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UNITED STATES 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1895. 


» A 
a 
[PuBLic—No. 15. ee 


AN ACT providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents. 
# # * * es 


Section 73, paragraph 2: 


The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted 
and printed in two parts, as follows: Part one, which shall contain purely business 
and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the Presi- 
dent and Congress; part two, which shall contain such reports from the different 
bureaus and divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accom- 
panied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially 
suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general 
report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be 
printed of part one, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the 
House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of part two, 
one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and 
sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty thou- 
sand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustrations for the 
same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with 
directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the 
approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said parts shall 
~ be sueh as to show that such part is complete in itself. 


2 


6983690 


PREFACE. 


The Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1894 has been 
prepared in compliance with section 73 of the “act providing for the 
public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents,” 
approved January 12, 1895, and in accordance with the instructions of 
the Secretary of Agriculture based thereon. 

The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, which has of late 
years been published in an edition of half a million copies for distribu- 
tion to the farmers of the country, chiefly by Senators, Representa- 
tives, and Delegates in Congress, while comprising the administrative 
reports of the Secretary and the chiefs ef bureaus and divisions, had, 
perhaps unavoidably, included discussions of the investigations carried 
on in the Department, and contained matter better suited to scien- 
tific monographs. The report has been chiefly useful on account of 
these papers, and not on account of details of the administrative busi- 
ness of the Department. The separation of the scientific reports and 
other useful information designed for the instruction of the ordinary 
citizen from the purely executive and business matter has been accom- 
plished by the publication of the latter, as provided in the act of Janu- 
ary 12, 1895, by itself, as a part of the Message and Documents 
Communicated to the two Houses of Congress, while special reports 
and papers contributed from the several bureaus and divisions, suited 
to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and including, for 
their information, a general report of the operations of the Department, 
are here presented under the title of ‘‘ Yearbook of the United States 
Department of Agriculture for 1894.” 

The present volume represents but imperfectly the ideal of what such 
a yearbook should be. The matter of the change of character of the 
report was not considered until many of the papers for the usual annual 
report had been prepared and submitted, and the law did not finally 
pass until after the usual time for filing the report. The best that could 
be done under the circumstances, therefore, was to select from the mat- 
ter in hand the most meritorious papers, representing a variety of differ- 
ent lines of work carried on in the Department, and to adapt them to 
the purposes of the new publication. 

This volume is divided into three sections: 

First. The Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1894, giving a 
general account of the operations of the Department during the year. 


v 


7. ~~ * 


4 PREFACE. 


Second. A series of papers, prepared for the most part by the chiefs 
of bureaus and divisions and their assistants, discussing either the gen- 
eral work of their bureaus or divisions, or particular lines of work with 
special reference to interesting and instructing the farmer. 

Third. An appendix made up of statistical tables and information 
useful for reference, compiled in the various bureaus and divisions. 

It is believed that the character of the volume can be improved from 
year to year until it shall become finally a standard book of reference 
for American farmers. 

Public Printer Benedict has cordially cooperated with this Depart- 
ment in the effort to publish a book which in general appearance and 
mechanical work shall be far superior to any former annual report. 
The object has been to illustrate the book as fully as possible with text 
figures made by the very best methods, to print it on good paper, and 
bind it in a substantial manner. In order to enable him to make these 
improvements it was found necessary to omit all the colored litho- 
graphic plates, the expense of which in the past has far surpassed 
their value to the general reader. 

Since the Government prints half a million copies of this publica- 
tion, at an approximate cost of $300,000 annually, to say nothing of 
the expense of distribution, every addition to the practical value of the 
book becomes a matter of the utmost importance. 

It is believed that future numbers of this yearbook will still more 
fully justify the new departure, and it is hoped that in the meantime 
the present volume will be received rather as a promise and an earnest 
of improvement than as a fulfillment of the purpose contemplated by 
the change. 

CHas. W. DABNEY, Jr., 
Assistant Secretary. 
WASHINGTON, D. C., June 8, 1895. 


od EN LS, 


Page. 
ere Mecrotary Of AcTicniture. .. .... 2.2.22 coc ccc oce cece cccecccccece 9 
mame Federal Meat Inspection. By D. E. Salmon..................... 2-2-0. 67 
Education and Research in Agriculture in the United States, By A. C. True... 81 
What Meteorology Can Do for the Farmer. By M. W. Harrington.........-.- 117 
“ueweeae Of Forecasts. By H. H. C. Dunwoody.......................--00. 121 
Soils in Their Relation to Crop Production. By Milton Whitney............. 129 
Water as a Factor in the Growth of Plants. By B. T. Galloway and A. F. 
Ee or ed SG ake np aah Th eS ibe-nav a Rev sindic deeGsacees 165 
Mineral Phosphates as Fertilizers. By H. W. Wiley.............---..--.---- 177 
Fertilization of the Soil as Affecting the Orange in Health and Diseases. By 
TS nS ae ee ea ee ee 193 
The Geographic Distribution of Animals and Plants in North America. By 
Ie ete ek coc ota wes Lene n eens 203 
Hawks and Owls as Related to the Farmer. By A. K. Fisher ............---. 215 
The Crow Blackbirds and Their Food. By F. E. L. Beal.........--......-.-- 233 
Some Scale Insects of the Orchard. By L.O. Howard................--..---- 249 
The More Important Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. By F.H.Chittenden.. 277 
The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. By H.E. Alvord.-.-.-.-..-.-- 295 
Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppression and Prevention of Bovine 
rn. ty" Theobald Smith... .. ...<.0s stew ab. we geen ee 317 
The Pasteurization and Sterilization of Milk. By E. A. do Schweinitz....-. 331 
I OM. SP DCG WREOE ne SS ee 8 ne ies wet been 357 
_uneweea Investigation. By Gilbert H. Hicks.-...........-----...-.....:.-- 382 
The Grain Smuts: Their Causes and Prevention. By W. T. Swingle.......-. 409 
Grasses as Sand and Soil Binders. By F. Lamson-Scribner..............--. 421, 580 
Sketch of the Relationship between American and Eastern Asian Fruits. By 
Pe oa as nolan ne RTS SI Wnie wid ow oe ew Sln sabes ene eds 437 
mact Concerning Ramie. By Charles R. Dodge. ......-..-.-...---..-.-....-- 443 
cr earmers, By b. bE. Fernow...............-- 5.622. .----- ween 461 
Best Roads for Farms and Farming Districts. By Roy Stone.........-...---. 501 
State Highways in Massachusetts. By George A. Perkins...............----- 505 
Improvement of Public Roads in North Carolina. By Prof. J. A. Holmes, State 
eee: oe 513 
APPENDIX. 
Organization of tho Department of Agriculture...... .... seen cecees cone cence 523 
Agricultural institutions and experiment stations..................---..---- 526 
List of institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture... 526 
The locations, directors, dates of organization and reorganization, and princi- 
pal lines of work of the agricultural experiment stationsin the United States. 527 
ar ronditions of the crop of 1894... . 2.0... .-cccs ccc ece ce cces coencecees 529 


6 ' CONTENTS. 


Directions for procedure in case of apparent death by lightning............-. 
Wholesale prices of principal agricultural products in the leading cities of the 
Pinrted States .< <~ te << Saas eek < hee cae eae meee te eee n+ es) eee 

- Exports of the products of domestic agriculture for the years ending June 30, 
$900, 1891, 1892, 1895, and U8O4.. |< oi. set nn seted nese Sap eed 3a ae 
Imports of agricultural products for the years ending June 30, 1890, 1891, 1892, 


PS BBO SOR sca toh Sl on SE be on wn eae nes eee eee 
Farm prices on December 1, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, and 1894......-.--..--....-.- 
Freight rates in effect January 1, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, in cents per 100 
ROI etn ee oe hein mee Saictain br ieee a ete let 
Gt ee a a ree eit ea eam n nner Rr 
Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, nutrients—and fuel 

Welwe per peend. =. 2... 0 sk ne eens sees oe = 
Nutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices...--. 
Prices used in estimating cost of daily dietaries -.........--...---------- 


Daily dietaries—food materials furnishing approximately the 6.28 pound 


of protein and 3,500 calories of energy of the standard for daily dietary 


ef aman at moderate muscular work _....--:-..---.-..------csueeeeeee 
Standards for daily dietaries for people of different classes.............-- 
European standards for daily dietaries...-.....--....--.- --2-eeeces eae en 
American standards for daily dietaries............. 2. 2. ...5-0 See eens 
Poeedume sits far antonella: 22°. 20k Se So. 2a.) i Se eee 
Cemposition of -feedine stulie. --....<---. 220.4. s+: -:-2-- 2) Sk eee 
Disestihility of fesding stuffs... ...-.2... 225.0225 0) ae eee 
Peedine piemdards ...-.2 52 =~4- ote cdot econ sa sS-5 th ctes on 2 
enlcaulateen ef rations... .. 6.05. 022 -< - so see Lol 1222 bb eo. ee 
Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products.......-..---..--- 
PG OTR. 2 vee on 0 2 ee eae te eee ees 5 elt. oe 
- Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals.........-.--- 
Methods of controlling injurious insects, with formulas for insecticides. -...... 
Insecticides (directions for their preparation and use)-.....---...--------.---- 
Paris green and londen purple... .......)---< J... 2 LS a cee ems 
Poisen batt .2)5 25.5 25.50 co. eet ORS was elie «See 
Hellebore... 2.5... 22. cu 2tecmdet te ges sone. VER. ol. 


Ties resin whel v2 228 23 Se ein a OI Eee 
The hydrocyanic-acid gas troatment.... 2.22... enee ene ee ee ene cewe wees 
Biselphide.of carbon... -0.- -.o. 20.5 oe. as 4 1 ULE 
A cheap erchard-epraying outit........ .... 82050 52. ok. es See 
Treatment for fangous diseases of plants.-... 2... ---- 222-222 eee eee eee cea 
Forsmulas for fungicides w..... 0s. 2 osc s ae o oeed nb 4 ee 


Grassee as sand and sotl binders ...0 5. 20.65 le oe el a eae 42 


maplo- Of ene Bundred Weeds. wesc ccn decane heen cc ccts pa kciesslcce Bee 
WMTIROTe ~ DGLMGCING « os acne secon cnwmwaweccWes weenie sh cansuceee Jace 


bwarw mo rRA TIONS. 


PLATES. 
Page. Page. 
PLATE IT. Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo borealis). 224 | Prater VI. Section of macadamized road 
IL § w Hawk (Falcosparverius). 224 near Camden, N. C., showing 
Ill. Barred Owl(Syrrium nebulosum). 224 size of loads hauled overit... 516 
lV. Ramie: Dried stalks, raw fiber, VU. Section of shell road, 8 miles 
degummed fiber, and manufac- long, Wilmington to Wrights- 
SR SSR eS eee 444 ville, New Hanover County, 
V. Ramie in detail: Ramie stalks, kre denbenmpastmiianncs » se. 518 
machine-cleaned fiber, Chinese 
hand-cieaned fiber.............- 456 
TEXT FIGURES. 
Fic. 1. Mechanical separation of the Fie. 21. Swainson's Hawk (Buteo swain- 
gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 Wg Pe eee, Or aR ees 218 
rams of subsoil of the Colum- 22. Burrowing Owl (Speotyto eunieu- 
Fia formation at Marley, Md., tariae hypogiea) . ..... .<.e0--se-0- 226 
adapted to early truck.......... 134 23. Great Horned Owl (Bubo virgini- 
2. Mechanical separation of the SCE iste, cr hee nae ae oe ce ee 228 
gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 24. Cooper’s Hawk (Accipiter cooperi). 230 
s of subsoil of the Colum- 25. Lne Crow BinckDird....-......-..- 233 
ia formation at Marley, Md., 26. Mytilaspis pomorum: Female scale 
adapted to cabbage and early from below; female scales; male 
re 135 ci 2S ae 257 
3. Mechanical separation of the 27. Mytilaspis pomorum: Adult male; 
gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 foot of same; young iarva; an- 
ms of the limestone subsoil tenna of same; adult female 
from Frederick, Md., adapted to taken from scaie........2----.--- 258 
meee, and grass. .........-.---- 136 28. Chionaspis furfurus: Female... --- 259 
4. Mechanical separation of the 29. Chionaspis furfurus: Adult male 
gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 29 TRO SOR ce eS ee 260 
grams of subsoil from Poquo- 30. Aspidiotus camellice: Female scale 
nock, Conn., adapted to tobacco. 147 from above; mass of scales as ap- 
5. Mechanical separation of the pearing on bark; male scale; maie 
gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 scales on twig; female scales on 
sof subsoil of the Podunk 1 aT SPS 8 SE ne Peer eae ean ae Se 8 261 
istrict, East Hartford, Conn., 31. Aspidiotus camellie: Young larva; 
adapted to tobacco...........-... 148 adult female removed from scale 
6. Curves showing the amount of and seen from below. .........-.- 262 
moisture in the tobacco soils at 32. Aspidiotus juglans-regie: Female 
Poquonock, East Hartford, and scale; male chbrysalis; male 
Hatfield, in the Connecticut Val- scales on twig; female scales on 
le ed entrant ani Sciam « <o 149 Oo, ee, Sasa) era ER tal eeali rae 263 
7. Average amount of water main- 33. Aspidiotus juglans-regie: Newly 
tained in 20 grams of tobacco hatched larva; antenna of same; 
soils at Poquonock, East Hart- foot of same; female just before 
ford, and Hatfield, in the Con- last molt; full-grown male larva; 
Mees Valey.................- 150 adult male; adult female ........ 264 
8. Mechanical separation of the 34. Diaspis lanatus: Branch covered 
gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 with male and female scales; 
ms of subsoil from Marietta, female scale; male scale; group 
a., adapted to tobacco......... 152 OF Wine SONNES:.. - 2... 6. << cawss = 555 265 
9. Curves showing the amount of 35. Diaspis lanatus: Adult female re- 
moisture in tobacco soils.......... 153 moved from scale. ............-.. 266 
10. The average amount of water in 20 36. Diaspis lanatus: Adult male....-. 267 
grams of tobacco soils of Poquo- 37. Diaspis lanatus: Larva, greatly 
nock and Marietta............... 154 J Ses aa eee 267 
11. Average yield of corn in bushels per 38. Aspidiotus perniciosus on pear fruit 
acro in Kansas, sixteen years... 158 and twig, with enlarged male and 
12. Cross section of root............-.. 169 Pomities BOGies ..... <2 2.22 =~ ----ss 268 
13. Root hair in the soil, showing ab- 39. Aspidiotus perniciosus: Adult fe- 
sorption of moisture............ 169 malc removed from scale, show- 
eee ae eee 170 ing embryonic young; ‘anal 
ne 172 DCRR WA chase ngs & in hcosan sien ecg ie 269 
16. Effect of fertilizing vegetable soil 40. Aspidiotus perniciosus : Adultmale, 
with phosphates and other sub- greatly enlarged..............-.- 269 
ERE eet dee ee olae.n Se mene a 188 41. Lecanium persice: Newly hatched 
17. Effect of fertilizing muck soil with larva; unimpregnated female; 
different phosphates............. 189 twig with full-grown females; 
18, Orange twigs, showing cffects of — female form above and below and 
RAS ees see 19) cut lengitudinally, all enlarged 
19. Orange fruit, showing effects of dic- except specimens on twig......-- 270 
_ A eS eer ae oe 200 42. Lecanium persiee: full-grown 
20. a showing life zones ef the male scale; pupa; adult male; 
nited States 209 leaf with young male scales. .... 273 


8 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
Page. | Page. 
Fia. 43. Calandra granaria: Adult beetle; Fic. 92. Head of beardless wheat aftected 
larva; pupa; Calandra oryza: | with sinat-- ...< i622 5ss66-c5-eee 410 
Beetle, all enlarged...........-.- 279 93. Head of bearded wheat affected 
44. Gelechia cerealella: Larva; pupa; with smat.--.....2.2.0222.3.-seee 410 
moth; egg; kernel of corn opened, 94. Head of wheat affected with leese 
showing larva feeding; anal seg- smut in the lower half-......-.... 411 
Mons.Of PUP: .~o 2-5 58- -a- == - 282 95. Head of wheat affected with loose 
45. Ear of pop-corn, showing work of smut—harvest time..-.....-.-.. 411 
Angoumois grain moth.........-. 283 96. Head of oats atiected with smut, 
46. Ephestia kuehniella: Moth; moth, but having the chaff only partly 
from side, resting; larva; pupa; destroyed... . =. -~.<=<s--s55-eeeee 413 
abdominal joint of larva more 97. Head of oats affected with smut, 
oT Ee ee 284 having the chaff only partially 
47. Plodiainterpunctella: Moth; chrys- destroyed; decidedly smutty..-. 413 
alis; caterpillar; head and first 98. Final stage of smut, showing con- 
abdominal segment of caterpillar 285 dition of head at harvest time... 413 
48. Pyralis farinalis: Adult moth; 99. Diagram showing arrangement for 
larva; chrysalis; head of larva; treating smut ........Sesencueees 416 
analsegmentofsame;tipofpupa 286 100. Marram grass on the sand dunes 
49. Silvanus surinamensis: Adult bee- near the mouthof the Kalamazoo | 
tle; pupa; larva; antenna of River, Michigan. ..s---cee==> =" 422 
Repeat nes is rere oe 287 | 101. Marram grass (Ammophila arena- 
50. Tribolium confusum: Adult beetle; TUE) 2). oe oe ns ne cee 423 
larva; pupa; lateral lobe of abdo- 102. Upright sca lyme grass (Elymus 
menu of pupa; head of beetle, arenareus) ... 2. - 23 -eeeeeeeee ' 424 
showing antenna... -~--.<...-..- 289 | 103. Rolling spinifex (Spinifex hirsutus) 425 
51. Echocerus maxillosus: Larva; pupa; 104. St. Augustine grass (Stentaphrum 
2 A A eee 290 | americanum) . ..<--)..seeeeee eee 426 
52. Sterilizing apparatus uscd in the 105. Louisiana grass (Paspalum com- 
Bureau of Animal Industry-...-.- 333 | PTCSUM) .. .. nn =< ee 427 
53. The Koch oven, interior and exte- 106. Coast couch (Zoysia pungens).-..... 428 
PCG UNS ee eee Ee ee en ai 334 107. Long-leafed sand grass (Calamo- 
54. Koplik’s pasteurizer.-.............. 334 | vilfa longifolia) ..—- «=< ona ncenee 429 
55. Fjord’s pasteurizing apparatus.... 336 108. Redtield’s grass (Redjieldia flex- 
56. German sterilizer stopper........- 337 | W0SQ) - =. [n..- = === 5 eee 430 
57. German sterilizing flasks.......-..- 33 109. Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) 431 
ae. German BLersluzer. <..=\. s2..--..--- 338 | 110. Fresh-water cord grass (Spartina 
59. Copper holders used in Straus’s CYNOSUTOLAES) - . - ae eee 432 
fut eee et ee 339 | 111. Piant showing crown roots....--.-- 449 
60. Copper boiler used in Straus’s plant 339 112. Plant showing roots to be sub- 
G1. Appleberg’s sterilizing box....... 340 divided .. -...- 25. =e 449 
2: Mi eer = 2 ce = = 5 aes ee = = 343 113. Ramie stalks ready for cutting.... 459 
63. Theil’s pasteurizing apparatus.... 344 114. Stalks of ramie, showing new 
64. Hochmuth’s pasteurizing appara- growth of leayes--_ oo eeeeee = 450 
ot BS Sa ee eS ee 345 115. Seed-bearing racemes. ......-...--- 451 
65. Section of Hochmuth’s pasteuriz- 116. Physiological importance of differ- 
ig apparatus... . 22-2. 2s---4-48 345 ent parts of the tree; pathways 
66. Hochmuth’s pasteurizing appara- of water and food materials. 
tus, with parts arranged horizon- (Schematic) «52 teen ee 468 
tedly 2522. - ope daee eae os ees 346 117. Bud development of beech.......- 470 
67. Hochmuth’s compound pasteuriz- 118. Buds of maple... 222.2 es ease 470 
fae PPPATACUs....-...05-55-Feroee 346 119. Dormant bud... 2225.2 eens on e-= eee 471 
68. Ablborn’s pasteurizing apparatus. 247 120. Section through a twelve-year-old 
69. Ahlborn’s pasteurizing apparatus, stem of beech, showing manner 
Modes TOrM -. 2-2 <- v.~ceaee oe c- 347 of bud and limb formation ...-.- 471 
70. Ahren’s pasteurizing apparatus... 347 | 121. Section through a partly decayed 
71. Dierks & Méllman’s pasteurizing knot of oak wood ......-...-.... 472 
Ce to vas 0): ae ae 348 | 122. Development in and out of the 
72. Pasteurizing apparatus, construct- forest. ~~. =. = 473 
ed by Lefeldt & Leutsch .......- 349 | 123. Trees in and out of the forest..... 474 
73. Pasteurizing apparatus — after | 124. Sections of logs, showing the rela- 
MTGE eta a tin icles ain abo i 350 | tive development of knots ...... 475 
74. Milk cooler—by Schmidt, in Bret- 125. Scheme to illustrate the arrange- 
ie a ee ee 351 ment of annual growth.......... 476 
75. Sterilizing apparatus, by Neuhauss- 126. Oak tree grown in the open........ 477 
Gronwald-Oehlmann .........--.- 352 | 127. Maple tree grown in the forest.... 477 
76. Milk -sterilizing apparatus —after 128. Showing plan of group system in 
Paul Ritter von Hamm........--. 353 | regenerating a forest crop.-....-. 490 
77. Bottling sterilizing apparatus..... 354 | 129. Appearance of regeneration by 
78. Soxhlet’s patent sterilizing bottles group method _-:..- 22 ease 493 
IE WAN Fn a oe Secs am pean ee de 355 130. Method of layering to produce new 
Cy Me a ae pe eg oe 355 stocks in coppice wood.......... 495 
80. Composition of food materials..... 363 131. Cross section of Canandaiguaroads 502 
81. Pecuniary economy of food........ 365 132. Underdrain for wet places in roads 502 
82. Dietaries and dietary standards... 374 133. Underdrain for porous roads ..-..--. 502 
83. Seed-germinating apparatus used 134. Drainage for macadam bed........ 503 
by the United States Depart- 135. Three-track road. ......:sueeuewees 503 
F ment of Agriculture ........---- 402 136. Prepared roadbed... .......c.--«-s-. 503 
84. Germinating pan.................. 403 137. Finished road. ..........s5eeeaeeee 503 
85. Nobbe’s germinating apparatus... 404 138. Average daily departures of normal 
86. Homemade germinating apparatus 405 temperature and weekly depart- 
87. Clover-secd samplers..-............ 406 ures from normal precipitation 
88. Samples of sieve meshes..........- 407 from April 9 to October 1, 1894.. 529 
89. Set of sieves for cleaning seeds.... 407 139. Average daily departures of nor- 
90. Diagram of seed-cleaning machine mal temperature and weekly 
(after Setteégast).......-........- 408 departures from normal precipi- 
91. Bottle used in the United States tation from April 9 to October 1, 
National Herbarium for small 18B4 2... censice ce snes anne 530 
OOGUGs pe duWa dew eadupncicccccsse 408 140. Orchard-spraying apparatus....... 576 


————— 


YEARBOOK 


OF THE 


U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 


Mr. PRESIDENT: 

In compliance with law and custom, the Secretary of Agriculture has 
the honor now to submit the Annual Report for that Department for 
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894. The data, statements, and sug- 
gestions contained herein show how much work has been performed, 
how many people have been employed, what expenses have been incurred, 
what improvements have been made in the service as to efficiency, and 
what economies in disbursements have been effected. 

A critical perusal of the work of each bureau and division, as herein 
narrated, will impress the conclusion that, while six hundred thousand 
dollars ($600,000) have been covered back into the Treasury out of the 
annual appropriation—the same being 23 per cent of the entire sum 
set apart for the use of the Department of Agriculture for that fiscal 
year—economy has not diminished efficiency. 


FOREIGN MARKETS FOR AMERICAN FARM PRODUCTS. 


During the year the labor of finding where the greatest demand for 
the surplus farm products of the United States has developed outside 
of their limits has been persistently and intelligently alert and active. 

There is nothing of greater or more vital importance to the farmers 
of the United States than the widening of the markets for their prod- 
ucts. It is the demand for wheat, the demand for beef, the demand for 
pork, the demand for all the products of human industry which confers 
a money value upon them in markets. Therefore, the relation of sup- 
ply to demand is the creator of prices and the sole regulator of values. 
Holding such views, the Secretary of Agriculture has carefully studied 
and enumerated the demands for American agricultural products in 
the principal markets of the world. 


THE FARMER’S PRINCIPAL BEEF MARKET. 


During the nine months ending September 30, 1894, the farmers and 
stock raisers of the United States have sold, and there have been 
exported, to the United Kingdom of Great Britain three hundred and 


ee ee 4 Te 9 


10 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


five thousand nine hundred and ten (305,910) live beef cattle, valued 
at twenty-six million five hundred thousand dollars ($26,500,000). 
During the same period of the year 1893 only one hundred and eighty- 
two thousand six hundred and eleven (182,611) live beef cattle from 
the United States were taken by the British markets, at a valuation 
of sixteen million six hundred and thirty-four thousand dollars 
($16,634,000). The small consumption of American beef in England last 
year was due to restrictions imposed by law, and also to the low prices 
of domestic beef in England, because of the scarcity there of feeding 
stuffs, which enforced slaughtering. The increase of the present year 
does not quite restore the average of the cattle trade between the 
United States and England. Canada is practically the only competi- 
tor with the United States for the English live-cattle trade. The regu- 
lations governing the importation into England of live stock are the 
same as to animals from the United States and Canada, no discrimi- 
nation being made for or against either class. All of the animals are, 
under the provisions of English law, slaughtered immediately upon 
arrival at British ports. 

Large proportions of the meat thus taken into England are sold in 
the retail markets of London, Liverpool, and other cities, as “prime 
Scotch” or “English beef.” Under that classification the butcher 
demands and secures a better price than he could with the meat 
known and sold as Canadian or American. This method is a splendid 
indorsement of the quality of American beef. It has, however, been the 
occasion of much contention, and at last.resulted in a Government inves- 
tigation. The official report of a seléct committee of the House of Com- 
mons on ‘the marking of foreign meat” was published in August, 1893. 
It states in the summary, on the evidence taken before the committee, 
that in “large West End of London” establishments which profess to 
sell nothing but English and Scotch meats there is practically no other 
meat than American sold. The committee show that in each case the 
prices charged were such as would be justified only had the meat been 
purchased, wholesale, at the price commanded by the best English 
fattened and killed meat. The conclusions of the committee of the 
British House of Commons were to the effect that it would bea vexatious 
and unworkable scheme to attempt to compel the labeling, as to its 
origin, of each piece of meat offered for sale. The committee suggested 
that butchers dealing in imported meats should be compelled to reg- 
ister themselves as such.dealers, and also pay a fee which might 
be applied toward defraying the costs of meat inspection. Nothing, 
however, has been done in pursuance of the recommendations of this 
committee. 

In England it is not believed that legislation can prevent the sale 
of American and other imported fresh beef as Scotch and English beef. 
The beef from the United States is of such excellent quality and so 
very similar to the best English beef that even experts are unable to 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, il 


distinguish between the two. Any law which might be enacted would 
fail to repress the sale of American meat in English markets. The 
statute, however, might curtail the profits of butchers. The lower 
price which they could only obtain for imported meat, sold as such, 
would have a direct tendency to increase its consumption, and thus to 
make more demand for American beef. 

The trade in live cattle between the two countries has been of the 
greatest advantage to the British people. During the six months of 
the year from March to September, when their cattle are fattening on 
the pastures, American steers are arriving in large quantities and of 
superior condition and flavor. Long ago it would have been generally 
admitted in England that American beef is superior, from March to 
September every year, to English beef produced during those six 
months, except for a certain national prejudice which is common to all 
countries. 

During the year regulations have been made which compel the Cana- 
dian cattle to be slaughtered at the port of debarkation. These regu- 
lations interfere somewhat with the United States beeftrade. Formerly 
Canadian cattle were put in English pastures and fattened. Now, like 
those from the United States, they must be killed immediately upon 
arrival. Cargoes of Canadian and American cattle arriving simultane- 
ously at a British port, both being ordered to slaughter at once, would 
naturally at such times momentarily depress prices. Asarule, Canadian 
cattle are not equal in condition toours. They generally bring smaller 
prices. Canadian distillery-fed cattle, however, are very fine, and com- 
mand higher figures. At the present moment there are three times as 
many Canadian cattle being fed at distilleries for export as were fed 
last year. American shippers may, therefore, look for that competition 
in the spring. It may not be considered very important, however, as 
the number will not exceed 20,000 at furthest; but the competition is 
worth noticing. 

The live-beef trade is conducted at different ports with slight differ- 
ences. At Deptford sales are private on the hoof. At Liverpool half 
of the animals are sold privately. The other half are slaughtered on 
_ account of shippers and sold to buyers by the carcass. The Liver- 
pool surplus makes its way to London, and a large part of it, beyond 


question, is so “cut up” as to simulate “prime Scotch joints.” At 


Glasgow and Bristol nearly all animals are sold at auction on the hoof. 
The charges do not differ very materially at the various ports. The 
_ following may be taken as the average costs at each place of debark- 
_ ation: Dock dues, use of slaughterhouse, etc., $1.20 per head; subsist- 
ence per day, 24 cents; commission of salesman on each animal, 96 
cents; driving (feeding, attending, etc.), 24 cents. The shipper who 
gets out with British terminal charges of $3.75 per head upon his 
‘cattle considers himself fortunate. Add to the above charges, freight 
$11, and $1.50 for the feed and attendance of: each animal on the 


12 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


voyage, and $1.60 for insurance, and we have a total expense for each 
animal shipped of $17.85. This represents very nearly accurately the 
expense of getting a beef animal from the American port into the hands 
of the British buyer. | 

October 25, 1894, good American steers were bringing in the British 
market $85 each. The best weight of cattle for shipment is 1,350 to 
1,400 pounds, making a dead weight of about 750 pounds. In England 
the offal (especially in London and Liverpool, where large numbers of 
poor people purchase it) is considered of great importance. Heads, 
tails, livers, kidneys, lights, and hoofs go to one buyer, and the hides 
and inside fat to another. Parliament disinclines toward the encourage- 
ment of a trade in dressed meat, because that would shut out the offal ; 
but if the American cattle are killed at home, properly dressed, and 
sent to Europe in a state of refrigeration, the cost of American beef 
will be reduced in all those markets. By killing at home and shipping 
‘only the dressed carcasses, bulk is compacted, value is enhanced, and 
the cost of transportation is reduced, so that the poor, who heretofore 
have bought offal, may be able to buy good meat instead. 

During the first six months of the year 1894 there were exported to 
the United Kingdom of Great Britain one hundred and twelve million 
(112,000,000) pounds of dressed beef, valued at nearly ten millions of 
dollars. This trade in dressed beef is almost entirely in the hands 
of American citizens. Their principal competitors are found in Aus- 
tralasia. The question whether more profit remains with the producer 
from shipping live beef cattle or carcasses to European markets is 
one which requires thorough inveStigation. At the present writing 
it is deemed probable that more advantage and profit will result to 
the American farmer from the shipment of dressed beef than from the 
exportation of live cattle. 

European governments are constantly declaring live animals from 
the United States diseased. These declarations are sometimes made 
for fear of infection of their own herds, and at other times, it is 


believed, for economic reasons. If all American beef going abroad . 


is shipped in carcasses, and it is all stamped “ inspected” as wholesome 
and edible, by authority of the Government of the United States, it 
certainly can not be shut out afterwards on account of alleged Texas 
fever, pleuropneumonia, tuberculosis, or any other disease. But if 
certain European nations continue to demand legally authorized micro- 
scopic inspection of American pork and require also veterinary inspec- 
tion for beef with Government certification to each, then why ought 
not the Government of the United States to demand that all imports 
from foreign countries for human consumption—either edibles or 
beverages—must likewise be certificated by the authorities of those 


foreign governments as wholesome and unadulterated before they are | 


permitted to be sold in the United States? 


——— 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 13 


AMERICAN HOG PRODUCTS, 


Besides consuming such a vast proportion of the beef exported from 
the United States, the United Kingdom of Great Britain is likewise a 
voracious customer for American bacon, hams, and lard. Between 20 
and 25 per cent of the flesh food of the people of the United Kingdom 
consists of hog products. About 13 per cent of those hog products 
comes from other countries, and 14 per cent of the live cattle and 
dressed beef and 1nutton is also imported. 

There were taken into the United Kingdom from the United States, 
in 1893, two hundred and forty-three million eight hundred and 
twenty-four thousand (243,824,000) pounds of bacon, valued at twenty- 
six million eight hundred and fifty thousand dollars ($26,850,000). 

During the nine months ending September 30, 1894, the United 
States sent into England two hundred and twenty-two million six hun- 
dred and seventy-six thousand (222,676,000) pounds, against one hun- 
dred and seventy-nine million eight hundred and seventy-two thousand 
(179,872,000) pounds during the corresponding nine months of 1893. 
Thus our trade with Great Britain in hog products shows an increase 
of nearly forty-five million (45,000,000) pounds this year. This, how- 
ever, does not restore to us the position we occupied prior to the year 
1895 as principal purveyor to Great Britain. Nor do the values make 
as good a showing as they should; for, notwithstanding the increase 
in quantity, there is a shrinkage in value of half a million of dollars; 
while the bacon imported to the United Kingdom during the same 
period increased fifty-six million pounds. The hog products from other 
countries than the United States did not fall in value proportionally 
with ours. This is shown by the market quotations throughout the 
year. 


Imports of pig products, beef, mutton, etc., into the United Kingdom during the first nine 
months of the years 1892-1894. 


{From the ofiicial returns of the British Board of Trade.] 


Imports for first nine months— ‘Value of imports first nine months— 
Product. hs RGA TIO AEY Ka, : 
igo. | 1893, 1802 | 1894, 1893, pt ae 1392, 
=F) eS. - —————e eee 
Bacon: | 
From Denmark....cwt-. 607, 577 542, 496 530, 814 | $8, 614, 882 | $7,988,400 | $7,305, 375 
Germany...... do.. 300 9, 499 2, 987 | 4, 275 141, 666 36, 546 
CaHANa. . =... do.. 178, 878 113, 626 189, 999 1, 790, 871 1, 415, 041 | 1, 763, 800 
United States .do..} 1, 988, 203 1, 606, 348 2, 295, 841 | 19, 357, 376 | 19, 857, 315 20, 031, 048 
Other countries, 
ee ee et ee 73, 542 77, 336 53, 247 950, 712 998, 578 677, 368 
PEOUAL > 25.5 bP 2,848,500 | 2,349, 305 3, 072, 888 30, 717, 916 L 30, 401, 000 000 | 29, 814, 137 
Hams, bulk, United States, | ae ae 
oo ee ere 887, 740 | 757, G09 1, 013, 044 10, 704, 687 | 11, 067, 636 | 11,545,579 


| 


8 eS an 178,156 | 145,422 204,737 | 1,261,967! 947,742 | 1,425,879 


14 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Imports of pig products, beef, mutton, ete.—Continued. 


[From the official returns of the British Board of Trade.] 


Imports for first nine months— | Valueof imports first nine months— 


Product. SS 
1894. 1893. 1892. 1894. 1893. 1892. 


Beef (fresh): 
From Sea 1, 350,685 | 1,109,396 | 1,434,813 |$18, 995, 094 |$11, 958, 870 |$15, 106, 349 


Other countries, 


OW meters curses | 243, 118 223, 271 96,784 | 1,778,705 | 1,889,774 | 763,973 
Pork (salted): 
From United States-cwt- . 107, 335 80, 965 125, 494 853, 440 730, 400 846, 775 
Other countries, 
ape Pe os hs oe 59, 869 59, 514 55, 468 398, 620 353, 080 302, 559 
Pork (fresh) : ain 5? 
From Holland ...-. cwt-. 77, 491 79, 515 49, 342 888, 079 928, 950 581, 111 
Belgium...... do.. 16, 638 16, 159 11, 063 2038, 523 195, 642 131, 952 
' Other countries, 
as, ee ee ee 15, 019 23, 844 6, 189 198, 844 313, 474 65, 488 
| 109, 148 119, 518 | 66,594 | 1,289,066 | 1, 438, 066 778, 551 


Meat (unenumerated) : 


From Holland...... ewt... 83, 118 91, 294 79, 978 882, 086 997, 222 885, 384 
United States..do-. 21, 710 15, 784 16, 785 195, 802 164, 549 174, 744 
' Other countries, 
SS ae ae ee A 33, 431 30, 626 | 18, 704 386, 470 350, 913 214, 879 
Woetal teas. ss . 138, 259 | 137, 704 115, 467 1, 464, 358 1, 512, 684 1, 215, 007 
Meat (preserved otherwise | | 


than by salting): 
BeGt ae 6 wa saldass ewt.. 193, 044 264, 805 
METEOR ote Seperesie do... 85, 069 64, 023 
OpRemsorts)- -.im00-- do.. 108, 950 99, 961 


399, 882 | 2,674,043 | 3,253,040 | 4, 820, 362 
47, 825 723, 779 584, 957 465, 942 
128,169 | 1,715,507 | 1,730,786 | 1, 811, 692 


ol LO 37 RE re 387, 063 428, 789 


575, 876 | 5,113,329 | 5,568,783 | 7, 077, 906 


Mutton (fresh) : 
From Germany .-...cwt.. 5 ONT 16, 335 
Holland. .....- do.. 92, 646 98, 498 
Australasia...do..| 1,082, 519 949, 232 
Argentine Repub- 


| 
19, 857 83, 007 199, 269 | 249, 674 
73,902 | 1,028,625 | 1,101, 809 865, 334 
796, 933 | 10,226,000 | 9,202,762 | 7,945, 568 


MG = I reese cwt.. 424, 958 384, 297 354,500 | 3,735,288 | 3,499,960 | 3, 185, 367 
Other countries, 
PW ie dann onacineen= 58, 826 51, 531 48, 255 637, 626 574, 009 570, 633 
BOOM: Sisk 22S arc 1, 665, 966 | 1,499, 893 6 


1, 293, 547 | 15,710,546 | 14, 577, 809 | 12, 816, 576 


Nore.—Cwt. = 112 pounds. 


In the fall of 1893 English bacon was commanding nearly as high 
prices as in October, 1894. The decline in the best grades of Irish bacon 
during the same period represents about half a dollar per ewt. (112 
pounds). There is some decline in Danish bacon and Canadian bacon. 
But United States side meats declined more than $2 per cwt. Cum- 
berland cuts have been reduced by $3, and short ribs the same amount 
perewt. There is also a similarly disproportionate decline in the values 
in England of United States lard. 

seside the general causes of depression in values of all commodities 
throughout the world, there is a special reason why values of hog 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 15 


products should have been lower in Great Britain during the last year. 
The drought there during 1893 forced their domestic animals upon a 
glutted market. Thus the price of beef and mutton was brought down 
to a point where they were preferred as of superior value to bacon and 
hams. Another cause for the decline in hog products may be found in 
frozen dressed meats. Excellent mutton can be bought in England at 
the same price as bacon. Therefore a larger number of people who 
fifteen years ago seldom ate other flesh than salted swine flesh now 
purchase New Zealand, Falkland Islands, and other frozen imported 
. mutton. In view of the low prices of meat and other food supplies 
3 pouring into England, there have only lately been expressions of sur- 
A prise in the trade journals there that the prices of bacon are maintained 
i even at present figures. But the British people are a bacon-eating 
people at breakfast every morning, and no competition of fresh meat is 
likely to alter their habit in this respect. 
4 The cheaply imported frozen meat largely lessens the consumption of 
bi bacon among a numerous class of working people who formerly were 
exclusively buyers of our hog products, which then were the cheapest 
in the EBuropean markets. Thus a great change in their demand for 
? meats—from salt pork to fresh mutton and beef—is one cause of the 
decline; but there is another reason more potent than this for the com- 
: paratively disproportionate fall of the price in the American hog prod- 
‘ uct output throughout the European markets, especially in the United 
_ Kingdom. The demand there is for a mildly cured, not oversalted, 
and very lean bacon. The nearness to market at the point of produce- 
ing gives to Danish bacon a great advantage. Therefore an astonishing 
growth of packing houses is witnessed upon the Continent, and partic- 
ularly in Denmark. Danish bacon reaches the English market in 
twenty-four hours. It arrives in fine condition. It is cured to meet 
the English taste and demand. The best Danish brands bring within 
a dollar a ewt. of the best Wiltshire. 
Thus a permanent and constantly increasing bacon trade has been 
— built up between Denmark and England, which already amounts to 
more than fifty million pounds per annum. In October, 1894, Danish 
bacon is temporarily being diverted by the shortness of the hog crop 
in Germany from the markets of the United Kingdom. For along time 
Germany put a stop by a high tariff duty to the shipment of Danish 
hogs intoits domains. Before that prohibition they were shipped there 
to be made into bacon; but this year German packers are compelled, 
by the decline in the swine crop of that country, to import Danish 
Swine and pay the duty thereon, to make up for domestic deficiencies. 
What is gained by carefully studying the character of the demand 
of the foreign markets we seek to supply is well illustrated by the 
figures given above, showing the relative values and quantities of bacon 
exported to Great Britain by Denmark and the United States. While 
the price obtained for Danish bacon is $14.18 per ewt., that obtained for 
bacon from the United States is only $9.72 per ewt. In other words, 


Peas 8.7 rhs 


16 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


if the quality of the American bacon offered for sale in the British mar- 
ket had been as well adapted to the taste of the British consumers as 
the Danish, American bacon would have realized $28,192,300 instead _ 
of the $19,357,376 which it actually did realize. 

The prohibition of American cattle by Germany will stimulate the 
Teutonic consumption of bacon. Therefore, indirectly, but not the less 
effectively, it will aid in lessening the Danish bacon capacity to 
eompete in the British market with hog products from the United 
States. 

The best brands of Canadian singed sides bring in England within 
a half dollar to a dollar per ewt. of the prices of the best grades of 
Danish bacon, and the Canadians command from a half dollar to a 
dollar more than the corresponding American cuts will bring. Canada, 
unlike Denmark, has no advantage over us geographically. Its seem- 
ing superiority in quality is due wholly to the fact that its hog carries 
10 to 15 per cent more of lean and less of fat flesh than the American 
hog. It, therefore, more completely answers the taste and demands of 
the British public, and consequently commands a higher price. The 
imperious British demand for lean bacon is observed in the unceasing 
attempts of the great Wiltshire packers to obtain lean hogs. The firm 
of Charles & Thomas Harris, Limited, of Calne, England (Wiltshire), 
some time since began to offer a premium for medium-sized pigs. 
Their system of buying is the issuance of a weekly circular, stating the 
prices they are willing to pay for certain sorts of swine. A circular of 
this firm, issued in October, 1894, is as follows: 


Present prices for prime pigs, in lots of not less than ten, on rail within 100 miles of Calne. 


Prime stores. Thickness of fat in any part of the back. bay 
pounds. 
Ss. a. 
dap pounds to.190 pounds <:. .-2 266 enneciecim = 2i-inches and’ under. ...2--2--4---ee eee a 6 
ACT DLO MDOUNGSca-,<c2 es obs. abt eceiece ees Not exceeding 22 inches .- 22s. s22.2eeeeeeeeee 6 9 
OE Re SE ie a a a ars Not exceeding 22 inches . 2... . -..:~..s-aeee 6 3 
WRGCE S40 MOURNS. cons ccm nme audacadbvince's Not exceeding 3 inches ....--. + ...asemeeeeeee 6 3 


This circular shows that they offered the largest prices for animals 
running from 130 to 199 pounds which carried not more than 24 inches 
of fat on the back. For such pigs they offered 7s. 6d. “per score”—that 
is, in our money, $1.80 per 20 pounds, or 9 cents a pound live weight. 
Under the Harris plan of purchase it is reported that the percentage 
of lean pigs sent to the Calne market in Wiltshire has risen from 47 to 
75. The public demand for this sort of bacon has been met by the 
farmers by changing the breed. To do this they have raised Tamworths 
and Yorkshires to the exclusion of the Berkshires. The methods of 
this firm of English packers are enlarged upon for the reason that 
Wiltshire bacon is all through Europe recognized as the standard brand, 
and the house of Charles & Thomas Harris is known as the largest and 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 17 


best Wiltshire packing concern. Therefore a knowledge of the methods 
which they pursue to maintain their goods in public esteem is in the 
highest degree valuable to the American packers and farmers. The 
fact is demonstrated that the bacon which commands the best price in 
the English market is a lean and not oversalted meat. In view of that 
fact, itis of interest to American producers to place themselves in a 
position to cater especially for a market which demands so much of this 
peculiarly fattened and particularly cured commodity, : 

The English lard market italicizes the fact that complaints from retail 
dealers throughout England are constantly being made, through their 
trade journals, regarding the short weights of American lard in pails. 
A prominent London trade journal of October 13, 1894, says: 

The fesult of carefully weighing 50 wood pails of a well-known American, bought, 
as usual, at shippers’ weights and received by us about a fortnight ago, shows 
that the exact weight in each pail (cach lid bearing the words ‘£28 pounds net”) 
was as follows: 11 pails weigned 27 pounds 2 ounces each; 12 pails weighed 27 
pounds each; 3 pails, 26 pounds 14 ounces each; 15 pails, 274 pounds each; 2 pails, 
27 pounds 6 ounces each; 1 pail, 26 pounds 10 as 3; 2 pails, 274 pounds each; 1 
pail, 27 pounds 10 ounces; 3 pails, 262 pounds each, making a shortage of 44 pounds 
on the lot. Retailers in England are combining against short lard weights gen- 
erally, and there is a movement in some of the larger trade centers looking to the 
same end. The result may be a discrimination, amounting in many places to a 
boycott, against all brands which do not weigh out as marked. 


The foregoing somewhat tedious details as to the meat trade of the 
United States with the United Kingdom of Great Britain have been 
secured by personal solicitation of the Secretary of Agriculture, and 
are perfectly reliable down to and inclusive of the first nine months of 
theyear1894. They accentuate the magnitude of that particular foreign 
market for surplus meat products of the farmers of the United States. 

Worthington C. Ford, the very competent and diligent Chief of the 
Bureau of Statistics in the Treasury Department, has furnished the 
Department of Agriculture the following table, which represents the 
quantities and values of bacon, hams, pork, ete., shipped into the United 
Kingdom from the United States during the year ending June 30, 1894: 


Product. Quantities. | Values. 
Pounds. 
OM tis, 2 Pech ireaha igh aia ie gs Siow a 334,985, 389 | $31, 366, 843 
EEyinee eee eee eet Sees Bet ees 73, 894, 248 8, 230, 787 
Pork, fresh and ‘pickled... 2.2.35... 14, 272, 957 1, 159, 315 
NUTR: Sota tM eo aiwainn Comoe eee ew 150, 655, 158 13, 528, 987 


To Mr. Ford the American public is indebted for valuable statistical 
data further illustrative of the foreign markets and the amount of 
American farm products which they consume. In his summary state- 
mentof theimports and exports of the United States, corrected to March 
1, 1894, it will be seen that during the seven months ending January 
31, 1894, the United Kingdom of Great Britain took fourteen million 


18 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


eight hundred and thirty-eight thousand three hundred and sixty- 
seven dollars’ ($14,838,367) worth of live cattle from the United States, 
while all other countries took during the same period of time only 
two hundred and thirteen thousand eight hundred and fifty-five dollars’ 
($213,855) worth. During the one month of January, 1894, the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain took from the United States thirty-five mil- 
lion two hundred and forty thousand four hundred and thirty-one 
(35,240,431) pounds of bacon. The balance of the world took during 
the same time nine million five hundred and seventy-six thousand 
seven hundred and seventy (9,576,770) pounds. On page 565 of the 
summary statement referred to, under the head of “ Domestic bread-. 
stuffs, ete.,” exported from the United States, is a recapitulation show- — 
ing the amount of breadstuffs, provisions, cotton, and tobacco exported 
from the United States by all countries during the year ending Decem- 
ber 31, 1893. 
This recapitulation shows that the United Kingdom paid to Ameri- 
can producers during that year for breadstuffs, provisions, cotton, and 
tobacco more than three hundred and twenty-four millions of dollars 
($324,000,000). That is to say, the British market bought more than 
one-half of all the farm exports of the United States during that year. 
Including mineral oils’with agricultural exports (and there was only 
$10,131,473 worth of oil shipped), the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
took 54.31 per cent of all that was exported from the United States 
during that year. And the entire exports of breadstuffs, provisions, 
mineral oils, cotton, and tobacco from the United States to all parts 
of the world ae that year aggregated six hundred and fifteen mil- 
lion five hundred and seventy-four thousand and eighty-six dollars’ 
($615,574,086) worth in value. A study of the world’s markets demon- 
strates the fact to the producers of meat and breadstuffs in the United 
States that the United Kingdom of Great Britain furnished the largest 
demand for their commodities. 

Besides taking so much of meat and breadstuffs the same country 
took, in the year ending September 30, 1894, one hundred and forty-one 
thousand two hundred and ninety-four (141,294) tons of hay from the 
United States; but, owing to the fine hay crop which has recently been 
secured in Great Britain, there will be a great falling off in this respect 
for the coming year. 

Great Britain took thirty-one thousand five hundred and tw ane 
(31,520) tons of cheese from the United States during the year which 
ended April 30, 1894, and of butter, for the same period, two thousand 
and twenty-one (2,021) tons. But Denmark furnished, in butter, in 
the same year to Great Britain, forty-eight thousand nine hundred 
and ninety-seven (48,997) tons. From these dairy figures one may rea- 
sonably conclude that the butter and cheese capabilities of the United 
States are only just beginning to be developed. 

One of the lessons of this competition, especially accentuated by the 
conditions of the foreign dairy market, is that quality must be the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 19 


constant aim of the producer. Upon that Denmark has founded and 
developed her wonderful foreign dairy trade. As a producing country, 
competing against all the world in the world’s markets, the high 
quality and integrity of our products must be firmly established aud 
strictly maintained. Such a reputation is indispensable if we are to 
hold our place in the markets of the world. 


WHEAT IN ENGLISH MARKETS. 


The United Kingdom took in from foreign countries during the nine 
months ending September 30, 1894, nine million (9,000,000) bushels 
more wheat than during the same months in the year 1893; but the 
increased shipments into England of wheat were principally from Russia, 
the Argentine Republic, and Australasia. During that time the United 
States did not maintain its position as a wheat seller in England. In 
those nine months there was a falling off in American wheat upon the 
English markets of thirteen and a half million (13,500,000) Winchester 
bushels. The decline in value was proportionately far greater, and 
amounted to eight million four hundred and thirty-three thousand dol- 
lars ($8,433,000). A primary cause for the falling off of American wheat 
in English markets during the early part of this year is found in the 
fact that Argentina was a free seller, while our people maintained 
figures a trifle above the British market. On October 25, 1894, the 
market appears more inclined to higher figures. There is a distinct 
indication of activity and a better trade, with, however, only slightly 
improving prices. Appended hereunto is a table showing the prices 
of American and British wheat, and English barley, and beef and 
potatoes, during each month of the year 1894 down to and inclusive of 
September 28. 


Prices of certain food products in Great Britain on the first day of each month (or there- 
abouts) of the year 1894. 


American | ola ee Pa 
a. ral WMter_ wheat (per Davies (per rior (cash, | Beel EC | Pstninien 
Winchester te ogy B ore ere | bomen Fer pound). | (per ton). 
bushel). | : p .| per pound). | 
| 
1894. | Cents.. | Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. | 
Demmery................ : 7 76 | 883 | 7h 14} | $14. 60 
Wepruary 2 .............. | 78 76 | 884 | 7 133 | 12.77 
ee | 77 70 | 85 | 6 134 | 12. 16 
ee | 70 70 82 | 7 12§ | 10. 33 
eae 75 71 | 86 | 7 133 | 7.39 
Eee 66 70 ie 7 135 | 9.73 
eee 64 | 70 | 62 | 8 13§ | 12. 16 
(OS ee 66 | 71 | 68 | 7 13§ | *17.03 
emmast S1.......--.....0. 62 | 70 68 7 13§ | 15.78 
September 28 ............ 57 57 ral | 7h 128 | 17.00 
* New. 


Note.—These averages are official. In the original tables the figures for red winter wheat are 
expressed in sterling money per quarter of 496 pounds. These are translated into United States 
equivalents at the par valuo of the pound sterling ($1.86,95,) and in bushels of 60 pounds each. DPng- 
lish wheat has for its unit the quarter of 504 pounds; English barley, the quarter of 448 pounds; flour, 
the sack of 280 pounds; beef, the London stone of 8 pounds. . 


20 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


These tables are of value to the American farmer. They illustrate 
the fact that the price of wheat is now, and must always be, governed 
by the relation of the supply of wheat to the demand for wheat. Im- 
proved farming implements and machinery have reduced the cost of 
production. Wheat will, in all probability, remain at relatively low 
figures in all time to come, except when there are failures of the crop 
in large wheat-growing sections of the earth. The great competitors of 
the United States in the production and sale of wheat are the Argen- 
tine Republic, Australasia, and Russia. The capabilities of the last- 
named country as a bread producer are beyond computation. Already 
American farm implements and machinery are finding enormous sale 
in that Empire, and permanently established agencies of the great reap- 
ing and other manufacturing concerns of the United States are solidly 
located at Odessa and other important entrepdts to the wheat-growing 
regions. 

Looking at cheap bread from the standpoint of the consumer, the 
world is fed better and oftener than it ever was before. The profits of 
the producer are now divided, so that the consumer gets a large share 
thereof. But it matters very little to the producer of wheat in the 
United States what the price may be if he is permitted to buy in the 
markets where he is compelled to sell. In other words, if the price of 
the farmer’s wheat is fixed in Europe, there is no good reason why the 
prices of the things he has to buy should not also be fixed in Europe. 
In selling, the farmer competes with all the world. To give him an 
equal chance he ought also to be allowed to buy where all the world 
competes. European and all other foreign markets for wheat indicate 
that the competition in that cereal is constantly increasing and intensi- 
fying. The Argentine Republic is capable already of placing thirty- 
five millions (35,000,000) of bushels of wheat a year on the European 
market, while it has only five millions (5,000,000) of population. The 
Argentine wheat fields average less than 100 miles from deep-water 
harbors. To reach shipping ports Argentine wheat pays no appreciable 
inland freight. But the wheat of the United States averages quite a 
heavy transportation charge in reaching the seaboard. In short, we 
have a long haul and the Argentine Republica short haul before reach- 
ing the Atlantic. Russia, likewise, has the advantages of a short haul 
and speedy transportation. ; 

There are many subsidiary crops to which the American farmer may 
profitably turn his attention. Wheat will not hereafter be our staple 
cereal product. Corn is constantly advancing in importance because 
_ of an ever-growing demand for that cereal which is evolved from the 
various new uses to which it is being constantly appropriated. 


EXPORTS OF BARLEY. 


There has been a steadily growing demand for barley exportation to 
Great Britain. This demand amounted during the first nine months 
of 1594 to an increase over last year of eighteen millions (18,000,000) of 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 21 


bushels. The universal use of barley by brewers in England maintains 
a steady and constant market for the highest grades of that cereal. 
Hard, firm, and bright grain barley from the Northwestern States and 
California commands higher prices than many European barleys. That 
kind of American barley is second best to the best grade barleys of 
Smyrna, and is regarded among the best malting barleys in the British 
markets. The average yield per acre of barley in Great Britain is 
thirty-four (34) bushels, though the drought of 1893 reduced it to an 
average of only twenty-nine (29) busheis. There are two and a quarter 
million (2,250,000) acres, average, of barley in the United Kingdom 
annually, so that the annual product is something like seventy-five 
million (75,000,000) imperial bushels, though the harvest of 1893 
Shows only sixty-five million seven hundred and forty-six thousand 
(65,746,000) bushels. 

In seven years the export of barley from the United States to Great 
Britain has grown from nothing into a very considerable trade. The 
average price in England during the year 1894 of good, bright barley, 
per bushel of 56 pounds, has been 77+ cents. 

The supply of the best quality of malting barley is limited, but there 
are States in the American Union which have great advantages for the 
production of the very highest grades of this cereal, and the market 
seems to be a growing one into which American farmers can pour a 
large volume of remunerative products every year. 


THE UNITED STATES APPLE TRADE WITH ENGLAND. 


During the year 1892 England took in from the United States and 
Canada four and a half million (4,500,000) bushels of apples, valued at 
six and a half million dollars ($6,500,000). In the year 1893, however, 
owing to poor crops in this country and Canada, and not because of a 
want of a market in England, she purchased only three million four 
hundred thousand (3,400,000) bushels, valued at four million one hun- 
dred thousand dollars ($4,100,000); and during the nine months ending 
with September, 1894, Great Britain took one million nine hundred 
thousand (1,900,000) bushels of apples, valued at two and a half million 
of dollars ($2,500,000). The apple market in Great Britain during the 
spring is largely supplied from Australasia, New Zealand, France, and 
Italy, the import from the latter country being a novelty which was 
witnessed for the first time during the year 1894. 

The English apple crop is gathered in the early autumn and partially 
supplies the markets until about the middle of September. Then the 
first shipments of American apples begin to arrive. They consist of 
Summer fruit. They are very tender and require immediate sale. They 
are packed in what are known to the trade as “New York barrels,” 
containing 3 bushels and running 1 ewt.in weight. These barrels are 
smaller by 25 pounds than those in which the Canadian apples reach 
that market. But it is rather an advantage to the American trade that 


92 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the barre! is smaller. It is not believed in Great Britain that if the 
barrel were made larger the corresponding inerease in price eould be 
obtained. 

Canadian apples begin to arrive in London at the end of October. 
Asarule they are firm, hard, and fine colored, and eommand the best 
prices through the winter. American apples average, at whelesale, 
$2.25 to $3.15 per “New York barrel,” while the Canadian bring $2.91 
to $3.87 per ‘Canadian barrel.” The 1894 apple crop of England is 
exceptionally small, owing to a late frost in the spring. The market 
for American apples will be good throughout the entire coming winter. 


It is important that the shippers understand that only choice fruit will. 


pay profit on shipments. It is equally important that the apples be 
carefully handled and properly packed. 

There is also a good demand in England for high-class cider, and 
there is ne reason why the American farmer should not export in this 
form the apples not properly conditioned for shipment. At the pres- 
ent time English cider is selling at 22 cents per gallon, with a prospect 
of commanding 25 cents during the greater part of the winter. 


EXPORTS OF HORSES. 


There is a growing demand in England for American horses. During 
the first nine months of the year 1894 the English market took two thou- 
sand eight hundred and eleven (2,811) American driving horses, at an 
average value of $139 per head. Last year the average price of those 
shipped was $230. A sound light draft horse, in good condition, of the 
size and weight adapted to omnibus work in cities, will generally bring, 
in Liverpool or London, $150. Nearly all of the shipments of horses 
thus far from the United States to Engiand have been through Hnglish 
buyers. Arriving in England, the animals are put out to grass, as a 
rule, for a month at least, and are then sold at auction. Canada has 
about an equal share with ourselves in the English horse market, 
although Canadian shipments have the reputation of being somewhat 
better in quality. 

The average price of Canadian geldings during the last nine months 
has been $160, as against $139 for American. The English under- 
stand perfectly well that prices of horses have fallen in the United 
States on account of the extensive substitution of trolleys and bicycles 
for horses, and. it is generally conceded that a considerable demand for 
American horses will soon spring up throughout Europe. The great 
omnibus and tramway companies of London are recruiting their stoeks 
from the United States and Canada very generally at the present time. 


POTATOES. 


The British acreage in potatoes has not varied materially from half 
a million acres during many years. In Ireland the acreage has grad- 
ually fallen, in the course of fifteen years, from eight hundred and forty- 


| 
i ethos 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 23 


two thousand (842,000) acres to seven hundred and twenty thousand 
(720,000) acres. The potato product of the Channel Islands, France, 
and Belgium amounts to about three million (3,000,000) ewt. every year. 
But during the year 1894, up to and inclusive of the month of May, a 
considerable shipment of potatoes was made from England to the 
United States. When those shipments were made, potatoes were sell- 
ing in New York for $2.25 per sack of 168 pounds, and the price in Eng- 
land was $7.29 to $12.15 per ton of 2,240 pounds. In October, 1894, 
potatoes were selling in New York at $1.85 per sack of 168 pounds, while 
the prices ranged in England at from $14.60 to $17 per ton. 

The cost of transportation for potatoes from Great Britain to the 
United States per ton is about as follows: Drayage to the ship, 60 
cents; freight, $3.03; sacks, $1.80. To these figures must be added 
insurance, duties, and commissions on this side. The duty is put on 
to protect the “infant industry” of potato growing in the United 
States. It is supposed to make higher prices for those Americans who 
raise potatoes, and lower ones for those who eat them. A protective 
tariff is always depicted by its advocates as a dual blessing to the 
farmer, so adjusted as to always enhance the things he sells and cheapen 
the things he buys. However, English potato dealers do not look to 
the New York market for sales until prices there reach about $2.25 per 
sack. The potato crop of England this year is so limited that we shall 
not be able to draw supplies from there, even at higher prices than 
were obtained last year. 


THE ASSISTANT SECRETARYSHIP. 


On January 1, 1894, the Hon. Edwin Willits retired from the office of 
Assistant Secretary of the Department of Agriculture. He remained, 
by request, up to that date, so that he might complete satisfactorily 
his arduous duties in connection with the Government’s exhibit at the 
World’s Fair. The sense of obligation which the Secretary is pleased to 
cherish for Mr. Willits, because of his many good services to the Depart- 
ment, is hereby very frankly acknowledged, and a sincere admiration 
for his rugged honesty, industry, and vigilance, as an official and efficient 
friend of agriculture during his entire connection with this Adminis- 
tration, is unconcealed. 

On the same date, Dr. Charles W. Dabney, jr., president of the 
University of Tennessee—who had previously been selected by the 
President and confirmed by the Senate as Assistant Secretary of A gri- 
culture—entered upon the discharge of his duties. During many years 
this gentleman had been prominently and intimately identified with 
agricultural education. He had especially prepared himself in that 
line of study by severe application in the laboratories of this country 


and in Germany. His experience as a State chemist, as director of 


an agricultural experiment station in North Carolina, and as presi- 


dent of the University of Tennessee, brought him to his present 


24 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


position peculiarly well equipped for the discharge of its responsible 
duties. Therefore, on the 2d day of January, 1894, the Secretary of 
Agriculture issued a special order wholly revising the duties of the 
Assistant Secretary. That order assigned to him the entire direction 
of all the scientific divisions, and likewise of the Office of Experiment 
Stations, of the Office of Irrigation Inquiry, of the Office of Fiber Inves- 
tigation, and of the Museum. Himself a scientist, Dr. Dabney has dis- 
charged the duty of supervising the expenditures and controlling the 
direction of scientific research, operations, and policy with admirable 
judgment and skill. 

The application of science to agriculture, under his management, is 
becoming, through practical bulletins published by the Department 
and other popular means, more generally appreciated, understood, and 
approved. 

During the year the Department has entered upon two new lines of 
very important investigation. ‘The first of these relates to grasses and 
forage plants. 


AGROSTOLOGY. 


The forage interests of the United States are vast in value. Seventy 
million (70,000,000) tons of hay are cut and cured each summer. This 
crop is taken from fifty million (50,000,000) acres of land. Hach year’s 
hay crop is estimated to be worth six hundred millions of dollars 
($600,000,000). No accurate means have been found for ascertaining 
the cash value of grasses upon pasture and other lands that are grazed. 
It is known, however, that those lands support and fatten vast herds of 
cattle, sheep, and horses. In 1890 such ranges in the United States fed 
fourteen million fifty-nine thousand and thirty (14,059,030) head of 
domestic animals. As these millions of animals subsist largely upon 
native grasses and other forage plants, the magnitude of these figures 
elucidates the vital necessity of securing, if possible, new and better 
grasses and forage plants in this country. Therefore the Department 
of Agriculture has undertaken the development of a Division of Agros- 
tology. The gentleman in charge of this new line of investigation, 
Prof. I. Lamson-Scribner, has a national reputation. His appointment 
was made upon the recommendation of many of the best botanists in 
the several universities and colleges of the United States. 

At present agrostology is merely an agency in the Division of Botany. 
It is the duty of the expert in charge of this agency to study grasses 
and forage plants in general and to instruct and familiarize the people 
of this country, through bulletins and leaflets, with regard to the con- 
servation of the native grasses of the continent, and to teach them how 
to introduce from foreign countries such improved and useful forage 
plants as may be found adaptable and profitable in the United States. 
It will be his especial and specific duty to prepare and publish a work 
on ‘the forage plants of the United States,” and subsequently a more 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 25 


elaborate publication, Handbook of Grasses of the United States. 
_ This will contain deseriptions and illustrations of all the known 
grasses of this country. 

Through the Department of State the Secretary of Agriculture has 
secured the assistance of all the consular agents of the United States 
in collecting at their several stations or posts of duty any seeds of 
forage plants. These specimens and seeds are forwarded directly to 
this Department and submitted to Professor Scribner for examination 
and testing. Thus it is proposed to search the whole civilized globe for 
erasses and forage plants which may be of value to the people in each 
section of the United States. It is hoped that in this way the quantity 
per acre of the hay crop of this country may be very materially increased 
andits quality improved. If, however, the hay production per acre 1n 
the United States is, as a result of this effort in behalf of agrostology, 
raised only 1 per cent, it is equal to an increase of six millions of dollars 
per year in the value of this single farm product. Professor Scribner’s 
investigations have already reached such proportions, and they promise 
to become of such inestimable value to the farmers of the United 
States, that it is proposed to create a new division in this Department, 
‘as provided in the estimates herewith submitted, to be called “The 
Division of Agrostology.” 


AGRICULTURAL SOILS AND CROP PRODUCTION. 


The second new line of investigation relates to agricultural soils and 
crop production. Such soils have long presented a problem unsolved 
by chemical analysis. It has been known for some time that the pecul- 
iarly valuable characteristics of different agricultural soils are often due 
to some other cause or causes than the chemical composition. Climatic 
conditions are potent in their influences as to the general distribution 
of plants, but they alone do not explain why one soil is well adapted 
to one variety of crop, while the soil in an adjacent field, receiving the 
same amount of rainfall and heat, is wholly unadapted to it, while 
perfectly adapted to an entirely different crop requiring an altogether 
different nutrition. 

Records of climatic conditions generally end at the surface of the 
earth. But the farmer’s interests are equally connected and concerned 
with the climatic conditions within the soil and below the surface of 
the ground. 

The amount of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter contained in soils 
so modifies the atmospheric conditions that different soils maintain 

very different degrees of moisture and temperature for plant life. 
Different varieties of plants require different degrees of moisture and 
heat for their best development. Thus each class finds the conditions 
best adapted to its peculiar nature in different kinds of soil. Wheat 
requires a low temperature. Corn requires a relatively high tempera- 


96 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ture. Celery and rice develop best in moist soils. Sweet potatoes and 
peanuts require a comparatively dry, sandy soil. 

Deeply tilled soils provide a large reservoir for the rainfall. The 
deeper the soil is stirred and cultivated, the larger the reservoir. 
The texture of the soil—that is, the relative amount of sand, silt, clay, 
and organic matter which it contains, and the way in which these con- 
stituent grains are arranged—determines the amount cf water which 
the soil may retain from rains. Sandy soils retain comparatively little 
water, because they afford little resistance to percolation of the rain- 
fall. Through them the water leaches down beyond the reach of veg- 
etation, and is lost to plants. Such soils are naturally adapted to the 
forcing of early “truck” and vegetables, and to such plants as are 
grown for fine texture and bright-colored leaf development. 

Soils having a great amount of clay in their composition offer great 
resistance to the rainfall. The movement of moisture downward 
through such soils is exceedingly slow, and thus an abundant humidity 
is generally retained; this adapts them to the growth of wheat and 
pasture grasses that need an abundant supply of water for their growth. 
On such soils tobacco also grows strongly, throwing out heavy leaves 
which contain a great amount of oil and gum, developing a character 
of tobacco adapted to an entirely different purpose from that grown 
from the same seed in lighter soils. 

Considerations like these led this year to the establishment of a 
division in the Weather Bureau for the study of meteorology in its 
relation to soils. Prof. Milton Whitney, who had previously been in 
the service of the Department as a special agent engaged upon these 
investigations and had made a marked reputation by his careful and 
original work, was appointed chief of this division. 

Observations have been made during the past season on the condi- 
tions of moisture and heat in the typical soils of the “truck” area of 
the Atlantic seaboard and in several of the soil areas adapted to the 
different types of tobacco, and likewise in the soils of the arid regions 
of the West. 

These observations have shown the cause of the peculiar value of 
“truck” Jands. They have indicated also large breadths of land simi- 
lar to them which are at present practically abandoned, although well 
adapted to the important and oftentimes very lucrative industry of 
raising early vegetables for the markets of our great cities. Investi- 
gations have shown the reason for the differences in the type of tobacco 
grown in several of the most important tobacco regions. They have 


explained why certain types of land in the several regions are not 


adapted to the varieties of tobacco demanded by the present domestic 
and foreign markets, They have demonstrated this, and also sug- 


gested how the conditions of these lands may be changed to render 


them productive of a demanded grade of tobacco. 
From the careful examination thus far made of the soils of the 


A 
re 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 27 


so-called arid regions of Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, Professor 
Whitney is convinced that, with their present climate, and with 
improved methods of thorough preparation and deep cultivation, and 
with a careful selection and modification and rotation of crops, they 
may be vastly improved in the certainty and constancy of their agri- 
cultural productiveness. Professor Whitney does not claim, however, 
that deep subsoiling alone can wholly obviate the necessity of irriga- 
tion, but he impresses the fact that irrigation is always expensive, and 
that there are vast areas of arid Jands which can never be irrigated 
nor profitably farmed under existing methods. 

The time is not remote when in all the arid and subarid regions of 
the Northwest deep subsoil tillage will be regarded as the only probable 
certain assurance against the loss of crops in long-continued drought. 
The farmers in these regions must soon come to understand that the 
deeper, in plowing, the soil and subsoil is stirred, with subsequent 
deep tillage of corn or root crops during the summer, the greater 
the capacity for the storage of the rainfall and the less the liability of 
crop failure. Especially will this be demonstrated in the soils and sub- 
soils of Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, where there is so much of 
silt and so little of sand in the lands. 

When the conditions essential to the proper development of particular 
kinds of crops are perfectly understood and established, these investiga- 
tions will supply the basis for amore intelligent use of water. It is now 
the intention of the United States Department of Agriculture to have 
the texture and physical conditions of the principal agricultural soils 
of the American Union thoroughly examined. Thus it will establish 
among the people the knowledge of the necessary conditions for the 
maintenance of crops. When the conditions in these typical soils are 
understood, they will be the basis for comparison with other soils. 
Such comparison will show what class of crops each soil is fitted for 
and how soil conditions may be changed to adapt it to any particular 
crop for which the general climatic conditions seem favorable. 

As a basis for this work, a yast amount of material, consisting of 
nearly two thousand samples of soils, which have been collected with 
skill and judgment from all parts of the United States, is in possessicn 
of the Department. 

In consideration of the vast importance of this work, the Secretary 
of Agriculture recommends that this division be taken out of the 
Weather Bureau and established as an independent division in this 
Department. Estimates have been submitted in accordance with this 
plan. 


WEATHER BUREAU. 


The administration of the Weather Bureau during the fiscal year 


ending June 30, 1894, cost fourteen (14) per cent less than the appro- 


priation made for that period of time. The financial history of the 


28 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Weather Bureau service is clearly set forth in the appended tabulated 
statement, which begins with 1882 and closes with 1894, as follows: 


Fiscal year ending June 30— seas ee sa Deficiency. retuned to i 

j 

"se Seng, Ae Pie he ain fo $988, 615.80 | $988,615.80 |......-.0- 22.0) ee : 

NGG 2S tee a To Ro ne ee ee cee eee 993, 520. CO 993, 52020053... 2ascoc eee eee a 

OE ee ee Pee 2 CSM eek See 958,034.57 | 984,451.30) $26, 416/790). a, eee 4 

sR a PER | MSR Maret Ree ee Ys. Se 954,517.88 | 966, 076. 44 11, 558.565| Weg esa F 

BR on oe ee 955,740.80 | 960, 812. 06 5 O74. Dunes ae ee 
BEBE cn 2 gk eee es 892,290.42 | 902, 042. 67 9; 752: Oa lee ee ee eee 
age 822) 0 a A es ee 887, 503.85 | 909, 410. 74 21,906, S)2 5 OR Se 
PHO: CU TES Mots Wie: ee: | 845,896.27 | 853, 396. 27 7, 500, OOF tee 
CN SE See AONE cca ee es ae oe de 801,122.59 | 810, 622. 59 9, 500: 0Bel 7d mc! eeeen. 
C1) a etna MR pe alr we Tee aad 813, 046.53 | 877, 659. 80 64, 61997: 2) oe eee 
TE ac el Re BA SR ae 889, 753.50 | * 830,783.33 |... 2. * $55, 000. 00 
PAS BCT? Pel 5 Lev meee noes Aon 908, 595.50 | * 892, 805.20 |...... 2.222 * 15, 600. 00 
nD ec ss niin Re Oe tee ES 951,100.00 | * 812, 711. 60 |. 32coeeneeee * 138, 500. 00 


* Estimated—accounts not yet permanently closed. 


This statement shows that for the year 1894 one hundred and thirty- 
eight thousand five hundred dollars ($138,500) of the appropriation 
was covered back into the Treasury—an amount of money aggregating 
nearly twice as much as all the moneys covered back into the Treas- 
ury from that Bureau in the preceding eleven years. It is agreeable to 
state, also, that the Chief of the Weather Bureau reports the reduction 
in expenditures to have been made without impairment of the efficiency 
of the work of the Bureau. 


PROMOTIONS. 


Important positions in the Weather Bureau were filled during the 
past year by competitive examinations. Some examinations were freely 
thrown open to all citizens. Others were only accessible to those in 
the lower grades of the Weather Bureau whose service ratings were 
the highest. ‘The results of this competitive system have been exceed- 
ingly satisfactory. The introduction of this manner of promoting sub- 
ordinate officials has been an inspiration to all the Weather Bureau 
observers to do their very best as forecasters. Examinations have been 
held for forecast officials. Doubts entertained by many heretofore, as 
to whether capacity in forecasting might be satisfactorily tested by 
examinations, have been dispelled. The Weather Bureau itself has 
conducted the examinations, because this method of securing suitable 
persons for forecast duty was altogether experimental. 


PUBLICATIONS. 


During the year the Weather Bureau issued two million six hundred — 
thousand (2,600,000) weather maps outside of Washington, and two 
hundred and twenty-nine thousand one hundred and twelve (229,112) 


a ihe 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 29 


within the city’s limits. During the same period of time the Bureau 
issued seventy-one thousand two hundred and sixty-six (71,266) 
Weather Crop Bulletins. 

The observations on the general subject of publications under the 
head of Division of Records and Editing, regarding gratuitous distri- 
bution, apply with peculiar force to the publications of the Bureau. 


FORCE AT THE CENTRAL OFFICE. 


During the year there was a complete reorganization of the force in 
the Washington office of the Weather Bureau. In that time fifty-eight 
(58) persons, whose salaries aggregated fifty-four thousand seven hun- 
dred and fifty dollars ($54,750) per annum, were taken from the pay 
rolls of that office. During the same period forty-five (45) persons, 
whose salaries amounted to thirty-six thousand seven hundred and 
seventy dollars ($36,770) per annum, were added to its pay rolls, thus 
lessening by thirteen (13) the number of persons employed and redue- 
ing their annual pay roll seventeen thousand nine hundred and eighty 
dollars ($17,980). The entire number of persons on the pay rolls of the 
central office, June 30, 1894, was one hundred and seventy-one (171). 
Their salaries amounted to one hundred and seventy-eight thousand 
seven hundred and thirty-one dollars and sixty cents ($178,731.60) per 
apn. 


FORECASTS. 

Regular forecasts of weather, wind, and temperature have been 
made from the 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. observations and furnished to the 
press associations, telegraph companies, and newspapers throughout 
the United States. For forty-five (45) separate districts, covering the 
entire country east of the Rocky Mountains, these forecasts have been 
made. They are for periods each usually of twenty-four to thirty-six 
hours, respectively; but for longer periods when conditions seem to 
indicate such a necessity. 

Storm warnings have been wired often to the lake and seacoast sta- 
tions, and to the director of the Canadian Meteorological Service at 
Toronto. Warnings of frost to fruit, tobacco, and cotton regions, and 
warnings of severe local storms, cyclones, cold waves, northers, and 
dangerous floods have been frequently sent to threatened districts. 
Such admonitions are issued whenever conditions indicate the necessity 
for them. 


VALUE OF THE WARNINGS. 


During the year the Weather Bureau warnings received, as a rule, 
wide distribution. There were very few disastrous storms of which 


the people had not been apprised twenty-four to thirty-six hours In 


advance of their culmination during the last summer. The severe 


30 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


cyclones of August 25 to 27, and October 12 to 14, 1893, were notably 
well foretold. The warnings given for those dates italicized the value 
of the service to agriculture and to commerce. 

During the year much inquiry was elicited as to the probable value 
of the forecast work of the Weather Bureau. It is difficult to estimate 
with any degree of precision or accuracy the real value of the current 
work of the Weather Bureau. It, however, affects almost innumerable 
interests. It varies from day to day in its influence upon, protection 
over, and conservation of, those multifarious interests. Directors of the 
State weather service in Ohio and in North Carolina report—the first 
a saving of two hundred thousand dollars ($200,000) by the warning of 
January 24, 1894; the latter estimated that during the season two 
hundred thousand dollars’ ($200,000) worth of farm products in his 
immediate territory was saved from frost by the same means. These 
estimates are conservative. They only hint at the vast possible value 
each year of the forecast work and warnings throughout the United 
States. 

In January, 1894, the steamship Rappahannock was stranded, and the 
nearest Weather Bureau observer, at Cape Henry, Va.,immediately tele- - 
graphed a wrecking company at Norfolk to the effect that unless the 
stranded steamer lightened up enough to float at high tide on the night 
of the 24th she would be broken to pieces by a coming storm upon the 
rocks. The observer’s message was communicated to the Rappahan- 
nock by flag signals. This warning caused the wrecking company 
to exert themselves to the utmost, and they consequently discharged 
a sufficient cargo to enable the vessel to float that night at 10.35, and 
at 12.45 p.m. of the next day, just fourteen hours and ten minutes 
after the vessel was floated out of danger, because of the Weather 
Bureau warnings—an intensely severe westerly to northerly gale (which 
had been forecasted), with freezing temperature, rain, and a heavy sea, 
set in; and it is generally conceded that had the vessel continued 
aground until that storm struck her she would have been pounded to 
pieces and, with her cargo, valued at six hundred thousand dollars 
($600,000), proved a total loss. 

The September tropical storm of 1894 was forecasted with great 
accuracy and exactness. Warnings were sent very generally along the 
Atlantic coast. Because of the admonitions of the Weather Bureau 
relative to that particular storm one thousand and eighty-nine (1,089) 
vessels, valued at seventeen million one hundred thousand four hun- 
dred and thirteen dollars ($17,100,413), were retained in port. During 
the October tropical storm of 1894 one thousand two hundred and six- 
teen (1,216) vessels, valued at nineteen million one hundred and eighty- 
three thousand five hundred dollars ($19,183,500), were prevented from 
going out to sea because of the warnings issued by the United States 
Weather Bureau. The value of the cargoes in all this multitude of — 
ships which were prevented from encountering the tropical storms 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. ol 


of September and October has not been estimated. It is, however, 
reasonable to presume that the cargoes were worth much more than 
the ships, and therefore safe to assume that the Weather Bureau 
warnings for the two months, which kept in port vessels valued in the 
aggregate at thirty-six million two hundred and eighty-three thou- 
sand nine hundred and thirteen dollars ($36,283,913), also preserved 


- from the perils of those most disastrous and far-sweeping storms several 


y 
3 


million dollars’ worth of merchandise, commodities, and other property 
in transit. 

Besides that vast amount of value in materials, many human lives 
undoubtedly were preserved from jeopardy and death. The records 
of those vessels which disregarded the warnings of the Weather Bureau 
in those two storms show that they suffered severely or were utterly 
destroyed. The owners of the vessels remaining in port because of the 


- Weather Bureau admonitions plainly say that but for those warnings 


they might have been lost. 

It is not practicable to estimate the value of the warnings to agri- 
culture and inland commerce up to this time. But data are being col- 
lected by the Weather Bureau which hereafter may be of great service 
in elucidating the value of its warnings to farmers shipping perishable 
fruit and root crops in the autumn and spring, as well as to those 
middlemen who handle such products. | 

Facts and figures have been quoted sufficiently in the foregoing to 
prove that the Weather Bureau, when -it is properly and efficiently 
administered, may save to the American people, by its forecasts and 
warnings, many millions of dollars each year. And as the utmost 
expenditure for the maintenance of this Bureau at this time is less than 
one million of dollars annually, the investment is apparently a paying 
one for all the people. ‘This outlay of money may therefore come prop- 
erly within the functions of the Government, because it is in the line of 
protection to property and life. 

By recent arrangement with the Postmaster-General, the warnings 
have been extended by the Post-Office Department to 3,608 more dis- 
tributing points east of the Rocky Mountains, and thus a greatly 
inereased number received warnings of the tropical storms of Septem- 
ber and October above mentioned. The actual saving of property 
from jeopardy by the admonition of those two months is beyond com- 
putation. ; 

The extracts from reports of observers concerning the value of the 
forecasts and warnings received from the Weather Bureau in connec- 
tion with the September and October storms of 1894 will be published 
in the full report of the Weather Bureau Service over the signature of 
that eminent forecaster, Maj. H. H.C. Dunwoody, in his transmittal 
of statements to the Chief of the Weather Bureau, showing the fore- 
cast work of his division in regard to the prenamed storms. 


32 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


THE WEST INDIES CYCLONE SERVICE. 


This service is continued from July 15 to October 15 each year. 
Reports are rendered by telegraph and mail from Santiago, Santo 
Domingo, St. Thomas, and Kingston. At all these points the United 
States Weather Bureau maintains paid observers. During the hurri- 
cane season observations are taken twice each day. They are wired to 
the United States observer at Key West whenever an unusual meteoro- 
logical perturbation occurs. All approaching storms are also heralded 
from the West Indies stations. Voluntary telegraphic reports are 
received by our observers at Jupiter and Key West, respectively. 
When of interest they are telegraplied to Washington also from Nassau, 
New Providence, the Bahama Islands, and Havana. This work is 
carried on by the cooperation of the governor of the Bahama Islands 
and the superintendent of the central office of the Meteorological 
Marine Service at Antilles, Havana. 

The attempt has been made by personal interview and correspondence 
to secure the voluntary cooperation of the Rev. Lorenzo Gangoite, 8. 
J., of Belen College, Havana, and members of the Jesuit Order in 
Balize, British Honduras, in rendering reports of hurricanes to the 
United States Weather Bureau. So far the Bureau is much indebted 
to the Rev. J. T. Hedrick, 8. J., of Georgetown College, Washington, 
D. C., for kind offices in this connection. The commercial importance 
aud great need of reports from Yucatan can not well be overestimated. 


TELEGRAPH SERVICE. 


The service rendered the Weather Bureau by telegraph companies © 
during the year has been reasonably prompt and generally efficient. 
The best record of telegraphy in this service was made on the morning 
of April 6, 1894, when all reports due in Washington at the central 
office over circuits and by special message were received by 9 a. m., 
that is, just fifty-four minutes after the time of filing. Not a single 
report was missing. These reports, be it remembered, embraced obser- 
vations made at 126 stations. They covered the continent from the 
British Possessions to the Gulf. They reached from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific. | 

During the year a reduction in the cost of the regular “circuit” busi- 
ness of about 15 per cent was enected. This was accomplished by 
revising and reforming contracts of the preceding year. The total 
expense for telegraphing (May and J ine estimated) was one hundred 
and forty-six thousand one hundred | nd forty-seven dollars and forty- 
eight cents ($146,147.48), that is, for., -three thousand eight hundred 
and fifty-two dollars and fifty-two cents ($43,852.52) less than the 
allotinent. That is a saving of twelve thousand and fifty-two dollars 
and sixty-six cents ($12,052.66) by reassn of reduced telegraph rates. 
Furthermore, by readjustment of tle rates for loeal forecast and 


x REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 33 


cotton-region messages an additional saving of about four thousand 
dollars ($4,000) will result to the Bureau during the current year. 
Public appreciation of the warnings of the Weather Bureau and the 
growing importance attached to their value are very well illustrated 
in a recent suit against the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for the 
value of a canal boat wrecked during the storm of August 24 and 25, 
1894. The lost boat broke loose from a Pennsylvania Railroad Com- 
pany tug, by which it was being towed to South Amboy, N. J. In the 
progress of the trial Sergeant Dunn, the Weather Bureau observer at 
New York City, testified that he had warned the public, including the 
Pennsylvania Railroad Company officials, of the approaching storm 
from Cape Hatteras. The question raised in the case is whether it is 
a legal duty of those having water craft in their charge to respect 
Weather Bureau warnings. The decision of the court is awaited with 
intense curiosity, because it involves, to a certain extent, the value of 
Weather Bureau warnings. It all indicates that in the near future 
marine insurance may contain, in every policy, a proviso by which the 
insurance will become inoperative and void in case of loss by a storm 
against which the Weather Bureau shall have sent out timely warnings. 


BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 


The most effective and valuable work rendered by the Bureau of 
Animal Industry to the commercial interests of the country during the 
past fiscal year has been in the inspection of meat for the export and 
interstate trade. At forty-six (46) abattoirs, situated in seventeen (17) 
cities, the number of animals inspected has increased from four million 
eight hundred and eighty-five thousand six hundred and thirty-three 
(4,855,633) in 1893 to twelve million nine hundred and forty-four 
thousand and fifty-six (12,944,056) in 1894. The cost of inspection has 
been reduced trom 43 cents per head in 1893 to 12 cents per head in 
1894. 

The ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of animals intended for 
human consumption will soon be completely under civil-service rules 
and altogether in the hands of skilled veterinarians. Hereafter no 
person can be appointed an inspector except he shall have exhibited to 
the United States Civil Service Commission his diploma from a repu- 
table veterinary college, and also have submitted to and passed a satis- 
factory examination before that honofable body. Thus all export and 
interstate meat will have been examined scientifically by an employee 
of the United States Government#and by him certificated as wholesome 
andedible. This governmental cvurtification by skilled veterinarians is 
In fact a guaranty in all Europeamand other markets of the wholesome- 
hess of American meat. Possibly, as a sanitary precaution, it would be 
well for the United States to demand governmental inspection and 
chemical aa i of specimens oom wines, brandies, and other bever- 

1 


34 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ages which are imported from Europe, at the hands of the governments 
of those countries whence they are exported. If it is wisdom on the 
part of foreign nations to demand inspection and certification (for sani- 


| 


tary reasons) by the American Government of its exports to them, and — 
wise for us to comply with that demand, would it not be equally wise — 


(upon sanitary grounds) for the United States to require governmental 


inspection and certification of all foreign nations for exports into the © 


United States intended for the consumption of its citizens? 


The amount of pork microscopically examined for export during the 


year was thirty-five million four hundred and thirty-seven thousand 
nine hundred and thirty-seven (35,437,937) pounds. Butinthe year 1893 
it was only twenty million six hundred and seventy-seven thousand 
four hundred and ten (20,677,410) pounds. In 1894, one million three 
hundred and seventy-two thousand four hundred and ten (1,372,416) 
pieces, from as many different carcasses, have been microscopically 
examined under the direction of this Bureau. 

The cost of microscopic inspection has been diminished during the 
year 1894 from 83 cents per carcass or piece, in 1893, to 64 cents per 
capita. This indicates a reduction of nearly 25 per cent. The cost of 
inspecting microscopically the pork sold in Germany and France (no 
other European countries demand such inspection) by the United 
States, in the year 1893, was one hundred and seventy-two thousand 
three hundred and sixty-seven dollars and eight cents ($172,367.08). 
But during the year 1894 the quantity so inspected was increased fifteen 
millions (15,600,000) of pounds, and the cost of inspection was in the 
same twelve months reduced to eighty-eight thousand nine hundred 
and twenty-two dollars and ten cents ($88,922.10). 

During the last half of the fiscal year the United States exported 
twenty-two million eight hundred and nineteen thousand two hun- 
dred and thirty-one (22,819,231) pounds, and the cost of inspection was 
thirty-six thousand four hundred and eighty-eight dollars and forty- 
two cents ($36,488.42), 

The Secretary of Agriculture recommends that the law providing for 
the inspection of export and interstate meat be so amended as to compel 


the owners of the meat inspected to pay the cost of the microscopic inspec- — 


tion. If governmental inspection and certification widens the foreign 
and interstate markets for the products of any slaughtering and -packing 
establishment, it, by having increased the demand for those products, 
has enhanced their prices. It is only equitable that those pay for the 
inspection who are directly pecuniarily benefited thereby. 

Aslong as the Government pays for microscopic meat inspection, 
many establishments will demand inspection which have neither inter- 
state nor export trade. If the inspection is worth anything at all to 
killers, packers, and dealers in fresh or cured meats, they should pay 
for it. As the law exists to-day, any slaughtering establishment, no 
matter how insignificant, which declares it has or expects to have 


| 
iy 


_ 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 35 


foreign trade in meats, has a legal right to demand governmental in- 


spection and certification. it costs individuals nothing. When the 
killers, packers, and dealers demanding the inspection are compelled 
by law to pay the cost thereof, only that inspection will be called for 
which is necessary for the facilitation of foreign trade. No inspection 
will be asked merely to give employment to microscopists and others, 
at the expense of the Treasury of the United States. It is temptingly 
easy to be benevolent and generous at public cost. 

The live beef cattle exported and tagged during the year numbered 
three hundred and sixty-three thousand five hundred and thirty-five 
(363,535). This is an increase of sixty-nine thousand five hundred and 
thirty-three (69,533) head, or more than 25 per cent, as compared with 
the previous year. 

In the same time the employees of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
inspected, also for export, eighty-five thousand eight hundred and nine 
(85,509) head of sheep. 

After the experience of supervising the transportation of export 
animals for some years, many modifications of the accommodations and 
conditions for their proper care have been insisted upon and adopted. 
By these innovations and ameliorations the losses in shipping live 
cattle have been very much reduced. In 1891 those losses were 1.6 
per cent; in 1592 they were 0.75 per cent; in 1893, 0.47 per cent, and 
in 1894, 0.37 per cent; sheep lost in transportation during the present 
fiscal year, 1.29 per cent. This latter rate of loss indicates that further 
modifications of the reguiations regarding the shipment of sheep are 
desirable. 

Stock yards inspection is maintained for the purpese of tagging 
export cattle, and for supervising their shipment to the seaboard and 
certifying their healthfulness at the time they leave American ports. 
It is further intended to prevent the dissemination of Texas fever. 
Southern cattle inspection is reported by the calendar year instead of 
the fiscal year, in order to include an entire quarantine season, which 
extends from February 15 to December 1. During 1893 there were 
inspected and placed in the quarantine pens in various stock yards one 
million seven hundred and thirty-seven thousand three hundred and 
eighty (1,737,380) head of cattle. During the same period of time inspect- 
ors supervised the cleaning and disinfection of fifty-six thousand four 
hundred and six (56,406) ears. In Great Britain the inspection of ani- 
mals received from the United States has been continued for the pur- 
pose of learning the condition in which they reach British ports and 
the amount of losses suffered at sea from diseases with which animals 
in transit are often affected, and also for the purpose of ascertaining 


the adequacy of the sanitary regulations and fittings of the vessels 
engaged in animal transportation. 


This thorough inspection, it has been hoped, would result in the rey- 
ocation of the British restrictions upon the American cattle trade, by 


36 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


demonstrating that there is no danger, through animals of the United 
States, of the introduction of contagious diseases into the United 
Kingdom. More than two years have passed without the development 
of any pleuro-pneumonia or other diseases in the United States which 
might be, through our export cattle, made dangerous to the stock 
interests of Great Britain. But the hoped-for revocation of British 
restrictions remains unrealized. 

The expense of sanitary inspection of cattle shipped to Europe has 
averaged 103 cents for each one exported. The cost of inspecting 
Southern cattle and supervising the disinfection of cars and stock shila 
averages 2.7 cents per animal. 

During the year there were quarantined eight hundred and six (806) 
head of imported animals. In the same time there were imported from 
Canada and inspected one hundred and ninety-four (194) head of 
eattle, two hundred and forty thousand four hundred and twenty-seven 
(240,427) sheep, thirteen hundred and two (1,302) hogs, and two (2) 
goats. 

The scientific inquiries of the Bureau of Animal Industry have pro- 
gressed steadily during the year, and much tuberculin and mallein have 
been furnished to State authorities for use in the ascertainment and 
treatment of tubercuosis and glanders. 

The appropriation to the Bureau of Animal Industry for the year 
ending June 30, 1894, was eight hundred and fifty thousand dollars 
($850,000). The expenditures during the year out of that appropria- 
tion aggregate ony four hundred and ninety-five thousand four hun- 
dred and twenty-nine dollars and twenty-four cents ($495,429.24). 
This leaves an unexpended balance of three hundred and fifty-four 
thousand five hundred and seventy dollars and seventy-six cents 
($354,570.76). 

In the appropriation bill for the current year (1894-95) tuberculosis 
and sheep scab are specifically mentioned among those diseases which 
the Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to guard against in such 
manner as he may think best. Endeavoring to carry out the suggest- 
ive provisious of the act above cited, the Department has avoided 
expending public funds for such purposes as private owners or the 
respective States ought reasonably to provide for. It is believed to be 
the duty of the Bureau of Animal Industry to seek, in every possible 
way, scientific enlightenment, to be disseminated among the agricul- 
turists of the country, so as to lead up to the extermination and sup- 
pression of the diseases of domestic animals; but it is not believed that 
the Department of Agriculture is justified in much other than educa- 
tional work. The several States of the Union ean do the necessary 
police work in the prevention of the spread of diseases of domestic 
animals within their own bounds. But very much must be left to the 
enlightened self-interest of the stock owners themselves. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 37 


Quite recently this Department has published the result of its inves- 
tigations of bovine tuberculosis. These researches will be vigorously 
continued. Certain herds in the District of Columbia will be thor- 
oughly inspected, and many of the animals which respond to the tuber- 
eulin test may be slaughtered, and for them, by the terms of the 
appropriation act, their owners may be partially remunerated. But 
there will be only a sufficient number of animals purchased by the 
Department to intelligently prosecute its scientific work and for pur- 
poses of illustration, description, and definition. 


THE STERILIZATION OF MILK. 


The sterilization of milk suspected of containing the bacilli of tuber- 
culosis has been very thoroughly explained in a leaflet by Dr. D. FE. 
Salmon, the chief of the Bureau. This leaflet was issued July 24, 
1894, and given general circulation throughout the country. Pending 
the investigation of tuberculosis, and in view of the jeopardy to human 
health and life which some say is constantly evolved therefrom, the 
sterilization of milk may be made a shield and safeguard in every 
household.* 


OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 


The Office of Experiment Stations, which is a part of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, has during the past year engaged 
itself almost wholly in preparing for publication works based upon the 
reports of Agricultural Experiment Stations and other institutions for 
agricultural inquiry in the United States and foreign countries. 
Bulletins, reports, and other publications from such stations have 
multiplied so rapidly that it is absolutely necessary to brief them in 
order to give them general circulation. Therefore, in order to reach 
the American farmers, the aforesaid bulletins and reports have been 
abstracted, sifted, compiled, and published in convenient form. 
Twenty-four (24) documents, making over two thousand (2,000) pages, 
have been issued. Among them is the fifth volume of the Experi- 
ment Station Record. It contains abstracts of three hundred and ten 
(310) reports of American stations, sixty-seven (67) bulletins of this 
Department, and two hundred and twenty-seven (227) reports of for- 
eign stations and other institutions. 

The Handbook of Experiment Station Work is a digest of the 
published work of the American experiment stations during the past 
twenty years. There has also been prepared a number of farmers’ 
bulletins, based chiefly upon the work of experiment stations. There 
is now in process of publication a handbook on the culture and uses of 
the cotton plant. This will present a scientific and condensed state- 


-*The further remarks on this subject which occurred in this report are omitted 
here owing to the full discussion of the same topic from the same point of view in 
another part of this book. 


38 YEARBOOK OF THE JU, §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ment of practical knowledge. It will tend to improve the varieties of 
the cotton plant and advance the methods of culture and stimulate the 
production and use of cotton-seed products. 

During the year seeds of new and rare varieties of foreign plants 
and vegetables have been distributed to forty (40) experiment stations 
and to about three thousand (3,000) farmers selected by those stations 
for the purpose of making full tests. 

The Secretary of Agriculture in his report for 1893 called attention 
to the fact that the appropriations made for the support of the experi- 
ment stations throughout. the Union were the only moneys taken out 
of the National Treasury by act of Congress for which no accounting 
to Federal authorities was required. The Fifty-third Congress, heed- 
ing the suggestion, in making the appropriation for the Department 
for the present fiscal year provided that 


The Secretary of Agriculture shall prescribe the form of annual financial state- 
ment required by section 3 of said act of March 2, 1887; shall ascertain whether 
the expenditures under the appropriation hereby made are in accordance with the 
provisions of said act, and shall make report thereon to Congress. 

That the stations might have the earliest advice as to the intentions 
of the United States Department of Agriculture with regard to their 
expenditures, schedules for the financial reports of the experiment sta- 
tions were prepared and issued to them iminediately after the appropri- 
ation bill had passed. This new provision of law, construed with the 
previous legislation on the subject, gives the Secretary of Agriculture 
ample authority to investigate the character and report upon the 
expenditures of all these stations. Obeying this law, the Department 
of Agriculture proposes to make, through its expert agents, systematic 
examinations of the several stations during each year, for the purpose 
of acquiring, by personal presence, detailed information necessary to 
enable the Secretary of Agriculture to make an exhaustive and com- 
prehensively satisfactory report to Congress. It is due to the boards 
of management of the several stations to state that, with great cor- 
diality, they have, almost unanimously, approved the amendment to the 
law which provides for this supervision of their expenditures. Many 
of them declare that it will increase the efficiency of the stations and 
protect good men from loose charges of the misuse of public funds; 
and, furthermore, that it will bring the United States Department of 
Agriculture into closer and more confidential relations with the experi- 
ment stations, and that, acting together thus harmoniously and intelli- 
gently, the efficiency of their service to the agriculture of the Union 
will be vastly advanced. 


NUTRITION. 


Acting upon the recommendations contained in the report of 1893,. 
Congress appropriated ten thousand dollars ($10,000) “to enable the 
Secretary of Agriculture to investigate and report upon the nutritive 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 39 


value of the various articles and commodities used for human food, 
with special suggestion of full, wholesome, and edible rations, less 
wasteful and more economical than those in common use.” 

Out of this appropriation money will be used to make analyses of 
food materials not heretofore analyzed, and for the investigation of 
the dietaries of the different classes of people in different portions 
of the country. The relation of food supply and consumption will be 
elucidated. Inquiries as to the best means of improving the methods 
of investigations along these lines will likewise be diligently made. 
A large amount of preliminary work has been accomplished during 
the year, the results of investigations thus far made in this country 
and elsewhere have been correlated, and a bulletin containing a résumé 
of these matters is already in press. 

The health of all depends largely upon the adaptability of the food 
consumed. The capacity for workin each human being rests upon the 
same foundation. But the most intelligent know very little as to the 
real composition of their daily food. The kinds or amounts of nutri- 
tive material contained in it and its value are generally matters of 
guesswork, if thought of at all. The cost of this ignorance is loss of 
health and waste of money. Unfortunately it is the poor who suffer 
most from the unwise purchase and improper use of food. It is too 
often true that the poor man’s money is the worst spent in the market, 
and too often true that the poor man’s food is the worst cooked and 
served at home. In this matter of nutrition is a verification of the 
Seriptural passage: ‘To him that hath shall be given, and from him 
that hath not shall be taken even that which he hath.” 

From the hygienic standpoint also the demand for increased knowl- 
edge of this kind is imperative. A large part of the diseases formerly 
attributed to old age is due, in greater or less degree, to errors in diet. 

Earnest and intelligent investigation of food and the relative nutri- 
tive value of various kinds is needed, and the facts found in these 
researches should be widely seattered among the people of the United 
States. And it must not be forgotten that here, as elsewhere, the 
knowledge which has the most immediate, practical value must be 
based upon research of the highest scientifie order. 

Cooperation by the agricultural colleges and experiment stations will 
be sought in these investigations. To Mr. Edward Atkinson, economist 
and publicist, of Boston, Mass., and to the distinguished physiological 
chemist, Prof. W. O. Atwater, of the Wesleyan University at Middle- 
town, Conn., the Department and the American people are very much 
indebted because of their earnest, intelligent researches in, and unself- 
ish devotion to, the science of nutrients and nutrition. 

If such investigations are considered by such men worthy of their 
diligent and untiring pursuit, how much more ought the same subjects 
to be of interest to the teachers and pupils of the schools of this Repub- 
lic! As civilization advances, the time approaches when the proper 


40 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


use of nutrients and the correct nutrition of the human body will be 
regarded as indispensable to the proper education of every American 
boy or girl. 

A farmers’ bulletin, containing an elementary discussion of the nutri- 
tive value and pecuniary economy of foods is now nearly ready for distri- 
bution. Fully one-half of all the money earned by the wage earners 
of the civilized world is expended by them for food. In this paper the 
first lessons are given in the proper selection and economy in the use 
of food materials. But an economy of food is not the only thing desir- 
able. More important than this is the question of cooking food in such 
manner as will in the greatest degree promote the public health. 

The following extract from the farmers’ bulletin on foods, above 
referred to, was given to the newspapers of the United States some 
weeks since. It contributed to a discussion of the discrepancy 
between the price of flour to the baker and the price of bread from the 
baker, which has made better loaves and more nutriment for less money 
in many cities throughout the country. All eat bread—they have been 
benefited. Relatively few make bread, and they have not been unjustly 
treated: 


THE COST OF BREAD. 


The chief difference in the composition of flour and bread is the proportions of 
water, which makes about one-cighth the weight of flour and one-third that of the 
bread. The average composition of wheat flour and the bakers’ bread made from it 
is about as follows: 


Comparison of flour and bread. 


Nutrients. Fuel 
Water. | : | Sigh ile Ser Ta | eee 
| athotaik: | Protein.| Fats, |Carbehy-| Mineral | of one 


| 
j 


| drates. | matters.| pound. 
| | 


| | | 
Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Calories. 
Wheat flour ....-.........--- 12 | 88 | 11 1 | 75 1 2, 000 


‘ | | i 1 
TMOTR WPORIG. «3 me pein es o's 32 | 68 9 2 | 56 | 1 1,300 


In making the bread a little butter or lard, salt, and yeast, and considerable water, 
either by itself or in milk, are added to the flour. The yeast causes carbohydrates 
(sugar, etc.) to ferment, yielding alcohol and carbonic acid in the form of gas, which 
makes the dough porous. In the baking the alcohol is changed to vapor and the 
carbonic acid is expanded, making the bread still more porous, and both are mostly 
driven off. Part of the water escapes with them. The amount of sugar and other 
carbohydrates lost by the fermentation is not very large, generally from 13 to 2 per 
cent of the weight of the flour used. With the increase in the proportion of water 
in the bread as compared with the flour the proportion of nutrients is diminished, 
but the addition of shortening and salts brings up the fat and minerals in the bread 
so that the proportions are larger than in the flour. 

In practice 109 pounds of flour will make from 133 to 137 pounds of bread, an 
average being about 136 pounds. 

Flour, such as is used by bakers, is now purchased in the Eastern States at not 
over $iperbarrel, This would make the cost of the flour ina pound of bread about 14 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 41 


cents. Allowing one-half cent for the shortening and salt, which is certainly very 
liberal, the materials for a pound of bread would cost not more than 2 cents. Of 
course there should be added to this the cost of labor, rent, interest on investment, 
expense of sclling, ctc., to make the actual cost to the baker. 

Very few accurate weighings and analyses of bakers’ bread have been made in 
this country, so far as I am aware, but the above statements represent the facts as 
nearly as I have been able to obtain them. 

The average weight of a number of specimens of 10-cent loaves purchased in Mid- 
dletown, Conn., was 1} pounds. This makes the price to the consumer 8 cents per 
pound. The prico of bread and the size of the loaf are practically the same now as 
when the flour cost twice as much. 

The cost of bakers’ bread is a comparatively small matter to the person who only 
buys a loaf now and then, but in the Kastern States and in the larger towns through- 
out the country many people, and especially those with moderate incomes and the 
poor, buy their bread of the baker. Six cents a pound, or eyen half that amount, for 
the manufacture and distribution seems a very large amount. 

In the large cities competition has made bread much cheaper, but even there the 
difference between the cost of bread to the well-to-do family who bake it themselves 
and to the family of the poor man who buy it of the baker is unfortunately large. 


DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. 


On April 26, 1894, Prof. C. V. Riley, for many years the chief of the 
Division of Entomology of the United States Departinent of Agriculture, 
submitted his resignation. That communication states: “This action, 
which I have for some time contemplated, is taken without suggestion 
from or consultation with you (the Secretary of Agriculture) or anyone 
else, but purely for the reasons mentioned.” Among those reasons is 
stated “‘a due regard for the wishes of family and for health.” 

The services of Professor Riley to American entomology, extending 
over nearly a generation, are fully known and justly appreciated in the 
United States and in foreign lands. His resignation for the reasons 
which he cogently stated compelled its own acceptance and released 
him from arduous and taxing duties. Mr. L. O. Howard, who had 
during nearly the entire incumbency of Professor Riley been the 
assistant entomologist, and who had already earned a reputation as a 
scientific man and an economic entomologist, was promoted immedi- 
ately to the position of chief of the division, and then, by order of the 
President of the United States, the division was classified into the civil 
service, so as to include both the chief and assistant chief. 

In the year 1894 diligent attention has been paid to ascertaining the 
exact localities in the several Eastern States where the San Jose or 
pernicious scale of California is alleged to have made its appearance. 
The method of the dissemination of this pest has been found, and 
the nurserymen concerned in its spread have been induced to make 
Strenuous efforts for its destruction. 

Insects injurious to stored grains have also been under continuous 
investigation, and a full report thereupon, with results of remedial 


experimentation, will soon be given to the public. 
1 a4 2* 


42 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Investigations of the chinch bug have been extended in certain 
Western States, in cooperation with the Department, and facts of 
practical value, bearing upon the relations of agricultural methods and 
climate to the propagation of the chinch bug, have been ascertained. 

The insect enemies of the orange and other citrus fruits have been dili- 
gently studied, and much valuable material collected for an additional 
report upon this subject. In harmony with the provisions of the appro- 
priation bill, cotton inseets have been the subject of much research. 
Inquiries were made in the States of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, 
and Alabama, where results of practical value have been reached. 

A new and very active enemy of the cotton crop has been discov- 
ered recently in Texas, where it was introduced from Mexico. Itis in 
the shape of a weevil, which bores into the bolls. The study of this 
insect has been begun. A special agent was sent to the agricultural 
sections of Mexico recently opened up by railways, who has forwarded 
to the Division of Entomology many interesting specimens and many 
valuable data which will serve to familiarize the people with other 
injurious insects which are liable to be imported from Mexico to the 
United States. 

The experimental work against predaceous and destructive insects 
has been continued, mainly in the line of testing new machinery and in 
determining the effects of insecticide mixtures upon the foliage of 
plants at different seasons, and in determining the usefulness of these 
insecticides against the new peach scale and the San Jose or perni- 
cious seale of fruit trees above referred to. The publication of a series 
of leaflets or circulars upon insects especially dangerous to horticul- 
ture has been commenced. A manual of bee culture is completed, 
and one bulletin has been contributed to the series of the division and 
another to the series of the farmers’ bulletins. 


DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY. 


The diligent study of the diseases of cereal crops and fruits has 
been continued by this division during the entire year. Recognizing 
the vast value of the cereal crops produced in this country, and the 
immense losses accruing to them because of the attacks of certain 
diseases, particularly rusts and smuts, an expert investigator was 
appointed early in the year to take charge of this particular line of 
inquiry. 

In the laboratory of the division at Washington, pear blight, diseases 
affecting the melons of the South, diseases of cereals, and diseases of 
fruits of the Pacific Coast and of Florida have been investigated. 
It has been ascertained that a simple and inexpensive treatment used 
early in the spring will almost completely hold in check a disease of 
the leaves of the peach tree which has recently damaged fruit growers 
many thousands of dollars. The remedy has been tested among the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 43 


peach orchards of California and the eastern portion of the United 
States and has proved highly efficacious. Several other diseases of 
plants and fruit trees are now under investigation with excellent prob- 
abilities of discovering a successful remedy. A branch station of this 
division in Florida is particularly devoting itself to the study of the 
diseases of citrus fruits and other subtropical plants. 


DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY. 


The work of this division divides itself into two attractive subjects. 
The first is the geographic distribution of animals, and the second the 
study of injurious and useful birds and mammals. Under the first head 
enough data have now been collected to finally solve the problem of tem- 
perature control of the geographic distribution in North America of 
animals and plants. Their laws of distribution have been formulated, 
and the result of the investigation will be published in a few months. 
The study of life zones has extended over large areas in the West. The 
field work has covered twenty-five (25) States and Territories west of 
the Mississippi River, and also embraced Pennsylvania and three of 
the Southern States. 

Two groups of mammals very injurious to agriculture, the California 
jack rabbit and the pocket gopher of the plains and the Mississippi 
Valley, have received attention during the year. An exhaustive study 
has been made of the pocket gopher, the results of which will appear 
in a popular bulletin on his food habits, his injury to crops, and the 
methods of extermination. 

During the inquiry into the food of birds and mammals, three thou- 
sand four hundred and twenty (3,420) stomachs of birds were added to 
the collection, and fourteen hundred and forty (1,440) of them were 
carefully examined. The stomachs of many mammals were dissected 
in the laboratory and in the field. A report on the food habits of the 
kingbird, with special reference to its habits relating to agriculture and 
horticulture, has been prepared. There has also been completed a leaf- 
let on the food habits of the woodpecker, and a similar one on the food 
habits of blackbirds. 

Some species of beautifully plumaged and useful birds are being 
exterminated in the United States to satisfy the barbaric demand for 
ornithological ornamentation of feminine head wear. By educating the 
public mind to a better understanding of birds, their interesting hab- 
its and uses to man, this division is doing much to prevent this and 
other similarly cruel and senseless practices which, if not arrested, will 
result in the total destruction of many of our most beautiful and useful 
American birds. | . 

The eminent scientist at the head of this division, Dr. C. Hart Mer- 
riam, and his capable assistant have been, by order of the Pres‘dent, 
placed in the classified service. 


44 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


DIVISION OF BOTANY. 


During 1894 a great amount of agitation and some trepidation has 
existed in certain Northwestern States relative to the Russian thistle 
and its possible detrimental and universal dissemination throughout 
the Northwest. The Division of Botany, therefore, made a special 
effort to systematically collect information as to this newly arrived 
emigrant weed and to provide methods for its speedy repressment and 
eradication. One result of this inquiry is that the seeds of new grasses 
and forage plants from abroad will be hereafter, for the public protec- 
tion, very carefully inspected as to their freedom from weed seeds. If 
possible, it might be well to require certification as to freedom from weed 
seeds and absolute purity and vitality of all seeds imported into the 
United States. A laboratory has been equipped and a special assistant 
detailed to give his entire time to the study of seeds with regard to their 
purity, vitality, and improvement. 

The census of 1890 shows the value of farms in the United States. 
which are entirely devoted to seed growing to be over eighteen mil- 
lions of dollars ($18,000,000). The export of clover seed alone during 
the year ending June 30, 1894, is estimated at four million five hundred 
and forty thousand dollars ($4,540,000). The export of American seeds 
may be vastly increased by exalting the standard of purity and ger- 
ininating vitality and giving all other peoples the same guaranty that 
we ask of them. The same course will increase the domestic use of 
American-grown seed. When information as to its high quality has 
been diffused, this course will vastly widen the world markets for Ameri- 
xan seed and so enhance their value by giving increasing demand every- 
where. 

DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 


The greater part of the appropriation for the Division of Forestry has 
been expended during the present year in investigating the strength of 
different timber woods and the conditions that influence their quality. 
The importance of such an inquiry was pointed out in the Report of the 
Secretary of Agriculture for 1893. Attention was also called to the 
unqualified commendations which had been bestowed upon this work 
not only in the United States but in foreign countries. The full value 
of the investigation will not be apparent until it has been carried to a 
successful termination, when the accumulated data will be carefully 
collated, with the intent of discovering the laws which give different 
degrees of strength to different varieties of timber. A knowledge of 
such Jaws will make the everyday use of timber in building much 
safer and more satisfactory than it has been. The financial and 
economi«¢ value of these timber examinations can hardly be estimated 
at the present moment. 

The practice of “boxing” pine trees for turpentine, it has been dis- 
covered, does not decrease the strength of the lumber. This discovery 
alone, it is stated, will add two millions of dollars to the value of the 


Pos 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 45 


pineries of the Southern States which are being “ bled” for turpentine. 
It is further established that the long-leaf pine of the South is gen- 
erally far stronger than heretofore admitted, and, therefore, for strue- 
tures like bridges, trestles, and rooftrees made of this timber it is prac- 
ticable to effect a saving of 25 per cent of material without reducing 
the factor of safety. This saving applies to about two million M. feet 
of longleaf pine timber annuaily used for such purposes, and the 
present money value of that saving of long-leaf pine lumber can be 
caleulated at six millions of dollars ($6,000,000). These facts may ren- 
der possible the extension of the time in which our forest supplies of 
this most valuable timber must be exhausted. This line of work, 
which establishes the true value of our varieties of timber, should be 
pushed to a conclusion as rapidly as possible. Therefore it has been 
recommended that Senate bill No. 313, making a special appropriation 
of forty thousand dollars ($40,000) for the completion of this work, be 
passed whenever the people seem to demand it and the condition of 
the public Treasury may permit such an expenditure. 

Inquiry into the rate of growth and production of the most valuable 
lumber trees is needed in order to properly estimate the profit that may 
be derived from forest management. Only the white pine and the black 
spruce have so far been partly examined. But the information obtained 
is so valuable that it makes more apparent than ever the necessity of 
similar investigations upon other timber trees. Inquiries have been 
made, and are in progress, as to the principles and effectiveness of 
dry kilns for lumber, and also as to the increase in the use of metal 
for railroad ties and other processes of economy in the use of wood 
for railroad construction. 

Popular instruction as to the disastrous results upon adjacent agricul. 
tural valleys of the denudation of hills and mountains should be given 
in every schoolhouse in the Union. Professor Rothrock, of Pennsy]- 
vania, and Dr. Fernow, the chief of the Division of Forestry of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, have shown themselves effi- 
cient teachers and workers in this regard. The deforestation of the 
American Continent will practically be an accomplished fact within 
another century unless systematic and intelligent reafforestation be 
speedily inaugurated. 


DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY. 


The Division of Chemistry, in harmony with the provisions of the 
appropriation act, has during the past year devoted itself to the inves- 
tigation of the adulteration of foods, drugs, and liquors, and to the 
prosecution of experiments in sugar production. Examinations for the 
usual adulterations have been made of large numbers of specimens of 
meals, flours, and breads; but in no instance has there been found an 
adulteration of American flour with terra alba or any other material. 
It is gratifying to know withal that while this sort of adulteration is 


46 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


practiced largely in foreign countries, it has not obtained foothold in 
the United States. The only deceptions in the flour trade have been 
found in the substitution of cheaper grades for dearer ones. In bread 
the chief adulterant found has been alum. That substance is added 
for the purpose of whitening the loaf. 

Wines have been examined very thoroughly; especially have adul- 
terants been sought for in the coloring matter used. Itisimpossible to 
tell by chemical analysis whether any given amount of alcohol found 
in wines is natural or artificial. The Division of Chemistry has ascer- 
tained that the pure wines of the United States and the pure wines 
produced in Europe are not very dissimilar in many cases. Where 
there are differences, they have been carefully determined and defined. 

The chemical examinations of the typical soils of the United States 
have been commenced, and a series of pot experiments have been begun, 
having for their object the practical test of the several methods of 
analysis heretofore adopted and the actual powers of plants to assimi- 
late different kinds of food inthe soil. Itis sought in this way to learn 
approximately the available plant food in each type of soil. In eon- 
junction with this, a thorough study of the nitrifying organisms of the 
sous has also been commenced. In addition to the above work, 
numerous inquiries as to the methods of analysis have been carried 
out, and a great number of miscellaneous samples have been analyzed. 


DIVISION OF POMOLOGY. 


During the year Mr. 8. B. Heiges, of Pennsylvania, a horticulturist 
of long experience and of practical skill, was made chief of the division, 
and it is to-day in better working order than ever before since its erea- 
tion. By order of the President it has been placed wholly in the 
classified civil service, from the chief and assistant chief down to the 
messengers. 

The division is principally engaged in correspondence with fruit 
growers; in critical examination and comparison of specimen fruits 
received from them for identification, description, and illustration of 
such specimens as may seem worthy of record and propagation. All 
new and improved varieties of this sort are modeled and colored. 

During the year close attention has been given to the investiga- 
tion of the varieties of the apple. Notwithstanding the almost total 
failure of the crop, some two hundred (200) specimens of new or little- 
known varieties of apples—some of which promise to be very valuable— 
have been received. Beside these many old varieties which had been 
catalogued and planted as new have been identified as to their origin 
and character. 

The damaging frosts of the last week in March were made the sub- 
ject of investigation during the month of April, and the results were 
published in a special circular with the report of the Statistician for May. 
Important facts were developed in the course of this inquest which will 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. A7 


be of great value to peach growers. Noticeable among them is the fact 
that certain groups or families of the Persian race of peaches bloom 
later than others in the South, and they are therefore less likely to have 
their fruit cut off by frosts. This discovery is of great value, and esti- 
mated to be worth, in dollars and cents, many times the expense of the 
investigation. Numerous scions and plants of promising varieties have 
been experimentally planted during the year. 

Among the principal importations by the Division of Pomology are col- 
lections of fig cuttings from England and citron cuttings from Corsica. 


DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS. 


Congress appropriated to the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture for the year ending June 30, 1894, exclusive of the appropriation of 
seven hundred and twenty thousand dollars ($720,000) for agricultural 
experiment stations, $2,603,500. Of this amount one million seven hun- 
dred and ninety thousand five hundred and thirty dollars and seventy 
cents ($1,790,530.70) were disbursed prior to July 1, 1894. In addition 
to this sum there remained at that date unpaid bills aggregating 
$200,000. The payment of these will make the total expenditures 
for the fiscal year 1894 $1,990,530.70. In other words, when the 
accounts of the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1894, shall have been finally adjusted there will be covered 
back $600,000 into the United States Treasury, or about 23 per cent of 
the entire appropriation. 

Tor the last fiscal year 31 specific appropriations were made, and 
15 subappropriations which required separate and distinct accouuts. 

During the year 11,863 accounts were received, audited, and paid. 
They included the supplemental accounts of 1893, which amounted 
to $1,967,842.79. Ninety-three requisitions were drawn on the 
United States Treasury in liquidation of those accounts, aggregating 
$2,014,809.95. Those requisitions were in settlement of 19,100 checks, 
_ exclusive of about $450,000 paid in currency over the counter. 

During the year 59 separate amounts were received from various 
sources from the sale of condemned Government property. That and 
other similarly derived moneys were deposited in the United States 
Treasury to the credit of “Miscellaneous receipts,” as provided by law. 
They aggregated $7,135. 

During the twelve months ending June 30, 1894, the expenditures 
chargeable to the appropriations for that fiscal year were less by 
$386,364.83 than the expenditures during the twelve months end- 
ing June 30, 1893, chargeable to the appropriations for that year— 
an average monthly reduction of $32,197.07. Attention is called to 
the statement of the Annual Report of the Department of Agricul- 
ture submitted on the 20th of November, 1893, in which the hope is 
expressed that a saving may be made of 12 per cent, and to the fact 
that the present report justifies that hope and verifies all that has 
been claimed as to economy in the present management. 


48 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The statements of the several divisions of the Department show that 
efficiency has not been sacrificed to economy, because in each division 
it is observable that more and better work has been accomplished 
during the last twelve months than during any previous twelve months 
of their existence. 

The total appropriations for 1894-95 are less by $104,476.94 than 
those for the year 1893-94. And this decrease occurs notwithstanding 
anew appropriation of $10,000 for nutrition and the fact that the seed 
fund included $30,000 for farmers’ bulletins. The estimates for 1896 
are less by $98,693.06 than the appropriation for the current year. 

The expenses of the Department of Agriculture from July 1 to Octo- 
ber 31, 1894, were less by $9,418.76 than during the parallei period of 
last year; and by $78,852.41 than during the period from July 1 to 
October 31, 1892, thus realizing the hope expressed in the report of the 
Secretary for 1895 that the reduction then referred to would be made 
permanent. 

-There were upon the pay rolls of the Department, in the city of 
Washington, on March 1, 1893, 750 persons, with salaries aggregating 
$54,764.82 per month. 

On March 1, 1894, the rolls showed 622 names, with salaries amount- 
ing to $49,085.66 per month. 

On November 1, 1894, there were 559 employees, with salaries aggre- 
gating $45,557.74 per month; a reduction of 191 in the number of 
employees between March 1, 1893, and November 1, 1894, and a saving 
in the amount of salaries of $9,207.08 per month. 

Comparative statement showing amount of appropriations for the Department of Agricul- 


ture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, and amount of estimates submitted by the 
Secretary of Agriculture for the fiscal ending June 30, 1896. 


eee ees for! Ierease. | Decrease. 
MiCO OF TNO SOCLEUBLY. 6 o.c.o che <po:nieiajoia.a'e ona s(oeiae|~,2 $91, 140. 00 $94, 140. 00.| .$3;,000800) \o opie obec 
Division of Accounts and Disbursements ......- 17, 300. 00 17, 509. 00 200,100 ero oe mene oes 
PIP ISIOM OL EIUISULCS acre ome caicareicnisisceariclss ¢ 145, 360. 00 145, 160/00 | 2.22 eee $200. 00 
DI RISIOMIOL Olay te te ae de soe celtad hace di siciale 38, 609. 00 33,1800: 00714 2 tee, Semen 4, 800. 00 
Dinision of MutomOlooy, 2 ae. as bo. Seine sini s «\- 29, 809. 00 29/500/00s) 2 eee 300. 00 
Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy ....... 27, 369. 00 27, 560. 00 2005008 eo =~ aac 
ke i ES ON, ae ae a | a a 11, 300. 00 12, 590. 00 1, 2O0ORO0: [Pees contacto 
DEED OL MLOTOUCODY 2-5 oie 3 Sec.5 pric eine Swine 7, 300. 00 7, 300:\00¢| 7s ecko see eee Se sees 
Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. 26, 100. 00 26, 500. 00 400: 00 |555 eS So dah ne 
BOUT ISIOT OTT MOMAARIT US one po, ¥ oyun Ae oc daee tds wets 32, 000. 00 32,000. :00,,\ soc. ane. -ed eee 
SOIT OF EOMNONE foes 22 sure dee ane exon ope 2d 28, 320. 00 33, 520. 00 5, 200.000 sacs opleneeete 
Division of Publications (Records and Editing)... 8, 109. 09 8, 300. 00 2005.00" | tpiaktes aerate 
pean Of Tlustrations 2.5.24. et. 8 15, 000. 00 15, 000::00 |. S10... cncec aeeereane 
Farmers’ Bulletins (Division of Sceds) .......... 177, 520. 00 56, 000 R003 |t <eeemceseee 121, 520. 00 
Document and Folding Room.................... 5, 600. 00 9, 040. 00 8, £40: 00 |... + anen enue 
EES ied ens wx mperp ice ba ¥ier's veeecd yecvacuaant 5, 400. 00 6, 400.00 |... oat elev eee 
LADEALY 2 bch eyes SPR gS OE ENTER ar: 6, 000. 00 G; 000;(00.')2 = cet. eee es eee 
Agricultural experiment stations............... 745, 000. 00 750, 000. 00 5000; 005 |B ieemes seme 
Experimental gardens and grounds.............. 32, 090. 00 28 50000) denen ee 3, 500. 00 
Furniture, cases, and repairs......--cccccccccees 10, 000. 00 10, 000/00) |. ccna eee eta eee 
DO lev senetecruardeveusupie ssh) sesconvecnas 5, 000. 00 > 000; 00 Weucssageeane 3, 000. 00 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. AY 


Comparative stalement showing amount of ap} a iations, etc.—Continued. 


| Appropzia. : ane for Increase. | Decrease. 
- ¥ | vere 

SEMMMENT OXDOUGES. 00-06 o0 2 ecw cence secncecncs $25, 000. 00 Wi ee ae Sane 
Investigations with relation toagricultural soils.!.............. 15, 000. 00 | $15, 000. 00 | To acces 
Inquiries relating to public roads................ 10, 000. 00 10, 000: GR P25 02 2.002. Le. ese. oe. 
Experiments in the manufacture of sugar....... 10, 000. 00 a Ee a fee eee 
eersoauonimrestigations.........4...-0.--2+0054- 6, 000. 00 8, 000. 00 | DOO. OD) «rok tev eo 
Memerition investications:............ 000500 ccceee 10, 600. 00 | 16; 000; 00°) *\'5,; 000.00 |e. foc Le. oo. 

Investigations, ctc., with grasses and forage | | 
SED Marne = ons ce eip nhs on sean cineepaea|sonnnaneo cise os 15, 000.00 | 15, 000. 00 cetete reese 
BPMN EAN WESTIGAUIONS .. 2... ccc cc seen ce cwccccesees 9; 000, 00 loo ans cles ees eee Peer | $5, 000. 00 
Bureau of Animal Industry...................-.. 800, 000.00 | 800,000.00 |............ Masts, 
OE 12,000.00 | 12, 000,00 |............ 2 ae ape 
EE ee ee 876, 823.06 | 860,610.00 |............ | 16, 213. 06 
a 3, 219, 023.06 | 3,120, 330.00 | 55,840.00 | 154,533. 06 
IRIE Ce te oy Sie. AoE cube chott tal sslods RAE os CSAS S FOS neo ae See ee 98, 693. 06 


Nore.—The amount appropriated for the office of the Secretary for the fiscal year 1895, as itemized 
in the bill passed August 8, 1894, was $94,140; but, by an error in printing, was stated as $91,140. 

Notre.—The amount appropriated for seeds for the fiscal year 1895 was divided as follows: Purchase 
of seeds, $130,000; farmers’ bulletins, $30,000; salaries, $12,120; printing, $5,400. 

Nore.—The amount appropriated for agricultural experiment stations for the fiscal year 1895 
includes $720,000 for State experiment stations, over which the Department of Agriculture has no 
control. This statement also applies to the amount estimated for the fiscal year 1896. 

The Department of Agriculture expended for the fiscal year 1892 
$2,271,312.72; and out of that sum the total amount expended in scien- 
tific research was 46.2 per cent. Tor the fiscal year 1893 the expendi- 
tures were $2,354,809.56, and out of it only 45.6 per cent was expended 
in the application of science to agriculture. But for the year ending 
June 30, 1894, out of a total expenditure of $1,990,530.70 (estimated), 
the Department applied 51.8 to scientific work and investigation. 

It is, therefore, very plainly observable that the economies which 
have been practiced in the administration of the Department have not 
impaired its capacity for scientific research. Comparing the expendi- 
tures for the fiscal years 1893 and 1894, respectively, it is noticeable 
that the total expenditures for 1894 are $364,278.86 less than the total 
for 1893. But the per cent of the total amount paid out for scientific 
work, as distinguished from the administration and general business, 
is 5.6 per cent more, in proportion to the total expenditures during the 
year 1894, than it was in 1892, and 6.2 more than it was in 1893. And 
yet during the year, as has been already shown, the new Division of 
Agricultural Soils has been established and the new Section of Agros- 
tology erected in the Division of Botany. 

It has been deemed desirable to reproduce here a full statement of 
the expenses of this Department for a period of fifteen years, from 1878 
to 1892, inclusive, showing the objects of the several appropriations and 
the amount appropriated to each branch of the work. This statement 
presents in a condensed and practical manner a full history of the devel- 
opment of the Department.* 


“For convenience these tables are omitted from this report and will be published 
in the form of a circular. 


50 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


DIVISION OF RECORDS AND EDITING. 


The Division of Records and Editing has issued during the past fiscal 
year two hundred and five (205) different publications. Fifty-six (56) of 
these were printed at the Weather Bureau. The remainder were pub- 
lished at the office of the Public Printer. All editions of the above 
publications aggregate 3,169,310 copies. They contained 10,512 pages. 
Farmers’ bulletins were increased in numbers so as to make it possible 
to economically reach many readers. The reduction in the cost of 
printing for this Department during the year as compared with the 
previous twelve months is nearly $20,000. It is suggested, neverthe- 
less, that an increase in the printing fund is necessary if all the infor- 
mation acquired by the Department through its several divisions is to 
be promptly printed, published, and disseminated. 

