What the national forests mean to Montana

Historic, archived document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
MISCELLANEOUS CIRCULAR No. 48

FEBRUARY, 1926

WASHINGTON, D. C.

WHAT THE NATIONAL FORESTS MEAN TO
MONTANA

By K. D. SWAN, Forest Examiner, Forest Service

F-172892

GLACIER CREEK, FLATHEAD NATIONAL FOREST

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ¢ 1926

ATURAL resources of great value have fallen to
Montana’s share, and not the least of these is
the wealth of her forests.

Most of the forested areas of Montana are more
‘valuable for growing trees than for any other pur-
pese, and the lumber industry of the State tells its
own story in the number of men employed in the
woods and mills, the development of industries
directly dependent upon forest supplies, and other
direct contributions to the general prosperity of the
region.

The forests of the State have also other items
to their credit:

On much of the land timber and forage are
intermixed and grazing of cattle and nee. is a
major activity.

The timbered slopes are primary reservoirs of
power and fertility undergoing steady develop-
ment.

The great mining centers of the State not only

draw supplies but also derive power for transpor-
tation from adjacent forested areas.

Wild life is a forest resource of Montana, and one
of the duties of forest officers is its protection
under State game laws.

The conservation and development of the na-
tional forests of Montana therefore mean the per-
petuation of its sobriquet—The Treasure State.

Washington, D. C. Issued February, 1926

IT

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WHAT THE NATIONAL FORESTS MEAN TO MONTANA

By K. D. SWAN, Forest Examiner, Forest Service

CONTENTS

Page Page
Montana richly endowed ______-_-__ ALC CeayeT O Mirmere arene Sie Se ee a ig)
Montana natinal forests___________ Are) | AN WAU Nok Tuts res 2. SN SS 5 RR Re Sea i Re SS he 21
The timber resources of Montana___ 2 ETO veCh Ola hrOmmstt eG). as es ae ene 23
Theshimber industry \4 +k pe PUAWorest plains et 6). eee ES 26
Gragin vee Saat aah eee ae ee BE. 7 | Revenue from the national forests__ 27
Wie ber pO Ww. Glad setae 2 tee a ee 11 | Six rules for preventing fire in the
Deri sata Oris Sage roe eS aS ee 12 POTES Sma seueeset . Peat ee ee RBS 28

DIDS Wg Fe SO ea tie end epee me! 16

MONTANA RICHLY ENDOWED

On the seal of Montana are the words “ Oro Y Plata” (gold and
silver), but 1 in the design above these words one finds, together with
the miner’s pick and shovel, a plow, forest trees, and falling waters,
all emblematic of a rich natural endowment.

From the days when the trapper and trader took a heavy toll of
furs from her woods to the present with its discoveries of oil, an
increasing comprehension has come of the variety and extent of
the resources of Montana, and the imagination may readily picture
a future growth which will make still more appropriate her present
sobriquet, “ The Treasure State.”

In Montana, as usually in new regions, the wealth oihiely was most
evident and easiest reached was exploited first. Trapping fur-bear-
ing animals was the initial industry of the region. Later the bison,
which at one time roamed the plains of central and eastern Montana,
was ruthlessly slaughtered and in an incredibly short space of time
almost exterminated. With the discovery of gold there sprang up
mining camps, famous in the early history of the West. Soon after
the influx of prospectors and miners the agricultural possibilities of
the country were recognized. The value of the open grass ranges
east of the Continental Divide was early realized, and a great stock-
raising industry arose, which has made the Montana cowboy with his
“chaps” a picturesque character of equal interest with the miner
and the fur trader. Silver mining led to the discovery in 1883 of
vast copper deposits in the vicinity of Butte, and Montana became
the second copper-producing State in the Union. Finally, the true
value of Montana’s forests is becoming evident—a value which will
be more and more realized with increasing industrial development
and growth of population. The value of the forests lies not alone in
the timber which may be cut, but also in the relation the timbered
areas bear to streamflow and water power, and the pleasure and
health they bring to those who visit them each year for rest and
recreation.

1

2 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

MONTANA NATIONAL FORESTS

There are seventeen national forests in Montana. Practically
all the State’s timbered region east of the Continental Divide, and a
large portion of that to the west, is included within their boundaries.
Of 17,880,000 acres of publicly owned forests in Montana, 15,930,000
acres are in national forests, 560,000 acres belong to the State,
780,000 acres are Indian land, and a small amount is included in
military reservations, Glacier National Park, and unadmuinistered
public domain. (See map, pages 14 and 15.)

Most of the forested areas of Montana are more valuable for grow-
ing trees than for any other purpose. In this respect they are unlike
much of the forest that originally existed in the Kast and Middle
West, which was cleared away to make farms. Only a very small
part of the land now under cultivation in Montana had to be cleared.
How to make the best use of the timberlands in the State did not
involve the question of clearing them for agriculture, but rather the
means to be employed in making them produce timber in greater
quantity and better quality as a yearly crop in perpetuity.

With a growing population, and with expanding industries facing
a constantly decreasing supply of timber, the necesssity for proper
management and utilization of the great forested public domain is
apparent. The national forests were set aside under an act of Con-
gress passed in 1891. Since 1905 they have been administered by the
Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture.
The object aimed at in the administration of the national forests is
the best use of all their resources under such regulations as will in-
sure the permanency of these resources. Mature timber is for sale
and may be cut in accordance with the principles of scientific for-
estry ; where there is forage grazing of livestock is permitted; where
water power is available its development under proper regulation is
encouraged; where there are recreational opportunities they are
open to the public; and where there are mineral deposits they may
be freely exploited.

