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WOOD AND FOREST

By WILLIAM NOYES. M.A.

Formerly Assistant Professor cf Industrial Art;
T eachers College, Columtua University

NEW YORK CITY

The Manual Arts Press
Peoria. Illinois

WILLIAM NOYES
1912

FIFTH EDITION, 1921

Printed in United Stales of America

FOREWORD

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This book has been prepared as a companion volume to the au-
thor’s Handwork in Wood.1 It is an attempt to collect and arrange
in available form useful information, now widely scattered, about
our common woods, their sources, growth, properties and uses.

As in the other volume, the credit for the successful completion
of the book is to be given to my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who
has made the drawings and maps, corrected the text, read the proof,
and carried the work thru to its final completion.

Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and
suggestions in the text to the following persons :

Mr. A. D. Hopkins, of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Entomology, for revision of the text relating to
Insect Enemies of the Forest, in Chapter VI.

Mr. George G. Hedgcock, of the United States Bureau of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Plant Industry, for revision of the text relating
to the fungal enemies of the forest, in Chapter VI.

Mr. S. T. Dana and Mr. Burnett Barrows, of the United States
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for revision of Chapters
IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII.

Professor Charles P. Richards, formerly Head of the Manual
Training Department of Teachers College, my predecessor as lec-
turer of the course out of which this book has grown.

Professor M. A. Bigelow, Head of the Department of Botany of
Teachers College, for revision of Chapter I, on the Structure of Wood.

Mr. Romeyn B. Hough, of Lowville, N. Y., author of American
Woods and Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Can-
ada, for suggestions in preparing the maps in Chapter III.

The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., for photographs and
maps credited to it* and for permission to reprint the key to the
identification of woods which appears in Forest Service Bulletin No.
10, Timber , by Filibert Roth.

The Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
for permission to copy illustrations in bulletins.

1Wi]liam Noyes, Handioork in Wood, Peoria, 111. The Manual Arts Press,
"231 pp., $2.

566079

The Macmillan Company, New York, for permission to reproduce
Fig. 86, Portion of the Mycelium of Dry Pot, from Timber and
Some of its Diseases, by H. M. Ward.

Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting, of Lafayette, Indiana, for the
photograph of the cross-section of a bud, Figure 5.

Finally and not least I hereby acknowledge my obligations to the
various writers and publishers whose books and articles I have freely
used. As far as possible, appropriate credit is given in the paged
references at the end of each chapter.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER

General Bibliography 4

The Structure of Wood 9

II Properties of Wood 41

III The Principal Species of American Woods 57

IV The Distribution and Composition of the North American

Forests 197

V The Forest Organism 211.

VI Natural Enemies of the Forest 229

VII The Exhaustion of the Forest 251

VIII The Use of the Forest 271

Appendix 289.

Index 304:

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Apgar, A. G., Trees of the Northern United States. N. Y. : American Book
Co., 224 pp. A small book dealing with the botany of trees, giving de-
scriptions of their essential organs, and particularly valuable for the
leaf key to the trees. It should be supplemented by Keeler or Hough’s
Handbook.

Baterden, J. R., Timber. N. Y. : D. Van Nostrand Co., 1908, 351 pp. A
description of the timbers of various countries, discussion of timber
defects, timber tests, etc.

Bitting, K. G., The Sttucture of Wood. Wood Craft, 5: 76, 106, 144, 172,
June-Sept., ’06. A very scholarly and valuable series of articles on
wood structure and growth. Excellent microphotographs.

Britton, Nathaniel Lord, North American Trees. N. Y. : Henry Holt & Co.,
1908, 894 pp. A description of all the kinds of trees growing inde-
pendently of cultivation in North America, north of Mexico, and the
West Indies. The standard Botany of trees.

Boulger, G. S., Wood. London: Edward Arnold, 369 pp. A thoro discus-
sion of wood structure, with chapters on the recognition and classifica-
tion of woods, defects, preservation, uses, tests, supplies, and sources
of wood. Good illustrations.

Bruce, E. S., Frost Checks and Wind Shakes. Forestry and Irrigation, 8:
159, April, ’02. An original study of the splitting of trees by sudden
frost and thaw.

Bruncken, Ernest, North American Forests and Forestry. N. Y.: G. P.
Putnam’s Sons. 265 pp. A comprehensive survey of American Forestry
conditions including the forest industries, fires, taxation, and manage-
ment. No illustrations.

Busbridge, Harold, The Shrinkage and Warping of Timber. Sci. Amer. Suppl.,
No. 1500, Oct. 1, 1904. Good photographic illustrations.

Comstock, J. H. and A. B., A Manual for the Study of Insects. Ithaca,
N. Y. : Comstock Publishing Co., 701 pp. Valuable for reference in
classifying insects injurious to wood.

Curtis, Carleton C., Nature and Development of Plants. N. Y. : Henry Holt
& Co., 1907, 471 pp. Chapter III is a very clear and excellent discus-
sion of the structure of the stem of plants ( including wood ) .

Encyclopedia Brittannica, Eleventh Edition, Cambridge: At the University

Press. Article: Forests and Forestry, Vol. 10, p. 645. Article: Plants,
Anatomy of, Vol. 21, p. 741 Article: Timber Vol. 26, p 978.

Felt, E. P., The Gypsy and Brown Tail Moths. N. Y. State Museum: Bul-
letin 103, Entomology, 25. Valuable for colored illustrations as well
as for detailed descriptions.

Fernow, B. E., Economics of Forestry. N. Y. : T. Y. Crowell & Co. 1902,
quarto 520 pp. A treatment of forests and forestry from the standpoint

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

of economics, including a comprehensive exposition of the forester’s art,
with chapters on forest conditions, silviculture, forest policies, and
methods of business conduct, with a bibliography.

Fernow, B. E., Report upon the Forestry Investigation of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 1887-1898. Fifty-fifth Congress, House of Repre-
sentatives, Document No. 181. Quarto, 401 pp. A review of forests
and forestry in the U. S., of forest policies of European nations, par-
ticularly of Germany, of the principles of silviculture, of a discussion
of forest influences, and a section on timber physics.

Harwood, W. S., The New Earth. N. Y.: The Macmillan Co., 1906. 378

pp. A recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture. Chap. X on
modern forestry, describes what has been done in different states in
conservative lumbering.

Hough, Romeyn B., American Woods. Lowville, N. Y. : The author. An
invaluable collection in eleven volumes (boxes) of sections of 275 spe-
cies of American woods. There are three sections of each species,, cross,
radial, and tangential, mounted in cardboard panels. Accompanied by
a list of descriptions and analytical keys.

Hough, Romeyn B., Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Can-
ada. Lowville, N. Y.: The author. 470 pp. A unique, elegant, and
sumptuously illustrated book, with photographs of tree, trunk, leaf,
fruit, bud, and sometimes wood, a map of the habitat of each species,
and a full and careful description of tree and wood. Intended for bot-
anists, foresters and lumbermen.

Johnson, J. B., The Materials of Construction. N. Y. : John Wiley & Sons.
1898. 775 pp- Chapter XIII is identical with Forestry Bulletin X,

Roth’s Timber.

Keeler, Harriet, Our Native Trees. N. Y.: Scribner’s. 1900. 533 pp. A

very attractive and popular book showing great familiarity with the
common trees and love of them. Numerous photographs and diawings.

Lounsberry, Alice, A Guide to the Trees. N. Y.: Frederick A. Stokes Co.
313 pp. A popular description of some 200 common trees, with plenti-
ful illustrations.

Pinchot, Gifford, A Primer of Forestry. Parts I and II, U. S. Dept, of
Agric. For. Serv. Bull. No. 24. 88 pp. and 88 pp. A concise, clear, and
fully illustrated little manual of forestry conditions, forest enemies,
forestry principles and practice abroad and in the U. S.

Finchot, Gifford. The Adirondack Spruce. N. Y. : G. P. Putnams Sons.
A technical account of the author’s investigations on a forest estate in
Northern New York.

Price, O. W., Saving the Southern Forests. World’s Work, 5: 3207, March,
’03. A plea for conservative lumbering; excellent illustrations.

Record, Samuel J., Characterization of the Grain and Texture of Wood.
Woodcraft, 15: 3, June, 1911.

Roth, Filibert, A First Book of Forestry. Boston: Ginn & Co. 291 pp. A
book for young people, giving in an interesting form many valuable

WOOD AND FOREST.

facts about American forests and their care and use. It includes a
leaf key to the trees.

Sargent, Charles Sprague, Forest Trees of North America. U. S. 10th
Census, Vol. 9. Quarto, 612 pp. Part 1 deals with the distribution
of the forests, and gives a catalog and description of the forest trees
of North America, exclusive of Mexico. Part II. Tables of properties
of the woods of the U. S. Part III. The economic aspects of the for-
ests of the U. S. considered geographically, and maps showing distri-
butions and densities. Exceedingly valuable.

Sargent, Charles Sprague, Jesup Collection, The Woods of the U. S. N. Y. :
D. Appleton & Co., 203 pp. A detailed description of the Jesup Col-
lection of North American Woods in the American Museum of Natural
History, N. Y. City, with valuable tables as to strength, elasticity,
hardness, weight, etc. Condensed from Vol. IX of 10th U. S. Census.

Sargent, Charles Sprague, Manual of the Trees of North America. Boston:
Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 826 pp. A compact mine of information, with
some errors, about the known trees of North America and their woods,
summarized from Sargent’s larger work, ‘‘The Silva of North America.”
(See below.)

Sargent, Charles Sprague, The Silva of North America. Boston: Houghton,
Mifflin Co. A monumental and sumptuous work of 14 quarto volumes,
describing in great detail all the known trees of North America and
their woods, with beautiful line drawings of leaves and fruits.

Shaler, Nathaniel S., The United States of America. Vol. 1, pp. 485-517.
N. Y. : D. Appleton & Co. Chapter IX is a popular description of
American forests and the Lumber Industry.

Snow, Chas. Henry, The Principal Species of Wood. N. Y. : John Wiley &
Sons. 203 pp. Descriptions and data regarding the economically im-
portant varieties of wood, with excellent photographs of trees and woods.

Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and Schimper. A Text Book of Botany. N. Y. :
Macmillan & Co. 746 pp. Valuable for minute information about the
morphology of wood.

U. S. Tenth Census, Vol. IX. See Sargent.

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Bulletins. The character
of these government pamphlets is well indicated by their titles. No.
10 is an exceedingly valuable summary of the facts about the structure
and properties of wood, contains the best available key to identification
of common American woods (not trees) and a concise description of
each. It is incorporated, as Chap. XIII, in Johnson’s, ‘‘The Materials
for Coustruction.” N. Y. : John Wiley & Sons. Nos. 13 and 22 are
large monographs containing much valuable information.

No. 10. Filibert Roth, Timber.

No. 13. Charles Mohr, The Timber Pines of the Southern United States.
No. 15. Frederick V. Coville, Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the
Cascade Mountains of Oregon.

No. 16. Filibert Roth, Forestry Conditions in Wisconsin.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

No. 17. George B. Sudworth, Check List of the Forest Trees of the
United States, 1898.

No. 18. Charles A. Keffer, Experimental Tree Planting on the Plains.

No. 22. V. M. Spalding and F. H. Chittenden, The White Pine.

No. 24. Gifford Pinchot, A Primer of Forestry.

No. 26. Henry S. Graves, Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks.

No. 41. Herman von Schrenck, Seasoning of Timber.

No. 45. Harold B. Kempton, The Planting of White Pine in New Eng-
land.

No. 52. Royal S. Kellogg, Forest Planting in Western Kansas.

No. 61. Terms Used in Forestry and Logging.

No. 65. George L. Clothier, Advice for Forest Planters in Oklahoma and
Adjacent Regions.

No. 74. R. S. Kellogg and H. M. Hale, Forest Products of the U. S-,
1905.

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Circulars.

No. 3. George William Hill, Publications for Sale.

No. 25. Gifford Pinchot, The Lumberman and the Forester.

No. 26. H. M. Suter, Forest Fires in the Adirondacks in 1903.

No. 36. The Forest Service: What it is, and how it deals with Forest
Problems. Also Classified List of Publications and Guide to
Their Contents.

No. 37. Forest Planting in the Sand Eill Region of Nebraska.

No. 40 H. B. Holroyd, The Utilization of Tupelo.

No. 41. S. N. Spring, Forest Planting on Coal Lands in Western
Pennsylvania.

No. 45. Frank G. Miller, Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska.

No. 81. R. S. Kellogg, Forest Planting in Illinois.

No. 97 R. S. Kellogg, Timber Supply of the United States.

No. 153 A. H. Pierson, Exports and Imports of Forest Products, 1907.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Books for:

1896. Filibert Roth, The Uses of Wood.

1898, p. 181. Gifford Pinchot, Notes on some Forest Problems.

1899, p. 415. Henry S. Graves, The Practice of Forestry by Private
Owners.

1900, p 199. Hermann von Schrenck, Fungous Diseases of Forest Trees.
1902, p. 145. William L. Hall, Forest Extension in the Middle West.
1902, p 265. A. D. Hopkins, Some of the Principal Insect Enemies of

Coniferous Forests in the United States.

1902, p. 309. Overton, W. Price, Influence of Forestry on the Lumber
Supply.

1903, p. 279. James W. Tourney, The Relation of Forests to Stream
Flow.

1903, p. 313. A. D. Hopkins, Insect Injuries to Hardwood Forest Trees.

1904, p, 133. E. A. Sterling, The Attitude of Lumbermen toward Forest
Fires.

WOOD AND FOREST.

1904, p. 381. A. D. Hopkins, Insect Injuries to Forest Products.

1905, p. 455. Henry Grinell, Prolonging the Life of Telephone Poles.
1905, p. 483. J. Grivin Peters, Waste in Logging Southern Yellow Pine.
1905, p. 636. Quincy R. Craft, Progress of Forestry in 1905.

1907, p 277. Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp, Cutting Timber in the
National Forests.

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology Bulletins:

No. 11. n. s. L. O. Howard, The Gypsy Moth in America,

No. 28. A. D. Hopkins, Insect Enemies of the Spruce in the Northeast.
No. 32. n. s. A. D. Hopkins, Insect Enemies of the Pine in the Black
Hills Forest Reserve.

No. 48. A. D. Hopkins, Catalog of Exhibits of Insect Enemies of Forest
and Forest Products at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, . St.
Louis, Mo., 1904.

No. 56. A. D. Hopkins, The Black Hills Beetle
No. 58. Part 1, A. D. Hopkins, The Locust Borer.

No. 58. Part II, J. L. Webb, The Western Pine Destroying Bark Beetle.
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletins:

No. 32. Herman von Schrenck, A Disease of the White Ash Caused by
Polyporus Fraxinophilus, 1903.

No. 36. Hermann von Schrenck, The “ Bluing ” and “Red Rot” of the
Western Yellow Pine, 1903.

Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber Industry, Part I,
Standing Timber, February, 1911. The latest and most reliable inves-
tigation into the amount and ownership of the forests of the United
States.

Ward, H. Marshall, Timber and some of its Diseases. London: Macmillan &
Co., 295 pp. An English book that needs supplementing by informa-
tion on American wood diseases, such as is included in the list of gov-
ernment publications given herewith. The book includes a description
of the character, structure, properties, varieties, and classification of
timbers.

Chapter I.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

When it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a par-
ticular purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure, it
is plain that the woodworker should know the essential characteris-
tics of that structure. While his main interest in wood is as lum-
ber, dead material to be used in woodworking, he can properly un-
derstand its structure only by knowing something of it as a live,
growing organism. To facilitate this, a knowledge of its position
in the plant world is helpful.

All the useful woods are to be -found in the highest sub-kingdom
of the plant world, the flowering plants or Phanerogamia of the
botanist. These flowering plants are to be classified as follows :

' I. Gymnosperms. (Naked seeds.)

1. Cycadaceae. (Palms, ferns, etc.)

2. Gnetaceae. (Joint firs.)

3. Conifers. Pines, firs, etc.

Phanerogamia, u. Angiosperms. (Fruits.)

(Flowering plants) 1 L Monocotyledons. (One seed-leaf.)

Palms, bamboos, grasses, etc.)

2. Dicotyledons. (Two seed-leaves.)

a. Herbs.

b. Broad-leaved trees.

Under the division of naked-seeded plants (gymnosperms) , prac-
tically the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved
trees or the conifers, including such trees as the pines, cedars, spruces,
firs, etc. Their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings, like
that of the broad-leaved trees; is easily worked, and is more widely
used than the wood of any other class of trees.

Of fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), there are two classes, those
that have one seed-leaf as they germinate, and those that have two
seed-leaves.

The one seed-leaf plants (monocotyledons) include the grasses,
lilies, bananas, palms, etc. Of these there are only a few that reach

WOOD AND FOREST.

the dimensions of trees. They are strikingly distinguished by the
structure of their stems. They have no cambium layer and no dis-
tinct bark and pith; they have unbranched stems, which as a rule
do not increase in diameter after the first stages of growth, but grow
only terminally. Instead of having concentric annual rings and
thus growing larger year by year, the woody tissue grows here and
there thru the stem, but mostly crowded together toward the outer
surfaces. Even where there is radial growth, as in yucca, the struc-
ture is not in annual rings, but irregular. These one seed-leaf tree?
(monocotyledons) are not of much economic value as lumber, being
used chiefly “in the round,1 ” and to some extent for veneers and
inlays; e. g., cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used.

The most useful of the monocotyledons, or endogens, (“inside
growers/’ as they are sometimes called,) are the bamboos, which are
giant members of the group of grasses, Fig. 1. They grow in densp
forests, some varieties often 70 feet high and 6 inches in diameter,
shooting up their entire height in a single season. Bamboo is very
highly valued in the Orient, where it is used for masts, for house
rafters, and other building purposes, for gutters and water-pipes-
and in countless other ways. It is twice as strong as any of our
woods.

Under the fruit-bearing trees (angiosperms), timber trees am
chiefly found among those that have two seed-leaves (the dicotyle-
dons) and include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees
such as chestnut, oak, ash and maple. It is to these and to the coni-
fers that our principal attention will be given, since they constitute
the bulk of the wood in common use.

The timber-bearing trees, then, are the :

(1) Conifers, the needle-leaved, naked-seeded trees, such as pine
cedar, etc. Fig. 45, p. 199.

(2) Endogens, which have one seed-leaf, such as bamboos, Fig. 3

(3) Broad-leaved trees, having two seed-leaves, such as oak.
beech, and elm. Fig. 48, p. 202.

The common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate. Manv
of the so-called deciduous (Latin, deciduus, falling off) trees are
evergreen, such as holly, and, in the south, live oak, magnolia and
cherry. So, too, some of the alleged “evergreens,” like bald cypress
and tamarack, shed their leaves annually.

TJ1E STRUCTURE OF WOOD

Fig-. 1. A Bamboo Grove, Kioto, Japan

WOOD AND FOREST.

ISTot all of tlie “conifers” bear cones. For example, the juniper
bears a berry. The ginko, Fig. 2 , tho classed among the “conifers,”
the “evergreens,” and the “needle-leaf” trees, bears no cones, has
broad leaves and is deciduous. , It has an especial interest as being

the sole survivor of many species which grew
abundantly in the carboniferous age.

Also, the terms used by lumbermen, “hard
woods” for broad-leaved trees and fsoft woods
for conifers, are still less exact, for the wood
-of some broad-leaved trees, as bass and poplar,
is much softer than that of some conifers, as
Georgia pine and lignum vitae.

Another classification commonly made is
that of “endogens” (inside growers) including
bamboos, palms, etc., and exogens (outside
growers) which would include both conifers and
broad-leaved trees.

One reason why so many classifications have come into use is
that none of them is quite accurate. A better one will be explained

later. See p. 23.

As in the study of all woods three sections are made, it is well
at the outset to understand clearly what these are.

The sections of a tree made for its study are (Fig. 3) :

(1) Transverse, a plane at right angles to the organic axis.

(2) Radial, a longitudinal plane, including the organic axis.

Fig. 2. Ginko Leaf.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

(3) Tangential, a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis.

If a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-
leaved tree is made, it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct
parts. See Fig. 4. These, beginning at the outside, are :

( 1 ) Rind or bark

( a ) Cortex

(b) Bast

( 2 ) Cambium

(3) Wood

(a) Sap-wood

( b ) Heart-wood

(4) Pith.

(1) The rind or bark is
made up of two layers, the
outer of which, the “cortex,”
is corky and usually scales or
pulls off easily; while the in-
ner one is a fibrous coat called
“bast” or “phloem.” To-
gether they form a cone, wid-
est, thickest, and roughest at
the base and becoming nar-
rower toward the top of the
tree. The cortex or outer

, , . . . , Fig-. 4. Diagram of Cross-section of Three

bark serves to protect the stem Year Old Stem of Basswood.

of the tree from extremes of

heat and cold, from atmospheric changes, and from the browsing of
animals. It is made up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which
has taken the place of the tender skin or “epidermis” of the twig.
Because it is water-proof the outside tissue is cut off from the water
supply of the tree, and so dries up and peels off, a mass of dead
matter. The cork and the dead stuff together are called the bark.
As we shall see later, the cork grows from the inside, being formed
in the inner layers of the cortex, the outer layers of dry bark being
thus successively cut off.

The characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and
kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork. Each tree has its own
kind of bark, and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make
the tree easily recognizable.

nEDULLARY
RAYS

FIRST YEARS
_ GROWTH

5EC0flD YEAR'S
GROWTH

THIRD YEAR'S
GROWTH
--’"CAMBIUM

LEflUCEL

CORK

EPIDERMIS

WOOD AND FOREST.

Bark may be classified according to formation and method of
separation, as scale bark, which detaches from the tree in plates, as
in the willows; membraneous bark, which comes off in ribbons and
films, as in the birches; fibrous bark, which is in the form of stiff
threads, as in the grape vine; and fissured bark, which breaks up
in longitudinal fissures, showing ridges, grooves and broad, angular
patches, as in oak, chestnut and locust. The last is the commonest

form of bark.

The bark of certain kinds of trees, as cherry and birch, has pe-
culiar markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks, es-
pecially on the young branches. These are called lenticels (Latin len-
ticula, freckle), and have two purposes: they admit air to the internal
tissues, as it were for breathing, and they also emit water vapor.
These lenticels are to be found on all trees, even where the bark is
very thick, as old oaks and chestnuts, but in these the lenticels are
in the bottoms of the deep cracks. There is a great difference in the
inflammability of bark, some, like that of the big trees of California,
Fig. 54, p. 209, which is often two feet thick, being practically in-
combustible, and hence serving to protect the tree ; while some bark,
as canoe birch, is laden with an oil which burns furiously. It there-
fore makes admirable kindling for camp fires, even in wet weather.

Inside the cork is the “phloem” or “bast,” which, by the way,
gives its name to the bass tree, the inner bark of which is very tough
and fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making. In a liv-
ing tree, the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has
been made in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts.

(2) The cambium. Inside of the rind and between it and the
wood, there is, on living trees, a slimy coat called cambium (Med.
Latin, exchange). This is the living, growing part of the stem,
familiar to all who have peeled it as the sticky, slimy coat between
the bark and the wood of a twig. This is what constitutes the fra-
grant, mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm. Cambium
is a tissue of young and growing cells, in which the new cells are
formed, the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark.

In order to understand the cambium and its function, consider its
appearance in a bud, Fig. 5. A cross-section of the bud of a growing
stem examined under the microscope, looks like a delicate mesh of thin
membrane, filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called
“protoplasm” (Greek, protos, first; plasma , form). These meshes

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

were first called "cells” by Eobert Hooke, in 1667, because of their
resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb. The walls of these
"cells” are their most prominent feature and, when first studied,
were supposed to be the essential part; but later the slimy, colorless
substance which filled
the cells was found to
be the essential part.

This slimy substance,
called protoplasm, con-
stitutes the primal stuff
of all living things. The
cell walls themselves are
formed from it. These
young cells, at the apex
of a stem, are all alike,
very small, filled with
protoplasm, and as yet,
unaltered. They form
embryonic tissue, i. e.
one which will change.

One change to which any
cell filled with proto-
plasm is liable is divi-
sion into two, a new par-
tition wall forming with-
in it. This is the way
plant cells increase.

In young plant cells,
the whole cavity of the
chamber is filled with
protoplasm, but as the
cells grow older and
larger, the protoplasm
develops into different
parts, one part forming the cell wall and in many cases leaving cavi-
ties within the cell, which become filled with sap. The substance of
the cell wall is called cellulose (cotton and flax fibers consist of al-
most pure cellulose). At first it has no definite structure, but as
growth goes on, it may become thickened in layers, or gummy, or

Fig-. 5. Young- Stem, Magnified 18% Diameters, Show-
ing Primary and Secondary Bundles. By Courtesy oj
Mrs. Katharine Golden Bitting.

E, epide'rmis, the single outside laver of cells.

C, cortex, the region outside of the bundles.

HB, hard bast, the black, irregular ring protecting
the soft bast.

SB, soft bast, the light, crescent-shaped parts.

Ca, cambium, the line between the soft bast and the
wood.

W, wood, segments showing pores.

MR, medullary rays, lines between the bundles con-
necting the pith and the cortex.

MS, medullary sheath, the dark, irregular ring just
inside the bundles.

P, pith, the central mass of cells.

WOOD AND FOREST.

hardened into lignin (wood), according to the function to be per-
formed. Where there are a group of similar cells performing the
same functions, the group is called a tissue or, if large enough, a
tissue system.

When cells are changed into new forms, or “differentiated,” as it
is called, they become permanent tissues. These permanent tissues
of the tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed,
viz., the rind, the pith and the wood.

The essentially living part of the tree, it should be remembered,
is the protoplasm : ' where there is protoplasm, there is life and

Fig-. 6. Three Stages in the Development of an Exogenous
Stem. P, pith; PB, primary bast; SB, secondary bast; C,
cambium; PR, pith ray; PW, primary wood; SW, secondary
wood; PS, procambium strands. After Boulger.

growth. In the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees — some-
times together called exogens — this protoplasm is to be found m the
buds and in the cambium sheath, and these are the growing parts of
the tree. If we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes
a stem, into a terminal bud, we should find that it passed without
break into the protoplasm of the bud.

In the cross-section of a young shoot, we might see around the
central pith or medulla, a ring of wedge-shaped patches. These are
really bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of
leaves thru the stem to the roots. They are made of protoplasm and
are called the “procambium strands/’ Tig. 6.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

In the monocotyledons (endogens) these procambium strands
change completely into wood and bast, and so losing all their proto-
plasmic cambium, become incapable of further growth. This is why
palms can grow only lengthwise, or else by forming new fibers more
densely in the central mass. But in the conifers and broad-leaved
trees, the inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part
bast (bark). Between these bundles, connecting the pith in the cen-
ter with the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts
of the original pith tissue of the stem. They are the primary pith
or medullary rays (Latin, medulla , pith). The number of medullary
rays depends upon the number of the bundles; and their form, on
the width of the bundles, so that they are often large and conspicu-
ous, as in oak, or small and indeed invisible, as in some of the coni-
fers. But they are present in all exogenous woods, and can readily
be seen with the microscope. Stretching across these pith rays from
the cambium layer in one procambium strand to that in the others,
the cambium formation extends, making a complete cylindrical sheath
from the bud downward over the whole stem. This is the cambium
sheath and is the living, growing part of the stem from which is
formed the wood on the inside and the rind (bark) on the outside.

In the first year the wood
and the bast are formed di-
rectly by the growth and
change of the inner and outer
cells respectively of the pro-
cambium strand, and all such
material is called “primary;”
but in subsequent years all
wood, pith rays, and bast,
originate in the cambium, and
these growths are called “sec-
ondary.”

(3) The wood of most
exogens is made up of two
parts, a lighter part called the
sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum, and a darker part called the
heart-wood or duramen, Fig. 7. Sap-wood is really immature heart-
wood. The difference in color between them is very marked in some
woods, as in lignum vitae and black walnut, and very slight in others.

Fig-. 7. Sap-wood and
Heart-wood, Eig-num Vitae.

WOOD AND FOREST.

as spruce and bass. Indeed, some species never form a distinct heart
wood, birch (B etui a alia) being an example.

In a living tree, sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily
quite different functions. The sap-wood carries the water from the
roots to the leaves, stores away starch at least in winter, and in other
ways assists the life of the tree. The proportional amount of sap-
wood varies greatly, often, as in long-leaf pine, constituting 40 per
cent, of the stem.

As the sap-wood grows older, its cells become choked so that the

sap can no longer flow
thru them. It loses its
protoplasm and starch
and becomes heart-
wood, in which all
cells are dead and
serve only the me-
chanical function of
holding up the great
weight of the tree and
in resisting wind pres-
sures. This is the rea-
son why a tree may
become decayed and
hollow and yet be alive
and bear fruit. In a
tree that is actually
dead f he sap-wood rots
first.

Chemical sub-
stances infiltrate into
the cell walls of heart-
wood and hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood. Persimmon

>■

Fig-. 8. Section of Douglas Fir, Showing Annual
Rings and Knots at Center of Trunk. American
Museum of Natural History , N. 1 .

turns black, walnut purplish brown, sumac yellow, oak light brown,
tulip and poplar yellowish, redwood and cedar brownish red. Many
woods, as mahogany and oak, darken under exposure, which shows
that the substances producing the color are oxidizable and unstable.
Wood dyes are obtained by boiling and distilling such woods as su-
mach, logwood, red sanders, and fustic. Many woods also acquire
distinct odors, as camphor, sandalwood, cedar, cypress, pine and
mahogany, indicating the presence of oil.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

As a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber, being harder,
heavier, and drier than sap-wood. In woods like hickory and ash,
however, which are used for purposes that require pliability, as in
baskets, or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes, sap-wood is
more valuable than heart-wood.

In a transverse section of a conifer, for example Douglas spruce,
Fig. 8, the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings, the outer part of
the ring being darker in color than the inner part. In reality each
of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone, each cone en-
veloping its inner neighbor. Each cone ordinarily
constitutes a year’s growth, and therefore there
is a greater number of them at the base of a tree
than higher up. These cones vary greatly in
thickness, or, looking at a cross-section, the rings
vary in width ; in general, those at the center
being thicker than those toward the bark. Va-
riations from year to year may also be noticed,
showing that the tree was well nourished one
year and poorly nourished another year. Rings,
however, do not always indicate a year’s growth.

"False rings” are sometimes formed by a cessa-
tion in the growth due to drouth,, fire or other
accident, followed by renewed growth the same
season.

In a radial section of a log, Fig. 8, these
"rings” appear as a series of parallel lines and
if one could examine a long enough log these
lines would converge, as would the cut edges in a nest of cones, if
they were cut up thru the center, as in Fig. 9.

In a tangential section, the lines appear as broad bands, and
since almost no tree grows perfectly straight, these lines are wavy,
and give the charactistic pleasing “grain” of wood. Fig. 27, p. 35.
The annual rings can sometimes he discerned in the bark as well as
in the wood, as in corks, which are made of the outer bark of the
cork oak, a product of southern Europe and northern Africa. Fig. 10.

The growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the
ability, already noted, of protoplasmic cells to divide. The cambium
cells, which have very thin walls, are rectangular in shape, broader
tangentially than radially, and tapering above and below to a chisel

Fig-. 9. Diagram of
Radial Stctioti of
Log (exaggerated)
Showing Annual
Cones of Growth.

WOOD AND FOREST.

edge, Fig. 11. After they have grown somewhat radially, partition
walls form across them in the longitudinal, tangential direction, so
that in place of one initial cell, there are two daughter cells radially
disposed. Each of these small cells grows and re-divides, as in

Fig. 12. Finally the inner-
most cell ceases to divide, and
uses its protoplasm to become
thick and hard wood. In like
manner the outermost cambium
cell becomes bast, while the cells
between them continue to grow
and divide, and so the process
goes on. In nearly all stems,
there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells.
In other words, more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast.

In the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat,
when the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble, and when the
bark, split by winter,
does not bind very
tightly, the inner cam-
bium cells produce ra-
dially wide wood cells
with relatively • thin
walls. These constitute
the spring wood. But
in summer the jacket
of bark binds tightly,
there is plenty of heat
and light, and the
leaves and roots are
very active, so that the
cambium cells produce
thicker walled cells,
called summer wood.

During the winter the
trees rest, and no
development takes place until spring, when the large thin-walled cells
are formed again, making a sharp contrast with those formed at the
end of the previous season.

p.y Sf?. ^

Fig-. 11. Diagram Showing Grain of Spruce
Highly Magnified. PK, pith rays; BP, bordered
pits; Sp W, spring wood; SW, summer wood;
CC, overlapping of chisel shaped ends.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

It is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow
much in length; so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty
years old at, say, four feet from the ground, it would still be four
feet from the ground one hundred years later.

Looking once more at the cross-section, say, of spruce, the inner
portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than
the outer portion. On a radial or tangential section, one’s finger
nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring, tho the outer
dark part of the ring may be very hard. The inner, light, soft
portion of the ring is the
part that grows in the
spring and early summer,
and is called the “spring
wood” while the part that
grows later in the season is
called “summer wood.” As
the summer wood is hard
and heavy, it largely deter-
mines the strength and weight of the wood, so that as a rule, the
greater the proportion of the summer growth, the better the wood.
This can be controlled to some extent by proper forestry methods, as
is done in European larch forests, by “underplanting” them with
beech.

In a normal tree, the summer growth forms a greater proportion
of the wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth, so that
in neither youth nor old age, is there so great a proportion of sum-
mer wood as in middle age.

It will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one
imagines the trunk' of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes
crushed together, so that they assume angular shapes and have no
spaces between them. If the tubes are laid in concentric layers, first
a layer which has thin walls, then successive layers having thicker
and thicker walls, then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and in-
creasing again to thick-walled ones and so on, such an arrangement
would represent the successive annual “rings” of conifers.

Tlie medullary rays. While most of the elements in wood run
longitudinally in the log, it is also to be noted that running at right
angles to these and radially to the log, are other groups of cells
called pith rays or medullary rays (Latin, medulla, which means

Fig-. 12. Diagram Showing the IV ode of Divi-
sion of the Cambium Cells. The cambium
cell is shaded to distinguish it from the
cells derived from it. Note in the last di-
vision at the right that ihe inner daughter
cell becomes the cambium cell while the
outer cell develops inlo a bast cell. From
Curtis: Nature and Development of Plants.

WOOD ANI) FOliEST.

pith). These are the large "silver flakes” to be seen in quartered
oak, which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain, Fig. 32, p. 38.
They appear as long, grayish lines on a cross-section, as broad, shin-

ing bands on the radial section, and as short, thick lines tapering at
each end on the tangential section. In other words, they are like
flat, rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating lengthwise
from the center of the tree. They vary greatly in size in different
woods. In sycamore they are very prominent, Fig. 13. In oak they
are often several hundred cells wide (i. e., up and down in the tree).

This may amount to an
inch or two. They are
often twenty cells thick,
tapering to one cell at
the edge. In oak very
many are also small,
even microscopic. But
in the conifers and also
in some of the broad-
leaved trees, altho they
can be discerned with
the naked eye on a split
radial surface, still they
are all very small. In
pine there are some 15,-
000 of them to a square

Fig-. 13. Tangential Section of Sycamore, Mag- inch of a tangential SeC-

nified 37 Diameters. Note the large size of the ,

pith rays, a, a (end view). tion. They are to oe

found in all exogens. In

a cross-section, say of oak, Fig. 14, it can readily be seen that some
pith rays begin at the center of the tree and some farther out. Those
that start from the pith are formed the first year and are called pri-
mary pith rays, while those that begin in a subsequent year, starting
at the cambium of that year, are called secondary rays.