In harmony with the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1893, 
it is urged that the vicious system of promiscuous free distribution 
of departmental documents should be abandoned. Public libraries, 
educational institutions, and the offices of States and of the Federal 
Government might be furnished without cost, but from all individuals 
applying for the publications of the Department a price covering the 
cost of the document asked for should be required. Thus the publica- 
tions and documents would be secured by those who really desire them 
for proper purposes. Half a million of copies of the Report of the Sec- 
retary of Agriculture are printed for distribution, at an annual cost of 
about $300,000. Many of these reports apportioned to members of the 
Senate and House of Representatives remain undistributed. Large 
numbers of the annual reports of this Department have been found 
cumbering the storerooms at the Capitol and the shelves of second- 
hand bookstores throughout the country. All this labor and waste 
could be avoided if payment of cost price were demanded for all 
Government publications. 

As long as the custom or law requires the annual issuance of half a 
million of copies of this report, it is obviously the duty of those who 
make up thatdocument to strive to render it instructive, interesting, and 
useful to all the people. It ought to contain the results of the researches 
made in the various bureaus and laboratories during the year, and 
should be so plainly written and popular in its character as to adapt 
itself to the practical farmer and be held in esteem by him as a work 
of reference on agricultural science, practice, and statistics. Such a 
handbook by the Department of Agriculture, with all purely executive 
matter eliminated, might prove of infinite service in the advancement 
and exaltation of the vocation of agriculture throughout the United 
States. 

The chairman of the House Committee on Printing favorably reported 
a resolution at the last session of Congress providing for the printing 
of the report of this Department in two parts. As it passed the House 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 51 


the resolution and the report of the committee, containing a letter from 
the Secretary of Agriculture with reference thereto, are appended. 
[H. Res. 198, to print Agricultural Report for 1894. } 


Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America 
in Congress assembled, That the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for the 
year eighteen hundred and ninety-four be printed. Said report shall hereafter be 
submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part one, which shall contain purely 
business and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to 
the President and Congress; part two, which shall contain such reports from the 
different bureaus and divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, 
accompanied by suitable illustrations as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be 
specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a 
general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There 
shall be printed of part one, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies 
for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of 
part two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hun- 
dred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and 
thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustra- 
tions for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in 
accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to 
be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture: Provided, That the title 
of 2ach of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself. 

Passed the House of Representatives June 29, 1894. 


[Report to accompany H. Res. 198.] 


The Committee on Printing have considered House joint resolution No. 198, to 
print Agricultural Report for 1894, and report same with recommendation that it 
do pass. 

The committee are of the opinion that it is wise to print said report in two parts, 
us provided in tho resolution, with contents divided as suggested. This proposed 
change has been submitted to the Department of Agriculture, and has the approval 
of the Secretary, as shown by the letter from him herewith submitted. 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, 
Washington, D. C., June 21, 1894. 


Sir: I believe that the Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, distrib- 
uted to the farmers of the country in such large numbers, could be greatly improved 
by publishing it in two separate parts, as follows: 

Part 1 to contain purely business and executive matter, which it is necessary for 
the Seeretary to submit to the President and Congress. 

Part 2 to include such carefully prepared and selected matter, with proper illus- 
trations, as will especially interest and benefit the farmers of the country, excluding 
everything that belongs to Part 1 and including a general report on the work of the 
Department, written with special reference to the needs of the farming public. 

The advantages of such a division of the report are so apparent that no argument 
is needed to support them. The plan will give this Department the opportunity 
to prepare a report which will interest and benefit the farming classes more than 
anything which has hitherto been issued from it. 

If this division is to be made it will be necessary that this Department be notified 
so that it can give early instructions to the chiefs of bureaus and divisions, who 
will soon begin the preparation of the annual report to be submitted on the 1st 
of December. I would respectfully suggest, therefore, the incorporation of some 
provision like that inclosed in the printing bill now under consideration by your 
committee. 

Respectfully, yours, J. STERLING Morron, 
Secretary. 
Hon. James D. RicHarpson, 
Chairman Committee on Printing, House of Representatives, 
Washington, D. C. 


52 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


In view of the possibly favorable action of the Senate on the forego- 
ing resolution, the several chiefs of the various bureaus and divisions 
of the Department of Agriculture have been directed to prepare their 
reports in accordance therewith. It is believed that the result will 
supply a more useful, practical, instructive, and popular report than 
the late method has heretofore furnished to the public. 


DEPARTMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 


The constantly increasing demands for the printing of various blanks, 
letter heads, envelopes, circulars, ete., for use in the different divisions 
and bureaus has been promptly and satisfactorily met by the printing 
office under the control of this Department. Much of the work is 
needed for immediate use, and the ability to furnish it without delay 
demonstrates the efficiency of the present management. This office 
also prints the packets used in the distribution of seeds, of which, in 
September, October, and November, 4,747,550 were delivered to the 
Seed Division. During the year 1892-93, and for many years previous, 
the force consisted of 17 employees, working the entire year. In Novem- 
ber, 1893, the force was reduced to 7 employees for twelve months and 
8 temporary employees for seven months. During the first six months 
of the present year the number of impressions amounted to 8,210,110, 
against 5,201,665 during the same period of the preceding year; so 
that, with half the force, a third more work is now done, and that, too, 
of an improved quality. 


DOCUMENT AND FOLDING ROOM. 


The manual labor in this division has been nearly doubled, owing to 
the largely increased number of publications which have been issued 
during the past year. Notwithstanding this, the work of the division 
has been accomplished with celerity and certainty, although the force 
of employees has been considerably less than during the preceding year. 

A record has been kept, for the first time since the establishment of 
the division, during the entire year,’ which shows each and every pub- 
lication mailed from the Department of Agriculture. Three times as 
many packages were transmitted by the Department through the mails 
during the year as were sent out during the previous twelve months. 

During the year this division committed to the mails of the United 
States two million two hundred thousand (2,200,000) pieces of franked 
mail matter. 

The correspondence of the Document and Folding Room naturally 
increased very largely during the year, but it has been handled most 
efficiently by the clerical force. The entire mailing list of the Depart- 
ment is being revised and compiled so as to eliminate duplications from 
the mailing list. Already, in this readjustment of that list, dupli- 
cation and triplication of names have been frequently discovered. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 53 


One address, indeed, has been found receiving twelve copies of each 
publication. 

During the year there were purchased two patent mailing machines, 
which will very materially facilitate the addressing of documents. 


DIVISION OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 


The gardens and grounds of the Department of Agriculture, contain- 
ing forty (40) acres, demand the constant attention of the superintend- 
ent and his subordinates. Glass structures cover nearly an acre of this 
reservation, and necessarily require the closest daily care and labor. 

Several of the glass structures are used for the propagation of plants, 
of which many are used to embellish the grounds; but the larger por- 
tion, mainly those of economic value, are distributed throughout the 
States and Territories. During the last year there were thus distrib- 
uted 75,000 plants. 

The expenditures upon gardens and grounds for the fiscal year are 
somewhat reduced. At the present rate the salaries: are $3,000 less 
than those of the last fiscal year. It is impossible to make any exact 
estimates as to the possible miscellaneous expenditures, in the future, 
of this division. Exigencies may occur which can not be computed with 
any degree of exactness before their necessity arises. In any event the 
appropriation recommended is deemed sufficient for this division. 


OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY. 


October 3, 1893, in pursuance of the act of Congress appropriating 
ten thousand dollars ($10,000) “to enable the Secretary of Agriculture 
to make inquiries in regard to the systems of road management through- 
out the United States, to make investigations in regard to the best 
methods of roadmaking, to prepare publications on this subject suitable 
for distribution, and to enable him to assist the agricultural colleges 
and experiment stations in disseminating information on this subject,” 
the Office of Road Inquiry was instituted and Gen. Roy Stone, of New 
York, appointed to take charge thereof. 

During the nine months of the fiscal year the work was necessarily 
of a tentative character. Bulletins Nos. 1 to 9, inclusive, of the Office 
of Road Inquiry, were collected, compiled, and published. These bulle- 
tins have been in such demand that first editions have, in many 
instances, been exhausted and reprints required. 

During the year General Stone, besides attending to the literary 
work of the office, has attended and addressed conventions and meet- 
ings relative to road improvement in various States. It is proposed to 
increase the work of the office the coming year, to extend the inquiry 


on the same lines, and to publish maps showing the mileage of improved 


roads constructed in the United States during the last three years. The 
cooperation of the agricultural colleges aud experiment stations will be 


54 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


sought, so as to advance and disseminate a knowledge of the economic 
advantages of good roads and of the best methods of constructing them. 


DIVISION OF STATISTICS. 


There is no phrase in the English language which, by implication, 
conveys the impression of so much vast and exact knowledge as the 
word statistics. Literally it means “a state of,” ‘a condition,” or “a 
standing.” It depicts, to one accustomed to dwell upon tabulated facts 
and figures, the mental image of a curious collection of valuable data and 
figures, caged in mathematical tables, for the purpose of elucidating 
facts which may be used in the further investigation of special subjects. 

Statistical investigations should always be made in accordance with 
the rule of the theory of mathematical probabilities that ‘numerical 
fractions express the value of the degree of presumption in favor of the 
correctness of a particular event, when the causes or conditions which 
influenced the result are partly it and partly indeterminate.” 

Under this theory statisticians arrange results in numerical tables. 
Facts existing in large numbers are thus compactly and clearly set 
forth. Statisticians, therefore, should not be content with giving deduc- 
tions which admit of serious doubts. It is the duty of the statistician 
to supply credible materials whence anyone may, by examination and 
reasoning, evolve his own deductions. 

But statistics do not consist entirely of columns of figures. Con- 
clusions may be fairly drawn only from well-attested data, though in 
many instances they may not be susceptible of mathematical demon- 
stration. 

The particular object of this division of the United States Department 
of Agriculture is the ascertainment, by diligence and care, of the actual 
and real condition of the farms and farmers of this country. Its duty 
is to seek the causes which produced that condition. The utility of 
ascertaining the condition is in the service which the ascertained facts 
may render in improving or mitigating, intensifying or repressing, 
that condition. 

A further important utility is found in agricultural statistics, through 
their elucidation of the relation of the supply of farm products to the 
demand for farm products in the markets of the United States, and in the 
other markets of the world. Before the statistician begins an investi- 
gation in any certain line he should be sure that the agriculture, com- 
merce, and manufactures of this country need to know the facts which he 
proposes to gather. And in all researches statisticians should be ready 
to receive suggestions from those versed, either by experience or obser- 
vation, in the sabject-which they consider, and they should be always 
without prejudice and ready to abandon with alacrity any hypotheses 
which they find untenable. The statistician’s collection of materials: 
should be willingly submitted, on demand, to any new tests which occa- 
sion may offer. And no statistician of an economic subject so vast as 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 55 


that of the agriculture of the United States can approximate the truth 
with frequency and certainty, unless he has some knowledge of the 
calculus or computation of probabilities. 

Enough has been stated to show that no person can become a suc- 
cessful statistician, an assistant statistician, the chief of a section in 
the Division of Statistics, or even a thoroughly competent clerk in that 
division, who is not well posted in the literature of European and 
American statistics. It is quite plain also that each person engaged 
in making up statistics for American use, from foreign tabulations, 
should be perfectly acquainted with the metric system of weights and 
measures. In that system all foreign statistics, except those of Great 
Britain, are computed. 


COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. 


There is no line of investigation which requires more intellectual dis- 
cipline, more accuracy of judgment, more patience in research, more 
skill in combining and correlating facts and figures, or more special 
training for its pursuit, than the line followed by the painstaking 
and successful statistician. Holding such opinions, the Secretary of 
Agriculture is convinced that every person employed in gathering 
Statistics under the chief of that division should be admitted to that 
work only after a thorotgh, exhaustive, and successful examination at 
the hands of the United States Civil Service Commission. There- 
fore, he has called for such examinations, by that honorable body, of 
candidates for the positions of assistant statistician and for chiefs 
of sections in the Division of Statistics. When these examinations 
transpire, any employees now in that division of the Department of 
Agriculture are at liberty, with other competitors, to test their peculiar 
fitness and adaptation for that work by submitting to the examination. 

It is quite certain that their long experience with the facts and figures 
that are received from day to day in that division will be no disad- 
vantage to them in the contest with outsiders who have had no such 


eontact. 
STATE AND COUNTY AGENTS. 


A fundamental objection to the present system of gathering agricul- 
tural statistics in the United States is the fact that correspondents, 
who are expected to furnish reliable data, are paid nothing for their 
work. The Government is endeavoring to get something for nothing. 
The only payments (for services) made to these thousands of corre- 
spondents in all the counties of each State and Territory are public 
documents, garden seeds, and a few postage stamps. 

The service has been very much better than its compensation. Inthe 
several States and counties have been found very many zealous and 
enthusiastic men anxious to do this work. But they are the exception. 
Human nature, as a rule, is not desirous of doing diligent duty in any 
line without remuneration. 


56 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


In addition to the county agents, the Federal Government has a State 
statistical agent in each State and Territory of the Union. The sala- 
ries for these agents range from $400 to $1,200 per annum each. Asa 
rule they are competent and accomplished men, but the service would 
be vastly improved if all these appointees were placed in the classified 
service, so that hereafter, when a vacancy occurs, the person appointed 
to fill it shall have passed an examination before the United States 
Civil Service Commission, demonstrating his fitness and adaptability 
for the proper discharge of the duties pertaining to the position. 


WORK OF THE YEAR. 


The Division of Statistics is, for convenience of administration, 
divided into four sections, as follows: Compilation and foreign statistics ; 
answers to Congressional inquiries and all verification of agricultural 
Statistics are conducted in this section. Records, files, and correspond- 
ence; the title of this section clearly expresses the nature of the duties 
assigned to it. Crop reporting, which covers all investigations into 
crop conditions, and collecting and tabulating the reports of corre- 
spondents. Freights; the work of this section consists in crosscheck- 
ing the compilation of crop reports, computations, and freights. 

The total expenditures in behalf of the Division of Statistics, includ- 
ing salaries of employees, during the last year,-were one hundred and- 
ten thousand dollars ($110,000). | 

During 1894 the Division of Statistics has enlarged its work upon 
the crops of the United States. The data for the final report for 1893, - 
containing estimates as to the area, product, and value of the principal: 
crops, were secured by the issuance of 135,000 interrogative circulars 
addressed to farmers and others who were selected for their high char- 
acter and intelligence. 

Early in 1894 the usual investigation was made as to probable 
changes in the areas of the principal crops of the Republic, and the 
results of those inquiries were published in the report for May. The 
annual inquest as to the quantity of corn and wheat in farmers’ hands 
on the first day of March was thoroughly made, and the facts found 
were published in the report for March. It contained also a compar- 
ison with the corresponding data for a number of previous years and 
a review of the production and distribution of the several cereals for a 
term of years. Since then a carefully prepared review of the ‘‘supply 
and distribution of wheat for twenty-five years ” was given to the public. 
A tabulated statement showing the wholesale prices of a number of 
principal agricultural products at leading cities in all sections of the 
United States was also presented in the report of the Statistician for 
March, 1894. 

Careful inquiry has been made as to the cost per bushelof producing . 
wheat and corn. Replies from thirty thousand (30,000) farmers and 
four thousand (4,000) experts were received. ‘Their findings were 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 57 


published by States and by sections. The State findings were those 
of experts, and the findings as to particular sections were by leading 
farmers. 

Two other inquiries made by the Division of Statistics were of great 
interest. The first related to the average weight of wool fleeces in the 
United States, and the second was relative to the health of the people 
in the several States and Territories, and was issued for the purpose of 
ascertaining the diseases most prevalent in each. 

The annual table of the world’s wheat crop published by this division 
consists in part of official figures, and in part of such unofficial estimates 
as are deemed worthy of confidence. This table has been gradually 
increasing in correctness and accuracy. Its composition is a work of 
great care and diligent research, involving examination of reports in 
many languages. 

In addition to these customary reports and publications, much time 
was spent in the preparation of special reports on a variety of subjects 
of interest to farmers and business men, which, as usual, found a place 
from time to time in the monthly reports. 


AN ANNUAL AGRICULTURAL CENSUS. 


Is it not probable that satisfactory statistics of the agriculture of the 
United States could be better obtained through State authorities? Each 
Commonwealth, in its labor bureau, or in some other of the executive 
branches of its government, could establish a properly paid bureau of 
Statistics, and through county agents gather reliable data quickly. 
The statistics thus collected would be sent by the commissioners in 
charge of statistics at the several State capitals directly to the Agri- 
cultural Department. In that manner possibly a more thorough, 
reliable, and credible collection of agricultural statistics might be made. 
If the tables are worth making at all, they are worth making correctly 
and credibly. If, however, the present system is to be continued, 
advantages would result from an annual census of agricultural acreages 
and crops. It is needed as a basis for even approximate accuracy in 
estimating crop conditions. To give the average condition of any crop 
in any State certain average weights are applied to each county esti- 
mate. Such weights should of course be based on the acreage of each 
crop in each county. As a fact, they are obtained apparently from 
acreages reported by preceding United States census, regardless of the 
increase or decrease from year to year in each county of the area devoted 
to the several crops. This fundamental fallacy seems to have permeated 
the agricultural statistics for many years, and it is clear that there must 
be only guarded and limited faith in the possible accuracy of the erop 
estimates of the Division of Statistics up to a very recent period of 
time. Effectual elimination of all possibility of such erroneous caleu- 
lations is only feasible by means of such an annual census of acrea ges, 
which might be taken by some of the experienced men who now report 


58 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . 


to the Department, provided they are paid for the work. The precise 
information desirable by the taking of this census is as follows: 

(1) The area under each of the more important crops. 

(2) The aggregate product of each of such crops. 

(3) The quantity of wheat and corn in the hands of farmers at a date 
after the spring sowings and plantings and before the beginning of 
harvest; and also the quantity of cotton and tobacco remaining in the 
hands of planters, either at the same date or at some other designated 
time. 

(4) ‘The number of farm animals on the 1st of January of each year. 

Such a census, to be carefully made by practical men, experienced in 
agriculture, who may be selected out of the large number of competent 
persons who have been doing gratuitous work in this line for many 
years, is very much favored by Mr. Henry A. Robinson, the efficient 
chief of the Division of Statistics. He estimates that the actual cost 
of collecting for the census certain agricultural statistics, which may 
be considered abcut equivalent as regards the labor of collection to 
those just proposed, would be not far from five hundred thousand dol- 
lars ($500,000), and desires that an appropriation of that sum for the 
work of collecting such statistics during the fiscal year ending June 
30, 1896, be made. 

In Great Britain the agricultural statistics are as nearly correct as 
possible, because each farm is accounted for as to the amount of acreage 
in each crep and as to the number of domestic animals of each species. 
Furthermore, the yield of each sown or planted crop per acre is given, 
together with the number of poultry, eggs, and pounds of butter pro- 
duced—all of which is signed by either the tenant farmer or the pro- 
prietor. This exactness is reached through the revenue systems of 
foreign countries. It might possibly be approximated in the various 
counties and States of the American Union through similar agencies, 
or by United States revenue collectors and their deputies. * 


THE GRATUITOUS PROMISCUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF SEED. 


The Secretary of Agriculture calls attention to the report of this 
Department for the year 1893, and particularly to page 17 thereof, 
under the head of *‘ Distribution of seed at the public expense.” 

Briefly, he recommends that the purchase of seeds for gratuitous and 
promiscuous distribution be utterly abolished, and that not one cent be 
appropriated for such distribution. 

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, the Seed Division gave 
out to Senators, Representatives, and Delegates in Congress seven 
million four hundred and forty thousand nine hundred and eighteen 
(7,440,918) papers of vegetable seeds, six hundred and forty thousand 
and sixty-five (640,065) papers of flower seeds, sixty-three thousand 
seven hundred and forty-six (63,746) papers of tobacco seed, one 
hundred and eighty-two thousand five hundred and forty-two (182,542) 
papers of turnip seed, thirty-five (35) quarts of mangel-wurzel seed, 


f 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 59 


five hundred and twenty-one (521) quarts of sugar-beet seed, four 
thousand eight hundred and seventy-three (4,873) quarts of rape seed, 
fifty (50) quarts of oats, twenty-five (25) quarts of sorghum, eleven 
thousand seven hundred and six (11,706) quarts of corn, ten thousand 
one hundred and sixty-six (10,166) quarts of grass seed, nine thousand 
two hundred and ninety-three (9,293) quarts of clover seed, and twenty- 
one thousand one hundred and sixty-six (21,166) quarts of cotton seed. 

In that distribution there were one hundred and seventy-seven (177) 
varieties of vegetable seed, sixty-five (65) of flower seed, seven (7) of 
tobacco, one (1) of wheat, five (5) of corn, three (3) of oats, one (1) of 
barley, five (5) of grass, four (4) of clover, six (6) of sorghum, one (1) 
of Kaffir corn, one (1) of Jerusalem corn, two (2) of millo maize, two 
(2) of soja beans, one (1) of cowpeas, one (1) of flat peas, one (1) of 
serradella, one (1) of spurry, one (1) of hairy vetch, one (1) of rape, 
eight (8) of turnips, three (3) of sugar beets, one (1) of mangel-wurzel, 
one (1) of peanuts, and ten (10) varieties of cotton. 

In the distribution, Senators, Representatives, and Delegates in Con- 
gress sent out eight million three hundred and eighty-five thousand 
one hundred and twenty (8,385,120) packages; county statistical cor- 
respondents of the Agricultura] Department, five hundred and seven 
thousand six hundred and sixty-one (507,661); State statistical agents 
of the Department, one hundred and forty-one thousand one hundred 
and twenty-nine (141,129); experiment stations and experimental farms, 
fifty-two thousand two hundred and twenty-eight (52,228); agricultural 
associations and miscellaneous applicants, four hundred and sixty-nine 
thousand one hundred and eighty (469,180). So that the aggregate 
number of packages of seed gratuitously distributed by the Govern- 
ment of the United States in the fiscal year is nine million five hundred 
and fifty-five thousand three hundred and eighteen (9,555,318). 

The cost of this enormous distribution, not including the carriage of 
the packages (which amount in weight to more than three hundred 
tons), as dead matter by the postal service, is as follows: 


For the purchase and distribution of secds........-.-...---..2--------- $111, 242. 51 
Payment of statutory salaries in Seed Division. ................ Sreplp oe 12, 400. 00 
I aE Fe Sh es eo rid. ub ba dass < a cussinticp dase 123, 642. 51 
That total is divided as follows: 
8 IS ORE EOS SO ke RS RY od CORE te ee eee $56, 968. 66 
aa Gat for freight and express charges.......-..-.-..-. ----0. ee-- coon 2, 858. 97 
OED AG. ooo as xn Sarin bd db esd atees ee occ Sure w omaden.< 182. 08 
Paid out for salary and expenses of special agent........-....--.....-- 3, 010. 59 
Cost of seed delivered at Department. ....-...- seep 25-55 Weel ase 3, 020. 36 
After the reception of the seed the Department paid— 
For labor in the seed room (laborers’ roll)..........--.-.-.-.2.-------- $34, 690. 75 
‘Skilled BG aR Ee SEES GOR PTC aie eT ee Pe ee on a 5, 643. 99 
Paper bags, twine, tags, and other supplies. ...............-....------- 7, 887.47 
ee Net ce owe cg coceckcu aenm 12, 400. 00 


Cost of preparing seed for distribution...........- ae eee 60, 622. 21 


60 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The above statement shows that $60,622.21 was spent in preparing 
seeds for distribution—a suin in the aggregate lacking less than $3,000 
of the cost of the seed delivered. | 

The cost per package of seed distributed is 1.29 cents, against 2 
cents for the preceding year. 

During the fiseal year 1892-93 the number of seed packages distrib- 
uted was seven million seven hundred and four thousand four hundred 
and sixty-four (7,704,464); and during the year 1893-94 the number of 
packages distributed is nine million five hundred and fifty-five thousand 
three hundred and eighteen (9,555,318). The total expenditure for the 
fiscal year 1892-93, including the statutory salaries and compensation 
of others detailed to this work, was one hundred and sixty thousand 
dollars ($160,000), and for the year 1893-94 one hundred and twenty- 
seven thousand seven hundred and eight dollars ($127,708). 

The extravagance and inutility of these disbursements are apparent 
to any person who will investigate the results of the expenditure. 
That the distribution is regarded with very little interest is evidenced 
by the fact that, taking nine millions of papers of seed, there is an aver- 
age of five papers to each person, for it is safe to say that there were 
1,800,000 citizens of the United States who received seeds out of this 
promiscuous distribution. Out of this number nine hundred and forty 
(940) persons acknowledged their receipt, and in those cases it was 
generally with a request for more seed. The State of Iowa sent 35 
acknowledgments, Kansas 30, Connecticut 16, New Jersey 2, Nebraska 
33, New York 62, New Hampshire 5, Rhode Island 1. The other 
States indicate about the same degree of indifference, so that there are 
less than one thousand acknowledgments by more than one and three- 
quarter million recipients. 

In view of the above, it is difficult to see how any practical states- 
man can advocate an annual disbursement of $160,000 for such a pur- 
pose. Educationally, that sum of money might be made of infinite 
advantage to the farmers of the United States if it were expended in 
the publication and distribution of bulletins showing, in terse and 
plain language, how chemistry, botany, entomology, forestry, vegetable 
pathology, veterinary, and other sciences may be applied to agriculture. 

If, in a sort of paternal way, it is the duty of this Government to dis- 
tribute anything gratuitously, are not new ideas of more permanent 
value than old seeds? Is it a function of government to make gratui- 
tous distribution of any material thing? 

No estimate has been made for an appropriation for the purchase of 
seeds for the next fiscal year. If it is deemed best to make such an 
appropriation, it is recommended that $500 be allotted to each one of 
the experiment stations of the several States and Territories, which 
for forty-eight (48) stations would amount to $24,000. Such a law 
should provide that each station purchase such new and improved 
varieties of seeds, cuttings, and bulbs as, after examination, Inay seem 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 61 


to its director probably adaptable to the soil and climate of the State 
in which his station is located. If there ever was any sound states- 
manship in this gratuitous distribution of seed, which has already cost 
the Government of the United States several millions of dollars, the 
reason and necessity for such distribution was removed when the experi- 
ment stations were established in the several States and Territories. 
Those stations are in charge of scientific men. They are, therefore, 
particularly well equipped for the trial, testing, and approval or 
condemnation of such new varieties as may be introduced from time 
to time. 


LIBRARY. 


Since the present librarian, Mr. W. P. Cutter, who was certified by the 
United States Civil Service Commission, took charge of the library of 
the Department of Agriculture, modern methods have been introduced, 
for the first time, into its conduct. A dictionary catalogue has been 
instituted, and the books have been arranged in a regular system, in 
accordance with which the valuable material in it will be made avyail- 
able for students. The increased appropriation has been used to fill 
out the fragmentary sets of scientific periodicals and to purchase works 
bearing upon the sciences studied by the Department experts. A 
reading room has been arranged and increased facilities provided for 
the convenience of investigators. The library has been made in this 
manner a working laboratory instead of a miscellaneous storehouse. 


OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATION. 


A report on the uncultivated bast fibers, such as are found upon the 
inner bark of plants, was completed during the year by the Office of 
Fiber Investigations, und also a paper on the method of tillage and 
manufacture of ramie, which contains careful estimates of the cost of 
instituting ramie plantations, with reliable figures as to the probable 
or possible yield. The inquiry as to the production of flax in the region 
of Puget Sound, Washington, has been continued. Flax grown in 
that region during the past season has been retted and prepared. 
Though the local agents engaged in this work did not—because of lack 
of experience—perfectly perform their duties, nevertheless, practical 
flax planters, who examined their product, have declared that Wash- 
ington flax would produce, with skillful treatment, a very fine quality 
of fiber. 


DIVISION OF MICROSCOPY. 


Studies have been continued in this division upon the edible and 
poisonous mushrooms. These investigations have aimed to discrim- 
inate between edible and nonedible varieties and to give the people of 
the country plain and safe directions by which they might know them. 
Itis hoped that in this way our neglected resources among these fungi 


62 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


may become better known and more used. For the purpose of giving 
assistance to amateurs in mushroom culture experiments have been 
made to ascertain the better method of cultivating mushroom spawn. 

Investigations on butter and butter fats have also been continued. 
Requests are constantly received from official chemists, chemists of 
State boards of health, ete., for information or assistance with regard 
to the identification of oleomargarine, butterine, and the various lard 
substitutes, and for discriminating between the different lubricating 
oils, ete. 

Nearly two thousand careful measurements of the length of fibers of 
the cotton staple, domestic and foreign, and the average, together with 
the maximum and minimum lengths, has been recorded. 


OFFICE OF IRRIGATION INQUIRY. 


The chief of the Office of Irrigation Inquiry passed the earlier months 
of the year in Nevada, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah col- 
iecting information as to the modes of irrigation most successfully used 
in those States and Territories. In that tour relations were established 
between this office and the people directly interested in this system of 
cultivation, from which it is hoped good may come in the way of addi- 
tional practical information. It is believed that all those engaged in 
farming in the arid and subarid regions whereirrigation is practiced may 
soon be brought into immediate correspondence with the Department. 

The office has given some attention to the study of percolation and 
evaporation in the Rocky Mountain regions, where the annual snowfall 
is the source of many of the streams which fertilize the plains below. 


BUILDINGS. 


Neither the character nor the condition of the buildings of the Depart- 
ment can be truthfully commended. There aremany wooden structures 
in the rear of the main edifice which are a constant menace because of 
the combustible materials of which they are constructed. The labora- 
tories in and about these buildings are constantly using alcohol, gas, 
oils, ether, and other inflammable and explosive substances. It is there- 
fore imperatively necessary that such laboratories, together with all 
divisions which by their experiments may possibly create conflagra- 
tions, should be removed from these Government buildings. 

In view of the tinder-box character of the subsidiary buildings of the 
Department, it is recommended that all the laboratories and shops be 
removed to rented brick buildings across the street, in the rear of the 
Department grounds, provided said buildings can be secured by a 
reasonable annual outlay of the public money. 

The act creating this Department declares as follows: 

Be it enacted by the Senatesand House of Representatives of the Uniled States of America 


in Congress assembled, That there is hereby established at the seat of Government 
a United States Department-of Agriculture, the general designs and duties of which 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 63 


shall be to acquire and diffuse among the people of the United States useful infor- 
mation on subjects connected with agriculture in the most general and comprehen- 
sive sense of that word, and to procure, propagate, and distribute among the people 
new and valuable seeds and plants. 

But there was no building provided for the Department of Agricul- 
ture under that act, and rooms were assigned to the Commissioner and 
his employees in the basement of the Patent Office, where they remained 
six years. In 1867 one hundred thousand dollars ($100,000) was appro- 
priated for the present main building of the Department, and it was 
occupied in 1868. From that time, with a few minor changes in the 
interior, this building has remained practically unchanged. It is 170 
feet long by 61 feet in breadth. It has a basement, three full stories, 
and an attic. This building contains, exclusive of halls, 6,860 square 
feet of available floor space in the basement; 5,800 square feet on the 
first floor; on the second floor, including the galleries in the library, 
there are 10,344 square feet; on the third floor, 2,384 square feet; and 
there are 4,558 square feet in actual use in the attic, aggregating in 
occupancy at present 29,946 square feet of floor space. The basement, 
two-thirds of which is below the surface of the ground, contains the 
boiler and fuel rooms, the storerooms of the Property Division, the 
laboratory of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, the post- 
office, and the printing office; and in this ill-lighted and badly ventilated 
place from 25 to 30 people, including the engineers and firemen, are 
almost always at work. 

The library requires the larger portion of the second and third floors 
of the building. Little space, relatively, is used for the offices of the 
Secretary, Assistant Secretary, and chiefs of division. The attic of the 
main building contains the offices and laboratories of two of the most 
important divisions. Excessive heat and defective ventilation are 
unavoidable in these apartments. 

The building just described was erected to accommodate the Bureau 
of that date, composed of four divisions and employing fifty (50) persons. 
Those divisions, with the laboratory and Museum, fully occupied the 
building at the time of its completion. Pressure for space becoming 
greater from year to year, and adequate appropriations for the erec- 
tion of substantial buildings having failed, the Department has been 
forced to erect cheap wooden structures upon the grounds. In such 
buildings is sheltered much valuable property. The Museum building 
cost about ten thousand dollars ($10,000). A better building to burn 
could not be invented or constructed, and yet it contains a Museum 
which, on the market, is worth at least one hundred thousand dollars 
($100,000). Annually the Government is paying more than seven hun- 
dred thousand dollars ($700,000) for agricultural experiment stations in 
the several States and Territories. The cost of a central office in this 
Department for collating, compiling, and publishing the reports of these 
Stations is each year twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000). The chief 
records of the Office of Experiment Stations are compiled and stored in 


64 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


this combustible wooden Museum building. In it are stored the ree- 
ords of the results of agricultural experiments for which the United 
States Government has already paid out nearly five millions of dollars 
($5,000,000). The same building contains the publications of the Depart- 
ment and the offices of several important divisions, together with all 
the valuable data which each has acquired. 

In wooden buildings of equally combustible character are housed 
the testing laboratory of the Division of Forestry; the carpenter shop; 
stores of seeds; soil samples, collected at no inconsiderable expense 
from all parts of the Republic; and all tools and implements used by 
the superintendent of gardens and grounds and the various scientific 
bureaus. 

As the work of the scientific divisions multiplied it became necessary 
some years ago to rent two private buildings on B street SW. One 
of them is occupied by the laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
and the other is the domicile of the Chemical Laboratory of the Depart- 
ment. Tor the first-mentioned building is paid $1,200 per annum rent, 
notwithstanding the Government preliminarily expended about $6,000 
in adapting the various rooms for present purposes and fitting them 
with gas, laboratory desks, steam, and water. The Chemical Labora- 
tory building costs $75 per month rent, although the Government had 
expended $4,500 thereupon in making similar improvements. There 
is hardly a university or agricultural college in the United States 
which has not better constructed, better lighted, and better ventilated 
laboratories than those used by the Department of Agriculture. 

Since its removal from the Patent Office, twenty-six years ago, and 
its establishment as a Department, only one hundred and fifty-four 
thousand dollars ($154,000) have been appropriated for buildings for 
its use, exclusive of the Signal Office building purchased while that 
office was in the War Department. During the same number of years 
other Departments of the Government have expended for the erection 
of buildings in the city of Washington, up to June 30, 1894, inclusive, 
$19,126,826.09. , 

In view of the fact that the Department of Agriculture is maintained 
to educationally supervise that industry which furnishes the solid, 
fecund source of the revenues whence all that vast sum of money was 
derived, it may not be inappropriate to suggest more commdodious 
accommodations for its further development and usefulness. 

The Weather Bureau, at the corner of Twenty-fourth and M streets, 
is too remote from the Department to receive that personal daily 
supervision of the Secretary which its magnitude and importance 
require. It is evident that this valuable property which the Govern- 
ment now owns, and upon which the Weather Bureau building stands, 
could, if authorized by law, be sold very advantageously. Itis believed . 
that it would probably bring asum of money sufficient to erect substan- 
tial buildings for the Department of Agriculture, wherein the Weather 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 65 


Bureau and all the other divisions and laboratories might be suitably 
provided for. 

With the more than seven hundred thousand dollars ($700,000) saved 
since March 7, 1893, from the regular appropriations to this Department 
and covered back into the Treasury of the United States, and the amount 
the Weather Bureau property would certainly bring, if does seem that 
buildings commensurate with the relative value which agriculture bears 
to other vocations and pursuits might be erected at an early day. 


FARM PRODUCTS AND THE MONEY THEY BRING. 


It will no doubt prove a matter of infinite pride aud satisfaction to 
the real farmers—the practical agriculturists—of the United States 
to learn that, out of the total exports of this country for the fiscal year 
1894, including the products of the mine, of the forest, of the fisheries, 
of the manufactories, together with every miscellaneous commodity— 
amounting to eight hundred and sixty-nine million two hundred and 
four thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven dollars ($869,204,937)— 
farm products aggregate a value of six hundred and twenty-eight mil- 
lion three hundred and sixty-three thousand and thirty-eight dollars 
($628,363,038). All the other exports in that year from this Republic 
amount to only two hundred and forty million eight hundred and forty- 
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine dollars ($240,841,899). 
This proves that for the fiscal year 1894 the exports evolved by farmers 
from the farms of the United States were 72.28 per cent, in cash value, 
of the total exports of the American Republic for that period of time. 
This is demonstrated by the following table: 


Amount. | Per cent. 
Se ae gai eaninlpts an eine dna Wein Ke aig Caisse band mc vv aaceeeed | $628, 363, 038 72. 28 
EI ei a re ee nn 20, 449, 598 2. 35 
a Ree ks bhai Be oe ee OR a ee 28, 010, 953 S722 
ES a es ne Ee B48) Me See 4, 261, 920 .49 
DE eee reef SoS AS ciate ys alam oi cha's cpa card, ons wpaic,c ose ae peice Meee 183, 718, 484 21.14 
EMULE CUELIOS 28-2). \cisa © «2 aio~ c1-.0.c <= cleo ce nicigne dae v=,<.qncecme secs 4, 400, 944 .52 

| 869, 204, 937 100 


European markets and all the other markets of the werld are demand- 
ing from the American farmer the very best quality of breadstuffs and 
meats. They demand them inspected and governmentally certificated 
to be of the highest sanitary, nutritive, and edible quality. But farm 
products have only a specific purchasing power. They will only buy 
money of people who desire farm products. The farmer exchanges 
these results of his labors, which have a specific purchasing power, for 
money, which has a general purchasing power. It is important, there- 
fore, to farmers everywhere that they demand money for their products 
Which has the highest general purchasing power throughout all the 

1 <A 94-——3 


66 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


civilized world. It is as vital to the American agriculturist that the 
eurrency of his country should be on the basis of the highest and most 
universally reeognized measure of value as it 1s to the reputation of 
American farm products in all the world’s markets that they be of the 
most desirable quality. 


FOR PRIME PORK GIVE US PRIME CURRENCY. 


Would the six hundred million dollars’ worth of farm products from 
the United States sold last year to foreign nations have been as remu- 
nerative to the American farmer if they had been paid for in silver as 
they have been when paid for in gold or its equivalent? 

When the standard coin of the Republic shall be made of metal 
worth as much after it is melted as it purports to be worth in coin, and 
the mint value and the bullion value of all coined money is nearly the 
same, will not the American farmer and all other citizens become more 
permanently prosperous? | 

Tf the American farmer, laborer, and manufacturer are compelled by 
law to submit to the measurement of the value of the products of their 
efforts by a silver standard, will not the foreigner in buying those prod- 
ucts always use the same measure? With his beef, pork, and cereals 
the American farmer bwys money,and why should he not demand as 
superlative quality in that which he buys as the domestic and foreign 
purchasers insist upon in that which he sells? If those buyers demand 
“‘nrime” beef and “prime” pork, why should not the farmer demand 
“prime” eurrency, the best measure of value, the most fair and facile 
mediation of exchanges, in the most unfluctuating money which the 
world of ecommerce has ever evolved? 

In closing his report for the fiscal year 1893 the Secretary of Agri- 
culture said: 

A year from this time, it is hoped, after consultation with the Congressional com- 
mittees and other representative forces which are endeavoring to educationally 
develop and define duties for this Department, that useful progress in the right 
paths may be truthfully reported. 

Therefore the foregoing statements as to the practical workings of 
the Department are this day submitted as a partial fruition of the 
hope then earnestly and sincerely expressed. 

J. STERLING MORTON, 
Secretary. 
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
Washington, D. C., November 20, 1894. 


m 
f 


THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 


By D. E. Satmon, D. V. M., 
Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


GROWTH OF THE INSPECTION. 


The inspection of meat by the Federal Government was begun in 
May, 1891, under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
and in accordance with an act of Congress approved Mareh 3, 1891. 
Considerable time was required to organize the force and systematize 
the work, and consequently the quantity of meat inspected in the fiscal 
year ending June 50, 1891, was not very large. 

The law requires that the inspected meat be marked for identification, 
and this is accomplished by attaching a meat-inspection tag to each 
quarter or piece with a wire and lead seal. These tags enable the 
consumer to learn whether the meat which he is buying has been 
inspected, because if the wires are properly sealed the tags can not be 
removed from one piece and attached to another. The tags are also 
intended under the law as a means of identifying meat which may be 
shipped from one State into ancther State or to any foreign country. 

When the law is fully complied with, only inspected meat can be 
used in interstate or foreign commerce. <All meat shipped abroad is 
now inspected, and has been since the beginning of the fiscal year 1892; 
but the large number of abattoirs which do an interstate trade has 
made it impossible up to the present time to extend the service suffi- 
ciently to include them all. As the inspectors and assistant inspectors 
were, however, recently placed in the classified service, if is probable 
that a larger number of reliable and competent men can be secured 
than under the oid system, and that the inspection service can be cor- 
respondingly extended. 

In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, the inspection being enforced 
during the months of May and June ouly, there were inspected and 
tagged 66,804 quarters of beef for export and 165,378 for the interstate 
trade. There were also inspected and stamped 1,594 packages of 
canned meat, 25 of salted meat, and 28 of smoked meat, and the car- 
casses of 2,216 hogs were inspected microscopically. 

These figures show that there was only a beginning of the inspection 
made in the fiscal year 1891, and that to obtain data from which con- 
clusions of any kind can be drawn we must begin with the fiscal year 


_ 1892. The system and methods of inspection then in foree were prac- 


by 
° 


4 


tically the same as are now used, but more or less important modifica- 
67 


68 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


tions of the details have been made from time to time as experience 
indicated was desirable. 

In 18932 there were inspected 1,190,771 quarters of beef for export 
and 8,160,625 for the interstate trade. In addition there were inspected 
583,361 carcasses of sheep and 59,089 carcasses of calves. The number 
of hog carcasses microscopically examined reached 1,267,329. 

A part of the meat inspected is shipped in the careass and is identi- 
fied by the meat-inspection tags; but very much of the meat is canned 
or salted, and this is identified by meat-inspection stamps placed upon 
the crates or boxes in which the cured meat or cans are packed. Very 
often cured meats are shipped in bulk, the pieces being placed directly 
into the cars without covering of any kind. In this case the car forms 
the package and is sealed with the same seal that is used for attaching 
tags to pieces of meat. 

There is need of a cheap and easily applied method for marking 
pieces of meat which are too small to be tagged. Tags are effectual in 
marking quarters and carcasses of meat, but are too expensive to be 
applied to the smaller pieces. Aniline inks are used in some countries, 
but the samples so far examined by the Bureau of Animal Industry 
have not proved satisfactory. These inks are affected by moisture and 
are liable to become smeared over the meat, damaging its appearance 
and obliterating the identifying mark. 

The number of packages of meat stamped in 1892 was as follows: 
Canned meat, 495,577; salted meat, 142,698; smoked meat, 159,432. 

During the fiscal year 1893 there were inspected and tagged 1,036,809 
quarters of beef for export and 10,534,102 quarters for the interstate 
trade. There were also inspected 92,947 carcasses of calves and 870,512 
of sheep. The number of hog carcasses microscopically examined 
reached 1,960,069. 

The number of packages of canned, salted, and smoked meats and 
other meat products stamped during the year reached 1,035,569. 

Previous to the fiscal year 1894 no inspection had been attempted of 
hogs at the time of slaughter. The carcasses of those for the export 
trade to continental Europe had been microscopically examined for 
trichine, but this inspection is, of course, insufficient to reveal any other 
disease with which the animals might be affected. This year the saine 
method of inspection before and after slaughter has been applied to 
hogs as has been in operation with cattle during the whole period of 
inspection. 

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, there were inspected and 
tagged 2,417,312 quarters and 4,022 smaller pieces of beef for export; 
and 10,810,202 quarters and 748 packages of fresh beef for interstate 
trade. The number of packages of canned meat stamped was 636,227, 
and of salted and smoked meat, 487,011. The number of hog careasses 
microscopically examined was 1,194,663, and of pieces of pork, 177,747; 
a total of 1,572,410 carcasses and pieces. 


THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 69 


The number of animals inspected at the time of slaughter is shown 
in the following table: 


1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 


cay d nbn wan cmon | 83,891 | 3,167,009 3,922,174 | 3,862,111 
ee ns an wawenadkbwouddenwapaboudoummys cies cope ani ate 59, 089 92, 947 96, 351 
See ee eee eape |  §83,361 | 870,512 | 1, 020, 764 
EE OE OPC EP TE EP EPEC err ET pero ne Peereeneenee Ceeeeenereee 7, 964, 850 


SE ae) eke ey aoe eee eee 83,891 3,809,459 | 4,885,633 | 12, 944, 056 


The meat inspection is now in operation at 46 abattoirs, situated in 
17 cities. 

The exports of microscopically inspected pork by fiscal years have 
been as follows: 


| 


1892. 1893. | 1894. 
. aaa 6S eee } 
Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. 


| 
To countries not requiring inspection .-.-......-...-..------ 16,127,176 | 12,617,652 | 16,592,818 


| 
| 
To countries requiring inspection ............-.....--..----- | 22, 025, 698 | 8,059,758 | 18,845,119 


38, 152, 874 20, 677, 410 39, 437, 937 


A large quantity of the pork which the records show to have been 
exported to countries not requiring inspection was shipped to Belgium 
and Holland, and even to England, for reshipment to Germany and 
France. This was on account of the packing houses having agents in 
those countries, to whom large consignments were made, and these 
agents sold the meats in smaller quantities and forwarded them to their 
destination. The cases of provisions were all marked with the inspec- 
tion stamp of this Bureau, and were covered by certificates, so that they 
were undoubtedly sold as American inspected pork. 

The small proportion of inspected pork which was shipped directly 
to countries requiring inspection in 1893 is explained by the high prices 
here and the decreased demand in those countries. 


DISEASES DISCOVERED BY THE INSPECTION. 


The number of cattle found diseased, the careasses of which were 
condemned as unfit for human food, was 4,127; the number of sheep 
carcasses condemned was 466, and the number of carcasses and pieces of 
pork found to contain trichine was 33,013. In the ante-mortem inspec- 
tion of hogs 8,624 were rejected, and in the post-mortem inspection 
17,435 carcasses and 12,940 parts of carcasses were condemned. 

While the number of diseased animals discovered at the abattoirs 
shows the necessity of the inspection, it must be admitted to be exceed- 
ingly small compared with the immense number of animals examined. 
The meat-producing animals, and particularly the bovine animals, of 
the United States are in better health and better condition as a whole 


7) YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


when they go to market than are the animals of most other countries. 
Among the 3,862,111 cattle inspected, but 765, or about 1 in 5,000, 
were found to have tuberculosis sufficiently advanced to justify con- 
demnation. Actinomycosis was found in 321 cases, Texas fever in 28, 
while 707 animals were condemned on account of advanced pregnancy, 
and 1,951 for bruises received during transportation. 

Among the diseases reported, the most dangerous to the consumer are 
those in which septic processes are in progress or likely to be devel- 
oped. As affected with this group of diseases cattle were condemned 
as follows: Septicemia, 100; pywemia, 16; gangrene, 73; peritonitis, 18; 
enteritis, 30; metritis,3; abscess, 53; or a total of 293. 

The proportion of carcasses and pieces of pork found to contain 
trichinse was smaller than in the preceding year, being 2.4 per cent as 
compared with 3 per cent in 1892. 


REASONS FOR CONDEMNING CARCASSES. 


Although upon superficial consideration the meat inspector’s task 
may seem simple and his duty plain, there are in practice many trouble- 
some problems to solve. Should carcasses be condemned for all diseases, 
or only for those which are likely to injuriously affect the health of the 
consumer? Should pregnant females and those which have recently 
given birth to young be condemned; and if so, at what point shall the 
line be drawn separating these which are fit for food from those which 
are not? These are the most perplexing questions and the ones upon 
which scientific men are most divided. 

In most European countries the inspection of meat is considered as 
a Strictly sanitary question, and a disease which is net likely to injure 
the health of the consumer is not accepted as sufficient reason for con- 
demning the carcass. Acting upon this principle, carcasses of animals 
affected with pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease, actinomycosis, 
pneumonia, Texas fever, and similar diseases would be considered fit for 
food if the carcasses show no signs of emaciation. The meat from ani- 
mals in an advanced period of gestation or those which have recently 
given birth to young would also be passed as edible. Tuberculous car- 
casses which would be dangerous are in some countries sterilized by heat 
and then sold for human food. “a 

There can be no doubt that the people of the United States are more 
particular in regard to the quality and character of the food they eat 
than are those of any other country. There is an almost universal 
sentiment against eating the meat of animals affected with any disease, 
whether it is communicable or injurious to the consumer or not. There 
is a repugnance to the meat of female animals when parturition is 
approaching or has recently occurred, while the flesh of very young 
animals or of those which were unborn at the time the mother was 
slaughtered is regarded as even more offensive. 

In the I’ederal meat inspection it has been considered a duty to pro- 


THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 71 


tect the consumer from meat which was offensive and repugnant to 
him, as well as from that which was actually dangerous to his health. 

This principle has been criticised by some and considered untenable 
by others; but asa matter of fact it has been admitted and acted upon 
in all countries where meat inspection is anything better than a farce. 
For instance, the meat of emaciated and anemic animals is generally 
condemned, not because their flesh produces any disease in the con- 
sumer, but because it is innutritious and effensive. No meat inspector 
would think that he could properly allow the carcasses of dogs, cats, 
or rats to be passed and sold for human consumption. Nevertheless, 
we have no reason to suppose that the meat of these animals would 
preduce disease in the person who ate it. A meat-inspection service, 
however, which does not pretect the consumers from meat so offensive 
to them, and which they would under no circumstances purchase if they 
knew its character, would not be worthy of support. 

Acting upon this principle, the inspectors of this Bureau have been 
instructed to condemn the carcasses of all animals having acute dis- 
eases or high fevers, as well as the specific diseases liable to be com- 
municated to or to cause disease in the consumer. Females are also 
condemned because of approaching parturition or because they have 
recently dropped their young. 

Though abattoirs where slanghtering is conducted exciusively for 
the local market are not embraced by this inspection, the consumer may 
protect himself against those dealers who would fraudulentiy sell the 
meat of such animals as have just been mentioned by assuring himself 
that the carcass bears the meat-inspection tag of this Bureau, attached 
with an unbroken seal. 

A more complete protection is realized by means of a recent order 
requiring the inspectors to seize upon all animals and carcasses unfit 
for food and dispose of them in such way as to render impossible the 
selling of the meat as an edible preduct. 


ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE ABATTOIRS. 


Sanitary authorities favor a few large central abattoirs rather than 
many small ones, because the slaughtering business is then concen- 
trated, and the supervision may be conducted at less expense and in 
a more thorough manner. For this reason the small slaughterhouses 
which exist in nearly all cities, and which as a rule have little or no 
inspection, should be closed, and all slaughtering should be done at a 
central abattoir where inspectors are constantly present. 

The small establishments are often in a filthy condition, and they 
are frequently operated by irresponsible and unprincipled parties who 
would not hesitate to endanger the health of a whole communityif by 
so domg they could increase their profits by a few dollars. It is at 
these small abattoirs, where animals are slaughtered almost entirely for 
lecal consumption, that the greater part of the unsound and diseased 


12 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


meat which reaches the market is prepared for human food. The abomi- 
nations of some of these places are unspeakable, and the wonder is that 
they can be tolerated by any civilized community. They probably 
would not be allowed to continue in operation if half of their iniquities 
were known to those who have unwittingly consumed the offensive 
products. 

The very large abattoirs are not without some disadvantages. They 
cover so much ground and are divided into so many departments that 
it is difficult to keep the entire plant under supervision. Diseased 
meat should not be allowed to accumulate, because there are too many 
opportunities to remove it—too many places to which it can be taken 
and worked up without fear of detection. The killing floor is the proper 
place to intercept unwholesome meat. All meat must enter the abat- 
toir through this channel, and here it can be carefully examined and 
all its defects discovered. There is one contingency which it is diffi- 
cult to guard against even here, and that is the slaughtering of animals 
outside of the regular hours, or even in the middle of the night, with- 
out the inspector’s knowledge. ‘To prevent this, there should be a con- 
stant watch, and any company found to be offending in this way should 
be so severely punished that a repetition of the practice would not be 
likely to occur. 

The Federal meat-inspection law does not apply to abattoirs which 
do a strictly local business, and consequently the inspection at such 
places can only be made by the municipal health authorities. In most 
if not all cities this service is very inadequate. The number of inspect- 
ors is not sufficient to maintain a proper supervision, and too frequently 
the inspectors are incompetent or entirely ignorant of animal diseases 
aud the eftect of these upon the public health. 

When the meat-inspection service is sufficiently extended so that the 
provision of the law requiring all meat to be inspected which is trans- 
ported from one State into another can be enforced, there will be protec- 
tion for all consumers who insist on being shown the tags and stamps 
which certify to this inspection. In the meantime there is much inter- 
state meat which is not inspected, and the purchaser has no meaus of 
knowing the condition of the animals from which it was obtained. The 
importance of extending the inspection service rapidly and thoroughly 
until the whole country is embraced is too apparent to need argunent. 
Until this is accomplished the large operators, who have the inspec- 
tion, are benefited at the expense of the smaller ones, who are unable 
to obtain it, while the public receives but inadequate protection. 


THE COST OF MEAT INSPECTION. 


Before the inspection service was inaugurated it was supposed that 
the cost would be so great that the utility of the work would be called | 
in question. The experience which has been gained demonstrates, how- 
ever, that a thorough mspection may be made at a reasonable expense. 


THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION, 73 


Before the inspection was commenced it was estimated that the 
microscopic examination would cost the Government about 25 ceuts per 
carcass. The first month of the inspection the cost was 20.3 cents per 
carcass, and this was reduced the second month to 13.3 cents and the 
third month to 8.6 cents. Since that time the amount of work put 
upon the specimens from each carcass has been nearly doubled in order 
to increase the reliability of the inspection; but by perfecting the sys- 
tem and improving the methods the cost has been still further reduced, 
and during the year just closed has been only 6.5 cents per carcass. 
This is about the minimum for which a thorough microscopic examina- 
tion can be made. 

The cost of the ordinary inspection of animals before and at the time 
of slaughter has varied considerably in different years. In the year 
ending June 30, 1893, it was 43 cents per animal, and during the last 
year was only 13 cents per animal. This great reduction of expense is 
partly accounted for by the large number of hogs examined, which 
require less time than cattle, and partly by modified methods which 
secured more work for the same expenditure. 

The experience of the last year has demonstrated the possibility of 
maintaining a thorough and complete inspection of meats at an expense 
which would not be felt by the consumer. The microscopic examina- 
tion of pork has cost less than one-twentieth of a cent per pound, while 
the ordinary inspection has not cost one one-hundredth of a cent per 
pound. Would not every consumer prefer to pay this additional cost 
and purchase only inspected meat? It is probable that there is nearly 
a unanimous sentiment in the affirmative. How, then, can this expense 
be assessed against the consumer in an equitable manner? 

It has been proposed to require the packers to pay this expense by 
charging them a fixed amount for every tag that is attached to the 
meat and for every stamp that is affixed to a package. It is only 
reasonable to suppose that the packers in turn would add this expense 
to the selling price of the meat, and that the consumer would finally 
have it to pay. 

The consumer ought not to object to paying the very small additional 
sum which is required to inspect meat according to the system now in 
operation, as the protection afforded would be worth much more to him 
than the cost. The difficulty would be te prevent the great corpora- 
tions which control the meat business from exacting much more from 
the consumer than they had been compelled to pay to the Government. 
Let us suppose, for example, that the Government charges the packer 
one-twentieth of a cent a pound for the pork inspection; would not the 
packer make this an excuse to charge one-fourth of a cent a pound 
additional to the dealer, and would not the result be that the consumer 
who buys only 1 or 2 pounds at a time would be charged 1 cent a pound 
more than formerly? The consumer, then, instead of paying the exact 
cost of the inspection, which would be insignificant to him, would be 


1 <A 94——3* 


(4 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


taxed twenty times this cost, and consequently would be unfairly 
treated. Nineteen-twentieths of what he would pay for inspection 
would go to increase the profits of the packers and retailers of meat. 
We are warranted in concluding that this example is not far from what 
would actually occur by a consideration of the methods which the 
gentlemen who control this business have enforced in the past. 

The problem is, therefore, how to collect the cost of inspection from 
the consumer, which practically means every citizen of the country, 
with the least expense for the collection. 

The reduction in the cost of the microscopical inspection as compared 
with the quantity of microscopically inspected pork actually exported 
has been very gratifying. During the fiscal year 1893 there were ex- 
ported 20,677,410 pounds of inspected pork, and the cost of the inspec- 
tion amounted to $172,567.08, or 0.833 cent for each pound exported. 
For the fiscal year 1894 the quantity exported was increased to 35,437,- 
937 pounds and the cost of inspection reduced to $88,922.10, or 0.248 
cent for each pound exported. 

A similar statement concerning the first and second halves of the 
last fiscal year shows that this reduction in the cost of the microscopical 
inspection as compared with the quantity of pork exported was pro- 
gressive throughout the year, and reached a much lower limit than is 
indicated above. That is, from July 1, 1893, to December 31, 1893, the 
quantity of inspected pork exported was 12,618,706 pounds and the 
expense of the microscopic inspection was $53,433.68, or 0.42 cent for 
each pound exported, while from January 1, 1894, to June 30, 1894, the 
quantity of inspected pork exported was 22,819,231 pounds and the 
cost of inspection was $35,488.42, or 0.155 cent for each pound exported. 
In other words, the microscopic inspection now costs the Government 
only i cent for each 65 pounds of such inspected perk which is shipped 
to foreign countries. 


THE IMPORTANCE OF MEAT INSPECTION. 


There are few citizens of the country who realize the importance of a 
rigid inspection of meats by competent inspectors. In the days when 
animals were killed by the local butcher, whose reliability could be 
determined, and who was generally known to the consumer, there was 
not the same reason for suspicion as to the quality of meat which exists 
at present. To-day the essential work in the preparation of meats is 
conducted at a distance from the producer of the animals, and at an 
equal distance from the consumer of the products. 

The man who ships animals to these distant markets knows that their 
identity will in most cases be lost when they mingle with the enormous 
number of animals of the same species which arrive each day at any 


of the great stock yards of the country. He therefore has not the. 


reason for hesitation in shipping hogs infected with cholera, cattle with 
actinomycosis or tuberculosis, and sheep with any of the diseases to 


THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 75 


which they are subject which he would have in trying to sell such 
animals for slaughter and consumption in the neighborhood where he 
is known. 

At the stock yards we find the commission man, who desires to get the 
best prices which he can obtain for the animals which have been con- 
signed to him, and also the buyer for the packing houses, who desires 
to purchase as cheaply as possible. There is consequently an incentive 
for every man who handles the animals to use his influence to have 
them passed and used for the purposes which yield the best returns. 
The owners of the packing houses do not see the animals themselves, 
and would know very little about them in case they did. Each depart- 
ment of business is in charge of a superintendent, whose standing with 
the firm is probably rated by the success of his department—that is, by 
the money which he is able to make for the corporation. The products 
go to the consumer, often in distant parts of the land; frequently the 
identity of the goods is lost, and the final purchaser has no idea who 
slaughtered the animals from which they were produced, or even the 
city in which the slaughtering and curing was effected. 

Under these circumstances both the identity and responsibility of 
the prineipal parties to the transaction are lost. If the meat affects 
the health of the consumer, it is for the most part impossible to 
determine whether this was on account of the animal being diseased, 
or because of improper curing, or carelessness in handling by the 
shipper or retailer. If the packer could be identified he would gen- 
erally be able to shift the responsibility upon the retailer. or at least to 
make his share of it uncertain. 

The cases are comparatively rare in which any disease affecting an 
animal is transmitted through the meat to the consumer. Anthrax is 
the most dangerous malady in this respect, because the germs circulate 
with the blood and reach every portion of the body. They are certain 
to be in every particle of meat taken from the carcass. To make the 
matter worse, the germs of anthrax form spores when the carcass is 
dressed and the oxygen of the air comes in contact with the meat, 
These spores resist a very high temperature and may not be destroyed 
by cooking. There are instances on record of great mortality following 
the consumption of carcasses affected with this disease. Fortunately, 
anthrax is rare in the United States, and the affected animals die so 
quickly after infection that there is not much chance that they will 
reach the abattoirs alive. 

The germs of tuberculosis, as a rule, are not found in the muscular 
tissues, and they are more readily destroyed by heat. While there are 
many tuberculous cows all over the world, the danger from the meat of 
such animals is not as great as is generally supposed, particularly if it 
is fairly well cooked. 

Glanders of the horse is a disease which in the characteristics men- 
tioned resembles tuberculosis. When old, worn-out horses are gath- 


76 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ered from all parts of the country for slaughter, it is morally certain 
that some of them will be affected with this disease. The slaughter of 
these animals without inspection is, therefore, a nuisance to the com- 
munity and should be prohibited. 

Anthrax, tuberculosis, and glanders are three diseases of animals 
communicable to man, and from which he has little chances of recovery. 
There should, consequently, be every precaution enforced to protect 
the consumer from meat infected with such contagion. 

Trichinosis of hogs is also a terrible and fatal disease, which, while 
not as common in this country as in Germany, still occurs in far too 
many cases. The consumer may protect himself absolutely from this 
disease by requiring all pork to be thoroughly cooked before it is eaten. 
Curing also destroys the vitality of the parasite, so that it is rarely 
that eases are found which have originated from eating salted pork. 
The eases of trichinosis in man which have occurred in this country 
have generally resulted from pork killed in some small local slaughter- 
house or on the farm. Packing-house pork has seldom been accused 
of causing the trouble. The reason, of course, is that pork from the 
packing houses is generally salted and is cooked before it is eaten, while 
that killed locally is frequently eaten fresh and often without being 
sufficiently cooked, sometimes without being cooked at all. 

Were it not for our large German population, trichinosis would 
hardly be worthy of consideration as a sanitary question. As it is, 
however, cases are reported from time to time, and the terrible suffer- 
ing of the victims, together with the high death rate, makes it desirable 
to adopt, if possible, preventive measures. The microscopic inspection 
of all the pork prepared at the abattoirs doing an interstate trade 
would prevent a portion of these cases; but beyond giving consumers 
al opportunity to select pork free from the parasite it would probably 
be disappointing. 

The elaborate and expensive system of microscopic inspection adopted 
by Germany has not fulfilled expectations, as the number of cases of 
trichinosis which occur from inspected pork is so large that it rather 
indicates the unreliability of the method than inspires confidence in it 
as a prophylactic measure. 

There are many other diseases liable to affect animals as they arrive 
in the stock yards which, while not directly communicable to mankind, 
may, nevertheless, produce serious or even fatal illness in those who 
consume the meat. Animals are frequently injured in transit, and as a 
result may become affected with gangrene, septicemia, pyeemia, malig- 
nant oedema, peritonitis, or metritis, any of which conditions make the 
flesh absolutely unfit for food and dangerous to the health of consum- 
ers. In other cases there may be abscesses or actinomycotie tumors, 
the effect of which upon the carcass depends upon the extent of the 
lesions. . 

It is not uncommon to find animals in a feverish condition owing to 


THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 77 


bruises, local inflammations, or other causes. If the fever is very pro- 
nounced the carcasses should be condemned. In most countries such 
carcasses as these would be allowed to go upon the market, because no 
special disease has been traced to them. In the United States, how- 
ever, the people object to the flesh of animals affected with any disease 
which deranges the important functions of the body, and while there 
is such an abundant supply of healthy animals this sentiment should 
be respected. The flesh of feverish animals undoubtedly contains an 
abnormal quantity of leucomaines and in many cases of toxins, which 
are liable to affect the digestive organs, particularly in hot weather, 
and to cause illness, which is mild or serious according to the condi- 
tion in which the cousumer happens to be at the time he partakes of it. 

The flesh of animals which have recently given birth to their young 
is objected to for the same reasons as is that from animals in a feverish 
condition. Animals shipped in this condition are very liable to inflam- 
mation of the uterus and septic infection, and should on no account be 
passed as fit for human food. Animals in advanced pregnancy are 
very subject to injury during shipment. They often abort if allowed to 
remain a few days in the stock yards, and it is not uncommon to find a 
dead and.partly decomposed fetus in the uterus. Even when unin- 
jured, animals almost at the period of parturition can not be considered 
as furnishing acceptable meat. The nutriment which they assimilate 
is diverted from their own tissues to sustain the fetus, while the waste 
products of the latter’s vital activity increase those already present in 
the mother’s circulation. The meat from such animals may not usually 
cause disease in the consumer, but its nutritive qualities are impaired, 
and there is good reason for the repugnance which the American people 
feel in regard to it. 

These conditions and many others are daily met with in the animals 
shipped to the large cities for slaughter. To determine the exact con- 
dition, the nature of the disease, and the proper disposition of the car- 
cass requires expert veterinary knowledge. The inspectors should be 
not only competent but thoroughly honest and reliable. There should 
be stringent, clearly defined laws and rigid regulations from which the 
inspector will know his duty, and by which he will be able to dispose 
of diseased or unwholesome meat without being annoyed by constant 
appeals made by interested parties. 


VESSEL INSPECTION. 


The vessels carrying the exported cattle and sheep are all inspected 
by the officers of this Bureau in accordance with the act of Congress 
approved March 3, 1891, in order to secure sufficient ventilation, an 
adequate supply of food and drinking water, competent attendants, 
‘fittings sufficiently strong to avoid unnecessary danger of washing 
overboard, and enough space for the animals to stand in with comfort. 


78 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The regulations adopted in 1891 are still in force, but they have been 
amended from time to time, and the condition of the cattle in transit 
has been continually improved. 

This improvement is shown by the marked decrease in the propor- 
tion of cattle lost at sea. The loss for each year since the regulations 
went into effect was as follows: 1891, 1.6 per cent; 1892, 0.875 per 
cent; 1893, 0.47 per cent, and in 1894, 0.37 per cent. 

The loss of sheep has been much heavier. Of the 80,898 exported 
and shipments inspected in Great Britain during the fiscal year 1,059 
were lost at sea. This is 1.29 per cent, and it indicates that more strin- 
gent regulations must be enferced to secure the humane treatment of 
these animals on shipboard. 


STOCK-YARDS INSPECTION. 


An inspection at a number of the important stock yards of the coun- 
try is maintained for the purpose of inspecting and tagging export 
cattle as near to their place of origin asis possible. After being tagged 
and recorded there is a supervision of the shipments, in order to prevent 
infection of any kind on the way to the seaboard. 

In the past one of the greatest dangers during the summer months 
has been infected pens in the stock yards, or infected alleys, streets, or 
cars which have been contaminated by cattle from the Southern fever 
district. These cattle, though apparently healthy, may so thoroughly 
infect the avenues through which they pass that they will be deadly for 
other cattle during the remainder of the season. 

It has therefore been found necessary to set apart separate pens 
and alleys for these Southern cattle, to prohibit their exportation, and 
to disinfect the cars in which they have been shipped. To secure the 
enforcement of these regulations constant supervision and inspection 
must be maintained, for otherwise infected cattle would be allowed to 
enter the pens in which export cattle were handled, and this would do 
away with any possible chance of guarding against the infection. 

The stock-yards inspection is designed to guard against the South- 
ern fever infection, but it also embraces the inspection and tagging of 
export animals and the inspection of the vessels which carry them. 
These different lines of inspection are so closely allied that they can 
not be separated without detriment to the service and increased 
expenditures. It should be borne in mind, however, that the entire 
expense of the stock-yards inspection is not for the benefit of the 
export trade, but that the cattle which are to remain in this country, 
more particularly the “feeders,” are also protected. 

The losses from the Southern or Texas fever have been almost 
entirely prevented, and cattle may now be moved through our largest 
stock yards without danger, while before the inspection was inaugu- 
rated a large part of the cattle so handled became infected. 


THE FEDERAL MEAT INSPECTION. 79 


This inspection, as it only continues during the spring, summer, and 
fall months, is reported for the calendar instead of the fiscal year. In 
the quarantine season extending from February 15 to December 1, 
1893, there were inspected and placed in the quarantine pens 1,737,389 
head of cattle. In addition to this the inspectors had 56,406 cars 
cleaned and disinfected under their supervision, and inspected 20,075 
ear loads of infected cattle which were en route for places beyond their 
jurisdiction. 


INSPECTION IN GREAT BRITAIN OF ANIMALS FROM THE UNITED 
STATES. 


This inspection has been continued during the year by two inspect- 
ors, one being stationed at London and the other at Liverpool. The 
object of this inspection is to learn the condition in which animals 
arrive, the extent of the losses at sea, the diseases with which animals 
in transit are affected, or from which they die, and the adequacy of 
the ventilation and fittings of the vessels for the safe transportation 
of their living freight. 

This information can only be obtained from the representatives of 
this Bureau who examine the animals both before and after they are 
unloaded from the ships. By means of this information improvements 
have been made by which the losses at sea have been reduced froin 1.6 
per cent the first year of service to 0.57 per cent during the last fiscal 
year. This means a saving of 4,470 head of cattle on the exports of 
the last year. How much was saved by the regulations of the first 
year over the unregulated trade we have no data to determine, but it 
probably was a still larger number. 

The British restrictions have not yet been removed from our cattle 
trade, but with the continued freedom of the United States from 
pleuro-pneumonia and other contagious diseases dangerous to the stock 
interests of that country it is probable that reasonable modifications 
will be made, 

The entire expenses of the stock-yard, vessel, and export animal 
inspection for the year was $96,707.44. At least half of this expense 
is for the prevention of Texas fever in this country, and should not be 
charged against the export inspection. This would give an expendi- 
ture of about 103 cents for each animal exported. Considering that 
this covers the tagging of every animal and two inspections in the 
United States and one in Great Britain for the greater part of them, 
as well as inspection of the ships and supervision of the loading, it is 
seen that the service is very economically performed. 

Following this estimate to its legitimate conclusion, we find that the 
$48,353.72 which we estimate was expended in inspecting and quaran- 
_tining 1,737,380 head of cattle from the district infected with Southern 
or Texas fever makes the cost of such inspection 2.7 cents per animal, 
with no allowance for the disinfection of 56,406 ears. 


80 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF IMPORTED ANIMALS. 


The number of animals imported from Hurope, inspected and quar- 
antined on arrival, was 11 head of cattle, 565 sheep, 43 hogs, and 4 
goats quarantined at Garfield, N. J., and 1 head of cattle and 179 sheep 
quarantined at Patapsco, Md. In addition, 3 head of cattle imported 
from Canada were quarantined at Buffalo, N. Y. This makes a total 
of 806 imported animals that were quarantined during the year. 

Under the provisions of the act of Congress approved August 30, 
1890, requiring the inspection of all cattle, sheep, and hogs imported 
into the United States from foreign countries, there were inspected, as 
imported from Canada, 194 head of cattle, 240,497 sheep, 1,302 hogs, 
and 2 goats. 

Cattle from Europe and Canada are still detained in quarantine for 
a period of ninety days, which is necessary to protect from the conta- 
gion of pleuro-pneumonia, with which most Huropean countries are 
still infected. Sheep from Europe are detained fifteen days, a period 
considered sufficient to guard against the introduction of foot-and- 
mouth disease; if from countries on the American continent, these 
animals are admitted on inspection when found free from any form of 
contagious or infectious disease. 


a ee on 


i 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 


By A. C. Trur, Pa. D., 
Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


More than a century has elapsed since the movement began in this 
country to advance the interests of agriculture by widening the infor- 
mation of the farmer regarding the rational practice of his art. Near 
the end of the eighteenth century there was unusual activity in agri- 
cultural affairs, both at home and abroad. New crops and breeds of 
animals were being introduced. The attention of practical men was 
drawn to the discoveries of science, and great hopes were excited that 
immediate benefits of inestimable value would accrue to agriculture as 
well as to the other arts, especially from the application of the prin- 
ciples of chemistry to the various industries. The newly awakened 
interest in the oldest of human occupations was marked by the forma- 
tion of agricultural societies. In Great Britain, for example, the Bath 
and West of England Society and the Highland Society were estab- 
lished. The British Government also recognized the importance of the 
movement by organizing a board of agriculture. The same influences 
were soon felt in the New World. 


ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS 
IN THE UNITED STATES. 


As far as is now known, the first society for promoting agriculture in 
the United States was established at Philadelphia, then the seat of the 
General Government, March 1, 1785, by men who were for the most 
part engaged in pursuits having no immediate connection with agri- 
culture. On the 4th of July, 1785, General Washington was elected 
an honorary member of this society and ever afterwards showed a 
deep interest insits proceedings. Benjamin Franklin’s name is also 
found on the list of its honorary members. In the saine year a similar 
society was formed in South Carolina, which had among its objects the 
establishment of an experimental farm. This scciety was incorporated 
December 19,1795. The present State Agricultural Society of South 
Carolina still holds the original charter. The New York Society for 
the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures was organized 
February 26,1791, and about the same time a society was formed at 
Kennebec, Mass. (now Maine). In 1792 the New York society pub- 


lished a small quarto volume of its transactions. The Massachusetts 
81 


82 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Society for Promoting Agriculture was incorporated March 7, 1792, and 
in 1794 the Western Society of Middlesex Husbandmen was formed in 
Massachusetts, though not incorporated until 1803. ‘The Society for 
Promoting Agriculture in the State of Connecticut was organized 
August 12, 1794, and published its first volume of transactions, a small 
quarto pamphlet, in 1802.” This society still exists as the county society 
of New Haven. 


THE FIRST PLANS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 


In 1792 Samuel L. Mitehill, M. D., LL. D., was appointed professor of 
natural history, chemistry, agriculture, and the other arts depending 
thereon, in Columbia College, in the city of New York. The college 
records do not show whether he ever gave any instruction in agricultu- 
ral subjects, but it is almost certain that he was active in early efforts 
to advance agriculture through education, and that men afterwards 
prominent in urging the establishment of agricultural colleges were 
among his students. Lavoisier, who was probably the first scientist to 
give systematic attention to the application of chemistry to agriculture, 
was then the great chemist. Dr. Mitchill is credited with introducing 
his theories in this country, and undoubtedly referred in his lectures to 
the agricultural features of this science. We know that he was active 
in the New York Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and 
Manufactures, and that he wrote essays on the chemistry of manures. 
He was retired in 1801, having been elected a member of the House of 
Representatives. 

On the 2ist of January, 1794, a committee was appointed by the 
Philadelphia society ‘“‘to prepare outlines of a plan for establishing a 
State society for the promotion of agriculture, connecting with it the 
education of youth in the knowledge of that most important art, while 
they are acquiring other useful knowledge suitable for the agricultural 
citizens of the State.” The committee made a report in which several 
alternatives for promoting agricultural education are presented to the 
legislature: 

Whether by endowing professorships, to be annexed to the University of Pennsyl- 
vania and the College of Carlisle, and other seminaries of learning, for the purpose of 
teaching the chemical, philosophical, and elementary parts of the theory of agricul- 
ture; or, by adding to tho funds of the society, increase their ahjlity to propagate a 
knowledge of the subject, and stimulate, by premiums and other incentives, the 


exertions of the agricultural citizens; or whether, by a combination of these means, 
the welfare of the State may be more effectually promoted. 


It was also a part of the plan to make the common-school system of 
the State contributory to the technical education of the farmer. 


The country schoolmasters may be secretaries of the county societies, and the 
schoolhouses the places of meeting and the repositories of their transactions, models, 
etc. The legislature may enjoin on these schoolmasters the combination of the sub- 
ject of agriculture with tho other parts of education. This may be easily effected by 
introducing, as school books, those on this subject, and thereby making it familiar 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 83 


totheir pupils. These will be gaining a knowledge of the business they are destined 
to follow, while they are taught the elementary parts of their education. Books thus 
profitable to them in the cominon affairs of life may be substituted for some of those 
now used, and they can easily be obtained. Selections from the best writers in 
husbandry may be made by the society. Tho essays of our own experimentalists or 
theorists and the proceedings of the society will also afford information. 

This report seems to have been the first formal attempt made in the 
United States to urge the claims of agricultural education and experi- 
mentation upon the attention of a lawmaking body. 


WASHINGTON’S MESSAGE TO CONGRESS. 


Two years later, on December 7, 1796, in his annual message to the 
second session of the Fourth Congress, Washington showed his interest 
in agriculture by the following recommendation: 

It will not be doubted that, with reference cither to individual or national welfare, 
agriculture is of primary importance. In proportion as nations advance in popula- 
tion and other circumstances of maturity this truth becomes more apparent and 
renders the cultivation of the soil more and more an object of public patronage. 
Institutions for promoting it grow up supported by the public purse, and to what 
object can it be dedicated with greater propricty? Among the means which have 
been employed to this end none havo been attended with greater success than the 
establishment of boards composed of public characters, charged with collecting and 
diffusing information, and enabled, by premiums and small pecuniary aid, to encour- 
age and assist a spirit of discovery and improvement. This species of establishment 
coutributes doubly to the increase of improvements, by stimulating to enterprise 
and experiment, and by drawing to a common center the results everywhere of indi- 
vidual skill and observation, and spreading them thence over the whole nation. 
Experience accordingly has shown that they are very cheap instruments of immense 
national importance. 

I have heretofore proposed to the consideration of Congress the expediency of 
establishing a national university, and also a military academy. 


Congress soon established the academy to promote the science and 
art of war, but paid no attention to the words of the great general in 
favor of institutions to benefit the sciences and arts of peace. 

In 1797 the trustees of the Massachusetts society began the publica- 
tion of pamphlets, or, as we should now say, bulletins, on agricultural 
topics, which afterwards were developed into a regularly issued journal. 
A yoluntary agricultural association was formed at Stockbridge, Mass., 
in 1799, and probably a few other societies were organized before the 
close of the last century. 

Near the opening of the new century (1801) a suggestion was made 
to the Massachusetts society that fairs should be regularly held in May 
and October on Cambridge Common and bounties given for certain 
articles. This plan included not only the exhibition of agricultural 
products, but also stated open markets for their sale. No action was 
taken by the society regarding this suggestion. In the same year this 
Society discussed a proposition for the permanent endowment of a 
professorship of natural history and a botanic garden at Harvard 


84 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


College. The society took a lively interest in this matter and was 
enabled to carry out the suggestion in 1804, when William D. Peck was 
elected to fill the new chair. 


AGRICULTURAL FAIRS AT WASHINGTON. 


In the Report of the United States Commissioner of Agriculture for 
1866, in an article on the History of the Agriculture of the United 
States, by Ben: Perley Poore, may be found the following statements 
regarding the first attempt made at the newly established seat of the 
National Government to promote the interests of American agriculture: 


In 1804 it was suggested by Dr. Thornton, the first Commissioner of Patents, then 
residing in Washington, which was literally a ‘city in the woods,” that the ready 
sale of cattle and of domestic products could be promoted by the holding of fairs on 
market days, as in England, his native land. The idea met with the warm approval 
of the citizens, and the municipal authorities passed an act establishing semiannual 
fairs. An editorial article in the National Intelligencer of October i7 spoke of the 
coming fair as offering advantages to purchasers and to settlers, ‘‘ while at the same 
time it can but prove equally beneficial to the agricultural interests of our country.” 
The fair was held on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, in ‘‘ the mall at the south 
side of the Tiber, extending from the bridge at the Center Market to the Potomac.” 

It was a decided success, and before the next one was held an attempt was made 
by additional legislation on the part of the city government to increase its usefulness 
by appropriating $50 toward a fund for premiums. The citizens raised by subscrip- 
tion an equal sum, so that at the fair, which began on the 26th of April, 1805, pre- 
miums to the amount of $100 were awarded to the best lamb, sheep, steer, milch cow, 
yoke of oxen, and horse actually sold. A third fair was held in November, 1805, 
after which they were discontinued. 

Early in the year 1806 Joel Barlow, then residing at Kalorama, in the vicinity of 
Washington, published the prospectus of a ‘National Academy,” in which he enu- 
merated, among the foreign institutions to be copied in forming an American organi- 
zation, the agricultural societies of England and the veterinary school of France. 

Meanwhile an institution had been organized by ‘‘members of Congress, officers 
of the Federal Government, and others, devoted to objects connected with public 
economy.” Meetings were held at Mr. Hervevy’s, on Pennsylvania avenue, every Sat- 
urday evening, from 5 until 8 o’clock, and among the subjects considered were: 

Our mechanical economy, or the means of abridging labor by useful inventions, 
implements, and apparatus; our agricultural economy, or the means of producing 
the most abundanteand most reciprocal crops, under any given circumstances, with- 
out doing things by guess; the economy of our forests, or the best management of 
our latent resources there. 


CATTLE SHOWS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 


In the autumn of 1807 Elkanah Watson, a native of Plymouth, 
Mass., and a direct descendant of Governor Edward Winslow, who, in 
1624, had brought to Plymouth, in the ship Charity, three heifers and a 
bull, “the first neat cattle that came into New England,” procured the 
first pair of Merino sheep which had been introduced into Berkshire 
County, and gave notice of an exhibition of his two sheep on the pub- 
lic square at Pittsfield. Hewrote that ‘many farmers and even females 
were attracted to this first novel and humble exhibition.” The interest 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 85 


excited by this exhibit led Mr. Watson to undertake a larger euter- 
prise, and on the 1st of August, 1810, an appeal drawn by himself and 
signed by twenty-six persons was published, appointing an exhibition 
of stock at the same place on the Ist of October. This “cattle show” 
was quite successful, and before many years the annual exhibit became 
a permanent and popular institution in Massachusetts. Mr. Watson’s 
report of the exhibition of September, 1511, shows the picturesque 
elements which were thus early introduced into these rural festivals. 
There was “a procession of sixty-nine oxen drawing a plow held by 
the oldest man in the county; a band of music; the society, bearing 
appropriate ensigns, each member decorated with a badge of two heads 
of wheat in his hat, and the officers three heads secured by a green 
ribbon.” Meanwhile, in 1809, a number of gentlemen interested in 
agriculture, residing in Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Column. 
bia, had formed the Columbian Agricultural Society, which may prop- 
erly be considered as the germ of anational organization. This society 
actively engaged in the work of educating the farmer through the 
agency of exhibitions. 


HINDRANCES TO AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 1810-1840. 


Various causes seem to have contributed to retard the progress of 
agricultural education during the next three decades. The war with 
England, from 1812 to 1815, undoubtedly turned the attention of our 
people away from the consideration of measures for the improvement of 
agriculture. The obstruction to commerce growing out of the wars of 
Napoleon, and the quarrel between England and the United States, 
caused the manufactures of this country to develop with wonderful 
rapidity. The enterprising youth were drawn in large numbers from 
the farms to factories, and the public mind was occupied with schemes 
for increasing the wealth of the country in this direction. However, in 
1817, the Berkshire Agricultural Society of Massachusetts, under the 
enthusiastic leadership of Elkanah Watson, presented a memorial to 
Congress praying for the establishment of a national board of agricul- 
ture, in accordance with the original suggestion by President Wash- 
ington. A bill for this purpose was actually reported in the House of 
Representatives, but was defeated by an overwhelming vote. Some 
members opposed the bill because there was in their judgment no war- 
rant in the Constitution for such an institution; others based their 
opposition on questions of expediency, or on the general indifference of 
the agricultural public. It was also well known that President Madison 
was notin favor of the measure. The decade closed with the establish- 
ment of the New York Horticultural Society, the first horticultural 
society in the United States, in 1818, and the publication of the first 
distinctively agricultural periodical in this country, the American 
Farmer, in Baltimore, Md., in 1819. This was followed by the New 
England Farmer, published in 1822. ‘During this decade, also, the 


86 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


wool interest made much stir. The breaking up of the flocks in Spain, » 
the importation of Merino sheep into this country, and the speculation 
which followed, influenced agricultural fairs and societies.” 

There were comparatively few events of striking interest to mark the 
progress of agriculture in the United States during the next twenty 
years. During this period the boundaries of the Republic were greatly 
enlarged; the introduction of steam as a motive power was already 
contributing largely to the movement of population from worn-out 
lands in the East to fertile districts further west; the demoralization of 
enterprise resulting from the employment of slaves was beginning to 
be felt in the South; questions relating to the extension of slavery, to. 
methods of transportation, to the establishment of new States and 
Territories, to public systems of free elementary education, were absorb- 
ing public attention. There was little heed paid to the claims of scientific 
agriculture or thought about the necessity for technical education. 
About 1825, however, there was considerable popular interest in a 
scheme for the culture and manufacture of silk in the United States, a 
matter which had had its cycles of agitation somewhere in this country 
in every decade since 1750. Congress responded to the demand for 
information by ordering the publication of a well-digested manual 
prepared by Richard Rust, Secretary of the Treasury, containing the 
best practical information that could be collected on the growth and 
manufacture of silk. In 1828 an edition of a Treatise on the Rearing 
of Silkworms, by Count Von Haggie, of Munich, was printed as a 
Congressional document, and several valuable reports on silk culture 
were made and published, until the bursting of the “‘ Morus multicaulis 
bubble” checked for a time this branch of agricultural industry. 


REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN AGRICULTURE. 


Ten years later public attention was rudely awakened to the neces- 
sity of doing something to prevent the rapid exhaustion of the soil, 
which was becoming a matter of serious concern in all States along the 
Atlantic seaboard. The failure of the crops in 1837-38 turned the 
balance of trade heavily against us and caused the importation of 
millions of dollars’ worth of breadstuffs. Irom this time may be dated 
the beginning of active interest in agriculture on the part of the National 
Government. At the prompting of Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, Com- 
missioner of Patents, Congress, in 1839, made an appropriation of $1,000 
for the “collection of agricultural statistics, investigations for pro- 
moting agricultural and rural economy, and the procurement of cut- 
tings and seeds for gratuitous distribution among the farmers.” In 
the two succeeding years Congress failed to make any further appro- 
priation, but the Commissioner of Patents did not flag in his efforts to 
secure recognition of the claims of the farmers by the National Legisla- 
ture, and in 1842 the appropriation for agriculture was renewed and 
has ever since been regularly made, except in 1846. The first attempt 


si 
i 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH. IN AGRICULTURE. 8&7 


to organize a national agricultural society was made at Washington in 
1841 by a convention of persons desiring ‘to elevate the character and 
standing of the cultivation of the American soil.” It was hoped that 
the fund left by Hugh Smithson might be made available for the main- 
tenance of such an organization, but the establishment of the Smith- 
sonian Institution frustrated these expectations, and the ‘national 
society remained dormant until 1852.” 


PLANS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN NEW YORK AND OTHER 
STATES. 


The history of the early agitation in favor of agricultural education 
in the State of New York is very interesting and instructive. Prof. 
W. H. Brewer, of Yale University, who was closely identified with agri- 
cultural schools established in that State prior to 1860, has collected 
much information on this subject, and the author of this article is 
indebted to him for many of the facts here stated. As early as 1819, 
Simeon De Witt, surveyor-general of New York, to whom we are 
indebted for the classical names given to many towns in that State, in 
a pamphlet published anonymously at Albany, under the title ‘“‘Consid- 
erations on the necessity of establishing an agricultural college,” urged 
the foundation, under State authority, of an institution which he pro- 
posed to call “The Agricultural College of the State of New York.” 
This matter was thereafter never allowed to drop wholly out of sight. 
Allusions to an attempt to found an agricultural college in 1822 are 
found in the Transactions of the New York Agricultural Society and 
elsewhere. 

In 1826 mention is made of a lyceum in Maine devoted to agricultu- 
ral studies, of schools in Connecticut having agricultural courses, and 
of efforts in Massachusetts to establish an agricultural college. The 
Farmers’ School Book, by Prof. J. Orvill Taylor, was published at 
Ithaca, N. Y.,in 1837. It was a little elementary work on science, par- 
ticularly chemistry, on the use of manures and on general farming, and 
was soon introduced in many of the district schools. About the same 
time the establishment of an agricultural college, probably a private 
speculation, was undertaken in Columbia County. Between 1830 and 
1840 there was much talk about ‘manual labor schools,” a term vari- 
ously applied to schools in which the students were to pay for their 
education in whole or part by their labor, and a number of schools 
were started on that basis. The Oneida Institute was one of the 
earliest of these schools, and for a time enjoyed considerable popu- 
larity. So general had the agitation for agricultural education become 
in New York by 1838 that petitions asking for State aid in behalf of 
this cause, with nearly 6,000 signatures, were presented to the legisla- 
ture and turned over to a committee, who made a report deploring in 
Strong language “ that there is no school, no seminary, no subdivision 
of any school in which the science of agriculture is taught,” and recom- 


88 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


mending the establishment of a school for this science. This matter 
came up in the legislature in different forms in succeeding years, and 
the movement seems to have steadily grown in strength and impor- 
tanee. It was greatly aided by the State Agricultural Society, which 
was reorganized in 1841, and immediately began the publication of the 
series of volumes of Transactions, which was continued annually for 
over thirty years, and less frequently since. One project of these times 
was that the State should maintain a lecturer who should inform the 
people of different localities on scientific and practical agriculture. 
Lectures on agricultural chemistry were delivered about this time to 
popular assemblies or schools in western New York, and this seems to 
have been done elsewhere, perhaps as far south as Georgia. 

At the annual meeting of the New York State Agricultural Society 
in January, 1844, a committee of seven, consisting of Hon. John Greig, 
Governor Seward, Lieutenant-Governor Dickinson, Col. John A. King, 
James S. Wadsworth, Judge Savage, and Henry O’Reilly, was appointed 
to promote “the introduction of agricultural books and studies in the 
schools and libraries throughcut the State, and also for the purpose of 
selecting such prize essays from among the transactions of the society 
as may be most appropriately published in volumes of suitable size for 
the family and school district libraries;” and the society further resolved 
“That this society regards the establishment of an agricultural institute 
and pattern farm in this State, where shall be taught thoroughly and 
alike the science, the practice, and the profits of good husbandry, as an 
object of great importance to the productive agriculture of New York.” 

This committee entered into correspondence with school superintend- 
ents and influential friends of agriculture in several States and presented 
an elaborate report the following year, in which are quoted the resolu- 
tions passed by the State convention of common-school superintendents 
held in June, 1844. The chairman of the committee which submitted 
these resolutions was Professor Potter, of Union College, and the com- 
mittee stated that in their opinion ‘the time has arrived when the ele- 
ments and scientific principles of agriculture should be taught in all 
our schools, especially to the older class of pupils.” 

Between 1845 and 1850 agricultural schools were established by pri- 
vate enterprise in various places in the State. Among the peculiar 
features of these earlier schools were courses of lectures on agricultural 
chemistry and other topics, similar to the short or winter courses recently 
organized in a number of our agricultural colleges. For example, the 
Genesee Farmer for March, 1846, speaks of the Cortland County Agri- 
cultural School and of Mr. Woolworth’s “unexpected success” in deliver- 
ing lectures once a week to twenty-five or thirty farmers. 

The agricultural school at Cream Hill, Connecticut, was established 
in May, 1845, by Dr. S. W. Gold and his son, T. S. Gold, and continued 
in successful operation until 1869, The number of pupils was limited 
to 20, and the object of the school was “to unite with classical and 
scientific education, theoretical and practical instruction in agriculture.” 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 89 


A course of lectures on agricultural chemistry was delivered in New 
Orleans on invitation of citizens during the winter of 1845-46, by B. 
W. Jones, afterwards a professor in Yale College. 

Sufficient interest was awakened in this and other plans for the pro- 
motion of agriculture to make it seem to the United States Commis- 
sioner of Patents worth while to send a special agent to Europe to inves- 
tigate the movements there in the same direction. In the report of 
this agent, published in 1847, is contained an account of the European 
agricultural schools. 

In 1846 John P. Norton was appointed professor of agricultural chem- 
istry and vegetable and animal physiology at Yale College, New Haven, 
Conn. B. Silliman, jr., was appointed professor of chemistry applied to 
the arts. This was the beginning of Sheffield Scientific School. The 
Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard was begun about the same 
time. Professor Norton began his lectures in 1847, and during the next 
five years also wrote extensively for agricultural journals, edited an 
American edition of Stevens on the Farin, and published a work of his 
own on the Elements of Agriculture. So great was the demand for 
teachers in agricultural chemistry that a regular course with a view to 
their preparation was established at Yale in 1848. Prof. W. H. Brewer 
was among the first students to take this course, and Prof. 8S. W. John- 
son joined him in 1849. 

In January, 1849, Governor Hamilton Fish, of New York, in his annual 
message to the legislature of the State, strongly recommended the estab- 
lishment of a State agricultural college. The same year the New York 
Agricultural Society established at Albany a chemical laboratory for 
the analysis of soils, manures, etc., and an elaborate but very inaccurate 
chemical examination of maize was made there by Dr. Salisbury. Dur- 
ing the session of the legislature that year Professor Johnston, of Edin- 
burgh, the celebrated Scotch agricultural chemist, came to Albany and 
delivered a course of lectures under the auspices of the society. 

In an address before the Norfolk Agricultural Society, delivered in 
1849, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder urged the advisability of establishing 
al agricultural college in Massachusetts. The idea speedily took hold 
of the friends of agriculture in that State to such an extent that in 
1850 the State senate of Massachusetts passed a bill to found sueh an 
institution, but it was defeated in the house. As a compromise meas- 
ure a board of commissioners was appointed to investigate the matter. 
The commissioners sent Professor Hitchcock to Europe to visit the 
agricultural schools already in operation there, and his report was 
transmitted to the legislature in the following year. The only imme- 
diate outcome of this movement was the establishment of the Massa- 
chusetts Board of Agriculture in 1852. 

The United States Commissioner of Patents had meanwhile begun to 


urge upon Congress the desirability of giving national aid to agricul- 


tural education. In his report for the year 1850 he deplores the lack of 


$0 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


qualified men to fill professorships in agricultural colleges, and says 
that “‘if a young farmer engaged in stock growing wishes te study the 
digestive organs, the muscles, nerves, or blood vesselsof the horse, cow, 
sheep, or hog, there is not a museum in all America where this can be 
done.” And in the two succeeding years the same official publishes in 
his reports letters from prominent agriculturists urging the establish- 
ment of a national school for the training of teachers for agricultural 
and other industrial schools. 

Professor Prewer thus writes concerning the first industrial college 
established in New York: 

In 1850 Mr. John Delafield, a retired banker of New York City,a graduate of 
Colambia College, where he may have received instruction from Professor Mitehill, 
was living on one of the best farms in the State, ‘‘ Oaklands,” hear Geneva, 24 the 
town of Payette, Seneca County. He was enthusiastic in all matters relating to 
agricultural progress, and was a near neighbor of John Joluston, the famous Scotch 
farmer, the pioneer of tile drainage in the United States. Mr. Delafield imported 
the first tile-making machine in 1852. He was also at one time president of the New 
York State Agricultural Society, and originated and carried ont an agricultural and 
topographical survey of Seneca County. He took a deep interest in the eause of 
agricultural education, and, owing to his action and energy, on April 15, 1853, the 
State passed an act establishing a State agricultural college. This act created a 
board of ten trustees, of which Mr. Delafield was president, but appropriated no 
money. The coilege was to be located on Mr. Delafield’s farm, in the town of Fayette, 
butas he died October 22 of the same year, nothing more was done about building 
a college there. 


At this time the Ovid Academy, located some 15 miles south of 
Fayette, was in successful operation ; agricultural chemistry was there 
taught, and pubhe lectures were given upon the same subject. Rey. 
Amos Brown, the principal of that academy, conceived the idea of having 
the college charter transferred to Ovid. The agitation for this was 
begun in 1855, and in 1856 an act was passed providing for the loan by 
the State of $40,000 for twenty-one years without interest, and the 
citizens of the vicinity subscribed nearly $50,000 more for the carrying 
out of the plan. In that year the board of trustees was reorganized, 
and soon after a farm was purchased at Ovid and Judge Cheever was 
made president. Buildings were built and the college was formally 
opened as the New York State Agricultural College in the fall of 1860, 
under the presidency of Maj. M. R. Patrick. By this time the institu- 
tion was heavily in debt, the civil war soon broke out, Major Patrick 
was ealled to the army, and the college was closed, never again to be 
opened asa school. The land and buildings reverted to the State and 
are how used for an insane asylum. 

Contemporaneous with this was the starting of another institution, 
known as “The People’s College,” to be located near Havana, N. ¥. It, 
too, was to be an industrial institution, but of wider scope. Its act of 
incorporation was passed April 12, 1853, or three days before that of . 
the agricultural college just mentioned. Amos Brown later became 
the president of this institution, and as such took an active part in the 


a 


j 
ae 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 91 


discussion of the Morrill bill, and was largely instrumental in securing 
its passage. In a letter dated December 1, 1862 (only five months after 
the passage of the bill), Mr. Morrill writes as follows: 

The Reverend Amos Brown took such active part in securing the passage of the bill 
referred to whenever it was before Congress, both by his earnest and intelligent 
advocacy of the measure through personal interviews and by sufficient urging the 
attendance of members on all questions of any test votes, his services continuing 
for months, that itis due to him and the institution of which he is the head, whenever 
an official disposition of the funds shall be made, that his merit shall not go unae- 
knowledged by the State of New York. From an early moment after the first bill 
was introduced he has been unflagging in his efforts to promote the success of this 
great measure in behalf of agriculture, and it is a pleasure to me to acknowledge 
tho value of his aid and cooperation. 

It is interesting to note in this connection that even before the first 
introduction of the Morrill bill, in 1857, and when Mr. Brown probably 
had no knowledge of Mr. Morrill’s intention to frame such a bill, Mr, 
Brown was earnestly urging that an agricultural college should be a 
broad institution of high grade, in which the sciences and technology 
should be taught along with the old studies. In talking of this matter 
he often expressed the sentiment, if not the very language, afterwards 
adopted for the seal of Cornell University. 

After the passage of the Morrill act of 1862 the legislature of New 
York voted to give the whole of New York’s share of the land grant 
to the “ People’s College,” but afterwards, when that institution failed 
to comply with the conditions of the law, the grant was given to Cor- 
nell University. 


THE FIRST AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 


The constitution of the State of Michigan, adopted in 1850, requires 
that ‘‘the legislature shall provide for the establishment of an agricul- 
tural school for agriculture and the natural sciences connected there- 
with.” In obedience to this provision an act for the establishment of a 
State agricultural college was adopted by the legislature of Michigan 
in 1855, and approved February 12 of that year, and the organiza- 
tion of the institution given into the charge of the State beard of edu- 
cation. A farm, then in the woods, of 676 acres, lying 3§ miles east of 
the city of Lansing, was purchased and buildings erected, and on May 
13, 1857, the college was formally opened for the reception of students. 
The institution began with 61 students and 5 professors. To Michigan, 
therefore, belongs the honor of having been the first of the States to 
put in actual operation an educational institution for the direct promo- 
tion of technical training in agriculture. 

The Farmers’ High School of Pennsylvania (now the Pennsylvania 
State College) was incorporated in 1854 and opened for students in 
February, 1859. Donations of land as a site for the institution were 
offered in several parts of the State. Funds for the erection and 
equipment of buildings were provided by the legislature, the State 


92 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Agricultural Society, and private subscription. The first president, 
Dr. Evan Pugh, had not only studied in Germany at a time when very 
few American students went abroad, but had also spent several months 
at Rothamsted, England, working under Lawes and Gilbert. 

In 1856 the legislature of Maryland incorporated Maryland Agricul- 
tural College. 

Under this law nearly 500 philanthropic and patriotic citizens of Maryland, with 
a few in other States and in the District of Columbia, subscribed the minimum 
amount of stock provided by the act and organized the institution. The stock- 
holders met, elected the first board of trustees, and this body, after much delibera- 
tion, purchased for the college, from the late Charles B. Calvert, the estate known as 
Rossboro, containing 428 acres and situated in Prince George County, 8 miles from 
the city of Washington, and upon the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. There the cor- 
ner stone of the main college building was laid on August 24, 1858, and the institu- 
tion was opened for students in September, 1859. The opening of the college was 
quite an imposing event. Bishop Pinkney was chaplain and Professor Henry, of the 
Smithsonian Institution, was the orator of the day. 


Meanwhile, in 1856, Mr. Wilder, of Massachusetts, had succeeded in 
obtaining from the legislature of his State a charter of ‘*The Trustees 
of the Massachusetts School of Agriculture,” and from Congress a 
charter of the United States Agricultural Society, which had been 
formed in 1852. It is perhaps worth while to notice that the latter 
was opposed in the Senate by Jefferson Davis on the ground that 
‘‘Congress had no power to create corporations.” 


THE FIRST MORRILL ACT. 


The activity of the friends of agricultural education now began to 
extend itself beyond the limits of State legislation, and numerous 
petitions were presented to Congress asking for national aid for the 
establishment of agricultural colleges. The relation of this movement 
to that wider development of the American system of higher education 
due to the progress of the natural sciences and their application to the 
arts is thus briefly discussed by Professor Brewer, whose intimate per- 
sonal acquaintance with many of the leaders of industrial, scientific, 
and educational progress in this period eminently qualifies him to 
speak of the causes which led to the passage of the Morrill act of 1862. 


THE EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE MORRILL ACT. 


Tho Morrill act of 1862 was the outcome of a long series of events which seem 
either to have been imperfectly understood by many writers or to have been deemed 
of an importance far below what they really had. The causes which led up to this 
grant of land for the purpose of aiding schools of science were numerous and not 
so simple as they seem now. Educational demands were doubtless the greater, but 
others, which need not be discussed in detail here, were important and, indeed, 
essential factors in promoting the passage of this act. Considered even as an edu- 


cational movement, it was only a part of a wide movement, of which instruction: 


in the sciences of immediate and special application in agriculture was but one phase, 
It is true that there was a widespread and often-heard demand for agricultural 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 93 


colleges during the twenty years preceding the passage of that act, but this was but 
one feature of a general educational movement. 

The period between 1840 and 1860 was a peculiar one in the history of the world’s 
intellectual activity and material progress. At its beginning sume of the physical 
sciences, more particularly chemistry and geology, were scarcely 50 years old, but 
they had already revolutionized some of the arts and produced great changes in 
agriculture. All this had taken place within the lifetime of the older workers then 
in the field. 

Popular works on science were widely read, and had prepared the public mind to 
cherish hopes, perhaps exaggerated, of the benefits to come by the applications of 
science, and had greatly stimulated intellectual activity in this new field of knowl- 
edge. Liebig’s familiar Letters on Chemistry incited hopes for agriculture which 
will probably never be realized. Dick’s works made the moon hoax! not only pos- 
sible but such a great success as it never could have been before or since, and the 
discoveries actually taking place at that time awakened the most widespread desire 
to know more. 

In a thousand and one ways, more in the other lines than in agriculture, discov- 
ery, invention, and the application of scientific laws to the arts and industries were 
playing a part in the development of the material resources of the civilized world 
and modifying the industries and occupations of men. There was then an absorb- 
ing interest in the growing steam transportation; railroads and ocean steamships 
then came into use and were made practicable; iron working, dyeing, and many 
other arts were being revolutionized by chemistry; commercial fertilizers were 
coming to be used; the electric telegraph, just invented, first came into use during 
this period; other events, some of them political, were profoundly affecting the 
current of human activity; prices, which had been falling from the decline of the 
production of silver in Mexico, began to rise with the discovery and production of 
gold in California. This was t he beginning of an era in the rise of prices and of 
material prosperity unexampled in the history of civilization. The vine disease in 
the south of Europe, the potato disease in Ireland, the revolution in Germany, all 
occurring just as steamships began to carry immigrants, stimulated the immigration 
of working people as never before. 

All these influences produced a deep and lasting effect on the theories and practice 
of education. The ‘old education,” as it was called, did not supply the new 
wants. There was aloud and discordant demand for something else. The many 
agreed only in this, that less Latin and Greek (which had before been considered 
the corner stone and substance of a liberal education) be taught and in their place 
more science; or at least that, whatever place the old college curriculum might have 
in the future, new systems of education were required in this new development of 
civilization. 

For example, great railroads were being surveyed and built; yet, aside from the 
national military school at West Point and personal instruction at places scattered 
here and there, there was but one engineering school in the United States previous 
to 1840.2. So itis not wonderful that the matter of training in the sciences, pure 
and applied, was discussed when engineers were wanted and our factories, iron 
works, and other industries were asking for chemists. The old education was not 
sufficient for the new uses, but what the new education was to be and what were to 
be its schools no one seemed to know. 

This discussion, along with that of elective studies instead of a rigid curriculum, 
went on in all the colleges and universities in the land. The University of Virginia 


Ss 


1[A fabulous account of telescopic information regarding the moon, published in 
the New York Sun, in which the writer went so far as to predict that we should 
soon be able to study the entomology of that satellite. Many persons believed this 
marvelous story.—ED. ] 

*Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, N. Y. 


94 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


already had elective courses. All tried in some way to expand in the direction of 
the physical sciences. 

The agitation for education in sciences began earlier, but the profoundest meve- 
ment in the colleges took place between 1840 and 1850. Yale College then established 
its scientific and agricultural department, more agricultural than elsewhere because 
of the personal bent of Prof. John P. Nerton, who was really the father of that 
departmentin Yale. Harvard started its scientific department at.the same time—the 
Lawrence Scientific School—but the Lawrences, who gave the endowment of $40,000: 
to start it with, being prominently engaged in manufacturing, chemistry applied in 
the direction of the arts rather than in agriculture became there more prominent. 
While these old and reputable universities added scientific departments, others: 
modified the eurriculum in their literary courses to embrace more science. So pro- 
found was this movement that some very respectable institutions whose endowment 
did not permit of extensive expansion seriously considered the advisability of ehang- 
ing their plans and becoming essentially schools of science rather than of literature. 

Prominent among those educators who agitated this question was Francis Wayland, 
then president of Brown University. Liberally educated, first at Union College, 
under the administration of the eminent Dr. Nott, then studying and graduating 
dector of medicine, later a Baptist clergyman, he became eminent as a. Baptist theo- 
logian, as a teacher, as a professor of moral science, but more so as a teacher and 
writer on educational matters.. He was president of Brown University from 1827 to 
1855, and between 1840 and 1855, the period I am more especially discussing, he teok 
a more prominent part in the discussion of the new needs in education than any 
other college president of the country. 

As early as 1842 he published a little beok entitled Thowght on the Present 
Collegiate System of the United States, in which he argues earnestly in faver of the 
intreduction of new subjects into the college curriculum, much more attention to the 
sciences, and the adeption of a system of elective studies. 

In A Sketch of the History and the Present Organization of Brown University, 
published by the exeewtive board, Providence, 1861, we find that Wayland had come 
in as president in the college in the year 1826-27; that ‘‘his presidency was marked 
by greater changes and more numerous improvements than had been effected by 
either of his predecessors;”” that a science hall and a museum of geology had been 
added in 1840; that the college was poor and not self-supporting, and that, ‘‘despair- 
ing of improvement so long as the existing system was perpetuated, Dr. Wayland in. 
1849 resigned his presidency ;” that he, however, consented to reconsider his purpose,. 
and the corporation falling in with him, ‘‘it was resolved to attempt to raise a fund 
for the purpose of realizing his theory of education; $125,600 was subseribed and 
what was called the new system was commenced.” Its main features were a provi- 
sion ‘‘for such new courses in science as the practical spirit of the age demanded, 
etc.” The four-years’ course was abolished, a three-years’ course established, and 
several kinds of degrees conferred. This ran from 1850 to 1855; then Dr. Wayland, 
“having inangurated his cherished plan,” resigned, and Dr. Sears was put in his 
place. Dr. Sears already had fame as a theologian, and soon under him the four- 
years’ course was reestablished, leading to the degree of A. B. 

Going along with these changes in collegiate instruction there was much clamor 
for purely technical schools of special kinds. In no direction was this mere marked 
than in agriculture. This became the field of work for enthusiasts of various grades 
and a bewildering number of schemes was propesed. A few private schools were 
started, but the loudest clamor was for State agricultural colleges. Many were 
planned, a few were chartered, and three or four actually opened before 1862. 

These carly agricultural colleges wero certainly not at first a success. Some were 
total failures (as in New York), others hardly a success (as in Michigan and Penn- 
sylvania). Why this was so was a matter of dispute. It is certain that they were 
poor in means, and to this cause many attributed the poverty of their results. 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 95 


We ought here to say that previous to 1850 numerous private agricultural schools 
of a grade lower than colleges had been established in the United States and many 
were for a time reasonably successful. Such, for instance, was Dr. Gold’s, in West 
Cornwall, Conn. 

Not only were a few agricultural schools started, but also other schools in which 
the sciences were to bo a leading feature. 

Many prominent educators, however, came to think that their failure was because 
their aim was too narrow; that it was too early in this country for a narrow insti- 
tution, supplying but a single want, to be successful; that scientific and practical 
institutions should be wider and with wider aims, inciting to higher culture and laying 
a more solid foundation; in short, that schools of science rather than trade schools 
were needed. Of colleges of the old-fashioned sort there were already enough and 
more than enough. The direction of their studies and system of instruction had 
been developed by centuries of experience which must not be rudely throwm aside. 
On the other hand, schools of science were too new and too few to show what was 
the best curriculum and what should be the details; consequently there was 1 wide 
difference of opinion as to how they might be best conducted. It was there‘ore but 
natural that practical success should come slowly and total failures be common. 

Such was the condition of educational affairs when the Morrill act was discussed 
and passed. This wisely left the details to be developed in the respective schools. 
With a sagacity greater than that of most “educators” before and since. Mr. Morrill 
saw that schools grow rather than are made, and he therefore only indicated the 
general direction in which they should grow; that is, they were to be schools of 
seience rather than schools of literature—institutions where the sciences and their 
application in agriculture and the arts were to be studied and cherished as the lead- 
ing objects. 

On December 14, 1857, Justin 8. Morrill, then a member of the House 
of Representatives, and now a venerable Senator, from the State of 
Vermont, introduced a bill into the lewer House authorizing the 
establishment of industrial colleges in every State, and granting for 
their maintenance 20,000 acres of the publie land for each member of 
Congress. This bill was referred to the Committee on Public Lands, 
who brought in an adverse report April 15,1858. Nevertheless, in the 
following session of Congress the bill passed both Houses, but was 
vetoed by President Buchanan. 

In December, 1861, Mr. Morrill introduced in the House of Repre- 
sentatives his amended bill, which bestowed 30,000' acres of land for 
each member of Congress upon the several States for the establishment 
of colleges “to teach such branches of learning as are related to agri- 
culture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and 
practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and 
professions in life,” and May 2, 1862, Benjamin Wade, of Ohio, intro- 
duced a similar bill in the Senate. On May 29 the bill was reported 
adversely in the House by the Committee on Public Lands, but was 
passed by the Senate June 10, and nine days later by the House. 
President Lincoln made the bill a law by affixing his signature July 
2, 1862, the very day when McClellan’s army began its retreat from the 
Peninsula after the bleody battie of Malvern Hill. Amid the national 


'The amount of land actually allotted the several States was partly determined 


by the value of the land selected, 


96 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


gloom which succeeded the failure of the Union’s greatest army to take 
the capital of the Confederacy, few paid any attention to the gift of 
over 11,000,000 acres to promote the arts and industries of peace. It 
is a Significant fact that in the amended bill it was provided that every 
institution receiving the benefits of the land grant should provide for 
the military training of its students. 

As it was anticipated that the land grant would furnish a fund only 
sufficient for the partial support of such colleges as the several States 
ought to maintain for the benefit of the “industrial classes,” the act 
provides that ‘no portion of said fund, nor the interest thereon, shall 
be applied, directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preserva- 
tion, or repair of any building or buildings.” Ten per cent of the fund 
might, however, be expended “for the purchase of lands for sites or 
experimental farms.” ‘The Federal Government,” says Dr. Blackmar, 
in his History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education, ‘“‘intended 
the grant should form a nucleus in each of the several States around 
which buildings, libraries, laboratories, workshops, gymnasiums, mili- 
tary halls, and other educational appliances should be grouped by 
means of public munificence and State bounty. It was to prove a 
stimulus to the generosity of the people and the liberality of the States. 
To this test the people, through private gifts and municipal and State 
governments, have responded, with few exceptions, in a liberal way.” 

The shares of the several States under the land-grant act of 1862 
ranged from 24,000 acres for Alabama to 990,000 acres for New York. 
The fund arising from the sale of the lands was not, however, pro- 
portionate in all cases to the number of acres received by the State. 
Many States sought to establish colleges very soon after the passage 
of the act, and in other States where the land grant was given to exist- 
ing institutions the boards of management foolishly endeavored to 
convert the gift into cash at once. At the same time the homestead act, 
by enabling thousands of settlers to obtain land free of cost, and the 
extensive gifts of land to aid railroads, tended to depress the price of 
public lands offered for sale. The general result was that many States 
received small advantages from the land grant, the income from which 
in some cases was not sufficient to properly maintain even a single 
department of a college. Ina few States, like New York and Mich- 
igan, where the number of acres received was large and the sale-of the 
na, was skillfully made, large funds were obtained and strong institu- 
tions were established. The total fund received from this land grant 
amounts to about $9,500,000, aud abous 1,200,000 acres still remain 
to be sold. The twenty-five years succeeding the passage of the act 
was necessarily a period of organization and of discussion regarding 
the character of the institutions which would fulfill the objects of the 
act and meet the needs of the industrial classes in the respective com-_ 
munities. The language of the act is broad and easily admits of 
widely diverse interpretation. It was not the intention to establish 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. UT 


agricultural colleges only, but rather institutions for “the liberal and 
practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and 
professions in life.” Whether a farmer’s or mechanic’s boy wished to 
become a doctor, machinist, or farmer, he was to have such instruction 
as he needed in the land-grant college. At the same time, in the agi- 
tation which preceded the introduction of the bill, in the speeches 
made in its favor, as well as in the act itself, special emphasis was laid 
upon agricultural education. The colleges to be founded under this 
act were in the minds of many to be to the profession of agriculture 
what West Point is to the profession of war. Unfortunately, the desig- 
nation “agricultural colleges” was inserted in the title of the bill by 
the engrossing clerk and quickly passed into current use. In this way 
the real import of the act was obscured in the minds of the people, and 
the difficulties attending the proper administration of the fund were 
greatly increased. 

It is also very important to remember in this connection that the 
definitions of the terms “liberal education,” ‘practical education,” 
“professions,” as employed in the United States in 1862, were very 
different from those given to the same expressions to-day. <A “liberal 
education” was then, in the popular mind, a medieval classical educa- 
tion; a “practical education” was one which fitted a man to earn his 
livelihood in any honest calling, and the * professions” were medicine, 
theology, and law. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were “ practical” 
studies; Latin and Greek were “liberal” studies. Technical and 
scientific schools as we now know them were comparatively few and 
weak, and the period had not yet come when the ordinary education of 
the schools was not a passport to remunerative employment. It may be 
safely said that in 1862 an industrious boy of average common sense 
was sure of good wages if he could only get a common-school educa- 
tion. There is little wonder, then, that in carrying out the provisions 
of this act many of the States did little more than graft certain indus- 
trial features on new or old institutions which in general were like all 
the other institutions for higher education existing in the United States. 
Moreover, it could be fairly claimed that all institutions which made it 


- easier for members of the industrial classes to obtain an education of 


any sort acted within the provisions of the Morrill act. But the land- 
graut colleges did far more than this. Almost all of them made more 
or less earnest efforts to secure agricultural students, and to provide at 
least a small amount of training in agricultural science. The farmers 
were not prepared to respond to these efforts. Many did not think 
there was or could be any science of agriculture worth learning. In 
the newer States the lands were so fertile and so cheap that farmers 
were highly prosperous under the most careless methods of agriculture. 
Moreover, when the immense volume of foreign immigration and the 
wonderful development of thousands of manufacturing and other 
industries in the United States since the civil war are considered, it 


a oa ——A 


98 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


will not seem strange that the American farmer’s boy of the period 
between 1862 and 1887 was not willing to stay on the farm, but sought 
the avenues leading to more rapid accumulation of wealth. It is easy 
to say now that the land-grant colleges ought to have resisted this 
tendency and held out larger inducements to pursue teehnical courses 
in agriculture; but when imstitutions deriving a large part of their 
support from the publie purse were beset by the very class for which 
they were established with demands for a general education, and when 
there was no consensus among professional educators as to what should 
be included in agricultural courses, it could hardly be expected that 
the schools would refuse compliance with such requests. On the other 
hand, these colleges did much to inculcate a broader view of what con- 
stitutes a liberal education, and undertook much pioneer and experi- 
mental work in the development of technical courses suited to the 
needs of American farmers and mechanics. Even those which may 
seem to have done very little to directly benefit agriculture did in some 
cases the most valuable kind of work in preparing teachers and seien- 
tists who are now in the front ranks of those engaged in the work of 
technical instruction and in scientific and practical investigations 
in the agricultural schools and experiment stations throughout the 
country. 

During this period clearer conceptions of what is desirable in courses 
of instruction in the sciences and arts, including agriculture, were being 
formed in the minds of educators and the public. Great changes and 
developments were taking place in all institutions of learning. The 
system of elective studies was steadily making its way and opening 
up wider opportunities for satisfying the demands of individuality in 
teacher and learner. Original research, which was all the while grow- 
ing in importance and securing more brilliant and useful results in the 
Old World, began to assert its claims in the United States. Private 
benevolence was beginning to provide funds for the maintenance of such 
research in this country, and the people were gradually awaking to the 
necessity of promoting the interests of great industries by extending 
governmental aid to inquiries carried on in their behalf. Agriculture 
began to feel the influence of this movement. Experimental inquiries 
in field and laboratory were begun here and there, and very soon the 
regularly organized experiment station, after the German pattern, made 
its appearance in this country. Before proceeding to give a brief 
sketch of the history of the experiment stations let us consider for a 
moment the general status of the land-grant colleges just prior to the 
establishment of experiment stations under the act of Congress of 
March 2,1887. The report of the United States Bureau of Education 
for 1886-87 contains the following general statements regarding these 
institutions: 

The number of institutions in the United States sharing in the benefit of the land 
grant of 1862 is forty-eight. 

In thirteen States the grant was made over to universities or colleges already exist- 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 99 


ing, and has served to establish or augment the funds of courses, departments, or 
schoolsof applied science inthe same, In the twenty-five remaining States the fund 
has served as the chief source of endowment for new institutions, or as the nucleus 
around which have collected additional funds, in several cases far exceeding the 
amount derived from the national grant. In six States the grant has been divided. 
In Georgia it has been applied to the endowment of six colleges of agriculture, affili- 
ated to the State University; in Massachusetts separate colleges, one of agriculture, 
the other of the mechanic arts, have been the recipients;.in Missouri a portion of 
the grant has been applied to the endowment of an ‘agricultural and mechanical 
college,” and the rest to the endowment of a ‘‘school of mines and metallurgy,” 
both under the auspices of the University of Missouri; in Mississippi, South Caro- 
lina, and Virginia the fund has been divided between institutions for white and 
colored students, respectively. 

Certain of the schools have developed particularly in the direction of the me- 
chanical arts; others are agricultural colleges, pure and simple; a few combine 
both departments, with large provision for theoretic instruction, while some differ 
in no essential particular from the ordinary classical college. 


ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT 
OF AGRICULTURE. 


While the States had been active in establishing agencies for aiding 
the farmer in acquiring a better knowledge of his art and in improving 
its practice, the National Government had not neglected to provide a 
central bureau for doing its part in similar work. 

The establishment of a national board of agriculture was one of the 
measures which President Washington strongly urged upon the atten- 
tion of Congress. The propriety of giving national aid to agriculture 
was early considered by committees of both Houses of Congress, but 
the indifference of the farmers and constitutional objections prevented 
any legislative action. During the Administration of John Quincy 
Adams the consuls in various parts of the world were instructed to 
send to the Department of State rare seeds and plants for distribu- 
tion, and about the same time a botanical garden was established at 
Washington. These measures proved to be the germs from which has 
grown the United States Department of Agriculture. When our Goy- 
ernment was first organized, after the adoption of the Federal Consti- 
tution, the principal charge of the issuing of patents was given to the 
Department of State, and when seeds and plants were received from 
consuls they were distributed through the Patent Office. Thus it came 
to pass that when, on the 4th of July, 1856, the Patent Office was made 
a separate bureau, and Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, of Connecticut, was 
appointed as Commissioner of Patents, he considered it within the 
proper scope of his office to help the farmers of the country by distrib- 
uting seeds and plants. Mr. Ellsworth had been a practical farmer in 
Connecticut, and, having traveled. far to the West as Indian Commis- 
sioner, had been greatly impressed by the fertility of the vast prairies 
and was deeply interested in projects for the opening of these lands 
to settlement. He also realized the importance of the invention of 
improved agricultural implements, which were then beginning to attract 


100 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


public attention, and believed that great benefit might result from the 
establishment of a regular system for the selection and distribution of 
grains and seeds of the choicest varieties for agricuitural purposes. 
So earnest was he in this matter that, without legal authorization and 
outside of office hours, he secured free gifts of seeds and plants, which 
he afterwards distributed to farmers -in various sections of the country, 
with the help of friendly members of Congress, who lent their franks 
for this purpose. Beginning with his first annual report, dated Janu- 
ary 1, 1838, he strongly urged an appropriation to continue and enlarge 
this work, and in the closing hours of the Twenty-fifth Congress 
secured the passage of an act (March 3, 1839) appropriating $1,000, ““to 
be taken from the Patent Office fund, for the purpose of collecting and 
distributing seeds, prosecuting agricultural investigations, and pro- 
curing agricultural statistics.” From that time up to 1854 seeds were 
distributed and agricultural statistics were compiled with the aid of 
small appropriations from the Patent Office fund, except in 1840, 1841, 
and 1846, when Congress failed to make any appropriation for this 
purpose. In 1854 the policy of appropriating money from the Patent 
Office fund was abandoned, and in the following year the whole amount 
($39,000) drawn from that fund in the interest of agriculture was reim- 
bursed, and thereafter the appropriations for agriculture were drawn 
directly from the Treasury. The same year the annual appropriation 
for agriculture was increased to $35,000, and has never since been less 
than that sum. A special agent was now employed “to investigate 
and report upon the habits of insects injurious and beneficial to vege- 
tation, especially those infesting the cotton plant.” In 1850 an arrange- 
ment was made with the Smithsonian Institution for procuring and 
publishing meteorological statistics. A chemist and botanist were also 
employed, and a propagating garden was begun. The first annual 
report of Commissioner David P. Holloway, of Indiana, is worthy of 
notice as the last and most complete agricultural manual issued by the 
Patent Office, and as containing a bold and able plea for the creation 
‘of a Department of the Productive Arts, to care for all the industrial 
interests of the country, but especially for agriculture.” Congress 
adopted a portion of the Commissioner’s plan, and passed a bill estab- 
lishing a Department of Agriculture. This act became a law by the 
approval of President Lincoln on the 15th of May, 1862, and on the 
Ist of July of the same year the new Department was formally organ- 
ized in the rooms of the Patent Office previously occupied by the 
agricultural division of that Office. Though by the terms of the 
act an independent departinent of the Government was established, 
its chief officer was styled Commissioner of Agriculture and was not a 
member of the President’s Cabinet. The duties of the Department as 
defined in this act are, “To acquire and diffuse among the people of. 
the United States useful information on subjects connected with agri- 
culture in the most general aud comprehensive sense of that word, and 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 101 


to procure, propagate, and distribute among the people new and valu- 
able seeds and plants.” Hon. Isaac Newton, of Pennsylvania, who 
had been, since early in 1861, the superintendent of the agricultural 
division of the Patent Office, was appointed the first Commissioner 
of Agriculture. Mr. Newton had been a practical and progressive 
farmer, was one of the first and most active members of the State 
Agricultural Society of Pennsylvania, and had for years urged upon 
Congress the importance of establishing such a department as that 
over which he was now called to preside. 

Upon assuming the duties of his office he at once proceeded to organize the Depart- 
ment in accordance with the liberal spirit of the act creating it. * * * The 
clerical force of the former agricultural division was increased; a chemist was 
engaged and a laboratory established; a skilled horticulturist was placed in charge 
of the propagating or experimental garden; greater activity in the collection and 
dissemination of current agricultural facts was inaugurated, and a larger quantity 
of seeds and cuttings was distributed. * * * Astatistical branch was organized 
early in 1863, and to it was committed the collection and analysis of all statistics. 
Lewis Bollman, of Indiana, was appointed statistician. To ascertain, at the earliest 
practical period, the condition of the crops, their yield, the prices obtained for them, 
and other facts connected with current agricultural operations, the Commissioner 
issued during 1863 periodical circulars to farmers in every county of the loyal 
States. The results thus obtained were given to the public through the medium of 
monthly reports, which have been continued to the present time, with such modifica- 
tions of their original features as time and experience have seemed to render neces- 
sary. The first monthly report was issued July 10, 1863. The publication in the 
monthly reports of monthly and bimonthly meteorological tables furnished by the 
Smithsonian Institution was commenced at thesame time. These tables were repro- 
duced in the ensuing annual report. Up to 1872 the same arrangement cdncerniug 
these tables continued in force, when their further publication was suspended. 

The employment of a skillful gardener was one of the most auspicious incidents of 
the first year of Mr. Newton’s administration. He was fortunate in procuring the 
services of William Saunders, who has ever since given to the important duties 
assigned to him an intelligent and conscientious devotion. 


In the second year of Mr. Newton’s administration (1863) Townend 
Glover was appointed entomologist. In 1864 the Government reserya- 
tion in the city of Washington lying between the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion and the Washington Monument, and embracing 35 acres, was 
assigned to the Department of Agriculture. For several years tliis, 
land was chiefly used as an experimental farm. The main building now 
occupied by the Department was erected on this farm, being completed 
in 1868, At that time the grounds were converted into a landseape 
garden, comprising a collection of hardy trees and shrubs arranged in 
their natural orders. 

As the progress of agricultural science demanded new divisions of 
the work and the means at the disposal of the Department enabled it 
to widen the range of its efforts, one scientific branch after another was 
added. In 1884 the Bureau of Animal Industry was established to 
investigate and report upon the diseases of domestic animals, especially 
pleuropneumonia, and to devise measures for improving the animal 
industries of the country. The Bureau has siuce been charged with 


102 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the inspection of import and export animals and of live stoek and their 
products slaughtered for food consumption. On the 11th of February, 
1889, President Cleveland approved the act of Congress to make the 
Department of Agriculture an Executive Department, and nominated 
Norman J. Colman, of Missouri, the last Commissioner of Agriculture, 
to be the first Secretary of Agriculture. With the change of Adminis- 
tration, on March 4 of the same year, Jeremiah M. Rusk, of Wisconsin, 
was appointed Secretary of Agriculture by President Harrison, and 
Edwin Willits, president of the Michigan Agricultural College and 
director of the experiment station connected with that institution, 
was appointed Assistant Secretary. During their administration the 
Department was further developed by the addition of the Weather 
Bureau, which had been a branch of the Signal Service of the Army, 
and was, under act of Congress, transferred, on July 1, 1891, to this 
Department. | | 

As at present reorganized by Secretaries Rusk and Morton, the 
Department of Agriculture has been divided into two grand divisions. 
One division embraces all branches of the Department which are more 
particularly charged with administrative and executive functions, and 
which, for that reason, are conducted under the personal supervision 
of the Secretary. The other division includes those branches which 
are chiefly engaged in investigations in agricultural science, and which 
are in inmediate charge of the Assistant Secretary. Under the present 
organization, the Secretary supervises the Weather Bureau, Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Divisions of Statistics, Forestry, Records and Kdit- 
ing, Accounts, Seeds, Garden and Grounds, Road Inquiry, and the 
Library. The Assistant Secretary supervises the Office of iuxperiment 
Stations, the Divisions of Chemistry, Entomology, Ornithology and 
Mammalogy, Botany, Pomology, Vegetable Pathology, Microscopy, 
Agricultural Soils, Irrigation, Fiber Investigations, and the Museum. 
The duties of the several branches of the Department are briefly 
described in the Appendix. While the administrative and executive 
functions of the Department have been greatly enlarged by recent leg- 
islation, the scientific and practical investigations have been pursued 
with increasing activity, and the results of its work are more widely 
distributed and more highly appreciated than ever before. The growth 
of the Department is strikingly illustrated in the rapid increase in 
the amount of information which it has disseminated during the past 
five years. In 1889 the Department issued 78 publications, in editions 
ageregating 526,537 copies. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1894, 205 publications passed through the Division of Records and 
Editing, all but 6 of which directly issued from this Department. The 
editions of these publications aggregated 3,169,310 copies. 

That this Department has been a mighty factor in the education of » 
the farmers of this country probably no one will deny. . For our purpose, 


vee EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 103 


however, it is only necessary to observe here that the Department has 
developed very strongly in the direction of original research in behalf 
of agriculture. In considering the history of the experiment stations 
in the States it should never be forgotten that the Department has for 
many years had within itself what is practically a great experiment 
station, and that it is a very important feature in the great system of 
experimental research in agriculture which has been established in this 
country, very largely with the aid of funds drawn from the National 
Treasury. 


THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 


We have already seen how the idea that experiments with a view to 
improving agricultural practice should be carried on, along with instruc- 
tion in agriculture, had been more or less prominent in the minds of 
leaders in agricultural progress in this country for many years. At 
first it was thought that all that was necessary for this purpose was to 
establish experimental! farms on which new varieties of plants or new 
processes of culture of crops could be tested, or practical experiments 
in the feeding or breeding of animals could be conducted. Before the 
middle of this century, however, the investigations of such chemists 
as Liebig, in Germany, and Boussingault, in France, had shown that 
science could be made useful to agriculture as well as to other arts. 
Indeed, Liebig’s theory of fertilizers aroused extravagant expectations 
in the popular mind, and it was hoped that chemical analysis of soil 
and plant would be an infallible guide to show what manuring of the 
crop would produce the most abundant harvests. In the period between 
1840 and 1850 Liebig’s Familiar Letters on Chemistry were printed in 
cheap form and widely read in this country. In 1843 Lawes and Gil- 
bert began, at Rothamsted, England, that remarkable series of field 
and laboratory experiments which has been continued under the same 
management for half a century. 

“The beginning of the experiment station proper, the organization 
of scientific research with the aid of Government ‘as a necessary and 
permanent branch of agricultural business,’” came in 1851, when a 
“company of Saxon farmers joined themselves together in the little 
German village of Moeckern, near the city and under the influence of 
the University of Leipsic, called a chemist to their aid, and with later 
help from Government, organized the first agricultural experiment 
station.” As soon as agricultural colleges were established in this 
country experimental investigations in field and laboratory were under- 
taken, but for anumber of years these were carried on with small means 
and for the most part by the voluntary labor of professors ontside of 
their regular duties as instructors. 

The act to establish and endow an agricultural college passed by the 
legislature of Maryland in 1856 contains the following section: 


Sec. 6. It shall be the duty of the said board of trustees to order and direct to be 
made and instituted on said model farm, annually, a series of experiments upon the 


104 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


cultivation of cereal and other plants adapted to the latitude and climate of the 
State of Maryland, and cause to be carefully noticed upon the records of said insti- 
tution the character of said experiments, the kind of soil upon which they were 
undertaken, the system of cultivation adopted, the state of the atmosphere, and all 
other particulars which may be necessary to a fair and complete understanding of 
the result of said experiments. 

The records of the college show that in 1858, immediately after the 
college was located, and before building began, field experiments with 
corn, oats, and potatoes, ‘‘to test the relative value of the different 
manures offered for sale in the cities of Baltimore and Washington,” 
were commenced on the college farm. This work continued for two or 
three years, but was interrupted by the financial distress which soon 
affected the whole country and by the disturbed political condition of 
the State and nation. y 

In 1870 the president and fellows of Harvard College began to organ- 
ize the school of agriculture and horticulture which had been provided 
for in the will of Mr. Benjamin Bussey, of Roxbury, Mass. This inter- 
esting document was signed July 30,1835, and was proved soon after 
the death of the testator, in 1842. It bequeathed half of the income of 
about $360,000 and 200 acres of land in Roxbury to the president and 
fellows of Harvard College, on condition that they establish on the 
farm ‘‘a course of instruction in practical agriculture, in useful and 
ornamental gardening, in botany, and in such other branches of natural 
science as may tend to promote a knowledge of practical agriculture 
and the various arts subservient thereto.” Owing to other provisions 
of the will, it was not deemed advisable to begin the formation of the 
Bussey institution earlier than 1870. In the same year the trustees of 
the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture granted to the 
corporation of Harvard College a considerable sum “ for the support of 
a laboratory and for experiments in agricultural chemistry, to be con- 
ducted on the Bussey estate.” The laboratory of the new institution 
was not ready for occupation until the last week in 1871. As soon as 
it was completed, however, agricultural researches were begun by F. 
H. Storer, the professor of agricultural chemistry, and his assistants. 
The first report of this work was presented to a committee of the 
trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, 
December 3, 1871. The experiments consisted of field tests of fertilizers 
upon the farm of the institution, and chemical analyses of commercial 
fertilizers. Other interesting and valuable work was done in the next 
few years, but the great fire in Boston in 1872 and the commercial 
crisis of 1873 combined to cripple the institution financially, and it has 
since been able to make comparatively few original investigations. 

When the College of Agriculture of the University of California was 
organized it was understood that a part of its work would consist of 
experimental inquiries. In 1870 Prof. E. 8. Carr, in an address at the 
State Fair, made the following specific allusion: “ The University pro- 
poses to furnish the facilities for all needful experiments; to be the 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 105 


station where tests can be made of whatever claims attention.” A later 
report contains the following statements regarding the development of 
experimental inquiries in agriculture at the University: 


Ex-President Gilman, in his report dated December 1, 1873, alludes to progress in 
this work, as follows: 

*'Phe University domain is being developed with a view to illustrate the capability 
of the State for special cultures, whether of forests, fruits, or field crops, and the 
most economical methods of production, It will be the station where new plants 
and processes will be tested and the results made known tothe public. * * * 
A fine estate has been provided, well adapted to the establishment of an experiment 
station in agriculture, a botanic garden, an arboretum, etc.” 

As is usual in the history of new undertakings, progress at first was slow and 
hesitating. The report for the years 1873-1875, by R. E. C. Stearns, at that time 
secretary of the board of regents, shows that 40 acres were prepared for planting 
with a view to agricultural experiments in 1874, and that during the winter follow- 
ing there were planted 584 named varieties of tree fruits, 73 of grapevines, aud 95 
of various small fruits. * * * 

In 1874 buildings were erected on the grounds set apart for agricultural experi- 
ments, viz: A barn 36 by 44 feet; a tool house 64 by 12 feet; two propagating 
houses, one 64 by 15 feet, the other 30 by 24 feet; a house for hatching fish ezgs; 
and in addition to these larger structures a complement of sheds and cutbuildings, 
hot beds, and cold frames were provided. Propagation of shrubs and trees from seed 
obtained abroad, and especially from other arid regions of the world, was first 
undertaken. 

In 1874 E. W. Hilgard was chosen professor of agriculture. [Prof. Hilgard had 
previously been engaged for a number of years in conducting an agricultural and 
geological survey in Mississippi, in connection with which chemical examinations 
of soils, field experiments, and other agricultural investigations had been inciden- 
tally carried on in accordance with a plan inaugurated as early as 1857 and after- 
wards made the basis for the highly successful work of the California Experiment 
Station under his direction.] In the winter of 1875-76 the first field experiments 
were undertaken to determine the effects of deep culture and of the application of 
various fertilizers. 

In 1875 the laboratory branch of the experiment station work was inaugurated, 
the regents making provision for the expenses thereof for the first two years; and 
at the end of this time the legislature opened the way for the continuation and 
extension of the work by liberal special appropriations from year to year. 


After the fund which had been established by the sale of the land 
scrip donated to Connecticut under the ach of Congress of July 2, 1862, 
had been given to the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College in 
1863, a professor of agriculture was added to the working force of that 
institution. Samuel W. Johnson, M. A., the successor of Professor 
Norton as professor of theoretical and agricultural chemistry, and 
William H. Brewer, Ph. D., the professor of agriculture, have for 
many years taken an active ites est in all work for the promotion of 
agricultural science in Connecticut and elsewhere in the United States. 
Under their direction experimental work for the benefit of agriculture 
was carried on to a limited extent at New Haven more than twenty-five 

years ago, and it is doubtless safe to say that “through the influence 
of the professors and pupils trained in this school, more than to any 
other single cause, is due the recognition of the importance of the 

1 <A 94-——4* 


106 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


establishment of agricultural experiment stations, first in Connecticut 
and subsequently throughout the whole country.” Prof. W.O. Atwater, 
the first director of the first regularly organized experiment station in 
this country, received a part of his training in this school. 

The reports of the successful and beneficial work done in the Euro- 
pean experiment stations excited more and more attention on this side 
of the Atlantic, and the more advanced leaders in agricultural progress 
in this country began to ask for the establishment of similar institu- 
tions in the United States. In 1872, at a convention of representatives 
of agricultural colleges held in Washington in response to a call issued 
by the United States Commissioner of Agriculture, the question of the 
establishment of experiment stations was discussed, and the report of a 
cominittee in favor of such institutions was adopted by the convention. 
On the 17th of December, 1873, at the winter meeting of the State 
board of agriculture, at Meriden, Conn., Professor Johnson, of the 
Sheffield Scientific School, and Professor Atwater, of Wesleyan Univer- 
sity, urged the establishment of an agricultural experiment station 
in that State after the European pattern. A committee was appointed 
to consider the expediency of such a movement, and reported two days 
later that it was their “unanimous opinion that the State of Connecti- 
cut ought to have an experiment station as good as can be found any- 
where, and that the legislature of the State ought to furnish the means 
for its establishment.” A permanent committee was then appointed by 
the board to bring this matter to the attention of the public and the 
legislature. This committee held meetings in different parts of the 
State, and the following winter secured the introduction of a bill for 
an experiment station, which, however, was laid over until the next 
session of the legislature. Another year of agitation of the matter 
ensued. The project had many warm and enthusiastic friends, but, as 
might have been expected, the great mass of the farmers took little 
interest in the enterprise. When it had become apparent that it could 
not succeed, Mr. Orange Judd, the editor and proprietor of the Ameri- 
can Agriculturist, offered on his own part $1,000 to begin the under- 
taking, and on the part of the trustees of Wesleyan University, at 
Middletown, the free use of the chemical laboratory in the Orange Judd 
Hall of Natural Science. : 

These offers were made on condition that the legislature should 
appropriate $2,800 per annum for two years for the work of the station 
It was thought that if by these means the work of agricultural experi- 
mentation could actually be begun, the usefulness of the enterprise 
would be so clearly demonstrated that it would speedily receive more 
generous and permanent support. An act making the appropriation 
thus proposed was unanimously passed, and approved July 2, 1875. 
arly in October of the same year a chemist was on the ground, and as 
soon as practicable two assistants were secured. Professor Atwater 
was made director, and thus the first agricultural experiment station 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE 107 


in America was an accomplished fact. Notwithstanding the severe 
financial depression of 1877, which caused serious reduction in old 
appropriations and utter refusal of new ones by the legislature of that 
year, a bill prepared by the director of the station and making a per- 
manent annual appropriation of $5,000 “to promote agriculture by 
seientific investigation and experiment” was passed unanimously. <At 
the end of the two years provided for in the original bill the station 
was reorganized under the direct control of the State and permanently 
located in New Haven where it has since been in successful operation, 
until 1882 in the chemical laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School, 
and thereafter in buildings and on grounds provided by the State in 
the suburbs of the city. 

The success which attended this first attempt to establish an organized 
experiment station in the United States was sufficient to attract the 
attention of advanced agriculturists throughout the country, and the 
example set by Connecticut was soon followed in other States. March 
12, 1877, the State of North Carolina established an agricultural 
experiment and fertilizer control station at Chapel Hill in connection 
with the State University in accordance with an act of the legislature 
creating a Department of Agriculture, Immigration, and Statisties. 
The Cornell University experiment station was organized in February, 
1879, by the faculty of agriculture of the university, as a voluntary 
organization. From that time until the passage of the act of Congress 
of March 2, 1887, the work was carried on by the different professors 
in such time as could be spared from other studies. For a part of that 
time the trustees of the university appropriated money from the uni- 
versity funds to pay for the services of an analyst and for the pur- 
chase of supplies. All the other work was done without compensation. 

The New Jersey State station at New Brunswick, N. J., was estab- 
lished March 18, 1880, by an act of the State legislature and connected 
with the scientific school of Rutgers College. 

The movement grew in favor with the people with each succeeding 
year, and in 1886 the Committee on Agriculture in reporting the Hatch 
bill to the House was able to make the following statements: 

Since 1881 the legislatures of several States have cither recognized or reorgan- 
ized the departments of agriculture in the land-grant colleges as ‘‘experiment 
stations,” thus following substantially the course adopted by New Jersey. Such 
stations have been established in Maine, Massachusetts, Ohio, Tennessee, and Wis- 
consin. In three other States (possibly more), without legislative action, the col- 
lege authorities have organized their agricultural work as experiment stations. 
This has been done in California, Missouri, and New York. But in addition to the 
twelve experiment stations specifically designated by that name a very large num- 
ber of the colleges established under the act of 1862 are doing important work of a 
precisely similar kind. Many of them began such work immediately upon their 
establishment, and have since maintained it continuously ; others haye entered upon 

it more recently. The colleges in Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, and Penn- 


sylvania are carrying on what is strictly experiment-station work as a part of their 
ordinary duty. 


108 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The convention of delegates of agricultural colleges which met at 
Washington in 1883 discussed and indorsed the project for the estab- 
lishment of stations in connection with the colleges by appropriations 
from the national Treasury, in accordance with the terms of a bill 
already introduced in the House of Representatives by C. C. Carpen- 
ter, of Iowa. Congress, however, was not yet quite ready to undertake 
so large a scientific enterprise in this direction, and the biil was not 
put upon its passage. Meanwhile the number of stations was steadily 
increasing, and the interest of practical farmers, as well as men of 
science, was more and more excited by the reports of the results of the 
experiments which the stations had completed. On July 8, 1883, a 
convention of agricultural colleges and experiment stations met at the 
Department of Agriculture at Washington, in response to a call issued 
by the Commissioner of Agriculture. Almost the first thing which this 
convention did was to pass a resolution “that the condition and prog- 
ress of American agriculture require national aid for investigation and 
experimentation in the several States and Territories; and that there- 
fore this convention approves the principle and general provisions of 
what is known as the Cullen bill of the last Congress, and urges upon 
the next Congress the passage of this ora similar act.” (The Cullen 
bill was in its general provisions similar to the bill afterwards passed 
by Congress and now popularly known as the Hatch act.) So earnest 
was the convention in this matter that it appointed a committee on 
legislation, which was very efiicient in securing the passage of the 
amended bill. 

In a later session the convention passed resolutions urging the crea- 
tion of a branch of the Department of Agriculture at Washington 
which should bea special medium of intercomimunication and exchange 
between the colleges and stations, and which should publish a periodi- 
cal bulletin of agricultural progress, containing in a popular form the 
latest results in the progress of agricultural education, investigation, 
and experimentation in this and in all other countries. Provision was 
also made fora permanent organization by the appointment of a com- 
mittee to cooperate with the United States Commissioner of Agricul- 
ture in determining the time of meeting and the business of the next 
convention, and in forming a plan for a permanent organization. 

At the next session of Congress the experiment-station enterprise 
was again called to the attention of the House of Representatives by 
the bill which was introduced by William H. Hatch, of Missouri, and 
referred to the Committee on Agriculture. This committee made a 
favorable report March 3, 1886, and nearly a year later the bill was 
passed by Congress, and was approved by President Cleveland March 
2, 1887. 

The Hatch act provides that $15,000 a year shall be given out of 
the funds proceeding from the sale of public lands to each State and 
Territory for the establishment of an agricultural experiment station, 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 109 


which must be a department of the land-grant college, except in the 
ease of those States which had established experiment stations as 
separate institutions prior to the passage of the act. 

The duties of the stations are thus defined: 

Sec. 2. That it shall be the object and duty of said experiment stations to con- 
duct original researches or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and 
animals; the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the remedies for the 
same; the chemical composition of useful plants at their different stages of growth; 
the comparative advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying series 
of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclimation; the analysis of soils 
and water; the chemical composition of manures, natural or artificial, with experi- 
ments designed to test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the 
adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the composition and digestibility 
of the different kinds of food for domestic animals; the scientific and economic 
questions involved in the production of butter and cheese; and such other researches 
or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States 
as may in each case be deemed advisable, having due regard to the varying condi- 
tions and needs of the respective States or Territories. 


In order that the funds from the national Treasury might be for the 
most part devoted to agricultural investigations, only $3,000 of the first 
year’s appropriation for each station was to be expended for buildings, 
and thereafter only $750 a year could be so expended. 

That the farmers of the country may receive prompt information 
regarding the work cf the stations, it is provided that in addition to 
“full and detailed” annual reports of their operations and expendi- 
tures, ‘‘bulletins or reports of progress shall be published at said 
stations at least once in three months, one copy of which shall be sent 
to each newspaper in the States or Territories in which they are 
respectively located, and to such individuals actually engaged in farm- 
ing as may request the same and as far as the means of the station will 
permit.” The franking privilege is also given for the station publica- 
tions. Financial and other reports of the stations are to be sent to the 
Secretaries of Agriculture and the Treasury, but no provision is made 
for auditing the accounts by officers of the United States or for any 
Supervision of their work by the Federal authorities. It is, however, 
made the duty of the Secretary of Agriculture “to furnish forms, as 
far as practicable, for the tabulation of results of investigation or 
experiments; to indicate, from time to time, such lines of inquiry as to 
him shall seem most important; and, in general, to furnish such advice 
and assistance as will best promote the purpose of this act.” In the 
appropriation act for the Department of Agriculture for the present 
fiscal year it is provided that “the Secretary of Agriculture shall 
prescribe the form of the annual financial statement required by 
section 3 of the said act of March 2, 1887; shall ascertain whether the 
expenditures under the appropriation hereby made are in accordance 
with the provisions of the said act, and shall make report thereon to 
Congress.” 


110 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 


On the 18th of Oetober, 1887, the second convention of agricultural 
colleges and experiment stations convened at Washington. A perma- 
nent organization was effected, and the association was named “The 
Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta- 
tions.” George W. Atherton, LL. D., president of the Pennsylvania 
State College, was elected president of the association. ‘This conven- 
tion was deeply interested in securing the coordination of the work of 
the several statiens, and indorsed the action of previous conventions 
in urging the establishment of a central bureau. As the result of the | 
efforts of this association, an appropriation to enable the Commissioner 
of Agriculture to earry out the provisions of section 3 of the act estab- 
lishing the stations was included in the annual appropriation bill for 
the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, 
aud the Commissioner of Agriculture instituted in October, 1888, an 
Office of Experiment Stations as a special branch of the Department of 
Agriculture. 

Prof. W. O. Atwater was appointed director of the office, and contin- 
ued in this position until July 1, 1891, when he was succeeded by Prof. 
A. W. Harris, who had been assistant director, and who resigued in 
1893 to become president of Maine State College. - 


THE SECOND MORRILL ACT. 


As the organization of the land-grant colleges proceeded and the 
system of technical education in agriculture and other industries was 
elaborated it seemed to Mr. Morrill and other friends of industrial edu- 
cation that the income derived from the land-grant funds, even when 
supplemented by liberal contributions from the States and other sources, 
was inadequate to the demands of modern collegiate instruction in such 
lines. Mr. Morrill, therefore began to formulate plans to secure addi- 
tional aid for these institutions from the national Treasury. Mean- 
while the subject of Federal aid to the common schools throughout the 
Union was agitated, mainly through the debate which went on for years 
in Congress and in the country over the propositions of Mr. Blair, of 
New Hampshire, to extend such aid on the basis of the relative illiter- 
acy in the several States. When it became evident that a general 
measure of this kind would not receive the sanction of Congress, Mr. 
Morrill introduced a bill to provide for the further endowment of the 
land-grant colleges, and this was passed and received the approval of 
President Harrison August 30, 1890. The second Morrill act provides 
that there shall be annually appropriated to each State and Territory, 
out of the funds arising from the sale ot public lands, for the more com- 
plete endowment and maintenance of colleges for the benefit of agri- 
culture and the mechanic arts established under the act of 1862, the 
sum of $15,000 for the year ending June 30, 1890, and an annual 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 111 


increase of the amount of such appropriation for ten years thereafter 
by an additional sum of $1,000 over the preceding year, and that then 
the amount shall continue at $25,000. This money can be applied “only 
to instruction in agriculture, the mechanic arts, the HNnglish language, 
and the various branches of mathematical, physical, natural, and 
economic science, with special reference to their applications in the 
industries of life, and to the facilities for such instruction.” Provision 
is made for separate institutions for white and colored students in such 
States as may desire to make such an arrangement. The Secretary of 
the Interior is charged with the administration of the law, and is given 
authority to withhold the appropriation to any State or Territory for 
cause, subject to an appeal to Congress. 


PRESENT STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND INVES- 
TIGATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 


« 


Having briefly described the origin of different agencies for the edu- 
cation of the farmer and the improvement of his art, it remains to out- 
line the system for agricultural education and research as it now exists 
in this country. In doing this it will be necessary to exclude those 
general educational agencies, such as newspapers, State and local 
societies, farmers’ institutes, and the State departments of agriculture, 
which to a greater extent than ever before are disseminating valuable 
information and stimulating or conducting inquiries for the benefit of 
agriculture. Nofurther reference seems to be needed here to the United 
States Department of Agriculture except what is said below regarding 
the Office of Experiment Stations in its relations to the agricultural 
experiment stations in the different States. 


COLLEGES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 


Under the provisions of the acts of Congress of July 2, 1862, and 
August 30, 1890, 65 institutions are in operation in the several States and 
Territories. Of these, about 60 institutions maintain courses in agricul- 
ture. In 14 States separate institutions are maintained for white and 
colored students. The organization of these institutions is so varied that 
an exact classification of them is impracticable. Ina general way, how- 
ever, they may be classified as follows: (1) Universities having colleges” 
or departments of agriculture; (2) colleges of agriculture and mechanic 
arts; (3) colleges of agriculiure; and (4) secondary schools of agricul- 
ture. In these institutions the college course in agriculture leading to 
a degree covers four or in some cases three years, and in a number 
of institutions is supplemented by post-graduate courses. Shorter 
courses of one or two years or of a few months are also provided in 
many institutions. Special coursesin dairying and in other agricultural 
industries have been recently established at a few of the colleges. 


112 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Some institutions have preparatory classes in which instruction in 
agricultural subjects is given. An attempt is being made to establish 
courses of home readings for farmers under the direction of the col- 
leges, the Pennsylvania State College being the first institution to 
introduce this feature. Ina number of States courses of lectures in 
farmers’ institutes held in different localities are given by members of 
college faculties during the winter months. 

The total number of officers in the faculties of the colleges having 
courses in agriculture in 1894 is 1,643, and the total number of students 
is 21,195, of whom 3,847 ave in the courses inagriculture. The graduates 
from the courses in agriculture in 1894 numbered 229, and the total 
number of graduates in those courses since the establishment of the 
colleges is 3,003. 

- The total revenue for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, was 
$4,458,014, from the following sources: United States—Income of land 
grant of 1862, $618,273; appropriation under act of Congress of 1890, 
$943,837; total, $1,562,110; State, $1,337,928; local communities and 
individuals, $195,914; fees, $357,759; farm produce, $114,167; miscel- 
laneous, $687,067. 

The value of additions to equipment in 1894 is estimated as follows: 
Buildings and land, $998,632; libraries, $72,874; apparatus, $229,499; 
farm implements, $26,346; live stock, $10,857; miscellaneous, $77,284; 
total, $1,415,495. . 

Owing to the complicated organization of many of these institutions 
and the fact that the students in agricultural courses are in many sub- 
jects in classes with students in other courses, and that much of the 
equipment is used in common by the students in all the courses, it is 
impracticable to show by statistics with exactness the means and facili- 
ties for strictly agricultural education. 

The following general statements regarding these institutions are 
from the report of the director of the Office of Experiment Stations 
for 1893: 

The reports received from the colleges during the past two years indicate that 
while the facilities for instruction in agricultural courses have been increased as the 
result of the act of Congress of 1890, the number of students in the regular college 
courses in agriculture still continues to be relatively small in many institutions. 
On the other hand, the short courses are increasingly popular, and wherever special 
courses, as in dairying, have been established they have been well attended. The 
success of the schools of agriculture having a curriculum of lower grade than that 
of the college, in Minnesota, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, is evidence that there 
is a demand for institutions which will receive students directly from the common 
schools and give them training in agricultural subjects along with those ordinarily 
taught in highschools. Experience in agricultural education in this country during 
the past thirty years shows that colleges of agriculture are mainly for those who 
have the means and the leisure to gain that liberal education which will fit them to 
be investigators, teachers, journalists, and managers of large agricultural enter- 
prises. Ina word, the colleges are principally useful in training the leaders in 
agricultural progress. Thisis a high duty, and its successful performance should 
entitle an institution to the gratitude andsupportof the people. But there is need 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 113 


that the masses of ouragricultural population should have more ample opportunities 
for education in agricultural lines. 

The experiment stations, through their bulletins and reports, are doing much to 
educate the adult farmer. The colleges also are doing more each year in what may 
be called university-extension work through farmers’ institutes. As the demand 
for instruction in agriculture increases the colleges will undoubtedly shape their 
courses to meet the needs of the farmers as far as this is practicable. We shall then 
have experiment stations, college courses in agriculture, schools of agriculture, 
special schools in dairying, anima] production, etc., farmers’ institutes, and home 
readings as the complete system of education for the farmer, carried on under the 
auspices of the university or college. 


AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 


Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation under the act 
of Congress of March 2, 1837, in all the States and Territories. Alaska 
is the only section of the United States which has no experiment sta- 
tion. In each of the States of Alabama, Connecticut, Massachusetts, 
New Jersey, and New York a separate station is maintained wholly or 
in part by State funds, and in Louisiana a station for sugar experi- 
ments is maintained mainly by funds contributed by sugar planters. 
In several States substations have been established. Excluding the 
branch stations, the total number of stations in the United States 
is 55. Of these 51 receive the appropriation provided for in the act 
of Congress above mentioned. The total income of the stations 
during 1894 was $996,157, of which $719,830 was received from the 
National Government, the remainder coming from State governments, 
private individuals, fees for analyses of fertilizers, sales of farm prod- 
ucts, and other sources. In addition to this, the Office of Experiment 
Stations has an appropriation of $25,000 for the current fiscal year. 
The value of additions to equipment in 1894 is estimated as follows: 
Buildings, $43,822; libraries, $9,286; apparatus, $22,711; farm imple- 
ments, $15,824; live stock, $13,373; miscellaneous, $31,382; total, 
$136,901. 

The stations employ 577 persons in the work of administration and 
inguiry. The number of officers engaged in the different lines of work 
is as follows: Directors, 67; secretaries and treasurers, 26; librarians, 8; 
clerks, 27; in charge of substations, 40; agricuiturists, 55; biologists, 
11; botanists, 36; chemists, 124; entomologists, 43; geologists, 5; hor- 
ticuiturists, 61; irrigation engineers, 7; meteorologists, 15; mycologists 
and bacteriologists, 7; physicists, 3; veterinarians, 24; dairymen, 11; 
farm foremen, 25. There are also 28 persons classified under the head 
of “miscellaneous,” including superintendents of gardens, grounds, 
aud buildings, apiarists, herdsmen, ete. 

In 1894, 54 annual reports and 401 bulletins were issued. Besides 
regular reports and bulletins, a number of the stations issue press bul- 
letins, which are widely reproduced in agricultural and county papers. 
The station bulletins are now regularly distributed to half a million 


14. YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


arsons, who are either farmers or closely identified with the agricul- 
ival industry. Moreover, accounts of station work are given and dis- 
issed in thousands of newspapers. The New York Cornell Station 
one estimated some time ago that each one of its publications directly 
‘indirectly reached more than half a million readers. Besides this, 
very large correspondence with farmers is carried on, hundreds of. 
iblic addresses are annually made by station officers before farmers’ 
eetings, and the results of station work are taught to thousands of 
udents in agricultural colleges. 

The experiment stations are conducting a wide range of scientific 
search in the laberatory and plant house and an equally large amount 
’ practical experimenting in the field, the orchard, the stable, and the 
uiry. Thirty stations are studying problems relating to meteorology 
1d climatic conditions. Forty-three stations are at work upon the 
il, investigating its geology, physics, or chemistry, or conducting 
il tests with fertilizers or in other ways. Twenty stations are study- 
g questions relating to drainage or irrigation. Thirty-nine stations 
‘e making analyses of commercial and homemade fertilizers, or are 
nducting field experiments with fertilizers. At least fifteen stations 
ther exercise a fertilizer control in their respective States or make 
1alyses on which the control is based. Forty-cight stations are study- 
g@ the more important crops, either with regard to their composition, 
itritive value, methods of manuring and cultivation, and the best 
wieties adapted to individual localities, or with reference to systems 
‘rotation. Thirty-five stations are investigating the composition of 
eding stuffs, and in some instances making digestion experiments. 
weuty-five stations are dealing with questions relating to silos and 
lage. Thirty-seven stations are conducting feeding experiments for 
ilk, beef, mutton, or pork, or are studying different methods of feed- 
@. Thirty-two stations are investigating subjects relating to dairying, 
cluding the chemistry and bacteria of milk, creaming, butter making, 
>the construction and management of creameries. Forty-five stations 
‘e studying methods of analysis and doing other chemical work. 
otanical studies occupy more or less of the attention of twenty-seven 
ations; these include investigations in systematic and physiological 
otany, with especial reference to the diseases of plants, testing of seeds 
ith reference to their vitality and purity, classification of weeds and 
ethods for their eradication. Forty-three stations work to a greater 
> less extent in horticulture, testing varieties of vegetables and 
rge and small fruits, and making studies in varietal improvement 
nd synonymy. Several stations have begun operations in forestry. 
hirty-one stations investigate injurious insects with a view to their 
striction or destruction. Sixteen stations study and treat animal 
iseases or perform such operations as dehorning of animals. At least 
sven stations are engaged in bee culture, and three in experiments 
ith poultry. 


EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE. 115 


In general the work of the agricultural experiment stations, as 
organized in this country, may be classified as follows: (1) They act as 
bureaus of information on many questions of practical interest to the 
farmers of their several localities; (2) they seek by practical tests to 
devise better methods of agricuiture and to introduce new crops and 
live stock, or to establish new agricultural industries; (3) they aid the 
farmer in his contest with insects and with diseases of his crops and 
live stock; (4) they help to defend the farmer against fraud in the sale 
of fertilizers, seeds, and feeding stuffs; (5) they investigate the opera- 
tions of nature in the air, water, soil, plants, and animals in order to 
find out the principles which can be applied to the betterment of the 
processes and products of agriculture. 


OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 


As already stated above, the Office of Experiment Stations was estab- 
lished in the United States Department of Agriculture to render such 
advice and assistance to the stations as would best promote the objects 
for which they were established. Its main business has been the exain- 
ination of the work of agricultural experiment stations in this and other 
countries and the collation and publication of data regarding experi- 
mental inquiries in agriculture for the information of station workers, 
farmers, and others interested in the progress of the science and art of 
agriculture. There are now some 3520 experiment stations in operation 
in the different countries of the world. Besides the publications which 
these stations issue, very many reports of agricultural inquiries at these 
and other institutions are published in current periodicals. As far as 
practicable this office seeks to traverse this large mass of literature and 
to cull from it such information as will enable our station workers to 
keep posted regarding the progress of agricultural science, and will 
promptly bring to our farmers the practical outcome of these investi- 
gations in the different countries. 

Up to January 1, 1895, the office had issued 135 documents, including 
5 volumes of the Experiment Station Record, 20 bulletins, and 9 Farm- 
ers’ Bulletins. 

The Experiment Station Record is issued in monthly parts, and con- 
tains abstracts of current publications of all the American stations, of 
the several divisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
and of reports of foreign investigations in agricultural science. Gen- 
eral information is also given regarding the stations and kindred insti- 
tutions in this and other countries, and suggestions regarding methods 
and lines of investigation which may usefully be followed by our sta- 
tions are made in articles by the editors and by distinguished experts 
in the different specialties at home and abroad. A detailed subject and 
author index is published with each volume. As the condensed form 
of the Record makes its language necessarily somewhat technical, it is 
distributed only to such persons and institutions as make a special 


116 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


request for it after examination of a sample copy. The fifth volume of 
the Experiment Station Record comprises 1,227 pages, and contains 
abstracts of 267 bulletins and 43 annual reports of 55 experiment sta- 


tions in the United States and 67 publications of the Department of 


Agriculture. The total number of pages in these publications is 17,161. 
There are also 227 abstracts of reports of foreign investigations. The 
total number of titles abstracted is 973, classified as follows: 
MEO ah EL oc sc pio re 46 | Seeds’. oo eens. soe ie 2 oe 16 
Su fy LL epee ae i gs aa 42 P Weeds: -o 5.0 er eae ee oe Cee 8 
REEEMOUUOGE Fone. ee. Oo A La wee 4 |) Diseases’ of ‘plants: V2.7 22 SS sbecee 66 
eee TE SOT SS Ss ok Ct 6 ‘| Entomology 2.2005 92. 0ul See eee 
CASES SE Se a he 1 | Foods and animal production ..-...- 119 
SC 36. |, Veterinary scienes. 2.22... eee 18 
RNEOE ANG ROIS. oc acre nine me 36. | Daityan eG. ). oc anc eee = 2-527 ere 
Poe ers concn ces @ 6 ews eee 72 | Agricultural engineering -....-.-.-. 18 
ELT P01 Se ne oo 155, |. Technology :4. 4224... 255). 
PAG RIGOR DULG 5: 2a ca et eee eats: bayou - O4 | Statisties 2. c\.s:-.2i2 oie a eee 69 
ROCOSUEY @ 6a 3a ne ein oa wert eee < 10 


Classified lists of titles of foreign articles not abstracted are also 
given in each number. The aggregate number of titles thus reported 
is 1,514. Special articles contributed by eminent foreign workers in 
agricultural science were translated in the office and published in the 
Record. A notable feature of the fifth volume of the Record is a review 
of recent work in dairying, prepared by Dr. E. W. Allen, assistant 
director, which serves to show how large and important a feature of 
experiment-station work investigations on dairying are. 

In connection with the exhibit of the experiment stations at the 
World’s Columbian Exposition the office prepared a Handbook of 
Experiment Station Work, which contains a résumé of the publications 
of the stations during nearly twenty years. 

The office is also engaged in the preparation of a card index of experi- 
ment-station literature, which is freely distributed to the agricultural 
colleges and experiment stations, and is sold to a limited number of sub- 
scribers, the price covering the expense of printing the cards. Other 
indexes of the literature of agricultural science are prepared in the 
office for use in its work. So far as practicable, these indexes will be 
made available to station workers and other investigators. 

Schedules for the financial reports of stations, as now required by 
Congress, are prepared in this office, and the office will also make an 
examination of the work of the stations as the basis of the report of 
the Secretary of Agriculture to Congress regarding the expenditures 
and work of the stations. 

Congress having recently given the Department an appropriation for 
investigations on the nutritive vaiue of human food, the supervision of 
this work has been assigned to this office, and the investigations will be 
carried on in cooperation with the agricultural colleges and experiment 
stations. 


— 


WHAT METEOROLOGY IS DOING FOR THE FARMER. 


By MARK W. HARRINGTON, 
Chief of Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


Karly in 1891, in view of the impending transfer of the meteorolog- 
ical work of the Government from the Signal Service to the newly cre- 
ated Weather Bureau, and without any suspicion that he would be 
called on to carry out his own suggestions, the writer published in the 
American Meteorological Journal a programme of improvements and 
expansions in the work. These were made with especial reference to 
the needs of farmers, and related to the following points: The improve- 
ment of the forecasts—their more complete distribution, especially to 
the farming communities; the general dissemination of information 
about the Weather Bureau—its objects and methods, what could or could 
not be properly expected of it; the compilation and publication of the 
climatic data of the United States, especially the data of use in the prac- 
tical pursuit or study of agriculture—permitted by the accumulation of 
twenty or twenty-five years of observations of uniform character; the 
study of the scientific theory of meteorology with especial reference to 
the improvement of its practical application. 


IMPROVEMENT OF FORECASTS. 


That there has been an improvement in the forecasts is best shown 
by the increased popular approval indicated by the comments made on 
the Bureau by the press, by office correspondence, and by the increas- 
ing list of actual services performed in the cases of great storms. This 
is the result of several changes introduced into the administration of 
the Bureau. In the first place, there were only four expert forecasters 
in the Weather Bureau at the time of the transfer (July 1,1891). There 
are now perhaps forty good ones, and of these there are from half a 
dozen to a dozen who are of very high grade. This has been accom- 
plished by putting all of certain grades of employees, and every other 
employee who wished it, through a rigid course of practice forecast work 
at the central office, by making promotions depend on competitive tests 
in forecasts, and by recognizing by promotion cases of especial success 
in this work. The last two ideas were introduced by the present Sec- 
retary of Agriculture and have had great influence in fixing attention 
on forecasting as the chief duty intrusted by law to the Weather Bureau, 
and in increasing at nearly every station in the service the watchful- 
hess and alertness of employees. Furthermore, the forecasters were 

117 


118 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


given more freedom in the verbal expression of their forecasts, thus 
releasing them from the hard and fast lines in which the former methods 
of verification had bound them, and enabling them to express their 
forecasts for the benefit of the public rather than for the benefit of 
their official records. The time predicted for has been extended, mak- 
ing it for the next day in each of the bidaily forecasts published, thus 
covering thirty-six hours instead of twenty-four. . Moreover, carefal 
and systematic studies are now pursued in the Forecast Division, the 
purpose of which is exclusively the improved usefulness of the weather 
map in weather prediction. Mechanical improvements to inérease speed 
and accuracy in making the weather maps have been adopted, and all 
new devices which promise improvement in this direction are carefully 
tested with reference to their adoption. 


THE DISTRIBUTION OF WARNINGS. 


The distribution of warnings has been improved, but there is yet 
room for enormous expansion. The problem really involved is to place 
the bidaily forecast before each citizen who wishes it, and this may 
include very great numbers who are not within timely reach of the 
daily papers. For this purpose both visible and audible signals are 
used, and bulletins are posted at public places. The chief difficulty 
lies in transmitting the forecasts to isolated points in time to be of serv- 
ice. This has been much aided by gentlemen of great public spirit, 
often postmasters and editors, who, by means of an ingenious series of 
rubber stamps, rapidly duplicate the forecasts they receive aud make 
local centers of distribution for outlying points, and this at an insig- 
nificant expense to the Government. The practice of urgency warn- 
ings has been very much increased and put on such a footing that any 
thickly populated district or frequented coast may be promptly and 
fully warned of the approach of disastrous meteorological changes. 
The problem of reaching, effectively and in time, the more sparsely 
settled districts is still unsolved. For instance, how can we tell the 
isolated overseers of cattle ranges in Wyoming of the approach of a 
blizzard? A scheme for the use of rockets has been saggested, but it 
does not fully meet the requirements. 


DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION REGARDING THE WORK OF THE 
WEATHER BUREAU. 


Vor the dissemination of information concerning the work of the 
Bureau there has been employed every agency that presented itself— 
newspaper articies, lectures, public expositions, the most broad and 
general distribution practicable of the weather map, the encouragement 
of its use in schools, etc. The development of interest is especially 
noteworthy in the schools, where the daily interpretation of the weather 
map is becoming common. The annual issue of the weather map is 


seer a 


be 


WHAT METEOROLOGY IS DOING FOR THE FARMER. 119 


about 3,000,000, and this is nearly tie full capacity of our present appli- 


ances; but this number would be doubled were we able to honor all the 
demands made on us for this characteristic publication, forming as it 
does the basis of our work and the chief means of our usefulness. 


THE COMPILATION OF CLIMATIC DATA. 


Though a knowledge of the climatic character of a region is one of 
the most important elements in estimating its agricultural capacity and 
possibilities, the compilation of the climatic data has gone on very 
slowly and with infinite difficulty. The number of observations 
involved is so enormous, the necessity for accuracy so increases the 
amount of work, and after the compilation the reduction of the results 
into a Incid form, capable of easy reference, is itself so slow a process, 
and such work seems so suitable to be displaced by other work more 
urgent but Jess important, that progress is very slow. Nevertheless, in 
Bulletin C of the Bureau there is presented the compilation of the data 
relating to rainfall, and work is progressing on the compilation of the 
statistics of humidity. To indicate the quantity of work involved it 
may be stated that the humidity compilation is estimated to require the 
copying out of 60,000,000 figures now scattered through the records 
of twenty-five years, and that after copying they must be verified, 
arranged, reduced, and averaged, five distinct operations on this mass 
of figures. When the humidity compilation is completed it is proposed 
to take up the temperatures, and with that the three elements most 
important to enlightened agriculture (viz, rainfall, humidity, and tem- 
perature) will be completed. 


THE SCIENTIFIC THEORY OF METEOROLOGY. 


Real, permanent, and marked progress in any art depends on the 
knowledge of the principles involved, and in such an art as weather 
forecasting this knowledge can be obtained only by scientific methods. 
The relations of terrestrial magnetism to weather changes have long 
been thought to be intimate, and competent students have from time 
to time made brief studies of them. The prolonged study of them by 
a very competent member of our force will soon enable us to tell just 
how intimate are the relations in question. Again, the soil presents 
meteorological relations of great interest. The Weather Bureau follows 
the precipitation to the soil and might go farther and study its distri- 
bution in the soil. The study itself, however, leads to certain physical 
and chemical developments which go somewhat far afield from meteoro- 
logical methods, so that the soil subdivision of this Bureau is about to 
become an independent division of the Department. The relations of 
climate to crops and those of the stages of the seasons to the stages of 
plant life have received a good deal of attention, though in a somewhat 
desultory way. 


120 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The details of the phenomena occurring when the vapor in the air | 
condenses to form raindrops, snowflakes, hailstones, or cloud elements 
are very imperfectly known, though of great importance in meteoro- 
logical theory. We have published the results of one series of brilliant 
researches on this subject, and another is now (February, 1895) going 
through the press. They afford indications of some, in part, unexpected 
but very important laws which are involved. 

Meteorological theory is turning more and more toward the idea that 
further material progress in the science depends on a more exact 
knowledge of what occurs in the higher air. This can be investigated 
by mountain observations and by balloons or other methods of reaching 
the free air. Nearly all government meteorological services have, 
therefore, one or more mountain stations, and even so low an elevation 
as the top of the Hiffel Tower (1,000 feet) in Paris has proved to be of 
considerable value. The Weather Bureau reestablished the station on 
the top of Pikes Peak, but was able to continue it for only two years, 
when it was discontinued, and the observations now await discussion. 


PRESENT AND PROPOSED LINES OF WORK. 


The work of forecasting floods is intrusted to the Bureau by the 
statute which organized it. This duty was first intrusted to one official, 
nota regular forecaster, but later was deputed to the Forecast Division, 
‘and finally also to individual forecasters and observers along the rivers 
in question. The science has now reached a point where it needs 
more detailed and precise information about the individual river basins, 
their contours and slopes, the possible backwaters of the rivers, their 
capacity at various stages, the more or less permanent bodies of snow 
which form their sources, the relation in time and height between quan- 
tity of rainfall in the basin and the stage of the stream, etc. These 
matters, so far as the data are collected by the Bureau, are now to be 
collated, systematized, and printed, when the path for further advance 
will become more clear. 

Latterly, at the instigation of the Secretary of Agriculture, the col- 
lection of climatic data for the use of sanitarians has been undertaken. 
This appears to open up a broad fieid of usefulness. 

The systematic study of clouds on new and revised principles has 
been undertaken by all government meteorological services in concert, 
and the Weather Bureau will undoubtedly take its share of the work 
involved. 

Finally, the problem of forecasts for seasons is receiving continued 
attention from meteorologists, and recent developments indicate that 
hope of success in that direction is not so quixotic as it would have 
appeared five or ten years ago. It is quite possible, in the light of our | 
present knowledge, that such forecasts, of sufficient accuracy to be of 
use, can be made before many years have passed. 


—_ 


THE VALUE OF FORECASTS. 


By H. H. C. DuNWoopy, 
Assigned as Assistant Chief, Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


DIVERSIFIED INTERESTS AFFECTED BY FORECASTS. 


it is the object in the following pages to set forth as briefly as possi- 
ble the diversified interests affected directly by the forecasts, and to 
give some approximate values of the benefits accruing from judicious 
use of the same. The task is not an easy one, because the interests 
“indirectly” benefited may often exceed in number and commercial 
importance the interests “directly” affected. Again, as a general 
thing, a severe atmospheric disturbance affects an area greater than 
that occupied by any one community or interest, and the returns from 
one or two communities for any one storm may not fully represent the 
benefits received. Again, of the smaller storms, it may happen that 
several prevail at nearly the same time. In such cases losses in out- 
lying districts may escape record. Thus, on February 9, 1894, no less 
than 60 tornadoes were reported in various parts of the United States, 
including Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, 
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. It is estimated 
that on that day some 10,000 buildings were destroyed and 2,500 people 
injured. This estimate, however, is but an approximate one, for there 
undoubtedly occurred great losses in localities distant from centers of 
communication which in the general havoc and distress might easily 
pass without notice. 


INTERESTS DIRECTLY BENEFITED BY FORECASTS. 


Mention will first be made of some of the many interests benefited 
directly by forecasts, of both the ordinary and emergency character. 
After these will be given instances of great savings by special warn- 
ings, then statistics of the value of cold-wave and frost warnings, and 
finally extracts from the annual reports of various stations giving 
instances of special benefits noted during the year. The value of the 


forecast in agriculture is self-evident, and at times of harvest, when the 


labors of the year may be wasted in a day, the importance of the fore- 
cast is strikingly noticeable. The general questions of crop yield in 
121 


122 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


their relation to rainfall, temperature, etc., are treated elsewhere by 
themselves and may be passed over here. | 

Bankers and brokers appreciate and watch closely the forecasts. 
Obviously whatever affects crops, commerce, or business industry affects 
them. Commission merchants and shippers of produce of a perishable 
character find the forecasts of the greatest assistance. In February, 
1894, a responsible officer of one of the large beef-shipping companies 
stated that the forecasts were of the greatest help in locating and facili- 


tating the running of beef cars between cities. The cars are regulated © 


by the forecasts of temperature. The protection of fruits, vegetables, 
and food products from injury by heat or cold during transportation is 
of such importance that the subject has been specially investigated. 
A car load of fruit, even after it has started, may be detained at some 
point on the way and thus escape extreme and trying temperatures. 
Besidesregulating the temperature of freight cars, the forecasts areused, 
especially on through trains, in regulating the temperature of passen- 
ger cars. The following quotation from a letter dated February 7, 1894, 
illustrates the practical use of the forecasts in this direction: They 
‘“‘enable us to regulate the length of our trains, to arrange for extra 
fuel supplies, to take precautions in the care of engines and prevent 
freezing of water supply, etc.” Engineers, in many ways, put the fore- 
easts to use. In maintaining equable and comfortable temperatures in 
large office buildings, for example, the forecasts are of the greatest 
value. 

The Johns Hopkins Hospital, at Baltimore, Md., covers perhaps as 
large an area heated from a single furnace room as can be found. The 
problem of heating and ventilating so many wards and rooms is far 
from being an easy one. Much is at stake; indeed, sometimes the 
recovery, comfort, and life of the patient, the successful crowning of 
the work of physician and nurse, depends upon this preservation of 
proper temperature. If it can be done in a large hospital it can be 
done elsewhere. Dr. Henry M. Hurd, the superintendent of the hos- 
pital, says: 

This will give a good idea of the systematized method in use here for keeping a 
combined coal and weather account. There is a very direct relation between the 
outside temperature and the amount of coal consumed. The reports which are 
received from the Weather Service are of great benefit to our engineer, as by means 
of the prediction it is possible to give directions as to the amount of hot water 
which will need to be carried in order to make the heating of the wards absolutely 
uniform. You will notice from the temperature of the different wards that the vari- 
ations are very small. Thisis largely due to the fact that it is possible in many 
instances to prepare for changes of temperature by carrying hot water at a higher 
or lower temperature. 

Nor is it only in large hospitals that the forecasts can be thus sys- 
tematically and profitably used. They can be utilized with great good 
by the individual physician. He will be better qualified to advise pre- 
cautionary measures for the ensuing day in the way of clothing, oceu- 
pation, and regimen. 


_— - 


THE VALUE OF FORECASTS. 123 


THE STORM OF MARCH 27, 1890. 


In an official report of the board of trade relief committee of one of 
our large cities, in almost the opening paragraph, appears this state- 
ment: 

In the afternoon papers of that date (March 27, 1890) there appeared from the 
Weather Service at Washington a notice of warning of severe local storms and 
atmospheric trouble in Louisville and vicinity. Shortly before the tornado there 
came a heavy rain, followed by a hailstorm accompanied by severe lightning. ‘The 
wind began to blow with a mournful sound, which soon increased to a frightful 
shriek as it swept over the doomed portion of the city. The calamity occurred 
about 8.30 p. m., and was over in a few minutes. 

This tornado destroyed in a few moments 5 churches, the union 
railroad depot, 2 public halls, 3 schools, 266 stores, 32 manufacturing 
establishments, 10 tobacco warehouses, and 532 residences in the city 
limits only. The pecuniary loss was estimated by these gentlemen of 
the board of trade, after careful tabulation, at $2,150,000. There were 
76 lives lost and over 200 people injured by the catastrophe. Such a 
calamity can be paralleled only in some convulsion of nature, fortu- 
nately of infrequent occurrence, such as an earthquake, a volcanic erup- 
tion, or a great tidal wave. 


THE “SEA ISLANDS” AND “TROPICAL” STORMS. 


The storm of August 26, 27, 28, 1893, familiarly known as the “sea 
islands storm,” with the accompanying rise in the waters, resulted 
in the loss of nearly 1,200 lives. The story of the devastation caused 
by that storm has been graphically told in the popular magazines, but 
anything like a careful estimate of the actual damage has never been 
published. The value of the warning likewise can not be estimated. 
It may be, though, that the remembrance of this storm had much to 
do with the ready appreciation of the warnings given this year. So 
widely disseminated were these latter warnings, and so promptly and 
intelligently were they utilized in the warned communities, that the 
Weather Bureau can show in the case of the tropical hurricane of Sep- 
tember 24-29, 1894, that 1,089 vessels, valued at $17,100,413, remained 
in port. In the hurricane of October 8-10, 1894, 1,216 vessels, valued 
at $19,183,500, heeded the warning. Within, then, a period of little 
more than two weeks the forecasts and warnings of the Bureau were 
instrumental in saving 2,305 vessels, valued at $36,283,913, or, to be 
somewhat more accurate, but for the warnings these vessels would 
probably have gone to sea, and it is but fair to presume would in such 
event have met with disaster. The records show that in very many 
instances where the warnings were disregarded heavy losses were 
incurred. Even these amounts, vast as they are, are but portions of 
the whole, for, as happened in both of these storms, ripening crops, 
accumulated stores and supplies, goods gathered for shipment and 
goods in transit were removed from exposed places to points of safety. 


124 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


In calamitous storms of the types referred to it is customary to 
promptly institute measures of relief. No work is nobler. Surely the 
duty of giving warning of impending danger, antedating relief work, 
and giving all an opportunity to help themselves and others, is noble 
work, too. 

Tornadoes and West Indian hurricanes are not the only atmospheric 
disturbances destructive to life and property. Though the loss of life 
is perhaps less, the destruction of property by severe wind storms, 
heavy washing rains, scorching hot winds, severe cold waves and frosts, 
being of more frequent occurrence, amounts in the aggregate perhaps 
to a sum in excess of the figures given. ; 


THE SAVING OF PROPERTY AND LIFE. 


Successful application of the forecasts, then, as the foregoing cases 
show, is quite possible and by no means rare. They can be nade of 
service in almost every occupation of life. They can be made to con- 
tribute to comfort or utilized in saving property and protecting life. 
The value of the forecasts in this last respect is strikingly shown at 
times of West India hurricanes and in less degree in some of the 
severe inland storms which sweep over the Great Lakes. The value 
of the warning of the gale of September 22-24, 1894, is well shown by 
the list of vessels held in port: 


ey Cites. oF Se SA, 1) Sheboygan) 20: 2282232 eee eee 4 
Chamleyoix ios. . 2h 2. BE. SEE 67) Senth Haven: - . 21.02... ee 5 
Ghébopean 26.4486 0onth~1- Featen wees 1 Sturgeon’ Bay |. s:\eseen -Baeeeeee 23 
ES ae ee Se eee iy Bel Tape Giby a. nim oeting B02 - ees 1 
Pique hbOle gn o6 on) noe eee eee 2.) Joan ooo. ode d's oso oe 3 
Men anne... soc os Sets see aa coe Oo Marquee. o.. = 22> = 2 esse eee 4 
Monosna tse. 2. SU. OME WSs. Shee 07) Grand Haven. 20. >. ...32 2. eae eee 1 
Menten coho fase: 2tictee he ope oe eee Sv Adpena. 20. ..255% 22 14 
Wienist Oecd. wide scan cnx --Becniomesses- 20%) Porbih ron... 23-2 oe eee 28 
NG a i ahs we ee 3.) Chicago: - +. ...-% te. ete 30 
a ES pe 6 hg a RR oe aa 16 | Sault Ste.. Marie... ..22.-. see 27 
DMN Re ee cae on ra Se on ae 4°| White Fish Point... .... 2am 
Sa one L EE See sl 26 a 
Sameniweles 21 Mass tote t- ee ss i! Grand total ...-.-...----.---- 260 


In the city of Chicago the owners of the steamer City of Chicago, 
ready to sail with 400 passengers and cargo valued at $15,600, detained 
her in port for twenty-four hours. The Lehigh Valley Transportation 
Company held their steamer Saranac, bound for Buffalo with 2,400 tons 
of merchandise, until word was received that the storm was abating. 
Instances of this service could easily be multiplied. At the life-saving 
station the crew were given all information relative to the storm, and 
extra precautions were taken by the watcher on the tower, which 
resulted in the saving of the lives of four persons. The tug watcher, 
who is employed by all the tug companies and is in telegraphic com- 
munication with the tug offices, had copies of the warning given to tug 
captains and had one of the tugs steam out and warn the schooner 


THE VALUE OF FORECASTS. 125 


Libby Naw, the schooner Michaelson, and the light-house supply boat 
Dalia. These boats were heavily laden and were outside of the port. 
Upon receiving the warning they got into port without delay and 
escaped the storm. Inquiry at the clearance depot of the United States 
custom-house showed that about 50 vessels had taken out clearance 
papers on Saturday, and of these boats over 30 heeded the storm sigual 
and came to anchor inside the breakwater, where the. effects of the 
storm were less felt. In one case where the signal was disregarded 
the steamer stranded at Grand Haven. There are numerous cases 
where mishap has followed a disregard of signal. Along the lakes also 
warnings of severe cold waves are of great financial value. Thus 
during the early frosts of the season of 1891, just at harvest time, when 
the wheat crop of northern Dakota and northern Minnesota required a 
week or ten days to mature, extensive preparations were made by the 
farmers to avert injury from frost. Material for smudge fires was col- 
lected and made ready to be fired upon receipt of the frost warning. 
Through the cooperation of the telegraph service of the Great Northern 
and the Northern Pacific railroads, the warnings were widely dissemi- 
nated, and at the proper time the fires were lighted, and many million 
bushels of wheat saved. This in the far North. In the far South, in 
the same season, 75 per cent of the vegetable and fruit crop was pro- 
tected by smudge fires kindled atthe approach of cold weather. 

Not of the least importance are the forecasts to canal interests. A 
large raft of lumber, for instance, is passing through a canal into a 
river. Warning of a cold wave is received; the raft is drawn back into 
the canal and thus saved from being cut to pieces by the running ice. 
Cattle nen find the warnings of great value. Cranberry growers, as a 
class, have special warnings sent to them. Fuel companies, as might 
be expected, find it to their interest to watch carefully the forecasts. 
At Pittsburg the shipment of coal by river, amounting to many million 
dollars, is, to a large degree, controlled by information received from 
the Weather Bureau. In 1890-91 ice was harvested before it had 
reached the average thickness because of warning of a thaw. 

The forecasts of the Weather Bureau may not always be as fully 
verified as the conditions upon which they were based promised, but the 
value of forecasts verified at least eight out of ten times can not be 
deprecated at any time, and when special warnings are sent in times of 
emergency the value is fittingly expressed by the word ‘‘incalculable.” 


EXTRACTS FROM ANNUAL REPORTS OF VARIOUS STATIONS. 


The extracts which follow are taken from the annual reports of the 
stations enumerated, and furnish convincing evidence of the practical 
value of the forecasts of the Weather Bureau to agriculture, as well as 
a variety of other interests affected by the weather: 

From the annual report of the station at Nashville, Tenn.: 

The cold-wave warnings are probably worth $50,000 to the State. 


126 YEARBOOK OF THE U. & DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


From the annual report of the station at Savannah, Ga.: 


It is estimated that the money value of property saved by the cold-wave and frost 
warnings during the past year was between $20,000 and $25,000. The warnings have, 
as a rule, given general satisfaction. 


From the annual report of the station at Wilmington, N. C.: 


When it is known that the strawberry crop of eastern North Carolina for this year 
was between $250,000 and $300,000, it is thought, and without any attempt to exag- 
gerate, that the money value of this crop saved by the cold-wave warnings is at Jeast 
$25,000. 


From the report of the station at New York City, N. Y.: 


It would be difficult to estimate, with any assurance of correctness, the real money 
value of perishable goods and in other ways the saving by the cold-wave warnings; 
but I do not think $1,000,000 would be the full amount. 


From the annual report of the station at Milwaukee, Wis.: 


It is believed that it is a conservative estimate to state that the amount of money 
necessary to support this office is in each year saved many times over to the com- 
mission merchants by the information furnished them daily. 

The frost warnings from this office continue to give satisfaction to the public and 
to materially add to the popularity of the service. The president of the Wisconsin 
State Cranberry Growers’ Association stated before the association, at its annual 
meeting last January, that rather than do without these warnings he would pay the 
expense of telegraphing out of his own pockets; that at one time during the past 
year he was waiting for the train at his station, prepared to leave on important 
business, but when the train came in it carried a frost signal; that he returned to 
his large marsh, 7 miles distant, ordered the reservoirs opened, and saved several 
thousand dollars’ worth of berries from destruction by frost the following morning. 


From the annual report of the station at Columbus, Ohio: 


As this point is the principal produce-shipping point of the State, Ihave no doubt 
that the value of the shipments saved by the cold-wave warnings during the season 
was close to $500,000. 


From the annual report of the station at Charleston, S. C.: 


A safe and truthful estimate of the money value of property saved to this com- 
munity this year is fully double that given for last year, as the warnings were dis- 
seminated to amore marked degree than in any other year previous, footing up 
$350,000. This is exclusive of the frost service rendered during February, March, 
and April of this year, for the benefit of those who raise early beans, peas, beets, 
cucumbers, lettuce, potatoes, onions, squash, and corn for shipment to Northern 
markets. ; 


From the annual report of the station at Cape Henry, Va.: 


Marked benefits result from the work of this Bureau, as in the case of the steam- 
ship Rappahannock, Chesapeake and Ohio Line, which vessel went ashore at a point 
near this place at 7p. m., January 22. The agents of this line were notified and 
wrecking companies called on for assistance, which was immediately furnished; on 
the 24th information of acold wave and high westerly to northerly winds was flagged 
by this office to the stranded vessel. The wreckers redoubled their efforts in light- 
ening her cargo so she would float at high-water tide, which she did at 10.35 p. m. 
An unusually severe northerly gale, with cold weather, rain, and a very high sea, 
set in at 12.45 a. m. the 25th. Hadthe Rappahannock not floated on the last high 


THE VALUE OF FORECASTS. 127 


tide, it is conceded by everyone that vessel and cargo would have been a total loss. 
The vessel and cargo, valued at $600,000, were undoubtedly saved through the efforts 
of this office in getting the weather reports to the stranded steamer. 


From the annual report of the station at Dodge City, Kans.: 


There was about $5,009 worth of stock saved last winter by the cold-wave signals. 
The value of the fruit saved is very hard to determine; a conservative estimate 
places it anywhere from $25,000 to $50,000. 


From the annual report of the station at Alpena, Mich.: 


The isiand telegraph lines have been in successful operation since July 14, 1893, 
and have rendered great assistance to maritime interests. Their value is being 
recognized by all vessel men. They have been used frequently since their comple- 
tion by vessels in distress, and it would be no exaggeration to say that they have 
fully paid for the money expended in their construction and maintenance. With 
few exceptions there has been uninterrupted communication. The Middle Island 
line was exceptionally beneficial to Gilchrist & Fletcher, of this city, during May 
1894, whose raft of three and one-half millions went ashore near Middle Island. 
The line was used frequently every day for a week and much assistance rendered by 
it. Mr. Gilchrist visited the office during the time and spoke of the great benefit 
received from this service. Not a stick of the raft was lost, such an unusual occur- 
rence that comment was made about it in the Detroit daily papers. 


From the annual report of the station at Baltimore, Md.: 


An example of great benefit received was instanced by a Baltimore and Ohio Rail- 
Toad official. A train loaded with wet sand was waiting upon a siding, and, as it 
was not to be used for two or three days, the necessity for unloading was not con- 
sidered immediate. <A cold-wave warning was received, and the cars were emptied 
as quickly as possible. Had this not been done without delay, the sand would have 
been frozen in the cars and could not have been unloaded for several weeks, as the 
cold spell was unusually severe and long. 


From the annual report of the station at Norfolk, Va.: 


The total estimated value of property saved by cold-wave warnings is from 
$30,000 to $40,000. 

During the severe storm of last August the timely storm warnings issued by the 
Weather Bureau were of inestimable value to the vessels then ready to proceed to 
sea, as many of these vessels remained in port on account of the warnings given, and 
rode out some of the severest gales which have been experienced along the Atlantic 
coast in many years. Without these warnings possibly nine-tenths of these vessels 
would have proceeded to sea, and in all probability would have been lost. 

The reporting of passing vessels in and out at Cape Henry is one of the most 
important features of the seacoast line, and this work is worth thousands every year 
to the steamship lines running to and from Norfolk, as an incoming steamer is 
reported to the agent from two to three hours in advance of her arrival at the dock, 
thus enabling them to have everything in readiness on her arrival, and by this means 
effect a great saving of time, which is worth everything to those carrying mostly 
perishable freight. 


From the annual report of the station at Montgomery, Ala.: 


The cold-wave warnings of January 23 and February 11, besides being distributed 
by great numbers of bulletins by hand and through the mails, and published in local 
newspapers, were, in addition to being telegraphed to all displaymen, telegraphed at 
Government expense to postmasters of twenty surrounding towns, and from reliable 
information it is thought that these warnings, even though carly in the season, saved 


128 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


at least $25,000 to farmers in this State. The warning of March 25, at a low esti- 
mate, saved $50,000 to the truckers of this section, and would have saved more had it 
come any other day than Sunday, which is a bad day for distributing information. 
It is safe to say that the money value saved to agriculture and shipping interests in 
this State by these warnings during the past year, if fully known, would aggregate 
over $100,000. : 


From the annual report of the station at Louisville, Ky.: 


The warning of January 23 was one of the most beneficial to this section ever 
made in the Weather Bureau. It was of especial value to the railroads, which at the 
time had a large amount of perishable freight on the way from the South, and much 
of which was protected through the warning. 

The most important instance in which the records figured during the past year 
was that of the Phenix Bridge Company, which claimed that the destruction of two 
of the piers of the bridge being built by it was due to a tornado, and not to faulty 
workmanship, as alleged by its opponents. This case, in which several hundreds of 
thousands of dollars are involved, has not yet been settled, and the Weather Bureau 
records will have a most important bearing upon its final adjustment. 


From the annual report of the station at Memphis, Tenn.: 


My attention was called to a case which happened several years ago which has 
probably not been reported. M. E. Carter & Co., of this city, had an order for eight 
car loads of potatoes to be shipped to points in Arkansas.: Just before they began 
to load they called up the Weather Bureau and were informed that an extensive and 
severe cold wave was approaching, and were advised to hold the shipment over till 
Monday, this being Friday. They had one car partly loaded and they decided to 
risk thisonecar. Theresult was that every potato in the car was frozen. The other 
seven cars were held over and reached their destination in safety. Mr. Carter stated 
to me that they calculated the value of the seven cars at $2,150, all of which they 
considered saved from the warning of the Weather Bureau. 


From the annual report of the station at Kansas City, Mo.: 


The observer is unable to place a money estimate on the value of this service. A 
very conservative estimate would place it at $50,000, but there are such a variety of 
interests affected it would be impossible to give an intelligent estimate. Fruit and 
produce men place it in the neighborhood of $50,000. 


From the annual report of the station at Buffalo, N. Y.: 


The records at the station show that not a single storm of any character passed 
over the station during the year, especially in the fall, without ample warning 
having been given at least twenty-four hours in advance. The warnings given were 
heeded by all classes of marine men. Notwithstanding the close proximity of the 
central office of the Canadian Meteorological Bureau at Toronto, during the closing 
months of navigation daily requests by telephone and telegraph for wind forecasts 
were received from Canadian sources. 

On November 24 special forecasts were issued to the marine men, informing them 
that all vessels weather bound here during the past ten days would have fair sailing 
weather to-morrow, and orders were given to get ready toclear. The Buffalo Courier, 
commenting on same, said, Sunday, November 26: ‘‘ The large fleet of vessels which 
has been sheltered behind the breakwater for a week or more was able to leave port. 
The forecasts of Friday came true, the storm abated, and by noon yesterday nearly 
all the storm-bound vessels were out of sight.” These vessels had been held in port . 
by the storm warnings. 


SOILS IN THEIR RELATION TO CROP PRODUCTION. 


By MILTON WHITNEY, ’ 
Chief of the Division of Agricultural Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


TRUCK LANDS OF THE ATLANTIC SEABOARD. 


Truck farming has existed as a separate agricultural industry for 
about thirty years. Previous to that time fruits and vegetables were 
grown in gardens and as part of the regular farm crops on all well- 
reguated farms, and in market gardens within a few miles of the 
larger towns and cities. People were content then to have the fruits 
and vegetables in the ordinary season in which they matured in their 
immediate locality. In recent years, however, transportation facilities 
have wonderfully improved, and the growing of fruits and vegetables 
for the early markets has developed into a distinct and special branch 
of farming. 

A few years ago tomatoes were not expected in the Baltimore mar- 
kets until the local crop ripened inJuly. During the winter and spring 
canned tomatoes were extensively and almost exclusively used. Now, 
however, the Florida crop of fresh tomatoes begins to arrive in the Bal- 
timore market early in January in a fresh and healthy condition, as it 
requires only twenty-four or thirty-six hours for transportation—hardly 
longer than is required to bring the local crop on schooners and sloops 
from the lower estuaries of the Chesapeake Bay. These early tomatoes 
sell readily for 50 or 75 cents per dozen at the same time that Florida 
oranges are bringing from 15 to 30 cents per dozen, and while canned 
tomatoes are selling for 10 or 15 cents for a 3-pound can. This is fol- 
lowed by successive crops from Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and 
the local crop of Maryland. The season for fresh tomatoes in the Balti- 
more market thus extends over fully nine months in the year. The 
same is true of other vegetables. There is a very great and increasing 
demand for these early vegetables, as they are put en the market in 
much better condition and ata lower cost than ever before, and families 
of very moderate means can afford to purchase them. 


SOME ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL TRUCK FARMING. 


The conditions necessary for the success of this special industry of 
truck farming, in addition to personal qualifications and sufficient 
working capital, are favorable climatic conditions, light, sandy soils, in 
which the vegetables can be planted early, and which will force them 

1 aA 94 5 129 


130 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


to an early maturity, and quick, direct, and safe transportation facili- 
ties, with arrangements for through cars, and refrigerator cars where 
these are necessary. 

The early truck is grown upon a peculiar class of very light, sandy 
soils. These soils extend along the Atlantic coast for a distance of 
about 1,500 miles in a narrow strip bordering the coast, bays, and rivers 
from Massachusetts to Florida, the line running approximately north- 
east and southwest. - The season advances northward along the coast at 
the average rate of about 13 miles per day. Lands located 100 miles 
south of Norfolk have the advantage of about a week in the maturity 
of the crops, thus commanding a higher market price, so that the 
truckers can afford the higher freight rates for the longer distance 
their products have to be hauled to the Northern markets. Similar land 
situated an equal distance west of Norfolk, with no direct connection 
with the North except through Norfolk, would have no advantage over 
the Norfolk crop by reason of the climate, and the added cost of trans- 
portation would make trucking unprofitable. A railroad, therefore, 
running north and south has a great advantage in developing local 
trucking interests over one running east and west. The high prices, 
due to lack of competition in the early market, afford the truck crops 
an opening northward without which the demand would be limited to 
the local market, but with the advantages of climate, quick soils, and 
lack of competition from the heavier and richer agricultural lands, 
these crops are sent to almost any point in the United States or in Can- 
ada with profit. 

Land situated immediately on a railroad is worth several times as 
much as similar land situated 2 or 3 miles away, on account of the 
difficulty and expense of transporting the tender and bulky crop and 
the damage done in handling and hauling. The same is even more 
marked in the case of land situated immediately on the water, partly 
on account of its relation to transportation and partly fromits freedom 
from frost. The influence of the proximity to the water is very marked 
in theearly spring. Crops a quarter or a half mile inland may be injured 
or destroyed by frost while those immediately adjacent to the water are 
not affected. For this reason crops may be planted earlier in the spring 
on land near water, and consequently will mature earlier on stiffer soils 
at the end of a river neck, with water on two or three sides, than they 
will mature on soils of the same or even of lighter texture farther inland. 
These points must all be considered in judging of the suitability of a 
soil for truck farming. 

The total area devoted to truck farming in the United States in 1889, 
exclusive of market gardening, was, according to the Kleventh Census, 
534,440 acres. Of this about 61.31 per cent was located along the Atlan- 
tic Seaboard, distributed as shown in the table below. The ‘peninsular 
district” here includes the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and 
Virginia, together with the State of Delaware. 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 131 


The following table gives the acreage of the principal truck crops 
along the Atlantic Seaboard: 


Acreage and value of land and truck producis on the Atlantic Seaboard. 


| Per cent 
of total Value of Value of 
District. ae of truck area| land per | truck prod- 
—— in United acre. ucts. 
States. 

ee | |__| 

emo mermeand 2 bMladelphia .2.---. ....-.2--n--ec-cces 108, 135 | 20. 23 $226.11 | $21, 102, 521 

ec nian cinim is piaicin a nimp wmloiae 25, 714 4, 81 98. 76 2, 413, 648 

Et on as ec ec Seacine ore it res was sale 37, 181 6. 93 97. 50 3, 784, 696 

EE ele es 8 acre ctles omcerae cian sot aciewas sos 45, 375 8. 49 135. 50 4, 692, 859 

es Re eee oe ee ee oe 111, 441 20. 85 45. 25 13, 183, 516 
RT 93. Doct cages eae 326, 816 A ee ee 45, 177, 240 


To produce this truck a very intense system of cultivation is prac- 
ticed and the expense of making the crop is very great. The value 
of the land ranges from $40 to $500 per acre, depending upon the 
soil, location, distance from market, and transportation facilities. 
Their average value may be placed at about $200 per acre. Before 
they were used for truck farming they were worth no more than from 
$1 to $5 per acre. Even now, when they are remote from transpor- 
tation lines, good truck lands ean still be purchased for this sum. 
The cost of labor on the different crops ranges from about $10 to $30 
per acre; the cost of seeds and plants from 50 cents to $10 per acre, 
depending upon the kind of vegetable. The fertilizers cost from 
$10 to $50 per acre, while individual planters use as much as $60 to 
$75 worth of high-grade fertilizers per acre. Very conservative esti- 
mates place the necessary working capital for a small truck farm at 
from $6,000 to $20,000. One large firm in eastern North Carolina 
claims that it requires $40,000 a year to make its crop. 

These figures show that truck farming is an industry in which a 
large amount of capital is invested and which carries great risks. A 
successful truck grower requires a large capital as compared with what 
is needed for general farming, while the risks are as great and the 
enterprises are quite as heavy as in ordinary commercial or industrial 
lines. The man who risks $40,000 annually in any business, or even a 
capital of $20,000 or $6,000, must be cautious and must understand 
very weil his conditions, opportunities, and powers. 

Truck farming may be started on avery small scale, as with any other 
industry, but competition is so sharp and the margin of profit has 
become so small, while the risks are so great, that there is a distinct 
tendency among the larger planters to form combinations which make 
it more and more difficult for the smaller truckers to succeed. In this 
as in other industries a large planter can work on a narrower margin 
than a small one, providing the enterprise is not too great for him to 
carry with his available capital. 


132 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Truckers’ associations are being organized in local centers, which 
receive daily market reports during the growing season from the prin- 
cipal markets and distributing points throughout the United States 
and Canada. These organizations have very great power and influence, 
and as they understand and appreciate these more they will exercise 
far more influence upon the markets than they do now. ‘Three or four 
of the large planters around Norfolk, by putting their potato crops sud- 
denly upon the New York market, can depress the price to such a small 
margin of profit that the smaller dealers can not afford to sell. Indeed, 
itis ho uncommon thing during the harvesting season for the price 
of potatoes in New York to fall $1 a barrel in the course of a day. The 
truckers’ associations try to distribute the crops through the different 
markets inthe North and West so as to maintain uniform prices, and 
as they become better trained in their responsibilities and have a better 
appreciation of their powers and duties they will undoubtedly main- 
tain more uniform prices than at present. 

So close has competition become and so narrow are the margins of 
profit that it is stated that the difference of a cent a barrel on spinach 
in the present freight rates from Norfolk to New York reduces the 
price below the actual cost of production. The planters claim that 
they have such control over their crops and exercise such careful busi- 
ness methods in their production that the freight rates frequently 
determine the selling price, as is the case with many manufactured 
commodities. 

Another factor which has had much to do with the success of truck 
farming has been the introduction of methods of canning or otherwise 
preserving fruits and vegetables for which there is no present demand, 
so they can be kept for winter use. This ability to preserve the crop 
has more than once saved the planters from what would otherwise have 
been disastrous seasons, when, as occasionally happens, the crops from 
a number of localities mature at the same time. 

In truck growing an early maturity is essential to the profitable con- 
duct of the business, and the yield per acre and quality of the crop are 
minor conditions. With wheat the yield per acre is the most essential 
factor and the quality or time of ripening is relatively unimportant; 
with tobacco the quality and texture of the leaf are the chief factors, 
and the yield and time of ripening are of less consequence; but with 
early truck the time of ripening is by far the most important feature. 

Early maturity is very largely dependent upon the character of the 
soil. Light, sandy lands are most valuable for this industry because 
when properly treated the crop matures much earlier than on the 
heavy lands. The aim of the truck planter is to get the crop to 
market at the earliest possible moment, or else to delay it until the 


crops from the heavier soils of the State have all matured. Theheavy | 


grass and wheat lands will produce three or four times as great a yield 
of truck as the truck soils do even under the intense and expensive 
system of cultivation practiced. The latter, however, mature their 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 133 


crops six or eight weeks earlier, and thus for the time are free from 
the competition of the richer soils. 

The amount of clay present in these light truck soils has a very 
marked influence upon the development and time of ripening of a crop. 
The nature of the crop itself must be considered, of course, as all of 
the truck crops are not equally well adapted to the same kind of soil. 
Sweet potatoes and melons, for example, require a very light soil, con- 
taining but little clay, for they can not be forced well to an early 
maturity on the heavier soils. Cabbage and spinach, on the other 
hand, do better on the heavier soils and will mature about as early, for 
the reason that they can be planted in the fall and will stand the 
winter well on a soil containing from 8 to 12 per cent of clay in the 
subsoil, while they will not stand the winter so well on a soil contain- 
ing less than 6 per cent of clay, which is the best soil for sweet pota- 
toes and melons. Tomatoes will ripen a full week earlier on land hay- 
ing no more than 4 or 5 per cent of clay in the subsoil than they will 
on land having 8 or 9 per cent. They will do better and yield more 
per acre on the heavier land, but they are not so early and do not bring 
such high market prices. 

With the qualification just made, soils having the smallest percentage 
of clay are invariably regarded as the earliest truck lands, except 
where heavier soils are situated directly at the point of a river neck 
and are thus earlier freed from frost, as already explained. 


CONSTITUENTS OF TYPICAL TRUCK SOILS. 


Typical truck soils of the Atlantic Seaboard contain from about 1 per 
cent to 12 percent of clayin the subsoil. The lighter soils, or those con- 
taining the least amount of clay, are better adapted to the earlier and 
lighter spring vegetables, while the heavier soils are better adapted to the 
later and heavier truck and to those crops which can be planted in the 
fall for the early spring market. The conditions in a soil containing 10 
per cent of clay in the subsoil frequently delay the planting of a spring 
crop from two to three weeks later than on a soil containing only 5 per 
eent of clay. The principal crops may be arranged as follows to show 
the kind of soil best adapted to them: 


Sweet potatoes. 


Melons: ........- | Best adapted to lands having from 3 to 9 per cent of 
Asparagus ..... | clay. 

Trish potatoes... 

Lomatoes’...... 

EO ee kas = o-oo Best adapted to lands having from 6 to 12 per cent of 
ppimach.: ..°.... clay. 

Cabbage ....... 


Soils having over 10 or 12 per cent of clay are too heavy and too 
retentive of moisture for the early truck crops. The yield per acre is 
larger than on the truck land, but it has to meet more competition. 
The whole value of the truck soils lies in the relation of these soils to 
moisture and in the relatively small amount of moisture they maintain 


134 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


fer crops. The soils are composed mainly of moderately coarse grains 
of sand and contain very littie clay. The accompanying illustrations 
show the amounts of the different grades of sand, silt, and clay con- 
tained in 20 grams of two different types of truck land. The different 
grades of sand, silt, and clay were separated by sieves. and by slow 
subsidence in water, and were put into small bottles and photographed. 
The lighter soil, represented by figure 1, has only 4.40 per cent of 
elay. This is well adapted to the very early truck, such as sweet pota- 
toes, melons, asparagus, Irish potatoes, tomatoes, and peas, but it is too 
lightin texture for spinach and cabbage. The heavier soil, represented 
by figure 2, containing 9.16 per cent of clay, represents the heavier 
grade of truck lands, particularly well adapted to tomatoes, peas, spin- 
ach, and cabbage. itis too heavy for the earher spring vegetables. 


Per Cent. 
Fine sil 
hE 
| 


.5-.25 .25-.1 


01-005. |.005-.0001 


Diameter of the grains in millimeters. 


Fic. 1—Mechanical separation of the gravel, Send, silt, and clay in 29 grams of subsoil of the 
Columbia formation at Marley, Md., adapted to early truck. 

Wheat can not be economically preduced on these light truck lands, 
as the yield per acre under the best treatment would rarely exceed 5 
bushels. A good wheat soil must contain atleast 18 per cent of clay, 
unless, indeed, as is the case with many Western soils, they contain 
a large amount of silt. Still less can grass be economically produced 
on these light truck soils, for a good grass land requires at least 30 
per cent of clay in the subsoil to make it sufficiently retentive of 
moisture, unless, indeed, water is supplied through artificial means. 
Within these light, sandy soils, upon which truck farming has been so 
successfully carried on, there is very little resistance to the descent of 
the rainfall, and the soil readily drains itself of all but a small supply 
of water. Grass and wheat lands, on the other hand, contain a large 


: 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 135 


amount of clay and very fine material, and offer a great resistance to 
the descent of the rainfall, and maintain an abundant supply of water, 

As a basis of comparison, an illustration is given in figure 3 of the 
mechanical separation of the different grades of sand, silt, and clay in 
a heavy limestone soil of the Cumberland Valley, in western Maryland. 
This represents the very finest type of agricultural land for the staple 
agricultural crops. 

It will be seen that this subsoil, which is adapted to both wheat and 
grass, has less than 5 per cent of sand, while a typical truck soil con- 
tains from 70 to 85 per cent of sand. If the same quantity of rain fell 
on this clay soil it would encounter such a resistance and there would 
be so much friction as if percolated through the innumerable small 
openings that the descent would be extremely slow and an abundant 


Per Cent. 


Veryfinesand. 


[| Finan [ee 


2-1 


Diameter of the grains in millimeiers. 


Fic. 2.—Mechanical separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil of the 
Columbia formation at Marley, Md., adapted to cabbage and early truck crops. 


supply of moisture would be maintained for vigorous vegetative growth 
of plants. On the light, sandy soils, maintaining a very limited sup- 
ply of moisture, the plants, on the contrary, are thin textured, more 
succulent, yield less per acre, and are forced to a very early maturity. 
It is upon this fact that the suecess of truck farming ultimately depends. 

Examinations have been made of the soils in a number of localities 
in the truck area of the Atlantic Seaboard, and the character of the 
soil devoted to truck has been found to be remarkably uniform. The 
influence of the texture of the soil on the distribution of the different 
truck crops is very marked. A brief description of the several locali- 
ties, with analyses of some of the typical truck soils, will bring out 
these points very strongly, and will serve as a basis for the estimation 
of the adaptability of other soils in these localities for truck growing. 


136 YEARBOOK OF THE U. § DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TRUCK SOILS OF FLORIDA AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 


_ Only a few samples have been obtained of the truck soils of the far 
South. The mechanical analyses of three typical truck soils from 


Und 


Per Cent. 


Rag 20 65 | SL77 


eal 7 


Diameter of the grains in millimeters. 


SURE 


Fic. 3.—Mechanical separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of the limestone 
adapted to wheat and grass. 


subsoil from Frederick, Md., 


Florida are given in the accompanying table, together with the analy- 
ses of five soils from South Carolina. 


1622 
1624 
1620 


84 
82 


TABLE 1.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands. 


| 4 i ' . . 3 : 
ao =) @ Beh A. a: & 
Locality. e F A e om q a Fe a8 a 
Bea ies me milf A) Val on | SM aS 
- A 2 Fa pete nN 4 : 
a ee B a= (oS Joc eee 
os 3 a ° oO 4 5 a= 
a Fi ie eae a FH - a 
gh ic ten P.ct.\P..¢t.| P.ct.| Per et.) ber ct.| Per ct.|Per ct.| P. et. 
| Altoona, Etonia scrub .....- 0.68 | 0.63 | 0.34 | 3.92 | 40.39 | 44.97 | 6.9% | 0.79 
Eustis, high pine land....... 0.25 | 0.66 | 2.74 | 11.70 | 42.05 | 35.29 | 4.50 | 0.88 
Altoona, high piue land..... 0.15 | 0.87 | 1.61 | 4.52 | 12,28 | 27.58 | 48.12 | 2.16 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 
NY GACRNCM Gee ce eee sess emis = =: 11.32 | 5.88 | 31.45 | 27.31 | 28.14 3. 96 
James Island, sandy land...|.....- 1.06 | 0.00} 0.00 | 0.67 | 90.14 3. 35 
James Island, ‘‘provision 
NANG. 2 ose Me OA CCE 1.65 | 0.00 0.88 | 2.50 | 82.97 6. 30 
PO ae ee 1.76 | 0.59 | 3.67] 4.27 | 78.88 4. 20 
James Island, ‘‘clay land’’..|...... 1.62 | 0.00 | 0.54] 1.03 | 83.20 6. 44 


Fine silt (.01- 
005mm) 


2 | 


Psct. 
0. 33 
0. 56 
0. 81 


3. 97 
4.78 


5. 70 
6. 63 
Val 


Clay (.005= 


.0001™™), 


1.16 
1, 23 
1.31 


1The figures in this column were determined by difference, and include the total organic matter, 
moisture, and loss in the analysis. 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 137 


It will be seen that the Florida soils contain very little silt, fine silt, 
or clay, the whole amount of these three grades being less than 5 per 
cent. They are extremely light-textured, sandy soils, adapted to the 
earliest spring vegetables. Climatic conditions in south and central 
Florida make it possible, of course, to produce outdoor crops through- 
out the winter, and these lands are well adapted to the forcing of that 
class of vegetables. 

The samples from South Carolina differ more in their content of fine 
material. The sample from Wedgefield has considerable coarse sand, 
but very little silt and clay. This soil is particularly well adapted to 
sweet potatoes, melons, and the forcing of early spring vegetables. 

Of the several samples from James Island, the sandy land (No. 86) 
is considered the earliest, and is better adapted to the forcing of the 
early spring vegetables. The clay land (No. 82) is better adapted to 
the heavier and later vegetables, particularly tomatoes, cabbage, and 
spinach. 

Owing to the difference in the location and in the climate, the truck 
crops of Florida are practically all marketed before the South Carolina 
crops come on, and the latter are harvested before the North Carolina 
and Virginia crops mature. 


TRUCK LANDS OF EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA. 


The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of a number 
of typical truck lands in eastern North Carolina: 


TABLE 2.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands. 


o rs = | = ! ! 
a te) 4 re 1D 
Sila aula es (oot. Sh S84 
a ae i E . : = Ph hes 
. ‘S| | 5 a é TE oF S ae “SA 
No. Locality. = e On | FA Ag aS ; = 
ont — cna - r me ey = n> S 
[=| o He 10 rol ° o mS 
3 b es Bape © i = o- 3° 
by Fy ° ° a 5 = ie a 
fo) aa} oS A 3 > a | & o 
NORTH CAROLINA. | | 
1510 | Newbern, early spring |Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.\Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct. ‘Per et. ‘Per ct. Per ct. 
Lil ee Seen 0.67 | 0.60] 0.30] 6.04] 49.63 | 32.39] 6.24 1.93 2. 80 
1524 SOO 2.54} 0.00] 0.00 4.74 36.16 | 38.71 | 10.27 | 4.18 3. 40 
En 0.00! 0.00] 6.37 38.34] 9.67] 7.54 | 2.35 6. 47 
1566 | Elizabeth City.............. 3.14] 0.00 |} 0.00; 4.94 CLL VAS Gl! | 25a%3<| 2 F327 9. 20 
0 1.57 | 0.00 | 3.91 | 22.60 | 29.03 | 22.38 | 7.08 38.16}, 10.32 
SE IONE ora Sem cede dmcea ses. R900 05009) 2:46") S617 19579 R8253" | U9.G9 |. 71d 10. 35 
EC 1.18 0.00} 0.00) 7.68 41.77 | 13.05 | 18.92 | 5.03| 12.37 
1514 | Newbern, heavy cabbage | 
ES ES 1.70 | 0.00 | 2.04 | 10.57 | 10.65 |.22.75 | 30.22 8.95 | 13.12 
° . | 
1519 | Elizabeth City.............. 3.34} 0.00; 0.00} 2.07 4.75 | 39.16 | 30.04 | 6.27 14, 37 
} 


1522 | Edenton, heavy truck land..| 2.35] 0.00 | 1.13] 6.11 | 20.58 | 27.82 | 18.37 | 7.79 | 15.85 


‘Tho figures in this column were determined by difference, and are the total organic matter, moist- 


' ure, and loss in the analyses. 


The influence of the texture of the soil on the distribution of different 


truck crops is here also very apparent. Sample No. 1510, containing 


ee a 


~~ 


138 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


2.80 per cent of clay and 6.24 per cent of silt, was taken from a field 
near Newbern adjoining that from which sample No.1514 was obtained. 
This latter, it will be seen, has 13 per cent of clay and nearly 45 per 
cent of the three finest grades, viz, silt, fine silt, and clay. The first 
sample (No. 1510) is admirably adapted to the very early spring vege- 
tables, such as potatoes, peas, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, melons, and 
asparagus. The heavier lands are adapted to the heavier and later 
truck, particularly cabbage, spinach, tomatoes, and peas. Crops planted 
at the same time on these two soils in the early spring would mature 
from six to ten days earlier on the light-textured soil than on the heavier 
soil. Samples Nos, 1524 and 1534, from Edenton and Hertford, are 
adapted to the very early spring vegetables. These soils are both too 
light in texture for cabbage. Sample No. 1522 represents the heavier 
soils at Edenton, well adapted to cabbage, although rather too heavy 
even for this crop. Sample No. 1566, from Elizabeth City, is well 
adapted to all truck crops. Sample No. 1519, from near the same place, 
would be classed asa very heavy truck soil, and adapted only to the 
later crops, except that, being adjacent to the water, it admits of piant- 
ing a week or ten days earlier, and so matures its crop about the same 
time as lighter-textured soils further inland. 


TRUCK SOILS OF VIRGINIA. 


The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of some of 
the finest truck soils around Norfolk, Va. The two samples, Nos. 1595 
and 1593, represent the finest type of truck land of that locality. They 
are adjacent to the water and the crops are thus insured against damage 
from late spring frosts. 


TABLE 3.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils. 


- rg =} | ro | 1 
| ee ie Meee ae) 
aa| 4 ary Or ee a | Bee aieeme 
Z = 7 4 = qa. | Se of S = = <# 
N oO Locality. 2 He Vw = wD 4 N | Las = 3 et z 12 = 
a+ as =u wok a i = S >S 
Sf b al | ot © ee ~ et a 
= 5 ° © A oe om 
fo) o 5 B= Fy > A | FH Oo 
ae Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Perct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. 
1595 | 5 miles west of Norfolk..... 1. 36 0.00 TAZ 28. 27 38. 25 7 Sis | 15014 5. 90 Tits 
1593 | 4 miles west of Norfolk..... 1. 26 0.00:| 0.64.) 24.041 41.03 5. 71-| 11.54 7:30 8. 40 
1601 | 3 miles east.of Norfolk. ...-. ) 4015 0. 09 027 | 43.512 12. 96 6. 63 | 20. 20 4.79 8. 88 
1599 | 24 miles east of Norfolk.....| 2.20 0. 00 2°67: |) 257 5.12 -) 10: 16) 3i045 8. 88 14. 35 


These soils are both adapted to all of the early spring vegetables, but 
they are rather light in texture for cabbage and spinach. These crops 
will not stand the winter well on these light soilsand have to be set out 
early in the spring. Sample No. 1599, from east of Norfolk, is very much 
heavier in texture than those just mentioned. This is a type of a large’ 
area of land in that locality admirably adapted to cabbage and spinach, 
and these are the staple crops. They are too heavy for sweet potatoes 


a 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 139 


and melons, and also for Irish potatoes. The Irish potatoes do well, 
but they mature nearly a week or ten days later than on the lighter soils 
west of Norfolk. The heavier soils are more valuable for cabbage for 
the reason that the plants can be put out in the fall and attain some 
growth during the fall and winter, and thus have an advantage over a 
crop which has to be planted on the lighter soils in the spring. | 


c 


TRUCK SOILS OF MARYLAND. 


An examination has been made of soils from a number of localities 
in the truck area of Maryland. This area is divided into the West 
Shore, or southern Maryland, and the Kastern Shore, by the Chesapeake 
Bay. The truck lands of southern Maryland occur principally in a 
narrow belt bordering the rivers and bay shore. The nearer the water 
the more valuable the land, both on account of the freedom from frosts 
and the cheapness of water transportation. The samples in this table 
are arranged according to the amount of clay in the subsoil. As thus 
arranged they are very nearly in the order of their relative agricultural 
value. The lighter soils, that is, those containing the smallest amount 
of clay, are considered the earliest and best adapted for the spring 
vegetables. The lands containing more than 6 or 7 per cent of clay are 
better adapted to cabbage, small fruits, and the later and heavier truck 
crops. The exception to this is where the heavier lands, as is the case 
with No. 573, for example, are situated directly on a point of land nearly 
surrounded by water, which insures them against spring frosts and 
enables the crops to be planted a week or two earlier than would be 
safe further inland. 

To show the effect of texture on the adaptation of these lands to the 
different crops, two samples from Tick Neck may be cited. No. 585 
represents the lightest grade of sandy land of that locality, adapted 
to the early spring vegetables, while No. 587, with the same exposure 
and separated only by a short distance, is much later and adapted to 
the heavier erops because it contains more clay and is more retentive 
of moistyre. 


TABLE 4.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands. 


ol Nae (Maas a Sn 2 oe. fee ha 
Ba | 8 BM: (hse i 6 S ° 
aA LA rth eS = 5 5 = o— 
eS ak aA = awe oF = 28 ~ Bu 
Locality. te Sh ae Ew. | as as i a A ae 
et ees Ye = de a a 12 n> S 
as ® oe = ; a S 5S 5 © 
= > Fa ro M2 © Pot - = a 
oF 3 S o~ | 4 3 = be A 
o oS 1d a ) > an | O 
\e ta \} | | 
oo nee SEORR). P. et.| P. ct..| Per ct. | Per ct. i et.| Perct.| Perct.| Per ct.| P. ct. 
Mevern River............0..._.. 3.36 | 0.63 | 3.73 | 38.01 | 28.69 | 10.31 | 10.26} 1.81] 3.20 
wear Baltimore. ..:...'.......... 8.21 |'4.03 | 20.88 | 41.11 | 14.25 3.58 2. G4 1.61 3. 69 
_ SSE ae ane ee 0.04 | 0.51} 1.32 | 17.84 | 55.92] 16.75] 3.03 | 0.90 | 3.7 
Marley post-office............... 0.16 | 0.28 | 5.42 | 41.45 | 26.73 | 12.46 722 | 2.21] 4.07 
Biewwie ms _ _ 2 AOS ey eee Ck ew 4.96 | 40.19 | 27.59-| 12.10 | 7.74 2. 23 | 4. 40 
NS a eee 1 0.30 | 0. 74 7.13 | 36.21 | 22.82 | 14.15 | 9.26 4. 68 4.71 


140 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE 4.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands—Continued. 


e Fare) = 10 = 
re as Gee a2) ee 
Bey) ace) Sees Sil tiesies pees 
No. Locality. eal wo § Fig Ae a 3 
eA Pee) vets pe tp ce af 
8 |). b ra bot 
BE SS Ot se HS 
° So FS a BH |e 
MARYLAND (WEST SHORE)—con'd.| p et. |P. ct. |Perct. |Peret. |Perct. | Per ct. 
585 | Tick Neck, sandyland.......... 0,24 | 0°45 | 10:23) | 46.29) | -20.155)° 8: 17 
583 | 14 miles northeast of Marley..... 0.55 | 0.28 | 6.09 | 39.48 | 23.00 | 14.69 
591 | 1 mile north of Marley.......... 1.05 | 0.39 | 5.52 | 36.53 | 24.91 | 11.79 
el ERE een nae ei oe was) ae 228 0.31 | 0.39 | 7.04 | 37.51 | 21.45 | 13.45 
AED?) Mate PAERIO Foc o 6 cook et eee ks 0.25 | 3.47 | 12:05 | 44.06 | 18.02 | 9.59 
5€5 | 2 miles west of Armiger........ 0.50 | 2.12! 8.81 | 31.35 | 22.82 | 16.76 
2095) Washincton, PD: C......-2<./<. 0%. SO ey eae ool nooc Ont aia | moe 
OW ee eS ee ee 1.00 | 0.09 | 2.31 | 31.18 | 25. 49 | 16.92 
567 | 1 mile west of Armiger......-... 1.09 | 2.46 | 13.32 | 39.83 | 14.14 | 9.34 
Baoan) Marley Neck <. 22. 2262. 0285). 5 6.04 | 0.97 | 6.22 | 29.96 | 21.91 | 11.57 
Ri 3y | GEIS Bee eae oO oe Se 0.2 0.44 | 6.46 | 86.73 | 19.54 | 10. 28 
230 | South River Neck.............-. 0.5£ | 0.32 ; 5.81 | 40.63 | 28.93) 9.44 
ad |) CCK IVECO, (GAM occ. cece cea 3.18 | 6.06 | 22.09 | 29.87 | 9.82 | 6.52 
245 | Patexent River..2 72062625555 2: 1.44) 1.78 | 7.63 | 38.35 | 21.80! 6.87 
577 | Magothy Neck...............--- 0.97 | 1.52 | 4.50 | 29.88 | 23.77 | 10.36 
589 2 miles north of Armiger.....-.|.-.-.- 2.33 | 26.08 | 33.06 | 10.18 | 4.71 
575 | Magothy Neck, loam........... 0.08 | 1.26] 8.91 | 47.84] 6.29] 6.29 
i i eae OO coccweocseee ewan asmas Seen! 1. VOSA Maeod mate se | 2G. 80" 1 ave 
“569 | Magothy Neck...........-....-- 0.90 | 0.87 | 5.82 | 26.22 | 17.55 | 16.34 
268 | South River....... oe hn eas 2.48 | 0.04 | 1.97 | 28.64 | 39.68 | 11.43 
590 | 2 miles north of McCubbins’ 
ROCK POUib onan ence cena es omies 0.44 | 0.91 | 5.45 | 28.73 | 22.81 | 13.44 
£81 | 4milenorth of McCubbins’ Rock 
ROME 2 atte cwaes eectaniidaeas 0.71 | 0.56 | 4.83 | 27.49 | 16.36 | 12.51 
OOF 1 BRAM Oy 5 foe sabia Bee keen seni S| 187 0; 761 8..55,)635..04 | 19° 26") 8.742 
BO) Wem are TETANON ose oncceeiwine ies 3.52 /12.80 | 8.36 | 20.11 | 10.72 | 10.15 
573 | Magothy Neck, ‘‘ gravellyloam”.| 1.55 | 3.67 | 11.92 | 29.99 | 6.35 | 5.56 


1 Including 1.08 per cent larger than 2™™, 


1 I 
ae) 
=| ease 
id A i = 
S| ce [3 
= A = 
| my o 

Perct.| Peret. Pret. 
(11s) 25200 Asa 
8.46} 2.48 | 5.01 
9.89 | 4751 ce -b242 

LO 720) ae te! onal 
573") 1237 | 2 ore 

10:19) -2.08-| 5.47 

15,24 |, 4505) | 5.81 

12.86} 3.82] 6.33 

LOS 17 53.29") 6436 

12.80 | 4.08! 6.45 

137424 souGl ele 
4.60 | 2.04] 7.63 

10: 71. |) Sxeer) . ieoo 

1730 e248" Pa. oo 

17-16) eedese |e onOd 

13.14 | 3.58] 8.29 

15.081, 5: 76"| “8iae 

215057! “9557 18239 

1G. 338e\) +t. 457) 8002 
4595) |, 2302) 8:49 

14.77 | 4.29] 9.16 

22.39 | 5.03 | 10.12 

11.38 | 4.13 | 10.59 

17.98 | 8.76 | 11.60 
9.91 | 6.21 | 12.84 


The Eastern Shore of Maryland, included in the peninsula district, 
has been a noted center of truck farming. The crops mature after the 
bulk of the Virginia crop has been marketed. 


No. 


1209 
1198 


TABLE 5.—Mechanical analyses of truck subsoils. 


Locality. 


| Moisture in air- 
| dry sample. 
_ Organic matter. 


| 


MARYLAND (EASTERN 
SHORE). 


1 mile east of Barren Creck | P. ct.| P. ct. 


es idoanes 0.22 | 1.04 
Salisbury ....--ccsccsvceas 0.14 | 0.91 
2 miles west of Darren 

Creek Springs .......... | 0.22 | 0.87 


rs 

~ =| 

i=} Ss 

LA ae 

a | of 

oy ay 

g | Ge 

s ° 

Oo ie) 
Pct. \ Ler ct. 
0.81 | 9.60 
0.85 | 6,29 
0.48 | 6.71 


Medium sand 
(.5-.25™™) , 


Fine sand. (.25- 
]mm) 


Per ct. 
25. 93 
56, 66 


30. 27 


Very fine sand 
(.1-.05™m), 


Per ct. 
Oo ia 
9.77 


2. 79 


Per ct 
2.01 
4.53 


4. 62 


| Silt (.05-.01mm, 


| 


| = 
re 
Ye) 
ae 
| eee 
es . 
aie “=e 
spat =) 
19 i=} 
nS oS 
So BS 
(9) -- ee 
A 4 
ce 2) 


.|\Per.ct.| P. et: 
0. 94 1. 46 
0. 94 1.76 
1,21 2. 06 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 141 


TABLE 5.—Mechanical analyses of truck subsoils—Continued. 


| 


| 


’ . 3 a=] rz i i 
Gye ee Fore pope ers. 
Ae! 3 Lp ne s es E LF hal 
No. Lecality. i a A et 0% at ae Big t m8 ~ 
Ba; g a nm | ms aa | # |} 2 oo Ss 
2 eon ee ae ee ee: 
Or Ep & a oa a a = = = 
A 6 -G to A Fy > om | eye 
MARYLAND (EASTERN | | | 
SHORE)—continued. 
1213 | 1 mile southeast of Salis- | P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct. | Per et.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per et.| Per ct.| Per ct.| P..ct. 
SOM Sti wale wees Ge via a on wan 0.33 | 0.50) 1.91 6.43 | 32.95 | 33. 69 | 10.22} 9.15 | 2.08 2. 60 
1192 | 2 miles south of Barren | 
Creek Springs .......... 0.19 | 0.85 | 0.82 6.64 | 45.21 | 29.30 3. 37 9.38 | 1.96 2. 87 
Perm ONCOTO .- 2. 2.--->--+----- 0.44 | 2.02 | 0.99 6.94 | 33.29 | 31.36 9.05 | 10.24 | 2.81 2. 97 
1188 | 4 mile south of Barren 
Creek Springs .......... 0.01 | 0.75 | 0.32 8.75 | 46.37 | 32.44 o4d° |) 8.01: | 0. 78 2.99 
ize4 | New Market.............. 0.23 | 1.29 | 0.50 | 6.47 | 31.07 | 15.80 | 7.40 | 26.73 | 4.26 3. 50 
1207 | 2 miles west of Salisbury..| 0.26 | 0.85 | 2.03 | 7.93 | 38.36 | 25.55 | 9.77 | 7.40] 3.33 | 4.02 
1240 | 6 miles south of Preston..| 0.32 | 1.52 | 5.78 | 17.54 | 37.23 | 17.04 | 5.71] 8.40] 2.16 | 4.04 
ieee) Cabin Creek ...........-.. 0.47 | 1.65 | 4.61 | 15.31 | 35.66 | 18.36 | 4.76 | 10.62 | 3.63 4, 22 
1219 | American Corners ........ 0: 20°), 107 | 4,32 | 12595" 139.3 17. 49 7.09 | 10.56 | 1.98 |, 4.54 
1232 | lmilewestof New Market.| 0.42 | 1.70 | 0.72] 6.41 | 31.93 | 16.70 | 11.94 | 15.82 | 7.51 4.81 
1228 | 3 miles west of New 
LE EG) eee ‘| 0.42 | 1.10 | 2.77 | 12.02 | 34.53 | 24.30 Liars) 45 | 2.24 5. 33 
12 SOS Corl hh ee a 0.61 | 2.25 | 1.06 8.39 | 21.87 | 12.73 } 12: 88 | 27.81 | 7.05 5. 35 
1230 | 24 miles northwest of New 
; DEER ISOU- aiein Sete ow craa = 0.47 | 1.43 | 0.89 6.92 | 27.64 | 20.48 | 10.98 | 22.04 | 3.28 5. 60 
1215 | 34 miles southeast of 
Ss 0.25 | 1.39 | 1.36 6.02 | 28.52 | 27.95 ale Wy i ( 9.10 | 3.00 5. 61 
1217 | 6 miles southeast of Salis- 
SEMEN Ditahestatintvenialad 2X6 1,29 | 2.84 | 1.15 6.99 | 33.52 | 17.85 | 13.19 | 12.21 | 2. 86 eae 
mee) Mount Wolly... .......00- OF TS) V L6ar i Zoo 8.40 | 23.07 | 14.03 | 138.54 | 24.54 | 4.41 7. 53 
oe |) Tankwood. ............2... 0.85 | 1.98 | 0.52 6.11 | 28.43 | 18. 34 9.49 | 21.97 | 4.03 7.84 
ioe | New Market.............. 1.15%) 2.07.) 0787 | 6.doe et, 27 |- 13,12 | 11. 16°} 22.94 | 2. 95 9. 43 
fee | Mount Holly..........-.-. 0.92 | 2.03 | 0.69 | 5.97 | 22.91 | 14.68 | 12.17 | 25.19 | 3.98 | 11.19 


The same marked effect of the texture of the soil on the distribution 
of the different classes of crops is shown in the investigations of the 
soils of this locality. Without considering the influence of the proximity 
of large bodies of water, the lighter soils, that is, those containing the 
least amount of clay, are invariably regarded as the earlier, and as a 
rule the crops mature from six to eight or ten days earlier than on the 
heavier truck soils. Salisbury is one of the principal centers of the 
trucking interest, and it will be seen that the soils around this place are 
very light textured and well adapted to the early spring vegetables. 
Barren Creek Springs is another locality where the soils are well 
adapted to early truck, but the industry has not yet been developed 
there as fully as at Salisbury. - 

A number of samples in this table were taken from Caroline County, 
where wheat is still grown on nearly all the farms, as it was grown 
throughout the present truck area until the peculiar adaptation of 


{42 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


these lands to truck farming and the improved facilities for transporta- 
tion induced the farmers to abandon wheat and take up this much more 
profitable industry. These samples show that the soils of Caroline 
County which have been examined are well adapted to early truck, and 
nearly all of the county would be greatly benefited if the farmers 
would abandon wheat and turn their attention to this special line of 
farming. 

The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of a number 
of samples from one of the most famous centers of track farming in the 
country, namely, that portion of Long Island adjacent to New York City. 


TABLE 6.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils of truck lands. 


: co c=} cs I 
=| ee GN aed A a a fa = 
2 — 3 a eS. — Reh S ~~ e « 
Aa) 3 rt Sa ee ee ae ee eR 
‘ of | oh 5 dis Ae | gio 7 a a 
No. Locality. eo = x O19 = Ba aS l 15 x 
A 5 72 a 4 DO | S c aro ; 12 @ = 2 
ael| & 2. Beh eae ee = 
mH is & 3 ro fo) Pw 3 
ee ey 8 lo | ew he et el) Se 
=| fo) 6 bo | = - wm | D 
— | 
! 
E st on P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| Per ct.| Per et.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per et.| Per et.| P. ct. 
616 | 1 mile south of Jamaica...| 1.08 | 1.40 | 9.09 | 21.46 | 35.75 | 16.05 | 6.18 | 5.24] 1.35] 3.29 
558 | 1 milesouthof Jamaica..-.; 0.10 | 1.52 | 18.44 | 28.77 | 28.86 | 7.98| 3.95 | 5.50] 1.39] 3.37 
55 | 14 miles east of New Lots.; 0.22 | 3.78 | 6.15 | 18.35 | 34.57 | 14.18 | 7.49} 9.13] 1.87) 4.13 
baa.) Mabylow --...-.<--------- | 0.12 | 2.74 | 4.81 | 13.62 | 31.58 | 10.19} 7.76] 18.51 | 3.29] 6.70 
539 | Jamaica ....--.----------- 0.14 25 | 9.59 ; 19.06 | 24.91} 9.65 | 10.08 | 14.10) 3.29] 7.25 
8 


Meta MIAtIANAS. -...040<siee spices i, 
4 mileeast of New Lots ..| 0. 
56 | 14 miles eastof New Lots.| 0. 
43 | 1 mile east of New Lois -..| 0. 
OS) One. MiGeSta~. 5am. sain ooo, atop ip, 
20 | 1 mile west of Flatiands..} 1. 


ive) 
oO 


.69 | 10.86 | 20.01 | 6.49 | 12.15 | 23.85 | 5.99) 7.56 


aw 
paar 


1. &0 | 22.20 | 25.58 | 8.70 | 7.32) 12°68 / 2.82] 7. 72 
3 4,61 | 15.59 | 34.82 | 12.94 | 10.95 | 6.82) 3.35] 8.58 
50 | 22.94 | 11.52 | 28.08 | 12.00 | 10.72 | 10.48 | 2.63 | 8.60 
32 | 6.46 | 13.24] 19.14 | 8.46 | 17.20 | 21.57} 3.60 | 11.30 
66 | 1.11) 3.91 | 5.98 | 4.76 | 13.15 | 40.15 | 12.10 | 12. 86 


co 00 
im 


fom) for} 

Q bo 
me pw po pp 

io 0) 

co 

4 


bo 
= 


It will be seen that these soils have the same texture as the samples 
which have already been given from the Southern coast. The influence 
of the texture of the soil on the distribution of the different classes of 
truck crops is very marked here also. The lighter-textured soils are 
adapted to the early spring vegetables, while the heavier soils are 
better adapted to the heavier crops, such as cabbage and spinach, and 
to small fruits. For example, it is said that spring-planted crops can 
be forced to mature about two weeks earlier on soils represented by 
samples Nos. 616 and 558 than on the heavier soil, No. 539, the expo- 
sure and other conditions being nearly identical in the two places. 


i RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 143 


The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of early 
truck soils from Providence, R. I, and from Boston, Mass. 


od 


TABLE 7.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils. 


@g| s si} 3.) 3./2 duit inl Re 
-” 5 q oe 6 z q E —— a 3 = we. = 
No. Locality. fe] 9 © ort é a a a, & 3 ye ‘a8 ~s 
ae) b =| o He = a) wnt * oo 2 
n fa 3 b am rej “e Oo ee ~ a “ —S 
Soa | g ° ing Be o = an 
Sot ey Bh | Bees ee peo fae Be lbo 
—_ oo —_— — -_— <\- — — | —— —|—_—— 
egal P. ct.| P. ct. |\Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Perct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct..| F367, 
(0 28 0.62 | 2.50 | 1.64) 3.42 | 10.58 | 29. 32 43.93 | 4.99 | 1. 03 1. 84 
7 7 Ly See ee eee 107 | 2:58 ) G85) 3558 |. 153 25°) 3 07 | 29:31 | 12.62 | 1. 52 2. 64 
Carlee %, CUN 8 ge Se SEP. SE ee a gee 5.94) 1.53 6.45 | 16.06 | 19.95 29.18.\ 13. 57. | 2:40 7.45 
RHODE 'SLAND. / 

Geo. } Providenée!.............. 0.20 | 2.02 }10..70 | £52209. 27 FS |-Sl.07 | LOVDt | 2) 86 0. 53 1.14 
7) oe 0 SSE a ae 0,99 \05. 940). 7.35.) 1102) 23. 17 | 24.52) 17.45 | 4.79 | 1. 88 | 1. 62 
ReGrravél larger thaw 2°... elec 21.21 
Came Cat ea ees = 5 Stee ot ea oe cia aoe oe 78. 79 

100. 00 


The early truck farming of the Atlantic Seaboard is confined to soils 
similar in texture to those whose analyses have been given. The 
climate of course has much to do with the actual time of harvest in 
each locality, but the character of the soils and the proximity to large 
bodies of water determine the distribution of crops in each locality, 
and soils and transportation facilities together define the area over 
which truck farming can be profitably carried on in any locality. 


TOBACCO SOILS OF CONNECTICUT AND PENNSYLVANIA. 


Tobacco is grouped commercially into classes, types, and grades. 
The class represents the use to which it is adapted, whether for cigar, 
cigarette, smoking, chewing, or export trade. The type is dependent 
upon certain qualities, such as the color, texture, and flavor of the leaf, 
and upon the question whether it is sun-cured, air-cured, flue-cured, ete. 
The grade refers to the degree of excellence of the leaves from the same 
type or even from the same stalk. The different grades are designated 
as low, medium, and good, and also with respect to the use, as fillers, 
binders, wrappers, and the like. 

Different types of tobacco are required for cigars, cigarettes, smok- 
ing, and chewing, and different grades for the wrappers and fillers of 
cigars and for plug tobacco. Furthermore, different sections of our 
own country and several of the importing foreign countries require dif- 
ferent classes, types, and grades of tobacco for their use. 

The English, German, and Italian markets require a coarse, dark, 
heavy type of tobacco, grown extensively in the Clarksville district of 


144 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Tennessee and Kentucky. The Austrian and Swiss markets require a 
lighter-colored and more leafy tobacco, which is grown upon the lighter 
and poorer soils of the Clarksville district. The French market requires 
a still lighter and coarser leaf. Nearly all of the Maryland tobacco 
and much of the Virginia and Ohio tobaccos go to France, Holland, 
and Germany for pipe smoking, as it is a mild, sweet-flavored tobacco, 
with free burning qualities, making it specially suitable for this use. 
The cigarette tobacco comes principally from the bright-tobacco soils of 
Virginia, North and South Carolina, and eastern Tennessee. 

Tobacco can be grown on almost any well-drained soil which will 
produce Indian corn; but the climatic conditions and the texture and 
physical properties of the soil so greatly modify the development of the 
plant as to determine the distribution of the different classes and 
types. Climatic conditions control, of course, the general distribution, 
but the influence of tle texture of the soil in modifying the effect of 
these climatic conditions determines the local distribution of types. 
Tobacco readily adapts itself to a wide range of climatic conditions, as 
is seen in the distribution of the plant in our own country from Florida 
to Wisconsin. While it adapts itself very readily to the different con- 
ditions of temperature and rainfall which normally prevail during the 
growing season throughout this wide range of territory, seasons which 
are either too wet or too dry very often reduce the yield per acre and 
impair the quality and the value of the product. The plantis, further- 
more, peculiarly sensitive to the conditions of moisture and heat, result- 
ing under existing climatic conditions from the texture and physical 
properties of the different soil formations, and this largely determines 
the local distribution of the different types of tobacco. 


ADAPTATION OF SOILS TO VARIETIES OF TOBACCO. 


Soils adapted to the production of the coarse shipping tobacco, suit- 
able for the English and German markets, will not produce fine tobacco 
of any variety. Soils containing a large proportion of clay, or which 
otherwise are very retentive of moisture, produce large, heavy plants, 
which cure dark-brown or red, with large quantities of oil or gum in 
the leaves. light, sandy soils, on the other hand, produce a thinner 
leaf, which cures a very bright red, mahogany, and even lemon yellow. 
So marked is this influence of soil upon the quality of tobacco that a 
fine bright-tobacco land may be separated by only a few feet from a 
heavier clay soil which will produce only a coarse, heavy shipping leaf. 
Varieties which produce an excellent quality of tobacco on soils to 
which they are adapted produce an entirely different type when planted 
on lands of a different character, and frequently fail entirely. Yellow 
Pryor and Orinoco grown upon rich lowlands, especially if well 
manured, produce a strong, heavy type of tobacco, while upon light, 
new land the product of the same varieties is yellow, fine flavored, 
thin textured, and sweet. 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 145 


Manures and fertilizers tend to increase the yield per acre, but in 
the case of the fine, bright tobaccos this is usually accompanied by a 
deterioration of the quality of the product, especially if excessive 
quantities of stable manure and other forms of nitrogenous manures 
are added to the land. With the heavier varieties of tobacco, how- 
ever, this increase of yield is often accompanied by a marked improve- 
ment in the quality of the product, as it becomes richer and contains 
more oil and gum, which is an advantage for the purpose to which this 
class of tobacco is adapted. 

The distribution of the principal types of tobacco may be broadly 
stated as follows: The seed-leaf, or Havana, tobacco is produced in 
such quantities and such excellence as to give a distinct character to 
localities in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
Ilinois, Wisconsin, and Florida; the red shipping leaf gives a distinct 
character to localities in Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee, Iowa, 
and Arkansas; the white Burley gives a distinct character to localities 
in Ohio and Kentucky; heavy shipping tobacco for export gives a 
distinct character to localities in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, 
Kentucky, and Tennessee; mahogany and yellow wrappers and smokers 
give a distinct character to localities in Virginia, North and South Car- 
olina, and eastern Tennessee. 

The best soils for these different classes and types of tobacco are 
very different, ranging from the light, sandy lands of the pine barrens 
for the fine yellow varieties to the heavy clay soils of the limestone 
areas for the heavier grades of tobacco. This must always be borne in 
mind, as otherwise there would be apparent contradictions, since in 
some districts light, sandy loams, and in others strong clay soils, are 
described as best adapted to the variety of tobacco which gives char- 
acter to the locality. 

The writer has endeavored to study during the past season the con- 
ditions maintained by the soils adapted to some of these different 
classes and types of tobacco for the purpose of determining those which 
are essential to the best development of each of these types. This infor- 
mation, with a knowledge of the ordinary climatic conditions, would give 
a basis for the classification of tobacco soils and for the improvement 
and modification of the conditions in many soils which are not, under 
present methods of manuring and cultivation, well adapted to any par- 
ticular type of tobacco. This work involves considerable preliminary 
examination of the physical conditions of the soilsin the localities which 
are to be selected, and then the establishment of observing stations in 
these different areas. It has been impossible, for various reasons, to 
obtain in one year records of the soil conditions from many localities 
and, with respect to the localities from which we have obtained records, 
the data are not yet all available, and will not be until the tobacco is 
cured. 


146 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TOBACCO SOILS OF THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY. 


The influence of soil upon the quality of the tobacco grown in the 
Connecticut Valley is very marked. Where the soilis a heavy clay 
loam, or for other reasons is normally very moist, the tobacco produces 
a thick leaf which has considerable oil and gum in its tissues, cures a 
dark color, and will bear sweating well, but 1s not well suited for cigar 
wrappers at present because light-colored, thin-textured wrappers are 
in demand at this time. Upon light, sandy soils the quality is very 
fine, the texture of the leaf is thin, and the color is light. Itis this type 
of tobacco which is at present in demand for cigar wrappers. A good 
wrapper for our domestic use at present requires a leaf of fine texture 
and small veins, but with plenty cf body. It must have elasticity and 
strength to make it pliable in working, and it must have good sweating 
qualities to bring out the flavor and to give it the aroma it needs when 
finally cured. 

Samples of the soils and subsoils have been collected from a number 
of localities representing some of the principal types of land adapted to 
tobacco and several soils not adapted to this crop. Observations have 
been taken every day during the growing season to determine the 
amount of moisture in the soils in several places. 

The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of three of 
the very finest types of tobacco soil in the State of Connecticut for the 
light-colored, thin-textured wrappers. 


TABLE 8.— Mechanical analyses of subsoils of tobacco land. 


= &£ yard I res rt ! ro a | I 
fered) 4% Sy SRE | ELAS ht OER go. || aa ais 
a" 3 a ere a ee SS aE = Doe ae 
on)? aot es [2 ieee ak ee eC ie i ae 
No. Loeality. ea S x Om] gn Ag AS ! ah = 
: ee 4 a ny ° SH ay = ie =) 
eb i= o Set Yen) 0 wT = R S bo 
QD 3 > = “rds o be ~ Oo” — 
eae Sp RB fos] > Re =| 4 ~~ q a 
ow a ra ° oO -- oO o = oe] 
a Ey i4) Os, os = a b a iS tS) 
CONNECTICUT. | | 
842 | 34 miles cast of East Hart- |Perct.|Perct.|Perct. Perct. Per ct.| Per ct.| Perct.| Perct.| Percet. | Per ct. 
tord, “plains pene... - 170; 46 ) 2.08") "9, 05 | 5.03 | A8s3t | 25.83) S2: tetera pa Na) 2. 51 
125i A POquenock so4.2.-2 =e eon, 0.56 | 1.64 | 3.22 | 7.53 | 19.64 | 23.76 | 34-50") 5,92") O78 25a0 
29 | East Hartford, Podunk 
| Gisbriet 5. oe nd see. F 0:49 | 2.05} 0:09) 0.305) 3. 00) 69895) 52ers aoe emcee 4.00 
= 2 


The amount of clay in these samples ranges from 2.5 to 4 per cent. 
The soil of the “plains,” near East Hartford, is a very light, sandy 
soul, which grows a tobacco of a very fine texture and very good color, 
but the yield per acre is naturally low. The conditions which give this 
iand its characteristic value are undoubtedly to be found in the small 
content of clay and in the small amount of moisture which these 
“plains” soils maintain. No observations have been made on the 
moisture condition of these soils in their natural condition in the field, 

The subsoil of the Poquonock lands is seen to contain about 2.53 per 
cent of clay, 5.92 per cent of silt, and less than 1 per cent of fine silt. 


f. 
\ 
ri 

i 


eA, 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 147 


These soils have almost identically the same texture as the “plains” 
soil, and the development, texture, and color of the tobacco crop is 
believed to be about the same. The yield is larger in this particular 
locality, because the lands have been more intelligently cultivated. 
This is believed to represent the finest type of land of the Connecti- 
eut Valley for the light-colored, thin-textured cigar wrapper, which 
approaches the Sumatra grade. When heavy, dark wrappers are in 
style this soil can not compete with the heavy limestone soils of Penn. 
sylvania for the domestic market. 


Per Cent. 


oa 


- 


[7768 | re 3¥50 | 592 


25-1 1-05 .05-.01 


Diameter of the grains in miliimeiers. 


Fie. 4.—Mechanical separation of the gravei, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil from 
Poqucnock, Conn., adapted to tobacco. 


The amount of moisture has been determined in these soils throngh- 
out the growing season. ‘The results are shown in a diagram, figure 6, 
page 149. The figures on the left-hand side of the diagram indicate 
the percentage of moisture found in the soil to a depth of 12 inches 
from the surface. The dotted portions of the line pass through the 
dates where observations are missing. 

The soils of the Podunk region of East Hartford and Windsor, rep- 
resented by No. 729, are seen to have about 4 per cent of clay and 27.73 
per cent of silt, with 3.56 per cent of fine silt. The relatively large 
amount of silt makes these soils more retentive of moisture than the 
soils of Poquonock, and they are said to grow a rather heavier type of 
tobacco. The relative character of the crops of these two soils during 
the past season can not be exactly determined until the crops come out 
of the sweat and are finally eured, which requires nearly a year from 
the time the crop is harvested. 


148 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


It will be seen that the soil of the Podunk district contained during 
the season considerably more moisture than the soil at Poquonock, and 
this undoubtedly accounts for the heavier and darker type of tobacco 
produced. 


=a 


Ce lhe 
ah 


STITT 
uy 


Diameter of the grains in millimelers. 


Fic. 5.—Mechanieal separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil of tho 
Podunk district, East Hartford, Conn., adapted to tobacco. 


Hatfield, Mass., is another center for the tobacco industry of the 
Connecticut Valley, and samples have been collected from a number of 
localities in that vicinity. Their mechanical analyses are given in the 
accompanying table. 


TABLE 9.—Mechanical analyses of subsoils. 


| 


: . - ten] loan} vw} rc peat ' | 
a : 5 et 4 A = a E = ile} 
So 2 5 : eee A we 8 S o 
Sa] & a ee gig! apes! a eee ek 
A Sg \ a EB ne of * nai ~2 
og ro) =| i) = | 10d — Oo l ates £ 
No. | Locality. 5s 5 LS om | 2a ; ES 1 ay 4 
oe > | ay O19 } 2 S 
| eel be SA se WN dene bo = of bs 
— m ~— — — 
oo |) f° aa PS © “4 5 = ha a 
iA OF oes gy A ey > a ee o 
ie ae =. = a = oy | 
MASSACHUSETTS. | 
orcas are Per ct.|Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct. |Per ct.|Per ct.'Per ct. 


1039 Hatfield, ‘‘2-acre lot”’.-..| 0.21 | 1.48 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.50 |°28,11 | 55.78 | 10.71 0. 63 0. 92 
1173 | Hatfield, representing | | 


average soils of this lo- | 


PAGS ty sed sist esceky 0.59 | 2.71. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.40 9.00 | 42.12 | 38.90 | 3.07 3.17 
875 Hatfield, 100 feet from | 
| Connecticut River...... | 0.66 | 2.15 | 0.00 | 0.00] 0.12 2 315) 40;80) eae 4 Bats 4.50 
901 | Hatfield, 200 feet from 
Connecticut River...... 0.82 | 2.50 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.21 9.13 | 88.11 | 45.09 4.76 5. 98 
| Not suited to tobacco. | | 
999 | Hatfield, ‘‘heavy loam’’. él 0.88 | 3.45 |} 0.00 | 0.00 } 0.10! 0.43 | 21.88 | 67.00 3. 41 2. 61 
1250 | Hatfield, ‘‘meadow land’’.| 0.10 | 4.75 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 0.50 | 32.64 | 49.32 5. 46 6.79 


i 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 


There are two very different types of land represented here. Sample 
No. 1039 came from a 2-acre lot in the town of Hatfield, considered to 
be of the very finest type of tobacco land of the locality. The yield 
per acre is small, but the color, texture, and quality of the tobacco are 
very superior, and the wrappers bring a high price. It will be seen 


that the texture of this soil is similar to that of the Poquonock and of 


a JULY. 
 Trelrrrelisleole leclede dediode7aaiealso| 1 2 [314 5] 6|7 2] 9 pomielalrale[6 
merry try tr rrr Tite. 
cl lh il 
Peer rae 
a a 
a 


~~ 
OoON 


eae 
HH 
Sisal 
aH 
AC 


Fic. 6.—Curves showing the amount of moisture in the tobacco soils at Poquonock, East 
Hartford, and Hatfield, in the Connecticut Valley. 


[= [nv lw [afalolulolofS[EIs[als{a! 


| 
A 
ea 
bali 
aS 
ae 
ae 


the “plains” soil at East Hartford. Sample No. 1173 represents about 
the average tobacco soils of the Hatfield district. This is said to pro- 
duce a very fine quality of tobacco. It will be seen from the analysis 
that the texture of this soil is quite similar to that of the Podunk dis- 
trict of Connecticut. Samples Nos. 875 and 901 represent what are 


150 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Vv 
called the “river sands,” near the edge of the first terrace-overlooking 
the river. They have a small percentage of clay, but a rather large 
amount of silt. This might make them rather too retentive of moisture, 
but their position on the bank of the river insures perfect drainage, as 
the bluff is 25 or 30 feet high at this place. For this reason these soils 
preduce a very fine quality of tobacco, as fine in every way as does 
No. 1039. The importance of the bluff in securing thorough drainage 
to these lands is very marked. Sample No. 875 is taken about 100 feet 
nearer the river bank than No. 901, and the soil is considered more 
valuable for tobacco than the other, the product being brighter and of 
a finer texture. | 

The other two samples were taken from different types of land. 
Sample No. 999 represents what is 
5 locally known as a “heavy loam” 
Poquonock| Hartford | Hatfield | and No. 1250is from a meadow land. 

74 | These two soils are said to produce 
tebacco the leaves of which are 
coarse textured and oily, do not take 
on a good color, and are unsuited to 
the present market demands; but 
when dark wrappers are in style 
these lands will be taken up and the 
cultivation of tobacco will be aban- 
doned on the light soils. These soils 
do not differ materially from the 
cther samples at Hatfield except in 
the large amount of silt they con- 
tain. Owing to this large amount of 
silt and to the peculiar arrangement 
of the silt grains, these soils are very 
close and very retentive of moisture, 
and to these soil peculiarities are 
due the characteristics which unfit 
Fic. 7.—Average amount of water maintained this tobacco for the present demand. 

in 29 grams of tobacco soils at Poquonock, ‘he plants show all the symptoms of 

East Hartford, and Hatficld, in the Connecti- x 

out Valley. an excessive growth from an exces- 
sive water supply. 

The accompanying diagram (fig. 6) shows: the amount of moisture 
maintained during a part of June and July in the soils at Poquonock, 
where the light wrappers are produced, in the soils of the Podunk dis- 
trict, and in this “heavy loam” soil at Hatfield (No. 999), which is 
unsuited to tobacco. 

Figure 7 shows the actual amount of water maintained, on the aver- 
age, by 20 grams of the soil at Poquonock, and at Hast Hartford, and of 
this heavy loam at Hatfield, through the season. The excessive amount 
of moisture maintained by the Hatfield soil is strikingly apparent. 


| 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 151 


It may be asked if this “heavy loam” from Hatfieid is better adapted 
to other types of tobacco. This is undoubtedly so, but just at present 
the heavy, coarse types of tobacco, which in its present condition it is 
adapted to grow, are worth but little. It may also be asked if the con- 
ditions could be modified so as to make the land better adapted to the 
finer types of cigar tobacco. This could undoubtedly be done. The 
first thing needed would be to underdrain the land by tile drains so as 
to remove as much as possible of the excess of water. The tobacco 
should be grown on high beds or ridges, which would keep the roots 
in drier soil and materially improve the texture and quality of the crop. 
The texture of the soil should be changed by judicious methods of 
cropping, manuring, and cultivation, making it more loamy and less 
retentive of moisture. The excessive growth of the plants could be 
checked by cultivation, or by the use of certain manures and chemicals 
which would prevent the plants from taking up so much moisture not- 
withstanding its abundance in the soil. But all this would be expen- 
sive, and it is a question whether it could be economically done under 
the prevailing conditions. 


TOBACCO SOILS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 


The characteristic tobacco of Pennsylvania is grown on the heavy 
limestone soils having a stiff red-clay subsoil. These soils represent the 
very finest type of agricultural land, being well adapted to both wheat 
and grass. They are identical in geological formation, texture, and 
agricultural value with the soils of the Cumberland Valley of western 
Maryland and Virginia and with the soils of the blue-grass region of 
Kentucky. There are, of course, many areas along the river, on the 
islands, and back in other of the geological formations of the hill coun- 
try where sandy soils prevail and where a light-colored, thin-textured 
leaf is produced. This latter type of tobacco at present has a higher 
market value than the crop from the heavier soils, but the type which 
has given character to the tobacco area of Pennsylvania is that grown 
upon these rich and fertile limestone soils of Lancaster and the adja- 
cent counties. These limestone soils produce a heavy, dark type of 
tobacco admirably adapted for wrappers for our domestic use when dark 
cigars happen to be in fashion. 

The fad or fancy for light or dark cigars is difficult to explain. It 
causes prices to fluctuate first in favor of one and then of the other of 
our two principal domestic types of tobacco. 

