solomon, and the other ten give no in-
dication of their author. With respect to
the term " degrees " a great diversity of
opinion prevails, but the most probable
opinion is tliat they were pilgrim-songs,
sung by the people as they went up to Je-
rusalem.
De-li'lah [languishing with desire'], a
Philistine courtesan who dwelt in the
valley of Sorek, and who, ensnaring
Samson, betrayed him to his enemies
(Judg. 16 : 4-18).
De'mas, a companion of the apostle
Paul during his first imprisonment at
Rome (Col. 4:14). At a later period he
is mentioned as having deserted the apos-
tle through love of this present world (2
Tim. 4 : 10).
De-rae'tri-us, the name of two per-
sons mentioned in Scripture.
1. A maker of silver shrines at Ephesus
(Acts 19 : 24). The shrines were usually
small models of the great temple of the
Ephesian Diana, with the statue of the
goddess, which the purchasers carried on
journeys and affixed to houses as charms.
Demetrius, becoming alarmed at the prog-
ress of the gospel under the preaching of
Paul, assembled his fellow-craftsmen and
excited a tumult by haranguing them on
the danger that threatened the worship of
the great goddess Diana, and consequently
their own craft as silversmiths, A. v>. 52.
2. A Christian mentioned with com-
mendation in 3 John 12, about A. d. 90.
Dep'u-ty, the uniform rendering in
our English Version of the Greek word
which signifies "proconsul" (Acts 13 : 7,
8, 12; 19 : 38). See Province.
Der'be, a town of Lycaonia, in Asia
Minor. Its exact position has not yet been
162
DESERT— DEVIL.
ascertained, but its general situation is un-
doubted. It was in the eastern part of
the great uphmd phiin of Lvcax)nia, wliich
stretches from Iconiuni eastward along the
north side of the chain of Taurus. It must
have been somewliere near the place where
the pass called the Cilician Gates opened
a way from the low plain of Cilicia to the
table-land of the interior ; probably it was
a stage upon the great road which passed
this way. Here Gains, Paul's fellow-trav-
eler (Acts '20 : 4), was born, and hither
Paul and Barnabas fled (Acts 14 : 6) when
driven from Iconium.
Des'ert, a word in Scripture nearly
synonymous witli Wilderness, but dif-
ferent from the modern acceptation of both.
With us, a desert always implies barren-
neas ; with the Hebrews, it sometimes in-
dicated a barren, but most generally an un-
cultivated, waste. Pasture-lands and for-
ests were denominated deserts (Ps. 65: 12;
Ezek 13 : 4; Acts 8 : 26; Heb. 11 : 33).
Tlie various deserts or wildernesses men-
tioned are these: the Arabian or great
desert ; tlie deserts of Beth-Aven, Beer-
sheba, Carmel, Damascus, Edom, En-Gedi,
Gibeon, Judaea, Jeruel, Kedemoth, Ka-
desh, Maon, Paran, Shur, Sin, Sinai,
Ziph, Zin ; the desert of the Red Sea and
the desert near Gaza.
Deu-ter-on'o-my [second Lavj], the
Greek name given to the fifth book of
Closes, and meaning the repetition of the
Law, because it contains a recapitulation
of the ordinances or laws found in the
preceding books. As the greater part of
the Israelites who had come out of Egypt
had died in the wilderness, Moses, in the
fortieth year of their joumeyings (Dent.
1 : 8) made this restatement of God's ordi-
nances, previously recorded, with some ad-
ditional ones, accompanying them with ex-
planations and exhortations Avell calculated
to impress them on the minds of tlie new
generation that had risen up. Few books
in the Old Testament can be read with
more spiritual profit than this, as it un-
folds the spiritual import of the different
parts of the Law. The last chapter of
the book is to be regarded as a supple-
ment, which wiis probably added by
Joshua.
Dev'il, the English form of the Greek
word (^la.h'/.o;- [diabolos). It means hIuii-
derer, calumniator, false-accuser, and in the
jSTew Testament is employed to designate
the chief of the fallen angels. The same
evil spirit is referred to under the names
of Satan, Beelzebub, Adversary, Prince of
Darkness, etc. It is manifest, from the
whole tenor of Scripture, tliat the Devil
is a real being, and not a mere personifi-
cation of an evil principle ; that since his
apostasy from God he is malignant in liis
hatred to God and man ; that his ceaseless
object is to frustrate the designs of God
and to seduce mankind into sin and ruin ;
that he has many other wicked spirits un-
der his direction and control, which are al-
ways engaged in prompting men to evil ;
that he possesses great power and subtlety,
but yet caimot force men to sin against
their will ; that his jiower is restrained by
Christ, who hath conquered him ; and,
finally, that he is destined to be confined in
hell, where lie is to be tormented day and
night for ever and for ever (Rev. 20 : 10).
Those who by their wicked works oppose
God are stigmatized as the children of the
Devil (.John 8 : 44; Acts 13 : 10).
Tlie word "devil" is also employed in
the New Testament, generally in the plural,
to translate the Greek word Sal/icjv (do'inon),
an impure spirit from the other world act-
ing upon a human being. In the Gospels
generally, in James 2 : 19 and in Rev. 16 :
14, the demons are spoken of as spiritual be-
ings at enmity with God, and having power
to afflict men, not only with disease, but, as is
marked by the frequent epithet " unclean,"
with spiritual pollution also. In the times
of our Lord many persons were sufierers
from possession by demons or devils, tlie
DEW— DIBON.
163
possession generally showing itself visibly
in bodily disease or mental derangement.
The evil influence exercised by demons
is distinguished from the ordinary power
of corruption and temptation wielded by
Satan through the permission of God.
The distinguisliing feature of possession
is the complete or incomplete loss of tlie
sufierer's reason or power of will ; his ac-
tions, his words, and almost his thoughts,
are mastered or supplanted by those of
the evil spirit (Mark 1 : 24; 5:7; Acts
19 : 15).
Dew, the vapor of the atmosphere con-
densed by coming in contact with the sur-
face of the earth, which has been cooled
by the radiation of its heat. In Palestine,
where rains at certain seasons are unusual,
this precipitation of vapor during the night
is very great, and proves highly refreshing
to the parched earth. It is said, however,
that the dew is deposited chiefly late in the
spring and early in the autumn. In Arabia
Petrpea the dews are so abundant as to wet
to the skin those exposed to them, although
soon after sunrising they are entirely evap-
orated. Many beautiful allusions are made
to the dew by the sacred writers. Its co-
pious deposition images God's blessing
(Ps. 133 : 3 ; Hos. 14 : 5) ; its entire with-
drawal, God's curse (2 Sam. 1 : 21 ; Hag.
1 : 10) ; its speedy evanescence, the false
and fleeting goodness of the hypocrite
(Hos. 6:4; 13 : 3).
Di''a-d.ein [sometliing surrounding
the head], spoken of a royal tiara (Isa.
28 : 5). In the Old Testament the dis-
tinction between diadem as the badge of
royalty, and crovm as the symbol of dis-
tinction in private life, is neglected, but
in the New Testament it is carefully ob-
served.
Di'al, an instrument for measuring
time by the sun. It is supposed to have
been an invention of the Babylonians, and
was very serviceable to the ancients. It is
now superseded by the more perfect inven-
tion of modern chronometers. The reces-
sion of the shadow on the dial of Ahaz
(2 Kings 20 : 11) is miraculous, and can-
not be otherwise explained.
Di'a-mond, The Hebrew word thus
rendered probably is not the modern "dia-
mond," with which the Hebrews seem to
have been unacquainted, but a precious
stone, either the emerald or emery. On
the breastplate of the high priest the
place of the stone rendered " diamond "
was the third in the second row (Ex. 28 :
18 ; 39 : 11). The same stone is mention-
ed by Ezekiel (28 : 13) among the pre-
cious stones of the king of Tyre.
Di-a'na. In our English Version this
Latin word, properly denoting a Roman
divinity, is the
representative
of the Greek
Artemis, the tu-
telary goddess
of the Ephe-
sians, who plays
so important a
part in the nar-
rative of Acts 19.
The Ephesian
Diana, however,
differs widely in
attributes from
the Roman Di-
ana, and is to be
regarded as identical with Astarte and other
female divinities of the East. Her wor-
ship in Ephesus was exceedingly splendid
and the source of vast wealth.
Dib'lath, properly Dib'lali, a place
mentioned only in Ezek. 6 : 14, as if sit-
uated at one of the extremities of the land
of Israel. It is perhaps only another form
of RiBLAH (which see).
Di'bon [pining'], the name of two
towns.
1. A town on the east side of Jordan, in
the rich pastoral country, which was taken
possession of and rebuilt by the children
The Ephesian Diana.
164
DIDYMUS— DISPEESED, THE.
of Gad (Num. 32 : 3, 34). From this cir-
cumstance, possibly, ii received the name
of Dibon-Gad (Num. 33: 4-3, 4G). In Isa.
15 : 9 it is called Dimon. Its site has been
identified at a place named Dhibda, three
miles north of the ancient Arnon. In 1868
a black basalt stone block was discovered
among tlie ruins, with a curious inscription
reciting the deeds of Mesha, a Moabite
king, and giving the history of his warfare
with Jorani, king of Israel, and Jehosha-
phat, king of Judah. See Mesha.
2. One of the towns which were re-in-
habited by the men of Judah after the re-
turn from the Captivity (Neh. 11 : 25),
identical with Dimonah (Josh. 15 : 22).
Did'y-raus [« tivin'\, the surname of
the apostle Thomas (John 11 : 16).
Di'nah \_jnd(iing'\, tiie daughter of Ja-
cob and Leah (Gen. 30 : 21), who, while
her father's camp was tarrying in the
neighborhood of Shechem, through cu-
riosity and love of pleasure mingled with
the young women of tiie place, and was
violated by the son of Hamor, the chief-
tain of Shechem. The son of Hamor
offered the reparation of marriage, which
the sons of Jacob conditionally accepted,
but only to make more sure an utter
slaughter of the Shechemites. The con-
duct of Simeon and Levi on this occa-
sion was strongly reprobated by their fa-
ther (Gen. 34: 30; 49: 5-7).
Din'ner. In our English Scriptures
this word is used for both the early and
later meal of the Jews. The principal
meal was the supper, in the early part
of the evening, when the heat of the
day was gone. The word rendered " din-
ner," however, is sometimes associated
with a large and formal entertainment, as
in Matt. 22 : 4, where our Lord likens the
kingdom of heaven to tlie marriage-dinner
of a king's son, and as in Luke 14 : 12,
where a feast is indicated by the alterna-
tive phrase, " a dinner or a supper." See
Meal-time.
Di-o-nys'i-us the Ar-e-op'a-
g"ite, an eminent Athenian converted to
Cliristianity by the preaching of Paul
(Acts 17 : 34). He is called " Areopa-
gite," as a member of the high court of
the Areopagus at ^\.thens. See Areop-
agus.
Di-ot're-phes (3 John 9), a member,
and perhaps an officer, of the church of
Corinth. John's third Epistle is address-
ed to Gains of this church (Rom. 16 : 23;
1 Cor. 1 : 14), and in tiie course of it a se-
vere rebuke is given to Diotrephes, who
seems to have questioned the apostle's au-
thority, and to have claimed for himself
a most officious and unwarrantable pre-
eminence.
Dis-ci'ple [n scholai-]. The term is
applied in the New Testament to the fol-
lowers of John the Baptist (Matt. 9 : 14),
and particularly to our Lord's followers
(Matt. 26 : 17; Luke 9 : 1). It is still
used to designate a professed believer in
Christ. Our Lord, to guard against false
expectations, explicitly stated that no man
could be his disciple who was not willing
to renounce the world and to encounter
hardship and self-denial (Luke 14 : 26.
27).
Dis-pen-sa'tion, a method or scheme
devised and pui-sued by the wisdom and
goodness of God in order to manifest his
perfections and will to mankind for the
purpose of their instruction, discipline, ref-
ormation and progress in holiness and hap-
piness. Three of these dispensations are
especially noticeable — the Patriarchal, the
Jewish and the Cliristian. The Christian
dispensation is described in Eph. 3:2;
Col. 1 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 17. The dispensa-
tions of Providence are another thing —
namely, those providential occurrences
which indicate the divine pleasure.
Dis-pers'ed, The (John 7 : 35:
James 1:1; 1 Pet. 1:1), those Jews
wlio after the Bu])ylonian captivity, and
especially after the destruction of the
DITCH— DOCTRINE.
165
Holy City by the Roman power, remain-
ed scattered among the nations. These dis-
persed Jews, or Jews of the Dispersion, as
tliey are called, aided very materially the
rapid promulgation of the gospel in the
tirst century of the Christian era.
Ditcll. Several words in the Hebrew
and Greek texts of the Scriptures are thus
rendered, but none of them represent the
idea which in our times is uniformly as-
sociated with a " ditch." One of them is
translated "pits" in Jer. 14 : 3; another,
translated "ditch" in Isa. 22 : 11, has the
sense of a " pool ; " and another, translated
"ditch" in Job 9 : 31, has the sense of a
liole in the ground, either for holding sur-
plus water or for catching animals. The
third of these senses, or that of a hole in
the ground, is the sense of Matt. 15 : 14
and of Luke 6 : 39. See Cistern.
Div-i-na'tion, a general term descrip-
tive of the various arts anciently practiced
for the discovery of things secret or future
(Deut. 18 : 10; 1 Sam. 28 : 8; Ezek. 21 :
21). The arts were very many, the prin-
cipal being these : divination by rods (Hos.
4 : 12) ; divination by cups (Gen. 44 : 5) ;
divination by teraphim (Zech. 10 : 2) ; div-
ination by the liver (Ezek. 21 : 21) ; divi-
nation by dreams (Deut. 13 : 3; Jer. 23 :
32). Moses forbade every species of div-
ination, but, despite the prohibition, the
various arts had for the Israelites a very
strong fascination. Superstition goes hand
in hand with skepticism, and amid the gen-
eral infidelity prevalent throughout the
Roman empire at our Lord's coming im-
posture was rampant. Hence, the lucra-
tive trades of such men as Simon Magus
(Acts 8 : 9), Bar-jesus (Acts 13 : 6, 8), the
slave with the spirit of Python (Acts 16 :
16), the vagabond Jews, exorcists (Luke
11 : 19; Acts 19 : 13) and others (2 Tim.
3 : 13; Rev. 19 : 20), as well as the noto-
rious dealers in magical books at Ephesus
(Acts 19: 19).
Divorce, the dissolution by legal pro-
cess of the marriage-bond. The Mosaic
Law regulating divorce is found in Deut.
24 : 1-4. In the times of our Lord the
Jewish doctors diflered widely in respect
^ to the ground of divorce. The school of
j Shammai limited it to a moral delinquency
in the woman ; the school of Hillel extend-
ed it to every trifling cause — for example,
if the wife over-roasted or over-salted the
food she was cooking for her husband.
; The Pharisees, wishing, doubtless, to em-
broil our Lord with these rival schools,
asked him if it were " lawful for a man to
put away his wife for every cause" (Matt.
19 : 3). The reply of our Lord states the
original law of marriage, and limits the
ground of divoi'ce to conjugal infidelity
alone.
Doctor of the Law, one whose pro-
fession it wa.s to give instruction in the
Law of Moses and to solve difficult ques-
tions in relation to it (Luke 2 : 46).
Doctrine. This word in our Author-
ized Version represents several Hebrew
and Greek words which denote some-
times knowledge and instruction (Deut. 32 :
2; Prov. 4:2); sometimes ivhat one holds
to be true (Job 11:4); and sometimes
what is taught: 1. Generally (Matt. 16 :
12 ; Acts 17 : 19 ; Rom. 6 : 17 ; Heb. 6 :
2 ; 13 : 9). 2. Specifically, by man (Matt.
15 : 9 ; Mark 7:7; Eph. 4:14; Col. 2 :
22; 1 Tim. 4:1); by the Son of man
(John 7 : 16, 17; Tit. 2 : 10) ; by the
apostles (Acts 2 : 42 ; 2 Tim. 3 : 10) ; by
God (1 Tim. 1 : 10, 11 ; 4 : 6; 6 : 1, 3 ; 2
Tim. 4:3; Tit. 1:9). In its most gen-
eral and best sense doctrine is system-
atized knowledge, or what ought to be
taught. In this sense the system of doc-
trine taught in Scripture by those " holy
men of God who spake as they were
moved by the Holy Ghost" (2 Pet. 1 :
21), is connected and consistent through-
out, and comprises a complete "form of
sound words." The doctrines in this sys-
tem relate to the perfections and purposes
166
DODANIM— DORCAS.
of God, to the offices of Christ and of the
Holy Spirit, and to the character and des-
tiny of man. They are promotive of god-
liness, honoriible to God and humbling to
the pride of man. By wicked men they
may be perverted and coriupted, yet they
can never be utterly subverted. They
should be devoutly studied, for they are
the proper basis of all intelligent worship
and of all holy obedience. They who de-
preciate the importance of doctrines assail
one of the chief safeguards of the Church.
An admirable summary of the system of
doctrine taught in the Holy Scriptures is
contained in the Westminster Catechisms
and Confession of Faith.
Do'da-nira, a family or race descend-
ed from Javan, the son of Japheth ( Gen. 1 0 :
4 ; 1 Chron. 1:7). The name is sometimes
read Rodanim, and, so read, is referred to
the Greek inhabitants of the island of
Rhodes ; if read Dodanira, it refers, prob-
ably, to the Dardani, who in historical
times were found in Illyricum and Troy.
Do'eg, an Idumaean or Edomite, and
King Saul's chief herdsman. He was at
Nob when Ahimelech, the high priest,
gave David the sword of Goliath, and he
not only carried the information to Saul,
but when others declined the office he
himself executed the king's order to de-
stroy the priests of Nob with their fami-
lies, to the number of eighty-five persons,
together with all their property (1 Sam.
21 : 7; 22: 9-19; Ps. 52).
Dog, an animal frequently mentioned
in Scripture. It was used by the Hebrews
as a watch for their houses (Isa. 56 : 10)
and for guarding their flocks (Job 30 : 1).
Then also, as now, troops of hungry and
semi-wild dogs used to wander about llie
fields and streets, devouring dead bodies
and other offiil (1 Kings 14 : 11 ; 10 : 4;
21 : 19, 23; 22 : 38; 2 Kings 9 : 10, 36;
Jer. 15 : 3; Ps. 59 : 6, 14), and thus be-
came such objects of dislike tliat fierce
and cruel enemies are poetically styled
" dogs " in Ps. 22 : 16, 20. The dog,
moreover, being an unclean animal, the
terms docj, dead dofj, do<js liedd were used
as terms of reproach (1 Sam. 24 : 14; 2
-J.''^
Syrian Dog.
Sam. 3:8; 9:8; 16 : 9 ; 2 Kings 8 : 13).
Dean Stanley mentions that he saw on
the very site of Jezreel the descendants
of the dogs that devoured Jezebel prowl-
ing on the mounds without the walls for
offiil and carrion tiirown out to them to
consume.
Door. See House.
Dor [dwelling^, an ancient royal city
of the Canaanites (Josh. 12 : 23), on the
coast of the Mediterranean, and, according
to Jei'ome, nine Roman miles north of
Cfesarea. It appears to have been with-
in the territory of the tribe of Asher,
though allotted to Manasseh (Josh. 17 :
11 ; Judg. 1 : 27). The original inhabit-
ants were never expelled, but during the
prosperous reigns of David and Solomon
they were made tributary (1 Kings 4 : 11).
A town named Tantura, a collection of
fifty wretched huts, occupies its supposed
site.
Dor'cas, a Greek name, having the
same signification as Tabitha in Syro-
Chaldaic, and designating a pious and
benevolent female disciple of Joppa, who,
" full of good works and alms-deeds," made
garments for the poor widows. Peter was
sent for at the time of her death, and, wit-
nessing the general lamentation occasioned
DOTHAN— DRAGON.
167
by her decease, he recalled her to life, to
the great joy of her friends and to the
conversion of many souls (Acts 9 : 36-
42).
Do^than [two cisterm], a place first
mentioned (Gen. 37 : 17) in connection
with the history of Joseph, and apparent-
ly as in the neighborhood of Shecheni. It
next api)ears as the residence of Elisha
(2 Kings 6 : 13). It was known to Eu-
sebius (in the fourth century of the Chris-
tian era), who places it twelve miles to the
north of iSebaste (Samaria), and here, in
our own times, it has been discovered
with its cisterns, still beariiig unimpaired
its ancient name.
Dotting', " about questions " (1 Tim. 6 :
4), signifies an excessive and sickly fond-
ness for questions and strifes respecting
mere words.
in the Song 1 : 15 ; 2 : 14 ; and its harm-
lessness, in Matt. 10 : 16. The associa-
tions with it are such as to justify its
selection as the emblem of the Holy
Spirit (Matt. 3: 16). Under the Mosaic
Law, the poor, who could not present
a more costly ofl^erin
offer doves or
21, 22). Such
Lord's mother
commodate the
Dove.
Dove. The first mention of this bird
in Scripture is in Gen. 8, where Noah is
represented as sending one forth from the
ark to ascertain if the waters of the del-
uge were assuaged. The dove's rapidity
of flight is alluded to in Ps. 55 : 6 ; the
beauty of its plumage, in Ps. 68 : 13 ; its
dwelling in the rocks and valleys, in Jer.
48 : 28 ; Ezek. 7:16; its mournful voice,
in Isa. 38 : 14 ; 59 : 11 ; Nah. 2:7; its
simplicity, in Hos. 7:11; its comeliness,
were directed to
pigeons (Lev. 5:7; 14 :
was the offering of our
Luke 2 : 22-24). To ac-
poor, doves were sold in
the courts of the temple, but the practice
had degenerated into such abuse in our
Lord's times that he sternly rebuked it
(Matt. 21 : 12).
Doves are kept in a domesticated state
in many parts of the East. In Persia, and
still more in Egypt, large dovecotes or pig-
eon-houses are built ; and Morier says, " The
extraordinary flights of pigeons which I
have seen upon one of these buildings
afford perhaps a good illustration of the
passage in Isa. 60 : 8, ' Who are these that
fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their
windows ?' "
Dove's Dung, In a description of
a great famine in Samaria (2 Kings 6:
25) it is said that "an ass's head was
sold for fourscore pieces of silver, and
the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung
for five pieces of silver." This is in-
tended to denote the extremity of the
famine, during which the highest prices
were given for what might allay the
pangs of hunger. It is thought by
many commentators and most lexicog-
raphers that " dove's dung " is to be taken
as a proper name for such plants and veg-
etable productions as resembled in appear-
ance the excrement of the pigeon.
Do"W'ry, the price paid for a wife
(Gen. 29 : 18 ; 34 : 12 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 25 ;
Hos. 3 : 2). The word has thus a sense
the very opposite to that Avhich it has
among Western nations.
Dragoon. This word, in our English
Version of the Old Testament, is the ren-
168
DRAM— DKEAM.
dering of two Hebrew words which are
quite distinct in meaning; in the New
Testament it is an almost literal transfer
of the Greek I'ipdKuv {dracon, nharp-siyht-
ed), a fabulous and frightful monster
which went about devouring and devas-
tating all before it.
1. The first Hebrew word, always in the
plural, is found in Job 30 : 29 ; Isa. 34 : j
13 ; 43 : 20 ; Jer. 10 : 22 ; 49 : 33 ; Mic.
1:8; Ps. 44 : 19. It is uniformly applied
to some creatures inhabiting the desert,
and points to wild beasts rather than to
serpents. The Syrian Version renders
it by a word which means a "jackal."
2. The second Hebrew word rendered
dragon seems to refer to any great mon-
ster, whether of the land or of the sea,
but is more usually applied to some kind
of serpent or reptile. When we examine
special passages, we find the word used in
Gen. 1 : 21 of the great sea-monsters, the
representatives of the inhabitants of the
deep. On the other hand, in Ex. 7 : 9. 10,
12; Deut. 32 : 33; Ps. 91 : 13 it refers to
land-serpents of a powerful and deadly
kind.
3. In the New Testament tiie word
dragon is found only in the Apocalypse
(Rev. 12 : 3, 4, 7, 9, 16, 17, etc.), and is
applied metaphorically to "the old ser-
pent called the devil and Satan." The ]
description of it is dictated by the sym-
bolical meaning of the image rather than
by any reference to an actually-existing
creature. The reason of this scriptural
symbol is to be sought, most probably, in
that union of gigantic power with craft
and malignity of which the serpent is
the natural emblem, and in that record
of the serpent's agency in the temptation
(Gen. 3) which introduces and explains
the gospel scheme of redemption. i
It is not unlikely, however, that the
dragon-idea, as found in the Old Testa-
ment and the New, had a basis of fact in
the survival to the creation of the human
family of some lingering specimens of an
ancient and formidable but now extinct
race of reptiles. M. Bory de St. Vincent
observes : " The figure of tiie pterodactyl
seems to represent with sufficient exact
ness the figure which antiquity gave to
those formidable dragons we now regard
as fabulous. Yet they may not impossibly
I have existed toward the epoch of the pe-
riod immediately preceding tlie so-called
pre-historic. It may even be that drag-
ons of this kind, pterodactyls, far larger
than those which have recently been dis-
covered, lingered until the time when man
appeared upon the earth — until the time
Avhen he began to carve upon wood and
stone the most striking objects around
him. When the models had disappeared,
and when their memory was preserved
only in the hieroglyphics of tribes who
knew not how to write, though knowing
how to carve, this memory became myth-
ologized. To the image of the lost drag-
on some fantastic features were added, so
disguising it that it could not be recog-
nized if even any remains were discov-
ered."
Dram, a gold coin current in Palestine
in the period after the return from Baby-
lon (Ezra 2 : 69; 8 : 27 ; Neh. 7 : 70-72;
1 Chron. 29 : 7). At these times there
was no large issue of gold except by the
Persian kings. The value of the dram or
daric, so called after Darius, is said to have
been about five dollars.
Draug-ht [pronounced draft]. The
word is used in two senses in the Scrip-
tures: 1. A vault or drain for the recep-
tion of filth (2 Kings 10 : 27 ; Matt. 15 :
17) ; 2. A haul of fishes by one sweep or
drawing of the net (Luke 5 : 9).
Dream. Scripture declares that the
influence of the Spirit of God upon the
soul extends to its sleeping as well as to
its waking thoughts. It declares that God
communicates witli the spirit of man di-
rectly in dreams, and it furnishes numer-
DREGS— DROUGHT.
169
ous remarkable instances. Thus, by a
fiream God encouraged Jacob at Bethel
(Gen. 28 : 10-19), and thus, too, by a
dream Laban was prevented from inflict-
ing injury on Jacob (Gen. 31 : 24). Jo-
seph received through dreams the inti-
mation that he was to be exalted above his
brethren (Gen. 37 : 5-9). Moreover, his i
interpretation of the significant dreams .
of Pharaoh and of his chief butler and
baker led the way to his elevation (Gen.
40, 41). It was in a dream that the Lord
gave Solomon the promise of that remark-
able wisdom and understanding which af-
terward characterized him (1 Kings 3 :
5-15). The skill of Daniel in interpret-
ing the dream of Nebuchadnezzar led to
his advancement in the court of Babylon
(Dan. 2). In a dream Joseph, the reputed
fatlier of our Lord, was warned not to put
away Mary, his wife (Matt. 1 : 20). These
instances are sufficient to prove tliat this
was one of the methods of divine com-
munication with man. As might be sup-
posed, the significancy of some dreams
led the Jews into a superstitious regard
for all dreams, and the abuse called forth
a special rebuke, particularly when the
dream or its interpretation seemed to
favor the practice of idolatrv (Deut. 13 :
1-3).
The fact that divine intimations have
come through the medium of dreams
affords no ground for vulgar supersti-
tions. Although it is quite possible that
directions and warnings may in special
cases be still thus communicated, it is cer-
tainly wrong for those who have the com-
plete written revelation of God's will to
depend on dreams as a means of informa-
tion, and it is an especial impiety in any
uninspired person to pretend to a skill in
the interpretation of them.
A vision is distinguished from a dream
by the fact that it was a supernatural rep-
resentation made to a person awake and
in the conscious possession of his facul-
ties. The Lord appeared in a vision to
Saul on his way to Damascus (Acts 26 :
13), and in a vision the glories of the
heavenly world were exhibited to him
(2 Cor. 12 : 1-4).
Dregs, the sediment of liquors. When
in Scripture the wrath of God upon the
wicked is represented by a cup, the drink-
ing of that cup and its dregs expresses the
full measure in which the judgment is in-
flicted (Ps. 75 : 8; Isa. 51 : 17).
Dress. See Clothes.
Drink, Strong. The Hebrew word
thus rendered in our Authorized Version
applies to any liquor possessed of inloxica-
ting qualities, whether brewed from grain
or made of honeycomb, dates or boiled
fruits. The phrase "wine and strong
drink" (Lev. 10:9; Num. 6:3 and
many other passages) means wine and
every other intoxicating liquor. Among
the intoxicating liquors, other than wine,
known to the Hebrews, were these: 1.
Beer, made of barley, certain herbs, such
as lupin and skirrett, being used as substi-
tutes for hops ; 2. Cider, which is noticed
in the Mishna as apple-wine; 3. Honey-
wine, of which there were two sorts, one a
mixture of wine, honey and pepper, the
other a decoction of the juice of the grape,
termed rfe6asA (honey) by the Hebrews and
dibs by the modern Syrians ; 4. Date-wine,
made by mashing the fruit in water in cer-
tain proportions; 5. Home-made winea irom
figs, millet, the carob-fruit, raisins and the
like.
Drink-Offering. See Offering.
Drom'e-da-ry. See Camel.
Drought (pronounced drout), dryness,
absence of water or rain, referring partic-
ularly to that state of the weather when
there is not sufficient moisture to promote
the growth of jilants. Eastern countries
are particularly subject to drought. Pal-
estine during the summer months is ex-
posed to a scorching heat, and, no rain
falling, the earth becomes chapped, vege-
170
DRUNKENNESS— DWELLING.
tation withers and man and beast suffer
very greatly. Some of the most beautiful
metaphors of Scrijjture are drawn from
falling showers, from wells and springs
and rivers, from shade trees and cool re-
treats (Ps. 32 : 4 ; 72:6; Isa. 32 : 2).
Drunk'en-ness, intoxication from
the use of alcoliolie drinks (Deut. 29 :
19; Eccles. 10 : 17). Its effects, pliysical
and moral, on the human family, have in
all ages been disastrous. It is in Scrip-
ture the suggestive symbol of the folly
of sin (Jer. 51 : 7) and of the stupidity
produced by divine judgments (Isa. 29 :
9).
Dru-sil'la, youngest daughter of
Herod Agrippa I., celebrated for her
beauty and notorious for her profligacy.
She abandoned her husband Azizus to
live with Felix, the governor of Judsea.
Paul a]ipropriately reasoned before her
and Felix of "righteousness, temperance,
and judgment to come" (Acts 24 : 24,
25).
Duke, a title applied to the chiefs of
Edom (Gen. 36 : 15). The word simply
means a chief or leader, and is not to be
understood in its modern acceptation.
Dul'ci-mer, a musical instrument,
which the rabbins describe as a species
of bagjiipe (Dan. 3 : 5). The modern
dulcimer is a stringed instrument.
Du'mah, a tribe and country of the
Ishmaelites in Arabia (Gen. 25 : 14 ; Isa.
21 : 11). It is supposed to be identical
with the place still called by the Arabs
Doomat el-Jendd, or Dumah of the Stones,
on the confines of the Arabian and Syrian
deserts.
Dung. Besides its common use for
manure, dung in Palestine and the adja-
cent coimtries, from the difficulty of pro-
curing fire-wood, was and is largely used
for fuel. It makes an equable heat, which
adapts it peculiarly to the heating of ovens
and the baking of cakes (Ezek. 4 : 15).
The dung of cows and camels is most
prized. The Arabs, Syrians and Egyp-
tians of to-day, as did their forefathers,
carefully collect it, dry it and pile it in
conical heaps or stacks.
Du'ra, the plain on which Nebuchad-
nezzar set up his golden image (Dan. 3 :
1), and probably the same in which Bab-
ylon is situated. M. Oppert, however,
locates the plain on the south-east of Bab-
ylon, in the vicinity of the mound Duair,
where he discovered the pedestal of a co-
lossal statue.
Dust. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in our Authorized Version indicates
earth that is dry; its Greek equivalent,
earth that is easily raised or volatile. The
word " dust " is used figuratively to denote
death and the grave (Gen. 3 : l9; Job 7 :
21) ; also a mean condition (1 Sam. 2:8);
also a great multitude (Num. 23 : 10). " Sit-
ting in the dust," "putting dust on the
head," " putting the mouth in the dust,"
were signs of mourning and humiliation
(Josh. 7:6; Isa. 47 : 1 ; Lam. 3 : 29). To
shake off the dust from the feet in leaving
a place is an expressive sign of renouncing
all intercourse with it for the future (Matt.
10:14; Acts 13 : 51 ). To say that an ene-
my shall " lick the dust " is to predict his
defeat and destruction (Ps. 72 : 9). To
throw dust into the air seems to have
been a mode of expressing contempt and
execration (Acts 22 : 23). The Jews were
threatened, as a punishment of disobedi-
ence, that the rain should be powder and
dust (Deut. 28 : 24), which is exemplified
even to the present time by the clouds of
dry, hot sand which in the deserts are
raised by the winds, and overwlielm man
and beast by penetrating the month, eyes
and nostrils, or wliich in the towns cover
every object and penetrate into the most
sheltered places, at once an annoyance and
a calamity.
Dwelling, See House,
EAGLE— EAR-RINGS.
]71
E.
Ea^gle, a well-known and ferocious
bird of i)rey, unclean by the Levitical
Law (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12). Its
Hebrew generic name denotes other rav-
enous birds, as vultures (Mic. 1 : 16), but
it commonly designates a particular spe-
cies of the eagle proper — namely, the
(/olden eagle, a large, strong and very
courageous bird. The characteristics of
isli nation is compared to a tempting body
exposed in the open field and inviting the
Roman army, whose standards bore the
eagle, to come and devour it. Before the
Romans, the Persians had adopted the
eagle as their military ensign, and before
the Pei-sians, the Assyrians had done the
same.
Ear, Earing, an old English agricul-
tural term for pbughing or tilling. It
occurs in Gen. 45:6; Ex. 34:21;
Deut. 21 : 4 ; 1 Sam. 8:12; Isa. 30 :
24. It is etymologically connected
with the Latin aro, "to
plou^
was or
h."
Eagle.
the eagle referred to in the Scriptures are
its swiftness of flight (Deut. 28:49; 2
Sam. 1 : 23; Jer. 4:13; 49:22); its
mounting high into the air (Job 39 : 27 ;
Prov. 23 : 5 ; 30 : 19 ; Isa. 40 : 31 ; Jer.
49 : 16) ; its strength and vigor (Ps. 103 :
5); its predaceous habits (Job 9:26;
Prov. 30 : 17) ; its setting its nest in high
places (Jer. 49 : 16) ; its care in training
its young to fly (Ex. 19 : 4 ; Deut. 32 : 11) ;
its powers of vision (Job 39 : 29) ; and its
moulting (Ps. 103 : 5). As king of birds,
the eagle naturally became an emblem of
powerful empires (Ezek. 17 : 3, 7). In
Matt. 24 : 2& and Luke 17 : 37 the Jew-
What we call arable land
nally written earable land.
Earnest, something given in ad-
vance as a pledge or assurance of
more, or of good faith in a bargain
or of binding a bargain. It is a mer-
cantile term adopted by the Greeks
and Romans from the Phojuicians, who
were the founders of commerce, and is
still good legal English. The word is
used three times in the New Testament
(2 Cor. 1 : 22 ; 5:5; Eph. 1 : 14), and
imports that the gifts and graces which
the Holy Spirit confers on our Lord's
followers are so many pledges of the grand-
er gifts and graces which are to be theirs in
heaven. This use of the term, whilst di-
rectly asserting the pledged faithfulness of
God, finely illustrates the fully-warranted
conception of the future state as one of
augmented powers and greatly-enlarged
capacities.
Ear-Rings. The material of which
ear-rings were made was generally gold
(Ex. 32 : 2), and their form circular. They
were worn by women and by youth of both
sexes. They seem to have been regard-
ed with superstitious reverence as amulets.
On this account they were surrendered,
172
EARTH— EATING.
along with the idols, by Jacob's household
(Gen. 35 : 4). See Jewel.
Earth. Tlie word in Scripture is used
in two widely different senses — namely, for
the material of wiiicli the earth's surface is
composed, and as the name of the planet on
which man dwells. The Hebrew language
discriminates between these two by the use
of separate terms, adamah for the former,
erets for the latter.
1. Aclmnah is the earth in tlie sense of
soil or ground, particularly as being sus-
ceptible of cultivation. The earth sup-
plied the elementary substances of which
man's body was formed, and the terms
Adam and adamah are brought into jux-
taposition, implying an etymological con-
nection (Gen. 2 : 7).
2. Erets is applied in a more or less ex-
tended sense to the whole world (Gen. 1 :
1 ) ; to land as opposed to sea (Gen. 1 : 10) ;
to a country (Gen. 21 : .32) ; to a plot of
ground (Gen. 23 : 15) ; to the ground on
which a man stands (Gen. 33 : 3) ; to the
inhabitnntx of the earth (Gen. 6 : 11 ; 11 :
1); to heathen countries as distinguished
from the land of Israel — that is, all the
rest of the world excepting Israel (2 Kings
18 : 25 ; 2 Chron. 13 : 9) ; to Jud^a, in the
New Testament especially, where its Greek
equivalent would have been more appro-
priately rendered "the land" (Matt. 23 :
35 ; James 5 : 17) ; and in figure to things
earthly and carnal, as contrasted with
things heavenly and spiritual (John 3 :
31 ; Col. 3 : 2).
Earth'quake. In Palestine, as might
be expected from the numerous traces of
volcanic agency which the coimtry shows,
earthquakes, more or less violent, are of
frequent occurrence. The recorded in-
stances, however, are few, the most re-
markable being that which occurred in
the reign of King Uzziah (Amos 1:1;
Zech. 14:5). The eartliquake is in Scrip-
ture the symbol of violent agitation (Joel
2: 10; Hag. 2 : 21 ; Rev. 6: 12).
East, properly the quarter of the heav-
ens in which the sun rises, but according
to Hebrew usage the term designated the
countries lying east of Judaea, as Moab,
Ammon (Gen. 25 : 6), and Arabia gener-
ally, and those of the far East, as Armenia,
Mesopotamia, Chaldaea, Persia (Isa. 41 :
2; 46 : 11). So also, in speaking of the
quarters of the heavens, the Jews sup-
posed the face to be turned to the east, and
hence called the east before or forward, the
west behind, the south the right hand, and
the north the left hand (Job 23 : 8, 9).
Easter. The occurrence of this word
in our English Version (Acts 12 : 4) is
chiefly noticeable as an example of in-
consistency in the translators. In every
other passage the word passover is prop-
erly used.
East Sea (Num. 34 : 3 ; Ezek. 47 : 18 ;
Joel 2 : 20), the Dead Sea. See Sea.
East Wind. See Wixd.
Eat'ing. The Hebrews in our Lord's
time did not sit upright at table, as is the
present custom, but reclined on couches
placed near the table, resting on the left
elbow, with their feet thrown back, and
using their right hands to carry the food
to their mouths. This peculiarity of pos-
ture explains hoAV the woman could wash
our Lord's feet with her tears by coming
behind him as he sat at meat (Luke 7 : 37,
38). It explains, too, the manner in which
our Lord washed the disciples' feet at sup-
per-time (John 13 : 4, 5). It explains,
moreover, how John leaned on our Lord's
bosom (John 13 : 23). It was customary
to eat without knives and forks, and each
guest used liis fingers, dipping his bread
into the dish and taking up a portion of
the food. Sometimes the principal per-
son at a feast would thus dip his hand
into the dish, and, making a sop, put it
to the mouth of a guest. This illustrates
our Lord's dipping into the disli and
lianding the sop to .Jud;is (John 13 : 26).
Such free use of the fingers would justi-
EBA L— ECCLESIA STES.
173
fy the scrupulous care with which the
Jews washed their hands before eating
(Mark 7 : 2, 3) ; but, however much the
act of washing might be demanded by
personal cleanliness, it could not jiroperly
Eating with the Uaud.
be magnified into one of moral meritori-
ousness. The Hebrews also were partic-
ularly strict in regard to the kind of their
food and the character of the persons with
whom they took a meal. They distin-
guished between meats that were clean
and meats that were imclean (Lev. 11).
They declined to eat with persons of bad
reputation, as publicans and sinners (Matt.
9 : 11), or with uncircumcised (Acts 11:3).
And so far as sitting at meat with wicked
and profane persons should imply famil-
iarity and close intimacy with them, it was
forbidden by the apostle Paul (1 Cor. 5 :
11). The act of eating is, in Scripture,
the symbol of meditation on and commu-
nion with truth (Isa. 55 : 1, 2), of results
of previous conduct (Ezek. 18 : 2), of de-
struction of a man's peace or prosperity
(Eev. 17 : 16 ; Ps. 27 : 2). See Meal.
E^bal [bare of folim/e], a mountain in
Palestine opposite Mount Gerizim, and.
with the latter, forming the valley of
Shechem (Deut. 11 : 29 ; Josh. 8 : 33). On
Mount Ebal was built the first altar which
the Israelites erected after they had enter-
ed Canaan. Here also six tribes of Israel
stood and responded Arnen to the curses
pronounced by the Levites upon such of the
people as should transgress the law of the
Lord, whilst on Mount Gerizim, just across
the narrow valley, the other six tribes stood
and responded Avie>i to the blessings pro-
nounced by the Levites upon such of the
people as should obey (Deut. 27 : 12, 13;
Josh. 8 : 30-35). See Gerizim.
E'bed-Me'lech [serranl of (he king},
an Ethiopian eunuch in the service of
King Zedekiah, through whose interfer-
ence Jeremiah was released from prison
(Jer. 38 : 7-13). His humanity in this
particular was rewarded by the preserva-
tion of his life when Jerusalem was taken
by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (Jer.
39 : 15-18).
Eb-en-e'zer [the stone of help], a stone
set up by Samuel after a signal defeat of
the Philistines as a memorial of the
" help " received on the occasion from
Jehovah (1 Sam. 7 : 12). Its position is
carefully defined as between Mizpeh, the
" watch-tower," one of the conspicuous emi-
nences a few miles north of Jerusalem, and
Shen, the " tooth " or " crag. " apparently
some isolated landmark.
E^ber, son of Salah, great-grandson of
Shem and the ancestor of Al)raham (Gen.
10 ; 24). In Luke 3 : 35 his name is An-
glicized Heber. See Heber.
Eb'o-ny [stone-wood], a very hard
wood, dark in color and susceptible of a
high polish. The word occurs but once
in Scripture (Ezek. 27 : 15), where it is
mentioned as one of the valuable com-
modities imported into Tyre by the men
of Dedan.
Ec-cle-si-as'tes, the title of a book
of the Old Testament, believed to have
been written by Solomon at an advanced
174
ED— EDREI.
period of his life. It is an impressive dis-
course on tlie vanity and unsatisfying na-
ture of all merely temporal pleasures and
possessions (Eccles. 1:2), and is the more
impressive in that it embodies the deliber-
ate judgment of one who indulged freely
and unreservedly in all that the world
lias to offer, and wliose means of indul-
gence were unlimited (Eccles. 2: 1-11).
Wliile sensual enjoyments and temporal
good are represented as " vanity of vani-
ties," true wisdom or religion is extolled
as the only satisfy'ing portion (Eccles. 12 :
13).
Ed [wfV/if.'Js], the name of an altar reared
in peculiar circumstances (Josh. 22 : 34).
E'dar [flock], the name of a tower be-
yond which .Jacob first halted between
Bethleliem and Hebron (Gen. 35 : 21).
E'den [pleasure, delight], the name of
a province in which Avas situated the
earthly Paradise, or the garden in wliich
our first parents had their early, happy
home. It is impossible to designate its
position after so great a lapse of time and
so many changes on the earth's surface.
Perhaps every trace of it was obliterated
in the Deluge. The most probable opin-
ion is, that it was in or near Armenia.
No practical purpose would be effected
were we able to locate it beyond dispute.
It was a delightful place, where the pro-
genitors of our race were happy until
their sin marred its beauty and made it
a scene of sorrow (Gen. 2:8; 3 : 24). In
the prophetic writings the garden of Eden
is a general figurative expression for the
beauty and blessedness which God's grace
secures in redeemed human souls (Isa. 51 :
3 ; Ezek. 36 : 35).
E'dom [the red], the same country as
that designated Idumwa by the Greeks
and Romans (Judg. 11 : 17). Edom was
one of the names of Esau (Gen. 25 : 30),
by whose descendants this region w.is peo-
pled. It extends from the Dead Sea to
the Elanitic Gulf, a brancli of the Red
Sea. It was anciently called Mount Seir,
and was inhabited by the Horim until
they were expelled by Esau (Deut. 2 :
12). The Horim were so called because
they dwelt in caves, like those probably
of which many traces are still to be
seen at Petra, their renowned metrop-
olis. The Edomites were the implac-
able enemies of Israel, and various con-
flicts occurred between them (1 Sam. 14:
47; 1 Chron. 18 : 12; 2 Chron. 25 : 11).
The Israelites generally held them in sub-
jection, and about the year b. c. 125 they
were attacked by the Maccabees, and finally
subdued by John Hyrcanus, who compelled
them to submit to circumcision and other
Jewish rites. Subsequently, they were
incorporated with other tribes and lost
their national distinction. Burckhardt
was the first modern traveler who passed
through the land of Edom ; this was in
the year 1812. Other travelers have
since accomplished the journey, and their
descriptions of the country and its wonder-
ful ruins possess unusual interest. Edom
was the subject of many prophetic denun-
ciations which have been accomplished to
the letter (Joel 3 : 19; Isa. 34 : 5; Ezek.
25 : 12-14).
Ed're-i [i^lrcnglh, stronc/hold], the name
of two towns.
1. One of the metropolitan or royal
towns of the kingdom of Bashan, beyond
Jordan. Here Og, the gigantic king of
Bashan, was utterly defeated by the Is-
raelites, who "smote him and his sons
and all his people, until there was none
left him alive" (Num. 21 : 33-35). It
was in the territory of the half-tribe of
Mana.sseh (Num. 32 : 33). No allusion
is made to it in subsequent Bible history,
although it was an important city down to
the seventh century of our era. Its ruins
bear the name Edra, and are nearly three
miles in circuit. A number of the old
houses remain, low, ma.ssive, gloomy struc-
tures, some of them half buried in rubbish.
EGLON— EGYPT.
175
2. A town in the tribe of Naphtali, near
Kedesh (Josh. 19 : 87).
Eg'lon, the name of a king and of a
city.
1. A king of tlie Moabites ( Judg. 3 : 12),
wlio, aided by the Ammonites and Amal-
ekites, crossed the Jordan and took "tlie
city of palm trees." After a cruel oppres-
sion of the Israelites for eighteen years,
he was assassinated by Ehud (Judg. 3 :
•Jl).
2. A city in the tribe of Judali (Josli.
15 : 39). Its king formed an alliance
with Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem,
against Gibeon, but was utterly overtlirown
by Joshua (Josh. 10:1-11).
E 'gypt, one of the oldest and most in-
teresting countries of tlie world. Egypt is
the name by wliich it Avas known to the
Greeks, but whence derived and what
the precise meaning are matters of dis-
pute. The Hebrews called it Mizraim,
from the second son of Ham (Gen. 10 : 6).
It is an extended and mostly a narrow val-
ley, stretching from the Mediterranean to
Assouan, the ancient Syene, and giving a
channel to the Nile from south to north.
It is divided into two parts. Upper and
Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt is quite nar-
row, and is defined by limestone and sand-
stone hills on the right and left of the wind-
ing Kile. Lower Egypt, however, is a vast
and most productive jjlain. The Nile
branches into several streams, the two
largest of which give the country the
form of a triangle and suggest its mod-
ern name Delta, from its resemblance to
A (delta), the fourth letter of the Greek
alphabet. The Delta, owing its existence
to the deposits of mud brought down by
the great river, owes also its fertility to
the river's annual overflow. The Nile,
Gateway of an Egyptian Temple.
indeed, is tlie glory and the life of the | of very rare occurrence, but the lack of it
whole country. A fall of rain is an event 1 is abundantly supplied by tlie periodic in-
176
EHUD— ELAH.
undation. The river begins its rise in the
Delta in early June, and reaches its high-
est flood about the middle of September,
when, having leaped its banks, it over-
spreads the entire valley, and on the sur-
face of the land leaves nothing visible but
date trees and villages. Upon its subsi-
dence, toward the close of November, it
deposits a coating of black, slimy mud,
which for seed-time is all the preparation
that is needed. The cultivator has little
more to do now than to sow his grain.
With surprising rapidity the richest vege-
tation springs into growth, and the whole
country is converted into a beautiful and
fruitful garden. To the fertility of Egypt
the Scriptures bear emphatic testimony.
Thither Abraliam went when " famine
was grievous in the land" of Canaan
(Gen. 12 : 10). Thither, too, the sons of
Jacob went "to buy corn" when "in all
lands the famine was sore" (Gen. 42 : 1-3).
Thither, moreover, the Israelites turned
with regretful longings when in the wil-
derness they recollected the varied plenty
which once was theirs, and looked with dis-
dain upon the manna which was their sole
subsistence (Num. 11 : 4-6). Egypt is a
land of wonder, not alone for the river
which gives it existence and keeps it fer-
tile, but also for the monuments of its
ancient extraordinary civilization. Its
pyramids, temples, colossal statues and
wellnigh innumerable tombs with the
mummied remains of departed genera-
tions, have nothing elsewhere to surpass
or equal them. These, for thousands of
years, have attracted the curiosity and
have challenged the admiration of the
world, and for thousands of years to come,
doubtless, will continue to do so. Egypt
fills a large space in Scripture history
and prophecy. It was the residence of
the patriarchs, the house of bondage to
the Hebrews, the scene of the Exodus
and the shelter of the holy child Jesus.
It v.'as denounced by Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, Joel and Zechariah, and its pres-
ent condition is one of many proofs that in
uttering predictions these prophets " spake
as they were moved Ijv the Holy Ghost."
E'hud l^unionl, son of Gera of the tribe
of Benjamin ( Judg. 3:15), the second judge
of the Israelites. As a Benjamite, he was
specially chosen to destroy Eglon, king of
the Moabites, who had established himself
in Jericho. He was a left-handed man
and very strong.
Ek'ron [barren], the chief and most
northerly of the five Philistine cities
(Josh. 13 : 3). In the first distribution
of the land it was assigned to Judah
(Josh. 15 : 45), but afterward to the tribe
of Dan (Josh. 19 : 43). From thence the
ark was sent home in a new cart ( 1 Sam.
I 5:10; 6 : 10, 11). Dr. Robinson has iden-
I tified the place with a small Moslem vil-
! lage five miles soutli of Eamleh, named
'Akir, and situated near a long sandy swell
reaching to the sea-coast. The proximity
of the ancient city to this dry, barren spur
seems to have originated its name. The
modern site shows no ruins. The proph-
i ecy of Zephaniah has been literally ful-
■ filled: "Ekron shall be rooted up"
(Zeph. 2 : 4).
E'lah [terebinthi, the name of a valley
and of a king.
1. The valley in which David slew Go-
liath (1 Sam. 17 : 19). Dr. Robinson iden-
tifies it with the Wddy es-Sumt, or Valley
of Acacias, some fourteen miles south-west
from .Jerusalem, on the way to Gaza. It
presents an open space of a mile in width,
with a torrent-bed strewed with round peb-
bles in the centre.
2. The son and successor of Baasha,
king of Israel (1 Kings 16 : 8-10). His
reign lasted for little more than a year.
He was killed while drunk by Zimri, who,
usurping the throne and slaying "all the
house of Baasha," brought about the ac-
complisliment of the prophet Jehu's ter-
rible predictions (1 Kings 16 : 11-13).
ELAM— ELDEK.
17'
E^lam, so called from a descendant of
Shem (Gen. 10 : 22), was the region of
country which the Greeks and Romans
denominated Elymais, and which formed
a part of the ancient Susiana, the present
Shusistan. It embraced the country on
the east of the river Tigris, including
most of tlie plain south of the mountains
and a considerable district in the moun-
tains. In later times it was a prominent
and powerful province, and under its name
the sacred writers comprehended the coun-
try of the Persians in general. It is men-
tioned as a distinct kingdom as early as the
times of Abraham, when Chedorlaomer is
referred to as its king (Gen. 1-4 : 1). The
cuneiform inscriptions record an Elamite
conquest of Babylon, b. c. 2280, and refer
very often to Elamite struggles for suprem-
acy, with the Babylonians on the one hand
and the Assyrians on the other. In Elam
the city Sliushan of which Daniel speaks
(8:2) was situated. Allusions to Elam
may also be found in several of the proph-
ets. Elamites, or exile Jews who had set-
tled tliere, were in Jerusalem at the feast
of Pentecost (Acts 2 : 9).
E'lath [grovel, ^ ^^^J of Edom or Idu-
msea, and a seaport on the eastern or Elan-
itic gulf of the Red Sea, now the Gulf of
Akaba. It is first mentioned in Deut. 2 :
8, and it became commercially a place of
considerable importance (1 Kings 9 : 26).
El-Beth'el [God of Bethel'], the name
given by Jacob to the altar which, upon
his return to Canaan from Padan-Aram,
he erected on the spot where God appear-
ed to him when he fled from the face of
his brother (Gen. 35 : 7).
EFdad [loved of God] . He and Medad
were two of the seventy elders whom Moses
appointed to assist in the government, and
to whom God imparted tlie power of proph-
ecy (Num. 11 : 16, 26). When the elders,
at the time of their appointment, were as-
sembled around tlie tabernacle, Eldad and
Medad remained in the camp, yet received
12
the same prophetic spirit which their
brethren received ; they began to proph-
esy. When Moses was asked to prohibit
them he declined, saying that he desired
all the Lord's people to be prophets and
to have upon them the Lord's Spirit
(Num. 11 : 29). ,
Erder. The term elder {old man, as
the original word thus rendered imports)
was one of extensive use among the He-
brews and the surrounding nations. It
had reference to various offices (Gen. 24 :
2; 50 : 7; 2 Sam. 12 : 17). Wherever a
patriarchal system was in force the office
of the elder was the keystone of the social
and political fabric ; it is so at the present
day among the Arabs, where the sheikh
(literally, the old man) is the highest au-
thority in the tribe. The earliest notice
of the elders acting in concert as a polit-
ical body is at the time of the Exodus.
They were the representatives of the
people — so much so that elders and peo-
ple are occasionally used as equivalent
terms (comp. Josh. 24 : 1 with 2, 19, 21;
1 Sam. 8 : 4 with 7, 10, 19). Their author-
ity was undefined, and extended to all
matters concerning the public weal. When
the tribes became settled the elders were
distinguished by different titles, according
as they were acting as national representa-
tives, as district governors over the several
tribes (Deut. 31 : 28 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 11) or as
local magistrates in the provincial towns,
whose duty it was to sit in the gate and ad-
minister justice (Deut. 19 : 12 ; Ruth 4 : 9,
11 ; 1 Kings 21 : 8). They retained their
position under all the political changes
which the Jews underwent under the
judges ( Judg. 2 : 7 ; 1 Sam. 4:3); under
the kings (2 Sam. 17:4); during the Cap-
tivity (Jer. 29 : 1 ; Ezek. 8:1); subsequent-
ly to the Return (Ezra 5:5; 6 : 7, 14 ; 10 :
8, 14) ; under the Maccabees, when they
were described sometimes as the senate,
sometimes by their ordinary title ; and,
lastly, at' the commencement of the Chris-
178
ELEALEH— ELECT, ELECTION.
tian era, when they are noticed as a dis-
tinct body from the Sanliedrim (Luke 22 :
66 ; Acts 22 : .5). These elders in the Jew-
ish commonwealth were the prototypes of
the elders in the Jewish Church. After
the return from the Captivity synagogues
or congregations were formed in the cities
and towns of Palestine, and wherever also
Jews might be found, for the reading of
the LaAV and of prayers. The govern-
ment of each synagogue was committed
to a college of elders (Luke 7:3), pre-
sided over by one who was the chief of
the synagogue (Luke 8 : 41, 49; 13 : 14;
Acts 18 : 8, 17) and the officiating minis-
ter. As the Christian Church had its be-
ginning among Jews, so its government
was modeled after the government of the
synagogue. In every church a chief elder
was the minister, and with a college of el-
ders exercised governmental control. It
is to be observed, too, that in the early
Christian Church tlie elders or 'presbyters
held an office which was identical with
that of bishops (Acts 20 : 17, 28; Tit. 1 :
5, 7). In the organization of the Presby-
terian Church the primitive pattern in the
designation of officers has been strictly ad-
hered to. The scriptural bishop or preach-
ing elder is the ordinary minister of the
gospel, who, with the ruling elders, has
the charge or oversight of a church (1
Tim. 5 : 17). The ruling elders are re-
ferred to in 1 Cor. 12 : 28 under the des-
ignation of "governments;" in Rom. 12 :
8 they are described as ruling with diligence.
See Bishop.
E-le-a'leh [Ood has ascendedl, a city
of the Amorites on the east of the Jor-
dan, assigned to the tribe of Reuben, who
possessed it and rebuilt it (Num. 32 : 3,
37). It is denounced in the prophecies
as a Moabite town (Isa. 15:4; 16:9;
Jer. 4S : 34). It is usually mentioned in
connection with Heshbon, and in the vi-
cinity of that place there are the ruins of
a town still called el-Aal, " the high."
Ele-a'zar [God has helped], a very
common name among the Hebrews. Three
persons who bore it need only be men-
tioned.
1. The third son of Aaron, and his suc-
cessor in the office of the high priesthood
(Ex. 6 : 23 ; Num. 20 : 25-28). In con-
junction with Moses he superintended the
census of the people (Num. 26 : 3). After
the conquest of Canaan he took part in the
distribution of the land (.losh. 14 : 1). He
was succeeded in the high priesthood by
his son Phinehas, the office continuing in
his line through seven successions, when
it passed into the line of Ithamar in the
person of Eli.
2. The son of Abinadab, who was ap-
pointed to attend the ark while it was
in his father's house (1 Sam. 7:1).
3. The son of Dodo, one of three dis-
tinguished warriors who aided David in
withstanding the Philistines after the men
of Israel had retired (2 Sam. 23 : 9, 10).
Elect, E-lec'tion. These terms are
of frequent occurrence in the Scriptures,
and when used in a religious sense desig-
nate the sovereign act of God in choosing
from eternity some men to salvation. In
relation to those who shall be saved, God
is represented as purposing, decreeing, or-
I daining, electing, choosing, predestinating
I (Mark 13 : 27 ; Luke 18:7; Acts 13 : 48 ;
; Rom. 8 : 28-33; 9 : 10-26; Eph. 1 : 4, 5,
I 11 ; Col. 3 : 12 ; 1 Thess. 1 : 4 ; 2 Thess. 2 :
j 13; 2 Tim. 1:9; Tit. 1:1-3; 1 Pet. 1:2;
2 Pet. 1 : 10). By a comparison of the
! various passages it is manifest that God'S
election is of mere grace ; that it is unin-
I fluenced by any foreseen works in the
I creature; that it cannot be defeated by
! any possible circumstances ; that it is the
! only security of the believer ; that it is
infinitely just as Avell as merciful ; and
that it is in conformity with it that the
elect are inspired with faith, enabled to
trust in Christ and to render a holy obe-
I dience. So clearly is this doctrine taught
ELECT LADY— ELIAB.
179
in the Holy Scriptures, so completely does
it pervade them, and so inwrought is it
with their whole texture, that the attempt
to dissever it from the system of revealed
trutli not only does violence to the ex-
plicit language in which it is set forth,
but mai-s the whole fabric and threatens
to overturn it from its very foundation.
To affirm that it exhibits God as a par-
tial and unjust being, and that it encour-
ages the sinner in his impenitence, is to
charge God foolishly.
Elect Lady. John directs his second
Epistle to the elect lady — that is, to one so
distinguished by her piety as to be thus
styled (2 John 1). Grotius, Wetstein and
other interpreters contend, however, that
the address of the Epistle should be " The
presbvter to the Lady Electa."
El-Ero-he-Is-ra'el [Mighty One,
God of Israel'}, the name bestowed by Ja-
cob on the altar which he erected facing
the city of Sliechem ( Gen. 33:20). It des-
ignates God as the Being who can do what-
ever seems good to him, and who in the re-
cent experience of Jacob had peculiarly
manifested his power in overcoming the
deep-rooted enmity of Esau.
El-e'ments, the first principles of
which other things are composed or
whence they proceed, according to the
ancient belief that all bodies consist of
certain constituents, into which they are
resolvable. The word occurs in its pri-
mary sense in 2 Pet. 3:10," the elements
shall melt with fervent heat," and is obvi-
ousiy used to designate that of which the
outward form of nature is composed. The
word occurs in a secondary sense in Gal.
4 : 3-9, where the apostle Paul character-
izes " the elements of the world " as " weak
and beggarly elements," and where by " the
elements of the world " he evidently means
that state of religious knowledge which had
subsisted in the world among Jews and
Gentiles before Christ, and which was too
weak to sanctify and save the human soul
(Heb. 7 : 18, 19; Rom. 1 : 20-32). The
same word, with a similar sense, is ren-
dered rudiments in Col. 2 : 8, 20.
E^li [ascent'], a high priest of the Jews
and a descendant of Aaron through Ith-
amar, the fourth and youngest of Aaron's
sons (Lev. 10 : 1, 2, 12). He is generally
supposed to have been the first of the line of
Ithamar who held the office of high priest,
but why the office was transferred from the
line of Eleazar to that of Ithamar is not
known. In addition to the office of high
priest, he held that of judge. He was an
eminently pious, yet a singularly wavering
and weak man. His sons, Hophni and
Phinehas, whom he invested with author-
ity, misconducted themselves so outrage-
ously as to excite deep disgust among tlie
people and render the services of the tab-
ernacle odious in their eyes (1 Sam. 2 : 22-
36). Of this misconduct Eli was aware,
but, instead of repressing it by prompt
and proper punishment, he contented
himself with a mild and ineffectual re-
monstrance. For this culpable weakness
and very grave error the judgment of
God was denounced upon his house
through the young Samuel, who under
peculiar circumstances had been attached
from childhood to his person (1 Sam. 3 :
11-15). The denunciation was unfulfilled
for years, but at length it came in a ter-
rible crash which broke the old man's
heart. In one day his sons were slain in
battle, the ark of the Lord captured, and
he himself so overwhelmed with the sad
intelligence that he fell from his seat and
expired (1 Sam. 4: 17, 18). The doom
on his house was completed in the re-
moval, by Solomon, of Abiathar, his de-
scendant, from the office of higli priest,
and the restoration of it to the line of
Eleazar (1 Kings 2 : 27).
E-li'ab [my God is father], the name of
several men, of whom one only, the eldest
son of Jesse and brother of David ( 1 Sam.
16 : 6 ; 17 : 13, 28 ; 1 Chron. 2 : 13), need
180
ELIAKIM— ELIJAH.
be mentioned. From his treatment of
his brother David wlien the latter pro-
posed to fight Goliath, he seems to have
been a man of an envious, irascible tem-
per, and of a haughty, contemptuous bear-
ing.
E-li'a-kiin [my God ivill raise iip], the
name of several men, of whom two only
need be mentioned.
1. Son of Hilkiah, master of Hezekiah's
household (2 Kings 18 : 18, 26, 37). He
was a good man, and acted as a "father
to the inhabitants of Jerusalem and to
the house of Judah" (Isa. 22 : 21).
2. The original name of Jehoiakim,
king of Judah (2 Kings 23 : 34; 2 Chron.
36 : 4).
E-li^as, the form in which the name
of Elijah is given in our English Ver-
sion of the New Testament.
E-li'a-shib [my God will restore], the
high priest of the Jews in the time of Ne-
hemiah (Neli. 13 : 28), who, rebuilding the
eastern city wall adjoining the temple, des-
ecrated the holy house by preparing in it
a chamber for Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh.
13 : 5). This and other acts of impiety
were resented and punished by Nehemiah
(13: 8, 28).
E-li-e'zer [my God is help'], the name
of eleven persons in Scripture, of whom
three only need be mentioned.
1. The steward and probably a relative
of Abraham (Gen. 15 : 2, 3). His office in
Abraham's household and his special rela-
tions to the patriarch have occasioned much
conjecture and cannot be determined.
2. The second of the two sons of Moses
and Zipporah, born during the exile in
Midian (Ex. 18 : 4).
3. A prophet, the son of Dodavah, who
foretold to Jehoshaphat that the merchant
fleet he had fitted out in partnership with
Ahaziah should be wrecked (2 Chron. 20 :
37), and who thus prevented the sailing to
Tarshish.
E-li'hu [God is He, that is, Jehovah],
one of Job's friends and a supposed rela-
tive of Abraham (Job 32 : 2 ; Gen. 22 : 21 ).
He was present during the controversy
between Job and the three illustrious
men touching the cause of Job's calami-
ties, and at its close made an eloquent
and effective address, in which he rebuked
Job for justifying himself, and the three
men for their unfair and unsatisfactory
mode of answering the afflicted patri-
arch.
E-li'jah [my God is Jehovah], a distin-
guished prophet, of whose parentage and
early life the Scriptures are silent. He
was called the Tishbite, either from the
place in which he was born or that cha-
racter of "the wanderer" he was called
to sustain (1 Kings 17 : 1). His career
was a remarkable one. With great bold-
ness he rebuked the wickedness of Aliab,
king of Israel, who, together with the
greater portion of the people, was sunk
in gross idolatry. In answer to his
prayers a drought of three years and six
months' continuance, which brought the
extremest misery on the nation, was sent
and removed (James 5 : 17, 18). Despite
the indefatigable efforts of King Ahab
and his infamous wife, Jezebel, to destroy
him, he Avas so protected by Jehovali's
miraculous interposition that lie uniform-
ly and always escaped. Wliile concealed
in the deep and desolate ravine of the
brook Chcrith the ravens brought him
I food (1 Kings 17 : 6). At Zarephath, a
i Phoenician town lying between T\Te and
I Sidon, he was sheltered by a poor widow,
whose handful of meal and cruse of oil
were made unfailing, and whose dead son
was restored to life (1 Kings 17 : 10-24).
At the close of tlie drought he reappeared
to King Ahab, and summoned him and
j the nation to meet Jiim at Mount Carmel.
Here transpired one of the strangest and
sublimest scenes of history. Elijah alone
began a contest with eight hundred and
fifty prophets of Baal and Ashtaroth to
ELIM— ELLASAK.
181
determine whether Jehovah or Baal were
God. The contest ended in tlie triumph
of Jehovah, the slaughter of the prophets
of Baal and AshtarotJi by Elijah's own
hand, the oncoming of the long-with-
lield rain, the rage and threatened ven-
geance of Jezebel, the queen, against the
Lord's prophet, and his flight to the rocky i
fastnesses of Sinai. When his marvelous
ministry was accomplished he was trans-
lated to heaven in a fiery chariot, being
exempted from the pains of death (2
Kings 2 : 11). A further and more glo-
rious distinction awaited him. In com-
pany with Moses he appeared on the
Mount of Transfiguration and com-
muned with our Lord "of his decease,
which he should accomplish at Jerusa-
lem" (Luke 9: 31).
E^lim [^treesl, the second station of the
Hebrew host after they had crossed the
Red Sea. It had twelve wells of water
and seventy palm trees (Ex. 15 : 27).
E-lim'e-lech [my God is king'], a na-
tive of Bethlehem and husband of Naomi,
Ruth's motlier-in-law (Ruth 1 : 2).
EFi-phaz [my God is strength], ihelead-
ing one of the three friends who visited Job
on the occasion of his sudden and sore trial.
What he said is recorded in Job 4, 5, 15,
22.
E-lis^a-beth [same name as Elish-
eba], tlie wife of Zacharias and mother
of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5). She
was a descendant of Aaron and a devout
woman.
E-li'sha [my God is salvation], a distin-
guished prophet of the Lord, the successor
of Elijah, whose translation he Avitnessed
and whose mantle rested on him. His
history is equally remarkable with that
of his predecessor. He was at the head
of the schools of the prophets, performed
miracles in attestation of his divine mis-
sion, uttered predictions which were lit-
erally fulfilled and was a faithful witness
for God. As in the case of Elijah, a bless-
ing attended those who hospitably enter-
tained him. He raised the dead to life,
denounced curses which were fearfully
executed, and promised blessings which
were fully realized. After a long life, he
died in peace. His remarkable life is best
portrayed in the language of Scripture (1
Kings 19 : 16-21; 2 Kings 2-9; 13 : 14-
21).
E-li'shah, the oldest of the four
sons of Javan (Gen. 10 : 4 ; 1 Chron.
1:7). He seems to have given name
to certain countries on the Mediterra-
nean, "the isles (or shores) of Elisha,"
which are described as exporting fabrics
of purple and scarlet to the markets of
Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 7). The most probable
conjecture respecting the people inhabit-
ing these countries or isles identifies
them with those ^olians who emigrat-'
ed from Greece into Asia Minor, and
who in Ezekiel's time occupied the north-
west of that region, named after them ^o-
lis, together with the islands of Lesbos and
Tenedos.
E-lish'a-ma [my God has heard], son
of Amniihud, the "prince" or "captain" of
the tribe of Ephraim in the wilderness of
Sinai (Num. 1 : 10 ; 2 : 18 ; 7 : 48 ; 10 : 22).
From 1 Chron. 7 : 26 we find that he was
grandfatlier to the great Joshua.
E-lish^e-ba [my God hath sworn], the
wife of Aaron (Ex. 6 : 23). She was the
daughter of Amminadab and sister of
Naashon, the captain of the host of Ju-
dah (Num. 2:3).
El-ka'nah [God has created^, a Ko-
hathite Levite, and the father of Sam-
uel, the illustrious judge and prophet (1
Sam. 1 : 1, 20).
El'kosh, the birthplace of the prophet
Nahum (Nah. 1:1). It is supposed to
have been a small village of Galilee.
EFla-sar, a city with contiguous ter-
ritory in ancient Shinar or Clialdsea, whose
king, Arioch, in the time of Abraham was
one of the confederates of Chedorlaomer in
182
ELM— EMMAUS.
the invasion of Canaan (Gen. 14 : 1). Some
erroneously suppose it to be the same with
Thelasar, mentioned in 2 Kings 19:12. It
is the modern Senkereh, on the left bank of
the Euphrates. Inscriptions found here
import that the place is more ancient than
Babylon.
Elm. The original of this word (Hos.
4 : 13) is elsewhere and uniformly ren-
dered Oak (which see).
El-na'than [God has given], the ma-
ternal grandfather of King Jehoiachin (2
Kings 24 : 8), and the same man, doubt-
less, with Elnathan the son of Achbor
(.Jer. 26 : 22 ; 36 : 12, 25).
E'loi {_my Qod], the Syro-Chaldaic form
of the Hebrew E'li (Mark 15 : 34). Our
Lord quotes Ps. 22 : 1.
E'lon [oak], the name of a place and
of three men.
1 . A town in the border of the tribe of
Dan (Josh. 19 : 43), more fully called (1
Kings 4 : 9) Elon-beth-Haxan.
2. A Hittite, whose daughter was one
of Esau's wives (Gen. 26 : 34; 36 : 2).
3. The second of the three sons of Zeb-
ulun (Gen. 46 : 14), and father of the
family of the Elonites (Num. 26 : 26).
4. A native of the tribe of Zebulun,
who judged Israel for ten years, and was
buried in Aijalon in Zebulun (Judg. 12 :
11, 12).
E'loth [trees'], another form of Elath
(1 Kings 9 : 26; 2 Chron. 8 : 17).
El-to'lad, one of the cities in the
south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 30) allotted to
Simeon (Josh. 19 : 4), and in possession
of that tribe until the time of David (1
Chron. 4 : 29).
E'lul, a Hebrew month, the twelfth of
the civil and sixth of the sacred year
reckoning (Neh. 6 : 15). It began with
the new moon of our August or Septem-
ber, and consisted of twenty-nine days.
Ery-mas, the Arabic name of the
Jewish magus or sorcerer Bar-jesus (Acts
13 : 6-8).
Em-balm.'ing', the process by which
dead bodies were preserved from putrefac-
tion and decay. It was most general among
Embalming.
the Egyptians, and it is in connection with
this people that the two instances which we
meet with in the Old Testament are men-
tioned (Gen. 50 : 2, 26). See Burial.
Em-broi'de-ry and Nee'dle-
work. The Egyptians were celebrated
for their skill in this kind of work, and
from them, doubtless, the Hebrew women
learned the art, which was put to good use
in the preparation of the taberuacle and
the sacerdotal robes (Ex. 26 : 36 ; 27 : 16 ;
28 : 39).
Em'er-ald, a precious stone of a bril-
liant green color (Ex. 28 : 18 ; Rev. 21 :
19). It was the fii-st in the second row on
the breastplate of the high priest. The
rainbow round the throne (Rev. 4:3) is
compared to an emerald.
Em'e-rods, a painful disease with
which the Philistines were afflicted ( 1
Sam. 5 : 6, 9, 12 ; 6 : 4, 5, 11), probably
hemorrhoidal tumors or bleeding piles.
E'mims [terrors], a numerous and gi-
gantic race of people who in the time of
Abraham occupied the country beyond the
Jordan, afterward possessed by the Moab-
ites (Gen. 14 : 5 ; Deut. 2 : 10, 11).
Em-man 'u-el (Matt. 1 : 23). See
Immanuel.
Em'maus [hot springs], the village
about seven and a half miles from Jeru-
salem whither were going the two disci-
EN— EN-GEDI.
183
pies to whom our Lord, after his resur-
rection, appeared (Luke 24 : 13). Its site
is one of the vexed questions of biblical
geography. In the absence of any notice
in Scripture or elsewhere of its direction
from Jerusalem, conjecture has located it,
now on the north-west of the city, now on
the west, and now on the south-west. It
has been recently suggested that Khamasa,
the name of a ruin about eight miles from
Jerusalem, near the Roman road which
runs south-west by Solomon's Pools to
Beit Jibrin, is an Arabic corruption of
Hammatli or Ammaus, and may there-
fore be regarded as marking the site of
the ancient Emmaus. Near the ruin are
a spring of clear water and a little pool,
with the remains of a small church.
En [a Jmintui)!']. It is found in compo-
sition with names of certain places. See
AiN.
En-chant'ments. The Scriptures
refer to enchanters, magicians, sorcerers,
wizards, diviners, necromancers, witli spe-
cial condemnation (Deut. 18 : 9-12). It
is difficult to tell the precise difference
between them. They alike pretended to
a secret power or art of unfolding the fu-
ture, seeing into things hidden, perform-
ing supernatural works. Their success is
principally to be ascribed to the credulity
of tliose on whom they practiced. Among
savage nations persons with like preten-
sions are still to be found, and even in
civilized nations the ignorant are imposed
on by similar artifices.
En'dor [fountain of the dwelling^ a
town of Galilee assigned to Manasseh
(Josh. 17 : 11), and noted as the resi-
dence of the Witch whom Saul consulted
on the eve of the battle in which he per-
ished (1 Sam. 28 : 7). In the time of
Eusebius there still existed a large vil-
lage of the name four miles south of
Mount Tabor. It was visited and iden-
tified by Dr. Robinson, who describes it
as "a most wretched -looking place."
E'ne-as or -^'neas, a paralytic on
whom Peter performed a miracle of heal-
ing at Lydda (Acts 9 : 33, 34).
En-Eg-la'im [foimtain of tuo heifers],
a town of Moab, wliicli Jerome places on
the northern end of the Dead Sea, at the
influx of the Jordan (Ezek. 47 : 10).
En-Gan^nira [fountain of gardens'], a
town on the border of Issachar (Josh. 19 :
21 ) and allotted to Gershonite Levites. It
is believed to be the modern Jenin, the
first village met on the ascent from the
great plain of Esdraelon to the hills of
the central country. It is a picturesque
town of three thousand inhabitants, still
surrounded with gardens. It abounds in
palm trees, and near by is a noted spring.
The leading road from Jezreel and the
north to Samaria and Jerusalem passes
Jenin.
En-Ge^di [fountain of the kid], a town
in the wilderness of Judah (Josh. 15 : 62),
on the western shore of the Dead Sea
(Ezek. 47 : 10). Its original name was
Ilazazon-tamar {pruning of the palm tree),
from the palm-groves which surrounded it
(2 Chron. 20 : 2). It gave name to a part
of the neighboring desert, the wilderness
of En-Gedi, one of David's retreats and
the scene of David's magnanimity toward
his persecutor Saul (1 Sam. 24: 1-22).
The place is now called by the Arabs
Ain-jidy. Dr. Robinson found there the
beautiful fountain from which it derives
its name. This fountain, at an elevation
of some four hundred feet above the plain,
bursts forth at once in a fine stream upon
a sort of narrow terrace or shelf of the
mountain, having an abrupt margin to-
ward tlie Dead Sea. The water is sweet,
but warm and strongly impregnated with
lime. The stream rushes down the steep
descent of the mountain, and its course is
hidden by a luxuriant thicket of trees
and shrubs belonging to a more southern
clime. Near tliis fountain are the re-
mains of several buildings, apparently
184
ENGINES— ENOCH.
En-Gedi, the Dead Sea
ancient, altliough the main site of the
town seems to have been farther below.
Dr. Robinson found also in the wilder-
ness of En-Gedi " caverns which might
serve as lurking-places for David and his
men, as they do for outlaws of the present
day." En-Gedi, according to Josephus, was
celebrated for its palm trees; its vineyards
are referred to in the Song 1 : 14.
En'gines, Avarlike instruments for
throwing stones, battering down walls,
etc. (2 Chron. 26 : 15 ; Ezek. 26 : 9).
En-grav'ing. The only notices of
the art in Scripture are in connection with
the high priest's dress, the two onyx stones,
the twelve jewels and the mitre-plate hav-
ing inscriptions on them (Ex. 28 : 11, 21,
36). The art Avas Avidely spread through-
out the nations of antiquity, particularly
among the Egyptians.
En-Mish'pat, See Kadesh.
E'noch [dedicated], the name of seve-
ral men.
1. The eldest son of Cain (Gen. 4 : 17),
and Mountains of Moab.
who called the city which he built after his
name.
2. The son of Jared and father of Me-
thuselah (Gen. 5 : 21). He was an emi-
nently godly man, and " was translated
that he should not see death" (Heb. 11 :
5). Before his translation he uttered a
prophecy which the apostle Jude (14,
15) has recorded, and Avliich is substan-
tially contained in the apocryphal " Book
of Enoch." It has been much debated
whether Jude, with a tacit sanction of the
authority and value of the " Book," quoted
the prophecy therefrom, or Avhether he re-
ceived it from tradition alone. AVhichever
way the question may be answered is im-
material. The prophecy is evidently a
traditional one, and, on common grounds,
must have had an insertion in the canon-
ical Epistle and the apocryphal Book. If
the Book antedate the Epistle, as is gener-
ally believed, there is no evidence, aside
from the close similarity of tlie propliecy
in the latter Avith the prophecy in the
ENON— EPAPHKODITUS.
185
former, that Jude ever saw the Book ; yet,
were it cei-tain that Jude had seen the Book,
and that he actually copied the prophecy
therefrom, he would no more sanction the
authority and value of a confessedly unin-
spired treatise than Paul, by his quotations
from the Greek poets, would justify the
placing of all that these poets had writ-
ten among the accredited Scriptures. The
apostle's sanction extends not beyond the
passage which he quotes, if, indeed, he did
quote it. All that can be reasonably in-
ferred from the fact of quotation, if the
fact be unquestioned, is to the effect that
the inspired writer endorses as true wliat
he quotes, irrespective of the truth or
falsehood of wliat he does not quote.
3. Tlie third son of Midian and grand-
son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 4 ;
1 Chron. 1 : 33).
4. The eldest son of Eeuben (Gen. 46 :
9 ; Ex. 6 : 14 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 3), from whom
came the family of the Hanochites (Num.
26 : 5).
E'non or j^'non [sprivgs, fountains'],
a place near Salim where John baptized
(.John 3 : 23). It was the scene of John's
baptizing, because it afforded plenty of water
for the multitude to drink. A comparison
of John 3 : 22 with John 3 : 26 and 1 : 28 jus-
tifies the inference that the site was west of
the Jordan, and the recent survey by the
Palestine Exploration Fund is probably
correct in placing the site at the head of
the great Fdr'ah Valley, the open highway
from the Ddmieh ford of Jordan to Shechem.
Conder says : " The head-springs are found
in an open valley surrounded by desolate
and shapeless hills. The water gushes out
over a stony bed, and flows rapidly down
in a fine stream surrounded by bushes of
oleander. The supply is perennial, and a
continual succession of little springs occurs
along the bed of the valley, so that the cur-
rent becomes the principal western affluent
of Jordan south of the Yale of Jezreel.
The name of Salim occurs in the village
three miles south of the valley, and the
name ^non is recognizable at the vil-
lage of 'Ainun, four miles north of the
stream."
En-Ro'gel \^Juller^s fountain'], a spring
on the boundary between Judah and Ben-
jamin, near Jerusalem. It is frequently
mentioned (Josh. 15 : 7 ; 18 : 16; 2 Sam.
17 : 17), but the best authorities differ as
to its site.
En-she^mesh [fountain of the mn], a
spring which formed one of the landmarks
on the north boundary of Judah and the
south boundary of Benjamin (Josh. 15 :
7; 18 : 17).
En'sign. See Banner, Ensign,
Standard.
Ensue (1 Pet. 3 : 11), an obsolete verb
meaning " to follow after and overtake."
Ep-sen'e-tus [Authorized Version,
Epen^etus, commendable], a Christian
at Rome who is designated by Paul (Rom.
16 : 5) as his beloved and the first-fruit of
Asia unto Christ. In the Received Text
he is spoken of as "the first-fruits of
Achaia," but the best manuscripts, with
unquestionable correctness, have "Asia"
instead of "Achaia."
Ep'a-phras, an eminent teacher in
the church at Colosse, denominated by
Paul "his dear fellow-servant" and "a
faithful minister of Christ" (Col. 1:7; 4 :
12). He is mentioned also in the Epistle
to Philemon.
E-paph-ro-di'tus, a messenger of
the church at Philippi to the apostle Paul
during his imprisonment at Rome, who was
entrusted with their contributions for his
support (Phil. 2:25; 4:18). Paul's
high estimate of his character is shown
by an accumulation of honorable epithets
! and by fervent expressions of gratitude
for his recovery from a dangerous illness,
brought on in part by a generous disregard
of his personal welfare in ministering
I to the apostle (Pliil. 2 : 30). Epaphro-
ditus, on his return to Philippi, was the
186
EPHAH— EPHESUS.
bearer of the Epistle which forms part
of the Canon.
Eph'ah [pronounced effali], a He-
brew dry measure (Ruth 2 : 17), sup-
posed to be something more than one
bushel. See Weights and Measures.
Eph'e-sus, a celebrated and magnif-
icent city of Asia Minor, situated on the
river Cayster, about forty miles south of
Smyrna. In New Testament times it
was the centre of a vast trade and the
; seat of wealth and culture and luxury.
I Here stood the temple of Diana, one
of the wondei"s of the world. This tem-
j pie was built by the most eminent archi-
tects and of the choicest marble, the cost
being defrayed by all the Greek cities,
with the aid of Croesus, king of Lydia.
In its erection many years were spent;
for its destruction a single night sufficed.
The splendid structure was fired by an
obscure person named Eratostratus, who
Restoration of Ancient Ephesus. Theatre in the foreground.
sought thus to render his name immortal.
Its rebuilding was straightway begun, and,
from the widespread interest in it occa-
sioned by its burning, it was finished
with still greater magnificence. This
was the temple which Paul saw. In it
was deposited the wealth of Western Asia.
In it, too, was enshrined that sacred image
of Diana wliich wiis believed to have fallen
from heaven. The silver shrines of which
we read in the Acts were probably small
models of tliis image and that part of the
temple in which it stood. These shrines
were eagerly purchased by visitors, and
their manufacture was a lucrative branch
of business (Acts 19 : 24-27).
The ruins of Diana's temple have recent-
ly been brought to light, consisting of sec-
tions of fluted columns of the finest Avhite
marble nearly seven feet in diameter, and
other remains of a great and costly build-
ing. Some of the capitals and drums of
these columns, elaborately carved with hu-
man figures, and other ornamentation taken
from the excavations, are now in the Brit-
ish Museum, London.
EPHOD— EPHRAIM.
187
Another very celebrated structure of
Ephesus was that magnificent theatre
into which "Paul would have entered"
(Acts 19 : 30) when a vast and excited
throng of the city's population were
^there shouting, "Great is Diana of the
Ephesians !" This theatre is said to have
been capable of seating twenty-four thou-
sand persons, and to have been the most
capacious audience-room ever built by
the Greeks. It is now a vast and deeply
interesting ruin. As the result of recent
excavations, some of the steps and seats of
the building are visible, whilst its front is
still traceable in its whole plan. A res-
toration of it is shown in the accompa-
nying picture.
On his second missionary journey Paul
visited Ephesus. His stay was brief, but,
returning soon, he devoted himself for
the long term of three years to the work
of preaching (Acts 20 : 31). The result
of his labors was the formation of a large
and influential church, to which he sub-
sequently addressed an important Epistle.
This church was also one of the seven
to which epistles were addressed in the
Apocalypse (Rev. 2 and 3). At that time
it had declined in Christian love and zeal,
and was threatened with the loss of privi-
lege if it failed to heed the exhortation to
repent. This threatening has long since
become an accomplished fact. Centuries
ago the candlestick of the Ephesian church
was removed out of its place. Ephesus it-
self, consecrated at first to paganism, then
converted to Cliristianity, and then given
over to Mohammedanism, is now a desola-
tion. Even the sea, which brought to its
port ships richly freighted from every land,
has retired from the city's ruins, and a pes-
tilential marsh now occupies the place of
the harbor where rode vessels freighted
with the wealth of the nations. Its glory
is utterly gone.
Eph'od, a sacred vestment, originally
appropriated to the high priest (Ex. 28 :
4), but afterward worn by ordinary priests
(1 Sam. 22 : 18), and deemed characteristic
of the office (1 Sam. 2 : 28 ; 14 : 3; Hos.
3:4). A kind of ephod was worn by
Samuel (1 Sam. 2 : 18) and by David
when he brought the ark to Jerusalem
(2 Sara. 6 : 14; 1 Chron. 15 : 27) ; it dif-
fered, however, from the priestly ephod
in material, being made of ordinary linen,
whereas the other was of fine linen. It
consisted of two parts — one covering the
back, and the other the breast, and both
united upon the two shoulders. It was
without sleeves, and was worn over the
tunic and outer garment. On each shoul-
der of the high priest, where the two parts
of the ephod were brought together, was
a large precious stone upon which were
engraved the names of the twelve tribes.
Attached to the high priest's ephod in
front was the breastplate with the Ueim
and Thummim ; this wtis the ephod, by
eminence, which Abiathar carried off (1
Sam. 23 : 6) from the tabernacle at Nob
(1 Sam. 21 : 9), and which David con-
sulted (1 Sam. 23 : 9; 30 : 7). The im-
portance of the ephod as the receptacle of
the breastplate led to its adoption in the
idolatrous forms of worship instituted in
the time of the judges ( Judg. 8 : 27 ; 17 :
5; 18 : 14).
Eph'ra-im. [very fruitful'], the name
of a man, of a tribe, of a mountain-range,
of a wood and of a city.
1. The second son of Joseph, who took
precedence of his elder brother, Manasseh,
in consequence of the blessing of his grand-
father Jacob (Gen. 48). Each of Joseph's
two sons was head of a tribe, while Jacob's
other sons were the heads of one tribe each.
Thus there were actually thirteen tribes of
Israel, although the number twelve is re-
tained by dropping Levi (which had no
territory), when Ephraim and Manasseh
are mentioned separately ; or by naming
Joseph instead of his sons, when Levi is
included in the enumeration.
188
EPHRATA— EPISTLES.
2. The tribe of Epliraim at the census
in the wilderness of Sinai (Num. 1 : 32,
33; 2 : 19) numbered forty thousand five
hundred, but its power among the other
tribes was due not so much to population
as to the prowess and popularity of Joshua,
its great hero. Upon the conquest of Ca-
naan it received as its tribal territory one
of the most fruitful parts of Palestine, in
the very centre of the country. This ter-
ritory was bounded on the north by that
of the half-tribe of Manasseh, and on the
south by that of Benjamin and Dan ; it
extended fi-om the ^Mediterranean on the
west to the Jordan on the east, an area of
about forty miles in length and from six to
twenty miles in breadth. This fine coun-
try included most of what was afterward
called Samaria, as distinguished from Ju-
dsea on the one hand and Galilee on the
other. The Ephraimites, anxious to re-
tain the ascendency which in Joshua's
times had been freely accorded them, be-
came exceedingly jealous of the growing
importance of Judah, and to this feeling
may be traced the eventual rupture which
resulted in the erection of the two king-
doms of Judah and Israel. In the latter
Ephraim was so prominent that the king-
dom itself was sometimes called by the
tribal name.
3. Mount Ephraim was the designation
of a mountain-range which ran through
the territory of the tribe, from Bethel and
Ramah on the south to the great plain on
the north (Josh. 17 : 15; 1 Kings 4 : 8).
Its soil was fertile, and anciently its sur-
face was well wooded.
4. The wood or forest of Ephraim was
the place where Absalom was slain (2
Sam. 18 : 6-14). This forest was not in
the territory of Ephraim, but on the east
of the .Jordan, not far from Mahanaim.
It received its name, possibly, from tlie
Epliraimites using it as a place of pastur-
age for their flocks.
5. A considerable city eight miles north-
east of Jerusalem, on the way to Jericho,
to which our Lord, with liis disciples, re-
tired to avoid the persecution consequent
i upon the raising of Lazarus from tlie
dead (John 11 : 54).
Eph'ra-ta, the same as Bethlehem
(which see).
Eph'ron, the Hittite from whom Abra-
ham bought the cave of Machpelah (Gen.
23 : 16-18).
Ep-i-cu-re'ans, The, a sect of Greek
philosophers deriving their name from Epi-
curus, a native of the island of Samos, but
through many years a resident and lec-
turer in Athens. He was a materialist.
He denied the immortality of the soul,
and affirmed that pleasure was the aim
' and end of existence. He maintained
that the object of philosophy was to find
a practical guide to happiness ; that true
j pleasure, and not absolute truth, was the
[iroper aim of man ; that experience, and
not reason, was the sole test of all things.
His doctrines met with wide acceptance in
Asia Minor and Alexandria, and at Rome
they had the brilliant advocacy of the poet
Lucretius, three quarters of a century B. c.
His system degenerated, of necessity, into
luxurious living and unbridled licentious-
ness, and these precisely were the charac-
teristics of the popular philosophy at the
beginning of the Christian era. To "cer-
tain philosophers of tlie Epicureans and
of the Stoics " Paul at Athens " preached
Jesus and the resurrection" (Acts 17 : 18).
E-pis'tles, the letters which the apos-
tles, under the jiromptings of inspiration,
wrote to churches and individuals, and
which are included in the Canon of the
New Testament Scriptures (2 Pet. 3 : 16).
Although they were primarily designed
for the rebuke, instruction, guidance and
encouragement of those to whom tliey
were addressed, they yet are adapted to
all churches and Christians through all
time. They are especially rich in the
statement of doctrine and the outline of
EE— ESAU.
189
duty. They number twenty-one, of which
Paul wrote fourteen ; James, one ; Peter,
two ; .John, three ; and .Jude, one. They
cover a period of less than twenty years.
Er IwatchfiW], the first-born of Judah
(Gen. 38:7). He "was wicked in the
sight of the Lord, and the Lord slew
him." What the nature of his sin was
does not appear in the record, but from
the fact that his mother was a Canaanite,
his wickedness, most likely, was some out-
growth from the abominable idolatries of
Canaan (Num. 26 : 19).
E-ras'tus [beloved}, a Corinthian and
one of Paul's disciples, " the chamberlain,"
or treasurer, " of the city " of Corinth ( Rom.
16 : 23). He was one of Paul's attendants
at Ephesus, and with Timothy was sent
forward into Macedonia while the apostle
himself remained in Asia (Acts 19 : 22).
He is again mentioned in 2 Tim. 4 : 20.
E'rech [hnfith~}, one of Nimrod's cities
in Southern Babylonia (Gen. 10 : 10). It
is beyond a doubt the Orchoe of Ptolemy,
now known as Irka or Warka, on the left
bank of the Euphrates, one hundred and
twenty miles south-east of Babylon, a site
covered with mounds and ruins. So many
tombs and coffins have been found here
that the place is thought to have been
the necropolis of the ancient kings of
the country.
E-sa'ias, the Greek form of I-sa'iah,
constantly used in tlie New Testament.
W sar-hSid^ don [Asmr granted a broth-
er}, son of Sennacherib and grandson of Sar-
gon (2 Kings 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38). He was
one of tlie greatest of the kings of Assyria.
He carried his arms over all Asia between
the Persian Gulf, the Armenian mountains
and the Mediterranean. He is tlie only
Assyrian monarch who actually reigned
at Babylon, where he built himself a pal-
ace, from which bricks bearing his name
have been recently recovered. As a build-
er of great works he is particularly distin-
guished. Besides his palace at Babylon,
he built three others in different parts of
his dominions. The south-west palace at
Nimrud is the best preserved of his con-
structions. During his reign at Babylon,
Manasseh, king of Judah, was brought be-
fore him a prisoner, and was kept in con-
finement until he " humbled liimself great-
ly before the God of his fathers " (2 Chron.
33 : 11-13).
E'sau Ihairy}, the eldest son of Isaac
and twin-brother of Jacob. His singular
appearance at birth originated his name
(Gen. 25 : 25). He was a Avild and way-
ward man, a son of the desert, a thorough
Bedouin, Avho delighted to roam free as
the wind, and who Avas impatient of the
restraints of settled life. His agtd father,
by a caprice of affection not uncommon,
loved him for the impulsiveness of his
nature and the skill and daring he dis-
played in hunting. His brother Jacob,
as selfish and grasping as Esau was prod-
igal and reckless, took advantage of his
distress from hunger to rob him of his
birthright, and subsequently to deprive
him, through fraud, of h'S father's cov-
enant-blessing. So furious was his anger
against his brother and against his mother,
whose craft had been employed in his broth-
er's interest, that Jacob fled to Padan-
Aram, and he himself left his parents
and formed alliances by marriage with
the idolaters of Canaan and with roving
Ishmaelites. He was residing in Mount
Seir when, after the lapse of twenty-one
years, Jacob returned from Padan-Aram,
and, although he made a show of hostil-
ity, he was yet so restrained by divine in-
fluence that he took no effective steps to
avenge the wrongs he had sustained.
The brothers probably did not meet
again for another score of years, when,
upon the death of Isaac, they united in
burying the body in the cave of Mach-
pelah. Of Esau's subsequent history
nothing is known. For that of his de-
scendants see Edom.
190
ESDRAELON— ETH A M.
Es-dra-e'lon, Valley of, the Greek
form of Jezreel, and not found in our Ver-
sion. See Jezreel.
Esh-Ba'al, the same as Ishbosheth
(which see).
Esh'col [rt cluster], a valley of Canaan
near Hebron, with a brook flowing tlirough
it, from which the spies brought a cluster
of grapes as a specimen of the fruits of the
land (Num. 13 : 23, 24 ; 32 : 9; Dent. 1 :
24). Tlie name, long before the visit of
the spies, had existed in the neighbor-
hood, for when Abram dwelt in Mamre
an Amorite chief named Eshcol was liis
friend and ally (Gen. 14 : 13).
Esh'ta-ol, a place in the low country
of Judah (Josh. 15 : 33) assigned to Dan
(Josh. 19 : 41 ). In its neighborhood Sam-
son spent liis boyliood ; liere he first man-
ifested his wonderful strength, and between
it and Zorah lie was buried ( Judg. 13 : 25 ;
16 : 31).
Esh-te-mD'a [obediencel, a city in the
mountains of Judah allotted to the priests
(Josh. 21 : 13, 14). It was one of David's
haunts (1 Sam. 30 : 26-31).
Es'ther [star], the Persian name of
Hadassah (myrtle), a beautiful Jewish
maiden, the daughter of Abihail, the son
of Shimei, the son of Kish, a Benjamite
(Esth. 2:5, 7 ; 9 : 29). She was an or-
phan, and was adopted and reared by lier
cousin Mordecai, who held an office in the
household of Ahasuerus, king of Persia.
When Vashti was dismissed from being
queen, and all the fairest virgins of the
kingdom were collected at Shushan for
the king to choose a successor, the royal
choice fell upon Esther. The king, how-
ever, was not aware of her race and pa-
rentage, and so, on the representation of
Haman the Agagite that the Jews scat-
tered through his empire were a perni-
cious race, he gave him full power and
authority to kill them all, young and old,
women and children, and take possession of
their property. Esther took effective means
to avert from her people and kindred this
great calamity. Her character, as brought
to view in the Scriptures, is that of a woman
of deep piety, faith, courage, patriotism and
caution, combined with resolution; a duti-
ful daughter to her adoptive father, docile
and obedient to his counsels, and sharing
with him every risk for the good of the
Jewish people.
Es^ther, Book of, one of the latest
books of the Old Testament Canon, hav-
ing been written in the reign of Xerxes,
the Ahasuerus who made Estlier queen,
or in that of his son, Artaxerxes Longi-
manus. Tlie author is not known, but
may have been, and most probably was,
IMordecai himself. Some ascribe the au-
thorship to Ezra, who most likely edited
and added it to the sacred books. Its
style is singularly chaste and simple.
The language is very like that of Ezra
and parts of the Chronicles — generally
pure, but mixed with some words of Per-
sian origin and some of Chaldaic affinity.
Although the name of God does not once
occur in it, the illustration of God's prov-
idential care of his people which it gives
is exceedingly striking and suggestive.
E'tam [eyrie, that is, plare of ravenous
birds], a town in Judah six miles south of
Jerusalem, fortified and garrisoned by Re-
hoboam (2 Chron. 11 : 6). Here, accord-
ing to the statements of Josephus, were the
sources of the water from which Solomon's
gardens and pleasure-grounds were fed and
Bethlehem and the temple supplied.
E 'tarn, the Rock, a cliff near Zorah,
into a deft of which Samson retired after
the slaughter of the Philistines (Judg. 15 :
8, 11). The cleft or chasm in the rock is
a long, narrow cavern two hundred and
fifty feet long, eighteen feet wide and five
to eight feet high, such as Samson might
Avell have " gone down " into. The spring
'Alton near the modern Urtas marks its
locality.
E'tham, the second camping-place of
ETHAN— EUPHEATES.
191
the Israelites when leaving Egypt, on the
edge of the wilderness (Num. 33 : 6). It
is supposed to have been in the near neigh-
borliood of Lake Tinisah, probably not far
from the site of the modern Ismailia.
E'than [perpetuity}, the name of sev-
eral men, two of whom only need be men-
tioned.
1. The Ezrahite, one of the four sons of
Mahol, whose wisdom was only excelled by
tliat of Solomon (1 Kings 4 : 31 ; 1 Chron.
2 : 6). His name is in the title of Ps. 89.
2. Son of Kishi or Kusha'ah, a Merarite
Levite, head of that family in the time of
King David, and spoken of as a "singer"
(1 Chron. 6:44). With Heman and
Asaph, the heads of the other two fom-
ilies of Levites, Ethan was appointed to
sound with cymbals (1 Chron. 15 : 17,
19).
Eth'a-nira [continual floods'], another
name for the month Tisri, so called from
the fullness of the brooks, swelled, at that
time of the year, with the autumnal rains
( 1 Kings 8:2). It corresponded with part
of September and part of October. It was
the seventh month of the sacred and the
first of the civil year reckoning.
Eth-ba^al [with Baal, that is, enjoying
his favor and help], a king of Sidon, fatlier
of the infamous Jezebel, the wife of Ahab
(1 Kings 16 : 31). Josephus reiresents
him as king of the Tyrians as well as
of the Sidonians. He is to be identified,
most probably, with Eithobalus, a priest of
Astarte, who, having assassinated Pheles,
usurped the throne of Tyre for thirty-two
years. The date of Ethbaal's reign may
be given as about b. c. 940-908.
E-thi-o'pi-a [sun-himt faces]. The
country which the Greeks and Romans
thus denominated was called by the He-
brews Cush. In the classical writers the
word Ethiopia was used to designate not
so much an accurately-defined country as
a region of indefinite extent, inhabited by
nations of a swarthy complexion. In its
scriptural application it is much more re-
stricted. Sometimes it refers to Southern
Arabia (Num. 12 : 1), where Moses found
his wife. More frequently, however, the
reference is to the African Ethiopia, which
embraced, in its most extended sense, the
modern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan and
Northern Abyssinia, and in its more re-
stricted sense the kingdom of Meroe,
from the junction of the Blue and White
branches of the Nile to the border of Egypt.
Queen Candace, mentioned in Acts 8 : 27,
was the reigning sovereign of that portion
of Ethiopia which corresponds with the
kingdom of Meroe, and in her dominions
some knowledge of the Jewish religion
evidently prevailed. Ebedmelech, an of-
ficer under Zedekiah, who showed kind-
ness to Jeremiah, was an Ethiopian (Jer.
38 : 7). The references to Ethiopia in the
Old Testament are numerous.
Eu'nice [good victory], the mother of
Timothy, a believing Jewess and a woman
of exemplary piety (Acts 16 : 1 ; 2 Tim. 1 :
5).
Eu'nuch [bed-keeper], an officer hav-
ing charge originally of the beds and
bed-chambers of an Eastern palace. In
later times eunuchs were entrusted with
important offices of state, and in our
English Version of the Scriptures are
called sometimes officers and sometimes
chamberlains (2 Kings 8:6; 23 : 11; 25 :
19 ; Esth. 2:15, 21). From 2 Kings 20 :
17, 18; Isa. 39 : 7 ; Dan. 1:3, 7, it has
been inferred that Daniel and his compan-
ions belonged to this class.
Eu-o'di-as [ff a good journey], a Chris-
tian woman at Philippi (Phil. 4 : 2). The
name is properly EuoDiA.
Eu-phra^tes, the longest, largest and
most important river of Western Asia. Its
most frequent name in Scripture is "the
river" (1 Kings 4 : 21 ; Ezra 4 : 10,
16); it is denominated by Moses "the
great river" (Deut. 1 : 7). It has two
principal sources in the Armenian moun-
192
EUROCLYDON— EXODUS.
tains. The most northern branch rises '
about twenty-five miles north-east of
Krzeroum; the other and hirger rises not
far from Ararat. Tliese branches meet at
Kebban Mmlen, in longitude 39° E. The '
combined stream is here about one hun-
dred and twenty yards wide. It is joined
by the Tigris at Kurnah, and finally flows :
into the Persian Gulf. Its entire length is
about seventeen hundred miles, more than
two-thirds of which are navigable for small
steam-vessels. To this river the allusions
in Scripture are many. It is first men-
tioned as the fourth river of Eden (Gen.
2 : 14). In the covenant with Abraham
it is named as the eastern boundary of
the Promised Land (Gen. 15 : 18), and
in the reigns of David and Solomon such
it was (2 Sam. 8:3-8; 1 Kings 4 : 21).
Eu-roc'ly-don [s'ou.th-east billow'], the
name given to the gale of wind which off
the soutli coast of Crete seized the sliip in
wliich Paul was ultimately wrecked on the \
coast of Malta (Acts 27 : 14). It came
down from the island, and therefore must
have blown more or less from tlie north-
ward. It is now known under the name
of a Levanter, from Levant, the eastern
part of the Mediterranean. Its danger
results from the violence and uncertainty
of its course.
Eu'ty-chus [good-fortune'], a young
man at Troas, who, sitting in a window
and falling asleep while Paul was dis-
coursing far into the night, fell from the
third story, and being taken up dead was
miraculously restored to life by the apos-
tle (Acts 20 : 7-12).
E-van'gel-ist [the publisher of (jlnd
tidings], a name appropriated to a class
of Christian teachers in the early Churcli
who were not fixed to any particular spot,
but traveled either independently or under
the direction of one or other of the apos-
tles for the purpose of propagating the
gospel (Acts 21 : 8; Eph. 4: 11). The
name denoted a work rather than an order
— the proclamation of the glad tidings to
those who have not known them, rather
than the instruction and i)astoral care of
those who have believed and been bap-
tized. In this sense the name is still rec-
ognized and used in the Presbyterian
Church. (See Form of Government, chap.
XV., sect. 15).
Eve [life or living], the name given by
Adam to his wife, the first woman and the
mother of all the human family (Gen. 2 :
21, 22; 3:20). The Scripture account
of Eve's creation is designed to teach,
most likely, the foundation upon which
the union between man and wife is built
— namely, identity of nature and oneness
of origin. By providing for Adam a suit-
able companion God manifestly gave liis
sanction to marriage and to monogamy.
Through the subtlety of the serpent Eve
was beguiled into a violation of the one
commandment which had been imposed
upon her and Adam (Gen. 3 : 1-6).
Eve'ning-. Tlie Hebrew word and its
Greek equivalent thus rendered have the
sense of dusk ov the period following sun-
set, the beginning of the Jewish day (Gen.
1 : 5; Ps. 59 : 6 ; Matt. 14 : 23 ; Mark 14:
17). The Jews were accustomed to reckon
two evenings — one commencing at sunset,
and embracing the period of twilight ; the
other commencing at dark. In the inter-
val between the two evenings the passover
was to be killed (marginal reading of Ex.
12 : (5 ; Num. 9 : 3).
E'vil-Mer'o-dach, the son and suc-
cessor of Nebuchadnezzar. He delivered
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, out of prison,
and treated him with marked kindness and
consideration (2 Kings 25 : 27-30). After
a reign of two years he was murdered
by his brother-in-law, Neriglissar, who
succeeded him.
Ex-o'dus [n going out, i. e. of Egypt,
an exit], the second book of the Law or
Pentateuch, so called from the principal
event recorded in it — namely, the departure
EXORCIST— EZEKIEL.
193
of the Israelites from Egypt (Ex. 12 : 41).
It begins the proper history of the Israel-
ites, and continues it until their arrival at
Sinai and the solemn establishment of the
theocracy. It presents the nation under
three arresting aspects : first, as a nation
enslaved ; next, as a nation redeemed ;
and lastly, as a nation set apart, and,
through the blending of its political and
religious life, consecrated to the service
of God.
The history of the Exodus itself begins
with the close of that of the ten plagues.
In the night in which, at midnight, the
tirst-born were slain (Ex. 12 : 29) Pha-
raoh urged the departure of the Israelites
{Ex. 12 : 31, 82). They at once set forth
from Rameses (Ex. 12 : 37, 39), apparent-
ly during the night (Ex. 12 : 42), but
toward morning, on the fifteenth day of
the first month (Num. 33 : 3). They made
three journeys of as many days, encamp-
ing at Succoth (Ex. 12 : 37 ; 13 : 20 ; Num.
33 : 5, 6), at Etham (Ex. 13 : 20; Num.
33 : 6, 7) and at Pi-hahiroth (Ex. 14 : 2)
by the Red Sea. Here they were over-
taken by Pharaoh, and here was wrought
for them that great miracle by which they
were saved, while the pursuer and his army
were destroyed (Ex. 14 : 10-31).
Ex-or'cist, the designation of those
who, by the use of the name of God, at-
tempted to expel evil spirits from possess-
ed places or persons. Exorcism was not
an uncommon profession among the Jews
(Matt. 12 : 27 ; Mark 9 : 38). The profane
use of the name of .Jesus as a mere charm
or spell led to tlie disastrous issue recorded
in Acts 19 : 13-16. To the Christian mir-
acle of casting out devils, whether as per-
formed by our Lord himself or by his fol-
lowers, the New Testament writers never
apply the term " exorcise " or " exorcist."
Ex-pi-a'tion. See Atonement and
Sacrifice.
Eyes or Eyelids, Painting of the.
See Paint.
13
i E-ze'ki-el [God will strengtheri], one
j of the four greater prophets. He was the
'• son of a priest named Buzi, and was taken
captive in the captivity of Jehoiachin,
eleven years before the destruction of Je-
rusalem. He was a member of a commu-
nity of Jewish exiles who settled on the
banks of the Chebar, a " river " or stream
of Babylonia. It was by this river, "in
the land of the Chaldseans," that God's
message first reached him (Ezek. 1:3).
His call took place " in the fifth year of
King Jehoiachin's captivity," B. c. 595
(Ezek. 1 : 2). The only references he
makes to his personal history are two
incidental allusions (8 : 1 and 24 : 17),
from which it appears that lie had a
house in his place of exile, that he was
married, and that he lost his wife by a
sudden and unforeseen stroke. He lived
in the highest consideration among his
companions in exile, and their elders con-
sulted him on all occasions (11 : 25; 14 :
1; 20 : 1). His mission appears to have
extended over twenty-two years, during
part of which period Daniel was probably
living and already famous (14 : 14 ; 28 :
3). He was distinguished by his stern
and inflexible energy of will and charac-
ter, and by a devoted adherence to the
rites and ceremonies of his national re-
ligion. He was controlled, moreover, by
such an absorbing recognition of his high
prophetic calling that he cheerfully bore
any privation or misery (except, indeed,
ceremonial pollution, from which he shrank
with characteristic loathing, 4: 14), if there-
by he might give any warning or lesson to
his people (4 : 4-6), whom he so ardently
loved (9:8; 11 : 13). On one occasion
only, in one single expression, the feelings
of the man burst through the self-devotion
of the prophet (24 : 15-18) ; and while even
then his obedience is unwavering, yet the
inexpressible depth of submissive pathos
in the brief words which tell how in one
day " the desire of his eyes was taken from
194
EZION-GEBER— EZRA, BOOK OF.
liim," shows what well-springs of the ten-
(lerest human emotion were concealed un-
der his uncompromising opposition to every
form of sin.
The prophetic book of which he was the
undoubted author consists of nine sections,
distinguished by their superscriptions as
follows: 1. Ezekiel'scall(l, 2; 3:1-15);
2. The general carrying out of the com-
mission (3 : 16-27 ; 4-7) ; 3. The rejection
of the people because of their idolatrous
worship (8-11) ; 4. The sins of the age re-
buked in detail (12-19) ; 5. The nature of
the judgment and the guilt which caused
it (20-23) ; 6. The meaning of the now
commencing punishment (24) ; 7. God's
judgment denounced on seven heathen
nations (Amnion, 25:1-7; Moab, 8-11;
Edom, 12-14 ; the Philistines, 15-17 ; Tyre,
26 ; 28 : 1-19 ; Sidon, 20-26 ; Egypt, 29-32) ;
8. Prophecies, after the destruction of
Israel, concerning the future condition of
Israel (33-39); 9. The glorious consum-
mation (40-43). In the utterance of his
prophecies he was favored with sublime
visions of the divine glory, and liis pro-
phetic book, as a whole, is characterized
by great force, glowing imagery, and as
much perspicuity as the occasionally
marvelous nature of his matter will al-
low.
E'zi-on-Ge'ber [man's backbone], a
very ancient city near Elath, on the east-
ern arm of the Red Sea (Num. 33 ; 35;
Deut. 2:8). It was the last station named
for the encampment of the Israelites be-
fore they came to the wilderness of Zin.
From its port Solomon sent a fleet to
Ophir (1 Kings 9 : 26-28). Here also
Jehoshaphat built a fleet, which before
it sailed was destroyed (1 Kings 22 : 48).
No trace of the city is now to be found.
Ez'ra [/if/p], the name of two men.
1. The head of one of the twenty-two
courses of priests which returned from
captivity with Zerubbabel and Jeshua
(Neh. 12 : 1).
2. The celebrated Jewish scribe and
priest who, in the year B. c. 459, led the
second expedition of Jews back from the
Babylonian exile into Palestine. He was
descended from Hilkiah, the high priest in
•Josiah's reign, and was the son of Seraiah,
the high priest in Zedekiah's time, whom
Nebuchadnezzar slew at Riblah (2 Kings
25 : 18-21). From Artaxerxes Longima-
nus he obtained leave to go to Jerusalem,
and to take with him a company of Israel-
ites, together with priests, Levites, singers,
porters and Nethinim. The journey of
Ezra and his companions from Babylon to
Jerusalem took just four months, and they
brought up with them a large free-will of-
fering of gold and silver and silver ves-
sels, contributed not only by tlie Babylo-
nian Jews, but by the king himself and
his counselors. These ofierings were to
beautify the house of God and to pur-
chase bullocks, rams and whatever else
might be required for the temple-service.
Ezra executed his commission with great
fidelity, reforming abuses and appointing
competent judges and magistrates. Sub-
sequently, under Nehemiah's government,
his functions were purely priestly and ec-
clesiastical. He was a man of extraor-
dinary intellectual force and of tlie most
exemplary piety. He is believed to have
written the books of Ciironicles, Ezra and
Nehemiah, to have aided in the writing
of Esther, and to have settled and edited
the Canon of Old Testament Scripture.
To him also is ascribed the establishment
of synagogues.
Ezra, Book of, a continuation of the
books of Chronicles. Like these books,
it consists of the contemporary historical
journals kept from time to time, whicli
were afterward abridged or added to
as the case required. The period cov-
ered by the book is eighty years, from
the first of Cyrus, b. c. 530, to the be-
ginning of the eighth of Artaxerxes,
B. c. 456.
FABLE— FACE.
195
F.
Pa'ble. This word, the rendering in
the New Testament of the Greek fiv-&og
[myth), has the sense of a legend or fic-
titious story, and is applied to the Jewish
traditions and speculations whicli were
prevalent in apostolic times, and which
were afterward embodied in the Talmud
(1 Tim. 1:4,- 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:4; Tit. 1 :
14 ; 2 Pet. 1:16). As a figure of speech
distinct from the parable, the fable appears
also in Scripture, but without any formal
designation. The distinction between it
and the parable is this : the fable states
occurrences which from their very nature
could not have happened, as the speaking
of trees in illustration of the supposed
speaking of men ; the parable states oc-
currences which may have taken place,
and whicli therefore have tlie air of strict
historic probability. Of the fable, as dis-
tinguished from the parable, there are but
two examples in the Scriptures — namely,
that of the trees choosing their king, ad-
dressed by Jotham to the men of Shechem
(.Judg. 9 : 8-15), and that of the cedar of
Lebanon and the thistle, as the answer of
Jehoash, king of Israel, to the challenge of
Amaziah, king of Judah (2 Kings 14 : 9).
Face. This word is the rendering in
our Authorized Version of a Hebrew word
and of its Greek equivalent, both prop-
erly the strict equivalent of the word
"face," and which, like it, denote what-
ever of a thing is most exposed to view.
Hence we read of the face of the deep (Gen.
1 : 2), of the face of the country (2 Sam. 18 :
8), of the face of the sky (Luke 12 : 56) and
the like. As a prominent and conspicu-
ous part of the human body, in which the
thought and feeling of a living person
have expression, the term " face " is often
employed to denote presence (Ex. 2 : 15;
Luke 2 : 31), and when, with this sense,
it is associated with the Almighty, it in-
dicates such a complete manifestation of
the divine Presence as to be equivalent,
in vividness of impression, to the seeing
of a fellow-creature "face to face" (Gen.
32 : 30; Num. 14 : 14). It was expressly
said by God himself to Moses (Ex. 33: 20)
that no one could see the Almighty's face
and live, and yet Jacob (Gen. 32 : 30) at
an earlier period had declared of himself,
though with a feeling of astonishment,
that he had actually "seen God face to
face," anel notwithstanding had lived.
This apparent discrepance is to be ex-
plained by the differe'Ut rospects in which
the expression is used in the two cases.
The face of God, as involving the full
blaze of his manifested glory, no mortal
man could see and live, for by the sight
his frame would be overpowered and shat-
tered ; but when veiled in the attractive
form and appearing with the softened
radiance of the human countenance for
the purpose of inspiring confidence and
hope, as in tlie case of Jacob, then not
only life, but revived and quickened life,
would be the result. Moreover, as the
faces of men reflect the pleasure or dis-
pleasure, the favor or disfavor, with
which they contemplate the persons and
acts of others, so the face of God is the
frequent Scripture symbol of the kind-
ness, compassion and grace which he
shows to his friends (Num. 6 : 25 ; Dan.
9 : 17), and of the anger, indignation
and wrath which he shows to his ene-
mies (Ps. 34 : 16; Jer. 21 : 10). These
few examples sufficiently indicate how nu-
merous are the figurative uses of the word
"face," and how suggestive, in especial,
are the many associations of the word
with the providence and grace of the
high and holy Lord God.
196
FAIR HAVENS— FAMILY.
Pair Ha'vens, a harbor or roadstead
on the south side of the island of Crete,
mentioned in Paul's voyage to Rome (Acts
27 : 8). It is identified with a small bay
a little to the north-east of Cape Matala.
It is a fair winter-harbor, but inferior to
that of Phenice or Phoenix, about forty
miles farther westward.
Fairs. This word occurs only in
Ezek. 27, and there no less than seven
times (vs. 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27, 33). In
the last of these verses the original He-
brew word is rendered " wares," but it
properly means "superfluities," in the
sense of things produced for sale only
or for export. This is unquestionably
the true meaning of the word through-
out.
Faith. The root-idea of the word is
trust. The two leading senses in which
the word is used in Scripture are tliese:
1. An objective body of truth, "the faith,"
or that in the truth of which the firmest
trust may be reposed (Acts 24 : 24; Gal.
I : 23 ; 1 Tim. 3:9; 4 : I ; Jude, verse 3).
2. A subjective exercise, quality or habit
of soul, in wliich, under the illuminations
and persuasions of the divine Spirit, the
truth of revelation is trustfully received,
and the work of Christ, as the ground of
pardon and the means of holiness, is con-
fidently relied on (Mark 16 : 15, 16 ; John
3 : 16, 36 ; Acts 10 : 43 ; Rom. 4:5; 10 :
4; Gal. 2 : 16; 2 Thess. 2 : 10-12; Heb.
II : 6; 1 .John 5: 10-13).
Faith'ful-ness, an attribute of God,
in the sense of trustworthiness (Ps. 89 : 1,
33; Heb. 10: 23).
FaPl0"W Deer. The Hebrew word
thus rendered is found only in Deut. 14:5
and 1 Kings 4 : 23. The animal meant
is a question in dispute. It is usually
considered to be the roebuck.
Fa-rail'iar Spir'it, the rendering
of a Hebrew M'ord which signifies "one
who is inflated by a demon," and who,
swelling under the demoniacal influence,
pours forth declarations touching the fu-
' ture (Lev. 19 : 31 ; 20 : 27). Conjurers,
necromancers, sorcerers, wizards, and even
ventriloquists, were supposed to be inflated
and inspired by such spirits (Deut. 18:11:
2 Kings 21 : 6 ; 2 Chron. 33 : 6 ; Isa. 8 :
19 ; 19:3; 29 : 4). The Pythoness men-
tioned in Acts 16 : 16 furnishes a good
example of the wellnigh universal belief
in the ancient world, that one could be so
possessed by an imp of divination as to be
able to read and tell the future with accu-
racy and certainty.
Fam'i-ly. This word, of Latin ori-
gin, is derived from a root (famulufi) wliich
means a household slave. Originally desig-
nating, among the Romans, the slaves be-
longing to one master, it came to designate
all who Avere in the power of a paterfamilias,
as his sons, daughters, grandchildren and
slaves. In process of time the word un-
derAvent a further modification, and came
to be the equivalent of our Saxon word
" household," the general expression for
all those who live in one house under
one head.
The idea of servitude which underlies
the Latin word familia underlies also the
Greek word which in our Authorized
Version of the New Testament is render-
ed sometimes " house " and sometimes
" household." But whilst the idea of
servitude enters the Greek and Roman
conception of the family, a very diflferent
idea enters the Hebrew conception. The
Hebrew word which in the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures is rendered " family "
represents the idea which we associate
with tlie word " clan " or the subdivision
of a tribe (Josh. 7 : 16, 17). Its ground-
idea is that of spreading out, extending, as
a tribe spreads out and extends from nat-
ural generation and groAVth. It occurs
very frequently in the Hebrew Bible, and
always involves the idea of kinship, never
the idea of servitude.
In the New Testament the word " fam-
FAMINE.
197
ily " occurs but once (Eph. 3 : 15), and in
this one passage the Greek word thus ren-
dered is not that which is commonly ren-
dered "house" or "household," but that
which designates those who have a com-
mon father and are of the same lineage.
Blood-relationsliip, therefore, is the dom-
inant idea associated with the word " fam-
ily" in the Hebrew mind. Accordingly,
we find that the family relation, as we
commonly understand it, was developed
among the Hebrews long before it exist-
ed in other parts of the world. To them,
indeed, we owe that beautiful and proper
concei)tion of the family which regards it
as the union of kinsmen under a common
roof and around a common head, who,
thougli supreme, is moved by love. So
early as tlie time of the patriarchs the
true condition of a family was realized
in Palestine ; and when the gospel trans-
ferred to a liigher and wider sphere of
influence whatever was good and durable
in the Law, the family relation assumed
tliat elevated, pure and delightful charac-
ter which makes it God's best instrument
on eartli for the furtherance of the moral
and religious interests of man. In a Cliris-
tian family the mother is the source of the
greatest and best influence. This f;xct was
practically recognized among the Hebrews,
who were very for from imitating the prac-
tice of the Arabs and the Orientals in de-
grading the wife into the liead of the ha-
rem. She was of one flesh with her hus-
band, and a help meet for him (Gen. 2 :
le, 23).
In Prov. 31 a beautiful picture of the
Hebrew wife is drawn. The reality there
portrayed could scarcely have existed in a
state of gross polygamy, to which, as we
have abundant reason to believe, the Is-
raelites in general were not degraded,
whatever may have been customary in
bad times or with rich and powerful men.
The family life is based upon the wants
and necessities of our nature, and is es-
sentially fitted to develop and foster those
habits and affections on which the hap-
piness and welfare of mankind depend.
Under the gospel this family life begins
in the union of one man to one woman,
and reaches its grand and gracious end
when husband and wife and offspring are
trained and fitted for heaven. The early
baptism of the children is to be followed
by careful and continuous instruction in
the doctrines and duties of religion. The
parents who desire theirs to be a real
Christian family must from the first in-
culcate on their children (aside from the
habit of absolute, unquestioning obedi-
ence to the parental authority as divinely
instituted) the true ground of obedience, as
laid in that obedience to God which springs
from love to God. Nor in tlie Christian
family are the servants to be excluded
from participation in the spiritual bless-
ings of the household. They are to be
taught the truth as it is in Jesus, and are
to be privileged to take an active part in
the family worship. The more, indeed,
they personally enter into the life of the
family, its interests, its joys, its griefs, and
tlie more they receive from the family that
sympathy and help which for body and
soul they require, the more will the en-
tire family be enabled to lead a really
Christian life.
Fam'ine. The watersheds of Palestine
and Arabia have few large springs, and
the small rivers are not snfllicient for the
irrigation of even the level lands. Hence
without copious rains the fruits of the earth
cannot be matured ; hence, too, if the heavy
showers of November and December foil,
the sustenance of the people is cut ofl^, and
famine, more or less severe, prevails. As,
moreover, the fertility of Egypt is owing
altogether to the annual overflow of the
Nile, the failure of that overflow, espe-
cially through several successive seasons,
is certain to bring about a scarcity of food.
The first famine recorded in the Scriptures
198
FAN— FAST.
was that encountered by Abraham when
sojourning in the pasture-lands east of
Bethel (Gen. 12 : 10). To escape it the
patriarch went down to P]gypt. In the
times of Isaac another grievous famine
afl'ected Canaan (Gen. 26 : 1). The next
recorded time of scarcity was tlie great
famine of I'^gypt, which "was over all
the face of the earth" (Gen. 41 : 56).
This famine differed from others in the
providential recurrence of seven years
of plenty, whereby Joseph, who inter-
preted the predictive dreams of Pharaoh,
was enabled to provide against the coming
dearth, and to supply with corn not only
the population of Egypt, but the peoples
of the surrounding countries. The mod-
ern history of Egypt throws some curious
light on these ancient records of famines.
Between the years A. d. 1064 and 1071 a
famine of seven yeai"s' continuance op-
pressed Egypt even more sorely than tlie
famine in Joseph's time, since for it no
effective provision had been made. The
terrible drought, and a still more terrible
pestilence, reduced the people to such
straits that they ate corpses and the bod-
ies of animals which died of starvation.
The famine of Samaria resembled it in
many particulars (2 Kings 6 : 24-30), and
a subsequent famine in the kingdom of Is-
rael (2 Kings 8:1) aflTorded another in-
stance of a seven years' term of scarcity.
Fan, a winnowing f^horel, with which
grain was thrown up against the wind in
order to cleanse it from the broken straw
and chaff (Isa. 30 : 24 ; Jer. 15 : 7 ; Matt.
3:12; Luke 3 : 17). At the present day,
in Syria, the instrument used is a large
wooden fork. Both kinds of instruments
are pictured on the Egyptian monuments.
Far'thing, the rendering in our Eng-
lish Version of the names of two Roman
coins which differed in value.
1. The a^sarion, mentioned Matt. 10 :
29 ; Luke 12:6. In tlie texts cited it is
put (like our term "a copper") for any
trifling amount. It was a copper coin,
and had a value of about one and a half
cents.
2. The qaadiuns, mentioned Matt. 5 :
26 ; Mark 12 : 42. It was a small copper
coin, and had a value of about two-fifths
of a cent. As the widow's two mites made
a farthing (quadrans), the value of the mite.
was one-fifth of a cent.
Fast, an abstinence from food which
has its religious value only so far as, in
the sacrifice of personal will, it afflicts the
soul (Lev. 16 : 29-31 ; 23 : 27 ; Num. 30 :
13). The sole fast required by Moses was
on the great day of annual atonement (Lev.
16 : 29-31), but during the Captivity four
other annual fasts were observed (Zecli. 7 :
5; 8 : 19). The number of annual fasts in
the present Jewish calendar is twenty-
eight. Public fasts were occasionally
proclaimed to express national humilia-
tion and to supplicate divine favor (1
Sam. 7 : 6 ; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Jer. 36 : 6-
10; Neh. 9 : 1). Numerous allusions oc-
cur in the Scriptures to the private fasts
of individuals under the influence of
grief or vexation or anxiety. After the
Exile private fasts became very frequent.
The parable of the Pharisee and Publi-
can (Luke 18 : 9-14) shows how much
the Pharisees were given to voluntary
and private fasts. The semi-weekly fasts
of the Pharisees were on Thursday and
Monday.
The Jewish fasts were observed witli
various degrees of strictness. Sometimes
there was entire abstinence from food for
a long term (Esth. 4 : 16) ; sometimes
there appears to have been a restriction
simply to a very plain diet (Dan. 10 : 3).
Frequently, those who fasted dressed in
sackcloth or rent tiieir clothes, put ashes
on their heads and went barefoot ( 1 Kings
21 : 27 ; Neh. 9:1; Ps. 35 : 13). In the
New Testament, whilst our Lord sternly
rebuked the Pharisees for their outward
and hypocritical fasts (Matt. 6 : 16), and
FAT— FEAST.
199
actually abstained from appointing any fast
whatever as a part of Christianity, he
evidently recognized the religious value
of fasting, and subjected the practice to
proper regulation. In his Sermon on the
Mount (Matt, 6 : 17) he distinctly rec-
ognizes fasting, but leaves its frequency,
extent and occasion to the conscience of
the individual Christian.
Fat. A distinction was made in the
Old Testament Scriptures between the
pure fat or suet of an animal and the fat
which was intermixed with the lean.
The pure fat was interdicted as an arti-
cle of food (Lev. 3:3, 9, 17 ; 7:3,
23) ; the fat intermixed with the lean
was not interdicted. The ground of
the interdiction was that the fat was the
ricliest part of the animal, and therefore
was "the Lord's" (Lev. 3 : 16). The ha-
bitual observance of the interdiction taught
the Jew what every Christian should leai-n,
that tlie choicest part of every gift which
God confers is claimed by himself, and is
to be scrupulously and willingly devoted
to him. For the interdiction of fat as an
article of food there were also, it is likely,
good sanitaiy reasons. The Jews, as most
Eastern peoples, were prone to leprosy and
other cutaneous disorders, which would be
aggravated by an indulgence in rich diet.
Fat, in the sense of Vat. The word
occurs in Joel 2 : 24 ; 3 : 13 ; Hag. 2 : 16.
Tlie " vats " contained the material from
which were pressed oil and wine, and were
often excavated out of the native rock of
the hills on which the vineyards and olive-
orchards lay.
Fa'ther. This word, besides its ob-
vious and primary sense, bears in Scrip-
ture a number of other applications. It
is applied to any ancestor, near or remote,
or to ancestors ("fathers") in general.
Thus, Abraham was the father of the
Jews (Deut. 1:8; John 8 : 39). It is
also applied, as a title of respect, to any
head, chief, ruler or elder, and especially
j to kings, prophets and priests ( Judg. 17 :
I 10 ; 2 Kings 2:12; Acts 7 : 2 ; 1 Cor. 4 :
15). It is further applied to the author,
source or beginner of anything. Thus,
Jabal is called " the father of tJiose who
■ dwell in tents and have cattle" (Gen. 4 :
20), and Jubal, "the father of all such as
handle the harp and organ" (Gen. 4 : 21).
As an extension of all the foregoing senses
the term "Father" is very often applied to
God himself (Deut. 32 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 7 : 14;
Ps. 89 : 26, 27; Isa. 63 : 16; 64 : 8). Our
Lord, in speaking to his disciples, calls
; God their Father (Matt. 6:4, 8, 15, 18;
' 10 : 20, 29; 13 : 43), and the apostles, for
: themselves and other Christians, also call
I him Father (Eom. 1 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 1:3; Gal.
!l:4).
I As the head of the family and as the
I likeness of God's supremacy over men,
the father has in Scripture an expressly-
! recognized position and a plainly-sanc-
tioned authority. His blessing was re-
garded as conferring special benefit, but
his malediction special injury, on tliose on
I whom it fell (Gen. 9 : 25, 27 ; 27 : 27-40;
! 48 : 15, 20; 49). So also the sin of a fa-
'. ther was held to affect in certain cases
j the welfare of his descendants (2 Kings
5 : 27). The command to honor parents
is noticed by tlie apostle Paul as "the
i first commandment with promise" (Ex.
20 : 12; Eph. 6:2). Disrespect toward
parents was condemned by the Law as
one of the worst of crimes (Ex. 21 : 15,
i 17; 1 Tim. 1 : 9). It is to this well-rec-
ognized theory of parental supremacy that
the very various uses of the term "father"
in Scripture are due.
Fath'om, a nautical measure of about
six feet in length (Acts 27 : 28).
Feast, the rendering in our English
Version of two different words in the
original, the one meaning a hospitable
entertainment, the other a religious fes-
tival.
1. The feast, in the sense of a hospi-
200
FHET.
table entertainment, is referred to very
early in the history of the liuman fam-
ily (Gen. 19 : 1-3). It was usual not
only thus to receive persons with choice
viands, but also to dismiss them in a sim-
ilar manner (Gen. 24 : 54 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 20 :
2 Kings 6 : 23). Tliis practice explains
the reason why the Prodigal on his return
was welcomed by a feast (Luke 15 : 23).
Occasions of domestic joy were hailed
witli feasting (Gen. 21 : 8). Birthdays
were thus celebrated (Gen. 40 : 20 ; Job
1:4; Matt. 14 : 6). Marriage-feasts were
also common (Gen. 29 : 22; Judg. 14 : 10).
The season of sheep-shearing and the sea-
son of vintage were celebrated with festive
eating and drinking (2 Sam. 13 : 23 ; Judg.
9 : 27). Feasting at funerals was, more-
over, not uncommon (2 Sam. 3 : 35). In
short, all the important events of social
life were linked with entertainments. The
usual time of the feast was the evening, and
the room in which it was held would ordi-
narily be tilled with the odors of perfumed
oils and of flowers loosely disposed or ar-
ranged in garlands. The posture at table
was, in early times, sitting (1 Sam. 16 : 11 ;
20 : 5, 18) ; in later times, reclining (Luke
7 : 38; John 13 : 23). The guests were
ranged in order of dignity (Gen. 43 : 33 ;
1 Sam. 9 : 22), and were entertained with
songs or amused with riddles and jests (2
Sam. 19:35; Judg. 14 : 12).
2. The feast, in the sense of a religious
festival, had a close and controlling con-
nection with the social and national life
of the Hebrews. The Sabbath was a
weekly feast (Lev. 23 : 2, 3^, and with it
were associated the monthly feast, other-
wise called the feast of the new moon
and the feast of trumpets (Num. 28 : 11-
15), the sabbatical year (Lev. 25 : 4) and
the year of jubilee (Lev. 25 : 10). The
great annual historical feasts were three
(Ex. 23: 14-17): the feast of passover,
commemorative of God's mercy in spar-
ing the Hebrews from death and in de-
livering them from the bondage of Egypt
(Ex. 12 : 14); the feast of weeks, other-
wise called the feast of the first-fruits and
the feast of the wheat-harvest and the
feast of Pentecost, commemorative of the
birthday of the Jewish nation at Sinai
(Ex. 34 : 22; Lev. 23 : 10; Num. 18 : 12;
Acts 2:1); and the feast of tabernacles
or the feast of ingathering, commemora-
tive of God's goodness in giving the fruits
of the earth and in leading Israel from the
tent-life of the desert to the permanent
homes of Canaan (Lev. 23 : 34; Deut. 16 :
13-15). On these three feasts every male
Israelite was commanded " to appear be-
fore the Lord " — that is, to attend in the
court of the tabernacle or the temple —
and to make his offering with a joyful
heart (Deut. 27 : 7 ; Neh. 8:9-12). The
attendance of women was voluntary, but
the zealous and devout often went up to
the passover (1 Sam. 1:7; Luke 2 : 41).
On all the days of holy convocation there
was to be an entire suspension of ordinary
labor of all kinds (Ex. 12 : 16; Lev. 16 :
29 ; 23 : 21, 24, 25, 35). Besides their re-
ligious purpose, the great feasts must liave
had an important bearing on the mainte-
nance of a feeling of national unity. They
had, too, an oln-ious agricultural signifi-
cance, and their times were ordered so as
to interfere as little as possible with the in-
dustry of the people.
Feet. It was an ancient custom to
wash the' feet of strangers who stopped
on a journey to partake of one's hospi-
tality (Gen.'l8:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:
24). This, in a hot climate, was both
necessary and refreshing, especially as
the sandals universally worn were an im-
perfect protection to the feet from dust
(Luke 7 : 44; 1 Tim. 5 : 10). Our Lord
washed the feet of his disciples to display
his own condescension and to inculcate
lessons of kindness and humility (John
13 : 14). Nakedness of feet was a sign
of mourning (Ezek. 24 : 17j ; it was like-
FELIX— FIG.
201
wise a mark of great reverence (Ex. 3 : 5).
The land of Egypt is cliaracterized in
Deut. 11 : 10 as a land watered with the
foot ; that is, for the purpose of artificial
irrigation a kind of treadwheel was turned
by the foot, by which water was raised and
poured into the trenches. The foot is also
directly used in opening and closing the
small channels which conduct water to
the plants. Roberts says : " He speaketh
with his feet" (Prov. 6:13) is illustrated
by a custom in the East, in which per-
sons sitting in a house with bare feet make
with them, as people make with their fin-
gers, significant motions to each other.
Job describes his own kindness to the
helpless by saying he "was feet to the
lame" (.Job 29 : 15). To "cover the
feet" (Judg. 3:24) is equivalent to at-
tending to the calls of nature. " Under
the feet" denotes subjection to a superior
(Ps. 8 : 6).
Fe'lix [happy], Claudius, a Roman
procurator or governor of Judtea, ap-
pointed by the emperor Claudius, whose
freedman he was. He ruled the prov-
ince in a mean, cruel and profligate man-
ner. His period of office was full of trou-
bles and seditions. Before him, in Cffisa-
rea, the apostle Paul was brought, and by
him, in the hope of extorting money, the
apostle was kept in prison two years (Acts
24 : 26, 27). At the end of that time Por-
cius Festus was appointed to supersede
Felix, who, on his return to Rome was
accused by the Jews in Csesarea, and
would have suffered the penalty due to
liis atrocities had not his brother Paleas
prevailed with the emperor Nero to
spare him. The wife of Felix was Dru-
silla, daughter of the first Herod Agrip-
pa and the former wife of Azizus, king
of Emesa.
Fer''ret, one of the unclean creeping
things mentioned in Lev. 11 : 30. The
animal referred to was probably a rep-
tile of the lizard tribe.
Fes^tus [festal], PoRcius, the suc-
cessor of Felix as procurator of Judaea
(Acts 24:27). A few weeks after Festus
had reached his province he heard the
cause of the apostle Paul, who had been
left a prisoner by Felix, in the presence
j of Herod Agrippa II. and Bernice, his
sister (Acts 25 : 11, 12). Not finding any-
thing in the apostle worthy of death or of
bonds, and being confirmed in this view
by his guests, he would have set his pris-
oner free had not Paul, in order to protect
himself from the violence of the Jews, ap-
pealed to Csesar. J udsea was as much dis-
turbed during the procuratorship of Fes-
tus as during that of his predecessor. He
ruled the province less than two years.
Fet'ters, shackles for binding prison-
' ers, properly for the ankles (2 Sam. 3 : 34 ;
Ps. 105 : 18), yet sometimes, under the gen-
! eral designation of " chains," applied to the
i wrists (Jer. 39 : 7 ; Nah. 3 : 10).
! Field. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in our Authorized Version desig-
nates land which is cultivated, but unen-
closed (Gen. 29 : 2; 31 : 4). The Hebrew
conception embodied in the word is some-
times more fully expressed by the phrase
"the open field" (Lev. 14 : 7, 53; Num.
19: 16; 2 Sam. 11 : 11).
Fig. The fig tree flourishes in sandy
and barren places, where other fruit trees
will not so readily grow. It was common
in Palestine, and its fruit much esteem-
ed. Although cultivated in many parts
of Europe, and recently in the United
States, it is a native of the East, where
it grows luxuriantly and becomes a large
tree. There are varieties of figs, ripen-
ing from June to September. The fig tree
is frequently referred to in Scripture. The
first reference is to its leaves, sewed together
by our first parents for aj^rons (Gen. 3 : 7).
It is mentioned as one of the valuable pro-
ductions of Palestine: "a land of wheat
and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and
pomegranates" (Deut. 8 : 8). It is also
202
FIGURE— FIRE.
referred to as a sign of national prosperity :
" And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every
man under his vine and under his fig tree"
( 1 Kings 4 : 25). We read also of " cakes
of tigs" (1 Sam. 25 : 18), which were prob-
ably the figs dried and pressed, in the man-
ner in which they are at present prepared
for export. In Mark 11 : 13, 14 we are
told that our Lord, seeing a fig tree hav-
Leaf and Fruit of the Fig Tree.
ing leaves, came to it to see if it had fruit
on it, and finding none, for the time of
figs was not yet, he cursed it for its bar-
renness, and it withered. It is to be con-
sidered that the fruit appears before the
leaf, so that if the tree had leaves and no
figs, it must have been barren, especially as
the time of figs — that is, the time of gather-
ing them — had not yet ari-i ved. An unfruit-
ful professor is referred to in the parable of
the barren fig tree (Luke 13 : 6-9).
Fig'ure, the likeness of one person
or thing to another. Thus, Adam was the
figure of Christ (Rom. 5 : 14).
Firiet, in architecture a band sur-
rounding a column or pillar, and gener-
ally placed at the top for ornament (Ex.
27 : 10, 17).
Fine, Finer, Fining, now
refine, refiner, refining, occur in .Job
28: 1; Prov. 25: 4; 27 : 21, and
relate to the separation of the
precious metals from their dross
by melting tliem.
Fir, the name of an extensive
family of coniferous evergreens,
and in our English ^'ersion of
the Scriptures the rendering of
words which represent, it is sup-
posed, what we denominate the
Scotch fir and the cypress.
These trees are found in the Leb-
anon mountains. The fir is rep-
resented as a tall, straight tree of
fine appearance, in the tops of
which the storks build their nests
(Ps. 104:17). Hence it is used
to illustrate power or grandeur
(2 Kings 19:28; Isa. 14:8; 37:
24). The wood of the fir was
used for shipbuilding (Ezek. 27 :
5), for making musical instru-
ments (2 Sam. 6 : 5) and for the
fine work of costly edifices (1
Kings 5:8, 10; 6: 15, 34; 2
C'hron. 2:8; 3:5; Song 1 : 17).
Fire. The leading applica-
tions of fire in Scripture are as follows :
I. Religious. 1. That which consum-
ed the burnt-sacrifice and the incense-offer-
ing, beginning witii the sacrifice of Noah
(Gen. 8 : 20), and continued in the ever-
burning fire on the altar, first kindled
from heaven (Lev. 6 : 9, 13; 9 : 24), and
rekindled at the dedication of Solomon's
: temple (2 Chron. 7 : 1, 3). 2. The sym-
FIRE-PAN— FIRMAMENT.
203
bol of Jehovah's presence, and the in-
strument of his power in the way either
of approval or of destruction (Ex. 3:2;
19 : 18; Num. 11 : 1-3; 1 Kings 18 : 38;
2 Kings 1 : 10). Parallel with this ap-
plication of fire is the fact that in many
of the ancient religions fire was a sacred
emblem, the representative of the Sun.
The worshipers of Moloch made their
children pass through the fire (2 Kings
17 : 17).
II. Domestic. Besides its ordinary use
for cooking purposes, fire is often requir-
ed in Palestine for warmth ( Jer. 36 : 22 ;
Mark 14 : 54; John 18 : 18). The com-
mon custom is to place on the floor pans
of burning charcoal. On the Sabbath
the Law forbade any fire to be kindled,
even for cooking (Ex. 35 : 3; Num. 15 :
32).
III. Penal. Punishment of death by
fire was awarded by the Law only in the
cases of incest with a mother-in-law and
of unchastity on the part of the daughter
of a priest (Lev. 20 : 14; 21 : 9). Cap-
tives in war were sometimes burned (2
Sam. 12 : 31 ; Jer. 29 : 22). In certain
cases the bodies of executed criminals
and of infamous persons were burned
(Josh. 7:25; 2 Kings 23: 16). The
Jews were expressly ordered to destroy
the idols of the heathen nations, and es-
pecially any city of their own relapsed
into idolatry (Ex. 32 : 20 ; 2 Kings 10 :
26; Deut. 7:5; 12 : 3; 13 : 16). In
some cases the cities, and in the case of
Hazor the chariots also, were, by God's
order, consumed with fire ( Josh. 6:24;
8: 23; 11 : 6, 9, 13).
IV. Metallurgical. The use of fire
in metallurgy was well known to the He-
brews at the time of the Exodus (Ex. 32 :
24 ; 35 : 32 ; 37 : 2, 6, 17 ; 38 : 2, 8 ; Num.
16 : 38, 39).
V. Metaphorical. Fire or flame is
used in a metaphorical sense to express
excited feeling and divine inspiration.
and also to describe temporal calamities
and future punishments (Ps. 66 : 12; Jer.
20 : 9 ; Joel 2 : 30 ; Mai. 3:2; Matt. 25 :
41; Mark 9: 43; Rev. 20: 15).
Fire-Pan, one of the vessels of the
temple-service (Ex. 27 : 3 ; 38 : 3 ; 2 Kings
25 : 15; Jer. 52 : 19). The same word is
elsewhere rendered " snutt-dish " (Ex. 25 :
38; 37:23; Num. 4:9) and "censer"
(Lev. 10 : 1 ; 16:12; Num. 16 : 6). It ap-
pears, therefore, that two articles were so
called : one, like a chafing-dish, used to
carry live coals for the burning of in-
cense; another, like a snufler-dish, used
in trimming the lamps, for carrying the
snuffers and conveying away the snuff.
Fir'kin, a measure for liquids, con-
taining about eight and two-thirds gal-
lons, mentioned only in John 2 : 6.
Fir'ma-ment. The Hebrew word
thus rendered has the sense of expansion.
The verbal root means to expand by beat-
ing, whether by the hand, the foot or any
instrument. It is especially used of beat-
ing out metals into thin plates (Ex. 39 : 3 ;
Num. 16 : 39). Accordingly, the term com-
bines the ideas of expansion and tenuity.
In Ezek. 1 : 22-26 the " firmament," as
tlie floor on which the throne of the Most
High is placed, involves the idea of so-
lidity. The oflice of the firmament in the
economy of the world demanded strength
and substance. It was to serve as a divis-
ion between the waters above and the
i waters below (Gen. 1:7). In keeping
with this view, the firmament was pro-
vided with "windows" (Gen. 7 : 11 ; Isa.
24: 18; Mai. 3: 10) and "doors" (Ps.
78 : 23), through which the rain and the
snow might descend. A secondary pur-
pose which the firmament served was to
support the heavenly bodies, sun, moon
and stars (Gen. 1 : 14), in which they
were fixed as nails, and from which, con-
sequently, they might be said figuratively
to drop off (Isa. 14 : 12 ; 34 : 4 ; Matt. 24 :
; 29). Hence it is plain that the writers of
204
FIRST-BOEN— FISH.
Scripture describe tilings as they appear i
rather tlian as tliey are.
First-born. Under the Law, to per- i
petuate the remembrance of the death of
Egypt's first-born and of the preservation
of Israel's first-born at the Exodus, the
first-born males of human beings and of
animals were regarded as devoted to God
for the priesthood and for sacrifice, yet as
capable, under certain i-egulations, of re-
demption therefrom (Ex. 13 : 12-15 ; Num.
8 : 17). The eldest son of a family with-
in one month from birth was to be re-
deemed by an offering of five silver shek-
els of the sanctuary — about three dollars
(Num. 18 : 16). The first-born male of
clean animals was not to be redeemed;
it was to be offered in sacrifice (Num. 18 :
17). The first-born male of unclean
animals could, however, be redeemed
by the offering of its valuation by the
priest, with the addition of one-fifth
of its estimated value (Lev. 27:11-
13), and if not so redeemed its neck
was to be broken (Ex. 13 : 13; 3-4:
20. These regulations explain the
fact why the plague of the first-born
of the Egyptians was so terribly felt ;
it was tlie destruction of the objects
most dear and sacred to them, whilst
the first-born of the Hebrews — that is, their
priests and sacrifices — were spared. These
regulations, moreover, show the import of
the consecration enjoined in Ex. 13 : 2.
Hitherto, it had been optional with the
Hebrews to devote the first-born to the
Lord ; now the Lord, by virtue of hav-
ing so signally interposed for their de-
liverance, claims the public consecration
of the first-born of man as his priests,
and of the first-born of animals as sacri-
fices.
First-Fruits. The first-fruits of the
harvest, of the vintage, the thresliing-floor,
the wine-press, the oil-press, the first baked
bread of the new crop and the first fleeces
of the flock, were required by God to be
given for the use of his ministers, the
priests (Ex. 23 : 19; Num. 15 : 19-21 ; 18 :
11-13). No particular quantity was desig-
nated, but custom made it between one-
thirtieth and one-sixtieth of the whole.
Significant references to first-fruits are
found in the New Testament (Rom. 8 :
23; 11 : 16; 1 Cor. 15: 20, 23).
Fish. The Hebrews had no classifica-
tion of fish beyond the broad divisions of
clean and unclean, great and small. The
Law {)ronounced unclean such fish as were
devoid of fins and scales (Lev. 11 : 9-12).
These were and are regarded as unwhole-
some food in Egypt. In Palestine the Sea
of Galilee was and still is well stored with
fish. Jerusalem derived its supply chiefly
from the Mediterranean (Ezek. 47 : 10).
Fish of the Sea of Galilee.
The existence of a regular fish-market
is implied in the notice of the fish-gate,
which was probably contiguous to it (2
Chron. 33 : 14; Neh. 3:3; 12 : 39; Zeph.
1 : 10). In no ordinance of the laws of
Moses are fishes prescribed as religious
offerings. In this respect, as in many
others, these laws were opposed to the
heathen rituals, which appointed fish-
offerings to various deities. Consecrated
fishes were kept in reservoirs, with rings
of gold or silver or brass attached to
them. It was perhaps as an image of
fecundity that the fish was selected as an
object of idolatry ; the worship of it was
widely spread from Egypt to Assyria, and
even India. Among the Philistines, Da-
FITCHES— FLESH.
205
gon [great fishi was represented by a fig-
ure half man and half fish (1 Sam. 5 : 4).
From remote ages the form of a fish was
a type of protective dominion. In early
Christian times the fish, from its Greek
name i,i'0i''f (an acrostic formed from the
Greek initials of a sentence meaning
"Jesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour"), was
an emblem of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ.
Fitch'es, the rendering of two He-
brew words in our English Version of
the Scriptures, but of neither is the sense
certain. The word thus rendered in
Ezek. 4:9 is rendered " rye " in Ex.
9 : 32. The word thus rendered in Isa.
28 : 25, 27 (where only it occurs) has the
general sense of seed, and is identified
with the seed of the Nigella scUiva, com-
mon fennel flower, an herbaceous annual
plant belonging to the natural order Ra-
nunculacese. These seed are very black
in color, but of a pleasant smell and a
sharp taste, not unlike pepper, and in
the East at the present day, as in former
times, are largely used both as a condi-
ment and as a medicine.
Flag. The representative of two He-
brew words in our English Version of the
Scriptures.
1. The word thus rendered in Ex. 2 :
3, 5 and in Isa. 19:6 appears to be used
in a very wide sense to denote " weeds of
any kind."
2. The word thus rendered in Job 8:11
is supposed to be the Cyperus enculentus, a
species of coarse grass which needs for its
growth an abundant supply of water. Ac-
cording to Jerome, the word is of Egyptian
origin, and denotes " any green and coarse
herbage, such as rushes and reeds, which
grows in marshy places." This is con-
firmed by the readings of the Egyptian
hieroglyphics. The word occurs once
again in Gen. 41 : 2, 18, where, in our
Authorized Version, it is incorrectly ren-
dered "meadow," but where it evidently
indicates the fringe of greenness along
the river's bank.
Flag'on, a word employed in our
Authorized Version to render two dis-
tinct Hebrew terms. In 2 Sam. 6:19;
1 Chron. 16:3; Song 2:5; Hos. 3 : 1, it
means a cake of pressed raisins ; in Isa. 22 :
24 it designates a bottle or vessel.
Flax, a well-known plant which fur-
nishes the material of linen stuffs of every
variety. It was produced of the best qual-
ity in Egypt, and entered largely into the
trade of that country (Isa. 19 : 9). It was
grown in Palestine even before the conquest
by the Israelites (Josh. 2 : 6). That it was
one of the most important crops in Pales-
tine appears from Hos. 2 : 5, 9.
Flea, an insect mentioned but twice in
Scripture — namely, in 1 Sam. 24 : 14 ; 26 :
20. It abounds in the East, and aflfords
the subject of many proverbial expres-
sions.
Flesh, a word of extensive application
in the Old and New Testaments. Its gen-
eral application is to the whole animal
creation, whether man or beast — that is,
to all beings whose material substance is
flesh (Gen. 6 : 13, 17, 19; 7 : 15, 16, 21 ;
8:17). Its specific applications are these
1. All men, the human race, mankind (Gen
6:12; Ps. 65 : 2; Isa. 40 : 5, 6 ; Luke 3 : 6
John 17:2; Acts 2:17; Rom. 3 : 20 ; Gal
2:16; 1 Pet. 1 : 24). 2. The body as dis-
tinguished from soul or spirit (Job 14 : 22
19 : 26 ; Prov. 14 : 30 ; John 6 : 52 ; 1 Cor,
5 : 5; 2 Cor. 4 : 11 ; 7:1; Col. 2 : 5; 1 Pet
4 : 6). 3. Human nature, man (Gen. 2 : 23,
24 ; Matt. 19 : 5, 6 ; 1 Cor. 6:16; Eph. 5
29-31) ; spoken also of the incarnation of
Christ (John 1 : 14 ; 6 : 51 ; Rom. 1 : 3
Eph. 2:15; Col. 1 : 22 ; 1 Tim. 3:16;
Heb. 5:7; 10 : 20; 1 Pet. 3 : 18; 1 John
4 : 2, 3; 2 John 7). 4. Human nature as
opposed to the Spirit of God (Gen. 6:3;
Job 10 : 4 ; Matt. 16 : 17 ; 2 Cor. 10 : 3, 4 ;
Gal. 1 : 16) ; the unregenerate nature, the
seat of carnal appetites and desires, whether
206
FLINT— FOOD.
physical or moral (Kom. 7:5; 8 : 1, 4, 5,
8 ; Gal. 5 : 16, 17 ; Eph. 2:3); as imply-
ing weakness, frailty, imperfection, both
physical and moral (Ps. 78:39; Matt.
26 : 41 ; Mark 14 : 38 ; John 3:6; Rom.
6 : 19; 1 Cor. 15 : 50; Eph. 6: 12).
Flint, any hard stone, as quartz or gran-
ite. The "rock of flint" (Deut. 8 : 15)
whence God brought water was probably
one of the granites so common in the pe-
ninsula of iSinai. The figurative use of the
word in Deut. 32 : 13 represents the great
abundance of oil in an unlooked-for place.
Floats, the rafts by wJiich Hiram,
king of Tyre, conveyed to JaflTa the ce-
dars and firs he had contracted to furnish
Solomon for use in the construction of the
temple (1 Kings 5 : 9; 2 Chron. 2 : 16).
Flood. See Noah.
Flour. See Bread.
Flute, a wind instrument of music,
mentioned among others as used at the
worship of the golden image which Neb-
uchadnezzar had set up (Dan. 3 : 5, 7, 10).
It resembled the flageolet, and was used both
on mournful and on festive occasions. See
Musical Instruments.
Flux, Bloody (Acts 28 : 8), the same
as our dysentery, which is common in the
East.
Fly, the rendering in our Authorized
Version of two Hebrew words.
1. One of these words, zebnb, occurs only
in two passages (Eccles. 10 : 1 and Isa. 7 :
18), and is probably a generic name for
any winged insect. It enters as an ele-
ment into the name originally appropri-
ated to an idol worshiped at Ekron (2
Kings 1 : 2), but interchangeable in our
Lord's times with "Satan" (Matt. 12:
24, 26, 27).
2. The other of these words, arob, is the
name of the insect or insects which God
sent to punish Pharaoh (Ex. 8 : 21-31 ;
Ps. 78 : 45; 105 : 31). Our Authorized
Version correctly renders it "swarms of
flies," "divers sorts of flies."
Food. The diet of Eastern nations
has been in all ages light and simple.
As compared with our own habits, the
chief points of contrast are the small
amount of animal food consumed, the va-
riety of articles used as accompaniments
to bread, the substitution of milk in va-
rious forms for our liquors, and the com-
bination of what we should deem hetero-
geneous elements in the same dish or the
same meal. The chief point of agreement
is the large consumption of bread, the im-
portance of which in the eyes of the He-
brew is testified by the common Scripture
expression "staff of bread" (Lev. 26 : 26 ;
Ps. 105: 16; Ezek. 4: 16; 14:13). Sim-
pler preparations of corn were, however,
common. Sometimes the fresh green ears
were eaten in a natural state, the husks be-
ing rubbed off by the hand (Lev. 23 : 14 ;
Deut. 23 : 25 ; 2 Kings 4 : 42 ; Matt. 12 :
1 ; Luke 6:1); more frequently, the grains,
after being carefully picked, were roasted
in a pan over a fire (Lev. 2 : 14) and eaten
as "parched corn," in which form they
were an ordinary article of diet, partic-
ularly among laborers or others who had
not the means of dressing food (Euth 2 :
14; 1 Sam. 17 : 17 ; 25 : 18; 2 Sam. 17 :
28). Sometimes the grain was bruised
and then dried in the sun ; it was eaten
either mixed with oil (Lev. 2 : 15), or
made into a soft cake called "dough"
in our Authorized Version (Num. 15 :
20 ; Neh. 10 : 37 ; Ezek. 44 : 30).
Milk and its preparations hold a con-
spicuous place in Eastern diet ; the most
common preparation was that of sour
milk, called "butter" in our Authorized
Version (Gen. 18:8; Judg. 5 : 25 ; 2 Sam.
17 : 29). The same term includes also
cheese, butter, etc.
Fruit was another source of subsistence.
Figs stand first in point of importance;
they were generally dried and pressed
into cakes. Grapes were eaten, both fresh
and in a dried state as raisins.
FOOL— FOREST.
207
Of vegetables we have most frequent
notice of lentils (Gen. 25 : 34 ; 2 Sam. 17 :
28; 23 : 11 ; Ezek. 4:9); beans (2 Sam.
17 : 28; Ezek. 4:9); leeks, onions and
garlic, which were, and still are, of a
superior quality in Egypt (Num. 11 : 5).
Other important articles of food were
honey (1 Sam. 14 : 25; Matt. 3:4); grape-
juice boiled down to the consistency of syr-
up, the dibs of the Syrians and Arabians
(Gen. 43 : 11 ; Ezek. 27 : 17) ; eggs (Isa.
10 : 14; 59 : 5; Luke 11:12); meats, or
the flesh of animals, of which, because of
the heat of the climate and because of
the ritual regulations of the laws of Mo-
ses, sparing use was made (Gen. 18 : 7 ;
Luke 15 : 29, 30) ; birds of various kinds,
and fish, excepting such as were with-
out scales and fins (Lev. 11:9; Deut.
14 : 9).
Fool, the representative in our Author-
ized Version of several Hebrew and Greek
words which designate, not an idiot, but
an absurd person ; not one who does not
reason at all, but one who reasons wrong-
ly ; any one whose conduct is not regu-
lated by the dictates of reason and relig-
ion (Ps. 14 : 1). Foolishness, therefore,
is not a negative condition, but a condi-
tion of wrong action in the intelligence
or heart, or both. The phrase "thou
fool" (Matt. 5 : 22) implies not only an
angry temper, by which such severe lan-
guage is prompted, but a scornful, con-
temptuous feeling, utterly inconsistent
with the love and meekness of our
Lord's disciples.
Foot^man, a word employed in our Au-
thorized Version in two senses : 1 . Gener-
ally to distinguish those of the people or
fighting men who went on foot from those
who were on horseback or in chariots ( Jer.
12:5); but, 2. In a special sense to desig-
nate a body of swift runners in attendance
on the king (1 Sam. 22 : 17). This body,
although distinct from the king's body-
guard, is yet rendered "guard" (1 Kings
14 : 27, 28; 2 Kings 11 : 4, 6, 11, 13, 19),
but in the margin of the passages just cited
the translators have correctly placed
" runners."
Fore'head, the noblest and most con-
spicuous part of the body, the seat of the
understanding. As upon it the worshipers
of idols frequently branded the symbol of
the idol whom each adored, so upon it God
is represented as placing the mark or seal
which witnesses that one, in pre-eminent
sense, is his (Ezek. 9:4; Kev. 7:3).
Fore-know'ledge. See Predesti-
nation.
Fore-Ordain'ed. See Predestina-
tion.
Fore-run'ner, in Scripture usage one
who not only goes before to a particular
place to lead or prepare the way, but who
makes arrangements for those that follow.
In this sense the term, in accordance with
the general meaning of Mark 1 : 2, 3, is
usually appropriated to John the Baptist,
the precursor or forerunner of our Lord.
But in Heb. 6 : 20, the only passage where
the word " forerunner " occurs, our Lord
himself, the High Priest of the Christian
dispensation, is described as entering into
the heavenly sanctuary before his follow-
ers, and as preparing for them there the
pure and perfect joys into which he re-
ceives them.