The function of the pith rays is twofold. (1) They transfer
formative material from one part of a stem to another, communicat-
ing with both wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered
pits in them, and (2) they bind the trunk together from pith to
bark. On the other hand their presence makes it easier for the
wood to split radially.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

The substance of which they are composed is "parenchyma”
(Greek, beside, to your), which also constitutes the pith, the rays
forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth
of the tree, as the cambium cells form new wood each year.

If a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray, it divides crosswise
(transversely) into eight or ten cells one above another, which
stretch out radi-
ally, retaining
their protoplasm,
and so continue
the pith ray.

As the tree
grows larger,
new, or second-
ary medullary
rays start from
the cambium
then active, so
that every year
new rays are
formed both
thinner and
shorter than the-
primary rays,

Fig. 14.

Now suppose
that laid among

the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite large tubes, so that one
could tell the "ring5’ not only by the thin walls but by the presence
of large tubes. That would represent the ring-porous woods, and the
large tubes would be called vessels, or trachecB. Suppose again that
these large tubes were scattered in disorder thru the layers. This ar-
rangement would represent the diffuse-porous woods.

By holding up to the light, thin cross-sections of spruce or pine,
Fig. 15, oak or ash, Fig. 16, and bass or maple, Fig. 17, these three
quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished.
This fact has led to the classification of woods according to the
presence and distribution of "pores/7 or as they are technically called,
"vessels” or "tracheae.” By this classification we have :

Fig-. 14 Cross-section of White Oak. The Radiating- White
Lines are the Pith Ra3-s.

WOOD AND FOREST.

(1) N on-porous woods, which comprise the conifers, as pine and

spruce.

(2) Ring-porous woods, in which the pores appear (in a cross-
section) in concentric rings, as in chestnut, ash and elm.

(3) Diffuse-porous woods, in which (in a cross-section) the rings --5.

are scattered ir-
regularly thru
the wood, as in
bass, maple and
yellow poplar.

In order to
fully understand
the structure of
wood, it is nec-
essary to exam-
ine it still more
closely thru the
microscope, and
since the three
classes of wood,
non-porous, ring-
porous and dif-
fuse-porous, dif-
fer considerably
in their minute

structure, it is well to consider them separately, taking the sim-
plest first.

N on-porous ivoods. In examining thru the microscope a trans-
verse section of white pine, Fig. 18 :

(1) The most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of ar-
rangement of the cells. They are roughly rectangular and arranged
in ranks and files.

(2) Another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts,
the thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the
cells diminishes. Then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin
again, and so on. The width of one of these belts is the amount of
a single year’s growth, the thin-walled cells being those that formed
in spring, and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer,
the darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strengtli
being caused by there being more material in the same volume.

Fig. 15. Cross-section of Non-porous Wood, White
Pine, Full Size (top toward pith).

THE STRUCTURE OE WOOD

Fig-. 16. Cross-section of Rmg--porous Wood, White
Ash, Full Size (top toward pith).

Fig-. 17. Cross-section of Diffuse-porous Wood, Hard
Maple, full size (top toward pith).

WOOD AND FOREST.

(3) Running radially (up and down in the picture) directly thru
the annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers. These
are the pith or medullary rays. They serve to transfer formative
material from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree
together from pith to bark.

(4) Scattered here and there among the regular cells, are to be
seen irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of
the arrangement. These are resin ducts. (See cross-section of white
pine, Fig. 18.) They are not cells, but openings between cells, in
which the resin, an excretion of the tree, accumulates,, oozing out
when the tree is injured. At least one function of resin is to protect

the tree from attacks of fungi.

Looking now at the radial section, Fig. 18 :

(5) The first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells
and their overlapping where they meet endwise, like the ends of two
chisels laid together, Fig. 11.

(6) On the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called “pits.”
These are due to the fact that as the cell grows, the cell walls thicken,
except in these small spots, where the walls remain thin and delicate.
The pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in an adjoining
cell, there being only a thin membrane between, so that there is prac-
tically free communication of fluids between the two cells. In a
cross-section the pit appears as a canal, the length of which depends
upon the thickness of the walls. In some cells, the thickening around
the pits becomes elevated, forming a border, perforated in the center.
Such pits are called bordered pits. These pits, both simple and bor-
dered, are waterways between the different cells. They are helps in
carrying the sap up the tree.

(7) The pith rays are also to be seen running across and inter-
woven in the other cells. It is to be noticed that they consist of
several cells, one above another.

In the tangential section, Fig. 18:

(8) The straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen
again, and

(9) The numerous ends of the pith rays appear.

In a word, the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and
simple, consisting mainly of cells of one sort, the pith rays being
comparatively unnoticeable. This uniformity is what makes the wood
of conifers technically valuable.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

37 diameters

SPRING

WOOD

WOOD
PITH RAYS

CROSS SECTION

BORDERED

PITS

Swood spring wood RADIAL SECTION

37 DIAMETERS

196 DIAMETERS

37 diameters TANGENTIAL SECTION. ,96 d,ametcrs
HON -POROUS WOOD (white pine")

Fig-. 18.

WOOD AND FOREST.

The cells of conifers are called tracheids, meaning “like trachece.”
They are cells in which the end walls persist, that is, are not ab-
sorbed and broken down when they meet end to end. In other
words, conifers do not have continnons pores or vessels or trachea ,

and hence are called “non-porous” woods.

But in other woods, the ends of
some cells which meet endwise are ab-
sorbed, thus forming a continnons series
of elements which constitute an open
tube. Such tubes are known as pores,
or vessels, or “tracheae, ” and sometimes
extend thru the whole stem. Besides
this marked difference between the por-
ous and non-porous woods, the porous
woods are also distinguished by the fact
that instead of being made up, like the
conifers of cells of practically only one
kind, namely tracheids, they are com-
posed of several varieties of cells. Be-
sides the tracheae and tracheids already
noted are such cells as “wood fiber,”
“fibrous cells,” and “parenchyma.” Fig.
19. Wood fiber proper has much thick-
ened lignified walls and no pits, and its
main function is mechanical support.
Fibrous cells are like the wood fibers
except that they retain their proto-
plasm. Parenchyma is composed of
vertical groups of short cells, the end
ones of each group tapering to a point,
and each group originates from the
transverse division of one cambium cell.
They are commonly grouped around the
vessels (tracheae). Parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other
similar fibers, retains its protoplasm, and becomes filled with starch

in autumn.

The most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees
contains tracheae, trachaeids, woody fiber, fibrous cells and paren-
chyma. Examples are poplars, birch, walnut, linden and locust. In

f ig-. 19. Isolated Fibers and
Cells. «, four cells of wood
parenchyma; &,two cells from
a pith ray; c, a single cell or
joint of a vessel, the open-
ings, x. x, leading into its up-
per and lower neighbors; d,
tracheid; e , wood fiber proper.

After Roth.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

some., as ash, the tracheids are wanting; apple and maple nave no
woody fiber, and oak and plum no fibrous cells.

Ihis recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved
trees is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers. It

SWUNG

WOOD

FORES

SUMMER

WOOD

ray:

Fig. 20.

*1 DIAMETERS

1*6 D/A METERS

CROS5-5ECTBH

*•**»«* P*"/

RA37ADfc^Fe^S?ri TANGENTIAL SECTION

31 DIAMETER*

Rin6*POROU5 WOOD (white ash)

is by means of the number and distribution of these elements that
particular woods are identified microscopically. See p. 289.

Pang-porous woods. Looking thru the microscope at a cross-sectioD
0i asJF a ring-porous wood, Fig. 20 :

(1) The large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in
the spring wood first attract attention. Smaller ones, but still quite

WOOD AND FOliKST.

distinct, are to be seen scattered all thru the wood. It is by the num-
ber and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods are
distinguished, those in white oak being smaller and more numerous,
while in red oak they are fewer and larger. It is evident that the
greater their share in the volume, the lighter in weight and the
weaker will be the wood. In a magnified cross-section of some woods,
as black locust, white elm and chestnut, see Chap. Ill, beautiful pat-
terns are to be seen composed of these pores. It is because of the
size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak.

(2) The summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that, as
with the conifers, its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than
those of the spring wood. The summer wood appears only as a nar-
row, dark line along the largest pores in each ring.

(3) The lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods, as in

oak. No. 47, Chap. III.

(4) The irregular arrangement and

(5) Complex structure are evident, and these are due to the fact
that the wood substance consists of a number of different elements
and not one (tracheids) as in the conifers.

Looking at the radial section, Fig. 20 :

(6) If the piece is oak, the great size of the medullary rays is
most noticeable. Fig. 32, p. 38. They are often an inch or more
wide ; that is, high, as they grow in the tree. In ash they are plain,
seen thru the microscope, but are not prominent.

(7) The interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of
their forms sho||L the structure as being very complex.

In the tangential section, Fig. 20 :

(8) The pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by
(he denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the ves-
sels (pores).

(9) The ends of the pith rays are also clear.

In diffuse porous woods , the main features to be noticed are : In

(he transverse section, Fig. 21 :

^ 2 ) The irregularity with which the pores are scattered,

(2) The fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year s

growth,

(3) The radiating pith rays,

(4) The irregular arrangement and,

(5) The complex structure.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

In the radial section, Fig. 21 :

(6) The pith rays are evident. In sycamore, Ho. 53, Chap. Ill,
they are quite large.

(7) The interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their
variety.

Fig-. 21.

In the tangential section, Fig. 21 :

(8) The grain is to be traced only dimly, but the fibers are seen
o run in waves around the pith rays.

(9) The pith rays, the ends of which are plainly visible.

WOOD AND FOREST.

THE GRAIN OF WOOD.

The term “grain” is used in a variety of meanings which is likely
to cause confusion. This confusion may be avoided, at least in part,
by distinguishing between grain and texture, using the word grain
to refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements, and the
word texture to refer to their size or quality, so far as these affect the
structural character of the wood. Hence such qualifying adjectives
as coarse and fine, even and uneven, straight and cioss, including
spiral, twisted, wavy, curly, mottled, bird s-eye, gnarly, etc., may all
be applied to grain to give it definite meaning, while to texture the
proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine, even and uneven.

Usually the word grain means the pattern or “figure” formed by
the distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood. If
the annual rings are wide, the wood is, in common usage, called
“coarse grained,” if narrow, “fine grained,” so that of two trees of
the same species, one may be coarse grained and the other fine
grained, depending solely on the accident of fast or slow growth.

The terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to
distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores,
like chestnut and ash, from those having small or no pores, as cherry
and lignum vitae. A better expression in this case would be coarse
and fine textured. When such coarse textured woods are stained, the
large pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller
elements in the summer wood, and hence the former part appears
darker. In the “fine grained” (or better, fine textured,) woods the
pores are absent or are small and scattered, and the wood is hard, so
that they are capable of taking a high polish. This indicates the
meaning of the words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-
maker, the reference being primarily to texture.

If the elements of which a wood are composed are of approxi-
mately uniform size, it would be said to have a uniform texture, as
in white pine, while uniform grain would mean, that the elements,
tho of varying sizes, were evenly distributed, as in the diffuse-porous
woods.

The term “grain” also refers to the regularity of the wood struc-
ture. An ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular
cones, but few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in
those that are circular, the pith is rarely in the center, showing that

THE STKUCTUEE OF WOOD.

one side of the tree, usually the south side, is better nourished than
the other, Fig. 14, p. 23.

The normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis
of the stem in which they grow. Such wood is called “straight-
grained,” Fig. 22, but there are many deviations from this rule.
Whenever the grain of the wood in a board is, in whole or in part,

oblique to the sides of the board, it is called “cross-grained.” An il-
lustration of this is a bend in the fibers, due to a bend in the whole
tree or to the presence of a neighboring knot. This bend makes the
board more difficult to plane. In many cases, probably in more cases
than not, the wood fibers twist around the tree. (See some of the
logs m Fig. 107, p. 254.) This produces “spiral” or “twisted” <rrain

WOOD AND FOREST.

Fig-. 24. Spiral Grain in Cypress.
After Roth.

Fig. 25. Planed Surface of Wavy-Grained
Maple (full size).

Often, as in mahogany and
sweet gum, the fibers of several
la}Ters twist first in one direc-
tion and then those of the next
few layers twist the other way,
Fig. 24. Such wood is pecu-
liarly cross-grained, and is of
course hard to plane smooth.
But when a piece is smoothly
finished the changing reflec-
tion of light from the surface
gives a beautiful appearance,
which can be enhanced by
staining and polishing. It

Fig. 26. Split Surface of Wavy-Grained
Maple (full size).

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

constitutes the characteristic “grain” of striped mahogany, Fig. 23.
It is rarely found in the inner part of the tree.

Sometimes the grain of wood is “cross,” because it is “wavy” either
in a radial or a tangential section, as in maple, Fig. 25, and Fig. 26.

“Curly grain” refers to the figure of circlets and islets and con-
tours, often of great beauty, caused by cutting a flat surface in

Fig. 27. Curly Grained Uong-leaf Pine . Fig. 28. Curly Yellow Poplar

(full size). (full size).

crooked-grained wood. See Fig. 27, curly long-leaf pine, and Fig. 28,
yellow poplar. When such crookedness is fine and the fibers are con-
torted and, as it were, crowded out of place, as is common in and
near the roots of trees, the effect is called “burl,” Fig. 29. The term
burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks, Fig. 31,
Burl is used chiefly in veneers.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventi-
tious and dormant buds, which may be plainly seen as little knobs
on the surface of some trees under the bark. In most trees, these
irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive an-
nual layers of wood, but in some woods there is a tendency to pre-
serve the irregularities. On slash (tangent) boards of such wood,

Fig. 29. Redwood Burl (full size).

a great number of little circlets appear, giving a beautiful grain, as
in “Bird’s-eye maple,” Fig. 30. These markings are found to pre-
dominate in the inner part of the tree. This is not at all a distinct
variety of maple, as is sometimes supposed, but the common variety,
in which the phenomenon frequently appears. Logs of great value,
having bird’s-eyes, have often unsuspectingly been chopped up for
fire v:ood.

Fig. 30. Bird’s-eye Maple (full size.)

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

tne
>>

The term “grain’5 may also mean the “figure"' formed oy ^
presence of pith rays, as in oak, Fig. 32, or beech, or the word “grain
may refer simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is com-
mon in sweet gum, Fig. 33, black ash, or Circassian walnut.

The presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregu-
larity in the grain of wood, Fig. 34. In the first place, the fibers on
the upper and lower
sides of the limb behave
differently, those on the
lower side running un-
interruptedly from the
stem into the limb, while
on the upper side the
fibers bend aside making:
an imperfect connection.

Consequently to split a
knot it is always neces-
sary to start the split
from the lower side. On
the other hand it is eas-
ier to split around a
knot than thru it. The
texture as well as the
grain of wood is modi-
fied by the presence of a
branch. The wood in
and around a knot is
much harder than the
main body of the trunk
on account of the crowd-
ing together of the ele-
ments. Knots are the

remnants of branches left in the trunk. These once had all tht parts
of the trunk itself, namely bark, cambium, wood, and pith. Nor-
mally, branches grow from the pith, tho some trees, as Jack pine and
redwood, among the conifers, and most of the broad-leaf trees have
the power of putting out at any time adventitious buds which may
develop into branches. When a branch dies, the annual layer of
wood no longer grows upon it, but the successive layers of wood on

Fig-. 31. Bnrl on White Oak.

WOOD AND FOREST.

the trunk itself close tighter and tighter around it, until it is broken
off. Then, unless it has begun to decay, it is successively overgrown
by annual layers, so that no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut
open. A large trunk perfectly clean of branches on the outside may
have many knots around its center, remnants of branches which grew
there in its youth, as in Fig. 34, and Fig. 8, p. 18. The general ef-

Fig. 32. Figure Formed by Pith Rays
in Oak (full size).

Fi°- 33. Sweet Gum, Showing Uneven
Deposit of Coloring Matter (full size.)

feet of the presence of a knot is, that the fibers that grow around and
over it are bent, and this, of course, produces crooked grain.

Following are the designations given to different knots by lumber-
men: A sound knot is one which is solid across its face and is as

* hard as the wood surrounding it and fixed in position. A pin knot
is sound, but not over YY in diameter. A standard knot is sound,

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

but not over iy2" in diameter. A large knot is sound, and over iy2"
in diameter. A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position. A
dead , or, loose knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or
position.

(4) Pith. At the
center or axis of the
tree is the pith or
medulla, Fig. 34. In
every bud, that is, at
the apex of every stem
and branch, the pith is
the growing part; but
as the stem lengthens
and becomes overgrown
by successive layers of
wood the pith loses its
vital function. It does
not grow with the
plant except at the
buds. It varies in
thickness, being very
small, - — * hardly more
than 1/16", in cedar
and larch, — and so
small in oak as to be
hardly discernible; and
what there is of it
turns hard and dark.

In herbs and shoots it
is relatively large, Fig.

5, p. 15, in a three-
year old shoot of el-
der, for example, be-
ing as wide as the wood. In elder, moreover, it dies early and pul-
verizes, leaving the stem hollow. Its function is one of only tem-
porary value to the plant.

Fig-. 34. Section Thru the Trunk of a Seven Year
Old Tree, Showing Relation of Branches to Main
Stem. A, B, two branches which were killed after
a few years’ growth by shading, and which have
been overgrown by the annual rings of wood; C, a
limb which lived four years, then died and broke
off near the stem, leaving the part to the left of
XY a “sound” knot, and the part to the right a
“dead” knot, which unless rotting sets in, would
in time be entirely covered by the growing trunk;
D, a branch that has remained alive and has in-
creased in size like the main stem; P, P, pith of
both stem and limb.

WOOD AND FOREST.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD.

References : *

Roth, Forest Bull. No. 10, pp. 11-
23.

Boulger, pp. 1-39.

Sickles, pp. 11-20.

Pinchot, Forest Bull. No. 24, I, pp.
11-24.

Keeler, pp. 514-517.

Curtis, pp. 62-85.

Woodcraft, 15: 3, p. 90.

Bitting, Wood Craft, 5: 7G, 106,
144, 172, (June-Sept. 1906).
Ward, pp. 1-38.

Encyc. Brit., 11th Ed., “Plants,”
p. 741.

Strasburger, pp. 120-144 and Part
II, Sec. II.

Snow, pp. 7-9, 183.

*For general bibliography, see p. 4.

Chapter II.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD.

1 here are many properties of wood, — some predominant in one
species, some in another, — that make it suitable for a great variety
of uses. Sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value
to a wood. Among these properties are hygroscopicity, shrinkage,
weight, strength, cleavability, elasticity, hardness, and toughness.

THE HYGROSCOPICITY* 1 OF WOOD.

It is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the
tree. It occurs in wood in three different ways : In the sap which
fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells, in the cell walls which
it saturates, and in the live protoplasm, of which it constitutes 90
per cent. The younger the wocd, the more water it contains, hence
the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood, at times even
twice as much.

In fresh sap-wood, 60 per cent, of the water is in the cell cavities,
35 per cent, in the cell walls, and only 5 per cent, in the prc Ooplasm.
There is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole will soon
sink when set afloat. The reason why there is much less water in
heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive, and hence with-
out sap and without protoplasm. There is only what saturates the
cell walls. Even so, there is considerable water in heart-wood.2 3 4

Hygroscopicity, the property possessed by vegetable tissues of absorb-
ing or discharging moisture and expanding or shrinking accordingly.” —
Century Dictionary.

2 This is shown by the following table, from Forestry Bulletin No. 10,
p. 31, Timber, by Filibert Roth:

POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.

Sap-wood or Heart-wood
outer part, or interior.

1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs 45-65 16-25

2. Cypress, extremely variable 50-65 18-60

3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood 60-65 40-60

4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chestnut,

walnut, and sycamore 40-50 30-40

WOOD AND FOREST.

The lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood, thns
sycamore has more than hickory.

Curiously enough, a tree contains about as much water in winter
as in summer. The water is held there, it is supposed, by capillary
attraction, since the cells are inactive, so that at all times the water
in wood keeps the cell walls distended.

THE SHRINKAGE OF WOOD.

When a tree is cut down, its water at once begins to evaporate.
This process is called “seasoning.”1 In drying, the free water within
the cells keeps the cell walls saturated; but when all the free water
has been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up theii moisture.
Water will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat, as
when green wood is put on a fire. Ordinarily it evaporates slowly.

The water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from
other kinds, e. g., from white pine than from oak, from small pieces
than from large, and from end grain than from a longitudinal sec-
tion ; and it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures.

Evaporation affects wood in three respects, weight, strength, and
size. The weight is reduced, the strength is increased, and shrinkage
takes place. The reduction in weight and increase in strength, im-
portant as they are, are of less importance than the shrinkage, which
often involves warping and other distortions. The water m wood
affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended.

If all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size, and had
walls the same thickness, and all ran in the same direction, then the
shrinkage would be uniform. But, as we have seen, the structure of
wood is not homogeneous. Some cellular elements are large, some
small, some have thick walls, some thin walls, some run longitudinally
and some (the pith rays) run radially. The effects will be various
in differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted
for if one bears in mind these three facts: (1) that the shrinkage is
in the cell wall, and therefore (2) that the thick-walled cells shrink
more than thin-walled cells and (3) that the cells do not shrink
much, if any, lengthwise.

(1) The shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells
that compose it, that is, the cell walls become thinner, as indicated
by the dotted lines in Fig. 35, which is a cross-section of a single cell.

1See Handwork in Wood, Chapter III.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD.

The diameter of the whole cell becomes less, and the opening-, or
lumen, of the cell becomes larger.

(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that
is, summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that
they contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the
more the shrinkage.

Consider the effects of these
changes; ordinarily a log
when drying begins to “check”
at the end. This is to be ex-
plained thus : Inasmuch as

evaporation takes place faster

from a cross than from a lon-

gitudinal section, because at
the cross-section all the cells are cut open, it is to be expected that
the end of a piece of timber, Fig. 36, A, will shrink first. This
would tend to make the end fibers bend toward the center of the
piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are stiff and resist this bend-
ing with the result that the end splits or “checks” as in C, Fig. 36.

But later, as the rest of the timber dries out and shrinks, it becomes
of equal thickness again and the “checks” tend to close.

(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or
fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent.

F iff. 35. How Cell Walls Shrink.

Fig-. 36. The Shrinkag-e and Checking at the End of a Beam.

This is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the
log, as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.

In addition to “checking” at the end, logs ordinarily show the
effect of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is

WOOD AND FOREST.

to be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or
medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.

(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run
at right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since
they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by
the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their

shrinkage is contrary to that of

of a Log.

the main cells. The pith rays,
which consist of a number of
cells one above the other,
tend to shrink parallel to the
length of the wood, and what-
ever little longitudinal shrinkage
there is in a board is probably
due mostly to the shrinkage of
the pith rays. But because the
cells of pith rays do not appre-
ciably shrink in their length, this
fact tends to prevent the main
body of wood from shrinking
radially, and the result is that
wood shrinks less radially than

tangentially. Tangentially is the only way left for it to shrink. The
pith rays may be compared to the ribs of a folding fan, which keep
the radios of unaltered length while permitting comparative freedom
for circumferential contraction.

(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than
spring wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the
log. Consider first the tangen- —

tial shrinkage. If a section of a
single annual ring of green wood
of the shape A B C D, in Fig.

38, is dried and the mass shrinks
according to the thickness of the
cell walls, it will assume the
shape A' B' C' D'. When a num-
ber of rings together shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer
wood tends to contract the adjoining rings of spring wood more than
they would naturally shrink of themselves. Since there is more of

Fig-. 38. Diagram to Show the Greater
Shrinkage of Summer Cells, A, B, than
of Spring Cells, C, D.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD.

the summer-wood substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log
shrinks circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood,
however, is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-
wood, so that there would not be so much radial as circumferential
shrinkage. As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential
shrinkage is twice as great as the radial shrinkage.

Putting these two factors
together, namely, the length-
wise resistance of the pith rays
to the radial shrinkage of the
mass of other fibers, and sec-
ond, the continuous bands of
summer wood, comparatively
free to shrink circumferentially,
and the inevitable happens; the
log splits. If the bark is left
on and evaporation hindered,
the splits will not open so wide.

There is still another effect
of shrinkage. If, immediately
after felling, a log is sawn in
two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be largely avoided, but the
flat sides will tend to become convex, as in Fig. 39. This is ex-
plained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage is greater than
radial shrinkage.

If a log is “quartered,”1 the quarters split still less, as the inevitable
shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then tend to assume
the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. If a log is sawed into timber, it checks
from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig. 40, D. Sometimes
the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one large split.
When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends to warp so
that the concave side is • away from the center of the tree. If one
plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will become
thinner at its edges than at its center, i. e., convex on both faces.
Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig. 40.
In the cases A-F the explanation is the same ; the circumferential
shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are ac-
counted for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.

*See Handwork in Wood, p. 42.

WOOD AND FOREST

PROPERTIES OE WOOD.

Warping is uneven shrinkage , one side of the board contracting
more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary
conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center
of the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the
other way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the
center of the tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board
will warp only sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the
treatment is^ very severe. This shows again that water distends the
cells laterally but not longitudinally.

The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen
to have three results, all included in the term “working,” viz. :
shrinkage, a diminution in size, splitting, due to the inability of
parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and
warping, or uneven shrinkage.

In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board
structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings of
each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in
Handwork in Wood, Fig. 280, a, p. 188.

Under warping is included
bowing. Bowing, that is, bend-
ing in the form of a bow, is,
so to speak, longitudinal warp-
ing. It is largely due to
crookedness or irregularity of
grain, and is likely to occur in
boards with large pith rays, as
oak and sycamore. But even
a straight-grained piece of
wood, left standing on end or
subjected to heat on one side
and dampness on the other, will
bow, as, for instance a board
lying on the damp ground and

Fig-. 41. a, Star Shakes; b, Heart Shakes;
c, Cup Shakes or King- Shakes; d , Honey
combing-.

in the sun.

Splitting takes various
names, according to its form in

the tree. “Check” is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more
particularly for a longitudinal crack in timber. “Shakes” are splits
of various forms as : star shakes, Fig. 41, a, splits which radiate from

WOOD AND FOREST.

the pith along the pith rays and widen outward; heart shakes , Fig.
41, b, splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the cen-
ter ; and cup or ring shakes , Fig- 41, c, splits between the annual
rings. Honeycombing , Fig. 41, d, is splitting along the pith rays

and is due largely to case hardening.

These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in
the growing tree from various harmful causes. See p. 232.

Wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if
not fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to
wet steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden
wedges to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking
and swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short
of burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.

Rapid drying of wood tends to ucase harden it, i. e., to dry and
shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the
same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the
inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning
of wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of
shape in shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.

Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The
conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more
evenly than the broad-leaved woods.* 1 2 3 4 5 Wood, even after it has been
well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the
varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves con-
stant care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are
considered in Handwork in Wood , Chapter III, on the Seasoning of
Wood.

3The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the approximate shrinkage
of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches wide, drying in the open air:

Shrinkage

Inches.

1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress) >••••••

2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew) honey locust, box elder,

wood of old oaks)

3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore, cherry, black locust.

4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech, young locust

5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak Up to 10

The figures are the average of radial and tangential shrinkages.

oi 4^

PROPERTIES OF WOOD.

THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.

Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be
proved by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since
the cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and the
wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air en-
closed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just as
it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water. A
longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving
for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate
the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting
water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are
filled with air it would float.

In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by
two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water
contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but
the amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight va-
ries accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone,
the weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the
same ; namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine,
ebony or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is
lighter than an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-
walled and air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as
lignum vitae, kare so heavy that they will not float at all. This is
because the wall of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are
small.

In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different
woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given
volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.

The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic
foot or as specific gravity.

It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have
different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more
than that higher. up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark
weighing more than either the center or the outside.4

How much different woods vary may be seen by the following table,
taken from Filibert Roth. Timber, Forest Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:

WOOD AND FOREST.

The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use.
A mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it
must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its
momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.

Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable.
The lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why
spruce is valuable for ladders ; it is both light and strong. Chestnut
would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially
in the spring wood:

The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood
is stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason

WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.

Approximate.

Weight of

Specific

weight.

1 cubic
foot.

1,000 feet
of lumber.

Pounds

Very heavy woods:

Hickory, oak, persimmon, osage
orange, black locust, hackberry,
blue beech, best of elm, and ash

0.70-0. SO

42-48

3,700

Heavy woods:

Ash, elm. cherry, birch, maple,
beech, walnut, sour gum, coffee
tree, honey locust, best of south-
ern pine, and tamarack

.60- .70

36-42

3,200

Woods of medium weight:

Southern pine, pitch pine, tamar-
ack, Douglas spruce, western
hemlock, sweet gum, soft maple,
sycamore, sassafras, mulberry,
light grades of birch and cherry..

.50- .60

30-36

Light woods:

Norway and bull pine, red cedar,
cypress, hemlock, the heavier
spruce and fir, redwood, bass-
wood, chestnut, butternut, tulip,
catalpa, buckeye, heavier grades

24-30

2,200

Verv light woods:

White pine, spruce, fir, white ce-
dar, poplar

| .30- .40

18-24

1,800

PROPERTIES OF WOOD.

that weight and strength are dependent upon the number and com-
pactness of the fibers.5

THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.

Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength
is meant the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or
of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a
horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower
half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the
line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.

upper half, as at A.

Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory
bar will stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar
of the same length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater
compression endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height
and weight. It approaches the strength of cast iron under the same
conditions.

Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual
fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when
a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are
pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, how-
ever, the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each
bending over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed
together. As a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under
tension than under compression, varying from two to four times.

5For table of weights of different woods see Sargent, Jesup Collection ,
pp. 153-157.

WOOD AND FOKEST.

Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under
tension, the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine,
being nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like
hickory and elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods
are nearly twice as strong as the conifers under tension.

Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other
extrinsic condition. In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it
outweighs all other causes which affect strength. When thoroly sea-
soned, wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression

and in bending, than when
green or water soaked.6

The tension or pulling
strength of wood is much af-
fected by the direction of the
grain, a cross-grained piece be-
ing only l/10th to l/20th as
strong as a straight-grained
piece. But under compression
there is not much difference ;
so that if a timber is to be
subjected to cross strain, that
is the lower half under tension
and the upper half under com-
pression, a knot or other cross-

grained portion should be in the upper half.

Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called
“shearing strength ” It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of
the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when
the portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber,
A B C D, Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would
be shearing along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resist-
ance of the portion A B C D, i. e., its power of adhesion to the wood
adjacent to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised
piece were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoul-
der, that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance
either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and
compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, be-

6See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and Forestry Circular No. 108.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD.

cause moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the
fibers to each other.7

CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.

Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property
usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability, i. e.,
the ease of splitting.

When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood
splits in advance of the ax edge. See Handwork in Wood, Fig. 59,
p. 52. The wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly
as if one edge were held and a weight were attached to the other
edge and it were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft
ahead of the blade is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The
longer the cleft, the easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and
shearing strength and hardness hinder it.

A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along
any radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays,
and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially
regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood sep-
arates easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial
cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent, easier. Straight-grained wood is much
easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are inter-
laced, and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than hard.
Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like
yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.

All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For
instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy
is because of their difference in cleavability.

ELASTICITY OF WOOD.

Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of shape, —
bent, twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former shape.
When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring back
from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is brittle-
ness. Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.

7For table of strengths of different woods, see Sargent Jesup Collection,
pp. 166 ff.

WOOD AXI) FOREST.

Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite
of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it
may be even stiff and pliable, as asli, which may be made into splints
for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible
when green, but quite brittle when dry.

Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long
tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes,
scythes, and in axes, in archer}7 bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of
which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.8

HARDNESS OF WOOD.

Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and de-
pends primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the small-
ness of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood
structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than
spring wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine
on floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring
wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See HandworTc in Wood,
p. 41, and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both
spring and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard
makes the best floors, even better than oak, parts of which are com-
paratively soft.

The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces to-
gether. Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers
can be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry
is stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, how-
ever, it is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to
insure a strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made
with liquid glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on
hard wood.9

TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.

Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks
and blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength,
hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, par excellence,

8For table of elasticity of different woods, see Sargent, Jesup Collection,
pp. 163 ff.

•For table of hardnesses of different woods, see Sargent, J esup Collec-
tion, pp. 173 ff.

PROPERTIES OE WOOD.

are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded, pulled, com-
pressed and sheared. It is because of this quality that hickory is
used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc.

In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes
one, sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of quali-
ties that makes it fit for use.10

It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values
of different woods that made “the one horse shay/’ “The Deacon’s
Masterpiece.”

“So the Deacon inquired of the village folk
Where he could find the strongest oak,

That couldn’t be split nor bent nor broke, —

That was for spokes and floor and sills;

He sent for lancewood to make the thills;

The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,

The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,

But lasts like iron for things like these.

The hubs of logs from the “Settler’s Ellum,” —

Last of its timber, — they couldn’t sell ’em.

Never an ax had seen their chips,

And the wedges flew from between their lips,

Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips; »

Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,

Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,

Steel of the finest, bright and blue;

Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;

Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,

Found in the pit when the tanner died.

That was the way to “put her through.”

‘There!’ said the Deacon, ‘naow she’ll dew!’”

10For detailed characteristics of different woods see Chapter 1 1 1

WOOD AND FOREST.

THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.

References*

Moisture and Shrinkage.

Roth, For. Bull., No. 10, pp. 25- Busbridge, Sci. Am. Sup. No. 1500.
37. Oct. 1, ’04.

Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness.

Roth, For. Bull., 10, p. 37-50. Roth, First Book, pp. 229-233.

Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140. Sargent, Jesup Collection, pp. 153

176.

Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.

*For general bibliography, see p. 4.

Chapter III.

THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.

NOTES.

The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size.
The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37*4
diameters.

Following the precedent of U. S. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sud-
worth’s Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States , the com-
plicated rules for the capitalization of the names of species are aban-
doned and they are uniformly not capitalized.

On pages 192-195 will be found lists of the woods described, ar-
ranged in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity,
and hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent’s
The Jesup Collection.

In the appendix, p. 289, will be found a key for distinguishing the
various kinds of wood.

Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal mar-
kets of the country can be had from the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture,
The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., Record of Wholesale Prices
of Lumber, List A. These lists are published periodically. No at-
tempt is made in this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of
wholesale prices are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ consid-
erably, especially m soft woods (conifers) ; (3) prices are constantly
varying; (4) the prices differ much in different localities.

WOOD AND FOREST.

White Pine, Weymouth Pine.

Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England.

Pinus strobus Linnaeus.

Pinus, the classical Latin name; strobus refers to the cone, or strobile,
from a Greek word, strobus, meaning twist.

Habitat: (See map);

now best in Michigan,
Wisconsin and Minnesota.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 100'-120',

even 200' ; diameter, 2'-4' ;
branches in whorls, cleans
poorly; bark, dark gray,
divided by deep longitu-
dinal fissures into broad
ridges; leaves in clusters
of 5, 3"-5" long; cone
drooping, 4"-10" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, heart-wood, very
light brown, almost cream
color, sap-wood, nearly
white; non-porous; rings,
fine but distinct ; grain,
straight; pith rays, very
faint; resin ducts, small,
inconspicuous.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, very light (59th
in this list), 27 lbs. per
cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854;
strength, medium (55th in
this list; elasticity, me-
dium (47th in this list) ;
soft (57th in this list);

I,eaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

shrinkage 3 per cent; warps very little;
durability, moderate ; works easily in
every way; splits easily but nails well.

Common Uses: Doors, window sashes
and other carpentry, pattern-making,
cabinet-work, matches.