These conditions should be fully realized by the tobacco planters so 
that they can adapt themselves to the market demands which they can 
not control. They should fully. understand the important influence of 
the character of the soil on their crop. When the fashion calls for light 
cigars they should cultivate only their lighter soils and use their heavier 
lands for other crops. When dark cigars are in demand the lighter soils 
Should be diverted from this use and the heavier soils be once more 


152 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


taken up. The method of cultivation also should tend to emphasize as 
much as possible the differences in the conditions of these two classes of 
soils; the lighter soils should have perfect drainage and maintain but a 
small amount of moisture, while the heavier soils should maintain at all 
times an abundant and uniform supply of moisture. 

The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of two sub- 


soils of tobacco lands from the typical tobacco area of Lancaster 
County. 


TABLE 10.—WMechanical analyses of subsoils. 


e : rs rs 3 Zz - 1 \ 
2 ar wir Bier. (oR Th) Ba. a 3 pe 
S ue | Se | ae | Se) te ee 
F =| of ee ~ 3 5 os S sie, 8 
No. Locality. & Om | oh ae ES as a oe 
- re mn Hl r nites ee Oo las Se 
A Ne Ae Hi oa = : 2 3S 
S Ee Catia i= sal = IN fe! <0 = 2 ae 
= ce (2) | o a] oO x A —_ 
) Her Fer Skee FH - a | |o 
PENNSYLYANIA. Per ct.| Per ct. ‘Per et. Per ct.| Per ‘| Perct.||| Benet eer ec Ip. cl. 
2300 | MaPICtiRA <s- o = mcan 5 case hs 4.36 | 0.12 | 0.22 | 0.27 | 0237 7.48 | 28.28 | 16.24] 35.80 
55) 8 Oy A Aiea ea Srna se Pee ee 5. 34 0, 36 | 0. 40 | 0793)" ede 11.45) 30.55 | 10.35 | 36.30 


Fine silt. . Clay. | 
l62¢ | 35.30 


Gravel. Coerse sand. Medium sand. | Fine sand. | Veryfinesand. 
7 ASF oF 


1° 05-01 | .01.005 


Diameter of the grains in millimeters. 


Fic. 8.—Mechanical separation of the gravel, sand, silt, and clay in 20 grams of subsoil from 
Marictta, Pa., adapted to tobacco. 


It will be seen that these subsoils contain about 36 per cent of clay, 
nearly as much silt, and about half as much fine silt. They contain 
only a very small percentage of sand. There can hardly be a greater 
contrast in agricultural soils than between these heavy limestone soils 


adapted to grass, wheat, and the heavy types of tobacco, and the light 
sandy lands of the Connecticut Valley. 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 153 


The accompanying diagram (fig. 9) shows the amount of moisture 
maintained during the month of July by the soil at Marietta, from 
determinations in samples taken in the field and sent in to the labora- 
tory of the United States Department of Agriculture, compared with 
the moisture determinations at Poquonock and East Hartford, Conn., 
which have been given elsewhere. 


Fic. 9.—Curves showing the amount of moisture in tobacco soils at Poquonock end East 
Hartford, Conn., and Marietta, Pa. 


It will be seen that the limestone soil at Marietta maintains nearly 
three times as much water for tlie plants as the light soil at Poquonock, 
and this more abundant water supply would be expected to have just 
_ the effect which is apparent in the darker, heavier type of tobacco pro- 
duced. 


154 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The Connecticut Valley tobacco competes principally with the Suma- 
tra, and the Pennsylvania with the Cuban tobacco. Our planters 
claim that the domestic wrappers from the Connecticut Valley have a 
better color and a better flavor than the Sumatra tobacco. The latter, 
pnts has an exceedingly thin leaf, hardly thicker than tissue paper, 

but Sengiie tet strong, elastic, and pliable. The veins are so delicate 
that they do not need to be removed. The leaves are so thin and yet 
so strong and cut to such advantage that manufacturers can estimate 
very closely how many cigars a pound of wrapper will cover. It is 
said to cover from four to seven times aS many cigars as an equal 
weight of the domestic leaf. The cigars also have a smoother appear- 
ance and are thought to make a bet- 
ter appearance in the windows and 


2 Marietta 
Poquonock Ml show eases. For these reasons 


Light Wrappers |Dark Wi Cophets 3 et 
7%, 18% manufacturers have been paying 
ica | from $3 to $5 per pound for the 
Sumatra wrapper rather than pay 
from 25 to 50 cents per pound for 
the domestic leaf. ‘The problem 
before our planters, therefore, is to 
make a smaller and thinner leaf, 
with more elasticity and strength 
and with much smaller veins. The 
peculiar character of the Sumatra 
tobacco must be largely due to the 
climatic conditions of theisland, but 
the same result can possibly be ob- 
tained here by close and intelligent 
attention to selection and breeding 
of varieties and by control of the 
soil conditions. 
The Pennsylvania tobacco is well 
Fic. 10.—The average amount of water in 20 adapted for cigar wrappers, but it 
grams of tobacco soils of Poqguoncck and x 
Nieskouas lacks the peculiar delicate flavor 
and aroma of the best grades of 
imported Havana. These qualities are undoubtedly due, in large part 
at least, to the tropical climatic conditions of the island. Whether 
these same qualities can be obtained in the same perfection under the 
existing climatic conditions in Pennsylvania, and if not, whether these 
conditions can be so controlled or changed as to give the desired qual- 
ities, can not be foretold, but offer a legitimate and promising subject 
for investigation. The improvement of the crop should be earried on 
in the lines indicated in this paper by comparing the conditions of cli- 
mate, especially the conditions of moisture and temperature, within the 
range of the best tobacco .soils of Cuba, with those conditions prevail- 
ing in Pennsylvania. When these are known they will form a basis, 


—<—\ os 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 155 


otherwise wanting, for the intelligent control of the soil conditions or 
the improvement of methods of cultivation and treatment. 

Tobacco is grown in Pennsylvania in rather small patches, the aver- 
age size of the fields being about 3 acres. A small proportion of the 


farmers cultivate as much as 5 acres, but it is rather uncommon to have 


more than thig, and there is a disadvantage in having more, as the crop 
can not be so well attended to. The crop is grown under a very inten- 
Sive system of cultivation, involving great care, labor, and expense. 
With such small areas as these there is no good reason why planters 
should not insure their crop against injury by drought by having small 
irrigation plants which would render them in a measure independent 
in case of any deficiency in the rainfall. The water could be obtained 
either from springs or streams, of which there are a great many in that 
limestone area, or by pumping with a windmill or small farm engine. 
In the arid regions of Kansas a good windmill, it is claimed, will fill a 
reservoir large enough to irrigate as much as 5 or 10 acres of land, even 
where several applications of water have to be used during the growing 
season. In the tobacco area of Pennsylvania probably one thorough 
irrigation would carry a crop over the most prolonged drought which 
is there liable to occur. <A reservoir 100 feet square would be sufficient 
to irrigate the crop, and this reservoir could be stocked with fish, which 
would prove a source of pleasure and profit. If it were kept constantly 
filled it could be drawn upon for the tobacco crop when needed, for the 
garden if it were conveniently located, and for other general farm 
purposes. The cost of such an outfit would be comparatively small; 
it could be made to pay by the amount of fish it would produce, if prop- 
erly attended to, and as a measure of precaution and insurance against 
loss of the crop by drought it would be a wise investment even if it 
were used only once in two or three seasons. 

Where there are no available springs or streams and a windmill can 
not well be used, a small farm engine, such as would run a thrashing 
machine, could be very economically employed. Such an engine 
attached to one of the many forms of irrigating pumps would irrigate 
the entire tobacco field in a day or two at a very inconsiderable cost 
for fuel, labor, and wear and tear of machinery. The advantage of 
this would be that with small driven or bored wells located on different 
parts of the farm the engine and pump could be moved from place to 
place as the different fields were cultivated in tobacco in rotation from 
season to season. 


CONDITIONS IN SOILS OF THE ARID REGION. 


The so-called arid portion of Kansas and Nebraska is, broadly speak- 
ing, that portion of the States lying west of the one hundredth merid- 
ian; between the one hundredth meridian and the ninety-seventh the 
climate is called semiarid; and east of the ninety-seventh is the humid 
portion of the States. The mean annual rainfall of the western or 


156 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


arid portion is from 15 to 20 inches; of the central or semiarid portion, 
from 20 to 30 inches; and of the eastern or humid portion, 30 inches 
and over. There are of course no sharp lines separating these divis- 
sions, nor do the boundaries approach a north and south line, for the 
belts of greater or less precipitation have very sinuous courses. 

It is generally conceded that 20 inches of well-distriknted rainfall in 
Kansas will make an abundant crop of wheat or corn. That there 
must be some rather anomalous condition here is shown by the fact that 
in much of the humid portion of the eastern United States there has 
never been so little as 20 inches of annual rainfall within the period of 
reliable records, and in years of most disastrous drought the rainfall 
has been greater than this. ‘The fact that a crop can be made in Kansas 
aud Nebraska with such a small annual rainfall is particularly striking 
when it is remembered that, owing to the drier conditions of the atmos- 
phere, evaporation is very much greater there than in the Kast. 

There are localities in the West where the total annual rainfall does 
not exceed 6 or 8 inches. It does not seem possible that with this 
rainfall under ordinary circumstances crops could be produced by any 
system of agriculture, unless water were artificially supplied. How- 
ever, it seems possible, outside of these exceptional cases, that with 
improved methods of cultivation the conditions actually existing can 
be so utilized as to secure reliable and satisfactory crops. 

Statistics show that in the humid portion of the United States, hav- 
ing a mean annual rainfall of about 40 inches, 50 per cent flows off into 
the streams and is of no direct benefit to agriculture. This excess of 
rainfall reaches the streams partly by flowing over the surface of the 
ground and partly by slow percolation through the soil. Fifty per cent 
of the rainfall, or 20 inches per annum, evaporates directly from the 
surface of the soil or is transpired by plants. 

Practically, therefore, there are about 20 inches of rainfall at the 
disposal of agricultural plants, and the highest art of cultivation con- 
sists in conserving this moisture, reducing that lost by evaporation from 
the surface soil to a minimum, and maintaining a sufficient amount at 
all times at the disposal of crops. 

There is one factor which has a very important bearing upon the con- 
ditions in the humid as compared with those in the arid regions. In 
the humid region of the Eastern States the soil is continuously moist 
from the surface down to a depth at which it is completely saturated 
and from which water is constantly flowing out into wells, streams, and 
rivers. The water descends through the soil both by virtue of its own 
weight and by capillary force. According to capillary laws the water 
is pulled downward when the subsoil contains less water than the soil. 
Gravity and capillary force are both more effective in moving water 
through a moist subsoil than a dry one; hence there is danger in the » 
East of the water being pulled down below the reach of plants in time 
of drought, while in the West, where the subsoil at the depth of a few 
feet is continuously dry, this could not happen. 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 157 


Plants may be likened to a pump, which must have a steady and suf- 
ficient stream flowing into the well lest the surface of the water shall 
fall below the valve and the pump become inactive while there still 
remains a considerable amount of water in the well. There must be an 
adequate supply of water in the soil for the plants to draw upon, and 
this supply must be within theirreac¥. To illustrate: A plant may wilt 
in a soil of close texture containing 10 or 12 per cent of moisture, 
because with so little water present in the soil the movement of water 
to the roots of the plant would be comparatively slow, and the volume 
supplied per minute or per day would be insufficient; the plant would 
quickly exhaust the supply in the immediate neighborhood of its roots, 
and the amount necessary for its continued growth could not be pulled 
up from the surrounding soil rapidly enough to make good the loss. In 
a soil of different texture the same plant may not suffer until the sup- 
ply fails to 4 or 6 per cent. 


ARID AND HUMID REGIONS COMPARED. 


There must, therefore, be a certain minimum amount of moisture in 
all soils, just as there must be more water in a well than the pump will 
ever use. This minimum amount will depend upon the structure of the 
soil and the rate of movement of moisture and upon the requirements 
of the plant. An ordinary rainfall will have a far more beneficial 
effect upon the crop growing on a soil which contains this minimum 
amount than upon acrop growing on a soil containing less than the 
mininum. It must also be borne in mind, in comparing the soil con- 
ditions of the humid and arid regions, that the excess of moisture in 
the humid regions may often be of indirect value to agriculture by 
increasing the availability of the moisture which is to remain. 

In the arid portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, with a mean 
rainfall of nearly or quite 20 inches per annum, statistics of the gauging 
of rivers and streams show that 10 per cent, or 2 inches, of this rain- 
fall flows off into streams and is of no direct benefit to agriculture. 
This gives, broadly speaking, 18 inches of rainfall available for agricul- 
ture in the arid regions as against 20 inches of available rainfall in the 
humid portion of the United States. Statistics show likewise that the 
greater portion of this rainfall in the arid region comes during the grow- 
ing season. IT'rom April to the last of August they have an average 
rainfall of between 3 and 4 inches a month. 

It appears at first sight a rather anomalous fact that there is nearly 
as much available rainfall in the arid as in the humid region; but there 
are several modifying circumstances that must be borne in mind. In 
the first place, the humidity of the atmosphere is very much less and 
evaporation is very much greater in the climate of the arid region. 
Statistics show that the annual evaporation from a free-water surface 
in the arid region is about 69 or 80 inches. In the humid portion of 
the United States the evaporation from a free-water surface is equal to 


158 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


about 30 inches per annum. Roughly speaking, therefore, the amount 
of evaporation is twice as great in the arid region under consideration 
as in the humid portion of the country. Relatively more of the rain- 
fall would therefore evaporate from the soil and relatively less would 
be available to plants. I+ would also seem that plants weuld transpire 
much more water and would require a more abundant water supply in 
the arid climate. It will be remembered, too, that there is practically 
no excess of water in the soils as in the soils of the humid region 
to make these 18 inches more available to plants. 


[_parra7e| i 
oo 
call 


ames 


2] 


| _|ree7i1e9o|/eei| 1286 1892| 


Fia. 11.—Average yield of corn in bushels per acre in Kansas, 16 years. 


The factPemains, however, that in years of normal rainfall well dis- 
tributed over the growing season, small though it is, a good crop is 
obtained throughout the semiarid region, and even on the so-called arid 
plains, where the land is properly cultivated. Statistics compiled by 
the Kansas board of agriculture show that in the sixteen years from 
1877 to 1892, inclusive, the yield of corn per acre in the State of Kansas 
exceeded 30 bushels in eight seasons and the yield fell below 20 bushels 
per acre in three seasons. This is shown graphically in the accompany- 
ing illustration (fig. 11). 


2 ——— 


{ 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 159 


The average yield of wheat during this same period exceeded 15 
bushels per acre during seven seasons and was under 11 bushels per 
acre five seasons. In the arid portion of the State a fairly good season 
occurs about two years in five, the remaining three out of the five 
seasons being too dry for a good crop. The fact that they can make a 
erop at all with an annual rainfall of 20 inches under the conditions 
which have already been considered is surprising, and indicates that 
there must be conditions which are not strictly comparable with those 
in the humid region, and that there are advantages to counteract the 
apparently unfavorable conditions. 


DEPTH OF SOIL MOISTURE. 


A considerable portion of the 2 inches of annual rainfall of the arid 
region which finds its way into streams and rivers must flow off over 
the surface and not even enter the soil. The extreme and rapid varia- 
tion in the volume of the rivers, and the frequent torrential showers, 
during which the ground is flooded with water, indicate that this con- 
dition does in fact prevail to a large extent. Some water is retained 
by local depressions until it sinks, and there are undoubtedly soils of 
loose, light texture into which a considerable amount descends and finds 
its way to the rivers and streams by slow percolation; but as a rule 
there seems to be no connection between the surface moisture and the 
underlying “water table.” The natural prairie sod sheds water like a 
roof when it is delivered rapidly and in large volume, and it is only 
with a long continued, gentle rain that the soil and subsoil under the 
sod will absorb any considerable amount of moisture. 

During a recent examination of the conditions in the soils of the 
plains of western Kansas, Nebraska, and eastern Colorado, no trace of 
moisture was found in a number of borings from just below the surface 
to a depth of 3 feet under the natural prairie sod, except on the light 
soils of the sand hills near Garden City and in a few depressions, where 
water had evidently been caught. The season had been exceptionally 
dry, but an inch of rain had fallen about a week before the examina- 
tions were made. Where the sod had been broker and the land had 
been under cultivation during the season the subsoil was quite moist, 
and more moist the more thorough the cultivation had been. 

At Geneva, Nebr., the soil and subsoil immediately under the prairie 
sod was so dry that it was extremely difficult to take a saniple with an 
auger, both because it was hard to bore into and because the material 
loosened by the auger was so dry and powdery that it ran off the auger 
like fine, dry dust or sand. In an oat field, which had been thoroughly 
prepared by subsoiling two years before, the subsoil was quite moist, 
although the ground had not been actually eultivated for a year. In 


an adjacent field which had been subsoiled the previous year, and dur- 


ing the present year had been thoroughly cultivated in nursery stock, 
the subsoil down to a depth of 3 feet was so moist that it could be 


160 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


molded in the hand. These three localities were not over a few hun- 
dred feet apart and had been exposed to precisely the same rainfall, 
but had been subjected to these different methods of cultivation. 

It is a common inquiry in the arid region after a rain, how far the 
moisture has descended, or, generally, how far it is down to dry soil. 
The evidence of well-diggers is that after passing through the upper 
few feet of earth the underlying material is dry until they approach 
the water-bearing layers of sand and gravel. The fact of the accumu- 
lation of alkalies shows that the subsoil is not continuously wet down 
to the “water table,” as otherwise these would be leached out and car- 
ried off through the subsoil as they are formed. 

Water descends very slowly and to a very limited extent in a per- 
fectly dry soil, while it will spread out very rapidly in a soil which is 
already moist, but short of actual saturation. Water may fall for days 
upon.a pile of dry manure and not wet the mass deeper than a few 
inches. Water may likewise fall upon a dry dust pile and not spread 
through the mass, but be contained near the surface, unless it continues 
to fall, in which case the whole mass of the dusty material may become 
saturated. Water does not readily spread through a previously dry 
soil, because the tension or contracting power of the surface of the 
water is greater than the attraction of the soil grains, which tends to 
cause its diffusion through the mass. One may see, therefore, a nearly 
saturated layer closely adjacent to a perfectly dry and dusty mass. On 
the other hand, if there is any appreciable amount of moisture in the 
soil the tension of the water surface will cause it to contract and pull 
water from above into the subsoil. 

It would follow, therefore, that the moisture would not descend into 
the dry subsoil of the upland prairie until the successive depths had 
become so far saturated that they could no longer hold the water back, 
and it would pass downward very gradually into the lower depths sat- 
urating, or nearly saturating, each successive depth as it progressed. 
Unless the rainfall was so great and so continuous as to saturate the 
soil to a considerable depth, the water would not pass down to a great 
extent in the dry material. The whole supply of moisture absorbed by 
the soil would remain within a short distance of the surface, and when 
evaporation was started again from the surface or the moisture was 
used up by plants the water would be pulled up again from the depths 
to which ithad progressed rather than proceed on its downward course. 
There is less force to pull it down into the dry subsoil than its own con- 
tracting power, which pulls it up through the moist soil to the plant or 
to the surface of the ground. 

It appears probable, therefore, that in the more retentive soils of 
the arid regions the whole of the 20 inches of rainfall, or as much of 
this as is absorbed by the soil, will be held within a few feet of the 
surface, within easy reach of the roots of plants. The problem should 
be how to conserve the moisture, diminish the evaporation from the 


RELATION OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 161 


soil, and maintain as much as possible of the supply for the use of 
crops. 

Two things suggest themselves at once: The preparation of the soil 
must be sufficiently thorough and deep to insure the absorption of the 
whole wnount of the rainfall, and preparation should be so thorough 
and deep that this water will be carried to a sufficient depth to dimin- 
ish the chances of surface evaporation and prevent the saturation of 
the upper soil, which would be prejudicial to plant growth. The water 
must be absorbed as deeply as possible, so as to check surface evapo- 
ration, and at the sae time be maintained sufficiently near the surface 
to be available to plants as needed. Where water is of so much value 
and of such vital importance, not a drop of rainfall should be allowed 
to waste by flowing off over the surface. It should all be absorbed by 
the soil. The rains are often so torrential in character that the soil 
must be in a condition to absorb the water very rapidly to prevent 
any loss. 

The conditions actually existing in these soils should be made the 
subject of careful and thorough investigation. The amount of mois- 
ture actually maintained by the soils should be ascertained by daily 
determinations, to give a basis for working out improved methods of 
cultivation or planting for the conservation of moisture. The rainfall 
should be followed and its whole history worked out from the time it 
enters the soil. In the first place, how deep does the rainfall penetrate 
into the different soils of the plains? This could be ascertained at 
different depths at intervals of a week or ten days throughout the sea- 
son by moisture determinations. Is any of the rainfall drawn so low 
as to be unavailable to plants and lost by percolation into the ‘‘ water 
table”? How much of the rainfall evaporates from the different types 
of soils, how rapid is this evaporation, and how even are the condi- 
tions which the principal soils maintain? What part of the moisture 
evaporates from the soil and what part is transpired by the growing 
crop? How much water does a plant transpire in the arid regions for 
every pound of dry matter produced as compared with the same class 
of crops in the humid regions? These are all fundamental questions, 
which will have to be understood in order to secure any intelligent 
improvement of the methods of cultivation and cropping. 

More than half of the annual precipitation in Kansas occurs in the 
four crop-growing months of April, May, June, and July. During May 
and June especially the frequent showers induce a very rank and lux- 
uriant growth, and there is nearly always up to the middle or end of 
June the prospect of a large corn crop. It is not uncommon, however, 
for a dry spell in July to reduce the promised yield by 100,000,000 or 
150,000,000 bushels. These dry spells last from two to four weeks, 
frequently resulting in great damage to the corn crop. 

Wheat is usually harvested before this midsummer drought comes 
on, and there is less variation in the yield of wheat in the State than in 

per vA. 04. 6 | 


162 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the corn crop. Such crops also as turnips, millet, and sorghum do very 
well from the August rains. Thedrought comes frequently at the most 
critical time of all in the development of the corn plant—just as it is 
tasseling out. It should be possible to breed new varieties, maturing 
earlier or later, so as to secure a crop at a different stage of develop- 
ment during this usual summer drought. 


HOT WINDS. 


The very time when the crop is suffering from drought is the time of 
all others when hot winds are liable to occur. These winds blow at the 
rate of 20 to 30 miles per hour, the temperature of the air frequently 
ranging from 100° to 106°, with only 20 to 30 per cent of relative 
humidity. This vast body of dry, hot air passing over the crop induces 
such rapid evaporation that the roots can not possibly supply sufficient 
moisture, and the plants are completely desiccated, or dried out. The 
cells dry up to such an extent that they die, and the whole leaf struc- 
ture collapses and hangs limp and lifeless. The effect of hot winds 
upon the crop is markedly different from the effect of drought alone. 
In an ordinary drought the fodder dries and is cured much as if it had 
been cut and exposed to the sun and air, the plants, however, remain- 
ing erect. The effect of hot winds is much more quickly fatal to the 
crop; two or three days is often sufficient to destroy the most promis- 
ing field of corn. The evaporation from the plants under these condi- 
tions must be enormous. It is so excessive, indeed, that even with 
the soil quite moist the powers of the plant may be taxed beyond 
endurance. 

There are several possible ways to prevent or greatly lessen the injury 
from hot winds. Wind-breaks diminish the injurious effects of hot winds, 
for when the air is quiet the evaporation from the leaves increases the 
humidity of the air immediately around them, and this diminishes the 
evaporation from the leaf. If this air is removed, however, and quan- 
tities of dry air are rapidly presented to the plant the excessive evapo- 
ration is continued. Anything, therefore, which will retard the rate of 
movement of the wind will tend to diminish evaporation from the plants 
within the area of its influence. The more moist the soil can be kept 
through methods of cultivation the less damage there will be to vege- 
tation, for the roots will have a larger supply of moisture to draw from. 
The hot winds rarely do much damage over irrigated fields when the 
water supply can be properly controlled. The most disastrous effect 
of hot winds, however, frequently follow a rainfall occurring after a 
long period of drought. During the rain transpiration from the plant 
is checked and the cells become excessively turgid and possibly weak- 
ened through distention and possibly by the presence of organic acids. 
When the hot winds immediately follow this abnormal condition of the | 
plant, the evaporation is rapidly increased, the cells lose their water and 
collapse and die, as possibly they would not have done if the conditions 
preceding the hot winds had been more normal. 


BENEFIT OF UNDERSTANDING SOIL CONDITIONS. 


: ADVANTAGE OF SOILS TO CROP PRODUCTION. 163 


f 


ee a eel i 


It may be asked what advantage it would be to understand soil con- 
ditions and what control of them is possible. As regards the first 
question, this knowledge will make it possible intelligently to classify 
the soils according to the conditions which they maintain and predict 
what classes of crops they will prove adapted to grow. It would sug- 
gest also the way in which the soil conditions should be changed to 
make them correspond still more closely to the requirements of the 
class of crops to which they are most nearly adapted. As regards the 
second question, it is quite possible, through intelligent methods of 
cultivation, of cropping, and of fertilization, to change the conditions 
maintained by soils by changing their physical texture. It is likewise 
possible that we shall be able in time to control the amount of water 
taken up from a soil and transpired by plants. In a soil containing 
much water it should be possible to prevent the plant taking an 
excessive amount, thus checking the too luxuriant growth of vegeta- 
tion, or in a soil containing a small amount of moisture to induce the 
plant to take up more water than it otherwise would. This control 
will come through the effect of fertilizers and chemicals upon the roots 
which will stimulate or diminish the transpiration powers of the plant. 


SUBSOILING. 


Where the amount of rainfall is so small it is obviously important 
that the soil should absorb all of the rain which falls uponit. Itis 
folly to allow water to fiow off the farm, incidentally causing damage 
by washing, and then spend large sums to put in irrigation ditches to 
replace it by water which others have allowed to flow off their land. 
Wherever a drop of water flows off the field it is an indication that the 
soil is not in a proper physical condition. Where this occurs in a dry 
soil the main preparation of the land should be as deep as possible, so 
that the water may be carried down and thus diminish the rapidity 
of the evaporation and loss from the surface. If deep plowing will 
not accomplish this object, subsoiling will be found invaluable in open- 
ing up the close and compact subsoil. A subsoil plow should be as 
small and light in all its parts asis consistent with the great resistance 
it has to encounter. The point should be small and narrow, like the 
point of a pick, somewhat larger at the back than at the front. It is 
not necessary to have this large, for any implement which could be 
pulled through the subsoil would break and loosen it sufficiently to 
change its physical texture. There are some soils where subsoiling 
would not only be of no advantage, but in which it might be ‘a positive 
injury to the land. A light, sandy soil having already an open and 
porous subsoil would not be benefited by having this subsoil made still 
more open. <A farmer should judge whether subsoiling is advisable by 
the character and condition of the subsoil, and particularly with a view 


_ to the question whether any part of the rainfall flows off the surface. 


164 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The conditions in the arid regions are so different from those in the 
humid portion of the country that the methods adapted to the former 
are not necessarily well adapted to the latter. The act of subsoiling, 
the breaking up and stirring the soil to a depth of 12 or 15 inches, 
tends to dry it out; and unless a rain follows before a crop is put in 
the subsoiling may work positive injury to the first crop, although the 
beneficial effects would be felt in the succeeding crops. To secure 
benefit the first season the subsoiling must be done a considerable 
length of time before the crop is put in, in the hope of receiving heavy 
and long-continued rains. It is obvious that the nature of the soil 
itself will largely determine the depth to which the cultivation should 
be extended, and the character of the season should determine at what 
time this cultivation should take place. It is very necessary in this 
deep cultivation of the soils of the arid regions that care be taken not 
to turn under a heavy sod or a quantity of organic matter, especially 
when the season or the soil is dry. In these dry soils a heavy sod or a 
lot of trash or stubble will not readily decay when turned under; 
indeed, it may remain undecayed for several years. In this condition 
it will break off capillary connection with the subsoil, so that if the 
crop is planted on the upturned sod it may actually perish for lack of 
moisture. It is a very common experience, nevertheless, with farmers 
on the plains that where the sod is broken very shallow, so shallow that 
the crop roots below it, the upturned sod acts as a very efficient mulch 
to prevent evaporation, and so increases the yield of crops. 

After a soil is once deeply prepared, the after cultivation of the crop 
should be as shallow as possible in order to maintain a mulch of loose, 
dry soil over the surface to check evaporation, yet to keep this mulch 
as thin as possible so as not to dry out more of the soil than is abso- 
lutely necessary. While cultivation should thus be very superficial, it 
should be frequent and continued well into the fruiting period of the 
crop. The old rule of giving one cultivation after each rain is not 
sufficient. 

Thorough preparation of the land, with subsoiling where this is nec- 
essary to break up a compact subsoil, followed by shallow but frequent 
cultivation of the surface, will undoubtedly make the crop much safer 
and surer in the arid and semiarid regions of the West. 


WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 


By B. T. GALLOWAY and ALBERT F, Woops, 


Chief and Assistant Chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathology, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 


Of all the factors influencing the growth of plants, water is beyond a 
doubt one of the most important. Plant physiologists have long recog- 
nized this fact, but it is only recently that farmers, fruit growers, and 
others interested in the growth of crops have come to fully realize its 
importance. As an indication of the growing interest in this subject 
we may cite the agitation now being made in behalf of irrigation. 
Irrigation at one time was considered for the most part in connection 
with the production of crops in the arid regions or in sections where 
the yearly rainfall is not sufficient for the best development of our agri- 
cultural crops. Now nearly every section of the country is more or less 
interested in the subject. In Florida, where the average yearly rainfall 
is about 55 inches, or nearly three times as much as in some sections 
of the West, thousands of dollars are being spent every year for irriga- 
tion. The chief reason for this is that although the yearly rainfall is 
sufficient to grow any ordinary crop, yet it is distributed in such a way 
that the best conditions for plant growth are not furnished. It is here 
that irrigation plays an important part, for if just the right amount of 
water can be furnished at the proper time, other conditions being favor- 
able, the plant immediately responds and a better growth is the result. 
The whole problem of the proper use of water and its effect on the plant 
is a complicated one, and until it is better understood by farmers them- 
selves we can not hope to attain the highest development in agricul- 
tural pursuits. 

The plant may be likened to a complicated and exquisitely sensitive 
machine, depending largely for its ability to do work on four factors, 
namely, heat, light, food, and water. If these are furnished in just the 
right amounts and at just the right time there is harmony in all parts 
of the machine, and as a result the greatest amount of work is per- 
formed; if, however, any one or all of the factors are deficient or 
excessive, then the perfect working of the machine is destroyed, and 
its ability to do what is required of it is impaired. In other words, 
certain diseases appear; or if the plant does not, strictly speaking, 
become diseased, the growth of the various parts may be unbalanced, 
resulting in a development which is so different from what is wanted as 


to have little practical value. Thus leaves and wood may be produced 
165 


166 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


at the expense of the fruit, or the reverse may be the result of the unbal- 
anced condition of the factors mentioned. 

In field culture, heat and light can not well be controlled, but food 
and water may be to a certain extent, the latter either directly, by sup- 
plying it artificially, as in irrigation, or indirectly, by selecting soils 
having a capacity for moisture best suited to the crop or crops to be 
grown. Our object, however, is not to discuss these questions, but 
rather to point out the important part that water plays in nearly every 
vital process of the plant, in the hope that what is said may awaken the 
interest of farmers, fruit growers, and others in a much-neglected line 
of study. We shall not give an exhaustive treatise on the subject, nor 
attempt to present any specially new facts. Our purpose is simply to 
bring together some of the knowledge already familiar to vegetable 
physiologists but as yet little known to those interested in the practical 
side of plant production. 


WATER IN GREEN PLANTS. 


The fact that green plants lose a large proportion of their weight in 
drying is familiar to all. This loss is made up largely of water, the 
amount of which, compared with the dry substance found in plants, is 
very great. Thus in every 100 pounds of fresh meadow grass there is 
found 60 to 80 pounds of water. In 100 pounds of red clover there is 
often as high as 86 pounds of water, while in such plants as lettuce, 
cucumbers, cabbage, onions, etc., there is often as much as 95 to 98 
pounds of water in every 100 pounds of fresh material. The seeds of 
plants do not contain as much water as the leaves, stems, and other vege- 
tative parts. Wheat, rye, and oats contain about 14 per cent each, while 
corn contains about 12 per cent. This comparatively small amount of 
water contained in the seed is one of the reasons why the latter will 
remain dormant so long. As soon as the seeds are brought into a moist 
place, and other conditions for growth are present, they absorb large 
quantities of water and soon begin to germinate. 

It is impossible at ordinary temperatures to dry out all the water 
held by plants. Most air-dried plants contain as much water as ordi- 
nary seed,and this can be removed only by a prolonged exposure to 
high temperatures. 

We see from the foregoing that water forms a large proportion of 
the actual weight of all plants, and its importance, therefore, in this 
connection is at once apparent. 


RELATION OF ROOT DEVELOPMENT TO WATER SUPPLY. 


All our agricultural plants obtain their water exclusively through 
the roots. That leaves do not absorb water to any appreciable extent 
under normal conditions of growth has been so fully demonstrated as. 
to need no discussion here. Accordingly, it needs little argument to 
prove that a well-developed root system is of the highest importance 


WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 167 


to the welfare of the plant. There is usually a rapid development of 
these organs in the early period of growth, and if the proper moisture 
conditions are present at this time the chances are that a root develop- 
ment favorable to the future growth of the plant will be attained. It 
should be pointed out, however, that the development of the roots and 
the form which they may take will be modified by other conditions, 
and it may be possible to take advantage of these in order to insure 
a proper water supply as the plant grows older. Tor example, the 
distribution of food in the soil may have a very important bearing on 
the production of roots as well as the position they assume. An 
interesting experiment bearing on this point was made by Nobbe, a 
German investigator. He grew a number of corn plants in poor clay 
soil, contained in glass cylinders. In each cylinder of soil a certain 
amount of fertilizer was put, in each case in a different position, so as 
to observe its effeet on the growth of the roots. When the plants 
were nearly four months old the vessels were placed in water and the 
soil carefully washed from the roots. They were then suspended in 
water and took nearly the same position they had in the soil. Where 
the fertilizer had been uniformly mixed with the soil the roots grew 
equally through the whole mass. Where the fertilizer was placed in 
a horizontal layer about an inch below the surface the roots formed a 
mat in this layer, those that extended through being slender and not 
greatly branched. Where the fertilizer was placed in a horizontal 
layer at about half the depth of the vessel there was a spheroidal 
expansion of the root system at this point. Where the layer was 
placed at the bottom of the vessel the roots were slender and not 
much branched above, but at the bottom they formed a mat. When 
the fertilizer was placed around the cylinder of earth next the sides of 
the jar the external roots were greatly branched, forming a cylindrical 
nest, but the inner roots were not much developed. When the ferti- 
lizer was put in a central vertical core the inner roots were greatly 
developed, while the outer ones were much less so. 

These facts and others of a similar nature show the importance of 
studies in this direction. It would be especially valuable in the West, 
- and in other sections of the country liable to great variations in the 
_ water supply, to be able to control to some extent the character of the 
root systems of our agricultural plants. If this could be done by 
methods of cultivating the soil or of distributing the food, where food 
is used, there is no doubt that the water supply could in a measure be 
controlled. In this connection it is also important to bear in mind that 
the best development of the roots and of the plant as a whole is attained 
only when the water supply approximates a certain amount. This 
amount will vary with different plants, scils, temperatures, etc. For 
example, roots produced in very wet soil will not live when the latter 
dries out to any extent, and in consequence the plants grown under 

such conditions will suffer. On the other hand, roots produced in dry 


168 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


soil will not live long if the latter is made excessively wet for any length 
of time. All these things of course have a marked effect on the devel- 
opment of the plants and the various parts of the same. The total 
product is not only made to vary by the amount of water at the disposal 
of the plant, but the proportional amounts of the various organs are 
also made to vary. Thus in the case of wheat, rye, barley, and other 
similar plants, a certain amount of water will not only produce the 
ereatest yield of both grain and straw, but will also influence growth 
so as to give the maximum amount of grain with the minimum amount 
of straw. 

It has been found that when the water in a soil amounts to 80 per 
cent or more of its water-holding capacity it is detrimental to the plants. 
Ordinary plants do best when the water in the soil amounts to from 
40 to 60 per cent of the water-holding capacity. The water-holding 
capacity of a soil is the amount of water that a given weight, say 100 
pounds, of the soil will contain when all the space between the grains 
of soil is filled with water. For example, a cubic foot of a very sandy 
soil has been found to contain about 40 per cent by volume of air space; 
when all this space is filled with water the sand will contain four-tenths 
of a cubic foot of water. A hundred pounds of such soil, when all the 
space between the grains is filled with water, contains about 20 pounds 
of water. Inthesame way wheat soil has been found to contain about 
314 pounds of water in every 100 pounds of the fully saturated soil. 
The amount of water in this soil most favorable to the growth of wheat 
is from 40 to 60 per cent of 314 pounds, or from 124 to 19 pounds per 
100. The water-holding capacity of heavy clay soils is about 44.2 
pounds of water in 100 pounds of saturated soil. The most favorable 
condition for plant growth in such soils is when they contain from 16 
to 24 pounds of water in 100 pounds of the saturated soil. 

It is easy to see why the conditions in a soil having all or nearly all 
the space between the grains filled with water are detrimental to plant 
erowth. Under such conditions the roots are immersed in water and 
the soil is very poor in oxygen. On the other hand, when only a part 
of this space is filled with water the roots are not immersed, and there 
is a sufficient supply of oxygen. These questions, however, more prop- 
erly belong to the realm of soil physics, and therefore need not be dis- 
cussed in detail here. 


STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT AND HOW IT OBTAINS WATER. 


In order to get a clear idea of the absorption of water by the plant 
and its movement in the same, it will be necessary to consider, very 
briefly, its general structure. In all the plants with which we are con- 
cerned the roots consist of a central axis of elongated, rather thick- 
walled cells and vessels, as shown in cross section in figure 12. Around > 
this axis is a rather thick cylinder, composed of layers of soft, thin- 
walled cells (p), which have a great affinity for water. Surrounding 


WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 169 


these and forming the outer covering of the root is the epidermis (¢); 
many of the cells composing the latter grow out into relatively long 
projections, known as root hairs (i h). These adhere closely to the 
particles of soil and absorb the film of water adhering to them. 


— 


¥ic. 12.—Cross section of root. 


The absorption of water is well shown in figure 13, taken from Sachs’s 
Lectures on the Physiology of Plants; e, on the right of the figure, is the 


bint 


NZ 


@ S 
we MAN 
EAN e ( \) 
\ hae ] AS 
> Mt le u “ 
\\ \\ \Z \ 


KN 
= 
tent 
SAR, 
Wty 

D 


Y UN 


q : 


Sy TIN 


‘i ey Veit 
ee pi 
SSX ay \ Yi 


y 
Win LO 
NYAS 
\ ‘je 
- “4 a 
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i ee 
7 L 
LM ~ Eaa sky 
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; ; \ S als ¥ ofl ’ 
e | \ Ni jj Sy 2 i 
Ale @: A 
ai 
@\\Ali 
4 
Fia. 13.—Root hair in the soil, showing absorption of moisture. 
| epidermis of the root; h is a root hair forcing its way in between the 
e grains of soil, s, shaded dark in the drawing; the larger rounded white 


spaces, aa, represent air; and the waved lines, 7, surrounding the par- 
1 <A 94——6* 


170 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ticles of soil and inclosing air bubbles, represent water held to the 
grains by surface attraction. All are greatly magnified. At the points 
marked ¢ there is close contact of the root hair with the grains of soil. 
The reot hairs, like the grains of soil, are also covered with a thin layer 
of water, and their walls are saturated with it. Wherever the particles 
of soil come very close together or touch, the spheres of water sur- 
rounding them unite at these points, thus forming a network of the 
water envelopes of the soil grains. Now, if there is no disturbance in 
the soil due to evaporation or absorption, this network of water will be 
held at rest by the attraction of the soil particles; but if any portion of 


Fic. 14.—Root hairs. 


it is removed, the soil particles that have less will immediately draw 
from those that have more, so that there will be a movement of water 
throughout the whole system toward the point where the water is 
taken away. We will now suppose the root hair, h, gives up a part of 
its water to the cells of the main root; it then absorbs water from the 
layers with which it comes in contact in the soil, and there is in con- 
sequence a movement of the entire water system in the soil toward the 
root hair until equilibrium is restored. It is evident from this that a 
plant may draw water from a much larger area of soil than that with 
which the root system comes in direct contact. 


WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTs. 171 


' Figure 14 shows a number of root hairs cut from the root and highly 
magnified. Most of the soil particles have been washed away, but 
some adhere so closely that they can not be removed without breaking 
the hairs. This close connection is partly due to the dissolving action 
which the hairs exercise on the soil grains. 

It must be understood that the water absorbed by roots is not pure, 
but contains in solution small quantities of all the soluble compounds 
in the soil; some of these are absolutely necessary to the growth and 
maturation of the plant. Ordinary well water contains all the sub- 
stances absorbed by the plant in about the same degree of concentra- 
tion in which they are found in the soil, viz, one to two parts of solid 
matter to one thousand parts of water. The plant does not neces- 
sarily absorb the solution in this proportion; it may absorb more or 
less, according to circumstances. It may absorb the compounds in the 
soil without taking up any water, or, on the other hand, it may absorb 
water without taking up the compounds, depending upon certain phys- 
ical and physiological conditions. The compounds thus taken up are 
estimated in the plant as ash. The amount of ash varies greatly in 
different species and to some extent in different individuals of the same 
species. Furthermore, it may vary greatly with the age of the plant 
and the organ under consideration. The total amount, however, is 
usually very small compared with the gross weight of the plant. The 
amount seldom runs above 18 per cent (it is usually from 2 to 7 per 
cent) of the dry weight of the plant. However, it is absolutely neces- 
sary that the plant have certain parts of this material, and it can be 
obtained only as it is dissolved in water and absorbed through the 
roots. Ifrom the roots it passes by diffusion to all parts of the plant. 
In the parts of the plant above ground, i. ¢c., the stem and branches, 
the woody portions form a framework which supports the other tissues, 
made up of more or less soft-walled cells. The outer layers of these 
cells form the epidermis or outer covering of the plant, and this is 
usually developed so as to protect the underlying cells from injury, 
especially through the loss of water. 

Through the epidermis of the leaves and sometimes also of the stems, 
there are minute openings into the spaces between the inner cells of 
the leaf, for the cells in a plant in a general way may be likened to 
potatoes in a sack, touching only in places, though the union is rela- 
tively very much closer between the cells of a plant than it is between 
potatoes in a sack. The sack represents the epidermis, the potatoes 
the cells, and the spaces between the potatoes are comparable to the 
intercellular spaces. 

Figure 15 shows a piece cut from a common leaf and greatly magni. 
fied; «is the upper and / the lower epidermis; the cells with the dark 
_ bodies, ¢ ¢, within are the starch-manufacturing cells; 77 are the spaces 
between them; the little oval openings, s s, in the lower epidermis are 
the breathing pores (stomata); at s’ one is shown cut through, opening 


172 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


into an intercellular space; the two cells bordering the opening are 
the guard cells. 

The breathing pores allow the entrance into the plant of air and 
certain gases, which, through the intercellular spaces, come in contact 
with every cell. The intercellular spaces and the larger and older 
vessels are usually filled with air. The cells, however, are so closely 
in touch that water and whatever is in solution may pass readily from 
cell to cell by diffusion. If any cell lacks water, sugar, or any other 
material in solution it immediately takes it from neighboring cells, and 
these in turn take from others that have more, so that the equalization 
goes on throughout the whole plant, and different materials are moving 
toward the parts of the plant where they are used. 


aso 
oe’ 
2@e 
Or Qo 


way 


i 


Fic. 15.—Section of leaf. 


RELATION OF WATER TO GROWTH. 


The growth of the plant is nothing more than the growth of the cells 
composing it. Thecells may increase in number and they may increase 
in size. Supposing that the cells are supplied with all the necessary 
materials in solution required for growth, and that the external condi- 
tions are favorable, there is still one very essential condition—there 
must be a sufficient supply of water to keep every cell thoroughly dis- 
tended. The cell at first may be compared to an elastic sack, but 
after a time its wall thus distended becomes more or less thickened, 
loses most of its extensibility, and the increase in size becomes fixed. 
If, however, before this occurs the internal pressure or turgidity of the 
cell is lessened by loss of water the cell shrinks in proportion to the 
decrease, and unless the pressure is again renewed, may become fixed 
in this smaller condition. This loss takes place as a result of evapora- 
tion from the foliage and other green parts of the plant, and goes on 
from the very beginning of growth. If the evaporation goes too far the 
cell will pass into a flaccid condition, which causes the plant to wilt 


WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 173 


and unless water is furnished, so that the cells may again become tur- 
gid, the plant soon dies. 

It is evident, therefore, that the rapidity of the increase in size of a 
plant depends on the degree of turgidity of the cells, other conditions 
being favorable. The turgidity may be just sufficient to keep the plant 
from wilting, in which case the growth will be very small. Plants may, 
therefore, suffer for water long before they show it by wilting. It has 
been observed that plants growing in certain kinds of sandy soils 
almost cease growing whenever in May or June there occurs a series 
of warm, rainless days, accompanied by dry winds. The development 
of young clover, for instance, on such soils will come almost to a stand- 
still, but it will not begin to wilt for a long time. It wilts on stony 
ground first; then in a few days the whole field wilts, and the crop is 
destroyed. 

On the other hand, plants may, under certain conditions, absorb too 
much water, not only filling and distending the cells, but filtering 
through the cell walls into the intercellular spaces; the plant then 
becomes water-logged and has a more or less transparent look. If this 
intercellular water is not removed by evaporation the plant soon suffers 
from lack of sufficient oxygen and carbonic acid gas. At other times 
too great turgidity causes abnormal swellings on the leaves and stems. 
The walls stretch so far that they break, the water escapes, and the cells 
dry up and die. Occasionally throughout the whole plant the turgidity 
is so great that the cell walls stretch out of proportion to the ability of 
the cell contents to make new walls. The tissues therefore become thin 
and imperfectly formed. Such plants are easily killed by dry weather 
and readily succumb to the attacks of parasitic fungi and other disease- 
producing agents, which are usually active at just such times. In other 
words, the conditions least favorable to the growth of the plant or host 
are aS a rule the ones best suited to the rapid development of certain 
of its parasitic enemies. 

From what has been said it is evident that turgidity must depend 
primarily upon the absorption of water from the soil, and as turgidity 
is necessary for growth there is an intimate relation between the latter 
and the absorption of water by the roots. The amount of water neces- 
sary to keep the cells at maximum turgidity would be comparatively 
small if it were not for the fact that evaporation is constantly lowering 
the quantity. The growth of the plant, therefore, depends largely 
on whether or not the roots are able to supply the demands made by 
evaporation from the foliage and at the same time keep the cells in the 
necessary condition of turgidity. 


LOSS OF WATER BY EVAPORATION FROM THE FOLIAGE. 


Under ordinary conditions plants lose very large quantities of water 
by evaporation, it having been shown, for example, that in a dry, hot 
day a grass plant will lose an amount of water equal to its own weight. 


174 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Ordinary meadow grass is about 70 per cent water, and estimating the 
crop of hay at 2 tons per acre, the weight of the fresh grass, not count- 
ing the roots, would be about 6$ tons. This would represent the amount 
of water evaporated by an acre of grass in a dry, hot day. Hellriegel 
estimates from many observations that about 310 parts of water pass 
off by evaporation for every part of dry substance added to a plant. 
In 2 tons of hay there are 3,808 pounds of dry substance. According 
to Hellriegel’s proportion, therefore, 1 acre of hay would evaporate 
about 527 tons of water during the season of growth. An average crop 
of wheatis 720 pounds of grain and 1,500 pounds of straw to the acre; 


allowing 15 per cent of water in the air-dry material, there would be 


produced 1,887 pounds of dry material. During its season of growth 
this crop would evaporate about 261 tons of water. Other crops will 
lose nearly in the same proportion. One inch of rainfall per acre is 
equal to about 100 tons of water. The hay crop, therefore, evaporates 
an amount equal to only about 54 inches of rainfall, and a wheat crop 
about 22. This of course is only an average. In very moist times 
either crop would lose less in proportion to the amount of dry substance 
and in very dry times more. In any case, however, it is seen that plants 
of this class actually evaporate only a small proportion of the water 
that falls during the growing season. 

The problem, therefore, which presents itself is how to make avail- 
able to the plant more of the water which falls. This may be accom- 
plished in four ways: (1) By methods of cultivation and of fertilization 
of the soil in order to keep the water from running to waste; (2) decreas- 
ing the evaporation from the soil by the same means and possibly also 
by mulching; (3) decreasing the evaporation from the plants; and (4) 
by conserving the water and using it in irrigation. The first two lines 
of investigation and the last belong particularly to the domain of soil 
physics; the third, while intimately connected with soil physics, belongs 
more especially to plant physiologists for solution. It may not be out 
of place, therefore, to point out some of the means by which evapora- 
tion from plants may be controlled. 


CONTROLLING EVAPORATION. 


As already shown, some of our agricultural plants evaporate 310 
parts of water for every part of dry substance made. It must not be 
concluded from this fact, however, that the plants have to evaporate 
this much water in order to store the normal amount of dry material. 
On the other hand, it has been demonstrated in practice and by experi- 
ment that the amount of dry substance stored and the vigor of the 
plant is greater in proportion as evaporation is decreased, other con- 
ditions remaining the same. 

Most of the water evaporated by growing plants is lost, at least in 
the middle and later stages of growth, through the stomata or breathing 
pores, situated in the epidermis of the leaves and opening into the 


WATER AS A FACTOR IN THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 175 


intercellular spaces, as before described and as shown in figure 15, 
These pores may open and close, under certain conditions, by the con- 
traction or expansion of the guard cells. When the stomata are open, 
as they usually are in bright light, there is free access of the gases in 
the air to the starch-manufacturing cells of the leaf. One of the gases 
(carbon dioxide) taken in this way is the main ingredient of starch and 
sugar, and in fact furnishes the material which makes up the larger 
per cent of the dry weight of the plant. Vegetable physiologists are 
agreed that the main purpose of the stomata is the admission of this 
gas and one other, oxygen, to the working cells of the leaf. The air in 
the intercellular spaces is always saturated with moisture, especially 
when the leaves are in bright sunlight. When the stomata are open 
the moisture escapes to the dry outside air, just as it may escape from 
a moist greenhouse when the ventilators or doors are opened for ventila- 
tion. We must have fresh air in the greenhouse, but we can not get 
it without losing some of the moisture. The rapidity with which the 
moisture in the greenhouse will pass out depends on the extent to 
which the ventilators are open, the amount of moisture already in the 
outside air, and the rapidity with which the air next to the ventilators, 
and therefore more highly charged with water from the damp air 
inside, is carried away by the wind. The same conditions hold for the 
plant. The evaporation, which may be looked upon as a sort of neces 
sary evil, will be less rapid in moist air than in dry air, and will be 
increased by air currents or wind. If we can increase the amount of 
moisture in the air we can decrease the evaporation from the plants 
with which it comes in contact. This suggests the use of trees, espe- 
cially in sections where hot, dry winds prevail, as a means of breaking 
the force of the wind and moistening and cooling the air. 

Another direction in which we may possibly hope to gain control 
over loss of water by plants is by increasing the power of the cells of 
the plant to hold on to the water which they contain, and in this way 
to resist evaporation more effectively. For many years it has been 
known through the work of Senebier, Sachs, Burgerstein, Vesque, and 
others that the presence of various salts and acids in the soil has a 
marked influence, under certain conditions, on the evaporation of water 
from the plants whose roots were exposed to the solution of the salts. 
In some cases the effect was to increase evaporation and absorption, in 
others to decrease it. The problem needs to be reinvestigated with the 
practical end in view of increasing absorption and decreasing evapora- 
tion. Some late investigators have claimed that the water-holding 
power of the cells is increased by spraying the leaves with certain 
solutions, especially Bordeaux mixture. This 1s certainly true under 
some conditions, but not so in all cases. It, however, opens up another 
line in which we may hope to gain some knowledge of the methods of 
controlling evaporation. 


176 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
SUMMARY. 


The facts presented show— 

(1) That water makes up the largest proportion of the weight of 
green plants, indicating at once its great importance. 

(2) That water, with the food which it contains, is obtained by plants 
exclusively through the roots, and therefore a well-developed root sys- 
tem is essential to the best development of the plant. 

(3) That the development of root systems may be controlled in various 
ways, thereby increasing or decreasing their ability to absorb water and 
food from the soil. 

(4) That a saturated soil is detrimental to the growth of roots; a soil 
about half saturated is most favorable to their growth and therefore 
favorable to the growth of the whole plant. 

(5) That growth is dependent on the turgidity of the cells, and tur- 
gidity is dependent on the absorption of water by the roots. 

(6) That the water absorbed by roots is continually being lost by 
evaporation from the leaves. If the loss is equal to or greater than the 
absorption, the plants will cease growing, and unless the absorption is 
increased or the evaporation decreased the plants will die. 

(7) That evaporation may be controlled by increasing the amount of 
moisture in the air, by protection from hot winds, and by the use of 
certain substances in the soil or on the leaves to enable the plant to 
hold on to the water that it has. 

Finally, then, an accurate knowledge of the relation of water to the 
growth of plants will enable us to control more fully the development 
of the plant as a whole, and also the relative growth of its parts. It 
will show us how to so modify the growth of the plants that they may 
be able most successfully to withstand adverse conditions and produce 
the most valuable substance for a given amount of labor. 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 


By H. W. WILEY. 
Chemist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


APATITES. 


The earliest forms of mineral phosphate used for fertilizer were the 
apatites.' These phosphates occur either in a crystalline form or 
massive, and are of very wide distribution. In this country they are 
found in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New 
Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, and North Carolina. They occur in large 
quantities in Canada, where immense beds exist. Apatite contains, in 
round numbers, 40 per cent of phosphoric acid and about 50 per cent 
of lime, and is usually associated with a certain quantity of fluor spar. 
Some beds contain a considerable amount of chlorine, and nearly all 
contain traces of iron, alumina, and magnesia. Some forms also contain 
considerable quantities of manganese. The mineral known as phos- 
phorite is almost the same in chemical composition as the apatites. 


COPROLITES.? 


Phosphate of lime occurs very largely in nodules, which are probably 
of organic origin, and these spheroidal masses are called coprolites. 
They sometimes present a spiral or other peculiar structure, due to 
their animal origin. The nodules are of all sizes from minute grains 
up to Inasses weighing as much as a ton. They consist essentially of 
phosphate of lime, varying from 50 to 60 per cent, and with a greater 
or less quantity of carbonate of lime. They also contain a considerable 
amount of organic matter, derived from animal remains, and the rest 
of the mass is made up of sand and other accidental impurities. These 
nodules often contain remains of marine life, such as sharks’ teeth. 
At the present time the coprolite phosphates are found chiefly in 
North Carolina, Alabama, and Florida, though it is probable that they 
will be discovered in many other parts of the United States. 


PHOSPHATE ROCK. 


Immense deposits of phosphate rock, both hard and soft, are found 
in many parts of the United States. The most important of these 
deposits, from a commercial point of view, are those of South Carolina 


1'The name “apatite” is derived from a Greek word which signifies fo deceive, inas- 
much as, on account of the color of ‘the mineral, which is often of a blue or green 
tint, it was mistaken by the early mineralogists for other minerals. 

2The term “ coprolite ” signifies fossil excrement. It is certain, however, that the 
deposits are not of that character, but are more likely bone masses rounded by the 
action of water. 
177 


178 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


and Florida, although other deposits of great promise have been found 
in North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee. 

The amount of phosphate rock mined in the United States in 1893, 
with the value thereof at the mines, is given in the following table, 
taken from the Mineral Resources of the United States, edition of 1893: 


Quantity. Value. 


Florida: Long tons. 
EEA TUTTO es Se eee BSR ea oo oe memes ea aorOoram cD coco sos oat 215, 685 $1, 117, 732 
Spat Og nee see Sen JR ee eS Se ae ee orannees 34-5 aoa ae 13, 675 64, 626 
Tard SEE oan Se once ols we 5 ms Sep ee dS oe tere PEO 5? 86, 624 359, 127 
River Povble. -- -- 0.5 -.- age nc cine n ne cnn ale iwc eo nn ne enn ecw e ees aeweee 122, 820 437,571 
UI INO ene ea ee ce NN hae a nn 438,804) 1, 979, 056 
South Carolina: J 
BAM GE te te eit ra ate ares Sia) rani = a nia anim alelnia cele lat ayae|sieleuntalet alalaietelatoleiarewete 308, 435 .1, 408, 785 
BVP AO Cee Ne ee eee Ne ieee Siac cic 1c die ord arab eee wie pine clei cneais Shree rare 194, 129 748, 229 
PSUR G Oe tye OS 56 ti Ce Aaa SARE 502, 564 | 2 157, 014 
North Carolina: PreK 
Cammlomerate -. 2222s oe ne. 5 cea he os cela nae cence eens eeeeen eee 7, 000 21, 000 
ag Sepa Iss Fe er ene NS ee Se deer hy ek ead ed 948,368 | 4, 157, 070 


The first phosphate mined commercially in South Carolina was in 
1867, amounting to 6 tons. The largest quantity ever mined in any 
one year was in 1889, amounting to 541,645 tons. The total amount of 
fertilizers, chiefly raw phosphate rock, exported to foreign countries 
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, was 460,062 tons, valued at 
$3,927,343. The countries to which the chief quantities of raw phos- 
phates were shipped were Germany and Great Britain. The amount 
sent to Germany was 149,600 tons, and the amount to Great Britain 
209,065 tons. 

The quantity of crude phosphates and other phosphatic substances 
imported into the United States for fertilizing purposes in 1893 was 
106,549 tons, valued at $718,871. The amount of guano, which con- 
sists largely of phosphate, imported in 1893 was 5,856 tons, valued at 
$97,889. The largest amount of guano imported into the United States 
in any one year was in 1868, amounting to 99,668 tons, valued at 
$1,336,701. The largest amount of crude phosphate and other phos- 
phatic substances, used for fertilizing purposes, imported into the 
United States in any one year was in 1882, amounting to 133,956 tons, 
valued at $1,437,442. 

The average cost at the quarry of the phosphates mined in the 
United States in 1893 was $4.42 per ton. 

The Florida phosphates are of four distinct types, viz, hard rock, 
soft rock, land pebble, and river pebble. The pebble phosphates are 
deposits of spherical masses of varying size, possibly of coprolitic 
nature, which occur either on the land or collected in cavities in the 
water courses, where they have been washed by the streams. Some of 


f, 
‘ 
’ 

BB 


- ae 
: 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 179 


the soft rock is of such a texture that it can be very easily crushed, 
and thus cheaply prepared, in a finely divided state, either for treat- 
ment with sulphuric acid for the purpose of making superphosphates 
or for direct application to the soil. 

The Tennessee phosphates have been only recently discovered, and 
their exact extent is not yet known. Irom the mines already opened, 
however, it seems probable that these deposits are the most extensive 
in the United States. They are situated, so far as known at the pres- 
ent time, in the counties of Lewis, Hickman, Perry, and Wayne. The 
center of the deposit is about 70 miles southwest of Nashville. It has 
been estimated that within a distance of 5 miles of the Nashville, 
Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad there are 100,000,000 tons of this 
phosphate rock. ‘The daily output at present is about 300 tons, but it 
is rapidly increasing. 

At present most of the output is shipped by rail, but it is the inten- 
tion of some of the operators on the Duck River to open a water route 
to Mississippi and New Orleans by means of the Duck, Tennessee, and 
Mississippi rivers. When this is accomplished it is estimated that the 
rock can be laid down in New Orleans at a cost of transportation not 
to exceed $1.75 per ton. 

The phosphates of Tennessee differ from those of Florida in being 
found in stratified veins instead of pockets and beds. Some of the 
rocks are quite rich in phosphoric acid. In the analyses of 30 samples 
of Tennessee phosphates examined in this laboratory the highest per 
cent of phosphoric acid found was 37.07, corresponding to 80.92 per 
cent of phosphate of lime. The average content was 17.70 per cent of 
phosphoric acid or 38.64 per cent of lime phosphate. 


CONSTITUENTS OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 


In phosphate rocks the chief constituent from an agricultural point 
of view is phosphate of lime, chemically known as tricalcium phosphate, 
and often spoken of in fertilizer circulars and bulletins as “bone phos- 
phate of lime.” Calcium phosphate varies in quantity in commercial 
phosphates from 30 to 99 per cent. The latter purity, however, is very 
seldom reached, the great majority of the commercial phosphates rang- 
ing from 40 to 70 per cent of calcium phosphate. 

In addition to this they contain certain quantities of carbonate of 
lime, small quantities of phosphates of iron and alumina, often consid- 
erable quantities of fluor spar, and finally sand and other impurities. 
There are certain phosphates, however, produced largely outside of the 
United States, which consist almost exclusively of the phosphates of 
iron and alumina, viz, such as those known as Redonda phosphates, 
from the island of Redonda. It is also reported that large deposits of 
iron and alumina phosphates have been discovered in Virginia, and 
that they exist already in a powdered state, well suited without further 
preparation, for application to the soil. 


180 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The value of a natural phosphate is largely determined not alone by 
the percentage of phosphorie acid which it contains, but also by the 
amount of other materials therein. Especially is this true when the 
phosphates are to be used for the manufacture of that grade of fertili- 
zers known as superphosphates or acid phosphates, which is accom- 
plished by treating the natural phosphates with oil of vitriol (sulphuric 
acid). If a natural phosphate, for instance, contain a large quantity 
of carbonate of lime, this material will consume an equivalent portion 
of sulphuric acid and thus require a much larger quantity of this acid 
for conversion into superphosphate. Even if the quantity of phos- 
phates of iron and alumina be considerable, the sulphates of iron and 
alumina which are formed dry poorly and render the residue unfit for 
the market. The fluoride of calcium is likewise decomposed by the 
sulphuric acid and hydrofluoric acid set free. The most suitable 
material, therefore, for making superphosphates is a phosphate rich in 
tricalcium phosphate, containing only a moderate amount of carbonate, 
or one which contains as impurities chiefly sand or silica. The natural 
phosphates of iron and alumina are well suited for direct application 
to the soil when they can be obtained in a finely divided state. There 
is no method of grinding, however, which produces a phosphate as 
well suited to the nourishment of plants as the material which is pro- 
duced by chemical precipitation. 


DIRECT APPLICATION OF PHOSPHATES. 


Experiments have been conducted in this country and in Europe for 
many years to determine the applicability of natural phosphates in a 
finely divided state directly to the soil. The greatest difference of 
opinion still exists in regard to the availability of such phosphates. 
From a great amount of data which has been collected the following 
conclusions may be safely drawn: 

(1) No kind of natural phosphate is of much value applied directly 
to the soil, unless in a very finely divided state. 

(2) Natural phosphates which consist chiefly of the calcium salt are 
of very little value when applied directly to soil deficient in organic 
matter or containing large quantities of carbonate of lime. 

(3) Natural calcium phosphates in a finely ground state can be 
applied with great benefit to soils consisting essentially of vegetable 
mold or very rich in organic matter. 

(4) The natural phosphates of iron and alumina are of a much wider 
application directly than the phosphates of calcium. 


COST OF PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZER TO THE FARMER. 


It has been seen from the data given above that the actual cost of 
ordinary phosphates at the mines is not quite $4.50 per ton. The 
question may then be very properly asked, Why is the cost of phos- 
phates as used by the farmers so high? The increased cost of the 


; 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 181 


phosphates used as fertilizers arises chiefly from three causes: First, 
the cost of grinding the phosphate to a fine powder; second, the cost 
of treating it with sulphuric or phosphoric acid, in order to render the 
phosphoric acid soluble; and third, the cost of transportation. 

It would be impossible to give any rule which would fix the value of 
a ton of phosphatic fertilizer. In many of the States the bulletins on 
fertilizers give the cost per pound of phosphoric acid present in any 
given sample. This price, however, must necessarily vary from year to 
year with the cost of production, cost of treatment, and cost of trans- 
portation. In general it may be said that at any considerable distance 
from the mines the value of available phosphoric acid in a superphos- 
phate is about 5 cents per pound. 


WHAT IS MEANT BY “AVAILABLE PHOSPHORIC ACID.” 


The term ‘available phosphoric acid” is one which is rather difficult 
to define. Presumably, it applies to the phosphoric acid present in a 
given fertilizer which is capable of being directly assimilated by plants. 
It does not include, as a rule, any of the phosphoric acid which is not 
in a State to be directly absorbed, although such phosphoric acid may, 
by natural decomposition in the soil, become ultimately available for 
plant nourishment. It is commonly understood now that available 
phosphoric acid includes all the phosphoric acid soluble in water, 
together with that portion which is sometimes called ‘‘reverted phos- 
phoric acid,” and which is soluble in a solution of citrate of ammonia 
of given strength and applied in a given way. It is hardly fair, how- 
ever, to reject as of no value at all any additional phosphoric acid 
which the sample may contain. Jor instance, in the case of ground 
bones none of the phosphoric acid present is soluble in water, and 
Sometimes only a very little in citrate of ammonia; yet the phos- 
phate of the bones is quite available and is easily assimilated by the 
growing plant. <A discrimination, therefore, should be made in all 
cases between a bone phosphate and a phosphate prepared from min- 
erals. Again, in mineral phosphates there is a wonderful difference in 
assimilability even in those forms of phosphate insoluble in water and 
citrate of ammonia. Some kinds of soft phosphatic rock appear to be 
much more readily assimilated by plants than others. For instance, 
the apatites seem to have very little power of nourishing plants unless 
they have been decomposed by sulphuric acid, while, on the other hand, 
certain forms of soft phosphates have a considerable nourishing power. 
It is therefore impossible to give any hard and fast rule by means of 
which the availability of phosphates can be determined. In this case 
it is Safe, therefore, for the farmer to rely, at least for the present, upon 
the data obtained by chemical analysis, and in the case of mineral 
phosphates to regard those only as beneficial in general which are 
soluble in water and citrate of ammonia. 


182 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


At least this is true for ordinary soils deficient in organic matter or 
consisting largely of sand or carbonate of lime. If, however, the 
farmer have to do with peat or muck soils very rich in humus and defi- 
cient in phosphoric acid, the rule could hardly be regarded asrigid. In 
such cases any form of soft mineral phosphate, finely divided, would 
prove highly beneficial, even if yielding little or nothing to treatment 
with water and citrate of ammonia. 

It is doubtful whether any of the methods now in use by the chemist 
can give an accurate idea of the true availability of phosphoric acid in 
a fertilizer. In the case of phosphoric acid soluble in water, viz, free 
phosphoric acid, or an acid phosphate of lime, it is almost certain that. 
when applied to the soil it does not long retain its solubility. This 
should be regarded as a fortunate rather than an unfortunate fact. 
Should the phosphoric acid retain its solubility in water, there would 
be great danger of its being removed through drainage waters by 
excessive rainfall. When applied to a soil which contains the usual 
amount of iron and alumina the soluble phosphoric acid readily unites 
with these bases, forming iron and alumina phosphates, or is converted 
into the insoluble dicaleic phosphate. These phosphates, while not 
soluble in water, yet yield their phosphoric acid readily to the demands 
of the rootlets of plants. The phosphoric acid is thus preserved in a 
state where it is safe from exhaustion by leaching, and yet in a condition 
easily available for plant food. 

From a practical point of view, therefore, there is no advantage in 
applying water-soluble phosphate instead of a phosphate soluble in 
ammonium citrate. The great differences, moreover, in the ease with 
which phosphates insoluble in water and citrate of ammonia are decom- 
posed in the soil render it difficult to form any accurate judgment of the 
actual availability of this form of fertilizer. It is certain that the rule 
which is in force in many of the States, making the insoluble acid 
valueless for fertilizer purposes, is entirely too exclusive. 

On the other hand, these phosphates in most cases can certainly not 
be regarded as equally available as those soluble in water and ammonium 
citrate. The origin of the sample has also much to do with the matter. 
As has already been intimated, finely ground bone, even though insol- 
uble in water and ammonium Be ate, will nevertheless yield a part of 
its phosphoric acid very readily to growing plants. 

In general, it may be said that the more nearly the phosphoric acid is 
in an organic state the more readily available it becomes. The mineral 
phosphates, however, show the greatest difference in availability when 
insoluble. On the one hand we have an extreme degree of nonavail- 
ability, as is instanced in the crystallized apatites, and on the other 
hand a high degree of availability, as shown in the finely divided min- 
eral phosphates of iron and alumina. Between these two extremes the 
ordinary mineral phosphates will be found ranged in different degrees 
of availability. 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 183 


- Further, as has already been stated, the character of the soil to which 
the phosphatic fertilizer is applied has much to do with determining its 
availability. All of these facts must be taken into consideration in 
attempting to fix the availability of a phosphatic fertilizer by chemical 
analysis, and in no case is it safe to enforce a rigid rule which, while it 
might be applicable in one set of circumstances, would be found wholly 
at fault in another. 


SUPERPHOSPHATE, OR ACID PHOSPHATE. 


A brief statement of the character of fertilizers known by the name 
of superphosphates, or acid phosphates, may prove of utility to farm- 
ers. On account of the high degree of nonavailability of some of the 
phosphates, as mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, it has long been 
the custom among manufacturers to prepare these mineral phosphates, 
previous to their application to the soil, in such a way as to increase 
the availability of the phosphoric acid which they contain. 

The most common method of securing this result consists in treating 
the finely ground phosphate with sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). A 
large part of the lime contained in the natural phosphate is thus con- 
verted into sulphate of lime (gypsum, or Jand plaster), while the phos- 
phorie acid which was before in combination with the lime is secured, 
either in a free state or in combination with a lower equivalent of the 
lime. A normal phosphate of lime, such as is found in bones and in 
most mineral phosphates, is composed of three molecules of the oxide 
of calcium (lime) in combination with two molecules of phosphoric acid. 
Represented chemically, a molecule of bone phosphate or mineral phos- 
phate of lime has the composition shown by the formula (CaQ);(P.0;). 
The percentage composition of pure phosphate of lime is, therefore, lime 
(CaO), 54.19 per cent, and phosphoric anhydride (P.Q;), 45.81 per cent. 

The first step in the preparation of superphosphate consists in reduce- 
ing the mineral phosphate to a condition of fineness which will permit 
its rapid disintegration when treated with sulphuric acid. In practice it 
is customary to grind the phosphate so it will pass a screen with 70 or 
80 meshes to the inch. The finer and more uniform the grinding, the 
easier and more economical becomes the treatment with sulphuric acid. 

Various mechanical appliances are in use for preparing the mineral 
phosphates for treatment with sulphuric acid. The phosphates are 
first broken into fine pieces, usually by a Blake crusher. The pieces 
should be the size of an acorn or smaller. They may then be ground 
between French burr millstones and the flour sifted through revolving 
screens, very much as wheat flour is treated. This is the simplest and 
oldest method of grinding the phosphate. Many modern mills have 
been invented for the same purpose, all depending more or less upon 


the same principles. It is estimated by Dr. Francis Wyatt that the 


actual cost of grinding phosphates, including all expenses for repairs, 
wear and tear, and interest on the investment, is about $1.50 per ton. 


184 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The next step after the grinding of the material is to determine its 
chemical composition, because the amount of sulphuric acid required 
for treatment of the phosphate flour depends essentially upon its chem- 
ical structure. In the chemical analysis there must be determined 
the amount of moisture, the organic matter, the carbonate of lime, the 
magnesia, the amount of phosphates of lime, iron, and alumina, the 
quantity of sulphate and fluoride of lime, and the percentage of insol- 
uble matter, which is chiefly sand and silicates. With mineral phos- 
phates containing about 80 per cent of the phosphate of lime, from 3 to 
4 per cent of the phosphates of iron and alumina, and from 7 to 9 per 
cent of the carbonate and fluoride of lime the quantity of ordinary sul- 
phurie acid required for 100 pounds is about the same in weight. For 
each ton of such material, therefore, 1 ton of the ordinary sulphuric 
acid must be employed. If the amount of carbonate of lime and other 
acid-consuming materials increase above the amount mentioned, then 
the quantity of sulphuric acid required would also be proportionately 
increased. 

On account of the fumes of hydrofluoric acid which are emitted upon 
mixing the ground material containing fluor spar with sulphuric acid, 
the operation must be performed in a well-ventilated shed where the 
acid fumes can be carried away by means of some kind of a ventilator. 
The vessel in which the phosphate flour is mixed with sulphuric acid 
should be lined with lead, which is practically insoluble in sulphuric 
acid. The mixer, which is a revolving shaft carrying paddles made of 
east iron, is driven by machinery. The appropriate amount of phos- 
phate flour having been placed in the mixer, the sulphuric acid is let into 
it by means of a lead pipe connected with ine sulphuric acid tank, and 
the whole is thoroughly triturated. After all the acid and flour biare 
been placed in the mixer the shaft is driven rapidly for a few minutes 
until every part of it is thoroughly stirred and the bem mass is 
allowed to flow into an appropriate reservoir. 

The mixers are very conveniently arranged so as to hold about a ton, 
while the reservoir into which their charges run may hold 100 tons or 
more. As it requires only five or ten minutes to mix one charge, when 
all the facilities are properly arranged, the reservoir may be filled in a 
day. The material in the reservoir becomes very hot, due to the 
chemical action taking place between the sulphuric acid and the other 
ingredients. The temperature rises often above that of boiling water, 
and it may reach as high as 240° F. 

After the chemical action has ceased and the mass begins to cool, it 
soon becomes hard, setting something after the manner of cement or 
plaster of paris. At the end of two daysit is sufficiently dry and hard 
to be dug out with picks and shovels. When removed from the reser- 
voir it is piled up in heaps, where it is allowed to remain for about two 
days, and then is ready for being broken up and ground, This is 
easily accomplished by appropriate machinery, after which it can be 
placed in bags and it is then ready for shipment. 


— 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 185 


The superphosphates formed in this way usually contain from 12 to 
14 per cent of available phosphoric acid, and this phosphoric acid exists 
in various degrees of combination. IT irst, there is free phosphoric acid; 
second, phosphoric acid combined with lime in the proportion of one 
molecule of lime and two of phosphoric acid; third, phosphorie acid 
combined with lime in the proportion of two molecules of lime to two 
of phosphoric acid; fourth, a little of the phosphoric acid may be left 
combined in the natural state, in the proportion of three molecules of 
lime and two molecules of phosphoric acid. The acid salts of lime also 
contain, in addition, water of crystallization. The free phosphorie¢ acid 
and the monocalcium phosphate are soluble in water, the dicalcium 
phosphate in citrate of ammonia, while the tricalcium phosphate which 
remains undecomposed is insoluble in water and citrate of ammonia. 

In the above processes, which have been outlined in a general way, 
the actual weight of a ton of mineral phosphate is almost exactly dou- 
bled by being converted into superphosphate. If the original material 
contained, therefore, 80 per cent of phosphate of lime, the treated mate- 
rial contains only 40 per cent. Thus the freights are doubled and there 
is secured a material which, in addition to the phosphoric acid, very 
probably does not have a sufficient fertilizing value to warrant the pay- 
ment of so high a rate of freight. It is true that the sulphate of lime, 
which is always present in large quantities in superphosphates, is 
valuable in some instances as a fertilizer, and in fact is purchased for 
that purpose under the name of gypsum, or land plaster. It, however, 
might be of some advantage to the farmer to apply this substance 
directly instead of indirectly with the phosphate. For this reason manu- 
facturers have sought to make a more concentrated form of superphos- 
phate and thus diminish the freight charge, which is one of the chief 
items of cost in fertilizers delivered to farmers. 

In order to obtain a high-grade superphosphate and thus dimin- 
ish freight charges the decomposition of mineral phosphates may be 
accomplished by the use of phosphoric acid itself in the place of sul- 
phurie acid. This phosphoric acid is obtained directly on the premises 
by the decomposition of the phosphates by sulphuric acid and the sub- 
sequent separation of the phosphoric acid from the product by well- 
known methods which it is not necessary to describe here. When the 
phosphoric acid is concentrated to the proper degree of strength, it 
requires from 1? to 2 pounds of it to decompose 1 pound of an ordinary 
mineral phosphate. The decomposition by means of phosphorie acid 
and subsequent treatment are very much the same as described for 
the direct decomposition of the phosphate flour by sulphuric acid. 
In this way a phosphate is produced which will yield from 35 to 45 
per cent of phosphoric acid soluble in water and ammonium citrate. 
Such a fertilizer would be of especial value when it becomes necessary 
to ship long distances, especially by rail, and farmers would do well to 
apply to their State chemists and others in charge of the sale of phos- 


186 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


phates and fertilizers to secure for them in some way a phosphate of 
this description. 

The farmer should remember that it is not always the cheapest phos- 
phate which is the most valuable. What he should especially attempt 
would be to secure available phosphoric acid at the lowest possible 
rate. He may give as high as 6 cents a pound for available phos- 
phorie acid in a phosphate which he gets for $20 per ton, while at the 
same time he might purchase the same material for 44 cents a pound in 
a phesphate worth $40 per ton. 


PHOSPHATE AS BASIC SLAG. 


Another form of phosphate which is coming into extended use in 
this country as well as in Europe is that which is produced as a by- 
product in the manufacture of iron and steel. Many iron ores con- 
tain a notable quantity of phosphoric acid, which renders the pig iron 
made from them unsuitable for the manufacture of high-grade iron or 
steel, when the usual processes of reduction are followed. In order to 
utilize these pigs, which otherwise would not be very valuable, the basic 
Bessemer process has been invented. In Europe the process is known 
as the Thomas process, while in this country it is carried on chiefly 
under the patents taken out by Jacob Reese. 

The principle of the process depends upon the arrangement of the 
reduction furnaces, by means of which the phosphoric acid in the pig 
iron is caused to combine with the lime which is used as a flux in the 
converters. A general outline of the process is as follows: 

The pigs which contain from 2 to 4 per cent of phosphorus are melted 
and introduced into a Bessemer converter, lined with dolomite powder 
cemented with coal tar, into which has previously been placed a cer- 
tain quantity of freshly burned lime. For an average content of 3 per 
cent of phosphorus in the pig iron, from 15 to 20 pounds of lime are 
used for each 100 pounds of pig iron. As soon as the melted pig iron 
has been introduced into the converter, the air blast is started, the 
converter placed in an upright position, and the purification of the mass 
begins. The manganese in the iron is converted into oxide, the silicon 
into silica, the carbon into carbonic acid and carbonic oxide, and the 
phosphorus into phosphoric acid. 

By reason of the oxidation processes, the whole mass suffers a rise 
of temperature amounting in all to about 1,200° I’. above the tempera- 
ture of the melted iron. At this temperature the lime which has been 
added melts and in this melted state combines with the phosphoric 
acid, and the liquid mass floats upon the top of the metallic portion, 
which has by this means been converted into steel. As soon as the 
process is completed the fused slag is poured off into molds, allowed to 
cool, broken up, and ground to a fine powder. The whole process 
occupies only about fifteen minutes. For each 5 tons of steel which 
are made in this way, about 1 ton of basie slag is produced. 


oa 


a. a a 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 187 


In another process, in order to make a slag richer in phosphoric acid, 
a lime is employed which contains a considerable percentage of plos- 
phate. Although the slag thus produced is richer in phosphoric acid, 
itis doubtful whether it is any more available for plant growth than 
that made in the usual way with lime free from phosphoric acid. In 
other words, when a basic slag is made with a lime free from phosplioric 
acid, nearly the whole of the phosphoric acid is combined as tetrabasie 
calcium phosphate. On the other hand, when the lime employed con- 
tains some of the ordinary mineral phosphate, the basic slag produced 
becomes a mixture of this mineral phosphate with the tetracalcium salt. 
The mineral phosphate is probably not rendered any more available 
than it was before. 

It is easily seen from the above outline of the process of manufacture 
that basic slags can have a very widely divergent composition. When 
made from pig iron poor in phosphorus, the slag will have a large excess 
of uncombined lime, and consequently the content of phosphoric acid 
will be low. When made from pigs rich in phosphorus, there may be a 
deficiency of lime, and in this case the content of phosphoric acid would 
be unusually high. 

It is found also that the content of iron in the slag varies widely. In 
general, the greater the content of iron, the harder the slag and the 
more difficult to grind. If the pig iron contain sulphur, as is often the 
case, this sulphur is found also in the slag in combination with the lime, 
either as a sulphide or sulphate. No certain formula ean therefore be 
assigned to basic slags, and the availability of each one must be judged 
by its individual analysis. 

The value of a basic slag to the farmer depends largely upon the 
quantity of phosphoric acid which it contains soluble in a 5 per cent 
citric-acid solution. Inasmuch as the great value of the basic slags in 
certain soils and for certain crops has increased the demand for it very 
largely, there are many imitations of it placed on the market which will 
be described further on. 

This waste material, or phosphatic slag product, contains varying 
quantities of phosphoric acid, sometimes more than 20 per cent. It is 
reduced to a fine powder, and is then ready for application without 
any further treatment. In addition to the phosphoric acid it contains, 
there are also considerable quantities of lime and iron, usually in a low 
state of oxidation. 

Objections have been made to the use of basic slag for fertilizing pur- 
poses on account of the iron which it contains. There are, however, 
no valid objections which can be based upon this fact. In many soils 
the addition of iron is a positive benefit, while in all cases the quantity 
of iron contained in the slag would be too small to produce any inju- 

rious effects upon growing crops. 
The phosphoric acid in basic slag is different in chemical composition 
from that obtained in natural mineral phosphates and in bone. As has 


188 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


already been pointed out, the phosphoric acid in the substances just 
mentioned is combined in a form which is known to the chemist as tri- 
calcium phosphate, containing three molecules of the oxide of lime, each 
molecule of it containing three parts of the oxide of lime to two parts 
of phosphoric acid. In the basic slag, the molecule consists of four 
parts of oxide of lime to two parts of phosphoric acid. It is there- 
fore known chemically as tetracalcium phosphate. Its composition is 
chemically expressed by the symbol (CaQ),P,0;. This form of combina- 
tion seems to be much more easily assimilable by plants than the other, 
and extended experiments have shown that, as a rule, in its application 
the phosphoric acid is quite as available as that which is present in 
superphosphates. A large percentage of the tetracalcium phosphate 
present in basic phosphate slags is soluble in citrate of ammonia, and 
a still larger quantity in free citric acid. Thus, by the ordinary chem- 


d é : Te >N 


ATS fp \ Wes 
f ae ae a 


ASS \ af 7 is y) Aye Wi TB Vie mi 
ae yay, h WATTS Me ~» ASAI 
\\ \ H MN YANN NA : o oe 
vA \ nN en \ Wilt ME ee 
y Le aN PA 


7 TET eae 
Ny Pea 
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, 
K Ki N 
9 A' D S 
We: Pas 7 
*| WA Dy 
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; 


Fic. 16.—Effect of fertilizing vegetable soil with phosphates and other substances. 


ical tests, it is shown to be more available than the mineral phosphates, 
and practical experiments in field and pot culture have shown that this 
is the case. 

When basic slags are cooled slowly, they tend to assume a crystal- 
line condition, especially in the interior of the mass, and these crystals 
represent, more nearly than the other portions, their true composition, 
but being harder are not so well suited to fertilization. 

In figures 16 and 17 are shown the results of experimental fertilizing 
with phosphates and other substances on the growth of oats in muck 
soils. In figure 16, pot No. 1 was unfertilized; pot No. 5 had received 
fine-ground Florida phosphate at the rate of 500 pounds per acre; pot 
No. 9 the same quantity of fine-ground phosphate, and 300 pounds each 
of sulphate of ammonia and sulphate of potash per acre; pot No. 10 the 
same quantity of fine-ground phosphate and 4,000 pounds of lime per acre. 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 189 


In figure 17, pot No. 23 was unfertilized; pot No. 17 had received 
fine-ground phosphate, pot No. 18 basic slag phosphate, and pot No. 19 
acid phosphate, all at the rate of 500 pounds per acre. 

In figure 16 it is seen that the phosphate alone, No. 5, produced as 
good results as when mixed with other fertilizers, No. 9, and the addi- 
tion of lime, as shown in No. 10, was a positive injury. In figure 17 it 
is seen that the fine-ground phosphate, pot No. 17, and the acid phos- 
phate, No. 19, gave the best results, closely followed by the basic slag, 
No. 18. 

In such soils as these, therefore, a fine-ground, soft phosphate is the 
only fertilizer necessary for oats. 

The soil used in the experiment shown in figure 16 had been in culti- 
vation for three years, while that used in the experiment shown in 
figure 17 was a subsoil which had never been in use. 


MINN, 


LLL 2 ‘ ml Y AN 
Hh Jj } Hy); AP Ao y <A 
BUEN /- “i \ iy i AALS J ¥, 
) MIB hy / YW i ’ j oi 


Fic. 17.—Effect of fertilizing muck soil with different phosphates. 


In other soils deficient in lime and iron there is every reason to believe 
that the application of basic phosphate would at times give better 
results than that of a superphosphate, on account of the additional 
quantity of lime and iron conveyed to the soil in the fertilizer employed. 

On account of the fact that the basic slag is a by-product in the man- 
ufacture of iron and steel, and that it requires no treatment with sul- 
phuric or phosphoric acid to render it available, and that the only 
expense connected with its manufacture consists in its grinding and in 
the additional expense of the furnace linings required for its produc- 
tion, it is found that the available phosphoric acid contained therein 
ean be placed upon the market quite as cheap, if not cheaper, than 
a similar quantity of available phosphoric acid produced by the old 
process. 


190 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


It must not be forgotten, however, that the quantity of basie phos- 
phate Benne is limited, not by the demand for it as a fertilizer, but 
by the market for the iron and steel which is the direct product of the 

manufacture of which the basic slag is only a by-product. Thereis not 
much prospect, therefore, of its ever assuming a place in the markets 
of the world for fertilizing purposes to the exclusion of bone and min- 
eral phosphates. 

The quantity of basic slag manufactured and consumed in Germany 
in 1893 was 750,000 tons, quite equal to the consumption of superphes- 
phates. The quantity of slag produced in England for the same time 
was about 160,000 tons, and in France about 115,000 tons, making the 
total pr ee of central preg about 1,000,000 tons, a quantity 
sufficient to fertilize nearly 5,000,000 acres. The only place in this 
country where basic slag has ieee produced is Pottstown, Pa., and - 
factory there is not in operation at the present time. 

In regard to the amount to be used no definite rule can be given, 
but from 300 to 500 pounds per acre will usually be found sufficient. 


ADULTERATION OF BASIO-SLAG PHOSPHATES. 


By reason of the high agricultural value of the basic phosphate slags, 
it has proved to be very profitable to imitate them by the manufacture 
of substitutes. These substitutes are essentially fraudulent. They con- 
sist chiefly of mineral phosphates of lime or of iron and alumina. It is 
true they all contain a greater or less per cent of phosphoric acid, but this 
acid is present in practically an unavailable state. These imitations 
can be distinguished from the genuine by the solubility of the phos- 
phoric acid which they contain and by microscopic examination. The 
farmer should at least insist that 75 per cent of the phosphoric acid in 
a basic slag offered him should be soluble in a 5 per cent solution of 
citric acid. It should not be forgotten, moreover, in this connection, 
that genuine slags may differ very greatly among themselves in avail- 
ability. In one case all the phosphoric acid in the slag may be present 
as tetracalcium phosphate, of which a considerable quantity is soluble 
in ammonium citrate, and nearly all of it in a 5 per cent solution of 
citric acid. Another sampie of slag, having the same general appear- 
ance and approximately the same percentage of phosphoric acid, may 
give up only a little of its acid to ammonium citrate, and not more 
than a quarter or half of it to citrie acid. The mere faet, therefore, 
that a given sample of fertilizer is composed wholly of basic slag is 
not an absolute guaranty of the complete availability of its fertilizing 
principles. 

Attention has already been called to the importance of the nature of 
the soil when judging of the availability of phosphatic manures in 
general, and this rule applies with equal force to basic slags. 

It is undoubtedly true that these slags are superior in value to super- 
phosphates in all cases where they are to be applied to naturally wet, 


MINERAL PHOSPHATES AS FERTILIZERS. 191 


peaty, or marshy soils. Inasmuch, however, as they are soluble in 
water only to a slight degree, basic slag should in all cases be plowed 
under, so as to be placed in a portion of the soil where the rootlets of 
the plants will have access to it. 


PHOSPHATES IN MARLS. 


The term “marl” itself is of rather wide application. In general it 
is applied to any pulverulent or semipulverulent deposit containing 
notable quantities of lime carbonate and existing in a condition fit to 
apply directly to the field, or to be applied after a simple crushing. 

The chief agricultural constituent of a marl is always lime carbonate, 
although some samples of marl which are placed on the market may 
have only a small per cent of this material. In so far as the fertilizing 
properties are concerned in a general way, however, they must be 
ascribed principally to the carbonate of lime. It is for this reason that 
marls act in such a beneficial way when applied to stiff clay soils and 
other soils deficientin lime. Many of the Virginia marls, however, are 
found to contain, in addition to the lime, considerable quantities of 
potash and phosphoric acid, while marls from other localities contain 
also potash and phosphoric acid, the potash being usually in the form 
of silicate. 

The percentage of phosphoric acid in phosphate-bearing marls varies 
from a mere trace to as much as 4 or 5 per cent. Usually, however, 
the marls contain from 1 to 2 per cent of phosphate. When marls 
contain over 5 per cent of phosphate they can hardly be considered 
under the name of marls, but should then be transferred to the place 
of natural phosphates. As a rule the farmer can not expect much 
benefit from the phosphate content of a marl. On account of the 
small proportion of plant food in marls, they will not bear transporta- 
tion to any great distance. There are very few marls that are worth, 
when placed upon the field, more than $4 or $5 per ton, and in the 
great majority of cases the value is not even so great. 


RULES FOR THE APPLICATION OF PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS. 


It is not possible to give any rigid rule for the use of phosphatic 
fertilizers applicable in all cases. The character of the soil is, of course, 
the first thing to be taken into consideration. In most soils there is a 
sufficient quantity of phosphoric acid already present, if it could only 
be secured in an available form. In other eases there may be an actual 
lack of the phosphate in the soil, and this is notably the case in soils 
composed chiefly of sand, such as are found in many parts of Michigan, 
New Jersey, and Florida. 3 

A. chemical analysis, therefore, does not always give an indication of 
the actual need of a soil for phosphorus. The analysis may indicate a 
fair proportion of phosphorus in the soil, and yet it may not show its 
State of composition and degree of availability... A content of from 0,2 


192 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


to 0.5 per cent of phosphoric acid in the soil shows an ample supply of 
that material. It would be useless to state dogmatically a minimum 
content of phosphoric acid which would render absolutely necessary 
the use of a phosphatic fertilizer. In general, however, it may be 
assumed that authorities on analytical chemistry would regard a per- 
centage of less than 0.12 of phosphoric acid as indicating a less than 
minimum amount necessary to proper plant growth. In soils of good 
fertility the usual content of phosphoric acid is from 0.2 to 0.4 per 
cent. 

The quantity of a phosphate which is added, however, in a fertilizer 
although it might be sufficient for the needs of a growing crop, would 
increase almost infinitesimally the percentage of phosphate in the soil. 
As a rule phosphate fertilizers are applied in amounts varying from 300 
to 500 pounds per acre, except in rare instances of intensive culture, as 
in gardens and truck farming. If the fertilizer employed contain an 
average of 20 per cent of phosphoric acid, which may be allowed as a 
rule, then in the application of 500 pounds there would be only 100 
pounds of phosphoric acid added per acre. When the total weight of 
soil, taken to the depth of 6 inches, covering an acre, is considered, 
it is seen that this addition of phosphoric acid would add almost infini- 
tesimally to the percentage. The principle of the use, therefore, of 
phosphoric acid in the form of fertilizer is based on the assumption that 
it gives to the rootlets of the plant the phosphate in a form readily 
available, and not that it increases to any appreciable extent the actual 
phosphoric-acid content of the soil. 

It could easily happen that a field might receive annually 100 pounds 
of available phosphoric acid per acre without showing at the end of ten 
years any marked increase in the percentage of this substance in the soil 
itself. The best rule for the farmer to follow, therefore, is to make an 
actual test of the needs of his fields by applying fertilizers of different 
descriptions to small measured areas. Itis not possible for every farmer 
to secure an analysis of the soil of his fields, nor would an analysis of the 


soil of one field be a fair indication of the needs of another. Where the © 


direct method of experimentation mentioned above, however, could be 
combined with chemical analysis, together with a study of the physical 
conditions of the soil, the farmer would have at hand complete data for 


judging of the actual needs of his fields. It is undoubtedly true that. 


thousands of farmers are paying out annually large sums of money for 
phosphatic fertilizers and applying them to fields in which there is no 
deficiency of phosphorus. These phosphatic fertilizers are frequently 
mixed with other fertilizing materials containing potash and nitrogen, 
and the good effect produced by the fertilizers may be due to the other 
materials and not to the phosphorus; but by testing small measured 
areas with phosphoric acid, with potash, and with nitrogen, or by com- 
binations thereof, the farmer in a year or two can reach a reliable 
conclusion in regard to the needs of his soil. 


FERTILIZATION OF THE SOIL AS AFFECTING THE 
ORANGE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. 


By H. J. WEBBER, 


Assistant in Division of Vegetable Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


Probably the most important question which concerns the orange 
grower is how to fertilize his trees. In Florida, where the orange soils 
are mostly very sandy and sterile, and require to be fertilized regularly, 
it is highly important to understand what elements should be used in 
fertilization and in what forms it is best to use them. No plant will 
long withstand improper treatment. In case of slow-growing plants 
like the orange, where proper treatment prolongs growth and produc- 
tiveness for centuries, it becomes particularly necessary that correct 
methods of manuring be used. The condition of tree reflects largely 
the cumulative treatment of years; in crops which are replanted each 
year, however, the effect of improper fertilization is probably less notice- 
able, especially so far as the development of disease is concerned. 

In growing annual plants one can early notice results and may profit 
by experience. A few seasons will suffice to determine about the kind 
and quantity of fertilizer necessary for them on a particular soil. In 
the fertilization of the orange, however, the matter is not so easily 
determined; only the observations of a series of years will give results 
which can be depended upon. An orange grower may fertilize with 
one element one year and get good results, but this is no evidence that 
the same element used the next year or year after year will prove ben- 
eficial; it may, indeed, in prolonged treatment, lead to deterioration 
and disease. It is this difficulty in experimenting and drawing correct 
conclusions that accounts for the present poor understanding of rational 
methods of manuring the orange. 

The orange appears to be very sensitive to methods of treatment and 
fertilization, and several of the most serious diseases are either caused 
or aggravated by errors in these. The present paper is based largely 
on the experiences of intelligent orange growers and upon such obser- 
vations as the winter has been able to make in the course of investiga- 
tions of orange diseases. 


FERTILIZING FOR GROWTH AND FRUIT. 


Primarily the orange grower desires to know how to fertilize so as to 
‘stimulate either growth or fruit production, With oranges, as with 
many other agricultural plants, one may fertilize in such a manner that 
1 A 94 7 193 


194 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


excessive growth is stimulated at the expense of fruit production. A 
strong nitrogenous fertilizer results usually in much growth and little 
fruit. This seems to be particularly true if the ammonia is added in an 
organic form. While trees are young it is probably well to favor the 
growth of wood principally, but at an age of seven or eight years from 
the bud, the tree, if it has grown properly, will have attained sufficient 
size to begin to produce a fair quantity offruit. It should then be given 
a slightly modified fertilizer, containing more potash and phosphorie acid 
and less nitrogen, to stimulate fruit production as much as possible. 
The so-called chemical manures appear to be much more active in 
stimulating fruit production than organic manures. 


EFFECT ON QUALITY OF FRUIT. 


The experience of many orange growers indicates that the quality 
of the fruit may be largely controlled by fertilization. As oranges are 
purchased very largely on their appearance and quality, this becomes 
an important consideration in manuring. Many intelligent growers 
are coming to believe that the best results can be obtained by giving 
the trees an application of that element only which seems to be lack- 
ing, and not using, as the majority do, a complete fertilizer, in definite 
proportions, regardless of whether all the elements are needed by the 
plant or not. Ifit can be determined by the appearance of the tree and 
fruit what element is lacking, this would seem to be the most rational 
way to fertilize. 

It seems reasonable to suppose that by careful study pathological 
characters induced by starvation might be found, which would serve 
to indicate clearly the lack of any particular element. Some growers 
claim to be able to recognize these characters now, and are fertilizing 
largely on this modified plan, taking advantage of what we might call 
the sign language of the tree. Some of these characters will be men- 
tioned below under the cousideration of the different elements used. 


EFFECT ON SOIL MOISTURE. 


In fertilization at least two factors must usually be considered, the 
element of plant food supplied and the effect of this upon the soil as 
aiding it in supplying the plant with moisture. The heavy application, 
in late fall or early spring, of an organic manure, like blood and bone, 
which is extensively used in Florida, is liable to lead to injurious effects 
during the spring drought, if the trees are on high and dry land. On 
the other hand, such soils might be ameliorated by using substances 
which attract water and increase the surface tension of soil moisture. 
Nitrogen, for instance, used in the form of nitrate of soda, and potash, 
in the form of kainit, would tend to draw up the subsoil moisture and 
probably aid largely in supplying the necessary moisture during this 
trying season. The use of organic manures, on the contrary, would only 
exaggerate the damave produced by drought. If groves are on very 


EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 195 


moist land, as is frequently the case in Florida, where the necessity is 
to lessen the moisture rather than to increase it, some form of organic 
manure, as muck or blood and bone, might be found of benefit. 


EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS ON THE ORANGE IN HEALTH, 


The elements which need to be supplied in fertilization to most 
Florida orange groves are nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus; or, 
using the terms in which they are expressed in most analyses of ferti- 
lizers, ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. The application of lime 
would also prove of benefit to many groves. Probably no element of 
plant food used in the fertilization of orange groves should be more 
carefully considered, with respect both to form and quantity, than nitro- 
gen. It is the most costly and at the same time the most dangerous 
element to use, as excessive applications are liable to result in extensive 
dropping and splitting of the fruit or in the production of the serious 
disease known as die-back, which will be discussed below. 


EFFECT OF NITROGEN. 


A grower may with considerable certainty determine by the appear- 
ance of his trees the condition of his grove in respect to the supply of 
nitrogen available in the soil. An abundance of nitrogen is indicated 
by a dark green color of the foliage and rank growth. The fruit shows 
the effect of an abundance of nitrogen by being, in general, large, with 
a thick and comparatively rough rind. If the trees have a yellowish 
foliage, with comparatively small leaves, and show little or no growth, 
there is probably a lack of nitrogen. In this case there is but little 
frnit formed, and that formed is small and usually colors early. If the 
tree is starving from a lack of nitrogen, the foliage will become very 
light yellow and sparse, and the small limbs will die, as will also the 
large limbs in extreme cases. If the starvation is continued, no fer- 
tilizer being added, the tree will finally die back nearly to the ground 
and probably die out entirely. The extreme symptoms of general star- 
vation from lack of all elements are probably nearly the same. The 
nitrogen used in fertilization is commonly derived from mineral or 
organic sources. Of the former, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of 
soda are the forms most used; of the latter, muck, dried blood, blood 
and bone, cotton-seed meal, tankage, fish scrap, stable manure, etc., 
are the forms most commonly employed. 


INJURIOUS ACTION OF MUCK. 


Muck is very commonly applied in considerable quantities either in a 
raw state or composted with sulphate of potash, ete. Many growers 
rather fanatically hold to what they term natural fertilization. By this 
is usually meant giving the tree nourishment in the form in which they 
Suppose it to bederived in nature. It is contended by many that muck 
is principally decaying vegetable matter, and that as this is the form 


196 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of nourishment which the trees obtain in nature, it must be a good fer- 
tilizer to use in cultivation. But it must be borne in mind that orange 
trees as we cultivate them are decidedly not in a state of nature, except 
that by the cultivation of centuries we havemade cultivation and manur- 
ing natural conditions which the plant demands. ‘Trees in nature bear 
fruits for seed to reproduce the species; on the contrary, we grow fruits 
for market and favor a seedless variety. We want a smooth, thin- 
skinned, tender, juicy fruit that will sink in water. Nature does not 
pay particular attention to these characters, so we watch for freaks and 
sports, abnormal plants, which have the characters we desire, and when 
found we render these characters permanent by budding. Our aim in 
cultivation is not to produce the fruit we find in the wild state, but to 
modify that fruit to suitour purpose. Oneof the most efficient methods 
of accomplishing this is to vary the fertilization. 

While it can not be denied that muck has in some cases given excel- 
lent results, it must be conceded that its extensive use has usually been 
of doubtful benefit and often has done positive injury. Groves which 
have had liberal dressings of muck are frequently much diseased and 
produce light crops; the oranges are usually coarse, thick-skinned, and 
sour; the productiveness is often lessened by extensive premature drop- 
ping of the fruit; the tendency seems to be to bring on die-back, a disease 
which is of frequent occurrence in groves heavily fertilized with muck. 
What has been said of muck applies to a greater or less extent to the 
various forms of organic nitrogen used. The tendency of all organic 
manures rich in nitrogen is to produce a large growth whieh is weak 
and sickly. Growth and not frnit is stimulated, and the fruit resulting 
is usually of poor quality, inclined to be large and rough, with a thick 
rind and abundant rag.! 


STABLE MANURE OF DOUBTFUL UTILITY. 


Barn manure is largely used by many growers, who still hold to the 
tradition that chemical manures are injurious to the plants. The ben- 
efits of barn manure in an orange grove are in serious question. The 
fruits produced by nitrogen from this source are, as above stated, usually 
large, coarse, thick-skinned, with abundant rag, and of inferior flavor. 
If barn manure is used—and most growers have a limited quantity 
and desire to use what they have—it should be spread over the grove 
lightly, so that each tree receives only a small amount. Where such 
manure is depended upon as the main element of fertilization, liberal 
dressings of potash should be occasionally applied; this will tend to 
correct the evils of an overbalanced nitrogenous fertilizer. What has 
been said as to the effect of muck and barn manure on the quality of 
the fruit applies equally to the effects produced by cotton-seed meal, 
blood and bone, tankage, ete. 


1A term applied to the pithy axis of the orange fruit and the membranes separating 
the sections. 


EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 9% 


In general, organie fertilizers do not stimulate fruiting to the same 
extent as the mineral fertilizers. It is probably better economy to 
apply such fertilizers to annual crops, cereals, garden truck, ete. 


MINERAL NITROGEN. 


The mineral nitrogen manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of 
ammonia, apparently stimulate production of fruit more than organic 
manures and yet promote a fair general growth. The fruit produced by 
fertilization with these salts, used in correct proportions with the other 
elements which it is necessary to apply, is usually of good quality, being 
solid, juicy, and rich, with thin skin and little rag. Sulphate of am- 
monia has the effect, growers testify, of sweetening the fruit to a consid- 
erable extent. There seems to be little doubt as to the correctness of 
this view, but why it is soremainsin question. The sweetening is prob- 
ably more marked if there is a slight deficiency of potash. The use of 
very large quantities of either sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda nay 
result disastrously, acting as ‘¢chemical poison,” killing the trees out- 
right and causing them to throw off their leaves. Here again the exact 
action is not, to my knowledge, understood. The following may be the 
explanation: It is well known that plants growing on the seacoast, in 
soil saturated with the salty sea water, are, in some respects, under 
almost the same conditions as in deserts, having great difficulty in 
obtaining sufficient water, though surrounded by water. The root hairs 
have difficulty in extracting the water from the strong salty solutions. 
The plants thus have various devices to prevent excessive evaporation 
or transpiration of water from the leaves, similar to those developed by 
desert plants. The injurious effect of the nitrogen salts may in this 
case be caused by simply producing such a strong solution of the salt 
in the vicinity of the plant that the roots are not able to absorb the 
necessary moisture, and thus the plant is compelled to cut off its leaves 
to prevent the transpiration of the water which can not be replenished 
by further absorption. . 

Sulphate of ammonia has been very widely used among orangé grow- 
ers. Nitrate of soda has been but little used thus far, but is apparently 
growing in favor. Its insecticide and water-attracting properties are 
probably much greater than those of sulphate of ammonia. 


POTASH FERTILIZERS. 


In fertilizing the orange, potash is most frequently used either in the 
form of the sulphate or of wood ashes. While sulphate of potash has 
been most widely used, there is apparently little evidence that it is in 
aly way superior to other forms. Muriate of potash, containing the 
equivalent of about 50 per cent of actual potash, the form probably 
most used in the apple and peach orchards of the North, has been little 
used in orange groves. Apparently those who have used this form 
have obtained uniformly good results. Kainit, or German potash salt, 


198 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


which is a crude double salt of magnesium sulphate with calcium chlo- 
ride, containing the equivalent of from 12 to 14 per cent of actual pot- 
ash, is a form much used in Northern orchards and is promising for use 
in orange groves. Its very active effect in increasing the surface ten- 
sion of the soil moisture and thus attracting water to the trees, might 
make it an excellent form to add in early spring to aid the plant in 
withstanding the spring drought, which is so frequently injurious to the 
orange tree, and sometimes fatal to the fruit crop. Growers not sup- 
plied with facilities for irrigation would, undoubtedly find it profit- 
able to consider carefully points of this nature in fertilization. The 
noticeable effect of potash on the orange tree appears to be its aid 
in completing and maturing the wood. Apparently an insufficient 
amount of potash is shown by an excessive growth of weak, immature 
wood, which dees not harden up as winter approaches and is liable to 
be ace by frost. 

An abundance of potash, in the form of sahseata of potash or tobacco 
stems, is said by many growers to produce excessively sour fruit. 
That potash is very necessary in fruit, production is shown by the fact — 
that the fruit contains a large percentage of this element. An average 
of fifteen analyses of different varieties of Florida oranges shows 52.05 
per cent to be about the usual amount of potash in the ash of the 
orange fruit. The ash in these fifteen analyses averaged 0.916 per cent, 
or less than 1 per cent of the total weight of the fruit. 


PHOSPHORIC ACID. 


Phosphoric acid, which is a very necessary element of fertilization on 
Florida orange lands, is mostly used in the form of dissolved bone- 
black, acidulated bone or phosphate rock, soft phosphate, raw bone, 
guano, ete. The immediate effect of phosphoric acid on the orange tree 
and fruit is little understood. Several intelligent growers claim to be 
able te recognize the effect of phosphorous starvation by the appear- 
ance of the new growth of leaves. If these, when they first push out 
or while they are still young and tender, present a slightly variegated 
appearance, mottled with light and dark green, it is claimed that they 
are suffering from lack of phosphorus, and that if a liberal application 
of some soluble phosphate is applied this appearance may be checked. 
If this can be shown to be true it will prove a valuable index to the 
available quantity of phosphoric acid in the soil. A similar appear- 
ance, may, however, appear in light cases of the so-called “frenching,” 
a disease, or probably more properly a symptom of disease, which is 
not uncommon. Phosphorous starvation, it is true, may have some 
effect in inducing this disease. 


LIME. 


Lime, it is usually supposed, is present in sufficient quantities in most 
of our soils. Itimay be questioned, however, whether the common high 
pine land and scrub land, and indeed much of the flat woods and ham- 


EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 199 


mock of the interior of Florida, might not be benefited by dressings of 
lime. From the superiority of oranges grown on soils which are known 
to be rich in lime it would seem that this is probably a very desirable 
and necessary element for the production of superior fruit. The fine, 
smooth-skinned, and deliciously flavored Indian and Halifax River 
oranges, with their characteristic aroma, are grown largely on soils rich 
in lime from shell mounds and coralline and coquina rock. The oranges 
produced in the noted Orange Bend Hammock, which are of distinctive 
quality, with delicate, rich aroma, and thin, smooth rind, are produced 
on a soil underlaid by a marlrichin lime. Lime soils are in many orange 
countries considered superior for orange growing. Dr. A. Stutzer, in 
his work on the Fertilization of Tropical Cultivated Plants, writes: 
“The orange and citron fruits desire a deep, porous, dry soil, rich in lime. 
If sufficient lime is not present the fruit will be thick-skinned and not 
have a fine aroma.” It appears also that the effect of abundant lime 
is to hasten to some extent the time of ripening. Fruits grown on soils 
rich in lime appear to color and become suitable for shipping some- 


Fie. 18.—Orange twigs showing effects of die-back. 


what earlier than those grown on soils containing but little Jime. To 
secure a good quality of fruit the regular application of lime may be 
found very desirable in many groves. 


FERTILIZATION AS AFFECTING DISEASE, 


Probably the most common cause of injury to orange trees is a lack 
of fertilization, yet itis not infrequent for disease to be induced or 
aggravated by excessive or improper fertilization. This may, indeed, 
be of much more importance than we are at present inclined to believe. 
One of the forms of die-back, a common and destructive disease of the 
orange, is quite evidently due to errors in fertilization. In other cases 
the disease appears to be caused by planting in improper soil. 


DIE-BACK. 


Die-back manifests itself by a number of striking characters. The 
foliage becomes very dark green, the vigorous growth remains angular 
and immature and frequently becomes strongly recurved, and the tips 
turn up slightly, forming S-shaped curves. In the spring trees affected 


200 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


with this disease start out a very vigorous growth, which may con- 
tinue for several months. Finally a reddish brown resinous substance 
exudes on the twigs, forming the so-called die-back stain, which is very 
characteristic, and they begin to die back. This death of tissues may 
include the entire new growth or only a portion of it. Under the bark 
of the young limbs gum pockets form and burst out, causing large, 
unsightly eruptions on the twigs, as shown in figure 18. 

Larger gum pockets frequently form at the nodes, producing large 
swellings. Ifa tree is badly affected no fruit is formed; if moderately 
affected an abundance of fruit sets, but the larger portion of this 
turns to a lemon-yellow color before half grown, becomes stained by the 


Fia. 19.—Orange fruit showing effects of die-back. 


characteristic reddish exudatious like that occurring on the branches, 
and prematurely falls. J'ruit which hangs on the tree till nearly ripe 
is large and coarse and is frequently stained. It usually splits and 
falls before thoroughly ripe. The fruit on a slightly affected tree is 
very large and coarse, with very thick, rough rind. Much of it is ren- 
dered unsalable by the reddish die-back stain. It is very prone to 
split and fall before mature. <A split fruit of this character, showing 
also the die-back stain, is illustrated in figure 19. 

Frenching, or variegation of the foliage, frequently accompanies die- 
back and seems to be a symptom of the disease. The very dark green 
coloration which some growers believe to be an indication of a healthy 
grove, may, on the contrary, denote a condition verging on die-back. 
A lighter green would probably indicate better general health. 


EFFECT OF SOIL FERTILIZATION ON THE ORANGE. 201 


DIE-BACK A DISEASE OF INDIGESTION, 


Die-back appears to be a form of indigestion, due to an overfed con- 
dition of the plant. It occurs apparently wherever excessive quanti- 
ties of nitrogenous manures from organic sources are applied or become 
available to the plant. Trees near closets or barns or in barnyards 
almost invariably have die-back. When chickens roost on a tree for 
any length of time, so that the droppings fall on the soil beneath, the 
disease usually results. Many cases are known to the writer where it 
has apparently been caused by excessive applications of cotton-seed 
meal, blood and bone, barn manure, ete. Indeed, all organic manures 
in excessive quantities appear to give rise to it. If organic fertilizers 
are used they must therefore be applied with considerable caution to 
avoid an excess. No safe rule can be given as to the amount of 
manure that can be used with safety; this depends upon the size and 
condition of the tree, previous treatment, and soil conditions. 

Whether the chemical manures, nitrate of soda and sulphate of 
ammonia, will produce the disease if used in excessive quantities, is 
questionable. We have not been able to learn of any instance where 
this has occurred. Several cases are known where nitrate of soda was 
used of sufficient strength to cause the leaves to fall without producing 
any sign of this disease. Frequently the method of cultivation has 
considerable to do in causing die-back, excessive cultivation appearing 
to aggravate it very greatly. 


MAL-DI-GOMMA., 


The much-dreaded disease of foot rot, or mal-di-gomma, is probably 
not produced primarily by improper methods of fertilization, but seems 
to be considerably affected by the use of fertilizers and methods of 
cultivation. Groves in which cow-penning! has been practiced to a 
considerable extent are frequently affected with foot rot. This is so 
generally the case as to admit little doubt that this practice has con- 
siderable to do in inducing the disease. The extensive application of 
organic manures appears also to aggravate the malady to some extent, 
and their use in infected groves should be discouraged. 


INSECT DISEASES. 


With regard to the effect of fertilization upon insects which infest 
the orange, it may be said that the question is little understood. A 
general impression exists among the growers of the State that groves 
fertilized with blood and bone or barn manure are more liable to be 
badly infested with injurious insects than those fertilized exclusively 
with chemical manures. This appears to be especially true in the case 
of the six-spotted mite (Tetranychus 6-maculatus) and the purple scale 


'A term used to designate the practice of penning cattle in orange groves over 
night, using a movable pen, the position of which is changed every few days. 


[ieee ey 


02 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Uytilaspis citricola); judging from observations on many groves which 
ave been fertilized with chemical manures only, it certainly seems that 
tis belief is well founded. There is some evidence that the muriate of 
otash aids to some extent in preventing the ravages of the rust mite. 
ry. Smith, of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, has 
und nitrate of soda and kainit to be very active insecticidal fertilizers. 
hese have not been used to any extent in fertilizing orange groves in 
lorida, and no data have been obtained as to their effect on orange 
sects. Itis probable that they would prove more effective than sul- 
hate of ammonia or sulphate and muriate of potash, and they shouid be 
ioroughly tested to determine their value as fertilizers tor the orange. 


SUMMARY. 


Summarizing, it may be said: 


(1) By a proper combination of the various elements used in fertiliza- 


on one can undoubtedly largely govern the quality and flavor of the 
uit. 

(2) To obtain a fruit with thin rind, use nitrogen from inorganic 
yurees in moderate quantities, with considerable potash and lime. 

(3) To sweeten the fruit, use sulphate of ammonia in considerable 
oundance, decreasing the amount of potash. 

(4) To render the fruit more acid, increase the amount of potash and 
se nitrogen from organic sources. 

(5) If it is desired to increase the size of the fruit, as is sometimes the 
se, apply a comparatively heavy dressing of nitrogen in some organic 
rm and slightly decrease the other elements. In the case of the tan- 
srine and mandarin, where a larger size is usually desired, a heavy 
ressing of nitrogen fertilizers would favor this end, and is not objec- 
onable unless carried to excess. 

(6) Fertilization has an important bearing on diseases. 

(7) Die-back, a serious malady, is in all probability the result of over- 
eding with nitrogenous manures from organic sources. These manures 
used at all should be applied with great caution. 

(8) Foot rot, although not primarily due to improper methods of fer- 
lization, is no doubt considerably influenced by this cause. 

(9) Insect diseases are also apparently influenced by the use of fertili- 
ars, organic manures rendering the trees more liable to injury from this 
yurce than chemical fertilizers. 


: 


age eS ee 


THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND 
PLANTS IN NORTH AMERICA.! 


By C. HART MERRIAM, 


Chief of the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Department of Agriculiure. 


IMPORTANCE OF A KNOWLEDGE OF THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 
OF SPECIES. 


An accurate knowledge of the areas which, by virtue of their climatic 
conditions, are fitted for the cultivation of particular crops is of such 
obvious importance to agriculture that the Division of Ornithology and 
Mammalogy was early led to make a special study of the geographic 
distribution of the land animals and plants of North America; for the 
boundaries of areas inhabited by native species were believed to coin- 
cide with those suited to the production of particular kinds of fruit, 
grain, and tubers, and for the rearing of particular breeds of domesti- 
cated animals. 

When the boundaries of the life zones and areas are accurately 
mapped, the agriculturist need only ascertain the faunal area to which 
a particular crop or garden plant of limited range belongs in order to 
know beforehand just where it may be introduced with every prospect 
of success, suil and other local modifying influences being suitable; and, 
in the case of weeds and of injurious and beneficial mammals, birds, 
and insects, he would know what kinds were to be looked for in his 
immediate vicinity, and could prepare in advance for noxious species 
that from time to time suddenly extend their range. Persons living 
within the area likely to be invaded could escape by planting crops not 
affected, while those living outside might largely increase their rey- 
enues by giving special attention to the cultivation of the crops that 
are affected in the adjacent life zone.? In short, a knowledge of the 


‘A review of the work undertaken and of the results accomplished by the Division 
of Ornithology and Mammalogy. ; 

*This prediction was made in the annual report of the Ornithologist for 1888 (pp. 
482-483), and has been recently verified in a most gratifying manner. The distribu- 
tion of certain noxious insects has been mapped by the Division of Entomology; 
the resulting areas conform to those of particular life zones as previously mapped 
by the Division of Ornithology. For instance, in writing of the San Jose orange 
seale insect, Mr. L. O. Howard states: ‘It may prove to be a significant fact that, 
although nursery stock affected by this scale has for six or seven years back been 
sent to all the fruit-growing regions of the Eastern States, according to our present 
information the scale has established itself only in regions contained within the so- 
called Austral life zone. Mapping the points of establishment, it is very interesting 

203 


204 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


natural life areas of the United States and of their distinctive species 
and crops would enable our farmers and fruit growers to select the 
products best adapted to their localities, would help them in their battle 
with harmful species, and would put an end to the present indiscrim- 
inate experimentation by which hundreds of thousands, if not millions, 
of dollars are needlessly expended each year. 

The division has undertaken to furnish this information. When it 
began the study, ten years ago, little was known of the number or 
extent of the natural life areas of the country or of the laws limiting 
the dispersion of species. The faunal areas east of the Mississippi 
Valley had been recognized and in a general way defined, and attempts 
had been made to divide the country as a whole into areas of higher 
grade. Most zoological writers had agreed in apportioning the United 
States into three primary provinces or regions—an Eastern, reaching 
from the Atlantic to the Plains; a Central, from the eastern edge of 
the Plains to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range; and a Western 
or Pacific, from the latter to the Pacific Ocean—but botanical writers 
were at variance both as to the number and boundaries of the divisions 
they sought to establish. The division began by collecting all avail- 
able data on the distribution of North American mammals and birds. 
The facts brought together were platted on maps as the first step in the 
investigation. 


AN EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 


It soon became apparent, however, that in order to gain a clear con- 
ception of the facts and phenomena of distribution a careful study of 
the subject must be made in the field, where the actual range of mam- 
mals, birds, reptiles, insects, and plants could be ascertained and the 
distinctive areas contrasted. With this object in view, and with the 
sanction and approval of the Hon. J. M. Rusk, Secretary of Agriculture, 
and the Hon. Edwin Willits, Assistant Secretary, an experimental 
biological survey was made in the summer of 1889. The area selected 
was the San Francisco Mountain region in Arizona, which, because 
of its isolation, altitude, southern position, and proximity to an arid 
desert, was believed to offer unusual facilities for a successful study of 
the problems involved. That this expectation was more than realized 


to see how accurately this distribution has been followed. * * * This fact will 
relieve New England fruit growers north of southern Connecticut; those inhabiting 
the greater portion of Pennsylvania, except in the southeastern one-fifth and a 
western strip; those in New York, except for the strip up the Hudson River, and 
the loop which comes in from the northwest and includes the counties bordering 
Lake Ontario on the south, as well as those inhabiting the northern portion of the 
lower peninsula of Michigan and all of northern Wisconsin, from any fear of this 
insect. Such a condition of affairs would seem almost too good to be true, but the 
possibility of its truth is suggested by what we know up to the present time.” 
(Insect Life, VII, No. 4, March, 1895, p. 292.) 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 205 


may be seen by reference to the report of the expedition.! The area 
of which a careful survey was made comprises about 5,000 square 
miles, and enough additional territory was examined to make in all 
nearly 12,000 square miles, of which a biological map was published. 

One result of this first survey was the complete overthrow of the 
principal faunal areas previously recognized in the United States, and 
a radical change in our conception of the principles involved. In 
ascending the mountain a succession of climatic belts were traversed, 
similar to those encountered in journeying northward from the Southern 
States to the polar sea, and each belt was found to be inhabited by a 
distinctive set of animals and plants. 

The more important results of the survey may be briefly summarized 
as follows: 

(1) It was demonstrated that terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles, 
insects, and plants coincide in distribution, so that a map showing the 
boundaries of an area inhabited by an association of species in one 
group serves equally well for the other groups. 

(2) Seven distinct belts or zones of animal and plant life were recog- 
nized between the Desert of the Little Colorado and the summit of 
San Francisco Mountain: A Desert area, a Pifion belt, a Pine belt, a 
Canadian belt, a Hudsonian belt, a Timber-line belt (afterwards merged 
with the Hudsonian as a subdivision), and an Arctic-Alpine area. No 
attempt was then made to propose a system of nomenclature for these 
several zones, but the important fact was recognized that they should 
be classed in two principal categories, a northern or Boreal, and a 
southern or Sonoran. The Alpine, Timber-line, Hudsonian, and Cana- 
dian were referred to the Boreal, while the Pine, Pifon, and Desert 
were referred to the Sonoran. 

(3) On comparing the principal facts of distribution on this mountain 
with corresponding facts over the country at large, three important 
truths became apparent: (a) That the several life zones of the mountain 
could be correlated with corresponding zones long recognized in the 
eastern United States; (b) that these same zones are really of trans- 
continental extent, though never before recognized in the West; and 
(c) that the faunas and floras of North America as a whole, and, for 
that matter, of the Northern Hemisphere north of the tropical region, 
are properly divisible into but two primary life regions, a northern or 
Boreal, and a southern or Austral (then termed Sonoran), both streteh- 
ing across the continent from ocean to ocean. 

The report of the expedition was accompanied by colored maps show- 
ing in detail the geographic and vertical distribution of animals and 
plants on the mountain, and also by a colored provisional biological 
map of North America showing the general facts of distribution then 
available, arranged in accordance with the principles discovered in 
studying the San Francisco Mountain region. 


‘Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco Mountain Region in Arizona, 
North American Fauna, No. 3, September, 1890, 


206 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The results of this experimental biological survey were so important 
nd far reaching as to completely revolutionize current notions of dis- 
ribution. It was perceived that the Austral as well as the Boreal 
ements in the fauna and flora are distributed in transcontinental 
elts; hence the arbitrary and irrational division of the United States 
nto Eastern, Central, and Western “provinces” gave way before a 
‘ational system, based on a knowledge of the actual facts of distribu- 
ion, which were found to conform to the general principle of temper- 
ture control early recognized by Humboldt and others. 


PROVISION FOR A SYSTEMATIC BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 


Since the primary object of mapping the geographic distribution of 
pecies is to ascertain the number, positions, and boundaries of the 
jatural life areas—areas fitted by nature for particular agricultural 
roductions—the practical importance of the subject outweighed, if pos- 
ible, its scientific interest. This was clearly set forth in the annual 
eport of the division for 1889, and Congress was urgently recom- 
nended to enlarge the scope of the work so that the division might 
arry on a systematic biological survey. The work on distribution 
1ad been previously restricted to a study of mammals and birds. In 
ompliance with this recommendation, the restriction was removed by 
Yongress, and in 1890 the division was authorized to undertake a 
omprehensive investigation of the geographic distribution of animals 
nd plants. Congress having thus in effect established a biological 
urvey, the task of mapping the distribution of species and ascertaining 
he boundaries of the natural life zones was given greater prominence 
nd has been pushed as rapidly as the means at hand permitted. 

In 1890 a biological reconnoissance was made of south-central Idaho, 
he area covered comprising about 20,000 square miles. The zones 
ecognized were the same as in the San Francisco Mountain Survey, 
xcept that the lowermost was absent. In the report on this expedi- 
ion! the courses of the several zones were described and the charac- 
eristic species of animals and plants enumerated. The Pine or Neu- 
ral Zone of the San Francisco Mountain Survey was named the 
Transition Zone, and the upper division of the Sonoran was formally 
ecognized as the Upper Sonoran Zone. 


THE DEATH VALLEY EXPEDITION. 


In 1891 the most comprehensive and thorough biological survey ever 
ndertaken was made by the division. An area embracing 100,000 
quare miles, stretching from the Pacific Coast to the one hundred and 
hirteenth meridian and from latitude 34° to latitude 38°, was chosen as 
he field of operations. 


1 Report on a Biological Reconnoissance of South-Central Idaho. North American 
‘auna, No, 5, July, 1891. 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 207 


This area comprises the greater part of southern California and 
Nevada, southwestern Utah, and the northwestern corner of Arizona, 
thus including all of the torrid desert valleys and ranges between the 
Sierra Nevada and the Colorado Plateau. It embraces also the highest 
and lowest lands within the United States—from Death Valley, nearly 
500 feet below the level of the sea, to the lofty snow-capped peaks of the 
high Sierra, culminating in Mount Whitney at an altitude of nearly 
15,000 feet. The region was selected because of the exceptional advan- 
tages it offered for studying the distribution of animals and plants in 
relation to the effects of temperature and humidity at different altitudes. 
The close proximity of desert valleys and lofty mountains brings near 
together species which in a more level country are characteristic of 
widely remote regions. Thus, in one place on the east side of the Sierra 
all of the life zones of North America, from the table-land of Mexico to 
the polar sea, may be crossed in a distance of only 10 miles. 

The expedition, which came to be known as the Death Valley expe- 
dition, determined the distinctive species of each zone, traced the 
courses of the several zones from California to the Colorado Plateau, 
and made large collections of the mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, and 
plants, which are now deposited in the United States National Museum. 
One of the special objects of the expedition, and one early accomplished, 
was the location of the northern boundary of the Lower Sonoran Zone, 
a matter of considerable importance, because it marks the northern 
limit of suecessful raisin production and of profitable cultivation of 
cotton and several “subtropical” fruits. The valleys and deserts of 
this zone were determined from a study of the native animals and 
plants, and were enumerated in the annual report of the division for 
the same year (1891).1. The results of this biological survey fill three 
volumes, two of which have been published and distributed;? the third 
has not yet gone to press. 


CORRELATION OF THE LIFE ZONES. 


A sufficient body of facts had now been brought together to justify 
amore comprehensive treatment of the subject than had before been 
possible. Therefore, in the spring of 1892 the writer published an 
essay on “The geographic distribution of life in North America, with 


1The valleys and deserts of the Lower Sonoran Zone in California, Nevada, and 
Utah are: In California, the San Joaquin Valley, the whole of the Mohave and 
Colorado deserts, the San Bernardino, San Gabriel, and Santa Ana valleys, and the 
coast region to the southward except the mountains, the southern end of Owens 
Valley, Saline, Salt Wells, Panamint, and Death valleys; in Nevada, the Amargosa 
Desert, Pahrump, Indian Springs, Vegas, Ivanpah, and Virgin valleys; and in Utah, 
the St. George or lower Santa Clara Valley. (Rept. Ornith. and Mam. for 1891, 
p. 270.) 

2North American Fauna, No.7, May, 1893; and Contributions from the United States 
National Herbarium, Vol. [V, November 29, 1893. 


208 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


special reference tothe mammalia.”! In this essay the continuity of all 
the zones, Austral as well as Boreal, was clearly established, tables of 
distinctive species were published, and the actual courses of the zones 
were shown on a colored map—the author’s second provisional biogeo- 
graphic map of North America. The following statement was made 
respecting the affinities and transcontinental character of the several 
zones and areas: 

The time has now arrived when it is possible to correlate the Sonoran zones of the 
West with corresponding zones in the East, as was done two years ago in the case of 
the Boreal zones, and as was intimated in the case of the Neutral or Transition Zone. 
It can now be asserted with some confidence, not only that the Transition Zone of 
the West is the equivalent of the Alleghanian of the East, but also that the Upper 
Sonoran is the equivalent of the Carolinian and the Lower Sonoran of the Austro- 
riparian, and that each can be traced completely across the continent. Thus all the 
major and minor zones that have been established in the East are found to be unin- 
terruptedly continuous with corresponding zones in the West, though their courses 
are often tortuous, following the lines of equal temperature during the season of 
reproduction, which lines conform in a general way to the contours of altitude, rising 
with increased base level and falling with increased latitude. 


The zones were segregated into the two great transcontinental re- 
gions—Boreal and Sonoran ?—that had been recognized two years pre- 
viously, except that the Transition Zone was allowed to stand between 
the two without being referred to either. This latter action was criti- 
cised on the ground that it was illogical to interpose a belt of minor 
rank between two major regions, although it was conceded that the belt 
was one in which northern and southern types overlap. At the same 
time its affinities with the Austral seemed closer than with the Boreal, 
and it was afterwards allowed to go with the former, as its northern- 
most subdivision. The arid and humid subdivisions of all of the south- 
ern or Austral zones were recognized and shown on the map. 


RECENT FIELD WORK. 


In 1892 the northern boundary of the Lower Sonoran Zone was traced 
from New Mexico eastward across Texas, Indian Territory, and Arkan- 
sas to the Mississippi River, and sporadic field work was done in other 
States. 


iPresidential address before the Biological Society of Washington, delivered Feb- 
ruary 6, 1892. <Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. VII; April, 1892, pp. 1-64, with colored 
map. 

