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^PEWYORKBOpWICALGHUA

C 1904 _ ^

CARNEGIE INSTITUTIOxN

WASHINGTON

YEA.R BOOK

No. 8

1004.

PUBI.ISHED BY THE INSTITUTION

WASHINGTON, U. S. A.

JANUARY, 1905

PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER
WASHINGTON, D. O.

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1905

President of the Institution
Robert S. Woodward

Trustees

John S. Billings, Chairman
Elihu Root, Vice-Chairtnan
Charles D. Walcott, Secretary

Alexander Agassiz
John S. Billings
John L. Cadwalader
Cleveland H. Dodge
William N. Frew
IvYMAN J. Gage
Daniel C. Oilman
John Hav

Henry L. Higginson
E. A. Hitchcock
William Wirt Howe
Chas. L,. Hutchinson

S. P. lyANGLEY

William Lindsay
Seth Low
Wayne MacVeagh

D. o. Mills
S. Weir Mitchell
William W. Morrow
Elihu Root
John C. Spooner
Charles D. Walcott
Andrew D. White
Carroll D. Wright

Executive Committee

Carroll D. Wright, Chairman
* Charles D. Walcott, Secretary
* John S. Billings John Hay Elihu Root

Daniel C. Gilman S. Weir Mitchell * Robert S. Woodward

Lyman J. Gage

Finance Committee
Henry L. Higginson

D. O. Mills

* Ex-officio member

LIBRARY
NEW YORK

CONTENTS. BOTANICAL

GARDEN.

Page

Articles of incorporation g_i2

By-Laws 13-16

Minutes of Second Meeting of the Board of Trustees 17-20

Financial statements 19-20

Report of Executive Committee on the work of the year 21-152

Reports on large projects :

Department of Experimental Biology 22-54

Cold Spring Harbor Station 23-49

Addresses at formal open ing of the Station , June 1 1 , 1 904. 33-49

Introductory address. By C. B. Davenport 33-34

Address of presentation. By W. R. T. Jones 34-36

Remarks in acceptingleaseof grounds. By Dr. J. S.

Billings 37-39

The Aim of Experimental Evolution. By Dr. Hugo

de Vries 39-49

Tortugas Station 50-54

Economics 55-64

Historical Research 65-67

Terrestrial Magnetism 68-74

Special grants :

Trans-Caspian Archeological Expedition . 75-79

Geophysical research 80-82

Secondary grants :
Anthropology :

Dorsey, George A 83'

Holmes, William H 84

Archeology :

Bliss, Frederick J 84

Kunz, George F 84

Muller, W. Max 84

Ward, William Hayes 85

Astronomy :

Boss, Lewis 85

Campbell, W. W 86

Davis, Herman S 87

Hale, George E 88

Newcomb, Simon go

Reed, W. M 92

Russell, Henry N . 92

Solar Observatory, Mount Wilson, Cal 94

Whitney, Mary W 95

Bibliography :

Fletcher, Robert 95

Fliigel, Ewald 96

Putnam, Herbert 97

Botany :

Desert Botanical Laboratory 98

Livingston, Burton E 100

Olive, E. W loi

Spalding, V. M 102

Chemistry :

Abel, John J 103

Bancroft, Wilder D 104

Baskerville, Charles 105

Baxter, Gregory T 105

U^ Gomberg, Moses, and Lee H. Cone 106

^ Jones, H. C 106

?2 Miller, W.L 107

f^ Morse, H. N 108

CM 2 5

6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Pag^e
Report of Executive Committee — Continued.
Secondary grants — Continued.

Chemistry — Continued.

Noyes, A. A 109

Osborn, Thomas B iii

Richards, Theodore W 112

Washington, Henry S 113

Engineering :

Durand,W. F 113

Goss, W. F. M 114

Experimental Phonetics :

Scripture, E- W 114

Geology :

Chamberlin, T. C 117

Willis, Bailey 118

Geophysics :

Adams, Frank D 119

Gilbert, G. K 120

Historical research :

Abel, Annie Heloise 120

Howe, William Wirt 121

Mathematics :

Lehmer, Derrick N 121

Wilczynski, E. J . 122

Paleontology :

Hay, Oliver P 122

Wieland, G. R 123

Physics :

Barnett, 8. J 124

Campbell, William 124

Carhart, H. S 124

Child, C. D 126

Crew, Henry 126

Hale, George E 127

Ivewis, E. Percival 128

Michelson, A. A. . 128

Wood. R. W 128

Physiology :

Atwater, W. O 130

Chittenden, Russell H 131

Gamgee, Arthur ... 132

Noguchi, Hideyo 133

Reichert, Edward T., and Amos P. Brown 134

Zoology :

Carlson, A. J 134

Castle, W. E., and E. L. Mark 136

Crampton, Henry E 136

Duerden, J. E 137

Eigenmann, Carl H 138

Howard, L. O. 138

McClung, C. E 139

Patten, William. 140

Pearl, Raymond 140

Tower, W. L 141

Wilson, H. V 142

Yatsu, N 144

Marine Biological Laboratory. 144

Naples Zoological Station 145

Research assistants ...... 146

Publications .' 147

Bibliography of publications relating to work accomplished 148

Accompanying papers 155-291

LIST OF ACCOMPANYING PAPERS.

Page
A Study of the Conditions for Solar Research at Mount Wilson, Califor-
nia. By George E- Hale .: I55-I74

The Southern Observatory Project. By Ivcwis Boss I75-I77

Methods for promoting Research in the Exact Sciences : Letters of
Simon Newcomb, Lord Rayleigh, H. H. Turner, Karl Pearson, G. H

Darwin, Arthur Schuster, Edward C. Pickering 179-193

Fundamental Problems of Geology. By T. C. Chamberlin 195-258

Plans for obtaining Subterranean Temperatures. By G. K. Gilbert. . . 259-267
Value and feasibility of a determination of Subterranean Tempera-
ture Gradient by means of a Deep Boring 261-267

Proposed Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific Ocean. By L. A. Bauer

and G. W. Littlehales 269-273

Geological Research in Eastern Asia. By Bailey Willis 275-291

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PI.ATES.

Page

Plate i. Cold Spring Harbor Station, first-floor plan 24

2. Cold Spring Harbor Station, cellar plan 26

3. Cold Spring Harbor Station, second-floor plan 26

4. The Marine Biological Laboratory at Tortugas, Florida 50

5. The Physalia . 54

6. Desert Botanical Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona, rear views 98

7. Desert Botanical Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona, front view 100

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. I. Plan showing main plot of ground, buildings, etc.. Cold Spring

Harbor Station ... 25

2. Cold Spring Harbor Station, west elevation 26

3. Plan of laboratory buildings at Tortugas, Florida 51

4. Map of north end of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Florida, showing

site of Carnegie Institution Laboratory 53

5. Floor plan of Desert Botanical Laboratory 99

6. Route in eastern China, June, 1903-1904 277

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION.

The Carnegie Institution was originally organized under the law
governing the organization of corporations in the District of Colum-
bia. Owing to certain limitations in the law, the Trustees deemed
it desirable to obtain articles of incorporation from the Congress.
Accordingly, articles of incorporation were prepared, submitted to
the Congress, amended by the Congress, and enacted into statute by
the Congress and the signature of the President.

Organization under the new articles of incorporation was effected
on May i8, 1904. Resolutions were passed electing the same Execu-
tive Committee and officers as those of the Carnegie Institution
organized in 1902 and continuing all instructions and authorizations
given to the Executive Committee by the old organization.

PuBi,ic No. 260. — An Act To incorporate the Carnegie Institution of

Washington.

■'&'•

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Represeyitatives of the United
States oj America in Congress assembled, That the persons following,
being persons who are now trustees of the Carnegie Institution,
namely, Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader,
Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Eyman J. Gage, Daniel C.
Oilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe,
Charles L,. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Eindsay, Seth
Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William
W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner,
Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, their
associates and successors, duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and
declared to be a body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington and by that name shall be known and have
perpetual succession, with the powers, limitations, and restrictions
herein contained.

Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage,
in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research,
and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement
of mankind ; and in particular —

(a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any depart-
ment of science, literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with
governments, universities, colleges, technical schools, learned socie-
ties, and individuals.

lO CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

(b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of
research.

(d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain
a library.

(e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct
such building or buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the corporation.

(f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote
the objects of the institution, with full power, however, to the trus-
tees hereinafter appointed and their successors from time to time to
modify the conditions and regulations under which the work shall
be carried on, so as to secure the application of the funds in the
manner best adapted to the conditions of the time, provided that the
objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the foregoing
or kindred thereto.

Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the
corporation and the control and disposal of its property and funds
shall be vested in a board of trustees, twenty-two in number, to be
composed of the following individuals : Alexander Agassiz, John S.
Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H, Dodge, William N.
Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman, John Hay, Henry L.
Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P.
Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O.
Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock,
Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Wal-
cott, Carroll D. Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trus-
tees. The board of trustees shall have power from time to time to
increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members.
Vacancies occasioned by death, resignation, or otherwise shall be
filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as the by-laws shall
prescribe ; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees
and also members of the said corporation. The principal place of
business of the said corporation shall be the city of Washington, in
the District of Columbia.

Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold
and administer the securities, funds, and property so transferred by
said Andrew Carnegie to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution and
such other funds or propertj^ as may at any time be given, devised,
or bequeathed to them, or to such corporation, for the purposes of
the trust ; and with full power from time to time to adopt a common

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. II

seal, to appoint such officers, members of the board of trustees or
otherwise, and such employees as may be deemed necessary in carry-
ing on the business of the corporation, at such salaries or with such
remuneration as they may deem proper ; and with full power to
adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations as may
be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the
business of the corporation ; and with full power and discretion to
deal with and expend the income of the corporation in such manner
as in their judgment will best promote the objects herein set forth
and in general to have and use all powers and authority necessary
to promote such objects and carry out the purposes of the donor.
The said trustees shall have further power from time to time to hold
as investments the securities hereinabove referred to so transferred
by Andrew Carnegie, and any property which has been or may be
transferred to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by
any other person, persons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or
amounts from time to time in such securities and in such form and
manner as are permitted to trustees or to charitable or literary cor-
porations for investment, according to the laws of the States of New
York, Pennsylvania, or Massachusetts, or in such securities as are
authorized for investment by the said deed of trust so executed by
Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and testament
to be hereafter made or executed.

Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any addi-
tional donations, grants, devises, or bequests which may be made
in further support of the purposes of the said corporation, and may
include in the expenses thereof the personal expenses which the
trustees may incur in attending meetings or otherwise in carrying
out the business of the trust, but the services of the trustees as such
shall be gratuitous.

Sec. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this
Act a meeting of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by
Daniel C. Gilman, John S. BilHngs, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir
Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root, and Carroll D. Wright, or any
four of them, at the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia,
by notice served in person or by mail addressed to each trustee at
his place of residence ; and the said trustees, or a majority thereof,
being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by-laws, to
elect officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the
said corporation ; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the
corporation hereby incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over,

12 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property,
real or personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the Carnegie
Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore set forth under "An Act to
establish a Code of I^aw for the District of Columbia, January fourth,
nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts, claims,
and property of any kind or nature ; and the several ofiicers of such
corporation, or any other person having charge of any of the securi-
ties, funds, real or personal, books or property thereof, shall, on
demand, deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this iVct
or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same ; and the
trustees of the existing corporation and the trustees herein named
shall and may take such other steps as shall be necessary to carry
out the purposes of this Act.

Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corpo-
ration known as the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be
impaired by the passage of this Act, or the transfer of the property
hereinbefore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation for the
payment of an^^sums due or to become due, or any claim or demand,
in any manner or for any cause existing against the said existing
corporation, be released or impaired ; but such corporation hereby
incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities
and to be held liable to pay and, discharge all of the debts, liabilities,
and contracts of the said corporation so existing to the same effect as
if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability
to pay such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding be-
fore any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been
discontinued by reason of the passage of this Act.

Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or
modify this Act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right
made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired.

Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.

Approved, April 28, 1904.

BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION.

Adopted December 13, 1904.
Article I.

THE TRUSTEES.

1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members,
with power to increase its membership to not more than twenty-
seven members. The Trustees shall hold office continuously and
not for a stated term.

2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual
meetings of the Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee.

3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as
such.

4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the

Trustees by ballot. No person shall be elected, however, who shall

not have been nominated at a preceding annual or special meeting,

except by the unanimous consent of the members present at a

meeting.

Article II.

MEETINGS.

1 . The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in
the City of Washington, in the District of Columbia, on the second
Tuesday of December in each year,

2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive
Committee by notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual
address of, each Trustee twenty days prior to the meeting.

3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner

by the Chairman upon the written request of seven members of the

Board.

Article III.

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD.

1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a
Vice- Chairman, and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees ,
from the members of the Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three
years. All vacancies shall be filled by the Board for the unexpired
term ; provided, however, that the Executive Committee shall have
power to fill a vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until the
next meeting of the Board of Trustees.

2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the

usual powers of a presiding ofiicer.

14 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disabiHty of the Chair-
man, shall perform his duties.

4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board,
record its transactions, and conduct that part of the correspondence
relating to the Board and to his duties. He shall execute all deeds,
contracts or other instruments on behalf of the corporation, when
duly authorized. He shall have custody of the seal of the corpo-
ration and shall afl&x the same whenever authorized to do so by the
Board of Trustees or by the Executive Committee or the Finance

Committee.

Article IV.

EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION.

The President.

1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by,
and hold office during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the
chief executive officer of the Institution. The President, subject
to the control of the Board and the Executive Committee, shall
have general charge of all matters of administration and supervision
of all arrangements for research and other work undertaken by the
Institution or with its funds. He shall devote his entire time to the
affairs of the Institution. He shall prepare and submit to the Board
of Trustees and to the Executive Committee plans and suggestions
for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general correspond-
ence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with the
special advisers of the Committee, and shall present his recommen-
dations in each case to the Executive Committee for decision. All
proposals and requests for grants shall be referred to the President
for consideration and report. He shall have power to remove and
appoint subordinate employees and shall be ex o^fficio a member of
the Executive Committee.

2. He shall be the legal custodian of all property of the Institu-
tion whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall be
responsible for the expenditure and disbursement of all funds of the
Institution in accordance with the directions of the Board and of the
Executive Committee, and shall keep accurate accounts of all re-
ceipts and disbursements. He shall submit to the Board of Trustees
at least one month before its annual meeting in December a written
report of the operations and business of the Institution for the pre-
ceding fiscal year with his recommendations for work and appro-
priations for the succeeding fiscal year, which shall be forthwith
transmitted to each member of the Board.

3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees.

BY-LAWS. 15

Article V.

COMMITTEES.

1. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz, an
Executive Committee and a Finance Committee.

2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and
Secretary of the Board of Trustees and the President of the Institu-
tion ex officio and, in addition, five trustees to be elected by the
Board b}' ballot for a term of three years, who shall be eligible for
re-election. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve for
the remainder of his predecessor's term: Provided, however, that of
the Executive Committee first elected after the adoption of these
by-laws two shall serve for one year, two shall serve for two years,
and one shall serve for three years ; and such Committee shall de-
termine their respective terms by lot.

3. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in ses-
sion and has not given specific directions, have general control of
the administration of the affairs of the corporation and general
supervision of all arrangements for administration, research, and
other matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution ; shall ap-
point advisory committees for specific duties ; shall determine all
payments and salaries ; and keep a written record of all transactions
and expenditures and submit the same to the Board of Trustees at
each meeting, and it shall also submit to the Board of Trustees a
printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the
annual meeting shall submit to the Board a report for publication.

4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control
of all appropriations made by the Board.

5. The Finance Committee shall consist of three members to be
elected by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.

6. The Finance Committee shall have general charge of the invest-
ments and funds of the corporation, and shall care for and dispose of
the same subject to the directions of the Board and of the Executive
Committee. It shall consider and recommend to the Board of Trustees
such measures as in its opinion will promote the financial interests of
the Institution, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board.

7. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee and the
Finance Committee shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular
meeting.

8. The terms of all oflQcersand of all members of committees shall
continue until their successors are elected or appointed.

1 6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

ARTICI.E VI.
FINANCIAL, ADMINISTRATION.

1 . No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance
of a previous appropriation by the Board of Trustees.

2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day
of November in each year.

3. The Executive Committee, at least one month prior to the annual
meeting in each year, shall cause the accounts of the Institution to be
audited by a skilled accountant, to be appointed b}' the Chairman of
the Board, and shall submit to the annual meeting of the Board a
full statement of the finances and work of the Institution and a
detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year.

4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall
make general appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year ; but nothing
contained herein shall prevent the Board of Trustees from making
special appropriations at any meeting.

5. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property shall
be deposited in such safe deposit or other corporation and under such
safeguards as the Trustees and Executive Committee shall designate;
and the moneys of the Institution shall be deposited in such banks or
depositories as may from time to time be designated by the Executive
Committee.

Article VII.

AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

I . These by-laws maj' be amended at any annual or special meeting
of the Board of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present,
provided written notice of the proposed amendment shall have been
served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each member
of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting.

MINUTES OF SECOND MEETING OF THE BOARD OF

TRUSTEES.

[Abstract. ]

The meeting was held in Washington, at the New Willard Hotel, on
Tuesday, December 13, 1904, at 10 o'clock a. m. At 12.55 a recess
was taken until 2 p. m.

The Chairman, Mr. Billings, occupied the chair.

The Secretary called the roll, and the following Trustees responded:
Messrs. Billings, Cadwalader, Dodge, Frew, Oilman, Hay, Higginson,
Hitchcock, Hutchinson, Eangley, Lindsay, Low, MacVeagh, Mills,
Mitchell, Morrow, Root, Walcott, White, and Wright.

Absent : Messrs. Agassiz, How^e, Gage, and Spooner.

Letters were received from Messrs. Agassiz, Gage, and Howe
regretting their inability to be present.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Board were presented, and
on motion full reading was dispensed with and they were approved
as per abstract furnished each member.

The President presented his resignation, as follows :

Carnegie Institution of Washington,

December /j, igo^.
To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution.

Gentlemen : At your meeting on December 8, 1903, I presented
a letter saying :

' ' When I had the honor of being chosen the first President of the
Carnegie Institution, I said to the Trustees that from the nature of
the case my tenure of office must be short, for, having passed the
age of seventy years, I was looking forward to a release from serious
official responsibilities. The term of five years was fixed in the by-
laws, and three of them will have passed at the next annual meet-
ing of the Board. It is my intention at that time to resign the office
of President, and this early notice is given in order that the Trustees
may be prepared then to take such action as may seem to them wise. ' '

In accordance with this intimation, I now resign the office of
President of the Carnegie Institution, and, as the title of the chief
executive may perhaps be changed, I will add that I am not a
candidate for reappointment under any other designation.

In taking this step, I beg leave to assure the Board of my con-
tinued interest in the development of this Institution according to
the purposes of the founder ; and I express to the members of the
Board, collectively and individually, my highest respect.

l8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

It has been an honor and a privilege to be so closely associated
as I have been with the organization and progress of an institution
which bids fair to be a most potent factor in the advancement of
knowledge and in the encouragement of scientific men.
I am, gentlemen, very respectfully yours,

Daniel C. Oilman.

The following motion was then offered and passed :

Resolved, That the resignation of President Gilman be accepted ;
and in thus severing the harmonious relations which have existed
between the President and the Board and the President and the
Executive Committee the Trustees desire to express their full appre-
ciation of the prestige that the retiring officer has brought to the
Carnegie Institution of Washington by his presidency.

The Secretary referred to various details of business and submitted
the cash statement and financial statement as shown on pages 19
and 20.

The Secretary also reported that since October 31, 1904, he had
collected on sales of publications $589.01, and expended $31,895.21,
leaving a cash balance on hand of $438,654.97 to date.

The consideration of the by-laws was next taken up. The by-
laws as amended and adopted are printed on pages 13-16.

After discussion and various suggestions as to the qualifications
needed by a president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, a
ballot resulted in the election of Dr. Robert S. Woodward, Dean of
the Scientific Faculty of Columbia University, New York.

The election of members of the Executive Committee to fill the
vacancies caused by the expiration of the terms of Messrs. Billings
and Walcott resulted in their re-election to the class of 1907.

On submission of the report of the Executive Committee the Chair-
man and Secretary made a general statement of the plan of work and
financial outlook. After discussion and some minor changes, resolu-
tions were passed making the following general appropriations :

Reserve fund ^50,000

Publication fund, to be continuously available 40,000

Administration 50,000

Grants for departments and large projects 310,000

Grants for miscellaneous researches 168,000

At 4.50 p. m. the Board adjourned.

MINUTES OF SECOND MEETING.

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Financial Statement.

Dr. Cr.

Endowment Jio,ooo,ooo

Reserve Fund 200,000

Investments :

U. S. Steel Corporation Bonds, 5 ^ |io,ooo,ooo

:|ioo,ooo Atch., Topeka and Santa Fe Ry. Co.
Gen'l Mtg. 4% 100-year Gold Bonds," Oct. i,

1995 100,11250

|ioo,ooo N. Pac. Ry. Co. Prior Lien Ry. and

Land Grant Gold Bonds, Jan. i, 1997, 4%.. 101,800

150,000 Northern Pacific-Great Northern 4%
Joint Bonds, Chicago, Burlington and Q.

collateral, July i, 1921 46,500

$50,000 Lake Shore and Mich. Southern 4%

D. Bonds 48,222 22

Interest : Reserve fund investment 10,000

Other investments 380 69

Sales of publications 102 03

Grants : Large 69,321 24

Special 13,250 80

Minor 77,17413

Publication 67,470 65

Administration 25,630 08

Furniture 1,065 51

Seal 1,500

Cash 469,961 17

Available fund 300, 700 76

110,766,595 89 $10,766,595 89

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ON THE
WORK OF THE YEAR.

The Executive Committee began consideration of the various
directions and authorizations given by the Board of Trustees imme-
diately after the adjournment of the Board, December 8, 1903 ; also
of matters recommended by the committee and approved by the
Board.

The work of the committee and its recommendations for the fiscal
year 1904-1905 are shown in this report.

During the fiscal year the committee held eight meetings. Its
organization continued the same as for the fiscal year 1 902-1903.
Mr. Oilman acted as chairman and Mr. Walcott as secretary.

APPROPRIATIONS.

At the annual meeting of the Board, December 8, 1903, the fol-
lowing appropriations were made for large projects :

Tropical Pacific exploration *|40,ooo

Department of Experimental Biology 70,000

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism . 20,000

Trans-Caspian Expedition, archeological exploration 18,000

Geophysical research 25,000

Investigation of mineral fusion and solution under pressure |i2,5oo
Study of elasticity and plasticity of solid bodies upon finite

deformation 7, 500

Preparation of a bibliography of geophysics 5, 000

Department of Economics and Sociology 30,000

Bureau of Historical Research 8,500

1211,500

* It being impracticable to secure the services of the person whom the Execu-
tive Committee expected to take charge of this work, the project was abandoned
and the appropriation not drawn upon.

3 21

22 CARNKGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

REPORTS ON I.ARGE PROJECTS.
DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY.

The subject of research in zoology was before the Executive
Committee at its eariiest meetings, and was under consideration for
nearly two years before the specific recommendations for any large
projects directly in charge of the Carnegie Institution were pre-
sented to the Board of Trustees. In Year Book No. i the special
advisory committee on zoology made several recommendations of a
broad bearing, one of them being that of establishing a permanent
biological laboratory as a central station for marine biology in
general. In the same Year Book there were printed two schemes
for the establishment of biological experiment stations for the study
of evolution — one by Dr. C. B. Davenport, who favored Cold Spring
Harbor, Long Island, and a second by Prof. Roswell P. Johnson,
who favored a protected marine shore near fresh-water ponds. The
"Executive Committee consulted with many experts and carefully
investigated the feasibility of making the Marine Biological Labo-
ratory, at Woods Hole, Mass., a central station. This was found to
be impracticable, and the Executive Committee stated in its report
to the Board of Trustees for 1903 that it had concluded that the
best mode of dealing with this important field of research was to
organize a Biological Experimental Department, to which could be
referred all questions and problems of evolution, specific differentia-
tion, heredity, etc. This was to include the establishment of an
investigating station at Cold Spring Harbor, where ground and
some buildings were offered, and also the establishment of a collec-
tion and experimental marine biological station at the Dry Tortugas.

The above conclusions were accompanied by a recommendation
that the department be established and allotments made to begin the
work. The Board of Trustees approved the recommendations.

The Department of Experimental Biology was organized by the
appointment of Dr. Charles B. Davenport as Director of the Station
for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island,
and Dr. Alfred G. Mayer as Director of the Marine Biological Lab-
oratory at the Dry Tortugas, Florida.

A grant of $34,250 was made to the station at Cold Spring Har-
bor, and of $20,000 to the Marine Biological Laboratory at the Dry
Tortugas.

The reports of the directors follow.

report of executive committee. 23

First Report op Station for Experimental Evolution
UNDER Department of Experimental Biology.

By C. B. Davenport.

At the request of the Executive Committee of the Carnegie Institu-
tion, I submitted a plan of organization of the department in Decem-
ber, 1903, and, in detail, of the Station for Experimental Evolution.

It was decided to locate the station at Cold Spring Harbor, Long
Island. The superior advantages of other localities were fully con-
sidered. California offers a more equable climate, where outdoor
work could be pursued throughout the year ; the proximity of lofty
mountains would be advantageous. Two important considerations
favored the selection of Dong Island : First, its accessibility to the
greater number of workers in this field, and, second, its proximity to
extensive libraries, making the upbuilding of a large library at the
station unnecessary. The points of fitness of Cold Spring Harbor
for the proposed work, besides those of central location and proximity
to great libraries, are as follows : The free offer of about ten acres*
of land, with house and stable and horse shed ; the situation of
this land on the sea, with wharf, and on a fresh-water creek with a
permanent stream running across the land, and with elevations vary-
ing from sea-level to 50 feet above sea-level ; the location is among
interesting and intelligent neighbors, with the desire and the means
of helping the work proposed ; the surrounding country is well
watered, densely forested, and hilly, offering a great variety of habi-
tats, whose fauna and flora have long been thoroughly studied. The
offer of this advantageous property was made by the Wawepex
Society, which holds it in trust from the late John D. Jones.

The writer spent the winter months in New York in arranging
for the transfer of the property, in visiting the architects, and in pur-
chasing supplies for the new station. Early in February a caretaker,
Mr. John N. Johnson, took up his residence at Cold Spring Harbor,
and work with living animals there has been carried out continuously
since. On May i Dr. ShuU, Miss Dutz, and Mr. T. E. Kelly began
resident work, and on June i Mr. Frank E. Dutz arrived.

On Saturday, June 11, the formal opening of the station was cele-
brated by exercises. Through the courtesy of the Dong Island R. R.
Co. a special car brought some fifty guests from New York, and an
equal number attended from the neighborhood. After luncheon at
the director's residence the following addresses (for full report see
pp. 33-49) were given in the Biological Daboratory, whose grounds
adjoin those of the station :

24 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

PROGRAM.

1. Introductory address by the director of the station.

2. Presentation address, by Mr. W. R. T. Jones, governor of the Wawepex

Society.

3. Response by Dr. John S. Billings, chairman of the Board of Trustees, Car-

negie Institution.

4. Address of welcome to the station on behalf of the Brooklyn Institute by

Prof. Franklin W. Hooper, director of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences.

5. Scientific address. The aims of experimental evolution, by Prof. Hugo de

Vries, professor of botany at the University of Amsterdam and director of
its botanic garden.

DESCRIPTION OF GROUNDS AND BUILDINGS.

The land, leased for fifty years to the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington for a nominal sum, is situated, as shown on the map on page
25, at the head of Cold Spring Harbor, about 34 miles from Long
Island City by road and rail and 14 miles in a direct line from the
boundary of Greater New York.

The property is bounded on the northeast by the harbor, on the
east by the Natchaquatuck creek, on the south by the public high-
way, which separates it from the grounds of the New York State
fi,sh hatchery, on the west by private grounds and a private road,
and on the northwest by the lands of the Wawepex Societj^ leased
to the Brookl^'n Institute. The whole lot of land is divided into
a smaller and a larger part by a private road. On this piece of
land is a large house on the site of the old homestead of John D.
Jones and his brothers and sisters, some of whom are still living on
Long Island. This house will be used as the director's residence.
Something over an acre is reserved as the house plot. Most of the
rest of the main plot of some five or six acres is surrounded by a wire
fence (77 inches high and supported on iron posts) for the better
protection of live-stock and the experimental garden.

On the wharf there stands a shed, very useful for the tempo-
rary shelter of lumber, coal, etc., brought to the station by boat.
Just east is a large salt-water fish-pond, and beyond is a small boat
and bath house, near which ways will lead to a larger boat-house for
the protection of the station launch during the winter. Near this
boat-house and inside the main inclosure is a driven well 204 feet
deep, flowing 9 gallons per minute. This will supply the residence,
stable, and laboratory, by means of an electric pump with a capacity
of 15 gallons per minute. It is proposed to supply the tanks in the
cellar and first floor of the laboratory from a spring in the ravine.

The laboratory building, which is being erected under the super-
intendence of Messrs. Kirby, Petit & Green, of New York city, by

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REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Messrs. Rogers &Blydenburgh, general contractors.of Babylon, Long
Island, is 60 feet by 35 feet, and consists of two stories, cellar, and
attic. It is built of brick in Italian Renaissance style, with framed
partitions and floors above the cellar. The roof is of tin. Iron lath
is used and the floors are covered with asbestolith, so that the build-
ing is semi- fireproof. The front elevation is shown on page 26 and
three floor plans on plates i, 2, and 3.

Biological
laboratory

BROOKLYN
INSTITUTE

COLD SPRING HARBOR

Fig. I. — Plan showing main plot of ground, buildings, etc., Cold Spring Harbor

Station.

In the cellar, which has windows on the east half, are a work-room,
a coal-room, and a room for the storage of food and agricultural
implements. In the unilluminated half are a photographic room, a
refrigerator room, and one for cave studies on both terrestrial and
aquatic organisms. On the ground floor are two large rooms for
breeding terrestrial animals, one for aquatic animals, one for prepar-
ing food, and one small work-room. On the second floor there are
five research rooms, a secretary's room, a small library with a capacity
of 1,000 books, and a large glass-covered room for breeding plants
and animals. In the attic is a single room 39 feet by 14 feet and 6

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

feet high under the eaves, rising to 8 feet. This room, lighted by
ten small windows, has a capacit)' of about 7,000 books.

Kvery one of the work-rooms of the building is supplied with salt
water and both cold and hot fresh water ; each has electricity as the
main source of light and power, and is piped for acetylene gas.
There is an intercommunicating telephone system, and additional
wire, sufficient to connect the different parts of the property, has
been placed. A dumb-waiter places the main breeding-rooms in con-
nection with the food-room in the cellar, and every room is provided
with special means of ventilation independent of the windows.
Water is supplied by an electric pump, which keeps a tank in the
attic of the residence (the loftiest point on the grounds) full by an

Fig. 2. — Cold Spring Harbor Station, west elevation.

automatic float-switch. The building is heated by steam, the tem-
perature being automatically regulated.

Three undertakings contemplated from the beginning will have to
be deferred until 1905. These are : first, a plant-propagating house
about 18 feet by 50 feet ; second, a wire covering to the experimental
garden to keep out seed-eating birds ; and, third, a series of outdoor
fish-ponds, involving 1,000 feet of piping from springs.

In addition to aids in correspondence and registering, such as a
typewriter and letter and card files, the station possesses two compound
microscopes and two dissecting microscopes, one Minot microtome,
paraffin bath, the necessary glassware for cytological work, and a
full laboratory equipment. We have also two adding machines for
statistical work, a few meteorological instruments, an incubator, a

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food grinder, an outfit of carpenter's tools, and agricultural imple-
ments. The station owns one horse, a farm wagon, a runabout, two
sets of harness, and a 27-foot naphtha launch. We have recently
purchased 17,000 brick, left over by the contractor on the building,
and $100 worth of roofing material ; we have on hand over $1,000
worth of lumber and $50 worth of paint.

The Libra}'}'. — On account of the proximity of the station to New
York city, it is not necessar}^ that an attempt should be made to
build up a general biological library. We have, however, collected
a working library of compendia of the different sciences, books relat-
ing to experimental evolution, and complete files of a few important
periodicals, and are taking some periodicals currently. Including
those brought to the station by the writer, the following com-
plete files are available : Allgemeine Zeitschrift fiir Entomologoie,
American Journal of Physiology, Bericht der Deutschen Botanischen
Gesellschaft, Biological Bulletin, Botanisches Centralblatt, Bulletin
of the American Museum of Natural History (exclusive of vol. i),
Journal of Morphology, L'Annee Biologique, Zoological Record,
Zoologische Garten, Zoologischer Anzeiger ; also complete series of
zoological cards of the Concilium Bibliographicum to date.

The following periodicals are taken currently : American Natural-
ist, Biologisches Centralblatt, Breeder's Gazette,Bulletinde la Societe
Zoologique de France, Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Presse, Experi-
ment Station Record, Farm Journal, Gardener's Chronicle, Journal
of Experimental Zoology, Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society,
Nature, Nautilus, Popular Science Monthly, Psyche, Revue Gene-
rale de Botanique, Science, Zeitschrift fiir das landwirthschaftliche
Versuchswesen in Osterreich.

In addition to the books purchased by the station, the director has
brought to the station 2,500 bound books and pamphlets, largely
relating to general and experimental biology.

ORGANIZATION.

The station comprises four classes of workers : ( i ) The resident
staff and helpers, (2) honorary associates, (3) associates, (4) corre-
spondents.

(i) The resident staff includes those engaged in the scientific
work of the station and resident there. Besides the writer, whose
work is largely on domestic animals, mollusca, and Crustacea, the
staff includes Dr. George H. Shull, whose work is chiefly botanical
and who also has charge of the herbarium ; Mr. Frank E. Lutz,
whose work is chiefly on insects and who has charge of the record

28 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

of the periodical animal and meteorological phenomena ; Miss Anne
M. L,utz, whose work is partly on the cytological phenomena of
heredity and partly keeping the administrative records of the corre-
spondence of the station ; and Miss Mabel E. Smallwood, who
gives some time to the care of the library.

The helpers at the station include the following : Lewis Ander-
son, mechanician ; John N. Johnson, animal caretaker and janitor ;
Thomas K. Kelly, gardener and general helper. These men are
serving the station loyally and doing much to advance the work.

(2) Honorary Associate.- — In recognition of the preeminence of
his researches in experimental evolution and in commemoration of
his participation in the opening of the station, there has been chosen
as honorary associate in perpetuity Dr. Hugo de Vries, professor of
botany and director of the botanic gardens. University of Amsterdam.

(3) Associates. — These are biologists who are either receiving some
assistance through a grant directly from the Carnegie Institution in
the Department of Experimental Biology for work similar to that
done at the station, or receiving aid in their investigations directly
from the station. They may be regarded as the non-resident staff
of the station. Associates of the station confer with the director
from time to time about their investigations in experimental evolu-
tion, to the end that there may be mutual understanding of work
and avoidance of unnecessary duplication of work. Results of asso-
ciates are submitted to the director of the station before publication
in a medium mutually agreed upon. Associates are appointed for
the calendar year. The following are associates for 1904 :

Dr. Nathaniel L. Britton, director. New York Botanic Garden. Cooperation

in experiments in mutation breeding.
Dr. William Ernest Castle, assistant professor of zoology. Harvard University.

Studies in breeding mammals.
Dr. Henry Edward Crampton, professor of zoology, Columbia University.

Selection in Lepidoptera.
Dr. Edward Laurens Mark, Hersey professor of anatomy, Harvard University.

Cytological studies in Mendelian hybrids.
Dr. Daniel Trembly MacDougal, assistant director, New York Botanical Garden.

Mutation in Onagra (Oenothera) ; cooperation in studies on plant mutation.
Dr. William J. Moenkhaus, assistant professor of physiology, Indiana Univer-
sity. Fish hybridization.
William Lawrence Tower, instructor in zoology, the University of Chicago.

Evolution of the Colorado potato beetle.
Dr. Edmund Beecher Wilson, professor of zoology, Columbia University. Cy-

tolog}' of hybrids.

(4) Correspondeyits. — These are biologists in the United States and
abroad who are engaged in experimental breeding and who have in-
dicated their willingness to enter into the relation for the exchange
of publications and correspondence upon matters of mutual interest.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 29

The following have entered into this relation up to October i , 1904 :

Mr. William Bateson, University of Cambridge, England.

Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C.

Dr. C. E. Correns, professor of botany. University, Leipzig.

Dr. L,ucien Cuenot, professor of zoology. University, Nancy, France.

Dr. E. Fischer, Zurich, Switzerland.

Mr. C. C. Hurst, Leicester, England.

Dr. Arnold Lang, professor of zoology. University, Zurich, Switzerland.

Dr. M. Standfuss, professor of entomology, Zurich, Switzerland.

Dr. Erich Tschermak, Hochschule fiir Bodenkultur, Vienna.

Dr. Charles Otis Whitman, professor of zoology. University of Chicago.

SCIENTIFIC WORK.

From the very nature of the investigations undertaken and the slow-
ness with which most animals and plants breed, few scientific results
can be expected from three or four months of work. Results are
just beginning to come in, and will be published in the scientific series
recording the work of the station.

It is the policy of the station not to undertake particular lines of
experimental work that are being done well elsewhere, and conse-
quently certain fields cultivated at universities are not undertaken,
although the material might be especially favorable for results.

Dr. Davenport, in addition to a heavy burden of administration and
his duties as director of the Biological lyaboratory of the Brooklyn
Institute, has devoted himself largely to breeding domesticated
animals to test the range of validity of the theory of unit character-
istics. In these experiments the station is receiving the cooperation
of neighbors. Cows, sheep, goats, cats, poultry, and canary birds
are being bred and especially cross-bred. Experiments are also being
made upon wild species of Crustacea and mollusca. Records are
kept of the breeding periods of representatives of these groups.
Particular attention is being paid to Japanese long-tailed fowl to test
the cause for their peculiarity. Already certain results of hybridiza-
tion have been obtained, of which a report will be made later.

Dr. ShuU reports as follows :

The ground to be devoted to garden experiments had not been tilled for about
15 years, and the first problem which presented itself in preparation for botanical
investigations was the conversion of this heavily sodded meadow-land into a
successful garden plot. About three acres of ground were broken, and con-
tinuous cultivation has reduced the soil to a very satisfactory physical condition.
With the exception of a few small areas, the soil, a light, sandy loam, has
proved fairly fertile ; thorough manuring will be needed, however, to bring it
to the high degree of fertility desirable in a garden.

Owing to the uncertainty of results to be obtained under the conditions pre-
sented this year, none of the special cultures to which the garden is to be largely

30 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

devoted was undertaken here, but, through the generosity of the New York
Botanical Garden, a number of species of plants were grown there from seeds
collected by Dr. Hugo de Vries in Holland and sent by him for the use of the
station. Several of these species appear to offer promising material and will be
cultivated at the Station for Experimental Evolution next year. Other species
will be discarded for various reasons, chiefly because of doubtful antecedents,
as in the case of Iberis, Tagetes, and other common garden species, partly
because of technical difficulties in the way of satisfactory characters for the
obseiA'ation or measure of variability.

The plants which have been grown in the garden to offer a sufficient immediate
incentive for thorough cultivation have been ordinary garden crops. A portion
of the products has been sold, resulting in a small revenue to the station, and
the remainder has been used as provender for the various forms of animal life
which are being reared. Some variations have been observed in these species,
and seeds have been saved to test the heritability of these variations. Several
species have been used also as a basis for experiments in hybridization.

It is the settled policy of the station, however, to devote its attention as far as
possible to native plants, in order that results may not be vitiated by the effects
of unknown garden treatment in the past history of the plants. One of the
most important activities this season, therefore, has been the collection of the
seeds of native plants for cultivation. In this work important assistance has
been received from the New York Botanical Garden. Seeds of about one hun-
dred species are now in hand. The aim has been to secure seeds representing
as wide a range of natural orders as practicable, and an effort has been made to
get, among others, a number of species whose normal habitats are diverse from
those which will be presented at the station, with the hope of finding some
which will tolerate the new conditions through the production of adaptive
structural modifications. Accordingly, seeds have been collected on the oak
and pine barrens of central Long Island and on the sand dunes of Fire Island
beach and Bayville, Long Island ; a few days were spent in the White Moun-
tains, New Hampshire, collecting seeds of alpine plants. Through the kindness
of Mr. Arthur Stanley Pease, Andover, Massachusetts, seeds of about twenty
species were obtained from Gaspe & Co., Quebec, most of these species having
a northern range.

Special attention has been given to securing seeds of species showing a notable
degree of variability, and in these species the seeds of individual plants have
been taken separately and the plants have been preserved as herl^arium speci-
mens, in order to allow comparison between the offspring and the parent plant.
As many as fifteen types of one species have been thus isolated.

The herbarium of the station is planned to consist of four distinct sections.
First, there will be a section devoted to the local flora of Cold Spring Harbor,
including an area having a radius of ten or fifteen miles ; second, the pedigreed
plants used in tracing the origin and heritability of variations will be in the
course of years the main section of the herbarium ; a third section will contain
seedlings and juvenile forms ; and in the fourth section will be preserved all
those aberrant forms which would be classed as abnormalities or monstrosities.
Several hundreds of specimens have been collected this season, belonging most
largely to the section devoted to the local flora, but supplying smaller numbers
to each of the other sections.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 31

In connection with the herbarium of pedigreed plants a card catalogue has been
established, which gives the origin and history of each lot of seeds that has
been cultivated or is to be cultivated in the garden. A system of numbering
has been adopted that will not only identify each plant or each lot of seeds, but
will also indicate the parentage.

A second card catalogue gives phenological data regarding the local flora, and
when fully developed will serve as an index to the condition in which any
species may be found at any given date.

Notes have been made on the variations of certain species in the local flora,
and in several instances quantitative studies have been completed. Prepara-
tion has been made for the continuation of this work during the winter by col-
lecting and preserving material either in alcohol or as pressed specimens.

The station has also collaborated with Dr. D. T. MacDougal and other mem-
bers of the staff of the New York Botanical Garden in a study of Onagra
laniarckiana and its mutants, and the results of this study will appear shortly
as a publication from this station. Arrangements have been made to cultivate
several of these species of Onagra at the Station for Experimental Evolution
during the next few years in order to determine the exact relation of the nm-
tants to their parent form and their agreement or disagreement with known
laws of variation and heredity.

Mr. Lutz reports as follows :

The suumier was chiefly spent in breeding insects for the purpose of discov-
ering suitable material for future work in the investigation of variation and in-
heritance. Incidentally a general collection was made of insects abundant in
this locality, especially of such as bid fair to be advantageous for use in evolu-
tionary studies. ^Material was also gathered for determining, if possible, the
existence and strength of assortative mating among the Arthropods, and part
of this was worked up preparatory to publication.

Experiments have been started with a view toward determining the cause of
macropterism in short-winged species and the opposite condition in long-winged
ones. Dimorphic species seem especially suited to the investigation of Men-
delism, and it is hoped that this particular dimorphism may throw some light
upon the much-discussed question of inheritance.

Hybridization experiments in several genera of insects have been attempted,
in conjunction with Miss Anne M. Lutz, in order to determine the behavior of
the paternal and maternal chromosomes respectively.

Miss Lutz reports as follows :

As a preliminary step to the study of the germ plasms of hybrid plants and
animals, it seemed advisable to spend a considerable portion of the present year
in making a general survey of the field about us, with a view of discovering
such forms native to this locality as might present desirable cytological qualities
for future hybridization experiments. As material is gradually acquired, full
data concerning it will be carefully recorded and the slides filed in cabinets
under convenient heads for future reference. Some little has been accomplished
in this line, other forms are the subject of present investigation, and considerable
material has been acquired and preserved for winter study.

32 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

For several very obvious reasons, attention has been directed particularly to
the study of insects. Material is abundant and in many instances readily
obtainable ; the appearance of several successive generations in the course of a
summer is a further desirable feature ; and, lastly, considerable literature on the
spermatogenesis of insects is available for suggestive and comparative study.

Although I have relied in the main upon the efficacy of the osmic mixtures,
Flemming's and Hermann's fluids for the best preservation of animal tissues,
and of weak chromo-acetic for plants, no particular fixing agent can be relied
upon for universal satisfaction. However, it seemed undesirable to consume
much time during the collecting season in sectioning material and testing the
relative merits of various reagents ; consequently I have selected some three or
four generally reliable fixatives, and wherever possible presen-ed such quantities
of germ plasm in each of these that sufficient material for study may be ob-
tained from any one that may later be found superior to the others. In order
to insure the best results, I have hastened most of my objects through the
grades of alcohol and into paraffin as rapidly as possible after fixation.

It is naturally to be anticipated that much of the work of the cytologist will
apparently come to naught, as it may be presupposed that the chromosomes of
closely related forms in the vast majority of cases will be found similar in size,
shape, and number ; but work will be continued independently and in connec-
tion with the experiments being carried on by other members of the staff, and
if from among many failures an occasional result may be obtained which will
throw new light upon the question of inheritance, the reward will be ample.

PUBLICATIONS.

The results of the resident staff and associates of the station are
to be published, it is expected, in the form of a series of studies
under the general title " Scientific Results of the Station for Experi-
mental Evolution." Already two papers, the first exclusively by
an associate, Dr. W. E. Castle, and the second by another associate.
Dr. MacDougal, in conjunction with Dr. George H. Shull and others,
are ready for the printer.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The station has a number of gifts to acknowledge in addition to
many offers of assistance, some of which have already been taken
advantage of. We have already referred to the supreme gift of the
valuable land from the Wawepex Societ)-.

From Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, three of his multinipple sheep.

From Dr. O. L. Jones, building sand and gravel.

From David Jones and Charles Jones, scientific books from the library of the

late Edmund Jones.
From Mr. Timothy Tread well, East Williston, one Hampshire Down ram at

one-fourth value.
From P. Blackiston's Son & Co., publishers, two text-books on embryology.
From American Museum of Natural History, set of bulletins.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 33

ADDRESSES AT OPENING OF THE STATION FOR EXPERIMENTAL

EVOLUTION. JUNE II, 1904.

Introductory Address by C. B. Davenport.

IvADiES AND Genti^emen : On behalf of the resident staff of the
station I bid you welcome to our opening exercises. We do not
celebrate here the completion of a building, we are dedicating no
pile of bricks and lumber — rather, this day marks the coming to-
gether for the first time of the resident staff for their joint work,
and we dedicate this bit of real earth, its sprouting plants and its
breeding animals, here and now to the study of the laws of the
evolution of organic beings.

Representatives of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institu -
tion, we feel the full weight of the responsibility we accept in receiv-
ing the grant that you have made to this station. You have given
us a fair start. It is for us to justify your confidence in us and the
worthiness of the work to command continued and increasing sup-
port. However, as many of our experiments will demand j^ears for
their completion, quick returns must not be looked for. Without
making big promises of things that we are going to do, we may state
our confidence that important scientific results can be gained in the
work that we have begun, and assure you that whatever devotion
and scientific training can achieve we shall, up to the limit of our
resources, do. We work, howev^er, not alone, but with the assistance
of our neighbors and scientific colleagues.

Gentlemen of the Wawepex Society, this celebration is yours.
But for your generous proffer of the land intrusted to you by the
late John D. Jones for the use of science, this station would never
have been established here. Your appreciation of research has made
possible the realization at Cold Spring Harbor of that dream of
Bacon, who saw in the new Atlantis gardens devoted to the experi-
mental modification and improvement of animals and plants. Your
faith in our projected work increases the burden of our responsibility.

Gentlemen of the board of managers of the Biological Laboratory
of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, this new station
comes as a neighbor of your laborator}^ glad to give and receive
scientific companionship. We shall get stimulus from the enthu-
siastic students of nature who work at the laboratory each summer,
and trust to recruit from them some who, as investigators, shall
cooperate in the work of the station.

34 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Neighbors, we have been already for some time acquainted, and
if I have long desired to have the station stand in this community
it was because I knew that you would appreciate our work and be
glad to assist it. We have already received the largest confirmation
of our belief. Generous proffers of use of land, of building mate-
rials, of cooperation on a larger or smaller scale, have come to us on
every hand. The gift that calls forth additional gifts has unlimited
possibilities, and alreadj'the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution have
cause for self-congratulation on having selected as the site for this
station a community of such intelligence, resources, and generosity.

Scientific colleagues, this station belongs to the men of science
who can use it for the purpose to which it is dedicated. The staff
are servants of biological science and seek its advancement — not
their own. Rejoice with us for the new opportunity that has come
to our science. We look to you for collaboration, for cooperation,
and for criticism and advice. With such assistance, this station
must succeed in achieving the ends for which it is founded.

Address of Presentation by W. R. T. Jones, Governor of

THE Wawepex Society.

Representatives of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, ladies,
and gentlemen :

Cold Spring has experienced several distinct changes since Prime,
in 1845, wrote his history of Long Island. He devoted to it just
four lines, describing it as "a considerable village in the northwest
corner of the town (Huntington), lying on a harbor known by the
same name. ' ' The village had long possessed two factories and a
flour-mill, which were of great benefit to the neighboring farmers in
taking their wool and grinding their grain ; also two or three stores,
all doing a small paying business. With the introduction of the
whale-fishery business the village awoke to a real boom. Buildings
were erected to accommodate this business, houses built for the em-
ployees, and in my early days the village, especially on the west side,
showed its activity by noises from the continued hammering of iron,
the resounding echo from the coopering shops, the clanging of boat-
builders, and the buzzing of saws. When this business became no
longer profitable, the place soon appeared like a deserted village —
houses became vacant, buildings unused, and everywhere neglect
and decay.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEl':. 35

The whale-ships ordinarily came to anchor in the outer harbor.
My father, John H. Jones, built a dock on the east side of the inner
harbor to facilitate their outfitting, and I have seen a vessel fitting
out at that dock for a three years' voyage to the Arctic ; but the
great rise and fall of the tide prevented the experiment being a suc-
cess, and the original anchorage was resumed. The great rise of the
tide — some 7 feet — was in one respect an aid outside, for, lying at
anchor several months, the anchors sank so deep in the mud that
the windlasses of the vessels could not start them, and when the
chains were hauled taut for the vessel to pull by the rise of the tide,
it often took several tides before the windlasses could weigh anchor,
necessitating three days in breaking anchorage.

There were two post-offices by the name of Cold Spring in this
State, and the delivery of letters became so confused between the
one on the North River and the one on Long Island that the name
of the Long Island village was changed to Cold Spring Harbor. It
was then made a port of entry, an honor which I believe it still re-
tains, but the income is very limited. Many of the deserted build-
ings were torn down — one because it interfered with the view of the
outer harbor from this house ; two or three have been modified so
as to be of present use. The inner harbor, with its clear water, was
in those days a constant source of amusement. A pretty sandy
shore at the lower end of these grounds, with a clean sand-bar ex-
tending out, was a delightful place for youngsters, especially from
the district school near by, to bathe at medium tide, and I never
failed in taking advantage of this sport. A legend was long current
that General Washington, on his way from Oyster Bay through the
island, halted at this school-house when being erected and gave per-
sonal aid in raising the first rafter. At low tide the water largely
covered the bottom, and at the deep hole a number of acres were
always filled with 5 to 6 feet of water, even at the lowest tide,
which permitted a pleasant pastime for young people to fish and se-
cure results worth serving at the table, the incoming tide always
bringing in a fresh supply of fish. Occasionally, but at long inter-
vals, one or two porpoises might be seen sporting in the inside water,
but as soon as the tide turned to ebb they made for the outer harbor
and no effort to stop them ever succeeded, as they dived under or
leaped over the string of boats stretched across the narrow entrance
to stop their escape.

The next change, particularly on the west side, assumed a scien-
tific aspect.

36 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

My brother, John D. Jones, inherited the family homestead and
adjoining grounds. He was born in the family mansion, which
was destroyed by fire, and he erected this building on the site of the
old house. The Brooklyn Institute desiring a place to establish a
school of biology, he put up for that institute a building suitable
for its purpose, and the school, under charge of able professors, has
been a success, doing original work which has been a credit to Long
Island, and acknowledged as such by similar foreign institutions.
He also leased to the State of New York grounds for a fish hatchery,
which is now turning out each year several hundred thousand trout
and salmon to stock the inland waters of the State.

Seeing the need of an organization to perpetuate the management
and care of the grounds and property devoted by him to scientific
research, he incorporated the Wawepex Society under the laws of
the State of New York governing scientific societies, and the above
society has been in charge for several years. The name is taken
from an old Indian name of the harbor. Mr. Jones, one of the
incorporators of the society, at its meeting January 25, 1892, to
organize, was chosen as governor, and was continued in that office
until his death, September 22, 1895.

This year the Carnegie Institution, attracted by the advantages of
the locality, has asked for a fifty-years' lease of part of the grounds,
taking in this house, for carrying out experiments in evolution, prom-
ising to put up a special building for that purpose, and the lease has
been granted. It gives great pleasure to the Wawepex Society to pass
over to the representatives of the Carnegie Institution the papers
putting that institution in possession of as much of the property as it
desires for erecting buildings to carry out its experiments. I trust in
going back and investigating, as far as possible, the origin and order
in creation it will find nothing to interfere with the doctrine of the
church just around the corner, erected largely by aid of family
relatives, in its efforts for improving morals and explaining to the
best of its ability life hereafter.

With these three institutions hailing from our village, it will
assuredly soon become well known and appreciated both at home
and abroad.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 37

Remarks by Dr. John S. Bileings, U. S. A., Chairman of
THE Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institution
OF Washington.

It gives me great pleasure to accept, in behalf of the Trustees of
the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the offer of the Wawepex
Society to grant to us the use of these grounds for the establishment
of a Station for Experimental Evolution, and I beg to offer our sin-
cere thanks for, and the assurance of our high appreciation of, this
important and valuable grant.

In considering the numerous applications for grants of money for
research which are made to the Carnegie Institution, we have been
in the habit of asking several questions : First, Is the proposed re-
search one that will probably give good results? Second : Is it a
research which any individual or institution is carrying on, or is
likely to undertake ? Third, Who is the man who proposes to under-
take it, and what are his qualifications? Fourth, Is it an individual
piece of work, or does it involve cooperation ?

Among the first recommendations made to the Carnegie Institu-
tion for research in biology were several advising the establishment
of an institution for the study of heredity, development, and evolu-
tion by experimental methods. It was evident that such study, if
properly made, would give interesting results which might be of
great practical importance, but that if the work were undertaken it
must be with the distinct understanding that it should be continued
for a long period.

We took a year to make further inquiries, from which it appeared
that no person or institution was likely to undertake such a work
as this, although there were a number of persons in this country
and in Europe who were engaged in research upon various points
connected with the general subjects of evolution and heredity.

We also found that there was a man who was willing and anxious
to take charge of the work — a competent man who had demonstrated
his ability, an exceptional man willing to give his life to the researches
proposed.

We found that these researches could not be carried out as they
should be carried out by any individual ; that they require coopera-
tion and coordination of results ; that it is desirable that many stu-
dents should be engaged on different sections of the problem, and
that these students, each working in his or her own way, should
be aided as far as possible by this department.

38 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

In view of these facts we decided that a portion of the funds
intrusted to us by Mr. Carnegie to encourage investigation, research,
and discovery should be devoted to a Department of Experimental
Biology, a main feature of which should be the establishment of a
station for the study of experimental evolution, to be located here
at Cold Spring Harbor, and it is this station that we are inaugurat-
ing to-day.

We know that experimental investigation, especially in this field,
is a slow process, and uncertain in its results, and that we must be
patient. This is a seed that we are planting ; for the buds and
blossoms and fruits we must wait, believing that they will come in
due season, although they will probably not be what we now expect.

The scope of the work of this department of experimental biology
is wide and far-reaching. Already the results of biological research
have had a strong influence on philosophy and theology, and we
can hardly even imagine what the outcome maj- be in sociology and
political science.

The problems of evolution and development through heredity
involve the structure and functions of that part of the living organ-
ism which seems to be necessary for what we call mental action, from
the lowest, dimmest forms of consciousness, through memory and
will to the highest flights of art, philosophy, poetry, and religion.

Let us hope that the work of this station will be so well done that
by the time it celebrates its fiftieth anniversary it will have demon-
strated the wisdom of its establishment.

Prof. Franklin W. Hooper, director of the Brooklyn Institute of
Arts and Sciences and secretary of the board of managers of its
biological laboratory, located on the ground adjacent to the new
station, next spoke. He regretted the absence of Mr. Eugene G.
Blackford, president of the board of managers of the laboratory,
due to illness, and welcomed the new station as a neighbor of the
biological laboratory.

Mr. Davenport, in introducing Prof. H. de Vries, said :

I have before me two or three books : One, by Professor Weismann,
dealing with the " Germ Plasm," presents the great guiding theory
of the development of the individual. But the foundations of this
theory were laid some years before Weismann, in a little work en-
titled " Intracellular Pangenesis," from which work, consequently,
the modern science of cytological embryology dates.

Every one knows of the great revolution wrought in physics and
chemistry by the new science of physical chemistry. One of the

REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 39

most far-reaching generalizations of this science is that of solutions.
The first to investigate this subject was not a chemist, but a botanist,
the author of "Intracellular Pangenesis," who is therefore one of
the founders of phj^sical chemistry.

During the last three years this great work that I hold in my hand
has appeared, entitled " Die Mutationstheorie," the most impor-
tant work on evolution since Darwin's " Origin of Species," a work
destined to be the foundation stone of the rising science of ex-
perimental evolution. It also is by the author of " Intracellular
Pangenesis. ' '

To be the author of any one of these works establishing a science
is to be famous. It is an exceptional opportunity that we have to
meet the preeminent author of all three, Dr. Hugo de Vries, professor
of botany at the University of Amsterdam and director of its botanical
garden.

The Aim of Experimental Evolution, by Dr. Hugo de Vries.

Ladies and Gentlemen : A bright prospect opens before us.
Hopeful preparations have been made to start on a new course.
Strenuous endeavors are proposed to wrest from nature secrets which
•not long ago seemed almost impregnable. The matter of the evolu-
tion of organic life on this earth, hitherto a subject of great admira-
tion, admitting only of appreciative and comparative studies, is to
be investigated to its very core. We are no longer content to look at
it in a broad way, to enjoy the mighty display of harmony between
all living beings and to sit down and wonder. We want to have a
share in the work of evolution, since we partake of the fruit. We
want even to shape the work, in order to get still better fruits.

Evolution must become an experimental science. First it must
be controlled and studied, afterwards conducted along selected lines,
and finally shaped to the use of man. To do this work 3-0U have
called the man that was the first in this country to propose the
hazardous combination, "Experimental Morphology," thus giving
an impulse to a new direction of thought. No reward can be more
satisfactory to a man of science than the opportunity to continue
his researches on a large scale and with all the means required for
success.

This opportunity is solemnly offered to-day. Mine is the task of
congratulating the director and the staff of the new laboratory on
this occasion and wishing them the success they so well deserve.

40 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON,

With all my heart I accept this responsibility. American science
is rapidly gaining a prominent place in the esteem of Europe. More
and more our eyes are turned westward. Important discoveries on
fecundation, on sexuality, on the microscopic representatives of the
heredity qualities, on systematic relationships, and on numerous
other subjects contributory to the great science of evolution have of
late been made in America. The honor you are this day bestowing
upon me I appreciate very largeh', because it implies the desire to fra-
ternize. No words are needed to assert that this desire is perfectly
reciprocal.

In trj'ing to sketch for you my conception of the aim and work
of this new laboratory, allow me to use a metaphor. Science is a
source of light amid almost universal darkness. Brightly it shines
on mankind, delivering us from ignorance and impotence, from doubt
and fear. The light has to be kept bright ; but, moreover, the field
of its influence must steadily be enlarged. Hundreds and thousands
of industrious men are engaged in this work. Large numbers of
scientific institutions provide the means and direct the efforts. On
all sides the illuminated area is being extended, increasing the bless-
ings of knowledge.

Besides this assured and sj'stematic progress another method is
from time to time adopted. Centers of illumination are thrown out
far away into the surrounding darkness, constituting new starting
points from which to win dominion. Often they become extin-
guished, leaving no trace of their existence, but sometimes persist
and glow. In these cases the small point of light vigorously in-
creases, and all the territory intervening between the new and the
greater field of light becomes in time illuminated. Science is a
mighty means of broadening our conceptions and our ideas, as well
as our power to utilize the laws and materials of nature. Such new
centers of illumination are the great landmarks of its progress.
They immortalize the names of their founders. Bacon and Newton,
Lyell and Dar^vin stand preeminent among all. Edison and iSIarconi,
Rontgen and Curie are adding their genius to the universal effort.

With this lofty conception of a twofold method of scientific prog-
ress the Carnegie Institution fully complies. At Washington it is
working toward a general increase of knowledge. Besides this, it
has thrown out a first center of illumination far away into the arid
desert to emit the rays of science and inquiry over phenomena not
yet understood and over fields apparently uninhabitable and useless
to man. MacDougal, Coville, and Cannon are guiding the work,

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 41

aud under such promising auspices the Hght can not fail to increase
and soon to shine brightly all about.

A second lighthouse is being established to-da3\ It is to be a
beacon in quite another territory, illuminating the far more arid
problems of the origin of species. It is surrounded by a denser
darkness, for there is less previous knowledge in this field. It re-
quires the care of a keeper thoroughly prepared for the work and of
large experience. With him it will open up wide fields of unex-
pected facts, bringing to light new methods of improvement of our
domestic animals and plants. The care of the lighthouse is given
into the hands of Mr. Davenport and his staff, and many details of
its internal affairs are looked after bj'^ the kind care of Mrs. Daven-
port. Thus provided, it can not fail to fulfil its mission, aud to yield
the results expected from it, and even more.

What these results will mean is as yet impossible to predict. Dis-
coveries come unexpectedly ; but as a rule they fall into the lap of
those onl}^ who are prepared to make the most of them. Expecta-
tions, on the other hand, may be elaborated, and I consider it my
duty to explain to you the nature of the expectations that the foun-
dation of this laboratory is awakening in me. Of course only gen-
eral outlines can be given, and the picture is to be painted with a
broad brush in order to give an adequate image of w^hat may some
time be ; but in the meantime I am fully convinced that the future
will largely exceed even our highest hopes.

In conformity with the idea of the twofold methods of scientific
progress, I imagine that this station, too, will work after these
principles. The territory around the new center of light must be
more and more completely illuminated. Besides that, beacons have
to be carried forward into the darkness, aud search-lights have to
guide the progress along new paths.

What may be discovered by such search-lights can hardly be
guessed at. It is quite a dream, a mixture of hopes and possibili-
ties, of facts and hypotheses. What is real is the endeavor to get at
the most intimate causes of evolution. I have indulged in this most
delightful dream, and if you will allow me to give you a sketch of
what I have seen, I may perhaps succeed in conveying to you an idea
of what seems to me the farthest limits of inquiry for the present.

My dream started from the old question, What is that in the egg
which enables it to develop all the qualities of the bird ? Some-
thing must be there, and we may even assume that all the separate
qualities displayed by the bird have their representatives in the egg.

42 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Now, if it were only possible to get at these representative par-
ticles within the egg, what changes might not be effected in the de-
velopment of the bird ! To take a very simple example, the peacock
has a white variety, lacking the bright colors of the feathers. If in
the egg of an ordinary peacock we could seize upon the representa-
tive particles of the color and impede their development, perhaps
we would succeed in reproducing the white variety at once and
quite artificially.

Obviously this is the heart of the matter, for if once the principle
should be discovered to dislocate such a representative, we might
apply it to numerous other instances. A white peacock would be
no novelty and no gain, but we would be able to make white varie-
ties of other birds and other animals, and perhaps even of the bright-
colored flowers, which until now have resisted all endeavors of the
breeders in this line of work.

The white-color varieties are, of course, only intended as an
example. Other and more valuable qualities might likewise be
expected to become changeable. There would be no limit of suc-
cess if that principle were found, and why should it not be possible
to discover it ? Methods of attacking this question are not at all
failing. We might try to kill some of the representative particles
in the egg, or to stun them, or to injure them in ever so slight a
measure, so as only to retard their development. More than one
starting point for such an attempt is at hand. Engelmann has
taught us a method of lighting and heating small parts of a living
cell. He uses the focal point of a glass lens, which he directs upon
the cell while lying under the microscope. If now a very small
part is overheated and thereby killed, the remainder of the cell is
seen to be still living and apparently uninjured. By refining this
method some of the most sensible representative particles might
perhaps be killed without too much injury to the others.

Johannsen has of late discovered that plants may be stimulated
by a treatment with narcotizing substances, such as ether and chlo-
roform. Dormant buds may be awakened and display their leaves
and blossoms even in midwinter. The studies of Overton have
thrown considerable light upon the agency of such narcotizing sub-
stances upon the living protoplasm. Wilson has proved that visible
changes may be effected in the eggs by means of ether. Though
these observations seem to justify a hope of success, very much re-
mains to be done. If we assume that some representative particles

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 43

are more sensible to ether than others, perhaps some could be made
inactive, and the qualities they represent would fail in the develop-
ment of the organism.

Loeb, of the University of California, has shown that the stim-
ulus which fecundation gives to growth, besides and above the
mixture of the hereditary qualities of the parents, may be replaced
by purely chemical agents. He pointed out that the unfertilized
egg remains inactive through the action of some unknown cause,
which may be removed by the use of distinct salts.

Delage has markedly improved this method by making use of
carbonic acid instead of salts, and it seems highly probable that by
this or other gaseous agents the representative particles of the
hereditary qualities might be attacked separately.

Davenport has studied the effect of poisonous chemical substances
upon the growth of organisms, and shown that by gradually sub-
jecting them to various poisons they become immune to them.
Applying this principle to the representative particles in the egg,
we might expect to find some immune while others were not, and thus
to remove distinct peculiarities from the ensuing process of evolution.

Other agencies might be tried. The finest and most effective
methods offered by allied sciences have to be made use of. If one
way fails, another may succeed. The rays discovered by Rontgen
and the radio-activity of the new element, radium, have already
proved themselves capable of provoking important changes in living
organisms. These changes are partly of a retarding nature, and
some processes are more sensible to them than others. If the same
holds good for our dormant representatives in the egg, we may hope
some day to apply the physiological activity of the rays of Rontgen
and Curie to experimental morphology.

Be this as it ma3% it is only a dream. Perhaps I have recalled to
your mind too many facts and discoveries in too short a time. My
object was only to convey to you the idea that the future work of
this laboratory must keep in close relation with all the great victories
of the sister sciences. It has to keep up with the newest researches
and to omit not even the slightest occasion of profiting by the work
of others. All sciences converge toward one main point, and any
noticeable advance in one direction must obviously favor the work
on the other lines. Opportunities of rapid success are not rarely
offered, but the success really comes only to him who is steadily on
the lookout for a chance and who is thoroughly prepared to profit
by it. •

44 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINCxTON.

I^eaviug these chances, we may now turn to the dailj^ work. It
is that work which cahnly and steadily increases our knowledge and
which is the most assured way to success, even if the advance is less
striking and seemingly slower than in the alluring experiments
alluded to.

The process of the evolution of animals and plants has to be at-
tacked by direct experiment. This evolution, however, has a long
history, covering many millions of years. Its historical part, of
course, is not accessible to experimental work. From its innermost
nature it must be studied according to historical and comparative
methods. In laboratory work we may simply pass it by.

After eliminating this great mass of detail concerning the pedigree
of the animal and vegetable kingdom, two points remain, which pre-
sent themselves for experimental study. These are the beginning
and the end. Obviously the real end is not yet reached, evolution
going even now steadily on. In the same waj^ we may assume that
the beginning is not yet finished. The laws that ruled the material
world some twenty or thirty millions of years ago must have been
the same that are still ruling it in our daj'S. Circumstances may
have changed, but it is not very probable that those which permitted
life at the beginning and those which have made it possible during
the long geological ages should have been widely different. Quite
on the contrary, it seems only natural to assume that new life may
nowadays originate as well as in former times. It is only a que.stion
of where we are to look for it.

On this very difficult point I like to be guided by the genial con-
ceptions of Brooks. In his " Foundations of Zoology " he depicts
the primeval seas and their living population. All life must have
been limited at those early periods to the high sea ; all organisms
were floating amid the waves, going only to a depth of some few
meters. Here the main lines of the animal and vegetable pedigree
must have been produced, starting the great divisions of both king-
doms. The only exceptions are offered by the flowering plants and
the vertebrate animals, which seem to have originated on the shores
or perhaps on the land itself. As long as all life was in this floating
condition, evolution proceeded rapidly and broadened out. Then
came a period when, as Brooks says, the organic world made the
discovery of the possibility of living on the bottom of the sea, feed-
ing on the sinking remains of the floating world. This great change
was the starting point for numerous adaptations and for the evolu-
tion of a richness of forms and structures, but without the previous
progress in the production of many really new divisions.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 45

It is a very attractive image, and I much regret not to be allowed
to follow it any longer. For us it points to the probability that the
very first organisms must have been inhabitants of the high sea,
floating in the waves ; or, as it is now called, they must have been
members of the plankton. Thence the conclusion that it is within
the plankton that new creations are to be sought for. If really they
are still occurring in our days, it must be the high sea that conceals
them. Obviously these first organisms must have had the lowest
possible degree of organization. They were not cells, they can not
have had any differentiation. They must have consisted of a uni-
form jelly, with only the capacity of increasing their mass. If such
a jelly could be detected, what possibilities would not be opened to
experiments on evolution ! The chance may seem very small, but
then, before Rontgen and Curie there was no chance at all of dis-
covering X-rays and radio-activity. The plankton has to become
one of the main points of interest for all who care for experimental
evolution.

The other end of the evolutionar}^ development is the evolution
that is still now going on. Here we are on a more assured ground,
though even here the methods and the starting points have yet to be
discovered. These, however, may be attained by strenuous work,
attacking palpable phenomena from obvious sides, and subjecting
them to the general methods of ordinary experimental inquiries.

Two main lines have to be followed. One is the direct .study of
variability ; the other relates to the dependency of this variability
on the outer conditions of life. The first line uses the statistical
methods, while the second relies chiefly on the experiment. Both
have to be cultivated as well on botanical as on zoological ground.
Four large divisions are here indicated for the daily work of the
laboratory ; but it is a manifest advantage that the leader of the
work should be conversant with all of them. Mathematical and
statistical studies have their eminent representatives in Europe, both
among zoologists and among botanists, and likewise experimental
work has not been neglected by them ; but none of them com-
bines the severe requirements of mathematics and statistics with the
looser methods of morphological inquiry, and with the strict rules
of experiment, and this as well in the study of animals as in that of
plants. Such wide erudition and large experience, however, are
preeminently necessary in the man who has to take the direction
of this new laboratory, and it is from the innermost core of my

46 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

heart that I congratulate you on the good fortune that made a'ou
find this combination in the appointed director.

Fluctuating variability, however, has been the chief line of study
for Mr. Davenport, and he would be a bold man who would try to
show the way where such a guide is at hand.

For my part I prefer confining myself to such questions as are
more obviously touched by my own line of work. The experience
of agriculturists and horticulturists has long since established the
fact that new forms of animals and plants from time to time arise.
How they originate is another question, which it is not the task of
practice, but of science, to answer. The fact, however, is undeni-
able, and all observations point to sudden changes or so-called sports
as the first beginning. Especially in the dominion of horticulture
Korshinsky has shown, by an ample critical survey of the historical
evidence, that sudden sports are the prevailing rule and probably
even the exclusive manner of originating of new varieties.

Such considerations have led to the conviction that what occurs
in horticulture must also occur in the experimental garden. If the
conditions are the same, why should not the phenomena be the same,
too ? If mutations are rare in horticulture, the experimenter has
only to arrange his work so as to be able to detect rare occurrences
in his cultures, too. In doing this I have succeeded in observing
mutations quite analogous to the horticultural instances, and col-
lecting all the evidence concerning their ancestry and their descend-
ants as well as concerning the mode of their appearance.

Moreover, I have had the good fortune of discovering a wild
plant which is even yet in a condition of mutability. Yearly it is
observed to produce new species. It is the large-flowered evening
primrose, which bears the name of Lamarck, the founder of the
theor)^ of evolution. It clearly shows how new species arise from
an old stock, not by continuous and slow changes, but all of a sud-
den. The stock itself is not altered by the process nor even notice-
ably diminished. The new species which it produces arise on all
sides. Some of them are in a higher, others in a lesser degree fit
for their life conditions ; some persist during years, while others
disappear nearly as soon as they arise.

This instance of experimental mutations is found largely to agree
with the experience of breeders, especially in horticulture, and like-
wise with the conclusions that have been drawn from comparative'
studies. The assumption that those species and genera which now
consist of large groups of closely allied forms have originated in

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 47

the same way seems quite undeniable ; and as soon as the validity
of this generalization is granted for these cases it will have to be
considered of general, if not universal, bearing.

It is chiefly owing to the work of Mr. MacDougal that the evening
primroses have come to be recognized in America as the true material
for the study of evolution by sudden leaps. His cultures of the
original stock and some of its mutants have proven the significance
of the differences between the new and the old species, and have
awakened an increasing interest in this line of research. To the
demands made by such work the laboratory has to respond, and it
is now my duty to point out the chief lines which should be followed
in order to reach this aim.