THE TIMBER RESOURCES OF MONTANA

It is estimated that four-fifths of the timber in Montana is west of
the Continental Divide; here is the seat of the lumber industry, and
here the large sawmills are located. The heavy growth of timber
is due directly to the rainfall caused by moisture-laden winds that
find their way inland from the Pacific Ocean.

Magnificent stands of western yellow pine (see fig. 1), the most
widely distributed conifer of the West, grow in the Bitterroot,
Blackfoot, Thompson, and Flathead River Valleys, and in much
of the country tributary to the Kootenai River. It is estimated
that about 46 per cent of the total supply of western larch in the
United States is in Montana, practically all in the northwestern
counties (fig. 2). Intermixed with western yellow pine and larch
is Douglas fir, which stands high among the valuable timber trees
of Montana. Although some western white pine grows here: also,
the quantity cut is very small compared with what is taken from the
woods of northern Idaho and eastern Washington, and it can not
be considered one of the important timber trees of the State.

What the National Forests Mean to Montana 3

In contrast to the heavily wooded region west of the Divide is
the country to the eastward, with forests confined largely to the

mountains. At elevations of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet, extensive

areas of lodgepole pine cover portions of the Continental Divide
ranges and are a valuable source of mine timbers, poles, and ties
for the mining industry and the railroads. This tree here assumes
a much greater importance than west of the Divide, where, though
widely distributed, it forms a smaller proportion of the total forest
stand. Mixed with the lodgepole pine are Englemann spruce and
alpine fir. The isolated ranges of the Little Belt and Crazy
Mountains rise like islands from treeless bench lands and _ plains,
and bear on their slopes and shoulders forests of pure lodgepole.
At lower elevations yellow pine and Douglas fir are found, but the
trees are of poorer quality and grow in more open stands than in the
moister region to the westward.

F-86465

Fic. 1.—A forest of western yellow pine in the Bitterroot National Forest. This
tree is the most important timber species in Montana

In the extreme eastern part of the State tree growth is very
sparse, and is confined largely to isolated buttes and to the rim
rocks and bluffs along streams. Such woods as these are utilized
with a closeness unknown in places where timber is more plentiful.
The Custer National Forest, which includes a group of hills lying
between the Tongue and Powder Rivers and further east to the
border of South Dakota, has a growth of western yellow pine

_ timber which is a valuable resource for a wide expanse of treeless

country. Here the rancher and stockman may obtain fuel wood
and fence posts, and a number of small sawmills of the portable
type supply lumber for building purposes. (Fig. 3.) It is not

4 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

unusual for a rancher to travel 50 miles for a load of boards or
fuel. The aim of the Forest Service in the management of the
Custer National Forest is to maintain a perpetual supply of timber
for the benefit of the local people.

F-79024 ;
Fic. 2.—It is estimated that about 46 per cent of all western larch grows in Montana \

THE LUMBER INDUSTRY

During 1994 the lumber mills of Montana manufactured 351,-
403,000 board feet of lumber. (Fig. 4.) Most of the finest lum-
ber is produced in the western counties, but the areas of lodge-
pole pine and Engelmann spruce of the forests east of the Divide
also yield lumber of fair quality, besides large quantities of poles,
mine timbers, and ties. The small mills operating in central and

What the National Forests Mean to Montana 5

eastern Montana also cut much yellow pine and Douglas fir from

the forests growing at elevations below the lodgepole pine areas.

The magnitude of the lumber industry and what it means to the
State can easily be appreciated from the number of men employed in
the woods and mills, the revenue paid to the railroads, the amount
paid in taxes, and other factors contributing to the general pros-
perity of the region.

The largest sawmill is at Bonner. Near by is another large mill
which is operated by electricity. Other large mills are located at
Missoula, Somers, Warland, Libby, and Troy.

Although there are no paper mills operating in Montana, certain
localities offer good opportunities for the successful establishment
of a pulp and paper industry. Large areas on the Blackfeet and
Flathead National Forests are composed chiefly of Engelmann
spruce and white fir, species very well suited for pulpwood. The

F-156418
Fig. 3.—A small sawmill on the Custer National Forest in eastern Montana

lodgepole pine stands of the State may in the future offer possibili-
ties for the further development of the pulp and paper industry.
With an increase in the population of Montana, the demand, for

lumber will also increase. Although a certain proportion of the

special grades and sizes of lumber must be imported from other
localities, the mills of the State should be able to furnish the greater
part used. An adequate supply of material for these mills therefore
becomes a big consideration.

Of the total quantity of lumber cut in Montana during 1924, ap-
proximately 18 per cent came from national forest land. As the
holdings of private companies are cut out, the timber of the national
forests will be more and more sought after, and the percentage from
this source, although varying from year to year, will increase in the

long run.
NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER IS SOLD

The standing timber of the national forests which is mature and
ready to cut is sold at fair prices (fig. 5). Anyone may buy timber,

6 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

but no one may hold it for speculative purposes or attempt to build
up a monopoly through such purchase. In choosing timber which is
to be sold, several points are taken into consideration. The aim of
the Forest Service is to maintain a constant supply, available for
the future as well as for the present. Much of the timber in the
national forests of Montana is in a stage where growth is at a stand-
still, or the annual increase in volume is so shght as to be negligible.