For'est, a dense wood, a luxuriant and
abundant growth of trees. Although Pal-
estine ha.s not in recent times been a wood-
ed country, yet there can be no doubt that
there was much more wood formerly than
there is at present, and that in the earli-
est historical age large forests were com-
mon. Tracts of woodland are mention-
ed by travelers in Palestine, but rarely
what we should call a forest. Some
remnants of ancient oak forests still ex-
ist on the mountains of Bashau, Gilead,
Hermon and Galilee. One solitary grove
of cedars is found on Lebanon, but fir trees
are there abundant. The other forests of
208
FORGIVENESS— FOWL.
Palestine (1 Sam. 14 : 25; 2 Kings 2 : 24)
have almost disappeared. Yet here and
there, in every district of the country,
north and south, east and west, one meets
with a solitary oak or terebinth of huge
dimensions, as at Hebron, the valley of
Elah, Shiloh and Dan. These are the
last trees of the forests, and serve to in-
dicate what the forests of Palestine once
were.
For-give'ness, the act of remitting
an offence and of treating the offender as
not guilty. Forgiveness of sin is the act
of God, and is the great blessing of the
gospel (Mark 2:7; Acts 5 : 31 ; Eph. 1 :
7). The duty of mutual forgiveness is
urged in the Scriptures by the most sol-
emn and impressive considerations (Matt.
6 : 14, 15; 18 : 15-35 ; Luke 17 : 3, 4).
The possession of a forgiving spirit is a
proof that we have been forgiven our-
selves.
Form. The verbal root of the He-
brew word thus rendered means " to mark
out," "to delineate," and so represents the
" form " of a thing as its well-defined out-
line or shape. In this sense the word is
used in 1 Sara. 28 : 14 ; Isa. 52 : 14 ; Ezek.
10 : 8 ; Dan. 3 : 19, and in other passages.
In the New Testament the Greek equiv-
alent to the Hebrew word has a similar
sense (Mark 16 : 12 ; Rom. 2 : 20; 2 Tim.
3 : 5). In Phil. 2 : 6 our Lord, when be-
coming man, is represented as laying aside
"the form of God" and as taking "the
form of a servant," by which we under-
stand that he did not come into our world
with those majestic manifestations of God-
head which attended his person in the pre-
existent state, but with the lowliness and
undemonstrativeness of a humble human
being.
For-ni-ca'tion, illicit sexual inter-
course, and the frequent figurative desig-
nation in Scripture of the abominations
of idolatry (2 Chron. 21 : 11 ; Ezek. 16 :
26; Rev. 17 : 4).
For-tu-na'tus, a disciple of Corinth
who visited Paul at Ephesus, and return-
ed, along with Stephanas and Achaicus,
in charge of the apostle's First Epistle
to the Corinthian church (1 Cor. 16:
17).
Foun'tain. Among the attractive
features presented by the Land of Prom-
ise to the nation migrating from Egypt
by way of the desert none would be more
striking than the natural gush of waters
from the ground. Instead of watering his
field or garden, as in Egypt, with his foot,
the Hebrew cultivator was taught to look
forward to a land " drinking water of the
rain of heaven, a land of bi'ooks of
water, of fountains and depths spring-
ing from valleys and hills" (Deut.
8:7; 11:11). The springs of Pales-
tine are remarkable for their abundance
and beauty, especially those which fall
into the Jordan and its lakes throughout
its whole course. The spring or fountain
of living water, the "eye" of the land-
scape, as the Hebrew name for it imports,
is distinguished in all Oriental languages
from the artificially sunk and enclosed
well. Jerusalem possessed more than
one perennial spring, the existence of
which is echoed in the names En-Rogel
(2 Sam. 17 : 17), the "dragon-well" or
fountain, and the "gate of the fountain"
(Neh. 2 : 13, 14).
Fowl, Fowl'er. Tlie word fowl in
our Authorized Version represents four
distinct Hebrew words, and, in English,
is the general term for all kinds of birds.
Allusions to fowling, or the catching of
birds, the much-practiced art of the an-
cient fowler, occur in Prov. 7 : 23 ; Eccles.
9 : 12. In 1 Kings 4 : 23, among the daily
provisions for Solomon's table, " fatted
fowl" — geese, probably — are included. In
the New Testament the word translated
" fowls " is a general term inclusive of
many species of birds; in Luke 12 : 24 it
includes ravens.
FOX— FUEL.
209
Fox. In almost all the passages in the
Old Testament where this word occurs the
original Hebrew term designates the "jack-
al." In Judg, 15 : 4 "jackals," and not
"foxes," are certainly meant, for the for-
Syrian Fox.
mer animal is gregarious, whereas the
latter is solitary in its habits. In the
New Testament the notices of the fox
apply equally well to the "jackal."
Frankin'cense, an odorous resin,
mostly imported from Arabia (Isa. 60 :
6; Jer. 6:20), and used for perfume
(Song 3 : 6), but more especially for sac-
rificial fumigation (Lev. 2 : 2, 16 ; 5:11;
Isa. 43 : 23 ; 66 : 3 ; Luke 1 : 9). It also
was one of the ingredients in the perfume
which was to be prepared for the sanctu-
ary (Ex. 30 : 34). Its use as an accom-
paniment of the meat-offering (Lev. 2:1;
6 : 15 ; 24 : 7) arose from its fragrant odor
when burnt, in which respect the incense
was a symbol of the divine name and its
diffusion an emblem of the publishing
abroad of that name (Mai. 1 : 11). Hence,
as prayer is a calling on God's name, the
incense came to be an emblem of prayer
(Ps. 141 : 2 ; Luke 1:10; Rev. 5:8; 8 :
3). In this symbolical representation the
frankincense especially set forth holiness,
14
as characteristic of the divine attributes,
so that the burning of it was a celebration
of the holiness of Jehovah. Frankincense
was also used in the religious services of
the heathen. The substance itself seems
to have been similar to that now known
in commerce — namely, a vegetable res-
in, brittle, glittering and of a bitter
taste, obtained by successive incisions
in the bark of a tree called the Arbor
Ihuris. The principal country pro-
ducing it is India, whence, through
the port of Bombay, it is exported
in chests and casks. It is chiefly
used in the rites of the Greek and
Roman churches ; its only medical
application at present is as a perfume
in sick rooms.
Frog, the well-known amphibious
animal, selected by God as an instru-
ment for humbling the pride of Pha-
raoh. Frogs came in prodigious num-
bers from the canals, the rivers and
the marshes ; they filled the houses, and
even entered the ovens and kneading-
troughs. When, at the command of
Moses, the frogs died, the people gath-
ered them in heaps, and from the cor-
ruption of the bodies "the land stank."
The mention of this animal in the Old
Testament is confined to the passage in
Ex. 8 : 2-14 in which the plague of frogs
is described, and to the two allusions to
that event in Ps. 78 : 45 ; 105 : 30. In the
New Testament the word occurs once only,
(Rev. 16 : 13). There is no question as to
the animal meant.
Front'lets. See Phylacteries.
Fuel, anj'thing which serves to feed
fire (Isa. 9 : 19; Ezek, 21 : 32). From
the extreme scarcity of wood in many
places in Palestine, the people were ac-
customed to use for fuel almost every
kind of combustible matter: the with-
ered stalks of herbs and flowers (Matt. 6 :
28, 30) ; thorns (Ps. 58 : 9 ; Eccles. 7:6);
animal excrement (Ezek. 4 : 15). The
210
FULLER— FUKNITUKE.
eliief dependence for fuel, however, was
on wood or charcoal.
Fullmer, one who scours, cleanses and
thickens cloth. Tlie trade of the fuller,
so far as it is mentioned in Scripture, ap-
pears to liave consisted chiefly in cleans-
ing garments and whitening tliem. The
process of cleansing was accomplished
either by stamping on the garments with
the feet or by beating them with bats in
troughs of water in which some alkaline
substance, answering the purpose of soap,
had been dissolved. The substances used
for tliis purpose whicli are mentioned in
Scripture are nitre, i. e. natron, carbonate of
soda (Prov. 25 ; 20) ; and soap ( Jer. 2 : 22).
Fuller's soap (Heb. boritli, a vegetable lye)
had such powerful cleansing properties
that Malachi (3:2) uses it to image how
real is the soul's need of a spiritual wash-
ing in order to abide the day of Messi-
ah's coming. The process of whitening
garments was performed by pressing or
rubbing on them some kind of earth. At
the Transfiguration our Lord's "raiment
became shining, exceeding wliite as snow,
so as no fuller on earth could white them"
(Mark 9:3). From the mention of the
fuller's field, a spot near Jerusalem (2
Kings 18:17; Isa. 7:3; 36:2), the
trade of the fullers, as requiring space for
drying clothes, appears to have been car-
ried on outside the city.
Fur'long, a measure of length, exact-
ly one-eighth of a mile (Luke 24 : 13).
Fur'nace, a place where a vehement
fire and heat may be made and main-
tained. Various kinds of furnaces are
noticed in the Scriptures, such as a
smelting or calcining furnace (Gen. 19 :
28), perhaps also a brick-kiln (Ex. 9 : 8,
10; 19:18), but especially a lime-kiln,
the use of which was evidently well
known to the Hebrews (Isa. 33:12;
Amos 2:1); a refining furnace (Prov.
17:3; 27 : 21 ; Ezek. 22 : 18-22) ; a large
furnace, with a wide opening at the top
to cast in the materials, and a door at
the ground by which the metal might
be extracted (Dan. 3 : 19-26). The Bab-
ylonians were in the habit of using
the furnace as a means of capital punish-
ment (Dan. 3 : 21 ; Jer. 29 : 22). This
Oriental use of the furnace for punish-
ment gives an awful impressiveness to our
Lord's words respecting the fire of hell
(Matt. 13:40,42, 50).
j Fur'ni-ture, the rendering in one pas-
sage of our Authorized Version (Gen. 31 :
34) of a Hebrew word which designates
a camel's litter or canopied saddle, in
which females were accustomed to travel ;
in other passages (Ex. 31 : 7-9 ; Nah. 2 :
9) of a Hebrew word which is a general
term for A^essels, utensils or implements
of any sort. The furniture of Oriental
dwellings, as we use the word, was in
the early ages very simple. That of the
poorer classes consisted of but few arti-
cles, and those such only as were abso-
lutely necessary. Instead of chairs, they
sat on mats or skins, and the same arti-
cle, on which they laid a mattress, served
them instead of a bedstead, while their up-
per garment was used for a covering. The
wealthy had (as those in the East still
have) fine carpets, couches or divans
and sofas, on which they sat, lay and
slept (2 Sam. 17 : 28 ; 2 Kings 4 : 10).
Among the articles of necessary fur-
j niture possessed by poor and rich
alike were the hand-mill or mortar for
i pounding corn, the kneading-trough and
the oven. Apartments were lighted by
means of lamps fed with olive oil and
commonly placed upon elevated stands
(Matt. 5 : 15). The lamps of the wise
' and foolish virgins (Matt. 25 : 1-10) were
of a sort difl^erent from those used in houses ;
they were a kind of torch or flambeau,
made of iron or earthenware, wrapped
I about with old linen, moistened from
time to time with oil, and suitable for
1 being carried out of doors.
GAAL— GAD.
211
G.
Ga''al, the son of Ebed and the leader
of a revolt against Abimelech, king of the
Shechemites (Judg. 9 : 26-41). He was,
however, defeated, and his partisans were
scattered and destroyed.
Ga'ash [a shaking or earthquake], a hill
or mountain in the territory of Ephraim,
near which was Timnath-serah, where
Joshua lived and died. On its north
side Joshua was buried (Josh. 24 : 29,
30). The "brooks" or valleys of Gaash
(2 Sam. 23 : 30) were probably in the
same neighborhood.
Ga''ba, the same name as Geba. It
is found in our Authorized Version in
Josh. 18 : 24; Ezra 2 : 26; Neh. 7 : 30.
Gab''ba-tha, an elevated place, like
the bench of the judges in modern court-
rooms (John 19 : 13). The floor of this
raised platform, and perhaT)s the whole
apartment, was paved with tesselated or
mosaic stones ; hence the judgment-seat
itself was sometimes called "the Pave-
ment." Here Pilate delivered our Lord
to death.
Ga'bri-el \_hero of Oodl, the name
of an angel of superior order and dignity,
who explained to Daniel the visions which
were vouchsafed to him (Dan. 8 : 16), and
who announced the births of John the Bap-
tist and of our Lord (Luke 1 : 19, 26-33).
Gad [a troop, and, perhaps, good-for-
tune'], the name of a son of Jacob, of one
of the Hebrew tribes, of the territory which
the tribe possessed, of a prophet and of a
heathen divinity.
1. Gad was the seventh son of Jacob,
the first born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, and
whole brother to Asher (Gen. 30 : 10-13).
Of his childhood and life we know nothing.
At the time of his descent into Egypt sev-
en sons are ascribed to him (Gen. 46 : 16),
the most of whose names have plural ter-
minations, as if they belonged to families
rather than to persons. With a slight va-
riation, the list of Gad's sons is again given
on the occasion of the census in the plains
of Moab (Num. 26 : 15-17).
2. The tribe of Gad at the first census
in the wilderness of Sinai had forty-five
thousand six hundred and fifty men tit
for military service (Num. 1 : 24, 25) ; at
the second census, in the plains of Moab,
forty thousand and five hundred (Num.
26 : 18). The Gadites and Reubenites re-
tained in Egypt their love of the pastoral
life, and on the eve of the Conquest were
led by the similarity of their pursuits to
desire a close association. Observing that
the lands east of the Jordan were well
adapted to pasturage, these two tribes pe-
titioned Moses to allot them their inherit-
ance in that section. Moses granted their
request on the condition, which they ac-
cepted and fulfilled, that they assisted
their brethren in the war of the Con-
quest.
3. The territory of Gad lay in Gilead,
north of Reuben. It was a Avide table-
land, clothed with rich grass throughout
and watered by the Yarmuk, the Jabbok
and the Arnon rivers. It was for a time
the seat of the sovereignty of Ishbosheth,
Saul's son, who in Mahanaim was assas-
sinated (2 Sam. 2 : 8-10; 4 : 6). In the
subsequent division of the kingdom it
fell to Israel, and was the scene of many
of the battles between Israel and Syria (1
Kings 22 ; 2 Kings 8 : 28, 29 ; 9 : 14).
4. Gad, "the seer," a prophet and a spe-
cial friend of David (1 Sam. 22 : 5 ; 2 Sam.
24: 11-19).
5. Gad, with the article " the Gad," ren-
dered troop in Isa. 65 : 11, refers to some
heathen divinity, either the goddess of
Fortune or the god Bel.
212
GA DAKA— G A LILEE.
Gad'a-renes (Mark 5:1; Luke 8 :
26), Ger'ge-senes (Matt. 8: 28), Coun-
try of, a district east and south-east of the
Sea of Galilee, in which were the cities
Gadara and Gergesa. Gadara, about sev-
en miles south-east of the southern ex-
tremity of the Sea of Galilee, was the
larger city ; its extensive and remarkable
ruins are now called Um-Keis. Gergesa
was obliquely across the sea from Caper-
naum, immediately on the shore; it is
now represented by ruins called by the
Arabs Gersa. Gergesa was evidently the
scene of our Lord's miraculous cure of the
demoniacs. Gadara was miles away from
the Sea of Galilee, whilst Gergesa was on
the shore. Near Gergesa, moreover, im-
mediately back of the narrow beach, at the
mouth of the Wddij Semakh, is a bluff so
high and precipitous that the swine rush-
ing down it would be carried by the impe-
tus into the water. In this region, as ev-
erywhere in Palestine, rock-tombs are nu-
merous.
Ga^i-US, the name of three or four
men in the New Testament.
1. A Macedonian and fellow-traveler
of Paul, who was seized by the populace
at Ephesus (Acts 19 : 29).
2. A man of Derbe, who accompanied
Paul in his last journey to Jerusalem
(Acts 20 : 4).
3. An inhabitant of Corinth, with whom
Paul lodged, and in whose house the Chris-
tians were accustomed to assemble (Eom.
16 : 23 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 14). He was the same,
most likely, as the Macedonian mentioned
first.
4. A Christian, probably of Asia Minor,
to whom John addressed his Third Epistle
(3 John 1). There is no good reason for
regarding him as identical with either of
the foregoing.
Ga-la'ti-a, a province of Asia Minor,
bounded on the north by Paphlagonia and
Bithynia, west by Bithynia and Phrygia,
south by Lycaonia and east by Pontus and
Cappadocia. It derived its name from the
Gauls, several of whose tribes, in the great
Celtic migration from the East to the West
in the third century before Christ, had over-
run Macedonia and Thrace, and had crossed
into Asia, where, strengthened by fresh
hordes from Europe, they had permanent-
ly settled themselves. From the inter-
mixture of Gauls and Greeks it was also
called Gallo-Grjecia. In the year b. c. 25,
Galatia became a Eoman province. It re-
ceived the gospel from Paul, who visited
it twice (Acts 16:6; 18 : 23), and who
addressed to its church one of his inval-
uable Epistles. The occasion of the
Epistle lay in the disturbances caused
by Judaizing teachers.
GaPba-num, one of the perfumes
employed in the preparation of the sa-
cred incense (Ex. 30 : 34). It is a resin-
ous gum of a brownish color and strong,
disagreeable smell, usually met with in
masses, but sometimes found in yellowish,
tear-like drops. Though galbanum itself is
well known, the plant which yields it has
not been exactly determined.
Gal-i'lee [a circle, circuit], the name
of a section and of a sea.
1. As associated with a section, the
name, in the Old Testament, is given to
a small "circuit" among the mountains
of Naphtali (Josh. 21 : 32 ; 1 Kings 9 :
11), and in the New Testament to a large
province embracing the whole of Northern
Palestine (Mark 1 : 14). The province of
Galilee, according to Josephus, was divid-
ed into Upper and Lower. Upper Galilee
embraced the whole mountain-range lying
between the upper Jordan on the east and
Phoenicia on the west. Lower Galilee in-
cluded the great plain of Esdraelon, with
its offshoots running down to the Jordan
and the Sea of Galilee, and the whole of
the adjoining hill-country to the foot of
the mountain-range. This was one of the
richest and most beautiful sections of Pal-
estine. On its territory were many of the
mOM CAPERNAUM
CHORAIIN 2/2 M.
ETTABIGAH— IXi M.
|^i;^j=^/7^- TO JORDAN 2 M.
- ■'' ^^iSSiiVfi ffO"! TIBERIAS
~-^—^=J!jA TOUAGOALA Shi.
The Sea of Galilee and surrounding Country.
(This sea, or rather lake, lies 682 feet below the level of the Mediterranean and of the ocean.)
214
GALL— GALLIC.
towns and cities mentioned in New Testa-
ment history. Here were Chorazin and
Bethsaida, and Nazareth and Nain, and
Cana and Capernaum. Here our Lord,
for the most part of his earthly life, re-
sided, and here, during his public minis-
try, he wrought many of his mighty
works. From this region our Lord se-
lected his immediate followers, who, ac-
cordingly, were called Galileans. The
province was very populous. Josephus,
who knew it well, speaks of " two hun-
dred and four towns and villages, the
smallest of tliem containing above fifteen
tliousand inliabitants." This would make
the population, in our Lord's times, some
three millions, and, coupled with the life
and bustle, which in Galilee were greater
than in Judaea, may account for our Lord's
selection of Galilee as the principal scene
of his ministry.
2. As associated with a sea, the name
Galilee is comparatively modern, being
thus found in the New Testament only.
The Old Testament name of the Sea of
Galilee was the Sea of Chinnereth (Num.
34 : 11) or Cinneroth (Josli. 12 : 3^,'from
a town of that name on or near its shore.
The Sea of Galilee lies in the northern
part of Palestine, in the province of Gali-
lee. It is oval in shape, being about
fourteen miles long and, at the widest,
seven miles. The river Jordan enters it
at its northern end and passes out at its
southern end, the bed of the lake being
simply a lower section of the great Jor-
dan Valley. Near this beautiful sheet
of water our Lord spent most of his pub-
lic life, and on it, in passing from its west-
ern to its eastern shore, he frequently sail-
ed. Beside it our Lord, after his resurrec-
tion, had that touching interview with
Peter wliich John records (John 21 : 15-
23). At the present time all around this
sea silence and desolation reign, saving
where stands the old town of Tiberias
and where Mejdel's huts mark the site
of Magdala. The cities are in ruins ; the
people are few and poor and wretched.
Gall, the representative in our Author-
ized \'ersion of two Hebrew words and of
one Greek word.
1 . The first Hebrew word has the gen-
eral sense of " bitterness," and is applies!
to the " bile " or " gall," the intensely bit-
ter fluid secreted by the liver (Job 16 : 131.
The term also stands for the gall-bladder
or vitals (Job 20 : 25). It is also used for
the poison of serpents (Job 20 : 14) which,
as the ancients erroneously believed, was
their gall.
2. The second Hebrew word, generally
translated "gall," is in Hos. 10 : 4 render-
ed " hemlock," whilst in Deut. 32 : 33 and
Job 20 : 16 it is employed to denote the
" poison " or " venom " of serpents. From
a collection of all the passages where the
word occurs, it would seem that the term
was applied to some bitter and perhaps
poisonous plant. "What tlie plant was
cannot be determined, but tlie most prob-
able conjecture identifies it witli the pop-
py. A steeped solution of poppy-heads
may have been " the water of gall " ( Jer.
8 : 14), or the expression may refer to
some fluid form of opium, the poisonous
extract from the poppy. Figuratively,
the word is always used to represent
sin.
3. The Greek word is properly the bit-
ter secretion "gall," but is used to desig-
nate any intensely bitter substance. In
describing what drink the Roman sol-
diers gave our Lord upon the cross, Mat-
thew calls it "vinegar mingled with gall"
(Matt. 27 : 34) ; Mark, " wine mingled with
myrrh " (Mark 15 : 23), by which they
meant, probably, that the draught was a
liquor characterized by both sourness and
bitterness.
Gal'ley, a species of boat propelled
by oars (Isa. 33 : 21).
GaPli-o, Junius Ann.'eus, tlie Roman
proconsul of Achaia, under the emperor
GAMALIEL— GAMES.
215
Claudius, when the apostle Paul first visit-
ed Corinth (Acts 18:12). He was brother
to Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher.
Jerome says that he committed suicide, but
Dion Cassius, with greater probability, states
that he was put to death by order of Nero.
Ga-ma'li-el [God reivards me], the
name of two men in Scripture.
1. Son of Pedalizur, prince or captain
of the tribe of Manasseh at the census at
Sinai (Num. 1 : 10; 2 : 20; 7 : 54, 59) and
at starting on the marcli through tlie wil-
derness (Num. 10 : 23).
2. A Pharisee and celebrated doctor of
the Law, wlio gave prudent advice in the
Sanhedrim respecting the treatment of the
followers of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 5 :
34-39). From Acts 22 : 3 it appears that
he was Paul's preceptor. He is generally
and properly identified with the very cel-
ebrated Jewish doctor Gamaliel. This
Gamaliel was the son of Rabbi Simeon
and grandson of the celebrated Hillel ;
he was president of the Sanhedrim under
Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius, and is
reported to have died cigliteen years be-
fore the destruction of Jerusalem.
Games, public contests of strength
and skill. Tliey were an outgrowth
from the Greek civilization, and, al-
though they are not mentioned by name
in the New Testament, they are yet so
often alluded to, esjiecially by Paul in
his Epistles, that some knowledge of
them is indispensable to the student of
Scripture. The Greeks had such a pas-
sion for spectacles and shows that each of
their cities possessed its theatre and sta-
dium. At Ephesus an annual contest was
held in honor of Diana. It is probable
that the apostle Paul was present when
these games were proceeding, for to the
exhibitions that took place on such occa-
sions he makes a direct reference (1 Cor.
15 : 32). His Epistles abound with al-
lusions to the Greek contests, borrowed,
probably, from the Isthmian games, at
which, during his first visit to Corinth,
he may have been present. These con-
tests (1 Tim. 6 : 12; 2 Tim. 4 : 7) were
divided into two classes, the one consist-
ing of boxing and wrestling, the other
consisting of leaping, running, quoiting,
hurling the spear and wrestling. The
competitors (1 Cor. 9 : 25 ; 2 Tim. 2:5)
required a long and severe course of pre-
vious training ( 1 Tim. 4:8), during which
a particular diet and discipline were en-
forced (1 Cor. 9 : 25, 27). In the Olympic
contests these preparatory exercises extend-
ed over a period of ten months, during the
last of which they were conducted under the
supervision of apix)inted officers. The con-
tests took place in the presence of a vast
multitude of spectators (Heb. 12 : 1), the
competitors being the spectacle ( 1 Cor. 4 :
9; Heb. 10:33). The games were opened
with the proclamation of a herald (1 Cor.
9 : 27), whose office it was to give out the
name and country of each candidate, and
especially to announce the name of the
victor before the assembled multitude.
The judge was selected for his spotless
integrity (2 Tim. 4:8); his office was to
decide any disputes (Col. 3 : 15) and to
give the prize (1 Cor. 9 : 24; Phil. 3: 14),
consisting of a crown (2 Tim. 2:5; 4 : 8) of
wild-olive leaves at the Olympian games,
and of pine or ivy leaves at the Isthmian
games. Paul alludes to but two of the
five contests, boxing and running, most
firequently to the latter. In boxing (1
Cor. 9 : 26) the hands and arms were
bound with the cestitf!, a band of leather
studded with nails. The foot-race (2
Tim. 4:7) was run in the stadium (1
Cor. 9 : 24), an oblong area, open at one
end and rounded in a semicircular form
at the other, along the sides of which
were the raised tiers of seats on which
the spectators sat. The judge was sta-
tioned by the goal (Phil. 3 : 14), which
was clearly visible from one end of the
stadium to the other.
216
GAMMADIMS— GATE.
Garn'ma-diins [Hebrew, Gani'nm-
dtm], the name of a class of men men-
tioned in Ezek. 27 : 11 as defenders of
the towers of Tyre in connection with the
mercenaries from Arad. Various expla-
nations of the terra have been given, the
most plausible being that which makes it
the designation of the brave warriors who
performed garrison service.
Gar'den. The sense of the Hebrew
word thus rendered is a park or orchard
enclosed and planted. Gardens in the
East were on the outskirts of towns,
and were planted with various trees and
shrubs. They were surrounded with
hedges of thorn (Isa. 5:5) or walls of
stone (Prov. 24:31). For further pro-
tection, lodges (Isa. 1:8; Lam. 2 : 6) or
watch-towers (Mark 12 : 1) were built in
them, in which sat the keeper (Job. 27 :
IS) to drive away the wild beasts and rob-
bers, as is the case to this day. The gar-
dens of the Hebrews were planted with
flowers and aromatic shrubs (Song 6:2;
4 : 16), besides olives, fig trees, nuts or
walnuts (Song 6 : 11), pomegranates, and
otliers for domestic use (Ex. 23 : 11 ; Jer.
29 : 5; Amos 9 : 14). Gardens of herbs,
or kitchen-gardens, are mentioned in
Deut. 11 : 10 and 1 Kings 21 : 2. Cu-
cumbers were grown in them (Isa. 1:8),
and probably also melons, leeks, onions
and garlic. Of all the gardens of Pales-
tine, none is possessed of associations
more sacred and imperishable than the
garden of Gethsemane. Here our Lord
was accustomed to retire for devotion
(Matt. 26:36; John 18: 1, 2); here,
" being in an agony, he prayed, and his
sweat was as it were great drops of blood
falling down to the ground" (Luke 22 :
44) ; and liere he was betrayed antl ar-
rested and bound (Matt. 26 : 47 ; Mark
14:43; Luke 22 : 47 ; John 18 : 12).
Gardens were used as places of burial.
Manasseh and his son Anion were buried
in the garden of their palace (2 Kings
21 : 18, 26). Our Lord was buried in the
garden of Joseph of Arimathea (John 19 :
41). In the degenerate times of the He-
brew monarchy gardens were selected as
the scenes of idolatrous worship (Isa. 1 :
29; 65:3; 66:17), and images of the
idols were probably erected in them.
Gar'lands (Acts 14 : 13), the wreaths
of leaves or flowers or plants with which
the heathen adorned the victims about to
be offered in sacritice, and the heads of
the idols before which the sacrifices were
offered.
G-ar'lic (Num. 11 : 5), a well-known
vegetable, very abundant in Egypt ami
much esteemed by the Hebrews.
Gar'ments. See Clothes.
Gar^ri-son, a post held by a military
force for protection or defence (1 Sam. 10 :
5 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 6).
Gate. Walled cities had of necessity
gates or doors of entrance. These gates
'!lii?3aL
A City Gate.
and gateways anciently held, as they still
hold in the East, an important relation,
not only to the defence, but also to the
public economy, of the place. They are
thus sometimes taken as representing the
GATH— GEBA.
217
city itself (Gen. 22 : 17 ; 24 : 60 ; Deut.
12 : 12; Judg. 5:8; Kuth 4 : 10; Ps.
87:2; 122:2). They were places of
public resort (Gen. 19:1; 23 : 10 ; 34 :
20, 24; 1 Sam. 4 : 18) ; places for public
deliberation, administration of justice or
of audience for kings and rulers or am-
bassadors (Deut. 16 : 18; 21 : 19; 25 : 7 ;
Josh. 20 : 4 ; Judg. 9 : 35) ; market-places
(2 Kings 7:1; Prov. 22 : 22) ; places for
idolatrous sacrifices (2 Kings 23 : 8 ; Acts
14 : 13). Regarded, therefore, as positions
of great importance, the gates of cities were
carefully guarded and closed at nightfall
(Deut. 3:5; Josh. 2 : 5, 7 ; Judg. 9 : 40,
44). As the possession of tlie gates of a
city was a possession of the city itself, the
word is sometimes used to signify power
(Isa. 24 : 12; Matt. 16 : 18). Criminals
were always punished without the gates
(1 Kings 21 : 13 ; Acts 7 : 59), which ex-
plains the passage in Heb. 13 : 12.
Gath [a ivine-press^, one of the five prin-
cipal cities of the Philistines, west of Je-
rusalem, to which the ark was carried (1
Sam. 5 : 8). The giant Goliath was a na-
tive or resident of this place (1 Sam. 17 :
4). To Achish, its king, David fled when
persecuted by Saul (1 Sam. 21 : 10). He
afterward subdued it (1 Chron. 18 : 1).
It is subsequently mentioned as forti-
fied by Rehoboam, conquered by Hazael
and destroyed by Uzziah. Although de-
scribed by Jerome as a large village in
his time, its site is now a matter of dis-
pute. Dr. Porter and Lieutenant Conder
of the English Survey locate it on a liill
now called Tell es-Safieh, a commanding
site capable' of being made the key of
Philistia. Its inhabitants were called
Gittites (2 Sam. 15 : 18).
Gath-He'pher [ivinepress of the well],
a town in Galilee, belonging to the tribe
of Zebulun, and tlie same as Giltah-heplier
(Josh. 19 : 10, 13). It was the birtliplace
of the prophet Jonah (2 Kings 14 : 25).
Gath-Rim^mon [press of the pome-
granate']. Three places of this name seem
to be referred to r one in the tribe of Dan
(Josh. 19 : 45) ; another in the half-tribe
of Manasseh (Josh. 21 : 25) ; and a third
in the tribe of Ephraim (1 Chron. 6 : 69).
Ga'za [the strong], the most prominent
of the five principal Philistine cities, the
capital and the stronghold of Philistia.
It was an important city before the time
of Abraham (Gen. 10 : 19). It fell to the
lot of Judah (Josh. 15 : 47), but its inhab-
itants were neither exterminated nor ex-
pelled (Judg. 1 : 18; 3 : 3). It was situ-
ated on the southern border of Canaan,
about sixty miles south-west from Jeru-
salem. It was rendered famous by the
exploits of Samson (Judg. 16 : 1-3, 21-
30). On the road from Jerusalem to
Gaza, Pliilip the evangelist had his inter-
esting interview with the Ethiopian eu-
nuch and treasurer of Queen Candace
(Acts 8 : 26-40). Against Gaza the
prophets uttered teri'ible predictions,
which have been remarkably fulfilled.
It has been utterly destroyed quite a
number of times, and has as often been
rebuilt. A considerable city, bearing the
modern name Ohuzzah and containing
about eighteen thousand iuliabitants, is
yet to be found in the neighborliood of
the ancient Gaza.
Ge'ba [hiW], called also Gaba and
Gibeah, a town of Benjamin (Josh. 18 :
24) assigned to the jiriests (Josh. 21 : 17).
Its site is thus described by Conder : " West
of Ai a great valley has its head, and curv-
ing round eastward runs to Jericho. About
two miles south-east of Ai this valley be-
comes a narrow gorge, with vertical preci-
pices some eight hundred feet high, a great
crack or fissure in the country. On the
south side of this great chasm, the true
head of the Kelt valley, stands Geba of
Benjamin on a rocky knoll. On the op-
posite side, considerably lower than Geba,
is the little village of Michmash, on a sort
of saddle, backed by an fipen and fertile
218
GEBAL— GENEALOGY.
corn-valley." In the vicinity of Geba,
Saul's son Jonathan, accompanied by an
armor-bearer, attacked an army of Phil-
istines, who, seized with panic, fought
among themselves and fled in confusion
( 1 Sam. 14 : 1-23). The expression " from
Geba to Beersheba" (2 Kings 23 : 8) de-
noted the extent of the kingdom of Judah
from north to south, as that of " from Dan
to Beersheba" expressed the whole length
of Palestine.
Ge'bal [mowTitein], the name of two
places.
1. A district of country referred to in
Ps. 83 : 7, and supposed to be the moun-
tainous tract extending from the Dead
Sea to Petra. This district bears the
modern name Jcbdl.
2. A city in Phoenicia, associated with
Tyre by the prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 27 :
9). Its Greek name was Byblos; its mod-
ern name is Jebail. Its site is about seven-
teen miles north of the city of Beyroot. Its
ruins are extensive, immense numbers of
granite columns being strewn over the
surrounding fields. Once the chief seat
of the cruel worship of Adonis and the
busy mart of a lucrative commerce, it
must have been a city of much import-
ance.
Ged-a-li'ah [^Jehovah has made great],
son of Ahikara, Jeremiah's protector (Jer.
26 : 24), and grandson of Shaphan, the
secretary of King Josiah. After the de-
struction of the temple, B. c. 588, Nebu-
chadnezzar left Gedaliah with a Chal-
dsean guard (Jer. 40 : 5) at Mizpah to gov-
ern the vinedressers and husbandmen
(Jer. 52 : 16), who were not carried into
captivity. Jeremiah joined Gedaliah, and
Mizpah became the resort of Jews from va-
rious quarters (Jer. 40 : 6, 11). Altliougli
the government of Gedaliah was adapted
to promote the prosperity of the country,
yet within two months after his appoint-
ment Ishmael, a member of tlie royal fam-
ily, and otlier princes, conspired against
him, and, whilst sharing his hospitality,
treacherously mui'dered him (Jer. 41 :
1, 2).
Ge'der [« wo//], the name of a town of
the Canaanites, in the plain country of Ju-
dah (Josh. 12 : 13). Probably the same
with Gederah (Josh. 15 : 36) and Beth-
gader (1 Chron. 2 : 51).
G-ed'e-roth, a city in the plain of
Judah (Josh. 15 : 41), as was Gederothaim
(Josh. 15 : 36).
Ge'dor, a city in the mountains of
Judah (Josh. 15 : 58). Dr. Kobinson
found, on a njountain-ridge between Je-
rusalem and Gaza, a place called Jedur,
which he identifies with Gedor.
Ge-ha'zi [denier], the servant or boy
of Elisha. He was sent as the prophet's
messenger on two occasions to the good
Shunammite (2 Kings 4), obtained fraudu-
lently money and garments from Naaman,
was miraculously smitten with incurable
leprosy, and was dismissed from the proph-
et's service (2 Kings 5). Later in the his-
tory he is mentioned as the relator to King
Joram of all the great things which Elisha
had done (2 Kings 8).
Ge-hen'na. See Hinnom.
Gem-a-ri'ah [Jehovah has made per-
fect], the name of two men.
1. Son of Shaphan the scribe and father
of Michaiah. He was one of the nobles
of Judah, and liad a chamber in the liouse
of the Lord, from which Baruch read Jer-
emiah's alarming prophecy in the ears of
all the people (Jer. 36).
2. Son of Hilkiah, who with Elasah,
son of Shaphan, was sent to Babylon by
King Zedekiah with the tribute-money for
Nebuchadnezzar. He also took charge of
a letter from Jeremiah to the Jewish cap-
tives at Babylon warning them against the
false prophets who deluded them by prom-
ises of a speedy return to their own land
(Jer. 29 : 3, 4).
Ge-ne-al'o-gy, the record of a ped-
igree (1 Chron. 5:1). In Hebrew the
GENERATION— GENESIS.
219
term for genealogy or pedigree is "the
book of the generations" (Gen. 5 • 1 ; Matt.
1:1). To the Jew many things conspired
to make such a book transcendently im-
portant. The promise of the land of Ca-
naan to the seed of Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob ; the separation of the Israelites
from the Gentiles ; the expectation of
Messiah, as to spring from the tribe of
Judaii ; the exclusively hereditary priest-
hood of Aaron, with its dignity and emol-
uments ; tlie long succession of kings in
the line of David ; tlie division and occu-
pation of the land upon genealogical prin-
ciples by tribes, families and houses, — ev-
erything bound up in the memories of the
past, the possessions of the present and the
hopes of the future constrained every de-
scendant of the patriarchs to assert and
maintain his place in the national line.
Hence "the book of the generation of
Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son
of Abraham" (Matt. 1:1) became an in-
valuable testimony to our Lord's Mes-
siahship. Two evangelists, Matthew and
Luke, give our Lord's genealogy, which
they must have copied from the public
registers, and which they could not have
falsified without detection. When these
public registers liad served the great of-
fice for which they had been made and
kept — that, namely, of witnessing to great
David's greater Son — they perished from
the earth in the destruction of Jerusalem.
G-en-e-ra'tion. Considerable obscu-
rity attends the use of this word in our
Authorized Version, the translators hav-
ing merged the various meanings of the
same original word, and even of several dif-
ferent words, in the one common term " gen-
eration." The principal senses in which
the word is to be understood are these : Or-
igin, history, genealogy (Gen. 2:4; 5:1;
Matt. 1:1); age (Gen. 7:1); class, order,
description (Ps. 73 : 15 ; Prov. 30 : 11-14) ;
succession from the same stock (Matt. 1 :
17; 3:7); persons living contemporane-
ously (Matt. 24 : 34; Luke 16 : 8) ; chosen
people ( 1 Pet. 2 : 9). As a measure of time
a generation in the long-lived patriarchal
age was computed at about one hundred
years (Gen. 15 : 16; Ex. 12 : 40), but sub-
sequently it was reckoned as one-third of
a century (Job 42 : 16), the computation
which now obtains.
G-en'e-sis [generation, production, cre-
ation^, the name of the first book of the
Old Testament. This book, if not abso-
lutely the oldest in the world, is certainly
the oldest which has any claim to being
a trustworthy history. It is not only a
history, but in pre-eminent sense a relig-
ious history. The earlier portion of the
book, so far as the end of the eleventh
chapter, may be properly termed a history
of the world ; the latter portion is a history
of the fathers of the Jewish race. But
from first to last it is a religious history.
It begins with the creation of the world
and of man ; it tells of the early happi-
ness of a paradise in which God spake
with man ; of the first sin and its conse-
quences ; of the promise of redemption ;
of the gigantic growth of sin and the
judgment of the Flood ; of a new earth
and a new covenant with man, its un-
changeableness typified by the bow in
the heavens ; of the dispersion of the
human race over the world. Then it
passes to the story of redemption, to the
promise given to Abraham and renewed
to Isaac and to Jacob, and to all that
chain of circumstances which paved the
way for the great symbolic act of redemp-
tion when with a mighty hand and an
outstretched arm Jehovah brought his
people out of Egypt.
The book of Genesis has thus a charac-
ter at once special and universal. It em-
braces the world ; it speaks of God as
the God of the whole human race. But,
as the introduction to Jewish history, it
makes the universal interest subordinate
to the national. Its design is to show
220
GENNESARET, LAND OF— GERGESENES.
}iow God revealed liimself to the first
fathers of the Jewish race in order that
he might make to himself a nation who
should be his witnesses in the midst of the
earth. This is the inner principle of unity
which pervades the book. Its external
framework consists of the lives of five
principal persons — Adam, Noah, Abra-
ham, Isaac and Jacob. To these wan-
dering sheikhs attach a grandeur and an
interest greater tlian those of the Babels
and Nimrods of the world. Tlie minutest
circumstances of their lives are worthier
to be chronicled than the rise and fall of
empires. Accordingly, a specific plan is
preserved throughout. The main purpose
of the book is never forgotten. God's rela-
tion to Israel holds the first place in the
writer's mind. It is this which it is his
object to convey. He begins with the
creation of the world, because the God
who created the world and the God who
revealed himself to the fathers is the same
God. He shows that when man had fall-
en, the God who visited him in mercy and
gave him a promise of redemption and vic-
tory is the God who sent Moses to deliver
his people out of Egypt. He shows further
that the God who made a covenant with
Noah, and through him with "all the fam-
ilies of the earth," is the God who also
made himself known sis the God of Abra-
ham, of Isaac and of Jacob.
Thus creation and redemption are eter-
nally linked together. Thus, too, the his-
tory of that chosen seed, who were the heirs
of the promise and the guardians of the
divine oracles, is the only history which
interprets man's relation to God. By its
light all others shine, and may be read
when the time shall come. Meanwhile,
as the difierent families drop off here and
there from the principal stock, their course
is briefly indicated. A hint is given of
their parentage and their migrations, and
then tlie narrative returns to its regular
channel.
Gen-nes'a-ret, Land of, a small
district of Galilee, lying on the western
shore of the sea near Capernaum (Matt.
14 : 34 ; Mark 6 : 53). It is a green, cres-
cent-shaped plain, now called el-Ghuv)eir,
extending along the shore for three miles,
its greatest breadth being about one mile.
Its soil is extremely fertile, the melons
and cucumbers grown here being the
best and earliest in Palestine, but only
small patches of it are now cultivated.
Its climate is almost tropical.
Gen-nes'a-ret, Sea of (Luke 5:1).
See Chinnereth and Galilee.
Gen'tiles. In the Old Testament the
Hebrew word rendered Gentiles or nations
signified the surrounding nations, foreign-
ers as opposed to Israel (Neh. 5:8), and
was used with an invidious meaning. In
the New Testament the word Gentiles is
used as equivalent to the word Greeks
(Rom. 1:16; 1 Cor. 1 : 22-24), a strong
proof of the almost universal adoption of
the Greek language.
Ge'ra [a grainl, one of the "sons,"
that is, descendants, of Benjamin, enu-
merated in Gen. 46 : 21 as already living
at the time of Jacob's migration into Egypt.
He was son of Bela (1 Chron. 8:3).
Ge'rah [a berry or granule], the small-
est weight, and likewise the smallest piece
of money, among the Hebrews, equivalent
to the twentieth part of a shekel ( Ex. 30 :
13; Lev. 27 : 25), and worth about three
cents.
Ge'rar \lndging-pJace'], a city and dis-
trict on the southern border of Palestine,
not far from Gaza (Gen. 10 : 19). It was
visited by Abraham after the destruction
of Sodom (Gen. 20 : 1), and by Isaac when
there was a dearth in the rest of Canaan
(Gen. 26 : 1). It was the seat of the first
Philistine kingdom that we read of, and
gave name to it (Gen. 26 : 26). Its site
has been diligently sought, but as yet has
not been satisfactorily determined.
Ger'ge-senes. See Gadarenes.
GERIZIM— GESHUR.
221
Gerizim, with Nabliis at its foot.
Ger''i-zira, the mountain of Ephraim,
opposite Ebal, on which, after the en-
trance of the Israelites into the Promised
Land, six tribes stood and responded Amen
to the blessings pronounced by the Levites
upon such of the people as should obey
the Law of the Lord (Deut. 11 : 29). See
Ebal. The valley between Ebal and Ger-
izim is narrow, and about three miles long.
It is bountifully watered and fertile. Ger-
izim was greatly venerated by the Samar-
itans, who on it built a temple for worship
(John 4 : 20). It is still accounted a holy
mountain, the inhabitants of JVoSMs, the
city at its foot, which replaces the an-
cient Shechem, visiting it every year at
the times corresponding to the four an-
cient annual festivals.
Ger'shom [expulsion], the elder of
the two sons (the second being Eliezer)
who were born to Moses in the land of
Midian by Zipporah (Ex. 2 : 22; 18 : 4).
These sons of the great lawgiver held no
other rank than that of simple Levites,
while the sons of their uncle Aaron en-
joyed all the privileges of the priesthood
(1 Chron. 23 : 15, 16 ; 26 : 24), a proof of
the rare disinterestedness of Moses.
Ger'shon, the eldest of the three sons
of Levi, apparently born before the migra-
tion of Jacob's family into Egypt (Gen. 46 :
11 ; Ex. 6 : 16). But, though the eldest
born, the families of Gershon were out-
stripped in fame by their younger breth-
ren of Kohath, from whom sprang Moses
and the priestly line of Aaron. The sons
of Gershon (the Gershonites) had charge
of the fabrics of the tabernacle, the cover-
ings, curtains, hangings, cords (Num. 3 :
25, 26 ; 4 : 25, 26) ; for the transport of
these they had two covered wagons and
four oxen (Num. 7 : 3, 7). In the en-
campment their station was behind the
tabernacle, on the west side (Num. 3 : 23).
In the appointment of the Levitical cities
thirteen fell to the lot of the Gershonites.
These were in the northern tribes — two in
Manasseh beyond Jordan, four in Issa-
char, four in Asher and three in Naph-
tali.
Ge'shem, an Arabian (Neh. 2:19;
6 : 1), and one of the enemies of the Jews
on their return from the exile, especially
in the plots against the life of Nehemiah
(Neh. 6 : 2).
Ge'shur [a bridge], a district of coun-
try in Syria (2 Sam. 15 : 8), on the east
side of Jordan, adjoining the northern
border of the Hebrew territory, and ly-
ing between Hermon, Maachah and Ba-
222
GETHER— GIBEAH.
shan (Josh. 12 : 5). The Geshurites were
not expelled by the Israelites under Josh-
ua (Josh. 13 : 13). In the time of David,
Talmai was their king, whose daughter be-
came the wife of David and the motlier of
Absalom (2 Sam. 3:3). As the word Ge-
shur means a bridge, and as at the present
time in that region there is an ancient
stone bridge over the upper Jordan, it is
probable that from a bridge in the same
place Geshur took its name.
Geth'er, one of the sons of Aram and
grandson of Shem. See Nations, under
Shemites.
Geth-sem'a-ne [oil-pressl, the name
of a small field or garden in the immedi-
ate neighborhood of Jerusalem, at the foot
of the Mount of Olives. Here our Lord
"ofttimes resorted with his disciples"
(John 18 : 2) ; here the night before his
crucifixion he suffered his great agony
(Mark 14 : 32-41) ; and here he was be-
trayed by Judas into the hands of his
murderers (Matt. 26 : 36-50). Whether
or not the spot now pointed out as the
Garden of Gethsemane be its true site it
is impossible to say. But that the gar-
den to which our Lord resorted was here-
about is highly probable. This tradition-
al site is enclosed by a stone wall, and is
neatly kept by Latin monks. Though its
eight gnarled olive trees could not have
stood there in the days of Christ, yet their
venerable appearance and great age cannot
fail to impress the serious traveler.
Ge'zer, a royal city of the Canaanites,
on the south-western border of the tribe
of Ephraim. The Canaanites were not
expelled from it, but dwelt there with
the Israelites (Josh. 1 6 : 10). It was the
scene of many fierce contests between the
Philistines and Israelites (2 Sam. .5 : 25;
1 Chron. 20 : 4). Pharaoh, king of Egypt,
afterward conquered and gave it to his
daughter, Solomon's wife (1 Kings 9 : 16),
and Solomon rebuilt it (1 Kings 9 : 17).
Ghost, an old English word of Saxon
origin (Germ, geist), equivalent to soul or
spirit (Job 11 : 20 ; Jer. 15 : 9 ; Matt. 27 :
50; John 19:30). It frequently occurs in
the New Testament in the sacred name
"Holy Ghost." To "give up the ghost"
is a common Scripture expression for to
"die" (Gen. 25 : 17; Job 3:11; Acts 5 :
10; 12: 23).
Gi'ants, men remarkable either for
extraordinary cruelty and crime or for ex-
traordinary size and strength. Both of
these senses appear to be combined in the
antediluvian giants mentioned in Gen. 6 :
4. These giants were men of daring im-
piety and of immense muscular force, re-
sembling the Titans of Greek mythology.
After the Flood the leading race of giants
was that of the Kephaim. The earliest
mention of them is the record of their de-
feat by Chedorlaomer and the allied kings
at Ashteroth-Karnaim, east of the Jordan
(Gen. 14 : 5). Driven from the east of
Palestine, they long found a home in the
west (2 Sam. 21 : 15-22; 1 Chron. 20 : 4-
8). It is probable that in early times they
had possessed districts west of the Jordan,
since the "valley of Rephaim" (2 Sam.
5 : 18; 1 Chron. 11 : 15; Isa. 17 : 5), a
rich valley south-west of Jerusalem, de-
rived its name from them. They were
probably the aboriginal giant-race of
which the Zuzim and Emim (Gen. 14 : 5),
the Anakira (Num. 13 : 28) and the Zam-
zummim (Deut. 2 : 20, 21) were branches.
Og, king of Bashan (Deut. 3 : 10, 11), is
the representative in Scripture of the
Rephaim ; Goliath of Gath (1 Sam. 17 :
4-7), o( the Anakim.
Gib'be-thon [a height], a city of the
Philistines, included within the territory
of Dan (Josh. 21 : 23). While Nadab,
the king of Israel, was besieging this
city, he was slain by Baasha, one of his
own officers (1 Kings 15 : 25, 27). Its
site is not known.
Gib'e-ah [a hill]. Several places, sit-
uated probably on a hill, bore this name.
GIBEON— GIHON.
223
1. GiBEAH OF Benjamin, called also
GiBEAH OF Satjl. Its siege and the
painful story of the Levite are recorded
in Judg. 19 and 20. It was the birthplace
and residence of Saul (1 Sam. 15 : 34).
Here the Araorites hanged seven of Saul's
sons (2 Sam. 21 : 6).
2. GiBEAH OF JuDAH, a citv in the
mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 57).
3. GiBEAH IN THE FiELD, named in
Judg. 20 : 31 as the place to which one
of the highways led from Gibeah of Ben-
jamin.
Gib'e-on, a celebrated city of the Ca-
naanites, the inhabitants of which, fore-
seeing that Joshua would subdue the
whole country, practiced a deception by
which he was induced to make a league
with them. Notwithstanding it was by
artifice they obtained Joshua's promise
that they should not be destroyed, he
fulfilled his word, but subjected them
to menial employments (Josh. 9 : 3-27).
Afterward, when they were attacked by
the five Canaanitish kings, Joshua de-
fended them, and during the great battle
that followed "the sun stood still on Gib-
eon" (Josh. 10 : 12). The city afterward
fell to the lot of Benjamin, and became a
Levitical city (Josh. 18 : 25; 21 : 17).
Here the tabernacle was set up for many
years under David and Solomon (1 Chron.
16 : 39 ; 2 Chron. 1:3). Its site is iden-
tified with that of the modern village of
el-Jib, about six miles north-west of Jeru-
salem. The whole appearance of el-Jib
is that of antiquity. It is situated on the
summit of a hill, and near it are a fine
fountain and a large reservoir of water,
which correspond with the " pool of Gib-
eon" (2 Sam. 2 : 13) and "the great wa-
ters that are in Gibeon" (Jer. 41 : 12).
The "wilderness of Gibeon" (2 Sam. 2 :
24) was probably in the same neighbor-
hood, taking its name from the city.
Gid'e-On [tree-fellei; that is, icarrior],
a Manassite, youngest son of Joash of the
Abiezrites, an undistinguished family who
lived at Ophrah, a town probably on the
west of Jordan (Judg. 6 : 11-15). He
was the fifth recorded judge of Israel,
and for many reasons the greatest of
them all. Aided by miraculous interpo-
sition, he signally defeated the Midian-
ites and won for his countrymen forty
years of peace and prosperity (Judg. 7 :
19-25; 8:28). The memory of this
splendid deliverance took deep root in
the national traditions (1 Sam. 12 : 11 ;
Ps. 83 : 11 ; Isa. 9:4; 10 : 2(5 ; Heb. 11 :
32). Gideon was a man of princely ap-
pearance (Judg. 8 : 18), and to this he
owed, most probably, something of his
popularity and power. He nobly declin-
ed, on theocratic grounds, the monarchy
(Judg. 8 : 22, 23), but he ignobly dedi-
cated to religious uses a jeweled ephod
formed out of the rich spoils of Midian,
which proved to the Israelites a tempta-
tion to idolatry (Judg. 8 : 24-27).
Gift, the rendering in our Authorized
Version of quite a number of Hebrew and
Greek words, each having a distinct and
special meaning indicative of the relation
of giver and receiver, or of the motive and
object of the presentation. The most com-
mon senses connected with the word are
these: 1. A gratuity of any kind (Prov.
19 : 6; Matt. 7 : 11) ; 2. A money-dona-
tion (Esth. 9 : 22; Luke 21 : 1) ; 3. A
votive offering (2 Sam. 8:2, 6; Matt. 5
23, 24) ; 4. A bribe (Ex. 23 : 8 ; Prov. 6
35) ; 5. A hope of eternal life (Rom. 5
\ 15, 17 ; Eph. 4:7); 6. A spiritual be-
I stowment (1 Tim. 4 : 14 ; 1 Pet. 4 : 10).
I Gi^hon [serpentine, winding'], the name
of the second of the four rivers of Eden
(Gen. 2 : 13) ; the name also of a fountain,
and memorable as the scene of the anoint-
ing and proclamation of Solomon as king
(1 Kings 1 : 33, 34). Subsequently it is
said that Hezekiah " stopped the upper
water-course of Gihon, and brought it
straight down to the west side of the
224
GILBOA— GIEDLE.
city of David " (2 Chron. 32 : 30). Dr.
Robinson conjectures that on the west of
Jerusalem there was anciently a fountain
of this name which was arched over by
Hezekiah, and its waters conducted into
the city by a subterranean channel which
is not now seen.
Mountains of Gilboa.
G-il-bo'a [boiling f'pringi, a mountain-
ous tract with several ridges running from
north-west to south-east, from the ancient
Jezreel to the brow of the Jordan Valley,
a distance of ten miles. Here Saul and
his three sons were slain (1 Sam. 28 : 4 ;
31 : 1-8 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 6-21).
Gil'e-ad [hard, rough'], a mountain-
ous region east of the Jordan, extend-
ing from nearly the south end of the Sea
of Galilee to the north end of the Dead
Sea, about sixty miles, with the aver-
age breadth of twenty. This region was
the territory of Sihon and Og (Josh. 12 :
2, 5) and, conquered by the Israelites, it
was allotted to the tribes of Reuben and
Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh ( Dcut.
3 : 12, 13). It was celebrated for its rich
pastures (Num. 32 : 1), a characteristic
which still remains. It was also celebra-
ted for its balm (Gen. 37 : 25 ; Jer. 46 : 11).
Its fertility made it a tempting prize to
many peoples, who for its possession en-
gaged in fierce and frequent contests. One
of its cities, Ramoth-Gilead, was a city of
refuge (Josh. 20 : 8).
Gil'gal [rolling thing], a place in the
Jordan Valley near Jericho, where the
Israelites made their first encampment
in Palestine, and where they set up the
twelve stones they had taken from
the bed of the river (Josh. 4: 19-
24). Here S.imuel judged (1 Sam.
7 : 16), and here the kingdom was
confirmed to Saul (1 Sam. 11 : 15).
Although associated with numerous
interesting Scripture events, it has
no mention after the Captivity. Its
site is thought to be a mound, with
ruins scattered around it, still known
as Tell Jeljul, about one Englisli mile
east of ancient Jericho. There was
another Gilgal in the vicinity of
Dor, subdued by Joshua (Josh. 12 :
23). This is supposed to be the
Galgala which Eusebius speaks of
as being six Roman miles north of
Antipatris, and where there is still a vil-
lage called Jiljulieh.
Gi'loh [pxile or circuit], a town in the
mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 51), the
birthplace and residence of Ahithophel (2
Sam. 15 : 12), and the scene of Ahithophel's
suicide (2 Sam. 17 : 23).
Gim'zo, a town in the low country of
Judah, captured with Ajalon and other
places by the Philistines in the reign of
Ahaz (2 Chron. 28 : 18). It is perhaps
identical with Jimzu, a village on an
eminence about three miles south-east
from Lydda.
Gin, an old English word for trap,
stands in our Authorized Version as the
rendering of two Hebrew words, the one
meaning a noose or "snare" (Ps. 140 : 5;
141 : 9 ; Amos 3 : 5), the other meaning a
net or Imp (Job 18 : 9 ; Isa. 8 : 14).
Gir'dle, an essential article of dress
in the East, and worn by both men and
women. The poorest girdle was made
GIEGASHITES— GLASS.
225
of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3 : 4),
like that worn by the Bedouin of the
present day. Coarser ones were of cloth.
A finer girdle was made of linen (Jer.
13 : 1 ; Ezek. 16 : 10), embroidered with
silk and sometimes with gold and silver
thread (Dan. 10 : 5; Rev. 1 : 13; 15 : 6),
and frequently studded with gold and
precious stones or pearls. The manufac-
ture of these girdles formed part of the
employment of women (Prov. 31 : 24).
The girdle was fastened by a clasp of
gold or silver, or tied in a knot so that
the ends hung down in front. It was
worn by men about the loins (Isa. 5 :
27; 11:5). The girdle of the women
was generally looser than that of the
men, and was worn about the hips, ex-
cept when they were actively engaged
(Prov. 31 : 17). The military girdle was
worn about the waist ; the sword or dag-
ger was suspended from it (Judg. 3 : 16;
2 Sam. 20 : 8; Ps. 45 : 3). Hence gird-
ing up the loins denotes preparation for
battle or for active exertion. In times of
mourning girdles of sackcloth were worn
as marks of humiliation and sorrow (Isa.
3 : 24; 22 : 12). Girdles being made of
costly materials, they were frequently
given as presents (1 Sam. 18 : 4; 2 Sam.
18 : 11). They were used as pockets (the
Arabs still use them thus) and as purses,
one end of the girdle being folded back
for the purpose (Matt. 10 : 9; Mark 6 :
8). See Clothes.
Gir'gash-ites, The [dwelling in a
dayey or marshy soiC], one of the nations
whicli were in possession of Canaan before
the entrance thither of the children of Is-
rael (Gen. 10 : 16; 15 : 21 ; Deut. 7:1;
Josh. 3 : 10 ; 24 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 1:14; Neh.
9 : 8). They are supposed to have been
a part of the large family of Hivites, as
they are omitted in nine out of ten places
in which the nations or families of Canaan
are mentioned, while in the tenth they are
mentioned and the Hivites omitted.
15
Git'tites, the inhabitants or natives
of the PJiilistine city of Gath (Josh. 13 :
3). Obed-edom, in whose house the ark
was for a time placed (2 Sam. 6 : 10), is
called a Gittite, possibly because he had
been with David when at Gath, but much
more probably from his being a native of
Gath-Rimmon, which was a city of that
family of the Levites to which he be-
longed (Josh. 21 : 24). The six hundred
men who followed David from Gath, and
who, under the leadership of Ittai (2 Sam.
15 : 18, 19), were called Gittites, formed,
most probably, a foreign troop of expe-
rienced warriors, chiefly, if not wholly,
from Gath, in the pay and service of
David.
Git'tith, a musical instrument referred
to in the inscriptions to Ps. 8, 81, 84, of
which we know nothing.
Glass. The Hebrew word which des-
ignates glass occurs only in Job 28 : 17,
where, in our Authorized Version, it is
rendered "crystal." In spite of the ab-
sence of specific allusion to glass in the
Old Testament, the Hebrews must have
been aware of the invention. Paintings
representing the processes of glass-blow-
ing, and found in tombs as old as the
times of Joseph, prove the antiquity of
the invention. Fragments too, of wine-
vases as old as the Exodus have been
discovered in Egypt. Glass therefore,
could not have been unknown to the
Hebrews. It was not used, however, for
lighting dwellings, a semi-transparent sub-
stance, such as talc, being employed for
this purpose. Through this semi-trans-
parent substance a degree of light would
be admitted, but external objects would
be very indistinctly seen ; hence the
beauty and the force of the apostle's
illustration of the present and the future
of God's people (1 Cor. 13 : 12). Look-
ing-glasses among the ancients were made
of polished metal (Ex. 38; Job 37 : 18 ;
James 1 : 23). In the Revelation (4:6;
226
GLEANING— GOAT.
15 : 2; 21 : 18) glass is alluded to as the
emblem of clearness.
Glean'ing', gathering the grain or tlie
fruit left in the fields and orchards. The
Law of Moses directed a liberal treatment
of the poor at the seasons of harvest and
ingathering. The corners of tlie field
were not to be reaped ; the owner was
not to glean his own fields, and a sheaf
accidentally left behind was not to be
fetched away. Equally liberal regula-
tions were made in respect to vineyards
and olive-yards (Lev. 19 : 9, 10 ; Deut.
24 : 19, 20). These regulations have a
fine illustration in the book of Kuth.
Glede, the old English name for the
common kite. It occurs only in Deut.
14 : 13 among the unclean birds of
prey.
Glo 'ry. Tins Latin word is closely
related to the word clear, and its primary
sense is that of brightness or splendor.
Its Hebrew equivalent, which etymolo-
gically means ivdght, is always figura-
tively used in the Old Testament, and
is employed to denote wealth, honor,
splendor, majesty (Ps. 49 : 17 ; Job 19 :
9 ; Ex. 24 : 1(5, 17 ; Ezek. 1 : 26-28) ; its
Greek equivalent involves the notion
of some appearance which by its lustre,
brightness, dazzling light,extraordinary
excellence and the like, attracts and en-
gages the thought of the intelligent ob- 4-
server (1 Pet. o : 4 ; 2 Cor. 3:7; Acts
22 : 11 ; John 1 : 14). The common
expression for the dignity and splen-
dor of external condition and for the holi-
ness and happiness of internal character,
the word "glory" appropriately desig-
nates that exalted state of blissful per-
fection which is the portion of those wlio
dwell with God in heaven (2 Tim. 2 : 10;
Heb. 2:10). It also designates with great
propriety the Author or Procurer of eter-
nal salvation (Luke 2 : 32).
Gnat, a very small but troublesome in-
sect common in hot countries. It is men-
tioned only by our Lord in the proverbial
expression in Matt. 23 : 24. In this pro-
verbial expression strain at is a typogra]jh-
ical error for strain out, which better ex-
presses the gross inconsistency which oui'
Lord reproves.
Goad, a rod or pole about eight feet
long, armed at the larger end with a piece
of iron like a spade to free the ploughshare
from clods, and at the smaller end with a
small spike to urge on the oxen ( Judg. 3 :
31 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 21). The expression to
"kick against the goads" (Acts 26 : 14)
was proverbially used by the Greeks for
unavailing resistance to superior power.
Goat, an animal found in every part
of the world, and in the early ages a prin-
The Wild Goat.
cipal source of wealth (Gen. 27 : 9; 1 Sara.
25 : 2 ; 2 Chron. 17 : 11). It was a clean
animal by the Jewish law (Deut. 14 : 4),
and was much used in sacrifices (Lev. 3 :
12; Num. 15:27; Ezra 6:17). There
were in Syria s?veral varieties, of which,
at the present time, the most marked are
the Syrian goat, and the Angora goat with
fine long hair. The " wild goats " men-
tioned in 1 Sam. 24 : 2 ; Job 39 : 1 ; Ps.
104 : 18 are a species of ibex.
GOAT, SCAPE— GOLD.
227
Goat, Scape. See Atonement, Day
OF.
Gob, a place mentioned only in 2 Sam.
21 : 18, 19 as the scene of two encountei's
between David's warriors and the Philis-
tines. In the parallel account in 1 Chron.
20 : 4 the name is given as Gezer.
God. The Hebrew Scriptures employ
two chief names to designate the divine
Being — namely, Elohim, commonly trans-
lated God in our Authorized Version, and
Jehovah, translated Lord. The primary
idea of Elohim is that of slrenyth, power,
and the name properly describes God in
that character in which he is exhibited to
all men in his works as the Creator, Sus-
tainer and Supreme Governor of the world
(Gen. 1:1). Jehovah denotes specif-
ically the one true God, who called Abra-
ham and his seed to be a peculiar people,
and who made the Jews the guardians of
revealed truth (Gen. 12 : 1-4; Eom. 3:2).
The primary idea of Jehovah is that of self-
existence, and the name forcibly expresses
God's essential, eternal and unchange-
able bein(/. But the name Jehovah is
not so much the simple expression of an
absolute truth as the practical revelation by
name of God in his covenant-relation to
his chosen people. Jehovah is the God
of the covenant (Ex. 6 : 4-8), " the Lord, the
Lord God, merciful and gracious, long-suf-
fering, and abundant in goodness and truth,
keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving in-
iquity and transgression and sin" (Ex.34:
6, 7). Jehovah, therefore, is the revealed
Elohim, the Manifest, Only, Personal,
Holy Lord God. "Whilst Elohim is the
Creator and Sustainer, Jehovah is the
Redeemer.
Gods. This \jH)rd in our Authorized
Version has usually the sense of deities in
general, whether true or false (Gen. 35 :
2, 4 ; Ex. 12:12; Deut. 29 : 18 ; 32 : 17 ;
Ps. 86 : 8). The attribute of deity is else-
where, however, expressly denied to idols,
and ascribed to Jehovah alone (Isa. 44 : 6 ;
45 : 5, 14, 21 ; 46 : 9). Idols are even
called "no gods" (2 Chron. 13 : 9). Oc-
casionally, the word "gods" in our Au-
thorized Version is used to designate mag-
istrates, since they are the representatives
of God's judicial sovereignty (Ex. 22 :
28 ; Ps. 82 : 1, 6 ; 138 : 1 ; John 10 : 34,
35). The principal idol-divinities men-
tioned in Scripture are these : Adramme-
lech and Anammelech, of Sepharvaim (2
; Kings 17 : 31 ) ; Ashima, of Hamath (2
Kings 17 : 30) ; Ashtoreth, of the Sido-
nians (1 Kings 11 : 33) ; Baal, of Tyre
(Judg. 2 : 13) ; Baal-berith, of the She-
chemites (Judg. 8 : 33) ; Baal-Peor, of
' Moab (Num. 25 : 3) ; Baal-zebub, of Ek-
ron (2 Kings 1:2); Bel and Nebo, of the
Babylonians (Isa. 46 : 1) ; Chemosh, of the
Moabites (1 Kings 11 : 7) ; Dagon, of the
Philistines (Judg. 16 : 23) ; Diana, of Eph-
esus (Acts 19 : 24) ; Jupiter and Mercury,
of the Greeks and Romans (Acts 14 : 12) ;
Milcom and Moloch, of the Ammonites
(1 Kings 11 : 5, 7); Nergal, of Cuth (2
j Kings 17 : 30) ; Nibhaz and Tartak, of
I the Avites (2 Kings 17 : 31) ; Nisroch, of
the Assyrians (2 Kings 19 : 37) ; Chiun
or Reraphan (Amos 5 : 26 ; Acts 7 : 43) ;
', Rimmon, of the Syrians of Damascus (2
Kings 5:18); Succoth-benoth, of the Bab-
ylonians (2 Kings 17 : 30); Tammuz, of
i the Syrians (Ezek. 8 : 14). See Idolatry.
Gog. See Magog.
Go'lan, a city of Bashan, in the half-
tribe of Manasseh, assigned to the Levites,
and appointed one of the cities of refuge
(Deut. 4 : 43 ; Josh. 20 : 8 ; 21 : 27 ; 1
Chron. 6 : 71). It gave its name to the
district east of the Jordan called Gau-
lonitis.
Gold, one of the precious metals, and
from its color, lustre, weight, ductility and
other useful properties exceedingly valu-
able. Hence it is used as an emblem of
purity (Job 23 : 10) and of nobility (Lam.
'4:1). In our Authorized Version "gold "
is the rendering of six different Hebrew
228
GOLGOTHA— GOSHEN.
words: one indicating its color; another,
its fineness; another, descriptive of the
small particles or gold-dust in which it is
found ; another, descriptive of it as what
is cut or dug out of mines, ore; another,
descriptive of it as what is hoarded; and
another, descriptive of it as what is cov-
eted. These several terms well express the
high estimation in which gold was held.
It was known from the very earliest times
(Gen. 2:11). At first it was chiefly used
for ornaments (Gen. 24 : 22). Coined
money was not known till a comparative-
ly late period ; on the Egyptian tombs gold
is represented as being weighed in rings for
commercial purposes. Gold was extremely
abundant in ancient times (1 Chron. 22 : 14 ;
2 Chron. 1 : 15 ; 9:9; Nah. 2:9; Dan. : 3
1 ), but tliis did not depreciate its value,
because of the enormous quantities con-
sumed by the wealthy in furniture and
jewelry (1 Kings 6 : 22; Song 3 : 9, 10;
Esth. 1:6; Jer. 10 : 9). The chief coun-
tries mentioned as producing gold are
Arabia, Sheba and Ophir ( 1 Kings 9 : 28 ;
10: 2; Job 28: 16).
GrOl'g'O-tha [a shuW], tlie Hebrew
name of the spot where our Lord was
crucified (Matt. 27:33; Mark 15: 22;
John 19 : 17). See Calvary.
Go-li'ath, a famous giant of Gath, who
"morning and evening for forty days" de-
fied the armies of Israel (1 Sam. 17).
He was descended from the old Rephaim
(giants), of whom a scattered remnant took
refuge with the Philistines after their dis-
persion by the Ammonites (Deut. 2 : 20,
21 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 22). His height was
"six cubits and a span," which, taking
the cubit at twenty-one inches, would
make him ten and a half feet high. The
scene of his combat with David was the
valley of Elah or of the terebinth, be-
tween Shochoh and Azekah, which has
been identified as the Wady es-Sumt,
about fourteen miles south-west of Jeru-
salem.
GrC'iner [vanishing, or finishing^, the
eldest son of Japheth and the father of
Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah (Gen.
10 : 2, 3). His name is subsequently noticed
but once (Ezek. 38 : 6), as an ally or sub-
ject of the Scythian king Gog. He is gen-
erally recognized as the progenitor of the
early Cinmierians, of the latter Cimbri
and the other branches of the Celtic
family, and of the modern Gael and
Cymry, the latter preserving, with very
slight deviation, the original name.
Go-mor'rah [cultivation, dwelling'], one
of the cities of the plain, near the head of
the Dead Sea, destroyed for their wicked-
ness (Gen. 19 : 24). See Sodom.
Go'pher [^pitch'], a kind of tree, the
wood of which is mentioned only once
in Scripture, as tlie material of which
Noah was directed to build the ark (Gen.
6 : 14). What the tree was has been
much disputed, but the weight of opin-
ion inclines to the cypress.
Go^shen, the name of three localities
mentioned in Scripture.
1. A part of Egypt assigned to Jacob
and his family on the recommendation of
Joseph (Gen. 45 : 10 ; 46 : 28, 29). For
pasturage it was the choice part of Egypt
(;Gen. 47 : 11). There the family of Ja-
cob remained and greatly increased until
their exodus under the leadership of
Moses. The Scriptures do not speak pre-
cisely of the location of Goslien, but from
various intimations given and compari-
sons made it is generally supposed to
have been an eastern frontier province
of Lower Egypt, on the eastern extreme
of the Nile Delta. Its boundary on the
west and north-west was probably the
Pelusiac branch of the Nile. Its area in-
cluded the modern province of es-Shurki-
zeh, still " the best of the land " of Egypt.
2. A district of Palestine, apparently
lying between Gaza and Gibeon (Josh.
10 : 41; 11 : 16). It probably included
some of the rich low country of Judah,
GOSPEL— GRAFF.
229
and the Israelites may have named it
thus from its supposed resemblance to
Goshen in Egypt.
3. A city in the mountains of Judah
(Josh. 15 : 51).
Gos'pel [good tidings^. This word is
used to signify — 1 . The message or neivs of
salvation as brought to the world by our
Lord and his apostles ; 2. Each of the
four histories of our Lord's life, published
by those who are therefore called " evan-
gelists," or writers of the Gospels; 3. A
collective expression for the gospel doc-
trines; the teaching men how to avail
themselves of the offer of salvation ; the
declaring of all the truths, precepts,
promises and threatenings of Christian-
ity. As thus used, the gospel is describ-
ed as "the gospel of the grace of God"
(Acts 20 : 24), because it flows from God's
free love and goodness ; as " the gospel
of the kingdom" (Matt. 4: 23), because
it treats of the kingdom of grace, and
shows the way to the kingdom of glory ;
as "the gospel of Christ" (Rom. 1 : 16),
because he is the Author and great Sub-
ject of it; as "the gospel of peace and
salvation" (Rom. 10 : 15; Eph. 1 : 13),
because it publishes peace with God to
the penitent and believing, gives to such
peace of conscience and peaceable dispo-
sitions, and is the means of their salva-
tion, present and eternal. As it displays
the glory of God and of Christ, and en-
sures to our Lord's followers eternal glory,
it is entitled "the glorious gospel " (2 Cor.
4:4) and "the everlasting gospel" (Rev.
14:6).
Gourd, a climbing vine of quick
growth, allied to tlie family of tlie cu-
cumber, melon, squash. The pulp is
eatable, and the lower classes in Egypt
and Arabia boil it in vinegar or make it
into a sort of pudding. In a wild state
some species were poisonous (2 Kings 4 :
38-41 ). Tlie gourd of Jonah (Jon. 4 : 6-
10) was the castor-oil plant, formerly a
native of Asia, but now naturalized in
America, Africa and the south of Eu-
rope. The leaves are large and palmate,
with serrated lobes, and must have form-
ed an excellent shelter for the sun-stricken
prophet.
Gov^ern-or. This word in our Au-
thorized Version of the New Testament is
applied to the oflicer who presided over the
imperial province of Judaea. It is used of
Pontius Pilate (Matt. 27), of Felix (Acts
23, 24) and of Festus (26 : 30). It cor-
responds to the Latin procurator, as " dep-
uty" corresponds to the Latin proconsul.
See Province.
Go'zan, a district of Mesopotamia,
through which the Habor (the modern
Khabour) flowed (2 Kings 17 : 6 : 18 : 11 ;
19 : 12; 1 Chron. 5 : 26; Isa. 37 : 12). To
this region the captive Israelites were car-
ried by the Assyrian monarchs Pul, Tig-
lath-pileser and Sargon.
Grace, a word of frequent occurrence
in the Scriptures, and of various import.
Its principal senses are these : 1 . Physical
beauty, grace of form and person (Pro v. 1 :
9; 3 : 22; 31 : 30; Ps. 45 : 2) ; 2. Favor,
kindness, goodness, benevolence, friendship
of God toward men or of men toward one
another (Gen. 6:8; 18:3; 19 : 19 ; 2
Sam. 10 : 2; 2 Tim. 1 : 9) ; 3. God's for-
giving mercy, as gratuitous and opposed
to merit (Rom. 11:6; Eph. 2:5; Col. 1 :
6) ; 4. The gospel generally, as contradis-
tinguished from the law (John 1:17;
Rom. 6 : 14; 1 Pet. 5 : 12); 5. Certain
gifts of God freely bestowed — miracles,
prophecy, tongues (Rom. 15: 15; 1 Cor.
15 : 10 ; Eph. 3:8); 6. Christian virtues,
charity, liberality, holiness (2 Cor. 8:7;
2 Pet. 3 : 18) ; 7. The glory to be reveal-
ed, or eternal life (1 Pet. 1 : 13)
Graff. To graff" or graft is to insert a
shoot or bud of a valuable tree into the
branch of an inferior tree, and so, through
the nourishment of the latter, to secure the
good fruit of the former. The apostle Paul
230
GRAIN— GUR-BAAL.
makes use of the process of grafting to il-
lustrate the union between Christ and the
Gentiles (Rom. 11 : 17-24).
Grain. See Corn.
Grape. See Vine.
Grass, a general expression for green
Iierbage (1 Kings 18 : 5; Job 40 : 15: Ps.
104:14; Isa. 15 : 6). As the herbage rap-
idly fades under the parching heat of the
sun of Palestine, it has aflbrded to tlie
sacred writers an image of the fleeting
nature of human fortunes (Job 8:12; Ps.
37 : 2), and also of the brevity of human
life (Ps. 90 : 5, 6; Isa. 40 : 6, 7).
Grasshopper. See Locust.
Grave. See Burial.
Great Sea (Num. 34 : 6; Josh. 15 ;
12 1, tlie Mediterranean. See Sea.
Greece (Zech. 9:13; Acts 20:2),
called also Grecia (Dan. 8 : 21), a country
in the south-east of Europe. In the Old
Testament it is sometimes called Javan
(Isa. 66 : 19), from Javan, that fourth son
of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2) whose name re-
appears in Ionia, the western region of
Asia Minor. It is a difficult matter to
settle the boundaries of the country as
referred to in the Old and New Testa-
ments. Between Greece and Palestine
there was little early communication or
intercourse. The Greeks and Hebrews
met for the first time in the slave-market.
The medium of communication seems to
have been the Tyrian slave-merchant.
About B. c. 800 Joel speaks of the Tyr-
ians as selling the children of Judah to
the Grecians (Joel 3:6); and in Ezek.
27 : 13 the Greeks are mentioned as bar-
tering their brazen vessels for slaves.
Prophetical notice of Greece occurs in
Dan. 8 : 5-25, where the history of Alex-
ander and his successors is rapidly sketched.
Zechariah (9 : 13) foretells how the Jews
shall triumph over the sons of Greece, a
prophecy fulfilled by the Maccabees in
their successful assertion of Jewish inde-
pendence against the Grseco-Syrian em-
pire, while Isaiah (66 : 19) looks forward
to the conversion of the Greeks, amongst
other Gentiles, through the instrumental-
ity of Jewish missionaries.
In the New Testament the w^ord "Greeks"
is often used in an indefinite sense to de-
note all who were not Jews (Acts 20 : 21).
In consequence of Alexander's conquests
in Asia, three centuries before our Lord's
birth, the Greek language, the most perfect
tongue, perhaps, that man has ever de-
veloped, was widely difi'used, and, becom-
ing the common language of almost the
whole of the East, was the admirable ve-
hicle of conveying to the world those
facts and doctrines of the gospel which
form the subject-matter of the New Tes-
tament.
Grey 'hound. The two words together
thus rendered in Pro v. 30 : 31 , the only pas-
sage where they occur, has the sense of "one
girt about the loins." Various are the opin-
ions as to the animal intended. Some think
a " leopard ;" others, " an eagle ;" others,
"a man girt with armor;" othei-s, "a
zebra;" othei-s, "a war-horse girt with
trappings," or " the beast whose loins are
girt about."
Grove. This word is impi'operly used
by the translators of our Authorized Version
as the representative of the Hebrew word
AsHERAH, which was the proper name
• of a Phoenician goddess and the desig-
nation of an idol or image of Ashtoreth
( Judg. 3:7; 6 : 25 ; 1 Kings 18 : 19).
But in the religions of the ancient hea-
then world groves played a prominent
part. From the earliest times groves are
mentioned in connection with religious
worship (Gen. 12: 6, 7; 13:18; Deut.
11 : 30). Their silence and solitude are
fitted to ins})ire the soul with awe.
Gur-Ba'al, a place inhabited by Ara-
bians, against whom God helped Uzziah
(2 Chron. 26 : 7). It was probably be-
tween Palestine and the Arabian penin-
sula, but its site is unknown.
HABAKKUK— HADADEZER.
231
H.
Hab'ak-kuk \_embraced'], the eighth in
order of the twelve minor prophets of the
Old Testament. Of the facts of his life we
liave no certain information. He lived,
probably, in the reign of Josiah. His
memorial is his prophecy, which, indeed,
is one of the noblest monuments of sanc-
tified genius. He begins his prophecy
by announcing his ofKce and important
mission (1:1). He bewails the corrup-
tion and social disorganization by which
he is surrounded, and cries to Jehovah
for help (1 : 2-4). Then follows the re-
ply of Jehovah, threatening swift ven-
geance (1 : 5-11). The prophet, trans-
ferring himself to the near future fore-
shadowed in the divine threatenings, sees
the rapacity and boastful impiety of the
Chaldsean hosts, but, confident that God
has only employed them as the instru-
ments of correction, assumes an attitude
of hopeful expectancy and waits to see the
issue (1 : 12-17; 2:1). He receives the
divine command to write in an enduring
form the vision of God's retributive justice
as revealed to his prophetic eye (2 : 2, 3).
The doom of the Chaldseans is first fore-
told in general terms, and the announce-
ment is followed by a series of denuncia-
tions pronounced upon them by the na-
tions which have suffered from their op-
pression (2 : 4-20). These denunciations
are arranged in strophes, and constitute
a very remarkable and very impressive
feature of the prophecy. The whole con-
cludes with the magnificent psalm in ch.
3, a composition unrivaled for boldness
of conception, sublimity of thought and
majesty of diction.
Ha-ber'ge-on, an old English word
for breastplate. In ancient armor it was a
coat-of-mail covering the neck and breast.
See Arms, Armor.
Ha'bor, a river of Mesopotamia, the
modern Khabour. See Ciiebar and Go-
ZAN. The district through which it flows
was one of the countries into which the ten
tribes were carried captive. It empties
into the Euphrates at Karkesia, the an-
cient Circesiuin.
Hach'i-lah [darksome'], a hill in the
wilderness of Ziph, south of Jeshimon,
which became a stronghold of David
when a fugitive from Saul (1 Sam. 23 :
19). It is supposed to be the long ridge
called el-Kolah, running out of the Ziph
plateau toward Jeshimon, the Dead Sea
desert.
Ha'dad [the sini], the common official
title of the royal house of Edom. It is
found occasionally in the altered form
Hadar (Gen. 25 : 15; 36 : 39). The only
one of the name having prominence in
Scripture is the prince who, when David
conquered Edom and slew all the males
of the country, was secreted by his fath-
er's servants, and at length was carried
by them into Egypt. He was received
wdth great favor by the king of Egypt,
who provided for him, and in process of
time gave him in marriage the sister of
the queen. When David died Hadad
returned to Edom and became "an ad-
versary unto Solomon" (1 Kings 11 :
14-22).
Ha^dad-e'zer [Hadad, the divinity,
is help], (2 Sam. 8 : 3), otherwise Hadar-
EZER (2 Sam. 10 : 16), the king of the
Aramite state Zobah and a powerl'ul op-
ponent of David. He was defeated by
David in several sanguinary battles, los-
ing in one twenty thousand footmen and
seven hundred horsemen, with very many
war-chariots ; in another, twenty-two thou-
sand men and a thousand " shields of gold "
(2 Sam. 8 : 3-5). The golden weapons cap-
232
HADAD-RIMMON— HAIL.
tured on this second occasion were taken
by David to Jerusalem and dedicated to
Jehovah (1 Chron. IS : 7). Some years
iifterward Hadadezer and three other Syr-
ian princes formed an alliance to assist the
Ammonites against David, but the whole
Syrian army was defeated on the east
bank of the Jordan by the Israelites,
under the command, first of Joab, and
then of David himself. Between forty
and fifty thousand of the allied forces
were slain, including their principal gen-
eral. Thenceforward, the servants of Ha-
dadezer became tributary to David (1
Chron. 19 : 8-19).
Ha'd.ad.-Rim.'mon, a place in the
valley of Megiddo, the scene of a disas-
trous battle between good King Josiah
and the king of Egypt, in which the for-
mer was slain. The event produced con-
sternation and loud lamentations among
the people of Judsea ( 2 Chron. 35 : 20-27 j.
This mourning is referred to by Zechariah
as an example of great distress and grief
(Zech. 12 : 11).
Ha-das'sah. [myrtle], the earlier Jew-
ish name of Esther (^Esth. 2:7).
Ha gar ^flight], an Egyptian woman
of Abraham's household whom the patri-
arch, at the suggestion of Sarah, took as ,
his secondary wife, and who became the
mother of Ishmael (^Gen. 16: 1-3, 11, 15). :
That she was a bondwoman is stated both
in the Old Testament and the New (Gen.
16:4-6; 21 : 13; Gal. 4 : 22-31), and in
the latter she is referred to as the type of
Judaism. She, with her son, was expel-
led from Abraham's household after the
birth of Isaac, and dwelt in the wilderness
(Gen. 21 : 9-21).
Ha'gar-enes, Ha'gar-ites, a peo-
ple dwelling to the east of Palestine, with
whom the tribe of Eeuben made war in the
time of Saul (1 Chron. 5 : 10, 18-20). The
same people, as confederate against Israel, ,
are mentioned in Ps. 83 : 6. It is gener-
ally believed that they were named after
Hagar, and that the important town and
district formerly called Hajer, now Bahrein,
on the borders of the Persian Gulf, repre-
sent them.
Hag'ga-i [festive'], the tenth in order
of the minor prophets, and first of those
who prophesied after the Captivity. With
regard to his tribe and parentage history
and tradition are alike silent ; it is more
than probable, however, that he was one
of the exiles who returned with Zerub-
babel and Jeshua. The rebuilding of the
temple, which was begun in the reign of
Cyrus (b. c. 535), was suspended during
the reigns of his successors, Cambyses
and Pseudo-Smerdis, in consequence of
the determined hostility of the Samari-
tans. On the accession of Darius Hystas-
pes ( B. c. 521 ) the prophets Haggai and
Zechariah urged the renewal of the un-
dertaking, and obtained the permission
and assistance of the king i Ezra 5:1:
6 : 14). According to tradition, Haggai
was born in Babylon, was a young man
wlien he came to Jerusalem, and was bur-
ied with honor near the sepulchres of the
priests. The style of his prophecies is
not remarkable for fervor, yet occasion-
ally rises to the dignity- of severe invec-
tive. But the brevity of the prophecies
and the prosaic character of their expres-
sion have given rise to a conjecture that
in their present form they are but the out-
line or summary of the original discourses.
They were delivered in the second year of
Darius Hystaspes (B. c. 520), at intervals
from the first day of the sixth month to
the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month
in the same year.
Hag'gith [/V.-i^He], one of David's
wives, the mother of Adonijah (2 Sam.
3 : 4 ; 1 Kings 1 : 5, 11 ; 2 : 13 ; 1 Chron
3 : 2).
Hail ! or All Hail ! a salutation, im-
porting a wish for the liealth and welfare
of the person addressed i Luke 1 : 28). It
was spoken in mockery by the Roman sol-
HAIL— HAM.
233
diers to our Lord (Matt. 27 : 29). Though
this English word is seldom used now, it
was customary among our ancestors.
Hail, congealed rain, and the symbol
in Scripture of the divine vengeance upon
kingdoms and nations, the enemies of God
and of his people. As a hail-storm is or-
dinarily accompanied by vivid lightning,
so hail and fire, intense cold and intense
heat, are generally mentioned together
(Ex. 9:23, 24; Ps. 105:32; 78:48;
148 : 8 ; 18 : 13). The terrific hail-storm
which was one of the plagues of Egypt is
occasionally repeated in the East. Such
a storm swept over Beth-horon in Central
Palestine during the wars of the Conquest,
and did more hurt to the armies of the five
Amoritish kings than the swords of the Is-
raelites under Joshua (Josh. 10 : 11). Such
a storm occurred on the Bosphorus on Oc-
tober 5, 1831. It is described by Com.
Porter {Letters from Constantinople and itn
Environs) as appallingly furious and fi-ight-
fiil. Hail falls frequently in Jerusalem
and on other exposed spots in Pales-
tine. The hail-storm, therefore, is an
appropriate symbol of God's judgments
upon the wicked (Isa. 28 : 2 ; 30 : 30 ;
Hag. 2:17; Eev. 8:7; 11:19; 16 : 21).
Hair. The Hebrews accounted the
hair an important element of personal
beauty, whether as seen in the "curled
locks, black as a raven," of youth (Song
5 : 11), or in the "crown of glory" that
encircled the head of old age (Prov. 16 :
31). Hence they encouraged the g^o^vth
of the hair, but observed the natural dis-
tinction between the sexes by frequent
clippings of it in the case of males, and
by the custom of wearing it long in the
case of females (1 Cor. 11 : 14, 15; Luke
7 : 38 ; John 11 : 2). In times of afflic-
tion the hair was altogether cut off (Isa.
3 : 17, 24; 15 : 2 ; Jer. 7 : 29). Tearing
the hair (Ezra 9 : 3) was a similar token
of grief. With regard to the mode of
dressing the hair we have no precise in-
formation. The terms used, both in the
Old Testament and the New, are of a
general character (2 Kings 9 : 30; 1 Tim.
2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3). The Hebrews, like
other nations of antiquity, anointed the
hair profusely with ointments, which were
generally compounded of various aromatic
ingredients (Ruth 3 : 3 ; 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Ps.
23 : 5 ; 45 : 7 ; 92 : 10 ; Eccles. 9:8; Isa.
3 : 24), more especially on occasions of fes-
tivity or hospitality (Matt. 6 : 17 ; 26 : 7 ;
Luke 7 : 46). In our Lord's time the Jews
swore by the hair (Matt. 5 : 36) ; Egyp-
tian women still swear by the side-lock,
and Syrian and Egyptian men by their
beards.
Ha'lah, a place in Assyria to which
the ten tribes were carried captive (2
Kings 17 : 6; 18 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 26).
It is associated with Habor and Gozan,
and is supposed to be identical with
Calah.
Hal-le-lu'jah [praise ye the Lord], in
its Greek form. Alleluia, the word with
which many of the Psalms begin. From
its frequent occurrence in this position it
grew into a formula of praise, and was
chanted as such on solemn days of re-
joicing. Its literal meaning indicates
that the Psalms in which it occurs are
psalms of praise and thanksgiving. These
psalms were intended for use in the temple-
service, the word " hallelujah " being taken
up by the full chorus of Levites. In the
great hymn of triumph in heaven over
all the forms of evil on earth the word
"hallelujah" is to be prominent (Eev.
19 : 1-6).
Ham [swarthiness'], the name of one of
the three sons of Noah (Gen. 10 : 1). It is
the equivalent to the Egyptian word Kem
(Egypt), which signifies "black," and im-
plies both warmth and blackness. Of the
history of Ham nothing is related except
his irreverence to his father and the con-
sequent curse wliich the patriarch pro-
nounced. Of Noah's three sons, his
234
HAMAN— HANANEEL.
name alone, so far as we know, was given
to a country. In the Scriptures, Egypt is
recognized as the "land of Ham" (Ps. 78 :
51; 1U5 : 23; 106 : 22). The nations de-
scending from Ham were numerous and
powerful, but an inquiry into their his-
tory is embarrassed by difficulties. They
were the founders of the first organized
governments and the pioneers of the
world's material civilization. Their ar-
chitecture, as we see it in Egypt, has a
solid grandeur unequaled by that of any
other race.
Ha'man [magnificent'], the chief min-
ister or vizier of King Ahasuerus (Estli.
3:1). Failing in his wicked scheme to
destroy the Jews in the Persian empire,
he was hanged on the gallows which he
had erected for the hanging of Mor-
decai.
Ha'math [fortress, citadell, one of the
most important cities of Syria from very
early times, and ranking among the old-
est in the world. It was situated on the
Orontes, at the foot of Anti-Libanus (Josh.
13 : 5; Judg. 3 : 3). It was the chief city
on the highway from Phoenicia to the Eu-
phrates. Originally, it was the seat of a
Canaanite colony (Gen. 10 : 18), but af-
terward it was taken by the Syrians and
became the metropolis of a kingdom (2
Kings 23 : 33). The kingdom of Hamath
was the northern boundary of the land of
Israel ( Num. 13 : 21 ; 34 : 8). When David
subdued Hadadezer, king of Zobah, Toi,
the king of Hamath, sent his son Joram
with rich presents to David, congratu-
lating liim on his victories, and particu-
larly because he was liimself thus re-
lieved of a very troublesome enemy (2
Sam. 8 : 3-11). Hamath was conquered
by Solomon (2 Chron. 8 : 3, 4), became
independent probably under Jeroboam
I., and was again reduced by Jeroboam
II. (2 Kings 14 : 28). In the time of
Hezekiah the Assyrians conquered Ham-
ath (2 Kings 17 : 24 ; 18 : 34). Afterward it
I was in the possession of the Chaldseans ( Jer.
39 : 5). In the time of Amos the city was
called "Hamath the great" (Amos G : 2).
Its present name is Hamah, and it is still
a place of considerable importance, with
a population of about thirty thousand.
Its principal trade is with the Araljs, who
buy here their tent-furniture and clothes.
It was called Epiphania by the Greeks,
but its ancient name was never lost.
Harn'math [hot baths], one of the
fortified cities in the territory allotted to
Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 35). It was one mile
distant from Tiberias.
Ham'raer, a tool for striking blows.
The word is found in the Old Testament
only, and is the representative in our Au-
thorized Version of several Hebrew terms.
1. A term derived from a verb meaning to
strike, and indicating the heaviest instru-
ment of the kind for hard blows (Isa. 41 :
7 ; Jer. 23 : 29) ; 2. A term properly desig-
nating a tool for hollowing, and so ajjplied
to a stone-cutter's mallet (1 Kings 6:7)
and to any workman's hammer (Judg. 4 :
21 ; Isa. 44 : 12; Jer. 10 : 4) ; 3. A term
employed to indicate a kind of hammer
used as a weapon of war (Jer. 51 : 20),
where our Authorized Version has " bat-
tle-axe;" (Prov. 25 : 18), where our Au-
thorized Version has "maul." Figura-
tively, the word " hammer" is used for
any overwhelming power, whether secu-
lar (Jer. 50 : 23) or spiritual (Jer. 23 :
29).
Ha'nior, a Hivite, who at the return
of Jacob to Palestine was prince of the
land and city of Shechem (Gen. 33 : 19;
34 : 2, 4, 6, 8, 13, 18, 20, 24, 26).
Han-am'e-el, son of Shallum and
cousin of Joreniiah (Jer. 32 : 7-9, 12).
Han-an'eel [Ood has been propitious],
a tower of Jerusalem, situated on the ex-
terior wall beyond the tower of Meah In
going from the sheep-gate toward the fish-
gate (Neh. 3:1; 12:39; Jer. 31:38;
Zech. 14 : 10). Its position appears to
HANANI— HANES.
235
have been at the north-eastern corner of
the present mosque enclosure.
Han^a-ni \_God has been favorable to
»we], the name of two persons.
1. A prophet who was sent to rebuke
King Asa for his want of faith in subsi-
dizing the king of Syria against his rival,
King Baasha, when he should have seized
the occasion to triumph over both (2 Chron.
16 : 1-10). His fidelity and boldness en-
raged the king, who arrested and impris-
oned him.
2. A brother of Nehemiah, who, going
from Jerusalem to Shushan, sent probably
by Ezra, brought that information respect-
ing the miserable condition of the returned
Jews which led to Nehemiah's mission
(Neh. 1:2). He returned to Jerusalem,
and with Hananiah was appointed to take
charge of the city-gates, to open and close
them morning and evening at the appointed
time (Neh. 7 : 2, 3). The circumstances of
the city rendered this an important and
responsible duty, not unattended with
danger.
Han-a-ni'ah \_Jehovah has been yra-
c.iouif\, the name of a number of men,
of whom three only need be mentioned.
1. Son of Azur, a Benjamite of Gibeon
and a false prophet in the reign of Zede-
kiah, king of Judah. In the fourth year
of his reign (b. c. 595) Hananiah with-
stood Jeremiah the prophet, and publicly
prophesied in the temple that within two
years Jeconiah and all his fellow-captives,
with the vessels of the Lord's house which
Nebuchadnezzar had taken away to Bab-
ylon, should be brought back to Jerusa-
lem (Jer. 28) — a prophecy based on the
recent accession to the throne of Egypt
of Pharaoh-Hophra, who was relied on
to resist the Babylonian power, and on a
league then forming to assist Pharaoh be-
tween Judah and the neighboring nations
of YAom, Amnion, Moab, Tyre and Zidon.
He was rebuked by Jeremiah, who closed
with this terrible sentence : " This year
thou shalt die, because thou hast taught
rebellion against the Lord" (Jer. 28 : 16).
Jeremiah's prediction was fulfilled : " Han-
aniah the prophet died the same year in
the seventh month" (Jer. 28 : 17). The
interesting and very suggestive facts thus
briefly recited give us a glimpse of the
adroitness with which certain politicians
of the times employed the machinery of
false prophecies to create and sustain a
public sentiment favorable to their proj-
ects.
2. The original name of one of Daniel's
youthful companions, and one of the " three
Hebrew children," better known by his Bab-
ylonian name, Shadrach (Dan. 1 : 6, 7).
3. The " ruler of the palace " who was
associated with Nehemiah's brother Han-
ani in the charge of the gates of Jerusa-
lem. Upon him is bestowed the high
eulogy that " he was a faithful man and
feared God above many" (Neh. 7 : 2).
Hand, the principal organ of feeling
and the instrument of instruments. It
distinguishes man from other terrestrial
beings ; it enables man to conquer the ex-
ternal world. In Scripture the right hand
is the symbol of power and strength (Ps.
44 : 3 ; 137 : 5; Matt. 5 : 30; CoL 3 : 1).
From this general symbol come many fig-
urative expressions. To lift the hand is to
swear (Eev. 10 : 5, 6) ; to give the hand
is to pledge friendship (2 Kings 10 : 15) ;
to join hand with hand is to become con-
federate with another (Pro v. 11 : 21) ; to
lay on the hand is to confer authority
(Num. 27 : 18, 19; Acts 6 : 6; 13 : 3). The
right hand of God is — 1. The place of
honor (Ps. 110 : 1 ) ; 2. The place of power
(Matt. 26 : 64) ; 3. The place of happiness
(Ps. 16: 11).
Hand-breadth, the 'palm, used as a
measure of four fingers (Ex. 25 : 25; 37 :
12 ; 1 Kings 7 : 26 ; 2 Chron. 4:5; Jer.
52 : 21). In Ps. 39 : 5 it is an image of
the exceeding shortness of life.
Ha'nes, a city in Egypt, mentioned in
236
HANGING— HAKE.
Isa. 30 : 4, and to be identified, probably,
with Tahpanhes (wliich see).
Hang^ing'. This is named as one of
the modes of punishment (see Punish-
ment), but it is probable that death was
actually inflicted before the hanging took
place. In Dent. 21 : 22, 23 a limit is set
to the term of suspension, and this for the
special reason " that the land might not be
defiled." The restriction has respect to the
treatment of the dead rather than the pun-
ishment of the living. The toucli of the
dead defiled, and a special defilement
could not but be regarded as attaching to
the dead body of a criminal hung up be-
fore heaven and earth as an accursed thing.
The Law required that if a body were ex-
posed thus at all, it should be but for a
brief space ; the polluting spectacle was to
be removed and buried out of sight before
the close of day. As a commentary on the
terms of the Law, which seem to intimate
that the putting to death is to precede the
hanging on a tree, the case of the five
kings who were vanquished by Joshua
may be cited. These kings Joshua first
smote and slew, and then hanged them on
five trees until the evening (Josh. 10 : 26).
Such seems to have been always the pro-
cedure when hanging was resorted to ;
death by the sword or by stoning was
first inflicted, and as a mark of public
reprobation the corpse, in certain cases,
was exposed to open shame and igno-
miny.
Hangings. This word is used in our
Authorized Version to designate the cur-
tains or coverings of the tabernacle (Ex.
27 : 9, 11, 12, 14, 15). Two words in He-
brew, however, are rendered " hangings " —
the one denoting the curtains for the tab-
ernacle door and for the door of the outer
court, and meaning what hides fiom pub-
lic view ; the other, used only in the plu-
ral, denoting the curtains which surround-
ed and enclosed the court of the taber-
nacle.
Han'nah. [^graciotisnessl, one of the
wives of Elkanah and mother of Samuel
(1 Sam. 1, 2). Her hymn of thanks-
giving (1 Sam. 2 : 1-lOj is in the highest
style of Hebrew poetry.
Ha'nun [Javorinc/'], son and successor
of Nahash (2 Sam. 10 : 1, 2; 1 Chron. 19:
1, 2), king of Ammon, who dishonored the
ambassadors of David (2 Sam. 10 : 4) and
involved the Ammonites in a most disas-
trous war (2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 19 :
6).
Har'a \^mountamoiis], a place in As-
syria associated with Ha'lah, Ha'bok
and Go^ZAN (which see), whither the Is-
raelites were carried captive (1 Chron. 5 :
26).
Ha'ran [parched, dry'\, (Gen. 11 : 31),
Greek form Charran (Acts 7 : 2, 4), the
name of the place to which Abraham and
his family migrated from Ur of the Chal-
dees, and where the descendants of his
brother Nahor established themselves. It
is said to be in Mesopotamia (Gen. 24: 10>,
and more definitely in Padan-Aram (Gen.
25 : 20). Here Abraham sojourned (Gen.
11 : 31), here his father Terah died (Gen.
11 : 32), and here his grandson Jacob re-
sided with Laban (Gen. 29 : 18 et seq.).
It is identified with the modern Arabic
village of Harrdn, which stands on the
banks of a small river called Belik, a trilj-
utary to the Euphrates.
Ha'ran [mountaineer'], eldest son, prob-
ably, of Terah, brother of Abraham and
Nahor, and father of Lot, Milcah and Is-
cah (Gen. 11 : 26, 27, 29, 31). He was
born in XJt of the Chaldees, and died
there while his father was still living
(Gen. 11 : 28).
Hare. The Hebrew word designating
this animal occurs only in Lev. 11 : 6
and Deut. 14 : 7, where the animals for-
bidden by the Mosaic Law to be eaten are
named. The animal itself is widely ex-
tended over the earth, and is known to us
as the rabbit.
HARETH— HARROW.
237
Ha'reth Irough] . According to 1 Sam.
22 : 5, David, fleeing from Saul, con-
cealed himself in the forest of Hareth.
The word rendered " forest " means not a
woodland of timber trees, but a rank
growth of bushes, shrubs, briers and the
like. The locality is in the rough, un-
tilled country of Southern Judah, and is
supposed to be the edge of the mountain-
chain where Kharas now stands, and where
the thickets are still to be seen.
Harriot. This term, though generally
applied to an abandoned woman (Prov.
29 : 3), is used figuratively by the sacred
Avriters to denote the wicked and unfaith-
ful conduct of the Israelites in forsaking
their covenant with God and giving them-
selves up to idolatry and impurity (Isa. 1 :
21).
Har''ness. This word in our Author-
ized Version represents several distinct He-
brew words and has several distinct senses :
1. It designates the act of fastening horses
to a chariot (Jer. 46 : 4) ; 2. It is taken in
the old English sense for armor (2 Chron.
9 : 24 ; 18 : 33) ; 3. It describes the equip-
ped or full-armed condition of the Israel-
ites when they went forth from Egypt (Ex.
13: 18).
Ha 'rod, a fountain or well near Mount
Gilboa, where Gideon encamped in liis ex-
pedition against the Midianites, and where
the men who were appointed to go with
him to the war were ascertained by their
mode of drinking (Judg. 7 : 1, 5-7). It
is probably the fountain and pool now
known as 'Ain Jalud, at the foot of Jebel
Duhy.
Ha-ro''sheth of the Gen'tiles
[^workshop of the nations, i. e. city of hand-
icrafts'], a city thus called from the mixed
races that inhabited it. It was the resi-
dence of Sisera, captain of the host of
Jabin, king of Hazor (Judg. 4 : 2), and
the scene of Deborah's and Barak's vic-
tory (Judg. 4 : 14-16). It is now a mis-
erable village {el-Harishiyeh), named from
the beautiful woods above the Kishon at
the point where, through a narrow gorge,
the stream, hidden among oleander-bushes,
enters the plain of Acre.
Harp, the national musical instrument
of the Hebrews. Its invention is ascribed
Harp.
by Moses to the antediluvian period (Gen.
4 : 21). It had, according to Josephus, ten
strings, which were struck either by a key
or by the hand. Its most skillful player
was David, whose performances upon it
are represented as marvelous (1 Sam. 16 :
23). A triangular harp was also used by
the Assyrians and Egyptians, and forms
of the lute or guitar appear upon the
monuments of the latter nation.
Har'row. The word thus rendered
2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 20 : 3 is prob-
ably a threshing-machine. The word
rendered "to harrow" (Job 39 : 10; Isa.
28 : 24; Hos. 10: 11) expresses, apparent-
ly, the breaking of the clods, and so far is
analogous to our harrowing, but whether
done by any such machine as we call " a
harrow" is very doubtful. Probably it
was, as still in Egypt, merely a board
which was dragged over the fields to
level the lumps. In modern Palestine
oxen are sometimes turned in to trample
the clods, and in some parts of Asia a
bush of thorns is dragged over the sur-
face.
238
HAET— HAURAN.
Hart, properly a stacj or male deer, but
sometimes used by the Hebrews to denote
all the various species of deer and ante-
lopes which resemble large rams. The
hart is reckoned among the clean animals
The Hart.
(Deut. 12:15; 14 : 5 ; 15 : 22), and seems
♦roni tlie passages quoted, as well as from
1 Kings 4 : 23, to have been commonly
killed for food. Its activity furnishes an
apt comparison in Isa. 35 : 6, though in
this respect the hind was more commonly
selected by the sacred writers.
Har'vest, the season of gathering
grain or fruits. It began, as now, in
Palestine, about the first of April and
terminated in June. Beginning with the
barley and with the festival of the passover
(Lev. 23 : 9-14; 2 Sam. 21 : 9, 10; Ruth
2 : 23), the harvest ended with the wheat
(Gen. 30 : 14; Ex. 34 : 22), and with the
festival of pentecost (Ex. 23 : 16). The
grain was cut by the sickle, and threshed
and winnowed in the open air. Gleanings
and corners were left for the poor (Lev. 19 :
9; 23 : 22). The season was one of hard
work, but of prevailing mirthfulness ; the
"joy of harvest" was proverbial (Isa. 9 :
3; 16 : 10). The wheat was collected into
granaries, but the chaff was burned ( Matt.
3 : 12 ; Luke 3:17; Isa. 5 : 24). The har-
vest is the Scripture symbol of the time of
judgment (-Joel 3:13; Rev. 14 : 15). The
time when the gospel triumphs over human
hearts is also represented as a harvest (Matt.
9 : 37 ; John 4 : 35).
Interior of Stone House in the Hauran.
Hau'ran, a region of country in Syria,
south of Damascus, a portion of the ancient
kingdom of Bashan, referred to in Ezek.
47 : 16, 18. The name is probably de-
rived from the word Hur, "a hole or
cave ;" the whole district still abounds in
HAVEN— HAY.
239
caves, which the old inhabitants excavated
partly to serve as cisterns for tlie collec-
tion of water, and partly for granaries in
which to secure their grain from plun-
derers. Under the Romans it was called
Auranitis, and its limits were consider-
ably enlarged. At present it reaches from
twenty miles south of Damascus to a
little below Bozra, including Trachonitis
and Ituraia. It is represented by Burck-
hardt as a volcanic region, composed of
porous tufa, pumice and basalt, with the
remains of a crater on the lell Shoba,
which is on its eastern border. It pro-
duces, however, abundant crops of corn,
and has many patches of luxuriant herb-
age, for its soil is among the richest in
Syria. The surface is perfectly flat, and
not a stone is to be seen save on the few
low, volcanic tells that rise up here and
there like islands in a sea. It contains
upward of a hundred towns and villages,
most of them now deserted, but not
ruined. The buildings in many of these
are remarkable, the walls are of great
thickness, the roofs, doors, and even the
window-shutters, are of stone, and evi-
dently are of very remote antiquity.
Ha^ven, a seaport in which ships lie.
Zebulun, from its situation on the sea-coast,
was represented as a haven for ships (Gen.
49 : 13). Fair Havens, mentioned in Acts
27 : 8, was a harbor of Crete, identified
with a small bay a short distance north-
east of Cape Matala.
Hav^i-lah, the name of a land and of
a people.
1 . The land is associated witli Eden, and
cannot be definitely located. It abounded
in gold (Gen. 2: 11).
2. The people, descending from Havi-
lah, a son of Cush, are supposed to be
the inhabitants of the Arabian tract
known as Khawldn, in the north-western
portion of the Yemen. The district of
Khaxddn is a fertile territory, embracing
a large part of myrrhiferous Arabia, !
mountainous, well-watered and support-
ing a large population. It is a tract of
Arabia better known to the ancients and
moderns than the eastern and central
provinces, or than the rest of the Yemen.
Apparently against this identification of
Havilah and Khaiddn, a Havilah is men-
tioned on the border of the Ishmaelites
(Gen. 25 : 18), and also on that of the
Amalekites (1 Sam. 15:7); but this lat-
ter Havilah, from the rendering of its
name in the Septuagint, is connected with
the Havilah named in the description of
the rivers of the garden of Eden.
Ha'voth-Ja'ir, the name given to
certain villages on the east of Jordan, in
Gilead or Bashan, taken by Jair, a de-
scendant of Manasseli, and held in pos-
session by his thirty sons (Num. 32 : 41 ;
Judg. 10 : 4).
Ha'wk, a fierce and rapacious bird of
the falcon tribe, unclean by the Levitical
Law (Lev. 11 : 16; Deut. 14 : 15). Its
migratory habits are alluded to in Job
The Hawk.
39 : 26, and it is curious to note that of
the ten or twelve species found in Pales-
tine, all but one are migrants from the
south.
Hay. This word occurs twice in the
Old Testament (Prov. 27 : 25; Isa. 15 : 6)
and once in the New (1 Cor, 3 : 12). In
the Old Testament the Hebrew word thus
240
HAZAEL— HEAD.
rendered means "tall stems of grass," hay
being almost unknown in Palestine. In
the New Testament the Greek word thus
rendered means "grass."
Haz'a-el [whom God beholds, that is,
cares for], an officer of Benhadad, king
of Syria, whose eventual accession to the
throne of that kingdom was revealed to
Elijah (1 Kings 19 : 15), and who, when
Elisha was at Damascus, was sent by his
master, then ill, to consult the prophet
respecting his recovery (2 Kings 8:8).
Elisha's answer, like warm rain on spring-
ing grass, stimulated into rapid growth the
germs of ambition long hidden in his heart,
and the next day after the interview he
murdered the king and usurped the
throne. He soon engaged in hostilities
with Ahaziah, king of Judah, and Jeho-
ram, king of Israel. Toward the close
of the reign of Jehu, king of Israel, I
Hazael led the Syrians against the Israel-
ites, whom he "smote in all their coasts" (2
Kings 10 : 32), thus accomplishing Elisha's
prophecy of enormous and wanton cruelties
(2 Kings 8 : 12). His main attack fell
upon the eastern provinces, where he ,
ravaged " all the land of Gilead, the Gad
ites, and the Keubenites, and the Manas
sites, from Aroer, which is by the river
Arnon, even Gilead and Bashan " (2 Kings
10 : 33). After this he seems to have held
the kingdom of Israel in a species of sub-
jection (2 Kings 13 : 3-7, 22) ; and toward
the close of his life he even threatened the
kingdom of Judah. Having taken Gath j
(2 Kings 12 : 17), he proceeded to attack
Jerusalem, defeated the Jews in an en-
gagement (2 Chron. 21 : 241, and was about
to assault the city, when .Joash the king
induced him to retire by presenting him
with " all the gold that was found in the
treasures of the house of the Lord and in
the king's house " (2 Kings 12 : 18). Haz-
ael appears to have died about the year
B. c. 840, having reigned forty-six years.
He left his crown to his son Benhadad, who,
unable to cope with Jehoash, soon lost all
the conquests in Israel his father had made
(2 Kings 13 : 24, 25).
Ha'zar-E'nan [village of fountains'],
the junction of the north and east boun-
daries of the Promised Land (Num. 34 :
9, 10). It is mentioned also as a boun-
dary-place in Ezek. 47 : 17 ; 48 : 1.
Haz'a-zon-Ta'mar, the same as
En-Gedi (which see).
Ha'zel. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in our Authorized Version occurs
but once (Gen. 30 : 37), where it is coupled
with the words rendered "poplar" and
" chestnut." Authorities are divided as
to whether it designates the hazel or the
almond tree, but the more probable opin-
ion inclines to the latter.
Haz'e-roth [villages'], an encampment
of the Israelites during their journey from
Sinai through the wilderness (Num. 11 :
35). The name survives in that of Ain
Hiidherah.
Ha'zor [;village], the name of several
towns, the principal one of which appears
to have been that of which Jabin M'as king
(Josh. 11:1), and which Joshua conquered
and then burned (Josh. 11 : 11). It was
afterward rebuilt by the Canaanites, and
was the residence of the king of Canaan,
whose name also was Jabin, and who op-
pressed the Israelites until their deliver-
ance under Deborah and Barak ( Judg. 4 :
2-16). It was afterward enlarged by Sol-
omon (1 Kings 9 : 15), and was finally
taken by the Assyrians under Tiglath-
pileser, and its inhabitants carried away
as captives (2 Kings 15 : 29).
Head, the topmost part of the human
body. The English word is from the same
root as heave, and signifies what is meta-
phorically lifted up or exalted. While the
heart has been accounted the seat of tlie
affections, the head has generally been
considered as the abode of intelligence
(Gen. 3:15; Ps. 3 : 3; Eccles. 2 : 14). The
head also denotes sovereignty (1 Cor. 11 :
HEART— HEBREWS.
241
3). Covering the head and cutting off the
hair were signs of mourning and tokens of
distress, which was enhanced by throwing
ashes on the head and covering one's self
with sackcloth (Job 1 : 20; Amos 8 : 10;
Lev. 21 : 5 ; Deut. 14 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 19 ;
Esth. 4:1). Anointing the head was prac-
ticed on festive occasions, and was consid-
ered an emblem of felicity (Eccles. 9:8;
Ps. 23: 5; Luke 7 : 46).
Heart, the seat of the affections, desires
and motives (Ps. 24 : 4; 51 : 10; Matt. 15 :
19) ; sometimes the representative of all
the powers and faculties of man as a
moral, intellectual and accountable being
(Prov. 16 : 9; Acts 16 : 14; 2 Cor. 4 : 6).
According to Scripture, the heart by na-
ture is totally alienated from the life of
God (Gen. 8 : 21 ; Matt. 12 : 34), and is to
be renewed, if at all, by the special grace
and power of the merciful Lord God (.Jer.
32 : 40; Ezek. 36 : 26; John 6 : 44; 1 Cor.
6: 9-11; Eph. 2:4-6).
Heath, a plant found on wild and
barren wastes (.Jer. 17 : 6; 48 : 6), and
supposed to be a species of juniper.
Hea^then, equivalent, mostly, to Gen-
tiles or the nations (Neh. 5:8; Ps. 2 : Ij,
but sometimes applied to unbelievers (Jer.
10: 25; Matt. 18: 17).
Heav'en, what is heaved up or high
(Gen. 49 : 25). The English word repre-
sents four Hebrew words : 1. The word
used in the expression "tlie heaven and
the earth" (Gen. 1:1), and having a
sense akin to that of the word trans-
lated " firmament ;" 2. The word ren-
dered "above" (Ps. 18 : 16) and "on
high" (Isa. 24:18; Jer. 25 : 30), prop-
erly a mountain (Ps. 102 : 19; Ezek.
17 : 23), but grandly descriptive of the
sublime heaven (Ps. 68 : 18; 93 : 4) ; 3.
The word designating the region of cloud
(Deut. 33 : 26 ; Job 35 : 5), and signifying
"expanses" with reference to the extent of
heaven (Job 38 : 37 ; Ps. 36 ; 5 ; Prov. 3 : 20) ;
4. The word translated "firmament" (Gen.
16
1:6), and synonymous with sky or the gener-
al heavens (Isa. 40 : 22 ; 48 : 13 ; Jer. 31 : 37),
Some of the later Jews held that there
I were three heavens — namely, the air or
atmosphere, where clouds gather ; the fir-
mament, in which the sun, moon and stars
are fixed ; and the upper heaven, the abode
of God and his angels. Paul represents
himself as " caught up to the third heav-
en" (2 Cor. 12 : 2), which probably cor-
responds to the "upper heaven" of Jew-
isli thought. This third or upper heaven
is the home of God's glorified people (John
14 : 2, 3 ; Rev. 22 : 1-5).
He'ber [xociety'}, grandson of Aslier
(Gen. 46 : 17 ; 1 Chron. 7 : 31 ; Num. 26 :
45), from whom came the Heberites. The
name of the patriarch Eber (Luke 3 : 35)
is anglicised ITeber.
He'bre'W [dwellers on the other si'cfe].
This word first occurs as given to Abram
by the Canaanites (Gen. 14 : 13), perhaps
because he had crossed the Euphrates. It
may express a distinction between the
races east and west of the Euphrates.
The term Israelite was used by the He-
brews among themselves; the term He-
brew was the name by which they were
known to foreigners. All the books of the
Old Testament are written in the Hebrew
language with the exception of the follow-
ing passages, which are in Chaldee : Dan.
2 : 4-49 ; and chs. 3 to 7 : 28 ; Ezra 4 : 8
to ch. 6: 18; 7:12-26; Jer. 10: 11. He-
brew and Chaldee are sister dialects of a
great family of languages to which the
name Shemitic is usually given, from the
real or supposed descent of the peoples
speaking them from the patriarch Shem.
He'bre-ws, Epistle to the. The
authorship of this Epistle is commonly
and, we believe correctly, ascribed to the
apostle Paul. It was addressed to the
Jews in Jerusalem and Palestine. Its
argument is such as could be used with
most effect to a Church consisting exclu-
sively of Jews by birth, personally famil-
242
HEBRON.
iar with and attached to the temple-ser-
vice. It was evidently written before the
destruction of Jerusalem, A. D. 70. The
date which best agrees with all the facts
and circumstances of the case is a. d. 63,
about the end of Paul's first imprisonment
at Rome. If written by the apostle near
the close of his life, it is one of his grand-
est legacies to the Church. It is an insight
into Judaism and an illustration of the su-
periority of Christianity, which, under the
inspiration of God's Spirit, the great apos-
tle to the Gentiles was altogether the fittest
man to furnish, and which through all the
ages will demonstrate the substantial iden-
tity of revelation, whether given through
the prophets or through the Son.
He'bron, the oldest town of Palestine
and one of the most ancient cities referred
to in the Bible. It was originally called
Kirjath-Arha {thecity ofArba, Judg. 1:10),
from Arba, the father of the Anakim, or
giants, who dwelt there (Josh. 14 : 15).
It was sometimes called Mamre (Gen.
2.3 : 2, 19), from Abraham's friend and
ally, Mamre the Amorite. It is sit-
uated among the mountains of Judah,
twenty Roman miles south of Jerusalem
and the same distance north of Beersheba.
Here the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and
.Jacob lived and were buried (Gen. 49 :
29-33). From Hebron, Jacob sent Jo-
seph in search of his brethren (Gen. 37 :
12-14\ and from it the patriarchal fomily
went out on their journey to Egypt (Gen.
46 : 1). When the Israelites subdued Ca-
naan, Hebron was assigned to Caleb (Josh.
14 : 13, 14). It was also selected as one of
the cities of refuge (Josh. 20 : 7). David
made it his royal residence for a time (2
Sam. 2 : 1-4), and there Absalom raised
the standard of rebellion (2 Sam. 15 : 9,
10.) Hebron is not referred to in the
New Testament. Its modern Arabic name
is d-KhnUJ, "the friend," an undoubted
reference to Abraham, " the friend of
God" (James 2 : 23). Its population is
placed at ten thousand Mohammedans and
six hundred Jews. The town is the cen-
tre of commerce for the southern Arabs,
who bring their wool and camel's hair to
its market. The houses are all of stone,
solidly-built and flat-roofed, and cover a
part of the Avestern slope of a bare ter-
raced hill. Among the buildings, the
Haram, containing the sepulchres of the
patriarchs, is the most prominent. Of the
Haram, President Bartlett, a recent visitor,
thus writes: "The most attractive object
in the ancient town, that is seven years
older than ' Zoan of Egypt,' is the Haram,
the building which by joint consent of
Christian, Mohammedan and Jewish tra-
dition, supported by the conclusions of
modern scholarship, enclosed the cave
of Machpelah, the last resting-place of
! Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah,
Jacob and Leah. It stands high up the
slope on the eastern side of the valley,
conspicuous at a distance for its size. It
bears not quite the same proportion to
the small surrovmding buildings as do
the great cathedrals of Europe, but it in-
stantly arrests the eye. The dimensions
I are two hundred by one hundred and
[ fifteen feet, and its windowless walls are
about sixty feet high, relieved somewhat
by shallow pilasters without capitals. Two
modern minarets and a Saracen addition to
the height of the walls do not essentially
injure the solemn and striking character
of the structure. Its smoothly-wrought,
almost polished, massive stones, some
of them tiiirty eight feet in length, witii
the peculiar marginal draught (wrongly
termed bevel), are matched by no others
in Palestine except in the substructure
of the temple-area at Jerusalem. There
seems to be no valid reason to question
the conclusion of Robinson that the re-
markable external structure of the Ha-
ram is indeed the work of Jewish hands,
erected long, long before the destruction
of the nation around the sepulchre of their
244
HEIFER— HEM AN.
revered progenitor, the friend of God, and
his descendants ; or the still more distinct
persuasion of Tristram, that it is ' the one
remaining work of the royal Solomon, or
perhaps of his greater father;' contirmed
by Stanley, who had the rare privilege
of visiting the interior, and who is con-
vinced that within tlie Mussulman mosque,
' within the Christian church, within the
massive stone enclosure built by the kings
of Judah, is, beyond any reasonable ques-
tioning, the last resting-place of the great
patriarchal family.' "
Heifer, a young cow ; but, contrary to
our usage, the Hebrew equivalents are ap-
plied to cows that have calved (1 Sam. 6 :
7-12; Isa. 7 : 21). The heifer was used
in sacrifice on a particular occasion (Num.
19 : 1-10 ; Heb. 9 : 13, 14), the manner and
design being quite significant. The ani-
mal offered was of red color, because,
probably, without bloodshedding sin
could not be remitted. The animal was
then slain, its body burned without the
camp, and the ashes, mingled with water,
were sprinkled on the people. As an im-
pressive sin-offering this sacrifice of the
red heifer not only pointed to our Lord's
" one offering " (Heb. 10 : 14), but also pro-
claimed the superior, because infinitely
availing, efficacy of "the blood of Christ"
(Heb. 9 : 14).
Heir. See Inheritance.
Hel'bon \_fat, fertile^, a place noted for
excellent wines, which were conveyed to
Tyre from Damascus (Ezek. 27 : 18). It
has been thought to be the modern Alep-
po, but more probably it is Helban in Anti-
Lebanon, near Damascus.
He'li, the father of Joseph, the hus-
band of Mary, our Lord's mother (Luke
3 : 23). Lord Hervey, the latest investi-
gator of our Lord's genealogy, maintains
that Heli was the real brother of Jacob,
tlie Virgin's father.
Hel'kath, a border city of the tribe
of Asher, assigned to the Levites of the
family of Gershom (Josh. 19:25; 21:
31).
HeFkath-Haz'zu-rim [the portion
of strong men'}, a place near Gibeon, so
called from a fatal contest between twelve
men selected from David's army and twelve
from that of Ishbosheth (2 Sam. 2:15,
16).
Hell [the hidden under-world}, the des-
ignation sometimes of the grave (2 Sam.
22 : 6), always of the covered or unseen
realm (Ps. 16 : 10), and sometimes of the
place of future punishment (Ps. 9: 17;
Luke 16 : 23). Great ingenuity lias been
displayed in the effort to separate from
Scripture statements the notion of future
punishment, but these statements are too
precise to allow the effort to be successful.
The leading passages which teach this
awful and arresting truth are these:
Matt. 25 : 41 ; Mark 9 : 44; Luke 16 : 19
-31; 2 Thess. 1:7-10; Jude 13; Eev.
14: 10, 11; 19: 20; 21 : 8.
Hel'raet. See Arms, Armor.
Help-meet for him (Adam), that
is, an aid suitable and supplementary to
him, the delicate and beautiful designa-
tion of a wife which admirably expresses
her relation (Gen. 2 : 18-20).
Hem of G-arment. The later Jews,
especially the Pharisees (Matt. 23 : 5), at-
tached great importance to the hem or
fringe of their garments because of the
regulation in Num. 15 : 38, 39, which as-
cribed a symbolical meaning to it. Pop-
ularly, the hem or fringe had associated
with it a special sanctity (Matt. 9 : 20 ;
14 : 36 ; Luke 8 : 44), of which the punc-
tilious Pharisees availed themselves.
He 'man [faithful], the name of two
men.
1. A man named with three others cel-
ebrated for their wisdom, to which that of
Solomon is compared (1 Kings 4:31);
probably the same as the son of Zerah
and grandson of Judah (1 Chron. 2 : 6).
2. Son of Joel and grandson of Samuel,
HEMLOCK— IIEROD.
245
a Kohathite of the tribe of Levi, and one
of the leaders of the temple-music as or-
ganized by David (1 Chron. 6 : 33; 15 :
17 ; 16 : 41, 42). To him, perhaps, the
eighty-eighth Psalm is inscribed.
Hem'lock. The Hebrew word thus
rendered in two passages (Hos. 10:4;
Amos 6 : 12) is elsewhere rendered Gall
(which see).
Hen, the female of the common do-
mestic fowl. It is nowhere noticed in
Scripture except in Matt. 23 : 37 ; Luke
13 : 34. That a bird so common in Pal-
estine should receive such slight notice is
certainly singular, and would imply that
it was not known to the Hebrews of the
Old Testament.
He^na, a city mentioned in connection
with Sepharvaim and Ivah as one of those
overthrown by Sennacherib before his in-
vasion of Judaea (2 Kings 18 : 34 ; 19 : 13;
Isa. 37 : 13). It is supposed to be the same
as the modern Ana, and to have been in
ancient times an important town on the
Euphrates, not far from Sippara.
Heph'zi-bah [my delight is in herl, a
real and a symbolical name.
1. The mother of King Manasseh (2
Kings 21 : 1).
2. A figurative title ascribed to Zion in
token of Jehovah's favor when, after the
predicted desolation (Isa. 62 : 4), there
should be the return from the Captivity
and the advent of tlie Messiah.
Her''esy [Gr. hairesis^ is rendered sect
in Acts 5: 17; 15:5; 24:5; 26:5; 28:22;
means sect in Acts 24 : 14 ; 1 Cor. 11 : 19 ;
denotes factions in Gal. 5 : 20 ; signifies
false doctrines in 2 Pet. 2:1.
Her-mog'e-nes. See Phygellus.
Her'mon, a liigh mountain ridge be-
longing to Anti-Lebanon, and constituting
the most northern boundary of the land
which the Hebrews wrested from the
Amorites (Deut. 3 : 8). The Sidonians
called it Sirion, from a word signifying
"to glitter," and the Amorites Shenir,
from a word signifying "to clatter,"
both words meaning "breastplate," to
which it was not unlike when upon its
rounded top the smooth and perpetual
snow lay glittering in the sunbeams
(Deut. 3:9). It was also called Sion
(Deut. 4 : 48), "the elevated," because it
towered over all the neighboring peaks.
Rising to the height of near ten thou-
sand feet, it was the great landmark
of the Israelites. It is visible from
Tyre and from the Dead Sea. Its dews,
commemorated by the Psalmist (Ps.
133 : 3), are the vapors condensed by its
snowy crown into fine fertilizing sliowers.
The top of Hermon consists of three rocky
peaks — two, north and south, of equal
height, the third to the west considerably
lower. In the accounts of our Lord's
Transfiguration we read that, whilst stay-
ing at Csesarea Philippi, he retired with
his disciples to " a high mountain apart ;"
and the very great probability is that some
part of Hermon is intended. From tlie
earliest period the mountain has been a
sacred place. This lofty, lonely peak
seems wonderfully appropriate for tlie
scene of so imjiortant an event. See
Tabor.
Her'od [/lero-Z/Ae], the name of several
persons of the royal family of Judaea in the
times of our Lord and his apostles.
1. Herod the Great was the second
son of Antipater, an Idumsean, who was
appointed procurator of Judaea by Julius
Caesar, B. c. 47. Ten j-ears afterward,
when Herod was twenty-five years old,
he was, by vote of the Roman senate and
by submission of the Jewish people, tlie
acknowledged king of Judaea. His reign
was characterized by great sagacity and
success, but his domestic life was embit-
tered by an almost uninterrupted series
of injuries and cruel acts of vengeance.
At the time of liis last illness lie caused
tJie slaughter of the infents at Bethlehem
(Matt. 2 : 16-18), and a little later, in
246
HEKODIANS.
keeping with this act of fearful cruelty,
he ordered the nobles whom he had
called to him in his last moments to
be executed immediately after his de-
cease, that his death might be attended
by universal mourning. He adorned Je-
rusalem with many splendid monuments
of his taste and magnificence. The tem-
ple, wliich he rebuilt with scrupulous
care, was tlie greatest of these works.
The restoration was begun b. c. 20, and
tlie temple itself was completed in a year
and a half. But in succeeding years fresh
additions were constantly made, so that
from the beginning of the work to the
completion of the latest addition " forty
and six years passed" (.John 2 : 20).
2. Her'od An'ti-pas was the son of
Herod the Great by Maltliace, a Samari-
tan. By his father's will he became " te-
trarch of Galilee and Perjea" (Matt. 14 :
1; Luke 3; 1,19; 9:7; Acts 13:1). He
first married a daughter of Aretas, " king
of Arabia Petra^a," but he soon repudiated
her to effect a marriage with Herodias, the
wife of his half-brother, Herod Philip. He
nmrdered John the Baptist (Mark 6 : 16-
29 ) and mocked our Lord ( Luke 23 : 8-1 1 ).
Subsequently, the ambition of Herodias,
who urged him to seek from the Roman
emperor the title and dignity of king,
proved the cause of his ruin. He was con-
demned to perpetual banishment, which
Herodias sliared. The city of Tiberias,
wliicli Antipas founded and named in
honor of the emperor, was the most con-
spicuous monument of his long reign.
3. Her'od Phillip L (Mark 0 : 17)
wa.s the son of Herod the Great and Ma-
riamne, and must be carefully distin-
guished from the tetrarch Philip. He
married Herodias, the sister of Agrippa
I., by wliom he had a daughter, Salome.
Herodias, however, left him, and made
an infamous marriage witli his half-
brotlier, Herod Antipas (Matt. 14 : 3;
Mark 6 : 17; Luke 3 : 19). He was ex-
cluded from all share in his father's pos-
sessions in consequence of his mother's
treachery, and lived afterward in a pri-
vate station.
4. Her'od Phil'ip II. was the son of
Herod the Great and Cleopatra. Like
his half-brothers, Antipas and Archelaus,
he was brought up at home. He received
as his own government Batanea, Trachoni-
tis, Auranitis, and some parts about Jam-
nia, with tlie title of tetrarch (Luke 3:1).
He married Salome, tlie daughter of Herod
Philip I. and Herodias.
5. Her'od A-grip'pa I. was the son of
Aristobulus and Berenice and grandson
of Herod the Great. He was brought up
at Rome, and, after various vicissitudes,
received from the emperor Caligula the
governments formerly held by the te-
trarchs Philip and Lysanias, the title
of king and numerous other munificent
marks of favor. Subsequently, in conse-
quence of successive additions, his king-
dom embraced all Palestine. He was a
strict observer of the Law, and he sought
with success the favor of the .Jews, kill-
ing the apostle .Tames and imprisoning
the apostle Peter (Acts 12 : 1-19). His
sudden death interrupted his ambitious
projects. He died at Caesarea in the
manner related in Acts 12: 21-23.
6. Her'od A-grip'pa II. was the son
of Herod Agrippa I. and Cypros, a grand-
niece of Herod the Great. At the time of
his fathei-'s death, A. d. 44, he was at Rome.
He received from the emperor first the king-
dom of Chalcis and then the tetrarchies
formerly held liy Philip and Lysanias,
with the title of king (Acts 25 : 13).
The relation in which he stood to his
sister Berenice was the cause of grave
suspicion. After the fall of .Terusalem he
retired with Berenice to Rome, where he
died in tlie third year of Trajan, A. D.
100.
He-ro'di-ans, a -Jewish sect or party,
originatitig probably in a political partial-
HERODIAS— HIDDEKEL.
247
ity toward the Roman emperor and Herod
his deputy (Matt. 22 : 16; Mark 12 : 13).
Many Jews in our Lord's time saw, pi'ob-
ably, in the power of the flerodian fam-
ily the pledge of the preservation of their
national existence in the face of the am-
bition and power of Rome. Two distinct
classes might thus unite in supporting
wliat, in contrast with Roman absolutism,
was really a domestic tyranny : those who
saw in the Ilerods a protection against di-
rect heathen rule, and those who were in-
clined to look with satisfaction upon such
a compromise between the ancient faith
and heathen civilization as Herod tlie
Great and his successors aimed to real-
ize, as tlie truest and highest consum-
mation of Jewish hopes.
He-ro^di-as, granddaughter of Herod
the Great and sister of Herod Agrippa I.
She first married Herod Philip I. ; then
she eloped from him to marry Herod
Antipas, her step-uncle, who liad been long
married to, and was still living with, the
daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia. The
consequences both of the crime and of the
reproof it incurred are well known ( Matt.
14 : 8-11 ; Mark G : 24-28). Her daugh-
ter, through whom she secured the murder
of John the Baptist, was named Salome.
He-ro'di-on, a relative of the apostle
Paul, to whom, among the Christians of
the Roman church, he sends his saluta-
tion (Rom. 16 : 11).
Hereon, an unclean bird, but of what
species is quite uncertain (Lev. 11 : 19;
Deut. 14 : 18). The name thus rendered
is probably a generic name for some well-
known class of birds. The only point on
which any two commentators seem to agree
is that it is not (he heron.
Hesh'bon [intelligence'], a town about
twenty miles east of the point where the
Jordan River enters the Dead Sea. Si-
hon, king of the Amorites, dwelt there,
and wfis dispossessed by Moses (Num. 21 :
24-26). It was afterward a Levitical city
(Josh. 21 : 39). In later times the Moab-
ites gained possession of it, and as a Mo-
abitish town it is denounced by the proph-
ets (Isa. 15 : 4; Jer. 48 : 2, 34, 45). It is
at present known by the name of Hesban,
where extensive ruins are still found.
Heth [dreadi, a descendant of Canaan
and the ancestor of the Hittites (Gen. 10 :
15 ; Deut. 7:1; Josh. 1 : 4), wlio dwelt in
the vicinity of Hebron (Gen. 23 : 3, 7 ; 25 :
10).
Hez-e-ki'ah [strength of Jehovnh], son
and successor of Ahaz, king of Judah. He
was one of the most perfect kings that
ever sat on the Jewish throne. His lirst
act was to purge and repair and reopen
with splendid sacrifices and appropriate
ceremonial the temple, which had been de-
spoiled and neglected during the careless
and idolatrous reign of his father. This
consecration was accompanied by a re-
vival of the theocratic spirit, so strict as
not even to spare "the high places,"
which had been profaned by the worship
of images and Asherahs (2 Kings 18 : 4).
A still more decisive act was the destruc-
tion of the brazen serpent used by Moses
in the miraculous healing of the Israelites
(Num. 21 : 9), which had become an object
of superstitious, if not idolatrous, adora-
tion. He succeeded in uniting his peo-
ple and in making them victorious over
many of their enemies, but when threat-
ened by Assyria, he listened to overtures
from Babylon which proved ensnaring,
and ultimately brought about the ruin
of his country. The overthrow came
not, however, in his reign, which ended
in peace and seeming prosperity. He re-
sembled David more nearly in piety and
patriotism than any of David's line. He
honored God and faithfully served his
country, laboring at once to purify and
restore the temple-worship and to carry
to successful completion numerous pub-
lic works of national utility.
Hid'de-kel, one of the rivers of Eden,
248
HIEL— HINNOM.
identified with the Tigris, the Arabic name
of which is Dijleh (Gen. 2 : 14).
Hi'el [God liveth], a native of Bethel
who rebuilt Jericho in the reign of Ahab
( 1 Kings 16 : 34), and in whom was ful-
filled the curse pronounced by Joshua
(Josh. 6 : 26).
Hi'e-rap^O-lis [sacred city], a city of
Phrygia, not far from Colosse and Lao-
dicea. Paul commends the zeal of Epa-
phras, who labored in the gospel in these
tliree neighboring cities (Col. 4 : 12, 13).
Hierapolis was celebrated for the warm
mineral springs, which have formed those
beantiful calcareous incrustations described
by travelers. This once elegant city is
now a heap of ruins, among which can
be traced the principal street, a capacious
theatre and a gymnasium about four hun-
dred feet square, the two latter still in re-
markable preservation. Remains also of
Christian churches and a great variety
of sepulchres are yet visible. A Turko-
man village is situated among the ruins,
which is called Pambouk- Kalessi, or Cot-
ton Castle, from the white or chalky ap-
pearance of the neighboring cliffs.
Hig-ga'ion, a word which occurs
three times in the Psalms (9: 16; 19:
14 ; 92 : 3j, and which has two mean-
ings : one of a general character, imply-
ing thought, reflection, as in the second
of the above passages ; the other, of a
technical nature, the precise meaning of
which cannot at this distance of time be
determined.
High Places. From the earliest
times it was customary among all na-
tions to erect altars and places of wor-
ship on lofty and conspicuous spots. To
this general custom constant allusion is
made in the Scriptures ( Isa. 65 : 7 ; Jer.
3:6; Ezek. 6 : 13; 18 : 6; Hos. 4 : 13\
and it is especially attributed to the Mo-
abites (Isa. 15 : 2; 16 : 12; Jer. 48 : 35).
As a custom readily perverted to the ex-
tension of idolatry, it was strictly forbid-
den by the Law of Moses (Deut. 12 : 11-
14), which also added a positive and pre-
parative injunction to destroy the Canaan-
itish high places when the conquest of
the land had been achieved. The law for
several centuries was either forgotten or
ignored, for Jehovistic high places ex-
isted until Hezekiah inaugurated that
sweeping reformation which Josiah final-
ly consummated (2 Kings 18 : 4, 22; 23 :
3-20).
High Priest. See Priest.
Hil-ki'ah [portion of Jehovahl, the
name of a number of persons mentioned
in the Scriptures, of whom one only, the
high priest in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings
18 : 37), need be singled out. According
to the genealogy in 1 Ciiron. 6 : 13, he was
the son of Shallum, whilst from Ezra 7:1,
it appears that he was the ancestor of Ezra
the scribe. His high priesthood was ren-
dered particularly illustrious by the great
reformation effected under it by King Josi-
ah, by the solemn passover kept at Jerusa-
lem in the eighteenth year of that king's
reign, and, above all, by the discovery
which he made of the book of the Law
of Moses in the temple.
Hill of Zi'on (Ps. 2 : 6), the same as
Mount Zion (Ps. 48 : 1, 2), meaning Jeru-
salem and the eminence on which the tem-
ple was built.
Hin, a Hebrew liquid measure of about
five (jnarts (Ex. 29 : 40; Num. 15 : 4).
Hind, the female of the common stag.
It is frequently alluded to in the poetical
parts of Scripture as emblematical of ac-
tivity (Gen. 49 : 21 ; 2 Sam. 22 : 34 ; Ps.
18 : 33; Hab. 3 : 19), gentleness (Prov. 5 :
19), feminine modesty (Song 2:7; 3 : 5),
earnest longing (Ps. 42 : 1), and maternal
affection (Jer. 14 : 5). Its shyness and
remoteness from the haunts of men are
also alluded to (Job 39 : 1), and its timid-
ity, causing it to cast its young at the sound
of thunder (Ps. 29 : 9).
Hin'nom [superfluous, vain], the
HIKAM— HIVITEIS.
249
name of the valley on the south of Jerusa-
lem, mentioned in connection with the hor-
rid rites of Moloch, which were there cel-
ebrated by the idolatrous Jews causing
their children to pass through the lire
(Jer. 7 : 31). King Josiah, in order to
render this place odious, defiled it by
making it a depository of filth and of
the dead bodies of animals (2 Kings 23 :
10) ; and this became a common practice
afterward. To prevent the spread of the
unhealthy effluvia from so much filth a
perpetual fire was kept up to consume the
offensive matter. The inhuman rites an-
ciently practiced in the valley of Hinnom
caused tlie later Jews to regard it with
feelings of horror and detestation, and to
apply the name given to the valley to the
place of eternal torment. From similar
associations with the valley, our Lord
figuratively employs the Hinnom or Ge-
henna of fire, to express the terrible
doom which awaits the wicked after
death (Matt. 5:29; 10:28; Mark 9:
43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5). Hinnom was
also called Tophet (2 Kings 23 : 10; Isa.
30 : 33). Some derive this last name from
a word signifying a drum., with the sound
of which instrument the horrid rites of
Moloch were celebrated ; others from a
word signifying to spit out, as expressive
of disgust and loathing.
Hi'ram \_hi(/li-born'], generally written
HuRAJsr, the name of two men.
1. The king of Tyre who sent workmen
and materials to Jerusalem, first to build
a palace for David (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Chron.
14 : 1), and next to build a temple for Sol-
omon, with whom he had a treaty of peace
and commerce (1 Kings 5 : 10-12 ; 7:13;
2 Chron. 2 : 14, 16).
2. A man of mixed race (1 Kings 7:13,
40), the principal architect and engineer
sent by King Hiram to Solomon.
Hire'ling, a laborer who is employed
on hire for a limited time (Job 7:1; 14 :
6 ; Mark 1 : 20). By tlie Mosaic Law such
an one was to be paid his wages so soon as
his work was done (Lev. 19 : 13). The
little interest which would be felt by
such a temporary laborer compared with
that of the shepherd or permanent keeper
of the flock furnishes a striking illustration
in one of our Lord's discourses (John 10 :
12, 13). See Wages.
Hit'tites, the nation descended from
Heth, the second son of Canaan. Abra-
ham bouglit from " the children of Heth "
the field and the cave of Machpelah, be-
longing to Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23 :
10, 17, 18). They were settled at the town
which then bore the name of Kirjath-Arba,
but which afterward, under its new name of
Hebron, became one of tlie most famous
cities of Palestine (Gen. 23 : 2, 19). When
the Israelites entered tlie Promised Land
the Hittites, in equal alliance with the
other Canaanite tribes, took their part
against the invader (Josh. 9:1; 11 : 3).
I Henceforward the notices of the Hittites
I are very few and faint. "Ahimelech the
i Hittite," one of David's trusted servants
' (1 Sam. 26 : 6), and "Uriah the Hittite,"
one of the thirty composing David's body-
guard (2 Sam. 23 : 39), come into view from
! their association with David's person.
Hi'vites. In the genealogical tables
of Genesis " llie Hivite" is named as one
of the descendants, the sixth in order, of
Canaan, the son of Ham (Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1
Chron 1 : 15). We first encounter the ac-
tual people of tlie Hivites at the time of
Jacob's return to Canaan. Shechem was
then in their possession, Hamor the Hivite
being "the prince of the land" (Gen. 34 :
2). We next meet with the Hivites dur-
ing the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 9:7;
11 : 19). Tlie main body of the Hivites
were at this time living on the northern
confines of Western Palestine, " under Her-
mon in the land of Mizpeh " (Josh. 1 1 :
3), "in Mount Lebanon, from Mount
Baal-Hermon to the entering in of Ha-
math" (Judg. 3 : 3).
250
HOBAB— HONEY.
Ho^bab [beloved], the son of Raguel
tlie Midianite, a kinsman of Moses (Num.
10 : 29 ; Judg. 4:11). The notice of him
in the first passage cited seems to repre-
sent him as tlie experienced Bedouin
sheikh to whom Moses looked for the
safe guidance of liis cumbrous caravan
on the desert-way to Canaan.
Ho'bah [hlding-plaee], the place to
which Abraham pursued the confederate !
kings (Gen. 14 : 15). It lay north of Da-
mascus, but where is not certainly known.
Hold [a foriresn], a terra especially ap-
plied to the lurking-places of David (1
Sam. 22: 4, 5; 24: 22).
Ho^ly. The word holy denotes whole-
ness, entireness, perfection in a moral sense.
1. God is the infinitely Holy One (Isa. 6 :
3 ; 47 : 4 ; 57 : 15 ; Rev. 4 : 8). 2. Chris-
tians are holy, because they have within
them the Holy Ghost (Acts 13: 52 ; Eom.
15 : 16; 1 Cor. 6 : 19), and because they
are consecrated to God's service (Rom. 12 :
1 ; 1 Cor. 3:17; Col. 3:12; 1 Thess. 5 :
27). 3. Persons, places and things are
holy where they are dedicated to God
(Ex. 19:6; 28:29; Ps. 5 : 7 ; 89:20;
1 Cor. 9: 13).
Holy Ghost. See Spirit.
Ho'mer, a Hebrew liquid measure
equal, according to Josephus, to eighty-
nine gallons, the same as the cor (Ezek.
45 : 14). It was also a Hebrew dry meas-
ure, equal, according to Josephus, to eleven
bushels and four quarts.
Hon'ey, represented in the Old Tes-
tament Scriptures by four different Hebrew
terms ; in the New Testament Scriptures
by a single Greek term.
1. a. In the Old Testament Scriptures
tlie strict term for honey (rlSai^h) indicates
primarily the color yelloiv ; hence honey as
yellow-colored. It is used to designate the
honey of bees (Lev. 2:11; Judg. 14 : 8,
18 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 25, 26 ; Prov. 16 : 24), and
the lioney of grapes or syrup — that is, the
newly-expressed juice of grapes boiled
down to the half or third part (Gen, 43
11 ; Ezek. 27 : 17). At the present day
this syrup is still common in Palestine
under its equivalent Ai'abic name dibs,
and forms now, as anciently, an article of
commerce in the East.
b. The second term for honey (ya^ar)
means redundance or overflow, and, associ-
ated with debusli, is used to express honey
as what flows or drops of its own accord
from the comb. It is sometimes rendered
in our Authorized Version " honey-comb "
(1 Sam. 14 : 27).
c. The third term for honey {no'pheth)
means a sprinkling, dropping, and is used to
express honey dropping from the combs.
In Prov. 24 : 13 it is rendered "honey-
comb."
(/. The fourth term for honey (tsupfi)
designates honey as overflowing from the
comb, liquid honey. In its plural form it
is commonly associated with no'pheth and
the two in Ps. 19 : 10 are rendered " honey-
comb."
2. The single Greek term for honey in
the New Testament Scriptures {meli) is
the usual equivalent for the first Hebrew
term debash, and is found in Matt. 3:4;
Mark 1 : 6 (where it is qualified by a word
rendered wild, and meaning either lioney
from wild bees or honey-dew, a deposit on
the leaves of certain trees), and in Rev.
10 : 9, 10. In Luke 24 : 42 "honey-
comb" is the rendering of two Greek
words meaning bee-comb.
The numerous terms for lioney in use
among the Hebrews justify the ancient de-
scription of Canaan as " a land flowing
with honey" (Ex. 3 : 8). Though waste
and desolate, Palestine is such a land to-
day. Bees in the East are abundant even in
the remote parts of the wilderness, where
they deposit their honey in the crevices
of the rocks or in hollow trees. In some
parts of Northern Arabia the hills are so
well stocked with bees that no sooner are
hives placed there than they are occupied.
HOOK— HORITES.
251
Hook, a i-i)tg inserted in the nostrils
of animals, to wliich a cord was fastened
in order to lead them about or tame them
(2 Kings 19 : 28; Isa. 37 : 29; Ezek. 29 :
4; 38 : 4). In the first two of the above
passages Jehovah affirms his absolute con-
trol over Sennacherib, the mighty monarch
of Assyria, and so his complete supremacy
over every creature, however proud and
powerful.
Hope, a term used in Scripture to de-
note, generally, the desire and expectation
of some good (1 Cor. 9: 10); specially,
the jissured expectation of salvation, with
all included ndnor blessings, for this life
and the life to come, through the merits
of our Lord Christ. It is one of the three
great elements of Christian life and cha-
racter (1 Cor. 13 : 13).
Hoph^ni and Phin'e-has, Eli's
wicked sons. See Eli.
Hor \_ihe mountain, i. e. ihe mounlain of
Mount Hor.
ifnountam?i\ a mountain of Arabia Petraea,
on the borders of Idumsea or Edom, and
forming part of the mountain-district which
bears the general name of Seir. The Is-
raelites were encamped near it when the
intimation was received from the Lord
that Aaron was to die there. Accordingly,
Aaron, accompanied by his son Eleazar and
by Moses, ascended to the top, and the priest-
ly vestments of Aaron being put on his son,
he died there (Num. 20 : 22-29). In
Deut. 10 : 6 it is said Aaron died at Mo-
sera, which was probably the name of the
station near Hor. The traditional Mount
Hor is the most conspicuous of the whole
ranjie of the sandstone mountains of
Edom, having close beneath it on its
ea.stern side the mysterious city of Petra.
Its height, according to the latest meas-
urements, is four thousand eight hun-
dred feet above the Mediterranean, and
more than six thousand above the Dead
Sea.
Ho'reb \_(h"y, desert'], the general name
of the Sinaitic range, including mountains,
peaks, valleys, and designating, occasion-
ally, some particular summit (Ex. 17 : 6;
Deut. 4 : 10, 11). See Sinai.
Ho^rites and Ho'rims, the aborig-
inal inhabitants of Mount Seir (Gen. 14 :
6), and probably allied to the Emims and
Rephaims. The name Honte appears to
252
HORMAH— HORSE.
have been derived from their habits as
"cave dwellers." Their excavated dwell-
ings are still found in hundreds in the
sandstone cliits and mountains of Edom,
and especially in Petra.
Hor^raah, the city of a Canaanitish
king who attacked the Israelites, on
which they vowed that if they succeeded
in defeating their assailants they would
utterly destroy the city (Num. 21 : 1-3).
It had before been called Zephath, but,
as a doomed and desolated j^lace, it now
received the name Hormah (Judg. 1 :
17). Subsequently, it was rebuilt (1 Sam.
30: 30; 1 Chron. 4 : 30).
Horn, This word has in Scripture a
large latitude of meaning.
1. Its literal, use. As horns are hollow,
so tliey can be sounded or used for signal-
ing, and can be filled or used to hold liq-
uids. At first trumpets were merely horns
perforated at the top, such as are now used
in rural districts to summon laborers at
meal-time (Ex. 19 : 13; Josh. 6:4, 5).
Convenient too for holding liquids, the
horn became a general designation for
flask (1 Sam. 16 : 1, 13; 1 Kings 1 : 39).
Among our Saxon ancestors the drinking-
horn was common, and to this day, with
certain persons, the invitation to drink
spirituous liquors is an invitation to take
"a horn."
2. Its metaphorical use. The projecting
cornei-s of the altar of burnt-offering and
of the altar of incense are called " horns "
(Ex. 37 : 25 ; 38 : 2); the peak or summit
of a hill is called a " horn," as in Isa. 5 :
1, where the words rendered "a very fruit-
ful hill " mean " the horn of the son of
oil ;" the rays of light outstreaming from
Jehovah's hand are called "horns" (Plab.
3:4).
3. Its symbolical use. As horns are the
chief means of attack and defence with
the animals which have them, so they
serve in Scripture as the symbols of
power, dominion, glory, fierceness (Dan.
8 : 5, 9 ; Ps. 75 : 5, 10 ; 132 : 17 ; Mic. 4 :
13 ; Jer. 48 : 25 ; Ezek. 29 : 21 ; Amos 6 :
13; Luke 1 : 69). Tbis symbolical use of
the word horns led, doubtless, to the an-
cient representation of the gods as wear-
Abyssinian Chief and Druse Woiuau.
ing horns, and to the modern ornamental
use of horns on the head among many
peoples of the East, and notably by the
Druse women of Mount Lebanon. It is
well to note, too, tliat the English word
" crown," the applications of whicli are
so many and varied, is but anotlier form
of the word " horn."
Hor'net. In Scripture the hornet is
referred to only as the means Avhich Je-
hovah employed for the extirpation of the
Canaanites (Ex. 23 : 28; Deut. 7 : 20;
Josh. 24 : 12). Some commentators regard
the word as used in its literal sense, but
more probably it expresses, under a vivid
image, the consternation and panic with
which Jehovah would inspire the enemies
of Israel as the latter, with the swiftness
and the sting of hornets, should move for-
ward in the conquest.
Hor-o-na'im [tivo caverns'], a Moabit-
ish city, soutli of tlie Arnon, near Zoar,
Luhith, Nimrim, etc., on a declivity along
the route of the invading Assyrians (Isa.
15 : 5 ; .Jer. 48 : 3, 5, 34).
Horse. The most striking feature in
the biblical notices of the horse is the
HORSE-LEECH— HOUGH.
263
exclusive application of it to warlike
operations ; in no instance is that useful
animal employed for the purposes of ordi-
nary locomotion or agriculture, if we ex-
cept Isa. 28 : 28, where " horsemen " are
represented as employed in threshing,
that is, as driven about wildly over tlie
strewed grain. The animated description
of the horse in Job 89 : 19-25 applies
solely to the war-horse. The Hebrews in
the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did
not stand in need of the services of the
horse, and for a long period after their
settlement in Canaan they dispensed with
it, partly in consequence of the hilly na-
ture of the country, which only permitted
the use of chariots in certain localities
(.Judg. 1 : 19), and partly in consequence
of the prohibition in Deut. 17 : 16, which
would be held to apply at all times. Da-
vid first established a force of cavalry and
chariots after the defeat of Hadadezer (2
Sam. 8 : 4). But the great supply of
horses was subsequently effected by Solo-
mon through his connection with Egypt
(1 Kings 4 : 26). Horses in general were
not shod.
Horse-leech. The word thus ren-
dered occurs but once only (Prov. 30 : 15).
It denotes, perhaps, some species of leech,
or it may be the generic term for any
blood-sucking annelid.
Ho-san'na [snye, we pray'], the cry of
tlie multitude as they thronged our Lord
in the triumphal procession into Jerusa-
lem (Matt. 21 : 9, 15; Mark 11 : 9, 10;
John 12 : 13). The one hundred and
eighteenth Psalm, from which it was
taken, was one with which the people
were familiar from being accustomed to
recite the twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth
verses at the feast of tabernacles. On
that occasion the Hallel, consisting of Ps.
113-118 was chanted by one of the priests,
and at certain intervals the multitudes
joined in the responses, waving their
branches of willow and palm, and shout-
ing as they waved them, " Hallelujah," or
" Hosanna," or " O Lord, 1 beseech thee,
send now prosperity."
Ho-se'a [deliverance], son of Beeri and
first of the minor prophets. The title of
the book gives for the beginning of Ho-
sea's ministry the reign of Uzziah, king
of Judah, but limits this vague statement
by reference to Jeroboam II., king of Is-
rael ; it therefore yields a date not later
than B. c. 783. The pictures of social and
political life which Hosea draws so forci-
i bly are rather applicable to the interreg-
I num which followed the death of Jero-
: boam (b. c. 781-771), and to the reign of
^ the succeeding kings. The prophecies were
delivered in the kingdom of Israel, and
were extended over the long period of
fifty -nine years. They were directed spe-
cially against the people whose sins had
brought the sore disasters of prolonged
anarchy and final captivity. The style
is at times abrupt and involved, but at
other times is remarkably vivid and pic-
turesque and powerful. The book is fre-
quently quoted in the New Testament
(Matt. 9 : 13 ; 12 : 7 ; Luke 23 : 30 ; Rom.
9 : 25, 26; 1 Cor. 15 : 4; Heb. 13 : 15; 1
Pet. 2:10; Rev. 6 : 16).
Ho'sen, an old English plural of hose
(Dan. 3:21); not of our modern hose, but
the ancient trunk-hose or breeches.
Ho-she'a, the son of Nun, that is,
Joshua (Deut. 32 : 44).
Ho-she'a, the nineteenth and last
king of Israel. In the ninth year of his
reign the Assyrian king, provoked by an
attempt which Hosliea made to form an
alliance with Egypt, and so throw off' the
Assyrian yoke, marched against Samaria,
and, after a siege of three years, took it
and carried the people away into Assyria.
Such was the melancholy end of the ten
tribes of Israel as a separate kingdom (2
Kings 17 : 1-6; Hos. 13 : 16; Mic. 1 : 6).
Hough [pronounced hock], a method
employed by the ancient Israelites to ren-
254
HOUR— HOUSE.
(ler useless the captured horses of an ene-
my (Josli. 11 : 6). It consisted in ham-
stringin(/, that is, severing the principal ten-
don of the hind legs, which efiectually dis-
abled the animal.
Hour, a division of time known among
us as the twenty-fourth part of a day. One
of the earliest divisions of the day was
into morning, heat of the day, mid-day
and evening ; and of the night into first,
second and third watch. The first use of
the word hour by the sacred writers occurs
in Dan. 3 : 6, but the length of the time
denoted by it was not a fixed period. The
third, sixth and ninth hours of the day,
counting from 6 A. M., were especially
liours of prayer. The hours varied with
tlie length of the day, as they were mea-
sured from sunrise to sunset. The Egyp-
tians had twelve hours of the day and
twelve hours of the night.
House. The most accurate conception
The Inner Court of an Eastern House.
we can form of a Hebrew dwelling must be
derived from the pictures on the Egyptian
monuments and from modern Oriental
dwellings, which probably preserve the
general features of the more ancient ar-
chitecture. In forming some just idea of
a house in Palestine, we are to conceive,
first, a front of wall whose blank and
mean appearance is relieved only by the
door and a few latticed and projecting
windows. Within this is a quadrangular
court enclosed by the buildings which form
the house, and sbmetimes defined by a wide
veranda which runs around it. Into this
court the apartments look ; over it an awn-
ing is sometimes drawn ; and on festive oc-
casions its floor is strewn with carpets. It
is commonly paved with blocks of stone,
and is often adorned by a fountain in the
centre. Standing in this court and look-
ing round, we see doors and windows
opening into it on all sides from the dif-
ferent rooms. Persons coming out of
these rooms enter the court or hollow
square ; and if the house be more than
one story high the upper stories have bal-
conies defended in front by balustrades.
Frequently there is no communication be-
tween the rooms, except by passing from
door to door from the court or along the
balconies. From the court a stairway
conducts to the upper stories and to the
roof of the house. The roof is flat, and
covered with earth or plaster to exclude
HOUSEHOLD— HUNTING.
255
the rains. It is surrounded by a wall or
parapet, which protects one from falling
into the street and separates the liouse
from those adjoining. That part of the
roof which overlooks the court is gener-
ally furnished with a parapet or a wooden
railing.
Such is the general description of an
Oriental house. It may serve to illus-
trate various passages of Scripture. The
square inner coxirt was the place for hold-
ing festivals (Esth. 1:5). The temporary
covering of it was probably the roof, through
which the paralytic was let down into the
court, and which could be easily removed
(Mark 2 : 4).
The fiat roofs were resorted to for
privacy or to enjoy the evening air, and
even for sleeping ; they are referred to in 1
Sara. 9 : 25; 2 Sam. 11 : 2; 16 : 22; Neh.
8:16; Mark 13 : 15. The battlements
around the roof were enjoined by special
law (Deut. 22 : 8). In the shallow soil on
the roofs, in a season of warm rain, would
sometimes appear a growth of grass which
a day of hot sunshine would wither (Ps.
129 : 6). It was probably "through the
lattice" of the balcony overlooking the
court that Ahaziah fell (2 Kings 1 : 2).
Sometimes a small chamber was built out
from the wall (2 Kings 4:10). No ancient
houses had chimneys ; the word so trans-
lated in Hos. 13 : 3 means a hole through
which the smoke escaped. The windows
had no glass ; they were only latticed, and
thus gave free passage to the air and light.