Remarks : This best of American

woods is now rapidly becoming scarce and
higher in price. Its uses are due to its
uniform grain, on account of which it
is easily worked and stands well. Known
in the English market as yellow pine.

Padial Section,
life size.

magnified 37^ diameters. Tangential Section,

lne size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Western White Pine.

Pinus monticola Douglas.

Piyius, the classical Latin name; monticola means mountain-dweller.

Habitat: (See map);

grows at great elevations,
7,000'-10,000'. Best in
northern Idaho.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100'-160';

diameter, 4' to even 8 ;
branches, slender, spread-
ing ; bark, gray and
brown, divided into squar-
ish plates by deep longi-
tudinal and cross fissures;
leaves, 5 in sheath ; cones,
12"xl8" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown or red,
sap-wood nearly white ;
non-porous ; rings, sum-
mer wood, thin and not
conspicuous ; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
obscure; resin ducts, nu-
merous and conspicuous
tho not large.

Physical Qualities:

Weight, very light (58th

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

in this list), 24 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this
list) ; elastic (35th in this list) ; soft
(63d in this list) ; shrinkage, 3 per cent;
warps little; moderately durable; easy
to work ; splits readily but nails well.

Common Uses: Lumber for construc-

tion and interior finish.

Remarks : Closely resembles Pinus

Strobus in appearance and quality of
wood.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified 37 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Sugar Pine.

Sugar refers to sweetish exudation.

Pinus lambertiana Douglas.

Pinus, the classical Latin name; lambertiana, from the botanist, A. B
Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines.

Habitat: (See map);

grows on high elevations
(5,000'), best in northern
California.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100'-300';

diameter, 15' -20 ;
branches, in remote reg-
ular whorls ; hark, rich

purple or brown, thick,
deep irregular fissures
making long, flaky ridges ;
leaves, stout, rigid, in
bundles of five ; cones,
10"-18" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, pinkish brown, sap-
wood, cream white; non-
porous ; rings, distinct ;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, obscure ; resin
ducts, numerous, large
and conspicuous.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, very light (61st

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

in this list), 22 lbs. per cn. ft., sp. gr.
0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this
list) ; elasticity, medium (56th in this
list) ; soft (53d in this list) ; shrink-
age, 3 per cent; warps little; durable;
easily worked ; splits little, nails well.

Common Uses: Carpentry, interior

finish, doors, blinds, shingles, barrels,
etc.

Remarks: Exudes a sweet substance
from heart-wood. A magnificent and
important lumber tree on Pacific coast.

Kadial Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Norway Pine. Eed Pine.

Red refers to color of bark.

Pinus resinosa Solander.

Finns, the classical Latin name; resinosa refers to very resinous wood.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map);

grows best in northern
Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota.

Characteristics of the

Tree: Height, 70'-90';

diameter, 2'-3' ; tall,
straight ; branches in
whorls, low; bark, thin,
scaly, purplish and red-
dish-brown ; longitudinal
furrows, broad flat ridges ;
leaves, in twos in long
sheaths ; cones, 2".

Appearance of Wood:

Color of wood, pale red,
sap-wood, wide, whitish ;
non-porous ; rings sum-
mer wood broad, dark ;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, pronounced, thin;
very resinous, but ducts
small and few.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, light, 43d in this

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

list), 31 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.4854;
strong (39th in this list) ; elastic (16th
in this list) ; soft (48th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 3 per cent; warps moder-
ately; not durable; easy to work; splits
readily, nails well.

Common TJses: Piles, electric wire

poles, masts, flooring.

Remarks: Often sold with and as

white pine. Resembles Scotch pine
( Pinus sylvestris) . Bark used to some
extent for tanning. Grows in open
groves.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified 37^2 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Western Yellow Pine. Bull Pine.

Bull refers to great size of trunk.

Pinus ponderosa Lawson.

Pinus, the classical Latin name; ponderosa refers to great size of trunk.

Habitat: (See map);

best in Kocky Mountains.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100' to

300'; diameter, 6' to even
12'; branches, low, short
trunk; bark, thick, dark
brown, deep, meandering
furrows, large, irregular
plates, scaly; leaves, in
twos or threes, 5" to 11”
long, cones" to 6" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light red, sap-wood,
thick, nearly white, and
very distinct; non-porous;
rings, conspicuous; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
obscure; very resinous but
ducts small.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, light (44th in
this list), 25-30 lbs. per
cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.4715;
strength, medium (45th

SPECIES OF WOODS

in this list) ; elasticity, medium (41st in
this list) ; hardness, medium (42nd in
this list) ; shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps

; not durable ; hard to work,

brittle; splits easily in nailing.

Common Uses: Lumber, railway ties,
mine timbers.

Remarks: Forms extensive open for-
ests.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified 37J4 diameters.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Long-Leaf Pine. Georgia Pine.

Pinus palustris Miller.

Finns, the classical Latin name; -palustris means swampy, inappro-
priate here.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in Louisiana and East
Texas.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80'-100';

diameter, 2'-3' ; trunk,
straight, clean, branches

high; bark, light brown,
large, thin, irregular pa-
pery scales; leaves 8"-12"
long, 3 in a sheath ; cones
6"-10" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Heart-wood, spring wood
light yellow, summer

wood, red brown; sap
wood, lighter ; non-por-

ons; rings, very plain and
strongly marked ; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
conspicuous ; very resin-
ous, but resin ducts few
and not large.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (18th in this list),
38 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

0.6999; very strong (7th in this list) ;
very elastic (4th in this list) ; hardness,
medium (33d in this list) ; shrinkage,
4 per cent; warps very little; quite
durable; works hard, tough; splits
badly in nailing.

Common Uses: Joists, beams, bridge
and building trusses, interior finish, ship
building, and general construction work.

Remarks: Almost exclusively the

source of turpentine, tar, pitch and resin
in the United States. Known in the
English market as pitch pine.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified Z71A diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Short-Leaf Pine. Yellow Pine.
Pinus echinata Miller.

l'inus, the classical Latin name; echinata refers to spiny cones.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in lower Mississippi
basin.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Straight, tall trunk,
sometimes 100' high ;
branches high; diameter
2'-4' ; bark, pale grayish
red-brown, fissures, run-
ning helter-skelter, mak-
ing large irregular plates,
covered with small scales;
leaves in twos, 3" long ;
cones small.

Appearance of Wood:

Color : heartwood, sum-

mer wood, red, spring-
wood, yellow ; sap-wood,
lighter ; non-porous ; an-
nual rings very plain,
sharp contrast between
spring and summer wood;
grain, straight, coarse ;
rays, numerous, conspicu-
ous; very resinous, ducts
large and many.

Leaf.

SPECIES OE WOODS.

Physical Qualities: Weight, medium
(32nd in this list), 32 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in
this list) ; very elastic (8th in this list) ;
soft (38th in this list) ; shrinkage, 4
per cent ; warps little ; durable ; trouble-
some to work; likely to split along an-
nual rings in nailing

Common Uses: Heavy construction,

railroad ties, house trim, ship building,
cars, docks, bridges.

Remarks : Wood hardly distinguish-
able from long-leaf pine. Often forms
pure forests. The most desirable yellow
pine, much less resinous and more easily
worked than others.

Cross-section,

magnified 37^ diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Lobloley Pine. Old Field Pine.

Loblolly may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field refers to
habit of spontaneous growth on old fields.

Pinus taeda Linnaeus.

Pinus, the classical Latin name ; taeda, the classical Latin name for
pitch-pine, which was used for torches.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map) ;

grows best in eastern Vir-
ginia, and eastern North
Carolina.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100'-150' ;

diameter, often 4'-5' ;
branches high ; bark,
purplish brown, shallow,
meandering fissures, broad,
flat, scaly ridges; leaves,
3 in sheath, 4"-7" long;
cones 3"-5" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, heart-wood orange,
sap-wood lighter ; non-
porous; rings very plain,
sharp contrast between
spring wood and summer
wood ; grain, straight,
coarse; rays conspicuous;
very resinous, but ducts
few and small.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (39th in

SPECIES OF WOODS.

this list), 33 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.5441; strong (26th in this list) ; elas-
tic (17th in this list) ; medium hard
(43d in this list) ; shrinkage, 4 per
cent; warps little; not durable; diffi-
cult to work, brittle; splits along rings
in nailing.

Common Uses : Heavy construction,

beams, ship building, docks, bridges,
flooring, house trim.

Remarks : Resembles Long-leaf Pine,
and often sold as such. Rarely makes
pure forests.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified 37 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Slash Pine. Cuban Pine.

Finns caribaea Morelet. Pinus JieteropJiylla (Ell.) Sudworth.

Pinus, the classical Latin name; caribaea refers to the Caribbean Is-
lands; JieteropJiylla refers to two kinds of leaves.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map);

grows best in Alabama,
Mississippi, and Louisi-
ana.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, sometimes

110', straight, tall, branch-
ing high; diameter l'-3';
bark, dark red and brown,
shallow irregular fissures;
leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath,
8"-12" long; cones, 4"-5"
long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, dark orange, sap-
wood lighter ; non-por-
ous; annual rings, plain,
sharp contrast between
spring wood and summer
wood ; grain, straight ;
rays numerous, rather
prominent ; very resinous,
but ducts few.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (7th in this list),

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

39 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.7504; very
strong (6th in this list) ; very elastic
(3d in this list) ; hard (24th in this
list) ; shrinkage, 4 per cent ; warps lit-
tle ; quite durable ; troublesome to work ;
splits along annual rings in nailing.

Common Uses : Heavy construction,
ship building, railroad ties, docks,
bridges, house trim.

Remarks: Similar to and often sold

as Long- leaf Pine.

Radial Section,
life size.

)

WOOD AND FOREST.

Tamarack. Larch.
Larix laricina (Du Eoi) Ivoch.
Larix, the classical Latin name.

Hackmatack.

Larix americana Micliaux.

Habitat: (See map) ;

prefers swamps, “Tama-
rack swamps.”

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 50'-60'

and even 90', diameter T-
3'; intolerant; tall, slen-
der trunk ; bark, cinna-
mon brown, no ridges,
breaking into flakes ;
leaves, deciduous, pea-
green, in tufts ; cone, *
$4", bright brown.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood hardly distinguish-
able ; non-porous ; rings,
summer wood, thin but
distinct, dark colored ;
grain, straight, coarse ;
rays, numerous, hardly
distinguishable ; very res-
inous, but ducts few and
small.

Physical dualities :

Weight, medium (29th in

SPECIES OE WOODS.

this list), 39 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.6236; strong (24th in this list) ; elas-
tic (11th in this list) ; medium hard
(40th in this list) ; shrinkage, 3 per

cent; warps ; very durable;

easy to work; splits easily.

Common Uses: Ship building, elec-

tric wire poles, and railroad ties; used
for boat ribs because of its naturally
crooked knees; slenderness prevents com-
mon use as lumber.

Remarks: Tree desolate looking in

winter.

Kadial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified 37 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Western Larch. Tamarack.
Larix occidentalis Nuttall.

Larix , the classical Latin name; occidentalis means western.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map);

best in northern Montana
and Idaho, on high eleva-
tions.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 90'-130',

even 250'; diameter 6'-8' ;
tall, slender, naked trunk,
with branches high ; bark,
cinnamon red or purplish,
often 12" thick, breaking
into irregular plates, often
2' long; leaves, in tufts;
deciduous; cones small.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light red, thin,
whitish, sap-wood ; non-
porous ; grain, straight,
fine ; rays numerous, thin ;
very resinous, but ducts
small and obscure.

Physical dualities :

Weight, heavy (11th in
this list), 46 lbs. per cu.
ft., sp. gr. 0.7407; very

Rraf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

strong (3d in this list) ; very elastic
(1st in this list) ; medium hard (35th
in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent;

warps ; very durable; rather

hard to work, takes fine polish; splits
with difficulty.

Common Uses: Posts, railroad ties,

fencing, cabinet material and fuel.

Remarks : A valuable tree in the

Northwest.

Radial Section,
lite size.

kSKv;?.??:. .. ■ ■ ■

, ifmMiffjM;' ’’’ScSkBSS

z. •/ m {/- ' & m m m m ' / 'JSM

Cross-section,

magnified 37^4 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FORES'I'.

White Spruce.

Picea canadensis (Miller) B. S. P. Picca alba Link.

Picea, the classical Latin name; white and alba refers to the pale color
of the leaves, especially when young, and to the whitish bark.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ,

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, GO'-lOO*

and even 150'; diameter,
l'-2' and even 4'; long,
thick branches ; bark,
light grayish brown, sep-
arating into thin plate-like
scales, rather smooth ap-
pearance, resin from cuts
forms white gum; leaves,
set thickly on all sides of
branch, finer than red
spruce, odor disagreeable ;
cones, 2" long, cylindrical,
slender, fall during sec-
ond summer.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light yellow, sap-
wood, hardly distinguish-
able; non-porous; rings,
wide, summer wood thin,
not conspicuous ; grain,
straight ; rays, numerous,
prominent; resin ducts,
few and minute.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Physical Qualities: Weight, light

(51st in this list) ; 25 lbs. per cu. ft., sp.
gr., 0.4051 ; medium strong (42d in this
list) ; elastic (29th in this list) ; soft
(58th in this list) ; shrinks 3 per cent;

warps ; fairly durable ; easy to

work, satiny surface; splits readily.

Common Uses: Lumber and paper

pulp; (not distinguished from Red and
Black Spruce in market).

Remarks : Wood very resonant, hence
used for sounding boards. The most im-
portant lumber tree of the sub-arctic
forest of British Columbia.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 J4 diameters.

Tangential Sectior
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Red Spruce.*

Picea rubens Sargent.

Picea, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; rubens refers to red-
dish bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in the wood.

L,eaf.

Habitat: (See map);

stunted in north.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-S0',

even 100'; diameter, 2'-3',
grows slowly ; trunk,

straight,, columnar,
branches in whorls, cleans
well in forest; bark, red-
dish brown with thin ir-
regular scales ; leaves,

needle-shaped, four-sided,
pointing everywhere ;
cones, long, pen-

dent, fall during the first
winter.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, dull white with oc-
casional reddish streaks ;
sap-wood not distinct ;
non-porous ; rings, sum-
mer rings thin, but clearly
defined; grain, straight;
rays, faintly discernible ;
resin ducts, few and small.

*No; distinguished in the Jesup collection from Picea nigra.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Physical Qualities: Weight, light

(47th in this list) ; 28 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in
this list) ; elastic (21st in this list) ;
soft (54th in this list) ; shrinkage, 3
per cent ; warps little ; not durable ; easy
to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to
chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing.

Common Uses: Sounding boards,

construction, paper pulp, ladders.

Remarks: The exudations from this
species are used as chewing gum. Bark
of twigs is used in the domestic manu-
facture of beer. The use of the wood for
sounding boards is due to its resonance,
and for ladders to its strength and
lightness.

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Cross-section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Black Spruce.*

Picea mariana (Miller) B. S. P. Picect nigra Link.

Picea, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; mariana named for
Queen Mary; black and nigra refer to dark foliage.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in Canada.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 50'-S0'

and even 100'; diameter,
6"-l' even 2'; branches,
whorled, pendulous with
upward curve ; bark,
gray, loosely attached
flakes; leaves, pale blue-
green, spirally set, point-
ing in all directions ;
cones, small, ovate-ob-
long, persistent for many
years.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, pale, reddish, sap-
wood, thin, white, not
very distinct ; non-por-
ous ; rings, summer wood,
small thin cells; grain,
straight ; rays, few, con-
spicuous; resin ducts, few
and minute.

Physical Qualities :
Weight, light (47th in

*Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from Picea rubens.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

this list), 33 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.,
0.4584; medium strong (41st in this
list) ; elastic (21st in this list) ; soft
(54th in this list) ; shrinkage, 3 per
cent; warps little; not durable; easy
to work; splits easily in nailing.

Common Uses: Sounding boards,

lumber in Manitoba.

Remarks: Not distinguished from

Red Spruce commercially.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified 37^4 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AXD FOREST.

White Spruce. Engeumann^s Spruce.

Picea engelmanni (Parry) Engelmann.
Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

grows at very high eleva-
tions, forming forest at
8,000'-10,000'; best in
British Columbia.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75'-100',

even 150'; diameter, 2'-3',
even o' ; branches whorled,
spreading ; bark, deeply
furrowed, red-brown to
purplish brown, thin,
large, loose scales; leaves,
blue-green, point in all
directions; cones, . 2"
long, oblong, cylindrical.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, pale yellow or red-
dish, sap-wood hardly dis-
tinguishable ; non-porous ;
rings, very fine, summer
wood, narrow, not con-
spicuous; grain, straight,
close ; rays, numerous,
conspicuous ; resin ducts,
small and few.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Physical Qualities: Weight, very

light (57th in this list) ; 22 lbs. per
cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in
this list) ; elasticity medium (55th in
this list) ; soft (56th in this list) ;

shrinkage, 3 per cent. ; warps ;

durable; easy to work; splits easily.

Common Uses : Lumber.

Remarks : A valuable lumber tree

in the Rocky Mountains and the Cas-
cades. Bark used for tanning.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified ztVz diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD ANI) FOREST.

Tideland Spruce. Sitka Spruce.

Picecc sitchensis (Bongard) Carriere.

Picea, tlie classical Latin name for the pitch pine. Tideland refers to
its habit of growth along the sea coast; sitchensis, named for Sitka.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best on Pacific slope of
British Columbia and
northwestern United
States.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100'-150'

and even 200' high; di-
ameter 3 '-4' and even 15';
trunk base enlarged ; bark,
thick, red-brown, scaly;
leaves, standing out in
all directions ; cones,
2 yp'-P' long, pendent,
cylindrical, oval.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood whitish ; non-por-
ous ; rings, wide, sum-
mer wood, thin but very
distinct, spring wood, not
plain; grain, straight,
coarse ; rays, numerous,
rather prominent; resin
ducts, few and small.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Physical Qualities: Weight, light

(52d in this list) ; 27 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4287 ; medium strong (53d in
this list) ; elastic (31st in this list) ;
soft (59tli in this list); shrinkage, 3

per cent.; warps ; durable;

easy to work; splits easily.

Common Uses: Interior finish, boat

building and cooperage.

Remarks: Largest of the spruces.

Common in the coast belt forest.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified Z71A diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

1 M

Hemlock.

Tsuga canadensis (Linnaeus) Carriere.

Tsuga, the Japanese name latinized; canadensis named for Canada.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in North Carolina

and Tennessee.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60'-70',

sometimes 100'; diameter,
2'-3' ; branches, persist-
ent, making trunk not
very clean ; bark, red-gray,
narrow, rounded ridges,
deeply and irregularly
fissured ; leaves, spirally
arranged, but appear two-
ranked ; cones, 24” l°ng>
graceful.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood just distinguishable;
non-porous ; rings, rather
broad, conspicuous; grain,
crooked; rays, numerous,
thin ; non-resinous.

Physical dualities :

Weight, light (53d in
this list) ; 2G lbs. per cu.

SrECIES OF WOODS.

ft., sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th
in this list) ; elasticity, medium (40th
in this list) ; soft (51st in this list);
shrinkage, 3 per cent ; warps and checks
badly ; not durable ; difficult to work,
splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds
nails well.

Common Uses: Coarse, cheap lum-

ber, as joists, rafters, plank walks and
laths.

Remarks : The poorest lumber. Bark
chief source of tanning material.

Cross-section,
magnified 37H diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AXD FOREST.

Western Hemlock. Black Hemlock.

Tsuga heterophylla (Rafinesque) Sargent.

Tsuga, the Japanese name latinized; heterophylla refers to two kinds
of leaves.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best on coast of Washing-
ton and Oregon.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 150'-200';

diameter, 6'-10' ; branches,
pendent, slender ; bark,
reddish gray, deep, longi-
tudinal fissures between,
broad, oblique, flat ridges ;
leaves, dark green, two-
ranked; cones, small, like
Eastern Hemlock.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, pale brown, sap-
wood thin, whitish; non-
porons ; n n gSy jJtHiir O'w ,

summer wood thin but
distinct ; grain, straight,
close ; rays, numerous,
prominent ; non-resinons.

Physical dualities :

Light in weight, strong,
elastic, hard ;* shrinkage,

*Not in Jesup Collection.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

3 per cent.; warps ; durable,

more so than other American hemlocks ;
easier to work than eastern variety ;
splits badly.

Common. Uses : Lumber for construc-
tion.

Remarks ; Coming to be recognized
as a valuable lumber tree.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified Z7Vi diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Habitat.

Douglas Spruce. Oregon Pine. Red Fir. Douglas Fir.

Pseudotsuga mucronata (Rafinesque) Sudworth.
Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lambert) Britton.

Pseudotsuga means false hemlock; mucronata refers to abrupt short
point of leaf; taxifolia means yew leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in Pnget Sound re-
gion.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 175'-300' ;

diameter, 3'-5', sometimes
10'; branches high, leav-
ing clean trunk ; bark,
rough, gray, great broad-
rounded ridges, often ap-
pears braided ; leaves, radi-
ating from stem ; cones,
2"-4" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light red to yellow,
sap-wood white ; non-por-
ous; rings, dark colored,
conspicuous, very pro-
nounced summer wood ;
grain, straight, coarse ;
rays, numerous, obscure ;
resinous.

Physical dualities :

Weight, medium (41st in
Leaf< this list) ; 32 lbs. per cu.

SPECIES OP WOODS.

ft., sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this
list); very elastic (10th in this list);
medium hard (45th in this list) ; shrink-
3 per cent, or 4 per cent. ; warps

I durable ; difficult to work,

flinty, splits readily.

Common Uses: Heavy construction,

masts, flag poles, piles, railway ties.

Remarks: One of the greatest and

the most valuable of the western timber
trees. Forms extensive forests.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Grand Fir. White Fir. Loweand Fir. Silver Fir.
Abies grandis Lindley.

Abies, the classical Latin name.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in Puget Sound re-
gion.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, in interior

100'; diameter, 2'; on
coast, 250'-300' high; di-
ameter, 2'-5' ; long pend-
ulous branches ; bark,
quite gray or gray brown,
shallow fissures, flat
ridges ; leaves, shiny
green above, silvery be-
low, 1 y2”-2" long, roughly
two-ranked; cones, cylin-
drical, 2"-4" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood lighter ; non-porous ;
rings, summer cells
broader than in other
American species, dark
colored, conspicuous ; graiu
straight, coarse; rays, nu-
merous, obscure ; resinous.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Physical Qualities: Very light (62cl
in this list) ; 22 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.,
0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elas-
tic (34th in this list) ; soft (65th in
this list) ; shrinkage, 3 per cent ; warps
little; not durable; works easily; splits
readily.

Common Uses: Lumber and packing
cases.

Remarks: No resin ducts. Not a

very valuable wood.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37V 2 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

WOOD AND FOREST.

Big Tree. Sequoia. Giant Sequoia.

Sequoia washing ioniana (Winslow) Sudworth. Sequoia giganica,

Decaisne.

Sequoia latinized from Sequoiali, a Cherokee Indian; loashingtoniana, in
honor of George Washington.

Habitat: (See map) ;

in ten groves in southern
California, at high eleva-
tion.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 275',

sometimes 320' ; diame-
ter, 20', sometimes 35';
trunk, swollen and often
buttressed at base, ridged,
often clear for 150'; thick
horizontal branches; bark,
T-2' thick, in great ridges,
separates into loose,
fibrous, cinnamon red
scales, almost non-com-
bustible; leaves, very
small, growing close to
stem ; cones, 2"-3" long.

Appearance of Wood:
Color, red, turning dark
on exposure, sap-wood
thin, whitish ; non-por-
ous; rings, very plain;
grain straight, coarse ;
rays, numerous, thin ;

Leaf.

non-resmous.

SPECIES OP WOODS.

Physical Qualities: Light (65th in

this list) ; 18 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr.,
0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brit-
tle (62d in this list) ; very soft (61st
in this list) ; shrinks little; warps lit-
tle; remarkably durable; easy to work,
splits readily, takes nails well.

Common Uses: Construction, lum-

ber, coffins, shingles.

Remarks: Dimensions and age are

unequalled ; Big Tree and Redwood
survivors of a prehistoric genus, once
widely distributed. Some specimens
3600 years old.

Cross- section,
magnified 37H diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

100

WOOD AND FOREST.

Hedwood. Coast Eedwood. Sequoia.

Sequoia sempervirens (Lambert) Endlicher.

Sequoia., latinized from Secjiioiah, 3, Cherokee Indian 5 sempewiveus
means ever living.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map);

best in southern Oregon
and northern California,
near coast.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 200'-340';
diameter, 10,-15/, rarely
25'; clean trunk, much
buttressed and swollen at
base, somewhat fluted,
branches very high; bark,
very thick, 6"-12", round-
ed ridges, dark scales
falling reveal inner red
bark; leaves, small, two-
ranked; cones, small, 1"
long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, red, turning to
brown on seasoning, sap-
wood whitish ; non-por-
ous ; rings, distinct ;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, very obscure ; non-
resinous.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

101

Physical Qualities : Light in weight
(55th in this list) ; 26 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list) ;
brittle (60th in this list) ; soft (55th
m this list); shrinks little; warps lit-
tle; very durable; easily worked; splits
readily; takes nails well.

Common Uses: Shingles, construc-

tion, timber, fence posts, coffins, rail-
^ ay ties, water pipes, curly specimens
used in cabinet work.

"Remarks : Low branches rare. Burns
uith difficulty. Chief construction wood
of Pacific Coast. Use determined
largely by durability.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,

magnified 37 1/2 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

102

WOOD AND FOREST.

Bald Cypress.

Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter.

Taxodium distichum (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard.

Taxodium means yew-like; distichum refers to the two-ranked leaves.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best in South Atlantic
and Gulf States.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75', oc-

casionally 150'; diame-
ter, 4'-5'; roots project
upward into peculiar

knees ; trunk strongly
buttressed at base,
straight, majestic and
tapering; bark, light red,
shallow fissures, flat
plates, peeling into

fibrous strips ; leaves,

long, thin, two-ranked,
deciduous; cones, nearly
globular, 1" in diameter.

Appearance of Wood:
Color, heart-wood, red-
dish brown, sap-wood,
nearly white ; non-por-
ous; rings, fine and well
marked ; grain, nearly
straight, burl is beauti-
fully figured; rays, very
obscure; non-resinous.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

103

Physical Qualities: Light in weight
(48th in this list) ; 29 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in
this list) ; elastic (28th in this list) ;
soft (52d in this list) ; shrinkage, 3
per cent.; warps but little, likely to
check ; very durable ; easy to work, in
splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well.

Common Uses: Shingles, posts, in-

terior finish, cooperage, railroad ties,
boats, and various construction work,
especially conservatories.

Remarks: Forms forests in swamps;
subject to a fungous disease, making
wood “peggy” or “pecky”; use largely
determined by its durability. In New
Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are
said to be made of it.

Cross-section,

magnified 37^ diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

104

WOOD AND FOREST.

Western Red Cedar. Canoe Cedar. Giant Arborvitae.
Thuja plicata D. Don. Thuya gigantea Nuttall.

Thuya or Thuja, the classical Greek name; plicata refers to the folded
leaves; gigantea refers to the gigantic size of the tree.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Puget Sound re
gion.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100'-200' ,
diameter, 2'-10', even 15' ;
trunk has immense but-
tresses, often 16' in di-
ameter, then tapers ;
branches, horizontal,
short, making a dense
conical tree; bark, bright
cinnamon red, shallow
fissures, broad ridges,
peeling into long, nar-
row, stringy scales ;
leaves, very small, over-
lapping in 4 ranks, on
older twigs, sharper and
more remote ; cones, ^/i'
long, small, erect.

Appearance of Wood :

Color, dull brown or red,
thin sap-wood nearly
white ; non-porous ; rings,

SPECIES OF WOODS.

105

summer bands thin, dark colored, dis-
tinct; grain, straight, rather coarse;
rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous.

Physical Qualities: Very light in

weight (60th in this list) ; medium
strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th
in this list); soft (60th in this list);
shrinkage, 3 per cent. ; warps and checks
little; very durable; easy to work; splits
easily.

Common Uses: Interior finish, cabi-
net making, cooperage, shingles, electric
wire poles.

Remarks: Wood used by Indians

for war canoes, totems and planks for
lodges ; inner bark used for ropes and
textiles.

Cross-section,
magnified diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

106

WOOD AND FOREST.

White Cedar.

Chamaecy paris thyoides (Linnaeus) B. S. P.

Chamaecyparis means low cypress; thyoides means like thuya ( Abor>
vitae) .

Habitat: (See map);
best in Virginia and
North Carolina.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 60'-80' ;

diameter, 2'-4=' ; branches,
low, often forming im-
penetrable thickets ; bark,
light reddish brown,
many fine longitudinal
fissures, often spirally
twisted around stem ;
leaves, scale-like, four-
ranked ; cones, globular,
y diameter.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, pink to brown,
sap-wood lighter ; non-
porous.; rings, sharp and
distinct; grain, straight;
rays, numerous, obscure;
non-resinous.

Physical Qualities :

Very light in weight
(64th in this list) ; 23

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

107

lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr. 0.3322) ; weak
(64th in this list) ; brittle (63d in this
list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage
3 per cent.; warps little; extremely dur-
able; easily worked; splits easily; nails
well.

Common Uses: Boats, shingles, posts,
railway ties, cooperage.

Remarks: Grows chiefly in swamps,
often in dense pure forests. Uses deter-
mined largely by its durability.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 2>7TA diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

108

WOOD AND FOREST,

Lawson Cypress. Port Orford Cedar. Oregon Cedar.

White Cedar.

Cliamaecyparis laivsoniana (A. Murray) Parlatore.

Chamaecy paris means low cypress.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best on coast of Oregon.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100'-200' ;
diameter, 4'-8'; even 12';
base of trunk abruptly
enlarged ; bark, very
thick, even 10" at base
of trunk, inner and outer
layers distinct, very deep
fissures, rounded ridges;
leaves, very small, 1/16"
long, four-ranked, over-
lapped, flat sprays ; cones,
small, , globular.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, pinkish brown,
sap-wood hardly distin-
guishable ; non-porous ;

rings, summer wood thin,

, i

not conspicuous ; gram,
straight, close ; rays, nu-
merous, very obscure ;
non-resinous.

Physical dualities :

Light in weight (46th in

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

109

this list) ; 28 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.4621; strong (25th in this list) ; elas-
tic (12th in this list) ; soft (50th in
this list) ; shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent. ;
warps little ; durable ; easily worked ;
splits easily.

Common Uses: Matches (almost ex-
clusively on the Pacific Coast), interior
finish, ship and boat building.

Remarks: Eesin, a powerful diuretic
and insecticide.

Radial Section,
life size.

110

WOOD AND FOREST.

Red Cedar.

Juniperus virginiana Linnaeus.

Juniperus, the classical Latin name; virginiana, in honor of the State
of Virginia.

Habitat: (See map);
best in Gulf States in
swamps, especially on the
west coast of Florida.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 40'-50',

even 80' ; diameter, l'-2' ;
trunk, ridged, sometimes
expanded ; branches, low ;
bark, light brown, loose,
ragged, separating into
long, narrow, persistent,
stringy scales; leaves, op-
posite, of two kinds, awl-
shaped, and scale-shaped ;
fruit, dark blue berry.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, dull red, sap-wood
white; non-porous; rings,
easily distinguished ;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, very obscure ;
non-resinous.

Leaf.

Physical Qualities :

Very light in weight

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Ill

(42d in this list) ; 30 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4S2G; medium strong (43d in
this list) ; brittle (Gist in this list) ;
medium hard (34th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 3 per cent.; warps little; very dur-
able; easy to work; splits readily, takes
nails well.

Common Uses: Pencils, chests, cigar
boxes, pails, interior finish.

Remarks: Pragrant. Pencils are

made almost exclusively of this wood,
because it is light, strong, stiff, straight
and fine-grained and easily whittled ;
supply being rapidly depleted.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

112

WOOD AND JTOKIiST.

Black Willow.
Salix nigra Marshall.

Salix, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; nigra refers to the
dark bark.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ;
grows largest in southern
Illinois, Indiana and
Texas, on moist banks.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 30'-40',

sometimes 120' ; diame-
ter, l'-2', rarely 3'-4';
stout, upright, spreading
branches, from common
base ; bark, rough and
dark brown or black, of-
ten tinged with yellow or
brown ; leaves, lanceo-
late, often scythe-shaped,
serrate edges ; fruit, a
capsule containing small,
hairy seeds.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light reddish
brown, sap-wood, thin,
whitish ; diffuse-porous ;
rings, obscure ; grain,
close and weak ; rays,
obscure.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

113

Physical Qualities : Light in weight
(51st in this list) ; 27.77 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.4456 ; weak (65th in this list) ;
very brittle (64th in this list); soft
(46th in this list) ; shrinks consider-
ably; warps and checks badly; soft, weak,
indents without breaking; splits easily.

Common Uses: Lap-boards, baskets,

water wheels, fuel and charcoal for gun-
powder.

Remarks : Its characteristic of in-

denting without breaking has given it
use as lining for carts and as cricket
bats. Of the many willows, the most
tree like in proportion in eastern North
America. Bark contains salycylic acid.

Cross-section,
magnified Z7XA diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

114

WOOD AND FOREST.

Butternut. White Walnut.

Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil.

Juglans cinerea Linnaeus.

•lurjians means Jove's nut; cinerea refers to ash-colored bark.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best in Ohio basin.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75'-lO(V;

diameter, 2'-4'; branches
low, broad spreading
deep roots; bark, gray
ish brown, deep fissures
broad ridges; leaves
15"-30" long, compound
11 to 17 leaflets, hair}
and rough; fruit, ob
long, pointed, edible, oil}
nut.

Appearance of Wood;

Color, light brown, dark
ening with exposure, sap
wood whitish ; diffuse
porous; rings, not prom
inent; grain, fairl}
straight, coarse, takes
high polish; rays, dis
tinct, thin, obscure.

Leaf.

Physical Qualities :

Light in weight (56th in

SPECIES OF WOODS.

115

this list), 25 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elas-
ticity, medium (52d in this list) ; soft

(47th in this list) ; shrinkage

per cent. ; warps little ; durable ; easy
to work; splits easily.

Common Uses: Cabinet work, inside

trim.

Remarks: Green husks of fruit give

yellow dye. Sugar made from sap.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

116

WOOD AND FOREST.

Black Walnut.

Juglans nigra Linnaeus.

Juglans means Jove’s nut; nigra refers to the dark wood.

Habitat : ( See map ) ;
best in western North
Carolina and Tennessee.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 90'-120',

even 150'; diameter, 3'
to even 8' ; clean of
branches for 50' to 60';
bark, brownish, almost
black, deep fissures, and
broad, rounded ridges ;
leaves, l'-2' long, com-
pound pinnate, 15 to 23
leaflets, fall early; fruit,
nut, with adherent husk,
and edible kernel.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, chocolate brown,
sap-wood much lighter;
diifuse-porous ; rings,

marked by slightly larger
pores ; grain, straight ;
rays, numerous, thin, not
conspicuous.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (31st

SPECIES OF WOODS.

117

in this list) ; 38 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.
0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elas-
tic (23d in this list) ; hard (21st in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent. ; warps
little; very durable; easy to work; splits
with some difficulty, takes and holds nails
well.

Common Uses: Gun stocks (since

17th century), veneers, cabinet making.

Remarks: Formerly much used for

furniture, now scarce. Plentiful in Cal-
ifornia. Most valuable wood of North
American forests. Wood .superior to
European variety.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Kadial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

118

WOOD AND FOREST.

Mockernut. Brack Hickory. Bull-nut. Big-bud Hickory.
White-heart Hickory. King Nut.

Mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts.

Hicoria alia (Linnaeus) Britton. Cary a tomentosa Nuttall.

Eicoria, shortened and latinized from Panvcoliicora, the Indian name
for the liquor obtained from the kernels; alba refers to the white wood,
carya, the Greek name for walnut; tomentosa refers to hairy under surface
of leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Ohio val*
ley, Missouri and Ar-
kansas.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75',

rarely 100'; diameter,
2'-3'; rises high in for-

Habitat.

Leaf.

est; bark, dark gray,
shallow, irregular inter-
rupted fissures, rough
but not shaggy in old
trees ; leaves, 8"-12" long,
compound, 7-9 leaflets,
fragrant when crushed :
fruit, spherical nut, thick
shell, edible kernel.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, dark brown, sap-
wood nearly white; ring-
porous; rings, marked by
few large regularly dis-
tributed open ducts ;
grain, usually straight,
close ; rays, numerous,
thin, obscure.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

119

Physical dualities: Very heavy (3d

in this list) ; 53 lbs. per cu. ft., sp. gr.,
0.8218; very strong (11th in this list) ;
very elastic (14th in this list) ; very
hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10
per cent. ; warps ; not dur-

able; very hard to work; splits with
great difficulty, almost impossible to
nail.

Common Uses: Wheels, runners, tool
and axe handles, agricultural imple-
ments.

Remarks: Confounded commercially
with shellbark hickory.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 ]/2 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

120

WOOD AND FOREST.

Sherebark Hickory. S;hagbark Hickory.

Hicoria ovata (Millar) Britton. Cary a alia Nuttall.

Hickory is shortened and latinized from Pawcohicora, the Indian name
for the liquor obtained from the kernels; ovata refers to oval nut; carya ,
the Greek name for walnut.

Habitat.

•Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);
best in lower Ohio val-
ley.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-90'

and even 120'; diameter,
2'-3', even 4'; straight,
columnar trunk ; bark,
dark gray, separates into
long, hard, plate-like
strips, which cling to
tree by middle, on young
trees very smooth and
close ; leaves, 8"-20"
long, compound 5 or
(7) leaflets; nuts, glo-
bular, husk, four-valved,
split easily, thin-shelled,
edible.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, reddish brown,
sap-wood whitish ; ring-
porous ; rings, clearly
marked; grain, straight;
rays, numerous, thin.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

121

Physical Qualities: Very heavy (1st
in this list) ; 51 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.8372; very strong (5th in this list);
very elastic (7th in this list) ; very hard
(5th in this list) ; shrinkage, 10 per
cent.; warps badly; not very durable
under exposure ; hard to work, very
tough; hard to split, very difficult to
nail.

Common Uses: Agricultural imple-

ments, handles, wheel spokes.

Remarks: American hickory is fa-

mous both for buggies and ax handles,
because it is flexible and very tough in
resistance to blows.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

122

WOOD AND FOREST.

Pignut.

Nuts eaten by swine.

Hicoria glabra (Miller) Britton. Cary a porcina.

Hicoria is shortened and latinized from Paivcohicora, the Indian name
for the liquor obtained from the kernel; glalra refers to smooth bark:
Carya the Greek name for walnut; porcina means pertaining to hogs.

Habitat.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best in lower Ohio val-
ley.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, S0'-100';

diameter 2'-4' ; trunk of-
ten forked ; bark, light
gray, shallow fissures,
rather smooth, rarely ex-
foliates; leaves, 8"-12"
long, compound 7 leaflets,
sharply serrate ; fruit, a
thick-shelled nut, hitter
kernel.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light or dark brown
the thick sap-wood
lighter, often nearh
white; ring-porous; rings
marked by many large
open ducts; grain .
straight; rays, small and
insignificant.

Physical dualities :

Very heavy (4th in this

i2a

SPECIES OF WOODS.

list); 5G lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.7 0.8217;
very strong (15th in this list) ; elastic
(27th in this list) ; very hard (2d in
this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.;

warps ; hard to work; splits

with difficulty, hard to drive nails into.

Common Uses: Agricultural imple-
ments, wheels, runners, tool handles.

Remarks : Wood not distinguished

from shellbark hickory in commerce.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37J4 diameters.

I angential Section,
life size.

124

WOOD AND FOREST.

Blue Beech. Hornbeam. Water Beech. Iron-wood.

Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers to
horny texture of wood.

Carpinus caroliniana Walter.

Carpinus, classical Latin name; caroliniana, named from the state.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best on western slopes
of Southern Allegheny
Mountains and in south-
ern Arkansas and Texas.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, a small

tree, 30'-50' high; diam-
eter, 6"-2'; short, fluted,
sinewy trunk ; bark,
smooth, bluish gray;
leaves, falcate, doubly
serrate; fruit, small oval
nut, enclosed in leaf-like
bract.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood thick, whitish; dif-
fuse-porous ; rings, ob-
scure; grain, close; rays,
numerous, broad.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (13th in this
list) ; 45 lbs. per cu. ft.,
sp. gr. 0.7286; very

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS

125

strong (9th in this list) ; very stiff (15th
in this list) ; hard (14th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 6 per cent. ; warps and checks
badly; not durable; hard to work; splits
with great difficulty.

Common Uses: Levers, tool handles.

Remarks: No other wood so good

for levers, because of stiffness.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

Tangential Section
life size.

126

WOOD AND FOREST.

Canoe Birch. White Birch. Paper Birch.

All names refer to bark.

Betula papyrifera Marshall.

lietula, the classical Latin name; papyrifera refers to paper bearing bark.

Habitat: (See map) ;
best west of Rocky Moun-
tains.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 60'-80' ;

diameter, 2'-3' ; stem
rarely quite straight ;
hark, smooth, white, ex-
terior marked with len-
ticels, peeling freely
horizontally into thin
papery layers, showing
brown or orange be-
neath, contains oil which
burns hotly, formerly
used by Indians for ca-
noes, very remarkable
(see Keeler, page 304) ;
leaves, heart-shaped, ir-
regularly serrate ; fruit,
pendulous strobiles.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, brown or reddish,
sap-wood white ; diffuse-
porous ; rings, obscure ;
grain, fairly straight ;
rays, numerous, obscure.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

127

Physical Qualities: AVeight, medium
(33d in this list) ; 37 lbs. per cu. ft.;
sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this
list) ; very elastic (2d in this list) ; me-
dium hard (39th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 6 per cent. ; warps, ; not

durable, except bark ; easy to work ; splits
with difficulty, nails well, tough.

Common Uses: Spools, shoe lasts and
pegs, turnery, bark for canoes.

Remarks: Forms forests. Sap yields
syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable to
woodsmen in many ways.

Radial

life

Section,

size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37H diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

128

WOOD AND FOREST.

Red Birch. River Birch.

Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms.

Betula nigra Linnaeus.
Betula, the classical Latin name.

Habitat.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);
best in Florida, Louisi-
ana and Texas.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 30'-80',

and even higher; diame-
ter, 1', even 5'; trunk,
often divided low; bark,
dark brown, marked by
horizontal lenticels, peels
into paper plates, curl-
ing back; leaves, doubly
serrate, often almost
lobed ; fruit, pubescent,
erect, strobiles.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, thick
sap-wood, whitish ; dif-
fuse-porous ; rings, not
plain; grain, close, rather
crooked; rays, numerous,
obscure.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (36th
in this list) ; 35 lbs. per

SPECIES OF WOODS.

129

cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in
this list) ; very elastic (19th in this
list) ; medium hard (37th in this list) ;

shrinkage, 6 per cent. ; warps, ;

not durable when exposed ; hard to
work, tough; splits with difficulty, nails
well.

Common Uses: Shoe lasts, yokes,

furniture.

Remarks: Prefers moist land.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^4 diameters.

'tangential Section,
life size.

130

WOOD AND FOREST.

Cherry Birch. Sweet Birch. Brack Birch. Mahogany

Birch.

Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet, refers to the
taste of the spicy bark.

Betula lenta Linnaeus.

Betula, the classical Latin name; lenta, meaning tenacious, sticky, may
refer to the gum which exudes from the trunk.

Habitat : ( See map ) ;
best in Tennessee Moun-
tains.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50'-80';

diameter, 2'-5' ; trunk,
rarely straight ; bark,
dark reddish brown, on
old trunks deeply fur-

Leaf.

rowed and broken into
thick, irregular plates,
marked with horizontal
lenticels ; resembles
cherry ; spicy, aromatic ;
leaves, ovate, oblong, 2"-
6" long, irregularly ser-
rate; fruit, erect stro-
biles.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, dark, reddish
brown ; diffuse-porous ;
rings, obscure ; grain,
close, satiny, polishes
well, often stained to
imitate mahogany; rays,
numerous, obscure.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

131

Physical Qualities: Heavy (6th in

this list) ; 47 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr.,
0.7617; very strong (4th in this list) ;
very elastic (6th in this list) ; hard
(11th in this list) ; shrinkage, 6 per cent. ;
warps, little; not durable if exposed;
rather hard to work; splits hard, tough.

Common Uses: Dowel pins, wooden

ware, boats and ships.

Remarks: The birches are not usu-

ally distinguished from one another in
the market.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Kadial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

132

WOOD AND FOREST.

Yellow Birch. Gray Bircii.

Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark.

Beiula lutea F. A. Michaux.

Betula, the classical Latin name; lutea refers to the yellow color of the
bark.

Habitat.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);
best in northern Yew
York and Yew England.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60'-l00'; di-
ameter, 3'-4' • branches,
low ; bark, silvery, yellow,
gray, peeling horizontally
into thin, papery, persist-
ent layers, but on very old
trunks, there are rough,
irregular, plate-like scales ;
leaves, ovate, sharply,
doubly serrate ; fruit,
erect, 1" strobiles.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light reddish brown,
sap-wood white ; diffuse-
porous; rings, obscure;
grain, close, fairly
straight ; rays, numerous,
obscure.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (21st in this list) ;
40 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,

SPECIES OF WOODS.

133

0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list);
very elastic (2d in this list) ; medium
hard (22d in this list) ; shrinkage, 6

per cent. ; warps ; not durable ;

rather hard to work, polishes well ; splits
with difficulty, holds nails well.

Common Uses: Furniture, spools,

button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs, pill
boxes, yokes.

Remarks: The birches are not usu-
ally distinguished from one another in
the market.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 1/2 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

134

WOOD AND FOREST.

Beech.

Fagus grandifolia Ehrhart. Fagus americana Sweet. Fagus fcrru ■■
ginea Aiton. Fagus atropunicea (Marshall) Sudworth.

Fagus (Greek phago means to eat), refers to edible nut; ferruginea,
refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in the fall; atropunicea, meaning
dark red or purple, may refer to the color of the leaves of the copper
beech.

Habitat: (See map);

best in southern Alleghany
Mountains and lower Ohio
valley.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-80' and
even 120'; diameter, 3'- -4' ;
in forest, trunk tall, slen-
der, sinewy; bark, smooth,

ashy gray; leaves, feather-
veined, wedge-shaped, ser-
rate ; leaf buds, long,
pointed ; fruit, 2 small
triangular nuts, enclosed
in burr, seeds about once
in 3 years.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, reddish, variable,
sap-wood white ; diffuse-
porous ; rings, obscure •
grain, straight ; rays,
broad, very conspicuous.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (20th in this list) ;
42 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr.,

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

135

0.6883; very strong (10th in this list);
elastic (13th in this list) ; hard (22d in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent. ; warps
and checks during seasoning; not dur-
able ; hard to work, takes tine polish ;
splits with difficulty, hard to nail.

Common Uses: Plane stocks, shoe

lasts, tool handles, chairs.

Remarks : Often forms pure forests .
Uses due to its hardness.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

136

WOOD AND FOREST.

Chestnut.

Castanea dentata (Marshall) Borkhausen.

(lastanea, the classical Greek and Latin name; dentata, refers to toothed leaf.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map);

best in western North Car-
olina, and eastern Ten-
nessee.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 75'-100';

diameter, 3'-4', and even
12'; branches, low; bark,
thick, shallow, irregular,
fissures, broad, grayish
brown ridges ; leaves,
lanceolate, coarsely ser-
rate, midribs and veins
prominent ; fruit, nuts,
thin-shelled, sweet, en-
closed in prickly burrs.

Appearance of Wood:
Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood lighter ; ring-porous ;
rings, plain, pores large;
grain, straight; rays, nu-
merous, obscure.

Physical Qualities :
Weight, light (50th in
this list), 28 lbs. per cu
ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; me-
dium strong (46th in this

SPECIES OF WOODS.

137

list) ; elasticity, medium (46th in this
list) ; medium hard (44th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly;
very durable, especially in contact with
soil , fairly easy to plane, chisel and
saw; splits easily.

Common Uses: Railway ties, fence

posts, interior finish.

Remarks: Grows rapidly, and lives

to great age. Wood contains much tan-
nic acid. Uses depend largely upon its
durability. Lately whole regions depleted
by fungous pest.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

138

WOOD AND FOREST.

Red Oak.

Quercus rubra Linnaeus.

Quercus, the classical Latin name; rubra, refers to red color of wood.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

best in Massachusetts and
north of the Ohio river.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-l00',

even 150'; diameter, 3'-6';
a tall, handsome tree,
branches rather low; bark,
brownish gray, broad, thin,
rounded ridges, rather
smooth; leaves, 7 to 9 tri-
angular pointed lobes,
with rounded sinuses ;
acorns, characteristically
large, in flat shallow cups.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, reddish brown, sap
wood darker ; ring-por-
ous ; rings, marked by sev-
eral rows of very large
open ducts ; grain, crooked.,
coarse ; rays, few, but
broad, conspicuous.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (23d in this list),

SPECIES OF WOODS.

139

45 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr., 0.G540 ; strong
(21st in this list) ; elastic (18th in this
list) ; hard (26th in this list) ; shrink-
age 6 to 10 per cent. ; warps and checks
badly; moderately durable; easier to
work than white oak ; splits readily,
nails badly.

Common Uses: Cooperage, interior

finish, furniture.

Remarks: Grows rapidly. An infe-

rior substitute for white oak. Bark used
in tanning.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37H diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

140

WOOD AND FOREST.

Black Oak. Yellow Bark Oak.

Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to the inner
bark, which is orange yellow.

Quercus velutina Lamarck. Quercus tinctoria Michaux.

Quercus, the classical Latin name; velutina, refers to the velvety surface
of the young leaf; tinctoria, refers to dye obtained from inner bark.

Habitat: (See map);

best in lower Ohio valley.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 70'-80',

even 150'; diameter 3'-4' ;
branches, low; bark, dark
gray to black, deep fis-
sures, broad, rounded,
firm ridges, inner bark,
yellow, yielding dye ;
leaves, large, lustrous,
leathery, of varied forms;
acorns, small ; kernel, yel-
low, bitter.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood lighter ; ring-por-
ous ; rings, marked by
several rows of very large
open ducts ; grain,
crooked; rays, thin.

Leaf.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (17th in this list),
45 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr..

SPECIES OF WOODS.

Ill

0.7045; very strong (17th in this list) ;
elastic (25th in this list) ; hard (18th
in this list) ; shrinkage, 4 per cent, or
more; warps and checks in drying; dur
able; rather hard to work; splits read
ily, nails badly.

Common Uses: Furniture, interior

trim, cooperage, construction.

Remarks: Foliage handsome in fall ;
persists thru winter.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

142

WOOD AND FOREST.

Basket Oak. Cow Oak.

Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle.

Quercus michauxii Nutt all.

Quercus, the classical Latin name; michauxii, named for the botanist
Michaux.

Habitat.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

best in Arkansas and
Louisiana, especially in
river bottoms.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 80'-100' ;

diameter 3', even 7' ;
trunk, often clean and
straight for 40' or 50'; -
bark, conspicuous, 'light
gray, rough with loose
ashy gray, scaly ridges;
leaves, obovate, regularly
scalloped; acorns, edible
for cattle.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood light buff; ring-por-
ous ; rings, marked by
few rather large, open
ducts; grain, likely to be
crooked; rays, broad, con-
spicuous.

Physical dualities :

Very heavy (5th in this

SPECIES OF WOODS.

143

list), 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039;
very strong (12th in this list); elastic
(33d in this list) ; hard (10th in this
list); shrinkage, 4 per cent, or more;
warps unless carefully seasoned; dur-
able; hard and tough to work; splits
easily, bad to nail.

Common Uses: Construction, agri-

cultural implements, wheel stock, bas-
kets.

Remarks: The best white oak of the
south. Not distinguised from white
oak in the market.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

144

WOOD AND FOREST.

Bur Oak. Mossy-Cup Oak. Oyer-Cup Oak.

Quercus macrocarpa Michaux.

Quercus, the classical Latin name; macrocarpa, refers to the large acorn.

Habitat: (See map);

best in southern Indiana,
Illinois and Kansas.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 70'-130',

even 170'; diameter, 5'-7';
branches, high ; corky
wings on young branches;
bark, gray brown, deeply
furrowed ; deep opposite
sinuses on large leaves ;
acorns,, half enclosed in
mossy-fringed cup.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, rich brown, sap-
wood, thin, lighter; ring-
porous; rings, marked by
1 to 3 rows of small open
ducts; grain, crooked;
rays, broad, and conspic-
uous.

Physical dualities :

Heavy (9th in this list),
46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7453; very strong (16th

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

145

in this list) ; elastic (37th in this list) ;
hard (9th in this list) ; shrinkage, 4 per

cent or more; warps, ; hard,

and tongh to work; splits easily, resists
nailing.

Common Uses: Ship building, cabi-

net work, railway ties, cooperage.

Remarks: Good for prairie plant-

ing. One of the most valuable woods of
North America. Not distinguished from
White Oak in commerce.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

146

WOOD AND FOREST.

White Oak (Western).

Quercus garryana Douglas.

Quercus, the classical Latin name; garryana, named for Garry.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in western Washing-
ton and Oregon.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60'-70',

even 100'; diameter, 2'-
3' ; branches, spreading ;
bark, light brown, shallow
fissures, broad ridges ;
leaves, coarsely pinnati-
fied, lobed; fruit, large
acorns..

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood whitish ; ring-por-
ous ; rings, marked by 1
to 3 rows of open ducts ;
grain, close, crooked ;
rays, varying greatly in
width, often conspicuous.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (10th in this list),
46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7449; strong (28th in
this list) ; elasticity me-

SPECIES OF WOODS.

147

dium ( 54 tJi in this list) ; hard (8th in
this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.;
warps, unless carefully seasoned ; dur-
able; hard to work, very tough; splits
badly in nailing.

Common Uses: Ship building, ve-

hicles, furniture, interior finish.

Remarks : Best of Pacific oaks.

Shrubby at high elevations.

.Radial Section,
life size.

148

WOOD AND FOREST.

Post Oak.

Quercus stellata Wangenheim. Quercus minor (Marsh) Sargent.

Quercus obtusiloba Michaux.

Quercus, the classical Latin name; stellata, refers to the stellate hairs
on upper side of leaf; minor, refers to size of tree, which is often shrubby;
obtusiloba, refers to the blunt lobes of leaves.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in Mississippi basin.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 50'-75',

even 100'; but often a
shrub ; diameter, 2'-3' ;
branches, spreading into
dense round-topped head;
bark, red or brown, deep,
vertical, almost continu-
ous, fissures and broad
ridges, looks corrugated;
leaves, in large tufts at
ends of branchlets; acorns,
small, sessile.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, brown, thick, sap-
wood, lighter ; ring-por-
ous; rings, 1 to 3 rows of
not large . open ducts ;
grain, crooked; rays, nu-
merous, conspicuous.

Physical Qualities :

Very heavy (2d in this
list), 50 lbs. per cu. ft.;

SPECIES OF WOODS.

149

sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this
list) ; medium elastic (50th in this list) ;
very hard (4th in this list) ; shrinkage,
4 per cent, or more; warps and checks
badly in seasoning; durable; hard to
work; splits readily, bad to nail.

Common Uses: Cooperage, railway

ties, fencing, construction.

Remarks: Wood often undistin-

guished from white oak.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^2 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

150

WOOD AND FOREST.

White Oak. Stave Oak.

Quercus alba Linnaeus.

Qucrcus, the classical Latin name; white and alba, refer to white bark.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best on western slopes
of Southern Alleghany
Mountains, and in lower
Ohio river valley.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 80'-100' ;

diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, in
forest, tall, m open, short;
bark, easily distinguished,
light gray with shallow
fissures,, scaly ; leaves,
rounded lobes, and sin-
uses ; acorns, to 1

long, ripen first year.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood paler; ring-porons;
rings, plainly defined by
pores ; grain crooked ;
rays, broad, very conspic-
uous and irregular.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (8th in this list),
50 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp.

SPECIES OE WOODS.

151

gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list);
elastic (32d in this list) ; hard (13th
in this list) ; shrinkage, from 4 to 10
per cent. ; warps and checks consider-
ably, unless carefully seasoned ; very dur-
able, hard to work ; splits somewhat
hard, very difficult to nail.

Common Uses : Interior finish, furni-
ture, construction, ship building, farm
implements, cabinet making.

Remarks: The most important of

American oaks.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cro ss-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

152

WOOD AND FOREST.

Cork Elm. Rock Elm. Hickory Elm. White Elm.

Cliff Elm.

Cork refers to corky ridges on branches.

TJlmus thomasi Sargent. Ulmus racemosa Thomas.

TJlmus, the classical Latin name; racemosa, refers to racemes of flowers.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in Ontario and south-
ern Michigan.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80'-100';

diameter, 2'-3', trunk of-
ten clear for 60'; bark,
gray tinged with red,
corky, irregular projec-
tions, give shaggy appear-
ance ; leaves, obovate,
donbly serrate, 3 "-4" long ;
fruit, pubescent, samaras.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown or red;
sap-wood yellowish ; ring-
porous; rings, marked
with one or two rows of
small open ducts; grain,
interlaced ; rays, numer-
ous, obscure.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (15th in this list),
45 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr.,
0.7263; very strong (13th

SPECIES OP WOODS.

in this list) ; elastic (22d in this list) ;
hard (15th in this list) ; shrinkage, 5
per cent. ; warps, ........; very dur-
able; hard to work; splits and nails
with difficulty.

Common Uses: Hubs, agricultural

implements, sills, bridge timbers.

Remarks: The best of the elm

woods.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

154

WOOD AND FOREST.

White Elm. American Elm. Water Elm.
Water, because it flourishes on river banks.

Ulmus americana Linnaeus.
TJimus, the classical Latin name.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best northward on river
bottoms.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 90', even

120'; diameter, 3'-8';
trunk, usually divides at
30'-40' from ground into
upright branches, making
triangular outline ; bark,
ashy gray, deep longitu-
dinal fissures, broad
ridges ; leaves, 4"-6"
long, oblique obovate*
doubly serrate, smooth
one way; fruit, small,
roundish, flat, smooth, sa-
maras.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood yellowish ; ring-po-
rous ; rings, marked by
several rows of large open
ducts; grain, interlaced;
rays, numerous, thin.

SPECIES OE WOODS.

155

Physical Qualities: Heavy (24th in

this list, 34 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp.
gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list);
elasticity, medium (59th in this list) ;
medium hard (28th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 5 per cent. ; warps ; not

durable; hard to work, tough, will not
polish; splits with difficulty.

Common Uses: Cooperage, wheel

stock, flooring.

Remarks: Favorite ornamental tree,

but shade light, and leaves fall early.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,

life size.

Cross-section,
magnified ziV* diameters.

156

WOOD AND FOREST.

Cucumber Tree. Mountain Magnolia.

Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit.

Magnolia acuminata Linnaeus.

Magnolia, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist; acuminata, re-
fers to pointed fruit.

Habitat: (See map);

best at the base of moun-
tains in North Carolina
and South Carolina and
Tennessee.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 60'-90' ;

diameter, 3'-4'; in forest,
clear trunk for 2/3 of
height (40' or 50') ; bark,
dark brown, thick, fur-
rowed ; leaves, large,
smooth ; flowers, large
greenish yellow ; fruit,
dark red “cones” formed
of two seeded follicles.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, yellow brown, thick
sapwood, lighter ; diffuse-
porous ; rings, obscure ;
grain, very straight, close,
satiny ; rays, numerous
thin.

Physical Qualities :

Light (45th in this list),

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

157

» . . . lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr., 0.4690 ;
medium strong (49th in this list) ; elas-
tic (38th in this list) ; medium
hard (41st in this list) ; shrinkage, 5
per cent. ; warps ; very dur-

able; easy to work; splits easily, takes
nails well.

Common Uses: Pump logs, cheap

furniture, shelving.

Remarks: Wood similar to yellow

poplar, and often sold with it.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 3 7Y2. diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

158

WOOD AND FOREST.

Yellow Poplar. Whitewood. Tulip Tree.

Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to poplar
family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of the wood, which is
greenish yellow.

Liriodendron tulipifera Linnaeus.

Liriodendron, means lily-tree; tulipifera means tulip-bearing.

Habitat.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

best in lower Ohio valley
and southern Appalach-
ian mountains.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-90' ;,

even 200'; diameter, 6'-8',
even 12'; tall, magnifi-
cent trunk, unsurpassed
in grandeur by any east-
ern American tree; bark,
brown, aromatic, evenly
furrowed so as to make
clean, neat-looking trunk;
leaves, 4 lobed, apex, pe-
culiarly truncated, clean
cut ; flowers, tulip-like ;
fruit, cone, consisting of
many scales.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light greenish or
yellow brown, sap-wood,
creamy white ; diffuse-
porous ; rings, close but
distinct ; grain, straight ;
rays, numerous and plain.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

159

Physical Qualities: Light (54th in

this list), 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.4230; medium strong (51st in this
list) ; elastic (39th in this list) ; soft
(49th in this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per
cent; warps little; durable; easy to
work; brittle and does not split readily,
nails very well.

Common Uses: Construction work,

furniture, interiors, boats, carriage bod-
ies, wooden pumps.

Remarks: Being substituted largely

for white pine.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 27 V2 diameters.

langential Section,
life size.

160

WOOD AND FOREST.

Sweet Gum.

Gum, refers to exudations.

Liquidambar styraciflua Linnaeus.

hiquidambar, means liquid gum; styraciflua, means fluid resin (storax).

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in the lower Mississ-
ippi valley.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 80'-140' ;

diameter, 3'-5' ; trunk,
tall, straight ; bark, light
brown tinged with red,
deeply fissured; branch-
lets often having corky
wings; leaves, star-shaped,
five pointed ; conspicu-
ously purple and crimson
in autumn; fruit, multi-
capsular, spherical, per-
sistent heads.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light red brown,
sap-wood almost white;
diffuse-porous; rings, fine
and difficult to distin-
guish ; grain, straight,
close, polishes well; rays,
numerous, very obscure.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (34th in

SPECIES OE WOODS.

161

this list), 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.5909; medium strong (52d in this
list; elasticity medium (44th in this
list) ; medium hard (36th in this list) ;
shrinkage, 6 per cent. ; warps and
twists badly in seasoning; not durable
when exposed; easy to work; crumbles
in splitting; nails badly.

Common Uses: Building construc-

tion, cabinet-work, veneering, street
pavement, barrel staves and heads.

Remarks: Largely used in veneers,

because when solid it warps and twists
badly. Exudations used in medicine to
some extent.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37J4 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

162

WOOD AND FOREST.

Sycamore. Buttonwood. Button Bale. Water Beech.

Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry; buttonwood
and button-ball, refer to fruit balls.

Platanus occidentalis Linnaeus.

Platanus, refers to the broad leaves; occidentalis, western, to distinguish
i( from European species.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

best in valley of lower
Ohio and Mississippi.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-100',

and even 170'; diameter^
6'-12'; trunk, commonly
divides into 2 or 3 large
branches, limbs spreadin
often dividing angularly;
bark, flakes off in great
irregular masses, leaving
mottled surface, greenish
gray and brown, this pe-
culiarity due to its rigid
texture: leaves, palmately
3 to 5 lobed, 4"-9" long,
petiole enlarged, enclosiug
buds; fruit, large rough
balls, persistent through
winter.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, reddish brown, sap-
wood lighter ; diffuse-
porous; rings, marked by

SPECIES OF WOODS.

163 '

broad bands of small ducts ; grain, cross,
close; rays, numerous, large, conspicu-
ous.

Physical Qualities: Weight, medium
(38th in this list), 35 lbs. per cu. ft.;
sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th
in this list) ; elasticity, medium (43d
in this list; medium hard (30th
in this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent. ;
warps little ; very durable, once used
for mummy coffins; hard to work; splits
very hard.

Common Uses: Tobacco boxes, yokes,
furniture, butcher blocks.

Remarks: Trunks often very large

and hollow.

Cross-section,
magnified 37*4 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

164

WOOD AND FOREST.

Wild Black Cherry.

Padus serotina (Ehrhart) Agardh. Prunus serotina Ehrhart.

Pcidus, the old Greek name; prunus, the classical Latin name; serotina ,
because it blossoms late (June).

Habitat.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

best on southern Allegheny
mountains.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 40'-50',

even 100'; diameter, 2'-4';
straight, columnar trunk,
often free from branches
for 70'; bark, blackish
and rough, fissured in all
directions, broken into
small, irregular, scaly

plates, with raised edges;
leaves, oblong to lanceo-
late, deep, shiny green;
fruit, black drupe, y^".

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown or red,
sap-wood yellow ; diffuse-
porous ; rings, obscure ;
grain, straight, close, fine,
takes fine polish ; rays,
numerous.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (35th in

SPECIES OF WOODS.

165

this list), 36 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.5822; strong (35th in this list) ; elas-
ticity medium (45th in this list) ;
hard (16th in this list) ; shrinkage, 5
per cent.; warps, little; durability
; easily worked; splits eas-
ily, must be nailed with care.

Common Uses: Cabinet-work, costly

interior trim.

Remarks: Grows rapidly.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^4 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

166

WOOD AND FOREST.

Black Locust. Locust. Yellow Locust.

Yellow, from color of sap-wood.

Robinia pseudacacia Linnaeus.

Rolinia, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; 'pseudacacia, means false acacia.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map);

best on western Allegheny
mountains in West Vir-
ginia.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, • 50'-80';

diameter, 3'-4' ; bark,
strikingly deeply fur-
rowed, dark brown ;
prickles on small branches,
grows fast, forms thick-
ets, on account of under-
ground shoots ; leaves,
8"-14" long, pinnately
compound ; 7 to 9 leaf-

lets, close at night and in
rainy weather; fruit, pod
3"-4" long.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, brown, sap-wood
thin, yellowish ; ring-por-
ous; rings, clearly marked
by 2 or 3 rows of large
open ducts ; grain,
crooked, compact.

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

167

Physical Qualities: Heavy (12th in

this list), 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7333; very strong (1st in this list);
elastic (9th in this list) ; very hard
(6th in this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per
cent. ; warps badly, very durable ; hard
to work, tough; splits in nailing.

Common Uses: Shipbuilding, con-

struction, “tree-nails” or pins, wagon
hubs.

Remarks: Widely planted and cul-

tivated east and west. Likely to be in-
fested with borers.

Cross-section,
magnified 37 diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

168

WOOD AND FOREST.

Mahogany.

Swietenia mahagoni Jacquin.

Sioietenia, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria; maliagoni, a
South American word.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

only on Florida Iveys in
the United States.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 40'-50' ;

diameter, 2' or more, for-
eign trees larger; immense
buttresses at base of trunk ;
bark, thick, dark red-
brown, having surface of
broad, thick scales; leaves,
4"-6" long, compound, 4
pairs of leaflets; fruit,
4"-5" long, containing
seeds.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, red-brown, sap-
wood, thin, yellow ; dif-
fuse-porous; rings, incon-
spicuous ; grain, crooked ;
rays, fine and scattered,
but plain.

Physical Qualities :

Heavy (14th in this list),
45 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr.,
0.7282; very strong (20th
in this list) ; elastic (24th
in this list) ; very hard
(1st in this list) ; shrink-

SPECIES OE WOODS.

169

age, 5 per cent.; warps very little; very
durable ; genuine mahogany, hard to
work; especially if grain is cross; some-
what brittle, and comparatively easy to
split, nails with difficulty; polishes and
takes glue well.

Common Uses: Chiefly for cabinet-

making, furniture, interior finishes and
veneers.

Remarks: Mahogany, now in great

demand in the American market for fine
furniture and interior trim comes from
the West Indies, Central America and
West Africa. The so-called Spanish
mahogany, the most highly prized va-
riety, came originally from the south of
Hayti. The Honduras Mahogany was
often called baywood. Botanically the
varieties are not carefully distinguished ;
in the lumber yard the lumber is known
by its sources. The Cuba wood can be
partly distinguished by the white chalk-
like specks in the pores and is cold to
the touch, while the Honduras wood can
be recognized by the black specks or lines
in the grain. Both the Honduras and
West India woods have a softer feel
than the African wood, when rubbed
with the thumb. The Cuba and St. Do-
mingo wood are preferred to the Hon-
duras, and still more to the African, but
even experts have difficulty in distin-
guishing the varieties.

Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar
( Cedrela odorata ) belongs to the same
family as mahogany and is often sold
for it. It is softer, lighter, and easier
to work.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

170

WOOD AND FOREST.

Oregon Maple. White Maple. Large Leaved Maple.

Acer macro phyllum Pursh.

Acer, the classical Latin name; macrophyllum, refers to the large leaves.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in southern Oregon.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-300';

diameter, 3'-5'; stout, of-
ten pendulous branches,
making a handsome tree;
bark, reddish brown,
deeply furrowed, square
scales; leaves, very large,
8"-12" and long petioles,
deep, narrow sinuses ;
fruit, hairy samaras.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, rich brown and red,
sap-wood thick, nearly
white ; diffuse-porous ;
rings, obscure ; grain,
close, fibres interlaced,
sometimes figured, pol-
ishes well ; rays, numer-
ous and thin.

Physical Qualities :
Light in weight (2Gth in
this list), 30 lbs. per cu.

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

J 71

ft., sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th
in this list) ; elasticity medium (57th
in this list) ; medium hard (31st in this
list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps

; not durable ; rather hard

to work; splits with difficulty.

Common Uses: Tool and ax handles,
furniture, interior finish.

Remarks: A valuable wood on the

Pacific coast.

Cross-section,
magnified 37*4 diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

172

WOOD AND FOREST.

Soft Mafee. White Maple. Silver Maple.

Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf.

Acer saccharinum Linnaeus. Acer dasycarpum Ehrhart.

Acer, the classical Latin name; saccharinum, refers to sweetish juice;
dasycarpum, refers to the wooliness of the fruit when young.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in lower Ohio valley.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 50'-90',

even 120'; diameter, 3'-5' ;
form suggests elm • bark,
reddish brown, furrowed,
surface separating into
large, loose scales; leaves,
palmately 5 lobed, with
narrow, acute sinuses, sil-
very white beneath, turn
only yellow in autumn ;
fruit, divergent, .winged
samaras.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, brown and reddish,
sap-wood, cream ; diffuse-
porous ; rings, obscure ;
grain, twisted, wavy, fine,
polishes well; rays, thin,
numerous.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (40th in
this list), 32 lbs. per cu.

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

173

ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th
in this list; very elastic (20th in this
list) ; hard (25th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 5 per cent. ; warps, ;

not durable under exposure ; easily
worked; splits in nailing.

Common Uses: Flooring, furniture,

turnery, wooden ware.

Remarks: Grows rapidly. Curly

varieties found. Sap produces some
sugar.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section, Tangential Section,

magnified 37 diameters. life size.

174

WOOD AND FOREST.

Red Maple.

Acer rubrum Linnaeus.