The mature trees should be cut so that the younger and more thrifty

trees may have room to grow and seedlings may start.

The buyer of national-forest timber is required to observe certain
rules of cutting, designed to insure a future forest. There must be
young trees to replace those cut, and these trees must be given op-

F-156155

Fic. 4.—Lumber yard of a mill cutting national forest timber

portunity to survive by being protected from fire. Trees for future
growth, especially thrifty young trees which will grow rapidly, and
trees for protection of watersheds, to maintain forest cover and to
produce seed must be left. Logging must be carried on in such a
way as to damage as little as possible the young trees and seedlings
that are left, and slash must be disposed of by piling and burn-
ing so as not to injure the remaining trees.

Many stands are composed of several species, some of more value
than others. To make certain that the less valuable species will
not predominate in the future forest is a problem which must be
met. ‘The methods used in handling timber sales aim directly at
this result. The fewest possible restrictions are imposed upon pur-
chasers of timber, however, and it is the desire of the Forest Service

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What the National Forests Mean to Montana fi

to avoid red-tape methods which tend to delay and embarrass the
purchaser. Homesteaders and farmers may obtain national-forest
timber for their own use at the actual cost to the Government of
handling the sale, no charge being made for the timber itself. Resi-
dents may take dead timber for personal use free of charge.
Experienced woodsmen estimate the quantity and “quality of
national-forest timber and its approximate value, as a basis for
the price to be charged. AJl factors which affect the cost of lumber-
ing, such as accessibility, and number and kind of improvements
necessary, as well as the general market conditions, are taken into
consideration. ‘The prices set allow the purchaser opportunity for
a fair profit. Bids are obtained through public advertisement, un-
less the amount is small enough to come within the limit which can

F-86471

Fie. 5.—A timber sale area on a national forest

be sold without such advertisement. No bid lower than the ap-
praised value of the timber is considered.

Information concerning attractive logging chances and the con-
ditions of sale is gladly given by the local forest officers.

GRAZING

The livestock industry 1s one of the oldest and most important
activities in Montana. Not many years ago ample range was avail-
able to fatten vast herds of cattle, which were grazed on the plains
and on the grassy slopes of the foothills. The public domain was
used by those who were best able to assert their rights in a new
country where settlers were few. Fences were scarce, and the use
of the range was almost unrestricted. Friction between range users

52303 °—26——2

8 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

was not unusual, and range wars were common. ‘The cattleman
looked askance at the sheepman, for sheep were considered
a menace to cattle range. As the country became settled and
other industries developed, the livestock owner found it increas-
ingly hard to obtain sufficient range for his needs. Overgrazing
was the result. The valuable forage plants gradually disappeared
and plants which livestock do not eat came in to take their place.
The carrying capacity of the range was thus greatly diminished.

With the creation of the national forests, a large amount of
range which was intermixed with timber stands came under the ad-
ministration of the Forest Service. Nearly all this range was al-
ready being used and much of it was undergoing depletion through
overgrazing. Thus restoration and maintenance of the ranges at
once became an object of Forest Service administration. In addi-
tion the task of developing unused and undergrazed ranges was
undertaken.

F—-29339—A

Fig. 6.—AIl resources of the national forests are for use. Fine grazing lands occur
near the upper limits of timber growth

Better use of the range has gradually come into practice, and
steady progress has been made toward really scientific management.
The condition of the ranges has improved, and the forests are at
the same time carrying more stock than under the old conditions.
This has been accomplished with the cooperation of the stockmen.
An equitable division of the range between sheepmen and cattlemen,
and between individual owners, has come about, and range wars no
longer occur. (Fig. 6.)

The first three essentials in scientific range management are (1)
limitation of the grazing season to prevent injury through too early
or too prolonged use; (2) regulation of the number and class of
livestock to fit the carrying capacity; and (3) methods of handling
to prevent concentration and overuse of portions of the range, with
failure to utilize the range elsewhere. As these principles are
worked out and applied, the ranges will be still further improved.

This is in striking contrast with what is happening on the public
ranges outside the national forests. These outside ranges are gener-

What the National Forests Mean to Montana 9

ally at lower elevations than the national-forest ranges, and there-
_ fore constitute the natural feeding grounds for livestock at the be-
ginning and end of the grazing period. In many places they ad-
join and form an integral part of the national-forest ranges. This
fact, together with a recognition of the value of regulation of range
use, has led to a demand in many places to have outside ranges added
to the national forests.

The aim of national-forest range administration is to build up
and maintain at the highest point the productive capacity of the
lands, and along with this to stabilize the livestock industry and
promote settlement. Therefore the range is not allotted to the
highest bidder, but preference is given to established users who own
improved ranch property dependent on the range. The best use of
the public ranges is in connection with farm and ranch develop-
ment. Unless there is correlation of both national-forest ranges and
public ranges outside the boundaries, with range development, the
livestock industry can not realize the greatest measure of pros-

erity. -

: At present the national forests contain large areas of public range
under stabilized use. With 11,250,000 acres of land available for
grazing, they have about 13 per cent of the cattle and horses and
86 per cent of the sheep grazed in Montana, or about 160,000 cattle
and horses, and 773,000 sheep. On much of the land timber and for-
age are intermixed. Grazing of such land, when properly regulated,
does not conflict with the growing of tree crops, but on the contrary
reduces the fire risk by lessening the inflammable material on the
ground.