In winter the cold air was kept out by veils
over tlie windows or by shutters witli suf-
ficient holes in them to admit light ( 1 Kings
7:4; Song 2:9). The material of which
houses were built and their furniture when
built differed according to the wealth of the
owner (1 Kings 22 : 39 ; Jer. 22 : 14). Poor
houses with clay walls illustrate Matt. 6 :
19; Ezek. 12: 5.
House'hold. The word thus render-
ed is usually, in tlie original Scriptures,
the same word which is rendered " house,"
and denotes the members of a family re-
siding in the same abode, including ser-
vants and dependants (Gen. 18 : 19 ; Lev.
16:17; Acts 16:15; 1 Cor. 1 : 16). See
Family.
Hul, a grandson of Shem. See Na-
tions, under Shemites.
HuFdah, a prophetess who in the times
of Josiah was consulted respecting the de-
nunciations contained in the book of the
Law, then recently discovered, and who
gave a response of commingled judgment
and mercy (2 Kings 22 : 14-20). She is
only known from this circumstance.
Hunt'ing'. As a matter of necessity,
whether for the extermination of danger-
ous beasts or for procuring sustenance,
hunting betokens a rude and semi-civil-
ized state ; as an amusement it betokens
an advanced state. In the former, per-
sonal prowess and physical strength are
the qualities which elevate a man above
his fellows and fit him for dominion, and
hence one of the greatest heroes of antiq-
uity is described as a "mighty hunter be-
fore tlie Lord" (Gen. 10: 9), while Ish-
mael, the progenitor of a wild race, was
famed as an archer (Gen. 21 : 20), and
Esau, holding a similar position, was " a
cunning hunter, a man of the field" (Gen.
25 : 27). The wealthy in Egypt and As-
syria followed the sports of the field witli
great zest, and from hunting-scenes they
drew subjects for decorating the walls of
their buildings and even the robes they
wore on state occasions.
The Hebrews as a pastoral and agricul-
tural people were not given to the sports
of the field. They cauglit the larger ani-
mals, lions, bears, jackals, foxes, when they
became dangerous to human life or destruc-
tive to growing crops ; they also caught tlie
hart, the roebuck and tlie fallow-deer, wli ich
formed a regular source of sustenance.
The manner of catching these animals
was either by digging a pitfall (2 Sam. 23 :
256
HUR— HYSSOP.
20), or by setting a trap (Job 18 : 10), or
by spreading a net (Isa. 51 : 20). They
caught, moreover, such birds as formed a
portion of their food. The most approved
methods of catcliing birds were the trap
(Ps. 69 : 22), tlie snare (Ps. 140 : 5), the net
(Prov. 1 : 17) and the decoy (Jer. 5 : 26, 27).
Hur, the name of the man who is men-
tioned witli Moses and Aaron on the occa-
sion of the battle with Amalek at Rephi-
dim (Ex. 17 : 10-12), when with Aaron he
stayed up the hands of Moses. He is men-
tioned again ( Ex. 24 : 14) as being, with
Aaron, left in cliarge of the people by Moses
during his ascent of Sinai. The Jewish tra-
dition is that he was the husband of Miriam,
and tiiat lie was identical with the grand-
father of Bezaleel, the chief artificer of the
tabernacle (Ex. 31 : 2).
Hus'band-man, one engaged in cul-
tivating the ground, an ancient and hon-
orable employment (Gen. 9 : 20).
Hu'shai the Archite, a friend of
David, whom he materially served during
Absalom's rebellion in defeating the coun-
sel of Ahithfiphel (2 Sam. chs. 16, 17).
Husks, a term applied in this country
to the outward covering of the ears of In-
dian corn, but in Luke 15 : 16 to the pods
of the carob tree ( Ceratonia siliqua), a coarse
food usually given to swine and cattle, but
sometimes eaten by the children of the
poor. It is sold in our cities as " St. John's
Bread," from the mistaken idea that it is
referred to when John the Baptist is said
to have eaten " locusts and wild honey."
Hy-nien-e'us, a professor of Cliris-
tianity at Ephesus, who, with Alexander ( 1
Tim. 1 : 20) and with Philetus (2 Tim. 2:
17, 18), asserted that the resurrection was
past. Paul, in vindication of the truth,
"delivered" him "unto Satan" (1 Tim.
1 : 20), which may mean not only an ex-
clusion from the Church, but the inflic-
tion of some bodily infirmity to teach
him " not to blaspheme."
Hymn. This word is not found in our
Authorized Version of the Old Testament ;
and in the New Testament it occui-s in four
passages only ( Matt. 26 : 30 ; Mark 14 : 26 ;
Eph. 5 : 19 ; Col. 3:16). In Acts 1 6 : 25 ;
Heb. 2 : 1 2 it is represented by the word
" praise." The term is a general and some-
what indefinite one for a kind of devotion-
al exercise in which either several psalms
were chanted successively or some out-
bursts of Christian sentiment in metrical
form were sung, such as those which we
find in Eph. 5:14; James 1:17; Rev. 1 :
8 ; 15:3, and which are thought by many
to be fragments of ancient hymns. The
"hymn" which our Lord sang with his
disciples at the Last Supper was the Hal-
Id, or Ps. 113-118; Ps. 113 and 114 being
sung before and the rest after the passover.
Hyp'o-crite, one who feigns to be
what he is not ; in especial, one who puts
on the cloak of religion to hide some
wicked scheme which he proposes to
achieve. According to our Lord, the
Pharisees, with all their decorous moral-
ities, were really "hypocrites" i^Matt. 6 :
16; Luke 11 :39; 42-44).
Hys'sop, a plant which is often men-
tioned in Scripture as
used in ceremonial
sprinklings (Ex. 12 :
22; Heb. 9: 19). In
^Srt",^^ John 19 : 29 it is said
^^ /^ a soldier filled a
sponge with vinegar
and put it upon hys-
sop, probably the stem
of the plant, and of-
fered it to the sufl^er-
ing Saviour. Noth-
ing satisfactory has
been determined as to
the particular plant
intended under this
name. The prepon-
derant opinion, how-
ever, is toward a
Hyssop.
plant of the marjoram tribe.
IBLEAM— IDOLATEY.
257
I.
Ib^le-am [people-waster], a city of Ma-
nasseh, but territorially belonging to an-
other tribe — to Issachar or to Asher (Josh.
17 : 11 ; Judg. 1 : 27 ; 2 Kings 9 : 27).
Ib'zan [illustriouxl, a native of Beth-
lehem of Zebnlun, who, after Jephthah,
judged Israel for seven years. His pros-
perity is indicated by the number of his
children, thirty sons and thirty daughters
(.Judg. 12 : S-10).
Ich'a-bod [ Where is the glory f that is,
there is no ghry], the son of Phinehas and
grandson of Eli, born at the moment his
mother heard of her husband's death and
the ark's seizure by the Philistine enemies
of her country (1 Sam. 4 : 19-22).
I-co'ni-um, formerly the capital of
Lycaonia, and at present, under the name
of Konieh, the capital of Caramania in
Asia Minor, at the base of Mount Tau-
rus. About A. D. 45 it was visited by
Paul and Barnabas, whose success in
preaching the gospel so exasperated Jews
and Gentiles as to put their lives in dan-
ger ; accordingly, they fled to Lystra and
Derbe (Acts 14 : 1-6). In company with
Silas, Paul visited it a second time (Acts
16 : 1-6), and possibly a third time (Acts
18 : 23). To the persecution he confront-
ed here Paul toward the close of his life
touchingly refers (2 Tim. 3:11). The mod-
ern Konieh is a large Turkish town of about
thirty thousand inhabitants.
Id'do, the name of several men.
1. A seer or prophet who recorded nu-
merous events in the reigns of Solomon,
Eehoboam and Abijah (2 Chron. 9 : 29,■
12 : 15; 13 : 22). His writings are lost,
but they may have formed part of the ma-
terial for the existing books of Chroni-
cles.
2. The grandfather of the prophet Zech-
ariah (Zech. 1:1,7); he returned from
17
Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh.
12 : 4).
3. The chief of those who assembled at
Casiphia at the time of the second caravan
from Babylon. He was one of the Nethi-
nim (Ezra 8 : 17, 20).
I-doFa-try, the worship of Deity in
a visible form, whether the images to which
homage is paid are symbolical representa-
tions of the true God or of the false divin-
ities which have been made the objects of
worship in his stead.
The first allusion in the Scriptures to
idolatry or idolatrous customs is in the ac-
count of Rachel's stealing her fiither's ter-
aphim (Gen. 31 : 19), a relic of the wor-
ship of other gods, whom the ancestors of
the Israelites served "on the other side of
the river, in old time" (Josh. 24 : 2).
During their long residence in Egypt,
the country of symbolism in pre-eminence,
the Israelites defiled themselves with the
idols of the land. To these idol-gods
Moses, the herald of .Jehovah, flung down
the gauntlet of defiance, and the plagues
of Egypt smote their symbols (Num. 33 :
4). Yet with the memory of their deliv-
erance fresh in their minds the Israelites
clamored, at Sinai, for some visible shape
of the God who had brought them out of
Egypt (Ex. 32 : 4), and received from
Aaron, as the symbol of Deity, what they
had long been familiar with — namely, the
calf, embodiment of Apis and emblem of
the productive power of Nature. For a
while the erection of the tabernacle and
the establishment of the worship which
accompanied it satisfied that craving for
an outward sign which the Israelites con-
stantly exhibited ; but after the conquest
and the death of Joshua their strong and
overpowering tendency toward visible ob-
jects of worship asserted itself in numer-
258
IDUM.EA— IMMORTALITY.
ous and most injurious forms. The his-
tory of the two kingdoms is a sad recital
of the prevalence and power of idolatry,
which terminated at length in the utter
overthrow of Israel and the seventy years'
captivity of Judah.
As to the objects which idolatry pre-
sented to men's minds for adoration and
worship, a few sentences will suffice to
state them. In the old religion of the
Shemitic races the Deity was conceived
of, in accordance with human analogy,
as male and female — the one represent-
ing tlie active, tlie other the passive, prin-
ciple of Nature ; the former tlie source of
spiritual, the latter of physical, life. The
sun and moon were early selected as out-
ward symbols of this all-pervading power,
and the worship of the heavenly bodies
was not only the most ancient, but also
the most prevalent, system of idolatry.
Taking its rise in the plains of Chaldsea,
it spread through Syria and Egypt { Dent.
4 : 19; 17 : 3; Job 31 : 26-28), and, as we
learn from other sources than the Scrip-
tures, extended to Greece, Scytliia, and even
Mexico and Csylon. It is probable that
the Israelites learned their first lessons in
sun-worship from tlie Egyptians, in whose
religious system that luminary held a
prominent place. Tlie Phoenicians wor-
shiped him under the title of Baal,
"Lord of heaven." As Moloch or Mil-
corn the sun was worshiped by the Am-
monites, and as Chemosh by the Moab-
ites. The Hadad of the Syrians is tlie
same deity. The Assyrian Bel or Belus
is another form of Baal. The moon, wor-
shiped by the Phoenicians under the name
of Astarte, the passive power of Nature as
Baal was the active, and known to the
Hebrews as Ashtaroth or Ashtoreth, the
tutelary godd' ss of the Zidonians, ap-
pears early among the objects of Israel-
itish idolatry. Later, the worship of
the planets received a full share of pop-
ular attention (2 Kings 23 : 5).
I-du-mse'a, the Greek form of tlie
Hebrew name Edom (which see).
Il-lyr'i-cum, a country lying north-
west of Macedonia, and answering nearly
to what is now called Dalmatia, by which
name its southern part was anciently
called. Titus visited this country (2
Tim. 4 : 10) and Paul came to its fron-
tier, if, indeed, he did not enter its ter-
ritory (Rom. 15 : 19).
Im'age. The word is commonly em-
ployed to designate a visible representa-
tion of deity, whether true or false (Ex.
20 : 4-6 ; Lev. 26 : 1 ; Deut. 4:16; Ps.
97 :7). But when man is said to have
been created in God's "image" (Gen. 1 :
27), and when our Lord Christ is de-
scribed as the "image of the invisible
God" (Col. 1 : 15) and as the "express
image of God's person" (Heb. 1 : 3), the
word evidently has a different sense. It
imports a complete and exact likeness,
such as that which exists between a se:il
and its impression when the one is the
faithful counterpart of the other. Orig-
inally, man bore the image of God in
mental power and moral purity ; and al-
though the higher spiritual features of
this image have been defaced by sin, suf-
ficient remains in intellect, personality, do-
minion over the lower orders of creation
and a profound sense of immortality to
attest the grandeur of his being. As to
our Lord Christ, he is " God manifest
in the flesh" (1 Tin*. 3 : 16), "in whom
dwelkth all tlie fullness of the Godhead
bodily" (Col. 2:9).
Im-man'u-el [God with ns}, a pro-
phetic distinctive title of Messiah, our
Lord Jesus Christ (Isa. 7 : 14 ; ]Matt. 1 :
23).
Im-mor-tari-ty, the perpetuity of
existence after it has once begun. Whether
the doctrine can or cannot be proved apart
from revelation, it has in revelation itself
an emphatic and authoritative statement
(1 Cor. 15 : 54, 55; 2 Tim. 1 : 10).
IMPUTATION— INK, INKHORN.
259
Im-pu-ta^tion, placing to one's ac-
count (Ps. 32 : 2; Rom. 4 : 5-13; 5 : 12-
19; Philemon 18). The spiritual unity
of Adam and each of his descendants is
such that to every human being sin is
imputed. This imputed sin may be for-
given, and is forgiven to every human
being who by faith is united to the sec-
ond Adam, "the Lord from heaven."
The spiritual unity of our Lord Christ
and his people is such that every be-
liever in him through the imputation
of his spotless righteousness is delivered
from the guilt and power and misery of
sin, and is entitled "to an inheritance in-
corruptible and undefiled, and that fadetli
not away" (1 Pet. 1:4).
In^cense, the compound of frankin-
cense and other aromatic gums wliich in
the worship of Jehovah, on the morning
and evening of each day, was burned on
the "altar of incense" in the tabernacle,
and afterward the temple (Ex. 30 : 7, 8,
34, 35). The preparation of it for com-
mon use was positively forbidden, neither
could any other composition be offered as
incense on the golden altar, nor could the
prescribed incense be offered by any but
the priest. The morning incense was of-
fered when the lamps were trimmed in the
Holy Place, and before the sacrifice, when
the watchman set for the purpose announced
the dawn of day. When the lamps were
liglited " between the evenings," after the
evening sacrifice and before the drink-of-
ferings were offered, incense was again
burnt on the golden altar, which stood
before the veil separating the Holy Place
from the Holy of Holies, the throne of God
(Rev. 8 : 4). When the priest entered the
Holy Place with the incense, all the people
were removed from the temple and from
between the porch and the altar. Pro-
found silence was observed among the
congregation who were praying without
(Luke 1 : 10). At a signal from the pre-
fect the priest cast the incense on the fire,
and bowing reverently toward the Holy
of Holies retired slowly backward. The
offering of incense has formed a part of
the religious ceremonies of most ancient
nations.
In'di-a. This word occurs twice in
the book of Esther, and nowhere else in
the Scriptures (Esth. 1:1; 8:9). The
king "Ahasuerus reigned from India to
Ethiopia." The India here spoken of in-
cluded no more of the present India than
the districts around the Indus — the Pan-
jab and, it may be, Scinde.
In-gath^er-ing-, Feast of. See
Feast.
In-her'it-ance. In Eastern coun-
tries the portions of children were often
distributed to them by the father during
his lifetime. Abraham gave all he had
to Isaac (Gen. 24 : 36). The father in
the parabb divided his living with his
two sons, as if the practice were not un-
common (Luke 15 : 12). The laws of
inheritance among the Hebrews were
very simple. Land might be mortgaged,
but could not be alienated ; the only per-
manent right to real estate was by lineal
succession. The eldest son had a double
portion. Females had not territorial pos-
session ; if a man left no sons, his daugh-
ters inherited, but on condition of not
marrying out of that family of the tribe
to which the deceased father belonged.
If a man left no children at all, his heirs
were determined by the statute in Num.
27 : 8-11. Personal property only could
be distributed at will. Real-estate being
so strictly tied up, the notion of heirship,
as we understand it, was hardly known to
the Jews. Succession was a matter of right
and not of favor. The references to wills
in the New Testament (Heb. 9 : 17) are
borrowed from the usages of Greece and
Rome, whence the custom was introduced
into Judfea.
In-iq^ui-ty. See Sin.
Ink, Inkhorn. See Writing.
260
INN— ISAAC.
Eastern Caravanserai or Inn.
Inn. Tlie Hebrew word thus rendered
literally signifies " a lodging-place for the
night." Inns, in our sense of the term,
were, as they still are, unknown in the
East, where hospitality is religiously prac-
ticed. The khans or caravanserais :\re the
representatives of European inns, and tiiese
were established but gradually. The halt-
ing-place of a caravan was selected orig-
inally on account of its proximity to
water or pasture, by which the travelers
pitched their tents and passed the night.
Such was undoubtedly the " inn " at which
occurred the incident in the life of Moses
narrated in Ex. 4 : 24. On the more fre-
quented routes, remote from towns (Jer.
9 : 2), caravanserais were in course of
time erected, often at the expense of the
wealthy. These caravanserais were large
and substantial buildings, which furnished
lodging-places for men aTid animals, but
not provisions.
In-spi-ra^tion [a breadline) into'], the
terra expressive of the special influence of
God's Spirit upon the minds of the writers
in the production of the Scriptures of truth
(2 Tim. 3 : If); 2 Pet. 1 : 20, 21). Such
an origin of tlie Scriptures invests them
with an alisolute certainty and an infalli-
ble authority.
In-ter-ces'sion, the act of interpos-
ing in behalf of another, to plead for him
(Isa. 53 : 12; Rom. 8 : 34). The inter-
cession of our Lord Christ, the ''great
High Priest that is passed into the hea-
vens" (Heb. 4 : 14), is righteous, or found-
ed on justice and truth (Heb. 7 : 26), cmi-
passionate (Heb. 2 : 17), perpetual (Heb.
7 : 25), efficacious (1 John 2:1).
Iron, mentioned with brass (copper)
as the earliest of knoAvn metals (Gen.
4 : 22). As it is generally found in
combination with oxygen, the working
or forging of it by Tubal-Cain implies
a knowledge of smelting. The natural
wealth of Canaan is indicated by de-
scribing the land as " a land whose stones
are iron " (Dent. 8 : 9). The book of Job
indicates that iron was a metal well known
(Job 28 : 2; 40 : 18). The furnace of iron
(Deut. 4 : 20; 1 Kings 8 : 51) is a figure
which vividly expresses hard bondage as
represented by tlie severe labor attendant
upon the operation of smelting.
Ir-She^m.esh \_city of the Suv'\, a city
of Dan, near Zorah and Eshtaol (Josh.
19:41), identical with Beth-Shemesh
(which sec^.
I'saac [Jaughterl, the son whom Sarah,
in accordance with the divine promise, bore
to Abraham in the hundredth year of his
age, at Gerar. In his infancy he became
the object of Ishmael's jealousy, and in
his youth the victim, in intention, of
ISAIAH— ISHMAEL.
261
Abraham's great sacrificial act of faith.
Wlie.i forty years old he married Re-
bekah, his cousin, by whom, when he
was sixty, he had two sons, Esau and
Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year he and
his brother Ishmael buried their father
Abraham in the cave of Machpelah. He
became immensely wealthy in flocks and
herds. At the age of one hundred and
eighty years he died, and was buried bj'
his two sons in the same capacious sepul-
clire where his father and mother and
wife had already been laid to rest. Isaac,
in a pre-eminent sense, wiis a quiet and
j)eaceful man. Retiring in habit and gen-
tle in disposition, he lived a secluded and
meditative life. To him ambition seems
to have been unknown ; in him appear
the mild and modest qualities of submis-
sion, docility, resignation.
I-sai'ah Isalvalion of Jehovahl, son of
Amoz, the great prophet who prophesied
" concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the
days of Uzziah, .Jotham, Ahaz and Heze-
kiah, kings of Judah" (Isa. 1:1). At
the close of Hezekiah's reign and the be-
ginning of Manasseh's, Isaiah must have
been an old man, between eighty and
ninety years. According to tradition, he
was sawn asunder in a trunk of a tree by
order of Manasseh, to which a reference
is supposed to be made in Heb. 11 : 37.
The book of liis prophecies consists of
two great sections — the first embracing
the first thirty-nine cliapters, and reflect-
ing the prophet's relations to public af-
fairs ; the second embracing the last twen-
ty-seven chapters, and containing a close-
ly-connected series of the most spiritual
disclosures touching the future history of
God's people under the Messiah. This
second part is analogous to the last speeches
of Moses in the fields of Moab, and to the
last speeches of our Lord to his disciples
as related by John. Above all other
prophets Isaiah stands pre-eminent, as
well in the contents and spirit of his pre-
dictions as also in their form and style.
Simplicity, clearness, sublimity and fresh-
ness are the never-failing characters of his
prophecies. The spiritual riches of the
I prophet are strikingly apparent in the
I variety of his style, which always befits
the subject. When he rebukes and threat-
ens, his language resembles the rush and
1 roar of a storm ; when he comforts and
I soothes, his words are as soft and persua-
sive as a mother's to her frightened child.
He is a born and a thoroughly-trained
poet.
Ish-bo'sheth [man of sliame^, the
youngest of Saul's four sons, and liis legit-
imate successor, being the only sou who
survived him (2 Sam. 2-4). He was thirty-
five years of age at the battle of Gilboa, but
for five years Abner was engaged in re-
storing the dominion of the house of
Saul (2 Sam. 3:10). The death of Ab-
ner deprived the house of Saul of its last
remaining support. Ishbosheth was as-
sassinated by two Beerothites, Baana and
Rechab, who took liis head to David in
hope of reward, but who received there-
for a stern rebuke and an instant, igno-
minious death (2 Sam. 4 : 5-12).
Isll'ma-el [heard of God'], the name
of two men.
1. The son of Abraham by Hagar the
Egyptian, born when Abraham was eighty-
six years old (Gen. 16 : 15, 16). When
some sixteen years of age, for disrespect
to the child Isaac, and perhaps to the
child's mother, he wa.s sent away with
his mother from Abraham's household,
and became a roamer of the desert. " His
mother," we are told, "took him a wife out
of the land of Egypt" (Gen. 21 : 21). This
wife was the mother of twelve sons and a
daughter (Gen. 25 : 12-18; 28 : 9). The
daughter became the wife of Esau, and the
twelve sons the pi'ogenitors of the Arab
nation. The term Ishmap:hte occurs in
Gen. 37 : 25, 27, 28 ; 39 : 1 ; Judg. 8 : 24 ;
Ps. 83 : 6.
262
ISLAND, ISLE— ITHAMAK.
2. The son of Nethaniah, a perfect mar-
vel of craft and villainy, whose treachery
forms one of the chief episodes of the pe-
riod immediately succeeding the first fall
of Jerusalem. His exploits are related
in Jer. 40 : 7-16 ; 41 : 1-18. His full de-
scription is, " Ishmael, the son of Netha-
niah, the son of Elisliama, of the seed-
royal " of Judah (Jer. 41 : 1 ; 2 Kings
25 : 25).
Isl'and, Isle. The geographical def-
inition of an island is a tract of land de-
tached from the main land and entii-ely
surrounded by water. In this sense the
word is probably used in Esth. 10:1,
where the "isles of the sea" are put in
opposition to the continent or main land.
The word translated "island" will not
always bear this strict geographical mean-
ing. It often denotes simply dry land, in
opposition to water, as in the phrase, "I
will make the rivers islands" (Isa. 42 :
15) ; and the coast-country of Tyre is
meant by "the isle" in Isa. 23 : 2, 6. The
word was also used by the Hebrews to de-
note all the countries divided from them
by the sea. Thus in Isa. 11 : 11, after an
enumeration of the countries on their own
continent, all foreign ones are included in
the expression, "the islands of the sea;"
so also Isa. 42 : 10; 59 : 18, and various
other places.
Is'ra-el [pi-ince or prevailer with Godi,
the name given to Jacob after his success-
ful wrestle with the angel at Mahanaim,
or Peniel (Gen. 32 : 1, 2, 24-30). This
name of the patriarch has other applica-
tions. The Hebrews were called Israel
(Ex. 4 : 22) and Israelites (Josh. 3 : 17),
as descending from Jacob. In later times,
when the kingdom was divided into two, the
kingdom wliich embraced the ten tribes
was called Israel to distinguish it from
the kingdom of Judah (1 Kings 12 : 19-24).
The kingdom of Israel lasted two hundred
and fifty-four years, from b. c. 975 to B. c.
721, about two-tliirds of the duration of
its more compact neighbor, Judah. It
had nineteen kings, one less than the
kingdom of Judah. In the New Testa-
ment the name Israel is applied to all
true believers (Gal. 6 : 16).
Is'sa-char [reward], the fifth son of
Jacob and Leah (Gen. 30 : 17, 18), and
the head of one of the tribes of Israel.
The only incident of his personal history
recorded in Scripture is the fact that he
was the father of four sons (Gen. 4G : 13).
The tribe of Issacliar when it left Egypt
was the fifth in numerical force, but by
its increase in the wilderness it became
the third, Judah and Dan alone outrank-
ing it (Num. 1, 26). The allotment of
territory to this tribe in Palestine em-
braced the most of the plain of Esdraelon
and the neighboring districts, the finest
agricultural section of the country, bound-
ed on the eavSt by the Jordan, on the north
by Zebulun, on the west and south by Ma-
nasseh. Among its towns were Megiddo,
Taanach, Shunem, Jezreel, Bethshan, and
the villages of Endor, Aphek and Ibleam,
all historical names. With so fertile a ter-
ritory the tribe was naturally attracted to
agriculture, and its descriptive prophecy
by the dying Jacob (Gen. 49 : 14, 15) was
fulfilled in its patient industry and pro-
ductive toil. The tribe is commendeil
for its wisdom and prudence (1 Cliron.
12 : 32), and, although fond of peaceful
pursuits, never. shrank from any military
service to which it was properly sum-
moned (Judg. 5 : 15).
It'a-ly. This word is used in the
New Testament (Acts 18:2; 27 : 1 ; Heb.
13 : 24) in tlie usual sense of the period —
that is, in its true geographical sense, as
denoting the whole natural peninsula be-
tween the Alps and the Straits of Mes-
sina.
Ith'a-mar, the youngest son of Aaron
(Ex. 6 : 23). After the deaths of Nadab
and Abihu (Lev. 10 : 1) he and his broth-
er Eleazar succeeded to the priestly ofiice
ITTAI— IZHAR.
263
(Ex. 28 : 1, 40, 43 ; Num. 3 : 3, 4 ; 1 Cliron.
24 : 2).
Ittai, the name of two men.
1. " Ittai the Gittite," a native of Gath
and a Philistine in the army of King Da-
vid (2 Sam. 15 : 19). At the outbz-eak of
Absalom's rebellion he gave a conspicu-
ous proof of his loyalty to King David,
and was entrusted with the command
of a third part of the king's forces (2
Sam. 18 : 2, 5, 12).
2. Son of Eibai, from Gibeali of Benja-
min, one of the thirty heroes of David's
guard (2 Sam. 23 : 29).
It-u-ras'a, a small province of Syria,
on the northern border of Bashan, deriv-
ing its name, as is supposed, from Itur or
Jetur, one of Ishmael's sons (Gen. 25 : 15 ;
1 Chron. 1 : 31). It became the possession
of the half-tribe of Manasseh. The name
seems still to be preserved in the present
Jedur, which, lying south of Damascus
and north of the Hauran, occupies the
same portion of country, and consists of
table-land with an undulating surface,
covered in the northern part with jagged
basaltic rocks. At the beginning of our
Lord's ministry it belonged to the te-
trarchy of Philip, son of Herod the
Great (Luke 3:1).
I^vah, a city in Babylonia, mentioned
as having been subdued, in spite of its
gods, by the Assyrian power (2 Kings
18 : 34; 19 : 13; Isa. 37 : 13). It is sup-
posed to be the same with the Ahava of
Ezra (Ezra 8 : 15, 21, 31), the modern Hit.
See Ahava.
I^vory, the substance of the tusk of
the elephant. It is remarkable that no
woi-d in bil)lical Hebrew denotes an ele-
phant, unless the latter portion of the word
rendered "ivory" {fhen-habbim, found in 1
Kings 10 : 22 and 2 Chron. 9 : 21) be sup-
posed to have this meaning. Sir Henry
Rawlinson mentions a word habba, which
he met with in the Assyrian inscriptions,
and which he understands to mean " the
large animal," the term being applied
both to the elephant and the camel.
There is, however, an old Egyptian term
ebu (apparently the same as the Coptic
ebros, "an elephant"), which in the plural
and with the Hebrew article before it
would be ha-ebbim or habbim, "elephants."
The Assyrians appear to have carried
on a great traffic in ivory. Their early
conquests in India had made them famil-
iar with it, and (according to one render-
ing of Ezek. 27 : 6) their artists supplied
the luxurious Tyrians with carvings in
ivory from the isles of Chittim. Many
specimens of Assyrian carving in ivory
have been found in the excavations at
Nimrud, and among the rest some tablets
richly inlaid with blue and opaque glass,
lapis lazuli and the like. Part of an ivory
staff, apparently a sceptre, and several en-
tire elephants' tusks were discovered by
Mr. Layard. Among the merchandise of
Babylon, enumerated in Rev. 18 : 12, are
included " all manner vessels of ivory."
The skilled workmen of Hiram, king
of Tyre, fashioned the great ivory throne
of Solomon and overlaid it with pure
gold (1 Kings 10:18; 2 Chron. 9:
17). The ivory thus used was supplied
either by the caravans of Dedan (Isa. 21 :
13 ; Ezek. 27 : 15) or by the navy of Tar-
shish (1 Kings 10 : 22). The ivt>ry house
of Ahab (1 Kings 22 : 39) was probably a
palace, the walls of which were paneled
with ivory, like the palace of Menelaus
described by Homer in the Odyssey. Beds
inlaid or veneered with ivory were in use
among the Hebrews (Amos 6 : 4), and, ac-
cording to Wilkinson, among the Egyp-
tians.
Iz'har [oil], son of Kohath, grandson
of Levi, uncle of Aaron and Moses and
father of Korah (Ex. 6 : 18, 21 ; Num. 3 :
19 ; 16:1; 1 Chron. 6 : 2, 18). Izhar was
the head of the family of the Izharites or
Izeharites (Num. 3 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 26 : 23,
29).
264
JAAZER— JABEZ.
Ja'a-zer, more commonly Ja'zer, a
city of the Amorites, eiist of Jordan, in or
iiearGilead (Num. 21 : 32). It was conquer-
ed and assigned to Gad, and afterward allot-
ted to tlie Merari Levites (Josh. 21 : 39).
In later times, Jaazer fell into the hands
of the Moabites, and is repeatedly men-
tioned in the prophetic denunciations
against Moab (Isa. 16 : 8, 9; Jer. 48 : 32).
Its site is supposed to be the modern Sir,
eight miles west of Amman and fifteen
north of He&hdn.
Ja'bal [a stream], tlie son of Lamech
and Adah (Gen. 4 : 20) and brother of
Jubal. He is described as the father of
sucli as dwell in tents and have cattle.
^IsIS
Jabbok.
Jab'bok \^pourin(f\, a stream of water
on the east of Jordan, taking its rise in
the mountains of Gilead, and after a
conrse of about sixty miles falling into
tlie Jordan about midway between the
Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. It is
first mentioned in Gen. 32 : 22, and after-
ward as the boundary between the Amor-
ites and Annnonites (Num. 21 : 23, 24). It
is now called Zerka, the Blue River. Its
volume of water is much smaller in sum-
mer than in winter, and it is not more
than thirty feet broad. It has cut through
Gilead a narrow channel-way, and as it
nears the Jordan plunges into a very deep
ravine, whose high banks are fringed with
thickets of cane and oleander.
Ja'besh [t/,-;/], or Ja'besh-Gil'-
e-ad, a city of Gilead belonging to the
half-tribe of Manasseh, situated on a
mountain east of the Jordan. Because
its inhabitants would not join in the cru-
sades against Benjamin, the whole male
population was destroyed, and four hun-
dred virgins were seized in order to
be given in marriage to tiie renniant
of the Benjamites (Judg. 21 : 8-14).
It subsequently sustained a memo-
rable siege by the Ammonites, and
when nearly reduced to extremity
was released by Saul, who brought
a sufficient force to raise the siege.
This exploit confirmed Saul's sover-
eignty (1 Sam. 11:12), and strongly
attached the inhabitants of Jabesli-
Gilead to Saul's person. After the
disastrous battle of Gilboa, when the
bodies of the dead king and ins three
sons were nailed to the wall of Beth-
shan, a bold troop of its })c()i)]e made
a forced night-march, took down the
bodies and with every demonstration
of grief gave them burial ( 1 Sam. 31 :
8-13).
Ja'bez [^ctfflicter], a descendant of Ju-
dah who is described as " more honorable
than his brethren " (1 Chron. 4:9), though
who they were is not ascertainable. He
"called on the God of Israel" in a prayer
which is recorded, and which was fully an-
swered. Jabez is, also, the name of a
JABIN— JACOB.
265
place inhabited by scribes (Kenites and
Rechabites), 1 Chron. 2 : 55.
Ja'bin [discemer'], the name of two
kings.
1. A king of the Canaanitish city of
Ilazor, one of the most powerful of all
the princes who reigned in Canaan at the
time of the Conquest (Josh. 11 : 1-14).
He organized a confederacy of the north-
ern princes against the Israelites, but the
allied forces were surprised by Joshua at
the waters of Merom and utterly routed.
During the wars that followed liis city was
burned by Joshua.
2. A king of Hazor wliose general, Si-
sera, was defeated by Barak (Judg. 4 : 2,
13-16).
Jab'neel [God builds'], a town on the
border of Judah, occupied by the Philis-
tines, and under the name of Jabneh
dismantled by Uzziah (2 Chron. 26 : 6).
It is now called Jebna. Its site is on a
hill two miles from the sea and eleven
south of Jaffa.
Jab'neh, the same as Jabneel.
Ja'chin [He establisheth] and Boaz
[ in Him is stremjUi] , the names of two bronze
columns, the former on the south, the latter
on the north, set up in tlie porch of Solo-
mon's temple (1 Kings 7 : 15-22 ; 2 Chron.
3 : 17), and doubtless of symbolical import.
At the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebu-
chadnezzar these pillars were broken to
pieces, and their material was carried to
Babylon (2 Kings 25 : 13; Jer. 52 : 17).
Ja'cinth, a precious stone forming one
of the foundations of the walls of the New
Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 20). It is a red va-
riety of zircon, which is found in square
prisms of a white, gray, red, reddish-
brown, yellow or pale-green color. The
expression "of jacinth" in Rev. 9: 17,
applied to the breastplate, is descriptive
simply of a hyacinthine or dark-purple
color.
Ja'cob [snpplantfr'], the second-born
of the twin sons of Isaac by Rebekah.
He was born when his father was fifty-
nine and his grandfather one hundied and
fifty -nine years old. He bought the birth-
right from his brother Esau, and after-
ward, at his mother's instigation, acquired
the blessing intended for Esau by prac-
ticing a well-known deceit on Isaac.
Hitherto, the two sons had shared the
wanderings of their father in the south
country, but now Jacob, in his seventy-
eighth year, was sent from the family
home to avoid his brother and to seek a
wife among his kindred in Padan-Aram.
As he passed through Bethel, God ap-
peared to him. After the lapse of twen-
ty-one years he returned from Padan-
Aram with two principal wives, two sub-
ordinate wives, eleven sons and a daugh-
ter, and a very large property. By the
interposition of God he escaped from the
angry pursuit of Laban, from a hostile
meeting with Esau and from the ven-
geance of the Canaanites provoked by
the murder of Shechem ; and in sign of
God's grace, won in a night of wrestling
prayer, his name was changed at Jabbok
into Israel. At Hebron, in the one hun-
dred and twenty-second yejir of his age,
he and Esau buried their father Isaac.
Joseph, his favorite son, had been sold
into Egypt eleven years before the death
of Isaac, and had passed in Egypt the
long interval of twenty years before Ja-
cob, in the one hundred and thirtieth year
of his age, was summoned to the banks of
the Nile. In the land of Goshen he led a
prosperous and peaceful life for seventeen
years ; and then, after pronouncing on Jo-
seph's children a remarkable prophetic
blessing, died in his one hundred and
forty-seventli year. His body was em-
balmed, carried with great pomp into the
land of Canaan and buried in the cave of
Mach]ielah with the remains of his fathers.
In natural gifts Jacob seems to have been
less richly endowed than his brother Esau,
but in his later years he was converted by
266
JADDUA— JAMES.
the grace of God into a fine specimen of
the disciplined, enlightened, conscientious,
prayerful, trusting man. lie who in early
life had been known as a practicer of sub-
tle devices, as a timid and treacherous
" supplanter," confronted death at last as
a " princely prevailer with God" and as
a prophet commissioned to utter the mes-
sages of God to his remotest posterity.
Jad'du-a [Icnown'], the son of Jona-
than, and the last high priest mentioned
in the Old Testament (Neh. 12 : 11, 22).
Ja'el, the wife of Ileber the Kenite.
In the headlong rout which followed the
defeat of the Canaanites by Barak, Sisera,
abandoning his chariot the more easily to
avoid notice, fled unattended to the tent
of the Kenite chieftainess. He accepted
Jael's invitation to enter, and she flung a
mantle over him as lie lay wearily on the
floor. He asked for water, and was served
with a preparation of curdled milk, a ftivor-
ite beverage to this day with the Arab tribes.
"With a feeling of perfect security he resign-
ed liimself to a sound sleep, when Jael took
one of the great wooden pins which fosten-
ed down the cords of tlie tent, and, grasp-
ing in her right hand the mallet used to
drive it into the ground, with one terri-
ble blow dashed it through Sisera's tem-
ples deep into the earth (Judg. 5 : 27).
She then waited to meet the pursuing
Barak, and led him into her tent, that
she might in his presence claim the glory
of the deed.
Jah, a contraction for Jeitovah (Ps.
68 : 4).
Ja'haz \_trodclen down'], called elsewhere
Jahaza, Jahazali and Jahzah, a city beyond
the .Jordan and north of the Arnon, where
Sihon, king of the Aniorites, was defeated
by the Israelites (Num. 21 : 23, 24). It
was afterward a Levitical city (Josh. 21 :
36). It is mentioned in the denunciation
of Moab by the prophet Isaiah ( 15 : 4)
and by the prophet Jeremiah (48 : 34).
Ja'ir [He enlightens], the name of seve-
ral men, of whom two only need be men-
tioned.
1. A man who on his father's side was
descended from Judah, and on his mother's
from Manasseh. During the Conquest he
took the whole of the tract of Argob ( Deut.
3 : 14), and in addition possessed himself
of some nomad villages in Gilead, which
he called after his own name Havoth-
Jair (Num. 32 : 41 ; 1 Chron. 2 : 23).
2. " Jair the Gileadite," who judged Is-
rael for two-and-twenty years (Judg. 10 :
3-5). He had thirty sons, who rode thir-
ty asses and possessed thirty cities in the
land of Gilead, wiiich, like those of their
namesake, were called Havoth-Jair.
Jai'rus, an otherwise unknown ruler
of the synagogue at Capernaum, whose
only daughter our Lord restored to life
(Mark 5: 22; Luke 8 :41).
Jam'bres. See Jan'nes and Jam'-
BRES.
James, the name of two, and perhaps
three, persons in Scripture.
1. James the son of Zebedee, one of
the twelve apostles. We first hear of him
in A. r>. 27, w'hen Zebedee, a fisherman
(Mark 1 : 20), was out on the Sea of
Galilee with his two sons, James and
John, and some boatmen. He was en-
gaged in his customary occupation of
fishing, and near him was another boat
belonging to Simon and Andrew, with
whom he and his sons were in partner-
ship. Finding themselves unsuccessful,
the occupants of both boats came ashore
and began to wash their nets. At this
time Jesus, the new Teacher, appeared
upon the beach, and at his call they left
boats and nets and became once and for
ever his disciples and fishers of men. In
the spring of a. d. 28, James was called
to the apostleship (Matt. 10 : 2; Mark 3 :
17 ; Luke 6 : 14 ; Acts 1 : 13). With one
exception (Luke 9 : 28), the name of James
is put before that of John, and twice (Ma: k
5 : 37 ; Matt. 17 : 1) John is described as
JAMES, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF— JAPHETH.
267
"the brother of James," implying that
James was the elder. On the night be-
fore our Lord's crucifixion he was pres-
ent at the agony in the garden. On the
day of the ascension he is mentioned as
persevering with the rest of the apostles
in prayer (Acts 1 : 13). Shortly before
the passover in A. D. 44 he was put to
death by Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12 :
1,2).
2. James the son of Alph^us, one
of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10:3; Mark
3 : 18; Luke 6 : 15; Acts 1 : 13). His
mother's name was Mary (Matt. 27 : 56;
Mark 15 : 40). He is called James the
Less, or Little, either as being younger
than James the son of Zebedee or on ac-
count of his low stature (Mark 16:1;
Luke 24 : 10). It is much disputed
whether tliis James is the same with
"James the Lord's brother" (Gal.
1 : 19), but the express title of apostle
given to him in this last passage, as well
as in 1 Cor. 15 : 7, seems decisive as to
tlieir identity, no other James, except
" James the brother of John," being
mentioned among the twelve. At some
time in the forty days that intervened be-
tween the resurrection and the ascension
our Lord appeai'ed to him (1 Cor. 15 : 7).
He succeeded James the brother of John
in the care of the cluirch in Jerusalem.
According to tradition, he was tlirown
down from the temple by the scribes and
Pharisees ; he was then stoned and his
brains dashed out by a fuller's club.
3. James the brother of the Lord
(Gal. 1 : 19). This James is supposed by
many to be distinct from James the son
of vVlphseus. In the preceding section the
chief argument for the identity of the two
is stated.
James, the General Epistle of,
written by James the son of AlpJifeus,
otherwise James the Less and James the
brother of the Lord. It was written from
Jerusalem, which the author seems never
j to have left, and to Christians in general,
mayhap to Jewish Cliristians in especial,
with design to teach the great essential
principles of a sound morality. It has
often been alleged that between the teach-
ings of this Epistle and those of the apos-
tle Paul in respect to justification by faith
there is an irreconcilable difference, but
the allegation becomes altogether pointless
I when the objects of the two writers are
considered. Paul, in his Epistles, opposes
the Judaizing party which claimed to earn
the divine acceptance by good works. He
maintains that the divine acceptance can-
not be earned by man at all, but is God's
free gift to the Christian man for tlie sake
of the merits of Jesus Christ, appropriated
by each individual and made his own by
the instrumentality of faith. On the other
hand, James opposes the old Jewish tenet
that to be a child of Abraliam was all in
all — that if one's belief vras correct, godli-
ness was not necessary. He teaches that
faith is a thoroughly active and energetic
principle, and vindicates its reality and
God's grace in tlie gift of it by doiufj, and
not simply hearing the word (James 1 : 22,
27 ; 2 : 15-18).
Jan'nes and Jam'bres, the names
of two Egyptian magicians who opposed
Moses. Of the sacred writers Paul alone
mentions them by name, and says no more
than that tliey "withstood Moses," and
that tlieir folly in doing so became mani-
fest (2 Tim. 3 : 8, 9). Whether they were
named in some book, now lost, relating
to the early history of the Israelites, or
whether they survived in some veritable
oral tradition respecting them, cannot be
determined.
Ja^pheth [wirle-sprearling], one of the
three sons of Noah, mentioned last in or-
der (Gen. 5 : 32; 6 : 10; 7 : 13; 9 : 18 ;
10 : 1 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 4), yet not tlie young-
est, which Ham seems to have been (Gen.
9 : 24) ; but eitlier the eldest, according to
our Authorized Version (Gen. 10 : 21), or
268
J A PHO— J EA LOUSY.
the second-born, as most interpreters of
Scripture hold. He was born one hun-
dred years before the Flood. The de-
scendants of Japheth occupied the " isles
of the Gentiles" (Gen. 10 : 5)— that is,
the coast-lands of the Alediterranean Sea
in Europe and Asia Minor, wiience they
spread northward over tlie whole conti-
nent of Europe and a considerable por-
tion of Asia.
Ja^pho (Josh. 19 : 46). See Joppa.
Ja'reb, mentioned in Hos. 5 : 13; 10:
6 as a " king," but more likely the name
of some city of Assyria, or another name
of Assyria itself. The verbal root of the
word means " to fight," and, as the Assyr-
ian inscriptions show, the history of As-
syria was a perpetual warfore.
Ja'red. [descent'], one of the antedi-
luvian patriarchs, the fifth from Adam,
son of Mahaleel and father of Enoch
(Gen. 5:15, 16, 18, 19, 20; Luke 3:
37).
Jar''mutll [/te/r//i<], a town in the low
country of Judah (Josh. 15 : 35). Its
king, PiRAM, was one of the five who
conspired to punish Gibeon for having
made alliance with Israel (Josh. 10: 3, 5),
and who were routed at Bethhoron and
put to death by Joshua at Makkedah
(Josh. 10 : 23). Its site is probably the
modern Yarmu/c.
Ja^sher, Book of (that is, " the book
of the upright"), a record alluded to in
two i^issages only of the Old Testament
(Josh. 10 : 13 and 2 Sam. 1 : 18), and con-
sequently the subject of much discussion.
It was probably an anthology of ancient
songs written in praise of upright men.
Ja-sho'be-am [the people return'],
one of David's worthies (2 Sam. 23 :
8; 1 Chron. 11 : 11). He came to David
at Ziklag. His distinguishing exploit was
that he slew, according to one account,
three hundred, according to another eight
hundred, men at one time.
Ja^son, that Thessalonian who enter-
tained Paul and Silas, and who in conse-
quence was attacked by the Jewish mob
(Acts 17 : 5, 6, 7, 9). He is probably the
same as the Jason mentioned in Rom. 16:
21 as a companion of the apostle, and one
of his kinsmen or fellow-tribesmen. It is
conjectured, too, that Jason and Secundus
(Acts 20 : 4) were the same.
Jas'per, a precious stone frequently
noticed in Scripture. It was the last of
the twelve inserted in the high priest's
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 20; 39 : 13), and the
first of the twelve used in the foundations
of the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 19). The
characteristics of the stone, so far as they
are mentioned in Scripture (Rev. 4:3;
21 : 11), correspond more nearly to those of
the chalcedony, a dark-green stone of the
quartz family.
Javan, the name of the fourth son of
Japhet (Gen. 10 : 2), geographically used
as follows :
1. A designation sometimes for Ionia
(Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 27:13); sometimes
for the Macedonian empire (Dan. 8 : 21 ;
10 : 20 ; 11:2, where the Authorized Ver-
sion renders it Grsecia) ; and sometimes
for the Grseco-Syrian empire (Zech. 9:13,
where our Authorized Version renders it
Greece). It thus signifies Graecia, Greece,
or the Greek race generally.
2. A town in Southern Arabia whence
the Phoenicians brought " briglit iron," or
steel for sword-blades (Ezek. 27 : 19). The
reference in Joel 3 : 6 is probably to this
place.
Jave'lin. See Arms, Armor.
Ja'zer. See Jaazer.
JeaPous-y, in its common accepta-
tion, denotes a strong and intense feeling
j awakened by suspicion of infidelity or un-
faithfulness in one beloved. The Orientals
appear to have been particularly suscepti-
ble of this feeling, and among them espe-
cially it was "the rage of a man" (Prov.
6 : 34). The word is frequently em-
ployed to express God's indignation and
JEBUS— JEHOAHAZ.
269
wrath against such as defraud him of the
glory due to his majesty. He is a jealous
God, particularly in relation to the dis-
honor done to his name by idolatry (Ex.
20 : 3-5). So also the prophets were jeal-
ous for God's honor (1 Kings 19 : 10), and
the apostle Paul expresses himself as jeal-
ous lest tlie Corinthians should be seduced
from their faithfulness to Christ (2 Cor. 11 :
2, o).
The "jealousy-offering" (Num. 5 : 18),
or water of jealousy, refers to a very sin-
gular ordeal through which a woman was
compelled to pass who was under suspi-
cion of adultery, the particulars of which
are recorded in Num. 5 : 11-31. Unlike
the ordeals which have been adopted by
half-civilized or barbarous nations to de-
tect guilt, and which subjected the inno-
cent as well as the guilty to extreme suf-
fering, this was under divine direction,
and it affected none but those who were
pointed out as guilty by a manifest mir-
acle.
Je'bus, the name of the ancient
Canaanitish city which stood on Mount
Zion, one of the hills on which Je-
rusalem was built (Josh. 15 : 8 ; 18 :
16, 28). In Judg. 19 : 10 it is identified
with .Jerusalem, and in 1 Chron. 11 : 4, 5,
the only other passage in which the name
occurs, it is identified with the castle of
Zion, subsequently called the Castle or
City of David.
Je'bu-sites, The, were descended
from the third son of Canaan (Gen. 10 :
16 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 14). The actual people
first appear in the report of the spies
(Num. 13 : 29). When Jabin organized
his rising against Joshua he sent amongst
others "to the Amoiite, the Hittite, the
Perizzite, and the Jebusite in the moun-
tain" (Josh. 11 : 3). A mountain-tribe
they were, and a mountain-tribe they re-
mained. "Jebus, which is Jerusalem,"
lost its king in the slaughter of Bethhoron
(Josh. 10:1, 5, 26), was sacked and burned
by the men of Judah (Judg. 1 : 21 ), and
its citadel finally scaled and occupied by
David (2 Sam. 5 : 6). After this the Jeb-
usites emerge from the darkness but once
in the person of Araunah the Jebusite,
"Araunah the king," who appears be-
fore us in true kingly dignity in his well-
known transaction with David (2 Sam.
24: 23; 1 Chron. 21 : 15-27).
Jec'o-ni'ah. See Jehoiachin.
Jed-i-di'ah [darliny of Jehovah], the
name bestowed, through Nathan the
prophet, on David's son Solomon (2
Sam. 12 : 25).
Jed'u-thun, a Levite of Merarl's fam-
ily, and one of tlie four great masters of
the temple music appointed by David (1
Chron. 16:38; Neh. 11 : 17).
Je'gar-Sa-ha-du^tha [the heap of
wUnessI, the name given to the heap of
stones erected by Laban and Jacob as an
evidence of their covenant that neither
the one nor the other should pass that
heap to his brother's harm. Laban, using
the Aramaic dialect, gave it this name, sig-
nifying the " lieap of witness ;" Jacob called
it in Hebrew Galeed, which has the same
signification (Gen. 31 : 47).
Je-ho'a-haz [Jehovah is his holder,
that is, possessor], the name of three kings.
1. One of the names of the youngest son
of Jehoram of Judah (2 Chron. 21 : 17)
and father of Josiah (2 Chron. 25 : 23),
usually called Ahaziah.
2. The son and successor of Jehu, the
twelfth separate king of Israel (2 Kings
10 : 35). He reigned seventeen years.
His inglorious history is given in 2
Kings 13 : 1-9. Throughout his reign
he was kept in subjection by Hazael,
king of Damascus. He maintained the
idolatry of Jeroboam, but in the extrem-
ity of his humiliation he besought Jeho-
vah, who gave Israel a deliverer, either
Jehoash (2 Kings 13 : 23, 25) or Jero-
boam II. (2 Kings 14 : 24, 25).
3. The third of tlie four sons of Josiah
270
JEHOASH— JEIIONADAB.
by Hamutal, originally called Shallum, '
seventeenth se})arate king over Judah for
three months only, lie was chosen by
the people in preference to his elder
brother, but was deposed by Pharaoh-
Necho, king of Egypt (2 Kings 23 :
31-33).
Je-ho'ash, the uncontracted form of
JoASH (which see).
Je-hoi'a-chin [Jehovah eslablishes],
called also Jeconiah (1 Chron. 3 : 17)
and CONIAH (Jer. 22 : 24), was the son
and successor of Jehoiakim, king of Ju-
dah. His reign was for the brief period
of three months and ten days. He came \
to the throne when Jerusalem was de- i
fenceless and quite unable to offer any
effective resistance to Nebuchadnezzar's
army (2 Kings 24 : 10, 11). In a very
short time Jehoiachin surrendered, and
with his servants and dependants was
carried to Babylon (Jer. 29 : 2 ; Ezek.
17: 12; 19: 9). There he remained a
prisoner, actually in prison and wearing
prison-garments, for thirty-six years, till
the death of Nebuchadnezzar, when Evil-
Merodach, succeeding to the throne of
Babylon, brought him out of prison and
made liim sit at his own table. Whether
Jehoiachin outlived the two years of Evil-
Merodach's reign does not appear, nor
have we any particulars of his life at
Babylon.
Je-hoi'a-da [Jehovah acknou'ledgesl, the
high priest at the time of Athaliah's usur-
pation of the throne of Judah and during
the greater portion of the forty years' reign
of Joash. He married Jehosheba or Je-
hashebath, daughter of King Jehoram and
sister of King Ahaziah (2 Chron. 22 : 11),
and when Athaliah slew all the seed-royal of
Judali, after .Vliaziah had been put to death
by Jehu, he and his wife stole Joash from
among the king's sons, and hid him for six
years in the temple, and eventually re-
placed him on the throne of his ances-
tors. Having divided tlie priests and
Levites into three bands, which were
posted at the principal entrances, he pro-
duced the young king before the whole
a.ssembly, and crowned and anointed him.
Athaliah was slain amid the rejoicings of
the people (2 Chron. 23 : 12-15). The
destruction of Baal-worship and the res-
toration of the temple were among the
great works effected by Jehoiada.
Je-hoi'a-kim [Jehovah sets ■«/)],
called also Eliakim, the second son of
Josiah and eighteenth king of the sepa-
rate kingdom of Judah for a period of
eleven years. After deposing Jehoahaz,
Pharaoh-Necho set I^liakira, his elder
brother, upon the throne, and changed
his name to Jehoiakim. His reign was
wicked and inglorious ; oppressive, cruel,
exacting, he made the yoke of the people
heavy (2 Kings 24 : 4; Jer. 22 : 13-19).
In the third year of his reign he was
forced to submit to Nebuchadnezzar, who
carried many of the people ( among them
Daniel) and much spoil to Babylon (Dan.
1 : 1, 2). He vainly attempted to defeat
the predictions of Jeremiah against him
by cutting with a penknife the roll on
which they were written, and by casting
the pieces into the fire on the health be-
fore him. Rebelling against Nebuchad-
nezzar and fighting the forces sent against
him, he came to a violent death in the
eleventh year of his reign, either in a
skirmish or by the hand of his own op-
pressed subjects, who thought to concil-
iate the Babylonians by the murder of
their king. His body was cast out igno-
miniously on the ground, and, after ex-
posure for some time, was dragged away
and buried " with the burial of an ass,"
without pomp or lamentation, " beyond
the gates of Jerusalem" (Jer. 22 : 18, 19;
36 : 80).
Je-hon'a-dab [Jehovah incites], con-
tracted form JoXADAB, the son of
Rechab, founder of the Rechabites,
who held themselves bound bv a vow
JEHORAM— JEHOSHAPHAT.
271
to abstain from wine and never to re-
linquish tlie nomadic life (Jer. 35 : 6-
19). Recliab belonged to a branch of
the Kenites, the Arabian tribe which
entered Palestine with the Israelites (1
Chron. 2 : 55). One settlement of them
was established at or near the town of
Jabez in Judah. To these last belonged
Rechab and his son Jehonadab. The
Bedouin habits, wliicli were kept up by
the other branches of the Kenite tribe,
were inculcated by Jehonadab with the
utmost minuteness on his descendants
(Jer. 35 : 6). Bearing in mind this gen-
eral character of Jehonadab as an Arab
chief and the founder of a half-religious
sect, we are the better able to under-
stand the single historical occasion on
which he appears before us. After the
slaughter of the shearing-house (2 Kings
10 : 14), Jehu was advancing on the city
of Samaria when he suddenly met the
austere Bedouin coming toward him (2
Kings 10 : 15). The king was in his
chariot, the Arab was on foot. After
friendly greeting, Jehu whispered to Je-
honadal) his secret purpose to destroy the
worshipers of Baal, and asked the co-ope-
ration of the chief, which was promptly
granted. He acted in concert witli Jehu
throughout, but the only occasion on which
he is expressly mentioned is when (prob-
ably from his previous knowledge of the
secret worshipers of Jehovah) he went
with Jehu through the temple of Baal
to turn out any that there might happen
to be in the mass of pagan worshipers (2
Kings 10 : 23).
Je-ho'ram [Jehovah-exalted'], con-
tracted form JoRAM, the name of two
kings.
1. Son of Ahab, king of Israel, who
succeeded his brother Ahaziah, b. c. 896,
and died b. o. 884. The alliance between
the kingdoms of Israel and .Judah enter-
ed into by his father and Jehoshaphat
was very close throughout his reign. He
was a weak and wicked man (2 Kings 3 :
1-3). After an inglorious and troubled
reign he was slain by .Jehu, the general
of his army, at Jezreel, and on the very
plot of ground Avhich Ahab his father,
instigated by his infamous mother Jeze-
bel, had wrested from Naboth, thus ful-
filling to the letter the prophecy of Elijah
(1 Kings 21 : 21-29; 2 Kings 9 : 25).
2. Eldest son of Jehoshaphat, succeeded
his father on the throne of Judah at the
age of thirty-two, and reigned eight years,
from B. c. 893-2 to 885-4. As soon as he
was settled on the throne he put his six
brothers to death, with many of the chief
nobles of the land. Then, at the instance,
probably, of his wife Athaliah, the daugh-
ter of Ahab, he proceeded to establish the
worship of Baal. His whole reign was a
series of calamities. First, the Edomites,
who had been tributary to Jehoshaphat,
revolted and established their permanent
independence. Next, Libnah, one of the
strongest fortified cities in Judah ( 2 Kings
19 : 8), rebelled against him. Then fol-
lowed invasions of armed bands of Phil-
istines and of Arabians, who stormed his
palace, slew all his wives and all his chil-
dren except Ahaziah (2 Chron. 22 : 1), and
plundered all his treasures. He died of a
terrible disease (2 Chron. 21 : 19, 20) early
in the twelfth year of his brother-in-law
Jehoram's reign over Israel.
Je-hosh'a-phat [Jehovah-judged^,
the fourth separate king of Judah, son
and successor of Asa. He ascended the
throne B. c. 914, at the age of thirty-five,
and he reigned twenty-five j'ears. He was
contemporary with Ahab, Ahaziah and
Jehoram. At first he strengthened him-
self against Israel by fortifying and gar-
risoning the cities of Judah and the
Ephraimite conquests of Asa. But soon
afterward the two Hebrew kings, perhaps
appreciating the common danger from
Damascus and the tribes on their eastern
frontier, formed an alliance. Jehosha-
272
JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF— JEHU.
phat's eldest son, Jehoram, married Atha-
liali, the daughter of Ahah and Jezebel.
In his own kingdom Jehoshaphat ever
showed himself a zealous follower of the
commandments of God. Riches and hon-
ors increased around him. He received
tribute from the Philistines and Arabians,
and kept up a large standing army in Je-
rusalem. He attempted, without success,
to institute a foreign commerce, but most
of his plans to advance his country's in-
terests and most of liis wars were emi-
nently successful. His history in a con-
tinuous narrative is found in 2 Chron.
17-21.
Je-hosh^a-phat, Val'ley of, the
name given to the valley east of Jerusa-
lem which separates the city from the
Mount of Olives, and which is properly
the Valley of the Kidron. Tlie only ref-
erence in Scripture to " the valley of Je-
hoshaphat" is in Joel 3 : 2, 12; and the
identification of this valley with the nar-
row valley or rocky ravine along which
the Kidron flows has no better ground
than the tradition widely spread in the
East, among Jews, Christians and Mo-
hammedans, that the Last Judgment is
to be held here. The sense of the pas-
sage in Joel is simply an affirmation that
Jehovah will certainly judge the nations
who have injured and oppressed his peo-
ple.
Je-hosll'e-ba [Jehovah is his oath],
daughter of Joram king of Israel and wife
of Jehoiada, the high priest (2 Kings 11 :
2). Her marriage is the only recorded in-
stance of the marriage of a princess of the
royal house with a high priest.
Je-hosh'u-a [Jehovah is salvationl.
In this form is given the name of Joshua
in Num. 13 : IG.
Je-ho'vah [self -existence'], a Scrip-
ture name of the Supreme Being, com-
monly rendered Lord in our Author-
ized Version. The word was held in pe-
culiar veneration by the Jews, who, in the
reading of the sacred book, never pro-
nounced it, but substituted for it wher-
ever it occurred the term Adonai. See
God.
Je-ho'vah-Ji'reh [Jehovah will see
or provide] the name given by Abraham
to the place on which he had been com-
manded to offer Isaac, to commemorate the
interposition of the Angel of Jehovah, who
appeared to prevent the sacrifice, and who
provided anotlier victim (Gen. 22: 14).
Je-ho'vah-Nis'si [Jehovah is mi/
banner], the name given by Moses to the
altar which he built in commemoration
of the discomfiture of the Amalekites by
Joshua and his chosen warriors at Reph-
idim (Ex. 17 : 15). The significance of
the name is probably contained in the al-
lusion to the staff which Moses held in
his hand as a banner during the engage-
ment.
Je-ho'vah-Shal'om. [Jehovah gives
peace], the altar erected by Gideon in
Ophrah, and so called in memory of the
salutation addressed to him by the angel
of Jehovah, "Peace be unto thee" (Judg.
6 : 24).
Je-ho-vah-Sham'mah [Jehovah is
there], the symbolical title conferred by
Ezekiel upon the spiritual Jerusalem seen
in vision (Ezek. 48 : 35).
Je-ho'vah-Tsid-Ken'u [Jehovah is
our righteousneiis], an epithet applied by
the prophet Jeremiah to the Messiah, and
likewise to Jerusalem, as symbolical of the
spiritual prosperity of God's people in the
Christian dispensation (Jer. 23 : 6 ; 33 :
16).
Je'hu [Jehovah is he], the name of
a king and of a prophet.
1. The eleventh king of the separate
kingdom of Israel and the founder of the
fifth dynasty. He reigned twenty-eight
years (2 Kings 9 : 2 ; 2 Chron. 22 : 7-9).
In his youth he had been one of the guards
of Ahab. His first appearance in history
is when, with a comrade-in-arms, Bidkar,
JEPHTHAH.
273
he rode behind Ahab on the fatal journey
from Samaria to Jezreel, and heard the
warning of Elijah against the murderer
of Naboth (2 King-s 9 : 35). He had al-
ready been known to Elijah as a youth of
promise, and accordingly in the vision of
Horeb he is mentioned as the future king
of Israel, whom Elijah is to anoint as the
minister of vengeance on Israel (1 Kings
19 : 16, 17). This injunction, for reasons
unknown to us, Elijah never fulfilled; it
was reserved for his successor, Elisha.
Meantime, in the reigns of Ahaziah and
Jehoram, Jehu had risen to prominence.
Under tlie last-named king he was captain
of tlie liost in the siege of Ramoth-Gilead.
Whilst in the midst of the officers of the
besieging army a youth of wild aj^pear-
ance suddenly entered (2 Kings 9 : 4-10)
and insisted on a private interview with
him. They retired into a secret chamber.
The youth uncovered a vial of the sacred
oil, which he had bi'ought with him, poured
it over Jehu's head, and after announcing
to him the message from Elisha that he
was appointed to be king of Israel and
destroyer of the house of Ahab, rushed
out of the house and disappeared. Jehu's
countenance, as he re-entered the assembly
of officers, showed that some strange tid-
ings had reached him. He tried at first
to evade their questions, but then revealed
the situation in which he found himself
placed by tlie prophetic call. In a mo-
ment the enthusiasm of the army took
fire. They threw tlieir garments under
his feet, so as to form a rough carpet of
state, placed him on the top of the stairs
as on an extempore throne, blew the royal
salute on their trumpets, and thus ordained
him king. He instantly took measures to
establish his authority, killed the king with
his own hand (2 Kings 9 : 24), swept away
as with a whirlwind all the descendants
of Aliab, together with the officers of the
<;ourt and hierarchy of Astarte, and in
Samaria, by a general massacre of the
18
heathen population of the land, fulfilled
the predicted doom of an idolatrous house
and vindicated the majesty of Jehovah's
worship. The reign thus begun in vio-
lence and blood was in the main pros-
perous, but not as eventful as might have
been supposed. He was buried in state in
Samaria, and was succeeded by his son Je-
hoahaz (2 Kings 10 : 35). His name is
the first of all the Israelite kings which
appears in the Assyrian monuments, on
which he is named as submitting to Shal-
maneser II. and as paying a tribute con-
sisting of gold, silver, buckets of gold, cups
of gold, bottles of gold, lead and rods of
wood for maces.
2. Son of Hanani, a prophet of Judah,
but whose ministrations were chiefly di-
rected to Israel. His father was prob-
ably the seer who reproved Asa, king of
Judah, for relying on the king of Syria,
and not on the Lord (2 Chron. 16 : 7).
He must have begun his career as a
prophet when very young. He first de-
nounced Baasha (1 Kings 16 : 1, 7), and
then, after an interval of tliirty years, re-
appears to denounce Jehoshaphat for his
alliance with Ahab (2 Chron. 19 : 2, 3).
He survived Jehoshaphat and wrote his
life (2 Chron. 20 : 34).
Jeph'thah. [Ae, i. e. God, shall open or
deliver'}, the ninth judge of the Israelites,
for a period of six years. He was an illegit-
imate son of Gilead, a Manassite, and was
deprived by his half-brothers of all share in
the inheritance after his father's death, and
was expelled from the paternal home. He
retired to the land of Tob, beyond the fron-
tier of the Hebrew territories. Before this
he had evidently distinguished himself for
daring and skill in arms, for, when his
withdrawal from Manasseh was known,
he was joined by a great number of des-
perate men, and he became their chief.
His fame as the successful leader of a
freebooting band reached liis native coun-
try, and so engaged the attention of his
274
JEPHUNNEH— JERICHO.
countrymen that when Israel was threat-
ened by the xVninionites he was selected
to head the army gathered to repel them.
He consented to accept the trust on con-
dition that if he were victorious he should
be recognized and obeyed as the chief of
his people. He undertook the hazardous
enterprise with the strange vow that when
he returned in triumph he would offer to
the Lord whatever met him first. He
succeeded in routing the Ammonites with
great slaughter, and, returning to Mizpeh,
was met by his daughter and only child.
Whether he sacrificed her as Agamemnon
sacrificed Iphigenia, or whether he sepa-
rated her from human society, has been
much debated, and cannot, perhaps, be
determined. Before, however, his domes-
tic grief because of his daughter was as-
suaged the proud tribe of Ephraim, on
the otlier side of the Jordan, challenged
his right to go to war with Amnion, as he
had done, without their concurrence. He
defeated them signally, and at the fords
of the Jordan arrested and slew forty-
two tliousand fugitives. His history is
contained in Judg. 11 : 1-40; 12 : 1-7.
Je-phun'neh [haring his way marked
out'], the father of Caleb the spy. He ap-
pears to have belonged to an Edomitish
tribe called Kenezites, from Kenaz their
founder (Num. 13 : 6; 32 : 12 ; Josh. 14 :
14 ; 1 Chron. 4 : 15).
Jer-e-mi'ah [Jehovah establishes},
" the son of Hilkiah of the priests that
were in Anathoth" (Jer. 1:1). He
was a child in the reign of Josiah (Jer.
1 : 6). In his youth he was called to the
prophetic office, but during the eight-
een years between his call and Josiah's
death, or during the short reign of Je-
hoahaz, we hear little of him. Under
Jehoiakim, B. c. 607-597, he opposed the
Egyptian j)arty then dominant in Jerusa-
lem, and maintained that the only way of
safety lay in accepting the supremacy of
the Chaldseaus. He was accordingly ac-
cused of treachery, and men claiming to
be prophets had their " word of Jeho-
vah " to set against his (Jer. 14:13; 23 :
7). In the fourth year of Jehoiakim
the battle of Carchemish overthrew the
hopes of the Egyptian party (Jer. 46 : 2),
and the armies of Nebuchadnezzar drove
those who had no defenced cities to take
refuge in Jerusalem (Jer. 35 : 11). As
the danger from the Chaldseans became
more threatening, the persecution against
Jeremiah grew more bitter (Jer. 18). The
people sought his life ; his voice rose up in
prayer that God would deliver and avenge
him. He went on, however, in his work,
reproving king and nobles and people.
After a period of delay, and as tlie cul-
mination of national disaster, the long-
predicted blow came. The city of Jeru-
salem was carried by storm, the temple
was burned, and the people were borne
away into a foreign land to experience
all the ills of seventy years' captivity.
Where and when Jeremiah died is quite
uncertain. One tradition represents that
he was murdered in Tahpanhes, Egypt,
by the Jews who had escaped thither and
whom he had irritated by rebukes ; an-
other tradition has it that he escaped to
Babylon and died in peace. His prophe-
cies embrace a period of forty years, and
embody much of his personal history.
The style is not so beautiful or so com-
pact as that of Isaiah. The spirit per-
vading all his utterances is one of sad-
ness and sorrow. He sees the ruin of
his country at hand, and he contemplates
it with a breaking heart. But his eye,
although at all times filled with tears,
glances occasionally into the future, and
beholds the glory and prosperity which
are sure to come again tlirough the om-
nipotent grace and agency of "the Loi'd
our Righteousness " (Jer. 33 : 15, 16).
Jer'i-cho [place of fragrance^, an an-
cient city in the Jordan Valley called
''the city of palm trees" (Deut. 34 : 3).
JEROBOAM.
275
It lay about twenty miles north-east from
Jerusalem, on the west side of the Jordan,
and not far from the point where the river
enters the Dead Sea. Its site was a fertile
plain, which in the time of our Lord was,
according to Josephus, an earthly paradise.
It is first mentioned in the Old Testament
in connection with the record of the en-
campment of the Israelites in the plains
of Moab over against it. Then it was a
strongly-fortified place with thick walls
(Josh. 2 : 15), and the royal residence of
a powerful Canaanitish king (Josh. 2 : 2,
3). It was the first city in Canaan which
Joshua, aided by a miracle, captured and
destroyed (Josh. 6 : 24). Its territory was
assigned to Benjamin (Josh. 16 : 7). Here
Elijah spent his last days, and here was a
school of the prophets (2 Kings 2 : 4, 5,
15). In New Testament times it was
greatly enlarged and adorned by Herod
the Great and his son Archelans. It was
visited by our Lord, who wrought here
the miracle of restoring two blind men to
sight, and the greater miracle of recovering
the soul of Zaccheus, " the chief among the
publicans," from spiritual blindness (Luke
18 : 35-43; 19 : 1-9). The present condi-
tion of Jericho (modern name, Eriha) is
one of wretchedness and ruin. The foun-
tain of Elislia still sends forth its sweet
waters, but the once fertile plain is a
waste. The palm trees have disappeared,
and where the proud city once stood stands
to-day a mean, dirty village of mud-hovels
and black tents among low vineyards.
Jer-O-bo^am [advocate of the people'],
the name of two of the kings of the sep-
arate kingdom of Israel.
1. The first king of the divided king-
dom of Israel. He was the son of Nebat,
an Ephraimite. He was employed by Sol-
omon in the fortifications of Millo under-
neath the citadel of Zion, and was raised
to the rank of superintendent over the '
taxes and labors exacted from the tribe of
Ephraim (1 Kings 11 : 28). He made |
the most of his position, ingratiating him-
self with all whom he had business with,
and especially encouraging the growing
disaffection toward Solomon of the great
and powerful tribe to which he belonged.
He was meditating various schemes of am-
bition which floated impalpably and indis-
tinctly before his mind when an arresting
incident gave shape and strength to his
thoughts and plans. Leaving, one day,
the city of Jerusalem, he encountered on a
byway the prophet Ahijah. The prophet
was dressed in a new outer garment, and,
stripping it from his person, he tore it into
twelve shreds, ten of which he gave to Jer-
oboam, with the assurance that, on condi-
tion of his obedience to the divine precepts,
God would establish for him a kingdom and
a dynasty equal to David's ( 1 Kings 1 1 : 29-
40). Not content to wait patiently for the
death of Solomon, he began now to form
plots and conspiracies which, prematurely
discovered and divulged, made it neces-
sary for him to flee in haste into Egypt.
There he remained during the rest of Sol-
omon's reign. In Egypt he effected a mar-
riage with a princess, who was at once the
sister of Pharaoh's queen and the sister of
the wife of Hadad, the Edomite chief, thus
allying himself, with admirable political
sagacity, with the rulers of such neighbor-
ing nations as would be glad, by furthering
his designs, to weaken the kingdom which
under David and Solomon had grown al-
together too formidable.
When Solomon died, the ten northern
tribes, which had suffered greatly from
the late king's exactions, called Jei'oboam
from Egypt, and commissioned him to
head a deputation to Eehoboam, Solo-
mon's son, with the demand for relief
from oppressive taxes and for new secu-
rities against the evils and wrongs which
the people complained of. The haughty
and imperious answer of Eehoboam to
this deputation made revolt and revolu-
tion inevitable. The ten tribes by accla-
276
JERUBBAAL— JERUSALEM.
mation chose Jeroboam to be their sove-
reign, and tliereupon he was raised to the
throne with the title "king of Israel"
(1 Kings 12 : 1-20). The political dis-
ruption of the late kingdom was now
complete, but as yet its religious unity
was unimpaired. Jeroboam, fearing that
the yearly pilgrimages to Jerusalem would
imdo all the work he had accomplished,
established sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel,
and with golden calves set up at each sanc-
tuary ordained an imposing ritual of wor-
ship. These sanctuaries and this worship
continued until the end of the northern
kingdom, and had the effect which the
politic king desired and designed. He
was at constant war with the southern
kingdom, or that of Judah, but the only
battle distinctly recorded was one with
Abijah, son of Rehoboam, in which Jer-
oboam was signally defeated. He never
recovered from tlie blow, and soon after,
in the twenty-second year of his reign,
died and was buried ( 1 Kings 14 : 20 ; 2
Chron. 13 : 20).
2. Jeroboam II., tlie son of Joash, the
fourth of the dynasty of Jehu and the
most prosperous of the kings of Israel.
He repelled the Syrian invaders, took
their capital city, Damascus (2 Kings 14:
28 ; Amos 1 : 3-5), and recovered the whole
of the ancient dominion, from Hamath to
the Dead Sea (2 Kings 14 : 25; Amos 6 :
14). Amnion and Moab were reconquered
(Amos 1 : 13; 2 : 1-3) ; the trans-Jordanic
tribes were restored to their territory (2
Kings 13:5; 1 Chron. 5 : 17-221. But
it was merely an outward restoration.
Jeroboam and his house, according to
the prophecy of Amos (7 : 9, 17), were
destroyed, and Israel went into a return-
less captivity.
Je-rub-ba'al \_cnntender with Baal^,
a surname of Gideon, the judge of Israel,
given him in consequence of liis over-
throw of Baal's altar (Judg. 6 : 32; 7 : 1 ;
1 Sam. 12 : 11).
Je-ru'sa-lem [houKe of peaeel, the
capital of the Holy Land, situated on
the central chain of limestone momitains
running north and south' througli Pales-
tine. It has had, in the course of ages,
several names and has received from
Scripture writers a number of descrip-
tive appellations.
Its names liave been these: Salem,
peace (Gen. 14 : 18) ; Jebusi, otherwise
Jebits, cily of the Jebimte (Josh. 18 : 28 ;
Judg. 19 : 10) ; Jerusalem, foundation or
habitation of peace (2 Sam. 5 : 5) ; jElia
Capitolina, after it was rebuilt by the
Roman emperor Hadrian, from his own
name, Publius jElius, and Capitolinus,
one of the specific names of Jupiter;
EL-KuDS, the holy, since its conquest
and possession by Mohammedan pow-
ers.
Its descriptive appellations by Scripture
writers have been these: Zion, elevated
(Ps. 76 : 2) ; City of David (2 Sam. 5:9);
Ariel, lion of God (Isa. 29 : 1) ; City of ■
God (Ps. 46 : 4) ; City of the Great
King (Ps. 48 : 2) ; City of Judah (2
Chron. 25 : 28) ; Holy City (Neh. 11 :
1) ; City of Solemnities (Isa. 33 : 20).
Of these names and descriptive appel-
lations, Jerusalem and The Holy City
are the two which have reached pre-emi-
nence and which have survived all changes.
In the Scriptures of tlie Old and New Tes-
taments the name Jerusalem is used eight
hundred and eighteen times.
Jerusalem stands in latitude 31° 46'
35'^ north, and longitude 35° 18' 30"
east of Greenwich. It is thirty-two
miles distant from the Mediterranean and
eighteen from the Jordan, twenty from
Hebron and tliirty-six from Samaria.
" In several respects," says Dean Stanley,
" its situation is singular among the cities
of Palestine. Its elevation is remarkable,
occasioned, not from its being on the sum-
mit of one of the numerous hills of Ju-
daea, like most of the towns and villages,
jp:rusalem.
277
Ancient Jerusalem
but because it is on the edge of one of
the highest table-lands of the country.
Hebron, indeed, is higher still by some
hundred feet, and from the south, ac-
cordingly (even from Bethlehem) the ap-
proach to Jerusalem is by a slight descent.
But from any other side the ascent is per-
petual, and to the traveler approaching the
city from the east or west, it must always
have presented the appearance beyond any
other capital of the then known world—
we may say beyond any important city
that has ever existed on the earth — of a
mountain-city ; breathing, as compared
with the sultry plains of Jordan, a moun-
lain-air; enthroned, as compared with
Jericho or Damascus, Gaza or Tyre, on a
mountain-fastness." The elevation of Je-
rusalem is a subject of constant reference
and exultation by the Jewish writers.
Their fervid poetry abounds with allu-
sions to its height, to the ascent thitlier
of the tribes from all parts of the coun-
irom tne south-east,
try. It was the habitation of Jehovah
from which " he looked upon all the in-
liabitants of the world" (Ps. 33 : 14) ; its
kings were " higher than the kings of the
earth" (Ps. 89:27). Jerusalem, if not
actually in the centre of Palestine, was
yet virtually so. " It was on the ridge,"
says Stanley, "the broadest and most
strongly-marked ridge, of the backbone
of the complicated hills which extend
through the whole country from the
plain of Esdraelon to the desert. Every
wanderer, every conqueror, every traveler,
who has trod the central route of Pales-
tine from north to south must have passed
through the table-land of Jerusalem. It
was the water-shed between the streams,
or rather the torrent-beds, which find their
way eastward to the Jordan and tliose which
pass westward to the Mediterranean."
To convey an idea of the position of
Jerusalem we may say roughly, and with
reference to the accompanying plan, that
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Topography of Jerusalem.
1. Mount Zion. 2. Moriah. 3. Temple. 4. Antonia. 6. Opliel. 7. Bezetha. 8. Vhwch of the Holy
Sepulchre. 9, 10. Upper ami Lower Pools of Glhon. U. Bir Eiyuh (? En-Rogel). 12. Pool of Heze-
kiah. 13. Fountain of the Virgin. 14. Siloam. 15. Pool of Bethesda (?;. 16. Mount of Olives. 1(.
Gethsemane.
N. B.— Modern titles are in Italics.
JEEUSALEM.
279
the city occupies the southern termination
of a table-land which is cut oli' from the
country round it on the west, soutii and
east sides by ravines more than usually
deep and precipitous. These ravines
leave the level of the table-land, the one
on the west and the other on the north-
east of the city, and fall rapidly until
they form a junction below its south-east
corner. The eastern one, the valley of
the Kedron, commonly called the Valley
of Jehoshaphat, runs nearly straight from
north to south. But the western one, the
Valley of Hinnom, runs south for a time
and then takes a sudden bend to the east un-
til it meets the Valley of Jehoshaphat, after
which the two rush off as one to the Dead
Sea. How sudden is their descent may be
gathered from the fact that the level at the
point of junction (about a mile and a quar-
ter fi'om the starting-point of each) is more
than six Imndred feet belov,' that of the
Dome of the Rock, knowD
upper plateau from which they commen-
ced their descent. Thns, while on the north
there is no material difference between the
general level of the country outside the
walls and that of the highest parts of the
city, on the other three sides the ravines
have so steep a fall, are so trench-like in
their character and keep so close to the
promontory at whose feet they run, that
one looking at tliem is more inclined to
account them ditches dug around a for-
tress than valleys formed by Nature. The
promontory thus encircled is itself divi-
ded bv a longitudinal ravine running up
it from south to nortli called the valley
of the Tyropoeon, which, rising gradually
as the Mosque of Omar.
from the south like the external ones,
reaches at last the level of the upper
plateau and separates the central mass
into two unequal portions. Of these two,
that on the west is the higher and more
massive, and forms what is now called
Mount Zion. The hill on the east is con-
siderably lower and smaller, and is the an-
cient Moriah. Here was the temple, and
here stands now tlie mosque of Omar, or,
as Mohammedans term it, tlie Dome of the
Rock. Westward of Moriah and north-
ward of Zion was the hill Acra, on which,
in the time of Josephus, stood tlie " lower
city ;" northward of Moriah and separated
from it by an artificial ditch was the hill
280
JEKUSALEM.
Bezetha, on which, in the time of Joseph us,
stood the " new city."
Tliis rougli topographic sketch of Jeru-
salem enables us to appreciate the two great
advantages of its position. On the one
hand the ravines which entrench it on the
west, south and east, out of which the rocky
slopes of the city rise like the walls of a for-
tress out of its ditches, must on those quar-
ters have rendered it impregnable to the
warfare of the Old World. On the other
hand, its junction with the more level
ground on its north and north-west sides
afibrded an opportunity of expansion, of
which we know advantage was taken, and
which gave it remarkable superiority over
other cities of Palestine.
Jerusalem has had a more eventful his-
tory than any other city of the world.
Coming into view in the times of Abra-
ham, it precedes the founding of Eume
by nearly twelve centuries, and holds its
existence through all the political con-
vulsions and changes of thirty-eight hun-
dred years. The residence of
Melchizedek in remote antiqui-
ty and the home of the Jebusite
in later times, it was for twenty
generations the royal seat of Da-
vid's line, and then, with brief,
occasional intervals of independ-
ence, the possession successively
of Babylonian, Greek, Roman,
Persian, Saracen, Frank and
Turk. When Rome was its
master onr Lord was crucified
without its walls, and rising
from the dead the third day ap-
peared to his disciples assem-
bled in the upper room of one
of its houses. Here, in obedi-
ence to our Lord's command, ^^
the disciples tarried until they
were endued with power by the
descent of tlie Holy Gliost (Acts 1 : 4, 8 ;
2:1-4); here, the first Christian church
was gathered and organized (Acts 2 : 41-
47) ; and here the sword of persecution
unsheathed against the Church drove its
members abroad, that everywhere and to
every creature they might publish the
glad tidings of salvation (Acts 8 : 1-5 ;
11 : 19-21).
Of the city's distinguishing features at
various periods of its history ; of its walls,
gates, towers, streets, palaces ; of its an-
cient splendid temple built by Solomon,
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, rebuilt by
Zerubbabel, enlarged and adorned by
Herod the Great, and again destroyed by
the Romans under Titus; of its modern
church of the Holy Sepulchre, first built
by Constantine in the fourth century of
our era, destroyed and rebuilt many times
since ; of its mosque of Omar built on the
site of Solomon's temple, converted by the
Crusaders into a Christian church, but for
many centuries now venerated by the Mo-
hammedans as one of the world's holiest
spots ; — of these and many other interesting
particulars it is needless to speak.
A Street in Modern Jerusalem.
The Jerusalem of to-day is quite a small
town, the circumference of its walls being
only two and three-quarter miles, and its
JEKUSHA— JESUS.
281
population about twenty-five thousand
souls. Ten sects or religions are estab-
lished in it, more than half of which are
Christian. As a city Jerusalem nt)w pre-
sents little that is beautiful or attractive.
Its buildings are of stone, poorly construct-
ed and perched on the slope of the water-
shed; its flat-roofed houses and dirty,
over-arched lanes are neither pleasing
nor healthy, and the hills surrounding it
are barren and shapeless. Its eventful
history and its ancient glory alone make
it what every Christian traveler confesses
it to be — the most fascinating place not
only in Palestine, but also in the world.
Je-ru'sha [possession^, the wife of
Uzziah and mother of Jotham, kings of i
Judah (2 Kings 15 : 32, 33).
Jesli'i-mon [waste'], a name which
occurs in Num. 21 : 20 and 23 : 28 in des-
ignating the position of Pisgah and Peor,
both being described as "facing the Jesh-
imon." It designates the dreary, barren
waste of hills lying immediately on the
west of the Dead Sea where David, when
a fugitive from Saul, took refuge for a
time (1 Sam. 23 ; 19).
Jesh^u-a (another form of the name
Joshua or Jesus), son of Jehozadak, first
high priest of those after the Babylonish
captivity, and ancestor of the fourteen
high priests who succeeded him in un-
broken order. Like his contemporary,
Zerubbabel, Jeshua was probably born in
Babylon, whither his fatlier had been
taken captive (1 Chron. 6 : 15). He
came up from Babylon, in the first year
of Cyrus with Zerubbabel, and took a
leading part with him in rebuilding the
temjile and restoring the Jewish common-
weahh (Ezra 4:3; 5:2). The two
prophecies concerning him in Zech. 3 :
1-10 and 6 : 9-15 point him out as an
eminent type of Christ.
Jesh'u-run [dear upright people], a
poetical appellation of Israel, a diminutive
term of aflection and tenderness ( Deut. 32 :
15, Isa. 44 : 2), to remind Israel that up-
rightness in his people was what God de-
sired.
Jes^se, the father of David, the son
of Obed and grandson of Boaz and the
Moabitess Ruth. Nor was Euth's the
only foreign blood that ran in his veins,
for his great-grandmother was no less a
person than Rahab the Canaanite of
Jericho (Matt. 1 : 5). Jesse is an "old
man" when we first meet with him (1
Sam. 17 : 12), with eight sons (1 Sam. 16:
10; 17 : 12), residing at Bethlehem (1
Sam. 16 : 4, 5). When David's rupture
with Saul had finally driven him from
the court, and he w.as in the cave of
Adullam, "his brethren and all his fa-
ther's house" joined him (1 Sam. 22 : 1).
Anxious for their safety, he took his fa-
ther and his mother into the country of
Moab, and left them in the care of the
king ; there they disappear from the rec-
ords of Scripture. Who the wife of Jesse
was we are not told.
Je'sus [Saviour], the Christ. The
name jESrs is the proper name of our
Lord ; the Christ, the Messiah, the An-
ointed is his official designation. Accord-
ing to the received chronology, which in
fact is that of Dionysius Exiguus in the
sixth century, the birth of Christ occurred
in the year of Eome 754 (A. d. 1) ; but
from various considerations it is now re-
garded as almost certain that the Nativity
took place some time before the month of
April, 750 (b. c. 4), or four years earlier
than the Dionysian reckoning.
The salutation of the angel to Mary his
mother, " Hail ! thou art highly favored !"
was the prelude to a new act of divine cre-
ation. Mary received the announcement
of a miracle, the full import of which she
could not have understood, with the sub-
mission of one who knew that the message
came from God. The prophet Micah (5 :
2) had foretold that the future King should
be born in Bethlehem of Judaea, the place
282
JETHRO.
where the house of David had its origin ;
but Mary dwelt in Nazareth. Augustus
Csesar, however, had ordered a general
census or enrollment of the Roman em-
pire, and in obedience to this order Jo-
seph, the future husband of Mary, and
Mary herself, both members of the house
of David, came to Bethlehem, and whilst
there Mary gave birth to the virgin's
Son. As there was no room in the inn,
a manger was the cradle of the King of
kings. But signs were not wanting of the
greatness of Him who in these lowly cir-
cumstances entered our world. An angel
proclaimed to the Bethlehem shepherds
the advent of the Child-King, and a great
choir of angels broke the stillness of night
with the grand words, " Glory to God in
the highest, and on earth peace, good-
will toward men" (Luke 2 : 8-20).
In due time the child Jesus was circum-
cised and brought to the temple. Simeon
and Anna, taught from God that the ob-
ject of their earnest longings was before
them, prophesied of his divine work ; the
one rejoicing that his eyes had seen the
salvation of God, and the other speaking
of liim " to all that looked for redemption
in Jerusalem" (Luke 2:28-38). Thus
recognized amongst his own people, Jesus
the Christ was not without witness amongst
the nations. " Wise men from the East "
— that is, Persian Magi of the Zend relig-
ion, in which the idea of a coming Re-
deemer was incorporated — guided mirac-
ulously Ijy a star, came to the young child
and oflered him homage. The visit of the
Magi so excited and exasperated Herod the
king that to defeat the predicted greatness
of Jesus he ordered the slaughter of all
the children in Bethlehem "from two
years old and under ;" but before the is-
suance of the order the wonderful child
was safe in Egyytt, whither, by divine direc-
tion, his reputed father had iled with him.
After the death of Herod, in less than
a year, Jesus returned with his parents to
their own land, and went to Nazareth,
where they abode. With the exception
of one event, the appearance of Jesus in
the temple among the doctors at the age
of twelve, we know nothing of the first
thirty years of his life. In tiiat time
great changes had come over the Jewish
people. Herod the Great had united un-
der him almost all the original kingdom
of David, but after his death that king-
dom was dismembered for ever. John the
Baptist, in the fifteenth year of the em-
peror Tiberius, began his ministry, the
chief design of which was to revive the
almost forgotten expectation of the Mes-
siah, and to bear authoritative testimony
to "Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph,"
as to Him " of whom Moses in the law and
the prophets did write" (John 1 : 45).
John inaugurated our Lord's ministry by
a public baptism, and then disappeared
from view and from earth.
Our Lord's ministry, if regard be had
to the words or the works which charac-
terized it, was so manifestly superhuman
as to be emphatically divine. It closed
in the marvelous death on Calvary— that
crowning act in which our merciful and
faithful High Priest made "his soul an
offering for sin" (Isa. 53 : 10). On the
third day after his crucifixion he reap-
peared to his friends and followers, and
furnished the most incontestable evidences
of his resurrection. After ten appear-
ances to his disci|)les and repeated in-
structions as to their future life-work, he
ascended in their view to heaven, there to
abide till becomes again to"judge the quick
and the dead " (2 Tim. 4:1; 1 Pet. 4 : 5).
Jeth'ro [,</«'«], a priest or prince of
Midian (Ex. 3: 1 ; 18 : 1), perhaps a priest
and prince, for his official designation car-
ries both meanings, and both these offices
wore united in the patriarchal sheikhs of
Arabia. With liim Moses spent forty
years of his exile from Egypt, and during
the time married his daughter Zipporah.
JEW— JEWEL.
283
Jew. This name was properly applied
to a subject of the separate kingdom of
Judah. The term first makes its appear-
ance just before the captivity of tlie ten
tribes (2 Kings 16 : 6). After the Return
the word received a larger application.
Partly from the predominance of the
members of the old kingdom of Judah
among those who returned to Palestine,
partly from the identification of Judah
witii the religions ideas and hopes of the
people, all the members of the new state
were called Jews ( Judseans), and the name
was extended to the remnants of the race
scattered throughout the nations { Dan. 3 :
8, 12; Ezra 4 : 12, 23 ; Neh. 1:2; 2 : 16 ;
5:1; Esth. 3:4). Under the name of
"Judieans" the people of Israel were
known to classical writers. The force of
the title " Jew " is seen particularly in
the Gospel of John, who rarely uses any
other term to describe our Lord's oppo-
nents. Indeed, at the close of John's
life the name appeared to be the true
antithesis to Christianity, as describing
the limited and definite form of a na-
tional religion ; but at an earlier stage of
the progress of the faith it was contrasted
with "Greek," as implying an outward
covenant with God (Rom. 1 : 16 ; 2:9,
10; Col. 3 : 11), and marked a division
of language subsisting within the entire
body. Of wider application tlian Hebrew,
the correlative of Hellenist, it was yet less
expressive than Israelite, which brought to
view with special clearness the privileges
and hopes of the children of Jacob (2
Cor. 11 : 22; John 1 : 47).
Egyptian Jewelry.
Jew'' el. This word is not found in
the New Testament of our Authorized
Version, but in the Old Testament, in its
singular or plural form, is of frequent oc-
currence. It is the representative of four
Hebrew terms which may be thus describ-
ed : 1. A term {ne'zem) which has the gen-
eral sense of ring ( Judg. 8 : 24-26 ; Job
42 : 11 ; Prov. 25 : 12, where the trans-
lators of our Authorized Version have
improperly rendered it ear-ring), and is
applied sometimes to a nose-ring (Gen. 24 :
47; Prov. 11 : 22; Isa. 3 : 21 ; Ezek. J 6 :
12), and sometimes to an ear-ring (Gen.
35 : 4; Ex. 32 : 2, 3). 2. A term xchalV)
which properly designates what s po!~
284
JEWRY— JEZREEL.
ished, and which is translated in Prov.
25: 12 "an ornament of fine gold;" in
Hos. 2 : 13 "jewels," with the sense, prob-
ably, of necklace; and in Song 7:1, "jew-
els," as expressive of that which displays
fine workmanship. 3. A term [keli')
wliich describes an implement or vesstl
of any kind, as an article of silver-ware
or other precious material (Gen. 24 : 53 ;
Plx. 3 : 22 ; 11:2; 12 : 35 ; Num. 31 : 50,
51 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 8, 15 ; Job 28 : 17 ; Prov.
20 : 15), or as any elegant trapping or
piece of finery in dress (Isa. 61 : 10;
Ezek. 16 : 39; 23 : 26). 4. A term (segiU-
lah) which indicates properly, treasure,
iveallh, as in Mai. 3 : 17, but which else-
where (Ex. 13 : 5; Ps. 135 : 4) is usually
rendered " peculiar treasure."
Je"W^ry, the land of Judaea is so call-
ed (Luke 23 : 5).
Jez'e-bel [chaste'], wife of Ahab, king
of Israel, and mother of Athaliah, queen
of Judah, and of Ahaziah and Joram,
kings of Israel. She was a Phoenician
princess, daughter of " Ethbaal, king of
the Zidonians." In her hands her hus-
band became a mere puppet (1 Kings 21 :
25). The first effect of her influence was
the immediate establishment of the Plice-
nician worship on a grand scale in the
court of Ahab. At her table were sup-
ported no less than four hundred and fifty
prophets of Baal and four hundred of As-
tarte (1 Kings 16 : 31, 32; 18 : 19). The
prophets of Jehovah, who up to this time
had found tlieir chief refuge in the north-
ern kingdom, were attacked by her orders
and put to the sword (1 Kings 18 : 13 ; 2
Kings 9:7). When at last the people, at
the instigation of Elijah, rose against her
ministers and slaughtered them at the foot
of Carrael, and when Ahab was terrified into
submission, she was openly defiant and re-
lentless. In tlie affair of Xaboth she took
the matter into her own hands, wrote a war-
rant in Ahab's name and sealed it with his
seal, and when her wicked scheme was
accomplished bade her weak htisband
seize the vacant property ( 1 Kings 21 :
1-24). She survived Ahab for fourteen
years, and still, as queen-mother, was a
great personage in the court of her sons,
arid as such became the special mark for
the vengeance of Jehu. Siie was looking
out from the window of the palace which
stood by the gate of the city as Jehu ap-
proached. The new king looked up from
his chariot. Two or three eunuchs of the
royal harem showed their faces at tiie win-
dows, and at his command dashed the proud
and lately powerful woman down from the
chamber. She fell in front of the con-
queror's chariot. The merciless man
passed on, and the last remains of life
were trampled out by the horses' hoofs.
The body was left in the open space
where ofial is thrown from the city-walls.
Tlie dogs of Eastern cities, which prowl
around these localities, pounced upon the
mutilated corpse, and, tearing it to pieces,
devoured it all save "the skull and the
feet and the palms of her hands" (2 Kings
9 : 30-37).
Jez'reel [God hath planted^, an ancient
Canaanitish city assigned to the tribe of
Issachar (Josh. 19 : 18), but from it the
original inhabitants were not driven. It
stood on the summit of a rocky hill near
the western foot of Mount Gilboa, over-
looking the great plain to which it gave
its name, and which is now called the
plain of Esdraelon. On the northern side
of the city, between the parallel ridges of
Gilboa and Moreh, lies a rich valley, an
oflshoot of Esdraelon, declining eastward
to the Jordan. Tliis was the valley of
Jezreel (Judg. 6 : 33). In the time of
Aliab, who chose it as a royal residence,
Jezreel gained its greatest pre-eminence.
Here, near the palace of Ahab, resided
that unfortunate Naboth whose vineyard
was coveted by the king (1 Kings 21 :
1-4). Here, too, Jehu executed on the
house of Ahab the judgments of God (2
JOAB— JOASH.
2S5
Kings 9 : 14-37). Its modern represent-
ative is Zerin, a cluster of wretclied huts.
Jo'ab [Jehovah w his Jalher'], the most
remarkable of the three nephews of David,
the children of Zeruiah, David's sister.
He first appears after David's accession
to the throne at Hebron. Abner slew in
battle Asahel, the younger brother of Joab,
and when afterward David received Abner
into favor Joab treaclierously murdered
liirn. No rival now stood in the way of
Joab's advancement, and at the siege of
Jebus he was appointed "captain of the
host," the same office that Abner had
held under Saul, and after the king the
highest in the state (1 Chron. 11 : 6; 2
Sam. 8 : 16). In the wars wliich David
undertook Joab was the acting general,
displaying great ability and achieving high
distinction. For his failure to save Absa-
lom's dangerous life he incurred the resent-
ment of the king, who transferred the chief
command of his armies to Amasa ; but Joab
rid himself of Amasa as he had previously
rid himself of Abner (2 Sam. 20 : 8-13).
"When Solomon came to the throne, Joab
espoused the cause of Adonijah, and with
that presumptuous prince lost his life. He
had fled for refuge to the altar at Gibeon,
but the altar did not save him ; whilst
clinging to it he was put to death at
Solomon's command (1 Kings 2 : 28-34).
Jo-an'na, the name of a woman, oc-
curring twice in Luke (8:3; 24 : 10), but
evidently denoting the same person. In
the first passage she is expressly stated
to have been " wife of Chuza, steward of
Herod," that is, of Herod Antipas, te-
trarch of Galilee.
Jo^ash. [Jehovah gave'], contracted
from Jehoash, the name of two kings.
1. Son of Ahaziah, king of Judah, and
the only one of his children who escaped
the murderous hand of Athaliah. He
was hid for six years in the chambers of
the temple. In the seventh year of his
age and of his concealment a successful
revolution, conducted by Jehoiada tlie
high priest, placed him on the throne
of his ancestors and freed the country
from Athaliah's tyrannies and idolatries.
Whilst Jehoiada lived, for the period of
twenty-three years, the reign Avas prosper-
ous, but when Jehoiada died Joash fell
under the influence of bad advisers, at
whose suggestion he revived the worship
of Baal and Ashtarotii. When for this
he Avas rebuked by Zechariali, Jehoiada's
son, Joash caused him to be stoned to
death in the very court of the Lord's
house (2 Ciiron. 24 : 20-22 ; Matt. 23 : 35).
The divine judgments were not long de-
layed. That very year Hazael, king of
Syria, came up against Jerusalem, and as
the price of his departure carried oflf a
vast booty. Scarcely had Joasli escaped
this danger when he fell into another and
fatal one. Two of iiis servants, taking ad-
vantage of his severe illness, the result
probably of wounds received in battle,
conspired against him, and slew him in
his bed in the fortress of Millo (2 Chron.
24 : 25). His reign lasted forty years,
from 878 to 838 B. c.
2. Son and successor of Jehoahaz on the
throne of Israel, from B. c. 840 to 825, and
for two full years a contemporary sovereign
with the preceding (2 Kings 14:1). When
he succeeded to the croAvn the kingdom
was in a deplorable state from the dev-
astations of Hazael and Benhadad, kings
of Syria. On occasion of a friendly visit
paid by Joash to Elisha on his deathbed
the prophet promised him deliverance
from the Syrian yoke in Aphek (1 Kings
20 : 26-30). He bade the king smite upon
the ground, and the king smote thrice and
stayed. The prophet rebuked him for
staying, and limited to three his victories
over Syria (2 Kings 13 : 19). Accord-
ingly, Joash did defeat Benhadad three
times on the field of battle, and recovered
from him the cities which Hazael had
taken from Jehoahaz. He waged also a
286
JOB.
successful war with Amaziah, king of
Jiulah. The grounds of tliis war are
given fully in 2 Chron. 25. The two ar-
mies met at Bethshemesh.; that of Joash
was victorious, put the army of Amaziah
to the rout, took him prisoner, brought
him to Jerusalem and plundered the city.
He died in the fifteenth year of Amaziah,
king of Judah, and wjis succeeded by his
son, Jeroboam II.
Job [persecuiedl, an Arabian patriarch
and hero of the book that bears his name,
mentioned elsewhere only in Ezek. 14 : 14,
20; James 5 : 11. His residence in the
land of Uz, which took its name from a
son of Aram (Gen. 10 : 23) or Nahor
(Gen. 22 : 21), marks him as belonging
to a branch of the Aramaean race which
had settled in a district of Northern Ara-
bia (probably in Idumsean Arabia, to the
south or south-east of Palestine) adjacent
to the Sabreans and Chaldeans. He is
represented as a chieftain of immense
wealth and high rank, blameless in all the
relations of life. One question could be
raised by envy : May not the goodness
which secures such direct and tangible
rewards be a refined form of selfishness?
Satan, the accusing angel, suggests the
doubt : " Doth Job fear God for naught ?"
and asserts boldly that if those external
blessings were withdrawn Job would cast
off his allegiance and would curse God to
his face (Job 1 : 9-11). The problem is
thus distinctly propounded which the
book of Job is intended to discuss and
solve: Can goodness exist irrespective of
reward ? The accuser receives permission
to make the trial. He destroys Job's
property, then his children, and after-
ward, to leave no possible opening for
cavil, is allowed to inflict upon him a
painful disease, supposed by some to have
been elephantiasis, or black leprosy. Job's
wife breaks down entirely under the trial ;
Job remains steadfast, repelling his wife's
suggestions to curse God with the simple
yet sublime words, " What ! shall we re-
ceive good at the hand of the Lord, and
shall we not receive evil?" (Job 2 : 9,
10). Thus the question raised by Satan
was answered.
But if the matter had ended here many
points of deep interest would have been
left in obscurity. Entire as was the sub-
mission of Job, he must have been in-
wardly perplexed by events to the solu-
tion of which he had no clue. An oppor-
tunity for the discussion of the providen-
tial government of the world is afforded
by the introduction of three men, repre-
senting the wisdom and experience of the
age, who came, on hearing of Job's mis-
fortunes, to condole with him. After a
long discussion between Job and his three
friends, in which little progress had been
made, but in which an extraordinary dia-
lectic skill had been displayed, Elihu, a
young man who had listened in indignant
silence to the arguments of his eldere
(Job 32 : 7), addressed himself to both
parties in the discussion, and especially
to Job. He shows that the three friends
have accused Job upon false or insufficient
grounds, and have failed either to convict
him or to vindicate God's justice. He
shows that Job has assumed his entire in-
nocence and has arraigned the divine jus-
tice (.Job 33: 9-11).
But whilst he shows that the positions
of the three friends are untenable, and
that Job's views are imperfect, he fails
to clear up the mystery. Like all the
interlocutors, he never recognizes the spe-
cial object of calamity — namely, the trial
of sincerity and the demonstration that
integrity of life and devout faith in God
can exist independent of external circum-
stances. Jehovah himself now appears.
From the midst of a terrific storm, in
language of incomparable grandeur, the
Lord reproves and silences the murmurs
of Job. He also rebukes Job's opponents
and vindicates the patriarch's int grity.
JOCHEBED— JOHN THE APOSTLE.
287
He does not argue, but he asserts, with
such clearness and force as to resolve all
questions, his absolute power and his im-
mutable justice. The restoration of Job's
external prosperity, which is the result of
God's personal manifestation, symbolizes
the ultimate compensation of the right-
eous for all suffeiings undergone upon
earth. The total absence of any allusion
not only to the Mosaic Law, but to the
events of the Exodus, the fame of which,
if they had occurred previously, must have
reached the country of Job, is a strong ar-
gument for the early age both of the patri-
arch and of the book.
Joch'e-bed {^Jehovah is her gloni], the
wife of Amram and mother of Miriam,
Aaron and Moses (Num. 26 : 59).
Jo'el [Jeliovith is his Ood], the second
01 the twelve minor prophets in the order
of our Authorized Version, the son of
Pethuel. He probably prophesied in
Judah in the reign of Joash. The prox-
imate event to which his prophecy related
was a public calamity then impending on
Judah, of a twofold character — want of
water and a plague of locusts continuing
for several years. The prophet exhorts
the people to turn to God with penitence,
fasting and prayer, and then, he says, the
plague shall cease and the rain descend
and the Spirit extend the blessings of true
religion to heathen lands. The prophecy
is referred to in Acts 2 : 16-21. The style
is remarkable for the blending of strength
and tenderness. In vividness of descrip-
tion it rivals that of Nahum, and in sub-
limity and majesty is scarcely inferior to
those of Isaiah and Habakkuk.
Jo-han'an [Jehovah is bountiful'], one
of the Jewish chiefs who rallied around
Gedaliah (2 Kings 25 : 23; Jer. 40 : 8),
and who, after Gedaliah's assassination,
carried the remnant of the people and
their effects to Egypt, although the
prophet Jeremiah forbade the movement
(Jer. 43 : 2, 4, 5-7).
John, contracted form of Johanan;
the name of several men.
1. One of the high priest's family, who,
with Annas and Caiaphas, sat in judgment
upon the apostles Peter and John (Acts
4: 6).
2. The Hebrew name of the evangelist
Mark (Acts 12 : 12, 25; 13 : 5, 13; 15 :
37).
3. John the Apos'tle, the son of
Zebedee, a fisherman on the Sea of Gali-
lee. He was probably younger than his
brother James (Matt. 4 : 21 ; 10 : 2; 17 :
1), younger than his friend Peter, possi-
bly younger than his divine Master. Peter
and James and John come within the in-
nermost circle of their Lord's friends.
Peter is the leader of the disciples, but
to John belongs the yet more memorable
distinction of being the disciple whom
Jesus loved. His most prominent traits
of character appear to have been an ar-
dent temperament and a delicacy of sen-
timent. These combined to produce that
devoted attachment to his Master which
leads him to detail all his discourses and
vindicate his character on all occasions.
Yet with all his mildness and amiability
of temper he was not feminine in dispo-
sition, but possessed an energy and force
of mind which gave him the title of
'•son of thunder" (Mark 3 : 17). It was
these traits of character that enabled
him to take so profound and compre-
hensive a view of the nature and office
of the incarnate Son of God, evident in all
his writings, and especially manifest in the
' introduction to his Gospel. He outlived
I all the other apostles, residing chiefly at
Eplaesus, but spending some time in ban-
islunent on the island of Patmos, whither
the imperial government under Domitian
sent him to labor in the mines, and where
he had the remarkable visions recorded in
the Revelation. The date of his death is
supposed to have been at or near the close
i of the first century of the Christian era.
288
JOHN THE BAPTIST— JOHN, GOSPEL OF.
4. John the Baptist, of the priestly
order, his father, Zacliariiis, being a priest
of the course of Abia or Abijah (1 Chron.
24 : 10), and his mother, Elisabeth, being
a daughter of Aaron (Luke 1 : 5). His
birth was foretold by an angel sent from
God, and is related at lengtli in the first
chapter of Luke's Gospel. It preceded by
six months that of our Lord. John was
ordained to be a Nazarite from his birth '
(Luke 1:15). He dwelt by himself in the
wild and thinly-peopled region westward
of the Dead Sea ; his dress was tliat of the
old prophets, a garment woven of camel's
hair (2 Kings 1:8), attached to the body
by a leathern girdle ; his food was such as
the desert afforded, locusts (Lev. 11 : 22)
and wild honey (Ps. 81 : 16). And when
he came fortli to begin his wonderful
work as the herald of the Christ he at- j
tracted universal attention and awakened
the profoundest interest. His foreannoun-
ced birth, his hard, ascetic life, his repu-
tation for extraordinary sanctity, and the
widely prevalent expectation that some
great one was about to appear, sufficiently
account for the multitudes that thronged
to him from "Jerusalem and all .Judaea,
and all the region round about .Jordan "
(Matt. 3 : 5). He preached the doctrine
and administered the baptism of repent- |
ance, whilst bearing the clearest testimony
to the superiority of that baptism, accom-
panied with the gift of the Holy Spirit,
which our Lord afterward ordained (Matt.
3 : 11, 12).
When he baptized our Lord he noted
the remarkable attestations of the Mes- ;
siah — the symbolical descent of the Holy
Spirit and the recognition from heaven
of the divine Son (Matt. 3 : 16, 17) — and
he inferred tlierefrom that his work and
mission were accomplished. Such, in-
deed, proved to be the fact. In daring
disregard of the divine laws, Herod An-
tipas had taken to himself Herodias, the
wife of his brother Philiii ; and when
John, with a noble fidelity to truth, re-
proved him for this and other sins (Luke
3 : 19), Herod cast him into prison. The
place of his confinement was the castle of
Machferus, a fortress on the eastern shore
of the Dead Sea. At tiiis castle a court-
festival was kept in honor of Herod's
birthday. After supper Salome, the
daughter of Herodias, came in and
danced before the company, and by her
grace of manner and beauty of person
so charmed Herod that he promised with
an oath to give her whatsoever she should
ask. Salome, prompted by her vicious
and vindictive mother, demanded the
head of John the Baptist. Plerod gave
the order to an officer of his guard, who
went immediately to the prison-vault
whera John was confined, and soon re-
turned bearing on a large dish the ghast-
ly face and head of the murdered man.
His death is supposed to have occurred
just before the tliird passover in the
course of our Lord's ministry, A. D. 28.
His life is marked throughout with the
characteristic graces of self-denial, hu-
mility, and holy courage. Upon him
our Lord pronounces the noblest eulogy
ever pronounced on man (Luke 7 : 28).
John, Gospel of. Ephesus and Pat-
mos are the two places mentioned by early
writers as the place where John's Gospel
was written, and the weight of evidence
seems to preponderate in favor of Eph-
esus. The time of writing is uncertain,
but is usually placed about A. D. 78.
After the destruction of Jerusalem, Eph-
esus probably became the centre of the
active life of Eastern Christendom. It
contained a large church of faithful
Christians, a multitude of zealous Jews,
an indigenous population devoted to the
worship of a strange idol whose image
was borrowed from the East, its name
from the West. The Gospel was evi-
dently addressed primarily to Christians.
The main object of John, who wrote after
JOHN, FIEST, SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES— JONAH.
289
the other evangelists, is to supplement
tlieir narratives, which were almost con-
fined to our Lord's life in Galilee. The
events narrated are grouped about eight
of our Lord's journeys, and are illustrative
of the dominant thought with which the
Gospel begins — namely, the essential di-
vinity of Jesus, the Christ. Tlie dis-
courses of our Lord with which the
Gospel abounds are among its richest
treasures.
John, First, Second and Third
Epistles. These tliree Epistles are
fine exemplitications of the spirit of the
man and of the Christianity which he
taught. The first is general, and contains
much to edify the Church, especially to
tlevelop holiness, obedience, purity, faith,
and, above all, love. The second is ad-
dressed to a lady of eminent piety, called
"the elect lady," or, as some read it, the
Lady Electa, and others the elect Cyria.
The third is addressed to Gains, eminent
for piety and particularly distinguished for
his hospitality.
Jok'shan [bird-snare)-'\, the second son
of Abraham and Keturah, whose sons, She-
ba and Dedan, appear to have been the an-
cestors of the Sabseans and Dedanites that
peopled a part of Arabia Felix (Gen. 25 :
2, 3; 1 Chron. 1 : 32, 33).
Jok'tan [liltle], son of Eber (Gen. 10 :
25 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 19), and the father of the
Joktanite Arabs. Scholars are agreed in
placing the settlements of Joktan in the
south of the peninsula.
Jok'theel.
1. The name which Amaziah, king of
Judah, gave to Sela or Selah, an Ara-
bian city which he had conquered (2
Kings 14 : 7). This Selah was Petra, an
ancient stronghold of Edom, hewn out of
the rocks, the ruins of which are among
the most striking and magnificent remains
of ancient architecture. See Sela.
2. The name of a city of Judah, in the
plain of Philistia, not far fiom Lachish
19
(Josh. 15 : 38), on the road between Beit-
Jibrin and Gaza.
Jon'a-dab, the contracted form of
Jehonadab (which see).
Jo'nah [a dove], the fifth of the mi-
nor prophets in the order of our Author-
ized Version, the son of Amittai and a
native of Gath-hepher, a town of Lower
Galilee, in Zebulun (2 Kings 14 : 25).
He lived after the reign of Jehu, when
the losses of Israel began (2 Kings 10 :
32), and probably not till the latter part
of the reign of Jeroboam II. He is rep-
resented by many commentatoi-s as the
first of the prophets whose prophecies in
written form have come down to us, but
the most probable opinion is that he yields
priority to Joel. Who was the king of
Nineveh in Jonah's time is not known.
When tlie prophet was bidden by Jehovah
to "go to Nineveh" and to "cry against
it" (Jon. 1 : 2), lie refused and attempted
to escape to Tarshish. The providence
of God, however, watched over him, fiist
in a storm, and then in his being swal-
lowed by a large fish for the space of three
days and nights. The fish is by some sup-
posed to have been the white shark, which
sometimes attains the length of thirty feet,
and is abundantly able to swallow a man
whole. After his deliverance Jonah execu-
ted his commission ; and the king, believ-
ing him to be a minister from the supreme
deity of the nation, and liaving heard of
his miraculous deliverance, ordered a gen-
eral fast and averted the tlireatened judg-
ment. But the prophet, not from personal
but political reasons, grudged the mercy
shown to a nation which was the foe
of his own country. He was therefore
taught by the significant lesson of the
"goiu'd," whose growth and decay brought
the truth at once home to him, that he was
sent to testify by deed, as other prophets
would afterward testify by word, the ca-
pacity of Gentiles for salvation, and the
design of God to make them partakei-s
290
JONATHAN— JORDAN.
of it. This was " the sign of the prophet I
Jonas" (Luke 11 : 29, 30), as was also our j
Lord's resurrection (Matt. 12 : 39, 41 ; 16 :
4).
Jon'a-than [Jehovah has given], the ;
name of several persons.
1. The eldest son of King Saul. He
was regarded in his father's lifetime as
the heir to the throne. Like Saul, he
was a man of great strength and activity
(2 Sam. 1 : 23). He was also famous for
archery and slinging, the peculiar mar-
tial exercises in which his tribe excelled
(1 Chron. 12 : 2). He was a bold and
successful soldier, but the chief interest of
his career is derived from his friendship
with David, which began on the day of
David's return from the victory over the
champion of Gath and continued till his
death. Their last meeting was in the for-
est of Ziph during Saul's pursuit of David
( 1 Sam. 23 : 16-18). From this time forth
we hear no more of him till the battle of
Gilboa. In the battle he fell with his two
brothers and his father, and his corpse
shared their fate (1 Sam. 31 : 2, 8). His
ashes were buried first at Jabesh-Gilead,
but were afterward removed witli those
of his father to Zelah in Benjamin (2
Sam. 21 : 12-14).
2. Son of Shimeah, brother of Jonadab
and nephew of David (2 Sam. 21 : 21).
3. Son of Abiathar, the high priest,
and the last descendant of Eli of whom
we hear anything. He appears on the
day of David's flight from Absalom (2
Sam. 15 : 36) and on the day of Sol-
omon's inauguration (1 Kings 1 : 42,
43).
4. Son or descendant of Gershom the
son of Moses (Judg. 18 : 30).
5. Son of Joiada, and his successor in
the high priesthood (Neh. 12 : 11, 22,
23).
Jop'pa [beauty'], a very ancient and
important seaport town of Palestine, on
tlie Mediterranean coast, about fortv miles
north-west of Jerusalem. Although its
harbor was and is an extremely imsafe
one, it became the port of Jerusalem when
the latter liad become the capital of Da-
vid's kingdom, and the port of Jerusalem
it now is. Here the timber from Lebanon
used in building the temple was landed (2
Chron. 2 : 16). Hither Jonah fled when
he sought a ship in which to escape from
the presence of the Lord (Jon. 1 : 3). Here
in New Testament times Peter restored to
life the dead Tabitha or Dorcas (Acts 9 :
36-43), and here Peter had that remark-
able vision which convinced him that the
distinction between Jew and Gentile had
no existence in the gospel (Acts 10 : 9-18).
Its modern name is Y<iJ'a or Jafla. Visit-
ors to Jerusalem by way of the Mediter-
ranean usually land here. Its site is ele-
vated and picturesque, but the internal
appearance of the town is wholly unin-
teresting. No imposing buildings, or
even ruins, arrest attention. Its popula-
tion is estimated at eight thousand souls.
The environs of the place are adorned
with orchards and gardens, in which the
pomegranate, orange, lemon, fig and other
fruits are cultivated.
Jo'ram. See Jehoeam.
Jor'dan [the descender], the far-famed,
and properly the only, river of Palestine.
It has its source in three fine fountains
on the slopes of Anti-Lebanon. In its flow
it widens into two lakes, that of Huleh the
ancient Merom (.Josh. 11 : 5), and that
of Gennesaret (Luke 5 : 1). Flowing
out from the southern end of the latter,
it descends with great speed to its point
of entrance into the Dead Sea. Although
the direct distance from its source to its
mouth is not more than one hundred and
twenty miles, yet so many are its short
windings and so crooked is its channel
that the actual distance of its flow is
about two hundred miles. The great speed
of its current and the equally great crook-
edness of its channel can be well understood
I'jilll J
V _
'1 ^J~.^> ~'iT - ■.;■
lillllH u "^;
1]!'! ii
•:!i,i
iBafTOniv iL-itlFCiiii ''*;:, \; laiJiiBJMi.j
292
JOSEPH.
Fords of Jordan.
if we consider that its .source is about
one thousand feet above the level of the
Mediterranean ; that in the short dis-
tance of twelve miles, which brings it
to the Huleh Lake, it falls not less than
one thousand feet ; that in passing through
Lake Huleh and in reaching the north end
of tiie Sea of Galilee, a distance of fourteen
and a half miles, it falls six hundred and
eighty-two feet below the level of the
Mediterranean ; and that thus in twenty-
six and a half miles it has a fall of six-
teen hundred and eighty-two feet, or more
than sixty feet to the mile. Below the Sea
of Galilee the fall is not so great per mile,
and yet sufficiently great to make the Jor-
dan a very rapid and very tortuous stream.
The first notice of it in Scripture occurs
in the story of the separation of Abra-
ham and Lot (Gon. 13 : 10). It was
crossed miraculously by the Israelites
when they entered Canaan (Josh. 3 : 14-
17). In its waters Naaman was cured of
his leprosy (2 Kings 5 : 14) ; in its waters
John baptized the multitudes who came
to him from Jerusalem and all Judiea
(Matt. 3 : 5, 6), and in its waters John
baptized Him "of whoni ^Moses in the
law and the prophets did write, Jesus
of Nazareth" (John 1 : 45). The precise
locality of our Lord's baptism cannot be
determined, but most probably it w<is
near the mouth.
Jo'seph [he shall add], the name of
several persons in Scripture.
1. The elder of the two sons of Jacob
by Rachel, first mentioned when a youth
seventeen years old. He incurred the
hatred of his brethren because his fatlier
manifested a decided preference for him
by giving him a dress of rich material,
apparently a long tunic with sleeves,
woni by the j'ouths and maidens of the
richer class (Gen. 37 : 3). This hatred
was increased by his telling of a dream
foreshadowing that they Avould bow down
to him, which was followed by another
dream of similar import. These brethren
had gone to Shechem to feed their flocks,
and Joseph was sent thither from Hebron
by his father to bring him word of their
welfare. They were not at Shechem, but
were gone to Dothan, which apjiears to
have been not far distant, pasturing their
flocks, like the Arabs of the present day,
wherever the wild countrv was unowned.
JOSEPH.
293
On Joseph's approach Iiis brethren, except
Reuben, resolved to kill him ; but Reuben
saved him, persuading them to cast him
into a dry pit and intending to restore '
him to his father. Subsequently, when
Reuben was not with them, his brethren
sold him to a company of Ishmaelite tra-
ders, who took him to Egypt and resold
him to an Egyptian master. But " God
was with him, and delivered him out of
all his afflictions " (Acts 7:10). Througli
a series of remarkable providences the j
Hebrew youth passed from slavery to
sovereignty, and became at once the sa-
vior of his family and the benefactor of
millions. His two sons, Ephraim and
Manasseh, born in Egypt, were adopted
by Jacob as his own, and were made each '
the head of a tribe. He died at the age
of one hundred and ten years ; his em- :
balmed remains were sacredly guarded, j
and at the Exodus were transported to
Canaan, and at length were put in their
final resting-place " in Shechem, in a par-
cel of ground which Jacob bought of the
sons of Hamor" (.Josh. 24 : 32). The'
character of Joseph is one of the finest
in history. It is a noble combination
of faith in God and of firm adherence
to right. In it appear in remarkable
perfection an unshaken confidence in
the ultimate triumph of truth and good-
ness, a clear discrimination of what was
good and what evil, a strong sense
of duty, a singular modesty, a thorough '
self-command, a patient endurance of ills,
a moderation and Justice in the exercise
of authority, an equal generosity in the '
forgiveness of injuries and the conferment !
of benefits, and, with all, an exquisite sen- !
sibility and tenderness. It types more |
nearly perhaps than any other man's the
faultless character of our Lord Christ.
2. Son of Heli and reputed father of
our Lord. All that is told us of Joseph [
in the New Testament may be summed i
up in few words. He was a just man, and
of the house and lineage of David. He
lived at Nazareth in Galilee, and it is
probable that his family had been settled
there for at least two generations, possi-
bly from the time of Matthat, the com-
mon grandfather of Joseph and Mary,
since Mary lived there too (Luke 1 : 26,
27). He espoused Mary, the daughter
and heir of his uncle Jacob, and before
he took her home as his wife received
the angelic communication recorded in
Matt. 1 : 20. When Jesus was twelve
years old Joseph and Mary took him
with them to keep the passover at Jeru-
salem, and when they returned to Naza-
reth he continued to act as father to the
child Jesus, and indeed was reputed to
be such. That he died before our Lord's
crucifixion is nowhere stated, but is the
fair inference from John 19 : 27 and Mark
6 : 3. But where, when, or how he died
we know not.
3. Joseph of Abimathea, a rich and
pious Israelite, is denominated by Mark
(15 . 43) an honorable counselor, by which
we are probably to understand that lie was
a member of the Great Council or Sanhe-
drim. He is fm-ther characterized as " a
good man and a just" (Luke 23 : 50), one
of those who, bearing in their hearts the
words of their old prophets, were waiting
for the kingdom of God (Mark 15 : 43 ;
Luke 2 : 25, 38). We are expressly told
that he did not "consent to the counsel
and deed " of his colleagues in conspiring
to bring about the death of Jesus, but he
seems to have lacked the courage to pro-
test against their judgment. At all events,
we know that he shrank, through fear of
his countrymen, from professing himself
openly a disciple of our Lord. The cru-
cifixion seems to have wrought in him the
same clear conviction that it wrought in
the centurion who stood by the cross ; for
on the very evening of that dreadful day,
when the triumph of the chief priests and
rulers seemed complete, Joseph "went in
294
JOSES— JOSIAFI.
boldly unto Pilate and craved the body of
Jesus" (Mark l-j : 43). Pilate gave him
the body, which he, assisted by Nicodemus,
wrapped in a linen shroud and placed in
his own new rock-hewn tomb, where pre-
viously no corpse had ever been laid.
4. Joseph, called Babsabas and sur-
nanied Justus, one of the two persons
chosen by the assembled Church (Acts 1 :
23) as worthy to fill the place in the apos-
tolic company from which Judas had fall-
en.
Jo'ses, the name of two or three per-
sons in the New Testament.
1. The son of Eleazar and father of Er,
among the maternal ancestors of our Lord.
In Luke 3 : 29 the name is erroneously
written " Jose."
2. The son of Mary and Cleopas, and
brother of James the Less, of Simon and
of Jude, and consequently one of those
who are called "the brethren of our
Lord" (Matt. 13:55; 27:56; Mark 6 :
3; 15 : 40, 47). He was the only one of
these brethren who was not an apostle.
3. A Levite of the country of Cyprus,
surnamed Barnabas (which see).
Josll''u-a [Jehovah /.s salvation'], the
son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraira (1
Chron. 7 : 27). His name appears in the
various forms of Hoshea, Oshea, Jehosh-
UA, Jeshua and Jesus. He was nearly
forty years old when he shared in the hur-
ried triumph of the Exodus. He is men-
tioned first in connection with the fight
against Amalek at Eephidim, when he
was chosen by Moses to lead the Israel-
ites (Ex. 17 : 9). When Moses ascended
Mount Sinai to receive for the first time
the two tables, Joshua, who is called his
minister or servant, accompanied him part
of the way, and was the first to accost him
in his descent (Ex. .32 : 17). Soon after-
ward he was one of the twelve chiefs who
were sent (Num. 13 : 17) to explore the
land of Canaan, and one of the two (Num.
14 : 6) who gave an encouraging report of
their journey. Moses, sliortly before his
death, was directed to invest Joshua sol-
emnly and publicly with definite author-
ity, in connection with Eleazar the high
priest, over the people (Num. 27 : 18).
Joshua assumed the command, sent spies
into Jericho, crossed the Jordan, fortified
a camp at Gilgal, circumcised the people,
kept the passover, was visited by the Cap-
tain of the Lord's host, and began that
.1 series of extraordinary military exploits
j which resulted in the conquest of Canaan
and the partition of the country among
the tribes and families. He died at the
age of one hundred and ten years, and
was buried in his own city, Timnath-
Serah. In addition to his fame as a war-
rior is his fame as a writer. The book
which bears his name is -written with tlie
unconscious vivid power of an eye-wit-
ness. It is an invaluable contribution to
the history of his times, and an indispen-
sable portion of those oracles of God
which were committed unto his people.
Jo-si'ah [Jehovah heals], the son
and successor of Anion, king of Judah.
j He came to the throne b. c. 641, in the
eighth year of his age, and reigned thirty-
one years. His history is contained in 2
Kings 22-24 ; 2 Chron. 34, 35 ; and the
first twelve chapters of Jeremiah throw
much light upon the general character of
the Jews in his days. He began in the
t eighth year of his reign, at the age of six-
teen, to seek the Lord, and in the twelfth
year, when twenty, and for six years after-
ward, in a personal progress throughout
all the land of Judah and Israel, he de-
stroyed everywhere high jdaces, groves,
images and all outward signs and relics of
idolatry. The temple was restored under
a special commission, and in the course of
the repairs Hilkiah the jiriest found that
book of the Law of the Lord wliich quick-
ened so remarkably the young king's ar-
dent zeal. The great day of Josiah's life
was the day of the passover in the eight-
JOT— JUD^A.
295
eentli year of his reign. But the time of
his death, which had been indicated by Hul-
dah (2 Kings 22 : 20), at length drew near.
When Pliaraoh-Necho went from Egypt to
Carchemish to carry on his war against
Assyria, Josiah opposed his march along
the sea-coast. Necho reluctantly paused,
and gave liim battle in the valley of Es-
draelon. Josiah was mortally wounded,
and died before he could reach Jerusa-
lem. He was buried with extraordinary
honors.
Jot, or rather Iota, the smallest letter
of the Greek alphabet (') derived from
the Hebrew yod ( '), and answering to the
/ of European languages. Its name was
employed metaphorically to express the
minutest trifle. When in Matt. 5:18 our
Lord says that " one jot " of the law shall
not fail of fulfillment, he means to affirm
that every particle of the law, however
slight, shall certainly be accomplished.
Jo'thara [^Jehovah is perfect^, the
name of several men, of whom two only
need be mentioned.
1. Tlie youngest son of Gideon (Judg.
9:5), who escaped from the massacre of
his brethren. His fable of the reign of
the bramble (Judg. 9 : 8-15) is the earliest
example of that kind of figurative speech.
2. The son of King Uzziah of Judah.
After administering the kingdom for some
years during his father's leprosy, he suc-
ceeded to the throne B. c. 758, when he
was twenty-five years old, and reigned six-
teen years in Jerusalem. He was contem-
porary with Pekah, king of Israel, and
with the prophet Isaiah. His history is
contained in 2 Kings 15 and 2 Chron.
27.
Ju'bal, a son of Lamech by Adah, and
the inventor of the " harp and organ "
(Gen. 4 : 21), probably general terms for
stringed and wind instruments.
Ju'bi-lee, The Year of, the fiftieth
year after the succession of seven sabbat-
ical years, in which all the land which had
been alienated returned to the families of
those to whom it had been allotted in the
original distribution, and all bondsmen of
Hebrew blood were liberated. The rela-
tion in which it stood to the sabbatical
year and the general directions for its ob-
servance are given in Lev. 25 : 8-16, 23-
55. There is no mention of the jubilee
in the book of Deuteronomy, and the only
other reference to it in the Pentateuch is
in Num. 36 : 4. The year was inaugurated
on the day of atonement with the blowing
of trumpets throughout the land and by a
proclamation of universal liberty. It was
observed, it is said, till the destruction of
the first temple, but there is no historical
notice of its observance on any one occa-
sion, either in the books of the Old Testa-
ment or in any other records.
JuMa, a Greek form of Judah (Matt.
2:6; Luke 1 : 39).
Ju-d.a3'a, the Latin form of Judah,
but with a larger signification, a pi'ovince
of Palestine rather than the territory of a
tribe. Before our Lord's birth Palestine
was divided into three distinct provinces
— Galilee on the north, Samaria in the
middle, and Judsea on the south (John
4 : 3-5). The latter province is usually
meant by the term Jiulcea in the New Tes-
tament (Matt. 4 : 25; Luke 5 : 17 ; John
4 ; 47), but the term is sometimes used in
a wider sense. Thus, in Luke 1 : 5, Herod
is called king of Judaea, that is, the gen-
eral name Judeea is given to his whole
kingdom, which included the country east
and west of the Jordan. The trans-.Jor-
danic provinces are referred to as belong-
ing to Judaja in Matt. 19:1; Mark 10 : 1 ;
Luke 23 : 5. The "hill country" of Ju-
daea (Luke 1 : 65) embraced the mountain-
ranges around Jerusalem and soutliward.
This was the native country of John the
Baptist (Luke 1 : 39). The "wilderness
of Judaea," or " the wilderness," as in Matt.
4:1 it is called, was that desolate and
dreary region which stretches along the
296
JUDAH— JUDAS.
western shore of the Dead Sea and runs |
to the tops of the hills, also north of the j
Dead Sea line. i
Judah [praise'], the name of a son of
.Jacob, of a Hebrew tribe and its territory, j
and of a kingdom.
1. The fourth son of Jacob and the
fourth of Leah. His name is explained
as having originated in Leah's exclama-
tion of " praise" at the fresh gift of Jeho-
vah (Gen. 29 : 35). Of the individual Ju-
dah more traits are preserved than of any
other of the patriarchs, with the exception
of Joseph. In the matter of the sale of
Joseph he and Reuben stand out in fa-
vorable contrast to the rest of the broth-
ers. When a second visit to Egypt for
corn had become inevitable it was Judah
who, as the mouthpiece of the rest, headed
the remonstrance against the detention of
Benjamin by Jacob, and finally undertook
to be responsible for the safeti' of the lad
(Gen. 43 : 3-10). And when through Jo-
seph's artifice the brothers were brought
back to the palace, he is again the leader
and spokesman of the band. So too it is
Judah who is sent before Jacob to smooth
the way for him in the land of Goshen
(Gen. 46 : 28). This ascendency over his
brethren is reflected in the last words ad-
dressed to him by his father (Gen. 49 : 8).
He was the father of five sons (Gen. 40 :
12).
2. The tribe of .Judah at the first cen-
sus, in the wilderness, numbered seventy-
four thousand six hundred adult males
(Num. 1 : 26, 27); at the second census,
in the plains of Moab, seventy-six thou-
sand five hundred (Num. 26 : 22). Thus
it Avas numerically the largest tribe, and
this superiority it always retained. The
tribal territory included one-third of the
whole of Palestine, but only about one-
third of the allotment was available for
actual settlement. Its eastern boundary
was the Dead Sea and the Arabah, and
its western the Mediterranean Sea. On
the north the border ran from the mouth
of the Jordan by Jericho, .Jerusalem, Kir-
jath-jearim, Beth-Shemesh, Ekron and
Jabneel to the coast. Its southern line,
traversing a desert country, was indefinite.
The western portion of Judah's allotted ter-
ritory was the celebrated plain of Philis-
tia, called the Shephelah, or "low coun-
try." It extended from Joppa on the
north to Gaza on the south, and was the
richest part of their inheritance. But as
they were never able to dispossess the
Philistines, their real domain consisted
only of the central mountain-range, or
the liill-countrA', with its slopes and glens
and valleys. In the person of David the
tribe grasped the sceptre ; but inasmuch
as they elevated him to the throne with-
out consulting the other tribes, they sowed
the seeds of that jealousy and alienation
which subsequently yielded their bitter
fruit in the formation of two kingdoms,
and in the long-continued struggle for
supremacy between Ephraim and Judah.
3. The history of the kingdom of .Judah
is the history of its successive kings from
Rehoboani to Zedekiah, the latter of whom
and his people became the captives of Neb-
uchadnezzar. To this kingdom of Judah,
in opposition to that of Israel, belongs the
peculiar and glorious distinction of perpet-
uating the true religion, of maintaining
the succession of the priesthood and of
continuing those ceremonial observances
which typified so clearly the facts and doc-
trines of the gospel. In the fullness of
time from the tribe of Judah and the
house of David came our Lord, the Son
of man and the Son of God.
Ju'das, the Grecised form of the He-
brew name Judah. It is associated with
a number of names in the New Testa-
ment.
1. Jx'DAS, surnamed Barsabas, a lead-
ing member of the apostolic Church at Je-
rusalem (Acts 15 : 22), endued with the gift
of prophecy (ver. 32), chosen with Silas to
JUDAS— JUDGES.
297
accompany Paul and Barnabas as delegates
to the Church at Antioch, to make known
the decree concerning the terms of admis-
sion of the Gentile converts (ver. 27).
2. Judas of Galilee, the leader of a
popular revolt "in the days of the taxing"
(that is, the census under Quirinus^, re-
ferred to by Gamaliel in his speech before
the Sanhedrim (Acts 5 : 37).
3. Judas Iscariot, sometimes called
"the son of Simon" (John 6 : 71 ; 13 : 2,
26), but more commonly Iscariot (Matt.
10:4; Mark 3 : 19 ; Luke 6 : 16). In
the three lists of the Twelve there is add-
ed in each case the fact tliat he was the
betrayer. Of the life of Judas before the
appearance of liis name in the lists of
the apostles we know absolutely nothing.
What that appearance implies, however,
is that he had previously declared him-
self a disciple. He was drawn, as the
others were, by the preaching of the Bap-
tist, or his own Messianic hopes, or the
" gracious words " of the new Teacher, to
leave his former life and to obey the call
of the prophet of Nazareth. When our
Lord and his disciples began to travel
hither and thither, receiving money and
other offerings, and redistributing what
they received, it became necessary that
some one should act as the steward and
almoner of the small society, and this fell
to Judas (John 12:6; 13:29). The
Galilean or Judsean peasant found him-
self entrusted with larger sums of money
than before, and with this there came cov-
etousness, imfaithfulness, embezzlement.
After this it was impossible that he could
feel at ease with One who asserted so clear-
ly and sharply the laws of fidelity, duty,
unselfishness. With the hope of gain he
lent himself to the furtherance of the
schemes of our Lord's enemies, and con-
summated the betrayal in circumstances
which made his treachery the more ap-
parent and appalling. When the deed
was done he realized the enormity of his
crime, and, returning the money to his
employers, confessed his guilt and shame.
With the heartlessness which charac-
terized the priests and rulers of the time,
they threw upon lam the responsibil-
ity of his act, and unable longer to bear
the reproaches of conscience, he cast the
thirty silver pieces on the temple pave-
ment and went and hanged himself. His
name was dismissed from the list of the
apostles with the prayer of the survivors
that God would show which of two men,
Justus and Matthias, he had chosen to
take the "ministry and apostleship from
which Judas by transgression fell that he
might go to his own place" (Acts 1 : 25).
4. Judas the Brother op James,
otherwise Jude, and otlierwise Lebbeus,
whose surname was Thaddeus (Luke 6 :
16 ; John 14 : 22 ; Jude 1 ; Matt. 10 : 3 ;
Mark 3 : 18), one of the twelve apostles.
Nothing is certainly known of his later
history.
5. Judas the Lord's Brother.
Among the brethren of our Lord men-
tioned by the people of Nazareth (Matt.
13 : 55; Mark 6:3) occurs a Judas who
has been sometimes identified with tlie
apostle of the same name. It has been
considered with more probability that he
was the writer of the Epistle which bears
the name of "Jude tlie brother of James."
Jud'ges, temporary and special de-
liverers sent by God to deliver the Is-
raelites from their oppressors. Their
power only extended over portions of the
country, and some of them were contem-
poraries. Though their first work was
that of deliverers and leaders in war, yet
after a deliverance they administered jus-
tice to the people, and tlieir autliority sup-
plied the want of a regular government.
The book of Judges contains their his-
tory from Josluia to Samson. The time
commonly assigned to the period contain-
ed in this book is two hundred and ninety-
nine years. The following is a list of the
298
JUDGES— JUDGMENT-HALL.
judges, whose history is given under their
respective names :
First Servitude, to ^lesopotamia : i
1. Othniel.
Second Servitude, to Moab :
2. Ehud;
3. Shamgar.
Third Servitude, to Jabin and Sisera :
4. Deborah and Barak.
Fourth Servitude, to Midian :
5. Gideon ;
6. Abimelech ;
7. Tola ;
8. Jair.
Fiith Servitude, to Amnion:
9. Jephthah ;
10. Ibzan;
11. Elon;
12. Abdon.
Sixth Servitude, to the Pliilistines :
13. Samson;
14. Eli;
15. Samuel.
But wliilst the judges in the above list
were men raised up in extraordinary emer-
gencies and invested witli extraordinary
powers, tliey did not supersede the class
of magistrates termed judges, which were
originally appointed by Moses in the wil-
derness, soon after the departure from
Egypt. We are told that Moses, at the
suggestion of Jethro, his father-in-law,
and in order to relieve himself of a por-
tion of the onerous duties of the chief
magistracy, " chose able men out of all
Israel, and made them heads over the
people, rulers of thousands, rulers of hun-
dreds, rulers of fifties and rulers of tens :
and they judged the people at all sea-
sons ; the hard causes they brought unto
Moses, but every small matter they judged
themselves " ( Ex. 18:1 3-26). Subsequent
legislation provided that judges or magis-
trates should be appointed in every city
(Deut. 16 : 18), and that a court of appeal
should be constituted of priests, with the
high priest at its head (Deut. 17 : 8-13).
When the Israelites were settled in their
respective districts of the Promised Land,
the judiciary system outlined by Moses
went into eflect. For the cities and towns
judges were then appointed, but how ap-
pointed, and whether there was a regular
succession of them, we are not informed.
As the law to be administered was most fa-
miliar to the Levites, and as they by the
force of circumstances were more conver-
sant with such subjects than any other
class of the people, it is probal)le that on
them cliiefly the judicial office devolved.
Judgement, Day of (Matt. 10 : 15),
that momentous day which is to terminate
the present dispensation of grace and to
fix unalterably the eternal state of all
men. That such a day is appointed is
abundantly evident from Scripture (Matt.
12 : 36 ; Acts 17 : 31 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 7-10 ;
Heb. 9 : 27 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 9 ; 3 : 7 ; 1 John
4 : 17). On that day our Lord Jesus
Christ will officiate as judge (Matt. 25 :
31, 32; .John 5 : 22 ; Rom. 2 : 16; 2 Cor.
5 : 10). The decisions of the Judge will
be final and irreversible, admitting the
righteous to the joys of Christ's kingdom
and dooming the wicked to the outer dark-
ness of eternal despair (Matt. 25 : 34-46;
1 Thess. 4 : 14-17 ; 2 Pet. 3:7). The day
is hidden from man's knowledge, and is
known to God only (Matt. 24 : 36).
Judgement-Hall. The word Proein-
rium is so translated five times in our Au-
thorized Version of the New Testament,
and in those five passages it denotes two
different places.
1. In John 18 : 28, 33; 19 : 9 it is the
residence which Pilate occupied when he
visited Jerusalem. The site of Pilate's
prsetorium in Jerusalem has given rise to
much disjjute, some supposing it to be the
palace of King Herod, others the tower
of Antonia ; but it was probably the lat-
ter, which was then and long afterward
the citadel of Jerusalem.
JULIA— JUTTAH.
299
2. In Acts 23 : 35, Herod's judgment-
hall or prtetorium in Csesarea was doubt-
less a part of that magnificent range of
buildings, the creation of which by King
Herod is described in Josephus. Tiie word
" pahice " or " Caesar's court " in our Au-
thorized Version of Pliil. 1 : 13 is a transla-
tion of the same word prcelorium. It may
here have denoted the quarter of tliat de-
tachment of the praetorian guards which was
in immediate attendance upon the emperor.
JuFi-a, a Christian woman at Rome
wliom Paul salutes in connection with
Philologus, whose sister or wife she prob-
ably was (Rom. 16 : 15).
Ju^li-us, the centurion of " Augustus'
band " to whose charge the apostle Paul
was delivered when he was sent prisoner
from Csesarea to Rome (Acts 27 : 1, 3).
Ju^ni-per. The word thus rendered
in 1 Kings 19 : 4, 5 ; Ps. 120 : 4 ; Job 30 :
4 is beyond doubt the retem or white broom.
It is very abundant along tlie Jordan Val-
ley and in the desert of Sinai, and affords
to travelers a grateful shade in the
time of heat and comfortable warmth
in the time of cold. Of the retem
President Bartlett, when traversing the
desert of wandering, writes thus : " We
put on a quantity of retem, and watched
with interest for the coals of juniper (Ps.
120 : 4). They appeared to be like the
best hard-wood coals, giving out a strong
heat, and brightening up when separately
exposed. The next morning (Feb. 27th)
we went early to the place of our last
night's fire, and found good juniper coals
beneath the ashes, enough to kindle it up
again easily."
Ju'pi-ter, the name of tlie chief father
of the gods in Greek and Roman mythol-
ogy. It is mentioned in one passage in our
Authorized Version of the New Testament
(Acts 14 : 12, 13) in connection with Paul's
visit to Lystra. The expression " Jupiter
which was before their city " means that
his temple was outside the city.
Jus'tice, practical righteousness or eq-
uity, by which one renders to another what
is his due. God's justice or attributive right-
eousness is tliat essential perfection of his
I nature which leads him to render to every
' one his due (Ps. 89 : 14; 2 Tim. 4 : 8).
This justice in God requires the condem-
nation of every sinner, and were it not
for the plan of redemption, in which jus-
tice is satisfied in the person of Christ,
and is brought into harmony with mercy,
the whole race of men would die in their
sins (Rom. 5:6; Heb. 9 : 26, 28 ; 1 Pet.
' 3: 18).
! Jus-ti-fl-ca^tion " is an act of God's
I free grace, wherein he pardoneth all our
sins, and accepteth us as righteous in his
: sight, only for the righteousness of Christ
j imputed to us and received by faith alone."
Hence the ground of a sinner's justification
is not his own personal merit, but Clirist's
perfect righteousness. This righteousness
because of the believer's vital union with
j Christ is imputed to him or set to his ac-
count. The justified person is not only
j pardoned, but in the eye of God's law he
is contemplated as righteous — as righteous,
indeed, as if he had rendered to the law in
his own person a full, complete and sinless
obedience. Justification by faith is a car-
dinal doctrine of the Cliristian religion,
and affords the only ground of hope to the
penitent (Acts 13 : 39 ; Rom. 3 : 24-31;
5:1; Gal. 2:16; 3:11; 2 Cor. 5 : 21 ).
Jus'tus. 1. The surname of Joseph
Barsabas (Acts 1 : 23) ; 2. A Christian at
Corinth with whom Paul lodged (Acts
18 : 7); 3. A believing Jew, who, also
called Jesus, was with Paul at Rome
when he wrote his Epistle to the Colos-
sians (Col. 4 : 11).
Jut'tah [ea'^fnf/ec/], an ancient town in
the mountains of Judah, mer^tioned in the
group with Maon and Carniel (Josh. 15 :
55). It was allotted to the priests (Josh.
21 : 16). It is now called Yultah, and is
I five English miles south of Hebron.
300
KABZEEL— KEDESH.
K.
Kab'zeel, one of the cities of the
tribe of Jiulah (Josh. 15 : 21), the native
phice of Benaiah, son of Jehoiada, one of
David's chief warriors (2 Sam. 23 : 20; 1
Cliron. 11 : 22). After the Captivity it
was reinhabited by the Jews, and ap-
pears as Jekabzeel.
Ka'desh [sanctuary], the site, perhaps,
of some ancient oracle, thus named in Num.
13 : 26, otherwise called Kadesh-baenea
(Num. 32 : 8; Deut. 1 : 2, 19), but orig-
inally named, as in Gen. 14 : 7, En-Mish-
pat (fountain of judgment), from a remark-
able spring or well of water found there.
Its site has been much disputed, but re-
cent studies place it at A in Kadees, about
Lat. 31° 35' N. and Long. 34° 50' W.,
70 miles S. S. E. of Hebron. This place
was remarkable as that from which Moses
proposed to enter the Promised Land,
and from which he sent a message to
the king of Edom asking permission to
pass through liis territory, which was re-
fused (Num. 20 : 14-21). Here too Mir-
iam died, and on the murmuring of the
people for water Moses was permitted by
miracle to increase the supply (Num. 20 :
1-11).
Kad 'mi-el [standing before God, that is,
/i/,s servant'], one of the Levites who with
his family returned from Babylon with Ze-
rubbabcl (Neh. 12 : 8) and a.ssisted in the
various reforms of that period, being al-
ways named in connection with Jeshua
(Ezra 3:9; Neh. 7:43). He and his
house are prominent in history on three
occasions (Ezra 3:9; Neh. 9 : 4, 5; 10 :
9).
Kad'mon-ites, The, a people named
in Gen. 15 : 1 9 only, one of the nations which
at that time occupied the land promised
to the descendants of Abraham. The
name is probably a synonym for the
Bene-Kedem, the "children of the
East."
Ka'nah [reeds].
1. The name of a brook, the boundary
between Ephraim and Manasseh, and fall-
ing into the Mediterranean a little south
of the ruins of Csesarea (Josh. 16:8; 17 :
9).
2. The name of a city in the tribe of
Asher (Josh. 19 : 24, 28), and supposed to
be the same as the New Testament Cana
(John 2: 1).
3. One of the fortified cities of the tribe
of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 37), called Kadesh-
Naphtali ; that is, the sanctuary or holy
place of Naphtali. It was the asylum of
all Northern Palestine and the residence
of Barak, the deliverer of Israel (Judg.
4:6).
Ka-re'ah [hnld-head], the father of
Johanan and Jonathan avIio supported
Gedaliah's authority and avenged his
murder (Jer. 40 : 8, 13, 15, 16; 41 : 11,
13, 14,16; 42:1,8; 43:2,4,5).
Ke'dar [black], the second son of Ish-
mael, and founder of the tribe that bore
his name (Gen. 25 : 13; 1 Cliron. 1 : 29).
Like the wandering tribes of the present
day, the Kedarites appear to have been
"archers" and "mighty men" (Isa. 21 :
17). The tribe seems to have been one
of the most conspicuous of all the Isli-
maelite tribes.
Ked'e-moth [beginninfjn], a city in
the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 15, 18),
given to the Merarite Levites (.Tosh. 21 :
37 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 79 1. It possibly conferred
its name on the " wilderness " or pasture-
land near it, from which Moses sent mes-
sengers to Sihon, king of Heshbon (Deut.
2 : 26).
Ke'desh [mncfuaj-y], the name of two
towns in Palestine: 1. A town in the ex-
KEDRON— KID.
301
treme south of Judah (Josh. 15 : 23) ; 2.
A city of Issachar, allotted to the Gersho-
nite Levites (1 Chron. 6 : 72), whose king
was probably slain by Joshua (12:7, 22).
It was one of the cities of refuge on the
west of Jordan (Josh. 20 : 7).
Ke'dron. See Kidron.
Kei'lah [fortress'], a city of the tribe
of Judah, lying in the Shephdah or plain
of Philistia south-west from Jerusalem
(Josh. 15 : 44). When attacked by the
Philistines it was relieved by David, who
afterward discovered that its inhabitants
were plotting to deliver him into the
hands of Saul (1 Sam. 23 : 1-13). The
place is mentioned in the times of Ne-
hemiah (Neh. 3:17), and its site is still
shown on a steep hill above the rich
corn-valley of Elah. It is now Kila.
Ke'nath [possession'], a strong city of
Bashan, in the province of Argob, con-
quered in the time of Moses by Nobali,
one of the chiefs of the tribe of Manasseh,
and called after his name (Num. 32 : 42).
It retained the name of Nobali two hun-
dred years. Its site is supposed to be
identical with that of the modern Kan-
awdt, a ruined town at the southern ex-
tremity of the Lejah, about twenty miles
north of Busrah. The ruins cover consid-
erable space, and are among the finest of
the Hauran.
Ke^naz [hunter], the last named of the
sons of Eliphaz, the son of Esau, and one
of the dukes of Edom (Gen. 36 : 15, 42 ; 1
Chron. 1 : 53).
Ke'nite, The, and Ke'nites, The,
a tribe or nation first mentioned in com-
pany with the Kenizzites and Kadmon-
ites (Gen. 15 : 19). Their origin is not
recorded, but we may infer that they were
a branch of the larger nation of Midian.
Jethro, who in Ex. 2 : 15, 16; 4 : 18, 19 is
represented as dwelling in the land of
Midian, and as priest or prince of that
nation, is in Judg. 1:16; 4:11 distinctly
declared to be a Kenite. The important
services rendered by the sheikh of the
Kenites to Moses during a time of great
pressure and difficulty were rewarded by
the latter with a promise of firm friend-
ship between the two peoples. The con-
nection then begun lasted as firmly as a
connection could last between a settled
people like Israel and one whose tenden-
cies were so decidedly nomadic as those
of the Kenites. The most remarkable
development of this people is to be found
in the sect or family of the Eechabites,
Ke'niz-ite or Kenizzite, an Edom-
itish tribe (Gen. 15 : 19; Num. 32 : 12;
Josh. 14 : 6, 14).
Ke'ri-Oth, a strong city of the land of
Moab ( Jer. 48 : 24, 41 ; Amos 2 : 2). Its
site has not been satisfactorily identified.
Ke-tu'rah [perfume], the second wife
of Abraham, by whom he had six sons
(Gen. 25 : 1-6). Five of these sons evi-
dently crossed the desert to the Persian
Gulf and occupied the whole intermedi-
ate country, where traces of their names
are frequent, while the sixth (Midian) ex-
tended south into the peninsula of Arabia
proper.
Key, an instrument for opening a lock,
frequently mentioned in Scripture, and
often used in a figurative sense. It is
the symbol of government, power, authority
(Isa. 22 : 22; Rev. 1 : 18; 9:1; 20 : 1).
Even in modern times, when the govern-
ment of a city is transferred to a mayor or
governor, the keys of the gates are deliver-
ed as an emblem of authority.
Kib'roth-hat-ta'a-vah [graves of
lust or longing], one of the encampments
of the Israelites in the wilderness, where
the people lusted for meat and murmured.
The Lord sent them vast numbers of
quails, and while the flesh was yet be-
' tween their teeth, ere it was chewed,
smote them with a A'ery great plague
(Num. 11 : 34; Ps. 78 : 30,31).
Kid, the young of the goat (Gen. 27 :
9; Judg. 6: 19j.
302
KIDROX— KING.
'1;5S<*
Kidron.
Kid'ron [turbid], (Cedron in John
18 : 1), the narrow bed of a winter-torrent
between Jerusalem and the Mount of
Olives. It is crossed by a bridge of one
arch, leading to the garden of Gethsem-
ane. Over the l)rook Kidron, David,
when fleeing from Absalom, sorrowfully
passed (2 Sam. 15 : 23), and over it our
Lord, on the night of his betrayal and
arrest, went to his Gethsemane agony
(John 18 : 1-9). The outlet of Kidron
is into the Dead Sea, which it enters not
far from its north-west corner, about
fourteen miles from .Jerusalem.
Kine, the plural of cow, not often used
(Gen. 41 : 2).
King, a title of dignity nnd authority,
as applied to God the universal Ruler, or
to Christ as the head of the mediatorial
government, or to man exercising do-
minion over his fellow-men. In its later
application it often in Scripture means
mere chieftainship. Many of the kings
mentioned in its historical records were
no more than the governors of towns or
the leaders of tribes. Thus there were
thirty kings in Canaan that Avere sub-
dued by the Israelites (Josh. 12 : 9-24);
and Adonibezek acknowledged that he
had subdued and cruelly mutilated sev-
enty kings (Judg. 1 : 7). Tiiese were cer-
tainly officers of very limited dominion.
The government wliich God originally
appointed for the Israelites was not a
monarchy, but a theocracy, that is, a
government of which God was the Head.
In many of its features it bore a strong
resemblance to a republic. After tlie
decease of Closes and .Joshua the people
were governed by judges for a series of
years; but in tlie time of Samuel the
people became dissatisfied witli the cor-
rupt and mercenary conduct of his sons,
who had been appointed judges, and de-
KINGDOM OF GOD— KIE-HAKASETH.
303
manded a king. The suggestion was dis-
pleasing to Samuel, and he asked coun-
sel of God. The answer he received was,
" Hearken unto the voice of the people in
all that they say unto thee ; for they have
not rejected thee, but they have rejected
me that I should not reign over them" (1
Sam. 8:7). This concession, accompanied
as it was by a warning of all the evils the
people would certainly suffer under this
new government, plainly showed that the
monarchy was conceded, not as a blessing,
but as a curse (1 Sam. 8 : 10-18). A curse
they soon found it to be. They had the
pomp and pageantry of royalty, but they
had the exaction and exasperation as
well. After tlie reigns of three kings the
kingdom itself was divided, and then fol-
lows the history of the kings of Judah
and of Israel. The records of those times
are contained in the first and second books
of Samuel, the first and second books of
Kings, and the first and second books of
Chronicles. The books of Chronicles are
confined to the history of the kings of
Judah.
A table of the Hebrew monarchy is
subjoined :
HEBREW MONARCHY.
The dates conform to the calculations
of Usher. They indicate the year of ac-
cession to the throne, and are those which
are commonly found in reference Bibles.
I. Tribes United.
B. C. Kings.
1095. Saul.
1055. David.
1015. Solomon.
II. Tribes Divided.
B. C. Kings of Judali.
975. Rehoboam.
958. Abijah.
955. Asa.
B. C. Kings of Israel.
975. Jeroboam I.
954. Nadab.
953. Baasha.
930. Elah.
929. Zimri,
929. Omri,
914.
892.
885.
884.
878.
839.
810.
Jehoshaphat.
Jehoram.
Ahaziah.
Athaliah (queen)
Joash.
Amaziah.
918. Ahab.
898. Ahaziah.
896. Jehoram.
884. Jehu.
856. Jehoahaz.
841. Jehoash.
758.
742.
726.
698.
643.
641.
610.
610.
599.
599.
588.
AzariahorUzziah. 825. Jeroboam II.
773. Zechariah.
772. Shallum (one
month).
772. Menahem.
Jotham. 761. Pekahiah.
Ahaz. 759. Pekah.
Hezekiah. 730. Hosliea.
Manasseh, 721. Captivity and
deportation.
Anion.
Josiah.
Jehoahaz (three months).
Jehoiachim.
Jehoiachin (tributary prince).
Zedekiah (tributary prince).
Destruction of Jerusalem and temple ;
complete captivity.
King'dom of God, the universal
dominion which God exercises over all
the works of his hands (1 Chron. 29 : 11).
The KINGDOM OF HEAVEN is an expres-
sion descriptive of the gospel dispensation
(Matt. 3:2; 13 : 47 ; Col. 1 : 13). It is
descriptive also of the future state of glory
(Matt. 7 : 21; 8: 11).
K.ir [a walled town], the place to which
the inhabitants of Damascus were carried
captive by the king of Assyria (2 Kings
16 : 9). Kir is named with Elam (Isa.
22 : 6), and hence is supposed to be con-
tiguous to Persia, having its site nn the
territory of ancient Media. Of it, how-
ever, nothing is certainly known.
Kir-Har'a-seth [cityofpotsherdx], (2
Kings 3 : 25) ; Kir-Ha^reeh (Isa. 16 :
11); Kir-Har 'e-seth ( Isa. 1 6 : 7 ) ; Kir-
He'res (Jer. 48 : 31, 36) ; and Kir of
Moab (Isa. 15 : ]), a strongly-fortified
city of ancient Moab. With the excep-
304
KIRJATH— KITP:.
tion of the walls, it was destroyed by
Joram, king of Israel (2 Kings 3 : 25).
It is now called Kerak, and is a town
of about three thousand inhabitants. It
stands on tlie top of a rocky liill about
ten miles from the south-east corner of
the Dead Sea and near the southern fron-
tier of Moab.
Kir'jath. This word means a city or
town, and is frequently found in composi-
tion as follows :
1. Kir-jath'aim Idouble cityl, one of
the mcst ancient towns east of Jordan,
early in possession of the gigantic Emims
(Gen. 14: : 5), wliere it is called Kiriathabn.
The Emims were dispossessed by the Mo-
abites (Deut. 2 : 9-11). It was afterward
in possession of Reuben (Num. 32 : 37 ;
Josh. 13 : 19). In the time of Jeremiah
(48 : 1) it was one of tlie four cities that
formed the glory of Moab. A town of
the same name wiis within tlie tribe of
Naphtali (1 Chron. 6 : 76).
2. Kir'jath-Ar'ba \_cily of Arba, or,
according to the later Jews, city of four, be-
cause, as they held, in addition to Abraham,
Isaac and Jacob, Adam was buried there],
the same as Hebron. See Hebron.
3. Kir'jath-Ba'al [city of Baal], same
as Kirjath-jearim. See Kirjath-jearim.
4. Kir'jatii-hu'zoth [city of streets'],
a town in Moab (Num. 22 : 39).
5. Kir'jath-je'a-rim [city of forests'],
called Kiijath-Baal (Josh. 15 : 60), was
one of tlie four cities of the Gibeonites
which was saved by the craft and cun-
ning of the inhabitants (Josh. 9 : 17).
Here the ark, after its restoration by the
Philistines, reniained until it was removed
to Jerusalem by David ( 1 Sam. 7 ; 1 Chron.
13). It is probably identical with the mod-
ern Arabic village Soba.
6. Kir'jatii-san'nah (Josh. 15 : 49),
also called Kir'jath-se'pher [the book
city], (Judg. 1 : 11), also called Debir.
Kish, the father of Saul, a Benjamite
(1 Sam. 10: 21).
K.i'shon [tortuom, winding], a river
which drains nearly the whole plain of
Esdraelon, and falls into tlie Mediterra-
nean near the northern base of Mount Car-
mel. It is celebrated as tlie place where
Sisera and his host were defeated, and by
the waters of which many of them were
swept away (Judg. 4 : 13; 5 : 21). It is
also celebrated as the scene of the destruc-
tion of Baal's prophets by Elijah ( 1 Kings
18 : 40). Although comparatively a small
stream in the dry season, yet in the wet sea-
son or after heavy rains it is a swollen and
impetuous flood. It is now called Nahr
Mukalla, the river of slauglder.