2The term ‘‘ Sonoran” was still used for the Austral element in the fauna and flora 
which enters the United States from the table-land of Mexico, to avoid the introduc- 
tion of a new name, the consideration of the nomenclature of the zones and regions 
being purposely deferred. The next year, however, the term “‘dustral” was formally 
used for this region, and the term ‘‘Sonoran” was restricted to its arid or western 
division. The first public use of the word “Austral” in the sense of a primary life 
region, was on the models and maps accompanying the exhibit of the Division of 
Ornithology at the World’s Fair at Chicago in May, 1893, and in the annual report of 
the division for the same year (p. 228). 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 209 


In 1893 a biological reconnoissance was made of Wyoming, a large 
part of which was found to be from 1,000 to 3,000 feet lower than repre- 
sented on current maps, and consequently to have a warmer summer 
climate than was supposed, and to belong to the Upper Sonoran instead 
of the Transition Zone. The Wind River and Big Horn basins and the 
plains east of the Big Horn Mountains were found to be Upper Sono- 
ran. Other work was done on the Great Plains in Kansas, Nebraska, 
and the Dakotas, and also in Utah, and on the table-land of Mexico. 

During the year now drawing to a close (1894) a biological recon- 
noissance was made of the larger part of Montana, with special refer- 
ence to the determination of the boundary between the Upper Sonoran 
and Transition zones. Other work was done in South Dakota and in 
the plateau region of Arizona. In the latter region two sections were 
run from the plateau southward to the Lower Sonoran deserts. 


THE SEVEN LIFE ZONES OF NORTH AMERICA, 


In the annual report of this division for 1893 the seven life zones of 
North America, including the tropical, were characterized with special 
reference to eastern North America, and some of the more important 
crops adapted to each were mentioned. Beginning at the north, these 
zones may be described as follows: 

(1) The Arctic or Arctic-Alpine Zone lies above the limit of tree 
growth, and is characterized by such plants as the Arctic poppy, dwarf 
willow, and various saxifrages and gentians. The snow bunting, snowy 
owl, white ptarmigan, polar bear, arctic fox, and barren-ground caribou 
or reindeer are characteristic animals. The zone is of no agricultural 
importance. 

(2) The Hudsonian Zone comprises the northern or higher parts of 
the great transcontinental coniferous forest—a forest of spruces and 
firs, stretching from Labrador to Alaska. It is inhabited by the wol- 
verine, woodland caribou, moose, great northern shrike, pine bullfinch, 
white-winged crossbill, white-crowned sparrow, and fox sparrow. Like 
the preceding, this zone is of no agricultural importance. 

(3) The Canadian Zone comprises the southern or lower part of the 
great transcontinental coniferous forest. It comes into the United 
States from Canada and covers the northern parts of Michigan, Ver- 
mont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Farther south it is restricted to 
the summits of the higher Alleghanies. Among the characteristic 
mammals and birds are the porcupine, varying hare, red squirrel, 
white-throated sparrow, and yellow-rumped warbler. Counting from 
the north, this zone is the first of any agricultural consequence. Here 
white potatoes, turnips, beets, the Oldberg apple, and the more hardy 
cereals may be cultivated with moderate success. 

(4) The Transition Zone is the belt in which Boreal and Austral 
elements overlap. It covers the greater part of New England, New 
York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and southern Michigan, and pushes 


910 YEARBOOK OF THE U. &. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


south along the Alleghanies to extreme northern Georgia. Here the 
oak, hickory, chestnut, and walnut of the south meet the maple, beech, 
birch, and hemlock of the north. Thesame overlapping is found among 
the mammals and birds, for the southern mole and cottontail rabbit, 


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life zones of the United States. : 


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the oriole, bluebird, catbird, thrasher, chewink, and wood thrush live 
in or near the haunts of the hermit and Wilson’s thrushes, solitary 
vireo, bobolink, red squirrel, jumping mouse, chipmunk, and star-nosed 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 211 


mole. In this zone we enter the true agricultural part of our country, 
where apples (Oldberg, Baldwin, Greening, wealthy, seek-no-farther, 
and others), blue plums, cherries, white potatoes, barley, and save 
attain their highest perfection. 

(5) The Carolinian Zone covers the larger part of the Middle States 
except the mountains; on the Atlantic coast it reaches from near the 
mouth of Chesapeake Bay to southern Connecticut, and pushes still 
farther north in the valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut rivers. It 
is the region in which the sassafras, tulip tree, hackberry, sweet gum, 
and persimmon first make their appearance, together with the opossum, 
gray fox, fox squirrel, cardinal bird, Carolina wren, tufted tit, gnat- 
catcher,and yellow-breasted chat. In this zone the Ben Davis and wine- 
sap apples, the peach, apricot, quince, sweet potato, tobacco, and the 
hardier grapes (such as the Concord, Catawba, and Isabella) thrive best. 

(6) The Austroriparian Zone covers the greater part of the South 
Atlantic and Gulf States, beginning at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. 
The long-leafed pine, mngniolias and live oak are common on uplands, 
and the bald cypress and cane in swamps. Here the mocking bird, 
painted bunting, red-cockaded woodpecker, and chuck-wills-widow are 
characteristic birds, and the cotton rats, rice-field rats, wood rats, little 
spotted skunks, and free-tailed bats are common mammals. Thisis the 
zone of the cotton plant, sugar cane, rice, pecan, and peanut; of the 
oriental pears (Le Conte and Kieffer), the Scuppernong grape, and of 
the citrus fruits—the orange, lemon, lime, and shaddock. In its west- 
ern continuation (the Lower Sonoran) the raisin grape, olive, and almond 
are among the most important agricultural products, and the fig ripens 
several crops each year. 

(7) The Tropical Region, within the United States, is restricted to 
southern Florida, extreme southeast Texas (along the lower Rio Grande 
and Gulf coast), and the valley of the lower Colorado River in Arizona 
and California. Among the tropical trees that grow in southern Florida 
are the royal palm, Jamaica dogwood, manchineel, mahogany, and man- 
grove; and among the birds may be mentioned the white-crowned 
pigeon, Zenaida dove, quail doves, a Bahaman vireo, Bahama honey- 
creeper, and caracara eagle. The banana, cocoanut, date palm, pine- 
apple, mango, and cherimoyer thrive in this belt. 


FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION, 


It now remains to discuss the causes of distribution, or rather the 
causes, other than absolute geographical barriers, that restrict species 
to definite areas or belts.' The fact has been long recognized—since the 
time of Humboldt at least—that animals and plants are not univer. 
Sally distributed over the earth, but disappear along certain more or less 
definite lines, which lines indicate a change in temperature uncon genial 


' By permission of the Hon. J. J. ‘Sterling Mo: Morton, Secretary of . Agri ieulture, a prelim- 
inary announcement of the “ Laws of temperature control of the geographic distribu- 
tion of terrestrial animals and plants” was published in the National Geographic 
Magazine, Vol. VI, December 29, 1894, pp. 229-238, illustrated by 3 colored maps. 


212 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


to the species; but exactly what temperatures exert the controlling 
influence, and how they can be measured, have only recently been dis- 
covered. Until the past year the mistake was made of assembling all 
the temperature data in accordance with a single hypothetical law. 
Then a radically different plan was tried: The temperature data were 
platted in accordance with two widely different principles—one with 
reference to the northern, the other the southern, boundaries of the 
zones. This departure was suggested by a Somewhat tardy recognition 
of the fundamental facts of distribution discovered in 1889, namely, that 
animals and plants are themselves distributed from two directions— 
Boreal species from the north, and Austral species from the south. It 
seemed reasonable to infer, therefore, that northward distribution 
should be governed by one set of temperatures, and southward distri- 
bution by another. The temperature selected as probably fixing the 
limit of northward distribution is the sum of effective heat for the entire 
season of growth and reproduction, for it has been proved experiment- 
ally and long recognized by phenologists that many species of plants 
require a definite sum total of heat in order to successfully perform the 
several vital functions of leafing, blossoming, and fruiting, and that 
such plants can not mature their seeds until a particular sum of heat 
is attained. Since plants are unaffected by temperatures below and 
immediately above the freezing point, a minimum of 6° C. or 43° F. was 
assumed to represent the inception of the period of physiological activity 
in spring, and hence was used as a Starting point in adding the normal 
daily temperatures for the entire period in question. Beginning at 43° 
T’., all mean daily temperatures in excess of this were added together, 
the end of the period in fall being the time when the temperature fell 
to the same initial point. In this way it became possible to ascertain 
the total quantity of heat required for each species experimented upon. 

When the sums of the positive temperatures for a large number of 
localities in the United States were platted on a large scale map it was 
found that isotherms (lines showing an equal quantity of heat) could be 
drawn that correspond almost exactly with the northern boundaries of 
the several zones. In the case of the southern boundaries a greater 
difficulty was encountered, for no data had been published bearing on 
the temperature control of southward distribution. At the same time it 
seemed evident, from data previously collected by the division, that 
Species are limited in their southward distribution by the mean temper- 
ature of a brief period during the hottest part of the summer. For 
experimental purposes the mean normal temperature of the hottest six 
consecutive weeks of summer was assumed to be the factor desired, and 
this temperature was platted for a large number of localities. Isotherms 
were then drawn which marked the southern boundaries of the several 
zones along the Atlantic coast, and it was found that in ranging west- 
ward these isotherms conformed throughout to the tortuous boundaries 
of the Boreal, Transition, and Upper Austral zones, previously mapped 
from a study of the actual distribution of animals and plants. 


a TP 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 213 


While it is not for a moment supposed that the subject has been dis- 
posed of in all its details, it is confidently believed that the principles 
controlling the geographic distribution of terrestrial animals and plants 
have been discovered and that they may be expressed as follows: 

In northward distribution terrestrial animals and plants are restricted 
by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth 
and reproduction. 

In southward distribution they are restricted by the mean tempera- 
ture of a brief period during the hottest part of the year. 

It is believed that these two principles cover the fundamental facts 
of distribution. 


RECAPITULATION. 


When the division undertook the study of the geographic distribu- 
tion of life in North America, the transcontinental or zonary character 
of the principal life areas was not recognized, and the laws governing 
distribution were unknown. Zoologists and botanists had always 
worked independently; the maps each had published differed radically 
among themselves, and no agreement could be found between the two 
series. The divisions commonly adopted by zoologists were three—an 
Eastern, a Central, and a Western or Pacific province or region. In 
addition to these, some authors had recognized a transcontinental 
Boreal region, which was clearly shown on a map published by Dr. A. 
S. Packard in 1878.! 

The first biological survey undertaken by the division (in 1889) estab- 
lished the important facts that the same laws govern the distribution 
of both animals and plants, and that the resulting areas of distribution 
are essentially coincident. It showed also that the life areas of North 
America and of the Northern Hemisphere as a whole take the form of 
a definite number of circumpolar or transcontinental belts, and that 
these belts or zones naturally arrange themselves in two principal cat- 
egories or regions—a northern or Boreal and a southern or Austral. 

The work accomplished by the division up to the present time may 
be briefly summarized as follows: The continent of North America has 
been divided into three primary life regions—Boreal, Austral, and 
Tropical—each of transcontinental extent. Their boundaries are sin- 
uous, conforming to the distribution of temperature. 

The Boreal Region stretches from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland 
westward to the Pacific Ocean, and from northern New England and 
the Great Lakes northward to the pole and southward over the prin- 


‘Dr. Packard’s map was a decided advance over those of his predecessors, inas- 
much as it showed the Boreal region to extend southward over the three great 
mountain systems of the United States—the Alleghanies, Rocky Mountains, and 
Sierra-Cascade. The remainder of North America, as shown on Dr. Packard’s map, 
was divided between the three commonly recognized regions above mentioned—the 
eastern, central, and western or Pacific—to which were added on the south a Central 
American region and an Antillean region. 


14 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


pal mountains of the United States and Mexico. It is subdivided 
ito three principal belts or zones, Arctic, Hudsonian, and Canadian. 
) The Arctic or Arctic-Alpine belt comprises Arctic America above 
ie limit of tree growth, including Greenland and a narrow strip along 
1e coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, and also the summits of the 
igher mountains above timber line throughout the United States and 
fexico; (2) the Hudsonian Zone embraces the northern half of the 
reat coniferous forest that reaches across the continent from Labrador 
» Alaska; (8) the Canadian Zone embraces the southern half of the 
reat coniferous forest, stretching westward from northern New 
neland and Nova Scotia to British Columbia. 

The Austral Region is likewise subdivided into three transconti- 
ental zones: (1) A Transition Zone; (2) an Upper Austral Zone; (3) a 
ower Austral Zone, all stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific 


nd winding about sufficiently to cover areas of equal temperature. 


ach of the three Austral belts may be subdivided in an east and 
est direction into two or more areas, some of which are based on 
umidity instead of temperature. The eastern ends of these three 
elts have been long recognized by zoologists, and are known as the 
Nleghanian, Carolinian, and Austroriparian faunas. It was early 
nown by the division that the Austroriparian is the direct continua- 
on of the arid Lower Sonoran fauna of the table-land of Mexico and 
1e southwestern United States, and that this same faunal belt occu- 
ies the interior valley of California and most of the peninsula of 
ower California. 

The Tropical Region comprises Central America, the greater part of 
1e coastal lowlands of Mexico, and the Antilles. It enters the United 
tates at three points, southern Florida, the lower Rio Grande region 
1 Texas, and the valley of the lower Colorado River in western Ari- 
ona and southeastern California. 

The various zones liave been studied in the field by the division and 
heir boundaries located and mapped over extensive areas. 
Summary.—The principles of geographic distribution of terrestrial 
nhimals and plants in the Northern Hemisphere were clearly recog- 
ized in 1889; the correlation of the life zones was completed in 1892; 
he laws of temperature control were formulated in 1894. The work 
emaining undone relates to details and may be classed under four 
eads: (1) Completion of the boundary surveys of the several zones; 
2) subdivision of the zones into minor faunas and floras; (3) tabulation 
f the distinctive species of each zone and its subdivisions; (4) formu- 
ition of the subordinate laws governing the restriction of species to 
articular areas within the principal zones. 

It appears, therefore, that in its broader aspects the study of the 
eographic distribution of life in North America is completed. The 
rimary regions and their principal subdivisions have been defined 
nd mapped, the problems involved in the control of distribution have 
een solved, and the laws themselves have been formulated. 


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HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 


By A. K. FIsHer, M. D., 
Assistant Ornithologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 


CAUSE OF THE PREJUDICE AGAINST BIRDS OF PREY. 


The old saying that ‘a little knowledge is a dangerous thing” is 
exemplified in the way our hawks and owls are looked upon by a large 
majority of mankind. The farmer sees a hawk strike a fowl which has 
wandered from the farmyard; the sportsman, while planning the cap- 
ture of a covey of quail, finds the mutilated remains of a game bird and 
feels sure it is the unlawful prey of a thieving owl—without further 
investigation both men condemn birds of prey as a class, and lose no 
opportunity to destroy them and their eggs and young. 

The ill feeling has become so deep rooted that it is instinctive even 
in those who have never seen any depredations. How are we to account 
for this hatred against birds of prey by the class of men who should 
be the first to clamor for their protection? The prejudice is largely due 
to lack of discrimination. Since they know that hawks and owls attack 
poultry, they do not stop to think that these depredations may be made 
by a few species only, but make a sweeping condemnation of the whole 
family. The reasoning is much the same as that of an Indian or fron- 
tiersman, who, being wronged by one individual, condemns a whole 
race. It would be just as rational to take the standard for the human 
race from highwaymen and pirates as to judge all hawks by the deeds 
of a few. Even when the industrious hawks are observed beating 
tirelessly back and forth over the harvest fields and meadows, or the 
owls are seen at dusk flying silently about the nurseries and orchards, 
busily engaged in hunting the voracious rodents which destroy alike 
the grain, produce, young trees, and eggs of birds, the curses of the 
majority of farmers and sportsmen go with them, and their total extine- 
tion would be welcomed. How often are the services rendered to man 
misunderstood through ignorance! The birds of prey, the majority of 
which labor day and night to destroy the enemies of the husbandman, 
are persecuted unceasingly, while that gigantic fraud—the house cat— 
is petted and fed and given a secure shelter from which it may emerge 
in the evening to spread destruction among the feathered tribe. The 
difference between the two can be summed up in a few words—only 


three or four birds of prey hunt birds when they can procure rodents for 
215 


216 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


food, while a cat seldom touches mice if she can procure birds or young 
poultry. A cat has been known to kill 20 young chickens in a day, 
which is more than most raptorial birds destroy in a lifetime. 

It is to be lamented that the members of the legislative committees 
who draft the game laws of various States have not a better knowledge 
of the life histories of raptorial birds. It is surprising also that gun 
clubs should be so far behind the times as to offer prizes to those who 
kill the greatest number of birds of prey; for in clubs of any impor- 
tance, there must be naturalists whose counsel ought to prevent such 
barbarity. That the beneficial species of hawks and owls will eventu- 
ally be protected there is not the slightest doubt, for when the farmer 
is convinced that they are his friends he will demand their protection; 
and already the leading agricultural papers and sportsman’s journals 
are deprecating their indiscriminate slaughter. 


SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF RAPACIOUS BIRDS. 


The rapacious birds are slow breeders, rearing only one brood a year, 
though of course if the first set of eggs is destroyed another will be 
deposited. The young grow slowly and need a relatively large amount 
of food to develop properly. To satisfy their enormous appetite requires 
constant foraging on the part of the parents, and the strain of bringing 
up the family is probably twice that of any of the other land birds. 
Even the adults are large eaters, gorging to the utmost when the 
opportunity presents; and as digestion is very rapid and assimilation 
perfect, a great quantity of food in relation to the body weight is con- 
sumed each day. Taking more food than necessary for immediate 
wants enables them to store up force for future emergencies, for they 
are often required to withstand great exposure and long-protracted 
fasts, especially during inclement weather. 

Hawks and owls are complementary to each other. ‘While hawks 
hunt by day and keep diurnal mammals in check, owls, whose eyesight 
is keenest during twilight and the early hours before dawn, capture 
nocturnal species which the former is not apt to obtain. Again, the 
owls are less migratory than the hawks, and during the long winter 
nights they remain in the land of ice and snow to wage incessant war- 
fare against the little enemies of the orchard, garden, and harvest fields. 

Although much may be learned about the food from observing the 
habits of the live birds, the only way to find out the full range and 
relative percentages of the food elements is by examination of the 
stomach contents. Sometimes, in the case of birds of prey, a moder- 
ately complete and reliable index to the food can be obtained by exam- 
ining the “pellets.” Hawks and owls often swallow their smaller 
victims entire and tear the larger ones into several pieces, swallowing 
each fragment as it is detached. After the nutritious portion of the 
food has been absorbed, the indigestible parts, such as hair, feathers, 
scales, bones, and other hard parts, are rolled into a solid ball by the 


HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 217 


action of the muscles of the stomach. These masses, kuown as ‘pel- 
lets” are regurgitated before fresh food is taken. The movements of 
the stomach so shape the “pellets” that the sharp pieces of bone which 
might otherwise injure the mucous membrane are carefully enveloped 
in a felty covering of hair or feathers. The pellets contain everything 
necessary to identify the food, and in the case of some of the owls which 
have regular roosting places the vast number of pellets that collect 
underneath give an almost perfect record of the results of their hunting 
excursions, 


FOOD HABITS OF THE PRINCIPAL BIRDS OF PREY, 


It is the object of the present paper to review more or less briefly the 
food habits of the principal birds of prey of the United States, so that 
those who are most interested in the subject imay be able to distinguish 
between enemies and friends, and hence be saved the humiliation of 
wronging the latter while endeavoring to destroy the former. 

Hawks and owls may be divided arbitrarily into four classes, accord- 
ing to their beneficial and harmful qualities: 

(1) Species which are wholly beneficial. 

(2) Those chiefly beneficial. 

(3) Those in which the beneficial and harmful qualities about balance. 

(4) Harmful species. 

It should be stated here that several of the species may belong to 
one or another class according to the locality they frequent. A hawk 
or owl may be locally injurious because at that place mice, squirrels, 
insects, and other noxious animals are scarce, and consequently the 
bird has to feed on things of more or less value to man, while in other 
regions where its favorite food is obtainable in sufficient quantity it 
does absolutely no harm. <A good example of this kind is given under 
the head of the great horned owl in a subsequent part of this paper. 

To the wholly beneficial class belong the large rough-legged hawk, 
its near relative, the squirrel hawk or ferruginous roughleg, and the 
four kites—the white-tailed kite, Mississippi kite, swallow-tailed kite, 
and everglade kite. 

The chiefly beneficial class contains a majority of the hawks and 
owls, and includes the following species and their races: Marsh hawk, 
Harris’s hawk, red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, 
white-tailed hawk, Swainson’s hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged 
hawk, Mexican black hawk, Mexican goshawk, sparrow hawk, Audu- 
bon’s caracara, barn owl, long-eared owl, short-eared owl, great gray 
owl, barred owl, western owl, Richardson’s owl, Acadian owl, screech 
owl, flammulated screech owl, snowy owl, hawk owl, burrowing owl, 
pygmy owl, ferruginous pygmy owl, and elf owl. 

The class in which the harmful and beneficial qualities balance 
includes the golden eagle, bald eagle, pigeon hawk, Richardson’s hawk, 
Aplomado falcon, prairie falcon, and great horned owl. 


218 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The harmful class comprises the gyrfalcons, duck hawk, sharp-shinned 
hawk, Cooper’s hawk, and goshawk. 


HARMLESS SPECIES OF HAWKS AND OWLS. 


We will now take up each class and examine the species more or less 
in detail so as to show briefly the character of the food. The harmless 
species include the four kites, which, if not as beneficial as some of the 
hawks, are at least perfectly harmless. The everglade kite is found 
within our borders in Florida only, where it is restricted to the middle 
and southern portions. It feeds exeiusively ona large fresh-water snail, 


Fia. 21.—Swainson’s Hawk (Buteo swainsoni). 


which abounds in the shallow lakes and overflowed sections grown up 
with grass and other herbage. The swallow-tailed, Mississippi, and 
white-tailed kites feed largely upon reptiles and insects, and never as 
far as known attack birds. The szallow-tailed is reported as feeding 
quite extensively on the cotton worm during the summer and early fall. 
If this is a common habit, it brings the bird at once into prominence as of 
economic importanee and of great value to the Southern planter. The 
Mississippi kite and its white-tailed ally devour large numbers of lizards, 
small snakes, and insects; of the latter, grasshoppers and beetles are 
most frequently taken. 


HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 219 


WHOLLY BENEFICIAL HAWKS. 


The rough-legged hawk, and the ferruginous roughleg, or squirrel hawk, 
as it is sometimes called on aecount of its great fondness for the 
ground squirrels so destructive in the West, are among our largest 
and at the same time the most beneficial hawks. The former breeds 
wholly north of the United States, migrating south in September and 
October and remaining until the following April. The latter breeds 
extensively through the Great Plains region. The winter range of the 
roughleg is determined more by the fall of snow than by the intensity 
of cold, the main body advancing and retreating as the barrier of snow 
melts or accumulates. Meadow mice and lemmings form the staple 
food of this bird. In this country the lemmings do not reach our terri- 
tory except in Alaska, but in the north of EKurope they occasionally 
form into vast, migrating, devastating hordes which carry destruction 
to all crops in the country passed over. The vole, or meadow mouse, 
is common in many parts of this country, and is, east of the Missis- 
sippi River, without doubt, the most destructive mammal to agricul- 
ture. It destroys meadows by tunneling under them and eating the 
roots of grass. In many meadows the runways form networks which 
extend in every direction, giving an idea of the animal’s abundance. 
This mouse also destroys grain and various kinds of vegetables, espe- 
cially tubers, but probably does even more damage by girdling young 
fruit trees. In 1892 considerable areas in southeastern Scotland were 
overrun by meadow mice and a large amount of property was destroyed 
during the ‘‘vole plague.” Just such invasions might be expected in 
any country where predaceous mammals and birds are reduced to a mini- 
mum in the supposed interest of game preservation. This wholly upsets 
nature’s balance, and the injurious rodents are left practically without 
an enemy to control their increase. We lave little reason, however, to 
exult over the older country, for in many portions of the United States 
the people, if they had the power, would follow the same shortsighted 
policy, causing inestimable damage to the agriculturist. Attempts have 
been made in some States to reduce the number of hawks and owls by 
offering bounties for their heads, but fortunately the work has not been 
carried far enough to do the harm that has been done by the long- 
continued efforts of gamekeepers in Great Britain. 

The roughleg is one of man’s most important allies against meadow 
mice, feeding on little else during its six months’ sojourn in the United 
States. It thus renders important service in checking the ravages of 
these small but formidable pests. The roughleg is somewhat crepuscu- 
lar in habits, being on the alert during twilight and early dawn, when 
small mammals are most active. Other mice, rabbits, and ground- 
squirrels are taken occasionally, and some of the older writers state that 
waterfowl are captured by this bird. The writer has made careful 
inquiries of a considerable number of persons who have had extensive 


220. YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


field experience where these birds are common and in no instance has 
he heard of their attacking birds. Even better evidence is found in the 
fact that stomachs of specimens shot in locations teeming with water- 
fowl contained nothing but the remains of meadow mice. 

The ferruginous roughleg is as fully beneficial as its relative, though 
the character of its food differs somewhat. In many parts of the coun- 
try inhabited by it, the meadow mice which play such an important 
part in the economy of the other bird are scarce or wanting, but are 
replaced by nearly as destructive rodents, the ground squirrels. Upon 
these this large and handsome hawk wages a continuous warfare, and 


great is the service it performs in keeping their numbers in check. 


Rabbits, prairie dogs, and occasionally pouched gophers are eaten. It 
is humiliating to think how many of these two noble hawks are ruth- 
lessly murdered, and to reflect that legislators put bounties on their 
heads to satisfy the ignorant prejudices of their constituents. 


HAWKS AND OWLS MOSTLY BENEFICIAL. 


Nearly two-thirds of the birds of prey inhabiting the United States 
belong in the second class, which comprises such hawks and owls as are 
mainly beneficial. A few of the most useful and well-known species 
will be considered in detail. 

The marsh hawk is one of the most valuable in the class on account 
of its abundance, wide distribution, and peculiar habits. It is more or 
less common throughout the United States and may be easily recog- 
nized by its white rump, slender form, and long, narrow wings, as it 
beats untiringly over the meadows, marshes, and prairie lands in search 
of food. If it were not that it occasionally pounces upon small birds, 
game, and poultry, its place in the first class would be insured, for it is 
an indefatigable mouser. Rodents, such as meadow mice, rabbits, 
arboreal squirrels, and ground squirrels, are its favorite quarry. In 
parts of the West the latter animals form its chief sustenance. Liz- 
ards, snakes, frogs, and birds are also taken. Among the birds most 
often captured are the smaller ground-dwelling sparrows, of least use to 
the farmer. 

From its abundance, wide distribution, and striking appearance, the 
red-tailed hawk is provably the best known of ali the larger hawks. 
Since it is handicapped by the misleading name “hen hawk,” its habits 
should be carefully examined. There is no denying that both it and 
the red-shouldered hawk, also known as “hen hawk,” do occasionally eat 
poultry, but the quantity is so small in comparison with the vast num- 
bers of destructive rodents consumed that it is hardly worth mention- 
ing. While fully 66 per cent of the red-tail’s food consists of injurious 
mammals, not more than 7 per cent consists of poultry, and it is prob- 
able that a large proportion of the poultry and game captured by it 
and the other buzzard hawks is made up of old, diseased, or otherwise 
disabled fowls. It is well known to poulterers and owners of game 


ee ee 


eT i wy 


HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER, 221 


preserves that killing off the diseased and enfeebled birds, and so pre- 
venting their interbreeding with the sound stock, keeps the yard and 
coveys in good condition and hinders the spread of fatal epidemics. It 
seems, therefore, that the birds of prey which catch aged, frost-bitten, 
and diseased poultry, together with wounded and crippled game, are 
serving both farmer and sportsman. 

Abundant proof is at hand to show that the red-tail greatly prefers 
the smaller mammals, reptiles, and batrachians, taking little else when 
these Gan be obtained in sufficient numbers. If hard pressed by hun- 
ger, however, it will eat any form of life and will not reject even offal 
and carrion; dead crows from about the roosts, poultry which has been 
thrown on the compost heap, and flesh from the carcasses of goats, 
sheep, and the larger domesticated animals being eaten at such times. 
The immature birds are more apt to commit depredations, the reason 
probably being that they lack skill to procure a sufficient quantity of 
their staple food. <A large proportion of the birds captured consists of 
ground-dwelling species, which are probably snatched up while half 
concealed in the grass or other vegetation. Among the mammals most 
often eaten and most injurious to mankind are the arboreal and ground 
squirrels, rabbits, voles and other mice. The stomachs of the red-tailed 
hawks examined contained Abert’s squirrel, red squirrel, three species 
of gray squirrels, two species of chipmunks, Say’s ground squirrel, 
plateau ground squirrel, Franklin’s ground squirrel, striped ground 
squirrel, harvest mouse, common rat, house mouse, white-footed mouse, 
Sonoran white-footed mouse, wood rat, meadow mouse, pine mouse, 
Cooper’s lemming mouse, cotton rat, jumping mouse, porcupine, jack 
rabbit, three races of cottontails, pouched gopher, kangaroo rat, skunk, 
mole, and four kinds of shrews. The larger insects, such as grasshop- 
pers, crickets, and beetles, are sometimes extensively used as food. 

The red-shouldered hawk, or,as it is sometimes incorrectly called, the 
‘hen hawk,” is a common bird, and a very valuable one to the farmer. 
It is more omnivorous than most of our birds of prey, and has been 
detected feeding on mice, birds, snakes, frogs, fish, grasshoppers, cen- 
tipedes, spiders, crawfish, earthworms, and snails. As about 90 per 
cent of its food consists of injurious maminals and insects, and hardly 
1$ per cent of poultry and game, the reader may draw his own couclu- 
Sions as to the appropriateness of the title “hen hawk,” so often mis- 
applied to this species. A pair of these hawks bred for successive 
years within a few hundred yards of a poultry farm containing 800 
young chickens and 400 ducks, and the owner never saw them attempt 
to catch a fowl. Besides mice, squirrels, shrews, and insects, which 
form their principal food, frogs, snakes, and crawfish are also taken. 

Such facts as these must convince intelligent persons not only that 
it is folly to destroy this valuable bird, but that it should be every- 
where fostered and protected. 


222 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The food of Swainsen’s hawk (fig. 21) is of much the same character as 
that of the two preceding species, except that more insects and fewer 
birds aretaken Soon after the breeding season the hawks collect in the 
foothills and on the plains of the West, forming flocks, some of which 
contain hundreds of individuals, and feed almost exclusively on grass- 
hoppers and erickets. If we assume that 100 grasshoppers, which is 
only three-quarters of the number actually found in a stomach after a 
single meal, is the daily allowance for one hawk, we have a grand total 
of 900,000 for the work of a flock of 300 birds in one month. The 
weight of this vast number of insects, allowing 15.4 grains for the 
weight of each, amounts to 1,984 pounds. An average of a number 
of estimates given by entomologists places the quantity of food daily 
devoured by a grasshopper as equal to his own weight; consequently 
if these grasshoppers had been spared by the hawks the farmer would 
have lost in one month nearly 30 tons of produce. The above estimate 
is probably much too low; for each hawk doubtless eats at least 200 
grasshoppers daily, which would double the amount, making the loss 
60 tons instead of 30. This is the work of a month for only 300 hawks. 
What estimate can be placed on the services of the hundreds of 
thousands which are engaged in the same work for months at a time? 
In many places hawks are all that are left of the mighty army which 
once waged war against these insect pests and so kept them in check. 
The game birds, such as the wild turkey, prairie chicken, grouse, and 
quail, have been swept away by the ruthless hand of man, and even 
the skunks, foxes, and snakes are rapidly following. To make matters 
worse, at least one Western State passed a bounty act which paid for 
the destruction of hawks and owls, as a result of which thousands of 
grasshopper-eating hawks were destroyed at the public expense. Is it 
a wonder that after their enemies were reduced to a minimum the grass- 
hoppers increased and spread destruction before them? 

All naturalists who have written on the habits of Swainson’s hawk 
affirm that it is a great enemy to the ground squirrel and other inju- 
rious rodents which infest the West and torment the farmer. The 
evidence shows that it rarely touches poultry, game, or small birds. 
In the Southwest the writer has often seen the nests of small birds in 
the same trees and in close proximity to the nests of the hawks, the 
birds apparently living in perfect harmony. Other observers have 
noticed the same thing. 

The broad-winged hawk, a medium-sized species, common throughout 
the eastern United States, feeds largely on insects, small mammals, 
snakes, toads, and frogs, and occasionally on small birds. It is espe- 
cially fond of the larve or caterpillars of the large moths which feed 
upon the leaves of fruit and shade trees. These insects are too large 
and formidable for the smaller insectivorous birds to attack; hence 
their principal enemies are the hawks, of which the one under consid- 
eration is the most important. It also feeds extensively upon grass- 


HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 223 


hoppers, crickets, cicadw, May beetles and other coleoptera. Like the 
other buzzard hawks (Buteo), it is fond of meadow mice, and also takes 
considerable numbers of chipmunks, shrews, red squirrels, and occa- 
sionally rabbits and moles. Probably the greatest damage done by 
this hawk is the destruction of toads and snakes, which are mainly 
insectivorous and hence beneficial to the farmer. 

The sparrow hawk, which is found throughout the United States, is 
the smallest and handsomest of our birds of prey, and, with the pos- 
sible exception of the red-tail, the best known. Itis the only one of 
the true falcons which can be placed in the “mainly beneficial” class. 
At times it follows the example of its larger relatives and attacks small 
birds and young chickens, but these irregularities are so infrequent 
that they are more than outweighed by its usual good services in 
destroying insects and mice. Grasshoppers, crickets, and other insects 
form its principal food during the warm months, while mice predomi- 
nate during the rest of the year. in localities where these insects 
are abundant it congregatés, often in moderate-sized bands, and feeds 
almost continuously on them. Terrestrial caterpillars, beetles, and 
spiders are also eaten to aconsiderable extent. As might be expected, 
a very large proportion of the birds captured is taken while the hawks 
are busy hatching their eggs and rearing the young, thus having less 
time to procure their favorite food. It is also at this time that we hear 
complaints of their depredations in poultry yards. During the late 
fall and winter months the meadow mice and house mice form a large 
part of their food, the former being taken in the fields and meadows, 
and the latter around the corn stacks and about the barns and out- 
buildings. On account of the sparrow hawk’s confidence and lack of 
fear, it is one of the species which suffers most from the unjust bounty 
laws. Any vandal who can carry a gun is able to slaughter this little 
hawk. Mr. W. B. Hall, of Wakeman, Ohio, writes us that while the 
hawk law was in force in Ohio he was township clerk in his native 
village and issued 86 certificates, 46 being for sparrow hawks. He 
examined the stomachs and found 45 of them to contain the remains 
of grasshoppers and beetles, while the remaining one contained the 
fur and bones of a meadow mouse. Mr. H. W. Henshaw, visiting 
Colorado in 1883, after the bounty act had been in force for some time, 
found that the sparrow hawks had been almost exterminated in districts 
where several years before he had found them exceedingly numerous, 

It is a question whether the slightly harmful owls should not be 
placed among the wholly beneficial species, for the injury done in 
destroying birds and poultry is insignificant compared with their good 
work. The barn owl is a southern species, rarely occurring with regu- 
larity in the northern half of the United States except west of the 
Sierra Nevada. Its food is made up almost entirely of mammals, with 
now and then a few insects, and occasionally a bird. Among the 
former are several species of rodents which, from their great numbers 


224 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


and destructive habits, are a curse to the country they inhabit. Of 
this group the pouched gopher is one of the most destructive, not only 
to vegetables and grain crops but also to shade and fruit trees. The 
injuries to trees are the most serious, as the animals sometimes gnaw 
off the roots and destroy entire groves and orchards. In California, 
where this mammal is common, the barn owl feeds very extensively ou 
it. In the South Atlantic and Gulf States the owl feeds extensively 
on the cotton rat, a mammal of destructive habits found abundantly 
in the bottom lands and near water. The common rat is also greedily 
devoured. The writer has examined the contents of 200 pellets taken 
from the nesting site of a pair of these owls in one of the towers of the 
Smithsonian Institution. Of the total of 454 skulls contained in these 
pellets there were 225 meadow mice, 2 pine mice, 179 house mice, 20 
rats, 6 jumping mice, 20 shrews, 1 starnosed mole, and 1 vesper spar- 
row. This examination gives a pretty complete index to the class of 
food taken by this species in the East, along the northern border of its 
range. 

The long-eared owl is an industrious mouser, and molests compara- 
tively few birds. Several years ago we examined 107 stomachs of this 
owl, of which 15 were empty. Of the 92 remaining, 86, or over 93 per 
cent, contained the remains of small mammals. As the bird oceurs in 
suitable localities all over the United States and is one of the com- 
monest owls, the good it does must be very great. Like the sparrow 
hawk, this owl is easily destroyed, and so is one of the greatest suf- 
ferers when laws are enacted for the destruction of birds of prey, and 
many a bounty has been paid for its head. 

The short-eared owl is another common species, but is not so well 
distributed as the preceding. It is found in more open country, and 
in fall and winter often congregates in large bands about meadow lands 
and the larger marshes. Fully 75 per cent of its food consists of mice; 
as many as six of these mammals have been found in one stomach. It 
probably also feeds on the smaller ground squirrels in the West, but 
we have been unable to procure much positive data on the subject. 
Among birds, the sparrows inhabiting the meadows and prairies are 
most often taken. In an interesting article by Mr. Peter Adair, in the 
Annals of Scottish Natural History for October, 1893, on the disap- 
pearance of the short-tailed vole, which caused the vole plague in Scot- 
land in 1890-1892, the statement is made that farmers and shepherds 
attribute its disappearance largely to the action of its natural enemies, 
stress being laid on the services of the owl, kestrel, rook, and black- 
headed gull among birds and the stoat and weasel amoung mammals. 
These men are also of the opinion that the recent vole plague is a result 
of the destruction of birds of prey. When the plague first commenced 
the short-eared owl was hardly known in the district, but, swarming . 
thither, it bred till it was so numerous that it became an important fac- 
tor in reducing the number of voles. In speaking of an enemy of the 


Yearbook U, S, Department of Agriculture, 1894, PLATE | 


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Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1894. 


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BARRED OWL (SYRNIUM NEBULOSuU™M),. 


PLATE III. 


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HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 225 


owl, Mr. Adair recorded an interesting fact. A fox which had acquired 
a taste for lamb had to be disposed of. In the lair with its 5 young 
were found 76 dead short-eared owls, a number of grouse, black game, 
partridges, ducks, curlew, plover, rats, voles, and lambs. This was in 
May, and of this great number of owls 8 were adults and 68 were 
young. During a number of vole invasions of Great Britain in previous 
years short-eared owls had been observed to increase rapidly and do 
good work in destroying the pests. 

The barred owl is one of the larger common species in eastern North 
America. It has the reputation, especially among the older writers, 
of being very destructive to poultry. Ourexamination of 100 stomachs 
shows that about 44 per cent of its food consists of poultry and game. 
Half-grown fowls which roost among the trees and bushes away from 
the farmyards are the ones that suffer. If the chickens were shut up in 
the yard at night the owl would not be tempted to depart from its regular 
diet. The barred owl is more given to cannibalistic habits than any of 
the other species. Of 109 stomachs which passed under the writer’s 
notice, 7 contained the remains of smaller owls. Numerous accounts 
of similar instances have appeared in various journals. Insects, such 
as grasshoppers, crickets, May beetles and other coleoptera, are fre- 
quently taken. In some localities crawfish form a considerable portion 
of this owl’s food, and frogs and fish are occasionally taken. The major- 
ity of its food, however, consists of small mammals, among them some 
of the most destructive rodents the farmer has to contend with. The 
following list shows the species of mammals positively identified in the 
stomach contents: Meadow mouse, pine mouse, short-tailed shrew, 
chipmunk, red squirrel, flying squirrel, cottontail rabbit, golden mouse, 
white-footed mouse, red-backed mouse, common mole, Cooper’s lemming 
mouse, and common rat. In summing up the facts relative to the food 
habits of this owl, it appears that although it occasionally makes inroads 
upon poultry and game, it destroys large numbers of injurious mammals 
and insects, and hence should occupy a place on the list of birds to be 
protected. 

The little screech owl is well known throughout the greater part of 
the United States. With the exception of the burrowing owl, it feeds 
more extensively on insects than any of the other species. It is also a 
diligent mouser, and feeds more or less frequently on crawfish, frogs, 
toads, scorpions, lizards, and fish. Of 254 stomachs examined, birds 
were found in about 15 per cent. Fully one-third of these consisted of 
English sparrows, and a large proportion of the rest were ground-dwell- 
ing sparrows, which feed largely on seeds and are of little economic 
importance. Among insects, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and cut- 
worms are most often eaten. As many as 50 grasshoppers have been 
found in one stomach, 18 May beetles in another, and 13 cutworms ina 
third. During the warmer parts of the year it is exceptional to find a 
stomach not well filled with insect remains, Meadow mice, white- 

1 A 94 8 


226 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


footed mice, and house mice are the mammals most often taken, while 
chipmunks, wood rats, flying squirrels, and moles are less frequently 
found. The screech owl is fond of fish and it apparently catches many, 
especially in winter. At this time it watches near the breathing holes 
in the ice, and seizes the luckless fish which comes to the surface. 
Most of the birds destroyed by this owl are killed either in severe 
winter weather or during the breeding season, when it has hard work 
to feed its young. As nearly three-fourths of the owl’s food consists 
of injurious mammals and insects, and only about one-seventh of birds 
(a large proportion of which are destructive English sparrows), there is 
no question that this little owl should be carefully protected. 

The snowy owl is a large arctic species which in winter occasionally 
occurs in considerable numbers in the United States. On account of 


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Fic. 22.—Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia hypogea). 


its large size it is capable of doing great good in destroying nox- 
ious mammals. The stomachs which we have examined were collected 
between the last of October and March, and make a very good showing 
for the bird. Although a number of water birds were found, a large 
proportion of the contents consisted of mammalremains. One stomach 
contained 14 white-footed mice and 3 meadow mice, and in others as 
many as 5 to 8 of these little rodents were found. The common rat 
occurred in a number of stomachs and appears to be considerably sought 
after. Itis a lamentable fact that this useful bird is slaughtered in 
great numbers whenever it appears within our limits. According to 
Mr. Ruthven Deane, as many as 500 were killed in New England during 
the winter of 1876-77, 


HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 227 


Although the little burrowing owl is preeminently an insect-eating 
bird, it also feeds on small mammals and rarely on birds. It is common 
throughout the plains of the West, where it is usually a permanent resi- 
dent. During the warmer months it feeds almost exclusively on insects 
and scorpions, and at other times on small mammals. In regard to its 
habit of eating scorpions, Mr. George H. Wyman, of St. George, Utah, 
states, in Forest and Stream for March 3, 1887, that during the summer 
the owl comes quietly about the house at dusk and picks up the scor- 
pions by scores. Usually it has a place near by where it retreats to eat 
such portions as are desired. It devours the soft parts of the scor- 
pion, leaving the head, claws, and tail, until a quart or more of such 
remnants may be found at the place of banquet. Among insects, grass- 
hoppers, crickets, beetles, and caterpillars are taken in large quantities, 
and the birds may be seen pursuing the more agile species even at mid- 
day. The burrowing owl (fig. 22) is a beautiful, harmless bird, and 
should be protected by law. 

The golden eagie, bald eagle, pigeon hawk, Richardson’s hawk, Aplo- 
mado falcon, prairie falcon, and great horned owl belong to the third 
class, which includes those whose beneficial and noxious qualities about 
balance each other. Still at times any one of them may become decid- 
edly beneficial in localities infested by some of the numerous rodents 
which injure crops. The golden eagle, an inhabitant of the Northern 
Hemisphere, is found in most parts of the United States, though it is 
more common in the West. The food consists of game, such as fawns, 
rabbits, woodchucks, prairie dogs, and ground squirrels, among mam- 
mals, and turkeys, grouse, and waterfowl, among birds. At times it 
also troubles the young of domesticated animals, notably lambs, pigs, 
goats, and poultry. It has been known to attack calves and colts, but 
these instances must be exceptional and when the birds are hard 
pressed by hunger. Over extensive areas of the West the golden eagle 
and other birds of prey unite in keeping many species of noxious 
rodents in check, and must be considered beneficial. In the more 
thickly inhabited regions, however, where such food is searce, they 
often do great damage by carrying off lambs, young pigs, kids, and 
poultry. As many as four hundred lambs are reported to have been 
taken from contiguous ranges in one season. It thus will be seen that 
in one instance the bird should be protected, and in the other kept in 
check. 

The bald eagle, the emblem of our country, is found in suitable 
localities throughout the United States, though it is more common near 
large bodies of water than elsewhere. Its favorite food is fish, and 
when they can be obtained either by capture or in the shape of offal it 
will touch little else. A considerable proportion of the fish secured is 
taken from the osprey or fishhawk; still the eagle is fully capable of 
fishing for itself when necessity demands. Where fish are searce or 
for any reason hard to procure, it will feed on waterfowl from the size 


228 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of large swans down to the smaller ducks and coots. Like the golden 
eagle, it preys on many of the destructive rodents in the West and is 
there considered a beneficial bird. Unfortunately, it is fond of lambs, 
pigs, and poultry, and probably does as much damage as the golden 
eagle in the more thickly inhabited regions. A great deal of sensa- 
tional matter has appeared from time to time in the various newspapers 
about eagles attacking and carrying off children. Few of these stories 


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have any foundation in truth, though in olden times, when eagles had 
less fear of man, they may have picked up an unguarded infant. 

The pigeon hawk, Richardsows hawk, and Aplomado falcon are all 
true falcons. Though they feed on the flesh of birds, they destroy 
enough insects and noxious mammals to partially offset the injury they 
do. The prairie falcon inhabits the dry Western plains and neighbor- 
ing mountains, in the cliffs of which it builds its nest. Throughout a 
large portion of the country inhabited by this species, poultry is scarce, 
as most of the ranchers do not yet attempt to raise it, Although this 


HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 229 


falcon feeds extensively upon waterfowl, quail, prairie chickens, and 
other game, it also attacks various kinds of injurious mammals, notably 
the smaller ground squirrels, such as the striped, Franklin’s, Richard- 
son’s, Harris’s, and the allied species, which abound in many sections of 
the country included in its range. In this respect it is of considerable 
service to the agriculturist, and probably offsets the injury done by 
destroying game; but, unfortunately, the data at hand are insufficient 
to show just how extensively it preys on these’ animals; hence the 
benefit done can not be correctly estimated. 

One or other of the races of the large and handsome great horned 
owl is found throughout the United States where suitable timber exists 
for its habitation. It is a voracious bird, and its capacity for good or 
evil is very great. If we could pass over the more thickly settled dis- 
tricts where poultry is extensively raised. and see the bird only as it 
appears in the great West, we would give it a secure place among the 
beneficial species, for it is an important ally of the ranchman in fight- 
ing the hordes of ground squirrels, gophers, prairie dogs, rabbits, and 
other rodents which infest his fields and ranges. Where mammals are 
plenty it does not seem to attack poultry or game birds to any con- 
siderable extent, but in regions where rabbits and squirrels are scarce 
it frequently makes inroads among fowls, especially where they are 
allowed to roost in trees. Undoubtedly rabbits are its favorite food, 
though in some places the common rat is killed in great numbers; we 
have one record of the remains of over one hundred rats that were 
found under one nest. The following is a list of the mammals we have 
found in the stomachs examined: Three species of rabbits, cotton rat, 
two species of pouched gophers, two species of wood rats, chipmunk, 
two species of grasshopper mice, white footed mouse, plateau ground 
squirrel, Harris’s ground squirrel, muskrat, fox squirrel, five species of 
meadow mice, one short-tailed shrew, the house mouse, common rat, 
black bat, red-backed mouse, flying squirrel, shrew, and kangaroo rat. 
Besides mammals and birds, insects (such as grasshoppers and beetles), 
scorpions, crawfish, and fish are also taken. The great horned owl 
(fig. 23) does a vast amount of good, and if the farmers could be induced 
to shut up their chickens at night instead of allowing them to seek 
shelter in trees and other exposed places, the principal damage done 
by the bird would be prevented and the beneficial effects increased 
accordingly. 


HARMFUL HAWKS AND OWLS. 


We come now to the fourth class, the species of which are harmful, 
feeding, to a marked degree, on poultry and wild birds. In olden times, 
when falconry was a fashionable pastime, there were two types of hawks, 
each of which had its devotees. One, the true falcon, represented by 
the large gyrfalcon and the peregrine falcon, captured their quarry by 
Superior power of flight in open country; while the other, the accipi- 


93() YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


trine hawks, represented by the goshawk, although strong fliers, suc- 
ceeded in capture less by long flights than by short rapid dashes or by 
skillfully turning upon its unsuspecting prey. In the United States 
the injurious hawks belong to these two classes and are represented by 
closely allied species. The gyrfalcon and duck hawk are true falcons; 
while the goshawk, sharp-shinned, and Cooper’s hawk are accipitrines. 
The gyrfaleons will not be considered, as they are northern species 
which very rarely enter the United States. The duck hawk also is so 


Fig. 24.—Cooper’s Hawk.(Accipiter coopert). 


uncommon, except about large bodies of water, that it plays an unim- 
portant part in depredations upon poultry and upland game birds. 
During the migration of waterfowl along the seacoast, estuaries, large 
rivers, and lakes, the duck hawk has an abundant supply of food, feed- 
ing upon ducks, coots, waders, and even at times on gulls and terns. 
It is only during the breeding season that this falcon is ever trouble- 
some to the farmer. An isolated pair may nest among the cliffs or in 
the giant trees of river bottoms near enough the agricultural districts 
to make daily inroads upon the farmyard, These cases are uncom- 


HAWKS AND OWLS AS RELATED TO THE FARMER. 231 


mon, however, and usually by patient watching the robber can be cap- 
tured before much harm is done. 

One may find in the group of hawks embracing the goshawk, Coop- 
er’s hawk, and sharp-shinned hawk the probable cause for the unjust 
hatred and suspicion with which our birds of prey, as a whole, are held. 
All three species feed very largely upon the flesh of birds, of which 
game and poultry form a considerable part. As above mentioned, they 
capture their prey not so much by swift, long-continued flight in the 
open as by quick turns and rapid dashes from cover, the victim being 
grasped before the hawk’s presence is really suspected. Fortunately, 
the goshawk, the largest of the three, is a northern species, and conse- 
quently is rare in most parts of the United States, except in fall and 
winter. It is a large, powerful bird, easily killing and carrying off a 
full-grown fowl, ruffed grouse, or hare. Many are the accounts told of 
its audacity in attacking poultry, taking it almost from under the very 
feet of the owner, and even entering inhabited houses in pursuit of its 
intended victim. It also has been known even to attack a person. A 
case of this kind happened to Dr. C. Hart Merriam, in northern New 
York. While in pursuit of a warbler with a small 22-caliber rifle, loaded 
with a light charge of dust shot, he heard a hen ery out in distress 
from behind a pile of stones. Guided by the sound, he soon reached 
the spot, and found a goshawk perched upon an old hen, not more than 
10 feet distant. Aiming at its breast, he fired, but with no other effect 
than to arouse its wrath, for it immediately darted at his head with 
great fury. He struck at the hawk while on the wing and loosened a 
tail feather, but failed to knockit down. Meanwhile, the hen was mak- 
ing off, so, leaving the doctor, the hawk gave chase. She ran into 
some bushes which were so thick that the hawk could not fly between 
them, when, closing its wings and dropping to the ground, it followed 
in a succession of long, rapid hops, and quickly overtook her and 
pounced upon her back. She ran, carrying the hawk for nearly 100 
feet. The doctor soon caught up and struck at the hawk with his 
empty gun, which it dodged by dropping on its back, after which it 
escaped to a neighboring tree and flew off. ’rom the persistency with 
which this species hunts the ruffed grouse in many of the Northern 
States, it has received the name “partridge hawk.” Mammals from 
the size of a full-grown hare down to the smaller mice are also captured, 
and it is stated that in the far north it feeds largely on lemmings. 

Cooper’s hawk is preeminently a “chicken hawk,” and is by far the 
most destructive species we have to contend with, not because it is 
individually worse than the goshawk, but because it is so much more 
numerous that the aggregate damage done far exceeds that of all other 
birds of prey. Although not so large as the goshawk, it is strong 
enough to carry away a good-sized chicken, grouse, or cottontail rab- 
bit. It is especially fond of domesticated doves, and when it finds a 
cote easy to approach without being observed, or near its retreat or 


932 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


nesting ground, the inmates usually decrease at the rate of one or two 
a day until the owner takes a hand in the game. Some of these hawks 
have learned that safe and easy foraging is to be found in many of the 
large cities, where the use of firearms is prohibited. This is particu- 
larly the case in winter, when they congregate among the evergreens 
of the parks or shrubbery in the suburbs and sally forth upon the 
unsuspecting doves and English sparrows. If they confined their 
attentions to the pesky little sparrow they would be public benefactors, 
as the problem of keeping that imported nuisance in check might be 
easily settled. Among the mammals which are eaten by Cooper’s hawk, 
the arboreal and ground squirrels appear to be most frequently taken. 
Remains of chipmunks, red squirrels, and gray squirrels have been 
found in the stomachs. 

The sharp-shinned hawk, an almost perfect miniature of Cooper’s 
hawk, is fully as destructive to bird life asits larger congener. Although 
rarely attacking full-grown poultry, it is very partial to the young, and 
often almost exterminates early broods which are allowed to run at 
large. No birds, from the size of doves, robins, and flickers to the 
smallest warblers and titmice, are safe from its attacks. In our previ- 
ous examinations of the stomachs of this hawk, the remains of nearly 
fifty species of birds were recognized, and the list is of so much interest 
in showing the variety of kinds that it is here repeated: Arizona quail, 
mourning dove, downy woodpecker, red-shafted flicker, yellow-shafted 
flicker, chimney swift, cowbird, orchard oriole, grackle, housefinch, 
goldfinch, savanna sparrow, western savanna sparrow, white-throated 
sparrow, field sparrow, chipping sparrow, tree sparrow, junco, song 
sparrow, fox sparrow, English sparrow, Abert’s towhee, red-eyed vireo, 
black and yellow warbler, black-throated green warbler, yellow-rumped 
warbler, bay-breasted warbler, blackpoll warbler, pine-creeping war- 
bler, ovenbird, Maryland yellowthroat, blackcap, western blackcap, 
Canada warbler, mockingbird, catbird, crissal thrasher, cactus wren, 
Carolina wren, red-bellied nuthatch, chickadee, ruby-crowned kinglet, 
gray-cheeked thrush, hermit thrush, robin, and bluebird. To show 
how universally this species feeds on small birds, it is only necessary 
to say that of 107 stomachs containing food, 103, or 964 per cent, con- 
tained the remains of birds. Mammals and insects seem to be taken 
rarely, and when they are, mice and grasshoppers are the ones most 
frequently chosen. This species, like the Cooper’s hawk, has increased 
during recent winters about the large cities of the East, doubtless 
because it finds the sparrows numerous and easy to procure. 


THE CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 


By F. E. L. Brat, 


Assistant Ornithologist, U. S. Department of Agricullure. 
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE. 


Throughout the Eastern States and Mississippi Valley the grackle or 
crow blackbird is one of the most familiar and conspicuous birds. It 
appears in spring and early summer about farmhouses and villages, 
where it finds its favorite nesting places. Five different kinds occur 
within our borders, but the present paper is concerned only with the 
common purple grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) and its two subspecies, 


Fig. 25,—The Crow Blackbird. 


the bronzed grackle (Quiscalus q. eneus) and the Florida grackle (Quis- 
calus q. agleus). The purple grackle is abundant in the region east of 
the Alleghanies as far north as New York, and is found sparingly in 
New England. The Florida grackle is distributed over the region ex- 
tending from the coast of South Carolina southward into the peninsula 
of Florida and westward to Louisiana. The bronzed grackle occupies 
the Mississippi Valley and Great Plains as far west as the Rocky 
233 


234 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Mountains, ranges northward to Great Slave Lake and southern New- 
foundland, and east to the coast of southern New England (fig. 25). 

In Canada and the northern United States the crow blackbird is only 
a Summer resident, but in the Southern States it is present throughout 
the yéar, and in winter its numbers are increased by millions of migrants 
from the north which find here a congenial winter home. It does not 
occur south of the Gulf States, and stragglers have been found during 
the cold months as far north as Illinois, and even Minnesota. 

At the first approach of spring, the crow blackbirds begin to move 
northward, closely following the retreat of winter. During the sum- 
mer months they cover the whole of the United States east of the 
Rocky Mountains, except New England, though they are most plenti- 
fully distributed over the great grain-raising States of the Northwest. 
In New England crow blackbirds are of local occurrence. They are 
tolerably abundant in Connecticut, but in the more northern States 
breed in certain favored localities only, and are entirely absent from 
large areas. 

In the northern United States the southward movement begins about 
the end of September, although the habit of collecting in flocks imme- 
diately after the breeding season confirms the belief that the birds dis- 
appear from many localities during the month of August. It thus 
appears that their stay in the northern part of the country is limited 
to the six warmest months of the year; hence whatever they do that 
is either beneficial or injurious must be accomplished during that time. 
In the South, on the contrary, they are found throughout the year, and 
in largely increased numbers during the winter. Fortunately, how- 
ever, this is not the season of growing crops, so that the damage done 
is principally confined to the pilfering of grain left standing in the 
shock. It is probable, however, that at this season they feed largely 
on weed seeds, mast, and waste grain scattered in the field. 

The crow blackbird is a gregarious species, usually breeding in colo- 
nies and migrating in flocks. In fall the young and old collect in large 
assemblages, which in the Mississippi Valley often grow to enormous 
size. The redwing (Agelaius pheniceus), Brewer’s blackbird (Scoleco- 
phagus cyanocephalus), and rusty blackbird (S. carolinus) often asso- 
ciate with them. 

Moving southward, immense flocks cross the Red River Valley be- 
tween Texas and Indian Territory. In September, 1886, Mr. George 
H. Ragsdale reported that at Gainesville, on the Texas side of the 
river, ‘‘the flocks were of such size that the roar of their wings could be 
heard for a quarter of a mile;” and, according to a statement published 
in a local paper, one person had on hand 8,000 blackbirds which had 
been netted for the use of gun clubs. Mr. Ragsdale stated that at the 
same time the grass worm was destroying the crab grass and purslane, 
and attributed the unusually large flocks of blackbirds to the fact that 
the early fall migrauts, finding so many worms, had halted until the 


CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 235 


bulk of the birds drifted southward. About the first of October the 
worms and birds disappeared simultaneously. 

Crow blackbirds are well known to the farmer as foragers about the 
barnyard and pigpen. When they arrive in spring, after their long 
journey from the south, they are apt to depend on the cornerib for 
some of their first meals, but when the plow begins its work they are 
on the alert, and follow it up and down the furrows, seizing every grub 
or other insect that may be turned up. Their industry in this respect 
is very noticeable, and if not disturbed or frightened in any way, they 
often become so tame as scarcely to get out of the way of the team in 
their eager search for food. Very soon a nest is built, and in a short 
time four or more gaping mouths demand to be filled, and the parent 
birds must then work harder and go farther afield to provide for the 
increased number of stomachs. When the cherries and other early 
fruits ripen the birds take a share for themselves, thinking no doubt 
that they are fairly entitled to them for the good work they did earlier 
in the season. When the corn ‘*comes into the milk” they also take a 
portion. 


OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE DIET OF THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 


In the selection of food the crow blackbird is almost omnivorous. Its 
partiality for corn, wheat, rice, oats, and other grain is well known, and is 
the cause of nearly all the complaints aboutits depredations. This diet 
is supplemented by various fruits, berries, nuts, seeds, and insects, the 
latter in large proportion. But the character of: the food varies mate- 
rially with the season. During the fall and winter blackbirds subsist 
largely on seeds and grain; as spring approaches they become more 
insectivorous; in summer they take small fruits, and in September they 
attack the ripening corn, but at all seasons they undoubtedly select the 
food that is most easily obtained. 

To this varied diet are due the conflicting statements respecting the 
useful or noxious habits of the species. When feeding on grain the birds 
are usually in large flocks, their depredations are plainly visible, and 
they are almost universally condemned. When breeding they are less 
gregarious, and the good work they do in the fields is scarcely noticed, 
although at this season the grubs and other insects devoured compen- 
sate in large measure for the grain taken at other times. As Mr. N. W. 
Wright, of Farmland, Ind., aptly says: ‘It is hard to tellon which side 
to place the crow blackbirds, for we can see the damage done, but not 
the benefits.” 

During the spring they destroy many noxious insects. Prof. D. BE. 
Lantz states that at Manhattan, Kans., from the time of their arrival 
until August they feed almost entirely upon cutworms, and Prof. Her- 
bert Osborne, of Ames, Iowa, reports that during the spring of 1883 
he saw them destroy great numbers of the May beetle (Lachnosterna 
Jusca), and found them feeding on it for several weeks. Grasshoppers, 


236 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


crickets, locusts, and other insects are also largely eaten. Mr. J. Perey 
Moore, of Philadelphia, Pa., wrote in 1885: 

During the recent visit of the 17-year cicada this species (the purple grackle) 
devoured immense numbers of pupx and imagos. It also ate large numbers of the 
grubs of the June bug, which it generally obtained by searching in the furrows in 
newly plowed fields, and all stages of the Carolina and other grasshoppers, the com- 
mon white butterfly (I saw one catch several of this species on the wing May 26, 
1885), and other species not identified. 


Mr. W. B. Hall, of Wakeham, Ohio, gives an interesting account of 
some young grackles which were kept in captivity. He says: 

I have captured the young and confined them in a cage in such manner that the 
old bird could not reach the mouth of the young. The food brought consisted 
largely of larve of Coleopterous and Lepidopterous insects, with an occasional beetle. 
It freshly plowed fields were in the vicinity the food consisted largely of the white 
grub and cutworm, a few tent caterpillars, one worm that I took to be a small 
Attacus, and beetles of the genera Galerita, Cetonia, Lachnosterna, and their kindred. 

Recently an estimate of the amount of food required to support a 
large flock of blackbirds has been made by Mr. H. H. Johnstin, of Lon- 
don, Ohio. During the present autumn (1894) he counted 1,100 black- 
birds one morning as they left their roosting places for the feeding 
grounds, and estimated that the birds which flew by would number 
50,000. Allowing 2 ounces as the quantity of food collected by each 
bird during the day, he arrived at the conclusion that 6,250 pounds, or 
more than 3 tons, of food was consumed by this army of blackbirds in 
a Single day. Even if the number of birds in this case is not overesti- 
mated, the amount of food per bird is undoubtedly too great. The 
species of blackbirds to which these notes refer are not stated, but it is 
safe to assume that the flocks were made up of redwings (Agelaius) 
and crow blackbirds (Quiscalus). A full stomach of the crow blackbird, 
selected at random from specimens in the collection of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, was found to weigh 0.158 ounce, 
or 2.25 drams, while the contents of another stomach weighed only 
0.116 ounce, or 1.85 drams. The average of two full stomachs of 
red-wing blackbirds was 0.049 ounce, or 0.78 dram, and the stomach 
contents of a third weighed only 0.021 ounce, or 0.33 dram. While of 
course these figures do not give the quantity of food a bird consumes 
in twenty-four hours, they show that the full stomach of a blackbird 
weighs comparatively little. In order to consume 1 ounce of food per 
day acrow blackbird must eat six or eight full meals, depending on the 
kind of food, and the redwing twice as many. Even with this estimate, 
the amount consumed by the flock of 50,000 birds would still be more 
than a ton and a half per day. Although these figures are probably 
still too large, they serve to give some idea of the quantity of grain a 
large flock could destroy. 

3riefly stated, the accusations against the crow blackbird relate 
mainly to the destruction of grain, especially corn, soon after planting 


bs 


CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 237 


in the spring, and again in the autumn, when the corn is in the milk 
and nearly ripe. In the Southern States the grackles destroy rice also. 
In some sections they are said to feed upon young grain in such quan- 
tities as seriously to injure the value of the crop, and for this reason 
they are poisoned in large numbers. <A more effectual method is to 
prevent the birds from taking the seed by tarring the corn before it is 
planted; this is better, simpler, and cheaper than the wholesale destruc- 
tion of the birds. 

Mr. 8. T. Kimball, of Ellington, Conn., gives his experience with the 
crow blackbird, as follows: 

As a rule, farmers here tar their corn, but last June I sowed some without tarring, 
and the result was that by the time it was out of the ground the blackbirds had 
attacked it. They worked all day, carrying their bills full—load after load—to a 


cemetery where there is quite acolony. They kept this up till the corn was entirely 
absorbed by the stalk, although I shot some five or six of them. 


Mr. George K. Cherrie states that in Monona County, Iowa, during 
the spring of 1884, both the crow blackbird and the yellow-headed black- 
bird did considerable damage by pulling the corn just as it came through 
the ground, and were poisoned in great numbers by corn which had 
been soaked in water containing arsenic. Similar depredations are 
sometimes committed in the rice fields of the South. 

According to Mr. W. C. Percy, jr., of Bayou Goula, La., the crow 
blackbirds destroy rice and corn toa great extent, and would do so 
totally were not men stationed with guns. ‘They eat it in planting time 
only. 

Mr. 8. Powers, of Lawtey, Fla., writes: In this climate corn is left 
on the stalk as long as possible, to escape the weevils, and the black- 
birds eat the ends of many ears, sometimes one-third of their length. 

In the autumn, when the corn begins to ripen, the fields are again 
visited by blackbirds in larger flocks than in the spring, and, to the 
dismay of the farmer, the birds renew their work of destruction. Mr. 
Daniel S$. Wardsworth reports that in a field of 2 acres near Hartford, 
Conn., the grackle has been known to ruin from one-third to one-half 
of a crop of corn in the milk or when ripe. A similar complaint was 
made by Mr. George H. Selover, of Lake City, Minn. 

Another accusation often made against the crow blackbird is that it 
destroys the eggs and young of other birds. It will be well to examine 
the testimony on this point with some care, because the charge is often 
repeated and because the examination of a large series of stomachs 
does not substantiate it except in an exceedingly small percentage of 
cases. A cursory examination of the statements of writers shows that 
very few are based on original observation; the majority are either 
repeated from the observations of others or are taken from published 
accounts of the bird’s habits. The following extracts from letters are 
from reliable persons who have actually seen the blackbirds destroy 
the eggs or young of other birds, 


238 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Mr. H. Nehrling, writing from Freistatt, Mo., on December 5, 1885, 
Says: 

Sometimes they breed in orchards, where they become great enemies of our small 
birds. I have observed them destroying eggs of bluebird, cat-bird, and flycatcher 


(Empidonax pusillus), and have seen them carry off the young of the field sparrow 
and other small birds. 


Mr. George H. Selover, of Lake City, Minn., writes: 


Several times each season I have seen the bronzed grackle steal the eggs of the 
chipping sparrow and other small birds, but have not observed them take the young. 
Have never known them to drive off other birds. 


Mr. P. L. Ong, of Hennepin, II, says: 


The crow blackbird has been seen to throw young robins out of the nest and tear 
the nest in pieces. It has not driven any birds from this neighborhood, and does 
not seem to make a business of destroying the eggs and young. 


Mr. W. F. Hendrickson, of Long Island City, N. Y., states: I have 
known purple grackles to eat robins’ and thrushes’ eggs, and in at least 
one instance the young of the robin. 

Mr. Morris M. Green, of Syracuse, N. Y., says: I have seen the crow 
blackbird attack robins’ nests and break the eggs. 

These observations have been selected from notes contributed by sev- 
eral hundred observers, and are quoted in full to show the extent to 
which the grackle is said to injure other species. Irom such statements 
it can not be doubted that these birds do occasionally destroy the eggs 
of the robin, bluebird, chipping sparrow, small flycatchers and other 
species, and more rarely the young of the robin. Let us see what the 
stomachs themselves show. Of the 2,258 stomachs examined, only 37 
contained any trace of birds’ eggs, and 1 contained the bones of a young 
bird. These were distributed as follows: In April, 9; May, 9; June, 7; 
July, 7; and August, 5. The greatest quantity of eggshell was found 
in May, aggregating forty-six one-hundredths of 1 per cent of the food 
for that month. This certainly does not show that the blackbirds are 
much given to robbing their neighbors. Still further, the eggshells 
found in a number of stomachs were identified as those of domestic 
fowls, probably obtained from compost heaps, where they had been 
thrown. Hence it seems fair to infer that the grackle indulges its nest- 
robbing proclivities only occasionally, and that the prevalence of the 
habit has been considerably exaggerated. 


EXAMINATIONS OF STOMACH CONTENTS. 


It may be well now to take up the results of actual examinations of 
the stomach contents in other cases, and see how far the observations 
made in the field are borne out by the studies made in the laboratory. 

Nearly 2,300 crow blackbird stomachs have been examined, of which 
2,258 contained food; the remainder wereempty. These stomachs were 


obtained from twenty-six States, the District of Columbia, and New 


CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 239 


Brunswick. Kansas and Dakota are the most westerly States in which 
any were collected, and Tennessee and Virginia the most southerly, 
except Florida. They were taken during every month in the year 
except January, but as the great body of the species leaves the North- 
ern States in October and does not return until March, but few stomachs 
could be procured in November, December, and February. Great pains 
were taken to secure a large number during May and June, the breed- 
ing months, with the result that alittle more than half of the whole col- 
lection was obtained in these months. Observation has shown that the 
food of young birds often differs materially from that of the adults, and 
in order to test this point in the present species 486 nestlings were col- 
lected in May and June, and have contributed their quota to the final 
result. 

The first step in the determination of the food is to separate the 
stomach contents into its three most important categories, viz, animal, 
vegetable, and mineral matter, and to estimate the percentage of each. 
In the present case the result for the food of the whole year, taking into 
account the entire number of 2,258 stomachs, young and adult, was: 
Animal food, 48 per cent; vegetable, 48 per cent; mineral, 4 per cent. 
The animal food was found to be composed of the following elements: 
Insects, spiders, myriapods, crawfish, earthworms, sowbugs, hair snakes, 
snails, fishes, tree toads, salamanders (newts), lizards, snakes, birds’ 
eggs, and mice. 

The insect food constitutes 46 per cent of the entire food for the year, 
and is the most interesting part of the bird’s diet from the economic 
point of view. For convenience, spiders and myriapods (thousand- 
legs) are here classed with the insects. In examining the insect food 
month by month, we find the smallest quantity in February, when it is 
less than 6 per cent of the whole food; but as only three stomachs were 
taken, the result can not be considered as very reliable. In March the 
insect food rises to one-fifth, and steadily increases till May, when it 
reaches its maximum of five-eighths of the whole. It then decreases 
until in October it is only one-eighth. It appears to rise in November 
and December, but the number of stomachs taken in those months is 
too small to warrant any general conclusions. The great number of 
insects eaten in May is due in part to the fact that the young which 
are hatched in that month are fed largely on that kind of food. 


VARIOUS ARTICLES OF BIRD DIET. 


An analysis of the insect component of the food presents many points 
of interest. Let us first consider the beetles, an order of insects known 
to everybody, and easily distinguished in most cases by the hard outer 
wing covers. Among the most important families are the Scarabzeids, 
every member of which is or may be injurious to agriculture, either in 
its early stages as a grub, or after coming to the adult form, or, as is 
often the case, in both. The common June bug or May beetle and 


240) YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the rosebug are familiar examples of this family. The well-known 
grubworms, so often turned up by the plow in spring, are the young 
or larval forms of these beetles. An examination of the stomachs of 
blackbirds shows that these insects were eaten, either as beetles or 
grubs, in every month from March to October, inclusive. In May they 
constituted more than one-sixth and in June one-ninth of the entire 
food. The habit these birds have of following the plow to gather grubs 
is a matter of common observation which has been fully confirmed by 
the stomach examinations. Many stomachs were found to be literally 
crammed with grubs, and in many more, where other food predomi. | 
nated, the presence of their hard jaws showed that grubs had formed 
a goodly portion of a previous meal. 

The curculios, snout beetles, or weevils constitute another family of 
beetles unfortunately well known to fruit growers, the plum curculio 
being a too familiar example. Like the Scarabeids, these beetles were 
eaten in every month from March to October, and while taken in great 
numbers, the individuals are so small that the percentage of bulk does 
not rise as high as in the case of the Scarabeids. The maximum is 
reached in June, when the weevils constitute 6 per cent of the total 
food, with a gradual decrease in the succeeding months. Insects of 
such small size could hardly be obtained except by diligent search, and 
their presence in so many stomachs (772), and also the large numbers 
in single stomachs (sometimes reaching 30 or even 40), warrants the 
conclusion that they are sought as choice articles of food. 

Many other beetles were found in the contents of the stomachs, but 
with one exception, in quantities too small to be of much economic 
interest. The Colorado potato beetle was not present, but several spe- 
cies belonging to the same family were identified. The one exception 
referred to above is that of the Carabids or predaceous beetles. These 
insects, from their habit of preying upon other insects, have always been 
reckoned as beneficial to agriculture, and this is no doubt a true ver- 
dict; hence the bird which eats them is, to that extent, doing the farmer 
an injury. Now, we find that the blackbirds have eaten Carabids in 
every month from March to November, inclusive, and although there is 
considerable variation in the quantity during the several months, the 
variation is less than in any other insect. They begin by eating more 
than 4 per cent in March, attain a maximum of 13 per cent in July, and 
end with alittle over 1 per cent in November. [rom these figures it 
would seem that the predaceous beetles are highly prized by the black- 
birds as an article of food, and, although this may be true, there are 
other facts that have a bearing on the case. Most of these beetles are 
of fair size and easily seen, and many of them are quite large; more- 
over, they live upon the ground and are much oftener seen running than 
flying. They are the first beetles observed in spring, and are usually 
abundant at all times when insects are to be found. When we consider 
that the blackbirds seek a great portion of their food upon the ground, 


CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 241 


itis at once apparent that these beetles must naturally fall in their way 
oftener than any others. 

The above remarks are not intended to vindicate the birds in the 
habit of eating useful insects, but merely to suggest that such insects 
may be eaten more from necessity than from choice. It does not neces- 
sarily follow that birds are doing harm by eating insects that are classed 
as useful on account of their food habits. This point has been enlarged 
upon in another place, and has been more fully elucidated by other 
writers, notably by Prof. S. A. Forbes (Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., 
Vol. I, No. 3). 

Next in importance to beetles as an article of blackbird diet are the 
grasshoppers. For convenience, grasshoppers, locusts (green grass- 
hoppers), and crickets are considered in the same category. Of the 
three, the true grasshoppers are by far the most numerous in the 
stomachs, and were eaten in all months in which stomachs were taken 
except December. In February they constitute 2 per cent of the total 
food, and the fact that they were found at all in this month indicates 
that the birds are keen hunters, for it would puzzle an entomologist to 
find grasshoppers in February in most of the Northern States. It is 
possible that some of those eaten in February and the succeeding month 
were dead insects left over from the previous year. The proportion of 
grasshoppers in the stomachs increases with each month up to August, 
when it attains a maximum of nearly one-fifth of all the food. It 
is worthy of note that crickets, considered apart from grasshoppers, 
reach their maximum in June, when they form something over 5 per 
cent of the monthly food. 

After August the grasshopper diet falls off, but does not entirely 
disappear, for even in November it still constitutes 6 per cent of the 
total for the month. The frequency with which these insects appear 
in the stomachs, the great numbers found in single stomachs (often 
more than 30), and the fact that they are fed largely to the young, all 
point to the conclusion that they are preferred as an article of food and 
eagerly sought at all times. The good that is done by their destruc- 
tion can hardly be overestimated, particularly as many of the grass- 
hoppers found in the stomachs were females filled with eggs. 

Another interesting element of this bird’s food is the caterpillars or 
laryx of butterflies and moths. These were found in every month in 
which stomachs were taken except November, while December, curiously 
enough, showed the highest percentage; but as this result was obtained 
from only two stomachs the result may be discarded as unreliable. 
The quantity of caterpillars and larve consumed was about 14 per 
cent for each month except May, June, and August. In May a maxi- 
mum of something more than 9 per cent was reached, followed by a 
little over 4 per cent in June, and falling to a minimum cf less than 1 
per cent in August. 

1 aA 94 9 


242 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Most persons who have picked and eaten berries directly from the 
bushes have had the disagreeable experience of getting into their mouths 
a small bug which is a little too highly flavored to suit the taste of the 
human race, but which is eaten by our feathered friends in every 
month from February to October, inclusive. They are not, however, 
consumed in large quantities, probably for the reason that great num- 
bers can not be found; still, traces of them appear in many stomachs, 
indicating that the birds eat as many as they find. 

In addition to the insects specified, representatives of several other 
orders were found in the blackbirds’ stomachs, but not in such large or 
regular quantities as to render them an important element of food. 
Spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) were also noted in sufficient 
numbers to demand recognition. They were eaten to some extent dur- 
ing every month, but not, as a rule, in large quantities. The spiders 
attain a maximum of 6 per cent in May, and not only the spiders them- 
selves but their cocoons full of eggs appear to have been taken when- 
ever found. The myriapods were eaten somewhat less frequently, but 
appear in nearly every month. 


GRAINS AND FRUITS AS BLACKBIRD FOOD. 


The vegetable component of the stomach contents is as variable and 
diversified as the animal food, showing plainly that when one article of 
diet is wanting, the bird can make up the deficiency by eating something 
else which is more easily obtained. The following list includes all the 
vegetable substances identified in the 2,258 stomachs, but there were, 
of course, some that could not be positively determined. The pulp of 
fruit, when unaccompanied by seeds and already half digested, is 
difficult to distinguish with precision, and the same is true of the hulls 
or skins left after kernels of grain have been digested and have passed 
away, but the total of such unrecognized matter is not great. 


List of vegetable substances found in stomachs. 


Corn. 
| Oats. 
Wheat. 
Rye. 
Buckwheat. 
Blackberries and raspberries (Rubus). 
Strawberries (Fragaria). 
Cherries (cultivated). 
Mulberries (Morus). 
Currants (Jtibes). 
Grapes. 
Brits. 20.020 cae rene cece Apples. 
Blueberries and cranberries (Vaccinium sp. ). 
Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.). 
! Dogwood berries (Cornus sp.). 
Elderberries (Sambucus sp.). 
June or service berries (Amelanchier canadensis). 
Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis). 


CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 243 


List of vegetable substances found in stomachs—Continued. 


Poison ivy (thus radicans). 

Harmless sumac (Rhus glabra et al.). 

Wax or bayberries (Myrica cerifera). 

Hornbeam ( Ostrya virginiana). 

Chestnuts and chinquapins (Castanea dentata and pumila). 
Beechnuts (Fagus alropunicea). 

Acorns (Quercus). 


| Ragweed (Ambrosia). 
( 


Seeds and nuts of shrubs 
ea 2: 5/15 Uae sop eae 


Barn grass (Setaria). 
Gromwell (Lithospermum). 
Smartweed (Polygonum). 
Pokeweed (Phytolacea). 
Sorrel (Rumez). 

¢ Small bulbs or tubers, 
Galls containing larve. 

| Pieces of pliant stems. 
Bits of grass and leaves. 
Thorn of locust (Robinia). 

L Pieces of rotten wood. 


Miscellaneous ..-.....---- 


Of all these various articles of diet the chief interest centers about 
the grain and fruit, for it is through these that the blackbirds inflict 
the greatest damage upon the farmer; in fact, the worst that has been 
said of them is that they eat large quantities of grain. Of the five 
grains named in the list, corn is the favorite, having been found in 1,218 
stomachs, or more than 53 per cent of the whole number. It is eaten 
at all seasons of the year, and in every month except July and August 
amounts to more than one-half of the total vegetable food. The corn 
obtained in winter and until planting in the spring can be but little 
loss to the farmer, as it must be mostly waste corn. This view was 
fully confirmed by the contents of a series of stomachs taken in early 
spring, which contents consisted to a great extent of corn that had 
evidently been wet and frozen, and had lain out all winter. After 
February there is a steady decrease in the quantity of corn eaten 
until July, when it reaches a minimum of 7 per cent. The month of 
May does not show any increase over the preceding months, although 
it is the time for planting; nor is there an increase in June, which in 
the north is the month of sprouting corn. In fact, very little evidence 
was found to indicate that blackbirds pull up sprouting grain. In 
this respect they differ conspicuously from the crow. In August the 
corn amounts to one-eighth of the whole food, and it, together with a 
part of that taken in September, was green corn “in the milk.” The 
maximum amount, nearly 53 per cent, is eaten in September, and this 
is undoubtedly wholly taken from the fields of standing corn, repre- 
senting so mueh good grain contributed by the farmer. The same is 
true for October, when the quantity eaten is nearly as great as in Sep- 
tember (47 per cent), and in the Middle and Western States, where 
grain often stands in the fields until December; this must also be the 
case up to the end of November. | 


244 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Next to corn, but far behind it in importance, come oats, which were 
eaten in very irregular quantities in every month except November and ~ 
December. They appear in the greatest amount in April, when they 
constitute a little more than one-eighth of the total food. They fall to 
less than 1 per cent in June, but rise to over 8 per cent in August: 
The oats eaten in April are probably picked up from newly sown fields, 
aud those taken in August and September are probably gleaned from 
fields after harvest, while those found in the other months are acci- 
dental and of no importance. 

Wheat was eaten in every month from April to October, inclusive, - 
but makes very little showing except in July and August. In these 
two months it formed, respectively, about 19 and 17 per cent of the 
whole food, these being the only months in which it reached a higher 
percentage than corn or any other item of vegetable food. As July 
and August are the months of the wheat harvest, it is easy to account 
for the large amount eaten by the blackbirds at that time; but whether 
the grain so eaten is taken from the standing crop, or is merely the 
scattered kernels gleaned after the harvest, must be left for the obsery- 
ing farmer to find out. Probably the birds take whichever is more 
accessible. 

Rye was found in only 1 stomach, and buckwheat in 9. The former 
was from a bird taken in May in Pennsylvania, and is evidently not a 
favorite food. Three birds taken in New Jersey in February were found 
to have eaten a small quantity of buckwheat. <A single bird from New 
York, killed in July, and one from Iowa, killed in September, had also 
eaten this grain, as had another lot of four birds from New Jersey taken 
in November at the same time and place. The buckwheat eaten in 
February and November must have been waste grain, and the fact that 
birds from the same localities, taken at the time when this grain was 
harvested, had not eaten it, indicates that it is not a desirable food, 
and is only eaten under stress of hunger. 

It is unfortunate that the collection contains so few stomachs from 
the Southern States, where crow blackbirds remain through the winter 
months. In reports received from this region it is stated that the crow 
blackbird preys upon the rice fields, in company with other blackbirds 
and the bobolink, the latter being the well-known ricebird of the South. 

Although fruit of some kind was eaten in every month from March 
to December, inclusive, it does not become of importance until June, 
July, and August, when it reaches 6,14, and 11 per cent, respectively. 
This aggregate is made up from a number of elements, as will be seen 
by referring to the list on page 242. Of these the only ones likely to 
possess any economic interest are blackberries, raspberries, cherries, 
currants, grapes, and apples. Apple pulp was found in 3 stomachs, 
grapes in 3, currants in 1, cherries in 37 in June and 14 in July, and 
strawberries in 7. The blackberries and raspberries were the favorites, 
and made up the great bulk of the fruit eaten. They were eaten from 


CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 245 


May to September, inclusive, but oniy a few in each month, except in 
July and August, when they were found in 96 and 68 stomachs, respee- 
tively. When we consider that these last-mentioned fruits are much 
more abundant in the wild than in the cultivated state, and bear in 
mind the small number of birds that eat other fruits, it certainly must 
appear that the damage the blackbirds do by eating fruit is of no great 
moment. None of the wild fruits mentioned in the table were found in 
large quantities or in many stomachs. 

Mast, under which term are included chestnuts, chinquapins, acorns, 
and beechnuts, forms quite an important element of food in the fall and 
early spring months. In March it constitutes nearly one-tenth of the 
food, and in September it reaches nearly one-seventh, being, after corn, 
the most prominent vegetable constituent in that month. In October 
it amounts to one-eighth of the whole food. 


SEEDS AS BIRD FOOD. 


The seeds of the various plants included under the head of ‘‘ weeds” 
in the list on page 243 form another interesting element of vegetable 
food, and are of considerable importance in the colder months. Begin- 
ning in February, they form one-eighth of the food, and gradually dimin- 
ish in quantity until June, when they almost disappear. They then 
increase until October, when they attain a maximum of over one-eighth, 
forming, next to corn, the largest percentage of vegetable food in that 
month. As all the plants included in this category are nuisances, it 
is perhaps needless to say that by eating weeds the birds are doing a 
good work. 

The mineral component of the food does not possess much if any 
economic interest, but it is curious to note how many different things a 
blackbird can pick up. Sand, gravel, pieces of brick, bits of mortar, 
plaster of paris, charcoal, hard coal, and cinders were the most common 
of the various hard substances which helped to line the mill in which 
their corn was ground. 


FOOD OF THE YOUNG. 


As previously stated, 486 nestlings are included in the 2,258 birds 
whose food has been already discussed. <A separate study was made 
of these in order to ascertain in what respect, if any, their food differed 
from that of the adults. It would have given more satisfactory results 
if it had been possible to separate the younger nestlings, say those 
under 1 week of age, from the older ones, for it was noticed that as the 
young approach maturity and get ready to fly their food becomes more 
like that of their parents. The young were collected from May 22 to 
June 30, inclusive, and represent every age, from the newly hatched 
to those about to leave the nest. The whole stomach contents, when 
Separated into its three principal components, was found to be as 


246 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


follows: Animal matter, 70 per cent; vegetable, 25 per cent, and min- 
eral, 5 per cent. The much higher percentage of animal food in the 
young as compared with the adults (48 per cent) is at once noticeable, 
although it may be insisted that the food of the young should be com- 
pared with that of the adults in the corresponding season; that is, in 
the months of May and June. If this view be taken, the difference is 
not so great. The percentage of mineral matter also is a little greater 
than in the adults. 

The animal food is practically the same as that of the parent birds 
and likewise consists chiefly of insects. These amount to 66 per cent, 
20 per cent more than in the adults. The animal food other than 
insects, amounting to less than 5 per cent, is not important enough to 
merit attention. The insect food is made up of about the same kinds 
as are eaten by the old birds, but in somewhat different preportions. 
Adult beetles, on account of their hard shells, are not fed to very 
young birds, but a few are given to the older ones. “ Grubworms,” 
the larve of Scarabeeids, are fed freely after the first or second day. 
A little more than 14 per cent of the food of the nestlings consists of 
this family of beetles, and for the most part in the form of the larve or 
grubs. Predaceous beetles (Carabids) constitute about 74 per cent of 
the food, weevils a little more than 3 per cent, and there were traces 
of five or six other families, none of which reached 1 per cent. 

Grasshoppers and crickets, the former predominating, are a favorite 
food for the young, being softer and more easily digested than beetles. 
They constitute about one-fifth of the total food, that is, as much as the 
parent birds consume in August, and nearly three times as much as 
_ they eat in May and June, when they are feeding the young. This 
shows that they select the grasshoppers and other soft insects for their 
offspring, while they eat beetles and other hard things themselves. 

Caterpillars constitute something over 6 per cent of the food of the 
young birds, which is not as much as might be expected when we con- 
sider how soft and apparently well adapted they are for this purpose. 

Besides the insects already mentioned, small quantities of ants, flies, 
bugs, May flies, myriapods, and spiders were given to the young. 
These last merit a special notice from the fact that they form the 
earliest food of the bird. A number of tiny stomachs were examined, 
evidently taken from birds less than 24 hours old. In nearly every 
case they contained either a single spider or several very small ones— 
undoubtedly the bird’s first meal. The very young stomachs are thin, 
almost membranous sacs, entirely unlike the stout, muscular gizzards 
of the adult birds, which explains why soft, easily crushed food is 
required for the newly hatched young. It is only after they have 
attained considerable growth and the stomach walls have become 
somewhat muscular that they are able to digest such food as hard 
beetles and corn. 


CROW BLACKBIRDS AND THEIR FOOD. 247 


The vegetable food of the young consists of corn and fruit, with 
mere traces of half a dozen other things. Corn amounts to over one- 
eighth of the total food, but is fed only to the older birds, whose stom- 
achs have acquired the requisite muscular strength to digestit. Fruit 
constitutes about 64 per cent of the food, almost exactly the same 
quantity as was consumed by the adults in the month of June, and 
consists of the same varieties. 

A number of substances are found in the blackbirds’ stomachs that 
ean hardly be considered as food. These are usually reckoned under 
the head of “‘rubbish,” and are probably for the most part taken acci- 
dentally. Such are bits of dead leaves, pieces of bark, rotten wood, 
bits of plant stems, and dead grass, all of which might be carelessly 
swallowed in picking up a kernel of corn or seizing an insect. The 
quantity of refuse eaten by the adults varies from 1 to 2 per cent of the 
whole food in each month, but, curiously enough, the stomachs of the 
young contain more, amounting to nearly 4$ per cent. It would seem 
that while the old birds are very judicious in selecting a suitable diet 
for their nestlings, they are less particular in rejecting the substances 
that accidentally adhere to the food. 


SUMMARY. 


From the foregoing results it appears that if the mineral element be 
rejected as not properly forming a part of the diet, the food of the crow 
blackbird for the whole year consists of animal and vegetable matter 
in nearly equal proportions. Of the animal component twenty-three 
twenty-fourths are insects, and of the insects five-sixths are noxious 
species. The charge that the blackbird is a habitual robber of other 
birds’ nests seems to be disproved by the stomach examinations. 

Of the vegetable food it has been found that corn constitutes half 
and other grain one-fourth. Oats are seldom eaten exceptin April and 
August, and wheat in July and August. Fruit is eaten in such moder- 
ate quantities that it has no economic importance, particularly in view 
of the fact that so little belongs to cultivated varieties. 

The farmer whose grain is damaged, if not wholly ruined, by these 
birds may attempt to count his loss in dollars and cents, but the good 
Services rendered by the same birds earlier in the season can not be 
estimated with sufficient precision for entry on the credit side of the 
ledger. Thoughtful students of nature have observed that there is a 
certain high-water mark of abundance for every race or species beyond 
which it can not rise without danger of encroaching upon and injuring 
other species, not even excepting man. This is true of every species in 
nature, whether it be one which, at its normal abundance, is beneficial 
to man or otherwise. To no group does this apply with more force than 
to the insects, many species of which frequently exceed their ordinary 
bounds and spread destruction among crops. The same argument ap- 
plies to the birds. However useful they may be in a general way, there 


948 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


is danger that they may become too numerous. While the destruction 
of a noxious insect is greatly to any bird’s credit, still it is believed that 
the principal value of the useful bird lies not so much in this special 
work as in keeping the great tide of insect life down to a proper level. 
The examination of the food of the blackbirds has shown that they do 
a good share of this work, and are therefore most emphatically useful 
birds. This does not mean that they do no harm, or that they should 
be permitted to do all the harm they wish without restraint. It is not 
probable that the grain eaten by blackbirds under ordinary circum- 
stances occasions much loss to the farmer, because so much of it con- 
sists of scattered or waste kernels. When, however, they descend upon 
a corn or wheat field in flocks of hundreds or thousands they inflict a 
real damage; and this simply shows that the species is too abundant 
and ought to be reduced, or that the birds have assembled from all the 
surrounding country and have become too crowded in one restricted 
locality. In either case the farmer should protect himself by any prac- 
ticable means and should not submit quietly to being robbed merely 
from a sentimental idea of the bird’s past or probable future usefulness. 
If the crop and the birds’ lives can both be saved, well and good; but if 
not, let the extreme penalty be paid. 

Upon the whole, crow blackbirds are so useful that no general war 
of extermination should be waged against them. While it must be 
admitted that at times they injure crops, such depredations can usually 
be prevented. On the other hand, by destroying insects they do ineal- 
culable good. 7 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 


By L. O. Howarp, M.S., 
Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


For many years prior toa recent date our Eastern orchards were com- 
paratively free from serious damage by scale insects, or ‘bark lice,” as 
they are indifferently termed. Barring the old and well-known oyster- 
Shell bark louse of the apple, orchardists were not often compelled to 
fight any insects of this group, and even this species, abundant and 
widespread as it is, had come to be considered, as it still is, a rather 
unimportant factor in apple raising, seidom necessitating treatment in 
otherwise healthy and vigorous orchards. 

Within the past few years, however, conditions as regards scale 
insects in general have changed. The San Jose, or pernicious, scale of 
the Pacific Coast has come east and threatens great damage; the new 
peach scale has made its way across to Florida from the West Indies, 
and is now destroying trees as far north as the District of Columbia; 
the peach Lecanium has apparently increased and spread, and has 
caused considerable alarm in several large nurseries; the so-called 
walnut scale has transferred its attentions to the pear and peach in the 
South and Southwest, and the greedy scale, although found, until 
recently, only on the Pacific Coast and in the far Southwest, levies a 
heavy annual tax on the fruit growers of those regions, and has the 
present season made its appearance in Mississippi and Texas. 

A popular article upon these insects, describing them in such a way 
as to enable the fruit grower readily to identify any form which he may 
have upon his trees, and giving some account of the best remedies 
which may be used, will be timely, and such the present article aims 
to be. It is confined to the scale insects of deciduous fruit trees for 
the reason that the insect enemies of citrus fruits will receive full 
treatment at the hands of Mr. Henry G. Hubbard, an assistant in the 
Division of Entomology, who is preparing an elaborate revision of his 
report on the insects affecting the orange, the publication of which may 
be brought about before many months. There are several additional 
important scales which affect small fruits like the raspberry, blackberry, 
grape, and currant, but these are excluded from this consideration 
simply from want of space. Several of the scales treated, however, 
although more commonly found upon orchard trees, attack also these 


small fruits. 
249 


250 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS OF SCALE INSECTS IN GENERAL, 


In respect to life history, the family Coccide, which includes all of 
the so-calied scale insects, is very abnormal. The eggs are laid by the 
adult female either immediately beneath her own body or at its pos- 
terior extremity. Certain species do not lay eggs, but give birth to 
living young, as do the plant lice. This abnormal habit is not charac- 
teristic of any particular group of forms, but is found with individual 
Species in one or more genera. The young on hatching from the eggs 


are active, six-legged, mite-like creatures which crawl rapidly away 


from the body of the mother, wander out upon the new and tender growth 
of the tree, and there settle, pushing their beaks through the outer tis- 
sue of the leaf or twig and feeding upon the sap. Even in this early 
stage the male insect can be distinguished from the female by certain 
differences in structure. Asa general thing, the female casts its skin 
from three to five times before reaching the adult condition and begin- 
ning to lay eggs or give birth to young. With each successive molt the 
insect increases in size and becomes usually more convex in form. Its 
legs and antenne become proportionately reduced, and its eyes become 
smaller and are finally lost. Asa general thing, itis incapable of moving 
itself from the spot where it has fixed itself after the second molt, 
although certain species crawl throughout life. The adult female insect, 
then, is a motionless, degraded, wingless, and, for all practical purposes, 
legless and eyeless creature. In the armored scales she is absolutely 
legless and eyeless. The mouth parts, through which she derives nour- 
ishment, remain functional, and have enlarged from molt to molt. Her 
body becomes swollen with eggs or young, and as soon as these are laid 
or born she dies. 

The life of the male differs radically from that of the female. Up to 
the second molt the life history is practically parallel in both sexes, but 
after this period the male larva transforms to a pupa, in which the organs 
of the perfectly developed, fledged insect become apparent. This change 
may be undergone within a cocoon or under a male scale. The adult 
male, which emerges from the pupa at about the time when the female 
becomes fuli grown, is an active and rather highly organized creature, 
with two broad, functional wings and long, vibrating antenne. The 
legs are also long and stout. The hind wings are absent, and are 
replaced by rather long tubercles, to the end of each of which is articu- 
lated a strong bristle, hooked at the tip, the tip fitting into a pocket on 
the hind border of the wings. The eyes of the male insect are very 
large and strongly faceted. The mouth parts are entirely absent, their 
place being taken by supplementary eye spots. The function of the 
male insect is simply to fertilize the female, and it then dies. The num- 
ber of generations annually among bark lice differs so widely with dif- 
ferent forms that no general statement can be made. 


Ta . ~~ —_ 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 251 


CLASSIFICATION, 


All Coccide are divided into five subfamilies. The species most com- 
monly met with in this country belong to three of these subfamilies, 
and the majority of them to one, viz, the Diaspinze—the armored, or 
shield-bearing, bark lice. These insects, as their name indicates, are all 
protected by a shield-like covering, which is composed of wax secreted 
from the back of the insect. This shield, with the adult insects, becomes 
more or less completely detached from the body, and forms a perfect 
covering, not only for the body, but, in the case of the female, for her 
eggs. The insects of the other principal subfamily, but two species of 
which will be considered here, may be familiarly known as naked scales, 
and the subfamily group name is Leecaniine. These insects are suffi- 
ciently characterized for our present purpose by the absence of the scale 
just mentioned. 


SPECIES TO BE CONSIDERED. 


Hight species will be treated in this article, and these comprise all of 
the forms which are especially destructive to deciduous fruit trees in the 
United States. They are the scurfy bark louse (Chionaspis furfurus, 
Fitch), the oyster-shell bark louse (Mytilaspis pomorum, Bouché), the 
San Jose, or pernicious, scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock), the 
walnut scale (Aspidiotus juglans-regie, Comstock), the greedy scale 
(Aspidiotus camellie, Signoret=rapax, Comstock), the West Indian 
peach scale (Diaspis lanatus, Morgan & Cockerell), the peach Lecan- 
ium (Lecanium persice Modeer), and the plum Lecanium (L. prunastri, 
Fonsce.). The illustrations given under the specific consideration of each 
insect will, it is hoped, render them recognizable; but to further assist 
the use of the following synoptic table is recommended: 


A. Insect covered with a scale; nearly flat. 
(a) Female scale shaped like an oyster shell. 
Scale narrow, grayish brown to blackish in color; male and female 


Seales OL Game shape... 2.5... -4.-.. sbe2.-s---J Mytilaspis pomorum 
Female scale broad behind; dirty white or pure white in color; male 
seale much smaller and with parallel sides....Chionaspis furfurus 


(b) Female scale round; male scale shaped like the female, but smaller. 
Wood of affected new growth or skin of fruit stained about the 
insect with a reddish color-....-...-..-.... Aspidietus perniciosus 
Wood not stained; scale rather convex, whitish in color........-... 
Aspidiotus camellia 
Wood not stained; scale flat, dark gray in color....-....-..---.---- 
Aspidiotus juglans-regia 
e (c) Female scale round; male scales white, nearly parallelogrammatic in 
shape, with a central longitudinal ridge -......--- Diaspis lanatus 
B. Insect naked in all stages; not covered with a scale. 
Brown in color; hemispherical in shape; winters as nearly full- 
grown female i.) ves lili Si is... Decanium persica 
Winters as larva... <2... 2.202... ..-...-..---... Lecaniam prunastri 


252 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Of these species those found upon apple are Mytilaspis pomorum, 
Aspidiotus perniciosus, A. camellia, and Chienaspis furfurus. 

The same species are also found upon pear, with the addition of 
Aspidiotus juglans-regie. 

The species found upon peach are Aspidiotus perniciosus, A. juglans- 
regie, Diaspis lanatus, and Lecanium persice. 

The same species are found upon nearly all varieties of plum. 

The species found upon cherry are the same as those found upon 
apple, but they affect the cherry more rarely. 

The quince scales are practically identical with the apple scales, and 
the apricot scales with the peach scales. Upon quince occurs another 
species which does not receive specific treatment in this article on 
account of its comparative rarity, viz, Aspidiotus cydonie. 


NATURAL ENEMIES OF SCALE INSECTS. 


Outside of predaceous and parasitic insects, scale insects have few 
naturalenemies. Some years ago there appeared in an English journal 
the statement that mice had cleared the peach Lecanium from some 
climbing peach trees trained against the side of a house in England, 
and in South Africa there is a little bird known as the white-eye (Zos- 
terops capensis) which has achieved a reputation as a scale destroyer, but 
confines itself to the larger species, such as the Lecaniums, the fluted 
scale, and the like. Among insects there are many species which prey 
upon bark lice, and their work is undoubtedly of great value. It is 
their work which unquestionably holds many species of scale insects 
down to comparatively uninjurious uumbers, but when we have said 
this we have said the larger part of what can be said in their behalf. 
The ideas of the value of natural enemies which have become preva- 
lent since the introduction of Vedalia cardinalis from Australia into 
Calitornia to feed upon the fluted scale are in a measure exaggerated, 
and it is not likely that another equally successful instance of the prac- 
tical handling of natural enemies will soon be brought about. It is 
true that late reports from California show that one of the ladybirds 
imported by Mr. Koebele on his second Australian expedition is doing 
good work against the black scale of the olive and orange, as well as 
against the greedy scale and the purple scale of the orange; but it is 
too early as yet to judge fully of the permanent value of this species, 
important as it seems at present, while of the dozens of other species 
imported at the same time none seem to have increased to any very 
great extent. With the species of scale insects which we shall con- 
sider in this article, parasitic and predaceous insects of different kinds 
undoubtedly limit their increase to a greater or less degree; but the 
work of these natural enemies is hardly sufficiently marked to justify 
us in taking them into serious consideration at the present time in dis- 
cussing remedial ineasures. Itis well, however, to know what they are. 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 253 


Among the larger ladybirds the most abundant and most active 
destroyer of the armored scales in this country is the so-called twice- 
stabbed ladybird (Chilocorus bivulnerus). This species extends all over 
the country, is many-brooded in the South, and frequently multiplies 
to such an extent as to destroy the majority of the scales ona given 
tree. Itis readily recognized by its glossy black color, with two red 
spots on the wing covers. The larvais a black, very spiny creature, 
which is more efficacious in the work of destroying scale insects than 
is the adult beetle. Other important scale-destroying ladybirds are 
figured upon Plate X VIII of the Annual Report of the United States 
Department of Agriculture for 1881-82. There is a group of smaller 
ladybirds, the work of which has been to a certain extent overlooked 
in the older works on economic entomology, but which are among the 
most important. These are the minute species of the genus Scymnus 
and its allies. An important species which has been found destroying 
the San Jose scale in the East is Pentilia misella, which is illustrated in 
all its different stages upon Plate [of the Annual Report of the United 
States Department of Agriculture for 1893. This insect, which is not 
a member of the fauna of the Pacific Coast, has been sent to Berkeley, 
Cal., for the purpose of ascertaining whether it will become established 
there and prove beneficial as a practical enemy of this destructive scale. 

The Jarve of Syrphus flies and of lace-winged flies are of some benefit 
in destroying the newly hatched larve of the armored scales and the 
larger individuals of the naked scales, but their work is of no serious 
importance. 

Concerning the mites we have little definite information. A number 
of species are always to be seen upon trees affected by scale insects. 
One form which for many years has been considered a true enemy of 
the oyster-shell bark louse of the apple, namely, Tyroglyphus malus, first 
described by Dr. Shimer and afterwards referred to by Walsh and fig- 
ured by Riley, has lately been decided by M. J. Ligniéres to feed only 
upon the cast skins and eggshells of the bark louse, and upon these 
only when they are somewhat moist. M. Ligniéres, however, describes 
a mite which he calls Hemisarcoptes coccisugus, which attacks the eggs 
of the oyster-shell bark louse and forms the most formidable enemy of 
this species in France. Mr. Hubbard mentions several species which 
feed upon the eggs of bark lice in Florida, one of the most important 
of which is Tyroglyphus (%) gloverit Ashm. 

A few predaceous bugs also prey upon scale insects, and probably the 
most important among them are two little Capsids known as Campto- 
brochis nebulosus and C. grandis. The latter is figured upon Plate V of 
the annual report of the Entomologist in the Annual Report of the 
United States Department of Agriculture for 1892. 


254 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


A table of the true internal parasites of the species under considera- 
tion follows. 


Table of parasites of the foregoing species. 


Host insects. Parasites. 


Mytjlagpis, pomorunm (Benches) .<. <n nce weenie s+ wa ncn Aphelinus mytilaspidis LeB. 
Anaphes gracilis How. 
Aphelinus abnormis How. 
Aphelinus fuscipennis How. 
Chiloneurus diaspidinarum How. 


Chiensspis facforns iP iieh) «2: . 038 eee. adhoc aneawne ans ae Ablerus clisiocampa@ (Ashm.). 
GOAT TGreIES CATON ASEM on ae ee a ewe wae nese geese Aphelinus fuscipennis How. 
Peonhotas juplans-recia Comet. cot. ice ane cece cececesce Encyrtus ensifer How. 


Prospalta aurantii (How.). 
Aphelinus diaspidis How. 
Signiphora occidentalis How. 

EGE PANGS, WEEE ee COE oan is estes Sleep no omeeine eas © None. 

Aspidiotus “perntciosns Comst. 222+. (ieee. sb ls css stews cee ee ce Aphelinus fuscipennis How. 
Aphelinus mytilaspidis LeB. 
Aspidiotiphagus citrinus (Craw.). 
Anaphes gracilis How. 

EpeRRIEN SICA UNE 50 diate aetemn nee omer tche Be abemcees Coccophagus fraternus How. 

Coccophagus ater How. 
Coccophagus lecanii (Fitch). 
Prospalta aurantii (How.). 
Astichus minutus How. (probably sec- 
ondary). 

Comys fusca How. 


The majority of these parasites, when affecting armored scales, feed 
upon the eggs of the female late in the season and earlier upon her 
body. The work of the later broods against the eggs is not complete. 
Thus we have found upon examination of a large number of the scales 
of the oyster-shell bark louse in late winter and early spring that from 
2 to 18 eggs under scales containing parasites escaped destruction, the 
average number of eggs in uninfested scales being from 65 to 70. In 
two cases, where a parasite had issued late in the fall, 11 and 5 sound 
eggs, respectively, were found. In other scales, from which the para- 
site had not yet issued, sound eggs were found as follows in each of 10 
scales, respectively: 2,3, 4,7, 10,12, 14,15,17,18. From these facts it 
is perfectly obvious that these parasites will not accomplish complete 
extermination. 


THE OYSTER-SHELL BARK LOUSE. 


(Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché. ) 


Original home and present distribution.—This is probably the com- 
monest and most widespread, and consequently the best known, of any 
of the orchard seales. It is found all over the world. It was probably 
a European insect originally; at all events it was known in EHurope 


ad 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 255 


during the last century, and was probably imported into this country 
on nursery stock by the early settlers. Itis found in the United States 
practically wherever apples and pears are grown, more abundantly at 
the North than at the South, and has often received treatment at the 
hands of writers on injurious insects, the most important articles being 
that by Professor Riley in his Fifth Report on the Insects of Missouri, 
and that by Prof. J. H. Comstock in the Annual Report of the United 
States Department of Agriculture for 1880. Actual localities in the 
United States from which specimens have been received at this office 
during the last few years are as follows: Bridgewater, N. H.; Norwalk, 
Conn.; Providence and Kingston, R. I.; Rye, Irvington, Monticello, 
Ithaca, Roslyn, and Maine, N. Y.; Walnut Hill, Hoppenville, and West 
Newton, Pa.; La Fayette, Ind.; Champaign, Ill.; Agricultural Coilege, 
Vogel Center, and Alpena, Mich.; Westfield and Grand Rapids, Wis.; 
Andersonville, Tenn.; Olden and Louisiana, Mo.; Lawrence and Empo- 
ria, Kans.; Wirth, Ark.; Omaha and Nebraska City, Nebr.; Lewiston, 
Idaho; Pullman, Wash.; San Francisco, Cal.; Baltimore, Lutherville, 
and Aberdeen, Md.; Washington, D.C.; Alexandria and Arlington, Va.; 
Liberty and Charleston, 8. C.; Atlanta and Lovett, Ga.; Pronto, Ala. 

It is impossible, at this late date, to trace with absolute accuracy the 
course by which the insect has spread over the country. Mr. Enoch 
Perley, of Bridgton, Me., in a paper written in 1794 and published by 
the Massachusetts Agricultural Society in 1796, gives the first Ameri- 
can account of the insect, and it is impossible to state how far prior to 
this date the insect was introduced into the New England colonies. In 
Harris’s time it was extremely common in Massachusetts. Fitch, in 
1854, showed that it was already abundant throughout most of the 
Northern States, and quotes from a Wisconsin observer, showing that 
it was introduced into that State (at Kenosha) in 1840. At the date of 
Fitch’s writing the insect did not appear to have penetrated west 
beyond the districts bordering upon Lake Michigan. The orchards 
upon the Mississippi River were free from it, as were those which he 
examined less than 100 miles west of Chicago. Walsh, writing in 1867, 
Showed that it reached northeastern Tlinois about 1852, and thence 
spread gradually westward and southward, reaching the Mississippi a 
few years previous to date of writing. Riley, late in 1868, stated that 
it had invaded Iowa and northern Missouri, but anticipated that it 
would not spread to the southward. This hope was not well grounded, 
however, for, as he himself showed in 1872, it had extended south 
through Missouri and even into Mississippi and Georgia, while toward 
the west it had made its appearance in several orchards near Lawrence, 
Kans. At the present time, in several of the Western States, where 
apple growing is a comparatively new industry, and in certain locali- 
ties, the oyster-shell bark louse has not yet obtained a firm foothold. 
Thus Mr. Marlatt states that in 1888 he had not noticed it at Manhat- 
tan, Kans.; Mr. Bruner, that it is yet rare in Nebraska; Mr. H. A, 


256 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Morgan, that he has not found it in Louisiana, and Mr. Cockerell 
reports that it has not yet made its appearance in the orchards 
about Las Cruces, N. Mex. In California it is present, though rare. 
Professor Popenoe has reported it the present year from Crawford 
County, Kans. 

Food plants.—The insect is found, in the District of Columbia, upon 
the apple, pear, quince, hawthorn, buckthorn, raspberry, currant, lin- 
den, hop tree, bladder nut, horse-chestnut, maple, water locust, honey- 
suckle, ash, elm, hackberry, cottonwood, willow, poplar, and upon an 
exotic Amorpha growing in the Department grounds at Washington. 
Some doubt has been expressed as to the specific identity of the oyster- 
shell bark louse upon some of these plants with the species occurring 
upon the apple, but so careful a student of the Diaspine as Prof. J. H. 
Comstock was unable to find any structural differences. One peculiar 
difference in habit, however, was pointed out by Professor Comstock, in 
that, while the male scale is rare upon apple, it is not at all scarce upon 
the other plants mentioned. 

Specimens received at the United States Department of Agriculture 
indicate that the insect occurs elsewhere in the United States upon 
the following plants: Apple, pear, plum, wild red cherry, rose, wild 
grape, spirea, fig, bittersweet (Celastrus), red maple, striped maple, 
Juneberry, black ash, white ash, white birch, red birch, swamp willow, 
and poplar. 

So long as no valid structural differences can be found between the 
forms living upon this great range of food plants, they must be con- 
sidered as ali belonging to a single species; but one can hardly avoid 
the strong suspicion that certain of these forms will not interbreed and 
that eventually distinguishing characteristics will be found. 

In England, according to Mr. J. W. Douglas, this scale is known to 
occur upon dogwood, plum, currant, heather (Callwna), and heath (rica), 
in addition to apple. In France, as we note from specimens received by 
Dr. Riley in 1882 from I’. Richter, of Montpellier, it occurs upon Cra- 
tegus oxyacantha, Cornus sanguinea, Ulmus campestris, and Lepidium 
graminifolium, while Boisduval and Taschenberg record it from dog- 
wood, elm, whitethorn, medlar, and currant. In New Zealand Maskell 
Satta it as occurring upon many plants. 

Life hastory and habits.—If, during the winter, one of the female scales 
be lifted, it will be found to contain the shriveled body of the dead 
female, onder the anterior or more pointed portion, while behind this the 
yellowish white eggs are thickly massed together back to the extremity 
of the scale. In number, the eggs under each scale vary in our experi. 
ence from 42 to 86. The young hatch from these eggs in most of the 
Northeastern States during the latter part of May or early in June, wan- 
der out upon the twigs, and settle at once. With this species the young 
twigs are generally the only parts of the tree seriously affected. Older 
twigs, however, are also attacked, and many specimens of the insect 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 257 


may be found upon the trunk. There is but one annual generation in 
the North, and, owing to this fact, the leaves are not attacked. The 
writer does not remember, in fact, to have ever seen specimens of this 
scale upon theleaves. Upon the fruit itis almost equally rare, although 
an occasional specimen is found in such a location. At the meeting of 
the Association of Economic Entomologistsin Brooklyn, in August, 1894, 
Mr. William Saunders exhibited a small green apple which was covered 
with these scales. This instance was exceptional in the experience of 
all the entomologists present, but in late September apple skins were 
received at the Department of Agriculture from Bridgewater, N. H., 


FiG.26.—Mytilaspis pomorum: a, female scale from below, showin 
b, same form above—greatly enlarged; c, female scales; d, male scale 
—enlarged (original); e, male scales on twig—natural size. 


recos: 
> eggs; 


bearing numerous specimens of the scale, and it was noticed later that 
Dr, Lintner, in his fourth report as State entomologist of New York, 
mentions having seen a pear bearing specimens of the same. More- 
over, Mr. J. W. Douglas, in The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine 
(XXV, p. 16), records it as met with upon Tasmanian, Canadian, Brit- 
ish, and American fruits, though rarely. The interesting point about 
both these recent American instances is that both were from points far 
north, and that the occurrence of the scale upon the fruit meant the 
certain death of the insects and their possible offspring. In the South, 
however, the insect is two-brooded, and the adults of the first genera- 


1 <A 94-——10 


258 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


tion could occur upon the fruit or the leaves without danger, since their 
offspring could crawl back to the permanent portions of the plant before 
fall. As a matter of fact, however, we have never seen the insect upon 
the leaves and very rarely upon the fruit in the South. The question 
of the single-broodedness of the insect at the North has been doubted 
by Lintner, on the ground that specimens occurring upon fruit must 
belong to a second generation; but it seems that they are much more 
likely to be late hatching individuals of the single generation, although 
the possibility of an occasional exceptionally warm autumnin which 
early laid eggs might hatch out of season is not denied. 

After inserting its beak and settling, the female molts twice, and 
begins the formation of the scale, which is secreted mainly from the 


ARES - 


oh faut 
. : 
wn KN 2 
oe; 
> a 


Fie. 27.—Mytilaspis pomorum: a, adult male; b, foot of same; ¢, young 
larva; d, antenna of same; e, adult female taken from scale—a, ¢, e, 
greatly enlarged; b, d, still more enlarged (original). 
hinder portion of the body and extends backward, the two cast skins 
remaining in an overlapping position on the anterior portion of the 
scale. 

The male scale is much smaller than the female scale, as indicated in 
the figures, and is otherwise distinguished by a few structural pecul- 
iarities. In the first place, there is but one cast skin at its anterior 
extremity, and in the next place, the hinder portion of the scale is hinged 
in such a way that it lifts up like a flap, permitting the escape of the 
adult male. The different stages and structural details of the insect 
are so well shown in the figure as to require no further description. The 
only careful observations as to rate of growth with this species have 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 259 


been made by Professor Riley, who records, in his First Report on 
Insects of Missouri, that in Cook County, IL, the eggs hatch on or 
about June 6; the females reach full growth August 1, commence to lay 
eggs August 12, and finish egg laying by August 28. In his fifth Mis- 
souri report the same author records the discovery that the species is 
double-brooded in southern localities. He shows that in Wright 
County, Mo., the eggs hatch early in May, and makes a Mr. Palmer 
responsible for the statement that there are two broods, while Dr. 
Riley himself received hatching eggs from Leake County, Miss., about 
September 1. 


THE SCURFY BARK LOUSE. 
(Chionaspis furfurus Fitch.) 


Original home and present distribution.—Unlike the oyster-shell bark 
louse, the scurfy bark louse is a native of North America. It has been 
reported by previous authors from the States of Massachusetts, New 
York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Maryland, southern California, and Mis- 
souri. It has been sent to the 
Department of Agriculture from 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- 
ware, Maryland, District of Co- 
lumbia, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, 
Iowa, Tennessee, Georgia, Kansas, 
Nebraska, and South Dakota. It 
seems, on the whole, to flourish in 
rather warmer localities than the 
oyster-shell bark louse. In Mis- 
souri Professor Riley records the 
southward extension of the oyster- 
Shell species into regions previ- 
ously inhabited only by the scurfy 
bark louse, and we believe with 
Walsh that the Mytilaspis is the 7%, 22—Chmaonis susurus: a, o fomalen; nd 
hardier form of the two, and 
will, in localities where both species are found, gradually supersede 
the Chionaspis, just as the purple scale of the orange in Florida has 
replaced the long scale during recent years, and, as Mr. Cockerell has 
pointed out, is true with certain West Indian scales. Walsh, in his 
report as acting State entomologist of Illinois (1867), stated that on all 
of his apple trees, which were a year or two previously infested by the 
scurfy scale, the native species was being gradually supplanted by the 
oyster-shell bark louse, “just,” he wrote, ‘as the white man is supplant- 
ing the red man in America, or as in New Zealand the European house 
fly and the brown Norway rat are driving out the native fly and the 
native rat.” 


260 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Two years ago the scurfy bark louse was found in England, when Dr. 
T. A. Chapman took specimens on a red currant bush at Hereford. 

Food plants.—The scurfy bark louse occurs abundantly upon apple 
and pear, and is also found upon crab apple, quince, black cherry, choke 
cherry, currant,and mountain ash. Upon the last-named plant the 
writer has seen it occurring so abundantly in the Catskill Mountains 
that hardly a twig or branch was found uninfested. It has also been 
received on peach twigs from two localities in Georgia, and occurs abun- 
dantly on the Japan quince at Washington. 

Life history and habits.—As is the case with the preceding species 
the female scale, if lifted in the winter, will reveal the shriveled body 


: hy 
EQWY Ze: 


Fic. 29.—Chionaspis furfurus: Adult male above; b, foot; h, tip of antenna 
of same; c, larva; d, antenna; e,leg of same; f, pupa; g,adult female re- 
moved from scale—all enlarged; b, d, e, h, much more than the others 
(original). 


of the insect in front and a mass of eggs behind. 'The eggs, however, 
instead of being yellowish in color, as with the preceding species, are 
purplish-red, Theeggs, numbering from 10 to 75 to each scale, hatch 
quite uniformly about the middle of May in the latitude of Washington, 
and the life history of the insect is substantially identical with that of 
the oyster-shell bark louse. The male insect, however, differs quite 
radically from that of the preceding species in the character of the 
scale which it forms. This scale, instead of resembling that of the 
female in colorand general shape, is very much smaller, brilliantly white, 
rather delicate, having nearly parallel sides and three elevated longi- 
tudinal ridges, one on each side and onein the center. At the anterior 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 261 


end the yellowish brown cast skin of the first molt is very evident, 
through its color contrasting so strongly with that of thescale. There 
is no record as to the number of generations annually, but, as with the 
preceding species, there is probably but one at the North, and two, 
or perhaps more, at the South, as also in California. The collee- 
tion of the United States Department ot Agriculture contains males 
reared from California scales which issued from August 17 to Septem- 
ber 4, and eggs from the same lot of scales which must have been laid 
about September 1. At Washington the eggs hatch from May 15 to 
June 1, the males issue during September, and the last females have 
laid their overwintering eggs by October 15. In Illinois Walsh (Trans. 
Ills. Hort. Soc. 1867, p. 54) found that the young hatch June 5 to 12, 
that the mature scale is not formed until about the middle of Septem- 
ber, and that the eggs are not laid ‘until the end of September, or 
sometimes in October.” 


THE GREEDY SCALE. 


(Aspidiotus camellia Sign. =rapax Comst, ) 


Fie. 00.—Aspidiotus camelliw: a, female scale from above; b,same from below; c,mass of 
scales as appearing on bark; d, male scale; e, male scales on twig; f, female scabs on twig— 
eand f, natural size; c, considerably enlarge; a, b, d, greatly enlarged (original). 


Original home and present distribution—The greedy scale was first 
described in this country by Prof. J. H. Comstock under the name 
Aspidiotus rapax in the Annual Report of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for 1880, from specimens which he himself collected in 
California in the spring of that year. It always seemed probable that 
this was not an indigenous Californian insect, but a good guess could 
not be made as to its original home until, in 1889, Mr, A. ©. F. Morgan 


262. YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


established its identity with the European Aspidiotus camellia. Under 
this name, considering it erroneously as identical with one of Boisduval’s 
species, Signoret described this insect as common around Paris. Mr. 
Morgan records it as abundant in Portugal, and Mr. J. W. Douglas has 
found itin England. Under the same name Mr. Maskell reports the 
species as very common in New Zealand, where Mr. Koebele also found 
it in 1891. It is also recorded as appearing in Australia, in the Agri- 
cultural Gazette of New South Wales for September, 1892, in a note by 
Mr. A. Sidney Olliff. Specimens have also been received from Hawaii. 
In this country it is found over a wide range of territory on the Pacific 
Coast, extending north at least to Olympia, Wash., according to Mr. 
Trevor Kincaid, and south to Guadaloupe Island, off the coast of Lower 
California. It occurs also in New Mexico and Florida, while Professor 
Comstock, in the second report of the Department of Entomology, Cor- 


Fic. 31.—Aspidiotus camellie: a, young larva; b, adult female removed 
from scale and seen from below—greatly enlarged (original). 


nell University Experiment Station, for 1883, incidentally mentions that 
it is found “in hothouses in the North.” 

From this somewhat complicated geographical distribution the writer 
is inclined to believe that the species is native to south Europe and has 
been carried by commerce to Australia and New Zealand, and thence 
to California, whence it has begun to spread toward the east. 

Food plants.—In California Mr. Coquillett has found full-grown speci- 
mens of this insect upon the following plants: Apple, pear, loquat, 
Myosporium, birch, English laurel, maple, South African silver tree 
(Leucadendron argentewm), Rhamnus croceus, California walnut, English 
holly, fuchsia, cottonwood, Japanese camellia, orange, and lemon. Pro- 
fessor Comstock received it in 1880 from Dr. R. 8. Turner, who found 
it upon stems of Huonymus japonicus at Fort George, Fla., and himself 
found it in great abundance and very destructive in California upon 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 263 


olive, mountain laurel, almond, quince, fig, willow, eucalyptus, acacia, 
and locust. In Australia Mr. Olliff notes it “‘ chiefly on apple and pear 
twigs, but sometimes on native plants, such as the black wattle (Calli- 
coma serratifolia), and several species of eucalyptus.” In France it is 
found abundantly in the greenhouses in which camellias are grown, and 
in Portugal it occurs, according to Mr. Morgan, very commonly out of 
doors and in great abundance on camellias *‘ and other plants.” Messrs. 
Maskell and Koebele state that it occurs on ‘many trees and shrubs in 
New Zealand.” 

During late years we have received it on the fruit of orange and 
apple from San Diego, Cal., on palm nuts from Guadaloupe Island, and 
on apple from New Mexico, as well as upon many of the above-mentioned 
plants from California. 


Fig. 32.—Aspidiotus juglans-regie: a, female scale; b, male scale; c,malechrysalis; d 
male scales on twig; e, female scales on twig—a, b, ¢, enlarged; d, e, natural size 
(original). 


’ 


Life history and habits —The adult female scale of this species is very 
convex, with the exuvia between the center and one side, and covered 
with secretion. In color the scale is gray and somewhat transparent, 
so that it has a tendency to appear yellowish when it covers the living 
female. If the scale be carefully removed from the twig or fruit, a 
snowy white and usually complete lower scale is found. The insect 
seems to hibernate indifferently in the egg state, as adult female or as 
young. The eggs and the newly hatched larve are yellow in color. 
There are no observations upon record which indicate the number of 
annual generations, and the very fact that the insect passes the winter 
in several different stages would make such observations very difficult; 
it also complicates the question of remedies. The insect has, in fact, 
been studied only in California, and there it may be found in all stages 
at almost any time of the year. 


264 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


THE ENGLISH WALNUT SCALE. 
(Aspidiotus juglans-regie Comstock—figs. 32 and 33., 


Original home and present distribution.—This hitherto comparatively 
rare species was originally described by Professor Comstoek from speci- 
mens found upon the bark and larger limbs of an English walnut tree 
at Los Angeles, Cal. In view of the somewhat interesting diversity of 
food habit, both the specific name and the popular designation which 
Professor Comstock gave it are unfortunate, as will be shown in the 
next paragraph. Professor Comstock also recorded the species from 
New York and the District of Columbia, and it has recently been 
found by Prof. H. A. Morgan in Louisiana, while Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell 
has shown that it also occurs at Las Cruces, N. Mex. Twelve years 
ago specimens were sent to the United States Department of Agri- 


2 


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PTT LLLLM Uh a iN We Uf fpiise’ 
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We * H 
WX i fi 
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r | h i if 
\\\ Wis i \ Mi 
\\ i \ Wr, 4 
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= "yy i) 


Ht 


Fic. 33.—Aspidiotus juglans-regie: a, newly hatched larva; b, antenna of same; c, foot of 
same; d,female just before last molt; e, full-grown male larva; f, adult male; g, adult 
female—all greatly enlarged (original). 


culture by Mr. H. G. Hubbard, Crescent City, and Dr. J. C. Neal, 
Archer, Fla., and it has also been received from J. L. Hardy and W. R. 
Howard, Stuebner and Fort Worth, Tex., and H. Korner, Bay St. Louis, 
Miss., as well as from I’. W. Mally, Dickinson, Tex. The New Mexican 
specimens are, however, light colored, and among them Mr. Cockerell 
has found a new variety, which he calls Aspidiotus juglans-regie var. 
albus. The Florida specimens from Mr. Hubbard are referred to at page 
13 of Bulletin 5 of the Division of Entomology (1885) as Aspidiotus 
corticalis Riley MS. It is possible that the eastern and western forms 
of this species may prove distinct, and that the former will prove 
synonymous with Aspidiotus ostrewformis of Europe, as pointed out by 
Comstock and Douglas in The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine for 
March, 1887. 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 265 


Food plants.—In California the insect has been found only upon Eng- 
lish walnut; in New York and the District of Columbia it occurs upon 
pear, cherry, and locust; in Florida, upon peach and wild plum; in New 
Mexico, upon ash, pear, apple, apricot, and plum; in Texas, upon peach; 
and in Louisiana, upon peach and Japan plum. Concerning the Louisi- 
ana occurrence, Professor Morgan wrote that the insect was new to fruit 
growers about Baton Rouge and is doing considerable damage. In 
Mississippi it occurs on pear and peach, as also in Texas. 

Life history and habits.—The female scale resembles that of the other 
species of the genus, with the exuvia one side of the center. It is a 
pale grayish brown in color, with the exuvial spot pink or reddish brown. 
There is no complete ventral scale, such as A. rapax has. The color of 
the full-grown female found under the scale is pale yellow, with irreg- 
ular orange-colored spots. The scale of the male resembles that of the 


: AAs)? 
rf ENN 
ASI) ie 


7 
Vj ) Aj 
My naga 
MOGI Sill 
FiG. 34.—-Diaspis lanatus : a, branch covered with male and f»male scales—natural 
size; b, female scale; ¢c, male scale; d, group of male scales—enlarged (original). 


female in color, and with the male there is a rudimentary ventral scale. 
No definite observations are on record regarding the number of gener- 
ations or the method of hibernation. The office notes are not fall, and 
simply show that in Florida adult females were taken under the scales 
in January, males issued June 1, and eggs were found June 15, which 
hatched June 18. Specimens received June 12 and 18, from New Mex- 
ico and Louisiana, were all full-grown or nearly full-grown females, as 
were also specimens received from Texas September 4. There must be 
several annual generations, probably about three, and the adult female 
hibernates. 