Although the timber resources of the national forests in Montana
have been developed only to a limited degree, the grazing resources
are almost wholly utilized. In fact, the demand for range on the
forests is far greater than the capacity.

Cooperation between stockmen is supplanting the old idea of
every man for himself. Very often a cattle range is assigned to a
group of stockmen to be used in common by them. Each permittee
turns on this range the number of animals his permit allows, and all
the stock share the benefits of common watering and salting places
and other range improvements. Cooperative herding and shipping
is generally practiced under these conditions. Sheep range is di- -
vided into units of the right size for the individual bands. AIl-
though bands are usually confined to the individual range allotted to
them, it is not uncommon for a number of small owners to pool their
stock in a community band for the summer season.

In 1924 the average number of stock for each permittee was 69
cattle and horses and 1,594 sheep.

Before range can be most effectively utilized, it is necessary to
know such things as the number and kind of animals a certain area
can support and the season when grazing may be permitted without
injury to the land or to forage plants. To this end extensive surveys
are being made as fast as funds permit. These surveys are nothing
more than detailed inventories of the grazing resources, carefully
recorded in a systematic manner to form the basis of a management
plan or scheme which aims to allow the maximum use consistent
with the annual production of forage plants.

10 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Range division lines are established to separate as far as possible

ranges used by different classes of stock. Cattle and horses generally
graze on the lower, more accessible grass ranges, whereas sheep are
able to utilize large areas of timbered and semitimbered weed and
browse range lying at the higher elevations. In some cases a range
may be used in common by cattle and sheep, the sheep often feeding
on the weeds which tend to crowd out the more palatable grasses
relished by the cattle.

An interesting example of the solution of range problems is found
in the new method of herding sheep which is now in use on national-
forest ranges (fig. 7). Much of the antagonism to sheep in times
»ast was due to the fact that severe damage was caused to the range
by unnecessary trailing to and from bed grounds and close cropping
of the forage. Investigations by the Forest Service have proved that
this damage does not occur when sheep spread out over a consider-

F-30356-A -

Fieg. 7.—Open herding, illustrated in this picture, was first put into practice in
Montana on the Helena National Forest

. able area while feeding instead of being held in a close bunch. The
herder allows the sheep to graze during the day at will, and instead
of driving them to a bed ground at night, which causes unnecessary
damage to forage, camps wherever night overtakes the band. Not
only is feed conserved in this way, but the sheep do better than under
the old system, because when they leave the bed ground they are on
fresh feed and are better nourished. It is not uncommon for a pro-
gressive sheep herder to bring off lambs each weighing 5 to 10 pounds
more than those of his neighbor herder who insists on close herding
and driving sheep to the same bed ground many nights in succession.

The system of grazing on the national forests is directed by graz-
ing experts—men who combine practical knowledge of the range
livestock industry with scientific training. The local forest officers
work under and with them to apply the methods which the experts
prescribe. To open feeding grounds, roads and bridges are built,
driveways located, and the remotest corners of the forests ransacked

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What the National Forests Mean to Montana het

in the search for new grazing areas. Meanwhile intensive study is
being given to ways of increasing the forage yield and the effective-
ness of its utilization.

WATER POWER

Lewis and Clark, journeying wp the Missouri River in 1805, en-

countered the ae which “haan ‘since been known’ as the Great —

Falls of the Missouri. These falls, which were to the explorers a
barrier against progress, are now harnessed and drive the turbines
ofa oreat power plant. Going upstream, in the space of a few miles
one finds Rainbow and Black Eagle Falls developed in the same
manner; and where the explorers” saw only semiarid bench lands
the prosperous city of Great Falls stands, with its immense elec-

F-15018
Fic, 8.—An undeveloped power site at the falls of the Kootenai River

trically operated smelter and zinc plant. These instances of the
development of water power resources, great as they seem, only indi-
cate the possibilities the future may hold. The State has about
1,000,000 primary horsepower in power sites, which have been or can
be developed at a reasonable expense. (Fig. 8.) Montana now has
an interconnected power system supplying one of the largest terri-
tories of any single system in the world.

The greatest power development is on the Missouri River. From
the large Hebgen Reservoir near the head of the Madison River,
an important tributary of the Missouri, to the Sheep Creek Rapids
below Great Falls, there are a succession of 14 power sites, 8 of
which are developed. If all 14 were developed to full capacity,
engineers estimate that 313,000 horsepower could be produced. The

12 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Clark Fork watershed has sites which would produce a total of over
620,000 horsepower. A power plant at Thompson Falls now de-
livers 60,000 horsepower. One of the largest sites, with a possi-
bility of 205,000 horsepower, .s on the Flathead River, below Polson.
The Kootenar River has two potential power sites. A dam 480
feet high, which would develop about 100,000 horsepower, has been
considered at the Big Horn Canyon on the Big Horn River about
30 miles above Hardin.

There are also power sites on the small rivers and creeks, which,
although they supply but a small amount of water, have a great fall
in a short distance. Many such sites are now developed for supply-
ing power to mines and stamp mills, and for lighting purposes in
small towns.

Electricity now hauls the trains of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St.
Paul Railway across the Rockies and the Bitterroot Mountains. The
Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Railroad, over which passes practically
all the ore used at the great Anaconda smelter, has been operated by
electricity for years. Electric power is used in the great mines
around Butte, and has supplanted steam power in numerous other
industries.