Kiss. Kissing, by way of affectionate
salutation, was customary amongst near
relatives of both sexes both in patriarchal
and in later times (Gen. 29 : 11 ; Song 8 :
1). In the early Christian Church the
kiss of charity was practiced not only as
a friendly salutation, but as an act sym-
bolical of love and brothei-liood (Rom. 16 :
16; 1 Cor. 16 : 20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thess.
5 : 26; 1 Pet. 5 : 14). Kissing idols was
an ancient mode of adoring and worship-
ing them (1 Kings 19 : 18; Hos. 13 : 2).
Reverence for God's Messiah is to be ex-
pressed l-.y a kiss (Ps. 2 : 12).
l.f-#
Kite.
Kite. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered occurs in three passages (Lev. 11 :
KITTIM— KOEAH.
305
14; Deiit. 14 : 13, and Job 28 : 7). In
the first two it is translated "kite" in
our Authorized Version ; in the third,
"vulture." It is enumerated among the
twenty names of birds mentioned in Deut.
14 which were considered unclean by the
Mosaic Law, and forbidden to be used as
food by the Israelites.
Kit'tim. Twice, and more correctly,
written in our Authorized Version for
Chittim (Gen. 10:4; 1 Chron. 1:7).
See Chittim.
Knead'ing-troug-h, the vessel in
which the materials of the bread, after
being mixed and leavened, are left to rise
or ferment (Ex. 8 ; 3 ; 12 : 34). It prob-
ably resembled the wooden bowl used by
the modern Arabs for the same purpose.
With the dough in it, it is quite pot-
able, and by the Arabs is frequently
carried on their shoulders wrapped in a
cloak.
Knife, Knives. Various terms in
the Hebrew Scriptures are thus rendered
in our Authorized Version. The most
common one is a derivative of the root
"to eat or devour," and means an eating
instrument, a meat-cutter (Gen. 22 : 6, 10 ;
Judg. 19 : 29 ; Prov. 30 : 14). The usual
term for " sword " when used with respect
to an instrument for cutting smaller objects
is also rendered knife (.Josh. 5:2, 3 ;
1 Kings 18 : 28 ; Ezek. 5 : 1, 2). The
knives mentioned in Ezra 1 : 9 among the
articles of the temple-furniture brought
back from Babylon, and which were doubt-
less used chiefly in killing and dissecting
the sacred victims, have their name in
Hebrew from a word which points to the
passing through or piercing the objects to
which it was applied, and wliich, therefore,
appropriately designates slitting or cleav-
ing instruments. Another word for knife
is from a root meaning to cut, divide be-
tween ; this word is used but once (Prov.
23 : 2), and in a figurative sense. In
none of the passages in Scripture is there
20
any indication of the form or material of
the several kinds of knives.
Knop. A word employed in our Au-
thorized Version to translate two terms
which refer to some architectural or orna-
mental object, but which have nothing in
common. The first term occurs in the
description of the candlestick of the sa-
cred tent in Ex. 25 : 31-36 and 37 : 17-
22. The second is found only in 1 Kings
6 : 18 and 7 : 24. The word signifies,
doubtless, some globular thing resembling
a small gourd or an egg, though as to the
character of the ornament we are quite in
the dark.
Ko'hath ^assembly'}, the second son of
Levi and father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron
and Uzziel (Gen. 46 : 11 ; Num. 3 : 19).
As the father of Amram, who was the
father of Aaron, Kohath was the ances-
tor of all the priests, and those of his de-
scendants who were not priests were of the
highest rank of the Levites. In the jour-
neyings of the tabernacle the sons of Ko-
hath had charge of the most holy portions
of the vessels (Num. 4). Of the personal
history of Kohath we know nothing, ex-
cept that he came down to Egypt with
Levi and Jacob (Gen. 46 : 11), that his
sister was Jochebed (Ex. 6 : 20), and that
he lived to the age of one hundred and
thirty-three years (Ex. 6 : 18).
Ko^rall [ice], the name of several
men.
1. The third son of Esau by his second
Canaanitish wife, Aholibamah (Gen. 36 :
14; 1 Chron. 1 : 35). He became the
head of a petty Edomite tribe.
2. Another Edomite duke, sprung from
Eliphaz, Esau's son bv Adah (Gen. 36 :
16).
3. A Levite, son of Izhar, the brother
of Amram, who was the father of Moses
and Aaron. H-e was the leader of the
famous rebellion against his cousins Moses
and Aaron in the wilderness, for which
he paid the penalty of perishing with his
306
KORAHITE.
followers by an earthquake and flames of
fire (Num. 16, and 26: 9-11). The partic-
ular grievance which rankled in the minds
of Korah and his company was their exclu-
sion from the office of the priesthood, and
their being confined (those among them
who were Levitesj to the inferior service
of the tabernacle. Korah's position as
leader in this rebellion was evidently the
result of his personal character, which
was that of a bold, haughty and ambitious
man. Tliis appears from his address to
Moses in ver. 3, and especially from his
conduct in ver. 19, where both his daring
and his influence over the congregation are
very apparent. Were it not for this, one
would have expected the Gershonites, as
the elder branch of the Levites, to have
supplied a leader in conjunction with the
sons of Eeuben rather than the family
of Izhar, who was Amram's younger
brother. From some cause, which does
not clearly appear, the children of Korah
were not involved in the destruction of
their father (Num. 26 : 11). Perhaps the
fissure of the ground which swallowed up
the tents of Dathan and Abiram did not ex-
tend beyond those of theReubenites. From
Num. 16 : 27 it seems clear that Korah
himself was not with Dathan and Al)iram
at the moment. His tent may have been
one pitched for himself, in contempt of the
orders of Moses, by the side of his fellow-
rebels, while his family continued to reside
in their proper camp nearer the tabernacle ;
or it must liave been separated by a consid-
erable space from those of Dathan and
Abiram. Or even if Korah's family re-
sided amongst the Reubenites, tliey may
have fled at Moses' warning to take ref-
uge in the Kohathite camp, instead of re-
maining as the wives and children of Da-
than and Abiram did (ver. 27). Korah
himself doul)tless, was with tlie two hun-
dred and fifty men who bore censers nearer
the tabernacle (ver. 19), and perished with
them bv the " fire from Jehovah " which
accompanied the earthquake. It is no-
where said that he was one of tliose who
"went down quick into the pit" (com-
pare Ps. 106 : 17, 18), and it is natural
that he should have been with the censer-
bearers. That he was so is indeed clearly
implied by Num. 16 : 16-19, 35, 40, com-
pared with 26 : 9, 10. In the New Tes-
tament (Jude ver. 11) Korah is coupled
with Cain and Balaam, and apparently is
held out as a warning to those who " de-
spise dominion and speak evil of digni-
ties," of whom it is said that they " per-
ished in tlie gainsaying of Core."
Ko'rah-ite, Kor'hite, or Ko'ra-
thite (1 Chron. 9 : 19, 31), that portion
of the Kohathites who were descended
from Korah. They are frequently styled
' sons of Korah. The offices filled by the
sons of Korah, so far as we are informed,
were the following. They were an import-
ant branch of the singera in the Kohath-
ite division, Haman himself being a Ko-
rahite (1 Chron. 6: 33), and the Korahites
being among those who, in Jehoshaphat's
reign, " stood up to praise the Lord God
of Israel with a loud voice on high" (2
Chron. 20 : 19). Hence we find eleven
psalms (or twelve if Ps. 43 be included
under the same title as Ps. 42) dedicated
! or assigned to the sons of Korah, namely
—Psalms 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87. 88. These
psalms in poetic expression and high lyric
tone are among tlie most beautiful in the
collection.
Others again of the sons of Korah were
" porters " — that is, doorkeepers in the tem-
ple, an office of considerable dignity. In
1 Chron. 9 : 17-19 we learn that Shallum,
a Korahite of the line of Ebiasaph, was
chief of the doorkeepers, and that he and
his brethren were keepers of the gates of
the tabernacle apparently after the return
from the Babylonish captivity ; yet in 1
Chron. cli. 26 we find tliat this official sta-
tion of the Korahites dated from the time
of David.
LABAN— LAMECH.
307
L.
La^ban [white], son of Bethuel, brother
of Rebekah, and father of Leah and Racliel.
The elder branch of the family remained
at Haran when Abraliam removed to the
land of Canaan, and it is there that we first
meet with Laban, as taking the leading
part in the betrothal of his sister Rebekah
to her cousin Isaac (Gen. 24 : 10, 29-60;
27 : 43; 29 : 4). The next time Laban
appears in the sacred narrative it is as the
host of his nephew Jacob at Haran (Gen.
29 : 13, 14). With him Jacob spent twenty
years, marrying his two daughters and su-
perintending his flocks and herds. When
Jacob, with his family and stock, stealthily
left Padan-Aram, Laban pursued the fugi-
tives, but was reconciled, and with his son-
in-law entered into a solemn treaty of amity
that should mutually bind their posterity
(Gen. chs. 30, 31).
La''cliish \_boasfful], an ancient royal
city of the Canaanites, in the Shepft-
elah or plain of Philistia, bordering on
the mountains of Judah (Josh. 15 : 39).
It was captured by Joshua and allotted to
the tribe of Judah. In 2 Kings 18 : 13-
17 the record implies that Lacliish was
besieged and captured by Sennacherib,
the king of Assyria. This record is re-
markably confirmed by the tablets and
sculptures discovered at Nineveh by Mr.
Layard. In the palace of Sennacherib is
a drawing or sketch of the siege, with this
inscription above the king's head : " Sen-
nacherib, the mighty king, king of the
country of Assyria, sitting on the throne
of judgment before the city of Lachish, I
give permission for the slaughter." The
ancient city is identified with the deso-
late ruin which now bears the name Um
Ldkk.
La'ish [/('on], the original name of the
citv of Dan. See Dan.
Lakes. See Canaan.
Lamb, the offspring of the sheep. The
lamb was largely used in the sacrifices pre-
scribed by God to his ancient people (Ex.
29 : 38^1 ; Num. 28 : 9-11 ; 29 : 2, 13-
40), for which purpose, of all the domes-
tic animals, it is evidently the most suit-
able. In the symbolical language of Scrip-
ture the lamb is the type of meekness and
innocence (Isa. 11 : 6; 65 : 25; Luke 10 :
3), and so is the very appropriate symbol
of Christ the Lamb of God (Gen. 4:4;
Ex. 12 : 3; John 1 : 29, 36; 1 Pet. 1 : 19;
Rev. 13 : 8). As the blood of the divine
Sacrifice is that alone which has an aton-
ing eflicacy for the sin of the world, so tlie
dignity of the Lamb of God is acknow-
ledged in heaven. In the symbolic scen-
ery, the central object of heaven's wonder
and woi-ship, John beheld "a Lamb as it
had been slain, having seven horns and
seven eyes" (Rev. 5 : 0)— that is, invested
with the attributes of God, omnipotence
and omniscience, raised to the throne of
universal empire and receiving the hom-
age of the universe.
La'mech, the name of two antedilu-
vian patriarchs.
1. The fifth lineal descendant from Cain
(Gen. 4 : 18-24), and the only one, except
Enoch, of the posterity of Cain whose his-
tory is related with some detail. He is the
first-recorded polygamist of the world. His
two wives, Adah and Zillah, and his daugh-
ter, Naamah, are, with Eve, the only ante-
diluvian women whose names are men-
tioned by Moses. His three sons, Jabal,
JuBAL and TrBAL-CAiN, are celebrated
in Scripture as the authors of useful in-
ventions.
2. The seventh lineal descendant from
Seth, son of Methuselah and father of
Noah (Gen. 5 : 25-31). His character
308
LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH— LAPWING.
appears to have been very different from
that of his Cainite namesake.
Lam-en-ta'tions of Jer-e-mi 'ah,
the prophet's utterance of sorrow upon tlie
capture of Jerusalem and the destruction
of the temple. The book consists of five
cliapters, each of which, however, is a
separate poem complete in itself and hav-
ing a distinct subject, but brought at the
same time imder a plan which includes
them all. The book has supplied thou-
sands with the fullest utterance for their
sorrows in the critical periods of national
or individual snfterins;.
Ancient Lamps.
Lamp, a term of frequent occurrence
in the Scriptures, both literally and meta-
phorically. Literally, it designates two
things: 1. That part of the golden can-
dlestick belonging to the tabernacle which
bore the light ; also of each of the ten can-
dlesticks placed by Solomon in the temple
before the Holy of Holies (Ex. 25 : 37 ; 1
Kings 7 : 49; 2 Chron. 4 : 20; 13 : 11 ;
Zech. 4 : 2). These lamps were lighted
everv evening and cleansed every morn-
ing (Ex. 30 : 7, 8). Olive oil was burned
exclusively in them (Ex. 27 : 20). 2. A
torch or flambeau, such as was carried by
the soldiers of Gideon (Judg. 7:16, 20),
or such as was borne in marriage-proces-
sions (Matt. 25:1). Metaphorically, the
lamp is used to indicate life, welfare, guid-
ance (2 Sam. 21 : 17; Prov. 13 : 9; Ps.
110 : 105).
Land'raark, a boundary, or a stake,
stone or other monument which indicated
the boundary -line (Deut. 19 : 14 ; 27 : 17 ;
Prov. 22 : 28 ; 23 : 10 ; Job 24 : 2).
Language. See Tongues, Confu-
sion OF.
La-o-di-ce'a, a city of Asia Minor,
situated in the western part of Phrygia, on
the borders of Lydia and about forty miles
east of Ephesus. One of the seven churches
of Asia was planted here, wliich, on account
of its lukewarmness subjected itself to the
heavy, judgment pronounced against it
(Eev. 3 : 14-18). The earlier name of
this city was Diospolis ; but after being
enlarged by Antiochus II., king of Syria,
it was called Laodicea, after his wife Lao-
dice. About A. D. 65 it, together with Co-
losse and other places, was destroyed by an
earthquake. Although afterward rebuilt,
it is now the scene of utter desolation.
The Turks call the poor village which
occupies its site £slci-Hissar, old castle.
Extensive ruins, overspreading six or
seven liills and covering a large extent
of ground, indicate a city of considerable
size and magnificence. The remains of
an immense circus and of three theatres,
one of them four hundred and fifty feet
in diameter, are still visible, but its only
inhabitants are wolves and jackals.
^y^ff-^i^i^-
"■^^MM^^"
The Hoopoe {Vpiipa).
Lap'-wing, a word which, occurring as
the name of an unclean bird only in Lev.
Ruins of Laodicca— now Eski-Hissar.
310
LASEA— LAW.
11 : 19 and Deut. 14 : 18, affords no inter-
nal or collateral evidence in the Scriptures
to establish the propriety of the translation.
It is generally believed, and with good rea-
son, that the hoopoe is intended.
La-se'a, a maritime city of Crete, near
wliich Paul sailed on his voyage to Eome
(Acts 27 : 8). It lies about the middle of
the southern coast of Crete, some five miles
east of Fair Havens, close to Cape Leonda.
It still retains the ancient name.
La'sha [^.ssM?'e], a place which marked
the utmost border of the ancient Canaan-
ites (Gen. 10 : 19). Its site was probably
east or north-east of the cities of the plain,
and so beyond the Dead Sea. It derived
its name, probably, from the fissure or
deep gorge where burst forth those hot
springs which, called by Josephus Callir-
hoe, are believed to identify the place.
Latch'et, the thong or fastening by
which the sandal was attached to the foot.
It occurs in the proverbial expression in
Gen. 14 : 23, and is there used to denote
something trivial or worthless. Another
semi-proverbial expression in Matt. 3:11
and Luke 3 : 16 points to the fact that the
office of bearing and unfastening tlie shoes
of great personages was that of slaves.
Lat'tice, tlie rendering in our Au-
thorized Version of three Hebrew words.
1. A word which occurs but twice
( Judg. 5 : 28 and Prov. 7 : 6), In the
latter passage it is translated " casement,"
and in both instances it stands in parallel-
ism with "window." It has the general
sense of something that darkens a room.
2. A word synonymous apparently with
the preceding, yet of later date (Song 2 :
9), and indicating the network oi a window.
3. A word which has the sense of inter-
weaving, and which indicates the " network "
placed before a window or balcony. The
network or "lattice" through which Aha-
ziah fell and received his mortal injury
was probably on the parapet of his palace
(2 Kings 1 :" 2).
Ija''ver, a basin to contain the water
used by the priests in their ablutions dur-
ing their sacred ministrations. This in
dilierent periods was of two sorts.
1. In the time of the tabernacle the
laver was of brass (bronze), and stood in
the court between the altar and the taber-
nacle-door (Ex. 30 : 18-21). It rested on
a basis or foot which, as the laver itself,
was made from the mirrors of the women
who assembled at the door of the taber-
nacle-court (Ex. 38 : 8). The form of the
laver is not specified, but most probably
it was circular.
2. In Solomon's temple, when the num-
ber of both priests and victims had greatly
increased, leu lavers were used for washing
the animals to be offered in burnt-oflerings,
and a molten sea for the personal ablutions
of the priests (2 Chron. 4 : 6). These la-
vers and the sea were of brass.
Law, a rule prescribed by the supreme
authority, especially by the one Supreme
God. For the sake of convenient distinc-
tion it is associated with several qualifying
terms which, in idea if not in form, are
found in Scripture.
1. Natural Law. This indicates the
connection between cause and effect in in-
animate nature (Acts 14 : 17). As an ex-
pression for a power of Nature, it is really
nothing other than God's power exerted in
a certaui direction. It may at any time be
suspended by God, or its direction changed,
when the higher interests of his spiritual
kingdom require it. Hence miracles are
not only possible, but highly probable, when
the divine economv of salvation is thereby
to be furthered (John 2 : 11).
2. Moral Law. This indicates the
duties which arise from moral relations,
and which all intelligent creatures owe to
God and to each other. At one with the
moral law impressed at creation upon the
soul of man, it was solemnly proclaimed
by God himself at Sinai (Kom. 2 : 15).
It is denominated perfect (Ps. 19 : 7) ;
LAWYER— LEAF, LEAVES.
311
perpetual (Matt. 5 : 17, 18) ; holy, just and
good (Rom. 7 : 12) ; spiritual ( Rom. 7:14);
exceeding broad (Ps. 119 : 96). It there-
fore directs and binds men in every cen-
tury and clime. It is the authoritative
and irrepealable rule of conduct. Whilst
to the believer in Christ it is the source
neither of justification (Rom. 5:1; Gal.
2 : 16) nor of terror (Rom. 8:1; Eph. 2 :
8, 9), it is to him, nevertheless, the unal-
terable text of duty (Rom. 3 : 31 ; Eph. 2 :
10).
3. Ceremonial Law. This prescribes
the rites of worship under the Old Testa-
ment economy. These rites wei-e typical
of Christ, and ceased to be obligatory
when Christ had finished his work of
teaching and atoning (Heb. 7 : 9, 11 ; 10 :
1 ; Eph. 2 : 16; Col. 2 ; 14; Gal. 5 : 2, 3).
4. Civil Law. This is that form of
law which is found in the Mosaic insti-
tutes, and which directed the policy of the
Jewish nation under the peculiar dominion
of God as their Supreme Magistrate. Ex-
cept in things relating to moral equity, it
never was binding on any but the Israel-
ites (Deut. 33 : 4; Ps. 147 : 19; Mai. 4 :
4).
Law'yer, one skilled in the Law (Tit.
3 : 13). Among the Jews a lawyer was
one versed in the Law of Moses, which
he taught in the schools and synagogues
(Matt. 22 : 35 ; Luke 10 : 25). Hence the
term is equivalent to teacher or "doctor
of the Law" (Acts 5 : 34).
Laz''a-rus [God has helped'], an
abridged form of the Hebrew name Ele-
azar, with a Greek termination. It is
the name of two persons in the New Tes-
tament.
1. An inhabitant of Bethany, brother
of Mary and Martha, honored with tlie
friendship of Jesus, by whom he was
raised from the dead after he had been
four days in the tomb (John 11 : 1, 39 ;
12 : 1). All that we know of him is de-
rived from the Gospel of John, in which
the notices are exceedingly scanty, but
from which we may infer that he was
, younger than the two sisters, and that
i the wealth and social position of the fam-
ily were above the average. His sickness
and death, and resurrection at the word of
Christ, are minutely related in the eleventh
chapter of John's Gospel.
2. A beggar named in the well-known
parable (Luke 16 : 19-31) as suflering the
most abject poverty in this life, but wliose
humble piety was rewarded with ultimate
bliss in the other world. The history of
this Lazarus has produced a deep impres-
sion on the thought of the world, for the
terms lazar and lazaretto have passed into
very many modern languages.
Lead, one of the most common of
metals, found generally in veins of rocks,
and usually in combination with sulphur.
It was early known to the ancients, and
the allusions to it in Scripture indicate
that the Hebrews were well acquainted
with its uses. The rocks in the neigh-
borhood of Sinai yielded it in large
quantities, and it was found in Egypt.
Its heaviness, to which allusion is made
in Ex. 15 : 10, caused it to be used for
weights, which were either in the form
of a round flat cake or a rough, un-
fashioned lump (Zech. 5 : 7, 8). In Job
19 : 24 the allusion is supposed to be to
the practice of carving inscriptions upon
stone and pouring molten lead into the
cavities of the letters, to render them legi-
ble and at the same time preserve them
from the action of tlie air.
Leaf, Leaves. The word occurs in
our Authorized Version, either in the
singular or plural number, in three dif-
ferent senses.
1. Leaf of a Tree. The olive-leaf
is mentioned in Gen. 8 : 11. Fig-leaves
formed the first covering of our parents
in Eden. The barren fig tree (Matt. 21 :
19; Mark 11 : 13) on the road between
Bethany and Jerusalem " had on it notli-
312
LEAGUE— LEBANON.
ing but leaves." The oak-leaf is men-
tioned in Isa. 1 : 30 and 6:13. The right-
eous are often compared to green leaves
(Jer. 17 : 8).
2. Leaves of Doors. The Hebrew
word, which occurs many times in the
Bible (1 Kings 6 : 32, 34), signifies bea^ns,
ribs, sides.
3. Leaves of a Book, or roll, occurs
in this sense only in Jer. 36 : 23, where
the word means " doors,'' probably mean-
ing chapters or sections, as does the Ara-
bic " bab," door.
League, a political confederacy or
treaty. The Israelites in Palestine were
forbidden as a nation to enter into any
leagues with the nations inhabiting the
land at the Conquest (Judg. 2:2), but
t!iey were allowed to make treaties with
all other nations, provided such treaties
were promotive of the public welfare.
Accordingly, David maintained a friend-
ly national intercourse with the kings of
Tyre and Hamath (2 Sam. 5:11; 8:9-11),
and Solomon with the kings of Tyre and
Egypt (1 Kings 5:12; 7:8) and with the
queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10 : 13; 2 Chron.
9 : 12).
Le'ati [uearied^, the daughter of Laban
and wife of Jacob. She was imposed upon
Jacob, who had chosen her sister Rachel,
by the father, who alleged that the mar-
riage-customs of the country forbade the
younger sister to be taken before the elder
(Gen. 29 : 16-30). She was the mother of
six sons and of a daughter.
Lea'sing [faltiehood], an obsolete word,
retained in our Authorized Version of Ps.
4:2; 5:6 from the older English versions.
The Hebrew word of which it is the ren-
dering is elsewhere almost uniformly trans-
lated "lies" (Ps. 40: 4; 58: 3).
Leath'er. The notices of leather in
the Bible are singularly few. Indeed, the
word occurs but twice in our Authorized
Version, and in each instance refers to the
same object, a girdle (2 Kings 1:8; Matt.
3:4). There are, however, other instances
in which the word "leather" might with
propriety be substituted for "skin" (Lev.
11 : 32;"l3:48; Num.31 : 20).
Leaven. Various substances were
known to have fermenting qualities, but
the ordinary leaven consisted of a lump
of okl dough in a high state of fermenta-
tion, which was inserted into the mass of
dough prepared for baking. The use of
leaven was strictly forbidden in all offer-
ings made to the Lord by fire. The rea-
son of the prohibition doubtless lay in the
process of decay connuunicated by leaven,
through fermentation, to bread. To this
property of leaven our Lord points when
he speaks of the " leaven," that is, the cor-
rupt doctrine, " of the Pharisees and of the
Sadducees" (Matt. 16:6). The apostle
Paul, with a similar idea, speaks of the
"old leaven" (1 Cor. 5 : 7).
Leb'a-non [the while'], a long chain
of limestone mountains on the northern
border of Palestine. The name refers ei-
ther to the color of the rock of which its
mass is composed or to the snow which
glistens on its peaks most of the year.
It consists of two main ranges, both in-
cluded under the general name of Leb-
anon in Scripture. The westerly range
has the classic Latin name of Libanus,
and the easterly one that of Anli-Lihunus
(or opposite to Lebanon). Between the
two ranges lies a long valley from five to
eight miles in width, well watered by the
river Litdny, the ancient Leontes, and
exceedingly fertile. This valley, termed
in Scripture "the valley of Lebanon"
(Josh. 11 : 17), was known to the Greeks
and Romans as Ccele-Syria, or Hollow
Syria, but is now known by the name of
el-Bitkaa, the valleij. It is a northern pro-
longation of the .Jordan Valley. The
western range, or that of Libanus, is nuich
more elevated than the eastern, yet one
peak of Anti-Libanus, the Hermon of
Scripture, overtops the whole chain. These
LEBBEUS— LEBONAH.
313
^m VA^rv^
Tliu ^liaiid li;ini;e ol LebauoD.
moimtain-rangeswere famous for cedars (Ps.
29 : 5 ; 92 : ] 2 ; Isa. 14 : 8), for flowers (Nah.
1 : 4), for wine (Hos. 14 : 7), for fountains
and streams (Song 4 : 15). Its cedars and
firs and stones furnished the material of
which Solomon built the royal palaces
and the holy t°mple of Jerusalem ( 1 Kings
5 : 8-10, 13-18 ; T": 2-12). When the sec-
ond temple was built men were employed
" to bring cedar trees from Lebanon " ( Ezra
3:7). Indeed, its richness and grandeur
were such that it became to the Hebrew
mind the emblem of all that is excellent
and glorious (Ps. 72 : 16 ; Isa. 35 : 2 ; Song
5 : 15). And although in our times it is
changed very much and wears an aspect
of desolation, yet it still retains much of
that which justified its ancient designation
as the "goodly mountain" (Deut. 3 : 25).
It is terraced and cultivated to a great
height, and along its sides numerous vil-
lages and convents are scattered. It fur-
nishes views of exceeding beauty and pic-
turesqueness. Portions of the chain are
celebrated for vineyards and olive-planta-
tions and luxuriant fields. The renowned
cedars, numbering now about four hundred
and fifty trees, are found in a vast recess in
the central ridge, about eight miles in di-
ameter. They stand alone, with not an-
other tree in sight, at an elevation of six
thousand feet above the Mediterranean.
The present population of Lebanon, con-
sisting mostly of Druses who are Moham-
medans, and Maronite Christians who are
papists, is variously estimated at from one
to two hundred thousand souls. The Druses
are most numerous in the southern and
south-western portions of the mountains ;
the Maronite Christians in the northern.
Leb-be'us {Lebbceus) and Thad-de'-
us ( Tiiaddcsm), surnames of the apostle
Jude (Matt. 10 : 3; Mark 3 : 18).
Le-bo'nah ^frankincense^, a town be-
longing to the tribe of Ephraira, near
Shiloh (Judg. 21 : 19). The site is sup-
314
LEECH— LENTILES.
posed to be occupied by tlie present vil-
lage of Lubban, nineteen miles north of
Jerusalem.
Leech. See Horse-Leech.
Leeks. The Hebrew word, which in
Num. 11:5 is translated leekt^, occurs
twenty times in the Old Testament. It
is derived from a root signifying " to be
green," and properly denotes grass. It
may stand for any green food, and may
be used veiy much as we use the term
"greens." It is a fact, suggestive per-
haps of the true sense of the word ren-
dered leeks, that the common people of
Egypt to this day eat with special relish
a kind of legume similar to clover.
Lees. The ground idea of the word
thus rendered is preservation. It refers
to the custom of allowing wine to stand
on the lees, that the color and body might
be better preserved (Isa. 25 : 6). Wine
strained off from the lees was wine well
refined (Isa. 25 : 6). To drink the lees
or dregs wsis an expression for the endur-
ance of extreme punishment (Ps. 75 : 8).
Le'gion, the chief subdivision of the
Koman army, containing about six thou-
sand infantry, with a contingent of cav-
alry. The term is not used in the
Scriptures in its primary sense, but ap-
pears to have been adopted in order to
express any large number, with the ac-
cessory ideas of order and subordination
(Matt. 26:53; Mark 5 : 9).
Le-ha''biin, the name of a Mizraite
people or tribe (Gen. 10 : 13). They ap-
pear to be the same as the Re bu or Le bu
of the Egyptian inscriptions, and to have
given their name to Libya and the Lib-
yans. These primitive Libyans seem to
have inhabited the northern part of Africa
to the west of Egypt, and to have been
driven from the coast by the Greek colo-
nists of the Cyrenaica.
Le'hi [jawbone'], a place in Judah, on
the confines of Philistia, where Samson
performed his great exploit in slaying a
thousand Philistines with the jawbone
of an ass ( Judg. 15 : 9-19). As Lehi
means Jawbone, and as the exploit was
with a jawbone, the translation of the
nineteenth verse has become confused.
The word Lehi should there be left un-
translated, so as to read, "God clave a
hollow place in Lehi, and there came
water thereout." This place or fountain
I Samson " called Enhakkore [or the well
\ of him who called], which is in Lehi unto
this day."
Lem'u-el [by God, that is, created bi/
him], an unknown prince to whom the ad-
monitory apothegms of Prov. 31 : 2-9 were
i originally addressed by his mother. He
is Identified by some rabbins with Solomon.
He is regarded by otliers as the king or
chief of an Arab tribe dwelling on the
borders of Palestine, and elder brother
of Agur, whose name stands at the head
of Prov. 30.
Leutiles.
Len^tiles, a species of pulse, not un-
like the pea in its general appearance,
but with a lens-shaped seed. One sort, the
'oddis, is stdl a common article of food in
Egypt, being dressed like beans or stewed
with oil and garlic, and forming what is
LEOPARD— LEVI.
315
called "red pottage" (Gen. 25:29,30).
Perhaps lentiles grew wild and were found
in fields of grain (2 Sam. 23 : 11 ).
Leop'ard, the rendering of a He-
brew word which means "spotted," and
which designates that great spotted fe-
line which anciently infested the Syrian
mountains (Song 4 : 8), and which
now is found in Lebanon. Li Dan. 7 :
6 tlie third stage of the prophetical
vision is symbolized under the form of
a leopard with wings, representing the
rapidly-formed Macedonian empire, its
four heads corresponding to the division
of Alexander's dominions among his four
generals. In Rev. 13 : 2 the same animal
is made a type of the spiritual power of
the Roman hierarchy, supported by the
secular power in maintaining paganism
in opposition to Christianity.
Lep'er, Lep^ro-sy. The root-idea
of the Plebrew equivalents of these words
in our Authorized Version is a smiting,
because the disease was supposed to be a
direct visitation of Heaven. The Greek
designation of the disease, lepra, as found
in the New Testament and as transferred
to our English text, is descriptive of that
scftlines!^ which is one of its marked cha-
racteristics. In Lev., chs. 13, 14, there is
an accurate account of the appearances
which give rise to the suspicion of lep-
rosy— namely, spots of an inflammatory
character, nodules like boils, ulcerations,
and changes in the hair of the diseased
parts. In such cases, the Jewish law re-
quired seclusion of the patient and exam-
ination by the priest from time to time,
till the absence or existence of the disease
could be positively determined. After iso-
lation, and before returning to the world,
the suspected person — or the cured, if lep-
rosy had existed — was required to make
a most thorough and scrupulous cleansing
of his body, even to removing all the hair
by shaving, joined with certain ceremonial
observances, in order to obviate the dan-
ger of communicating to others the dis-
ease, which may have been contagious —
though the form now known does not ap-
pear to be so.
Leprosy, in its extreme ravages, caused
destruction not only of parts of the skin,
but of the deeper structures and even the
bones, so that fingers, toes, hands and feet,
or parts of the face might rot off, leaving
the patient in an utterly deplorable and
disgusting condition. Leprosy was ex-
tremely hard to cure, and when cured left
ineffaceable traces of its power. For these
and other reasons it came to be regarded
by the Jews as an emblem of sin, and is
often so alluded to by the Scripture wri-
ters (Job 2 : 7, 8 ; Isa. 1:6; Matt. 8 : 2,
3; Luke 5; 12, 13).
Le'shem [o gem], (Josh. 19 : 47), sup-
posed to be the same place that was called
Laish (Judg. 18 : 7), and afterward Dan.
See Dan.
Let, an old English word, meaning to
obstruct or hinder (Isa. 43 : 13; Rom. 1 :
13).
Le^vi, the name of several men, of
whom two only need be mentioned.
1. The third son of Jacob by his wife
Leah. As the name is derived from a
verb meaning to twine, and hence to ad-
here, it gave utterance to the hope of the
mother that the affections of her husband,
which had hitherto rested on the favored
Rachel, would at last be drawn to her
(Gen. 29 : 34). Tlie only recorded fact
of his life in which he was prominent
was his association with his brother Sim-
eon in avenging the outrage upon their
sister Dinah by a cruel slaughter of the
Shechemites (Gen. 34 : 25-29). Levi,
with his three sons, Gershon, Kohath
and Merari, went down to Egypt with
his father Jacob (Gen. 47 : 11). When
Jacob's death drew near, and the sons
were gathered round him, Levi and Sim-
eon were summoned to hear the old
crime brought up again, and to receive
316
LEVIATHAN— LEVITES.
its sentence. They with Reuben had for-
feited tlie privileges of their birthright
(Gen. 49 : 5-7).
2. Son of Alphfeus (Mark 2:14; Luke
5 : 27, 29), elsewhere called Matthew (Matt.
9 : 9), one of the apostles.
Le-vi'a-than is a Hebrew word trans-
ferred to our Authorized Version, and has
three distinct significations : 1. A serpent,
especially a large one (Job 3 : 8 margin), a
symbol of the hostile kingdom of Babylon
(Isa. 27 : 1); 2. Specially the crocodile
(Job 41 : 1-34) ; 3. A sea-monster (Ps. 104 :
26), tropically, for a cruel enemy (Ps. 74 :
14). The Hebrew word which denotes
any animal twisted in folds is especially
applicable to every great tenant of the
Avaters, such as marine serpents and croc-
odiles ; it may be applicable also to the
colossal serpents of the desert. In gen-
eral it points to the crocodile, and Job
41 is an undoubted description of that
saurian.
Le'vites, the sons of Levi. The title,
whilst denoting all the descendants of
Levi, and so equivalent to the tribal name
(Ex. 6 : 25 ; Lev. 25 : 32 ; Josh. 21 : 3, 4),
is yet the distinctive title of those who
were set apart for the subordinate offices
of the sanctuary to assist tlie other and
smaller portion of tlieir own tribe in-
vested with the superior functions of the
hierarchy (1 Kings 8:4; Ezra 2 : 70; ;
John 1 : 19); and this is the meaning
which has perpetuated itself
There is no trace of the consecrated cha-
racter of the Levites till the institution of
an hereditary priesthood in the family of
Aaron during the first withdrawal of
Moses to the solitude of Sinai (Ex. 28 :
1). The next extension of the idea of
the priesthood grew out of the terrible
crisis brought on by the calf-worship at
Sinai, and recorded in Ex. 32. The
tribe on that occasion stood forth separate
and apart, recognizing in the stern work
of the day the spiritual as higher than
the natural. From this time the sons of
Levi occupied a distinct position. The
tribe was to take the place of that earlier
priesthood of the first-born as representa-
tives of the holiness of the people. As
the tabernacle was the sign of the pres-
ence among the people of their unseen
King, so the Levites were, among the
other tribes of Israel, as the royal guard
that waited exclusively on him. When
the people were at rest they encamped as
guardians round the sacred tent (Num.
1 : 51 ; 18 : 22). When on the march no
hands but theirs might strike the tent at
the commencement of the day's journey,
or carry the parts of its structure whilst
the movement lasted, or pitch the tent
once again when the place of halting
was reached.
For such a work it was obviously essen-
tial that there should be a fixed assignment
of duties, and now, accordingly, we meet
with the first outlines of the organization
which afterward became permanent. The
division of the tribe into tlie three sections
that traced tiieir descent from the three
sens of Levi formed the groundwork of
it. The work which they all had to do
required a man's full strength, and there-
fore, though twenty was the starting-point
for military service (Num. 1 : 18), they
were not to enter on their active service
till they were thiity (Num. 4 : 3, 23, 30, 35,
43). At fifty they were to be free from all
duties but those of superintendence (Num.
8 : 25, 26).
The Levites were to have no territorial
possessions. In place of them they were
to receive from the other tribes the tithes
of the produce of the land, from which
they in their turn offered a tithe to the
priests as a recognition of their higher
consecration (Num. 18 : 21, 24, 26; Neh.
10 : 37). When the wanderings of the
people should be over and the tabernacle
have a settled place, a great part of the
labor that had fallen on them would come
LEVITICUS— LIBYA.
317
to an end, and they too would need a fixed
abode. Distinctness and difiusion were
both to be secured by the assignment to
the wliole tribe of forty-eight cities, with
an outlying "suburb" (Num. 35 : 2) of
meadow-land for the pasturage of their
flocks and herds. The reverence of the
people for them was to be heightened
by the selection of six of these as cities
of refuge.
After the death of Moses, Joshua did
what he could do to convert the outline
which tlie great lawgiver had sketched
into a grand reality. The submission of
the Gibeonites enabled him to relieve the
tribal divisions of Gershon and Merari of
the most burdensome of their duties. The
conquered Hivites too became "hewers of
wood and drawers of water" for the house
of Jehovah and for the congregation (Josh.
9 : 27). So soon as the conquerors had ad-
vanced far enough to proceed to a parti-
tion of the country the forty-eight cities
were assigned to the Levites. As Samuel
was a Levite, his rule tended to give the
Levites the position of a ruling caste, but
the reign of Saul, especially in its later
period, was the assertion of a self-willed
power against the priestly order. David,
however, wrought for them a grateful
change. When his kingdom was estab-
lished he effected a fuller and better or-
ganization of the whole tribe. The effect
of David's arrangements was to cause them
to leave the cities assigned to them in the
territory of Israel and to gather them
round the metropolis of .Judah (2 Chron.
11 : 13, 14). Henceforward in the king-
dom of Judah they were a powerful body
politically as well as ecclesiastically. Af-
ter the Captivity the Levites took their
old places in the temple and in the vil-
lages near Jerusalem (Neh. 12 ; 29). The
two prophets who were active at the time
of the Return, Haggai and Zechariah, if
they did not belong to the tribe, helped
it forward in the work of restoration.
With the priests the Levites formed the
majority of the permanent Sanhedrim,
and as such had a large share in the ad-
ministration of justice. In the history of
the New Testament they appear but sel-
dom. Where we meet with their names
it is as the type of a heartless, formal wor-
ship, without sympathy and without love
(Luke 10 : 32).
Le-vit'i-cus, the third book of Moses.
It contains twenty-seven chapters, and is
divided into four principal sections : 1 .
The laws concerning sacrifices; 2. The
consecration of the high priests ; 3. Puri-
fication ; 4. Sacred festivals. It is called
Leviticus because the Levites were the di-
vinely-appointed ministers by whom those
sacred services were conducted.
Lib'er-tines [J'reedmen']. This word,
which occurs once only in the New Testa-
ment (Acts 6 : 9), is the Latin Uhertini,
" freedmen." They were probably Jews
who, having been taken prisoners by
Pompey and other Roman generals in
the Syrian wars, had been reduced to
slavery, and had afterward been eman-
cipated and returned, permanently or for
j a time, to the country of their fathers.
! Lib'nah [ivhiieness}, the name of two
places.
I 1 . A city of Canaan in the lowlands of
Judah, captured by Joshua after the de-
feat of the confederate kings at Gibeon
(Josh. 10 : 29, 30). It became one of the
Levitical cities (Josh. 21 : 13). In the
reign of Joram this city revolted from
him on account of his idolatries ( 2 Chron.
21 : 10). It was besieged by Sennacherib,
king of Assyria, whose army, while lying
before it, vras smitten by the angel of the
Lord, and one hundred and eighty-five
thousand men died (2 Kings 19 : 35).
Its site has not been identified.
2. One of the encampments of the Is-
raelites (Num. 33 : 20).
Lib'ya. Sothe whole of Africa except
Egypt was denominated by the Greeks ; but
318
LICE— LILY.
Libya proper, whicli is that mentioned in
the New Testament, was an extensive tract
of country lying along the Mediterranean
west of Egypt (Acts 2 : 10). It was the
country of the Lubim or Lehabim, cel-
ebrated for their chariots (2 Chron. 16 :
8). The Greeks, Romans, Saracens and
Turks have successively possessed it.
See Lehabim.
Lice. In our Authorized Version this
word occurs only in Ex. 8 : 16-18 and in
Ps. 105 : 31, both passages referring to the
third great plague of Egypt. Its Hebrew
equivalent is supposed by many modern
writers to be a general term for gnalsi,
but the correctness of its rendering by
the English word lice is maintained by
Josephus and the Jewish rabbis.
Life, a term generally expressive of
physical existence as opposed to physical
death (Gen. 2:7; 25 : 7 ; Luke 16 : 25 ;
Acts 17 : 25; 1 Cor. 3 : 22; 15 : 19; Heb.
7:3; James 4:14; Rev. 11:11; 16 : 3).
But it is also used, more or less figura-
tively, in the following acceptations : 1.
For existence, life, absolutely and with-
out end, immortality (Heb. 7 : 16). In
this sense we find the descriptive expres-
sions tree of life (Rev. 2:7; 22 : 2, 14;
Gen. 2:9; 3 : 22), bread of life (John 6 :
35, 51), way of life (Ps. 16:11; Acts 2 : 28),
water of life (Rev. 7 : 17), crown of life (James
1 : 12; Rev. 2 : 10). 2. The manner of
life, conduct, in a moral respect (2 Tim.
3 : 10). In this sense we read of neximess
of life (Rom. 6:4); of the life of God, that
is, the life which God requires, a godly life
(Eph. 4 : 18; 2 Pet. 1 : 3). 3. Spiritual
life, or the holiness and happiness of sal-
vation procured by our Lord's death. In
this sense life or eternal life is the antithe-
sis of death or condemnation. As the image
of all good, life is not an inappropriate ex-
pression for spiritual blessedness (Deut. 30 :
15; John 3 : 16-18, 36; 5 : 24, 39, 40; 6 :
47; 8 : 51; 11 : 26; Rom. 5 : 12, 18; 1
John 5 : 11). 4. Eternal life, that is, the
life of bliss and glory in the kingdom of
God whicli awaits the true disciples of
Christ (Matt. 19 : 16, 17; John 3 : 15; 1
Tim. 4:8; Acts 5 : 20 ; Rom. 5 : 17 ; 1
Pet. 3 : 7 ; 2 Tim. 1:1). 5. The term life
is also used of God and Christ, or the AVord,
as the absolute source and cause of all life
(John 1:4; 5 : 26, 39 ; 11 : 25 ; 12 : 50 ;
14:6; 17:3; Col. 3:4; 1 John 1:1,2;
5 : 20).
Light. This is represented in the
Scriptures as the immediate result and
oflSpring of a divine command (Gen. 1 :
3i. Its tropical use is quite extensive.
All the more joyous emotions of the
mind, all the pleasing sensations of the
frame, all the hai)py hours of domestic
intercourse, were habitually described
among the Hebrews under imager j"^ de-
rived from light ( 1 Kings 11:36; Isa.
58 : 8 ; Esth. 8 : 16 ; Ps. 97 : 11). But
as light not only comes from God, but
also mak.s man's way clear before him,
so it was employed to signify moral truth,
and pre-eminently that divine system of
truth which is set forth in the Scriptures
(Isa. 8 : 20 ; Matt. 4:16; Ps. 1 19 : 105 ; 2
Pet. 1 : 19; Eph. 5:8; 2 Tim. 1 : 10; 1
Pet. 2 : 9).
Lign-Aroes. See Aloes.
Lig'ure, a precious stone mentioned
in Ex. 28 : 19 ; 39 : 12 as the first in the
third row of the high priest's breastplate.
The Hebrew term thus rendered is le^hem,
but it is impossible to say with any cer-
tainty what stone the term denotes ; per-
haps tourmaline, or, more definitely, the
red variety known as rnhellite, has better
claims than any other mineral. The word
liyure is the English form of the Greek //-
giiria {/-r/>'(>iov), a species of jacintli deriv-
ing its name from Liguria, a region in the
north of Italy, where the gem abounded.
Lil'y, a beautifid flower, but the spe-
cies producing it so varied that one can-
not easily say what plant is designated by
the original Hebrew term. The plant
LINEAGE— LION.
319
must have been a conspicuous object on
the shores of the Sea of Galilee (Matt.
6 : 28; Luke 12 : 27) ; it must have flour-
ished in the deep broad valleys of Pales-
tine (Song 2:1), among the thorny shrubs
(Song 2:2) and pastures of the desert (Song
Liliiim Chalcedonicnm, or Scarlet JIartagon.
2 : 16 ; 4 : 5 ; 6:3); and it must have been
remarkable for its rapid and luxuriant
growth (Hos. 14:5). That its flowers
were brilliant in color would seem to be
indicated in Matt. 6 : 28, where it is com-
pared with the gorgeous robes of Solomon ;
and that this color was scarlet or purple is
implied in Song 5:13. No species of lily
appears to answer so completely all these
requirements as the Lilium Chalceclonicum,
or scarlet martngon, which grows profusely
in Syria. It resembles our tiger-lily in
form and size. It is in bloom at the time
our Lord is supposed to have delivered the
Sermon on the Mount. It abounds in Gal-
ilee, and its fine showy scarlet flowers give
brightness and beauty to the landscajie.
It is described by Dr. Thomson in The
Land and the Book thus : " It is very
large, and the three inner petals meet
above and form a gorgeous canopy such
as art never approached and king never
s'.it under, even in his utmost glory. And
when I met this incomparable flower, in
all its loveliness, among the oak woods
around the northern base of Tabor and
on the hills of Nazareth, where our Lord
spent his youth, I felt assured that it was
to this he referred." The Phoenician ar-
chitects of Solomon's temple decorated the
capitals of the columns with " lilv-work,"
that is, with leaves and flowers of the lily
(1 Kings 7 : 19, 22).
Lin^e-age, a family or race (Luke 2 :
4).
Lin'en, a cloth made of flax (Lev. 13 :
47). It was much valued and used in an-
cient as it is in modern times. Fine white
linen is in Scripture the emblem of inno-
cence or moral purity (Rev. 15 : 6 ; 19 :
8). The great centre of the linen manu-
facture of antiquity was Egyjit, and in
connection witli that country we find the
first allusion to it in Scripture (Gen. 41 :
42).
Lin'tel, the head-piece of a door or the
horizontal beam covering the side-posts or
jambs (Ex. 12 : 22, 23). This the Israel-
ites were commanded to mark with the
blood of the paschal lamb on the memor-
able occasion in Egypt when the passover
was instituted.
Li'nus, a Christian at Rome whose
salutations Paul sent to Timothy (2 Tim,
4: 21).
Li^on, the most powerful and daring
of all the carnivorous animals, the most
magnificent in aspect and awful in voice.
In Hebrew five words are used to desig-
nate the lion : 1, the generic term, mean-
ing "the puller in pieces;" 2, a term
meaning "fierce;" 3, a term meaning
" strong ;" 4, a term meaning " roaring ;"
5, a poetic term having the sense of No.
4. The whole five occur in Job 4 : 10, 11.
In early times the lion was common in
Syria, and naturally supplied many forci-
ble images to the poetical language of
Scripture, and not a few historical inci-
320
LIPS— LIZARD.
dents in its narratives (Gen. 49 : 9 ; Dent.
33 : 20, 22; Jer. 51 : 38; Ezek. 19 : 2, 3,
5, 6; Nah. 2 : 11, 12; 1 Sam. 17 : 32-38;
1 Kings 13 : 23-32). Among the He-
brews and tlirougliout tlie Old Testament,
the lion, because of its courage and vic-
tory over antagonists, was the emblem of
the princely tribe of Judah ; accordingly,
fiance; to "cover the lips" with the corner
of one's garment (Ezek. 24 : 17, 22) was the
universally recognized sign of mourning.
Lion.
in the New Testament, the lion is not an
una])! designation of our Lord Christ, the
illustrious descendant of that tribe (Kev.
5:5). On the other hand, the lion's
fierceness and cruelty rendered it an ap-
propriate metaphor for a fierce and malig-
nant enemy (Ps. 7:2; 22 : 21 ; 57 : 4 ; 2
Tim. 4 : 17), and therefore for the arch-
fiend himself (1 Pet. 5 : 8).
Lips. Besides its literal sense, the
word has in Scripture an extensive trop-
ical use. Unclean lips (Isa. 6:5) are
those which are polluted by sinful words ;
lyinfj lips (Prov. 10 : 18) are those which
utter falsehood ; burning lips (Prov. 26 :
23) are those through which the expres-
sions of malice, envy and other malig-
nant passions are constantly outflaming
(Acts 9 : 1), or they are those wdiich blaze
with false professions of piety and friend-
ship. To " shoot out the lip " (Ps. 22 : 7)
at any one, that is, to make mouths, was
an expression of the utmost scorn and de-
Litter.
; Lifter, a covered sedan or palanquin
for the conveyance of a princely person-
age, borne by hand or upon the shoul-
ders, or perhaps on the backs of ani-
mals (Isa. Q6 : 20).
Liv^er, an important organ in the
animal body, so called as being the
heaviest of the viscera or as the chief seat
of the passions. It is frequently mentioned
in Scripture (Ex. 29 : 13, 22 ; Lev. 3 : 4, 10,
15; Prov. 7 : 23 ; Ezek. 21 : 21). It was
supposed by the ancients to be the seat of
the passions pride, love, grief (Lam. 2 : 11).
The passage in Ezek. 21 : 21 contains an
interesting reference to one of the most
ancient of all modes of divination — name-
ly, by the inspection of the viscera of ani-
mals, and even of men sacrificially slaugh-
tered for the purpose.
Liz'ard. This word occurs but once
in our Authorized Version (Lev. 11 : 30),
and the term thus rendered gives no inti-
mation of the species intended. Lizards
of various kinds abounded in Egypt, Pal-
estine and Arabia. Probably the species
named was the "fan-foot lizard," which was
and is very common. It is a reddish-brown,
spotted with wliite. It lives on insects and
worms, which it swallows whole. It was
unclean bv the ceremonial law.
LO-AMMI— LOIN.
321
Lo-Ammi [not my people], the figura-
tive name given by the prophet Hosea to
his second son (IIos. 1 : 9), to denote the
rejection by Jehovah of the kingdom of
Israel.
Loan. Tlie Law strictly forbade any
interest to be taken for a loan to any poor
person. The prohibition was afterward
limited to the Hebrews, from whom, of
whatever rank, not only was no usury on
any pretence to be exacted, but relief to
the poor by way of loan was enjoined,
and excuses for evading this duty were
forbidden (Ex. 22 : 25 ; Lev. 25 ; 35, 37 ;
Deut. 15 : 3, 7-11 ; 23 : 19, 20). As com-
merce increased, the practice of usury and
so also of suretyship grew up ; but the
exaction of it from a Hebrew appears to
have been regarded to a late period as
discreditable (Prov. 6:1, 4; 11:1 5; 17:
18; 20: 16; 22: 26; Ps. 15:5; 109:11;
Jer. 15 : 10 ; Ezek. 18:13; 22 : 12). The
money-changers, who had seats and tables
in the temple, were traders whose profits
arose chie% from the exchange of money
with those who came to pay their annual
half-shekel.
Loaves. See Bread.
Lock. The ancient locks were bars
of wood or metal made to slide back and
forth. These were fastened or unfastened
from without by means of an instrument
or key inserted into an orifice for tlie pur-
pose (Judg. 3 : 24). There were smaller
contrivances for inner doors.
Locust.
Lo^cust, a well-known insect which
commits terrible ravages on vegetation in
the countries which it visits. In the He-
brew Scriptures there are nine or ten
words which are supposed to denote dif-
21
ferent varieties or species of this family.
Locusts occur in great numbers and some-
times obscure the sun (Ex. 10 : 15 ; Jer.
46 : 23; Judg. 6:5; 7 : 12; Joel 2 : 10 ;
Nah. 3 : 15). Their voracity is alluded
to in Joel 1 : 4, 7, 12 and 2:3; Deut. 28 :
38 ; Ps. 78 : 46 ; 105 : 34 ; Isa. 33 : 4.
They are compared to horses (Joel 2:4;
Kev. 9:7). Thej' make a fearful noise
in their flight (Joel 2:5; Eev. 9:9).
Locusts were used for food (Lev. 11 : 21,
22 ; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6). They were
prepared in diflbrent ways : sometimes
they were ground and pounded, and
mixed with flour and water, and made
into cakes ; sometimes they were simply
salted and then eaten ; sometimes they
were smoked, sometimes boiled or roast-
ed, and sometimes stewed or fried in
butter.
Lod, a town of Benjamin (1 Chron.
8 : 12 ; Ezra 2 : 33 ; Neh. 7 : 37). See
Lydda.
Lo'-De-bar [without pasture], a town
of Gilead, beyond Jordan (2 Sam. 9:5;
17 : 27). It was probably situated near
Mahanaim.
Lodge. See Garden.
Log, a Hebrew liquid measure, in ca-
pacity nearly a pint.
Loin, the part of the back and side be-
tween the hip and the ribs, which, as the
pivot of the body, is most sensibly afTected
by pity or terror (Deut. 33 : 11 ; Job 12 :
18 ; Ps. 38 : 7 ; Isa. 21 : 3). This part of
the body, in token of mourning, was girt
with sackclotli (Gen. 37 : 34; Ps. 66 : 11 ).
As it was encomp3Ssed by the girdle,
which held up the loose and flowing
robes and allowed one to walk or to
work without impediment, to "gird up
the loins " became a phrase which meant
to prepare for vigorous effort, either lit-
erally (1 Kings 18 : 46 ; 2 Kings 4 : 29 ;
Prov. 31 : 17) or metaphorically (,Iob 38 :
3; Jer. 1 : 17 ; Luke 12 : 35; 1 Pet. 1 :
13).
322
LOIS— LORD'S SUPPER.
Lo'is, the grandmother of Timothy,
and doubtless the mother of his mother
Eunice (li Tim. 1 : 5). It seems likely
that Lois had resided long at Lystra; it
is wellnigh certain that from her as well
as from Eunice, Timothy obtained his in-
timate knowledge of the Jewish vScrip-
tures (2 Tim. 3 : 15).
Looking--Glass, See Mirror.
Lord. See God.
Lord's Day, The, the weekly festi-
val of our Lord's resurrection, identified
with the first day of the week. The ex-
pression occurs in Rev. 1:10 only, and is
there unaccompanied by any other words
which might tend to explain its meaning.
It is well known, however, that the same
phrase was, in after ages of the Christian
Church, used to signify that first day of
the week on which our Lord's resurrec-
tion was commemorated. It has, there-
fore, been inferred that during the time
of the apostles, and by their authority,
the first day of the week was called " the
Lord's day," and was referred to by the
apostle John as to an institution so uni-
versally recognized that no explanatory
statement was needed. It is certain that
the apostles, by practice and by precept,
marked the first day of the week as a day
for meeting together to break bread, for
communicating and receiving instruction,
for laying up offerings in store for cliari-
itable purposes, for occupation in holy
thought and prayer (Acts 20 : 7 ; 1 Cor,
16 : 1, 2) ; it is equally certain that by the
apostles and early Christians the day for
celebrating the communion, for united
prayer, for instruction, for almsgiving,
was never confounded with the seventh
day of the week, or the Jewish Sabbath,
but was carefully distinguished from it
(Gal. 4 : 10; Col. 2 : 16). Hence we con-
clude that the Lord's day is none other
than the fii-st day of the week, and that,
as commemorative of our Lord's resur-
rection, it is a purely Christian institu-
tion, sanctioned by apostolic practice,
mentioned in apostolic writings, and so
possessed of whatever divine authority
any apostolic ordinance or doctrine can
be possessed of.
Lord's Sup'per. This is the com-
mon English name of the ordinance in-
stituted by our Lord in commemoration
of his death and sufferings, and a literal
translation of the Greek phrase in the
New Testament. The expression occurs
but once in the New Testament (1 Cor.
11 : 20), and apparently intimates that
the reason for denominating the ordi-
nance a "supper" is the fact that it was
instituted at supper-time. Synonymous
phrases, however, are found, such as "the
Lord's table" (1 Cor. 10 : 21), "the cup
of the Lord" (1 Cor. 10 : 21), "the com-
munion of the blood of Christ," and " the
communion of the body of Christ" (1
Cor. 10 : 16). The institution of the or-
dinance, which through all time is to be
observed by the Church, is recorded by
Matthew (26 : 26-29), Mark (14 : 22-25),
Luke (22 : 19. 20), Paul (1 Cor. 11 : 24-26).
The nature of the ordinance is not sacri-
ficial, but commemorative (1 Cor. 11 : 17-
34 ; Matt. 26 : 26-30 ; Acts 2 : 42-47 ; 20 :
7). It is not, therefore, a conversion of
the sensible elements into the body and
blood of Christ, nor is it the literal and
corporeal presence of our Lord's body and
blood in a miraculous manner, in, vuth and
under the sensible elements. Yet it is
something more than a mere sign. Whilst
as a sign it sets forth the virtue of our
Lord's body as broken and of our Lord's
blood as shed, it also as a seal confirms the
title of the true believer in Christ to all the
benefits of the covenant of grace. Hence
the efficacy of the ordinance is to be re-
ferred neither to any virtue in it, nor to
any virtue in him who administers it, but
solely to the virtue of Christ's atoning sac-
rifice, and to that gracious work of the
Holy Spirit within the soul which en-
LO-RUHAMAH— LUCIFER.
323
ables the worthy receiver to " discern the
Lord's body" (1 Cor. 11 : 28, 29).
Lo-Ru-ha^mah [not pitied'], the sym-
bolical name given to tlie ideal daughter
of Hosea, in whom was meant to be em-
bodied the solemn truth that God had
meanwhile withdrawn the exercise of
mercy from his rebellious people (Hos.
1 : 6). See Ammi and Lo-Ammi.
Lot [« covering'], the son of Haran
and nephew of Abraham (Gen. 11 : 27^
31). Haran died before the emigration
of Terah and his family from Ur of the
Chaldees ; hence Ur was Lot's birthplace.
LTpon the death of his grandfather Terah,
Lot identified himself with Abraham,
whom he accompanied to Canaan (Gen.
12 : 5), thence into Egypt (Gen. 12 : 10),
and back again, by the way of the Philis-
tines (Gen. 20 : 1), to the southern part of
Canaan. Their united substance, consist-
ing chiefly of cattle, was not then too
large to prevent them from living to-
gether in one encampment. Eventually,
however, their possessions were so great-
ly increased that they were obliged to
separate, and to Lot, with rare generosity,
Abraham conceded the choice of pasture-
grounds. Lot chose the fertile and well-
watered neighborhood of Sodom (Gen.
13 : 5-13), but soon he had abundant
reason to regret this choice. He exposed
himself and his family to great moral
evils and to fearful physical dangers. The
inhabitants of Sodom were " sinners before
the Lord exceedingly" (Gen. 13 : 13), and
were punished, first by their reduction to
the condition of slaves by Chedorlaomer,
in which fate Lot was involved and from
which he was rescued by Abraham, and
next by their utter overthrow in a rain of
fire from the Almighty, in which most of
Lot's family were destroyed, but from which
he and his two daughters were miraculous-
ly saved (Gen. 19 : 1-26). The time and
place of Lot's death are unknown. That
he was a good man is evidenced by his de-
liverance from among the guilty, and is
affirmed by an apostle (2 Pet. 2 : 7). His
history, however, is an arresting illustra-
tion of the peril and the punishment of
worldliness.
Lot. The custom of deciding doubtful
questions by lot is one of great extent and
high antiquity. The instances referred to
j in Scripture are chiefly these : 1. Choice
of men for an invading force ( Judg. 1:1;
20 : 9, 10) ; 2. Partition of the soil of
Palestine among the tribes (Num. 26 : 55 ;
Josh. 18:10; Acts 13 : 19) ; of Jerusalem,
that is, probably, its spoil or captives
among captors (Ob. ver. 11); of spoil to
foreigners or captors (Joel 3:3; Nah. 3 :
10; Matt 27 : 35) ; 3. Settlement of doubt-
ful questions (Prov. 16 : 33; 18 : 18) ; de-
tection of a criminal (Josh. 7 : 14, 18);
selection of the scapegoat on the day fif
atonement (Lev. 16 : 8, 10).
Love, an attachment of the aflTections
to any object, accompanied with an ardent
desire to promote its happiness by abstain-
ing from all that can prove injurious to
it, and by doing all that can promote its
welfare, comfort or interest. The renewed
man loves God supremely, and his fellow-
men sincerely. Love to God and love to
man fulfill the whole law (Matt. 22 : 37-
40; Eom. 13 : 8-10; 1 John 4 : 7-11).
Lo"w'er parts of the Earth, prop-
erly valleys (Isa, 44 : 23) ; hence the
under-world, either as the place of de-
parted spirits (Ps. 63 : 9) or as the grave
(Eph. 4:9), and, figuratively, any hidden
place (Ps. 139: 15).
Lu^taim. See Libya.
Lu'ci-fer. This word is found only
in Isa. 14 : 12. where it is coupled with
the epithet "son of the morning," and
evidently means a " bright star," probably
what we call the morning star. In this
passage it is a symbolical representation
of tjie king of Babylon in his splendor
and in his fall. Its apitlication, from
Jerome downward, to Satan in his fall
324
LUCIUS OF CYKENE— LUKE, GOSPEL OF.
from heaven, arises probably from the
fact that tlie Babylonian empire is rep-
resented in Scripture as the type of tyran-
nical and self-idolizing power, and espe-
cially connected with the empire of the
Evil One in the Apocalypse.
Lu'ci-usof Cy-re'ne, first mentioned
in the New Testament in company with
Barnabas, Simeon called Niger, Manaen
and Saul, who are described as prophets
and teachers of the church at Antioch
(Acts 13 : 1). Whether Lucius was one
of the seventy disciples is quite a matter
of conjecture, but it is highly probable
that he formed one of the congregation
to which Peter preached on the day of
Pentecost (Acts 2:10); and there can
hardly be a doubt that he was one of
"the men of Cyrene" who, being "scat-
tered abroad upon the persecution that
arose about Stephen," went to Antioch
preaching the Lord Jesus (Acts 11 : 19,
20). It is commonly supposed that Lu-
cius is the kinsman of Paul mentioned by
that apostle as joining with him in his sal-
utation to the Roman brethren (Bom. 16 :
21), and who is said by tradition to have
been ordained bishop of the church of
Cenchrea^.
Lud, the fourth son of Shem (Gen. 10 :
22), and the ancestor of a people dwelling
north of Palestine, in the near vicinity
of Mesojiotamia (see Nations, under She-
mites). The common identiiication of Lud
with "the Lydians" is unreliable, being :
based wholly on the similarity of the
names, and from the geographic position
of Lud's descendants being quite improb-
able.
Lu'dira, a Mizraite people or tribe
(Gen. 10 : 13). From their position at
the head of the Mizraites, it is probable
that they were settled to the west of Egypt,
perhaps farther than any other Mizraite
tribe. Lud and the Ludim are mentioned
in four passages of the prophets (Isa. 66 :
19 ; Jer. 46 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : 10 ; 38 : 5). In
these passages but one nation is obviously
intended, and the preponderant evidence
is in favor of the Mizraite Ludim.
Luke, or Lu'cas, an abbreviated form
of Lucanus. It is not to be confounded
with Lucius (Acts 13 : 1 ; Rom. 16 : 21),
which name belongs to a different person.
The name Luke occurs three times in the
New Testament (Col. 4 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 4:11:
Phile. ver. 24), and probably in all three
the third evangelist is the person spoken
of. He is believed to have been born at
Antioch in Syria, and to have been taught
the science of medicine. The date of his
conversion is uncertain. He accompanied
Paul on several journeys, and remained at
his side during the fii-st imprisonment (Col.
4 : 14 ; Phile. ver. 24). If it be supposed
that the Second Epistle to Timothy was
written during the second imprisonment,
then the testimony of that Epistle (4 : 11 )
shows that he continued faithful to the
apostle to the end of his afflictions. Af-
ter the death of Paul, Luke's acts are
hopelessly obscure to us. Nor do we
know anything of the place or time of
his death. He probably died a martyr
between a. d. 75 and A. D. 100. He wrote
the third Gospel, and also the Acts of the
Apostles.
Luke, Gos'pel of. The third Gos-
pel is ascribed by the general consent of
ancient Christendom to "the beloved
physician " Luke, the friend and com-
panion of the apostle Paul. It was writ-
ten before the Acts of the Apostles (Acts
1:1), but how much earlier is uncertain.
The preface contained in the fii-st four
verses of the Gospel describes the object
of its writer. Several narratives of our
Lord's life were evidently current when
Luke wrote his Gospel. The ground of
fitness for his task he places in his having
carefully followed out the whole course
of events from the beginning. He does
not claim the character of an eye-witness
from the first, but possibly he may have
LUNATIC— LYDIA.
325
been a witness of some part of our Lord's
doings. Irenaeus, Tertullian, Origen and
Eusebius maintain tliat Luke wrote his
Gospel under the influence of Paul, but
tlie language of the preface is scarcely
consistent with the notion that Paul was
his only authority. The truth appears to
be that Luke, seeking information from
every quarter, found it in the preaching
of his beloved ma.ster Paul, and that the
apostle in his turn employed the know-
ledge acquired fi-om other sources by his
disciple. It has never been doubted that
the Gospel w<is written in Greek. Whilst
Hebraisms are frequent, classical idioms
and Greek compound words also abound.
The number of words used by Luke only
is unusually great, and many of them are
compound words for whicli there is clas-
sical authority. On comparing the Gos-
pel with the Acts it is found that the
style of the latter is more pure and free
from Hebrew idioms.
LiU'na-tic \^one who is moon-Mmck^.
The word is used twice in the New Tes-
tament (Matt. 4 : 24; 17 : 15). It evi-
dently refers to some disease affecting
both the body and the mind, which might
or might not be a sign of possession. By
the description of Mark (9 : 17-26) it
has been thought that the disease was
e{)ilepsy.
Lusts. This word represents in Scrip-
ture those desires and passions which are
unlawful (1 Cor. 10:6; 1 Pet. 2:11; 4 :
2; 2 Pet. 2 : 10), and that corruption of
the heart whicii inclines to evil, and which
is at once the effect and cause of sin (James
1 : 14, 15).
Luz, the original name of the place
afterward called Bethel (Gen. 28 : 19).
See Bethel.
Ly-ca-c'ni-a, a small province of
Asia Minor, bounded by Cappadocia on
the east, Galatia on the north, Phrygia
on the west and Cilicia on the south.
From the soil being strongly impregnated
with salt it afforded good pasturage for
sheep. It was a Roman province when
Paul visited it (Acts 14 : 6), and its chief
towns were Iconium, the capital, Lystra
and Derbe. "The speech of Lycaonia"
(Acts 14 : 11) is supposed to have been a
corrupt Greek intermingled with Syriac.
Lyc'i-a, a province in the south-west
of Asia Minor, opposite the island of
Rhodes, bounded by Pamphylia on the
east, Plirygia on the north, Caria on the
west and the Mediterranean on the south.
It is mountainous and well watered. The
Lycians were a warlike people, and suc-
cessfully asserted their independence for
many generations, but, falling at length
before the colossal power of Rome, their
country was made a province of the Ro-
man empire by Claudius. Of its towns only
two are menticmed in tlie New Testament,
Patara (Acts 21 : 1, 2) and Myra (Acts
27 : 5).
Lyd'da (Acts 9 : 32), the Greek form
of LoD (Neh. 7 : 37). It seems to have
been built by the Benjamites (1 Chron.
8 : 12), and was possessed by them after
the Captivity (Neh. 11:31,35). It was
twelve miles east of Joppa, on the road
between that place and Jerusalem. Un-
der the Romans it was called DiospoHs,
but its ancient name still exists in the
modern Ludd. Here Peter performed a
miracle of healing (Acts 9 : 32-35). It
has been honored in modern times as the
reputed birthplace and burial-place of St.
George. See illustration on next page. It
should be noted, however, tliat the ruined
church of St. George, an arch of which is
given in the illustration, has been recently
restored.
Lyd'i-a, the name of a country and
of a person in tlie New Testament.
1. A province in Asia Minor, which is
supposed to have derived its name from
Lud, the son of Shem. This Lydia is not
noticed by name in the Scriptures, but its
principal towns, Sardis, Thyatira and Pliila-
326
L YSANI AS— L YSTR A .
Modern Lydda.
rC&;fe^=--^^feg
delphia, have a conspicuous place. It was
the centre of that dominion of whicli Croe-
sus was the last king. In Ezek. 30 : 5 it
is incorrectly put fur Lud, with which it
has no connection.
2. The first European convert of Paul,
and afterward his hostess during his first
stay at Philippi (Acts 16 : 14, lo, 40).
She was a Jewish proselyte at the time
of the apostle's coming, and it was at the
Jewish Sabbath-worship by the side of a
stream (Acts 16 : 13) that the preaching
of the gospel reached her lieart. Her
native place was Thyatira, in the prov-
ince of Asia (Acts 16 : 14 ; Eev. 2 : 18).
Thyatira was famous for its dyeing-works,
and Lydia was connected with this trade,
either as a seller of dye or of dyed goods.
It is likely that she possessed considerable
wealth.
Ly-sa'ni-as, a tetrarch of Abilene
mentioned by Luke (3:1).
Lys'i-as, Clau'di-us, the "chief
ca[)tain" who commanded the Roman
troops in Jerusalem during the latter part
of the procuratorship of Felix. He res-
cued Paul from the infuriated Jews and
sent liim under guard to Felix at Csesarea
(Acts 21 : 31-38 ; 22 : 24-30 ; 23 : 17-30;
24 : 7-22). Nothing more is known of
him than what is stated in these pas-
sages.
Lys'tra, a city of Lycaonia in Asia
Minor, near to Derbe, to which Paul and
Barnabas fled when endangered at Ico-
nium. Here Paul healed a cripple, and the
miracle so impressed the superstitions peo-
ple that they were with difficulty restrain-
ed from rendering him divine honors. Af-
terward, however, with tlie usual caprice
of a mob, these same peo]ile attempted to
stone Paul to death (Acts 14 : 6-20). Lys-
tra was the home of Timotheus and, in the
early times, the centre of a remarkably suc-
cessful Christian work (Acts 16 : 1 ; 2 Tim.
3 : 10, 11). Its site ha.s been identified
with the ruins called Bin-hir-KiliKxt'h, at
the base of a conical mountain of volcanic
structure, named the Karadagh. Here are
the remains of a great number of churches.
MAACAH— MACEDONIA.
327
M.
Ma^'a-cah. [depression], the name of a
place and of several persons.
1. A city and small kingdom ea.st of
Argob and Bashan (Deut. 3 : 14; Josh.
12 : 5; 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8), called also Maa-
chah and Syria-Maachah (1 Chron. 19 : 6,
7 ) . Its people were descended from Nahor
(Gen. 22 ; 24), and were not driven out by
the Israelites (Josh. 13 : 13). To the Syr-
ian alliance against David (2 Sam. 10 : 6)
its king contributed one tliousand warriors.
2. The principal persons bearing the
name, indifierently spelled Maacah and
Maachaii and appropriated to both males
and females, are these: (1) The father of
Achish, king of Gath (1 Kings 2 : 39) ; (2)
The father of Hanan, one of David's wor-
thies (1 Chron. 11 : 43) ; (3) The father of
Shephatiah, the military cliief o.f the Sim-
eonites (1 Chron. 27 : 16) ; (4) One of the
oflspring of Reumah, Nahor's concubine
(Gen. 22 : 24); (5) Caleb's concubine (1
Cliron. 2 : 48) ; (6) The wife of Macliir (1
Chron. 7 : IG) ; (7) Daughter of Talmai,
king of Geshur, wife of David and mother
of Absalom (2 Sam. 3:3); (8) Daughter
of Abishalom, wife of King Rehoboam
and mother of King Abijam or Abijah (1
Kings 15 : 1, 2; 2 Chron. 11 : 22; 13 : 1).
She is also called " mother," that is,
"grandmotlier," of King Asa (1 Kings
15 : 10), and for a time seems to have oc-
cupied at Asa's court the high position of
" king's mother." It is probable that at Abi-
jah's death after a short reign of tliree
years Asa was left a minor, and Maachah
acted as regent. This conjecture, if cor-
rect, would seem to explain the influence
by whicli she promoted the practice of
idolatrous worsliip (1 Kings 15 : 13).
Ma'a-leh- A-crab'bim [ascent of the
scorpions}. Tlie name is found only in
Josh. 15 : 3. It was a pass south of the
Dead Sea, the same as Akrabbim (which
see).
Ma-as-ei'ah [the work of Jehovah'],
the name of several men : 1 . The son of
Adaiah, a nobleman of Judah who as-
sisted in establishing King Joash on the
throne (2 Chron. 23 : 1); 2. The son of
King Ahaz, who was slain by Zicliri, " a
mighty man of Ephraim" (2 Chron. 28 :
7); 3. The "governor of the city," one
of those sent by King Josiah to repair
the temple (2 Chron. 34 : 8).
Ma-ce-do'ni-a, a country lying to
the north of Greece proper, between the
.iEgean and Adriatic seas, and the first
part of Europe to receive the gospel. It
is supposed to have been peopled by Chit-
tim or Kittim, son of Javan (Gen. 10 : 4).
It had little political importance before
the times of Philip and his son Alexan-
der. Under Philip it rose to great power;
under Alexander it conquered most of the
then known world. Daniel sees in vision
the remarkable career of Alexander, and
under the figure of the one-horned goat
which comes from the West and touches
not the ground describes the rapidity of
his conquests and the vastness of his
empire with the graphic minuteness of
an eye-witness (Dan. 8 : 5-8, 21). Mace-
donia fell at length under the imperial
sovereignty of Rome, and in New-Testa-
ment times it and Achaia comjirehended
the whole of Greece (Rom. 15 : 26; 2 Cor.
9 : 2 ; 1 Thess. 1:8). Paul, while at Troas,
was summoned in a vision to preach the
gospel in Macedonia, and, proceeding
thither, founded the churches of Thes-
salonica and Philippi (Acts 16 : 9). In
subsequent missionary journeys he made
several visits to the country, and to the
Thessalonian and Philippian Christians
addressed two of his valuable Epistles
328
MACHIR— MAGDALA.
(Acts 20 : 1 ; 2 Cor. 2:13; 1 Tim. 1 : 3 ; 1
Thess. 1:1; Phil. 1:1). The cities of
Macedonia mentioned in the New Testa-
ment are Amphipolis, Apollonia, Thessa-
lonica, Berea, Philippi, Neapolis. Its soil
is extremely productive, but under the
blighting despotism of Turkey is wretch-
edly tilled.
Mach'ir [wZ/e/-], the name of two men.
1. The oldest son of Manasseh (Josh.
17 : 1), who had children born to him
during the lifetime of Joseph (Gen. 50 :
23). At the time of the Conquest the
family of Machir had become very pow-
erful, and a large part of the country on
the east of .Jordan was subdued by them
(Num. 32: 39; Deut. 3 : 15).
2. The son of Ammiel, a powerful sheikh
of one of the trans-Jordanic tribes, who
maintained Mepliibosheth, the lame son
of .Jonathan, until provision was made
for him by David (2 Sam. 9 : 4, 5), and
who afterward extended his hospitality
to the fugitive monarch himself (2 Sam.
17 : 27).
Mach-pe'lah [double cave], the name
of the field adjoining ancient Hebron, in
which was the cave purchased by Abra-
ham from the sons of Heth for a place of
burial (Gen. 23 : 17-20). In this cave were
deposited in succession the bodies of Sarah,
Abraham, Isaac, Rebekah, Leah and Jacob
(Gen. 23 : 19; 25 : 9; 35 : 29; 49 : 31 ; .50:
13). It still exists, but is invisible to all
persons except Mohammedans. Of this
cave itself, strange to say, we have no de-
tailed account, though it must have been
visited before the Moslem conquest of Pal-
estine and during the Christian occupation
at the period of the Crusades. It is en-
closed witliin a very ancient structure
standing on the declivity of a hill above
Hebron. Over it is a building, once un-
doubtedly a Christian church, but now a
Mohammedan mosque. In this mosque,
under the dome, are six tombs, said to be
over the places where the actual sarcoph-
agi lie in the cave below. The inte-
rior of this mosque, although jealously
guarded, has of late years been inspected
by a few distinguished Europeans, but
into the cave underneath no one has been
permitted to enter. A descriiition of the in-
terior of the mosque may be found in Stan-
ley's Sinai, and Palestine. As the body of
Jacob was embalmed, some remains of it
may still exist ; but the mystery which
enwraps the cave is not likely to be dis-
pelled so long as the Moslem holds it
as a sacred possession. See Hebron.
Mad'a-i, the third son of Japheth (Gen.
10 : 2) and the progenitor of the Medes.
Ma'di-an (Acts 7 : 29), the Greek
form of MiDiAN (which see).
Mad-man'nah [dunghill], a city of
Simeon (Josh. 15 : 31 ; 1 Cliron. 2 : 49).
Eusebius in his time identified it with a
town called Menois, near the city of Gaza.
Mad-me'nah [dunghill], a place in
Benjamin north of Jerusalem, the inhab-
itants of which were frightened away by
the approach of Sennacherib's army (Isa.
10: 31).
Ma'don [strife], one of the principal
Canaanitish cities before the Conquest, sit-
uated, probably, in the north of Palestine.
Its king joined Jabin and his confeder-
ates in their attempt against Joshua at
the waters of Merom, and like the rest
was killed (Josh. 11:1; 12 : 19).
Mag'da-la [« totcer], a town on the
western shore of Lake Gennesaret (Matt.
15 : 39). Instead of Magdala, the chief
manuscripts and versions give Magadan,
which, as Alford observes, " appears to
have been the original rending, but tlie
better known name Magdala was substi-
tuted for it." Into the limits of Magdala
or Magadan our I^oi-d came by boat over
the Lake of (ienncsaret after liis miracle
of feeding the four thousand on the moun-
tain of the eastern side, and from thence,
I after a short encounter with the Pliarisees
and Sadducees, he returned in the same
M AGICI A NS— M AGOR-MISSABIB.
329
boat to the opposite shore. Magdala and
Dalmaniitha were evidently neighboring
places. See Dalmanutha. Magdala was
probably the ancient Migdal-el of Josh.
19:38. It derives its chief interest to
us from its association witli Mary Mag-
Magdiila.
dalene or Mary of Magdala, who is sup-
posed to have been a native of it. The
small modern village el-MejdeJ, a wretch-
ed little cluster of huts situated on the
southern extremity of the plain of Gen-
nesaret, about a league and a half nortli
from Tiberias, is supposed to occupy its
site. From el-Mejdel a striking view is ob-
tained of the northern part of the Lake.
Ma-gic'ians, the claimants of the
power or art of working wonders beyond
the range of science or natural skill (Gen.
41 : 8 ; Ex. 7 : 11, 22 ; Dan. 1 : 20 ; 2:2;
4:7). As in Egypt and Babylonia the
cultivators of the more recondite depart-
ments of learning and science were priests,
there can be little doubt that tlie magi-
cians, as a class, belonged to some branch
of the priesthood. See Chald.eans and
Wise Men.
Ma^gOg \_region of Gog']. In Gen.
10 : 2 Magog appears as the second son
of Japheth in connection with Gomcr (the
Cimmerians) and Madai (the Medes) ; in
Ezek. 38 : 2 ; 39 : 1, 6 it appears as a coun-
try or people, of which Gog was the prince
in conjunction with Meshach
(the Moschici), Tubal (the
^g. Tibareni) and Bosh (the
Roxolani). In the latter of
these senses tliere is evi-
dently implied an etymolog-
ical connection between Gog
and Magog, the Ma being re-
garded by Ezekiel as a prelix
significant of a country. In
this case Gog contains the
original element of the name,
which may possibly have its
origin in some Persian root.
The notices of Magog would
lead us to fix a nortliern lo-
cality ; it is expressly stated
by Ezekiel that he was to
come up from " the sides of
the north" (Ezek. 39: 2),
from a country adjacent to
that of Togarmah, or Armenia (Ezek.
38 : 6), and not far from "the isles," or
maritime regions of Europe (Ezek. 39 :
6). The people of Magog further appear
as having a force of cavalry (Ezek. 38:
15), and as armed with the bow (Ezek.
39 : 3). From the above data we may
conclude that Magog represents tlie im-
portant race of the Scythians, the ances-
tors of the Slavic nations now existing.
In Rev. 20 : 8, 9 the terms Gog and Ma-
gog are evidently used in a tropical sense,
as the names of the enemies of Cliristian-
ity, who will endeavor to extirpate it from
the earth, but who thereby will bring upon
themselves a signal destruction.
Ma^g-or-Mls^sa-bib \_i error from
round about], an epithet applied, at the
divine instance, by Jeremiah to the perse-
cuting Pashur as emblematical of his ap-
330
MAHALALEEL— M A LCII US.
proaching captivity and death in Babylon
(Jer. 20 : 1-6).
Ma-ha'la-leel [pmise of God], the
fourth in descent from Adam according to
the Setliite genealogy, and son of Cainan
(Gen. 5 : 12, 13, 15-17 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 2).
Ma'ha-lath [a lute], the title of Ps.
53; Mahalath-Leannoth is the title
of Ps. 88. The meaning of tlicse words
is uncertain. The conjecture is that Ma-
halath is a lute or guitar, and that Lean-
noth has reference to the cliaracter of the
psalm, and might be rendered "to hum-
ble or afflict," in which sensj the root oc-
curs in Ps. 88 : 7.
Ma-ha-na'im [camps], a place east
of Jordiin and north of the river Jabbok,
so named by Jacob because he there met
"the angels of God" (Gen. 32 : 1, 2). It
was situated in the tribe of Gad, and be-
came a Levitical city (Josh. 21 : 38). It
was tlierethat Islibosheth, the son of Saul,
fixed his capital in opposition to David (2
Sam. 2 : 8, 9). When David in his turn
was fleeing before his son Absalom, lie
took refuge in Mahanaim (2 Sam. 17 : 24).
The precise site of this place has not been
ascertained, but by many travelers is be-
lieved to be identical with Mahneli, the
name of an extensive ruin among the
villages of the region.
Ma'her-Sha-lal'Hash-Baz [1ms-
ten booty, SPEED-SPOIL,], a symbolical name
given by divine direction to indicate that i
Damascus and Samaria were soon to be
plundered by the king of Assyria (Isa. 8 :
1-4).
Mah'lon [sickltj], the first husband of
Rutli. He and his brother Chilion were
sons of Elimelech and Naomi, and are de-
scribed as " Ephrathites of Bethleliem-Ju-
dah" (Ruth 1 : 2, 5 ; 4:9, 10).
Mak-ke'dah [her(l.-<mrinii plfirr], a
royal city of tlie Canaanites in the low
country of Judah (Josh. 12 : 16). In its
neighborhood was a remarkable cave in
which the five confederate kings concealed
tliemselves after their defeat by Joshua
(10 : 10-29). A cave answering to this is
now found in the liills which in the plain
country of Judah define the valley of Sorek,
and from its name, el-Mnfjhdr ("thecave"),
is supposed to mark the site of the ancient
Makkedah.
Mak'tesh [<i, mortar], a place in or
near Jerusalem mentioned as inhabited
apparently by silver-merchants (Zeph.
1 : 11). Ewald conjectures that it was
the "Phoenician quarter" of the city, in
which, after the custom of Oriental towns,
the traders of that nation resided. Gese-
nius regards it as the name of a valley, so
called from its mortar-like shape.
MaPa-chi [^mcssciKjcr], tlic last of the
minor prophets and the latest writer in
the canon of the Old Testament. Of liis
personal history notliing is known. From
the striking parallelism between the state
of things indicated in Malachi's prophe-
cies and that actually existing on Nehe-
miah's return from the court of Artax-
erxes, we conclude that the ijrojjhct ut-
tered his messages from Jehovah after
the second return of Nehemiah from Per-
sia (Nell. 13 : 6). The whole prophecy
naturally divides itself into three sections,
in the first of whicli .Jehovah is represented
as the loving Father and Ruler of liis peo-
ple (1 : 2-14; 2 : 1-9) ; in the second, as
the supreme God and Fatlier of all (2 :
10-16) ; and in the tliird, as their right-
eous and final Judge (2:17; 3 : 1-18 ; 4 :
1-6). The prophecy of Malachi is several
times alluded to in the New Testament
(Matt. 11 : 10; Mark 1:2; 9 : 11, 12;
Luke 1 : 17; Rom. 9 : 13).
Mal'chus [ruler], tlie name of the
servant of tlie higli priest whose right ear
Peter cut off" at the time of our Lord's ar-
rest in the garden (Matt. 26 : 51 ; Mark
14 : 47 ; Luke 22 : 49-51 ; John 18 : 10).
He was the personal servant of the high
priest, and not one of the bailiffs or ap-
paritors of the Sanhedrim. It is notice-
MALLOWS— MAN.
331
able that Luke the physician is the only
one of the evangelists who mentions the
act of healing.
Mal'lows. The Hebrew word occurs
only in the passage where Job complains
that he is subjected to the contumely of
tlie meanest people, those " who cut up
inalloii's by the bushes for their meat"
(Job 30 : -1). It is supposed to be a salt-
wort, the young leaves of which are gath-
ered and boiled by the poor as food.
Marn'mon, an Aramaic word signi-
fying wealih or riches, and bearing that
sense in Luke 16 : 9, 11, but also used
by our Lord in Matt. 6 : 24 and Luke
16 : 13 as a personification of the god
of riches.
Mam're [J'atness'l, an ancient Amorite
wIh), with his brothers Eshcol and Aner,
was in alliance with Abram (Gen. 14 : 13,
24), and under the shade of whose oak-
grove the patriarch dwelt in the interval
between his residence at Bethel and at
Beersheba (Gen. 13 : IS; 18 : 1). This
was one of the patriarch's favorite places
of residence. Here he entertained the
three angels, and here he received the
first distinct promise of a son (Gen. 18 :
2, 10, 14). In the subsequent cliapters
Mamre is a mere local appellation (Gen.
23: 17, 19; 25 : 9 ; 49 : 30;- 50: 13).
Man. In our Authorized Version four
Hebrew and two Greek words are thus ren-
dered.
The first Hebrew word (ndam' ) has sev-
eral senses : it is the proper name of the
first man (Gen. 3 : 20 ; Luke 3 : 38) ; it is
the generic name cf the human race as
originally created (Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 5:2;
8 : 21 ; Dent. 8:3); it denotes man in
opposition to woman (Gen. 3:12); it des-
ignates one who maintains the dignity of
liuman nature — a man, as we say, that de-
serves the name (Eccles. 7 : 28).
The second Hebrew word {ink) is the
man in the distinguished sense — a warrior
(1 Sam. 17 : 8, 25, 33), a husband (Gen. 3 :
16 ; Hos. 2 : 16), one possessed of excel-
lent qualities, mental and moral (Jer.
5:1).
The third Hebrew word {geb'er) is a
man in regard to strength — as distinguish-
ed from a woman (Deut. 22 : 5), as distin-
guished from a child (Ex. 12 : 37), as dis-
tinguishing a male from di female child (Job
3: 3).
The fourth Hebrew word {enmh') is de-
scriptive of man as liable to sickness, per-
ishable, transient, mortal (2 Chron. 14 :
11 ; Job 25 : 6 ; Ps. 9 : 19, 20; 103 : 15 ;
Isa. 51 : 7, 8).
Of the two Greek words, one (anthropos)
denotes man in the sense of a human be-
ing, and the other {an^er) denotes man in
that distinguished sense which belongs to
the second Hebrew word above. To man,
as thus defined, the Scriptures ascribe a
tripartite nature : that of a body, or the
animal frame ; that of a soul, or the ani-
mating life; and that of a spirit, or the
organ of God-consciousness (1 Thess. 5 :
23). The third of these particulars, or
the spirit, separates man by an impassa-
ble gulf from the lower animal creation.
I In the New Testament there are some
peculiar uses of the word man. "The
Son of man," applied to our Lord only by
! himself (Matt. 9:6; Mark 2 : 10; Luke
j 5 : 24) and the martyr Stephen (Acts 7 :
56), is the Messiah in human form.
j "The old man" and "the new man"
; (Eph. 4 : 22, 24) denote, respectively the
native, unsanctified disposition of the hu-
I man heart, and the new, gracious disposi-
tion created and cherished by the gospel.
" The outward man," that is, the exter-
nal, visible man, is opposed to " the inward
man," or the invisible, immortal soul (2
Cor. 4:16; Eom. 7 : 22 ; Eph. 3 : 16).
" To speak as a man " ( Rom. 3:5; 1 Cor.
9 : 8) and "to speak after tlie manner of
men" (Gal. 3 : 15) is to speak popularly,
in accordance with human views and on
a level with common apprehensions. " The
332
MANAEN— MANASSEH.
number of a man " (Rev. 13 : 18) is an ordi-
nary number, such as is in general use among
men ; " tlie measure of a man " (Rev. 21 :
17) is an ordinary measure, one that is in
common use.
The "Man of Sin" (2 Thess. 2 : 3) is
such an imi)ersonation of sinful princi-
ples as will justify the applying to him
of the descriptive appellations apostate,
son of perdition, persecutor, blasphemer.
The passage in which the phrase occurs
is believed to indicate that at its writing
there was, and perhaps still is, a future
effort on the part of some hostile power
to overthrow Christianity and induce its
professors to renounce it. Such a peril is
clearly intimated in several other passages
of the New Testament (Mark 13 : 22; 2
Tim. 3 : 1, 13; Rev. 20 : 7, 8). The proph-
ecy is not to be confined, perhaps, to any
one type of Antichrist. Whoever reveals
the distinctive features of the Man of Sin ;
whoever wields the temporal or spiritual
power in any degree similar to that in
which the Man of Sin is described as
wielding it, — he, whether pope or poten-
tate, is beyond doubt a type of Antichrist.
Man'a-en, a Christian teacher at An-
tioch (Acts 13 : 1). He is said to have
"been brought up with Herod the te-
trarch" (Herod Antipas), and tlie expres-
sion "brought up" may indicate either a
plaijmaie or afonter-brother ; most probably
it indicates the latter.
Ma-nas'seh [for get ting'], the name
of Joseph's first-born son, of a Hebrew
tribe and of a king of Judah.
1. Manasseh, son of Joseph and Asenath,
was born in Egypt before the beginning of
the great famine (Gen. 41 : 50). He re-
ceived his name in consequence of his
birth being the first thing which had oc-
curred since .Joseph's banishment from
Canaan to relieve the painful sense of
loneliness and separation from home.
Upon seeing the child Joseph said, " God
liath made me forget all my toil and all
I my father's house" ((len. 41 : 51), and so
he named the boy " Manasseh." When
Jacob was nearing death he adopted Jo-
seph's two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim.
constituting tliem with his own sons the
heads of tribes. At this time Manasseh
was about twenty-two years of age. Of
his personal history no fact is stated in
the Scriptures.
2. The tribe of Manasseh during the
march to Canaan was posted with Ephraim
and Benjamin on the west side of the tab-
ernacle. AVhen the tribe left Egypt it num-
bered thirty-two thousand two hundred
male adults (Num. 1 : 35), but in the sec-
ond census, on the plains of Moab, it had
increased to fifty-two thousand seven hun-
dred (Num. 26 : 34). In the division of
the Promised Land half of the tribe set-
tled east of the Jordan, in the district em-
bracing the hills of Gilead with their in-
accessible heights and impassable ravines,
and the almost impregnable tract of Ar-
gob (Josh. 13 : 29-33). Here they in-
creased and prospered greatly, pushing
their way northward over the rich plains
of Jauldn and Jediir to the foot of Moimt
Ilermon (1 Chron. 5 : 23). But they grad-
ually fell into the ways of the old lieathen
inhabitants of the country, and on them
descended the inevitable punishment of
such apostasy. They, first of all Israel.
I were carried away by Pul and Tiglath-
pileser, and settled in the territories of
I Assyria (1 Chron. 5 : 25, 26). The other
half-tribe settletl west of the Jordan, north
of Ephraim (Josh. 17). The territory of
' this half-tribe is not very accurately de-
fined, but, from its location north of Eph-
raim, it must have been productive and
valuable. It was never, however, fuUv
..."
possessed, the Canaanites maintaining at
all times a stubborn resistance. In ac-
, cordance Avith Jacob's prophetic benedic-
I tion (Gen. 48 : 19), the tribe of Manasseh
I was always inferior to that of Ephraim.
3. The thirteenth king of Judah, son
MANASSITES— MAKAH.
and siicessor of Hezekiah (2 Kings 21 :
1). He ascended the throne at the age
of twelve, and his accession was tlie sig-
nal for an entire change in the religious
administration of the kingdom. Idolatry
was again established, and idolatrous al-
tars were reared in the sanctuary itself (2
Chron. 33 : 4). Every faith was tolerated
but the old faith of Israel. The aged
Isaiah, according to tradition, was put to
death. But retribution came. Judsea was
overrun by the Assyrian armies. Manas-
seh was made prisoner, and was carried
ofi" to Babylon (2 Chron. 33 : 11). There
he came to see the enormity of his sin ;
there he repented and turned to the Lord
with prayer ; and there Jehovah heard
and delivered him (2 Chron. 33 : 12, 13).
He addressed himself now to repair the
mischief he had wrought. He restored
the old worship and encouraged the old
faith, but he never regained the confidence
of his people. After a reign of fifty-five
years he died, and was buried not with the
burial of a king, but in the garden of Uzza
(2 Kings 21 : 18).
Ma-nas'sites, The, members of the
tribe of Manasseh. The word occurs but
thrice in our Authorized Version — name-
ly, Deut. 4 : 43 ; Judg. 12:4; 2 Kings 10 :
33.
Man^drakes, mentioned only in Gen.
30 : 14-16 and in Song 7 : 13. It is un-
certain what plant is intended by the He-
brew word thus rendered, but the weight
of opinion inclines to what we term the
mandrake (Alropa mandragoru), closely
allied to the well-known deadly night-
shade, and bearing a fruit called the
May apple.
Ma^neh (Ezek. 45 : 12), a weight of a
hundred shekels, rendered pounds in 1
Kings 10 : 17 ; Ezra 2 : 69-
Man'ger. This word occurs only in
connection with our Lord's birth in Luke
2:7, 12, 16. The original Greek term
is found but once besides in the New Tes-
tament (Luke 13 : 15), where it is ren-
dered "stall." Its ordinary meaning is
a manger or feeding-trough, but it is also
used for a stall.
Man'na, the name given to the mirac-
ulous food upon which the Israelites were
fed for forty years during their wanderings
in the desert (Ex. 16 : 14-36; Num. 11 :
7-9 ; Deut. S : 3, 16 ; Josh. 5:12; Ps. 78 :
24, 25 ; John 6 : 49). The Hebrew word
mdn,~ by which this substance is always
designated in the Hebrew Scriptures, is
the neuter interrogative pronoun what?
and the name is derived from the in-
quiry {man hu, What is this?) which tlie
Hebrews made when they first saw it
upon the ground. In form it was small
and round, like coriander-seed ; in taste
it resembled wafers made with honey.
It was not a product of Nature, but a
miraculous gift directly from God.
Ma-no 'ah [reM], the fether of Sam-
son, a Danite of the town of Zorah (Judg.
13 : 2).
Man'slay-er. See Cities or Kef-
UGE.
Man^tle. See Clothes.
Ma'on [habitation], a town in Judah
(Josh. 15 : 55), the residence of the chur-
lish Nabal and of his discreet and excel-
lent wife, Abigail (1 Sam. 25 : 2, 3). In
a wilderness in the neighborhood of this
town, and bearing the same name, David
hid himself when fleeing from Saul (1
Sam. 23 : 24, 25). The site of the town
was the great hump of rock in the vicin-
ity of Carmel, south from Hebron about
seven miles, where Nabal's possessions
were. On or near this same site is the
present village of Main.
Ma^O-nites, an Arabian tribe men-
tioned in connection with the Amalekites,
Sidonians, Philistines and others as op-
pressors of the Hebrews (Judg. 10 : 11,
12).
Ma'rah [bitterness], a place near ihe
Red Sea at which the Israelites stopped
334
MAEANATHA— MARK, GOSPEL OF.
on tlie third day of their journey in the
wilderness. It was thus named from the
bitterness or braekishness which made its
waters unsuitable for drinking. Moses, at
Ood's direction, cast into the well the
branches of a tree pointed out to him,
and at once the waters were rendered
palatable (Ex. 15 : 23-25). It is identi-
fied with 'A in HdU'cirah, which is reached
to-day, as in the time of the Exodus, on
the third day of the desert journey to
Sinai.
Mar'an-ath'a. See Anathema.
Mar'cus. See Mark.
Ma-re 'shah [nl the headi, a town in
the low country of Judah (Josh. 15 : 44).
It was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron.
11 : 8). In the valley of Zephathah, near
this place, Asa, king of Judah, signally
defeated Zei-ah, king of Ethiopia, with
his numerous army (2 Chron. 14 : 8-12).
Eusebius places it within two miles of
Eleutheropolis, and Dr. Robinson discov-
ered an artificial hill in that neighbor-
hood, upon which are ruins, and Avhich
he supposes was the site of the fortified
Mareshah.
Mark, the evangelist, no doubt the
same as " John whose surname was
Mark" (Acts 12 : 12, 25). John was the
Jewish name, and Mark (Marcus) a name
of frequent use among the Romans, was
adopted afterward, and gradually super-
seded the other. The form "Marcus"
appears in Col. 4:10; Philem. ver. 24 ; 1
Pet. 5:13. John Mark was the son of
a certain Mary who dwelt at Jerusalem,
and was therefore probably bom in that
city. He was the cousin of Barnabas.
He was probably converted to Christ
through the preacliing of Peter, for his
mother's house appears to have been a
meeting-place for the early disciples (Acts
12 : 12), and Peter calls him his "son" (1
Pet. 5 : 13). Anxious to work for Christ,
he went with Paul and Barnabas as their
" minister " on their first journey, but at
Perga he turned back (Acts 12 : 25; 13 :
13). On the second journey Paul would
not accept him again as a companion, but
Barnabas his kinsman was more indul-
gent ; and thus he became the occasion of
the memorable '" sharp contention " be-
tween them (Acts 15 : 36-40). Whatever
was the cause of Mark's vacillation, it did
not separate him for ever from Paul, for we
find him by the side of that apostle in the
first imprisonment at Rome (Col. 4 : 10;
Philem. ver. 24). When Paul wrote to
Timothy during the second imprisonment,
Mark seems to have been with the latter
at Ephesus (2 Tim. 4 : 11). What was
[ his exact relation to Peter it is difficult to
i tell. Ancient writers make him the inter-
preter of Peter. Some explain this word
to mean that the office of Mark was to
translate into the Greek tongue the Ara-
maic discourses of the apostle ; others
adopt the more probable view that Mark
wrote a Gospel which conformed more ex-
actly than the others to Peter's preaching,
and thus " interpreted " it to the Church
at large. According to tradition, he died
a martyr's death at Alexandria, Eg\'pt, in
the eighth year of the emperor Nero.
Mark, Gospel of. This is the short-
est of the four inspired records of our Lord's
life, and has some noticeable characteris-
tics.
In the first place, it has certain peculiar-
ities which are best explained by the sup-
position that the writer was in close cominu-
nication with the apostle Peter. Whilst
Mark goes over the same ground for the
most part as the other evangelists, and es-
pecially Matthew, there are many facts
thrown in which ])rove that we are listen-
ing to an independent witness. Thus the
humble origin of Peter is made known
through him (1 : 16-20), and his connec-
tion with Capernaum (1 : 29) ; he tells us
that Levi was "the son of Alphaeus" (2 :
14) ; that Peter was the name given by our
Lord to Simon (3 : 16), and Boanerges a
MAEKETS. MAEKET-PLACE— MAKRIAGE,
335
surname added by him to the names of
two others (3 : 17) ; he assumes the exist-
ence of anotlier body of disciples wider
than the twelve (3 : 32 ; 4 : 10, 3G ; 8 : 34 ;
14 : 51, 52). We owe to him the name
of Jairus (5 : 22), the word "carpenter,"
applied to our Lord (6 : 3), the nation of
the " Syro-Phcenician " woman (7:26);
he substitutes Dalmanutha for the " Mag-
dala" of Matthew (8 : 10) ; he names Bar-
timeus (10 : 46) ; he alone mentions that
our Lord would not suffer any man to
carry any vessel through the temple (11 :
16), and that Simon of Cyrene was the
father of Alexander and Eufus (15 : 21).
All these are tokens of an independent
writer, different from Matthew and Luke,
and, in the absence of all traditions as to
the sources of Mark's Gospel, Peter is not
unnaturally associated with it.
In the next place, Mark's Gospel fur-
nishes evidence in itself that it was pri-
marily written for Gentiles. The evan-
gelist scarcely refers to the Old Testament
in his own person. The word Law does
not once occur. The genealogy of our
Lord is likewise omitted. Other matters
interesting chiefly to tlie .Jews are also
omitted, such as the references to tlie Old
Testament and Law in Matt. 1 2 : 5-7, the
reflections on the request of the scribes and
Pliarisees for a sign in Matt. 12 : 38-45, the
parable of the king's son in Matt. 22 : 1-14,
and tlie awful denunciation of the scribes
and Pharisees in Matt. 23. Explanations
are given in some places which Jews did
not require: thus, Jordan is a "river"
(Mark 1:5; Matt. 3:6); the Pharisees
" used to fast " (Mark 2:18; Matt. 9 : 14),
and other customs of theirs are descrilied
(Mark 7:1-4; Matt. 15 : 1, 2) ; " the time
of figs was not yet," that is, at tlie season
of the passover (Mark 11 : 13; Matt. 21 :
19) ; the Sadducees' worst tenet is men-
tioned (Mark 12 : 18) ; the Mount of Olives
is "over against the temple" (Mark 13 :
3 ; Matt. 24 : 3) ; at tlie passover men ate
"unleavened bread" (Mark 14 : 1, 12;
Matt. 26 : 2, 17), and explanations are
given which Jews would not need (Mark
15 : 6, 16, 42; Matt. 27 : 15, 27, 57).
As to the lime when Mark's Gospel was
written we have no certain information.
In the Epistle to the Colossians (4 : 10)
Mark is mentioned as a relative of Bar-
nabas, as if this were his greatest distinc-
tion; he could not then (a. D. 62) have
been known and recognized as the writer
of a life of our Lord. On the other hand,
the Gospel was certainly written before the
destruction of Jerusalem (Mark 13 : 14,
24-30, 33) ; its date must therefore be
placed between a. d. 63 and A. d. 70. Its
language was unquestionably the Greek ;
its style is singularly vivid and pictur-
resque.
Mar'kets, Mai-'ket-Place. These
two words indicate the same locality (Matt.
11 : 16 ; Luke 7 : 32). The (Greek) agora,
or "market-place," was the resort not only
for sales, but also for public purposes. It
was the place of general concourse. Hence
the force of the expression concerning the
scribes, that they " love salutations in the
market-places" (Mark 12 : 38). Courts of
justice were held here (Acts 16 : 19) ; here
public disputations were carried on (Acts
17 : 17, 18) ; and here day-laborers resorted
to obtain employment (Matt. 20 : 3).
Mar'riage. The institution of mar-
riage, or the union of one man and one
woman, dates from the creation of the
first human pair (Gen, 2 : 24). The cir-
cumstances attendant upon the formation
of Eve, and the words uttered by Adam
thereupon in recognition of God's will as
to man's social condition, form the basis
of the following general principles with
which all the teachings of Scripture in
respect to marriage agree : 1 . The unity
of man and wife (compare Matt. 19:5);
2. The indissolubleness of the marriage-
bond except upon the ground of positive
infidelity thereto (compare Matt. 19:9);
336
MARROW— MART.
3. Monogamy, as the original law of mar-
riage (compare Matt. 19 : 6; 1 Cor. 6:16);
4. The social equality of man and wife
(compare Eph. 5 : 28, 29, 31 1 ; 5. The
subordination of the wife to the husband
(compare 1 Cor. 11 : 8, 9 ; Col. 3 : 18) ; 6.
The respective duties of man and wife, each
being tiie exact correlative of the other
(compare Gen. 2 : 18, 20; Eph. 5 : 33).
In the patriarchal age polygamy pre-
vailed (Gen. 16 : 4; 25 : 1, 6; 28 : 9; 29 :
23, 28), but divested, to a great extent, of
the degradation which in modern times
attaches to that practice. Divorce also
prevailed in the patriarchal age, though
but one instance of it is recorded (Gen.
21 : 14). The Mosaic legislation respect-
ing marriage aimed to mitigate rather
than to remove the evils which in that day
were inseparable from the state of society.
Polygamy was discouraged, the injustice
consequent upon the undue exercise of the
rights of a father or master was discounte-
nanced, divorce was placed under restric-
tion, and purity during the maintenance
of the matrimonial bond was enforced.
The customs of the Hebrews and of Ori-
ental nations in regard to marriage differ
in many respects from those with wliich
we are familiar. In the first place, the
choice of the bride devolved not on the
bridegroom liimself, but on his relations
or on a friend deputed by the bridegroom
for tliis purpose. The consent of the
maiden was sometimes asked (Gen. 24 :
58), but this appears to have been subor-
dinate to the j)revious consent of the
father and the adult brothers (Gen. 24 :
51; 34 : 11). Occasionally the whole
business of selecting the wife was left
in the hands of a friend. Tlie selection
of the bride was followed by the espousal,
which was a formal proceeding undertaken
by a friend or legal rejiresentative on the
part of the bridegroom and by the parents
on the part of the bride ; it was confirmed
by oaths and accompanied with pi-esents
to tiie l)ride. The act of betrothal was
celebrated by a feast, and between it and
tlie marriage an interval elapsed varying
from a few days to a full year. The es-
sence of the marriage ceremony consisted
in the removal of the bride from her
father's house to that of the bridegroom
or his father. When the fixed hour ar-
rived, wliich was generally late in the
evening, the bridegroom set fortli from
his house, attended by his groomsmen
("companions," Judg. 14 : 11 ; "children
of the bride-chamber," Matt. 9 : 15), pre-
ceded by a band of musicians or singers
(Gen. 31 : 27 ; Jer. 7 : 34 ; 16 : 9), and ac-
companied by persons bearing flambeaux.
Having readied the house of the bride,
wlio with her maidens expected Iiis arri-
val (Matt. 25 : 6, 7), he conducted the
whole party back to his own or his fath-
er's house witli every demonstration of
gladness (Ps. 45 : 15). At the house a
feast was prepared, to which all tlie
friends and neighbors were invited (Gen.
29 : 22; Matt. 22 : 1-10; Luke 14 : 8; Jolm
2 : 2), and the festivities were protracted for
seven or even fourteen days (Judg. 14:12).
The marriage-union is often employed to
illustrate, in the Old Testament, the spirit-
ual relationsliip between God and his peo-
ple (Isa. 1:21; Jer. 3 : 1, 6, 8) ; in the New
Testament tlie union of Christ and liis
Church (John 3 : 29 ; Rev. 19 : 7-9; 21 :
2, 9).
Mar'rO"W, the oily substance contained
in the hollow of tlie bones of animals (Job
21 : 24), used figuratively for the delicate
and most satisfactory provisions of the
gospel (Ps. 63 : 5 ; Isa. 25 : 6), and like-
wise in the New Testament for the most
secret thoughts and feelings of the soul
(Heb. 4 : 12).
Mars' Hill. .See AREOPAors.
Mart, a trading-place or emporium
(Isa. 23 : 3). The root of the word thus
rendered signifies to travel about as
traders, buying and selling, thus indi-
MARTHA— MAEY.
337
eating the general character of the com-
merce of the East from the earliest ages
to the present.
Mar'tha, the sister of Mary and Laz-
arus. Tlie two sisters and tlie brother
formed tliat lionored household in Beth-
any wiiom our Lord so loved and with
whom he so often sojourned (Luke 10 :
38-42; John 11 : 1-3; 12 : 2). The facts
recorded of the two sisters bring out in
strong contrast the active solicitude of
Martha to serve our Loid with the best
she could give, and the quiet earnestness
of Mary to sit at our Lord's feet as a
listener and learner. Whilst both sis-
ters revealed to our Lord a love which
he thoroughly recognized and fully re-
turned, the love of Martha was not so
perfect in form or so spiritual in expres-
sion as the love of Mary. The piety of
Martha was as genuine, doubtless, as Ma-
ry's, but with its activity it needed the
blending of a profounder thought and a
purer sympathy.
Mar't37T. In our Authorized Version
of tlie New Testament this word, a literal
transfer of the original Greek {fiaprvc), oc-
curs but thrice (Atts 22 : 20 ; Eev. 2:13;
17 : 6), but its English equivalent, a ivii-
nes!^, occurs very frequently (Matt. 18 : 16;
Mark 14 : 63 ; Luke 24 : 48 ; Acts 1 : 8, 22 ;
Eom. 1 : 9 ; 2 Cor. 13:1; 1 Thess. 2 : 5,
10; 1 Tim. 6: 12; Heb. 10 : 28; 1 Pet. 5 :
1 ; Rev. 1 : 5, and elsewhere). In the three
passages where it is left vintranslated it is
used to designate one who by his deatli
bears witness to the truth, and in this
exclusive sense the word is now em-
ployed.
Ma^ry [Greek, Maria and Mariam. ;
Hebrew, Miriam'], the name of several
females in the New Testament.
1. Tlie wife of Joseph and a lineal de-
scendant of David (Matt. 1 : 16), "the
mother of Jesus" (Acts 1 : 14), and
"Mary his mother" (Matt. 2 : 11). Of
this highly-favored woman little is known,
22
but in her was fulfilled the first prophecy
made to man (Gen. 3 : 15).
2. Mary Magdalene. Different expla-
nations have been given of this name,
but the most natural is that whicli asso-
ciates her with the town of Magdala. In
the Scripture records she first appears to
view among those women-disciples of our
Lord who " ministered unto him of their
substance" (Luke 8 : 2, 3). Of her it is
said specially that " seven devils went out
of her," meaning, most likely, that hers
was a possession of more tlian ordinary
malignity. She has by some been iden-
tified with the "sinner" who anoints our
Lord's feet (Luke 7 : 36-50) ; by others
with the sister of Martlia and Lazarus
(John 11 : 2) ; but there is not the slight-
est Scripture authority for such identifi-
cation. To her was granted the imperish-
able honor of first seeing our Lord after
his resurrection (Mark 16 : 9; John 20:
11-18).
3. Mary, the sister of Martha and Laz-
arus. The facts strictly personal to her
are but few. She and her sister Martha
appear in Luke 10 : 38-42 as receiving
our Lord into their house at Betliany.
She witnessed the miracle of her broth-
er's resurrection from the dead, and at
the subsequent feast where Lazarus was
a guest she expressed her joy and love
by pouring upon our Lord's feet "a
pound of ointment of spikenard, very
costly" (John 12 : 3).
4. Mary, the wife of Cleophas (Clopas
more accurately, and the same as Alphse-
us). From a comparison of the passages
in which she is named (Matt. 27 : 56;
Mark 15 : 40; John 19 : 25) it appears
that she was the sister of our Lord's
mother and the mother of several sons,
two of whom, James the son of Alpha^us
and Jude, became enrolled among the
twelve apostles. She was perhaps the
elder sister of our Lord's mother, and be-
fore our Lord's ministry commenced had
338
MA SCHIL— MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF.
become a widow. She is brought into
view for tlie first time on the day of the
crucifixion, wlien with our Lord's mother,
then also a widow, she " stood by the cross."
In the evening of that same day she sat
desolately at the tomb with Mary Mag-
dalene (Matt. 27 : 61 ; Mark 15 : 47) ; at
the dawn of the resurrection morning she
was again at the tomb with the sweet
spices she had prepared (Matt. 28 : 1 ;
Mark 16:1; Luke 23 : 56), and she was
one of those who liad " a vision of angels
which said that he was alive" (Luke 2-4 :
23). These are all the glimpses of her
we have in Scripture.
5. Mary, the mother of .John, surnamed
Mark (Acts 12 : 12). The woman known
by this description must have been among
the earliest disciples. We learn from Col.
4 : 10 that she was sister to Barnabas, and
from Acts 4 : 37 ; 12 : 12 we are justified
in the inference that wliile the brother
gave up his land and brought the pro-
ceeds of the sale into the common treas-
ury of the church, the sister gave up her
house to be used as one of the church's
chief places of meeting.
6. A woman at Eomc whom Paul men-
tions as one who treated him with special
kindness (Rom. 16 : 6).
Mas'chil [instructing'], the title of tiiir-
teen Psalms, 32, 42, 44, 45, 52-55, 74, 78,
88, 89, 1 42. Its most probable meaning is
a poem or song which enforces wisdom or
piety, that is, a didactic poem.
Mash, the last named of the four sons
of Aram, and the father of a tribe who
gave their name to a region (Gen. 10 :
23) which is probably to be sought in
Mesopotamia. In 1 Chron. 1 : 17 the
name appeai-s as Meshech.
Mas-re'kah, an ancient city, the na-
tive place of Samlah, one of the old kings
of the Edomites (Gen. 36 : 36 ; 1 Chron.
1 : 47).
Mas'sa, one of the sons of Ishmael
and the father of an Arab tribe (Gen. 25 :
14; 1 Chron. 1 : 30). The tribe were per-
haps the Masnni, placed by Ptolemy in the
east of Arabia near the borders of Baby-
lonia.
Mas'sah [temptation^, a name given
to the spot, also called ]SIekibah, where
the Israelites tempted Jehovah (Ex. 17 :
7 ; Ps. 95 : 8, 9 ; Heb. 3:8). To the events
at Massah Moses frequently refers (Deut.
6 : 16; 9 : 22 ; 33 : 8).
Mat-ta-ni'ah [cjift of Jehovah], the
name of several men, of whom two only
need be mentioned.
1. The original name of Zedekiah, the
last kingof Judah (2 Kings 24: 17), which
was changed when Nebuchadnezzar placed
him on the throne.
2. A Levite singer of the sons of Asaph
(1 Chron. 9:15), who after the return from
Babylon lived in the villages of the Neto-
phathites which the singers had built in the
neighborhood of Jerusalem. As leader of
the temple choir after its restoration (Neh.
11 : 17; 12 : 8) in the time of Nehemiah,
he took part in the musical service which
accompanied the dedication of the wall of
Jerusalem (Neh. 12 : 25, 35).
Mat'thew [gift of Jehovah], one of the
evangelists and an apostle. He was the
son of a certain Alphseus (not the father
of James the Less), and bore also the name
of Levi (Mark 2 : 14; Luke 5 : 27-29).
He was a native of Galilee and a publi-
can or tax-collector (Matt. 9:9; 10 : 3).
While engaged in his duties lie received
our Lord's call and instantly obeyed it.
Of his life after our Lord's resurrection
and ascension nothing is known with
certainty.
Mat'thew, Gospel of. Of this Gos-
pel, the first of the four memoirs of our
Lord, Matthew the apostle, according to tlie
testimony of all antiquity, was the writer.
Written evidently for .Jewish converts, it is
pervaded by one principle, the fulfillment
of the Law and of the Messianic prophecies
in the person of Jesus. It is emphatically
MATTHIAS— MEAT.
339
the Grospel of the kingdom. It portrays
the kingly character of our Lord, and
marshals the most conclusive proofs that
he is the true heir of David's throne. Its
tone throughout is majestic and kingly.
Its narrative proceeds with a noble sim-
plicity, regardless of time and place, ac-
cording to another and deeper order, ready
to sacrifice mere chronology or locality to
the development of its dominant idea. It
brings together events separated sometimes
by considerable intervals, yet connected
always by the unity of their nature or
purpose, and with a grand but simple
power accumulates in groups our Lord's
discourses and parables and miraclps.
Mat-thi'as, the apo.stle elected to fill
the place of the traitor Judas (Acts 1 : 26).
Beyond tliis, all that we know of him for
certainty is that he liad been a constant
attendant upon our Lord during the whole
course of his ministry, such being the ne-
cessary qualification of one who was to be
a witness of the resurrection. According
to tradition, he preached the gospel and
suffered martyrdom in Ethiopia.
Maz'za-roth. The word occurs but
once (Job 38 : 32) ; it is an astronomical
term, meaning, probably, the twelve signs
of the zodiac.
Me'ah, The Tower of, one of the
towers of the wall of Jerusalem when re-
built by Nehemiah (Neh. 3:1; 12 : 39),
probably at the north-eastern angle of the
temple enclosure.
Meal-time, the feaftnn of eating. The
word occurs but once (Ruth 2 : 14), but
the words divver and supper often. There
is some uncertainty as to the hours at
which meals were taken ; the Egyptians
undoubtedly took their principal meal at
noon (Gen. 43 : 16), but the Jews, follow-
ing the custom that still prevails in Syria,
made their principal meal after sunset,
having made a lighter meal at about 9 or
10 a. m. The posture at meals varied at
various periods. The old Hebrews were
in the habit of sitting (Gen, 27 : 19 ; Judg.
19:6; 1 Sam. 20 : 5, 24), but not on chairs ;
they probably squatted on mats on the
ground, as was the occasional, though not,
perhaps, the general, custom of the ancient
Egyptians. The table was, in this case,
but slightly elevated above the ground.
As luxury increased, the practice of sit-
ting was exchanged for that of reclining ;
the first intimation of this occurs in the
prophecies of Amos 3 r 12 ; 6 : 4. In the
time of our Lord reclining was the uni-
versal custom. As several guests reclined
on the same couch, each overlapped his
neighbor and rested his head on or near
the breast of the one who lay behind him ;
he was then said to " lean on the bosom "
Qf his neighbor (John 13 : 23). Before
commencing the meal the guests washed
their hands, for not only was the hand the
substitute for our knife and fork, but the
hands of all the guests were dipped into
one and the same dish. Another prelim-
inary step was the grace or blessing, of
which we have but one instance in the
Old Testament (1 Sam. 9 : 13), but in the
New Testament several (Matt. 15:36;
Luke 9 : 16; John 6 : 11). At the con-
clusion of the meal grace was again said,
in conformity with Deut. 8 : 10. At feasts
more ceremony was used than at the ordi-
nary meal. See Feast.
Measures. See Weights and Meas-
ures.
Meat. In our Authorized Version
this word is not used in that sense of ani-
mal food which it now almost exclusivelv
bears, but in the sense of food in general.
Animal food, when intended to be partic-
ularly specified, except in two passages
(Gen. 27 : 4 ; 45 : 23), is uniformly denoted
by the word " flesh." The only real and in-
convenient ambiguity caused by the change
in the meaning of the word since our Au-
thorized Version was made is in the case
of the "meat-offering," wliich consisted
solely of fine flour seasoned with salt and
340
MEAT-OFFERING— MEEKNESS.
mixed with oil and frankincense (Lev. 2 :
1 ; 6 : 14-23).
Meat-Offering'. See Meat.
Medad. See Eldad.
Me'dan [contention'], the third son of
Abraham by Keturah (Gen. 25 : 2). He
and his brother Midian are supposed to
have peopled the country of Midian east
of the Dead Sea.
Med'e-ba, a city of Moab (Num. 21 :
30). In the allotment to the two and one-
half tribes ea.st of the Jordan this city fell
within the territory of Reuben (Josh. 13 :
1 6 ),but its Moabitisli inhabitants were never
driven out. In its vicinity Joab, the re-
nowned leader of David's armies, totally
defeated a vast host of Ammonites and
Syrians (1 Chron. 19 : 7-15). In the pro-
phetic curse upon Moab, Medeba is men-
tioned as one of its chief cities (Isa. 15 :
2). Its ruins still exist under the Ara-
bic name Madeba. They lie about four
miles south-east of Heshbon, with which
they are connected by an ancient paved
road. Not a building remains standing.
Me^dia, a large country in Asia in-
habited by the Medes, the descendants of
Madai, the son of Japheth (Gen. 10 : 2).
It was separated from Pei-sia on the south
by a desert, and from Assyria on the west
by the high range of the Zagros mountains,
the modern Kurdistan ; it reached north-
ward to the river Araxes and eastward to
tlie mountains south of the Caspian Sea.
Its dimensions, according to Rawlinson,
were five hundred and fifty miles from
north to south, and from two hundred
and fifty to three lumdred miles from
east to west. Its political fortunes were
various. At one time subject to Assyria,
at another time an independent and pow-
erful monarchy, it was subsequently united
with Persia by Cyrus, and became an im-
portant part of tlie ancient Medo-Peisian
empire. Witli the whole of Western Asia
it yielded at length to the invincible power
of Alexander, and at a later date was in-
corporated into the territory of the Par-
thian kingdom. It is now included in the
realm of the shah of Persia.
Me-di-a'tor, one who stands between
two parties at variance in order to recon-
cile tliem. The doctrine of some special
mediation between God and man is in-
corporated in all religions and is the pe-
culiar glory of Christianity. In the lat-
ter God is represented as unapproachable
except in and through the Lord .Jesus
Christ. By the constitution of our Lord's
person as the God-man he was peculiarly
qualified for such an office, since his jeal-
ousy for the divine honor and his practi-
cal sympathy with the sinning and suffering
were alike infinite ; accordingly, in effecting
reconciliation he satisfied all the demands
of the law and engaged to overcome all
the enmities of the depraved human soul.
Of this intervention the ordinances and
services of the Mosaic Law were typical.
Tlie total alienation of man's heart from
the life of holiness rendered his return to
God impossible ; his own dispositions were
opposed to it and the divine justice resist-
ed it. These formidable obstacles are re-
moved by Christ, who by his death atones
for sin, and by his Spirit imparts to his peo-
ple botli tlie willingness and the ability to
return. His work on earth accomplished,
he prosecutes it still in heaven by contin-
ual intercession. Vitally important is it,
therefore, to recognize the sole, exclusive
mediatorship of Jesus Christ : " There is
one God and one Mediator between God
and men, the man Christ Jesus" (1 Tim,
2 : 5). That monstrous system of metlia-
tion incorporated with popery, which puts
the Virgin Mary and dead saints on a
level with, if not above, Jesus Christ, is
one of the strongest evidences of its anti-
christian character.
Med-i'cine. See Physician.
Meek'ness, in its evangelical sense, is
equivalent to gentleness, humility, forbear-
ance under injuries, submission to the di-
MEGIDDO— MELITA.
341
vine will (Gal. 6:1; 2 Tim. 2 : 25). It
is an estimable trait of character exempli-
fied in Christ (2 Cor. 10 : 1), and produced
in the Christian by the operation of the
Holy Ghost (Gal. 5 : 22, 23).
Me-gid'do [place of troops], Megid-
DON in Zech. 12 : 11, an ancient royal city
of the Canaanites (Josh. 12:21). Al-
though within the territory of Issachar,
it was yet assigned, with several other cit-
ies similarly circumstanced, to Manasseh
(Josh. 17 : 11). It was the scene of Ba-
rak's victory (Judg. 5 : 19) and of King
Josiah's defeat and death (2 Kings 23:
29). It has usually been identified, and
perhaps correctly, with the modern el-
Lejjun.
Mel-chiz'e-dek [king of righteousness,
1. e. righteous king'], the " priest of the most
high God " and king of Salem, who went
forth to meet Abraham on his return from
that pursuit of tlie confederate kings' in
wliicli he had rescued his nephew Lot
(Gen. 14 : 18-20). He is mentioned in
one other passage in the Old Testament
(Ps. 110 : 4) as the priest whose "order"
typifies that of Messiah. In the Epistle
to tlie Hebrews (chs. 5, 6, 7) the two pas-
sages of tlie Old Testament in which his
name occurs are quoted, and his typical
relation to our Lord is stated at great
length. His "order" as a priest is his
exalted dignity as priest and king. The
points of analogy between Melchizedek
and Messiah are these : 1. Both are priests
of an underived and untransferred order ;
2. Both are independent of the priestly
tribe of I^evi ; 3. Both are superior to the
patriarch Abraham ; 4. Both unite the of-
fices of priest and king ; 5. The official
term of both is indefinite or unlimited.
The argument which tlie Epistle to the
Hebrews bases on the typical relation of
Melchizedek to our Lord Christ is this:
If Abraham, whom the Hebrews regard-
ed so highly, and who was the ancestor of
the sons of Levi, acknowledged the digni-
ty and superiority of Melchizedek, the type
of Messiah, then the Christ, the great
High Priest passed into the heavens, Je-
sus the son of God, is worthy of a similar,
yea, of a greater, homage ; and if Abra-
ham, the ancestor of Levi, rendered em-
phatic homage to Melchizedek, the type
of our Lord Christ, the priesthood which
was filled by the sons of Levi is to be
regarded as far inferior in dignity and
worth to the priesthood of our Lord
Christ himself.
Mel'i-ta, an island in the Mediter-
ranean on which was wrecked the vessel
conveying Paul as a prisoner to Kome
(Acts 28 : 1). Its identification with Malta,
about sixty miles south of Cape Passaro in
Sicily, has been disputed, but is now uni-
versally accepted. St. Paul's Bay is agreed
to be the scene of the wreck of the apostle.
Tliis island is twenty miles in length and
twelve in breadth. Although naturally a
barren rock, the industry of man has con-
verted many parts of it into fertile fields.
Having no high lands, it does not present
a very imposing aspect to ships approach-
ing it. From its position in the IMediter-
ranean and the excellence of its harbors,
Melita has always been important both in
commerce and war. It was a settlement
of the Phoenicians at an early period, and
their language, in a corrupted form, con-
tinued to be spoken there in Paul's day.
It was famous for its honey and fruits, for
its cotton fabrics and for excellent build-
ing-stone. A few years before Paul's
visit, corsairs from his native province
of Cilicia made Melita a frequent re-
sort ; and through subsequent periods
of its history it was often associated with
piracy. From its Phoenician colonists
it passed successively into tlie hands of
the Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans and
Arabs. From the Arabs it was wrest-
ed by the Normans in the eleventh cen-
tury. It was afterward in the posses-
sion of the Knights of St. John, known
342
MELONS— MEMPHIS.
St. Paul's Bay, Malta.
also as the Knights of Malta, under whom
for a time it flourished and became dis-
tinguished. It was surrendered to the
French in 1798, but two years later it
was seized by the English, who still hold
it. Its inhabitants, principally Roman
Catholics, number about one hundred and
twenty thousand.
MeFons. The word thus rendered oc-
curs only in Num. 11 : 5, and designates
the melon of the country, somewhat like
our nmskmelon and watermelon. Melons
were and are extensively cultivated in
Egypt and in all the hot countries of
the East.
Mem'bers. The word denotes prop-
erly the parts of the human body (1 Cor.
12 : 12-2G), but is used figuratively to des-
ignate true believers who are members of
Christ's body (Rom. 12:5; 1 Cor. 12 :
27).
Mem'phis, mentioned in Hos. 9 : 6,
wiiere the Hebrew word is Moph, called
in Isa. 19 : 13 and Ezek. 30 : 13 Nnph, an
ancient and very celebrated city of Lower
Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile. Ac-
cording to tradition, it was founded by
Menes before authentic history had fur-
nished the evidence for determining the
date. It was the capital of those Pha-
raohs who reigned in Lower Egypt in the
times of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and
the Israelitish sojourn. It reached, in the
progress of centuries, great size and extra-
ordinary magnificence. It had a circum-
ference of nineteen miles, numerous gar-
dens and public grounds being interspersed
with its buildings. Its temples and palaces
and gateways and colonnades, its colo.ssal
statues and marvelous catacombs for the
sacred bulls, its gigantic pyramids in its
near neighborhood, especially claimed and
called forth the imstinted admiration of
the early historians. Its importance, how-
ever, was much diminished by the Ptole-
mies, who transferred their royal favor to
Alexandria. And when, at length, Cairo
rose near it on the right bank of the Nile,
its glory wa.s rapidly extinguislied. Its
ruin, as predicted by the prophet Jeremiah
(46 : 19), has been for centuries and now is
complete.
MENAHEM— MERCHANT.
343
Men'a-hem [comforting'], son of Gadi,
conspirator against tlie usurper Sliallum,
whom he murdered, and usurper in turn
of the throne of Israel (2 Kings 15 : 14).
His reign of ten years was marked by
great cruelty and oppression (2 Kings 15 :
16-20).
Me'ne [numbered'], the first word of
that mysterious inscription written upon
the wall of Belshazzar's palace in which
Daniel read the doom of the king and
his dynasty (Dan. 5 : 25, 26).
Me-pha'ath [beauty], a Levitical
city (Josh. 21 : 37 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 79) of the
tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13 : 18), originally
(like Heshbon, of which it formed a de-
pendency) in the hands of the Amorites
(Num. 21 : 20), but afterward belonging to
Moab (Jer. 48 : 21). Its site is uncertain.
Me-phib'o-sheth [exterminator of the
shame, that is, idols or Baal], the name
borne by two members of King Saul's
family.
1. Saul's son by his concubine Rizpah,
tlie daughter of Aiah (2 Sam. 21 : 8 ). He
and his brother Armoni were among the
seven victims, all sons of Saul, whom
David surrendered to the Gibeonites, and
whom tlie Gibeonites crucified "before
the Lord " to atone for the blood of their
slaughtered kindred and to avert a fam-
ine from which the country was sufier- j
ing (2 Sam. 21 : 1-9).
2. Saul's grandson, the son of Jonathan
(2 Sam. 4 : 4), called also by the equivalent
name of Merib-Baal (1 Chron. 9 : 40). At
the time his fother and grandfather were
slain on Gilboa he was but five years old.
When the tidings of the disastrous battle
reached the royal household his nurse
fled, carrying him on her shoulder. In
her panic and hurry she stumbled, and
Mepliibosheth was precipitated to the
ground with such force as to deprive him
of the use of both feet for life. After the
accident lie was carried with the rest of
his family beyond Jordan to the moun-
tains of Gilead, where he found a refuge
in the house of Machir, son of Ammiel.
Here he was reared, here he was married,
and here he was living when David, from
affection to his dead father Jonathan, in-
vited him to Jerusalem and treated him
and his son Micah or Micha with the
greatest kindness (2 Sam. 9 : 3-13).
Me'rab [increase], the eldest daughter
of King Saul (1 Sam. 14 : 49). She was
betrothed by her father to David after the
victory over Goliath (1 Sam. 18 : 17) ; but
before the marriage, in consequence of
the discovery that her younger sister Mi-
chal was attached to the brave and hand-
some son of Jesse, she became the wife of
Adriel the Meholathite (1 Sam. 18 : 19)
and the mother of five sons. Thef^e five
sons, with the two sons of Rizpah, were the
victims given up by David to the Gibeon-
ites, who, as a propitiation to Jehovah,
crucified them on the sacred liill of Gib-
eah. In 2 Sam. 21 : 8, by the mistake of
a transcriber, " Michal " has been written
for " Merab."
Me-ra'ri [bitter], third son of Levi and
head of the third great division of the
Levites, the Merakites. He was born
in Canaan before the descent of Jacob into
Egypt, and was one of the seventy who ac-
companied Jacob thither (Gen. 46 : 11).
After the Exodus and during the march
through the wilderness the charge of the
Merarites was that of the boards, bars,
pillars, sockets, pins and cords of the tab-
ernacle and the court, and all the tools con-
nected with setting them up. In the di-
vision of the land by Joshua the Merarites
had twelve cities assigned to them out of
Reuben, Gad and Zebulun, of which one
was Ramoth-Gilead, a city of refuge (Josh.
21 : 7, 38), and in later times a frequent
occasion of war between Israel and Syria
(1 Kings 22:3; 2 Chron. 18 : 3).
Mer^chant. The verbal root of the
word thus rendered means to travel about,
and the word itself indicates the early cus-
344
MERCUEIUS— MEROZ.
torn of tlie East to conduct trade and com-
merce by traveling caravans. To a com-
pany of journeying merchants Joseph was
sold (Gen. 37 : 28). Commercial inter-
course was also maintained by ships, in
which the Phoenicians and Egyptians
were prominent.
Mer-cu'ri-us, the Latin rendering of
Hermes, a Greek deity, the companion of
Jupiter when wandering upon earth and
the hepald of the gods. He was ac-
counted the inventor of letters, of music
and of the arts. In Acts 14 : 12 tlie peo-
ple of Lystra identify Barnabas with Ju-
piter, and Paul with Hermes "because he
was the chief speaker."
Mer'cy, that pitiful regard for misery
wliich touches the heart and prompts re-
lief. It is an essential attribute of Jeho-
vah, and for the knowledge of how it is
exercised toward man in consistency
with the claims of justice we are wholly
indebted to revelation. The propitia-
tory sacrifice of our Lord Jesus Christ
has made it possible for mercy and truth
to meet together in the salvation of every
penitent believing soul (Ps. 85 : 10; Rom.
3 : 24-26 ; Ileb. 4 : 16).
Mer'cy- Seat, the cover of the box or
ark containing the tables of the Law given
at Sinai, and overspread by the cherubim,
between which appeared the visible, lumi-
nous symbol of the divine presence ( Ex.
25 : 17, 20 ; Heb. 9 : 5). Upon it the
blood of the yearly atonement was sprin-
kled by the high priest. Hence the idea
with which it was linked was not sinij)ly
one of mercy, but one of atonement for
sin as well. It thus served to typify our
Lord Jesus Christ, who, as Atoner and
Intercessor, opens the way for every pen-
itent soul to approach (iod, and justifies
God in extending to every penitent soul
the amplest forgiveness and the largest
favor.
Mer'i-bah [strife^, the name given to
the place in Rephidim, which was also
called Massah, where the people mur-
mured for water (Ex. 17 : 1-7). It was
also the name of another fountain pro-
duced by striking the rock under similar
circumstances in the desert of Zin, near
Kadesh (Num. 20 : 13, 24). In Deut. 33 :
8 this place is mentioned with Massah, and
in distinction from it. The Meribah near
Kadesh is wellnigh uniformly indicated
by the expression, "water" or "waters
of Meribah" (Num. 20 : 13; Ps. 81 : 7).
Mer'o-dach, a Babylonian god, sup-
' posed by some to represent the planet
Mars, by others the planet Jupiter, but
more probably the deified Nimrod (Jer.
50 : 2).
Mer'o-dach-Bara-dan, a king of
Babylon in the days of Hezekiah, king of
Judah (2 Kings 20 : 12; Isa. 39 : 1). In
2 Kings, by mistake of a copyist most
probably he is called Berodach-Baladan.
His name has been recognized in the As-
syrian inscriptions, where it appears as
Mardak-bal-lddan. His reign was a check-
ered one. After twelve years he was de-
posed, and for eight years was an exile
from his country. By a favoring change
of circumstances he recovered his throne,
but lost it again at the end of six months
in a disastrous battle with Sennacherib,
king of Assyria, and spent the remainder
of his days in exile and obscurity.
Me'rom, Waters of, the place at
which Joshua defeated Jabin and liis al-
lies (Josh. 11 : 1-8). This is the only
passage in which these waters are men-
tioned, and in it there is no clear indication
of their geographical position. Tliey are
commonly idenlified, however, with the
lake which Josephus calls Jamochinitis,
the modern el-Hideh, and which is the
upper or highest lake of the Jordan.
Me'roz, a place in the northern part
of Palestine, whose inhabitants were placed
under a curse because they refused to take
part in the war against Sisera ( Judg. 5 :
23). The site of it is not now known,
MESECH— MESOPOTAMIA.
345
but it must liave been in tlie neighbor-
hood of the Kislion.
Me'sech (Vs. 120 : 5). See Meshech.
Me'sha, the name of a place and of a
king.
1. One of the geographical limits of the
Joktanites when tliey first settled in Ara-
bia (Gen. 10 : 30). Its site has not been
satisfactorily determined, but probably was
somewhere in Northern Yemen.
2. A king of Moab in tlie reigns of Ahab
and his sons Ahaziah and Jehoram, kings
of Israel (2 Kings 3 : 4), and tributary to
the first. The death of Ahab and tlie fee-
ble reign of Ahaziah gave him the oppor-
tunity to free himself from a burdensome
tribute. When Jehoram came to the
throne the forces of Israel, in alliance
with those of Judah and Edom, under-
took his subjection, and in a great battle
defeated the Moabites. Mesha took refuge
in Kir-Haraseth, his last stronghold, and
The Moabite Stone.
defended himself with the energy of de-
spair. With seven hundred fighting men
he made a vigorous attempt to cut his way
through the beleaguering army, and when
beaten back he withdrew to the wall of the
city, and there, in sight of the allied host,
offered his first-born son, his successor in
the kingdom, as a burnt-oflering to Che-
mosh, the fire-god of Moab (2 Kings 3 :
21-27). On beholding this fearful spec-
tacle the besiegers withdrew in horror,
as if they feared that the guilt of this
monstrous crime might somehow attach
to them and bring upon them a terrible
vengeance. The exploits of Mesha are
recorded in the Moabite inscription re-
cently discovered on a block of black basalt
at Dibon in Moab. The text of this in-
scription, carved about nine centuries B. c,
furnishes a very remarkable confirmation
of the historical and geographical accu-
racy of such Scripture records as pertain
to the times it commemorates. A cut of
this monumental stone, taken from a pho-
tograph, is given. The reunited frag-
ments of this stone are in the Louvre at
Paris.
Me'shach, the Chaldsean name given
to Mishael, one of the three friends of
Daniel miraculously saved from the fiery
furnace (Dan. 1 : 6, 7 ; 3 : 1-30).
Me^shech, a son of Japheth (Gen. 10 :
2), and the progenitor of a race frequently
noticed in Scripture in connection with Tu-
bal, Magog and other nortliern nations.
They appear as allies of Gog (Ezek. 38 :
2, 3 ; 39 : 1 ), and as supplying the Tyrians
with copper and slaves (Ezek. 27 : 13). In
Ps. 120 : 5 they are noticed as one of the
remotest and rudest nations of the world.
They are commonly identified with the
Moschi, a people on the borders of Col-
chis and Armenia.
Mes-O-po-ta'mi-a [between the riv-
ers'], the district lying between the Tigris
and Euphrates, and from this circumstance
deriving its name. It is nearly seven hun-
dred miles long and from twenty to two
hundred and fifty miles broad. Of the
district thus described the Mesopotamia
346
MESSIAH— MICAH.
of Scripture is tlie north-western part,
corresponding very nearly with the Scrip-
ture Padan-Aram (Gen. 28 : 2). Nahor
and his family, quitting Ur of the Clial-
dees, settled in Mesopotamia (Gen. 24 :
10), and tliither Abraham sent his ser-
vant to fetch Isaac a wife (Gen. 24 : 34-
38). Hither, also, a century later, came
Jacob to seek a wife in the families of
his kindred, and, finding Leah and Ra-
chel, tarried twenty years. It is frequent-
ly mentioned in Scripture (Deut. 23:4;
Judg. 3 : 8, 10; 1 Chron. 19 : 6 ; Acts 2 :
9 ; 7:2), and from its connection with the
powerful monarchies of the ancient world
has been the theatre of some of the most
interesting events in human history. Its
modern name is el-Jesireh.
Mes-si'ah, the special title of the Sa-
viour promised to the world through the
Abrahamic family. The word is Hebrew,
and, like its Greek equivalent, Christ, has
the sense of anointed. In the New Testa-
ment it is twice applied to Jesus (John 1 :
41 ; 4 : 25), but its Greek equivalent is
constantly applied, at first with the article,
as a title, the Christ, the anointed One ; later,
without the article, as a proper name, Jesus
(yu-ist. In the Old Testament the Mes-
sianic idea has a remarkable development,
which cannot be explained except on the
supposition of special successive revela-
tions from God. At first it is fore-an-
nounced that the Messiah is to be a
prophet like unto Moses (Deut. 18 : 18),
then a priest for ever after the order of
Melchizedek (Ps. 110:4), and then a
king, great David's greater Son (Isa. 11 :
1-10). In his threefold ofiice he is to
free his people from sin, and is to teach
them the ways of God (Isa. 53 : 10-12;
61 : 1-3) ; his power, also, is to reach be-
yond the Jews and is to embrace all the
Gentiles (Isa. 60:3-11). These proph-
ecies have in our Lord a complete fulfil-
ment ; accordingly, the great burden of
apostolic preaching was " showing by the
Scriptures that Jesus was Christ" (Acts
18 : 28).
Me'theg-Am'mah [bridle of the fore
arm'], a figurative term for a chief city. It
occurs in 2 Sam. 8:1, and, according to the
parallel passage in 1 Chron. 18 : 1, it des-
ignates Gath.
Me-thu'sa-el [man of God], the son
of Mehujael and father of Lamech, of the
family of Cain (Gen. 4 : 18).
Me-thu^se-lah [man of the dart], the
son of Enoch and father of Lamech, of
the family of Seth (Gen. 5 : 21, 25). He
died in the year of the Flood at the ex-
treme age of nine hundred and sixty-
nine years (Gen. 5 : 27).
Mi'cah [a contracted form of Micaiah,
who is like Jehovah ?], the name of several
men.
1. An Ephraimite, who, in contraven-
tion of the Law, which allowed but one
place of sacrifice and ceremonial service,
set up in his own house an idolatrous im-
age-worship and an unauthorized priest-
hood (Judg. 17 : 4-13). His story, as re-
corded in the seventeenth and eighteenth
chapters of Judges, illustrates the prev-
alent ignorance of God's requirements,
the low condition of the Levites and the
terrible anarchy of the times.
2. The son of Mephibosheth (son of
Jonathan and grandson of King Saul),
and the father of several sons (1 Chron.
8: 34, 35; 9 : 40, 41).
3. A projihet of the kingdom of Judali
and contemporary with Isaiah (Mic. 1:1).
To distinguish him from a former prophet
of the same name (1 Kings 22 : 8), he is
called "the Morastliite," from Monosheth-
gath, his birthplace. He exercised his
ofiice during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz
and Ilezekiah, kings of Judah, and if the
time be reckoned from the accession of the
former to the deatli of the latter, for the
long term of fifty-nine years. His diction
is vigorous and forcible, sometimes obscure
from the abruptness of its transitions, but
MICAIAH— MIDIAN.
347
varied and rich in figures derived from
the pastoral and rural life of the lowland
country. The language of Micah is quot-
ed in Matt. 2 : 5, 6, and his prophecies are
alluded to in Matt. 10 : 35, 36; Mark 13 :
12; Luke 12 : 53; John 7 : 42.
Mi-ca'iah [same name as Micah, with
same meaning], the son of Imlah and a
prophet of Samaria (1 Kings 22 : 8). He
predicted the defeat and death of Ahab,
king of Israel (1 Kings 22 : 17, 28).
Mi'cha-el [icho is like God?], the name
in Soriptiu'e of ten men, who are connect-
ed with no historic events which justify the
special mention of any of them, and the
name of a chief angel.
The archangel Michael is described in
Dan. 10:21 as the "prince" of Israel,
and in Dan. 12 : 1 as " the great prince
which standeth " in time of conflict " for
the children of thy people." He and the
archangel Gabriel are represented in the
book of Daniel as taking distinct parts in
angelic offices. Michael, in God's name
and strength, leads the angels in their
battlings with the power of Satan ; Ga-
briel, at God's command, superintends the
gracious ministrations of the angels to
man. In the Old Testament, therefore,
Michael is the guardian of the Jewish
peojale in their antagonism to godless
power and heathenism ; in the New Tes-
tament (Rev. 12 : 7) Michael fights in
heaven against the dragon, " that old ser-
pent called the devil and Satan, which de-
ceiveth the whole world," thus taking part
with the work of God's Church on earth.
In Jude 9, Michael the archangel is rep-
resented as disputing with the devil " about
the body of Moses," a symbolical phrase,
most probably, for the Mosaical Law and in-
stitutions, in accordance with that form of
speech which characterizes the Christian
(jhurch as "the body of Christ" (1 Cor.
12:27).
Mi'chal, the younger of King Saul's
two daughters (1 Sam. 14 : 49). She be-
came the wife of David in the stead of her
elder sister Merab (1 Sam. 18 : 17, 19, 20,
27), but when the rupture between Saul
and David had become open and incur-
able she was given by her father to an-
other man (1 Sam. 25 : 44). She was sub-
sequently reclaimed by David (2 Sam. 3 :
13-16), but seemingly she had lost her
affection for him (2 Sam. 6 : 16). Taunt-
ing David for his extravagant demonstra-
tions of joy at bringing the ark from its
temporary resting-place to its home in the
newly-acquired city of Jerusalem, the king
retorted in words which caused all inter-
course between her and him to cease
from that date (2 Sam. 6 : 20-23).
Micli'mas, or Mich'mash, a town
belonging to the tribe of Benjamin (Ezra
2 : 27 ; Neh. 7 : 31 ), nine miles from Je-
rusalem on the road to Ramah. Dr. Rob-
inson identifies it with a place still bear-
ing the name of Mnkhmas, on the slope
of a steep and precipitous valley, which
was probably the "pass of Michmash "
mentioned in 1 Sam. 13 : 23, and referred
to in Isa. 10 : 28, 29, as the place where
Sennacherib left his heavy camp-equip-
ments when invading Judaea. Its neigh-
borhood was signalized by the remarkable
exploit of Jonathan and his armor-bearer
in defeating the Philistines (1 Sam. 14).
See Geba. The country around is now
rocky and desolate.
Mich'tam, the title of six Psalms (16,
56-60), denoting perhaps their musical
character, but beyond this eveiything is
obscure.
Mid'i-an, the country of the Midian-
ites, lying at first on the east side of the
Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, and afterward
on both sides of the gulf. It embraced the
region south and east of Edom and Moab
and the peninsula of Sinai. When Moses
had killed the Egyptian he fled to "the
land of Midian" (Ex. 2 : 15), the vicinity
of which to Horeb (Ex. 3:1) identifies it
with the Sinaitic peninsula. A ruined city,
348
MIDIANITES— MILCOM.
called by the Arabs Madyan, is said to ex-
ist on the east shore of the Elanitic Gulf,
and the wliole region, stretching eastward
into the desert, is also said to be thickly
studded with the ruins of ancient castles
and cities. Captain Burton, who lias quite
lately returned from an exploration of this
locality, reports the discovery of signs of
an abundant former population — ruins of
stone-built towns, roads, aqueducts, forts
and artificial lakes ; also mining-works,
dams, furnaces, scnrioe and other traces
of busy life in a land full of mineral
wealth. Tlie Egyptian records show tliat,
in pait, these were places of Egyptian penal
piinisliment.
Mid'i-an-ites, the descendants of
Midian, the fourth son of Abraham and
Keturah (Gen. 25 : 2). They constituted
a very powerful Arab tribe and wielded
for many generations an immense influ-
ence. Fierce warriors and unscrupulous
robbers, they were also shepherds and
traders. They carried on witli Egypt,
in especial, a profitable trade in spices
and perfumes. To one of their caravans,
passing through Palestine from Gilead to
Egypt, Josepli was sold by his bretliren
iGen. 37 : 25-28). Tlie historian calls
these traders both Ixhmaclites and 3Ti(ll(in-
ites, the two names being used synonymous-
ly. When the Israelites, marcliing to Ca-
naan, appeared on the borders of Moab, the
Midianites joined with the Moabites in re-
sisting their progress. Their first endea-
vor was to lay upon the Israelites a curse,
both ;is a means of intimidating the stran-
gers and of stimulating and strengthening
themselves. Balaam, tlieir hired prophet,
was willing to pronounce the curse, but,
restrained by the Lord, he was compelled
to utter a blessing instead. Foiled in this
attempt, tlie Midianites and ]\[oabit'S
adopted anotlier and most effectual mode
of injuring the Israelites. They set their
women to ensnare and induce the strangers
to attend tlie licentious festivals of their
idol-gods, supposing that thus the curse
of Heaven would be ensured. Tliey led
the Israelites, indeed, into sin and suflTer-
ing, but the Midianites, because probably
the most guilty, met the terrible ven-
geance of Jehovah. Their cities and cas-
tles were burned, all the males that fell
into the hands of the conquerors and all
the married females were put to death,
and the young women and children were
reduced to slavery. A powerful remnant
of the tribe, however, still remained, and
in time grew into commanding strength.
These, in conjunction with the Amalekites,
overran all Palestine, penetrating to the
plain of Pliilistia, and coming with their
cattle and tents as if to establish them-
selves in permanent liomes. Seven years
they prevailed against Israel, and tiien
Gideon was raised up as a deliverer.
They were defeated and destroyed so en-
tirely that their name disappears from
Scripture history (Judg. clis. G, 7, 8).
Mig^'dol [a tower], a place between
which and the Red Sea the Israelites
were directed to encamp on their exit
from Egypt (Ex. 14 : 2). It is referred
to in Jer. 44 : 1 as an Egyptian possession,
and, as its name suggests, was probably a
fortified place on the frontier of Egypt.
God seems to have placed the Israelites
in this perilous position, with an enemy's
fortress on one side and an apparently im-
passable sea on tlie other, that they might
see the necessity for a divine interposition
in their deliverance.
Mig'ron [precipice'], supposed to have
been situated south of Ai and north of
Miehmasli fisa. 10 : 28). In 1 Sam. 14:2
it is placed on the border of the district
to which Gibeah gave its name. While
its neighborhood is thus determined, no
trace has been discovered of its precise
site, and indeed no evidence exists to
settle conclusively whether it was a tower
or a rock.
Mircom [iheir kinrj], the principal
MILE— MILL.
. 349
deity of the Ammonites (1 Kings 11 : 5),
for whose worship Solomon erected altars
on tlie Mount of Olives, hence called the
Hill of Offence (2 Kings 23 : 13). In .Jer.
49 : 1, 3 "their king" should have been
rendered Milcom. In Zeph. 1 : 5 the name
is written Malchavi, a dialectical variation.
Milcom is usually regarded as the same as
Molech or Moloch, although the latter was
worshipped in a different place and man-
ner— namely, by the offering of children
in the flames of the Valley of Hinnom.
Mile, a Roman measure of length,
equal to sixteen hundred and eighteen
English yards, or one hundred and forty-
two yards less than the English statute
mile. The word is from mille,ii thousand [pa?-
sunm, paces] , as the Roman mile was a thou-
sand paces. The word occurs but once in
our Authorized Version (Matt. 5 : 41).
Mi-le'tus, a city and seaport of Ionia
in Asia Minor, lying south of Ephesus.
Paul in his voyage from Greece to Syria
touched at this port, and delivered to the
elders of Ephesus, who had met him there,
an affecting address (Acts 20 : 15-38). It
was the ancient capital of Ionia, celebrated
as the birthplace of some distinguished men
and for its famous temple of Apollo. It
had an evil reputation for licentiousness
and luxury. Although we have no ac-
count in Scripture of the introduction of
Christianity into Miletus, yet in ecclesi-
astical history from the fifth to the eighth
centuries mention is made of its bishops
attending several councils. After its con-
quest by the Saracens it fell into decay,
and its site is supposed to be occupied by
the present insignificant Turkish town of
3Ielas.
Milk, the rendering of two distinct He-
brew words.
1. The first of these words (chalab, fat,
that is, rich) denotes new or sweet milk.
This was very largely used among the He-
brews, and was regarded as substantial
food, adapted alike to all ages and classes.
Not only the milk of cows, but of sheep
(Deut. 32 : 14), of camels (Gen. 32 : 15)
and of goats (Prov. 27 : 27), was used ; the
latter appears to have been most highly
prized.
2. The second of these words {chemah,
from a verb meaning to coagulate) is always
translated " butter " in our Authorized Ver-
sion, but in every case (except, perhaps,
Prov. 30 : 33) the term indicates curdled
or sour milk. Curdled milk is still highly
esteemed in the East as a refreshment, and
this it was which Abraham set before the
angels (Gen. 18 : 8), and which Jael gave
to Sisera ( Judg. 5 : 25).
Women at the Mill.
Mill. The mill common among the
Hebrews differed little from that which is
in use now throughout Western Asia and
Northern Africa. It consisted of two cir-
cular stones about two feet in diameter and
half a foot thick. The lower is called the
"nether millstone" (Job 41 : 24), and was
usually fixed to the floor or lay upon the
ground; it had a slight elevation in the
centre, or, in other words, was slightly
convex on the upper surface. The upper
stone had a concave surface answering to
the convexity of the lower, a hole in the
top through which the grain was intro-
duced by handfuls at a time, and an up-
right stick fixed in it as a handle by
which it was made to turn upon the lower
stone. It was worked by women, some-
times singly and sometimes tAvo together,
350
MILLET— MIRACLES.
who were usually seated on thefjround (Isa.
47 : 1, 2). With the movable upper stone
of the hand-mill the woman of Thebez
broke Abimelech's skull (Judg. 9 : 53).
Mil'let. This word occurs but once in
our Autliorized Version ( Ezek. 4 : 9), and
designates, beyond a question, the common
millet, a small grain cultivated from the
middle of Europe to tlie most southern
part of India. The name jnillel is said to
have been applied to this grain because of
the quantity which one stalk will produce,
as if a single stalk actually bore a, thousand
seeds.
Mil'lo Immpart'], probably refers to the
rampart of Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:9; 2
Chron. 32 : 5). In Hebrew the definite
article is always prefixed : " the Millo."
Its repair was one of the great works of
King Solomon (1 Kings 9 : 15, 24; 11 :
27). The references to "the house of
Millo" in Judg. 9 : 6 and 2 Kings 12 : 20
are uncertain.
Ming-'led Peo'ple (.Jer. 25 : 20;
Ezek. 30 : 5), an alien population, appa-
rently, in the midst of another people.
They may have been mercenary soldiers
or trading adventurers.
Min'is-ter. This word is used in our
Authorized Version to describe various
officials of a religious and civil charac-
ter. In the Old Testament it is applied —
1. To an attendant upon a person of high
rank (Ex. 24 : 13 ; Josh. 1:1); 2. To the
attaches of a royal court (1 Kings 10 : 5 ;
2 Chron. 22 : 8) ; 3. To the priests and
Levites (Ezra 8 : 17 ; Neh. 10 : 36 ; Isa.
61 : 6 ; Ezek. 44 : 1 1 ; Joel 1 : 9, 13). In
the New Testament the word minisler rep-
resents three terms, each having a distinc-
tive meaning. The first term betokens a
subordinate public administrator (Rom.
13 : 6 ; 15 : 16 ; ITeb. 8:2); the second
term contains the idea of actual and per-
sonal attendance upon a superior (Luke
1:2; 4 : 20 ; Acts 26 : 16) ; the third
term relates to the ministry of the gos-
pel, and is applied to the ministration of
tables and to the higher ministration of
the word (Acts 6:1,4; 1 Cor. 3:5; J:ph.
6 : 21 ; Col. 1 : 7 ; 1 Thess. 3 : 2).
Min'ni, a ju-ovince or kingdom of Ar-
menia, summoned by the prophet Jere-
miah, with other provinces or kingdoms,
to war against Babylon (Jer. 51 : 27). It
is supposed to be the province near the
centre of Armenia.
Min'nith [allotment], a town east of
the Jordan, named as the point to which
Jephthah's slaughter of the Ammonites
extended (Judg. 11 : 33). It was cele-
brated for the excellence of the wheat it
exported to Tyre (Ezek. 27 : 17). In the
time of Eusebius it still existed as a town
four miles from Heshbon, on the road to
Philadelphia.
Min'strel, a player upon a stringed
instrument like the harp (2 Kings 3 : 15).
In Matt. 9 : 23 the " minstrels " were flute-
players employed as professional mourn-
ers.
Mint. This word occurs only in Matt.
23 : 23 and Luke 11 : 42 as the designation
of one of those herbs the tithe of which
the Pharisees were scrupulously exact in
paying. The horse-mint is very common
in Syria.
Mir'a-cles. In the Old and New
Testaments the Hebrew and Greek words,
which literally mean "signs," and wiiich
in very many pa.ssages of our Authorized
Version are thus rendered, are also ren-
dered in very many other passages by the
word " miracles." It would have been
well if in our Authorized Version the
word nigns rather than the word miracles
had been uniformly employed ; for the
word miracles, as expressive of the won-
derful or marvelous, lias tended to fix at-
tention too much on tiie physical stranfje-
ness of the facts tlnis described. That
which constitutes a miracle in the Scrip-
ture sense of the term is not its wonder
or exception to common experience, but
MIRIAM.
351
its purpose to signify a mission from God.
The evangelist John calls the water
changed into wine at Cana "the begin-
ning of signs" (John 2 : 11 ), and the
healing of the centurion's son " the sec-
ond sign " (John 4 : 54), because they
were the first and second indications of
Christ's wielding those powers which be-
long to God as the Creator and Author of
Nature, and which, therefore, pledged the
God of Nature to the truth of any one's
teaching who came armed with them
(John 3 : 2). Accordingly, John tells us
that the people assembled at Jerusalem for
the passover believed Jesus "when they
saw the signs which he did" (John 2 : 23).
Now, a sign is more and means more than
a miracle or wonder, for it does not stand
alone, but is a token and indication of
something else. Our Lord's works had a
definite purpose. The Old Testament had
always represented the Jews as holding a
peculiar position toward the Godhead.
They were a chosen people, endowed with
high privileges and blessings, but so en-
dowed because they were intended to sub-
serve a determinate end. Tliey were the
depositaries of revelation, and in due
time their revealed law was to go forth
out of Zion (Isa. 2:3) to lighten the
whole Gentile world (Isa. 42 : 6). This
promise of a revelation extending to the
whole world was further connected with
the coming of a special descendant of
Abraham (Gen. 22 : 18 ; Deut. 18 : 15),
and prophecy had gradually so filled up
the outline that a complete sketch had
been given of the person, the office, the
work and the preaching of the great Son
of David, to whose line the promise had
subsequently been confined (Isa. 11:1;
Jer. 23 : 5 ; Hos. 3:5; Mic. 5:2). Hence,
inasmuch as the whole of the Old Testa-
ment looked forward to the manifestation
of a Divine Person, it was necessary that
this Divine Person when he came should
be attested by supernatural signs. Our
Lord was so attested. Our Lord's works
were simply tlie signs of his almighty
power and of his absolute sovereignty.
To his disciples our Lord gave so much
of his own power as was needed to attest
their mission, and when thus their mission
was attested he withdrew the power. A
miracle, therefore, is not a wonder contra-
ry to Nature, but a sign above Nature. It
is God's finger pointing to the Christ,
whilst God's voice speaks "out of the
cloud," saying, " This is my beloved Son ;
hear him" (Luke 9 : 35).
Mir^i-am [their rebellion], the sister of
Aaron and Moses, and the eldest of the
family. She first appears as a young girl
watching her infant brother's cradle in
the Nile (Ex. 2 : 4), and suggesting her
mother as a nurse (Ex. 2 : 7). When the
Israelites left Eg3'pt, Miriam naturally be-
came the leading woman among them.
"The sister of Aaron" is her biblical
distinction, and "Miriam the prophetess"
her acknowledged title (Ex. 15 : 20). Her
prophetic power revealed itself in poetry,
accompanied with music and processions.
After the passage of the Red Sea she took
a cymbal in her hand, and went forth fol-
lowed by the whole female population of
Israel, also beating their cymbals. Tlie
arrival of Moses' Cushite wife in the
camp seems to have created in her an
unseemly dread of losing her influence
and position, and prompted her to make
disparaging complaints and reflections, in
which Aaron joined. To her and to Aa-
ron, in front of the sacred tent, a stern re-
buke came forth from the Lord, but upon
Miriam, as the chief offender, the divine
punishment in the form of leprosy fell
(Num. 12 : 1-10), This stroke and its
removal through the prayer of Moses,
which took place at Hazeroth (Num. 12 :
13-16) foriTi the last public event of Mir-
iam's life. She died at Kadesh toward the
close of tlie wanderings, and was buried
there (Num.20 : 1).