Acer, the classical Latin name; rubrum, refers to red flowers and
autumn leaves.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in lower Ohio valley.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 80'-12-0' ;

diameter, 2'-4' ; branches,
low ; bark, dark gray,
shaggy, divided by long
ridges ; leaves, palmately
5 lobed, acute sinuses ;
fruit, double samaras,
forming characteristic ma-
ple key.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light reddish brown,
sap-wood, lighter; diffuse-
porous ; rings, obscure ;
grain, crooked ; rays, nu-
merous, obscure.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (30th in
this list), 38 lbs, per cu.
ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong
(36th in this list) ; elas-
tic (36th in this list) ;
hard (27th in this list) ;

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS

175

shrinkage, 5 per cent. ; warps ;

not durable; fairly hard to work; splits
with difficult}7, splits badly in nailing.

Common Uses: Flooring, turning,

wooden ware.

Remarks: Grows rapidly. Has red

flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and
leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross- section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

176

WOOD AXD FOREST.

; , ./ li : ■ || .

Hard Maple. Sugar Maple. Rock Maple.
Acer saccliarum Marshall.

Acer, the classical Latin name; saccliarum, refers to sweet sap.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in regions of Great
Lakes.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 100'-120';

diameter, even 4';

often trees in forest are
without branches for 60'-
70' from ground, in the
open, large impressive
tree ; bark, gray brown,
thick, deep, longitudinal
fissures, hard and rough;
leaves, opposite, 3 to 5
lobed, scarlet and yellow
in autumn; fruit, double,
slightly divergent samaras.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown tinged
with red ; diffuse-porous
rings, close but distinct ;
grain, crooked, fine, close,
polishes well ; rays, fine
but conspicuous.

Physical dualities :

Heavy (19th in this list),

SPECIES OF WOODS.

177

43 lbs. per cu. ft; sp. gr., 0.6912; very
strong (8th in this list) ; very elastic
(5th in this list) ; very hard (7th in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent. ; warps
badly • not durable when exposed ; hard
to work; splits badly in nailing.

Common Uses : School and other fur-
niture, car construction, carving, wooden
type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano ac-
tions, ships’ keels.

Remarks: Tree very tolerant. The
uses of this wood are chiefly due to its
hardness. Bird’s-Eye Maple and Curly
Maple are accidental varieties. Pure
maple sugar is made chiefly from this
species. Its ashes yield large quantities
of potash.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^4 diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

178

WOOD AND FOREST.

Basswood. Linden.

Bass, refers to bast or inner bark.

Tilia americana Linnaeus.

Tilia, the classical Latin name.

Habitat.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in bottom lands of
lower Ohio Liver.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60'-70\

even 130'; diameter, 2'-4';
trunk, erect, pillar-like,
branches spreading, mak-
ing round heads ; bark,
light brown, furrowed,
scaly surface, inner bark
fibrous and tough, used
for matting; leaves,
oblique, heart-shaped, side
nearest branch larger ;
fruit clustered on long
pendulous stem, attached
to vein of narrow bract.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, very light brown,
approaching cream color,
sap-wood, hardly distin-
guishable ; diffuse-porous ;
rings, fine and close but
clear ; grain, straight :
rays, numerous, obscure.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

179

Physical Qualities: Light in weight

(49th in this list), 28 lbs. per cu. ft.;
sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list) ;
elasticity, medium (49th in this list) ;
soft (64th in this list) ; shrinkage, 6
per cent. ; warps comparatively little ;
quite durable ; very easily worked ; some-
what tough to split, nails well.

Common Uses: Woodenware, carriage
bodies, etc., picture molding, paper pulp,
etc.

Remarks : May be propagated by
grafting as well as by seed. Is subject
to attack by many insects. Wood used
for carriage bodies because flexible and
easily nailed.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^4 diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

180

WOOD AND FOREST.

Sour Gum. Tupeuo. Pepperidge. Brack Gum.

Tupelo, the Indian name.

Nyssa sylvatica Marshal.

Nyssa, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home of
Dio-nysus (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands); sylvatica, refers
to its habit of forest growth.

Reaf.

Habitat: (See map);

best in Southern Appala-
chian mountains.

Characteristics of the
Tree : Height, 40'-50',

even 100'; diameter, 1"-
6", even 5' • variable in
form; bark, brown, deeply
fissured and scaly; leaves,
in sprays, short, petioled,
brilliant scarlet in au-
tumn; fruit, bluish black,
sour, fleshy drupe.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, pale yellow, sap-
wood, white, hardly dis-
tinguishable ; diffuse-por-
ous ; rings, not plain ;
grain fine, twisted and in-
terwoven ; rays, numer-
ous, thin.

Physical dualities :

Medium heavy (25th in
this list), 39 lbs. per cu.
ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356;

SPECIES OF WOODS.

181

strong (34th in this list); elasticity,
medium (51st in this list) ; hard (20th
in this list) ; shrinkage, 5 or 6 per
cent.; warps and checks badly; not
durable if exposed; hard to work; splits
hard, tough.

Common Uses: Wagon hubs, handles,
3rokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and
wharves, rollers in glass factories.

Remarks : The best grades closely re-
semble j^ellow poplar.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37H diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

182

WOOD AND FOREST.

Black Ash. Hoop Ash.

IIoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops.

Fraxinus nigra Marshall. Fraxinus scambucifolia.

Fraxinus, from a Greek word ( phraxis ) meaning split, refers to the
cleavability of the wood; sambucifolia, refers to the fact that the leaves are
in odor like those of Elder (Sambucus).

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in moist places.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 80'-90'; di-
ameter, l'-l^'; slender-
est of the forest trees, up-
right branches; bark, gray
tinged with red, irregular
plates, with thin scales ;
leaves, 1CT-16" long, com-
pound, 7 to 11 leaflets, in
autumn rusty brown ;
fruit, single samaras in
panicles.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, dark brown, sap-
wood light ; ring-porous ;
rings, well defined ; grain,
straight, burls often form
highly prized veneers ;
rays, numerous and thin.

Physical dualities :

Medium heavy (27th in
this list), 39 lbs. per cu.
ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong

Leaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

183

(38th in this list) ; elasticity, medium
(12th in this list) ; hard (23d in this
list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,
but not very much; not durable when
exposed; hard to work; separates easily
in layers, hence used for splints.

Common Uses: Interior finish, cab-

inet work, fencing, barrel hoops.

Remarks: The flexibility of the

wood largely determines its uses.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

Radial Section,
life size.

Tangential Section,
life size.

184

WOOD AND FOREST.

Oregon Ash.

Fraxinus oregona Nuttall.

Fraxinus , from a Greek word ( phraxis ) meaning split, refers to the
cleavability of the wood; oregona, named for the State of Oregon.

Habitat: (See map);

best in southern Oregon.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 50'-80'; di-
ameter, l'-iy2', even 4';
branches, stout, erect ;
bark, grayish brown, deep
interrupted fissures, broad,
flat ridges, exfoliates ;
leaves, 5"-14" long; pin-
nately compound, 5 to 7
leaflets ; fruit, single sa-
maras in clusters.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, brown, sap-wood
thick, lighter; ring-por-
ous ; rings, plainly marked
by large, open, scattered
pores ; grain, coarse,
straight ; rays, numerous,
thin.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (37th in
this list), 35 lbs. per cu.
ft. ; sp. gr., 0.5731 ; me-

L,eaf.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

185

tfium strong (50th in this list) ; elastic-
ity, medium (48th in this list; me-
dium hard (29th in this list) ; shrink-
age, 5 per cent. ; warps, ;

not durable; hard to work, tough; splits
with difficulty.

Common Uses: Furniture, vehicles,
cooperage.

Remarks: A valuable timber tree of
the Pacific coast.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^ diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

186

WOOD AND FOREST.

Brue Ash.

Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark.

Fraxinus quadrangulata Michaux.

Fraxinus, from a Greek word ( phraxis ) meaning split, refers to the
cleavabilty of the wood; quadrangulata, refers to four-angled branchlets.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map) ;

best in lower Wabash val-
ley.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 60'-70',

even 120'; diameter, l'-2' ;
tall, slender, four-angled,
branchlets ; bark, light
gray, irregularly divided
into large plate-like scales,
inside bark, bluish, yield-
ing dye; leaves, 8"-12"
long, compound pinnate,
5 to 9 leaflets; fruit,
winged samaras in pan-
icles.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light yellow,
streaked with brown, sap-
wood lighter ; ring-por-
ous ; rings, clearly marked
by 1 to 3 rows of large,
open ducts ; grain,
straight; rays, numerous,
obscure.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

187

Physical Qualities: Heavy (16th in
this list), 44 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr.,
0.7184; strong (37th in this list) ; elas-
ticity, medium (58th in this list) ; hard
(12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per
cent. ; warps, ; most dur-

able of the ashes; hard to work; splits
readily, bad for nailing.

Common Uses : Carriage building,

tool handles.

Remarks: Blue ash pitchfork han-

dles are famous.

Radial Section,
life size.

188

WOOD AND FOREST.

Bed Asir.

Red, from color of inner bark.

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marshall. Fraxinus pubescens Lambert.
G3. Engelmann’s spruce.

Fraxinus, from a Greek word ( phraxis ) meaning split, refers to the
cleavability of the wood; pennsylvanica, in honor of the State of Pennsyl-
vania; pubescens, refers to down on new leaves and twigs.

Habitat.

Leaf.

Habitat: (See map);

best east of Alleghany
mountains.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 40'-60'; di-
ameter, 12"-18"; small,
slim, upright branches ;
bark, brown or ashy, great,
shallow, longitudinal fur-
rows ; leaves, 10"-12"
long, pinnately compound,
7 to 9 leaflets, covered
with down ; fruit, single
samara.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light brown, sap-
wood lighter and yellow-
ish; ring porous; rings,
marked by pores ; grain,
straight, coarse ; rays,
numerous, thin.

Physical Qualities :

Weight, medium (28th in
this list), 39 lbs. per cu.
ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong

SPECIES OF WOODS.

189

(30th in this list) ; elasticity, medium
(53d in this list; hard (17th in this
list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps lit-
tle; not durable; hard to work; splits
in nailing.

Common Uses: Agricultural imple-
ments, oars, handles, boats.

Remarks: Often sold with and as

the superior white ash.

Radial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37^4 diameters.

Tangential Section,
life size.

190

WOOD AND FOREST.

White Ash.

White, refers to whitish color of wood.

Fraxinus americana Linnaeus.

Fraxinus, from a Greek word ( phraxis ) meaning split, refers to the
sleavability of the wood.

Habitat: (See map);

best in the bottom lands
of lower Ohio valley.

Characteristics of the
Tree: Height, 70'-80',

even 120'; diameter, 3'-6';
branches rather high, tree *
singularly graceful ; bark,
gray, narrow furrows,
clean, neat trunk; leaves,
8"-15" long, compound,
tufted, smooth, turns in
autumn to beautiful pur-
ples, browns and yellows;
fruit, panicles of samaras,
persistent till midwinter.

Appearance of Wood:

Color, light reddish brown,
sap-wood whitish ; ring-
porous, rings clearly
marked by pores ; straight- •
grained; pith rays ob-
scure.

Physical dualities:

Heavy (22d in this list),
39 lbs. per cu. ft. ; sp. gr..

Real.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

191

0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elas-
tic (30th in this list); hard (17th in
this list) ; shrinkage, 5 per cent. ; warps
little; not durable in contact with soil;
hard and tough; splits readily, nails
badly.

Common Uses : Inside finish, farm

implements, barrels, baskets, oars, car-
riages.

Remarks: Forms no forests, occurs

scattered. Its uses for handles and oars
determined by combination of strength
lightness and elasticity.

Jkadial Section,
life size.

Cross-section,
magnified 37*4 diameters.

'iangential Section
life size.

192

WOOD AND FOREST.

List of G6 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Tiihik

Weight.

1. Sliellbark hickory.

2. Post oak.

3. Mockernut.

4. Pignut.

5. Basket oak/

G. Cherry birch.

7. Slash pine.

8. White oak.

9. Bur oak.

10. Western white oak.

11. Western larch.

12. Black locust.

13. Blue beech.

14. Mahogany.

15. Cork elm.

16. Blue ash.

17. Black oak.

18. Longleaf pine.

19. Hard maple.

20. Beech.

21. Yellow birch.

22. White ash.

23. Bed oak. v

24. White elm.

25. Sour gum.

26. Oregon maple.

27. Black ash.

28. Bed ash.

29. Tamarack.

30. Bed maple.

31. Black walnut.

32. Shortleaf pine.

33. Canoe birch.

34. Sweet gum.

35. Wild black cherry.

36. Bed birch.

37. Oregon ash.

38. Sycamore.

39. Loblolly pine.

40. Soft maple.

41. Douglas spruce.

42. Bed cedar.

43. Norway pine.

44. Western yellow pine.

45. Cucumber tree.

46. Lawson cypress.

47. Black spruce and Bed
spruce.

48. Bald cypress.

49. Basswood.

50. Chestnut.

51. Black willow.

52. Tideland spruce.

53. Hemlock.

54. Yellow poplar.

55. Bed wood.

56. Butternut.

57. White spruce.

58. Western white pine.

59. White pine.

60. Western red cedar.

61. Sugar pine.

62. Grand fir.

63. Engelmann’s spruce.

64. White cedar.

65. Big tree.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

193

List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Tiieir

Strength.

1. Black locust.

2. Yellow birch.

3. Western larch.

4. Cherry birch.

5. Shellbark hickory.

6. Slash pine.

7. Longleaf pine.

8. Hard maple.

9. Blue beech.

10. Beech.

11. Mockernut.

12. Basket Oak.

13. Cork elm.

14. Canoe birch.

15. Pignut hickory.

16. Bur oak.

17. Black oak.

18. Shortleaf pine.

19. Soft maple.

20. Mahogany.

21. Bed oak.

22. Eed birch.

23. White oak.

24. Tamarack.

25. Lawson cypress.

26. Loblolly pine.

27. Douglas spruce.

28. Western white oak.

29. Post oak.

30. Eed ash.

31. White ash.

32. Black walnut.

^3. White elm.

34. Sour gum.

35. Wild black cherry.

36. Eed maple.

37. Blue ash.

38. Black ash.

39. Norway pine.

40. Western red cedar.

41. Black spruce and Eed
spruce.

42. White spruce.

43. Eed cedar.

44. Hemlock.

45. Western yellow pine.

46. Chestnut.

47. Oregon maple.

48. Bald cypress.

49. Cucumber tree.

50. Oregon ash.

51. Yellow poplar.

52. Sweet gum.

53. Tideland spruce.

54. Sycamore.

55. White pine.

56. Western white pine.

57. Butternut.

58. Eedwood.

59. Sugar pine.

60. Basswood.

61. Engelmann’s spruce.

62. Grand fir.

63. Big tree.

64. White cedar.

65. Black willow.

194

WOOD AND FOREST.

List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their

Elasticity.

1. Western larch.

2. Canoe birch and Yellow
birch

3. Slash pine.

4. ^Longleaf pine.

5. Hard maple.

6. Cherry birch.

7. Shortleaf pine.

8. Shellbark hickory.

9. Black locnst.

10. Douglas spruce.

11. Tamarack.

12. Lawson cypress.

13. Beech.

14. Mockernut.

15. Blue beech.

16. Norway pine.

17. Loblolly pine.

18. Bed oak.

19. Bed birch.

20. Soft maple.

21. Bed spruce and Black
spruce.

22. Cork elm.

23. Black walnut.

24. Mahogany.

25. Black oak.

26. Western red cedar.

27. Pignut hickory.

28. Bald cypress.

29. White spruce.

30. White ash.

31. Tideland spruce.

32. White oak.

33. Basket oak.

34. Grand fir.

35. Western white pine.

36. Bed maple.

37. Bur oak.

38. Cucumber tree.

39. Yellow poplar.

40. Hemlock.

41. Western yellow pine.

42. Black ash.

43. Sycamore.

44. Sweet gum.

45. Wild black cherry.

46. Chestnut.

47. White pine.

48. Oregon ash.

49. Bass.

50. Post oak.

51. Sour gum.

52. Butternut.

53. Bed ash.

54. Western white oak.

55. EngelmamTs spruce.

56. Sugar pine.

57. Oregon maple.

58. Blue ash.

59. White elm.

60. Bedwood.

61. Bed cedar.

62. Big tree.

63. White cedar.

64. Black willow.

SPECIES OF WOODS.

195

List of 66 Common Woods Arranged in the Order of Their

Hardness.

1. Mahogany.

2. Pignut.

3. Mockernnt.

4. Post oak.

5. Shellbark hickory.

6. Black locnst.

7. Hard maple.

8. Western white oak.

9. Bur oak.

10. Basket oak.

11. Cherry birch.

12. Blue ash.

13. White oak.

14. Blue beech.

15. Cork elm.

16. Wild black cherry.

17. Red ash.

18. Black oak.

19. White ash.

20. Sour gum.

21. Black walnut.

22. Beech.

23. Black ash.

24. Slash pine.

25. Soft maple.

26. Red oak.

27. Red maple.

28. White elm.

29. Oregon ash.

30. Sycamore.

31. Oregon maple.

32. Yellow birch.

33. Long leaf pine.

34. Red cedar.

35. Western larch.

36. Sweet gum.

37. Red birch.

38. Short leaf pine.

39. Canoe birch.

40. Tamarack.

41. Cucumber tree.

42. Western yellow pine.

43. Loblolly pine.

44. Chestnut.

45. Douglas spruce.

46. Black willow.

47. Butternut.

48. Norway pine.

49. Yellow poplar.

50. Lawson cypress.

51. Hemlock.

52. Bald cypress.

53. Sugar pine.

54. Red spruce and Black
spruce.

55. Redwood.

56. Engelmann’s spruce.

57. White pine.

58. White spruce.

59. Tideland spruce.

60. Western white cedar.

61. Big tree.

62. White cedar.

63. Western white pine.

64. Basswood.

65. Grand fir.

195

WOOD AND FOREST.

THE PRINCIPAL, SPECIES OF WOODS.

References : *

Sargent, Jesup Collection.
Sargent, Manual.

Britton.

Roth, Timber.

Hough, Handbook.

Keeler

Apgar.

Mohr. For . Bull., No. 22.
Fernow, Forestry Investigations.
Lumber Trade Journals.

Baterden.

Sargent, Silva.

Sargent, Forest Trees, 10th Census,
Vol. IX.

Boulger.

Hough, American Woods.

Snow.

Lounsberry.

Spaulding. For. Bull. No. 13.
Sudworth. For Bull No 17.

Forest Service Records of Wholesale Prices of Lumber, List. A.

For particular trees consult For. Serv., Bulletins and Circulars. See
For. Service Classified List of Publications.

*For general bibliography, see p. 4.

Chapter IV.

THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF THE NORTH

AMERICAN FORESTS.

The forests of the United States, Map, Fig. 44, may be conveni-
ently divided into two great regions, the Eastern or Atlantic Forest,
and the Western or Pacific Forest. These are separated by the great
treeless plains which are west of the Mississippi River, and east of

the Rocky Mountains, and which extend from North Dakota to west-
ern Texas.1

The Eastern Forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass,
lying in three quite distinct regions, (1) the northern belt of coni-
fers, (2) the southern belt of conifers, and (3) the great deciduous
(hardwood) forest lying between these two.

(1) The northern belt of conifers or “North Woods” extended
thru northern New England and New York and ran south along the
Appalachians. It reappeared again in northern Michigan, Wiscon-
sin and Minnesota. White pine, Fig. 45, was the characteristic tree
in the eastern part of this belt, tho spruce was common, Fig. 56, p.
213, and white and Norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the
western part. Altho the more valuable timber, especially the pine,
has been cut out, it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of
spruce, second growth pine, hemlock and some hardwood.

(2) The southern pine forest formerly extended from the Poto-
mac River in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the
AtIantic coast> across the Florida peninsula, and along the gulf of

ORIGINAL FOREST REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Northern forest

Hardwood forest

Southern forest

Rocky Mountains forest

Pacific forest

Treeless area

Area

Thousand acres

158,938

328,183

.249 669

155 014

121,356

887,787

Area
Per cent

8.4
17.3
13.1

8.1

6.4
46.7

Total land area

1,900,947 100.0

197

198

WOOD AND FOREST,

FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION

199

Fig. 45. Interior of Dense White Pine Forest, Cass Rake, Minn.
U. S. Forest Service.

200

WOOD AND FOREST

Fig-. 46. Long-leaf Pine Forest. Oscilla, Georgia. U. S. Forest Service.

FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION.

201

Mexico, skipping the Mississippi River and reappearing in a great
forest in Louisiana and Eastern Texas. It was composed of almost

Fig-. 47. Semi-tropical Forest, Florida Rive Oak, Surrounded by Cabbage Palmetto,
and Hung With Spanish Moss. U. S'. Forest Service.

pure stands of pine, the long-leaf, Fig. 46, the short-leaf, and the lob-
lolly, with cypress in the swamps and bottom lands. In southern

202

WOOD AND FOREST

Florida the forest is tropical. Fig. 47, like that of the West Indies,
and in southern Texas it partakes of the character of the Mexican
forest.

(3) Between these north and south coniferous belts, lay the great
broad-leaf or hardwood forest, Fig. 48, which constituted the greater

Fig. 48. Broad-leaf Forest, Protected from Cattle and Fire. Hancock Co., Indiana.

U. S. Forest Service.

FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION

203

Fig. 49. Irrigated Ranch on Treeless Alkali Plain. Rio Blanco Co., Colorada. U. S. Forest Service.

204

WOOD AND FOREST.

part of the Eastern Forest and characterized it. It was divided into
two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line, running from
southern Hew England to Missouri. The southeast portion consisted
of hardwoods intermixed with conifers. The higher ridges of the
Appalachian Range, really a leg of the northern forest, were occupied
by conifers, mainly spruce, white pine, and hemlock. The northwest
portion of the region, particularly Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, was
without the conifers. It was essentially a mixed forest, largely oak,
with a variable mixture of maples, beech, chestnut, yellow poplar,
hickory, sycamore, elm, and ash, with birch appearing toward the
north and pine toward the south.

Taking the Eastern Forest as a whole, its most distinguishing
feature was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees, so that it might
properly be called a deciduous forest. The greatest diversity of trees
was to be found in Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, and this
region is still the source of the best hardwood lumber.

This great eastern forest, which once extended uninterruptedly
from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond, has now been largely
lumbered off, particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion, mak-
ing way for farms and towns. The north and south coniferous belts
are still mainly unbroken, and are sparsely settled, but the big timber
is cut out, giving place to poorer trees. This is particularly true of
the white pine, “the king of American trees,” only a little of which,
in valuable sizes, is left in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. In
the same way in the south, the long-leaf pine, once the characteristic
tree, is fast being lumbered out.

The Western or Pacific forest extends two great legs, one down
the Rocky Mountain Range, and the other along the Pacific coast.
Between them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around
Nevada, Fig. 49. In these two regions coniferous trees have almost
a monopoly. Broad-leaved trees are to be found there, along the river
beds and in ravines, but they are of comparatively little importance.
The forest is essentially an evergreen forest. Another marked feature
of this western forest, except in the Puget Sound region, is that the
trees, in many cases, stand far apart, their crowns not even touching,
so that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor, Fig. 50.
There is no dense “forest cover” or canopy as in the Eastern Forest.
Moreover these western forests are largely broken up, covering but a
part of the mountains, many of which are snow-clad, and interrupted

FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION.

205

by bare plains. Along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods.
It was never a continuous forest as was the Eastern Forest. The open-
ness of this forest on the Eockies and on the eastern slopes of the
Sierra Uevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the
Sierras, where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable
woods of the world, Fig. 51. This is due to the peculiar distribution
of the rainfall of the region. The precipitation of the moisture upon
the northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large

Fig. 50. Open Western Forest, Bull Pine. Flag-staff, Arizona.

U. S. Forest Service.

part of the time, is unequaled by that of any other locality on the
continent. But the interior of this region, which is shut off by the
high Sierra Fevadas from the western winds, has a very light and
irregular rainfall. Where the rainfall is heavy, the forests are dense \
and where the rainfall is light, the trees are sparse.

Along the Eockies the characteristic trees are Engelmanm’s spruce,
bull pine, Douglas fir, and lodgepole pine. As one goes west, the
variety of trees increases and becomes, so far as conifers are concerned,
far greater than in the east. Of 109 conifers in the United States,

206

WOOD AND FOREST.

80 belong to the western forests and 28 to the eastern. The Pacific
forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading species Doug-
las fir, western hemlock, sugar pine, bull pine, cedar and redwood.

Fig. 51. Dense Forest of Puget Sound Region, Red Fir and Red Cedar. Pierce Co
® Wasdington. U . A. Forest Service.

But the far western conifers are remarkable, not only for their
variety, but still more for the density of their growth, already men-
tioned, and for their great size, Fig. 52. The pines, spruces and
hemlocks of the Puget Sound region make eastern trees look small.

FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION.

207

and both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over 250 feet
high, and yield 100,000 feet, B.M., to the acre as against 10,000 feet,
B.M\, of good spruce in Maine. The redwood. Fig. 53, occupies a

Fig-. 52.

Virgin Forest of Red Fir, Red Cedar, Western Hemlock, and Oreao
Maple. Ashford, Washington. U. S. Foi est Service.

belt some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern Oregon to
a point not far north of San Francisco and grows even taller than the
famous big trees. The big trees are the largest known trees in diam-
eter, occasionally reaching in that measurement 35 feet.

208

WOOD AND FOREST.

The big tree, Fig. 54, occurs exclusively in groves, which, however,
are not pure, but are scattered among a much larger number of trees
of other kinds.

Fig. 53. Redwood Forest. Santa Cruz Co., Calif. U. S. Forest Service.

The great and unsurpassed Puget Sound forest is destined to be
before long the center of the lumber trade of this country.

These two great forests of the east and the west both run north-
ward into British America, and are there united in a broad belt of

FOREST DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION

209

subarctic forest which extends across the continent. At the far north
it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen. The forest is
open, stunted, and of no economic value.

Talocg all the genera and species together, there is a far greater
variety in the eastern than in the western forests. A considerable
number of genera, perhaps a third of the total, grow within both
regions, but the species having continental range are few. They are

Fig. 54. Big Tree Forest. Sierra National Forest, California. U. S. Forest Service.

210

WOOD AND FOREST.

the following: Larch (Larix laricina), white spruce ( Picea canaden-
sis), dwarf juniper ( Juniperus communis), black willow ( SaJix
nigra), almond leaf willow ( Salix amygdaloides) , long leaf willow
( Salix fluviatilis) , aspen ( Populus tremuloides) , balm of Gilead
(. Populus balsamif era) , and hackberry ( Celtis occidentalis) .

THE DISTRIBUTION AND COMPOSITION OF NORTH AMERICAN FORESTS.
References : *

Sargent, Forest Trees . Intro, pp. Shaler, I, pp. 489-498.

3-10. Fernow, For. Inves., pp. 45-51.

Bruncken, pp. 5-1 G. Fernow, Economics , pp. 331-3G8.

Roth, First Book, pp. 209-212.

*For general bibliography, see p. 4.

Chapter V.

THE FOREST ORGANISM.

The forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees, 11
is an organism* that is, the trees that compose it have a vital rela-
tion to each other. It may almost be said to have a life of its own,
since it has a soil and a climate, largely of its own making.

Without these conditions, and without the help and hindrance
which forest trees give to each other, these trees would not have their
present characteristics, either in shape, habits of growth or nature
of wood grain. Indeed, some of them could not live at all.

Since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the for-
est, in order to understand the facts about trees and woods, it is neces-
sary to know something about the conditions of forest life.

A tree is made up of three distinct parts: (1) the roots which
anchor it in the ground, and draw its nourishment from the moist
soil; (2) the trunk, or bole, or stem, which carries the weight of the
branches and leaves, and conveys the nourishment to and from the
leaves; (3) the crown, composed of the leaves, the branches on which
they hang, and the buds at the ends of the branches. As trees stand
together in the forest, their united crowns make a sort of canopy or
cover, Fig. 55, which, more than anything, determines the factors
affecting forest life, viz., the soil, the temperature^ the moisture, and
most important of all, the light.

On the other hand, every species of tree has its own requirements
in respect to these very factors of temperature, — moisture, soil and
light. These are called its silvical characteris'ics.

SOIL.

Some trees, as black walnut, flourish on good soil, supplanting
others because they are better able to make use of the richness of the
soil ; while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to
live there at all. Spruce, Fig. 56, will grow in the north woods on
such poor soil that it has no competitors, and birches, too, will grow

211

212

WOOD AND FOREST

Fig-. 55. The Forest Cover. Spruce Forest, Bavaria, Germany.
U. S. Forest Service.

THE FOREST ORGANISM.

213

anywhere in the north woods. In general, it is true that mixed for-
ests, Fig. 57, i. e., those having a variety of species, grow on good
loamy soil. The great central, deciduous Atlantic Forest grew on such
soil until it was removed to make room for farms. On the other hand,
pure stands — i. e., forests made up of single varieties — of pine occupy
poor sandy soil. Within a distance of a few yards in the midst of a
pure stand of pine in
the south, a change in
the soil will produce a
dense mixed growth of
broad-leaves and coni-
fers.

The soil in the for-
est is largely deter-
mined by the forest it-
self. In addition to
the earth, it is com-
posed of the fallen and
decayed leaves and
twigs and tree trunks,
altogether called the
forest floor. It is
spongy and hence has
the ability to retain
moisture, a fact of
great importance to
the forest.

Service.

MOISTURE.

Some tiees, as black ash and cypress, Fig. 58, and cotton gum,
Fig. 59, grow naturally only in moist places; some, as the pinon and
mesquite, a kind of locust, grow only in dry places ; while others, as
the juniper and Douglas fir, adapt themselves to either. Both excess-
ively wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds of trees.
In many instances the demand for water controls the distribution alto-
gether. In the Puget Sound region, where there is a heavy rain-fall,
the densest forests in the world are found, whereas on the eastern
slopes of the same mountains, altho the soil is not essentially different,
there are verj’ few trees, because of the constant drouth.

Fig-. 56. Virg-in Stand of Red Spruce. White
Mountains, New Hampshire. U. S. Forest

2 L 4

WOOD AND FOREST.

TEMPERATURE.

The fact that some trees, as paper birch and white spruce, grow
only in cold regions, and some, as rubber trees and cypress, only in
the tropics, is commonplace ; but a fact not so well known is that it
is not the average temperature, but the extremes which largely deter-

Fig. 57. Typical Mixed Forest,— Red Spruce, Hemlock, White Ash,
Yellow Birch, Balsam Fir, and Red Maple. Raquette Take, New
York. U. S. Forest Service.

mine the habitat of trees of different kinds. Trees which would not
live at all where there is frost, might flourish well in a region where
the average temperature was considerably lower. On the other hand,
provided the growing season is long enough for the species, there is
no place on earth too cold for trees to live. Fig. 60.

THE FOREST ORGANISM

215

Fig-. 59. Cotton Gums, Showing Buttresses. St. Francis
River. Arkansas. U. S. Forest Service.

Fig. 58. Cypress and Cypress “Knees.” Jasper Co., Texas.
U. S. Forest Service.

216

WOOD AND FOREST.

In general, cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do,
simplifying its composition and stunting its growth. In Canada there
are only a few kinds of trees, of which the hardwoods are stunted ;
south of the Great Lakes, there is a great variety of large trees;
farther south in the southern Appalachian region, there is a still
greater variety, and the trees are just as large; and still farther south

in tropical Florida, there is
the greatest variety of all.
The slopes of a high moun-
tain furnish an illustration
of the effect of temperature.
In ascending it, one may
pass from a tropical forest
at the base, thru a belt
of evergreen, broad-leaved
trees, then thru a belt of de-
ciduous broad-leaved trees,
then thru a belt of conifers
and up to the timber line
where tree life ceases. Figs.
61, and 62.

EIGHT.

More than by any other
factor, the growth of trees
in a forest is determined by
the effect of light. All
trees need light sooner or
later, but some trees have
much more ability than
others to grow in the shade when young. Such trees, of which maple
and spruce are examples, are called tolerant, while others, for in-
stance, larch, which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or
none at all, are called intolerant. The leaves of tolerant trees endure
shade well, so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the
shadow of their upper and outer leaves, with the result that the whole
tree, as beech and maple, makes a dense shadow ; whereas the leaves
of intolerant trees are either sparse, as in the larch, or are so hung
that the light sifts thru them, as in poplar and oak. The spruces and

Fig-. 60. Northern Forest,— Young Spruce
GrowingUnder Yellow Birch. Santa Clara,
New York. U. S. Forest Service.

THE FOREST ORGANISM

217

Fig. 61. Mixed Hardwoods on Eower Levels. Spruce and Balsam Dominate
on Higher Elevations. Mt. McIntyre, Adirondack Mountains, New York

U. S. Forest Service.

Scrub Growth on Mountain Top. Mt. Webster.
New Hampshire. U. S. Forest Service.

218

WOOD AND FOREST.

balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy
shade for many years, and then of growing vigorously when the light
is let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors. This can
plainly be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir, Fig. 63, where the
narrow annual rings of the early growth, are followed by the wider
ones of later growth. A common sight in the dense woods is the

maple sending up a
long, spindly stem thru
the trees about it and
having at its top a lit-
tle tuft of leaves, Fig.
64. By so doing it
survives. The fact that
a tree can grow with-
out shade often deter-
mines its possession of
a burnt-over tract. The
order in the North
Woods after a fire is
commonly , first, a
growth of fire weed,
then raspberries or
blackberries, then as-
pen, a very intolerant
tree whose light shade
in turn permits under
it the growth of the spruce, to which it is a “nurse,” Fig. 65. In
general it may be said that all seedling conifers require some shade
the first two years, while hardwoods in temperate climates, as a rule,
do not.

Fig-. 63. Cross section of Balsam Fir,
Showing Fast Growth After Years of
Suppression. Notice the width of the
annual rings in later age compared
with early. U. S. Forest Service.

This matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching
of trees. The leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will
not thrive, with the result that those branches die and later drop off.
This is called “cleaning,” or natural pruning. Intolerant trees, like
aspen and tulip, Fig. 66, clean themselves well and hence grow with
long, straight boles, while tolerant trees, like spruce and fir, retain
ilieir branches longer.

The distribution of a species may also be determined by geograph-
ical barriers, like mountain ranges and oceans. This is why the

THE FOREST ORGANISM

219

Fig-. 64. Tolerant Maple. The trees are 100
slender to stand alone. U. S. Forest Service.

Fig-. 65. Intolerant Aspen, a “nurse” of
Tolerant Spruce. U. S. Forest Service.

220

WOOD AND FOREST.

western forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the
forest of Australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the
world.

Any one or several of these factors, soil, moisture, heat, and light,
may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest, or it may
be that a particular tree may survive, because of a faster rate of
growth, thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their light.
The struggle for survival is constant, and that tree survives which can
take the best advantage of the existent conditions.

Besides these topographical and climatic factors which help deter-
mine the distribution of trees, a very important factor is the historical
one. For example, the only reason by which the location of the few
isolated groves of big trees in California can be accounted for is the
rise and fall of glacial sheets, which left them, as it were, islands
stranded in a sea of ice. As the glaciers retreated, the region gradu-
ally became re-forested, those trees coming up first which were best
able to take advantage of the conditions, whether due to the character
of their seeds, their tolerance, their endurance of moisture or what-
ever. This process is still going on and hardwoods are probably gain-
ing ground.

Besides these external factors which determine the composition
and organic life of the forest, the trees themselves furnish an impor-
tant factor in their methods of reproduction. These, in general, are
two, (1) by sprouts, and (2) by seeds.