To provide a constant supply of water is one of the big problems
of the water-power and irrigation engineer, and the solution de-
pends to a large extent on the protection afforded by the forests at
the heads of streams. A covering of trees keeps the winter snow
from melting too quickly and prevents rapid evaporation of sum-
mer rains. The forest floor, with its duff and litter, acts as a
sponge to hold water which seeps into it instead of running off the
surface. Denuded areas, with little shade to protect the snows and
with shallow soil lacking in vegetable duff to hold the moisture,
are poor assurance for power developments involving the invest-
ment of millions of dollars.

Including within their boundaries great areas of mountainous
country where streams have their sources, the national forests of

the State are of great value to the water-power industry. In: fact,

the value of many of these forests les chiefly in their use for water-
shed protection. Extensive areas of lodgepole-pine timber on such
forests as the Absaroka, Beaverhead, and Madison are of special
importance from this standpoint and are treated accordingly, so
that the stability of industry dependent upon the rivers which they
feed is assured. :

It must not be supposed, however, that the timber on such a
forest must be left unused in order to maintain the value of the
forest as a protective cover. By the application of practical for.
estry methods the great lodgepole forests can be made to yield many
products, such as mine timbers, fence posts, and poles and ties, with-
out the least reduction in their value as regulators of run-off. Pro-
tection from forest fire, that greatest of all denuding agents, must
be assured, and is one of the chief safeguards the Forest Service
aims to provide. :
IRRIGATION

Irrigation antedates the discovery of gold in Montana. Father
DeSmet, a Jesuit priest, introduced the art in the Bitterroot Valley

in 1845, and a small irrigated settlement grew up around St. Mary’s

ila eats

F

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What the National Forests Mean to Montana 13

Mission, where the present town of Stevensville now stands. The
expansion of irrigation between 1860 and 1870 was simultaneous
with that of agriculture, some of the men disappointed in gold min-
ing turning to farming in the rich grass-covered valleys.

Montana now has nearly 3,000,000 acres of irrigated land. The
irrigated area is being steadily enlarged by new projects, and by the
extension and improvement of many older ones. In many localities
cheap power makes it feasible to pump water to irrigate relatively
high lands, and this form of irrigation is already in successful oper-
ation in a number of places. (Fig. 10.)

F-150152

Fic. 9.—An irrigation flume, Beaverhead National Forest. Near this point is the site
of the Big Hole Battle, fought between Nezperce Indians and soldiers in 1877

Forested watersheds are important to irrigation as well as to
water-power projects. The timbered mountain slopes of the na-
tional forests, protected as they are from devastation, may be con-
sidered as great primary reservoirs. To conserve still further the
waters of the mountains, numerous lakes lying in the valleys have
been dammed. This form of development is encouraged by the
Forest Service policy of putting every resource of the forests to its
highest use. The orchards and fields of the famous Bitterroot
Valley are watered by streams rising wholly in the great areas of
national-forest land which encircle this region. The Sun River
reclamation project near Great Falls is entirely dependent for water
on the streams rising.in the Lewis and Clark National Forest. Many
other cases might be cited, but irrigation is so generally dependent

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The National Forests of Montana

16 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

on water from the wooded mountains of the national forests that
these examples may be considered as typical. -

The conservation of water by storage in the mountains is also
important for municipal water supplies. (Fig. 10.) |

MINING

The history of mining in Montana began with the discovery
during the summer of 1862 of placer gold in the gravel of Grass-
hopper Creek, near the present site of Bannock, once the seat of
the Territorial government. The news of the discovery soon spread,
and with the rush to this new field came the finding of other dig-
gings. Two gold seekers, Wiliam Fairweather and Henry Edgar,
discovered Alder Gulch, the richest and most extensive deposit of
placer gold in the Rockies, if not in the world. Last Chance Gulch,
where Helena now stands, Confederate Gulch in Broadwater Coun-
ty, Nelson Gulch, and the Marysville district yielded millions. The
exact amount will never be known, since much of the dust was
taken out of the country by the gold hunters who returned to
the East after making their “* stake.”

Although Montana heads the list of producers of silver, large
quantities of which are taken from copper ores as well as from
silver ores, the greatest mining epoch of the State was entered with
the discovery of copper in the Anaconda silver mine at Butte in
1883. So valuable was the strike that the plans of the owners were
changed, and they decided to erect a smelter instead of a silver mill.
Ore was found in seemingly inexhaustible quantities. Marcus Daly
built a big smelter at Anaconda, and in a short time the copper
produced amounted to millions of pounds. Montana now ranks
second in the production of copper, being surpassed only by Ari-
zona.

Montana also holds second place in the production of zinc, and
great quantities of lead are taken from zinc and silver ores. The
demand for manganese during the war led to the development of |
extensive deposits of this ore in the Philipsburg and Butte dis-
tricts. At Yogo, in Judith Basin, is the largest deposit of sapphires
in the world. There are between 12 and 15 large, and about 40
small coal mines in Montana, mostly in Carbon and Cascade Coun-
ties, and extensive deposits of low-grade coal underlie large areas
throughout the eastern part of the State.

The mines of Montana have always depended more or less on the
forests for their successful development. In the early days the pros-
pector and miner built flumes and sluices from hand-hewn timber,
and arrastras and mills from logs. With the rapid development of
the larger mines came a correspondingly increased demand for wood.
At one time wood and charcoal were used almost entirely in the
smelters at Anaconda and Butte, and millions of cords were cut for
this purpose. The amount of wood used for mine timbers at the
present time is enormous. Stulls and lagging for tunnels and drifts,
converter poles, and mine ties are all a necessity to the industry.