THE NEW PEACH SCALE. 
(Diaspis lanatus Morgan & Cockerell—figs. 34-37. ) 


Original home and present distribution.—In all probability the original 
home of this species is the West Indies. It has been found in Jamaica 
by Mr. Cockerell and his correspondents, in Trinidad by Mr. F. W. Urich ; 


266 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


in Martinique by Mr. E. G. Nolet, on the island of Grand Cayman by 
Mr. H. McDermott, and in Barbados and San Domingo by Professor 
Riley. It also occurs in Ceylon, and what is probably this species has 
been received from Japan. In this country the insect is known to occur 
in an orchard at Molino, Fla., and in another at Bainbridge, Ga. It 
was first discovered in this country on some young seedling peach trees 
in the grounds of the United States Department of Agriculture at 
Washington in 1892. As is shown in Insect Life (Vol. VI, No. 4), 
efforts were made to learn the origin of the insect upon these trees, but 
these efforts were unsuccessful. In the fall of 1894, however, it was 
discovered that the same 

7) insect was to be found upon 

a. isolated peach trees in door- 

yards (usualiy in back gar- 

dens) in many parts of 

2 Washington. Old trees 

S Q €e BD were found to be affected 

in such a way that the in- 

- sect must have been pres- 

ent in the District of 
Columbia, although not ob- 
served by entomologists, 
for a number of years. Its 
presence upon seedlings in 
the grounds of the Depart- 
ment, then, is probably due 
to the chance introduction 
of young larve by means 
of birds or winged insects. 
The fact that in the three 
localities in the United 
States, as well as in the 
single locality in Ceylon, 
Fic. 35.—Diaspis lanatus : adult female removed from scale— the jnseet seems very re- 
greatly enlarged (original). st rict ed in its r range of 

food, as well as in its geographical range, while in the West Indies 
it is widespread and possesses many food plants, seems to indicate, 
without much doubt, that the species belongs to the West Indian fauna. 
Food plants.—In the District of Columbia the insect is found only 
upon peach. In Florida and Georgia it has been found upon peach and 
plum. In Ceylon it occurs upon geranium; in Jamaica, upon grape, 
bastard cedar (Guazuma ulmifolia), Cycas media, capsicum, Argyreia 
speciosa, the bark and twigs of an undetermined malvaceous plant, 
Bryophyilum calycinum, peach, Pelargonium, Jasminum, stems of cotton, 
Calotropis procera (French cotton), and Hibiscus esculentus, On the 


I 
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45) i Ny IM 
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ay ae 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 267 


island of San Domingo Professor Riley found it abundantly upon Zizy- 
phus, and in Barbados he collected it upon Cycas. 

Life history and habits.—During winter this insect is found in Wash- 
ington, D. C., only in the condition of the mature female. The eggs 
are deposited early in May, and the young larvie hatch by the middle 
of the month. The males begin to issue the middle of June and impreg- 
nate the females, and the latter begin egg laying by the end of the 
month. The second generation is full grown by the middle of August, 
and the third egg laying begins at this time. In this latitude the 
development is comparatively regular. 

The seale of the adult female is gray in color, and is not readily dis- 
tinguished. It occurs abundantly, upon larger twigs than is customary 
with other scale insects, and frequently appears to be almost covered 
by the outer bark of the twig. The males have a white scale and, as a 
rule, cluster on the lower parts of the branches of young trees and at 


a\\ 
So \ SS 
—e 
Zp j 
4 


Pia. 36.—Diaspislanatus: adult male—greatly enlarged, with tarsus Fig. 37.—Diaspis lanatus: 
at a@ and poiser at b still more enlarged (original). larva—greatly enlarged 
(original). 


the base of the trunk. Where the insect is abundant the trees fre- 
quently appear as though whitewashed, from the masses of these male 
seales. 


THE SAN JOSE, OR PERNICIOUS, SCALE. 
(Aspidiotus perniciosus Comstock. ) 


Original home and present distribution.—The original home of this 
important scale insect is stillin doubt. It has been supposed that it 
came to America from Chile, but recent investigations by the writer 
seem to show that it was taken to Chile from the United States. It 
occurs in Hawaii, but it was brought to this point also from California. 
It made its first appearance near San Jose, Cal., twenty years ago, at 
a time when many trees were being imported from many parts of the 
world. It may have come from Australia, since it is known to occur 
there, though rarely, or it may have come from some Pacific island or 
possiblyeven fromChina. It has been carried north to British Columbia 


268 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


and has extended by natural spread eastward to Idaho on the north, 
and Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico on the south. Chance impor- 
tation of California nursery stock has within the past few years resulted 
in its establishment at many points in the East, and particularly in the 
States of New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
Ohio, Indiana, Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Florida. 
food plants.—This species is a rather general feeder. Fortunately 
it does not seem to attack citrus trees, but it is found upon almost every 
variety of deciduous fruit trees. In California it has a very long list of 
food plants, including with the above, among plants of economic impor- 


iy 
i  . 
aA 
yey fee 
Urs 


LL 
a 
anu 


Fic. 38.—Aspidiotus perniciosus on pear fruit and twig, with enlarged male and female scales (original). 


tance, the apricot, prune, almond, and English walnut, and EHuonymus, 
rose, and other ornamental shrubs. In the East its principal damage 
has been done to pear and peach. It occurs, however, in abundance 
upon apple, plum, cherry, persimmon, and currant, as well as upon 
Japanese quince, and in one remarkable instance it has been found in 
great numbers upon a young elm, which was brought from I’rance acci- 
dentally with some young pear trees and was planted in a nursery close 
to some young stock affected with the San Jose scale. There seems to 
be a marked selection of varieties by the scale. The Bartlett and 
Duchesse d’Augouleme are almost invariably seriously affected, while 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 269 


the Kieffer is practically exempt. In New Jersey Professor Smith has 
found that the varieties affected range in about the following order: 
Idaho, Madame Van Garber, Lawson, Seckel, Lawrence, and Bartlett 
Kieffers alone, in his experience, are absolutely exempt, and the Leconte 
is also nearly exempt. One tree which he especially mentions, and 
which the writer has had the 
pleasure of examining, was 
grafted with Lawson and 
Kieffer, and the Lawson 
branch and fruit were cov- 
ered with scales, while the 
Kieffer was entirely free. 
Life history and habits.— 
The full life history of the 
insect was not known until 
the summer of 1894, when the 
occurrence of the scale in the 
East gave opportunity for a 
careful series of observations 
in the Insectary of the De- 
partment of Agriculture. 
From these observations it 
appears that the insect is 
viviparous, i. e., gives birth 
to living yeAne and does not Fic. 39.—Aspidiotus perniciosus: ¢, adult female removed 
lay eggs. It passes the win- from scale, showing embryonic young—greatly enlarged ; 
ter as a half-grown or nearly d, anal plate—still more enlarged (original). 
full-grown female. About the middle of May the female begins giving 
birth to living young, and continues to do so, day after day for six 
weeks. As soon as the young larva is hatched, it wanders about until 


uff 4 i ys 


el P 


Se it reaches a favorable spot, when it 
= oe Pree : 

Pax o ger settles, and within forty-eight hours 
as Y begins the secretion of its scale. 
mite. Y, This secretion is white and. fibrous, 
Rae ae and the insect becomes invisible in 

eae about two days. At thirty days 
caps Xo Cy oz 
| ANS} the female becomes full grown, the 


fKEX\ males having issued at twenty-four 
y » 


days. At about forty days the fe- 


Lo} | \ males begin to give birth to young. 
\ | } The constant daily birth of the 


Fia. 40.—Aspidiotus perniciosus: adult male— young insects gives rise to a great 
eee er see: ferienaly. confusion of generations, which ren- 

ders observations upon the life history of the species extremely difficult, 
and only to be accomplished by the isolation of individuals. It also 
seriously complicates the matter of summer remedies, as a Spraying oper- 
ation at any given time will destroy only those larva which happen to 


270 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


be at that particular time less than three days old. The young larve 
are not great travelersand seldom wander more than afewinches. There 
seem to be in the latitude of Washington five generations annually. 
As indicated in the little analytical table of the species considered 
in this article, the San Jose scale differs from all others in the peculiar 
reddening effect which it produces upon the skin of the fruit and of 
tender twigs. This very characteristic feature of the insect’s work 
renders it easy to distinguish. Around the margin of each female 
scale is a circular band of this reddish discoloration, and the cambium 
layer of the young twigs, where the scales are massed together, fre- 
quently becomes deep red or purplish. When occurring in winter 
in large numbers upon the bark of a twig, the scales lie close together, 
frequently overlapping, and are at such times difficult to distinguish 
without a magnifying glass. The general appearance which they pre- 
sent is of a grayish, ‘very slightly roughened, scurfy deposit. The rich 


HN 
Bry 


Fia. 41.—Lecanium persice: Newly hatched larva at right; unimpregnated female next; 
twig with full-grown females next; female form above and below and cut longitudi- 
nally—all enlarged except specimens on twig (original). 
natural reddish color of the twigs of peach and apple is quite obscured 
when these trees are thickly infested, and they have then every ap- 
pearance of being coated with lime or ashes. Even without a magnify- 
ing glass, however, their presence can be readily noted if the twig be 
scraped with the finger nail, when a yellowish, oily liquid will appear, 
resulting from the crushing of the bodies of the insects. 
A more detailed account of the life history of the insect will be found 
in Insect Life (Vol. VII, No. 4). 


THE PEACH LECANIUM. 
(Lecanium persicw Modeer—figs. 41 and 42.) 


Original home and present distribution.—This insect is European in 
its origin. Its natural history was detailed at some length one hundred 
and fifty years ago by Réaumur, and it has since been mentioned many 
times by European authors. It is at present widespread in this coun- 
try, but the date and manner of its introduction can not be definitely 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 271 


ascertained. Actual receipt of specimens at the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture shows that it occurs at Jamaica, Ithaca, and Shell- 
drake, N. Y.; Chambersburg, Columbia, Leechburg, and Lancaster, Pa. ; 
Newark, Del.; in many localities in Maryland; Washington, D. C.; 
Cresson, Va.; Holidays Cove, W. Va.; Hast Carmel, Ohio; Kirkwood, 
Mo.; in Jasper and Jefferson counties, Mo.; Mammoth Springs, Ark.; 
and at Las Cruces, N. Mex. If it occurs elsewhere than in Europe and 
North America the fact is disguised by synonymy. 

Food plants.—As its name indicates, this insect is a specific enemy 
to the peach. It clusters upon the twigs and smaller limbs of peach 
trees in such masses as completely to cover the bark, and frequently to 
cause the death of young trees. 

Life history and habits.—As above stated, the life history of the insect 
was described in some detail by Réaumur. Bouché described the male 
insect, which he stated was found in April, but Signoret never met with 
it. The different stages of the insect are well illustrated by the figures, 
and most of the stages may be found at different times during the suin- 
mer months. The insect appears to overwinter mainly in the advanced 
female condition, in which stage it is a hemispherical, slightly elon- 
gated, brown, rather hard object, 2.5 to 4 mm. in diameter. During 
the summer of 1893, at Professor Riley’s direction, Miss Murtfeldt, at 
Kirkwood, Mo., studied the life history to some extent, and her obser- 
vations are recorded upon pages 41-44, Bulletin 32, of the Division of 
Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. She shows - 
that the eggs are fully formed by the 20th of May. They are half a milli- 
meter long, pale yellow in color, and rest free in the mass. The young 
began to hatch June 10, and continued to hatch for nearly a month. 
By July 15 hatching was completed, and in the meantime those first 
hatched, of which part were separated and kept on fresh twigs in a 
rearing jar, had nearly all become stationary on the leaves and trans- 
formed to male pup. Twigs from the living tree at this date had the 
foliage covered with the young in all stages. On the 22d July winged 
males appeared, the pupal period being about one week. The males 
remained alive for about a week. Their most striking peculiarity con- 
sists in the apparent lack of poisers, or rudimentary hind wings. The 
female scales were nearly half grown at this time, and later darkened in 
color, thickened, and became centrally elevated. There seemed to be 
but a single generation annually, and the best time for remedial work 
against the young will, therefore, be from the end of the first week in 
June until a month from that time. 

Where the insects crowd the twigs abundantly a perceptible amount 
of honeydew is found to be excreted. A smut fungus develops upon 
this honeydew, which eventually covers the scale mass, and many of 
the scales are destroyed. On one tree which has been under the writer’s 
observation the scales clustered most abundantly on the underside of 
the twigs. The honeydew secreted by these individuals dropped upon 
the upper surface of the twigs immediately beneath. This upper sur- 


272 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


face of the twigs, therefore, while comparatively free from scales, was 
covered with the fungus, which gradually extended around to the 
underside and affected the rows of scales, which themselves were drop 
ping honeydew upon other still lower twigs. In October, 1894, it was 
with difficulty that a single living scale was found, but the entire tree 
had become greatly enfeebled from their earlier attacks. 


THE NEW YORK PLUM LECANIUM. 


(Lecanium prunastri Fonsc.) 


There are certainly three distinct species of the genus Lecanium 
which aftect the plum in the United States. Two of these pass the 
winter in the flat larval condition, attached to the twigs, and the third 
hibernates, like the peach Lecanium, as a nearly full-grown, rounded 
female. One of these three species has, within the last two years, 
attracted a great deal of attention in western New York, and has done 
a great deal of damage. It has been decided by Mr. Newstead, of 
Chester, England, that it is identical with the European species above 
named. It has been closely studied by Mr. Slingerland, of the Cor- 
nell University Experiment Station. From the bulletin which he has 
published about it, as well as from specimens sent to the writer by 
New York correspondents, it appears that while the species is quite 
widely spread throughout New York, it exists at present in alarming 
numbers only in several large orchards near Geneva, Rochester, and 
Lockport. In July the young scales hatch, and remain small in size 
throughout the remainder of the summer, autumn, and winter. They 
spread out upon the leaves at first, and toward fall return to the 
branches. In April they resume activity, and soon begin to grow with 
considerable rapidity. The males and females resemble, in general, the 
peach Lecanium shown in the figures illustrating the preceding species. 
About the end of May the females begin to lay their eggs, which hatch, 
as before stated, about the first of July. 


REMEDIES FOR ORCHARD SCALES. 


The washes which have been used against scale insects have been 
almost innumerable. Lye, soda, tobacco water, dry ashes, tar, fish 
brine, potash, sulphur, common brine, soap, quassia, and aloes solutions, 
the ammoniacal fumes of sheep manure, and compounds of two, three, 
and four of these ingredients, were mentioned by Walsh as having 
been recommended before his time. He proved, by an elaborate series 
of experiments, that a strong solution of soap will kill the oyster-shell 
bark louse shortly after it hatches out. Petroleum or kerosene, he 
stated, would kill the eggs. He further speaks of the experience of 
many prominent fruit growers of the time, among them that of Mr. J. 
L. Budd, who had found that ten parts of benzine and four of soap 
afforded a good remedy against bark lice. Here was evidently an early 
though imperfect emulsion. The recommendations of Comstock in 
1880 followed rather closely the results of California experiments. 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 273 


His efforts to make a good kerosene-milk emulsion, on the recommenda- 
tion of Riley in the Scientific American of October 16, 1880, were 
unsatisfactory. The two remedies which he urged most strongly were, 
first, whale-oil soap at three-fourths of a pound to a gallon of water, 
applied warm, and 1 pound of concentrated lye, 1 pint of gasoline 
or benzine, half a pint of oil, 5 gallons of water. The whale-oil soap 
he experimented with himself with good success, while of the lye-ben- 
zine-kerosene mixture he simply saw the results in the orchard of Mr. 
V.C. Mason, of California. The scale upon which these experiments 
were made was the California red scale of the orange. In the Annual 
Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1881-82 
Professor Comstock recommended the use of 1 pound of lye to 5 gallons 
of water, and quoted the experience of S. F. Chapin and Matthew 
Cooke in support of his recommendation. In the ineantime the im- 
portant work of Mr. H. G. Hubbard in the perfecting of kerosene-soap 
emulsions against the scale insects of the orchard had been begun tinder 


Fic. 42.— Lecanium persice ;: full-grown male seale at right; pupa next; adult male next; leaf 
with young male scales at left—last, natural size, other figures greatly enlarged (original). 
the direction of the former entomologist, Professor Riley. These emul- 
sions, and particularly the one which has become adopted under the 
name * Riley-Hubbard formula,” proved in the course of long experience 
to be perfect destroyers of newly hatched seale insects of all kinds, and, 
indeed, when the problem simply concerns the destruction of unprotected 

young we need look for no better or cheaper remedy. 

The kerosene emulsions, however, fall short of being perfect scale- 
insect remedies for the reason that certain scale insects do not give birth 
to their young at a definite or nearly definite time, and the spraying 
will have to be repeated frequently as more young hatch. This is par- 
ticularly the case with the San Jose scale, the new peach scale, and the 
greedy scale. The desideratum is a wash which by one or at most two 
applications will kill the insect. The young hatch in the summer time? 
and applications at this time of the year have to be comparatively weak 

12344 94——11 


274 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


in order not to injure the foliage. Winter washes, therefore, are the 
ones to be desired. In the application of winter washes Californians 
have had a great deal of experience, but experience in California is not 
a safe guide for orchardists in the East. The long dry spells in Cali- 
fornia admit of the application and efficacious work of washes over long 
periods during which they will not be washed off by rain. This faet 
operates in the East against the work of resin washes, which have been 
proved to be efficacious in many cases in Culifornia. Moreover, the 
California winter is much milder than that of our more northern and 
eastern States and there is no perfect hibernation of scale insects. 
Their winter dormancy is by no means as complete as it is with the same 
species in the East. This more perfect dormancy in the East renders 
the insect much more resistant to the action of washes. From these 
facts it results that not only are the resin washes of little avail for 
winter use in the major part of the country, but also that the lime, salt, 
and sulphur, and lime, sulphur, and blue vitriol washes, so highly 
recommended on the Pacific Coast, have by no means the same effect 
east of the Rocky Mountains. 

Two of our common orchard seales, viz, the scurfy bark louse and the 
oyster-shell bark louse, hibernate in the egg state, and their hatching 
is comparatively uniform. The approximate date throughout the mid- 
dle belt of the country is from the middle to the end of May. More- 
over, the larve are comparatively slow to settle, ana the scale at first is 
not very dense. Therefore one, or at the most two, applications of kero- 
sene-soap emulsion, diluted with ten parts of water, made about the 
first of June, will hold these two species well in check. Both species 
hibernate in the egg state, and the eggs, particularly of the oyster- 
shell species, are difficult to destroy. The emulsion spray for the 
young is, however, sufficiently efficacious, so that the winter wash for 
the eggs is not necessary. 

The same condition of affairs holds to a great degree with the peach 
Lecanium. Here the insect does not hibernate in the egg state, and a 
strong winter wash will be more or less efficacious; but as the eggs are 
laid and the young hatch quite uniformly through June, and as the 
young do not form scales, the kerosene-emulsion spray will here again 
prove the best solution to apply. 

With the San Jose scale, the greedy scale, and the new peach stale, 
and possibly with the walnut scale as well, the most satisfactory work 
can be done only with a winter wash. All of these species may be 
found in various stages of development at any time through the sum- 
mer months, and an emulsion spray at any given time will kill only a 
small proportion. Moreover, with the San Jose scale in particular, the 
young larva settles almost at once, and immediately begins secreting 
a dense scale which after forty-eight hours is practically impervious to 
the ordinary emulsion, diluted so as not to injure the foliage. It is true 
that from one locality it has been reported to us that a single spraying 
with the emulsion in June has rid a certain number of trees of the 


SOME SCALE INSECTS OF THE ORCHARD. 275 


insect, but in the light of our own experience this seems incredible. On 
the contrary, we have known during the past summer three sprayings 
with the emulsion to be made, beginning with the last week in May 
and covering a period from that time to the end of July, with the result 
that at the close of the season the trees were almost as badly infested 
with living insects as they were the previous winter. 

The question arises, in the case of these scales, What winter wash 
Shall be applied? Many different washes, in varying proportions, have 
been tried with great care during the winter of 1894-95. Up to the 
present writing but one absolutely satisfactory winter wash against 
this insect in this locality has been found. This is whale-oil soap, a 
pound and a half or 2 pounds to the gallon of water. This mixture 
killed every insect upon the trees to which it was applied, as was proved 
by a very thorough examination. Good whale-oil soap can hardly be 
bought for less than 4 cents per pound by the barrel, and this makes 
satisfactory winter treatment an expensive matter. The best recom- 
mendation that can be made from the present outlook, however, is to 
use this mixture soon after the leaves fall in the autumn, and then, if 
examination shows any survivors, to repeat it shortly before the buds 
open in the spring. It is very possible that at these two periods a 
somewhat weaker wash will suffice, but at the present writing satis- 
factory experiments in this direction have not been made. <A good 
fish-oil soap may be made at home, which will be almost as satisfactory 
as whale-oil soap, but it will be found quite as expensive to make it as 
to buy it. 

The New York plum Lecanium may also be best treated by a winter 
wash, since it hibernates in the perfectly unprotected larval condition. 
The New York experimenters have found that a kerosene emulsion, in 
the proportions of one part of the standard emulsion to four parts of 
water, will answer if it is applied about three times. The recommen- 
dation is to spray once before winter closes in, and again in the spring, 
before April1. If possible, spray also once during the interval. 

To recapitulate: From our present information the best results in 
the Eastern States against San Jose scale, the West Indian peach scale, 
the greedy scale, and the walnut scale will be obtained by the thorough 
application of a fish-oil or whale-oil soap solution at the rate of 2 
pounds to a gallon of water. The application should be made soon 
after the leaves fall in the autumn. 

For the oyster-shell bark louse, the scurfy louse, and the peach Leca- 
nium, one or two applications of kerosene-soap emulsion, diluted one 
part to ten of water, from the first to the last of June, will kill the 
young lice and prevent undue increase of the species. 

The gas treatment, which has been frequently mentioned in the pub- 
lications of the Division of Entomology, United States Department of 
Agriculture, will seldom be used inthe East. It was tried in the spring 
of 1894 at Charlottesville, Va., against the San Jose scale. The. Cali- 
fornia method, as adopted by Mr. D. W. Coquillett at Los Angeles, was 


276 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


used. The operation was at first supposed to be perfectly successful, 
but in the fall of 1894 a few scales were found to have escaped suffoca- 
tion. Moreover a certain number of the trees were injured more or less 
seriously by the operation. The only use which Kastern fruit growers 
will have for the gas treatment will probably be in the fumigation of 
affected nursery stock. The process is described in Farmers’ Bulletin 
No. 19 of the United States Department of Agriculture, 


PREVENTIVES—INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE LAWS. 


One who has read the foregoing account of our eight principal scale- 
insect enemies to deciduous orchard trees can not fail to be impressed 
by the unrestricted ease with which these insects are spreading and have 
spread through the country. Orchardists do not seem to have examined 
new nursery stock, and by this neglect have laid the foundation for 
great future damage, not only to their own tree property but to that 
of their entire neighborhood. Nurserymen seem to have been equally 
careless in sending out stock without prior examination or treatment. 
Moreover, five of the eight species mentioned have been imported from 
abroad. In the Hastern and Mid-western States there are absolutely 
no restrictions to the free spread by commerce of injurious insects of all 
kinds. California, a number of years ago, saw the danger in unrestricted 
commerce in fruits and nursery stock. She established a horticultural 
commission and her legislature passed a wise law, which, if perfectly 
enforced, would protect that State in large degree from such evils. 
Her example has been followed by Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and 
Colorado. British Columbia has lately enforced such regulations, and 
several of the Australian colonies, as well as New Zealand, have put in 
operation legal regulations which will bring about the desired result. 
Agricultural and horticultural societies are beginning to agitate the 
question of protection in the Eastern States. The United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture has just issued a bulletin (No. 33 of the Division 
of Entomology) in which the insect laws of the Western States have 
been brought together. Using any of these laws as a guide, committees 
of State horticultural societies can draft resolutions calling upon State 
Jegislatures for action in this direction. 

In the meantime all persons purchasing nursery stock are advised to 
require, from the dealers from whom they purchase, guaranties as to 
the freedom of the stock from injurious scale insects at least; and it 
is further advised that nurserymen take such measures as will enable 
them advisedly to give such guaranties. The nurseryman who first 
advertises that all of the nursery stock which he sends out has been 
thoroughly fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas, or who can furnish a 
certificate from his State entomologist as to the freedom of his estab- 
lishment from injurious insects, will not only have done a good stroke 
of business directly, but will have the prestige of a pioneer in a wise 
and patriotic movement. 


THE MORE IMPORTANT INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED 
GRAIN. 


By F. H. CHITTENDEN, 


Assistant Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


After the grain has escaped the ravages of its many insect enemies 
in the field, and is harvested and in the bin, it is subject to the attack 
of insects of several species popularly known as weevils. 

The experience of many years, including the present, shows that 
thereis great need among farmers and others of information in regard 
to the insects that are destructive to stored grain, and of the measures 
that may be employed for protection and remedy against them. To 
supply this want is the object of the present article. In its preparation 
published information has been drawn upon, and there have been incor- 
porated new data from the records of this division and from personal 
observation and experiment. Technical matter has been excluded, and 
with the aid of the accompanying illustrations and simple descriptions 
the intelligent farmer, miller, or merchant who handles grain, will be 
able to recognize the different grain-feeding species in their various 
stages, and with the brief accounts given of their habits and the nature 
of their injuries will be prepared to guard against these insects and to 
destroy them when present in the granary, mill, or storehouse. 

Of the two score species of insects of most common occurrence in 
stored cereals and cereal products, there are three that live in their ado- 
lescent stages entirely within the kernel or grain. These are the gran- 
ary weevil, rice weevil, and Angoumois grain moth, the commonest and 
most injurious species, both in America and abroad. The remainder 
live on grain, both in the kernel and when ground up into flour and meal 
and feed also on various other stored products. 


ORIGIN, INTRODUCTION, AND HABITS OF THE SPECIES. 


Of the species known to attack stored cereals in the United States 
nearly all have been introduced and are now cosmopolitan, having been 
(distributed by commerce to all quarters of the globe. In fact, no insects 
are more easily carried from one land to another, since they breed con- 
tinuously for years in the same grain, and are transported when in an 
immature state in the kernels. 

In their native homes in the tropics, and even in our Southern 
States, these insects live an outdoor life, but in the colder countries of 
the temperate zone and in our Northern States they lead an artificial 


O77 


aid 


278 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


or domestic existence, the beetles, particularly, with few exceptions, 
passing their entire lives wholly within doors, being, therefore, depend- 
ent upon man for their subsistence. 

The various species of insects that attack stored grain as well as 
pease and beans are indiscriminately but erroneously called weevils, or 
simply ‘‘weevil,” but the only true grain weevils are the rice weevil 
and granary weevil. 

When it is considered that grain constitutes the chief article of diet 
of man, and that these insects have found their way to every tropical , 
and temperate region where grain grows, it may be said without fear 
of contradiction that they are entitled to front rank among noxious 
insects. 


NATURE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE. 


In addition to the loss in weight occasioned by these insects, grain ~ 
infested by them is unfit for human consumption, and has been known 
to cause serious illness. Nor is such grain desirable for food for stock. 
Horses, it has been experimentally proved, are injured by being fed 
with “‘weevily” grain, and it is Somewhat doubtful if such material is 
fit even for swine. Poultry, however, feed upon it with impunity. 
“Weeviled” grain is also unfit for seed stock, as its use is apt to be 
followed by a diminution in the yield of a crop. 

As regards the insect injury to stored grain in this country, one 
writer has estimated that there is “an annual loss of over $1,000,000 
from weevils in Texas alone,” and that nearly 50 per cent of the corn 
in that State is annually destroyed by weevils and rats. Another 
writer has expressed the opinion that the annual loss to Texas from 
the injury to grain in the field and in the bins will amount to hundreds 
of thousands of dollars. The loss from granary insects to the corn 
crop in Alabama in 1893 was estimated at $1,671,382, or about 10 per 
cent. 


PARASITES AND NATURAL ENEMIES. 


It might be supposed that insects which live a retired indoor exist- 
ence would be comparatively free from parasitic and other enemies, but 
such is not the case. : 

It has been estimated of one species, the granary weevil, that one 
pair in the course of a year would produce 6,000 individuals. The 
moths are still more prolific, and as there are six or more broods of 
some species annually, it will be seen that if all the eggs of one ind1i- 
vidual and her offspring develop there would be produced in one year 
a whole myriad of the insects, sufficient to destroy many tons of grain. 

Fortunately, there are several natural checks to the undue increase 
of these insects. One of them is a diminutive mite which preys upon 

rarious species. The spiders that inhabit mills and granaries entrap 
the moths, and in the field they are preyed upon by nocturnal insects 
as well as by birds and bats. 


‘ 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 279 


The grain weevils are often parasitized, three or four chalcis flies 
having been recognized as their enemies. The Angoumois moth has a 
specific parasite, as has also the saw-toothed grain beetle; two or three 
parasites are known to prey upon the Mediterranean flour moth; another 
infests the Indian meal moth and wolf moth, and several other granary 
insects are known to have parasites. 

The good work that is sometimes done by parasites in limiting the 
multiplication of their grain-feeding hosts is exemplified in a case cited 
of Ephestia kuehniella being destroyed by a parasite when other means 
had failed to dislodge it in the warehouses which it had invaded. 


THE GRANARY WEEVIL. 
(Calandria granaria Linn.) 


The granary weevil is the “cureulio” and “weevil” of early writings, 
and in the Georgics of Virgil there is evidence that the insect and its 
ravages were known before the Christian era. It is probable that 
this, as well as some other 
cosmopolitan species that are 
generally supposed to have 
originally inhabited the Ori- 
ent, is native to the Mediter- 
ranean region. Having be- 
come domesticated ages ago, 
it has long since lost the use 
of its wings, which are pres- 
ent only as mere rudiments 
and useless as organs of 
flight. It is strictly a gran- 
ary insect, and is apparently 
perfectly naturalized in re- 
gions much farther north 
than are inhabited by the 
rice weevil. 


The adult eranary weevil Fia. 43.--Calandra granaria: a, adult beetle; 0, larva; ce, 
pupa; d, Calandra oryza, beetle—all enlarged (original). 


is a small, flattened snout- 
beetle of the family Calandridw, measuring from an eighth to a sixth 
of an inch, being on an average a trifle larger than the rice weevil, 
from which it differs in being of a uniform shining chestnut- brown 
color, in having the thorax sparsely and longitudinally punctured, as 
indicated at figure 43, a, and in being wingless. The head is prolonged 
in front into a long snout or proboscis, at the end of which are the 
mandibles; the antenne are elbowed and are attached to the proboscis. 
The larva is legless, considerably shorter than the adult, white in 
color, very robust, fleshy, and of the form shown in the illustration 
(b). The pupa, shown at ¢, is also white, clear, and transparent, exhib- 
iting the general characters of the future beetle. 


280 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The female punctures the grain with her snout and inserts an egg, 
and from this is hatched a larva which devours the farinaceous interior 
and undergoes its transformations within the hull. In wheat, barley, 
and other small grains a single larva inhabits a kernel, but a kernel of 
maize furnishes food for several individuals. 

The time required for the completion of the life cycle varies with the 
season and climate, and the number of generations annually produced 
is consequently dependent upon temperature. As aresult, writings on 
this subject show a noticeable disagreement. One writer says that the 
period of development for the rice weevil varies from three to eight 


weeks, and that there are probably at least eight generations annually. 


There is one case on record in which, in England, thirteen weeks were 
consumed in the development of a single generation. The earlier Kuro- 
pean writers agree that there are but two broods of the granary weevil 
annually in that quarter. It is not probable that there is much varia- 
tion in the development of these two species. The writer has carried 
both species through from egg to adult in shelled corn in forty-one days, 
or about six weeks, but it is possible that under exceptionally favorable 
conditions this period may be somewhat shorter. There are probably 
four or five broodsin this latitude and six or more in our Southern States. 

The chief injury done by the granary weevil is to wheat, maize, and 
barley, but it also attacks other grains and is very partial to pearl 
barley and to the chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), a leguminous seed culti- 
vated for food in the tropics. 

Unlike the moths which attack grain, the adult weevils feed also upon 
the kernels, gnawing into them for food and for shelter, and, being 
quite long lived, probably do even more damage than their larve. 

The writer has kept the beetles alive for several months, and others 
claim to have kept individuals under observation for upward of a year. 
Egg laying continues over an extended period, and it will be seen that 
a Single pair and their progeny are capable in a short time of causing 
considerable mischief. 


THE RICK WEEVIL. 


(Calandra oryza Linn.)! 


The rice weevil derives both its popular and Latin name from rice 
(oryza), in which it was first found by its discoverer. It is conceded to 
have originated in India, whence it has been diffused by commerce until 
itis now established in most of the grain-growing countries of the 
world. There is no record of the occurrence of this insect in Hurope 
earlier than 1763, when the species was described by Linneus, but it 
was probably imported into southern Europe many years prior to that 
time. From Europe it was introduced into America, and at the present 


1 The specific name of the rice weevil has uniformly been spelled “oryz@” by all 
writers since the time of Linnwus, but the original spelling is oryza. (See Amon 
Acad., Vol. VI, p. 395.) 


) 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 281 


time is as widely distributed and injurious as any known insect. It is 
a serious pest in the Southern States, where it is commonly, though 
erroneously, known as “black weevil,” but farther north it is of less 
importance. It occurs, however, in every State and Territory in the 
Union and occasionally invades Canada and Alaska, 

In olden times long voyages were necessary in importing grain from 
the East, and damage by the rice weevil, when whole cargoes were 
often lost, was much heavier than at present. But the losses occa- 
sioned by this insect are still enormous, particularly in India, Mexico, 
South America, and other tropical countries. 

The rice weevil resembles the preceding species in size and in general 
appearance. It is dull brown in color; the thorax is densely pitted 
with round punctures; the elytra, or wing cases, are ornamented with 
four more or less distinct red spots, arranged as in the illustration 
(fig. 44, d), and it has well-developed and serviceable wings. The larvie 
and pup are also similar to those of the granary weevil, and in habits 
and life history it does not differ materially from that species. 

The question whether or not this insect ever lays its eggs in grain in 
the field has been the occasion of some discussion and of unsatisfactory 
experiment abroad, but we have the testimony of several experienced 
entomologists that the insect is of very common occurrence in grain 
fields in the South, remote from granaries. 

Although the rice weevil feeds upon the grain of rice, it thrives 
equally well, seemingly better, on wheat, particularly the soft varie- 
ties, and on maize. It also breeds freely in the cultivated varieties of 
sorghum (Andropogon sorghum), known variously as Guinea corn, Kaffir 
or Jerusalem corn, millet, etc.; in barley, rye, hulled oats, buckwheat, 
chick-peas, and Job’s tears (Coixa lachryma). Unhusked rice is particu- 
larly exempt from its attacks, and the husk of oats similarly protects 
this cereal. Corn in the ear and unhulled barley are not so exposed 
to infestation as the shelled or hulled seed, but are by no means exempt, 
as has been stated by some writers. 

The adult beetles attack a great variety of food products not affected 
by the larve. When abundant in storehouses and groceries they in- 
vade boxes of crackers, cakes, yeast cakes, macaroni, and other bread- 
stuffs, barrels and bins of flour and meal, and can subsist for months 
on sugar. They are even said to burrow into ripening and overripe 
peaches, grapes, and mulberries, and to attack hemp seed, chestnuts, 
and table beans. 


THE ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH. 
(Gelechia cerealella O1.) 


The Angoumois grain moth derives its name from the province of 


- Angoumois, France, where it is said to have been injurious for nearly a 


century and a half. It probably originated, with the granary weevil, 
in the Mediterranean region, and possibly in southern Europe. In this 
country it is familiarly but incorrectly called the ‘fly weevil.” 


282 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The history of this insect in Europe dates back to 1736, when Réau- 


mur found it damaging stored barley in France, but the moth was not 


described until 1789. In America an account by Col. Landon Carter, 
published in 1771, brought out the fact that injuries from this species 
began in North Carolina as early as 1728. 

From the seat of its original introduction this moth has spread to 
neighboring States in the South, where it does incalculable damage, 
and to the southern portions of the Northern States, where it is less 
injurious. It is occasionally troublesome as far north as Canada, and 
has been reported as doing serious damage in Australia and India. 
The work of the writer at the Columbian Exposition would indicate 
that it has now become cosmopolitan, as it was found there in a 
majority of the cereal exhibits of the tropical and warmer temperate 
countries. | 

In Europe the favorite food of the Angoumois moth is said to have 
been barley; in America its chief injury is to corn and wheat, but it 
infests also all the other 
cereals, as well as buck- 
wheat, chick-peas, and, it is 
said, cowpeas. It has been 
estimated that in six months 
erain infested by this moth 
loses 40 per cent in weight 
and 75 per cent of farina- 
ceous matter. In addition 
to the loss in weight, the 


Fic. 44.—Gelechia cerealella: a, larva; b, pupa; ¢, 9 moth; erain is totally unfit for food, 


e, egg; f, kernel of corn opened, showing larva feeding; 


h, anal segment of pupa—all enlarged except f. (From and it has been said that 

Riley in Ann. Rept. Dept. Agr., 1884.) bread made from wheat 
injured by this moth was the cause of an epidemic in certain regions of 
France infested by the species. 

This insect is a small moth of the family Gelechiide and resembles 
somewhat our familiar clothes moths, for which species, indeed, it is 
often mistaken. It is light grayish brown in color, more or less lined 
and spotted with black, and measures across the expanded fore wings 
about half an inch (see fig. 44, ¢). The hind wings are bordered with 
a long, delicate fringe. 

The moth normally deposits its eggs in standing grain, singly or in 
clusters of from 20 to30. The eggs, shown at figure 44, e, are red in color 
and hatch in from four to seven days, when the minute caterpillars 
burrow into the kernels and feed on the interior. A single larva 
inhabits a grain of the smaller cereals, but in maize sustenance is 
afforded for two, three, or more individuals. ITigure 45 represents an 


ear of pop-corn infested by this moth. In about three weeks’ time | 


the caterpillar attains full growth (see fig. 44,a), when, without leav- 
ing the kernel, if spins a thin, silken cocoon in which it transforms toa 


— 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 283 


chrysalis (fig. 44, ), the moth emerging a few days later, the entire 
period from egg to adult embracing in summer from four to five weeks. 
After copulation, the moth soon deposits her eggs for another brood, and 
in this manner several generations of the insect 
are produced in the course of a year. The older 
writers believed that the species was normally 
double-brooded, but as the insect breeds con- 
tinuously in the harvested grain, there is now 
an irregular development which is influenced 
by temperature. In this latitude there are 
probably five or six generations annually. Mr. 
H. EK. Weed estimates that in the warmer cli- 
mate of Mississippi, where the insect can breed 
uninterruptedly during the winter months, 
there are at least eight generations. 

In some respects the Angoumois grain moth 
is more troublesome than any of the other 
granary insects. Kven as far north as central 
Pennsylvania it lays its eggs on grain in the 
field, and it is, therefore, impossible to entirely 
prevent infestation. 

~The custom of leaving the harvested grain 
in stack in the field for weeks before thrashing, 
in vogue in some parts of our country, is the 
cause of perhaps the greatest proportion of 
infestation. The introduction of the insect 
into the granary through this channel may be 
practically prevented in the case of the smaller 
cereals by harvesting and thrashing as soon as 
possible after the grain reaches maturity. If, 
after the removal of the old grain from bins, 
these are thoroughly cleaned and fumigated 
before the introduction of fresh grain, the 
chances of injury are reduced to a minimum. 

This, as well as the other granary moths is 
soft, delicate, and easily crushed, and is unable, 
when buried beneath a large mass of grain, to 
extricate itself; hence storing the grain in bulk 
and stirring, shoveling, or agitating by other 
means is productive of the best results with 
this insect. 


Fia. 45.—Ear of pop-corn showing 
work of Angoumois grain moth. 
(From Riley in Ann. Rept. Dept. 


THE MEDITERRANEAN FLOUR MOTH. 
(ELphestia kuehniella Zell.) am eti5 AERA: ) 


This scourge of the flour mill, as it is called, has attracted much 
attention of recent years and has been the subject of many articles 
and bulletins. Until the year 1877, when the moth was discovered ina 


284 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


flour mill in Germany, it was comparatively unknown. In later years 
it invaded Belgium and Holland, and in 1887 appeared in England. 
Two years later it made its appearance in destructive numbers in 
Canada. 

That the Mediterranean flour moth has become so formidable in recent 
years is due to the higher and more equable temperature maintained in 
modern mills, a condition highly favorable to the development of the 
insect. 

Previous to the Canadian invasion this moth was generally believed 
to have reached Europe from America, but, as a matter of fact, the 
species had not been recognized here until 1889. Danysz has traced 
its occurrence in this country back as far as 1880. He mentions also 
an outbreak in Constantinople in 1872 and presents evidence thatit was 
probably known in Europe as early as 1840. Until the present year 
this insect was known as injurious on this continent only in Canada 
and California, but in the American Miller of May 1, 1895, Mr. W. G. 
Johnson states that it has appeared in New York State. Itis recorded 
also from North Caroli- 
na, Alabama, New Mex- 
ico, Colorado, Mexico, 
and Chile, and probably 
occurs in Australia. 

The adult moth has a 
wing extension of a lit- 
tle less than an inch; 
the fore wings are pale 
Fig. 46.—Ephestia kuehniella: a, moth; b, moth, from side, resting ; leaden ere with trans: 

c, larva; d, pupa—enlarged,; ¢, abdominal joint of larva—more VELrS€ black markings of 

enlarged (b, c, e, from Insect Life; a and d, original). the pattern shown inthe 
accompanying illustration (fig. 46, a); the hind wings are dirty-whitish, 
semitransparent, and with a darker border. The caterpillar is ilus- 
trated at c, e, and the chrysalis at d. 

The caterpillars form cylindrical silken tubes in which they feed and 
transform to chrysalids, and it is this habit of web spinning that ren- 
ders the insect so injurious where it once obtains a foothold. The flour 
becomes felted together and lumpy, and the machinery becomes clogged 
and necessitates frequent and prolonged stoppage, resulting in a short 
time in the loss of thousands of dollars in large establishments. Upon 
attaining full growth the caterpillar usually leaves its original silken 
domicile and forms a new web, which becomes a cocoon, in which to 
undergo its transformations to pupa and to imago. 

Although the larva prefers flour or meal, it will attack grain when 
the former are not available, and it flourishes also on bran, prepared 
cereal foods, including buckwheat grits, and crackers. It has recently 
been discovered that this moth is inquilinous in the nests of a wild 
bumblebee in California, and Mr. D. W. Coquillett reports that it also 
occurs in the hives of the honey bee. 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 285 


M. Danysz has demonstrated that the insect is able to complete its 
life cycle in from two to two and a half months, but from experiments 
conducted during the year at Washington it is estimated that under 
the most favorable conditions, i. e., in the warmest weather, the life 
cycle consumes about five weeks. In its outdoor life there are proba- 
bly not more than two or three broods in the year, but in well-heated 
mills or other buildings six or more generations may be produced. 

This insect is rapidly becoming distributed throughout the civilized 
world, but as yet its range is limited. As might be inferred from its 
alarming destructiveness in Great Britain and Canada, this moth is 
peculiarly qualified for an indoor existence in much colder climates 
than most other grain insects. 

When a mill is found to be infested, the entire building should be 
fumigated, and in case a whole district becomes overrun, the greatest 
care must be observed not to spread the infestation. Uninfested mills 
should be tightly closed at night and every bushel of grain, every bag 
or sack, brought into the mill, subjected to a quarantine process, being 
disinfected either by heat or bisulphide of carbon. 


THE INDIAN-MEAL MOTH. 


(Plodia interpunctella Huebn. ) 


‘A phycitid moth allied to the preceding and known as the Indian- 
meal moth is widely distributed and injurious to a great variety of 
edibles. Itis nearly omnivorous, 
feeding on grain and farinaceous 
products of all kinds, dried fruits, 
seeds and nuts of various sorts, 
condiments, roots, and herbs. It 
iS even injurious to dried insects 
in cabinets, and is said to feed on 
sugar, jellies, and yeast cakes, 
and is occasionally troublesome 
in bee hives. In short, this chad 

f : Fic. 47.—Plodia interpunctella: a,moth; b, chrysalis; 
moth is an all-around nuisance c, caterpillar—somewhat enlarged; d, head, and e, 
in granaries and stores and in first abdominal segment of caterpillar—more en- 
the household. It is the cater. "8°! sina). 
pillars of this species which are so often found in dried apples, currants, 
raisins, English walnuts, ete. | 

The adult moth, as will be seen by reference to the accompanying 
illustration (fig. 47, a), resembles in general contour Ephestia kuehniella. 
It measures across the expanded wings between a half and three-fourths 
of aninch. Theinner third of the fore wings is dirty whitish gray, and 
the outer two-thirds is reddish brown, with a dull coppery luster. The 
caterpillar is shown at c, e, and d, and the chrysalis at b. 

Aside from its omnivorousness, the habits of the Indian-meal moth 
are essentially the same as those of the preceding species. The larvee 


286 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


surround themselves with cylindrical silken webs, in which they feed 
and undergo their transformations. 

Experiments conducted during the past year show that the insect 
is capable of passing through all its several stages, from egg to 
adult, in thirty-three days, which furnishes a possibility of six, seven, 
or even more generations in the heated atmosphere in which it habit- 
ually lives. 


THE MEAL SNOUT-MOTH. 
(Pyralis farinalis Linn.) 


A moth belonging to the family Pyralide often occurs in barns and 
other buildings wherever farinaceous products are housed. In Europe, 
where it is known as the “meal moth,” it has long been known as a 
domestic nuisance, and in this country it is evidently on the increase. 

The meal snout-moth is slightly larger than any of the species pre- 
viously mentioned, having a wing expanse of nearly an inch. The 
eround color is light brown, with reddish reflections; the thorax and 
the dark patches at its sides and near the 
tips of the fore wings are darker brown. 
The wavy, transverse lines of the wings 
are whitish, and form the pattern indi- 
cated in the illustration (fig. 48, a). The 
caterpillar and chrysalis are figured, 
Fia. 48.—Pyralis farinatis: a, adult moth ; paratal ate ab aand 2 Desperate 

taree a fevnaias a a sive S The habits of the meal snout-moth are 

head of larva; e, analsegment of same; similar to those of the two preceding 

la das ela is: opka i species. The caterpillar constructs long 
tubes of silk and particles of the meal or other food in which it lives, 
and when present in mills hides away, particularly in the pupating 
season, in machinery and other places where it would be objectionable. 
European authorities state that the insect is biennial in development, 
but this is a subject requiring further investigation. It lives on cereals 
of all kinds and in ali conditions, either in the kernel or in the form of 
flour, meal, or bran, and even, it is said, in the straw. It also attacks 
other eae 5, and dricd een in ear and injures hay after the 


manner of the related clover-hay worm (Pyralis costalis). Very recently 


it has been reported injurious to potatoes. 


THE WOLF MOTH. 
(Tinea granella Linn. ) 


Still another moth, known as the wolf moth or little grain moth, does 
considerable injury to stored cereals in EKurope; but as it is not partic- 
ularly destructive in America, requires only passing mention. This 
species is of about the size of the Angoumois moth, creamy white in 
color, thickly mottled with brown. Like the latter, it is known to ovi- 
posit in grain in the field. It infests cereals of all sorts, and a single 


—— 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 287 


caterpillar is capable of great damage, as it has a habit of passing from 
one grain to another, spinning them together with its webs as it goes 
until twenty or thirty grains are spoiled. When full grown the caterpil- 
lars crawl all about the infested mass, leaving their webs everywhere, 
thus injuring even more than they consume. 


THE SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE, 
(Silvanus surinamensis Linn. ) 


This little beetle is widely distributed over the entire globe, and is of 
common occurrence in granaries, in groceries, in dwelling houses, and in 
barns, and, in fact, almost everywhere where edibles are stored. It is 
nearly omnivorous, infesting grain and seeds of all sorts, flour, meal, 
bran, screenings, breadstuffs, and other comestibles. It has been 
reported as specially in- 
jurious in different years 
in Michigan, Mississippi, 
Oregon, Delaware, and 
other States, and has been 
the subject of .a series of 
experiments at the Ore- 
gon and Delaware experi- 
ment stations. 

The insect is a clavi- 
corn beetle of the family 
Cucujide. It is very 
small, only about one- 
tenth of an inch long, Vic. 49.—Silvanus surinamensis: a, adult beetle; b, pupa; e¢, 
slender, much flattened, larva—all enlarged; d, antenna of larva—still more enlarged 
and of a dark chocolate. "si"? 
brown color, The antenne are clavate, and the thorax has two shal- 
low longitudinal grooves on the upper surface and bears six saw-like 
teeth on each side, as shown at figure 49, a. 

The larva, as will be noticed by reference to the illustration (¢), 
has six legs. It is exceedingly active, and does not pass its life wholly 
within a single seed, but runs about nibbling here and there. After 
attaining its growth the larva attaches itself to some convenient surface 
and constructs a covering by joining together small grains or fragments 
of infested material by means of a silken substance which it secretes, 
and within this case the pupa (b) and afterwards the adult states are 
assumed. From data acquired by experiment during the year it is esti- 
mated that there are six or seven generations of this insect annually in 
the latitude of the District of Columbia. During the summer months 
the life cycle requires but twenty-four days; in spring, from six to ten 
weeks. At Washington, it has been learned, the species winters over, 
in the adult state, even in a well-warmed indoor atmosphere. 


288 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


THE FLOUR BEETLES. 


During the past year two little tenebrionid beetles, popularly known 
as “ flour weevils,” viz, Tribolium confusum and T. Jerrugineum, have 
occasioned considerable alarm among millers, flour and feed dealers, 
grocers, and dealers in patent foods. The two species resemble each 
other so closely that 
it is only with the 
aid of a magnifying 
glass that a differ- 
ence can be detected, 
and their habits are 
also very similar. 

For many years 
these insects have 
been known in Eu- 
rope aS enemies of 
meal, flour, grain, 
and other stored 
products, and even 


|| -ZANS 
= ZY 
Sai 


Fie. 50.—Vribolium confusum: a,adult beetle; b, larva; e, pupa—all rf 
enlarged; d, lateral lobe of abdomen of pupa; e, head of beetle, as pests in the mu- 
showing antenna; jf, same of T. ferruginewm—all greatly enlarged gseums. A] tho ugh 


pe they live in grain, 
their chief damage, probably, is to flour and to patented articles of diet 
containing farinaceous matter. The eggs are deposited in the flour, 
and these and the young larvie, being minute and pale in color, are not 
noticed; but after the flour has been barreled or sealed up in boxes 
and left unopened for any 
length of time the adult bee- 
tles make their appearance, 
and in due course the flour is 
ruined. A part of the trouble 
caused to purchaser, dealer, 
and manufacturer is due to 
the fact that the insects are 
highly offensive, a few speci- 
mens being sufficient to im- 
part a disagreeable and _ per- 
sistent odor to the infested 
substance. 

In addition to the two spe- 


cies of Tribolium, there is Fig. 51.—Kchocerus mazillosus: a,larva; b, pupa; ¢, adult 
another similar beetle that male—all enlarged (original). 
attacks grain, viz, the slender-horned flour beetle (Hchocerus mavil- 
losus), which will be mentioned hereafter. 

The confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum Duy.) is a minute, 
reddish-brown beetle, elongate and depressed, of the appearance repre: 


— 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 289 


sented in the illustration (fig. 50, a), and the size indicated by the hair line. 
It is separable from ferrugineum chiefly by the structure of the antenna, 
which is gradually clavate, as may be seen ate. The head, it will be 
noticed, also differs from that of ferrugineum, shown at f. The general 
characters of the larva are illustrated at b, and the pupa atc and d, 

From experiment during the year it was learned that this species, 
in an exceptionally high temperature, is capable of undergoing its 
entire round of transformations in thirty-six days, but in spring and 
autumn weather it requires a much longer time. In well-heated build- 
ings, at this rate, there are at least four, and possibly five, broods 
during the year. 

The injuries reported of this species, as noted down in the records of 
the division, far outnumber those due to any other farinivorous insect. 
During the year the species has been received in a patented food pur- 
chased at a local grocery, in wheat from New Mexico, in flour from 
Massachusetts, in oatmeal, in flour and meal from Indiana, and in corn, 
peanuts, and seeds. We have also notes upon its feeding upon snuff, 
orris root, baking powder, rice chaff, grahain flour, red pepper, and 
upon dried insects. During August this insect was reported as very 
destructive in western Massachusetts to flour received from different 
sources in the West, having been the cause of extensive damage and 
much annoyance to the interested parties. A Western miller having 
dealings in the Kast stated that he had also been troubled with this 
insect at Portland, Me., Boston, and New York. 

The rust-red flour beetle (Tribolium ferrugineum Duy.) resembles in 
general appearance the preceding species, but may be distinguished 
by the antenna having a distinct terminal three-jointed club (see fig. 
50, f). The larva and pupa also strongly resemble those of confusum. 
Within the year it was found to have damaged two lots of imported 
cotton seed at the Department. At the Columbian Exposition it was 
present in injurious numbers in most of the cereal exhibits from the 
tropics; also in cakes, yams, nuts, and seeds of many kinds. The spe- 
cies is widely distributed, and is common in the United States, par- 
ticularly throughout the South. 

The slender-horned flour beetle (Hchocerus maxillosus Fab.) has habits 
similar to those of the two preceding species, and is of common occur- 
rence in the Southern States, where it lives on grain in the field as well 
as in the granary, and even under the bark of trees. This species is 
probably a native of tropical America, and although not positively 
known to have established itself north of southern Ohio, is gradually 
extending northward. It has recently been found in Washington breed- 
ing in Shelled corn. It lives also in flour and meal. 

This beetle resembles Tribolium, but is lighter in color and a little 
Smaller, measuring a trifle over an eighth of an inch in length. On 


1 <A 94——12 


290 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the head, between the eyes, are two pointed tubercles, and the man- 
dibles in the male are armed with a pair of slender, incurved horns. 
The insect in its several stages is illustrated at figure 51. 


THE SQUARE-NECKED GRAIN BEETLE. 
(Catharius gemellatus Duy.)! 


An insect of some importance in the South is the square-necked or 
red grain beetle. It is undoubtedly identical with a Kuropean species, 
and in the United States occurs as far north as New York. 

The beetle is of about the same length as the saw-toothed species, to 
which it is nearly related and somewhat resembles; but the head and 
thorax are nearly as broad as the abdomen; the thorax is nearly square, 
not serrated on the sides, and the color is shining reddish-brown. 

This species has received special mention by Townend Glover (Pat. 
Off. Rept., 1854, p. 66), and is treated in bulletins on grain insects 
recently issued by the Mississippi and Maryland stations. It breeds 
in corn in the field as well as in cotton bolls, and continues breeding in 
harvested grain. The eggs are laid at the base of the kernels, into 
which the larve bore, and afterwards complete their transformations. 
Glover states that corn injured by this species has little chance of ger- 
minating, as the germ is nearly always first destroyed, and that this 
fact may, in some degree, account for the numerous failures of seed 
corr to grow, of which Southern planters so often complain. 


THE CADELLE. 
( Tenebroides mauritanicus Linn.) 


An account of the insect enemies of stored grain would not be com- 
plete without reference to Tenebroides mauritanicus, the larva of which 
is called by the French “cadelle.” It has long been known to feed 
upon stored grain in Europe, where it is said to be extremely injurious, 
In this country it has never been reported as especially destructive, 
although of common occurence everywhere in grain infested with other 
insects. It is not, however, so injurious as many of the preceding 
species, as its predaceous habits partially offset its destructiveness, 
The question has been raised as to whether or not this species fed upon 
stored grain, the claim being made that it was strictly predaceous, 
Experiments conducted by the writer prove that the larva not only 
feeds upon grain, but is capable of very serious injury to seed corn 
from the habit it has of devouring the embryo or germ, going from 
kernel to kernel and destroying many more seeds than it consumes. It 
is also predaceous, both in the larval and adult stages, and even 
destroys its own kind. 

‘Some confusion exists in regard to the synonymy of this species. It is the Sil- 
vanus quadricollis Lec., and has been incorrectly referred to S, cassie Reiche. 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 291 


The adult cadelle is an elongate, oblong, depressed beetle of a dark 
brown color and about a third of an inch in length. The larva is fleshy 
and very slender, and measures when full grown neary three-fourths of 
an inch. In color it is whitish, with a dark brown head. The three 
thoracic segments are also marked with dark brown, and the tail ter- 
minates in two dark, horny points. 


REMEDIES. 


The measures to be observed in the control of insects in stored grain 
are both preventive and remedial, but before taking up the considera- 
tion of the various remedies that may be used with more or less beneiit, 
and the precautionary measures that may always be observed with 
profit, it should be borne in mind that we have in the bisulphide of 
carbon a nearly perfect remedy for all insects that affect stored produce. 

A. few words must be said in answer to a question that is often 
asked, viz, What varieties of grain are the least susceptible to ‘ weevil” 
attack? There is no weevil-proof grain. Unhusked rice, oats, and 
buckwheat are practically exempt, but unhulled barley is attacked 
with avidity. Husked, shelled, or hulled grain is still more liable to 
attack. The soft varieties of wheat are greatly preferred, and the small, 
hard-grained varieties are little troubled with insects. Corn, when 
shelled, is more susceptible to the attack of most species than when 
on the cob, but appears to be preferred by the Angoumois moth in the 
latter condition. The hard, flinty varieties and such as have a closely 
fitting husk are not so liable to insect attack, and corn has been kept 
for years nearly exempt from infestation by this moth Py. being housed 
in the husk or shuck. 

Exclusion of the insects from the granary.—The measures that may be 
observed to prevent the infestation of the grain are manifold. As has 
already been said in treating of the Angoumois moth, it is impossible 
entirely to prevent this insect from entering the grain in the field. The 
Same is true to a limited extent of a few of the other species in the 
extreme South; still all but a very small percentage of damage from 
this source may be prevented—first, by harvesting as soon as the 
grain is ripe; second, by thrashing as soon afterwards as possible. 

In the process of thrashing many of the infested kernels will be 
blown out with the chaff and dust, and the insects killed by the agi- 
tation which the grain receives. The moths and many weevils are 
destroyed in the thrashing, but the eggs, larve, and pup, many of 
them, survive this treatment, and further measures are required for 
their destruction. In France, where the Angoumois moth is so inju- 
rious, a number of machines have been devised for the treatment of 
infested grain. Into these the grain is poured, and either revolved 
while exposed to heat or subjected to a violent agitation which kills 
the contained insects. A new machine for the destruction of grain 
insects in mills is figured and described in Insect Life (Vol. VII, p. 263), 


292 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Better, however, than these devices, simpler and less expensive, is 
the establishment of a quarantine bin, as nearly air-tight as possible, in 
which the newly thrashed as well as the infested or suspected grain 
may be placed, before being disposed of for more permanent storage, 
and fumigated with bisulphide of carbon according to the directions 
which will be given in the closing chapter. 

Prevention of infestation to fresh grain.—The next precaution to be 
observed is that the grain after thrashing be not exposed to infestation 
from being placed in bins that contain infested grain, or even housed 
under the same roof with such grain. 

The granary should be built at some distance from other buildings 
and the rooms in which the grain is to be stored should be constructed 
so aS to be as near vermin-proof as possible. The doors should fit 
tightly, the windows should be covered with frames of wire gauze to 
prevent the entrance of insects from without and the escape of those 
within to the fields, and the floors should be oiled, painted, or white- 
washed. 

Before storing fresh grain in old bins that have been badly infested 
they should be thoroughly cleaned, all the old grain removed, and the 
floors, walls, and ceilings brushed and scrubbed. 

The natives of India store their wheat in air-tight pits to preserve it 
from the rice weevil, and condemn ventilation. In the colder countries 
of Hurope and in North America, on the contrary, ventilation is prac- 
ticed, and with decided benefit. 

The practice of storing grain in large bulk is also to be commended, 
as the surface layers only are exposed to infestation. This practice is 
particularly valuable against the moths, which penetrate only a few 
inches beneath the surface. Frequent handling of the grain by shovel- 
ing, stirring, or transferring from one receptacle to another is also 
destructive to the moths, as they are unable to extricate themselves 
from a mass of grain, and perish in the attempt. The rice and granary 
weevils, however, penetrate more deeply, and, although bulking is of 
value against them, it is not advisable to stir the grain, as it merely 
distributes them more thoroughly through the mass. 

It is advisable to remove the surface layers before grinding. 

Impractical, useless, or unnecessary remedies are often recommended, 
and a few words concerning these may not be amiss, if only to point 
out the defects of such as are worthy of notice. 

Repellants, counter-odorants, and lure traps.—On the hypothesis that 
insects are extremely sensitive to odors, the use of many aromatic sub- 
stances has been recommended for deterring insects from entering the 
grain, in driving them from it, and as baits for luring them away. 
Among such substances are garlic, “jimson” weed, coriander, fennel, 
aniseed, hemp, larkspur, ivy, box, rue, lavender, tansy, hops, worm- 
wood, elder and pecan flowers, China berries and twigs, neem leaves, 
tobacco leaves and stems, and oil of turpentine. Admitting that any 


INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 293 


of these are of substantial value, and this is doubtful, they must be 
used in tight receptacles and in large quantity to be effective. 
Among substances that have been employed with more or less benefit 
are salt, powdered sulphur, naphthalene, camphor, pyrethrum, and air- 
slaked lime. These, when sprinkled about in tight bins, have been pro- 
ductive of beneficial results in keeping out insects. In the preservation 
of samples of all sorts of products subject to insect attack, naphthalene, 
either in crystal or in the form of ‘‘camphor tar” or ‘‘moth balls,” is 
very extensively employed, and when used in air-tight receptacles is an 
almost perfect preservative. It can not be recommended for grain that 
is to be used for food on account of its powerful and permanent odor. 
Heat and cold, and other remedies.—Until the adoption of the bisul- 
phide of carbon as a fumigant, heat was relied upon as the best agent 
in the destruction of these insects. It has been ascertained by experi- 
ment that a temperature of 140° F., continued for nine hours, literally 
cooks the larva and pupa of the Angoumois moth, and that a tempera- 
ture of from 120° to 130° F., continued for four or five hours, is fatal. 
It has also been experimentally proven that wheat can be subjected to 
a temperature of 150° without destroying its germinating power. 
Kiln drying, at a still lower degree of heat, has been found effective. 
A low temperature is equally destructive, and in colder climates these 
insects may be successfully dealt with by stirring or turning the infested 
grain, or by filling the building with steam and then throwing open the 
windows of the building at night and exposing the insects to frost. 
Tobacco, sulphur, chlorine, benzine, and naphtha have been recom- 
mended and tried as fumigants against grain insects, but none of them 
produce entirely satisfactory results, their vapor being insufficient for 
the destruction of the adolescent stages of our most injurious species, 
which breed wholly within the kernel, while all of these agents possess 
an offensive odor which is more or less persistent in the grain after 
treatment. The vapor of benzine and naphtha is also inflammable. * 
Sulphur, properly applied, may be used with benefit in buildings where 
for any reason the use of bisulphide of carbon is not advisable, and 
steam and sulphur combined are very destructive to insect life. 


THE BISULPHIDE OF CARBON TREATMENT. 


The simplest, most effective and inexpensive remedy for all stored- 
grain insects is the bisulphide of carbon. This is a colorless liquid 
with a strong, disagreeable odor. It vaporizes abundantly at ordinary 
temperatures, is highly inflammable, and is a powerful poison. 

A number of methods for the application of the bisulphide of carbon 
have been suggested and tested, but the most effective manner of apply- 
ing the reagent in moderately tight bins consists in simply pouring the 
liquid into shallow dishes or pans or on bits of cotton waste and dis- 
tributing about on the surface of the grain. The liquid rapidly vola- 
tilizes, and, being heavier than air, descends and permeates the mass of 
grain, killing all insects as well as rats or mice which it may contain, 


2994 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The bisulphide is usually applied in tight bins at the rate of a pound 
toa pound and a half to the ton of grain, and in more open bins a larger 
quantity is used. Mr. H. E. Weed, who has experimented with this 
insecticide in Mississippi, however, claims that 1 pound to 100 bushels 
of grain is amply sufficient to destroy all insects, even in open cribs. 
Bins may be made nearly air-tight by a covering of cloths or blankets 
Oileloth and painted canvas are excellent for this purpose. 

Mills and other buildings, when found to be infested throughout, may 
be thoroughly fumigated and rid of insects by a liberal use of the same 
chemical. A good time for fumigating an entire building is during day- 
light on a Saturday afternoon or early Sunday morning, closing the 
doors and windows as tightly as possible and observing the precaution 
of stationing a watchman without to prevent anyone from entering the 
building. It is best to begin in the lowest story and work up, in order 
to escape the settling gas. The building should then be thoroughly 
aired early Monday morning. ‘The bisulphide is usually evaporated in 
vessels, one-fourth or one-half of a pound in each. 

Certain precautions should always be observed. The vapor of bisul- 
phide is injurious to al! animal life, but there is no danger to a human 
being in inhaling asmall quantity. It is also explosive, but with proper 
care that no fire of any kind, as, for example, a lighted cigar, be brought 
into the vicinity, no trouble will be experienced. 

Infested grain is generally subjected to the bisulphide treatment for 
twenty-four hours, but may be exposed much longer without harming 
it for milling purposes. If not exposed for more than thirty-six hours 
its germinating power will be in no wise impaired. In badly infested 
buildings it is customary to repeat this treatment about every six weeks 
in warm weather. 

Bisulphide of carbon is for sale at drug stores at from 20 to 30 cents 
a pound, but at wholesale in 50-pound cans it may be obtained at the 
‘ rate of 10 or 15 cents a pound. 

A grade known as “ fuma bisulphide,” for sale at 10 cents a pound, 
is said by experienced entomologists and others who have experi- 
mented with it to be much more pia ebs than the ordinary grades on 
the market. 

The cost of treatment is thus only 10 cents a hundred bushels. . 


THE DAIRY HERD: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT. 
By Henry E. Atvorp,M. §&., C. E. 


The pursuit of dairy farming depends for its suecess upon certain 
fundamental conditions. First, the owner of the business himself, or 
otherwise the agent or manager who has the immediate control and 
personal direction of the work, must have a natural fondness for 
animals, prompting to generous and kind treatment, as well as good 
judgment in selection, breeding, and care. It is not sufficient that he 
should be a horseman, or fond of cattle in general; for best results 
he should have a special liking for the dairy cow, over and above all 
other animals. Second, the cattle must be good of their kind and of 
a variety suited to the work. They must be truly dairy cattle; but of 
this more presently. Third, the farm should be specially adapted to 
the branch of husbandry in view. <A good dairy farm is pretty certain 
to be good for general farming, but many good farms in general are 


not suited to dairying. The dairy farm should be carefully selected, 


all the requirements of the business being well considered. Yet many 
disadvantages so far as the farm is concerned may be successfully 
overcome by the skillful dairyman, and dairying in some forms is 
profitably conducted without any farm, so that this condition, impor- 
tant as it is, can not be regarded as essential. Fourth, it is well to 
study the character of the accessible markets and the means of com- 
munication; location and the line of dairying to be followed may be 
largely controlled by the markets. In some cases the markets form 
an essential condition, but modern facilities for transportation make 
the location of the dairy farm with relation to its markets compara- 
tively unimportant. The first and second above remain as the essen- 
tial factors—the owner and the cow. Assuming that the dairyman is 
all he should be, it is proposed to consider in the following pages the 
dairyman’s main stock in trade, upon which depends his success—the 
dairy herd, its formation and management. 

Like almost all other occupations at the present day, dairying has 
become divided into several distinct and special lines. These differ 
mainly as to the form of product and the manner of disposing of it. 
Milk or cream may be produced for delivery to consumers, and this 
delivery may be direct or indirect. The same products may be deliv- 
ered to a factory for manufacture into butter or cheese, or the milk 
product of the herd may be worked up at home and there converted 


into butter or cheese. The prudent dairyman should first consider 
295 


2996 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


which line of business he will pursue. In so doing he must have 
regard for all his cireumstances—the location, markets, farm, build- 
ings, water and ice supply, the labor at his command—and his own 
preference, and prospects for profit. Upon his decision as to the par- 
ticular kind of dairying to be followed should depend the character 
and composition of his herd of cattle. 


DAIRY CATTLE FOR THE DAIRY. 


In making up a herd for this business, no matter what the special 
line, only such animals as are truly dairy cattle can be considered. 
Everyone now admits that there is a distinct type or class of cattle | 
specially adapted to dairy purposes. This class includes various kinds, 
families, and breeds, but all have the marked characteristics which dis- 
tinguish the milk producer from the beef producer. To succeed in his 
business the dairyman should select his herd, or its foundation, solely 
from this class—from dairy cattle. There are some people who seem 
to still really believe in the possibility for profit of an animal combin- 
ing qualities for producing milk and butter and beef all in one hide. 
These good people are still searching for ‘“‘the general-purpose cow.” 
When found, this animal will be like the “Jack at all trades—good at 
none.” There may be good carpenters who are ready to argue the 
economy of a single saw for all purposes, but very few will be found to 
practice this preaching; every workman of experience who knows his 
own interests has his crosscut and his ripper, and never attempts to 
make either do the work of the other. The writer has been too long a 
dairyman and has become too strongly impressed with this phase of 
the subject to spend time in further argument. In all work, with rare 
exceptions, the best results come with the best tools or instruments. 
The dairyman seeking best results will buy, breed, and feed only such 
cattle as are of marked dairy type and belonging to families of estab- 
lished dairy excellence. 


SPECIAL ADAPTATION, 


Within the general class of dairy cattle one can find great variety; 
one is thus enabled to select breeds or families well adapted to the special 
needs in view. Some dairy cattle are noted for the quantity of milk 
they produce; others for the high quality or richness of their milk, 
which meaus butter producers. Some combine quantity and quality 
in a specially economical way, under some circumstances. There are 
cows of active habits, which forage well on a wide range of scanty pas- 
ture, and will profitably work up the coarser kinds of food in winter. 
There are others which have proved their capacity for making good 
returns when more closely confined and subjected to high feeding. 
Some cows give a great flow of milk for a comparatively short season, 
and others are noted for an even, steady yield of milk the year through. 
The dairyman can easily find cattle, therefore, adapted to his particular 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 297 


wants. Asa rule, the different dairy characteristics named pertain to 
different breeds, so that every dairyman is likely to find some one breed 
of dairy cattle better suited to his wants than any other. 

This is not the place to revive the never-ended “battle of the breeds.” 
No matter how strong one’s convictions, discretion must be exercised. 
Pronounced opinions and direct advice as to the several recognized 
dairy breeds are here unnecessary. Evidence abounds on every side, 
and every dairyman that is, or is to be, can satisfy himself as to the 
cattle he should adopt, if he will but make a proper study of the subject. 
He need not go far in this country to find the best kind or breed of cows 
for milk supply, the best for butter making, or the best for the cream 
trade. There is no special cheese-making cow; the best butter cow 
is also the best for cheese; this fact has been demonstrated beyond 
dispute. 


“FORMATION OF THE DAIRY HERD. 


There are two very different ways of forming a dairy herd and of 
maintaining its size and quality. It may be done by buying or by 
breeding, and these two methods may becombined. The purchasing 
plan is practiced to a considerable extent by those who produce milk 
for town and city supply. In a few cases it has been known to be sue- 
cessful where the work of the herd was tomake butter. Appliedin its 
extreme form, cows are bought when mature and at their prime, judged 
almost exclusively by their milk yield, are highly fed so as to keep 
steadily gaining in flesh, and are sold, usually to the butcher, as soon as 
they cease to be profitable as milkers. The bull may be of any kind so 
long as he gets the cows in calf, and the calves are valued only as 
causing ‘fresh” cows, and are dispensed with as soonas possible. The 
first modification of this system is to keep extra good cows for several 
seasons and the next to raise heifers from some of the best milkers to 
replenish the herd. This way of making up a herd and keeping good its 
numbers requires abundant capital and rare judgment in buying and 
in selling. It can not be recommended to one lacking experience, and 
even the shrewdest buyer runs great risk of bringing disease into his 
herd. 

The other extreme is to begin with a few well-selected animals as a 
foundation, and gradually build up the herd to the size desired by judi- 
cious breeding and naturalincrease. This method takes time, and time 
which may be money, but it is by far the safer and more satisfactory 
in its results, and it must be recognized as a higher grade of dairy 
farming. 

A. desirable combination, in starting, is to buy the number of cows 
desired, and good animals of the sort determined in advance. If one’s 
means will permit, include a few superior cows, and a first-class bull at 
any rate. Let the cows selected be such as have had two calves, and 
perhaps three, so that they may be judged by their own development 

1 A 94_19* | 


998 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


and yet be young enough to improve and be in full profit for some years. 
With a herd thus formed, begin at once the work of improvement by 
breeding and selection. Sell promptly any cow which proves unsatis- 
factory and replace her by the best increase of the herd, or purchase 
occasionally an animal which will raise the average quality. 


PURE-BRED DAIRY CATTLE AND GRADES. 


A dairyman ean hardly be advised to buy at once a full stock of pure- 
bred cattle of any breed, if his sole object and dependence for profit is 
to be the dairy product of the herd. Such a venture will necessitate 
large investment, and should include the breeding of registered ani- 
mals, for sale at remunerative prices, as a part of the business. Well- 
bred and well-selected grade cows, of the line of blood desired, seem to 
be the most profitable animals for the practical dairyman, or at least the 
best to begin with. If enterprising and progressive, the owner will 
hardly be content with grades only. He may begin with only his bull 
pure bred; presently he will want a registered cow to match, then one 
or two more. Thus he will be steadily and properly working toward a 
purely bred herd. If the breed chosen is the right one for the object 
sought, it will soon be found that the more of this blood the herd con- 
tains the better. Starting with half-bred cows (the offspring of pure- 
bred bulls and dams of mixed or uncertain blood), the next grade, 
three-fourths pure, will prove better dairy stock, if the bull is what he 
should be and the increase has been culled. Another step higher is 
better still, better for the dairy, and so the grading goes up and improve- 
ment goes on until the blood of the herd is practically pure. The best 
dairy results may thus be reached, but the herd has a taint. It lacks 
pedigree. Its increase, however excellent in dairy performance, must 
pass and sell as grades. The owner feels this, and is pretty sure to 
gradually replace his well-bred cows, almost pure bred, with fully pedi- 
greed and registered animals. This end is reached sooner and easier 
by starting with one or two registered females, and, of course, a regis- 
tered bull. Moderate investment and the lessened risk of loss in the 
hands of one unaccustomed to handling registered stock, and finding a 
market for the surplus, doubtless favor grades for the dairy herd. The 
argument and the probabilities of success, based upon the fixed princi- 
ples of breeding, are on the side of pure-bred, registered stock. In the 
hands of experienced men the latter prove the more profitable in actual 
practice. 

In these days any dairyman who wants registered animals of any of 
the approved breeds can get them if he will but make the effort. The 
beginner in registered dairy stock can not be too strongly urged to buy 
and breed on the basis of individual and family merit and dairy record, 
and not upon pedigree alone. Pedigree is of value and should be well 
studied; it is the best guaranty that the calves to come will make 
good cows. But the pedigree should be supported by uniform excel- 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 299 


lence in the family and by evidence of merit in the particular animals 
bought. Although the investment is greater, there is greater certainty 
of good results if mature cows are bought which show what can be 
expected of them, if they have not already made a record, than if 
calves or undeveloped heifers are selected. It is also economy, having 
chosen the right breed, to purchase good representatives of that breed, 
rather than be content with only average or even ordinary animals. 
Suecessful dairying has proved that the greater profit comes from the 
best cows, whatever their kind. This is as true of pure-bred or regis- 
tered stock as of common cows. It is better to pay $300 for three 
excellent cows than to pay the same for four good cows or five which are 
only fair. A really superior dairy cow of a superior family, with pedi- 
gree which gives assurance of calves equal to the dam, if not better, is 
always worth a large price. Such an animal adds much to the average 
value of any dairy herd. In buying registered cattle deal only with 
men of reputation as breeders and of strict integrity; “the best part 
of a pedigree is the name of the breeder.” 


THE BULL AND HIS TREATMENT. 


With any dairyman who depends upon breeding and rearing calves 
for the maintenance of his herd and its improvement, the choice of a 
bull is a matter of prime importance. The bull is constantly referred 
to as ‘‘the head” of the herd, and that trite saying, ‘The bull is half 
the herd,” should never be forgotten. Every calf added to the herd 
takes half its blood from the bull. Often this is the more important 
half. The bull is always the main dependence for raising the average 
quality of the herd, and should be chosen with this object in view. 
This is especially true if the cows are grades and “grading up” is in 
progress. The grade dam may be selected and largely relied upon to 
give size, form, constitution, and capacity of production to her heifer 
calf; its dairy quality, the inbred power to increase the richness of milk, 
is derived from the pure-bred sire. One cow may prove a poor dam, or 
fail to breed, and still give a profit in milk. Such a loss is compara- 
tively trivial and the fault easily corrected. But if the bull fails, or 
proves a poor sire, the entire increase of a year may be lost. In get- 
ting a bull, get the best. At least approach that standard as nearly 
as possible. Make a study of the animal’s pedigree and the dairy 
history of his ancestors, and especially of the females among his nearest 
of kin. Then see that the good qualities of his progenitors appear to 
be reproduced in the animalin question. A common error among dairy- 
men is to use immature bulls and to dispose of good ones before their 
merit as sires has been fairly proven. Bull calves are cheap, and young 
bulls are considered much easier to handle. But it is good advice to 
the buyer to purchase a bull of some age, whose progeny prove his 
value as a breeder, rather than a calf of exceptional pedigree; and to 
the owner, having a sire of proved excellence, to keep him and use him 


300 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


for years, or as long as he shows himself potent and prepotent. (Of 
course the question of too close inbreeding is not forgotten and must 
not be overlooked by the breeder.) The writer is a thorough believer 
in the use of mature bulls of known value as sires. 

The chief objection made to bulls of some age is that they are likely 
to be vicious and dangerous. Everyone recognizes the difference in 
temperament between the fleshy, beefy bull and the one of pronounced 
dairy character; but experience and observation have taught that the 
bulls of marked dairy type are much alike in disposition, regardless of 
breed. In all the breeds (as among men) some bulls will be found of 
naturally bad temper, but it is believed that the great majority of bulls, | 
of all the dairy breeds, can be safely kept until too old for service and 
handled without serious trouble, if only properly reared and judiciously 
managed. 

In rearing a bull, accustom it to being handled from calfhood, but 
without fondling or encouraging frolic. Give it kind, quiet, firm, and 
unvarying treatment, and keep it always under subjection, that it may 
never know its strength and power. Insert the nose ring before it is 
a year old, keep this renewed so as to be always strong, and always 
lead and handle the animal with staff in the hands of a discreet and 
trusty man, The bull should never run loose in yard or pasture, but 
should be provided with abundant and regular exercise, always under 
restraint and full control. The “walk around” arrangement, like the 
sweep horse power, affords a fair degree of voluntary exercise, but is 
hardly sufficient. The best plan seems to be to provide a suitable tread 
power with a governor attached, place the bull in this daily, and let 
him walk a fixed time or known distance. The main object should be 
regular and sufficient exercise for the bull. Incidentally, he may be 
made to run a fodder cutter or a cream separator and perform valuable 
service. As age and strength increase, let the staff be supplemented 
by strap, chain, or rope attached to a second ring. To this may well 
be added some hitching or leading chain with a strong strap around 
horns or neck. Let there be always a double hitching device, so that 
the bull may never by accident find himself loose when he should be 
tied. If restiveness and temper are shown, add to the exercise, in 
duration or quantity, without violence; a bull physically tired may be 
depended upon to be quiet and easily managed. 

It is much better to keep the bull as much as possible in the presence 
or in full sight of the herd than stabled by himself in a lonely place. 
Let him be in the same room with the cows during the stabling season, 
and at milking times the rest of the year. 


INDIVIDUALITY AND CULLING THE HERD BY ITS RECORD. 


As soon as the herd is established and in working order, the study 
of every individual animal should begin. To guide rational treatment 
and insure greatest profit, the owner must become familiar with the 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 301 


characteristics of every cow. Peculiarities of temperament, suscepti- 
bility to surroundings and varied conditions, and especially the dairy 
capacity of the animal, should be matters of observation, deliberation, 
and record, not merely of conjecture and memory. The record of the 
herd is a matter of utmost importance. The system of record should 
conform to the circumstances of the case and extent of the business. 
(It is desirable to reduce the labor of bookkeeping to a minimum, and 
yet accuracy and sufficiency of record must be secured. Fortunately, 
inexpensive forms can now be found for sale, which are based upon long 
experience, and in variety to suit different wants.) The record should 
include a concise history and description of every member of the herd, 
with a summary of the dairy performance. The latter requires a daily 
record of the milk yield of every cow, with notes explaining irregulari- 
ties or occurrences of interest. If the quality of the milk is a matter 
of any importance, as it is in most cases, and ought to be, however the 
milk is disposed of, a fat test should be made of the milk of every cow, 
for several consecutive milkings, as often as practicable. Some form of 
the Babcock tester is the simplest and now within the reach of every 
dairyman. According to the size of the apparatus, a certain number 
of milk samples can be tested at one time, and thus the record of a large 
herd can be completed in a few days. It is well to make this test and 
record of the quality of every cow’s milk at least once a month. The 
most satisfactory practical record is the average percentage of fat found 
in the milk of several successive milkings, samples from which may be 
mixed and this “composite sample” tested, thus obtaining the aver- 
age; the method is easily learned and practiced. This record of qual- 
ity, taken periodically, joined with a summary of the daily quantity of 
milk, gives a full dairy record of the cow, upon which her value can be 
readily computed. ‘To give the owner a more complete knowledge of 
his operations, there should also be a record, of at least approximate 
accuracy, of the food of every cow, with monthly summaries of quan- 
tities or value, so that the economy of production may be shown. 
Such records are far more easily made than the description may 
indicate, and are well worth all they cost. They form the only aceu- 
rate and safe basis for judging of the individual merits of the different 
animals. The improvement of every herd, which should be the con- 
Stant aim of its owner, depends upon periodical culling and getting rid 
of unworthy members. No one can afford to do this upon guesswork 
alone. One well-authenticated example of the value of keeping such 
record follows: A dairyman of wide reputation, president of a State 
association for years, concluded to adopt the daily milk record, rather 
because of those who advocated it than of any conviction of needing 
it himself. His herd was of his own breeding; he had handled every 
cow from its birth, and he and his sons did the milking. Before 
beginning the record he made note of the joint opinion of himself and | 


302 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


sons as to the half dozen best cows in the herd and an estimate of 
their season’s milk yield. When the year’s record was completed it 
was found that in order of actual merit the cows actually stood thus: 
First, his fifth; second, a cow not on his merit list; third, his fourth; 
fourth, his first; fifth, his sixth; sixth, like the second; and his second 
and third still lower on the list. These facts were verified by subse- 
quent records. Still more remarkable, this experienced owner proved 
literally “by the book” that about one-fourth of his cows were being 
kept at an actual loss, while others barely paid their way. 

Good judges believe that in the entire country one-third of the cows 
kept for their milk do not pay for their cost of keeping, and nearly a — 
third more fail to yield annual profit. As a matter of ordinary busi- 
ness prudence and a condition essential to best results, every dairyman 
should study the individuality of his cows, keep a sufficient record of 
quantity and quality of milk product, know approximately the cost of 
production, and systematically weed out his herd. After proper con- 
sideration and practical tests as to possibilities, set a standard for a 
satisfactory cow and maintain this standard by promptly disposing of 
the animals which fail to attain it, unless reasonable excuse appears, 
with the prospect of better conduct in future, and gradually but 
persistently raise the standard. 


ACCOMMODATIONS FOR THE HERD. 


The large and iofty barn, in which to keep the cattle and the crops, 
the manure and farm implements, all within four rectangular walls and 
under one roof, can no longer be regarded as perfection. No matter 
how well arranged and how thorough the ventilation, the danger of loss 
and damage is too great. It is well to house all the forage, and a large 
storage building may be necessary. Economy of labor requires the 
forage to be easily placed before the cattle. The best modern prac- 
tice calls for a separate or slightly attached building for the cows, with 
no manure cellar under them and no large quantity of forage above 
them, and preferably none at all. The best provision for such manure 
as can not be at once applied to the land is an open shed or covered 
yard. The cow house should be on the ground ievel, rather than in a 
basement, and be light, dry, and roomy. A room open to the roof, 
which is fairly high, is better than a low, level ceiling above the cows. 
The former may involve a little more work to keep free from dust and 
cobwebs, but it affords the air space needed for health and comfort. . 
The latter necessitates special arrangement for ventilation, and these, 
constructed on the best plans, often fail to work in practice. Sanitary 
authorities advise 600 cubic feet of space for every animal, but the best 
cow house the writer has seen allows double this quantity, and it appears 
none too much. Where the climate will permit, there is no better plan 
than to let cows stand upon the ground, the clay or earth being packed 


'MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 303 


hard and raised somewhat above the level around the building; shallow 
gutters behind the cows, and a feeding floor in front of them. More 
durable floors, and quite expensive, are made of grouting and cement, 
or of brick on edge; but such are damp and cold, causing rheumatism 
and other ailments, unless covered with a false floor of wood or pro- 
vided with an unusual abundance of bedding. Box stalls are undoubt- 
edly the ideal for cows as wellas for horses; in a box 8 to 10 feet square 
a cow may be left untied, and if supplied with enough bedding she 
will keep clean and well, although the stall is not cleaned out for months 
at a time. But such boxes for a large herd require too much room. 
Every cow should have her own stall, however, wide enough for com- 
fort of cow and milker, and well protected from the neighbors on either 
side; 34 feet width is little enough and 4 feet is better. 

From the great variety of cattle ties one should be selected which com- 
bines, in greatest measure, freedom of movement, comfort, and cleanli- 
ness. There are serious objections to all stanchions; if some form of this 
device is insisted upon, let it be one which is so hung as to move a few 
inches in any direction. A desirable substitute for a stanchion is a wide 
strap or light chain around the neck, with a ring at the throat (this part 
to be always worn by the cow), and a snap, with a few links of chain, 
attached to an iron ring which moves freely upon a 3 or 4 inch post, 
fastened upright at the middle of the side of the feed box next to the 
cow. An excellent patented device consists of a flattened bow of 
metal or wood, shaped like a widely spread letter U, the ends hinged 
at the front corners of the feed box, the bow resting on the back edge 
of the box, and the neck strap fastened to this bow at its middle; 
this gives much freedom of movement and causes the animal to move 
backward a little when it lies down and forward when it rises. An 
open, level feeding floor in front of the cows seems to be better than 
any form of boxes; if boxes are used, they should be as large as 
possible and yet have every part within reach of the cow as tied, and 
they should be so constructed as to be easily cleaned. A manure gutter 
behind the animals aids in cleanliness, but while it should have good 
width, 16 to 24 inches, it should not be too deep; if enough to hold the 
droppings of a night, that is sufficient. ‘Self-cleaning” stalls and 
gutters have not proved successful. The length of stall from fastening 
to gutter should suit the size of the cow; it is bad practice to have 
them so long as to induce filthy udders and legs, and also to have 
them so short that cows stand habitually with hind feet in the gutter. 
Arrangements should be convenient for removing the manure and for 
supplying absorbents for the urine, and a limited quantity of bedding. 
Liberal use of land plaster about the gutters and the floors over which 
the cattle pass is very desirable as a disinfectant and conserver of 
ammonia. Lime should be used with equal freedom, as whitewash on 
the walls of the cow house, but not on its floors. 


3804 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The stable should be provided with windows to admit light and air 
abundantly, and arranged to let sunlight as nearly as possible into 
every portion of the apartment where the cows stand during some hour 
of every clear day. Yet the windows should be shaded when desired, 
and they should be fixed to open partly without subjecting the cows to 
direct drafts of air. 

The extremes in providing water for the cows are to be avoided. A 
long walk to get water, in all weather, is certainly objectionable. And 
all the devices for ane water constantly before every cow, or sup- 
plying it at the stalls, at will, are open to serious objections. Some 
medium course is advised, and the best plan seems to be to provide one 
or more tanks in the yard and one or more inthe stabie, at each of which 
but one cow should drink ata time. These should fill quickly after 
use and freely overflow, that every cow may find the surface fresh and 
clear. The evidence is conclusive that water for milking cows should 
not be too cold, and that it is profitable to bring water in severely cold 
weather to a temperature of about 50° F.,if it can be cheaply done. 
Warming to blood heat has not been found advantageous. 

Attached to the cow house should be an exercise yard for the daily 
use of cows during the stabling season. Roomy open sheds should 
form a part of this inclosure, and the whole may well be roofed over, if 
arranged for the free circulation of air and for admitting sunshine to a 
large share of it, while excluding wind and storm. 


HEALTH OF THE HERD. 


There is no point of greater importance in selecting animals for the 
foundation of a herd, or in making purchases of additions, than to get 
perfectly healthy stock. Animals chosen should be critically examined 
by a veterinarian if convenient, and should afford evidence of being 
strong in constitution and of healthful vigor. Besides the robust 
character of the individuals, the breeding stock from which they are 
descended, and the herd, stables, and farm from which they come, should 
be closely examined, on the score of health. Breeding and rearing the 
animals needed to replenish and increase the herd, and refusing to allow 
strange animals on the farm, are the best safeguards against the intro- 
duction of disease. If purchases must be made, let the new stock be 
strictly quarantined for at least one month before mingling with the 
herd. On every farm of any size a well-secluded building for a stock 
quarantine and hospital, suitably arranged and equipped, is a most 
useful adjunct. This is not needed for calving cows, or for cases of 
lameness or ordinary accident, but for cases of acute sickness, retention 
of afterbirth, abortion, or any symptoms of contagious disease, it is 
essential. Of course, the building itself, its care, and the attendance 
upon its occupants must be subjected to regulations suited to any hos- 
pital or quarantine. 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 305 


There are many of the ordinary accidents and ailments to which 
domestic animals are subject which can be managed by an intelligent 
owner, or under his direction, without professional assistance. ‘ Every 
man his own cattle doctor” is a very delusive title; one may well follow 
this suggestion within reasonable limits, but there is always a point, 
hard to define, at which professional aid should be promptly summoned. 
So long as an owner is certain as to the difficulty, and has knowledge 
and experience as to treatment or remedy, he may depend upon home 
resources. But in a case of obscurity, uncertainty, or complications, 
the owner of a good cow disregards his own interests and his moral 
obligations if he fails to summon a veterinarian, as much as if he neg- 
lected to secure proper medical service for a sick child. And the vet- 
erinarian should be selected with the same care one exercises in choosing 
a family physician. 

Close confinement, with impure air and lack of exercise, is as preju- 
dicial to the health of milch cows as to that of human beings. Some 
recently promulgated theories of dark, warm stables and no exercise 
for profitable milk production are without rational basis and certain to 
lead to disastrous results sooner or later. Exposure to storms and cold 
is equally injurious to the health and profit of cows. <A judicious mean 
is the provision for moderate exercise in the open air and sunshine, and 
the application of the same common-sense care for the comfort of cows 
which one would approve for members of his own household. 

Every member of the herd, young or old, should pass under the crit- 
ical eye of the owner or his trusty assistant daily, and preferably twice 
aday. The least symptoms of disorder, like dullness, loss of appetite, 
rough coat, and irregularity of milk, manure,or urine, should be noted 
and promptly receive the attention which it deserves. Experience is 
needed on the part of the care taker to detect and correct the begin- 
nings of trouble, and thus maintain the general health of the herd. 


FALL-FRESH COWS MOST PROFITABLE. 


Much has been written upon the best season for cows to drop their 
calves. Opinions still differ, and by far the greater number of milch 
cows are allowed to follow the most natural course, and either by indif- 
ference or intention they “come in” in the spring. The producer of 
milk for sale, if he has an even trade, may want to have about an equal 
number of fresh cows every month in the year. If the bull is kept 
up and service controlled, this can be regulated as a rule, although 
unpleasant irregularities in breeding will sometimes occur and stub- 
bornly resist correction. But if the prime object is to produce the 
greatest quantity of milk of the best quality and at the greatest profit 
from any given number of cows within a year, the evidence is over- 
whelming that the cows should be managed so as to calve in the autumn 
months. For like reasons, September is the best month, in most parts 


306 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of the country, for a heifer to drop her first calf in order to best develop 
as a cow, and this almost regardless of the age of the animal at first 
ealving. Calves born in the fall are easier reared and make better cows 
than those born inthe spring or summer. It seems needless to rehearse 
the stock arguments on this subject, based upon the long. experience 
of successful dairymen, but a brief recapitulation may be useful. The 
cow or heifer calving in the fall needs the most healthy and nutritious 
pasturage just following the strain and while coming into full flow. 
Just at the time when some falling off is likely to occur, the animal is 
brought to the stable and receives good care; the winter feeding and 
the returns from it may be depended upon to exceed the midsummer — 
results for any like period. At the stage of milking and of gestation, 
when another dropping off in the milk yield may be looked for, the 
fresh pasturage induces a fresh flow, lengthens the milking season, and 
increases the year’s total product. December and January are good 
months in which to control and supervise the service of the bull. Mid- 
summer and the dogdays are a good time for the cow to be dry and 
preparing to calve again, and a most unprofitable and annoying time 
to make milk or handle it. The greatest product and the richest 
comes at the season when milk and butter are always comparatively 
high in price. In actual practice four fall-fresh cows have been found 
to equal five which calved in the spring, in twelve months’ product, and 
at about four-fifths the cost. 


DRYING OFF COWS AND CALVING TIME. : 


It is not unusual to find a cow which shows no inclination to dry off 
at any time after dropping her first or second calf. Such an animal 
shows an excellent dairy trait—persistence in the milking habit—but 
it is doubtful if continuous milking is profitable. Better results are 
believed to be obtained from cows which are inclined to take an annual 
rest, if not too long. A month is long enough; three weeks will do in 
most cases, and six weeks should be the longest time encouraged or 
allowed for a cow to be dry before calving. An accurate record of serv- 
ice by the bull is essential to preparations for drying off cows at the right 
time. A table should be kept of the dates when cows of the herd are 
successively due to calve, with notes as to the milking habit of every 
one. When the time comes for drying off a cow the grain food should be 
gradually withdrawn. This may of itself cause milk to cease forming. 
If not, omit one milking a day, then milk but once in two days, and thus 
extend the drying period over two weeks. The udder must be watched, 
and if any hardening or unnatural heat is shown regular milking must 
be resumed. If a cow continues to secrete milk it must be drawn. No 
cow should be forced to “go dry” against manifestly natural resist- 
ance to so doing. On the other hand, if an unpleasantly pungent or 
“smoky” taste appears in a cow’s milk she may as well be dried at once, 
regardless of dates, as her milk will not be good until she is fresh again. 


—— 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 307 


The dry cow may be kept on pasture alone, not too luxuriant, or on a 
low stable diet, mainly of coarse forage, until about two weeks before 
calving. Yet the ration, while comparatively ‘ wide,” should be nutri- 
tious, and it should include a share of succulent food—roots or silage. 
Then a slow but steady increase of feeding may proceed, of a nourish- 
ing, cool, and laxative kind, so as to become narrower in ratio. Wheat 
bran is a good material to use at this time, but new-process linseed meal 
is better. Experience has led the writer to endeavor to have his cows 
calve on an upgrade, as it were, while daily gaining in strength and 
vigor, on a judiciously prepared, nourishing diet, but without high feed- 
ing or plethora. A week before calving remove the cow to a roomy, 
comfortable, quiet box stall, preferably within hearing of the herd, if 
not in sight. Be sure the bowels are quite loose and moving freely for 
two days before calving. Watch for the event, but do not disturb the 
cow or interfere unless something goes wrong or assistance is mani- 
festly necessary. 


ABORTION AND MILK FEVER. 


In herds the best regulated and cared for there will occasionally 
occur a physical accident or some sudden fright which causes a cow to 
prematurely drop her calf. The herds should be constantly watched 
for symptoms of abortion, which will generally be recognized by the 
experienced herdsman. Should such symptoms appear the suspect 
should be immediately removed to hospital until the case is over or the 
Signs disappear. In case abortion occurs in stable, yard, or pasture, 
despite precautions, and wholly without warning, as is sometimes the 
case, take the animal to hospital at once and use every exertion to 
thoroughly clean and disinfeet the place where the accident occurred. 
The aborted cow should be carefully nursed and the genital organs 
freely dressed with antiseptic solutions. The animal should not return 
to the herd until fully cured, clean, and free from ail vaginal discharges. 
Be on guard for a seeond case following the first in a few days or within 
three weeks; if a month elapses recurrence is not to be expected. But 
“sympathetic” (?) cases are likely to soon follow the first, and the 
disease may appear in a neighborhood or on a single farm as an epi- 
demic, run its course, and disappear. Extended and expensive investi- 
gations have failed to give any satisfactory explanation of this dread 
disease or prescribe means for preventing it. It seems probable that it 
belongs to the class of germ diseases which requires further research. 

Milk fever, “dropping,” or parturient apoplexy is another scourge of 
the dairy, twin to abortion. It is an affection which comes without 
warning, attacks the deepest and richest milkers, is sudden in attack, 
rapid in progress, and generally fatal. The symptoms are a chill, 
twitching of the head muscles, failure to eat, chew the cud, or pass 
manure, distended udder without milk, insensibility of the hind quar- 


308 YEAKBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ters when pinched or pricked; later the cow becomes unsteady on her 
hind legs, and presently drops. Good cows should be carefully watched 
for forty-eight hours after calving, and if such warnings appear a vete- 
rinarian can not be called too soon. Preventive measures form the best 
assurance of the owner against losses from this cause. The cow should 
have abundant exercise up to the week before calving, and then quiet 
and good care, with daily grooming and active rubbing. Keep the 
bowels active with proper food, or purgativesif necessary. Insure com- 
fort, guard against cold, and endeavor to maintain active circulation 
on the surface of the body. A strong dose of physic and brisk groom- 
ing may be used immediately after calving in the case of cows believed 
to be predisposed to milk fever. 


CARE OF CALVES AND YOUNG STOCK. 


Among dairy cattle the best practice is to remove the calf from the 
cow within twenty-four hours after its birth and at once teach it to 
drink. ‘This separation may be delayed until the dam’s milk assumes 
the normal condition, but as a rule the earlier the calf is taken in 
hand and its feeding regulated, the better for the calf. The younger 
it is, the easier it learns to drink. It is also better for the dairy cow to 
be regularly milked by hand than to suckle a calf. The miik of good 
cows is often too rich for their calves, and the latter are apt to take too 
much if left to help themselves. The calf should have the milk of its 
dam or some other fresh cow, and receive it while warm, and at least 
three times a day (preferably four) for a week or month. During this 
time, if the milk is rich, it should be diluted with warm water one-fifth 
to one-third its own bulk, according to the richness, or the milk may be 
kept a few hours, the best of the cream removed, and then warmed and 
fed. To make a good calf, three feedings a day should be kept up fora 
month or six weeks, and the milk should be fed warm for a longer 
period, especially if the weather is cold. But after ten days or so milk 
set twelve hours and lightly skimmed will do, and after ten days more 
the skimming may be gradually made closer, until at the end of a month 
or soon after a skim-milk diet is reached. No rule can be given for 
quantity in feeding calves; they differ so much in size and food require. 
ments. Judgment must be used, the feeding effects observed, and the 
calf given enough to thrive and be active, but not too much. More 
calves suffer from overfeeding than from scant diet. Keep the calf a 
little hungry and eager for more rather than fill it to dullness. The 
endeavor should be to prevent the beginning of indigestion, which 
leads to scouring and perhaps fatal diarrhea. Nothing causes indi- 
gestion sooner than overfeeding or irregularity in the quantity, time, 
and temperature of the milk, especially while the calf is young; and 
absolute cleanliness about the feeding vessels is essential, with frequent 
scalding. If it can with certainty be kept equally clean, some feeding 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 309 


device which compels the calf to suck its milk instead of swallowing 
rapidly is preferable to the open pail; but, all considered, the latter is 
usually the best utensil. If gritting the teeth or other symptoms 
of indigestion appear, a little limewater in the milk or a little 
baking soda will usually prove a correction. Keep the calf dry and 
clean, fairly warm, but in pure air, and allow it to exercise. If its box 
is small, turn it daily into a covered yard or small paddock. Young 
calves like company, but if kept together are likely to learn bad suck- 
ing habits. Every calf had better have its own box until a month or 
two old, and then be tied up out of reach of neighbors; but several 
may exercise together if not turned out until an hour after taking milk. 

The calf here referred to is not supposed to be for veal, but to be 
raised for a dairy cow. The foregoing treatment should be accompanied 
by early lessons inducing it to eat sweet hay and a little grain. The 
sooner it learns to eat hay or other rough forage and the more it eats, 
the better; but keep up milk feeding as long as possible, if only once a 
day. Grain should be used sparingly, oats and bran preferred, perhaps 
a little linseed, and always to judiciously supplement the other food. 
Do not turn it on to grass too soon. If aspring calf, carry it over to the 
second summer without pasturage. A fall calf will be in good shape 
to get its living from pasture its first summer. 

_ Fall calves are generally better cared for, thrive better, and make 
better cows than those dropped in the spring; another reason for hav- 
ing cows calve in theautumn. The writer feels certain of getting better 
results, in the end, from raising four calves dropped at the season 
advised than from five born in the spring, and is inclined to make the 
comparison stronger. 

_From the time milk ceases to be the main food of the calf until the 
heifer drops her first calf (at which time she becomes a cow, if ever, 
regardless of age) the feeding of the animal should be with a view to 
nourishment and growth, without accumulation of flesh. When pas- 
turage is good, after the calf is six months old, there can be no better 
food; if grass is short or dry and growth slackens, supplement with 
clover hay, wheat bran, or oats. At other times let the food be mainly 
the coarser and more bulky kinds of forage; the digestive apparatus 
needs to be developed and become accustomed to working up large 
quantities of food. <A big belly may result, but no matter. If accom- 
panied with a well-sprung rib, a strong back and loin, depth of flank, 
and other marks of constitutional vigor, a big belly is to be desired, 
indicating capacity as a feeder and user of feeds. Give long forage, 
fodder, or “roughness” the preference with young stock, and use grain 
sparingly as needed to balance the ration and promote growth and 
thrift. A fall calf, well bred and healthfully grown, should ‘come in” 
when just about two years old, and ought to make a good cow. 


310 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


ATTENDANCE AND MILKING. 


A herd of good dairy cows deserves to have good care, and this can 
only be insured by having the right kind of attendants. If the owner 
is unable to either attend the cows himself or give the matter personal 
supervision twice a day or more, it is to his interest and profit to be 
certain that his employees are trustworthy and fit to be cow keepers. 
Everyone should be quiet, even-tempered, gentle, and regular and 
cleanly in his habits. A cow abominates an unclean man. Tobacco 
in all its forms is obnoxious to every department of dairying. AI! the 
work about the herd should be done with the utmost system and regu- 
larity—stable cleaning, grooming, exercise, watering, feeding, milking; 
a fixed time for everything and everything at its time—‘on the dot.” 
Nothing has been produced which begins to compare with the human 
hand as a milking machine. Cleanliness and regularity are the first 
requisites in good milking. Next, quiet and gentleness should be 
accompanied by quickness. Two milkers, one rapid and the other slow 
(the cow being accustomed to both), will get about the same quantity 
of milk in any given number of days, but the former will get the more 
fat. The quicker the milking, the richer the milk, if the work is done 
well and completely; the difference may not be great, but it is measur- 
able in butter or money. Again, two men milking like quantities in 
like time, from the same cows or animals giving milk usually just alike, 
will get different results as to richness, and if they change places the 
richer milk is secured by the same man. The milk fat or butter fat 
comes from the cow, but it is the expert milker that gets the most of it. 
There seems to be an undefined and yet conclusively proved relation 
between some milkers and the cows they handle which produces this 
result. It is certain that change of milkers, manner or time of milk- 
ing, irregularity, or any disturbance at milking time may be expected 
to cause loss of butter fat in the milk. In short, it pays, and pays well, 
to have milking done in the very best way, by the very best milkers 
that can be found. A superior milker should be appreciated and 
retained as persistently as a superior cow; the former is the more diffi- 
cult to replace. 

A very good practice, although uncommon, is to take every cow to. a 
particular place to be milked, apart from where she usually stands; this 
to be a clean and airy place, like an open shed. The milking shed or 
room being kept scrupulously clean, with free movement of pure air, 
there is an almost certain exemption from what are usually called “ ant- 
mal odors” in milk, but which really are stable odors or odors from the 
milker. It may be stated as a fact, and should always be remembered, 
that milk as it comes from the healthy cow is perfectly pure. It has 
by nature no unpleasant taste or smell (except an occasional result 
of peculiar food), and all those odors and flavors which are often so 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 311 


objectionable get into the milk after it is drawn from the udder of the 
cow. They come from the uncleaned body of the cow herself, or from 
her surroundings, the air of the stable, the milk vessel, or the cloth- 
ing or person of the milker. These troubles are all avoidable; they are 
not to be charged to the cow, but to the man, her keeper. 

With the exception of some extraordinarily large milkers, or for short 
periods when the yield is largest, there is no gain in milking cows more 
than twice a day. Within limits, it is true that, if properly done, the 
oftener a cow is milked the richer will be the milk; but the difference 
is very slight, and seldom, if ever, enough to pay for the extra labor. 
In one of the most noted and fully authenticated cases of immense milk 
production by one cow (a ton or more of milk a month for a year), the 
cow was milked every six hours for 365 days, every time by the same 
man, and always within two minutes of the right hour. This remark- 
able record was without doubt largely due to the milker, who was the 
feeder of the cow as well; indeed, the year’s performance by the man 
was as noteworthy as that of the cow. 


THE PASTURE SEASON AND SOILING. 


As soon as the spring grass gets high enough for the cows to get a 
bite, let them haveit. At first the time daily on pasture should be very 
short, for the good of both pasture and cow. The latter should be 
gradually changed from stable feeding to pasturage, especially if the 
feeding has been of dry material or mostly so. And the stable feeding 
should continue unchanged, undiminished, until the cow herself indi- 
cates that she is getting enough grass to replace a part of the stable 
ration. Then, as the pasturage improves, indoor feeding may be les- 
sened and finally discontinued. If a pasture furnishes an abundance 
and variety of grasses, there can be no better food found for the milch 
cow. The nutritive ratio for mixed pasturage is about 1 to 5, which 
can not be improved for succulent food. But the best of pasture grasses 
contain from 65 to 75 per cent of water, sometimes more, and the cow 
must procure a large quantity of this material, 100 pounds or so in the 
course of a day, to secure the food material required. Shade and water 
should be carefully looked after in connection with pasturage, as well 
as the grass. In very large pastures there should be watering places 
in different parts of the inclosure, as well as shade, that the cows may 
not be compelled to travel far to find either. F 

Until flies become bad, cows had better stay in pasture by day and 
in stable by night, or be left out all the time. But in the worst fly 
time, and perhaps when the sun’s heat is greatest, it is good practice 
to stable the herd during the day in an airy but shaded cow house, and 
turn it on pasture at night. If the pasture has not abundant shade 
and water this course should certainly be followed. Heat and flies 
reduce both quality and quantity of milk product. The trouble from 


312 YEARBOOK OF THE’U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


flies can be largely remedied by spraying the cows with a very weak 
mixture of water and some one of the approved sheep-dip preparations. 
Such a spraying will last a week or ten days, unless there are hard 
rains meanwhile. The entire interior of the cow house should be 
sprayed with a solution of this kind, and strong enough for an insecti- 
cide, weekly throughout the summer. 

There is ample evidence that, although milk yield may be increased 
by feeding grain to cows at pasture, the gain no more than pays for 
the extra food, and seldom does that. ‘There may be in some cases a 
small margin for profit in improving the pastures by less grazing and 
richer manure. But if pasturage is short, even temporarily deficient, 
the cows should be fed enough of grain, hay, silage, or green crops to 
supply the deficiency. 

The dairyman who has most of his cows dry during drought, fly time, 
and “dog days” appreciates the advantages of ‘bringing in” his cows 
in the fall. . 

Soiling—The advantages of soiling over pasturage are so great, 
especially where dairying on high-priced land, that every dairyman 
should carefully study the question of adopting this system. Much 
depends upon the supply, character, and cost of labor at one’s com- 
mand. It may be profitable to practice partial soiling where it wiil not 
be to do more. Careful trials have shown that by feeding cows wholly 
on green forage crops in the stable from two to five times as much milk 
can be produced from an acre as from pasturing the same land. Of 
course, farms often contain many acres of pasture land that can not be 
tilled, but for tillable land the profit in soiling’is great. Many more 
cows can be kept on a given area and the productive capacity of the 
land ean be rapidly increased. The saving of manure and its applica- 
tion to best advantage is one of the great gains in soiling. 

For this system of feeding stock a variety ot green crops is necessary, 
grown so as to come to best feeding condition in well-arranged succes- 
sion throughout the growing season. There must be no breaks; the 
supply must be certain and sufficient. It is well to aim to grow about 
twice as much of every crop as one expects to use; any surplus can be 
saved by drying or putting in a silo. Crops well adapted to soiling in 
most parts of the country are these: Red clover and timothy, sown sep- 
arately in July and August; crimson clover and barley, sown in August 
and September; and wheat and rye, sown in September and October— 
all these for use in (an open) winter and early spring. Oats, spring 
barley, and pease sown early in the spring; vetches, also corn and soja 
beans, planted or sown in May; cowpeas, corn, millets, and Hungarian 
grass, sown in June—these for cutting in the summer and fall. The 
first and second crops from the regular mowing lands of grass and clover 
will fill in the gaps. 

A good deal of skillful management is needed to bring on the crops at 
the right time in proper succession and in sufficient quantity. At least 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 313 


110 pounds of green forage should be provided daily, on the average, for 
every 1,000 pounds’ weight of cow; the quantity will vary much with the 
character of crop. By the soiling system, well managed, 1 acre may feed 
two cows for five or six months, and 3 acres for five cows is a conservative 
estimate. 

Oneof the points of gain by soiling is saving the food expended by the 
animal in its exertion to procure its food at pasture. But moderate 
exercise Should accompany soiling, and a small pasture lot or large pad- 
dock should be provided convenient to the cow house for use of the herd, 
especially at night. 

THE STABLING SEASON. 


Up to a certain point fall pasturage is as good as in any other part of 
the year. But after one or two hard frosts it is well to offer the cows 
some nice hay when they come in at night, and if they eat it with rel- 
ish,one may be pretty certain the season has arrived to gradually 
change the herd from pasture to stable for the winter. The cows should 
not be left out at night after it becomes chilly, or be exposed to cold 
autumn storms. They may be allowed in the field a few hours on ail 
pleasant days until snow flies, but without expecting them to get much 
besides water and exercise. Before keeping them steadily at the stable 
and yards the feeding should be, by gradual steps, completely changed 
to the full stable diet. 

Meanwhile, or on leisure days earlier in the year, the cow house 
should be prepared for its occupancy by the herd throughout the sta- 
bling season. Boxes, stalls, and feeding troughs or floor should be 
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, so that no animal can discover or 
be subjected to any unpleasant traces of another and previous occu- 
_ pant of the place. Then assign every cow her particular place for the 
winter, and gently insist upon every one being always iy the right 
place. The bedding, absorbents, and disinfectants should be provided 
in abundance and in ample time for all to be quite dry. Use no damp 
material under a cow, no rotten straw, and no moist earth or sawdust. 
In order of efficiency, the best absorbents are peat, spent tanbark, saw- 
dust, wheat straw, forest leaves, and dry earth. If earth alone is used, 
from 30 to 40 pounds per cow will be needed daily—a big shovelful. if 
Straw alone, provide 9 or 10 pounds a day, and lessif cut short. A good 
combination is 5 or 6 pounds of straw and 10 or 12 of earth or saw- 
dust. An excess of* bedding or litter is undesirable. If the floor on 
which the cow lies is dry and not cold, very little litter is needed for 
true bedding. Its chief use is as an absorbent, and if more than neces. 
sary for this object is used, the manure becomes too dry and bulky, and 
is lessened in value per load. Land plaster is a very satisfactory dis- 
_ infectant or deodorizer about a cowhouse. If one takes good care of 
the manure and intends to add chemical fertilizer, the latter may be 


314 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


_ used in the stable, in some forms, instead of piaster. <A refuse of the 

‘double phosphate” works is an article called phospho-plaster. This 
can often be got at about the same price as common plaster, and as it 
contains about 1 per cent of phosphoric acid, it is a good addition to 


the stable manure, while also an efficient disinfectant. Kainit, about 


the lowest grade of German potash salt, is a good substitute for plaster 
in the stable. It costs half as much again, sometimes twice as much, 
but less of it may be used, and the potash it contains (11 to i3 per cent) 
is a very desirable addition to the manure in several ways. From 1 to 
2 pounds of kainit or plaster per day to each cow can be profitably 
used, scattered in the litter and along the gutters of the cow house 
throughout the stabling season. 

It is a mistake to be satisfied with watering the herd but once a day. 
If they can be induced to drink twice or three times a day, it should be 
done. Cows need much water. It has been found that the average 
milech cow requires about 81 pounds of water a day while in milk 
(nearly 10 gallons), and about 53 pounds while dry. Of this, the cow 
in milk takes rather more than two-thirds (say, 7 gallons) as drink, and 
the rest in her food, while the dry cow takes rather less than two-thirds 
as drink, and a little more than one-third in the food. 


FEEDING THE HERD. 


The first advice is not to feed the herd asa herd. Cows differ in 
their tastes and in their requirements in the way of food just as human 
beings do, although perhaps not to the same extent. To feed all the 
cows in a herd alike, day after day and month after month, as is so 
often done, is an absurd and wasteful practice. Some are sure not to 
get enough for greatest profit, and others are likely to get more than 


they will use to advantage. This as to quantity only; but differences * 


in kind of “feed may be equally desirable. In a thorough study and 
comprehension of the question of feeding lies the greatest opportunity 
for the exercise of real economy in the management of the dairy herd. 
Scientific feeding means simply rational feeding, a common-sense 
application of a good understanding of the objects of feeding, the char- 
acter of food materials, their proper relations, combinations and effects, 
and the needs and characteristics of the animals in hand. 
The principles of scientific feeding, the composition and digestibility 
of feeding stuffs, the food requirements of animals for various purposes, 


aud the calculation of rations have been explained in Farmers’ Bul-— 


letin, No. 22, issued by the Department of Agriculture. The composi- 
tion of a large variety of feeding stuffs grown and employed in this 
country is also given in an appendix to this volume. To these, there- 
fore, the student of the great feeding problem is referred, as that is 
much too big a subject to discuss in detail here. 

In practice it is more common and convenient to measure grain food 
than to weigh it when mixing rations for cows. Yet one may want to 


MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY HERD. 315 


keep weights in mind at the same time. For this purpose the folloy- 
ing little table is handy and approximately correct: 


Grain foods—relations of weights and measures, 


Food stuff. Half bushel, One quart 

weighs— weighs— 
Pounds. Lbs. Oz. 
MMR ere Seas 2 ci 2 Adana c Satay sats oes a ern ace ae eae es a Awe ea wa beware 30 ti Te 
ERRORS SEN eee cco a ater ae are abn wet a eae te an Ae Anansi Te wale Sciwwlsbe one 28 Was 
MEME ees ara etc. cars idaler Mee ations ae eeeks ob ctaag ws Tamia he gee as 26 to4 
NOEs orcigaca pia cin wa nba aae Hoda ab ald Ad pa doae oak ame bees ale st au ee 253 1 9 
I ees Sa ae Ae a ce chee FY, aha cle lnieialy Stade mall aiebubeiewiileiwimalavihd nn aie 234 ” er 
ela he on aXe inte ~ = nd asia bbe one Sbad ane dann n denen <xniio} 22 1 6 
sarc Sida ae Pitas Sleiman Oa g's Pelle ine bores hme Okman eee Meas z 18 ae. 
ree wen apes 2 Sine aim aorael is » So ed Balan doe Boni ta tee eam / 16 I ete 
ne RS oe a oo Gn nen Solas tnt bnar ataae obs cisteas aeige news 12 0 12 
Rae oa Po sh rls a cya = wo, rw mote tm, eueianmya nerds. olasa aiBlavee ie. ccna baw, Bos | 10 0 10 


Some of the articles named are quite variable in weight, however, 
wheat bran especially, and weighing is always the safer way. No cow 
house is properly equipped without its seales for weighing feed stuffs 
and milk, and its book, paper, or slate, with pencil for making notes 
and records in connection with the feeding, the milk product, and all 
facts of interest and desirable for preservation. 


GENERAL NOTES. 


There are various other questions which arise in the consideration 
of the problem of feeding the dairy herd which have not been touched 
upon, and but a part of which can even be mentioned here. On the 
practical side, one should ascertain the kind and quantity of feeding 
stuifs which have been produced and are available on the farm, the 
best way of preparing these for the cattle, and the matter of markets 
in its relation to getting those articles which it seems desirable to buy 
in order to supplement the home supplies and balance the rations. On 
the scientific side, there are a good many additional points which 
deserve careful attention—the relatious of breed and feed in the economy 
of dairy practice; the effects of different foods upon the production of 
milk and butter, in quantity and in quality, having the item of flavor 
prominent; effects of food upon the economy of churning or “the ehurn- 
ability” of the cream; and the comparatively new subject of bacteri- 
ology in its bearings on dairying, the health and cleanliness of the cow 
hause, and the preservation of products. 

The whole subject of animal nutrition is under investigation and 
discussion, and by watching the publications of American experiment 
Stations and the reviews of foreign work new suggestions of practical 
application will be found appearing at intervals. 


316 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The manure from a well-fed dairy herd is a matter of great conse- 
quence, and its proper management requires judgment. The better 
the feeding, the better the manure. While all manure is worth good 
care, the better the manure the more important it is to handle it well 
to prevent heavy losses. The best single piece of advice as to handling 
stable manure is to get it from the stable to the land where wanted, and 
there spread it with the least labor and the least delay possible. Yet 
this general plan must be modified at times, and according to circum- 
stances. 


A few publications may be here named which the manager of a dairy 


herd will find of interest and useful for reference: 


Report on Diseases of Cattle, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department 
of Agriculture, 1892; and especially ‘‘ Cattle feeding,” a chapter in the same 
report, by Professor Henry. 

Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893. United States Department of Agri- 
culture. 

Bovine Tuberculosis. Bulletin No. 7, 1894. Bureau of Animal Industry, United 

. States Department of Agriculture. 

Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and Feeding. Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 16, 
1893. United States Department of Agriculture. 

Farm Manures. Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 21, 1894. United States Department of Agri- 
culture. 

Feeding Farm Animals. Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 22, 1894. United States Department 
of Agriculture. 


— oe, 


SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SUPPRESSION 
AND PREVENTION OF BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. 


By THEOBALD SMITH, M. D., 


Chief of the Division of Animal Pathology, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 


Tuberculosis among domesticated animals, more particularly among 
cattle, has during the past few years received a large share of attention, 
mainly because of its possible direct influence on human health. With 
this idea in the foreground, the bearing of this malady on agricultural 
interests has been more or less obscured. As aresult we have a great 
mass of publications on the hygienic aspect of tuberculosis and but 
very little on the prevention of this disease among cattle. Many of 
the more valuable contributions to our knowledge have been made in 
order to show more definitely what degree of tuberculosis makes an 
animal unfit for food. This point of view, while bringing out now and 
then valuable facts, does not pay sufficient attention to the animal dur- 
ing life. What to do toreduce the high percentage of infection among 
living animals has been practically ignored in all but a few recent pub- 
lications. It became evident to the writer some years ago that this 
was, after all, the most important aspect of the serious problem of 
bovine tuberculosis. If the disease can be restricted and repressed 
among cattle during life, the hygienic problem will take care of itself. 

To attack tuberculosis as it exists at present is undoubtedly a most 
difficult problem, and the conditions which tend to repress or to aug- 
ment its further dissemination are very complex. No single measure, 
however sweeping, is likely to be successful. A number of details 
will have to receive careful attention, and in the end the success will 
depend largely upon the intelligent watchfulness constantly exercised 
in various directions by the stock owner. The wide dissemination and 
the localized intensity of this disease, especially in herds devoted to 
breeding purposes, will require, above all, concerted action in attempts 
for its repression. 

Though a strictly bacterial disease and introduced into the body only 
by the tubercle bacillus, which is always derived from some preexisting 
case of disease, tuberculosis differs, nevertheless, from most animal dis- 
eases in very important particulars. Its unknown beginnings in the 
body and its insidious march after it has once gained a foothold are 
responsible for the existence of a large number of tuberculous animals 
in all stages of the disease. In the earlier stages, while the disease is 

317 


318 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


still restricted to a single focus, the animal is to all outward appear- 
ances in perfect health. It is only after the infection has invaded sev- 
eral cavities of the body or produced mechanical obstructions that it 
becomes manifest. The prolonged latency of the first stage of the dis- 
ease, with little or no discharge of tubercle bacilli, raises the question, 
What should be done with such cases? A comparison with some other 
infectious diseases makes the predicament all the clearer. 

When an animal becomes infected with anthrax or with Texas fever, 


the specific microorganisms begin to multiply at once within the body. - 
Within twenty-four hours in the case of anthrax, and a few days to a 


week in Texas fever, the symptoms are fully developed, and death or 
recovery speedily follows. There can be no question here concerning 
degree of disease or utility of the animal during the earlier stages. 
The infected and the noninfected are divided by sharp unmistakable 
barriers. In tuberculosis, on the other hand, the infected animal is 
practically well during the earlier stages of the disease, and the dis- 
ease may become stationary, possibly healed. This peculiarity of 
tuberculosis modifies to a certain extent the usual measures employed 
to repress an infectious disease. In certain diseases the necessity for 
the destruction of all infected animals becomes imperative, because 
the disease must be kept restricted and suppressed as soon as possible. 
The present wide dissemination of this disease and its prevalence 
among other domesticated animals, such as dogs, cats, horses, goats, 
and above all, its prevalence in man, makes the complete extinction 
of this malady an unrealizable problem, or at most one whose ultimate 
success can not be positively predicted. 

It is largely due to these peculiarities that tuberculosis has received 
so little attention until recent years. Its unrecognizable beginnings 
and slow, insidious march in the body made it appear on the surface as 
a disease not of infectious origin, but as one in which inheritance 
played an important part. After the discovery of the true cause in the 
form of a bacterium (Bacillus tuberculosis) by Koch the conception that 
infection played the most important réle has gradually gained a firm 
foothold. Withoutin any way wishing to eliminate the factor of hered- 
ity, the writer has based the statements in the following pages entirely 
on the principle, now universally recognized, that without the presence 
of the tubercle bacillus there can be no tuberculosis. If it ean be 
shown that the tubercle bacillus can be kept away from cattle by adopt- 
ing precautionary measures the discussion concerning heredity would 
be useless. If, however, this should prove to be impossible, the prob- 
lems of breed, heredity, and environment, or, in other words, the acces- 
sory causes, will require renewed study. 

The conditions peculiar to this disease which confront the agricultu- 
ral interests may be summarized under the following heads: 

(1) The present wide dissemination of the disease, no territory being 
absolutely free from it. 


— -. / 


SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 319 


(2) The large percentage of infected cattle which are in the earlier 
stages of the disease, or in which the lesions are insignificant, station- 
ary, or healed. 

(3) The absence of any disturbances of health for considerable periods 
of time after infection. 

(4) The possible transmission of tubercle bacilli from animals to man, 
more particularly in the milk. 


CHARACTER OF THE DISEASE. 


Tuberculosis in cattle is at the outset a strictly local disease. Though 
the entire body has been, to a certain extent, influenced by the local 
changes, as shown by its sensitiveness to tuberculin, the tubercle bacilli 
themselves are restricted to that locality where the disease process 
shows itself to the naked eye. Where the infection has been very 
severe, that is to say, where there are large numbers of tuberculous 
cattle in a herd which are continually discharging the virus (in the man- 
ner indicated below), so that the remaining animals are being exposed 
to large numbers of tubercle bacilli, the disease may start in several 
places within the body at the same time, and its subsequent progress 
may be, on this account, somewhat more rapid. 

An the majority of animals, however, that are killed in the early stages 
of tuberculosis the disease process is limited to a single spot for a time. 
The location of this spot will vary with the manner of infection, and 
possibly with other conditions not yet definitely known. In most cases 
the tubercle bacilli settle down at the start in some lymphatic gland 
and there begin to multiply. This multiplication is accompanied by an 
enlargement of the gland. The size attained by diseased glands varies 
in accordance with the number of bacilli which have settled down in 
them. After a certain length of time the enlargement ceases. The 
gland may be barely larger than before the infection, or it may have 
gained enormously in size. The writer has seen glands, normally as 
large as horse-chestnuts, become as large as a child’s head. 

When the enlargement has come to an end, further changes begin to 
take place withinthe gland. The new tissue produced by the presence . 
of the tubercle bacilli begins to assume a yellowish color and to degen- 
erate slowly into a cheesy mass. Hence, when tuberculous glands 
are cut open we note in those not very much enlarged yellow masses 
sprinkled in the gland substance, varying in size from one-sixteenth 
to one-fourth inch. The coalescence of these gives rise to larger cheesy 
masses. In those glands which have become very large the appear- 
ance of the gland when cut open is somewhat different. The cut sur- 
face, at first grayish in color, later on appears permeated with a network 
of yellowish lines, which network encroaches slowly upon the grayish 
tissue until the entire substance of the gland has become yellowish 
in color and tough in consistency. Gritty particles are usually embed- 
ded in it. Lastly,it may become entirely calcareous, gritty, mortar- 


320 YEARBOOK OF THE U: 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


like, or it may break down into a semifluid mass of a yellowish color, 
resembling soft cheese in consistency. In this state the enlarged gland 
is nothing more than a bag filled with this cheesy matter. Every ves- 
tige of the original gland structure has disappeared. This description 
of the disease process and the appearances presented by the changes 
to the naked eye are characteristic of tuberculosis wherever it may 
appear. The same cheesy breaking down occurs in the lungs, the liver, 
the bones, and other affected parts. 

Thus far the disease may have been entirely restricted to the gland or 
system of glands in some one part of the body. The process may have 
lasted a year or longer. When the softening takes place, the disease - 
may become stationary, or, what is perhaps more likely to happen, 
blocd vessels in the gland may become broken down and the tubercle 
bacilli in the softened mass carried in the blood to other parts of the 
body. ‘This is usually the time when the infected cow will begin to 
show outward signs of disease and when the milk may carry tubercle 
bacilli, Bacilli may be carried in the blood to the uterus and there 
they may set up tuberculosis, and, in case of present or future preg- 
nancy, infect the unborn calf. 

The outcome of the disease may be neither in cure nor in a general 
infection of the body. It may take a middle course. It may slowly 
creep from gland to gland. The lining membrane of the chest and the 
abdomen may become studded with peculiar masses of tubercles which 
crowd upon the vital organs and interfere with their movements. The 
animal may become emaciated and lose strength in spite of the best 
eare and food, because of the large amount of tuberculous material 
lodged in the body. The sometimes enormously enlarged glands in the 
chest near the backbone compress the gullet so that gases can not 
escape from the stomach. The animal has irregular or regular attacks 
of bloating, or the glands in the back of the throat may become so 
enlarged that swallowing and breathing are interfered with. Food may 
pass down the windpipe and cause pneumonia. It has already been 
stated that the spot which is the first to be diseased depends, among 
other things, upon the manner of infection. Thus, if tubercle bacilli 
are taken in with the milk, there is likely to appear in the calf (1) dis- 

ease of the glands of the neaats (2) disease of the glands in the abdo- 
men, which are situated on the ee intl that suspends the intestine 
= A glands), because the tubercle bacilli pass into these glands 
from the food in the intestines; and (3) disease of the liver and its 
glands, because the blood passing through the liver comes largely from 
the intestines. 

If the tubercle bacilli are carried in a dried state into the body, they 
may lodge in the nasal passages and start up disease of the throat 
glands, or, what is more probable, they may pass into the lungs with the 
current of air. Here they may set up disease in the lung tissue, or they 


' The conversion of the disease products into calcified 1 masses may be regarded as a 
healing process. In rare cases the tubercles in the e arliest stages become healed. 


SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 321 


may pass on into the glands back of the lungs and attached to the wind- 
pipe and there first begin their destructive action. 

When the bacilli pass from the blood of the mother into the blood of 
the fetus, they generally lodge in the liver, although they may settle 
down in other regions of the body at the same time. 

Tuberculosis of the lining membrane of the chest and abdomen, to 
which reference has been made above, has given this affection the name 
of ‘‘ pearly disease.” 

It has already been stated that the uterus and the udder may become 
the seat of tuberculosis whenever tubercle bacilli are brought to them 
in the blood from other regions of the body. It is probable that the 
uterus may be infected from without by the bull, and that the udder 
may be infected by hands carrying the bacilli. On this latter point the 
evidence is at present inconclusive. 

The progress of tuberculosis in the body is modified by various con- 
ditions not yet fully understood. Age seems to have some influence. 
In very young animals the tendency toward a restriction of the dis- 
ease by a calcification of the tuberculous masses seems to be greater 
than at more advanced periods of life. In aged cattle the progress of 
the disease seems likewise less rapid, but for reasons not yet under- 
stood. The influence of sex is not known. It is probable that the dis- 
ease, other conditions being equal, makes slower progress in bulls than 
in cows. 

The conditions under which the purely local disease becomes gener- 
alized by a distribution of the virus in the blood are not yet under- 
stood. The sudden breaking down of cows in good health, observed 
not infrequently, is probably the result of such distribution of the virus. 
We may at least provisionally assume that any strain upon the cow is 
likely to hasten the onset of generalized disease. Among these strains 
the giving birth to calves must be regarded as the greatest. The giv- 
ing way of some diseased spot at this time favors infection of the blood 
of the calf at birth. Cows which do not recover after calving, and in 
which a discharge from the vagina persists after the proper time, not 
directly traceable to retained afterbirth, should be regarded with sus- 
picion and promptly killed, for in such animals the milk is likely to be 
infected with tubercle bacilli. It is probable that other strains, such 
as exhaustive marches, chasing, etc., may lead to the same result. 