Two main lines have to be distinguished : the study of the phe-
nomenon itself and that of its causes. Mutations, of course, can
not be assumed to be a special feature of the evening primroses.
They must occur elsewhere, too, and these have to be sought for.
The Oenothera was one of a lot of nearly a hundred species tested
as to their constancy ; it proved to be the only changeable form
among them. By testing a hundred other species or other strains
of the same forms it seems probable that one or two new instances
of mutability may be detected . The best way is to try the wild species
of the nearest environments or of other regions with a corresponding
climate, since large numbers of seedlings have to be examined. One
or two novelties among thousands of individuals of the common
type are not easily found, especially when the differences are slight
and new, and thereby apt to be overlooked. Much care is to be
given, and the trials have to be repeated with the same species in
succeeding years. With increasing experience the chances of dis-
cerning the small indications of novelties are rapidly augmented.
No differentiating marks, however slight, should be considered as
insignificant. All aberrant individuals should be planted separately
and protected with all the care required to insure the fullest devel-
opment. Many of them afterwards prove to be only fluctuating
variants or to have deceived the experimenter. They are simply
discarded. It is quite sufficient if some remain and prove to be
mutants. As soon as in this manner a mutable strain will be dis-
covered the greater part of the other species may be excluded,
although the search for new mutable species should never be wholly
neglected. Each year some new forms should be taken into cul-
ture, in order to have sufficient chances of gradually increasing the
evidence concerning the occurrence of mutability in nature.
5

48 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The chief object of this inquiry, however, must be the study of
the mutable strain itself. Some of its seeds yield new species, while
others are more conservative. Thence the question, Which seeds
mutate, and by which causes are they elected to do so ? The loca-
tion of the mutating seeds within the fruit, the position of the pre-
ferred fruits on the spikes, the influence of the individual strength
of the sundry branches, and many other points have to be investi-
gated. Further, it is probable that the degree of mutability, or, in
other words, the yield of mutating seeds, is more or less dependent
on the outer life-conditions. Thence the necessity of studying the
influence of culture in general, of light and heat, of soil and water,
and last, but not least, of manure. Extreme combinations of these
factors should be tried to see whether perhaps they may give ex-
treme results.

Underlying all and directing all the efforts should be the hope of
obtaining such a knowledge of the phenomenon as would enable us
to take the whole guidance of it into our own hands.

Obviously, this aim lies within the possibilities of the first series
of years. Exact methods of working, severe isolation of the single
individuals, artificial fecundation with complete exclusion of the
visits of insects, and abov'e all the great principle of individual seed-
saving and seed-sowing, have to be the guides. Following the lines
which are indicated by these prescriptions, gradually a power will
be developed which will first enable us to increase the number of
mutating seeds and afterwards to widen the range of mutability.
New and unexpected species will then arise, and methods will be
discovered which might be applied to garden plants and vegetables,
and perhaps even to agricultural crops, in order to induce them to
yield still more useful novelties.

Increase of knowledge of all the peculiarities which accompany
the phenomenon of mutability is the most immediate requirement.
On the foundation of the study of one single instance this increase
can not be sufficiently broad. Other cases may display other features,
and the problem is to be attacked from different sides. A broad
foundation knowledge of phenomena is the most assured way to
success.

Eadies and gentlemen, it is a high honor for me that this labora-
tory has been founded, and that the members of the board and the
director have invited me to be its godfather. During a long series
of years I have fostered my conception of sudden mutability and
cultivated my primroses for myself and for myself only. Nobody

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 49

kuew about them. I loved them and cared for them and enjoyed
the security of perfect secrecy. It was the full quietness of pure
scientific research. Of course I had the hope of doing something
that might prove useful to science, but I lived in the conviction that
many years, and perhaps a whole lifetime, were needed to reach so
great a result. I felt myself secure and at ease, since there was no
fear that anybody could infringe upon my work. The chance of a
discovery of my primroses and of their curious qualities by anybody
else seemed too small, because of the concealed position of the original
locality.

Some years ago I allowed myself to be induced to betray my secret
and to deliver it to the scientific world. It has at once been taken
up by your countrymen, and the foundation of this laboratory is the
mightiest and most dreadful competition that I could have. I have
to give up security and freedom, quietness and calmness, and all that
secrecy which I so dearly loved. I have to submit to the prospect
of being soon surpassed and largely excelled on the path which until
now I considered as my own. I have to yield my much beloved child.

But I do it gladly and without regret. It is the interest of the
child itself which commands me. It will be better in your hands,
Mr. and Mrs. Davenport, and in yours, lady and gentleman officers
of the staff. Pray have good care of it and educate it assiduously,
that it may become one of the most brilliant parts of your work, a
glory to this laboratory and to the institution that founded it, a pride
to your country, and a bliss for humanity.

50 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON,

MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY AT TORTUGAS, FLORIDA.
First Report of Progress.

By Ai^fred GoIvDSborough Mayer.

The ExecutiYe Committee of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington having authorized the establishment of a laboratory for the
study of marine biology at Tortugas, Florida, I have the honor to
report as follows upon the results attained.

The director was unable to assume active charge of the work
until June i, 1904.

The Department of Commerce and Labor and the U. S. Light-
House Board generously granted to the Carnegie Institution a license
for a suitable site for the laboratory upon Loggerhead Ke}', Tortugas,
Florida, and in this connection the director wishes to express on
behalf of the laboratory his appreciation of the liberal spirit displayed
by Hon. George B. Cortelyou, Secretary of the Department of Com-
merce and Labor ; Major W. E. Craighill, U. S. A., engineer of the
seventh and eighth light-house districts ; and Lieut. Col. W. D.
Lockwood, engineer secretary of the U. S. Light-House Board.

After consultation with Dr. John S. Billings and Dr. Charles D.
Walcott, members of the Executive Committee, as well as with Prof.
Charles B. Davenport, Edmund B. Wilson, Charles H. Towusend,
and others, it was determined to erect large but portable laboratory
buildings, which should be designed especially to be cool, well lighted,
and capable of affording to a limited number of investigators unrivaled
facilities for the study of the marine life of the tropical Atlantic.

It was decided to erect a main laboratory, one small detached
laboratory, a kitchen, a windmill for pumping salt water and air, a
dock, a shipways, two small outhouses, and a cistern for rain-water.

The main laboratory, small laboratory, and two outhouses were
constructed by the Drecker Company of New York, and are portable,
so that they can readily be moved from their present site and re-
erected elsewhere if desirable.

These buildings were erected in July, upon the western side of
Loggerhead Key, more than 1,000 feet north of the light-house.
The ground was cleared of trees during the last week in June and
all necessary grading accomplished. About 50 tropical palms were
planted upon the cleared ground, in order to shade the buildings,
afford protection in the event of hurricanes, and beautify the site.

The laboratory buildings were carried by steamer from New York
to Key West, and thence to Loggerhead Key upon a schooner of

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REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

light draft, as it was necessary to land the buildings, although
no dock was available. This was accomplished without the least
accident, although a period of baffling calms caused a delay of more
than two weeks in sailing from Key West to Tortugas. A good
supply of laboratory glassware, chemicals, apparatus, and furniture

1 1

MAIN

1 1 1
LABORATORY

Fig. 3. — Plan of Laboratory Buildings at Tortugas, Florida.

was also landed, it being deemed desirable to take advantage of the
calm period preceding the hurricane season in order to accomplish
this purpose ; 500 feet of iron rails, a powerful capstan, water-pipes,
and lumber for dock and shelving were also safely landed, and the
dock, which is 84 feet long, was completed in August.

52 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The main laboratory is L-shaped and is io6 feet long. It is one
story high, and the roof contains eleven ventilating traps, thus
rendering the building remarkably cool even on calm, hot days.
The laboratory- room proper is 53 feet long and ig}4 feet wide, and
contains a dark-room, a large closet, and ample accommodations for
eight investigators, each of whom will have an L-shaped microscope
table facing the north light.

In order to resist hurricanes, the laboratory buildings and the dock
are very strongly braced, and the foundation posts are all T-shaped
on their sunken ends, thus rendering it well-nigh impossible to
overturn the structures.

The entire cost of the main laboratory, small laborator}-, and two
outhouses, including cost of clearing and grading ground, hire and
maintenance of workmen, and payment of transportation and insur-
ance from New York to Tortugas, was $4,806.13.

The director completed a survey of the site and reported upon the
same to Major W. E. Craighill. In answer to the petition of the
director, the U. S. Light-House Board granted permission to erect
the shipways in the situation .shown on the survey map, this being
at the place where the last suitable tract of beach rock is found on
the northwestern side of the island. A shipways will be necessary
in order to draw out the laboratory' vessel in case of hurricane.

The director made numerous surface tours while at the Tortugas,
and the results of this work will be presented for publication in con-
nection with an investigation of the entire Atlantic coast from Maine
to Florida, opportunity for the study of which will be afforded by
the laboratory vessel.

In order to study the marine life of the tropical Atlantic, using
the Tortugas as a land station, it is essential that the laboratory
should be provided with a stanch, sea-going vessel of light draft,
capable of making headway against the strong currents of the coral
reefs and the Gulf Stream. Such a vessel was designed by Stearns &
McKay, of the Marblehead Yacht Yard, Marblehead, Massachusetts,
and on April 28 thej- were commissioned to direct the Rice Bros.
Company, of East Boothbay, Maine, to construct the vessel.

The design called for an auxiliary ketch 57 feet over all, 15 feet 1 1
inches beam, and 3 feet 6 inches draft, to be heavily and strongly
built in order to withstand tropical hurricanes, and to be provided
with a 20-horsepower Motor Engine Co. naphtha engine. The hull
is of wood, copper-bottomed, with a heavy iron keel and two center-
boards. There are accommodations for seven men, and the vessel
is especially designed to dredge in depths of 500 fathoms or less.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

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Fig. 4. — Map of North End of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Florida,
showing site of Carnegie Institution Laboratory.

54 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

The vessel was launched at East Boothbaj^, Me., on August 19,
1904, and completed on August 24. Her cost, including designer's
fees, engine, 3,300 feet of Swedish iron dredging rope, winch and
friction clutch, plumbing, and one ton of lead ballast, was $6,037.60.

The vessel proves to be one of the ablest yachts of her dimensions
on our coast and displays her best qualities in heavy weather. She
will make better than 8 points in tacking in a strong breeze, and
will either sail or go under power at an 8-knot rate. The gale of
September 15, 1904, in which the wind blew at the rate of more than
76 miles an hour, proved her ground tackle to be thoroughly efficient.

The vessel is equipped with a full set of trawls, dredges, deep-sea
and surface nets, chemicals, glassware, and apparatus for the study
of marine life. She also carries a 15-foot naphtha launch tender, a
barometer, sextant, log, U. S. Coast Pilot directions, and a full set
of charts of the Atlantic seaboard. Her cabin is designed to pro-
vide ample room for such laboratory work as can be accomplished
at sea, and in this respect is superior to the majority of vessels of
twice her length.

The vessel can best be handled by a crew composed of a sailing
master and two men, one of whom serves as cook and steward, the
sailing master attending the engine when under power. Under this
management the director assumes command of the vessel, taking an
active part in her navigation.

The voyage from East Boothbay, Me., to New York was accom-
plished between August 24 and September 2 5 , more than a week having
been spent in Gloucester, Mass., in fitting out the vessel. Many
surface hauls were made and some shore collecting accomplished.

The success or failure of the laboratory must depend upon the use
made of the excellent facilities which are there afforded. Every pos-
sible encouragement must be given to eminent naturalists to pursue
their investigations at the laboratory, and their researches must be
published in a manner befitting the high aims of the Carnegie
Institution.

PLATE 5.

*:1 '

I?)!'

REPORT OF EXKCUTIVE COMMITTEE. 55

ECONOMICS.

Report of Department of Economics and Sociology.

By Carroll D. Wright.

For the present purposes of the department the following named
eleven divisions have been established, and the gentlemen whose
names appear have been placed in charge of them, respectively :

Division i. Population and Immigration. — Prof. Walter F. Willcox, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Division 2. Agriculture and Forestry, including Public Domain and Irriga-
tion.— President Kenyon L,. Butterfield, Rhode Island College of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Kingston, R. I.

Division 3. Mining. — Mr. K. W. Parker, Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Division 4. Manufactures. — Hon. S. N. D. North, Census Ofl&ce, Washington,
D. C. *

Division 5. Transportation. — Prof. W. Z. Ripley, Newton Centre, Mass.

Division 6. Domestic and Foreign Commerce. — Prof. Emory R. Johnson, Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.

Division 7. Money and Banking. — Prof. Davis R. Dewey, Institute of Tech-
nolog}-, Boston, Mass.

Division 8. The I^abor Movement. — Carroll D.Wright, 1429 New York avenue,
Washington, D. C.

Division 9. Industrial Organization.— -Prof. J. W. Jenks, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y.

Division 10. Social lyegislation, including Provident Institutions, Insurance,
Poor Laws, etc.— Prof. Henry W. Farnam, 43 Hillhouse avenue,
New Haven. Conn.

Division 11. Federal and State Finance, including Taxation.— Prof. Henry B.
Gardner, 54 Stimson avenue, Providence, R. I.

These divisions are actively engaged, except Division 9, in charge
of Prof. J. W. Jenks, who since 'the creation of the department has
been in the far East and 'has only just returned. The progress of
their respective activities can best be understood by stating for each
the substance of reports which 'have been made to me.

Division i. Population and Immigration.

Prof. Walter F. Willcox, in charge of this division, reports that
upon the topic of immigration an index to Niles' Register is being
prepared under the immediate supervision of Prof. Davis R. Dewey,
and a competent graduate student, who is carefully indexing the ma-
terial in the library of Cornell University, which library is very ridh
in the field to be covered. This work is practically completed, and a
study of the history of Federal legislation dealing with immigration
begun. I may say that the indexing of Niles' Register and other
works is being so conducted as to avoid duplication under the differ-
ent divisions.

A study of the history of Russian immigration is being conducted
by M. E. Goldenweiser, of Columbia University, a Russian Jew

56 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

of education and abilit}-. His work has been interrupted by the
illness of his father, but he will undoubtedly carry it to its completion,

]\Iiss E. G. Balch, instructor in economics in Wellesley College,
has undertaken a study of the histor}' of immigration from Austria-
Hungary, and of the conditions of the immigrants from that coun-
try in certain typical localities in the United States, while Prof.
Mary Roberts Smith, although not directly under the Division of
Population and Immigration, but working through a research assis-
tantship granted by the Carnegie Institution, is preparing a history
of Chinese immigration.

Professor Willcox himself is carrying on an extended study in
race and immigration questions that will be very valuable for the
work of the Department of Economics and Sociology. I would
state, further, that Professor Willcox intends to make the work on
population and immigration something more than a statistical state-
ment, dealing largely with sociological results of immigration, and
especially, of course, with the economic results of the movement of
population, its projection along certain lines of settlement, etc.

Division 2. Agriculture and Forestry, Inci^uding Pubuc Domain and

Irrigation.

President Kenyon L. Butterfield, in charge of this division, re-
ports that since assuming the work committed to him he has given
most of his thought to perfecting the plan of his investigation and
finding men to conduct various phases of his work. Under him, Prof.
T. N. Carver, of Harvard University, is studying the economic char-
acteristics of the agricultural industry ; Prof. F. W. Blackmar, of the
University of Kansas, the economic and social influences of irrigation ;
while Prof. J. E. Pope, of Columbia, Missouri, is co-operating with
the University of Missouri in a 'history and status of the economic
and social relations of the agricultural industry in Missouri.

Mr. A. E. Sheldon, director of the field work of the Nebraska
Historical Society, is studying the history of land systems and land
policies in the West. Mr. R. H. Leavell, of the Mississippi Agri-
cultural College, is undertaking a study of the race factor in the
history and status of agriculture m the Mississippi valley. Mr.
Enoch Marvin Banks, of Palnietto, Georgia, is making a research
into the tendencies of land ownership in Georgia as revealed in the
county tax digests of that btate. Mr. Charles S. Potts is also en-
gaged in an intensive study of the history and status of the economic
and social relations of the agricultural industry in the Brazos valley.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 57

while others are engaged upon different phases of the economic and
sociological aspects of agriculture generally.

Division 3. Mining.

This division is under the charge of Mr. Edward W. Parker,
expert, Geological Survey. Mr. Parker reports that Mr. J. F. Mc-
Clelland, of the Columbia School of Mines, is in charge of the work
on precious metals, and that during the summer he has spent much
time in the mining camj>s of Colorado, and gathered very full data
on the history of economic conditions in that State from the time of
the first gold excitement. He 'has also obtained notes of mining in
Wyoming. During the winter Mr. McClelland will continue his re-
searches among libraries, and next summer take up more active
field work.

Prof. C. K. Leith, of the University of Wisconsin, is in charge of
the work on iron ores and the economic influences of mining and
working ores. He did a considerable amount of work during the
summer in his particular line.

Dr. M. N. Bowles, of the Columbia School of Klines, is in charge
of investigations relating to copper. He has already collected much
material bearing upon prehistoric copper implements and other mat-
ters concerning the mining of copper. His researches have been
prosecuted in different parts of the country.

Mr. Walter Renton Ingalls, of Xew^ York, is in charge of the
investigation relating to lead and zinc. Mr. Ingalls is an acknowl-
edged authority on these subjects, and he has very kindly consented
to prepare the work for the economic history. During the summer
he did mudh work in regard to lead-mining industries, acquiring a
vast amount of information not previously known. He has in the
past few years collected the most complete notes on the 'history of zinc
mining and metailurg}- and the uses of the metal, and the Carnegie
Institution will have the Ijenefit of the knowledge already obtained.

Mr. W. S. Landis, of Lehigh University, is in charge of some
studies relating to chromium and manganese. He has already com-
pleted the entire reference work on these two subjects, and the
work seems to be in a most satisfactory condition.

Mr. H. H. Stock, editor of "Mining and Minerals." is in charge
of the investigation relating to anthracite coal. During the summer
Mr. Stoek was engaged in collecting and arranging a large amount
of historical data showing the economic development of this vast
industry, and his work is in favorable condition.

58 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Mr. Walter S. Landis, of Lehigh University, is in charge of
studies relating to the bituminous coal industr}-. Mr. Landis has
been collecting all material of historical and statistical nature up to
1880, since which tiine reports of the Federal Government have been
available. Mr. Landis is in a position to use the technical collection
of the late Eckley B. Coxe, probably the largest collection of books,
pamphlets, and reports on coal-tmining in the world. On account of
this immense amount of material, the work required to cover a given
district is very large and progress some^^4lat slow, but, on the whole,
Mr. Landis is of the opinion that 'his library research, so far as this
work is concerned, is about one-third completed.

Mr. G. P. Grimsley, of the West Virginia Geological Survey, is
in charge of studies of petroleum and natural gas. He has access to a
large amount of original records relating to this subject.

Mr. F. B. Laney, of the Universit)- of North Carolina, in charge
of inquiry on building stones and quarr}ing, promises a most inter-
esting chapter on this important subject.

Mr. Heinrich Ries, of Cornell University, is studying the economic
influences resulting from the production of clay materials. For a
number of years Dr. Ries has been making a stud}^ of the clays of
this and other countries, and he 'has altogether in his possession a
very large amount of data necessary for this work.

Dr. Joseph Hyde Pratt, of North Carolina, is studying abrasive
materials, rare earths, and mica.

Mr. E. C. Eckels, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has undertaken
t!he study of cement, gypsum, and magnesite. He has been able to
work up a complete and considerable portion of his data relating to
this subject. He will discuss cement materials, and how far they are
economically used in the development of building. Mr. Eckels states
that other portions of his work are well advanced.

Mr. Ira A. Williams, of the Columbia School of Mines, has under-
taken the study of asbestos, barytes, fluor-spar, fullers' earth, talc,
graphite, lithograph stone, lithium minerals, mineral pigments, and
soapstone. The results of the studies of these various minerals will
consist of brief chapters. Mr. Williams has prepared a tentative
scheme of treatment, which Mr. Parker has approved.

Prof. Charles E. Munroe, of the George Was-hington University,
Washington, D. C, has taken up chemical materials, and will prepare
a report on that subject, but in cooperation with the report on
chemical manufactures under the charge of Mr. North.

Mr. Parker reports that he has not yet arranged definitely for the

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 59

history of mining legislation. Undoubtedly this work is practically
in existence through the history already published by Mr. Curtis
Linde, of San Francisco, and probably a condensation of Mr. Linde's
work will be ample for the purposes of 'this department.

Division 4. Manufactures.

Hon. S. N. D. North, Director of the Census, in charge of this
division, was delayed some months in taking up active work, but he
reports that substantial and satisfactory progress has resulted from
his labors during the past summer. He has secured the cooperation
of a number of gentlemen whose qualifications for participating in
the work under 'his charge are of the 'highest order, and who will
come into it with an interest and an enthusiasm essential to the best
results.

Prof. W. P. Patterson, of the University of Iowa, is engaged to
make a study of the natural resources of the country in tlheir economic
relation to manufactures, and of national characteristics.

Prof. G. D. Luetscher, of George School, Pennsylvania, will pre-
pare that portion of the economic history which relates to the
economic influence of legislation in the development of American
manufactures. This study will cover legislation in both the colonial
and the subsequent periods of our history.

Dr. U. B. Phillips, of the University of Wisconsin, in collaboration
with Dr. Charles McCarthy, will prepare that section of our history
which will deal with the economic influence of slavery on the develop-
ment of manufactures in the Southern States.

Prof. Henry R. Mussey, of the School of Commerce of New York
University, is studying the history of iron and steel manufacture,
including both colonial and subsequent periods. He has been at work
during the summer, and has entirely completed his researches in
respect to the colonial period.

Prof. M. B. Hammond, now of the University of Ohio, has charge
of the chapter relating to the history of cotton manufacture. Mr.
NortJh considers himself fortunate in securing for Carnegie Institu-
tion the services of Professor Hammond.

Other gentlemen will take up specific chapters relating to the
economic development of special industries.

Division 5. Transportation.

Prof. William Z. Ripley, of Harvard University, is in charge of
this division. He reports that Dr. U. B. Phillips, of Wisconsin, has

6o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

been collecting material and has made personal research on various
points. Mr. A. D. Adams, of the Harvard Law School, is studying
the early pooling of freight traffic, while Professor Meyer, of Madi-
son, Wisconsin, will arrange the 'history of raiLway legislation.

Mr. S. Daggett has nearly completed a study of railway reorgani-
zations, while Dr. T. W. Mitchell, of the University of Pennsylvania,
is working on early railroad finance. Prof. A. Pope, of the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, is engaged on some historical matters concerning
the railroads of that State.

Dr. Ripley himself has been working on the history of rate^naking
systems in the Southern States, which he will follow by a comparison
of the history in the trunk-Hne territory. He has had a number of
■men working during the summer who have not yet turned in the
results of their labors, but he is making satisfactory progress in his
division.

Division 6. Domestic and Foreign Commerce.

Prof. Emory R. Johnson, of the University of Pennsylvania, who
is in dharge of this division, has been actively engaged personally and
throug*h various assistants. He 'has with him Mr. A. A. Giesecke, of
the graduate department of the University of Pennsylvania, who is
assisting in the study of the American merchant marine.

The subject of American foreign trade is being ably investigated
by Mr. S. Huibner, assistant in the Department of Commerce of the
University of Pennsylvania. This gentleman has collected a large
amount of statistical and other data for the period from 1789 to the
present time. He will study the colonial period after the national
period has been covered.

The history of American coastwise commerce is being studied by
Mr. Thomas Conway, jr., a Plarrison scholar in the graduate de-
partment of the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. Conway has nearly
exhausted the printed sources of information for the years since
1789, and is now studying the economic influences of commercial
organization as derived from trade journals and other sources of
information, original and otherwise. There is a great lack of official
statistics in this direction ; consequently much must be ascertained
from original research.

Dr. J. R. Smith, instructor in commerce at the University of
Pennsylvania, has been at work upon the organization and adminis-
tration of commerce; (he has enlarged the scope of his studies some-
what and is to prepare a monograph for our purpose.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 6l

The legal and administrative relations of the Federal, State, and
local governments in the United States to commerce have been under-
taken by Mr. J. B. Byall, of Philadelphia. The work of Dr. Smith
and Mr. Byall has nearly covered the fourtih subdivision of the gen-
eral subject of American commerce, which comprises the organiza-
tion and administrative features.

Mr. Raymond McFarland has prepared an outline of the history
of American fisheries. Work is also being done on the American
consular service as it relates to commerce.

The Library of Congress is now preparing, at the request of
Professor Johnson, a bibliography of American commerce. An
effort will be made to have this bibliography as comprehensive as
practicable, because it is expected that the work of the Library of
Congress will be of assistance to all persons who may work on the
history of American commerce.

Division 7. Money and Banking.

Dr. Davis R. Dewey, of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, has charge of this division. During the past year he has
been engaged chiefly in locating the sources of information which
are available for research investigation in the history of banking, and
in particular he has endeavored to secure information relative to
original sources of information, such as State reports, reports of
State banks, etc. He has culled everything, and has arranged all
these sources of information for the purpose of showing the com-
mercial growth of banking in different sections of the country. He
will deal with credit operations, which must be considered commer-
cially as well as from the institutional standpoint. While some of
his tabulations are not to be published in the history, they are essen-
tial as a basis of analysis.

Doctor Dewey has bad three assistants working on State super-
vision of banks in Massachusetts, the history of trust companies in
Massachusetts, and the history of savings-banks in that State. Dr.
Wesley C. Mitchell, of the University of California, is prosecuting
an investigation relative to the effects of legal-tender issues on prices
and wages between 1865 and 1879, the latter being the date of specie
resumption.

Doctor Dewey has also superintended the making of indexes of
different works relating to banking, etc., and has noted material for
other collaborators in the progress of this work, this being done to
avoid duplication.

62 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Division 8. The IvAbor Movement.

This division of the Department of Economics and Sociology is
under my own charge. Dr. J. H. Hollander, of Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, with a corps of graduate students, has been for a long time
engaged upon 'the study of all elements or phases of trades unions,
including their history, development, constitutions, methods, mem-
bership, etc. He has made fine progress with this work, and all the
results of his studies are to be available for the economic history of
the Carnegie Institution.

A topical analysis of all labor laws of the United States and an
analysis of the decisions of courts interpreting them are in process
of preparation. These analyses will be so arranged that in a very
brief and concrete statement one can learn just exactly what prin-
ciples of law relative to the relations of employer and employee have
been adopted in any State.

Many of the other features coming under this division require
principally classification and arrangement, as the information con-
cerning strikes, injunctions, boycotts, emploA'ers' liability, the hours
of labor, wages, etc., is in existence. The official reports of the
Federal and State governments and tJhe investigations of individual
students are to be utilized and their results co-ordinated.

Dr. Richard T. Ely, of the University of Wisconsin, has pro-
jected quite an ambitious work on industrial democracy, in the prep-
aration of which he will make various original studies. I have ar-
ranged with Dr. Ely for an exchange of data in order to avoid the
expense attending duplication of research.

Division 9. Industrial. Organization.

Dr. J. W. Jenks, of Cornell University, is in charge of this division,
but, as already explained, on account of his absence in China for the
Federal Government, he has not entered actively upon the discharge
of his duties. »

Division 10. Social LegisIvATion, IncIvUding Provident Institutions,

Insurance, Poor Laws, etc

This division is under the leadership of Prof. Henry W. Far-
nam, of the Sheffield School, New Haven. Professor Farnam has
made considerable progress in his work, and has had under his
employment several assistants, among whom is Mr. F. R. Fairchild,
who has completed a study of the factory legislation of New York.
Mr. George C. Groat, of Columbia University, is at present at work
upon that phase of the social legislation of the State of. New York

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 63

which relates mainly to labor organizations and trade disputes.
Professor Farnam hopes to organize the work of his division on a
more extended scale during the autumn.

Division it. Fedkrai, and State Finance, Including Taxation.

Dr. Henr}- B. Gardner, of Brown University, very kindly under-
took this work. He finds that while the subject of national finance
has been gone over several times and the outlines of the subject have
been fairly clear and the sources of information practically well
known, yet nothing has been done in the field of State and local
finance since 1879. His first work, therefore, was to project a study
into the financial history of the individual States and typical cities,
and he has interested graduate students or instructors in this direc-
tion. Several gentlemen have already undertaken to do work,
among them Mr. Frederick A. Wood, of Vermont, the author of
"The History of Taxation in Vermont"; Prof. C. H. Brough,
Ph. D., now of the University of Arkansas, who is the author of an
essay on "Taxation in Mississippi," and Prof. St. George L. Sious-
sat, of the University of the South, who will deal with taxation in
Tennessee.

Prof. E. L. Bogart, of Oberlin College, has been engaged during
the past year in the study of the financial history of Ohio, and he will
continue this work. Prof. W. A. Rawles, of the University of In-
diana, will conduct the researches for that State. Prof. W. O. Hed-
rick, of the State Agricultural College of Michigan, is engaged in
the study of special taxation in that State, under the direction of
Prof. Henry C. Adams, of the University of Michigan.

Minnesota, Kansas, South Dakota, and California are under way.
California will be treated by Prof. C. C. Plehn, of the University of
California, one of the best-known authorities on the subjects treated
in this division. Correspondence is going on with gentlemen in other
States, and they will probably enter upon work under the direction
of Professor Gardner.

Professor Gardner has engaged Mr. William Jones, of Brown
University, who will undertake much of the work of investigation
committed to Professor Gardner. Professor Gardner has also under-
taken a card bibliography of financial publications, covering not
merely the items of interest in his own work, but those which bear
upon other divisions as well.

In general. Professor Gardner will discuss conditions in 1789,
including an account of both State and local finance; receipts and
6

64 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

expenditures of States since that year; a chronological account of
legislation, including constitutional provisions and judicial decisions
for the same period ; the relation between the finances of the State
and the political system ; and general economic conditions. He will
also discuss the working of the more important forms of taxation,
such as general property tax, taxes on banks and insurance com-
panies, taxes on railways, corporation taxes, inheritance taxes, income
taxes, business taxes, etc. In addition, 'he will enter upon a study of
the financial aspects of internal improvements, and give a history of
State debt and credit, and an account of the development of financial
administration, including budgetary practice.

I may say in general that every effort is being made to co-
ordinate and harmonize the work of divisions whose subjects inter-
lock ; as, for instance, there are several features under manufactures,
transportation, and domestic and foreign commerce that offer op-
portunities for conflict, but the gentlemen in charge of these divisions
are working thoroughly in harmony, and will see to it that no compli-
cations arise. This is true of the divisions relating to money and
banking and Federal and State finance. Professors Dewey and
Gardner are Vi'-orking together, so that there shall be no duplicate
treatment of subjects. All these gentlemen are looking carefully
to the fact that when one is collecting information along certain
lines it may 'be desirable to enter information for another. This is
true also of the divisions relating to the labor movement and to
social legislation and industrial organization.

A committee of three, consisting of Messrs. North, Gardner, and
Dewey, has been appointed to consider and report upon a plan for
a useful bibliograph}' of economic history. All realize that the
ordinary bibliography should not be constructed, but one that will
be of positive use on a most advanced plan to all concerned.

I am greatly gratified at the progress of the work of the whole
department as shown by the preceding statements, which consist of
brief condensations of the reports of the respective collaborators. I
have every confidence in the work as it is being conducted. If the
work of the first six or eight months has developed nothing more
than concrete and workable plans, without very much progress, we
should be satisfied ; but it has gone farther than that, and while
much remains to be done in the way of formulation of methods of
procedure and their co-ordination into one general plan, nevertheless
there is no doubt now of the success of the work committed to the
Department of Economics and Sociology.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 65

HISTORICAL RESEARCH.
By Andrew C. McLaughlin, Director.

The work of the Bureau of Historical Research during the past year
has been of various kinds. Considerable time has been consumed in
assisting or giving suggestions to historical investigators who have
come to Washington in search of material for their work. In a few
cases documents have been hunted out and copied for the use of those
who were unable to come to discover the material for themselves.
The experience of the year seems to prove that, while this incidental
work does not give at first very tangible results, it is of considerable
value and justifies in itself the existence of the Bureau in Washington.

At the beginning of the year the hope was entertained that the
Guide to the Archives in Washington would soon be completed, but
the work was not entirely finished until the first of October. The
completed volume, bearing the title, " Guide to the Archives of the
Government of the United States at Washington," is a book of over
200 pages. It describes in general terms the historical collections
and the admini.strative records of all branches and departments of
the government. Practically every bureau, commission, or office
having its independent records receives attention ; its duties are in-
dicated, and the character of its records briefly described. This work
was begun in January, 1903, b}- Mr. C. H. Van Tyne and Mr. W. G.
Leland, and was carried to completion b)^ the Bureau, most of the
work after October, 1903, being done by Mr. Leland. Though nec-
essarily condensed, for the book purports to be only a guide based on
a general survey, it represents much labor, for often the acquiring
of accurate information, which was in the end told in a few words on
the printed page, required days of patient looking and questioning.
The guide will help the historical investigator to know where to look
for his materials, will in many instances let him know whether he
can reasonably expect to find the materials he seeks, and will, more-
over, furnish the necessary basis for further study of the historical
records of the government.

Prof. Charles M. Andrews, of Bryn Mawr, has made for the Bureau
an examination of the British archives, and has prepared a prelimi-
nary report on the character, extent, and location of the materials
for the study of American history. This report will soon be printed,
probably in the American Historical Review, and will serve admirably
as a basis for more extended as well as a more particular examina-

66 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

tion. With a little more work, Professor Andrews can prepare a
general and comprehensive survey of the sources of American history
in the Public Record Office and all the other important places of deposit
in Great Britain. Steps have also been taken to gather information
concerning such transcripts from English archives as are now in the
libraries of this country, and through the kindness and courtesy of
the American Antiquarian Society a list of documents in English
archives that are now in print and throw light on American history
has been turned over to this Bureau for its use. This list was pre-
pared some three 3'ears ago and will need to be brought down to
date. When all of these tasks, which are now under way, are com-
pleted, the Bureau will have in its possession and ready to print
material for a volume showing the character, extent, and place of
deposit of the sources of American history in the public depositories
of Great Britain, of the transcripts of those sources that are accessible
in this country, and of the documents that are now in print.

It is plain from what has already been said that the activities
of the Bureau have been confined to tasks which, when completed,
will enable the historical investigator to reach and use his materials
more easily. In carrying out this general idea, it has seemed wise
to begin the preparation of a bibliography of current writings on
American history. The list for the year 1903 has been prepared
and will soon be ready for the press. It includes altogether not far
from 4,000 titles. In addition to the ordinary- bibliographical entries,
references are made to the most helpful published reviews of the
listed books, and with the title of each important book is given in
a few words a description of the book, showing its scope and general
character. Under the supervision of the director of the Bureau, this
work has been carried on chiefly by Mr. William Adams Slade and
Miss Laura Thompson, both of the Library of Congress.

The work of discovering letters sent to State governments bj^ the
delegates to the Continental Congress has been begun and some
progress has been made. This undertaking requires considerable
time and effort, and it is not likely that the work can be accomplished
even by the end of next 3^ear.

Various bodies of archives have received particular attention, in
order that the Bureau may be able to answer questions as to place
and character of certain kinds of historical material. The diplo-
matic correspondence in the Bureau of Indexes and Archives of the
State Department for the first fifty years of our history under the
Constitution has been examined page by page, although, of course.

REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 67

not all has been read or particularl}' classified. It is the intention
of the Bureau to prepare before the end of the current year a full
report on the nature, extent, and condition of these papers, to give
a close estimate of the proportion already printed in the "American
State Papers," and to indicate the nature of the important histor-
ical information they contain, especially in periods of peculiar inter-
est. A large portion of this task has already been accomplished.
A few documents of special importance have been discovered and
edited, notably a sketch of " Pinckney's Plan for a Constitution,
1787," printed in the "American Historical Review," July, 1904.

The beginning of what it is hoped may be a valuable series of
monographs has been made by the publication of ' ' The Influence
of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy, 1 787-1 798," by Prof. E. D.
Adams, of Stanford Universit}'.

The task of making a full list of the Washington letters has been
begun. While there are many of these letters in a few collections,
others are widely scattered throughout this country and Europe, and
the preparation of anything approximating a complete list will
naturally be the work of some years.

68 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

The subject of an international magnetic bureau is fully pre-
sented by Dr. L>. A. Bauer in Year Book No. 2, accompanying
papers, pp. 203-212. The Executive Committee recommended to
the Board of Trustees that a grant of $20,000 be made for magnetic
research by the Carnegie Institution, it being proposed not to take
up such magnetic work as is already well provided for by national
bureaus, but only such as lies outside the proper sphere of activity
of these bureaus, the nature of whose appropriations usually limit
their work within the confines of their countries. Furthermore,
the purpose is to gather together and unite in one harmonious whole
all existing knowledge and facts, so that the directions in which
future work can most profitably be accomplished will be set forth.
The investigations promise not onl}^ to have scientific utility, but to
reach results of great practical importance, e. g., the determination
of the magnetic data necessarj^ for safe navigation at sea.

The favorable action of the Trustees at the annual meeting in
December, 1903, and the reference of the project to the Executive
Committee resulted in the formation of a Department of Interna-
tional Research in Terrestrial Magnetism, with Dr. E. A. Bauer as
director, and with authorization to begin work April i, 1904. The
first allotment was $20,000.

Report of the Department of International Research
IN Terrestrial Magnetism.

By L. a. Bauer.

In conformity with the authority conveyed in the Secretary's
letter of March 29, 1904, the work of the above department was
begun on April i, 1904, and since then has been steadily prosecuted.

The foreign advisory council consists at present of the following
members : Professors J. Elster and H. Geitel, of Wolfenbiittel, Ger-
many (advisers in atmospheric electricity) ; Prof. E. Mascart, Director
of the Bureau Central Meteorologique of France ; Prof. A. Schuster,
Director of the Physical Laboratory, Owens College, Manchester,
England ; Prof. Adolf Schmidt, in charge of the Potsdam Magnetic
Observatory, Germany.

Owing to the large amount of office work that could at once be
taken up with the force available, it proved advantageous on ac-
count of the conditions under which .some of those employed could

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 69

render service, to rent modest private quarters in addition to those
furnished in the Coast and Geodetic Survey Office. Such other
requisite facilities as were possible were readily and courteously
furnished by the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey
for the furtherance of the work of the department ; thus instruments
and books were loaned, and training in observation and computing
was given to certain employees.

OFFICE WORK PERFORMED.

Investigation I. A general compilation and discussion of magnetic data
for the complete presentation of our existing knowledge of the secular
variation of the earth's magnetism over the entire globe, with the view of
determining the points at which it will be necessary to repeat observations
at suitable intervals, for the successful scientific investigation and deter-
mination of the causes and their modes of action, and for ascertaining the
proper corrections to magnetic charts to refer them to a desired date.

This investigation is in progress and will require some time for
completion. It involves a number of initial, related researches for
furnishing the necessary data and methods so as to permit exhibit-
ing and publishing the results on a consistent and homogeneous
basis. Thus, frequently a critical study of the observer's methods
and instruments must be made in order to furnish clues for the in-
terpretation of discrepancies either between his own results or be-
tween his and those of another observer at the same station. So
also it has been found necessary to make a critical study of the
existing magnetic maps since those of Sabine for 1840-45, with the
view of exhibiting the state of our existing knowledge of the distri-
bution of the magnetic forces and of the secular changes. Like-
wise, in order to furnish the necessary reduction corrections to the
observed quantities, it was requisite to make a compilation of data
pertaining to the diurnal variation of the magnetic elements and to
determine the laws governing their geographical distribution.

From these correlated studies useful permanent information has
been obtained and certain interesting and important results deduced,
of which the chief ones are :

Comparatively little increase in our knowledge of the gen-
eral distribution of the earth's magnetic forces has been made
during the past half-century, in consequence of which certain
constants requisite for the theory of the earth's magnetism are
not known at present with any greater degree of certainty than
for the epoch of the construction of Sabine's charts (1840-45).

70 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

In spite of the apparently vast accumulation of data, such an
important question as whether the earth's magnetic energy is
increasing or decreasing and the annual rate of change can not be
definitely answered. The chief reason for this unfortunate state of
affairs is that the accumulated material has not the required general
distribution, but pertains chiefly to civilized and restricted land
areas, leaving almost neglected the greater part of the earth covered
by water. Systematic magnetic survej^s of the oceanic areas are
entirely lacking, such results as are at hand having been obtained
from occasional expeditions or incidentally to other work. There is
here revealed to the Institution a most useful and promising field of
work, and definite recommendations pertaining to this matter will
be given in a separate communication.

The completion of the critical study of the modern magnetic charts
furnished the necessary data for drawing the following conclusion of
great interest in terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, and
meteorology, viz :

All of the modern magnetic charts — /. e., since those of
Sabine for 1840-45 — unite in indicating the probable existence
of vertical earth-air electric currents of the average intensity
over the region 45° N. to 45° S. of ^ of an ampere per square
kilometer of surface. These currents of positive electricity pro-
ceed upward (from the earth into the air) near the equatorial
regions, where there are ascending air currents, and downward
near the parallels 25° to 30°—/. r. , in the regions of descending
air currents. Near the parallels 40° the electric currents are
again upward, thus corresponding once more with the general
atmospheric circulation. Beyond the parallels 45° the results
appear too uncertain to warrant drawing a definite conclusion.

In order to make some tests as to the manner of distribution of
the upward and downward electric currents, the currents over quad-
rilaterals bounded by two parallels 10° apart and two meridians,
likewise 10° apart, have been derived for the entire region from
60° N. to 60° S. for the three epochs 1842, 1880, and 1885. As a
general result it did not appear as though the directions of the
electric currents — whether up or down — were to be associated with
the distribution of land and water. There was, however, a decided
indication, Air each epoch, that over the areas of low pressure, where
the air currents are upward, there the electric currents were likewise,
in general, upward, and that over the areas of high pressure, where
there are descending air currents, there the electric currents were
likewise descending.

REPORT OP EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 7 1

Thus, as the average result from the three epochs we have :

Region. Quantity of electricity.

60° N t 6 ° ^ / ^°'' ^^^^^ °f ^°^ pressure + 829 X 10* amperes.

.00 . . ^ p^^ areas of high pressure — 638 X 10* amperes.

(+ means upward electric currents ; — means downward electric currents.)

The average eflfect of electric currents for the region 45° N. to
45° S. is on the east-west component of the earth's magnetic force,
o.ooi C. G. S. unit, or about one-fiftieth of the average value of this
component. The average effect on the horizontal intensity is about
one one-thousandth part — /. e. , on the order of the error of a field
determination.. However, the average effect on the declination is
about 0.2°, about six times the error of a reduced field determina-
tion of the declination on land and about one to two times the error
of a determination at sea by the most approved methods.

Another result of prime interest to the magnetist, geologist, and
geophysicist was deduced with the aid of the existing magnetic charts.
About 65 to 70 per cent of the total magnetization of the earth can be
referred to a uniform or homogeneous magnetization about a diameter
inclined 11.4° to the axis of rotation. Deducting this " primary "
portion, there is left a "secondary or residual field," representing
the want of uniformity in the distribution of the earth's magnetism.
This secondary field has been mapped out by the department for the
two epochs 1840-45 and 1880, the writer having mapped out, in
1896 and 1899, in a similar manner, this field for 1885. The same
general characteristics are exhibited for the three epochs.

It is definitely shown that the residual permanent magnetic
field of the earth is not a heterogeneous one, such as it would
be if, for example, its formation were primarily to be referred
to the irregular distribution of magnetic materials in the earth's
crust. On the contrary, although the magnetic system is
somewhat complex, it is yet quite systematic in its structure,
consisting chiefly of two main magnetizations approximately
transverse to the axis of rotation. There is, therefore, a very
strong indication that this field is produced by some distinct
physical cause operating in the same general manner over the
entire earth. The hope is thus clearly held out that we may
still further resolve the residual field, starting with fundamental,
physical causes. The present belief is that the chief physical
cause of the residual field is to be referred to the distribution
of temperature within the stratum of the earth's crust here
concerned.

For there is a very remarkable correspondence between the prin-
cipal features of the residual magnetic field and those exhibited on

2 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

a chart of isabnormal temperatures. It was found that the earth as
a magnet acts like any other magnet as regards appHcation of heat.
Thus, wherever the earth's surface is relatively warm, on the average
for the year, there the magnetization of the earth shows a decrease,
and where, on the other hand, it is relatively cold, there it suffers an
increase.

It was further found that —

there is very close similarity between the residual permanent
magnetic field of the earth and that of the field of forces causing
the diurnal variation of the earth's magnetism; and there ap-
pears to be more than a mere chance connection in this relation,
as is shown b}^ the simultaneous studies of the vector diagrams
for various parallels as resulting from the two respective fields.

Investigation II. Discussion and publication of the data on the magnetic
perturbations observed during the eruption of Mont Pelee, Martiniqvie, 1902.

The data obtained as the result of a circular letter sent by the
Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to observa-
tories over the entire globe were turned over by him, as agreed, to the
department for discussion and publication. First, the investigation
of the notable magnetic disturbance coincident with the eruption
on May 8, 1902, was undertaken, the necessar}- information having
been extracted from the reports and magnetograms received from
twentj^-six institutions distributed over the globe, and most impor-
tant results have been derived.

It was found that the Mont Pelee magnetic disturbance of
May 8, 1902, resembled a cosmic one in two respects, viz : First,
that the time of beginning of the disturbance was practically
the same around the whole earth ; and, second, that anj^ elec-
tric-current sy.stem capable of producing the observed phenom-
ena would have its seat chiefly outside the earth.

Owing to the peculiar vaporous nature of the products of the
eruption, it would appear as though their violent ejection was ac-
companied by the formation of electric charges above the earth's
surface sufficient to disturb the entire potential of the earth. We
thus have had shown us how a magnetic storm can be produced by
a tremendous explosion, and the further study may throw some
light upon the connection between terrestrial magnetic storms and
solar eruptions, and on the modus operandi of the operating forces.
The investigation is tnerefore being continued so as to include other
disturbances occurring at about the same time, and an examination

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 73

will be made of any possible previous instances in which terrestrial
eruptions were accompanied by magnetic disturbances.

The average time of the beginning of the magnetic dis-
turbance on May 8, 1902, was 7*" 54.1"" a.m., St. Pierre local
mean time. According to Heilprin, the hands of the clock on
the town hospital were found stopped at 7" 52".

As it is not known how accurately the clock kept local mean time,
it is probable that the time as given by the magnetic disturbance is
the most accurate determination of the time of the eruption to be
had.

Investigation III. Compilation, discussion, and publication of the existing
data concerning the variations of the earth's magnetism other than the
secular variation already provided for in Investigation I, and the perturba-
tions of the earth's magnetism.

In connection with Investigation I, it has been found necessary,
as related in that section, to make some preliminary sttidies on the
geographical distribution of the corrections due to the diurnal vari-
ation of the magnetic elements. More than this it has not been
deemed wise to attempt at present, until the correspondence with
institutions and persons has been completed. Some preliminary
negotiations have been entered into with Prof. Adolf Schmidt, in
charge of the magnetic observatory at Potsdam, Germany, regarding
the discussion of recent magnetic storms, to be conducted under
his direction, with the aid of computers employed by the department.

MISCELI^ANEOUS.

In order that the department may have full knowledge of material
and investigations, so as to avoid duplication and reveal deficiencies,
a circular has been prepared for forwarding to persons and institutions
engaged in work relating to the department. A card catalogue is
furthermore being kept of all publications and data obtained, for
ready reference by the members working in the department and for
rapidly replying to calls for information from outside. The depart-
ment is thus enabled to fill an important need in magnetic research.

The department was represented by the director at the following
congresses, viz : Eighth International Geographic Congress, Inter-
national Electrical Congress (St. Eouis), and International Congress
of Science and Arts (St. Eouis). At each of these congresses he
presented, upon special invitation, papers relating to the earth's

74 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

magnetism. He was also a delegate to the International Solar
Research Conference meeting in St. I^ouis, September 22.

The director has also been appointed a member of a committee of
the International Association of Academies, which is considering
methods for securing increased accuracy in magnetic work at sea.

PIEI.D WORK.

Nothing further could thus far be' attempted under this head than
to place orders, as authorized, for instruments required in future
work, study various designs, train certain of the employees in field
work with the aid of the facilities furnished and instruments loaned
by the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and to test
some recently arrived instruments. Preparations are being made for
international cooperation in magnetic and allied observations during
the solar eclipse of August 29-30, 1905, and a circular has been
issued inviting the cooperation of all those who can take part in this
important work.

Plans for systematic magnetic surveys of the oceanic areas have
been carefully considered. One magnetic outfit required for such
work has been received from the maker, and the constants of the
instrument have been determined. Also a feasible plan for a rapid,
systematic magnetic surv'ey of the North Pacific Ocean has been
worked out, in collaboration with Mr. G. W. Littlehales, hydro-
graphic engineer of the U- S. Hydrographic Office, and with the
advice of Captain E. W. Creak, formerly Superintendent of the
Compass Department of the British Admiralty, now retired, and of
O. H. Tittmann, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey. This project is published in full elsewhere.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 75

SPECIAI. GRANTS.

TRANS-CASPIAN ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION.
(Raphael Pumpelly, Newport, R. I., in charge. |i8,ooo.)

In Year Book No. 2, pages 271-287, there is a brief report of
Prof. Raphael Pumpelly' s first expedition to the Trans-Caspian
region. The second expedition was for the purpose of archeological
investigations in special areas noted on the first expedition. The
following report is an indication of the character of the results
obtained. The final report will be prepared as soon as practicable.

Professor Pumpelly left America in December, 1903. A week was
passed in Berlin, where he engaged as archeologist Dr. Hubert
Schmidt, of the Museum fiir Volkerkunde. Dr. Schmidt had ex-
cavated at Troy under Dorpfeld, and is an expert in prehistoric
pottery. A month was passed in St. Petersburg in getting permis-
sion to excavate in Turkestan.

On the 24th of March work was begun at Anau, near Askhabad.

The members of the party were Dr. Hubert Schmidt, archeolo-
gist ; Ellsworth Huntington, R. W. Pumpelly ; Langdon Warner,
Hildegard Brooks, Homer Kidder, volunteer assistants.

Professor Pumpellj^ chose Anau for beginning because in 1903 he
had seen in a cut in one of the tumuli painted hand-made pottery
and an abundance of bones. Its structure convinced him that it had
been a site of very ancient and long-continued occupation, and he
hoped that its bones might throw some light on the source of our
domestic animals.

The excavations in these tumuli and several shafts sunk in the city
of Anau traversed over 170 feet of the accumulations of successive
generations of peoples and extended from recent times down through
the iron and bronze civilizations 45 feet deep into the stone age.
One tumulus, wdth now 60 feet of accumulation, was abandoned
before the other was begun, and this younger one grew to a height
of over 70 feet, after which the neighboring city was founded, and
has now about 38 feet of accumulation. The time gaps between the
two tumuli and between the younger one and the cit)^ are, of course,
unknown quantities.

In the northern older tumulus the pottery is all hand-made, much
of it with painted decorations ; the lower 45 feet of culture-strata (or
earth and refuse residuum of long-continued occupation) shows a
culture with little or no knowledge of metals. Knives and domestic

76 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

implements of flint abound, but no arrowheads or indeed any w^eapon
of offense or of the chase was found in the lower division. In the
upper 15 feet there appear remains of objects of copper and lead.
Copper without a trace of tin is shown in the only analysis made as
yet ; other analyses will follow.

These two divisions are also sharply distinguished by a change in
the technique and painted decoration of the interesting pottery.

The southern j-ounger tumulus shows also two culture periods.
Its founders were already acquainted with the potter's wheel, and all
the pottery was made on the wheel. There was little painted ware,
and that was of inferior decoration. Of the 75 feet thickness of
culture-strata, the lower 63 feet show a fully developed bronze
culture. The upper division, 13 feet thick, is marked by the pres-
ence of iron objects and by a well-defined change in the character
and technique of the pottery, and, further, in the burial customs.
A peculiar form of burial existed through both of the culture periods
of the older tumulus and through the bronze period of the younger
tumulus — burial in a "contracted" position under the floors of the
dwellings. The twenty-eight skeletons studied bj^ Mr. Warner were
of very short stature ; whether of children or of adults remains to be
determined by a stud}' of the skeletons. This custom seems to have
stopped with the advent of the iron culture.

Professor Pumpelly suspected in 1903 that these tumuli were
older than the present surface of the surrounding plain. The exca-
vations of the present year show that their bases stand buried,
respectively, at least 27 feet and 23 feet deep in the younger strata
of the plain.

In order to stud}^ the relation between the progress of natural
events and the growth of these tumuli and their cultures, numerous
shafts were sunk both in the plain and to the bottom of the tumuli
and of the city, and Mr. R. W. Pumpelly made surveys and studies
bearing on the local phj-siograph}' in relation to the archeolog)'.

It was found that of the 27 feet of growth of the plain the lower
12 feet were due to natural river sediments and the upper 15 feet to
irrigation sediments ; but a surprising result of the study is the
proof that this whole growth was a relatively late episode in the life
of the tumuli. Only a brief outline of the histor}' can be given here.

The streams that rise in the high mountains of northern Persia
in emerging onto the Turkoman plains spread out and lose their
velocity and deposit their silt, forming fan-shaped deltas, covering
many square miles, and each making an oasis. The water is now

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 77

all used for irrigating these fertile spots. Beyond them is the desert.
Anau is on one of these fans.

The history of these tumuli and of the city is sharply character-
ized by the following four periods in the historj' of the plain or sub-
aerial delta :

(i) The north tumulus when founded stood on a hill at least 7
feet, and probably more, above the general plain surface, its dwell-
ings spreading down the slopes. The plain was then increasing its
height, through the deposition of river sediments, and continued to
grow until it had buried the base of the tumulus to a depth of 2 feet.
By that time, or later, the north tumulus was abandoned and the
south tumulus founded on an elevation about 2 feet above the plain.
The plain continued to grow until it had buried the base of the south
tumulus to a depth of 14 feet.

(2) Then followed a change of conditions, either climatic or
orogenic. The plain was cut down at least 19 feet.

(3) This was followed by another change, which caused the re-
filling of the cutting to the amount of 8 feet, y feet of this last growth
having occurred after the deposition in its sediments of pieces of the thor-
oughly characteristic pottery of the youngest {the iron) culture of the
south tumiibis.

(4) After this, irrigation began, through which the surface of
the plain was raised 1 5 feet higher, bringing it to its present condi-
tion, in which the north tumulus stands embedded to a depth of 27
feet, the south tumulus 22 feet, and Anau city 15 feet.

Thus it is evident that the whole of this growth has taken place
since the topmost 13 feet of the j^oungest tumulus was started —
i. e., after the accumulation of the 123 feet of bronze and neolithic
culture-strata. The base of the 38 feet of culture-strata under the
city of Anau stands on the same level as the base of the 15 feet of
irrigation sediment that surrounds it. The whole of this 15 feet of
irrigation deposit has, therefore, grown since the founding of Anau.

The maximum thickness of irrigation deposit in the oasis is appar-
ently 22 feet. It was .shown above that 15 feet of irrigation material
and 7 feet of natural sediment had grown up since some time after
the introduction of iron. Our observations show that the growth of
natural sediments was much slower than that of irrigation material.
Indeed, irrigation retains on the fields all of the silt which would
otherwise flow beyond the oasis. Therefore there can be little doubt
that irrigation in this region was introduced during the iron stage
of culture.

78 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The observations made have established approximately the relative
ages and rates of growth among themselves of the natural sediments,
the irrigation deposits, and the culture-strata. It remains to cor-
relate either of these with a chronological date. Unfortunately, the
coins thus far discovered were all of copper alloy and altered beyond
legibility, and the dating value of the various objects found will be
* known only after further study by specialists.

If the work should be continued, Professor Pumpelly has little
doubt that the culture-strata of the city of Anau will supply the
material needed to complete a most valuable time-scale.

The objects collected at Anau fall into four categories :

(i) A large amount of pottery most systematically collected by
Dr. Schmidt and studied by him at St. Petersburg.

(2) Five hundred and ninety-eight numbers of special objects,
representing all the objects used in daily life except the pottery and
larger stone implements. These also are being studied at St. Peters-
burg by Dr. Schmidt.

(3) Large stone implements.

(4) Many hundred pounds of bones of animals which were sys-
tematically collected at the older tumulus. These have been studied
by the archeological osteologist, Dr. Diirst, at Zurich. A recent
report from him shows that in the beginning of the oldest culture
zone of the tumulus — i. e., in the lower fifth part, there were only
wild animals, as follows :

Wild ox. Bos namadiais Falconer, agreeing closely with Bos
naviadiciis of the Central Asiatic Pleistocene, which represents for
Asia the Bos primigenius Boj.

Wild sheep, Ovis arkal Blasius.

Wild boar, Siis scrofa fcrus Gmelin.

Gazelle, Gazella subgutterosa Giildenstaedt.

Fox, Viilpes viontanus Pearson.

Wolf, Caiiis lupus.

The horse appeared to be Eqzms caballus L. {fossilis robustus
Nehring) , agreeing remarkably with Eqims caballus of the European
diluvial. Dr. Diirst is not sure that the horse was not tamed. The
progress of domestication of the ox and sheep is clearly shown and
begins to appear at about 12 feet from the bottom. From the wild
Bos 7ianiadicus (^pyirnigenms') were developed the domestic cattle, at
first as large as their ancestors, but diminishing to a smaller size in
the layers of the upper or copper (or bronze) culture of the tumulus.

Equally clearl)^ defined is the gradual progress of evolution from

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 79

the long-horned wild sheep, Ovis arkal Blasius, through the domesti-
cated contemporary long and short horned animals, of which one
form stands very close to the Ovis palustris of European culture-
strata, and with occasional hornless individuals in the upper layers
of the lower culture, to marked frequence of hornless sheep in the
upper or copper culture.

The goat appears to have been imported already domesticated
from Iran, as it corresponds to the wild forms of that region and
the Caucasus.

While only the wild boar, Sus scrofa fcrus Gmelin, occurs in the
oldest culture-strata, there comes in at about 12 feet above the bot-
tom a much smaller pig, corresponding to Sus palustris of the lake
dwellings of Europe and probably derived from the neighborhood
of India.

The camel, Canielus badriamcs , does not appear till in the upper
or copper culture of this tumulus.

In the great collection of bones from this tumulus there is no
trace of the domestic dog, the cat, the ass, or of fowls.

Dr. Diirst's is the most important contribution made as yet in
connection with the relation of European culture to Asiatic migra-
tions, being based, as it is, on material from excavations.

On the 1 8th of May the expedition left Anau for Merv, prac-
tically driven away by the vast quantity of decaying locusts in our
pits and on the fields.

At Old Merv only two weeks were spent, with about 150 work-
men, in reconnaissance excavating to decide as to the desirability of
extended work and the nature of the problem. This work was con-
fined to the ruins of Giaour Kala, a city of several square miles area
and up to 50 feet thickness of culture-strata. The effects of the
intense heat and of enteric disorders, both on the natives and on the
members of the partj^ cut the work short. The results will appear
only after the study of the finds, now being made by Dr. Schmidt.

In judging what has been accomplished during the past short
season's work, it should be remembered that Russian Central Asia
is an absolutely new field, archeologically speaking; there have been
heretofore practically no scientific excavations, the excellent inves-
tigations of the Russian archeologists having been confined to Russia
proper, Siberia, and the Caucasus. Professor Pumpelly had there-
fore practically no clews to follow other than those furnished by his
observations of 1903 over a large area and necessarily of a superficial
character.
7

8o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH.

(For experiments on elasticity and plasticity of solids. George F. Becker,
Washington, D. C. Grant No. 172. $7,500.)

The space for these experiments, which was furnished by the
U. S. Geological Survey, became available in July. A testing ma-
chine, built to order by Riehle Brothers, and other apparatus has
been installed and various preliminary tests have been made. Mr.
Taft, Secretary of War, in recognition of the importance of the inves-
tigation, has consented to allow the Washington Monument to be
employed for experiments on the elongation of wires under vary-
ing loads. A vertical air-tight tube has been put in place from the
top to the bottom of the stairwa}', and observations will begin soon.
Wires nearly 500 feet in length will be annealed in the vertical tube
by electricity and their elastic elongations determined to a minute
fraction of a millimeter by Mr. J. R. Benton.

It has been shown by Dr. Becker that there is extremely strong
theoretical ground for the belief that the load-strain function is
logarithmic, and his assistant, Mr. C. E. Van Orstrand, has since
reached the same result by an independent method. Experiments
by Dr. Becker on india-rubber, carried as far as strains doubling or
halving the length of cylinders, have been shown to agree with this
law. The experiments of Mr. J. O. Thompson, made some years
since in Kohlrausch's laboratory, on steel, copper, and silver wires,
have been computed by Mr. Van Orstrand. They, too, agree mi-
nutely with the logarithmic law.

It is believed that the equipment will be completed by November i .

(Investigation of mineral fusion and solution under pressure. Arthur L. Day,
Washington, D. C. Grant No. 171. $12,500.)

The general purpo.se of the grant was to increase and extend the
work of the high-temperature research in certain particular directions:
( I ) By increa.sing the scope of the researches of the rock-forming
minerals at extreme temperatures ; (2) by providing for experimenta-
tion at extreme pressures as well ; and thereby (3) to develop apparatus
for experiments upon aqueo-igneous fusion.

The grant was made upon condition that suitable laboratory space
be set apart for the purpose in the U. S. Geological Survey. The
space provided became available on July i, and has since been
equipped by the Surve}' with the usual laboratory facilities, power
for an instrument shop, and electrical connections of good size and
variety.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 8 1

Plans have been prepared for the following apparatus, a part of
which is being built in the laboratory shop and part elsewhere. The
work of construction is already well advanced.

(i) An apparatus for the fundamental investigation of tempera-
ture values above 1,200° C.

(2) An electric furnace of the graphite resistance type for gen-
erating extremely high temperatures under moderate gas pressures.

(3) A platinum resistance furnace, in which extreme pressures are
dev^eloped under moderately high temperatures.

(4) An iridium resistance furnace (Nernst model), in which tem-
peratures up to 2,000° can be reached in a neutral atmosphere or
vacuum,

(5) An electric plant and regulating facilities for supplying proper
current to these furnaces.

(6) Suitable apparatus for developing the pressures which will
be required for the investigations.

The following researches will be begun as soon as the apparatus
is ready :

(r) A fundamental investigation of temperature measurement
above 1,200° C.

(2) An investigation of fusion and solution phenomena in certain
feldspars and pyroxenes.

(3) The development of apparatus for the simultaneous applica-
tion of pressure and temperature to the rock-forming minerals in
the presence of water.

The second investigation is already well under way.

( Preparation of a bibliography of geophysics, requiring two years. Carlos de
Mello, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 170. |5,ooo.)

The period of Mr. de Mello' s work covers nine months, beginning
January i, 1904. The work is being carried forward under twelve
subjects, as follows :

1. General and synthetical works on dynamical and structural
geology, physical geology, physical geography, physics of the globe,
and geophysics.

2. The earth astronomically and geodetically considered : (a)
Origin and movements of the earth, (d) Density, gravity (experi-
ments and results), (c) Movements of the earth's axis, (d) Ori-
gin of the tides. (<f) Meteorites. (/) Experimental investigations.

3. History of principles and doctrines of geophysics (extracted
from astronomy, meteorology, physics, physics of the globe, phys-
ical geography, and geology).

82 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

4. Helps and hints (auxiliary elements) : (a) Geological and
mineralogical chemistry, (d) General works on microscopic pe-
trography, (c) Rock analysis, (d) Synthetical procedures (unity
of forces in geology, unity of forces in nature, conservation and
transformation of energy, unity of science).

5. Paleo-climatology : («) General and synthetical, (d) Analytic.

6. Structural geology : (a) Sedimentation, (d) Metamorphism
(mechanical, physical, chemical), (c) Epeirogeny. (d) Orogeny.
(c) Isostasy. (/) Thermodynamics, (g) Experimental investi-
gations.

7. Dynamic geology : (a) External forces, (d) Erosion, (c)
Earth's crust, (d) Temperature changes in depth. (<?) Interior
of the earth. (/) Geological time.

8. Volcanology : (a) Theory of vulcanism. (d) Distribution of
volcanoes, (c) General and synthetical works on volcanoes, (d)
Particular and analytic works on volcanoes, (e) Theories of in-
trusion. (/) Geysers, hot springs, etc. (g) Experimental inves-
tigations.

9. Seismology : (a) Seismometry. (d) Earthquakes, generally
and synthetically, (c) Earthquakes, particularly and analytically.

ID. Glaciology : (a) Theories of glacial age. (d) Theories of
glacial motion, (c) Experimental investigations.

11. Terrestrial magnetism.

12. Physical properties of minerals, rocks, and magmas : (a) Con-
stants, (d) Fusion and solidification, (c) Rock synthesis, (d) De--
formation. (<?) Jointing and faulting. {/) Viscosity of magmas.
(g) Diffusion of magmas, (/z) Mineral solutions.

The number of titles entered on cards October i, 1904, is 6,566.
The first section of the bibliography, entitled "Synthetical Geo-
physics," is nearly ready, and will form a volume of about 200 pages.
The bibliography will include references from the third century.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 83

SECONDARY GRANTS.

The following is a record of the grants, not already mentioned,
made under the allotment of $200,000 for minor grants. A few
reports on grants made in 1902-1903 are included, as the work under
them was continued into the fiscal year 1 903-1 904 :

ANTHROPOLOGY.

George A. Dorsey, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 111. Grant
No. 97. For eUuwlogical i7ivestigation among the tribes of the
Caddoayi stock. $2,500.

Abstract of Report. — As a result of the year's investigations the
conditions of the investigation of the mythologies of the Caddoan
tribes is as follows: The manuscript entitled "Traditions of the
Skidi Pawnee " has been printed by Houghton, Mifflin & Company
as volume 8 of the Memoirs of the American Folk-Lore Society ;
the manuscript entitled "The Traditions of the Arikara " has
been printed ; the manuscript containing the investigations among
the Wichita, entitled "The Mythology of the Wichita," and em-
bracing an extended introduction, which may be regarded as a
preliminary report on the social organization of this tribe, has been
submitted to the Institution, is being printed, and will soon be dis-
tributed ; the investigation of the traditions of the Chaui, Kitka-
hahki, and Pittahauirata bands of the Pawnee has been completed
and the manuscript will be prepared for the printer this winter ; the
investigation of the mythology of the Caddo is over half completed,
will be continued during the early part of the coming year, and the
manuscript will be submitted to the Institution some time next j^ear.

The result of the investigations among the ceremonies of the tribes
of the Caddoan stock is as follows : A preliminary' but somewhat
extended investigation has been made of the religious ceremonies of
the Wichita ; a large number of ceremonies not heretofore held for
many years have been witnessed among the Pawnee proper ; addi-
tional information has been gained about practically all of the great
so-called ' ' bundle ceremonies ' ' ; rituals filling about one hundred
phonographic cylinders have been added, these covering some of the
most important and most interesting ceremonies of the Skidi. De-
tailed information has been obtained of many of the most important
Skidi ceremonies, especially the Medicine Men's ceremony and the
ceremonies of the so-called "bundles" dedicated to the Morning
and Evening Stars and to the institution of the office of warrior.

84 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

William H. Holmes, Director of Bureau of American Ethnology,
Washington, D. C. Grant No. 44. For obtaining evideyice rela-
tive to the history of early 7nan in America. (Abstract of first
report is in Year Book No. 2, p. xvi.) $2,000.

Mr. Holmes has not prepared a report for publication, but has
placed the results of the preliminary survey in the hands of the
Institution in such shape that it may be available in case the investi-
gation is taken up later by the Carnegie Institution or by some other
organization. He reports that no trace was found in any of the cave
deposits of remains that can be safely attributed to a pre-Indian race
or to a state of culture different from that of the known peoples of
the region. The evidence as applied to the question of antiquity is
therefore negative, but is nevertheless important, and will have value
when we come to consider the history of the occupation of the Ameri-
can continent by primitive men. The collections made relate mainly
to the American Indian, and a few fossil remains are included. The
material collected has been deposited in the U. S. National Museum.

ARCHEOLOGY.

Frederick J. Bliss, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 99. For excava-
tions in Syria a7id Palestine. $1,500.

Dr. Bliss did not begin work in the field until September, so that his
report is to the effect that he is in the field and ready to begin work.

George F. Kunz, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 52. To investigate the
precio2is stones and minerals used in ancient Babylo?iia, in connec-
tion with the i7ivcstigation of Mr. William Hayes Ward. $500.

Abstract of Report. — Mr. Kunz reports that his work thus far has
been that of collecting literature and preparing himself to conduct
the investigation when the work of Dr. William Hayes Ward is
about completed.

W. Max Muller, Philadelphia, Pa. Grant No. 98. For investigating
7nomunents of Egypt and Nubia. $1 , 500.

Before reaching Egypt Dr. Muller visited the museums at Eondou
and Oxford, England ; Brussels, Belgium ; Munich and Bonn, Ger-
many ; Vienna, Austria, and consulted with prominent Egyptologists.
On arrival at Cairo he spent six weeks studying the contents of the
great museum there. At Thebes two weeks were spent in making
important observations, but severe illness, resulting from sunstroke,
interfered greatly with the work which he expected to accomplish
during the remainder of the season. From the material collected
he expects to publish a volume which will be of much value.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 85

William Hayes Ward, New York. Grant No. 131. For a study of
the oriental art recorded on seals, etc. , from western Asia. $1, 500.

Abstract of Report. — During the summer of 1904 Dr. Ward was
abroad, giving his entire time to work in the British Museum and
other Enghsh and Scotch collections of seal cylinders. He secured
a large number of casts and photographs. This supplemented the
work he had done during the previous summer in Paris and Berlin.

Dr. Ward has now written nearly the whole of the analysis and
description of the seal cylinders of the early and middle Babylonian
empires, which covers more than half of the whole work. He has
already prepared some 220 pages for printing. These include 26
chapters, with a full bibliography of the subject, an introduction on
the origin, use, and materials of the cylinders, and a classification
and explanation of the designs, with an identification of the gods
figured and emblems employed. This begins with the most archaic
period and carries on the development into the later conventional
forms. Besides this text thus carefully prepared, he has selected from
all published — and many unpublished — sources for these 26 chapters
375 cylinders, of which 320 have already been drawn. In addition
a number of chapters have been written but not yet revised and copied
for publication, and some 70 drawings have been made for other
chapters. It is believed that the work will be completed in 1905.

ASTRONOMY.

Lewis Boss, Dudley Observatory, x^lbany, N. Y. Grant No. 100.
For astronomical observations and computations. (First report is
in Year Book No. 2, p. xviii.) ^5,000.

The program outlined in the preceding annual report has been
followed, with some modifications of detail, throughout the year.
Work has been prosecuted in two lines :

(i) In the section of observation, reductions of observations
already made for the new Albany Catalogue have been carried nearly
to the completion of the work. The observations for this catalogue
were made at Albany in the years 1896 to 1901. This catalogue will
contain about 10,000 stars, of which about 8,000 are in the zone
— 20° to — 37° of declination. Every star in that zone denoted by
reliable authority as brighter than magnitude 7.5 is included in the
program, together with many other stars that are fainter. This
catalogue can be made ready for publication very promptly at any
time when means for its publication may become available.

86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

(2) The main section of the work has been in continuation of
that carried on in several previous years. This is the determination
of star positions and motions from a homogeneous treatment of all
material of observation readily available. This includes in the first
line the standard stars which are the natural basis of the investiga-
tion. The results for 627 of the principal standard stars have already
been published. A small volume containing these results, with an
account of the investigation upon the systematic corrections in right
ascension and declination for all the catalogues of observation, has
been printed and will shortly be distributed.

During the year of this report the work on the standard stars has
been extended. The positions and motions of a total of about 1,500
stars which may be reckoned in this class are now computed and are
ready to be incorporated in a general catalogue. About two years
ago the idea was entertained of forming a general catalogue of the
brighter stars, together with other stars for which exceptionally
accurate positions and motions could be computed.

Much work to this end had already been accomplished at that
time. Later on this idea developed into the plan of including all
stars down to the sixth magnitude, with the fainter stars already
mentioned. Thus the work of preparation is going on for a general
catalogue of all those stars. The positions and motions are com-
puted with the same care as that which has been the rule for stand-
ard stars. Work on this line has been pushed with vigor during the
past year. Special attention has been given to the revision of the
systematic corrections employed as new material accumulates from
time to time. The computations for a total of about 2,700 stars have
been nearly completed, and work upon the remaining 2,300 is pro-
ceeding. It is hoped that the entire work will be ready for printing
during 1905, and it is supposed that this general catalogue will
include about 5,000 stars. Nothing of the kind has appeared since
the publication in 1845 of the catalogue of the British Association.
It is therefore believed that this catalogue will be found generally
useful, apart from its primary design of furnishing a large number
of systematically accurate observed motions of stars.

W. W. Campbell, Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal.
Grant No. 53. For pay of assistants in researches at Lick Observ-
atory. (First report is in Year Book No. 2, p. xix.) $4,000,

Abstract of Report. — The expenditure of funds under this grant
was made only as suitable assistants were procurable, and after
living quarters on the mountain were constructed for their accom-

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 87

modation. One assistant, employed since May 8, 1903, in the me-
ridian circle department, has been engaged in the reduction of the
observations of the 2,800 stars in Sir David Gill's Zodiacal L,ist. It
is expected that the reductions will be completed in the summer of
1905. The purpose of the investigation is to supply more accurate
positions of the principal stars near the paths of the planets of the
solar system, to form a basis for improvements in their orbits. The
assistant has also taken part, with Astronomer Tucker, in an exten-
sive investigation of the division errors of the meridian circle by the
method of simultaneous readings on both circles by the two observers,
and he has made more than 9,000 circle readings for this purpose.