The large mining centers of the State are fortunate in their
proximity to national forests. The coal mines of Red Lodge have
forests at their very thresholds to draw from. The Butte mines
have in the large areas of lodgepole pine in the national forests a

\

What the National Forests Mean to Montana 17

source of supply which can be counted on as a permanent factor in
the industry.

Fic. 10.—Reservoir on the Helena National Forest which supplies water for the
capital city of the State

The demand for wood for the operation of the mines and smel-
ters, as well as for fuel, has resulted in many cases in complete
destruction of the forests in the immediate vicinity of the large

18 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

mining camps. Added to this is the damage caused by smelter
fumes. Old-time methods of smelting involved the use of wood and
charcoal, both of which admitted of cutting the forests absolutely
clean. The deadening of the forests through the use of fire so cheap-
ened the work of cutting that it was customary to keep the fires
burning two or three years ahead of cutting operations.

Near Anaconda the timber on thousands and thousands of acres
has been entirely killed by smelter fumes. Practically all of this
timber that was suitable for use in the mines has been taken out, but
utilization is less complete than formerly, because there is no longer
need for charcoal. The continued presence of the fumes prevents
reproduction. ‘These areas are therefore lost for timber growing.

F-166701
Fic. 11.—A mine tunnel on the Jefferson National Forest. A prospector may stake
a claim wherever he finds evidences of valuable minerals

The elements in the smelter fumes that are destructive to trees con-
sist almost entirely of sulphur dioxide and trioxide gases, which are
produced in the smelting of sulphide copper ores.

Through improved methods of smelting, the damage to the forests
is being somewhat reduced. This, with the prevention of fires
through national forest administration, is resulting in bringing some
of the land back to forest production. At the same time all clean
cutting has been stopped by the Forest Service. The creation of
national forests has therefore contributed greatly to the permanence
of the near-by timber supply for mining purposes, as well as to
stream-flow regulation by keeping a constant forest cover on water-
sheds.

4
|
.
:

ie

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What the National Forests Mean to Montana 19

Mineral deposits within the forests are open to development
exactly as on other public land. A prospector may go anywhere and
stake a claim wherever he finds evidences of valuable minerals.
(Fig. 11.) The policy of the Forest Service is to give the mining
man all the help possible. The only restriction is that mining claims
must be bona fide ones, and not taken up for the purpose of acquir-
ing valuable timber or a town or power site, or to monopolize the
water supply on stock range. Prospectors may use timber on their
claims for development purposes free of charge.

RECREATION

Within the past few years has come a great increase in. the
number of people who are finding recreation in out-of-door pur-

F-158879
Fic. 12.—Boy Scouts at camp on Seeley Lake, Missoula National Forest

suits, such as camping, mountain climbing, camera hunting, and
fishing. With the increased use of the automobile, many are finding
it possible to explore the country in their own and other States, and
automobile tourists from the East are passing by thousands over the
main roads of the West.

The national forests offer an infinite variety of country, from
rugged mountain peaks and remote wilderness to more acces-
sible regions where one may find good fishing streams, beauti-
ful lakes, and an abundance of camping places. The value of the
material resources of these forests can be arrived at with some de-
gree of accuracy but the more intangible values which they hold for
the lover of the out-of-doors can never be computed in dollars and
cents. (Fig. 12.),

90 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

The national forests of the northwestern part of the State (the
Blackfeet, Kootenai, and Cabinet) are heavily wooded in parts
and contain stretches of primeval forest as beautiful as can be
found in the Northwest. The wonderful Turquoise Basin region at
the head of Swan River has but recently been explored. The
granite peaks and spires of the Bitterroot Mountains are worth a
visit by the adventurer who wishes to try his skill on peaks which
are seldom scaled. On the Beartooth National Forest is Granite
Peak, the highest mountain of the State, with an elevation of 12,875
feet, and the curious Grasshopper Glacier, where may be seen
myriads of grasshoppers sealed in the ice, probably since pre-
historic times.

F-166685
Fic. 13.—A summer home on Belt Creek, Jefferson National Forest

What the National Forests Mean to Montana 21

Few towns in central or western Montana are too. far from na-
tional-forest areas to prevent people from reaching woods, streams,
lakes, and mountains easily. Many obtain permits for summer-
home sites from the Forest Service on lakes or streams and put up
cabins and cottages (fig. 13.) Seeley Lake, on the Missoula Na-
tional Forest, has a summer colony formed mostly of citizens of
Missoula. Many of the people of Great Falls have leased summer-
home sites along Belt Creek on the Jefferson National Forest, and
feel amply repaid for an automobile ride of 60 miles by spending a
day or so on the banks of a mountain stream. Bozeman is fortunate
in having the valley of the West Gallatin River near by, and the
Forest Service has been called on to lease many home sites in this

Fig. 14.—Mule or Rocky Mountain black-tail deer. One of the finest game animals
of Montana

locality. The Beartooth National Forest satisfies the wants of
Billings in this respect and gives the people of that city a place
where they may enjoy the out-of-doors,

WILD LIFE

‘One of the important duties of forest officers is the protection
of wild life, as provided for by the State game laws, which apply
on the national forests exactly as in other places. (Fig. 14.)