(1) Most conifers have no power of sprouting. The chief ex-
ceptions are pitch pine and, to a remarkable degree, the redwood,
Fig. 67. This power, however, is common in broad-leaved trees, as
may be seen after a fire has swept thru second growth, hardwood
timber. Altho all the young trees are killed down to the ground, the
young sprouts spring up from the still living roots. This may hap-
pen repeatedly. Coppice woods, as of chestnut and oak, which sprout
with great freedom, are the result of this ability. The wood is poor
so that it is chiefly used for fuel.

(2) Most trees, however, are reproduced by seeds. Trees yield
these in great abundance, to provide for waste, — nature’s method.
Many seeds never ripen, many perish, many are eaten by animals,
many fall on barren ground or rocks, and many sprout, only to die.
The weight of seeds has much to do with their distribution. Heavy
eeeds like acorns, chestnuts, hickory and other nuts, grow where they

THE FOREST ORGANISM

221

Fig-. 66. Intolerant Tulip. Notice the long, straight boles. U. S . Forest Service.

222

WOOD AND FOREST.

fall, unless carried down hill by gravity or by water, or scattered by
birds and squirrels.

Tr£es with winged seeds, however, Fig. 68, as bass, maple and
pine, or with light seeds, as poplar, often have their seeds carried by
the wind to great distances.

Again some trees, as spruce, are very fertile, while others, like
beech, have only occasional seed-bearing seasons, once in three or

Fig. 67. Sprouting Redwood Stumps. Glen Blair, Calif.
U. S. Forest Service.

four years. Willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few
days, and hence, unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty
of moisture, they die. This is why they grow mostly along water
courses. On the other hand, black locust pods and the cones of some
pines keep their seeds perfect for many years, often until a fire bursts
tliem open, and so they live at the expense of their competitors.

TIIE FOREST ORGANISM.

223

It is such facts as these that
help to account for some of the
facts of forest composition, —
why in one place at one time
there is a growth of aspens, at
another time pines, at still an-
other oaks ; and why beeches
spring up one year and not an-
other. That red cedars grow
in avenues along fences, is ex-
plained by the fact that the
seeds are dropped there by
birds. Fig. 69.

The fact that conifers, as
the longleaf pine, Fig. 46, p.

200, and spruce, Fig. 55, p. 212,
are more apt to grow in pure stands than broad-leaved trees, is largel y
accounted for by their winged seeds; whereas the broad-leaved trees
giow mostly in mixed stands because their heavy seeds are not plenti-

tifully and widely scattered. This
is a rule not without exceptions,
for beech sometimes covers a
whole mountain side, as Slide
Mountain in the Catskills, and
aspens come in over a wide
area after a fire ; but later
other trees creep in until at
length it becomes a mixed
forest.

The essential facts of the
relation of trees to each other
in the forest has been clearly
stated by Gifford Pinchot
thus i1

The history of the life of
a forest is a story of the help
and harm which trees receive
from one another. On one side
every tree is engaged in a re-

1 Gifford Pinchot, Primer of Forestry, p. 44.

Fig-. 69. Red Cedar Avenue. Seeds dropped
by birds which perched on the fences.
Indiana. U. S. Forest Service.

Fig-. 68. Winged Seeds. 1, Basswood;
2, Box-elder; 3, Elm; 4, Fir; 5, 6, 7, 8,
Pines. U. S. Forest Service.

224

WOOD AND FOREST.

lentless struggle against its neighbors for light, water and food, the three
trees need most. On the other side each tree is constantly working
with all its neighbors, even those which stand at some distance, to bring
about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth and fighting power
»f every other tree.

The trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in
which they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs, which are not
quickly blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open.
This collection of “duff” or “the forest floor” retains the moisture
about their roots, and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature
of the forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer. The forest
cover, Fig. 55, p. 212, consisting largely of foliage, has the same effect,

Fie-. 70. Shallow Roots of Hemlock. Bronx Park,
New York, N. Y.

and in addition protects the bark, the roots, and the seedlings of the
trees from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun. Without
the shade of the leaves, many trees, as white pine, would quickly die,
as may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open. The mass
of standing trees tempers the force of the wind, which might over-
throw some of them, and hinders the drying up of the duff.

But trees hinder as well as help each other. There is a constant
struggle between them for nourishment and light. To get food and
water, some trees, as spruces and hemlocks, Fig. 70, spread their roots
out flat; others, as oak and pine, send down a deep tap root. Those
succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need.
Still more evident is the struggle for light and air. However well a

THE FOREST ORGANISM.

225

tree is nourished thru its roots, unless its leaves have an abundance
of light and air it will not thrive and make wood.

Even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth, like spruce, must
have light later or perish, and hence in a forest there is the constant
upward reach. This produces

the characteristic “long-bodied
trunk of the forest tree, Fig. 71,
in contrast to the “short-bodied”
tree of the open, where the
branches reach out in all direc-
tions, Fig. 72. In this constant
struggle for existence is involved
the persistent attempt of scat-
tered seeds to sprout whenever
there is an opening. The result
is that a typical forest is one in
which all sizes and ages of trees
grow together. Scattered among
these are bushes and scrubby
trees, called “forest weeds,” such
as mountain maple and dogwood,
Fig. 80, p. 234, which do not
produce timber.

By foresters the trees them-
selves are classified according to
their size into:

Seedlings, less than 3' high,
Saplings,

Small, 3hl0' high.

Large, 4" in diameter, at
breast height (4' 6").
Poles,

Small, 4"-8" in diameter, at
breast height

Large, 8”-i2" in diameter,
at breast height.

Fig. 71. Fong-bodied White Oak of the
Forest. U. S. Forest Service.

Standards, 1 -2 in diameter, at breast height.
\ eterans, over 2' in diameter at breast height.

226

WOOD AND FOREST.

Every age lias its own dangers. Many seeds never germinate,
many seedlings perish because they do not reach soil, or are killed by
too much or too little moisture, or by heat or cold, or shade. At the
sapling age, the side branches begin to interfere with those of other
saplings. Buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing
in the wind, and their leaves have less light. Only the upper branches
have room and light, and they flourish at the expense of lower ones,
which gradually die and are thus pruned off. Some trees naturally
grow faster than others, and they attain additional light and room to

spread laterally, thus overtop-
ping others which are sup-
pressed and finally killed,
beaten in the race for life.

If the growth should re-
main about even so that the
trees grew densely packed to-
gether, the whole group would
be likely to be of a poorer qual-
ity, but ordinarily the few out-
grow the many and they are
called dominant trees. Even
then, they still have to struggle
against their neighbors, and at
this, the large sapling stage,
many perish, and of those that
survive there are great differ-
ences in size. Trees make their
most rapid growth in height,
and lay on the widest yearly “rings/’ at the large sapling and small
pole age, Fig. 114, p. 263. It is at this stage, too, if the growth is at
all dense, that the young trees (poles) clean themselves most thoroly
of their branches. The growth in diameter continues to the end
of the tree’s life, long after the height growth has ceased.

When trees become “standards,” and reach the limit of height
growth, thru their inability to raise water to their tops, their
branches must perforce grow sidewise, or not at all. The struggle
for life thus takes a new form.

How trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still un-
explained, but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow

Fig. 73. Short-bodied White Oak of the
Open. Fort Fee, N. J.

THE FOREST ORGANISM.

227

taller than others, is due to their ability to raise water. The most
remarkable in this respect are the California redwoods, the big trees,
and certain eucalypts in Australia.

This inability of trees to grow above a
certain height results in a flattening of
the crown, Fig. 73, and at this stage,
the trees struggle against each other by
crowding at the side.

Inasmuch as trees grow more sen-
sitive to shade with advancing age, the
taller trees have the advantage. Each
survivor is one of a thousand, and has
outlived the others because it is best
fitted for the place.

This fact has its effect upon the next
generation, because it is these dominant
surviving trees which bear seed most
abundantty. After the tree has finished
growing in height and diameter most
vigorously — the pole stage — and proved
to be fitted for the place, its energy is
largely spent in raising seed. As this
process goes on generation after genera-
tion, only the best coining to maturity
in each, the poorer sorts are sifted out,
and each region and continent has
those species best fitted to meet the con-
ditions of life there.

This is the reason why exotics are
very likely to be sensitive and perhaps
succumb to influences to which native
trees are immune.

Standards and veterans are the sur-
vivors of all the lower stages, each of
which has had its especial dangers. If
left alone, the tree gradually dies and
at last falls and decays, adding somewhat to the fertility of the forest
soil. From the point of view of human use, it would far better
have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber. It is a mistake to

Fig-. 73. Flattened Crown of
Red Pine. U.S. Forest Service.

228

WOOD AND FOREST.

suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best possible forest, and
that it should therefore be left alone. In the National Forests the
ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue is thus available. But
nature’s way with the dead tree is to use it to produce more life.
How she does so will be explained in the next chapter, on the enemies
of the forest.

THE FOREST ORGANISM.

References : *

Pinchot, For. Bull. No. 24, I, pp. 25-GG.
Bruncken, pp. 13-31
For. Giro. No. 36, p. 8.

Fernow, Economics, pp. 140-1 G4

*For general bibliography, see p. 4

Chapter VI.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

The natural enemies of the forest — as distinct from its human
enemies— fall into three groups: (1) Meteorological, (2) Vege-

table, (3) Animal.

METEOROROGICAR FORCES.

Wind. ‘Windfalls” are not an uncommon sight in any forest.
Frequently only small areas are blown down, one large tree upsetting
a few others, or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms,

Effect of Wind, July , 1902, Cass County, Minnesota
U. S. Forest Service.

-Big- 74. An area of many square miles in Florida covered with
long-leaf pine was thus destroyed several years ago. The “slash”
thus formed, when well dried, is particularly liable to catch fire and
burn furiously. Windfalls are especially common among shallow-
T0°ted trees, as hemlock, basswood and spruce, on sandy soil and on

229

230

WOOD AND FOREST

Fig-. 75. Sand-dunes, Cape May, New Jersey. U.S . Forest Service.

Fig. 76. Sand-dune. Oregon. U.S. Forest Service.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

231

shallow soil -underlaid with solid stone, especially where open spaces
give the wind free sweep. It follows that an unbroken forest is a
great protection to itself. The only precautions against wind there-
fore, that can be taken by the forester, are to keep the forest unbro-
ken by selecting only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a
given tract by beginning at the side opposite the direction of pre-
vailing storms and working toward them.

In sandy regions, the wind does immense harm by blowing the
sand to and fro in constantly shifting dunes, Figs. 75 and 76. These
dunes occupy long stretches of the Atlantic coast and the shore of
Lake Michigan. Such dunes have been estimated to cover 20,000
square miles of Europe. Along the Bay of Biscay in France, the
sand dunes formerly drifted in ridges along the shore, damming up
the sti earns and converting what was once a forest into a pestilential
marsh. This region has been reclaimed at great expense by building
fences along the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving
sand within limits. In this way a million acres of productive forest
have been obtained.

On the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering
seeds, weeding out weak trees, and developing strength in tree trunks.

Drouth both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the
grain of wood, the latter appearing as “false rings.” These arise
from the effort
of the tree to
resume growth
when the water
supply is re-
stored. Seep. 19.

Water. Cer-
tain trees have
become accus-
tomed to living
in much water,

as cedar and cypress have in swamps, and certain trees have become
accustomed to periodical floods, but other trees are killed by much
water. So when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest
land, the trees soon die, Fig. 77.

Lightning frequently blasts single trees, and in dry seasons may
set fire to forests. This is a much more important factor in the west

Fig-. 77. Effect of Flooding-. First Connecticut
Lake, New Hampshire. U. S. Forest Service.

232

WOOD AXD FOREST.

than in the east, — in the Rockies, for instance, where there are elec-
trical stoims without rain.

Fires will be considered later under man’s relation to the forest.

Snow and ice often bring serious harm to saplings by perma-
nently bending them over, Fig. 78, or by breaking off tops and
branches.

Frost kills young plants; and sudden changes in temperature
seriously affect grown timber, producing “frost checks” and “wind

Fig. 78. Slim Trees Bent Over by Snow; Stouter Trees Unharmed. Zurich,
Switzerland. U. S. Forest Service.

shakes.” When there is a sudden fall in temperature, the outside
layers of the tree, which are full of sap, contract more rapidly than
the inner portions, with the result that the tree splits with a sudden
pistol-like report, the check running radially up anti down the tree.
This is called a “frost check” or “star shake,” Fig. 41. a, p. 47, and
such wounds rarely heal, Fig. 79.

On the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises, the outside
layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside, that
they separate wnth a dull muffled chug, the check extending in a cir-

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

233

cular direction following the annual rings. Such checks are often
called “wind shakes” and “cup shakes,” Fig. 41 .c, p. 47. These in-
juries are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature
occur, rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates.

VEGETABLE ENEMIES.

Under this head may be classed, in addition to fungi, a number
of unrelated plants, including such as: moosewood and dogwood, Fig.
80, which crowd out young trees ; vines, like bitter-sweet, which wind

about trees and often choke them

by pressure, cutting thru the
bark and cambium ; sapro-
phytes, which smother the foli-
age of trees, of which Spanish
moss, Fig. 47, p. 201, is an ex-
ample ; and finally such para-
sites as the mistletoes, which
weaken and deform the trees.

The most important of the
vegetable enemies of trees are
fungi. It should be remembered,
however, that, without the decay
produced by them, the fallen
trees would soon cover the ground,
and prevent any new growth, thus
destroying the natural forest.

Every tree, as has been noted
(p. 17), is composed of two parts,
one part, including leaves, young-

branches, roots and sap-wood, living, and the other part, namely, the
heart-wood, practically dead.

.Fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites,
while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as
saprophytes. The line, however, ’between these two classes of fungi
is not well defined, since some parasites live on both living and dead
wood. The parasites are of first importance, for, since they kill many
trees, they control to a large extent the supply of living timber.

Fig. 79 Contraction Frost Check
U. S. Forest Service

234

WOOD AND FOREST.

Nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions, an external fruiting
portion which bears the spores — which correspond to the seeds of
flowering plants — and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of
threads or filaments, which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose
function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus. Fungi are classified
botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies, their form, color, etc.

The parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are
those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces
(the Hymenomycetes) . In toadstools (the agarics) these exposed
surfaces are thin, flat plates called gills. In the polypores, which in-
clude the shelf fungi, the spore
surfaces are tubes whose open-
ings constitute the pores. In
the dry-rot, or tear fungus (Me-
rulius lacrymans), the spore
surfaces are shallow cavities.

Some varieties, called true
parasites, develop in uninjured
trees, while others, called
ivound parasites, can penetrate
the tissues of trees, only where
a cut or injury makes a suit-
able lodgment for the spores.
Some fungi attack only a sin-
gle species of trees, others
whole genera ; some attack
only conifers, others decidu-
ous trees, while a few attack
trees of nearly all kinds alike.

Fungal spores when brought
in contact with a wound on a
tree or other suitable place, and provided with suitable conditions of
growth, germinate, penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly.
These spores send out long threads or filaments which run thru the
cells lengthwise and also pierce them in all directions, soon forming

Fig-. 80. A “Forest Weed,” Flowering- Dog-
wood. North Carolina. U.S. Forest Service.

a network in the wood called the mycelium.

Eotting, in a large number of cases, is due to the ravages of
fungi. This sometimes shows in the color, as the “red rot ’ of pine
or the bluing” of ash. Sometimes as in “pecky” or “peggy” cypress,

NATURAL ENEMIES OE THE FOREST.

235

th.6 decayed tracts are tubular. More commonly tire decayed parts are
of irregular shape.

The decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant
life, both bacteria and fungi.

A few of the more destructive forms may be noted.

Trametes pini (Brot.) Fr.
Foremost among the timber de-
stroying fungi is the large brown
“prink” or “conch” found in its
typical development on the long-
leaf and short-leaf pines, Pinus
palustris and Pinus echinata, Fig.
81. The fruiting bodies form
large masses which grow out from
a knot, oftentimes as large as a
child’s head. They are cinnamon
brown on the lower surface, and
much fissured and broken, on the
black charcoal-like upper surface.
This fungus probably causes four-
fifths of the destruction brought
about by the timber destroying
fungi. It occurs on most of the
conifers in the United States
which have any value as lumber
trees, and brings about a charac-
teristic white spotting of the
wood, Fig. 82, which varies with

Fig-. 81. A “Conch,” the fruiting- body of
Trametes pini , on Sug-ar Pine. [ Aerie
Tear Book, iq00 , pi. XXII, Fig-. 2.]

the kind of tree attacked. (Von Schrenk, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1900, p. 200.)

236

WOOD AND FOREST.

Of the shelf fungi, which project like brackets from the stems of
trees, and have their pores on their under surfaces, one of the com-
monest in many localities is the yellow cheese-like Polyporus sulphu-
reus, Tig. 83. This is found on oak, poplar, willow, larch, and other

standing timber.

Its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of cambium into
the pith-rays and between the annual rings, forming thick layers of yellow-
ish-white felt, and penetrating the vessels of the wood, which thereupon
becomes a deep brown color and decays.

Of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi, a yellow toadstool,
called the honey mushroom ( Agaricus melleus), is a good example,

Fig. 84.

This fungus, of common occurrence in

the United States as well as in Europe, is
exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees,
the white pine in particular suffering greatly
from its attacks. It also fastens upon vari-
ous deciduous species as a parasite, attack-
ing living trees of all ages, hut living as well
upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that
has been cut and worked up, occurring fre-
quently on bridges, railroad ties, and the
like, and causing prompt decay wherever it
has effected an entrance. The most conspicu-
ous part of the fungus is found frequently in
the summer and fall on the diseased parts
of the tree or umber infested by it. It is
one of the common toadstools, this particular
species being recognized by its yellowish color,
gills extending downward upon the stem,
which is encircled a little lower down by a
ring, and by its habit of growing in tufts or
little clumps of several or many individuals
together. It is also particularly distinguished
by the formation of slender, dark-colored strings, consisting of compact
mycelium, from which the fruiting parts just described arise. These har
root-like strings (called rhizomorphs) extend along just beneath the su -
face of the ground, often a distance of several feet, and penetrate the roots
of sohnd trees. By carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded
the fungus is seen in the form of a dense, nearly white, mass of mycelium
which, as the parts around decay, gradually produces again the rh.zomorp^^
alreadv described. These rhizomorphs are a characteustic pa
flngus Occurring both in the decayed wood from which they spread to
[hfad acent partsfand extending in the soil from root to root, they constitute

Fig. 83. “Shelf” Fungus on
Pine. a. Sound wood; 6. Kesin-
ous“light” wo 'd; c. Partly de-
cayed wood or punk; d. Eayer
of living spore tubes; e , Old
filled-up spore tubes; /. Flut-
ed upper surface of the fruit-
ingbody of the fungus, which
gets its food thru a great
number of fine threads (the
mycelium), its vegetative tis-
sue penetrating the wood and
causing its decay. [After
Hartig.]

a most effective agency in the extension of the disease.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

237

External symptoms, to be observed especially in young specimens re-
cently attacked, consist in a change of the leaves to a pale sickly color and
often the production of short stunted shoots. A still more marked symptom
is the formation of great quantities of resin, which flow downward thru the
injured parts and out into the ground. ( Forestry Bulletin No. 22, p. 51.)

Of the irregular shaped fungi, one of the most destructive is a
true parasite, i. e., one that finds lodgment without help, called Poly-
porus annosus and also Trametes radiciperda, Fig. 85. It is peculiar
in developing its fructifications on the exterior of roots, beneath the

I ig. 84, Honey Mushroom. Agartcus melleus. 1. Cluster of small sporophores.
2. Larger sporophore with root- like organ of attachment. Forestry Biilletin 22.

Plate XII, Figs. land 2.

soil. Its pores appear on the upper side of the fructifications. It
attacks only conifers.

Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice or other
burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the roots: the fine

threads of “spawn” penetrate the cortex, and spread thru and destroy the
cambium, extending in thin, flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and j here and
there, bursting thru the cortex in white, oval cushions, on which the sub-
terranean fructifications are produced. Each of these is a yellowish-white,
felt-like mass, with its outer surface covered with crowded minute tubes or

238

WOOD AND FOREST.

Fig. 85. 1. Stump of Norway Spruce, with a sporophore of
polyporus annosus several years old; the inner portions of the
stump wholly decayed.

2. Roots of a diseased spruce tree, with numerous small
sporophores of polvporus annosus attached. Forestry Bulle-
tin 22, Plate XIII, Figs. 1 and 2.

flourishes on damp wood in still air, especially around stables and ill
ventilated cellars. It gets its name lachrymans (weeping) from its
habit of dripping moisture.

The fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its weight
and causing it to warp and crack; until at length it crumbles up when dry
into a fine brown powder, or, readily absorbing any moisture in its neighbor-
hood, becomes a soft, cheese-like mass. * * * Imperfectly seasoned tim-

“pores” in which the spores are produced. The wood attacked by this
fungus first becomes rosy or purple, then turns yellowish, and then exhibits
minute black dots, which surround themselves with extending soft white
patches. (Boulger, p. 73.)

Of the fungi which attack converted timber, the most important
is “dry rot” or “tear fungus” (. Merulius lachrymans ), Fig. 86. It

NATURAL ENEMIES OE THE EOREST.

239

ber is most susceptible to dry rot: the fungus can be spread either by its

spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried even by the clothes or
saws of workmen, and are, of course, only too likely to reach sound wood
if diseased timber is left about near it; but on the other hand dry timber
kept dry is proof against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to
the fungus. (Boulger, p. 75.)

About all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is
to keep it clean, that is, to clear out fallen timber and slash, and in
some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading
or to cut them out and destroy

« j

them. Such methods have here-
tofore been too expensive to em-
ploy in any ordinary American
forest, but the time is at hand
when such action will prove
profitable in many localities.

For the preservation of cut
timber from decay, several
methods are used. Fungi need
heat, air, moisture and food.

If any one of these is lacking
the fungus cannot grow. Air
and heat are hard to exclude
from wood, but moisture and
food can be kept from fungi.

The removal of moisture is
called seasoning, and the poisoning of the food of fungi is a process
of impregnating wood with certain chemicals. Both these processes
are described in Handwork in Wood , Chapter III.

ANIMAL ENEMIES.

dhe laigei animals working damage to our forests are chiefly ro-
dents and grazing animals. Beavers gnaw the bark, while mice and
squirrels rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees. The
acorns of white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of
their sweetness, while those of red and black oak, which afford timber
of comparatively little value, are allowed to sprout, and thus come
to possess the land. Hogs annually consume enormous quantities of
mast, i. e., acorns or other nuts, by pasturing in oak and other

Fig-. 86. Portion of the myce-
lium of dry rot or tear fung-us,
Merultus lachry m ans . This
cakeliue mass spreads over
the surface of the timber. In
a moist environment pellucid
drops or “tears” distil from
its lower surface; Hence its
name. [Ward: Timber\ Fig- 2,1.]

240

WOOD AND FOREST.

forests. They, together with goats and sheep, Figs. 87 and 88, deer
and cattle, work harm by trampling and browsing. Browsing destroys
the tender shoots, especially of deciduous trees, but trampling en-
tirely kills out the seedlings. The cutting up of the soil by the sharp

cleft hoofs injures the forest
floor, by pulverizing it and al-
lowing it to be readily washed
away by storms until defores-
tation may result, as was the
case in France after the Revo-
lution. It has cost the French
people from thirty to forty
million dollars to repair the
damage begun by the sheep. In
this country, this matter has
become a very serious one on
the Pacific Coast, where there are enormous flocks of sheep, and there-
fore the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public lands
there, especially on steep slopes, where erosion takes place rapidly.1

The most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects.
The average annual loss of trees in the United States from this cause
alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars.

Insects have two objects in their attack on trees, one is to obtain
food, as when they are in the larval stage, and the other is to provide
for offspring, as do certain beetles.

1The evils of grazing are increased by the fact that fires are sometimes
started intentionally in order to increase the area of grazing land.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

241

The number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous. At the
St. Louis Exposition, there were on exhibit nearly three hundred
such insects. These belong to some twenty orders, of which the
beetles (Colcoptei a') , which have horny wings and biting mouth parts,
and the moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera') , with membraneous
wings and sucking mouth parts, are the most destructive. Insects
attack every part of
the tree, the seed, the
shoot, the flower, the
root, the leaf, the bark
and the wood, both
standing and cut.

Of the fruit and
seed pests, the most
destructive are wee-
vils, worms and gall
insects.

Of the twig and
shoot pests, beetles,
weevils and caterpil-
lars are the worst.

Among insects that
attack roots, the peri-
odical cicada (17 year
old locust) may be
noted.

The leaf pests are

Fig. 89. Work of the Spruce Destroying- Beetle1
a. Primary g-allery; b. Roring-s packed in side; c. En-
trance and central burrow thru the packed boring-s
d- LarTa1 mines. Note how the e^s are grouped
the sides. [Agnc. Tear Book , 1902, Fig-. 24, p. 268.]

j?.,,- . trance and central burrow thru the ™r

fai more serious. They ^aryai mines. Note how the eg-g-s^are grouped on

include the true and

false caterpillars, moths, gall insects and plant lice.

Of the bark pests, the bark beetles are the most destructive

1 ;lese are also caM Engraver Beetles from the smoothly cut fmurcs
which are their burrows under the bark, Figs. 89, 90, 91.

Many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower half of

bfrATth of “edium-sized to large trees. They bore thru the outer

ba.k to the inner living portion, and thru the inner layers of the latter;
they excavate long, irregular, longitudinal galleries, and along the sides of
ese at irregular intervals, numerous eggs are closely placed. The eggs
soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the inner bark, and

242

WOOD AND FOREST.

as they increase in size, extend and enlarge their food burrows in a general
transverse but irregular course, away from the mother galleries (see illus-
tration). When these young and larval forms are full grown, each exca-
vates a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next to the outer corky
bark. (Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1902.)

Some of the species attack living trees, causing their rapid death,
and are among the most destructive enemies of American forests.

All of the above in-

Fig-. 90. Complete ttrood Galleries of the^ Hickory
Bark Beetle in Surface «.f Wood. [Agric. 1 ear Book ,
1903, Fig. 28, p. 316. j

directly - affect both the
quantity and quality
of the wood supply.
They can be studied
more in detail in the
publications of the U.S.
Bureau of Entomology.

Of the insects di-
rectly attacking wood,
the most important
are the ambrosia or
timber beetles, the bor-
ers, the ants, and the
carpenter bees. The
most remarkable fea-
ture of the beetle is the
manner of its boring
into the harder parts
of the wood. Its jaws
are particularly con-
structed for this work,

being heavy and strong. The boring is done something after the man
ner of countersinking, and the jaws are believed to be self-sharpening,
by reason of the peculiar right to left and left to right motion.

Ambrosia or timber beetles, Fig. 92. This class of insects attacks liv-
ing dead, and felled trees, sawlogs, green lumber, and stave-bolts, often
causing serious injury and loss from the pin-hole and stained-wood defects
caused by their brood galleries. The galleries are excavated by the parent
beetles in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood, an
the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on the ; walls i of
galleries. (Hopkins, Entom. Bulletin No. 48, p. 10.) The grow o is

ambrosia-like fungus is induced or controlled by the parent beetles an
young are dependent on it for food. (Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1904.)

NATURAL ENEMIES OF T1IF FOREST.

243

Fig-. 91. Brood Galleries of
the Oak Bark Beetle, showing'
Character of Primary Gallery
at b; Larval or Brood Mines at
a. L Agric. Tear Book, 1903, Pig-.

30, pag-e 318.]

Fig-. 92. Work of Ambrosia Beetle,
Xyloborus celsus, in Hickory Wood: a.

Larva, b , Pupa; c , Adult beetle; d , Char-
acter of work in lumber cut from in-
jured log, e , Bark; f, Sap wood; a. Heart-
wood. lAgric. Tear Book, 1904f Fig-. 44
p. 384.]

There are two general types or classes of
these galleries, one in which the broods de-
velop together in the main burrows, the other,
in which the individuals develop in short
separate side chambers extending at right
angles from the primary gallery, Fig. 93.
The galleries of the latter type are usually
accompanied by a distinct staining of the
wood, while those of the former are not.
(Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1904, p. 383.)

Bark and wood borers, Fig. 94. This
class of enemies differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles
do not burrow into the wood or bark, but deposit their eggs on the surface.
The elongate, whitish, round-headed (Gerambycid) , flat-headed {Buprestid) ,
or short, stout ( Gurculionid )
grubs hatching from these
eggs cause injury by bur-
rowing beneath the bark, or
deep into the sap-wood and
heart-wood of living, in-
jured and dead trees, saw-
logs, etc. Some of the spe-
cies infest living trees, Fig.

95, causing serious injury
or death. Others attack
only dead or dying bark and
wood, but this injury often
results in great loss from
the so-called wormhole de-
fects. (A. D. Hopkins,

Entom. Bull., No 48, p. 10.)

Fig-. 93. Wcrk of Ambrosia Beetles in
Oak: a, Mo?iarthum mali, and work;

b, Platypus compositus , and work; c.
Bark; d, Sap-wood; e , Heart-wood; f,
* haracter of work in lumber from in-
jured log. \_Agrtc. Tear Book, 1904, Fig-.

45, p. 384.] 8

244

WOOD AND FOREST.

Fig. 94. Work of Round-Headed and
Flat-Headed Borers in Pine: a , Work
of round-headed borers, “sawyer,” Mono-
hamnus sp.; b,Ergates spiculatus; c, Work
of flat-headed borer, Buprestis , larva
and adult. [ Aerie . Tear Book. 1904,
Fig. 46, p. 385.]

The pine sawyers are
among the most trouble-
some pests in the mill
yard, and their large,
white larvae often do
much damage to logs by
eating great holes thru
their solid interior. While
burrowing in the wood
the larvae make a pecu-
liar grating sound that
may be heard on quiet
nights at a considerable
distance. This is a fa-
miliar sound in the lum-
ber camps of the North,
and has probably given rise to the name ot the pine sawyers by which these
insects are known. (Forestry Bulletin, No. 22, p. 58.)

Powder-post beetles, Fig. 96. This is a class of insects representing
two or three families of beetles, the larvae of which infest and convert into
fine powder many different kinds of dry and seasoned wood products, sireh
as hickory and ash handles, wagon spokes, lumber, etc., when wholly or in
part from the sap-wood of trees. Oak and hemlock tan-bark is sometimes
injured to a great extent, and the structural timbers of old houses, barns,
etc are often seriously injured, while hop poles and like products are at-
tacked by one set of these insects, the adults of which burrow into the wood

for the purpose of
depositing their
eggs. ( Hopkins,

Forestry Bulletin
No. 48, p. 11.)

Timber worms,

Fis: 97. This class
of true wood -bor-
ing “worms,” or
grubs, are the lar-
vae of beetles.

They enter the
wood from eggs de-
posited in wounds
in living trees,
from which they
burrow deep into
the heart- wood.

Generation after
generation may

Fig. 95. Hemlock Killed bv Buprestid Worms.
Hoquiam, Washington. U.S. Forest Service.

NATURAL, ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

245

Fig. %. Work of Powder Post Beetle, Sinoxylon basi-
lare, in hickory pole: a, Character ot work by larvae;

b. Exit holes made by emerging broods. [_ Agnc. Tear
Book , 1904, Fig. 49.]

develop in the wood of a tree without affecting its life but the wood is ren-
dered worthless for most purposes by the so-called wormhole and pinhole
defects resulting from their burrows. The same species also breed in the
wood of dying and dead standing trees, and in the stumps and logs of felled
ones, often for many years after the trees are felled. One species sometimes
attacks freshly sawed oak lumber, new stave bolts, etc. They are among

the most destructive ene-
mies of hardwood forest
trees, especially in rer
ducing the value of the
’IT’r'ocl of the best part of
the trunks. ( Hopkins,
Forestry Bulletin No. 48,

p. 10.)

The carpenter toorms,
Fig. 98. These are large
pinkis-h caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths. They enter
the bark and wood of living oak, locust, poplar and other trees, from eggs
deposited by the moths in the crevices of uninjured bark, or in the edges of
wounds. They burrow deep into the solid wood, where they live for two or
three years before transforming to the adult. The wood is seriously injured
by the very large wormhole defects, and while the life of the tree is but
slightly, if at all. af-
fected by the earlier at-
tacks, the continued
operations of this class
of borers year after year,
finally results in the de-
cay of the heart-wood, or
a hollow trunk and a
dead top. (Hopkins,

Forestry Bulletin, No.

48, p. 11.)

Columbian Timber-
beetle. One of the com-
monest wormhole defects
in white oak. rock oak,
beech, and tulip (“white-
wood” or “yellow pop-
lar”) is one known to

the lumber trade as grease spots, patch-worm, or black holes, Fig 99, steam
oa s, lg. , etc., caused by the Columbian timber beetle (Corthylus co-
lumbianus Hoplc.) The characteristic feature of this wormhole defect, which
wi enable it to be readily recognized in oak and beech, is transverse series
of two or more black holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead
pencil, with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two or three
or more inches each side, as in Fig. 99. In quarter-sawed oak or split or

Fig. 97. Work of Timber Worms in
Oak: a , Work of oak timber worm,

Eup salts mitiuta ; b. Barked surface;
c. Baik; d, Sap-wood timber worm, //v-
/ ocaetus lugubris, and its work; *?. Sap-
wood. [Agric. Tear Book, 1904, Fig. 47,
p. 386.]

246

WOOD AND FOREST.

Fig. 98. Worm Holes in Red
Oak, Work of the Oak Car-
penter Worm. [Agric. Tear
Book , 1903, Fig. 37, p. 324.]

sawed staves, a short longitudi-
nal section of one of these black
holes is seen attended by the
stained streak on one side of a
thick or curly growth or grain,
Fig. 100. It is this form which
is called “steamboats.” In white-
wood (yellow poplar) the black
holes are attended by very long
black, greenish, or bluish streaks,
sometimes five or six feet long.
When this is common in the

lumber it is called '‘calico poplar.” Fig. 101 represents the characteristic ap-
pearance of this defect greatly reduced. (Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1903, p. 3- .)

Carpenter bees. The work of this
class of woodboring bees is shown in Fig.

102. The injury consists of large auger-
like tunnels in exposed, solid dry wood of
buildings and other structures. It is most
common in soft woods, such as pine, pop
lar, redwood and the like. (Hopkins,

Agric. Yr. Bk., 1904, p. 390.;

Horn tails. This is a class of borers
which are the larvae of the so-called wood
wasps. They may enter the exposed dead
wood of wounds of living trees, but more
commonly attack the wood of dead stand-
ing conifers and hard woods, in the sap-
wood of which they excavate irregular
burrows, which are packed with their bor-
ings. When the adults emerge they leave
the surface perforated with numeious

round holes. Water and fungi entering
these holes cause a very rapid decay of
the wood. (Hopkins, Entom. Bull. No. 48,

Fig. 99. Work of the Columbian
Timber Beetle: Black holes and

“grease spots” in white oak.
[Agric. Tear Book , 1903, Fig. 38,

p. 11.)

The tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to

be seen in chestnut, ash, hickory, oak, tulip, and cypress.

One would think
that with such an ar-
ray of enemies, the
forest would hardly
survive, but on the
other hand there are
manv enemies of these

Fig. 100. Work of the Columbian
Timber Beetle: “Steamboats” in

quartered or Split white oak. [Agric.
Tear Book, 1903, Fig. 39, p. 326. |

NATURAL ENEMIES OE THE FOREST.

247

Fig-. 101. Work of the Columbian Timber Beetle in
Tulip Wood, “Calico Poplar.” \Agric. 1'ear Book
1903, Fig-. 40, p. 326.]

pests. The most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects.
Many insects are simply predaceous, pouncing upon and destroying
such other insects as they can overcome.