352
MIRROR— MIZPAH.
Mir'ror. Two Hebrew words in Ex.
38 : 8 and Job 37 : 18 are rendered "look-
ing-glass " in our Authorized Version, but
from the context evidently denote a mir-
ror of polished metal. The Hebrew wo-
men coming out of Egypt probably brought
with them mirrors like tliose which were
used by the Egyptians, and which were
made of a mixed metal, chiefly copper,
wrought witli admirable skill and suscep-
tible of a bright lustre. These mirrors
needed to be kept bright. The inferiority
of the image in the metal mirror to direct
vision is alluded to in 1 Cor. 13 : 12.
Mi'sha-el [who is like God'\, one of
Daniel's fellow-captives in Babylon, whose
name was there changed to Meshach
(which see).
Mite, the smallest coin current in Pal-
estine in the time of our
Lord (Mark 12:41-44;
Luke 21 : 1-4), estima-
ted to be worth about
one-fifth of a cent. See
Farthing.
Mith'cah [sweetness'^, one of the en-
campments of the Israelites in the wil-
derness (Num. 33 : 28). Its site is un-
known.
Mi'tre, the turban or head-dress of the
high priest (Ex. 28 : 4, 36-39; 29 : 6 ;
39 : 28, 30, 31; Lev. 8 : 9; 16 : 4j.
Mit-y-le'ne, the capital of the island
of Lesbos, in the jEgean Sea, near the
coast of Asia Minor. It was visited by
Paul on his voyage from Corinth to Ju-
drea (Acts 20 : 14). It was the birthplace
of some distinguished persons, among
whom are Sappho, Alcseus, Pittacus and
Theophrastus. It still exists, but has lit-
tle importance. From k the whole island
is now called Mitelino.
Mixed Multitude. With the Is-
raelites departing from Egypt at the
Exodus there went a " mixed multitude "
(Ex. 12 : 38 ; Num. 11 : 4). They were
persons of low caste, outcasts from society
perhaps, and perhaps the offspring of mar-
riages between Hebrews and Egyptians.
They were of no service, but a serious
disadvantage to the Hebrews.
Mi'zar [.s//irt//;ie.s,s], "the hill Mizar,"
that is, "the little hill" (Ps. 42 : 6), the
spot whence King David, exiled from the
Holy City by some sad event, jierhaps the
rebellion of Absalom, sends his disquieted
thought to God's sanctuary. Its position
is not known, but from its connection in
the text with " the land of the Hermon-
ites " is supposed to have been near Mount
Hermon, in the north part of trans-Jor-
danic Palestine.
Miz'pah and Miz'peh {Inok-ovt,
watch-tower'], a name borne by a number
of places in ancient Palestine.
1 . A town in Gilead, east of the Jordan,
called Mizpeh of Gilead in Judg. 11 : 29.
It was named by Laban from the heap of
stones set up by liim and Jacob to serve
as a witness of their covenant and as a
landmark of the boundary between them
(Gen. 31 : 48—52). It Avas the home of
Jephthah (Judg. 11 : 34), and a gathering-
place of the eastern tribes of Israel (Judg.
20: 1, 3; 21 : 1, 5, 8).
2. A town of Moab, whither David
brought his parents to commit them to
the protection of the king of the Moabites
(1 Sam. 22 : 3). Its site is unknown, but
is supposed to be the same as that of Kir-
Moab, the modern Kerak.
3. A land somewhere in the north of
Palestine, the residence of those Hivites
who joined the northern confederacy
against Israel (Josh. 11 : 3). This land
is supposed to be identical with " the val-
ley of Mizpeh " mentioned in the eighth
verse of the eleventh chapter of Joshua,
and with the great country of Ccele-Syria,
between the ranges of Lebanon and Anti-
Lebanon.
4. A city in the lowland of Judah (Josh.
15 : 38), of which nothing is known but
its name.
MIZEAIM— MOAB.
353
5. A city of Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 26).
It was a general gathering-place of the
tribes of Israel (Judg. 20 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 7 :
5-7), and one of the cities in which Sam-
uel judged Israel (1 Sam. 7 : 6). Here
Saul was elected king (1 Sam. 10 : 17-
21), and here Gedaliah was assassi-
nated (2 Kings 25 : 23, 25; Jer. 41 : 2).
It is commonly identified with the
modern village of Neby Samwil (the
prophet Samuel), four or five miles
north by west from Jerusalem, stand-
ing on a peak which rises three thou-
sand feet above the sea-level, and which
is the most conspicuous object in the
whole region.
Miz'ra-im [the two Egypl!<], some-
times Land of Mizeaim, the name by
whicli Egypt is generally designated in
the Hebrew text of the Old Testament.
It was the name of that son of Ham
(Gen. 10:6) who is supposed to have
been the progenitor of the Egyptians.
Usually employed to designate the whole
of Egypt, it is once employed ( Isa. 1 1 :
1 1 ) to designate Lower Egypt as distinct
from Pathros or Upper Egypt. See
Egypt.
Mna'son, honorably mentioned in
Scripture, like Gains, Lydia and others,
as one of the hosts of the apostle Paul
(Acts 21 : 16). He was a native of Cyprus,
and perhaps a friend of Barnabas (Acts 4 :
36). The designation of him as "an old
disciple " has led to the conjecture that he
was one of our Lord's followers, and per-
haps one of the seventy.
Mo'ab, the name of Lot's son by his
eldest daughter (Gen. 19 : 37) ; of the coun-
try where Moab's descendants dwelt (Ruth
1:1), and of the well-known nation of
which Moab was the progenitor (Num. 22:
3, 4).
1. Moab, the progenitor of the Moab-
ites, was the elder brother of Ben-Ammi,
the progenitor of the Ammonites. His
early life was passed at Zoar (Gen. 19 :
23
20), which was the cradle of the race
of Lot.
2. The country of Moab lay on the east
of the Dead Sea and the Jordan, as far
El Mojib— The Aruou.
north as the river Jabbok. This country,
some fifty miles in length and ten in breadth,
was originally the possession of the Emim
a race of giants, but became the possession
of the Moabites after a protracted and ex-
terminating struggle (Deut. 2 : 10, 11). It
was subsequently coveted by the warlike
Amorites, who, crossing the Jordan from
the west, overran the richer portion of the
territory on the north and forced back the
Moabites behind the Anion (Num. 21 : 26).
The depth of the ravine in which the Ar-
non flows, the precipitous steeps which
form its banks, the huge masses of dis-
rupted and disjointed rocks which lie con-
fusedly above its channel, and the impos-
sibility of ascending from its bed except
by artificial and easily-defended roadways,
combined to make this impetuous stream
354
MOLE.
the bulwark of Moab. The Moab which
the Israelites approached on their way to
Canaan was the comparatively small ter-
ritory left to the Moabites after the Amor-
ite conquests. It was well watered, with
fertile valleys and wide plains among its
hills, and especially with rich pasture-
lands on its downs (2 Kings 3:4). Its '
capital was Ar or Kabbath-Moab, and one
of its strongest fortresses w;is Kir or Kir-
Hareseth. The name of Moab, however,
was still used to designate the country
north of the Arnon which once tliey had
owned. Within this territory Moses made
a covenant with Israel (Deut. 29 : 1), and
here the great lawgiver died and was bur-
ied (Deut. 34 : 5, 6).
3. The nation of Moab or the Moabites
early took a position of great prominence
among the peoples east of tlie Dead Sea.
They held their territorial possessions by
the right of conquest, and, rapidly grow-
ing in number, successfully asserted their
sovereignty over an extensive and produc-
tive territory. Their first check came
from the Amorites, who, driving them
south of the Arnon, seized some of the
finest portions of their country. When
Israel, on tlie mareli to Canaan, neared
their land, the contest between themselves
and the Amorites had so recently and so
disastrously occurred tliat the prospect of
a contest witli the strangers on their bor-
ders was contemplated with much dread.
The Israelites, however, instead of attack-
ing them, waged a devastating war against
their old enemies the Amorites, and, tak-
ing possession of the territory which once
was theirs, assigned part of it to the tribe
of Gad and part of it to the tribe of Reu-
ben. This circumstance, so for from allay-
ing, greatly augmented their fears (Num.
22 : 4). Tliey naturally supposed that
they would be the next to fall beneath
the strong arm of the conquerors, and, to
prevent such a catastrophe they resorted
to a strange expedient. In conjunction
with tlie Midianites they hired Balaam to
lUter prophetic curses against Israel, wliici),
however, the Lord turned into blessings ni
his mouth (Num. 24 : 1-10). Failing in
this, they undertook with the Midianites
to debauch Israel, and succeeded too well
in enticing the covenant-peo2)le into idol-
atry and immorality. After the settlement
in Palestine, Moal), in conjunction witli
Amnion and Amalek, subjected the south-
ern tribes of Israel, which, after a servi-
tude of eighteen years, were delivered by
Ehud (Judg. 3 : 12-30). Subsequently
Moab and Israel for a long jieriod seem
to have been friendly, many Hebrews find-
ing temporary homes among their Moabite
neighbors (Ruth 1 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 22 : 3, 4).
These peaceful relations were changed in
the times of Saul, who waged a successful
war against Moab (1 Sara. 14 : 47), and
David made it tributary (2 Sam. 8:2, 12).
On the deatli of Ahab, ]\Ioab refused to
pay the customary tribute of lambs and
rams (2 Kings 1:1; 3:4). War ensued,
but Moab remained unconquered until tlie
time of Jeroboam II. (2 Kings 3 : 6-27 ; 14 :
25, 26). After the carrying away into cap-
tivity of the trans-Tordanic tribes of Israel,
the Moabites occujiied the depopulated ter-
ritory, and were tlien in possession, prob-
ably, of all that had formerly been wrested
from them by the Amorites. They beheld
with malicious satisfaction the destruction
of Judah (Ezek. 25 : 8-11), and were bit-
terly denounced therefor by the prophets.
The predicted desolation of their country
(Zeph. 2 : 8-11) has long since been lit-
erally fulfilled. Althougli the sites, tlie
ruins and the names of many of Moab's
ancient cities can be traced, not one of
them to-day is tenanted by man.
Mole. This word occurs but twice in
tlie Scriptures, once in the singular (Lev.
11 : 30) and once in the plural (Isa. 2 : 20).
In the first passage the Hebrew word is
thought to point to some species of lizard,
perhaps the chameleon ; in the second pas-
MOLECH, MOLOCH— MONTH.
355
Molech.
sage the allvision is supposed to be to bur-
roivers or rals.
Mo'lech, Mo'loch [k-ing'], the sun-
god of the children of Amnion, and essen-
tially identical with
the Moabitish Che-
mosh. Sun-gods ap-
pear to have been
common to all the
Canaanite, Syrian
and Arab tribes,
who worshiped the
destructive element
under an outward
symbol with very
cruel rites, among
wliich human sacri-
fices were prominent.
The first direct his-
torical allusion to
Molech-worship is in the description of
Solomon's idolatry in his old age (1 Kings
11 : 7). The tabernacle of Moloch (Acts
7 : 43) was probably a shrine or ark in
which the figure of a god was carried in
processions. See also 2 Kings 23 : 10, 13 ;
16:3; Jer. 7 : 31 ; 32 : 35.
Money. Of the use of coined money
there is no evidence in Scripture before
the return from the Babylonian captiv-
ity, but silver in quantities determined by
weight was used as early as the time of
Abraham (Gen. 17 : 12, 13; 23 : 15, 16).
The shekel-weight of silver was the unit
of value through the whole age of He-
brew history down to the Captivity. See
Weights and Measi^res. After the
Captivity we have the earliest mention
of coined money in allusion to the Persian
coinage (Ezra 2 : 69 ; 8 : 27 ; Neh. 7 : 70-72).
The oldest Jewish silver coins date from
about 140 B. c. In our Lord's time coins
of gold, silver and copper circulated in Pal-
estine (Matt. 10 : 9). These coins, with
their estimated value in our currency,
are exhibited at one view in the follow-
ing table:
Name of Coins.
Nation.
Metal. Value.
Cts. Mills.
Lepton ("mite"),
QuadransC farthing").
Greek,
Roman,
Copper
, 1.9
3.8
Assarion ("farthing").
a
H
1 5.4
Denarius (" penny "),
(t
Silver,
15 4,7
Drachma (" piece of sil-
ver"),
Greek,
li
17 5.9
Didrachm ("tribute-
money").
Stater ("piece of mon-
ey").
Shekel ( " shekel "),
14
Jewish,
11
u
u
35 19
70 3.7
60
DaricC'dram"),
Persian,
Gold, $5.00
In addition to the above coins the Greek
mina (" pound " ) and the Greek talent were
used to specify weights of silver, the former
having an estimated value of $17.59, the
latter an estimated value of $1058.59.
Mon'ey-chang''ers. Men of this
occupation are mentioned in Matt. 21 : 12;
Mark 11 : 15; John 2 : 15. According to
Ex. 30 : 13-15, every Israelite who had
reached or passed the age of twenty must
pay into the sacred treasury, whenever the
nation was numbered, a half-shekel as an of-
fering to Jehovah. The money-changers
whom our Lord for their impiety, avarice
and fraudulent dealing expelled from the
temple were the dealers who supplied
half-shekels, for such a premium as they
might be able to exact, to the Jews from
all parts of the world who assembled at
Jerusalem during the great festivals, and
who were required to pay their tribute or
ransom money in the Hebrew coin. See
Weights and Measures and the sev-
eral coins.
Month. In the Hebrew language the
terms for " month " and " moon " have tlie
same close connection as in our own.
From the time of the institution of the
Mosaic Law downward the month was a
lunar one. The commencement of the
month was generally decided by obser-
vation of the new moon. The usual
number of montlis in a year was twelve
(1 Kings 4 : 7 ; 1 Chron. 27 : 1-15) ; but
inasmuch as the Hebrew months coin-
cided with the seasons, an additional
356
MOON— MOETAR.
month must have been inserted about
every third year. Of this intercalation
no notice is taken in the Scriptures. In
tlie modern Jewish calendar the intercal-
ary month is introduced seven times in
every nineteen years. The identification
of the Jewish months with our own can-
not be effected with precision on account
of the variations that must inevitably exist
between the lunar and the solar months.
See Year.
Moon. The worship of the moon was
extensively practiced by the nations of the
East, and under a variety of aspects. In
Egypt the moon was honored under the
form of Isis, and was one of the only two
deities which commanded the reverence of
all the Egyptians. In Syria it was repre-
sented by that one of the Ashtaroth sur-
named " Karnaim," from the horns of the
crescent moon by which she was distin-
guished. Tlie first notice we have in
Scripture of the direct homage of the
heavenly bodies — sun, moon and stars — is
in Job 31 : 26, 27, and it is observable that
the warning of Moses (Deut. 4 : 19) is di-
rected against this nature-worship rather
than against the form of moon-worship
which the Israelites must have witnessed
in Egypt. In the figurative language of
Scripture the moon is frequently noticed
as presaging events of the greatest im-
portance through the temporary or per-
manent withdrawal of its light (Isa. 13 :
10 ; Joel 2 : 31 ; Matt. 24 : 29 ; Mark 13 :
24).
Moon, New. See New Moon.
Mo'ras-thite, The, that is, a na-
tive of a place named Moresheth. It oc-
curs twice (Jer. 26 : 18 ; Mic. 1:1), each
time as the description of the prophet
Micah.
Mor'de-cai [little mari], the deliverer
under divine providence of the Jews from
the destruction plotted against them by
Ilaman, the chief minister of Ahasuerus
or Xerxes (Esth. 4 : 13). In the book of
Esther three things are predicated of Mor-
decai: 1. That he lived in Shushan ; 2.
That he was son of Jair, son of Shimei,
son of Kish the Eenjaniite, and one of the
captives transported to Babylon with Je-
hoiachin ; 3. Tliat he was the uncle of
Esther, and brought her up. In memory
of the deliverance of the Jews the feast
of Purim was instituted, and is celebrated
to this day. Mordecai was probably the
autlior of the book of Esther.
Mo'reh [plain'], the name of a plain
near Shechem, the first recorded halting-
place of Abram after his entrance into
Canaan (Gen. 12 : 6). Moreh is again
mentioned on the entrance of the Israel-
i ites into Canaan (Deut. 11 : 30). The
" hill of Moreh," in the plain of Jezreel,
was a hill at whose base the Midian-
ites whom Gideon routed were encamped
(Judg. 7 : 1-23).
Mo-ri'ah, one of the liills of Jerusa-
lem, tlie supposed scene of Abraham's
sacrifice of his son (Gen. 22 : 2), and the
undoubted site of Solomon's temple (2
Chron. 3 : 1). Around it, in preparation
for the building of the temple, a large
area was formed by walling up and fill-
ing in. The mosque of Omar now occu-
pies tlie site of the temple.
Mor'tar. The simplest and probably
the most ancient method of preparing corn
for food was by pounding it between two
stones. In the desert the Israelites appear
to have possessed mortars and handmills
among their necessary domestic utensils.
When the manna fell they gathered it,
and either ground it in the mill or pound-
ed it in the mortar with a pestle till it was
fit for use (Num. 11:8). At the present
day the Arabs use stone mortars to pound
I meat as well as other substances.
[ Mor'tar (for building), the represen-
tative in our Authorized Version of two
Hebrew words— one meaning cement of
lime and sand (Gen. 11 : 3; Ex. 1 : 14),
I the other mud or clay (Lev. 14 : 42, 45),
MOSJiKA— MOTH.
357
used as a cement in the walls of build-
ings.
Mo'se-ra and Mo^se-roth [bond,
bondsl, the name of a place near Mount
Hor, one of the stations of the Israelites
and the scene of Aaron's death (Num. 33 :
30; Deut. 10: 6).
Mo'ses l_draivn out or saved from the
water], the leader and the legislator of
the Israelites. He was the son of Amram
and Jochebed of the tribe of Levi. He
was born in Egypt, was secreted three
months to avoid the general destruction
by the government of the male children
of Israel, was committed to the care of
Providence in a small boat or basket of
papyrus among the reeds of the Nile,
and was Ibuud by Pharaoh's daughter,
who, pitying the weeping boy and pur-
posing to save him, entrusted him to the
guardianship of his own mother, after-
ward ado['ted him, and surrounded him
with the best educational advantages of
the then most cultured nation of the
world (Ex. 2 : 1-10 ; Acts 7 : 20-22). His
life ran through the long period of one
hundred and twenty years, of which the
first forty were spent in Egypt, the second
forty in Midian and the third forty in the
desert, whither he led the Israelites, and
where he trained them for the conquest
of Canaan (Deut. 34 : 7 ; Ex. 2 : 11-22;
Acts 7 : 23, 30, 36). When commissioned
to deliver his people from Egyptian bond-
age he was associated with his elder
brother Aaron ( Ex. 4 : 14-1 6, 27-31 ). In
the Exodus he took the decisive lead on
the night of the departure (Ex. 12 : 31,
35; 13 : 19), and in the desert journey he
was the acknowledged leader and the
great prophet of Israel (Ex. 17 : 2; 20 :
19; Deut. 34: 10).
According to Num. 12:3 the pre-emi'-
nent characteristic of the man was meek-
ness, but the word "meek" is hardly an
adequate rendering of the Hebrew term
which has the sense of " much enduring,"
or "afflicted." All that is told of him
indicates a sacrifice of self, a pref-
erence of the cause of his nation to his
own interests, which makes him the most
complete example of Jewish patriot-
ism. In exact conformity with his life is
the account of his death. The book of
Deuteronomy is the long last farewell of the
prophet to his people. After the farewell
comes the mysterious close of his life. As
if to carry out to the last the idea that the
prophet was to live not for himself but for
his jjeople, he is told that he is to see the
good land beyond the Jordan, but is not to
possess it himself (Deut. 34 : 4). He as-
cends a mountain in the range which rises
above the Jordan Valley, and, after sur-
veying so much of the Promised Land as
could be discerned from that height, sinks
into the peaceful sleep of death, and is bur-
I led by Jehovah's own hand in a grave
which " no man knoweth," in a valley or
ravine " in the land of Moab, over against
Beth-Peor" (Deut. 34 : 6, 6). His name
is one of the most illustrious in human
history. He is the prophet who in the
fullest measure types the Christ. He is
the lawgiver whose inspired institutes are
the basis of the world's highest civiliza-
tion. He is the representative of that
' justice which underlies the Law, and
which, through the work of the Prophet
greater than he, is at one with the mercy
which glorifies the gospel.
Mote, chaff, and so any small dry
particle (Matt. 7:3-5; Luke 6 : 41,
42). Persons who are censorious or hy-
percritical readily discover and absurd-
ly exaggerate the smallest faults in those
around them, whilst they themselves are
insensible to the grosser blemishes which
disfigure their own character. He who
has the ugly " beam " in his own eye has
no reason to look askance at him who has
caught unconsciously some flying " mote."
Moth, the name of a well-known in-
sect, which in its caterpillar state is very
358
MOTHER— MOURNING.
destructive to clothing. The egg of the
moth, being deposited on the fur or clotli,
produces a very small, shining worm,
which eats away the nap, weakens or de-
stroys the thread, and finally ruins the
fabric. Its destructiveness is frequently
referred to (Job 13 : 28 ; Isa. 50 : 9 ; 51 :
8 ; Hos. 5:12; Matt. 6 : 19, 20 ; Luke 12 :
33 ; James 5 : 2). Being easily crushed,
the moth is an emblem of man's frailty
(Job 4: 19; Ps. 39 : 11).
Moth.'er. The su[)eriority of the He-
brew over all contemporaneous systems of
legislation and of morals is strongly shown
in the higher estimation of the mother in
the Jewish family, as contrasted with mod-
ern Oriental as well as ancient Oriental and
classical usage. The mother's claim to re-
spect and reverence was equal to that of
the father's (Ex. 20 : 12; Lev. 19 : 3;
Deut. 5 : 16; 21 : 18-21 ) ; the king's mo-
ther was treated with especial honor (1
Kings 2 : 19). The word "mother" was
also employed by the Hebrews in a wider
sense than is usual with us. It is used of
a grandmother (1 Kings 15 : 10), and even
of any female ancestor (Gen. 3 : 20) ; of a
benefactress (Judg. 5:7), and as expres-
sive of intimate relationship (Job 17 : 14).
In Hebrew, as in English, a nation is con-
sidered as a mother and individuals as her
children (Isa. 50 : 1 ; Jer. 50 : 12 ; Ezek.
19:2; Hos. 4:5). Large and important
cities are also called mothers with refer-
ence to the dependent towns and villages
(2 Sam. 20 : 19), or even to the inhabitants,
who are called her children (Isa. 3 : 12;
49 : 23). In Job 1 : 21 the earth is indi-
cated as the common mother, to wliose
bosom all mankind must return. The
Church, as the bride, is spoken of as the
mother of believers (Isa. 49 : 14-22 ; 66 :
8-13 ; Gal. 4 : 26), and the sympathy which
unites the mother to her child is often al-
luded to in illustration of the love of God
to his people (Isa. 49 : 15; 66 : 13; 1 Cor.
3:1,2).
Mount, Moun'tain. The Hebrew
word thus rendered, like tlie Englisli word
"mountain," is employed both for single
eminences more or less isolated, such as
Sinai, Gerizim, Ebal, Zion, Olivet, and
for ranges, such as Lebanon, Gilead, Aba-
rim. Tiie mountainous regions of Pales-
tine not only served the inhabitants as
places of defence against hostile incur-
sions and of refuge from oj)pressive mas-
ters, but the hills by careful cultivation
and terracing nearly doubled the arable
soil (Ps. 147 : 8; Prov. 27 : 25 ; Jer. 31 :
5; Ezek. 34:14; Joel 3 : 18).
Mourning Women.
Moiorn'ing'. A studied publicity and
a carcfid observance of ])rescribed forms
have in all ages marked Oriental mourn-
ing (Gen. 23 : 2; Job 1 : 20; 2:8; Isa.
15 : 3). The more prominent particular
forms were these : 1 . Rending the clotlies
(Gen. 37 : 29, 34) ; 2. Dressing in sack-
cloth (2 Sam. 3 : 31) ; 3. Sprinkling earth,
dust or ashes on tlie person (2 Sam. 13 :
19 ; 15 : 32) ; 4. Shaving tlie head, pluck-
ing out the hair of the head or the beard
(Ezra 9:3; Jer. 7 : 29) ; 5. Fasting (2
Sam. 1:12; Neh. 1:4); 6. Sitting or
lying in silence (Judg. 20 : 26 ; 2 Sam.
12 : 16). The period of mourning varied.
For Jacob it was seventy days (Gen. 50 :
3) ; for Aaron and Moses it was thirty days
MOUSE— MURDEE.
359
(Num. 20 : 29 ; Deut. 34 : 8) ; for Saul and
his sons it was seven days (1 Sam. 31 : 13).
Nazarites and the high priests were for-
bidden to mourn even for a father or mo-
ther (Lev. 21 : 10, 11 ; Num. 6:7); infe-
rior priests were allowed to mourn for
near relatives (Lev. 21 : 1-5).
Field-Mice.
Mouse. The word occurs in Lev. 11 :
29 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 4, 5 ; Isa. 66 : 17, and is the
rendering of a word in Hebrew which is
probably generic and not intended to de-
note any particular species of mouse. The
short-tailed field-mice are very abundant
in Syria and cause great destruction to the
corn-lands.
Mouth, This word occurs in a num-
ber of conventional phrases. To speak
" mouth to mouth " is to speak without
the intervention of an interpreter (Num.
12 : 8; Jer. 32 : 4). To be "in the
mouth" is to be often or always talked
of, used of the Law (Ex. 13 : 9). To lay
" the hand upon the mouth " is to be
silent (Job 21 : 5). To " staite the earth
with the rod of his mouth" is to exercise
a sovereign authority (Isa. 11 : 4).
Mow'ing. As the great heat of the
climate in Palestine soon dries up the her-
bage, haymaking in our sense of the term
is not in use. The term " hay," therefore,
in Prov. 27 : 25 and Isa. 15 : 6, is incor-
rect and should be " grass." The " king's
mowings" (Amos 7:1) refers perhaps to
some royal right of early pasturage for the
use of tlie cavalry.
MuflF'ler. The word occurs in Isa. 3 :
19 among articles of female apparel or or-
nament, and is thought by Gesenius to de-
note a veil.
MuFber-ry Trees. The term occurs
only in 2 Sam. 5 : 23, 24 and 1 Chron. 14 :
14. What kind of tree is denoted by the
Hebrew word thus rendered has never
been determined. It is thought by some
to be the poplar, by others to be the
aspect, and by others still to be the pear
tree.
Mule. We do not read of mules till
the time of David (2 Sam. 13 : 29 ; 18 : 9 ;
1 Kings 1 : 33) ; after his time they are
frequently mentioned with horses. The
word " mules " in Gen. 36 : 24 is an incor-
rect rendering of the Hebrew word, which
should have been translated " warm
springs."
Mu-ni'tion. This word occurs in Isa.
29 : 7 and Nah. 2:1; in its plural form in
Isa. 33 : 16. It denotes a fortress on a
rocky eminence, such as those to which
David resorted for safety from Saul (1
Sam. 23 : 14).
Mur'der, tlie act of killing a human
being with premeditated malice by a per-
son of sound mind (Ps. 10 : 8 ; Mark 15 :
7). For this crime there was no pardon ;
the city of refuge and even the altar fin--
nished no asylum, nor might money be
taken in satisfaction (Ex. 21 : 14; Num.
35 : 30-32). Regarded as one of the most
odious and abominable crimes (Deut. 19 :
1 1-13 ; Num. 35 : 33), murder was the sub-
ject of early and severe legislation. Mose^
carefully distinguished between voluntary
homicide or murder and involuntary or un-
intentional homicide (Num. 35 : 16-25). In
case of the inadvertent killing of another,
provision was made for the protection of
the offender by cities of refuge. When a
360
MURRAIN— MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
corpse was found on which were marks of
a violent death and the nuirderer could
not be discovered, a solemn and public in-
(juest was held in the district where the
crime was committed (Deut. '21 : 1-9). The
impressive ceremonial prescribed for such
an occasion (the sacrifice of a heifer, the
priests washing their hands over the slain
animal, the disclaimer of any connection
with the deed of blood and the earnest
prayer to God that he would be merciful
to his people Israel) represented very stri-
kingly the heinousness of murder, the hor-
ror with which the crime was to be viewed,
and the dread of the people lest the land
should be so polluted as to call down the
avenging wrath of Jehovah.
Mur'rain [destruction, especially by a
pestilence], that sudden and terrible mor-
tality among the domestic animals of the
Egyptians which constituted the fifth
plague (Ex. 9 : 3).
Mu'sic. The inventor of musical in-
struments, like the first poet and the first
forger of metals, was a Cainite (Gen. 4 :
21). The first mention of music in the
times after the Deluge is in the record
of Laban's interview with Jacob (Gen.
31 : 27). Some musical service was prob-
ably part of the worship of the taberna-
cle, for in the worship of the temple the
choir which David had previously form-
ed and trained held a prominent place ( 1
Chron. 23 : 5 ; Ps. 68 : 25). In the pri-
vate as well as in tlie religious life of the
Hebrews music was much employed. The
kings had their court-musicians ( Eccles. 2 :
8), who bewailed their death (2 Chron. 35 :
25), and in the luxurious times of the later
monarchy the effeminate gallants of Israel,
reeking with perfumes and stretched upon
couches of ivory, were wont at their ban-
quets to accompany the song with the tink-
ling of the psaltery or guitar (Amos 6 : 4-
6). But while music was thus made to
minister to debauchery and excess, it was
the legitimate expression of mirth and
gladness, and the indication of peace and
prosperity. Bridal processions as they
passed through the streets were accompa-
nied with music and song ( Jer. 7 : 34), and
these ceased only when the land was deso-
late (Ezek. 26 : 13) ; the grape-gatherers
sang as they gathered in the vintage,
and the wine-presses were trodden with
the shout of a song (Isa. 16 : 10 ; Jer. 48 :
33) ; the women sang as they toiled at the
mill ; and on every occasion the land of the
Hebrews during their national prosperity
was a land of mirth and melody.
Mu'si-cal In'stru-ments. The
musical instruments mentioned in our Au-
thorized Version Mere of three kinds —
strmged, wind and instruments oi percusswn.
1. The principal stringed instruments
were : that which is rendered in our Au-
thorized Version " the harp " (Gen. 4 : 21 ;
31 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 16
5 ; 25 : 3 ; 2 Chron.
20:28), that which is rendered "the
psaltery" (1 Sam. 10 : 5; Ps. 71 : 22),
and that which is rendered "the sackbut"
(Dan. 3 : 5, 7, 10, 15). The harp varied
greatly in shape and size and in the num-
ber of strings, and was jilayed upon with
an ivory plectrum or with the hands. The
psaltery resembled the guitar, and some-
times liad as many as ten or twelve strings,
Stringed Instruments.
which were played upon with the hands.
The sackbut was probably a triangle with
four strings, shrill and high in key.
MUSTARD— MYRA.
361
2. The wind instruments were: "the
organ" (Gen. 4 : 21), "the trumpet"
(Judg. 3 : 27), "the cornet" (Ps. 98 : 6),
"the pipe" or flute (1 Sam. 10 : 5), and
"the dulcimer" (Dan. 3 : 7, 10, 15). Tlie
organ is supposed to have been a collection
Musical Instruments.
of reeds or pipes of unequal length fasten-
ed together with wax, stopped at one end
and blown into at the other ; it was used
on occasions of domestic festivity and joy
(Job 21 : 12 ; 30 : 31). The trumpet was a
curved or straight horn, and then a metallic
or wooden tube of the same shajie, and was
used for signals and alarms in war ( 1 Sam.
13 : 3). The cornet was a straight horn, used
mostly in religious services (1 Chron. 15 :
28). The pipe or flute was originally formed
from the reed ; it was sometimes single
and sometimes double, the two pipes unit-
ing at the top in a single mouthpiece ; it
was a favorite instrument on public occa-
sions and for domestic use (Isa. 5 : 12 ; Jer.
48 : 36). The dulcimer was similar to the
modern bagpipe, consisting of two shrill-
toned fifes pressed through a leathern bag.
3. The instruments of percussion were :
" the timbrel " or tambourine (Ex. 15 : 20),
"the cymbals" (Ps. 150 : 5), and the ma-
chol, translated "dance" in (Ps. 150 : 4).
The timbrel and the machol were chiefly
used by women. The cymbals, clashed
together, yielded a powerful and pene-
trating metallic sound, which easily con-
trolled the time of a musical performance.
Mus'tard, a well-known pod-bearing,
shrub-like plant that sometimes grows wild,
and at other times is raised from the seed,
which is used as a condiment (Matt. 13 :
31 ; 17 : 20; Mark 4 : 31 ; Luke 13 : 19 ;
17 : 6). The round kernels passed in Jew-
ish phrase as an emblem for a small, in-
significant object, being the smallest seed
commonly gathered in Palestine, although
not literally the most diminutive known.
Irby and Mangles mention the large size
which the mustard-plant attains in Pales-
tine. In the Jordan Valley they crossed
a small plain very thickly covered with
the mustard-plant, which reached as high
as their horses' heads. The growth of
the plant, comparatively large from a
seed so small, furnishes our Lord with
an illustration of the development of
Christian character in the believer and
of the majestic expansion of God's king-
dom in the earth.
Muth-Lab'ben, the title of Ps. 9.
Whether the reading be correct, and wliat
is its sense, are points of debate and con-
jecture. It is, most likely, the commencing
word of some Hebrew song or melody.
Muz'zle. In the East grain is usually
threshed by sheaves being spread out quite
thick on a level spot, over which oxen, cows
and younger cattle are driven till, by con-
tinued treading, they press out the grain.
One of the benevolent oi'dinances of the
Mosaic code forbade the muzzling or clos-
ing of the mouths of the cattle which
thus trod out the corn (Deut. 25 : 4).
My'ra, a city of Lycia in Asia Minor,
three miles from the sea, on a navigable
river with a good harbor at its mouth.
When Paul was on his voyage from Cfe-
sarea to Rome he and his fellow-prisoners
were landed here, and were transferred to
another vessel (Acts '27 : 5, 6^. It is now
in ruins. Its tombs, enriclied with orna-
362
MYRRH— MYSTERY.
ment and many of them having inscrip-
tions in the ancient Lycian characters,
show that it must have been wealthy in
early times. Its enormous theatre attests
its considerable population in what may
be called its Greek age. In the deep
gorge which leads into the mountains is
a large Byzantine church, a relic of the
Christianity wliich may have begun with
Paul's visit.
Myrrh, the gum yielded by a thorny
tree ( Balmmodtndron myrrha) found in
Arabia which grows eight or nine feet
high. The tree has a wood and bark
which emit a strong odor ; the gum which
exudes from the bark is at first oily, but
becomes hard by exposure to the air. At
a very early period myrrh was an article of
commerce (Gen. 43:11); it was an ingre-
dient of the holy ointment (Ex. 30 : 23)
and of the preparation used in embalm-
ing (Jolm 19 : 39). It was accounted an
agreeable perfume (Esth. 2 : 12; Ps. 45 :
8; Prov. 7 : 17), and a proper gift to
nobles and kings in token of respect and
reverence (Matt. 2 : 11). The "wine
mingled with myrrh " which tlie Roman
soldiers presented to our Lord on the
cross (Mark 15 : 23) was given, according
to some commentators, in order to render
him less sensitive to pain ; but as myrrh
has no narcotic properties, the true expla-
nation lies most probably in the fact that
the drink in question was an ordinary bev-
erage of the Romans, who were in the habit
of seasoning their various wines with spices,
drugs and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia,
pepper, myrtle and the like.
Myr'tle, a beautiful, fragrant and or-
namental evergreen. It is mentioned in
Neh. 8 : 15 ; Isa. 41 : 19 ; 55 : 13 ; Zech.
1 : 8, 10, 11. Its Hebrew name (haddx)
is the origin of the name of the beauti-
ful queen Hadassah or Esther (Esth. 2 :
7). It grows abundantly in some parts of
Juda?a and corresponding latitudes. The
captives wlio returned from Babylon, when
celebrating their first feast of tabernacles
at Jerusalem, formed their booths and
sheds of branches of the palm, olive, pine
and myrtle cut from the Moimt of Olives.
The myrtle is not now found on the Mount
of Olives, though Tristram met with it in
many of the neighboring glens. The mod-
ern Jews of every land, in their observ-
ance of tlie feast of tabernacles, still make
large use of the myrtle whenever they can
obtain it.
My'si-a, a province in the north-west
angle of Asia Minor, separated from Eu-
rope by the Propontis and Hellespont, and
bounded on the east by Bithynia. It was
once exceedingly fertile, and is even now
a fine tract of country, although under poor
cultivation. Paul, on his first voyage to
Europe, passed through this province and
embarked at Troits (Acts 16 : 7-12).
Mys'te-ry. The term properly indi-
cates what is hidden or concealed, and not
necessarily that which is incomprehensible.
Christ tells his disciples that to them it was
" given to know the mystery of the kingdom
of God " (Mark 4:11). Thus a mystery or
hidden thing might be made known. The
calling of the Gentiles was a mystery to
the Jews, but a thing known to the apos-
tles (Eph. 3 : 1-6). The revealed gospel
is called " the mystery of the faith " ( 1
Tim. 3:9). The great mystery of god-
liness is a condensed expression for the
grand peculiarities of our Lord's person
and work — the One who "was manifest in
the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of
angels, preached unto the Gentiles, be-
lieved on in the world, received up into
glory" (1 Tim. 3 : 16). But while a mys-
tery often means that which without rev-
elation could never have been known, it is
none the less true that doctrines may be
revealed whicli human reason cannot fully
comprehend. Among these doctrines are
the being of God, the tri-personality of
the Godhead, tlie incarnation of Clirist
and the resurrection of the body.
NAAMAH— NABOTH.
363
N.
Na^a-mah [jyleasant], the name of
two women, and also of a city.
1. One of the four women whose names
are preserved in the records of the world
before the Flood — all except Eve being
Cainites. She was the daughter of the
Cainite Lamech and Zillah, and the sister
of Tubal-Cain (Gen. 4 : 22).
2. Mother of King Rehoboam ( 1 Kings
14 : 21, 31 ; 2 Chron. 12 : 13). In our Au-
thorized Version she is called an "Ammon-
itess," but the Hebrew text designates her
as " the Ammonite." She was therefore one
of the foreign women whom Solomon took
into his establishment (1 Kings 11 : 1).
3. One of the cities in the plain of Ju-
dah (Josh. 15 : 41). Its site is supposed
to be identical with Naamah, six miles
north-east of Yebna.
Na'a-man [ pleasant tw.ts'], the name
of two men.
1. One of the family of Benjamin who
came down to Egypt with Jacob (Gen. 46 :
21). He was the son of Bela and head of
the family of the Naamites (Num. 26 : 40;
1 Chron. 8 : 3, 4).
2. The commander of the armies of Ben-
hadad II., king of Damascus, in the time
of Joram, king of Israel. Through his
valor and ability he had won place and
power. He was, however, the subject of
leprosy, which Elisha the prophet mir-
aculously healed (2 Kings 5 : 1-14). His
cure is instanced by our Lord as a showing
of mercy to one who was not of Israel
(Luke 4 : 27).
Na-am'a-thite, the gentilic name of
one of Job's friends (Job 2 : 11 ; 1 1 : 1 ;
20 : 1 ; 42 : 9). In the Scriptures no other
trace of this name is found, and the town
whence it is derived is unknown.
Na'bal [fool], a descendant of Caleb,
and a sheepmaster on the confines of Ju-
dah and the desert (1 Sam. 25 : 2, 3). He
was a man of large wealth, but of an ex-
ceedingly churlish and illiberal temper.
Although his flocks had been protected by
David and his followers, he rudely and in-
sultingly refused an application for mate-
rial aid (1 Sam. 25 : 5-12). His wife Abi-
gail undertook to avert the peril to which
his conduct exposed him. Loading with
provisions the asses of Nabal's large estab-
lishment, she herself mounted one of them,
and, with her attendants running before
her, rode down the hill toward David's en-
campment. David had already made the
fotal vow of extermination (1 Sam. 25 : 21,
22). Then it was that Abigail appeared,
threw herself on her face before him, and
poured forth her petition in language
which, in form and expression, has the
impress of impassioned poetry (1 Sam. 25 :
24-31). David was powerfully moved,
and at once recalled his vow. When Na-
bal was informed of the narrow escape he
had made, " his heart died within him.
and he became as a stone" (1 Sam. 25 :
37). Soon after, and as if a stroke of apo-
plexy or paralysis had fallen upon him, he
died (1 Sam. 25: 38).
N a 'both [fruit], an Israelite of the
town of Jezreel in the time of Ahab, king
of Israel (1 Kings 21 : 1). He was the
owner of a small vineyard adjoining the
king's palace and coveted by the king for
a pleasure-garden. Declining to sell his
patrimony, he was accused of a capital
crime at the instigation of Jezebel, Ahab's
wicked wife, and with his sons was stoned
to death (2 Kings 9 : 26). As he suffered
for the alleged crime of blasphemy, his
property, it is supposed, was forfeited to
the crown ; at any rate, it became Ahab's
possession and Ahab's plague (1 Kings 21 :
19).
364
NACHON'S THRESHING-FLOOR— NAHUM.
Na'chon's Threshing'-Floor, tlie
place at wliicli tlie ark had arrived in tiie
progress from Kirjatli-jearlmto Jerusalem,
when Uzziah lost his life in his too hasty
zeal for its safety (2 Sam. G : 6, 7).
Na'dab \_libeml~\, the name of four
men, of whom two only need be men-
tioned.
1. The eldest son of Aaron and Elisheba
(Ex. 6:23; Num. 3:2). He and his
brother Abihu, for the offence of offering
to the Lord incense which was burned
with " strange " or common fire, and not
with that which, miraculously kindled,
was kept perpetually burning on the altar
of burnt-offerings, were suddenly consumed
by a fire from the presence of God (Lev.
10: 1,2; Num. 3:4; 26: 61).
2. The son and successor of Jeroboam,
king of Israel (1 Kings 15 : 25). His
reign of two years was exceedingly cor-
rupt. At the siege of Gibbethon he was
assassinated by Baasha, who usurped the
throne (1 Kings 15 : 27, 28).
"Nsig'ge, one of our Lord's ancestors
in the maternal line (Luke 3 : 25). In 1
Chron. 3 : 7 the name is written NoGAii.
Na'hal-al, Na-hal'lal and Na'-
hal-ol IpdMuresI, a town in Zcbulun as-
signed to the Merari Levites (Josh. 19 :
15 ; 21 : 35 ; Judg. 1 : 30).
Na-ha'li-el [valleyfi of God], a station
of the Israelites, north of the Arnon and
not far from Pisgah (Num. 21 : 19).
Na'hash \_t:erpenl'], the name of two
persons.
1. A king of the Ammonites, near the
beginning of Saul's reign, who dictated to
the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead that cruel
condition of their acceptance of his suprem-
acy which consisted in allowing him to
pluck out all their right eyes as a reproach
to Israel, and which so roused the vehe-
ment wratli of King Saul that he sudden-
ly led a great army against the Ammonite
forces and utterly overwhelmed them (1
Sam. 11 : 1-11).
2. A person mentioned once only (2 Sam.
17 : 25) in stating the parentage of Amasa,
the commander-in chief of Absalom's army.
Amasa is said to have been the son of
Ithra by Abigail, " daughter of Nahash
and sister to Zeruiah." By the genealogy
of 1 Chron. 2 : 16 it appears that Zeruiah
and Abigail were sisters of David and the
other children of Jesse. This has been
explained on the supj)osition that Nahash
was the name of Jesse's wife and the mo-
ther of David and of his brothers and sis-
ters, but the more probable explanation is
that David's mother before she became the
wife of Jesse had been the wife of some
one named Nahash, to whom she had
borne Abigail and Zeruiah, half-sisters to
David.
Na'hor [snorting'], the name of two
men.
1. Son of Serug, father of Terali and
grandfather of Abraham (Gen. 11 : 22-
26).
2. Son of Terah and brother of Abra-
ham and Ilaran (Gen. 11 : 27). He mar-
ried Milcah, the daughter of his brother
Haran ; and when Abraham and Lot mi-
grated to Canaan, Nahor remained behind
in the land of his birth, on the eastern side
of the Euphrates.
Nah'shon [uu'zard^, son of Amnuna-
dab and prince of the children of Judali
at the time of the first numbering in the
wilderness (Ex. 6:23; Num. 1:7; 1
Chron. 2 : 10). His sister Elisheba was
wife to Aaron, and his son Salmon was
husband to Rahab after the taking of Jer-
icho. He died in the wilderness, accord-
ing to Num. 26 : 64, 65.
Na'hum [consoled], the seventh in
order of the minor prophets. He is call-
ed "the Elkoshite" (Nah. 1 : 1), but the
site of Elkosh, his native place, is disput-
ed, and of his personal history nothing is
known. The date of his prophecy is quite
as much disputed as the site of his birth-
place. Certain it is, however, that the
NAIL— NAME.
365
propliecy was written before the downfall
of Nineveh and its capture by the Medes
and Chaldseans about B. c. 625. The allu-
sions to the Assyrian power (1 : 12 ; 2 : 12,
13 ; 3 : 15-17) imply that it was still un-
broken. Nahum flourished, most prob-
ably, in the second half of the reign of
Hezekiah, and wrote his prophecy either
in Jerusalem or its neighborhood. The
subject of the prophecy is "the burden
of Nineveh," the destruction of which
Nahum predicts in language that com-
bines a singular clearness of description
with an extraordinary fervor of imagina-
tion.
Nail, the rendering in our Authorized
Version of two Hebrew words. The first
word usually denotes a wooden peg or pin,
sometimes a pin of any material as driven
into a wall (Ezek. 15 : 3; Isa. 22 : 25),
more especially as driven into the earth,
like a tent-pin driven down by a mallet
to fasten the tent (Ex. 27 : 19 ; 35 : 18 ; 38 :
31; Isa. 33 : 20; 54 : 2). One of these
tent-pins Jael used in fastening to the
ground the temples of Sisera (Judg. 4 : 21,
22). The second word is ai)plied to ordi-
nary and ornamental nails ( 1 Chron. 22 :
3; Isa. 41 : 7 ; Jer. 10 : 4). The golden
nails of the temple are denoted by this
word. These nails are referred to in
Eccles. 12 : 11, where, with significant pro-
verbial application, "the words of the
wise are" likened to "nails fastened," in
the sense that they sink deeply and remain
firmly in the heart of man.
Na'in '[pleasantness'], a small town of
Galilee, mentioned only in Luke 7 : 11,
but memorable as the place where our
Lord performed one of his greatest mira-
cles, that of restoring to life the widow's
son. It still bears the name of Nein. It
is situated on the north-western edge of
the "Little Hermon," where the ground
falls into the plain of Esdraelon, and may
be seen to the south from Mt. Tabor. The
site is very beautiful, but the village, con-
sisting of some twenty poor huts, is small
and mean.
Nai'oth [habildtions], a place in or
near Kamah, where, under Samuel, there
was a school of the prophets, and whither,
to Samuel, David fled for protection from
Saul (1 Sam. 19 : 18-24; 20: 1).
Na'ked. This word in Scripture of-
ten means not without clothing, but with-
out the upper garment (1 Sam. 19 : 24;
Isa. 20 : 2; John 21 : 7). The term is
also used of one poorly clothed ( Isa. 58:7;
2 Cor. 11 : 27 ; James 2 : 15). Figura-
tively, the word sometimes means poor
and defenceless (Gen. 42 : 9), and some-
times open, manifest, uncovered (Job 26 :
6 ; Heb. 4:13). It is also used by the
prophets to represent the degradation and
exposure which apostasy and idolatry
bring about (Ezek. 16 : 36 ; Rev. 16:
15).
Name. The Hebrew word which in
our Authorized Version of the Old Testa-
ment is rendered "name" denotes a si(/n
or token. Plence, in Hebrew usage a name
is that which betokens or distinguishes a
person, place or thing. The Greek word
rendered " name " in our Authorized Ver-
sion of the New Testament has a sense
substantially similar, since it denotes that
which makes something known. Among the
Hebrews names were given to children,
first immediately after birth, and then at
the time of their oflTering to God in the
rite of circumcision (Gen. 29 : 32-35; Ex.
2 : 22; Luke 1 : 59). The name was often
determined by circumstances attending the
birth (Gen. 25: 25; 35:18; 1 Sam. 4: 21).
Names of expressive import were held in
favor (Gen. 3 : 20 ; 4:1; 5 : 29; 16 : 11 ;
1 Sam. 1 : 20). Symbolical names were
given to their children by prophets (Isa.
8:3; Hos. 1 : 4). To girls sometimes were
given names denoting beauty (Job 42 : 13,
14 ; Acts 9 : 36). Family names were pre-
served (Isa. 56 : 5; Luke 1 : 61); sons,
for the sake of more complete distinction,
366
NAME OF GOD— NAPIITALI.
added to their own name that of their
father (2 Sam. 23 : 1; 1 Kings 12 : 2),
sometimes that of the grandfatlier ( Judg.
20 : 28; Jer. 39 :14), and sometimes that
of the mother if she had become distin-
guished (2 Sam. 2 : 13; 1 Chron. 3 : 1-3).
In tlie East a person often bears more
names than one, either because originally
several were given to him, or because sub-
sequently, under peculiar circumstances,
he acquired tliem. In the time of our
Lord, Jews, in tlieir intercourse with
Greeks and Romans, were accustomed to
take names different from those they liad
previously borne (Acts 1 : 23; 4 : 36).
Sometimes, however, tlie heathen name
was a translation of the Hebrew one.
Thomas bears also tlie name of Didymus,
the latter being Greek for the former, and
both signifying "twin" (John 11 : 16).
The name is often used to denote the per-
son himself (1 Sam. 18 : 30; Matt. 6:9).
"To come in the name of" another is to
come in the authority of another (Matt.
24 : 5 ; John 5 : 43). " To call on the
name" is to invoke (Acts 2 : 21 ; 9 : 14;
Eom. 10 : 13).
Name of God. This phrase desig-
nates—!. God himself (Ps. 20 : 1); his
titles peculiar to liimself (Ex. 3 : 13, 14) ;
his word (Ps. 5 : 11 ; Acts 9 : 15); his
works (Ps. 8:1); his worship (Ex. 20 :
24) ; his perfections and excellences (Ex.
34: 5-7; John 17 : 26). |
Na-o'mi [my cleliyhl'], a woman of
Bethlehem in the days of the early judges
(Ruth 1 : 2, 3), wife of Elimelech, mother
of Mahlon and Chilion and mother-in-
law of Ruth.
Naph'ta-li [my ure.fllinfj'], the name
of one of Jacob's sons, of one of the He-
brew tribes and of the territory which
the tribe possessed.
1. Naphtali was Jacob's son by Bilhah
(Gen. 30 : 8; Num. 1 : 42). Of his per-
sonal history no incidents are recorded.
He is described bv Jacob as " a hind let
loose" and as one who "giveth goodly
words" (Gen. 49 : 21). This description
outlines not more the characteristics of
the tribe than those of the man. It pic-
tures Naphtali the man as timid and dif-
fident; as disposed to flee from danger,
yet fierce and formidable when brought to
bay; as possessing a soul of quick sensi-
bility and lively imagination, and as de-
lighting especially in beautiful thoughts
and graceful forms of speech.
2. The tribe of Naphtali at the first
census after leaving Egypt numbered
fifty -three tliousand four hundred (Num.
1 : 43), but at the second census, in the
plains of Moab, it had diminished to
forty-five thousand four hundred (Num.
26 : 48-50). During the march througli
the wilderness it occupied a position on
the north of the tabernacle, with Dan
and with Ashcr. The three formed tlie
"camp of Dan" (Num. 2 : 25).
3. The tribal territory is described in
Josh. 19 : 32-39. It was at the northern
angle of Palestine, the Jordan and the
Sea of Galilee being on the east, the
tribe of Zebulun on the south and the
tribe of Asher on the west. Within this
territory there was a greater variety of
soil, season and scenery than within the
territory of any other tribe. The south-
ern section, embracing the j^lain along
the shore of the Sea of Galilee, was the
garden-spot of the whole country. Ac-
cording to Josephus, it was an earthly
pai*adise, where grew luxuriantly the
choicest fruits and where reigned an eter-
nal spring-time. The position of Naph-
tali exposed it to the shock of foreign war,
and accordingly it was the first tribe caj)-
tured by the Assyrians under Tiglatli-
pileser (2 Kings 15 : 29 ; Isa. 9 : 1.). The
tribe, borne away to the cities of the
Medes, never returned, but its territory
was too attractive to remain long unin-
habited. After the captivity in Babylon
many Jews settled in Naphtali, and in
NAPHTUHIM— NATIONS.
367
time its southern section was the most
densely populated district in Palestine.
Here, too, was the principal scene of our
Lord's ministry (Matt. 4 : 13-16). Here
our Lord spoke the greater number of his
parables and performed the greater num-
ber of his miracles, for here were the cities
of Capernaum, Chorazin, Bethsaida, Mag-
dala and Tiberias.
Naph'tu-him. See Nations, under
MiZRAIM.
Nar-cis'sus, a dweller at Eome, some
members of whose household, known as
Christians to Paul, are by the apostle
saluted (Kom. 16 : 11).
Na'than [He, that is, God, has givenl,
the name of five men in Scripture, of whom
two only need be mentioned.
1. An eminent Hebrew prophet in the
reigns of David and Solomon. He first
appears in the consultation with David
about the building of the temple (2 Sam.
7 : 2, 3, 17). He next comes forward as
the reprover of David for the sin with
Bathsheba ; and his famous apologue on
the rich man and the ewe lamb, the only
direct example we have of his prophetic
power, shows that j)ower to have been of
a very high order (2 Sam. 12 : 1-12). On
the birth of Solomon he was either spe-
cially charged with giving him his name,
Jedidiah, or else with his education (2
Sam. 12 : 25). In the last years of Da-
vid, Nathan took the side of Solomon and
turned the scale in his favor. He advised
Bathsheba, he himself ventured to enter
the royal presence with a remonstrance
against the king's apathy, and at Da-
vid's request he assisted in the inaugu-
ration of Solomon (1 Kings 1 : 8-45).
2. A son of David, one of the four who
were born to him by Bathsheba (1 Chron.
3 : 5). He appears to have taken no part
in the events of his father's or his broth-
er's reign. From him the evangelist Luke
has reckoned the genealogy of Mary the
mother of .Jesus (Luke 3 : 31).
Na-than'a-el [God has given'], one of
the earliest disciples of our Lord, concern-
ing whom we learn from Scripture little
more than his birtliplace, Cana of Galilee
(John 21 : 2i, and his simple, truthful cha-
racter. It is commonly believed, however,
that Nathanael and Bartholomew are the
same person. John, who twice mentions
Nathanael, never introduces the name of
Bartholomew at all. Matthew (10 : 3),
Mark (3 : 18) and Luke (6 : 14), all
speak of Bartholomew, but never of Na-
thanael. Bartholomew (son of Tolmai)
was probably the surname and Nathan-
ael the proper name of the same disci-
ple.
Na^tions. The tenth chapter of Gen-
esis is an invaluable statement of "the
families of the sons of Noah, after their
generations, in their nations" (Gen. 10 :
32). The enumeration comprises only
the nations existing in the age of Moses,
and of them those only which were tiie
most conspicuous and the most intimately
connected with the history of the Israel-
ites. The proper names which the regis-
ter contains are to be understood origin-
ally of individuals, but derivatively of
tribes, peoples, nations, and in some in-
stances of lands and countries. The facts
it embodies are interwoven into the tradi-
tions of all the Eastern nations. The peo-
ple of Arabia, Persia, India, China beli;n'e
in an early tripartite occupation of the
world, and substantially the same as that
which is here recorded. The following
table, whilst making no claim to absolute
certainty, presents in one view and with
approximate accuracy, the leading partic-
ulars embraced in the scriptural account
of the origin and dispersion of nations :
JAPHETHITES.
I. Go'mer: Cimmerians, north of the
Black Sea. By a common transj)osition
of letters the name may be detected in
the modern Crimea. The Cimbri of an-
368
NATIONS.
cient Jutland and the Celtic nations, who
denominate themselves Cymri, have the
same common ancestor. Related to them
are — 1. Ashkenaz, between Armenia and
the Black Sea; 2. liiphalh, the inhabit-
ants of the Riphsean mountains ; 3. To-
garmah, Armenia (Ezek. 38 : 6).
II. Ma'gog : Caucasus and vicinity.
Scythians, or the Mongolian tribes. In
the word Gog (Ezek. 38 : 2), pronounced
gutturally, we have the first syllable of
Caucasus.
III. Ma'dai : the Medes.
IV. JA'vANorloN: lonians or Greeks.
The similarity of Javan to the elder form
in which the Greek name Ionian appears
('Idwv) amply justifies the conjecture that
Javan is the representative of the Greek
race. Allied to the lonians are — 1. Elishah,
EUs or IMlas, possibly the Qiolians, one of
the principal Grecian tribes, inhabiting the
" islands " or mai-itime districts of ancient
Greece (Ezek. 27 : 7) ; 2. Tarshinh, com-
monly identified with Tartessus in the
south and east of Spain, the region where
the Phoenicians early planted colonies and
whence the "ships of Tarshish" derived
their name. This identification, however,
is not certain. Moses, in enumerating the
Japhethites, groups Tarsliish among the
Greeks, and accordingly Josephus and the
Jewish raljbins identified the Tarshish
which Moses mentions with Tai-sus in Cili-
cia, or rather with the Greek element in the
population of that country. This view is
also held by Canon Eawlinson ; 3. A'(7-
tim, the inhabitants of Cyprus and other
Greek islands ; 4. Dodanim or Rhochtnim,
the Rhodians or the Greek inliabitants
of the island of Rhodes.
V. Tu'bai. : the Tibareni in Pontus.
VI. Me'shech : the INIoschi in the
Moschian mountains, between Iberia, Ar-
menia and Colchis.
VII. Ti'ras: the Thracians; or per-
haps the dwellers on the river Tiras, the
Dniester.
HAMITES.
I. CusH : the southern Arabians in Asia
and the Ethiopians in Africa. The de-
scendants of Cush are — 1. ^'imrnd, the
first king of Shinar, or Southern Babylo-
nia. The account of him in Scripture
seems to imply that when a part of his
race went south-westward into Arabia and
Africa he went south-eastward to found a
kingdom for himself, and at Babel estab-
lished a central monarchy. Conjecturally,
his date is about B. c. 2234, not many hun-
dred years before Abraham's time ; 2,
Seba, Meroe, joined with Cush and Egypt
in Isa. 43 : 3 ; 3. Havilah, the inhabitants
of the Arabian tract known as Khmvldn,
in the north-western portion of the Yemen ;
4. Sabtah, Sabola in Southern Arabia; 5.
Raamali, Rhegma, in the south-east of
Arabia, with his two sons, Sheba, a tribe
in South Arabia, and Dedan, on the shores
of the Persian Gulf; 6. Sabteccth, a people
whose settlements were probably near the
Persian Gulf.
II. Miz'ra-im : the Egyptians. Allied to
them by blood and descent are — 1. Ludim,
an East-African people dependent on the
Egyptians and dwelling near them ; asso-
ciated with Cush and Phut in Jer. 46 : 9,
and in our Authorized Version improper-
ly rendered "Lydians;" 2. Anamim, an
P^ast-African tribe contiguous to Egypt,
but exact position unknown ; 3. Lehubim
or Lubim, the Libyans; 4. Naphtuhim, the
inhabitants of the province of Nephtys ;
0. Puthrnsim, the inhabitants of the Egyp-
I tian nome of Pathuras ; 6. Casluhim, posi-
! tion unknown, probably Upper Egypt ;
with his ofl'spring Philistim, the Philis-
tines, and Qiplitorim, the Phoenician colo-
nies on the Egyptian Delta and the islands
and coasts of the Mediterranean.
III. Phut: a people called by the
Egyptians Pp:t, whose emblem was the
unstrung bow, and who dwelt between
Egypt and Ethiopia proper, in the re-
gion now called Nubia.
NAZAKENE— NAZARETH.
369
IV. Ca'na-an: the country between
the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan.
The offspring or colonies of Canaan are —
1. The Sidonians, on the northern borders
of Palestine ; 2. The Hittites, in the coun-
try about Hebron south of Jerusalem ; 3.
The Jebusiles, in and around Jerusalem ;
4. The Aviorites, on the east and west
sides of the Dead Sea ; 5. The Girr/asites,
in the middle of the country ; 6. The Hi-
vites, on the river Hermon and in the val-
leys of Lebanon ; 7. The Arkites, at the
foot of Lebanon ; 8. The Sinites, in the
district of Lebanon; 9. The Arvadites, on
the Phoenician island of Aradus and the
opposite coast; 10. The Zemarites, the in-
habitants of the Phoenician town of Sim-
yra; 11. The Hamathite^, the inhabitants
of the town replaced at a later date by the
Syrian town of Epiphania on the Orontes,
the eastern limit of Northern Palestine.
SHEMITES.
■ L E''lam : tlie inliabitants of the prov-
ince of Elymais, on tlie left or east bank
of the Tigris, opposite Babylonia and be-
tween Babylonia and Persia proper.
- II. As^SHUR : the Assyrians.
III. Ar-phax'ad: the inhabitants of
some district of Assyria, perhaps on the
tiorthern frontier, but precise locality not
known. One of his descendants was Salah,
from whom sprung Ebev, progenitor of the
Hebrews, and from him Peleg and Joktan.
The latter was the ancestor of thirteen
Arab tribes mentioned in Gen. 10 : 26-
29.
IV. Lud: a people dwelling north of
Palestine in the near vicinity of Mesopo-
tamia, and, according to the Egyptian in-
scriptions, frequently engaged in war with
the great Pharaohs of the thirteenth, four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries b. c, under
one of whom Moses, it is probable, wrote
the book of Genesis.
V. A'' RAM : Syria and Mesopotamia.
Claiming affinity of blood and descent
24
are — 1. Uz, the inhabitants of a district
nearly in the middle of North Arabia,
not very far from the famous district of
Nejd ; 2. Hid, the inhabitants, most likely,
of the tract about the waters of Merom, now
the lake of el-Huleh at the head of the Jor-
dan ; 3. Getlier, unknown, but probably con-
tiguous to the people of Hul, the inhabit-
ants, perhaps, of Coele-Syria ; 4. Mash or
Meshech, the inhabitants of a part of the
Gordiaean mountains, the Mons Masius of
classical writers, a range forming the
northern boundary of Mesopotamia be-
tween the Tigris and Euphrates.
Naz'ar-ene, an inhabitant of Naza-
reth and an epithet of our Lord (Matt. 2 :
23 ; Mark 1 : 24 ; Luke 4 : 34). Its appli-
cation to our Lord, in consequence of the
providential arrangements by which his
parents were led to take up their abode in
Nazaretli, was the filling out of the predic-
tions in which the promised Messiah is de-
scribed as a Nezer, that is, a shoot-sprout of
Jesse, a humble and despised descendant
of the decayed royal family ( Isa. 11:1;
Jer. 23 : 5 ; Zech. 3 : 8). Whenever men
spoke of Jesus as the Nazarene they ei-
ther consciously or unconsciously pro-
nounced one of the names of tlie pre-
dicted Messiah, a name indicative both
of his royal descent and his humble con-
dition. Once (Acts 24 : 5) the term Naz-
arene is applied to tlie followers of our
Lord by way of contempt. The name
still exists in Arabic as the ordinary des-
ignation of Christians.
Naz'a-reth [separated'] , a small
town in Galilee, the residence of Joseph
and Mary, and, after the return from
Egypt, the home of our blessed Lord
until he entered upon his ministry (Luke
1 : 26, 27 ; 2:4, 39). Its reputation may
have been bad (John 1 : 46), but its sniall-
ness and seclusion made it, probably, a de-
sirable place for the youth and early man-
hood of the world's Redeemer. It is not
mentioned in the Old Testament, nor by
370
KAZARITE— NEBAIOTH.
■#-
KiizaicUi.
any writer before our Lord's birth. It
still exists under the modern Arabic name
en-Ndsirah. It stands in an upland vale
amid the hills of Galilee, two miles from
the plain of Esdraelon and six west of
Mount Tabor. A girdle of rounded hills,
fourteen in number, encircles it, giving
that air of quiet, peaceful seclusion which
constitutes its chief charm. The houses
are substantially built of white limestone,
are plain and neat, and stand close togeth-
er in narrow streets which climb the hill-
side. The population is about six thou-
sand souls, of Avdiom one-third only are
Moslems.
Naz''a-rite [one i^eparated by a vmvl,
the name given to those Israelites, whether
male or female, who consecrated themselves
to Jehovah by the peculiar vow prescribed
in Num. 6. The consecration might be
for life, but was usually for a specific
time. During the term of consecra-
tion the Nazarite was bound to abstain
from wine and grapes, from every product
of the vine, and indeed from every kind
of intoxicating drink ; to let the hair grow
without any cutting whatever ; and to
avoid contact with a dead body — even that
of the nearest relation. The ceremonies
in connection with the fulfillment of the
vow and the release therefrom are de-
scribed in Num. 6 : 13-21. The meaning
of such a vow is indicated nowhere in
Scripture, but, most probably, the vow
was a typical representation of life sepa-
rated from the world and consecrated to the
Lord.
Ne-ap'o-lis [new city], the seaport-
town of Macedonia where Paul first land-
ed in Europe (Acts 16 : 11). Its site is
now occupied by the Turkish village Ka-
valla, situated on a rocky promontory and
containing about five thousand inhabit-
ants. The ruined remains of Neapolis
are extensive. Besides an aqueduct near-
ly ten miles long, there are Ionic columns
and hewn stones, fragments of sculpture
and marble sarcophagi.
Ne-bai'oth [heights or height}, the
I "first-bom of Ishmael" (Gen. 25 : 13; 1
Chron. 1 : 29) and father of a pastoral tribe
named after him (Isa. 60 : 7). The tribe is
NEBAT— NEBUCHADNEZZAR.
371
believed to have been identical with the
Nabathaeans, whose capital was Petra.
Ne'bat, the father of Jeroboam, the
first king of revolting Israel (1 Kings 11 :
26; 12:2, 15). He is described as an
Ephrathite, or Ephraimite, of Zereda.
Nebo.
Ne'bo, the name of a god, of a mount
and of a town.
1. Nebo was one of the Babylonian and
Assyrian gods (Isa. 46 : 1 ; Jer. 48 : 1).
He was the Oriental Mercury, or the in-
terpreter of the gods. Whether Nebo was
worshiped in the first Chaldsean empire
is doubtful, but his worship was certainly
of early date in the Assyrian empire. In
the later Babylonian empire, however, his
shrine enjoyed a peculiar pre-eminence.
His principal temple was at Borsippa, now
the famous Birs-Nimrud. It was rebuilt
and adorned by Nebuchadnezzar, who, as
being under Nebo's special protection,
often names him with many high-sound-
ing epithets. In the Sabaean and Men-
dfean mythology Nebo was the planet Mer-
cury, allied to the Gi-eek Hermes.
2. Nebo, Mount, a peak of the range
called Abarim (which see). Its name
may come from a root signifying io be high,
or from the god Nebo, the planet Mercury.
This was the mount in Moab " over against
Jericho," up into which the Lord com-
manded Moses to go " and behold the land
of Canaan" (Deut. 32:49). Its precise
position is disputed, but the most probable
conjecture identifies it with Jehel-Nebd,
south of Warhj-Hesban. See Pisgah.
3. Nebo, a town in the territory of the
tribe of Gad, east of the Jordan, grouped
with Heshbon, Elealeh and Baal-Meon
(Num. 32 : 3, 38 ; 33 : 47). In later times
it was captured by the Moabites, and Isa-
iah joins it with Dibon and Medeba in
the curse pronounced upon Moab (Isa. 15 :
2). Nebo was also the name of a town in
the territory of the tribe of Benjamin
where dwelt some who returned from
Babylon (Ezra 2 : 29 ; Neh. 7 : 33). Sev-
en of them had foreign wives whom they
were compelled to discard (Ezra 10 : 43,
44).
Neb-u-chad-nez'zar or Neb-u-
chad-rez^zar, the greatest and most
powerful of the Babylonian kings (2
Kings 25 : 22; Ezek. 26 : 7; Dan. 1:1).
His name is explained to mean "Nebo
protect the crown." He was the son
and successor of Nabopolassar, the found-
er of the Babylonian empire. In the
lifetime of his father Nebuchadnezzar
led an army against Pharaoh-Necho, king
of Egypt, defeated him at Carchemish
in a great battle (Jer. 46 : 2-12), re-
covered Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia and Pales-
tine, took Jerusalem (Dan. 1 : 1, 2), pressed
forward to Egypt, and was engaged in that
country or upon its borders when the death
372
NEBUSHASBAN— NEHEMIAH.
of his father recalled him to Babylon. Be-
cause of repeated rebellions against him
by the kings of Judah, Jehoiakim, Je-
hoiachin and Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar
besieged and stormed Jerusalem several
times ; the last time he utterly destroyed
city and temple, and carried the popula-
tion into a captivity of seventy years. Re-
nowned as a conqueror, he was not less re-
nowned as a builder. He greatly strength-
ened and beautified Babylon, building walls
and fortifications and palaces and temples,
and constructing the celebrated " hanging
gardens." Nor did he confine his efforts
to the ornamentation and improvement of
his capital. Throughout the empire, at
Borsippa, Sippara, Cutha, Chilmad, Du-
raba, Teradon and a multitude of other
places, he built or rebuilt cities, repaired
temples, constructed quays, reservoirs, ca-
nals and aqueducts on a scale of grandeur
and magnificence surpassing everything of
the kind recorded in history. The wealth,
greatness and general prosperity of Nebu-
chadnezzar are strikingly placed before us
in the book of Daniel. Toward the close
of his reign his glory suffered a temporary
eclipse. As a punishment for his pride
and vanity lie was seized by that strange
form of madness which is termed lycan-
thropy, and in which the sufTerer imagines
himself to be a beast, and, quitting the
abodes of men, insists on leading the life
of a beast (Dan. 4 : 33). After an inter-
val of some years his reason was restored.
He died at an advanced age (eighty-three
or eighty-four), having reigned forty-three
years.
Neb'u-shas'ban [Nebo rescue me],
one of tlie officers of Nebuchadnezzar at
the time of the capture of Jerusalem. He
was Eabsaris — that is, chief of the eunuchs
(Jer. 39 : 13).
Neb'u-zar-a'dan, a high officer in
the court of Nebuchadnezzar. He was
literally "the chief of the slaughterers"
(in our Authorized Version "the eaptain
of the guard"). On the capture of Jeru-
salem he was left by Nebuchadnezzar in
charge of the city (Jer. 39 : 11). Four
years later he was again in Judah and
carried off more captives (Jer. 52 : 30).
Ne'cho. See Pharaoh-Necho.
Nec^ro-man-cer [one who inquires of
the dead^. In most ancient nations jug-
glers claimed the al)ility to call up by in-
cantations the dead from the under-world,
chiefly to consult them on the mysteries of
the present or future. The Eastern Magi
were especially famed for necromantic
skill. Among the Israelites necroman-
cers were patronized, especially when
idolaters were on the throne (2 Kings 21 .•
6 ; 2 Chron. 33 : 6 ; Isa. 8:19; 29 : 4). In
the Law the consultation of necromancers
was forbidden (Lev. 19 : 31), and they who
disobeyed were threatened with death (Lev.
20 : fi ; Deut. 18 : 11). Saul in his distress
applied to an enchantress to summon Sam-
uel from Sheol (1 Sam. 28 : 7-20). Mod-
ern Spiritualism is a revival of one phase
of necromancy, and the source of much
fanaticism and infidelity.
Nees'ing, an obsolete word for sneez-
ing. It is found only in Job 41 : 18.
Neg'i-nah (singular), Neg'i-noth
(plural), a word occurring in the titles of
a number of Psalms, and the general term
by which all sti'inged instruments are de-
scribed.
Ne-he-mi'ah [Jehovah comforts'], son
of Hachaliah (Neh. 1:1) and brother
of Hanani (Xeh. 7:2). He was appar-
ently of the tribe of Judah (Neh. 2 : 3).
We first find him at Shushan, tlie winter
residence of the kings of Persia, in high
office as the cupbearer of King Artaxerxes
Longimanus. By consent of the king he
went to Jerusalem' to better the condition
j of his countrymen who had returned
thither after the captivity. His great
work was the rebuilding of the city walls,
the restoring of Jerusalem to its former state
and dignitv as a fortified town. In this
NEHILOTH— NEW MOON.
373
work lie encountered formidable difficulties,
but at length succeeded. During his gov-
ernment he firmly repressed the exactions
of the nobles and the usury of the rich,
and rescued the poor Jews from spoliation
and slavery. He refused to receive his
lawful allowance as governor from the
people, in consideration of their poverty,
during the twelve years he was in office,
but kept at his own charge a table for one
hundred and fifty Jews, at which any who
returned from captivity were welcome.
Beyond the thirty-second year of Artax-
erxes, to which Nehemiah's own narrative
extends, we have no account of him what-
ever. The book which bears his name
contains a full and very important history
of his labors, rgforms and difficulties.
Ne-hi'loth [flutes or pipesi, the gene-
ral term for perforated wind instruments
of all kinds, as Neginoth denotes all
manner of stringed instruments. It oc-
curs in the title of the fifth Psalm.
Ne-hush'tan [a piece of brass, i. e.
of coppei'l, the contemptuous name given
by King Hezekiah to the copper ("bra-
zen ") serpent which Moses had made dur-
ing the plague in the wilderness (Num. 21 :
4-9), and which the Israelites had convert-
ed into an object of idolatrous worship (2
Kings 18:4).
Neph-to'ah [opened], a spring and its
streamlet in the border between Judah and
Benjamin (Josh. 15 : 9; 18 : 15). Its site
is the modern Lifteh, where there is yet
quite a spring.
Ne're-us, a Christian at Rome to
whom, with his sister, the apostle Paul '
sent his salutation (Rom. 16 : 15).
Ner^gal [lion-god], one of the chief
Assyrian and Babylonian deities (2 Kings
17 : 30), who seems to have corresponded
closely to the classical Mars.
Ner^gal-Shar-e'zer, a name found
only in Jer. 39 : 3, 13, and apparently the
designation of two "princes of the king
of Babylon " who accompanied Nebuchad-
nezzar on his last expedition against Jeru-
salem. One of these is not marked by any
additional title, but the other has the hon-
orable distinction of Rab-Mag, and is sup-
posed to be the same personage as the sub-
sequent monarch Neriglissar, who murder-
ed Evil-Merodach, the son of Nebuchad-
nezzar, and succeeded him upon the
throne.
Neth'in-im. [given, that is, devoted to
the service of God], the name of a subject
and servile caste. They were first a portion
of the conquered Gibeonites (Josh. 9 : 3-
27) and to them were added subsequently
the remnants of the undestroyed Amorites,
Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites
(1 Kings 9 : 20-22). Their condition ap-
pears to have been eixsy. They were not
called Nethinim till after the Captivity
(Neh. 3: 26; 7 : 46, 60, 73; 10 : 28 ; 11 :
3, 21).
Ne-to'phah [a dropping, distillation],
a place apparently in Judah and near
Bethlehem, mentioned among the towns
occupied after the Captivity (Ezra 2 : 22;
Neh. 7 : 26), but existing much earlier (2
Sam. 23 : 28, 29 ; 2 Kings 25 : 23 ; 1 Chron.
2 : 54). Site unknown.
Net 'tie. The Hebrew word so trans-
lated in Job 30 : 7 ; and Prov. 24 : 31 is de-
rived from a root meaning to burn or sting,
and is not an unapt designation of the net-
tle, although this sense is disputed. A
different Hebrew word is found in Isa.
34: 13; Hos. 9 : 6, but that it designates
some species of nettle is undisputed.
New Moon, The first day of the
lunar month was observed as a holy day.
In addition to the daily sacrifice, there
were offered two young bullocks, a ram
and seven lambs of the first year a.s a
burnt-oflfering, with the proper meat-oflTer-
ings and drink-offerings, and a kid as a sin-
offering (Num. 28 : 11-15). As on the
Sabbath, trade and handicraft work were
stopped (Amos 8:5), and the temple was
opened for public worship (l^zek. 46 : 3;
374
NEW TESTAMENT— NIMKIM.
Isa. 66 : 23). The trumpets were blown
at the offering of the special sacrifices for
the day as on the solemn festivals (Num.
10 : 10; Ps. 81 : 3). It was an occasion
for state banquets (1 Sam. 20 : 5-24). In
later if not in earlier times fasting was
intermitted at the new moons, which are
generally mentioned so as to show that
they were a peculiar class of holy days,
distinguished from the solemn feasts and
the Sabbaths (Ezek.45: 17 ; Neh. 10: 33).
New Tes^ta-ment. See Scrip-
tures.
New Year. See Trum pets, Feast of.
Nib''haz [barker, probably] a deity of
the Avites, introduced by them into Samaria
inthetimeof Shalmaneser (2Kings 17 :31).
There is no certain information of the cha-
racter of the deity or the form of the idol,
but from the signification of the name
Nibhaz is commonly identified with the
Egyptian Anubis, the dog-headed man.
Ni-ca'nor [conqueror], one of the first
seven deacons appointed at Jerusalem (Acts
6 : 1-6).
Nic-O-de'mus [conqueror of the peo-
plel, a ruler of the Jews and a Pharisee
(John 3:1), whose secret visit to our Lord
occasioned the discourse recorded only by
the evangelist John. In his character a
constitutional timidity is discernible. The
few words which he interposed against the
rash injustice of his colleagues (John 7 :
50, 51) are cautiously rested on a general
principle. Even when the power of Christ's
love, manifested on the cross, had made the
most timid disciple bold, Nicodemus did
not come forward with his splendid gifts
of affection until the example had been set
by one of his own rank and wealth and
station in society (John 19 : 39). Yet in
him, notwithstanding his hesitation and
fear of man, a noble candor and a simple
love of truth shine out. His performance
of the last offices to the body of the cruci-
fied .Jesus was a triumph of moral courage
over natural timidity.
Nic-O-la'i-tans, the disciples of one
Nicolas, an early heretical sect which in
Eev. 2 : 6, 15 our Lord denounces. They
held (Rev. 2 : 14) that it was lawful "to
eat things sacrificed unto idols and to com-
mit fornication."
Nic'o-las [conquering the nation], a na-
tive of Antioch and a proselyte to the .Jew-
ish faith. He was chosen to be one of the
first seven deacons (Acts 6 : 5). Except the
similarityof name there is no reason for iden-
tifying him with the sect of Nicolaitans.
Ni-cop'O-lis [city of victory], the name
of several ancient cities. To one of them
Paul refers in Tit. 3:12, but which one
he does not designate. One Nicopolis was
in Thrace, near the border of Macedonia ;
another was in the north-eastern corner of
Cilicia ; a third was the celebrated Nicop-
olis in Epirus. Each of these has its ad-
vocates as the city referred to by Paul, but
the one last named seems to be the one in-
dicated. This city was built by Augustus
to commemorate the battle of Actium.
Ruins of great extent still remain to attest
its ancient size and splendor.
Ni'ger [black], the additional or dis-
tinctive name given to the Simeon wlio
was one of the teachers and prophets in
the church at Antioch (Acts 13: 1).
Night, the period of darkness from
sunset to sunrise. It is opposed to "day,"
the period of light (Gen. 1 : 5). The word
has a frequent metaphoric sense denoting
now ignorance (Mic. 3 : 6), now affliction
(Rom. 13 : 12), and now death (John 9 :
4).
Night-Hawk. The Hebrew word so
translated (Lev. 11:16; Deiit. 14 : 15) de-
notes probably some kind of owl.
Nile, the great river of Egypt. This name
is not found in the Scriptures, but tlie river
is spoken of under the name of SiiiOR.
See SiHOR and Egypt.
Nim'rim [limpid waters]. Isaiah ( 15 : 6)
and Jeremiah (48 : 34), in denouncing
Moab, speak of the waters of Nimrim as
Excavations at Nineveh.
376
NIMROD— NISROCH.
desolate. Near the ruins of Beth-Nimrah,
east of the Jordan in Moab, are copious
springs which answer to tliese waters, and
wliich send tlieir streams into the Jordan
about ten miles north of the Dead Sea.
Nini'rod. [lord], a son of Cush and
grandson of Ham. The events of his life
are recorded in Gen. 10 : 8-12, from which
we learn — 1, That he was a Cushite : 2,
that he established an empire in Shinar ;
3, that he extended this empire north-
ward along tlie course of the Tigris over
Assyria. These events represent the sa-
lient historical facts connected with the
earliest stages of the great Babylonian
empire.
Nim'shi [draum out]. The grandfather
of Jehu, who is generally called " the son
of Nimshi" (1 Kings 19 : 16; 2 Kings 9 :
2, 14, 20; 2 Chron. 22 : 7).
Nin'e-veh [dwelling ofNln, not the Nin-
us of history, but the god Nin], one of
the ancient capitals and tlie most splendid
city of the kingdom and empire of Assyria.
It stood upon the eastern bank of the Tigris
opposite the place where, on the western
bank, Mosul now stands. It was founded by
Nimrod (Gen. 10 : 11, margin), and hence
was one of the oldest cities in the world. Its
name is found on the P^gyptian monuments
of Thothmes III., about B. c. 1400. Its
size is represented by the old historians to
have been very great. According to Cte-
sias (not indeed the most reliable author-
ity) it had a circumference of four hun-
dred andeighty stadia (twenty-four leagues),
an area ten times that of London. If this
statement have even an approximate basis
of truth, the whole of this vast space was
certainly not built upon and thickly inhab-
ited. Witliin the city walls there may have
been fortified royal residences, each com-
bining palaces, temples, iiropylsea, gar-
dens and parks, yet all forming parts of
one great city built and added to at differ-
ent periods. Thus, Nineveh would be a
general name for several distinct quar-
ters, scattered over an extended surface and
frequently distant the one from the other.
Careful examinations of the site, however,
have failed to discover the signs of any
continuous town over such a large area, and
Rawlinson places the circuit of the walls
at something less than eight miles. After
the brief allusion to it in Genesis, Nine-
veh is not again mentioned in Scripture un-
til the time of Jonah, about B. c. 800, when
tlie prophet was commanded by God to go
to that " great city and cry against it " (Jon.
1:2). Then it was the capital of a power-
ful monarchy, a city of vast extent and
prodigious population (Jon. 3:3). The
preaching of Jonah had a marked and
marvelous effect in humbling its inhabit-
ants and in bringing them to repentance,
but the reformation was temporary and the
return to enormous wickedness universal.
Then the prophet Nahum was commis-
sioned to utter against it those fearful pre-
dictions which the later prophets anqili-
fied, and which, long since, were exactly
fulfilled. So complete was its destruction
that for ages it was wellnigh forgotten and
its site unknown. There is no mention of
it in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions of
the Achfemenid dynasty. Herodotus speaks
of the Tigris as "the river upon whicli the
town of Nineveh formerly stood." Had
he observed any ruins of importance ex-
isting there he would certainly have men-
tioned them. Not two centuries had then
elapsed since the fall of the city. Nin-
eveh was literally buried, but recently it
has been dug from its grave, and has given
the amplest and most remarkable confir-
mation of our Scripture records. See
Assyria.
Ni'san, a Hebrew month, the first of
the sacred and seventh of the civil-year
reckoning.
Nis'rocli, an idol of Nineveh, in whose
temple Sennacherib was worshiping when
assassinated by his sons Adrammelech and
Sharezer (2 Kings 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38). It
NITRE— NOAH.
377
is identified with the eagle-headed human
figure which is one of tlie most prominent
on the earliest Assyrian monuments, and is
Nisroch.
always represented as contending with and
conquering tlie lion or tlie bull.
Ni'tre. The word occurs in Prov. 2-5 :
20 and in Jer. 2 : 22. The substance de-
noted is not that which we now under-
stand by the term niire, that is, nitrate of
potassa or saltpetre, but the nitrum of the
Latins, and the natron or native carbonate
of soda of modern chemistry. As between
vinegar and vatron there is a decided con-
trariety, so the singing of songs to a heavy
heart.
No and No-Amon [the portion, or
place, of Amon {the god), that is, the chief
seat of his worship'], a large and celebrated
city in Egypt. It is, beyond a question,
identical with Thebes, the Diospolis Mag-
na of the Greeks, the ancient and splen-
did metropolis of Upper Egypt. It lay
on both sides of the Nile, and was cele-
brated for its "hundred gates" and for the
multitude and splendor of its temples,
obelisks and statues. Its ruins are the ad-
miration of travelers, and take rank with
the most magnificent remains of early art
and civilization. In the days of its pride
and power it was denounced by Jeremiah
and Ezekiel, and its predicted doom came
upon it to the letter (Jer. 46 : 25 ; Ezek.
30 : 14-16). It was overthrown B. c. 86 by
Ptolemy Lathyrus, and what of it remained
dwindled till the time of the Saracens, af-
ter which its name does not appear in his-
tory. Two or three contemptible villages
now stand amid its magnificent ruins on
both sides of the Nile.
No'ah [rest], son of Lamech and
grandson of Methuselah, in the line of
Setli (Gen. 5 : 25-29). Of Noah himself
we hear nothing till he is five hundred
years old, when it is said he begat three
sons, Sliem, Ham and Japheth. Because
of the grievous and hopeless wickedness
of the world at this time, God resolved to
destroy it by a flood, and communicated
his purpose to Noah, who was bidden to
construct an ark for the saving of himself
and his family. Since he was " a just man "
(Gen. 6 : 9), we cannot doubt tliat from the
day he began the ark to tlie day he entered
it he was engaged in active but, as it proved,
unavailing efforts to win his contempora-
ries from tlieir wickedness and unbelief.
Hence Peter calls him "a preacher of
righteousness" (2 Pet. 2 : 5). Wlien six
hundred years old, with his wife, with his
sons and their wives, eight souls, and witli
a sufficient number of the animal creation
to preserve the several tribes he went into
the ark and "the Lord shut him in " (Gen.
7 : 16). Then came tlie awful flood; then
"were all the fountains of the great deep
broken up, and tlie windows of heaven
were opened, and the rain was upon the
earth forty days and forty nights" (Gen.
7 : 11, 12). For one hundred and fifty
days, or five months, of overwhelming des-
olation the flood prevailed, "and every
living substance was destroyed which was
upon the face of the ground, both man and
cattle, and the creeping things, and tlie
fowl of the heaven ; and they were de-
stroved from the earth ; and Noah onlv
378
NOB— NORTH.
remained alive, and tliey that were with
him in the ark" (Gen. 7 : 23). A year
passed before Noah and his family emerg-
ed from the ark, which had grounded on
tlie high lands of Armenia. His first act
after leaving the ark was to build an altar
and to offer sacrifices — the first altar and
the first sacrifice we read of in Scripture
(Gen. 8 : 20). Becoming a husbandman,
" Noah lived after the flood three hundred
and fifty years ; and all the days of Noah
were nine hundred and fifty years ; and lie
died" (Gen. 9: 28, 29).
Tlie truth of the biblical narrative of
the Deluge is confirmed by the numerous
traditions of other nations which have
j)reserved the memory of a great and de-
structive flood. These traditions point
back to a common centre, whence they
were carried by the different families of
man as they wandered east and west.
There is a medal of Apamea in Phrygia,
struck as late as the reign of Septimins
Severus, in which the Phrygian deluge is
commemorated. This medal represents a
square vessel floating in the water. Through
an opening in it are seen two persons, a
man and a woman. Upon the top of this
vessel is perched a bird, whilst another
flies toward it carrying a branch between
its feet.
Nob [high p/«ce], a priests' city in Ben-
jamin, in sight of Jerusalem ( 1 Sam. 22 :
19 ; Isa. 10 : 32 ; Neh. 11 : 31, 32). Here,
in the time of Saul, were the tabernacle
and tlie ark of the covenant. Here came
David when fleeing from Saul "to Ahim-
elech, the priest," who gave him bread
and a sword (1 Sam. 21 : 1, 4). Doeg the
Edomite informed Saul against Aliime-
lech, and the enraged king slew all the
priests who dwelt in Nob, with their fam-
ilies and domestic animals (1 Sam. 22:
9-19).
No'bah, an Israelite warrior (Num.
32 : 42), who during the conquest of the
territory on the east of Jordan possessed
himself of the town of Kenath and the
villages or hamlets dependent upon it,
and gave them liis own name. For a
certain period after the establishment of
the Israelite rule the new name remained
(Judg. 8 : 11). But it is not again heard
of, and the original appellation, as is usual
in sucli cases, appears to have recovered its
hold, which it has since retained ; for in tlie
slightly modified form of Kanawdl or Kiin-
awdl it is the name of the place to the
present day. See Kenath.
Nod [wandering'l has not been identi-
fied with a country, and is usually regarded
as not designating any particular spot.
Accordingly, the " land of Nod" in which
Cain dwelt is believed to be the wide re-
gion of his wanderings (Gen. 4 : 10).
Noe, the patriarch Noah (Matt. 24 : 37,
38; Luke 3: 30; 17 : 20, 27).
Noph., mentioned in Isa. 19 : 13; Jer.
2 : 10; Ezek. 30 : 13, 10, is satisfactorily
identified witli the ancient Memphis in
Egypt, mentioned in Hos. 9 : 0. See Mem-
phis.
North, one of the four quarters, wheth-
er of the earth, the air or the heavens.
From the local relation, however, in which
the covenant people stood to certain na-
tions in a northerly direction from them,
the term is frequently employed by tlie
propliets to designate those nations them-
selves. Thus in Jer. 1 : 13 the seething-
pot which symbolized the trouble and dis-
aster which was preparing to burst on Jeru-
salem was turned toward the north, because
the Babylonians, whose march would be
from that direction, were to be the instru-
ments of inflicting it (compare Jer. 3:12;
4 : 0 ; 6 : 1). In like manner, in Ezekiel's
vision of the abominations which were
practiced at Jerusalem, it was toward the
north that the image of jealousy appeared,
and also toward the north that tlie women
who wept for Tammuz were sitting (Ezek.
8 : 3, 14), because it was from the coimtries
of Sidon and Byblus, to the nortii, tliat
NOSE-JEWEL— NYMPHAS.
379
those corruptions had made their way
amongst the covenant people. The threat-
enings of judgment also which in later
prophecy were denounced against those
countries themselves sometimes took the
form of utterances against the north ( Jer.
46 : 10 ; Zeph. 2 : 13).
Nose-Jew^el, a ring of metal, some-
times of gold or silver, passed usually
through the riglit nostril and worn by
way of ornament by women in the East
(Isa. 3 : 21). In Gen. 24 : 22 and Ex. 35 :
22 it is improperly rendered an "ear-ring ;"
in Ezek. 16 : 12 it is designated " a jewel
on the forehead." Upon it are strung
beads, coral or jewels. In Egypt it is
now almost confined to the lower classes.
See Jewel.
Num^ber, The Hebrews, like most
Oriental nations, used the letters of the
alphabet for numbers. The variation of
copyists in writing the letters used for
numbers explains many of tlie inconsist-
encies in numerical statement found in
the historical portions of Scripture. But
besides their numerical value, numbers in
Scripture have a symbolical or typical
value. Three is regarded as a specially
complete number (Num. 6 : 24-26 ; Isa. 6 :
3; Acts 10:16). Four, from the four
cardinal points, symbolizes universality
(Dan. 7:2; Rev. 7 : 1). Seven (3+4)
is associated in a very special sense with
entireness (Lev. 26 : 24 ; Matt. 12 : 45 ; Rev.
4 : 5). Twelve (3 x 4) is connected quite re-
markably with the history of human re-
demption (Gen. 35 : 22 ; 49 : 28 ; Matt. 10 :
2 ; Rev. 21 : 14, 21 ; 22 : 2). Other num-
bers than these have in Scripture a sig-
nificant, symbolical value, but what that
value really is may not be always clear.
Upon such a subject there is great danger
of overstraining truth and of degenerat-
ing into subtle trifling.
Num^bers, Book of, the fourth in
order of the books of the Old Testament.
It takes its name in the Septuagint and
Vulgate (whence our "Numbers") from
the double numbering or census of the Is-
raelites, the first of which is given in chap-
ters 1-4, and the second in chapter 26. The
book may be said to contain generally the
liistory of the Israelites from the time of
their leaving Sinai, in the second year
after the Exodus, till their arrival at the
borders of the Promised Land in the fif-
teenth year of their journeyings. It con-
sists of the following principal divisions :
1. The preparations for the departure from
Sinai (ch. 1 to ch. 10 : 10). 2. The jour-
ney from Sinai to the borders of Canaan
(ch. 10 : 11 to ch. 14 : 45). 3. A brief no-
tice of laws given and events which tran-
spired during the thirty-seven years' wan-
dering in the wilderness (ch. 15 to ch. 19 :
22). 4. The history of the last year, from
the second arrival of the Israelites in Ka-
desh till they reach " the plains of Moab
by Jordan near Jericho " (ch. 20 to ch. 36 :
13).
Nun, the father of Joshua (Ex. 33 : 11).
His descent from Ephraim is recorded in
I Chron. 7. Nothing is known of his life,
which, doubtless, was spent in Egypt.
Nurse. In ancient times the position
of the nurse was one of much honor and
importance (Gen. 24 : 59 ; 35 : 8 ; 2 Sam.
4 : 4 ; 2 Kings 11 : 2). The same term is
applied to a foster-father or mother (Num.
II : 12; Ruth 4: 16; Isa. 49 : 23).
Nuts. The Hebrew word translated
thus in Gen. 43 : 11 denotes the fruit of
the pistachio tree, for which Syria and
Palestine have been long famous. In the
Song (6: 11) a different Hebrew word is
rendered "nuts," and is supposed to des-
ignate walnuts. According to Josephus the
walnut tree was formerly common, and grew
most luxuriantly around the Lake of Gen-
nesaret.
Nym'phas, a wealthy and zealous
Christian in Laodicea (Col. 4 : 15). His
house was used as a place of assembly for
the church.
380
OAK— OBED-EDOM.
O.
Oak. Six Hebrew words, which appear
to be various forms of the same root, occur
in the Old Testament as tlie names of sev-
eral varieties of the oak. There is much
difficulty in determining the exact mean-
ings of these words. Some of them are
thought to indicate the terebinth or turpen-
tine tree, which abounds in Syria and Pal-
estine ; others of them unquestionably in-
dicate the oak proper, but without such de-
scriptive particulars as would enable one
to state the specific difTerences. As the
terebinth and the oak are large, wide-
spreading, majestic trees, they were notice-
able landmarks and served to fix the lo-
cality of important events (Gen. 35 : 8;
Josh. 24 : 26; Judg. 6 : 11 ; 2 Sam. 18 :
9; 1 Kings 13 : 14; 1 Chron. 10 : 12).
Oath, a solemn affirmation, with an ap-
peal to God for the truth of what is affirm-
ed (Heb. 6 : 16). The forms of adjuration
mentioned in Scripture are these : 1 . Lift-
ing up the hand (Gen. 14 : 22 ; Deut. 32 :
40) ; 2. Putting the hand under the thigh
of the person to whom the promise was
made (Gen. 24 : 2, 3 ; 47 : 29) ; 3. Stand-
ing before the altar or in a position look-
ing toward the temple (1 Kings 8 : 31 ; 2
Chron. 6 : 22) ; 4. Dividing a victim and
passing between or distributing the pieces
(Gen. 15 : 10, 17 ; Jer. 34 : 18). The sanc-
tity of the oath was carefully inculcated by
the Law, and the crime of perjury was vis-
ited witli the same punishment which was
due to the crime respecting which the false
witness testified (Lev. 19 : 12; Deut. 19 :
16-19 ; Ezek. 16 : 59 ; Zech. 8 : 17). Friv-
olous oaths, which in our Lord's time had
become common, were by him strongly con-
demned (Matt. 5 : 33-37 ; 23 : 16-22). The
stringent nature of the Roman military
oath and the penalties attached to the in-
fraction of it are alluded to in the New
Testament (Acts 12 : 19 ; 16 : 27 ; 27 : 42).
The Christian practice in the matter of
oaths was founded on the Jewish, the oath
on the Gospels being an imitation of tlie
Jewish custom of placing the liands on the
book of the Law.
O-ba-di'ah [servant of Jehovah], the
name of twelve persons mentioned in
Scripture, of whom two only need be
singled out.
1. A godly man and principal officer in
the household of Ahab, king of Israel, by
whose interposition one hundred prophets
of the Lord were secreted from Jezebel
and supplied with food (1 Kings 18 : 3,
4).
2. The fourth of the twelve minor proph-
ets (Ob. 1). As to the time he exercised
the prophetic function we know nothing
with certainty, but the brief prophecy
which bears his name furnishes some evi-
dence that he was a contemporary of Jere-
miah, and wrote after the first but before
the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebu-
chadnezzar. The book of his prophecy
is a sustained denunciation of the Edom-
ites, melting into a vision of the future
glories of Zion.
0''bed. [servant, i. e. of Jehovah], son
of Boaz and Ruth the Moabitess (Ruth 4 :
17). Wherever in Scripture he is men-
tioned he is uniformly described as the fa-
ther of Jesse.
O'bed-E'dom [servant of Edom], a
Levite, said to be a Gillite (2 Sam. 6:10,
11), that is, a native of the Levitical city
of Gath-Rimmon in Manasseh, which was
assigned to tlie Kohathites (Josh. 21 : 25).
After the death of Uzzah, the ark, which
was being carried from the house of Abin-
adab in Gibeah to the city of David, was
left in the house of Obed-Edom, where it
remained three months. The blessing
OBEISANCE— OFFERING.
381
which came on the house of Obed-Edora
for the ark's sake encouraged David to
remove it to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6 : 12).
Obed-Edom and his sons were appointed
keepers of the doors of the tabernacle (1
Chron. 16 : 38) and of the sacred vessels
(2 Chron. 25 : 24).
O-bei'sance, an act of respect and
courtesy (Ex. 18 : 7 ; 1 Kings 1 : 16). See
Bowing.
Ob-la^tion. See Offering.
O^ded [lifting up], the name of two
men.
1. The father of Azariah, the prophet in
the reign of Asa, king of Judah (2 Chron.
15: 1).
2. A prophet of Jehovah in Samaria at
the time of Pekah's invasion of Judah.
On the return of the victorious army with
the two hundred thousand cai)tives of .Ju-
dah and Jerusalem, Oded met them and
prevailed upon them to let the captives go
free (2 Chron. 28 : 9-15).
Of-fence', a trap-stick, a cause of
stumbling. Tliis term in the Scrip-
tures often means that which causes or is
likely to cause one to sin. Our Lord is
called a "rock of offence" (Rom. 9 : 33),
and the gospel is styled "the offence of
the cross" (Gal. 5: 11), in the sense that
the Jews made them an occasion of ofTence
because they did not accord with their no-
tions. We are bidden in Matt. 5 : 29, 30
not to allow the right hand or the right
eye to " offend " us ; that is, to cause us to
sin. In like manner, the expression " to
offend one of our Lord's little ones" (Matt.
18:6) has the sense of putting a stumbling-
block in one's way, and of thus causing
one to fall or to commit an offence. The
word offence is also used in the strict sense
of a sin or a transgression of God's law
(Rom. 5 : 15, 17, 20).
Of'fer-ing, anything given to God in
worship (Gen. 4 : 3, 4). The offerings re-
ferred to in Scripture, and especially those
required by the Levitical Law, are com-
monly divided into two classes, bloody and
bloodless. Bloody offerings were from the
animal kingdom and, as sacrifices, involv-
ed the destruction of animal life or blood-
shedding ; bloodless offerings were from
the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, and
as gifts expressed either the supplication
or the thanksgiving of the offerer. The
bloody offerings were of oxen, sheep, goats,
turtle-doves and young pigeons ; the blood-
less offerings were of corn, meal, bread,
honey, incense, salt, silver, gold and the
like.
Of bloody offerings there were four
kinds — Burnt, Sin, Trespass and Peace.
Burnt-offerings were slain animals, the
blood of which was sprinkled or dashed
upon the altar in atonement for sin, and
the pieces of which were wholly consum-
ed by fire (Lev. 1 : 2-17). Sin-offerings
were animal sacrifices in atonement for
sin, offered by the high priest for himself
(Ex. 29 : 10-14), for the nation (Ex. 30 :
10; Lev. 4:3; 16:9-16), for a ruler
(Lev. 4 : 22-26), or for a private person
(Lev. 4 : 27-35). Trespass-offerings were
sacrifices presented by an individual who
had committed any trespass or had con-
tracted any ceremonial defilement (Lev.
5 : 1-19). Peace-offerings were sacrifices
in the nature of thank-offerings for mer-
cies received, consisting of slain animals
with various appendages (Lev. 3 : 1-17 ;
7 : 11-21).
Of bloodless offerings, the kinds regu-
lated by law were two — Meat-offerings and
Drink-offerings. Meat-offerings accompa-
nied most of the animal sacrifices (Ex.
29 : 40, 41), and were gifts of fine flour,
cakes of unleavened bread, with oil or
first-fruits or green ears of corn dried
(Lev. 2 : 1-16). Drink-oflferings were
also appendages to animal sacrifices ; they
are minutely described in Ex. 29 : 40, 41 ;
Num. 28 : 7-31 ; 29 : 6-39.
Besides the offerings, bloody and blood-
less, thus adverted to, there were Heave-
382
OG— OINTMENT.
offerings, Wave-offerings and Freev.'ill-offer-
ings. The heave-offering was either part
of the animal sacrificed, as the shoulder
of the victim heaved up toward heaven
as a token of devotement to God (Ex. 29 :
27), or bread (Lev. 7 : 12-14), or the first
produce of new corn (Num. 15 : 19-21),
or the tithes (Num. 18 : 19-29), or the
captives in war, beasts and men (Num.
31 : 28-41). The wave-ofiering was also
a part of the sacrifice, and was so called
because it was waved before the Lord by
the priest in acknowledgment of the di-
vine gifts and blessings, especially the
first-fruits of harvest (Ex. 29 : 22-27 ;
Lev. 23 : 10-20). The freewill-offering
was a voluntary gift of something valu-
able in token of dependence and service
(Lev. 22:18, 19, 29; Num. 1-5:3-12;
Deut. 16 : 10-15; Ezra 8 : 25-28).
All these offerings were typical of the
better Christian dispensation, and were
preparatory thereto. They were fitted to
impress the worshipers with a sense of
God's holiness and their own sinfulness,
of the necessity of atonement for sin and
of salvation from sin. They were fitted
also to keep alive in all worshipers
the feeling of entire dependence on
God, and to furnish an expression
of the hearty gratitude due to God
for the countless benefits of his prov-
idence and grace.
Og [gicntl, an Amoritish king
of Bashan whose rule extended over
sixty cities (Josh. 13 : 30). He was
one of the last representatives of the
giant race of Rephaim, and was, with
his children and his people, defeated
and exterminated by the Israelites at Edrei
immediately after the conquest of Sihon
(Deut 3 : 1-13 ; Num. 32 : 33). His iron
bedstead was preserved as a memorial of
his huge stature (Deut. 3:11).
Oil. Of the numerous substances, ani-
mal and vegetable, which were known to
the ancients as yielding oil, the olive-
berry is the one of which most frequent
mention is made in Scripture ( Ex. 27 : 20 ;
Deut. 8:8; 28 : 40). Oil, especially the
olive, was prized as an article of food in
Canaan (Lev. 7:10; Deut. 12:17; 2
Chron. 2 : 10). It was also used for lamps
(Ex. 25 : 6; 27 : 20), and on festive and
joyous occasions for ointment (Ps. 23 : 5 ;
92: 10; 104: 15).
Oil Tree. The Hebrew word thus
rendered occurs in Neh. 8 : 15 (where onr
Authorized Version has " pine branches "),
in 1 Kings 6 : 23 (where it is rendered
"olive tree"), and in Isa. 41 : 19 (Avhere
it is translated " oil tree"). With the ex-
ception of the passage in Nehemlah it in-
dicates the olive tree, and where, as in said
passage, it is mentioned as distinct from
the olive tree, it may perhaps be identified
with the zncknm tree of the Arabs, the
Balanites ^Egyptinca, a well-known and
abundant shrub or small tree in the plain
of Jordan. The zackum oil is held in
high repute by the Arabs for its medicinal
properties.
Oint'ment. The principal uses of
ointments and perfumed oils were these :
Alabaster Vessels for Ointments.
1. Cosmetic (Ruth 3:3; Esth. 2:12;
Prov. 27 : 9, 16 ; Eccles. 7 : 1 ; 9 : 8) ; 2.
Funereal (Matt. 26 : 12; Mark 14 : 3, 8;
Luke 23 : 56 ; John 12 : 3, 7 ; 19 : 40) ; 3.
Medicinal (Isa. 1:6; Jer. 8 : 22 ; John 9 :
6; Rev. 3 : 18) ; 4. Ritual (Ex. 30 : 23,
33 ; 37 : 29 ; 40 : 9, 15). The person whose
business it was to compound ointments was
OLD TESTAMENT— OLIVES, MOUNT OF.
38c
(Ex.
commonly called an "apothecary"
30: 25; Eceles. 10 : 1).
Old Tes-ta^ment. See Scriptures.
Ol'ive. The olive tree is one of the
chief vegetable products of Palestine. It
The Olive-Branch, with Fruit.
is of a moderate height, with knotty,
gnarled tnxnk and a smooth ash-colored
bark on the younger trees and the branches.
The leaves are in pairs, lanceolate in shape,
of a dull green on the upper and hoary on
the under surface. The flowers, white,
appear in little tufts in the axils of the
leaves. The fruit is an elliptical drupe,
at first of a green color, but gradually be-
coming purple, and even black, witii a
hard, stony kernel. It blossoms in June,
and ripens from August to September.
It grows slowly, but lives to an immense
Its look is singularly indicative of
Those who see the olive
for the first time are apt to be disappoint-
ed by the dusty color of its foliage, but
those who become familiar with it find an
inexpressible charm in the rippling
changes of its slender gray-green
leaves. It is more closely associat-
ed with the history and civilization
of man than any other tree. Many
of its scriptural associations are sin-
gularly poetical. When the waters
of the Flood began to retire its foli-
age is the earliest that is mentioned
by name (Gen. 8:11). In the ear-
liest allegory ( Judg. 9:8, 9) it is
the most prominent tree. With
David (Ps. 52 : 8 ; 128 : 3) it is the
emblem of prosperity and the di-
vine blessing. With the later
prophets (Jer. 11 : 16; IIos. 14 : 6)
it is the symbol of beauty, luxu-
riance and strength. Among all
civilized nations the olive-branch
has always been the accepted sign
of peace. The olive is uniformly
enumerated among the valued trees
of Palestine (Deut. 6:11; 8:8;
28 : 40). The olive oil of Pales-
tine was highly prized, and, besides
the immense quantities required at
home for food, for burning in lamps
and for the ritual service, was large-
ly exported to Egypt and Phoenicia
(IIos. 12 : 1 ; Ezek. 27 : 17 ). The kings of
Israel raised a part of their revenue in oil
(2 Chron. 32 : 2S). The wood of the tree
was used by Solomon for making the cher-
ubim and for doors and posts " for the en-
tering of the oracle" (1 Kings 6 : 23, 31,
32).
OPives, Mount of, and OPi-vet,
tlie ridge east of Jerusalem, separated
from the city by the narrow ravine of the
Kidron, the Valley of Jeboshaphat (Zech.
14 : 4). It derives its name from the
olive trees which once abounded on it
384
OLYMPAS— ON.
(Neh. 8 : 15). It is about a mile long
from north to south, and presents several
summits or slight elevations above the
general level. Up its slopes David went
weeping when he fled from Jerusalem at
the outbreak of Absalom's rebellion (2
Sam. 15 : 30). Upon one of its summits
Solomon built " a higli place for Chemosh
the abomination of Moab" (1 Kings 11 :
7), and this summit, the most southern
one, was in after-times, on account of the
idolati'ous rites there practiced, commonly
designated "the Mount of Corruption" (2
Kings 23 : 13). The chief interest of Ol-
ivet, however, is derived from New Testa-
ment associations. It was a favorite resort
of our Lord (John 8:1; Luke 21 : 37).
Down its side our Lord rode when making
his triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Matt.
21 : 1 ; Mark 11:1; Luke 19 : 29, 37).
Here our Lord sat when teaching his dis-
ciples, and here he foretold the ruin of the
Holy City (Matt. 24 : 3; Mark 13 : 1-3).
Hither, after his last passover on the fear-
ful night of his agony, our Lord came
(Matt. 26 : 30 ; Mark 14 : 26 ; Luke 22 :
39; John 18 : 1), and hence, forty days
after his resurrection, in the full view of
his disciples, our Lord ascended into
heaven (Acts 1 : 9-12).
O-lym'pas, a Christian at Rome to
whom the apostle Paul sent salutations
(Rom. 16 : 15).
O'mar [eloquent'}, son of Eliphaz, the
first-born of Esau and " duke " or phylarch
of Edom (Gen. 36 : 11, 15; 1 Chron. 1 :
36).
O'me-ga [fi], the last letter of the
Greek alphabet, as Alplia [A] is the first.
It is used metaphorically to denote the end
(Rev. 1 : 8, 11).
O'mer, a Hebrew dry measure, sup-
posed to be equal to about six pints.
Om'ri, the name of four men, of whom
one only need be mentioned. This one
was commander-in-chief of the armies of
Elah, king of Israel (1 Kings 16 : 16).
When Elah was murderod by Zimri at
Tirzah, then capital of the northern king-
dom, Omri was engaged in the siege of
Gibbethon. As soon as the army heard
of Elali's death they proclaimed Omri
king. Thereupon he broke up the siege
of Gibbethon and attacked Tirzah, where
Zimri, as king of Israel, was holding his
court. The city was taken, and Zimri,
after a reign of seven days, perished in
the flames of the palace. Omri, however,
was not allowed to establish his dynasty
witliout a struggle against Tibni, whom
"half the people" (1 Kings 16 : 21) de-
sired to raise to the throne. The civil
war lasted four years. After the defeat
and death of Tibni, Omri reigned six
years at Tirzah, and then removed his
capital to Samaria, the city which he
founded, where he reigned six years more.
I He was a vigorous and unscrupulous ruler,
! and manifested an especial anxiety to
j strengthen his dynasty by intercourse
and alliances with foreign states.
On yifjhf, the sxn'], one of the oldest
cities in the world. It was situated in
Lower Egypt, some ten miles north-east
fi-om the present Cairo. It is fii-st men-
tioned in Gen. 41 : 45, where it is said
that Pharaoh gave to Joseph for his wife
the daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of On.
The Septuagint translates On by Heliopolis,
which means in Greek "the city of the
sun," and in referring to the same city
Jeremiah (43 : 13) designates it Beth-She-
mesh, which means in Hebrew the " house
or temple of the sun." According to He-
rodotus, it was one of the four great Egyp-
tian cities in which were held religious
festivals attended by imposing processions
and solemn ceremonies. In it the observ-
ance was in honor of the sun. For gene-
rations On was the chief seat of Egyptian
science and the school to which many il-
lustrious Greeks resorted. Its site is now
marked by low mounds, the only remnant
of its ancient magnificence being a solitary
ONAN— OPHRAH,
385
obelisk of red granite, sixty-eight feet high
and covered with hieroglyphics.
O'nan, the second son of Judah by
the Canaanitess, "the daughter of Shua"
(Gen. 38 : 4 ; 1 Chron. 2:3). He and his
brother Er, because of their wickedness "in
the sight of the Lord," were smitten by the
Lord with sudden death (Gen. 3S : 7, 10),
before the family of Jacob went down into
Egypt (Gen. 4G : 12 ; Num. 26 : 19).
O-nes'i-mus [profitable], the name
of the slave in whose behalf Paul wrote
the Epistle to Philemon. He was a na-
tive, or at least an inhabitant, of Coloss3
(Col. 4:9). Fleeing from his master and
taking refuge in Rome, where in the midst
of its vast population he could best be con-
cealed, he was brought into contact with the
apostle, and was savingly converted to
Christ. He returned to his master with
Paul's beautiful and touching letter ; and,
although we have no direct information
of the fact, we cannot but think that he
was at once advanced to the dignity of a
freedman and to the honor of " a brother
beloved" (Philem. 16, 17).
O-ne-siph'o-rus [profit-bringi.nc/l, a
believer of Ephesus who came to Rome
during the second imprisonment of Paul in
that city (2 Tim. 1 : 16-18 ; 4 : 19), and
who in behalf of the apostle displayed a
noble courage and a rare generosity.
On'ion. The word in its plural form
occurs only in Num. 11:5. From time
immemorial onions have been a favorite ar-
ticle of food among the Egyptians. The on-
ions of Egypt are much milder in flavor and
less pungent than those in this country.
O'no [strong], a town of Benjamin (1
Chron. 8 : 12). After the Captivity it was
reoccupied and grouped with Lod (Ezra
2 : 33 ; Neh. 7 : 37). A plain near it bore
its name (Neh. 6 : 2). It was probably
near Lod or Lydda.
On'y-cha. The word occurs only in
Ex. 30 : 34 as one of the ingredients of
the sacred perfume. It is thought to be
2j
the operculum of a shell-fish {Strombvs
lentiginosus).
On'yx, the translation in our Author-
ized Version of the Hebrew word shohani,
but in the passages where the word occurs
(Gen. 2:12; Ex. 28 : 9, 20 ; 1 Chron. 29 :
2 ; Ezek. 28 : 13 and other places) there is
nothing to aid in determining its significa-
tion. The balance of authority is in favor
of some variety of the onyx.
O'phel [the hill, swelling mound], a part
of ancient Jerusalem surrounded and for-
tified by a separate wall (2 Chron. 27 : 3 ;
33 : 14; Neh. 3 : 26). It is a low ridge,
extending southward from the temple-area
to the Pool of Siloam, between the deep
Valley of Jehoshaphat on the east and
the shallower Tyropoeon or Valley of the
Cheesemakers on the west. It is about fif-
teen hundred and fifty feet long by two
hundred and ninety broad, and its flat top
is partly tilled and partly planted with olive
and other fruit trees.
O'phir, celebrated as a place of trade,
and referred to in about one dozen places
in the Old Testament as particularly dis-
tinguished for the purity and plenty of its
gold (Job 28 : 16). Thither Solomon de-
spatched his ships, which returned with
gold, precious stones, sandal-wood, silver,
ivory, apes and peacocks ( 1 Kings 9 : 28 ;
10 :'ll ; 2 Chron. 8 : 18 ; 9 : 10, 21). Its
geographical site is much disputed. Whilst
more than a score of countries have been
vigorously advocated, the best critics now
hesitate only between Africa, Arabia and
India.
Oph'rah [female fawn], the name of
two towns.
1. A town in Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 23 ; 1
Sam. 13 : 17). Eusebius places it five miles
east of Bethel, and in keeping with this
Dr. Robinson found a town called el-Tai-
yibeh, situated on a conical hill in the
midst of ancient ruins and commanding
a fine view of the valley of the Jordan.
2. A town in Manasseh, west of the Jor-
386
ORACLE— ORNAN.
clan, the native place of Gideon and the
scene of his exploits against Baal after
the angel of the Lord had apprised him
of his selection as the deliverer of Israel
(Jndg. () : 11-'J4). Here also, after his
accession to power, Gideon resided, and
here he was buried (Judg. 8 : 27, 32).
The site of it is not known.
Or'a-cle, the holy place in the temple
whence God made his special communica-
tions (1 Kings 8 : 6). The word was also
employed to express what God spoke, that
is, his word or revelation ( 2 Sam. 16 : 23 ;
Acts 7 : 38 ; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5:12).
Or-dain', Or-dain'ed. These words
are used in the New Testament to denote
the act of setting one apart to an or-
der or office of the Christian ministry
(Mark 3 : 14; Acts 1 : 22; 14 : 23; 1
Tim. 2:7; Tit. 1 : 5). The sum of New
Testament teaching in respect to ordina-
tion may be conveniently stated thus : 1 .
Our Lord ordained, in the sense of appoint-
ing his disciples to ministerial service* by
his own authority, and without employing
any exterior ceremony. 2. In the election
of Matthias to the place in the apostolic
office from which Judas fell it was deem-
ed sufficient to ascertain by prayer and the
lot whom the Lord had chosen ; and in
like manner, without any exterior cere-
mony, " he was numbered with the eleven
apostles." 3. The laying on of hands as
a ceremony of ministerial ordination was
first practiced by the apostles in the case
of the seven deacons, in immediate se-
quence of the miracle of the Pentecost.
4. It was subsequently practiced in the or-
dination of Paul and Barnabas and the
elders of the New Testament Church. 5.
No account is given of any one having
been ordained to the office of bishop in
distinction from tliat of elder ; still less is
there any intimation that bishops were or
were to become the only officers in the
Church competent to ordain ministerial
candidates, whereas elders were frequ?ntly
if not always associated even with apostles
in the act of ordination.
Such, iis to form and ceremony, was
ministerial ordination as practiced in the
apostolic Church. As to effijct, it claimed
only to set apart, publicly and solemnly,
to some specific service and office in the
church, men approved and called of
God. No intimation is given that or-
dination conferred priestly functions or
prerogatives in any form or degree, while
on the other hand various cautions are
given, both in the example and precepts
of the apostles, against such an idea.
O'reb [a rnreni, tlie name of a sheik
of the Midianites, who with Zeeb ("the
wolf") invaded Israel, and with terrible
slaughter was overthrown by ( xideon (Judg.
7 : 25; Ps. 83: 11 ; Isa. 10: 26).
O'reb, the Rock [the raven's cragl,
the place where the men of Ephraim put
to death Oreb, a prince of Midian (Judg.
7 : 25; Isa. 10 : 26). Its locality is un-
known.
Or'gan. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in our Authorized Version probably
denotes a pipe or perforated wind instru-
ment. In Gen. 4 : 21 it appears to be a
general term for all wind instruments.
In Job 21 : 12 it indicates wind instru-
ments as distinguislied from stringed in-
struments (harp) and instruments of per-
cussion (timbrel), the three possible kinds
of musical instruments.
O-ri'on. The Greek name of a bril-
liant constellation seen in the southern
hemisphere about the middle of Novem-
ber, called by the Arabs " the Giant," and
well known to the Hebrews under the
name Kedl (Job 9:9; Amos 5 : 8). The
"giant" of Oriental astronomy was Nim-
rod the mighty hunter, who for his impi-
ety was fabled to have been bound in the
sky — a notion echoed by the Hebrew name
of the constellation and by the expression
"bands of Orion " in Job 38 : 31.
Or'nan, the form in which the name
OEPAH— OUCHES.
387
of the Jebusite king, who in the older
record of tiie book of Samuel is called
Araunah, is given 1 Chron. 21 : 15-18, 20-
25, 28; 2 Chron. 3:1. See Araunah.
Or'pah [a hind'], a Moabitish woman,
wife of Chilion, son of Naomi, and thereby
sister-in-law to Ruth (Rntli 1 : 4, 14).
O'see (Rom. 9 : 25), a form of the name
of the prophet Hosea.
O-she'a (Num. 13:8), a form of the
name of Joshua.
Os'pray. The Hebrew word thus
rendered occurs in Lev. 11:13 and Dent.
14 : 12 as the name of some unclean bird.
It . is well rendered ospray for European
readers as an approximate title. Tris-
tram would make it the short-toed eagie,
a fine bird, of majestic flight, by prefer-
ence a reptile-feeder; but he judges that
the term 'usniyeh includes also other spe-
cies of eagles.
Os'si-frage, tlie name of some un-
clean bird associated with the ospray in
Lev. 11 : 13 and Deut. 14 : 12. The He-
brew name of the bii'd literally means the
"breaker," and so is well z-epresented by
the ossifrage or " bone-breaker," the Lam-
mevfjeyer or bearded vulture, one of the
largest of the birds of prey.
Os'trich, the bird of the desert— the
camel-bird, as the Greeks term it. Three
Hebrew words are used to designate it.
1. The first word, a feminine noun, has
the sense "daughter of greediness," and
refers to the voracity of the ostrich, a well-
known characteristic. Tliis word occurs
in Lev. 11 : 16; Deut. 14 : 15 ; Job 30 :
29 ; Isa. 34 : 13 ; 43 : 20 ; Mic. 1 : 8, where
in our Authorized Version it is erroneous-
ly rendered " owl." 2. The second word,
the masculine form of the preceding fem-
inine noun, occurs in Lam. 4 : 3, where the
context shows that the ostrich is intended.
3. The third word, derived from a verb
which means to wail, in allusion to the
bird's cry at night, occurs in Job 39 : 13,
where it is clear from the whole passage
(13-18) that ostriches, and not "pea-
cocks," as in our Authorized Version, are
intended. Ostriches are gregarious, from
families consisting of a male with one
or several female birds, and perhaps a
brood or two of young, up to troops of
near a hundred. They are the largest of
all known birds, and perhaps the swiftest
of all running animals. They have also
enormous strength. The feathers which
are so much prized are the long plumes
of their wings. The best of these feathers
come from Barbary and West ^Vfrica.
Oth^ni-el [my strenr/th is (Joe/], the first
judge in Israel after the death of Joshua.
He was the son of Kenaz, the brother of Ca-
leb, of the tribe of Judah, and for his valor
in seizing the city of Debir or Kirjath-
Sepher was rewarded by the gift of Ach-
sah, Caleb's daughter, in marriage (Josh.
15 : 16-19 ; Judg. 1 : 11-15; 3 : 8-11).
Oucli''es [settings], the sockets for fas-
tening the precious stones in the shoulder-
388
OVEN— OX.
pieces of the high priest's ephod (Ex. 28 :
11, 14, 2-5; 39: 6, 13, 16).
Ov'en. The Eastern oven is of two
kinds, fixed and portable. The former
is found only in towns where regular
bakers are employed (Hos. 7:4); the
latter is adapted to the nomad state. It
consists of a large jar made of clay, about
three feet high and widening toward the
by the Hebrew term some animal be desig-
nated, the screech-owl {strix flammea) may
Portable Oven.
bottom, witli a hole for the extraction of
the ashes. Each household possessed such
an article (Ex. 8 : 3), and it was only in
times of extreme dearth that the same
oven sufficed for several families (Lev.
26 : 26). It was heated with dry twigs,
sometimes with grass (Matt. 6 : 30), and
the loaves were placed both inside and
outside of it.
0"wl. Several words in Hebrew are
rendered "owl" in our Authorized Ver-
sion, some erroneously, some correctly.
For the passages wliere " owl " should be
"ostrich." see Ostrich. In Lev. 11 :
17 ; Deut. 14 : 16 ; Ps. 102 : 6 ; Isa. 34 :
11, 14, 15, several species of the owl are
most probably referred to, but the specific
differences cannot be determined.
In Isa. 34 : 14 our Authorized Version
has " screech-owl " in the text and " niglit-
monster " in the margin. According to the
rabbins tlie word tlnis rendered {lilith) de-
noted a nocturnal spectre in the form of a
beautiful woman, that carried off children
at night and destroyed them. If, however,
Owl.
well be supposed to represent it, for this
bird is found in Bible lands, and is, as is
well known, a frequent inhabiter of ruined
places. The nocturnal cry of this bird is
so startling that it would naturally impress
itself on the minds of men as a fit image
of solitude, desolation and terror.
Ox, In the rural economy of the
Israelites, as in that of the ancient Ori-
entals generally, no animals were held
in higher esteem than those of the ox-
tribe {Boridcp). Oxen were used for
ploughing (Deut. 22 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 14),
for treading out corn ( Deut. 25:4; Hos.
10 : 11), for draught purposes, when they
were generally yoked in paii-s ( Num. 7 :
3; 1 Sam, 6:7), as beasts of burden (1
Chron. 12 : 40) ; their flesh was eaten
(Deut. 14 : 4 ; 1 Kings 1:9); they were
used in the sacrifices (Ex. 29 : 10; Lev. 1 :
3) ; and their females (kine, cows) supplied
milk, butter, etc. (Deut. 32: 14; 2 Sam.
17 : 29 ; Isa. 7 : 22). Thus it appears that
the animals of the ox-tribe were those upon
which the Hebrews most relied, and to
which tliey were required by the Law to
extend a special care and protection (Ex.
23 : 12 ; Deut. 5:14; 25 : 4). See Bull,
Bullock ; also Cattle.
PADAN-AEAM— PALM TREE.
389
P.
Pa'dan-A'ram {the field or plain of
Aram or Syria), same as Mesopotamia
(which see).
Paint. The use of cosmetic dyes has
prevailed in all ages in Eastern countries.
Among the Hebrews, however, the notices
of it are few, and in each instance it seems
in use to have been a meretricious art,
unworthy of a woman of high character.
Thus, .Jezebel "painted her face" (2 Kings
9 : 30) ; thus, too, Jeremiah (4 : 30) and
Ezekiel (23 : 40) represent painting as
the characteristic of a harlot. The dye
commonly used was a mixture of burned
or pulverized antimony and zinc, which
was softened with oil and applied to the
eyes by a pencil or short smooth style of
ivory, silver or wood, which was drawn
between the closed eyelids. By this pro-
cess a black ring was formed around the
eyelids. The effect was an apparent en-
largement of the eye.
Pal'ace, the dwelling of a king (2
Chron. 9 : H). The word is often used
in this sense in the Old Testament. In
the New Testament it is specially used
of the residence of the Roman govern-
or (which was either the palace built by
Herod or the fortress of Antonia, and
which is called in Mark 15 : 16 "the
prsetorium") and of the dwelling of the
liigh priest (John 18 : 15). The word
"palace" in Phil. 1 : 13 means the prse-
torium at Rome, the barracks of the impe-
rial life-guards, where state prisoners like
Paul were kept pending trial. See Judg-
ment-hall.
Pal'es-ti-na and Palestine. The
first of these forms occurs in our Author-
ized Version three times (Ex. 15 : 14; Isa.
14 : 29, 31) ; the second but once (Joel 3 :
4). In each case the Hebrew word is Pel-
esheth, which in Ps. 60 : 8 ; 83 : 7 ; 87 : 4 ;
1 108 : 9 is rendered either "Philistia" or
" Philistines." Hence Palestine means
Philistia or the land of the Philistines ;
that is, according to the sense of " Philis-
tines," the land of stranc/ers or emigrants.
It became afterward the designation of
the whole land of the Israelites, and is
now a well-known name of the Holy
Land. Celebrated as this country is, and
pre-eminent above all lands in its sacred
associations, it is of inconsiderable extent,
being in length not more than one hun-
dred and thirty miles, and in breadth on
the south seventy miles, on the north
about forty miles, with a superficial area
of seven thousand one hundred and fifty
square miles. Although in its most flour-
ishing periods it was a land flowing with
milk and honey, rich in agricultural prod-
ucts and with a teeming and active popu-
lation, it is now for the most part solitary
and barren, exhibiting in its ruined cities,
its untilled fields and its oppressed and
miserable inhabitants a striking contra.st
to its former condition. War, revolution,
earthquake and oppression have combined
with the ignorance and sins of its inhabit-
ants to render it what it is. Peace, good
government and godliness may restore it
to something of its former fruitfulness.
It lias in Scripture several names, of
which Palestine and the Holy Land are
the two in most common use at the pres-
ent day. See Canaan.
Palra'er-worm. The Hebrew word
thus rendered occurs only in Joel 1:4; 2 :
25 ; Amos 4 : 9, and denotes not a locust,
as some have maintained, but a caterpil-
lar.
Palm Tree. Tlie Hebrew name of
this tree (tamdr) embodies the leading
characteristics of it — namely, the erect-
ness, tallness, straightness of its stem. It
390
PALSY— PARABLE.
grows to a great height, from sixty to one
hundred feet ; its cylindrical stem, un-
broken by branches, is canopied at the top
with a chister of enormous leaves, some
fan-sliaped, some feathery, in the shadow
of wliich are sus-
pended great clus-
ters of fruit ; it is
always green, ma-
jestic, beautiful ; it
bears fruit, the
"date," from six to
ten years after plant-
ing, and in accord-
ance with the allu-
sion in Ps. 92 : 14
continues to be pro-
ductive for one hun-
dred years. The
Arabs enumerate
three hundred and
sixty uses to which
the different parts
of the palm tree
may be applied. A tree with such pecu-
liarities could not fail to attract the atten-
tion of the writers of any country where
it is indigenous, and hence it is alluded to
Palm Tree.
in Scripttn-e very often : Ex. 15
; Lev.
23:40; Deut. 34 : 3; Judg. 1:16; 3:13;
4 : 5 ; 1 Kings 6 : 29 ; Ps. 92 : 12 ; Jer. 10 :
5; John 12: 13; Rev. 7 : 9.
Pal'sy, or Pa-ral'y-sis, a disorder
which deprives the limbs of sensation or
motion, or both, and which, since its im-
mediate cause is a compression on the
brain, is not infrequently attended with
imbecility of mind. The cure by our
Lord of a number of paralytics is record-
ed in the Gospels: Matt. 4 : 24; 8 : 6, 13;
9 : 2, 6 ; Mark 2 : 3, 4 ; Luke 5:18; John
5: 5.
Pam-phyl'i-a [of every mce], a prov-
ince in the southern ])art of Asia Minor,
bounded by the Mediterranean on the
south, t'ilicia on tlie east, Pisidia on the
nortli and Lvcia on the west. The sea
between it and the island of Cyprus is
called the Sea of Pamphylia in Acts 27 :
5. As visitors from Pamphylia were pres-
ent in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost
(Acts 2 : 1-10), they probably carried back
with them the knowledge of the gospel.
The first place in Asia Minor whicli Paul
visited in his first missionary journey
was Perga in Pamphylia (Acts 13 : 13).
Thence the apostle went north, but before
leaving Asia Minor returned to Pamphylia
(Acts 14 : 24, 25).
Pan'nag, an untranslated Hebrew
word occurring in Ezek. 27 : 17, where
it is enumerated among the articles ex-
ported from Palestine to Tyre. It may
be translated as a "sweet confection."
It is represented in Palestine now by the
Arabic halaway, a putty-like confection,
ordinarily composed of pounded nut-ker-
nels, spices, oil and grape-syrup (dibs).
Pa'per. See Writing and Books.
Pa'per-reed. See Reed and Bul-
rush.
Pa'phos, a city on the western ex-
tremity of the island of Cyprus, which
Paul visited, and whose governor, through
his instrumentality, was converted to the
faith of the gospel (Acts 13 : 6-12). The
city was noted for the worship of Venus,
who is fabled to have risen here from tlie
sea, and who from this circumstance is often
called the Paphian goddess. It contained
a magnificent temple dedicated to Venus,
and other elegant public buildings. It is
now a poor and insignificant place.
Par'a-ble. This word is derived from
a Greek verb whicli signifies to set side by
side, and so is employed to indicate that
form or figure of speecli which sets two
things in juxtaposition for the purjiose
of comparison. It corresponds to the He-
brew word (mashdl) which in our Author-
ized Version is usually rendered proverb,
and which, equivalent to similitude, is ap-
plied sometimes to the sliortest proverbs
(1 Sam. 10 : 12 ; 24 : 13 ; 2 Chron. 7 : 20),
PARADISE.
391
sometimes to dark, prophetic utterances
(Num. 23 : 7, 18; 24 : 3; Ezek. 20 : 49),
sometimes to enigmatic maxims (Ps. 78 :
2 ; Prov. 1 : 6), sometimes to metaphors
expanded into a narrative (Ez^k. 12 : 22).
In the New Testament the word " parable "
is commonly restricted to the sense of a
fictitious narrative under which is veiled
some important truth. Our Lord's par-
ables, models of clearness and elegance
in expression and of pertinency and force
in instruction, may be ranged into groups
which indicate a plan or order.
1. The group embodying the laws of
tlie divine kingdom, and drawn from the
material realm. To this group belong '
the Sower (Matt. 13; Mark 4; Luke 8),
the Wheat and the Tares (Matt. 13), the i
Mustard-seed (Matt. 13; Mark 4), the Seed
cast into the Ground (Mark 4), the Leaven
(Matt. 13), the Pearl of Great Price (Matt.
13), the Net cast into the Sea (Matt. 13).
2. The group illustrative of human na-
ture, and drawn from the moral realm.
To this group belong the Two Debtors
(Luke 7), the Merciless Servant (Matt, j
18), the Good Samaritan (Luke 10), the
Friend at Midnight (Luke 11), the Rich
Fool (Luke 12), the Wedding- Feast (Luke
12), the Fig Tree (Luke 13), the Great
Supper (Luke 14), the Lost Sheep (Matt.
18; Luke 15), the Lost Piece of Money ;
(Luke 15), the Prodigal Son (Luke 15),
the Unjust Steward (Luke 16), the Rich
Man and Lazarus (Luke 16), the Unjust
Judge (Luke 18), the Pharisee and the
Publican (Luke 18), the Laborers in the
Vineyard (Matt. 20).
3. The group descriptive of the consum-
mation of the divine kingdom, and drawn
from the ultimate distinction in human
character, as good or evil. To this group
belong the Pounds (Luke 19), the Two
Sons (Matt. 21), the Vineyard let out to
Husbandmen (Matt. 21 ; Mark 12 ; Luke
20), the Marriage-Feast (Matt. 22), the
Wise and Foolish Virgins (Matt. 25),
the Talents (Matt. 25), the Sheep and
the Goats (Matt. 25).
I It is characteristic of the several Gos-
pels that the greater portion of the parables
of the first and third groups belongs to
Matthew, the evangelist emphatically of
the kingdom, whilst those of the second
group are found for the most part in
Luke.
Par'a-dise. The word is of Persian
origin, and has the sense of a park or
yarden. It does not occur in our Au-
thorized Version of the Old Testament,
but in the Septuagint Version it is
used to translate the Hebrew word for
garden, and is the equivalent for Eden.
In the New Testament it is applied figu-
ratively to the celestial dwelling of the
righteous, in allusion, doubtless, to the
garden of Eden (2 Cor. 12:4 ; Rev. 2 :
7). It is quite significant that the word
" paradise " nowhere occurs in the public
discourses of our Lord or in the records
of his more private intercourse with the
disciples. It had been so connected in
popular conception with the thoughts of
a sensuous happiness that it was not the
fittest or the best word for those whom he
was training to rise out of sense-hued con-
ceptions to the higher notions of the spir-
itual life. For the disciples, accordingly,
the words most dwelt on are "the king-
dom of heaven " and " the kingdom of
God." With the tliief dying on the cross
(Luke 23 : 43) the case was diflTerent. We
cannot suppose that the robber-outlaw had
in mind any other than the most rudiment-
ary forms of popular belief. The answer
to his prayer gave him what he most need-
ed, the assurance of immediate rest and
peace. The word " paradise " spoke to
him, as to other Jews, of repose, shelter,
joy— of the greatest possible contrast to
the thirst and agony and shame of the
cross. Quite significant, also, is the ab-
sence of tlie word from the general teach-
ing of the Epistles and from the glowing
392
PAEAN— PASHUR.
symbolism of the Revelation. Paul uses
it but once (2 Cor. 12 : 4), to designate
the realm of the glorified, and John uses
it but once (Rev. 2:7), as a symbol of
eternal blessedness. The word, therefore,
furnishes no ground fur those ingenious
speculations respecting the intermediate
state which many Christian writers have
framed.
Pa-ran [place of caves'\, a wilderness
or desert extending from the borders of
.Judah to the neighborhood of Sinai. It
was in and near this great desert that
the Israelites performed their tedious and
circuitous journey of nearly forty years
(Num. 10: 12; Deut. 1 : 19). On its
north-eastern part, perhaps, was the Mount
Paran to which Moses and the prophet Ha-
bakkuk allude (Deut. 83 : 2; Hab. 3 : 3).
Parch'raent. See Writing.
Par'don, the act of forgiving an of-
fender, or of so removing the guilt of sin
that the punishment due to it may be re-
mitted. Tlie Scriptures represent the par-
don of human sin as the act of God alone
(Isa. 43 : 25 ; 55 : 7 ; Mark 2:7; Luke
5 : 21), and as based on our Lord's work
of atonement (Acts 5 : 31 ; 13 : 38 ; 2 Cor.
5 : 19; Eph. 1 : 7). The Scriptures rep-
resent, also, the nature of pardon under a
variety of suggestive and substantially
similar phrases, such as a covering of sin
(Ps. 32 : 1 ; 85 : 2), a non-imputation of sin
(Ps. 32 : 2), a blotting out of sin (Ps. 51 :
1 ), a non-remembrance of sin (Heb. 8 :
12).
Par'me-nas, one of the seven deacons
of the church at Jerusalem (Acts 6 : 5).
Nothing more is known of him.
Par'thi-ans. The word occurs only
in Acts 2 : 9, where it designates Jews set-
tled in Parthia, originally a small moun-
tainous district lying to the north-e;i.st of
!Media, but subsequently that great Par-
tliian kingdom into which the province
expanded. The record in the Acts indi-
cates how widely spread were members of
the Hebrew family in the first century of
our era.
Par-ti'tion, Mid'dle Wall of, a
supposed reference to tlie wall in the tem-
ple-area which separated the Court of Is-
rael from the Court of the Gentiles (Eph.
2 : 14). It is figuratively employed by
the apostle Paul to denote whatever in the
ceremonial Law separated tlie Jews from
the Gentiles. This ceremonial Law, which
made the Jews a separate peoide, was bro-
ken down by our Lord's sacrificial death,
and thenceforward Jew and Gentile were
to be one with each other and with God.
t^r^-"
Greek Partridge.
Par'tridge. This word occurs only
in 1 Sam. 26 : 20 (where David compares
himself, when pursued by Saul, to a par-
tridge hunted upon the mountains), and in
Jer. 17 : 11. Tiie Greek partridge (C'ac-
cabis saxatilis) is abundant in Syria, and
at the present day is run down by men
armed with sticks.
Par-va'im [eastern rec/lons']. In 2
Chron. 3 : ti, Solomon is said to have used
the " gold of Parvaim " in embellishing
the temple. The word Parvaim is suppos-
ed by some to indicate a place where the
purest gold was found, and by others to
designate indefinitely those Eastern re-
gions whence gold of fine quality was
brought.
Pash'ur, tlie name of two noted men.
PASSION— PATMOS.
393
1. A priest, the son of Immer and a
contemporary of Jeremiah, who acted so
as to incur a severe threatening from that
prophet (Jer. 20 : 1).
2. Another priest in the time of Jere-
miah, the son of Malchiah (Jer. 38 : 1)^
who twice came in contact with the proph-
et, and who once with others brought about
the prophet's imprisonment. His family
were among those who returned from tlie
Captivity (Neh. 7 : 41 ; 11 : 12).
Pas'sion [suffering^, once used to des-
ignate our Loi'd's painful death (Acts 1 :
3). In Acts 14 : 15 and James 5 : 17 the
plural form of the word is found in the
expression " men of like passions," where
the writ^^rs evidently mean ordinary hu-
man beings.
Pass 'over, the first and most import-
ant of the three great annual festivals on
which the male population of the Israel-
ites appeared before the Lord in Jerusa-
lem. It commemorated the exemption or
passinr/ over of the families of the Israel-
ites when the destroying angel smote the
first-born of Egypt the night of the Exo-
dus (Ex. 12 : 1-51 ; 13 : 3-10). After
the Exodus the Levitical Law prescrib-
ed with minute accuracy the various
ceremonies which were to characterize
the observance of the festival (Lev. 23 ;
4-14; Num. 9 : 1-14; 28 : 16-25; Dent.
16 : 1-6). The passover was a striking
type of that signal deliverance from the
thraldom of sin and sense and Satan which
the sacrificed Lamb of God (1 Cor. 5:7)
has achieved for his people.
Pas 'tor. The word has the literal
sense of shephenl, but in the Scriptures is
figuratively applied to one who leads the
flock of God's people (Jer. 2:8; 3 : 15;
Eph. 4: 11). Summarily stated, the chief
duties of a pastor are : 1 . To feed the flock
of God (1 Pet. 5:2); 2. To guide its mem-
bers in the pathway of duty and holiness
(1 Thess. 2 : 10-12) ; 3. To guard them,
so far as may be possible, from moral and
spiritual evil of every kind (Acts 20 : 28,
29).
Pat'a-ra, a port of Lycia in Asia
Minor, and a very ancient city, at which
Paul changed his ship for one bound to
Phoenicia (Acts 21 : 1, 2). It was situated
on the sea, near the mouth of the river Xan-
thus, and had a celebrated temple and oracle
of Apollo. Ruins of great extent and beau-
ty remain, including a theatre, some baths,
a triple arch, which was one of the gates
of the city, an old castle, altars and col-
umns. Traces of its walls are found, but
drifting sand has already choked its har-
bor and is rapidly burying every evidence
of its former glory.
Path'ros, a name given to Egypt (Isa.
11 : 11), and perhaps to that district of
Egypt which the Greeks afterward called
Thebais, and which we now know as Sais
or Upper Egypt (Jer. 44 : 1, 15 ; Ezek. 29 :
14).
Path-ru'sim, the plural of Pathros,
given in Gen. 10 : 13, 14; 1 Chron. 1 : 11,
12 as the fifth in order of the sons (that is,
descended tribes) of Mizraim, who colonized
Egypt.
Pa'tience. The word is descriptive
of an attribute of God and an excellence
of man. As an attribute of God it denotes
his marvelous long-sufl"ering amidst nume-
rous and heinous provocations (Rom. 15 :
5). As an excellence of man it designates
that calm, resolute, unfaltering endurance
with which one of our Lord's followers
bears the evils of life as he pursues the
heavenward way (Rom. 12 : 12; Heb. 12 :
1).
Pat'mos, a bare and rocky island in the
jEgean Sea, about twenty-eiglit miles in cir-
cumference. Its barrenness and desolation
commended it to the Roman government as
a suitable place for the banishment and con-
finement of the worst criminals. To this
dreary spot the apostle John was banished
by the emperor Domitian " for the testi-
mony of Jesus Christ" (Rev. 1 : 9), and
394
PATRIAKCH— PAUL.
Patmos.
here among the vilest cliaracters he was
forced to live. Here too he was favored
with those visions from heaven which
have invested Patmos with such real inte-
rest to every Christian. In the Middle
Ages the island bore the name of Pal-
moi^a ; now it is called Patino. The chief
inhabited site of the island is the town at-
tached to tlie single port and situated on a
high rocky mountain. It contains about
four hundred houses, wliilst the landing-
place or port below has about fifty houses.
Upon the island there are also some scat-
tered hamlets. About halfway up the
mountain from the port to the town is
shown a grotto in the rock where the
apostle Jolm is supposed to have wit-
nessed his visions and to have written
the Revelation.
Pa'tri-arch [head of a family or tribe].
The name is applied in the New Testament
to Abraham iHeb. 7 : 4), to the sons of
Jacob (Acts 7 : 8, 9) and to David (Acts
2 : 29). It is apparently intended to be
equivalent to the phrase the "head" or
" prince of a tribe," so often found in the
Old Testament. In common usage the
title of patriarch is assigned especially to
those whose lives are recorded in Scrip-
ture previous to the time of Moses.
Pat'ri-mo-ny [an inherited estate}.
The word occurs but once in Scripture
(Deut. 18 : 8), but the thought pervading
it is frequently referred to. Every Israel-
ite had his patrimony, which could not be
permanently alienated. This wise provis-
ion wa-s a barrier against the evils of over-
grown estates, against the oppression of
the unfortunate, against the emigration of
the Hebrews and against the influx of
foreigners. See Ixheritan'ce.
Paul, the specially appointed " apostle
to the Gentiles," and in many respects the
most distinguished among the apostles.
He was of pure Hebrew descent, but of
his parents we know nothing, except that
his father was of the tribe of Benjamin
(Pliil. 3:5) and a Pharisee (Acts 23 : 0) ;
tliat by some means he had acquired the
Roman franchise (Acts 22 : 28) ; and that
he was settled in Tarsus (Acts 21 : 39).
The Jewish name which Paul received
PAUL.
395
from his parents, and wliich he bore up to '•
the time of his conversion and call to the
apostleship, was "Saul" (Acts 9 : 1). At
Tarsus he learned to use the Greek Ian- |
guage with freedom and force in speaking
and writing. At Tarsus also he learned
that trade of "tentmaker" (Acts 18 : 3) :
at which he afterward occasionally wrought, j
When a boy he was removed, for the sake
of education, to t!ie Holy City of his fa-
thers, and was enrolled among the pupils
of "Gamaliel," one of the most eminent
of all the doctors of the Law (Acts 22 :
o).
Whilst yet " a young man " (Acts 7 :
58) he arrayed himself against the form-
ing Church of Christ, and proved himself
a determined persecutor. Having under-
taken to follow up the believers "unto
strange cities," he naturally turned his
thoughts to Damascus. What befell him
as he journeyed thither is related in detail
three times in the Acts — first by the histo-
rian Luke (Acts 9 : 3-19), then in the two
addresses by himself, the one at Jerusalem
(Acts 22 : 1-21), the other before Agrippa
(Acts 26 : 2-26). In the narrative the mani-
festation of Jesus as the Son of God is t he
main point ; and in the life-work upon
which he now enters the demonstration
that Jesus, the Christ, the Son of God, is
the Saviour of Jews and Gentiles is the
leading topic of his ministry (Acts 13 :
47). Of his many and perilous journeys,
of his privations and persecutions, of his
indefatigable labors in founding and train-
ing churches, our limited space forbids us
to speak in detail. The history in the
Acts is supjilemented by numerous par-
ticulars in the Epistles whicli he wrote
to churches and ind'.viduals. Everywhere
and always he appears as the devout and
devoted missionary of the cross. We
have no account in Scripture of his death,
l>ut wlien he wrote his Second Epistle to
Timotliy he evidently anticipated a speedy
martyrdom (2 Tim. 4 : 6-8) ; and accord-
ing to the concurrent testimony of eccle-
siastical antiquity he was beheaded at
Rome in the reign of the em[)eror Nero.
All the statements and traditions re-
specting the apostle's personal appearance
wliich have come down to us agree in
ascribing to him a short stature, a long
face, a high forehead, an aquiline nose,
close and prominent eyebrows. Other cha-
racteristics mentioned are baldness, gray
eyes, a clear complexion and a winning
expression. A strong body he must have
had to endure such journeys and hardships
(2 Cor. 11 : 23-28), and he unquestionably
had an extraordinary will-power. His
speeches and letters convey to us as we
read them the truest impressions of those
qualities which helped to make him the
great apostle. We perceive the warmth
and ardor of his nature, his deeply affec-
tionate disposition, the tenderness and
truth of his sense of honor, the courtesy
and personal dignity of liis bearing, his
perfect fearlessness, his heroic endurance ;
we perceive the rare combination of sub-
tlety, tenacity and versatility in his intel-
lect ; we perceive also a practical wisdom
which is usually associated with a cooler
temperament and a tolerance which is
seldom united with such impetuous con-
victions. When he first comes before us
in the history we see a man of intense
energy, firm decision, iron resolution and
uncompromising zeal ; and these qualities,
! tempered by purer religious feeling, guid-
ed by higher knowledge and modified by
experience, continue to characterize him
so long as he appears upon the stage of
life. His natural mental endowments
were of tlie highest order. Pie had great
breadth of view, great clearness of appre-
hension, a capacity of firmly grasping
principles, the power of arranging his
thoughts in their proper logical form, and
the ability to utter them in forcible and
fitting words. In his moral development
everything is great and noble. To honesty
396
PAUL.
of purpose and sincerity of speech he add-
ed liumility and self-distrust, generous re-
gard for the welfare of others, a tender
sympathy with those he loved and a
philanthropy that embraced the race ;
while the absence of everything mean,
mercenary or selfish, and a noble devoted-
ness at whatever cost to the interests of a
great cause, combine to shed around a cha-
racter in other respects so beautiful traits
of a wellnigh unapproachable sublimity
and grandeur. We feel that here is a man
to be at once admired and loved ; a teacher
at whose feet one might sit with unhesitat-
ing docility : a friend on whose bosom one
might lean with confidence and afiection.
The vigorous intellect and the large heart
which belonged to him by nature would
have brought him distinction under any
circumstances ; but his highest claim to
honor is derived from his having, under
the constraining power of the love of
Christ, consecrated himself, body, soul
and spirit, to the service of God in pro-
moting the best interests of men. In this
respect he stands foremost among the he-
roes of tlie Church and the benefactors of
the human race. .
For the sake of convenient reference
the three missionary journeys of Paul and
the points touched at in his voyage to Rome
are subjoined :
THE THREE MISSIONARY JOURNEYS OF
PAUL THE APOSTLE.
I. With Barnabas and John Mark
(Acts 13, 14).
Antioch (in Syria), the centre of Gen-
tile evangelization. Leaving Antioch when
specially called by the Holy Ghost to mis-
sion-work, the three go to
Seleucia ( poH of Antioch), whence they
sail to the island of
Cyprus (the native place of Barnabas),
landing at the eastern extremity, and
preaching in the synagogues of
Salamis (a populous mercantile port).
Thence they traversed the island (one
hundred miles) to
Paphos, its western extremity, the cap-
ital city. Here Elymas was struck blind,
and the Roman pro-consul, Sergius Paulus,
converted. Here this name " Paul " first
appears, and thenceforward replaces that
of " Saul." They crossed to the southern
shore of Asia Minor, landing at
Perga, the ancient port of Pamphylia,
whence goods from the interior were ex-
ported. Here John Mark returned home.
The next point reached was
Antioch (in Pii^idia), where the great
road from Ephesus into Asia intersected
the southern road. It was a Roman col-
ony. They preached in the synagogue
one Sabbath to Jews and the next to
Greeks. Ejected by the rulers, they fol-
lowed the great road to
IcoNiUM {capital of Lycaonia). They
remained here "a long time," making
many converts, till, a factious mob at-
tempting to stone them, they fled to
Lystra, a small rural town inhabited
by heathens, who, upon the cure of a
cripple by Paul, treated the two evangel-
ists at first as gods, but subsequently, upon
the representations of Jews from Iconium,
stoned them as impostors. Thence they
fled to
Derbe, a small town, where they rested
awhile, and then returned through Lys-
tra, Iconium, Antioch, Perga, sailing from
the latter place to
Antioch, whence they liad gone forth.
Here they remained six or seven years.
11. With Silas (Acts 15 : 36-18 : 22).
Antioch (in Syria), the starting-point,
whence they went by land through
Syria and Cilicia, confirming the
churches and delivering the decrees of
the apostles and elders in respect to Gen-
tile Christians. Thence across the moun-
tains to
Derbe and Lystra, where Paul cir-
PAUL.
397
cumcised Timothy, whom he took with
him through
Phrygia and Galatia. Forbidden in
the latter province by the Spirit to go into
the province of Asia, Paul went into
Mysia, but, forbidden again to make
his proposed journey to Bithynia, he was
divinely guided to
Troas, where he met with Luke the
evangelist. Here he had a vision of a
Macedonian inviting him to Greece. He
embarked, touched at
Samothracia, and landed at
Neapolis, the seaport, whence he went
up by land, across the Pharsalian plain, to
Philippi (in Macedonia), a Roman "col-
ony," or possessed of the same laws and
rights as those of Rome, the imperial city.
Here Lydia was converted, the sorceress
exorcised and Paul and Silas scourged and
imprisoned. Upon the miraculous release
of Paul and Silas from prison, and after the
conversion and baptism of the jailer and
his household, the two intrepid preachers
of the gospel left Luke and Timothy at
Philippi, and passed through
Amphipolis and Apollonia to
Thessalonica (metropolis of Macedo
nia), where they spent three Sabbaths.
Assailed by a Jewish mob, they escaped
to
Berea (a city of Macedonia), where
they were well received till persecutors
followed them. Paul, leaving Silas be-
hind, and also Timothy, who had joined
them, came by sea to
Athens (capital of Attica), where he
waited for his companions, and where, on
Mars' Hill, he preached a memorable ser-
mon. He went thence to
Corinth (capital of Achaia), a great
commercial centre, which for eighteen
montlis he made the head-quarters of his
evangelistic work. Here he was joined
by Silas and Timothy, and here he wrote
the two Epistles to the Thessalonians. He
sailed from
Cenchrea, the eastern port of Corinth,
to
Ephesus (a splendid city of Ionia, Asia
Minor), where he left Aquila and Pris-
cilla, and went on to
C^SABEA, whence he journeyed by
land, as is supposed, to Jerusalem to keep
the feast of Pentecost. He returned to
Antioch, his place of departure, and re-
mained there "sometime" — probably less
than a year.
III. With Timothy (Acts 18 : 23-21 :
33).
Antioch (in Syria), starting-point ;
thence through
Galatia and Phrygia, of which no
incidents are recorded, to
Ephesus, where Paul spent three event-
ful years. Persecution becoming bitter,
he was sent by his friends to
Macedonia, where he visited and en-
couraged his converts in the various places
visited in the second journey. Thence he
passed into
Greece, where he stayed three months,
visiting, probably, the churches at Cor-
inth and in the province of Achaia. Hin-
dered and waylaid by the Jews, he sent
Timothy and several other friends who
had joined him to Troas, and by some se-
cret and unrecorded route made his way
to
Philippi, where he was joined by Luke.
The two sailed thence together, and in five
days reached
Troas, where Paul with his companions
remained seven days. His companions
sailed for Assos, whilst he walked thither
round the coast. At
Assos Paul embarked, and they touched
successively at
MiTYLENE, TrOGYLLIUM, MiLETTJS
(near to Ephesus), Patara, where they
changed vessels, embarking on one sail-
ing direct to Syria. They landed at
Tyre, and remained there seven days;
398
PAVEMENT— PEACOCK.
thence to Ptolemais {Acre), and thence to
Ca?.sarea. Aftir many days, Paul, accom-
panied by a number of friends, went up by
land to Jerusalem, where, after a time, he
was seized by a mob, from whom the Ro-
man chief captain extricated him, put
him in prison, and sent him to Csesarea,
to Felix the governor.
The Voyage of Paxil the Prisoner to
Rome, with certain other prisoners, un-
der charge of Julius, a centurion of the
Augustan cohort :
C^SAREA. Paul sailed thence on a
vessel bound for Adramyttium, touching
at
SiDON, where he visited his friends.
Thence to leeward of
Cyprus (that is, on the north side), un-
der the shores of Cilicia and Pamphylia, to
Myra (a city of Lycia), where he was
transferred to an Alexandrian corn-ves-
sel bound for Italy, which coasted along
the southern sliore of Asia Minor to
Cnidus, the extreme south-west prom-
ontory. There the wind and current from
the archipelago caught and drove the ship
southward to
Crete, where, rounding Cape Salmone
and getting under the shelter of the south-
ern coast, they sailed along it to
Fair Havens, where Paul advised that
they should winter. The harbor, however,
being incommodious, they tried to reach
PiiENXCE, which had a harbor sheltered
toward the north-west and south-west.
They were caught by the wind Eurocly-
don or Euraquilon, from the north-west,
but under the shelter of
Clauda (an island south-west of Crete)
they prepared for a tempest by striking
sail, undergirding the ship,turning her head
to the wind, and lying to, so as to avoid be-
ing driven on the "Syrtes" to the north of
Libya. They drifted slowly west by north
thirteen and a half days, when they ran
the ship aground in a creek of
Melita (^ralta), where by swimming
or on portions of the wreck they reached
land. After three months they sailed in
an Alexandrian corn-ship by
Syracuse (Sicily), where they stayed
three days; thence to
Rhegium (Italy), where they stayed
one day ; thence to
PuTEOLi, in the Bay of Naples, where
they rested seven days ; thence by the
Appian Way to Appii Forum, where
brethren from Rome met Paul and ac-
companied him to
Rome, where the apostle, in the cus-
tody of a soldier to whom he was chained,
remained two full years in his own hired
house.
Pave'ment. See Gabbatha.
Pa-vil'ion, a tent or temporary taber-
nacle erected for shelter against the heat
of the sun (1 Kings 20 : 12). It is also
used poetically for the dwelling of God
(Ps. 18 : 11), and to image the absolute se-
curity of those whom God there shelters
(Ps. 27 : 5; 31 : 20).
Peace. The original words in the He-
brew and Greek Scriptures thus rendered
properly mean health, prosperity, welfare.
Accordingly, " peace " is a word which is
used in our Authorized Version in differ-
ent senses. Generally it denotes quiet and
tranquillity, public or jarivate, but often
prosperity and happiness of life. Spirit-
ual peace is deliverance from the bondage
and penalty of sin, by which we are at
enmity with God (Rom. 5:1); the re-
sult is peace in the conscience (Heb. 10 :
22). This peace is the gift of God through
Jesus Christ (2 Thess. 3 : 16). It is a
blessing of gieat value (Ps. 119 : lG-5).
It is denominated perfect (Isa. 26 : 3), in-
expressible (Phil. 4 : 7), perviuncnt (John
14 : 27 ; 16 : 22), eternal (Heb. 4:9).
Peace-Offering'. See Offering.
Peacock. Peacocks are mentioned
among the articles which Solomon's fleet
brought from Tarshish (1 Kings 10 : 22;
PEAKLS— PELICAN.
399
2 Chron. 9 : 21). As the Hebrew word
by which they are designated is identical
with the Tamil word by which they are
<7>
'«5 # 'A S
now designated in the island of Ceylon, it
is most probable tliat Southern India was
one of the foreign countries reached by
Solomon's fleet.
Pearls, rounded concretions of shelly
matter deposited within tlie valves of the
pearl-oyster. They are mentioned but
Pearl Oyster and Pearls.
nnce in our Authorized Version of the
Old Testament (Job 28 : 18), where the
Hebrew word thus rendered probably
means "crystal." Tliey are frequently
mentioned, however, in the New Testa-
ment (Matt. 13 : 45; 1 Tim. 2:9; Eev.
17:4; 21:21). The "pearl of great
price" (Matt. 13 : 46) is doubtless a fine
specimen yielded by the pearl-oyster
{Avicula viargaritlfera), still found in
abundance in the Persian Gulf Pearls
are also found on the Syrian coast.
Peep. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in our Authorized Version (Isa. 8 :
19; 10 : 14) means to chirp or to chatter,
as young birds. In Isa. 29 : 4 it is ren-
dered u'hifper ; in Isa. 38 : 14 it is ren-
dered chatter. In the passages where
it is rendered peep it refers to the low
sounds which necromancers, as ventrilo-
quists, caused to come from the ground,
and which they claimed to be the voices
of departed spirits.
Pe'kah [^an opening, as of the eyes],
son of Remaliah, originally a captain of
Pekahiah, king of Israel, the murderer of
his master and the usurper of the throne
(2 Kings 15 : 25). After a reign of twen-
ty years he was assassinated by Hoshea,
who seized the throne (2 Kings 15 : 30).
Pe-ka-hi'ah \_Jehovah opens the eyes],
son and successor of Menahem, king of
Israel (2 Kings 15 : 23). After a brief
reign of scarcely two years, a conspir-
acy against him was organized by Pe-
kah, who murdered hini and seized the
throne.
Pe'kod, an appellative applied to the
Chalda?ans ( Jer. 50 : 21 ; Ezek. 23 : 23),
but its meaning is disputed.
Pe'leg \_(livision], son of Eber and
brother of Joktan (Gen. 10: 25; 11 : 16).
His name was given him because "in h's
days was the earth divided." This refers
to a division of Eber's family, the young-
er branch of whom (the .loktanites) mi-
grated into Southern Arabia, while the
elder remained in Mesopotamia.
PeVethites. See Cherethites.
Pel'i-can, an unclean bird mentioned
400
PEN— PENTECOST.
in Lev. 11 : 18; Deut. 14: 17. It resem-
bles the goose, though nearly twice as
large. Its bill is fifteen inches long, is
broad and flat, and is terminated by a
strong, crooked and crimson-colored nail.
The female luis an enormous pouch or
bag, capable of holding ten quarts of water
and food. It is classed with the birds that
delight in solitary and desolate places, and
its cry is harsh and melancholy (Ps. 102 :
6; Isa. 34: 11 ; Zeph. 2: 14). In the pas-
Pelican.
sages cited from Isaiah and Zephaniah
our Authorized Version has " cormorant,"
but the rendering should be "pelican."