A large herd of elk makes its home within Yellowstone Park
near its northern boundary, and during the season of deep snows
these animals are driven to feed in the lower country of the ad-
jacent Absaroka and Gallatin National Forests. The Sun River
Game Preserve, located on the Lewis and Clark Forest, contains
an elk herd estimated at 3,500 animals. Elk are also scattered
through the forests of the western part of the State. A favorite

22 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

hunting ground for elk is found at the head of the South Fork of
the Flathead River; and, notwithstanding the fact that a number are
taken each year, the animals seem to be holding their own.

Mountain goats are still found in Montana, and the visitor to the
high country of the Flathead or Bitterroot National Forests or
along the Continental Divide is seldem disappointed in getting a
sight of these interesting creatures. Mountain sheep are sometimes
seen at several points in the national forests, chiefly in the Sun River
Game Preserve. Although rare, moose are occasionally encountered
in the Montana woods, small bunches having been sighted on the
Absaroka, Beaverhead, and Missoula National Forests. These ani-
mals are all protected at the present time.

Bear are now considered game animals in the State, and can only
be taken with a rifle, the older methods of trapping and hunting
with dogs being forbidden. The common brown and black bears
are plentiful, and grizzlies make their home in the higher rocky
country.

Good fishing streams are found everywhere in the forests of Mon-
tana. (Fig. 15.) The Forest Service cooperates with the State and
other agencies in planting fish in many of the streams which have
been fished out. As the automobile continues to make fishing streams
and hunting grounds more accessible, the situation can only be met
through a wider and more frequent restocking of streams, regulation
of the number of fish that can be taken by each person each day,
and strict game law enforcement.

Wild life is a forest resource. It has great value, both economic
and esthetic, to any State or community. The national forests are
the natural habitat and shelter for much of the remaining game
and wild life, and no plan of forest management is complete that
does not take this into account. Through unrestricted or poorly
regulated taking of game in the past, the supply has been greatly
depleted and in some places almost entirely exterminated. One of
the important objects of the Forest Service, therefore, is to build
up wild life to the amount which the forests can properly support,
at the same time taking into account the need of range for domestic
livestock.

The establishment of game refuges where no hunting is allowed
is the first step toward accomplishing this end. Careful study is
necessary in the selection of these refuges, so as to bring about the
best distribution and properly to coordinate game production with
the forage needs of domestic livestock. A game-management plan
is made for each forest and is being constantly improved and per-
fected. Forest officers cooperate fully with the State game depart-
ment. They serve as State game wardens, and the fact that they are
always going about through the forests at all seasons of the year
has done much toward bringing about game law enforcement. A
game census on each forest is a part of the plan. Through education,
the public has become more interested and the sentiment in favor of
game conservation 1s growing rapidly. Game and wild life are be-
coming an increasingly important resource of the national forests,
in which, because of her immense forest regions, Montana may well
hope to take the lead.

What the National Forests Mean to Montana 92

PROTECTION FROM FIRE

Fire has always been a menace to the forests of the Northwest.
The season of 1910, when fires in western Montana and northern

F—-162490

Fic. 15.—Rattlesnake Creek, Missoula National Forest

Idaho burned more than $24,000,000 worth of timber and caused the
death of 78 people, has written into the history of this region one
of its most sensational chapters. The traveler over railroad or

24 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

highway through western Montana can not fail to notice the great
scars left on the mountain slopes by these severe fires. There is a
period from the last of June to the first of September when rain is
usually very scarce in the State. In some years practically no rain
falls from early June until the middle of September. The forest
becomes very dry and inflammable, and it often happens that at
these times a succession of severe electric storms occurs, bringing an
abundance of lightning with little rain to extinguish the fires which
are started. These lightning fires are usually set in the high
mountain country, often remote from settlements and hard to reach.

Even before the coming of white men, fires took their toll of Mon-
tana forests. Of this there is abundant proof in fire scars hidden
in the wood of old trees, and char-
coal buried in the duff of the for-
est floor. With the coming of the
settlers to Montana the fire haz-
ard gradually increased, because
of sparks from locomotives and
carelessness of brush burners,
campers, and smokers.

Before the national forests were
put under the administration of
the Forest Service in 1905, little
or no attempt was made to con-
trol forest fires on the public do-
main. They were left to burn
unchecked except in cases where
buildings or other improvements
were threatened. This indiffer-
Gen. ence to timber destruction has dis-
appeared with the growing ap-
preciation of the value of forests
and forest products.

The greatest fire danger in
Montana is in the heavy stands
of timber west of the Continental
Divide. <A fire burning in the
a@ee| crowns of the trees and driven
sees) forward by high wind is a de-
F-isoia0 structive force which can hardly

Fic. 16.—A forest fire lookout cabin be appreciated without being seen.

East of the Continental Divide,
where the growth of timber is more open in character, the danger is
much less, although great destruction can be caused in the heavy
lodge-pole pine forests.

The Forest Service has now developed a comprehensive system
of fire protection. During the summer months an extra force of men
is employed in protective work. On some of the higher peaks,
which command extensive views of the country, lookout men are
constantly on the watch for smoke (Fig. 16), which may be likened
to a signal of distress. When smoke is discovered its approximate
location is at once reported over the telephone to the nearest ranger
station. A patrolman, called a “ smoke-chaser,” starts immediately
to investigate and put out the blaze. In case the fire proves to be

aeat

What the National F orests Mean to Montana 25

too large to be extinguished with the light tools which one man can
carry on his back, extra help is assembled, equipped with tools, and
sent to the scene.