Three assistants have contributed, under the direction of Director
Campbell, to the determination of stellar motions in the line of
sight with the 36-inch equatorial and the Mills spectrograph ; one
assistant since July 17, 1903, and two assistants since June 20, 1904.
The direct results of their work are as follows : The securing of
28S new spectrograms ; the approximate measurement and reduc-
tion of 65 spectrograms ; the definitive measurement and reduction
of 240 spectrograms ; the investigation of the micrometer screws of
two measuring microscopes ; the keeping up of the records of the
investigation ; the investigation of the temperature coefficient of the
one-prism spectrograph, together with the design of a temperature
case and thermostat ; the investigation of the loss of light by absorp-
tion and reflection in the 36-inch objective and the correcting lens ;
the investigation of the loss of light by diffraction at the slit of the
Mills spectrograph. An additional assistant in spectroscopy has
been engaged for Januarj^ i, 1905.

Herman S. Davis, Gaithersburg, Md. Grant No. 102. For a new
reduction of PiazzV s star observations. (First report is in Year
Book No. 2, p. xix.) $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — Considerable work has been done toward de-
termining the errors of adjustment of the meridian circle. Secular
variations of precession in right ascension and declination have been
computed for all stars by the method given mA.N. 396^. A critical
discussion of the identity of all Flamsteed stars has been made for
the column of star names in the final catalogue. Compilation has
been made in form Z of all quantities thus far obtained (which will
be published in the definitive catalogue), that they may be handy
for reference as the work progresses. Explanatory introductions to
many of the ' * forms ' ' of manuscript have been written and the
volumes bound.

88 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

George E. Hale, Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis. Grant No.
103. For vieasiircineyits of stellar parallaxes^ solar photo^r'aphs,
etc. (First report is in Year Book No, 2, p. xx.) $4,000.

Abstract of Report. — This work has been carried on by Dr. Schles-
inger, assisted by Miss Ware. The principal purpose of the investi-
gation is to utilize the 40-inch telescope of the Yerkes Observatory
for measuring the distances of a selected list of stars. The great
focal length of the instrument and the possibility of obtaining well-
defined stellar photographs with it particularly adapt it for this
investigation.

The preliminary experiments demonstrated that the telescope
could be used for photography without a color screen. They also
showed that 8 by 10 inch plates would be required for the work.
Accordingly, a special measuring machine, large enough to take
plates of this size, was ordered from Gaertner and received in De-
cember, 1903. The various errors of the machine have been care-
fully investigated, and the instrument has proved to be well adapted
to its purpose. Of the large number of photographs obtained during
the year, 71 have been coLnpletely measured for the determination
of parallaxes.

The preliminary reduction of the results indicates that they may
be expected to yield very precise determinations of stellar paral-
laxes. In the case of the double star Struve P. M. 2164, the
differences between the parallaxes of the two stars, amounting to
0.03, led to the discovery that the system is a true binary, in spite of
the great separation and the faintness of the two stars forming it.
The period of the system is probably between 350 and 400 years.
Only two other binary systems are known that have greater separa-
tion of the companion stars, and both of these are much brighter
than the pair under discussion. The corrected parallaxes for the
system, as determined independently by the two observers, are in
excellent agreement and have a very small probable error. This
and other similar results are of special interest in showing the high
degree of precision obtained in photographic measures made with a
telescope constructed for visual observations only and employed in
the present investigation without a color screen.

Stellar Photometry. — Mr. Parkhurst has continued his photometric
observations with excellent results. In addition to the wedge pho-
tometry previously employed, he has had the use of a polarizing
photometer kindly loaned by Prof. George C. Comstock, director
of the Washburn Observatory. The 6-inch and 24-inch reflectors

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 89

an J the 12-inch and 40-inch refracting telescopes have been used as
heretofore.

The measurement of the magnitudes of the ninth and twelfth
magnitude stars in the northern Rumford fields has been completed.
There are still lacking nineteen sets to complete the work on the
sixteenth magnitude stars with the 40-inch telescope. Work has
been continued on a selected list of twenty-five variable stars, deter-
mining the light curves and the magnitude of the comparison stars.
All the fields of the variable stars have been photographed with the
24-inch reflector, insuring a correct identification of the comparison
stars and furnishing material for the determination of the photo-
graphic magnitudes. Other investigations include the photometric
measurement of ninth to twelfth magnitude companions of some of
the Struve double stars, made at the request of Professor Comstock,
the measurement of standard stars in the Pleiades, the calibration
of the wedge photometer by means of a polarizing photometer, etc.

In addition to several papers published in the Astrophysical Journal
and the Astronomical Journal, Mr. Parkhurst has completed the
manuscript of a large memoir, which includes a complete discussion
of his investigations in stellar photometry and his observations of
variable stars. This will be submitted to the Carnegie Institution
for publication.

Solar Investigations. — The reduction of the Kenwood Observatory
photographs of the sun, undertaken by Mr. Fox last year, has been
completed by him. This yields the first determination of the rotation
period of the sun as defined by the motion of the calcium flocculi.
The new method of measurement employed, which involves the use
of a globe upon which the photographs are projected, has proved
to be very rapid and sufficiently precise for the purpose. The rota-
tion periods of the calcium flocculi in different latitudes do not differ
greatly from the results obtained by Stratonoff for the faculae. The
manuscript describing this investigation has been completed and
will be submitted to the Carnegie Institution for publication.

Since completing these reductions in January, 1904, Mr. Fox has
been in charge of the Rumford spectroheliograph, which is employed
with -the 40-inch refractor of the Yerkes Observatory. With this
instrument he has obtained a large number of photographs of the
calcium and hydrogen flocculi and of the prominences. He has also
made photographs of the solar disk through certain dark lines of
the solar spectrum, and has devoted special attention to a comparison
of the photographs of the faculse with photographs taken with the

go CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

second slit set on the Hj band. The measuring globe has been
readjusted for use with this series of photographs, and the prelim-
inary reductions of the plates already measured shows that the rota-
tipn period will probably be in good agreement with that obtained
from the Kenwood plates. On account of their larger scale, better
contrast, and sharper definition, the photographs taken with the 40-
incli telescope should yield results much more precise than those
hitherto obtained.

Mr. Fox has also devoted some time to a photographic study of the
spectrum of lightning and to the measurement of photographs of
the spectrum of the spark, taken between iron poles in gases at high
pressures.

Simon Newcomb, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 104. For deter-
rninmg the elements of the vioon'' s viotion and testi?ig law of gravity .
(First report is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxi.) $2,500.

The circumstance which gives importance to the research is the
ascertained existence of inequalities of long period in the motion of
the moon for which no explanation has yet been found. These ine-
qualities are of such magnitude as to render impossible the prediction
of precise positions of the moon for many years in advance, and their
existence has been one of the two most perplexing problems of celes-
tial mechanics during the last half-century.

To investigate the cause of these deviations, researches of two
distinct classes are necessary. These are :

A. The computation from mathematical theory of the inequalities
of long period which may be produced by the action of the planets.
The problem involved in these computations is the most difficult and
complex in celestial mechanics. Although it has been attacked by
various authorities in recent times, it seems desirable, in view of the
importance of the subject, to reconstruct the whole work by methods
radically different from those hitherto adopted.

B. The comparison of the positions of the moon as computed from
the tables, with astronomical observations of its position in the
heavens. The observations best adapted to the present purpose are
those of occultation of stars by the moon. In a work published by
the Naval Observatory in 1878 Dr. Newcomb discussed all the obser-
vations of this class, as well as those of eclipses, from the time of
the most ancient Babylonian records up to 1750. Much work was
subsequently done in the Nautical Almanac Office toward continuing
these computations to the present time. Dr. Newcomb' s retirement
from active service in the Navy having prevented the completion of

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 9I

this work, an application was made to the Secretary of the Navy by
the Carnegie Institution in December, 1902, for the use of the com-
putations already made, in order that the work might be carried to
completion under the auspices of the Institution. This request was
complied with in March, 1903, and the work has since been prose-
cuted as rapidly as the limited time and means at Dr. Newcomb's
disposal have permitted.

The work of class A is substantially completed for the action of
all the planets which can affect the motion of the moon. The most
that remains is to check some portions of the work by duplicate
.computations, and to compute the direct action of Saturn, which
will probably prove too small to be of importance. It is interesting
as showing the certainty obtainable in mathematical astronomy that
the computation by the new methods, although radically different,
almost from the first figure, from those previously made, have led to
results substantially confirming those of Radau, whose investigations
are the most complete heretofore made. The principal differences
are that the more rigorous computation has shown a marked correc-
tion to the Jovian evection, due to the introduction of terms omitted
by the other investigators. But nothing has been found which ex-
plains the observed inequalities of long period, and it is therefore
probable that thej^ can not be due to the action of the planets.

In the work of class B the computation of 567 occultations, made
at various observing stations during the last seventy years, is
nearly complete. That they are not completely finished is owing
to a delay in procuring definitive positions of the occulted stars
from the Nautical Almanac Office. This want has recently been
supplied through the superintendent of the Naval Observatory, and
the comparison will probably be carried to completion before the
end of December. Besides these occultations, those observ^ed at
Greenwich and the Cape of Good Hope will be ultimately introduced.
They have been already reduced and compared in the publications of
the respective observatories. It is, however, necessary to transform
the results of this comparison in order to adapt them to the present
work. It is anticipated that before the end of the present calendar
year the comparison of the tabular and observed places of the moon
from the earliest Babylonian records up to the year 1903 or 1904 will
be completed. What will then remain will be the introduction of a
great number of small corrections to the tabular and observed posi-
tions and the discussion of the results with a view of determining
the elements of the moon's motion. It is expected that this work
will be completed during the year 1905.

92 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Dr. Newcomb states that the execution of the work has been pos-
sible only through the great mathematical ability, expertness in
astronomical computation, and general enthusiasm and fidelity of
Dr. Frank E. Ross, recently appointed research assistant by the
Carnegie Institution.

W. n. Reed, Princeton Observatory, Princeton, N. J. Grant No.
105. For pay of hvo assistants to observe variable stars. (For first
report see Year Book No. 2, p. xxii.) $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — From March i, 1903, to August 31, 1904,
17,112 settings have been made with the artificial star photometer
attached to the 23-inch refractor of the Halsted Observatory. The
observ^ations have been made on 149 nights. The observing list
has consisted, first, of those variable stars that have been reported
monthl}^ as faint by Prof. E. C. Pickering, director of the Harvard
College Observatory ; secondly, of certain stars selected as stand-
ards of magnitude that are now being observed by the Eick, Yerkes,
and Harvard observatories ; and, thirdly, of a few stars of special
interest, such as Z Draconis and the companion of Polaris.

The present photometer was found inadequate to the study of the
unique variations in Z Draconis that were discovered at this observ-
atory last year. For that reason a new nickel prism photometer
was ordered with a portion of the money granted by the Carnegie
Institution for this year. The delay in securing the proper prisms
from Germany was such that no observations have as yet been
made with the new instrument. The reduction of the observations
has been kept up to date and will be ready for publication as soon
as a correct value for the scale of the photographically prepared
' ' wedge ' ' has been determined from observations upon the Pleiades.

Henry N. Russell, Cambridge, England. Grant No. 2. For pho-
tographic dcterniinatio7i of the parallaxes of stars. $1,000.

The object of this work is to obtain by the photographic method
determinations of the parallaxes of stars. The working list con-
tains 76 stars, in 55 fields. Of these there are 29 stars of large
proper motion ; 21 whose parallaxes have been previously deter-
mined, but which are in need of revision ; 17 binary stars, belong-
ing to 12 systems; and 9 variable stars. Five stars, the parallaxes
of which have been previously well determined, are selected as test
objects and with a view of obtaining accurate positions for use in
future investigations of secular variation of proper motion. Twenty-

RKPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 93

eight of these objects are brighter than magnitude 4.5. These have
been photographed with the aid of a color screen. The instrument
employed is the Sheepshanks equatorial of Cambridge Observatory —
a photo-visual Coude refractor of 12 inches aperture and 20 feet focal
length, at present set apart exclusively for this investigation.

The photographic plates are made especially for this observatory
on plate glass. A reseaii is employed. The color screen consists
of a plate of plane-parallel glass, carrying a small rectangular patch
of yellow collodion film, and is placed directly in front of the sensi-
tive plate, so that the bright star is photographed through the film
at a reduction of brightness amounting to six magnitudes. The
plates obtained with this screen are highly satisfactory, the defini-
tion, if anything, being better than on ordinary plates, and there is
no indication of sensible distortion.

The first plate for measurement was taken November 18, 1903.
Up to June 28, 1904, 118 measurable plates, with four exposures on
each, have been obtained of 47 fields, 45 of which are of bright stars.
All photographs are taken within 30 minutes of the meridian.

At present 84 plates of 34 fields have been measured, and 64
plates of 24 fields have been completely reduced down to the for-
mation of equations. The x-coordinate is alone to be discussed,
thus halving the labor of measurement without sensible sacrifice of
accuracy. Two of the four images of a plate are measured in the
direct and the two others in reversed positions of the plate, thus
halving the labor of measurement without material sacrifice of accu-
racy. Eight symmetrically disposed comparison stars on each plate
have usually been measured. With few exceptions these are in-
cluded between the eighth and tenth magnitudes. The use of a
number of comparison stars facilitates recognition of a sensible par-
allax for any one of them. One such case has already appeared.

No attempt is made to deduce the standard coordinates of the
plates from meridian observations, and the short methods of Turner
and Dyson are employed in the reductions. These methods are
justified on account of the care exercised to have the parallax star
very near the center of gravity of position for the comparison stars.
The probable error of an ;(r-coordinate derived from a single plate
is about ±:o".o5, deduced from comparison of pairs of plates.

In carrying on this work encouragement, criticism, and advice
have been received from Mr. A. R. Hinks, the chief assistant of the
Cambridge Observatory, as well as from others, to all of whom
grateful thanks are due.

94 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Solar Observatory, flount Wilson, Cal., Dr. George E. Hale,
Director. Grants Nos. 70 and 185. $15,000.

As the result of the favorable report made by Professor Hussey
in 1903, a careful test of the conditions for solar work on Mount
Wilson (altitude, 5,886 feet) was undertaken by Dr. Hale in the
winter of 1 903-1904. In March, 1904, the work of erecting on the
mountain a 15-inch coelostat telescope of 61.5 feet focal length was
undertaken. The instrument was ready for use early in April, and
some excellent photographs of the sun were obtained with it. Since
that time a lyittrow spectroscope of 18 feet focal length has been
emplo3^ed with the telescope in a study of the spectrum of the
flocculi ; the resulting photographs are much superior to those pre-
viously obtained, and throw new light on the nature of the flocculi.

With the aid of meteorological instruments furnished by the
Carnegie Institution, daily observations of the temperature, wind
movement, and humidity were commenced in April and have been
continued regularly ever since. These indicate remarkably favor-
able conditions for astronomical work because of the great amount
of clear weather and the low humidity and wind movement. Up to
September i, 132 days out of 136 were suitable for obser^'ations.
Daily observations of the sun have been raadcAvith a small telescope
throughout this period. These show that the definition is superior
to that of any other site with which Dr. Hale is acquainted. A
complete report on these observations has been prepared and will be
submitted to the Carnegie Institution,

In April, 1904, the Carnegie Institution made a grant to provide
for the erection and use on Mount Wilson of the Snow coelostat
telescope of the Yerkes Observatory. Since that time the work of
construction on the mountain has been pushed forward as rapidly
as possible, and it is hoped that the instrument may be ready for
use before the end of the present year. In order to transport the
heavy parts of the instrument to the summit of the mountain it was
necessary to widen and improve the narrow trail, over 9 miles in
length, which leads to the valley. A special carriage was also con-
structed for this work, and at the present time this is making the
round trip daily. Practically all of the heavy parts of the instru-
ment, including the mirrors, are now at the summit of the moun-
tain. The large stone piers required for the coelostat and the solar
spectroscopes have been completed, and the house which is to cover
the instrument is being erected. A small machine shop, with gaso-
line engine and dynamo, has been constructed on the mountain to

KEPORT OF EXKCUTIVE COMMITTEE. 95

use in conjunction with the telescope and to supply power for pump-
ing water from the wells, which are 325 feet below the summit. A
detailed report will be presented after the completion of the build-
ings and instruments.

Mary W. Whitney, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Grant
No. 23. For 7ncasurement of astro7iomical photographs, etc. (First
report in Year Book No. 2, p. xxiii, ) $1,000.

The work upon the catalogue of stars within 2 degrees of the
North Pole, based upon photographs taken at Helsingfors, Finland,
is nearly ready for publication. The preliminary catalogue was
finished in the fall of 1903. The intercomparison of plates and the
other processes leading to the final catalogue are completed. There
remain some further consideration of magnitude and the final revision
of manuscript and tables.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Robert Fletcher, Army Medical Museum, Washington, D. C. Grant
No. 106. For preparing ayid publishmg the Index Mediacs.
(First report is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxiii.) $10,000.

Since the last report, the volume of the Index Medicus for 1903
has been completed, and the annual index to the same has been
issued. The latter consists of an index of authors in triple columns,
and an index of subjects in double columns. In the second part,
under appropriate headings, all the references in the year's volume
are brought together for convenience of consultation. Of the present
volume the monthly numbers from January to July, 1904, have been
issued, and the number for August is nearly ready. It may be men-
tioned that as each number represents the literature of an entire
month it can not be ready for delivery until the middle of the follow-
ing month.

The scope of the work is very broad in its relation to medical
science. It contains in classified form everything published through-
out the world, month by month, which treats of medicine or public
hygiene. The latter subject comprises all that concerns the public
health in its municipal, national, and international relations. The
work of biologic and pathologic laboratories, which are increasing
in number in all the principal cities of the world and are of signal
importance in the prevention of disease, forms a prominent part of
the Index Medicus.

The subscribers to the journal are principally residents of the

United States, but in the list are subscribers in Australia, Austria-
8

96 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Hungary, Bohemia, Canada, Denmark, England, Finland, France,
Germany, Ireland, Italy, Panama, Philippine Islands, Portugal,
Roumania, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Wales.

Ewald Fliigel, Stanford University, Cal. Grant No. 146. For the
preparation of a lexicon to the zvorks of Chaiicer. $7,500.

Abstract of Report. — The work as planned is to be a lexicon to the
works of Chaucer, based on the texts as published by the Chaucer
Society. It aims to give scrupulously exact and complete quota-
tions of all the words used in the genuine works of Chaucer, and in
such of the so-called "spurious" works about which still '^ szcb
jndice lis est.'' It aims, further, to give full information as to the
orthography and morphology of these words and their meaning,
usage, and construction. The individual article will consist of a
brief heading and a main part. The heading will consist of several
paragraphs.

The first rubric is to be devoted to the orthography of the words-
It is to give information about the different forms as they appear in
the different manuscripts ; about the dialectical and other peculiar-
ities of scribes, etc. ; about the rimes, if any ; about the accentua-
tion (it ought to give statistical information about changes of accent,
as between nature and nature, pite and pite, etc.).

The second rubric is to deal with the morphology of the words
{e. g., the parts of the verb, etc.).

The third with the etymology.

The fourth with the semasiology, with the meaning of the indi-
vidual words in Chaucer's time whenever necessary. It will answer
such questions as : "Is the word generally used in Chaucer's time,
and in the same meaning in which Chaucer uses it ? Is it an un-
common word or one with a special flavor? (Slang, courtier's
word?) If it is a French word, what is the meaning of the word
in contemporary Old French? How do Marchault, Deschamps,
Froissart use the word ? e.g.. What is the meaning of the French
word ' armee ' in Chaucer's time (' at many a noble armee had he
be ' ) ? Is it a military expedition on land or sea ? Is ' arrive '
(the reading of some MSS.) a French word in Chaucer's time?
What does ' presse ' mean in Old French ( ' Flee from the presse ' ) ?
etc. Does ' gouernance ' mean 'self-control' (as Skeat has it), or
' conduite ' (as the French usage of Chaucer's time proves it)?
Does ' Regalye ' mean ' rule, authority ' or rather ' royal preroga-
tive,' 'royal dignity,' etc.?"

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 97

The second main part of each article is to be devoted to Chaucer' s
use of the word.

(a) Here the quotations are to be arranged chronologically (as
far as possible) , beginning with the earlier works and ending with
the later ones.

{U) The whole material of the quotations to be arranged histor-
ically, and not primarily critically. Words, e. g., of L,atin origin,
like "honour," "religioun," "honeste," are to be arranged so that
7iot the original, classical meaning of the Latin word is to lead, but
that meaning which the word had in contemporary French (from
which Chaucer took it J. In other cases this may be different.

(^) Special attention in quoting is to be given to the construction
of the words, phrases, etc. As an example, the author will quote
" suffyse to thy thyng," " sufEse to thi god though it be small,"
and " suffise the thyn owne " — the first construction to be found in
Gower and Occleve, but a Latinism, and a I^ate Latinism at that.

The proper names will be in the main alphabet, but the author is
undecided about the admission of the MS. "headings" and MS.
" colophons " of the poems, etc. He is inclined either to give them
in smaller type or in a special alphabet at the end of the book. The
Latin and French quotations, the marginal glosses of some MSS. of
the Canterbury Tales, etc., are to be given in an appendix.

In order to achieve all this, the collections should contain :

First, complete references to all the words of Chaucer's works,
their various forms and all the accessible variants. The ' ' spurious ' '
works, as far as there are still dissenting views among the scholars
as to their authenticity — as far as there is still a shadow of doubt
as to the possibility of their being Chaucer's — are to be treated as
carefully as the "genuine" works; but typographically these quo-
tations are to be differentiated, making a comparison with the
genuine words easy typographically for the eye, and instructive.

Secondly, these collections should contain a sufficient collateral
apparatus of quotations from Chaucer's contemporaries and imme-
diate predecessors, in Middle English and Old French ; in some cases
of Late Latin authors.

Herbert Putnam, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 107. For pre-
paring and publishing a hayidbook of lear7ied societies. (First
report is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxiv.) $5,000.

The compilation of the handbook has been under the immediate
direction of Mr. J. D. Thompson, in charge of the Science section,

98 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Library of Congress. The work done during the past year has
consisted chiefly in —

(i) Endeavors to secure information about societies and institu-
tions which did not reply to the circular letters sent out in 1903, viz :

(a) Personal investigations in Europe: (i) By Mr. and Mrs.
J. D. Thompson (Great Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, Ger-
many, Italy, Switzerland). (2) By Mr. A. V. Babine (Russia,
Austria-Hungary). (3) By Mr. A. R. Spofford (Spain, Italy).
(4) By Mr. J. Dieserud (Norway, Sweden, Denmark).

(d) Assistance by the United States diplomatic service in South
America.

(2) Reducing to standard form the material received, at the same
time verifying the statements made and supplementing them, when-
ever inadequate, by reference to bibliographies and other publications
in the Library of Congress.

It is expected that the first part of the handbook will be ready for
printing in November, and that the manuscript of the remaining
parts will be completed within the two years allotted for compilation.
Arrangement of the societies by countries, with a subject index, is
proposed, in place of classification by subject, as originally approved.

BOTANY.

Desert Botanical Laboratory. Grant No. 108. Frederick V. Co-
ville, Washington, D. C, and D. T. MacDougal, New York,
N. Y. , Advisory Committee. $5,000.

Ab&trad of Report. — Dr. MacDougal, of the Advisory Committee,
was occupied at the laboratory during the month of Februar)^ 1904,
in planning and carrying forward an investigation of soil temper-
atures. Continuous observations have since been carried on by
means of the instruments installed at that time. In addition. Dr.
MacDougal made an examination of the vegetation of the delta of
the Colorado River and of adjoining portions of Lower California.
His papers on the latter work are enumerated below in the list of
publications emanating from the laboratory.

Dr. Coville, of the committee, visited the laboratory in June and
conferred with the resident investigator regarding the work and the
business aft'airs of the establishment.

Dr. W. A. Cannon, the resident investigator, has developed meth-
ods and apparatus for the quantitative measurement of transpiration
in plants m situ. He has prepared a paper describing the apparatus

PLATE 6.

DESERT BOTANICAL LABORATORY. A REAR VIEW, LOOKING NORTHWESTWARD.

DESERT BOTANICAL LABORATORY. VIEW IN REAR OF THE BUILDING, LOOKING SOUTHWESTWARD.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

and showing the application of the methods devised, which will
later be offered for publication. Incidentally, he has prepared and
published a paper on the germination of the desert mistletoes, as
given in the list on page loo.

Prof. V. M. Spalding, of the University of Michigan, was occu-
pied at the laboratory from October, 1903, until April, 1904, in an
investigation of the biological relations of the creosote bush and

FLOOR PLAN

Pig. 5. — Floor plan of Desert Botanical lyaboratory.

Other desert shrubs. By means of the apparatus developed by Dr.
Cannon, Professor Spalding ascertained that the creosote bush main-
tains a continuous transpiration in an adobe soil containing as low
as 3 per cent, of moisture (air dried). This indicates an absorptive
power far in excess of any heretofore recorded. (See page 100.)

Mrs. E. S. Spalding made observations on the giant cereus, and
ascertained the manner in which it adjusts the diameter of its trunk
to the varying amounts of water it is able to absorb and store. (See
page 100.)

lOO CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Dr. B. E. Livingston, of the University of Chicago, under a grant
from the Carnegie Institution, spent July to September, 1904, at the
laboratory, engaged in investigating various desert plants with ref-
erence to their power to abstract moisture from arid soils. The
results of his work have not yet been formulated.

Prof. F. E. Lloyd, of Columbia University, was occupied at the
laboratory from June to August, 1904, under a grant from the Bo-
tanical Society of America, in studying the comparative anatomy of
desert plants and the relation of their stomatal action to transpiration.
The results are to be incorporated in a paper now in preparation.

Following is a list of titles of papers descriptive of investigations
carried on in connection with the Desert Botanical Laboratory dur-
ing the past year :

Cannon, W. A. Observations on the germination of Phoradendron villostiui

and P. californicuni. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 31 : 435-443. 6 figs. r904.
MacDougal, D. T. Botanical explorations in the southwest. Jour. N, Y. Bot.

Gard., 5 : 89-91. i pi., 5 figs. 1904.
MacDougai., D. T. Delta and desert vegetation. Bot. Gaz., 38 : 44-63. 7 figs.

1904.
Spalding, V. M. Biological relations of certain desert shrubs. The creosote

bush [Covillea tridefitata) and its relation to the water supply. Bot. Gaz.,

38: 122-138. 7 figs. 1904.
Spalding, Effik SouThworth. Mechanical adjustment of the saguaro

(Cereus giganteus) to varying quantities of water. To be printed in the

Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.

Several applications for the privileges of the laboratory during
the coming year have been received.

A small storage building has been erected near the laboratory.
Electric fittings have been put into place, and necessary additions
have been made to the apparatus and equipment.

Burton E. Livingston, University of Chicago, Chicago, HI. Grant
No. 156. For mvcstigations of the relatio7is of desert plants to soil
moisttirc and to evaporation. $400.

Dr. Livingston's investigations were carried on at the Carnegie
Institution Desert Botanical Laboratory at Tucson, Arizona. The
work has been carried on by quantitative measurements of several
phenomena, the data of which have not yet been brought to a con-
dition to warrant more than a general statement. The months of
July, August, and part of September were spent at the Desert Botan-
ical Laboratory in making these measurements. The latter part of
September was spent in a town in the dry region lying still farther
west, and studies were made at several points in California.

PLATE 7,

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. lOI

The work may be outlined as follows :

(i) The amount of water in desert soils was determined by sam-
ples both after a long period of drought and after rains. The amount
of water at the dryest season, at no great depth, is surprisingly
great. After four to five weeks without rain the soil in the open-
ings between rock fragments, at a depth of 40 centimeters, was
found to contain water to the extent of 10 to 12 per cent by volume.
These observations were made on the shoulder of Tucson Mountain,
near the Desert Laboratory.

(2) The retaining power of adobe clay for water was measured
and found to be 50 per cent by volume.

(3) A piece of apparatus was devised to measure the natural
evaporation by short periods, and a curve was constructed for several
weeks. This rate was related to the loss by a free water surface,
soil of various degrees of moisture, sugar solutions, the leaves of
several desert plants, etc.

(4) The sensible temperature was recorded by short periods for
several weeks. The importance of wind in lowering this and in
raising the rate of evaporation is emphasized by the results.

(5) The amount of water necessary to promote germination in
several seeds was determined, as was also the degree of dryness
that could be withstood by several desert plants.

(6) The concentration 6f the juices of several desert plants was
found to be little or no higher than that of ordinary plants. The
amount of mucilage in the sap may have to do with retaining the
water. Further experiments on the relation of mucilage to evapo-
ration of its solution will be carried out.

(7) The resistance of soils of varying degrees of moisture to ab-
sorption by roots was determined by several methods, and this
reduced to terms of osmotic pressure.

(8) The power of a soil to absorb water from a moist atmosphere
was measured in several cases.

(9) The rate of transpiration of small plants (per unit leaf sur-
face) was determined during periods of several days, ending in the
wilting of the plant from lack of water.

E. W. Olive, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Grant No. 132.
For researches on the cytology oj certain lower plants. ( First report
is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxvii.) $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — Six distinct lines of research are in progress,
with a view of determining, if possible, the origin in the lower plants
of the complicated cell conditions found in the higher organisms.

I02 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The subjects include : (i) The cytology and development of Diplo-
phrys. (2) The morphology and development of Ceratiomyxa.
(3) On the cell organization of the larger bacteria. (4) On the
cytology of various blue-green algae. (5) On the cytology and
general morphology of various species of the Entomophthorese.
(6) The morphology of Monascus purpureus.

One paper on the blue-green algge is in press, another on Monascus
is almost ready for the publishers, while considerable progress has
been made, particularly on problems 2 and 5. Of special interest is
the discovery that the nuclei of the blue-green algse are, under
ordinary conditions, in a state of continuous mitotic activity, the
division occurring with more or less rhythmic regularity. Further,
the large nuclei of Empusa appear to present a somewhat new type
of karyokinetic division. They possess intranuclear division centers
and their minute chromatin granules do not become aggregated into
definite chromosomes.

V. M. Spalding, Tucson, Arizona. Grant No. 189. Forinvestigatioyi
of absoyption and transpiration of water by desert shrubs. $600.
Abstract of Report. — (i) The creosote bush maintains life for
long periods in a soil which gives up on drying no more than 3 per
cent of water ; it also grows in completely saturated soil. Plants
grown in pots three months, which were supplied with 53 ounces
of water during that period, made a scarcely less vigorous growth
than one which received no ounces in the same time. An accu-
mulation of similar facts will make it possible to give quantitative
expression to the power of adaptation of this species to extreme
conditions of water supply.

(2) The creosote bush maintains regular transpiration after long
periods of excessive drought. Experiments during the present year
have shown that the rate of transpiration is determined primarily
by the amount of water available in the soil. The action of other
factors is conditioned upon this. Thus direct sunlight accelerates
the rate of transpiration if the plant has a full supply of water, but
not otherwise.

(3) As indicated by plasmolysis, the actively absorbing cells of
the roots are capable of taking up water with a force equivalent to
upward of ten atmospheres.

(4) The production of root-hairs is increased within certain limits
by lessening the water supply. Regeneration of root-hairs takes
place when water is abundantly supplied to a plant that has been
living in dry soil.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 103

CHEMISTRY.

John J. Abel, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Grant
No. 109 (continuation of grant No. 24). For study of the chemi-
cal composition of the secretion of the siipra-renal gland. $500.

Abstract of Report. — Assisted by Mr. R. de M. Taveau, Dr. Abel
has continued his investigations on the chemical constitution of
epinephrin and of epinephrin hydrate (adrenalin, suprarennin).
Carefully conducted oxidation of both epinephrin and its hydrate
with dilute nitric acid led to the formation of large amounts of
oxalic acid; also of a peculiar and hitherto unknown basic substance
having the composition represented in the formula CjH^N^O. On
treating this base with fixed alkalies it is decomposed and yields
ammonia, raethylamine, and methylhydrazine. The occurrence of
methylhydrazine among these products leads the writers to conclude
that the two nitrogen atoms of the new base, CgH^N.O, are directly
linked to each other. More work, however, needs to be done before
this deduction can be made to apply to the nitrogen of epinephrin itself.

The action of fused alkalies on epinephrin hydrate has also been
studied. Skatol, which the writers had heretofore observed among
the fusionproductsofmonobenzoyl epinephrin, was now easily obtain-
able. A substance having some of the properties of protocatechaic
acid and yet differing from this acid in certain respects was also
obtained on fusion with sodium amalgam. This aromatic deriva-
tive is still under investigation.

An adequate constitutional formula for epinephrin must explain
not only all of the ordinary reactions of this substance, but also the
formation of the degradation products just enumerated. The
formulae that have been recently proposed fail to meet these demands,
being, for example, unable to account for the appearance of the
base, C3H4N2O, among the oxidation products of epinephrin. The
writers entertain the hope that further experimentation will enable
them to offer a formula which shall more correctly represent the
constitution of epinephrin.

As the correctness of the empirical formula, CjoHiaNOj^H.^O, for
epinephrin hj^drate has recently been challenged by European in-
vestigators, the writers are now engaged in a redetermination of this
formula. In order to obviate possible errors due to oxidation from
contact with the air, the whole process of isolation and all the steps
of purification are being carried on in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
This work is well on the way to completion, and the results will soon
be published.

I04 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Wilder D. Bancroft, Cornell University, Ithaca, N, Y. Grant
No. 140. For a systematic chemical shidy of alloys. (First report
is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxix.) $500-

Abstract of Report. — During the year the equilibrium relations for
the copper-zinc alloys have been determined. The two metals form
no compounds. The freezing-point curve has six branches, each one
corresponding to a series of solid solutions. Following the example
of Heycock & Neville, these have been called the «, /?, y, <\ £, and
rj crystals, beginning at the copper end. Below about 450° the
phase <^ is instable, and only five series of solid solutions occur. The
a crystals change with increasing content of zinc from the red of
copper to a full yellow. The /? crystals are distinctly redder than
the a crystals with which the}- can coexist. The other solid solu-
tions are silvery in color. Since the ;? crystals are ductile and the y
crystals are very brittle, a brass containing 41 per cent of copper has
a silvery fracture, while the polished surface is a pale yellowish red.
The ingot breaks along the y crystals, while polishing emphasizes
the /5 crystals.

The conclusions from the temperature measurements have been
confirmed by a careful microscopic study of the alloys. Forty-six
photomicrographs are reproduced in the account of this work pub-
lished in the June number of the Journal of Physical Chemistry.

Now that the equilibrium diagram has been finished, it will be
possible to take up the study of the mechanical properties of brass
and their variation with composition and heat treatment. The corre-
sponding studies on the bronzes, reported under grant 176, have led
to very interesting results. The work on the brasses will probably
not yield such striking results, but it will be equally important as
giving a rational explanation for the heat treatment.

In the report of last year there was submitted a provisional con-
centration-temperature diagram for the copper-tin-lead alloys. The
work has been repeated so as to obtain more accurate freezing-point
determinations. This has involved several changes in the recording
pyrometer, and we now have an instrument which is inexpensive
and yet capable of considerable accuracy. Automatic stirring and
the addition of nuclei have been resorted to in all determinations.
The more accurate results thus obtained have necessitated a revision
of some portions of the diagram.

Another point has delayed the publication of this work. In the
first report it was thought sufficient to accept Heycock & Neville's

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 105

incomplete conclusions as to the ,5 j region of the equilibrium dia-
gram. The mechanical tests which have been made this summer
have shown that we must know the exact temperature-concentration
limits for y3, r, and Cu^Sn. Work on this is now under way, and it
is expected that the report will be ready for publication before long.
The experimental work has been done by Mr. E. S. Shepherd.

Chas. Baskerville, University of New York, New York City.
Grant No. 113. For investigations of the rare earths. $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — The complexity of thorium has been demon-
strated. This may be shown by several methods, among which are
fractional precipitation with phenylhydrazine and fractional distil-
lation of the chlorides in the making direct from thorium oxide. A
very volatile portion distils over during the passage of dry chlorine
over a mixture of the pure oxide and carbon ; it may be collected
in part by cooling and completely by absorption in alcohol. Tho-
rium chloride at this temperature (760° C.) is sublimed within the
apparatus, while a residue remains in the carbon-boat which con-
tained the original mixture. This residue may be converted into
an oxide, which is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid. Neither
the original thorium preparation, nor the newer, purer compound,
nor the volatile portion is soluble in this reagent.

The oxides from these three substances vary in their appearance,
specific gravities, and atomic mass values as determined. Further
differences — as, for example, radio-activity— were also noted, and are
stated in a communication published in the Journal of the American
Chemical Society. A number of organic and other salts of the new
elements (carolinium and berzelium) have been prepared. We wish
next to investigate these and obtain the elements in metallic form.

Using the apparatus purchased by the grant, we have been investi-
gating the nature of neodidymium and prgeseodymium, the complex
nature of which has been predicted by several workers. So far
success has not attended this.

Gregory T. Baxter, Cambridge, Mass. Grant No. 154. For re-
search upon the atomic iveight of manganese . $500-
This work is to be carried on by a laboratory assistant during the
college year 1904-1905. Therefore there has hardly been an oppor-
tunity to begin it. Some preliminary work has been done, but a
definite report can not be made at this time.

Io6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Moses Qomberg and Lee H. Cone, Ann Arbor, Mich. Grants Nos.
78 and 153. For study of tnpke?iy I methyl and analogous com-
pounds. $500.

Abstract of Report. — Work under this grant was begun in October,
1903. A study of the physical properties of triphenylmethjd was
first taken up. Since the compound is very readily attacked by
the oxygen of the air, several pieces of special apparatus had to be
devised for carrying on this work. By their use it was possible to
determine upon pure samples the following constants of triphenyl-
methyl : The .solubilities, the melting point, the molecular weight in
several different solvents, and the electrical conductivity when dis-
solved in liquid sulphur dioxide. The results obtained were pub-
lished in the Berichte d. deut. chem. Ges. , vol. 37, pp. 2033-2051.

As an introduction to the study of the derivatives of triphenyl-
methyl with oxygen compounds, such as ethers, aldehydes, etc., the
effect of oxygen itself upon the hydrocarbon was first fully investi-
gated. The behavior of the peroxide so formed toward a number of
different reagents was also worked out. The results of this work,
together with a short preliminary notice as to the effect of sunlight
upon triphenylmethyl and its analogues, is now ready for publication.

The determination of the energy relations between hexaphenyl-
ethane and triphenylmethyl is of special interest. M. Jules Schmid-
lin, in the laboratory of M. Berthelot, has kindly offered to make the
requisite thermochemical measurements. Pure samples of the com-
pounds to be investigated have been prepared here and sent to him,
and the work of making the measurements is now in progress.
Other problems have arisen in connection with the work. They
relate largely to the improvement of old and the development of new
methods for the preparation of compounds of the type of triphenyl-
chlormethane, such as halogen- and nitro-substituted derivatives.
This part of the work has not yet been completed.

H. C. Jones, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Grant
No. 180. For ijivestigations in physical chemistry . (First report
is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxx.) $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — The investigation was carried out with the
assistance of Dr. F. H. Getman, Carnegie Research Assistant.

During the past year a study of about eighty electrolytes and a
dozen non-electrolytes with respect to their power to lower the
freezing-point of water has been made. A dozen or more solutions
of every one of these substances, varying in concentration from two or

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. I07

three times normal to a few hundredths normal, have been employed
and the molecular lowering of the freezing-point of water produced
by them has been determined. The refractivities, densities, and
conductivities of the above solutions have also been measured. In
all, more than a thousand solutions have been brought within the
range of this investigation. The results all point to the correctness
of the theory advanced some three years ago by Dr. Jones, that in
concentrated solutions of electrolj'tes there is combination between
the dissolved substance and the solvent. There are hydrates formed.
A general relation was established between the amount of water
of cry.stallization of electrolytes and the magnitude of the freezing-
point lowering produced by them. The two were shown to be
approximately proportional to one another. This is a necessary
consequence of the theory of hydration in concentrated solutions
and a beautiful confirmation of it. Those substances that crystallize
with the largest amounts of water of crj^stallization would be the
substances that in solution would hold the largest amounts of water
in combination, and this would manifest itself by abnormally great
freezing-point depression; and such is the fact. An enormous field
of work is thus opened up, which will be pushed forward as rapidly
as possible.

W. L. Miller, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Grant
No. 155. For the study of electric migrations in sohitio7is of zveak
acids. $500.

Professor Miller submitted an abstract of a long report by Mr.
W. J. McBain, who conducted the experiments on the electric
migrations in solutions of weak acids.

Abstract of Report. — Mr. McBain has determined the transport in
half-, tenth-, and fiftieth-normal acetic acid, and in tenth-normal
propionic acid, and finds about 0.3 as the transport number for the
acet-ion and the propion-ion in place of o.i, as called for by the The-
ory of Solutions. Experiments with solutions in which acetic acid
was mixed with sodium acetate or sulphuric acid show that the ' ' un-
dissociated " acetic acid does not move during the electrolj'ses; and
this conclusion is confirmed by experiments with solutions of cad-
mium sulphate in mixtures of acetone and water, where the acetone
was found to remain practically stationary during the electrolyses.
An attempt to reconcile these results with the theory by assuming
' ' hydrated ' ' ions led to the conclusion that the hydrogen ion must
be hydrated (at least 90 H.^0 for each H) in decinormal acid, and

I08 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

that its degree of hydration must depend on the dihition of the acid —
a conclusion which deprives the hypothesis of all value.

As regards the trustworthiness of the results, Mr. McBain is a very
careful and able workman, and it is obvious from the report itself
what a great deal of time and trouble he has devoted to these meas-
urements. He himself is quite convinced of the reliability of his
results, and if they were not in direct conflict with a generallj^
accepted theory I imagine no one would call them in question.
However, as it seems incautious to base wide-reaching generaliza-
tions on experiments in which so much depends on the manipula-
tion, I have arranged with Mr. Dawson to* make a study of the de-
composition of acetic acid at the cathode, in the hope that it may
prove possible to dispense with ' * protecting solutions ' ' at that elec-
trode, in which case the apparatus and manipulation would be much
simplified and Mr. McBain' s measurements could be checked by
new experiments. Mr. Dawson will also experiment with various
soluble anodes with the same object in view.

H. N, Morse, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Grant
No. I lo. For development of a method for the measuremetit of osmotic
pressure. (First report is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxx.) $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — The work of Professor Morse and Dr. J. C. W.
Frazer, his assistant, during the past year has been along two quite
distinct lines. It had been found that a porous wall, which affords
an effective support for the osmotic membrane, is sometimes pro-
duced at the potteries, though rarely, and then in only a few out of
many cells, and it had been discovered, through a study of thin
sections, that the structure of such porous walls differs in a charac-
teristic manner from that of others which do not adequately support
the membrane. The greater portion of the year has therefore been
devoted to the molding and burning of different clays and clay
mixtures and to a study of the properties of the products, the end
in view being a discovery of the conditions which are favorable or
unfavorable to the production of that peculiar structure of porous
wall which is known to be essential. A large number of experi-
ments of this kind have been made and a considerable amount of
data accumulated which it is thought will be of use in the solution
of the problem. The progress of the work has been considerably
retarded b}^ the necessity of devising and constructing new ap-
pliances, some of which involved a large amount of preliminar}^
experimentation.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. I09

There has been developed simultaneously a system of laboratory
heating by means of electricity which is believed to possess decided
advantages over the methods in ordinary use. An account of the
results obtained in this direction has been given, with the consent
of the Carnegie Institution, in the American Chemical Journal, vol.
xxxii, under the title "A New Electric Furnace and Various Other
Electric Heating Appliances for L^aboratory Use."

A. A. Noyes, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Grant No. 45.
For researches upon : (i) Electrical conductivity of salts in aque-
otis sohition at high temperatures ; (.?) Io7iization of weak acids
ayid bases and hydrolysis of their salts in aqueous sohition at high
temperatures ; (j) Trayisference determinatio7is in aqueous solu-
tions of acids. $ 1 , 000 .
Abstract of Report . — These three researches have been carried out
during the past year in the Research Laboratory of Physical Chem-
istry of the Massachusetts Institute of Technolog5^ The first was
executed with the assistance of Mr. Arthur C. Melcher ; the second
with that of Dr. Hernion C. Cooper ; and the third with that of Mr.
Yogoro Kato. The work upon all these investigations has progressed
so far that three articles describing the methods and results will soon
be submitted to the Carnegie Institution for publication.

The first investigation on the electrical conductivity of aqueous
solutions at high temperatures has consisted thus far in the meas-
urement of the conductivity of six salts — sodium chloride, potassium
chloride, silver nitrate, barium nitrate, potassium sulphate, and mag-
nesium sulphate — at the four temperatures of 18°, 100°, 156°, and
218°, and at the four concentrations of -^^ -^, -^, and -5^ normal.
The apparatus and the method employed were nearly identical with
those described by Noyes & Coolidge.* The measurements with
potassium and sodium chloride were to some extent a repetition of
those of these investigators ; they were made in order to estimate
the probable accuracy of the results, which could well be done, since
the new determinations were made by another experimenter in an
entirely new apparatus of a different resistance-capacity. The new
results even at 218° agreed with the old ones within 0.2 per cent.
The results obtained with all these salts justify the conclusions :
(i) That the degree of dissociation always decreases greatly with
rise of temperature ; (2) that this decrease is much larger for salts
of the uni-bivalent type than for those of the uni-univalent type,

*Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, jp, 163 (1903).

no CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

and still larger for those of the bi-bivalent type : (3) that different
salts of the same type have roughly the same degree of dissociation
at high temperatures, just as they do at ordinary temperatures ;
and (4) that the migration-velocities of different ions approach
equality with rising temperature. The conductivity of magnesium
sulphate passes through a maximum between 130° and 155°, show-
ing that in this case the decrease in dissociation is great enough to
compensate the increase in migration velocitj'.

The second research, upon the hydrolysis of salts at high temper-
atures, has thus far been confined to one salt, sodium acetate, at
temperatures extending up to 218°. The determination of the hy-
drolysis of this salt involved, however, not only measurements of its
own conductivity at various concentrations, but also those of solu-
tions of acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, and sodium hydroxide. The
method in principle consists in determining the decrease in conduc-
tivity of sodium acetate produced bj' the addition of acetic acid to
its solution. This decrease arises from the driving back of the hy-
drolysis of the salt by the excess of acid and the replacement of
sodium hydroxide by a corresponding quantity of the more poorly
conducting sodium acetate. The final calculations have not j'et been
made ; but the results show that this salt, which at 25° in y-J-Q nor-
mal solution is hydrolyzed to an extent of only about 0.03 per cent.,
at 218° has a degree of hydrolysis of about 0.5 percent. From the
data the degree of dissociation of water itself will be calculated ;
these results already show that it is many times greater at 218° than
at 18°. At high temperatures the phenomenon of hydrolysis there-
fore plays a most important part in determining the condition of
salts in solution. The conductivity measurements incidentally made
with hydrochloric and acetic acids have also an interest of their own;
they show that the dissociation of both these acids, like that of the
neutral salts, decreases markedly with rising temperature.

The third research consisted of about forty electrical transference
experiments at 20° with very dilute hydrochloric and nitric acids.
The object of them was to determine the electrical conductivity of
the hj^drogen ion — a constant of fundamental importance in appli-
cations of the ionic theory, since it is involved in the calculation of
the degree of dissociation of all acids. The transference numbers
obtained with -5^ normal hj^drochloric acid are nearly identical
with those previously obtained with j^-^ and y|-o normal acid by
Noyes & Sammet.* They therefore confirm the conclusion pre-

*J. Am. Chem. Soc, 24, 944 (1902) ; ^5, 165 (1903).

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 1 1 1

viously drawn that the conductivity of the hydrogen ion derived
from transference experiments is about 4 per cent, higher than that
obtained by conductivity measurements. This conductivity value
for the hydrogen ion was computed simply by multiplying the con-
ductivity of the chlorine ion, as determined by Kohlrausch from the
data for neutral salts, by the ratio of the transference numbers for
the cathion and anion of the acid. The experiments with nitric
acid were made in order to see whether independent transference
determinations with a different acid would lead to the same con-
ductivity value for the hydrogen ion. This was found to be the
case : the transference numbers obtained with y^ and -^ nitric
acid give a conductivity value corresponding within i per cent to
that derived from the transference experiments with hydrochloric
acid at the same concentrations. The discrepancy between the
result obtained by this method and that by the conductivity method
remains to be explained.

Thomas B. Osborn, New Haven, Conn. Grant No. 192. For
research on chemical substances yielded by proteids of the wheat
kernel wheyi decomposed by acids. $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — The object of this investigation is to deter-
mine the nature and proportion of the different amine acids yielded
b}^ hydrolyzing the several protein bodies contained in the wheat
kernel. As this investigation was but recently begun, the work
has at present extended only to the preparation of a considerable
quantity of pure gliadin and glutenin and the determination of the
amount of glutaminic acid which several fractions of the former have
yielded when decomposed by boiling acid. As the individualit}^ of
gliadin has recently been called in question by Kutscher, on the
ground of different yields of glutaminic acid which he obtained,
especial attention was necessarily first directed to this point. Dr.
Osborn found that the actual yield of glutaminic acid is far in excess
of that obtained by Kutscher from any of his fractions, and that the
differences which he observed were due to faulty determinations of
the amount of this substance.

Although extensive fractionations were carried out, no evidence
of more than one protein substance, soluble in alcohol, was obtained,
so that this investigation, together with the work done in past years
in Dr. Osborn' s laboratory, shows gliadin to be one of the best char-
acterized and most definitely established protein substances accessible
for investigation on a large scale. His present work has also shown
that gliadin yields a larger proportion of glutaminic acid than any
9

112 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

other protein heretofore examined, namely, over 39 per cent. This
large proportion of glutaminic acid is a matter of great importance
in relation to the nutritive value of a food protein of such extensive
use as gliadin, which forms about one-half the protein substance of
wheat flour. The amount of glutaminic acid obtained from gliadin
exceeds that of any single decomposition product as yet isolated, in
a condition of established purity, from any other true protein body,
and it is consequently a matter of interest in connection with the
chemistry of the protein substances.

Theodore W. Richards, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Grant No . 112. For investigation of the value of atomic iveights ,

etc. (First report is in Year Book No. 2, p. xxxii.) $2,500.

Abstract of Report. — The researches conducted under the direction

of Professor Richards during the years 1904- 1905 were four in

number, as follows :

(i) An investigation of the atomic weight of sodium, carried on

with the assistance of Roger Clark Wells. Man)- unusually precise

analyses led to the detection of small errors in the methods of Stas.

The new values found were 23.015 and 35.467 for sodium and

chlorine respectively. The first stage of this work is nearly ready

for publication.

(2) A continuation of the study of the compressibility of elements
and simple compounds, carried on with the assistance of Frederic
Bonnet, jr. The elements studied were lithium, sodium, potassium,
aluminum, and iron. The method of Richards & Stull, already
published by the Carnegie Institution, was used in these determina-
tions, with slight modifications demanded by the nature of the
materials.

(3) An investigation of the effect of pressure and strain on the
electromotive force of pure iron immersed in solutions of its salts,
carried on with the assistance of Gustave E. Behr, jr. This inves-
tigation has alread}^ led to interesting results, but the experimental
work is not yet finished.

(4) A research upon the electromotive force of cells composed of
amalgams of different strengths, carried on with the assistance of
George Shannon Forbes. The data found exceed in precision and
comprehensiveness anything which has heretofore been attained in
this direction. The first stage of the experimental work has been
concluded and the details will soon be published.

All these researches will be continued during the coming year,
with the assistance of the as yet unexpended balance of the grants.

REPORT OF EXHCUTIVE COMMITTEE. II3

Henry S. Washington, Locust, N. J. Grant No. 95. For the

chemical investigatio7i of igneotis rocks. $1,200.

Abstract of Report. — The main objects of investigation were the
leucite-bearing rocks of Italy, of which few satisfactory analyses
exist. About twenty-five complete analyses were made by Dr.
Washington in his own laboratory. The analyzed specimens were
selected as representative of the various rock types which occur at
each of the different centers of eruption, so that not only do the
analyses express the range in composition of the different rocks, but
the special features of each center, as well as the general characters
of the Italian petrographical province. The rocks were found to
fall into nine subranges, four of which are new. A special study
was made of the types and habits, of which at least nine are well-
defined and established. The constant presence of barium is a note-
worthy feature, and is correlated with the high potash. Analyses
were also made of some rocks from other localities of especial inter-
est. The investigations, which are not quite complete, will be em-
bodied in a monograph and one or two shorter papers, which it is
hoped to complete by the end of the year. Only a small portion of
the grant was used, as Dr. Washington was unable to go abroad to
make special collections.

ENGINEERING.

W. F. Durand, Stanford University, California. Grant No. 64.

For experimeyits on ship resistance aiid propulsion. (For first

report, see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxii.) $4,120.

Abstract of Report. — The number of runs thus far made is 2,121,

of which 1,216 belong to last season's work and 905 to the present

season. These figures are, furthermore, exclusive of 228 runs made

on a special model representing an annular element of a propeller

blade. The work yet remaining will comprise the following items :

( 1 ) About two hundred runs on regular propellers.

(2) About two hundred runs on a special model representing an
element of an ideal propeller blade.

(3) The reduction of the observations made this season, and the
final review of the entire series, with analysis of results in such ways
as shall seem most useful for the purposes in view.

The accomplishment of these items will complete the investiga-
tion as originally laid out, covering the examination of 49 model
propellers, and of two special models intended to elucidate certain
points in connection with special phenomena encountered during the
progress of the work.

114 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

W. F. M. Goss, Purdue Universit}-, Lafaj^ette, Tnd. Grant No. 1 14.
For a 7'esearch to deter^ninc the value of high steam pressures in
locomotive service. $5,000.

Abstract of Report. — This work involves the operation of the heavy
machinery making up the equipment of the locomotive laboratory
of Purdue University, an organization of men supplementing the
regular staff of the laboratory, the presence and assistance of uni-
versity students, and an analytical study of experimental data. The
outline provides for 76 formal tests of the university locomotive, 29
of which have now been made. Each test involves a run of approxi-
mately 100 miles.

Assistance has been given by the trustees and president of Pur-
due, by whose approval Professor Reynolds and his laboratory staff,
while receiving but slight aid, have thus far carried on the tests ;
also by Mr. William Garstang, representing the Cleveland, Cincin-
nati, Chicago and St. I^ouis R. R. Company, who contributed four
carloads of coal, amounting to 130 tons, in return for a report
respecting its quality.

It is expected that the work of the laborator}- will be completed
by February next, and that the whole research will be finished and
reported on by September, 1905.

EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS.

E. W, Scripture, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Grant No.
121. For researches in experimental photietics. (For first report
see Year Book No. 2, p. xl.) $2,700.

Abstract of Report. — Among the results obtained, the following
may be mentioned : The technique of speech recording and tracing
has been developed to a high degree of accuracy-. The method does
for speech what microscopy does for tissues. Curves have been
obtained of hundreds of American vowels for different speakers ; also
of various musical instruments.

Concerning the vowels, various hitherto unknown or uninvesti-
gated properties were definitely established. The law of circum-
flexion in melodj^ and of circumflexion in intensity for American
vowels (previously discovered in my researches on Cock Robin
record) was definitely established. The modification of this cir-
cumflexion for purposes of expression, the fusion of several circum-
flexions into a larger unit, etc., were investigated. The unified
nature of a diphthong (as opposed to the view that a diphthong con-
sists of two distinct elements) was established, as were also numerous

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. II5

facts like the following : American long vowels need not be diph-
thongized ; both short and long vowels may be diphthongized. The
short vowels are often different from the ones supposed to be present.
In the same word in similar phrases only a few seconds apart a
speaker may use two utterly different short vowels. The number
of typical vowels must be greatly increased beyond those recognized
by the dictionaries. The short vowels are often incorrectly given
in the dictionary pronunciations. A vowel is not a constant thing,
but changes at everj^ wave of its vibrations ; it is an activity and
not a dead product. The ear gets a general impression from the
whole series of waves and can not distinguish the actual sound at
any point. The ear is often misled in the rapidly changing short
vowels. Sounds have no definite limits, but fuse more or less grad-
ually into each other. The division of words into syllables and of
verse into feet on present principles is nonsense, which can be avoided
only by a new view (psychological and not typographical) of the
nature of syllables and speech units. This new view (the centroid
theory) is in accord with the experience of writers of v^erse (the at-
tempt of modern writers on prosody to fit Greek and Latin notions
to English verse results in a pedantic scheme of spelled verse that
ignores the poet and the public, although it may please the printer);
the frequent presence of ' ' sonant h " in American English was
proved. Various individual differences were investigated. Melody
and intensity were found to vary in each vowel by different speakers.

The vowel curves showed that ordinary views of resonance could
not be applied to speech ; the vocal cavities have a soft wall. The
laws of resonance for such cavities differ from those for cavities with
hard w^alls. The glottal lips (which are masses of flesh, and do not
in any way resemble cords or bands) emit series of puffs, and do not
vibrate in the ordinary sense.

An investigation was conducted on the laws of resonators with
soft walls (of water, gelatine, flesh, etc.) and on the action of puffs
of varying sharpness. On the basis of the results a new vowel theory
was elaborated. This theory finds its confirmation in the fact that
all the vowels can be artificially produced b}^ apparatus built accord-
ing to it ; and also in the fact that countless numbers of speech curves
become for the first time intelligible when interpreted according to
it. This theory takes account for the first time of the softness of the
walls of the vocal cavities and of the flesh character of the glottal
lips. It proposes the new notion that the muscular fibers in the
M. vocalis of the glottal lips contract differently for each vowel, and

Il6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

therefore alter the form of the puff (implying that the vowel involves
not only special innervations to the mouth muscles, but also to those
of the larynx^. Interesting details concerning vowels of different
speakers were found — e. g. , the strong chest tones of Jefferson and
Depew, the strong mouth tone of Mitchell, etc.

Attempts were made to imitate the vowel curves by apparatus and
by calculation on the assumption that if the results were good coun-
terfeits the principles used in the apparatus or the computation must
be valid for the vowels themselves. Principle after principle was
tried. Good counterfeits were finally obtained. The principles
found were used in developing the vowel theory just mentioned.

An apparatus was made to produce artificial curves on a gramo-
phone disc. A speech curve of any kind could be taken and engraved
on the disc. On placing the disc in the gramophone the sound is
heard. This can be used to test any published curve. A zinc etch-
ing is made from it. This is used in the apparatus, and the sound
is heard. This apparatus opens up an utterh^ new field, namel3',
that of the acoustic anah^sis of a vowel. Each wave for a vowel
curve is engraved separately' in repetition, and its sound is heard.
Thus the sound of the vowel at each of its waves is produced. This
apparatus produces a series of acoustic sections of the sound of a
vowel, just as a microtome makes a series of sections of a tissue.

The studies of speech melody showed that the fundamental form
for the American sentence is a circumflex melody, and that this is
modified to suit each expression of thought or emotion (parenthesis,
religion, ceremony, humor, etc.). Curves of the interjections illus-
t,rated how the melody was changed to express the emotion. Records
of a German poem proved that it had a general type of melody — a
specific melody— of its own, which showed itself in spite of the
different melodies of different dialects of Germany.

These investigations form a unit and have to be carried along to-
gether. Every one of them is the first attempt to enter a new field
either in anyway or with accurate experimental records. Owing to
the funds available and the concentration of effort, these investiga-
tions are now so far advanced that they can not be duplicated else-
where for many years. The stimulus of the work is being felt in
Germany. The melody investigations have been taken up in the
University of Eeipzig, and work on curves — obtained by Professor
Scripture's apparatus — is being carried on in the University of Berlin.
It is intended to make a unit of three years' work and publish the
results in a volume of text with an atlas of plates containing speech
curves.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. II7

GEOLOGY.

T. C. Chamberlin, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Grant No.
115. For study of fiindamejital principles of geology. $6,000.

Abstract of Report. — The main portion of the report consists of a
statement of the work which has been done in the critical study and
development of hypotheses relative to the earth's origin and its early
stages. As the nature of the subject is such that the work done
can only be definitely indicated by the results, an outline of these,
of measurable fullness, is given. The work has been chiefly con-
structive, and has consisted mainly of (i) an unsuccessful attempt to
develop a working hypothesis along the line of a meteoritic nebula
of the quasi-gaseous type, (2) a definite development of a selected
phase of the planetesimal hypothesis into working details, with ap-
plications to allied phenomena, and (3) a definite postulation of the
stages of the earth's growth from its origin to the earliest known geo-
logical stage, the Archean, on the basis of the preceding hypothesis.

(i) The serious obstacles to the construction of a hypothesis hav-
ing probable conditions and working qualities on the line of a mete-
oritic nebula of the quasi-gaseous type are set forth.

(2) In developing a definite phase of the planetesimal hypothesis,
the effort has been to bring it into contact with related phenomena
at so many points as to afford facilities for testing its verity, or, if
not that, at least its temporary working qualities, b}-- existing knowl-
edge and the results of progressive investigation, and at the same
time to stimulate, if possible, attention to the pertinent data and
their significant bearings.

(3) The hypothetical stages of the earth's growth deducible from
the special phase of the planetesimal hypothesis previously devel-
oped involve the origin of the atmosphere, of the hydrosphere, of
the continental platforms and oceanic basins, of vulcanism, and of
the larger phases of earth deformation. The last is not, however,
sketched beyond its leading features, as further study is desired on an
important feature recently developed and not as yet duly worked out.

The progress of the studies of collaborators is appended.

A communication from Dr. Moulton sets forth the state of his
work in the critical discussion of the history of the nebular h3'poth-
esis and other theories of the origin of the earth.

A statement is also made by Dr. A. C. Lunu as to the progress of
his inquiries into the generation of internal heat by the gravitational
compression of the earth.

Il8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The state of the inquiry into the condition of the atmosphere at
the time of the formation of certain gypsum deposits, conducted
under the direction of Prof. Julius Stieglitz, is set forth in a com-
munication from him.

The stage of progress of the study into the relations of tidal
action to the rotation of the earth, in connection with Professor
Slichter and other collaborators, is indicated.

Bailey Willis, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Grant
No. 1x6. For geological exploration in eastern China. (For first
report see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxv.) $12,000.

At the time of publication of the first report in Year Book No. 2
Mr. Willis had just gone into the province of Shan-tung. His
present report covers the period of exploration in China and his
return to the United States. The itinerary of the expedition is
given in Mr. Willis's report, pages 275-291.

Mr. WiUis submitted a summary of contributions to knowledge
resulting from the expedition, comprising subjects in geology, geog-
raphy, and zoology. Among the geological subjects there are three
which are of chief interest : Cambrian faunas, glacial deposits of
early Cambrian age, and the history of mountains in China as com-
pared with that of mountains in America and Europe. The Cambrian
fossils are most interesting, and give data for the correlation of the
Cambrian faunas of America and China. The glacial deposit of
Cambrian age is an almost unique discovery, equaled in interest in
its way only by the extraordinary evidences of glaciation in southern
Africa in Carboniferous time. The contribution to knowledge of
mountains follows from an application of the principles of the modern
science of physiography to new fields, and is one of the most far-
reaching results of the expedition in its effect upon broad geological
theories. Within a few years we have come to know that North
America has, in the latest geological epochs, been the scene of vigor-
ous mountain growth, probably not exceeded in activity in any past
age. The studies of Davis in Europe and western Asia have indi-
cated the existence of similar facts in those regions, and the latest
European work is confirming his inferences. Mr. Willis has now
extended the area of observations, with like conclusions, across
Eurasia to the Pacific, and thus it is shown that in the northern
hemisphere the features of the earth's surface express recent activity
of vigorous internal terrestrial energy. The effect of such a con-
clusion upon the theories of a nearly exhausted earth is important.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. II9

GEOPHYSICS.

Frank D. Adams, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Grant
No. 117. For i7ivestigation on flow of rocks. (For first report
see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxiv. ) $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — The experimental work carried on during the
past year was commenced by an investigation into the plasticity of a
series of minerals, including a number of the chief rock-making con-
stituents. These were for the most part the minerals constituting
Mohs' scale of hardness. In this work the method suggested many
years ago by Professor Kick was employed, which consists of submit-
ting the material to differential pressure obtained by embedding the
specimen in alum or sulphur, inclosing the whole in a stout copper
box, and then slowly deforming it in a powerful press.

It was found that under these conditions rock salt, selenite. Ice
land spar, and fluorite could be readily deformed. The next higher
mineral on the scale of hardness — namely, apatite — also showed
distinct evidence of plasticity, although this was much less marked
than in the case of the minerals already mentioned. Diopside, when
treated in this way, developed a most remarkably perfect twinning
parallel to the base. This twinning is often seen in this species when
it is found in the ancient crystalline schists, but has never formerly
been produced in anything like the same perfection as in these ex-
periments. The harder minerals (pyrite, garnet, and quartz) showed
no plastic deformation, but were crushed to powder under the
conditions of the experiment.

The flow of marble was then made the subject of further investi-
gation, the experimental conditions being varied and the rock being
subjected to much higher pressure than in former trials. One inter-
esting result attained in this connection was the complete plastic
deformation of this rock at ordinary temperatures, the constituent
grains of calcite moving on their gliding planes without the develop-
ment of any breaking or granulation. In former experiments this
had only been accomplished when the rock was deformed at a
temperature of at least 300° C.

The investigations were then extended to a series of impure lime-
stones, presenting a great variety in character, some of them con-
taining a large amount of clay, some highly arenaceous, and some
bituminous. These were deformed in heavy tubes of nickel steel,
both at ordinary temperatures and when heated to 300° or 400° C.

Experiments were also carried on with several typical dolomites,
and it was found that while these could be made to flow, they did so
much less readily than ordinary limestones.

I20 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The actual amount of pressure required to deform rocks and the
amount of internal friction which they developed was also studied,
four tj'pical rocks being selected for this purpose, namely, Carrara
marble, Coxeyville dolomite, "Belgian block," and Baveno granite.

As the cubic compressibility of rocks is a property which has an
intimate bearing on rock flow, a series of determinations of this
compressibility was made in the case of i6 t^^pical rocks, including
granites, various basic eruptives, limestones, etc. Apparatus has
also been installed for the purpose of extending this experimental
work on rock deformation to the harder crystalline rocks, and a
study of the deportment of granite, gabbro, etc., under conditions of
very high temperature and pressure is now about to be made.

Q. K. Gilbert, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 126. For preparing
plans for investigating snbtcrranea^i temperatures. $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — Dr. Gilbert has considered the question of
the best locality for drilling a deep well in rock of a uniform char-
acter, and reports that he has investigated the question of a suitable
site («) by formulating the conditions to be satisfied; {b) by a series
of inquiries and consultations with geologists familiar with the
structure of various districts east of the Great Plains ; (t) by a per-
sonal visit to the district which appeared from description most
likely to afford a satisfactory site. As a result of this investigation
he reports that the Lithonia district, Georgia, both appears preferable
to all other districts of which he has secured information and does in
fact well satisfy the conditions requisite for a successful boring. No
effort was made to choose a precise spot, but the natural conditions
are there favorable over so large an area that the selection of a
particular spot can be made in view of local economic conditions.

A reliable well-boring compan}^ has furnished an estimate and is
willing to guarantee the completion of a well 6,000 feet in depth.
Dr. Gilbert recommends that in view of the importance of such a
project it be undertaken. The reasons given by him are printed in
the papers accompanying this report, pages 259-267.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH.

Annie Heloise Abel, New Haven, Conn. Grant No. 191. For

investigating the early Indian policy of the U7iited States. $150.

Abstract of Report. — The purpose of the investigation, as first

undertaken, was to determine the causes and methods of moving

the Indians from the eastern to the western side of the Missi.ssippi.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 121

The material available in Washington has been located and found
to be so vast in amount that it has been deemed advisable to con-
fine the investigation to the period preceding 1830. Most of the
material is in the Indian Office, although the Jackson papers are
particularly valuable, and about half the time — six weeks — has
been spent in their perusal.

William Wirt Howe, New Orleans, La. Grant No. 199. For pre-
liminary inqtdry into the subject of an investigatioji on legal history
and comparative jurisprudence . $1 ,000.

Abstract of Report. — The report suggests that a beginning of re-
search may be made b}' taking up and comparing the codes of private
law which have been adopted in the Americas and have been derived
from French and Spanish sources, and thus relate back to Roman law.
Fifteen such codes are mentioned, namely, those of Haiti, Bolivia,
Peru, Chile, Lower Canada (Quebec), Nicaragua, Louisiana (revised),
Guatemala, Argentina, Mexico, Ecuador, Spain (extended to Porto
Rico and the Philippines, as well as to Cuba), Colombia, Brazil, and
Uruguay. The method of comparison and contrast adopted by
M. de St. Joseph in his Concordance of Continental and Other Codes,
Paris, 1840, is recommended ; but it is deemed better to begin the
work by a comparison of the four principal codes in North America
in the list above detailed, namely, those of Lower Canada, Louisiana,
Mexico, and Spain, the last being fundamental in Porto Rico, Cuba,
and the Philippines. They should be rendered into English, printed
in parallel columns, and annotated with explanatory references to
Roman law and to such judicial decisions as may best interpret the
meaning of their provisions.

MATHEMATICS.

Derrick N. Lehmer, Berkeley, Cal. Grant No. 190. For pay op
assistants to make the entries in a table of smallest divisors. $500.

Abstract of Report. — Since receiving the grant. Professor Lehmer
has had one assistant constantly at work. All but about 150,000 of
the entries are now in, or the table of factors is about 90 per cent
completed, so far as the making of entries is concerned ; but the
remaining work will be slower, and it is difficult to foretell how long
it will take for completion.

This work will contain in one volume the prime factors of all
numbers from one to ten million. Similar tables up to the tenth
million have been published at various times, but they are generally

122 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

inaccessible, and scattered through several volumes. The tenth
volume has never been published heretofore. The work is therefore
an improvement and extension of existing tables.

E. J. Wilczynski, Berkeley, Cal. Grant No. 135. For investigation
of ruled surfaces, etc. (Dr. Wilczynski is a research associate of
the Carnegie Institution.) $1,800.

Abstract of Report. — As the results of Professor Wilczymski's work
either have been published in the mathematical journals or else are
to appear shortly, it seems unnecessary to give any detailed account
of them. The following list gives the titles and places of publication :

1. A fundamental theorem in the theory of ruled surfaces. Mathematische

Annalen, vol. 58, pp. 249-256.

2. Studies in the general theory of ruled surfaces. Trans. Am. Math. Soc, vol.

5, pp. 226-252.

3. Invariants of a system of linear partial differeutial equations and the theory

of congenences of rays. To appear in Am. Jour, of Math., October, 1904
(36 pages).

4. On ruled surfaces whose flecnode curve intersects every generator in two coin-

cident points. To appear in Trans. Am. Math. Soc, October, 1904 (6 pages).

5. General theory of curves on ruled surfaces. Offered to Trans. Am. Math.

Soc. (about 15 pages).

6. General projective theory of space curves. Offered to Trans. Am. Math.

Soc. (about 40 pages)

7. The general projective theory of space curves and ruled surfaces. Read at

the Heidelberg International Congress of Mathematicians, and to be
printed in its proceedings (about 6 pages).

One remark of a general nature may properly be made here. The
general character of these investigations places them at the begin-
ning of a new kind of geometry, a projective geometry, which does
not confine itself to the consideration of algebraic cases, as has
hitherto been the case, but which proves theorems of a more gen-
eral nature by the use of differential equations, resembling in that
respect the general theory of surfaces. It differs from this latter
theory, however, in being a projective and not a metrical theory. In
this general, projective, infinitesimal geometry, the theory of curves
and ruled surfaces are merely the first chapters. The larger field
promises to be of absorbing interest and importance.

PALEONTOLOGY.

Oliver P. Hay, American Museum of Natural History, New York,

N. Y. Grant No. 118. For monographing the fossil chelonia

of North America. (For first report see Year Book No. 2, p.

xxxvii.) $3,000.

Abstract of Report. — The work of monographing the fossil turtles

of North America has been diligently pursued during the present

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. I 23

year (1904) and is now nearing completion. Most of the types of
the described species have been examined, most of them refigured,
and much new material has been studied. Free access to the collec-
tions at Washington, New York, New Haven, Cambridge, Prince-
ton, Pittsburg, Chicago, Lawrence (in Kansas), and other cities,
has been granted and enjoyed. Through the cooperation of the
Carnegie Institution with the American Museum of Natural History,
the writer was enabled to spend seven weeks of the summer of 1903
in the Bridger deposits of southwestern Wyoming. A large num-
ber of specimens of fossil turtles was secured, and these will throw
much light not only on species and genera, based on fragmentary
material, but also on questions of morphology and phylogeny. Be-
sides the manuscript, there have been prepared over 300 drawings
and about 125 photographs to illustrate the characters and the
anatomy of the various species.

Use has been made of the opportunity to visit the principal
museums of the continent and of England for the purpose of study-
ing their chelonian materials and obtaining clear views regarding
the relationship of the European genera to that of North America.
All the museums visited have been freely opened to Dr. Hay.

Q. R. Wieland, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Grant No. 119.
For continuation of researches on living and fossil cy cads, a^id illus-
tration of 7nemoir on the structure of the latter. (For first report
see Year Book No, 2, p. xxxvii.) $2,300.