Still others are parasites, some external,
but most of them living within the bod-
ies of their victims where they pass their
entire larval life. The eggs are laid on
or in the body of the victim, so that as
soon as one hatches, it has suitable food.

The ichneumon fly, Fig. 103, is such a
parasite ; it destroys millions of insect
pests. It has a long and peculiar ovipos-
itor with which it drills a hole into the
tree and deposits the egg in a burrow of
the Pigeon Horntail, a wood wasp that
burrows into deciduous trees. The larva
soon finds its victim, the grub of the
Pigeon Horntail, and lives on it to its
destruction.

It would seem that it is a hopeless
task to control the insect enemies of for-
est trees and forest products or to pre-
vent losses from their ravages, but the
writer is informed by Dr. A. D. Hopkins,
the expert in the Bureau of Entomology
in charge of forest insect investigations,

Fig-. 102. Work of the Carpen-
ter Bee, Xylocopa orpifex , in
Redwood number: a, entrance;
b, g-alleries; c, cells; d, larva;
e, adult. [Agric. Tear Book ,
1904, Fig-. 53, p. 390 ]

248

WOOD AND FOREST.

that the results of their investigations show conclusively that there
are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available
thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent Department pub-
lications on forest insects, as well as thru direct correspondence with
the Department. These methods are based on the principle of pre-

vention and not on that of extermination. It has been shown that
thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and
of the business of manufacturing, storing, transporting, and utilizing
the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at small
additional expense, and that even when considerable cost is involved
the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit.

Fig-. 103. Ichneumon Fly whose
Larva Feeds on the Larva of the
Pigeon Horn-tail.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

249

THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE FOREST.

References : *

( 1 ) Meterological.

Pinchot, Primer I, pp. 75-76.
Roth, First Booh, pp. 198-
202.

Water.

Roth, First Booh, p. 27.

Snow, ice and frost.

Pinchot, Primer, I, p. 76.

(2) Vegetable.

Roth, First Booh, p. 4.
Boulger, pp. 70-75.

Spaulding, For. Bull., No. 22.
Ward, Chaps. V, VI, VII.
Sickles, pp. 41-45.
von Schrenck, For. Bull., No.
41, PI. III.

(3) Animal.

Grazing.

Pinchot, Primer I, pp. 69-
73, II, p. 73.

Pinchot, Agric. Yr. Bh., 1898,
p. 187.

Insects.

Comstock, passim.

Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bh.,
1902, pp. 265-282.

Roth, First Booh, pp. 115-
130.

Howard, Entom. Bull., No.
11, n. s.

Hopkins, Spaulding, Entom.
Bull., No. 28.

Hopkins, Entom. Bull., No.

48.

Bruncken, pp. 27-29.

Bruce, For. and lrr., 8: 159, Ap. ’02.

Sherfesee. For. Eire. No. 139.
von Schrenck, Bur. Plant Ind. Bull.
No. 36.

von Schrenck, Bur. Plant Ind. Bull.
No. 32.

von Schrenck, Agric. Yr. Bh., 1900,
p. 199.

Coville, For. Bull. No. 15, pp. 28-31.
Roth, First Bh., p. 130, 178.

Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bh., 1903, pp
313-328.

Hopkins, Agric. Yr. Bh., 1904, pp.

382-389, Figs. 43-56.

Pinchot, Primer, I, p. 73.

Felt, N. Y. State Museum Bull.,
103, Ent. 25.

Hopkins, Entom. Bull. No. 32.
Hopkins, Entom. Bull. No. 56.
Hopkins, Entom. Bull. No. 58.
Spaulding and Chittenden, For.
Bull. No. 22, pp. 55-61.

*For general bibliography, see p. 4.

Chapter YU.

THE EXHAUSTION OF THE FOEEST.

The exhaustion of the forest in the United States is due to two
mam causes: (1) Fire, and (2) Destructive Lumbering.

EIRE.

“ ,rrTm 7 reaHzed that f°rest fires are almost entirely
the result of human agency. When cruisers first began to locate

claims m this country, practically no regions had been devastated by

re. l ow such regions are to be seen everywhere. Altho lightning

the losses fro th 6 ^ eSpedaI^ “ the Eock3' Mountains,

nil Z 1 C8USe 316 trMing COmPared with the total loss.

forest n ul” rS/°K?re- There 316 3 nUmber °f faets “aka the
-S ***** fire- Especially in the fall there are great

lying loose rea / Y* ■ 6 matenal> such as dry leaves, twigs, and duff

birch ’ and t ^ The buk °f SOme trees’ as >Per

follows that fir eaV6S °f °therS’ 38 conifers’ are yery inflammable. It
forests Aftef r T C°mm0D “ coniferous than in deciduous

. j t ix* °.« "m"“' ‘«™

’ Moreover a region once burned over,

251

252

WOOD AND FOREST.

is particularly liable to burn again, on account of the accumulation

of dry trunks and branches. See Fig. 107.

Long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorab e
conditions for fire. On the other hand, the wind by changing m ( i-
rection may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track.
Indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon re i win .

Causes of fire. Forest fires are due to all sorts of causes, accidenta
and intentional. Dropped matches, smouldering tobacco, neglected

camp fires and brush fires, locomotive sparks, may all be accident,
causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous loss. There
is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set intention y.
The fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring up after a fire
leads sheep men, cattle and pig owners and berry , ^

Vast areas are annually burned over m the United States for these
reasons Most fires run only along the surface of the grou ,
little harm to the big timber, and if left alone will even go out of
themselves; but if the duff is dry, the fire may ^o^cr in it a long
time readv to break out into flame when it reaches good fuel

EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.

253

when it is fanned by the wind, Fig. 105. Even these ground tires
do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings, and the safest plan is
to put out every fire no matter how small.

Altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable be-
cause vegetation usually begins again at once, Fig. 106, yet the actual
damage is almost incalculable.

The tract may lie }rear after
year, covered with only ’worth-
less weeds and bushes, and if
hilly, the region at once begins
to be eroded by the rains.

After the fire, may come
high winds that blow down the
trunks of the trees, preparing
material for another fire, Fig.

107.

The statistics of the actual
annual money loss of the tim-
ber burned in the United States
are not gathered. In 1880.

Professor Sargent collected
much information, and in the
census of that year (10th Cen-
sus, Vol. IX) reported 10,000,-
000 acres burned that year at
a value of $25,000,000.

In 1891, the Division of
Forestry collected authentic
records of 12,000,000 acres
burned over in a single year,
at an estimated value of $50,-
000,000.

In the Adironacks in the
spring of 1903, an unprecedent-
edly dry season, fire after fire caused a direct loss of about $3,500,000.

In 1902, a fire on the dividing line between Washington and Ore-
gon destroyed property amounting to $12,000,000. Within compara-
ive y recent years, the Pacific Coast states have lost over $100 000 -
000 worth of timber by fire alone. ’ ’

Figr. 106. Burned Fores.t of Engelmann
Spruce. Foreground, Lodgepole Pine Com-
ing in. U. S. Forest Service.

254

WOOD AND FOREST.

During September, 1908, forest fires raged in Minnesota, Michi-
gan, Wisconsin, Maine, New York and Pennsylvania. The estimates
of loss for northern Michigan alone amounted to $40,000,000. For
two weeks the loss was set at $1,000,000 a day. The two towns of

iu7. Effect of Eire and Wind. Colorado. U. S. Forest Service.

Hibbing and Chisholm were practically wiped out of existence, and
296 lives were lost.

Certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become

historic.

One of these is the Miramichi fire of 1825. It began its greatest de-
struction about one o’clock in the afternoon of October 7th of that year, at a
place about sixty miles above the town of Newcastle, on the Miramichi River,
in New Brunswick. Before ten o’clock at night it was twenty miles below
New Castle. In nine hours it had destroyed a belt of forest eighty miles long
and twenty-five miles wide. Over more than two and a half million acre3
almost every living thing was killed. Even the fish were afterwards found
dead in heaps on the river banks. Many buildings and towns were destroyed,
one hundred and sixty persons perished, and nearly a thousand head of stock.
The loss from the Miramichi fire is estimated at $300,000, not including
the value of the timber. (Pinchot, Part I. p. 70-80.)

EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.

255

°f ,®U.ch ^amities, one of the worst that is on record is that known as
the Peshtigo fire, which, m 1871, during the same month, October, when Chi-
cago was laid m ashes, devastated the country about the shores of Green
Bay m Wisconsin. More than $3,000,000 worth of property was burnt, at
least two thousand families of settlers were made homeless, villages were
destroyed and over a thousand lives lost. (Bruncken, p. 110.)

The most destructive fire of more recent years was that which started
near Hinckley, Minn., September 1, 1894. While the area burned over was
less than m some other great fires, the loss of life and property was very
heavy. Hinckley and six other towns were destroyed, about 500 lives were
lost, more than 2,000 persons were left destitute, and the estimated loss in
property of various kinds was $25,000,000. Except for the heroic conduct

of locomotive engineers and other railroad men, the loss of life would have
been far greater.

This fire was all the more deplorable, because it was wholly unnecessary,
or many days before the high wind came and drove it into uncontrollable
fury, it was burning slowly close to the town of Hinckley and could have
oeen put out. (Pmchot, Part I, 82-83.)

One of the most remarkable features of these “crown fires ” is the

rapidity with which they travel. The Miramiclii fire traveled nine
miles an hour.

To get an idea of the fury of a forest fire, read this description
from Bruncken. After describing the steady, slow progress of a dull
fire, he proceeds :

But there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed. AH
day the smoke has become denser and denser, until it is no longer a haze, but
a thick yellowish mass of vapor, carrying large particles of sooty cinders,
filling one s eyes and nostrils with biting dust, making breathing oppressive.

ere is no escape from it. Closing windows and doors does not bar it out
o he houses; it seems as if it could penetrate solid walls. Everything it
touches feels rough, as if covered with fine ashes. The heat is horrible altho
no ray of sunshine penetrates the heavy pall of smoke.

In the distance a rumbling, rushing sound is heard. It is the fire
roanng in the tree tops on the hill sides, several miles from town. This is
no longer a number of small fires, slowly smouldering away to eat up a
alien log; nor little dancing flames running along the dry litter on the
ground, trying to creep up the bark of a tree, where the lichens are thick
and dry, but presently falling back exhausted. The wind has risen, fanning
e ames on all sides, till they leap higher and higher, reaching the lower
branches of the standing timber, enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine
m a sheet of flame, seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting
them into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction. Fierce?
and fiercer blows the wind, generated by the fire itself as it sends currents
of heated air rushing upward into infinity. Louder and louder the cracking

256

WOOD AND FOREST.

of the branches as the flames seize one after the other, leaping from crown
to crown, rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths of fire, and
belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet still higher. As the heated
air rises more and more, rushing along with a sound like that of a thousand
foaming mountain torrents, burning brands are carried along, whirling on
across the firmament like evil spirits of destruction, bearing the fire miles
away from its origin, then falling among the dry brush heaps of windfall or
slashing, and starting another fire to burn as fiercely as the first.

There is something horrible in the slow, steady approach of a top file.
It comes on with the pitiless determination of unavoidable destiny, not
faster than a man can walk. But there is no stopping it. You cannot fight
a fire that seizes tree' top after tree top, far above your reach, and showers
down upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch of
burning branches, driving them away to escape the torture and death that
threatens them. (Bruncken, American Forests and Forestry, 106-109.)

Fig-. 108. Fighting Forest Fire. TJ. S. Forest Service,

Real forest fires are not nsnally put out; men only try to limit
them. A common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the
duff so that the fire cannot pass across, Fig. 108. In serious cases

EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.

257

back fires are built on the side
of the paths or roads or trenches
toward the fire, in the expecta-
tion that the two fires will meet.
In such cases great care has to
be taken that the back fire itself
does not escape. Small fires,
however, can sometimes be beaten
out or smothered with dirt and
sand, since water is usually un-
available.

But “an ounce of prevention
is worth a pound of cure/’ One
of the best of these preventions
is a system of fire lanes. Even
narrow paths of dirt will stop
an ordinary fire. Roads, of
course, are still better. Systems
of fire lanes, Fig. 109, are made
India. Belts of hardwood trees

Fig-. 109. Fire Fane. Worcester Co., Mass.
U. S. Forest Service.

Pig-.iiu. Fook out for Fire. Rules and Raws

great use of in Europe and British
aie also cultivated along railways,
and to break up large bodies
of conifers.

If in lumbering, the slash
were destroyed or even cut up
so as to lie near the ground
and rot quickly, many fires
would be prevented.

Some states, as New York,
have a fairly well organ-
ized system of fire wardens,
who have the authority to
draft as much male help as
they need at $2.00 a day to
fight forest fires. Unfortu-
nately “ne’er-do-wells7’ some-
times set fire to the woods, in
order to “make work” for
themselves. Much preventive

258

WOOD AND FOREST.

work is also done by edncating the public in schools and by the post-
ing of the fire notices,1 Fig. 110.

DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING.

How the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common
in America came into vogue, is worth noting.2

The great historical fact of the first half century of our country
was the conquest of the wilderness. That wilderness was largely an
unbroken forest. To the early settler, this forest was the greatest of
barriers to agriculture. The crash of a felled tree was to him a
symbol of advancing civilization. The woods were something to be
got rid of to make room for farms, Fig. 111. In Virginia, for ex-
ample, where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco cultuie and
modern fertilizers were unknown, there was a continual advance into

1 LOOK OUT FOR FIRE !

Rules and Laws.

Fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started until the trees
are in full leaf. Before lighting such fires three days’ notice, at least, must
be given to the Firewarden and occupants of adjoining lands. After such
fires are lighted, competent persons must remain to guard them until the
fire is completely extinguished, and the persons starting such fires will be
held responsible for all damages notwithstanding notice had been gLen to
the Firewarden.

Fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking, warmth and insect
smudges, but before such fires are kindled, sufficient space around the spot
where the fire is to be lighted must be cleared from all combustible material;
and before the place is abandoned, fires so lighted must be thoroly quenched.

All fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are absolutely prohibited.

Hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing flies to oiiginate

from the use of firearms, cigars and pipes.

Especial care should be taken that lighted matches aie extinguished be-
fore throwing them down.

All persons are warned that they will be held responsible for any damage
or injury to the forest which may result from their carelessness or neglect.

Girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is prohib-
ited. Fallen timber only may be used for firewood.

All citizens are requested to report immediately any cases which may
come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands arising from a violation
of these rules.

Then follow quotations from the laws of the state of New York.

2 For the common methods of logging see Handwork in Wood , Chapter 1

EXHAUSTION OF TPIE FOREST

259

Figf. 111. Forest Giving Place to Farm Land. North Carolina. U. S. Forest Service ,

260

WOOD AND FOREST.

the woods to plant on new and richer land. The forest was also full
of enemies to the settler, both animals and Indians, and was a
dreaded field for fire. So there grew up a feeling of hate and feai
for the forest.

More than that the forest seemed exhaustless. The clearings were
at first only specks in the woods, and even when they were pushed
farther and farther back from the seacoast, there was plenty of
timber beyond.

The idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished by human
hands to any appreciable extent so that people would become afraid of not
having woodland enough to supply them with the needed lumber, would have
seemed an utter absurdity to the backwoodsman. * * * Thus the legend

arose of the inexhaustible supply of lumber in American forests, a legend
which only within the last twenty years has given place to juster notions.
(Bruncken, p. 57.)

This tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to
the forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared.
When we remember that every farm in the eastern United States, is
made from reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was

Fig-. 112. Redwood Forest Turned Into Pasture. California.-
U. S. Forest Service.

always within reach up the rivers, down which it was floated, it is
not strange that reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and
using it prevailed.

Following the settler came the lumberman, who continued the
same method of laying waste the forest land. The lumber market
grew slowly at first, but later developed by leaps and bounds, until
now the output is enormous.

EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.

261

• Ll™bf “ Ameriea has come to be synonymous with the clear-
ing oil of all the marketable timber, regardless of the future. It

lSSOS+lthe+f?rrt !\th° “ WCTe 3 mine’ not a cr°P> n2- Since
bbO the total cut has been over 700,000,000 feet, enough to make a

one inch floor over Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Is-

oAVnnn ^ °r °ne‘balf of the State of New York, an area
oi 2b, 000 square miles.

Other countries too, have devastated their forests. Portugal has
a forest area of only 5 per cent, of the total land area, Spain and

WhT’ -? r Cent’ ItaIy W PCT Cent and Turkey 20 Per cent.
Whether the destruction of the American forests shall go as far as

dated" n°W 3 qUeSti°D WWeh haS °nly J'USt to he appre-

forednishthefeaSOn f°r ^i6 reCkIeSS Amerlcan attitude toward the
lorest is the frequency and severity of forest fires. This has led to

i nk Th. " ihd' “i-S" qniotly o«d .old fc

timber. Their motto was “cut or lose.”

A third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what
were considered unjust taxes. 7 h *

Hundreds of thousands of acres in thp wb;t0
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota have he ?“* reg’0Ib notably irl
for taxes, and final,; reduced by file to I , "A,”"' abandoned'

shortsighted policy of heavy taxation To T h f^88 beoause of the

is to set a pL/um on aAremhm thit 7s ^

than any other single factor m ui - P m that 1S domg more

;:::Lhz:rir * r sar

. h j1 d°ubtedIy much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of
rest conditions and methods, which, if followed, would secure suc-
cessive crops instead of one, but it is safe to say that the desire for
nnmediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering

ft is a Sl£d f*116 P0,ify °f p-ate proved itself, Jt

s a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely be

left m private hands. No individual lives long enough to reap more

262

WOOD AND FOREST.

than one forest crop. Only corporations and States can be expected
to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods o
conservative lumbering.

As a matter of fact, nearly one-half of the privately owned tun-
ber of the United States is held by 195 great holders, the principal
ones being the Southern Pacific Company, the Weyerhauser Timber
Company, and the Northern Pacific Railway Company, which to-
gether own nearly 11 per cent, of the privately owned forests of the
country. These large holders are cutting little of their timber, their

object, however, being not so much to conserve the forests as to re-
serve to themselves the incalculable private profits which are ex-
pected to come with the future enormous increase in the value of

timber

Over against this policy, stands that of the United States Forest
Service of increasing the area of the National Forests m order to
conserve them for the public welfare. The pity is that the govern-
ment ever let the forests pass out of its hands. Only forty years ago
seventy-five per cent, of the timber now standing was publicly owned.

EXHAUSTION OE THE EOUEST.

263

Now about eighty per cent, of it is privately owned. In the meanwhile
its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold, according to
locality. Some large corporations, however, like the Pennsylvania
Railroad, the Ivirby Lumber Company, of Texas, and the Interna-
tional Paper Company, have entered upon a policy of conservative
lumbering.

Of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering, a
few may be cited. Stumps are cut too high and tops too low. Good
lumber is wasted on lumber roads and bridges, Fig. 113. Saplings are

own m dragging out logs. Slash is left in condition to foster

res an eft with no shade protection. Seedlings are smothered

wi s asi. Seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for repro-

uction. Only poorer sorts of trees are left standing, thus insuring

deterioration. Paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering,

an °rc inarily ^eaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness.

ie production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine, Fig. 114

L ® annual /ate of 40>000 barrels has meant the devastation of
7U,000 acres of virgin forest.

» See Summary of Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the
Lumber Industry. February 13, 1011. Washington. D. C.

264

WOOD AND FOREST.

In view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to
know how much still remains of the timber supply of the United
States. The latest and most authoritative estimate of standing tim-
ber in continental United States, excluding Alaska, gives a total of

2.800.000. 000 M feetB.M.,4 of which 2,200,000,000 M feet are pri-
vately owned, about 539,000,000 M feet are in the National Forests
(Fig. 119, p. 271,) and 90,000,000 M feet are on the unreserved pub-
lic lands, National parks, State lands and Indian reservations.

Earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses. For example
the census of 1880 'estimated the stumpage of the U. S. at 856,290,-
100 M feet, while the census of 1900 gives a total of 1,390,000,000
M feet. The discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered
that in the meantime 700,000,000 M feet were cut. Of this amount

500.000. 000 M feet were of conifers or 80,000,000 M feet more than
were included in the estimate of 1880. The simple fact is of course
that the earlier estimates were gross underestimates, due to the fact
that they were based on entirely inadequate data, and therefore can
not be used to obscure the now unquestionable ±act that the timbei
supply of this country is surely and rapidly melting away.

The Forest Service estimates that the present annual cut of saw
timber is about 50,000,000 M feet. At this rate the present stand
would last about 55 years and the privately owned timber only 44.
years. This estimate does not allow for growth and decay.

While the population of the United States increased 52 per cent,
from 1880 to 1900, during the same period the lumber-cut increased
94 per cent. In other words the yearly increase in use is 20 to 25
per cent, per capita, that is, fast as the population grows, the lumber
consumption increases nearly twice as fast. This inciease in the
lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees.

It is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lum-
ber is in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber,
such as brick, cement and steel for building, and steel foi bridges,
vehicles, fences, machinery, tools, and implements of all kinds.

How lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the
fact that we consume 260 cubic feet5 per capita, while the average
for 13 European countries is but 49 cubic feet per capita. In other

4 A board foot is one foot square and one inch thick.

5167 cubic feet equal about 1000 board feet.

EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.

265

words every person in the U. S. is using five times as much wood as
he would use if he lived in Europe. It is estimated that on an average
each person m this country uses annually the product of 25 acres of
torest The country as a whole, cuts every year, between three and
four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime. By
contrast, the principal countries of Europe, cut just the annual
giowth, while Russia, Sweden and Japan, cut less than the growth
In other words, the 2,800,000,000,000 feet B.M. of the stumpage of
le United States is a capital which is constantly drawn upon
whereas, the 944,700,000,000 board feet of the forest of the German

Lumber Product! on by Regions. /

' Southern States
Pacific States .
florth Atlantic States -
Lake States
Central States
Rocky Mountain Stales*

90 7.
9 to

Millions o / board f«tt.

n A3 /4 IS 16

Georg-ia, Fiorida, A 1 ab ^maf M i s s i s s ip p i V L o ui s ta N°rtAh Carolhia> South Carolina,
homa, ’ iVllsslssippi, Eouisiana, Arkansas, Texas and Oklal

Pacific States include: Washing-ton, Oregon and California.

Jersey, Delaware) and^ary^amf6' N6W Engdand’ New York, Pennsylvania, New

Fake States Include: Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota

1 1 li ntfis * aui d^VHs sogr U ^ 6 ' ^est Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana,

Coloradof^Arizona^and New Mexico?" Montana’ Idaho> Wyoming-, Nevada, Ut.h,

Empire is a capital which is untouched but produces annually 300
board feet per acre. . J

, .dDe St"k™g evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the

half T/tp T TmeS ' °nCe the northeastern States produced over

in 1870 wh rdr They reached their relative 4*™

m 18,0 when they produced 36 per cent. At that time the Lake

States produced about 24 per cent. By 1890 the Lake States came to

their maximum of 36 per cent. Today the southern States are near

thepS^Z W1 T1 41 Per r1’ ^ ^ WiU S00n Shift t0

t e Pac fie States. Their product rose from less than 10 per cent of
the wnole m 1900 to 17 per cent, in 1908, Figs. 115 and 116. When
that virgin forest has been cut off, there will be no new region to
exploit; whereas, heretofore, when a region was exhausted, the luim
bermen have always had a new one to which to move. At the annual

266

WOOD AND FOREST.

meeting of the Northern Pine Manufacturers’ Association m Minne-
apolis, Minn., January 22, 1907, Secretary J. E. Rhodes made this
striking statement:

Since 1895, 248 firms, representing an annual aggregate output of pme
lumber of 4% billion feet, have retired from business, due to the exhaus-
tion of their timber supply. Plants representing approximately 500 million
feet capacity, which sawed in 1906, will not be operated in 1907.

The shifting of the chief sources of supply has, of course, been acconi
panied by a change in the kinds of lumber produced. There was a time
when white pine alone constituted one-half of the total quantity. In 1900
this species furnished but 21.5 per cent., in 1904 only 15 per cent of t e
lumber cut.6 We do not use less pine because we have found something e -
ter, but because we have to put up with something worse.

The present annual cut of southern yellow pme is about 13)4
million M feet, or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all
the species. At the present rate of consumption, it is evident that

within ten or fifteen years,
there will be a most serious
shortage of it. Meanwhile the
cut of Douglas fir on the Pa-
cific coast has increased from 5
per cent, of the total lumber
cut in 1900 to 12 per cent, in
1905. This increase is in spite
of the fact, already noted (p.
262) that the great timber
owning companies of the north-
west are holding their stump-
age for an expected great in-
crease in value.

Another evidence of short-
age is the almost total disap-
pearance of certain valuable
species. Hickory, which once
made American buggies fa-
mous, is getting very scarce, and black walnut once commonly used
for furniture, is available now for only fine cabinet work, veneer ,
aun stocks, etc. Hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapid y e-

to 7

Lumber ProJucfion *5 fates.

(Haiti producing o utr ont billion board ftet)

lso7-, 2. i 4

Washington
Louisiana
Texas

Mississippi
Wisconsin
nsaS
Michigan
fennsylvania
/Tm nesota
Oregon
florfh Carolina
Virginia
West' Virginia
California
Ala ba ma
ffaine

Fig. 116.

6 Forestry Circular, No. 97.

EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.

267

creasing. The hardwood cut of 1900 of 8,634,000 M feet diminished
in 1904 to 6,781,000 M feet.

A still further evidence of the decreasing supply, is the rising
scale of prices. White pine, which sold for $45.00 per M during
1887-1892, sold for $100.00 f.o.b. ST. Y., Jan. 1, 1911. Yellow
poplar went up in the same period, 1887-1911, from $29.00 to $63.00.
Yellow pine rose from $18.00 in 1896 to $47.00 in 1911, and hem-

lock, the meanest of all woods, from $11.50 in 1889 to $21 00 in
1911, Fig. 1 18.

It is to be remembered, moreover, that as the timber in any re-
gion becomes scarcer, the minimum cutting limit is constantly low-
sre , an the standard of quality constantly depreciated. Poorer

Price, per / ooo feet'

268

WOOD AND FOREST.

Basswood, 1st and 2d, 1” x 8” and up by x 00”.

White Oak, quarter-sawed, 1st and 2d, all figured, 1” x 6” and up x 10 — 16 .
Yellow poplar, 1st and 2d, 1” x 7” 17” x 12 16 .

Hemlock, boards

Spruce, No. 1 and clear, 1” and 1J4” x 4” x 13’-
White pine, rough uppers, 1” x 8” and up x 00’.

Yellow pine, edge grain flooring. The curve is approximately correct, for the
standard of quality has been changed several times.

EXHAUSTION OF THE FOREST.

269

species and qualities and smaller sizes, which were once rejected, are
now accepted in the market. For example, 6 inches is now a common
cutting diameter for pine and spruce, whereas 12 inches was the
minimum limit, and on the Pacific coast there is still nothing cut
below 18 inches. This cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the
capacious maw of the pulp mill, which swallows even the poorest
stuff. Altho the amount of wood used for paper pulp is small in
comparison with the total lumber production, being about 5.4 per
cent., yet this cutting of young growth keeps the forest land devas-
tated. In 1906 nearly 9,000,000 tons of wood were used for paper
pulp in the United States.

No one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an instant
that we are rapidly using up our forest capital. In fact it is unquestionably
safe to say that our present annual consumption of wood in all forms is
from three to four times as great as the annual increment of our forests
Even by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber standing
we postpone for only a few years the time when there must be a great cur-
tailment in the use of wood, if the present methods of forest exploitation
are continued. Every indication points to the fact that under present con-
ditions the maximum annual yield of forest products for the country as a
whole has been reached, and that in a comparatively short time, there will
be a marked decrease in the total output, as there is now in several items.
(Kellogg, Forestry Circular, No. 97, p. 12.)

On the other hand, it is to be remembered that there are influ-
ences which tend to save and extend the forest area. These will be
considered in the next chapter, on the Use of the Forest.

270

WOOD AND FOREST.

THE EXHAUSTION

References : *

(1) Fires.

Bruncken, pp. 183-207.

Pinchot, Agric. Yr. Bk., p.
189.

Suter, For. Circ. No. 36.

U. S. Tenth Census, Vol.

IX, p. 491 ff.

(2) Destructive Lumbering.

The Settler’s Tradition.
Bruncken, pp. 40-59, 94.

Roth, First Book, pp. 41-45.

Taxation.

For. and Irr., April, ’06.

Reckless Practices.

Pinchot, Primer II, 42-47.

Pinchot, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1898,
p. 184.

Tinchot, For. Circ., No. 25,

p. n.

Price, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1902,
p. 310.

Fox, For. Bull., No. 34, p. 40.

The Timber Supply.

Kellogg, For. Circ., No. 97...
Zon, For. Bull., No. 83.

OF THE FOREST.

Pinchot, Primer, pp. 77-88.

Roth, First Book, pp. 104-112.
Sterling, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1904, p.

133.

Pinchot, Primer, II, p. 82.

Pinchot, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1898, p. 184.

Peters, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1905, pp. 483-
494.

Graves, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1899, p. 415.

Suter, For. Bull., 26, pp. 58, 69, 76.
Mohr, For. Bull. No. 13, p. 61.

Bruncken, pp. 90-98.

Fernow, Economics, pp. 35-45.
Report of the Commissioner of Cor-
porations on the Lumber Indus-
trj% Part I, Feb. 13, 1911.

*For general bibliography, see p. 4.

CHAPTEIi VIII.

TIIE USE OF THE FOREST.

Man’s relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and

injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences

which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve and

improve it. These activities may all be included under the term
Forestry.

The objects of modern forestry then are threefold : 1. The utili-

zation of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The preset--

UTILIZATION.

The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Pro-
ductive, and (3) Esthetic.

(1) Protective. The forest may be used as a protection against
flooos, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. The National Forests
of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include

271

272

WOOD AND FOREST,

Fig-. 120. A Protection Forest, Maintaining the Headwaters of Streams. North Carolina. U. S. Forest Service

THE USE OF THE FOREST

273

121. Hillside Erosion. North Carolina. U. S. Forest Service

274

WOOD AND FOREST.

one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as “protection
forests” to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for
irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made
to reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appa-
lachians is chiefly for this purpose of protection.

A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference
between a region protected by forest and one unpiotected.

(2) Productive. All practical foresters have as their first aim the
yield of the foiest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape archr-
tecture, the object of which may equally be the preservation and im-
provement of a given tract. The crop to be produced is as truly the
prime concern of the foi ester as the raising of agricultural crops is
the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry
is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122. The
prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has aiisen fionr a misun-
derstanding of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting down
of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the future
there will still be trees to cut. “Thru use to a greater use,” is the
motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destiuctive lum-
bering and conservative lumbering is that the formei cuts one crop
regardless of the future ; while the latter plans to cut crop after crop
indefinitely. In other words, in c-onseivative lumbering, the trees to
be cut are not selected solely7 with reference to their immediate mar-
ket value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester’s motto.

So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and
were treated as mines are, i. e., exploited for the sake of immediate
profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the
supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We
cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order
then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modem forester makes
use of various methods, some negative, some positive.

Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops
high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges,
roads, etc., care is taken in “falling” trees and in dragging out logv,
that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical disposal of
the log has already been carried to a high degree of perfection in the

1 A concise and interesting statement of the relation of the forest to
rain and floods is to be found in Pincliot: Primer of Forestry , Bulletin "No.
?4, Part II, Chap. III.

THE USE OF THE FOREST.

275

saw-mill, (see Handwork in Word, Chapter II,) so one object of
forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.

One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the
“yield,” i. e., the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest in a
given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same
period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature

and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ulti-
mately be exhausted.

This principle may be carried out in a number of ways • but in
any case it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing
itself, and this is one of the functions of the forester. The United
States Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with
farmers and lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with
skilled foresters for direction in this matter.

. I11.*1'6 United States, the most practicable way of determining the
yield is by area, i. e„ a certain fraction of a forest is to be cut'over

276

WOOD AND FOREST.

once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time between
two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough to allow
the young trees left standing to ripen.

In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of
the forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3)
young growth so left as to replace the outgo.

The important place that forests fill in the national economy may
be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest
products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products
among the great manufacturing industries of the United States, be-
ing exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat
industries. It turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00.
And yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the
total output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of
a billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of
wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people
burn wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the list is shin-
gles and laths, $32,000,000. (See Forestry Bulletin Uo. 74, p. 7.)

Outside of food products, no material is so universally used and so
indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow, Econ., p. 21.)

The importance of forest products may also be learned from a
mere list of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would
include: fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population
of the United States live in wooden houses) ; the wooden parts of
masonry and steel buildings ; scaffolding ; barns, sheds and out-
houses ; ships, with all their parts, and the masts and trim ol steel
ships, boats and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual ex-
penditure $50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number, trestles
and bridges (more than 2,000 miles in length) ; posts and fencing;
cooperage stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually) ; packing
crates, including coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost
about $10,000,000) ; piles and submerged structures, like canal locks
and water-wheels; windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,-
000), indispensable in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of
coal mined, 2 tons of mining timber are needed) ; street paving ;
veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth made annually) ; vehicles, including
carriages, wagons, automobiles and sleighs; furniture; machines and
their parts; patterns for metal molding; tools and tool handles;

THE USE OF THE FOREST.

277

musical instruments; cigar boxes; matches; toothpicks; pencils;
(315 million a year m the U. S., requiring over 7 million cubic feet
oi wood); engraving blocks; shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of
s oes; hat blocks; agricultural implements; hop and bean poles;
playthings and toys, for both children and adults; Christmas trees
and decorations; pipes; walking sticks ; umbrella handles; crutches
and artificial limbs; household utensils ; excelsior.

ooAAAAdUCtS °ther thaD W°°d: TurPentine and resin (worth $20,-
ooa’aaa a 'Car ’ dlr ’ 01 ' lS ’ tf|n-bark , ll/2 million cords worth $13,-
000,000 a year; wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year) •

nuts; cellulose for collars, combs and ear wheels; balsam, medi-
cines; lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac
and varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907) ; vinegar and acetic

aci confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a
year) . 9

(3) The Esthetic and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to
be estimated m dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable
benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest
as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and
general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation

ese uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and
xosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.

_r ntbOJAX V ATI (JN.

The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest or
continued reproduction. ’

In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep

t e forest m such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself
and never become exhausted.

. ThlS does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a

viZlT3’ °nCe V°reSt’ iS t0 be 8lWayS a f°rest Just as th« mdi-

f r woodLT “I8 S°“e knd f°r fi6ldS’ S°me f0r Past”e> a^ some
or w odlo s, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms

zef uitf rrref°rns’ ana some for forests- But ;t ***

Zl of f n0t be tUmed int0 wfUernesses as thous-

bering S<1Uare “ ' n°W by the methods of destructive lum-

estrv11 anTn1’ is necessary for agriculture than for for-

7, and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the better

278

WOOD AND FOREST.

land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There are in
the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but for-
ests, but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan,
have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been
made for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of for-
estry,— to treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.

In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be
preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see
Chap. Y, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and
climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil,

moisture, temperature, and light,
the forest cover, the forest floor,
the density and mixture of
growth, all conditions of forest
growth. It is only as the for-
ester preserves these conditions,
or to put it otherwise, it is only
as he obeys the laws of the forest
organism that he can preserve
the forest. For a long period
of our national history, we Amer-
icans were compelled to conform
our life and institutions to the
presence of the primeval forest,
but by long observation of what
happens naturally in the forest,
there have been developed in
u. o>. rorest Europe and in America certain
wavs of handling it so as to make

Fig-. 123.

Chestnut Coppice.

Service.

it our servant and not our master.