This brief sketch of the disease is sufficient to make clear (1) the 
primarily local character of the disease and its usually slow progress 
within the body from place to place; (2) its predilection, at the start, 
for the lymphatic glands and the lungs. Putting the places most fre- 
quently the seat of the earliest disease first, we have the following order: 

(1) Glands of the lungs (dorsal, mediastinal, and bronchial). 

(2) The lungs themselves. 

(3) The glands of the throat and intestines. 

(4) The liver and its glands. 


Pe > ke. 94 13 


322 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The infection of tle other organs, membranes, and structures of the 
body, excepting perhaps the uterus and the udder in rare cases, is sec- 
ondary to these. In endeavoring to comprehend the peculiar nature 
of this disease the reader shouid furthermore bear in mind that the 
virus, i.e., the tubercle bacilli, do not live and multiply in the blood. 
They are simply carried in the blood, in advanced cases, from organ to 
organ, and speedily fixed in the tissues, where they produce fresh crops 
of tubercles. In the earlier stages, when single glands only are the 
seat of the disease, the blood is free from infection. This accounts for 
the immunity of the milk in these stages. If there were any method 
of distinguishing these cases the danger incident to the milk supply 
could be easily removed. In practice, however, no such distinction 

can be definitely made; hence the suspicion which rests on all milk 
which comes from fected herds. 

Tuberculosis thus differs from other infectious diseases not so much 
in its nature as in the degree of its activity. It is a disease long drawn 
out, presenting stages, covering months and years, the duration of 
which in other more rapid diseases is measured by days. 


THE CONTAGIOUSNESS OF THE DISEASE. 


This is linked to the tubercle bacillus, for without it tubercuicsis can 
not develop. Hence our knowledge of the transmission of the disease 
is derived largely from what we know of the life history of the tubercle 
bacillus within and without the animal body. Tubercle bacilli may 
pass from diseased animals in the following ways: 

(1) In discharges coughed up, in the case of advanced disease of the 
lungs. When the glands of the throat are diseased, they may, after a 
time, break down and discharge into the throat. Other glands about the 
head and neck may discharge directly outward. 

(2) In discharges from bowels, in advanced stages. 

(3) In discharges from vagina, in case of tuberculosis of the uterus. 

(4) In milk, when the udder is tuberculous or the disease generalized. 

(5) Tubercle bacilli may pass from the mother to the fetus in case of 
tuberculosis of the uterus or advanced generalized disease. 

Tubercle bacilli may be taken up by cattle in several different ways: 

(1) Fully nine-tenths of all diseased animals examined have.been 
infected by inhaling the tubercle bacilli, dried and suspended in the 
air.! 

(2) Fully one-half of all diseased animals examined have been infected 
by taking tubercle bacilli into the body with the food. This implies 
that both food and air infection are recognizable in the same animal in 
many cases. 

l'These estimates are of course merely approximate. Not afew animals who have © 
lung disease reinfect themselves by swallowing the mucus coughed up, or by soiling 
their own food with it. 


SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 323 


(3) Animals are infected, though rarely, during copulation. In such 
cases the disease starts in the uterus and its lymph glands, or in the 
sexual organs and corresponding lymph glands of the bull. 

(4) Perhaps from 1 to 2 per cent of all calves of advanced cases are 
born infected. Among the 200 cases of tuberculosis, including all ages, 
which have been examined by the writer, there are about 2 per cent in 
which the disease is best explained as having been directly transmitted 
from the mother during or before birth. 

We may define the dangers of infection somewhat more definitely by 
the statement that in any herd, even in those extensively infected, only 
a small percentage of the diseased animals, namely, those which are 
in an advanced stage, or such as have the disease localized from the 
very beginning in the udder, or the uterus, or the lungs, are actively 
shedding tubercle bacilli. It is these that are doing most, if not all, of 
the damage by scattering broadcast the virus. 

Disease of the udder is particularly dangerous, because the milk at 
first appears normal for some weeks, and therefore would be used with 
impunity. Moreover, the tubercle bacilli in the diseased gland tissue 
are usually numerous. 

Similarly, in tuberculosis of the uterus the vaginal discharges may 
contain many tubercle bacilli. This deposited anywhere may lead to 
the extensive dissemination of the virus, or it may be carried by the 
bull to other cows. A diagnosis may be made by the examination of 
any existing discharge for tubercle bacilli. 

The foregoing statements apply to individual herds only. To what 
extent does the danger extend beyond the diseased herd to others in 
theneighborhood? To this we may give the general answer that there 
is no danger unless the animals mingle on the pasture or in the stable. 
Tubercle bacilli are not carried in the open air, or if they are their num- 
bers are so small that the danger of infection is practically absent. 

It is also highly doubtful whether they are ever carried in sufficient 
numbers by third parties from place to place to become in any sense a 
danger. The reasons for this must be sought for in the tubercle bacil- 
lus itself. The diseased animal is the only manufacturer of tubercle 
bacilli, as well as the chief disseminator. Tubercle bacilli, after having 
left the body of the cow (and usually in small numbers), do not increase 
in nature, but suffer a steady decrease and final extermination in four 
to six months at the longest. Only after they have entered the bodies 
of susceptible animals do they again begin to multiply. Hence, with 
this disease the only danger to other herds lies in direct association, or 
in the transfer of a diseased animal or of milk from such an animal. 
The great danger exists in the immediate surroundings of the infected, 
and loses itself as the distance increases. 


'This fact, mentioned by Bang, the writer has had opportunity to confirm in case 
of two tuberculous udders examined recently. 


ch, 
i 


324 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 


The suggestions to be recommended are not to be considered as tak- 
ing the place of any more sweeping and radical measures which have 
been contemplated by some States and are actually being tried in 
others. We wish them to be considered simply as of educational value 
to the owners of cattle in their efforts to repress and stamp out the dis- 
ease. The aid of the Government in this matter is a question to be 
discussed by itself. Without individual cooperation and sacrifice, 
directed by an intelligent understanding of the disease in its various 
aspects, any efforts on the part of the Government are likely to prove 


abortive, owing to the enormous interests involved. 


Removal of diseased animals.—This is the essential requirement in 
the suppression of tuberculosis. We have already stated that only in 
the diseased animals the tubercle bacilli multiply. Hence, if these are 
removed and the stables thoroughly disinfected, so that any germs shed 
by them are destroyed, we are safe in concluding that the disease has 
been suppressed. 

The disease in the early stages can be detected only with the aid of 


‘tuberculin. In the advanced stages most careful observers will proba- 


bly recognize it, or at least suspect it, without the use of tuberculin. 
Tuberculin, therefore, has become indispensable in giving the owner 
an idea of the inroads the disease is making in his herd, and in distin- 
guishing the infected from the noninfected. Tuberculin reveals to us 
all stages, from the earliest, most insignificant changes, when the animal 
is outwardly entirely well, to the gravest and most dangerous types of 
the disease. Tuberculin does not, as a rule, discriminate between these 
cases. Hence those who use it as a guide must not be disappointed 
when, after having killed the suspected ones, they find that many are 
in the earlier stages of the malady. Tuberculin, moreover, is not infal- 
lible. A small percentage of cases of disease are not revealed by it. 
On the other hand, a sound animal now and then gives the reaction 
for tuberculosis. These lapses must be borne in mind in using tuber- 
culin. In spite of them, however, tuberculin must be considered as of 
great value in revealing tuberculosis not recognizable by any other 
means during life. 

The question next arises, What shall be done with the infected ani- 
mals? This question is really composed of two distinct questions 
whose combination is mainly the cause of the present perplexity. 
From the standpoint of the agriculturist alone the matter is simple 
enough. The infected animals might be separated at once from the 
noninfected. The worst cases should be killed and buried deeply or 
burned. Those without outward signs of disease might be fattened 
for the butcher and inspected at the abattoir. This is the recommen- | 
dation given by Nocard, a prominent French authority, and generally 
followed in European countries. But at this point public health ap- 


SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 325 


pears and demands the prompt and complete destruction of all infected 
animals, however mild the disease, or, if the animal be not destroyed, 
the rejection of the milk of all infected animals. The interest of the 
stock owner and of public health are thus diametrically opposed. If 
the demands of public health were in every sense justifiable from a 
strictly scientific standpoint, there could be no question as to an entire 
submission to its demands. But the case is not so simple, and gives 
room for diversity of opinion. Leaving the public-health aspect of 
the question aside for the moment, let us return to the farmers’ side 
of it. After all infected animals have been segregated or killed, as the 
case may be, and the stables disinfected, the remaining healthy ani- 
mals should be retested with tuberculin within a certain period of 
time, from three to six months after the first test, to make sure that 
no disease has been overlooked. Future repetitions must be recom- 
mended, according to our present knowledge, for some cases may have 
been missed by the tuberculin, or the disease germs may possibly be 
reintroduced by tuberculous human beings, or by tuberculous cats, 
dogs, and other domesticated animals. 

All animals introduced into a herd must have been tested and found 
to be sound beforehand. This is such a self-evident proposition that it 
needs no comment. 

In the absence of the tuberculin test, or of organized official inspec- 
tion, the stock owner should carefully and promptly remove from his 
herd and have destroyed— 

(1) All animals which show emaciation, with coughing, and any sus- 
picious discharges from the nose.! 

(2) Those animals with enlarged, prominent glands about the head 
(in front of the ears, under and behind the lower jaw), or enlarged 
glands in front of the shoulder, in the flank, and behind the udder, and 
all animals having swellings on any part of the body which discharge 
a yellowish matter and refuse to heal. 

(3) Animals with suspected tuberculosis of uterus and udder. 

Disinfection and other preventive measures.—It will probably require 
more or less time before the use of tuberculin will have become generally 
established. Hence, preventive measures of a general character must 
still be kept in view for some time to come. These measures partly 
suffer shipwreck from the fact that it is difficult without tuberculin to 
recognize even advanced disease during life. Still much can be done 
to reduce the amount of infection by following out certain general and 
specific suggestions which the renewed study of the disease has either 
originated or else placed on a more substantial basis. 


‘Now and then emaciation is due to other causes, such as the presence of foreign 
bodies in the chest, disease of the liver and kidneys, chronic broncho- pneumonia, 
etc. Animals affected with these diseases are of no permanent value, and their 
destruction is in the end an actual saving, since such maladies are usually incurable. 


326 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Perhaps the most important preliminary suggestion to be made is, 
that the owner of cattle should endeavor to familiarize himself as much 
as possible with the general nature of tuberculosis, its cause, the ways 
in which the virus may leave the body of the sick and enter that of the 
well, and, lastly, the waysin which it spreads within the bedy. He will, 
by the acquisition of such fundamental knowledge, lift himself above 
the plane where quackery and specifics abound, and understand pre- 
cisely what to expect after the disease has entered his herd, and how to 
meet the demands of public health. He should, moreover, make himself 
acquainted with the peculiar appearance of tuberculous growths in the 
body, and open every animal that dies, so that he may know to what 
extent his animals are dying of this malady. Wherever possible the 
services of the skilled veterinarian should be made use of. Sanitary 
precautions should begin with the removal of diseased and suspected 
animals, as stated above. This is the most essential requirement, for 
diseased animals are the only breeding places of the specific virus. 

After the removal of these, attention should be paid first of all to 
the stables. Here, during the long confinement of the winter months, 
when ventilation is all but suppressed, we may look for the source of 
most of the inhalation diseases so common in tuberculous catile. HKven 
when only a few cases of tuberculosis have been found, the stables 
should be disinfected by removal of all dirt and the subsequent appli- 
cation of disinfectants. Since tubercle bacilli are more resistant than 
most other disease germs, the strength of the disinfecting solution 
must not be less than as given. The following substances may be used: 

(a) Corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), 1 ounce in about 8 gal- 
lons of water (one-tenth of 1 per cent). ‘The water should be kept in 
wooden tubs or barrels and the sublimate added to it. The whole must 
be allowed to stand twenty-four hours, so as to give the sublimate an 
opportunity to become entirely dissolved. Since this solution is poison- 
ous, it should be kept well covered and guarded. It may be applied 
with a broom or mop and used freely in all parts of the stable. Since 
it loses its virtue in proportion to the amount of dirt present, all 
manure and other dirt should be first removed and the stables well 
cleaned before applying the disinfectant. After it has been applied, 
the stable should be kept vacant as long as possible. Before animals 
are allowed to return, it is best to flush those parts which the animals 
may reach with their tongues, to remove any remaining poison. 

(b) Chloride of lime, 5 ounces to a gallon of water (4 per cent). This 
should be applied in the same way. 

(c) The following disinfectant is very serviceable. It is not so dan- 
gerous as mercuric chloride, but is quite corrosive, and care should be 
taken to protect the eyes and hands from accidental splashing: 

Gallon. 


Crade carbolic acon oi. aicts MLSE ATA er Re eee 4 
C2GGS SUIDERTIG BOIA ... ono gsBe Sack cue kas Eee ~ Sadie ted eeake eee 4 


SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 327 


These two substances should be mixed in tubs or glass vessels. The 
sulphuric acid is very slowly added to the carbolic acid. During the 
mixing a large amount of heat is developed. The disinfecting power 
of the mixture is heightened if the amount of heat is kept down by 
placing the tub or glass demijohn containing the carbolic acid in cold 
water while the sulphuric acid is being added. The resulting mix- 
ture is added to water in the ratio of 1 to 20. One gallon of mixed 
acids will furnish 20 gallons of a strongly disinfectant solution having 
a slightly milky appearance. 

(d) Whitewash is not in itself of sufficient strength to destroy tubercle 
bacilli, but by imprisoning and incrusting them on the walls of stables 
they are made harmless by prolonged drying. Whitewashing should 
be preceded by thorough cleaning. 

Particular attention should be paid to the sides and ceilings of 
stables. All dust and cobwebs should be periodically washed down. 
Those parts coming in contact with the heads of cattle, stanchions, 
halters, troughs, etc., should be frequently cleansed and disinfected, 
even when they have not been used by diseased cattle. 

The removal of virus from the stables should, furthermore, be pro- 
moted by the regular removal of manure and by abundant ventilation. 
Good air has the effect of diluting infected air, and thereby reducing 
the chance of inhaling dried, floating tubercle bacilli, or at least of 
reducing the number inhaled. It likewise improves the vigor of the 
confined animals, and hence increases the resistance to infection. 

Cattle should not be placed so that their heads are close together; 
each animal should have plenty of room! and occupy the same place in 
the stable at all times. These precautions will prevent the nasal, lung, 
or vaginal discharges from one‘animal striking the head or soiling the 
feed of another. It is true that it is impossible to prevent animals 
licking each other outside of the stable, but it should be remembered 
that prevention must begin with the removal of all cases which are 
suspected of discharging tubercle bacilli. Stables should, furthermore, 
be carefully protected from the expectorations of human beings affected 
with tuberculosis of the lungs. 

Cattle should be housed as little as possible. The pasture has the 
effect of greatly reducing the chances of infection by a more or less 
rapid destruction of the virus, as well as by increasing the vigor of the 
animals through muscular exertion in fresh air. To what extent animals 
may pick up the virus on fields it would be difficult to estimate. That 
itis perfectly possible can not be gainsaid. A tuberculous animal may 
soil the ground over which it passes, and other animals may take up 
the virus with the food soon after. 

Itis not likely that the virus remains alive long enough on the ground 
_ to become dried and ready for inhalation. The action of sunlight, the 


1Kach cow should have at least 600 cubic feet of air space. 


328 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


alternate wetting and drying which goes on in nature, may be looked 
upon as destructive agents. Even ifthe tubercle bacilli became speedily 
dried, the great diluting effect of the open air would reduce to a mini- 
mum the chances of inhaling the virus. 

Among the other dangers deserving attention is the infection of food 
and water. Drinking troughs should be so arranged that the surface 
water is constantly flowing away. Discharges from the nose or mouth 
left floating on the surface may be drawn in by healthy cattle while 
drinking. Each person must in such cases use his own judgment and 
ingenuity to prevent infection, in accordance with the quantity of water 
at his disposal. 

To restrict the dissemination of the disease among young stock the 
safest plan is to bring skimmed milk and other dairy products to the 
boiling point before feeding them. If the cows are positively known 
to be healthy, this may be unnecessary, but where any doubt exists the 
heating should be resorted to. Such a precaution will, furthermore, 
reduce scouring among calves, which is probably due in a great meas- 
ure to bacteria in the food. 

In presenting the foregoing suggestions the writer has endeavored to 
keep in view two conditions: (1) Thatin which tuberculin is not within 
reach and only unusual watchfulness can be exercised in separating 
suspected animals from the healthy, and (2) that in which tuberculin 
is tried, but with the view that it is not wholly infallible and requires 
to be ee with other precautionary measures. If tuberculin is 
infallible, most of the suggestions made fall to the ground as unneces- 
sary, unless the disease can be readily reintroduced by man or diseased 
animals of other species, a possibility of wholly unknown dimensions 
at present. 

The study of tuberculosis, though prosecuted for many years, still 
offers many problems of prevention to solve, especially those which 
pertain to the conditions underlying predisposition. Is the breed or 
descent of the animal of much importance, or is it the conditions 
under which each animal is compelled to live which determine the 
readiness with which the disease destroys the body? These are vital 
questions, and their answer must have an important modifying influ- 
ence on the future success of dairying and stock raising. AS we are 
now entering upon an era of suppression of this disease, it should be 
borne in mind that radical measures are the best to begin with, and 
that after the disease has been weeded out of each herd by tuberculin 
one or more times such herds become, in a sense, an experiment in the 
prevention of this disease, with the element of contagion presumably 
completely eliminated. The future will then decide how much is to be 
feared from the lapses of tuberculin, from sources of the virus outside 
of the bovine species, and from heredity, breed, and environment as 
predisposing agents. 


SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. 329 


BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS IN ITS RELATION TO THE PUBLIC HEALTH. 


The dilemma in which the demands of public health have put the 
owner of cattle, as well as the health officer, has already been stated. 
The following statements referring to this subject are based upon a 
careful study of the distribution of the disease in a large number of 
animals. It needs to be emphasized here that arguments deduced 
from the superficial examination of a carcass and the simple deterimi- 
nation of the presence or absence of tuberculosis are worth little or 
nothing in attempting to solve the problems presented by the sanitary 
side. Only a thorough survey of the entire distribution of the tuber- 
culous deposits in animals furnishes us with approximately correct 
data. 

The flesh of those infected cattle in which the disease is restricted to 
one or two primary foci must be regarded as entirely harmless and of 
full nutritive value. Even in advanced cases, which should always be 
rejected, the glands embedded in the muscular tissue are found infected 
only occasionally. 

The condition of the milk in different stages of the disease is a 
question of much greater importance, and demands the most careful 
consideration. We may, for convenience and clearness, typify three 
stages: 

(1) In the earlier stages of the disease, provided the udder is normal, 
the milk is free from tubercle bacilli. 

(2) In the more advanced stages, provided the udder is normal, the 
milk may or may not contain tubercle bacilli. If the disease has 
become generalized, the indications are that at some time or other 
tubercle bacilli may pass into the milk. This passage is revealed at 
the autopsy by disease of the glands of the udder. The indications 
are that this passage is largely temporary, perhaps lasting only a day 
before the tubercle bacilli are caught up and filtered out into the 
lymphatic system. The indications are, furthermore, that compara- 
tively few bacilli passed through the udder. The udder itself does not 
favor their development there, and the closest inspection fails to reveal 
any augmenting foci of disease. These statements are based on careful 
examinations of slaughtered cattle and the thorough testing of milk 
from advanced cases.! | 

(3) When the udder is affected in any stage of the disease, a most 
grave condition is presented. Tuberculosis of the udder in most cases 
comes on in the later stages, when the virus is distributed by the blood 
from some disintegrated earlier focus of disease. Primary tuberculosis 
of the udder, that is, infection from without, has not yet been established 
definitely, and is probably of very rare occurrence. When the disease 
has started in the udder itself, tubercle bacilli may be discharged in 


'See Bulletins Nos. 3 and 7 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 


1 <A 94——13* 


330 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the milk in large numbers and for long periods of time. The smaller 
the herd, in such a case, the more dangerous the entire milk becomes, 
because of the concentration of the virus. 

Udder tuberculosis is thus a most serious danger, the importance of 
which can not be too strongly urged. Fortunately,itis rare. Thewriter 
has encountered among 200 infected animals only one case of udder dis- 
ease, and 16 others which, according to the post-mortem studies, may 
have shed at one time or another tubercle bacilli into the milk in small 
numbers, but which had no recognizable disease of the udder itself. 
The large percentage of udder tuberculosis reported by several writers 
lately is incompatible with all former statistics, and indicates either 
an unprecedented condition in certain localities or else an error in 
diagnosis. The stock owner, in the absence of proper dairy or other 
official inspection, is under serious moral responsibilities to remove 
from his herd those animals in which there is even a suspicion of udder 
tuberculosis. Any udder which is found to increase slowly in size with- 
out any indication of inflammatory processes, recognizable by the pres- 
ence of heat, pain, and redness, and which becomes very firm without 
showing at first any alteration in the appearance of the milk, should be 
regarded as infected, the cow promptly segregated, and the entire milk 
rejected until a diagnosis can be made by a veterinarian.! 

In view of the fact that tuberculin does not discriminate between 
dangerous and harmless eases, the public-health problem as it presents 
itself in practice is simply this: What shall be done with all the cattle 
which give the tuberculin reaction, in order that we may catch and 
destroy the 10 per cent? of slightly and temporarily dangerous cases 
among them, or the 1 per cent? of serious cases? Some of the danger- 
ous cases are so far along in the disease that they are easily detected 
without the aid of tuberculin, but this is by no means true of the major- 
ity. The situation certainly demands a most rigid periodical inspection 
of all animals furnishing milk to consumers, the prompt removal of all 
suspicious cases, and, above all, a more thorough control of the dairy 
in the interests of public sanitation. : 


1 The stock owner needs here to be reminded that the feeding of milk from a tuber- 
culous udder to calves and pigs is the most dangerous thing he can do in laying the 
foundation of lifelong tuberculosis in young animals. 

2These figures may be too high or too low. The collection of further accurate sta- 
tistical evidence is needed. 


THE PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 


By E. A. DE SCHWEINITZ, Ph. D., 
Biochemie Laboratory, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


Of all the food and drinks of man there is perhaps none which is 
more important than perfectly pure, clean, and healthy milk, and to 
secure it should be the subject of earnest care. The fact is well known 
that milk undergoes a number of chemical changes in its constituents 
some hours after milking. It becomes sour, owing to the decomposition 
of the milk sugar, the casein separates, and finally putrefactive decom- 
position begins. These changes are induced by the presence in milk of 
bacteria, which for the most part do not generate diseases, but which 
may be, and often are, accompanied by bacteria capable of causing 
disease that obtain access to the milk from the body of the animal, 
from the air, from the water that was used to wash the cans, from the 
hands, clothing, and person of the milker, and the like. Even when 
collected with precaution, the careless distribution of milk may result 
in its contamination with disease-producing bacteria. 

The responsibility of milk for the distribution of a large amount of 
tuberculosis is at present more thoroughly appreciated than heretofore. 
To milk is also attributed the spread of typhoid fever, cholera, diph- 
theria, and other diseases, not to mention the many troubles peculiar to 
children that are to be traced directly to an impure milk supply. The 
latter are especially frequent in the crowded tenement districts of cities, 
where, through ignorance and lack of cleanliness, young children are, 
surrounded by the worst possible conditions. 

‘It is safe to assume that most of the ordinary bacteria found in milk 
gain access to it from the dirt of the udder, or some other portion of the 
animal, and when we remember that the feces are largely undigested 
food which is filled with an enormous number of bacteria, it is easy to 
see how easily milk becomes contaminated. The character of the bac- 
teria in milk is also influenced by the straw used for littering, depend- 
ing upon whether this is fresh and often changed, or whether it is 
already fermented and only occasionally changed. The dust from the 
earth and stalls will naturally also make a great difference in the purity 
of milk. 

An idea of the amount of dirt and bacteria in milk can be obtained 
from the following figures: Renk found an average of 0.015 gram of 
feces in 1 liter of the milk sold in Halle, Germany; in that of Berlin, 
0.010 gram to the liter, and of Munich, 0.009 gram to the liter (0.1386 


grain to the quart). The maximum contamination in the milk in Halle 
331 


332 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


was 0.5625 gram of feces to the liter. A good idea of the purity of 
milk may be had by ascertaining the number of bacteria it contains. 
This number has been found to vary from 10,000 to 100,000 per cubic 
centimeter immediately after milking, and increases enormously after 
standing for a few hours at the normal temperature. The first portion 
of the milking contains the largest number of bacteria per cubic ceuti- 
meter, the last portion often none at all. If kept on ice the germs do 
not multiply. The bacteria which produce lactic acid and those which 
produce butyric acid are most common. The latter, together with cer- 
tain spore-bearing bacilli present in the dust of the air, are the most 
difficult to contend against. It is apparent, of course, that some of this 
contamination can not be avoided. 

The importance of a method or methods of freeing milk from these 
minute forms of life which cause so much damage, or of rendering them 
harmless, is evident. Several methods have been adopted to secure 
this end. The three most important are the use of chemicals, pasteur- 
ization, and sterilization, all being employed with the view of destroy- 
ing the germs without injuring the properties, value, and healthfulness 
of the milk. 

PRESERVATION WITH CHEMICALS. 


Bicarbonate of soda is often used for this purpose; but, though this 
will neutralize the acidity, it rather favors than retards the increase of 
bacteria. Boric and salicylic acid are of some use in this connection, 
but both have been found to be injurious to health, even in small doses, 
if taken continuously. These and other chemical means are therefore 
neither satisfactory nor advisable. 

The cooling of milk is well understood, but the most advantageous 
method of preserving it is by pasteurization or sterilization. In pas- 
teurization the milk is warmed to 65° to 70° C. (155° to 160° F.), a tem- 
' perature sufficiently high to kill the ordinary bacteria and pathogenic 
germs. There are a few germs, however, which can only be destroyed 
by heating the milk to the boiling point, the temperature of complete 
sterilization, and to these we will again refer under the head of sterili- 
zation. 

PASTEURIZATION OF MILK FOR CHILDREN. 


Dr. Koplik says, in an article to which we will again have occasion to 
refer, that in his experience in the city of New York he has seen children 
flourish amidst the most unfavorable surroundings when their food and 
milk supply was derived from his dispensary, where it was thoroughly 
pasteurized under proper conditions, while in the same districts other 
children which were left to the carelessness of the mother were sick 
and puny. 

In addition to pasteurization, milk may be specially adapted for feed- 
ing to children and invalids by the addition of albuminoids and milk 
sugar. This makes it more nutritious and constitutes the so-called ree- 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 333 


tified milk. The simple pasteurization of milk is useful, provided the 
milk is immediately cooled and used within twenty-four hours. If not 
afterwards cooled the pasteurization seems to increase the liability to 
fermentation. In thorough sterilization the danger to be avoided is the 
coagulation of the albuminoids or burning of the milk. Some authori- 
ties claim that the sterilization makes the milk too indigestible, while 
others claim that the digestibility is not affected, provided the steriliza- 
tion is properly conducted and the milk is thoroughly stirred during 
the process. The latter process requires more care than the former. 

Pasteurization can be easily carried on by any housewife. A simple 
and easy method is the one described in a circular issued by this Bureau, 
and which is here again printed: 

The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a perforated tin pie 
plate in the bottom, or have made for it a removable false bottom per- 
forated with holes and having legs half an inch high, to allow circula- 
tion of the water. The milk bottle is set on this false bottom, and suffi- 


lic. 52.—Sterilizing apparatus used in the Bureau of Animal Industry. 


cient water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface of the 
milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the cover of the pail, a 
cork inserted, and a chemical thermometer put through the cork, so that 
the bulb dips into the water. The temperature can thus be watched 
without removing thecover. If preferred, an ordinary dairy thermome- 
ter may be used, and the temperature tested from time to time by remov- 
ing thelid. This is very easily arranged, and is just as satisfactory as 
the patented apparatus sold for the saine purpose. The accompanying 
illustrations show the form of apparatus described (fig. 52). 


PREPARATION OF MILK FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS. 


In the New York Medical Journal, February 4, 1893, Dr. Koplik 
describes the method used by him for several years in the Good Samari- 
_ tan Dispensary in New York for the preparation of infants’ food. The 
milk supply is derived from a reliable leading dairy and delivered in 
refrigerator tubs. This is a point of special importance to which we 


334 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


will again refer. After many experiments and a comparison of results 
obtained by others, Dr. Koplik has found the most satisfactory tempera- 
ture for the sterilization to be 85° to 90° C, At this temperature there 
is a Slight deposit of casein upon the sides of the bottle. Above 90°C, 


p | Seen ee ee 
| . ° 
' | Gven, inside measure 


x x24 
Capacity 350 bottles |S 


o 


Fic. 53.—The Koch oven—interior and exterior views. 


the milk presents a boiled appearance and flavor, and the butter rises 
and floats on the top. In the plan adopted by Dr. Koplik, bottles of 
different sizes are used, 2 and 4 to 5 ounces, just sufficient for one 
nursing, so that the return of the bottle insures a thorough steriliza- 
| tion of the sample for a repeated 
dose. The bottles are first filled 
with a saturated solution of soda 
and allowed to soak for twelve 
hours, and then thoroughly washed 
with a brush, both outside and in- 
side, rinsed with pure water, and 

allowed to drain and dry. 
x After this they are heated in a 
I" “ Koch oven (fig. 53) to a tempera- 
tia Bes 4 ture of 160° to 170° ©, for forty 
minutes. They are then allowed to 
cool and are ready for filling with 
milk. The apparatus for steriliza- 
tion is made of stout block tin and 
divided into five compartments 
and a steam box. The compart- 
ments are furnished with perfo- 
rated bottoms and fit one on top 
of the other, forming a compact 
column (fig. 54) through which the 
Fic. 54.—Koplik’s pasteurizer. steam can permeate. Each com- 
partment will hold fifty large-sized bottles. A thermometer passes _ 
through the cover of the top compartment and dips into the milk, so 
that the temperature can be noted. <A stout tin pipe runs the whole 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 335 


length of the sterilizer and dips into the top of each compartment, 
in order to fill the compartment uniformly with steam. The bottles, 
filled with the desired quantity, are placed uncorked in each com- 
partment and covered with a cloth of clean flannel. When the 
milk has reached a temperature of 85° C. the process is continued 
for half an hour. The bottles are then taken out and rapidly 
corked with sterile rubber corks.' The whole process is completed 
in an hour. The milk used is always carefully examined. It must 
have 12 to 14 per cent of cream, and when boiled should not coagulate. 
The coagulation indicates the beginning of fermentative changes. 
Sometimes milk which tastes sweet will turn almost solid on boiling, 
showing that advanced changes have taken place. The slight acidity 
which would admit of detection only by chemical means would be 
apparent on boiling by the curdling of the milk. A little experience 
will enable one to detect the difference between the coagulation due to 
acidity and that ordinarily present after sterilization of good milk. 
The milk is bottled from large glass percolating funnels, thus requiring 
very little handling. For sick infants the diluent for the milk, a 4 per 
cent solution of milk sugar, is furnished. Limewater, as supplied by 
the drug stores, may also be used. If barley water is used as a diluent, 
it should be very carefully prepared and the milk diluted by an expert. 
Leaving the barley water to be prepared by the ignorant, or using bar- 
ley water made from poor material, leaves open too many chances for 
infection. During two seasons Dr. Koplik states that 1,268 children 
were supplied with the milk from his laboratory; 729 infants received 
the milk for only one or two days, while 539 received it for from one 
week to five months. About 400 of the latter he thinks were really 
benefited by the use of the milk. 

This apparatus could be adapted for sterilizing milk in Haber bottles 
and in greater quantity. 

In Boston and New York private laboratories have been established 
for the purpose of rectifying milk, as itis called. These laboratories 
supply pasteurized milk on physicians’ certificates, or milk to which 
has been added peptone, sugar, or other material as the physician 
may direct. The bottles, about 8 ounces in capacity, after being thor- 
oughly cleansed, are plugged with cotton and then sterilized. They 
are then filled with the milk, pasteurized directly with dry steam in a 
rectangular box especially arranged for the purpose. After pasteuri- 
zation the bottles are packed in wooden cases lined with ice, so that 
the milk can be kept cool and shipped to any desired spot. This 
method is similar to the one recommended by the Bureau, and can also 
be readily conducted by any housewife, either with the use of the vessel 
described or an Arnold steamer. 


1The corks are of black rubber, and are sterilized by boiling for an hour in the 
solution of soda, rinsing with water, and sterilizing with steam. When the corks 
become brittle they are rejected. 


336 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Many different forms of apparatus for pasteurization in stoppered 
bottles have been recommended in Europe, the simplest being the use 
of beer bottles with the ordinary patent stoppers. 

The sterilization or pasteurization of milk in bulk is a matter of great 
importance, to which much attention has been paid abroad, but com- 
paratively little in this country. A pasteurizing apparatus invented 
by Professor Fjord and used in all creameries in Denmark is described 
here (fig. 55). 

A copper cylinder, covered with tin, is fitted steam tight into a larger 
vessel, made of copper or galvanized iron and covered with wood to 
retard cooling. The steam is introduced through the opening at g 
and passes out through dd. The milk or cream enters at ¢ and 
passes out ate. This exit tube has a pocket into which a thermome- 
ter can be placed, so that the temperature can be controlled. The 
agitator, a, is of wood or metal, connected to a shaft, so that it will 
make about 150 revolutions per minute. The 
temperature used varies between 160° and 
180° F. In some dairies in Denmark the 
sweet milk is pasteurized. In others the 
_ cream is sterilized and then cooled before 

being set aside to ferment. In nearly all 
cases the skimmed milk which was returned 
from the cooperative dairies to the producers 
was sterilized as it left the separators. In 
this way it would keep better, and when fed 
to calves all danger from infection with tuber- 
culesis would be avoided. If sweet milk is 
sterilized, the separator skims it cleaner, but 
the sterilization very slightly diminishes the 
amount of butter, as a little more fat is left 
wt in the buttermilk. On the other hand, the 
Fig. 55.—Fjord’s pasteurizing ap- sterilization of cream before churning will 

paratus. 2 i 3 
give a more uniform and better butter. 

In the city of Posen,’ Germany, a satisfactory method of supplying 
sterilized milk in quantity and cheaply has been adopted. After wash- 
ing the teats of the cows thoroughly, the animals are milked with care, 
the milk collected in metal vessels, centrifugalized twice, and placed in 
flasks of 100 to 400 grams capacity, respectively. Soxhlet’s patent 
stoppers are used.” The milk is then placed in metal casks heated by 
steam, the steam having a temperature of 104° C. in winter and 10439 


IHesse. Zeit. f. Hygiene, vol. 13, Hft. 1, p. 42. 

°Soxhlet’s patent stopper consists of a rubber cap which fits over the top of the 
bottle and acts as a ventilator to relieve the inside pressure of the bottle, and pre- 
vents the outside air from entering the flasks. It is held in place by a metal cap 
which prevents it from slipping. The bottles are heated for thirty-five minutes in 
a water bath. After the flask is once opened it should never be used again without 
resterilization, as the removal of pressure loosens the cap. (Vig. 78, a, p. 355.) 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 337 


in summer. <A higher temperature causes coagulation of the casein 
and makes the milk indigestible for children. 

Yor sterilizing milk, in 1892, Ockonomie-Rath Grob, in Berlin, used 
flasks with patent beer stoppers, and this has since been recommended 
by others. 

In Dresden, milk is sterilized in large quantity in the following man- 
ner: The firm draws its supply from a large estate in the neiglibor- 
hood. The animals that supply the milk have 
only dry fodder, and every attention is paid to 
the cleanliness of the stalls, apparatus, and 
hands of the milkers. The milk is cooled to a 
temperature of 10° to 12° C., and reaches the 
creamery two or three hours after its collection. 
It is first freed from dirt by a specially con- 
structed centrifugal machine, then warmed to 
65° C. and collected in a vessel from which it is 
finally transferred to sterilized flasks with pat- 
ent stoppers, holding one-third liter. These '* ise ec ho 
flasks are then placed in a sterilizing case and 
submitted to the action of steam for one and three-quarters hours. 
They are then removed and quickly cooled to prevent burning. The 
milk prepared in this way can be readily used. During a year, out 
of 70,000 liter flasks that were sterilized and subsequently placed in 
an incubator for the purpose of testing the sterilization, only 634 were 
found spoiled. 

As the milk would seldom be subjected to this temperature (that of 
an incubator), but would generally be used within a day or two after 
sterilization, it is not likely that a flask of spoiled milk would be 
obtained. 


Fia. 57.—German sterilizing flasks. 


One of the principal points to be desired in sterilizing milk is that it 
can be done in flasks or cans that in turn may be transported for a con- 
siderable distance without danger of the milk becoming coutaminated. 
In order that this may be the case, the milk should be sterilized or 
pasteurized in flasks that admit of being tightly closed. An arrange- 
ment for this purpose, which is used in Germany and very highly recom- 
mended, consists of arubber stopper with a central hole and side opening, 
and a nail-shaped glass rod with a side slit, as indicated in figure 56, 
and the whole sterilized in a closed box, as shown in figures 57 and 58, 


338 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


After heating for three-quarters of an hour, the flasks are opened by 
means of the parallelogram crank, so as to relieve the pressure, and 
then closed. fter heating again, the flasks are carefully removed and 
the glass stopper forced into the cork, so as to entirely close the bottles. 
The taste of the milk is not at all changed, and side by side with fresh 
milk it is impossible to tell the difference. 

Pasteurization in the household, whether aceording to Soxhlet or the 
Bureau, is open to certain objections. In the first place, considerable 
time is required for keeping the vessels clean, which is one of the 
essentials, and this should be done by someone who appreciates the 
importance of the process. It re- 
quires more time than a housewife 
could conveniently aftord, and if left 
to a servant, the probability is that 
the importance of the process will 
not be appreciated, and may conse- 
quently be carelessly carried out, 
or even, after a while, be entirely 
neglected. For this reason it would 
be better to have the milk reliably 
sterilized in bulk and so distributed. 
This should be done under the direct 
control of someone who understands 
the purport and importance of steril- 
ization and can make the necessary 
examinations of the milk, not only 
as to the proper fat contents, purity, etc., but also as to its freedom 
from germs after sterilization. 


Via. 58.—German sterilizer. 


PASTEURIZATION OF MILK IN BULK, IN SMALL FLASKS OR CANS, IN 
AMERICA. 


In addition to the preparation of milk for infant food as already 
described, a beneficent work has been undertaken in New York by Mr. 
I. Straus, for the purposé of supplying milk to the poor. The milk is 
prepared in a temporary laboratory on Third street, and is distributed 
in bottles from a number of different booths in the city. The milk in 
the cans is obtained from the Appleberg Hygienic Milk Company, of 
Dutchess County, N. Y. In the plant of Mr. Straus on Third street 
the process of sterilization is similar to that described above, but it is 
here repeated. Thebottles, of tough glass, 6, 8, and 18 ounces capacity, 
are first boiled in borax water, thoroughly rinsed, and then sterilized in 
large Koch ovens. After sterilization they are filled with the milk and 
placed in copper holders (fig. 59). These are then placed in the steril- 
izers, Which are the ordinary kitchen stove boilers (fig. 60). The boilers 
are filled with water, which can be heated either by steam or by a gas 
flame under the boiler. The cases are filled with water up to the 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 339 


shoulder of the bottle. The water is heated and the bottles then placed 
in the boilers and allowed to remain for half an hour. At the end of 
this time the lid is carefully raised and gradually pushed around, so as 
to expose the mouths of only a few bottles at atime, and these are then 
quickly corked with solid black rubber stoppers which have been pre- 
viously sterilized by boiling in borax or soda solution. The bottles are 
then taken out, cooled on ice, and distributed. Instead of these boilers 
for sterilization, there is sometimes used a largeoven with water bottom, 
which is heated by steam, and the bottles are placed on shelves above, 
so that they do not come directly in contact with the steam. For dilu- 
tion filtered water is used, and for further preparation barley water or 
limewater. 

The process is under the supervision of two physicians, who examine 
the milk used and see that proper precautions are adopted. The for- 


Fig. 59.—Copper holders used in Fic. 60.—Copper boiler used in Straus’s plant. 
Straus’s plant. 


mul used for diluting the milk, as taken from the printed slip of the 
company, are as follows: 


Formula 1. 


Ra Ns ne oY os! oo 51 a Smead seustmh Medan aeendilede ounces... 12 
ERTS CT RODS EES 28 SY Re pint... 4 
enn PASE RINT WORD MEL Pos ghd slab addi~ <i - sea oh wie gallon... 1 
See aes ee a bveares b Seeds daencd sewage 3. cpaag Biixc ee i th 
Formula 2. : 
i deeb cw aels gallon.. 1 
a SS Oe gu. ..c 2 
aan ee cnc mean ucwycece ounces.. 10 
cpemaalites Vee de cle ik LOE ed aa ee ae 2 ee 


After being thoroughly mixed, the diluted milk is drawn into bottles, 
pasteurized as aboye, and sold for 1 cent per 6-ounce bottle. The bot- 
tles are returned and, after thorough cleansing, used again. 

The milk is obtained from cows which have been inspected and pro- 
nounced free from disease. The prices at which this milk is sold are 


340 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


not intended to bring any profit, but serve to partly defray the expenses 
of preparation. 


Prices.—Raw milk, 4 cents a quart, 2 cents a pint, 1 cent a glass; pure milk, steril- 


~ 


ized, 1 quart in four 8-ounce bottles, 5 cents; pure milk, 1 quart in two 16-ounce 
bottles, 2 cents; diluted sterilized milk (6-ounce bottles), 5 cents. 

Deposit required on bottles.—Kight-ounce bottles, 3 cents each; 6-ounce bottles, 3 
cents each; 16-ounce bottles, 5 cents each. 

The prepared milk is guaranteed for twenty-four hours. It will, of 
course, keep longer, but this is the length of time that may be safely 
allowed, when the milk is given into so many different hands. 

The principal plant for the pasteurization of milk in large quantity — 
and in bulk is conducted at Pawling, Dutchess County, N. Y., by 
the Appleberg Hygienic Milk Company. 

Pawling is situated near the 
center of one of the richest dairy 
counties of the State, so that the 
supply of milk is the best obtain- 
able. When the milk is received 
at the factory any mechanical 
impurity 1s removed by strain- 
ing and the whole is then aer- 
ated and cooled. 

The apparatus for pasteuriza- 
tion (fig. 61) is patented. It con- 
sists of a wooden box about 4 
feet square, with a hinged lid, 
and inside of the box is a coil of 
iron pipe to supply the heat. 
The milk is placed in rectan gu- 
lar tin boxes of a capacity of 40 
quarts, covered witha perforated 
tin Jid to permit the insertion of 
a thermometer by which to reg- 
ulate the temperature. These 
rectangular boxes closely fit inside the coil. The box is then closed 
and the steam turned on for twenty to thirty minutes, depending upon 
the milk and the season of the year. During the process the milk is 
kept thoroughly stirred. The temperature used varies from 160° to 
180° F, The milk so pasteurized is then drawn while hot into the ordi- 
nary sterilized milk jars, or fruit jars with a flat top. Instead of a rub- 
ber washer, one of special paper is used. The jars are filled with hot 
milk and then set in troughs of ice water to cool. The contraction of the 
milk upon cooling creates a vacuumin the jars, which are thus hermet- 
ically sealed by the outside air pressure. In addition to the bottled 
milk, this company also puts up sterilized milk in 40-quart cans. The 
top of the can is closed with a patent lever, something on the principle 


‘2h fe 


Fic. 61.—Appleberg’s sterilizing box. 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 341 


of a beer-bottle stopper lever. As these cans are filled while hot, they 
are also hermetically sealed. At the bottom of the can is an opening 
for the insertion of a faucet, which can be kept closed by a sterilized 
cap. When the milk is to be used, the can is turned upon the side and 
the faucet, previously carefully sterilized, inserted. The milk can be 
safely used from the can if proper care in cleaning the faucet has been 
observed. This milk is on sale at some of the booths in New York City, 
supplied by Straus. The milk, which the writer has had the opportu- 
nity of tasting at the factory, is very rich and most delicious, and with- 
out a particle of boiled or cooked flavor. As the cream and milk have 
been thoroughly mixed, it tastes more like pure cream. 

At Danby, N. Y., there is aiso a plant for sterilizing milk in bulk, 
hot water being used instead of dry steam. The Appleberg method 
seems to give the most satisfactory results. 

In Boston, in addition to the laboratory for sterilized milk, there is 
some work in the distribution of pasteurized milk from one of the church 
dispensaries. There is in that city a careful milk inspection, but no 
sterilized milk is sold in quantity, so far as I was able to learn from 
the milk inspector. In Brooklyn, also, there is a very careful chemical 
and veterinary milk inspection. The city 1s divided into districts, which 
are gone over carefully. It is required that the milk shall have 12 per 
cent solids and 3 per cent fat. In New York during the past summer 
less adulteration has been found than usual. In none of these cities, 
however, is especial attention paid to the milk supply with reference to 
city control of pasteurized or sterilized milk. 


EFFECT OF STERILIZATION ON DIGESTIBILITY. 


If the milk is heated to such a temperature that the albuminoids are 
coagulated, it loses its flavor and acquires a boiled taste, and is neither 
so digestible for children or adults, nor isit so attractive in appearance. 
When properly pasteurized or sterilized, however, the taste is not in 
any way impaired and it is quite as digestible as the raw milk. 

To insure a thoroughly healthy supply, all the milk should be under 
the control of the State and city boards of health. This should include 
an inspection of the animals themselves, of the stalls, feeding, water 
supply, methods of milking and saving of the milk. Not only should 
the animals be perfectly healthy, but the stalls should also be kept thor- 
oughly clean, well whitewashed, and from time to time disinfected by 
means of carbolic acid. The stalls should also be well ventilated and 
so situated that the sunlight will be admitted. Attention should be 
paid to the health of the attendants, and expectoration about the stalls 
Should be prohibited. Only the best clean fodder should be used. In 
milking, care should be taken that the teats of the animals are clean, 
and the utmost neatness and cleanliness of hands and clothing should 
be observed on the part of the attendants about the stables. Instead of 
Selecting particularly old and dirty clothing for the milking, only clean, 


342 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


washable overalls should be used, and these should be kept exclusively 
for that purpose. 

The water supply is often of as much importance as other precau- 
tions. There is no reason why the lower domestic animals should not 
be supplied with good water, and there are many reasons for believing 
that an impure supply is injurious. The necessity for pure water in 
the dairy is well illustrated by the following incident: In @ certain 
dairy the utmost care was observed in cleaning and scalding the milk 
cans. However, just before the cans were filled, they would be rinsed 
with cold water from the well. This well was situated near the stalls, 
so that it received the drainings and washings from the manure, and 
' while the well ordinarily, perhaps, was in good condition, it was at any 
time liable to contamination by typhoid fever and putrefactive bacteria. 
The simple rinsing of the cans was sufficient to destroy all the good 
effects of the previous care. 

A company in Copenhagen, Denmark, and one in Stockholm, Sweden, 
pay considerable attention to securing a good milk supply, thus to 
some extent replacing the boiling of milk. 

Although by the order of 1885 a person suffering from any dangerous 
disease, or who has recently been in contact with a person suffering 
from a dangerous disease, is prohibited from participating in the pro- 
duction, distribution, or storage of milk, in country districts this law 
can be easily evaded. The regulations of the two companies above 
named require— 

(1) Veterinary control of all the animals on the farm and exclusion 
of the milk from unhealthy cows. : 

(2) Cooling of the milk by ice to 41° F’. at the farms. 

(3) Filtration of the whole milk through fine gravel. 

(4) Absolute cleanliness of all the bottles and cans used. 

The company has in its employ seven veterinarians, one of whom 
devotes his time to visiting the farms in rotation. Of course, where 
there are many animals it is difficult to inspect all at one visit, but each 
animal is examined carefully once a month. Special attention is given 
to the examination of the udder and adjacent glands. If a tuberculous 
cow is detected, it must be at once separated, or if the health of a cow 
appears bad, it must be withdrawn for a time. The farmer is bound 
to report any case of illness occurring in the interval of the veterina- 
rian’s visit, and to withhold the milk until he arrives. Stall feeding 
is prohibited, except in winter. Infectious or contagious disease in the 
employees must be at once reported, and the milk supply they have 
handled kept back. The greatest cleanliness in milking must be 
observed, and the milk, after being strained, is at once cooled to 
41° ¥. by ice. 

In winter the food consists of rape-seed oil cake, hay and straw, and — 
brewers’ grain, while anything that might give the milk an unpleasant 
taste, such as turnips, is excluded. This care and precaution on the 


a 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 343 


part of the farmer is secured by the company agreeing to pay a pro- 
portionately larger price for the milk, and even paying for the milk if 
itis not used. The carefully collected milk is tasted and sampled from 
every cow, and then filtered through gravel in perforated tin trays (fig, 
62). In the lowest tray the gravel is the size of a split pea—in the 
highest, of a pin’s head. Three thousand bottles are filled every even- 
ing, and the milk guaranteed for twenty-four hours. Cream may also 
be treated in the same way. Soda is used for cleaning the cans. 

In addition to this filtration, the milk may be pasteurized. This is 
done by placing the bottles in racks in a long trough filled with water. 
A coil of steam pipe heats this water to 75°, when a contact thermom- 
eter rings a bell, the signal for shutting off the steam. The milk is 
then allowed to cool to 60° C., then taken out and put on ice. The 
company has daily analyses made, and these are published monthly. 


« 


A 


Fic. 62.—Milk filter. A, tank; B, filter; 0, storage tank; 1, 2, 3, perforated metal trays to hold 
gravel; g g g, india-rubver rings to protect enamel; h hh, galvanized rings; i, 5-ply filter cloth 
of close texture, surmounted by 1-ply of fine texture; k k, pipe to carry off milk from the filter; 
e, perforated pipe, so as to draw milk from every part of the tank to the bottling room. 


In Stockholm controlled and uncontrolled milk are sold. The com- 
pany has built two large cow sheds. The walls, floors, and troughs are 
cemented; the buildings well lighted and ventilated. The cows are 
kept in sheds throughout the year. A number of men are employed 
in continually cleaning the animals and removing the refuse. There is 
no odor about the stalls, as this is all absorbed by the peat. Before 
milking, the floor is swept perfectly clean, the milkmaids must wash 
their hands, wear special aprons, and carefully clean the udders. The 
cans are washed with boiling water and the milk strained through mus- 
lin and fine copper gauze, and then cooled. A veterinary surgeon lives 
on the place, and the cows are always sold after a year or two, so as to 
keep fresh milkers all the time. The finest and healthiest cows are 
reserved for children’s milk. By isolating the calves of tuberculous 
animals and feeding them on.boiled milk Professor Bang has succeeded 
in keeping them free from disease, and has carried out a number of 
experiments on large estates. He also emphasizes the fact that small 
herds are rarely tuberculous. 


344 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


DIFFERENT FORMS OF APPARATUS. 


A great many different forms of apparatus for the pasteurization or 
sterilization of milk in bulk have been used abroad, and the descrip- 
tion and figures of some of these, partly reproduced from Weigmann’s 
report, are here given. Many are unnecessarily complicated. The 
simpler apparatus gives equally satisfactory results. 

One of the first pasteurizers in bulk to be used was a continuous- 
working apparatus, and consisted of a double-walled copper cylinder, 


Fig. 63.—Thiel’s pasteurizing apparatus. 


which could be heated by steam. The form now used is practically 
unchanged. The milk flows in at the top, is kept thoroughly stirred 
by means of a crank at the bottom, and flows out from the side, near the 
top, at a temperature of 70° to 80° C. The stirring apparatus prevents 
the burning of the milk and also the separation of the casein. 

In 1886 Thiel recommended the following apparatus (fig. 63): An 
outer sheet-lead mantle, lined with wood, a; an inner tinned corrugated 
copper cylinder, b, with a lid, ¢, which fits tightly over both. The water 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 345 


used for heating enters through h, and circulates, by means of a pipe, 
in the space between the outer and inner cylinder, p serving as an 
escape pipe. The milk flowing over 
the corrugated sides is heated and 


escapes through iand kat atem- | an 
perature which can be noted by a. E... i 
a thermometer placed at k. The : il } 
milk reaches a temperature of 60° i ‘mM I TEST 


©., and its taste and appearance are 
good. Experiments have shown 
that milk treated in this apparatus 
will keep two or three days longer 
than that which has not been pas- 
teurized. 

Another apparatus, Hochmuth’s, 
is a combination of a warming, 
pasteurizing, and cooling machine | 
(figs. 64, 65, 66, and 67). Thismay | 
be constructed so as to be placed | 
either in a vertical or a horizontal | 
position. Pasteurization is accom- 
plished by means of steam pipes, 
the steam circulating between the 
coils through which the milk flows. 
This apparatus, however, offers 
the objection that the milk is too 
easily burned on the coils and the 
apparatus is one difficult to keep ye, 64.—Hochmuth’s pasteurizing apparatus. 
clean. 

Fjord’s apparatus, already illustrated in figure 55, avoids these 
troubles. Some modified forms of this are seen in Ahlborn’s appa- 
ratus (figs. 68 and 69), 


if) - ITS = ==G Bie —— wif - 
HH ——————— 7 MLR) aie mM WAG 
H H HAA IA A | iil i = 
} 

= aX HII 

Se Mi iM 

= 

= = — = | Hi 

SS == 


=a | A 


7] CWA La 


Fie. 65.—Section of Hochmuth’s pasteurizing apparatus. 


Another similar apparatus, made by the Bergedorfer Iron Works, 
shown in figure 70, differs from the others mainly in the way the milk 


346 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


is introduced. The cold milk,in entering, is warmed by the volume 
of milk already pasteurized. 

The apparatus shown in figure 71, constructed by Dierks & M6ll- 
man, in Osnabruck, is intended especially to prevent the burning of 


Fie. 66.—Hochmuth’s pasteurizing REL, ae parts arranged 
horizontally. 

the milk. I consists of an outer box, lined with wood. Within this 
is a cylinder provided with a removable top, and within this a second 
cylinder which leaves between the two but asmall space. The milk 
is forced mechanically through the space between these cylinders, and 
at the same time is heated by the steam surrounding the outer cylinder. 
The burning of the milk is prevented 
by means of a stirrer provided with 
arms which make twenty-five to thirty 
revolutions per minute, and in every 
revolution they come in contact four 
times with each portion of the milk. 
In every minute each particle of milk 
is agitated one hundred and twenty 
times, thus entirely preventing the 
burning of the milk in contact with 
the cylinder and the deposition of 
albumin. 

Another more expensive apparatus, 
constructed by Lefeldt & Leutsch, in 
Schoningen, Germany, consists of a 
centrifugal which first frees the milk 
from impurities. As experiments 
have shown, it is really those bacteria 
which are ordinarily found in the dirt, 
particles of feces, hair, etc., which 
= a | most easily resist heating, partly 
Fic. 67.—Hochmuth's compound pasteurizing because they are mechanically pro- 

apparatus. tected by the dirt in which they are © 
found and partly because spores are often present. The removal of 
these mechanical impurities aids the subsequent pasteurization. Flow- 
ing from the centrifugal basket, the milk passes. through a narrow 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 347 


space about 1 inch in diameter, which is heated from the outside by 
direct steam. This apparatus has the advantage of being compact, 
utilizing the steam thoroughly, and preventing the milk from burning. 


Fig. 68,—Ahlborn’s pasteurizing ap- Fig. 69._Ahlborn’s pasteurizing 
paratus. apparatus—modified form. 
Five hundred liters (125 galions) per hour can be pasteurized with this 
machine at a temperature of 70° to 75° C. (fig. 72). 
The many forms of apparatus recommended for the continuous pas- 
teurization of milk indicate that there are always some difficulties, and 


Fie, 70.—Ahren’s pasteurizing apparatus. 

that the results obtained are not satisfactory. The burning of the 
milk on the sides of the apparatus, and consequent uneven heating of 
the remainder, and the temperature used, 70° to 75° C., which ordi- 


348 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


narily will cause precipitation of some of the casein as well as impart 
to the milk a burned flavor, are objectionable. To avoid this, Bitter 
has constructed an apparatus which does not permit of a continuous 
pasteurization, as in the other described apparatus, but which allows 
of a longer heating of the milk. In the case of a number of bacteria, 
especially the tuberculosis bacillus, a temperature of 68° C. for fifteen 
minutes is sufficient to kill. For certainty, the milk should in all 
instances be exposed to this temperature for thirty-five minutes. Bitter 
found, further, that when the milk was heated to 68° for thirty-five 
minutes, and then cooled to a temperature of 15° C., it would keep fifty 
to seventy hours longer than that which was not pasteurized. This 
temperature, when maintained for thirty-five minutes, appeared from 
his experiments, performed with 40 
liters of milk, to be sufficient for 
the full pasteurization of the milk. 
Unskimmed milk may be heated for 
fifteen minutes to 75° C. without any 
coagulation or burning or any mate- 
rial change in the flavor taking place. 
This milk, when cooled to 16° C. and 
saved for sixty hours, did not keep 
any better than the milk heated for 
thirty minutes to 68° C. 

It is of course easily understood 
that the milk keeps better after pas- 
teurization the more it has been 
cooled. To demonstrate the keeping 
properties under the conditions which 
would actually obtain in practice, 
Bitter exposed milk which had been 
heated to a temperature of 75° C., 
first to 14° C. for ten hours, then to 
23° ©. for twenty-two hours, after- 
wards to 30° C. for seven hours. 

Fic. 71.—Dierks & M@éllman’s pasteurizing The milk was still good and kept for 
si ct five hours longer at 23°C. The milk 

was consequently kept for forty-four hours at a temperature not at all 
calculated for its preservation. In practice, the milk, before it is sent 
out from the creamery, is cooled to 10° to 15° C. and then distributed 
from large cans of 40 liters capacity, and the quantity of the milk, there- 
fore, has considerable influence in keeping it at a low temperature. 
Milk that has been pasteurized at 75° for fifteen minutes, or 68° C, for 
35 minutes, and then cooled, will keep in the warmest summer for thirty 
hours. If the temperature of the air is lower, the milk will keep longer. 
Milk heated to 75° C. will keep at a temperature of 18° to 20° C, for 
sixty-six hours, and at 14° to 16° C. for three days. This milk was 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 349 


in perfect condition for sale; there was no coagulation or unnatural 
taste, and its availability for the manufacture of butter was not in any 


way injured. 
> 


f 
Z 
ULLLLLLL LALLA hhh 


WE 


Y 
Y 


at Js. = 
a peer 


Sb 


itt 


S NG 
WS WN \ 


MGC SXQGQ@_@Q \ SG 
SE MQ{CG S QQ 
WG KX BCDpi 


Fic. 72.—Pasteurizing apparatus, constructed by Lefeldt & Leutsch. 


The apparatus which Bitter recommends for pasteurization is shown 


in figure 73. 
A tinned copper cylinder, with cap which fits tightly, serves as a 


receptacle for the milk. About 1 inch from the inner side of this 


350 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


vessel is a coil of tinned copper pipe which runs to the bottom of the 
cylinder and then back to the top, the inner coil being narrower than 
.the outer, and from the top of this second coil the pipe returns to the 
bottom of the cylinder. Through this long coil steam is passed. The 
milk is keptstirred by an arrangement of paddles which can be readily 
understood from figure 73. It is very important that the entire pasteur- 
izer and the cans shall be kept thoroughly cleaned. From this pas- 


STEAM 
ouiLer OU 


yw ddd 


Fic. 73.—Pasteurizing apparatus—after Bitter. 


teurizer the milk is allowed to pass through a cooler, as seen in figure 
74. This is always thoroughly cleansed and then exposed for a short 
time to the action of steam. If the hot milk is very quickly cooled, its 
keeping properties are increased, as any bacteria which might still be 
present are either killed or so weakened by the sudden change of 
temperature that a long time would be required before they could again 
multiply. 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 351 


STERILIZATION OF MILK. 


As already noted, while the temperature of pasteurization, 65° to 70°, 
is sufficient to kill all disease-producing bacteria, there are a number of 
germs which are not affected by this temperature, especially the spores, 
and some which even multiply readily at 70° ©. While these latter are 
not apt to be present in the milk, they may come from the water or dust 
of the air. The temperature necessary to totally destroy all of these is 
often over 100° C. (for example, Bacillus subtilis), and it must be main- 
tained for a considerable time. This temperature would necessarily 
injure the taste and appearance of the milk. In laboratory practice it 
is possible to obtain a thorough sterilization by an interrupted heating. 
If the milk is heated one to two hours at a time each day for five to six 


Fic, 74,—Milk cooler—by Schmidt, in Bretten. 


days consecutively at 75° C., the destruction of spores, which in the 
meantime would have developed, can be accomplished. In practice, 
however, this process would be too expensive and too troublesome. A 
modification of this process consists in heating the milk in closed flasks 
to a high temperature (above the boiling point of water). 

The thorough sterilization of milk is, therefore, not very practical, 
but one or two methods and apparatus may be described. In the Neu- 
hauss-Gronwald-Oehlmann sterilization apparatus (fig. 75) the milk is 
heated first to 85° to 90° C., and then a second time to 102°C. The 
bottles must be well blown and annealed, free from alkali, and very 
carefully cleaned. This is accomplished by boiling with soda, then 
with water, and finally by sterilizing in large boxes at 100°. The bot- 


352 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


tles are closed with a patent stopper, like the beer-bottle stoppers, and 
these must be carefully sterilized before use, using only those with the 
best rubber rings. After sterilization the flasks are carefully filled 
with the milk, the hands being first very thoroughly washed and all 
antiseptic precautions observed. The milk is then heated for half an 
hour at 85° to 90° C., and the flasks are gradually cooled, being allowed 
to remain in the sterilizer. They are on the same day submitted to a 
second heating of 102° to 103° C. The apparatus consists of a double- 
walled box, made of tinned copper plates. The lower portion, 4, is fixed; 
the top, b, movable and counterbalanced by weights; the top fits over 
the lower basket steam tight; c is a thermometer, and d an escape steam 


iI! 

bill 

Ul 

iu 

(AS Rees 
Hn 1 

! i 


Ty 


ai 


Tk 


Fic. 75.—Sterilizing apparatus, by Neuhauss-Gronwald-Oehlmann. 


valve which can be set at any desired pressure. The flasks are placed 
in special trays which can be easily moved, and between the rows of 
flasks are levers which serve to close the patent stoppers. The ther- 
mometer dips into one of the flasks and indicates the temperature of 
the milk. When the apparatus is closed, the steam, under pressure of 
14 atmospheres, is allowed to enter slowly until the air is driven out- 
It is important that the apparatus shall not be entirely closed until the 
air is entirely driven out. When the temperature has reached 100°C., 
more steam is turned on, the pressure gauge having been set for 102° | 
to 103° C. In a short time the flasks will have reached a temperature 
of 100° C., and they are then kept at this temperature for thirty min- 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 353 


utes. A few minutes before the end of the sterilization the pressure 
valve is opened, thus permitting the milk in the flasks to boil up, and 
any gases which might still be present in the milk are driven out. The 
result is that the closed flasks of milk, when cold, no longer contain any 
air, aS in the upper part of the flask there is a vacuum, consequently 
aerobic bacteria could not multiply. The flasks are now allowed to 
cool slowly to 50° to 60° C., then placed in warm water to prevent 
cracking. Cold water is gradually allowed to mix with this, and the 
flasks are finally preserved on ice. The purer and fresher the condition 
of the milk, the more satisfactory are the results obtained. In this 
connection, if milk is to be used for thorough sterilization, special care 
should be taken to see that the milk is not unnecessarily exposed to 
’ contamination by such bacteria as are difficult to kill and are apt to get 
into the milk from dirt, old straw, and bedding. In addition, cans, 
bottles, and receptacles must all be kept perfectly clean. 


A 


; sy ts TL ~ : TT iD nag 


i i | 


i | 


Aid Ae 


aa 


Fig. 76.—Milk-sterilizing apparatus—after Paul Ritter von Hamm. 


In practice, it makes a difference whether the sterilization is con- 
ducted with heated water or with steam, whether the steam is mixed 
with air, is moist or dry. Although the process above described is 
usually satisfactory, yet a complete sterilization does not always result. 
It has been found, too, that almost equally satisfactory results are 
secured by heating to 102° to 103° C. for three-fourths to one hour, 
without any previous sterilization. 

The Soxhlet apparatus, originally intended for household use in ster- 
ilizing milk, has been utilized, with slight modifications, for sterilizing 
the milk in quantity (fig. 76). This is intended for 94 flasks of 1 liter 
(1 quart) capacity, or, instead of the flasks, cans with patent air-tight 
covers may beused. The apparatus is simple in construction. a serves 
for the admission of steam, b for the admission of water, and ¢ is the 
outlet tube. The bottle holder, e, is made of wood, and rests on metal 
bars. The holder is filled with water to g, and the flasks are filled with 


= A 94——_ fd 


354 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 


milk to h, and placed in the box. The stoppers are the ordinary beer- 
bottle stoppers, and are loosely placed in the mouths of the bottles, 
Steam is then turned on until the temperature, shown by the thermom- 
eter that passes through the cover of the whole box, reaches 110°, This 
requires about one hour, and the flasks are kept at this temperature 
for fifteen minutes. The milk fills the bottles entirely and a little runs 
out from the mouths. When the steam is turned off and cold water is 
introduced to reduce the temperature of the flasks to 50° C., the con- 
traction of the miik draws the corks down tightly on the bottles, and 
the wire clamp can then be readily fastened. 


—— 
SSS 


Fic. 77.—Bottling sterilizing apparatus. 


A number of creameries have begun the process of shipping steril- 
ized milk in cans of 10 to 12 liters capacity. An apparatus adapted 
to this purpose is shown in figure77. The milk flows through a trough 
arranged in folds, so that a large surface is exposed to the action of the 
steam, and passes directly through sterile tubes into cans. 

In addition to the sterilizing apparatus already described, the following 
(fig. 78,b) may be used: An ordinary fruit jar may have an opening cut 
through the top of the cover, provided with a shoulder and lid that will 


serew down. Through this opening an agitating rod or wire may be. 


passed to keep the milk thoroughly stirred up while it is being heated. 
This can then be removed after heating, and the opening is then closed 
while the flask is still hot; or this opening may have a stiff cotton plug. 


PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION OF MILK. 355 


Another arrangement which will answer the purpose for sterilizing 
milk in quantity may also be used. <A double-walled rectangular box, 
made of copper or tin (fig. 79), may be arranged so that the milk can be 
heated to any desired temperature. This can be stirred during the proc- 


' Fic. 78.—a, Soxhlet’s patent sterilizing bottles and top; b, top for fruit jar for sterilization. 


ess and the milk at the same time sterilized. Any loss or change in 
the taste of the milk is detrimental when it is to be used for food. ‘The 
thorough stirring of the mass keeps it evenly heated throughout, so 


Interior. Exterior. 
Fig. 79.—Sterilizing box. 


that there will be no charring or scorching of any milk or any adhering 
to the sides of the vessel. <A series of these rectangular boxes might 
be provided, connected with each other by pipes and stopcoeks. From 
these sterilizers the milk may be filled into sterilized bottles, or into 


356 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


large sterile cans, which can be hermetically sealed. To save expense, 
the outside of this double-walled box might be made of wood, or, better, 
of sheet iron, and the whole then incased in a wooden box to retain the 
heat. 

The flasks or other vessels in which the milk is stored should, after 
cooling to about 60° C., be placed in water and thoroughly cooled. 

The proper cooling of the milk and placing in clean bottles or cans is 
absolutely necessary for securing the full effect and purposes of pas- 
teurization or sterilization. 

The methodsand apparatus which have been described are all adapted 
for the pasteurization or sterilization of milk. While some will appear 
too complicated and expensive to be adopted or copied, others will be 
found well suited, or modifications and improvements will easily sug- 
gest themselves. 

That a uniform and cleanly milk supply can be obtained only when 
the State or town undertakes official control and inspection of animals 
has already been indicated. Where this is lacking, the consumer and 
the public generally may protect themselves in a great measure from 
disease by adopting any of the methods above indicated, either in the 
household or in the creameries. For these processes to be successful, 
the utmost cleanliness of vessels and manipulation must be observed; 
the milk must be clean, well-strained and aerated, the pasteurization or 
sterilization systematically conducted, the milk filled into bottles and 
cans while hot, and these latter then cooled before distribution. The 
pasteurized or sterilized milk should be distributed in unbroken pack- 
ages only, and these should be no larger than would be used in twenty- 
four hours. If distributed in large vesseis, these should be hermet- 
ically sealed to avoid allcontamination. Probably the cheapest vessel, 
and the one most easily obtained for sterilization in small lots, is the 
ordinary patent-stoppered beer bottle; for handling in larger quanti- 
ties, milk cans with hermetically sealed tops. 

The apparatus for continuous sterilization does not give as satisfac- 
tory results as when an interrupted process is adopted. 

By the use of properly pasteurized or sterilized milk, therefore, not 
only should the spread of disease be lessened, but also the health of 
milk consumers in general should be improved. 

The use of pasteurized or sterilized milk prepared in bulk can, how- 
ever, only be carried out to the best advantage when it is undertaken 
with the object, not of making money by supplying a material which 
will barely pass inspection, but of furnishing an article collected and 
prepared with all possible precautions, where all means have been 
adopted to provide against mistakes or carelessness. 

The simpler forms of apparatus described can be easily and cheaply 
manufactured by any good tinner or coppersmith, and many slight mod-_ 
ifications and improvements will suggest themselves in practice. 


FOOD AND DIET. 


By W. O. ATWATER, Ph. D., 


Professor of Chemistry in Wesleyan University, Director of Storrs (Conn.) Experiment 
Station, and Special Agent of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in charge of Inves- 
tigations of Food and Nutrition. Q 


‘‘Half the struggle of life is a struggle for food.”—Edward Atkinson. 


“The labor question, concretely stated, means the struggle for a higher standard 
of living.”—Commissioner Carroll D. Wright. 


‘‘T have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which embitters 
the middle and latter part of life is due to avoidable errors in diet, *~ * * and 
that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired vigor, and of shortened 
life accrues to civilized man * * * in England and throughout central Europe 
from erroneous habits of eating than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink, con- 
siderable as I know that evil to be.”—Sir Henry Thompson. 


“‘If we care for men’s souls most effectively, we must care for their bodies also.”— 
Bishop R. S, Foster. 


What proportion of the cost of living might be saved by better econ- 
omy of food; how far such economy would help the wage worker to the 
higher plane of living toward which he justly strives; how dietary 
errors compare in harmfulness with the use of alcohol; and to what 
extent the spread of the gospel and the perfection of its fruit are 
dependent upon the food supply—are questions hardly possible of exact 
solution in the light of our present knowledge. The foregoing state- 
ments are quoted, however, because they come with authority, and 
because, starting from the widely different standpoints of the econo- 
mist, the statistician, the physician, and the divine, the conclusions 
tally perfectly with those to which the study of the chemistry and 
economy of food seems to lead. 

With the progress of human knowledge and human experience we 
are at last coming to see that the human body needs the closest care, 
We are coming to realize that not merely our health, our strength, and 
our incomes, but our higher intellectual life,and even our morals, 
depend upon the care which we take of our bodies, and that among the 
things essential to health and wealth, to right thinking and right living, 
one, and that not the least important, is our diet. 

The power of a man todo work depends uvon his nutrition. A well- 
fed horse can draw a heavy load. With less food he does less work. 
A well-fed man has strength of muscle and of brain, while a poorly 
nourished man has not. A man’s nourishment is not the only factor 
of his producing power, but it is an important one. 

_ This subject concerns the laboring classes in many ways. Statistics 
as well as common observation bear emphatic testimony to the better 


condition of the American as compared with the European working- 
| 357 


358 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


man in respect to his supply of the necessaries and comforts of life, 
Nowhere is this superiority more striking than in the quality and quan- 
tity of his food. And the difference in the dietaries of the two is 
especially marked in the larger amount cf potential energy, of capa- 
bility to yield muscular strength for work and to fulfill other uses in 
nutrition, which characterizes the food of the American. That the 
American workman, in many cases at least, turns out more work per 
day or per year than his European -competitor is a familiar fact. That 
this superiority is due to more nutritious food as well as to better use 
of machinery and to greater intelligence is hardly to be questioned. 
But the better nourishment of the American wage worker is largely due 
‘to our virgin soil. With the growth of population and the increasing 
closeness of home and international competition his own diet can not 
be kept up to its present nutritive standard, nor can that of his poorer 
neighbor and his foreign brother be brought up nearer to that standard, 
without better knowledge and application of the laws of food economy. 

To the farmer also the subject is important. Materials for the food 
of man make up the larger part of our agricultural production and the 
largest item of our export abroad. Our food production is one-sided. 
It includes a relative excess of the fat of meat, of starch, and of sugar, 
the substances that serve the body for fuel to yield heat and muscular 
power, while the nitrogenous substances, those which make blood and 
muscle, bone and brain, are relatively deficient. This is unfortunate 
for the consumer, because it leads him to buy material which he does 
not need and makes his diet one-sided, and hence injurious to health 
and strength. It is unfortunate for the farmer also, because it de- 
creases the value of his product; and the very things which are needed 
to make his food product more valuable are the ones which will make 
it cheaper to produce. What is needed is more nitrogen in the soil 
for plant food, more nitrogen in plants to make better food for animals 
and man, and more nitrogen in the food of man. Better culture of 
the soil and better manuring will bring not only larger crops, but 
crops richer in nitrogen. The cultivation of more clover, alfalfa, vetch, 
cowpeas, peas, beans, and other leguminous crops which obtain nitro- 
gen from the air will help in the same direction. With more nitroge- 
nous material in his crops the farmer can make more meat, and meat with 
less excess of fat, and at less cost; he can produce milk, butter, and 
cheese more profitably, and at the same time he can be improving his 
land. The food for man which he thus produces will be better adapted 
to the actual needs of the community, much of the prevalent waste of 
material will be avoided, and both producer and consumer will receive 
the benefit. 

Most people pay very little attention to these matters. The result is 
ereat waste in the purchase and use of food, loss of money, and injury — 
to health. The chief reason why people act as they do is found ina 
lack of information about food and nutrition, and in the widespread and 


FOOD AND DIET. 359 


unfortunate prejudice against economy in diet. The remedy for the 
evil will come only with the spread of knowledge of the subject. 


DEFINITION OF FOOD AND ECONOMY. 


The following statements will help to make clear the fundamental 
principles of the subject: 

(1) Food is that which, when taken into the body, builds up its 
tissues and keeps them in repair, or which is consumed in the body to 
yield energy in the form of heat to keep it warm and create strength 
for its work. 

(2) The most healthful food is that which is best fitted to the wants 
of the user. To be adapted to his wants, the food must supply the 
different nutritive ingredients, or nutrients, in the kinds and amounts 
needed by the body to build up its several parts, to repair them as they 
are consumed by constant use, and to yield energy in the form of heat 
and muscular power. The ingredients should also be supplied in forms 
which the person can easily digest and which will “agree” with him. 
If the nutrients are not supplied in the right proportions, or if they 
are not in easily digestible forms, or if they yield material which does 
not agree with the user, injury to health and strength will result. 

(3) The cheapest food is that which furnishes the most nutriment at 
the least cost. 

(4) The most economical food is that which is both most healthful 
and cheapest. 


THE ACTUAL NUTRIMENT OF FOOD AND ITS COST, 


A picture in a magazine has just struck myeye. It is a family scene 
in a humble home. The four children are sitting at the table with 
bowls of milk before them, while the mother hoids in her hand a loaf 
of bread which she is cutting into slices for their dinner. The room is 
neat, but plain; the furniture is of the simplest kind, and the children’s 
clothes are of ordinary material, with here and there a well-sewed patch. 
The mother’s air is that of a busy housewife, her thought one of ten- 
der care for her family, but there is a trace of anxiety in the lines of 
her face which is in contrast with the careless eagerness of her little 
ones. Doubtless the father has taken his dinner with him to his daily 
work, by which, if he be an average bread winner, with health and 
industry, he may earn $500 per year. If he is not addicted to drink, 
the whole of this sum will go for the support of his family. It must 
pay for food, clothing, fuel, rent, and doctor’s bills, leaving not a very 
large remainder for the extra comforts of the home, an occasional new 
carpet or piece of furniture, books, or a short excursion in summe7, 
with perhaps a little for a life insurance or the savings bank or a timely 
help for a less fortunate neighbor. 

When the mother goes to the market to make her purchases, she is 
thinking of meat and flour and potatoes, what they cost, and how the 
folks at home will relish them. But in fact, though she does not realize 


3860 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


it, she is buying certain nutritive substances in the food—flesh formers 
and fuel ingredients, which she and her husband need to repair the 
wastes of their bodies and to give them strength for their daily toil, 
and which their children must have for healthy growth and work and 
play. Her real problem, though she does not understand it, is to get 
the most and the best nutriment for her money. She is accustomed to 
buy certain materials, but if, by wiser selection, she could get abundant 
nutriment at less cost, and thus save a little money for extra comforts 
for the family or to put by in the savings bank, it would be fortunate. 

The members of the family need, as essential for the day’s diet, cer- 
tain amounts of protein to make blood and muscle, bone and brain, and 
corresponding quantities of fat, starch, sugar, and the like, to be con- 
sumed in their bodies, and thus to serve as fuel to keep them warm and 
to give them strength for work—a larger amount for the father, with 
his active muscular labor; somewhat less for the mother, with her 
smaller body and lighter work; and quantities for the children accord- 
ing to age, growth, and occupation. Of course they need other sub- 
stances, like mineral salts, which are contained in the food, and the 
water of both food and drink, and they want and will have things like 
salt and spice and tea and coffee, which gratify the palate and are more 
or less useful for nourishment. 

If this family live in a village or city in Massachusetts, about $300 
of their annual $500 will be expended for food.' Will it be expended 
wisely ? 

Due regard for health, strength, and purse requires that food shall 
supply enough protein to build tissue and enough fats and carbo- 
hydrates for fuel, and that it shall not be needlessly expensive. The 
protein can be had in the lean of meat and fish,in eggs, in the casein 
(curd) of milk, in the gluten of flour, and in substances more or less 
like gluten in various forms of meal, potatoes, beans, peas, and the like. 


1The smaller the income, the larger is the proportion used for food, as is illustrated 
by the following figures, summarized from those of Hon. Carroll D. Wright in the 
report of the Massachusetts bureau of statistics for 1884: 


Percentage of family income of workingmen in Massachusetts expended for subsistence. 


Amount ex- | Per cent 
Annualincome.| pended for jexpended 


food. for food. 
$350 to $400 $224 to $256 64 
450 to 600 284 to 378 63 
600 to 750 360 to 450 60 
750 to 1, 200 420 to 672 56 
Above 1, 200 612 51 


In parts of the West and South, where food is very cheap, its cost in proportion to 
other expenses is less, and sometimes falls a little below half theincome. In Europe, 
where incomes are smaller and food dearer, the cost of food makes a larger part of 
the whole expenditure. 

These statements apply less accurately to farmers than to the inhabitants of the 
larger towns; but, although the farmer produces much of his food, yet, taking every- 
thing into account, the expense for nutriment is large even for him. 


FOOD AND DIET. 361 


Fats are supplied in the fat of meat and fish, in lard, in the fat of milk, 
or in the butter made from it; it is also furnished, though in small 
amounts, in the oil of wheat, corn, potatoes, and other vegetable foods. 
Carbohydrates occur in great abundance in vegetable materials, as in 
the starch of grains and potatoes, and in sugar. The fats, sugars, and 
starches all serve for fuel, and we may measure their quantity by their 
fuel value, expressing this in heat units, or calories,’ as they are com- 
monly called. In the food this woman buys, then, she has to deal with 
protein, or tissue formers, and with fuel values. 

If her husband is engaged at moderately hard muscular work, like 
that of a carpenter or mason or active day laborer, he should have in 
his day’s food say 0.28 pound of protein and enough carbohydrates and 
fats so that the fuel value of the whole will be about 3,500 calories. 
The wife, if busy at work with her hands about the house or other- 
wise, will need perhaps eight-tenths as much. If the children are two 
boys of 13 and 8 and two girls of 10 and 5 years of age, they will need 
enough to make the wants of the whole family equivalent, let us say, 
to four men at moderately hard work. ‘This would require 1.12 pounds 
of protein, and a fuel value of 14,000 calories. It could be supplied by 
various food mixtures—some dearer and some cheaper. If the cost- 
lier meats, oysters, or eggs at high prices are used, the diet will be an 
expensive one, but if the animal food is used in the forms of the less 
costly meats, in milk and cheese in not too large quantities, and if the 
bulk of the diet consists of such wholesome vegetable foods as wheat 
flour, corn meal, oatmeal, peas, beans, and potatoes when the last 
are not too dear, the cost will be very much less. Some specimens of 
food mixtures, with amounts of ingredients and costs, are given in the 
Appendix (Human Foods, Table D). 


NUTRITIVE INGREDIENTS OF FOOD. 


The real problem before this woman when she goes to market is to 
obtain, at the least cost, protein, fats, and carbohydrates needed to meet 
the wants of her family. Flavor and appearance are things to look out 
for, of course. She may buy them in the food if she has the money and 
is willing to spend it, but they are costly. She may supply them by 
good cooking and tasteful serving, but this will take skill and care, and 
too many women in her circumstances lack the one and are averse to the 
other. Or she may ignore both flavor and appearance, and if her hus- 
band does not like the food she sets before him, and other things about 
the home are not attractive, he will very likely go to the “ poor man’s 
club,” otherwise known as the saloon. 

The training of a well-ordered’ home or the cooking school will tell 
how to make savory dishes from inexpensive materials. <A little of the 
chemistry of the subject will show how to select them. 

Table A (Human Foods, Appendix) gives the composition of speci- 


1A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise a pound of water 4° F. 


1 A 94-— 14* 


362 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


mens of common food materials. The composition of a smaller number 
is shown in figure 80 herewith. 

Thus a pound of sirloin of beef of medium fatness will furnish, say, 
0.15 pound of protein in the “lean” and 0.16 pound of fat. The fuel 
value of the protein added to that of the fat makes 970 calories in the 
pound of sirloin. A pound of wheat flour of average quality will contain 
about 0.11 pound of protein, in the form of gluten; 0.01 pound of fat, 
which, if extracted from the flour, would be an oily substance; and 0.75 
pound of carbohydrates, of which nearly all would be starch. The fuel 
value of these nutrients in the pound of flour would be, ane oe to 
Table A, 1,645 calories.’ 

Food pai deci rich in protein are the most valuable for building the 
tissues of the body. A pound of cheese may have 0.28 pound of pro- 
tein, as much as a man at ordinary work needs for a day’s sustenance, 
while a pound of milk would have only 0.04 and a pound of potatoes 
only 0.02 pound of protein. The materials which have the most of fats 
and carbohydrates have the highest fuel value. The fuel value of a 
pound of fat pork may reach 2,995 calories, while that of a pound of 
salt codfish would be only 315 calories. On the other hand, the nutri- 
tive material of the codfish will consist almost entirely of protein, of 
which the salt pork has very little. 

In general, the animal foods have the most of protein and fats, while 
the vegetable foods are rich in the carbohydrates, starch, and sugar. 
The lean meats and fish abound in protein. Cheese has so large a quan- 
tity of protein because it contains the casein of the milk. Among the 
vegetable foods, beans and peas have a high proportion of protein. 
The proportion in oatmeal is also large. In wheat it is moderate, and 
in corn meal it is rather small. The materials with the highest fuel 
value are those with the most fat, because the fuel value of the fat is, 
weight for weight, two and one-fourth times as great as that of either 
sugar, Starch, or protein. Hence fat pork and butter lead the other 
materials in fuel value. The fat meats in general stand high in this 
respect. So also do the grains, flour, and meal, as they have large 
quantities of carbohydrates. Potatoes are quite low in the list in 
respect to fuel value as well as protein, principally because they are 
three-fourths water. For the same reason, milk, which is seven- eighths 
water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value. 

It is important to remember that all these estimates apply to the 
food materials in the form in which we buy them, including both refuse, 
like the bones of meat, skins of potatoes, etc., and water. If we were 
to remove the bones and other refuse from the meats, fish, and other 
foods which contain them, and then remove the water from all the 
materials, and compare the actually nutritive substances of nutrients, 
their rank would, of course, be very different. Salt codfish, for instance, 


1 Detailed éx plane tions of the composition of food materials, the ways they are 
used in the body, and their nutritive values as compared with their cost, are given 
in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 23 of the United States Department of Aostcatvede: 


FOOD AND DIET. 363 


Via. 80,—COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 


Nutritive ingredients, refuse, and fuel value. 


Nutrients. Non-nutrients. 
- ~—_——_——. Tuel value. 
| E-=--—] ag mom 
Protein. Fats. Carbo- Mineral Water. Refuse. Calories. 


hydrates. matters. 


Protein compounds, ©. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and gluten of wheat, 
make muscle, blood, bone, ete. 
Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, 


Carbohydrates, ©. g., starch and sugar, } serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power. 


Nutrients, etc., p. ct. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 an 
Fuel value of 11b. _ 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 40 
—- Sy retin 


Beef, round wee SS oe 3 


* * y _— = = = ———— — —__—_ 


Beef, round* 


Beef, sirloin 


eet ——— 
ee ey 


Beef, sirloin* 


% eo 


Beef, rib 


Beef, rib* 


Mutton, leg 


Pork, spare rib 


Pork, salt 


———— 


Ham, smoked 


CS ee lt—tit—O 
S| = oo ee 


Codfish, fresh 


- SS ee Se ee ere were ee 


Codfish, salt NSN 


ee ee ee ee oe eee eee 


a Wee Se ee 
— =F a 
=. SC 
Es oe —S——  ——————— 
Wheat bread REBEL 
Wheat flour aE: 
Corn meal S22: =)! | ’¢’]qqqVTVT7@_CT_70Z7ZH!=H#SS=z 
Oatmect == WML 
Beans, dried. Se =°\| WW | \, | |W|W|W¢-$'M|’MMM##t]?}][J9mssns 
Rico (RRA TILLED 
ae MMU. = eS SS 
Sugar MLL 


* Without bone. 


364 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


is % very economical food, because it furnishes protein in an easily 
digestible form, although, as we buy it, a pound will contain over eight- 
tenths of a pound of water and refuse. A pound of rice consists of 
about seven-eighths of a pound, and a pound of potatoes only one- 
fourth of a pound of nutritive materials, but in cooking the rice we 
mix water with it and thus make if not very different in composition 
from potatoes. By drying the potatoes we could get a material very 
similar in food value to rice. 

In Table 1a number of the most common articles of food are grouped 
according to their quantities of protein and their fuel values. 


TABLE 1.—Classification of food materials by composition. 


ON BY AMOUNTS N ID 
| GRADATION BY AMOUNTS OF PROTEIN IN 1 GRADATION BY FUEL VALUES IN 1 POUND. 


POUND. 
VERY LARGE. 
.22 to .21 pound protein. 4,220 to 1,700 calories. 
Canned corned beef; cheese. ‘| Butter; salt pork; cheese; smoked ham. 
Beans, dry. Milk crackers; sugar; oatmeal. 
- Lowen ta me 
LARGE. 
.20 to .16 pound protein. 1,700 to 1,200 calories. 


Canned salmon; beef, round; beef, sirloin; | Pork, spare rib. 
salt codfish; beef, chuck.. Corn (msize) meal; wheat flour; rice; 
beans, dry; wheat bread. 


MEDIUM. 
.15 to .11 pound protein. 1,200 to 700 calories. | 
Mutton, leg; pork, spare rib; beef, rib; | Canned corned beef; beef, rib; beef, sirloin; | 
eggs; fresh codfish. canned salmon; beef, chuck; mutton, leg; | 
Oatmeal; wheat flour. beef, round; eggs. 
SMALL. 
.10 to .06 pound protein. . 700 to 300 calories. 
Smoked ham. ~ Milk; salt codfish. 
Wheat bread; milk crackers; corn (maize) | Potatoes. 
meal; rice. 
VERY SMALL. 
.05 pound and less protein. 300 calories and less. { 
Oysters; salt pork; milk; butter. Oysters; fresh codfish. | 


Potatoes; sugar. 


Before leaving the subject of the composition of food materials, a 
word of caution isin order. The figures in Table A in the Appendix 
represent the averages of the analyses now available. But different 
specimens of the same kind of food materials may vary widely in com- 
position. This is especially true of meats, because of the variations in 
the proportions of bone and of fat. 


CHEAP AND DEAR FOODS. 


To get at the actual cheapness or dearness of different food materials 
we must take into account both the composition and the price. Sup- 
pose, for instance, our would-be thrifty housewife, in buying food at the 


+e 


or 


FOOD AND DIET. 36 
Fic. 81.—PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD. 


Amounts of actually nutritive ingredients obtained in different food materials for 10 cents. 


Protein. Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value. 


=| ZZ wrmmcen 


Protein compounds, e. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and gluten of wheat, 
make muscle, blood, bone, etc. : 
Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, 


Carbohydrates, e. g., starch and sugar, } serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power. 


| 


: en 
Price ts | Pounds of nutrients and calories of fuel value in 10 cents’ 
er | cents 
tig will | worth. 
is “| buy— | 


“Sil 1Lb. ani A os 3 Lbs. 4: Lbs. 
Cents.) Lbs. ———3900Cal. 4000Cal. 6000Cal. 8000Cal. 


00 
(Se) 

A WS 

H) BSS 
a TH 


J a 12 
A: 2 ES OE IE SOOT, 
Beef, sirloin...-.-+---+---+-- in too EP eg Od ee eee 
re 16| .63 j= 
ge ee ee ree 12 3 a= 
Pork, Spare TID... 5-.----.,.. 12 83 — 
SS = } 
Pork, eels, fet.......---..-.. 14 71 E — 
=. ;aaneueen: — 
Eiam. MOKCG-...-2..0.- i002 16 63) |e 
RCL Matta net fend = cee ee 
Cud@el, fresh...+-....2...-. 8 | 1.25 les 
a hy * | Koceieod 
BE ie 
CGGNANO BSED... osc5<.q<esle ms 02. 6 | 1.67 eee 
if 
Oysters, 40 cents quart...-.-. 20 - 50 
ore (REY 
Milk, 6 cents quart.......... ae 
a 
J ee 24 . 42 |e 
Reais SFC vabiee hasta bo Ate 
Cheese .......-.--.------.--. 16 63 j 
. 7 ae 
Eggs, 25 cents dozen........ 163}. 60 
> in ta Tee 
west eI yee 
beasebed isn Cie aun 2 0) ED 


Wheat flour................. 23! 4.00 |p 


VSS" M/sq!'!'!¢$™’'’¢'6’65't 


eh a coi ee OPE 2] 5.00 
“ar ha - nc =Z} Ww : 
ce Sai, ay, le A lr Sh a Lg eet SS BE RE PE Tia | 
~ | | | eer BRT PSOE Sy 
Beans, white, dried......... 4| 2.50 |emcome Wl = 


ys: “illegals aaa 


150 TSi tee alt = seni) Ri Fa Eat 5 2.00 ~ 


WaM€aMHWnryv isian edt ae 


Potatoes, 60 cents bushel...-. 1} 10.00 
; are) i eee). .. key BP aad Sabha | 
CLLLLLELRS ALM LA AM Rete I 


1) Seaee <a ee pene 5 


366 YEARBOOK OF THE U SS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


market for her family, wishes to obtain the largest amount of nutri- 
ment for hermoney. What kind shall she select? To putit in another 
way, How much of tissue formers and fuel value can she obtain for a 
given sum—10 cents, for instance—in beefsteak, flour, or potatoes, as she 
ordinarily buys them? 

lfshe spends her dime for beefsteak at 20 cents a pound, she gets 
half a pound, which supplies 0.08 pound of protem and 550 calories of 
energy; but if she invests the same money in flour at 24 cents a pound, 
she has £4 pounds, with 0.44 pound of protein and 5,680 calories of 
energy. Table B (Human Foods, Appendix) shows the quantities of 
nutrients and energy in 10 cents’ worth of each of a number of food 
materials at ordinary prices. Figure 81 illustrates the differences, and 
Table 2 herewith shows the gradation of a small number: 


TABLE 2.—Classification of food materials by cost of actual nutriment; t.e., by amounts of 
protein and energy in the quantities bought for 10 cents at ordinary prices per pound. 


GRADATION BY AMOUNTS OF PROTEIN IN 10 


CENTS’ WoRTH AT PRICES STATED PER GRADATION BY FUEL VALUES OF 10 CENTS 


WoORTH AT PRICES STATED PER POUND. 


POUND. 
VERY CHEAP. 
.75 to .26 pound protein. 9,000 to 3,000 calories. 
Salt codfish, 6 cents. Wheat flour, 24 cents; corn meai, Z cents; 
Beans, dry, 4 cents; wheat flour, 24 cents ; oat- oat meal, 4 cents; beans,dry, 4 cents; sugar, 
meal, 4 cents; corn meal, 2 cents; wheat 5 cents; rice, 5 cents; potatoes (60 cents 
bread, 4 cents. bushel), 1 cent; wheat bread, 4 cents. 
CHEAP. 
.25 to .18 pound protein. 3,000 to 1,800 calories. 


Canned corned beef, 12 cents; milk (4 cents | Salt pork, 12 cents. 
quart), 2cents; skim milk (3 cents quart), | Milk crackers, 9 cents; wheat bread, 6 cents. 
13 cents. 

Potatoes (60 cents bushel), 1 cent. 


MEDIUM. 
-17 to .13 pound protein. 1,800 to 1,000 calories. 
Cheese, 16 cents; beef, chuck, 12 cents; beef, | Butter, 24 cents; cheese, 16 cents; smoked 
round, 12 cents; fresh codfish, 8 cents. ham, 16 cents; pork, spare rib, 12 cents; 
Wheat bread, 6 cents; rice, 5 cents. skim milk (3 cents quart), 14 cents; milk 


(4 or 6 cents quart), 2-or 3 cents. 


EXPENSIVE. 
-12 to’ .08 pound protein. 1,000 to 59 calories. 
Mutton, leg, 12 cents; pork, spare rib, 12 | Canned corned beef, 12 conts; beef, chuck, 12 
cents; milk (6 cents quart), 3 cents. cents; mutton, leg, 12 cents; beef, rib, 16 
| Milk crackers, 9 cents. eents; beef, round, 12 cents; beef, sirloin, 


18 cents; salt codfish, 6 cents. 


VERY EXPENSIVE. 
07 pound and less protein. 500 calories and less. 


Smoked ham, 16 cents; salt pork, 12 cents; | Fresh codfish, 8 cents; oysters, 30 cents 


oysters, 30 cents quart. | quart. 


FOOD AND DIET. 367 


The most striking fact brought out by all these calculations is the 
difference between the animal and vegetable foods in the actual cost of 
nutriment. Meats, fish, poultry, and the like are expensive, while flour 
and potatoes are cheap food. Thereason of thisis simple. The animal 
foods are made from vegetable products. Making meat from grass 
or grain is costly. An acre of land will produce a given number of 
bushels of wheat, but when the grass or grain which the same land 
would produce is converted into meat it makes much less food than the 
wheat. 


DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD. 


These calculations do not take into account the digestibility of the 
food. In general, the animal foods are somewhat more digestible than 
the vegetable foods. The protein of ordinary meats, for instance, is 
practically all digested when it is eaten in moderate quantities by 
healthy persons, but the same persons might digest only nine-tenths of 
the protein of wheat flour made into bread, and not more than three- 
fourths of that of potatoes. The fat of meats is less completely digested. 
The sugar and starch of vegetable foods, properly cooked, is very easily 
and completely digested.! 


THE FITTING OF FOODS TO THE NEEDS OF THE BODY. 


Different people have different needs for nutriment. All are alikein 
that they must have protein for the building and repair of the bodily 
machine, and fuel ingredients for warmth and work. But they differ 
widely in the amounts and proportions they require, and even among 
those in good health there are many who are obliged to avoid certain 
kinds of food, while invalids and people with weak digestion must often 
have special diet. 

For people in good health and with good digestion there are two 
important rules to be observed in the regulation of thediet. The first 
is to choose the things which “agree” with them, and to avoid those 
which they can not digest and assimilate without harm. The second is 
to use such kinds and amounts of food as will supply all the nutrients 
the body needs and at the same time avoid burdening it with super- 
fluous material to be disposed of at the cost of health and strength. 

For guidance in this selection, nature provides us with instinct, taste, 
and experience. Physiological chemistry adds to these the knowledge— 
still new and far from adequate—of the composition of food and the 


' Detailed statements of the results of experiments upon the digestibility of food 
by man and the effects of cooking upon digestibility may be found in Bulletin No. 
21 of the Office of Experiment Stations of this Department on the Chemistry and 
Economy of Food. Brief explanations regarding the digestibility of food are given 
in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 23 of the same Department. 


3868 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


laws of nutrition. In our actual practice of eating we are apt to be 
influenced too much by taste, that is, by the dictates of the palate; we 
are prone to let natural instinct be overruled by acquired appetite; and 
we neglect the teachings of experience. We need to observe our diet 
and its effects more carefully, and regulate appetite by reason. In doing 
this we may be greatly aided by the knowledge of what our food con- 
tains and how it serves its purpose in nutrition. 

What kinds of food best agree with any individual is a matter to be 
found out by experience. Milk is for most people a very wholesome, 
digestible, and nutritious food, but there are persons who are made 
ill by drinking it; they should avoid milk. The author knows a boy 
who is made seriously ill by eating eggs. A small piece of sweet cake 
in which eggs have been used will cause him serious trouble. The sick- 
ness is nature’s evidence that eggs are, for him, an unfit article of food 
Some people have to avoid strawberries. Indeed, cases in which the 
most wholesome kinds of food are hurtful to individual persons are, 
unfortunately, numerous. 

How it is that food which contains nothing unwholesome can be so 
harmful has always been a mystery until, within a few years past, 
chemistry has begun to explain the changes that food undergoes in the 
body. It appears that in their course through the body the constitu- 
ents of the food are subject to a great variety of chemical changes, 
and that some of the compounds formed may be at times harmful in 
one way or another. Some of the compounds produced from the food 
in the body may be actually poisonous. Different persons are differ- 
ently constituted with respect to the chemical changes which their food 
undergoes and the effects produced, so that it may be literally true that 
‘One man’s meat is another man’s poison.” Every man must learn from 
his own experience what food agrees with him and what does not. 

On the other hand, some foods have at times a great value outside of 
their use for nourishment. Fruits and garden vegetables often benefit 
people greatly, not as nutriment merely, for they may have very little 
of actual nutrients, but because of the vegetable acids or other sub- 
stances which they contain, and which sometimes serve a most useful 
purpose. 

Food does more than to build tissue and yield energy. Whatit does 
in other ways—its value as medicine rather than nutriment—this is not 
the place to discuss. Let us return, then, to our subject, which is food 
economy. 

For the great majority of people in good health the ordinary food 
materials—meats, fish, eggs, milk, butter, cheese, sugar, flour, meal, 
potatoes, and vegetables—make a fitting diet, and the main question 
is to use them in the kinds and proportions fitted to the actual needs 
of the body. This will be best answered by considering the subjects 
of dietaries and dietary standards. 


FOOD AND DIET. 369 


STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIETARIES. 


Various attempts have been made by physiologists and chemists to 
devise standards to represent the amounts of nutrients needed by 
people of different age, sex, and occupation for their daily sustenance, 
There are two great difficulties in the way of setting up such standards, 
The first is that we have not yet enough definite knowledge to say 
exactly how much nutriment the average man or woman who does a 
given kind and amount of work actually needs to keep his or her body 
in good condition, to make blood and muscle and other tissues as they 
are constantly used up, and to serve as fuel to keep the body warm and 
supply it with strength for work. Nor can we yet say just how much 
an average child of a given age and period of growth requires to build 
up its growing body, repair the wastes, and give it warmth and strength 


for its work or play. 


The other difficulty in the way of laying down hard and fast rules to 
regulate the diet is that different individuals of the same class differ 
so widely in their demands for food and in the use they make of it. 
Two men of like age, size, build, and occupation may live and work 
side by side. One will eat more and the other less, while both do the 
same amount of work; or both may eat the same food and do the same 
work, and one will be fat and the other lean; or both may have the 
same diet, and yet one will be strong and vigorous and able to doa 
great deal of work, while the other will be weak and able to accomplish 
but little. Just why individuals differ in their ways of utilizing their 
food, and how to measure the differences and make dietary rules to fit 
them exactly, are problems which the physiological chemist of to-day 
is far from solving. The fact is that the whole subject is new, and the 
accurate investigation thus far made, though quite considerable when 
we get it all together, is far too small for satisfactory conclusions. The 
best we can do with our present knowledge, or rather lack of knowledge, 
of the subject is to make general estimates, with the clear understand- 
ing that they are only rough estimates, and that they apply to average 
rather than individual cases. For that matter, we can never expect to 
reduce this matter of diet to an exact science. The nutrition of man is 
not a mere matter of pounds of protein and units of energy. Even 
when the complex laws of our physical being are learned, if science 
shall reveal them to us in all their fullness, as we can hardly expect 
that it ever will, there will still remain factors outside the domain of 
chemistry and physiology, factors for which no physical measure is now 
or ever can be possible. 

The ordinarily accepted standards for dietaries are estimated in terms 
of “protein,” “fats,” and “carbohydrates.” The amounts of these 
appropriate for daily food for different classes of people under differ- 
ent conditions have been estimated in two ways: 


370 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


(1) By observing the amounts actually consumed by individuals, and 
by groups of people differing in age, sex, occupation, and other conditions 
of life. 

(2) By experiments in which the income and outgo of the body are 
directly compared. Experiments of this sort are made by supplying 
individuals with food of known amount and composition, and determin- 
ing the quantity and composition of the products given off from the 
body. The most valuable researches thus far have been made with the 
so-called respiration apparatus. In these, the food, drink, and inhaled 
air, which make up the income and outgo of the body, are measured, 
weighed, and analyzed. The balance of income and expenditure is 
thus made, and the gain or loss of material of the body, with different 
kinds and amounts of food, and under different conditions of muscular 
exercise and rest, is determined. 

The experiments involve a large amount of labor, but bring corre- 
spondingly complete and reliable results. They are of fundamental 
importance in learning the ways in which food is used in the body, and 
it is for this purpose that most of the respiration experiments have been 
made. The larger part of this kind of experimenting has been with 
domestic animals; only few trials have been made with men. 

An improvement upon this method is now being attempted by several 
investigators. It consists in taking into account the income and outgo 

‘of energy along with the income and outgo of matter. The income of 
energy is measured by the potential energy of the food; the outgo is 
measured by the heat given off from the body and the muscular work 
done. The apparatus used may be called the respiration calorimeter. 
Experimenting with it is even more complex, laborious, and costly than 
with the respiration apparatus, so that while investigators have come 
to see its necessity, extremely few have attempted it,’ and the research 
attempted by them is still in its beginning. Knough has been accom- 
plished to show that the work is feasible and the time is ripe for 
extended and thorough experiments with men of different ages, bodily 
conditions, and callings. 

Our best information regarding dietary standards comes from Ger- 
many, where studies have been made by numerous investigators, such 
as Liebig, and especially Voit and his followers of the Munich sehool of 
physiologists. The names of Payen in France, Playfair in England, 
and Moleschott in Italy deserve especial mention as contributors to our 
knowledge on the subject. It is a noteworthy fact, however, that very 


1Research of this especial kind has been undertaken by Professors Rubner and 
Zosenthal in Germany, Chauveau in I’rance, and Burdon-Sanderson and associates 
in England, and in the writer’s laboratory in Middletown, Conn. The only results 
thus far published, in which the income and outgo of energy have been measured, 
are those of a limited number of experiments by Rubner with dogs. 

A more detailed, though not complete, discussion of the whole subject, including 
dietaries and dietary standards, is given in the bulletin on the Chemistry and Econ- 
omy of Food, mentioned above. 


=” 


FOOD AND DIET. 371 


little attention appears to have been paid in either the United States 
or England to the results of the latest and best research in this direc- 
tion. Even the text-books in chemistry and physiology in the Nnglish 
language, which are looked upon as most authoritative, are too apt to 
pass the subject over most superficially or ignore it. 


DIETARY STANDARDS FOR MEN AT MUSCULAR WORK. 


Let us take, for instance, the case of an average “‘ working” man— 
say a carpenter, blacksmith, or day laborer—who is doing a moderate 
amount of muscular work. To make up for the constant wear and tear 
of muscle, tendon, and other nitrogenous tissue, he must have protein. 
To use his muscles, strength or muscular energy is required. JF urther- 
more, his body must be kept warm. The most of the energy is supplied 
by the fats and carbohydrates, but some come from protein. Our work- 
ingman, then, needs in his daily food (1) enough of protein to make up for 


the protein of muscle and other nitrogenous tissue consumed in his body; 


(2) enough energy to supply the demand for heat and muscular work. 

The problem, then, is this: How much protein, fats, and carbohy- 
drates does the average man, with a moderate amount of manual work 
to do, require in a day’s food? 

A nunber of noted European investigators have made diligent com- 
parisons of the results of their own and other inquiries, and have set 
up certain standards, which are given in Table E, Human Foods, 
Appendix. In Table F are some standards proposed by the author 
after consideration not only of the data which were at the disposal of 
the authorities named above, but also of later ones, especially those 
obtained from the studies of American dietaries. I‘or Americans at 
moderately active or at hard muscular work a more liberal allowance 
of nutrients has been provided than is given by any of the European 
authorities, for the reason, explained in more detail beyond, that people 
in this country work harder and need ampler nourishment than is ecom- 
mon among wage workers in Europe. 


Standards for daily diet of laboring man at moderate muscular work. 


Nutrients in daily food. 


Author. | | 

° | 
Protein.| Fats. sg ~ | Fuel value. 

| | 

Pound Pound. Pounds. | Calories. 

a CR TE a ee ee 0. 26 0.11 1.17 3, 140 
Ett LESEY. 5- satu en aeeea oaks lees cweacexes- 29 . 09 1. 21 3, 160 
NYY Ce IT sins aicketn nd dines apd ae < ha cevecixgsember 44 . 28 | 08 1.19 8, 030 
PE OaRy ORT GIN” sas Scheer ows eae U CAMS AGEs wdc lve neceece . 26 | 12 1.10 3, 055 
Atwater, United States... ..-. 1... seerencecnece-neare 28 | .17—.33 | .88—1, 21 3, 500 


No. 4 of the table, by Professor Voit, of the University of Munich, 
is the one most commonly quoted. It is intended to represent the 
needs of ordinary mechanics and laboring men at their usual work. 


3872 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


It was estimated from the food consumed by such men in Germany, 
and especially in the region of Munich, Bavaria. Voit would have 
somewhat over half of the 0.26 pound of protein of the food of the 
average laboring man at moderate work supplied by meat and other 
animal foods. 

It will be borne in mind that these quantities, like those in the other 
tables of this article, generally refer to the total rather than the digest- 
ible nutrients of the food. Such dietaries as those proposed by Voit 
and the author would contain approximately the following amounts of 
digestible nutrients: 


Fats, |Carbohy- 


Protein. dates 


Pound. | Pound.| Pound. 
For laboring man at moderate work, VOit.......-.------.sessseeeccecene- 0. 25 0. 11 1. 00 
For laboring man at moderate work, Atwater..........--.---------+----- . 30 21 . 88 


Of course, such standards as these represent only general averages. 
Thus Voit, Playfair, and the other physiologists named assume that 
for an ordinary laboring man, doing an ordinary amount of work, the 
amounts of nutrients stated in the table will suffice; that with them 
he will hold his own, and that any considerable excess above these 
quantities will be superfluous. 

No one expects any given man to adjust his diet exactly to either of 
these standards. He may need more, and may perhaps get on with 
less. He may eat more fats and less carbohydrates, or he may consume 
more protein, if he is willing to pay forit. If he has much less protein 
and keeps up his muscular exertion, he will be apt, sooner or later, to 
suffer. But he may increase the fats and diminish the carbohydrates, 
or vice versa, within reasonable limits, without harm, because they both 
do the same work in the body and one may take the place of the other. 

Different individuals, under like conditions, will both require and 
consume different quantities of nutrients. In general, the larger the 
person—that is to say, the bulkier the machinery in his organism—the 
more of protein and other nutrients will be consumed. Hence, men 
need, on the average, more than women. 

The requirements vary with the muscular activity. A man at hard 
work requires more nutrients to make up for the wear and tear of the 
bodily machine aud supply it with fuel than one at lighter work or at 
rest. Aged people, who are generally less active than those in the 
prime of life, require less food. 


THE FOOD OF PEOPLE IN BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL LIFE. 


Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain 
and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which the 
physiological chemist has not yet solved. Brain and nerve contain the 
elements nitrogen and phosphorus, which occur in the protein com- 


FOOD AND DIET. 373 


pounds, but are not found in the true fats or in the sugars and starches, 
which contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. <A natural infer- 
ence is that the protein compounds of the food and certain other 
substances in food, like lecithin, which also contain nitrogen and plos- 
phorus, must be especially concerned in building up brain and nerve 
and keeping them in repair. This is practically as far as our present 
knowledge goes. 

Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question for which 
the answer to-day is no more definite. In general, it appears that the 
man or woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is 
without vigorous physical exercise and does but little of hard muscular 
work, needs much less than the man at hard manual labor, and that 
especially the brain worker needs comparatively little of carbohydrates 
and fats. 

Many physicians, physiologists, and students of hygiene have the 
very firm conviction that well-to-do people, whose work is mental 
rather than physical, eat too much; that the diet of people of this class 
as @ whole is one-sided as well as excessive, and that the principal 
evil is in the use of too much fat, starch, and sugar. 

The facts of accurate experiment and observation upon this point 
are meager, but, such as they are, they tend to confirm this view very 
emphatically. Let us briefly consider some facts drawn from a review 
of all the reliable studies of the food of men in professional life which 
have been reported in the literature of the subject to which the author 
has had access. They include dietaries of 2 university professors, 3 
lawyers, 3 physicians, and 5 medical studerts in Hesse-Nassau, Bavaria, 
Denmark, and Sweden—in all, 8 dietaries of 14 persons in HEurope—and 
those of 1 retired merchant, 3 chemists, 2 college professors, and 4 
boarding clubs of students in a college and in a theological school— 
in all, 10 dietaries of nearly 130 persons in Connecticut. The college 
students were mostly from a considerable number of Northern and 
Kastern States. Figure 82 shows the quantities of nutrients and 
energy in a number of these dietaries as compared with the dietary 
standards. | 

We may notice first some of the details of the European dietaries. 
Those of the two professors, one in the University of Marburg and the 
other in that of Munich, were studied by the gentlemen themselves 
with especial care. There was no restriction upon their diet; the at- 
tempt was to find how much food sufficed for the actual demand. Both 
were men of good health, vigorous, and in the prime of life. They had 
in their daily food, respectively, 0.20 pound and 0.22 pound of protein 
and 2,565 and 2,325 calories of energy. The three lawyers and two of 
the physicians lived in Munich, and were selected by Professor Forster, 
who made the studies, as individuals typical of their class. They were 
young, vigorous, well-to-do, and well nourished. The lawyers averaged 
0.18 pound of protein and 2,400 calories; the physicians, who very 


374 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


likely had more exercise, 0.28 pound of protein and 2,765 calories, 
The third physician, who lived in Copenhagen, had 0.30 pound of 
protein and 2,800 calories per day. The students were in Stockholm. 
They worked several hours per day in the laboratory, so that their oecu- 
pation partook somewhat of the character of that of mechanics with 


Fic. 82.—DIETARIES AND DIETARY STANDARDS. 
Quantities of nutrients and energy in food per man per day. 


ce aii Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value. 


RS 8 
| So 


"Protein pompous c. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and gluten of wheat make 
muscle, blood, bone, etc. 
Fats, e. g. fat of meat, butter, and oil, 


Carbohydr ates, ©. ¢., starch ail sugar,  beerve as fuel to yield heat and musoular power. 


Nutritive ingredients (actual nutrients) 
Fuel value ’ 


Underfed laborers, Italy 


Students, Japan 


Lawyer, Germany 


Physician, Germany 


Physician, Denmark 
Well-fed tailor, England 


Laborers at active work, England 


Well-paid mechanics, Germany 
Miners at severe work, Prussia 


Mechanics at moderate work, Sweden 


Mechanics at severe work, Sweden 


ee 


Chemist, Connecticut 


College professor, Connecticut 


College students, Northern States 


Mason, Connecticut 


Glassblower, Massachusetis 


Blacksmith, Connecticut 


Factory operatives, Massachusetts 


Brickmaker at hard work, Massachusetts 


Machinist at hard work, Massachusetts 


Dietary standards. 


Man with little museular work 


Man at moderate work 


; 
Man at severe work ES —— == Mebetiietetenatia’, 


light muscular work. They averaged 0.28 pound of protein and 3,035 
ealories of energy. 

The order of the dietaries in respect to amounts eaten is interesting. 
Of the men engaged in professional duties, the professors and the law- 
yers, who would be presumed to have the least muscular exercise, con- 


FOOD AND DIET. 375 


sumed the least food. The physicians, who, in the daily practice of 
their profession, would be expected to have more exercise, consumed 
more food. The peopie in Munich consumed the least, and those in 
the more northerly and colder latitudes of Denmark and Sweden the 
most. With the less muscular exercise and the warmer climate was 
the smaller, and with the more muscular activity and the colder cli- 
mate was the larger, food consumption. This coincidence may be acci- 
dental, but it is worth noticing. 

The important fact for our present purpose is this: Here are a con- 
siderable number of men in comfortable circumstances, able to provide 
themselves with ample food, and living in circumstances which would 
seem to favor proper nutrition. Their labor is mainly intellectual and 
their muscular work light. Their food contains from 0.18 to 0.30 pound 
of protein, and from 2,325 to 3,035 calories of energy per day. The 
average is 0.23 pound of protein and 2,670 calories of energy. For 
the active study or professional practice in which they are engaged, 
their nutriment is ample. 

Let us now compare with these the dietaries of the professional men 
and students in Connecticut. As the waste may have been larger here 
than in the European dietaries, and we do not wish to exaggerate the 
difference between the two, we will compare the food actually eaten 
by the people in Connecticut with the total food supplied to the Euro- 
peans. In the 5 dietaries of as many families in Connecticut, 1 of a 
retired merchant, 3 of college professors, and 1 of a chemist, the pro- 
tein ranged from 0.20 to 0.26 pound and averaged 0.24 pound, while 
the energy ranged from 3,205 to 4,080, and averaged 3,560 calories. 
Compared with the dietaries of the professional men in Germany and 
Denmark, those in Connecticut had a very little more protein and 
nearly one-half more fuel value. 

The majority of the students in the Connecticut college were from 
the New England and Middle States. The same was true of those in 
the theological school, who were nearly all college graduates, a little 
older and somewhat less given to athletic sports and other kinds of 
physical exercise. Each of the clubs in which they boarded was man- 
aged by one of the number, who selected the food to suit their taste. 
It seems fair to assume that their eating habits were such as they had 
acquired at home; that,in other words, they represented the class of 
people in New England and the Middle States whose sons go to college. 
In the dietaries of these 115 young men the protein ranged from 0.20 
to 0.31 pound and the energy from 3,085 to 4,825 calories. The average 
for protein was 0.26 pound, and that for fuel value, 3,720 calories. Of 
the Swedish students, there were only 5 dietaries of 5 individuals. 
These averaged 0.28 pound of protein and 3,035 calories. The number 
of persons for the comparison with the American students is small. 
The difference is less, but in general character it is the same as in the 
cases of the men in professional practice. 


376 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Did the professor and chemists in Connecticut require so much nutri- 
ment, when professors and physicians in Germany and Denmark are 
well nourished with so much less? Did the American students need 
food with so much more fuel value than the Swedish students? It 
seems to me very decidedly not. 

The lower nutritive standard of the European as compared with the 
American wage worker coincides with his smaller income, which for- 
bids generous diet, and his smaller capacity for work. But these Euro- 
pean professional men and students were able to eat all they needed, 
and it might be difficult to prove that the intellectual activity of the 
American men of like calling was so much greater as to call for so great 
an excess of protein and fuel value in their food. 

Doubtless, we live and work more intensely than people do in Europe. 
We also take more outdoor exercise. Students with us are, fortunately, 
much more given to athletic exercise than are German students. Pos- 
sibly the medical students in Stockholm may have been so much more 
active physically than the young physicians in Munich and the other 
professional men in Germany as to need the ampler diet which they 
enjoyed. And it may very well be that the gentlemen in Connecticut 
used their muscles more and lived at higher tension than those on the 
other side of the Atlantic, and on these accounts needed more nutri- 
ment. But it is hard to see how they could have required food with a 
50 per cent higher fuel value. 


DIETARIES OF LABORING PEOPLE—FOOD, WORK, AND WAGES IN THE 
UNITED STATES AND IN EUROPE. 


In 21 dietaries of mechanics, carpenters, cabinetmakers, coopers, 
locksmiths, shoemakers, farm laborers, and other wage workers in Ger- 
many, mostly in Bavaria, all of whom were counted as well-to-do for 
people of their class and were engaged in moderately hard work, the 
smallest quantity of food per man per day had a fuel value of 1,405 
calories, and the largest 5,285, the average being 3,135. In 20 dietaries 
of factory and mill operatives, mechanics, and other laboring people in 
Massachusetts and Connecticut, who were also engaged in ordinary 
work, the smallest dietary furnished 3,055, the largest 5,340, and the. 
average just about 4,000 calories. The people in New England whose 
food consumption is thus summarized included avery large percentage 
of factory operatives, whose standard of living was low as compared 
with that of the wage workers of the region generally, and yet their 
food was nearly one-third more nutritious than that of the better class 
of wage workers at ordinarily hard work in Germany. 

In 11 dietaries of iron and steel workers, miners, brickmakers, and 
other wage workers in Prussia and Bavaria, who were counted as doing 
“hard” and ‘‘severe” work, the smallest furnished 3,365, the largest 
5,690, and the average 4,390 calories per man per day. In 6 dietaries 
of machinists, blacksmiths, brickmakers, and others in Massachusetts 


FOOD AND DIET. 377 


and Connecticut, also counted as doing “hard” and “ severe” muscular 
work, the smallest furnished 4,250, the largest 7,805, and the average 
5,710 calories. Here, again, the wage workers in Massachusetts and 
Connecticut were better nourished by one-third than those in Bavaria 
and Prussia. 

In 40 dietaries of the people of the poorer classes in Prussia and 
Saxony the fuel value averaged 2,566 calories. The food of 25 families 
in the poorest part of Philadelphia averaged 3,235, and that of 36 fam- 
ilies in the poorest part of Chicago, 3,425 calories. ‘The poor people in 
the two American cities were better nourished by half than those 
referred to in Leipsic, Munich, and elsewhere in Germany. 

The inhabitants of Saxony and Bavaria rank well among the popu- 
lation of Europe in respect to industry and thrift. Those whose food 
consumption is here reported were selected by investigators there as 
typical for their respective classes. Among the people whose dietaries 
were studied in Massachusetts and Connecticut were many (those in 
Philadelphia and Chicago were chiefly, foreigners whose standard of 
living and food consumption we should hardly expect to be up to the 
level of those of the native population. The statistics are not sufficient 
for a just comparison between the wage workers of the two countries, 
but, in so far as they go, they imply very distinctly that people here are 
very much better fed than there. 

During the last dozen years the author has conversed with many 
observers, including a considerable number of statisticians of the best 
repute in the United States and in Europe, and has found among them 
a practical unanimity of opinion to the effect that the workingman in 
this country is much the more efficient. The statistics regarding this 
subject are very meager. Accurate details are much to be desired. 
An investigation which should bring them is certainly called for. 
Meanwhile it would seem reasonably safe to assume that the consensus 
of observers is right as to the general principle that, on the whole, peo- 
ple in the United States do more work than do people in Europe. 

Regarding wages on the two sides of the Atlantic, the statistics are 
very extensive, and the advantage in favor of the American working- 
man is a familiar fact. 

Discussions of this sort are entirely outside of the province of the 
chemist, but to a layman in political economy the parallelism between 
food, work, and wages in the United States and in Europe is very 
striking. 


THE NUTRITION OF THE WORKINGMAN AND HIS ELEVATION. 


Among the standard illustrations of the relation between the food 
consumed and the work done is that of the experience with English 
and French workingmen in the building of a railroad many years agoin 
the north of France. The contractor, the well-known Englishman, Mr. 
Brassey, found that the English navvies were much more efficient than 


378 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the irench laborers with the pick and shovel. But, on looking into 
the matter, it appeared that the Englishmen were much the better fed, 
and when more food was given to the Frenchmen there was a corre- 
sponding increase in the work which they performed. 

Among the persons engaged in the railroad enterprise thus referred 
to was a young Englishman who afterwards came to this country and 
became very prominent as an employer of labor and manager of large 
manuiacturing enterprises. Among his observations are some of great 
interest. He says that he has had occasion to observe large numbers 
of English laborers who have come to this country and entered his 
employ, and that the change which comes over many of them is very 
noticeable. Under the stimuius of the larger experience, the more 
favorable surroundings, and better opportunities, their ambition is 
excited, they try to see what they can make of themselves, and the 
result is a noteworthy development in their personal character as well 
as in their working capacity. 

This last observation is very suggestive. The merely physical fac- 
tors—food, clothing, and shelter—are not enough to elevate a man. 
There must be the conditions about him and the spirit within him to 
enable him to utilize them. The material conditions, environment, 
and spirit must all be present if he is to rise to the level where a man 
ought to live. 

The facts and observations above cited have a profound significance. 
The dietary statistics, taken with the collateral facts, lead to the infer- 
ence that ordinary people have with us what only the exceptionally 
well fed have on the other side of the Atlantic—the food they need to 
make the most of themselves and their work. Indeed, is it not safe to 
say that, so far as the facts at hand go, they imply very distinctly that 
to the American workingman is vouchsafed the priceless gift which is 
denied to most people of the world, namely, the material conditions, 
including especially the liberal nourishment, which are essential to 
large production, high wages, and the highest physical existence, and 
that, as a corollary, he has a like peculiar opportunity for intellectual 
and moral development and progress? The saddest part of the pic- 
ture that one sees among the industrious and worthy members of the 
poorly paid and poorly fed classes in Kurope is not the physical want, 
but the spiritual poverty, the lack of buoyancy, the mute, hopeless 
endurance of their lives. And, by contrast, the happiest feature in 
the condition of wage workers with us is not simply that they have 
better food, better clothing, better houses, and a better material exist- 
ence in general, but that they have what is more important—and these 
things help to bring them—the vigor, the ambition, the hope for higher 
things, and that their effort leads them to the realization of their hope. 

The general principle here urged is that liberal food, large production, 
and higher wages go together. If this be true, the connection between 
the American’s generous diet and his high wages is very clear. ‘The 
question naturally follows, What is to be done for the future mainte- 


FOOD AND DIET. 379 


nance of the position of our laboring people at home and in their com- 
petition with others in the markets of the world? Part of the answer, 
at any rate, must be sought in a reform in the purchase and use of 
food. Instead of our present wastefulness, there must be future saving. 
With increase of population and closer competition with the rest of the 
world, the abundance which tempts us to our lavishness must grow 
gradually less, and closer economy will be needed for living on our pres- 
ent plane of nutrition. 


FOOD OF PEOPLE WITH SCANTY NOURISHMENT, 


The statistics of the food consumption of people of the poorer classes 
deserve more notice than can be given to them here. Studies of fam- 
ilies in Philadelphia and Chicago were made at the College Settlements 
in the former, and at the Hull House in the latter city, by Miss Amelia 
B. Shapleigh, as holder of the Dutton fellowship of the College Settle. 


‘ments Association. They represent a line of inquiry for which the 


College Settlements are in peculiarly favorable situation to carry out 
by virtue of their intimate and sympathetic relation with the people in 
the poorer quarters of the cities, where they are located. The varia- 
tions in the quantities of nutriment, as ascertained in these investiga- 
tions, are very wide. Here are the figures for pounds of protein and 
fuel value of the food per man per day: 


Calories. 


Protein, 


Twenty-five families in the poorest part of Philadelphia: Pound. | 
SS AL SE a ae a a 0. 45 | 5, 235 
SEE METCRIEET,, MCMED TORII 56 ooo one cece emesis enc cerenwcnrsccmnareceee 15 1, 630 
EY Gar Ma CNRS ey 58S Sa) 2s nn ck ees etvinn domi de vesaene bomen’ a | 3, 235 

Twenty-six families in the poorest part of Chicago: : 

OCIS oo ini> ane netics enn ss-- = DETER 31 4, 950 
i se tas ote ass sac cche ss hese viae agar dna ncn eendgs veseeanen | 2, 195 
TY MGT? os Senet acta ceee ecco ccc scp es eceuascees etre esctses 26 3, 425 


The standard above proposed for a man at moderate work calls for 
0.28 pound of protein and a fuel value of 3,500 calories. Voit's Ger- 
man standard calls for 0.26 pound of protein and 3,050 calories of 
energy. It would appear that these people have on the average about 
enough for normal nourishment. Assuming them to be engaged in 
moderately hard muscular labor, the figures give them more than the 
accepted Huropean standards provide, and very nearly as much as is 
called for in the more liberal American standard. The food of the Ger- 
man family, with 0.45 pound of protein and 5,235 calories of fuel value, 
was excessive unless the members were doing very hard muscular work. 
But while some had so much—and here is the sad story the figures 
tell—others were underfed. Men with only 1,600 calories of energy in 
their daily food live on a very low nutritive level. 

This low level of nutrition appears in the dietaries of poor people in 
Europe. The condition of many of these people, as depicted in the 


3880 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


detailed accounts of their ways of living and their nutrition, is most 
pathetic. These accounts describe factory girls with wages of $1.20 
and Jess per week and 1,600 calories of energy in their daily food; 
families of mechanics and laborers that are no better nourished; and 
whole communities whose incomes, nutrition, and standards of living 
are on @ plane far below anything of which most people in the United 
States have any conception. 

Neither the European nor the American figures for food consump- 
tion thus cited are absolutely correct. Very few of them represent 
accurate measurements, weighings, and analyses of the food; the major- 
ity are more or less crude estimates. Furthermore, they represent, in 
most cases, the food purchased, and make no allowance for amounts 
wasted, which doubtless averaged much larger in the American than 
in the European dietaries. A considerable deduction for such waste, 
perhaps 5 and possibly as much as 10 per cent, would have to be made 
from the quantities given for the American dietaries to put them on the 
same basis with the European. 

The American figures are nearly all from Massachusetts and Con- 
necticut. The European come very largely from Germany, and espe- 
cially from Saxony and Bavaria. It would be going too far to assume 
that the figures, if they were entirely accurate for the cases studied, 
would be exact measures of the food consumption in the localities 
where the studies were made. It would be still less justifiable to claim 
that the New England dietaries here given represent accurately the 
average food consumption for working people in the whole United 
States, or that the German dietaries cited are typical for wage workers 
throughout Europe. It is difficult to avoid the impression that, in so 
far.as the figures fail to represent the average facts on the two sides 
of the Atlantic, the American data come fully as near, if not nearer, 
to the average conditions in the United States than the German ones 
do to the conditions in central and western Europe, for we have not 
in the United States the large numbers of the underfed poor who are 
so numerous among the working classes there. In other words, while 
there seems to be no reason to think that the people in New England, 
whose dietaries have been studied are better fed than the average 
people of their occupations elsewhere in the United States, there does 
seem to be good reason to doubt whether factory operatives, mechanics, 
and other wage workers in general on the continent of Europe have as 
abundant and nutritious food as the tabulated results of the dietary 
studies thus far made imply and the dietary standards of Voit and others 
call for. 


NUTRITION AND WORKING POWER—THE BODY AS A MACHINE. 


The thesis defended in this article is that, to make the most out of a 
man, to bring him up to the desirable level of productive capacity, to 
enable him to live as a man ought to live, he must be well fed. This 


FOOD AND DIET. 381 


is only part of the story, but it is an essential part. The principle is 
one that reaches very deep into the philosophy of human living. 

Part of the principle is found in the fact that the human body is a 
machine. Its efficiency for muscular work depends upon how strongly 
it is built, and how much fuel is used to give it power. If a machine 
is strong, well built, and in good order, the work it does will, within 
certain limits, vary with the fuel. The bodily machine, however, dif. 
fers from those made of iron and steel in that its building material and 
fuel are from the same source, namely, the food. A well-nourished 
body is a machine with abundance of good material for building and 
repair, and well supplied with the most effective fuel. 

So long as a man’s labor is the labor of his hands, so leng as his 
power to work depends upon his use of his body as a machine, so Jong 
will the amount of work he can do be more or less as he has more or 
less ample nourishment. 