See CORMOEANT.
Pen. See Writing.
Pe-ni'el and Pen'u-el [face of Godl,
the place on the bank of the b'rook Jabbok
where Jacob wrestled in his mysterious
conflict with the angel of tlie covenant
(Gen. 32 : 24-32). It derives its name
from the gracious issue of this conflict.
Its site was probably marked at first by a
simple memorial stone, but five hundred
years afterward Gideon, in pursuing the
Midianites, found here a city and tower,
which he destroyed (Judg. 8 : 17). It
was subsequently rebuilt by Jeroboam (1
Kings 12 : 25). Its precise locality is un-
known.
Pen'knife. The Hebrew word thus
rendered in our Authorized Version ( Jer.
36:23) literally means "the scrivener's
knife." It was used to sharpen the point
of the writing-reed.
Pen'ny, Pen'ny-worth. These
words, wherever in our Authorized Ver-
Denarius of Vespasian.
sion they occur, are the rendering of the
Roman denarius (Matt. 20:2; 22:19;
Mark 6 : 37; 12 : 15; Luke 20 : 24; John
6:7; Rev. 6:6), a silver coin of about
fifteen cents in value.
Pen'te-cost \_lhe fiftieth'], the second
of the three great annual festivals on which
all the male Israelites were required to ap-
pear before the Lord in the national sanc-
tuary, and which was celebrated seven
complete weeks, or fifty days, after the
Passover (Lev. 23: 15, 16). It was the
Jewish harvest-home, and the people
were especially exhorted to rejoice be-
fore Jehovah as they brought their free-
will ofTerings (Deut. 16 : 10, 11). It is the
only one of the three great feasts which is
not mentioned as the memorial of events
in the history of the Jews. Rut such a
significance exists in the fact that the Law
was given from Sinai on the fiftieth day
after the deliverance from Egypt ( Ex. chs.
12, 19). The typical significance of the Pen-
tecost is made clear from the events of the
day recorded in the second chapter of the
Acts. The preceding passover had been
marked by the sacrifice upon the cross of
the trr.e Paschal Lamb. The day of Pen-
tecost found liis disciples assembled at Je-
rusalem, like the Israelites before Sinai,
waiting for "the promise of the Father."
Again did God descend from heaven in
fire, to pour forth tliat Holy Spirit which
gives the spiiitual discernment of his law,
and the converts to Peter's preaching were
PENUEL— PEKFUMES.
401
the first-fruits of the spiritual harvest of
which our Lord had long before assured
the disciples. Just as the appearance of
God on Sinai was the birthday of the Jew-
ish nation, so was that Pentecost tlie birth-
day of the Christian Church.
Pen'u-el. See Peniel.
Pe^or [I he cleft, opening], a mountain in
Moab, to the top of which Balak the king
brought Balaam the prophet, that the lat-
ter might see at a glance and blast with a
curse the whole host of Israel (Num. 23 :
28). As the Israelites were then encamp-
ed on tlie east bank of the Jordan, near the
north-east end of the Dead Sea, Peor must
have been east or south-east of them. Pro-
fessor Paine of the Palestine Exploration
Society has plausibly identified the pre-
cise peak denominated Peor with the
second of the three summits of Pisgah
(Jebel Sidghah). From the reference
in Num. 25 : 18 and 31 : 16 to "the mat-
ter of Peor," and the reference in Josh.
22 : 17 to "the iniquity of Peor," it would
seem that wherever was the locality of
Mount Peor, upon its summit stood the
temple of the Midianitish idol Baal-Peor,
and upon its slope, near its base, stood the
Moabitish town Beth-Peor, "over against"
which Moses was buried (Deut. 34 : 6).
See Pisgah.
Per'a-zim, Mount, a name which
occurs only in Isa. 28 : 21, and which is
supposed to be the same as Baal-Pera-
ZIM (which see).
Per-di'tion. In our Authorized Ver-
sion this word is not found in the Old Tes-
tament, and rarely in the New, but the
idea which it conveys runs through the
whole of Scripture. The general sense of
the Greek word thus rendered in the New
Testament is that of loss; as the loss of
property, spoken of as waste (Matt. 26 :
8 ; Mark 14:4); the loss of bodily life,
spoken of as death (Acts 25 : 16) ; and the
loss of eternal blessedness, spoken of some-
times as destruction, sometimes as perdi-
26
tion, and sometimes as damnation (Matt.
7:13; Acts 8 : 20 ; Kom. 9 : 22 ; Phil. 1 :
28 ; 3 : 19 ; 1 Tim. 6:9; Heb. 10 : 39 ;
2 Pet. 2 : 1, 3; 3 : 7, 16; Rev. 17 : 8, 11).
In all the passages where the word perdi-
tion actually occurs the loss of eternal
life is clearly meant. The Scriptures
teach that there are persons who die in
their sins (John 8 : 24), who have no for-
giveness (Matt. 12 : 81), who have God's
wrath abiding on them (John 3 : 36), who
rise to the resurrection of damnation (John
5 : 29), who depart from Christ (Matt. 7 :
23) into outer darkness (Matt. 8 : 12) and
into a furnace of fire (Matt. 13 : 50). There
these unhappy persons reap the fruit of
their actions done here, being accursed
and utterly degraded. In John 17 : 12
and 2 Thess 2 : 3, Judas and Antichrist
are denominated each " the son of perdi-
tion," by which we are to understand that
perdition marks both the character and
destiny of the persons spoken of. Per-
dition, therefore, is not annihilation. To
represent perdition as equivalent to anni-
hilation is to wrest the Scriptures and
to teach ruinous error.
Pe'res [c?Mi/ded], in its plural Upharsin,
one of the mysterious words in the doom
pronounced on Belshazzar (Dan. 5 : 28).
See Uphaesin.
Pe'rez-Uz'zah {^the breach of Uzzah],
the name given to tlie place between Kir-
jath-jearim and Jerusalem where Uzzah
was struck dead for rashly and irreverent-
ly taking hold of tlie ark (2 Sam. 6:8).
The site is unknown.
Per-fec^tion, completeness, whole-
ness, freedom from defect. It is ascribed
to God absolutely (Matt. 5 : 48), to man
comparatively (1 Cor. 2:6; Phil. 3 : 15).
Noah and Job (Gen. 6:9; Job 1:1), be-
cause of the simplicity of their ftiith and
the godly completeness of their lives are
described as "perfect."
Per'fumes. The free use of perfumes
was peculiarly grateful to the Orientals
402
PERGA— PEESIA.
(Prov. 27 : 9). The Hebrews manufac-
tured their perfumes cliiefly from spices
imported from Arabia, and to a certain
extent from aromatic plants growing in
their own country. Perfumes entered
largely into the temple-service in the two
forms of incense and ointment (Ex. 30 :
22-38). Nor were they less used in pri-
vate life ; they were applied not only to
the person, but also to garments (Ps. 45 :
8) and to beds (Prov. 7 : 17).
Per'ga, a town of Pamphylia in Asia
Minor, situated on the river Cestrus, some
distance from its mouth. It was originally
the capital of the whole province, but when
Pamphylia was divided it became the cap-
ital of the part in which it lay. Near it,
on an eminence, stood a celebrated temple
of Diana. Its site has been identified, and
is marked by extensive remains of vaulted
and ruined buildings. It was twice visited
by Paul (Acts 13: 13; 14: 25).
Per'ga-mos, a city of Mysia in Asia
Minor, about sixty-four miles north of
Smyrna, on the north bank of tlie river
Caicus, at the base and on the declivity
of two steep mountains, which define
one of the loveliest and most productive
valleys in the world. Two hundred
years before the Christian era it became
the residence of the princes of the family
of Attains, under whose patronage it be-
came a seat of literature and the arts,
and was noted for its library, consisting
of two hundred thousand volumes. This
library was removed to Egypt by Antony,
who presented it to Cleopatra, and, being
added to the celebrated library of Alex-
andria, was eventually burned. In Per-
gamos were many splendid temples ded-
icated to Jupiter, to Minerva, to Apollo
and to Esculapius. In it also was one of
the "seven churches of Asia" (Eev. 1:11)
which is commended, although the mag-
nificent city around it is characterized as
" Satan's seat " (Rev. 2:12-17). Its mod-
ern name is Bergamo, with a population
of about twenty thousand, most of them
Turks, but a few of them Greek and Ar-
menian Christians. The remains of the
ancient city are still to be seen in the
Corinthian and Ionic columns which are
lying mutilated in unsightly heaps.
Per'iz-zites, one of the nations in-
habiting the Land of Promise before and
at the time of its conquest by Israel (Gen.
15 : 20; Ex. 3:8, 17 ; Deut. 7:1; Josh.
3: 10).
Per^sia, tlie great empire founded by
Cyrus, which at the period of its greatest
prosperity comprehended all the Asiatic
countries from the Mediterranean to the
Indus, and from the Black and Caspian
seas to Arabia and the Indian Ocean. It
was divided into several provinces. The
Medes and Persians are generally men-
tioned in Scripture in conjunction, and
most probably were kindred branches of
that great Aryan family, which under
different names ruled the vast re-
gion between Mesopotamia and what is
now known as Burmah. In the time of
Cyrus (b. c. 558) the Persian empire held
sway over both Media and Persia. The
most interesting circumstance to the bib-
lical student connected with this empire
aiKl its royal master was the permission
granted by Cyrus to the captive Jews to
return to their own land (2 Chron. 36 : 22,
23; Ezra 6:3-5; Isa. 44 : 28). He was
the special instrument also in the hand of
the Almighty in fulfilling the threatenings
against Babylon (Isa. 45 : 1-4; 40 : 1, 2;
47 : 1-15 ; Jer. chs. 50, and 51). The Per-
sian monarch who permitted the Jews to
rebuild their temple was Darius Hystaspes
(Ezra 6 : 1-15). Upon his death (b. c.
485) Xerxes, the Ahasuerus of Esther
and Mordecai and the defeated invader
of Greece, ascended tlie throne. After a
reign of twenty years Xerxes was assas-
sinated by Artabanus, who, reigning but
seven months, was succeeded by Artax-
erxes Longimanus, the king who stood in
PEESIS— PETER.
403
sucli friendly relations toward Ezra and
Nehemiah (Ezra 7 : 11-28; Neh. 2 : 1-9).
This is tiie last of the Persian kings who
had any special connection with the Jews.
The empire was finally overthrown by
Alexander the Great. In later ages the
name and power of Persia revived, and
at the present time the ancient country
of Cyrus has a Mohammedan sovereign
and most of its inhabitants are bigoted
adherents of Islamism.
Per'sis, a Christian woman at Rome
whom Paul salutes (Eom. 16 : 12).
Pes'ti-lence. See Plague.
Pes'tle, the instrument used for trit-
urating in a mortar (Prov. 27 : 22). See
Mortar.
Pet'er [rock]. H's original name was
Simon, that is, "hearer." He was the
son of a man named Jonas (Matt. IG : 17 ;
John 1 : 42; 21 : 16), was born at Beth-
saida in Galilee (John 1 : 44), and was
brought up in his father's occupation, a
fisherman on the Sea of Tiberias (Matt.
4 : 18). It is probable that when first called
by our Lord he and his brother Andrew
were disciples of John the Baptist. The
particulars of this call are related with
graphic minuteness by the evangelist John.
It was then that our Lord gave him the
name Cephas, an Aramaic word answer-
ing to the Greek Peter, and signifying
a stone (.John 1 : 35-42). This first call
led to no immediate change in P-eter's ex-
ternal circumstances. With his brother
Andrew and with James and John, prob-
ably all partners with him in his business,
he returned to Capernaum and pursued his
usual occupation. The second call is re-
corded by Matthew, Mark and Luke, the
narrative of the latter being apparently
supplementary to those of the two former.
It took place on the Sea of Galilee near
Capernaum. Peter and Andrew were first
called. Our Lord then entered into Simon
Peter's boat and addressed the multitude
on the shore. Immediately after that call
our Lord went to the house of Peter, where
he wrought the miracle of healing on Pe-
ter's wife's mother. The special designa-
tion of Peter and his eleven fellow-disci-
ples as apostles took place some time after-
ward (Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3:13-19;
Luke 6 : 13-16). The distinction which
our Lord accorded him and perhaps his
consciousness of ability, energy, zeal and
absolute devotion to his Master's person,
seem to have developed a natural tendency
to rashness and forwardness bordering upon
presumption. The exhibition of such feel-
ings on a noted subsequent occasion (Matt.
16 : 21-23 ; Mark 8 : 31-33) brought upon
him the sternest reproof ever addressed by
our Lord to a disciple. His impulsive dis-
position came out repeatedly in his inter-
course with the Master, and notably at the
Last Supper, where his protestations of un-
alterable fidelity were soon to be falsified
by his miserable fall.
On the morning of the resurrection
it became evident that Peter, although
humbled, was not utterly crushed. He
and .John were the first to visit the sep-
ulchre, and he was the first to enter it.
To him first among the apostles our Lord
appeared, and toward him our Lord mani-
fested an extraordinary tenderness in re-
storing him to the place he had forfeited
and in commissioning him anew to feed
the flock of God (John 21 : 15-17). Hence-
forth, he with his colleagues were to estab-
lish and govern the Church without the
support of the Master's presence. The
first part of the Acts of the Apostles is
occupied by the record of transactions in
nearly all of wliich Peter stands forth as
the recognized leader ; he is the most
prominent person in the greatest event
after the resurrection, when on the day
of Pentecost the Churcli was invested
with the plenitude of gifts and powers.
He became the foremost worker of mira-
cles and the selected agent to convey to
the Gentiles the blessings of the gospel.
404
PETHOR— PHAEISEES.
The baptism of CJornelius was the crown
and consummation of Peter's ministry
(Actsch. 10). From that time we have no
continuous history of him. lie left Jeru-
salem, but it is not said where he went.
He was probably employed for the most
part in building up and completing the
organization of Christian communities in
Palestine and the adjoining districts. If
he visited Home at all, it must have been
near the close of his life. Tradition makes
liim a martyr at Rome by cruciiixion at or
about the time when Paul suffered.
The only writte'n documents which he
left are the two Epistles which bear his
name, but there is good reason to believe
that the Gospel of Mark embodies the
substance of his oral instructions. See
Mark.
Pe^thor, the name of a place in Meso-
potamia, the residence of the prophet Ba-
laam (Num. 22 : 5 ; Deut. 23 : 4). Its site
is unknown.
Pha'raoh [commonly thought to mean
the sun, but recently read on the monuments
as meaning great hoitse], the common title
of the native kings of Egypt mentioned
in the Old Testament. Of these kings
we know with certainty little more than
an enumeration of them furnishes: 1. The
Pharaoh of Abraham, probably one of the
shepherd-kings ruling in Lower Egypt.
2. 2'/ie Pharaoh of Joseph, a shepherd-
king, perhaps Apepi II. (Apappos), ruling
all Egypt. 3. The Pharaoh of the Oppression,
a native Egyptian, probably of the line
which the shepherd-kings had displaced.
He is thought to have been Rameses II.
4. The Pharaoh of the Exodus, a lineal de-
scendant, it is supposed, of the Pharaoh
of the Opjiression, and by Egyptologists
believed to have been Menephthah, son
of Rameses II. of the nineteenth dynasty.
5. Pharaoh, father-in-law of Solomon, the
leader of an expedition into Palestine
(1 Kings 9 : 16). 6. Pharaoh, the opponent
of Sennacherib, supposed to be the Sethos
whom Herodotus mentions, and referred
to in Isa. 36 : 6. 7. Pharaoh-Necho. At
the commencement of his reign he made
war against the king of Assyria, and, being
Head of Rameses II.
encountered on his way by Josiali, king of
Judah, defeated and slew him at Megiddo
(2 Kings 23 : 29 ; 2 Cliron. 35 : 20-24).
Subsequently his army was signally de-
feated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish,
in which battle all the Asiatic dominions
of Egypt were lost (2 Kings 24 : 7). 8.
Pharaoh-Hophra, tlie second successor to
the throne after Necho, to whom Zedekiah,
' king of Judah, applied for lielp against
Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 44 : 30; Ezek. 17 :
11-18).
Pha'rez [breach, as of a wall], twin
son with Zarah of Judah by his daughter-
in-law Tamar (Gen. 38 : 29, 30). After the
death of Er and Onan, Pharez became as
the first-born. His descendants were nu-
merous and illustrious (Ruth 4:12; 1
Chron. 27 : 3 ; Matt. 1 : 3).
Phar'i-sees, a religious party or school
amongst the Jews at the time of our Lord,
so called from perinhin, the Aramaic form
of the Hebrew \ford pervj^him, " separated."
The name does not occur in the Old Tes-
tament. The Pharisees formed a kind of so-
ciety. Each member undertook in the pres-
PH AKP A R— PHENICI A.
405
ence of thi-ee otlier members, that he would
remain true to the laws of the association.
The most characteristic laws of the Phar-
isees related to what was clean and unclean.
As according to the Levitical Law, every
unclean person was cut off" from all religious
privileges (Num. 19 : 20), so on principles
precisely similar the Pharisees held that
one could incur these awful religious pen-
alties either by eating or by touching what
was unclean. Animals whose flesh was to
be used for food could not, therefore, be
slaughtered by a Gentile, and for Jew-
ish slaughterers directions the most mi-
nute were laid down. As respects touching,
prohibitions and distinctions no less mi-
nute were insisted on. To any one familiar
with these regulations the apostle's words
(Col. 2 : 21), " Touch not, taste not, handle
not," seem a correct, but scarcely a com-
plete, sunnnary of their drift and purpose.
Hence there was a stern antagonism be-
tween the teaching of the Pharisees and
the teaching of our Lord, who proclaimed
boldly that a man was defiled not by any-
thing he ate, but by the bad tlioughts of
the heart alone (Matt. 15 : 11), and who,
even when he was the guest of a Pharisee,
pointedly abstained from washing liis hands
before a meal, in order to rebuke the super-
stition which attached a moral value to
such a ceremonial act (Luke 11 : 37-40).
This antagonism so exasperated the Phar-
isees that they naturally became promi-
nent in devising plans and measures for
compassing his death. As to the doctrines
of the Pharisees, a fundamental one was a
belief in a future state (Acts 23 : 6). This
doctrine, coupled with their general strict-
ness of life, gained them many proselytes
and made them a powerful community.
Phar^par \_swift^, one of the two rivers
of Damascus alluded to by Naaman (2
Kings 5 : 12). The two chief streams in
the district of Damascus are now known
as the Bar^adfi and the Awoj. The Bar-
ada, beyond a question, is the Abana ; hence
the Aivaj is the Pharpar. The Aivaj has
two principal sources — the one high up on
the eastern side of Hermon, just beneath
the central peak ; the other in a wild glen
a few miles southward. The streams unite
near Sasa, and the river, flowing eastward
in a deep, rocky channel, falls into a lake
or marsh about four miles south of the
marshy lake into which the Barada falls.
Although eight miles distant from the
city, yet the Awaj flows across the whole
plain of Damascus, and ancient canals
drawn from it irrigate the fields and gar-
dens almost up to the walls. Its total
length is about forty miles, its volume
about one-fourth that of the Barada.
Phe^be \_shining'], a distinguished fe-
male member of the church at Cenchrea,
near Corinth (Rom. 16 : 1). The strong
commendations of the apostle indicate
that she was prominent in works of faith
and labors of love.
Phe'nice, more properly Phcenix, a
town and harbor on the south-west coast
of Crete. In attempting to reach it, the
ship in which Paul sailed was driven by
tempest upon the breakers near the island
of Melita and wrecked (Acts 27 : 12-44).
Phe-nic'i-a and Phoe-nic'i-a, the
Greek name of the country in Syria which'
lay along the Mediterranean between the
sea and the mountains, with an average
breadth of twenty miles, and which ex-
tended north and south about one hundred
and twenty miles from the river Eleu-
therus (now the Nah r-el- Kebir) on the north,
near Tripolis, to the promontory of Carmel.
The name does not occur in the Old Tes-
tament, and in tlie New Testament is
found in three passages only (Acts 11 :
19; 15 : 3; 21 : 2). In the first two of
these passages it is rendered Plienice.
Among its principal towns were Ptole-
mais, Sarepta, Sidon, Tyre, Tripolis and
Berytus. Some of these towns, and nota-
bly Sidon and Tyre, were of great an-
tiquity (Gen. 10 : i5-18). Their inhabit-
406
PHICOL— PHILETUS.
ants were the inventors of letters and the
first builders and navigators of ships. They
established commercial relations with the
countries on the Persian Gulf and the Red
Sea, with the coasts of Arabia, Africa and
India, with the islands and shores of Eu-
rope. Nor was their overland trade less
than their maritime. They sent caravans
to Damascus and Babylon, to the interior
cities of Arabia and Egypt. Thus by sea
and land they were the world's merchants
(Ezek. 27 : 1-25). Their most flourishing
period was between the time of David and
that of Cyrus, about five hundred years.
Carthage in Africa, the rival and the vic-
tim of Kome, was one of their principal
colonies, but before Greek triumphs and
Roman conquests Phoenician pride and
power passed away. Into the country
which once formed the territory of Phoe-
nicia the gospel was introduced with some
success (Acts 21 : 2-5).
Phi'col [mouth of alii, t'hief captain
of the army of Abimelech, king of the
Philistines of Gerar in the days of both
Abraham (Gen. 21 : 22, 32) and Isaac (Gen.
26 : 20).
The Modern Philadelphia.
Phil-a-del'phia [brotherly love], acity
of Lydia in Asia Minor, about twenty-five
miles south-east from Sardis and about sev-
enty miles east of Smyrna. It derived its
name from its builder, King Attains Phil-
adelphus. It was the seat of one of the
seven churches (Rev. 3 : 7-13). In the
apocalyptic. Epistles its church is so high-
ly commended that we are scarcely sur-
prised to learn that the city still remains
and tiiat in it the Christian faith is still pro-
fessed. It withstood the conquests of the
Turks longer than any of the Asiatic cit-
ies, but was finally taken by Bajazet I. in
the year 1 392. It was not destroyed, how-
ever, and through the centuries since has
been a place of considerable importance.
Mr. Gibbon finely says : " Among the
Greek colonies and churches of Asia
Philadelphia is still erect — a column in
a scene of ruins, a pleasing example that
the paths of honor and safety may some-
times be the same." Its modern name is
Alla-shehr, " city of God " or high town.
It is built on the slopes of four hills, or
rather on one hill with four flat sunnnits.
The country around is exceedingly beau-
tiful. The town, although spacious, is
poorly built ; the dwellings are mean
and the streets filthy. There are few re-
mains of its ancient art, yet among the
few is a single column of great antiquity
and beauty. Tradition ha.s it that one of
the buildings now occupied as a Turkish
mosque was the identical church in which
assembled the primitive Christians ad-
dressed in the Revelation.
Phi-le'nion [affectionate], the name
of the Christian to whom Paul addressed
his Epistle in behalf of Onesimus. He
was a resident in Colosse when the apos-
tle wrote to him, and perhaps a native of
that city. He was converted to Christ
most likely, under Paul's preaching
(Phile. V. 19).
Phi-le'tus [amiable], a disciple, pos-
sibly of Hymenanis, with whom he is as-
sociated in 2 Tim. 2 : 17, and who is named
without him in 1 Tim. 1 : 20. See Hy-
PHILIP— PHILISTIA.
407
PhiPip [a lover of a horse], the name
of an apostle and of an evangelist.
1. PgiLiP THE Apostle was of Betli-
saida, the city of Andrew and Peter (John
1 : 44), and apparently was among the
Galilean peasants of that district who
flocked to hear the preaching of John
the Baptist. To him first in the whole
circle of our Lord's disciples were spoken
the words so full of meaning, " Follow me"
(John 1 : 43). So soon as he has learned
to know the Master he is eager to com-
municate his discovery to another. He
speaks to Nathanael, probably on his ar-
rival in Cana (John 1 : 45 ; 21 : 2). In
the lists of the twelve apostles liis name
is as uniformly at the head of the second
group of four as the name of Peter is at
that of the first group (Matt. 10:3; Mark
3:18; Luke 6 : 14). A few of his signifi-
cant utterances are recorded by the evan-
gelist John (6 : 5-9; 12 : 20-22; 14 : 8).
He is among the company of disciples at
Jerusalem after the ascension (Acts 1 :
13) and on the day of Pentecost (Acts
2 : 14).
2. Philip the Evangelist is first
mentioned in the account of the dispute
between the Hebrew and Hellenistic dis-
ciples in Acts 6. He is one of the first
seven deacons appointed in the church
at Jerusalem to superintend the daily dis-
tribution of food and alms. The persecu-
tion headed by Saul forcing all who were
prominent in the Church to flee, Pliilip
went to Samaria, and "preached Christ"
with great success (Acts 8 : 5-8). After
the remarkable interview with the Ethi-
opian eunuch (Acts 8 : 26-38), whom he
led to Christ and whom he baptized, Phil-
ip continued his work as a preacher at
Azotus (Ashdod) and among the other
cities that had formerly belonged to the
Philistines, and, following the coast-line,
came to Caesarea. Then for a long period,
not less than eighteen or nineteen years,
we lose sight of him. In Paul's last jour-
ney to Jerusalem, when he had come to
Csesarea, the apostle and his companions
found a hospitable shelter in Philip's house
(Acts 21 : 8).
PhiPip Her^od I., II. See Herod.
Phi-lip 'pi, a city of proconsular Mace-
donia, within the limits of ancient Thrace
(Acts 16 : 12). It had previously borne
the names of Datus and Krenides, but
having been taken from the Thracians by
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great,
and by him much enlarged and beautified,
it was called Philippi after him. Here, B. c.
42, was fought that famous battle between
Antony and Octavius on the one side and
Brutus and Cassius on tlie other in which
the latter were defeated and the Koman
republic came to an end. Paul visited this
city, and established in it a Christian
church, to which he afterward directed
one of his Epistles. Here Lydia, a trader
from Thyatira, was converted (Acts 16 :
14), and here Paul, for dispossessing a
poor girl of the "spirit of divination,"
was scourged and imprisoned. In the
prison occurred one of the most cheering
and interesting events in the history of
the early Church. The jailer and his
household accepted the gospel, and were
publicly baptized into the faith of Christ.
The magistrates of the city were compelled
to make an apology to Paul and his com-
panion Silas and to set them at liberty
(Acts 16 : 16-40). Paul soon after visited
Philippi again, and probably remained in
the city and vicinity a considerable time
(Acts 20 : 1-6). He received from the
Philippian Christians many substantial
kindnesses, which, when a prisoner in
Rome, he gratefully remembers and
touchingly commemorates (Phil. 4 : 10-
20). Philippi is now in ruins and its
site is without a name.
Phil-is'tia(Ps.60:8;87:4;108:9). In
these passages the Hebrew word rendered
Pliilistia is identical with that elsewhere
translated Palestine. Philistia is the coun-
40S
PHILISTIM— PHIXEHAS.
try of the Philistines or Palestines. It em-
braced tlie coast-plain on the south-west
of Palestine, from Joppa on the north to
the valley of Gerar on the south, a dis-
tance of about forty miles, and from the
Mediterranean on the west to the foot of
the Judfean hills, a distance varying from
ten to twenty miles. The name common-
ly given to it in the Hebrew Scriptures is
Shephelah — that is, a low, flat region.
Phil'is-tira. See Nations, under
Mizraim.
Phi-lis'tines, a people of Ca-
naan whose origin is nowhere expressly
stated in the Scriptures, but by inference
is referred to the Hamite Mizraim (Amos
9:7; Jer. 47 : 4 ; Deut. 2 : 23 ; Gen. 10 :
13, 14). The Philistines must have set-
tled in the land of Canaan before the time
of Abraham, for they are noticed in his
day as a pastoral tribe in the neighborhood
of Gerar (Gen. 21 : 32, 34; 26 : 1, 8). Be-
tween the times of Abraham and Joshua
the Philistines had changed their quartei-s,
and had advanced northward into the
plain of Philistia. Here they became a
prosperous and powerful people. In the
division of the Promised Land among the
Hebrew tribes the territory of the Philis-
tines was assigned to the tribe of Judah
(Josh. 15 : 2, 12, 45-47). In the lifetime
of Joshua, however, no portion of it was
conquered (Josh. 13 : 2), and even after
his death no permanent conquest was ef-
fected (Jndg. 3:3), although the three
cities of Gaza, Ashkelon and Ekron were
taken (Judg. 1 : 18). The Philistines
soon recovered these, and commenced aft
aggressive policy against the Israelites, by
which they gained a complete ascendency.
Individual heroes were raised up from
time to time, such as Shamgar ( Judg. 3:31),
and still more Samson (Judg. chs. 13-16),
but neither of these men succeeded in per-
manently throwing off the yoke. The his-
tory of the Pliilistines and Israelites down
to the captivity of the latter is a history
of continuous struggle. During the Cap-
tivity the power of the Philistines was
crushed by the great monarchs on the
east and south, who in contending for
supremacy made Pliilistia their battle-
ground. With regard to the institutions
of the Philistines our information is scan-
ty. As early as the days of Joslma the
five chief cities had constituted themselves
into a confederacy, restricted, however,
most probably, to matters of offence and
defence. Each was under the government
of a prince (Josh. 13:3; Judg. 3 : 3), and
each possessed its own territory. The Plii-
listines appear to have been exceedingly
superstitious. They carried their idols
with them on their campaigns (2 Sara.
5 : 21), and proclaimed their victories in
their presence (1 Sam. 31 : 9).
Phi-lol'o-gUS [icord-lnver], a Chris-
tian at Rome to whom Paul sends his
salutation (Rom. 16 : 15)
Phi-los'o-phy [^oreo/?cfsc/o>n]. The
"philosophy" against which Paul utters
, a caution in Col. 2 : 8 and 1 Tim. 6 : 20 in-
cludes every form of speculation inconsist-
j ent with Christian teaching. The refer-
ence is most likely to gnosticism, which
was quite prevalent in the apostle's times,
and to the Greek philosophy as represent-
ed by the two rival schools, the Epicu-
rean and the Stoic. See Epicureans
and Stoics.
Phin'e-has [bnizen-mouihed], the name
of two men.
1. The son of Eleazar and grandson of
Aaron (Ex. 6 : 25). He is memorable for
having appeased the divine wrath at a
critical juncture, thus putting a stop to the
plague which was destroying the nation
(Num. 25 : 7). For this he was reward-
ed by the special approbation of Jehovah,
and by a promise that the priesthood
should remain in his family for ever
(Num. 25 : 10-13).
2. The second son of Eli (1 Sam. 1:3;
2 : 34; 4 : 4, 11, 17, 19 ; 14 : 3). He was
PHLECxON— PHYSICIAN.
409
killed with his brother by the Philistines
when tlie ark was captured.
Phle'gon [burning}, a Christian at
Rome whom Paul salutes (Rom. 16 :
14).
Phryg'i-a, a province of Asia Minor,
bounded on the north by Bithynia and
Galatia, east by Cappadocia, south by
Lycia and Pisidia, west by Caria, Lydia
and Mysia. It was usually divided
into Phrygia Major on the south
and Phrygia Minor on the north-
west. The Phrygians were a very
ancient people, and their territory
was a well-watered and fertile one.
Some of them were present at Je-
rusalem at the feast of Pentecost
(Acts 2 : 10). We have notice of
two visits which Paul in his mis-
sionary journeys made to this re-
gion (Acts 16: 6; 18: 23).
Phut, a son of Ham (Gen. 10 :
6), the progenitor of a people in
Africa of the same name. The
few mentions of Phut in the Scriji-
tures (Isa. 66 : 19; Jer. 46 : 9;
Ezek. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5 ; 38 : 5 ; Kali.
3 : 9) indicate a country or peo-
ple not far from Egypt, but fur-
nish no intimations of the exact
position. The Egyptian monu-
ments describe a people called
Pet (Nah. 3:9 "Put"), whose
emblem was the unstrung bow,
and who dwelt between Egypt and Ethi-
opia proper, in the region now called
Nubia (see Nations, under Hamites).
Recent investigations, however, have led
certain Egyptologists to identify Pliut
with Pu(n)t, that part of Arabia which
lies nearest to Egypt. If this identifica-
tion be correct, then it would seem that
as there were two Cushes, so there were
two Phuts, one African and the other
Asiatic, the African Phut being prob-
ably the original nation, and the Asiatic
Phut an offshoot from it.
Phy-gePlus, a Christian convert in
Asia, who with Hermogenes deserted Paul
when the apostle was about to be impris-
oned the second time (2 Tim. 1 : 15).
Phy-lac'te-ries, so called in Matt.
23 : 5, but denominated "frontlets" in
Ex. 13 : 16; Deut. 6:8; 11 : 18. They
were strips of parchment on which were
written in an ink prepared for the pur-
pose these four piissages of Scripture —
A Jew with the Phylactery.
namely, Ex. 13 : 2-10, 11-16; Deut. 6 :
4-9; 11 : 13-23. Folded up and enclosed
in a small leather box, they were worn,
one sort upon the forehead nearly between
the eyes, and another sort upon the left arm
near to the heart, being attached by straps
of leather. They were considered as thus
reminding the wearers to fulfill the Law
with the head and heart. They were re-
garded as amulets, protecting the wearer
from the powers of evil.
Phy-si'cian, For the region of the
Mediterranean basin Egypt was the
410
PIBESETH— PIGEON.
earliest home of medical skill. Every
Egyptian mummy of the more expensive
and elaborate sort involved a process of
anatomy ; hence " the pliysicians embalm-
ed Israel" (Gen. 50: 2). In Egypt the
Hebrews acquired, most probably, some
knowledge of medicines and some skill
in tiieir use. We read of " healing "
and " medicines " and " physicians " quite
frequently (Ex. 21 : 19 ; 2 Kings 8 : 29 ; 2
Chron. 16 : 12; Jer. 8 : 22 ; 1-1 : 19; 30 :
13 ; 46 : 11 ; Matt. 9:12; Mark 5 : 26 ;
Col. 4 : 14). Among tlie special diseases re-
ferred to in the Old Testament are ophthal-
mia (Gen. 29 : 17), which is perhaps more
common in Syria and Egypt than any-
where else in the world ; leprosy (Lev.
13 : 8, 15, 27, 30), which has always pre-
vailed in the East; paralysis (1 Kings 13:
4-6) ; sunstroke (2 Kings 4 : 19) ; lycan-
thropy (Dan. 4 : 33). In Ex. 30 : 23-25 we
have a prescription in form. The remedies
used by the ancient Hebrews were chiefly
ointments (especially of balsam, Jer. 8 :
22; 46 : 11 ; 51 : 8), leaves of trees (Ezek.
47 : 12i, cataplasms (especially of figs, 2
Kings 20 : 7), animal warmth for restor-
ing the circulation (1 King-s 1 : 2-4; 2
Kings 4 : 34, 35). Among the most fa-
vorite -of external remedies was the bath.
Bathing was common (Lev. 15 : 13; 2
Kings 5 : 10) ; in the times of the kings ,
the best houses contained bath-rooms (2
Sam. 11 : 2).
Pi-be'seth, a city of Lower Egypt,
situated on a branch of the Nile about
forty miles north-east from Memphis. It
derived its name from Bubastis, the goddess
of fire, whom its inhabitants worshiped,
and to whose temple at this place great
numbers of people, from all parts of the
country, made yearly a festive pilgrimage.
Ezekiel (30: 17) predicted, "The young
men of Aven and of Pibeseth shall foil
by the sword, and these cities shall go into
caiitivity." The city was taken by the Per-
sians, who destroyed its walls, but it was
a place of some note in the time of the
Romans. Its site now exhibits only
mounds of confused and broken frag-
ments, no monument of its former gran-
deur being left standing.
Pic'tures. This word is found in
three passages of our Authorized Version
(Num. 33 : 52; Prov. 25 : 11 ; Isa. 2 : 16),
and is the rendering of two Hebrew words
from the same verbal root meaning to look
at. In the first and third of these passages
the word " pictures " denotes idolatrous rep-
resentations— either independent images
or more usually stones "portrayed" (Ezek.
23 : 14), that is, sculptured in low relief
or engraved and colored. Movable pic-
tures, in our modern sense, were unknown
to the early Jews, but colored sculptures
and drawings on walls or on wood must
have been familiar to them in Egypt. The
"pictures of silver" (Prov. 25 : 11) were
probably wall-surfaces or cornices with car-
vings, and the "apples of gold" represen-
tations of fruit or foliage, like Solomon's
flowers and pomegranates (1 Kings 6 : 32,
35).
Piece of Silver. In the New Testa-
ment two words are rendered by the phrase
"piece of silver." 1. Dntchma (Luke 15 :
8, 9), which was a Greek silver coin, equiv-
alent at the time of Luke to the Roman
denarius, value about fifteen cents. 2. The
indefinite word "silver," as the "thirty
pieces of silver" mentioned in the account
of our Lord's betrayal (Matt. 26 : 15 ; 27 :
3, 5, 6, 9). What coins are here intended
it is difficult to ascertain. If the most
common silver pieces be meant, they
would be denarii. The parallel passage
in Zeohariah (11 : 12, 13) appears to point,
however, to shekels, and it can scarcely be
a coincidence that thirty shekels of silver
was the price of blood in the case of a slave
accidentally killed (Ex. 21 : 32). The shek-
el was equivalent to four drachma, or
about sixty cents.
Pigeon. See Dove.
PIHAHIROTH— PISGAH.
411
Pi-ha-hi'roth \_the place where sedge
grows], one of the encamping-places of
the Israelites (Ex. 14 : 2), near the north-
ern end of the Gulf of Suez. It was ap-
parently the name of some natural local-
ity, not of a town or fort. It cannot be
positively identified.
Pi'late, Pontius, the sixth Eoman
procurator or governor of Judaja, under
whom our Lord taught, suffered and died
(Matt. 27 : 2; Mark 15:1; Luke 3:1;
John chs. 18, 19 ; Acts 3:13; 4 : 27 ; 13 :
28 ; 1 Tim. 6:13). He held his office for ten
years, during the reign of the emperor
Tiberius. On two or three occasions his
arbitrary administration drove the people
into insurrections, which he suppressed by
bloody measures. It was the custom for
the procurators to reside at Jerusalem
during tlie great feasts to preserve order ;
accordingly, at the time of our Lord's last
passover Pilate was occupying his official
residence in Herod's palace. As the power
of life and death was in the hands of the
Roman governor, our Lord could not be
crucified by the Jews without the sanction
and command of Pilate (John 18:31; 19 :
16). ISfot long after our Lord's crucifixion
he was accused of cruelty and oppression
in the exercise of his office, and was sent
to Rome for trial. When he readied
Rome, Tiberius, the emperor, had died,
and Caius Caligula was on the throne.
His enemies, apparently, were too strong
to be successfully resisted by him ; he
was banished, according to tradition, to
Vienne on the Rhone, where he is said
by Eusebius to have committed suicide.
Pil'lar. The word is literally used to
designate either a monumental shaft or an
architectural column supporting a roof
(Gen. 35 : 20; Judg. 16 : 25, 26, 29). Its
principal use in the Scriptures, however,
is metaphorical. It is applied to fire,
cloud, smoke when the form resembles
that of a pillar (Ex. 14 : 24 ; Jndg. 20 : 40).
It is associated with a prophet (Jer. 1 : 18),
with an apostle (Gal. 2 : 9) and with the
Church (1 Tim. 3: 15).
Filled., an Old English word for
"peeled," in the sense of stripped (Gen.
30 : 37, 38). To pill or to peel may mean
to strip a rod of its bark or a person of
his substance. The first meaning appears
in the account of the rods which Jacob
" pilled ;" the second meaning survives in
the words pillage, pilfer.
Pine Tree. The word occurs but three
times in the Scriptures (Neh. 8 : 15 ; Isa.
41 : 19 ; 60 : 13). In the first pa.ssage the
tree referred to is most probably the wild
olive; in the two other passages the tree
intended is quite uncertain, but the ren-
dering "pine" is tlie least probable of
any.
Pin^na-cle of the temple (Matt. 4 :
5 ; Luke 4:9). The Greek of these two
passages should have been rendered not a
pinnacle, but the pinnacle. Tlie word may
refer to the battlement which the Law re-
quired to be added to every roof; perhaps
the battlement upon the end of the porti-
co overhanging the deep valley.
Pi^non, one of tlie " dukes " of Edom—
that is, head or founder of a tribe of that
nation (Gen. 30 : 41 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 52).
Pipe. The Hebrew word thus render-
ed is derived from a root signifying " to
bore, perforate," and is represented with
sufficient correctness by the English " pipe,"
or " flute," as in the margin of 1 Kings 1 :
40. It is one of the simplest, and there-
fore probably one of the oldest, of musical
instruments. It is associated with the ta-
bret as an instrument of a peaceful and
social character (1 Sam. 10: 5; Isa. 5 : 12 ;
30 : 29). The sound of the pipe was ap-
parently a soft, wailing note, which made
it appropriate to be used in mourning and
at funerals (Matt. 9 : 23), and in the lament
of the prophet over the destruction of Moab
(Jer. 48 : 36).
Pis'gah [a part], a high ridge on the
east of Jordan, opposite Jericho, noted
412
PISIDIA— PITCH.
as the spot wlience Moses viewed the land
of Canaan. It was one of the ridges of
that great mountain-chain which is called
Abarini. It was in the territory afterward
assigned to Reuben, and thus was north
of the Arnon (Num. 21 : 20; Deut. 3 : 27 ;
4 : 49 ; 34 : 1). As Balak brought Balaam
" into the field of Zophim to tlie top of
Pisgah," and there "built seven altars"
(Num. 23 : 14), it has been thought that
Pisgah had places on its top with a flat sur-
face and even cultivated land ; but from the
character of the region this is improbable.
The targum of Onkelos, the Septuagint,
and the Peshito Syriac make "the fie'd
of Zophim " " the field of the sentinels,"
in tlie sense tliat from Zopliim, as from a
watch-tower, there was a full view of the
Israelite encampment. Prof. Paine, of the
American Palestine Exploration Society,
has identified in Jebel Siaghah the Pis-
gah where Moses stood. He describes it
as a summit or shoulder a little to the
westward of Nebo, not so lofty as the lat-
ter peak, but commanding a grander sweep
of vision than any other point in the vicin-
ity, and brhiging into view as no other
point does the special localities named in
Deut. 34 : 1-3 as those over which the eye
of Moses swept. Tlie western end of the
ridge Pisgah has three summits — Jebel
Siaghah, Peor and Zophim.
Pi-sid^i-a, a district of Asia Minor,
lying chiefly on Moimt Taurus, between
Pamphylia, Phrygia and Lycaonia. It
was and is a wild, rugged country, and in
New-Testament times its inhabitants were
as wild and rugged as the country itself.
Its chief city is called "Antioch in Pisid-
ia," to distinguish it from the Syrian An-
tioch and other places of the same name.
In this city Paul ])reached a memorable
sermon, and from it he was afterward ex-
pelled (Acts 13 : 14-50). Amongthe de-
files of Pisidia, I'aul may have encoun-
tered those "perils of robbers" and "per-
ils of rivers" of whicli he speaks in 2 Cor.
1 1 : 26. Perhaps fear of Pisidian bandits
may account for John's sudden departure
from Paul (Acts 13:13, 14). Paul refers to
his persecutors in Pisidia in 2 Tim. 3 : 11.
Pi'son \_oi'erflon'in(j'], one of the rivers
of Eden (Gen. 2 : 11), the position of
which is as mucli a matter of conjecture
and dispute as that of the garden of
Eden itself.
Pit. This word in our Authorized Ver-
sion represents three distinct words in He-
brew and one in Greek. The tliree He-
brew words designate : 1 . The shadowy un-
der-world, the dwelling of the dead (Num.
16 : 30, 33) ; 2. Tlie hole dug in the earth
and then covered lightly over as a trap to
ensnare animals or men (Ps. 35 : 7) ; 3. The
well dug for water, connected sometimes
with "deep water" (Ps. 69: 15), sometimes
with "miry clay" (Ps. 40 : 2), and some-
times with " no water" (Zech. 9:11), where
the prisoner in the land of his enemies is
left to perish. The one word in Greek has
the literal sense of "the \)\t of tlie abyss,"
and is rendered "bottomless pit" (B.e\. 9 :
1,2; 20:1,3).
Pitch. This word is used to designate
mineral pitch or asphalt, an opaque, in-
flammable substance which bubbles up
from subterranean fountains in a liquid
state, and hardens by exposure to the air,
but readily melts under the influence of
heat. It was used as a cement in lieu of
mortar in Baliylonia (Gen. 11 : 3), as well
as for coating flie outside of vessels (Gen.
6 : 14), and particularly for making the
papyrus-boats of the Egyptians Mater-
tight (Ex. 2 : 3). The Babylonians ob-
tained their chief supply from springs at
Is (the modern Hit), which are still
in existence; the Jews and Arabs got
tlu'irs in large quantities from the Dead
Sea, wliicli lience received its classical
name of Lams Axphallites. In the early
ages of the Bible the slime-pits (Gen. 14 :
10) or springs of asphalt were apparent
in tlie vale of Siddim.
PITCHEE— PLAIN.
413
Pitchier, Tliis word is used in our
Authorized Version to denote the water-
jars with one or two handles in which
water was carried (Gen. 24 : 15-20 ; Mark
14 : 13 ; Luke 22 : 10). These water-jars
were generally borne on the head or the
shoulder.
Pi^thom, one of the treasure-cities, or
public granaries, built in Goshen by the
Israelites for Pharaoh (Ex. 1 : 11). Lep-
sius, Rawlinson and others have identified
it, on grounds of strong probability, with
the Patumos of Herodotus, at or near Tel
Abu Suleiman, near the west end of Wady
Tnmeyldt. It was a frontier fort.
Plague, The. The disease now called
the pLigue, wliich has ravaged Egypt and
neighboring countries in modern times,
is supposed to have prevailed there in
former ages. It is a disease resembling a
severe kind of typhus, accompanied by
buboes. Like the choleia, it is most vio-
lent at the first outbreak, causing almost
instant death ; later, it may last three
days, and even longer, but usually it is
fatal in a few hours. Several Hebrew
words, each having some distinctive or
characteristic sense, are translated "pes-
tilence " or " plague," specimens of which
are to be found in Deut. 32 : 24; Ps. 91 :
6; Hos. 13: 14; Hab. 3 : 5.
Plagues, The Ten. The occasion on
which these plagues or judgments were
sent is described in Ex. chs. 3-12. The
plagues themselves are these: 1. The Plague
of Blood, or the conversion of the Nile, the
sacred river of Egypt, into blood. 2. 7%e
Plague of Frogs, or the increase of these
sacred animals to such prodigious extent
as to cause an intolerable nuisance.
Plague of Lice, or the changing of the dust of
the dry land into offensive vermin. 4. The
Plague of Flies, or the filling of the air
with annoying insects. 5. The Plague
of the Murrain of Beasts, or the destruc-
tion of domestic animals. 6. The Plague
of Boils, or the infliction upon the per-
The
sons of the Egyptians of some terrible
form of skin disease. 7. The Plague of
Hail, or the elements at war with men
and animals and trees and herbs. 8. The
Plague of Locusts, or the utter ruin of veg-
etation. 9. 77/e Plague of Darkness, or the
awful portent of some sorer divine indig-
nation. 10. The Plague of the Sudden
Death of the First-born, or the smiting at
midnight of what in every Egyptian
home was dearest. These plagues show
a gradual and very noticeable increase
in severity. They seem to have been
sent as warnings to the oppressor to af-
ford him a means of seeing God's will
and an opportunity of repenting before
Egypt was ruined. As Pharaoh refused
to see and repent, his career teaches
that there are men whom the most sig-
nal judgments do not turn from the
way of death.
Plain, Plains. The Hebrew lan-
guage abounds in descriptive local terms
which are often rendered in our Version
"plain" or "plains," and sometimes im-
properly. The principal of these terms
are these: 1. Abel, a grassy place or
meadow. See Abel. 2. Arabah, a ster-
ile region, applied to the lower valley of
the Jordan, with its continuations from
the Dead Sea toward the eastern or Elea-
nitic Gulf of the Red Sea. See Arabah.
3. Shephelah, low country, especially
applied to the country between JopjDa and
Gaza (1 Chron. 27 : 28; Jer. 17 : 26; Zech.
7 : 7). 4. Bik'ah, rendered "plain" in
Gen. 11:2; Neh. 6:2; Isa. 40 : 4 ; Ezek.
3 : 23 ; Dan. 3:1; Amos 1:5; elsewhere
it is translated " valley," and is specially
applied to the valley lying between the
two ranges of Lebanon (Josh. 11 : 17).
See Lebanon. 5. Kikkar, the low
ground skirting the Jordan (Gen. 13 : 12;
19 : 17, 25, 28, 29 ; Deut. 34 : 3 ; 2 Sam.
18 : 23; 1 Kings 7 : 46; 2 Chron. 9 : 27 ;
Neh. 3 : 22; 12 : 28). 6. Mishor, prop-
erly a "plain" or "level ground," espe-
414
PLANETS— POMEGRANATE.
cially that east of the Jordan near Hesh-
bon, and now called Belka (Deiit. 3 : 10;
4 : 43 ; Josh. 13 : 9, 16, 17, 21 ; 20 : 8 ; 1
Kings 20 : 23, 25; 2 Chron. 26 : 10; Jer.
21 : 13; 48:8, 21; Zech. 4 : 7). The
word " plain " is wrongly used for the
Hebrew term elon, which means " oak "
(Gen. 12: 6; 13: 18; Judg. 4:11; 9:
6, 37 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 3).
Plan'ets. The Hebrew word
thus rendered is supposed to denote
the twelve divisions of the Zodiac,
marked by the figures and names of
animals. It occurs but once ( 2 Kings
23 : 5), and is probably identical in
sense witli Mazzaroth in Job 38 : 32.
Pledge, that which is given as security
for the performance of a contract (Ezek.
33 : 15). The Mosaic Law provided that
the I'equirement of pledges should not be-
come a means of op{iression. The upper
garment, which is used as a coverlet at
night, was to be returned the same day
(Ex. 22 : 26, 27). Tlie millstone used for
grinding (Deut. 24 : 6), the object prized
as an heirloom (Deut. 24 : 10, 11), and the
raiment of a widow (Deut. 24 : 17) could
not be taken in pledge at all. .
Ple'ia-des, a cluster of stars, of which
seven are visible to the naked eye in the
neck of the constellation Taurus (Job 9 :
9; 38 : 31 ; Amos 5:8). As the sun en-
ters Taurus about tlie middle of April, the
Pleiades are associated with " the sweet in-
fluences" of the genial season of spring.
Plough, tlie instrument for turning up,
breaking and preparing the ground for re-
ceiving seed. It is mentioned in Job 4 :
8, in Gen. 45 : 6 (earing), in 1 Sam. 8:12
{ear), and is unquestionably of great an-
tiquity. In the first instance it was prob-
ably the bough of a tree, from which an-
other limb or piece projected, and when
sharpened tore up the ground in a rude man-
ner. Plouglis altogether wooden are still
used in the East. The better kind, how-
ever, have the wooden coulter sheathed with
a thin plate of iron. The Eastern plough is
so light that to guide it properly requires
constant and close attention. In Luke 9 :
62 our Lord compares the life of religion
Plough, Plough-shares and Yoke.
to tlie act of a ploughman who keeps his
plougli in the soil, and who runs a straight
furrow only so far as he gives an undivert-
ed hand and eye to his work.
Pol 'son. Our Authorized Version
thus renders two Hebrew words and one
Greek word. The first and most common
Hebrew word is from a verbal root which
means "to burn," and which describes poi-
son as something inflaming the bowels
(Deut. 32 : 24, 33 ; Jbb 6 : 4; Ps. 58 : 4 ;
140 : 3). The second Hebrew word is the
ordinary designation of the poppy, wlience
opium is extracted ; it is sometimes rendei'-
ed "gall" (Deut. 32 : 32 ; Jer. 8 : 14), and is
used as a general expression for poison
(.Job 20 : 16). See Gall. The Greek
word thus rendered means something shot
forth, and is metapliorically applied to
"poison" as to that which is shot forth
by serpents (Rom. 3 : 13; James 3 : 8).
Poll. Used as a noun, the word means
" head" (Num. 3 : 47) ; used as a verb, the
word means to cut the hair from tiie head
(2 Sam. 14:26).
Pol 'lux. See Castor and Pollux.
Pome 'gran-ate [grained apple, from
the number of grains or seeds in it], Pn-
nica granntum. It was early cultivated in
Egypt; hence the complaint of the Israel-
ites in the wilderness (Num. 20 : 5K The
tree, Avith its characteristic calyx-crowned
POMMELS— PORCH.
415
fruit, is easily recognized in the Egyptian
sculptures. In Song 4 : 13 mention is
made of "an orchard of pomegranates."
In very cold winters the tree suffers much.
Carved figures of the pomegranate adorned
n-s
Pomegranate.
the tops of the pillars in Solomon's temple
(1 Kings 7 : 18, 20), and worked represen-
tations of this fruit in blue, purple and
scarlet ornamented the hem of the robe
of the ephod (Ex. 28 : 33, 34).
Pom'mels, only in 2 Chron. 4 : 12, 13 ;
in 1 Kings 7 : 41, " bowls." The word sig-
nifies convex projections on the capitals of
pillars.
Ponds, the rendering in our Author-
ized Version of a Hebrew word which,
having the general sense of a collection of
water, denotes most probably in Ex. 7 :
19; 8:5 the putrescent reservoirs or
swampy pools left by the inundation of
the Nile. The same Hebrew word is in
Isa. 19 : 10 associated with fish ("ponds
for fish"), and the evidence is conclusive
that in Egypt and Palestine fish-ponds, or
ponds constructed especially for storing
and catching fish, were common.
Pon'ti-us Pi'late. See Pilate, Pon-
tius.
Pon'tus [the sea], the north-eastern
province of Asia Minor, taking its name
from theEuxine Sea (PontusEuxinus), its
northern boundary. Its eastern boundary
was Colchis, its southern Cappadocia and
part of Armenia, its western Paphlagonia
and Galatia. Its most flourishing period
was under the government of Mithridates,
who was at length subdued by Pompey,
and his kingdom annexed to the Roman
empire. Jews settled in Pontus were at
Jerusalem at the feast of Pentecost (Acts
2:9). Aquila, the friend of Paul, was a
native of Pontus (Acts 18 : 2), and to
Christian brethren in this country Peter
addressed one of his Epistles (1 Pet. 1:1).
The principal towns of Pontus were Ama-
sia, the ancient capital, Theniisayra, Cera-
sus and Trapezus, which last, under the
name of Trebizond, is still an important
town.
Pool. Like the tanks of India, pools
in many parts of Palestine and Syria are
the only resource for water during the dry
season, and the failure of them involves
drought and calamity (Isa. 42 : 15). Of
the various pools mentioned in Scripture
perhaps the most celebrated are the pools
of Solomon, three great reservoirs south
of Bethlehem, called by the Arabs el-Bu-
rak, whence was carried an aqueduct which
once supplied Jerusalem with water (Eccles.
2:6). This aqueduct, "the low level,"
still runs by Bethlehem to Jerusalem.
Three fountains in Jerusalem are still
fed by it. Another aqueduct, "the high
level," can be traced as far as the plain of
Rephaim.
Pop'lar. In our Authorized Version
this word occurs but twice (Gen. 30 : 37 ;
Hos. 4 : 13), and is the rendering of a He-
brew word which is supposed to denote the
white poplar [Poptdus alba), a tree very
common in Palestine.
Porch. See House.
416
PORCH, SOLOMON'S— POTTER'S FIELD.
Porch, Soro-mon's. See Temple.
Por'ci-us Fes'tus. See Festus.
Por'ters, the officers appointed to open
and shut the gates of a city or a great house
(2 Kings 7:10; 1 Chron. 16 : 42). Four
thousand of them were in charge of the
temple-gates (1 Chron. 23 : 5) ; they were
classified and had leaders or directors ( 1
Chron. 26 : 1-13; 2 Cliron. 8 : 14).
Pos'sess-ed with Dev'ils. See
Devil.
Post, a messenger or bearer of tidings
(Job 9 : 25; Jer. 51 : 31). Persons fleet
of foot were trained to the business of run-
ning (2 Sam. 18 : 19-31). To convey in-
telligence quickly, Cyrus, it is said, ar-
ranged posts which rode night and day ;
to this arrangement allusion is supposed
to be made in Estli. 3 : 13; 8 : 10.
Pot. The Plebrew word thus rendered
in Job 41 : 20 is rendered basket in Jer.
24 : 2, kettle in 1 Sam. 2 : 14, caldron in 2
Chron. 35 : 13. It is thouglit to have the
general sense which appears in Ps. 81 : 6,
where " pots " denote those close-wrought
baskets which the Eastern laborers now
use, as we do the hod, for carrying mor-
tar. In addition, tlie term " pot " is used
to denote an earthen jar, deep and. nar-
row, without handles, inserted in a stand
of wood or stone (2 Kings 4:2), and an
earthen vessel for culinary purposes (1
Sam. 2 : 14). The water-pots of Cana
(John 2:6) were large amphorte of stone
or hard earthenware, such as are now in
use in Syria.
Pot'i-phar [belonging to the sun], some-
times written Potipherah, an officer of
Pharaoh's court who purchased Joseph
when brought as a slave into Egypt, ele-
vated him to an office of trust, and upon
a false accusation cast him into prison
(Gen. 89 : 1-20).
Pot'i-phe'rah, priest or prince of On
(Heliopolis) in Egypt, whose daughter Ase-
nath became Joseph's wife (Gen. 41 : 45,
50; 46: 20).
Pots, Ran'ges for (Lev. 11 : 35),
probably pots or pans with covers.
Pot'sherd, the fragment of an earthen
vessel (Job 2:8; Isa. 45 : 9).
Pot'tage, a broth made by cutting
flesh in small pieces and boiling the
pieces with rice, beans, flour, parsley or
other herbs (Gen. 25 : 29, 30 ; 2 Kings 4 :
39).
Eastern Potter.
Pot'ter, the maker of earthen vessels
(Ps. 2:9). The art of pottery is one of
the most common and most ancient of all
manufactures. The Hebrews used earth-
enware vessels in the Avilderness, and tlie
potter's trade was afterward carried on in
Palestine. Wall-paintings in Egypt mi-
nutely illustrate the potter's trade. The
clay when dug was trodden by men's feet
so as to form a paste (Isa. 41 : 25), then
placed by the potter on the wheel beside
which he sat, and shaped by him with his
hands. How early the wheel came in
use in Palestine is not known, but it is
likely that it was adopted from Egypt (Isa.
45 : 9; Jer. 18 : 3). The vessel was then
smoothed and burnt in a furnace. There
was in Jerusalem a royal establishment
of potters (1 Chron. 4 : 23), from whose
employment and from the fragments cast
away in the process the Potter's Field
perhaps received its name.
Potter's Field, The. See Acelda-
ma.
POUND— PRESBYTERY.
417
Pound. 1. A weight. See Weights
AND Measures.
2. A money of account mentioned in the
parable of the Ten Pounds (Luke 19 : 12-
27), as the talent is in the parable of the
Talents (Matt. 25. 14-30). The reference
appears to be to a Greek pound, a weight
used as a money of account, of which sixty
went to the talent, the weight depending
upon the weight of the talent.
Praise. In the ordinary Scripture use
of this term it denotes an act of worship,
and is often used synonymously with
thanksgiving (Ps. 34 : 1). It is called
forth by the contemplation of the charac-
ter and attributes of God, however they
are displayed ; it implies, also, a grateful
sense and acknowledgment of past mercies.
In the Psalms expressions of praise in al-
most every variety of force and beauty,
abound.
Prayer. There are no directions as to
prayer given in the Mosaic Law ; the duty
is rather taken for granted, as an adjunct
to sacrifice than enforced or elaborated.
Besides this public prayer, it was the cus-
tom of all at Jerusalem to go up to the
temple at regular hours, if possible, for pri-
vate prayer (Luke 18 : 10; Acts 3:1);
and those who were away were wont to
"open their windows toward Jerusalem"
and pray " toward " the place of God's
presence (1 Kings 8 : 46-49; Dan. 6 : 10;
Ps. 5 : 7 ; 28 : 2; 138 : 2). The regular
hours for prayer seem to have been three :
the "morning," that is, the third hour
(Acts 2:15), that of the morning sacrifice ;
the "evening," tliat is, the ninth hour (Acts
3:1), that of the evening sacrifice (Dan.
9: 21) ; and the sixth hour, or "noonday"
(Ps. 55 : 17). The posture of prayer among
the Jews seems to have been most often
standing (1 Sam. 1 : 26; Matt. 6:5; Mark
11 : 25; Luke 18 : 11) ; if the prayer was
offered with especial solemnity and humil-
iation, the posture was kneeling (1 Kings
8 : 54; Ezra 9:5; Ps. 95 : 6) ; occasion-
27
ally the posture was prostration (Josh. : 7
6; 1 Kings 18 :42; Neh. 8: 6j.
Preach^er, one who preaches or pro-
claims, as God's herald or ambassador, the
truths of revealed religion (Rom. 10 : 14;
2 Cor. 5 : 20). The work of the preacher,
or preaching, has ever been the chief means
by which the knowledge of the truth has
been spread (2 Pet. 2:5; Jude vs. 14, 15),
and such, in the future as in the past, it is
to be (1 Cor. 1 : 21). Altliough the "preach-
er of righteousness " has existed in all the
ages, yet preaching, in a very marked de-
gree, is a characteristic of Christianity
(Mark 16:15, 20; Acts 4:2; 13:38;
Eph. 3 : 8 ; 1 Tim. 2:7). Christian preach-
ers and pastors, however, are not a priest-
hood. They belong to no sacred caste.
The gospel knows but one Priest — Jesus,
the Christ, the Son of God. The office of
the gospel minister is not to atone, but to
preach the atonement. The altar has
been superseded by the pulpit, and the of-
fering of sacrifice by Christian instruction
and worship.
Pre-des-ti-na'tion, the foreordina-
tion by God of whatsoever comes to pass
(Eph. 1 : 4-12). The Scriptures plainly
teach that the works of providence and
grace are in no sense subject to chance or
contingency, but are all the outcome of a
prearranged, unalterable plan (Acts 2 :
23 ; 15 : 18 ; Rom. 8 : 28-30). An eter-
nal foreknowledge in God is therefore tan-
tamount to an eternal foreordination. It
has been objected that such a doctrine is
an encouragement to inaction and licen-
tiousness, but in reality it has a directly
opposite tendency and result. Believers
in Christ are predestinated, not to sin, but
to holiness — not to evil works, but to good
works (Eph. 2 : 10; 2 Thess. 2 : 13; 1 Pet.
1 : 2).
Pres'by-te-ry, a court or council of
presbyters for governing the Church and
ordaining office-bearers (Acts 15 : 2 ; 21 :
17, 18 ; 1 Tim. 4 : 14). This, as scholars
418
PRETORIUM— PRIEST, HIGH PRIEST.
now admit, was the earliest form of church-
government, having been instituted by the
apostles and maintained throughout the
apostolic age. Presbytery, therefore, was
not, as some allege, an outgrowth from
episcopacy, but, on the contrary, episco-
pacy was an outgrowth from presbytery,
and an unauthorized change of the orig-
inal model.
Pre-to'ri-um (Mark 15 : 16), proper-
ly Pe^torium. See Palace and Judg-
ment-hall.
Pre- vent'. This word, whicli liter-
ally means to come before, is used in our
Authorized Version in two senses: 1. To
precede (Ps. 88 : 13; 1 Thess. 4 : 15) ; 2.
To seize (2 Sam. 22 : G ; Job 30 : 27). Its
present ordinary meaning, lo hinder, is not
found in the Scriptures.
Pricks (goads), long, sharp-pointed
sticks which were used to drive cattle
(Acts 26 : 14). When pricked or goaded
the restive cattle would kick back, and
thus would wound themselves more deep-
ly. "To kick against the pricks " became,
accordingly, a proverbial expression for
the folly and madness of resisting lawful
authority.
Priest, High Priest. The English
word priest is derived from the Greek
presbyter, signifying an "elder." In tlie
worship of the patriarchal age no trace
of an hereditary' or caste priesthood can
be discovered. Once only does the word
priest come into view as belonging to a
ritual earlier than the time of Abraham
(Gen. 14 : 18). In the worship of the pa-
triarchs themselves, the chief of the fam-
ily, as such, acted as priest. The office de-
scended witli the birthright. The priest-
hood, as an order, was first established in
the fomily of Aaron. All the sons of Aa-
ron were priests, and stood between the
higli priest on the one hand and the Le-
vites on the other. The ceremony of their
consecration is described in P^x. 29 ; Lev.
8. Their chief duties were to watch over
the fire on the altar of burnt offerings, and
to keep it burning evermore both by day
and night (Lev. 6:12); to feed the golden
lamp outside the veil with oil (Ex. 27 : 20,
High Priest.
21 ; Lev. 24 : 2) ; to offer the morning and
evening .sacrifices, each accompanied witli
a meat-offering and a drink-offering, at tlie
door of the tabernacle (Ex. 29 : 38-44).
They were also to teach the cliildren of
Israel the statutes of the Lord (Lev. 10 :
11; Deut. 33 : 10). Provision was made
for their support sufficiently liberal to se-
cure the religion of Israel against tlie dan-
gers of a caste of pauper priests, but not
so abundant as to make the order a wealthy
one. In the time of David the priesthood
was divided into four-and-twenty "courses"
or orders (1 Chron. 24 : 1-19; Luke 1 :5),
each of which was to serve in rotation for
one week.
The first high priest was Aaron. As
distinguished from the other priests, the
characteristic attributes of Aaron and of
the high priests who succeeded him were
these: 1. Aaron alone was anointed (Lev.
8:12), whence one of the distinctive epi-
thets of the high priest was " the anointed
priest " (Lev 4 : 3, 5, 16 ; 21 : 10). 2. The
high priest had a peculiar dress, which
PRINCE— PROGNOSTICATION.
419
passed to his successor at his death. This
dress consisted of several parts — the breast-
plate, the epiind, with its curious girdle, the
robe of the ephod, the turban, the broidered
coat, the girdle, and the breeches or drawers
of linen, the intermingled colors being
those of blue, red, crimson and white (Ex.
ch. 28; Lev. 10 : 4). 3. The high priest
had peculiar functions. To him alone it
appertained, and he alone was permitted,
to enter the Holy of Holies, which he did
once a year, on the great day of atonement,
when he sprinkled the blood of the sin-of-
fering on the mercy-seat and burnt incense
within the veil (Lev. ch. 16). He stood in
God's presence, nearer to him than any
other mortal might venture, and pleaded
for Israel. He was the appointed type of
God's own Son, who with his own blood
has entered once into the holy place (Heb.
9 : 24-26).
Prince, the rendering in our Author-
ized Version of a number of Hebrew and
Greek words which designate in general
one who holds a foremost place in rank or
authority or power. It is applied to a man
of prominence (Gen. 23 : 6), to the head
of a tribe (Num. 17 : 6), to the captain of
a host (Josh. 5 : 14), to the ruler of a city
(Ezek. 28 : 2), to the son of a king (2 Sam.
8: 18), to the monarch of a country (Dan.
10 : 13), to the devil (John 12 : 31 ), to the
Messiah (Dan. 9 : 25), to Jesus Christ (Rev.
1 : 5), to God, the Sovereign of the uni-
verse (Dan. 8 : 11).
Pris-cil'la, or Pris'ca [ancient^, the
wife of Aquila (Acts 18 : 2, 18 ; 1 Cor. 16 :
19 ; Rom. 16:3; 2 Tim. 4 : 19). They
are always mentioned together. See
Aquila.
Pris^on. In Egypt, from the earliest
times, special places were used as prisons,
and were under the custody of military
officers (Gen. 40 : 3 ; 42 : 17). During
the desert wanderings of the Israelites
two instances of confinement in ward are
mentioned (Lev. 24 : 12 ; Num. 15 : 34),
but imprisonment was not prescribed by
the Law, and the prison makes no appear-
ance in Jewish history till the time of
the kings, when it comes to view as an
appendage to the palace or a special part of
it (1 Kings 22 : 27). Later still, the pris-
on is distinctly described as being in the
king's house (Jer. 32 : 2 ; 37 : 21 ; Neh.
3 : 25). Under the Herods we read again
of prisons attached to the palace or in
royal fortresses (Luke 3 : 20; Acts 12 : 4-
7). By the Romans the fortress Antonia
at Jerusalem (Acts 23 : 10) and the prse-
torium of Herod at Csesarea (Acts 23 : 35)
were used as prisons. The sacerdotal au-
thorities also had a prison under the su-
perintendence of special officers (Acts 5 :
18-23; 8:3; 26: 10).
Prize. The word occurs but twice in
the Scriptures (1 Cor. 9 : 24 ; Phil. 3 : 14),
and designates the honorary reward be-
stowed on victors in the Grecian games.
This reward was a wreath or crown of
green leaves, and to the mind of the apos-
tle Paul furnished a very suggestive im-
age of that "crown of righteousness"
which at the day of judgment is to be
given to the victor in the Christian
race.
Pro-cho'rus [president of the chorus],
one of the seven original deacons (Acts
6:5).
Pro-fane''. In Scripture usage, one is
profane who treats sacred things with ir-
reverence or indifference. The Avord is
applied to Esau, who manifested no proper
regard for the s[)iritual jirivileges of the
birthright (Heb. 12 : 16), and to the proph-
et and priest who were not deterred from
wickedness by the sanctity of God's house
(Jer. 23:11). Hence they are profane
who irreverently use God's name, who ap-
propriate God's Sabbaths to secular avo-
cations and amusements, or who show dis-
respect to the services and ordinances of
religion.
Prog-nos-ti-ca'tion. The word oc-
420
PKOPHET.
curs but once (Isa. 47 : 13), where it is link-
ed to the word " monthly " and associated
with " astrologers " and " star-gazers." The
I)ersons tluis described were probably such
as employed the appearances of the new
moon to indicate the future, or who, from
signs which they claimed to understand,
predicted the events wliich were to occur
from month to month.
Proph'et. The ordinarv- Hebrew
word for prophet is derived from a verb
signifying "to speak inarticulately." It
thus designates one who announces in orac-
ular or enigmatical ways the declarations
of God. The English word is a transfer
from the Greek ijprophe'tes), and designates
one who speah/or another, especially one ivho
speaks for God, and so declares to man the
divine will. Its essential meaning, there-
fore, is that of a speaker for God, wliether
the matter spoken pertain to doctrine or
practice or fore-announcement.
The priestly order was originally the
instrument by which the members of the
Jewish theocracy were taught and trained
in things spiritual. Teaching by act and
teaching by word were alike tlieir task.
But during tlie time of the judges the
priesthood sank into a state of degeneracy,
and the people were no longer affected by
the acted lessons of the ceremonial service.
Under these circumstances a new moral
power was summoned forth — namely, the
prophetic order. Samuel, himself a Le-
vite of the family of Kohath (1 Chron. 6 :
28), was the instrument used at once for
effecting a reform in the priestly order (1
Chron. 9 : 22) and for giving to tlie proph-
ets a position of importance which they had
never before held. He instituted compa-
nies or colleges of prophets. One we find
in his lifetime at Eamah (1 Sam. 19 : 19,
20), others afterward at Bethel (2 Kings
2 : 3), Jericho (2 Kings 2 : 5), Gilgal (2
Kings 4 : 38) and elsewhere (2 Kings 6 :
1). But not to all who belonged to the
prophetic order was the prophetic gift im-
parted. Generally the inspired prophet
came from the college of the prophets
and belonged to the prophetic order, but
this was not always the case. Amos, though
called to the prophetic office, did not belong
to the prophetic order (Amos 7 : 14).
The sixteen prophets wliose books are in
the Canon occupy that place of honor be-
cause they possessed the prophetic gift.
Wlien we consider the cliaracteristics of
these sixteen p.ophets, we describe those
who possessed the prophetic gift thus: 1.
They were the national poets of Juda;a.
2. They were annalists and historians.
3. They were preachers of patriotism.
4. They were preachers of morals and of
spiritual religion. 5. They were extra-
ordinary yet authorized exponents of the
Law. 6. They held a pastoral or quasi-
pastoral office. 7. They were a political
power in the state. 8. Tliey were instru-
ments of revealing God's will to man, as
in otlier ways so especially by predicting
future events, and particularly by fore-
telling the incarnation of our Lord Jesus
Christ and the redemption effected by
him.
Of tiles'^ sixteen propliets, four are usu-
ally called the Greater Prophets — namely,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel ;
and twelve the 3finor Prophets — namely,
Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonali, Mi-
cah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Hag-
gai, Zechariah, Malachi. They may be
divided into four groujis: tlie Prophets
of the Northern Kingdom, Hosea, Amos,
Jonah ; the Prophets of the Southern
Kingdom, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Joel, Mi-
cah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zejihaniah ; the
Prophets of the Captivity, Ezekiel, Dan-
iel, Obadiah ; the Prophets of the Return,
Haggai, Zechariali, Malachi. The chro-
nological order is difficult to determine,
but the following is perhaps the most ex-
act : Joel, Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah,
Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zeplianiah,
Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Obadiah, Hag-
PROPITIATION— PKOSELYTE.
421
gai, Zechariah, Malachi. Their respec-
tive times and tlie places in which they
exercised their ofiice may be arranged
thus :
B. c.
Name.
In which Under whose reigu or
Kiugdom. reigus.
860, about
Joel.
Judah. Joash.
825, about
Jonah.
Israel. Jeroboam II.
790, about
Amos.
Israel. Jeroboam II.
784-725.
Hosea.
Israel. Jeroboam II.
758-698.
Isaiah.
Judah. Uzziah-Hezekiah.
750-720.
Micah.
Judah. Jotham-Hezekiali.
712, about
Nahuiu.
Judah. Hezekiah.
630, about
Habakkuk
Judah. Josiah.
627, about
Zephaniah.
Judah. Josiah.
627-587.
Jeremiah.
Judah. Josiah.
600-534.
Daniel.
During Captivity.
59.5-572.
Ezekiel.
u
585, about.
Obadiah.
<(
520.
Haggai.
After Restoration.
520.
Zechariah.
(t
415, about
Malachi.
During Nehemiah's ad-
ministration.
So far as their predictive powers are con-
cerned, the sixteen Old Testament prophets
find their New Testament counterpart in
the writer of the Revelation ; but in their
general character, as specially-illumined
revealers of God's will, their counter-
part will rather be found first in the
great Proj^liet of the Church and liis
forerunner, John the Baptist, and next in
all those persons who were endowed with
the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit in the
apostolic age, the speakers with tongues
and the interpreters of tongues, the proph-
ets and the discerners of spirits, the teach-
ers and miracle-workers (1 Cor. 12 : 10,
28). The prophets of the New Testa-
ment were in the main supernaturally-
illuminated expounders and preachers.
Pro-pit'i-a'tion, that on account of
which God's wrath against sin is appea.sed
and God's judgment from the sinner avert-
ed. In the Jewish dispensation it was
foreshadowed by typical sacrifices ; in the
Christian dispensation it is made by the
sacrifice of our Lord Jesus Christ, the one
great Antitype (Rom. 3 : 25 ; 1 John 2 : 2).
Pros'e-lyte. This word occurs but
four times in our Authorized Version of
the Scriptures, and all in the New Testa-
ment: twice in its singular form (Matt.
23 : 15; Acts 6 : 5), twice in its plural
form (Acts 2 : 10 ; 13 : 43). It is a Greek
word transferred to our English tongue,
and designates "one who comes to an-
other country or people," a stranger, so-
journer. It is the uniform rendering in
the Septuagint Version of the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures of the Hebrew term g'er,
translated "stranger," and apparently it
singles out from the mass of strangers,
aliens, foreigners and sojourners, so often
referred to, the man who, although a non-
Israelite in blood, has yet been born in the
promised land, and who, under the influ-
ence of divine truth and religious associa-
tion, has bean drawn to the hope of Israel
and the worship of Jehovah. As a native
and resident in the land, the stranger (ger,
proselyte) seems to have been what the
rabbins denominate " a proselyte of the
gate" — that is, a man of foreign blood,
who, because born in the land, is a mem-
ber of the Israelite commonwealth (Ex.
23 : 9 ; Lev. 25 : 35 ; Deut. 10 : 18, 19), and
who, upon comjiliance with certain require-
ments, is privileged to become a member
of the Israelite congregation or Church
The stranger (ger, proselyte) who desired
to become fully identified with God's
chosen people must first give credible
evidence, by obedience to the moral pre-
cepts of the Law, that he was in spiritual
sympathy with Israel and the God of Is-
rael, and in sign of his changed feeling
and purpose must next submit to the ordi-
nance of circumcision (Ex. 12 : 48, 49).
When thus circumcised the stranger [ger,
proselyte) was formally admitted to the
passover and to all tlie spiritual priv-
ileges of the Israelite congregation or
Church. He was no longer a "stranger,"
but according to the rabbins was accepted
and accounted as " a proselyte of righteous-
ness," or a full member of the household
422
PKOVERB— PEOVIDENCE.
of fiiitli. The proselytes of Scripture are
therefore of two classes — one class consist-
ing of uncircumcised land-horn men who
are members of the Israelite common-
wealth ; the other class consisting of cir-
cumcised land-born men who are members
both of the Israelite commonwealth and
the Israelite congregation or Church.
In New Testament times proselytes from
paganism to Judaism were numerous, and
some of them were fine exemplars of up-
right living. Roman centurions in Pal-
estine learned to love the holy precepts
of the Law, built synagogues for tlie Jews
(Luke 7:5), and fasted and prayed and
gave alms after the pattern of the strict-
est Israelites (Acts 10 : 2, 30). Such men,
drawn by what was best in Judaism, would
naturally be among the readiest receivers
of that higher Christian truth which rose
out of it, and in many cases would quite
as naturally become the active members
of newly-formed Christian churches. Be-
fore our Lord's death, however, the spirit
of Jewish proselytism, at one time pure in
aim and praiseworthy in effort, was degen-
erating into much that was unlovely and
repugnant. To make converts force was
sometimes used, and not infrequently the
most unscrupulous fraud. Those who
were active in proselyting were precisely
those from whose teaching all that Avas
most true and living had departed. The
vices of the Jew were engrafted on the
vices of the heathen. A repulsive casu-
istry released the convert from obligations
which he had before recognized, while in
other things he was bound hand and foot
to an unhealthy superstition. He became,
in accordance with our Lord's words to
the Pharisees, the chief proselyters, "two-
fold more the child of hell" (Matt. 23 :
15) than the Pharisees themselves. See
Stranger.
Prov'erb. This word is sometimes
used as synonymous with parable (John
16 : 29), but strictly speaking the proverb
is a short moral sentence expressing an
important principle in a striking and for-
cible manner (1 Sam. 10 : 12). Oriental
people delight in such brief and pithy
maxims, which they often cludie in fig-
urative language.
Prov^erbs, Book of. It is univer-
sally admitted that the majority of the
proverbs contained in this book were
either uttered or collected by Solomon.
They have respect to almost every duty
and relation of life. They open a treas-
ure-house of wisdom in which one may
find the plainest and most practical rules
for the guidance of heart and life. Their
style is rhythmical, rising in some sections
to the loftiest plane of poetry (Prov. 8 : 22-
31).
Prov'i-dence. This word occurs but
once in our Authorized Version, and then
is applied to the care and protection ex-
tended to its subjects by a human govern-
ment (Acts 24 : 2). The doctrine of a di-
vine providence, however, is set forth and
illustrated in every part of the holy Scrip-
tures. It denotes the vigilant care which
God exercises in relation to all the works
of his hand in their preservation and gov-
ernment. God has not merely created all
things, but he continues to uphold them,
and all his attributes of omniscience, om-
nipotence, omnipresence, justice, goodness,
faithfulness, etc. are continually illustrated
in his providential control. The same per-
fections which were exerted to create are
in like manner employed to sustain. The
thought is at once dreary and repulsive
that God takes no special interest in the
works which he has brought into being.
Proofs to the contrary are abundant on
every hand. The orderly movement of
the heavenly bodies ; the changes of the
seasons ; the growth of plants ; the pro-
vision made for the countless varieties of
inferior animals ; the prosperity, punish-
ment and extinction of nations ; the his-
tory of the Church, and its preservation
PROVINCE— PSALMS.
423
amidst the most discouraging circum-
stances ; the history of every individual
man, — these and a thousand otlier partic-
ulars afford evidence of the directing,
controlling and sustaining influence of
One who possesses within himself inex-
haustible resources. Providence has been
called univevsul, as it refers to things in
general ; special, as it relates to moral
beings; and particular, as it refers to God's
people. We have reason to believe that
it extends to the minutest as to the might-
iest concerns in the univei-se. It shapes
tlie destiny of an animalcule as well as
of a world. Not a raven is fed or a
sparrow falls to the ground without the
notice of our heavenly Father. The his-
tory of Joseph's elevation in Egypt in the
singular chain of circumstances which led
to it beautifully illustrates this particular-
ity of providence, and every one who is an
heir of salvation can trace the same pre-
siding power in all the various steps by
which he was led in his religious career.
Chance, fortune, accident, are words with-
out meaning. God's presence pervades
all things; his hand is everywhere vis-
ible ; his kingdom ruleth over all ; and
however a man's lieart may devise his
way, "the Lord directeth his steps"
(Prov. 16 : 9).
Prov'ince. At the division of the
Koman provinces by Augustus after the
battle of Actium (b. c. 27) into senatorial
and imperial, the emperor assigned to the
senate such portions of territory as were
peaceable and could be held without force
of arms, whilst all the other portions of
the empire were reserved for himself.
Over tlie senatorial provinces tlie senate
appointed by lot yearly an officer who
was called " proconsul," and who in our 1
Authorized Version of the New Testa- !
ment is styled " deputy " (Acts 13 : 7, 8 ; !
18 : 12). The proconsul exercised purely
civil functions, and the provinces tluis
ruleil were called " proconsular." Over the
imperial provinces, however, the emperor
appointed tlie presiding officer, who was
called " procurator," and who in our Au-
thorized Version of the New Testament
is styled "governor" (Matt. 27; Luke 3 :
1 ; Acts 23 : 24; 26 : 3U). Hence in the
time of our Lord, Judaea was an imperial
province. Before Pontius Pilate our Lord
is brought as a political oflender (Matt.
27 : 2, 11), and the accusation is heard by
the procurator, who is seated on the judg-
ment-seat (Matt. 27 : 19). Felix heard the
apostle Paul's accusation and defence from
the judgment-seat at Csesarea (Acts ch.
24), and Paul calls him "judge " (Acts 24 :
10), as if this term described his chief func-
tion.
Psalms. The Hebrew word by which
the book of Psalms is designated means
" praise;" the Greek word applied to it in
the Septuagint, from which our English
designation is derived, means "songs," as
accompanying stringed instruments. The
book contains one hundred and fifty psalms,
and may be divided into five great divis-
ions or books. Book I. includes Psalms
1-41 ; Book II., Psalms 42-72 ; Book III.,
Psalms 73-89 ; Book IV., Psalms 90-106 ;
Book v., Psalms 107-150.
These several books must have been
formed at different periods and for differ-
ent purposes. Between them there is a
remarkable variety in their use of the di-
vine names Jehovah and Elohira. In
Book I., Jehovah is found two hundred
and seventy-two times, while Elohim oc-
curs but fifteen times. In Book II., Elo-
him is found more tlian five times as often
as Jehovah. In Book III. the earlier
psalms have Elohim, while the later
psalms have Jehovah. In Book IV. the
name Jehovah is exclusively employed,
and so also virtually in Book V. The
several groups of psalms which form the
respective five books are distinguished in
great measure from each other by their
superscriptions. Book I. is, by the super-
424
PSALTERY— PUDENS.
scriptions, referred entirely to David, who
probably w;u> not only its author, but also
its compiler. In Bjok II. a few psalms
are referred to David, and are perhaps
such as the royal author left uncompiled.
In each of the other three books psalms
are ascribed to David which he certainly
did not write, but which bear his name
because they were written by his posterity —
by Hezekiah, Josiah, Zerubbabel and others
of his line. The interest of Boek III. cen-
tres in the times of Hezekiah, and wa.s prob-
ably compiled in the reign of Josiah. Book
IV. contains the remainder of the psalms
up to the date of the Captivity ; Book V.,
the psalms of the Return ; and both were
probably compiled in the times of jSTehe-
miah.
The whole collection is a marvelous mir-
ror of the inner spiritual life of the pious
man who feels the curse and burden of sin,
who longs for the love and grace of the
living God, who wrestles for pardon and
purity and peace, and who realizes that he
must seek and find rest in laying hold of
the divine faithfulness. "This book," says
Calvin in the preface to his commentary
on it, " I am accustomed to call an anat-
omy of all the parts of the soul, inasmuch
as no one will find an emotion in himself
whose image does not reappear in this mir-
ror. All pains, griefs, fears, doubts, hopes,
cares, anxieties, the stormy impulses by
which the minds of men are driven hither
and thither, are here placed by the Holy
Ghost with vivid distinctness before our
eyes."
Psal'te-ry, a stringed instrument of
music to accompany the voice. It resem-
bled the guitar, but was superior in tone,
being larger and having a convex back.
The psalteries of David vaere made of cy-
press (2 Sam. 6:5); those of Solomon, of
algum or almug trees (2 Chron. 9:11).
Pub''li-can. The class designated by
this word in the New Testament were em-
ployed as collectors of the Roman revenue.
The Roman senate farmed the direct taxes
and the customs to capitalists, who under-
took to pay a given sum into the treasury.
Contracts of this kind fell naturally into
the hands of the richest class of Romans.
They apj)ointed managers, under wliom
were the actual collectors of taxes and
of customs. The custom-house officers
examined each bale of goods, assessed
its value more or less arbitrarily,
wrote out the ticket and enforced
payment. The system was essentially
a vicious one. The collectors were en-
couraged in the most vexatious or i'raud-
ulent exactions, and a remedy was almost
impossible. They overcharged whenever
they had an opportunity (Luke 3 : 13) ;
they brought false charges of smuggling
in tlie hope of extorting hush-money
(Luke 19 : 8) ; they detained and opened
letters on mere suspicion. It was es-
teemed by the Jews the basest of all
livelihoods. It brought the class into
ill-favor everywhere. In Judaea and
Galilee there were sjaecial circumstances
of aggravation. Many Jews from love of
gain sought the office. Many Jews had
the strong conviction that to pay tribute
at all was forbidden by their Law. Thus,
conflict and confusion were sure to arise.
The publicans were despised ; were de-
nominated apostates and traitors ; were
regarded as utterly defiled by their inter-
course with the heathen ; were denounced
as the shameless tools of the oppressor.
Yet the class thus practically excommu-
nicated furnished some of the earliest dis-
ciples both of the Baptist and of our Lord.
' Pub'li-us, the chief man, probably the
governor, of Melita, who received and
lodged Paul and his com[)anions after the
shipwreck ofT that island (Acts 28 : 7).
'• Pu'dens [modest^, a Christian of some
note at Rome and a friend of Timothy (2
Tim. 4 : 21). He is supposed to have been
a senator and the husband of Claudia, a
British princess.
PUL— PUEIFICATION.
425
Pul, the name of a king and a country.
1. An Assyrian king, and the first of
those monarchs mentioned in Scripture.
His Hebrew name is more properly
Phul, wliich appears in tlie Septuagint as
Phoua. He invaded Israel in the time of
Menahem the usurper, who bought him
oif from ravaging the land and from in-
terfering with tlie government by the pay-
ment of a thousand talents of silver, which
were extorted from the wealthy subjects of
the kingdom (2 Kings 15 : 19, 20"). As the
name of Pul does not appear in the Assyr-
ian Eponym Canon or in tiie numerous
inscriptions which have been read, va-
rious attempts have been made to ex-
plain the fact. Sir Henry Rawlinson is
followed by Professor Sayce of Oxford,
Professor Schrader of Germany and other
scholars in the identification of Pul with
tlie Tiglath-pileser mentioned in 2 Kings
15 : 29 ; 16 : 7, 10, and who appears on
the Assyrian inscriptions as Tiglath-pile-
ser II. ; other scholars identify him with
Vul-nirari III., who reigned some thirty
years earlier than Tiglath-pileser II. ; and
still other scholars maintain that in the
Assyrian records there exists a gap which
is yet to be filled. Bishop Walsh of Os-
sory has recently claimed to have found
" Pul, king of Assyria," on a stone frag-
ment from the great palace at Nimrud.
On this stone are mentioned Pul's expe-
dition against Tyre, Sidon, Omri, Edom
and Palestine as far as the Mediterranean,
and his laying tribute upon them all.
Should this claim prove to be well found-
ed it will happily settle one of the vexed
and difficult questions of biblical history.
2. A people or place mentioned in Isa.
66 : 19. It is spoken of with distant na-
tions, and has been supposed to represent
the island Philre in Egypt.
Pulse. This word in our Authorized
Version occurs only in Dan. 1 : 12, 16, as
the translation of words in Hebrew the
literal meaning of which is " seeds " of
any kind. The term probably denotes
uncooked grain of any kind, wiiether
barley, wheat, millet, vetches or the like.
Pun'ish-ment. The word has three
applications in Scripture: 1. To the suf-
fering inflicted as the penalty of crime ( 1
Sam. 28 : 9, 10) ; 2. To the calamity visit-
ed by God on a wicked nation (Lev. 26 :
41-43) ; 3. To the everlasting torment of
the wicked (Matt. 25 : 46). The punish-
ments for crime among the Hebrews were
of two kinds, capital and secondary. Of
capital punishments the following only
were prescribed by the law: Stoning (Ex.
17 : 4), hanginc) (Num. 25 : 4), burning
(Lev. 21 : 9), death by the sword, or xpear
(Ex. 19 : 13). Of secondary punishments
the following were the principal : Retali-
ation (Ex. 21 : 24, 25), compensation (Lev.
24: 18-21), stripes (Deut. 25: 3), scourg-
ing (Judg. 8 : 16). In the later times of
Jewish history imprisonment, confiscation
of goods and banishment were added to the
list of secondary punishments (Ezra 7 : 26 ;
Acts 5 : 18). See Prison.
Pu'non [darkness or black'nessi, one of
the halting-places of the Israelites during
the last portion of the Wandering (Num.
33 : 42, 43).
Pu-ri-fl-ca'tion. In its legal and
technical sense this word is applied to the
ritual observances whereby the Israelite
was formally absolved from the taint of
uncleanness. The essence of purification
in all cases consisted in the use of water,
whether by ablution or aspersion ; but in
the higher forms of legal uncleanness, such
as childbirth (Lev. 12:6) or contact with
a corpse or a grave ( Num. ch. 1 9 ) or cure
of leprosy (Lev. 14 : 4-32), sacrifices of va-
rious kinds were added, and the ceremo-
nies throughout bore an expiatory charac-
ter. Indeed, the distinctive feature in the
Mosaic rites of [mrification is tlieir expi-
atory character. The idea of uncleanness
wa.s not peculiar to the Jew. With all
other nations, however, simple ablution
426
PURIM— PYGARG.
sufficed ; no sacrifices were demanded.
The Jew alone was taught by the use of
expiatory offerings to discern to its full
extent the connection between the out-
ward sign and tiie inward impurity.
Pu'rira [/ofo], the annual festival in-
stituted to commemorate the preservation
of the Jews in Persia from the massacre
with which they were threatened through
the enmity of Haman (Esth. 9 : 24-32).
The festival lasted two days, and was ob-
served on the 14th and 15th of Adar.
Pur 'pie, the color for which the
Tyrians were so renowned, and which be-
came the symbol of imperial dominion,
was well known at the time of the Exo-
dus. A large store of material dyed in
this hue, woolen and linen probably, was
carried by Israel from Egypt (Ex. 25:
Murex.
4 ; 35 : 6, 25), and was used for the con-
struction of the curtains, veil and hang-
ings of tlie tabernacle, for the cloths of
service and for the garments of Aaron the
high priest. The dye was obtained from
a shell-fish, the Murex truncvhu'^ and Mu-
rex hrnndarin of Linnieus. Vast piles of
broken shells of the murex may now be
seen just without the southern gate of
Sidon, and at Tyre ; also in Greece ; and
at Otranto, Italy, where are the remains
of dye works with mortar still purpled
by the dye. The dye was a liquor con-
tained in a vein situated in the neck of
the animal. Its limitation in quantity,
the difficulty of collecting it and the labor
and complexity of the dyeing j>rocesses
necessarily made the purple cloth costly
even at the place of its manufacture. Hence
the wearing of purple was the well-under-
stood sign of wealth (Luke 16 : 19), and
was consequently indulged in by the opu-
lent until the emperors of Rome confined
it to themselves by making the appear-
ance of such a garment on a private
individual an offence to be punished with
severity.
Purse. The Hebrews, when on a
journey, were provided with a bag in
which they carried their money ((ien. 42 :
35; Prov. 1 : 14; 7 : 20 ; Isa. 46 : 6), and,
if they were merchants, also their weights
(Deut. 25 : 13 ; Mic. 6:11). This bag is
referred to in the New Testament (Luke
10 : 4; 12 : 33; 22 : 35, 36; John 12 : 6;
13 : 29). The girdle also served as a purse
(Matt. 10: 9; Mark 6 : 8). Ladies wore
ornamental purses (crisping-pins) (Isa. 3 :
22).
Pu-te'o-li, now called Pozzuoli, a sea-
port town in Campania, Italy, about eight
miles north-west from Naples, and cele-
brated for its hot springs. It was a favor-
ite resort of the Romans. It was also the
port where ships for Rome landed their
passengers and discharged their cargoes,
partly to avoid doubling the promontory
of Circeium, and partly because there
was no nearer harbor that was commo-
dious. The ship which carried Paul and
other prisoners to the imperial city landed
its passengers hei'e, and here the apostle
tarried seven days (Acts 28 : 13, 14).
Py'garg. The rendering of a Hebrew
term which is supposed to designate some
species of antelope (Deut. 14 : 5).
QUAIi— QUICKSANDS.
427
Q.
Quail, There can be no doubt that
the Hebrew word in Ex. 16 : 13 ; Num.
1 1 : 31, 32 ; Ps. 105 : 40 which is trans-
lated "quails" is correctly rendered.
Quails were a part of tlie food miracu-
lously supplied to the Israelites in the
wilderness. They are still common in the
deserts of Arabia, and are brought to the
market at Jerusalem by thousands. The
Quail.
supply to the Israelites, according to the
first two texts cited, was furnished on two
occasions, at Sin and at Kibroth-hattaavah.
Both were at the season when tlie quails
pass from soutli to north, and are found in
immense flocks on the coast of the Medi-
terranean and Red Sea. The descrijition,
" two cubits liigh upon the face of the eartli "
(Num. 11:31), refers probably to the height
at which the quails flew above the ground
in their exhausted condition from their
long flight.
Quar'tus [the fourth'], a Christian of
note at Corinth whose salutations Paul
transmitted to Rome (Rom. 16 : 23). His
name seems to indicate that he was a Ro-
man.
Qua-ter'ni-on, a military term sig-
nifying a guard of four soldiers, two of
whom were attached to the person of a
prisoner, while the other two kept watch
outside the door of his cell (Acts 12 : 4).
Queen. This title is properly applied
to the queen-mother, since in an Oriental
household it is not the wife, but the moth-
er, of the master who exercises the high-
est authority. The extent of the influence
of the queen-mother is well illustrated by
the narrative of the interview of Solomon
and Bathsheba, as given in 1 Kings 2 : 19-
25. The term is applied to Maachah,
Asa's mother (1 Kings 15 : 13), and to the
mother of Jehoiachin (comp. 2 Kings 24 :
12 with Jer. 13 : 18).
Queen of Heaven, the moon, wor-
shiped as Ashtaroth or Astarte, to whom
the Hebrew women oflered cakes in the
streets of Jerusalem (Jer. 7:18; 44 : 17,
18, 19, 25).
Quick [living or alive], (Lev. 13 : 10;
Num. 16 : 30 ; Ps. 55 : 15). The original
sense of the word is retained in the verb
to quicken, which means to make alive, to
bring to life (Rom. 4 : 17 ; 8:11; Eph. 2 :
5 ; Col. 2 : 13).
Quicksands, The, more properly
The Syrtes (Acts 27 : 17), the broad and
deep bight on the North African coast be-
tween Carthage and Cyrene. The name is
said to be derived from Serf, an Ai'abic word
for a desert. For two reasons t his region was
an object of peculiar dread to the ancient
navigators of the Mediterranean, partly
because of the drifting sands and the heat
along the shore itself, but chiefly on ac-
count of the shallows and the uncertain
currents of water in the bay. There were
properly two Syrtes — the eastern or larger,
now called the Gulf of Sldra, and tlie west-
ern or smaller, now the Gulf of Cabes. It
is to the first that the passage in Acts re-
fers.
428
KAAM AH— E A BBAH.
E.
Ra'a-mah [« tremblina], one of the
sons of Cush, whose descendants settled
on tlie Persian Gulf and became renowned
as traders (Gen. 10 : 7 ; Ezek. 27 : 22).
Ra-am'ses, in Ex. 1:11, elsewhere
Ram'e-ses (Gen. 47 : 11 ; Ex. 12 :
37 ; Num. 33 : 3, 5), the name of an
Egyptian city and jirovince. Several of
Egyf)t's ancient kings were named Ram-
eses " child of the sun," one of whom prob-
ably built the city, which, as it grew in
importance, gave its name to the surround-
ing district. The city and province were
in Lower Egypt, and in that land of Gosh-
en which was assigned to Joseph's breth-
ren and their families because of its adapt-
edness to pasturage. From Rameses, city
and province, the Israelites began their
march out of Egypt.
Rab'bah, or Rab'bath [the great],
Rabbath-Ammon from the East.
or Rab'bath. of the Am'raon-ites,
the capital of the Ammonites (Dent. 3 :
11 ). Here Uriah was slain during the siege
of it by Joab (2 Sam. 11:17); the city was
afterward taken by David in person (2 Sam.
12 : 29). Subsequently it had many mas-
ters and encountered varying fortunes. In
the times of the Ptolemies of Egypt it
wa.s rebuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who
called it Philadelpliia, but its old name
survived. It is now called Amman, an
echo of the name of the Anunonites, its
early possessors. It is utterly ruined and
desolate, in accordance with prophecy ( Jer.
49 : 1-3 ; p:zek. 25 : 5). Its ruins, the re-
mains of palaces, temples, churches, the-
atres and tombs, lie about twenty-two miles
east of tlie Jordan. One of its theatres, ca-
pable of accommodating six thousand spec-
tators, is one of the finest ruins in Syria.
EABB-AH— KAHAB.
429
Rab^bah, or Rab^bath-Moab.
See Ar.
Rab 'bi [leacherl, a title of respect given
by the Jews to their teachers, and often ad-
dressed to our Lord (Matt. 23 : 7, 8 ; 26 :
25, 49 ; Mark 9 : 5 ; 11 : 21 ; 14 : 45 ; John
I : 38, 49 ; 3 : 2, 26 : 4:31; 6 : 25 ; 9:2;
II : 8). Another form of the title was
rabboni (Mark 10 : 51 ; John 20 : 10).
The title r;ibbi is not known to have been
used before the reign of Herod the Great,
and is thought to have taken its rise about
tlie time of the disputes between the rival
schools of Hillel and Shammai.
Rab^-Mag, a title borne by Nergal-
Sharezer, probably identical with the king
called by the Greeks Neriglissar. This
king, as well as certain other important
personages, is found to bear the title in
the Babylonian inscriptions. The signifi-
cation of Rab is "great" or "chief," but
Mag is an obscure term. It has common-
ly been identified with the word " Magus,"
but this identification is very uncertain.
Rab^sar-is, the name of two persons.
1. An officer of the king of Assyria sent
with Tartan and Rabsliakeh against Jeru-
salem in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings
18 : 17).
2. One of the princes of Nebuchadnez-
zar who was present at the capture of Je-
rusalem (Jer. 39 : 3, 13). Rabsaris is prob-
ably rather the name of an office than of
an individual, the word signifying chief
eunuch. In Jer. ch. 39 the title of the
Rabsaris is not only given, but most prob-
ably his name, either Sarsechim, as in ver.
3, or Nebushasban (worshiper of Nebo), as
in ver. 13.
Rab'sha-keh, one of the officers of
the king of Assyria sent against Jerusa-
lem in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Kings
chs. 18, 19 ; Isa. 36, 37 ). Our Authorized
Version takes Rabsliakeh as the name of
a person, but it is more probably the name
of the office which he held at the court,
that of chief cupbearer.
Ra'ca [emp</nt'ss], a term of reproach
used by the Jews of our Lord's time
(Matt. 5 : 22). It is derived from the
Chaldee rekd, and is expressive of con-
tempt.
Race. See Games.
"-I--^-" £"-aS«^,-
^fi-3^3
The Tomb of Rachel.
Ra'chel [eive'], the yoimger of the
daughters of Laban, the wife of Jacob
and mother of Joseph and Benjamin.
The incidents of her life may be found
in Gen. chs. 29-33, 35. She died and was
buried near Bethlehem, where her tomb
remained for a long period, and the site
of it, whicli is undisputed by Christian,
Jew or Moslem, is still pointed out, al-
though the tomb itself, which is shown to
travelers, is a modern structure. It is about
five miles south of Jerusalem, and one mile
north of Bethlehem.
Ra-gu'el. See Jethro.
Ra'hab, or Ra'chab, a celebrated
woman of Jericho who received the spies
sent by Joshua to spy out the land,
hid them in lier house from the pursuit
of her countrymen, was saved with all her
family when the Israelites sacked the city,
and became the wife of Salmon and the an-
cestress of the Messiah (Josh. 2:1; Matt.
430
EAHAB— EAMA.
1 : 5). Her house was situated upon the
town-wall, whence she let the spies down
by a cord through the window where she
liound the scarlet line (Josh. 2 : 15, 21).
Her life before the overthrow of Jericho
was not a respectable one, but with the
purer faith of the Hebrews which she em-
braced she seems to have entered on a
nobler career. Her faith is commended
in Heb. 11 : 31, and her works in James
2 : 25.
Ra'hab [pride, ??i.so/ence], a poetical
name for Egypt (Ps. 87 : 4; b9 : 10; Isa.
51 : 9), probably of Egyptiau origin, but
accommodated to the Hebrew language.
Rain. In the Scriptures early rain
signifies the rain of the autumn (Deut. 11 :
14 ; Jer. 5 : 24), and latter rain the rain
of spring (Prov. 16 : 15 ; Job 29 : 23 ; Jer. 3 :
3; Hos. G : 3; Joel 2 : 23; Zech. 10 : 1). In
Palestine for six months in the year occa-
sional showers only fall, and the harvests
are gathered in without any apprehension
of unseasonable storms. The whole land,
however, becomes dry, parched and brown,
the cisterns are empty, the springs and
fountains fail, and the autumnal rains are
eagerly looked for to prepare the earth
for the reception of the seed. There the
early rains commence about the latter end
of October or beginning of November, in
Lebanon a montli earlier. They fall not
continuously, but irregularly and chiefly in
the night, giving the husbandman the op-
portunity of sowing his fields of wheat and
barley. During the months of November
and December the rains continue to fall
heavily ; afterward they return at intervals
and are less lieavy, but at no period during
the winter do they entirely cease. January
and February are the coldest months, and
snow falls sometimes to the depth of a foot
or more at Jerusalem, but it does not lie
long; it is very seldom seen along the
coast and in the low plains. Rain con-
tinues to fall more or less during the
month of March ; it is rare in April, and
' even in Lebanon the showers that oc-
cur are generally light. In the valley of
\ the Jordan the barley-harvest begins as
I early as the middle of April, and the
wheat a fortnight later; in Lebanon the
grain is seldom ripe before the middle of
June.
Rain'bO"W, the token of the covenant
which God made with Noah when he came
forth from the ark, that the waters should
no more become a flood to destroy all flesh.
The right interpretation of Gen. 9 : 13
seems to be that God took the rainbow,
which had hitherto been but a beautiful
object shining in the heavens when the
sun's rays fell on falling rain, and conse-
crated it as tlie sign of his love and the
witness of his promise. In figure the
rainbow is used to image God's love and
faithfulness. When John beholds "a
rainbow about the throne in sight like
unto an emerald " (Eev. 4 : 3) he has,
with the awful vision of majesty, the as-
suring vision of mercy.
Rai'sins, ripe grapes preserved by
drying (1 Sam. 25 : 18).
Rak'kath [shore], one of the fortified
towns of Naphtali, grouped between Ha-
math and Chinneroth (Josh. 19 : 35). It
is said to have stood on the site beside the
Sea of Galilee where Tiberias was after-
I
ward built.
Ram, a male sheep. It was accounted
a clean animal by the ceremonial Law, and
was used for sacrifice (Ex. 29 : 15-18 ; Lev.
9 : 2, 4). See Sheep.
Ram, Bat'ter-ing, a warlike instru-
ment for breaching the walls of besieged
towns (Ezek. 4:2; 21 : 22). In attack-
ing the walls of a fort or city the first
step appears to have been to form an in-
clined plane or bank of earth ("to cast a
mount against it" 1, by wliich the besiegers
could bring their battering-rams and other
engines to the foot of the walls. See Bat-
terixg-Ram.
Ra'ma, or Ra'mah [high place], the
RAMESES— RAVEN.
431
one the Greek, the other the Hebrew, form
of the name of several towns in Palestine.
1. A town of Benjamin (Josh. IS : 25),
five miles north of Jerusalem. It occu-
pied a very strong position, commanding
the great road from the north to Jerusa-
lem. Here, at tlie destruction of Jerusa-
lem by Nebuchadnezzar, the chief inhab-
itants who had escaped the sword were put
under guard, the prophet Jeremiah being
one of the captives (Jer. 39 : 8-12 ; 40 : 1).
Then was fulfilled the propliecy uttered
many years before (.Jer. 31 : 15). The
lamentation was not only over those who
liad just been slain in Jerusalem, but also
over those captives who were slaughtered
at Ramali because from age or sickness
they could not be transported to Babylon.
The same prophecy was subsequently ful-
filled when Herod, in order to destroy the
infant Christ, "slew all the children that
were in Bethlehem and in all the coasts
thereof, from two years old and under"
(Matt. 2 : 16-18). As Rachel in giving
birth to Benjamin died near Bethlehem
and was buried there (Gen. 35 : 16-19),
so her departed spirit is poetically and
very beautifully represented as mourning
her murdered children. Ramah has been
identified with er-Ram, a small and mis-
erable village in the midst of broken col-
umns and large hewn stones.
2. A town of Judah, called also Rama-
THAiM-ZoPHiM, the birthplace, residence
and burial-place of the prophet Samuel (1
Sara. 1:1, 19; 2 : 11; 7 : 17; 8:4; 25:
1 ; 28 : 3). All tradition of the site seems
to have been early lost, and the conjectures
as to its true position are so various as to
leave it for the present in entire uncer-
tainty.
3. There was also a Ramah in Naphtali
(Josh. 19 : 36) and a Ramah in Gilead (2
Kings 8 : 29), called Ramath-Mizpeh in
Josh. 1 3 : 26, and apparently the same as
Ramoth-Gilead (which see).
Ram'e-sea. See Raamses.
Ra''iiioth-Gil'e-ad [heights of Gil-
ead], (1 Kings 22 : 29), the same as Ra-
math-Mizpeh (Josh. 13 : 26). One of the
chief cities of Gad, east of the Jordan, al-
lotted to the Levites and made a city of
refuge (Deut. 4 : 43 ; Josh. 20 : 8). It was
the scene of many sieges and battles in the
wars between the Israelites and the Syr-
ians. In an attempt to storm it King
Ahab lost his life (1 Kings 22 : 1-37),
and subsequently in a similar attempt
King Joram was wounded (2 Kings 8 : 28).
Its precise site is matter of conjecture.
Ran'som, the price paid to purchase
the freedom of a captive or a slave ( Matt.
20 : 28; 1 Tim. 2 : 6). Under the Levit-
ical Law an offering of lialf a shekel was
required of every Israelite over twenty
years of age at the time the census was
taken. This offering is called a ransom
or atonement-money (Ex. 30 : 12-16). It
was to be made upon penalty of the plague,
and every person, rich or poor, was re-
quired to give that sum, and neither
more nor less. In 1 Pet. 1 : 18, 19 the
apostle refers to this redemption by money
in illustration of the greatness of that re-
demption which is effected only by " the
precious blood of Christ."
^'1^.
The Raven.
Ra''ven, a bird of prey resembling the
common crow in size, shape and color. A
432
REBA— REED.
raven was sent out by Noah from the ark to
see whether the waters were abated (Gen.
8 : 7). It was forbidden by the Mosaic Law
as an article of food (Lev. 11 : 15), and it
is represented in Scripture as delighting
in deserted and solitary places (Isa. 34 :
11). When about to feed upon a dead
body it seizes first, as commonly alleged,
upon the eyes. Hence the allusion in
Prov. 30 : 17 implies the exposure of the
body in an open field, than which noth-
ing was thought to be more disgraceful.
Under the divine command ravens were
the means of supporting the prophet
Elijah at the brook Cherith (1 Kings
17 : 4, 6). They are expressly mentioned
as instances of God's protecting love and
goodness (Job 38 : 41 ; Luke 12 : 24). The
glossy blackness of the raven's plumage
furnishes a fine image of beautiful locks
of hair (Song 5 : 11).
Re'ba [the fourth parti, 0"^ of the five
kings of the Midianites slain by the chil-
dren of Israel in their avenging expedi-
tion when Balaam fell (Num. 31 : 8 ; Josh.
13: 21).
Re-bek'ah [a cord inth a noose, sym-
bolical of one with captivating qualities],
daughter of Bethuel (Gen. 22 : 23) sister
of Laban and wife of Isaac, her father's
cousin. The circumstances of her mar-
riage with Isaac form in recital one of
the most charming passages of sacred his-
tory (Gen. ch. 24). After twenty years of
marriage she became the mother of Ja-
cob and Esau, receiving at the time a
remarkable prophetic intimation concern-
ing the future destiny of her children
(Rom. 9 : 10-12). When her sons were
grown she manifested toward Jacob an
undue yet not unnatural partiality, which
was the source of much domestic disqui-
etude. She died before Isaac, and, as is
conjectured, before Jacob's return from
Padan-Aram, and was buried in Abra-
ham's tomb (Gen. 49 : 31).
Re'chab [rider'}, the father or ances-
tor of Jehonadab or Jonadab (2 Kings
10 : 15, 23), from whom the tribe of the
Rechabites derived their name. Nothing
is known of his personal history.
Rech'ab-ites, descendants of Rechab
and a section of the Kenites who came into
Canaan with the Israelites and retained
their nomadic habits. Their real founder
was Jehonadab or Jonadab, who, from zeal
for the pure worship of God, associated
himself with Jehu in the destruction of
the idolatrous house of Aliab. For many
generations they continued a separate but
peaceable peop.le, living in tents and re-
moving from place to place as circum-
stances required. When Judsea was fii-st
invaded by Nebuchadnezzar they fled to
Jerusalem for safety, when the prophet
.Jeremiah held them up before the wicked
inhabitants of the city as an example of
constancy in their obedience to the man-
dates of an earthly father (Jer. 35 : 2-19).
Rec'on-cil-i-a'tion, the restoration
of harmony between parties who have
been at variance (Heb. 2 : 17). The sole
and suflficient means of reconciling sinful
man to the holy Father is the atonement
of our Lord Jesus Christ (2 Cor. 5:18-
21 ; Eph. 2 : 16).
Re-cord'er, an officer of high rank
in the Jewish state, exercising the func-
tions not simply of an annalist, but of
chancellor or president of the privy coun-
cil. In David's court the recorder ap-
pears among the high officers of his house-
hold (2 Sam. 8:16; 20 : 24; 1 Chron. 18 :
15). In Solomon's court he is coupled with
the three secretaries, and is mentioned
last, probably as being their president
(1 Kings 4 : 3).
Re-deem 'er, one who purchases the
liberty of another by paying the ransom-
price. The title is emphatically applied
to our Lord Jesus Christ (Isa. 59:20;
Gal. 3:13; Rev. 5 : a).
Red Sea. See Sea.
Reed. Several words in Hebrew are
EEED, MEASfjEIXG— REGENERATION.
433
rendered "reed" or "rush" in our Au-
thorized Version.
1. A word occurring in Isa. 9 : 14 ; 19 :
15, and rendered "rush." It represents
some aquatic reed-like plant which can-
not now be determined with certainty.
2. A word occurring in Ex. 2:3; Isa.
18:2; 3o : 7 ; Job 8:11, rendered in the
first and second citation " bulrushes," in
tlie third "rushes," and in the fourth
"rush." It represents without doubt the
celebrated papyrus or paper-reed of the
ancients, not now found in Egypt, but still
found along the shores of the Sea of Gal-
ilee.
3. A word translated " paper-reeds " in
Isa. 19 : 7, but for such a rendering there
is not the slightest authority. It probably
denotes the open grassy land on the banks
of the Nile.
Rush or Reed.
4. A word which is the generic name of
a reed of any kind. It occurs in numerous
passages, and sometimes denotes the " stalk"
of wheat (Gen. 41 : 5, 22) or the "branches"
of the candlestick (Ex. 25 : 31, 32; 37 : 18).
The stems of tlie larger class of reeds were
used by the Orientals for walking-staves and
fishing-rods. A reed simiLar to the cane
of our Southern States, grows abundantly
28
on the banks of the Jordan and in other
moist places in Palestine.
Reed, Meas'ur-ing, a measure of
lengtli equal to six cubits (Ezek. 40 : 5-
8; 41 : 8; 42 : 16-19).
Re-fi'ner. The refiner's art was es-
sential to tlae working of the precious
metals. It consisted in the separation of
the dross from the pure ore, which was
effected by reducing the metal to a fluid
state by the application of heat and by
the aid of solvents, such as alkali (Isa. 1 :
25) or lead (Jer. 6 : 29), which, amalga-
mating with the dross, permitted the ex-
traction of the unadulterated metal. The
instruments required by the refiner were a
crucible or furnace and a bellows or blow-
pipe. The workman sat at his work (Mai.
3:3); he was thus the better enabled to
watch the process and let the metal run
ofl' at the proper moment.
Ref ^uge, Cities of. See Cities of
Refuge.
Re-gen-e-ra^tion. This word occurs
but twice in Scripture, and both passages
are in our Authorized Version of the New
Testament. In Matt. 19 : 28 it is used in
the sense of renovation or restoration to a
former state, and is descriptive of that
complete external manifestation of the
Messiah's kingdom when all things are
to be delivered from their present cor-
ruption and restored to spiritual purity and
splendor; in Tit. 3 : 5 it is employed to
designate that change of heart and life
in every subject of divine grace which is
eflfected by the agency of the Holy Spirit.
This second sense is the one commonly as-
sociated with the English word regenera-
tion, and the change thus indicated is, in
the New Testament, expressed in very
many and very emphatic forms. It is
called being "born again" (John 3 : 3),
"born of the Spirit" (John 3:8), "quick-
ened" (Eph. 2:1), "passing from death
unto life" (1 John 3 : 14), becoming "a
new creature" (2 Cor. 5 : 17), "Christ in
434
REHOB— REM PH AN.
the soul the hope of glory" (Col. 1 : 27).
The nature of the change is represented
very strikingly and arrestingly. It is su-
peniatural (John 3 : G ; P]ph. 2 : 4, 5) ; inter-
nal and invisible (John 3:8); visible in its
manifested effects (1 John 3:9; 4:7;5:4);
permanent (Phil. 1:6); essential to saJya-J
tion (Gal. 6 : 15), and fruitful in holiness^
(Gal. 5: 22; Eph. 4 : 24).
Re 'hob [street, broad placed, the name
of several cities.
1. A city on the northern border of Pal-
estine, first mentioned in the record of the
mission of the spies (Num. 13 : 21). It
was called also Beth-Rehob (2 Sam. 10 :
6-8). Its precise site is undetermined.
2. A city allotted to Asher (Josh. 19 : '
28), apparently near to Zidon, but as yet
undiscovei'ed. I
3. A city of Asher, on the southern bor-
der of the tribe (Josh. 19 : 30). This
probably was the Rehob allotted to the
Levites (Josh. 21 : 31 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 75),
and from which the old Canaanites were
not expelled (Judg. 1 : 31). Site un-
known.
Re-llO-"bO''ain [enlargement of the peo-
ple'], son of Solomon by the Ammonite
princess Naaraah (1 Kings 14 : 21, 31),
and his successor (1 Kings 11 : 43). At
an early period of Jewish history symp-
toms of an imperfect confederation of tlie
tribes appeared. The powerful Ephraim
was not disposed to rest quietly in a po-
sition of inferiority. When Solomon's
strong hand was withdrawn the crisis
came. Rehoboam selected Shechem as
the place of his coronation, probably as
an act of concession to tlie Epliraimites.
The people demanded a remission of the
severe burdens imposed by Solomon, and
Rehoboam promised them an answer in
three days, during which time he con-
sulted first his father's cotmsellors, and
then the young men " tliat were grown
up with him and which stood before him."
Rejecting tlie advice of the elders to con-
ciliate the people at the beginning of his
reign, he returned as his reply the frantic
bravado of his contemporaries. The re-
sult was the insurrection of tlie ten north-
ern tribes and the enthronement of Jero-
boam as the first king of the separate
kingdom of Israel. Rehoboam reigned
seventeen years, acquiring no glory while
ne lived and calling forth no unusual lam-
entation when he died (1 Kings 14 : 21-
24).
Re'ho-both [broad places, street^l, the
name of several places.
1. A city built by Nimrod, site unknown
(Gen. 10 : 11).
2. A well dug by Isaac (Gen. 26 : 22).
3. The name of tlie city of a certain
Saul or Shaul, one of the Edomite kings,
and called "Rehoboth by the river" (Gen.
36 : 37). Tlie river is supposed to be the
Euphrates, three miles west of which is
now a town called er-Rahabeh.
Reins, tlie kidneys, from the Latin
renes. In the ancient system of physiol-
ogy the kidneys were believed to be the
seat of desire and longing, which ac-
counts for their often being coupled
with the heart (Ps. 7:9; 26 : 2; Jer.
11 : 20; 17 : 10).
Rem-a-li'ah [Jehovah adorns], the
father of Pekah, captain of Pekaliiah,
king of Israel, who slew his master and
usurped his throne (2 Kings 15 : 25-37 ;
Isa. 7 : 1-9).
Re-mis'sion, release from obligation
to penalty — that is, pardon. The sole
ground of the remission of sins is the
atoning sacrifice of our Lord Jesus Christ
(Matt. 26 : 28 ; Acts 10 : 43). Hence the
word of our Lord to the apostles in respect
to remitting and retaining sins (John 20 :
23) was not their investiture with tlie
power to grant or deny pardon, but with
the authority to publish to the world the
doctrine of full forgiveness through the
propitiation of Christ (1 John 2:1,2^.
Rem'phan (Acts 7 : 43) and Chiun
REPENTANCE— RESEN.
435
(Amos 5 : 26) have been supposed to be
tlie names of an idol, the star-god Saturn,
worshiped by the Israelites in the wilder-
ness. The most reasonable explanation
of the two names so different in sound is
that Remphan is an Egyptian equivalent,
substituted by the translators of the Sep-
tuagint for the Hebrew or Semitic Chiun.
Re-pent'ance. The general sense
of the English word thus rendered is
"change of mind." Thus Esau found
no place of repentance or change of
mind in his father Isaac (Heb. 12 :
17), for Isaac would not change what he
had done — that is, would not revoke the
blessing given to Jacob (Gen. 27 : 34-40).
Thus, too, the expression " the gifts and
calling of God are without repentance "
(Rom. 11 : 29) denotes the stability and
unchangeableness of God's purpose of
grace in the covenant of redemption.
But in connection with sin the word " re-
pentance " has a specific sense. It desig-
nates sorrow for sin, grief for having com-
mitted it, and a turning away from it, ac-
companied with sincere endeavors, in re-
liance on the grace and aid of God's
Holy Spirit, to live in humble and holy
obedience to the divine commands and
will (Matt. 3 : 2, 8 ; Acts 5 : 31 ; 11 : 18 ;
2 Cor. 7 : 8-10 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 25). Tropi-
cally, repentance is ascribed to God (Gen.
6:6) when, because of change in men, he
changes toward them his conduct or bear-
ing.
Rep-e-ti'tions, Vain, expressions
repeated frequently in prayer, with the
notion that mere frequency of repetition
would make the prayer more meritorious
and efficacious (Matt. 6:7). "Use not
vain repetitions," means literally " babble
not."
Reph^aim [giants'], an ancient tribe
noted for their gigantic stature and great
strength. In Abraham's times they lived
east of the Jordan (Gen. 14 : 5 ; 15 : 20))
but at the conquest of Canaan they lived
both east and west of the river (Josh. 13 :
12; 15:8; 18:16). They had settle-
ments in Bashan at a very remote period,
of which in the overthrow of Og by the
Israelites they were dispossessed (Deut. 3 :
10-13). They occupied also a section of
Western Palestine adjoining the mountains
of Ephraim (Josh. 17 : 15), and a valley
lying between Jerusalem and Bethlehem
(Josh. 18 : 16). In the times of David
some of them dwelt in Gath (1 Chron.
20 : 4-6).
Reph^aim, Val'ley of [valley of the
giants], an upland plain or valley a short
distance south-west of Jerusalem, where
David twice defeated the Philistines (2
Sam. 5 : 17-25; 1 Chron. 14 : 9-16).
Repji'l-dim [re»ts, supports], a noted
station of the Israelites near to Sinai,
where they complained because they
had been brought out of Egypt, where
they murmured because they had not an
abundance of water, where they were mir-
aculously supplied with water, and where,
under the leadership of Joshua, they de-
feated the Amalekites (Ex. ch. 17). Its
locality is much debated, but the majority
of intelligent travelers are agreed that its
requirements are best answered by the
palm-grove now and for many ages past
called the valley of Paran or Feiran,
near the base of Mount Serbal.
Rep'ro-bate. This term is applied
to silver ( Jer. 6 : 30), and means that the
silver does not endure the proper test or
does not conform to standard weight, and
is therefore rejected or cast away. With a
similar yet figurative sense the term is
applied to hvmaan principles and practices
(Rom. 1 : 28 ; Tit. 1 : 16), which it de-
nounces as corrupt and as certain to meet
the divine displeasure.
Re'sen [curb, bridle], an ancient city
of Assyria, lying between Nineveh and
Calah (Gen. 10 : 12). Assyrian remains
of some considerable extent are found
near the modern village of Selamiyeh, and
436
KESURRECTION OF OUR LORD— REUBEN.
perhaps the most probable conjecture is
that these represent Resen.
Res-ur-rec'tion of our Lord. Af-
ter our Lord had completed the work of
redemption by his death upon the cross,
he rose victorious from tlie grave and be-
came to his people "the Prince of life"
(Acts 3 : 15). No fact of history is more
firmly established by competent concur-
rent testimony than this fact of our Lord's
resurrection. The number of witnesses
who saw him and conversed with him
after he had risen is very great (1 Cor. 15 :
6) ; with many of these witnesses he had
frequent interviews (Matt. 28 : 9, 10; 28 :
16, 17 ; Mark 16:9; Luke 24 : 13 31, 36,
51 ; John 20 : 19, 20, 26 ; 21 : 1-15) ; these
witnesses were at first incredulous and slow
to believe (Luke 24 : 1-12) ; these wit-
nesses manifested their deep conviction
and assurance of the fact of our Lord's
resurrection by their publication of it be-
fore his murderers and their persecutors
(Acts 2 : 22-24) ; these witnesses could
have had no motive to attempt an impos-
ture (1 Cor. 15 : 19) ; these witnesses with-
out exception continued to agree in their
testimony, although exposed by it to suf-
fering and death (Acts 2 : 32) ; these wit-
nesses, in the name of our Lord and in
confirmation of their testimony, wrought
many miracles (Acts 2 : 43 ; 5 : 12). The
great fact thus established has a command-
ing importance. It is the crowning evi-
dence of tlie divine character of his mis-
sion (Matt. 12 : 38-40 ; Rom. 1 : 4) ; it is
the beginning of his exaltation and re-
ward (Matt. 28 : 18) ; it is the pledge and
seal of his completed work of redemption
(Heb. 9:11-14; 10: 12-14); it is the
pledge and earnest of the resurrection of
his people (1 Cor. 15 : 20-23).
Res-ur-rec'tion of the Dead.
This great doctrine rests on the authority
of divine revelation and the fact of our
Lord's resurrection. The word of God
distinctly announces a general resurrec-
tion (Dan. 12:2; John 5 : 28, 29 ; 11 : 24,
25 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 12-17) ; the undoubted fact
of our Lord's resurrection is a proof not only
that a general resurrection is possible and
probable, but positively certain (1 Cor. 15 :
22, 45, 49; 2 Tim. 1 : 10).
Reu [friend], son of Peleg in the line
of Abraham's ancestors (Gen. 11 : 18-21 ;
1 Chron. 1 : 25).
Reu'ben [behold a son], the name of
one of Jacob's sons, of a Hebrew tribe
and of the territory possessed by tlie
tribe.
1. Reuben was the eldest son of Jacob
and Leah (Gen. 29 : 32). The most fa-
vorable fact in his personal histor}' men-
tioned in Scripture is his successful effort
to preserve his brother Joseph's life (Gen.
37 : 20-22). His nature seems to have
been ardent, impetuous, unbalanced, but
not ungenerous. At the time of the mi-
: gration into Egypt he had four sons. Al-
' though the first-bom, he was yet, because
of his perpetration of an act of atrocious
wickedness (Gen. 35 : 22), degraded by his
father to a subordinate position (Gen. 49 :
■ 3, 4).
2. The tribe of Reuben when leaving
Egypt nuniltered forty-six thousand five
hundred adult males (Num. 1 : 20, 21);
at the census on the plains of Moab their
number had follen to forty-three thousand
seven hundred and thirty (Num. 26 : 7).
I During the journey through the wilder-
ness the position of Reuben was with
Simeon and Gad on the south side of the
tabernacle. The Reubenites, as the Gad-
ites, had maintained in Egypt their love
of pastoral pursuits. In the exodus of
Israel from Egypt they took their cattle
with them (Ex. 12 : 38), and in the wil-
derness mention of their cattle is occa-
sionally made (Ex. 34 : 3; Num. 11 : 22;
Deut. 8:13). Accordingly, when the na-
tion arrived on the open downs east of the
Jordan, Reuben and Gad and the half-
tribe of Manasseh desired and were al-
EEUEL— EEZIK
437
lowed to remain in a place so perfectly
suited to their requirements.
3. The territorial possessions of Keu-
ben were the line pasture-lands east of
the Jordan from which the Amorites
had been expelled (Josh. 13 : 15-21).
The part selected by Reuben had at that
date the special name of " the Mishor,"
with reference possibly to its evenness,
and under its modern name of the Belka
is still esteemed beyond all others by the
Arab sheep-masters. It is well watered, is
covered with smooth, short turf, and loses
itself gradually in those illimitable wastes
which have always been and always will
be tiie favorite resort of pastoral tribes. In
the conquest of Canaan west of tlie Jordan
the Reubenites aided their brethren. On
the division of the kingdom they joined tlie
northern state or the kingdom of Israel.
Their country was invaded by the Syrians
under Hazael about B. c. 884 (2 Kings 10 :
32, 33), and about a century later their
whole peo;)le were carried captive to As-
syria by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings 15 : 29).
Then the Moabites returned to their old
country and occupied their old cities. In
pronouncing curses upon Moab, Jeremiah
mentions a number of Reuben's cities;
and in accordance with the pro|)het's pre-
dictions the whole region is desolate, and
the once busy centres of life and trade,
bearing still their ancient names, are heaps
of ruins.
Rsu'el [friend of God], the name of
one of the sons of Esau (Gen. 36 : 4, 10,
13, 17) ; also one of the names of Moses'
father-in-law (Ex. 2 : 18), otherwise Ra-
GUEL.
Rev-e-la'tion, an extraordinary and
supernatural uplifting of the veil from the
hidden realm of God's thought and will
(Rom. 16 : 25 ; Gal. 1:12; " Eph. 3:3;
Rev. 1:1). Its modes have been various :
sometimes by dreams (Gen. 37 : 5 ; 40 : 5 ;
1 Kings 3:5; Dan. 7:1; Matt. 1 : 20) ;
sometimes by visions (Gen. 15 : 1 ; 46 : 2;
Ezek. 1:1; Dan. 8:2; Acts 9:10; 10 :
3); sometimes by direct communication
(Gen. 6 : 13 ; Ex. 3 : 1-18 ; Luke 1:11-
20 ; 9 : 35 ; John 12 : 28).
Rev-e-la'tion, Book of, the last
book of the New Testament, often called
the Apocalypse, its title in Greek, and sig-
nifying "revelation." It was written by
tlie apostle John in the island of Patmos
about the year A. d. 95. Its interpretation
has given rise to much controversy, but
its manifest design to comfort God's suf-
fering people has made it, through the
centuries of Christian history, a very pre-
cious book. It represents the conflicts of
truth and error, and the ultimate, univer-
sal reign of purity and peace. It is full
of Christ. It exhibits his glory as Re-
deemer and Ruler, and shows the angels
uniting with men in yielding him homage
(Rev. 7 : 9-17 ; 19 : 6-16).
Re-venge' [7-etarni7ig evil for evil], is
expressly forbidden by the word of God
(Lev. 19 : 17, 18 ; Rom. 12 : 19, 20 ; 1 Pet.
3:9). When God is spoken of in Scrip-
ture as the avenger or revenger (2 Sam.
22 : 48 ; Nah. 1 : 2 ; 1 Thess. 4:6) the
reference is to the infinite holiness and
justice with which he administers his
universal empire.
Re'zeph [a fire-stone], a city named
amongst those subdued by tlie Assyrians
(2 Kings 19 : 12 ; Isa. 37 : 12) It is sup-
posed to be the modern Rasapha, or Ru-
safat, a day's march west of the Euphra-
tes, on the road from Racca to Emesa.
Re'zin [firm or stable], king of Da-
mascus, contemporary with Pekali in Israel
and with .Jotham and Ahaz in .ludah. Pie
attacked Jotham in the latter part of his
reign (2 Kings 15 : 37), but his chief war
was with Ahaz, whose territories he invad-
ed in company witli Pekah (2 Kings 16 :
5; Isa. 7:1). Subsequently he was at-
tacked, defeated and slain by Tiglath-pi-
leser II., king of Assyria (2 Kings 16 : 9),
as appears not only from the record in
438
KEZON— KIMMON.
Scripture, but also from the Assyrian in-
scriptions.
Re'zon l/avor], son of Eliadah, a
Syrian, who when David defeated Hadad-
ezer, king of Zobah, put himself at the
head of a band of freebooters and set up
a petty kingdom at Damascus (1 Kings
11 : 23). From his position at Damascus
he harassed the kingdom of Solomon very
greatly.
Rhe'gi-um, a city on the south-west-
em extremity of the coast of Italy, oppo-
site Messina in Sicily. The vessel which
conveyed Paul to Italy touched at this port
(Acts 28 : 13). It is still a place of con-
siderable importance, having ten thousand
inhabitants. Its modern name is Reggio.
Rhodes [a rose], an island in the Med-
iterranean, near the coast of Asia Minor,
and on it a city of the same name which
Paul visited on one of his voyages (Acts
21 : 1). The city wtus built in the fifth
century before our Lord's birth, and was
celebrated for its commerce, literature and
the arts, and for the delightful climate
which still characterizes it. With a fer-
tile soil, its gardens abound with delicious
fruits, and every breeze is laden with the
fragrance of its orange and citron groves.
The Colossus of Rhodes, one of the won-
ders of the world, was a brazen statue of
Apollo, one hundred and twenty-six feet
in height, which, striding the entrance to
the city's harbor, allowed ships in full sail
to pass between its legs. This colossus
was erected B. c. 290, and was overthrown
by an earthquake B. c. 224. During the
Middle Ages, Rhodes was famous as the
home and fortress of the knights of St.
John of Jerusalem. Their noble fortress
still exists, but is used by tiie Turks as a
magazine for military stores. The present
population of the island, consisting of
Turks, Greeks and Jews, numbers some
twenty thousand.
Rib'lah [fertility], a town on the north-
ern border of Palestine, near the main source
of the Orontes, and south of Hamath (Num.
34 : 11). Here, before Nebuchadnezzar, af-
ter the capture of Jerusalem, King Zedekiah
was brought, and, after being compelled to
witness the murder of his sons, had his
eyes put violently out and his limbs bound
with fetters of brass (2 Kings 25 : 5-7).
Traces of the city exist in tlie little vil-
lage of Riblah, lying on tiie right bank of
the Orontes, some twelve miles east by
north from the river's source.
Rid'dle. This word occurs in Judg.
14 : 12, and is applied to parables, prov-
erbs, hard sayings, quaint conceits, allego-
ries, queries and the like. The Orientals
are specially fond of such verbal ingenu-
ities and puzzles.
Right 'eous-ness, an essential attri-
bute of the Divine Being. As used in
Scripture, it is nearly allied to, if not
identical with, justice, holiness, faithful-
ness (Ps. 119 : 142 ; Isa. 46 : 18 ; 51 : 5, 6,
8; 56 : 1). It is also used to denote the
perfect obedience of the Son of God (Rom.
5 : 18, 19). The " righteousness which is
of faith" (Rom. 10 : 6) is the righteous-
ness which is obtained by the grace of
God through faith in Jesus Christ (Rom.
3 : 21-26 ; 10 : 4, 10; 2 Cor. 5 : 21 ; GaL
2 : 21). Righteousness is also very com-
monly used for uprightness and just deal-
ing between man and man (Isa. 60 : 17),
and for holiness of life ( Dan. 4 : 27 ; Luke
1:6; Rom. 14 : 17 ; Eph. 5 : 9).
Right Hand. As the right hand is
the symbol of power and strength, so in
Scripture it is ascribed to God (Ex. 15 :
6 ; Ps. 77 : 10), and so also to be seated at
the right hand is to occupy a place of
honor (Acts 7 : 55; Ileb. 12 : 2). The
right hand is an expression for the south,
and the left hand for the north, because
the Hebrews, in speaking of the points of
the compass, suppose one to face the east
(Gen. 14 : 15).
Rim'mon [n pomegranate^, the name
of several places in Palestine.
RIMMON— ROCK, ROCKS.
439
1. A city of the tribe of Simeon, in the
south of Palestine (Josh. 15 : 32 ; 1 Chron.
4 : 32).
2. A town on a high chalky rock, the
rock of Rimmon, north-east of Gibeah,
fifteen miles north of Jerusalem, on which
is still a village called Rummon. It was
to this place the Benjaminites fled for
safety (Judg. 20 : 45).
3. A city of Zebulun (1 Chron. 6 : 77).
4. The name of one of the encamps
ments of the Israelites (Num. 33 : 19).
Rim'mon, a deity worshiped by the
vSyrians of Damascus, wliere there was
a temple or house of Rimmon (2 Kings
5 : 18). Rimmon is perhaps the abbre-
viated form of Hadad-Rimmon, Hadad be-
ing the sun-god of the Syrians. Combining
this with the pomegranate, which was his
symbol, Hadad-Rimmon would then be the
sun-god of the late summer, who ripens the
pomegranate and other fruits. Gesenius
maintains, however, that the word Rim-
mon means simply " the Most High."
Ring. The ring was regarded as an
indispensable article of a Hebrew's attire,
inasmuch as it contained his signet. This
was the case equally in Egypt and the East-
ern nations. It was used in signing contracts
and government papers. It was hence the
symbol of authority, and as such was pre-
sented by Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. 41 :
42) and by Ahasuerus to Ilaman (Esth. 3:
10). Such rings were worn not only by
men, but by women (Isa. 3 : 21), and are
enumerated among the articles presented
by men and women for the service of the
tabernacle (Ex. 35 : 22). The signet-ring
was worn on the right hand (Jer. 22 : 24).
From Ex. 28 : II it is inferable that the
rings contained a stone engraven with a
device or with the owner's name.
Ring-streaked, marked with circu-
lar streaks (Gen. 30 : 35, 39).
Ri'phatli, the second son of Gomer
and the brother of Ashkenaz and Togar-
mah (Gen. 10 : 3). The name is identi-
fied with the Riphsean mountains in the
north-east of Dacia.
Riv'er. Very inconsiderable streams
are sometimes called rivers in Scripture,
and "the river" is a phrase often used
without any other specification. The cir-
cumstances under which it is used should
be noted to determine whether the Nile,
the Euphrates or the Jordan is intended.
In Gen. 15 : 18 "the river of Egypt"
is probably the Pelusiac or easternmost
branch of the Nile, but in Num. 34 : 5
"the river of Egypt" is the small win-
ter stream which was the boundary be-
tween Egypt and the land promised to
Moses, and which gained its notoriety
from being the dividing-line between
two great countries.
Riz'pah [hot sto?ie], concubine to
King Saul and mother of his two
sons, Armoni and Mephibosheth. After
the death of Saul and occupation of the
country west of the Jordan by the Philis-
tines, Rizpah accompanied the other mem-
bers of the royal family to their new resi-
dence at Mahanaim (2 Sam. 3 : 7). We
liear nothing more of her till we read that
tragic story of the crucifixion of her own
two sons and of five sons of Saul's daugh-
ter Merab (2 Sam. 21 : 8-11) which has
made her name so familiar to all the
world. After the crucifixion with mar-
velous love and endurance slie watched
the crucified and lifeless bodies to protect
them from birds of prey six long, weary
months, from early spring through the
full blaze of summer and to the fall of
the periodical rain in October. During
the whole of that time Rizpah remained
at the foot of the crosses which bore the
gliastly remains of her dead.
Rock, Rocks. The Hebrew word (tsAr)
commonly rendered " rock " in our Author-
ized Version is a derivative from a verbal
root which means " to compress," and is the
appropriate designation of a mass of stony
matter so compressed as to be compact, solid,
440
KOD— ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE.
firm. Of the word "rock" the Scriptures
make large use, literal and figurative.
Rock underlies the hills and mountains
of Palestine, and reveals itself in the pic-
turesque forms of eminences, heights,
clifis, crags, swelling mounds and ele-
vated chains. Its manifold utilities are
constantly recognized and referred to, and
supply the material of abundant illustra-
tion. Out of the rock water gushes for
the famishing HebreM-s (Num. 20 : 8, 11 ;
Neh. 9 : 15 ; Ps. 78 : 20) ; on the rock
houses are founded (Isa. 42 : 11 ; Matt. 7 :
24, 25) ; to the rock imperiled people flee
for refuge (1 Sam. 13 ; Isa. 2 : 10, 19) ; from
the rock honey and oil are taken (Deut. 32 :
13 ; Ps. 81 : 16) ; under the rock travelers
wearied by noontide heats repair for shade
(Isa. 32 : 2) ; and in the rock sepulchres are
hewn (Isa. 22 : 16 ; Mark 15 : 46). Quite
a number of rocks are mentioned in Scrip-
ture and have great historic prominence.
On the top of the rock Etam, Samson
dwelt (.Judg. 15 : 8) ; in the fastnesses of
the rock Rimmon the Benjaminites hid
themselves (Judg. 20 : 47); between the
rocks Bozez and Seneh, Jonathan and his
armor-bearer passed to the slaughter of
the Philistine garrison (1 Sam. 14 : 4-15).
Figuratively, the word "rock" is applied
to God, as he is the refuge and defence
of his people (Ps. 28 : 1), and to Christ,
as he is the source of the water of life (1
Cor. 10 : 4). Other and obvious figura-
tive uses of the word will be noted in
many passages.
Rod, a term used in Scripture, some-
times to express a sceptre (Ps. 2:9; Rev.
2 : 27), sometimes as an instrument of pun-
ishment (2 Sam. 7 : 14; Job 9 : 34), some-
times for a staflf or wand (1 Sam. 14 : 27),
sometimes for a shoot or branch ( Isa. 1 1 :
1), and sometimes for a tribe or people
(Ps. 74 : 2). The rod or staflf of Moses
which became a serpent (Ex. 4 : 2-4) and
the rod or staff of Aaron which was the in-
strument of plaguing Egypt (Ex. 7 :
19), and which subsequently budded and
brought forth almond-blossoms (Num. 17 :
8), are especially celebrated in Hebrew his-
tory.
Roe, Roebuck. The Hebrew words
thus translated denote some species of an-
telope, probably the gazelle of Syria and
Arabia. The gazelle was allowed as food
Gazelle of Syria.
(Deut. 12 : 15, 22) ; it is mentioned as very
fleet of foot (2 Sam. 2 : 18) ; it was hunted
(Isa. 13:14; Prov. 6:5); it was celebrated
for its loveliness (Song 2 : 9, 17 ; 8 : 14).
Ro'gel-im [leathers, fuller.'<2, the resi-
dence of Barzillai the Gileadite in the
highlands east of the Jordan (2 Sam.
17 : 27; 19: 31).
Roll. See Book.
Romans, Epistle to the, was writ-
ten from Corinth during Paul's third mis-
sionary journey, and about a. d. 58. The
occasion which prompted the Epistle and
the circumstances attending its writing
were as follows : Paul had long purposed
visiting Rome, and still retained this pur-
pose, wishing also to extend his journey
to Spain (1 : 9-13; 15 : 22-29). For the
time, however, he was prevented from car-
rying out his design, as he was bound for
Jerusalem with the alms of the Gentile
Christians, and meanwhile he addressed
this letter to the Romans to supply the
lack of his personal teaching. The church
EOME.
441
at Rome consisted of Jews and Gentiles, the
latter perhaps being the more numerous.
Apparently, tlie letter was not written to an-
swer any doubts or to settle any controver-
sies then rife in the Roman church. Ac-
cordingly, the Epistle to the Romans is
more of a treatise than of a letter. In this
respect it differs widely from the Epistles
to the Corinthians and Galatians, which are
full of psrsonal and direct allusions. Its
contents are as follows: 1. At the outset,
in the salutation (1:1-7), the apostle strikes
the keynote of the Epistle in the expres-
sions " called to be an apostle," " called to
be saints." Dlvin? grace is everything,
human merit notliing. 2. Personal ex-
planations; purposed visit to Rome (1 :
8-15). 3. Doctrinal (ch. 1 : 16 to ch. 11 :
36). The general proposition: the gospel
is the salvation of Jew and Gentile alike ;
this salvation comes by faith. 4. Practi-
cal exhortations (ch. 12 to ch. 15 : 13). 5.
Personal matters (15 : 14-33; 16 : 1-23).
6. Benediction and doxology (16 : 24-27).
While this Epistle contains tlie fullest and
most systematic exposition of the apostle's
teaching, it is at the same time a very strik-
ing expression of his character. Nowhere
do his earnest and affectionate nature and
his tact and delicacy in handling unwel-
come topics appear more strongly than
when he is dealing witli tlie rejection
of his fellow-countrymen, the Jews.
Rome, tlie famous capital of the an-
cient world. It is situated on the Tiber,
about fifteen miles from its mouth, in
the plain which is now called the Cam-
pagna. It was founded by Romulus about
B. c. 753. It rapidly increased until it
spread over tlie seven hills (Rev. 17 : 9)
which formed the nucleus of the an-
cient city. Its political history is an in-
structive chapter in the history of the
world. Its conquests were extended un-
til it became the centre and metropolis of
a vast empire enriched by the spoils of
all nations. It was a great seat of learn-
ing and the arts, and adorned by the rich-
est specimens of architecture.
Idolatry in many forms and with all its
corruptions prevailed, and the people, not-
withstanding their apparent refinement,
were grossly depraved. At the time of
our Lord's advent Rome had reached an
extraordinary height of power and glory.
In the reign of Augustus its population
was about one million and a half; in the
reign of Trajan, about two millions. Its
name is not found in the Old Testament,
but the prophet Daniel mentions its im-
perial sovereignty under the name of '' the
fourth kingdom " (Dan. 2 : 40 ; 7:17). In
the New Testament the references to Rome
are many, but as they are chiefly in con-
nection with the histoiy of the apostle
Paul, it may be useful to give a brief ac-
count of the city in the time of Nero, the
Caesar to whom the apostle appealed and
I in whose reign he suffered martyrdom.
The city at that time must be imagined
as a large and irregular mass of buildings
unprotected by an outer wall. Neither
the nature of the buildings nor the config-
uration of the ground was such as to give
a striking appearance to the city viewed
from without. The visit of Paul lies be-
tween two famous epochs in the history of
the city — namely, its restoration by Augus-
tus and its restoration by Nei-o. It was the
boast of Augustus " that he found the city
of brick and left it of marble." Some
parts of the city, especially the Forum
and Campus Martins, must have presented
a magnificent appearance, but many of the
principal buildings in ancient Rome which
now attract the attention of modern trav-
elers were not then built. The streets
were generally narrow and winding.
Paul's first visit to Rome took place be-
fore the Neronian conflagration. One
half the population consisted, in all prob-
abilit}', of slaves. The larger part of the
remainder consisted of pauper citizens
supported in idleness by the miserable
442
ROOM— EUFUS.
system of public gratuities. There ap-
pears to liave l)een no middle class and
no free industrial population. Side by
side with the wretched classes just men-
tioned was the comparatively small body
of the wealthy nobility, of whose luxury
and prodigality we hear so much in the
heathen writers of the time. Such was
the population which Paul found at Rome
at the time of his fii-st visit. Detained
here "two whole years," and "dwelling
in his own hired house," the apostle " re-
ceived all that came in unto liim," " preach-
ing the kingdom of God and teaching those
things which concern the Lord Jesus
Christ " (Acts 28 : 30, 31 ). It is generally
believed that on his "appeal to Cassar" he
was acquitted, and after some time spent
in freedom was a second time imprisoned
at Rome. His second imprisonment end-
ed with his violent death by beheading.
By whom Christianity was introduced
into Rome is uncertain. No satisfactory
evidence can be adduced that Peter ever
visited it, although Romanists claim that he
was the first bishop of the Christian church
in that place. The remarkable growth of
Christianity in this great metropolis of
heathenism was the occasion of bitter per-
secutions under Nero and succeeding em-
perors, and many Christians were cruelly
destroyed. Still, the word of God spread,
and in the beginning of the fourth century
Christianity became the religion of the
empire. In the season of repose and pow-
er it lost much of its spirituality, and by
a gradual process, the monstrous perver-
sions of popery were engrafted on it. The
modern city, nuicli reduced in size and
not much ini]iroved in morals, is but the
shadow of its former greatness. It still re-
tains its character as the seat of the arts,
and is an object of attraction, principally
for the remains of its ancient grandeur.
As the capital of reunited Italy , and un-
der the liberal government established by
the late Victor Emmanuel, it is entering.
apparently, upon a new career of prosper-
ity.
Room. In Matt. 23 : 6 " room " means
place or seat. The " uppermost room" is
, the uppermost seat on the couch.
I Rose. This word occurs twice only,
in Song 2 : 1 and Isa. 35 : 1, and in both
jiassages the Hebrew word thus rendered
; is probably the beautiful white nnrcisms.
Roses, however, were abundant in Syria,
and were greatly prized for the rose-water
which they furnished. See Sharon.
Rosh [head, chief}. The Authorized
Version translates this Hebrew word in
Ezek. 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 : 1 as "chief," but V should
be translated as a proper name, " Magog,
the prince of Rosh, Meshecli and Tubal."
This, apparently, would make Rosh the first
i of the three great Scythian tribes, and would
identify them with the modern Russians
and their country with the present Russia.
Ru'by, a precious stone of a rose-red
color and of great beauty and value (Job
28 : 18 ; Prov. 31 : 10). It is second only
to the diamond in hardness. Whether the
Hebrew word thus rendered means the
ruby or coral is much disputed, and per-
haps will never be determined.
Ru'di-ments, elementary principles
(Col. 2 : 8, 20). "The rudiments of the
world " are the rites and observances of
the Jewish religion, and are to the full
knowledge imparted in the gospel what
the alphabet is to a language or what the
elementary principles are to the science
of astronomy or of chemistry. The word
translated rudiments in Col. 2 : 8, 20 is
translated elements in Gal. 4 : 3, 9.
Rue. The word occurs only in Luke
11 : 42. It is a shrubby plant, about two
feet high, of strong medicinal virtues. In
our Lord's time it was a garden plant and
titlial)le.
Ru'fus [red'], son of Simon a Cyrenian
who was pressed to carry our Lord's cross
(Mark 15 : 21). Tlie name occurs again
in the list of salutations (Rom. Ifi : 13)
KUHAMAPI— RYE.
443
as that of a person whose mother was a
believer. The identity of the two per-
sons has been supposed, but it can neitlier
be proved nor disproved.
E.u-ha'mah. See Ammi.
Ru^mah [elevated], same as Akumah.
Rush. See Keed.
Ruth [beauiyi, a Moabitish woman,
the wife, first of Mahlon, secondly of Boaz,
the ancestress of David and of our Lord.
A severe famine in the land of Judah in-
duced Elimelech, a native of Bethlehem,
to emigrate into the land of Moab with his
wife Naomi and his two sons, Mahlon and
Chilion (Ruth 1 : 1, 2). At the end often
years, Naomi, now left a widow and child-
less, having heard that there was plenty
again in Judali, returned to Bethlehem, ac-
companied by Ruth, her daughter-in-law.
They arrived at Bethlehem at the begin-
ning of barley-liarvest, and Ruth, going out
to glean, was providentially guided to the
field of Boaz, a wealthy man and a near
kinsman of her father-in-law, Elimelech.
Probably the best representation we now
^imMMf^'M^mm^
Egyptian Reapers iu the Harvest Field.
have of this reaping scene in the field of
Boaz is found (as in the annexed cut) on
the monuments of Egypt.
The appearance of Ruth challenged the
attention and claimed the kindness of Boaz,
who, learning her history, resolved to per-
form the part of a kinsman by purchasing
the inheritance of Elimelech, and taking
her to be his wife if a nearer kinsman should
decline to do so. The nearer kinsman de-
clined ; upon which, with all due solem-
nity Boaz took Ruth to be his wife amidst
the blessings and congratulations of their
neighbors. Their son Obed was the father
of Jesse, who was the father of David.
The story is charmingly told in the book
of Ruth, which is a supplement to the
book of Judges, and which was written, it
is supposed, by Samuel. As a singular ex-
ample of virtue and piety in a rude age
and among an idolatrous people, as one of
the first-fruits of the Gentile harvest gath-
ered into the church, as the heroine of a
story of exquisite beauty and simplicity^
as illustrating in her history the workings
of divine providence and the truth of the
saying that "the eyes of the Lord are upon
the righteous" (Ps. 34 : 15), and for the
many interesting revelations of ancient
domestic and social customs which are
associated with her story, Ruth has al-
ways held a foremost place
among the Scripture characters.
Rye. The Hebrew word thus
rendered occurs in Ex. 9 : 32 ; Isa.
28 : 25 and Ezek. 4:9. In the
latter passage fitches is the ren-
dering in our Authorized Ver-
sion, but rye appears in the mar-
gin. In the passage in Isaiah
spelt appears in the margin ; and
^ in all the three passages spelt,
.^_ which differs but slightly from
-_,;r our common wheat, is most prob-
ably intended. Rye is for the
most part a northern plant, and
was probably not cultivated in
Egypt or Palestine in early times, whereas
spelt has from time immemorial been cul-
tivated in the East, where it is held in
high estimation. It is used for mixing
with wheat, barley and other grains, which
are ground together and made into bread.
iU
SABAOTH— SABBATH.
S.
Sab'a-oth [hoists]. In Eom. 9 : 29
and James 5 : 4 the Greek form of this
Hebrew word is, in our Authorized Ver-
sion, not translated, but transferred. It is
a descriptive title of Jehovah " the Lord
of hosts" (Isa. 6 : 3), and whether the
word hosts refers to the angels or to the
stars, or to both, it he.ghtens immensely
the idea of God's greatness and majesty.
Sab'bath, As the Hebrew root of
this word means "to cease to do," "to
rest," so the sense of the word sabbath is
" a day of rest." Tiie name is applied to
divers great festivals, but principally and
usually to the seventh day of the week,
the strict observance of which is enforced
not merely in the general Mosaic code,
but in the Decalogue itself. The conse-
cration of the Sabbath was coeval with
the creation. It is the only ordinance,
besides marriage, which appears in the
records of creation, and which has the
grounds of its existence and obligation
interwoven with the very foundations of
the world's history (Gen. 2 : 2, 3). Its
subsequent and continuous observance is
clear from tlie division of time into weeks
(Gen. 8 : 8-13; 29 : 27, 28), the recognhion
of the day before the giving of the Law
(Ex. 16 : 22-30), and the form of the
precept in the Decalogue, Remember (Ex.
20 : 8-11). Among the cuneiform inscrip-
tions preserved in the British Museum is a
religious calendar of the Assyrians as old,
perhaps, as Abraliam, in which every month
is divided into four weeks, and the seventh
days or "sabbaths" are marked out as
days on -which no work is to be under-
taken. Professor Sayce of Oxford in his
lectures on Babylonian Literature says ;
" A week of seven days was in use from
the earliest ages. The days of the week
were named after the sun, moon and five
planets, and our own week-days may be
traced back to the active brains of the
long-forgotten people of Chakkea. The
seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, twenty-
first and twenty-eighth days of the month
were termed 'sabbaths' or 'days of rest,'
when the king was forbidden to eat ' cook-
ed fruit ' or ' meat,' to change his clothes
or wear white robes, to drive his chariot,
to sit in judgment, to review his army, or
even to take medicine should he feel un-
well." Professor Sayce has also publish-
ed his opinion that the cuneiform inscrip-
tions recognize the Sabbath as of divine
appointment, and on the fifth tablet of
the Chaldjean account of the Creation
there is an inscription to this purport
which Mr. H. Fox Talbot renders thus :
"On tlie seventli clay He appointed a. lioly day,
And to cease from all business He commanded."
To this positive historic testimony is to
be added also the reason of the institution.
It was to be a joyful celebration of God's
completion of his creation. It was not to
be a season of stern privation, but one
of special privilege. The prohibition of
work is only suljsidiary to the positive idea
of rest and refreshment in communion with
Jehovah, who himself " rested and was re-
freshed" (Ex. 31 : 17). It was to be a sa-
cred pause in the ordinary labor by which
man earns his bread, the curse of the fall
was to be suspended for one day, and, hav-
ing spent that day in joyful remembrance
of God's mercies, man had a fresh start
in his course of labor. Thus the spirit
of the Sabbath was joy, refreshment and
mercy, arising from remembrance of God's
general goodness as the Creator, and in the
case of the Israelites of God's special good-
ness as the Deliverer from bondage. Ac-
cordingly, among the Israelites the key-
SABBATH-DAY'S JOURNEY— SACRIFICE.
445
note of all the Sabbath services was joy.
TJie sentiment with which tlie people were
required to keep the Sabbath was enshrin-
ed in the words of the Psalmist : " This is
the day which the Lord hath made ; we
will rejoice and be glad in it" (Ps. 118 :
24).
Nor is abundant evidence wanting that
wliilst the Sabbath was not always kej^t
by the Israelites as God designed and the
Law prescribed, its observance was never
neglected. Wherever the Jew went and
however he might be circumstanced, Sab-
bath-keeping became the most visible sign
of his nationality. In our Lord's time,
however, there had been invented many
prohibitions respecting the Sabbath of
which we find nothing in the original in-
stitution. Some of these prohibitions
were fantastic and arbitrary, in the num-
ber, indeed, of those " heavy burdens and
grievous to be borne " which the later
expounders of the Law " laid on men's
shoulders." How general this perversion
of the Sabbath had become is apparent
both from tlie recorded objections to acts
of our Lord on that day, and from his
marked conduct on occasions to which
those objections were sure to be urged
(Matt. 12 : 1-14; Mark 3:2; Luke G :
1-11; 13 : 10-17; John 5 : 2-18; 7 : 23;
9 : 13-31).
Under the gospel the rest-day has been
changed from the seventh to the first day
of the week. This rest-day commemorates
a greater deliverance than that of Israel
from the bondage of Egypt, and introduces
a new creation as well. The day in the
seven is changed, but a day in seven has
been observed from the first (Acts 20 : 7 ;
1 Cor. 16 : 1, 2; Rev. 1 : 10). Nor does
the change of tlie day make any change
in the spirit with which the day is to be
kept. The obligation upon the Jew to
keep the day as one of rest from worldly
toil and care, as one of communion witli
the unseen and eternal, as one of joyous
service and holy worship, and as one of
preparation for the Sabbath of the skies,
lies upon the Cliristian witli a tenfold
weight. See Lord's Day.
Sab'bath-Day's Jour^ney (Acts
1 : 12). As the Law enjoined every man
to " abide in his place " on the Sabbath,
and forbade any man to "go out of his
place" on that day (Ex. 16 : 29), and as
some departure from a man's own place
was often unavoidable, so it was thought
necessary to determine the allowable
amount, which was fixed by the later
Jews at two thousand paces, or about
three-quarters of a mile, from the wall of
the city where the man dwelt.
Sab-bat'i-cal Year. See Year,
Sabbatical.
Sa-be'ans. See Skba and Sheba.
Sab'tah (Gen. 10 : 7) or Sab'ta (1
Chron. 1 : 9), a son of Cush. His descend-
ants are supposed to be connected with the
Sabbatha or Sabota or Sabotale of Pliny and
Ptolemy, which was on the south coast of
Arabia, and was the capital of the Atramitse
or people of Hadramaut. According to Ptol-
emy, Sabbatha was an important city, con-
taining no less than sixty temples.
Sab'te-chah (Gen. 10 : 7) or Sab'-
techa (1 Chron. 1 : 9), a son of Cusli.
The settlements of his descendants were
probably near the Persian Gulf
Sack'but. See Musicai, Instru-
ments.
Sack'cloth, a coarse texture of a dark
color made of goats' hair (Isa. 50 : 3; Rev.
6 : 12). It was used for making sacks
(Gen. 42 : 25; Lev. 11 : 32; Josh. 9 : 4)
and for making the rough garments used
by mourners, which in extreme cases were
worn next the skin (1 Kings 21 : 27 ; Job
16 : 15; Isa. 32 : 11), but at other times
were worn over the coat (Jonah 3:6) in
lieu of the outer garment.
Sac^ri-flce. This word, whilst occa-
sionally used in Scripture in the sense
of oblation or offering (Ps. 116 : 17 ; Jer.
446
SACRILEGE— SADDUCEES.
33 : 11 ; Rom. 12 : 1; Heb. 13 : 15, 16), is
generally and siiecifically applied to wliat
is not only otlered to God, but also burned
on his altar in token of complete surren-
der (Lev. 17 : 3-9; Ps. 40 : 6 ; Heb. 7 :
27 ; 9 : 26). A sacrifice from the animal
kingdom was uniformly killed, and in
whole or in part was consumed with fire ;
a sacrifice from the vegetable kingdom was
always burned. The distinction, therefore,
between an oblation and a sacrifice is this:
an oblation is generically anything oflfered
to God in worship ; a sacrifice is specific-
ally what is devoted to God by death
(where death is possible) and by fire.
The universal prevalence of sacrifice shows
it to have been primeval and deeply rooted
in the instincts of humanity. So soon as
man sinned there must have been a pain-
ful sense of separation from God, and the
early promise of the woman's seed must
have been accompanied with some in-
struction as to the mode of reconciliation
and as to the form of expressing faith in
the coming Redeemer. The clothing by
the Lord God of Adam and Eve with the
skins of animals (Gen. 3 : 21) and the ac-
ceptable sacrifice which Abel offered (Gen.
4:4; Heb. 11:4) are sufficient proofs that
the doctrine of expiation for sin was very
early and most emphatically taught. The
meaning of sacrifice is set forth fully in
the Epistle to the Hebrews, which con-
tains, indeed, the key of the whole sacri-
ficial system. The object of the Epistle
is to show the typical and probationary
character of sacrifices, and to assert that
in virtue of it alone they had a spirit'ial
meaning. This typical character of all
sacrifice being thus set forth, the next
point dwelt upon is the union in our
Lord's person of the priest, the victim
and the offerer. As the priest, our Lord
stands absolutely alone, " a priest for ever af-
ter the order of Melchizedek" (Heb. 7 : 17) ;
as the victim, our Lord is "once offered to
bear the sins of many" (Heb. 9 : 28) ; as
the offerer, our Lord completes that j)er-
fect obedience to the will of the Father
which is the natural duty of sinless man,
in which he is the representative of his
people, and to which, when his people
are reconciled to God through him, he
effectually sunmions them (Heb. 10 : 5-
27). See Offering.