These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based

on the nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they
are modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.

As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either
by sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods
of reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.

Coppice, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest
is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is
cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will ma-

THE USE OF THE FOREST.

279

hire a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where
the trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is
called the "rotation period/’ The coppice is said to be managed on
a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United
States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small stuff,
as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining an
overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a
stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is
used with admirable results by the French.

Seed Forests. In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from
seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw loo-s.

Seeding from the side, Fig.

124. Man}^ forests naturally
spread at their borders from
the scattering of their seeds.
"Old field pine” is so called
from its tendency to spread in
this way on old fields. This
natural “Seeding from the
Side” has given rise to the
"Group System,” in which an
aiea of ripe trees is cut off and
the trees alongside are de-
pended upon to reproduce new
ones on the cut-over area. The
openings are gradually enlarged
on til all the old timber is cut
out, and the young growth has
taken its place. In its best
form there is a definite "rota-
tion period,” say eighty years.

Fig-. 124. Seeding- from the Side. White Pine
New Hampshire. U. S. Forest Service.

ns system is simple, safe, and very useful, especially for small open-
mgs m woodlots. A modification of this is the “Strip System,” in

l!ch long yrrow openings, say seventy-five yards wide, are cut out
nd gradualiy widened. The strips are cut in the proper direction
so that the prevailing winds will cross them, both for the sake of
avoiding windfalls and to help scatter the seed. Where the soil is

from the' sun StnPS ^ ^ ^ to Protect the seedlings

280

WOOD AND FOREST

Selection Forests. The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in
which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may he either
“mixed5’ or "pure.” If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and

Fie. 125. Virgin Forest, Trees of All Ages. Jackson Co., North Carolina.
® U.S. Forest Service.

every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he
needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve
the woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the

THE USE OE THE FOREST.

281

amount, of the average growth, he would be using the “Selection
System. This system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and
of preserving one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain
slope; it is practicable where the woods are small or under a high
state of care, as in Europe, where this system has been in use for
seven centuries. But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is

t—iTq/V8 therefore ™Practicable in most lumber regions in the
United States, except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.

. localized Selection. If instead of the whole forest being treated
is ^ay every }eai, it weie divided up into perhaps twenty parts,
anc from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber
as would equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system
would be called “Localized Selection.” The cost of logging would be
greatly reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed
trees ana to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the
orest would maintain itself m good condition. This system has been

dacks6 W1 great SUCC6SS m certain Pirate forests in the Adiron-

Regular Seed Forest or High Forest. In the system already men-
tioned above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas
are depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains
are taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all
trees do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under
sue r conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must
be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must be

nose th SPT rrference t0 the Sowing crop. For this pur-

even tw' C/ SS tam, PkCe thm 8 Seri6S °f years> somerimes lasting
en tw enty years These reproduction cuttings have reference, now

to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the seed

bed now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later, the old

crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty years the

new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity, perhaps in one

call1 !«, I"”, hundred years, the process is repeated. This is
andta b ^ ^ ^ F°reSt” . 14 very valuable timber,

and balsam11 ^ * 11116 m Swltzerland, especially for beech

The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands
and the logging is expensive. ;

282

WOOD AND FOREST.

Two-storied Seed Forest. A modification of the system of Regu-
lar Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of
tree under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to
prevent the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of

the upper growth.2

An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown m

Fig. 126. . ,

Planting. The planting of forest trees is a comparatively unim-
portant part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not uncom-

No. 126. Two-storied Seed Forest. Fir under Beech, Germany. U.S. Forest Service.

mon, that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees. It is
true* that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce forests
of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it is ab-
surd to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of planting
a tree every time one is cut. Even if planting were the best method,
many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one cut,

2 For an interesting account of an application of this method, see Ward,

p. 35.

THE USE OF THE FOREST.

£83

in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned, not
tor a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.

. , ®‘e“ter p0rtl0n of Amencan woodlands is in the condition of culled

crests, that is, forests from which the merchantable trees have been cut
leaving the younger individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarket-
able species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a clean
cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of themselves from seeds

^ “(b“I “ °r fa,Ii"g fr°m °CCasi0nal

The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming
treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced. The

thousand ’aeres^ ^ ^ ^ Mlddle WeSt many hundred

__usand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.5

by the°PublicTtion erte“i°n' the F°reSt 8erv'« » doing much

special regions as e „ v recommendlng methods and trees suited to

Kegion of Nebraska on r°on, T°rea Planti”g ^ I1Hnois’ in the Sand Hil1
Kansas, in Ok,ah„m; Pei“Sy,Vania’ *“ ^

284

WOOD AND FOREST.

Planting lias been made possible in the far west by extensive irri-
gation systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie fires,
which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states. In many
parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie States, there
is much more forest land than there was twenty-five years ago. _
What planting can do, may be seen on some worn ont pastures m
New England, Eig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture,
the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming
re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which
grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a
period of enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho
the interest died on account of the cheap transportation of western
lumber, those early plantations prove that white pine can be plante
at a profit even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pas-
tures are now worth $150 an acre and produce yearly a net income
of $3 or more an acre.

IMPROVEMENT.

Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of for-
estry is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon mis-
take to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human
purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially m America,
that a forest can be improved ; that is, that better trees can be raised
than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, “You
never can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first
growth.’5 As if this “first growth” were not itself the successsor of
thousands of other generations ! There is even a legend that white
pine will not grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,

Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, ‘ by nature s
own hand planted,” cannot be surpassed in the number and size of its trees,
and consequently in the amount of wood to be derived from it. But the
very opposite is true. No wild forest can ever equal a cultivated one m
productiveness. To hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to
expect a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously m
his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in the first place does
not contain so many trees as might grow thereon, but only so many as may
have survived the struggle for life with their own and other sPeciesJ>
plants occupying the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain
their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and hi J

stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that might be 0C™Pie* J
valuable timber may be given up to trees having little or no mar e v

THE USE OF THE FOREST.

285

The rule is universal that the amount and value of material that can bo
taken from an area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land
may bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain, therefore, that
in the future, when most American forests shall be in a high state of cul-
tivation, the annual output of forests will, from a much restricted area ex-
ceed everything known at the present day (Brunekeu, North American
t orests and Forestry, pp. 134-135 )

It is probable tftat the virgin forest produces but a tithe of the useful
mateiial which it is capable of producing. (Fernow, p. 98.)

Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any particu-
lar quality —for largeness, strength, shape, amount of pitch, tannin, sugar
and the like, and for rapidity of growth; in fact that any desirable attri-
bute of a tree may be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has
created walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown six
times as much m thirteen years as their ancestors did in twenty-eight years,
preserving at the same time, the strength, hardness and texture of their
forebears. The grain of the wood has been made more beautiful at the same
time. The trees are fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manu-
facture. (Harwood, The New Earth, p. 179.)

Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will sur-
vive. Man, by interfering in Nature’s processes but obeying her laws,
raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive are fit
and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked, branched
or clear. Man says : those trees shall survive which are tit for human
uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables than Na-
ture, unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In
America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for
our purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just
as a savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our de-
scendants will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at
root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests that
they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the
original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been cul-
tivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in
quantity and better in quality.

1 here are various methods used in forest improvement. Improve-
ment cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the
quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees,
unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called
wo ves ; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement
cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any silvi-

2B6

WOOD AND FOREST.

cultural system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural
systems involve steady improvement of the forest.

The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying
on the natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of
their branches.

Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are
proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks and
ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that im-
provement methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.

THE USE OE THE FOREST.

287

THE USE OF

References : *

I Utilization.

Pinchot, Primer, II, pp. 14-18,
38-48.

( 1 ) Protective.

Pinchot, Primer, II, pp.
66-73.

Craft, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1905,
pp. 636-641, (Map. p.
639.)

(2) Productive.

Kellogg, For. Bull., No. 74,
Fernow, For. Invest., p. 9.
Noth, First Book, p. 133.
Zon & Clark, Agric. Yr.
Bk., 1907, p. 277.

(3) Esthetic.

Roth, First Book, p. 180.

II Preservation.

Pinchot, Primer, II, pp. 18-36.
Bruncken, pp. 95, 190.

Graves, For. Bull., No. 26,
pp. 67-70.

Planting.

Roth, First Book, pp. 76-94,
195-198.

Hall, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1902,
pp. 145-156.

For. Circs., Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81.

Ill Improvement.

Bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-

160.

Graves, For. Bull., No. 26,
p. 39.

THE FOREST.

Bruncken, pp. 121-131, For. Bull. No
61.

Tourney, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1903, p
279.

Bruncken, pp. 166-173.

For. and Irrig ., passim.

Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.

Boulger, pp. 60-76.

Roth, Agric. Yr. Bk., 1896, p. 391.
Fernow, Economics, pp. 23-33.

Roth, First Book, pp. 41-76, 193-194.
Roth, For. Bull., No 16, pp. 8, 9.
Fernow, Economics, 165-196.

Bruncken, pp. 92, 133.

Forestry Bulletins Nos. 18, 45, 52,
65.

Pinchot, Adirondack Spruce, p. 4.
Harwood, pp. 143-181.

*For general bibliography, see p. 4.

Appendix.

HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.*

By B. E. Fernow and Filibert Roth.

The caipenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes
familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish them
thiu this familiarity, without usually being able to state the points of dis-
tinction. If a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar, he
has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and it is possible to
select pieces even of those with which he is well acquainted, different in
appearance from the general run, that will make him doubtful as to their
identification. Furthermore, he may distinguish between hard and soft
pines,, between oak and ash, or between maple and birch, which are charac-
teristically different; but when it conies to distinguishing between the several
species of pine or oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable
characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it.
Hence, in the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.

To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of
the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides that of the
often variable differences in their appearance. These structural differences
may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a magnifier, or
they may require a microscopical examination. In some cases such an ex-
amination can not be dispensed with, if we would make absolutely sure.
There are instances, as in the pines, where even our knowledge of the minute
anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification.

In the following key an attempt has been made — the first, so far as we
mow, m English literature— to give a synoptical view of the distinctive
features of the commoner woods of the United States, which are found in
the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed that the distinction
has been carried m most instances no further than to genera or classes of
woods, since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without
elaborate microscopic study, and also that, as far as possible, reliance has
been placed only on such characteristics as can be distinguished with the
naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful
to the largest number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason

o the less reliable and more variable general external appearance, color,
taste, smell, weight, etc.

The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance,
SUCh; f°r examPle> as color, is not only very variable but also very difficult

*From Forestry Bulletin No. 10, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

289

290

WOOD AND FOREST.

to describe, individual observers differing especially in seeing and describing
shades of color. The same is true of statements of size, when relative, and
not accurately measured, while weight and hardness can peiliaps be moie
readily approximated. Whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly
seen will also depend somewhat on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice.
In some cases the resemblance of different species is so close that only one
other expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the
region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no
longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from Ala-
bama, and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vita; of the West
and the arbor vita; of the Northeast, only by the difference of the locality
from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations properly ap-
preciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater familial ity with the
woods which are more commonly met with.

The features which have been utilized in the key and with which — their
names as well as their appearance — therefore, the reader must familiarize
himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly described as they ap-
pear in cross-section. They are:

(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see p. 17), the former being the wood
from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some

Fig. 128. “Noil-porous” Woods. A, fir; B, “hard” pine; C, soft
pine; ar , annual ring-; o. <?., outer edg-e of ring-; i. e., inner edg-e
of ring-; 5. w., summer wood; sp. w., spring- wood; rd., resin

ducts.

cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the heart-
wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. Since one
can not always have the two together, or be certain whether he has sap-
wood or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to be sure, unsatisfactoiy,
yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can be relied upon.
If further assurance is desired, microscopic structure must be examined;
in such cases reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids
in pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and
spirals.

(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on page 19.

(See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked, and by
such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is possible.

APPENDIX.

291

(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first
formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part of
the ling. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one merges
into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the manner in which
the pores appear distributed in either.

(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in cross-sec-
tion, m longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or identifications. (See
p. 23 and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear only in the broad-leaved, so called,
hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, and indis-
tinct when they cease to be visible individually by the naked eye) and man-
ner of distribution in the ring being of much importance, and especially in
the summer wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines,
in continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.

(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like
pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored dots, but

cl fe 1 I

rt ft 1 a:

■ ;

[p c \R% rc 1

K. mci Po u°j 0 Cp'0\ c

'• 1 ^ ,* i . -

> fj; ' y p PP

Fig-. 129. “King-porous” Woods White Oak and Hickory.
a. r., annual ring; su.w., summer wood; sp.w., spring
wood, v, vessels or pores; c. “concentric” lines; rt
darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of
oak wood; fir, pith rays.

much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods, and their pres-
ence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an important distinction
in these woods.

(6) Pith rays (see p. 21 and Figs. 129 and 130), which in cross-section
appear as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying
bieadth, impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods. They are
most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the broad-
leaved woods. In coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely
packed that to the casual observer they do not appear. Their breadth and
their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, beino
styled fine, broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when
no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.

(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species
more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but much
finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)

292

WOOD AND FOREST.

Of miscroscopic features, the following only have been referred to :

(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on page 28.

(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits in
the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids.

For standards of weight, consult table on pages 50 and 192; for stand-
ards of hardness, table on page 195.

Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross-section
of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, sometimes only
shades, and often only general color effects appear.

HOW TO USE THE KEY.

Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the dis-
tinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some
practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which are apt to

vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general data as the
present. The best course to adopt is to supply one’s self with a small
sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small, polished tablets . are
of little use for this purpose. The pieces should be large enough, if possible,
to include pith and bark, and of sufficient width to permit ready inspection
of the cross-section. By examining these with the aid of the key, begin-
ning with the better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features
described and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker
of the key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will
be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the work
of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The material to
be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It should be moistened;
all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and
smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but little structure. The most useful
cut may be made along one of the edges. Instructive, thin, small sections
may be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of

Fig". 130. “Diffuse-porous” Woods, ar , annual ring; pr , pith rays
which are “broad” at a, “fine” at b, “indistinct” at d.

Beech

.Sycamore-

Birch

APPENDIX.

293

thin glass, moistened and covered with another piece of class tw v

examined by holding them toward the light. y

knowThf not eXa“ination with the “agnifler, that it contains pores, we
know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected in the

spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered (diffused) thru

th ring, we turn at once to the class of “Diffuse-porous woods.’ We now

Finding tT man”er “ Whkh the P°reS are distributed thru the ring
Finding them very small and neither conspicuously grouped nor lamer

nor m abundant in the spring-wood, we turn to the thi^ gmup „ Th

HHH ‘.fzh

currence, qualities, and use^f' ^heZood^ mf°rmatl°n regardin^ the oc-

or “ What ^

the doubtful roads until we reaoh „ ' • + 1 W6 m&y try each of

wrong and then return and Ink- Point where we find ourselves entirely

son, of the later mentioned feaJuLTndTndt J^n, to^on

z„ trr. — ; t dir ion ^ csrs

conifers, which are rather diffTTt TT"' In cases’ specially with

from which the specimen c distinguish, a knowledge of the locality

KEY TO THE MOKE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.

I Non-porous woods— Pores not visible or conspicuous on cross-section,
even* with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands

of summer wood (Fig. 128). .

II Ring-porous woods — Pores numerous, usually visible on cioss sec ion

without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected
in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (Fig. - '

III. Diffuse-porous woods— Pores numerous, usually not plainly visib e
on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine line o
denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered thru an-
nual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood (Fig. 130).

Note —The above described three groups are exogenous, 1. e , they grow by
adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group is formed by the
endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow by such additions.

I. — Non-Porous Woods.

(Includes all coniferous woods )

A. Resin ducts wanting.1

1. No distinct heart-wood. , ,

a. Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish (under

microscope pith ray without tracheids)

additional notes for distinctions in the group.

Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the .ex;stence °f
resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the mrintay
rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heart
wood color of the latter and the larger, more frequent, and more lea 1 y visi

1)16 In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery
character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this last character t

a ^Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually
only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits m e
parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid. .

The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination.
The following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when m e
log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market:

•To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary since resin ducts iare
frequently seen onlv with difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter or darker
spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of the an-
nual rino- They are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tangeutia
seclonsfapjearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as ,n-
dentations or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction.

294

APPENDIX.

295

<roseat«) (™der microscope pith ray with

2. Heart-wood present, color decidedly different in' kind' from sap-Tood^'
and ' ha™!' * °range red; saP'wood, pale lemon; wood, heavy

l' wmodTft rPliSa- t0 ‘’r0'™ish redl sap-wood yellowish wh^;’
' o°d S°ft t0 medlum hard> light, usually with aromatic odor,

^ tt , -■ Red Cedar.

o. Heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sap-wood

light oiange to dark amber, very soft and light, no odor; pith rays
df-t, specially pronounced on radial section Redwood

ye^-rir ent’ color only different in shade from ^

a. Odorless and tasteless ...

'■ ''ood Wlth mlld resinous odor, but tasteless White Cedar.

c. Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut,

B. Resin ducts present. lN°ENSE °EDAE-

1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not nu-

merous ’

2. Distinct heart-wood present. U°E

a. Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.

a'. Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual ; annual
img distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells-
color, white to yellowish red; wood soft and light. .Soft Pines.’1
Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less
a rupt, broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from
ight to deep orange; wood medium hard and heavy . Hard Pines.1

tinlfche^h StI'a'V C°l0r’ C01nbined great lightness and softness, dis-

(alf others in'th' 6 pi”eS ( wlllte Plne and suSar pine) from the hard pines
(all othe.s m the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual

S t3r?r0d in‘° SUmmCT W°°d- <ba"ga in hard pTnes L

less Lad band. SUm,Mr W°°d 8PPe8r 88 8 ^ and -ore or

- fC,z, r “ er~

- — “■

veryTtvuTar,eaandPnnae " ^ ^ resi”»”. and usually

this rested from 7T Tgf’ “g Iittle saP-'vood, and differing in

wider Xs and . P’ne 8nd l0b'°]ly pine’ which usually have

rMgS a”d m°re saP-wood, the latter excelling in that respect.

iJSof, aid hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distingnishable a, the

296

WOOD AND FOREST.

Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed.
a'. Color of heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish (same as
hard pine) ; resin ducts frequently combined in groups of 8 to
30, forming lines on the cross-section (tracheids with spirals),

Douglas Spruce.

V. Color of heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood yellowish
brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids
without spirals) Tamarack.

II. — Ring-Porous Woods.

(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)

A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in
short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.

1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.

a. Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not m clusters.

a.' Color of radial section not yellow .Ash.

6/ Color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its

hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized,

Osage Orange.

I Wood licrht and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10
' on ^ Catalpa.

2 Pith rays very fine, yet distinct ; pores in summer wood usually single
or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood

yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section Sassafras.

3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.

a. Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown. .Black Locust.

b. Heavy; medium hard to hard.

The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups,
proposed by Dr.°H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen

in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring : .

Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections.

a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls o
the cells of the pith ray. — Group 1. Represented in this country on y
by P. resinosa.

b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells o
the pith ray.— Group 2. P. taeda, palustris, etc., including most of our
“hard” and “yellow” pines.

Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projec-
tions. , n

a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of eacn ce

of the pith ray.— Group 3. P. strobus, lambertiana, and other true
white pines.

b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.
' Group 4. P. parryana, and other nut pines, including also P. balfouriana.

appendix.

297

a. ores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of

3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown Red Mulberry

b. Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-

wood cherry red ... ^ ^

• iith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of

heart- wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon Honey Locust

B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes
secSonlng meS’ appeanng as finel7-feathered hatchings on tangential

1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heart-wood
absent or imperfectly developed Hackberry.

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight
and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section“of
mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.

aneeH°nTh T**' f*?*’ “d black Iocust also very similar in appear-
ance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays

p ?„y on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black
ocust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness toother
with its darker brown color. ’ IO°ether

Fig-. 131. Wood of Coffee Tree,

to re*6 e^ms’ hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear

resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring

exclude thSS' \29’ 132’ \33'> The SharP’y defmed large pith rays of the oak
c ude these at once ; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appear-

gulh th0n?1CU0Uh ,nelrfeathered hat0lling9 °" tang“tiaI -ction, distin-
guish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very con-
spicuous y e ned zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more

bL™\‘ne orfrUth bThe re,ddiSh ^ °f hiekOTy or Z

surface of s r^l “ay.alS0 ald ln rea<V recognition. The smooth, radial
" face of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest.

298

WOOD AND FOREST.

2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood
grayish to reddish white j Elms.

C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very
crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).

1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible Chestnut.

2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous °AK-

D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring
wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of
the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-
porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)

1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the
very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-

wood light reddish brown Hickory.

2 Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays ; no reddish tinge
in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart- wood blackish ... .Persimmon.

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132) :

1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.

a The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the

White Ash.

rinsr

b The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer

. Green Ash.

wood

2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.

a. Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm Red Ash-

b. Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous Black Ash.

APPENDIX

299

additional notes — continued.

In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in
which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig 133 ) In the

Lrt 0?^ *he P°reS ”e Very fine and nUmer°US and crowded »» outer

larger few'- SUmmtr W°°d; Whi’e “ the bl“k ” red oaks the pores are

turf is Z TuT’ a” m°StIy iSOlated- The Iive oaks> as far as struc-
ncerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous and
are exceedingly heavy and hard. P ’ and

A 1 0°o1, i Oc'o'i1; °no‘ ’ >00

£.54 t\*V

»'.t4 P ‘

tf* « ,, fj on tv,

W* ^ P*

r.^5 £s;:a*.y3 |X

~-V » v

f\* ® ,;J*aSFVrM I; .•

° jtap.-Soi'lvi-'

ilcnOoo'fOoUS

. !U ■:« 1 f ; «a» - r» b,J.

E.Vw >' - v.' ;,*» o-
; ' v « a f ~ n ' - *s r «•* *4

b*.‘.”---iuhr;.s -;v
* *•' - I.®

fits'* t?- 't*

Fig-. 133. Wood of Red Oak. (Forwhiteoak
see fig-. 129, p. ^91.)

300

WOOD AND FOREST.

HI. — Diffuse-Porous Woods.

(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may

seem to belong here.)

A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood,
thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.

1. Heavy5 and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal sec-
tion) chocolate brown Black Walnut.

2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown. .Butternut.

B Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving
‘ rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section),
thereby appearing, sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, heart-wood vinous
reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (See also the sometimes
indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally winged elm, which are

readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the sum-

1 x Cherry.

mer wood )

C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numer-
ous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.

1. Broad pith rays present.

a. All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on

tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split.

Sycamore.

b. Only part of the pith rays broad.

a. ' Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous; wood reddish

white to reddish Beech.

b. f Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small

rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefoie the peiiphery
of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and
out, and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows
or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish ...Blue Beech.

2. No broad pith rays present.

Wood, of Hickory

APPENDIX.

301

a. Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.

a. ' Wood hard.

a. Coloi 1 eddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer sum-

mer Maple.

?>. Color white, without reddish tinge Holly

b. ' Wood soft to very soft.

a." Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between pith
rays.

ci.'" Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge in
heart-wood PoptAE

Cucumber Tree.

b/" Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to dark

reddish brown Sweet* 1 2 Gum.

b." Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the space
between pith rays: heart-wood brownish white to very light

bvown Basswood.

b. I i tli lays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier,
plainly visible.

a. ' Pores indistinct to the naked eye.

a. Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even

on the radial section Buckeye.

b. " Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith

rays conspicuous on the radial section Sour Gum.

b. ' Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish specks on

the cross-section ; sap-wood whitish, heart- wood reddish . . Biecil.
D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.

1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky
lustei Cottonwood (Poplar).

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the
cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and

spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the
latter will prove helpful.

Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distinc-
tion is not always possible.

1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more abundant
in the spring wood; wood heavy, usually darker,

Cherry Birch and Yellow Btrcii.

2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming
a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight,

Canoe or Paper Birch.

The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:

1. Most of tlie pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous.

Sugar Maple.

302

WOOD AND FOREST.

additional notes — continued.

1 Beech 1 Sycamore ! Birch 1

Fig-. 136. Wood of Beech, Sycamore and Birch.

2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.
a. Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and com-
monly spotted on cross-section Red Maple.

5. Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light coMred.

Silver Maple

Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box
elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple.

The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:

1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy split-
ting, dark brown heart Red Elm.

2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.

а. Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so White Elm.

б. Pores of spring wood small to minute.

APPENDIX

303

additional notes — continued.

a. ' Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the inter-

mediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain... Rock Elm.

b. ' Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate

spaces Winged Elm.

c. Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous

wood Cedar Elm.

Fig-. 138. Wood of Elm.
a red elm; b, white elm; c, winged elm.

Fig. 139. Walnut .p. r ., pith
rays; c. concentric lines;
■v, vessels or pores; su. w.,
summer wood; sp. w,
spring wood.

INDEX.

Abies grandis, 96.

Acer dasycarpum, 172.

Acer macro phyllum, 170.
Acer rubrum, 174.

Acer saccharinum, 172.

Acer saccharum, 176.
Agaricus mellens, 236.
Agarics, 234, 236.

Alburnum, 17.

Ambrosia beetles, 242.
Angiosperms, 9.

Animal enemies, 239.
Arborvitae, Giant, 104.

Ash, 182-191, 296.

Ash, Black, 182, 298.

Ash, Blue, 186.

Ash, Hoop, 182.

Ash, Oregon, 184.

Ash, Red, 188, 298.

Ash, White, 25, 190, 298.
Bamboo, 10, 11.

Bark, 10, 13, 14.

Bark borers, 243.

Basswood, 14, 178, 301.

Bast, 13, 15, 16, 20.

Beech, 134, 300.

Beech, Blue, 124, 300.
Beech, Water, 124.

Beech, Water, 162.

Bees, carpenter, 246.

Beetles, 241-246.

Betula lenta, 130.

Betula lutea, 132.

Betula nigra, 128.

Betula papyrifera, 126.

Big Tree, 98, 208, 209, 220.
Birch, Black, 130.

Canoe, 126
Birch, Cherry, 130.

Birch, Gray, 132.

Birch, Mahogany, 130.

Birch, Paper, 126.

Birch, Red, 128.

Birch, River, 128.

Birch, Sweet, 130.

Birch, White, 126.

Birch. Yellow, 132.

Bird’s eye maple, 36.

Bluing, 234.

Bole, 211, 218.

Borers, 243-246.

Bowing, 47.

Branches, 37, 218, 226, 286.
Brittleness, 53.

Broad-leaved trees. See Trees,
Broad-leaved.

Browsing, 240.

Buckeye, 301.

Bud, 14, 16, 36.

Buds, Adventitious, 36, 37.

Bullnut, 118.

Buprestid, 243.

Burl, 35.

Butternut, 144, 300.

Button Ball, 162.

Buttonwood, 162.

Calico poplar, 246.

Cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237.
Canopy, 204, 211, 212.

Carpenter worms, 245.

Carpenter bees, 246.

Carpinus caroliniana, 124.

Catalpa, 296.

Castanea dentata, 136.
Case-hardening, 48.

Cary a tomentosa, 118.

Cary a porcina, 122.

Carya alba, 120.

Cedar, Canoe, 104.

Cedar Incense, 295.

Cedar, Oregon, 108.

Cedar, Red 110, 223, 295.

Cedar, Port Orford, 108.

Cedar, Western Red, 104, 206, 207.
Cedar, White, 106, 295.

Cedar, White, 108.

Cells, Wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26,
41, 42.

Cellulose, 15.

Cells, Fibrous, 28.

Cerambycid , 243.

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, 108.

Cham aecy paris thyordes, 106.

Checks, 43, 47, 232.

304

INDEX.

305

Cherry, Wild Black, 164, 300.
Chestnut, 136, 298.

Cleaning, 218, 286.

Cleavability of wood, 41, 53.

Coffee Tree, 297.

Color of wood, 18.

Cold, 214, 216.

Coleoptera, 241.

Colors of woods, 17, 18, 290.
Columbian timber beetle, 245.
Comb-grain, 54.

Composition of forest, 197-210, 223.
Compression, 51, 52.

Conch, 235.

Cones, Annual, 19.

Conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48.

58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251.
Conservation of forests, 262.

Coppice, 220, 278, 279.

Cork, 13, 19.

Cortex, 13, 15.

Corthylus columbianus, 245.
Cottonwood, 301.

Cover, 211.

Crop, The Forest, 274.

Crown, 211, 227.

Cucumber Tree, 156, 301.
Curculionicl, 243.

Cypress, Bald, 102, 215, 295.

Cypress, Lawson, 108.

Decay, 235.

Deciduous trees, 10.

Dicotoledons, 9, 10.

Differentiation of cells, 16.
Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-
porous.

Distribution of species, 218.
Distribution of forests, 197-210.
Drouth, 213, 231.

Dry-rot, 234, 238.

Duff, 224, 251.

Duramen, 17.

Elasticitv of wood, 41, 53.

Elm, 152-155, 298.

Elm, American, 154
Elm, Cedar, 303.

Elm, Cliff, 152.

Elm, Cork, 152.

Elm, Hickory, 152.

Elm, Red, 302.

Elm, Rock, 152, 303.

Elm, Slippery, 14.

Elm, Water, 154.

Elm, White, 152.

Elm, White, 154, 302.

Elm, Winged, 303.

Endogens, 10, 17.

See Monocotoledons.
Enemies of the Forest, 229-249.
Engraver beetles, 241.
Entomology, Bureau of, 247.
Epidermis, 13, 15.

Erosion, 273.

Evaporation, 42, 47.

Evergreens, 10.

Exotics, 227.

Exogens, 12, 16.

Fagus americana, 134.

Fagus atropunicea , 134.

Fagus ferruginea, 134.

Fagus grandifolia, 134.

Figure, 37.

Fir, 96, 294.

Fir, Douglas, 94.

Fir, Grand, 96.

Fir, Lowland, 96.

Fir, Red, 94, 206, 207.

Fir, Silver, 96.

Fir, White. 96.

Fire, 232, 251-258.

Fire lanes, 257.

Fire losses, 253.

Fire notice, 258.

Fire trenches, 256.

Fire Wardens, 257.

Fires, Causes of, 252.

Fires, Control of, 256-258.

Fires, Crown, 255.

Fires, Description of, 254-256.
Fires, Fear of, 261.

Fires, Opportunities for, 251.
Fires, Statistics of, 253.

Fires, Surface, 252.

Floor, Forest, 213, 224.

Forest, Abundance of, 260.
Forest, Appalachian, 204.

Forest, Atlantic, 197.

Forest, Broadleaf, 202.

Forest, Eastern, 197-204.

Forest, Enemies of, 229-249.
Forest, Exhaustion of, 241-270.
Forest, Esthetic use of, 277.
Forest, Fear of, 260.

Forest, Hardwood, 197.

Forest, High, 281.

Forest, Hostility toward, 260.
Forest, Mixed, 204, 213, 214.
Forest, Northern, 197, 216.
Forest, Pacific, 197, 204-208.
Forest, Productive, 274-277.
Forest, Protective, 271-274
Forest, Puget Sound, 206.

Forest, Regular Seed, 281.

306

INDEX.

Forest, Rocky Mountain, 197, 204,
205.

Forest, Seed, 297-282.

Forest, Selection, 280-281.

Forest, Southern, 197.

Forest, Subarctic, 209.

Forest, Two-storied Seed, 282.
Forest, Use of, 271-287.

Forest, Utilization of, 271-277.
Forest, Virgin, 280.

Forest, Western, 197.

Forestry, 271-287.

Forests, Composition of North Amer-
ican, 197.

Forests, National, 228.

Forests and agriculture, 258, 277.
Forest conditions, 211-228, 278.
Forest conservation, 262.

Forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224.
Forest crop, 274, 276.

Forest devastation, 261.

Forest fires, 251-258, 261.

Forest floor, 213, 224.

Forest improvement, 284-286.

Forest map, 198.

Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp.
211-228.

Forest ownership, 262.

Forest planting, 282-284.

Forest preservation, 277-284.

Forest products, 276.

Forest Service, U. S., 262, 264, 275.
Fraxinus americana , 190.

Fraxinus nigra, 182.

Fraxinus oregona, 184.

Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 188.

Fraxinus quadrangulata, 186.

Frost, 232.

Frost-check, 232.

Fungi, 26, 233-239.

Cinko, 12.

Cluing, 54.

Coats, 240.

Crain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53.
Crain, Bird’s eye.

Grain, coarse, 32.

Crain, cross, 33, 53.

Crain, curly, 35.

Grain, fine, 32.

Crain, spiral, 33.

Crain, straight, 33, 53.

Crain, twisted, 33.

Crain, wavy, 34.

Crazing, 239.

Croup svstem, 279.

Grubs, 243, 244.

Gum, Black, 180.

Gum, Sour, 180, 301.

Gum, Sweet, 160, 301.
Gymnosperms, 9.

Hackberry, 297.

Hackmatack, 76.

Hardness of wood, 41, 54.
Hardwoods, 12.

Heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290.
Hemlock, 90, 295.

Hemlock, Black, 92.

Hemlock, Western, 92, 206.

Hicoria alba, 118.

Hicoria glabra, 122.

Hicoria ovata, 120.

Hickory, 118-123, 298.

Hickory, Big-bud, 118.

Hickory, Black, 118.

Hickory, Shagbarlc, 120.

Hickory, Shellbark, 120.

Hickorv, White-heart, 118.

Holly, *301.

High Forest, 281.

Honeycombing, 48.

Hornbeam, 124.

Horn-tails, 246.

Hygroscopicity of wood, 41.
Hymenomycetes, 234.

Ice, 232.

Ichneumon fly, 247.

Identification of woods, 289-303.
Improvement of forests, 234-286.
Inflammability of bark, 14, 251.
Insects, 240-248.

Insects, parasitic, 247.

Insects, predaceous, 247.
Intolerance. 216, 219, 221.

Iron- wood, 124.

Juglans cinerea, 114.

■Juglans nigra, 116.

Juniperus virginiana, 110.

Key for the distinction of woods
' 292-303.

King-nut, 118.

Knot, 35, 37, 38.

Larch, 76.

Larch, Western, 78.

Larix ame?"icana, 76.

Larix laricina, 76.

Larix occidentalis, 78.

Lenticels, 14.

Leaves, 14, 216.

Levidoptera, 241.

Light, 216-218.

Lightning, 231, 251.

Lignin, 16.

Linden, 178.

TAguidambar styraciflua, 160.

INDEX.

307

Liriodendron tulipifera, 158.
Localized Selection system, 281.
Locust, 166.

Locust, Black, 166, 296.

Locust, Honey, 166, 297.

Locust, Yellow, 166.

Long-bodied trunk, 225.

Lumber consumption, 264.

Lumber, 9, 10.

Lumber prices, 267, 268.

Lumber production, 265-267.

Lumber, substitutes for, 264.
Lumbering, conservative, 274, 276.
Lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263.
Lumberman, 260.

Magnolia acuminata, 156.

Magnolia, Mountain, 156.

Mahogany, 168.

Maple, 170-177, 301.

Maple, Hard, 25, 176.

Maple, Large Leaved, 170.

Maple, Oregon, 170, 207.

Maple, Red, 174, 302.

Maple, Rock, 25, 176.

Maple, Silver, 172, 302.

Maple, Soft, 172.

Maple, Sugar, 176
Maple, White, 170.

Maple. White, 172.

Medullary .rays. See Rays.
Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.
Merulius lachrymans, 234, 238.
Meteorological enemies, 229-233.

Mice, 237.

Microscope, 14, 24-31, 290.

Mine, Forest treated as, 261, 274.
Mockernut, 118.

Moisture, 213.

Moisture in wood, 41, 52.
Monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17.

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