Abstract of Report. — The further studies of the cycads and their
illustrations have been carried forward by Dr. Wieland during the
year along the lines originally proposed, namely, a first or botanical
and a second or taxonomic investigation. The results of the more
strictl}' introductory or structural study have been brought together
in an extended illustrated memoir, which will be ready to go to
press in the near future. This memoir treats mainly of the gen-
eral habits of growth, and the vegetative and reproductive .structures
of the silicified cycadean stems from the lower Cretaceous and
upper Jurassic of South Dakota and Wyoming. As is now well
known from the preliminary papers already published by Dr. Wieland,
these cycads present structures of the most fundamental importance
in our conception of plant morphology' and evolution. Their wonder-
ful preservation and the greatly improved methods of section cutting
noted in the report of last year have made possible a study more
complete perhaps than in the case of any other extinct group of

124 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

plants. Aside from the Marattiaceous structure of the syuangia,
the most important single determination made is that the strobili of
some of the Bennettiteae were functionally bisporangiate or bisexual,
a condition foreshadowed by Jumboa as having earlier existed among
the gymnosperras, but never before demonstrated in any member
of the group. These features bring the gymnosperms into close
apposition to the angiosperms, and strongly suggest a derivation of
both series of seed-bearing plants from a filicinian ancestry.

PHYSICS.

S. J. Barnett, Stanford University, Cal. Grant No. 149. For
research on the electric displace me^it i?iduced in a certain dielectric
by 7notion in a viagyietic field . $250.

None of the experimental work planned by Professor Barnett has
yet been undertaken, as the necessary apparatus is still in process of
construction.

William Campbell, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant
No. 179. For research on the heat treatment of sotne high-carbon
steels. $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — A series of high-carbon steels were heated to
temperatures varying from 650° to 1,200° C. and slowly cooled.
Their mechanical properties have been worked out, their electrical
conductivity has been measured, and a preliminary examination of
their microstructure made.

The work will be continued by a detailed examination of their
microstructure. This will be followed by a series of experiments on
quenching and tempering, and the structure of the hardened steels
will be worked out, in connection with their transformation points.

H. 5. Carhart, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Grant No.
151. For preparation of material for standard cells, etc. $500.

Abstract of Report. — The problem to be solved is the determina-
tion in absolute measure of the electromotive force of Clark &
Weston standard cells, both of which are used as standards of
electromotive force in all the civilized countries of the world.

An uncertainty of about one part in 1,000 exists in the value of
the electromotive force of these cells. The legal value for the
Clark cell in the United States is 1.434 international volts at 1.=;° C,
but measurements made by Professor Carhart and Dr. Guthe (now
of the Bureau of Standards) in 1899, as well as those made since
by indirect methods in other parts of the world, show that the true

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 1 25

value is probably nearer 1.433 than 1.434. A similar uncertainty-
exists relative to the Weston normal cell.

To make the proposed determination it is necessary to design and
construct some form of electrodynamometer or ampere balance to
measure currents in terms of centimeters, grammes, and seconds.
The work referred to. in 1899 was done with an imperfect instru-
ment, but the success attained was such as to warrant the construc-
tion of a better . electrodynamometer with greater refinements of
detail, construction, and measurements. This has been done in
conjunction with one of Professor Carhart's colleagues, Prof. George
W. Patterson, without whose assistance, particularly in the mathe-
matical solution of the electromagnetic action of one coil on another
and the resultant torque, the work would have been almost fruitless.
They have constructed a large electrodynamometer composed of
one stationary and one movable coil. Both coils are wound on
cylinders made of plaster of Paris, accurately turned and covered
with a thin coating of shellac. The large coil has a winding of 593
turns of silk-covered copper wire, occupying a length of about 41
cm. , and the cylinder has a diameter of 47 cm. The relation be-
tween length and diameter was intended to be as nearly as possible
1/3 to 2. The same relation holds for the inner suspended coil,
which has a diameter slightly over 10 cm. For the suspension both
phosphor-bronze and steel wires have been experimented with. The
principle of the instrument is the balancing of the torque, due to
the electromagnetic action between the two coils against the torque
of the suspending wire twisted through 360°. A twist of one com-
plete turn was chosen, because mirrors at the two ends of the wire
permit a complete turn to be measured with the greatest accuracy
by means of two telescopes and scales.

The couple required to twist the suspending wire through one
turn is determined by separate observations on the period of tor-
sional vibration with a load whose moment of inertia can be com-
puted with great accuracy. The design of the instrument is such
that approximately one ampere is required to produce a balance.

The current thus measured is carried through a standard ohm,
and the difference of potential between its terminals is then com-
pared with the electromotive force of the standard cell by means of
an accurately adjusted Wolff's potentiometer.

About one hundred standard cells are available for the measure-
ment. The chief difficulty encountered up to the present is the
elastic fatigue of the suspending wire. In all the wires tested thus

126 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

far this fatigue exceeds the limits which thej' have set as affecting
the accuracy aimed at. The immediate improvement in the appa-
ratus contemplated is the lengthening of the tube carrying the
torsion head, so as to use a suspending wire two meters long instead
of one a little over one meter, as at present. This change, coupled
with a decrease in the weight of the suspended system, will diminish
the elastic fatigue or set. The^^ see no insurmountable obstacle to
complete success, but find that much time is consumed in the prelim-
inary work before satisfactory and trustworthy results can be obtained.
A preliminary report of the work already done was given at the
International Electrical Congress in St. Louis. It is hoped that the
work may be completed during the academic j^ear 1 904-1 905.

C. D. Child, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. Grant No. 194.
For investigation of the ionization in the neighborhood of a rttcrcury
arc in a vaciaim. $50.

Abstract of Report. — A few measurements were made of the dis-
charge from an iron electrode to the arc which was formed in a
vacuum between mercury terminals. Further measurements are to
be made varying the distance and the potential difference between
the electrode and the arc. From this it is hoped that the velocity
of the ions may be computed.

Measurements have also been made of the drop in potential at the
anode and that at the cathode and the total potential difference
around the arc with mercury, carbon, graphite, iron, and copper
electrodes in a vacuum, with various combinations of these in a
vacuum, and with carbon, graphite, and iron in hydrogen. Some
experiments were also made using an alternating E. M. F.

Henry Crew, Evanston, 111. Grant No. 10. For stiidy of certain arc
spectra. (For first report see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxviii.) $i,coo.

1. Concerning the preparation of photographic spectrum map of
the metallic arc. Dr. Crew sent to the In.stitution amap of the alumin-
ium arc which was completed shortly after his last report. In the
preparation of this map two new Al.Oa flutings were discovered.
During the coming year he hopes to complete a map of the mercury
arc, using the same apparatus.

2. Concerning the E. M. F. of the intermittent metallic arc, the
oscillograph made by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company
enabled him to determine these (E. M. F.) curves very satisfactorily.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 127

The results of this work are embodied in a paper "On the condi-
tions which govern the appearance of spark lines in arc spectra. ' '

Dr. Crew makes the comment on this paper that, in addition to
the solution of the original problem, it contains also the explanation
of the hitherto anomalous fact that an atmosphere of hydrogen
introduces spark lines into arc spectra. Both the phenomenon and
the explanation may be of considerable importance in astrophysics.

3. As to the third problem, namely, to find the order, in point of
time, in which the lines of Mg and zinc make their appearance, the
situation has not changed since the last report, when it was stated
that unexpected difficulties arose when the attempt was made to
pass from the carbon spark to the metallic spark. In fact, the me-
tallic spark cools down so quickly that the entire phenomenon is
over in something like one one-thousandth of a second.

George E. Hale, Mount Wilson, Cal. Grant No. 152. For experi-
ments on the use of fused quartz for the construction of optical
mirrors. $3 , 000.

The recent developments of astrophysical research have shown
the necessity of constructing horizontal reflecting telescopes of great
focal length, especially for photographic observations of the sun.
The most serious difficulty in accomplishing this appears to lie in
the fact that the form of the mirrors employed in the coelostat tele-
scope changes through the expansion caused by the sun's heat.
This tends to injure the definition of the solar image, and thus to
prevent the accomplishment of the highest class of work.

In 1903 Dr. Elihu Thompson suggested that if the mirrors could
be made of fused quartz the difficulty should practically disappear,
since the expansion of fused quartz by heat is only about one-tenth
that of glass. A grant made by the Carnegie Institution permitted
experiments in this direction to be undertaken, with the advice and
cooperation of Dr. Thompson. The immediate supervision of the
work was intrusted to Prof. G. W. Ritchey, superintendent of in-
strument construction at the Yerkes Observatory. After it had
been decided to erect the Snow telescope on Mount Wilson, it became
necessary for Professor Ritchey to accompany the expedition to
California, in order that he might take charge of the construction
of the new instruments required in the investigation. It was there-
fore decided to make the quartz experiments in Pasadena, where the
Edison Electric Company kindly offered suitable space in its power-

128 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

house. After consultation with Dr. Thompson, who had made im-
portant preliminary experiments with fused quartz at Lynn, Pro-
fessor Ritchey was fortunate enough to secure the assistance of
Mr. Acheson, of the Acheson Graphite Compan}', and Mr. Tone,
of the Carborundum Company, at Niagara Falls, in designing a
special electric furnace for fusing the quartz. This is now under
construction at Pasadena. A 50-kilowatt transformer, giving from
15 to 30 volts, has been completed, and an optical pyrometer for the
measurement of the temperature of the fused quartz has been kindly
loaned by Dr. S. W. Stratton, Director of the Bureau of Standards.

E. Percival Lewis, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Grant
No. 150. To investigate vacinwi-tube spectra of gases and vapors.

$500.
Abstract of Report. — This grant is to be expended mainly for quartz
lenses and prisms for a large spectrograph, designed for a more
systematic and detailed study of vacuum-tube spectra than has
hitherto been made. A part of the necessary materials has been
received, and it is expected that the spectrograph will be completed
and in use in about two months. Meanwhile preliminary investiga-
tions have been carried on with a small spectrograph, the results of
which are described in two papers published in the Astrophysical
Journal for July, 1904.

A. A. Michelson, Univensity of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Grant No.

47. For aid in nding diffraction gratings. $1,500.

Abstract of Second Report. — Profes.sor Michelson continued his ex-
periments during the year in connection with the building of ruling
engines for diffraction gratings. He found many difficulties, and has
not yet fully overcome all of them. The method employed for
ruling is based essentially upon the construction of a precision screw.
Professor Michelson believes that he can obtain results of greater
value than have hitherto been reached by the development of a special
engine that he is now working upon.

R. W. Wood, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Grant
No. 120. For research, chiefly on the theory of light. (For first
report see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxix.) $5oo-

Anonialons Dispersion of Soditim Vapor. — A very complete study
has been made of the anomalous dispersion of the vapor of metallic

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 1 29

sodium, which has made possible an experimental verification of the
simplest form of the electro-magnetic dispersion formula

n'=l-\-

nW^

K^ — Aiiv

This formula has never been tested, for the reason that no data
have ever been obtained of the dispersion of a medium in which the
velocity of light of different wave-lengths is dependent on the
presence of a si?igle absorption band. The dispersion of the vapor
was measured by observing the shifts of the interference fringes in
a Michelson interferometer when a given quantity of the vapor was
introduced into one of the optical paths of the instrument. Usually
two sources of monochromatic light were used simultaneously.
When working close to the absorption band it was necessary to have
lights of very nearl}' the same wave-length, which was accomplished
by placing a helium tube in a powerful magnetic field and utilizing
the resulting Zeeman double-line for illuminating the interferometer.
Absolute determinations were made of the refractive index of the
vapor formed in highly exhausted tubes of steel and porcelain at
different temperatures, the temperature being determined by means
of a thermo-couple of iron and constantin.

For light of wave-lengths very nearly that of the D lines the re-
fractive index of the vapor at a temperature of 650° C. was found to
be 1.38 for the wave-length on the red side of the absorption band
and 0.62 for light on the blue side.

Numerical values were obtained for the refractive index from the
extreme red to the remote ultra-violet, and the observed values were
compared with the values calculated from the dispersion formula,
most excellent agreement being found.

The vapor was found to have some very remarkable physical prop-
erties, which are at the present time under investigation. It appears
to have the property of cohesion and perhaps surface tension. A
dense mass of it can be formed in the center of a highly exhausted
tube, bounded at each end by a vacuum, there being only a very
slight amount of diffusion toward the colder parts of the tube.

The results of the work appear in the Proceedings of the American
Academy and the Philosophical Magazine for September, 1904.

The Fhcorcscence of Sodhan Vapor. — The work which was com-
menced in the spring of 1903 on the remarkable fluorescence of so-
dium vapor was continued during the following autumn. It was
found practicable to photograph the fluorescence spectrum of the

130 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

vapor when illuminated with approximately monochromatic light,
and some very remarkable relations between the wave-lengths of the
absorbed and emitted radiation were found, which, it is believed,
will eventually throw a great deal of light on the problem of fluo-
rescence, for which we have at the present time no satisfactory
theory. The work was suspended early in December, owing to the
insufficient power of the spectroscope employed, but will be renewed
again as soon as suitable apparatus can be constructed.

PHYSIOLOGY.

W. O. Atwater, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. Grants
Nos. 134, 139, and 195. For investigations iti nntrition. (For
first report see Year Book No. 2, p. xxxix.) $7,000.

Abstract of Report. — The purpose of this grant was to promote re-
search involving the direct determination of the amount of oxygen
consumed by man for sustaining bodily functions. To this end a
considerable portion of the fund was devoted to the development of
an apparatus and method for determining the amount of oxygen in
connection with the respiration calorimeter alread}- in use.

Between October i, 1903, and January i, 1904, the work was con-
tinued and frequent tests of the efficiency of the apparatus were
made. In addition to these, a very successful experiment with man
was completed. The work of the year was thus more satisfactory^
in respect to both the development of the apparatus and method
and the experiments actually accomplished with men than had been
anticipated at the beginning.

For the year 1904 three grants have been made — No. 134 of
$1,000, No. 139 of $4,000, and No. 195 of $2,000 — of which the
first two were for the continuation of the work already begun and
the last was intended more especially for experiments in fasting.
The work under these grants is still in progress.

Despite some exceptional difficulties, a number of very successful
experiments have been carried out since January i. These have
included:

(i) General metabolism experiments with men, in which the
effects of muscular work have been studied.

(2) A number of shorter and less complete experiments of ap-
proximately 12 hours' duration with several men to determine the
heat emission and oxygen consumption, as well as the elimination
of carbon dioxide and water under varying conditions of bodily
position, muscular work, and amount of clothing.

REPORT OF EXHCUTIVH COMMITTEE. I31

(3) Experiments on metabolism during fasting. These have
already been made with two different men during periods of two
and three days, and have brought interesting results. We are now
endeavoring to find a person who can comfortably endure a much
longer period of fasting and who will serve as a proper subject for
a systematic series of experiments.

The apparatus and method are proving verj' satisfactory for these
inquiries. As is natural in the development of a new apparatus and
method, difficulties arise from time to time and means are constantly
being suggested for improvement.

By invitation, a description of the apparatus in its present form
was given by Dr. Atwater at the late meetings of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science in Cambridge, England, and
of the International Physiological Congress in Brussels, Belgium, in
August and September of 1904. These descriptions were illustrated
by a small brochure, which gives summaries of the results of two
experiments, including a final balance sheet of income and outgo of
material and energy. It is of interest to note that these are the first
instances in which a complete and accurate balance of this character
has been made by actual. experiment.

A detailed description of the apparatus in its present form, with
experiments sufficient to illustrate the method of its use, is now being
prepared for publication by the Carnegie Institution.

Russell H. Chittenden, Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Univer-
sity, New Haven, Conn. Grant No, 197. For a study of the
minimal proteid requirement of the healthy 7nan. $1,500.

Abstract of Report. — The grant made for the study of this problem
has been used in connection with grants from other sources for the
experimental study of the possibilities of physiological economy in
nutrition, with special reference to the proteid foods. The experi-
ments have been conducted on three distinct tj^pes or classes of indi-
viduals : (i) A group of fiv^e men, of varying ages, connected with
the university as professors and instructors — representatives of the
mental worker rather than the physical worker ; (2) a detail of
thirteen men, volunteers from the Hospital Corps of the United States
Army and representatives of the moderate worker ; (3) a group of
eight young men, students in the university, all thoroughly trained
athletes, and some with exceptional records in athletic events.

In the conduct of the experiments it was recognized that while
previous experimenters have shown the possibility of maintaining

132 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

body equilibrium and nitrogen equilibrium on a low proteid diet for
a brief period, it is necessary, in order to have the results of phj's-
iological value, for the experiments to be conducted not simply for
a few days or weeks, but through months and years. Consequently
the experiments, which are now concluded, have extended with
some individuals over a year, and all have covered at least six
months of time.

The results obtained with these twenty-six individuals all agree
in showing that there is no justifiable ground for the assumption
that an adult man of average body- weight needs 118 grams of pro-
teid food for the maintenance of health, strength, and vigor. On
the contrary, it has been clearly demonstrated that it is quite pos-
sible to maintain bodj'-weight and to preserve nitrogen equilibrium
with an amount of proteid food per day equal to not more than 50
per cent that called for by the ordinarily accepted dietary standards.

Further, the experiments have clearly demonstrated that this con-
dition of nitrogen equilibrium can be maintained without increasing
the amount of non-nitrogenous food consumed daily. An average
intake of 7 to 9 grams of nitrogen per daj^ with a total fuel value
of the food amounting to 2,500 to 2,800 calories, was found quite
sufficient to maintain body-weight and nitrogen equilibrium. In
other words, a metabolism of less than 50 grams of proteid per day was
quite sufficient for the needs of the body. In some cases even smaller
quantities of proteid food sufficed to meet all the physiological re-
quirements of the individual. The experiments also showed that
with this low nitrogen intake there was a marked gain in bodily
strength, as indicated by appropriate dynamometer tests. Further,
the condition of the blood as regards the number of erythrocytes,
leucocytes, and haemoglobin-content was not altered by the low
nitrogen intake. Moreover, there was no loss of mental vigor or
change in reaction time.

All the details of the experiments, together with the various data
and conclusions, are embodied in a report now in type, making a
volume of about 500 pages, which will be ready for distribution

within a few weeks.

•

Arthur Gamgee, Martreux, Switzerland. Grant No. 62. For pre-
paring a report on the physiology of 7iutrition . $6,500.

No report received.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 1 33

Hideyo Noguchi, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Grant No. 94. For contimiation of the studies on s?iake venoms.

$1,700.

Abstract of Report. — Dr. Noguchi continued his studies on snake
venoms, upon which he has been engaged since 1900. Under the
present grant he has succeeded in preparing the antivenins for the
Crotalus adamanteus and water-moccasin venoms. The production
of the anti-moccasin veuin was thus for the first time attempted and
accomplished, while the anti-crotalus venin had already been pre-
pared by Flexner & Noguchi about a year ago. With the above-
named two antivenins several series of therapeutic experiments have
been performed. The results of these experiments show a very
high therapeutic value of the antivenins, as being able to save the
life of animals inoculated with certain multiple lethal doses of corre-
sponding venom, even when the symptoms were critically advanced.
It has been a common belief that an antivenin prepared with one
kind of venom can counteract the poisonous effects caused by the
other kinds of venom, irrespective of the source of the venom. This
unitary view of the nature of antivenin* has latel}^ been the point of
much discussion, and many experimental evidences have been brought
up against it. Dr. Noguchi, having had the opportunity of utilizing
several kinds of antivenins for this purpose, has tested each anti-
venin against different sorts of snake venom. The results obtained
by him prove conclusively that different antivenins act highly, if
not absolutely, specific, both in the animal body and in vitro, to
the venoms through which they are produced. From this fact he
concludes that in treating the snake bites only the specific antivenins
are to be employed.

Since Flexner & Noguchi discovered the fact that the haemo-
lytic principles of snake venoms require certain secondary substances
in order to complete their " laking " action, attention was directed
to this phenomenon by some investigators, and Kyes has finally
succeeded in discovering the roles played by lecithin in the ven-
om-haemolysis. Dr. Noguchi made a routine examination over a
considerable number of acids and salts concerning the so-called venom-
activating properties of these chemically definite substances, and has
found that there a.re, besides lecithin and kephalin, still many sub-
stances which are able to produce hsemolj'sis upon the blood corpuscles
previously treated with snake venom, even when present in such
small amount as to remain entirely without haemolytic effect upon

134 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

the non-venomized corpuscles. A number of high acrylic acids and
their salts, as well as a few high normal fatty acids, possess the
so-called venom-activating properties. A group of experiments,
both in the animal body and in vitro, concerning the neutralization
of snake venoms and antivenins have been made. The experiments
under this topic have to deal with the questions on the nature of the
neutralization curves of toxin and antitoxin from the physico-
chemical side of view. Similar experiments have also been made
with saponin and cholesterin. The velocity of reaction at different
temperatures of acids and venoms (upon blood corpuscles) has been
determined. The relation between the susceptibility of animals and
their body- weight has been studied.

The above-stated work has been carried out at the Statens Serum
Institut, Copenhagen, during a period extending from October, 1903,
to September, 1904. The work has already been partly published
and the rest soon will be.

Edward T. Reichert and Amos P. Brown, University of Pennsyl-
vania, Philadelphia, Pa. Grant No. 188. For research on the
crystallography of hcem og/obi?i . $1, 000 .

Abstract of Report. — As this grant was not made until April, little
progress could be made after June i on the preparation of crystals,
owing to the warm weather. About five weeks of satisfactory work
was done. In this period Drs. Reichert and Brown prepared and
examined crystals from the blood of 1 8 different animals and obtained
very satisfactory results in regard to their crystallization. The list
includes fishes, batrachians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. It would
be possible, with the data collected, to distinguish accurately between
the bloods of all of the species thus far examined. With the
arrival of cooler weather work is beginning again, and they expect
to make rapid progress with the investigation during the winter.

ZOOLOGY.

A. J. Carlson, Stanford University, Cal. Grant No. 196. For
research o7i the physiology of the iiivertcbrate heart. $100.

Mr. Carlson received a grant as a research assistant in 1903. His
report covers the work of 1903 and 1904.

Abstract of Report. — The molluscan and the arthropod (crusta-
ceans, Limulus) heart is provided with regulative nerves. In the
crustaceans these nerves take their origin from the thoracic ganglion ;
in Limulus they arise from the brain and the abdominal ganglia ; in

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 1 35

the chitons, from pleural uerve-cords ; in lamellibranchs and marine
gasteropods, from the visceral ganglion or ganglia ; in pulmonates
and cephalopods, from the suboesophageal ganglion. In the gastero-
pods the nerve-fibers enter the heart both at the auricular and at the
aortic ends.

The arthropod heart is supplied with both inhibitory and acceler-
ator fibers, the latter coming from the central nervous system ante-
rior to the former, a condition similar to that in the vertebrates.
The cardiac nerves of the lower gasteropods (chitons, prosobranchs ,
tectibranchs) appear to be only accelerator in function. In the
nudibranchs and the pulmonates both inhibitor and accelerator car-
diac nerves are present. In the lamellibranchs and the cephalopods
the main, if not the sole, function of the nerves is inhibitory.

In Limulus the heart-muscle does not possess automaticity. The
heart-beat is neurogenic, or due to the activity of the ganglion cells
on the dorsal surface of the heart. There is some evidence that the
heart-beat in the other invertebrates is also neurogenic.

In Limulus the coordination or conduction in the heart takes place
in the nervous and not in the muscular tissues.

In Limulus the cardio-inhibitory nerves act on the ganglion cells
in the heart and not directly on the heart-muscle.

The arthropod, the molluscan, and the tunicate heart exhibit no
refractory period, but the excitability is lowest at beginning of sys-
tole. The amplitude of contraction varies with the strength of the
stimulus. The heart can be tetanized.

Single induced shocks, as well as the interrupted current of a cer-
tain intensity sent directly through the arthropod, the molluscan, and
the tunicate heart, produce inhibition of the rhythm, partial or com-
plete. This inhibition is due (i) to the stimulation of inhibitory
nerve-endings in the heart, (2) to direct action of the electrical cur-
rent on the rhythmical tissue. In Limulus this direct action of the
current is on the automatic ganglion cells and not on the muscle, and
this is probably true of the other invertebrates. This action of the
induced current on the ganglion cells is probably of the nature of
overstimulation or "shock."

Solutions of curare, atropin, and nicotin of sufficient strength to
affect the heart accelerate the rhythm ; strong solutions produce
tetanus or "tonus" contractions.

These alkaloids paralyze (at least temporarily) the inhibitory
nerves in the heart, but not the accelerator or motor nerves.

In Limulus the accelerator action of these drugs is on the ganglion

136 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

cells and uot on the muscle. This is probably true of their action
in the other invertebrates.

W. E. Castle and E. L. Mark, Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Cambridge, Mass. Grant No. 136. For experimental shidics in

heredity. $500-

The work of Drs. Castle and Mark is in cooperation with the

Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor.

Abstract of Report of W. E. Castle, 1^04. — Observations made on
about 3,000 guinea-pigs and 200 rabbits, whose ancestry is known
in most cases for several generations, indicate that :

( 1 ) There occur in guinea-pigs at least three different pairs of
alternative coat-characters, which conform closely to Mendel's law of
heredity. These are pigmented coat, which dominates over albino
coat ; short or normal coat, which dominates over long or angora
coat, and rough or rosetted coat, which dominates over smooth coat.
These three pairs of characters are independent one of another in
transmission. Two of them occur in rabbits, as well as in guinea-
pigs, and are transmitted in the same manner as in guinea-pigs.

(2) In crosses between two different types of albino rabbits, Hima-
layan and pure white, dominance of the Himalayan type is imper-
fect, but segregation of the two t3^pes in the next generation is
complete.

(3) In cro.sses between lop-eared and normal rabbits an interme-
diate condition is obtained, which persists without segregation in
the next generation. In other words, this seems to be a case of
non-Mendelian, but of blended inheritance.

(4) Latency is a phenomenon entirely distinct from recessiveness.
It is the condition of a dominant character when present unseen in
a recessive individual or germ. The presence of the dominant
character may be demonstrated by cross-breeding.

A full discussion of these topics ma}^ be found in a paper now in
course of publication. Data for the study of the laws of transmis-
sion of several other characters have been accumulated.

Henry E. Crampton, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Grant
No. 137. For determining the laws of variation and inheritance
of certain lepidoptera. (For first report see Year Book No. 2,

p. xH.) ■ $500.

Abstract of Report. — During the year more than a thousand pupae
have been statistically examined, and over five hundred emerging
moths have been paired in order to obtain data bearing upon the

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. 137

problem of sexual selection. The forms used most extensively were
Philosamia cya7itJiia and Rothschildia joridla, a Mexican species,
additional data being obtained from Hyperchiria io, H. budlcyi, Roths-
childia Orizaba, and Satnia ruber. Studies upon the course of in-
heritance in these species have also been prosecuted, the second
and third generations being obtained in some cases. Owing to
the peculiar nature of the material, it is impossible to present an
extended report upon the results obtained at the present time.

J. E. Duerden, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Grant
No. 158. For contimiation of investigation on the morphology and
development of recent atid fossil corals. $1 , 500.

Abstract of Report — Fossil Corals. — Investigations have been carried
out upon a large series of palaeozoic fossil corals obtained last year
from various collections at home and abroad. The studies, conducted
along developmental lines, have demonstrated conclusively (i) that
the primary stage of the rugose coral is hexameral, in contrast to the
tetrameral, which hitherto has been usually assumed ; (2) that the
later septa are added in a definite sequence within only four of
the six primary chambers. The results have permitted discussion
of the relationships of the Tetracoralla to other groups of Anthozoa,
the conclusion being that they are most nearlj' related to the living
zoanthid actinians. A paper has been already published, and another,
" The Fossula in Rugose Corals," is submitted for publication.

Recent Corals. — Two papers devoted to the morphology of recent
coral polyps have been already published during the year, and a
third is almost ready for publication. This summer an expedition
has been conducted to the Hawaiian Islands for the purpose of secur-
ing a series of Pacific corals for comparison with results already
published upon West Indian forms. About three months were spent
among the islands in the collection and study of the living corals.
Between thirty and forty species were secured, and material pre-
served for later investigation, while over fifty cases of dried specimens
were obtained for studies on variation. The collection includes
many types not yet studied morphologically, and others which afford
interesting comparison with West Indian types.

A series of experiments upon the physiology and reactions of
living coral polyps were conducted, and important facts bearing
upon their method of feeding were secured, demonstrating that the
exudation of mucus plays an important part in the process.

A collection was made of the Hawaiian shallow- water actinians to

138 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

supplement the deep-sea forms obtained in 1902 by the U.S. Bureau of
Fisheries, the writer having in hand the preparation of a report upon
the group. Observations and experiments were also made upon the
unique commensalism of certain crabs and actinians, the former
carrying the latter in their claws and utilizing them for the purpose
of securing food.

Carl H. Eigenmann, University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.
Grant No. 68. For ifivestigation 0/ bli?id fishes in Cuba. $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — In March, 1902, Professor Eigenmann made
extensive collections in the caves of western Cuba, and secured,
among others, one female blind fish containing unborn young 20
mm. long, in which the eyes are remarkably well developed.

In order to determine the breeding season and to obtain early
embryos of the blind fishes Lucifuga and Stygicola, he spent parts
of October and November and December of 1903 and August and
September of 1904 in Cuba. Large numbers of adult fishes were
taken, and many more could have been secured. But it was found
that while occasional specimens containing young may be expected
at any time of the year, the chief breeding season has so far been
missed, and that these fishes probably breed in June and July, at the
culmination of the wet season, when the height of water in the
caves may make collecting difficult. The caves will be visited again
in June and July of 1905.

Cages of fine wire screening, protected by strong screening, were
built in one of the caves and stocked with fish. These cages proved
worthless under the conditions existing in Cuba, and other plans
will have to be tried to rear fishes in the light.

Several attempts were made to bring living fishes to Indiana with
a view of possibly colonizing them in one of the Indiana caves.
While a few specimens were brought through alive, the mortality
en route and their extreme sensitiveness to cold puts the idea of
colonizing them in northern caves out of court.

A monograph on the eyes of the fishes from birth (20 mm.) to
old age will probably be finished during the winter.

L. (). Howard, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Grant No. 122. For preparing a report 07i American niosqtdtoes.

(For first report see Year Book No. 2, p. xlii.) $2,500.

Abstract of Report. — Dr. Howard has submitted a full report of

progress, from which it appears that the number of species of mos-

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 1 39

quitoes actually under study amounts to 94, of which the early
stages of 65 have been observed and collected. The plan followed
during 1903, of employing local observers, was during 1904 done
away with to a large extent, only two such observers, one in Mon-
tana and the other on the southwest coast of Mexico, being em-
ployed. General collecting trips were made by two assistants, fol-
lowing the line of demarcation of the upper and lower austral zones
from south Texas to Virginia, in the course of which many facts of
importance were gathered regarding the northward distribution of
the yellow-fever mosquito. Another trip was taken with a similar
purpose into sototh Mexico, where the influence of altitude upon the
distribution of this important species was carefully studied. The
preparation of the illustrations for the monograph has been begun,
and 37 species of adults and 23 species of larvae have been drawn in
admirable style. At the time of writing other drawings were under
way, including a series indicating the anatomical details of the early
stages. An enormous number of individuals of the different species
have been received, and some very curious results have been obtained,
indicating the presence in some cases of two or more distinct species
indistinguishable by study of the adults alone, surprising larval
differences indicating the fact.

C. E. McClung, Kansas University, Lawrence, Kans. Grant No. 16.
For making a comparative shidy of the spermatogenesis of insects,
etc. (For first report see Year Book No. 2, p. xliii.) $500.

Abstract of Report. — The second year's work by the holder of this
grant has again been largely that of preparation of material for
study. There is now on hand an extensive series of specimens which
will make possible a comparative study of almost a hundred species
of Orthoptera. A part of this material has been subjected to the
action of radium and chemicals in the hope of producing some alter-
ation of the chromosomes in division that would throw some light
upon normal processes. No forms outside of the insects, in which
hybrids could be obtained, exhibited satisfactory chromosomes, and
so far it has not been found possible to secure the desired hybridiza-
tion of insects, so that this most important part of the investigation
will have to be postponed. The present work will be devoted to the
study of two closely related species of one genus in which there are
strongly marked chromosomes in the hope of determining some rela-
tion between the individual chromosomes and body characters. In
connection with this two closely related genera will receive a similar

I40 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

treatment, as will also two widely removed genera in a subfamily.
If these investigations indicate the possibility of connecting certain
chromosomes with definite groups of characters, efforts will be made
later to carry out the difficult task of hybridizing the species that
offer the best material for study.

William Patten, Hanover, N. H. Grant No. 157. For studies
relatiyig to the origin of vertebrates. $500.

Abstract of Report. — By means of the grant to aid in procuring
material for the study of the origin of vertebrates, many Devonian
fishes were obtained from New Brunswick.

The specimens of Bothriolepis canadensis were more perfect than
any others that have ever been found. They will furnish the neces-
sary data for a complete restoration in great detail of a typical rep-
resentative of the Ostracoderms, one of the oldest and most primitive
subdivisions of the Chordata known.

The structural features shown by this new material will necessi-
tate the removal of the Ostracoderms from the Agnatha, separate
them farther than ever from the true fishes, and will raise them to
the rank of a new and independent class.

Raymond Pearl, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Grant
No. 125. For an investigatioyi by statistical methods of correlation
in variation. $500-

Abstract of Report. — The grant was expended as follows : (a) In
the purchase of calculating machines, measuring instruments, and
other minor apparatus, (^b) In procuring clerical assistance in the
reduction of data, (c) In purchasing literature to which access
could not otherwise be had.

During the year Dr. Pearl and students under his direction have
been engaged in work along the following lines :

(i) The variation in the weight of the human brain and the cor-
relation between this and other characters of the body. A paper on
this subject has been completed and is submitted with the report.

(2) The effect of environmental changes of known quality and
measured intensity on variation and correlation in the Protozoa.

(3) The correlation between the same and different characters in
conjugating individuals of Paramecium (homogamy).

(4) The variation and correlation in certain of the component parts
of the character "stature" in man.

(5) The correlation between differentiated homologous organs and
undifferentiated homologous organs in the crayfish.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 141

(6) The correlation between the death rates at different periods of
life in man.

(7) Certain minor problems in v'ariation and correlation.

A brief paper bearing the following title is submitted with the
report : "A table to be used in calculating the probable error of the
coefficient of variation."

This table \vill be of practical utility in biometrical investigation,

W. L. Tower, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Grant No. 181.
For a7i mvestigatio7i of the potato beetles of Mexico. $445-

Abstract of Report. — This grant was made to aid in the continua-
tion of a research upon the evolution of the genus Leptinotarsa, a
genus of beetle well calculated to give information concerning the
causes and methods of evolution in insects. The work planned to be
carried out under this grant falls under three heads : First, to trace
more accurately the distribution of certain species of these beetles
and to study the correlation of this distribution with topographic
and meteorological conditions ; second, to produce and transport to
Chicago certain species and their food plants for purposes of experi-
mentation ; third, to carry on observations in the Mexican tropics on
the life histories of these forms, and especially to study the factors
most concerned in hibernation, and to start experiments in the
transplantation of species from one habitat to another.

In order to carry out the investigation, Mr. Tower made two trips
to Mexico — one at the close of the dry season and one at the begin-
ning of the wet season. He determined important facts in relation
to the distribution and hibernation of the beetles, and records of
relative humidity, soil conditions, soil temperatures, air and sun
temperatures, in order to further continue the experimental work in
an intelligent manner. Living material of several species, together
with their food plants, were brought to Chicago successfully, and
have thrived well under the conditions provided for them. With
this material experiments in breeding and hibernization and with
various environmental factors wall be continued.

Transplantations of various species were made from their native
habitats into habitats entirely new to them. These, if successful,
ought to give most valuable data concerning the effect of a new
environment in the production of modifications and new species.

The results of this expedition consist in the obtaining of new and
needed material and of information concerning environmental condi-
tions during the rainy season.

142 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

With the material brought alive from Mexico, experiments in
pedigree breeding, hibernizing, and experiments to determine the
effect of temperature, moisture, etc., in the production of new
characteristics in the species are being carried on at Chicago. These
are progressing satisfactorily under excellent conditions, and bid fair
to give desirable results in due time. In anj^ such research it is only
after prolonged study through generation after generation that results
at all worthy of consideration can be obtained.

H. V. Wilson, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.
Grant No. 33. For morphology and classification of decp-sca
sponges. ( For first report see Year Book No. 2 , p. xliv. ) $1 ,000.

With the aid of the grant Professor Wilson was enabled to spend
fourteen months (July, 1902-August, 1903) in Europe engaged in the
uninterrupted study of certain deep-sea sponges. These sponges
formed part of a collection made in 1891 by the U. S. steamer
Albatross, under the direction of Mr. Alexander Agassiz, in the Pacific
Ocean, off the coasts of Mexico, Central and South America, and off
the Galapagos Islands.

The bulk of his time abroad was spent in Berlin, where he occu-
pied a working place in the laboratory of Prof. F. E. Schulze, the
eminent authority on the classification of the Hexactinellida and on
the structure of sponges at large. Professor Schulze' s collections of
Hexactinellid sponges are unrivaled. The collections of sponges
in the adjoining Museum fiir Naturkunde, which are under the
charge of Prof. W. Weltner, likewise proved most valuable. In the
use of the collections, the libraries, and the photographic and other
apparatus, every facility was allowed, both in the zoological labora-
tory and in the museum.

During the summer of 1903 he visited the Rijks Museum in Eey-
den, the Mnseum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, and the British
Museum of Natural History in London. In each museum every
opportunity was allowed for the study of the types.

On his return to America Professor Wilson wrote up the results
of his investigation. This work has just been published as one of
the ' ' Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard
College" (vol. xxx, No. i. Reports on an Exploration off the
West Coasts of Mexico, Central and South America, etc. xxx.
The Sponges. By H. V. Wilson, pp. 1-164, with 26 plates).

Abstract of Report. — In addition to the discovery of new species,
certain results of general biological interest accrued from the study

RKPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. I43

of the collection. Some remarkable forms were made known. Among
such may be mentioned Sderothamnopsis compressa, which resembles
in the shrub-like habitus of its stony skeleton the hitherto unique
Sderotka?n?i2is clatisii Marsh.

Light was thrown on the habitat of some of the Hexactinellida
living at great depths. Thus Caulophacus was found growing upon
the root spicules of Hyalonema.

Evidence of a convincing character was gained that the complex
tubular hexactinellid genera Eurete and Farrea are derived ontoge-
netically from simple cup-like forms.

In several Hexactinellids what may be described as a peculiar hy-
pertrophy of the skeleton was obser\'ed. The phenomenon is prob-
ably pathological and may indicate an effort of the sponge to shut off
one part (diseased?) of the body from the rest.

Observations were made on several aberrant forms of sponge
spicules, with the result that more has been learned as to the phy-
logeny of such skeletal elements as the discohexasters and scopulae
of Hexactinellids and the protriaenes and asters of Tetractinellids.

Our knowledge of the character and extent of variation in sponges
has been increased by the study of this collection. Cases are recorded
in which variation within a species affects not only the body shape,
but the general anatomy as well. For instance, in a species of lophon
the character of the surface varies conspicuously, owing to divergence
in the character of the main canals and the surrounding tissue.

Among the numerous variation phenomena exhibited by the skel-
eton, an excellent case of correlated variation was discovered in a
species of the hexactinellid genus Caulophacus . Here the spicules
coating the two opposite (pore and oscular) surfaces of the body
vary in the same direction, and thus in different individuals the pro-
portionate difference between them is preserved. In certain sponges
the variation exhibited by the spicules tended toward the condition
characteristic of a different though allied .species or subspecies. A
striking case was afforded by the new hexactinellid form Farrea occa-
claviformis, in which some spicules were found closeh' similar to the
highly specialized clavulse characteristic of Farrea convolvulus F. E.
Sch. Two cases of a phenomenon were found, which is perhaps to
be regarded as a kind of qualitative variation. The phenomenon in
question is briefl}^ this : Two sets of individuals living together in
the same locality and which are otherwise indistinguishable differ
conspicuously in respect to a single point. One case was afforded
by the monaxonid sponge lophoyi, the other by the hexactinellid
II

144 CAKNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

Eurete. In both cases the point of difference was one involving the
shape of a characteristic spicule.

N. Yatsu, Columbia University, New York. Grant No. 138. For
experimental stiidies, of the Nemertine egg. $300-

Abstract of Report. — Mr. Yatsu reports that he carried out, under
this grant, series of experiments on the Nemertine eggs, during the
summer of 1904, at the Harpswell Laboratory- of Tufts College,
South Harpswell, Me. The object of his work, which requires
three or four summers, is to obtain a thorough knowledge of local-
ization of the germinal regions of each stage of development, taking
the 0:%% of Ccrcbratuhis ladcus as a t3'pe, and to find out, in the end,
the initiating factor or factors of tissue differentiation. To this
end, b}' removal and isolation experiments, he studied very success-
fully the morphogenic as well as cleavage factors in the early stages
of development, and added several facts new to physiological embry-
ology. He also used calcium-free water to modif}- the mode of
cleavage. He actually demonstrated by crucial experiments the
formation dc novo of centricles in the egg-cytoplasm. This is a very
important contribution to experimental cytology.

Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass. J. Blakely

Hoar, treasurer. Grant No. 123. For maintcnajuc of 20 tables.

(For first report see Year Book No. 2, p. xlv.) $10,000.

Abstract of Report. — As in the year 1903, the grant was made to

aid the laboratory by paying for the maintenance of twenty research

tables. The persons assigned to the tables were selected by the

Carnegie Institution. The following seventeen persons occupied

the Carnegie tables during the season of 1903 :

Bryan, Walter, College of City of New York, August 3 to after September 12.
Carlson, Anton J., Stanford University, June 3 to September 5.
King, Cyrus Ambrose, DeWitt Clinton High School, July 7 to August 25.
Koch, Julius A., Western University of Pennsylvania, July 7 to August 10.
Kraemer, Henry, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, July 12 to August 17.
Lewis, Warren H., Johns Hopkins University, June 27 to August 29.
Loeb, Leo, University of Pennsylvania, July 3 to September 3.
McClendon, J. F., University of Pennsylvania, July 13 to (t//'^;- September 12.
Minor, Marie L., Wadleigh High vSchool, N. Y. City, Julv 14 to August 20.
Rhodes, Frederick A. .Western University of Pennsylvania, July 7 to August 10.
Richardson, Harriet, Washington, D. C.,' June 17 to vSeptember lo.
Simons, Etoile B. , The University of Chicago, June 30 to August 29.
Spaulding, Edward Gleason, College of City of New York, June 27 to August 11.
Streeter, George L., Johns Hopkins Medical vSchool, July 2 to August 27.
Strong, R. M., The University of Chicago, July 30 to aHer September 12.
Treadwell, Aaron L , Vassar College, June 22 to aHcr September 10.
Yerkes, R. M., Harvard College, August 15 to September 12.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMn"rEE. 1 45

The following, for various reasons, resigned their appointments:

Wallace Craig, University of Chicago, resigned Jnne 6, 1904.

Dr. W. C. Curtis, University of Missouri, resigned June 29, 1904.

B. M. Duggan, Universitj^ of INIissouri.

J. A. Edquist, Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Paul, Minn.

W. F. Mercer, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, resigned June 29, 1904.

Max W. Morse, Ohio State University, resigned June 6, 1904.

Porter E. Sargent, Cambridge, Mass.

The director of the laborator}-, Dr, C. L. Whitman, sent the follow-
ing statement of the investigators at the laboratory during the season
of 1904 ; he also stated that the laboratory would have accommoda-
tions for a few investigators from October to May, or during the cold
season. Forty-seven institutions w^ere represented by investigators.

INVESTIG.\TORS.
Zoology :

Occupying rooms 29

Occupying tables. 3

Physiology :

Occupying rooms 9

Botany : ,

Occupying rooms 10

Naples Zoological Station, Naples, Italy. Grant No. 124. For
maintenance of two tables. $1,000.

Abstract of Report. — One of the tables was occupied by Dr. H. S.
Jennings, now of the University of Pennsylvania, from September i,
1903, to July I, 1904; a second by Dr. Bradley M. Davis, of the
University of Chicago, from February 29, 1904, to June i, 1904.
Dr. Edmund B. Wilson, of Columbian University, occupied a table
from May 27, 1904, to July 14, 1904.

When not occupied by persons selected by the Carnegie Institu-
tion, the tables are open to whomsoever the director of the laboratory
may desire to assign to them.

146 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

RESEARCH ASSISTANTS.
The policy in relation to Research Assistants, as outlined in Year
Book No. 2, pp. xlvii-xlviii, was continued, and the persons below
named conducted investigations in the branches of science indicated :

C. E. Allen, Madison, Wis. Grant No 159. For a study of the homolo-
gies of the gametophyte and sporophyte, etc |:r,ooo

A. F. Blakeslee, Cambridge. Mass. Grant' No. 160. For an investiga-
tion of sexuality in the lower fungi. . 1,000

W. W. Coblentz, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Grant No. 198. For

investigating infra-red emission and absorption spectra 1,000

A. L. Dean, New Haven, Conn. Grant No. 161. For investigating the

proteolytic enzymes of plants i ,000

L. E. Dickson, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Grant No. 162. For

certain mathematical investigations. . .... 1,000

H. W. Doughty, Jolms Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Grant No
174. For an investigation of camphoric acid, under the direction
of Prof. A. A. Noyes . 1,000

C. B. Farrar, Towson, Md. Grant No. 163 For psj'chological experi-
ments at the Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital 1,000

William Jones, New York, N Y. Grant No. 173. For investigating the

religion of the central group of Algonkian Indians 1,000

A. S. King, Bonn, Germany. Grant No. 164. For the production and

study of emission spectra at high temperatures 1,000

P. A. Levene, New York, N. Y. Grant No. 165. For researches along

the line of determining points in the constitution of proteids 1,000

R. S. Lillie, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. Grant No. 166. For
a study of the relation of ions to the various forms of protoplasmic
movement 1,000

G. D. Louderback, San Francisco, Cal. Grant No. 167. For a study of

the glaucophane and associated schists . 1,300

F. E. Lutz, Bloomsburg, Pa. Grant No. 142. For study of organic evo-
lution at Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island ... 1,000

U. B. Phillips, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Grant No. 193.
For a study of the influence of plantation in political and social
history of the South 300

F. E. Ross, Washington, D. C. Grant No. 168. For astronomical inves-

tigation, under Prof. Simon Newcomb

L. S. Rowe, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Grant No.

144. For a study of Mexican constitutional system . 1,200

P. E. Sargent, Cambridge, Mass. Grant No. 175. For an investigation

in comparative neurology 1,000

G. W. Scott, Philadelphia, Pa. Grant No. 141. For a study of private

claims against foreign nations to which the United States has been

a party 1 , 200

E. S. Shepherd, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Grant No. 176. For
a systematic study of alloys, with especial reference to brasses and
bronzes i ,000

G. H. Shull, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Grant No. 143. For an

investigation in heredity, hybridization, variation, mutation, etc. . 1,000

Mary Roberts Smith, Palo Alto, Cal. Grant No. 194. For studying the
history and social conditions of the Chinese immigration in Cali-
fornia 1 , 000

Nettie M. Stevens, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. Grant No. 177.

For an investigation of problems relating to sex determination, etc. 1,000

J. B. Whitehead, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Grant No.

178. For study of the magnetic effect of electrical displacement. . 1,200

E. J. Wilczynski, Berkeley, Cal. Grant No. 135. For an investig;ition

of ruled surfaces, etc i ,800

Fritz Zerban, Munich, Germany. Grant No. 169. For an investigation

of rare earths, under the direction of Prof. C. Baskerville 1,000

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. I47

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications have been issued during the year :

Year Book No. 2, 1903. Octavo, 371 pages.

Report of Committee on Southern and Solar Observatories. Extracted from
Year Book No. 2. Octavo, 170 pages.

Desert Botanical Laboratory of Carnegie Institution. Publication No. 6. By
F. V. Coville and D. T. MacDougal. Octavo, 58 pages, 29 plates.

New Method of Determining Compressibility. Publication No. 7. By T. W.
Richards and W. N. Stull. Octavo, 45 pages, 5 text figures.

Contributions to Stellar Statistics. First paper. On the Position of the Galactic
and Other Planes Toward which the Stars Tend to Crowd. Publication
No. 10. By Simon Nevvcomb. Quarto, 30 pages.

Production of Sex in Human Offspring. Publication No. 11. By Simon New-
comb. Octavo, 34 pages.

The Action of Snake Venom upon Cold Blooded .\nimals. Publication No. 12.
By Hideyo Noguchi. Octavo, 16 pages.

The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy, 17S7-1798. Publication
No. 13. By E. D. Adams. Octavo, 79 pages.

Guide to the Archives of the Government at Washington. Publication No. 14.
Octavo, 250 pages.

Fecundation in Plants. Publication No. 15. By D. M. Mottier. Octavo, 187 pp.

Contributions to the Study of the Behavior of the Lower Organisms. Publica-
tion No. 16. By H. S. Jennings. Octavo, 256 pages.

Traditions of the Ankara. Publication No. 17. By G. A. Dorsey. Octavo,
202 pages.

Researches on North American Acridiidae. Publication No. 18. By Albert P.
Morse. Octavo, 56 pages, 8 plates.

The following are in press :

Coloration in Polistes. Publication No. 19. By Wilhelmine M. Enteman.

Octavo, 88 pages, 6 colored plates.
The coral Siderastrcea radians. Publication No. 20. By J. E. Duerden.

Quarto, 144 pages, 11 plates.
Mythology of the Wichita. Publication No. 21. By G. .A. Dorsey. Octavo,

353 PP-
The Waterlilies. Publication No. 22. By H. S. Conard. Quarto, 280 pp., 30 plates.
Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases. By Erwin F. Smith. Quarto.
Explorations in Turkestan. By R. Pumpelly, R. W. Pumpelly, W. M. Davis,

and Ellsworth Huntington. Quarto.
Collected Mathematical Works of G. W. Hill. It is estimated that these works

will make four quarto volumes. Volume I is in type.
Catalogue of Double Stars. By S. W. Burnham. 350 pages in type.

The following are authorized :

Evolution, Racial and Habitudinal, controlled by segregation. By J. T. Gulick.
Chimera — a memoir on the embryology of primitive fishes. By Bashford Dean.

Manuscript not received, but plates are prepared.
Bibliographic index of North American fungi. By W. G. Farlow. Will make

five octavo volumes. 250 pages in type.
Results of investigations of poison of serpents. By Drs. Simon Flexner and

Hideyo Noguchi. IManuscript not received.
Heredity of coat characters in guinea pigs and rabbits. By W. E. Castle.
Mutants and hybrids of the Oenotheras. By D. T. MacDougal.
Astronomical manuscript. By C. H. F. Peters.
Memoir on fossil cycads. By G. R. Wieland.
Description of the new oxygen apparatus accessory to the calorimeter. By W. O.

Atwater.
Rotation of the sun as determined from motion of the calcium flocculi. By
G. F. Hale aud Philip Fox.

148 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO WORK ACCOM-
PLISHED BY GRANTEES.

Ill the following list it is sought to include the titles of all publi-
cations bearing upon the work done under grants of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington. In some cases titles may be included
having only an indirect connection with such work.

Abkl, John J. The function of the suprarenal glands and the chemical nature
of their so-called active principle, pp. 138-165. < Contributions to Medical
Research, dedicated to Victor Clarence Vanghan. 1903

. WeitereMittheilungeniiberdas Epinephrin. < Berichtederdeutschen

chemischen Gesellschaft, Jahrgang xxxvi, Heft 9. June 20, 1903.

. On epinephrin and its compounds, with especial reference to epine-
phrin hj'drate. American Journal of Pharmacy. July, 1903.

Darstellung und Eigenschaften eines Abbauproductes des Epiueph-

rins. < Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, Jahrgang xxxvii,
Heft 2. February 6, 1904.

ATWaTEK, \V. O. a respiration calorimeter with appliances for the direct de-
termination of oxygen. <Printed for private circulation ; used in connec-
tion with an address on the subject at the International Physiological Con-
gress, Brussels. August 30, 1904.

Baskerville, Chari.es. Thorium, carolinium, berzelium. <Journal Ameri-
can Chemical Society, xxvi, p. 922. August, 1904.

Baskerviele, Chareks, and Zerb.\n, Fritz. Inactive thorium. <Journal
American Chemical Society. To appear.

Boss, Lewis. Catalogue of 627 principal .standard stars. <Reprint from a
series of articles in the Astronomical Journal. 1903.

Browne, C. E. The cat and the child. C^ed. Sem., xi, pp. 3-29. March, 1904.

. See G. Stanley Hall and C. E. Browne.

Cannon, Wileiam Austin. The spermatogenesis of hybrid peas. <Bulletin
of the Torrey Botanical Club. October, 1903.

. Observations on the germination of Phoradendron villosum and P. cali-

fornicwn (with 6 figs.). <Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, xxxi,

pp. 435-443- 1904-
Carhart, Henry S. The absolute value of the electromotive force of Clark

and Weston standard cells. <^Transactions of the International Electrical

Congress of 1904.
Careson, a. J. Xerv'ous origin of the heart-beat in Limulus and the nervous

nature of coordination or conduction in the heart. 'American Journal of

Physiology, xii, pp. 67-74. September i, 1904.
. The rhythm produced in the resting heart of molluscs on the stimula-
tion of the cardio-accelerator nerves. American Journal of Physiology,

XIII, pp. 55-66. September i, IC04.
Chryseek, M. a. Anatomical notes on certain strand plants. <Botanical

Gazette, xxxvii, pp. 461-464. June, 1904.
COBEENTZ, W. W. Optical notes. Physical Review, pp. S9-97. Aug., 1904.
. Preliminary communication on the infra-red absorption spectra of

organic compounds. <Astrophysical Journal, pp. 207-224. October, 1904.
CONARD, Henry .S. Nymphsea (sub-gen. Rrachyceras) in Africa. <Annuaire

du Conservatoire et du Jardin Botanique de Geneve. May 15, 1903.
Cone, L. H. See M. Gomberg and L. H. Cone.
CoQUiLEETT, D. W. Four new species of Culex. <Canadian Entomologist.

September, 1903.

A new Anopheles with unspotted wings. <Canad. Entom. Nov., 1903.
A new Culicid genus relateil to Corethra. <Canad. Entom. July, 1903.
Eucorethra, a genus of Culicida;. <Canad Entom. Oct. ,1903.
Notes on CiUex niffritiilus. ^Entomological News. February, 1904.
New North American Diptera. <Proceedings Ent Soc. Washington.

July 30, 1904.

RKPORT OF EXPXUTIVE COMMITTEE. 149

COQUILLKTT, T>. W. Several iie^v Diptera from North America. <Canadian

Entomologist. January, 1904.
Crew, Henry. Normal arc spectra of aluminium and cadmium, being two

photographic maps of eight sheets each. Published privately, through

printed circular. November, 1903.
. On the conditions which govern the appearance of spark lines in arc

spectra. Astrophvsical Journal. November, 1904.
CURRIE, R. P. See H. G. Dyar and R. P. Currie.
Davenport, C. B. Color inheritance in mice. < Science, n. s., xix, pp.

110-114. January 15, 1904.
. Wonder horses and Mendelism. <;Science, n. s., xix, pp. 151-153.

Januar}' 22, 1904.

Statistical methods, with special reference to biological variation.

Second rev. ed. <New York : John Wiley & Sons. Aug. 25, 1904.
DuERDEN, J. E. The antiquity of the Zeanuthid Actinians. <rFourth Report

of the Michigan Academy of Science. 1904.
. The morphology of the INI adrepor aria and septal sequence. ■<Bio-

logical Bulletin, pp. 79-10^. July, 1904.
. Recent results on the morphology and development of coral poh'ps.

<^Sinithsonian Quarterly. August, 1904.
Dyar, H. G., and Currie, R. P. The first stage of Ciilex periurbans. <Proc.

Ent. Soc. Washington, vi (in press). October, 1904.
Dyar, Harriscjn G. The life history of Culex cantans Meg. (corrected later

to C. V ! ila i us Theop.). < Journal N. Y. Ent. Soc, xri, 36. March, 1904.
. Life history of Cule.v varipalpus Cog. < Journal N. Y. Ent. Soc, xii,

p. 90. June, 1904.
. The larva of Culex pu/idor Krih., with notes on an allied form (C.

irichurus x\. s-p.). ' Journal N Y. Ent. Soc.xii, p. 169. September, 1904.
. Brief notes on mosquito larvEe. < Journal N. Y. Ent. Soc, xii.p. 172.

September, 1904.
. Notes on the mosquitoes of British Columbia. <Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash.,

VI, p. 37. January, 1904.

The larvae of the mosquitoes Me^arrhintts rutilus Cog. and M. por-

toricensis Rod. <Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., vi, p. 20. January, 1904.
EirVOVE, Elias. See J. H. Kastle and E. Elvove.
Farrar, Clarence B. Phenomena of repair in the cerebral cortex. <His-

tologische imd Histopathologische Arbeiten (Nissl). Winter, 1904.
Flexner, Simon, and Noguchi, Hideyo. On the plurality of cytolysins in

snake venom. <;University of Pennsylvania Med. Bull., xvi, Nos. 5-6,

p. 163. July-August, 1903.
. Upon the production and properties of an ti-cro talus venin. <Journal

of Medical Research, xi. No. 2, p. 363. May, 1904.

On the pluralit}- of cytolysins in normal blood serum. <Uuiversity

of Pennsylvania Med. Bull., xvi, Nos. 5-6, p. 158. July- August, 1903.

Frazer, J. C. W. See H. N. Morse and J. C W. Frazer.

Getman, F. H. See Harry C. Jones and F. H. Getman.

Gomberg, M., and Cone.'l. H. tjber Triphenylmethyl (IX Mittheilung).
<Berichte der deutsch. chem. Gesellschaft, xxxvii, pp. 2035-2057. 1904.

Hall, G. Stanley, and Browne, C. E. Children's ideas of fire, heat, frost,
and cold. <^Pedagogical Seminary, x, pp. 27-85. March, 1903.

Hall, G. Stanley, and Smith, Theodate L Reactions to light and dark-
ness. <American Journal of Psychology, xiv, pp. 21-83. Januar}-, 1903.

. Marriage and fecundity of college men and women. <Pedagogical

Seminary, x, pp. 275-314. September, 1903.

. Curiosity and interest. "Ped. Sem , x, pp. 315-35S. Sept., 1903.

Showing off and bashfulness as phases of self-consciousness. < Peda-

gogical Seminary, x, pp. 159-199. June, 1903.

Hay, Oliver P. On the finding of skulls of Trionychitae in the Bridger de-
posits of Wyoming. <Science, n. s., xix, p. 254. February 12, 1904

. On some fossil turtles belonging to the ISIarsh collection in Yale Uni-
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261-276. October, 1904.

I50 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

Howard, L. O. Concerning the geographic distribution of the yellow-fever
mosquito. <Public Health Reports, xviii. No. 46. November 13, 1903.

JONKS, Harry C, and Gktman, F. H. The existence of alcoholates in solu-
tions of certain electrolytes in alcohol. <American Chemical Journal,
XXXII, p. 338. October, 1904.

. The existence of hydrates in solutions of certain non-electrolytes and

the non-existence of hydrates in solutions of organic acids. <American
Chemical Journal, xxxii, p. 30S. October, 1904.

On the nature of concentrated solutions of electrolytes. <American

Chemical Journal, xxxi, p. 303. April, 1904.
Kasti.e, J. H., and Er.vovE, Euas. On the reduction of nitrates of certain

plant extracts, and metals and the accelerating effect of certain substances

on the progress of the reduction. <American Chemical Journal, xxxi,

pp. 606-641. June, 1904.
. Oxidation and reduction in the animal organism and the toxic action

of powerful oxidizing and reducing substances. <American Chemical

Journal, xxxi, pp. 195-207. March, 1904.
King, Arthur S. A study of the causes of variability of spark spectra.

<:^Astrophysical Journal. May, 1904.
. A detailed study of the line spectrum of copper. <Astrophysical

Journal. July, 1904.
Lkvkne, p. a., and Stookey, L B. On the combined action of proteolytic

enzymes. <Anierican Journal of Physiology, xii. p. i. September i, 1904.
IvEVENE, P. A. The autolysis of animal organs.' <American Journal of Physi-
ology, XI, p. 437. July I, 1904.
. Hydrolysis of Spleen nucleic acid by dilute mineral acid. <American

Journal of Physiology, xii, p. 213. October i, 1904.
. Darstellung und Analyse einiger Nucliusauren. <Happe-Zeyler's

Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, xun. November, 1904.

i) The autolysis of animal organs. (2) Hydrolitic cleavage of fresh

and self-digested glands. <Ani. Jour. Physiology, xii. Nov. i, 1904.
Lewis, E. Percivai,. The afterglow of metallic vapors in nitrogen — a new

band spectrum. <Astrophysical Journal, xx, pp. 49-57. Physikalische

Zeitschrift, No. 17, 1904.
. Notes on the spectra of nitrogen and its oxides. <Astrophysical Jour-
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LoEB, Leo. On the spontaneous agglutination of blood cells of arthropods.

<Uniyersity of Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin. February, 1904.
•. ijberdie Koagulation des Blutes einiger Arthropoden. <Hofmeisters

Beitrage zur chemischen Physiologic und Pathologie, Band 5. January,

1904.
LouDERBACK, GEORGE Davis. Basin range structure of the Humboldt region.

<Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, xv, pp. 2S9-346 (8 figs.). July, 1904.
MacDougal, D. T. Botanical explorations in the southwest (with i pi. and

5 figs.). <Journal N. Y. Bot. Gard., v, pp. 89-91. 1904.
. Delta and desert vegetation (with 7 figs.). <Bot. Gaz , xxxviii, pp.

44-63. 1904-
McLaughlin, A. C. Papers of William Paterson on the Federal Convention,

1787- <CAni. Hist. Review. January, 1904.
. Sketch of Charles Pinckney's plan for a Constitution, 1787. <Am.

Hist. Review. July, 1904.
MooRE, J. H. See R. W. Wood and J. H. Moore.
Morse, A. P. New Acridiidae from the southeastern States. <Psyche, xi,

pp. 7-13. February 20, 1904.
Morsk, H. N., and Frazer, J. C.W. A new electric furnace and various other

electric heating appliances for laboratory use. <Am. Chem. Journal,

xxxii. August, 1904.
NoGUCHi, HiDEYO. A comparative study of snake venom and snake sera.

<Proc. Pathological Society of Phila., n. s., vi. No. 4, p. 88, Feb , 1903.
Effect of snake venom on the blood corpuscles of cold-blooded animals.

<Univ. Pennsylvania Med. Bull., xvi, Nos. 5-6, p. 182. July-August, 1903.

REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 151

NOGUCHi, HiDEYO. On the multiplicity of the serum haem-agglutinins of
cold-blooded animals. <Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde
und Infektions-krankheiten, xxxiv, No. 3, p. 285. 1903.

. On the heat lability of the complements of cold-blooded animals.

<;Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infektionskrank-
heiten, xxxiv, No. 3, p. 283. 1903.

. A study of immunization-haemolysins, agglutinins, precipitins, and

coagulins in cold-blooded animals. ^Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Para-
sitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten, xxxiii, No. 5, p. 353. 1903.

. The interaction of the blood of cold-blooded animals, with reference to

hcemolysis, agglutination, and precipitation. <Centralb. fiir Bakteriologie,
Parasitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten, xxxiii. No. 5, p. 362. 1903.
See Simon Flexner and Hideyo Noguchi.

Olive, Edgar W. Mitotic division of the nuclei of the Cyanophycese.

<^Beihefte des Botanisches Centralblatts. November or December, 1904.
Overton, James B. Uber Parthenogenesis bei Thalictrum purpurascens.
Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft. Jahrgang, 1904, Band

XXII, Heft. 5, pp. 274-281.
Parkhurst, J. A. Nova Geminorum — an early photograph and photographic

magnitudes. <^Astrophysical Journal, xvil, p. 373. 1903.
. Photometric magnitudes of comparison. <Popular Astronomy, xi,

p. 328. 1903.
- — — -. Stars for Nova Geminorum. <;Popular Astronomy, xi, p. 328. 1903.

. The variable star 6871 V Lyrae. <;Astrophys. Jour., xviii, p. 33. 1903.

. The variable star 1921 W Aurigse. <Astrophysical Journal, xviii,

p. 309. 1903.
. Faint stars near the Trapezium in the Orion nebula. -^Astrophysical

Journal, xx, p. 136. 1904.

Observed magnitudes of 62.1903 Andromedse. <;Astronomical Jour-

nal, XXIV, p. 25. 1904.
Pearl, Raymond, and Burr, Mary J. A statistical study of conjugation in

Paramecium. <^Sixth Annual Report of the Michigan Academy of Science.

October, 1904.
Perkins, H F. Double reproduction in the Medusa hybocodon protifer.

<^ American Naturalist, xxxviii, Nos. 451-452. July-August, 1904.
Perkins, I. Marantacese of the Philippines, with 3 plates and 31 figures.

<I. Perkins Fragmenta Florse Philippines, 11, pp. 67-74. June 30, 1904.
Pickering, Edward C. Carnegie Grant of 1903. <Harvard College Obser-
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. Nova Geminorum before its discovery. <^Harvard College Observatory

Circular No. 70. April 3, 1903.

Grant from the Carnegie Institution. <^Harvard College Observatory

Circular No. 69. Janviary 26, 1903.

PUMPELLY, R. Investigation upon ancient sites at Anau, near Askhabad in
Russian Turkestan. <CIn the form of a preliminary letter ; by Carnegie
Institution of Washington.

Rhodes, Frederick A. Carbohydrate metabolism ; relation of various tissues
to destruction of sugar. <CAmerican Medicine. December. 1904.

Richards, T. W., and Stull, W. N. New method of determining compressi-
bility, with application to Br,, I5, CHCl,, CHBrj, CCI4, phosphorus, water,
and glass. <^Carnegie Institution Pub. No. 7. December, 1903.

Richards, T. W. The effects of chemical and cohesive internal pressure.
<.^Proc. Am. Acad., xxxix, pp. 579-604. June, 1904. Reprinted in full
in Zeitschrift fiir phys. Chemie, XLix. July, 1904.

Sargent, Porter Edward. The Torus longitudinalis of the teleost brain :
Its ontogeny, phylogeny, morphology, and function. <The Mark Anni-
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. The optic reflex apparatus of vertebrates for short-circuit transmission

of Motor Reflexes through Reissner's Fibre : Its morphology, ontogeny,
phylogeny, and function. — Part i. The fish-like vertebrates. <:;Bulletin
of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. July, 1904.

152 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Shepherd, K. vS. The constitution of the copper-zinc alloys. <Journal of

Physical Chemistry, vin, p. 421. June, 1904.
Smith, TheodaTe h. Types of adolescent affection. <Pedagogical Seminary,

XI, pp. 178-203. June, 1904.
. The psychology of day dreams. ■; American Journal of Psychology,

XV, pp. 465-4S8. October, 1904.

See G. vStanlev Hall and Theodate L. Smith.

Spaulding, Edward "G. vSpecial physics of segmentation, a synopsis of the
parthenogenetic methods. < Biological Bulletin. February, 1904.

. An establishment of association in hermit crabs, Eiipagurus longi-

carpus. < Jour. Comparative Neurology and Psychology. March, 1904.

Spai.ding, V. IM. Biological relations of certain desert shrubs. I. The creo-
sote bush {Coii/lea iridentata) and its relation to the water supply (with 7
figs.). Botanical Gazette, XXXVIII, pp. 122-138. 1904.

Stookev, L. B. See P. A. Levene and L. B. Stookey.

Stui.l, W. N. See T. W. Richards and W. N. Stull.

Washington, Henry S Analysis of leucite-tephrite from Vesuvius, lava of
1903. <Man. of the Chem. Anal, of Rocks, pp. 168-172. 1904.

Whitehead, John B. Magnetic effect of electric displacement. <Physika-
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WiEivAND, G. R. Cycads. <Encyclopedia Americana, vol. v. 1903.

. Cordaitales. ' Encyclopedia Americana, vol. v. 1903.

. Polar climate in time the major factor in the evolution of plants and

animals. -American Journal of Science. December, 1903.

Wilson, Edmund B. Experimental studies on germinal localization. I. The
germ-regions in the egg of Dentalium. < Journal of Experimental Zoology,
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. Experimental studies on germinal localization. H. Experiments on

the cleavage-mosaic in Patella and Dentalium. <" Journal of Experimental
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Wilson, H. V Reports on an exploration oflF the west coa.sts of Mexico, Cen-
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Wood, R. W. Surface color. Prisms and plates for showing dichromatism.
-^Physical Review. June and August, 1902.

. Invisibilit}' of transparent objects. <' Physical Review. August, 1902.

. Screens transparent only for ultra-violet light. <CAstrophysical Jour-
nal. March, 1903.

. Photographic reversals in spectrum photographs. <CAstrophysical

Journal. June, 1903.

. Anomalous dispersion, al)Sorption, and surface color of nitrosodi-

methyl aniline. <Proc. Am. Acad. ; also Phil. Mag. Aug., 1903.

. The electrical resonance of metal particles for light waves. < Philo-
sophical Magazine. August, 1903.

. Some new cases of interference and diffraction. <:^Philosophical

Magazine. April, 1904.

. Quantitative determination of the anomalous dispersion of sodium

vapor. <Phil. Mag. ; also Proc. Am. Acad. Sci. Sept., 1904.

. Achromatizatiou of interference bands formed with monochrom. light,

and consequent increa.se in allowable path difference. < Philosophical
Magazine. September, 1904.

. Recent improvements in the diffraction process of color photography.

<"Nature (London). October, 1904.

-. Apparatus for showing the pressure of sound waves. <Physical Re-
view. November and December, 1904.

Wood, R. W., and Muorh, J. H. Fluorescence and absorption spectra of
sodium vapor. <rAstrophysical Journal : also Phj'sikalische Zeitschrift.
September, 1903.

Zerban, Fritz. See Charles Ba.skerville and Fritz Zerban.

ACCOMPANYING PAPERS.

153

LIST OF ACCOMPANYING PAPERS

Page
A Study of the Conditions for Solar Research at Mount Wilson, California.

By George E. Hale - • I55-I74

The Southern Observatory Project. By Lewis Boss I75-I77

Methods for promoting research in the exact sciences I79-I93

Letter of Dr. Simon Newcomb 1 79

Letter of Prof. H. H. Turner 182

Letter of Karl Pearson . 184

Letter of Lord Rayleigh 188

Letter of G. H. Darwin 189

Letter of Arthur Schuster 190

Letter of Edward C. Pickering 193

Fundamental Problems of Geology. By T. C. Chamberlin 195-258

Plans for obtaining subterranean temperatures. By G. K. Gilbert. . . . 259-267
Value and feasibility of a determination of subterranean temperature

gradient by means of a deep boring 261

Proposed Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific Ocean. By L- A. Bauer

and G. W. Littlehales 269-273

Letter from Capt. E. W. Creak to Dr. Bauer 272

Letter from Superintendent O. H. Tittmann to Dr. Bauer 273

Geological Research in Eastern Asia. By Bailey Willis 275-291

Contributions to Geology of the Paleozoic Era 281

Contributions to Geology of the Pre-Cambrian 283

Contributions to the History of Mountains 284

On the Influence of Man 287

Contributions to Geography 288

Contributions to Zoology 290

Artesian waters 290

Photographs 291

154

STUDY OF CONDITIONS FOR SOLAR RESEARCH
AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA.

By George E. Hai.e.

In 1902, Dr. S. P. Langley addressed a communication to the
Carnegie Institution recommending the estabhshment of an observ-
atory at a very high altitude for the special purpose of measuring the
solar radiation. In this communication Dr. Langley offered reasons
for his belief that the solar radiation may undergo changes of in-
tensity corresponding with those great changes of solar activity which
are so strikingly illustrated in the sun-spot cycle. This communica-
tion was 'referred to an advisory com-mittee appointed by the Carnegie
Institution to report on various astronomical projects which had been
submitted. The committee consisted of Prof. E. C. Pickering, dhair-
man; Prof. Lewis Boss, Dr. S. P. Langley, Prof. Simon Newcomb,
and the writer. In its report to the Carnegie Institution, the com-
mittee expressed its approval of Dr. Langley's proposal and recom-
mended, in case the Institution felt inclined to pursue the matter
further, that a special committee be appointed to make a detailed
report on the requirements of a complete solar observatory. It was
also recommended that a project for an observatory in the southern
hemisphere be investigated and reported upon by the same committee.

As a result of this recommendation, a committee, consisting of
Prof. Lewis Boss, chairman ; Prof. W. W. Campbell, and the writer,
was appointed in December, 1902, to report upon the proposed south-
ern and solar observatories. The report of this committee may be
found in Year Book No. 2 of the Carnegie Institution. This report
also includes a detailed account by Prof. W. J. Hussey of his tele-
scopic tests of atmospheric conditions at sites in Southern California
and Arizona, where he had been sent by the committee. Professor
Hussey strongly recommended, as the result of 'his tests, that Mount
Wilson, near Pasadena, California, be chosen as the site of the pro-
posed solar observatory, in case the Carnegie Institution decided to
establish it.

My first visit to Mount Wilson was made in company with Pro-
fessor Campbell in June, 1903. Professor Hussey had practically
completed his tests and desired that we should see for ourselves the
conditions he had found. Previous observations of the sun at Pike's
Peak, Mount Etna, and Mount Hamilton had in no wise prepared me

155

156 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

for my experience on Mount Wilson. On certain occasions, it is
true, I had seen the solar image sharply defined on Mount Etna in the
very early morning hours. On Mount Hamilton, also, the solar
image is sometimes good ; but the testimony of those who have ob-
served the sun there was decidedly unfavorable. It was therefore
with, intense satisfaction that on each of the four days of my stay on
Mount Wilson I found the definition of the solar image almost per-
fect, to be rated at from 8 to 9 on a scale of 10.