Sac'ri-lege, the profanation of holy
things, or the using for private purposes
what has been consecrated to God. The
word occurs but once in our Authorized
Version (Rom. 2 : 22), but the idea often.
Malachi (3:8) calls the misappropriation
of tithes and offerings a robbery of God —
that is, a sacrilege. The Jews, when they
converted the holy temple into a market
(Matt. 21 : 12, 13), profoned that "house
of prayer" and were guilty of sacrilege.
Sad'du-cees, a religious party or
school among the Jews at the time of
our Lord (Matt. 3 : 7 ; 16 : 1, 6, 11, 12 ;
22 : 23, 24 ; Mark 12:18; Luke 20 : 27 ;
Acts 4 : 1 ; 5 : 17 ; 23 : 6-8). They derived
their name most probably from Zadok, the
priest who acted such a prominent part
at the time of David, and who declared in
favor of Solomon when Abiathar took the
part of Adonijah as successor to the throne
(1 Kings 1 : 32-45). His line of priests
appears to have had decided pre-eminence
in subsequent history. Ezekiel honorably
mentions "the sons of Zadok" and "the
priests, the Levites of the seed of Zadok "
I (Ezek. 40 : 46; 43 : 19; 44 : 15; 48 : 11).
Now, as the transition from the expres-
sion " sons of Zadok " and " priests of the
seed of Zadok" to Zadokites is easy and
obvious, and as in the Acts 5 : 17 it is
said, "Then the liigh priest rose and all
they that were with him, which is the
sect of the Sadducees, and were filled with
indignation," it has been conjectured that
I the Sadducees o;- Zadokites were original-
ly identical with the sons of Zadok, and
constituted a kind of sacerdotal aristoc-
racv. To these were afterward and nat-
SAFFRON— SALIM.
447
urally attached all who for any reason
reckoned themselves as belonging to the
aristocracy. Their tenets, so far as we
may gather them from Scripture, were
denial of the resurrection (Mark 12 : 26,
27) and denial of the existence of angels
and spirits (Acts 23 : 8). They were skep-
tical materialists and eager seekers of this
world's riches and honors.
Saffron. This word is derived from
the Arabic zafran, "yellow." It repre-
sents the yellow stigmata in the flower of
an odoriferous plant of the crocus family.
From the earliest times saffron has been
in high esteem as a perfume (Song 4 :
14).
Saint [sanctified 07^e], the title given by
the sacred writers to believers in Christ or
the people of God (Rom. 1:7; 8 : 27 ; Ps.
16 : 3). It imports that they who are prop-
erly so called lead holy lives and approve
themselves to be new creatures.
Sa'lah \_extensio7i'\, son of Arphaxad
and fother of Eber (Gen. 10 : 24 ; 11 : 12-
14 ; Luke 3 : 35). The name seems to im-
ply the gradual extension of a branch of
the Semitic race from its original seat in
Northern Assyria toward the river Eu-
phrates.
Sal'a-niis, one of the chief cities of
Cyprus, on a plain at the eastern end of
the island. In it the Jews had a syna-
gogue, and thither came Paul and Barna-
bas on their first missionary journey (Acts
13 : 5). It was ruined by an earthquake
in the time of Constantine, and when re-
built was called Constantia. Its remains
are near the modern Famagousta. See
Cyprus.
Sa-la'thi-el [« request of Ood],
son of Jechonias, king of Judah, and fa-
ther of Zorobabel according to Matt. 1 : 12,
but son of Neri and father of Zorobabel
according to Luke 3 : 27, while the gene-
alogy in 1 Chron. 3 : 17-19 leaves it doubt-
ful whether he is the son of Assir or Je-
chonias, and makes Zorobabel his nephew.
Upon the incontrovertible principle that
no genealogy would assign to the true son
and heir of a king any inferior and pri-
vate parentage, whereas, on the contrary,
the son of a private person would natu-
rally be placed in the royal pedigree on
his becoming the rightful heir to the
throne, we may assert, with the utmost
confidence, that Luke gives us the true
state of the case when he informs us that
Salathiel was the son of Neri and a de-
scendant of Nathan, the son of David. It
would seem, too, from the insertion of liis
name in the royal pedigree after that of
the childless Jechonias, as in 1 Chronicles
and in Matthew's Gospel, he was, on the
failure of Solomon's line, the next heir to
the throne of David. It may therefore be
accounted certain that Salathiel was the
son of Neri and the heir of Jechonias.
His name has in Hebrew two orthograph-
ical forms. In 1 Chron. 3 : 17 our Au-
thorized Version has Salathiel, but every-
where else in the Old Testament the name
is Shealtiel.
SaPcah and Sarchah, a city on
the extreme eastern limit of Bashan
and of the tribe of Gad (Dent. 3 : 10;
Josh. 12 : 5; 13 : 11 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 11).
It is identified with the modern Sulkhad,
which occupies a strong and command-
ing position on a conical hill at the
southern extremity of the range of Jebel
Hauran. Among its ruins are many
houses still perfect, with stone roofs and
stone doors, but without inhabitants. The
view from the summit of its castle is one
of remarkable desolation. Near it begins
that great Syrian desert which extends to
the Persian Gulf.
Sa'lem \_ peace'], the supposed name of
Jerusalem when Melchizedek was its priest
and king (Gen. 14 : 18). In Ps. 76 : 2 it
is used as a poetical abbreviation of Jeru-
salem.
Sa'lim [peace'], the place near Enon
where John the Baptist baptized (John 3 ;
448
SALMON— SALUTATION.
23). The site of neither place has been
undeniably asoertained, but Salini is to be
sought, most probably, on the west of Jor-
dan, some six or eight miles south of Beth-
shean, now Beisan, See Enon.
Sal'mon \_dolh{n(j or clothedl, the name
of a man and of a mountain.
L The man was the father of Boaz, who
married Rutli, from whom the family of
David descended (Ruth 4 : 20-22).
2. The mountain is mentioned in Ps.
68 : 14, and is possibly, yet not probably,
the same as " Mount Zalmon," near to
Sheciiem in Samaria (Judg. 9 : 48).
Sal-mo 'ne, a promontory forming the
eastern extremity of the island of X'rete,
noticed in the account of Paul's voyage
to Rome (Acts 27 : 7). This promontory
still bears the ancient name.
Sa-lo'me [peace«6/e]. 1. The wife of
Zebedee and mother of the apostles .James
and John (Mark 15 : 40; Matt. 27 : 56;
4 : 21 ; 20 : 20, 21 ; Mark 10 : 35).
2. The name (though not given in Scrip-
ture) of that daughter of Herodias whose
dancing before her uncle and father-in-law
HerodAntipas was instrumental in bringing
about the beheading of John the Baptist.
She married first her parental uncle, Phil-
ip, the tetrarch of Trachonitis, and sec-
ondly Aristobulus, the king of Chalcis.
Salt. Indispensable as salt is to our-
selves, it was even more so to the He-
brews, since to them it was not only an ap-
petizing condiment and a valuable anti-
septic, but it entered also very largely into
their religious services as an accompani-
ment to the various offerings presented on
the altar (Lev. 2:13). They possessed an
inexhaustible and ready supply of it on
the southern shores of the Dead Sea. The
inferior kinds of salt were often ap])lied
as a manure to the soil (Matt. 5 : 13 ; Luke
14 : 35). Too large an admixture, how-
ever, was held to produce sterility, and
hence arose the custom of sowing with
salt, as a token of irretrievable ruin, the
foundations of a destroyed city (Judg 9 :
45). The associations connected with salt
in Eastern countries are important. As
one of the most essential articles of diet
it symbolized hospitality; as an antiseptic,
durability, fidelity and purity. Hence the
expression "covenant of salt" (Num. 18:
19; 2 Chron. 13 : 5) as betokening an in-
dissoluble alliance among friends. It was
probably with a view to keep this idea
prominently before the minds of the Jews
that the use of salt was enjoined on the Is-
raelites in their oflx?rings to God.
Salt, City of, the fifth of the six cities
of Judah wliicli lay in the wilderness (Josh.
15 : 62). Its site is unknown, but is sup-
posed to have been near En-Gedi, with
which it is grouped, and the Salt or Dead
Sea, from which, most likely, the city was
named.
Salt, Sea of. See Sea.
Salt, Valley of, the site of two
memorable victories of the Israelites over
the Edomites — that of David (2 Sam. 8 :
13; 1 Chron. 18 : 12) and that of Amaziah
(2 Kings 14:7; 2 Chron. 25 : 11 ). Its lo-
cality is not indicated by the Bible narra-
tive, but the notices of it point to the vi-
cinity of Sela or Petra, the capital of
Edom.
Sal-u-ta'tion. Salutations may be
classed under the two heads of conver-
sational and epistolary. The salutation
at meeting consisted in early times of va-
rious expressions of blessing, such as "God
be gracious unto thee" (Gen. 43:29),
"Blessed be thou of the Lord" (Ruth 3 :
10; 1 Sam. 15 : 13), "The Lord be with
you," "The Lord bless thee" (Ruth 2:4),
"The blessing of the Lord be upon you;
we bless you in the name of tiie Lord"
(Ps. 129:8). Hence the term "bless"
received the secondary sense of *' salute."
The salutation at parting consisted orig-
inally of a simple blessing (Gen. 24 : CO;
28 : i ; 47 : 10; Josh. 22 : 6), but in later
times it took form in the words " Go in
SALVATION— SAMAKIA.
449
peace" (1 Sam. 1 : 17; 20 : 42; 2 Sam.
15 : 9). The epistolary salutations in the
period subsequent to the Old Testament
were framed on tlie model of the Latin
style. The names of the writer and of
the person or persons addressed were
usually combined in the salutation at the
beginning of the epistle (Gal. 1 ; 1, 2;
Philem. ver. 1 ; 2 Pet. 1:1). A form of
prayer for spiritual mercies was also used.
The concluding salutation consisted occa-
sionally of a translation of the Latin valete,
"farewell " (Acts 15 : 29 ; 23 : 30), but more
generally of the phrase, " The salutation of
me," etc. (1 Cor. 16 : 21 ; Col. 4 : 18; 2
Thess. 3 : 17), accompanied by a prayer
for peace or grace.
Sal-va'tion [deliverance'], applied in
the New Testament to the deliverance
of sinners from eternal perdition through
faith in Christ (Matt. 1 : 21; Luke 1 : 69;
John 3: 16,17; Acts 4 : 12; Eom. 10:9;
Tit. 3:5; Heb. 7 : 25). The salvatic^n
which the gospel offers includes in it the
pardon of sin and deliverance from sin's
power and pollution, the sanctification of
the soul and the joys of the eternal world
(Gal. 3 : 13; 1 Thess. 1 : 10; Heb. 5 : 9).
Hence it is called a "great salvation"
(Heb. 2 : 3).
Sebastiyeh (anciently Samaria), from the E. N. E., with the mountains of Ephraim behind it and
the Mediterranean Sea in the distance.
Sa-ma'ri-a [watch-height, according
to Gesenius], the name of a city, of a
kingdom and of a province.
1. The City of Samaria (1 Kings 16 :
24), situated near the middle of Palestine,
on an oblong hill in abasin-sliaped valley,
was built by Omri, king of Israel, who
made it the metropolis of the kingdom
about the year B. c. 925. Tlie site is one
29
of singular beauty, and to this hour claims
and commands the unstinted admiration
of every visitor. For two centuries, and
until the carrying away of the ten tribes
into Assyria by Shalmaneser IV. (2 Kings
18 : 11), Samaria continued to be the cap-
ital of the country. It was also the seat
and centre of an attractive idol- worship.
Here Ahab, son of Orari, erected in honor
450
SAMARITANS.
of Baal a gorgeous temple, wliich for po-
litical reasons thirty years afterward Jehu,
the conspirator against Jehoram, Ahab's
son, destroyed (1 Kings 16 : 32; 2 Kings
10 : 18-28). When the kingdom of Israel
came to an end Samaria lost much of its
importance, and for centuries had an ex-
perience of diversified and often disastrous
fortunes. Under Eoman rule the emperor
Augustus gave it to Herod the Great, who
rebuilt the city with a characteristic mag-
nificence and named it Sebagte, the Greek
equivalent of tiie Latin Au;/ustus, and still
existing in the modern name Sebdntii/eh.
This was the Samaria where in New
Testament times Philip preached the gos-
pel (Acts 8:5). Subsequently it fell into
complete decay, and is now a confused mass
of ruins. "A long avenue of broken pil-
lars," writes Stanley, "apparently the main
street of Herod's city, adorned by a colon-
nade on each side, still lines the topmost
terrace of the hill." The " crown of
pride" (Isa. 28 : 1) is terribly dishon-
ored, yet the dishonor and desolation are
but eclioes to the solemn and suggestive
words of propiiecy : " I will make Samaria
as an heap of the field, and as plantings
of a vineyard ; and I will pour down the
stones thereof into the valley, and I will
discover the foundations thereof" (Mic.
1:6).
2. The Kingdom of Samaria (1 Kings
13 : 32 ; Hos. 8 : 5, 6) was the same as the
kingdom of Israel. Its name was borrow-
ed from that of the capital city. Its ex-
tent, in different periods of its history, va-
ried very much. At first its territory was
coincident Avith that of the ten tribes east
and west of the Jordan, but in time was
steadily diminished by the loss of section
after section. The territory east of the
.Jordan was invaded first by Pul and next
by Tiglath-pileser, kings of Assyria, and
was permanently separated from the ter-
ritory west of the .Jordan (1 Ciiron. 5 : 26).
The territorv in Northern Palestine corre-
sponding to the province of Galilee was
also seized by Tiglath-pileser, and was
never afterward rejjossessed by Samaria.
Thenceforward, until the final overthrow
of the kingdom by Shalmaneser IV., Sa-
maria was restricted to the central portion
of Palestine lying between Judah and Gal-
ilee.
3. The Province of Samaria (Luke
17 : 11 ; John 4 : 4) was the country about
the city of Samaria, into which, after the
carrying away of the Jewish people to
Assyria, colonists were introduced. It
corresponded very nearly to the kingdom
of Samaria at the time of the conquest by
Shalmaneser. It existed in New Testa-
ment times, but with the ending of Ro-
man rule in Syria it ceased to designate
any portion of Palestine, and is now un-
known to the natives of the country.
Sa-mar'i-tans, tlie dwellers in Sa-
maria (city, kingdom and province). In
the Old Testament the appellative Samar-
itans occurs but once (2 Kings 17 : 29) ; in
the New Testament it occurs several times
(Matt. 10:5; Luke 9 : 52 ; John 4 : 9, 39,
40). Wherever in the Scriptures it occurs
it designates a mixed people with a mixed
religion. The origin of these Samaritans
was probably this: When Shalmaneser
carried the Israelites of the ten tribes into
Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 6) he did not remove
them to the last man, for in the reign of
Josiah, king of Judah, seventy years after
the deportation, a remnant of Israel exist-
ed in the cities of Manasseh and Ephraim,
from whom the Levites collected money
for the repair of the temple in Jerusa-
lem (2 Chron. 24 : 9>. This remnant of
Israel consisted, it is fair to presume, of
such families as by their poverty and
obscurity could arouse no apprehension,
whilst the colonists whom Shalmaneser
sent from Assyria were numerous and
strong (2 Kings 17 : 24). The few He-
brews thus left on the soil were brought
into close relations with the manv heathen
SAMOS— SAMSON.
451
who owned the lands, and of necessity were
{"owerfally influenced by the association.
Intermarriage, at first rare, but afterward
frequent, overspread tlie country with that
new race which in the times of our Lord
were lield in such contempt by Jews of
pure blood. Their religion, a curious
mixture of truth and error, of the ideas
peculiar to the worship of Jehovah and
of those belonging to the worst forms of
idolatry, imposed upon them no restraint,
but allowed them to sink witliout check
into the dreariest depths of sin and shame.
When the Jews were returned from Baby-
lon the Samaritans desired to aid tliem in
rifbuilding the temple, but were repulsed
with such scorn that they obstructed the
work in every possible way (Ezra 4 : 1-6).
Later, they themaelves built a temple on
Mount Gerizim, and in consequence the
religious feud between them and the Jews
became increasingly bitter. This feud
grew at length to such projiortions that
the products of Samaria and all articles
of diet among them were pronounced by
tlie Jews as unclean as swine's flesh. No
Samaritan was allowed to become a pros-
elyte to Judaism, and all Samaritans were
declared incapable of the resurrection to
eternal life. This was the attitude of
the Jews and Samaritans toward each
other when our Lord began his public
ministry. It explains many allusions and
events in the Gospels, and it gives point to
our Lord's parable of the Good Samaritan
(Luke 10 : 25-37) and to the record of our
Lord's miraculous cure of the ten lepers,
of whom one only, and he a Samaritan, re-
turned to give thanks (Luke 17 : 11-19).
Many Samaritans heard our Lord gladly
(John 4 : 39-42), and afterward, when
Philip the evangelist preached in Sama-
ria, " tliere was great joy in that city "
(Acts 8 : 8). At present the Samaritans
number less than two hundred persons.
Sa'mos, an island in the ^Egean Sea,
near the coast of Lydia, celebrated for the
magnificence of its temple in honor of Juno
and for the beauty and excellence of its
pottery. It was touched by Paid when
voyaging from Greece to Syria (Acts 20 :
15). At the present time its population
is about sixty thousand, and its trade
consists chiefly of grapes, raisins and
wines.
Sain-0-thra''ci-a, an island in the
north-eastern part of the ^gean Sea,
above the Hellespont and near the coast
of Thrace. Its surface is quite lofty, and
forms a conspicuous landmark for navi-
gators. When Paul sailed from Troas to
Neapolis with the view of entering Eu-
rope, this island was before him all the
first day, and furnislied him and his com-
panions a safe anchorage through the
night (Acts 16 : 11). At that time it was
famous as the seat of the mysterious divin-
ities called Cabeiri. Now it is thinly in-
habited, and bears the name of Samothraki.
Samson [sM«/(X-e], son of Manoah, a
man of the town of Zorah, in the tribe of
Dan, on the border of Judah (Josh. 15 :
33; 19 : 41). Samson takes his place in
Scripture: 1, as a judge, an office which
he filled for twenty years (Judg. 15 : 20;
16 : 31) ; 2, as a Nazarite (Judg. 13 : 5;
16 : 17) ; and 3, as one endowed with su-
pernatural strength by the Spirit of the
Lord (Judg. 13 : 25; 14 : 6, 19; 15 : 14).
He is emphatically the Hebrew Hercules,
and perhaps the original of all the fables
with which the name of the Greek Her-
cules is associated. His mental force, as we
cannot but note when we read his history,
was quite inferior to his muscular strength,
and if in Heb. 11 : 32 his name were not
enrolled among the heroes of fiiith we
should hesitate to ascribe to him any spir-
itual sympathies whatever. His intellect
never seems to have been developed, and
he was swayed by irregular impulses. It
is not improbable that the lapses with
which he is chargeable were largely due
to the peculiarities of that physical tem-
452
SAMUEL— SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.
perament to which his prodigies of strength
were owing. But while this consideration
may palliate, it cannot excuse the moral
delinquencies into which he was be-
trayed, and for which a just Providence
exacted so tremendous a penalty in the
circumstances of his degradation and
death.
Sam'u-el [the heard of God], son of
Elkanah, an Ephrathite or Ephraimite,
and Haimah (1 Sam. 1 : 1, 2, 20). Ded-
icated before his birth to the office of a
Nazarite, he was taken when quite young to
the tabernacle at Shiloh and solemnly con-
secrated to the service of Jehovah. He
seems to have slept in the tabernacle, and
at night, within the precincts of the holy
house, he received his first prophetic call
(1 Sam. 3 : 1-18). In the overthrow of
the sanctuary which followed soon after
(1 Sam. 4 : 11) we know not what became
of Samuel, but twenty yeai-s thereafter he
suddenly appeared among the people and
warned them against their idolatrous prac-
tices (1 Sam. 7 : 3, 4). He convened an as-
sembly at Mizpeh, and whilst engaged in
offering up to the Lord a sacrifice the Phil-
istine host suddenly attacked him and the
people. A violent tliunderstomi came to
the timely assistance of Israel. The Phil-
istines fled, and on tlie spot of their dis-
comfiture Samuel set up a stone which
long remained as a memorial of his tri-
umph, and which gave to the place the name
of Ebenezer, "the stone of help" (1 Sam.
7 : 12). This was Samuel's first, and, so far
as we know, his only, military achieve-
ment, but it raised him to the office of
"judge" (1 Sam. 7 : 13). Subsequently
he was the inaugurator of tlie transition
from what is commonly called the theoc-
racy to the monarchy. The misdemeanor
of his own sons, a repetition of that sad
])erversion of higli office Avhicli in child-
hood he himself had witnessed in the case
of Eli's sons, precipitated tlie catastrophe.
The people demanded a king. For the
whole night he lay fasting and sleepless
in the peq^lexity of doubt and difficulty ;
but, bidden by the Lord to hearken unto
the voice of the people, after he liad ut-
tered a solemn protest against the meas-
ure, he consecrated Saul as king (1 Sam.
8 : 6-22 ; 10 : 17-24). He was still judge,
however (1 Sam. 7 : 15), and occasionally
came across the king's path, but chiefly in
his capacity as "propliet." As the repre-
sentative of the divine will he sternly re-
buked the disobedience of Saul on two
noted occasions (1 Sam. 13 : 11-14; 15 :
10-23), and before the king's sad death
anointed David, the youthful son of Jesse,
!is the successor to the throne (1 Sam. 16 :
13). His relations to David seem to have
been of the most intimate and confidential
kind, and to his instruction and influence
is due most probably very much of the
spiritual sentiment and sympathy which
appear in the Psalms (1 Sam. 19 : 18-24).
He died at an advai^ed age, whilst Saul
was yet wearing the dishonored and for-
feited crown, and was buried at Ramali
amid the lamentations of " all the Israel-
ites" (1 Sam. 25 : 1). His character, one
of the finest in Scripture, is marked by a
high integrity, by a stainless official pu-
rity, by an enlightened, elevated patriot-
ism, and by a conscientious, consistent
piety. As an intercessor with ( Jod for
the people he is ranked with Moses
(Jer. 15 : 1).
Sam'u-el, Books of. These books
commence with the history of Eli and
Samuel, and contain an account of the
establishment of the Hebrew monarchy
and of the reigns of Saul and David, with
the exception of the last days of the latter
monarch. Tlie first twenty-four cliapters
of tlie first book are usually attributed to
Samuel himself, and the remaining seven
chapters, with all of the second book, to
the prophets Nathan and Gad. The ques-
tion of authorship, however, is much dis-
puted.
SANBALLAT— SAPPHIRE.
453
San-bal'lat, a Moabite of Horonaim
(Neh. 2 : 10, 19; 13 : 28). He held ap-
parently some civil or military command
in Samaria in the service of Aitaxerxes
(Neh. 4 : 2), and from the moment of
Nehemiah's arrival in Judaea he set him-
self malignantly to oppose every measure
for the welfare of Jerusalem (Neh. 2 : 19;
4:7).
Sanc-ti-fi-ca'tion, symbolically, the
setting apart of a person or thing to a holy
use (Ex. 13: 2; Lev. 8 : 10-12) ; spiritual-
ly, the progressive conformity of the heart
and life to the will of God (Eph. 5 : 26,
27 ; 1 Thess. 5 : 23). The higher spirit-
ual sense is brought out with great fullness
in Scripture. In its nature sanctification
is a worlc divine (Tit. 3 : 5 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 2),
internal (Epli. 4 : 23), revealing itself in viti-
ible effects (Eom. 7 : 4), never left till per-
fected (Phil. I : 6), essential to the souCs
peace, usefulness mid eternal happiness (Rom.
.6 : 20-22), achieved because of our Lord's
atonement (Heb. 10 : 10 ; 13 : 12), through
the agency of the Spirit (Gal. 5 : 22, 23),
by the instrumentality of the Word (John
17 : 17). The evidences of sanctification
are the being made free from sin (Rom. 6 :
2, 18), the love and practice of holiness (Ps.
51 : 10), humility (Eph. 3 : 8), dendness to
the world (Gal. 6 : 14), growing desires after
heaven (2 Cor. 5:4-8; Phil. 1 : 23).
Sanc'tu-a-ry, a holy place. The
word is applied to the tabernacle (Ex. 25 :
8 ; Heb. 9:2), especially to the part with-
in the veil (Ex. 26 : 33 ; Lev. 4 : 6), where
the propitiatory or mercy-seat was placed,
and whitlier none might go save the high
priest once a year (Lev. 16 : 13-17).
The word is also applied to Solomon's
temple (1 Chron. 22 : 19). Sacred places
or sanctuaries being regarded as inviola-
ble, criminals sought protection in them.
Hence, as the land of Canaan was the
asylum of Israel, it was figuratively call-
ed the sanctuary (Ex. 15 : 17). God him-
self is the sanctuary of his saints (Isa. 8 :
14), and heaven is their final and eternal
sanctuary (Heb. 8 : 1, 2).
San'dal (Mark 6:9; Acts 12 : 8, the
only passages in which the word occurs),
a covering for the feet, usually denoted by
the word translated '' shoe " in our Author-
ized Version. It was a sole of hide, leath-
er or wood bound to the foot by thongs.
The thong called "shoe-latchet" in our
Authorized Version is expressly noticed
Sandals.
in several passages (Gen. 14 : 23; Isa. 5 :
27 ; Mark 1 : 7). Sandals were worn by
all classes of society in Palestine, even by
the very poor (Amos 8 : 6), and both the
sandal and the thong were so cheap and
common that they passed into a proverb
for the most insignificant thing (Gen. 14 :
23). To carry or to unloose a person's
sandal was a menial oflSce betokening
great inferiority on the part of the person
performing it (Matt. 3 : 11 ; John 1 : 27 ;
Acts 13 : 25). The use of the shoe in the
transfer of property is noticed in Ruth 4 :
7, 8, and as the symbol of possession ex-
plains the expression in Ps. 60 : 8, "over
Edom will I cast out my shoe."
Saph'ir [beaidiful'], a village addressed
by the prophet Micah (1 : 11), and situa-
ted, it is conjectured, in the mountain-dis-
trict between Eleutheropolis and Ascalon.
Sap-phi'ra. See Ananias.
Sapph'ire, a precious stone of bright
blue color (Ex. 24 : 10), the second stone
454
SARAH— SATAN.
in the second row of the high priest's
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 18), and extremely
valuable (Job 28 : 16). It is supposed to
have been not the stone to which we give
the name sapphire, and which is a deep
blue crystalline variety of alumina, but
our htpi-n-lazulL
Sa'rah [pr incests, originally Sarai,
and in the New Testament Sara], the
wife of Abraham and mother of Isaac
(Gen. 11:29-31; 17:15-21). Of her
birth and parentage no certain account
is given in Scripture. According to the
common Jewish tradition and to the most
probable conjecture, she was the daughter
of Haran and sister of Lot, and therefore
the niece of Abraham. She died at He-
bron at the age of one hundi-ed and twen-
ty-seven years, twenty-eight years before
her husband, and was buried by him in
the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 23 : 1, 2, 19).
Sar'dine (Rev. 4 : 3). See Sardius.
Sar'dis, the capital of the ancient
Ruins of Sardis.
kingdom of Lydia, situated on a well-
watered plain at the base of Mount Tmo-
lus. Under Croesus, its last king, it was
one of the most magnificent and opulent
cities of the East. For many generations
it was a commercial mart of very great
importance. The art of dyeing wool, it is
said, was invented here, and here it is cer-
tain the trade in dyed woolen manufac-
tures was extensively and most lucratively
carried on. It was the seat of one of the
seven churches of Asia (Rev. 3 : 1-4).
Wars and earthquakes long since reduced
it to a heap of ruins. A miserable village
called Sert-kalessi now occupies its site.
Sai''di-us, the stone which occupied
the first place in the first row of the high
priest's bpeastplate (Ex. 28 : 17 ; 39 : 10 ;
Ezek. 28 : 13), and which formed the sixth
foundation of the wall of the heavenly
Jerusalem (Rev. 21 : 20). It is a supe-
rior variety of agate, of a clear, bright
red color, and in modern times is best
known by the name of cornelian.
Sard-on'yx, a variety of agate com-
bining the characteristics of the sardius
and onyx. It is mentioned in the New
Testament once only — namely, in Rev.
21 : 20.
Sa-rep'ta (Luke 4 : 26), the Greek
form of the Hebrew Zarephath (which
see).
Sar'gon, one of the greatest of the
Assyrian kings, is mentioned by name
only once in Scrii)ture (Isa. 20 : 1).
The recently-discovered Assyrian in-
scriptions prove him to have been the
father and immediate predecessor of
Sennacherib. He ended the siege of
Samaria, which had been begun by
Shalmaneser IV., and carried its fami-
lies into captivity. (See Shalmane-
ser.) He was undoubtedly a great
and successful warrior. In the year
B. c. 712 one of his generals took Ash-
dod in Palestine, the event which oc-
casioned the mention of his name in
Scripture.
Sa'ron (Acts 9 : 35), the same as Sha-
ron (which see).
Sa'tan. This word means simply an
" adversary," and is so used in Num. 22 :
22 ; 1 Sam. 29 : 4 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 22 ; 1 Kings
SATYRS— SAUL.
455
5:4; 11 : 14, 23, 25; Ps. 109 : 6. The
original sense api)ears in our Lord's ap-
plication of the name to Peter in Matt.
16 : 23. In the Old Testament it is used
as a proper name or title four times with
the article (Job 1 : 6, 12 ; 2:1; Zech. 3 :
1), and once without the article (1 Chron.
21 : 1). As a proper name it evidently
applies not to an eartlily, but to a spiritual
adversary to God's people and God's pur-
poses. From the fuller revelation in tlie
New Testament respecting Satan or the
devil, we learn that he was a sinner from
the beginning (1 John 3:8); that he was
condemned for pride (1 Tim. 3:6); that
he is at the head of all the powers of
darkness and ignorance (Rev. 12 : 9 ; Col.
1 : 13) ; that he is the god of this world (2
Cor. 4 : 4), deceiving the world and work-
ing in the children of disobedience (ITim.
5 : 15 ; Eph. 2 : 2). He sows tares among
the wheat (Matt. 13 : 25), is the enemy and
accuser of the Church (1 Pet. 5 : 8), and is
the author of persecution and tribulation
(Rev. 2 : 10). He attacks with cunning
snares and with fiery darts (Eph. 6:11,
16 : 2 Cor. 2:11; 11 : 14; 1 Tim. 3 : 7),
and he suggests evil thoughts (John 13 :
2; Acts 5:3; 1 Cor. 7:5; Eph. 4 : 27).
He is overcome by Christ (Luke 10 : 18 ;
Acts 26 : 18; Heb. 2 : 14; 1 John 3 : 8),
and by the Christian in God's strength
(Rom. 16 : 20 ; James 4 : 7 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 8,
9; 1 John 2: 13; 5 : 18 ; Rev. 12: 11).
His end is to share the eternal punishment
of those whom he has seduced (Matt. 25 :
41 ; Rev. 20 : 7-10). See Devil.
Sa'tyrs. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered in Isa. 13 : 21 and 34 : 14, the only
passages in our Authorized Version where
this rendering occurs, and where the proph-
et predicts the desolation of Babylon, is ren-
dered "devils" in Lev. 17:7 and 2 Chron.
11 : 15. It has the sense of "hairy" or
" rough," and as a descriptive word is fre-
quently applied to " he-goats." Whilst it
carries a reference to the ancient worship
of Pan, which had the goat for its peculiar
symbol, it plainly denotes, in the two pas-
sages in Isaiah, such shaggy and savage
creatures as find congenial haunts in desert
places and among ruins.
Saul [propei-ly, Shaul, asked for], son
of Kisli, of the tribe of Benjamin, and the
first king of Israel. His character is in
part illustrated by the fierce, wayward, fit-
ful nature of the tribe, and in part account-
ed for by the struggle between the old and
new systems of government in which he
found himself involved. To this we must
add a taint of madness, which at times
broke out in violent frenzy, leaving him
with long lucid intervals. He was re-
markable for his strength and activity
(2 Sam. 1 : 23), was of gigantic stature (1
Sam. 10 : 23), and of that kind of beauty
which by the Hebrews was denominated
"good" (1 Sam. 9 : 2). Privately an-
ointed the ruler of the nation by Sam-
uel in accordance with a divine intima-
tion (1 Sam. 10 : 1), and subsequently
chosen by lot in an assembly of the peo-
ple at Mizpeh (1 Sam. 10: 17-24), he vin-
dicated his royal title by the speedy mus-
ter of an army and the prompt rescue of
Jabesh-Gilead from the threatened vio-
lence of Nahash, king of Amnion ( 1 Sam.
11:1-11). The effect of this splendid
achievement on the people was instanta-
neous. The monarchy was inaugurated
anew at Gilgal (1 Sam. 11:7, 14, 15), and
Samuel, who had up to this time been
still named as ruler with Saul, now with-
drew from the active administration of
government and resigned his authority
into the hands of the acknowledged chief.
The character of his reign was warlike,
but in the prosecution of his ])lans against
the Philistines and the neighboring tribes
of Moab, Aramon, Edom and Amalek his
impetuous zeal led him to usurj) the office
of priest (1 Sam. 13 : 5-14) and to disre-
gard the counsels of Samuel (1 Sam. 15 :
1-9). Upon him a first and a second
456
SAUL OF TARSUS— SCHISM.
curse was pronounced by the prophet, j
who with the second coupled an intima-
tion of the transfer of the kingdom to a
rival (1 Sam. 15 : 23-28). The rest of
Saul's life is one long tragedy. The fren-
zy which liad given indications of itself
before now at times took almost entire
possession of him. In this crisis David
was recommended to him as a skillful nui-
sician (1 Sam. 16 : 14-2.3), and from this
time forward the lives of the two are
blended together. The power of the mon-
archy decreased as the madness of the
monarch increased. The Philistines,
Saul's old enemies, re-entered the terri-
tories of Israel and threatened a sweeping
destruction. Saul marched against them
with a strong force, but before he gave
battle, with that wayward mixture of su-
perstition and religion which marked his
Avhole career, he consulted a necromancer,
the famous witch of Endor (1 Sam. 28: 7-
20). The battle next day was fearfully
disastrous. The Israelites were utterly
routed, and Saul and his three sons were
slain. The body of the king was stripped
and decapitated, and, with the bodies of
his sons, was exposed on the walls of the
Philistine city of Eethshan (1 Sam. 31 :
8-10). The inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead
from gratitude to Saul for his early and
efficient kindness to them, crossed the Jor-
dan by night, and, removing the bodies
from Eethshan to Jabesh, burnt them
and buried them (1 Sam. 31 : 13). Thence,
after the lapse of several years, the ashes
of Saul and of his son .Jonathan were rev-
erently deposited by David in their ances-
tral sepulchre at Zelah in Benjamin (2 Sam.
21:14).
Saul of Tarsus. See Paul.
Saviour. See Christ.
Sa-W (Isa. 10 : 15). The Hebrew word
{massur) thus rendered in our Authorized
Version is onomatopoetic — that is, a word
constructed to resemble the sound of the
thing denoted. So far a.s has yet been
discovered, Egyptian saws were single-
handed. As is the case in modern Ori-
ental saws, the teeth usually incline to-
ward the handle, instead of away from it
like ours. A double-handed iron saw has
been found at Nimrud. No evidence exists
of the use of the saw applied to stone in
Egypt, but we read of sawn stones used in
the temple (1 Kings 7:9).
Scape'goat. See Atonement, Day
OF.
Scar'let, a brilliant insect-dye, valued,
like the purple and crimson, for rich ap-
parel (Ex. 28 : 15) and for tapestry (Ex.
25 : 4). It was an emblem of honor and
prosperity (Pro v. 31 : 21), and also of lux-
ury and licentiousness (Rev. 17 : 3, 4).
Sometimes the scarlet and purple are con-
founded (Dan. 5:7,29; Matt. 27:28;
Mark 15 : 17; John 19 : 2). The depth
and strength of this color give force to
the figure in Isa. 1 : 18. See Purple and
Crimson.
Scep'tre, originally a rod or staff. It
was thence specifically applied to the
shepherd's crook (Lev. 27 : 32 ; Mic. 7 :
14) and to the Avand of a ruler. The al-
lusions to it in Scripture are all of a meta-
phorical character, and describe it simply
as one of the insignia of supreme power
(Gen. 49 : 10; Num. 24 : 17 ; Ps. 45 : G ;
Isa. 14:5; Amos 1:5; Zech. 10:11).
It was probably made of wood. The
sceptre of the Persian monarch, however,
is described as "golden" (Esth. 4:11), and
probably Avas of Avood plated Avith gold.
Sce'va, a Jewish priest residing at
Ephesus at tlie time of Paul's second visit
to that tOAvn. His seven sons, in attempt-
ing to imitate Paul in dispossessing evil
spirits, Avere assailed by the possessed and
scA-erely Avounded (Acts 19 : 14-16).
Schisra {si.vn). The Avord occurs but
once in our Authorized Version (1 Cor.
12 : 25). It is ordinarily employed to
designate a division or separation in a
church or denomination of Christians be-
SCORPION— SCRIBES.
457
cause of some diversity of opinion, but in
the single passage where it is found it ap-
parently denotes a breach of charity rather
than a diflerence of doctrine.
Scorpion.
Scor'pi-on, a small venomous crea-
ture, belonging to the class Arachnida,
or spiders, resembling the lobster so much
in general form and appearance that the
Arabs call the latter the sea-scorpion. It
is twice mentioned in the Old Testament
(Deut. 8 : 15; Ezek. 2 : 6) and four times
in the New Testament (Luke 10 : 19; 11 :
12 ; Rev. 9 : 3, 10). The wilderness of Si-
nai at the time of the Exodus was infested
by scorpions, and to this day these animals
are common in the same district, as well
as in some parts of Palestine. There are
several varieties, which are distinguished
by color and size, and which are more or
less venomous. In tropical countries they
are from six to twelve inches long, and
move in a threatening attitude with the
tail elevated. The sting, at the extremity
of the tail, has at its base a gland that se-
cretes a poisonous fluid, which is discharged
into tlie wound by two minute orifices at
its extremity. In hot climates tlie sting
often occasions much sufi'ering, and some-
times alarming symptoms. The "scor-
pions" of 1 Kings 12 : 11, 14; 2 Chron.
10 : 11, 14 are not to be understood as the
animal, but as some instrument of scourg-
ing, if, indeed, the expression be not sim-
ply a strong figure.
Scourg'ing, a punishment prescribed
by the Law in the case of a betrothed
bondwoman guilty of unchastity, and per-
haps in the case of both the guilty persons
(Lev. 19 : 20). The instrument of punish-
ment was generally a whip formed of three
lashes or thongs made of leather or small
cords, thirteen strokes of which were equal
to thirty-nine lashes, the Law forbidding
more than forty lashes (Deut. 25 : 1-3; 2
Cor. 11 : 24). The sufterer was tied by
his arms to a low pillar, his back laid
bare and his body bent forward. Some-
times sharp iron points or sharp-cornered
pieces of metal were fastened to the end
of the thongs to render the suffering still
more extreme. As the Romans did not
limit the number of blows, our Lord
when scourged (Mark 15 : 15; .John 19 :
1) suffered in this form all that his mur-
derers chose to inflict. The punishment
itself was considered such a degradation
that no citizen of the Roman empire
Scourging.
could be subjected to it (Acts 22 : 25,
26). Instead of the knotted whip, rods
were used in the case of a Roman citi-
zen (2 Cor. 11 : 25).
Scribes [wr/to-s], an ancient and hon-
orable order of men among the Hebrews,
called also lawyers, who multiplied, by
transcription, copies of the Law, and who
were students and expounders of the word
of God (Matt. 5 : 20 ; 7 : 29 ; 16:21; 17 :
458
SCEIP— SCKIPTURES.
10 ; 20 : 18 ; 23 : 2 ; 26 : 3). They were
usually priests or Levites, and because of
their social position and accredited learn-
ing were not only held in high esteem, but
were rewarded with substantial gains. In
our Lord's time they were wealthy and
worldly. Their pride and hypocrisy and
avarice were sternly rebuked by our Lord
(Luke 20 : 46, 47), and they heartily
united with the Pliarisees in the con-
spiracy which ended in our Lord's ar-
rest and death.
Scrip, a bag or wallet made of skin or
coarse cloth, hung around the neck and
used to carry provisions for a journey
(1 Sam. 17 : 4U; Matt. 10 : 10).
Scrip'tures, oidinarily used by the
New Testament writers with lespect to
the collective writings in the Old Tes-
tament, called either "the Scripture"
(Acts 8 : 32; Gal. 3 : 22), or "the Scrip-
tures" (Matt. 21 : 42; Luke 24 : 27), or
"the Holy Scriptures" (2 Tim. 3 : 15).
The "other scriptures" of 2 Pet. 3 : 15,
16 include writings of the New as well as
of the Old Testament.
TJie principal division of the Scrip-
tures is that of Old and New Testa-
ments, respectively containing the his-
tories of the two dispensations of God to
his Church under the old and new cove-
nants. Eacli of these consists of separate
books, written by difierent hands in differ-
ent periods of the world. The application
of the word Bible to the collected books
of the Old and New Testaments is not to
he traced further back than the fifth cen-
tm-y of our era. The books of the Old
Testament are historical, j^rophetic and
devotional, and are thirty-nine in all.
The books of the New, wiiicli are twenty-
seven in all, are historical, doctrinal, de-
votional and jirophetic. The genuine or
canonical books of both Testaments are
given by inspiration from God, and are
not mere human compositions. The Old
Testament was written in Hebrew, with
the exception of a small portion in Chal-
dee, and the New Testament in Greek.
According to a Jewish tradition, tlie five
books of Moses were in the time of the
earlier Ptolemies, about two hundred and
eighty years before Christ, translated into
Greek at Alexandria, Egypt, by seventy-
two persons ap[;ointed for the jiurpose.
The other books of the Old Testament
were afterward rendered into the same
language by different hands and with un-
equal talent and skill. The whole was
completed before the Christian era, and
was called the version of the Seventy, or
the Septuagint. This version, in the or-
dering of divine Providence, was the
means of sj reading widely the knowledge
of the one true God and his promises of a
Saviour to come throughout the nations.
It also facilitated greatly, when our Lord
had come, the spread of the gospel. At
an early period of the Christian Church,
moreover, the whole Bible was translated
I into Latin, and tluse early versions were
' superseded by that of Jerome, published
in the beginning of the fifth century,
which, because Latin was then the vul-
gar or common language in the West,
was called the Vulgate. The division of
the several books of the Bible into chap-
ters and verses was a comparatively mod-
ern contrivance, adopted by Stejdiens in his
edition of the Greek Testament, A. d. 1551,
and, appearing for the first time in an
Englisli translation in tlie Geneva Bible
of 1560, was thence transferred to the
Bishops' Bible of 1568 and the .Uithor-
ized Version of 1611. It was designed to
fxcilitate reference to particular portions,
for which it is very useful, although of-
tentimes the divisions are injudiciously
made and break in upon the true con-
nection of the parts.
By the f/eniiinevess of the books of the
Bible is meant that they were written by
the persons whose names they bear, and
by their authenticity, that their statements
SCYTHIAN— SEA.
459
are according to truth. Those which
are acknowledged to be of divine origin
are called canonical, in opposition to such
as are apocnjphal, which as mere human
compositions are not authoritative in
matters of faith and practice.
Scyth'i-an, a term occurring but
once in the Scriptures (Col. 3 : 11), and
liere as a generalized term for rude, igno-
rant, degraded. The Scythians dwelt
mostly on the north of the Black Sea
and the Caspian, stretching thence indef-
initely into Inner Asia, and were regarded
by the ancients as standing extremely low
in point of intelligence and civilization.
They are supposed to have been the de-
scendants of Magog (Gen. 10 : 2), and
there is little reason to question that
they were the ancient representatives of
the modern Tartars.
Sea, a general term in Scripture for
any large collection of water. It is ap-
plied to what we denominate the ocean
(Gen. 1 : 2, 10) ; to parts of the ocean (Ex.
14 : 21, 22 ; 23 : 31) ; to inland lakes, fresh
or salt (Luke 5:1; John 21:1; Gen. 14 :
3) ; to great rivers, the Nile (Isa. 19 : 5),
the Euphrates (Jer. 51 : 36) ; to the laver
wliich Solomon made (1 Kings 7 : 23-26;
1 Chron. 18 : 8). Its prominent applica-
tions afe the following:
1. Brazen or Molten Sea. This was
the capacious laver made by Solomon for
the court of tlie temple, and called a sea
from its size. It was made partly or
wholly of the brass (or rather copper)
wliich David had captured from Hadar-
ezer, king of Zobah (1 Chron. 18 : 8).
In 1 Kings 7 : 26 its capacity is put at
two thousand baths, equal to sixteen thou-
sand gallons, but in 2 Chron. 4 : 5 its ca-
pacity is put at three thousand baths. It
was probably capable of holding the larger
quantity, but did not usually contain more
than the smaller. It stood on twelve bra-
zen or bronze oXen, three toward each
quarter of the heavens, and all looking
outward. It was mutilated by King Ahaz,
who removed it from the oxen and placed
it on a pavement of stones (2 Kings 16 :
17), and finally was broken up by Nebu-
chadnezzar's soldiers, who carried the
pieces to Babylon (2 Kings 25 : 13).
2. Galilee, Sea of. See Galilee.
3. Great Sea. This was what we
term the Mediterranean, or Midland
Sea. As it was the largest sea with which
the Hebrews were acquainted, so it was
called by them in pre-eminence "the
great sea" (Num. 34 : 6, 7; Josh. 1:4;
9 : 1 ; Ezek. 47 : 10, 15, 20). Being on
the west of Palestine, and therefore be-
hind a person when facing the east, it
was also called by the Hebrews " the hind-
er sea" (Zech. 14:8). It was sometimes
also denominated "the utmost sea" (Deut.
11 : 24; Joel 2 : 20), sometimes "the sea
of the Philistines" (Ex. 23 : 31), and
sometimes "the sea of Joppa" (Ezra 3 :
7).
4. Eed Sea. This large sheet of water
lies between Egypt and Arabia, its length
being about sixteen hundred English miles
and its mean breadth about one hundred and
fifty. Its northern end divides into two
gulfs, which, hold between them the pen-
insula of S'.nai. It is called in the Old
Testament "the sea" (Ex. 14 : 2, 9, IG, 21,
28; 15 : 1, 4, 8, 10, 19; Josh. 24 : 6, 7),
but its specific Hebrew designation (trans-
lated " red sea " in our Authorized Ver-
sion) is "the sea of Suph" (Ex. 10 : 19;
13 : 18 ; 15 : 4, 22 ; 23 : 31 ; Num. 14 :
25). The word mph signifies a sea-weed
resembling wool, and such sea-weed is found
in great abundance along the shores. In
the New Testament (Acts 7 : 36 ; Heb. 11 :
29), as well as among the Greeks and
Romans, the usual appellation it bears
is the Red Sea. The epithet "red"
is supposed to have been derived either
from the predominant color of its weeds
and corals, or from the reddish appear-
ance given to its waters by enormous
460
SEAL.
quantities of marine animalculse, whicli
at certain seasons are seen swimming on
its surface. Tlie most important cliange
in the Red Sea since the time of the Ex-
odus has been the drying up of its northern
extremity, ' tlie tongue of the Egyptian
Sea." Tlie land about the head of the
Gulf of Suez has risen, and that near the
Mediterranean has sunken. Thus, the
jroiihecy of Isaiah (11 : 15; 19 : 5) has
been fullilled : the tongue of the Red Sea
has dried up for a distance of at least fifty
miles from its ancient head. The king-
dom of Solomon extended to tlie Red Sea,
upon the eastern gulf of which he pos-
sessed the harbors of Elath and Ezion-
geber. The principal interest of the Red
Sea, however, is derived from the mirac-
ulous passage of it by the Israelites (Ex.
1-4 : 21, 22). This grand event is fre-
quently referred to in the Scriptures
(Num.' 33 : 8 ; Deut. 11:4; Josh. 2 : 10 ;
Judg. 11 : 16; 2 Sam. 22 : 16; Neh. 9 :
9-11 ; Ps. 66 : 6 ; Isa. 10 : 26 ; 1 Cor. 10 :
1, 2), and is constantly represented as the
type of the grander deliverance fi-om
sense and sin and Satan which our Lord
Jesus Christ achieves for his people.
5. Salt Sea. This is the usual, and
perhaps the most ancient, name for the
remarkable lake which we are accustomed
to call "the Dead Sea" (Gen. 14 : 3; Num.
34 : 3, 12; Deut. 3 : 17 ; Josh. 3:16; 12 :
3; 15 : 2, 5; 18 : 19). Another and pos-
sibly a later name is " the sea of the
plain" (Deut. 4 : 49 ; 2 Kings 14 : 25). In
the prophets (Joel 2 : 20 ; Ezek. 47 : 18 ;
Zech. 14:8) it is mentioned by the title
of " the east sea." In the New Testament
there is not even an allusion to it. The
appellation " Dead Sea," which is now its
recognized and established name, appears
to liave been first used in Greek by Pau-
sanias, and in Latin by Trogus Pompeius,
before the Christian era. Its water-sur-
face from north to south is about forty-
six English miles long, and its greatest
width is about ten and a lialf English
miles. This sea is the final receptacle of
the river Jordan, whicli it receives at its
northern end, and it is the lowest and
largest of the three lakes which interrupt
the rush of that river's downward course.
It is the most extreme depression of that
great natural fissure which runs like a
furrow from the north of Syria to Leba-
non, and from Lebanon to the Gulf of
Akaba. This furrow-like fissure is along
the line of a rectilineal fracture in Creta-
ceous and Eocene strata, for the opposite
sides of the Dead Sea consist of different
kinds of rocks, and thus indicate the ex-
istence of a great fault. The depression of
the sea's surface and the depth which it
attains below the surface, combined with
the absence of any outlet, render it one
of the most remarkable spots on the globe.
Its surface is thirteen hundred and sixteen
and seven-tenths feet below the level of
the Mediterranean Sea, and its depth at
a'oout one-third of its lengtli from the
north end is tliirfeen hundred and eight
feet. The water of the lake holds in so-
lution a very large quantity of mineral
salts, and is very heavy. The old notion
that no life was found along its shores
and that no bird flew over its surface is
exploded, for the springs on its margin
nourish vegetation and afford shelter to
the snipe, the partridge and other birds,
as w^U as frogs; but so acrid are its
waters that no form of vertebrate or mol-
luscous life can exist in them.
Seal. In tlie East, seals are accounted
of such importance that without one no
document is regarded as authentic (1
Kings 21 : 8 ; Jer. 32 : 10, 11). Engraved
signets were in use among the Hebrews in
early times, for Judali wore one as part of
his ordinary equipment (Gen. 38 : 18), and
the high [iriest wore several of them on his
breastplate (Ex. 28 : 11, 36 ; 39 : 6). If a
document were to be sealed, clay or wax was
impressed with the seal and attached to the
SEARED— SEBA.
461
document by strings ; if a door or box were
to be sealed, it was first fastened with
some ligament, upon which the clay or
wax that received the impression was
spread. When our Lord's sepulclire was
A Sealed Stone.
sealed (Matt. 27 : 66) the fastening of the
stone which secured the entrance was cov-
ered with clay or wax, and so impressed
with an official seal that any violation of
it could be at once discovered. The use
of clay in sealing is noticed in Job 38 :
14.
Sear'ed. To sear flesh is to cauterize
or burn it, and thus deprive it of the power
of feeling. As used in 1 Tim. 4 : 2, the
word " seared " denotes the effect of ha-
bitual sin, by whicli the conscience be-
comes so hardened as to be insensible to
the most enormous guilt and the most
fearful threatenings of punishment.
Seasons. Only two seasons, summer
and winter, are expressly mentioned in the
Scriptures (Ps. 74 : 17 ; Zech. 14 : 8), but
the rabbins, founding their division upon
Gen. 8 : 22, make six, as follows: 1. Seed-
time, October to December; 2. Winter,
December to February ; 3. Cold, Febru-
ary to April ; 4. Harvest, April to June ;
5. Heat, .June to August ; 6. Summer, Au-
gust to October. These divisions are ar-
bitrary. Seed-time now commences in
October, after the first rains, and. continues
till January. Harvest in the lower valley
of the Jordan sometimes begins at the
close of March ; in the hill-country of
J udsea it is nearly a month later ; in
Lebanon it rarely begins before June, and
in the higher regions is not completed till
the end of July. After the heavy falls of
rain in November the young grass shoots
up, and the ground is covered with ver-
dure in December. In January oranges,
lemons and citrons are ripe, and at its
close, in favorable seasons, the almond
tree puts out its blossoms. In February
and March the apricot, pear, apple and
plum are in flower. In May apricots are
ripe, and during the same month melons
are produced in the warm plains around
the Sea of Galilee. In June figs, cherries
and plums ripen, and the roses of the
" Valley of Roses," near Jerusalem, and
of the gardens of Damascus, are gathered
for the manufacture of rose-water. Au-
gust is the crowning month of the fruit-sea-
son, during which the grape, fig, peach
and pomegranate are in perfection. The
vintage extends on through September.
In August vegetation languishes. The
cloudless sky and burning sun diy up all
moisture. The grass withers, the flowers
fade, the bushes and shrubs take a hard,
gray look, the soil becomes dust and the
country assumes the aspect of a parched
and barren desert. See Rain.
Se'ba, the name of the eldest son of
Cush (Gen. 10 : 7 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 9). Of
the people descending from him there are
but three notices in the Scriptures (Ps. 72 :
10 ; Isa. 43 : 3 ; 45 : 14), and all these pas-
sages se°m to show that Seba was a nation
of Africa, bordering on or included in
Cush, and in Solomon's time independent
and of political importance. In Isa. 45 :
14 the plural form of Seba is in our Au-
thorized Version incorrectly rendered Sa-
be'ans. The seat of the kingdom of
462
SEBAT— SELAH.
Seba may perliaps be identified with the
island of Meroe, in tlie upper Nile. See
Sheba.
Se'bat, the fifth month of the Jewish
civil and the eleventh of the ecclesiastical
year-reckoning (Zech. 1:7).
Se-eun'dus, a Thessalonian who went
with the apostle Paul from Corinth as far
as Asia on his return to Jerusalem from
his tliird missionary-tour (Acts 20 : 4).
Se-di'tion. In Acts 24 : 5 the Greek
word rendered thus signifies popular tu-
mult. In Mark 15 : 7 the same Greek
word is used, and is rightly rendered "in-
surrection." It is translated also "dissen-
sion" in Acts 15 : 2; 23 : 7, 10, where it
indicates a controversy approximating
violence. In Gal. 5 : 20 the word "se-
ditions" means "divisions," and is so
rendered in Kom. 16 : 17.
Seer, one who foresees and fore-an-
nounces future events (1 Sam. 9 : 9).
Se'ir \_Iiairy, shagcjy], the name of two
mountains.
1. The mountain-ridge which extends
along the east side of tiie valley of Arabah
from the Dead Sea to the Elanitic Gulf
(Gen. 14 : 6). The name may have been
derived from Seir the Horite (Gen. 36 :
20), or, what is perhaps more probable,
from the rough aspect of the whole coun-
try.
2. One of the landmarks on the north
boundary of the territory of Judah (Josh.
15 : 10). It lay westward of Kirjath-je-
arim, and between it and Beth-Shemesh.
Sei'rath, the place to which Ehud
fled after his murder of Eglon (Judg. 3 :
26, 27). It was situated among those
shaggy hills of Ephraim which stretched
so far south as to enter the territory of
Judah f Josh, lo : 10).
Se'la, or Se'lah [the rock]. The first
form of this word occurs in Isa. 16:1; the
second form in 2 Kings 14:7. In three
passages (Judg. 1 : 86; 2 Chron. 25 : 12;
Obad. ver. 3) the proper name is rendered
in our Authorized Version " the rock." It
designates, beyond a question, that ancient
rock-city, the capital of Idumjea, which in
later times was known as Petra. It was
in the midst of the mountain-region de-
nominated Seir, in the neighborhood of
Mount Hor, about two days' journey north
of tiie head of the Elanitic Gulf. It lay
in a deep valley a mile in length and a
half mile in width. The valley is defined
by precipitous rocks, which rise to heights
varying from two hundred to one thousand
feet. In the face of these rocks dwellings
for the living and tombs for the dead were
excavated with vast labor. .\s the city
lay in the great route of the Western car-
avan-traffic of Arabia, and of the mer-
chandise brought up the Elanitic Gulf, it
was at one time not only the strong capi-
tal of Idunifea, but also the busy metrop-
olis of a commercial people. In the end
of the fourth century B. c. Petra appeai-s
as the head-quarters of the Nabatha?ans.
About 70 B. c. it was the residence of the
Arab princes named Aretas. It was
brought into subjection to the Roman
emjiire by Trajan. It is now and has
been for ages unpeopled, the country
around it being occupied by bands of
roving Bedouin.
Se'la-Ham-Mahl'e-koth [ihe rock
or cliff of divmons'l, a rock or clffi' in the
wilderness of Maon, the scene of one of
those remarkable escapes which are so
frequent in the history of Saul's pursuit
of David (1 Sam. 23 : 28). No satisfac-
tory identification has yet been made.
Se'lah. This word, which is only
found in the poetical books of the Old
Testament, occurs seventy-one times in the
Psalms and three times in Habakkuk. It
was somehow connected with the musical
exectition of the psalm, and the most
probable conjecture is this : While the
psalm was being sung the instrumental
accompaniment was soft until the wnn-d
" Selah '' was reached, when the singing
SELEUCIA— SERAIAH.
463
paused for a time and a loud interlude
was played upon the instruments.
Se-leu'ci-a, a city of Syria near the
mouth of the Orontes, and the seaport of
Antioch. Paul in company with Barna-
bas sailed from Seleucia at the beginning
of his first missionary journey (Acts 13 :
4), and it is almost certain that he landed
there on his return from it (Acts 14 : 26).
It had its name from Seleucus I., king of
Syria, who built it and who was buried
here.
Sem, the form in Luke 3 : 36 of the
name of Shem the patriarch.
Se'nir, This name occurs twice in
our Authorized Version (1 Chron. 5 : 23
and Ezek. 27 : 5), but it should bi found
in two other passages (Deut. 3 : 9 and
Song 4 : 8), in each of which the Hebrew
word is Senir, but appears as Shenir. It
is the Amorite name for the mountain in
tlie north of Palestine which the Hebrews
called Hermnn and the Phoenicians Sirion.
Sen-nach'e-rib, the son and succes-
sor of Sargon as king of Assyria. He
mounted the throne B. c. 705, and after
the suppression of a revolt in Babj'lonia
and the conquest of numerous cities of
the West, marched against Hezekiah,
king of Judah (2 Kings 18 : 13) and im-
posed upon hlra a heavy tribute of gold
and silver. Upon Hezekiah's rebelling
and claiming the protection of Egypt
some three years later, Sennacherib
marched past Jerusalem to the Egyp-
tian frontier and laid siege to Lachish
and Libnah, from the former of which he
sent a commission, backed by an army, to
Hezekiah (2 Kings 18 : 17) with a per-
emptory demand of submission. Heze-
kiah hesitating, Sennacherib was prepar-
ing to attack him when, in one night, by
a pestilence or some more aAvfnl manifes-
tation of divine power, he lost one hundred
and eighty-five thousand men. He fled
to Assyria, and never again attempted the
subjugation of Judah, Rawlinson has
succeeded in reading the entire history of
Sennacherib's wars with the Jews, and he
finds it to agree in a remarkable manner
with tlie Scripture record, even to the very
items of the fine Hezekiah paid to Sen-
nacherib— namely, " three hundred talents
of silver and thirty talents of gold" (2
Kings 18 : 14). Sennacherib reigned
twenty-four years and five months, was
then assassinated by two of his sons (2
Kings 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38), and was suc-
ceeded by his son Esarhaddon.
Se'phar [enumeration], an Arabian
mount mentioned in connection with
the sons or descendants of Joktan (Gen,
10 : 30). The immigration of the Jok-
tanites was probably from west to east,
and as they occupied the south-western
portion of the peninsula, Sephar was most
likely their eastern boundary. The name
is now represented in the ancient city Zafar,
a seaport on the Indian Ocean and beneath
a lofty mountain.
Seph'a-rad, a city or region whence,
according to Obadiali (ver. 20), certain
ca})tives from Jerusalem were to return
and possess the cities of the South. Its
site has been placed by some in Spain,
by others in the vicinity of the Bospho-
rus, but by none is certainly known.
Seph-ar-va^im [Ihe two Sipparas, one
on either side of the river Euphrates], a
city above Babylon, on the site of the mod-
em Mosaib, whence colonies emigrated to
Samaria after the ten tribes had been car-
ried into captivity (2 Kings 17 : 24). Its
inhabitants were sun-worshipers, and tliose
who went to Samaria carried thitlier their
idolatrous customs (2 Kings 17 : 29-31),
Sep'ul-chre. See Burial.
Se-rai'ah [Jehovah is a soldier, \. e.,
man of war], the name of several per-
sons: 1. The king's scribe or secretary in
the reign of David (2 Sam. 8 : 17). 2.
The high priest in the reign of Zede-
kiah (2 Kings 25 : 18; 1 Chron. 6 : 14;
Jer. 52 : 24). 3. The son of Tanhumeth
464
SERAPHIM— SERVANT.
the Netopliatliite (2 Kings 25 : 23 ; Jer.
40 : 8). 4. The son of Neriah and
brother of Baruch (Jer. 51 : 59, 61).
Ser'aph-im [buminy ones'], an order
of celestial beings whom Isaiah saw in
attendance upon Jehovah as he sat upon
his throne (Isa. 6 : 1-7). They are de-
scribed as having each of them three pairs
of wings, with one of which they covered
their faces (a token of humility); with
the second they covered their feet (a
token of respect); while with the third
they flew. They appear to have borne a
general resemblance to the human figure,
for they ai-e rei)resented as having a face,
voice, feet and hands. Tliey were em-
ployed, as the prophet saw them, in cel-
ebrating the praises of Jehovah's holiness
and power, and in acting as the medium
of communication between heaven and
earth. They seem to be closely allied to
cherubim, and with cherubim to symbol-
ize the most exalted of the angelic host
(Heb. 1 : 6, 7).
Ser'geants. This word, occurring in
Acts 16 : 35, 38, denotes the Roman Uc-
lors who carried before the magistrates
the fasces, a bundle of rods with an axe
in the centre, and who inflicted upon
criminals tlie awarded punishments.
Ser'gi-us Pau'lus, tlie proconsul or
deputy governor of Cyprus when the apos-
tle Paul visited that island with Barnabas
on his first missionary journey (Acts 13:
6-12). He is described as an intelligent
man, truth-seeking, eager for information
from all sources within his reach. His
honesty and inquisitiveness led him to
admit to his society Elymas the magician,
and afterward to seek out the missionary
strangei-s and learn from them the doc-
trine of Christ. He was not long deceived
by Elymas, but upon his acquaintance with
Paul examined at once the claims of the
gospel, and yielded his mind to tlie evi-
dence of truth.
Ser'pent. The Hebrew word ordina-
rily renderd " serpent " in our Authorized
Version is ndclidah, the generic name of
an exceedingly venomous reptile, best
represented by that deadly cohni di capello
which is known throughout the East by
The Cobra.
the appellation najn (Ps. 58 : 4; Prov. 23 :
32), the Naja tripudians of India. A close-
ly-allied species, the Naja hnje, the asp of
Egy[)t, is abundant in the desert of Sinai,
and particularly in that dreary wilderness
of stone that bounds the land of Palestine
on the south. Its poison, which burned
like fire, brought speedy death to every
bitten Israelite until, at God's command,
"Moses made a serpent of brass and put it
upon a pole," with the proclamation of the
divine promise that whosoever should look
thereto should not die but live (Num. 21 :
4-9). The vdcJidsh, moreover, was the ser-
pent that beguiled Eve through his subtle-
ty (Gen. 3:1), and its representative, the
naja, appeals in Hindoo mythology as
contending with Krishna, but as finally
crushed. Hence the ndchdsh or naja, for
the rapidity, the unerring certainty, the
terrible torture and the hievitable fatality
of its poisoning, fitly stands as the imper-
sonation of sin, and is the very significant
symbol of " him that had the power of
death, that is, the devil."
Se'rug [shoot, tendril'], son of Reu
and grandfather of Abraliam (Gen. 11 :
22-26).
Ser'vant. See Slave.
SETH— SHAMGAR.
465
Seth [set or appointed], the third son '
of Adam and Eve, and the one whom they
recognized as "set" in the place of the j
murdered Abel. To him and his de-
scendants Adam handed down the prom-
ise of God's mercy through the woman's
Seed, faith in which became the distinc-
tion of God's children.
Sev'en. This number, so often found
in the Scriptures, is associated with the
idea of fullness or completeness, probably
with a reference to God's ceasing on the
seventh day from the work of creation
(Gen. 2:2). Hence its common and most
characteristic connection is with rest, peace
and release from toil and trouble (Job 5 :
19; Matt. 18 : 21, 22). With the Jews
every seventh day was hallowed to the
Lord, every seventh year was accounted a
sabbath, and every seven times seventh
year was observed as a jubilee. See
Number.
Shad'da-i [mighfy, powerful], an an-
cient name of God rendered "Almiglity"
everywhere in our Authorized Version.
In all passages of Genesis except one (49 :
25), in Ex. 6 : 3 and in Ezek. 10 : 5 it is
found in connection with el, " God," El-
Shaddai being rendered " God Almighty,"
or " The Almighty God." By the name
of El-Shaddai God was known to the pa-
triarchs (Gen. 17 : 1; 28 : 3; 43 : 14; 48:
3; 49 : 25) before the name Jehovah in its
full significance was revealed (Ex. 6 : 3).
See God.
Shad'rach [etymology uncertain], the
Chaldsean name of Hananiah, the chief of
those three friends of Daniel in Babylon
whom Nebuchadnezzar cast into the fiery
furnace (Dan. 3 : 20).
Sha'lem [sq/'e], a word which as a
proper name occurs but once (Gen. 33 :
18), and there by mistranslation. Instead
of reading "and Jacob came to Shalem,
a city of Shechem," we should read " and
Jacob came safe to the city of Shechem."
Sha^lim, Land of, and Sha-lish'a,
30
Land of, two districts through which
Saul passed when seeking his father's
asses. The names are found only in 1
Sam. 9 : 4. They were probably in the
vicinity of Mount Ephraim.
ShaFlum Iretribution], the name of
several persons: 1. The fifteenth king of
Israel. He conspired against Zechariah,
son of Jeroboam II., killed him, and
brought the dynasty of Jehu to a close,
B. c. 770. After reigning in Samaria for
a month only, Shallum was dethroned and
killed by Menahem (2 Kings 15 : 10-14).
2. The liusband of Huldah, the prophetess
in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 22 : 14; 2
Chron. 34 : 22). 3. The fourth son of Jo-
siah, king of Judah, known in the books
of Kings and Chronicles as Jehoahaz (1
Chron. 3: 15; Jer. 22 : 11).
Shal-ma-ne'ser [Salman (a god) is
gracious], the Assyrian king who, accord-
ing to the cuneiform inscriptions, succeed-
ed Tiglath-pileser II., and immediately
preceded Sargon (2 Kings 17 : 3). The
name occurs once (Hos. 10 : 14) as Shal-
MAN. On the cuneiform inscriptions he ap-
pears as Shalmaneser IV. Soon after his
accession to the throne he led the forces of
Assyria into Palestine, when Hoshea, tlie
last king of Israel, had revolted against
his authority. Hoshea submitted, but
concluding soon after an alliance with the
king of Egypt, he withheld the stipulated
tribute. Tliereupon Shalmaneser invaded
Palestine for the second time, and besieged
Samaria. The siege lasted to the third
year, but before its conclusion Shalman-
eser died and Sargon, his successor, ended
it by carrying and demolishing the city
and by transporting Hoshea and his sub-
jects into a returnless captivity (2 Kings
17 : 6).
Sham'gar, son of Anath, judge of
Israel after Ehud and before Barak,
though possibly contemporary with the
latter. With no arms in his hand but an
ox-goad Shamgar made a desperate as-
466
SHAMMAH— SHEBA.
sault upon the Pliilistines and slew six
hundred of them (Judg. 3 : 31).
S h a m ' m a la [astonishment, h on-or,
fright], the name of several persons.
1. Tlie third son of Jesse and brotlier
of David (1 Sam. 16 : 9 ; 17 : 13).
2. One of tlie three greatest of David's
mighty men (2 Sam. 23 : 11-17).
3. The Ilarodite, one of David's might-
ies (2 Sam. 23 : 25).
Sha'phan, the scribe or secretary of
King Josiah, to whom Hilkiah the high
priest made known his discovery of the
book of the Law in the house of God and
by whom the said book was read to the
king (2 Kings 22 : 8-14).
Sha'ron [a plain'], the name of two
districts of Palestine.
l.,A broad, rich tract of land lying be-
tween the mountains of the central part
of the Holy Land and the Mediterranean
( 1 Chron. 27 : 29 ; Isa. 33 : 9 ; 35 : 2 ; 65 :
10; Song 2:1). It was a region noted
for fine pasturage and for its floral wealth.
Anemone Coruiiiiria.
The "rose of Sharon" (Song 2:1) is
commonly regarded as not a rose in our
acceptation of the word, but as another
flower, thought by some to be the ?»«)■-
cissiis, by others to be the autumn crocuf,
and by others still to be some species of
asphodel. The Anemone coronaria, which
in spring dots the Plain of Sharon with
crimson, has, however, received the popu-
lar suffrage, and in Palestine is known, at
le;i.st to travelers, as " the rose of Sharon."
Wlierever in Scripture this district is
referred to the name lias the definite arti-
cle, thus pointing to some well-defined re-
gion familiar to the Israelites.
2. A plain distingnished from the west-
ern one by not having the article attached
to its name, as the other invariably has ( 1
Chron. 5 : 16). It was some district on
the east of Jordan, in the neighborliood
of Gilead and Bashan, but the name has
not been identified as yet with any tract
in that direction.
Sha'veh, Valley of, the place
where Melchizedek and the king of Sod-
om met Abraham after the defeat of Che-
dorlaomer (Gen. 14 : 17). Its precise lo-
cality is unknown.
Sheal'ti-el. See Salathiel.
She'ba [sewn], the name of three men
who became fathers of tribes.
1. A son of Raamah, son of Cush
(Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1 : 9). He set-
tled somewliere on the shores of the Per-
sian Gulf. His descendants appear to have
formed a tribal union with the descendants
of Sheba, son of .Jokshan, son of Keturah,
and in conjunction with them to have car-
ried on the great Indian traflic with Pales-
tine.
2. A son of Joktan (Gen. 10 : 28 ; 1
Chron. 1 : 22). He was the father of
the Joktanites, who were among the early
colonists of Southern Arabia. The king-
dom which they there founded was, for
many centuries, called the kingdom of
Sheba. The inhal)itants are the " Sa-
bsei" of tlie Greeks and Romans. Tlie
Joktanite Sheba, mentioned genealogicallv
in Gen. 10 : 28, recurs as a kingdom in the
account of the visit of tlie queen of Sheba
to King Solomon (1 Kings 10 : 1). The
SHEBA— SHECHEM.
467
j)rincipal passages referring to the Joktan-
ite Sheba are Ps. 72 : 10 ; Isa. 60 : 6 ; Jer.
6 : 20. The kingdom of Sheba embraced
the greater part of Arabia Felix. Its
chief city was Seba, by which name the
country and nation are occasionally des-
ignated.
3. A son of Jokshan, son of Keturah
(Gen. 25 : 3 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 32).
She'ba, the son of Bichri, a Benja-
niinite from tlie mountains of Ephraira
(2 Sam. 20 : 1-22), the last chief of the
Absalom insurrection. He attempted to
establish himself in the fortress of Abel-
Beth-maacliah, but the inhabitants of the
place, at the instance of a prudent woman
and to avoid a protracted siege, threw his
head over the wall to Joab, the command-
er of David's army, and the insurrection,
at one time formidable, came to an end.
She'ba. one of the towns of the allot-
ment of Simeon (Josh. 19 : 2), probably
the same as Shema (.Josh. 15 : 2(>).
She 'bah. [oathl, the famous well which
gave its name to the city of Beersheba
(Gen. 26 : 33).
She'bam, one of the towns in the
pastoral district on the east of Jordan
demanded by and finally ceded to the
tribes of Reuben and Gad (Num. 32 : 3).
It is probably the same which appears in
the altered forms of Shibmah (Num. 32 :
38) and Sibmah (Josh. 13 : 19; Isa. 16 :
8, 9; Jer. 48: 32).
Sheb'na, a person of high position in
Hezekiah's court, holding at one time the
office of prefect of the palace (Isa. 22 : 15),
but subsequently the subordinate office of
secretary (Isa. 36 : 3 ; 2 Kings 19 : 2). The
change seems to have been brought about
by Isaiah, who had become displeased with
Shebna on account of his pride and as-
sumption (Isa. 22 : 16, 18, 19).
Shech'em \_nhouMer], an important
city in Central Palestine (Gen. 33 : 18, 19),
called also Sichem (Gen. 12 : 6) and
a^-*'
Shecliem (now Miblmi.t)
Syciiem (Acts 7:16). From the Roman
emperor Vespasian it received the name
Neapolis, or vew clfij, which, in the Ara-
bic form Ndhim, it still retains. Its site
is one of surpassing beauty. It lies in a
slieltered valley, protected by Gerizim on
the south and Ebal on the north. The
and Mount Gerizim.
feet of these mountains where they rise
from the town are not more than five
hundred yards apart. The bottom of the
valley is about eighteen hundred feet
above the level of the sea, and the top of
Gerizim eight hundred feet higher still.
Its site is immediately on the water-shed,
468
SHEEP— SHELAH.
and the streams thence issuing from nu-
merous springs flow down the opposite
sIoj>es of the valley and spread verdure
and fertility in every direction. The al-
lusions to it in the Scriptures are too nu-
merous to be cited, yet whoever collects
tliem will see how important the place
was in Jewish history. After the con-
quest of Canaan by the Hebrews, Shech-
em fell to the lot of Ephraim (Josh. 20 :
7), but it was assigned to the Levites and
became a city of refuge (Josh. 21 : 20, 21 ;
1 Chron. 6:67; 7 : 28). During the life-
time of Joshua it was a centre of union to
the tribes (Josh. 24 : 1, 25). At Shechem,
Rehoboam was inaugurated king ; there,
in consequence of Rehoboam's folly, the
revolution began ; and tliere Jeroboam
was proclaimed the first king of the sep-
arate kingdom of Israel (1 Kings 12 : 1-
20, 25 ; 2 Chron. 10 : 1-19). The modern
town, Nablu.% contains about thirteen thou-
sand inhabitants, of whom all but about
six hundred are fanatical Mohammedans.
The well of Jacob and the tomb of Joseph
are still shown in the neighborhood of the
town.
Sheep. Flocks of sheep were an im-
portant part of the possessions of the an-
cient Hebrews and of Eastern nations gen-
erally. Sheep are first mentioned in Gen.
4 : 2. They were used in the sacrificial
offerings, both the adult animal (Ex. 20 :
24 ; 1 Kings 8 : 63; 2 Chron. 29 : 33) and
the lamb — that is, a male from one to
three years old, but young lambs of the
first year were more generally used in the
offerings (Ex. 29 : 38 ; Lev. 9:3; 12:6;
Num. 28 : 9). Sheep and lambs formed
an important part of food (1 Sam. 25 : 18 ;
1 Kings 1 : 19 ; 4 : 23; Ps. 44 : 11). The
wool Avas used as clothing (Lev. 13 : 47 ;
Deut. 22 : 11 ; Prov. 31 : 13; Job 31 : 20).
" Rams' skins dyed red " were used as a
covering for the tabernacle (Ex. 25 : 5),
and sheep and lambs were sometimes paid
as tribute (2 Kings 3:4). Immense num-
bers of sheep, indeed, were reared in Pal-
estine in biblical times. The common
sheep of Syria and Palestine are tlie
broad-tailed. As the slieep is an emblem
of meekness, patience and submission, it
is expressly mentioned as typifying these
qualities in the person of our Lord (Isa.
53 : 7 ; Acts 8 : 32).
Sheep-cotes, the same as sheepfolds,
enclosures open above (1 Sam. 24: 3; 2
Sam. 7:8).
Sheep-gate, The, one of the gates
of Jerusalem as rebuilt by Nehemiah (3 :
1, 32 ; 12 : 39), and supposed to have beet
between the tower of Meah and the cor-
ner where the wall of the City of David
joined with the wall of Jerusalem proper
Sheep-Market, The. In the only
passage (John 5:2) where the word oc-
curs the translators of our Authorized
Version have supplied the word " mar-
ket," but they should have supplied tlie
word " gate." The reference in the orig-
inal text is to the " sheep-gate " mentioned
in the preceding article.
Shekel.
Shek'el, a weight, from a Hebrew verb
meaning " to weigh." In early times money
was bullion weiyhed, and tlie shekel, whether
of silver or gold, was a recognized weight.
The silver shekel was the one in common
use, and had in our currency a value of
about fifty-five cents. See Money, and
Weights and Measures.
She'lah [a requestl, the youngest son
of Judah by the daughter of Shuah (Gen.
38 : 5, 11, 14, 26 ; 46 : lli ; 1 Chron. 2:3;
4 : 21), and the founder of the family of
Shelanites (Num. 26 : 20).
SHP:LEPH— SHEPHERD.
469
She^leph [a draiving out], the sec-
ond in order of the sons of Joktan (Gen.
10 : 26; 1 Chron. 1 : 20). His name is
preserved in Snlaf, a district of the mod-
ern Yemen in South Arabia.
Shera [name], one of the three sons of
Noah (Gen. 5 : 32), and, according to most
interpreters of the Scriptures, the eldest.
The rendering of Gen. 10 : 21 in our Au-
tliorized Version makes Japheth older
than Shem, but the Hebrew admits, if it
does not demand, the rendering " Shem,
the elder brother of Japheth." At the
time of the Flood he was ninety-eight
years old, married and childless. Two
years after the Flood he became the father
of Arphaxad. Upon him fell the special
blessing of his father Noah (Gen. 9 : 25-
27), that grand prophecy of a spiritual
pre-eminence. He died at the age of six
hundred years. The portion of earth oc-
cupied by his descendants (Gen. 10 : 21-
31 ) stretches from the Mediterranean Sea
to the Indian Ocean. To the languages
spoken by his real or supposed descendants
the name Shemitic or Semitic is applied.
Shem-ai'ah [Jehovah has heard'], the
name of very many persons in the geneal-
ogies and of two prophets.
1. The prophet in the reign of Reho-
boam who forbade the king waging war
on the ten revolted tribes (1 Kings 12 :
21-24). He uttered also a very effective
remonstrance against the impieties of Re-
hoboam and the nobles at the time Shishak
of Egypt invaded .Judah and besieged Je-
rusalem (2 Chron. 12 : 5-7). He wrote a
chronicle containing the events of Reho-
boam's reign (2 Chron. 12 : 15).
2. The false prophet among the people
of the Captivity in Babylonia, called the
Nehelamite, who contradicted Jeremiah's
predictions and counseled Jeremiah's im-
prisonment as an impostor. He was de-
nounced by Jeremiah and was overwhelm-
ed by the divine judgments (Jer. 29 : 24-
32).
Shem'er, the owner of the hill on
which the city of Samaria was built (1
Kings 16 : 24).
Shem'in-ith [the eighth], a term oc-
curring in the titles of two psalms (6 and
1 2), and denoting either a certain air known
as " the eighth " or a certain key in which
the psalm was to be sung.
She'nir. See Se'nir.
Sheph-a-ti'ah [Jehovah judges], the
name of many undistinguished persons.
1. A son of David (2 Sam. 3:4).
2. One of the princes who recommended
that Jeremiah should be put to death (Jer.
38 : 1-4).
3. One of the valiant men who went to
David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12 : 1-5).
4. One of tlie rulers of the Simeonites
(1 Chron. 27 : 16).
Shep'herd. In a nomadic state of
society every man, from the sheikh down
to the slave, is more or less a shepherd.
The progenitors of the Hebrews in the pa-
triarchal age were nomads, and their his-
tory furnishes many fine illustrations of
pastoral life. Tending flocks was the oc-
cupation not only of the sons (Gen. 30 :
31 ; 37 : 12), but also of the daughters, of
wealthy chiefs (Gen. 29 : 6; Ex. 2 : 16).
The Egyptian sojourn did much to implant
in the Hebrews a love of settled abode;
consequently, the tribes which had a taste
for shepherd-life selected their quarters
in the trans-.Jordanic district, apart from
their brethren (Num. 32 : 1-5). Hence-
forward in Palestine proper the shepherd
held a subordinate position. The routine
of the she[)herd's duties appears to have
been as follows: In the morning he led
forth his flock from the fold (John 10 : 4),
which he did by going before them and
calling to them, as is still the custom in
the East ; arrived at the pasturage, he
watched the flock with the assistance of dogs
(Job 30 : 1 ), and should a sheep stray he had
to search for it until he found it < Ezek.
34:12; Luke 15:4); he supplied the
470
SHESHACH— SHILOH.
flock with water, either at a running stream
or at troughs attached to wells (Gen. 29 : 7 ;
30 : 38 ; Ex. 2:16; Ps. 23 : 2) ; at even-
ing he brouglit the sheep back to the fold,
and reckoned them to see that none were
missing by passing them "under the rod "
-36
Shepherd.
as they entered the door of the enclosure
(Lev. 27:32; Ezek. 20:37), checking
each sheep as it passed by a motion of
the hand (Jer. 33 : 13) ; and, finally, he
watched the entrance of the fold through-
out the night, acting as porter (John 10 :
3). The shepherd's office was therefore
attended with much hardship, and for its
proper discharge required great watchful-
ness (Luke 2:8) and great tenderness to-
ward the young and feeble fisa. 40 : 11).
The term shepherd is frequently used in a
metaphorical sense, being applied to kings
(Isa. 44 : 28), to prophets (Jer. 23 : 4), to
God (Ps. 23 : 1), and especially to our
Lord (Zech. 13:7; John 10:14; Heb.
13: 20).
She'shach, a name applied to Bab-
ylon by Jeremiah (25 : 26; 51 : 41), but
with what meaning or for what purpose
has never been properly a.scertained.
She'shai [whiti.th], one of the three
sons of Anak the giant, who at tiie Exo-
dus dwelt in Hebron (Num. 13 : 22). At
a later period they were vanquished and
driven from Hebron by Caleb (Josh. 15 :
14; Judg. 1 : 10).
Shesh'baz'zar. See Zeuubbabel.
SheAW 'bread. See Bread.
Shib'bo-leth, the Hebrew word
which the Gileadites under Jepiithah
made use of at the pa-ssage of the Jor-
dan after a victory over the Ephraimites
to test the pronunciation of the sound sit
by those who wished to cross the river.
The Ephraimites substituted for sh the
simple sound .«, and whoever at the river
- said Sibbolelh instead of Shibboleth was
accounted an Ephraimite and was slain.
The word shibboleth has two meanings in
Hebrew — namely, an ear of corn and a
stream or flood ; and it was perhaps in
the latter sense that this particular word
suggested itself to the Gileadites, the Jor-
dan being a rapid river (Judg. 12 : 6).
Shib'mah, See Shebam.
Shield. See Arms, Armor.
Shig'-ga'i-on, a particular kind of
psalm, the specific character of which is
not now known (Ps. 7:1).
Shi'hor of Egypt. Sec Siiior.
Shi-lo'ah, The "Waters of, a cer-
tain soft-flowing stream mentioned by the
prophet Isaiah (8 : 6), better known under
the later name of Siloam, the only pe-
rennial spring of Jerusalem. See Si-
loam.
Shi'loh [peaeeful], the name of a city,
and in one passage in our Authorized Ver-
sion (Gen. 49 : 10) the name of a person.
1. A city of Ephraim. It was one of
the earliest and most sacred of the He-
brew sanctuaries. The ark of the cove-
nant, which had been kept at Gilgal dur-
ing the progress of the Conquest (Josh.
10 : 43), was removed thence on the sul)-
jugation of the country, and kept at Slii-
loh from the last days of Joshua to the
time of Samuel (Josh. 18: 1, 10; Judg.
18 : 31 ; 1 Sam. 4 : 3-11). From the time
that Shiloh lost the ark of God the city
SHIMEI— SHIP.
471
sank into insignificance, and in Jewish
history stands forth as a striking exam-
ple of the divine indignation (Jer. 7:12).
Its site is now marked by the ruined town
of Setluii. ,
2. The passage in our Authorized Ver-
sion in which Shiloh is commonly taken
to be the name of a person, occurs in Ja-
cob's predictive benedictions upon his sons,
and especially in that upon Judah. If the
rendering be correct, the allusion is to the
promised Son of Judah, the Messiah, who
in Isa. 9 : 6 is expressly called the Prince
of Peace. On the supposition that the
rendering is correct, the passage predicts
the coming of Messiah the Prince just
when the sceptre of sovereignty has fal-
len from .Judah's hand and a more jiow-
erful hand than his is needed to grasp it.
Shim'e-i [^renowned'], the name of
several persons.
1. Son of Gershom, the son of Levi
(Num. 3 : 18 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 17, 29 ; 23 : 7,
9, 10; Zech. 12:13), called Shimi in
Ex. 6 : 17.
2. The son of Gera, a Benjaminite of
the house of Saul, who lived at Bahurim.
When David fled from Jerusalem in the
time of Absalom's revolt, Shimei gave
vent to the envy and malice of his fam-
ily and tribe by hurling curses and stones
at the king and his retinue from the ridge
over against the defile along which the
melancholy procession moved (2 Sam. 16 :
5—13). When, after a successful cam-
paign, the victorious David was return-
ing to Jerusalem by the same road, Shim-
ei again appeared, not, however, with im-
precations and insults as before, but with
professions of loyalty and prayers for life.
The king accepted his submission and
granted him pardon (2 Sam. 19 : 18-23),
but, accounting him an insincere and dan-
gerous man, kept a watch upon him, and
when nearing death gave Solomon a cau-
tion and a charge respecting him (1 Kings
2 : 8, 9). Solomon, after David's decease.
made Shimei a prisoner at large in Je-
rusalem (1 Kings 2 : 36, 37). Three years
afterward, forgetful of his parole, Shimei
left Jerusalem in pursuit of two fugitive
slaves, and on his return, by order of the
king, was put to death (1 Kings 2 : 39-
46).
3. One of the adherents of Solomon at
the time of Adonijah's usurpation (1 Kings
1:8).
Silini'ron [watchl, fourth son of Issa-
char (Gen. 46 : 13) and head of the fam-
ily of the Shinironites (Num. 26 : 24).
Shim'ron-Me'ron, the complete
name of the place elsewhere called Shim-
eon, a city of Zebulun (Josh. 11:1; 19 :
15). Its king is mentioned as one of the
thirty-one kings vanquished by Joshua
(Josh. 12 : 20).
Shi'nar, the ancient name of that
great alluvial tract which in later times
was known as Chaldsea or Babylonia (Gen.
11 : 2). See Babylonia and (Jhald.ea.
Ancient Ship, from Painting at Pompeii.
Ship. In the whole range of Greek
and Koman literature no one writer has
furnished so much information in respect
to the merchant-ships of the ancients as
the evangelist Luke in his account of the
apostle Paul's voyage to Rome (Acts chs.
27, 28). The apostle made the voyage in
three ships : first, the Adramyttian vessel
which took him from Caesarea to Myra,
and which was probably a coasting vessel
472
SHISHAK— SHUE.
of no great size ; second, the large Alex-
andrian corn-shi[) in which Jie wa.s wreck-
ed on the coast of Malta; and tliird, an-
other large Alexandrian corn-ship, in
which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse
and Khegium to Puteoli. These corn-
sliips must have been large, for the one
in which Paul was wrecked liad on board
two hundred and seventy-six persons and
a cargo of wheat (Acts 27 : 37, 38), and all
these passengers after the wreck were
received into another ship (Acts 28 : 11)
which had its own crew and cargo. Of
the appearance of an ancient mercliant-
man a better idea can be gained from a
drawing than from a description.
The ships mentioned in the New Testa-
ment in connection with the Sea of Gal-
ilee (Matt. 13 : 2; Luke 5 : 3) were fish-
ing-boats, and were not large.
Shi'shak, the king of Egypt to whom
Jeroboam, when he fell under the suspi-
cion of Solomon, fled for protection (1
Kings 11 : 40). It Avas probably at the
instigation of Jeroboam that Shishak at-
tacked Eehoboam and, after robbing Jeru-
salem of its wealth, laid Judah under trib-
ute (1 Kings 14 : 25, 26 ; 2 Chron. 12 : 2-
9). A record of this expedition, sculp-
tured on the wall of the great temple of
el-Karnak, still remains, and in it is a
representation of the conquest of Judah.
Shishak is the Sheshonk I. of the monu-
ments, first sovereign of the Bubastite
twenty-second djmasty.
Shit^tah Tree, Shit'tim, a species
of acacia, of which three or four kinds are
found in the Bible lands. Its wood was
largely used in the construction of the tab-
ernacle (Ex. chs. 25, 26, 36-38). The Acacia
seyal, one of the species, is very common in
some parts of the peninsula of Sinai, and
yields the well-known substance called
gum-arabic, which is obtained by incis-
ions in the bark.
Shit'tim [the acacias^, the place of Is-
rael's encampment between the conquest
of the trans-Jordanic highlands and the
passage of tlie Jordan, and the scene of
Israel's betrayal into enormous sin (Num.
25 : 1-5).
Sho'bach, the general of Hadarezer,
king of the Syrians of Zoba, who was de-
feated and slain by David (2 Sam. 10 :
15-18).
Shoe. See Sandal.
Sho-shan'nim [/i/iVs], a musical di-
rection to the kader of the temple choir
Avhich occurs in Ps. 45, 69, 80, and which
indicates most probably the melody in
which these psalms are to be sung.
Shu'hiite, an ethnic appellative fre-
quent in the book of Job, but applied to
Bildad only (Job 2 : 11 ; 8:1). The lo-
cal indications of the book of Job point to
a region on the western side of Chaldiea,
bordering on Arabia.
Shu'lana-ite, The, one of the per-
sonages in the poem of Solomon's Song
(6 : 13), a woman belonging apparently to
a place called Shulem, which is probably
the same as Sliuneni.
Shu'narQ-mite, The. This appel-
lative, meaning a native of Shunem, is
applied to two persons: 1. Abishag, the
nurse of King David (1 Kings 1 : 3, 15 ;
2 : 17, 21, 22). 2. The nameless host of
Elisha (2 Kings 4:12, 25, 36).
Shu'nem, a town of the tribe of Issa-
char (.Josh. 19 : 18), where the Philistines
encamped before Saul's last battle (1 Sam.
28 : 4). It is identified with the present
Sv.lem, a village three miles north of Jez-
reel and five from Gilboa.
Shur [a wa//], a place just without the
eastern border of Egypt (Gen. 25 : 18), and
giving name to the wilderness which the
Israelites entered after they had crossed
the Eed Sea (Ex. 15 : 22). It is first
mentioned in the narrative of Hagar's
flight from Sarah (Gen. 16 : 7). It n.ay
have been a fortified town east of ihe an-
cient head of the Eed Sea, and from its
being spoken of as a limit it was pirob-
SHUSHAN— SILAS.
473
ably the last Arabian town before enter-
ing Egypt.
Shu'shan, or Su'sa, is said to have
received its name from the abundance of
the lily {shushan or shushanah) in its neigh-
borhood. It was originally the capital of
tlie country called in Scripture Elam, and
by the classical writers Susis or Susiana.
In the time of Daniel, Susa was transferred
by the conquests of Cyrus from the posses-
sion of tlie Babylonians (Dan. 8 : 2) to the
possession of the Persians, and in a few
years became the capital of the whole
Persian empire (Esth. 1:2). It was sit-
uated on the river Choaspes, or Ulai. It
is identified with the modem Siis or
Shush, and its ruins are about three miles
in circumference.
Sib'bo-leth. See Shibboleth.
Sib'mah. See Shebam.
Si'chem. See Shechem.
Sid'diin, The Vale of, mentioned
in one passage only (Gen. 14 : 3, 8, 10).
It seems to have been a broad and fertile
plain, the site of the ancient cities which
were destroyed by fire and brimstone from
the Lord out of heaven.
Si'don, the Greek form of the Phoeni-
cian name spelled Zidon in the Old Testa-
ment. See Zidon.
Attack on Besieged City with Battering-Ram and Archers.
Sieg'e, the surrounding of a city or
castle with an armv in order to starve or
force the inhabitants to surrender (Deut.
20 : 19). The sieges of Samaria, Nine-
veh, Babylon, Jerusalem and Tyre are
among the most noted.
Sig'net, a ring used in sealing (Dan.
6 : 17). See Seal.
Signs. See Miracles.
Si'hon [^sweepinc/ away'\, the king of
the Amorites when Israel arrived on the
borders of the Promised Land (Num. 21 :
21). Shortly before the time of Israel's
arrival he had dispossessed the Moabites
of a splendid territory, driving them soutli
of the natural bulwark of the Arnon ( Num.
21 : 26-29). When the Israelites appear-
ed he gathered his people and made a fu-
rious assault, but the battle was his last.
He and all his host were destroyed, and
his lands from Arnon to Jabbok became
the possession of the conquerors.
Si'hor [black], accurately Shi'hor,
once Shi'hor of E'g-ypt. In Isa. 23 :
3 and Jer. 2:18 the term designates the
Nile; in the two other passages in the
Bible where the term occurs (.Josh. 13:3
and 1 Chron. 13 : 5) it refers to a stream
supposed to be the Wddy-I' Arefi^h, which
formed the south-western limit of Pal-
estine.
Si'las, an eminent member of the early
Christian Church. The name
Silas is that by which he is
uniformly designated in the
Acts, but in Paul's Epistles
he is quite as uniformly call-
ed Silvanus, the full form
from which Silas is the con-
traction. He first appears
as one of the leaders of the
church at Jerusalem deputed
to return with Paul and Bar-
nabas to Antioch with the de-
cree of the council (Acts 15:
22,32). He accompanied
Paul on the apostle's second
missionary journey (Acts 15 : 40), tarried
with Timothy at Berea wliile Paul j^ro-
474
SILK— SIMEON.
ceeded to Athens (Acts 17 : 14) and re-
joined the apostle at Corinth (Acts 18 :
5). His presence at Corinth is several
times noticed (2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 1 :
1 ; 2 Thess. 1:1). Whether he was the
Silvanus who conveyed the apostle Peter's
first Epistle to Asia Minor (1 Pet. 5 : 12)
is doubtful ; the probabilities, however,
favor the identity.
Silk. This word occurs in only three
passages of the Bible. In the first one of
them (Prov. 31 : 22) the rendering should
have been " fine linen ;" in the second of
them (Ezek. 16 : 10, 13) the rendering
"silk" is much disputed, but is as prob-
able as any of the proposed renderings ;
in the third of them (Kev. 18 : 12) "silk"
is undoubtedly the correct rendering. It
is in the highest degree probable that silk
was known to the Hebrews from the time
that Solomon extended their commercial
relations.
SiPla. This place is mentioned in
connection with "the house of Millo"
(2 Kings 12 : 20), but where it was is en-
tirely matter of conjecture. It has been
supposed to be the Pool of Siloam.
Si-lo'ah, The Pool of [Neh. 3 : 15].
See Siloam.
Sl-lo'am (John 9:7, 11), Si-lo'ah
(Neh. 3 : 15), Shi-lo'ah (Isa. 8 : 6), one
of the few undisputed localities in the to-
pography of Jerusalem, still retaining its
old name in the Arabic modification Sil-
wdn, while every other pool has lost its
Bible designation. It stands at the south-
ern extremity of the temple mount, tliat
part of the mount known as the Ophel of
Scripture. It consists of an oblong reser-
voir, partly hewn out of the rock and part-
ly built with masonry, measuring about
fifty-three feet in length, eighteen feet in
width and nineteen feet in depth, with
a flight of steps leading to the bottom.
The water flows into this reservoir from
a small cave adjoining it at its north-
western end. Tills cave is the vestibule
of a conduit cut for a distance of seven-
teen hundred and fifty feet nortliward
throngh the rock to the " Fountain of
the Virgin," a copious underground foun-
tain on the west side of the Kidron Val-
ley. Siloam is a sacred spot even to the
Moslem, much more to the Jew and to the
Christian. To Siloam the Levite was sent
with the golden pitcher on the " last and
great day of the feast " of tabernacles ; from
Siloam the Levite brought the water wliich
was then poured over the sacrifice in mem-
ory of the water from the rock of Rephi-
dim ; to this Siloam-water our Lord prob-
ably pointed when he stood in the temple
on that day and cried, " If any man thirst,
let him come unto me and drink" (John
7 : 37) ; and at Siloam the blind man was
bidden by our Lord to wash off from his
eyes the adhering clay (John 9 : 6, 7).
Si-lo'ara, Tower in, mentioned by
our Lord in Luke 13 : 4, but of which, be-
yond this mention, nothing is known.
Sil-va'nus, Greek form of Silas
(which see).
SiPver, a well-known precious metal.
The Hebrew term for it indicates its pale-
nexs as contrasted with gold ; the Greek
term for it represents its whiteness. In
very eai'ly times ornaments (Gen. 24 : 53)
and images for idolatrous worship (Ex. 20 :
23 ; IIos. 13:2) were made of it, but its
chief use was as a medium of exchange,
not coined, however, but weighed (Gen.
23 : 16). Spain appears to have been
the chief source whence the ancients ob-
tained it (2 Chron. 9 : 21 ; Ezek. 27 :
12).
SiPver-ling'S, a word occurring but
once in our Authorized Version (Isa. 7 :
23), and there the rendering of the He-
brew word which elsewhere is rendered
"silver" or "money."
Sim'e-on [hearinr/'], a common name
in Scripture, occurring most often, how-
ever, in the abbreviated form Simon.
1. The second of Jacob's sons bv Leah
i?l il^fr^rfJT' ■' iTl-^n -r^^ — , ^i-
476
SIMON.
(Gen. 29 : 33), and the father of the tribe
bearing his name. AJong with his next
younger brother, Levi, he took a fearful
revenge upon the Shechemites for the
wrong done to his sister (Gen. 34 : 25-31).
His spirit, transmitted to his descendants,
seems to have been one of fierceness and
cruelty, and is sternly denounced by the
dying Jacob (Gen. 49 : 5-7). Besides the
massacre of Shecliem, the only personal
incident related of Simeon is the selec-
tion of him by Joseph as the hostage
for the appearance of Benjamin (Gen.
42: 19, 24, 36; 43: 23).
2. The tribe of Simeon at the census at
Sinai numbered fifty-nine thousand three
liundred fighting men (Num. 1 : 23), but
when the second census was taken, in tlie
plains of Moab, the number had fallen to
twenty -two thousand two hundred (Num.
26 : 14). At the Conquest and ever after-
ward it was the weakest of all the tribes.
The tribal inheritance was a mere section
from the portion assigned to the tribe of
Judah (Josh. 19 : 1-9). With the help
of Judah the Simeonites possessed them-
selves of their lands (Judg. 1 : 3, 17), and
here they were found residing in the reign
of David (1 Chron. 4 : 31).
3. A devout Jew, who, inspired by the
Holy Ghost, met the parents of our Lord in
the temple, took the holy child Jesus in his
arms and gave thanks to God for the birth
of the promised Saviour (Luke 2 : 25-35).
"Who he was is not known, but a probable
conjecture identifies him witli the Simeon
who succeeded his father Hillel as presi-
dent of the Sanhedrim about A. t>. 13, and
whose son, Gamaliel, was Paul's teacher
(Acts 22 : 3).
Si'mon [hearinr/'], an abbreviated form
of Simeon, and the name of a number of
persons mentioned in Scripture :
1. Simon the brother of Jesus, of
whom the only undoubted notice occurs
in Matt. 13 : 55 ; Mark 6 : 3.
2. Simon the Canaanite, better, Si-
mon Zelotes, one of the twelve apostles
(Matt. 10 : 4; Mark 3 : 18), properly de-
scribed as Simon Zelotes (Luke 6: 15;
Acts 1 : 13j. The term Zelotes points out
Simon as belonging to the faction of the
Zealots, who were conspicuous for tlieir
fierce advocacy of the Mosaic ritual. See
Canaaxite, The.
3. Simon of Cyrene, a Hellenistic
Jew, born at Cyrene on the north coast
of Africa, and present at Jerusalem at the
time of our Lord's crucifixion (Matt. 27 :
32). Mark describes him (15 : 21) as the
father of Alexander and Eufus, perhaps
because Rufus was known to the Roman
Christians (Rom. 16 : 13), for whom he
more especially wrote.
4. Simon the Leper, a resident at
Bethany, and perhaps the subject of a
miraculous cure by our Lord. In his
house Mary anointed our Lord prepara-
tory to his death and burial (Matt. 26 : 6;
Mark 14: 3; John 12: 1, 2).
5. Simon Magus, a Samaritan living in
the apostolic age, and distinguished as a sor-
cerer or magician (Acts 8 : 9, 10). In con-
nection with the preacliing of Philip he pro-
fessed to be a Christian and was baptized.
AVitnessing subsequently the eflfects pro-
duced by the imposition of hands as prac-
ticed by the apostles Peter and John, and
desirous of acquiring a similar power, he
offered a sum of money for it. His [irop-
osition met with a severe denunciation
from Peter (Acts 8 : 18-24), and tlie
memory of his peculiar guilt is still per-
petuated in the word shnouy as applied to
all traffic in spiritual offices.
6. Simon Peter. See Peter.
7. Simon, a Pharisee, in whose house
a penitent woman anointed the liead and
feet of our Lord (Luke 7 : 40).
8. Simon the Tanner, a Christian con-
vert living at Joppa, at whose house Peter
lodged (Acts 9 : 43). The house was near
the seaside (Acts 10 : 6, 32), for the con-
venience of the water.
SIN— SINAI.
477
9. Simon, the father of Judas Iscariot
(John 6:71; 13 : 2, 26).
Sin. In the Hebrew Scriptures three
words, rendered in our Authorized Ver-
sion iniquity, transgression and sin (Ex.
84 : 7), stand very closely related, and
with their Greek equivalents represent
the leading features of man's alienation
from the life of God. The root-idea of
the word rendered " iniquity " is per-
version or distortion; it is the wrong or
wrench or tivist to man's moral nature
which destroys the balance between his
powers and makes liim prone to evil.
The root-idea of the word rendered
"transgression" is breaking one's allegiance
to another, especially to God; it is that
positive rebellion against God's authority
which leads man to step beyond the bound-
ary-lines of God's law. The root-idea of
the word rendered "sin" is failure; it
is missing the mark, as spoken of one
who shoots an arrow; it is missing the
way, as spoken of one who wanders from
the right and safe path. Of these three
terms the first is generic, the second and
third specific. Iniquity, or man's wrenched
moral nature, is that out of which revolt
and lawlessness spring forth on the one
hand, and multiplied and most disastrous
failures on the other. In accordance with
this usage the Scriptures uniformly con-
nect with "sin" three definite senses: 1.
A perverted state of heart, which domi-
nates and defiles (Ps. 51 : 2-5; Eom. 7 :
8-23) ; 2. An impious rebellion against
God, which refuses either to come up to
the requirement or to keep within the
restraint of law (Dan. 9:5; James 1 : 15) ;
3. An ill-desert or just liability to punish-
ment, which universally follows the act of
wrong-doing (Ps. 32 : 1 ; Eom. 3 : 19-26).
Sin, a city of Egypt, mentioned only by
Ezekiel (30 : 15, 16), and identified with
the ancient Pelusium.
Sin, "Wilderness of, a tract of the
wilderness which the Israelites reached
after leaving the encampment by the Red
Sea (Num. 33 : 11, 12). It was between
Rephidim and the coast of the Gulf of
Suez. Here the manna was first gath-
ered (Ex. 16 : 14, 15).
Sin-Offering, the sacrifice among the
Jews in which the ideas of propitiation
and expiation were distinctly marked (Lev.
chs. 4 and 6). The trespass-offering is
very closely connected with it, and yet is
clearly distinguished from it. The lead-
ing differences between the two are these :
1. The sin-offering was far tlie more sol-
emn and comprehensive of the two sacri-
fices
The sin-offering looked more to
the guilt of the sin done, irrespective of
its consequences, while the trespass-offer-
ing looked to the evil consequences of sin
either against the service of God or against
man, and to the duty of atonement so far
as atonement was possible ; 3. The sin-
offering symbolized the acknowledgment
not only of sinfulness as inherent in man,
but also of the need of expiation by sacri-
fice to renew the broken covenant between
man and God.
Sina, Mount, the Greek form of the
well-known name Sinai (Acts 7 : 30, 38).
Si'nai, the mountain-summit in the
centre of the peninsula which stretches
betwesn the horns of the Red Sea whence
Jehovah published his law to the Israel-
ites. The relation between Sinai and Ho-
reb in the usage of the sacred writers is an
important one to note. In the book of
Deuteronomy the place where Israel re-
ceived the Law is uniformly called Horeb,
but in the preceding books, Avith three
exceptions (Ex. 3:1; 17 : 6; 33 : 6), it is
denominated Sinai.
A careful examination of all the pas-
sages where the names occur justifies the
conclusion that Horeb is the group of
mountains of which Sinai is a particular
summit. (See Ex. 19 : 18-23 ; 24 : 16 ; 32 :
15 ; Lev. 7 : 38 ; 25 : 1 ; Num. 1:1; 3 : 14,
and compare with Deut. 1 : 2-6; 4 : 10-15;
478
SINAI.
9:8; 29: 1). In respect to Horeb the ex- their naked and desolate summits to the
pression commonly employed is " in Ho-
reb;" in lespeet to Sinai, ''on" or "upon
Sinai." The mountains which form the
group are composed of granite and por-
phyry, and run in long ranges inclining
to the north-west, witli rocky, sandy val-
leys interlying. They spread over a Held
of about forty miles in diameter, have a
general similarity of aspect, and rear
sky. From the highest summits the view
is one of wild grandeur. The deep valleys
and rugged ravines are for the most part
concealed, and the cluster of separate
mountains has the appearance of a vast
pile of gray rocks surmounted by lofty
pinnacles. In the valleys, indeed, a few
stunted shrubs and trees are found, and oc-
casionally, in more favored spots, patches
MAP OF MOUNT SINAI AND ITS VICINITY.
yj EnqlisK Miles
iHW
^W f«lll
.:^v
A-
jl
#
// Sv ^ 5 '
-«
i^P^i
\^^
- /
N
A
'-^K J*
■c
"%
A ^ ' vj.#^^^-x^
m
Jlap of Mt. Sinai and its Vicinity. ^ - c i i
A. not SuftAfeh. B. JeUl naia. C. Convent of St. Katherine. V. Tddy Eeh-SKeikh. E. W&dy Er-Eahah
SINIM— SLAVE.
479
of grass and herbage, but as these in the
general prospect are wholly unobserved,
the eye rests upon a sea of mountains
dark, stern, savage.
The particular peak on which the Lord
" descended in fire," while the people of
Israel "stood at the nether part of tlie
mount," is much disputed, and perhaps
will never be conclusively settled. Three
claimants for the name of Sinai are sup-
ported by their respective advocates —
namely. Mount Serbdl, Jebel Mma (Mount
of Moses) and Ras Sufsdfeh (a magnificent
clifT on the north-western and lower face
of the Jebel Mimi). Against Mount Serbdl,
thirty miles distant from Jebel Musa,
the strong objection lies that near it
is no plain sufficiently large for the en-
campment of a tentn part of the Israelite
host. A similar objection against the
south-western face of Jebel MAsa, over-
looking the plain or Wddy Sebayeh, is
strongly urged, but stoutly resisted. The
Has iSufodJ'eh, a peak or cliff on the north-
western face of Jebel 3lusii, and overlook-
ing a plain which measures more than
two miles in length and some half a mile
in width, answers most fully the con-
ditions of the Scripture narrative. Profes-
sor Palmer, a late explorer of the region,
maintains with great plausibility and force
that Jebel llusa was probably the scene of
North-western Face of Jebel
the delivery of the Law to Moses, while
from Sufadfeh the Law was proclaimed to
the people. From careful measurements
taken on the spot, Professor Palmer cal-
culates tliat the pLiin er-Rahah which Ras
Suhdjeh overlooks could have accommo-
dated two millions of souls, with an allow-
ance of a square yard for each individual.
Si'nim, a people noticed in Isa. 49 : 12
as living at the extremity of the known
world. The name points to the Chinese.
Musa and Plain Er-Uahah.
Si'on. See Ziox.
Sir^i-on. See Hermon.
Sis'e-ra, captain of the army of Jabin,
the Canaanitish king. Defeated by Barak,
he was slain by Jael (Judg. 4 : 2-22).
Si'van, the third month of the sacred
and ninth month of the civil year-reck-
oning.
Slave, Although the Mosaic Law did
not establish, it yet recognized and regula-
ted, the institution of slavery. Slaves were
480
SLIME— SOAP.
of two classes, Hebrew and non-Hebrew.
The circumstances under which a Hebrew
might be reduced to servitude were : 1. The
pressure of poverty (Lev. 25 : 25, 39) ; 2.
The commission of theft (Ex. 22 : 1, 3) ; 3.
The exercise of paternal authority ( Ex. 21 :
7). The servitude of a Hebrew might be
terminated in three ways : L The satisfac-
tion or the remission of all claims against
him ; 2. The recurrence of the year of ju-
bilee (Lev. 25 : 40) ; 3. The expiration of
six years from the time that his servitude
began (Ex. 21 : 2 ; Deut. 15 : 12). At the
termination of the servitude the master was
enjoined not "to let him go away empty"
(Deut. 15 : 13, 14). If a servant did not
desire to avail himself of the opportunity
of freedom, he was to signify his inten-
tion in a formal manner before the judges,
and then the master was to take him to
the door-post and bore his ear through
with an awl (Ex. 21 : 6; Deut. 15 : 17).
Of non-Hebrew slaves, the majority were
•war-captives, either of the Canaanites who
had survived the general extermination
of their race under Joshua or such as
were conipiered from the other surround-
ing nations (Num. 31 : 26-47). Many
slaves were also purchased from foreign
slave-dealers (Lev. 25 : 44, 45). Tlie av-
erage value of a slave appears to have
been thirty shekels (Ex. 21 : 32). The
slave might be manumitted (Ex. 21 : 26,
27 ; Lev. 19 : 20), but the master had the
power of disposing of him to heirs, as of
any other article of personal property (Lev.
25': 45, 46).
Slime, an adhesive bilitmen or pitch,
used by the Babel-builders as a cement
(Gen. il : 3). See Pitch.
Sling. See Arms, Armor.
Smyr'na, a celebrated city of Ionia,
on the coast of Asia Minor, about forty
miles north of Ephesus. During the
reign of the first Roman emperor it
was one of the finest cities of Asia, and
became the seat of one of "the seven
churches of Asia" (Rev. 1:11; 2 : 8-11).
It is now called by the Turks Ismir, has
a population of about one hundred and
thirty thousand souls, and commands a
large and lucrative commerce.
Snail. This word occurs but twice in
our Authorized Version (Lev. 11 : 30 ; Ps.
58 : 8). It is the rendering of two dis-
tinct words in Hebrew. In the first pas-
sage cited the Hebrew word is supposed
to represent one of the numerous species
of lizards ; in the second passage cited the
Hebrew word is admitted to be the repre-
sentative of the snail.
Snow. The allusions of Scripture
make it certain that snowfalls were or-
dinary occurrences in Palestine in the
winter months (2 Sam. 23 : 20; Ps. 147 :
16; 148 : 8). In the ravines of the high-
est ridge of Lebanon the snow lies deep
until the summer is far advanced, and
indeed never wholly disappears. From
these sources, probably, the Jews obtained
their supplies of ice for the purpose of
cooling their beverages in summer (Pro v.
25 : 13). At Jerusalem snow often falls
to the depth of a foot or more in Januarj'
and February, but it seldom lies. At Naz-
areth it falls more frequently and deeply,
and it has been observed to fall in the mar-
itime plain of Joppa and about Carmel.
So, the king of Egypt with whom Ho-
shea, the last king of Israel, formed an al-
liance, and thereby so exasperated Shal-
maneser, king of Assyria, that he invaded
Israel and subverted the kingdom (2 Kings
17 : 3-6). He is supposed to be the king
whom Herodotus names Sabaco, who ap-
pears in Manetho's lists as Sabakfin, and
who on the Egyptian monuments is de-
nominated Shebek.
Soap. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered is a general term for any substance
of cleansing qualities. Its use in Jer. 2 :
22, in contradistinction from nitre (na-
tron), a mineral alkali, justifies the in-
ference that it was a vegetable alkali, most
SOCOH— SOLDIER. .
481
likely of some kind of potash, which forms
one of the usual ingredients in our soap.
See Fuller.
So'coh, the name of two towns in the
tribe of Judah.
1. A town in the maritime plain (Josh.
15 : 35), also with the forms of Shoco (2
Chron. 11:7), Sliocho (2 Chron. 28 : 18),
and Shochoh (1 Sam. 17 : 1). This was
the place, near the vale of Elah, where
the Philistines were gathered for the cam-
paign in which Goliath was slain. It is
identified with the modern Suweikeh.
2. A town in the mountains (Josh. 15 :
48) south-west of Hebron.
Sod'om [e?iffo.sMre], the chief among
the five cities which stood near each
other on "the well-watered plain of
Jordan" (Gen. 13 : 10, 11), near the
northern end of the Dead Sea. It was
one of the most ancient cities of Syria,
and perliaps of tlie world. With the
neighboring cities it was destroyed by a
shower of brimstone and fire from Jeho-
vah (Gen. ch. 19). In the Scriptures its
fate is frequently instanced as a warning
of God's terrible vengeance upon sinners
(Deut. 29 : 23; 32 : 32; Isa. 1 : 9, 10; 3 :
9 ; 13:19; Jer. 23 : 14 ; 49 : 18 ; 50 : 40 ;
Ezek. 16 : 49, 50 ; Amos 4:11; Zeph. 2 :
9; Matt. 10 : 15; 11 : 23, 24; 2 Pet. 2 :
6-8; Jude ver. 7; Rev. 11 : 8).
Sod'om-ites, not the inhabitants of
Sodom, but the practicers of licentious
and imnatural vices (Deut. 23 : 17 ; 1
Kings 14 : 24; 15 : 12; 22 : 46; 2 Kings
23:7).
Sol'dier, a man engaged in military
service. The designation ordinarily ap-
plies to a private or one in the ranks, but
sometimes to the officer of any grade who
approves liimself to be a man of distin-
guished valor and skill. The word in its
singular form is not found in llie Old Tes-
tament of our Authorized Version, and in
its plural form is found but three times (2
Chron. 25 : 13; Ezra 8 : 22; Isa. 15 : 4).
31
In the New Testament of our Authorized
Version, however, the word in its singular
and plural forms occurs quite frequently,
and in every instance but two (2 Tim. 2 ;
3, 4) refers to those who were engaged in
the Roman military service.
The Roman army, which in New Testa-
ment times had representatives everywhere
in Palestine, was divided into legions, the
number of which varied considerably, each
under six tribunes ("chief captains," Acts
21 : 31), who commanded by turns. Tiie
legion was subdivided into ten cohorts
(each cohort a "band," Acts 10 : 1), the
cohort or band into three maniples, and
the maniple into two centuries, containing
originally, as the name implies, one hun-
dred men, but subsequently from fifty to one
hundred men, according to the strength of
the legion. Thus there were sixty centuries
in a legion, each under tlie command of
a centurion (Acts 10 : 1, 22; Matt. 8:5;
27 : 54). In addition to the legionary co-
horts, independent cohorts of volunteers
served under tlie Roman standards. One
of these cohorts was named the Italian
(Acts 10 : 1), as consisting of volunteers
from Italy. The cohort named "Augus-
tus" (Acts 27 : 1) may have consisted of
volunteers from Sebaste, or it may have
been an Augustan cohort because connect-
ed with an Augustan legion. The liead-
quarters of the Roman forces in Palestine
were at C'sesarea. The ordinary guard was
a quaternion of four soldiers, answering to
the four watches of the night, and reliev-
ing each other every three hours (Acts 12 :
4; John 19 : 23). Two watched outside a
prisoner's door, two inside (Acts 12 : 6).
The captain of the guard (Acts 28 : 16)
was probably commander of the praetorian
guards, to whom prisoners from the prov-
inces were committed. The spearmen
(Acts 23 : 23) were light-armed body-
guards.
Every Christian, inasmuch as he fights
"the good fight of faith" (1 Tim. 6 : 12),
482
SOLOMON— SOLOMON'S POKCH.
and under the leadership of the great
Captain of salvation overcomes the
Wicked One (1 John 2 : 14), is rep-
resented in Scripture as "a soldier" (2
Roman Soldier.
Tim. 2 : 3), and is summoned to "put on
the whole armor of God" (Eph. 6 : 11).
The Roman soldier's equipment for battle
is the type of the Clhristian soldier's equip-
ment in respect both to offensive and de-
fensive weapons. As the Roman soldier
prepares himself for the conflict by tight-
ening his girdle, fastening his breastplate,
drawing on his sandals and greaves, ad-
justing his shield, assuming his helmet,
belting his sword and grasping his spear,
so the Christian soldier arms himself with
a divine panoply and stands firmly up
against the assaults of evil. The engrav-
ing shows the Roman soldier in armor,
and well represents the armed Christian
soldier.
Sol'o-mon [peaccj'nl], son and succes-
sor of David, the child of David's old age
and the last born of all his sons (1 Chron.
3 : 5). He came to the throne at the early
age of twenty, and reigned forty years. His
reign began under very propitious auspices.
He "loved the Lord and walked in the
statutes of David his father" (1 Kings
3 : 3). During the night which followed
a day of sacrifice and solemn religious
service at Gibeon the Lord appeared to
him and gave him his choice of blessings,
when the young monarch asked, not long
life or wealth or victory, but wisdom, " an
understanding heart to judge the people "
(1 Kings 3:9). In response to his prayer
the Lord promised him wisdom so unusual
that he would excel all who had ever been
before him or who should come after him,
together with riches and honors surpassing
those of contemporary sovereigns ( 1 Kings
3: 11-14). The principal events of his reign
were his alliances with Egypt and Tyre,
his erection of the temple and of several
palaces, his establishment of commercial
relations with distant lands, his fall into
idolatry, his heavy impositions of taxes,
his forced levies of labor, and his gradual
weakening of the ties which held the
tribes together and bound them in alle-
giance to, his father's house. Before he
died he must have foreseen the rapid
breaking up of the great monarchy to
which he had succeeded. His latest days,
as the book of Ecclesiastes witnesses, were
days of penitence and of returning loyalty
to the God of his fathers. In our Scrip-
tures the Song of Songs, the Proverbs
and Ecclesiastes, with Ps. 72 and 127, re-
main to attest his genius, cultuie, wisdom
and piety.
Soro-mon's Porch, a portico of the
temple at Jerusalem, which is occasionally
mentioned in the New Testament (John
10 : 23; Acts 3:11; 5 : 12), and which,
SOLOMON'S SONG— SOUL.
483
according to Josephus, had survived from
the time of Solomon. It was built upon a
high wall rising from the valley of Kid-
ron, and its columns supported magnifi-
cent galleries.
Soro-mon's Song, the twenty-sec-
ond in the order of the books of the Old
Testament, and a dramatic poem celebra-
ting the conjugal love of Solomon and
Shulamith. It is best interpreted, per-
haps, when regarded as typical of the re-
lation of Jehovah, the covenant God, to
the anciently chosen people, the bride in
pre-eminence, and as prophetic of the
stronger and more tender union between
the Christ and his Church. It has always
had a place in the canon of Scripture.
Son. In Scripture the term "son" is
very often extended to more distant rela-
tions than the one originally and strictly
indicated by it, such as grandchildren (2
Sam. 19 : 24), offspring generally, even to
remote generations, and heirs of a par-
ticular person or family, though not in the
direct line of descent. The term was also
used in a figurative sense to denote the
possession in a marked and characteristic
manner of some natural or moral quality
(Acts 4 : 36).
Son of God, one of the titles of our
Lord, applied to none else except in a con-
nection which shows the sense to be differ-
ent from that peculiar and exalted sense
which the application to him very mani-
festly bears (.John 5 : 17-25 ; 10 : 24-38).
The Jews understood our Lord in appro-
priating the title to himself to claim an
absolute equality with God, and they not
only rejected his claim, but held the mak-
ing of it to be a capital crime (Matt. 26 : 63-
66). Our Lord never intimated that the
Jews had misinterpreted his words ; but,
on the other hand, he admitted and de-
fended the correctness of their interpre-
tation.
Son of Man. This title is given to
our Lord eighty times in the New Testa-
ment, and in thirty instances he applies it
to himself. It is also applied to him by
Daniel (7 : 13). The Jews understood it
to denote the Messiah. As the phrase
"Son of God" indicates our Lord's pecu-
liar relation to Godhead, so the phrase
" Son of man " indicates our Lord's equal-
ly peculiar relation to the human family.
Sooth'say-er. See Divination.
So'pa-ter, son of Pyrrhus of Bersea,
and one of Paul's companions on his re-
turn from Greece into Asia (Acts 20 : 4).
Sor'ce-rer. See Divination.
So^rek, the Val'ley of, a valley or
ivddy in which lay the residence of Deli-
lah ( Judg. 16 : 4). It has been conjectui-ally
identified with the Wddy Sardr, a broad vale
half a mile across, with a pebbly torrent-
bed in the middle and low white hills on
either side. It is in the neighborhood of
Zorah, Samson's birthplace.
So-sip'a-ter, a kinsman of Paul
(Rom. 16 : 21), and probably the same
person as Sopater of Bertea.
Sos'the-nes, a ruler of tlie Jewish
synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18 : 17). He
was seized and beaten by a party of Greeks
in that city, who were excited thus to acts
of violence by what tliey thought the un-
justifiable and malicious persecution of
Paul. The mention of tlie name in 1
Cor. 1 : 1 has led to the supposition that
he afterward became a convert to the
Christian fiiith ; the name, however, was a
very common one.
Soul. According to Scripture usage,
the noul is that which animates the body,
which distinguishes a living body from a
dead body, whether of man or beast (Gen.
2 : 7 ; 1 Kings 17 : 21 ; Job 12 : 10 ; Ps.
49 : 8). It is the real life, in contradis-
tinction from the body, which is the in-
strument or organ of life. Hence, it is
conceived of as the seat of the appetites,
the desires, the affections and the acts of
will. The soul as thus represented is the
very man himself, and so is frequently
484
SOUTH— SPEAEMEN.
translated by the English words peison,
self, creature. The link between the soul
and tlie body, tliat which makes the body
one with the man, is the blood; "the
blood is the life" (Lev. 17 : 14). Hence,
to shed the blood is to take away the life.
Hence, too, to ofler the blood to God is to
signify that the life is forfeited to God be-
cause of sin.
South, or South Ooun'try [He-
brew, Nrgeb]. The designation in Scripture
of a large district of Judah (Judg. 1 :
16; Jer. 13 : 19). It extends from the
southern end of the Dead Sea south-
westward across Palestine to the coast-
plain. Upon it, in ancient times, were
twenty-nine cities (Josh. 15 : 21-32).
Its present condition is one of solitude
and desolation. Walls of solid ma-
sonry remain ; fields and gardens sur-
rounded with goodly walls, every sign
of human industry, remains of wells,
aqueducts, reservoirs ; mountain-forts
to resist forays of the sons of the des-
ert ; desolated gardens, terraced hill-
sides and icftr/ie.s dammed to resist tlie
torrent; but no living being, except
the lizard and screech-owl, amidst the
crumbling walls.
SoTV'er, So'w'ing. The ancient mode
of sowing seed was with the hand (Ps. 126 :
6), except in wet soils, where the seed was
trodden in by the feet of animals (Isa. 32 :
20). The sowing season commenced in
October, and continued to the end of Feb-
ruary, wheat being put in before, and bar-
ley after, the beginning of January.
Spain, the classical name of a well-
known country in Europe, anciently ap-
plied to the whole peninsula, or what
we now term S])ain and Portugal. Tiie
original designation of the country was
Tarshish. In Paul's time (Rom. 15 : 24)
it was subject to Rome and the resort of
many Jews. The purpose of Paul to
visit it implies two interesting facts —
namely, the establishment of a Christian
community in the country, and this by
means of Hellenistic Jews residing there.
Span, a measure of length not very de-
terminate, but usually estimated at nine
and a half inches, being the space from
the extremity of the thumb to that of the
little finger when stretched apart (Ex.28:
16; 1 Sam. 17 : 4).
Spar'ro-W. The Hebrew word which
designates this common bird occurs up-
wards of fortv times in the Old Testament.
Syrian Sparrow.
In all passages excepting two it is ren-
dered in our Authorized Version indiffer-
ently "bird" or "fowl;" in the two pas-
sages referred to (Ps. 84 : 3 and Ps. 102 :
7) it is rendered "sparrow." It is the de-
rivative from a verbal root which signifies
to "chirp" or " twitter." Its Greek equiv-
alent occurs twice in the New Testament
(Matt. 10 : 29; Luke 12 : 6, 7), and rep-
resents the small sparrow which may be
seen to-day in vast numbers on Mount
Olivet and about the mosque of Omar,
and tliroughout the country.
Spear. See Arms, Armor.
Spear'men. The Greek word thus
rendered in Acts 23 : 23 is of very rare
occurrence, and its meaning is quite ob-
scure. They were probably troops so
SPICES— SPIRIT.
485
lightly armed as to be able to keep pace
on the march with mounted soldiers.
Spi''ces. Several Hebrew words are
thus rendered in our Authorized Version,
and indicate not only fragrant gums, as
myrrh, but also roots and barks, as cassia,
cinnamon, cane, and even the odors of
flowers and various perfumes (Song 4 : 13,
14). Spices were imported into Judaea
chiefly from Southern Arabia. Sweet
spices, in Mark 16 : 1, are aromatic sub-
stances used in embalming.
Spi'der, a well-known animal of sin-
gular structure and habits. In our Au-
thorized Version two Hebrew words are
thus rendered : the first in Job 8:14 and
Isa. 59 : 5, and meaning " the weaver ;"
the second in Prov. 30 : 28, a derivative
from a verbal root meaning to poison, and
supposed to refer to the gecko, a species of
poisonous lizard. The spider's web, in the
thinness and frailty of the structure, is the
striking emblem of a false hope. Its skill
in adjusting its web to the ensnarement of
its prey is the not less striking emblem
of the artifice by which a wicked man
achieves his successes.
Spikenard.
Spike'nard, a fragrant oil expressed
from a plant of India. It is mentioned
twice in the Old Testament (Song 1 : 12;
4 : 13, 14) and twice in the New (Mark
14 : 3-5; John 12 : 3, 5). It was very
precious, a pound of it costing in our
Lord's times some forty dollars in gold.
It was carried in a box or vase closely
sealed. Opening this seal is called break-
ing the box.
Spin^ning'. The notices of spinning
in the Scriptures are confined to Ex. 35 :
25, 26; Prov. 31 : 19; and Matt. 6 : 28.
As spinning was the almost universal em-
ployment of women in the East, the dis-
tafl" or whirling spindle was everywhere
used in Palestine and Egypt.
Spir'it. The root-idea of this word is
wind or air, hence breath as the sign, first
of life, and second of emotion. Quick
breathing indicates kindled feelings, ex-
cited notions, stirred-up energies ; and so
we reach the idea of spirit — namely, that
which is the source of emotion and ener-
gy, of feeling and of force. One of the
most definite revelations in Scripture is
that " God is a spirit " (John 4 : 24). God,
therefore, is the fountain of all true and
good emotion and the source of all pow-
er. The Scriptures pointedly teach, more-
over, that the Spirit of God is a living,
personal agent, working in man, inspiring
man in the sense of breathing into him
divine emotion, divine light and divine
force, striving with man and making God
present to him. In the Gospels our Lord
is set forth as the embodiment of God,
and as possessing the Spirit of God with-
out measure. By our Lord's death and
subsequent exaltation the Spirit of God,
denominated the Holy Gliost, streamed
forth from him into the life of all believ-
ers. The book of the Acts is the history
of the fulfilment of God's promises in
.Jesus, the Christ, to all nations and kin-
dreds and peoples and tongues. By faith
in our Lord Jesus Christ the called and
justified people of God obtain the spirit
of sonship, are made one with the Son of
God and partakers of the divine nature,
are matle temples of the Spirit of God,
and are prepared for the glorious day
when mortality shall be swallowed up in
life.
486
SPOIL, SPOILvS— vSTOCKS.
Spoil, Spoils, goods taken from con-
quered enemies (Deut. 2:35; 2 Chron.
20 : 25; Heb. 7 : 4). See Booty.
Sponge, mentioned only in the Xew
Testament (Matt. 27 : 48; Mark 15 : o6;
John 19 : 29). Although no notice of it
appears in the Old Testament, it was prob-
ably used by the ancient Hebrews, wlio
could readily have obtained it from the
Mediterranean.
Sprinkling, Blood of. On the great
day of atonement the Jewish high priest
carried blood into the inner sanctuary,
and, sprinkling it upon the mercy-seat
(Lev. 16:11-19), "made an atonement
for the Holy Place because of the unclean-
ness of the children of Israel." The blood
of sprinkling became, therefore, a very sig-
nificant type of the atoning blood of our
Lord Jesus Christ (Heb. 11 : 28 ; 12 : 24 ;
1 Pet. 1 : 2; 1 John 1 : 7).
Sta'chys, a Christian at Rome saluted
by Paul (Rom. 16 : 9).
Stac'te, the name of one of the spices
which composed the holy incense (Ex. 30 :
34). It is identified by some with the gum
of the storax tree, but all that is positively
known is that it signifies an odorous distil-
lation from some plant.
Stand'ard. See Banner, Ensign.
Star, a general name applied to the
heavenly bodies, but usually excepting
the sun and moon (Gen. 15 : 5; 22 : 17 ;
Ps. 8:3; 147 : 4). Figuratively, a star is
a prince or ruler (Num. 24 : 17 ; Dan. 8 :
10). Pastoi-s of churches are also stars
(Rev. 1 : 20).
Steel. In all cases where the word
" steel " occurs in our Authorized Version
the true rendering of the Hebrew is " cop-
per " (2 Sam. 22 : 35 ; Job 20 : 24 ; Ps. 18 :
34; Jer. 15: 12).
Steph'a-nas, a Christian convert of
Corinth, whose household Paul baptized as
the "first-fruits of Achaia" (1 Cor. 1 : 16;
16 : 15).
Ste'phen [crovm'], the first Christian
martyr. He was the chief of the seven
deacons in the early church of Jerusalem
(Acts 6 : 5). His name indicates his Hel-
lenistic origin. Noted at the first as a
man " full of faith and of the Holy
Ghost," he presently appears as one also
full of "power," for he does "great won-
ders and miracles among the people"
(Acts 6:8). His prominence, and espe-
cially his zeal for Christ, arouse a very
determined opposition on the part of the
Greek-speaking section of the Jews, who
prefer charges against him and bring him
before the Sanhedrim. His masterly de-
fence and his death by stoning are related
at length in Acts cli. 7. Those who took
the lead in the execution were the persons
who had taken upon themselves the re-
sponsibility of denouncing him (Deut. 17 :
7 ; John 8 : 7). In this instance they
were the witnesses who had reported or
misreported the words of Stephen. They,
according to the custom, stripped them-
selves ; and one of the prominent leadei"s
in the transaction was dei>uted to signify
his assent to the act by taking the clothes
into his custody and standing over them
whilst the bloody work went on. The
person who officiated on this occasion was
a young man from Tai-sus named Saul
(Acts 7 : 58), afterward Paul, the great
apostle to the Gentiles.
Whether the death of Stephen had any
connection with Paul's conversion to Chris-
tianity, we are not told, and yet it was quite
in keeping with the grace of the Lord Jesus
to make the blood of the first martyr the
seed of the greatest apostle.
Stocks. In our Authorized Version
the term "stocks" is applied to two differ-
ent articles — namely, to what answers to
a pillory, and to what held in a constrain-
ed and painful position the feet of prison-
ers. The prophet Jeremiah (20 : 2) was
confined in the first sort; the "stocks"
properly so called are noticed in Job 13 :
27 ; 33 : 11 and Acts 16 : 24. The He-
STOiaS— STORK.
487
brew word rendered " stocks " in Prov. 7 :
22 would be more nearly represented by
the word " fetters."
Stocks.
Sto'ics. The Stoics and Epicureans, who
are mentioned together in Acts 17:18, rep-
resent the two opposite schools of practical
philosophy in Greece. The Stoic school
was founded by Zeno, and derived its name
from the stoa or portico in which he taught.
In opposition to the Epicurean idea, that
pleasure is the chief end of life, the Stoics
insisted upon virtue. The moral system of
the Stoics has been often lepr'esented as re-
sembling that of Christianity, but the dif-
ferences are radical. The morality of
Stoicism is essentially based on pride,
that of Christianity on humility ; the one
upholds individual independence, the other,
absolute faith in another ; the one looks for
consolation in the issue of Fate, the other,
in Providence ; the one is limited by pe-
riods of material wreck and ruin, tlie
other is consummated in a personal res-
urrection.
Stom'a-cher. The Hebrew word so
translated in Isa. 3 : 24 describes some
article of female attire, the character of
which is a matter of conjecture — perhaps
a festive outer robe.
Stones. To commemorate remark-
able events stones were set up in the
early times (Gen. 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14 ; Josh.
4 : 9; 1 Sam. 7 : 12). The worship of
stones prevailed among the heathen na-
tions surrounding Palestine, and was bor-
rowed from them by apostate Israelites
(Isa. 57 : 6). Stones are used metaphori-
cally to denote hardness or insensibility
(1 Sam. 25 : 37; Ezek. 11 : 19; 36 : 26),
as well as firmness or strength (Gen. 49 :
24). The members of the Church are
called " living stones," as contributing to
rear that living temple in which Christ
himself, " a living stone," is the chief or
head of the corner (Eph. 2 : 20-22; 1 Pet.
2 : 4-8).
Stones, Pre'cious. Precious stones
are frequently alluded to in the Scriptures.
The art of engraving on precious stones
was known from the very earliest times
(Gen. 38 : 18). The twelve stones of the
high priest's breastplate were engraved each
one with the name of one of the tribes (Ex.
28 : 17-21 ). As the Hebrews seem to have
had no means of engraving a name upon
the "diamond," the stone thus denomina-
ted probably was not used in the breast-
plate. In a figurative sense, precious stones
are used in Scripture to signify value,
beauty, durability and the like in those
objects with which they are compared
(Song 5 : 14; Isa. 54 : 11, 12; Rev. 4:3;
21 : 11, 21).
Ston'ing-. See Punishment.
Stork. The Hebrew word thus I'en-
dered designates the white stork, one of
the largest and most conspicuous of land-
birds, standing n arly four feet high, the
jet black of its wings and its bright red
beak and legs contrasting finely with the
pure white of its plumage (Zech. 5 : 9).
The black stork is also found in Palestine,
but, preferring marsliy places in forests and
breeding on the loftiest trees, it is never
488
STRAIN AT— SUCCOTH.
found about buildings. The white stork,
however, attaches itself to man, and for
the service which it renders in tlie de-
struction of reptiles and the removal of
Stork.
offal has been repaid from the earliest
times with protection and reverence.
Strain at. This expression in Matt.
23 : 24 is a printer's error, the true read-
ing being "strain out." A traveler in
North Africa illustrates the passage in a
letter from which the following extract is
taken : " I observed that a Moorish soldier
who accompanied me when he drank al-
ways unfolded the end of his turban and
placed it over the mouth of his bota
drinking through the muslin to strain
out the gvat^, whose larvae swarm in the
water of that country."
Strait, narrow, confined. A strait
gate (Matt. 7 : 13, 14) is a gate so nar-
row as to be difficult of entrance. To be
in a strait is to be in a difficulty (1 Sam.
13 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 24 : 14). The word "strait"
should never be confounded with the word
" straight."
Stran'ger. In the Scriptures the
word "stranger" commonly denotes a
person of foreign — that is, non-Israelite —
extraction resident witiiin the limits of
the Promised Land. The stranger was
distinct from the proper "foreigner," in-
asmuch as the latter still belonged to an-
other country, and would only visit Pales-
tine a.s a traveler ; he was still more dis-
tinct from the " nations," or non-Israelite
peoples, for he had cast in his lot with the
Israelites. As the word "stranger" in
our Authorized Aversion of the Old Tes-
tament represents six different Hebrew
terms, each of which, in addition to the
gendering " stranger," is rendered now
" alien," now " foreigner," and now " so-
journer," the sense of many passages is
necessarily indefinite and confused. See
Proselyte. All the terms, however,
applied to the stranger have special ref-
erence to the fact of his residing in the
land. The existence of such a class of
persons among the Israelites is easily ac-
counted for : the " mixed multitude " that
accompanied them out of Egypt (Ex. 12 :
38) formed one element ; the Canaanitish
population, which was never wholly extir-
pated from their native soil, formed an-
other and still more important one ; cap-
tives taken in war formed a third ; fugi-
tives, hired servants, merchants and the
like formed a fourth. The enactments of
the Mosaic Law, which regulated the po-
litical, social and religious position of res-
ident strangers, were conceived in a spirit
of great liberality, and yet were admirably
adapted to keep the Hebrew people dis-
tinct from all other peoples, and to main-
tain within the Jewish nation a spiritual
community or Church in covenant with
the God of Israel. When the stranger
identified himself with Israel, obeyed the
precepts of the Law and received circum-
cision in sign that spiritually he was a
new creature, he was admitted to the
passover, was invested with all the rights,
civil and religious, of a born Israelite, and
thereafter by all Israelites was to be treat-
ed as a brother (Lev. 19 : 34; Deut. 10 :
19).
Stripes. See Punishment.
Suc^COth [booths, tents or tabernacles'}.
SUCCOTH-BENOTH— SWALLOW.
489
1. An ancient town first mentioned in
the account of the homeward journey of
Jacob from Padan-Aram (Gen. 33 : 17).
It lay probably between Peniel, near the
ford of the Jabbok, and Shechem. In ac-
cordance with this is the mention of Suc-
cotli in the narrative of Gideon's pursuit
of Zebah and Zalmunna (Judg. 8 : 5, 17).
Succoth is named once again after this
as marking the spot at which the brass-
foundries were placed for casting the
metal-work of the temple (1 Kings 7 :
4G).
2. The first camping-place of the Israel-
ites when they left Egypt (Ex. 12 : 37 ; 13 :
20; Num. 33 : 5, 6). Its site is disputed,
but probably is to be placed in Wddy
Tumeyldt.
Suc'coth-be-noth^ [tmls of daugh-
ters], the name, according to Sir H. Raw-
linson, of the Chaldaean goddess Zirbanit,
wife of Merodach, who was especially
worshiped at Babylon. The name occurs
but once (2 Kings 17 : 30).
Sum'raer. See Seasons.
Sun, the " greater light," in contradis-
tinction to the moon, or " lesser light," in
conjunction with which it was to serve " for
signs, and for seasons, and for days, and for
years," while its special office was " to rule
the day" (Gen. 1 : 14-16). Between sunrise
and sunset the Jews recognized three pe-
riods— namely, when the sun became hot,
about 9 A. M. (1 Sam. 11 : 9; Neh. 7:3);
tlie double light or noon (Gen. 43 : 16 ; 2
Sam. 4:5); and "the cool of the day,"
shortly before sunset (Gen. 3:8). The
sun also served to fix the quarters of the
hemisphere, east, west, north and south,
which were represented respectively by
the rising sun, the setting sun (Isa. 45 : 6 ;
Ps. 50 : 1), the dark quarter (Gen. 13 : 14 ;
Joel 2 : 20), and the brilliant quarter
(Deut. 33 : 23 ; Job 37 : 17 ; Ezek. 40 :
24), or otherwise by their position rela-
tive to a person facing the rising sun, be-
fore, behind, on the left hand and on the
right hand (Job 23 : 8, 9). The worship
of the sun as the most prominent and
powerful agent in the kingdom of Nature
was widely difihsed throughout the coun-
tries adjacent to Palestine, and was a form
of idolatry to which the Jews were espe-
cially inclined. In the metaphorical lan-
guage of Scripture the sun is emblematic
of the law of God (Ps. 19 : 7), of the
cheering presence of God (Ps. 84 : 11),
of the person of our Lord (Mai. 4:2;
John 1:9), and of the glory and purity
of heavenly beings (Rev. 1 : 16 ; 10 : 1 ;
12 : 1).
Sup'per, the chief meal of the Jews,
and also of the Greeks and Romans, taken
at or toward evening and often prolonged
into the night. Hence it denotes an even-
ing banquet or feast in general (Matt. 23 :
6 ; Mark 6 : 21 ; 12 : 39 ; Luke 14 : 12, 16,
17, 24; 20 : 46 ; John 12 : 2). It is asso-
ciated with the passover (John 13:2) and
with the communion (1 Cor. 11 : 20).
Tropically, it is used to denote the de-
struction of the enemies of the Church
(Rev. 19 : 17) and the happiness of the
Church during the millennium (Rev. 19 :
9). See Meal-time.
Sure^ty, one who becomes bound to
answer for another and to make good the
debt or loss occurring from another's de-
linquency. The earliest form of surety-
ship mentioned in Scripture is the pledg-
ing of person for person, as when Judah
became surety for Benjamin (Gen. 43 : 9).
In this sense the Psalmist asks God to be
surety for him for good (Ps. 119 : 122).
More commonly, however, the suretyship
has respect to pecuniary obligations ( Prov.
6:1; 11 : 15; 17 : 18 ; 20: 16; 22 : 26 ;
27 : 13). In the highest sense the term
surety is applied to our Lord Jesus Christ
(Heb. 7 : 22), who has made himself re-
sponsible for all that was required to be
accomplished in the covenant of redemp-
tion for the salvation of his people.
Swal'low. In the passages where
490
SWAN— SYENE.
the Hebrew name of this bird occurs
(Ps. 84 : 3 ; Prov. 26 : 2 ; Isa. 38 : 14 ;
Jer. 8:7) tJie characteristics of the swal-
low are mentioned— namely, its swiftness
of flight, its nesting in the buildings of
The Swallow.
tlie temple, its mournful, garrulous note,
and its regular migration. Many species
of swallow are found in Palestine.
Swan. The Plebrew word rendered
" swan " in our Authorized Version oc-
curs twice (Lev. 11 : 18; Dent. 14 : 16) in
the list of unclean birds. It designates,
in the opinion of the best scholars, not
the swan, but the purple water-hen of
Egypt. The water-lien frequents marshes
and the sedge by the banks of rivers in
all the countries bordering on the Med-
iterranean, and is abundant in Lower
Swear'ing'. See Oath.
Sweat, Bloody. See Agony.
Swine. The flesh of swine was for-
bidden a,s food bv tlie Levitical Law (Lev.
11:7; Dent. 14 : 8), and the abhorrence
which tlie Jews as a nation had of it may
be inferred from Isa. 65 : 4. The ground
of the proliibition of the flesh as food is
not stated, but if, as is alleged, its use in
hot countries tends to induce cutaneous
disorders, and especially that dreaded
scourge the leprosy, the necessity for
some strict rule is obvious. At the time
of our Lord's ministry Jews were appa-
rently engaged to some extent in swine-
breeding (Matt. 8 : 32 ; Mark 5 : 13) for
the purpose of selling the flesh to the
heathen around them or to the troops in
the Roman garrisons.
Sword. See Arms, Armor.
Syc'a-mine Tree, mentioned only
in Luke 17 : 6. It is the mulberry tree,
of which the white and black species are
common in Palestine.
Syc'a-more. Tiiis word, occurring
in 1 Kings 10 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 27 : 28; Ps.
78 : 47 ; Isa. 9 : 10 ; Amos 7:14; Luke
19 : 4, designates the fig-mulberry or syc-
amore-fig. The tree, in Egypt and Pales-
tine, is one of great importance and very
extensive use. It attains the size of a
walnut tree, has wide, spreading branches
and affords a delightful shade. Its branches
spring from the trunk horizontally and near
the ground, thus making it easy to climb
and adapted to the use to wliich it was put
by Zaccheus (Luke 19 : 1-10). Its leaves
are heart-shaped, downy on the under side,
and fragrant. The fruit grows directly
from the branches and the trunk itself on
little sprigs, and in clusters like the grape.
To make it eatable, each fruit, three or four
days before gathering, must be punctured
with a sharp instrument or the finger-nail.
This was the original employment of the
pro|)het Amos.
Sy'char, the modern 'Axkar, a village
about a mile east of Nablus, the ancient
Shechem. It stands on the slope of Ebal,
within sight of Jacob's Well, from which
it is distant about half a mile. It is mem-
orable as the scene of our Lord's inter-
view with the Samaritan woman (John
4 : 5-30). It is now merely a collection
of mud hovels.
Sy^chena. See Shechem.
Sy'e-ne [opening, key'\, properly Sev'-
e-neh, a town of Egypt, on the frontier
of Cush or Ethiopia (Ezek. 29 : 10 ; 30 :
6). The modern town of Aswan or As-
souan, lying a little to the north-east of
the old city, represents Syene. A few
remains of the ancient city are still
found.
SYNAGOGUE— SYRO-PHCENICIAN.
491
Syn'a-gOgue [congregation'], a recog-
nized place of worship. Synagogues ap-
pear to have arisen during the Exile in
the abeyance of the temijle-worship, and
to have received their full development
on the return of the Jews from captivity.
The synagogue is therefore the character-
istic institution of the later phase of Juda-
ism. After the Maccabsean struggle for in-
dependence every town had one or more
synagogues. To the synagogue system more
than to any other agency is to be ascribed
the tenacity with which the Jews adhered to
the religion of their fathers and never again
relapsed into idolatry. Tlie worship consist-
ed of prayers, Scripture readings — especial-
ly readings of the Law — and addresses
(Matt. 0:5; Mark 6:2; Luke 4 : 16-
32). Each synagogue was under tlie gov-
ernment of a bench of elders called rulers
(Mark 5 : 22 ; Acts 13 : 15), which had a
president or moderator called the chief
ruler (Acts 18:8). The synagogue had an
important bearing not only on the prep-
aratit)n of the Jewish people for Chris-
tianity, but also upon the organization
of Christian churches.
Syn'ty-che, a female member of the
church of Philippi (Phil. 4 : 2, 3).
Syr^a-cuse, a celebrated and wealthy
city on the eastern coast of Sicily. The
apostle Paul, on his voyage to Rome in
an Alexandrian ship from Melita, landed
here and tarried three days (Acts 28 : 12).
Its site and its excellent harbor made it a
convenient jjort for the African corn-ships.
Syr'i-a, the region of country known
to the Hebrews as Aram, and deriving its
name from Ttrnr or Tyre, the first of the
Syrian towns accessible to the Greeks.
Its boundaries are indefinite, but, lying
on the north of Palestine and stretcliing
east from the Mediterranean to the Eu-
phrates and the Arabian desert, it is com-
monly understood to be a tract of about
three hundred miles in length and from
fifty to one hundred and fifty miles in
breadth. The general character of the
tract is mountainous. The most fertile
and valuable portion of Syria is the long
valley intervening between Libanus and
Anti-Libanus. The first settlers of Syria
were Hamites, followed after a time by
Shemites. The former settled on the
coast and on the heights of Lebanon, and
had an inland station at Hamath (Gen.
10 : 18) ; the latter occupied Damascus
and overspread the remaining portions
of the country (Gen. 14 : 15 ; 15 : 2). For
many centuries Syria seems to have been
broken up among a number of petty king-
doms. The Jews first came into hostile
contact with the Syrians, under that name,
in the time of David (2 Sam. 8 : 3-13).
In the later days of Solomon an inde-
pendent kingdom was formed at Damas-
cus (1 Kings 11 : 23-25). In the year
B. c. 333, Syria submitted without a strug-
gle to Alexander, but upon his death it
became for the first time the head of a
great kingdom. On the division of the
provinces among his generals (b. c. 321 ),
Seleucus Nicator received Mesopotamia
and Syria, and as his capital built, on the
Orontes, the city of Antioch, which for
more than two centuries was the most
splendid of all the cities of the East.
The Roman power became supreme
throughout Syria B. c. 64. Cliristianity
was carried into Syria by the disciples
" scattered " at the time of Stephen's per-
secution (Acts 11 : 19), and Paul frequent-
ly visited its churches (Acts 15 : 41 ; 18 :
18 ; 21 : 3 ; Gal. 1 : 21 ).
Sy'ro-PhcB-nic'ian. This word oc-
curs only in Mark 7 : 26. It denotes most
likely a mixed race, half Phoenicians and
half Syrians. Matthew (15 : 22) speaks of
" a woman of Canaan " in place of Mark's
" Syro-Phoenician," and the expression im-
plies that Canaan and Phoenicia were inter-
changeable names. The actual country of
the Syro-Phcenician woman was the north-
ern portion of Phoenicia.
492
TA AN ACH— TA BERN ACLE.
T.
Ta'a-nach [castle], an ancient
Canaanitish city, the king of which is
enumerated amongst the thirty-one con-
quered by Joshua (Josh. 12 : 21). It
came into the half-tribe of Manasseh
(Josh. 17 : 11 ; 21 : 25; 1 Chron. 7 : 29),
and was bestowed on the Kohathite Le-
vites (Josh. 21 : 25). Taanach is ahnost
always named in company with Megiddo,
and they were evidently the chief towns
of the fine rich district which forms the
western portion of the great plain of Es-
draelon (1 Kings 4 : 12). It is still call-
ed Ta'annuk, and stands about four miles
south-cast of Lejjun, the ancient Megiddo.
Tab'e-rah [JmrniiKj'], one of the sta-
tions of the Israelites in the wilderness of
Paran, where a fire from the Lord broke
fortli upon the people and consumed many
of them on account of their murmurings
(Num. 11 : 3; Deut. 9 : 22).
Ta'ber-ing, an obsolete English word
found in Nali. 2 : 7. The " taber " was a
musical instrument of the drum-type, and
" to taber " is to beat with loud strokes, as
men beat upon such an instrument.
Tabernacle.
Tab'er-na'cle (Ex. chs. 25-27; 35-
40). The tabernacle was the lent of Jehovah,
called by the same name as the tents of
the people, in the midst of which it stood.
As a portable structure, it was designed to
contain the sacred ark, the special symbol
Ground-Plan of Tabernacle.
of God's presence, and was surrounded by
an outer court entered on the eastern side.
Within the entrance was placed the altar
of burnt-offering; between this altar and
the tabernacle was placed the laver at
which the priests washed their hands and
feet; and toward the western end of the
enclosure was placed the tabernacle itself.
This was an oblong, rectangular structure,
thirty cubits in length by ten in width
(forty-five feet by fifteen), and ten in
height ; the interior was divided into two
TABEKNACLES, THE FEAST OF— TABOR.
493
chambers, the first" or outer of twenty cu-
bits in lengtli, the inner of ten cubits, and
consequently an exact cube. Tlie former
was the Holy Place, or First Tabernacle
(Heb. 9:2), containing tlie golden can-
dlestick on one side, the table of shew-
bread opposite, and between them in the
centre the altar of incense. Tlie latter was
the Most Holy Place, or the Holy of Holies,
containing the ark surmounted by the cher-
ubim, with the two tables of the Law in-
side. The front of the Holy Place was
closed by a hanging of fine linen embroid-
ered in blue, purple and scarlet, and sup-
ported by golden hooks on five pillars of
shittim-wood overlaid with gold and stand-
ing in brass sockets. A more sumptuous
curtain of the same kind, embroidered with
cherubim, and hung on Jour such pillars
with silver sockets, divided the Holy from
the Most Holy Place. It was called the
veil, as it hid from the eyes of all but the
high priest the inmost sanctuary, where
Jehovah dwelt on his mercy-seat, between
the cherubim above the ark. Hence, " to
enter within the veil " is to have the closest
access to God. The veil was only passed by
the high priest once a year, on the day of
atonement, in token of the mediation of
our Lord Christ, who, with his own blood,
hath entered for us within the veil which
separates God's own abode from earth
(Heb. 6 : 19). The Holfy Place was only
entered by the priests daily to offer incense
at tlie time of morning and evening prayer,
and to renew the lights on the golden can-
dlestick, and on the Sabbath to remove the
old shew-bread and to place the new upon
the table.
Tabernacles, The Feast of, called
also "the feast of ingathering" (Ex. 23 :
16), was the third of the three great festi-
vals of the Hebrews, which lasted from the
fifteenth till the twenty-second of Tisri.
The time of the festival fell in the au-
tumn, when the whole of the chief fruits
of the ground, the corn, the wine and the
oil, had been gathered in (Lev. 23 : 39;
Deut. 16 : 13-15). Its duration was seven
days strictly (Deut. 16 : 13 ; Ezek. 45 : 25).
During these days the Israelites were
commanded to dwell in booths or huts
formed of the boughs of trees (Lev. 23 :
40-43). The feast of tabernacles wa.s to
be at once a thanksgiving for the harvest
and a commemoration of the time when
the Israelites dwelt in tents during their
passage through the wilderness.
Tab'i-tha [gazelle.']. See Dorcas.
Ta'bor \_the height'], the name of a
mount, of a city and of an oak.
1. Mount Tabor is one of the most in-
teresting and remarkable of the single
mountains in Palestine. It rises abruptly
from the north-eastern arm of the plain
of Esdraelon, and stands entirely insulated,
except on the west, where a narrow ridge
connects it with the hills of Nazareth. As
seen from a distance, it presents to the eye
a beautiful appearance, resembling that
of a cone with the point rounded ofT. The
summit is an irregular platform, from which
the view is very fine. On the west is the
Mediterranean ; on the east we catch a
glimpse of the Sea of Galilee ; to the
north-east is the snow-crowned Hermon ;
on the south are numerous valleys wind-
ing into the hills which skirt the plain of
Esdraelon and the noble plain itself, with
Mount Carmel at the one extremity and
Gilboa at the other.
Tabor is not mentioned in the New Tes-
tament, but it makes a prominent figure in
the Old. The name first occurs in the
sketch of Issachar's boundaries (Josh 19 :
22). On Tabor, Barak, at the command
of Deborah, assembled his forces, and, de-
scending thence with " ten thousand men
after him " into the plain, conquered Sis-
era on the banks of the Kishon (Judg. 4 :
6-15). Tlie brothers of Gideon were here
murdered by Zebah and Zalmunna (Judg.
8 : 18, 19). In popular tradition Tabor is
regarded as the mount of our Lord's trans-
494
TABRET— TAHAPANES.
Mount Tabor from the S. W.
figuration, but for tlie tradition there is no
support whatever. Proof is abundant from
the Old Testament and from later history
that a fortress or town existed on Tabor
from very early times down to b. c. 50, and
as Josephus says that the fortifications
there were strengthened about a. d. 60, it
is morally certain that, during the inter-
vening period — that is, in the days of our
Lord — Tabor must have been inhabited.
Tabor, therefore, could hardly have been
the Mount of Transfiguration. The prob-
able scene of that event was one of the
lower summits of Mount Hermon, as the
connection would imply that our Lord was
then at or near Cfesarea Philippi, which is
at the foot of Hermon, sixty miles north-
north-east of Tabor (Matt. 17 : 1, 2). See
Hermon. The modern name of Mount
Tabor is Jehel et-Tar.
2. Tabor, a city of the Merarite Levites,
in the tribe of Zebulun (1 Chron. 6 : 77).
It is suiiposed to have stood on the summit
and side of the mount.
3. Tabor, the Plain of, an incorrect
translation of the passage in 1 Sam. 10 :
3 ; the correct rendering is the oak of
Tabor.
Ta'bret. See Timbrel.
Taches, hooks or clasps of gold and
copper used in connecting the cui'tains of
the tabernacle (Ex. 2G : G, 11, 33; 35:11;
36: 13; 39 : 33).
Tad'raor [city of palms'], the city built
by Solomon "in the wilderness" (1 Kings
9 : 17, 18; 2 Chron. 8 : 4), and known to
the Greeks and Romans under the name
of Palmyra. It lay between the Euphrates
and Hamath, in a fertile tract or oasis of
the desert, and from its position command-
ed a large share of the caravan-traflic.
Ta-hap'a-nes (Jer. 2 : 16), Te-
haph'ne-hes (Ezek. 30 : 18), Tah'-
pan-hes (Jer. 43 : 7), abbreviated form,
Han'es (Isa. 30 : 4), a boundary city of
Lower Egypt, near or on the eastern bor-
der. It is tliought to be the same as the
Daphne of the Greeks. It was an im-
TAHPENES— TARSUS.
495
portant town, and is mentioned in connec-
tion with Noph or Memphis { Jer. 46 : 14).
The Jews in Jeremiah's time remained
here (Jer. 44 : 1).
Tah'pe-nes, an Egyptian queen, wife
of the Pharaoh who received Hadad the
Edomite and who gave him her sister in
marriage (1 Kings 11 : 18-20).
Tale, an old English word meaning a
full nimiber. It is what we call the tally
or the number lolil off or counted (Ex. 5 : 8,
18 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 9 : 28).
Tal'ent, a Jewish weight, commonly
of silver, but also of gold. A talent of
silver (Ex. 38 : 25) is estimated as worth
about sixteen hundred dollars.
TaFmai, the name of two men.
1. One of the three sons of " the Anak "
who were slain by the men of Judah (Num.
13 : 22 ; Josh. 15 : 14 ; Judg. 1 : 10).
2. Son of Ammihud, king of Geshur (2
Sam. 3:3; 13 : 37 ; 1 Chron. 3:2), and
probably a petty chieftain dependent on
David.
Ta'mar [ palm tree], the name of three
women and a place.
1. The daughter-in-law of Judah and
the mother of the twins Pharez and Za-
rah (Gen. 38 : 6-30).
2. The daughter of David and of IVIiia-
chah, the Geshurite princess, and thus sis-
ter to Absalom (2 Sam. 13 : 1-32).
3. The daughter of Absalom (2 Sam.
14 : 27), who, by her marriage with Uriah
of Gibeah, became the mother of Maa-
cliah, the future queen of Judah as the
wife of Abijah (1 Kings 15 : 2).
4. A spot on the south-eastern frontier
of Judah, so called evidently from a palm
tree (Ezek. 47 : 19 ; 48: 28).
Tam'muz, properly "the Tam'-
muz " (Ezek. 8 : 14), is commonly, and
perhaps correctly, identified with the Syr-
ian Adonis, the rites of whose idolatrous
worship were shockingly obscene. Adonis
is the Phoenician and Hebrew Adon, Lord.
and has the same meaning as Baal. His
worship therefore was on 3 of the forms
of the ancient widespread worship of tlie
sun.
Tap'es-try, cloth woven or wrought
with the needle in ornamental figures
(Prov. 7 : 16 ; 31 : 22).
Tap-pu'ah [apple, hence of a place
fruitful in apples], the name of two
places.
1. A city of Judah in the low country
(Josh. 15 : 34).
2. A place on the boundary of the chil-
dren of Joseph (Josh. 16 : 8 ; 17 : 8).
Tares, the weed called "darnel"
(Matt. 13 : 25). Before it comes into ear
the darnel is very
similar in appear-
ance to wheat,
hence the com-
mand that it be
left to the harvest,
lest while men
plucked up the
tares they should
"root up also tlie
wheat with them."
Tar'get. See
x\.RMS, AkMOR.