To reach fires in rough and inaccessible country is sometimes
a difficult undertaking. The transportation of supplies must be by
pack horses over rough mountain trails (Fig. 17). Effort is always
made, however, to send men and equipment as soon as possible,
for a fire is easily put out only while it is small.

In fighting fire it is usual to construct a fire line, or trench, by
cutting out fallen timber and clearing away the débris and litter
down to the mineral soil until a break is formed at which the fire
can be held. A line of this kind is patrolled continually to prevent
the fire from crossing. Often a high wind will baffle all attempts
to check a fire at a line of this kind, and the flames will leap the
barrier and make it necessary to build another fire line to surround

Fig. 17.—Pack train transporting lumber for a lookout cabin

the new area. Back-firing is occasionally employed to hold the

flames inside the fire line by burning the inflammable material for

some distance toward the oncoming blaze. This is a hazardous un-
dertaking at best, and is only practiced under exceptional circum-
stances or as a last resort.

Private owners, realizing that it is to their interest to protect
their investments in timber and cut-over lands, have in many cases
organized timber protective associations or cooperative agencies for
detecting and extinguishing fires. The cost of patrolling and fire
fighting is paid out of a common fund provided by the assessment
of each owner according to the number of acres he holds. There
are two such organizations in Montana at the present time.

Grass fires are common in the open yellow-pine forests of eastern
Montana. Valuable cattle range may be destroyed by such fires or
areas of young trees wiped out. The damage is small, however, in
contrast to the destruction caused by a bad fire in the heavy EET
west of the Divide.

96 Miscellaneous Circular 48, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
FOREST PLANTING

The largest Government nursery for the growing of forest trees
in the United States is located near Haugan, a small town on the
Yellowstone Trail in western Montana. ‘This is known as the
Savenac Nursery, because of its location at the mouth of Savenac
Creek, a tributary of the St. Regis River. Here are growing at ail
times about 10 000,000 small trees of timber-producing species, such
as western white and western yellow pines, spruce, and fir.

These trees are not for sale, but are used for replanting lands
devastated by forest fires (fig. 18). Fires have taken a heavy toll

F_173786

Fic. 18.—Plantation of yellow pine on the Lolo National Forest

from the forests west of the Continental Divide. The severe fires
which occurred during the dry summer of 1910 left many mountain
slopes denuded of all vegetation. On such lands tree growth is slow
in starting, or what does start represents the poorer species, such as
lodgepole pine, rather than more desirable timber: On land of this
kind seedlings can be successfully and promtaDty planted.

The cost for each tree is very small—about 114 cents covers every-
thing from the seed to the time the young tree is finally set out on
the planting site. It is estimated that it will take about 120 years
for the small trees to reach maturity.

One thousand pounds of seed a year are rer famed a raise the trees
in this nursery. The Forest Service superintends the collection of
cones, dries them, and extracts the seed in special machinery designed
for the purpose. "After growing in the nursery beds for two or three
years the little trees are taken up for final planting on the sites where
they are needed. They are spaced 8 feet apart each way, so that 680
trees are required for an acre. Western yellow pine is the species

OY ss

What the National Forests Mean to Montana o7

most successfully grown in this region, as it will adapt itself to a
great variety of locations and when once established has few enemies
and makes rapid growth.

REVENUE FROM THE NATIONAL FORESTS

In addition to receipts from timber sales and grazing permits on
the national forests, considerable revenue is derived from sites leased
for summer homes and for such establishments as hotels, stores, or
stage stations. No charge is made for permits for school-building
sites, reservoir conduits, roads, trails, or telephone lines. As greater
use 1s made of the resources of the forests, revenues will increase
proportionately.

To the counties containing areas of national forest land, 25 per
cent of the revenue obtained from such areas is turned over for road

F-150141

Fic. 19.—Big Hole Road, Bitterroot National Forest

and school purposes. To January 1, 1924, $1,278,000 had been given
to Montana counties which have national-forest areas within their
boundaries.

In addition, 10 per cent of forest revenue is set aside for the pur-
pose of building roads and trails in the national forests. These
improvements are of direct benefit to people traveling in sparsely
settled regions in or near the national forests. (Fig. 19.)

Congress has directly appropriated about $2,000,000 for the con-
struction of roads needed for public travel within and adjacent to
the national forests of Montana. During the past three years about
$800,000 was allotted for roads and trails needed primarily for pro-
tecting, developing, and administering the forests. From this fund
a system of roads and trails is being constructed into areas of valu-
able timber, so that men with supplies and fire-fighting equipment
can get to fires quickly,

SIX RULES FOR PREVENTING FIRE IN THE FORESTS

1. Matches.—Be sure your match is out. Break
it in two before you throw it away.

2. Tobacco.—Be sure that pipe ashes and cigar
or cigarette stubs are dead before throwing them
away. Never throw them into brush, leaves, or
needles.

3- Making Camp.—Before building a fire scrape
away all inflammable material from a spot 5 feet
in diameter. Dig a hole in the center and in it
build your fire. Keep your fire small. Never
build it against trees or logs or near brush.

4. Breaking Camp.—Never break camp _ until
vour fire is out—dead out.

5. Brush Burning.—Never burn slash or brush in
windy weather or while there is the slightest dan-
ger that the fire will get away.

6. How to Put Out a Camp Fire.—Stir the coals
while soaking them with water. Turn small sticks.
and drench both sides. Wet the ground around
the fire. If you can’t get water stir in dirt and
tread it down until packed tight over and around
the fire. Be sure the last spark is dead.

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