This visit was necessarily a hurried one, and it was evident that
before Mount Wilson could be determined upon as the best avail-
able site for an observatory, observations extending over a long
period of time would be necessary. As circumstances required that
my family should spend the winter of 1903- 1904 in Southern Cali-
fornia, I decided to take this opportunity to make a more complete
test of atmospheric conditions on Mount Wilson. Before arrange-
ments had been made for living upon the mountain, I made frequent
trips from Pasadena to Mount Wilson during the months of De-
cember, January, and February, observing the sun on each occasion
with a telescope of y/i inches aperture, and noting the prevailing
weather conditions. The extraordinary absence of wind, which had
seemed so characteristic a feature of the mountain during Professor
Hussey's visit, could not be said to continue throughout the winter
months. High gales sometimes occur at this season, and the average
wind velocity is greater than during the summer. Nevertheless,
the wind during the day was usually very light, and on many
occasions the quiet days of the previous June seemed to be almost
exactly duplicated, except that the temperature was lower. For weeks
together not a cloud would be seen in the sky, and the summer
serenity was in some measure retained until well into January.
Later it was broken by storms, but th^se practically ended with April.

As the solar definition proved to be surprisingly good for this
season of the year, I was soon convinced that Mount Wilson oflFered
exceptional opportunities for both solar and stellar work and that
a systematic test of conditions should be inaugurated at the earliest
possible moment. Accordingly, I commenced on March i to render
habitable an old log cabin on the mountain that had been in a state
of partial ruin for many years. This cabin, known locally as the
"Casino," became our headquarters, where we have lived through-
out our work on Mount Wilson. Tests of the solar definition were
made as often as possible with the telescope already mentioned,
anrl on April 15 several meteorological instruments provided by the

SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 1 57

Carnegie Institution were installed. Since that time, with only such
interruptions as have been made necessary by the enforced absence of
the observers, the instruments have been read at stated hours by Mr.
Ferdinand Ellerman or Mr. W. S. Adams, who have also made
regular tests of the seeing with the telescope mentioned above.

Through important financial assistance rendered by Mr. Arthur
Orr, of Evanston, Illinois, and Mr. John D. Hooker, of Los An-
geles, and the exceptional facilities kindly granted by the Atchison,
Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Company, through President Ripley,
it became possible to bring from the Yerkes Observatory the small
coelostat which had previously been sent to the eclipses of 1900
(North Carolina) and 1902 (Sumatra). It had been my purpose to
bring out the Snow telescope, but lack of sufficient funds prevented
me from doing so. The smaller coelostat was accordingly erected on
the mountain, where it yielded excellent photographs of the sun,
amply sufficient to give objective evidence of the high quality of the
observational conditions.

During my first visit to Alount Wilson the only unfavorable feature
was the presence of fine dust in the air, v\4iich was conspicuous not
only in the valley below, but also seemed to extend to a considerable
altitude above the mountain. This was by no means sufficient to
affect greath' the transparency of the sky, except very near the hori-
zon. Nevertheless, the Milky Way did not stand out with the degree
of contrast which one expects to see in a very transparent atmos-
phere. On my return trip to Chicago throug'h the San Gabriel Valley
'the dust seemed so conspicuous that I feared it might prove an im-
portant objection to Mount Wilson as a site for an observatory. In
most classes of solar observation dust does not play a very important
part, and the great steadiness of the image would far outweigh any
objections which might result from this cause. But in other classes
of work which were contemplated for the proposed observatory, this
dust, if persistent, would inevitably prove a serious obstacle. For
example, in determinations of the value of the solar constant and in
the photography of faint nebulae, the absorption and scattering of
light produced by dust in the atmosphere may interfere greatly with
the work. It accordingly seemed that special attention should be
given to the question of dust in the atmosphere above iMount Wilson.
It has fortunately turned out, as will be shown later, that the presence
of any appreciable amount of dust in tflie air above the mountain is
so exceptional a phenomenon as to constitute no important objection
to Mount Wilson as an observatory^ site.

158 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

After a brief statement regarding the conditions found at Mount
Wilson had been presented to the Executive Committee of the
Carnegie Institution, in April, 1904, they decided to make a grant
of a sum sufficient to provide for the erection and use of the Snow-
telescope on the mountain. The Yerkes Observatory loaned the
telescope and the University of Chicago provided the salaries of
some of the observers. The work accomplished on the mountain
since this grant was made has been sufficient to serve as a reliable
basis for estimates on the cost of a large solar observatory, besides
giving valuable experience regarding the necessary methods and
cost of construction under the unusual conditions existing at the
summit of a mountain nearly 6,000 feet in height. In view of their
bearing on the question of a solar observatory, I have accordingly
included in my report some remarks on the principal obstacles
encountered and overcome in the construction of buildings and the
transportation of instruments and materials.

REQUIREMENTS OF A SITE FOR A SOLAR OBSERVATORY.

It is desirable to recapitulate here the purposes and plans for a
solar observatory whjch were given at some length in Year Book
No. 2 of the Carnegie Institution. At the outset, it should be stated
that the term "solar observatory" is used here in a broad sense,
since it is not intended to exclude from the program certain investi-
gations of stars which are of fundamental importance in any
general study of the problem of stellar evolution. For the sun is
a star, comparable in almost every respect with many other stars
in the heavens, and rendering possible, through an intimate know-
ledge of its own phenomena, the solution of some of the most
puzzling questions in the general problem of stellar evolution.
Conversely, however, the stars are suns, and if we would know
the past and future conditions of the sun, we must examine into
the physical condition of stars which represent earlier and later
stages of development. It will be seen that there is ample ground
for the inclusion in the equipment of a solar observatory of certain
instruments especially designed for the study of stellar problems.

The plan of work proposed for the observatory, as outlined in
Year Book No. 2, includes the following classes of observations :

(i) Frequent measurements of the heat radiation of the sun, to
determine whether there may be changes during the sun-spot cycle in
the amoimt of heat received from the sun by the earth and in the
relative radiation of the various portions of the solar surface.

SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 1 59

(2) Studies of various solar phenomena, particularly through
the use of powerful spectroscopes and spectroheliographs.

(3) Photographic and spectroscopic investigations of the stars and
nebulae with a very powerful reflecting telescope, for the principal
purpose of throwing light on the problem of stellar evolution.

The present opportunity for important advances in these three
departments of research is very unusual. Since the publication of
Year Book No. 2, Dr. Langley has offered reasons to believe that
an actual change in the amount of heat emitted by the sun occurred
in March, 1903. It is hardly necessary to say that a change in the
intensity of the sun's heat, if actually established, might have a
most important bearing upon many questions relating to the earth,
and, at the same time, be of capital interest in its relationship to
the problem of the solar constitution. Through the force of circum-
stances, Dr. Langley's observations have been made under the very
unfavorable conditions which obtain at Washington. If they could
be continued at a considerable altitude, at a point above the denser
and more fluctuating region of the earth's atmosphere, the question
as to what changes actually occur in the solar radiation could doubt-
less be answered in a thoroughly satisfactory manner.

In the study of the phenomena of the sun's surface and atmos-
phere we again enter a remarkably fruitful field of research.
Within the past few years the instruments available for work in
this field have been greatly developed, and now only await applica-
tion on a large scale in order to secure a great number of new
results which have hitherto been entirely out of reach. But even
if the means were available for supplying the necessary instruments
to existing observatories, they could not be successfully employed
without atmospheric conditions much superior to those at present
available. In work of this nature, success depends upon the
perfect definition of the soiar image and the absence of those dis-
turbances from which the atmosphere at existing observatories is
almost never free. For this work, therefore, an elevated station in
a region of great atmospheric calm is absolutely essential. Further-
more, the site must be free from the disturbing factors which fre-
quently prevent good observations from being obtained on mountain
summits.

In the third class of investigations required to complete the
program of a properly equipped solar observatory, similar possi-
bilities of advance exist. Within the past few years the remarkable
advantages of the reflecting telescope have been demonstrated. It
now only remains to construct a larg^ and powerful instrument
12

l6o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

of the type shown by these experiments to promise success. With
such an instrument, immense new fields of investigation of the
highest importance in their bearing on the problem of stellar evolu-
tion could be immediately occupied. Here again, however, the un-
favorable atmospheric conditions at almost all existing observatories
would render the construction of a large telescope almost useless.
To be successful, such an instrument must be erected at a site where
the night-seeing is nearly perfect, the sky clear and transparent, and
the average wind velocity very low. Under such conditions, a
properly constructed telescope of large aperture would undoubtedly
yield results greatly siirpassing those hitherto obtained.

These considerations are sufficient to define the general character
of a site suitable for a well-equipped solar observatory. There
are other points, however, which must be taken into account. A
solar observatory provided with an outfit of instruments, and then
left to do its work without the possibility of improvement or change,
could never attain the best results. On the contrary, it must have
the means of producing new types of instruments and modifying
old ones, as the development of the work may suggest. In other
words, a shop completely equipped with all appliances necessary
for the most refined construction of both the mechanical and optical
parts of instruments, should form an integral part of a solar
observatory. A shop of this kind can not be conducted without
great difficulty and expense if far removed from large cities and
other sources of supply. This is only one of many reasons which
would render it desirable to select an observatory site within easy
reach of the facilities afforded by a large city.

In his recommendation for the establishment of an observatory
for the purpose of determining whether the lieat radiation of the sun
undergoes change. Dr. Langley pointed out the desirability of mak-
ing the observations at a height of some 20,000 feet above sea-level.
Apart from the excessive difficulty and expense of conducting an
observatory at such an elevation, which are best appreciated by those
who have worked at great altitudes, the inaccessibility of high moun-
tain peaks would stand in the way of sudh an undertaking. But it
nevertheless might have been carried out, at a somewhat lower alti-
tude, if the recent development of Dr. Langley 's work at Washington
had not indicated that the great mass of observations could undoubt-
edly be made to good advantage at a much lower station. The
increasing perfection of the observational method has, indeed, per-
mitted fairly good results to be obtained under the very unfavorable

SOLAR KESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. l6l

conditions wliich exist at Washington. Xevertheless, it by no means
follows that Dr. Langley's purpose could be accomplished at such
a point. The humidity of our atmosphere is a most serious obstacle in
this particular work, since the solar heat is very subject to absorption
by water vapor. It is therefore desirable to establish the instruments
at least a mile above the dense and disturbed layers of the atmos-
phere which lie near the sea-level. Certain problems connected with
the investigation may render it desirable to make some of the obser-
vations at a higher altitude, reaching from 12,000 to 15,000 feet.
We conclude, therefore, that the principal work should be done
at a station having an elevation of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, in a dry
climate, where the weather is continuously clear over long periods
of time. The work at higher altitudes, if needed at all, could in all
probability be completed in two or three summers by expeditions
equipped with a portable outfit erected at an altitude of from 12,000
to 15.000 feet. It would thus be convenient to have the principal
station at a lower altitude, not far removed from accessible moun-
tains of this considerable elevation. It would be inadvisable, for
reasons which it is hardly necessary to specify, to establish the
principal station at an altitude much greater than 6,000 feet.

POSITION AND NATURAL RESOURCES OF MOUNT WILSON.

From a meteorological standpoint, the State of California may
naturally be divided into three parts. In the northern region the
rainfall is very considerable, much cloudiness prevails, and tin
almost all respects the conditions are very unfavorable for astro-
nomical work. The central region, which may be considered to
extend as far south as Point Concepcion, is favored with much
better weather conditions, best exemplified at the Lick Observa-
tory, on Mount Hamilton, where a high average of night-seeing
is maintained during a large part of the year. Except for the
frequent winds at night, which interfere with some classes of work,
Mount Hamilton might be regarded as an almost ideal observa-
tory site, at least for night observations. For solar work it may
not be superior to certain stations in the eastern part of the United
States, because of the excessive radiation from the heated slopes of
the mountain, which is almost devoid of trees near the summit.

In the southern part of California the climatic conditions are
decidedly dififerent from those which prevail in the two other
sections of the State. The much lighter rainfall is naturally asso-
ciated with fewer clouds, a remarkably steady barometer, and very
light winds. During a part of the year the fog rolls in from the

1 62 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

ocean and covers much of the San Gabriel Valley during the night.
But these fog-clouds rarely attain elevations exceeding 3,000 feet,
except when storm conditions prevail during the winter months.
The mountains of the Sierra Aladre range rise high above the fog,
and during a great proportion of the year they enjoy practically con-
tinuous sunshine. During the summer months the sea breeze
blows for a large part of the day, but it attains only a low velocity,
which decreases in passing from the valley to the mountain tops
and in going inward from the coast.

Mount Wilson is one of many mountains that form the southern
boundary of the Sierra Madre range. Standing at a distance of 30
miles from the ocean, it rises abruptly from the valley fioor, flanked
only by a few spurs of lesser elevation, of w'hidh Mount Harvard is
the highest. Except for a narrow saddle, Mount Wilson is separated
from Mount Harvard 'by a deep canyon, the walls of which are very
precipitous. Farther to the west, beyond the saddle leading to Mount
Harvard, the ridge of Mount Wilson forms the upper extremity of
Eaton Canyon, which leads directly to the San Gabriel Valley. East
and north of Mount Wilson lies the deep canyon throug*h which flows
the west fork of the San Gabriel River, and beyond this rises a con-
stant succession of mountains, most of 'them higher than Mount
Wilson, which extend in a broken mass to the Mojave Desert. The
Sierra Madre range forms the northern boundary' of the San Gabriel
Valley, which is further protected toward the east from the desert by
the high peaks of the San Bernardino range. Through the Cajon
Pass, where the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad enters the
valley, winds from the desert frequently blow, bringing vast quan-
tities of dust, which sometimes diffuses through the lower air over the
entire valley. This dust but rarely reaches an elevation as great as
that of Mount Wilson, though I have seen a few wind-storms that
carried the dust of the desert directly over the Sierra Madre range
and into the valley 'below.

For the most part, the readily accessible mountains on the south-
ern boundary of the Sierra Madre range have few trees near the
summit, and enjoy but small supplies of water. Mount Wilson
is remarkable in having a fine growth of trees covering its summit,
and in possessing within easy reach of its highest point several large
springs of water, vv^hich afiford a good supply even during very
dry seasons.

In a dry country the question of a pure and permanent supply of
water is of paramount importance. It is therefore desirable to give

SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 1 6

more definite information of the springs near the summit of Mount
Wilson. Some of these are located at Strain's Camp, where, for
many years, they have supplied the necessities of summer visitors,
who frequently occupy tents here for considerable periods of time.
Two wells have been dug at Strain's Camp, and these are regarded
as excellent sources of pure water.

In accordance with the terms of the lease of the property at
present occupied as an observatory site on Mount Wilson, the
water rights on the mountain are to be equally divided between the
owners of the property and the occupants of the observatory site.
It seems probable that the wells at Strain's Camp, if properly de-
veloped, would supply the purposes of a large observatory. If not,
more water could easily be developed on the mountain ; it may appear
desirable to obtain water from a stream in one of the neighboring
canyons, about i.ooo feet below. The expense of pumping to this
height would not be great, and the stream can be relied upon as a
never-failing source of wat-er. A water-tunnel on the south face of
the mountain has been reserved by the owners of the property for the
purpose of supplying Martin's Camp, and is not included in the equal
division of the remaining water rights. A method of securing more
water, which could undoubtedly be employed with advantage, would
be through the use of large storage tanks, in which water could be
collected during the rainy season, either by pumping from the over-
flowing wells or by catching the rain as it falls on roofs or other
large surfaces provided for the purpose.

TRANSPORTATION AND CONSTRUCTION.

Much granite is available on Mount Wilson for the purpose of
construction, but in the portion of the mountain selected for the
observatory site it is not so easily obtained as might be wished.
This is due to the fact that much of the granite is decomposed, and
consequently too soft for building purposes. The hard and the
decomposed granites occur together, so that if a quarry is started
at a point where plenty of hard granite seems to be present, it
sometimes happens that the supply is soon exhausted, leaving only
decomposed granite below. Men experienced in matters of this
kind have been quite unable to judge whether selected spots could
be relied upon to furnish a good supply of 'hard granite. This
fact greatly increases the expense of constructing stone piers,
since quarries may have to be abandoned after having been opened
at considerable cost. However, some abundant sources of excel-

1 64 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

lent stone can be rendered easily accessible by the extension of roads
constructed for work now in progress.

Numerous fallen trees on Mount Wilson, which are not yet
greatly decayed, will furnis'h an abundant supply of fire-wood for
many years to come. They can not be depended upon, however, to
yield any wood for building purposes, and as the living trees may not
be destroyed, all lumber must be taken to the summit of the mountain
from Pasadena. This raises the question of transportation over the
mountain trail — a matter of vital importance in constructing an obser-
vatory. The "Toll Road" or "New Trail." which extends from the
summit of the mountain to the foot of Eaton Canyon, is well adapted
for all ordinary packing with animals, though it is much too narrow
to permit wagons to pass over it. At present, all except the heaviest
articles are taken to the summit of the mountain by means of burros
and pack-mules, each of Which can carry a load ranging from 80 to
200 pounds. It is evident that transportation of building materials
by this means must be very slow and expensive, since the trail is 9
miles in length to the foot of Eaton Canyon, 6^ miles distant by road
from Pasadena. But, as compared with most mountains. Mount
Wilson is unusually accessible from cities, Pasadena being so close
at hand, and Los Angeles, with its large sources of supply, being
only 9 miles farther away.

For transporting heavy castings and other similar articles, we
have found it necessary to construct a special four-wheel carriage,
2 feet in width. On this loads of a thousand pounds have been
taken to the summit without difificulty. By widening the trail
to 6 feet, the heaviest castings required for a solar observatory prob-
ably could be transported.

WEATHER.

So far as cloudiness is concerned, the records of the Weather
Bureau at Los Angeles are of comparatively little value for our
present purposes. The fog rolls in from the ocean night after
night, and sometimes hangs over Los Angeles throughout the day
during the winter season. But Mount Wilson reaches far above
this layer of clouds, and thus frequently enjoys sunshine when the
valley below is completely covered. Our daily percentage record
of cloudiness, beginning on April 18. 1904, may be found in the
following table. A dash signifies that no observation was made.

There were many days which were cloudy at the time of observa-
tion, but nevertheless suitable at other hours for solar work. Add-
ing these to the record, it may be said that the actual number of days

SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA.

Cloudiness.

165

Da\

Day

month.

I..
2..
3"
4"
5"
6..

8..

9-
10..
II..
12..
13"
14"
15"
16..

17"
18..

19"
20..
21..
22..

23"

24..

25"

26..

27"

28..

29"

SC-
SI"

April.

8 a. m.

100

50
o

70
o
o

100

80
o
o

6 p. m,

100

May.

8 a. m,

100
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
70

5
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

100

o
o

6 p. Ill

5
o
o
o
o
o
o

5
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
75
5
50
5
o
100
o
o
o

75
o
o

June.

8 a. 111.

6 p. m,

75
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

10
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

July.

35
5
35
20
12

15
10

6 p. ni.

15
15

7
5
5

August.

5
o

30
40

50
o
o
o

20
80

o
o
o

75
20
60
5
5
o
o
o

5
80

6 p. ra.

o
10

100

20
80

5
o

5
o
o

5
80

30
5
5
5
5
5
5

on which observations could be made amount to 132 out of 135. The
long periods of perfectly clear weather, pemiitting observations of
the sun to be made without interruption from day to day, should
prove of the greatest importance in the study of many solar problems
which require daily observations for their solution. From the rec-
ords so far obtained, it seems probable that observations of the sun
could be made at Mount Wilson on more than 300 days in a year.
In Los Angeles, during the past twenty-three years, the average num-
ber of "clear" days in the year is 317.

The cloudiness in July and August was due almost entirely to
thunderstorms over the desert to the north and east. The clouds
rarely reached our zenith and almost never interfered with the regu-

r solar observations (of. table of Seeing, pp. 170, 171).

HUMIDITY.

The question of humidity is of special importance in connection
with the measurement of the solar constant, since water-vapor in the
atmosphere absorbs very strongly the solar beat. The results obtained
with a standard sling psychrometer. Weather Bureau pattern, are
given in the following table.

1 66

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Relative Humidity at Mount Wilson.

month.

I..

2..

3..
4-.
5"
6..

7.-
8..

10..

II..

12..

13..

14..

I5--
16..
17..
18..
19..
20..
21..
22..

23--

24..

25-
26..
27..
28..
29..
30"

Si-

Means.

April.

8 a. m.

100
96
60
92

100

6 p. m.

85
100

73
79
98

100

May.

8 a. m.

34
46

38
29
36
18

15
22

35
36
41
32
23
27
34
25
46

41
42
28
37
38
100
100
37
38
23
14
30

6 p. m.

80
80
66
49

38
40

31
22

24
41
38
54
40
64
29
19
38
66

64
100

45
43
32
50
100
48
38
33
15
47
35

June.

40
39
39
24
20
27
29

23
20
21
19

52
32
34
33
32
31
56
45
40

44
42

27
42
35
30

6 p. m.

36
39
41
25
24
42

41
29

34
21

30
30
24
41
42
72

53
43
54
32
27
25
36
35
3°
37

July.

a. Ml. 6 p. m.

34
23
30
38
34
45
49
33
42

57
29
46

25
30
50

24
35
31
33
38
31
30
50
38

24
38
32
56
42

43
iS

24
40
22

25
44

16
24
19
42

34
35
26

50
27
50
32

August.

8 a. m.

22
22
29
32
40

41
28

30
53
61
67
54
37
40

34
32
23
37
58
79
77
69

67
40

43
21
27

6 p. m.

27
33
30
40

43
43
76
58
46
35
33
65
64
72
45
36
30
45
46
40
33
85
79
56
58
37
43
33
29

14
31

The marked dryness of the atmosphere on Mount Wilson during
the summer months may be best appreciated by comparing these
results with those obtained by the Weather Bureau at Washington
during the corresponding period.

Relative Humidity at Washington.

Month.

Mean.

Maximum.*

Minimum.*

April

May

63.0
65.6
77.8
60.6
78.0

100

97
98

99
95

30
41
54
51
59

Tune

July

August ....

* Mean maximum and mean minimum humidity not determined.

SOIvAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA.

167

TEMPERATURE.

From March 25 to April 15 the temperature was recorded on a
self- registering thermometer. After April 15 this record was supple-
mented by observations of maximum and minimum thermometers.
The results are given (in degrees Fahrenheit) in the following table.
As bearing upon certain classes of night observations, the range of
temperature between 8 p. m. and 4 a. m. is also included.

Temperature.

April.

May.

June.

July.

August.

Day

of
month.

E
'c

B .
a 0

I- "■

b£ "^
c 0

CO ■"

S
4
4
5
7
2
8
7
5
5
2
2

4
6

4
4
5
4
8
I
5
4
3*
4
10

3
0

i
4

d.a
u «

a 0

ed-"

a .
da

a 0

cd-"

a
■3

a .
da
■*<«•

a 0

cd-w

49
56
64
70

79
80

84
84

85
86

79
85
75
79
85
82

79
75
56
74
78
81
78
69
52
53
69
75
71
70

27
39
42
45
55
51
55
57
57
57

56
50
53

56
49
36
45
50

11
54
38
35
41
49
50
46
45

81
78
75
79

^J
82

77
80

79
81

83
79
73
86
8.i
78
78

S5
79
79
78

46
53
55
56
59
57
48

52
57
61
60

57
54
53
56
55
59
51
50
55
55
53
56
62

63
57
55
53

4
I
2
7
5
6

9
3
4
5
4
5
5
6

4
5
5
8

5
7
I
2
6
6

5
4
3

79
80

77
75

82
86

?9
83
75
72
84
93
95
9i

82
89

91
88
82
88
83
83

57
58
56
56
54
55

56
59
63
57
50
63
61

66
69

62
62
66
68
66
62
68
62

5
8

3
6
6

5
6
2
2
5
4
3
7
4
4
6

I
3
I
2

4
2

3
4
3
2

5
7
3
4

83
90

91
89

91
92

83
87

87
88

85
83
86

87
87
88

93
90

86
77
78
81

85
89
87
87
87
81
82

66
66
66
68

64
60
64

63
62

64
60
60
60
62
63
64
65
59
60

56
61
62
64
62
62
59
59

3
5
3
5

3
6

4
4
5
3
3

5
5
4
5
5
8

53
42
41
49
46

49
63
64
43
43
44

37
35
23
34
32
25
36
40
29
23

3
6

I
5
9
3
4
8

4
0
2

2
0

3
2

•JO

Means

51-2

32.7

4-3

73-5

48.0

4-7

80.9

55.3

4-5

84.0

60.2

4.0

86.2

61.9

3.5

Daily range

18 »:

2S6

27. 8

24- •!

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.

No complete barometric record 'has 'been kept, since this did not
seem of special importance in connection with the work. Neverthe-
less, an aneroid barometer has been read twice daily since July 13.
The maximum and minimum readings recorded up to September l
differed by only 0.22 inch.

1 68

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WAvSHINGTON.

WIND MOVEMENT.

With such uniformity of atmospheric pressure, il might naturally
:be anticipated that the wind movement would be low. The results of
anemometer readings (in miles), made with an instrument of the
standard Weather Bureau pattern, are shown in the following table.
The "day" results give the total movement from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m. ; the
"night" results give the total movement from 6 p. m. to 8 a. m.

Daj'

mouth.

I..

2..

3"
4"
5"
6..

8..

10..

II..

12..

I3"

14..

IS"
16..
17..
18..
19..
20..
21..
22..

23-.

24..

25..
26..
27..
28..
29..

SC-

Total.

Mean

Hourly ineau.

April.

Day.

140
62

35
40

47
32
70

44
33
50
47

691

57-6
5.8

Night.

188

144

42
120
109

63
191

loi

1,176

96.0
6.8

Maj'.

Day.

99
49
52
29
43
30
34
43
38
44
54
35
41
39
72
42
46
50
105
45
63
66

67
69
63
33
50
21
62
51
57

1,592

513
5-1

Night.

165
iiS

128

106

133

1X0

101

95
114
no

56
136

71
82

97
79

136
60
58

loi

73
80

151

2,9 >9

94-5
6.7

June.

Daj'. Night.

1.538

51-3
5-1

120

175

141

185

114

108

155

146

133

.56

103

2,605

86.6
6.2

July.

Day.

55
71
47
34
30
43
40

49
44
43
49
31
42
42
39
33
40

38
63
37
43
44
60

44
39
47
41
56
57
53

1,386

44-7
4-5

Night.

145
102

71
41
54
78
44
85
83
77
93
74
81

59
68

50
70
62
78
91
60

37
85
64
56
71
80

57
65
131
97_

2,309

74-5
5-3

August.

Day.

43
50
45
46
60
43
47
33
43
62

49
58
59
44
44
45
44
26

37
36
39
63
63
55
50
35
56
54
55
57
38

1.479

47-7

Night.

95
72
61
48
41
49
80

63
60
78
81

122
71
73
55
80
60
55
58

100

55
104

lOI

64
66

107

2.275

73-4
5-2

It appears from these results that the average wind movement
IS exceptionally low. The importance of this fact in its indication
of a uniform atmosphere, and in connection with astronomical
photography, will be appreciated by astronomers. The shaking
of a large instrument by the wind is frequently so serious as to
reduce greatly the quality of astronomical photographs obtained
in windy weather. At Mount Wilson, where a dead calm is an ex-
ceedingly common occurrence, all of the most exacting requirements
of astronomical photography are completely realized.

SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 169

TRANSPARENCY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

I have previously alluded to the dust-storms which sometimes
enter the San Gabriel Valley through the Cajon Pass from the
Mojave Desert, and those much rarer storms in which the dust
is carried by the wind completely over the Sierra Madre Mountains.
In the more common form of dust-storm (the so-called "Santa Ana")
the dust enters the valley in a fairly well-defined mass and proceeds
westward along the canyon of the Santa Ana River. In approach-
ing the coast it spreads over a large area and diffuses itself with
tolerable uniformity through the lower atmosphere. I have seen
from Mount Wilson a dust-storm in the reigion of Riverside,
which in twenty- four hours had spread itself over Los Angeles
and Pasadena. When it reached this part of the valley there was
almost no wind, and the dust seemed to diffuse itself through the
air. Such storms sometimes completely hide the Sierra Madre
Mountains from observers in Pasadena. Fortunately they are
almost always confined to the lower atmosphere, and do not appre-
ciably affect the transparency of the sky above Mount Wilson,
where daily observations show that the transparency of the day and
night sky are very satisfactory.

SEEING.

Systematic tests of the definition of the solar image have been
made on Mount Wilson with a telescope of 3^4 inches aperture, with
an eyepiece giving a power of about 100 diameters. At first the
character of the seeing was rated on a scale of 5 ; but it soon ap-
peared that a scale of 10 would be preferable under the existing con-
ditions. Accordinglw the seeing as recorded in the following table
is given on a scale of 10. Seeing 8, which is so frequently obtained
during the early morning hours, represents a sharply defined image
of the sun. showing the granulation and the details of the spots with
great distinctness, and indicating practically no trembling at the
lim'b. Such seeing occurs at the Yerkes Observatory only occa-
sionally, although that observatory seems to be better situated than
many other institutions for work on the sun.

An examination of the table will show that the seeing is best dur-
ing the early niorning hours, although the image is frequently very
good in the late afternoon. Shortly after sunrise the sun's limb is
serrated, but this effect becomes less and less marked as the sun's
altitude increases. Usually, at this time in the morning, the atmos-
phere is almost perfectly calm and cloudless. The seeing usually

lyo

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

improves and reaches a maximum, where it remains for some time.
The effect of the heating of the, mountain then becomes apparent
and the definition deteriorates. The disturbances at the sun's limb
under these conditions do not resemble those seen immediately after
sunrise, but have a fluttering appearance, which we are accustomed
to speak of as the "heating effect." In the late afternoon the seeing
usually improves, but it is rarely very good at midday. This is not
a rule without exceptions, however, as we have sometimes recorded
nearly perfect definition during the hottest hours of the day.

Everyone who has noted the heated air above the surface of the
ground will w^onder, in considering the effect of such disturbances
upon solar observations, w'hether these disturbances rise to a great
height. A casual observation is sufificient to show that the dis-
turbance decreases rapidly in passing upward from the ground,
but it is, of course, quite impossible to determine by means of
the unaided eye the probable effect of this disturbance on telescopic
observations. We have accordingly made manv observations of
the sun with the 3^-inch telescope supported in a pine tree at
heig^hts above the ground ranging from 20 to 80 feet. The results of
these observations clearly indicate that a telescope employed in solar
work should be mounted as high above the ground as circumstances
warrant. At the lower elevations in the tree the advantage over posi-
tions still nearer to the ground Avas sometimes not appreciable ; but
at a height of 80 feet above the ground the improvement in definition
was very distinct. Probably this is one of the reasons why the solar
definition with the 40-inch Yerkes telescope averages considerably
better than we expected it would, for with this telescope the object-
glass is over 70 feet above the ground.

Seeing.

April.

Hour of observation.

April.

Hour of observation.

10-2

4
4

8
5
7

4
8

5
7

6
4

4
6

10-2

5
5
8
6
9

5
7
9
7
8
6

5
5
6
6
8

7
8

7
3
7
7
7
8
6

4
6
7
7
8
6
7

4
6
6
6

7
6

4
5
6
6

7
4
7

4
6
6

4
5

7
6

4
7
7

S
4

6
8

7
7

7
4

19*

22*

26t

27*

28*

5
6

6
6

7
7

5
4
4
5
4

4
4

4
5
4

5
4

4
6

6
6

—

*Rain.

t Snow.

SOI.AR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 171

Hour of observation.

May.

1*..
2...

3--
4...

5--
6...

7...

8...

9t..
10...
II...
12...

13-..
14...

I5--
16...
17...
18...
19...
20...
21 ..
22...
23...
24...

25t..
26I..
27...
28...
29...
30...
31....

June.

20.. . .

Hour of observation.

8 9

8
8
7

6
6

Hour of observation.

July.

I...
2...

3-
4...

5-
6...

7...

8...

9...
10...
II...
12..,
13..,
14..,

15-
16..
17..
18..
19..
20..
21..
22..

23"

24..

25-

26.

27.
28..
29..
30..

3I"

August.

I...
2...

3-
4...

5-
6...
7...
8...

9-
10...
II...
12...

'3§-
Hi
i5".
16...
17...
18..,
19..,
20..

21...

22|,

23"
24..

25"

26..
27..
28..

29"

30"

3it

Hour of observation.

* Snow.

t Cloudy

X Rain.

g Storm.

172 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

OBSERVATIONS WITH THE FIFTEEN-INCH COELOSTAT TELESCOPE.

In March, 1004. a coelostat of 15 inches aperture was sent to Mount
Wilson from the Yerkes Observatory. This instrument had pre-
viously been employed by Professors Barnard and Ritchey, of the
Yerkes Observatory party, at the solar eclipse of May 28, 1900. in
W'adesboro, North Carolina, and by Professor Barnard at the Su-
matra eclipse in 1902. As used at Mount Wilson, it is supplied with
a second plane mirror, mounted south of the coelostat, and arranged
to slide on a north and south track in such a way as to receive the
solar rays corresponding to any declination of the sun.

The ravs are reflected from this mirror toward the north to a 6-
inch photographic objective of 61 >4 feet focal length, mounted on
the extension of the stone pier just above the coelostat. After passing
through this lens the rays traverse a long tube built of wooden
framework and covered with paper. The solar image is formed
within a small house which terminates this tube at its north end. In
the house a photographic plate-holder is mounted, in conjunction with
a slide containing a narrow slit, w'hich can be shot at high speed across
the solar image by means of a spring. In this way the very short ex-
posure required for direct photography of the sun can be obtained.

One of the chief points of interest connected with this instrument is
the efifect of the heating of the air within the tube upon the definition
of the solar image. In the first experiments with this apparatus, the
skeleton tube was covered on all sides with tar-paper, just as it had
been used in the eclipse work. Above the tube, and separated from
it by a considerable air-space, was a canvas fly for the purpose of
shielding the tube from the direct rays of the sun. It was found
that in the early morning, before the tube had become heated, the
definition of the solar image was excellent. In a short time, however,
heated air within the tube eompletely spoiled the definition, and the
sun's image became so blurred and indistinct that no observations of
value could be made with it. These circumstances led us to ques-
tion what the efifect would be if no tube were employed. The 6-
inch lens was therefore mounted in such a position as to throw the
beam horizontally through the air toward the north, outside of the
tube and over that portion of the ground which was in shadow. The
image observed under these circumstances was found to be much
better defined than that seen through the heated air of the tube. We
accordingly decided to try the experiment of taking ofif all of the
paper on the two sides which formed the upper half of the tube.

SOLAR RESEARCH AT MOUNT WILSON, CALIFORNIA. 1 73

It also seemed advisable to stretch the canvas fly at a much greater
distance from the tube and to provide means of exit at the top for
any heated air which might be found under the fly. As soon as the
tube and fly had been rearranged in this manner a great improvement
was immediately noticed. The definition of the image became much
better and the deterioration observed in the previous instance was
no longer seen. The air in the tube remained cool, whereas before
it had become greatly heated.

These experiments would seem to throw some light on the ques-
tion of designing suitable tubes and shelters for telescopes used in
a horizontal, or nearly 'horizontal, position. It seems likely that if
the coelostat and the instruments used with it could be mounted on
piers at a height of 70 feet or more above the ground, it would
be unnecessary to use any tube, particularly if the ground below the
path of the beam were shielded from the sun by a light canvas cover,
stretched at a height of several feet above the surface and suitably
ventilated. Of course, the practical difficulties in such a construc-
tion are very considerable, on account of the great cost and the lack
of stability of high piers. For the Snow telescope it therefore
seemed advisable to design a special form of house, in the hope of
securing good definition with a solar beam at a moderate height
above the ground. Experiments made with the 15-inch coelostat
seem to show that this latter instrument is too near the ground
for the best results, although it gives excellent definition in the
early morning, before the heating of the soil is very great.

The design of the house now under construction for the Snow
telescope will be described in a subsequent report. It may be said
here, however, that it consists of a skeleton frame of light steel con-
struction, provided with a ventilated roof. The floor is to be of
canvas, tightly stretched at a height of one foot above the ground
and permitting a free circulation of air below. The inner walls of
the house (which is 10 feet wide at its narrowest point) are to be of
light canvas, so arranged that they can be raised or lowered at will.
The outer walls of the house are to be covered by canvas louvres, so
arranged as to shield the entire bouse from the direct rays of the
sun, and permitting a free circulation of air. The stone pier, 27 feet
high, on which the coelostat will stand, is also to be shielded from
the sun by canvas louvres. The ground surrounding the instrument
is fairly well covered with bushes, and the few bare spots can be
covered with stretched canvas, if necessary.

174 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Spectroscopic Observations. — The spectroscope used with the
coelostat telescope is of the Littrow form— a single lens, of 4 inches
aperture and 18 feet focal length, serves at once as collimator and
camera lens. After passing through the slit, which is mounted in the
focal plane of the photographic objective employed with the coelostat,
the rays pass to the 4-inch objective, by which they are rendered
parallel. They then meet the 4-inch Rowland plane grating, having
14,438 lines to the inch, from which they are returned through the
4-inah objective. The image of the spectrum is formed on a photo-
graphic plate, mounted in the focal plane and a little to one side of
the slit. This apparatus is giving excellent definition, surpassing
that of any spectroscope employed at the Yerkes Observatory.

The character of the results obtained with this spectroscope, and
its convenience of manipulation, illustrate one of the arguments in
favor of fixed telescopes of the coelostat type, as contrasted with
moving equatorial telescopes. At the Yerkes Observatory it has
never been possible to attach a sufficiently long and powerful spec-
troscope to the moving tube of the 40-inch refractor. Such a
spectroscope must be mounted in a fixed position on substantial
piers, and the telescope must be so constructed as to permit a sharp
and well-defined image of the sun to be maintained in a fixed position
on the slit. This can readily be accomplished with the aid of a coelo-
stat, provided only that the difficulties peculiar to this type of tele-
scope can be overcome. From the experiments so far made, we believe
that the difficulties can be surmounted and that the fixed telescope is
certain to become an instrument of great importance in the future.

CONCLUSION.

From the observations given in this paper, it appears that Mount
Wilson meets in a very remarkable degree the requirements of a
site for a solar observatory. Indeed, I know of no other site that
compares at all favorably with it. If a large solar observatory were
established there, it might be expected to yield many important re-
sults, not to be obtained under less favorable conditions.

THE SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY PROJECT.

By Lewis Boss.

The object of this apphcation is to petition for a favorable ex-
pression on the part of the Executive Committee in relation to the
general plan herein proposed, and especially ip relation to the project
for observations in the southern hemisphere. This w^ork I should
like to take up actively within two, or, at least, three years from the
present time.

In my original application to the Trustees of the Carnegie Insti-
tution, January, 1902, I briefly outlined the course of the research
in behalf of which I petitioned for aid. This is to remirnd the com-
mittee of a special feature of the program then outlined.

Briefly stated, the objective point of my general investigation is
to find out what the motions of the stars really are, and, as far as
possible, what they mean. Specific things to be investigated are :

(i.) The direction and velocity of the solar motion in space to
be determined with far more accuracy than they are known.

(2) To investigate the subject of "star streams" — swarms of stars
moving in a common direction like meteors — a. new subject to which
•my attention has been specially attracted.

(3) To determine with accuracy the relative distance of various
orders of stars — a thing which can certainly be done.

(4) To determine the constant of precession more accurately
than it is now known ; and generally to examine other questions that
may arise.

First of all, the motions must be accurately known, as the basis
of the investigation ; and this is by far the most laborious part of
the work — almost the whole of it, in fact. Grants from the Car-
negie Institution enable me to carry on this work with vigor. We
are determining the motions from all available material, and before
the close of 1905 expect to have results for 5,000 of the more fre-
quently observed stars. My various letters of application and annual
reports outline the character of this work.

The value of these results, and of the final discussion, will depend
upon the systematic accuracy of these determinations of motion, and
upon having a good determination of motion for each star. Both these
requirements call for further special observations at the present time.

13 175

176 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

In the first place, we need a new determination of the positions of
standard stars distributed from the north to the south pole of the
heavens. In response to my previous application such observations
Vk'ith the meridian circle at Albany have already been approved and
will shortly be undertaken. The required alterations in the instru-
ment are nearly complete. This series should be completed within
eighteen months, or, at latest, within two years, from the present
time. After that I should like to take this instrument at once to
some favorable station in the southern hemisphere for the observa-
tion of standard stars out of reach from stations in the northern
hemisphere. The plan is to interlock the two series according to a
special plan of mine designed to bring about elimination of sys-
tematic errors of observation, by making them work in opposite
directions in the two opposite positions of the instrument.

In the second place, we need at the present time special observa-
tions of stars that have been neglected for the past twenty or thirty
3ears. We must bring up the accuracy with which these motions
can be derived as nearly as we can to equality with that for the
general run of stars. There are very great contrasts in the amount
of available observations upon different stars. For stars situated
in the southern one-fourth of the sky not more than 30 per cent
have been accurately observed since 1880, and very few indeed since
1894. Therefore. I strongly desire to observe all the stars down to
the seventh magnitude in the one-fourth of the celestial sphere
nearest the south pole.

In this connection I would respeotfull}' refer to the Report on
Southern and Solar Observatories in the second Year Book of the
Carnegie Institution, and especially to pages 28 to 31, under the
caption "Fundamental Meridian Observations," and to pages 108
to 143, containing letters from various astronomers commenting on
this part of the program for the Southern Observatory. It will
there be seen that these astronomers almost unanimously regard this
section of the work (precisely the subject of this application) as the
most important part of the program for the proposed Southern '
Observatory.

My wish would be to take personal charge of this work, but not to
remain continuously in the southern hemisphere. My plan would
be to organize the work, and remain at the station for nearly one
year in the beginning, in order to secure smooth running of the
observations, with the desired rapidity of execution and accuracy
in the results. My presence for a few months at the end would

THE SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY PROJECT. 177

probably be desirable, in order to see that no requisite point shall
have been neglected before abandonment of the station.

The Dudley Observatory would furnish its transit circle and acces-
sories, the essential point in the plan being the use of the same instru-
ment in both hemispheres. This instrument is one of the finest of its
kind in the world and has been used here until its peculiarities are
well understood. ]^Ioreover, the graduation errors of its circles have
been determined through a diligent investigation in which the labor
of four persons was employed for a total of moire than a year — the
most thorough investigation of the kind on record. The effect of this
is greatly to increase the accuracy of the instrumental results.

I have in mind two locations, either of which might possibly
answer the purpose. The first is San Luis in Argentina, about half-
way between Buenos Ayres and the Andes. This was highly recom-
mended by Mr. Davis, chief of the Argentine meteorological ser-
vice, as a station for a southern observatory. The second is Bloem-
fontein in South Africa, which was very highly recommended by Sir
David Gill as a suitable station for the proposed Southern Observa-
tory. Last year's investigations showed that Australian stations
could only be thought of as a last resort.

The plan here proposed is one section of my plan as outlined in
my original letter of application to the Institution, and the only
section calling for a large annual expenditure. The excellence of
the result from the general investigation will depend in a large
measure upon the execution of the section of the work to which this
application relates.

METHODS FOR PROMOTING RESEARCH IN THE

EXACT SCIENCES.

CONTENTS.

Page

Letter of Professor Newcomb i79

Letter of H. H. Turner 182

Letter of Karl Pearson 184

Letter of Lord Rayleigh 188

Letter of G. H. Darwin 189

Letter of Arthur Schuster 190

Letter of Edward C. Pickering I93

Copies of the following letter of Dr. Simon Newcomb, in which
he explains his views of the ' ' method by which the Carnegie Insti-
tution can best promote research work in the exact sciences," were
sent to several prominent scientific men. A number of the replies
which were received follow Dr. Newcomb's letter.

\Letter of Simon Newcomb^

Washington, D. C, May 12, igo^.
The following is a brief summary of views which I have at various
times expressed to oflBcers of the Carnegie Institution or made known
to the public. They embody my well-matured opinion as to the
method by which the Carnegie Institution can most effectively pro-
mote research in the exact sciences. I begin by setting forth the
main features of the situation.

The nineteenth century has been industriously piling up a vast
mass of astronomical, meteorological, magnetical, and sociological
observations and data. This accumulation is going on without end
and at great expense in every civilized country.

The problem of working out the best results from these observa-
tions is one which is not being effectively grappled with. The best
methods of attacking the problem are little known to investigators
in general, being scarcely developed in a systematic form. The
result is that what has been done toward obtaining results consists
largely in piecemeal efforts by individuals, frequently leading to no
well-established results.

Another feature of the situation is the gradual extension of the
principles of exact science into the biological and sociological field.

179

I So CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

It is through this extension, rather than through adding to the
already accumulated mass of facts, that progress is most to be hoped
for in the future.

II.

A consideration which I wisH most respectfully to urge upon the
Institution is the great advantage which comes from mutual discus-
sion and attrition between men engaged in contiguous fields of work.
My own work would have been much more effective could I have
enjoyed this advantage more fully, and I am profoundly impressed
by the waste of labor shown in an important fraction of current
scientific researches through the authors not being acquainted with
the best methods of work.

III.

Under these conditions it still seems to me, as it has almost from
the day the In.stitution was founded, that the most effective way in
which it can promote research in exact science is by the organiza-
tion of an institute or bureau of exact science in general. If I had
only my special field in view, I might suggest simply an astronom-
ical institute ; but it seems to me that this would be too restricted to
get the best and most desirable results. I can not but feel it most
important that exact methods should be extended into other branches
of science than astronom5^

In defining the field of work in such a bureau or institution a di-
vision of physical and natural science into three great fields may well
be borne in mind. One of these fields is that of the old-fashioned
natural science, which is concerned very largely with morphology,
physiology, and vital processes which do not admit of reduction to
mathematical forms.

Another field is that of purely experimental science.

The third field which really needs development is that of obser-
vation, which I propose shall be now occupied. The work required
is, in brief, the development of mathematical methods and their
application to the great mass of existing observations. Doubtless
suggestions as to experiment would frequently come in. These

would be carried out bv others.

IV.

The Organizatio7i. — The first requirement for the organization is a
managing head in whom the Institution has entire confidence, who
should be required to devote all his available energy to the work,

RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. l8l

and in doing so should act as the agent of, and be regarded as doing
the work of, the Carnegie Institution. He should be supplied with
such office, appliances, and assistants as are necessary to commence
work in that branch of the field with which he feels himself most
conversant, beginning work on a small scale, to be enlarged and
extended into neighboring fields as success became assured. The
opposite faults of beginning on too large a scale and of making no
provision for possible expansion should both be avoided.

The head of the institute should be aided by a council comprising
the leading experts best qualified to advise as to the various depart-
ments of work. This council might be an international one, and,
if the work of the institute is sufficiently expanded to justify it,
should hold an annual meeting.

In order to secure the advantages of mutual consultation, attri-
tion, and cooperation, it may eventually be desirable that the work the
Institution has already undertaken or is now promoting in the vari-
ous branches of exact science should be merged with the proposed
institute.

VI.

The institute should be started on a very modest scale. The case
is one in which everything depends on correct methods from the
beginning. By the adoption of these, results may be reached at
small expense which, without them, would never be reached with
any amount of labor. It seems to me that $10,000 or $15,000 would
be ample for the expenses of the first year, as the number of em-
ployees who could be successfully put to work would be small. The
principal appliances required would be books, but I think that three
or four office rooms would suffice for all the purposes of the first
year or two.

The expenses of subsequent years would depend upon the ex-
pansion which it found desirable to give to the work.

Appended hereto are letters on the subject from Prof. H. H.
Turner, of Oxford, and L,ord Rayleigh, to each of whom I pre-
sented the question of the desirableness of working up the great
mass of observations alluded to.

Simon Newcomb.

1 82 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

\_Lctter of H. H. Turner. '\

University Observatory, Oxford,

November 2^, 190J.

I have delayed answering your letter of October 30 for a few days,
not from any lack of sympathy with its general purport or doubt as
to the value — the immense value — which such a scheme as you
suggest would have, but because I wished to think whether I could
contribute anything of possible importance to the discussion of
details. The result has, however, not been very encouraging, and
I must not delay longer a reply on the main point.

I imagine you will not find any one to doubt the necessity of a
far more extended discu.ssion of results. In the days of Newton
perhaps observations were .scarcer than theories, and it was advisable
to set them going ; but, once set going, inertia has come into play
here as elsewhere, and observations of all kinds are churning out
masses of observations which no one is attempting to deal with.
There is no doubt whatever that it is a crying necessity that we
should organize the discussion of the masses of accumulated material.
The necessity extends bej'ond astronomy — to meteorology certainly ;
to natural history perhaps, though here the observations {metrical')
are also needed, as in astronomy in Newton's time.

How, then, to set to work to improve matters? I have no better
plan than yours. Perhaps I should approach the subject from rather
a different point of view. I should start with the proposition that
the amount of critical discussion (/. c. , discussion of any value) of
results obtained is likely to depend roughly on the number of men
of first-rate ability who can be enlisted into the service. For making
observations a moderate ability may suffice, but there is no doubt
about the ability required for discussing them and directing future
programs. Well, then, I fear it must come to this : That we want
more positions of eminence — well paid or honored or both — such as
the leading professorships. When Schuster gave his address, which
you quote with approval. Dr. W. N. Shaw (head of our Meteoro-
logical Office) remarked that meteorology had never had ^ny profes-
sorships at the universities (Is this also true in the United States?),
and I think the remark went very near to a sufficient explanation
of the lack of adequate discussion of results. You can get heaps of
people to measure rainfall, but who is to think about the results?
It is more thinkers we want.

RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 83

Hence my proposition comes to this : Either —

(i) Endow more really first-class posts, such as will attract good
men. It is no use getting youngsters into the science unless there
is some prospect for them ; or,

(2) Look about for means for drawing into the work of discussion
occupants of existing positions of repute who are now either wasting
their time accumulating little-needed observations or are prevented
from doing such work by the lack of machinery — /. e. , of funds for
getting computing done — for there is a good deal of computing
attached to most discussion of masses of observations.

One could accordingly meet the present need in a variety of ways.
When you were over here I was speaking of a " calculating bureau ' '
(and you seemed to approve). This would follow from the second
part of No. 2. If a man (like Sampson or Durham) knew that he
could get computing done pretty easily if he would arrange the de-
tails, he might be rendered efficient when otherwise his way would
be blocked. The relief might be compared to that afforded in the
matter of printing and publication which our societies have afforded
and which the American observatories are finding in their ' ' bul-
letins ' ' and ' ' circulars. ' ' Before printing was easy much good work
must have been lost.

But this is only one way of meeting the need and is practically
included in your method, which includes, indeed (if I understand
you rightly), all the elements I have sketched. At the head of your
suggested organization you could scarcely fail to have at least one
first-rate man, which so far meets my point i. You virtually meet
the first part of 2 by establishing, instead of a new observatory to
multiply observations, an organization of a new kind, which will set
a good example to others, and the rest of 2 I have already considered.
I have written truly ray thoughts as they occur, and hope this letter
is not too long and rambling. One can not help, when these inspiring
letters talking of new projects come from over the water, building
a few castles in the air. One of my castles is a really critical astro-
nomical journal, for discu.ssing the work of others rather than pub-
lishing our own. To some extent the V. J. S. does this, but we
could do with an English journal of the kind, and a better one. If
you get your way perhaps this journal might be tacked on to the

scheme.

H. H. Turner.

184 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

[^I^ettcr of Karl Pearson.^

University College, London, England,

Jii7ie 2if., igo4.

Dear Sir : I have put together a few suggestions that occur to
me, priucipally based on ray own personal experience ; but I do not
wish them to be considered in any way as dogmatic statements, only
as impressions.

(i) I agree absolutely with Professor Newcomb's first statement
that the nineteenth century has industriously piled together a vast
mass of astronomical, physical, and biological data, and that very
little use has hitherto been made of this material. The reason for
this I take to be that a man of mediocre ability can observe and col-
lect facts, but that it takes the exceptional man of great logical power
and control of method to draw legitimate conclusions from them.

(2) Differing probably from Professor Newcomb, I hold that at
least 50 per cent of the observations made and the data collected are
worthless, and no man, however able, could deduce any result from
them at all. In engineers' language we need to "scrap" about 50
per cent of the products of nineteenth century science. The scientific
journals teem with papers which are of no real value at all. They
record observations which can not be made of service bj' any one,
however able, becau.se they have not been undertaken with a due
regard to the safeguards which a man takes who makes observations
with the view of testing a theory of his own. In other cases the
collector or observer is hopelessly ignorant of the conditions under
which alone accurate work can be done. He "piles up" observa-
tions and data because he sees other men doing it and because that
is supposed to be scientific research.

(3) I have had to deal to a great extent with the observations
and data of other men in my statistical laboratory, to which appli-
cations are always being made for aid in the interpretation of obser-
vations. I think I might help to illustrate my point by citing a few
actual experiences.

(a) Meteorological Statistics. — We ha\'e here a large work in prog-
ress. The data are enormous, but without any system. Examina-
tion shows that in Europe and America the returns are often un-
trustworthy. There is no standardization of method, of time, or of
quantity observed. Important stations are omitted or dropped for
years, and where a well-organized plan for a quarter of the expense
and labor would have led to definite results, the exi.sting chaotic

RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 85

mass of data will only provide probabilities and suggestions. Any
man with ideas on the subject of meteorology would after a little
experience discard existing material and start afresh, or else waste
his best 3-ears in trying to reduce material to a common measure,
which is really a hopeless task.

(i>) Medical Statistics. — These are made by each medical man and
each hospital on a separate plan, and without any idea, as a rule, of
the points which it is needful to observe in order that logical con-
clusions may be drawn. This is especially the case in inheritance of
disease tendencies. Further, immense masses of material are wasted
because one or other essential factor has escaped record in one or
other series.

We have had to report recently on cancer .statistics, lunacy statis-
tics, and inoculation for enteric fever statistics. Only moderately-
definite conclusions can be drawn, because the material has usually
been collected without insight into the conditions requisite for draw-
ing definite statistical results.

(c) Physical Measurements. — The same applies here, in perhaps a
less degree, but still quite definitely. Ob.servations on the strength
of materials exist in immense quantities. These are largely of no
value because the experimenters have had no clear idea a priori of
the points they wanted to elucidate. Further, this applies to a
whole mass of physical observations which have been made without
sufficient mathematical knowledge to realize the difficulties of the
problem. The failure on this account of physicists like Wertheim,
Savant, and Kupffer in the first half of the nineteenth century is
quite paralleled in recent work by men whom for obvious reasons it
is better to leave unnamed.

(yd) Biological and Sociological Observations. — These are of the
lowest grade of value in too many cases. Even where the observers
have begun to realize that exact science is creeping into the biolog-
ical and sociological fields they have not understood that a thorough
training in the new methods was an essential preliminary for effective
work, even for the collection of material. They have rushed to
measure or count any living form they could hit on without having
planned ab initio the conceptions and ideas that their observations
were intended to illu.strate. I doubt whether even a small propor-
tion of the biometric data being accumulated in Europe and America
could b}' any amount of ingenuity be made to provide valuable re-
sults, and the man capable of making it yield them would be better
employed in collecting and reducing his own material.

1 86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

It will be seen from the above results that I personall}' can not
form a very high expectation of the amount of results of first-class
value which would be obtainable by forming an institute to deal
with the existing masses of observations.

(4) Nevertheless, if we reject 50 percent of existing observations
as worthless, if we frankly "scrap" them, I still think something
of service might be done with the remainder under certain conditions.

(a) If the right man were available. This is the chief difficulty.
He must be a man of wide appreciation of many branches of science,
otherwise a special man will be wanted for each branch — astronomy,
meteorology, physics, medical science, sociology, etc. Even were
the money forthcoming for this multiplicity of workers, I doubt
whether the men themselves are to be found. If Professor New-
comb's institute is carried out, the right man for director will be a
man of very exceptional attainments, falling little short of scientific
genius. I doubt if one man of this type could be procured. It is
certain that .several could not.

(^) The right man must have been rightly trained. He is to be
occupied in drawing logical conclusions from other persons' obser-
vations and data. He must therefore in the first place be an adept
in scientific method ; he must be a first-class mathematician, statis-
tician, and a trained calculator and computator.

(c) The right man must be rightly supported. He must have a
competent staff of workers under him, and be to a considerable
extent a man of aifairs. He will have to reject after examination
whole masses of observations and data as unsuitable, and his pro-
ceedings will be questioned and criticised. Unless he is a man of
weight and tact, he will soon be in an impossible position relative
to the mediocre observers whose data he is to manipulate. For
example, he proposes to deal with the weights of the human viscera
in health and disease. He collects all the available data, but issues
his report and conclusions, silently passing by the measurements of
some well-known physician or hospital, because they have been
made in a manner which renders them of no real scientific value.
The result would be certainly controversy, po.ssibly uproar, and the
director of the in.stitute would have to fight a series of pitched bat-
tles before his reputation as a censor and official ' ' scrapper ' ' was
finally established beyond di.spute. He might survive this initial
state of affairs if he had the support of the best scientific minds in
the country ; but unless he was a strong man he would take the
easier course, and simply add another long series of reports on a//

RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 87

existing material to the already' overvoluminous scientific literature
of the day. The right man will be the man who has the courage to
"scrap" and to doit relentlessly. Science wants immensely the
courageous pruner to-day; but his is not an enviable task, and the
Carnegie Trustees would have to support their man pretty steadily
to enable him to be effectual. He will be sure to make some mis-
takes, and these will be at once seized on and trumpeted abroad. If
we suppose that the above three conditions can be fulfilled, may we
not question whether the man pictured would not be of such caliber
that he would do far better work for science if he were allowed to
use other people's observations where he chose, and to observe and
collect himself where he found them defective or incapable of throw-
ing light on the branches of science he was peculiarly interested in ?
In other words, the director would be reduced to an ordinary scien-
tific worker, placed in one sense under very favorable conditions, in
another under unfavorable conditions ; he would have ample mate-
rial and support, but he would differ from an academic teacher in
having no school wherein he might train his subordinates in his
methods.

(5) On the whole, I doubt whether the founding of an institute
to ' ' scrap ' ' and codify existing observations and scientific material is
feasible if desirable. I am inclined to think that more might be
done by a Statistical and Computatiyig Institute. This institute should
have a competent director and a highly trained staff. It should be
prepared to report on any data or material submitted to it at a mod-
erate fee. This fee might be remitted on the recommendation of
the director, or a committee, in the case of first-class work from a
man of scientific repute but small means. It would have to be re-
tained, however, to prevent a flood of worthless material being sent
in to be reduced. The institute might also offer advice on the col-
lection of material on observational method and on statistical treat-
ment, again charging a slight fee to prevent the institute being used
as a source for providing research work for those who were too idle
or too dull to discover such work for themselves. Besides, private
individuals, learned societies — astronomical, meteorological, or bio-
logical —might and probably soon would use the institute to carry
out special investigations on the value of material already amassed
in some one or other branch of their special sciences. Finally,
Government departments would very soon fall into the habit of ask-
ing for reports on the special material of their own spheres. The
like course would be taken by local bodies in the case of demographic

1 88 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

and other statistical material. I think that such an institute would
be of very great service, and, perhaps as far as possible, fulfill the
functions which Professor Newcomb proposes, without the great
amount of friction that a direct inquiry into the value of material
collected by men. many of whom would still be holding scientific
posts, would certainly involve.

Of course one is far too apt to judge matters from one's own
little corner of the field of science. We have had a statistical lab-
oratory established for some little time, and we find that an increas-
ing number of workers send us their data for suggestion and report.
To such an extent has this become current that we shall probably
have either to institute a fee to check the flow of material or else
decline to examine such work, as we are only an academic depart-
ment, doing our own teaching and research work, and without pub-
lic support of any kind. Still our small experience may be useful
on the other side of the Atlantic ; and we have found a multiplicity
of workers, physical and biological, want assistance, and further
that public bodies and government departments seek statistical and
calculating aid also. If Professor Newcomb's ideas were carried out
first on material which was actually placed before the institute for
report, then the action of scientific societies and public bodies would
soon give the foundation an established position, from which pos-
sibly the more serious business of codifying and " scrapping " exist-
ing accumulations of observations and data could ultimately be
carried out without too great friction and controversy.

Karl Pearson.

{Letter of Lord Raylcigh.^

Royal Institution of Great Britain,

November 20, igoj.
Dear Professor Newcomb :

I am in complete sympathy with the views expressed in your
letter of October 30, and have indeed sometimes expressed myself
in a similar sense ; but my experience is far less than yours.

I sincerely hope you may succeed in organizing such an estab-
lishment as you indicate.

Rayleigh.

RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 1 89

\Lctter of G. H. Darwm.'\

Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

I sympathize very warml}- with Professor Newcomb's plan for
developing the Carnegie Institution and think that it may have a
great future. I have been trying to picture to myself how it would
work out, and I see that while the gain in some subjects would be
great and immediate, in others it would be oul)^ collateral.

Scientific observations may be roughly classified in two groups,
which, however, graduate into one another. I can best illustrate
my meaning by examples.

The subject of the tides seems to belong to the group which
would reap immediate advantage. Observations are now published
in the most diverse places and are not properly coordinated. A
critical collection of tidal results would be a heavy task and would
be of much value. There is nothing in this subject which corre-
sponds to probable error in astronomy, for the defects depend on
human frailty. It would require a first-rate man to classify and
reject observations according to the internal evidence afforded by
them. When such a collection was made, generalizations would
follow, and the value of the conclusions would probably be great.

Meteorology and many other subjects fall into this group. The
distinguishing feature is that we know exactly what to observe,
that the mass of material is already enormous, and that it is impos-
sible to have too much matter, provided that it is coordinated.

The second kind of research to which I have referred is inter-
mediate between observation and experiment. The subject of
observation is to some degree indeterminate, and it depends on the
investigator what he shall observe.

I can not think of a very good example at the moment, but I may
perhaps illustrate my meaning by supposing that we were investi-
gating the laws governing the drifting of sand and the formation of
sand dunes. It must be obvious that this is a subject of great agri-
cultural importance in many parts of the world. Now, it would be
almost useless merely to collect maps and photographs. There must
be a guiding mind, forming theories to be proved or disproved by
observation. The investigation might be expensive and troublesome,
but it is essentially the work of an individual.

In this sort of case I should not look for any great gain from the
proposed institution, except that it would afford a fixed position,
with good pay, to men of ability. The exception is important, and it

190 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

brings us to the point raised by Professor Turner, viz, that the search
for men is more difficult and more important than the search for facts.
I hope that you will not regard this long letter as wide of the
point, and in conclusion I desire to express my warm approbation
of the scheme. G. H. Darwin.

{^Letter of ArtJmr Schuster.']

Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester,

August 18, 1^04.
In answer to your request to have my views on the letter addressed
to you by Professor Simon Newcomb, I will take his various points
in order :

I. There can be absolutely no doubt on the correctness of Profes-
sor Newcomb' s view regarding the piling up of a vast mass of obser-
vations, which has been made an object in itself, instead of being a
means to an end, and hence a proper discussion has not been able to
keep up with the accumulation of undigested figures. The efforts
of individuals to discuss results have often been hampered by want
of assistance or of funds, and in many cases have been doomed to
failure owing to the fact that the men trained to observe are very
often not particularly well fitted to draw conclusions. It would be
easy to find examples of the waste of labor which has resulted from
incompetent work in the planning out of the methods of reduction.

II. Here also I agree with Professor Newcomb, and I would like
to add another feature of the present situation which stands in the
way of the discussion of great problems on a broad basis — the vast
mass of accumulating material has rendered it necessary to have a
special journal almost for each special branch of a subject ; thus we
have a journal dealing with solar physics, and another with terres-
trial magnetism, etc.

The mathematician and physicist who is probably mo.st capable of
dealing with the problems of solar physics and terrestrial magnetism
often never sees these journals. If he does he will get bewildered by
the mass of detail which is put before him, and often by technical
terms which he does not understand.

What is required here is some intermediate agent whose business
it should be, on the one hand, to place before the man of general
science the main results of observations which want discussing, and
on the other hand before the observer the main facts and measure-
ments which the theoretical .student requires for his work.

RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 191

The efforts which have been made to remedy this recognized diffi-
culty by the publication of abstracts have, in my opinion, proved
failures. To write efficiently an abstract which would give the pith
of a paper in a form that can be utilized requires a very intimate
knowledge of the subject. In a subject requiring special skill and
training this can not be expected from those who at present under-
take work of this kind, nor is the frame of mind of the reader who
takes up one of these journals of abstracts and endeavors to assimi-
late in half an hour the ideas of one hundred and fifty different
workers on one hundred and fifty different subjects such as to make
it likely that his thoughts will be usefully fertilized. A much more
useful plan would be to have periodical reports dealing with the
progress of the subject ; but here again all will depend on how far
it would be possible to get men who thoroughly understand the sub-
ject to write these reports.

It is doubtful to my mind whether the best results ever can be
obtained by an observer who has not full grasp of what his observa-
tions will be used for ; but, dealing with the question from a practical
point of view, we must recognize that there are many men who can
take excellent observations without any special power of discussing
them, and it would be a pity not to make use of such men, provided
we can convince them of the limitation of their powers.

III. An institute or bureau of exact science, according to Pro-
fessor Newcomb's scheme, would, in my opinion, prove useful, as
it might in each subject find the best methods of coordinating facts
and reducing observations ; but the organization of the bureau
would have to adapt itself to the different requirements of the differ-
ent subjects, these requirements probably varying from time to
time. In particular stages of a subject publication of a list of papers
may be what is required, and in every case we must guard against
stereotyping any one particular method of procedure. The abstracts
which, as above mentioned, I found useless in my own subject might
be very effective in others.

It would be, as Professor Turner points out, a very material gain
if there were a body of men whose special duty consisted in discuss-
ing observations and drawing attention to those matters where ob-
servation is most required. I consider thf subjects included in
Professor Newcomb's third "field" as requiring most attention at
the present moment.

The bureau should, in my opinion, not only have power to initiate
reductions, but should also be able to assist other workers in cases
14

192 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

where its council approves of the proposed method. I may meutiou
an example from my own experience. I have engaged during the
last two years, at my own expense, an assistant to do certain reduc-
tions of sunspot observations by a method which, I believe, will give
useful results in many branches of cosmical physics. It would have
been advisable in any case that the first set of reductions by this
method should have been carried out under my own supervision, but
supposing the results arrived at to be valuable and the method to
commend itself to competent judges, it would be quite beyond the
powers of any individual to extend the calculations so as to include
other phenomena, such as prominences or magnetic disturbances,
which can be brought into connection with sunspots. The bureau,
with funds at its disposal and a committee of directors who could
judge of the value of any proposed piece of work, might prevent a
block in the advance of science which is at present possible for want
of a proper organization.

IV and V. I quite agree that everything must depend on the nom-
ination of a managing head, although an advisory committee will
probably be necessary, and it can only be through the organizing
powers of a man who is at any rate thoroughly qualified in one
branch of science that the work can succeed.

VI. I also agree that the institute should be started on a modest
scale. If it is desired that the council should be international, I
would suggest that the International Association of Academies
should be asked to nominate a certain number of its members. As
this association has been founded for the purpose of international
cooperation, it seems desirable to strengthen it as far as possible and
to avoid the multiplication of other international organizations. I"
do not, however, wish to express an opinion at present on the desira-
bility of starting the bureau at once on an international basis. It
might be better to secure greater elasticity by leaving it, in the first
instance, to be an American institution. If desirable, it will always
be easy in a few years' time to ask the International Association of
Academies to nominate members on its council.

I am sorry there has been so much delay in sending you this
reply, but, as I have already informed you, I was unusually busy
when your letter reached me.

Arthur Schuster.

RESEARCH IN THE EXACT SCIENCES. 193

\_Leticr of Edzvard C. Pickering .~\

Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Mass.,

July 2j, igo4.

Dear Sir : Your letter inclosing a copy of that of Professor
Newcomb and requesting a reply before August r duly reached me.
The plan in general meets with my hearty approval. There is no
doubt that a proper discussion of existing observations is very much
needed. This should be followed by suitable observations in order
to supply the wants thus rendered evident.

To select subjects for the proposed institution a permanent coun-
cil might be needed, but when a subject was chosen specialists in
that department of science should be employed, who would spend
several days together arranging the details of the work. According
to my experience, a discussion of generalities by a committee with
no means at their disposal is unsatisfactory and the results are of
little value. A number of experts, however, having an appropria-
tion which the}^ could expend on work with which they were
entirely familiar could get much better results than any one person
alone. The officer in charge of the proposed institution, with his
corps of computers, could readily carry out the plan of work recom-
mended, consulting the committee when difficulties arose, or calline
other meetings as required. A large part of the laborious work
involved in discussing an extensive series of observations in any
department of science could be done to great advantage by such a
permanent computing bureau.

It is often impossible to transplant a man of genius in other sur-
roundings without greatly diminishing the value of his work, and
it is better to improve his existing conditions rather than try to
make him adopt new ones. On the other hand, he is often unable
to discuss his own results or supervise large routine computations
as well as one who devotes his life to such work. My views on this
subject are given more fully in a pamphlet entitled "The Endow-
ment of Astronomical Research, No. 2," which will be distributed
in a few days.

Edward C. Pickering.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY.

By T. C. Chamberlin.

Sir : I have the honor to submit herewith a report of progress on
the work done under Grant No. 1 1 5 , in continuation of Grant No. 3 1 .

For the general scheme of the work I beg to refer to my previous
report (Year Book No. 2, pp. 261-270). The work upon which I
have been engaged during the current year has lain wholly within
the lines there sketched and chiefly within the constructive phases
of the scheme. On the critical side, however, I have reviewed the
tests previously applied to the Laplacian and allied hypotheses of
the origin of the earth, but have added little to them. The cogency
of their adverse bearings seems to be in no wa)^ diminished by
reflection or reconsideration.

I have developed into more definite terms several phases of the
meteoritic hypotheses of the earth's origin of the type advocated by
lyockyer and Darwin ; that is, the type in which the meteorites are
supposed to be assembled as a swarm, the individual meteorites
moving to and fro and frequently colliding after the manner of the
molecules of a gas, a constitution brought into clear definition by the
classic paper of Darwin, " On the Mechanical Conditions of Swarms
of Meteorites and on Theories of Cosmogony. ' ' * Working upon
the results reached by Darwin, it has not appeared probable that at
a position so deep in the postulated swarm as that at which the earth
should have been formed, a passage from the quasi-gaseous into the
true gaseous condition could have been escaped, because of the fre-
quency and violence of the collisions and the consequent high temper-
ature ; and hence, so far as the origin of the earth is concerned, this
phase of the meteoritic hypothesis seems to become identical with the
gaseous or L,aplacian hypothesis and to be obnoxious to most of
the objections to that hypothesis that arise from the kinetic action
of the gases and from the relations of mass and momenta, as brought
out in the previous studies by Dr. Moulton and myself.

Studies in the line of meteoritic swarms have usually started with
the swarms organized, and have not seriously considered whether
such swarms would be likely to arise. There is no positive proof
of the present existence of meteoritic swarms with such a dynamic
organization. There are, to be sure, spectroscopic and other grounds

*PKil. Trans. Royal Society, 1SS8.

195

196 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

for believing that some nebulae are composed of discrete solid mat-
ter, but it has not been shown that this has a quasi-gaseous organi-
zation. For the purposes of a critical discrimination it is necessary to
find grounds for supposing that this discrete solid matter is organ-
ized as a swarm characterized by heterogeneous movements involv-
ing collision and rebound in gaseous fashion, as distinguished from
revolutionary movements controlled by gravitation and inertia in
planetary fashion, which constitutes the planetesimal organization.
The two modes of organization are very distinct dynamically, though
they are likely to be more or less combined in any actual system. I
have given some time to a study of the possibilities of the origin of
such a quasi-gaseous assemblage of meteorites. The studies have
taken two lines — ^(i) the possibilities of assemblage from a primitive
diflfu.se condition, and (2) the possibilities arising from the dispersion
of some previous bod3^

d) Inspection of the problem made it clear that a grave difficulty
lies in the high ratio of the moving force to the gravitational force in
celestial bodies, on the average. The gravitational force is obviousl}'
the chief agent to be assigned the work of bringing together and
holding together the meteoritic swarm in question, while the moving
force is the chief opposing or dispersing agent. The gravitative
power of individual meteorites over one another, at the distances
involved in the problem, is exceedingh' small, while the average
velocities of known meteorites is high and their moving force corre-
spondingly high. Estimated from present imperfect data, the aver-
age velocity of meteorites is of the order of 20 miles per second or
more. This is also about the average order of velocitj^ of stars, as
now determined, and hence it may fairly be assumed to be the order
of velocity of the average matter of the known universe, and may
be taken as the working basis for the problem in question. This
gives a prodigious kinetic energy to the matter to be assembled,
while the gravitative force between the small masses of dispersed
matter is relatively trivial. The individual attractions are all that
can be considered until after an assemblage is formed, and it is the
fortnatio)i of the assemblage that is here in question.