Tar'shish, one
of the sons of Ja-
van, ancestor perhaps of the Greek element
in the population of Tarsus in Cilicia.
Tar'shish, occasionally Thar'-
shish, an ancient commercial city, usu-
ally identified with Tartessus in the south
of Spain (Gen. 10 : 4; Isa. 2 : 16 ; 23 : 1,
6, 10, 14 ; Jer. 10 : 9; Ezek. 27 : 12, 25).
The voyage through the Mediterranean to
Tarshish was made by the largest ships of
ancient times, so that vessels of a large
tonnage were called " ships of Tarshish "
(1 Kings 22 : 48), without reference to
the Mediterranean trade. As Tarshish
was rich in the precious metals (Ezek. 27 :
12), it was the seat of a very extensive
and lucrative commerce.
Tar'sus, the chief town of Cilicia,
Tares.
496
TARTAR— TEMAX.
Asia Minor, memorable as the birthplace
and early home of the apostle Paul (Acts
9 : 11 ; 21 : 39; 22 : 3). Augustus made
it a "free city." Under the early Roman
emperors it was renowned as a place of
education. Its commerce was also consid-
erable. It stood on the banks of the river
Cydnus, in the midst of a wide and fertile
plain. The modern town, called Tarsous,
is a poor and filthy place with a popula-
tion of twenty thousand Turks. Of the
ancient city no ruins of any importance
remain.
Tar'tak, the name of one of the idol-
gods worshiped by the Avites whom the
king of Assyria sent to people the des-
olated kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 17 : 31 ).
Of the god or the form of his worship no-
tliing is known. Tartak is a Pei-sian or Peh-
levi word, meaning " hero of darkness."
Tar'tan. This word, occurring in 2
Kings 18 : 17 and Isa. 20 : 1, has been
generally regarded as a proper name, but,
like Rabsaris and Rabshakeh, it is more
probably an official designation, and des-
ignates the Assyrian commander-in-chief.
Tafna-i, a Persian satrap or gover-
nor of the province on the Jewish side
of tlie river Euplirates in the times im-
mediately succeeding the return from Bab-
ylon (Ezra 5 : 3, 6). He endeavored with
others to obstruct the work of the return-
ed captives.
Tav'erns, the Three. See Three
Taverns.
Tax'ing (Luke 2 : 2), the enrollment
or registration of the people for the pur-
pose of a poll-tax.
Teb'eth, the tenth month in the sacred
and fourth in the civil year-reckoning of
the Hebrews (Esth. 2 : 16).
Tail Tree, mentioned but once (Isa. 6 :
13), and supposed to be the terebinth, a
deciduous, long-lived tree still found in
Palestine.
Te'kel [weic/hed'\, one of the significant
words written on the wall of Belshazzar's
palace, and predictive of that monarch's
doom (Dan. 5 : 25, 27).
Te-ko^a, Te-'k.o' ah. [pildiing — i. e. nf
tents], a town in the territory of the tribe
of Judah (2 Chron. 11:6), on the range
of hills which rise near Hebron and
stretch eastward toward the Dead Sea.
The "wise woman" wliom Joab em-
ployed to effect a reconciliation between
David and Absalom was from Tekoa (2
Sam. 14 : 2). Here also was born Ira, the
son of Ikkesh "the Tekoite," one of Da-
vid's mighty men (2 Sam. 23 : 26). But
Tekoa is chiefly memorable as the birth-
place of the prophet Amos (1 : 1 ; 7 : 14).
It is known still as Tekua. It lies on an
elevated hill which spreads itself out into
an irregular plain of moderate extent.
Various ruins exist, such as the walls of
houses, cisterns, broken columns and heaps
of building-stones.
Tel-a'bib, the place in Chaldaea on
the river Chebar (Ezek. 3 : 15) where
were those Jewish captives with whom
the prophet Ezekiel began his prophetic
functions.
Tel-a'im, the place at which Saul col-
lected and numbered his forces before his
attack on Amalek (1 Sam. 15 : 4).
Tel-as'sar [heap o/^ss/mr], mention-
ed in 2 Kings 19 : 12 and in Isa. 37 : 12
as a city inhabited by " the children of
Eden," which had been conquered and
was held in the time of Sennacherib by
the Assyrians. It must have been in
Western Mesopotamia, in the neighbor-
hood of Harran and Orfa, and its name
points to some site where Asshur was wor-
shiped.
Te'ma [cJesert, unlilled land], the ninth
son of Ishmael (Gen. 25 : 15; 1 Chron. 1 :
30), giving his name to a tribe (Job 6 : 19 ;
Jer. 25 : 23) and also to the land wliich
the tribe occupied (Isa. 21 : 13, 14). The
name is identified with Teymd, a small
town on tlie confines of Syria.
Te'man [on the riijht, that is, south'], a
TEMPERANCE— TEMPLE.
497
son of Eli[)haz and grandson of Esau (Gen.
36 : 11), who gave liis name to the south-
ern district of the Edomite territory.
Teman, as a part of Edom, is so connect-
ed with Dedan as to indicate that the
former refers to the southern and tlie
latter to tlie northern portion (Jer. 49 : 7,
8; Ezek. 2") : 13). Eliphaz the Ternanite
appears in Job (2 : 11 ; 2'2 : 1) as one of
the wise men of liis day.
Tern 'per- ance. This word in our
Authorized Version of the New Testa-
ment has the sense of self-control, the
avoidance of excess in tlie indulgence of
the appetites (Acts 24 : 25; 2 Pet. 1:6).
Tem'ple, David first proposed to re-
place the taberTiacle by a more perma-
nent building, but was forbidden for the
reasons assigned by the prophet Nathan
(2 Sam. 7 : 5-16). lie collected the ma-
terials, however, and made .the necessary
arrangements, but left to his son Solomon
the execution of the task. Solomon, with
the assistance of Hiram, king of Tyre,
commenced this great undertaking in the
fourth year of his reign (b. c. 1012), and
completed it in seven years (b. c. 1005).
It occupied the site selected by David,
which had formerly been the threshing-
floor of the Jebusite Oman or Araunah,
on Mount Moriah. Tlie whole area en-
closed by the outer walls of the temple
of Solomon formed a square of about six
hundred feet, but the sanctuary was com-
paratively small, inasmuch as it was in-
tended only for the ministrations of the
priests, the congregation of the people
assembling in the courts. In this and all
other essential points the temple followed
the model of the tabernacle, from which
it differed chiefly in having chambers
built about the sanctuary for the abode
of the priests and attendants and the
keeping of treasures and stores. In
all its dimensions, length, breadth and
lieight, the sanctuary itself was exactly
twice the size of the tabernacle, the
32
ground-plan measuring eighty cubits by
forty, whilst that of the tabernacle was
forty by twenty, and the height of the
temple being thirty cubits, while that of
the tabernacle was flfteen.
As did the tabernacle, so did the temple
consist of thre^ parts — the Porch, the Holy
Place and the Holy of Holies. The whole
interior was lined with woodwork richly
carved and overlaid with gold. Within
and without, the building was chiefly con-
spicuous by the lavish use of the gold of
Ophir and Parvaim. Above the sacred
ark, which was placed, as of old, in the
Most Holy Place, were made new cher-
ubim, one pair of whose wings met above
the ark, and another pair reached to the
walls behind them. In the Holy Place,
besides the altar of incense, which was
made of cedar overlaid with gold, there
were seven golden candlesticks instead of
one, and the table of shew-bread was re-
placed by ten golden tables, bearing, be-
sides the shew-bread, the innumerable
golden vessels for the service of the sanc-
tuary.
The outer court contained an inner court
called the " C^irt of the Priests." In the
outer court there was a new altar of burnt-
offering, much larger than the old one. In-
stead of the brazen laver, there was for
the ablution of the priests "a molten
sea" of brass, a masterpiece of Hiram's
skill. The chambers for the priests were
arranged in successive stories against the
sides of the sanctuary. This temple was
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar B. c. 586.
After the Captivity a second temple was
built by Zerubbabel, somewhat larger in
dimensions than Solomon's, but much in-
ferior in ornamentation and splendor.
This second temple Merod replaced by a
very grand structure, on which he lavished
great wealth, and in the building of which
he employed many years. Herod's tem-
ple had the unspeakable honor of receiv-
ing into its courts Messiah the Prince,
498
TEMPT, TEMPTATION.
I
TOWER ANTONIA.
WORTH
CA7£
HiaBE7.ETHA.
o
OWE
I- >
CftTE
'BRIDGE
TERRACE
Z.F-
D
D
PRIESTS
COURT
INNER COURT
Dy[rriy[iiDyt
TERRACE 22IFi.HICIi.
CCURT OF CENTiLES,
STOA BASILICA
c
G S
Hill ophel.
c H.
o
a:
Ground-Plan op Herod's Temple.
Tlie lines C C C represent the Corinthian columns that ran around all sides of tlie Court of the
Gentiles. On the south there were four rows, forming the Stoa Basilica, the portico of Herod. The
Court of the Gentiles was separated from the sacred enclosure by a marble screen or wall, F F F F,
over five feet high, beautifully ornamented witli carving, and bearing inscriptions in Greek and
Latin forbidding any Gentile t« pass within its boundaries. T C, the treasure-chests on each side
of the Shushan Gate. B, the Beautiful Gate. D, the steps of Degrees. A, the Great Altar. P, the
))artition, about one and a half fVet hiirh, which separated the officiating priests and the altar from
the people. H H, the Holy of Holies, within the ten)ple proper. E E E E, steps leading up from
the Court of the Gentiles to the terrace or platform of the temple, an elevation of about twenty-two
and a half feet. W G, the Water Gate. G S, Single Gate. G H, Gate of Uuldah. S R, Sanhedrim Koom.
the Lord of life and glory, but its priests
and worshipers knew liim not. It was ut-
terly destroyed by the Romans under Titus,
A. T>. 70.
Tempt, Tempt'a-tion. The ground-
idea of these words is trial, test. In the
Scriptures this idea takes the following
forms :
1. The temptation or trial whereby one man
tests another. Thus the Jewish priests and
scribes "tempted" our Lord in the matter
of the tribute-money (Luke 20 : 23), that
they might discover some ground of accu-
sation against him.
2. The temptation or trial whereby men lest
God. Thus the Israelites " tempted " God
in the wilderness when by their rebellion
they tried or tested his patience (Ex. 17 :
2,7; Num. 14: 22).
3. The temptation or trial whereby God
tests men. Thus God "tempted" Abra-
ham, in the sense that he tested the patri-
arch's obedience (Gen. 22 : 1). Tempta-
tions from God are never enticements to
sin, but trials to determine and develop
right sentiments and holy sympathies.
4. The temptation or allurement to evil
whereby Satan entices men. Thus the Scrip-
tures represent Satan as the Tempter in
pre-eminence (Gen. 3 : 1-6; 1 Chron. 21 :
1 ; Matt. 4 : 1 ; 1 Thess. 3 : 5). He tempts
either by appealing to depraved desires or
TEN COMMANDMENTS— TENT.
499
by suggesting sin. In tempting by an ap-
peal to depraved desires, Satan presents
some outward allurement, which if one
yield to one " is drawn away of his own
lust and enticed " (James 1 : 14) ; in tempt-
ing by a suggestion of sin, Satan has some
direct access to the human soul and some
mysterious power of interjecting thought.
In the cases of Adam and our Lord, Satan
tempted by suggestion, for in Adam before
the Fall and in our " holy, harmless, unde-
filed " Lord Jesus there were no sinful lusts.
TenCom-mand'raents. The Scrip-
tures expressly mention that the Ten Com-
mandments (Hebrew "ten words") were
written by the Lord on two tables of stone
(Ex. 31 :"l8; 32: 15, 16; 34 : 1, 4, 28, 29;
Deut. 4 : 13; 10 : 1-5). But whilst the
Scriptures give prominence to the fact that
there were two tables, they nowhere indi-
cate any formal division of the command-
ments, or what was their number on each
of the tables. The modern Jews take the
words which are often called the Preface
( Ex. 20 : 2 ; Deut. 5 : 6) as the first com-
mandment, and the prohibitions both
against having other gods and against im-
age-worship as the second, the rest being ar-
ranged as with us. The Roman Catholic
and Lutheran churches regard the first
commandment as embracing the two pro-
hibitions in one comprehensive law against
idolatry. Hence our third commandment
becomes their second, and so on to our
ninth, which is their eighth. Then they
make our tenth against coveting their ninth
and tenth. In their arrangement of the
two tables the first contains three com-
mandments, closing with the Sabbath law,
and the second the remaining seven. The
Greek and English churches make the
law against having other gods besides
Jehovah the first commandment, and that
against image-worship the second. This
is the arrangement which is familiar to
us. It places four commandments on the
first table and six on the second.
Tent. The early migrations of man-
kind and their pastoral occu{)ation would
naturally lead to tent-life. The Scriptures
tell us that Jubal, the son of Lamech,
" was the father of such as dwell in tents
and of such as have cattle " (Gen. 4 : 20).
After the Flood, Noah and his family
dwelt in tents (Gen. 9 : 21, 27) ; so also
Tent.
did Abraham and his descendants (Gen.
13 : 3; 18 : 9 ; 26 : 17 ; 31 : 33) till Ja-
cob and his sons went down into Egypt.
Upon the deliverance of the Israelites
from Egyptian bondage and during their
long sojourn in the wilderness they re-
sumed tlieir original tent-life (Ex. 16 : 10;
Josh. 7 : 24), and continued it for some
time even after their settlement in Canaan
(Josh. 22 : S). The phraseology of tent-
life remained among the people long after
such life had ceased to be their normal con-
dition (1 Kings 12 : 16), and, indeed, at all
times many p:>rsons engaged in pastoral pur-
suits were dwellers in tents (Judg. 4:11-
22), as were also for the summer those en-
gaged in agricultural pursuits. The tent of
an Arab chief to-day is such an exact repro-
duction of the tent of Abraham that a de-
scription of the one is a description of the
other. The tent-covering consists of stuff
about three-quarters of a yard broad, made
500
TENTH DEAI^THEOPHILUS.
of black goat's hair (Song 1 : 5), laid parallel
Avith the tent's length. This is sufficient
to resist ordinary rains. The tent-poles
or columns are usually nine in number,
placed in three groups. The ropes which
hold the tent in its place are fastened to
loops of leather tied to the ends of a stick,
round which a piece of cloth is twisted
and sewed to the tent-cover. The ends of
the tent-ropes are fastened to short sticks
or pins, which are driven into the ground
with a mallet (Judg. 4 : 21). Round the
back and sides of the tent runs a piece of
stuflf removable at pleasure to admit air.
The tent is divided into two apartments,
separated by a carpet partition drawn
across the middle of the tent and fa-s-
tened to the three middle posts. As in
ancient times so now, when the pasture
near an encampment is exhausted the
tents are taken down, packed on camels
and removed (Gen. 26 : 17 ; Isa. 38 : 12).
Tenth deal [tenth part^, a liquid mea-
sure, supposed to be the tenth part of an
ephah, or about six pints.
Te'rah, the father of Abram, Nahor
and Haran, and tlirough them the ances-
tor of the great families of the Israelites,
Ishmaelites, Midianites, Moabites and Am-
monites (Gen. 11 : 24-32). He was an
idolater (Josh. 24 : 2), dwelt beyond tlie
Euphrates in Ur of the Chaldees (Gen.
11 : 28), and in that south-westerly mi-
gration which in his old age, from some
unexplained cause, he undertook, went
with his son Abrara, his daughter-in-law
Sarai and his grandson Lot to Haran, on
the way to Canaan, where, two hundred
and five years old, he died (Gen. 11 : 31,
32).
Ter'aph-im. The derivation of the
name, found only in the plural and con-
nected with images used in idolatrous
worship, is obscure. In one case a single
statue seems to be intended by the plural
(1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16), but generally several
" images " are thus designated (Gen. 31 :
i 19, 30-35 ; Judg. 17 : 3-5 ; 18 : 17, 18, 20).
Teraphim were consulted by the Israelites
for oracular answers (Zech. 10 : 2), and by
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (Ezek.
21 : 19-22).
Ter'ti-us, the amanuensis of Paul in
writing the Epistle to the Romans (Rom.
10 : 22), probably a Roman.
i Ter-tul'lus, "a certain orator" (Acts
24 : 1) who was retained by the high
priest and Sanhedrim to accuse the apos-
tle Paul at Caesarea before the Roman
I procurator, Antonius Felix. He evident-
ly belonged to the class of professional
orators.
Tes'ta-ment, New. See Scrip-
TITRES.
Tes'ta-ment, Old. See Scriptures.
Tet'rarch, the sovereign or governor
of the " fourth" part of a country (Matt.
14 : 1; Luke 3:1). The title is appa-
I rently applied sometimes to petty trib-
i utary princes without any such determi-
nate meaning.
Thad 'de-US, the surname of the apos-
tle Jude, called also Lebbeus (Matt. 10:3;
Mark 3 : 18 ; Luke 6 : 16; Acts 1 : 13).
j Thank-Offer-ing. See Offering.
The'a-tre, a Greek word which means
not only the place, as in English, where
dramatic performances are exhibited, but
also the sce?ie or spectacle itself which is
witnessed there. In the first sense the
word occurs in Acts 19 : 29 ; in the sec-
ond sense in 1 Cor. 4 : 9, where our Au-
thorized Version has "spectacle."
The'bez Ibrighinesal, a place memor-
able for the death of the brave Abimelecli
(Judg. 9 : 50). It was near Shechem, and
is identified with the modern village Tuba!',
the name scarcely clianged.
Thel-as'sar, a variation of Telas-
SAR.
The-oph'i-lus, the person to whom
Luke inscribed his Gospel and the Acts
of the Apostles (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1).
From Luke's stvle of address to him it
THESSALONICA— THISTLE.
501
has been argued with much probability
tliat lie was a Gentile and that he occu-
pied some high official position.
Thes-sa-lon-i'ca, a town of Mace-
donia, on an arm of the sea formerly
called the Thermaic Gulf and now the
Gulf of Saloniki. Its original name was
Therma, but, rebuilt and enlarged by Cas-
sander, it was named by him Thessalonica,
after his wife, the sister of Alexander the
Great. Under the name Saloniki it still
exists, and after Constantinople is the
Saloniki, the Modern Thessalonica.
most important town of European Turkey.
During his second missionary journey the
apostle Paul, accompanied by Silas and
Timothy, visited Thessalonica and found-
ed the church there (Acts 17 : 1-4; 1
Thess. 1 : 1 ; 2 : 1). To this church the
apostle Paul wrote two Epistles, the earli-
est of all his Epistles — the first about A. D.
53, and the second not many months later.
Theu'das, the name of an impostor
and insurgent mentioned in Gamaliel's
speech before the Jewish council (Acts 5 :
35-39) at the time of the arraignment of
the apostles. He was probably one of the
insurrectionary chiefs or fanatics by whom
the land was overrun in the last year of
Herod's reign.
Thieves. Theft and robbery have
characterized the East from a very early
period to the present day. The New Tes-
tament furnishes ample proof that during
our Lord's times thieves were numerous
(Matt. 6 : 19; 21 : 13), and bands of rob-
bers were scarcely less numerous (Mark
15 : 7). In the parable of the Good Sa-
maritan (Luke 10 : 30-37), which is a
graphic description of scenes then fre-
quently occurring, the Greek word ren-
dered "thieves" would be more accurate-
ly rendered " robbers." These robbers
sometimes coupled with their lawlessness
such fanatical zeal for emancipating the
Jewish nation from Roman bondage that
the people were disposed to accept this
zeal as an atonement for very flagrant
crimes against society. It was on this
account that the popular sympathy went
out so strongly to Barabbas and his com-
panions (John 18 : 39, 40).
This'tle. See Thorns and Thistles.
502
THOMAS— THRESHING.
Thom^as, one of the apostles, sur-
named Didymus, or "a twin" (John 11 :
16; 21 : 2). All we know of him is de-
rived from John's Gospel, and this
amounts to but three traits, which, how-
ever, agree so exactly that, slight as they
are, they place his character before us
with admirable precision. This character
is that of a man slow to believe, seeing all
the difficulties of a case ; subject to despond-
ency, viewing things on the darker side ;
and yet full of ardent love of his Master.
The first trait is his speech when our Lord
determined to face the dangers that await-
ed him in Judaea on his journey to Beth-
any (John 11 : 16). The second was his
speech during the Last Supper (John 14 :
5), that prosaic, incredulous doubt as to
moving a step in the unseen future, and
yet an eager inquiry as to how this step
was to be taken. The third Avas after the
Resurrection. He was absent, possibly by
accident, perhaps characteristically, from
the first assembly where our Lord had ap-
peared. The others told him what they
had seen. He broke forth into an exclam-
ation, the terras of which convey to us at
once the vehemence of his doubt and the
vivid picture which his mind had retained
of his Master's form as he had last seen
him lifeless on the cross (John 20 : 25).
On the eighth day he was with them at
their gathering, jjerhaps in expectation of
a recurrence of the visit of the previous
week, and our Lord stood amongst them.
Our Lord uttered the same salutation,
" Peace be unto you," and then turning to
Thomas, as if this had been the special
object of his appearance, uttered the words
which convey as strongly the sense of con-
demnation and tender reproof as those of
Thomas had shown the sense of hesitation
and doubt. The effect on Thomas was im-
mediate. Tlie conviction produced by the
removal of his doubt became deeper and
stronger than that of any of the other
apostles. The words, " My Lord and my
God !" in which he expressed his belief,
j contain a far higher assertion of his Mas-
I ter's divine nature than is contained in
; any other expression by apostolic lips. In
the New Testament we hear of Tlu)nia.s
only twice again — once on the Sea of Gal-
ilee with six other disciples (John 21 : 2) ;
once in the assembling of the apostles af-
ter the Ascension (Acts 1 : 13).
Thorns and Thistles. Eighteen or
twenty Hebrew words point to difflrent
kinds of prickly or thorny shrubs. These
words are variously rendered in our Au-
thorized Version by " thorns," " briere,"
" thistles " and the like. The " crown of
thorns" (Matt. 27 : 29) which was placed
in derision upon our Lord's head before
his crucifixion was obviously woven
from some flexible, thorny shrub, and
not, as has been maintained, from the
Rhamnus, or Spina Ckristi, the thorns of
which are quite too strong and large for
weaving into a wreath. The real shrub
was probably tlie Arabian nabk, which,
having many thorns of sufficient size and
sharpness to inflict painful wounds, has
also round and pliant branches that could
easily be plaited into a crown. It also re-
sembles the rich, dark green of the tri-
umphal ivy-wreath, which would give
additional pungency to its ironical pur-
pose.
Three Tav'erns, a station on the Ap-
pian road, along which the apostle Paul
traveled from Puteoli to Rome (Acts 28 :
15). It was about thirty-three miles from
Rome, near the modern Ciiiterna.
Thresh'ing. Grain, when reaped
by the sickle or pulled up by the
roots, was bound in sheaves, which were
carted (Amos 2 : 1.3) to the threshing-
floor, a circular spot of hard ground,
probably, as now, from fifty to eiglity or
one hundred feet in diameter. Such
floors, most likely, were permanent and
became well-known spots (Gen. 50 : 10, 11 ;
2 Sam. 24 : 16, 18). On these the oxen.
THRONE— THUNDER.
503
forbidden to be muzzLd (Deut. 25 : 4),
trampled out the grain. At a later time
the Jews used a threshing-sltdge (Isa. 41 :
15; 2 Sam. 24 : 22; 1 Chron. 21 : 23), a
Thresh in g-Sled ge.
stage with three rollers ridged with iron,
which, aided by the driver's weight,
crushed out the grain, often injuring it,
and always cutting and tearing the straw.
Lighter grains were beaten out with a stick
(Isa. 28 : 27).
Throne. The Hebrew word thus ren-
dered applies to any elevated seat occupied
by a person in authority, whelher a high
priest (1 Sam. 1:9), a judge (Ps. 122 : 5)
or a military chief (Jer. 1 : 15). The use
of a chair in a country where the usual
postures were squatting and reclining was
at all times regarded as a symbol of dig-
nity (2 Kings 4 : 10; Prov. 9 : 14). In
order to specify a throne in our sense of
the term it was necessary to add to the
word the notion of royalty ; hence the
frequent occurrence of such expressions
as "throne of the kingdom" (Deut. 17 :
18 ; 1 Kings 1 : 46 ; 2 Chron. 7 : IS). The
characteristic feature in the royal throne
was its elevation. Solomon's throne was
approached by six steps (1 Kings 10 : 19;
2 Chron. 9 : 18), and Jehovah's throne is
described as "high and lifted up" (Isa. 6:
1). In materials and workmanship Solo-
mon's throne was very costly. It was fur-
nished with arms or " stays " and two lions
standing by the stays ; its steps were lined
with six pairs of lions, and its footstool
was of gold (2 Chron. 9 : 17-19). The
king sat on his throne on state occasions,
as when granting audiences ( 1 Kings 2 :
19 ; 22 : 10 ; Esth. 5:1), receiving hom-
age (2 Kings 11 : 19), or administering
justice (Prov. 20 : 8). At such times he
appeared in his royal robes (Jonah 3 :
6; Acts 12: 21).
Thurn'mim. See Urim and Thum-
MIM.
Thun^der. From the middle of
April to the middle of September
thunder is but occasionally heard in
Palestine. It was therefore selected
by Samuel as a striking expression of
the divine displeasure toward the Is-
raelites (1 Sam. 12 : 17). It was regarded
by the Hebrews as the voice of Jehovah
(Job 37 : 2, 4, 5 ; 40 : 9 ; Ps. 18 : 13 ; 29 :
3-9; Isa. 30:31), who dwelt behind the
thunder-cloud (Ps. 81 : 7). Hence thun-
der is occasionally described in Hebrew by
the term "voices" (Ex. 9 : 23, 28; 1 Sam.
12 : 17). Hence the people in the Gospel
supposed that the voice of the Lord was
the sound of thunder (John 12 : 29).
Thunder was to the mind of the Jew the
symbol of divine power (Ps. 29 : 3) and
vengeance (1 Sam. 2:10; 2 Sara. 22 : 14 ;
Ps. 77 : 18; Isa. 29 : 6 ; Rev. 8 : 5). It
was either the sign or the instrument of
hLs wrath on numerous occasions, as dur-
ing the plague of hail in Egypt (Ex. 9 :
23, 28), at the promulgatioii of the Law
(Ex. 19 : 16), at the discomfiture of the
Philistines 1 1 Sam. 7 : 10), and when the
Israelites demanded a king (1 Sam. 12 :
17). The term "thunder" is used as a su-
perlative expression in Job 26 : 14, where
the "thunder of his power" represents the
infinite stretch of the divine almightiness,
the whole compass of God's mighty deeds.
504
THYATIEA— TIBERIAS.
-"r::iai^^i,
Thy-a-ti'ra, a city in Asia Minor, on
the confines of Mysia and Ionia, and the
seat of one of the seven churches of Asia
(Rev. 2: 18-29). Dyeing apparently formed
an important part of the industrial activity
of Thyatira, as it did of that of Colosse and
Laodicea (Acts 16 : 14). The modem name
of the city is Ak-Hlsfunr.
Thy'ine-"WOod, an odoriferous wood
of the cypress family, greatly ]irized by
the ancient Greeks and Romans (Rev. 18 :
The Modern Thyatira.
12). It is a native of North Africa, and
grows to the height of fifteen to twenty-
five feet.
Ti-be'ri-as, a city in our Lord's times
on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee
(John 6 : 1, 23; 21 : 1). It was built by
Herod Antipas, and named by him in
honor of the emperor Tiberius. For a
time it was the capital of Galilee. The
ancient name has survived in the modern
Tubarieh, which occupies the original site.
TIBERIAS, THE SEA OF— TIMNATH-SERAH.
505
It is remarkable that the Gospels give us '
no information that our Lord, who spent
so much of his public life in Galilee,
ever visited Tiberias. Apart from its
biblical associations, Tiberias has an in-
teresting history. It bore a conspicuous
part in the wars between the Jews and
the Romans. After the fall of Jerusalem, ;
and about the middle of the second cen-
tury, the Sanhedrim became fixed there.
Here too, through a succession of several
centuries, flourished some of the most cele-
brated schools of .Jewish learning.
Ti-be'ri-as, the Sea of. See Gal-
ilee.
Ti-beM-us, in full Tiberius Clau-
dius Neko, the second Roman emperor,
successor of Augustus (Luke 3 : 1-3). He
began to reign A. d. 14 and continued to
reign until A. d. 37. He became empe-
ror in his fifty-fifth year. He was grossly
dissolute in life, cruel and vindictive in
disposition and very despotic in his gov-
ernment. In his reign our Lord was
crucified.
Tib'ni, a son of Ginath and an officer
in the Israelitish army when Zimri burned
himself to death. He was proclaimed king
by a portion of the people, and so was Omri
by another portion. In the course of four
years Omri prevailed and reigned alone
(1 Kings 16 : 21, 22).
Ti'dal, a confederate of Chedorlaomer,
mentioned only in Gen. 14 : 1, 9. He is
called "king of nations," in the sense
probably that he was a chief over various
nomadic tribes.
Tig'lath-pi-le'ser, the second As-
syrian king who is mentioned in Scrip-
ture as coming into contact with the Is- :
raelites. He attacked Samaria in the '
time of Pekah (2 Kings 15 : 29), and sub-
sequently becoming an ally of Ahaz, king
of Judah, he overran the whole district
east of the Jordan and carried its inhab-
itants into captivity (1 Chron. 5 : 261.
The annals of his reign, as inscribed on
the Assyrian tablets and slabs which are
now preserved in the British Museum,
confirm these Scripture records in every
essential particular, and furnish additional
details of great historic value.
Tim'brel, Tab'ret. In old English
tabor was used for any drum. Tabouret
and tabourine are diminutives of tabor,
and denote the instrument now known
as the tambourine. Tabret is a contrac-
tion of tabouret. It was played princi-
pally by women (Ex. 15 : 20 ; Judg. 11 :
34; 1 Sam. 18 : 6; Ps. 68 : 25) as an ac-
companiment to the song and dance.
Tim'na, a concubine of Eliphaz, son
of Esau, and mother of Amalek (Gen. 36 :
12).
Tim'iiah, a duke or phylarch of Edom
(Gen. 36 : 40-43; 1 Chron. 1 : 51-54).
Tim'nah, Tira'nath. 1. One of the
landmarks on the north boundary of Jn-
dah's allotment (Josh. 15 : 10). It is
probably identical with the Thimna-
THAH of Josh. 19 : 43, and with the Tim-
nath, or more accurately the Timnathah,
of Samson (Judg. 14 : 1, 2, 5).
2. A town in the mountain-district of
Judah (Josh. 15 : 57), supposed to have
been south of Hebron.
3. The unknown scene of the adventure
of Judah with his daughter-in-law (Gen.
38 : 12-14).
Tim^nath-Se'rah, the name of the
city which was presented to Joshua after
the partition of the country, and in the
border of which he was buried (Josh. 19 :
50; 24 : 30). In Judg. 2 : 9 the name is
altered to Timnath-Heres, which Jewish
writers and travelers suppose to be identi-
cal with the modern A'l^f'r Hdru, a village
five miles south of Nahlm. Dr. Eli Smith,
however, suggests the identification of the
place with Tlbneh, a ruined site on the great
Roman road from Lydda to .lerusalem.
Here there are several excavated sepul-
chres which in size and in the richness
and character of their decorations resem-
506
TIMON— TITHES.
ble the so-called "Tombs of the Kings"
at Jerusalem.
Ti'mon, one of the seven deacons in
the chunh at Jerusalem (Acts 6:5)
Tim'o-thy, Tim-o'the-us [honored
of God], (2 Cor. 1:1; I'liil. 1:1). He is
first mentioned in Acts 16:1, where he is
described as the son of a Greek Gentile by j
a Jewish mother. The father's name is
unknown ; his mothers was Eunice, his
grandmother's Lois (2 T.m. 1 : 5). His
father seems to have died during the son's
infancy, for upon his mother and grand-
mother the care of the boy devolved.
Under their training his education was
emphatically Jewish. The arrival of
Paul and Barnabas in Lycaonia (Acts 14 :
6) brought the message of glad tidings to
Timothy and his mother, and they receiv-
ed it with unfeigned faith. During the in-
terval of seven years between the a|)0Stle's
first and second journeys Timothy grew up
to manhood. His Christian zeal and en-
ergy had so largely developed, and his
reputation for consecrated earnestness was
so widely extended, that the apostle Paul
took him as a helper in evangelistic work
(Acts 16 : 2, 3). Thenceforward, until
Paul's death, he was intimately associated
with the apostle. He was entrusted with
the charge of the church of Ephesus when
he was quite young (1 Tim. 4 : 12), and to
him the apostle sent two Epistles. Wheth- ;
er he reached Rome before Paul's death
(2 Tim. 4 : 21 ) we do not know, nor do we
know the time and circumstances of his
own death.
Tin. Among the various metals found
among the spoils of the Midianites tin is
enumerated (Num. .31 : 22). It was known
to the Hebrew metal-workers as an alloy
of other metals (Isa. 1 : 25; Ezek. 22 :
18, 20). It was brought to Tyre by the
ships of Tarsliish (Ezek. 27 : 12).
Tiph'sah [fovd'\, a town mentioned in
1 Kings 4 : 24 as the limit of Solomon's
empire toward the Euphrates, and in 2
Kings 15 : 16 it is said to have been at-
tacked by Menahem. It was known to
the Greeks and Romans under the name
of Thapsacus, and was the point where it
was usual to cross the Euphrates.
Ti'ras, the youngest son of Japheth
(Gen. 10 : 2), usually identified with the
Thracians.
Tire, an ornamental head-dress worn
on festive occasions (Isa. 3: 18 ; Ezek. 24 :
17).
Tir'ha-kah, king of Ethiopia (Cush),
the opponent of Sennacherib (2 Kings 19 :
9 ; Isa. 37 : 9). According to the Assyr-
ian cuneiform inscriptions, an Ethiopian
king of this name contested with Assur-
banipal, grandson of Sennacherib, the
sovereignty of Egypt.
Tir'sha-tha, the title of the governor
of Judaea under the Persians ( Ezra 2 : 63 ;
Neh. 7 : 65; 8 : 9; 10 : 1). It is always
written with the article.
Tir'zah. [delif^ht'], the youngest of the
five daughters of Zelophehad (Num. 26 :
33; 27 : 1; 36 : 11; Josh. 17 : 3).
Tir'zah, an ancient Canaanite city
whose king is enumerated amongst those
overthrown in the conquest of the coiui-
try (.losli. 12 : 24). It reappears as a
royal city, the residence of Jeroboam and
of his successors (1 Kings 14 : 17, 18). Its
site was in the mountains north of Shech-
em, and its reputation for beauty was wide-
spread throughout the country (Song 6 :
4). It is supposed to be represented now
bv Telluzah, a place of some size and thrift,
but without any obvious marks of anti([-
uity.
Tish'bite, the, Elijah's well-known
designation i 1 Kings 17 : 1 ; 21 : 17, 28 ;
2 Kings 1 : 3, 8; 9 : 36). The town thus
indicated as the prophet's birthplace is
usually taken to be Thisbe in Naphtali.
Tis'ri, the first month of the civil and
seventh month of the sacred year-reckon-
ing among the Hebrews.
Tithes \_tentlifC\, ordinarily the dues
TITTLE— TOBIAH.
507
paid for the maintenance of religion.
They were in use before they were regu-
lated by the Levitical Law. Abram pre-
sented to Melchizedek the tenth of the
spoils of his victory (Gen. 14 : 20; Heb.
7 : 2, 6), and Jacob after his vision at Luz
devoted to God a tenth of all his {)roperty
(Gen. 28 : 22). The first enactment of the
Law in respect of tithes is tlie declaration
that the tenth of all produce, as well as
of flocks and cattle, belongs to Jehovah,
and must be offered to him (Lev. 27 : 30-
33). This tenth is assigned to the Levites
as the reward of their service, and t hey are
to dedicate to the Lord a tenth of these
receipts, which is to be devoted to the
maintenance of the high priest (Num.
18 : 21-28). Subsequent legislation re-
quired tithes for festival purposes (Deut.
12 : 5-18), and enacted that every third
year every Israelite should make an ex-
culpatory declaration that he had done his
best to fulfil the divine command (Deut.
26 : 12-14). Under the kings the tithe
system shared in the general neglect into
which the observance of the Law had de-
clined, and Hezekiah, among other re-
forms, took effectual means to revive its
use (2 Chron. 31 : 5, 12, 19). Similar
measures were taken after the Captivity
by Nehemiah (Neh. 12 : 44). The proph-
et Malachi (3 : 8-12) severely denounces
those who, by withholding tithes rob God,
and promises munificent blessings to those
who foithfully discharge their tithe obli-
gations. In our Lord's times the minute-
ness with which the tithe law is complied
with, even to the tenth of garden-herbs,
is the boast of the Pharisees (Matt. 23 :
23 ; Luke 11 : 42 ; 18 : 12) ; and in re-
buking them therefor our Lord censures
not their scrupulosity in tithe-paying, but
their reliance upon the tithes of mint and
anise and cummin for justification before
God, whilst they notoriously neglect " the
weightier matters of the Law — judgment,
mercy and faith."
Tit'tle, the least point (Matt. 5 : 18).
See Jot.
Ti'tus. This distinguislied preacher
of the gospel and fellow-laborer with the
apostle Paul is not mentioned in the Acts.
From the Epistles of Paul we learn that
he was a Gentile convert to Christianity
(Gal. 2 : 1-5) ; that he owed his conver-
sion to Paul's labors (Tit. 1:4); that he
was intimately associated with Paul in
evangelistic work (2 Cor. 2 : 13) ; that,
sent to Corinth (2 Cor. 8 : 6, 16) on a spe-
cial mission, he was not with Paul during
his first imprisonment, but between the
first and second imprisonment accompa-
nied Paul to Crete, where the apostle left
him in order to complete what had been
left unfinished (Tit. 1 : 5). These are all
the facts which Paul's Ei)istles bring
clearly into view. The presence of Titus
with Paul during his second imprison-
ment has been inferred from Tit. 3 : 12,
but the fact cannot be a.sserted. The
f]pistle of Paul to Titus was written be-
tween the writing of the First and Second
Epistles to Timothy, about A. d. 64. Tra-
dition maintains that Titus, after Paul's
death, made Crete his permanent place
of residence, and that he died there at
an advanced age.
Tob [good'], Land of, a region east of
Gilead, probably, where Jephthah took ref-
uge when expelled from home by his half-
brother (Judg. 11 : 3), and where, at the
head of a band of freebooters, he re-
mained till he was brought back by the
elders of Gilead. It has not been identi-
fied with any modern district.
To-bi'ah [(/ood is Jehovnhl, the Am-
monite who played a conspicuous part
in the opposition made by Sanballat the
Moabite and his adherents to the re-
building of Jerusalem (Neh. 2 : 10). The
two races of Moab and Annnon found in
these men fit representatives of that he-
reditary hatred to the Israelites which
began before the entrance into Canaan,
508
TOG ARM A H— TORM ENTORS.
and was not extinct when the Hebrews
as a nation had ceased to exist.
To-gar'mah, a son of Gomer and
brother of Ashkenaz and Riphath (Gen.
10 : 3). As a geographical term, Togar-
mah is connected with Armenia, and the
subsequent notices of the name (Ezek. 27 :
14; 38 : 0) accord witli this view.
To'la. 1. The first-born of Issachar
and ancestor of the Tolaites (Gen. 46 :
13; Num. 26 : 23; 1 Chron. 7 : 1, 2). 2.
Judge of Israel after Abimelech (Judg.
10 : 1, 2). He judged Israel for twenty-
three years at Shamir in Mount Eph-
raiin, where he died and was buried.
Tombs, v'^ee Burial.
Tongues, Confusion of. The unity
of the human race is clearly implied, if
not positively asserted, by Moses (Gen.
1 : 27 ; 2 : 22), who certainly assumes, as a
corollary of this unity, the unity of lan-
guage (Gen. 11 : 1). No explanation is
given of the origin of speech, but its ex-
ercise is evidently regarded as coeval
with the creation of man. The original
unity of speech was restored in Noah, but
causes were early at work to disturb and
destroy it. The human family endeavor-
ed to check the tendency to separation by
the establishment of a great central edifice,
and of a city which should serve as the me-
tropolis of the whole world. The project
was defeated by the interposition of Je-
hovah, who took measures to "confound
their language," so that they might "not
understand one another's speech" (Gen.
11 : 7). The confusion of tongues and
the dispersion of nations are spoken of in
the Scriptures as contemporaneous events.
The divergence of the various families
into distinct tribes and nations ran par-
allel with the divergence of speech into
dialects and languages, and thus the tenth
chapter of Genesis is posterior in histor-
ical sequence to the events recorded in
the eleventh chapter. In the tenth chap-
ter of Genesis, Moses refers the whole hu-
man race to Noah's three sons, Shem, Hara
and Japheth. The Shemites are described
last, apparently that the continuity of the
narrative may not be further disturbed,
and the llamites stand next to the Shem-
ites, apparently in order to show that these
were more closely related to each other
than to the Japhethites. See Nations.
Tongues, Gift of. The promise of
our Lord to his disciples, " They shall
speak with new tongues" (Mark 16 : 17),
was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, when
"cloven tongues like as of fire" sat upon
tliem, and " every man heard them speak
in his own language" (Acts 2 : 1-12). This
supernatural knowledge of languages was
given to the disciples for their work as
evangelists, and was obviously an endow-
ment of immense practical worth. The
disciples were Galileans. They knew
only the tongues spoken in Galilee, but
suddenly they surmounted their provin-
cialism. They could go east or west,
noi th or south ; could cross oceans or
continents ; could visit without restric-
tion equatorial or polar climes, and ev-
erywhere could publish the glad tidings
of salvation. The endowment, however,
was liable to abuse, and from the four-
teenth chapter of Paul's First Epistle to
the Corinthians we gather that it was
abused. It soon served its purpose, and
then passed away.
Tool, an instrument of manual labor
(Ex. 20 : 25; 32 : 4; Deut. 27 : 5; 1 Kings
6:7). See Axe, Hammer, Knife, Saw.
To'paz. This precious stone is of a
brilliant yellow color, and when fine is
of great value (Ex. 28 : 17; 39 : 10; Ezek.
28 : 13 ; Job 28 : 19 ; Rev. 21 : 20). It oc-
cupied the second place in the sacerdotal
breast) )late of Aaron. It is generally iden-
tified with our chrysolite.
To'pliet, To'pheth. See Hinnom.
Tor-ment'ors. The word occurs but
once in Scripture (Matt. 18 : 34), and is
commonlv understood to denote a class
TORTOISE— TROAS.
509
of officers who examined accused per-
sons by torture.
Tor'toise. The word thus rendered
is found in Lev. 11 : 29, and designates
a species of lizard.
Towner. Watch-towers, or fortified
posts in frontier or exposed situations, are
not infrequently mentioned in Scripture
(Gen. 35 : 21 ; judg. 8:17; Isa, 21 : 5, 8,
11 ; Mic. 4:8), and in some parts of Pal-
estine are common at the present day. Be-
sides these military structures, towers were
built in vineyards as an almost necessary
appendage to them ( Isa. 5:2; Matt. 21 :
33). Sucli towers in vineyards are still
in use in Palestine, but they are rudely
and slightly built.
Town-Clerk, the magistrate at Eph-
esus (Acts 19 : 35) who apjieased the mob
excited by Demetrius and his fellow-crafts-
men. He was the recorder of the laws and
decrees of the state, and the reader of them
in public.
Trach-o-ni'tis, the Greek equivalent
for the Aramaic Argob. See Argob.
Tra-di'tion, a precept or custom not
contained in the written Law, but handed
down from generation to generation (Matt.
15 : 1-6 ; Mark 7:5-13). The Jews of
our Lord's time maintained that God gave
Moses, besides the Law, a variety of pre-
cepts, which he communicated to Joshua,
by whom they were communicated to the
elders, and by them to the judges and
prophets in regular succession. Many of
these traditions were in direct opposition
to the divine law.
Trance. This word is used by Luke
(Acts 10 : 10 ; 11:5; 22 : 17) with the same
meaning, apparently, which it still bears —
namely, the loss of conscious perception.
Trans-fig'ured. This word is de-
scriptive of our Lord's changed appear-
ance on the mount (Matt. 17 : 1-8 ; Mark
9:2-7; Luke 9 : 28-36; 2 Pet. 1 : 16-18).
The change was in the form and face and
apparel of our Lord. It was a complete
metamorphose or transformation, and was ex-
ceedingly majestic and glorious. His coun-
tenance shone with radiant splendor, and his
robes glistened with snowy whiteness. The
design of this miraculous event was chiefly
to attest, in the most solemn and impressive
manner, the divinity of our Lord's person
and mission, and to furnish the disciples
the most conclusive evidence of a higher
spiritual world in whicii God's people,
represented by Moses and Elias, are con-
sciously existent. It was, moreover, a rev-
elation of the transcendent glory awaiting
the redeemed when they " all, with open
face beholding as in a glass the glory of
the Lord, are changed into the same im-
age, from glory to glory" (2 Cor. 3 : 18).
The exact scene of this wonderful event is
not stated in Scripture. Tradition has for
many centuries pointed to Tabor, but Her-
mon is the more probable locality. See
Tabor; also Hermon.
Tres'pass-Of 'fer-ing. See Offer-
ing and Sin-Offering.
Trib'ute. This word, as used in Scrip-
ture, sometimes means a tax levied by a
victorious nation upon a conquered state
(Josh. 16 : 10), and sometimes — most gen-
erally, indeed — either the ordinary capita-
tion-tax for the expenses of government
or the tolls and imposts levied on partic-
ular conunodities (Matt. 17 : 25 ; Luke 20 :
22; Rom. 13:6, 7). The tribute-money
mentioned in Matt. 17 : 24, 25 was the
half-shekel (Ex. 30 : 13), which was the
poll-tax of every Israelite, and wliich in
our Lord's time was applied to defray the
general expenses of the temple. Another
tribute-money, meaning the tax paid to
the Roman emperor, is mentioned in Matt.
22 : 19.
Tro'as, full name Alexandkeia
Troas, the city from which the apos-
tle Paul first set sail to carry the gospel
from Asia to Europe (Acts 16 : 8, 11). It
was situated on the coast of Mysia, oppo-
site the south-eastern extremity of the
510
TROGYLLIUM— TYRE, TYRUS.
island of Tenedos. The modern name is
Ei<ki-S((utiboul.
Tro-gyl'li-um, tlie rocky extremity
of the ridge of ^lycale, exactly opposite
Samos (Acts 20 : 15). A little to the east
of the extreme jioint is an anchorage where
Paul tarried one niglit.
Troph'i-mus. See Tychictts.
Trum'pet, a wind instrument closely
related to the horn. Two trumpets made
of silver were used by the priests to as-
semble the people and to regulate the time
for marching (Num. 10 : 1-9 ). They were
also used on festive occasions (Lev. 23 : 2-t ;
25 : 9, 10).
Trum'pets, Feast of. This was the
festival of the Kew Year's day of the civil
year, the first of Tisri, the month which
commenced the sabbatical year and the
year of jubilee. A characteristic feature
of the festival was a " blowing of trum-
pets" (Lev. 23 : 24; Num. 29 : 1).
Try-phe'na and Try-pho'sa, two
Christian women at Rome whom Paul sa-
lutes (Rom. 16:12). They may have been
sisters, but it is more probable that they
were fellow-deaconesses.
Tu'bal, a son of Japhetli, commonly
associated in Scripture with Javan and
Meshech (Isa. 66 : 19 ; Ezek. 27 : 13; 32:
26 ; 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 : 1 ), and represented as
nations of the North. Josephus identifies
the descendants of Tubal with the Iberi-
ans— that is, the inhabitants of a tract of
country between the Caspian and Euxine
Seas which nearly corresponds to the mod-
ern Georgia. In the Assyrian inscriptions
the Moschi and Tibanni, under the names
Mitskai and Tuplai, are constantly associ-
ated.
Tu'bal-Cain, the son of Lamech the
Cainite by his wife Zillah (Gen. 4 : 22). He
is called in our Authorized Version " an
instructor of evi ry artificer in brass and
iron," but the original Hebrew denominates
him " a forger of every edged tool of cop-
per and iron."
Tur'tle, Tur'tle-Dove, a 8p?cies of
pigeon very abundant in Palestine. The
Levitical Law permitted poor persons,
whose circumstances forbade more expen-
sive offerings, to present at God's altar two
turtle-doves or two young pigeons (Lev.
12 : 8). Such an ofiering was made by our
Lord's mother when she brought him " to
Jerusalem to present him to the Lord "
(Luke 2 : 22-24). The regular migration
of the turtle-dove and its return in spring
are alluded to in Jer. 8 : 7 and Song 2:11,
12. In Ps. 74 : 19, David compares him-
self to a turtle-dove because, perhaps, his
lament before God resembles, as he fan-
cies, the plaintive note of the bird.
Tych'i-cus and Troph'i-mus, com-
panions of Paul on some of his journeys,
are mentioned as natives "of Asia" (Acts
20 : 4), probably of Ephesus. With others
they accompanied the apostle returning
from his third missionary journey. Tropli-
imus is mentioned once, Tychicus several
times, by the apostle in his Epistles, and
both in such connections as imply that
they had his firm confidence and warm
affection (Col. 4 : 7, 8; Eph. 6 : 21, 22;
Tit. 3: 12; 2 Tim. 4 : 12, 20).
Ty-ran'nus, the name of a man in
whose school or place of audience Paul
taught the gospel for two years during his
sojourn at Ephesus (Acts 19 : 9). The
presumption is that Tyrannus Avas a
Greek and a public teacher of philoso-
phy or rhetoric.
Tyre, Tyrus, a celebrated commercial
city of Phoenicia on the eastern coast of
the Mediterranean Sea. Its Hebrew name,
Tsor, signifies a rock, which well agrees
with the site of Sih; the modern town, on
a rocky peninsula, formerly an island. In
the Scriptures, Tyre is named for the first
time in the book of Joshua (19 : 29), where,
in reference to the boundaries of the tribe
of Asher, it is spoken of as a "strong"
(fortified) city. The first passages in tlie
Hebrew historical writings, or in ancient
TYEE.
511
The Harbor of
history generally, which afford glimpses
of the actual condition of Tyre are in the
book of Samuel (2 Sam. 5 : 11), in con-
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, send-
ing cedar-wo6d and workmen to David for
building him a palace; and subsequently
in the book of Kings (1 Kings 5 : 1-12),
in connection with the building of Solo-
mon's temple. Between the Tyrians and
Hebrews very friendly relations existed
until mercantile cupidity induced the for-
mer to buy Hebrew captives from their
enemies and sell them as slaves to the
Greeks and Edomites. Then the proph-
ets commenced denunciations and threats
of retaliation (.loel 3:4-8; Amos 1 : 9, 10 ;
Isa. ch. 23). Some of the notices of Tyre
by the Hebrew prophets — that in Ezek.
ch. 27, for example — are singularly full,
and furnish us on some points with details
such as we do not have respecting any an-
cient city, with the exception of Athens
and Rome. We there learn that its trade
extended to very many lands — to Syria,
Arabia, the countries along the Persian
Gulf, the countries beyond the Indus, and
Tyre as it now is.
the countries south of the Black Sea in
Asia ; to Egypt in North Africa ; to the
Mediterranean Islands, to Greece, to South-
ern Spain and to distant Britain in Europe.
Resisting successfully many sieges, and re-
taining its marvelous prosperity for many
centuries, Tyre was forced at length to
yield to Alexander the Great, who butch-
ered many thousands of its inhabitants
and sold other thousands into slavery.
Through the immigi'ation of fresh set-
tlers it gradually, however, recovered its
importance, but never was able, in conse-
quence of the vicinity and rivalry of Alex-
andria, to get back all its ancient trade.
In the times of our Lord it was a popu-
lous city, but subsequent wars and polit-
ical changes wrought its ruin. It is now
the mere wreck of a town. Than it few
places in the East affo d more striking il-
lustrations of fulfilled prophecy. Of its
former grandeur nothing remains but
prostrate colum.ns and heaps of dressed
stones. On the rocks, opposite the prostrate
columns, the fishermen spread their nets,
as Ezek -el (26 : 14) foretold.
512
ULAI— URBANE.
U.
U'la-i, a river mentioned by Daniel
(8 : 2, 16), near to Shushan, where he had
the vision of the ram and the he-goat. It has
been commonly identified with the Eulseus
of the Greek and Roman geographers.
The Eulseus is supposed by many to b.'
the Choaspes, the modern Kerkhah, an
affluent of the Tigris ; by others, with
kss probability, it is rtgardid as the
Kuran, a large river considerably farther
to the eastward.
Un'clean. See Clean and Unclean.
Unc'tion [anointing], the special
grace of God's Spirit vouchscifed to be-
lievers for their sanctification and conse-
cration (1 John 2 : 20).
Un-der-gird'ing-, an exj^edient for
keeping ships from opening and sinking,
by encircling them witli coils of strong
cable (Acts 27 : 17).
U'ni-corn [nnc-Iwmed']. The Hebrew
word rendered " unicorn " in our Author-
ized Version occurs seven times in tlie Old
Testament as the name of some large wild
animal. The notion that tliis animal had
but one horn rests on nothing more solid
than the fancies of Greek and Roman
writers, and is fully disproved by the
passage in Deut. 33 : 17, where, in the
blessing of Joseph, it is said, " his glory
is like the firstling of his bullock, and his
horns are like the homsi of a unicorn," the
Hebrew text of the passage requiring " uni-
corn " to be singular, whilst the English
text improperly has it " unicorns." It is
expressly declared, moreover, in this same
passage that tlie " horns " of Joseph " are
the ten thousands of Ephraim and the thou-
sands of Manasseh," those (wo sons of the
patriarch who became the lieads of pow-
erful tribes. Since, therefore, the animal
referred to in tlie Hebrew Scriptures is a
two-horned animal of great strength and
ferocity (Num. 23 : 22 ; 24 : S ; Isa. 34 :
7), well known to the Jews and often seen
by them, fit for sacrificial purposes and
associated frequently with bulls and oxen,
there can be little doubt that some species
of wild ox is intended.
U-phar'sin [dividers], tlie plural form
of the singular Peres, one of the words
of doom written on the wall of Belshaz-
zar's palace, and inteipreted, " Thy king-
dom is divided and given to the Medes
and Persians" (Dan. 5 : 25, 28).
U'phaz. A term used twice (Jer. 10:
, 9; Dan. 10:5) in connection with fine
gold, as the term Ophir is used. It has
been commonly regarded as a variation
of Ophir. Of a jilace or region called
Uphaz nothing is known.
XJr \_fire or licjht], the land of Ilaran's
; nativity (Gen. 11 : 28), and the place
whence Terah and Abram started " to go
into the land of Canaan" (Cien. 11 : 81).
i It is called in Genesis " Ur of the Chal-
dees," while in the Acts (7 : 2, 4) Stephen
I places it by implication in Mesopotamia.
These are all the indications wliich Scri[i-
ture gives as to its locality. Sir Henry
Rawlinson identifies its site with tlie
modern Mugheir, on tlie west of the con-
fluence of the Euphrates with the Tigris.
Here have been found cylinders and bricks
of tlie oldest type and inscribed with the
names of a series of kings extending from
Urukh (B. c. 2230) to Nabonidus (b. c. 540).
One of the inscriptions found is as follows :
"Orchanus (or Urukli), king of Ur, is he
who liath built tlie temple of the moon-
god." The ruins of this temple, whicli
was built of large bricks cemented with
bitumen, are the cliief ruins of Mwjheir.
This city was perhaps the first capital of
Chaldaea.
Ur'bane, a disciple at Rome whom
UKIAH— URIM.
513
Paul salutes (Rom. 16 : 9). The name is
properly Urbanus, and either that or Ur-
ban is the form it should have had in our
Authorized Version.
U-ri'ali, U-ri'jah [Jehovah is my
light'], the name of three prominent men.
1. One of the thirty commanders of the
thirty bands into which the Israelite army
of David was divided (1 Chi'on. 11 : 41 ;
2 Sam. 23 : 39). Like others of David's
officers, he was a foreigner, a Ilittite, but
his name and his manner of speech (2
Sam. 11 : 11) indicate that he had adopted
the Jewish religion. He married Bath-
sheba, a woman of extraordinary beauty,
the daughter of Eliam (2 Sam. 11 : 3 ;
23 : 31). His wife's beauty became a
snare to King David and the occasion
of his own death (2 Sam. 11 : 6-27). A
touching incident of the story is that
Uriah fell in battle before Rabbath-Am-
mon when he was altogether unconscious
of his wife's dishonor.
2. High priest in the reign of Ahaz
(Isa. 8 : 2; 2 Kings 16 : 10-16). Of his
parentage we know nothing. He prob-
ably succeeded Azariah, who was high
priest in the reign of Uzziah. He is
chiefly remembered for his irreligious
subserviency to the idolatrous fancies of
Ahaz.
3. A priest of the family of Ilakkoz,
the head of the seventh course of priests
(Ezra 8: 33; Neh. 3:4, 21).
4. A faithful prophet of God, who, being
threatened with death by King Jehoiakim,
fled to Egypt. The king of Egypt, unwill-
ing to afliird him refuge, returned him to
Jehoiakim, who put him to death and cast
his dead body into a dishonored grave ( Jer.
26 : 20-24).
U^ri-el [God is my light], the name of
several men.
1. A Kohathite Levite, son of Tahath
(1 Chron. 6 : 24).
2. Chief of the Kohathites in the reign
of David (1 Chron. 15 : 5, 11),
33
3. The father of Maachah or Michaiah,
the favorite wife of Rehoboam and mother
of Abijah (2 Chron. 13 : 2).
U'rim and Thum'mim, plurals of
excellence denoting light and perfection.
We are told that "the Urim and Thum-
mim " were to be on Aaron's heart when
he went in before the Lord (Ex. 28 : 15-
30). When Joshua is solemnly appointed
to succeed the great hero-lawgiver, he is
bidden to stand before Eleazar the priest,
" who shall ask counsel for him after the
judgment of Urim," and this counsel is
to determine the movements of the host
of Israel (Num. 27 : 21). In the bless-
ings of Moses they appear as the crown-
ing glory of the tribe of Levi (Dent. 33 :
8, 9). How the Urim and Thummim were
consulted is quite uncertain. The rabbins
maintained that the stones on the high
priest's breastplate gave out the oracular
answer by preternatural illumination. The
simplest supposition, however, and the one
most accordant with the accounts we have
of inquiries made by LTrim and Thummim
(1 Sam. 14 : 3, 18, 19 ; 23 : 2, 4, 9, 11, 12 ;
28 : 6 ; Judg. 20 : 28 ; 2 Sam. 5 : 23), is
that the answer was given simply by the
word of the Lord to the high priest when
he had inquired of the Lord clothed with
the ephod and breastplate. How long the
Urim and Thummim were consulted, and
what led to their withdrawal, we are not
informed. The statement of Josephus,
that they had continued to shine with
supernatiu'al lustre till within two him-
dred years of liis own time, is simply a
Jewish fable, at variance with the direct
confession of their absence on the return
from the Captivity (Ezra 2 : 63). Inas-
much as Abiathar was the last priest who is
mentioned in Scripture as habitually using
the ephod with its appendages for the pur-
pose of consulting Jehovah (1 Sam. 23 : 6-
12 ; 28 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 1), it would seem
that the duration of the Urim and Thum-
mim cannot be extended beyond the days
514
USURY— UZZIEL.
of David. Apparently, too, the utterances
of the prophets who s{iake by the word of
the Lord gradually superseded the oracles
of the Urim (1 Sam. 9 : 9).
U'su-ry. This word, which now means
tlie lending of money at extortionate inte-
rest, meant at the time of the translation
of our Authorized Version any interest, a
sum paid for the use of money. Hence
"mine own with usury" (Luke 19 : 23)
means " mine own with interest^ (For the
laws respecting interest among the Hebrews
see Loan.)
Uz, the country in which Job lived
(Job 1:1). It lay, so far as we can
gather, either east or south-east of Pales-
tine (Job 1 : 3), adjacent to the Sabaeans
and the Chaldseans (Job 1 : 15, 17), conse-
quently north of the Southern Arabians and
Avest of the Euphrates, and lastly adjacent
to the Edomites of Mount Seir, who at
one period occupied L"z, probably as con-
querors (Lam. 4 : 21), and whose troglo-
dyte habits are apparently described in
Job 30 : 6, 7. Uz corresponded perhaps
to the Arabia Deserta oi classical geogra-
phy ; at all events, to so much of it as
lies north of the thirtieth parallel of lat-
itude. This district has in all ages been
occupied by nomadic tribes, who roam
from the borders of Palestine to the
Euphrates, and northward to the con-
fines of Syria.
U'zal, the sixth son of Joktan (Gen.
10 : 27; 1 Chron. 1 : 21), the settlements
of whose descendants were most likely in
Yemen. The name of San\1, the capital
city of the Yemen, was originally Airzal.
This city, San'd., from the earliest ages of
which any traditions have come down to
us, has disputed with the rival cities Seba
and Zfifdr the riglit to be the chief city of
the kingdom of Sheba. It seems to have
always belonged to the people of Sheba,
and from its position in the centre of the
best portion of that kingdom it must al-
ways have been an important city. The
houses and palaces of Sand, Niebuhr says,
are liner than those of any other town of
Arabia, and it possesses many mosques,
public baths and caravanserais. It resem-
bles Damascus in the number and beauty
of its gardens and in the abundance and
excellence of its fruits.
Uz'za, the Gar'den of, the spot in
which Manasseh, king of Judah, and his
son Anion were both buried (2 Kings 21 :
18, 26). The fact of its mention shows
that it was not where the usual sepulchres
of the kings were. No clue, however, is
afforded to its position.
Uz'zah, one of the sons of Abinadab,
in whose house at Kirjath-jearim the ark
rested for twenty years. Accompanying
the ark when David first undertook to
remove it to Jerusalem, and steadying it
with his hand when jostled in the cart by
the stumbling of the oxen, he was sudden-
ly struck dead (2 Sam. 6 : 6-8). But Uz-
zah's fate was not merely the penalty of
his own rashness. The improper mode
of transporting the ark, which ought to
have been borne on the shoulders of the
Levites, was perhaps the primary cause
of his unholy act and startling death. As
Uzzah died immediately by the side of tlie
ark, the event produced a deep sensation.
David, with a mixture of awe and resent-
ment, was afraid to carry the ark farther,
and the place of the tragedy, apparently
changing its ancient name, was thence-
forth called Perez-Uzzah (which see),
the "breach" or "disaster" of Uzzah (2
Sam. 6:8; 1 Chron. 13 : 11).
Uz-zi'ah. See Azariah.
Uz'zi-el [God is my strength], fourth
son of Kohath, father of Misliael, Elza-
phan or Elizaphan and Zitliri, and uncle
to Aaron (Ex. 6 : 18, 22 ; Lev. 10 : 4). His
descendants, the Uzzielites, were one of the
four great families of the Kohathites ( Niun.
3 : 27 ; 1 Chron. 26 : 23).
VASHTI— VINE.
515
V.
Vash'ti, the " queen " of Ahasuerus,
who, for refusing to show herself to the
king's guests at the royal banquet when
sent for by the king, was repudiated and
<leposed (Esth. ch. 1). Her displacement
opened the way for the elevation of
Esther.
Veil.
Veil. The use of the veil by women
in the P^ast was not so general in ancient
as in modern times, since Mohammedan-
ism has exerted its influence so widely and
powerfully for the seclusion of the female
sex. In ancient times the veil was adopt-
ed only in exceptional cases, either as an
article of ornamental dress (Song 4:1,
3 ; 6 : 7 ), or by betrothed maidens in the
presence of their future husbands, espe-
cially at the time of the wedding (Gen.
24 : 65 ; 29 : 25), or by women of loose
character for purposes of concealment
(Gen. 38 : 14). The Eastern veils of the
present day vary greatly in form and ex-
tent of concealment.
Veil of the Tab'er-na-cle and
Tera'ple. See Tabernacle and Tem-
ple.
Ver-miFion, a red pigment used for
ornamenting dwellings and temples (Jer.
22 : 14 ; Ezek. 23 : 14).
ViFlage. In the Scriptures the word
" village " is used to denote either the un-
walled suburb of a walled town (Josh. 13 :
23, 28) or a small collection of houses,
often huts, destitute of walls or externa!
defences (Lev. 25 : 31 ; Judg. 5:7; Matt.
14: 15; Luke 24 : 13,28).
Vine, the well-known valuable plant
( Vilis viriifera), very frequently referred to
in the Old and New Testaments and cul-
tivated from the earliest times. The first
mention of it occurs in Gen. 9 : 20, 21. The
vines of Palestine were celebrated both for
luxuriant growth and for the immense
clusters of grapes which they produced
(Num. 13 : 23, 24; Isa. 16 : 8-10; Jer.
48 : 32). From the abundance and ex-
cellence of the vines of Palestine this
plant is the subject of frequent meta-
phor in the Scriptures. To dwell under
the vine and fig tree is an emblem of do-
mestic happiness and peace (1 Kings 4 :
25; Mic. 4:4). The rebellious people
of Israel are compared to " wild grapes,"
" an empty vine," " the degenerate plant
of a strange vine" (Isa. 5 : 2, 4 ; Hos. 10 :
1 ; Jer. 2 : 21). It is a vine which our
Lord selects to show the spiritual union
which subsists between himself and his
members (John 15 : 1-6). The vintage,
which formerly was a season of general
and great festivity, began, as at present,
in July and lasted till December. The
grapes were gathered witli shouts of joy
(Isa. 16 : 10), put into baskets (Jer. 6 :
9), and then carried on the head and
shoulders or slung upon a yoke to the
wine-press. The finest grapes were dried
as raisins (1 Sam. 25 : 18), and the juice
expressed from the rest was either boiled
down to a syrup (an article of food which
under the name of dibs is still used most
extensively by all classes in the East) or
was made into wine.
516
VINEGAR— VULTURE.
Vin''e-gar [.sou?- icine]. The Hebrew
word translated " vinegar " was applied to
a liquid consisting generally of wine turn-
ed sour, but sometimes artiiicially made
by an admixture of barley and wine,
which rapidly passed into the acetous
stage of fermentation. It Avas acid to a
proverb (Pro v. 10 : 26), and was much
used by laborers (Ruth 2 : 14), and in our
Lord's time by Roman soldiers (Matt. 27 :
48 ; Mark 15 : 36; John 19 : 29, 30).
Vint'age. See Vine.
Vi'ol. This word occurs in a few pas-
sages (Isa. 5 : 12; 14 : 11 ; Amos 5 : 23;
6 : 5) as the English equivalent for a He-
brew term elsewhere rendered Psaltery
(which see).
Vi'per. See Adder.
Vis'ion. See Dream.
Vow, a solemn religious engagement
to do or to abstain from doing some cer-
tain thing. The earliest mention of a
vow is that of Jacob (Gen. 28 : 18-22 ; 31 :
13). The Law therefore did not intro-
duce, but regulated, the practice of vows.
Three sorts are mentioned : 1 . Vows of
devotion ; 2. Vows of abstinence ; 3.
Vows of destruction. As to vows of de-
votion, the following rules are laid down :
A man might devote to sacred uses pos-
sessions or persons, but not the first-born
of man or beast, which was devoted al-
ready (Lev. 27 : 26). If he vowed land, he
might either redeem it or not (Lev. 27 :
17-23). Animals fit for sacrifice, if de-
voted, were not to be redeemed or chang-
ed (Lev. 27 : 9, 10, 33). The case of per-
sons devoted stood thus: A man might
devote either himself, his child (not the
first-born) or his slave. If no redemption
took place, the devoted person became a
slave of the sanctuary. Otherwise, he
might be redeemed at a valuation accord-
ing to age and sex, on the scale given in
Lev. 27 : 1-7. The principal general reg-
ulations affecting vows were these : 1. Vows
were entirely voluntary, but once made
were regarded as compulsory (Num. 30 :
2; Deut. 23 : 21 ; Eccles. 5:4). 2. If
persons in a dependent condition made
vows, as an unmarried daughter living in
her father's house, or a wife, even if she
afterward became a widow, the vow, if in
the first case her father, or in the second
her husband, heard and disallowed it,
was void ; but if they heard without dis-
allowance it was to remain good (Num.
30 : 3-16). 3. Votive offerings arising
from the produce of any impure traffic
were wholly forbidden (Deut. 23 : 18).
(For vows of abstinence see Corbax, and
for vows of destruction see As.^thema
and Acci'RSED.)
Vulture.
Vul'ture. The three Hebrew words
thus rendered in our Authorized Version
refer to some of the smaller species of rap-
torial birds, as kites or buzzards (Job 28 :
7 ; Isa. 34 : 15). Two other Hebrew words,
the one rendered in our Authorized Ver-
sion gier-eagk (Deut. 14 : 17), the other,
eagle (Micah 1 : 16), are really vultures of
great size and power, which scent their
prey from afar and congregate in the wake
of an army (Job 39 : 30). All the species
of vultures are found in Palestine, are very
numerously represented, and by the cere-
monial Law were unclean (Lev. 11 : 14 ;
Deut. 14 : 13).
WAGES— WAK.
517
W.
"Wa'ges, compensation for labor. The
earliest mention of wages is of a recompense
— not in money, but in kind — to Jacob from
Laban (Gen. 29: 15, 20 ; 30 : 28 ; 31 : 7, 8,
41 ). The only mention in Scripture of the
rate of wages, when paid in money, is in
the parable of the Householder and the
Vineyard (Matt. 20 : 2), where the labor-
ers' wages are set at one "penny" (the
denarius ) per day, about fifteen cents. The
Law was very strict in requiring daily pay-
taent of wages (Lev. 19 : 13 ; Dent. 24 : 14,
15), and the iniquity of withholding wages
is in Scripture severely denounced (Jer.
22 : 13; Mai. 3:5; James 5 : 4).
Wag 'on. See Cart.
"Walls. See City, Town.
"War. The military organization of
the Jews began with their departure from
the land of Egypt, and was adapted to the
nature of the expedition on which they
then entered. Every man above twenty
years of age was a soldier (Num. 1:3);
each tribe formed a regiment with its own
banner and its own leader (Num. 2:2;
10 : 14) ; their positions in the camp or on
the march were accurately fixed (Num. ch.
2) ; the whole army started and stopped at
a given signal (Num. 10 : 5, G) ; thus they
came up out of Egypt ready for battle ( Ex.
13 : 18). On the approach of an enemy
a conscription was made from the general
body under the direction of a muster-mas-
ter (Deut. 20 : 5 ; 2 Kings 25 : 19), by whom
also the officers were appointed ( Deut. 20 :
9). The army was then divided into
thousands and hundreds under their re-
spective captains (Num. 31 : 14), and still
further into families (Num. 2 : 34 ; 2
Chron. 25 : 5; 26 : 12), the family being
regarded as the unit in the Jewish polity.
With the kings ai'ose the custom of main-
taining a body-guard, which formed the
nucleus of a standing army. Thus, Saul
had a band of three thousand select war-
riors (1 Sam. 13 : 2; 14 : 52; 24 : 2), and
David, before his accession to the throne,
a band of six hundred warriors (1 Sam.
23 : 13 ; 25 : 13). This band David re-
tained after he became king, and added
the Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. 15 :
18; 20:7), together with another class,
officers of high rank (shalishini), the chief
of whom (2 Kings 7 : 2; 1 Chron. 12 : 18)
was immediately about the king's person.
David further organized a national mili-
tia, divided into twelve regiments under
their respective officers, each of which
was called out for one month in the year
(1 Chron. 27 : 1) ; at the head of the army
when in active service he appointed a com-
mander-in-chief (1 Sam. 14 : 50).
Hitherto the army had consisted entirely
of infantry (1 Sara. 4 : 10 ; 15:4), the use
of horses having been restrained by divine
command (Deut. 17 : 16) ; but as the for-
eign relations of the kingdom extended,
much importance was attached to horses.
David had reserved a hundred chariots
from the spoils of the Syrians (2 Sam. 8 :
4); these probably served as the founda-
tion of the force which Solomon afterward
enlarged through his alliance with Egypt
(1 Kings 10 : 26, 28, 29). It does not ap-
pear that the system established by David
was maintained by the kings of Judah, but
in Israel the proximity of the hostile king-
dom of Syria necessitated the maintenance
of a standing army. In Judah, however,
the body-guard appears to have been reg-
ularly kept up (1 Kings 14 : 28 ; 2 Kings
11 : 4, 11). Occasional reference is made
to war-chariots (2 Kings 8 : 21), but in
Hezekiah's reign no force of the kind
could be maintained, and the .Jews were
obliged to seek the aid of Egypt for
518 WARS OF THE LORD— WASHING THE HANDS AND FEET.
horses and chariots (2 Kings 18 : 23, 24 ;
Isa. 31 : 1). It is doubtful whether the
soldier ever received pay, even under the
kings.
Before entering upon an aggressive war
the Hebrews sought the divine sanction
])y consulting either the Urim and Thum-
mim (Judg. 1:1; 20 : 27, 28 ; 1 Sam. 14 :
37 ; 23 : 2 ; 30 : 8) or some acknowledged
prophet (1 Kings 22 : 6; 2 Chron. 18 : 5).
When their land had been invaded the
people were summcined to repel the inva-
sion— sometimes by messengers, sometimes
by trumpets, and sometimes by signals set
up on the hills (Judg. 3 : 27 ; 1 Sam. 11 :
7; Jer. 6:1). In the actual warfare of
early times divine aid was occasionally and
improperly sought by bringing into the field
the ark of the covenant, which was the sym-
bol of Jehovah himself ( 1 Sam. 4 : 4-1 8 ; 1 4 :
18). W^hen an engagement was imminent
a sacrifice was sometimes offered (1 Sam.
7:9; 13 : 9) and an inspiriting address de-
livered, either by the commander (2 Chron.
20 : 20) or by a priest (Deut. 20 : 2). Then
followed the battle-signal (1 Sam. 17 : 52;
Isa. 42 : 13). The combat assumed the
form of a number of hand-to-hand con-
tests. At the same time various strategic
devices were practiced, such as the ambus-
cade (Josh. 8 : 2, 12; Judg. 20 : 36), sur-
prise (Judg. 7 : 16) or circumvention (2
Sam. 5 : 23).
The siege of a town or fortress was con-
ducted in a systematic manner. A line of
circumvalhition was drawn round the place,
constructed out of the trees found in the
neigliborhood, together with earth and any
other materials at hand (Deut. 20 : 20).
This line not only cut off the besieged
from the surrounding country, but also
served as a base of operations for the be-
siegers. The next step was to throw out
from this line one or more mounds or
"banks" in the direction of the city (2
Sam. 20 : 15; 2 Kings 19 : 32; Isa. 37 :
33), which were gradually increased in
height until they were about half as high
as the city wall. On these mounds or
banks towers were erected (2 Kings 25 :
I ; Jer. 52 : 4; Ezek. 4:2; 17 : 17 ; 21 :
22 ; 26 : 9), whence the slingers and arcli-
ers might attack with effect. Battering-
rams were brought up to the walls by
means of these banks, and scaling-ladders,
when needed, were placed on them.
In ancient times the treatment of the
conquered was exceedingly severe. The
bodies of the soldiers killed in action were
plundered (1 Sam. 31 : 8); the survivors
were either killed (Judg. 9 : 45; 2 Sam.
12 : 31), mutilated (Judg. 1 : 6; 1 Sam.
II : 2) or carrii.d into captivity (Num.
31 : 26; Deut. 20 : 14). Sometimes the
mass of the population of the conquered
country was removed to a distant locality.
The conquerors celebrated their success by
the erection of monumental stones (1 Sam.
7 : 12), by hanging up trophies in their
public buildings (1 Sam. 21 : 9) and by
triumphal songs and dances in which the
whole population took part (1 Sam. 18 :
6-8). See Soldier, Battering-Ram,
Siege, Arms, etc.
"Wars of the Lord, Book of, the
title of an ancient book referred to in
Num. 21 : 14. The book was perhaps a
record of military achievements, and ap-
parently a poetical composition. It lia.s
not been transmitted to us.
Wash'ing'. The religious import of
washing is indicated in the articles Bath,
Bathing, Pltrific.\.tiox (which see).
"Wasli'lng the Hands and Feet.
As knives and forks were dispensed with
in eating, it was absolutely necessary that
the hand, which was thrust into the com-
mon dish, should be scrupulously clean;
and, as sandals were ineffectual against
the dust and heat of an Eastern climate,
washing the feet on entering the house
was an act both of respect to the company
and of refreshment to the traveler. The
former of these usages was transformed
WATCHES OF THE NIGHT— WATEK.
519
by the Pharisees of the New Testament
age into a matter of ritual observance
(Mark 7:3), and special rules were laid
down as to the times and manner of its
performance. Washing the feet did not
Washing the Hands.
rise to the dignity of a ritual observance
except in connection, with the services of
tlie sanctuary (Ex. 30 : 18-21). It lield a
high place, however, among the rites of
hospitality. So soon as a guest presented
himself at the tent-door it was usual to
offer the necessary materials for washing
the feet (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24 : 32 ; 43 :
24; Judg. 19 : 21). A more compliment-
ary act, and one betokening equal humil-
ity and affection, was the host's actual per-
formance of the office of feet-washing for
the guest (1 Sara. 25 : 41 ; John 13 : 5-
14).
Watch'es of the Night. See Cock,
Cock-Crowing.
"Watch^man, one who watches against
danger in order to ward it off (Isa. 21:11).
In ancient times some watchmen walked
the streets of cities by night (Song 5 : 7),
others were placed in watch-towers on ele-
vated spots (Isa. 21 : 5, 6), and others still
were posted in towers over the gates of
cities (2 Sam. 18 : 24-27 ; 2 Kings 9 : 17).
At the approach of danger an alarm was
given by a trumpet-blast ( Jer. 6 : 17 ; Ezek.
33 : 2-9).
"Water. Many of the most beautiful
allusions in Scriptuie depend on the fact
that in Oriental countries, where the heat
is intense and the water-coui'ses compara-
tively few and inconsiderable, the highest
valu2 is set on water. The Jordan is the
most important stream in Palestine ; the
others, with few exceptions, are tempora-
ry, flowing in the rainy seasons and dried
during the heat of summer. Hence the
uecess'ty of constructing pools or reser-
voirs for preserving the water to be used
in times of scarcity, especially for the
purpose of artificial irrigation. Solomon
says, " I made me gardens and orchards,
and I planted trees in them of all kinds
of fruits ; I made me pools of water to
water therewith the wood that bringeth
forth trees" (Eccles. 2 : 5, 6). Wells, too,
were dug wherever water could be reached,
and these wells became, in many cases,
links in the history and landmarks in
the topograpliy of Palestine.
The difference between a cistern (Heb.
Bor) and a well (Heb. BSer) consists
chiefly in the use of the former to denote
a reservoir for rain-water, while the latter
denotes a receptacle for water springing up
freshly from the ground (Prov. 5 : l-') ;
John 4 : 14). Of the two, wells are much
the more important and valuable, and in
the desert are the exclusive property
either of a wliole tribe or of individuals
whose ancestors dug the wells. If a well
be the property of a tribe, the tents are
pitched near it, and from it other Arabs
are not permitted to water their camels.
If a well, however, belong to an individual,
he receives presents from all strange tribes
and persons who there refresh their beasts
and themselves. Hence wells were watched
with jealous care, and in the pastoral dis-
tricts were subjects of contention between
rival parties (Gen. 26 : 19-22^. Hence,
too, when Moses requested permission to
520
WATER.
pass through Kdom, he was willing to stip-
ulate that all the water that was used on the
march should be paid for (Num. 20 : 17-1 9).
Lieut. Lynch, in his Expedition to the
Dead Sea, refers to the extreme sufferings
Eastern Water-Seller.
af his party from heat and thirst. Al-
though continually resorting to the lim-
ited supply of the precious element they
carried with them, their parching thirst
could not be allayed ; and when their sup-
ply was exhausted he remarks, "Our last
waking thought was water. In our dis-
turbed and feverish slumbers we fancied
the cool beverage purling down our
parched and burning throats. . . . Our
thoughts could not revert
to home save in connec-
tion with the precious ele-
ment."
In view of such facts
the force of many allu-
sions and figurative ex-
pressions in Scripture is
readily perceived. What
so valuable to the thirsty
as "living waters" or as
"fountains of living wa-
ter" ! What so terrible
as "a dry and thirsty
land, where no water is " !
(Ps. 63 : 1), or so disap-
pointing as " broken cis-
terns that can hold no wa-
ter"! (Jer. 2:13). What
refreshment so grateful as
"rivers of waters in a dry
place " ! How beautiful
the description of the
righteous man, who is
" like a tree planted by
the rivers of water, that
bringeth foith his fruit in
his sea.son"! (Ps. 1:3).
To one who ha.s had an
experience of thirst the
invitation comes with pe-
culiar emphasis : " Ho,
every one that thirsteth,
come ye to the waters"
(Isa. 55 : 1). Hence, in
representing the blessings
of the gospel as food for
the hungry (Isa. 55 : 2) and water for tlie
thirsty (Matt. 5:6) there is a special and
very suggestive propriety.
Water is carried in the East by women,
and nothing burdens the Bedouin women so
WATEK OF JEALOUSY— WEAVING.
521
much as this meiiial service. The tents are
seldom pitched very close to a well, and
whatever may be the distance of the well
away, the women must carry the water
every evening on their backs in long
water-skins, and sometimes are obliged to
seek a second supply. In the cities water
is sold by men from jars or leather bottles ;
hence the force of the expression in Isa.
55 : 1, " Without money and without
price." See Fountain, Well.
"Water of Jealousy. See Jeal-
ousy.
Wave-Of fer-ing. This rite, to-
gether with that of "heaving" or "rais-
ing" the offering, was an inseparable ac-
companiment of peace-offerings. In such,
the right shoulder, considered the choicest
part of the victim, was to be " heaved," and
viewed as holy to the Lord, was therefore
only to be eaten by
the priest ; the
breast was to be
" waved," and eaten
by the worshiper.
On the second day
of the passover a
sheaf of corn in the
green ear was to
be waved, accompa-
nied by the sacrifice
of an unblemished
lamb of the first year; from the perform-
ance of which ceremony the days till
Pentecost were to be counted. When
that feast arrived, two loaves, the first-
fruits of the ripe corn, were to be of-
fered with a burnt-offering, a sin-offering
and two lambs of the first year for a
peace-offering. These likewise were to
be waved. The scriptural notices of these
rites are to be found in Ex. 29 : 24, 28 ;
Lev. 7 : 30, 34; 8 : 27 ; 9 : 21 ; 10 : 14, 15;
23 : 10, 15, 20; Num. 6 : 20; 18 : 11, 18,
26-29. The design of these rites was to
acknowledge God's greatness and his right
over the creature, and also to bear witness
to a ratified covenant and to an established
communion between God and man.
"Wax. As a verb, to " wax " means to
grow (Gen. 19 : 13; Ex. 22 : 24; Lev. 25 :
39 ; 1 Sam. 3:2; Matt. 24 : 12 ; Luke 1 2 :
33). As a noun, " wax" is the name of a
well-known substance, easily softened and
dissolved by heat (Ps. 22 : 14; 08 : 2; 97 :
5; Mic. 1 : 4).
"Way^far-ing Man, one who jour-
neys on foot and who depends on the
hospitality he may meet with on the
road (Isa. 35 : 8; Jer. 9:2; 14 : 8).
Weap'ons. See Arms.
"Wea^sel. The word occurs but once
in our Authorized Version (Lev. 11 : 29),
in the list of unclean animals ; the Hebrew
woi-d thus rendered is thought to be a rep-
resentative of the " mole," which is very
common in Palestine.
Weaving and Spinning, from an Egyptian Painting.
"Weav'ing, The art of weaving was
practiced in the very earliest times. The
"vestures of fine linen," such as Joseph
wore (Gen. 41 : 42), were the products of
Egyptian looms. The Israelites were
probably acquainted with the process be-
fore their sojourn in Egypt, but there un-
doubtedly they attained that proficiency
which enabled them to execute the hang-
ings of the tabernacle (Ex. 35 : 35; 1
Chron. 4 : 21). The textures produced
by the Jewish weavers were very various.
The coarser kinds, such as tent-cloth, sack-
cloth and the hairy garments of the poor,
were made of goat's or camel's hair (Ex.
522
WEDDI NG— WEIGHTS.
26 : 7; Matt. .3 : 4). Wool was extensive-
ly used for ordinary clothing ( Lev. 13 : 47 ;
Prov. 27 : 26; ol : 13; Ezek. 27 : 18),
while for finer work flax was used, vary-
ing in quality, and producing the textures
described in the IScriptures as " linen " and
"fine linen." Tlie mixture of wool and
flax in cloth intended for a garment was
interdicted (Lev. 11) : 19; Deut. 22 : 11).
"Wed'ding. See Marriage.
"Wed^ding-Gar^ment. At a wed-
ding-feast the host provided a garment for
each of the guests. To appear, therefore,
at such a feast without the provided gar-
ment was a discourtesy to the host and tlie
occasion for immediate and ignominious
expulsion (Matt. 22 : 11-13).
"Week. Measuring time by a period
of seven days is a custom of remote an-
tiquity (Gen. 8 : 10; 29 : 27). Its antiqui-
ty is so great, its observance so widespread,
and its relation to sacred things so intimate
and important, that it must date back to
the creation of man. Tlius, the week and
the Sabbatli are as old as man himself.
In Exodus the week comes into very dis-
tinct manifestation. Two of the great
feasts, the passover and tlie feast of tab-
ernacles, are prolonged for seven days
after that of their initiation (Ex. 12 : 15-
20; Lev. 23 : 34-36). The division by
seven was expanded so as to make the
seventh montli and the seventh year sab-
1)atical. The Christian Church from the
very first Avas familiar with the week (1
Cor. 16 : 2).
"Weeks, Feast of. See Pentecost.
Weights and Meas'ures. These
were in use from the earliest period (Gen.
6: 15; 23: 16).
I. In respect lo Weights, the chief unit
was the shekel (that is, weight), called also
the holjishekrlor shekel of the .tarictiiary, sub-
divided into the beku (that is, halj'j or half-
shekel, and the oerah (that is, a grain or
bean). The chief multiple, or higher
unit, was (he kikkar (that is, circle or globe),
translated in our Authorized Version tal-
ent, subdivided into the maneh (that is,
pari). The foregoing weights were usu-
ally employed for the standard of weigh-
ing siilver. Eor gold a different shekel was
used, probably of foreign introduction.
The talent of this system was just double
that of the silver standard ; it was divided
into one hundred vianehs, and eacli maneh
into one hundred shekels. A different
standard still for copper seems to have ex-
isted— namely, a sliekel four times as heavy
as the gold sliekel. In the coinage it seems
to have been subdivided into halves, quar-
ters and sixths.
II. Of Measures there were two kinds,
measures of Length and measures of Ca-
pacity.
1. Measures of length were of two
classes — length in the ordinary sense, and
distance or itinerary measures. Measures
of length in the ordinary sense were de-
rived in tlie fii-st instance from the parts
of the human body, the only parts used for
this purpose, however, being the hand and
fore-arm to the exclusion of the foot, which
was the chief unit of the Western nations.
Hence arises the difiiculty of determining
the ratio of the foot to the cubit, whicli
appears as the chief Oriental unit from
the very building of Noah's ark (Gen. 6 :
15, 16 ; 7 : 20). The Hebrew lesser meas-
ures were the finger's breadth (Jer. 52 : 21),
the palm or handbreadth (Ex. 25 : 25) and
the span — that is, the full stretch between
the tip of the tliumb and the tip of the lit-
tle finger (Ex. 28 : 16). The actual length
of the Mosaic cubit cannot be exactly de-
termined, but is placed a] proximately by
the best authorities at a little more than
eiglitcen inches. Of itinerary measures,
or those of distance, the smallest was
the pace and the largest the day's journey.
The pace (2 Sam. 6 : 13), if single like
our step, was about thirty inches; if double,
like the Latin passus, it was about five feet.
The day's journey was the most usual meth-
WEIGHTS.
523
od of calculating distances in traveling
{Gen. 30 : 06; Ex. 3 : 18 and many other
passages). The ordinary day's journey
among the Jews was thirty miles, but
when they traveled in companies only
ten miles. The Sabbath-day s journey of
two thousand cubits (Acts 1 : 12) is pecu-
liar to the New Testament, and arose from
a rabbinical interpretation of Ex. 16 : 29
and Num. 35 : 5.
2. Measures of capacily were liquid and
dry. The liquid measures were the log
(Lev. 14 : 10) ; the hin (Ex. 29 : 40),
equal to twelve logs; the bath (1 Kings
7 : 26), equal to six hins or seventy-
two logs; and the cor (Ezek. 45 : 14),
equal to ten baths. Tlie dry measures
were the cab (2 Kings 6 : 25) ; the omer
(Ex. 16 : 16-36), a little less than two
cabs; the seah or "measure" (Gen. 18 : 6),
equal to six cabs ; the ephah (Ex. 16 : 36),
equal to ten omers ; and the homer (Lev. 27 :
16), equal to ten ephahs.
The following tables exhibit at one view
the Hebrew weights and measures, with
their nearest modern representatives:
I. Hebrew Weights.
Troy Weight.
grains, lbs. oz.
1 Gerah 11 ... ^i,
10 Gerahs = 1 Beka 110 ... i
2 Bekas = 1 Shekel 220 ... i
50 Shekels = 1 Maneh 11,000 111
60 Manehs = l Talent (Kikkar) 660,000 114 7
The above table was for silver ; for gold
a different sliekel was used. The talent
of gold was just double that of the silver
standard ; it was divided into one hun-
dred manelis, and each maneh into one
hundred shekels. A third standard for
copper appears to have existed — namely,
a shekel four times as heavy as the gold
shekel, and subdivided in the coinage into
halves, quarters and sixths. The money-value
of the several silver and gold weights given
in the table was, in the currency of the
United States, approximately, this:
Silver.
$ Ct3.
1 Gerah 0 2.73
1 Bekah 0 27.30
1 Shekel 54.60
1 Maneh or Miimli 27 30
1 Talent 1638
Gold.
1 Gold Shekel 8 76
1 Gold Talent 26,280 00
This money- value of weighed silver and
gold furnishes a suggestive commentary
on several historic facts recorded in Scrip-
ture. Joseph was sold for twenty pieces
of silver (shekels), hence his price was
$10.92. Judas sold our Lord for thirty
pieces of silver (shekels), and therefore
received $16.38. The debtor (Matt. 18 :
24) who had been forgiven ten thousand
talents (silver), equal to $16,380,000, re-
fused to forgive his fellow-servant one
hundred pence (Roman penny, worth fif-
teen cents), or $15. Naaman's offering to
Elisha of six thousand pieces (shekels) of
gold was equivalent to $52,560.
II. Hebrew Measures of Length.
Inches.
1 Finger 0.75
4 Fingers = 1 Paliu 3.02
3 Palms =lSpan 9.07
2 Spans = 1 Cubit 18.14
6 Cubits = 1 Reed 108.84
III. Hebrew Liquid Measures.
Jospphus. Rabbins,
gals. qts. pts. gals. qts. pts.
One Log 0.99 0.56
4 Logs =lCab 1 1.96 ... 10.24
scabs =lHin 1 1 1.88 ... 3 0.72
6 Hins =1 Balh 8 3 1.28 5 0 0.82
10 Baths = 1 Cor 89 0 0.80 50 1 1.20
IV. Hebrew Dry Measures.
Josephus. Rabbins.
bsh. pks. qts. pta. bsh. pks. qts. pts.
1 Cab 2 1 0.24
1^ Cabs =10mer 3 1.1 2 ...
3J Omers = 1 Seah 1 3 1.7 6 1.44
SSeahs =lEnhah. 1 0 2 3.2 ... 2 4 0.32
10 Ephahs=l Homer. 11 0 4 0 6 1 1 1.2
The absolute values of the liquid and dry
measures are stated differently by Josephus
624
WELL— WHIRLWIND.
and the rabbins. Unable to decide be-
tween them, we give a double estimate of
the various denominations.
"WelL The special necessity of a sup-
ply of water (Judg. 1 : 15) in a hot climate
has always involved among Eastern nations
questions of property of the highest im-
portance, and sometimes has given rise to
serious contention (Gen. 21 : 25-32). Wells
in Palestine are often excavated from the
solid limestone rock, sometimes with steps
to descend into them (Gen. 24 : 16). The
brims are furnished with a curb or low
wall of stone, bearing marks of high an-
tiquity in the furrows worn by the ropes
used in drawing water. It was on a curb
of this sort that our Lord sat when he con-
versed with the woman of Samaria (.John 4 :
6 ) . The usual method of raising water was
the rope and bucket or water-skin (Gen. 24 :
14-20; John 4 : 11). Wells are usually
furnished with troughs of wood or stone,
into which the water is emptied for the
use of persons or animals coming to the
wells.
"Whale. The Hebrew word rendered
"whales" in Gen. 1 : 21 designates sea-
monsters in general, and the Greek word
rendered "whale" in Matt. 12 : 40 is not
restricted in its meaning to a whale or
any cetacean, but may denote any sea-mon-
ster, either a whale or a shark or a seal.
The whale which swallowed Jonah is sup-
posed to have been the white shark, which
is abundant in the ^fediterranean, and
which frequently attains the length of
thirty feet. Whales are also found in
the Mediterranean.
"Wheat. This well-known valuable
cereal, cultivated from the earliest times,
is first mentioned in Gen. 30 : 14 in the
account of Jacob's sojourn w^ith Laban in
Mesopotamia. As a plant no trace of it
is found in any of the geological strata
\mtil we come to the most recent forma-
tions contemporaneous with man. It has
never been found in a wild state. It has
never been known as anything but a
cultivated plant. History and observa-
tion prove that it cannot grow spontane-
ously. It is never, like other plants,
self-sown and self-diffused. Neglected of
man, it speedily disappears and becomes
extinct. It can only be reared perma-
nently by being sown by man's own hand
and in ground which man's own hand has
tilled.
Egypt in ancient times was celebrated for
the growi;h of its wheat ; the best qualities
were bearded, and, according to Pliny, were
grown in the Thebaid. The same varie-
ties existed in ancient as in modern times,
among which may be mentioned the seven-
eared variety described in Pharaoh's dream
(Gen. 41 : 22). Syria and Palestine pro-
duced wheat of very fine quality and
in large quantities (Ps. 147 : 14). In the
parable of the Sower our Lord alludes to
grains of wheat which in good ground
produce a hundred-fold (Matt. 13 : 8).
Wheat is reaped toward the end of April,
in May and in June, according to the dif-
ferences of soil and position. It was sown
broadcast, and then ploughed in or tram-
pled in by cattle (Isa. 32 :"20).
Wheat wa.s ground into flour ; the finest
qualities were expressed by the term
"fat of kidneys of wheat" (Deut. 32 :
14). The curious expression in Prov.
27 : 22, "Though thou shouldest bray a
fool in a mortar among wheat wiih a
pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart
from him," api^ears to point to the cus-
tom of mixing the grains of inferior
cereals with wheat. The meaning will
then be, " Let a fool be ever so nnich in
the company of wise men, yet he will
continue a fool."
"Whirl 'wind. In our Authorized Ver-
sion four Hebrew words have the common
rendering "whirlwind," which, indeed, is
not suitable to any of them. They all re-
1 fer, not to a wind revolving with great im-
{ petuosity on its own axis, but to a wind
WHISPEREK— WILLOW, WILLOWS.
525
blowing with fury and producing blight
and desolation. Tempest or storm, rather
than ivhirhvinci, would have been a more
exact translation. Of these four terms,
two only are used with any frequency :
one, from a root signifying to snatch away
or carry off, denotes a sweeping, desolating
blast (job 21 : 18 ; 37 : 9 ; Isa. 21 : 1 ; Hos.
8:7); the other indicates very nearly the
same thing, but makes a distinct reference
to its vehement agitating motion (2 Kings
2 : 1, 11 ; Job 40 : 6 ; Isa. 40 : 24). Of the
remaining two terms, one should have been
rendered simply "wind" (Ezek. 1 : 4), and
the other has respect to the sense of hor-
ror which is occasioned by blasts of a
more destructive and terrific kind (Ps. 58 :
9; Dan. 11 : 40).
"Whis'per-er, a secret slanderer (Prov.
IG: 28; Rom. 1:29).
"Wid'ow. The Levitical Law made
no sjjecific provision for the maintenance
of widows, but toward widows the spirit
of the Law was singularly considerate and
generous. They were left dependent part-
ly on the affection of relatives (more es-
pecially of the eldest son, whose birth-
right, or extra share of the property, im-
posed such a duty upon him), and partly
on the privileges accorded to other dis-
tressed classes, such as a participation
in the triennial third tithe (Deut. 14 : 29,*
26 : 12), in leasing or gleaning (Deut. 24 :
19-21 ) and in religious feasts (Deut. 16:11,
14). With regard to the remarriage of
widows, the only restriction imposed by
the Law had reference to the contingency
of one being left childless, in which case
the brother of the deceased husband had
a right to marry the widow ( Deut. 25 : 5, 6 ;
Matt. 22 : 23-30). In the apostolic Church
the widows were sustained at the public
expense, the relief being daily adminis-
tered in kind, under the superintendence
of officers appointed for this special pur-
pose (Acts 6 : 1-6). The apostle Paul
gives particular directions as to the class
of persons entitled to such public main-
tenance (1 Tim. 5 : 3-16).
Wife. See Marriage.
WiFder-ness of the Wan'der-
ing. This, as the designation of the re-
gion in which the children of Israel so-
journed for thirty-eight years (Josh. 14 :
10), must have included three great groups
or districts of mountains, each called a wil-
derness— namely, the wilderness of Sinai
to the south, the wilderness of Paran to the
north of that, extending toward the north-
west, and the wilderness of Zin to the north-
east. The whole of this region w;is deficient
in water and in food for man. Hence the
occasion for the miraculous stream whicii
flowed from the smitten rock (Ex. 17 : 6)
and for the miraculous manna which fell
from heaven (Ex. 16 : lo).
Wild HDii'ey. See Honey.
V/il'low, Wil'lows. Of these words,
the first occurs in our Authorized Version
but once (Ezek. 17 : 5); the second five
times (Lev. 23 : 40; Job 40 : 22 ; Ps. 137 :
2 ; Isa. 15:7; 44 : 4). The Hebrew word
rendered " willows" in the five passages
cited is only found in the plural, and is
undoubtedly generic, including not only
tlie numerous species of viilloivs, but also
the numerous species of poplars, all the
plants indeed which constitute the natu-
ral order Salicacece. Of willows proper,
the Salu alba or white willow, the Salix
viniinalis or osier willow, and the Sullx
jEyyptiaca or Egyptian willow, are the
most common in Eastern countries. The
Hebrew word rendered " willow " is a
different word from that rendered "wil-
lows," and is supposed to be the specific
designation of Salix ^^gyptiaca. As to
the tree upon which the captives in Bab-
ylon hung their harps, opinions are di-
verse. The weeping willow received the
name Salix Babylonica because in Ps. 137 :
2 "willows" were mentioned, and the
"weeping willow" seemed the most ap-
propriate willow to be associated with the
526
WILLOWS, THE BROOK OF THE— WINE.
grief of the Jewish captives, but Hebrew
scholars are now agreed that the word
''willows" in the Psalm should be "pop-
lars." According to Karl Koch, the weep-
ing willow is a native of China. The spe-
cific poplar referred to by the Psalmist
is not certain. It is thought by some to
be the Populun Euphratiea, which grows
abundantly in the Mesopotamian valley ;
by others to be the Salix pendula.
"Wil'lows, The Brook of the, a
wady mentioned by Isaiah (15 : 7j in his
dirge over Moab. His language implies
that it was one of tiie boundaries of the
country, and it is possibly identical with
a wady mentioned by Amos (6 : 14), as the
then recognized southern limit of the
Korthern kingdom. This latter is de-
nominated in our Authorized Version
" the river of the wilderness," and, wide-
ly different as the two names seem, they
are all but identical in the original He-
brew.
"Wim'ple, an old English word for
hood or veil (Isa. 3 : 22). The Hebrew
word rendered " wimple " in our Author-
ized Version is translated " veil " in Ruth
3:15, but it signifies rather a kind of shawl
or mantle.
■Win'dO"W. See House.
"Winds. The Hebrews used the ex-
pression " four winds " as equivalent to
the four cardinal points, north, south, east
and west (Ezek. 37 : 9 ; Dan. 8:8; Zech.
2:6: Matt. 24 : 31). Of winds proper,
the north-west wind prevails in Palestine
from the autumnal equinox to the begin-
ning of November, and the north wind
from June to the equinox. The east
wind crosses the sandy wastes of Arabia
Deserta before reaching Palestine, and was
hence termed " the wind of the wilderness "
(Job 1 : 19; Jer. 13 : 24). It blows with
violence, and the word is used generally to
represent any violent wind (.Job 27 : 21 ; Ps.
48 : 7 ; Isa. 27 : 8 ; Ezek. 27 : 2G ). In Pal-
estine the east wind prevails from February
to June. The south wind, which traverses
the Arabian Peninsula before reaching
Palestine, must of necessity be extreme-
ly hot (Job 37 : 17 ; Luke 12 : 55). The
west and south-west winds reach Pales-
tine loaded with moisture gathered from
the Mediterranean, and are termed by the
Arabs " the fathers of the rain." Wester-
ly winds prevail in Palestine from Novem-
ber to February. The Scriptures notice
the local squalls to which the Sea of Gal-
ilee was liable (Mark 4 : 37 ; Luke 8 : 23) ;
and in the narrative of the apostle Paul's
voyage to Rome special mention is made
of " a tempestuous wind " called Euroclydon,
and coming from east-north-east (Acts 27 :
14). See Euroclydon.
Treading Grapes in the Wine-Press.
"Wine. Seven different Hebrew words
have in our Authorized Version the com-
mon rendering " wine." The word " wine "
has therefore a general rather than a spe-
cific sense, and of this an examination of
passages furnishes abundant confirmation.
The leading senses of the word " wine " as
found in our English Bible are these : 1.
Vintage-fruit (Num. 18 : 12; Deut. 7:13;
11 : 14; 12: 17; 14: 23; 18 : 4; Isa. 36 :
17 ; Jer. 40 : 10-12 ; Mic. 6 : 15) ; 2. Grape-
juice unexpressed (Isa. 65 : 8) ; 3. Grape-
juice just expressed (Gen. 49 : 11 ; Isa. 10 ;
10) ; 4. Grape-juice vinously fermented
WINNOWING— WITHS.
527
(Ps. 75 : 8 ; Prov. 20 : 1 ; 23 : 29-32) ;
5. Grape-juice acetously fermented — sour
wine, vinegar (Ps. 69 : 21 ; Matt. 27 : 34 ;
Mark 15 : 23). Of these senses the fourth is
that which usage has commonly associated
with the word " wine," and in this sense
ivine was certainly abundant in Palestine.
The severe denunciations against drunken-
ness which abound in Scripture imply the
use and prevalence of intoxicating wines.
'Win'now-ing', the process of separa-
ting the grain from the chafF and straw
(Isa. 30 : 24). The grain was first taken
upon a broad shovel and tlirown up against
the wind, which did the work of a fan, and
subsequently at the markets was shaken in
a sieve, whicli cleaned it from dirt and
refuse (Job 21 : 18; Ps. 35 :5; Matt. 3 :
12 ; Amos 9 : 9).
"Wise Men. In Matt. 2 : 1-12 our
Authorized Version indicates by " wise
men " those Magi or Maoians who in his-
tory are conspicuous chiefly as a Persian
religious caste. As to the country whence
these wise men came, opinions vary great-
ly, but their following the guidance of a
star seems to point to the banks of the
Tigris and Euphrates, where astronomy
was early cultivated by the Chaldseans.
The religion of Zoroaster, remaining pure
from the grosser forms of idolatry, pre-
served the hope of a great Deliverer who
would reform the world and establish a
reign of universal peace. That some tra-
dition, influenced possibly by the Jews of
the Dispersion, made this deliverer a " king
of the Jews," seems a fair inference from
the direct form of the inquiry for him
which they addressed to Herod. As to
the sign which guided them, the plain
narrative of Matthew evidently supposes
a miracle vouchsafed for the occasion.
The ingenious conjecture of certain as-
tronomers that the appearance of the star
was caused by a remarkable conjunction
of the planets Jupiter and Saturn is cer-
tainly inadmissible. The approach of the
two planets was not at all near enough for
them to be mistaken for a single star, nor
could habitual observers of the heavens
fail to recognize the positions of such
well-known planets. Besides, the stand-
ing of these planets " over the place where
the young child was," so as to define the
spot on the surface of the earth, is utterly
inconceivable. The better way is to ac-
cept tlie obvious explanation that some
new luminary, whether meteoric or celes-
tial, was expressly and distinctly made to
appear to these Eastern sages and practiced
astronomers in order to guide them on
their way. Following the star, the wise
men found at length the Child-King, paid
him their willing homage, and presented
their costly gifts, the first-fruits of the
wealth and wisdom of the Gentile world.
By means of a dream, a form of divina-
tion which they we;e wont to follow with
implicit faith, they were warned by God
not to return to Herod ; accordingly, they
departed into their own country by an-
other route, perhaps l)y Hel)ron and round
the southern end of the Dead Sea. An ut-
terly baseless tradition represents the wise
men as three kings named Gaspar, Mel-
chior and Balthazar. Their bodies, it is
said, were discovered somewhere in the
East, were brought to Constantinople,
were thence transferred to Milan, and in
A. D. 1162 were finally deposited in the
cathedral of Cologne, where, as the great-
est of its many treasures, the shrine of the
Three Kings is now shown.
Witch, Witch'craft, Wiz'ard.
The first and third of these words indi-
cate the female and male pretender re-
spectively to the power of witchcraft, or
that of penetrating the future and of per-
forming supernatural acts. The profes-
sions and practices of all such persons are
sternly denounced in Sciipture (Ex. 22 :
18; Deut. 18 : 10-12). See Divination
and Familiar Spirit.
Withs. The word occurs but once
528
WITNESS— WOMEN.
(Judg. IG : 7), and then the better render-
ing would liave been "new (moist) cords."
The Saxon word "with" means a sup-
ple twig or piece of fresh bark used for
twining or wicker-work.
"Wit'ness. Among special pro-
visions with respect to evidence are the
following : 1 . Two witnesses at least are
required to establish any charge (Num.
3o : ;50; Deut. 17 : 6 ; John 8:17); 2.
In the case of the suspected wife evi-
dence besides the husband's was re-
quired (Num. 5: 13); 3. The witness
who withheld the truth was censured
(Lev. 5:1); 4. False witness was pun-
ished with the punishment due to the
offence which it sought to establish
(Deut. 19 : 16-19); 5. Slanderous re-
ports and officious testimonies are dis-
couraged (Ex. 23 : 1 ; Lev. 19 : 16, 18) ;
6. The witnesses were the first execu-
tioners ( Deut. 13:9; 17:7; Acts 7 : 58) ; 7.
In case of an animal left in charge and torn
l.)y wild beasts, the keeper was to bring the
carcass in proof of the fact and disproof of
his own criminality (Ex. 22 : 13). In the
New Testament the original notion of a
witness is exhibited in the special form of
one who attests his belief in the gospel by
personal suffering (Acts 26 : 16-23; Rev.
20 : 4) ; hence has arisen the term " mar-
tyr," the Greek word for " witness."
Wolf, a fierce, cruel, ravenous animal,
in size and general appearance resembling
a dog. It varies in color, being sometimes
gray, with a tinting of fawn and long black
hairs, sometimes black and sometimes taw-
ny. It was more common in Palestine an-
ciently than now ; it is but occasionally
seen by modern travelers. The scriptural
allusions to the wolf are mainly the fol-
lowing. Its ferocity is mentioned in Gen.
49 : 27 ; Ezek. 22 : 27 ; Hab. 1:8; Matt.
7 : 15; its nocturnal habits in Jer. 5:6;
Zeph. 3:3; its attacking sheep and lambs
in Matt. 10 : 16; Luke 10 : 3; John 10 :
12. Isaiah (11:6; 65 : 25) foretells the
peaceful reign of the Messiah under the
metaphor of a wolf dwelling with a lamb.
Cruel persecutors are likened to wolves
'Acts 20: 29).
«.!%
Syrian Wolf.
L.^
"Wom'en. The position of women in
the Hebrew commonwealth contrasts fa-
vorably with that which is now theirs in
Eastern countries. Instead of being im-
mured in a harem or appearing in public
with the face covered, the wives and maid-
ens of ancient times mingled freely and
openly with the other sex in the duties
and amenities of ordinary life. Rebekah
traveled on a camel with iier face unveiled
until she came into the presence of her affi-
anced (Gen. 24 : 64, 65) ; Jacob saluted his
relative Rachel with a kiss in the presence
of the shepherds (Gen. 29 : 11); women
played no inconsiderable part in public
celebrations (Ex. 15 : 20, 21 ; Judg. 11 :
34) ; the odes of Deborah (Judg. ch. 5)
and of Plannah (1 Sara. 2 : 1-10) exhibit
a degree of intellectual cultivation which
in itself is a strong proof of woman's higher
position in that early period. The value
of a virtuous and active housewife forms
a frequent topic in the book of Proverbs.
The efl"ect of polygamy was to transfer
female influence from tlie wives to the
mother. Polygamy also necessitated a
WOOL— WOEMWOOD.
529
separate establisliment for the wives col-
lectively or for each wife individually.
Wool. As the staple material for the
manufacture of clothing, wool was an arti-
cle of the highest value among the Jews
(Lev. 13 : 47 ; Deut. 22 : 11 ; Job 31 : 20;
Prov. 31 : 13; Ezek. 34 : 3; Hos. 2 : 5).
The Israelites were forbidden to wear a
garment mingled of woolen and linen
(Lev. 19 : 19).
"Word, one of the titles of our Lord
(John 1:1), and a general expression for
the revealed truths of religion (Rom. 9:6;
1 Cor. 14 : 36; Gal. 6:6). It also indi-
cates any form of utterance (Ps. 119 : 101;
Isa. 2:1; Luke 5 : 5).
Works. God's works are all those
things created and governed by his power
and wisdom which make him known (Ps.
145 : 9-12) ; good works, or the works of
the righteous, are sucli as spring from
gracious sympathies (Eph. 2 : 10). Good
works in themselves are not justifying, but
are evidences of that faith which is justify-
ing.
World. In our Authorized Version
two Hebrew and two equivalent Greek
words, the one having respect to time, the
otlier to space, are rendered " world."
1. The word which has respect to time
expresses an " age " or " period " indefi-
nite (John 9 : 32), or even infinite (John
6 : 51). It is used sometimes for a
lifetime (Ps. 73 : 12), sometimes for a gen-
eration (Eccles. 3 : 8), but more often for
one of those vast aggregates of time which
enter into God's counsels in reference to
man's being and destiny (Isa. 4') : 17 ; Heb.
1 : 2). When designating time simply it
is often combined with "this" or "the
present" (Matt. 12:32; 13:22; Luke
16:8; Rom. 12:2; 1 Cor. 1 : 20 ; 2:6,
8 ; Gal. 1:4; 1 Tim. 6:17; 2 Tim. 4 :
10) in contrast with " that " or " the fu-
ture" or "the coming" (Luke 18:30;
20: 35; Eph. 1 : 21).
2. The word which has res]>ect to Kpnce
.S4
embodies in Hebrew the idea of "active
productiveness;" in Greek the idea of "or-
derly arrangement." The Hebrews de-
nominated our earth " the world," be-
cause it is fertile and inhabited (Ps. 90 :
2) ; the Greeks denominated our earth
"the world," because of its regular and
beautiful disposition (Matt. 4:8). By a
natural figure the term " world " passed
into a designation of men, the world's in-
habitants (Ps. 9:8; John 1 : 29 ; 3 : 16),
and into a designation of men as lying
under God's displeasure because of sin
(1 Cor. 11 : 32; Eph. 2 : 12; 2 Pet. 2 :
20; 1 John 5:19).
Worm. Several Hebrew words are
thus rendered in our Authorized Version.
One, which occurs in Isa. 51 : 8, denotes
some species of moth whose larva is inju-
rious to wool. Another, which occurs in
Ex. 16 : 20, points evidently to various
kinds of maggots and the larvae of insects
which feed on putreiying animal matter.
Another, which occurs in Deut. 28 : 39, is
applied to some kinds of larvfs destructive
to the vines. In Job 19 : 26 ; 21 : 26 ; 24 :
20 there is an allusion to worms (insect
larvae) feeding on the dead bodies of the
buried. There is the same allusion in
Isa. 06 : 24, which words are applied by
our Lord (Mark 9 : 44, 46, 48) metaphor-
ically to the torments of the guilty in the
world of departed spirits. The insignifi-
cance and weakness of the worm, the con-
tempt in which it is held, and especially
its liability to be trodden under foot and
crushed, make it in certain circumstances
not an unapt emblem of man (Job 25 : 6 ;
Ps. 22 : 6; Isa. 41 : 14).
Worm'^wood. This word occurs fre-
quently in the Scriptures, and generally
in a metaphorical sense. In Deut. 29 :
18; Prov. 5:4; Jer. 9 : 15; 23 : 15;
Lam. 3 : 15, 19, it is symbolical of bitter
calamity and sorrow. As there are sever-
al kinds of wormwood in Palestine, and as
the ancients were accustomed to type sor-
530
WORSHIP— WRITING.
rows, cruelties and calamities by plants of
a poisonous or bitter nature, the occasion
of the frequent recurrence of the word is
plain.
"Wor'ship. This word is sometimes
used to express respect and homage to a
fellow-creature (Luke 14:10; Acts 10:
25), but it is more generally employed to
indicate the religious reverence and hom-
age which man owes to God (John 4 : 24;
Heb. 1:6; Rev. 22 : 9). " Will-worship "
(Col. 2 : 23) is that species of worship
which God has not authorized, but which
men themselves have invented.
"Wrath. The Hebrew and Greek
words thus rendered in our Authorized
Version of tJie Old and New Testament
have the sense of a violent commotion of
mind, an excessive indignation and an-
ger rising to the height of passion, and in-
cluding the desire of vengeance or pun-
ishment (Deut. 9:7; Job 16 : 9 ; Eph. 4 :
31 ; Col. 3 : 8). Associated with
God, tlie term wrath implies his
utter abhorrence of sin and his
aversion to those who live in it
(Ex. 22 : 24 ; Josh. 22 : 20 ; John
3 : 36 ; Rom. 1 : 18). The He-
brew prophets represent Jeho-
vah as giving to the nations in
his wrath an intoxicating cup
so that they reel and stagger to destruction
(Isa. 51 : 17 ; Jer. 25 : 15). Similar use of
this figure is made in the New Testament
(Rev. 14:10; 16:19; 19:15).
"Writ'ing". In the Scriptures there is
no account of tlie origin of writing. The
first mention of writing is in Ex. 17 : 14,
and the connection clearly implies that it
was not then employed for the first time.
The tables of the testimony are said to be
"written by the finger of God" (Ex. 31 :
18) on both sides, and "the writing was
the writing of God graven upon the
tables" (Ex. 32 : 16). The oldest docu-
ments which contain the writing of a Se-
mitic race are probably the bricks of Nin-
eveh and Babylon, on which are impressed
the cuneiform Assyrian inscriptions. There
is no evidence, however, that these bricks
were ever employed by the Hebrews. The
Wri ting-Materials.
oldest alphabetic writing now in existence,
so far as we know, is the inscription on the
Moabite stone. See Mesha. It is prob-
Writing-Case.
able tliat tlie ancient as well as the most
common material which tlie Hebrews used
for writing was the papyrus, rolls of which,
as old perhaps as Moses, exist to-day. Not
until the reign of King David were the
Hebrews in the habit of writing on the
skins of animals, and purehment, in the
proper sense of the term, did not come
into use until about B. c. 200. Parchment
was used for the manuscripts of the Penta-
teuch in the time of Josephus, and Paul
mentions "parchments" in 2 Tim. 4 : 13.
The papyrus sheets and the dressed skins,
when written upon, were formed into rolls
(Jer. 36 : 14 ; Ezek. 2:9; Zech. 5:1).
Sometimes the rolls were written on
YEAR
531
both sides. A modern traveler who saw
in Syria two ancient rolls of this descrip-
tion thus describes the jirocesses of un-
rolling and of reading : " I observed two
very beautiful rolls containing the liturgy
of St. Chrysostom and that attributed by the
Greeks to St. James. You begin to read
by unrolling, and you continue to read and
unroll, till at last you arrive at the stick to
which the roll is fastened ; then you turn
the parchment around and continue to read
on the other side, rolling it gradually up
till you complete the liturgy." Thus, these
rolls were written " within and without "
(Ezek. 2 : 10). Thus, too, we get an in-
telligible and correct idea of the books
described both by Ezekiel and by John.
But besides the papyrus sheets and
the dressed skins, which were used for
the more permanent kinds of writing, tab-
lets of wood covered with wax (Luke 1 :
63) served for the ordinary purposes of
life. They were written upon with a point-
ed style (Job 19 : 24), sometimes of iron ( Jer.
17 : 1). For parchment a reed was used (3
John ver. 13). The ink (Jer. 36: 18),
literally " black," was usually made of
lamp-black dissolved in gall-juice. It was
carried in an inkstand or ink-horn, which
was suspended at the girdle (Ezek. 9 : 2,
3), as is done at the present day in the
East. The Eastern ink is commonly held
in a wad of cotton in the inkstand. Some-
times the scribe carried in a case his writ-
ing implements. To professional scribes
there are allusions in Ps. 45 : 1 ; Ezra 7 : 6.
Y.
Year. The Hebrew name for year is
derived from a root which embodies the
idea of change, repetition, recurrence, and
is thus descriptive of the annual revolu-
tion of the seasons or the periodic changes
in the position of the sun relatively to the
earth. The Hebrew year was a lunar year
of twelve months, yet made essentially so-
lar by assigning the offerings of first-fruits,
harvest produce and ingathered fruits to
certain days of the year, two of which were
in the periods of great feasts ; the third, it-
self a feast, reckoned from one of the for-
mer days. The later Jews, as explained
toward the close of this article, added a
thirteenth month whenever the twelfth
ended too long before the equinox for
the offering of the first-fruits to be made
at the time fixed. The later Jews had
also two commencements of the year,
whence it is commonly but inaccurately
said that they had two years, the sacred
and the civil, better described as two
year-reckonings. The sacred year-reck-
oning was that instituted at the P]xodus,
according to which the first month was
Abib; by the civil year-reckoning the
first month was the seventh. The inter-
' val between the two commencements was
thus exactly half a year. The year was
divided into seasons, months and weeks.
(See the respective articles.) The order of
the months, with their approximate iden-
tification with those of our calendar, will
appear in the following table :
Sacred Year-Reckoning.
I. Ablb, or Nis-an March, April.
II. lyyar (pron. jEfe'yar).. April, May.
III. Sivan May, June.
IV. Thamimiz June, July.
V. Ab July, August.
VI. Elul August, September.
VII. Tisri, or Ethanim September, October.
VIII. Bui October, November.
IX. Chisleu November, December.
X. Thebat December, January.
XI. Sebat January, February.
XII. Adar February, March.
532
YEAR, SABBATICAL— YOKE.
Civil Year-Reckoning.
I. Tisri, or t;tliauim September, October.
II. Bui October, November.
III. Chisleu November, December.
IV. Thebat December, January.
V. Sebat January, February.
VI. Adar February, March.
VII. Abib March, April.
VIII. Iyyar(pron. £fe'yar)...April, May.
IX. Sivan May, June.
X. Thaminuz June, July.
XI. Ab July, August.
XII. Elul August, September.
The twelve lunar months thus enumer-
ated consisted alternately of twenty-nine
and thirty days, making the ordinary
Jewish year consist of three hundred and
fifty-four days, or about eleven days shorter
than tlie solar year. This difference of
length in the lunar and solar year would
necessarily and soon have prevented anni-
versaries from coinciding with the return
of the seasons. The Israelites were there-
fore compelled to resort to intercalation.
They added to certain years, termed some-
times extraordinai'y, sometimes vague, an-
other month, making such years consist
of thirteen montlis containing twenty-nine
or thirty days. The thirteenth month, Ve-
A dar or the second Adar, was inserted at
the latter part of INIarch and beginning of
April. The effect of this was to make the
festival of the Passover, which began on
the fourteenth day of the month Nisan,
coincide witli the season when tlie barley
wa.s ready for cutting, because tlie Pass-
over demanded, besides the paschal lamb,
the offering of a sheaf of barley as the first
fruits of the harvest. After repeated ex-
periments and many attempts to settle the
rules of intercalation, the later Jews
finally adopted the Metonic cycle of nine-
teen years, so named from its inventor,
Meton, the Greek astronomer, of which
the third, sixth, eighth, eleventh, four-
teenth, seventeenth and nineteenth years
comprise thirteen months, and at the
expiration of the nineteenth year the
days of the new and full moon general-
ly fall again upon the same day of the
month.
Year, Sab-bat'i-cal. By the Mo-
saic code not only were each seventh day
and each seventh montli holy, but also
each seventh year (Ex. 'J3 : 10, 11 ; Lev. 25 :
2-7 ; Deut. ch. 15). During this seventh
or sabbatical year neither tillage nor cul-
tivation of any sort was to be practiced.
Tlie spirit of this law is the same as tiiat
of the weekly Sabbatli. Both have a ben-
eficial tendency, limiting tlie rights and
checking the sense of property ; the one
puts in God's claims on time, the other
on the land. There may have been, too,
some reference to the benefit which would
accrue to the land from lying fallow every
seventh year in a time when the rotation
of crops was unknown. The sabbatical
year opened in the sabbatical month, and
the whole Law was to be read every sucli
year during tlie feast of tabernacles to the
assembled people. At the completion of
a week of sabbatical years the sabbatical
scale received its completion in the year
of jubilee. The best Jewish authorities,
basing tlieir opinion on Lev. 25 : 3, 4,
hold that the law of the sabbatical year
became obligatory upon the Israelites
fourteen years after the first entrance into
the Promised Land, the conquest of which
took seven years and the distribution seven
more.
Year of Jubilee. See Jubilee.
Yoke. Tills word is used in several
senses: 1. A well-known implement of
husbandry, and frequently used meta-
phorically for subjection (1 Kings 12 : 4,
9-11 ; Isa. 9:4; Jer. 5:5); hence an iron
yoke represents an unusually galling bond-
age (Deut. 28 : 48 ; Jer. 2S : 13) ; 2. A pair
of oxen so termed as being yoked together
(1 Sam. n :7; 1 Kings 19 : 19, 21); 3. A
certain amount of land (1 Sam. 14 : 14),
equivalent to that which a couple of oxen
could plough in a day (Isa. 5 : 10; Au-
thorized Version, "acre").
ZAANAIM, THE PLAIN OF— ZADOK.
533
Z.
Za-a-na'im, The Plain of, more
accurately, " the oak by Zaanaim," a
tree, probably a sacred tree, mentioned as
marking tlie spot near wliich Heber the
Kenite was encamped when Sisera took
refuge in his tent (Judg. 4 : 11). Zaa-
NANNiM, another form of the same name,
is found in Josh. 19 : 33.
Za-an'an [rich in flocks], (Mic. 1: 11),
same as Zenan (which see).
Za'bad [yift], the name of several
men.
1 . A son of Nathan of the tribe of Ju-
dah (1 Chron. 2 : 36).
2. A descendant of Ephraim, slain in a
skirmish with the men of Gath (1 Chron.
7:21).
3. One of the conspirators who slew
King Joash (2 Chron. 24 : 25, 26), and who
was afterward put to death by Amaziah,
the successor of Joash (2 Chron. 25 : 3).
4. Three others in the later genealogies,
mentioned among those who had married
and put away foreign wives (Ezra 10 : 27,
.33, 43).
Za^bud [given — that is, of God], the
son of Nathan, called principal officer to
Solomon and the king's friend (1 Kings
4 : 5).
Zab'u-lon, the Greek form of Zebu-
lun (Matt. 4 : 13, 15 ; Rev. 7 : 8).
Zac-che'us, a tax-collector near Jer-
icho, who, being short in stature, climbed
up into a sycamore tree in order to obtain
a sight of Jesus as he passed through that
place (Luke 19 : 1-10). He was a Jew,
and, as " the chief among the publicans,"
was probably the superintendent of cus-
toms or tribute in the district of Jericho.
Zach-a-ri'ah. [Jehovah remembers],
properly Zechariah, son and suc-
cessor of Jeroboam IL, king of Israel (2
Kings 14 : 29). His reign lasted but six
months. He was killed in a conspiracy
of which Shallum was the head (2 Kings
15 : 10), and by which the prophecy in 2
Kings 10 : 30 was accomplished.
Zach-a-ri'as, the Greek or New Tes-
tament form of Zachariah or Zechariah,
and the name of two persons.
1. Father of John the Baptist (Luke 1 :
5). He was of the course of Abia or Abi-
jah, the eighth in order of the priestly
courses as arranged by David for minis-
tering at the tabernacle or temple (1 Chron.
24: 10), and is described as one of the best
representatives of the priestly order, walk-
ing, along with his wife Elisabeth, " in all
the commandments and ordinances of the
Lord blameless" (Luke 1 : 6). When the
birth of his son John was announced to
him by an angel he was incredulous and
asked a sign ; in punishment for his unbe-
lief he was stricken with dumbness for a
season (Luke 1 : 20).
2. Son of Barachias, who, as our Lord
says, was slain by the Jews between the
altar and the temple (Matt. 23 : 35 ; Luke
11 : 51). The allusion is most likely to
Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada (2 Chron.
24 : 20, 21), the name Barachias having
crept into the text of Matthew from a mar-
ginal gloss.
Za''dok [jnst], the name of several
persons, of whom two only need be spe-
cially mentioned.
1. Son of Ahitub, and one of the two
chief priests in the time of David, Abia-
thar being the other. He was of the house
of Eleazar, the son of Aaron (1 Chron. 24 :
3), and eleventh in descent from Aaron (1
Chron. 6 : 53). He joined David at He-
bron, after Saul's death, with twenty-two
captains of his father's house, and thence-
forth his fidelity to David was inviolable
(2 Sam. chs. 15, 17 ; 19:11; 1 Kings ch.
534
ZALMON— ZEBOIM.
1). For his loyalty to David he was re-
warded by Solomon (1 Kings 2 : 27, 35).
2. "The scribe" whom Nehemiali set
over the treasuries of the temple, along
with Shelemiah, Pedaiah and Hanan,
" for they were counted faithful, and their
office was to distribute unto their breth-
ren" (Neh. 13: 13).
ZaFmon [tshudy], a wooded Jiill near
Shechem (Judg. 9 : 48).
Zal-rao'nah. [>ihady], a desert station
of the Israelites on the east side of Edom
(Num. 33 : 41).
Zal-mun'na, one of the two kings of
Midian, Zebah being the other, at the time
of Gideon's great victory over the Midian-
ite host (Judg. ch. 8). The two kings, hav-
ing slain several of Gideon's brothers, were
by him put to death.
Zam-zum'minis, properly Zam-
zuin'raim., the Ammonite name for the
people who by others were called Reph-
AIM (Deut. 2: 20). They are described as
having originally been a powerful and nu-
merous nation of giants. It is conjectured
that the Zamzummim are identical witli
the Zuzhn.
Za-no'ah [perhaps marsh].
1. A town of Judah in the plain (Josh.
15 : 34; Neh. 3:13; 11 : 30), supposed to
be identical with Zanua, on the slope of a
hill east of Bethshcmesh.
2. A town of Judah in the highland
district (Josh. 15 : 66), supposed to be
identical with ZanHtah, about ten miles
south of Hebron.
Zaph^nath-Pa-a-ne^ah, the name
given by Pharaoli to Joseph (Gen. 41 : 45).
The Rabbins explained this name as mean-
ing " the revealer of secrets ; " another ex-
planation, based on the Coptic tongue,
gives to the name tlie sense of " the pre-
server of the age;" and still another
and more probable explanation regards
the name as an ancient Egyptian expres-
sion for "the bread of life."
Za'red or Ze'red, a brook or valley
running into the Dead Sea near its south-
east corner (Num. 21 : 12; Deut. 2 : 13,
14). It lay between Moab and Edom,
and is the limit of the proper term of
the Israelites' wandering.
Zar'e-phath [mielting-shop], a town
on the Mediterranean coast, in Phoenicia,
between Sidon and Tyre. Here the
prophet Elijah was entertained by a
widow during the latter part of the
drought, as recorded in 1 Kings 17 : 9,
10. Its ruins may be seen on the plain
near the coast, but its modern represent-
ative, the little village of Sv.raJ'evd, is
upon the face of the lull a sliort dis-
tance from the water. In the New Tes-
tament (Luke 4 : 26) Zarephath appears
under the Greek form of Sarcpta.
Zar'e-tan, a place in the plain of the
Jordan, up to which, when Israel crossed
the river, the heaped waters rose (Josh. 3 :
16). The name is variously given : Zere-
da (1 Kings 11 : 26), Zartanah (1 Kings
4:12), Zeredatha (2 Chron. 4 : 17), Zar-
than (1 Kings 7 : 46).
Zar'hites, the, a branch of the tribe
of Judah, descended from Zerah, the son
of Judah (Num. 26 : 13, 20; Josh. 7 : 17;
1 Chron. 27: 11, 13).
Ze'bati. See Zalmunna.
Zeb'e-dee, a fisherman of Galilee, the
father of the apostles James and John
(Matt. 4 : 21) and the husband of Salome
(Matt. 27 : 56 ; Mark 15 : 40). He prob-
ably lived either at Bethsaida or in its
inmiediate neighborhood.
Ze-bo'im, the name of two places, tlie
spelling of which in our Authorized Ver-
sion is alike, but in the Hebrew both spell-
ing and signification are different.
1. One of the cities of the plain of .Jor-
dan. Its name means "the place of ga-
zelles." It is mentioned in Gen. 10 : 19;
14 : 2, 8; Deut. 29 : 23; Hos. 11 : 8, in
each of which passages it is either cou-
pled with Admah or placed next it in
the Ksts.
ZEBULUN— ZECHARIAH.
535
2. A ravine or gorge, apparently east of
Micliniash, mentioned only in 1 Sam. 13 :
18. Its name means " the ravine of hye-
nas."
Zeb'u-lun [a habitation^, the name of
one of Jacob's sons, of a Hebrew tribe and
of the territory which the tribe possessed.
1. The tenth of the sons of Jacob, ac-
cording to the order in which their births
are enumerated, the sixth and last of
Leah (Gen. 30 : 19, 20; 35 : 23; 46 : 14;
1 Chron. 2:1). Of the man Zebulun
nothing is recorded. He had three sons,
founders of the cliief families of the tribe
at the time of the migration to Egypt.
2. During the journey from Egypt to Pal-
estine the tribe of Zebulun formed one of
the first camp witli Judali and Issachar,
marching under the standard of Judah.
At the census of Sinai' it numbered fifty-
seven tliousand male adults ; at the cen-
sus on the plains of Moab, sixty thou-
sand five hundred. The tribe is not re-
corded to have taken part for evil or
good in any of the events of the Wan-
dering or the Conquest.
3. To Zebulun fell one of the fairest
portions of Canaan at the partition, reach-
ing on tlie one side to the Lake of Gennes-
aret, and on the other to Carmel and the
Mediterranean. On the south it was
bounded by the portion of Issachar ; on
the north it had Naphtali and Aslier.
In the history of the Israelites the occa-
sions are few in which the tribe of Zebu-
lun emerged from the obscurity of every-
day life. During the struggle with Sisera
they fought with desperate valor side by
side with their brethren of Naphtali, and
were especially commended by Deborah
(.Judg. 5 : 18). When, too, the tribes as-
sembled at Hebron to make David king,
fifty thousand expert men of Zebulun
wei'e among the warriors who professed
allegiance and proffered service. But
when we consider how numerous was the
tribe, how rich in agricultural resources,
how well provided with strongholds and
strategic points of defence, we wonder at
the poor appearance of Zebulun in the
events which determined the destinies
of their land and nation.
Zech-a-ri'all \_Jehovah reviemhers], tlie
name of several prominent persons.
1. Son of the high priest, Jehoiada, in
the reign of Joash, king of Judah (2
Chron. 24 : 20). After the death of Je-
hoiada, Zechariah probably succeeded to
his office, and in attempting to check the
reaction in favor of idolatry which imme-
diately followed he fell a victim to a con-
spiracy formed against him by the king,
and was stoned in the court of the temple.
He is probably the same as the " Zacha-
rias, son of Barachias," who was slain be-
tween the temple and the altar (Matt. 23 :
35). See Zach arias No. 2.
2. A wise and pious man, who, in the
earlier part of the reign of Uzziah, king
of Judah, exercised upon the king a de-
cidedly beneficial influence (2 Chron.
26 : 5).
3. Son of Jeberechiah, taken by the
prophet Isaiah as one of the two "faith-
ful witnesses to record " an important
prophetical transaction (Isa. 8 : 2).
4. The eleventh in order of the twelve
minor prophets, son of Berechiah and
grandson of Iddo (Zech. 1 : 1). Like Jer-
emiah and Ezekiel before him, Zechariah
was a priest as well as a prophet. He
seems to have entered upon his office
when young (Zech. 2 : 4), his birthplace
being most likely Babylon, whence he
returned with the first company of exiles
under Zerubbabel and Jeshua. He first
publicly discharged his office in tlie sec-
ond year of Darius, acting in concert
with the prophet Haggai. Both prophet-*
labored earnestly to secure the rebuilding
of the temple, and to their efforts the suc-
cess of this important enterprise was large-
ly due ( Ezra 6:14). The book of Zech-
ariah consists of three principal parts:
536
ZEDAD-ZBNAS.
chaps. 1-S; chaps. 9-11 ; chaps. 12-14.
Tlie fii-st part contains a series of visions
descriptive of all those hopes and antici-
pations of which the building of the tem-
ple was the pledge and sure foundation ;
the second part contains threatenings
against Damascus and the sea-coast of Pal-
estine ; and the third part contains a very
signiiicaut prophecy respecting Judah and
Jerusalem. The style of Zechariah is un-
polished and his meaning at times obscure,
but he utters predictions concerning the
Messiah which for clearness and definite-
ness are not surpassed by those of any
other prophet.
Ze'dad, one of the landmarks on the
north border of the land of Israel, as jirom-
ised by Moses (Num. 34 : 8) and as restored
by Ezekiel (Ezek. 47 : 15).
Zed-e-ki'ah. [the right eousnc'is of Je-
hovah'\, the name of several persons.
1. The last king of Judah and Jerusa-
lem. He was the son of Josiah, and after
the deposition by Nebuchadnezzar of Je-
hoiakim, his nephew, was placed upon the
throne by the conqueror, who changed his
original name from Mattaniah to Zedekiah.
He was but twenty-one years old when he
was thus placed in charge of an impover-
ished kingdom (2 Kings 24 : 18). He was
a weak man, and altogether unequal to the
task of guiding his country safely in peril-
ous times. He formed an alliance with
Egypt, which of itself was equivalent to
a declaration of war with Babylon. An
immediate invasion of his country by the
Chaldseans was the consequence ( 2 Kings
25 : 1 ; Jer. 37 : 5-1 1 ) ; and after a pro-
tracted siege Jerusalem was carried by
storm and the fleeing king was overtaken
near Jericho and carried to Nebuchadnez-
zar, then at Riblah. With a refinement
of cruelty characteristic of those cruel
times, Nebuchadnezzar ordered the sons
of Zedekiah to be killed before him, and
lastly his own eyes to be thrust out. The
unhappy monarch was then loaded with
brazen fetters and was taken to Babylon,
where he died (Jer. 39 : 4-7).
2. 8on of Chenaanah, who at the court
of Ahab, king of Israel, urged the expedi-
tion against Ramoth-Gilead, and was re-
sisted by the prophet Micaiah (1 Kings
22 : 11-29).
3. Son of Maaseiah, a false prophet in
Babylon (Jer. 29 : 21, 22).
4. Son of Hananiah, one of the princes
of Judah in the time of Jeremiah (Jer.
36 : 12).
Zeeb [ko//], one of the two princes of
Midian, Oreb being the other, who, with
the kings Zebah and Zalmunna, fell be-
fore the victorious arms of Gideon ( Judg.
7 : 25).
Ze'lah, a town of Benjamin, where
Saul and his sons were buried (2 Sam.
21 : 14).
Ze-lopli'e-had, a descendant of ]\Ia-
nasseh (Josh. 17 : 3). He came out of
Egypt with Moses, but died in the wil-
derness (Num. 14 : 35; 27 : 3). He died
without male heirs, and his five daughters
claimed the inheritance of their father in
the tribe of Manasseh. By divine direc-
tion the claim was admitted (Num. 27 : 6,
7).
Ze-lo'tes, the epithet given to the
apostle Simon to distinguish him from
Simon Peter (Luke 6 : 15). See Simon
and Caxaanite, The.
Zem-a-ra'im, atown in the allotment
of Benjamin (Josh. 18 : 22), identical, per-
haps, with Mount Zemaraim (2 Chron.
13:4).
Zem'a-rite, the, one of the Hamite
tribes forming part of the population of
ancient Canaan (1 Chron. 1 : 16).
Ze-nan [rich in Jlorksl, a town in the
plain or low country of Judah (Josh. 15 :
37; Mic. 1 : 11).
Ze'nas, a Christian mentioned by Paul
(Tit. 3 : 13) in connection with Apollos.
He is called "the lawyer," but whether
he was a Jewish doctor or a Eoman juris-
ZEPHANIAH— ZEKUIAH.
537
consult caunot be determined. The tradi-
tion is that he was the latter, and such is
the natural inference from the narrative.
Zeph.-a-ni'ah [Jehovnh conceals], the
name of three prominent persons.
1. The ninth in order of the twelve mi-
nor prophets. In the prophecy which he
has left (ch. 1 : 1) he traces his genealogy
back four generations, to Hizkiah or Hez-
ekiah, supposed by many to be tlie king of
that name. He exercised his prophetic
office in the time of Josiah, king of Ju-
dah, when, notwithstanding the efforts of
the king to bring about reformation, the
princes and people were sinking more
and more into that widespread and reso-
lute apostasy which ultimately wrecked
the nation. The chief characteristics of
his prophecy are tlie unity and liarmony
of the compositi(ni, tlie grace, energy and
dignity of the style, and the rapid and
verv striking alternations of threats and
promises.
2. The son of Maaseiah (Jer. 21 : 1) and
mgan or "second priest" (2 Kings 25 : 18)
in the reign of Zedekiah. He succeeded
Jehoiada (.Jer. 29 : 25-29), and was prob-
ably a ruler of the temple, whose office it
was among others to punish pretenders to
the gift of prophecy. In this capacity he
was appealed to by Shemaiah the Nehela-
mite to punish Jeremiah. Twice was he
sent from Zedekiah to inquire of .Jeremiah
the issue of the siege of the city by the
Chaldfeans (Jer. 21 : 1) and to implore
him to intercede for the people (Jer. o7 :
3). On the capture of Jerusalem he was
taken with others to Riblah and slain (Jer.
.52 : 24, 27 ; 2 Kings 25 : 18-21 ).
3. Father of Josiah and of Hen, men-
tioned in the account of the typical
crown which the prophet Zechariah made
(Zech. 6 : 10-14).
Zephath [wakh-tnwa-'], a town in the
extreme south or wilderness of Judah, af-
terward called HoRMAH on account of the
destruction inflicted on it (Judg. 1 : 17).
Zeph'a-thah [watch-lower'], the valley
in which King Asa joined battle with Zerah
the Ethiopian (2 Chron. 14 : 10).
Ze'pho, son of Eliphaz, son of Esau,
and one of the dukes or phylarchs of the
Edomites (Gen. 36 : 11, 15).
Ze'rah or Za'rah [a risiiig,as of a lu-
minary].
1. The twin brother of Pharez, son of
Judah and Tamar (Gen. 38 : 30), from
whom sprung the family of the Zarhites
(Num. 26 : 20; 1 Chron. 27 : 11).
2. A son of Keuel and grandson of Esau,
one of the dukes or phylarchs of the Edom-
ites (Gen. 36 : 13, 17 ; 1 Chron. 1 : 37).
I 3. The Ethiopian or Cushite who in-
vaded Judah and was defeated by Asa (2
Chron. 14:9-13). Zerah is supposed to
j be the Hebrew form of writing Usarken,
a king of Egypt, either Usarken I. or
Usarken II. of the twenty-third dynasty.
Ze'red. See Zared.
Zer'e-da. See Zaketan.
Zer-e-da'thah. See Zaretan.
Ze'resh \_'joM'], wife of Haman and
his prompter in ambitious schemes (Esth.
5 : 10-14).
Ze-rub'ba-bel [begotten at Babylon],
the head of the tribe of Judah at the return
from the Babylonish captivity in the first
year of Cyrus (Ezra 2:2^. He was ap-
pointed by the Persian king to the office
of governor of Judaea. He undertook the
rebuilding of the temple, which, after
much opposition and delay, was finished
in the sixth year of Darius, and was ded-
icated with great rejoicing (Ezra 6:14-
22). With the completion of the tem-
ple we lose sight of Zerubbabel. In tlie
New Testament his name appears in the
Greek form of Zorobabel (Matt. 1 : 12,
13; Luke 3 : 27).
Ze-ru-i'ah [leprous], the mother of the
three leading heroes of David's army,
Abishai, .Joab and Asahel. She is sup-
posed to have been a half-sister to David
(1 Chron. 2 : 13, 16 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 25). Of
53S
ZIBA— ZiKLAG.
Zeruiali's husband the Scriptures make no
mention.
Zi'ba [a pillarl, a servant of the house
of Saul who plays a prominent but dis-
creditable part in one of the episodes of
David's liistory (2 Sam. 9 : 2-12; 16 : 1-
4; 19 : 17, 24-30).
Zib'e-on, father of Anali, whose daugh-
ter, Aholibamah, was Esau's wife (Gen. 35 :
2).
Zid'dim, a fortified town in the allot-
ment of Naphtali (Josh. 19 : 3-3).
I Zi''d.on l^fisheiyl, an ancient and
wealthy city of Phoenicia, on the eastern
coast of the Mediterranean Sea, less than
twenty English miles to the north of Tyre
(Josh. 11:8; Judg. 1 : 31 ; Isa. 23 : 2, 4).
In early times Zidon was more infhiential
than Tyre. Erom the time of Solomon to
tlie invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, Zidon is
not often directly mentioned in the Scrip-
tures, and seems then to have been subor-
dinate to Tyre. During the Persian dom-
ination it attained its highest point of
The Port of iludern Zuicjii.
prosperity. Its prosperity, however, was
suddenly cut short by an unsuccessful re-
volt against Persia, which ended in the
destruction of the town. Forty thousand
of its inhabitants are said to have perished
in the flames which consumed its buildings,
rirradnally the city recovered, and once
more became populous and prosperous.
Its modern name is Saida. It is now a
poor place, with little trade or manufac-
tures worthy of the name. Its once fa-
mous harbor has in it scarcely four feet
of water. It is surrounded by fragrant
gardens and orchards, and seen from a
distance presents a beautiful appearance,
which by a nearer view is sadly marred.
Its population is about ten thousand
souls.
Zif, tlie second month of the Jewish
sacred and eighth of the civil year-
reckoning (1 Kings 6:1).
Zik^lag, one of the towns of Judah
(Josh. 15 : 31), afterward allotted out of
the territory of Judah to Simeon (Josh.
19 : 5). At times it was subject to the
Philistines of Gath, whose king, Achisli,
bestowed it upon David for a residence
(1 Sam. 27 : 6). There David resided for
a year and four months, and there he re-
ceived the news of Saul's death (2 Sam. 1 :
ZILLAH— ZOAN.
539
16). He then relinquished Ziklag for He-
bron, where he was anointed " iiing over
the house of Judah" (2 Sam. 2 : 1-4).
ZiFlah [shadow], one of the two wives
of Lamech the Cainite, to whom he ad-
dressed his .song (Gen. 4 : 19-24).
Zil'pah, the handmaid of Leah, wlio be-
came the secondary wife of Jacob and the
mother of Gad and Asher [Gen. 30 : 9-13 ;
35 : 26).
Zim'ri [celebrated in sony], the name of
two men.
1. Tlie son of Sahi, a Simeonite chief-
tain, shiin by Phinehas witli the Midian-
itisli princess Cozbi (jS^um. 25 : 14).
2. Fifth sovereign of the separate king-
dom of Israel, of which he occupied the
throne for the brief period of seven days.
He gained the crown by the murd t oj"
King Elah, son of Baasha (1 Kings 16 :
8-10). The army, however, when they
heard of Elah's murder, proclaimed Omri,
tlieir general, king. Omri marched against
Tirzah, where Zimri held his court, and
took the city. Zimri retreated into the
innermost part of the king's palace, set
it on fire and perished in the flames (1
Kings 16 : 18).
Zin, the north-eastern part of the great
wilderness in which the children of Israel
wandered (Num. 13 : 21). It consists of
two or three successive terraces of moun-
tain converging to an acute angle at the
Dead Sea's southern verge, toward which
also they slope. Kadesh lay in it, and
here also Idumsea was conterminous witii
Judah (Num. 20 : 1 ; 27 : 14; 33 : 36 ; 34 :
3; Josh. 15: 1).
Zi'on [elevated mniuit]. See Jerusa-
lem.
Ziph, the name of two towns in .Judaii.
1. One in the south, between Ithnan and
Telem (Josh. 15 : 24).
2. One in the highland district, between
Carmel and Juttah (Josh. 15 : 55). The
place is memorable for its connection with
David ( 1 Sam. 23 : 14, 15, 24 ; 26 : 2). The
name Zlf is now found about three miles
south of Hebron, attached to a rounded
hill of about one hundred feet in height.
Zip'por [a little bird], fatlier of Balak,
king of Moab (Num. 22 : 2, 4, 10, 16 ; 23 :
18; Josli. 24 : 9; Judg. 11 : 25).
Zip-po'rah [« bird or sparroiv — femi-
nine of Zippor], daugiiter of Reuel or
Jethro, the priest of Midian, wife of
Moses and mother of his two sons, Ger-
shom and Eliezer (Ex. 2 : 21 ; 4 : 25; 18 :
2).
Ziz, Cliff of, the pass by which the
hordes of Moabites, Ammonites and Me-
hunim made their way up from the shores
of the Dead Sea to the wilderness of Judali
nearTekoa(2Chron.20: 14-16). It is now
near the pass ^4 mJic/y, the old En-Gedi, and
is the route which the Arabs take in their
marauding expeditions at the present day.
Zo'an [dwelling-place], an ancient city
of Lower Egypt, originally named in an-
cient Egyptiau Ta(n), called Tanis by the
Greeks, and situated on the eastern side
of the Tanitic arm of the Nile. It is first
mentioned in Scripture as having been
built seven years after tlie building of
Hebron in Canaan (Num. 13 : 22), and
the mention of it tlius indicates appar-
ently some real connection in the origin
of these two cities. If, as is probable, the
Anakim of Hebron, in league with other
Canaanites, were prominent actors iu the
Shepherd invasion of Egypt, commonly
dated about this period, the linking to-
gether in the Bible record of the names
of tlie two cities is readily explained. It
has been represented, but perhaps on in-
sufficient grounds, to be the same as Av-
aris, the capital of the Shepherd dynasty.
Zoan was an important and strongly-for-
tifi d post toward the eastern frontier of
Egypt, the residence of the Pharaoh of
the Plxodus (Ps. 78 : 12, 43j, and at times
the chief seat of government (Isa. 19 : 11,
13; 30 : 4). "The field of Zoan," men-
tioned twice in Ps. 78, is, according to
540
ZOAR— ZUZIMS.
Ebers, a common phrase in the hiero-
glyphic inscriptions. That tlirough many
generations it was a phice of great political
importance is abundantly evidenced by the
Egyptian monuments.
It is named by Ezekiel (30 : 14) as one
of the cities in Egypt which Nebuchad-
nezzar is to burn. Its ruin has for many
generations been complete. A sandy plain,
as vast as it is dreary, called at this day
San, in remembrance of tlie ancient name
of Zoan, and covered with gigantic ruins
of columns, pillars, sphinxes, stelae and
stones of buildings, all cut in the hai-dest
material from the granite of Syene, is the
melancholy site of the once great and
splendid city.
Zo'ar [s?H«//], one of the most ancient
cites of the land of Canaan. Its original
name was Bela (Gen. 14 : 2, 8i. It was
vne of the five cities of the " plain of Jor-
dan," but in the general destruction of
these cities it was spared to afford shelter
to Lot (Gen. 19 : 22, 23, 30). It is men-
tioned in the account of the death of
Moses as one of the landmarks which
bounded his view from Pisgah (Deut. 34 :
3), and it appears to have been known in
the time both of Isaiah (15 : 5i and Jere-
miah (48 : 34).
Zo'ba, Zo'bah, a portion of Syria
which formed a separate kingdom in the
time of the Jewish monarchs, Saul, David
and Solomon (1 Sam. 14 : 47 ; 2 Sam. 8 :
3 ; 2 Chron. 8:3). The name is found in
the inscriptions of Assyria, which appar-
ently locate the kingdom between Ilamath
and Damascus.
Zo'phar, one of the three friends of
Job. He is called the Naamathite, from
the place, probably, where he resided (Job
2: 11; 11 : 1; 20: 1; 42: 9).
Zo'phim, the Field of, a spot on or
near the top of PiSgah, from which Ba-
laam had his second view of the encamp-
ment of Israel (Num. 23: 14). The exact
spot indicated by the name is, according to
Prof. Paine, of the Palestine Exploration
Society, one of the three peaks of Pisgah.
See Pisgah.
Zo'rah, a town in the allotment of the
tribe of Dan (Josh. 19 : 41). It is pre-
viously mentioned (Josh. 15 : 33) in the
catalogue of Judah among the places in
the {ilain or low country, It was the resi-
dence of Manoah and the birthplace of
Samson (Judg. 13:2, 24). It is men-
tioned amongst the places fortified by Ke-
hoboam (2 Chron. 11 : 10). It han been
identified with the modern village of
Sur'ah.
Zu'ar [smallness'}, father of Nethaneel,
the chief of the tribe of Issachar at the
time of the Exodus (Num. 1:8; 2:5; 7 :
18, 23; 10 : 15).
Zuph, a Kohathite Levite, ancestor of
Elkanah and Sanuiel (1 Sam. 1 : 1 ; 1
Chron. 6 : 35).
Zuph, the Land of, a district at
which Saul and his servant arrived after
passing through those of Shalisha, of She-
lim and of the Benjamites (1 Sam. 9 : 5).
It has been thought to be the same iis Soba,
a well-known place about seven miles west
of Jerusalem.
Zur, a Midianite chief, father of the
Cozbi who along with her Israelitish par-
amour was slain by Phinehas (Num. 25 :
15).
Zu'ri-shad'dai [my rock in the Al-
mighty], fatlier of Shelumiel, the chief of
the tribe of Simeon at the time of the Ex-
odus (Num. 1:6; 2:12; 7 : 36, 41 ; 10 :
19).
Zu'zims, the [properly, the Zuzim],
an ancient people who, lying in the path
of Chedorlaomer and his allies, were at-
tacked and overthrown by them (Gen. 14:
5). They inhabited, most probably, the
country of the Ammonites, and were, in
accordance with the usual assumption,
identical with the Zamzummim, who are
known to have been exterminated and suc-
ceeded in their land bv the Ammonites.
BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
BOOKS.
WRITERS.
WHEN WRITTEN.
First Gospel Matthew the Apostle About
Second Gospc4 Mark the Evangelist , '"
Third Gospel Luke the Evangelist ' "
i
Fourth Gospel 'John the Apostle "
The Acts Luke the Evangelist "
Romans Paul tlie Apostle "
First Corinthians " " "
Second Corinthians " " ''
I
Galatians " " "
: I
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
First Thessalonians..
Second Thessalonians...] "
First Timothy : "
Second Timothy \ "
I
Titus "
Philemon "
Hebrews ,
James
First Peter. Peter the Apostle.
Second Peter
First John.
Second John
Third John " " ..
Jude Jude the Apostle..
Revelation John the Apostle.
WHERE WRITTEN.
A. D.
James, son of Al}ihffins ..
John the Apostle..
55..,
Palestine.
G5...
Rome.
60...
Cajsarea.
78...
Epiiesus.
63...
Rome.
58...
Corinth.
57...
Ephesus.
58...
Philippi.
57...
Ephesus.
G2...
Rome.
63...
Rome.
62...
Rome.
53...
Corinth.
53...
Corinth.
63...
Macedonia
67...
Rome.
64...
Epiiesus.
62...
Rome.
63...
Rome.
CO...
Jerusalem,
64...
Babylon.
65...
Babylon.
92...
Ephesus.
92...
Ephesus.
92...
Ephesus.
65...
Palestine.
95...
Patmos.
541
SCRIPTURE CHRONOLOGY
AS COMMONLY EEOEIYED.
PERK)D I.
Ftrni Adam to the Flood, 1G5G years.
B.C.
4004. Creation of Adam.
3875. Murder of Abe!.
3874. Birth of Setli.
3382. Birth of Enoch.
3317. Birth of Methuselah.
3074. Death of Adam:
age, 930 years.
B.C.
3017. Translation of Enoch; age, 305
years.
2948. Biith of Noah.
2468. Threat of the Flood.
2348. Methuselah dies ; age, 969 yeai-s.
2348. Noah, 600 years old, enters tlie ark.
PERIOD II.
From the Flood to the Birth of Abrnm, 352 years.
B.C.
2347. Noah and his family leave the ark.
2234. Confusion of tonirues.
B. ('.
1998. Death of Noah, aged 950 years.
1996. Birth of Abram.
PERIOD III.
From the Call of Abraham to
B.C.
1936. Call of Abraham.
1896. Birth of Isaac.
1871. Offering of Isaac.
1859. Death of Sarah.
1856. Isaac marries Rebekah.
1836. Birth of .Jacob and Esau.
1821. Abraham dies, aged 175 years.
1779. Jacob goes to Padan-Aram.
1746. Birth of .Jose{)h.
.5 42
the Exodus from Egypt, 44-5 years.
B.C.
1739. Jacob returns to Canaan.
1729. .Joseph sold as a slave.
1716. Joseph made governor of Egypt.
1706. Jacob removes to Egypt.
1689. Jacob dies, aged 147 years.
1636. Joseph dies, aged 110 years.
1574. Birth of Aaron.
1571. Birth of Moses.
1491. Moses sent to deliver Israel.
SCRIPTURE CHRONOLOGY.
543
PERIOD IV.
From the Exodus to the Building of Solomon's Temple, 487 years
KC.
]491.
1490.
1453.
1451.
1451.
1443.
1155.
1095.
1085.
106.3.
Exodus from Egypt.
The Law given.
Death of Aaron.
Death of Moses, aged 120 years.
Joshua leads Israel into Canaan.
Joshua dies, aged 1 10 years.
Birth of Samuel.
Saul anointed king.
Birth of David.
David slays Goliath.
B.C.
1055. Saul kills himself.
1055. David acknowledged king by Judali.
1048. David acknowledged king by all the
tribes.
1047. Jerusalem made David's capital.
1033. Birtli of Solomon.
1023. Rebellion of Absalom.
1015. Solomon proclaimed king.
1015. Death of David, aged 70 years.
1004. Solomon's temple finished.
PERIOD V.
From the Dedication of Solomon's Temple to the Destruction of Jerusalem and Captivity
of the Jews in Babylon, Jfl6 years.
B.C.
^
B.C.
Kings of Juflali. B.C. Kings of Israel.
1004
. Solomon's Temple dedicated.
773. Zechariah.
97e
. Deatli of Solomon and revolt of the
772. Shallum(one
Ten Tribes.
month).
B.C.
Kings of Judah.
B.C.
Kings of Israel.
772. Menahem.
975.
Relioboam.
975.
Jeroboam I.
758.
Jotham.
761. Pekahiali.
958.
Abijali.
954.
Nadab.
742.
Ahaz.
759. Pekah.
955.
Asa.
953.
Baaslia.
726.
Ilezekiah.
730. Hoshea.
930.
Elah.
698.
Manasseh.
721. Captivity and
929.
Zimri.
deportation.
929.
Omri.
643.
Amon.
914.
Jeliosliaphat.
918.
Ahab.
641.
Josiah.
892.
Jehoram.
898.
Ahaziali.
610.
Jehoahaz
'three rnonths).
885.
Ahaziah.
896.
Jehoram.
610.
Jehoiachim.
884.
Athaliah (queen).
884.
Jehu.
599.
Jehoiachin (tributary prince).
878.
Joasli.
856.
Jehoahaz.
599.
Zedekiah
tributary prince).
839.
Amaziah.
841.
Jehoash.
588.
Destruction of Jerusalem and temple ;
810.
Azariah or Uzziah
. 825.
Jeroboam II.
PERK
)D V
complet
I.
e captivity.
From the Dcstructinn of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, to the Birth of Jesus, the
Christ, 588 years.
B. c.
588. Destruction of .Jerusalem and begin-
ning of Captivity.
538. Babylon taken by Cyrus.
536. Proclamation of Cyrus for the return
of the Jews.
B.C.
534. Foundation of the temple.
529. Artaxerxes (Cambyses) forbids the
work.
520. Favorable decre? of Ahasuerus.
518. Esther made queen.
544
SCRIPTURE CHRONOLOGY.
B.C.
515.
510.
484.
464.
458.
445.
424.
420.
335.
323.
320.
283.
205.
The second temple finished.
Hainan's plot frustrated. ■
Xerx 'S king of Persia.
Artaxerxes Longimanns.
Ezra sent to govern Jerusalem.
Nehemiah sent as governor.
Samaritan temple built on Mount
Gerizim.
Malachi closes the canon of the Old
Testament Scriptures.
Alexander the Great invades Persia
and establislies the Greek empire.
Alexander dies.
Ptolemy I. (Soter) of Egypt takes
Jerusalem and Jews settle at Al-
exandria.
Septuagint Version made by order of
Ptolemy II. (Piiiladelphiis).
The Jews submit to Antiochus the
Great.
B.C.
170.
166.
153.
135.
109.
107.
63.
54.
40.
28.
18.
Antiochus Epiphanes storms Jerusa-
lem and profanes the temple.
Judas Maccabffius governor.
Jonathan becomes high priest.
John Hyrcanus, high priest.
John Hyrcanus destroys the temple
on ^lo.int Gerizim.
Judas (Aristobulus) high priest and
king.
Jerusalem taken by Pompey, and .Ju-
daea made a Roman province.
Crassus plunders the temple.
Herod made king.
Augustus Ctesar emperor of Rome.
Herod begins the rebuilding of tiie
temple.
Jesus, the Christ, born four yeais be-
fore the era known as A. D.
Herod dies at Jericho.
Archelaus is greeted as king.
PERIOD VII.
From the Birth of Jesua, the Christ, to the end of the First Century.
I A. D.
A. D. Four years before a. d. 1 our Lord born.
8. Jesus visits .Jerusalem.
22. Pilate sent from Rome as governor
of Judsea.
25. John the Baptist begins his ministry. •
26. Jesus baptized by .John.
29. Crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus
Christ.
36. Conversion of Paul.
38. Gospel preached to the Gentiles.
44. James bclieaded by Herod.
63. Paul sent a prisoner to Rome.
65. Beginning of the Jewish war.
67. Paul suffers martyrdom at Rome b_v
order of Nero.
67. Vespasian, the Roman general, raises
the siege of Jerusalem, by which an
opportunity is aflbrded for the Chris-
tians to retire to Pella beyond Jor-
dan, as admonished by our Lord.
70. Jerusalem besieged and taken by Ti-
tus ; the temple destroyed.
95. John banished to the island of Pat-
mos by the emperor Domitian.
96. John writes the Revelation.
97. John, liberated from exile, writes his
Gospel.
100. John, the last surviving apostle, dies
in Ephesus, according to tradition.
THE ENT).
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