So far as my studies have gone, almost the only conception that
seems to oflFer a remote possibility of the starting of a swarm of
meteorites under the.se adverse conditions lies in the exceptional
case of meteorites moving in nearly parallel directions at nearly the
same speed and in courses near one another. In this case the moving
forces of the meteorites have the same phase and only antagonize

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 1 97

, their mutual attractious to the extent of such small differences as
may arise from their slight differences of velocity and direction of
motion. Under extremely favorable conditions of this kind, two
meteorites might come into mutual gravitative control and revolve
about their common center of gravit^^ Then a third one might join
them under like conditions, and so on. The plane of revolution of
the third meteorite might chance to correspond with that established
by the pair it joined, but more probably it would not. Its direction
of revolution might be the same, but more likel}- either transverse in
some degree or opposite. It is extremely unlikely that the planes
of revolution of any considerable number of meteorites coming thus
together would be identical, or that the directions of their revolu-
tions would all be coincident, and hence opposite and cross-revolutions
would doubtless result, with obvious liability to collisions, so that in
the end the swarm might perhaps develop into a quasi-gaseous con-
dition, though it might retain a revolutionar}- organization, in which
case it would not fall into the class here under consideration.

It must be noted that the conditions assigned for the starting of
the growth of such a swarm are ver}' far from being the usual con-
ditions of adjacent meteorites, and hence the accessions to the group
in any given period, if the group were started, must be presumed to
be few compared to the whole number of meteorites that would pass
through the initiating swarm, for of the meteorites that passed the
place of the initiating swarm, all those that had opposite or trans-
verse courses of any appreciable angle and all those that though
moving in parallel directions had appreciably different velocities
would traverse the swarm with dangerous contingencies. They
would hence be liable to break up the initiating swarm by colliding
with its members and driving them be}' ond their mutual gravitative
control. This contingency is especially great while the swarm is
small and its gravitative command of its members feeble. Hence
there arises a serious question whether the swarm's peril of destruc-
tion is not greater than its chance of growing to a self-protecting
size — so incomparably greater, indeed, as to render the method an
improbable one. The dangers of infanc)' in this case seem to be
obviously and perilously extreme and the chances of escape ex-
ceedingly rare.

A second serious difficulty in organizing hypothetically a swarm
of meteorites from discrete matter primitively diffuse was found to
lie in the extreme tenuity of the dispersed celestial matter, whether
the present amount of such dispersed matter be considered or the

198 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

whole of known matter be theoretically dispersed through the space ,
now occupied by it. The light of a star in a flight of fifty years
does not encounter enough dark matter to seriously dim its bright-
ness. All the matter that lies between us and the uttermost visi-
ble stars does not cut off as much light as a thin cloud. If all the
matter now aggregated in the stellar system, on any reasonable esti-
mate of its mass (and the known distribution and movements of the
celestial bodies limit such an estimate), were distributed through the
space now occupied by the stars, it would not help the case much,
so far as the meteoritic assemblage is concerned. To illustrate, if
the matter of the solar system were scattered through that portion
of space which may be said to be its fair apportionment — that is, the
space about it, stretching out half-way to the nearest stars — its tenuity
would be such that if the orbit of Neptune were to be regarded as
the hoop of a drag-net 5,600,000,000 miles in diameter, and were to
be made to sweep through this space at the rate of 12 miles per sec-
ond— the estimated velocity of the sun — it would take some 900,000,-
000,000 years for it to sweep up the scattered matter. This is prob-
ably not an unfair illustration of the average tenuity of the sup-
posed dispersion, since the sun is apparently near the center of the
known system where star-grouping might be expected to be at least
as dense as the average of the whole.

With such extreme tenuity of dispersion, even when all known
matter is converted into meteorites, and with such potent obstacles
to assemblage as are imposed by the high moving force of the
meteorites, it seems an imperative conclusion that the growth of a
meteoritic assemblage of the mass of the solar S5'stem must require
a period quite beyond comprehension.

This conclusion led on the further inquiry whether a swarm of
meteorites could perpetuate itself as a szvarm through such a pro-
digious period. Must not the part first assembled pass on through
its own evolution, whatever that might be, without awaiting the
excessively delayed assemblage of the later portions ? If the mem-
bers of the swarm were in collisional relations, must not the kinetic
energy of the earlier assemblage have been exhausted long before
the accession of the latter part ? In other words, must not the first
assemblage have become solid at a relatively early stage in the
process and the remainder of the accessions have been added individ-
ually, as meteorites are now added to the sun and planets? Is it a
tenable view that the assemblage of a swarm should go on alone
without attendant evolution until the mass necessary for a solar

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. I99

system is attained, and then, but not till then, enter upon an evolu-
tion into a sun-and-planet system ? If the swarm was organized on
the collisional basis, nothing but a negative answer seems to me
possible. If the meteorites could be supposed to so come together
as to revolve in harmonious orbits about a common center, on the
planetary basis, the assemblage might perhaps be perpetuated ; but
this takes the case out of the typical meteoritic class, as here defined,
and carries it over to the planetesimal.

Under the conditions of the case as thus brought out, I have been
unable to discover a probable method by which a meteoric nebula of
the quasi-gaseous or collisional type can grow up de novo by the
assemblage of dispersed meteorites or by the aggregation of chaotic
matter if the material were endowed with the present momentum of
the average matter of the stellar s3-stem.

(2) The study of the possibilities of the origin of a meteoritic nebula
of the collisional or quasi-gaseous type from the dispersion of some
previous large body recognized three possible phases : (^) dispersion
by explosion ; ij)) dispersion by collision ; and {c) dispersion by tidal
disruption.

It is difficult to find any tangible ground for postulating an ex-
plosion competent to disperse to the requisite degree a body of the
mass of the solar system ; but if this difficulty be passed and the
requisite force be assumed, it must apparently act radially, in the
main, and after the matter has made its outward excursion and is
arrested by gravitation, it must return on nearly direct lines and
collide at the virtual point of departure. If the outward movement
were of nebular extent the collision attending the return must have
developed sufficient heat for the conversion of the whole into a gas-
eous body, and the sub.sequent evolution must have followed gaseous
lines. It is not apparent how anything properly analogous to a
meteoritic swarm could be developed by this process. If the hypo-
thetical explosion could be supposed to be sufficiently violent to
project the constituent matter beyond the control of the system, the
di.spersed parts might become truly meteoritic, but their courses
would be indefinitely divergent, and there would be no assignable
agency for their reassemblage. The constituents would pursue
individual courses and be subject to sporadic capture essentially as
in the case previously considered.

Regarding the possibilities of dispersion by collision, it seemed
necessary to suppose that the heat developed would be so great as
to convert the main mass into a gaseous state. If the collision were

200 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

a center-to-center encounter, a radial dispersion of matter trans-
verse to the line of collision would probably follow, returning from
which the material would again collide and, after a series of oscil-
lations, would gradually settle down into a pulsating gaseous mass.*
Here again the system would become gaseous at the outset, and
probably develop nothing of the typical meteoritic kind, except
possibly such sporadic elements as might be projected beyond the
control of the system. If the collision were eccentric, a rotatory
motion would doubtless be superposed upon the radial motion, and
the case would fall under either the gaseous or the orbital system
or under a combination of the two.

In the line of my own suggestion f that stellar bodies passing close
by one another, but not colliding, may suffer disruption through their
differential attractions on one another, aided by internal elasticity,
on the principles developed by Roche, Maxwell, and others, I have
been unable to find anj^ plausible grounds for postulating a conversion
into a meteoritic nebula of the collisional type.

In the case of such a disruption, the scattered constituents must
apparently be given a rotatory movement in a common direction
and in the orbital plane of the two bodies initiating it. The
dj'namics of the system are, therefore, from the outset, definitely of
a rotatory or revolutionar5^kind, and the case falls under the orbital
or planetesimal system rather than under the meteoritic system.

It appears, therefore, that neither explosion, nor collision, nor
tidal disruption is likely to give rise to a distinctively meteoritic
swarm of the kind defined, and I have been unable to discover any
other source that can be assigned on definite grounds with a work-
able probability. Individual meteorites and rotatory and revolu-
tionary assemblages of dispersed elements, as well as true gaseous
nebulae, may be supposed to arise from the catastrophes named, but
apparently these catastrophes are not appropriate agencies for pro-
ducing fragmental swarms of the distinctively meteoritic type.

I have made some study of meteorites to see if their characters
have any decisive bearings on the mode of their origin.

Among the distinctive and significant characters of meteorites are
their fragmentary forms, their brecciated structures in part, their
occasional slickensided surfaces, their veins, the glassy nature of a

*A case of this kind is described by Kelvin, Popular Lectures and Addresses,
I, p. 413.

t On the Possible Function of Disruptive Approach in the Formation of Me-
teorites, Comets, and Nebulrp. A.strophvs. Jour., Vol. XIV, 1900. pp. 17-40.

■FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 20I

part of their material, the amorphous nature of another part, and
the crystalline nature of still a third and larger part, the variations
in the coarseness of the crystallization, the extraordinarily large
crystals of the nickel-iron, the inclusion of non-metallic crystals and
nodules in the nickel-iron crystals, the scattered condition of iron
crystals among silicate crystals in many cases (sporadosiderites),
the presence of peculiar spheroidal aggregations (chondri), the
fragmental nature of these in many instances, the absence of water
and hydrates, the absence of free oxygen, the large proportions of
the nickel-iron and the magnesia, the absence of a group of minerals
common in terrestrial igneous rocks, viz, quartz, orthoclase, the
acid plagioclases, the micas, the amphiboles, leucite, and nephelite,
the presence of certain unstable chlorides, sulphides, and phosphides
unknown in the earth, and the presence of volatile and combustible
hydrocarbons.*

These make up a remarkable group of characters, whose origin
can spring only from an equally peculiar combination of conditions.

While the fragmental condition of many meteorites on reaching
the earth is due to fracturing in their passage through the air, there
are indications in many cases that they already had a fragmental
form when they entered the atmosphere. This implies that they are
portions of larger bodies, and that they were not aggregated, as such,
in free space. At least this appears true in the case of most of those
more massive ones that reach the surface of the earth. This of itself
does not exclude the view that meteorological aggregates may take
place in free space, and that these may have entered into the make-up
of the larger body from which the meteorites were derived. It,
however, bears on the question whether meteorites, as a rule, were
organized as such by the gathering together of gaseous matter or
.scattered particles in open space.

Less equivocal evidence may be found in the fragmental structure
of many of the stony meteorites. Among the broken elements are
fragments of chondri. As the chondri are aggregations peculiar to
meteorites, their fragmentation implies disruption and reassemblage
in the parent body, or at least in an antecedent condition. Interest
and point are added by the occurrence of larger chondri inclosing
fragments of smaller ones. A very singular case of breccia is
presented by the Mount Joy meteorite, which is an aggregate of iron

* An excellent sketch of the characteristics of meteorites is given by Dr. O. C.
Farrington, Jour. CtCoL, VoL IV, 1901, pp. 51, 174, 392.

202 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

fragments. These various evidences of fragmentation imply a
previous history affected by successive conditions of accretion and
fracturing.

The pressure of slickensided surfaces impHes a parent body which
was subjected to varying stresses, resulting first in fracture and
afterward in the rubbing of the fissure walls upon one another.
The existence of veins also implies fracture attended by subsequent
filling.

The general prevalence, but partial absence, of crystallization and
the kinds of crystallization imply varied thermal conditions in the
parent body. The amorphous condition implies the absence of fusion
and of the conditions of cr^-stallization. The glassy structure equally
implies a molten state followed by quick cooling, while the various
grades of crystallization imply high temperatures variously sustained.
The extremely large crystals suggest protracted high temperature,
with conditions favorable for a highly systematic rearrangement of
the material. At the same time the frequent cases in which the
metallic iron is scattered through the silicate material seem to imply
the absence of a completely fluid state, for in that case segregation
of the heavy metallic material toward the center of the bod}' should
take place. The same is perhaps indicated by the frequent presence
of nodules of sulphides and phosphides within the masses of iron.
These conditions seem best explained by a prolonged high tempera-
ture acting on a mass of mixed material and furnishing conditions
suitable for slow aggregation and crystalline rearrangement without
complete fluidity being reached.

It is hard to believe that these coarse crystallizations could have
been formed in small masses of matter projected into space in the
molten condition, and the view that meteorites are formed directly
from lavas shot into space by volcanic or other explosive action, as
from a sun, a planet, or the moon, is unsatisfactor}- in this particular.
Equally adverse to this view is the extraordinary fact that certain
classes of meteorites are formed chiefly of hydrocarbons which are
volatile at moderately high temperatures and are readily combus-
tible. These hydrocarbons seem prohibitive of high temperatures
at all stages of their history, and it is a marvel that they should
survive the transit through the atmosphere ; but this is probably due
to the fact that they were excessively cold when they entered it and
during the brief time of their transit were only superficially con-
sumed, while their interiors remained cold, as the interiors of me-
teorites are not infrequently found to be immediately after their fall.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY, 203

Igneous processes on the earth give rise to magmatic differentia-
tion resulting in a familiar series of minerals which make up large
portions of the crystalline rocks of the earth's surface ; so also
weathering and solution remove more of the basic than of the acidic
constituents of crystalline rock, and when the residue is metamor-
phosed a similar series of minerals arises. Among these are quartz,
orthoclase, the acid plagioclases, the micas, and the amphiboles — a
group absent from the meteorites. This absence suggests that in
the parent body magmatic differentiation of this kind and selective
weathering did not take place. This, however, does not necjessarily
exclude volcanic action, nor non-hydrous weathering, but merely
the dominant phases of weathering and magmatic differentiation
that prevail in the earth and probably in similar bodies having
atmospheres and hydrospheres.

The absence of water, of hydrates, and of free oxygen adds its
testimony against the derivation of the meteorites from the crusts of
all bodies like the earth.

The high velocities and the diverse directions of the meteoritic
flights relative to the earth forbid assigning their origin, in general,
to volcanic action in the moon or in any of the planets. Sufficient
velocity might be given by a solar explosion, but the directions
would be radial and not promiscuous. Explosive action from the
members of the solar system may have made an occasional meteor-
oidal contribution, but scarcely more than that.

Taken altogether, the combination of characteristics presented by
meteorites seems to fail of satisfactory explanation in any hypothesis
of their direct derivation from a sun or star, or from a planet sur-
rounded by a hydrosphere or an oxygen-bearing atmosphere, or
from any planetary body affected by mineralogic differentiations of
the terrestrial type. No more do they seem to find satisfactory
explanation in simple accretion in free space.

It remained to inquire whether small atmosphereless bodies like
the asteroids and the satellites afford a more probable source. Fol-
lowing the doctrine of Stoney, small celestial bodies are believed to
be devoid of atmospheres and hydrospheres because their gravity is
too low to overmatch the molecular velocities of the atmospheric
gases and the vapor of water. This interpretation carries the corol-
lary that they never have had permanent atmospheres and hydro-
spheres. They thus meet the criterion imposed by the absence of
oxygen and water. If built up by accretion, they should contain
the requisite variety of material, and if formed in some other way

204 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

the)^ may have had it. In their different parts they may present
the required structural characteristics. I see no reason to doubt
that the asteroids and sateUites have been subjected to deformations
attended by fractures, brecciation, veins, sHckensides, and similar
dynamic phenomena. Eruptive and explosive action as well as the
impact of falling bodies from the exterior may have contributed
various forms of fragmental and amorphous material. The absence
of a protecting atmosphere subjects their surfaces to the full striking
force of falling bodies, and also the disrupting effects of extreme
changes^ of temperature. On the exterior, amorphous masses, as
well as glassy and cryptocrystalline rock, may not improbably be
formed, while at greater depths the varying conditions of pressure
and temperature requisite for the more complete and coarser crys-
tallizations may probably be present. The hydrocarbons may be
assigned to inorganic action within the asteroidal body, the material
being derived from the hydrogen and carbon gases so abundantly
occluded in meteorites and crystalline rocks, the requisite tempera-
tures and pressures being supplied by the internal compression of
the body.

In these small bodies, then, it is perhaps possible to find that
extraordinary combination of conditions which the nature of the
meteorites implies.

It remains to postulate a means of disruption and dispersion by
which the disrupted fragments shall be given the erratic courses and
the high velocities which meteorites possess, while at the same time
the structural features, sometimes rather perishable, shall escape
destruction by liquefaction or extreme pulverization.

Any supposed explosion from an internal .source is unsatisfactory,
because it is difficult to assign a probable and sufficient cause for an
explosion capable of imparting a velocity of several miles per second,
which would probably be required to disperse the fragments beyond
the control of the system to which the bod}' belonged, and because
if such sufl&cient explosion were realized, it must apparently wreck
many of the peculiar meteoritic structures.

Collision with some other body at a high velocity would be suflS-
cient to disrupt the body and drive its fragments away with the
requisite velocity, but the imminent danger of liquefaction by the
inevitable heat of the impact or of extreme pulverization of the
fragile material rai-ses doubt as to the adaptability of collision to
give origin to the hydrocarbon and some of the stony meteorites of
large .size, while it might well give rise to minute meteorites. The

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 205

relative rarity of collision also suggests that it should be assigned a
secondary place.

It has been suggested * recently that disruption by differential
attraction might satisfy the requirements of the case, though there
is perhaps some ground for doubt as to its adequate frequency.
According to principles established by Roche, Maxwell, and others,
a small bod}- passing within a certain distance (the Roche limit) of
a larger dense body will be torn into fragments by differential attrac-
tion. The size of this sphere of disruption depends on the densities,
cohesion, internal elasticities, and other factors of the two bodies.
For incompressible fluids of the same density Roche gives the limit
of disruption as 2.44 times the radius of the large body. In most
such bodies internal elasticity probably exceeds cohesion, and the
sphere of disruption would be larger than this. The moon would
probably expand with some violence if its gravity were suddenly
removed by differential attraction. In any case fragmentation in this
way would be several times more probable than an actual collision.
Furthermore, the fragmentation in this case is not minute nor violent,
and this fits the meteoritic requirements.

Relative to their erratic courses, it may be noted that a small
body passing near a much larger body is liable to be thrown from
its previous orbit into quite a new one. As is well known, this
has apparently happened to several comets through the influence of
the planet Jupiter. As shown by H. A. Newton, if the orbit of the
small body is such that it is caused to pass close in the rear of the
large body, say the planet Jupiter, its course will be diverted into a
larger orbit. If a small body were to pass in this way sujEciently
near to Jupiter, it would be thrown entirely out of the solar system,
and its path thence would probably be as unrelated to any stellar
system as that of an average meteorite.

In these two sets of principles there is a combination peculiarly
fitted "for the results required, for by their joint action a small body
passing hear a large body is liable to be disrupted into fragments,
and these at the same time to be thrown into erratic courses, which
may carry them entirely outside the system to which they belonged
and give them independent courses in stellar space. It is obvious
that fragmentation and dispersal by the differential attraction of
very close approach escapes the adverse contingencies of liquefaction
and pulverization incident to explosion or collision.

* On the Possible Function of Disruptive Approach in the Formation of
Meteorites, Comets, and Nebulae. Jour. Geol., Vol. IX, 1901, p. 369.

2o6 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHIxNGTON.

If the question be pushed a step farther, to inquire how small
bodies hke the asteroids may be rendered specially subject to the
requisite conjunctions, th^ answer may be found in the approach of
suns to one another, attended by such secondaries. For example,
if the solar system were to pass even within five or six billion miles
of a similar system, the orbits of the secondaries would be very
greatly perturbed and an intricate and prolonged series of changes
would ensue. These are too complicated to be followed by compu-
tation, but there are grounds for believing that they might involve,
sooner or later, through their disturbed courses, the close approach of
some of the smaller bodies to some of the larger. These smaller
bodies in the solar system are numbered by hundreds, and similar
numbers may be suspected to belong to other systems, and this
largeness of number adds to the probabilities of .some close approaches
during a condition of general disturbance.

The solar system is probably not the most favorable selection for
illustrating the contingencies of such disturbance, for it is a simple
isolated system, with a single overpowering center that convoys
its attendants by a scarcely disputed control. From its symmetry,
it is to be inferred that it has swept through space undisturbed
throughout the period of its existing organization. But there are
many binary, triple, multiple, and clustered systems of suns which
apparentl}' divide the control of a common field, and this divided
control may reasonabl}- be supposed to involve approaches of the
chief bodies of sufficient nearness to one another to perturb seriously
their outlying secondaries and introduce disturbances ultimately in-
volving disruptive approaches. The nebulous matter associated with
some of these perhaps implies something of this kind.

The hypothesis of disruption by differential attraction may be
pushed one step farther by postulating that the disrupted group of
fragments may in its earlier history constitute a comet, since it is the
general behef of astronomers that the comet's head is composed of a
cluster of small bodies. The peculiar emanations which arise from
a comet may perhaps as plausibly be referred to the occluded vapors
and the radio-active substances of a shattered asteroid as to any other
recognizable source. The recent discoveries of the prevalence of
radio-activity and allied phenomena render the cometic emanations
less strange and exceptional than they once seemed.

The fragments of an asteroid or other small body disrupted in
this manner would, it is believed, be given a rotatory movement by
the differential attraction that produced them, and hence the result-

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 207

ing cluster of fragments should revolve about their common center
of gravity in a somewhat definite plane, but at the same time in
more or less irregulai and inharmonious paths, as the result of the
incidents of disruption, and these doubtless render them subject to
mutual disturbance and frictional and glancing collisions.

It is now accepted as highly probable that comets, particularly
those that have short orbits and frequently return to the vicinity of
the sun, are gradually dispersed by the latter' s differential attraction.
The mutual gravity of the cometic fragments being very small, the
differential gravity of the sun in its own neighborhood becomes
superior to it, and the members of the cometary cluster are drawn
apart, and thenceforth revolve about the sun in their own individual
orbits, irrespective of the other members. In other words, the
cluster of fragments that is supposed to constitute the comet's head
passes into the planctesimal state by dispersion. In this we seem to
have an actual instance of that tendency of a swarm to pass into a
planetesimal condition to which allusion has heretofore been made.

These planetesimals constitute one variety of meteoroidal bodies
in the broader sense of the term meteoroidal, and it is to these that
the brilliant August and September meteoric showers are assigned.
It has not been quite demonstrated that they are identical with the
iron and stony meteorites above described, for they do not generally
reach the earth, and it is not positively known that they have done
so in any case, but their essential identity is extremely probable.
In the fact that they have come to have individual orbits about the
sun, and that these orbits are parallel to one another, and that their
velocities a;re of the same order, they do not represent the typical
meteoritic condition as heretofore defined. They illustrate rather
the planetesimal mode of organization.

The foregoing hypothesis of the origin of meteorites makes them
but an incidental result of stellar and planetary action. If this be
-correct, their genesis is wholly a secondary matter, and furnishes no
ground for regarding meteorites as the parent material of great
nebulae or of stellar systems. The quantity of matter dispersed in
this way is, by the terms of the hypothesis, limited to an extremely
small part of the total mass of the systems from which it is derived.
This scattered matter is presumed to be picked up individually by all
the larger bodies, as is being done daily by the earth, and the main-
tenance of the supply only requires the disruption of .small bodies to
an extent equal to the trivial masses gathered in by the existing suns

208 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

and planets. The exceedingly small amount of meteoritic material
picked up by the earth seems to be consistent with this interpretation.
In conclusion, it may be remarked that, so far as my studies have
gone, the meteoritic condition seems most probably to be an inci-
dental result of cosmic mechanics of trivial importance, and to be a
source of merely incidental accretion to existing bodies. Meteoritic
aggregation of the type defined does not seem to represent a great
generative method whereby stellar systems are evolved. On the
contrary, the meteoritic condition seems to be inherently moribund,
passing into the gaseous state on the one hand, or into the planet -
esimal on the other, or, in the absence of assemblage, losing its
constituents to existing suns and planets by capture one by one.

A much larger portion of my study during the past year has been
devoted to a development of the planetesimal hypothesis into greater
precision and detail, to the applying of such tests as I could devise,
and to the working out of its concrete relations to the man}' geolog-
ical problems whose solution is vitally dependent on the mode of the
earth's origin. From the geological point of view the ultimate test
of this hypothesis and of all other hypotheses of the earth's origin lies
in their working qualities. As a complete statement of the planet-
esimal hypothesis has not yet appeared in print, it will doubtless be
best that I should outline with some detail the form the hypothesis
has assumed as the result of the work upon it, particularly as this
will best indicate the work that has been done.

Under the typical form of the planetesimal hypothesis it is assumed
that the parent nebula of the solar system consisted of innumerable
small bodies, planetesimals, revolving about a central gaseous mass,
somewhat as do the planets to-day. The hypothesis, therefore, postu-
lates no fundamental change in the sj^stem of dynamics after the
nebula was once formed, but only an as.semblage of the scattered
material. The state of dispersion of the material at the outset and
throughout, as now, was maintained by orbital revolutiofi, or, more
closely speaking, by the tangential component of the energy of rev-
olution. The planetesimal hypothesis by no means excludes gases
from playing a part in the parent nebula or in its evolution, any
more than it denies their presence in the sun or the atmosphere
to-day, but it assigns to gaseous action a subordinate place in the
evolution of the planetary system after the planetesimal condition
had become established.

An inquiry into the possible modes by which the planetesimal

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 20g

condition might arise revealed several possible methods. Such con-
dition might arise from a nebula that was originally gaseous. If,
for example, it be supposed that the parent nebula was a gaseous
spheroid, and that it detached material from its equatorial belt mole-
cule by molecule, rather than by rings, as postulated by Laplace,
these molecules would probably become planetesimals instead of
members of a true gaseous body. It is not the thought that these
molecules would be thrown off directly into planetesimal orbits, be-
cause their initial paths would probably be ellipses that would bring
them back to the point of departure ; but that, by certain classes of
collisions while in these elliptical orbits, they would be diverted into
orbits that would not bring them again into collision with the parent
spheroid. There is reason to believe that this method would really
be almost the only systematic one by which a gaseous spheroid of
the Laplacian type would detach material from its equatorial belt.

But if this be not true, and if an earth-moon gaseous ring were
formed, as assumed in the Laplacian hypothesis, computation shows
that its attractive power at any one point on its surface would be
very low. If the present earth were converted into a solid ring,
occupying its present orbit, it would have a diameter of about 25 miles
with its present average density. Computation is scarcely necessary
to show that the gravity of this ring at any point on its surface
would be very feeble, and it is obvious that this gravity must be
greater than the gravity on the surface of the same matter if it were
dispersed by intense heat into the form of a gaseous ring. The
application of the kinetic theory of gases to such a ring, under the
postulated temperature, forces the conviction that the molecules
would have been so driven apart by mutual collision and rebound
that they would have become essentially independent of one another,
each revolving in its individual orbit, with only rare and incidental
collisions. In other words, they would have become planetesimals
controlled by the central mass and not a gaseous aggregate con-
trolled by its own gravity. They would, therefore, not have been
concentrated by direct attraction on the principles controlling a
cooling gaseous body, but would have been subject to accretion one
by one in the modes presently to be described.

Under certain circumstances meteorites might be assembled in such
a way that they would come to revolve in concentric orbits about
their common center of gravity, as previously indicated, and thus
assume a quasi-planetesimal condition in contradistinction to that of
a quasi-gaseous swarm of meteorites, in which each is habitually

2IO CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

drawn toward the center, collides, and rebounds after the fashion
of gaseous molecules, as conceived by Lockyer and Darwin. The
meteoroids that are formed by the dispersion of a comet, such as
constitute the belts that give rise to the August and November me-
teoritic showers, are probably in the planetesimal rather than the
collision- rebound condition, and are becoming more and more
scattered and individuall}' independent as time goes on.

As the basis for developing the typical form of the planetesimal
hypothesis, I have assumed that the parent nebula had a plan-
etesimal organization from the outset. The conception is a rather
radical departure from the gaseous conception of the familiar neb-
ular hypothesis, and from the meteoritic conception of L,ockyer and
Darwin, so far as fundamental dynamics and mode of evolution are
concerned. To develop the hypothesis as definitely and concretely
as possible, I have further chosen a special case from among those
that might possibly arise, viz, the case in which the nebula is sup-
posed to have arisen from the dispersion of a sun as a result of close
approach to another large body. The case does not involve the
origin of a star nor even the primary origin of the solar system, but
rather its rejuvenation and the origin of a new family of planets.
The general planetesimal doctrine does not stand or fall with the
merits or demerits of this special phase of it, but to be of much
real service in stimulating and guiding investigation, a hypothesis
must be carried out into working detail so that it may be tested by
its concrete and specific application to the phenomena involved, and
hence the reason for developing a specific sub-hypothesis. This
particular sub-hypothesis was selected for first development ( i ) be-
cause it postulates as simple an event as it seems possible to assign
as the source of so great results, (2) because that event seems very
likely to have happened, (3) because the form of the nebula sup-
posed to arise in this way is the most common form known, the
spiral, and (4) because spectroscopic observ^ations seem at present
to support the constitution assigned this class of nebulse, although
it must be noted that spectroscopic observations have not reached
such a stage of development as to demonstrate the motions of the
nebular constituents. In future spectroscopic determinations Hes
one of the crucial tests which the hypothesis must yet undergo, for
there is little doubt that spectroscopic work will in time reach such
a degree of refinement as to demonstrate the motions of the con-
stituents of the spiral nebulse.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 211

Present spectroscopic data relative to the constitution of the nebulae,
considered in relation to the question in hand, reveal two general
classes of nebulae, the one characterized by bright spectral lines, the
other by a continuous spectrum.

The first are usually said to be gaseous, but this designation is
not sufficiently accurate for our present purpose. The bright lines
of the spectrum can only be affirmed to indicate that the matter of
these nebulae is in a free-molecular condition. They do not cer-
tainl}' indicate whether (i) the molecules are in the coUisional rela-
tions of gaseous molecules or (2) are scattered wideh', like meteor-
ites, so that collisions are rare and incidental, or (3) are moving on
radiant or on parallel lines, or (4) are pursuing concentric orbits,
and are thus planetesimal in dxmamic character. For the purposes
of this study, where dynamic distinctions are important, these neb-
ulae may be designated, with due reserve, simph' as free-molecular
nebulce. They often have a greenish cast from the predominance
of green lines in their spectra, and are conveniently styled green
nebulae. The bright spectral lines indicate the dominance of hydro-
gen, helium, and an otherwise unknown element or elements, pro-
visionally called nebulium. There are occasionally a few other
non-metallic elements, but metals have not been detected. Their con-
stitution, as now determined, does not, therefore, fit them for the
parentage of our earth, in which metals abound and in which hy-
drogen and helium are subordinate elements, while nebulium is
unknown. The possibilities of transmutation into suitable elements
can not, to be sure, be safely denied in these days of revolutionary
discoveries, but, on the other hand, can not very safely be made a
working basis. The class includes the " planetar}'," the " stellar,"
the " ring," and most of the irregular nebulae.

Almost identical with the spectra of these nebulae are the spectra
developed in an earlj^ phase of the declining stages of the new stars
that occasionally flash forth with sudden brilliancy and soon die
away to obscurity or extinction, continuous spectra sometimes
marking the later stages. While the origin of these "Novcs'' is
unknown, the conjecture that they are due to collision or to explo-
sion has been entertained, and this conception has also been extended
to the free-molecular class of nebulae. It is a further suggestive
fact that these early spectra of the new stars and the spectra of
green nebulae are closely similar to the spectra of the " helium
stars ' ' and the ' ' hydrogen stars, ' ' which astronomers usually place
in the first or "earliest" group in evolutionary classifications of

212 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

the Stars. There is thus much of ground, therefore, for linking
together in genetic studies these stars, the Novce and the hehum-
hydrogen-nebulium nebulae and for looking upon them provision-
ally as primitive states. If our quest were the genesis of stars, these
would seem to point the way, so far as anything does at present ;
but our quest is the genesis of the so\Q.r family of planets, in one of
which our study centers, and the genesis of our earth is not neces-
sarily and immediately connected with the genesis of stars. Nebu-
lous bodies composed of helium, hydrogen, and the hypothetical
nebulium might, for aught we dare now affirm, remotely evolve
into material of the complex terrestrial type ; but the speculation
is rather too bold for prudent use as a basal factor in a conservative
hypothesis.

The forms of the helium-hydrogeu-nebulium nebulae are scarcely
more promising for planetary evolution when their dynamical prop-
erties are considered. While observation has as j^et determined
almost nothing as to their internal movements, their forms do not
encourage the belief that they would under known laws evolve into
a system characterized by the peculiar distribution of mass and
momentum which the solar system presents. For the present,
therefore, these nebulae have been passed by in the search for the
immediate genesis of the earth.

The other class of nebulae give continuous spectra and are con-
veniently styled white nebulae. The continuous spectrum is inter-
preted to mean that their chief luminous material is in a liquid or
solid state, or, perhaps better, that the molecules are in an aggregated
state, in distinction from the free state of the previous class. As the
liquid condition is limited to a rather narrow range of temperature,
and as this range is very different for different material, it is improb-
able that any large portion of a nebula is in this state, and the whole
may be conveniently treated as though it were formed of solid mat-
ter, but matter in a finely divided condition. This last qualification
seems necessary, for the volume of the.se nebulae is often very great.
and yet they appear to intercept but little light and give no signs of
great attractive power.

The prevailing form of these nebulae is the spiral, as determined by
the late Professor Keeler, and this form particularly characterizes
the smaller nebulae recently brought to knowledge by improved in-
struments and manipulative skill. These newly discovered nebulae
are estimated to number at least ten times the whole number previ-

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 213

ously known. From the superior number of spiral nebulae it is a
safe inference that their peculiar forms represent some prevalent
process in celestial dynamics. This is in itself a reason why re-
search should turn to them, by preference, for the origin of the
present solar system.*

Nothing is yet positively known of the motions of the parts of these
spirals, for time enough has not yet elapsed since they were first
sharply photographed to permit the requisite comparisons. Infer-
ences from their remarkable forms are the only present resource.
To me these peculiar forms seem to imply that the spirals sprang
from a combined outzvard and rotatory ^novement. The outward move-
ment may no longer exist, as it may have been already checked by
the gravity of the central mass, and the rotatory motion be the dom-
inant one at present, but their forms seem still to bear the impress
of an outward movement. If the outward movement has ceased, or
when it ceases, the rotatory movement must tend to wrap the spiral
up more and more closely and symmetrically, because the revolutions
of the inner parts must be more rapid than those of the outer parts.
By this it is not meant that the matter of the nebulae is necessarily
drawn nearer the center of the system, but merely that the arms are
stretched and more closely coiled. The forms that seem to be the
more mature appear to betray this, for their inner parts are coiled
more closely and symmetrically than their outer parts. In the

* The profoundly lamented death of Professor Keeler, just as he was beginning
to reap the rich fruits of his skill and patience in nebular investigations, gives
historical value to his latest statement of results, published about two months
before his death.

" I. Many thousands of unrecorded nebulae exist in the sky. A conservative
estimate places the number within reach of the Crossley reflector at about
120,000. The number of nebulse in our catalogues is but a small fraction of this.

' ' 2. These nebulae exhibit all gradations of apparent size from the great nebula
in Andrcnneda down to an object which is hardly distinguishable from a faint
star disk.

" 3. Most of these nebulae have a spiral structure. * * *

" While I must leave to others an estimate of the importance of these conclu-
sions, it seems to me that they have a very direct bearing on many, if not all,
questions concerning the cosmogony. If, for example, the spiral is the form
normally assumed b}^ a contracting nebulous mass, the idea at once suggests
itself that the solar sj'stem has been evolved from a spiral nebula, while the pho-
tographs show that the spiral nebula is not, as a rule, characterized by the sim-
plicity attributed to the contracting mass in the nebular hypothesis. This is a
question which has already been taken up by Professor Chamberlin and Mr.
Moulton of the University of Chicago. ' ' Astrophys. Jour. , June, 1900, pp. 347-348.

214 CARNEGIK INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

remarkable nebula in Canes Venatici there are curved streamers, like
the tails of comets, stretching outward from some of the knots in the
arms. If these are indeed streamers driven outward from the knots
and curved by motion, as in the case of comets' tails, they testify
very definitely to a rotatory movement.

A notable and seemingly very significant feature of these nebulae
is the presence of hvo domiyiayit arvis that arise from diametrically
opposite sides of the nucleus and curve concentrically away. No
single-arm spiral of the watchspring type has been found, so far
as I am aware. There are often more than two arms in the outer
part, and there is much irregularly dispersed matter, but even in the
more scattered forms the dominance of two arms is discernible.

A second feature of note is the presence of numerous nebulous
hiots or partial concentrations on the arms and more or less outside
them. So, also, the more diffuse nebulous matter is unequally dis-
tributed, and in some of the forms, regarded as youngest, dark spots
and lines emphasize the irregularity.

All these features go to show that these forms are controlled, not
by the support of part on part, as in a continuous body or in a mass
of gas or even in a definite swarm of quasi-gaseous meteorites, but
by some system of combined kinetic energy and gravity which ^^r-
mits indepejidence of parts. It is, therefore, conceived that the in-
numerable solid or liquid particles which the continuous spectrum
implies revolve about the common center of gravity as though they
were planetoidal bodies. If this were certainly known to be the
case, these might well be called planctesimal nebulce.

It is clear from the tenuity of these nebulae, as seen from the side
of the spiral, that they are disk-like, and this is directly shown to be
so when they are seen obliquel3\ In their disk-like shape, these
nebula conform to the mode of distribution of matter in the solar
system. Within the area of their disks also, the distribution is
irregular, as it is in the solar system — a fact too much overlooked
by reason of our predilection for symmetry, under the influence of
the symmetrical Laplacian conception.

All of the more familiar spiral nebulae have dimensions that vastly
transcend those of the solar system, and they can not be taken as
precise examples of the solar evolution. Because of these vast
dimensions and of the probable feebleness of control of the central
mass, which often appears to be itself quite tenuous, a rapid motion
can not well be assigned to the arms. Seen from the immense

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 215

distances at which these nebulae seem to be placed — no parallax hav-
ing been as yet detected — changes of position must necessarily be
slow in revealing themselves to observation. It is to be hoped,
however, that the present rapid progress in the perfection of instru-
ments and of skill will soon bring within the reach of successful
study some of the smaller spiral nebulae that represent the solar
system more nearly in mass and proportions.

With this much of knowledge and of limitation of knowledge rela-
tive to existing nebulae, the construction of a working hypothesis
required not a little resort to supplementary deductive and hypo-
thetical considerations. The inference that a spiral nebula is formed
by a combined outward and rotatory movement implies a preexist-
ing body that embraced the whole mass. In harmony with this, an
ancestral solar system has been postulated — a system perhaps in
no very essential respect different from the present one. My
hypothesis does not, therefore, concern itself with the primary
origin of the sun or of the stars, or w^ith the ulterior questions of
cosmic evolution. It confines itself to a supposed episode of the
sun's history in which the present family of planets had its origin,
and in the initiation of which a possible previous family may have
been dispersed, but no affirmation is made relative to this. With
some partiality, perhaps, this episode may be regarded as geologic,
since it specially concerns the birth of the planet of which alone we
have intimate knowledge.

To this conception of an ancestral sun with an undefined ante-
cedent history as a star, question will arise at once as to a sufii-
ciency of energy for the sun's maintenance through such a prolonged
history. It has been strongly urged during the past half-century by
very eminent physicists that the resources of energy assignable for
the maintenance of the sun's heat and light could, at best, be barely
sufl&cient for the geological and biological demands of the earth's
known history, even when these are most conservatively estimated;
how much less then can the)' be sufficient for an antecedent history
of unknown duration. This objection is based on the assumption
that the sun's heat and light are derived almost zuholly from self-
compression, as urged by Helmholtz. This self-compression has
usually been computed on the basis of certain limiting assumptions,
the validity of which is open to question.

That self-compression is a potent source of heat is not doubted,
but the Helmholtzian theory takes no account of sub-molecular and
sub-atomatic sources of energy. The transcendent potency of these

2l6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

sources of energy has been some time suspected,* and is now being
revealed by refined physical research. The extraordinary energies
displayed by radio-active substances are doubtless but an initial
demonstration of immeasurable energies resident in other forms of
matter and in the constitution of the sidereal system and competent
for its maintenance for unassignable periods. It does not appear,
therefore, in the light of recent revelations in ph5'sics or recent dis-
coveries in the constitution of the stars and the stellar systems, that
there is any suflScient reason for setting narow limits to the life of
the sun. It seems more in accord with recent advances in knowl-
edge to place the compressional theory of the sun's heat in the cate-
gory of the earlier chemical and meteoritic theories as true and
contributory, but as only partial and inadequate.

There seem to be no sufficient grounds, therefore, for hesitating
to postulate an ancestral solar system, the center of which was the
parent of the present sun. This involves the further quite reason-
able assumption that the sidereal system has had a very prolonged
history, and that the ancestral sun played its own part in it as the
solar sj-stem does now.

* I wrote in 1899, before experimental demonstration had been reached :
" Without questioning its correctness, is it safe to assume that the Helmholtzian
hypothesis of the heat of the sun is a complete theory ? Is present knowledge
relative to the behavior of matter under such extraordinary conditions as obtain
in the interior of the sun sufficiently exhaustive to warrant the assertion that
no unrecognized sources of heat reside there ? What the internal constitution
of the atoms may be is 3'et an open question. It is not improbable that they
are complex organizations and the seats of enormous energies. Certainly no
careful chemist would affirm either that the atoms are really elementary, or
that there may not be locked up in them energies of the first order of magni-
tude. No cautious chemist would probably venture to assert that the compo-
nent atomecules, to use a convenient phrase, may not have energies of rotation,
revolution, position, and be otherwise comparable in kind and proportion to
those of a planetary system. Nor would he probably feel prepared to affirm or
deny that the extraordinary conditions which reside in the center of the sun may
not set free a portion of this energy. The Helmholtzian theory takes no cog-
nizance of latent and occluded energies of an atomic or ultra-atomic nature.
A ton of ice and a ton of water at a like distance from the center of the system
are accounted equivalents, though they differ notably in the total sum of their
energies. The familiar latent and chemical energies are, to be sure, negligible
quantities compared with the enormous resources that reside in gravitation.
But is it quite safe to assume that this is true of the unknown energies wrapped
up in the internal constitution of the atoms ? .\re we quite sure we have yet
probed the bottom of the sources of energy and are able to measure even roughly
its sum total ? ' ' (On Lord Kelvin's Address on the Age of the Earth as an Abode
Fitted for Life, Science, vol. IX, June 30, and vol. X, July 7, 1899.)

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 217

With IOC, 000, 000 or more known suns and an unknown number
of dark bodies moving in various directions with various velocities,
the possibility of collision is well recognized ; but, owing to the
vastness of the intervening spaces, the contingencies of collision for
an individual sun are small. However, no appeal is here made to
collisions as a source of the parent nebula of the solar system, but
only to an approach of the ancestral sun to another large body, and
this approach is not assumed to have been very close. This rather
distant approach is a contingencj- that may fairly be assumed as
likely to have been realized in fact. I have elsewhere discussed the
general effects of the close approach of celestial bodies* to one an-
other, but the particular case of the supposed ancestral sun requires
special consideration.

Our present sun shoots out protuberances to heights of many
thousands of miles, at velocities ranging up to 300 miles per second
and more. If it were not for the retarding influence of the im-
mense solar atmosphere, some of these outshoots would doubtless
project portions of themselves to the outer limits of the present sys-
tem, and perhaps in some cases quite beyond it, for the observed
velocities sometimes closely approach the controlling limit of the
sun's gravity, if they do not actually reach it. The expansive
potency of this prodigious elasticity is held in restraint by the
equally prodigious power of the sun's gravity. If with these potent
forces thus nearly balanced the sun closely approaches another sun
or body of like magnitude — suppose one several times the mass of
the sun, since it is regarded as a small star — the gravity which re-
strains this enormous elastic power will be relieved along the line of
mutual attraction, on the principle made familiar in the tides. At
the same time the pressure transverse to this line of relief is in-
creased. Such localized relief and intensification of pressure must,
it is believed, result in protuberances of exceptional mass and high
velocity. According to the well-known tidal principle, these ex-
ceptional protuberances would rise from opposite sides, and herein
lies the assigned explanation of the prevalence of two diametrically
opposite arms in the spiral nebulae.

Nothing remotely approaching a general dispersion of the ances-
tral sun seems to be required . The present planets and their satellites

* On the Possible Function of Disruptive Approach in the Formation of Me-
teorites, Comets, and Nebulae. Astrophys. Jour., vol. XIV, No. i, July, 1901,
pp. 17-40; Jour. Geol., vol. IX, No. 5, July-Aug., 1901, pp. 369-393.

2l8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

altogether amount to about one seven-hundredth part of the mass
of the S5'stem. Simply to supply the required planetary matter, the
protuberances need include but this small fraction of the ancestral
sun. However, some considerable part of the projected matter
must probably have been gathered back into the sun, and some part
ma3^ possibl}' have been projected beyond the control of the system.
Making allowances for both the.se factors, the proportion of the
sun's mass necessarily involved in the protuberances is still very small.
Apparently i or 2 per cent of the sun's mass would amply suffice.

The protuberances, by hypothesis, would be thrust out as the sun
was swinging about its temporary companion star in a sharp curve,
and necessaril}^ at a prodigious velocity. It is inferred that the pro-
jected protuberances would be differentially affected by the attraction
of the companion star, and take different curv^es about it, out of
which must spring rotatory motion. This seems logicall}' clear, but
the precise paths pursued b}- the parts of the protuberances would
apparently vary wideh' with different cases. As each case consti-
tutes an involved example of the problem of three bodies, the whole
is beyond rigorous mathematical treatment, but special solutions seem
to justify the inference that effective rotation would arise.

The distal portions of the protuberances would obviously be formed
from the superficial portions of the sun, while the later portions of
the ejections forming the proximal parts of the arms would doubtless
come mainly from lower depths, and hence probably contain more
molecules of high specific gravity. In this seems to lie a better
basis for explaining the extraordinar)- lightness of the outer planets
and the high specific gravities of the inner ones, than in the separa-
tion, from the extreme equatorial surface of a gaseous spheroid, of
successive rings whose total mass only equaled one seven-hundredth
part of the original nebula.

It seems consistent with the conditions of the case to assume that
the protuberances would consist of a succes.sion of more or less irreg-
ular outbursts, as the ancestral sun in its swift whirl around the
controlling star was more and more affected by the latter' s differen-
tial attraction ; and hence the protuberances would be directed in
somewhat changing courses, and would be pulsatorj^ in character,
resulting in rather irregular and somewhat divided arms, and in a
knotty distribution of the ejected matter along the arms. These
knots must probably be more or less rotatory from inequalities of
projection.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 219

It is thus conceived that a spiral nebula, having two dominant
arms, opposite one another, each knotty from irregular pulsations,
and rotatory, the knots probably also rotatory, and attended by sub-
ordinate knots and whirls, together with a general scattering of the
larger part of the mass in irregular nebulous form, would arise
from the simple event of a disruptive approach.

The ejected matter, at the outset, must have been in the free
molecular state, since by the terms of the hypothesis it arose from
a gaseous body ; but the vast dispersion and the enormous surface
exposed to radiation doubtless quickly reduced the more refractory
portions to the liquid and solid state, attended by some degree of
aggregation into small accretions ; hence the continuous spectrum
which this class of nebulae present.

The problem of the luminescence of nebulae is confessedly a puz-
zling one. There is little ground for assigning general incandes-
cence to matter so obviously scattered and tenuous and possessed of
such an enormous radiating surface. The assignment of the light
to the collision of meteorites, as done by Lockyer, encounters both
dynamic and spectroscopic difficulties. The recent discoveries of
the luminescent properties of radio-active matter and of its power
to awaken luminescence in other matter offers some hope of a solu-
tion. The fact that these properties are not necessarily dependent
on heat greatly relieves the stress of the problem. Whatever of
radio-active material there might be in the matter dispersed into
nebulous form would by such dispers'ion be set free for action, and
whatever other matter was subject to its excitation would also be
set free to receive the excitating influence.

The solution of the problem may, however, lie along electrical
lines. At present it seems more probable that the luminescence
arises from some agency that acts at low temperatures, than that it
is dependent on heat, and hence objections to a planetesimal organi-
zation on the ground of low temperature do not seem to me to have
much force.

As previously remarked, the verity of this particular mode of
origin of spiral nebulae is not essential to the acceptance of the
planetesimal hypothesis. It is merely necessary that two simple
assumptions should hold good, viz, (i) that the nebular matter
of the spiral be in a finely divided solid or liquid condition, as the
continuous spectrum implies, and (2) that the particles of this
scattered material revolve in elliptical orbits about the central mass.

In attempting to follow the probable evolution of such a spiral

220 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

nebula, three elements stand out conspicuously: (i) The central
mass, obviously to become the sun ; (2) the knots on the arms that
are assumed to be the nuclei of the future planets and perhaps
satellites ; and (3) the diffuse nebulous matter to be added to the
nuclei as material of growth. In the particular case of the solar
nebula it is assumed ( i ) that the central mass was relatively very
great ; (2) that the knots were very irregular in size and placed at
irregular distances from the center; and (3) that the nebulous portion
was very small relative to the central mass and probably large rela-
tive to the knots.

It is assumed that the masses of matter in the knots were suffi-
ciently large to hold themselves together in spite of the differential
attraction of the central mass, otherwise they would soon have been
scattered. They seem to have maintained themselves successfully
in existing nebulse that appear to have undergone some notable
degree of evolution.

On the other hand, it is presumed that the mutual attraction of
the more tenuous nebular matter was insufficient to aggregate itself
directly in the presence of the central attraction, for in the existing
nebulae this portion seems to show a progressive tendency to a more
general diffusion. The planetesimals of the diffused nebulous portion
are assumed to be controlled essentially b}^ the gravitation of the
main mass and to revolve in individual orbits about it.

The irregularity of the forms of the knots seems to imply that their
organization is also planetesimal, though the larger ones may be able
to hold gases also. The direction of revolution of these knots is sup-
posed to be usually the same as that of the rotation of the nebula as
a whole, but subject to local and special influences that might lead
to important variations.

While the knots of the solar nebula are regarded as the nuclei
about which gathered the planetesimals to form the future planets,
all such nuclei did not necessarily retain their independence and grow
to planets, though no planet probably developed except from such a
nucleus. Existing nebulae show clusters of knots and aggregates of
irregular form susceptible of development into complex planetary
systems, such as the large planets and their families of satellites.
The earth-moon system is assigned to a couplet of companion nuclei
of quite unequal sizes.

Certain studies were made to determine the probable amount of
growth of the planets, as this possesses much geological interest.
Two considerations bear upon the size of the original nuclei.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 221

1 . There is a certain necessary limitation to the size of tenuous
bodies in the presence of more massive bodies. The principle in-
volved is one of vital importance in the study of planetary evolu-
tion. Within the field of the effective attraction of a dominant body
like the sun, or the ancestral nebular center, small bodies exercise
differential gravitative control over a limited sphere only, known
technically as the " sphere of activity." This sphere for the earth,
with its present mass, reaches out about 620,000 miles.* If the
earth has grown at all its primitive sphere of control must have been
smaller than this. The earth nucleus could, therefore, only have
embraced such matter as lay within this limited sphere. If the
original knot could be supposed to have extended beyond this limit
the outljang portion would have been drawn away by the solar mass
into independent planetesimals, and must have been gathered in, if it
became a part of the earth at all, by some other means than direct
attraction. The moon controls, as against the attraction of the
earth at its present distance, a sphere whose radius is about 25,000
miles, and considerably less than 25,000 miles as against the joint
attraction of the earth and sun. Its primitive nucleus, if it has
grown at all, was confined to smaller dimensions. Attenuated nuclei
of indefinite size can not, therefore, be supposed to maintain them-
selves permanently in the fields of attraction dominated by larger
bodies. Bodies of gas, subject to the dispersive effects of their own
molecular velocities, in addition to the competitive attractions of
the dominant bodies, have still narrower limits, and, below a certain
mass, are inevitably dispersed. In such a system as ours gases
must, for the most part, either join themselves to the dominant
bodies or be scattered into molecular planetesimals. None of the
smaller knots of the solar nebula could probably have been gaseous
in any large measure. Gases were probably attached to and oc-
cluded in the aggregated or solid planetesimals, and may have
been held in a free gaseous state in the interiors of the larger nuclei.
The sun is, of course, presumed to have been gaseous throughout
the evolution.

2. Quite a definite indication of the size of the nuclei of the planets
may perhaps be deduced from the very remarkable fact that Phobos,
the inner satellite of Mars, revolves around the planet in less than
o7ic-ihirdoi the time of the planet's rotation, and from the analogous
fact that the little bodies which make up the inner part of the inner

* "The Spheres of Activity of the Planets," by F. R. Moulton, Pop. Astron.,
No. 66, p. 4.

222 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

ring of Saturn revolve about that planet in a little more than one-half
the time of the planet's rotation.* These are exceedingly trouble-
some facts from the viewpoint of the Laplacian hypothesis, for
under it the contraction of these planets, after they had shed their '
secondaries, should have greatly accelerated their rotations, and these
should have become much shorter than the revolutions of the sec-
ondaries. Before Moulton's citation of the second case an attempt
was made to explain the case of Phobos by a supposed tidal retarda-
tion of the planet's rotation, but the Saturnian case appears to render
this explanation incompetent. f

Under the hypothesis of growth from a nucleus by the addition of
planetesimals, the rotations of the planets were dependent largely on
the special phases of the impacts of the infalling planetesimals, and
no necessary relations between the rotation of a planet and the revo-
lution of its satellite are assignable. But if this be neglected, and
the rotation-period of the planetary nucleus be assumed to have been
originally the same as the revolution-period of the satellite's nucleus,
the growth of the mass of the planet must have drawn the satellite
nearer to itself and shortened the time of its revolution. If the
whole of the periodic difference between Mars and Phobos be due to
this cause, the growth of the nucleus of Mars is deducible from it.
Under this view the matter of the rings of Saturn may have been
satellite nuclei at the outset, and have been drawn within the Roche
limit by the growth of Saturn, and then disintegrated by tidal action
and distributed into the ring form. All other satellites should,
under this view, have been drawn toward their primaries during
the growth of the latter, and this may be a not unimportant factor
in their evolutionary history.

The concurrent bearings of these two considerations are quite in
harmony with what might be gathered independently from a com-
parison of the apparent amounts of matter in the nebular knots with
the amounts in the nebular haze in existing nebulae. It was there-
fore assumed in my further study that the nuclei con.stituted only a
small portion of the mass of the grown planets. The fraction was
probably larger proportionally for the small planets than for the
large planets, for the power of growth probably rose with increased
mass in geometrical ratio. In the case of the asteroids and satellites
the growth may not have been large.

* For a discussion of these phenomena, see "An Attempt to Test the Nebular
Hypothesis by an Appeal to the Laws of Mechanics," F. R. Moulton, Astrophys.
Jour., 1900, p. 109.

t See Moulton's discussion, loc. cit., pp 109-110.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 223

In postulating a mode of growth I have departed radically from
the older hypotheses and assigned the gathering of the planetesimals
into the nuclei to conjunctions in the course of their orbital move-
ments— not simply or chiefly to the attraction of the nuclei. The
nature of the original motions of the planetesimals is therefore a
point of vital importance.

I have assumed that the combined outward and rotatory motions to
which the formation of the nebula is assigned gave to each individual
planetesimal an elliptical orbit about the common center, while their
distribution was such as to give a spiral form to the whole. In this
I have departed from the common assumption that the arms of the
nebulae marked the courses of the individual constituents.

If the outward and the tangential impulses had been duly bal-
anced, it is believed that circular orbits must have resulted ; but
neither theory nor observation make it probable that this was often
the case. The inevitable inequalities of the two components should
give ellipses varying in eccentricity with every variation in their
relations. As, however, both the outward and the rotatorj^ com-
ponents sprang from the same source — the gravitative disturbance
induced by the approach to a massive star — there is reason to think
that they would be measurably subequal, and that the resulting
eccentricities, though large, would not be excessive. This view is
in accord with the forms of the spiral nebulce. These do not pre-
sent spirally symmetrical configurations of the strictly circuloid
type, but broadly elliptical ones, with irregular elements. The de-
velopment of the present almost circular configuration of the solar
system out of such a broadly elliptical, somewhat irregular, spiral
configuration involves an evolution in the direction of circularity
and symmetry in the course of the aggregation of the scattered
matter. How this might have come about I have endeavored to
determine.

In the initial stages the orbital ellipses of the nuclei and of the
innumerable planetesimals were, by reason of their common origin,
rudely concentric. They were, to be sure, more or less discordant
in form and in attitude from the effects of unequal projection, of
differential expansion of the solar matter when set free by projection,
and of the collisions of the constituent planetesimals ; but all of this
was subordinate to a general concentric arrangement of the ellip-
tical paths. Under the laws of celestial mechanics, these paths
must have been constantly modified by the different attractions of
the different portions of the nebula. The axes of the orbits must
16

224 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

have shifted, the attitudes of their orbital planes must have varied,
and their eccentricities must have been modified. It will suffice to
consider the shifting of the major axes of the orbits, technically
"the motion of the line of apsides," as that is the most vital factor
in the process of aggregation.

So long as the major axes of the orbits were essentially parallel
to one another, the bodies would remain apart and aggregation be
prevented ; but when they became shifted differentially the orbits
would be liable to touch, and conjunction be possible if the orbital
planes were appropriately related to one another.

The shifting of the lines of apsides is in constant progress in the
present system, and must of necessity take place in any such system,
as shown by the investigations in celestial mechanics. The shifting
is differential and subject to various perturbations, involving alter-
nate movement forward and backward, but the average result is an
advance* for all the planets except Venus. At present the line of
apsides of quickest revolution is that of Saturn, which completes its
circuit in 67,000 years, roundly speaking, while that of Neptune
requires 540,000 years, and that of the earth a little more than 100,000
years. t In the course of time the major axis of each orbit is thrown
athwart that of its neighbors, and whenever the longer axis of the
smaller orbit is equal to the shorter axis of the larger orbit, and the
planes of the orbits are properly related, collision is rendered con-
tingent. Actual collision is dependent, of course, upon the bodies
reaching the crossing of their paths at the same time. The planes
of the planetary orbits now lie near to one another and are presumed
always to have done so. These planes, though not necessarily the
orbits, intersect one another, and the lines of intersection are shift-
ing, so that in time all assignable intersections are realized. Under
these conditions the mechanics of such a system furnish the requisite
contingencies for collisions between the planetesimals and the nuclei
if sufficient time be granted.

The collisions of isolated planetesimals with one another may be
neglected, for it is uncertain whether the planetesimals would re-
bound from one another or would unite ; probably the former when
they were highly elastic, and the latter when inelastic ; and probably
much would also depend on their velocities and their modes of
impact; but in am^ case the result would only affect the size and
number of the planetesimals. The important consideration is the

* Celestial Mechanics, F. R. Moulton, p. 245.
t Young's General Astronomy, p. 313.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 225

impact of the isolated planetesimals upon the planetary nuclei. In
this case the usual result must apparently be the capture of the
planetesimals by the nuclei ; and with each capture the power of
further capture would be augmented.

When two bodies in concentric elliptical orbits unite, their con-
joined mass must move in an orbit that is intermediate between the
two previous orbits, and this new orbit, in all cases investigated, is
less eccentric than one of the previous orbits, and may be less eccen-
tric than both. While a rigorous mathematical demonstration that
this is universally true has not been found, it appears to be true for
all normal cases falling within the problem in hand; and if so, it
follows that the union of an indefini te number of orbits progress-
ively reduces the resulting orbit toward circularity. In application
there arises the obvious corollary that planets that have grown most
have in general lost most of their primitive eccentricity, and those
that have grown least most nearly represent the original eccen-
tricity. This has a significant application to the planets of the solar
system, as will appear later.

When the slowness of the motion of the line of apsides and the
only partial coincidence of the planes of the orbits at any one time
are duly considered, it is evident that the contingencies of collision
for the entire number of planetesimals will be spread over a pro-
tracted period, and that collisions can succeed one another rapidly
only as the immensity of the possible number insures this. Individ-
ually, the chances of collisions are remote and infrequent, but as the
numbers involved at the outset were prodigious, the impacts upon a
given nucleus in a given time may have been numerous. In the
nature of the case, the impacts must have declined in frequency after
the greater number of planetesimals had been gathered into the
nucleus.

The rate of accretion is a matter of radical geological importance ;
indeed, it is, in some measure, the most critical feature of the whole
nebular problem, for the rate of accretion determines whether the
average temperature on the surface of the growing body will be high
or low. The surface temperature is not determined by the total
heat produced by the collisions, but by the heat produced in a given
time, which, in turn, is determined by the frequency a?id force of the
collisions on a given area. If the succession of collisions on a given
square mile was not rapid enough to generate heat beyond the con-
current radiation from the square mile, a high average temperature
for the whole could not be reached, however great the sum total of

2 26 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON,

he^t generated in the course of time. It is to be noted that the
heat generated after a soHd nucleus was developed must have been
superficial and hence readily radiated awa^-. While the nuclei
remained assemblages of small bodies, perhaps gaseous in part in the
larger ones, planetesimals from without may have penetrated to the
interior and there developed heat not so readily lost. But this state
is only assignable to the earl}- stages.

A further consideration bearing upon the critical subject of tem-
perature is the manner of collision. Since all the planetesimals and
planetar}^ nuclei were revolving in the same directio7i about the solar
mass, the collisions were all overtakes, and could have been violent
only to the extent of their differences of orbital velocity, modified
by their mutual attractions. These velocities are of a much lower
order than the average velocities of meteoritic collisions. Many of
the overtakes would obviously be due to differences of velocity barely
sufficient to bring about an overtake. When the relative mildness of
impact is considered in connection with the intervals between impacts
at a given spot, the conviction can scarcely be avoided that the surface
temperature would not necessarily have been high. It seems probable
that it would have been moderate throughout most of the period of
aggregation, and certainly so in the declining stages of infall.

The development of the hypothesis has now reached a point where
it can be tested. It happens to be a point where all hj-potheses of
this class have been supposed to be fatally at fault. The crucial
feature lies in the direction of rotation which would result from the
gathering in of matter in this way. At the same time, the bearing
of the discussion broadens, for this vital question of direction of
rotation attaches to all forms of aggregation of independent bodies
moving in orbits about the common center of a system. For example,
if the evolution of the solar system be supposed to start with a gaseous
spheroid of the Laplacian type, and to proceed in the manner postu-
lated by Laplace until the planetar}' rings were formed, and if then
the velocities of the molecules resulting from mutual impact carried
them beyond the gravitative control of the rings, so that they were
scattered and revolved independently around the central mass, the
hypothesis of their aggregation would be as much subject to the test
of rotation as the special hypothesis now under consideration. So,
too, if iiistead of forming definite rings, the molecules were separated
from the supposed gaseous spheroid, one by one, as seems more
probable than separation by rings, their aggregation would be

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLKMS OF GEOLOGY. 227

equally open to the supposedly fatal weakness. So indeed is the
concentration of any kind of an assemblage of discrete matter in
which the individual molecules or aggregates revolve independently.

The supposed fatal difficulty is as follows: In a ring revolving as
a unit, as the Laplacian rings are supposed to have done, the outer
part moves faster than the inner part, and so, if a planetary ring
breaks at its weakest point and gathers into a globe about the center
of its cross-section, it will xoX.2X^ forward. If, on the other hand,
the particles of the ring revolve indepe^idently ^ the inner ones must
move faster than the outer ones, and if they collect about the middle
part, it has been held that the rotation must be retrograde. "^^

By w^ay of exception, to meet the singular cases of Uranus and
Neptune, it has been suggested that if the matter of the planetary
rings, revolving as units, happened to collect about some point other
than the center of the cross-section, the foregoing conclusions would
not hold ; but if the matter were drawn together by gravity simply,
as usually supposed under the Laplacian hypothesis, it is not evident
why it should not collect about the middle part.

Now, as a matter of fact, the six inner planets and their satellites
rotate forward. The satellites of Uranus revolve backward in a
plane inclined 82.2° to the ecliptic; those of Neptune also revolve
backward in a plane inclined 34.5° to the ecliptic. The rotations of
the planets themselves have not been determined. These exceptional
inclinations and rotations have been interpreted as very oblique or
partially overturned rotations. Accepting the foregoing premises, the
prevalence of direct rotation has been regarded as strongly confirma-
tory of an origin from gaseous rings rotating as units, and as strongly
adverse to accretion from bodies revolving independently. The force
of this line of reasoning has apparently been felt to be so strong as to
be essentially fatal to the latter conception. It therefore requires
critical consideration.

The reasoning is good for the special case cited, that of a symmet-
rical ring of perfectly circular form, in which the inner bodies in
uniting with the outer ones are supposed to strike their inner sides.
To bring about this delicate adjustment systematically, the orbits
must remain clo.sely concentric and the inner ones must be enlarged,
or the outer ones be reduced so that the}' will approach concentrically
to within the sum of the semi-diameters of the bodies to be united.
If planetesimals were arranged in strictly circular concentric orbits,

* For ampler statements of this difficulty, see Faye, Sur I'Origiue du Monde,
pp. 165, 270-281, 1S96 ; also Young's General Astronomy, pp. 518-520.

228 CARNKGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

and were separated from one another at the distances the case re-
quires, the mechanics by which thej^ could be brought into this spe-
cial mode of collision consecutively is not evident and has not been
explicitly pointed out. It is certain that their union into a spheroid
would not be by any means the simple, direct, and rapid process
usually assumed.* On consideration it will be seen that the postu-
lated case is a very special and quite artificial one, for all the present
planetary orbits are elliptical and are by no means strictly concentric.

It becomes evident, on studious consideration, that in any case
which could probably arise from any actual antecedents; the planet-
esimals rmist have had elliptical orbits ; for even if they arose from a
gaseous ring of the Laplacian type the rebounds of the molecules as
they collided and separated must have given ri.se to non-concentric
elliptical orbits. Even in this case the measure of the eccentricities
must probably have been many million times the sum of the semi-
diameters of the particles. In the ca.se of planetesimals derived
from a .spiral nebula, the orbits are necessarily assigned very notable
eccentricities. In all these cases the most available mode of aggre-
gation, if not the sole practicable one, lies in ike crossing of the orbits
brought about by the constant shifting of their major axes, as already
set forth.

Now, a planetesimal in a .smaller elliptical orbit can come into con-
tact with a planetary nucleus in a larger orbit 07ily when a more or
less aphelion portion of it s orbit coincides with a more or less peri-
helion portion of the larger orbit of the nucleus, and a planetesimal
in a larger orbit can come into contact with a planetary nucleus in a
smaller orbit only when a more or less perihelion portion of its orbit
coincides with a more or less aphelion portion of the nucleus' orbit.

Now, the vital point lies in the fact that at the point of collisio7i
the body in the smaller orbit is moving slozver than the one in the
larger orbit, though on the average it moves the fa.ster.

If the body in the outer orbit were always to strike the outside of
the body in the inner orbit, the impact would contribute to forward
rotation ; but the orbits may cross one another, and the body in the
inner orbit may have pas.sed the cro.s.sing before it is overtaken by
the body in the outer orbit, and so the inertia of the overtaken body
may be felt on the outer side of the nucleus and tend to produce ret-
rograde rotation. It is, therefore, necessary to take account of two

* This has been discus-sed mathematically by F. R. Moulton : An Attempt to
Test the Nebular Hypothesis by an Appeal to the Laws of Dynamics. Astrophys.
Jour., Vol. XI, pp. 115-126, 1900.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 229

opposite classes of effects and to estimate the residual influence of all
probable collisions. It will be seen at once that this residual influ-
ence must be far less in magnitude than the sum of the forces of all
impacts, for the opposing classes neutralize one another, and hence
the resulting rotation is likel)' to be relatively low, though the total
force of impact be great. It is further evident that the result might
have varied considerably in the different planets, and this is in con-
cordance with the varying rotations actualh^ presented by the several
planets.

It is still further obvious, on inspection, that the greatest differ-
ences of velocit)^, and hence the greatest rotatory effects, must occur
in the extreme or limiting cases of collision that occur at the perihe-
lion and aphelion points of the nucleus' orbit ; for, where the orbits
have more nearly the same dimensions and the crossings are at points
intermediate between these extremes, the differences of velocity are
less and the rotatory effects less, whatever their phases.

By graphical inspection of all probable cases, it may be seen that
the possibilities of overtake favorable to forward rotation exceed
those favorable to retrograde rotation. This holds true on the as-
sumption of an equable distribution of planetesimals, which may
fairly be assumed as an average fact, but not necessarily as always
the fact ; and hence the conclusion is not rigorous, and a backward
rotation is not impossible. From the nature of the case, a varying
rotation for the several planets is more probable than a nearly
uniform one.

It is also obvious that the impacts on the right and left sides of a
growing nucleus, as well as those on the outer and inner sides, might
be unequal, and hence obliquity of rotation of varying kinds and
degrees might arise. As the solar system presents these variations,
the method of accretion here postulated seems to lend itself happily
to the requirements of the case.

There is a supplementary factor arising from the order in which
the co7itingency of collision arises. If a planetesimal is subject to two
equal contingencies of collision with the planetary nucleus of oppo-
site effect, it is obvious that the one which it first encounters has a
better chance of realization than the other ; for if the first is realized
the second loses its chance. Now, b}' inspection it maj^ be seen that,
in the shifting of the inner orbits, it will be possible for the plan-
etesimals to collide with the inner side of a nucleus earlier than with
the outer side, and hence forward rotation is favored. So, also, by
an examination of the orbits of the outer planetesimals a similar fact

230 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

is made obvious. Thus the order in which the possibilities of col-
lision are brought into effect favors direct rotation.

From the previous discussion it will be seen that a planetary
nucleus gathers planetesimals that have orbits both smaller and
larger than itself, and hence in effect it sweeps a space both outside
and inside its own zone. The breadth of this space is dependent
on the eccentricity of its own orbit and on the eccentricities' of the
orbits of the planetesimals it gathers in on either hand.

It is obvious that there may have been two or more nuclei orig-
inally within the same zone. If one of these was notably smaller
than the other, it might be picked up by the latter the same as if it
were a planetesimal. Two of equal size might perhaps unite, though
this would not necessarily take place. Two nuclei in nearly the
same zone must feed upon the same belt of planetesimals and must
mutually interfere with one another's growth. If there were little
difference in their masses at the outset, that one which was best
spaced out from the nuclei in neighboring zones would be likely to
become dominant by superior growth, for it would have a better
feeding-ground, so to speak. Even a nucleus that was smaller at
the outset, if well separated from large competitors might become
the dominant one by a better growth.

If there were originallj^ man}' nuclei of minor mass and if these
were much scattered, especially if the planes of their orbits were
diverse, the dominance of any one might be avoided and a scanty
growth of all result, as in the case of the asteroids.

It seems to be a sure inference that in the process of growth the
nucleus must have ivorked toward the center of the zone from which
it gathered, as a consequence of the superior feeding on the richer
side. For example, if more planetesimals were picked up on orbits
smaller than its own, its orbit must have grown smaller as a me-
chanical result of the accretion, for a new orbit, arising from the
union of two bodies, is intermediate between the two previous orbits,
and hence smaller than the larger one. If more planetesimals were
picked up on the outer side, the orbit of the nucleus must have
grown larger. The nucleus, therefore, must have worked toward
the center of the richer feeding-ground, or in average cases of equable
original distribution, toward the ground not preyed upon by other
nuclei.

The foregoing processes tended toward a selection of nuclei for
dominance and to an automatic spacing out of the successful nuclei.
This process, if our hypothesis be true, should find verification in the

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLKMS OF GEOLOGY. 23 1

actual distribution of the planets and be an explanation of it. This
distribution should correspond to the eccentricities of the nuclei,
modified by the proportions of planetesimals of larger and smaller
orbits gathered in by them. Assuming these to have been somewhat
equable, the planetary distribution should be roughly proportional to
the eccentricities of the nuclear orbits. As a basis for inspection, let
it be supposed that the collecting zone of each planet reaches half-
way to its neighbor on either hand, and let the eccentricity of the
orbit of each nucleus be such that the nucleus itself shall sweep its
whole collecting zone, which is more than the case absolutely requires.
The following are the eccentricities so derived compared with present
eccentricities :

Assigned Present

eccentricity, eccentricity.

Nucleus of Mercury o.25± 0.2

Venus 21 .006

Earth 2 .017

Mars 28 .093

Asteroids (mean) 33 .38 downward.*

Jupiter 336 .048

Saturn 366 .056

Uranus 37 -"46

Neptune 38± .009

There being no known planet outside of Neptune, the method can
only be applied to it by an arbitrary assumption regarding its outside
collecting area. It may be reasonably assumed that the nucleus of
Neptune represented the head of tlie protuberance, so to speak, and
that its accretion was essentially all on the inner side, which would
draw its orbit inward, according to the principle above stated. This
may account for its anomalous spacing out. There being no known
planet inside Mercury, the eccentricity assigned it is also in a measure
arbitrar>\

With these qualifications, it will be seen that the assigned eccen-
tricities are quite harmonious, and on the whole they indicate a
progressively- greater original eccentricity from within outward. By
comparison with the existing eccentricities it will be seen that the
assigned original ones are much the more consistent. The reason
for this, under our hypothesis, is close at hand. According to the
principle of evolution from eccentricity toward circularity, stated
above, the greater the accretion the greater the progress toward cir-
cularity. This is qualified somewhat by the perturbations which

* Mean about 0.15.

232 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WA.SHINGTON.

the planets create in one another's orbits and by the special condi-
tions of aggregation, but remains essentially true. For the large
planets that have dominated their collecting zones and presumably
swept them thoroughly, the reductions of eccentricity are subequal.
For the very small bodies that presuraabh' grew but little, the eccen-
tricities remain large, for the greater part. For example, the eccen-
tricity of Mercury, the smallest of the planets, remains more than
twice that of any other planet. Mars, the next smallest in size,
comes next in eccentricity among the planets, while the asteroids,
which probably grew but little, have high eccentricities, as a rule.
Their orbits have doubtless been not a little disturbed by the great
influence of their powerful neighbor, Jupiter, and a rigorous appli-
cation of so general a law as the one under consideration can not be
made to the details of their orbits, but the tenor of the facts is very
suggestive. The highest eccentricity, 0.38, is as high as the highest
eccentricity assigned to the original nuclei of the planets. Of the
seventy asteroids whose diameters are fairl}- well known, the half
that are larger and presumablj- have grown most have less eccentric
orbits by 13.7 per cent than the half that are smaller and presum-
ably have grown less. Of the orbital elements of 278 asteroids ex-
amined, the half having the lowest inclination to the common plane
of the sj'stem, and so best suited for accretion, have eccentricities
21.9 per cent less than those of greater inclination. The orbits of
Neptune and Venus are exceptionally circular, the former, perhaps,
on account of its outermost position and mode of accretion, as pre-
viously suggested ; the latter for reasons not obvious. Rigorously
consistent results can not be expected from such antecedents as are
postulated in a case of this kind, and the mutual perturbations of
the planets introduce variations from the average eccentricities. The
degree of consistency noted is, perhaps, to be regarded as much
more remarkable than the departures from it. If this view of the
spacing out of the planets be entertained, a rational law may be
substituted for the purely numerical fornuilation known as Bode's
law, viz, that the spacing has been derived from a fairly consistent
variation in the primitive eccentricities of the planetesimals and
nuclei of the parent nebula, in which the outer were symmetrically
greater than the inner.

It has thus been my endeavor to develop the hypothesis into suflEi-
cient detail ( i ) to furnish a large number of points of contact with
known phenomena and with recognized mechanical principles to
facilitate testing its verity by those relations, if not worn, at least in

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 233

the early progress of investigation ; (2) to furnish a basis for de-
ducing the hypothetical stages of the earth that preceded its known
history, and for drawing thence inferences as to the conditions of
the interior which the earth inherited from the mode of its birth;
and (3) to stimulate inquiry into the elements involved. In short,
I have endeavored to give the hypothesis a working form under the
conviction that so long as the complicated elements involved remain so
imperfectly determined as at present its working value is its chief value.

To bring out the geological bearings of the planetesimal hj'pothesis,
I have given considerable time to a study of the probable stages of
growth of the early earth, of the time and mode of introduction of
the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and of the initiation of the great
topographic features, together with the leading modern processes.
While it is clear that there may be a somewhat wide range of sub-
hypotheses relative to these stages as to the earlier, it was thought
best, as before, to develop a single line definitely. The line selected is
in direct sequence to that chosen for the earlier stages, so that there
should be no resting back on factors not previously introduced, and so
that the whole should be consistent. Of course, the complete scheme
contemplates the development of the alternative sub-hypotheses.

Following the postulates of the previous sketch, a nebular knot is
assumed to have been the nucleus of the growing earth. It has
not been thought important to consider at much length the special
state of organization of the material of this nucleus, since by assump-
tion it constituted but a minor part of the grown planet, and its
ultimate condition would probably be that of the dominant mass, or,
if not, would be so deeply central as to have little geologic impor-
tance. Assuming that the nuclear mass was quite small, it is inferred
that it was composed chiefly of matter of high molecular weight, since
light molecules would be liable to escape because of their velocities.
The nucleus is supposed to have been originally an assemblage of
planetesimals grouped together by their mutual gravity, and to have
passed graduall}- into a solid mass in connection with the capture of
outside planetesimals. As the planetesimals were solid aggregates
in the main, and only partially elastic, their collisions are assumed to
have destroyed their orbital motions in a certain proportion of cases and
to have led to their collection at the center. In other cases the orbital
motions were doubtless increased, but any planetesimals which were
thus temporarily driven away were subject to subsequent capture.

As the solid nucleus thus formed mav not have been massive

234 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

enough to control a gaseous envelope in its earlier stages, a possible
atmosphereless stage is to be recognized. Just how massive a plan-
etary body must be to hold permanently an appreciable atmosphere
is not accurately computable at present, because of the uncertain
value of some of the factors involved.* A fairly safe conclusion
may perhaps be drawn from known celestial bodies. The moon
(g^j- of earth's mass) has no detectable atmosphere, nor has any
smaller body, whether satellite or asteroid, so far as known. Mars
(j\^ of earth's mass) has an appreciable, but apparently quite
limited, atmosphere. The limit between atmosphereless and atmos-
phere-bearing bodies probably lies between the two — /. e. , roundly
between one-eightieth and one-tenth of the earth's mass. The mass
of Mercury, unfortunately, is not known with satisfactor>' accuracy,
because it has no satellite and offers no other ready means of determi-
nation. Values all the waj- from one twenty-sixth to one- ninth of the
earth's mass have been assigned. Mercury gives no distinct signs
of atmospheric refraction, and its reflection of light (albedo) is very
low, even lower than that of the moon, and, like that of the moon,
is relatively much stronger for surfaces normal to the line of incidence
and of vision than for those oblique to it, which is characteristic of
a rough surface. All this inaplies the aKsence of an atmosphere and
hydrosphere of sufficient value to give effective reflection of them-
selves or to develop a good reflecting body by smoothing down the
surface and filling up the pores. On the other hand, certain lines
of the planet's spectrum have been thought to imply the presence of
water- vapor ; but this is not conclusive. The probabilities seem to
be that Mercur>" has no atmosphere that is effective as a weathering
or degradational agent, which is the point of geologic interest.
This brings the limit of appreciable atmosphere much nearer Mars

* The following papers bear upon this subject : G. Johnstone Stoney : On the
Cause of the Absence of Hydrogen from the Earth's Atmosphere, and of Air
and Water from the Moon ; Poy. Dublin Soc, 1892. G. Johnstone Stoney : On
Atmospheres upon Plants and Satellites ; Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc, 2d series, 6,
1897 ; ibid., 1898, p. 305. T. C. Chamberlin : A Group of Hypotheses Bearing
on Climatic Changes ; Jour. Geol., vol. V, 1897, p. 653. G. Johnstone Stoney :
On the Presence of Helium in the Earth's Atmosphere and its Relation to the
Kinetic Theory of Gas ; Astrophys. Jour., vol. VIII. Dec, 1898, p. 316. S. R
Cook : On the Escape of Gases from Planetary Atmospheres According to the
Kinetic Theory; Astrophys. Jour., vol. XI, Jan., 1900, p. 36. G. Johnstone
Stoney : On the Escape of Gases from Planetary Atmospheres According to the
Kinetic Theory, No. I; Astrophys. Jour., vol. XI, May, 1900, p. 251 ; No. II,
idid., June, 1900, p. 325. G. Johnstone Stoney : Note on Inquiries as to the
Escape of Gases from Atmospheres ; ibid., vol. XII, Oct., 1900, p. 201.

FUNDAMENTAL' PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 235

than the moon and justifies the provisional conclusion that if the
young earth had no more than one-twentieth of its present mass it
probably possessed no atmosphere of appreciable geological efficienc}-,
but that when it had gained one-tenth of its present mass (radius
probably about 2, 100 miles) an appreciable, though relatively slight,
atmosphere surrounded it.

When the growing earth reached a mass sufficient to control the
flying molecules of atmospheric material, there were two sources from
which these could be supplied for the accumulation of an atmosphere,
an external and an internal one.

By hypothesis, all the atmospheric and hydrospheric material of
the parent nebula which was not gathered into the aggregated plan-
etesimals remained as free-molecular planetesimals. While the plan-
etary nucleus was small it probably could not gather and hold the
lighter molecules, even when they collided with it, except as this
was done by occlusion or surface tension, in which case the}' did not
form an atmosphere ; but when the growing earth reached the requi-
site mass these free atmospheric molecules were gathered about it and
retained as an atmospheric envelope. This would be a more abun-
dant source of suppl}' during the nebular stages than afterward, but
by hypothesis it continues to be a source of some supply even to the
present time, for the very doctrine that postulates the loss of such
high-speed molecules implies their presence in space, subject to
capture by bodies capable of capturing them.

In the later stages of organization, and thence down to the present
time, the molecules discharged from all the bodies of the solar system
were possible sources of atmospheric accretion. Of these the most
important were probably volcanic and similar discharges from the
small bodies that could not hold gases permanently and discharges
from the sun by virtue of the enormous explosive and radiant energies
that are there resident.

As the planetesimals were gathered into the growing earth-nucleus
they carried their occluded gases in with them, except as the super-
ficial portion might be set free by the heat of impact. There was
thus built into the growing earth atmospheric material. So, also,
while the nucleus was growing it was subjected to the bombard-
ment of free molecular planetesimals of the atmospheric substances.
In its early stages it might not be able to hold these as a free gaseous
envelope, but to a certain extent it could hold, by virtue of capillary
and subcapillary attraction, .such molecules as were driven into the

236 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

pores and other interstices of the fragmental surface arising from
the infall of the solid planetesimals.

The extent to which gases may be held condensed in small solid
bodies is shown by meteorites and igneous rocks to be large. Mete-
orites carry on the average several times their volume of condensed
gas ; so do many, probably most, igneous rocks of the earth. The
testimony of the meteorites is peculiarly significant here, for they
have traversed unknown depths of space in a practical vacuum, in
addition to the vicissitudes of their origin and the heating of their
fall. Atmospheric material is carried into the earth's body by them
today in quantities that are large relative to their masses. Their
testimony becomes the more significant if we accept the view of
their origin which makes them but the fragments of small atmos-
phereless bodies, built up precisely as the early earth was under this
hypothesis. This view makes them specific samples of the products
of the assigned process.

The atmospheric material thus condensed within the growing earth
could become a part of the atmospheric envelope only by extrusion.
The assigned modes of extrusion will be considered presently ; mean-
while it may be assumed that these internal gases were given forth
progressively and fed the atmosphere.

The contribution made by the external sources of atmospheric
material might include any constituent of the ancestral sun that
could remain free in the nebula and be picked up and held by the
earth. Some portion of the constituents of the present atmosphere
may therefore be assigned to this source. In what ratio these con-
stituents were contributed to the nebula probably depended on their
proportions in the ancestral sun, or rather their proportions in that
part of the ancestral sun that was dispersed to form the parent nebula.
Concerning this little can safely be said. Hydrogen is apparently
very abundant in the other part of the sun, but it is doubtful whether
the earth can even now hold hydrogen in a free state permanently
in any large amount. Of the proportions of the common atmospheric
constituents in the sun in a free state little is known.

The gases chiefly occluded in meteorites and the crystalline rocks
are hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide in leading
amounts, and marsh-gas and nitrogen in small quantities. It is as-
sumed that the gases of the aggregated planetesimals, and hence those
of the interior of the early earth, were of the same order of abun-
dance. There is experimental ground for believing that, at the right
temperatures and pressures, hydrogen would take oxygen from ferric

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 237

oxide (which, from the analogy of igneous rocks and meteorites,
may be presumed to have abounded in the earth material) and there-
with form water. The gases extruded from the interior should
therefore have been largely water-vapor and the carbon oxides, with
minor quantities of hydrocarbons and nitrogen. To these might be
added such chlorine, sulphur, and other temporarj^ gases as the vola-
tile ingredients of the rock material might contribute through vol-
canic action ; but these chemically vigorous constituents would
doubtless soon disappear by union with the rock material. It is
probable that carbon monoxide would pass into carbon dioxide, as
it does not now accumulate in the atmosphere, although abundantly
produced. The marsh gas also disappears in some way.

The material of internal derivation available for the atmosphere,
therefore, embraced chiefly water-vapor, carbon dioxide, and nitro-
gen. Oxygen is now given forth in some abundance bj^ volcanoes,
but it is not known whether it really comes from the interior or has
merely been carried down from the surface. The reduction of ferric
oxide under certain conditions (the reverse of the process by which
water is assumed to have been found) might possibly give free oxygen.

The material of external derivation might probably embrace all
the atmospheric constituents, but in proportions unknown.

In determining the actual proportions of the constituents of the
early atmosphere, the abundance of the supply was probably less
decisive than the power of the earth to hold the individual gases.
As gravity gradually increased by the growth of the earth from an
incompetent minimum, its power to control the heaviest molecules
with the lowest velocities was acquired before its ability to hold the
lighter ones of higher velocities. According to the kinetic theory,
molecular velocities vary inversel}^ as the square root of the molecu-
lar weights. Assuming this to be correct, the leading constituents
would be held in the following order, it being noticed that moleades,
not atoms, must be dealt with :

Molecular Average molecular

Molecules. weights (in round velocities at 0° C iu

numbers). cm. per sec.

CO5 44 33.259

Oj 32 39.155

N5 28 41,735

H.,0 18 56,522

H, 2 169,611

The commingling of the gases introduced some modifications of
the limitations of retention, and these were favorable to the lighter
gases ; but the refinements of the case are of no moment here.

238 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Carbou dioxide would be held some appreciable time before oxy-
gen, and still longer before nitrogen, and all these a notable time
before the vapor of water. The inference is that the initial atmos-
phere was ver>- rich in carbon dioxide, for an abundant supply was
correlated with a superior power of retention.

The amount of oxygen in the early atmosphere is more uncertain
from doubt as to a competent source of supply. Crystalline rocks
and meteorites are not known to contain it in a free state. As
above remarked, it occurs among volcanic gases, but it is not known
that it comes from the deep interior. It is detected in the sun and
not improbably existed in the nebula, from which it might have
been gathered shortly after the accretion of carbon dioxide began.
The safer inference seems to be that it was not very abundant rela-
tively in the earh' atmosphere. This inference may be entertained
the more freely because it seems to give the better working hypoth-
esis, for the present large proportion of oxygen may be assigned to
the reduction of carbon dioxide by plant action, and the present
proportions and those of geologic history' seem to come out best on
this basis. For the primitive atmosphere there is theoretical need
for only enough oxygen to support the primitive plant life until it
could supply itself, after which it would produce a surplus.

The amount of nitrogen occluded in rocks and meteorites is rela-
tively small, and it was perhaps a small constituent of the early
atmosphere. Owing to its chemical inertness, it may be supposed
to have been increasing ever since, and thus to have attained its
present dominance. A similar history maj- be assigned to the other
and even more inert elements, argon, neon, zenon, krypton, and he-
lium, of which the supplies seem to have been always very limited.

After the earth acquired the power of holding water-vapor, the
supply being abundant, accession doubtless went on for a time as
fast as the capacity to hold increased.

The problem of vulcanism assumes a quite new aspect under the
planetesimal hypothesis, if ver\' slow accretion without very high
temperature be assumed. It has been taken for granted in the pre-
ceding statement that there was volcanic action. It is necessary,
therefore, to consider how volcanic action may have arisen, and this
involves the more radical question how the high internal tempera-
tures of the earth may have arisen if the earth did not inherit its
heat from a molten condition arising from a gaseous origin.

The total amount of heat produced by the infall of the planetesi-
mals would undoubtedly be more than sufficient to melt the whole

FUNDAMENTAL, PROBI^EMS OF GEOLOGY. 239

mass if the heat were all generated at the same instant ; but if it
were generated in successive moieties spread over a long period and
generated at the surface, where readilj- radiated away, no large
amount might be retained, and high internal heat, such as required
for vulcauism, might not be assignable to this source. In the pres-
ent state of knowledge the hypothesis may not unreasonably be
given such a form as to make this source partially available by
assuming that in the early stages of accretion, while the nebular
planetesimals were still relatively numerous, the collisions between
them and the nucleus were so frequent as to make the latter hot.
It is possible that mathematical inquiries contemplated, but not yet
carried out, will show that this was probable, and that a rate of
accretion so slow as to give a cool exterior would only come later,
after the planetesimals of the feeding zone had been thinned out ;
but until that can be shown the hypothesis must face the alternative
possibility that the collisions did not succeed one another so rapidly
as to greatly heat the growing earth body by impact.

An unknown amount of heat may have been inherited from the
nebular knot that constituted the original earth-nucleus. This knot
is supposed to have consisted of an assemblage of small aggregates
made from the heavy molecules of the nebular material ; in other
words, chiefly the metallic and the rock substances. This is held to
be so because these substances would condense to the liquid and
solid state at high temperatures, and further because, having low
molecular velocities and relatively high gravity, they could assemble
and remain associated by mutual attraction, while molecules of low
weights and high velocities could not. These assemblages were
probably rotatory or revolutionary, but perhaps of a very irregular
kind, somewhere midway between a well-organized planetesimal
system and a heterogenous gaseous or collision-rebound system, and
combining some of the qualities of each. The ingathering of planet-
esimals from without probably tended to increase the irregularity,
and to cause the assemblage to become more and more gas-like in
dynamic nature. The matter being rock substance or metallic, and
hence partially inelastic, and the collisional velocities generally low,
the mode of condensation was probably only in part analogous to
that of a gas, but it is possible that an internal temperature not
unlike that of a condensing gas might be developed . The young earth
may, therefore, have inherited a hot nucleus.

The chief source of internal heat is, however, assigned to the
progressive condensation of the growing body as material was added
17

240 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

to its surface. The amouut of this condensational heat for the full-
grown earth, computed on the best data now available, seems to be
ample to meet all the requirements of the known geologic ages, as
brought out in the investigations of Dr. lyuun.* That heat arising
from condensation solely would reach the melting temperature of
rock in a body one-twentieth of the earth's mass seems more or less
doubtful, but in a body one-tenth of the earth's mass the required
conditions would probably be reached. The requisite data are too
imperfect for a definite decision of this point at present. If the pits
of the moon (JL. of the earth's mass) represent volcanic explosions,
and not the infall of planetoids as Gilbert suggests,! it is necessary
to postulate in its case conditions very favorable to the generation of
heat by compression, or else to assign some notable portion of the
requisite heat to the quasi-gaseous condensation of the nucleus, to
the collisions of planetesimals, and to the source next to be con-
sidered, all of which would necessarily contribute something to the
sum total of internal heat.

Another source of heat lay in the atomic and molecular rearrange-
ment of the material after it became entrapped in the growing mass.
This was not simply chemical recombination, as usually understood,
but molecular readjustment under pressure as well. The planet-
esimals were aggregated, by hypothesis, in a vacuum of the highest
order, and with -very slight mutual gravity, and the mode of molec-
ular arrangement was that suited to this extremely low pressure.
Under the rising pressure of the earth's interior, new arrangements
of the molecules into denser forms with lower specific heats are
theoretically assignable, if not inevitable, with the freeing of heat as
a consequence. In a sense this is a mode of condensation falling
under the previous head, but it is not identical with mere mechanical
compression and is not wholly covered by computations based on that.

With the detailed conceptions now developed, the method of vol-
canic action deduced from the accretion hypothesis may be readily
apprehended and the vital part assigned to it in earth history may be
realized. The chief portion of internal heat being assigned to com-
pression, the temperature must have been highest at the center, be-
cause the compression was greatest there, and must have declined
toward the surface.

Pressure itself is probably incompetent to melt rock substances that
shrink in solidifying, but the high temperatures generated by pressure

* See statement appended to this report.

fBiill. Phil. Soc. Washington, Vol. XII, 1892, pp. 241-292.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 24 1

in the deep interior were constantly moving outward into horizons
of lower pressures, where the melting-points were lower. As the
computed temperature at the center of the adult earth is about
20,000° C.,* there would seem to be no lack of heat, in the later
stages at least. The essence of the problem lies in its redistribution
and in its selective action.

The material of the interior was originally, b}^ hypothesis, an inti-
mate mixture of planetesimals of various kinds, with such gaseous
material as they carried in or entrapped in the process of growth.
This material, therefore, presumably ranged from the most fusible
to the most infusible of rock material that could take the form of
aggregated planetesimals. As some of it was probably the kind
that shrinks much in solidifying, and some of the kind that
shrinks little, and some possibly of the kind that does not shrink at
all in solidifying, it is probable that some of it was brought near or
even to the melting-point b}^ pressure, while other parts, intimately
intermixed with these, were far from their melting-points. At any
rate, the outward flow of heat in such a mixture must bring some
parts to fusibility much before the melting-points of other parts were
reached. Local spots of fusion must thus arise. To this fusion the
entrapped and occluded gases may be presumed to have contributed
and to have joined themselves to the fused masses, and to have aided
in giving them fluidity.

As the rise of temperature continued, more and more of the mixed
material reached the fusing-point, while other material so nearly ap-
proached it as to become plastic and permit readjustive movements.
In this way fused points are supposed to have been permitted to join
one another and to move in the direction of least resistance. The
static pressure from the earth body itself was always greatest below
and least above, but was nearly constant for any given short period.
The stresses arising from the differential tide-producing attractions
of the sun and moon ^vere also greatest below and least above, but
were periodic, stress and relief following one another in semi-daily
succession, giving a kind of kneading process. These interior stress
differences are thought to have pressed outward the fused vesicles,
causing them to unite and form threads or stringlets, insinuating
themselves through the more refractory portions that remained solid,
and at length developing into tongues of some volume; As these
liquid threads or tongues rose to higher horizons of lower pressures,

^ See the investigations of Dr. Lunn.

242 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

and hence of lower melting-points, they carried with them a certain
surplus of heat above that required to maintain their liquidity in the
new horizon, and this surplus was available for melting or fluxing
their way. They were at the same time, however, subject to loss of
heat by contact with surrounding rock of lower temperature. They
were thus probably at the same time taking up fusible material met
in their path and depositing old material as it became less adapted to
remain fluid under the new conditions, either because it had reached
the point of its saturation in the mixed rock solution that had been
developed or had cooled to its point of congelation. The liquid
thread was thus presumably taking on and giving up material con-
tinually as it worked its way outward, the process always being
selective and involving the retention of the more soluble or more
fusible portions and the rejection of the less soluble or more refrac-
tory portions. Since the included gases may be safely reckoned
with the former class, there was a selective accumulation of these,
and the ascending liquid became densely charged with them. To
this ascensive process those substances whose weight overbalanced
the differential pressure, such as metallic iron and possibly the
heaviest silicates, may be regarded as forming exceptions.

Theory does not require that these threads should all succeed in
reaching the surface ; indeed, it does not require that an}' should in
the initial stages, before compression had developed a great excess of
heat in the central parts. The molten threads should simply rise
until their excess of heat, their working capital, was exhausted,
when they would return to the solid state and constitute tongue-like
intrusions. In doing this they would contribute heat to the tracts
which they invaded. This, in addition to conduction, was a mode
of conveying the intenser heat of the compressed central regions to
the higher horizons, where the original temperature was lower and
the fusing-points lower. The failure of the earlier threads to reach
the surface would thus be a means preparatory to the greater suc-
cess of later ones. The conditions for penetration would probably
be favorable up to the horizon where the temperature ceased to be
higher than the surface melting-point. Below this the retention of
the solid state was wholly due to pressure, the temperature being
above the surface melting-point. When the threads reached the
higher zone, in which the temperature was appreciably below the
surface fusing-point, the conditions were clearly adverse, and fur-
ther ascent was dependent on a sufficient excess of heat brought
from below to maintain the liquid state while this adverse tract was

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 243

being traversed. It was probably also dependent on a fluxing power
adequate to enable it to fuse its way through the solid zone of con-
tinuous rock that lies below the fracture zone. When it reached the
latter, hydrostatic pressure and the inherent expansive force of its
gaseous content would probably control its further course in the main.

Now having in mind that, at the early stage under consideration,
the earth was growing, that its internal self-compression was in-
creasing apace with its growth, that the heat was rising with the
compression, that the temperature was highest at the center and
graded toward the surface, and that it was also carried outward bj^
the liquid threads, the succeeding steps may be followed easily.

The outer part of the young earth was made up of the recently
fallen planetesimals and their fragments, and no doubt had a much-
broken, open texture. If there was as yet no atmosphere nor hy-
drosphere, as in the case of the moon, there was no effective process
for the wash of fine fragments into the interstices of the coarse,
or, what is more important, for the solution of the material at the
surface and the cementation of that below into a solid mass, as is the
present habit on the earth ; in other words, there was no effective
healing process to unite the broken fragments. The porous clastic
zone must therefore have extended downward to a depth at which
gravity was able to force the fragments into continuity by its crush-
ing effects. In a small body this zone would be deep.

When the rising lava tongues reached this outer fragmental zone,
fluxing was no longer required, as they could force their way by in-
sinuation and by mechanical displacement. It appears almost certain
that in the upper part of such a fragmental zone the interstices
would make up a sufficient part of the volume of the aggregate mass
to reduce its average specific gravitj^ to a figure below that of the
penetrating lava, even though the latter might be made up of lighter
material inherently, and was also hot and liquid. The earliest
tongues of molten material are supposed, therefore, to have generally
lodged within the fragmental zone, taking various plutonic forms, as
dikes, sills, laccoliths, and batholiths, and to have there given off
their gases, which, more or less concentrated and condensed, doubt-
less not infrequently forced an exit to the surface b)' blowing away
the overlying fragmental material. The slight coherence of this
material, the low gravity of the young earth, and the absence or
scantiness of a resisting atmosphere should combine to give to the
pit-forming effects extraordinary magnitude, such, perhaps, as the
moon exhibits.

244 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

It is not necessary to the hypothesis to suppose that volcanic action
was an essential preliminary to the acquisition of an atmosphere, nor
that it came into function before the earth acquired an atmosphere,
for the initial atmosphere may have been supplied from external
sources. The apparent vigor and the wide prevalence of volcanic
action on the moon, if its pitted surface means vulcanism, as well as
the glassy material found in meteorites, whose origin is referred pref-
erably to small atmosphereless bodies, favors the view that the inter-
nal gases were given forth abundantly before the earth grew to a
mass sufficient to hold them. If this were true, an ample source of
atmospheric supply was ready and waiting when the earth first
acquired sufficient gravity to clothe itself with a gaseous envelope.

When the increasing water-vapor of the growing atmosphere
reached the point of saturation, it is of course assumed to have taken
the liquid form and became a contribution to the hydrosphere.
Probably condensation had occurred within the fragmental zone long
before the external atmosphere reached saturation. The hydro-
sphere, therefore, probably had its birth under ground, and so long
as the fragmental zone retained its highly porous condition it was
what its name implies, a veritable sphere or spheroidal layer. As
accumulation went on, it is assumed to have risen to the surface, and
doubtless first appeared in the innumerable pits resulting from the
previous volcanic action and in the depressions resulting from other
deforming agencies. Its surface deplojmient is, therefore, pictured
as a growth from innumerable lakelets scattered with unknown pro-
miscuousness over the face of the 3'oung planet, into more and more
enlarged and confluent bodies, until at length they developed into the
vast irregular oceans of to-day. This evolution is of fundamental
geologic importance, for it involves the origin of the ocean basins and
of the continental platforms, and these constitute at once the grand
topographic features of the globe, the great integers of deformation,
and the controlling physical factors in the evolution of life. The
evolution of the ocean basins and the continental platforms under
this hypothesis is, however, exceedingly simple.

With the acquisition of an atmosphere and a hydrosphere, the condi-
ditions for weathering were present, and all those attendant processes
of a gradational nature which constitute the dominant surface work
of to-day.

For the present study, two features of these gradational processes
overshadow all others, ( i ) the leacking action of the atmospheric waters,
and ( 2 ) the relative protection of the water bodies. The essence of the

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 245

leaching process is this : Through the action of the atmosphere and
atmospheric waters the basic material is more largelj- dissolved and
carried away than the acidic. When the weathering is thorough,
the residue is chiefly quartzose sand— if the original rock contained
quartz — and various residual earths and clays which are essentially
silicious silts and aluminum silicates, with a low percentage of the
basic oxides. If these earths and clays are turned back into crys-
talline rocks by metamorphism, they form acidic schists or gneisses,
w^hile the quartzose sand becomes quartzite. The material borne away
in solution consists mainly of compounds of the alkalies and alkaline
earths. A part of this is redeposited within the zone of the h^^dro-
sphere beneath the land, and a part is borne to the sea and remains in
solution or is depo-sited beneath it. Although some decomposition
takes place in the zone of the hydrosphere beneath the land, and some
also beneath the permanent water bodies, it is clearly less than that
which takes place in the zone of the atmosphere, and this difference
in the sum total of work done is all that need here be considered.
There can be no question that the land areas lose by leaching and
the water areas gain correspondingly. The general effect is an in-
crease in the acidity and a reduction in the specific gravity of the
land material. This includes the land wash deposited on the borders
of the continents.

Now, when the growing hydrosphere crept up to the surface and
covered the lower tracts a selective action of this kind began. The
surface material of the areas that remained exposed lost more of its
ba.sic than of its acidic constituents, while the submerged material
lost less and perhaps gained something by the redisposition of the
matter borne in from the land. As the plauetesimals were being
gathered in on land and w^ater alike, those that fell on the land suf-
fered some atmospheric action, while those that fell into the water
were mainly protected from it. As this differential action affected
each successive layer of growth after the accumulation of surface
waters began, the specific gravity of the land areas came to be less
than that of the submerged areas.

It is not the temporary- specific gravity that resulted from the
change of ph^^sical state involved in disintegration that is to be con-
sidered here, but rather what maybe termed the inherent or perma-
nent specific gravity — i. e. , the specific gravity that would be retained
after any metamorphism which the material might probably suffer
in the future had taken place. So, likewise, it is not the temporary
chemical combinations arising immediateh' from the weathering, but

246 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

the potential future combinations that are significant. For example,
any rock likely to arise from the residual sands, earths, and clays by
any probable metamorphism, or even by remelting, would have a
lower specific gravity than the original average rock, or than any
rock likely to be developed from the alkalies and alkaline earths
removed by the leaching process in connection with the original
rock. The leaching of the land material had, therefore, a permanent
effect on its specific gravity — an effect not eliminated by any probable
change resulting from its burial under late accumulations. The
segments built up by accretion on the land were hence lighter than
the segments built up under the waters, and the difference increased
as the segments grew in thickness.

It follows from the greater weight of the water- covered segments
that the compression beneath them, as 'they became more and more
weighted with incoming material, was greater than the compression
beneath the land segments, and hence the water-covered areas were
depressed relatively more than the land areas. The waters drawn in
upon the depressed segments augmented the depressing effects due
to difference in specific gravity.

It is not necessary to suppose that there was at the outset a gen-
eral or continuous covering of certain large areas by water and a
general and continuous prevalence of land in other regions, but
merely that over certain portions of the globe water areas were more
abundant than over other areas. Where water predominated it may
at first have taken the form of numerous small bodies. Such areas
of prevalent water would, on the average, become heavier than other
areas, and hence, acting more or less as units, would become more
depressed. This excess of depression would extend the water-covered
areas, draw water away from the areas less depressed, and this water
would add its weight to the previous excess, and so by progressive
and cumulative action develop the great water areas and differentiate
them from the chief land areas. The tendency would always be
toward the more complete unification of the land and water areas
respectiveh\

So long as the earth continued to grow appreciably by accession,
the water areas should continue to grow larger and deeper and the
land areas narrower and higher, so far as this one process is con-
cerned. The wash from the land tended to build its borders out
into the water basins and other influences modified the results, but
the deepening and spreading of the water basins is believed to have
been a markedh' dominant process during the earth's growth. After

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 247

growth ceased and modern processes became dominant a more nearly
balanced relation of sea and land is thought to have ensued, with a
closer approximation to constancy.

The amount of the original depression of the areas occupied by
the water is assumed to have been slight, and, we prefer to think,
accidental, so to speak. There may have been systematic causes
that determined the relative depression of certain broad tracts and
the relative elevation of others, such as some sy.stematic difference in
the infall, or some rotational change, or some inherent tendency to
shrinking in certain particular ways, as, for example, that held by
advocates of a tetrahedral earth, but it is not clear that the actual
distribution of depressions and elevations points to such systematic
agencies. The elevated and depressed tracts of the moon seem to
have a distribution quite unlike those of the earth ; and those of
Mars, if the lighter and darker areas are correctly interpreted as
elevated and depressed tracts, are quite different from those of either
earth or moon. Each seems to be a law unto itself, if such irregular
distributions can be styled laws at all. My hypothesis requires
nothing more than the inevitable slight differences of growth, of
volcanic activity, of compression, and their joint effects. Start-
ing with only such slight differences as were sufficient to give pre-
ponderance in large tracts in favor of the water or of the land, the
selective and self-propagating nature of the process may have done
the rest.

If it be assumed that the earth's growing hydrosphere appeared
at the surface when our planet had attained the mass of Mars, whose
radius is about 2,100 miles, the subsequent growth would form a
shell about 1,900 miles thick. It is not altogether certain that Mars
bears water bodies on its surface ; but the areas of greenish shade
environed by a surface generally ruddy, the polar white caps (" snow
caps ' ' ) that come and go with the seasons, and the apparent occa-
sional presence of clouds, not to appeal to the evidence of aqueous
absorption lines in the spectrum reported bj^ some good observers, but
unconfirmed by others, lend some support to the opinion that water
is present, though perhaps not in the form of definite water bodies.

It has been inferred from the almost complete, and sometimes total,
disappearance of the polar white caps in summer, and from other
phenomena, that the climate of Mars is phenomenally mild, consider-
ing its distance from the sun. This has been regarded as all the
more puzzling because of the scantiness of the Martian atmosphere,
but is what might be expected if Mars' atmosphere is like that

248 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

assigned the earth at a similar size, i. c. , composed largel}- of the
heat-absorbing carbon dioxide.

Without attempting to fix the precise stage, it is not unreasonable
to assume that surface waters had begun their accumulation upon
the earth's exterior while yet it la}^ 1,500 to 1,800 miles below the
present surface. The present difference between the radii of the
oceanic basins and the radii of the continental platforms is scarcely
3 miles, on the average ; so that if the continental segments be
assumed to be in approximate hydrostatic equilibrium with the
oceanic segments today, as seems highly probable, the selective
weathering process brought about a difference in depression of only
I mile in 500 or 600 miles, or about one-fifth of i per cent.
We appear, therefore, to be laying no heavier burden upon weather-
ing than it is competent to bear. It might well be thought to do
much more, but the process of weathering is slow, and as new ma-
terial was constantly falling in and burjdng the old, partial altera-
tion was all that could take place ; and, besides, a part of the basic
material leached from the surface was redeposited beneath the
ground water of the land and in landlocked basins and was not lost
to the continental segments.

Not only is the evolution of the great ab^-smal basins and of the
continental platforms thus assigned to a very simple and inevitable
process, but there is therein laid the foundation for subsequent de-
formation of the abysmal and continental type.

There is no direct evidence as to the time or the method of the
introduction of life upon the earth. The earliest legible record of
life in the form of fossils bears evidences of great advances in evolu-
tion along many divergent lines. The inference is therefore im-
perative that the initial forms of life had been introduced long
before, or else that an evolution quite out of harmony with that
which succeeded took place in the unknown interval antecedent to
the record. Whence the life was introduced is also quite unknown.
The speculation that it might have been brought to the earth from
some other celestial body by a fragment in the form of a meteorite
is merely a refuge from supposed geological, biological, and philo-
sophical difficulties — a merely temporary refuge in the face of pro-
digious improbabilities, for it only throws back the problem of life
genesis without solving it. There is nothing in known meteorites
save, perhaps, the existence of hydrocarbons equally assignable to
inorganic .sources, to indicate that they came from worlds with at-
mospheres and hydro.spheres suited to maintain such life as the

FUNDAMENTAI, PROBLEMS OF GP:oLOGY. 249

problem presents. On the contrary, there is the best of grounds
for believing that meteorites came from bodies in which the essen-
tial conditions of life were wanting; for, besides the absence of free
oxygen and water, there is an absence of the products assignable to
weathering and to those rock changes that spring from the presence
of an atmosphere and h^^drosphere. These embrace a large portion
of all known rocks in the outer part of the earth, such as are char-
acterized by quartz, orthoclase, the acid plagioclases, the micas, the
amphiboles, as well as the sedimentary rocks. The absence of these
in the meteorites is peculiarly significant because of their abundance
in the earth. The hypothesis of the foreign importation of life
encounters a special difficulty under the planetesimal hypothesis, in
that the planets were all forming at the same time. Under the other
hypotheses the outer planets may have formed earlier than the
inner ones, and an earlier evolution of life may have taken place in
one of the older planets, whence a transference to the earth is barely
conceivable. Under the accretion hypothesis even this is scarcely a
tenable refuge, and transfer from some other stellar system is the
only obvious recoiirse.

The planetesimal hypothesis affords an undetermined lapse of time
between the stage when conditions congenial to life were first possi-
ble and the stage when the first fairh^ legible record was made in the
Cambrian period. To this unmeasured period the whole pre-record
evolution of life, whatever be its method, may be referred, with a strong
presumption that the time was ample and that there is no occasion
for an evasion of the profound problem of life genesis by referring
it to some distant and unknown body ; nor is the problem vexed by
duress of severe time limits. A theoretical scantiness of time for a
prolonged evolution previous to the Cambrian period has been deduced
from a molten earth, but this does not apply to the planetesimal
hypothesis. The supposed limitation of the sun's thermal endurance
would apply if the arguments could be trusted, but their foundation
has been cut away by recent discoveries. It is not the least of the
virtues of the planetesimal hypothesis that it opens the way to a
study of the problem of the genesis and early evolution of life free
from the duress of excessive time limits and of other theoretical ham-
perings, and leaves the solution to be sought untrammeled, except
by the conditions inherent in the problem itself, which are surely
grave enough.

It is assumed that the conditions on which life is now dependent
were prerequisites to its introduction. As already indicated, an

250 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

atmosphere and hydrosphere sufficient to sustain life may have been
acquired when the earth was about the size of Mars, or one-tenth
grown. If, to be conservative, a preliminar>^ growth of twice this
amount be allowed, there still remains between this and the Cam-
brian record the growth of four-fifths of the mass of the earth. So
far, therefore, as atmosphere and hydrosphere are concerned, life may
have been introduced early in the history of the earth, and may have
had a vast interval for development previous to the earliest legible
record. There is another essential condition — a sufficiency, but not
an excess, of heat and light. If the formation of the parent nebula
involved only the outshooting of a small fraction of the ancestral
sun, the solar supply of heat and light may not have been so seri-
ously disturbed as to have fatally affected its availability to furnish
what was necessar}^ for life at any stage of the earth's growth. The
planetesimals between the earth and the sun during the early stages,
before they were much swept up by the inner planets, may have
screened off some appreciable part of the sun's heat and light, but
the ratio of nebular matter to space was probably too small to render
this loss critical. So long as the nebula itself remained luminous
the nebular light compensated in greater or less degree for the solar
light cut off, but perhaps not for the heat. The nebulous surround-
ings of the growing earth must have somewhat reduced the loss of
heat by radiation into space, and so have made some compensation.
There was, however, a terrestrial source of heat and light of crit-
ical importance, namely, that arising from the infall of the planet-
esimals. If this infall were at a rate sufficient to heat the surface
of the earth above ioo°C., life of the present types would have been
prohibited. The present stage of the inquiry does not permit any
very confident opinion as to whether this excess was reached or not.
Leaving this question open, it is to be noted that if, at the stage
when first an atmosphere and hydrosphere could be held, the infall
of planetesimals was so rapid as to heat the surface to a prohibitive
temperature, the rate of infall must almost certainly have declined
as the number of planetesimals in the earth's feeding zone was dimin-
ished ; so that, long before the supply was exhausted and growth
ceased, the rate must inevitably have fallen below the prohibitive
limit. If, therefore, the earth were too hot for life when one-fifth
grown, its temperature might have become suitably mild when one-
fourth, one-third, one-half, or three-fourths grown. Growth after
this permissive stage was reached would be slow, and the period re-
quired for its completion would still be long.

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 25 1

In the early stages the danger seems to be all on the side of too great
heat. Even if the sun's heat were much less than now, the heat of
planetesimal infall would probably make up the deficiency and more.
The infall would continue to be a source of home supply so long as
the accretion continued, declining as the supplj^ of planetesimals
diminished. This diminution of the supply cleared the space between
the earth and the sun, and gradually brought the sun into full function.
There would, therefore, be a gradual passage from the partial de-
pendence on the home supply of heat and light to complete depend-
ence on the solar suppl}'. There is little ground for apprehension
that the infalling planetesimals would be seriously dangerous to the
early forms of life, for in the first place the atmosphere must have
been then, as now, an effective cushion, checking the speed of the
planetesimals and partially dissipating them, and, in the second place,
the early organisms were probably all aquatic and were further pro-
tected by their water covering.

The introduction of organic activity is presumed to have brought
into play the well-known attendant chemical processes. The changes
in the composition of the atmosphere are especially important. It
has been indicated that the primitive atmosphere probably contained
a preponderance of carbon dioxide, and a little later carried all the
water-vapor it could hold under the prevailing temperatures, while
the amount of nitrogen was not improbably low, and that of oxygen
uncertain. If only there were oxygen enough to serve the functions
of plant life at the outset, the existing large content of oxygen could
probably all arise from subsequent plant action. It is merely neces-
sary, therefore, to assume (i) that the carbon dioxide was not too
abundant to prohibit the development of the early plants ; (2) that
the oxygen was sufficient for their vital processes; and (3) that the
nitrogen was much less abundant than now, to give a good working
basis for the evolution of the present very different atmosphere.
Assuming that green (photogenetic) plants were first introduced,
and that until some time later there were no animals or predaceous
plants which decomposed the carbon compounds produced by the
green plants, the first effect of the plant life on the atmosphere
would be to reduce its carbon dioxide and increase its free ox5'gen.
If there were no check or offset to this process, a relatively short
time would suffice for the conversion of an atmosphere of dominant
carbon dioxide to one of dominant oxygen. If the present vegeta-
tion can remove the present content of carbon dioxide in 100 years,
as estimated, an amount of carbon dioxide as great as the whole

252 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

atmosphere of to-day might be changed to oxygen in about 300,000
years by an equally active vegetation. The early plant action may
have been much less efficient than that of to-day, and the requisite
period might be correspondingly lengthened, but it might still be
geologically short. Besides, the early atmosphere, by hypothesis,
was much less abundant than the present one and probably much
more active in the carbonation of rocks.

It is assumed that life requiring a high content of oxygen did not
appear until after the composition of the atmosphere had been suit-
ably changed in this way. After oxygen-consuming, carbon-dioxide-
freeing organisms came into existence the reciprocal action of the
two classes of life tended to maintain an equilibrium, though not an
equalit}^, between the oxygen and the carbon dioxide in the air. At
the same time the carbon dioxide was continually uniting with the
rock substance of the outer part of the earth, as it does now, and
was thus being removed from the atmosphere. The same is true of
the oxygen ; but probably then, as now, oxidation was less active
and prevalent than carbonation, and so the combined result of plant
life and of inorganic action was to bring down the content of carbon
dioxide to a subordinate place. The nitrogen, being relatively inert,
gradually accumulated, and has now become much the most abundant
constituent.

So soon as plants and animals had come into action, all the great
factors potential in the earth's physical evolution were in play.

By hypothesis, volcanic action only began some time after the
beginning of the earth's growth, for it was delayed (i) by the lack
of sufficient compression in the central parts to give the requisite
heat, and (2) by the time required for this central heat to move
out to zones of less pressure, where it would suffice to melt the more
fusible constituents. But, once begun, it is supposed to have grad-
ually increased in actual and in relative importance until it reached
its climax. This obviously came much later than the climax of
growth, for it was dependent on the growth to give the increased
compression from which arose the central heat on which the vulcanism
depended. And so, owing to the .sources of delay just cited, the
maximum of volcanic action must have lagged much behind the
accession of the material which remotely actuated it. It is there-
fore inferred that vulcanism continued to increase in activity long
after growth had entered on its decline, and that there was an
important period in which the dominant activity was volcanic.

It is conceived that in the late stages of the earth's growth the

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 253

amount of material poured out on the surface in molten form or
introduced into the outer parts of the earth from below was very-
much greater than the accessions from without. Still later, these
declining accessions were so overwhelmed by the igneous extrusions
that they became indistinguishable contributions. In this stage, too,
it is held that the modifications wrought by the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere, and organic life were also quite subordinate to the
volcanic contributions. Disintegration is assumed to have gone
little farther, usually, than to partially reduce rocks of the granitoid
type to arkoses, and those of the basic type to wackes. Rather
rarely, it is believed, was much pure quartzose sand, aluminous clay,
or similar well-decomposed residuary materials accumulated ; rarely,
also, much carbonaceous shale. Arkoses and wackes, when meta-
morphosed later, took on such a similitude to igneous rocks as to be
more or less unidentifiable.

The formations of this period of volcanic dominance, with very
subordinate clastic accompaniment, are regarded as constituting the
Archean complex, though perhaps only the later portions of the
great volcanic series are represented by the known Archean.

I have studied at considerable length the problem of deformation of
the earth under the several hypotheses of its origin and the conditions
sequent thereon. The most difficult feature is to bring into working
harmony the agencies that produce lateral thrust of the outer crust as
demonstrated in the extensive folding and reverse faulting, on the
one hand, and the vertical movements exemplified in plateaus and
normal faulting on the other. Current views are attended by grave
difficulties when an attempt is made to reduce them to quantitative
terms. I have developed what appears at present a very promising
line of solution, but I prefer to work upon it somewhat further before
reporting upon it.

I desire to direct attention to the fact, frequently indicated by allu-
sions in the preceding statement, that further deplo3'ment, and par-
ticularly further testing of the hypotheses and sub-hypotheses, all
along the line, are definitely contemplated. While they have been
constructed with some hope that they may be in the line of the ulte-
rior truth, it is felt that their only assured value lies in the aid they
may render in the development of tributary investigations, and in
assembling and interpreting the varied data from the multitude of
sources from which so complex a problem must necessarily make
drafts. The accompanying communication of Dr. Moultou indicates
in particular that a severe testing of our own hj-potheses, as well
as those of others, is a part of our working scheme.

254 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

In my last report mention is made of the preliminar>^ stages of an
inquiry relative to changes in the form of the earth growing out of
hypothetical changes in the rate of rotation due to tidal action. The
inquiry as originally planned could easily have been carried out, as
Professor Slichter had contributed the necessary computations and
it only remained for me to add the geological discussion. This would,
however, onl)' have introduced a conflict between geological deduc-
tions and the well-known tidal deductions of G. H. Darwin. It
seemed therefore desirable that the influence of tidal attraction should
be recomputed on the assumption of a rigid earth instead of a viscous
one, not only, but on the assumption of increasing rigidity toward
the center — an assumption that seems to be required by several recent
lines of evidence relating to the state of the earth's interior. It
seemed also desirable that the assumption should involve high elas-
ticity of form, which seems also to be indicated by the rates of trans-
mission of transverse seismic oscillations through the deeper parts of
the earth. I have not as yet been able to arrange for this rather
laborious work, ownng to the engagement of the available parties
competent to undertake it.

I append herewith statements of the collaborative work of Doctors
Moulton, IvUnn, and Stieglitz, the general nature of which was
outlined in my last report.
Respectfully submitted.

T. C. Chambkrlin.
Chicago, September ^o, igo^.

The Work of Dr. Stieglitz.

Chicago, October 26, 1904.
Dear Professor Chamberlin : I beg to report that I have made
considerable progress on the problem of possible relation of the de-
posits of pure gypsum beds, free from calcium carbonate, to the
carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere and the climate at the
period when the deposits were laid down ; but I think it is advisable
to pursue the subject further before reporting any specific results.
Yours respectfully,

Juuus Stieglitz.

fundamental problems of geology. 255

The Work of Dr. Moulton.

Chicago, September 2g, igo^.

Dear Professor Chamberlin : I regret that unforeseen con-
ditions have prevented me from working more than two months on
the nebular hypothesis in the last year. The prospects now are that
I shall be able to carr>' out the work of the exhaustive critical re-
view without further serious interruption.

It has seemed to me essential to make a careful preliminary dis-
cussion before taking up the work professedly referring directly to
the nebular hypothesis. These preliminary discussions are on (a)
the different kinds of hj'potheses and their uses, {b) the observa-
tional data pertinent to the inquiry, and (f) the laws which have
been derived from the data. Then will follow the discussion of the
work done on the nebular hypothesis. The first epoch reaches up
to Laplace, the second consists of Laplace and the commentators on
his work, including the modifications introduced by the theory of
the conservation of energy ; the third starts with Darwin's work on
tidal evolution and reaches to our work in 1900.

(a) Different Kinds of Hypotheses and Their Uses. — In this I have
attempted, in the first place, to analj^ze hypotheses with respect to
the character of their origin and relation to observational data. In
the second place, I have attempted to form an estimate of the value
of these various sorts of hypotheses in scientific work. I am firmly
convinced that this work is of value apart from the later discussions,
and that it is particularly valuable in connection with the estimates
of the work done on the nebular hypothesis by the various writers.

(^) Observational Data. — This and the next topic are almost uni-
versally largely mixed. They are purposely sharply separated here,
for the observational data are a permanent acquisition, while the
laws are hypotheses derived from them. Since the final theory, the
nebular hypothesis, is in question, the preliminary hypotheses or laws
can not be passed over lightly.

{_€) Scientific Laws. — This topic and the preceding have led me
into every field of physical science. The laws have been (and are
being) analyzed on the basis of {a) and their probable validity ex-
amined. This task of looking critically at the foundations of all
laws upon which the nebular hypothesis is based is very heavy.

The preliminary discussions {a) and {b) are practically complete.
The work on (<r) has made some progress, but it largely remains to be
done. Most of the data on the nebular hypothesis have been col-
18

256 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

lected, but the work of carefully comparing them with the results
obtained in {b) and {c) still remains. This will take much time.
For example, a thorough review of Darwin's works or of Ritter's
can not be done inside of six months. Nearly all of this work is
entirely unverified and should be gone over. Besides, I am planning
to make every conceivable cross-test on every theory. The work
brought out in somewhat separate lines after the publication of many
of the original papers makes this a serious task.
Very truly yours,

F. R, MOULTON.

The Work of Dr. Lunn.

Chicago, September jo, igo^.
Dear Professor Chamberlin : After making the progress pre-
viously reported to you, I was compelled by the strain of other work
to lay the geological problem aside almost entirely for several months,
but during the 'past two months it has been constantly before me.
I think it will ser\'e the purpose of your report of progress if I set
forth the way in which the matter has developed. The sketch may
be brief, because at least part of the manuscript will be ready for
publication so soon.

Our object was to determine the total amount and distribution of
heat due to the gravitational energ>' resulting from the contraction
to its present condition of an earth originally homogeneous and
having the density of the present surface rock. It was thought that
this would represent fairly the thermal effects that would arise from
the formation of the earth by aggregation. There is not the slight-
est difficulty in determining the total amount of that energy for any
assigned law of density ; but the question of its localization in the
mass antecedent to its transfer, by conduction or by extrusion
through volcanic processes, can not be answered without recourse to
hypothesis as to the thermodynamic properties of the substance at
the high temperatures and pressures met with. The resijlts which I
have already furnished you refer to the energy generated by what
might be called static compression, each portion of the mass being
conceived as heated by local compression from the surface density
to its present density, the work done being assumed to produce a
proportionate rise of temperature. The form of the original tem-
perature curve corresponding to this and the main features of the

FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF GEOLOGY. 257

subsequent cooling were determined, on several assumptions as to
conductivity and internal density. I have not thought it worth
while to regard the specific heat as other than constant, because of
the uncertainty attending (i) the application of Fourier's equations
at such high temperatures, and (2) the very definition of tempera-
ture under these conditions.

This much is practically read}-- for publication, except the round-
ing'off of the mode of presentation. I think it would hardly pay
to attempt more in this direction just now, and I plan to offer this,
with a critique of the assumptions, as part i of the paper to be sent
in shortly.

The energy so generated is, however, not the entire amount of
gravitational energy, though perhaps in any ordinary case the major
portion. The reason is that — assuming, as we have done, that the
pressure depends only on the density — a dynamic equilibrium is
possible only in the final state of the mass ; consequently the pas-
sage from the homogeneous to the compressed condition must be
accompanied by the generation, in addition to the strictly compres-
sional energy, of the kinetic energy of a more or less oscillatory
motion, which would be transformed to heat by the internal fric-
tion due to the viscosity of the mass. The problem of determining
how this portion of the energy is localized is a very puzzling one.
The exact determination of every phase of this motion is hardly to
be expected, since even the analogous problem for a globe of perfect
gas leads to equations of whose solution practically nothing is
known. However, the features of the solution in certain analo-
gous, though much simpler, cases of damped acoustic and electro-
magnetic vibrations suggest that the ' ' asymptotic ' ' case for infinite
coefficient of viscosity can be made more easily accessible, and this
result would probably be useful, since the viscosity of lava is actu-
ally so great. I am hopeful of success in this direction, but have
nothing complete to offer yet.

The theory needs to be completed in another respect before I can
be satisfied with it. The contraction due to cooling makes the gen-
eration of heat proceed parallel with its conduction. On account of
the small coefficient of expansion, the heat thus added is negligible
in a small bod}-, but becomes an important portion of the whole in
a mass as large as the earth. Hence to follow the process strictl}^
it would be necessary to consider the conduction and contraction as
simultaneous, following the initial compression. The difficulties in
the way here are serious.

258 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

I have therefore begun a search for assumptions as to the thermo-
dynamic properties of lava, which would be consistent with the data
at hand relative to surface rock, and to follow out the plan carried
through by Ritter for gases and vapors, determining the ' ' adi-
abatic condition line " and the law of contraction and radiation,
assuming the adiabatic state maintained b}^ an appropriate law of
conduction. If the law of conduction so determined should prove
plausible, and the rate of surface loss agree fairly well with observa-
tion, this would furnish a complete solution of a case perhaps not
remote from the actual, and the direction of departure from it would
give at least qualitative information of value. This is the only avenue
of approach I see just now. It is impossible to satisfy the condi-
tions by assuming a coefficient of expansion so small that even for
the earth the cooling is practically independent of the contraction,
for the thermodynamic law of entropy shows that part of the energy
from the gravitational source must take the form of internal potential
energy, not temperature, and the smaller the coefficient of expan-
sion, the larger this portion is. For a fictitious substance with zero
coefficient of expansion, there would be no rise of temperature at all.
This striking result from the law of reciprocity only shows again
what a great difference there is between the small masses of the lab-
oratory and the cosmic masses.

It is fair to say that these criticisms are not peculiar to our point
of view, but apply with equal force to everything which I have seen
on the secular cooling of the earth.
Very truly yours,

Arthur C. Lunn.

PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEM-
PERATURES.

On November 19, 1902, 1 submitted to the Trustees of the Carnegie
Institution a memorial proposing an investigation of subterranean
temperature gradient by means of a deep boring in phitonic rock.
On December 1 1, 1903, I was notified that an appropriation of $1 ,000
had been made by the Institution for the expense of preHminary work
and the preparation of plans, and was requested to take general charge
of the preparations of plans.

I now have the honor to submit the following report of progress :
(i) Mr. F. H. Newell, Hydrographer of the United States Geo-
logical Survey, has at my request considered the question of cost,
securing from establishments engaged in the manufacture of well-
drilling machinery estimates of the expense of putting down borings
to great depths. These estimates indicate that the cost of a boring
in granite to the depth of 10,000 feet would be very large — so large
as to be prohibitory. The Sullivan Machinery Company estimates
the cost of a boring to the depth of 6,000 feet at $110,000, and is
willing to enter into a contract on the basis of that estimate. Esti-
mate for a 6,000-foot boring has been requested from another re-
sponsible company, but has not yet been received. If the general
plan is approved by the Institution, bids will be solicited from parties
making a business of sinking wells under contract.

(2) I have investigated the question of a suitable site (a) by form-
ulating the conditions to be satisfied, (d) by a series of inquiries and
consultations with geologists familiar with the structure of various
districts east of the Great Plains, (c) by a personal visit to the dis-
trict which appeared from description most likely to aflford a satis-
factory site. As a result of this investigation I beg to report that
the Ivithonia district, Georgia, both appears preferable to all other
districts of which I have secured information and does in fact well
satisfy the conditions requisite for a successful boring. No effort
was made to choose a precise spot, but the natural conditions are
there favorable over so large an area that the selection of a partic-
ular spot can be made in view of local economic conditions.

(3) By favor of the Director of the United States Geological Sur-
vey, the cooperation of Mr. Newell and other members of the Survey
has been secured without expense to the Carnegie Institution, and
the only draft thus far made on the allotted fund has been for the

259

26o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON,

expense of my trip to Georgia— $80.69. It is anticipated that fur-
ther draft will be made when plans for boring have been so fully
developed that they may be advantageously submitted to an engi-
neering expert.

(4) In view of the fact that a site has been found at which the
essential natural conditions are realized, and of the further fact that
an experienced and responsible well-boring company has such con-
fidence in the feasibility of a 6,000-foot hole as to be willing to guar-
antee its completion, I recommend that the making of a deep boring
be undertaken by the Carnegie Institution.

(5) I recommend further that the sum of $65,000 be allotted, of
which $10,000 be available in the calendar year 1905, and $27,500
in each of the two succeeding years. This recommendation does
not imply the adoption of the contract plan, the question of business
method being left open.

(6) I recommend that the control and supervision of the work be
intrusted to a committee of three persons, one of whom shall be a
physicist, one a geologist, and one a man practically familiar with
boring operations.

(7) I submit herewith a discussion of the value to science of the
proposed boring, of the considerations affecting the determination
of a suitable site, and of the local conditions of the Lithonia district.

Respectfully submitted.

G. K. GlLrBERT.

Washington, D. C, September 28, jgo^.

PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 26 1

VALUE AND FEASIBILITY OF A DETERMINATION OF SUBTERRANEAN
TEMPERATURE GRADIENT BY MEANS OF A DEEP BORING.

By G. K. Gilbert.

SCIENTIFIC NEED OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE NORMAL GRAIHENT.

Theories of the origin of the earth are intimately related to theories
of the constitution and condition of its interior. In the field of
geophysics there is probably no problem which does not involve the
distribution of internal heat. Direct obser\'ation of the nucleus being
impossible, inference is depended on. and inferences, so far as they
are quantitative, hav^e been and perhaps can be based only on obser^'^a-
tion of temperature gradient near the surface. For the purpose of
testing theories as to the origin of internal heat, it is important to
know not only the temperature gradient in the accessible portion of
the crust, but also the variation of gradient with depth. If the
relations of cru.st to nucleus have existed so long that the distribu-
tion of heat has become systematic, and the heat discharged at the
surface is derived from all parts of the sphere, then the gradient in
the accessible zone near the surface should be sensibly uniform. If
the heat flowing toward the surface is and has been derived from
tidal work performed in a subcrustal zone, then also the observed
gradient near the surface should be uniform. But if, as assumed by
Kelvin and King, the heat of the earth received its general distribu-
tion through convection during an initial molten condition, and
surface cooling has been in progress only a few million years, then
the gradient in the upper portion of the crust should diminish
downward.

NEED OF A NEW DETERMINATION.

Temperature gradients obser^j^ed in mines and in wells and other
borings present a wide range, and the mean derived from them
would probably be found to have a large probable error. But even
if its probable error were small, the mean could not claim high pre-
cision, because most of the observations heretofore made have been
subject to unfavorable conditions. Deep mines exist because of
geologic disturbances involving either volcanism or diastrophism,
and in either case calculated to disturb for a long time the normal
distribution of heat. They exist also because of lack of uniformit)'
of the rocks, and in varied rocks there are usually variations of
gradient dependent on variations of conductivity. So there is

262 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

always a presumption that the gradients observed in mines are ab-
normal or abnormally varied. Artesian wells are made in order to
utilize the subterranean circulation of water, and that circulation
involves the convection of heat, whereby the normal gradient is
necessarily disturbed. Oil-wells and gas-wells can be successful
only in regions where the strata encountered at different depths are
of diverse character, and the temperature gradient theoretically
changes in passing from rock of one character to rock of another.
The successful wells have their normal temperatures disturbed by
the expansion of gas ; the unsuccessful usually penetrate zones of
water circulation. As these three categories include practically all
the deep openings which have been made in the earth, it is evident
that the combination of their data yields no trustworthy index of the
normal downward increase of temperature. The arithmetic mean
of all their results has less authority than a single determination
made under proper conditions. The ideal determination is to be
obtained by boring in homogeneous rock not recently subject to
disturbances calculated to modify its heat distribution. And such
rock will not be exploited in intelligent search for any economic
material. The determination which shall be of service to the stu
dent of geophysics must be made by a boring planned and executed
for the special purpose.

Special emphasis may be given to the fact that all deep mines and
all deep borings heretofore made have penetrated varying instead
of uniform material. They have, therefore, presumptively encoun-
tered changes in temperature gradient arising from differences in
material, and as it is not practicable to separate such variations of
gradient from the variations dependent merely on depth, the latter
variations can not be deduced from records now in existence. They
can be afforded only by a deep boring in homogeneous material.

CONDITIONS TO BE SATISFIED IN THE SELECTION OF A SITE FOR

A BORING.

Uniformity of Rock Character. — The temperature gradient within
the earth's crust, or the temperature change per unit of vertical
distance, varies locally with the conductivity of the material (more
strictly, with the diffusivity, which is a function of the conductivity
and the specific heat). It may be subject also to other variation,
but the discussion of other sources of variation is practically impos-
sible if their effects are complicated with those arising from diver-
sity of rock character. It is conceivable that the thermal record of

PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 263

a boring traversing a series of diverse rocks might be corrected
for the conductivities of the several rocks, but the determination of
subterranean conductivities is a matter of such difficulty that a trust-
worthy correction can not be applied, and the difficulty can be met
only by avoiding the necessity for correction. The first condition,
therefore, to be satisfied in the selection of a locality for a boring is that
the rock be of uniform character for the whole depth of the boring.

Co7itbudty of Rock. — The disturbing factor which impairs most
records of subterranean temperature is subterranean circulation of
water. There are few districts of sedimentary rock exempt from
subterranean circulation. Descending currents entering regions of
higher temperature receive heat from the rocks they traverse, and
this heat is carried to the surface by ascending currents. Thus con-
vection partly replaces conduction as a conveyor of heat, and the
conditions are rendered unfavorable for the development of the nor-
mal temperature gradient. As circulation is promoted by all cracks
and other partings of the rock, as well as by porosity, it is important
that districts where these occur be avoided. The second condition to
be satisfied in the selection of a site for a boring is that the rock be
continuous, or massive, and impervious.

Topography of the Surface. — Every modification of the earth's sur-
face causes a modification of the subjacent isogeotherms, and if the
change is rapid it causes a temporary irregularity in the isogeotherms
near the surface. If the result of the topographic change is a plain,
the isogeotherms eventually become parallel planes with regular in-
tervals ; but if the result of the topographic change is a surface of
bold relief, the isogeotherms tend toward an adjusted distribution
which reflects the topographic irregularities.

From these considerations arise two conditions to be taken into
account in the selection of a place for boring. It should be a plain
or surface of low relief, and the plain should be one which has not
received a heavy deposit during the later geologic periods.

Stability of Surface Condition. — The temperature of the surface of
the ground is ordinarily determined by the mean annual temperature
of the air. The temperature of the bed of the ocean is similarly de-
termined by the temperature of the water ; and the temperature
beneath a glacier is determined by the basal temperature of the ice,
which is approximately 0° C. These surface temperatures are the
initial or control temperatures to which the isogeotherms conform. If
they are changed, a readjustment of isogeotherms is at once instituted,
and during the period of readjustment the spacing of isogeotherms, or

264 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

the arrangement of gradients, is abnormal. Usually the temperature
of a coastal plain is not the same as the temperature of the adjacent
sea bottom, so that a submergence or an emergence of a locality cre-
ates a disturbance of isogeotherms. Similarly, the creation of an ice-
sheet and its removal cause changes of the surface temperature and
derangements of the isogeotherms. Outside the regions of actual
Pleistocene glaciatiou there were Pleistocene changes of climate, by
which the isogeotherms must have been deranged. These changes
were probably greatest in high latitudes and less in low latitudes.
The resulting conditions to be satisfied in the selection of a site for
boring are : (i) That it shall have experienced no change in later
geologic periods from marine to land conditions, (2) that it shall not
hav^e been covered by Pleistocene glaciers, and (3) that it be in low
latitude rather than high.

Relation to Volcanism. — The movements of lavas, their intrusion
among other rocks, and their extrusion at the surface effect great
changes in the distribution of subterranean heat, and create disturb-
ances in the regularity of isogeotherms which are very slowly effaced.
The resulting condition for the selection of a site is that it be not
near a locus of volcanism in an}^ of the later geologic periods.

Relation to Diastrophism. — Orogenic disturbances, or those result-
ing in the flexure and faulting of rocks, not only stimulate subter-
ranean circulation, but produce local concentrations of heat as the
product of mechanical and chemical work. The thermal irregulari-
ties thus instituted disappear very slowly. The resulting condition
for the selection of a site is that it be in a region not subject to oro-
genic disturbance in any of the later geologic periods.

THE SELECTION OF A LOCALITY.

In the practical search for a locality suited for the proposed deep
boring it seemed proper to restrict attention to the territory of the
United States, and in the application of the criteria enumerated
above I soon reduced the field of inquiry to narrow limits. The
condition that the rock penetrated should be of uniform composition
and of massive character barred all regions occupied by sedimentary
formations, for these are everywhere more or less heterogeneous,
and in nearly all localities admit the passage of circulating waters.
The only large bodies of rock whose uniformity is reasonably
assured are plutonic, and attention was therefore limited to the large
batholiths.

In the Cordilleran region most of the mountain ranges are young
and are unfitted for the purpose, both because the temperature di.s-

PI.ANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 265

turbances created by their uplift can not be assumed to have disap-
peared and because their topographic ruggedness impHes irregularity
of isogeotherms. New England and the region of the Great L,akes
are unfitted because they were covered by the Pleistocene ice-sheet.
Attention was therefore restricted to the batholiths of the Southern
States.

As to these I sought information from my colleagues on the
Geological Survey, finding the available information so full that I
was able to exclude some because associated with bold topography,
others because lacking uniformity of composition, and others because
traversed by joints. Of the localities not thus excluded the most
favorable appeared to be the Lithonia granite district in Georgia.
Of this I made a personal examination, and as it seemed peculiarly
favorable to the purpose, no other examinations were made.

THE LITHONIA DISTRICT.

In its general topographic character the Lithonia district is a
plain. The stream valleys, for the most part open, are excavated
to depths of 50 to 150 feet. A few rounded bosses of granite project
from 50 to 150 feet above the plain. The granite is surrounded
and in part overlain by schists, which appear to have originally
constituted the walls and cover of the batholithic chamber. The
continuity of the granite mass from outcrop to outcrop is inferred
from the close lithologic similarity found at all the outcrops. This
similarity includes not only composition, but a peculiar and unusual
structure, the granite having an imperfect schistosity, the planes of
which are everywhere contorted. It is therefore called by the State
Geological Survey contorted granite-gneiss. The rock is massive.
Only a few joints were observed, and these appeared to be occupied
by thin veins, and thereby sealed, so as not to affect materially the
continuity of the rock. The partings utilized in quarrying are
parallel to the surface and are usually not natural, but created by
blasting. They indicate a tendency toward exfoliation, which is
one of the characters of massive granite. In recent studies in the
Sierra Nevada I have found the tendency to develop partings par-
allel to the surface characteristic of massive rocks and absent from
rocks traversed by systems of joints.

The extent of the granite body is not less than 10 miles in one
direction bj' 3 miles or more in the transverse direction. Uniformity
of character through such an area affords reasonable presumption
that uniformity will be found in the vertical direction to such

266 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

depths as are obtainable by the driller. The age of the batholith is
not definitely known, but it is believed by students of Georgia
geology to be probably pre-Paleozoic, and certainly not later than
early Paleozoic.* Of the later geologic history all that is demon-
strated by the features of the locality is profound degradation, re-
sulting in the development of a broad peneplain. Nothing is known
in the vicinity of later orogenic or volcanic events, and the Creta-
ceous and Tertiary formations of the Coastal Plain are thought not
to have covered this area. So far as is known, the region is one
characterized by prolonged geologic quiet, and it has probably been
exempt, as far as any locality which might have been selected in
the United States, from physical and climatic accidents competent
to disturb the arrangement of subterranean temperatures.

Ecommic Conditions. — While the selection of the Lithonia district'
for the proposed boring was made solely on considerations arising
from the scientific demands, attention was also given while on the
ground to economic considerations affecting the cost of the work.
One of the essentials in the use of the diamond-drill is a good sup-
ply of water. This can be readily secured in the final selection of
the precise site of the boring. The district is crossed by a railroad,
from which several spurs run to quarries, and a suitable site can be
found near one of these lines. No serious problems are connected
with the transportation of machinery and fuel. There is rail com-
munication with the neighboring city of Atlanta.

ACCESSORY INVESTIGATIONS.

In the planning of the boring no other instrument has been con-
sidered than the diamond-drill. The rock could probably be pene-
trated by the churn-drill at less cost, but the churn-drill, by grinding
the rock to sand, destroys its structure and makes it impossible to
be assured of the uniformity of its lithologic character. The dia-
mond drill, on the other hand, removing part of the rock in the
form of a core, preserves a continuous record of the character of rock
traversed. The core, moreover, permits the prosecution of other
investigations in addition to the thermal. The strength and other
physical properties of deeply buried granite are practically unknown,
and the information which can be obtained as to these may prove of
importance to geophysics.

It is at least worthy of suggestion that the boring could also be
utilized for the subterranean swinging of a specially constructed

*Geol. Survey of Georgia, Bull. No. 9 A, 1902, p. 63.

PLANS FOR OBTAINING SUBTERRANEAN TEMPERATURES. 267

pendulum, and the measurement of the earth's weight by means of
a vertical pair of gravity determinations could thus be repeated.
The homogeneity of the crust layer between the upper and lower
stations and the representative character of the rock samples brought
up as drill cores would be peculiarly favorable for the determination
of the density of the crust layer.

To give high precision to the determination of density it would be
necessary to take account of the compression of the rock under stress
of the superincumbent weight. Rock compression has not yet been
measured in the laboratory, the matter being one of extreme diffi-
culty, by reason of the deformation of both samples and testing
apparatus when great pressures are applied ; but there is reason to
think that valuable observations bearing on this point could be made
within the boring at some stage of the work. It should be possible,
by suitable automatic appliances, to measure that resilient elongation
of the column of rock constituting a section of core which theoretic-
ally takes place while the drill is separating it from the general mass.
The importance to geophysics of experimental determinations of
rock compression is generally recognized.

PROPOSED MAGNETIC SURVEY OF THE NORTH

PACIFIC OCEAN.

By L. a. Bauer and G. W. lyiTTi^EHAi.ES.

October 3, 1904.

I beg to submit herewith a project for a magnetic survey of the
North Pacific, by Messrs. L. A. Bauer and G. W. Ivittlehales.
Reference to this project was made in my letter of the 29th ultimo,
requesting that the grant to the Department of International Research
in Terrestrial Magnetism for the next year be $25,000. It will be
noticed that the project does not call for a separate grant, but is
instead a proposal as to the direction in which field work of the
department could profitably and advantageously be taken up next
year.

Accompanying the project will be found letters from Captain

Creak, formerly superintendent of the compass department of the

British Admiralty, now retired, and from Superintendent Tittmann.

Captain Creak took an important part in designing the British

Antarctic ship The Discovery and in planning its magnetic work.

Very respectfully,

L. A. Bauer, Director.

While the state of our knowledge of the distribution of the earth's
magnetic forces over oceanic areas, owing to the paucity of precise
data, is in general exceedingly unsatisfactory, this is especially true
for that great body of water the Pacific Ocean, rapidl}^ developing in
great commercial importance.

Except for data from occasional expeditions and such as were
acquired in wooden vessels a long time ago, the present magnetic
charts used by the navigator over this region depend largely upon
the observations on islands and along the coasts. Such land obser-
vations, however, are rarely representative of the true values, because
of prevalent local disturbances. It is therefore impossible to make
any statement as to the correctness of the present charts.

The demands of science, as well as those of commerce and navi-
gation, require a systematic magnetic survey of this region under
the most favorable conditions possible, and that the work be done

269

270 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

under the auspices of some recognized research institution in order
to insure that the scientific aspects of the work receive their adequate
recognition.

It is believed that it will be best to undertake first a magnetic
survey of the North Pacific Ocean, and a project is here accordingly
outlined which, upon careful consideration and solicitation of expert
opinion, is believed to be thoroughly feasible. The project permits
of useful comprehensive results being immediately obtained, and is
one which can be interrupted without any important waste of ante-
cedent expense whenever circumstances may render a discontinuance
or a modification of the original plan advisable. Upon the comple-
tion of the survey of this region, which, in accordance with the
plans, will not require more than three years, the survey of other
oceanic areas may usefully be considered.

The plan is, in brief, to charter a wood-built, non-magnetic sail-
ing vessel of about 600 tons displacement, which, starting out in
summer from San Francisco, shall pursue a clockwise spiral course
embracing the entire North Pacific Ocean, as shown in red ink on
the submitted Pilot Chart. The object of planning such a course is
to gain continuous advantage throughout the survey of the dynam-
ical agencies of the atmosphere and the ocean, in passing in suc-
cession into each of the five-degree quadrangles into which the
chart is -divided and in which observed values of the three magnetic
elements need to be obtained.

The seasonal shifting of the permanent centers of barometric
pressure will cause a variation from month to month of the condi-
tions of wind and current that are represented on this particular
chart ; but if the departure from San Francisco be taken in the
summer the chain of meteorological events will contribute toward
the maximum progress over the course, passing thence along the
west coast of America to the vicinity of the Galapagos Islands; thence
across the Pacific, in latitude between two and three degrees north ;
thence along the eastern side of the Philippine Archipelago and the
Empire of Japan ; thence eastward in about latitude fifty-two degrees
north ; thence to the latitude of San Francisco, and thence contin-
uing through the series of areas bounded by parallels of latitude
and meridians of longitude, each five degrees apart, lying next on
the mid-ocean side of the circuit last made, and proceeding gradually
and by successive circuits into the central region of the North Pacific.

The total length of the course marked out is about 70,000 knots.
However, as will be noticed, each of the first circuits practically closes

PROPOSED MAGNETIC SURVEY OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. 27 I

at San Francisco ; so that, if it is found that the method pursued is
not the best, the work can readily be terminated or modified. Each
circuit is so planned as to contribute the maximum results with the
highest efficiency.

From letters received in response to inquirj' (two of the letters are
appended) it would appear that the entire work of observation and
reduction can be accomplished in three years. The cost per month of
the field work, inclusive of all expenses and services, will approximate
$1,500. Counting eight months of continuous service per annum,
the total annual outlaj'^ would be about $12,000. This sum can be
provided for out of the allotments for field-work available to the
Department of International Research in Terrestrial Magnetism if
the annual grant to this department be made $25,000, as per the
original plan published in Year Book No. 2.

The region it is proposed to survey fortunately contains magnetic
observatories in requisite number and proper distribution for fur-
nishing the necessar}' corrections to the observed magnetic elements
to reduce them to a common epoch. Thus, continuous records of the
magnetic variations required for this purpose will be available from
the following stations : Sitka (Alaska) , Honolulu (Hawaiian Islands) ,
Manila (Philippines); Shanghai (China), Tokio (Japan). In addi-
tion to these, it is possible that there may be at the time of the pro-
posed magnetic survey magnetic observatories in the Samoan Islands,
in Siberia, and in California or vicinity in position to lend efifective
cooperation.

Furthermore, the numerous ports and islands will furnish excel-
lent opportunities for controlling instrumental constants and for ob-
taining any additional variation data that may be needed.

It should also be pointed out that the plan of the courses as mapped
permits ready adjustment for closed areas of the observed quantities
in accordance with the potential hypothesis, and it may even permit
the testing of the accuracy of this assumption, though as regards
the latter more can be .said at the end of a year's work.

While it is not anticipated that any marked irregularities in the
distribution of the earth's magnetism will manifest themselves over
the deep waters of the Pacific, it may be confidently expected that
in the neighborhood of the islands and along the coa.sts distortions
and irregularities will reveal themselves. With the aid of the
results of the detailed magnetic survey of the United States and
Alaska, opportunity will therefore be afforded of studying the effect
of the configuration of laud and water upon the distribution of the
19

272 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

magnetic forces. The first circuit, passing as it does along the
American and Asiatic coasts, will yield especially interesting results
in this respect. Thus, for example, along the Aleutian Islands
marked local disturbances will be revealed. Reports are received
frequently from mariners in this region regarding the unsatisfactory
behavior of the compass ; it is therefore greatly to be desired that a
magnetic survey of the waters in this region be made with all neces-
sary detail.

The letters appended will give further information regarding the
plan, and will give evidence of the opinions held by those competent
to judge.

\Letter from Capt. E.. W. Creak to Dr. Bauer. ~\

q Hervey Road, Blackheath, London, S. E.,

August ji, igo4.

My Dear Dr. Bauer : The North Pacific Ocean is, with the
exception of the voyage of the Challenger, nearly a blank as regards
magnetic observations, and I therefore think the magnetic survey
you propose will be of great value.

In view of a sailing ship being emploj^ed, the route marked out
in the letter (of which you have sent me a copy) is, I think, well
thought out as regards winds, but I would, if I could, have a larger
ship than the one proposed, of 600 tons. However, all can be done
in a vessel of 600 tons, if of the proper form — a fast clipper is not
wanted, but rather a good, wholesome, steady ship in a seaway.

There is one point which I may have mentioned once before, but
will bear repetition. The position selected for the magnetic instru-
ments should be entirely free, if possible, from any vertical force in
the ship. This especially applies to a sailing ship, which under
action of the sails is liable to a constantly varying angle of inclina-
tion, and where the vertical force of the ship causes a constantly
varying heeling error in the magnetic instruments.

The absence of any vertical force in the ship renders the obser^^a-
tion taken on board free from any reference to the shore as regards
declination and inclination, the effects of horizontal disturbance, if of
moderate amount, being easily accounted for by swinging at sea as
opportunity affords.

Ivastly, as to a similar close examination to that proposed for the
North Pacific being subsequently carried out in the South Pacific,

PROPOSED MAGNETIC SURVEY OF NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. 273

I fully concur. I have evidence that the large secular change in
the magnetic declination which has been going on for the last sixty
years in the ocean area between New Zealand and Cape Horn (south
of 30° S.) is still in progress and wants far more attention than has
hitherto been accorded to it.
Yours very truly,

Ettrick W. Creak.

[Formerly superintendent of the compass department, British Admiralty.
Now retired.]

\_Lcttcr front 0. H. Tittmann, Supermtendent U. S. Coast a7id Geodetic

Survey, to Dr. Bauer. ~\

Washington, October i, igo^..
Dr. L. A. Bauer,

Director Department of International Research in

Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution.

Dear Sir : Your note, submitting a plan for a magnetic survey
of the North Pacific, together with letters from Mr. I^ittlehales and
Captain Creak, is before me.

There is no doubt in my mind that a survey for that purpose
would result in obtaining data of great and permanent value, and
that it should be undertaken.

You have pointed out that the scheme of traversing the Pacific by
a spiral route is one that can be interrupted at any time. Valuabk
results are sure to be obtained in even a partial circuit, and therefore
there is no danger of waste of funds through failure.

My own estimate of the time required to cover the field in the
manner proposed is three years.
Yours truly,

O. H, Tittmann.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA.

By Bailey Willis.

Under Grant No. 72 and its continuation, No. 116, plans for
geological research in eastern Asia were perfected and carried to
completion during 1903- 1904. The original suggestions for this re-
search were made by Mr. Walcott, with a special view to the inves-
tigation of Cambrian faunas and search for fossils in pre-Cambrian
rocks in localities which were indicated by the work of Baron von
Richthofen. The research was not, however, limited to this spe-
cific object, but was stated to have for its broader purpose the com-
parative study of the geology of North America and Asia. In its
execution the special investigation of the Cambrian faunas was
given precedence, but work was extended to other branches of the
science in the effort to accomplish the more general result in compara-
tive geology. Mr. Arthur C. Spencer, to whom the grant was
originally intrusted, was unable for personal reasons to carry out
its provisions, and I was authorized in the spring of 1903 to proceed
with the investigation. I selected as my associates Mr. Eliot Black-
welder, paleontologist, and later Mr. R. H. Sargent, topographer.
Mr. Black welder and I left the United States in July, 1903, and,
proceeding by way of Europe and the vSiberian Railwa}^ arrived
at Peking September 20. The months of October and November
were spent in making topographical and geological surveys in the
province of Shantung, in areas selected on account of the extensive
exposures of fossiliferous Cambrian strata. Upon our return to
Tientsin in December, we were joined by Mr. Sargent. During
January and February surveys for topography and geology were
executed along a route 250 miles in length, from Pao-ting fu, in the
province of Chihli, westward to the Wutai-shan, the highest moun-
tains in northern Shansi, and thence southward to Tai-yuan fu. The
greater part of March was employed in perfecting the work accom-
plished and in a journey of eighteen days from Tai-yuan fu, Shansi,
to Hsi-an fu, Shensi. As this journey was necessarily made by a
route previously traversed by Baron von Richthofen and other
travelers, no surveys were made beyond the general observations
consistent with rapid progress. From Hsi-an f u the party surveyed
a route, which in great part had not previously been followed by
foreigners, southward across the mountainous region which extends
to and beyond the Yangtse. This part of the journey falls into

275

276 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

three sections : (i) the crossing of the Ch'iu-ling Mountains on foot,
(2) the trip by boat down the Han river from Shih-chuan hsien to
Hsing-an fu, and (3) the passing of the mountains between the Han
and the Yangtse. The work was greatly delayed by continuous
rains and high water during the first three weeks of April, but the
party arrived at Wushan, on the Yangtse River, on June 6 and
closed its field operations at Ichang, the head of steamboat naviga-
tion, on June 8. At Shanghai the party disbanded on June 20, the
Chinese interpreter and servants, who had rendered loyal service
during nine months, returning to Tientsin, while the three Ameri-
can members took passage for the United States.

The success of the expedition is in large measure due to the assist-
ance which it received on all hands from those who, privately or
ofl&cially, were in a position to promote its objects. The ministers
at Washington, of China, Great Britain, France, Germany, and
Russia, and the American ministers abroad, at the respective capitals
of these nations, gave the expedition their cordial indorsement.
Mr. E. H. Conger, the American minister at Peking, rendered special
service in introducing the purpose of the Carnegie Institution to the
Imperial government, and in securing for the members of the expe-
dition that ofiicial recognition which was essential to safety in the
prosecution of surveys in the interior of China. Their excellencies,
YuanShih Kai, viceroy of Chihli ; Chou Fu, governor of Shantung ;
Chang Tsen Yang, governor of Shansi ; and Sheng Fan, governor
of Shensi, exhibited an intelligent and broad-minded appreciation of
the purpose to advance knowledge, and substantial aid was rendered
by many magistrates with whom the scientists came in contact.
Pleasant relations were consistently maintained with the many
Chinese who gathered from every village to watch the strange opera-
tions of surveying, and it is gratifying to record that at no time was
there any dispute or difl&culty with the natives.

I wish here particularly to express my appreciation of the service
rendered science by my as.sociates, Mr. Blackwelder and Mr. Sargent,
through their unflagging zeal and earnest scientific purpose ; their
cordial cooperation at every step of the expedition and their self-
restraint in dealing with the natural, but sometimes trying, curiosity
of the natives contributed vitally to our success.

Through the courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey, a plane-
table, a telescopic alidade, a large camera, and accessory instruments
were supplied without cost. A theodolite, the need of which was
not appreciated in the initial plans, was loaned by Col. A. W. S.
Wingate, of the British intelligence office at Tientsin.

GEOLOGICAI. RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA.

277

Subsistence iu China includes two distinct causes of expense — that
food which you provide and that which is provided for you. The
party was supplied with staple articles of foreign food — flour, sugar,
coffee, and a small amount of canned goods. In addition to these,

Route, Sept. to
June,l903-0<

Mountains

Fig. 6. — Route in Eastern China, September to June, 1903-1904.

fresh meats and vegetables were purchased en route. Though thus
prepared to live on its own resources, the party was often furnished
with food and lodging at official cost, and for this it was proper to
pay an amount estimated equivalent to the service rendered. Wine,

278 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

cigars, and candied fruits were taken as gifts to Chinese officials and
for their entertainment. A proper use of these articles in return for
courtesies received accords with the custom of the country.

The cost of traveling in China has rarely been stated in such a
manner as to afford a basis for estimate, and it is desirable to place
on record the experience of the expedition for the benefit of those
who may plan similar journeys.

A list of daily expenses or rates of expense follows :

Services :

Head servant ; takes charge of other servants ; guarantees their service to you
and your pay to them ; makes contracts ; purchases supplies ; may manage offi-
cial ceremonies and interpret, etc. Per month, I40 to I50.

No. I " boy " ; acts as substitute for head servant ; superintends arrangements
at inns ; does the work of a valet ; takes care of property en route and at inns,
etc. Per month, |i2 to |i6.

Cook ; skilled in preparing European food. Per month, $12 to $\6.

"Boys" and first-class coolies, employed as personal attendants to perform
any required service or labor. Per month, I5.50 to $7.50.

Kumshav^'S — /. e. , gifts — which custom requires in return for temporary serv-
ice rendered by magistrates' servants, soldiers, and couriers, may be reckoned
at rates of coolie pay, from 250 to 400 cash for each servant per day. In case
the number of recipients is large and the service slight (an escort of welcome
or farewell or the squad of retainers in attendance at a kung kuan during the
noon stop), 150 to 200 cash apiece (sixteen cash to one cent gold). When travel-
ing by the highway this charge varies from $2.50 to |4 per day ; in country
districts away from officialdom it is much less. In case the service is continued
some days or longer, there should be added a reasonable allowance for subsist-
ence, including that of a horse in case of a mounted man.

Subsistence :

In the selection of foreign food to be carried on the journey individual taste
will rule, but the temptation is to carry more than is needed. Coffee, sugar,
baking-powder, salt, canned milk, and butter are the principal articles of food
not obtainable except in the largest cities of the interior and the ports of China.
A ration, including these articles, with flour, lard, dried fruits, sweet chocolate,
preserves, and small quantity of canned goods, maybe reckoned at 35 cents per
man per day. Twenty-five cents additional may be allowed for fresh meats,
vegetables, and fruits.

Fuel is usually limited to charcoal and kerosene, but these are both available
everywhere except in remote mountain regions. Asphyxiation by charcoal
gases is a not uncommon occurrence, on account of the general use of open
braziers and the absence of ventilation. An outfit of oil-stoves and portable
lamps is to be recommended for winter journeys.

Chinese inns furnish rooms only ; all else is extra. The charge for a No. i
room, with quarters for servants and cooking, is 50 to 75 cents per day.
Transportation :

Where horses, mules, or donkeys and their drivers are employed with carts,
riding saddles, or pack saddles, i tael, about 65 cents, per day per animal is a
usual charge.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 279

Wheelbarrow coolies in Shantung ; load, 150 to 200 pounds. Per day, Yz tael.

Coolies who carry on their backs, on poles, or in "chairs" ; load, 60 to 85
pounds. Per day, ^ tael.

Boats : River sampan, 3 boatmen and i passenger with baggage. Per day, 2
taels. Houseboat, 5 boatmen and several passengers. Per day, 6 taels.

In all cases those employed "find" themselves, but a " kumshaw " is ex-
pected at the end of the service.

The members of the Carnegie expedition were received by the
Chinese government as scholars representing a great institution of
learning, and Chinese official conditions of living were thus imposed
and complied with.

With reference to safety and success, the selection of an interpreter
was of first importance. The emploj^ment of a Chinese of mandarin
rank was strongly urged by residents familiar with official life, but the
conditions of travel for geological research were such as to make this
arrangement difficult. The suggestion of an official to interpret was
put aside, and a "boy," lyi-sau, w^as secured upon recommendation
of Mr.W. S. Emens, of Tientsin, formerly judge of the criminal court
under the provisional government of 1900. Li had been a detective
under Mr. Emens, and afterward head boy to Generals Chaffee and
Howard. He served throughout the expedition with rare zeal,
ability, and honesty, proving himself equally competent in the daily
exigencies of travel, in establishing favorable relations with the
countr3^ people, and as master of ceremonies and interpreter during
official visits. To his loyalty, tact, and efficiency much of the success
of the expedition is due.

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS.

PREPARATORY.

March 20, 1903. Letter of authority to proceed under Grant No. 72.

May, June, July, 1903. Preparations : Examination of literature, purchase of
equipment, establishment of diplomatic relations.

July 27. Messrs. Willis and Blackwelder sailed for England.

August 5 to September 5. In London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and St. Peters-
burg, completing diplomatic relations and in conference with Germ;an
and Russian scientists in regard to Asiatic problems.

September 6 to 20. En route via Siberian Railway to Peking, with one-day at
Tomsk for conference with Prof. A. W. Obrutchoff.

September 21 to October 8. In Peking and Tientsin preparing for journey in
Shantung.

FIRST TRIP, SHANTUNG.

October 9 to 12. En route on Grand Canal by launch, Tientsin to Techou.
October 12 to 18. By cart, Techou to Ch'inan fu, 3 days, and 3 days at Ch'inan fu
in conference with officials.

28o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON,

Oct. 19 to Nov. 4. Making topographical and geological survey of the Ch"ang-hsia
district for stratigraphy' and paleontology of the Cambrian strata.

Nov. 5 and 6. En route Ch'ang-hsia to Tai-an fu by horse and wheelbarrows.

November 7 to 12. Geological reconnoissance of the Tai-shan pre-Cambrian rocks
and physiographic relations of the mountain.

November 13 to 15. En route Tai-an fu to Hsin-tai by horse and wheelbarrows.

November 16 to December i. Making topographical and geological survey of
the Hsin-tai district for stratigraphy and paleontology of the Cambrian
strata and the relations of post-Carboniferous normal faulting to the
present topography.

December 1 to 4. En route with geological reconnoissance, Yen-chuang to Ch'en-
ts'un, on foot, with wheelbarrows.

December 5 to 11. En route by rail and steamer, via Tsing tau, to Tientsin.

INTERIM.

December 12 to 31. At Tientsin and Peking, packing Shantung collections and
preparing for winter trip. Joined by Mr. R. H. Sargent, topographer.
Mr. Blackwelder made reconnoissance in Manchuria, December 18 to 30.
Mr. Willis made survey of artesian water conditions about Peking, De-
cember 22 to 28, at request of the American minister.

SECOND TRIP, WUTAI-SHAN.

(From Peking, via Pao-t'ing fu, Fou-ping, Wutai-shan, and Hsin-chou, to Tai-

yu-an fu. Shansi.)

January i and 2. Peking to Pao-t'ing fu by rail.

January 3 to March 7. On foot with pack-mules, Pao-t'ing fu to Tai-yuan fu ;
topographical and geological survey along route, covering a strip five to
twenty miles wide and two hundred and fifty miles long, with geology of
the pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, and Carboniferous rocks, physiography of
the Shansi Mountains, and occurrence of the loess.

March 8 to 12. At Tai-yuan fu, in conference with provincial authorities.

INTERIM.

March 13 to April i. En route Tai-yuan fu, Shansi to Hsi-an fu, Shensi, by cart,
via the highway, with observations on geology-, physiography, and loess.

April 2 to 11. At Hsi-an fu in conference with provincial authorities and prepar-
ing for journey across the mountains to the Yangtse River.

THIRD TRIP, SOUTHERN SHENSI.

(From Hsi-an fu via Chou chih hsien, Shih ch'uanhsien Hsing-an fu, and Wu-

shan to Ichang, on the Yangtse.)

April 12 to May 10. On foot, with coolie transport, across the Ch'in ling Moun-
tains, with topographical survey and geological reconnoissance from
Chou-Chih hsien, in the Wei Valley, to Shih-ch'uan hsien, in the Han
Valley ; geology of the pre-Cambrian and metamorphic Paleozoic ; phys-
iography of the mountains of southern Shensi.

May II to 14. At Shih-ch'uan hsien i day and boat trip with route traverse
down the Han River 3 days to Hsing-an fu.

May 15 and 16. At Hsing-an fu, engaging coolies.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 28 1

May 17 to June 6. Crossiuo^ the mountains via Ping^-li and Ta-ning hsien to
Wu-shan on foot with coolie train; topographical survey, geological recon-
noissance of Paleozoic strata from Cambrian to Upper Carboniferous,
with studies of the physiography.

June 6 to 8. By boat on the Yangtse River, Wu-shan to Ichang, with geological
notes ; discovery of glacial deposits of early Cambrian age.

June 9 to 13. En route, by steamer on the Yangtse River, Ichang to Shanghai.

June 14 to 20. At Shanghai.

June 20 to July 15. En route, by steamer Mongolia, from Shanghai to San
Francisco.

RESULTS OF RESEARCH.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO GKOLOGY OF THE PAI.EOZOIC KRA.

Canib}ian Strata and Faunas. — In Shantung the succession of
strata of Cambrian age was established by definite measurements in
connection with topographical sur\'eys, affording a complete record.
The work was carried out in two districts, seventy miles apart, and
variations of strata were thus determined from place to place. The
results are embodied in detailed geological maps on a large scale.
The observed facts show that the physical history of Shantung was
closely parallel in character to that of the Central Appalachian prov-
ince of North America, there being in each region a basal uncon-
formity with very ancient metamorphic rocks, a sequence of clayey
and limey deposits several thousand feet thick, and a predominance
of limestone in the upper part of each series.

From these Cambrian strata of Shantung collections of fossils were
secured which thoroughly represent the faunas of the province.
The}' comprise many forms found in North America and exhibit the
succession of genera typical of the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cam-
brian. Olenellus, the widespread genus universally found as the
forerunner of the varied life of the early Paleozoic, here occupies its
usual position near the base of the section. More complete collec-
tions and more perfect specimens may be secured in some future
work covering the whole province in detail, but such operations
were beyond the scope of this expedition, except at the cost of
abandoning other exploration.

In the province of lyiaotung, southern Manchuria, according to
Baron von Richthofen, there are strata older than the Cambrian,
and it was thought possible that we might there find a pre-Cambrian
fauna. The plan of travel in China first included a survey of Liao-
tung for this purpose, but in consequence of the sensitive political
conditions in Manchuria detailed operations were given up, on the
advice of the American minister at Pekin. Nevertheless, Mr.

282 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

Blackvvelder, in December, carried out instructions for a recounois-
sance to cover the point. The Yung-ning sandstone described by
Baron von Richthofen was found, but contains no fossils and is strati-
graphically probably not older than the lowest Cambrian of Shantung.

In Chihli and Shansi, north of latitude 38°, Cambrian strata very
similar to those in vShantung were discovered. Their general rela-
tions and sequence were observed and their occurrence noted in
connection with topographic surveys, so that the areas can be repre-
sented in a general way on the maps. Fossils were secured which
suffice to identify the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian terranes.

In southern Shensi, about latitude 31° 30', occur limestone strata
several thousand feet thick, which are but sparsely fossiliferous. In
river pebbles derived from them fragments of Olenellus were found,
which proved that the older strata are Lower Cambrian. Unfor-
tunately the beds did not appear along the route traveled, but the
limestones so closely resemble those of Middle and Upper Cambrian
age of Shantung and Shansi in certain unusual lithologic characters
as to leave little doubt of their being part of a corresponding sequence,
at the base of which the Olenellus occurs.

Cambrian Glacial Deposits . — On the Yangtse River, in latitude 31° —
z. e., as far south as New Orleans, not high above sea-level — a large
body of glacial till was discovered. It is unstratified, a mass of
indurated clay and heterogeneous bowlders, many of which exhibit
glacial polish and striae. Specimens submitted to Professor Cham-
berlin and other expert glacialists are pronounced by them unques-
tionably of glacial origin. This deposit lies near the base of the
Paleozoic system, beneath limestone which in its lowest layers
contains pebbles from the till, and which is in all probability of
Lower Cambrian age, as the specimens of Olenellus referred to in
the preceding paragraph were found in this district. The body of
till is 170 feet thick, a ver}^ considerable mass. It demonstrates
the existence of glacial conditions in a very low latitude in the early
Paleozoic. A similar occurrence at a closely related Cambrian epoch
has been reported from Scandinavia, but nowhere else has like evi-
dence been found. This discovery takes a place among'the unique
facts of geological history, and the latitude, the conditions of occur-
rence, and the conclusiveness of the evidence being considered, it
will have great weight in reference to theories of climatic change.

Ordovician Strata. — Throughout Shantung, Chihli, Shansi, and
Shensi, between latitude 30° and 40°, there is a limestone 3,000
feet or more thick, which is stratigraphically continuous with the

GKOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 283

Upper Cambrian. It contains few fossils, but enough were found
to demonstrate its Ordovician age. It is the counterpart of the
Shenandoah limestone of Virginia in lithologic character and in its
relation to the Cambrian series, and it thus appears that in eastern
Asia, as in eastern America, the passage from the Cambrian to the
Ordovician was without break in the sequence of strata or associated
faunas. This relation was not recognized by Baron von Richthofen,
who mistook the Ordovician limestone for the Carboniferous, which
it closely resembles.

In southern Shensi, on the Ta-ning River, fossils of Cincinuatian
age were collected in abundance at a single locality, the only one in
which the terrane was Leen. No previous record of the occurrence
of strata of this age in China is known to me.

Carbonijeroiis Strata. — The contribution to knowledge in reference
to the Carboniferous is a correction of former views. In southern
China there is a conspicuous Carboniferous limestone ; in southern
and northern China there is a similar limestone of Ordovician
age. Baron von Richthofen, not recognizing the distinction, mapped
the Ordovician of northern China as Carboniferous, but it is now
possible to indicate correctly the limits within which the Carbon-
iferous occurs, so far as our observations go.

Connected with the preceding is the recognition of an extensive
unconformity between the Ordovician and the Coal Measures
throughout northern China.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOI.OGV OF THE PRE-CAMBRIAN.

Basement Complex. — The occurrence in Asia of ancient crystalline
schists and intrusive igneous rock, constituting a basement complex
beneath the obviously stratified series, has long been known through
the work of Baron von Richthofen and of Russian explorers. The
present contribution to knowledge of the system consists of more
detailed observations of the relations of its members — several kinds
of schists, gneiss, granite, and basic intrusives. One area, the
Tai-shan in Shantung, was somewhat closely studied, and from it as
well as from widely separated localities in Chihli, Shansi, and Shensi,
specimens were secured for petrographic investigation.

Pre-Cambria7i Sedimentary Series. — The Wutai-shan and adjacent
mountains in northern Shansi consist of rocks ranging in age from
the extremely ancient basement complex to the Coal Measures.
Between the complex and the base of the Cambrian are two series,
both of which were described by Baron von Richthofen, the older
as the " Wutai schist," the younger as the " I^ower Sinian." In

284 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

siirve3dug the mountains the relations of these two series to earlier
and later ones have been more exactly determined, and the con-
stituent members of each series have been noted. Two points of in-
terest may be stated : a conglomerate in the Wutai schist contains
pebbles of quartzite derived from an older sedimentary formation
which has not been surely identified in place ; and with reference
to the Ivower Sinian, its relation to the Upper Sinian (Cambrian)
was observed along an extensive contact and found to be that of
marked unconformity. The Lower Sinian therefore falls out of the
Cambrian and takes a position in the geologic column parallel with
that of the Belt terrane of the northwestern United States. In the
Belt terrane, after prolonged search, Mr. Walcott discovered certain
fossils, the oldest definite forms known. The Lower Sinian was
examined by us for fossils without success, but the strata are of
limestone and shale favorable to the preservation of organic remains,
and, considering the rare occurrence of the earliest fossils, the nega-
tive result of this preliminary survey should not be considered final.
The Lower Sinian may repay exhaustive study by results of which
only exceptional localities offer any prospect anywhere in the world.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HIvSTORY OF MOUNTAINS.

The Old Viezv and the New. — When Baron von Richthofen made his
observations in China thg view prevailed that mountains were fixed
features of the earth's surface, which dated in any particular case
from a geologic age, however remote, represented by the youngest
rocks in the mountain structure. This view is expressed in all the
accounts of Asia by European scientists. In America, during the
last fifteen years, through the study of topographic forms, it has
been shown that the mountains of this continent are relatively
recent features as compared with the rocks composing them, and
owe their elevation to forces acting during the latest geologic periods
down to the present. It was a point of prime interest in the com-
parative geology of continents whether the American methods of
study applied to Asia would show that mountain growth had re-
cently been active there also. The observations of this expedition
demonstrate clearly that the histories of mountains in North America
and China run closely parallel in time, in manner of development,
and in resulting features of relief. The studies of Professor Davis
in western Asia point in the same direction, and the (as yet unpub-
lished) investigations of Professors Penck and De Martonne in the
Alps and Karpathians extend the generalization to central Europe.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 285

The conclusion that mountains are recent growths — indeed, are in
some districts now actively growing — is far-reaching in effect on
theories of the earth's internal energy and its manifestations,

Moimtaiyi Groivths of China. — The oldest topographic surface rec-
ognized in China was once in part a hilly region, in part a nearly
level peneplain, which stood but slightly above sea level during early
and perhaps middle Tertiary time. That surface has since been
warped. Where depressed it lies below sea level, buried under the
alluvial deposits of the Huang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang ; where ele-
vated it tops the summits of mountain masses, even the Wutai-shan,
at an elevation of 10,000 feet. Where the plain has been elevated,
valleys and canyons are sculptured in the subjacent rock masses, and
these, in their relative positions and in their forms, express the con-
ditions under which they have been modeled. These conditions have
varied from epoch to epoch, and the history of the changes is read in
the mountain forms. Through our observations in China we recog-
nize that the surface has been warped intermittently, episodes of rela-
tively active movement having alternated with those of comparative
quiescence. These variations distinguish stages of development
which are capable of arrangement in a general sequence parallel
with the history of mountains in North America.

A discussion of the events of mountain growth is beyond the scope
of this preliminary report, but it is of interest to note that the great
ranges in eastern Asia, like those of western North America, are of
very recent development. Conspicuous among the mountains we
have seen are the Ho-shan of Shansi and the Hua-shan of Shensi.
They are ranges of great altitude, with bold, even fronts like the
Wasatch in Utah, and, like the Wasatch, they each define one
margin of a dislocation in the earth's superficial crust, along which
displacement has very recently occurred or is now going on. The
superb scenery of the great gorges of the Yangtse and of the mountain
region which extends north to the Huang-ho is a result of very recent
unwarping, in spite of which the larger streams have held their
courses, as the Columbia River has across the rising Cascade range.

In addition to the interest which attaches to the history of moun-
tain growth in China for itself, and to the broad inferences which
may follow from a comparison with the mountains of North Amer-
ica, the study affords important criteria for the new science of physi-
ography, since the conditions in China have in some respects been
peculiar. Among the interesting problems upon which our physio-
graphic investigations throw light is that of the loess.

2 86 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

The Loess. — Among the problems of geology in China, none has
been more widely discussed than that of the origin and occurrence
of the extensive and thick mantle of yellow earth, characterized by
fine texture and vertical structure, to which Baron von Richthofen
gave the name of loess. It is typically developed in Shansi and
northern Shensi, along the route of our expedition, and presents
those anomalie sof distribution which in part led Von Richthofen to
the theory that the material is wind- carried dust from the deserts of
central Asia. It occurs frequently on mountain slopes, where
waters could not possibly have deposited it under existing topo-
graphic conditions, and he consequently rejected the idea that it
might have been deposited by rivers. The hypothesis of purely eolian
origin excites doubt in view of the enormous mass of the loess, as well
as because of facts of occurrence, and in America leading students
of the loess of the Missouri Valley incline to attribute its special
character to interaction of rivers and winds. The problem in China
is much more complex than in the United States, but light is thrown
on it by a proper understanding of the history of the mountains.

In the development of the topography there was a stage when
there were broad valleys which became overspread with alluvial
deposits. Later the surface was strongly warped, stream courses
became readjusted, and the alluvium was in part redistributed, but
in part remains in remnants on hills produced b}' the warping of the
flood-plains. The alluvium was and is loess. It owes its fine, uni-
form texture to sifting by wind, and its peculiar structure may be
a physical effect of the capillary movement of water in the impal-
pable dust beds, but it probably accumulated as the alluvium of the
Huang-ho and other streams. The interaction of winds and rivers
was specially favored by the climatic conditions of the Pleistocene,
which in America and Europe gave rise to the great ice-sheets. In
China there was no glaciation, but, according to the history of the
mountains, the time of loess accumulation fell in early Pleistocene,
and the deposit may be considered the representative in eastern
Asia of our glacial beds. The observations made during our jour-
ney bring the facts of the loess into accord with the physiographic
history of the region in which it occurs, and into agreement with the
similar formation in America. We supplement the views of Baron
von Richthofen : We regard the agency of wind, upon which he laid
stress, as of prime importance in producing the peculiar texture of
the loess and in distributing the dust locally ; we show that, at
present, winds and streams are both engaged in transporting it,

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 287

Streams doing the greater part of the work ; that during an epoch
shortly preceding the present, topographic conditions were unhke
those now existing, and were favorable to the accumulation of
alluvium in places where its situation is now peculiar, and we reason
that the same agencies, streams and winds interacting, spread the
deposit initiallj'.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF MAN.

Denudation and Terracing. — Northern China is remarkably bare of
trees, shrubs, or herbage, except shade-trees, fruit-trees, crops, and
on steep hillsides strong-rooted, ineradicable grass. This condition
is the work of man. Unchecked by public opinion or by regard
for future generations, the Chinese have destroyed vegetation in
supplying individual need. The process still continues, as, pressed
by the necessity for fuel, they scratch up the scanty grass by the
roots with a specialh' contrived tool.

The effects of denudation are more pronounced in Shantung than
in any other province visited. For 3,000 years or more the process
has been efl&ciently promoted by a dense population, which has
removed not only vegetation, but also soil, wherever the latter was
not deep enough to grow crops or did not present a nearly level
surface. The disastrous effects of heavy rains must early have led
to the practice of terracing, which is now universal and which is
extended to the utmost limits of gathering soil. In a few rare in-
stances in Shantung we found thin soil on steep slopes near moun-
tain tops, dug up above a stone wall with the obvious purpose that
it should be washed down and caught. Everywhere below was the
perfected system of terraces — soil reservoirs.

Northern Shausi presents similar conditions, but in a less advanced
stage. The Wutai-shan affords an especially interesting example.
The mountains were forest-covered with pines up to the time of the
Emperor Chien Lung, who, about 160 years ago, issued an edict
that the district which had previously been inhabited only by priests
should be populated. The trees were rapidly destroyed ; the great
bare mountains are now at the mercy of the elements, and huge
gullies, eating their way toward the summits, tell what progress
denudation is making, as do also the wastes of gravel and sand along
the streams. The method of terracing, in general use elsewhere, is
but rudely developed in the Wutai, yet a beginning is made, and
the necessities of agriculture will demand that it be perfected.

In southern Shensi the climate is less rigorous and vegetation is
more luxuriant. There forests of pine still cover large areas in dis-
20

288 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

tricts SO remote or so difficult of access that the Chinese can not
utilize the timber, and slopes which are not in cultivation become
overgrown with shrubs.

These observations of destructive and constructive activity in dif-
ferent stages of progress afford important suggestions for the people
of less densely populated countries. The photographs secured
strikingly illustrate the facts noted.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOGRAPHY.

Mother-maps of China. — The original surveys upon which maps of
China are based are of four classes : Chinese maps ; the astronomical
positions determined by the Jesuits prior to 1730; travelers' route
traverses ; and modern surveys by military intelligence branches of
the English, German, French, and Russian governments. Trav-
elers' traverses, 'executed with compass, barometer, and rude methods
of measuring distances, have supplied the greater part of cartographic
data ; and the contribution of Baron von Richthofen is conspicuous
in all maps of districts through which he journeyed. The recent
surveys b}' military officers in north China have not been extended
beyond the great plain, except perhaps along certain principal high-
ways, and in Shantung, where the Germans are making a detailed
map. The geographic surveys of the Carnegie expedition are con-
tributions which, for accuracy of positions, rank with the best of
the military surveys, and in topographic expression excel them.

Methods of Topographic Survey. — In general the methods of the
survey were those developed with the plane-table in the western
United States by the United States Geological Survey, except that
primary triangulation points were not available. When practicable
a base line was measured, triangulation was expanded from it by
theodolite or plane-table, and stations were occupied with the plane-
table for location of numerous points by intersection and for topo-
graphic sketching. Where this graphic triangulation was not prac-
ticable a stadia traverse was carefully run. Relative altitudes were
determined by vertical angles. At Paoting fu the elevation of the
Belgian railway was taken as a datum, and heights above sea-level
were thus closely determined. Elsewhere a datum based on aneroid
barometers was the best available, and absolute elevations are merely
approximate, although relative heights are as nearly correctly deter-
mined as the vertical-angle method permits.

Throughout Mr. Sargent's work determinations of latitude were
made both by sextant and by observations on Polaris whenever con-

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 289

ditions permitted. Polaris was also frequently observed for azimuth.
The surveys in Shantung, which I executed before Mr. Sargent
joined the party, lacked these checks, but were otherwise carried
out with plane-table and graphic triangulation by the methods which
he employed.

Summary of Geographic Results. — All our topographic maps are
on a scale of i : 90,000, with contour interval of 100 feet.

In Shantung : Topographic maps of two special areas, bj- Bailey
Willis. The Ch'ang-hsia district, 135 square miles; the Hsin-tai
district, 230 square miles. These are base maps to illustrate geo-
logical relations and physiographic types. They are too limited to
have much geographic significance. In exchange for data relating
to names, on request of Oberlieutenant Kleeman, in charge, copies
were furnished the German Intelligence Department at Tientsin, to
be incorporated in the map of Shantung.

In Chihli and Shansi : Topographic maps of the route from Pao-
t'ing fu via Wutai-.shan to Tai-yuan fu, by R. H. Sargent. The area
represented is 250 miles long by 5 to 20 miles wide. The survey
was exeeuted by graphic triangulation expanded from a base line at
T'ang hsien, Chihli, to a second base line at Tai-yuan fu, Shansi. A
short stretch on the plain from Pao-t'ing fu to T'ang h'sien was
measured by stadia traverse, triangulation being impracticable. The
latitude and longitude of Pao-t'ing fu were accepted as determined
by the British Intelligence Branch, and all other points of the sur-
vey, including Wutai-shan and Tai-yuan fu, are fixed by the triangu-
lation with reference to this datum. Independent observations for
latitude serve as checks ; by means of contours the elevation and
form of topographic features are expressed in a manner adequate for
engineering plans or physiographic studies, as they have not pre-
viously been for any considerable area of China of which maps are
published. As the survey extends from the low plain at Pao-t'ing fu
over the mountain passes into Shansi covers much of the Wutai-shan
at altitudes of 8,000 to 10,000 feet,, and descends into the basin of
Tai-yuan fu, along an old but not previously surveyed main route of
commerce, it is an original contribution of much value.

In Shensi : A continuous traverse, about 375 miles long, in three
sections. First section : From Chou-chih hsien, in the Wei Valley,
across the Ch'in-ling Mountains, to Shih ch'uan-hsien, on the Han
River, 100 miles ; expanded from a base line by graphic triangula-
tion to the crest of the Ch'in-ling range and thence extended as a
stadia traverse, with topographic sketching, the conditions being

290 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

unfavorable for triangulating. Second section : From Shih-ch'uan
hsien to Hsing-an fu by boat, 100 miles ; directions by compass and
distances by time, with estimate of rate of progress. Third section:
From Hsing-an fu, on the Han, to Wu-shan, on the Yangtse River,
175 miles; by stadia traverse, with topographic sketching. The
whole was checked throughout by observations for latitude. These
three sections furnish a map along routes not previously surveyed,
except that the third section coincided with a military reconnois-
sance executed a few weeks earlier by the British party under Colonel
Manifold, of whose plans we were not aware in selecting a way
across the mountains. From the Wei Valley to the Yangtse is a
mountainous region, scarcely known as to general features and not
at all as to details which express physiographic history or the diffi-
culties opposed to engineering ; the Han is an important route of
commercial exchange of which our traverse covers a stretch hitherto
not mapped ; the contribution to geographic knowledge is one of
definite facts where previous information was vague or lacking.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO ZOOLOGY.

Mamvials, Birds, and Reptiles. — Through the special knowledge
of natural history possessed by Mr. Blackwelder, and especially of
birds, the scientific results secured hy the expedition are enriched
by his observations on the distribution and habits of mammals, birds,
and reptiles. His notes cover, of mammals, 11 species, i specimen ;
of birds, 150 species, 64 specimens; of reptiles and amphibians, 10
species, 10 specimens. Those species not represented by specimens
are described from notes taken in the field. Among the data is a daily
roll-call of the birds seen from October to June in the widely sepa-
rated districts of plain and mountain which we traversed.

ARTESIAN WATERS.

Peking and Vicinity. — At the request of the American minister,
Hon. E. H. Conger, and by the authority of the Director of the
Carnegie Institution, I made an investigation of the artesian water
conditions in the vicinity of Peking, and reported favorably. The re-
port was addressed to Mr. Conger, was by him forwarded to the
State Department, and thence referred to the United States Geolog-
ical Survey for suggestions in regard to well boring.

The water-supply of Pekin is very inadequate and seriously con-
taminated. Should a successful well be drilled it will lead to ma-
terial benefit to the American Legation, to the foreign community,
and in time possibly to the Chinese population.

GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN ASIA. 29 1

PHOTOGRAPHS.

Snap Shots. — The party was equipped with pocket kodaks and
with one No. 4 Panoram kodak, with which altogether a thousand
or more snap shots were secured. These are useful as notes and 5
to 10 per cent of them may be appropriate in illustrating reports.

Time Photographs. — Being supplied with a 6}4 by 83^ camera and
Zeiss combination lens, loaned by the United States Geological Sur-
vey, I was able to take many photographs not within the reach of
snap-shot cameras. About 250 good negatives were obtained, com-
prising subjects in scenery, architecture, temples, idols, and portraits
of much interest.

INDEX.

Page
Abel, Annie H., Investigations concerning Early Indian Policy of the

United States : 1 20

Abel, John J 103

Abrasive Materials, Investigation concerning 58

Accompanying Papers, List 7

Act of Incorporation 9-12

Adams, A. D 60

Adams, E. D., On Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy 67

Adams, Frank D., Investigation on Flow of Rocks 119

Adams, Henry C 63

Adams, W. S 157

Agriculture and Forestry, Investigation concerning 56

Allen, C. E., Research Assistant 146

Amendment of By-laws 16

Anatomical Notes on Certain Strand Plants, by M. A. Chrysler 148

Anau, Excavations at .... 75

Andrews, Charles M 65

Anthracite Coal, Investigation concerning 57

Anthropology, Projects concerning 83-84

Antiquity of the Zeanuthid Actinians, by J. E. Duerden 149

Appropriations by Board of Trustees, December 8, 1903 21

Archeological Expedition to Trans-Caspian Region 75-79

Archeology, Projects concerning 84-85

Archives at Washington, Guide to 65

Arikara, Traditions of 83

Artesian Waters in the Vicinity of Pekin ... 290

Articles of Incorporation 9-1 2

Asbestos, Study of . . 58

Associates at Cold Spring Harbor Station 28

Astronomical Manuscript. 147

Astronomical Observations and Computations 85

Astronomy, Projects concerning 85-95

Atmospheric Pressure at Mount Wilson 167

Atwater, W. O. , Investigations in Nutrition 130

Babine, A. V 98

Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases 147

Balch, Miss E. G 56

Bancroft, Wilder D., on a Systematic Chemical Study of Alloys 104

Banks, Enoch M 56

Barnett, S. J., Research on Electric Displacement 124

Barytes, Study of 58

Basement Complex, Eastern Asia 283

Baskerville, Charles, on Investigation of Rare Earths 105

293

294 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Page

Bateson, William 29

Bauer, L. A., and Littlehales, G. W., on Proposed Magnetic Survey of

the North Pacific Ocean 269-273

Baxter, Gregory T., Research upon the Atomic Weight of Manganese . . 105

Becker, George F . 80

Behr, Gustave E 112

Bell, Alexander Graham 29, 32

Benton, J. R ' 80

Bibliographic Index of North American Fungi 147

Bibliography of Work Accomplished by Grantees 14S-152

Bibliography, Projects concerning 95-98

Billings, John S. :

Elected Member of Executive Committee 17

Remarks at Opening of Cold Spring Harbor Station 37-38

Biology, Experimental, Department of 22-54

Bituminous Coal, Investigation concerning 58

Blackmar, F. W 56

Blackwelder, Eliot 275

Blakeslee, A. F. , Research Assistant . . . 146

Bliss, Frederick J., Excavations in Syria and Palestine.. 84

Bogart, E. L 63

Boss, L,ewis 155

Astronomical Observations and Computations 85

On Southern Observatory Project I75-I77

Botanical Laboratory at Tucson 98

Botany, Projects concerning. 98-102

Bowles, M. N 57

Brazos Valley, Agricultural Industry in 56

Brief Notes on Mosquito Larvae, by H. G. Dyar 149

British Archives 65

Britton, N. L 28

Brooks, Hildegard 75

Brough, C. H 63

Brown, Amos P 134

Bryan, Walter 144

Building Stones, Investigation concerning 58

Butterfield, K. L 55,56

Byall, J. B '61

By-laws of the Carnegie Institution of Washington 13-16

Caddoan Stock, Tribes of 83

Cambrian Glacial Deposits in Eastern Asia 282

Campbell, William, Research on Heat Treatment of Some High-carbon

Steels 124

Campbell, W. W 155

Investigations by 86

Cannon, W. A q8

Carboniferous Strata in Eastern Asia 283

Carhart, Henry S., Preparation of Material for Standard Cells 124

INDEX. 295

Page

Carlson, A. J i 4

Research on the Physiology of the Invertebrate Heart 134

Carver, T. N 56

Cash Statement at close of Fiscal Year ending October 31, 1904 18

Castle, W. E 28

Castle, W. E., and E. L. Mark, Experimental Studies in Heredity 136

Cat and the Child, by C. E. Browne 148

Catalogue of Double Stars 147

Catalogue of Standard Stars, by Lewis Boss 148

Cements, Study of. . 58

Chairman of Board of Trustees 13

Chamberlin, T. C, on Fundamental Problems in Geology 117, 195-267

Chaucer, Lexicon to Works of 96

Chemical Materials, Study of 58

Chemistry, Projects concerning 103-113

Children's Ideas of Fire, Heat, Frost, and Cold, by G. Stanley Hall and

C. E. Browne 149

Childs, C. D., Investigation of Ionization in the Neighborhood of a Mer-
cury Arc in a Vacuum 126

Chimera — Memoir on the Embryology of Primitive Fishes 147

China, Mother-maps of 288

Chittenden, Russel H., Investigation in Nutrition 131

Chromium, Investigation concerning 57

Chrysler, M. A., Anatomical Notes on Certain Strand Plants 148

Clay Materials, Investigation concerning 58

Clay Stratas and Faunas in Eastern Asia 281

Cloudiness at Mount Wilson 165

Coastwise Commerce, American, Study of 60

Coblentz, W. W. , Research Assistant 146

Cold Spring Harbor 22-32

Correspondence 28

Description of Grounds and Building 24-27

Honorary Associates 27, 28

Library 27

Publications. 32

Scientific Work ^9

Collected Mathematical Works of G. W. Hill I47

Color Inheritance in Mice, by C. B. Davenport 149

Coloration in Polistes '47

Commerce, Domestic and Foreign, Economic Study of 60

Committees of Board of Trustees, By-laws concerning 15

Conditions which govern the Appearance of Spark Lines in Arc Spectra,

by Henry Crew M9

Cone, Lee H 106

Contributions to Study of Behavior of Lower Organisms i47

Contributions to Stellar Statistics '47

Conway, Thomas ^°

Cooper, Franklin W 38

296 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Page

Cooper, Hermon C 109

Copper, Investigation concerning 57

Coral Siderastrcea radians 147

Correns, C. E 29

Correspondence. Cold Spring Harbor Station . . 28

Cortelyou, George B 5°

Coville:, Frederick V 9^5

Coxe, Eckley B 58

Craig, Wallace 1 45

Craighill, W. E 50

Crampton, Henry E 28

On Laws of Variation and Inheritance of Certain Lepidoptera 136

Creak, E. W 74,272

Crew, Henry, Study of Certain Arc Spectra 126

Cuenot, Lucien 29

Culex perturbans. First stage of, by H. G. Dyar and R. P. Currie 149

Curiosity and Interest, by G. Stanley Hall and T. L. Smith 149

Curtis, W. C 145

Daggett, S 60

Darstellung und Eigenscliaften eines Abbauproductes des Epinephrins,

byj. J. Abel 148

Darwin, G. H., on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences. . 189-190

Davenport, Charles B 22

Address at Opening of Station for Experimental Evolution 33-34

Report as Director of Station for Experimental Evolution 23-32

Davis, Bradley ]M 145

Davis, Herman S., Investigations by 87

Day, Arthur L,-, Report on Investigation of Mineral Fusion and Solution

under Pressure So

Dean. A. L-, Research Assistant 146

De Mello, Carlos, Report on Bibliography of Geophysics 81

Description of the New Oxygen Apparatus Accessory to the Calorimeter. 147

Desert Botanical Laboratory of Carnegie Institution 147

Papers relating to ." 100

Report on 98-100

Desert Shrubs, Absorption and Transpiration of Water by 102

De Vries, Hugo 28, 30, 38

Address at Opening of Cold Spring Harbor Station 39-49

Dewey, D. R 55,61

Dickson, L. E. , Research Assistant 146

Dieserud, J 98

Diplomatic Correspondence of State Department 66

Dorsey, George A., Investigation among Tribes of Caddoan Stock 83

Dought)', H. W., Research Assistant 146

Dry Tortugas Station 22

Duerden, J. E. , Morphology and Development of Recent and Fossil Corals. 137

Duggan, B. M 145

Durand, W. F., Experiments on Ship Resistance and Propulsion 113

Earth's Magnetism, Existing Data concerning 73

INDEX. 297

Page

Eastern Asia, Geological Research in 275-291

Eckels, E. C 58

Economics and Sociology, Department of, Report by Carroll D. Wright. 55-67

Edquist, J. A I45

Eigenmann, Carl H., Investigation of Blind Fishes in Cuba 138

Electromotive Force of Clark & Weston Standard Cells, Absolute Value of,

by Henry S. Carhart 148

Ellerman, Ferdinand I57

Elster, J , 68

Ely, Richard T. . . 62

Engineering, Projects concerning 113-114

Epinephrin and Its Compounds, by J. J. Abel 147

Eucorethra, a Genus of Culicidae, by D. W. Coquillett 148

Evolution, Racial and Habitudinal I47

lixact Sciences, Methods for Promoting Research in 1 79-193

Executive Administration, By-laws concerning. 14

Executive Committee . . ; 3

Duties of ... . '5

Report on the Work of the Year 21-152

Experimental Biology, Department of 22-54

Experimental Evolution :

Aim of, Address by Dr. Hugo de Vries 39~49

First Report of Station for 23-32

Explorations in Turkestan i47

Fairchild, F. R 62

Farnam, Henry W 55. 62

Farrar, C. B. , Research Assistant - ^46

Fecundation in Plants i47

Federal and State Finance, including Taxation, Study of 63

Finance Committee 3

Dilties of 15

Finance, Federal and State, including Taxation, Study of 63

Financial Administration of Carnegie Institution of Washington, By-laws

concerning 16

Financial Statement 20

Fischer, E 29

Fisheries, American, Outline of History of 61

Fletcher, Robert, Report on Index Medicus 95

Fliigel, Ewald • • 9^

Fluorescence of Sodium "Vapor 129

Fluor-spar, Study of 5^

Forbes, George S ^ ^ 2

Foreign Trade, American, Study of 60

Fossil Chelonia of North America 122

Fossil Turtles belonging to the Marsh Collection in Yale University

Museum, by O. P. Hay I49

Four New Species of Culex, by D. W. Coquillett 148

Frazer, J. C. W 108

298 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Page

Fullers' Earth, Study of 58

FuQction of Suprarenal Glands and Chemical Nature of their so-called

Active Principle, by J. J. Abel 148

Fundamental Problems in Geology 195-267

Gardner, Henry B 55. 63

Garstang, William ii4

Geitel, H 68

Geological Research in Eastern Asia 275-291

Geology :

Fundamental Problems of 195-267

Projects concerning 117-118

Geophysical Research :

Geophj'sics, Bibliography of 81

Report by George F. Becker 80

Geophysics, Projects concerning 1 19-120

Getman, F. H 106

Giesecke, A. A 60

Gilbert, G. K. , on Plans for Obtaining Subterranean Temperatures. 120, 259-267
Gilman, Daniel C. :

Chairman of Executive Committee 21

Resignation as President 17

Goldenweiser, M. E 55

Gomberg, Moses 106

Goss, W. F. M., Research to Determine the Value of High Steam Press-
ures in I^ocomotive Service . . . ^ 14

Graphite, Study of 58

Grimsley, G. P 58

Groat, George C 62

Guide to the Archives of the Government at Washington 65, 147

Gypsum, Study of 58

Hale, George E. :

Experiments on Use of Fused Quartz for Construction of Optical

Mirrors 127

Investigations by 88-90

On Conditions for Solar Research at Mount Wilson, California . . . 155-174

Report on Solar Observatory at Mount Wilson, California 94

Hammond, M. B 59

Handbook of Learned Societies. 97

Hay, Oliver P., On the Fossil Chelonia of North America 122

Hedrick, W. 0 63

Heredit}'^ of Coat Characters in Guinea Pigs and Rabbits 147

Hinks, A. R 93

Historical Research :

Bureau of. Report by Andrew C. McLaughlin, Director 65-67

Projects concerning 120-121

Hollander, J. H 62

Holmes, William H., Report on Evidence Relative to History of Early

Man in America. . 84

Hooker, John D . . 157

INDEX. 299

Howard, L. O.: Page

Geographic Distribution of the Yellow Fever Mosquito 150

Report on American Mosquitoes 1 28

Howe, William Wirt, Inquiry into the Subject of an Investigation on

Legal History and Comparative Jurisprudence 121

Hulbner, S 60

Humidity at Mount Wilson, California . 165

Huntington, Ellsworth 75

Hurst, C. C 29

Hussey, W. J 155

Igneous Rocks, Chemical Investigations of 1 13

Illustrations, List of 7

Immigration and Population 55

Inactive Thorium, by Charles Baskerville and Fritz Zerban 148

Incorporation, Articles of 9-12

Index Medicus 95

Indiana, Study of Financial History of 63

Industrial Organization, Study of 62

Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy 147

Ingalls, Walter R 57

Insurance, Study of 62

Investments of Carnegie Institution of Washington 19. 20

Iron Ores, Investigation concerning 57

Jenks, J. W 55, 62

Jennings, H. S I45

Johnson, Emory R 5°, 60

Johnson, John M 23

Johnson, Roswell P 22

Jones, Charles 32

Jones, David 32

Jones, H. C , Investigations in Physical Chemistry 106

Jones, H. C, and F. H. Getman :

Existence of Alcoholates in Solutions of Certain Electrolytes in

Alcohol 150

Existence of Hydrates in Solutions of Certain Non-Electrolytes 150

Nature of Concentrated Solutions of Electrolytes 150

Jones, John D 23, 33, 36

Jones, John H 35

Jones, O. L 32

Jones, William ^3

Jones, William, Research Assistant 146

Jones, W. R. T., Address at Opening of Cold Spring Harbor Station 34

Kastle, J. H., and Elias Elvove, On the Reduction of Nitrates of Certain

Plant Extracts and Metals 15°

Kato, Yogoro • 109

Kelly, T. E 23, 28

Kidder, Homer. 75

King, A. S., Research Assistant 146

Detailed Study of Line Spectrum of Copper 15°

Study of Causes of Variability of Spark Spectra 150

300 CARNEGIP; INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Page

King, Cyrus A I44

Koch, Julius A i44

Kraemer, Henry I44

Kuiiz, George F., On Precious Stones and Minerals Used in Ancient

Babylonia ^ 84

Labor Movement, Study of History of 62

Land Ownership in Georgia 56

Landis, W. S 57

Laney, F. P 58

Lang, Arnold 29

Langley, S. P I55

Larva of Culex pimdor, by H. G. Dyar 149

Larvae of the Mosquitoes Megarrhinus rutilus and M. portoricensis , by

H. G. Dyar 149

Lead, Investigations concerning 57

Learned Societies, Handbook of 97

Leavell, R. H 56

Lehmer, Derrick N 121

Leith, C. K 57

Leland, Waldo G . . . 65

Levene, P. A., Research Assistant 146

(i) Autolysis of Animal Organs. (2) Hydrolitic Cleavage of Fresh

and Self-digested Glands 150

Darstellung und Analyse Einiger Nucliusauren 150

Hydrolysis of Spleen Nucleic Acid by Dilute Mineral Acid 150

Levene, P. A., and L. B. Stookey, on Combined Action of Proteolytic

Enzymes 150

Lewis, E. Percival :

Afterglow of Metallic Vapors in Nitrogen 150

Spectra of Nitrogen and its Oxides 150

Vacuum-tube Spectra of Gases and Vapors 128

Lewis, Warren H 144

Life History of Culex canlans, by H. G. Dyar 149

Life History of Culex pimdor, by H. G. Dyar 149

Lillie, R. S., Research Assistant 146

Linde, Curtis eg

Lithium Minerals, Study of rg

Lithograph Stone, Study of eg

Lithonia District 26'>

Littlehales, G. W ^4

Littlehales, G. W., and Bauer, L. A., on Proposed Magnetic Survey of

North Pacific Ocean 26Q-27'i

Livingston, Burton E., on Investigations of Relations of Desert Plants to

Soil Moisture and Evaporation joq

Lloyd, F. E '!!!".''!''.'!'' 100

Lockwood, W. D c^

Loeh. Leo . ; J44

On the Spontaneous Agglutination of Blood Cells of Arthropods ... 150

Uber die Koagulation des Bhites Eineger Arthropoden 150

INDEX. 301

Page

hong Island Railroad '. 23

Louderback, G. D., Research Assistant 146

Basin Range Structure of Humboldt Region 150

Lower Organisms, Contributions to Study of Behavior. 147

Ivuetscher, G. D 59

Lunn, Arthur C. , Letter of 256-258

Lutz, Anne M 23, 28, 31

Report b}' .... 31

Lutz, Frank E . . 23, 27

Report by 31

Research Assistant 146

MacDougal, D. T 28, 31, 98

Botanical Explorations in the Southwest 150

Delta and Desert Vegetation 150

McBain, W. J 107

McCarthy, Charles 59

McClelland, J. F 57

McClendon, J. F 144

McClung, C. E., Comparative Study of Spermatogenesis of Insects 139

McFarland, Raymond 61

McLaughlin, A. C. :

Papers of William Paterson on the Federal Convention, 1787 150

Report on Department of Historical Research 65-67

Sketches of Charles Pinckney's plan for Constitution, 1787 150

Magnesite, Study of 58

Magnetic Data, Compilation and Discussion of 69

Magnetic Perturbations during Eruption of Mont Pelee 72

Magnetic Survey of the North Pacific Ocean 269-273

Magnetism, Terrestrial, Report on, by L. A. Bauer 68-74

Manganese :

Atomic Weight of 105

Investigation concerning 57

Manufactures, Economic Investigations concerning 59

Marine Biological Laboratory :

Tortugas, Fla. , Report on '50-54

Woods Hole, Mass 22,144

Mark, E. L 28

Marriage and Fecundity of College Men and Women, by G. Stanley Hall

and T. L. Smith 149

Mascart, E 68

Massachusetts Trust Companies and Savings Banks 61

Mathematics, Projects concerning 121-122

Mayer, Alfred G 22

Report of Progress in Establishment of Marine Biological Laboratory

at Tortugas, Fla 50-54

Melcher, Arthur C 109

Memoir on Fossil Cycads I47

Mercer, W. F I45

302 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Page

Merchant Marine, American, Study of 60

Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences 179-193

Mica, Investigation concerning 5^

Michelson, A. A 128

Michigan, Study of Financial History of 63

Miller, W. L., Study of Electric Migrations in Solutions of Weak

Acids 107

Mineral Fusion and Solution under Pressure 80

Mineral Pigments, Study of 5^

Mining, Investigation concerning 57

Minor, Marie L, I44

Minutes of Second Meeting of Board of Trustees of Carnegie Institution

of Washington 1 7-20

Mississippi, Taxation in 63

Mitchell, T. W 60

Mitchell, Wesley C 61

Moenkhaus, W. J 28

Money and Banking, Study of History of 61

Mont Pelee, Magnetic Perturbations Observed 72

Morphology of the Madreporaria and Septal Sequence, by J. E. Duerden. 149

Morse, A. P., New Acridiidte from the Southeastern States 150

Morse, H. N., Method for Measurement of Osmotic Pressure 108

Morse, H. N. , and J. C. W. Frazer, A New Electric Furnace and Various

Other Electric Heating Appliances for Ivaboratory Use 150

Morse, Max W 145

Mother-maps of China 288

Moulton, F. R., Letter of 255-256

Mountain Growths of China 285

Mountains, History of . . . . 284

Mount Wilson, California, Study of Conditions for Solar Research at. . 155-174

Weather Tables 164-1 71

Muller, W. Max, Investigation concerning Monuments of Egypt and

Nubia 84

Munroe, Charles E 58

Mussey, Henry R 59

Mutants and Hybrids of the Oenotheras 147

Mythology of the Wichita 147

Naples Zoological Station 145

Natural Gas, Investigation concerning 58

Nervous Origin of Heart-beat in Limulus, by A. J. Carlson 148

New Anopheles with Unspotted Wings, by D. W. Coquillett 148

New Culicid Genus Related to Corethra, by D. W. Coquillett 148

New Method of Determining Compressibility 147

New North American Diptera, by D. W. Coquillett 148

Newcomb, Simon jrr

Investigations by 90-92

Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences 179-181

Newell, F. H 259

INDEX. 303

Noguchi, H.: Page

Comparative Study of Snake Venom and Snake Sera 150

Effect of Snake Venom on Blood Corpuscles of Cold-blooded Ani-
mals 133, 150

Heat Ivability of the Complements of Cold-blooded Animals 151

Interaction of the Blood of Cold-blooded Animals with Reference to

Haemolysis 151

Multiplicity of the Serum haem-agglutinins of Cold-blooded Animals . 151
Study of Immunization-haemolysins, Agglutinins, Precipitins, and

Coagulins in Cold-blooded Animals 151

Normal Arc Spectra of Aluminium and Cadmium, by Henry Crew 149

North, S. N. D 55, 59

North Pacific Ocean, Proposed Magnetic Survey of 269-273

Notes on Culex nigntulus, by D. W. Coquillett 148

Notes on the Mosquitoes of British Columbia, by H. G. Dyar 149

Noyes, A. A., Researches by . . 109-111

Nutrition, Investigations in 130-132

Nymphsea in Africa, by H. S. Conard 148

Observations on the Germination of Phoradendron villosum and P. cali-

fornicum, by William A. Cannon 148

Officers of Board of Trustees, By-laws concerning 13

Officers of the Carnegie Institution of Washington 3

Ohio, Study of Financial History of 63

Olive, E. W. :

Cytology of Certain Lower Plants .... loi

Mitotic Division of Nuclei of Cyanophycese 151

Optical Notes, by W. W. Coblentz 148

Ordovician Strata in Eastern Asia 282

Orr, Arthur 157

Osborn, Thomas B., Research on Chemical Substances Yielded by Pro-

teids of the Wheat Kernel when Decomposed by Acids iii

Osmotic Pressure, Method for Measurement 108

Overton, James B. , Uber Parthenogenesis bei Thalidrum purptirascens. . . 151
Oxidation and Reduction in the Animal Organism, by J. H. Kastle and

Elias Elvove 150

Paleontology, Projects concerning 122-124

Palestine and Syria, Excavations in. 84

Parker, E. W 55, 57

Parkhurst, J. A. :

Faint Stars near the Trapezium on the Orion Nebula.. 151

Nova Geminorum — An Early Photograph and Photographic Magni-
tudes 151

Observed Magnitudes of 62. 1903 Andromedae 151

Photometric Magnitudes of Comparison 151

Stars for Nova Geminorum 151

The Variable Star 1921 W Aurigae 151

The Variable Star 6871 V Lyrae 151

Patten, William, Studies relating to the Origin of Vertebrates 140

Patterson, George W 125

304 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Page

Patterson, W. P 59

Pearl, Raymond, Investigation by Statistical Methods of Correlation in

Variation 14°

Pearl, Raymond, and Mary J. Burr, A Statistical Study of Conjugation in

Paramecium ^5i

Pearson, Karl. Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in the Exact

Sciences 184-188

Pease, Arthur Stanley 3°

Pekin, Water Supply of 290

Perkins, H. F., Double Reproduction in the Medusa Hybocodon protifer . 151

Perkins, I., Marantacese of the Philippines 151

Petroleum, Investigation concerning 58

Phenomena of Repair in Cerebral Cortex, by C. B. Farrar 149

Phillips, U. B 59

Research Assistant 146

Phonetics, Experimental 114-115

Physics, Projects concerning 124-130

Physiology, Projects concerning 130-134

Piazzi's Star Observations, New Reduction of, by H. S. Davis 87

Pickering, E. C 92, I55

Grant from Carnegie Institution 151

Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences. 193

Nova Geminorum before Its Discovery , 151

Plehn, C. C 63

Plurality of Cytolysins in Normal Blood Serum, by S. Flexner and H.

Noguchi 149

Plurality of Cytolysins in Snake Venom, by Simon Flexner and H. Noguchi 149
Polar Climate in Time the Major Factor in the Evolution of Plants and

Animals 152

Polistes, Coloration in 147

Poor Lav?s, Study of 62

Pope, A 60

Pope, J. E 56

Population and Immigration 55

Potts, Charles S 56

Pratt, Joseph H 58

Precambrian Sedimentary Series 283

Preliminary Communication on Infra-red Absorption Spectra of Organic

Compounds, by W. W. Coblentz 148

President ot Carnegie Institution of Washington, By-laws concerning. . . 14
Production and Properties of Anti-crotalus Venin, by S. Flexner and H.

Noguchi 149

Production of Sex in Human Offspring 147

Provident Institutions, Study of 62

Publications :

List of 147

Of Cold Spring Harbor Station 32

Relating to Work Accomplished by Grantees, Bibliography of . . 148-152

INDEX. 305

Pumpelly, R. : Page

Investigation upon Ancient Sites at Anau 151

Report on Trans-Caspian Archeological Expedition 75-79

Pumpelly, R. W 75

Putnam, Herbert 97

Railroad Finance, Study of 60

Railroad Rate-making, Study of 60

Railway Reorganizations, Economic Investigation concerning 60

Rare Earths, Investigations concerning 58, 105

Rawles, W. A 63

Rayleigh, Lord, Letter of 188

Reactions to Light and Darkness, by G. Stanley Hall and T. L. Smith. . . 149
Recent Results on Morphology and Development of Coral Polyps, by J. E.

Duerden 149

Reed, W. M. , Investigations by 92

Reichert, Edward T., and Amos P. Brown, Research on Crystallography

of Hemogloblin . . i ^4

Report on Experiments on Elasticity and Plasticity of Solids 80

Reports on Large Projects 22-74

Research Assistants, List of 146

Researches on North American Acridiidae 147

Respiration Calorimeter with Appliances for the Direct Determination of

Oxygen, by W. O. Atwater 148

Results of Investigations of Poison of Serpents 147

Rhodes, Frederick A 144

Carbohydrate Metabolism 151

Rhythm Produced in the Resting Heart of Molluscs on the Stimulation

of the Cardio-accelerator Nerves, by A. J. Carlson .... 148

Richards, Theodore W. :

Effects of Chemical and Cohesive Internal Pressure 151

Investigation of Value of Atomic Weights 112

Richards, T. W., and W. N. Stull, New Method of Determining Com-
pressibility 151

Richardson, Harriet 144

Ries, Heinrich 58

Ripley, William Z . . 55, 59

Ritchey, G. W 127

Ross, F. E. , Research Assistant 92, 146

Rotation of Sun as Determined from Motion of Calcium Flocculi 147

Rowe, L. S. , Research Assistant 146

Russell, Henry N., on Photographic Determination of the Parallaxes of

Stars 92

Sargent, Porter E 145

Research Assistant 146

The Optic Reflex Apparatus of Vertebrates for Short-circuit Trans-
mission of Motor Reflexes through Reissner's Fiber 151

The Torus Longitudinalis of the Teleost Brain 151

Sargent, R. H 275

Schmidlin, Jules 106

306 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Page

Schmidt, Adolf 68, 73

Schmidt, Hubert 75

Schuster, Arthur • . . . 68

Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact Sciences 190-192

Scott, G. W. , Research Assistant 146

Scripture, E. W., Researches in Experimental Phonetics 114

Secretary of Board of Trustees 14

Several New Diptera from North America, by D. W. Coquillett 148

Sheldon, A. E 56

Shepherd, E. S., Research Assistant 146

Constitution of the Copper-zinc Alloys 152

Ship Resistance and Propulsion 113

Showing Off and Bashfulness as Phases of Self-consciousness, by G.

Stanley Hall and T. L. Smith 149

Shull, George H 23, 27, 32

Report by 29

Research Assistant 146

Skulls of Trionychitae in the Bridget Deposits of Wyoming, by O. P. Hay 149

Simons, Etoile B 144

Sioussat, St. George L 63

Slade, William A 66

Smallwood, Mabel E 28

Smith, J. R 60

Smith, Mary Roberts, Research Assistant 56, 146

Smith, Theodate L. :

Psychology of Day Dreams 152

Types of Adolescent Affection 152

Snake Venom, Action upon Cold-blooded Animals 147

Snake Venoms, Studies on 133

Soapstone, Study of 58

Social Legislation, Study of 62

Sodium Vapor, Fluorescence of 129

Solar Investigations 89

Solar Observatory at Mount Wilson, California. 94

Acquirement of a Site for. . 158

Solar Research at Mount Wilson, California 155-174

Southern Observatory Project 147, 175-177

Spalding, V. M 99, 102

Biological Relations of Certain Desert Shrubs 152

Spaulding, Edward G 144

Association in Hermit Crabs 152

Special Physics of Segmentation 152

Spectroscopic Observations at Mount Wilson, California 174

Spencer, Arthur C : . . . . 275

Spermatogenesis of Hybrid Peas, by William A. Canhon 148

Spoff ord, A. R 98

Standfuss, M 29

State and Federal Finance, including Taxation, Study of 63

Statistical Methods, by C. B. Davenport 149

INDBX. 307

Page

Stellar Photometry 88

Stellar Statistics, Contributions to 147

Stevens, Nettie M., Research Assistant 146

Stieglitz, Julius, I,etter of 254

Stock, H. H 57

Stratton, S. W 128

Streeter, George L 144

Strong, R. M 144

Subterranean Temperatures, Plans for Obtaining 120, 259-267

Supra-renal Gland, Study of Chemical Composition of Secretion of 103

Syria and Palestine, Excavations in 84

Talc, Study of 58

Taxation in Michigan, Study of. 63

Mississippi 63

Tennessee 63

Vermont 63

Temperature at Mount Wilson, California 167

Tennessee, Taxation in 63

Terrestrial Magnetism, Report on, by L. A. Bauer 68-74

Thompson , Elihu 127

Thompson, J. D 97

Thompson, J. O 80

Thompson , Laura 66

Thorium, Carolinium, Berzelium, by Charles Baskerville 148

Tittmann, O. H 74

Letter of 273

Topographic Survey 288

Tortugas, Florida, Marine Biological Laboratory at 50-54

Tower, W. L., Investigation of the Potato Beetles of Mexico 28, 141

Traditions of the Arikara 147

Trans-Caspian Archeological Expedition 75-79

Transportation, Economic Investigations concerning 59

Treadwell, Aaron L 144

Treadwell, Timothy 32

Trustees of Carnegie Institution of Washington 3

By-laws concerning 13

Tschermak, Erich 29

Turner, H. H., Letter on Methods for Promoting Research in Exact

Sciences 182-183

Uber Triphenylmethyl, by M. Gomberg 149

Van Orstrand, C. E 80

Van Tyne, C. H 65

Variable Stars, Observations concerning 92

Vermont, Taxation in 63

Vice-Chairman of Board of Trustees 14

Walcott, Charles D.:

Elected Member of Executive Committee 18

Secretary of Executive Commi ttee 21

308 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OP WASHINGTON.

Page
Ward, William Hayes, Study of Oriental Art Recorded on Seals from

Western Asia 84, 85

Warner, Langdon 75

Washington, Henry S. :

Analysis of Leucite-tephrite from Vesuvius 152

Chemical Investigations of Igneous Rocks . 113

Waterlilies ■ • ^47

Weitere Mittheilungen uber das Epinephrin, by J. J. Abel 147

Wells, Roger Clark 112

Whitehead, J. B. , Research Assistant 146

Magnetic Effect of Electric Displacements 152

Whitman, Charles 0 29, 145

Whitney, Mary W., Report concerning Astronomical Photographs 95

Wichita, Mythology of 83

Wieland, G. R.:

Cordaitales 152

Cycads 152

Polar Climate in Time the Major Factor in the Evolution of Plants

and Animals 152

Researches on Living and Fossil Cycads 123

Wilczynski, E. J., Research Assistant 146

Investigation of Ruled Surfaces, etc. 122

Willcox, W. F 55

Williams, Ira A 58

Willis, Bailey, on Geological Research in Eastern Asia 118, 275-291

Wilson, Edmund B 28, 145

Experimental Studies on Germinal Localization 152

Wilson, H. v.:

Investigation concerning Deep-sea Sponges 142-144

Reports on Exploration of the West Coast of Mexico, Central and

South America, and off the Galapagos Islands 152

Wind Movement at Mount Wilson, California 168

Wingate, A. W. S 276

Wonder Horses and Mendelism, by C. B. Davenport.. t . . 149

Wood, Frederick K 63

Wood, R. W. :

Achromatization of Interference Bands formed with Monochrom.

Light, and Consequent Increase in Allowable Path Difference 152

Anomalous Depression, Absorption, and Surface Color of Nitrosodi-

methyl Aniline. 152

Apparatus for Showing the Pressure of Sound Waves 152

Electrical Resonance of Metal Particles for Light Waves 152

Invisibility of Transparent Objects 152

Photographic Reversals in Spectrum Photographs 152

Quantitative Determination of the Anomalous Depression of Sodium

Vapor 152

Recent Improvements in the Diffraction Process of Color Photog-
raphy 152

Research on Theory of Light , 1 28

INDEX. 309

Wood, R. W. : Page

Screens Transparent Only for Ultra-violet Light 152

Some new Cases of Interference and Diffraction 152

Surface Color 152

Wood, R, W., and Moore, J. H., Fluorescence and Absorption Spectra of

Sodium Vapor 152

Woods Hole Laboratory 144

Woods Hole Station 22

Woodward, Robert S. , Elected President of Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington 19

Wright, Carroll D 55

Wyoming, Mining Notes on 57

Yatsu, N., Experimental Studies of Nemertine Egg 144

Yerkes, R. M i44

Zerban, Fritz, Research Assistant 146

Zoology, Projects concerning 134-144

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