Of course, a workingman is more than a machine. His capacity for 
work depends upon more than brute force. There is no wish to under- 
rate the other factors of the wage worker’s efficiency—environment, 
intelligence, skill (especially in the management of machinery), ambi- 
tion, and will power. The point is that, among the factors, food is one, 
and @ more important one than is commonly realized. 


ERRORS IN OUR FOOD ECONOMY. 


Scientific research, interpreting the observations of practical life, 
indicates that we make a fourfold mistake in our food economy. First, 
we purchase needlessly expensive kinds of food. We use the costlier 
kinds of meat, fish, vegetables, and the like, when the less expensive 
ones are just as nutritious, and, when rightly cooked, are just as pala- 
table. Many do this under the impression that there is some peculiar 
virtue in the dear food materials, and that economy in their diet is 
somehow detrimental to their dignity or their welfare. And, unfortu- 
nately, those who are most extravagant in this respect are often the 
ones who can least afford it. Secondly, our diet is apt to be one-sided. 
It often does not contain the different nutritive ingredients in the proper 
proportions. We consume relatively too much of the fuel ingredients 
of food—those which are burned in the body and yield heat and mus- 
cular power. Such are the fats of meat and butter, the starch which 
makes up the larger part of the nutritive material of flour, potatoes, 
and sugar, of which such enormous quantities are eaten in the United 
States. Conversely, we have relatively too little of the protein or flesh- 
forming substances, like the lean of meat and fish and the gluten of 
wheat, which make muscle and sinew, and which are the basis of blood, 
bone, and brain. Thirdly, we use excessive quantities of food. This 
is true not only of the well-to-do but of many people in moderate cir- 
cumstances also. Part of the excess which is bought is thrown away 
in the wastes of the kitchen and the table, so that the injury to health 


83882 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


from overeating, great as it may be, is doubtless much less than if all 
of the food we buy were actually eaten. Probably the worst sufferers 
from this evil are the well-to-do people of sedentary occupations—brain 
workers as distinguished from hand workers. Not everybody eats too 
much; indeed, there are some who do not eat enough for healthful nour- 
ishment. But there are those, and their name is legion, with whom the 
eating habit is as vicious in its effect on health as the drinking habit, 
which is universally deplored. Fourthly and finally, we are guilty of 
serious errors in our cooking. We waste a great deal of fuel in the 
preparation of our food, and even then a great deal of the food is very 
badly cooked. A reform in the methods of cooking is cone of the eco- 
nomic demands of our time. 


PURCHASE OF NEEDLESSLY EXPENSIVE KINDS OF FOOD. 


One of the ways in which the worst economy is practiced is in the 
buying of high-priced foods. For this error, prejudice, the palate, and 
poor cooking aremainlyresponsible. Thereis aprevalent butunfounded 
idea that costly foods, such as the tenderest meats, the finest fish, the 
highest-priced butter, the choicest flour, and the most delicate vege- 
tables possess some peculiar virtue which is lacking in the less expen- 
sive materials. Many people who have small incomes and really wish 
to economize think it beneath them to use the cheaper meats and inex- 
pensive but substantial groceries. Many, too, labor under the false 
impression that the costly food materials are somehow essential and 
economical. The maxim that “the best is the cheapest” does not 
apply to food. The “best” food, in the sense of that which is the finest 
in appearance and flavor and is sold at the highest price, is rarely the 
most economical for people in good health. The food that is best fitted 
to the real wants of the user may be of the very kind which supplies 
the most nutriment at the lowest cost. 

Illustrations of the relative cheapness and dearness of food materials 
were given in the previous pages. What is here urged is that the 
facts are not understood, and that the ignorance results in great waste 
of hard-earned money. If a man has an income of $5,000 a year, he 
can afford tenderloin steak, oysters at 50 cents a quart, and young 
chicken and early strawberries at the high prices that prevail when 
they first come into the market. He can likewise, if he wishes, pay 
$100 for an overcoat, and his wife may indulge in twenty-dollar bon- 
nets. But if his yearly income is only $1,000, these luxuries will be 
beyond his means, and if he has but $500 a year for the support of his 
family, such extravagance would be unpardonable. So far as the over- 
coat and bonnet are concerned, everyone would agree to this statement, 
but when it comes to a matter of food economy a great many people 
of small incomes would object to the principle most decidedly. | 

The larger part of the price of the costlier foods is paid for appear- 
ance, flavor, or rarity. The sirloin of beef is no more digestible or 


FOOD AND DIET. 383 


nutritious than round or rib, although it is more tender, and to cook it 
so as to get the finest flavor is an easier matter. Saddle Rock oysters, 
fresh from the shell, at 50 cents a quart, are worth no more for nutvi- 
ment than the ones that are sold in the same market at half the price, 
and a quart of milk contains as much nutriment and in fully as digest- 
ible form as either. Salmon has no higher food value in the first of the 
season at $1 than later at 25 cents a pound, and at either time it ranks 
as food just about on a level with mackerel, which is often sold at 10 
cents per pound or less. ‘he expensive food materials are like the 
expensive articles of adornment. They are very nice if one can afford 
them, but they are not economical. The plain, substantial, standard 
food materials, like the cheaper meats and fish, milk, flour, corn meal, 
oatmeal, beans, and potatoes, are as digestible and nutritious and as 
weli fitted for the nourishment of people in good health as any of the 
costliest materials the markets afford. 

In the traditional diet of the Scotchman, oatmeal and herring are 
very prominent. Both contain large quantities of protein and thus 
supplement potatoes and flour and make a well-balanced diet. These 
materials are of the cheapest kinds, but they are none the less nutri- 
tious on that account, and the strongest possible evidence of their 
fitness for nourishment is found in the physical and mental vigor of 
the people nourished by them. 

The case is similar with the famous New England dishes of codfish 
and potatoes, pork and beans, and bread and milk. These are all com- 
paratively inexpensive. Potatoes furnish a great deal of fuel material 
in the form of starch, but they lack protein. The nutritive material 
of codfish consists of protein and little else. <A little fat in the form 
of butter added to the protein of the codfish and the starch of the pota- 
toes makes a well-balanced, digestible, and nutritious food. Beans are 
likewise rich in protein, and have large quantities of carbohydrates 
also, but they are lacking in fat. When they are heated in water and 
then baked with a little fat pork, they make a dish which is chemically 
rational, gratifying to the palate, highly nutritious, and very inexpen- 
sive. Milk is one of the most nutritious of foods. Bread is the very 
“staff of life.” It is not well to live on bread alone, but meat and milk 
go well with it, and experience anticipated chemistry by centuries in 
certifying to the value of such combinations. The inhabitants of the 
country districts of New England have not lacked in sturdiness of mind 
or body with such things as these for nourishment. Doubtless, one 
reason why this diet, at once so rational and so well chosen, came into 
yogue was that it was so economical. But the low cost alone could 
hardly explain the use of codfish and beans to furnish protein to sup- 
plement the carbohydrates of wheat flour, corn meal, and potatoes, and 
the fat of pork, and thus make fit nourishment for such people as the 
early New Englanders and their descendants have proved themselves 
to be. Their dietary practice is instinctive, but is it not one of those 


384 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


cases where the experience of communities and generations has been, 
unconsciously, but none the less accurately and surely, formulated 
into unerring instinct? It was “plain living, with high thinking.” If 
there had been luxury to tempt, instead of necessity to restrain, doubt- 
less the earlier generations of people in this region might long since 
have acquired the evil habits of food selection which are so prevalent 
to-day. 

The writer has spoken of the dietary usages in New England because 
he is personally more familiar with them and because most of the diet- 
ary studies thus far made are of people in that part of the country. 
All that he has observed implies that the conditions are much the same 
in other parts of the country. Theinvestigations now beginning in the 
West and South will doubtless throw much light upon the dietary 
practices there. 


WASTE OF FOOD. 


The studies of food consumption above cited give a number of illus- 
trations of the waste of food. Among the dietaries examined by the 
Massachusetts labor bureau was that of a machinist in Boston who 
earned $3.25 per day. The following figures show what the dietary 
furnished, its cost, and how it might have been altered: 


Protein. Energy.| Cost. 


Pound. | Calories. | Cents. 


meted PurChAased. a); 271.20 cus anceea~ <nk eee eee ne = eae ot aka Clea seme 0. 40 5, 640 47 
If one-half the meats, fish, lard, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, sugar, and 
molasses had been sulbtracted’..-- . s.sosce se eceloee nisis eae eee eye tetena lo -12 1, 650 19 


cases re 
Théere:-would haveyremained|:224 ;ocssee cece. Sasol See a mete eee eee . 28 3, 990 | 28 


The standard proposed by the author for a laboring man at moder- 
ately hard work provides 0.28 gram of protein and a fuel value of 3,500 
calories. This man was engaged in rather hard work and may have 
needed more. His family, however, consisted only of himself and wife. 
The calculations allowed his wife eight-tenths as much as himself. If 
she had the muscular work of an ordinary housekeeper, even the reduced 
dietary would have been excessive for her, and a share of that thus 
allotted to her would have been available for her husband. In other 
words, by the above calculation, the family might have dispensed with 
one-half of all their meats, fish, eggs, dairy products, and sugar, thus 
saving 40 per cent of the whole cost of their food, and still have had 
all of the protein and much more fuel value than is called for by a 
standard supposed to be liberal. 

In this instance no attempt was made to learn how much of the food 
purchased was actually consumed and how much was rejected, but, for — 
the sake of the health of this man and his wife, it is to be hoped that 
a large part of the food went into the garbage barrel. | 


FOOD AND DIET. 385 


In the case of a college students’ boarding club, of which three sue- 
cessive dietaries were studied, estimates were made of the waste. In 
the first dietary the quantity of food purchased was so large as to sup- 
ply 5,345 calories per man per day. The matron who attended to the 
cooking of the food and the care of the table was a very intelligent, capa- 
ble woman who had been selected because of her especial fitness for the 
care of such an establishment. The steward, who purchased the food, 
had been chosen as a man of business capacity. Both thought that 
but little of the food was left unconsumed. “AIl the meat and other 
available food that was not actually delivered to the men at the table,” 
said the steward, “was carefully saved and made over into croquettes. 
Men who work their way through college can not afford to throw away 
their food.” Butactual examination showed that about one-tenth of the 
food was thrown away with the table and kitchen refuse, so that the 
amount actually eaten was 4,825 calories. The next term the food was 
reduced so as to furnish 3,875 calories in that purchased; but over 
one-tenth was rejected, so that the amount actually eaten was 3,415 
calories. In the third dietary the fuel value of the food purchased was 
3,680 calories, but in this case the waste amounted to about one- 
seventh, so that the amount eaten was 3,110 calories. Even this was 
certainly a very liberal allowance physiologically, and it was entirely 
satisfactory to the club. 

Another form of waste is that which comes with the trimming out of 
the bone and fat of meat at the butchers’ shops. People often do not 
care to utilize the bone for soup, valuable as it is for the purpose; and 
many object to the large lumps of fat, which is entirely natural in view 
of the excess of fat in our ordinary diet. The butcher, in his haste, is 
apt to cut out more or less of the lean with the bone and fat, and his 
customers are generally so little inclined to economize as to make no 
objections. 

The waste of food of which we are speaking is really worse from the 
pecuniary standpoint than it seems, because so much of the material 
rejected at the table, as well as at the butcher’s, consists of meat, in 
which the nutritive ingredients are in their costliest forms. The protein 
of beef, for instance, is several times as expensive as that of flour. 

Just where and among what classes of people this waste of food is 
worst it is not possible to say, but there is certainly a great deal more 
of it in the United States than in Europe. There may be more in 
boarding houses than in private families, and still more in hotels and 
restaurants. The worst sufferers from it are, doubtless, the poor, but 
the large body of people of moderate means, the intelligent and fairly 
well-to-do wage workers, are guilty of similar errors in this regard. 


THE FOOD OF THE POOR. 


That the rich man becomes richer by saving, and the poor man poorer 
by wasting his money, is one of the commonest facts of experience. 
The most wasteful people in their food economy are the peor. Not 

S ADS 15 


386 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


only do they waste in the same ways as the well-to-do, but often, if not 
generally, they are less inclined to economize, and the sad side of the 
story is that their wastefulness deprives them of the comforts and even 
necessities of life which otherwise they might enjoy. 

Sometimes this bad economy is due only to ignorance. The School 
of Sociology in Hartford, Conn., is undertaking some inquiries into the 
food supply in that city. The first family visited was that of an Irish 
coal laborer, who earns $8 a week when he has full work. The week 
the inquiry was begun he earned a little over $6; the week before he 
had only work enough to bring $2.50. The family consists of himself, 
wife, and five children. The day on which the inquiry began they 
spent 35 cents for bread. Service as a cook in a well-to-do family before 
she was married had shown the mother how to make good bread. She 
had plenty of spare time to make it at home, and 13 cents would have 
paid for the flour, yeast, and other materials, including the extra coal, 
needed to make the day’s supply, which she had bought of the baker. 
She had not thought so far as to see that she might thus have easily 
saved 23 cents adayin thatitem alone. She was, however, wise enough 
not to get the highest-priced meats, and she did try in various ways 
to economize as best she knew how. But, nevertheless, she bought eggs 
at 25 cents a dozen, not realizing that they were for her a very dear 
food. The result of the examination of the dietary showed it to supply 
just about four-fifths as much nutriment as the American standard 
above quoted would require for people at moderate muscular work. 
By wiser management the family might have had the full amount at 
considerably less cost. 

One fruitful source of this bad economy is the prejudice against the 
cheaper kinds of food, and the impression that the finer and costlier kinds 
have some special virtue. With this is a false pride which considers 
economy in food a thing unworthy of the buyer’s dignity. <A series of 
investigations lately begun in New York City have brought out some 
striking illustrations of this unfortunate fact. Among the families vis- 
ited is one of seven persons, so poor that the mother has not a dress in 
which she is willing to be seen on the street of even the poor quarter 
where she lives. She therefore stays in the house day after day, giv- 
ing herseif up to constant drudgery. The cost of food for the family is 
$14 per week, or $2 per person. The markets of New York, including 
those of this district, afford excellent food at extremely low prices, so 
that the family might be well nourished at half the expense. But 
these people, some of whom really wish to economize, are the victims 
of atheory. They think they must have “the best.” They buy the 
nicest and costliest cuts of beef, the tenderest chicken, the earliest 
spring vegetables, and other things in like manner, and pay high prices 
for them. They will doubtless continue to do so until they learn that — 
their policy is an unwise one, and why it is unwise. 


FOOD AND DIET. 387 


The especial attention of economists, teachers, physicians, and clergy- 
men is invited to this subject. To the statistician, the economist, and 
the sociologist, it is certainly inviting. The fundamental facts that the 
cost of food absorbs half the wage worker’s earnings, and that his 
capacity for work is so intimately dependent upon his diet, justify this 
assertion. ‘To the investigator there is the special attraction that the 
subject is comparatively new and that the field of inquiry is one which 
is only beginning to be explored. Itis due largely to the farsighted 
appreciation of this principle by Dr. Carroll D. Wright that a consider- 
able share of the data cited in the previous pages have been gathered, 
since his cooperation as chief of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor, 
and later of the United States Department of Labor, made the investi- 
gations possible. 

In his last annual report the Secretary of Agriculture has called 
attention to the desirability of instruction regarding food economy in 
the common schools of the country. A communication lately received 
from Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, gives 
emphatic support to the same proposition. Conversations with a num- 
ber of leading educators upon the subject have shown a surprising and 
gratifying unanimity of conviction in this regard. Doubtless, the reason 
why the subject has not been more dwelt upon in the past is that the 
science has been so little developed. But the research of later years 
has certainly brought enough material for a chapter, and a most useful 
one, in the schooibooks, and there is a prospect that such a chapter will 
be introduced in a number of the text-books on physiology which are in 
use in the schools of the country. 


NEED OF RESEARCH. 


What is now most needed is research. Of the fundamental laws of 
nutrition we know as yet too little. Of the actual practice of people 
in their food economy our knowledge is equally deficient. It is, there- 
fore, most fortunate that, among the forms of inquiry which are being 
prosecuted by the General Government in the interests of the people, 
the study of the food and nutrition of man has at length come to be 
included. At the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, an appro- 
priation of $10,000 was made by Congress for the current fiseal year 
for investigations on the nutritive value of human foods, with a view to 
determining ways in which the dietaries of our people might be made 
more wholesome and economical. The supervision of this work was 
assigned to the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, and the 
writer was appointed special agent in charge of the investigations. 
Studies of food supply and consumption, and of the dietaries of people 
of different occupations, have been begun in a number of representa- 
tive localities, both North and South. In some of these inquiries the 
special object is to find what food materials people actually buy, how 
much they pay for them, what nutriment they contain, and what is the 


388 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


relation between the actual nutriment and the cost; in other cases 
studies of actual dietaries are made with a view to learning what are 
the kinds and amounts of food materials actually consumed by people 
in different places, of different occupations, and under different condi- 
tions. In the prosecution of this work the fundamental idea will be to 
learn as much as practicable of the food economy of our people and the . 
ways for its improvement. Methods of investigation and some of the 
more scientific problems of human nutrition are also being studied. 
More thorough study of the laws of nutrition of man is very much 
needed. On this subject there are many theories, but comparatively 
little exact information. The necessary researches will require much 
time and effort, and will be comparatively costly; but until they are 
made many of the conclusions regarding the nutritive value and digesti- 
bility of food will not rest upon a sure basis of ascertained facts, 
The results of previous investigations in this country and abroad are 
being compiled for the information of cur people. Congress having 
increased the appropriation for this purpose to $15,000 for the next 
fiscal year, the scope of the investigations will be somewhat enlarged, 
and it is hoped that before long results of great value will be obtained. 
The practical results of investigations relating to food materials and 
their proper use will be explained concisely and clearly in a series of 
popular bulletins on food economy, the first of which, Farmers’ Bulletin 
No. 23, Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost, has already been issued. 

Until now much that has been done has been at private expense. 
But in this case, as in so many others, the results of individual effort 
have opened the way for the larger inquiry and demonstrated its use- 
fulness, so that public funds which are to be used in investigations for 
the public benefit, may be applied in this direction also. But much of 
the abstract research that is pressingly demanded requires peculiar 
facilities for its production, such as are found only in the laboratories 
and libraries of the great educational institutions, and is dependent 
for its best development upon the intellectual attrition and the oppor- 
tunities for continuous study which such establishments alone can 
offer. In the European universities these facilities are provided by 
the Government; with us they depend upon private munificence. The 
endowment of such research would bring results of the highest value 
to the world, and to the donor the richest reward that a lover of his 
fellow-man can have. 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 


By GILBERT H. Hicks, 
Assistant, Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


Under present conditions, success in agriculture and horticulture 
requires greater effort than ever before. Owing to the development of 
railways and other means of rapid transportation, farm and garden 
products from nearly all parts of the globe can be laid down in our 
markets in a very short time. Besides this, modern machinery, together 
with the use of improved methods in preparing and harvesting crops, 
and the competition of cheap foreign labor, make it an absolute neces- 
sity for the American husbandman to exert all his skill if he expects 
to secure profitable returns for his efforts. While American agriculture 
has made great progress in nearly all directions, one of the essential 
requisites to success has been largely overlooked or underestimated. 
We refer to the matter of planting pure seed of the best germinating 
qualities. 


NECESSITY OF SEED INVESTIGATION AND CONTROL. 


An examination of many of the seeds of common vegetables and 
forage plants reveals the fact that an immense amount of poor seed is 
sold to American farmers and gardeners. While other countries for 
many years have been investigating this subject, with a view to pro- 
tecting their agriculturists from abuses in the seed trade, no particu- 
lar notice has been directed to the matter in the United States, except 
at afew of our experiment stations. At the same time, great apathy 
prevails among those who purchase seed. Seed for corn, wheat, and 
other grain crops, indeed, is usually selected, with more or less care, 
from crops harvested on one’s own farm or in the neighborhood, where 
there is adequate means of knowing its real value, and yet it must be 
admitted that, under the circumstances, more frequently than not, the 
selection does not receive the thought and care which the importance 
of the results involved demands. On the other hand, in the case of 
clovers, grasses, and various forage and garden plants, most of the 
seed is purchased in the general market and the buyer has little or no 
knowledge of its history and excellence. It may almost be said that 
the average farmer buys the cheapest seed in the market and trusts 
entirely to luck for it to produce the desired crop. Such seed is dear 

389 


390 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


at any price, and is the principal source of the hosts of bad weeds which 
are to be seen upon many farms—weeds whose eradication costs vastly 
more than the few cents per pound extra for which good seed might 
have been obtained. However, in many cases, even the highest-priced 
seed, purchased from reputable dealers, falls far below the standards 
which should prevail. 

While competition might be expected to regulate this evil to a large 
extent, as a matter of fact there is so little accurate knowledge upon 
the subject of seeds among our people at large, and such a lack of pub- 
lic sentiment and of laws requiring dealers to furnish seed of requisite 
purity and germinating quality, that the buyer is placed largely at the 
mercy of the dealer. While seedsmen, in the main, may have per- 
fectly honorable intentions with respect to the wares they sell, it is still 
the fact that they are in the business for profit, and naturally look out 
for their owninterests. Itis also equally true that some of them indulge 
in the most fraudulent practices, and that, both through carelessness 
and design,a great deal of poor seed is sold in the market in this 
country every year. 

Another evil, resulting from the lack of information upon this subject 
and of. seed-control methods, is found in the poor reputation which 
American seed has acquired in some foreign countries. It is desirable 
that the foreign trade in American-grown seed shall be encouraged so 
far as possible; but in some countries such a prejudice exists against our 
seed that itis very difficult for it to gain a foothold. In many cases 
this prejudice is entirely unfounded; but it is believed that a decided 
improvement may be made in the quality of American seed by calling 
proper attention to the subject and by the inauguration of seed-control 
work in this country. Such investigation will serve the best inter- 
ests of honorable and careful seedsmen as well as of those who purchase 
seeds. 


ABUSES IN THE SHED TRADE. 


The need of a seed investigation, and of some sort of seed control, 
will be more evident if we note in some detail the evils resulting from 
fraud or carelessness which now abound in the seed trade. One of the 
primary requisites to good seed is purity, and the use of adulterations 
forms one large class of abuses. Herein are included the admixture 
both of ingredients positively deleterious and of such as are merely 
worthless. The deleterious ingredients consist of the seeds of noxious 
plants or weeds. The danger from this source is largely due to the use 
of foreign seed. 

While seed-control agitation in Europe has resulted in a marked im- 
provement of home stocks, it does not prevent the shipment of poorly 
cleaned seed to other countries, and as a result a large proportion of — 
our inferior seed comes from abroad. Nearly all of our worst weeds 
are of European origin, and by far the greater part of them have been 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 391 


introduced into American soil through impure seed. In the case of 
the Russian thistle, we have a foul weed which now covers over 35,000 
square miles of territory, and seriously interferes with agriculture in 
six or seven States. The seeds of this plant were brought to Americ 
a little more than twenty years ago in Russian flaxseed. 

As illustrating the possibility of the introduction of foreign weeds 
through seed, it might be stated that of the common garden and forage 
plants, such as alfalfa, beet, borage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauli- 
flower, chicory, cress, endive, kohl-rabi, radish, salsify, spinach, and 
turnip, the seeds are grown abroad, as are also the seeds of many of 
our grasses, such as crested dog’s tail, sheep’s fescue, meadow foxtail, 
perennial rye grass, and sweet vernal grass. Of the following vege- 
tables about one-half of the seeds are imported: Carrot, eggplant, leek, 
onion, parsley, parsnip, and pepper. In the following cases a large 
portion, though perhaps not one-half, of the seeds are foreign grown: 

Cabbage, celery, chervil, kale, and lettuce. 

Of course, the same cause operates within the limits of this country, 
foreign idlante; when once introduced, being disseminated in impure 
seed. Thus the prickly lettuce is spread in clover seed, and the Rus- 
sian thistle to some extent in oats, flax, and alfalfa. Our native weeds 
are distributed to a greater or less extent in the same manner. 

It. has been said upon good authority that scarcely a commercial 
seed is entirely free from foreign admixture, owing either to accident 
or design. The practice of adulterating clover seed with fine stones 
and sand is common in France at the present time. In one sample 
from that country examined last year was found 9.69 per cent of arti- 
ficially colored yellow quartz stones, and 13.26 per cent of uncolored 
brownish sand. Similar instances have been reported recently from 
two of our American experiment stations. Some years ago a firm was 
discovered in Bohemia which was engaged in supplying seed dealers 
with both colored and uncolored quartz sand for purposes of adultera- 
tion, at prices ranging from $1 to $2 per hundredweight. 

Another common method of fraud consists in mixing old or “ dead” 
seeds with fresh material. In some cases seeds of an entirely different 
variety or species are thus mixed with good seed. Care is generally 
taken, of course, to employ seeds that are so similar in shape and appear- 
ance as to make detection difficult to the ordinary observer. To pre- 
vent the fraudulent seed from growing, and thus disclosing the fraud, 
it is first killed by heating or chemicals. In this way the seeds of black 
medic are mixed with those of red clover. ‘ Killed” seeds of char- 
lock are frequently mixed with those of rutabaga and turnip, which it 
resembles very closely. A certain family in London made a business of 
supplying seedsmen with “killed” seeds of charlock for twenty years. 
Similar practices are known to exist in America at the present time. 

Another essential of good seed is vitality, or high germinating quality, 
and agriculture suffers greatly from failure at this point also. It is 


392 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


well known that most seeds lose their vitality after a few years, and 
in nearly all species of plants the percentage of germinable seed de- 
creases rapidly after one year. Itis a well known fact that many seeds- 
men mix old stock with new in order to get rid of it, and frequently 
seed which looks plump and fresh is too old to germinate well. Old 
seed is often polished and oiled to give it a fresh, shining appearance. 
Thus it frequently results that the farmer is bitterly disappointed in 
his crop, although he has taken the utmost pains in preparing the soil 
and planting his seed. 

Many persons test the germinating quality of seeds by observing 
whether they are smooth, plump, glossy, and of good weight. Seeds 
which sink readily in water, and pop when placed upon a hot stove, are 
usually considered good by farmers and seedsmen. None of these 
tests, however, are sufficient, and in some cases they are of no use 
whatever. Germination experiments, weighing, and microscopic exami- 
nation are necessary to furnish a proper knowledge of the condition of 
seeds. 

A third necessary quality of good seed is genuineness; that is, it 
must be what it pretends to be. Serious disappointment often comes 
from planting seed which turns out to beof a different variety from 
that which was ordered. One of the most common practices of a cer- 
tain class of seedsmen is to give seed a high-sounding name, as, ‘‘Mam- 
moth,” “Extra Early,” “Golden Wonder,” ctc., and by lavish descrip- 
tions and highly colored plates the impression is conveyed that a very 
superior variety is being offered for sale. In most cases such plants 
prove to be some well-known variety whose seed could have been pur- 
chased for a mere fraction of the amount charged by the advertiser. 

Many of our grass seeds, as found in the market, are not entirely true 
to name. A common method of adulteration in this case consists of 
mixing seed of wild or otherwise inferior grasses with that which sells 
for a high price. Thus tall fescue seed, which is sold for 20 cents a 
pound, is mixed with English rye grass, which sells for 12 cents. The 
two kinds of seed are so near alike that a professional seedsman can 
searcely tell them apart. The seed of English rye grass, being cheap, 
is also used to adulterate that of Italian rye grass. 

More than one of these defects are liable to occur in the same pack- 
age of seed. This comes about naturally when, as is the case with 
large amounts of commercial seed, the impurity or low vitality is due 
to careless methods of growing and cleaning. Such seed contains a 
large amount of straw, dirt, chaff, and other foreign substances, as well 
as a great number of weed seeds. This is especially true of the seeds of 
imported grasses and other forage plants; also, to a considerable extent, 
of imported garden seeds. Many American seedsmen “rogue” their 
fields carefully before harvesting the seed. In this case, care is taken — 
to eradicate, so far as possible, all of the bad weeds. This is the only 
certain method of securing pure seed, for the best cleaning machines 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION, 393 


ean not take out all weed seeds. However, in many instances, seeds- 
men ‘farm out” different seed crops, to be raised in a smaller way by 
farmers and others. In such cases, less care is usually taken to secure 
good seed than when the crop is raised by the seedsmen themselves 
upon a large scale. Very few kinds of grass are raised for seed pur- 
poses alone; hence most grass seed is obtained from meadows or places 
where different species are found growing together. Again, most 
grasses mature their seeds very unevenly, and too little care is taken 
that all of the seed shall be ripe. This accounts, to a large extent, for 
the low vitality of so much of our grass seed. Weeds are also fre- 
quently allowed to grow in meadows from which grass seed is taken. 

Examples might be multiplied indefinitely of cases in which impure 
seed has been sold either through gross carelessness or with fraudulent 
intent. Samples of the seed of Kentucky blue grass examined at the 
North Carolina Experiment Station contained 35 per cent of weed 
seeds, dirt, and chaff. In a test at the Connecticut State Experiment 
Station, a few years ago, 17 samples of orchard-grass seed, obtained from 
regular dealers, were examined. One of them contained no orchard 
grass whatever, but consisted principally of perennial rye grass, a very 
inferior species. Five other samples contained, on an average, 25 per 
cent of this grass seed, while of the entire lot only 40 per cent germi- 
nated, the amount germinating in one case being only 44 percent. At 
the lowa Experiment Station, a sample of fiorin-grass seed, purchased 
from one of the most reliable seedsmen, and costing 42 cents a pound, 
was found to contain more than one-third of its weight of sand and 
chaff. A package marked “Burnet,” costing 16 cents a pound, con- 
tained 47 per cent of sainfoin, which costs 6 cents a pound. <A pound 
of orchard-grass seed in a sample examined contained over 1,400 seeds 
of sheep sorrel, a worthless weed, as every farmer knows. 

The seed of clover is usually much more impure than that of any 
other crop. Sixty-three samples, from different parts of the United 
States, were tested at the Iowa Experiment Station in 1893. They 
showed impurities ranging from three-tenths of 1 to 67 per cent—that is, 
from 3 ounces to 40 pounds per bushel, and averaged nearly 34 pounds 
of impurities to the bushel. A test is reported from Michigan of a 
sample of clover seed imported from Canada, by a firm of seed dealers 
in this country, which contained but 10 per cent of pure clover seed, 
the balance being screenings, consisting mainly of weed seeds of the 
worst kind. These screenings were undoubtedly ordered for the pur- 
pose of adulterating pure clover seed before placing it upon the mar- 
ket, as this is a frequent practice of some dealers. In the sample above 
mentioned it was estimated that there were over 60,000 weed seeds to 
the pound. 

The seeds of foreign leguminous forage plants are apt to be badly 
adulterated and of low germinating power. Some seed of South Ameri- 
ean serradella tested last year at the seed-control station in Hamburg, 

1 a94 15* 


8394 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Germany, showed the low vitality of only 7 per cent. One sample 
labeled “red clover” contained only 1 per cent of clover seed, the bal- 
ance being—alfalfa, 18 per cent; rye grass,4; rape seed, 14; melilotus, 
18, and weed seeds, 45, among the latter being 23,600 seeds of dodder. 
A sample sold as esparsette contained—of Bromus mollis (a species of 
grass worthless for forage), 84 per cent; weed seeds, 8; chaff, 8; and no 
esparsette at all! When one considers that a very large proportion of 
the seeds of forage plants, with the exception of clover, is imported, it 
is very easy to see the great need of seed investigation in this country. 


SEED CONTROL IN EUROPE, 


European seed control may be said to have originated in 1869, when 
Dr. Nobbe, director of the experiment station at Tharand, Saxony, 
began to devote his attention to the impurities and low germinating 
power of many commercial seeds for which the German farmer was 
paying faney prices. The publication of the results obtained by him 
excited much comment and laid the foundation for the present exten- 
sive system of European seed control. At the present time there are 
seed-eontrol stations in all of the principal countries of Europe, more 
than forty existing in Germany alone. In some cases these are distinct 
institutions, but frequently this work is done in connection with agri- 
cultural experiment stations, the majority of which devote more or less 
attention to the subject. Some countries and states have general laws 
concerning fraud which may be used to cover seed adulteration; but, 
so far as we have been able to learn, there are no laws requiring HEng- 
lish or Continental seedsmen to guarantee their wares. The work of 
the seed-control stations, however, has created such a public sentiment 
in favor of pure seed that the best class of dealers submit samples of 
their seeds, to be tested by the stations, which furnish, for a stipulated 
price, a guaranty of the vitality and purity of the seed from which the 
samples were taken. 

The station at Zurich, Switzerland, has contracts with more than 
seventy Swiss seedsmen, to whom are given certificates of guaranty for 
all their seeds. In 1892-93, according to the last report, this one sta- 
tion examined 5,958 samples of seed, requiring 16,427 separate tests. 
Of the analyses, 225 were made for private individuals and 109 were for 
seed dealers of Switzerland, while 3,244 samples were received from 
other countries. Over 80 per cent of the specimens examined were grass 
and clover seeds. This station has four experimental fields where open- 
air tests are conducted. It alsohasa garden and greenhouse, the latter 
being used mostly in the winter. Several germinating chambers are 
employed in the laboratory, part of them being kept at a temperature 
of 20°C, (68° F.) and the remainder at 28° C, (82° F.). The machines 
used at this station for sifting seeds are run with water motors. The 
results of the seed tests are written upon cards, upon the backs of which 
are printed tables giving the standards of germination and the purity 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 395 


of the principal seeds of agriculture. Formulas of recommended grass- 
seed mixtures are also given. In the cellar of the laboratory is a 
machine for scratching the coats of hard seeds, like Lathyrus silvestris, 
ete., to facilitate germination; also various kinds of sterilizing and sort- 
ing apparatus. Experiments with weed seeds are also conducted at 
this station. Besides the director, Dr. Stebler, the working force con- 
sists of 3 assistants, 2 gardeners, and 6 women. Three of the latter 
attend to the germination experiments. 

A large amount of seed-control work is also carried on at Vienna, 
Austria, under the direction of Dr. Theodor Ritter v. Weinzierl. Two 
thousand nine hundred and. eighty samples of seeds were tested here 
in the year ending July 31, 1892, an increase of 450 over the previous 
year. At Hamburg and some other European control stations, flour, 
feed, and linseed meal are examined for adulterations, in addition to the 
regular work. At Tharandt, Saxony, the work of counting and sprout- 
_ing seeds is performed to a large extent by young girls. Atall of these 
stations fees are charged for making the examinations, although these 
do not, as a general thing, cover the actual expenses, which are defrayed 
to alarge extent by Government appropriations. Theleading European 
seed-control stations publish annual reports giving the results of their 
work, which are distributed to their customers and others. In order 
to secure unanimity in their methods of seed control, the Association 
of Agricultural Experiment Stations of Germany, in their meeting at 
Halle in 1891, agreed upon a set of laws to govern them in common in 
this work. As experience demands, these laws are amended and new 
ones adopted. Their principal features are here given, as they may 
serve for a basis of seed control in this country, subject to modifica- 
tions demanded by American conditions. 


METHODS OF SEED CONTROL. 


The points to be determined in seed tests are genuineness, purity, 
germinating power, and actual value, all of which should be stated in 
the report at the close of the investigation. 


AMOUNT OF SEED TO BE USED IN A TEST. 


The required minimum amount of seed for a complete examination 
has been fixed in Europe as follows: 


50 grams of grass seeds of all kinds, white and alsike clovers, spurry, cress, tobacco, 
poppy, anise, dill, fennel, caraway, carrot, parsley, celery, birch, etc. 

100 grams of buckwheat, millet, red clover, alfalfa, serradella, esparsette, vetch, len- 
tils, rape, cabbage, dodder, mustard, lettuce, onion, chicory, flax, hemp, teasel, 
woad, elder, hornbeam, conifers.’ 

250 grams of rye, wheat, barley, oats, corn, beans, pease, lupine, soja bean, sunflower, 
red and sugar beet, oak, beech, ‘‘pits” of drupaceous fruits. 


For ascertaining the specific weights of cereals, etc., 14 liters is 
required, since atleast 1 liter of clean seed is necessary. In case dupli- 


396 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE. 


cate tests are to be made, for arbitration or other purposes, twice the 
above amounts must besent in. The portion of the duplicate test which 
is unused in the official examination is sealed in the presence of wit- 
nesses, labeled with all the original data, and preserved for future 
reference. 


DRAWING THE SAMPLE. 


The manner of taking the sample is of great importance, as it is 
absolutely necessary that those who make the test should have a per- 
fectly fair sample, and not, as is usually the case when a seedsman 
sends out specimens of stock, the very best samples which can be pro- 
cured of seeds selected for this purpose. On the other hand, the buyer 
might send in for test a specimen of the worst seed he had received. 
The sender of seeds, whether he be a dealer or buyer, is recommended 
to use a clover-seed sampler for clover and other small seeds, and a 
grain sampler for grains, flaxseed, umbelliferous and other compara- 
tively large seeds. For beet seed, grass seed in the chaff, ete., the entire 
amount from which the selection is made should be spread out ona 
clean surface and thoroughly mixed, and numerous small samples 
should be selected from various portions of this mass. The sample 
must be taken out, according to the directions given by the station, 
before witnesses, in whose presence it is placed, in a dry and firm 
receptacle, sealed, and sent forward. It is very essential that the 
packet in which seed is sent should be well fastened and thoroughly 
protected from dampness or other injury in transmittal. 


SMALLER AVERAGE SAMPLE. 


Upon being received in the laboratory, the first step is to procure a 
certain amount, called the “smaller average sample.” This is generally 
done by slowly pouring out the seed from a wide-mouthed flask into a 
dish and taking small amounts out of this stream at regular intervals 
by means of a horn spoon. Or it may be poured out into a flat-bot- 
tomed dish, thoroughly mixed, and small portions taken from different 
parts of the dish until the desired amount is secured. 

In making the test for purity it is recommended that the following 
quantities shall be taken at the least: 


2 grams of redtop. 
5 grams of white clover, alsike, velvet grass, yellow oat grass, hair grass, sweet 
vernal, June grass, foxtail grass, spurry, dill, caraway, fennel. 
10 grams of red and scarlet clovers, alfalfa, kidney vetch, timothy, rye grasses, 
meadow foxtail, orchard grass, crested dog’s tail, carrot, valerianella. 
20 grams of serradella, maple, ash, elm. 
25 grams of esparsette, millet, rape, turnip. 
30 grams of cereals, lentils, buckwheat, vetch, flax, pine, fir, larch, hornbeam. 
50 grams of red and sugar beet “balls,” peas, beans, corn, lupine, acorns, beechnuts. 


In case dodder is found in any sample, the entizve amount sent in is 
to be used in the test. 


‘PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 397 


GENUINENESS, 


The fact that a certain sample is true to name is usually ascertained 
without difficulty from the external appearance of the seed. In doubt- 
ful cases it must be compared with a standard seed collection. How- 
ever, the genuineness of varieties, and in some cases even that of species, 
can only be settled by a test in the field or greenhouse, for which an 
extra amount is charged. In many instances a microscopic study of 
the structure of the seed coat is very helpful. 


ORIGIN OF THE SEED. 


In some European control stations, particularly the one at Hamburg, 
great stress is laid upon the presence of weed seeds, as enabling the 
investigator to determine the origin of a given kind of seed under 
inspection. Owing to great variations in plants, due to differences of 
soil and climate, it would be a desirable thing for the buyer to know 
where his seed originated. This knowledge is very difficult to obtain, 
even from the best dealers, since, as in the case of clover, for example, 
the seed is bought up in small lots from local dealers from all parts of 
the country, dumped into a common elevator, cleaned, and then sold, 
either at home or abroad. While in a few instances the presence of 
the seeds of certain weeds will indicate that the seed under examina- 
tion came from Europe, South America, Canada, or the United States, 
the ubiquitous nature of most weeds precludes any reliable data as to 
the origin of the seed. Especially is this true when one seeks to ascer- 
tain in what portion of the United States a given commercial seed 
originated. Hence many of the conclusions of certain foreign control 
stations with reference to the origin of American seeds, based upon the 
weed seeds present in samples, are unreliable. Nevertheless, this test 
is useful to some extent. 


TEST FOR IMPURITIES. 


All chaff, sand, and foreign admixtures of any nature, even if good 
seeds of a valuable plant, are to be considered as impurities; also seeds 
of the genuine species which are broken or have been so injured in 
thrashing or cleaning that they will not sprout. 

After the smaller average sample has been weighed out, the seed is 
spread out carefully upon a smooth, glazed, black or white surface, and 
by means of a horn spatula the impurities are carefully separated out, 
weighed, and their percentage ascertained. This is recorded on blanks 
prepared for the purpose, and, so far as possible, the weed seeds are 
identified and noted. The latter point is important, since there is a 
great difference in the noxious character of different weeds, and in some 
instances a few weed seeds of one kind would outweigh, in their capacity 
for harm, many of another species. The impurities separated should be 
carefully sealed and preserved for reference for a year or more. 


898 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


GERMINATING TEST. 


The next step is to conduct the germinating test. There are so many 
influences which affect germination that this test requires even greater 
eare than that for impurities. 


NUMBER OF SEEDS TO BE GERMINATED, 


The selection of seeds for germinating tests demands painstaking 
effort and good judgment in order that the seeds used may fairly rep- 
resent the sample. Large, medium-sized, and small seeds, both dark 
and light colored, as well as those which represent different stages of 
maturity, are selected. In all cases duplicate tests are made, and these 
are repeated if a variation of more than 10 per cent takes place. 

The following numbers of seeds are to be used in germination tests: 
2 lots of 200 seeds each for clover and all seeds germinating easily (in about ten days). 
3 lots of 200 seeds each for conifers, grasses, etc. 


8 lots of 100 seeds each for beet. 
2 lots of 100 seeds each for beech, oak, etc. 


PREVIOUS TREATMENT OF SEEDS. 


Various kinds of apparatus and various chemical solutions have been 
used in germination tests by means of which it was thought that the 
process of germination is hastened. All such artificial aids are to be 
rejected in seed-control work. However, it is recommended that seeds 
be soaked in distilled water or rain water for six to fifteen hours before 
being placed in the germinating chamber. Since the absorption of 
noisture is anatural process in germination, this soaking of seeds may 
be profitably employed, as the work is thereby hastened. One of the 
main difficulties to contend with in making germination tests is the 
fact that seeds become moldy after being confined in a moist, warm, and 
clese chamber for any length of time; hence the desirability of hasten- 
ing the vrecess by all natural means. 


PLACE Of GERMINATION. 


The nature of the ‘sprouting bed” is of little importance compared 
with a complete control of heat, moisture, and access of air, and a cer- 
tainty that the seeds used represent an average sample. Porous dishes, 
stout blotting paper, flannel or other thick cloth, and earth are used. 
In addition to the test in the laboratory, a duplicate one should be econ- 
ducted in soil in a greenhouse, if in winter, and out of doors, if the 
season will permit. In the case of duplicate tests the average of the 
results obtained should be used. 

TEMPERATURE. 

At most of the foreign stations a constant temperature of 20° C. 
(68° I.) is used, except in the case of the following grasses: Poa, 
Aira, Glyceria, Phalaris, Agrostis, Alopecurus; and in the case of car- 
rot, alder, birch, mulberry, tobacco, beet, and maize, In the instances 
excepted it has been found that a daily increase of temperature to 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 399 


30° ©. (86° TF.) for six hours is advantageous, and that a much greater 
per cent of these species will germinate with this daily increase than 
with a constant temperature of 20° ©. Moreover, this variation, to 
some extent, represents the natural difference between the temperature 
of day and night. 

A constant temperature is secured by placing the seeds in a germina- 
ting chamber heated by gas and controlled by a thermostat, Reichert’s 
being preferred. In ordinary tests not intended to be of a scientific 
nature the temperature of a living room is quite satisfactory. 


DURATION OF THE GERMINATING EXPERIMENT. 


After much trial it has been agreed by the German association to 
recommend the following periods, at the close of which the experiments 
shall cease: 

10 full days for cereals, clovers, spurry, peas, beans, vetches, lentils, lupines, soja 
beans, sunflowers, rape, cabbage, mustard, dodder, flax, chicory, hemp, poppy, 
tobacco. 

14 full days for serradella, esparsette, beet-seed balls, rye grasses, timothy, carrots. 

21 full days for grasses (except meadow and rye grasses and timothy). 

28 full days for meadow grasses (Poa), conifers (except white pine), birches, alders, 
acorns, beeches, and hornbeams. 

42 full days for white pine and stone fruits. 

Each day the sprouted seeds are to be counted and removed, and a 
careful record kept of the same. At the close of the experiment all of 
the moldy or “dead” seeds are counted, as well as those which remain 
firm and hard. Only those which sprouted are to be reckoned in the 
“actual” or “intrinsic” value of the test, which is obtained by multi- 
plying the per cent of purity by the per cent germinating, and dividing 
by 100. Thus, if P equals the per cent of purity, G the per cent ger- 
x G_ he. 

100 

However, the seeds which are found to be “hard shelled” (those 
which remain apparently fresh or unswollen at the close of the test) 
are to be mentioned in the report, since, as may be easily seen, in cer- 
tain cases an indeterminable portion of them would be likely to ger. 
minate if given sufficient time. Such hard-shelled seeds will be most 
likely to oceur in the Leguminose, white pine, ete. However, since 
different samples of the same species vary exceedingly in the propor- 
tion of hard-shelled seeds remaining, it is impossible to assign such 
seeds any definite value in the total per cent germinating. Sinee more 
seeds will germinate under favorable artificial conditions than m the 
open field, a deduction of about 8 per cent is made on this account. 


minating, and A the actual value of the seeds tested, 


GERMINATIVE ENERGY. 
While, as above stated, certain periods are established in the course 
of which different seeds are expected to germinate, it is also recognized 
as a fact that if the seed is fresh and otherwise good the greater part 


400 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of it should sprout in a much quicker time. This is called the period 
of germinative energy, and is fixed as follows: 

3 days for cereals, clovers, peas, vetches, flat peas, flax, dodder, poppy, Brassica, 
Lepidium, radish, spurry, chicory. 

4 days for cucurbits, cucumbers, beans, Poterium, spinach, lupine, buckwheat. 

5 days for beet, timothy, serradella, Lotas, rye grasses, meadow foxtail, reed grass. 

6 days for redtop, hair grass, Anthriscus, carrots, fennel, esparsette, sorghum. 

7 days for spruce, foxtail grass, sweet vernal grass, canary grass, Deschampsia, 
Trisetum, Poa, crested dog’s tail, velvet grass, red and sheep’s fescue, Pimpi- 
nella. 

10 days for fir, pines (except white pine), maple. 
14 days for white pine. 


TEST OF BEET SEED. 


Special methods are required for testing red and sugar beet ‘“ balls,” 
each of which contains from 3 to 7 seeds. Three separate lots of 100 
balls each are selected with great care, so as to present average samples. 
These are rubbed slightly between the hands, soaked six to fifteen hours, 
then placed on blotting paper or sand at a constant temperature of 
20° C. for eighteen hours out of twenty-four, the rest of the time at 30° C. 

In three, five, eight, and eleven days the balls are examined. When- 
ever 1, 2, or 3 seeds have sprouted in a single ball, they are carefully 
cut out with a knife, and the balance of the ball is removed to a second 
seed bed, which is numbered to correspond with the number of the 
seeds which have germinated in the balls placed therein. At the next 
examination the sprouted seeds are again cut out and the clusters 
removed to another bed, numbered to agree with the total number of 
seeds per ball which have sprouted. The test is closed on the four- 
teenth day, when the sum of all the germinating seed of each lot of 
160 clusters, together with the number of unsprouted. seeds, is ascer- 
tained. The average of all the clusters is taken into account, especial 
care being exercised not to count as seeds any cavities which were 
empty at the beginning of the test. 


TEST OF GRASS SEEDS. 


Specific methods are also required to determine the germinating per 
cent of all grass seeds (properly speaking, fruits) which are likely to 
remain inclosed in the chaff. The chaffy fruits of tall oat grass and 
meadow foxtail are carefwWly handled with a suitable instrument, such 
as a small spatula or forceps, to ascertain whether a grain is inclosed. 
Or, in the case of meadow foxtail and the smaller and more tender 
species, the fruit is placed upon the stage of a dissecting microscope 
or upon a glass plate, and the light is caused to pass through it by 
means of a mirror. In this way imperfect grains are easily detected 
and rejected from the germinating test. In velvet grass and sweet 
vernal the outer glumes, and in Poa the glume hairs, are removed by 
rubbing, so that none but sound material is used. 


“PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 401 


WEIGHING THE SEED, 


The seeds used for each germinating test should be carefully weighed. 
Many experiments have shown that there is generally a definite relation 
between weight and germination of seed, heavier seeds usually germi- 
nating more promptly and giving a larger and more uniform yield than 
lighter ones. On this account itis desirable to note the absolute weight 
of a specified number of seeds from each sample tested. If preferred, 
several average samples of 1,000 seeds each may be weighed, instead of 
those used in the germinating test. The specific weight is also neces- 
sary in scientific experiments, although this is often omitted in ordinary 


practice. 
HORNY AND STARCHY SEEDS. 


In the case of cereals, account is often taken of the relative amounts 
of “horny” (glassy) and ‘‘mealy” (starchy) grains, since it is currently 
supposed that the value of cereals depends, to a large extent, upon this 
proportion. Whether a seed is horny or mealy is determined by cutting 
itopen. To facilitate this process, an apparatus called a “farinatom” 
is used to hold a large number of seeds, say 100, in an upright position, 
so that all may be cut in two at once. 


GENERAL NOTES. 


All dishes used for germination experiments should be sterilized with 
voiling water or chemicals before a new test is undertaken. Too much 
moisture must be avoided in all cases. The laboratory for germination 
tests should be in a cellar or basement, since this will better permit the 
desired control of temperature. If possible, germination experiments 
should be conducted by assistants who give it their undivided attention, 
while the identification of seeds and the care of the seed collection 
should be allotted to another specialist. 


EQUIPMENT FOR SEED INVESTIGATION. 
MICROSCOPICAL APPARATUS. 


A hand lens is necessary in the study of seeds. One with a large 
field, good focal distance, and magnifying power of ten to fifteen diam- 
eters is desirable. Farmers and those testing their own seeds can pur- 
chase a satisfactory glass of this kind of any dealer in optical goods for 
about 75 cents. Tor laboratory use a dissecting microscope is requisite. 
We know of none better than those made by Leitz, having three lenses 
and a camera lucida attachment. 

A thick glass slide, ruled in millimeter squares, with every fifth line 
heavier than the rest, greatly facilitates the measurement of seeds and 
small fruits. Such a slide may be obtained for about $2.50. 

For minute study, a good compound microscope, with the usual appli- 
ances and reagents, is essential. American instruments of a Conti- 
nental pattern are to be recommended. 


402 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


For studying the structure of seeds cross sections are needed, requir- 
ing the use of a microtome, together with a paraffin bath and embedding 
material. A drying even for sterilizing sand, ete., is necessary. 


GERMINATING APPARATUS. 


For sprouting seeds some kind of equipment is needed in which the 
different factors governing germination, such as light, temperature, 
and moisture, can be controlled. Such an apparatus, devised by the 
author, is Shown in figure 83. It consists of a square chamber, strongly 


eee dee eet 


ae 


m 


or 


Fic. 83.—Seed-germinating apparatus used by the United States Department 
of Agriculture. a, inlet pipe; b, outlet pipe; ¢, thermo-regulator; d, ‘‘guide 
light” gas delivery tube; e, ‘‘ guide light;"’ f, opening into water cavity; 
g, maximum and minimum thermometer; h, thermometer; 7, germinating pan 
containing pots of soil covered by bell jars; kk, outlets for carbon dioxide. 


made of heavy copper, with double walls, which are filled with water 
by means of a pipe, a, there being an outlet at b. In case the appara- 
tus can not be placed in a cellar, a sufficiently low temperature may be 
secured by causing a continual stream of water to flow through the 
inlet pipe, which is inelosed in a wooden jacket kept constantly filled 
with ice. The lower portion of the chamber is made of sheet iron, and 
contains a Bunsen burner, connected with the thermo-regulator c, which 


ie 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 403 


is used to control the temperature. A second gas-delivery tube is 
attached at d. This connects with a “guide light” at e to prevent the 
larger flame becoming permanently extinguished when the gas in the 
thermo-regulator is cut off by a rise in temperature. At / there is a 
second opening into the water cavity, which may be used for a U-tube, 
containing mercury, to serve as a safeguard against violent pressure 
when a continuous stream of water is used. Two holes, g, h, lead into 
the chamber, for the insertion of a combined maximum and minimum 
thermometer and for a standard centigrade thermometer. If desired, 
the former aperture may be used for the admission of oxygen. 

Within the chamber are three movable shelves, made of galvanized 
iron. Upon one or more of them copper pans are placed. In these the 
seeds may be germinated in several ways, as shown in figures 83 and S84, 
If it is desired to make a great number of tests at one time, the folds 
of asbestus cloth, shown at a, figure 84, are used. These are made simi- 
lar to the ones used in the ordinary Geneva tester, and consist of a 
double strip of cloth, as long as the pan is wide, and attached to brass 


Fia. 81.—Germinating pan; a, ‘Geneva tester” seed bed; 6, porous clay 
saucers, used as seed beds in differont ways. 


rods, which lie upon ledges projecting from the sides of the pan, an inch 
or so below the top. From the bottom of the pocket formed by the 
folds of asbestus a narrow strip of the same material projects into the 
water which covers the bottom of the pan. The seeds are kept moist 
by means of the water whichis drawn up by capillary attraction. Each 
pocket may be taken out of the pan separately, in order to examine the 
seeds. 

In addition to this method of germination, the seeds may be sown 
between damp cloths or blotters placed in saucers made of porous clay, 
as shown at 0, figure 84. The saucers may contain sand, instead of blot- 
ting paper, for the reception of the seed, which in turn may be sown in 
pots and placed under bell jars, as shown at 4, figure 83. 

The doors to the chamber are double, the outer being of copper and 
the inner of glass and lined with felt. Openings are provided at kk 
for the escape of the carbon dioxide given off in germination. The 
outer walls of the doors may be removed and replaced with frames con- 
taining white or colored glass, if the experimenter wishes to test the 
effect of light or different rays of the spectrum upon germination, 


404 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE. 


The Geneva tester, so called because first used at the agricultural 
experimental station, Geneva, N. Y., consists of an oblong box about 
14 inches in length and 11 in width, and 3 inches deep. This is pro- 
vided with a copper or glass cover, and resembles the pan shown in fig- 
ure 84, except that cloth pockets alone are used to hold the seeds. As 
usually constructed, the cloth is all of one piece, and touches the water 
only at the ends, which are extended into flaps. The advantage of sep- 
arate pockets, with a flap to each, is that the seeds of a single test may 
be removed and examined without disturbing the others. The Geneva 
pan or some modification of it is most generally used by American exper- 
iment stations, and costs about $3. An improved form is employed by 
Professor Goff, of Madison, Wis. In the apparatus designed by him, 
the upper margin of the pan is flattened out into a wide ledge, at 
whose outer margin is soldered a small metal trough, into which the 


rim of the copper cover fits. This 
i 


trough is kept filled with water, to 
make the union between the cover 
and pan air-tight. At intervals, 
along the inner margin of the ledge, 
holes are drilled to permit the 
escape of carbon dioxide and the 
entrance of oxygen. The wires 
holding the strips of cloth rest upon 
this ledge. A leveling apparatus, 
similar to the one used in the chem- 
ical balance, is also attached. The 
- advantage of the Geneva apparatus 
over most others is the large num- 
ber of tests that may be conducted 


' II 
i 
i 


le 


iit 


Fig. 85.—Nobbe’s germinating apparatus (after 
Harz). A, cover; B, bottom; a, seed bed; b, wall 


of same; c, water cavity; d, holes where dishes 
containing caustic potash are placed; e, projec- 
tions on the cover to prevent close contact with 


at one time. In some respects, 
however, other sprouting beds are 


the bottom; J, hole for thermometer. . 
superior. The Geneva pan may be 


placed in a warm chamber to regulate the temperature, if desired. 

A simpler form of germinating apparatus, suggested by Professor 
Nobbe, and quite generally used in Europe, is shown in figure 85. It is 
made of burned, unglazed clay, 20 em. square and 5 cin. deep. In the 
center is a trough, 2 cm. deep, with a diameter of 10 cm., in which the 
seeds are placed. Around this runs a canal, 2.5 cm. wide and 3 cm. 
deep, containing water. At each corner is a small cavity which may 
be used for the reception of a glass vessel, containing caustic potash, to 
absorb the carbon dioxide. The cover is also constructed of porous 
clay, and has a slight projection in each corner to prevent it from lying 
in close contact with the bottom of the apparatus. In this way free 
access of air is obtained. A round opening in the center admits a 
thermometer. Enough moisture soaks through the walls of the trough 
to cause the seeds to germinate. They are either dry when placed 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 405 


therein, or have been previously soaked in distilled water or rain water 
twenty-four to thirty-six hours. 

The principal advantages claimed for this apparatus, in addition to 
neatness, simplicity, and utility, are asfollows: (1) Complete darkness 
is afforded. (2) All of the carbon dioxide is removed. Even without 
the use of potash, the currents of air carry this off to a great extent. 
(3) Evaporation is slow. (4) The temperature is easily ascertained, 
and may be regulated by the use of a thermostat. 


GERMINATING APPARATUS FOR ILTOME SEED TESTING, 


Very simple methods have been recommended for the use of farmers 
and others who wish to test their own seed before planting. One 
American experiment station recommends the use of a large pan, con- 


SHEEHY 


i] 


alll cn ee ee j Si 1 ; 
il = Bill 2 


Fig. 86.—Homemade germinating apparatus. A, complete; B, section. 


taining about an inch of water, inside of which a smaller and shallower 
flat-bottomed pan is placed, with the bottom upward. A piece of com- 
mon cotton cloth is washed in boiling water, doubled, wet, and placed 
upon the inner pan, with its ends extending into the water. Between 
these folds of cloth the seeds are put. 

A very simple apparatus for sprouting seeds is shown in figure 86. It 
consists of a shallow tin basin (“‘redipped” tin is best), which is given 
two coats of mineral paint, both inside and out, to prevent rusting. 
The bottom of the basin is covered with water, and a small flat-bottomed 
saucer of porous clay is placed inside. After having been soaked, the 
seeds are laid between two layers of moist blotting paper or flannel 
cloth. A pane of glass covers the dish, which is to be kept in a tem- 
perature of about 70° F. The atmosphere of an ordinary living room 
is Suitable, if care is taken to set the apparatus near a stove or in some 
warm place at night. The basin may be left partly open from time to 
time, to permit exchange of air and gases. By using a good-sized dish, 
with small saucers, and renewing the water occasionally, several kinds 
of seed may be tested at once, at a trifling cost. Extremes of temper- 
ature and excessive moisture must be avoided. 


406 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


SEED SAMPLERS. 


Seed triers or samplers are used for obtaining fair average samples 
of seed. Two kinds of clover-seed samplers, used for handling all 
kinds of small seeds, are shown in figure 87. The upper one is 10 cm. 
long and 6 mm. in diameter, and, for the last 2.5 cm. of length, tapers 
off to a point. On one side, about 3.5 cm. above the point, there is an 
oval opening which extends upward for 2.5 em. Samplers of this style 
cost about $1 apiece. A much better form, costing 70 cents, is shown 
in B. This is about the same length as A, and about one and one-half 
times its diameter. However, the point is sharper, the aperture twice. 
as large, and the instrument begins to taper at once from the top. Both 

samplers are hollow, made of 

4 nickel, and come in cases of the 

same metal, so that they can be 

carried in the vest pocket. In 

B obtaining samples, they are 

plunged into the cloth sacks 

Fig. 87.—Clover-seed samplers. which contain the seed until the 

oval opening is out of sight, when a small portion of seed is allowed 

to run out of the top of the sampler into a dish. This operation is 

repeated until seed has been obtained from several parts of the bag. 
The sample thus secured is thoroughly mixed before being tested. 


GRAIN TRIERS, 


Cereals and other large seeds are sampled with a grain trier. This 
consists of two hollow cylinders of metal, one inside of the other, about 
1 meter long and 12 mm. in diameter. They are pointed at the bottom 
and provided with a handle at the upper end. A corresponding series 
of oblong openings extends at regular intervals along one side of both 
evlinders, which may be turned at will so as to open or close the holes. 
The sampler, with the holes open, is thrust into the top of a bag of 
grain for its entire length. When filled with seeds the inner cylinder 
is turned, so as to close the holes, and the sampler removed. 


SIEVES. 


Sieves are the most common appliance for cleaning and sorting seeds, 
and their method of construction is of very great importance. The 
frames should be made of metal, while the bottoms may consist of wire 
mesh or perforated plates of zine or copper. The size, form, and posi- 
tion of the holes are of great significance. Vigure 88 shows some of 
the principal forms of holes to be used. Sieves with round holes are 
especially suitable for fine seeds, while those with square meshes are 
better adapted for large, round, and coarse seeds. The sieves with 
oblong and triangular apertures are used for cereals, the latter espe- 
cially for wheat. 

Perforated metal sieves have this advantage over those made of wire: 
The holes are more uniform and accurate, and can be made of any size 


PURE SEED INVESTIGATION. 407 


down to one-tenth of a millimeter. On the other hand, they suffer from 
the obvious disadvantage that they have a less number of holes in a 
given space than wire sieves, thereby presenting a smaller working 
surface; also in the smoothness of the metal, which lessens the hopping 
and rolling of the seeds; hence the latter pass through less quickly than 
in wire sieves. 

For laboratory use it is desirable to have a set of sieves of uniform 
size and nested as shown in figure 89, so that they may be used sepa. 


Crrererit 
as ao G:0.1G 


PP 
ae aoa | 00°0°0°0°0,0 
PEE CEH sisi 


O90 00 000 


fed oo 202020%0% 
EE 


abaee 0.00.0 


Fig. §8.--Samples of sieve meshes (a-e, after Fic. 89.—Sct of sieves for cleaning seeds. 
Rudolph Rober; /, after Scttegast). 
rately or together in any combination. The holes should be of different 
sizes and various patterns, as shown in figure 88. Such sieves can be 
obtained in this country at from 75 cents to $1 apiece. 


SEED-CLEANING APPARATUS. 


In addition to the set of sieves, a machine for cleaning seeds becomes 
useful. For this purpose a florist’s counter mill, such as seedsmen often 
use, costing about $35, will be found advantageous. The general prin- 
ciples of seed-cleaning machines are shown in figure 90, which is a cross 
section of a fanning mill used in Germany. ‘The seed is poured into 
the hopper A. Its delivery into the air chamber below is regulated 
by the slide 7 The falling seed is struck by a current of air caused by 

_ the revolution of the fans B. This throws the lighter foreign materials, 
such as chaff and lumps of sand, out at the rear of the machine. The 
heavier seed strikes the front of oe prismatic body ec, which is fastened 
to the movable bottom bb, passes over a set of sieves, D, and out 


408 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 


at H. Ate is an oblique frame, against which a lighter grade of seed 


strikes and falls below into the chamber C. 


Fic. 90.—Diagram of seed-cleaning machine (after Sett 
hopper; B, fans; 0, chamber for seeds of medium weight; D, sieves ; 
E, good seed; f, hopper slide; b 6, bottom of mill; ¢ ¢c, regulating 


slides; d, regulating screw. 


By means of the screw 


d the bottom b b is 
moved backward or 
forward, thus regu- 
lating the sorting of 
the seed. The sort- 
ingis also influenced 
by the rate at which 
the fans are made to 
revolve; the faster 
the movement, the 
sharper will be the 
selection of first-class 
seed. Machines of 
this kind may be pur- 
chased for about $15. 
In Europe seeds are 
also sorted, accord- 
ing to their form, by 
machines called 


“trieurs,” which need not be described in this place. 


SEED COLLECTION. 


One of the principal features of the equipment should be a collection 
of seeds kept in glass bottles and systematically arranged. The iden: 


tification of foreign seeds in the samples tested is 
impossible without such a collection. 

The seed collection of the Division of Botany is 
put up in glass specimen tubes, without necks, and 
of two sizes, one 5 cm. long and 1.5 cm. in diameter, 
the other 10 cm. by 3 cm., the smaller of which is 
shown in figure 91. In addition to the seeds, one or 
two capsules of the dry fruits are inclosed whenever 
possible. Fleshy fruits of our native wild plants are 
kept in a preservative fluid of some kind. Seedlings 
of economic plants in various stages of germination 
are also kept in alcohol for reference and study. The 
bottles are placed in cloth-covered trays made of 
heavy binder’s board. The trays for the smaller bot- 
tles hold 100 specimens. These are placed in a case, 
which is to contain also, so far as possible, herbarium 
specimens of the plants from which the seeds were 
taken. A card index to the collection is of great 
assistance in finding specimens. 


we 


. — 
So 


= = 
: —: 
4 i= inate 
i = 
pe mast wp A aig 
wegen) agen 


NER 
\) 


the United States Na- 
tional Herbarium for 


small seeds. 
natural size.) 


(Almost 


THE GRAIN SMUTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION. 


By WALTER T. SWINGLE, 
Assistant, Division of Vegetable Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


To the ordinary observer nothing could seem more unlike a definitely 
organized plant than the black, dusty mass filling the kernels of wheat 
or replacing an entire head of oats. Yet, as a matter of fact, the black 
dust is composed of thousands of germs of a minute parasitic plant. 
These germs, or spores, which have the same function as the seeds of 
higher plants, are blown about by the wind and lodge on the healthy 
kernels of the grain. When the kernel sprouts the spores adhering 
to it germinate and send a slender thread into the young plant. The 
slender threads of the parasite follow the growth of the plant, but their 
presence can scarcely be detected until the head begins to develop. 
The flower or grain is then filled by a mass of the threads, which absorb 
the nourishment intended for the grain and are soon converted into a 
mass of spores, again ready to fly about and infect next year’s seed. 

The enormous amount of damage caused by these parasites has 
attracted attention since the time of the Greeks and Romans, and the 
history of the study of smuts and of the discovery of remedies for them 
within the last eight years forms one of the most fascinating pages 
in the records of vegetable pathology. 

In the few pages at command it is hoped to present in brief outline 
the present state of our knowledge of smuts, and to give some account 
of the latest and best methods of preventing their ravages. 

There are two classes of smuts which attack our common cereals, viz, 
the stinking smuts, which destroy only the kernel, and which have a 
pronounced disagreeable odor, and the loose smuts, which destroy not 
only the kernel but also more or less of the chaff, and which are more 
dusty and loose. The stinking smuts occur on wheat only, while the 
loose smuts are found on wheat, oats, and barley. As the different 
smuts have to be treated differently, it is of advantage to the agri- 
culturist to be able to recognize them readily. Wheat, for instance, is 
attacked by three species—two stinking smuts and one loose smut. 


STINKING SMUTS OF WHEAT. 


The two species! are very similar and can usually be distinguished 
only by the aid of a microscope. The smutted kernels (usually all in 


'Tilletia fatens (B. & C.) Schroeter (which is the more common in this country), 
with globose or oval, smooth spores, and Tilletia tritici (Bjerk.) Winter, having glo- 
bose spores, with net-like ridges on the outer surface of the wall. Harwood states 
that wheat attacked by the latter species has shorter stalks than healthy grain, while 
that attacked by the former species grows as tall as unaffected wheat. 

409 


410 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the head are affected) are slightly larger and more irregular in shape 
than healthy grains, and are easily broken open, disclosing a dark-brown 
powder, which possesses a disagreeable, penetrating odor. Even a small 
per cent of smutted kernels will give a whole bin of wheat this char- 
acteristic odor. The stinking smuts are thus easily recognized if pres- 
ent in any considerable quantity in the thrashed grain. This is not 
true of any other grain smuts, however. Figures 92 and 93 show the 
appearance of heads of wheat attacked by the stinking smuts. 


Fic. 92.Head of beardless wheat Fic. 93.--Head of bearded wheat affected 
affected with smut. with smut. 


These smuts occur more or less abundantly in all wheat-growing 
countries. They are widely distributed in the United States, though 
fortunately there are many regions where they are still unknown. 

There are no accurate statistics as to the amount of damage caused 
by these smuts. In many localities the loss is very large, and it can 
not be doubted that in the whole United States it amounts to many 
millions of dollars annually. Sometimes 50 or even 75 per cent of the 
heads are smutted, and besides the sound grain is so contaminated 
with the fetid spores as to be nearly worthless for flour and worse 
than useless for seed. The disease is often spread from farm to farm 
by thrashing machines. When once introduced, if left unchecked, it 
increases year by year until a large percentage of the crop is destroyed. 
It can usually, however, be more or less held in check by some form of 
bluestone treatment of the seed, but the treatment very rarely gives 


CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. A411 


entire protection. Directions will be given at the close of this article 
for entirely preventing the smuts, no matter how bad they may have 
been in the crop used for seed. 


LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT. 


This is very different from the stinking smuts. It has no fetid odor; 
attacks both kernel and chaff; ripens when the healthy wheat is just 
flowering; and is composed of a loose, dusty mass of spores. These 
spores are usually entirely blown away by harvest time, leaving only the 
naked stalk where the head should be. Figure 94 shows the appearance 
of ahead of wheat at flowering time 
which has been attacked by this 
smut, while figure 95 shows the 
appearance of another head at 
harvest time. 

Loose smut is known to occur 
in Europe, North America, north 
Africa, central Asia, and the East 
Indies. Itoccurs in many parts of 
the United States, though fortu- 
nately it is rare or entirely absent 
in many localities. It does not 
usually destroy so large a propor- 
tion of the crop as do the stinking 
smuts; still,it often causes a loss 
of 10 per cent or more of the crop, 
and has even been reported as de- 
stroying over 50 per cent of a crop 
in Michigan. It may be present 
in considerable amount and yet 
be entirely overlooked, since the 
smutted heads are reduced to bare 
stalks at harvest time and there 
is no trace of it visible in the Fic.94.—Head of wheat Fia.95.—Head of wheat 
thrashed grain. The only way ‘Stel with loose socal with 1oove 
the agriculturist can be sure his 
crop is free from it is to examine carefully his fields when the wheat 
is flowering. The loose smut is to be feared, not so much on account 
of the great damage it causes, but because it is very difficult to 
prevent, and if once introduced into a field it is likely to remain year 
after year; for, as has long been known, the old bluestone treatments, 
though often very effective against stinking smuts, do not affect this 
species. It has also been shown by Kellerman and Arthur that the 


ordinary forms of hot-water treatment are not effective against it. 


From the experiments of Professor Kellerman and the writer, it can, 


1 Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Jensen. A variety of this smut, which attacks the leaves 
and sheaths as well as the heads, has recently been reported from Egypt. 


412 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


howeyer, be safely concluded that certain forms of the hot-water treat- 
ment are effective against loose smut, but injure the germinative power 
of the seed. Wheat growers should therefore be on their guard against 
this enemy, and try to secure seed wheat from fields known by careful 
examination at flowering time to be free from loose smut. It can, how- 
ever, be combated by treating enough wheat to furnish seed for the 
following year, and this should be done when any considerable per cent 
of the crop is affected. 


LOOSE SMUT OF OATsS.! 


This smut is very similar in general appearance to the loose smut of 
wheat, and like that species it ripens when the grain is in flower, and is 
blown about by the wind. At harvest time the head is often entirely 
bare. There is, however, a form? of this smut which destroys only the 
kernel and leaves the outer chaff unaffected. This is very hard to 
recognize, since the smutted heads look almost exactly like those of 
healthy plants, and can be detected only by cutting open the husks, 
when a mass of smut will be found in place of the kernel. Sometimes 
more than two-thirds of the smut is of this hidden form. This is likely 
to cause the grower to greatly underestimate the amount of smut. 

The appearance of the ordinary form of oat smut at flowering time is 
shown in figures 96 and 97; its appearance at harvest time is shown in 
figure 98. The hidden smut can not be distinguished from a healthy 
head in an illustration. 

This smut has probably the widest distribution of any of the thou- 
sands of species known to students of the group. It is known on every 
continent and occurs all over the United States. In fact it is an uncom- 
mon thing to find a field of oats entirely free from it, and the amount 
of damage it causes is very great. Not one in a thousand of those 
engaged in growing oats has any adequate idea of the extent of its 
ravages. Hundreds of examinations have been made in oat fields in 
various parts of the United States, and as a result we have very relia- 
ble estimates as to the amount of this smut in various localities. Esti- 
mates made by Professor Kellerman and the writer put the actual loss 
from oat smut in Kansas at $1,382,328 in 1888, $850,554 in 1889, and 
$911,299 in 1890; Dr. Arthur estimates the damage in Indiana at 
$797,526 in 1889 and $605,352 in 1890; Harwood estimates the damage 
in Michigan at $800,000 in 1891 and $1,000,000 in 1892. In these States 
the average amount of smutted heads varied from 6.5 per cent to 15 per 
cent. The only State where decidedly lower per cents of smutted oats 
have been reported is Vermont. Here Jones found an average of 1.6 


1 Ustilago avenw (Pers.) Jensen. 

2 Ustilago avena, levis Kell. and Swing. All hidden smuts belong to this variety, | 
but not all levis is hidden smut. This variety seems to be what Wille has called U. 
kélleri. Jensen, however, infected oats with covered smut spores and obtained one- 
sixth completely naked smut, i 


CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. 413 


per cent smutted in 1892. This would represent a loss of $26,454.! It 
is undoubtedly a conservative estimate to place the direct loss from oat 
smut at 8 per cent of the crop. Even at this estimate the loss in the 
United States is over $18.000,000 annually, averaging $18,504,140 for the 


| W/Z , 
MY | geez 


i 


Fic. 96.—Head of oats affected Fig. 97.—Head of oats affected Fig. 98.—Final stage of 


with smut, but having the with smut, having the chaff smut, showing condi- 
chaff only partially de- only partially destroyed; de- tion of head at har- 
stroyed. cidedly smutty. vest time. 


years 1890 to 18937. This, however, though it represents the amount 
that would be saved if every smutted head of oats were replaced with 


! Using the estimates of this Department, putting the value of the crop at $1,626,944 
_ (see Annual Report of Secretary of Agriculture for 1892, p. 420). 

? Using the estimates made by this Department, putting the average value of the 
oat crop for these years at $212,797,614 (see Annual Report of the Secretary of 
Agriculture for 1893, p. 483). 


414 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


a sound one, does not by any means represent what would be saved by 
a universal system of seed treatment. It has been conclusively proved 
that a much greater increase in yield is obtained by treating the seed 
than would result from merely replacing the smutted heads with sound 
ones. This will be explained later. 

It should be remembered that it costs as much for every farming 
operation to raise a badly smutted crop as a cleanone, The smut does 
not thin out the stand and give the healthy plants more soil and 
better light; a smutted plant takes up as much room and requires as 
much moisture and nourishment from the soil as does a healthy piant. 
The loss by smut can therefore be said to be taken directly from the 
profit on the crop. Moreover, the seed from a badly smutted field is 
likely to produce a badly smutted crop the following year, while that 
from a clean field will produce a crop almost if not entirely free from 
smut. 

By means of two newly discovered treatments of the seed, viz, with 
potassium sulphide, and with hot water, oat smut can be completely 
prevented at very little expense. The methods will be explained here- 
after. Fortunately, both the common and hidden forms of smut can be 
eradicated with equal ease. It is certain that oat growers could save 
many millions of dollars annually above all expenses by treating their 
seed oats. 


SMUTS OF BARLEY, RYE, AND CORN. 


Barley is attacked by two loose smuts, both very similar to the loose 
smutof oats. Inthe covered barley smut! the spores are often retained 
till harvest by a thin membrane, inclosing the smutted kernel and chaff. 
The naked barley smut,’ on the other hand, is like the ordinary form of 
oat smut, and is usually all blown away long before harvest. Beth 
kinds of barley smuts can be completely prevented by the treatment 
recommended further on. 

Rye smut*® attacks the leaves and stems of this cereal, and some- 
times weakens the piants considerably. Jensen thinks it can be pre- 
vented by treating five minutes with hot water at 127° F. 

Corn smut‘ is of widespread occurrence, but rarely causes more than 
a fraction of 1 percent loss. No method of prevention is as yet known. 


PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR TREATING SEED FOR SMUT. 
POTASSIUM SULPHIDE TREATMENT FOR OAT SMUT. 


The potassium sulphide should be of the fused form known as ‘liver 
of sulphur.” It can be obtained of any druggist for from 25 to 50 cents 
per pound, depending on the quantity purchased. It should be kept 


1 Ustilago hordci (Pers.) Kell. & Swing. % Urocystis occulta (Wallr.) Rabenh. 
2 Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Swing. 4 Ustilago maydis (DC.) Cda. 


CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. 415 


in a tight glass vessel, protected from the air, until ready for use. Dis- 
solve 14 pounds in 25 gallons of water in a wooden vessel; a tight barrel 
is very good for the purpose. The lumps of potassium sulphide dissolve 
in afew minutes, making the liquid a clear yeliowish-brown color. After 
thoroughly stirring, put in about 3 bushels of oats and agitate well to 
insure wetting every grain. The solution must completely cover the 
grain and be several inches above it, as the grain scaks up some of 
the liquid. Leave the oats in this solution twenty-four hours, stirring 
several times during the day to be sure every kernel is wetted. Then 
spread out to dry. In treating large quantities of seed, a hogshead or 
a wooden tank might be used. The solution should not be used more 
than three times. In no case should any metal be allowed to come in 
contact with the liquid. This treatment is thoroughly effective for oat 
smut, and is worthy of trial for stinking smut of wheat. 


THE HOT-WATER TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT AND OAT SMUT. 


Provide two large vessels, preferably holding at least 20 gallons. 
Two wash kettles, soap kettles, wash boilers, tubs, or even barrels, will 
do. One of the vessels should contain warm water, say at 110° to 120° 
F., and the other scalding water, at 132° to 133° F. The first is for the 
purpose of warming the seed preparatory to dipping it into the second. 
Unless this precaution is taken it will be difficult to keep the water in 
the second vessel at the proper temperature. A pail of cold water 
should be at hand, and it is also necessary to have a kettle filled with 
boiling water from which to add from time to time to keep the temper- 
ature right. Where kettles are used a very small fire should be kept 
under the kettle of scalding water. The seed which is to be treated 
must be placed, half a bushel or more at a time, in a closed vessel 
that will allow free entrance and exit of water on all sides. For this 
purpose there can be used a bushel basket made of heavy wire, inside of 
which is spread wire netting, say 12 meshes to the inch; or an iron frame 
can be made at a trifling cost, over which the wire netting can be 
stretched. This will allow the water to pass freely and yet prevent the 
passage of the seed. A sack made of loosely woven material, as gunny 
sack, can be used instead of the wire basket. A perforated tin vessel 
is in some respects preferable to any of the above. In treating stinking 
smut of wheat, the grain should first be thrown into a vessel filled with 
cold water; then, after stirring well, skim off the smutted grains that 
float on top and put the grain into the basket or other vessel for treat- 
ment with hot water. This skimming is entirely unnecessary with 
other grains, and even with wheat when affected only by the loose 
smut. Now dip the basket of seed in the first vessel, containing water 
at 110° to 120° F.; after a moment lift it, and when the water has for the 
most part escaped plunge it into the water again, repeating the oper- 
ation several times. The object of the lifting and plunging, to which 


416 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


should be added also a rotary motion, is to bring every grain in contact 
with the hot water. Less than a minute is required for this preparatory 
treatment, after which plunge the basket of seed into the second vessel, 
containing water at 132° to 133° F. If the thermometer indicates that 
the temperature of the water is falling, pour in hot water from the 
kettle of boiling water until the right degree is attained. If the tem- 
perature should rise higher than 133°, add a little cold water. In all 
cases the water should be well stirred whenever any of a different 
temperature is added. The basket of seed should very shortly after its 
immersion be lifted and drained, and then plunged and agitated in the 
manner described above. This operation should be repeated six or eight 
times during the immersion, which should be continued ten minutes, 
In this way every portion of the seed will be subjected to the action of 
the scalding water. In practice it will be found best to have a man 


No.l. . 


Wari-watér 


a 


Fia. 99.—Diagram showing arrangement for treating smut. 


or boy devote his whole time to keeping the temperature at the right 
point, adding a little hot water if it falls below 132° and a little cold 
if it gets above 133° F.1. Another man should handle the grain and 
immerse and drain the portion being treated as directed above. After 
removing the grain from the scalding water, spread on a clean floor 
or piece of canvas to dry. The layer of grain should not be over 3 
inches thick. If it can not be spread out at once, dip in cold water 
and set to one side until it can be attended to. It dries better if spread 
while still hot. Another portion of grain can then be treated, and so 
on until all the seed has been disinfected. Directions for drying the 
seed will be given further on. 


1A good thermometer should be used, preferably one having the bulb protected 
against injury from striking the sides of the vessel. ‘The large thermometer used in 
dairy work is very good for this purpose. 


CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. 417 


The important precautions to be taken are as follows: (1) Maintain 
the proper temperature of the water (132° or 133° F.), in no case allow- 
ing it to rise higher than 135° or fall below 130°; (2) see that the vol- 
ume of scalding water is much greater (at least six or eight times) than 
that of the seed treated at any one time; (3) never fill the basket or 
sack containing the seed entirely full, but always leave room for the 
grain to move about freely; (4) leave the seed in the second vessel of 
water ten minutes. 

When steam is available, it can be conducted into the second vessel 
(containing the scalding water) by a pipe provided with a stopcock, 
and this answers better than any other method for heating the water 
and for elevating the temperature from time to time. A good arrange- 
ment for hot-water treatment is shown in figure 99. 

A poie is provided having a large hole at one end, which passes over 
a small peg in the top of the first post. This should allow the pole to 
move both up and down and sidewise. By swinging the pole around 
the basket can be filled at the bin, then immersed a moment in vessel 
No.1, and then swung over to vessel No. 2, where the grain is treated 
ten minutes. Every minute or so the basket must be raised entirely out 
of the water and allowed todrain. The pole can be supported on a peg 
or fork in the second post while the basket is draining. Finally, the 
pole is lifted entirely over the second post and the grain is spread 
out to dry. Of course this arrangement is necessary only when large 
amounts of seed are to be treated. For small amounts a tub of warm 
water and a common wash boiler on a cook stove for the scalding water 
will answer every purpose. 

There are many possible modifications of the hot-water treatment that 
are more easily used than the one here given, but whenever they have 
been tested on a large scale they have proven uniformly less successful 
in preventing smut than the method here given, and do not give as 
great an increase in yield. They are, moreover, not nearly as convenient 
as the potassium sulphide or bluestone and lime methods. 


HOT-WATER TREATMENT FOR LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT AND FOR BARLEY SMUTS. 


In treating wheat for loose smut, the grain must be soaked four hours 
in cold water, then set away about four hours more in wet sacks, and 
finally treated as directed above, but only for five minutes, at 152° F. 
In planting, use one-half more seed per acre to compensate for the seed 
killed by the treatment. For preventing both of the smuts affecting 
barley the grain should be soaked as directed above and treated five 
minutes at 130° F., 2° lower than for wheat. 


COPPER-SULPHATE TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 


_ This consists in immersing the seed wheat twelve hours in a solution 

made by dissolving 1 pound of commercial copper sulphate in 24 gal- 

lons of water, and then putting the seed for five or ten minutes into” 
1 A 94-—16 


418 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


limewater made by slaking 1 pound of good lime in 10 gallons of water. 
The treatment is cheap, easily applied, and very effective. The wheat 
does not grow quite so well as when treated with hot water, but the dif- 
ference is inconsiderable. This treatment is only for stinking smuts of 
wheat and covered barley smut. It should never be used for oat smut. 


DRYING THE TREATED SEED. 


All of the seed treatments leave the seed wet and necessitate drying 
before planting. The grain should be spread in a layer 2 or 3 inches 
deep, and should be shoveled over twice or three times a day. It will 
then dry very quickly. A clean floor is a good piace to dry the grain, 
but a better method is to take canvas sheets about 5 feet by 12 or 15 feet 
and spread out in the sun. Such sheets, with the grain, can be taken 
in at night. If spread over an open lattice work a few feet from the 
ground, drying is greatly facilitated. Such sheets, of the heaviest duck- 
ing, should not cost over $1.75 each, and can be used for years. The 
grain can be sown broadcast long before it is thoroughly dry, but for 
drilling it must be nearly dry. The seed can be treated months before 
being used, and dried and stored ready for planting. In case of the 
stinking smut of wheat there is danger of the seed being reinfected by 
contact with living spores, though with other smuts the danger is 
almost absent. In treating wheat against this smut, tools and sacks 
should be disinfected, and if a floor is used for drying, it should first be 
washed with a solution of bluestone (1 pound to 10 gallons of water) 
before spreading the grain. Canvas sheets and sacks can be disinfected 
easily by plunging into boiling water. 


EXTRA INCREASE IN YIELD AS A RESULT OF SEED TREATMENT. 


One of the most remarkable and unexpected results of the hot-water 
and potassium-sulphide seed treatments was an increase in the yield 
beyond the amount that would result from merely replacing every 
smutted head with a sound one. This extra increase was first noticed ° 
by Professor Kellerman and the writer in experiments made with oats 
in 1889, where the hot-water treatment gave an increase in yield more 
than twice as great as would be calculated from the per cent of smut in 
adjoining untreated plats. This remarkable result was obtained in all 
subsequent trials, and was noted also by Jensen and Dr. Arthur. In 
the various experiments of the investigators named the extra increase 
in yield ranged from one-half to six times the amount to be expected 
from replacing the smutted heads with sound ones, and even higher 
ratios when the percentage of smut has been small. On an average the 
increase in yield has been double or treble what would result from 
suppressing the visible smut. In consequence of this remarkable 
benefit, comparable with what Mr. Galloway has shown to occur in 
using Bordeaux mixture on the potato and some other plants, it will 


CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF GRAIN SMUTS. A419 


undoubtedly be profitable to treat oats for seed when only 1 or 2 per 
cent is smutted. 

Potassium-sulphide treatment has given uniformly a large extra 
increase in yield when used in treating oats for seed. The extra in- 
crease has been very decided, almost equal to that resulting from treat- 
ment of seed with hot water. The copper-sulphate and lime treatment 
gives no extra increase whatever with oats. 

Jensen has found a similar extra increase to result from treating seed 
barley with hot water, and Professor Kellerman has reported extra 
increase in yield in treating wheat for stinking smuts with hot water 
and also with several copper compounds. There was, however, an 
enormous amount of smut present in many of the untreated plats, 
reaching 75 to 80 per cent. Where there is only a small per cent of 
smut in the untreated wheat it is probable that little if any extra 
increase in yield would result from treating the seed. 

As to the cause of the extra increase in yield as a result of seed 
treatment opinions are divided. It is probably due in part to an 
increased germinative power of the seed, causing them to sprout sooner 
and the young plant to grow faster. It has been shown that oats 
treated with hot water germinate much more quickly than do untreated 
oats, even if the grain has been dried. Professor Kellerman has shown 
that potassium sulphide has the same effect on both oats and corn, and 
further that, even after five and one-half months, seed which had been 
treated with hot water or potassium sulphide germinated quicker than 
untreated seed. Dr. Arthur claims that this hastened germination is 
due to the liberation at once of large quantities of diastase by the 
action of heat, enabling the young plant to avail itself rapidly of the 
reserve of starch stored in the seed. This does not, however, account 
for the action of potassium sulphide. Another possible explanation of 
the observed extra increase in yield has been put forth by Jensen. He 
suggests that the smut may attack many plants, which it simply weakens 
and stunts, without ever developing its sporesin the head. Such injury 
would of course be prevented by any treatment that killed all the smut 
adhering to the grain. It is highly probable that a part of the extra 
increase is due to the higher germinative energy of treated seed and a 
part to the prevention of all injury, however slight, from the smut. 


DUTY OF SEEDSMEN. 


It is confidently believed that by the aid of these improved methods 
of seed treatment the enormous losses from the grain smuts will eventu- 
ally be prevented in a great measure. Every year more growers treat 
the grain intended for planting, and others often profit by purchasing 
clean seed from the resulting crop for use the following year. 

It is to be hoped that all reputable seed firms will treat the grain 
they sell for seed. Oats purchased at high prices for seed have been 
known to yield crops more than half smutted. In Kansas in 1890 
Professor Kellerman and the writer found that nearly one-fourth of the 


420 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


sorts of oats grown from seed obtained from dealers was badly smutted, 
one-fifth showing over 11 per cent of injury, and one-tenth over 20 per 
cent. The danger exists in even greater degree with other cereals, for 
the wheat smuts, for instance, do not occur at all in some regions and 
can readily be brought in by obtaining seed from infested fields, 


SUMMARY. 


(1) Smuts of cereals are caused by minute parasitic fungi, the spores 
of seeds of which form the black, dusty mass which replaces the head 
or kernels of grain. | | 

(2) These spores are very minute and blow about and adhere to the 
kernel before it is planted. When the kernel sprouts the spores also 
germinate and send delicate threads into the young seedling. These 
threads follow the growth of the plant and fill the head or kernel as 
soon as formed, and there develop a mass of spores instead of kernels. 

(3) Two stinking smuts attack the kernels of wheat, filling them with 
a mass of fetid spores. These smuts cause great damage, but are easily 
prevented by treating the seed wheat. 

(4) Loose smut of wheat attacks the whole head and converts it into 
amass of loose and dusty spores. It causes considerable damage in 
some localities and is more difficult to prevent than other smuts. 

(5) Loose smut of oats is very similar to that of wheat. It causes 
over $18,000,000 loss annually in the United States. It can be prevented 
easily and cheaply. 

(6) Barley is attacked by two smuts and rye by one, all of which can 
be prevented. Corn smut is widespread, but fortunately causes only 
a very slight loss. As yet no effective preventive is known. 

(7) Oat smut can be most easily prevented by soaking the seed twenty- 
four hours in a 1 per cent solution of potassium sulphide. 

(8) Stinking smut of wheat and oat smut can be easily prevented by 
treating with hot water at 132° F. for ten minutes. By previously 
soaking the seed in cold water, loose smut of wheat, barley smuts, and 
rye smuts can be prevented by a shorter immersion in hot water. 

(9) Stinking smuts of wheat can be prevented by soaking the seed 
twelve hours in a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate and then dip- 
ping the seed in limewater. This treatment is useless for other smuts. 

(10) In treating oats for smut by either potassium sulphide or hot 
water, an increase in yield is obtained beyond and above the amount 
that would result from replacing the smutted heads with sound ones. 
The increase in yield from seed treatment is usually two or three times 
as much as the apparent loss from smut in untreated fields. 

(11) Seed dealers should treat all cereals offered for sale, both to 
increase the yield and to prevent the introduction of smuts into locali- 
ties where they are now unknown. | 


GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 


By F. LAMSON-SCRIBNER, B. Sc. 


Agrostologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


It is stated in the annals of creation that the first vegetation called 
forth upon the face of the earth, after the separation of land from water, 
was grass, and this, as appears now, was for the immediate purpose of 
binding the soil together and protecting it from the action of the winds 
and waves, which combined todestroy it. The force of this idea is best 
appreciated by those who live upon our coasts, where the constant work- 
ing of tides and waves, increased at times by furious gales, is ever a 
menace to their lands and dwellings. <A never-ceasing battle is being 
waged between water and land, the former having the wind for its 
strongest ally. The digging out and undermining by swift currents, 
the constant beating of the waves upon lake and ocean shores, and the 
perpetual shifting about of vast quantities of loose sands by the force 
of the winds cost our country many millions of dollars annually. Val- 
uable tracts of land are buried beneath worthless sands, or possibly 
are washed out to sea; harbors are rendered unsafe or are entirely 
obstructed, and important channels of commerce are closed. These 
are some of the important effects of the action of the winds and waves 
in their battle with the land, which occasion the annual enactment of a 
“river and harbor bill.” 

Those living by the seashore have seen these destroying forces held 
in check by humble grasses whose stems bend to the elements like the 
fabled reed, but whose deep and widely penetrating roots bind the sands 
together in a network of strong fibers, defying the encroachment of the 
waves upon their domain. 

These sand-binding grasses are in nature the allies of the earth in 
its battles with the warring elements, and may be made the direct allies 
of man in his efforts to protect his interests in the land. With their 
aid it has been possible for Holland to defy the waters of the North Sea 
and hold the lands so laboriously wrested from it. Other nations, by 
their aid, have been enabled to maintain valuable harbors or to preserve 
for the farmer large and fertile areas for tillage. In less enlightened 
times than ours, laws have been enacted for the careful preservation of 
the more important of these grasses. The wisdom of such laws was 
never more manifest than it is to-day, and their enactment may be said 
to be scarcely less important than those designed for the preservation 
of our forests. Such a law might well be incorporated in, or made sup- 


plementary to the river and harbor bill. 
421 


422 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


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sei ed don moar ithe mouthotl.the Kalamazoo hiver, Michigan. 


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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 423 


The great labor and expense involved in clearing river channels, 
maintaining levees, and protecting our harbors could in a short time 
be very much reduced by the intelligent planting of sand or soil bind- 
ing grasses and securing their preservation from wanton destruction, 
The many inquiries for information which have been addressed to the 
United States Department of Agriculture relative to sand-binding 
grasses and those adapted to holding embankments of railroads, canals, 
etc., clearly indicate the importance of the subject, and that it possesses 
more than a local interest. 

All sand or soil binding grasses have strong creeping rootstocks, or 
rhizomes, often familiarly called “roots,” which 
are really modified underground stems. The 
true roots of grasses are always fibrous, but 
these are generally produced in great abun- 
dance, and when very long, as they often are, 
their effect in binding the soil is also important. 
A distinction may be made between sand bind- 
ers and soil binders; the latter, growing on 
loamy or clayey soils, form a compact turf. 
With these may be classed the mud binders— 
the grasses of the bogs and those of the muddy 
Shores of lakes and rivers. Of the true sand 
binders there are two forms—first, the larger 
and coarser sorts, which are exposed to the 
most severe action of the waves or winds, hay- 
ing their rhizomes deeply buried in the sands, 
these sending up leaf-bearing and flower-bear- 
ing branches, which appear in larger or smaller 
scattered tufts (see fig. 100); and, second, those 
whose prostrate stems creep over the surface 
of the sands, emitting at frequent intervals 
long, fibrous roots. The grasses of the first 
class are of little or no value for forage; those 
of the second class form close, leafy mats over 
the surface of the ground, and usually possess 
considerable value for grazing or for lawns on 
very sandy soil. Fig. 101.—Marram grass (Am- 


mophila arenaria). 


DISTRIBUTION OF SAND-BINDING GRASSES. 


It is interesting to note the distribution of sand-binding grasses. 
The fact is well known that the different species of animals and plants 
occupy different areas of the earth’s surface, some being limited to the 
region of the tropics, others to the temperate regions, and others still 
to the confines of the frigid zones; some exist only in the Old World, 
others only in the New; some are limited to the northern hemisphere, 


424 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


others appear only in the southern. Changes of latitude bring about 
a change in the species, and the plants of the coastal regions are often 
quite different from those of the interior. Very few species are cosmo- 
politan. With plants there arein addition soil limitations; some grow 
only in sands or sandy soil, others in marls or clays or loams; some 
where the soil is very dry, others where it is wet. There are very few 
strictly aquatic grasses. 

To the far north, on the Atlantic coast, sea lyme grass is the most 
prominent sand binder. Below the region occupied by this grass, 

, which does not extend south of Maine, mar- 
ram is the leading species. This in turn gives 
way, south of Maryland, to bitter panic grass, 
which extends to Florida and around some 
parts of the Gulf coast. There are several 
important sand binders among the littoral 
grasses along our southern borders, and among 
them may be mentioned St. Augustine grass 
and creeping panic. The ocean shores of other 
countries have their peculiar sand - binding 
grasses, two of which are described below. 
Some of these foreign sorts may be intro- 
duced into this country to advantage; for 
special purposes or locations they might prove 
to be superior to our native species. 

In the interior regions, away from the in- 
fluence of salt water, the sand binders are 
usually represented by other but no less valu- 
able species. The long-leafed sand grass, ex- 
tending from the shores of the Great Lakes 

| westward to the Rocky Mountains, and Red- 

field’s grass are the principal sand binders of 
\ | this region, although marram grass and the 


bt) 


sea lyme grass are found to a limited extent 
| b along the borders of Lakes Michigan and Su- 
jc perior. Our grasses have been little studied 
F 14. 102.—Upright sea lyme grass in the line of the present subject, particularly 

(Elymus arenarius), in the arid regions of the Southwest and along 
the Pacific coast. Doubtless, species occur in these sections quite as 
valuable as any of those already named. In strictly alkaline soils, 
alkali grass is a very strong sand binder, and may be as useful in re- 
claiming these lands as is the usar grass in northern India. Fine-top 
salt grass, which is more common in Arizona and New Mexico, affects 
similar soils, and may be even more valuable. There are also several 
species of Muhlenbergia which ought to receive attention in this con- 
nection, notably Muhlenbergia pungens. Running mesquit and several 
species of Bouteloua, or grama grasses, are valuable sand and soil 


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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 425 


binders of the mesas of Arizona and western Texas. These last are 
useful also for pasturage. Along the Gulf coast of Texas and the 
shores of southern California ‘‘salt cedar” is doubtless a good sand 
binder, and the curious dicecious Jouwvea, a grass similar in habit to 
alkali grass, and growing naturally along the sandy coasts of Lower 
California, is evidently an important grass to be considered in this 
connection. 

The propagation of sand-binding grasses may be effected by seed 
when this can be procured, but the better way in most cases is to col- 
lect and transplant cut- 
tings of the creeping 
rhizomes. These are 
not difficult to obtain, 
and a comparatively 
small amount will serve 
to cover a considerable 
area, for they may he 
cut up into single joints, 
and every joint will 
serve to establish a 
new plant. This method 
is applicable to turf 
formers, also used to 
hold embankments, 
such as couch grass, 
Hungarian brome, 
Johnson grass, and Ber- 
muda grass. 

Asalready stated, the 
question of the impor- 
tance of grasses as sand 
binders has up to this 
time received very little 
attention, excepting in 
one or two cases, and in 
the present paper it is 
hardly possible to do 
more thancall attention 
to its real interest and Fig. 103.—Rolling spinifex (Spinifex hirsutus). 
importance, and briefly note some of the grasses already known to be 
or most likely to prove useful as sand and soil binders. 


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THE SAND BINDERS OF THE SEASHORE. 


The best known and one of the most important of all sand binders 
is marram grass, or sand reed (fig. 101). The stout, long-leafed, coarse 
Stems which spring from extensively creeping rootstocks usually grow 


426 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


in tufts (see fig. 100). They are 2 to 4 feet high and the stems are solid, a 
character rather uncommon among grasses. As thesandsdriftin around 
the plants new branches are formed in the lower leaf axils, so that the 
stems appear to rise up with the increasing depth of the sands. The 
densely flowered panicle is from 3 to 6 inches long (fig. 101, b), and usually 
pale straw colored. The strong rootstocks of marram grass often grow 
to the length of 20 or 30 feet, and finally become closely interwoven, 
forming a dense, mat-like 
mass, very resistant to the 
action of the waves and 
winds. 

This grass is common all 
along the coast. of north- 
ern and western Europe, 
and on our Atlantic coast 
from Virginia northward. 
Below its southern limit 
grasses of other kinds take 
its place. It is not con- 
fined to salt-water regions, 
for it grows in consider- 
able abundance along the 
shores of the Great Lakes. 
Itis of comparatively little 
value for hay or pasturage, 
but for binding the loose 
and drifting sands of the 
sea or lake shores, or for 
resisting the action of the 
waves, it probably has no 
superior in the region over 
which it extends. 

For the purposes just 
named the value of mar- 
ram grass has been recog- 
nized for many years: In 
the time of William III an act of Parliament. was passed to preserve 
this species and the sea lyme grass, described below, along the Scottish 
coast, and laws were subsequently made, both in England and in Hol- 
land, prescribing penalties for the wanton destruction of these grasses; 
even the possession of any of the stalks within 8 miles of the coast was 
treated as a penal offense. Many years ago it was as customary every 
spring to warn the inhabitants of Truro and some other towns on Cape 
Cod, Mass., to turn out to plant marram grass as it was in the inland 
towns to turn out and mend the roads. This was required by law, 
with suitable penalties for its neglect, and took place in April. 


Fic. 104.—St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum americanum). 


GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 427 


Marram grass has been introduced along the Pacific coast, near San 
Francisco, for the purpose of binding the sand dunes there; and, as an 
illustration of how valuable a thing may seem if it is far enough removed 
from us, the seed for the cultivation of this grass at the point mentioned 
was obtained from Australia. From the fact that the plant grows along 
the Great Lakes, it is evident that itis as valuable for fresh-water shores 
as for the seashore. An English writer states that it will grow very 
well on sandy clay soil, far removed from the coast, and hence itis very 
likely to prove valuable for keep- 
ing together railroad embank- \,' 


ments or the banks of canals, \ ey, 
ditches, etc., where fodder rd 


grasses are not desired, or where 
a green and close turf is no ob- 
ject. This grass may be propa- 
gated by seed, but more rapidly \ 
and certainly by root cuttings, jo 
which are not difficult to pro- 
cure, and which are easily 
planted in localities where it is 
desired to introduce it. These 
cuttings are planted in rows 6 
feet apart and 2 feet distant in 
the rows, being buried from 12 
to 15 inches in the sand. The 
seed is occasionally offered for 
sale by our leading seedsmen. 

The strong roots are capable 
of being made into ropes, and 
on some parts of the English and 
Kuropean coasts they are woven 
into coarse mats, while the stems 
are used for thatch. The stems 
and leaves have been used for 
making a kind of coarse paper. 

‘In the latter part of the last 
century,” saysSowerby, “alarge 
district on the western side of Scotland, near the Moray firth, was 
completely destroyed, and rendered in a few years as desolate as the 
Sahara, by the advance of the sand from the shore, owing to the wanton 
destruction of the marram that grew upon it.” 

In contrast with this, the town and harbor of Provincetown, once 
called Cape Cod, one of the largest and most important harbors of the 
United States, owe their preservation to this grass. At one time Prov- 
incetown had a “beach-grass committee,” whose duty it was to enter 


Fig. 105.—Louisiana grass (Paspalum compressum), 


428 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


any man’s inclosure, summer or winter, and set out marram,! or beach 
grass, as it was called, if the sand was uncovered or movable. Sand- 
storms, once the terror of the town, were thus entirely prevented. 

Hardly Jess important than marram as a sand binder is the upright 
sea lyme grass (fig. 102). This grass has stout, smooth culms, 3 to 6 feet 
high, and long, sharp-pointed, rigid leaves. The pubescent and usually 
three-flowered spikelets are an inch long and disposed inanarrow spike, 
6 to 12 inches long (fig 102, b). In habit of growth and general appear- 
ance this lyme grass has 
a Striking resemblance 
to marram. The leaves 
are shorter and broader 
at the base, the spikelets 
are more than one-flow- 
ered and downy upon 
the outside, while in 
marram the spikelets are 
smooth and always one- 
flowered. 

The upright lyme 
grass 18 Common all 
along the coasts of north- 
ern Kurope and the Brit- 
ish Islands, and on our 
western coast as far 
south as Oregon. A 
“closely related species, 
having similar charac- 
ters and habit of growth, 
occurs on the Atlantic 
coast from Maine north- 
ward, and on the shores 
of Lake Superior. 

Fig. 106.—Coast couch grass (Zoysia pungens). Theupright lymegrass 
and marram are often found growing together. Sinclair, in referring to 
this fact, states that the sand hills near Skegness, Lincolnshire, Eng- 
land, ‘were formed by the sea lyme grass and marram; the latter, 
with its tufty habit of growth, formed the summit of the hill, while 
the broad-spreading roots and leaves of the lyme grass secured the 
base and sides. These two grasses, when combined, seem admirably 
adapted by roture for the purpose of forming a barrier to the encroach- 


'The name ‘‘marram,” or ‘‘murram,” applied to this grass, is supposed to be 
derived from the Gaelic muram, or the Danish marhalm, meaning sea straw. In 
Denmark the name ‘marehalm” is applied to Llymus arenarius, ‘“ klittag” being 
the common name of Ammophila arenaria. 


—— 2 


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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 429 


ment of the sea. What sand the marram arrests and collects about 
itself the lyme grass secures and keeps fast.” 

The cultivation of upright lyme grass for the purpose of binding 
loose sands by its creeping roots was practiced more than a hundred 
years ago, as mentioned by Schreber in his great work on grasses. 
Under ordinary conditions this grass possesses no value as a forage 
plant. The Digger Indians of the Northwest use the seeds for food, 
and, as it springs up around 
deserted lodges, it is called 
by the inhabitants ‘‘rancheria 
grass.” 

South of the range of mar- 
ram grass, on our Atlantic 
coast, bitter panic grass may 
be utilized as a sand binder. 
It grows in sands along the 
seashore from Connecticut 
southward, and along por- 
tions of the Gulf coast. Near 
its northern limit it appears 
only in a reduced form, 
scarcely more than a foot 
high, with narrow, few-flow- 
ered panicles. Along the 
coast of the Carolinas it be- 
comes larger, attaining a 
height of from 2 to 5 feet, 
and has large, many-flowered 
panicles, and in general ap- 
pearance closely resembles 
forms of switch grass, pres- 
ently to benoted. Thestems 
are coarse and hard, some- 
times half an inch in diam- ) 
eter at the base; the leaves FG. 107.—Long-leafed sand grass (Calamovilfa longifolia). 
are firm in texture, very bitter to the taste, and, with the sheaths, are 
pale green, glaucous, or sometimes straw-colored. The spikelets are 
larger than those of switch grass. The strong, spreading rootstocks 
are effectual in holding the loose sands of the coast, to which this 
grass appears to be confined. Elliott, who first described bitter panic 
in his Botany of South Carolina and Georgia, states that it grows 
among the sand hills on the seashore. It is abundant on the islands 
south of Mississippi Sound. These islands, according to Prof. S. M. 


‘Tracy, are almost wholly made up of drift sands, the outer sides being 


dunes from 10 to 30 feet high, while the middle of the island is usually 
occupied by swamps or lakes. This panic is most abundant ou the 


430 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


outside of the dunes, where it is exposed to the winds and waves, and 
where it certainly serves well for binding the sand. 

Switch grass, a species closely allied to bitter panic, often grows 
along the coast, and is of considerable value as a sand binder. It has 
powerful creeping rootstocks, and is easily propagated, either by seed 
or by root cuttings. 

A conspicuous grass of our southern shores, and belonging to the class 
of sand binders, is water oats, or beach grass. This grass grows in the 
drifting sands along the sea- 
shore from Virginia to Florida, 
and along the Gulf coast west- 
ward to Texas. It has a stout 
upright stem, 3 to 5 feet high, 
very long, rigid leaves, and 
showy, nodding panicles of 
broad, whitish spikelets. The 
habit and general characters of 
beach grass indicate qualities of 
a first-class sand binder for the 
coast of the Southern and Gulf 
States. The large panicles are 
gathered for dry bouquets, and 
are often seen in our markets 
along with the plumes of pampas 
grass. 

On the coasts of southern 
California there is a beach grass 
( Uniola condensata) very closely 
allied to that above described. 
It is similar in habit, but the 
spikelets are smaller and more 
crowded in the narrower pan- 
icles. 

Another species of Uniola 
(Uniola latifolia) is common in 
the Middle and Southern States 

: away from the seashore. This, 

Fig. 108.—Redfield’s grass (Red/fieldia flexuosa). aside from bein ga highly orna- 

mental grass in cultivation, is valuable for binding the banks of streams 
and rivers, or embankments which are not too dry. 

A grass of lesser growth than those above described, but one of much 
value as a sand and soil binder, is salt grass, or alkali grass, as it is 
called in the interior. It is a common grass along our Atlantic and 
Pacific coasts, and in the deserts and alkaline soils of our Western’ 
States and Territories. The leafy culms, which vary from 6 to 18 inches 
in height, spring from tough, scaly rootstocks. The leaves are unusually 


GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 431 


rigid and the stems are hard and wiry, so that the grass has very little 
value as a forage plant. The straw-colored spikelets are united into a 
rather small and unusually compact panicle or head. This grass can 
be recommended for binding loose sands and embankments near the 
seashore or in the alkaline regions of the interior. It should be rigidly 
excluded from arable lands, for it is hard to eradicate when once estab- 
lished, and the matted root- 

stocks form a sod that is ex- | 
ceedingly difficult to break ; # 
with a plow. wT 

In referring to this grass, pa at 
in his Botany of the Death m if yf 
Valley Expedition, Mr. Co- we Le, 
ville says: \ > at 

Of all the plants that grow on 
moist soil in the desert, salt grass 
is the most abundant. In seizing 
upon new moist ground, it sends 
out long, straight rootstocks, often 
several yards in length, and from 
these, at intervals ofabout4inches, 
erectstemsarise. A pieceof ground 
thus taken presents, for the first 
few years, the striking appearance 
of being cut into triangles, quad- 
rangles, and other similar geo- 
metrical figures. These rootstocks 
subsequently die and decompose 
between the nodes, and a large 
number of individuals are thus 
separated, forming new centers of 
growth, and soon covering the \: 
ground with a dense sod. 

A notable sand binder is 
the rolling spinifex (fig. 103), 
common to the sandy coasts ‘ 
of Australia, Tasmania, and ards 
New Zealand. The hard, ‘ 
creeping stems, which root Fic. 109.—Bermuda grass (Cynodon Dactylon). 
at every joint, give rise to coarse, upright, leafy tufts. The rather rigid 
and sharp-pointed leaves are often over a foot in length, andare clothed, 
as is the entire plant, with soft hairs. The male and female flowers of 
this grass are borne on separate plants, the latter in globular heads, 
several inches in diameter (see fig. 103,)). These heads are composed 
of numerous spine-like branches; each branch bearing at its base a 
single female spikelet (fig. 103, b’). The heads, which are often gath- 
ered for dry bouquets, fall off at maturity, and are driven over the sands 
by the winds, dropping their seeds as they roll along, or carried about 
by the waves and landed on newly formed sandbars, there to continue 
the embanking process. 


Ud OL 


432 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Rolling spinifex is of no value as a forage plant, but in New South 
Wales it is regarded as a most useful grass for fixing drift sand when 
encroaching on valuable lands. It is easily propagated by cuttings or 
joints of the stem, is of comparatively quick growth, and is very per- 
sistent when once established. It would doubtless be of some value 
upon our southern coasts. 

The long-leafed spinifex, a grass closely resembling the above, but 
quite smooth, grows on the sandy shores of north and west Australia, 
in some places covering the 
whole coast. This grass has 
many characters in common 
with Spinifexr squarrosus, a 
Species widely spread along 
the sandy seashores of south- 
ern Asia. 

Among the several grasses 
which act as sand binders by 
covering the surface of the 
sands with extensively creep- 
ing and branching stems, few, 
if any, are moreeffective than 
St. Augustine grass (fig. 104), 
This grass has a wide distri- 
bution, being found in the 
tropical and warmer temper- 
ate regions of both the Old 
and New World. In New 
South Wales it is known as 
buffalo grass, and in Jamaica 
itis called pimento grass. It 
grows upon every variety of 
soil, from the apparently ster- 
ile sand dunes to heavy clays, 
but never far away from the 
coast. The flattened stems 

seca emit fibrous roots at every 
F1G.110.—Fresh-water cord grass (Spartina cynosuroides). joint, where they also readily 
separate, e van piece becoming a new center of growth. The leaves are 
flat or simply folded, blunt or obtuse at the apex, usually about one- 
quarter of an inch broad, and from 4 to 10 inches long. The flowering 
stems grow to the height of from 6 inches to a foot or more, and the 
small spikelets are partially embedded in the flattened terminal and 
lateral spikes. (See fig. 104, a.) 

St. Augustine grass grows along our ocean shores as far north as_ 
South Carolina, and is largely used as a lawn grass in Charleston, 8. C., 
aud cities to the south near the coast. It is propagated by cuttings or 


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GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 433 


sets, and quickly covers the most sandy yards with a dense carpet of 
perennial verdure. In South America the creeping stems are employed 
in medicine as a diuretic, as are the stems and rhizomes of couch grass 
in the United States. 

Lowisiana grass (fig. 105) in its habit of growth and foliage closely 
resembles St. Augustine grass, but it requires a richer and somewhat 
moist soil; nor is it confined to the seashore. The creeping, leafy stems 
cover the surface of the ground with a dense, matted growth, and the 
grass is not only valuable for grazing, but may be utilized in the Gulf 
States for lawns or to cover lands or embankments subject to wash. 

Creeping panic is another widely distributed maritime grass belong- 
ing to this class of sand binders. The prestrate, creeping, and rooting 
stems cover the surface of the sand dunes along the Gulf coast, pro- 
tecting them from the action of the winds and waves quite as effectively 
as the more deeply rooted bitter panic, which is occasionally found 
associated with it. 

A well-known grass of the Old World, common on the maritime sands 
of tropical and eastern Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, is the little 
coast couch grass or Japanese lawn grass (fig. 106). This is highly 
spoken of as a sand binder by Australian writers. The extensively 
creeping rhizomes make a perfect network of strong fibers, effectively 
binding the drifting sands of the coast. It is one of the few grasses 
which are at the same time good binders of sands and excellent forage 
plants. Under favorable circumstances it forms a very compact turf, 
and affords a large amount of choice pasturage. Itis highly commended 
as alawn grass for sandy soils. This, or a very closely allied species 
from Korea, has been successfully grown in Connecticut, and doubtless 
it would make a lawn grass for our Southern cities near the coast 
superior to the rather coarse St. Augustine grass mentioned above. 
Mr. John M. B. Sill, consul-general at Seoul, Korea, who has furnished 
the United States Department of Agriculture with seeds of this grass, 
says that it makes a very firm, close, durable sod, and is highly prized 
in the foreign settlements in Japan and China. It sends out runners 
which soon cover a lawn with a soft, firm carpet that is especially prized 
for tennis courts. Constant cropping seems to improve this little grass 
and increase the density of the turf. It may be propagated by seed, 
but more easily and certainly by its “roots,” the close, matted, wiry 
fibers forming a coherent mass, which is easily transported to a distance 
without injury, when it can be cut up and the pieces planted in the 
usual way. 


INLAND SAND BINDERS. 


The principal sand binders of the interior of our country, ranking 
with marram and the sea lyme grass, are the long-leafed sand grass 
(fig. 107) and Redfield’s grass (fig. 108). In the sand dunes along the 

b -A 94 17 


434 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


borders of Lake Michigan the long-leafed sand grass grows in com- 
pany with marram grass, which it fully equals as a binder of the drift- 
ing sands of the lake shore. This grass extends from [linois westward 
to the Rocky Mountains, and southward to Kansas. Along the Missouri 
River it often covers considerable areas, affording protection to the 
sandy banks in times of flood; and in Nebraska it is one of the most 
characteristic grasses of the sand-hills region, growing in the ‘blow- 
outs,” where, with Redfield’s grass, it does valuable service in binding 
the drifting sands. It has far-reaching, scaly rootstocks; stout stems, 
2 to 6 feet high, and numerous rather rigid leaves, 1 to 3 feet long. 
The one-flowered spikelets (fig. 107, a) are in loose and more or less 
spreading panicles. 

Redfield’s grass appears to be limited to the more sandy regions west 
of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, extending 
from Nebraska southward to Arkansas. It is a characteristic grass of 
the sand hills of central Nebraska, growing in the drifting sands and 
“blowouts,” and is a conspicuous and almost the only grass found on 
the sand dunes south of the Arkansas River, near Garden City, Kans. 
The hard, smooth, and long-leafed stems of Redfield’s grass grow in 
tufts or bunches 2 to 4 feet high. The spikelets (fig. 108, a) are in ample, 
spreading, capillary panicles, which are often half the length of the 
stem. The rootstocks are strong and persistent, and the grass is 
recommended for propagation in the interior regions where sand binders 
may be desired. 

For holding the muddy banks of rivers and streams several native 
grasses may be employed. They grow naturally in such situations, 
and are often of considerable value for hay. Reed canary grass is one of 
these. It is a stout, leafy grass, 2 to 4 feet high, with a narrow, densely 
flowered panicle. Indian reed is particularly useful for the purpose in 
question. It is a strong-growing species, 3 to 7 feet high, with a large 
panicle, 6 to 12incheslong. not-root grass is very common along river 
banks, usually where the soil is somewhat sandy, and by its abundant 
creeping rhizomes does good service in preventing the land from being 
washed away by strong currents or overflows. It has branching, leafy 
stems, which make good hay. Common reed (Phragmites) is regarded 
as one of the most valuable grasses for binding the banks of rivers 
subject to periodical floods. It has been called one of nature’s most 
valuable colonists, from its usefulness in the conversion of swamps and 
stagnant pools into dry land. It grows along rivers and margins of 
lakes from Maine to California. It has extensively creeping rootstocks 
and stout, upright culms, 5 to 12 feet high, being one of the largest of 
our hative grasses. Branches from the base of the culm are sometimes 
found creeping along the surface of the ground for a distance of 30 
feet or more, and sending up leafy shoots at every joint. The root- . 
stocks are very strong, and when the grass is once established, scarcely 
anything can move them. The young shoots are liked by cattle, and 


GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 435 


the mature stems make the best thatch. This grass closely resembles 
the cultivated reed, and, like that species, is occasionally grown for 
ornament, 

Swamp millet, an Australian grass, is highly spoken of as a pasture 
grass for wet lands. It has slender, creeping stems, and is classed with 
the species valuable for binding the banks of rivers or dams or any 
loose earth. In the same class, and valuable for like purposes, is a 
grass known in Australia as southern wheat grass. This is an erect 
species, growing from 2 to 3 feet high. 

“Blady grass,” common throughout the warmer temperate and trop- 
ical regions of the world, is a valuable sand and soil binder, and in 
warm countries is recommended for binding river banks, the sides of 
dams, and also the loose sands of the coast. The rootstocks form a 
perfect network of strong fibers, most difficult to eradicate. It is a 
rigid, erect species, from 1 to 3 feet high, and is easily recognized by 
its silvery-white, spike-like panicles, from 3 to 6 inches long. It is 
readily propagated by root cuttings, and might be utilized along the 
Gulf coast and in southern and western Texas, Arizona, etc. A native 
species of “blady grass” (Imperata Hookeri), of similar habit and 
appearance, occurs in Arizona and southern California. It grows 
around the borders of alkaline springs. 

For holding embankments where a firm turf is required, couch or 
witch grass does excellently well in the Northern and Middle States. 
This well-known grass is widely distributed throughout the north tem- 
perate regions of the Old and New Worlds. It presents a number of 
forms, some of which have been regarded as distinct species. All are 
good hay grasses, but are objectionable in fallow land because of their 
widely spreading and very persistent jointed rootstecks. In the North- 
west—Nebraska, Montana, etc.—there is a variety called “blue stem,” 
which is very highly prized and much used for hay. In rich soil the 
stems grow to the height of 3 or 4 feet, and the heads have a striking 
resemblance to those of wheat. Hence the common names “wheat 
grass” or “creeping wheat,” which have been applied to it by some. 
Couch grass makes a very tough sod, and is particularly valuable for 
binding railroad embankments, banks of canals, ditches, or other 
Slopes which it is desired to hold in place. A well-marked variety of 
the species grows in sands along the sea coast, and is useful there as a 
sand binder. 

Hungarian brome grass is a good turf former, and may be employed 
in much the same way as couch grass. The creeping rhizomes of the 
brome grass are not so strong as those of the couch grass, and as a 
soil binder it is less to be depended upon. 

In the Southern States, where the couch grass does not succeed well, 
Johnson grass or the finer Bermuda (fig. 109) may be substituted for it. 
Johnson grass produces a great mass of extensively creeping, strong 
rhizomes, and when once the ground is filled with them it is almost 


436 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


impossible to eradicate them. Bermuda grows more upon the surface, 
and upon a light or sandy soil succeeds better than Johnson grass. 
In binding together and holding levees of sand and loose soil against 
floods, in preventing lands from washing, or in filling gullies, Bermuda 
is of the greatest value, and at the same time is one of the very best 
pasture grasses for the South. If there is considerable moisture in the 
land, and the soil is somewhat clayey, knot grass may be substituted 
for Bermuda. In the Southern States knot grass is especially well 
adapted to cover silt or bare slopes on the banks of ponds or rivers, or 
for covering the soil of “sink holes.” Moderate submersion does not 
injure it. 

The species of cord grass (Spartina) have very stout, creeping rhi- 
zomes, and are of considerable value as holders and defenders of the 
soil. Spartina juncea and Spartina glabra are found on the Atlantic 
coast, while the stouter fresh-water cord grass (fig. 110) grows with 
these and also along the margins of fresh-water lakes and rivers. 

The two first named form the basis of the salt marsh meadows which 
are so much valued along our north Atlantic Coast. Spartina glabra, 
with its varieties, is an excellent colonizer and land former in the situ- 
ations where it flourishes, largely aiding in fixing and rendering solid 
the mud flats that accumulate about the mouths of rivers and low 
coasts, and for thatching this grass is more durable and otherwise 
superior to wheat straw. The largest of our Spartinas, Spartina poly- 
stachya, with stems 5 to 9 feet high and often an inch in diameter at 
the base, is common on tide-water marshes along the coast of New Jer- 
sey and Long Island. Fresh-water cord grass (Spartina cynosuroides) 
grows abundantly along the Missouri and other rivers of the interior, 
and especially along sloughs in the prairie regions, where it is best 
known as slough grass. It makes a fair but rather coarse hay when 
cut early, and it has been successfully employed in the manufacture 
of paper. 

A striking species of rye grass,’ called giant, or western rye grass, 
with strong rootstocks and stout culms, 3 to 12 feet high, grows in the 
Northwest and on the Pacific Slope. It is a grass which does good 
service in retaining the soil of the banks of streams and rivers. 


1An alphabetical list of the grasses mentioned in the foregoing paper, with the 
Latin equivalents of the English names, may be found in the Appendix. 


SKETCH OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AMERICAN 
AND EASTERN ASIAN FRUITS. 


By L. H. BAILry, Jr., 
Professor of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 


The fact must have struck every thoughtful horticulturist that Japan 
is now the most prolific source of profitable new types of fruits and 
hardy ornamental plants. The recent extension of communication with 
that country explains the introduction of these plants, but it does not 
account for the almost uniform success which attends their cultivation 
in this country. There must be some striking similarity between the 
climates and other conditions of Japan and America to enable plants 
from the very antipodes to thrive at once upon their introduction here. 
It is well known among naturalists that this similarity in climate exists, 
and that, therefore, there is general accord in the fauna and flora of 
Japan and eastern America. The origin of this resemblance was most 
strikingly explained by the late Asa Gray, professor of botany in Har- 
vard University, so long ago as 1859. But this relationship of Japan 
and America, with the practical deductions which follow an under- 
standing of it, has never been presented in its horticultural aspects, 

Before proceeding to a discussion of Gray’s argumentative paper, it 
should be explained that half a century ago there was no satisfactory 
explanation of the means by which plants and animals have become 
widely disseminated over the earth. This was particularly true respect- 
ing the curious phenomena of disconnected distributions, or the fact 
that some species occur in widely separated and isolated places. Cer- 
tain plants occur only in eastern America and in Japan, and there may 
be no other representatives of the genus extant; that is, the genus is 
monotypic and has a peculiarly disjointed distribution. There are also 
certain bitypic genera, of which one species occurs only in eastern 
America and the other in Japan. There are equally strange distribu- 
tions of plants and animals in other parts of the world. At the time 
Gray wrote, there were a few general hypotheses in vogue to account 
for these detached distributions. One was Agassiz’s theory, which 
has been called the autochthonal hypothesis, from the fact that it sup- 
poses that each species was born or brought forth upon the area which 
it occupies (autochthon, one born of the land itself). It ‘maintains, 
substantially,” says Gray, “that each species originated where it now 
occurs, probably in as great a number of individuals occupying as large 
an area, and generally the same area, or the same discontinuous area, 
as at the present time.” 

437 


438 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Much the same view was held by Schouw, of Copenhagen, who 
advanced the hypothesis of the double or multiple origin of species; 
but he supposed that the species had the power of greatly distributing 
itself when it was once created in a given region. It was even then 
(Schouw wrote in 1837) maintained by various naturalists that species 
had sprung from one progenitor; but Schouw declared that ‘“‘when we 
look at the facts presented by existing geographical distribution, this 
hypothesis becomes highly improbable, in certain cases altogether inad- 
missible.” All the known agents of the distribution of animals and 
plants could not account for the fact ‘that many species of plants are 
common, on the one hand, to the Alps and the Pyrenees, on the other to 
the Seandinavian and Scotch mountains, without these species being 
found in the plains or on the lower mountains lying between; that the 
flora of Iceland is almost the same as that of the Scandinavian moun- 
tains; that Europe and North America have many plants in common, 
particularly in the northern regions, which have not been transported 
by man; and still further difficulties, bordering on impossibility, arise 
for such an explanation when we know that species occur in the Straits 
of Magellan and in the Falkland Isles which belong to the flora of the 
Arctie Pole.” In order to account for these anomalous distributions, 
he supposed that the same species may originate several times, although 
it would appear that this multiple origination is waning, from the 
instances which he cites of the less wide and not detached distribution 
of the mammals and the higher plants, which are, presumably, of com- 
paratively late creation. “Just as we have seen that the leafless and 
flowerless plants are oftener rediscovered in distant countries than those 
bearing flowers, we may assume that the more perfect animals are less 
prone to, perhaps never do, make their appearance in several places 
independently.” Schouw supposed that creation is completed. “I 
hold itin the highest degree probable,” he writes, “if not strictly proved, 
that no new species originate at present.” 

The straits to which naturalists were driven to explain the distribu- 
tion of animals and plants when one progenitor is alone assumed may 
be illustrated by the supposition which Schouw ascribes to an English 
author, that there must have been a continental area between Spain 
and Ireland, inasmuch as certain Spanish plants reappear in the British 
Isles. Even Alphonse de Candolle, while holding in general to the 
hypothesis of a single origin, felt obliged to admit that in the case of 
our modest verbena-like Phryma Leptostachya, which grows in eastern 
North America and again in the Himalayan region, there must have 
been two independent originations. 

Naturalists were ready to believe that species had one origin, if only 
the fact of disconnected distributions could be explained. At this junc- 
ture Asa Gray came forward with his brilliant exposition of the rela- 
tionships of the eastern American and Japanese floras. The plants 
collected in Japan in 1853 by Williams and Morrow, in connection with 


ee 


AMERICAN AND EASTERN ASIAN FRUITS. 439 


Commodore Perry’s visit to that country, and also those procured there 
by Charles Wright, in connection with Commodore Rodgers’s expedition 
of 1855, went to Gray for study. He was at once struck by the simi- 
larity of many of the plants to those of our Alleghany region, a resem- 
blanee which he had before noticed. He found that many of the char- 
acteristic genera of eastern America and a number of the monotypie 
and bitypic genera oecur also in the Japanese region. He observed 
the remarkable fact that the flora of eastern North America is much 
more like the Japanese flora than that of western America, or even 
of Europe, and also that our Alleghany flora is more like the Japanese 
than it is like the European. 


RESULTS OF CHANGE IN CLIMATE. 


It is well known that the climate of the Pliocene epoch, preceding the 
Glacial time, was much milder than now. Over the Dakotas, camels, 
horses, a mastodon, a rhinoceros, and an elephant roamed, and the 
temperate floras extended much farther north than they do at the pres- 
ent time. The same conditions prevailed in northern Asia, and the 
floras of the two continents were coterminous and intermingled. Then 
came on the Glacial epoch, “an extraordinary refrigeration of the north 
ern hemisphere, in the course of ages carrying glacial ice and arctic 
climate down nearly to the latitude of the Ohio. The change was evi. 
dently so gradual that it did not destroy the temperate floras * * #* 
These [the plants] and their fellows, or such as survive, must have been 
pushed on to lower latitudes as the cold advanced, just as they now 
would be if the temperature were to be again lowered; and between 
them and the ice there was a band of subarctic and arctic vegetation, 
portions of which, retreating up the mountains as the climate amelio- 
rated and the ice receded, still scantily survive upon our highest Alle- 
ghanies, and more abundantly upon the colder summits of the mountains 
of New York and New England, demonstrating the existence of the 
present arctic-alpine vegetation during the Glacial era, and that the 
change of climate at its close was so gradual that it was not destructive 
to vegetable species.” So the plants were driven to the southward, 
both down the Asian and American continents. Gradually the ice 
melted away, the climate became milder, and plants began to return 
northward. After the Glacial epoch had passed away the arctic regions 
became warm. The great fluvial period came in, when arctic lands 
were lower than at present, when the sea stood 500 feet above its present 
level, and when the northern rivers were vastly larger than now. This 
great expanse of water and low elevation of land caused the warmer 
climate of the high north. Elephants and rhinoceroses roamed north- 
ward to the very shores of the Aretic Ocean, and lions, elks, horses, 


buffaloes, and mastodons inhabited the high latitudes. In the ice of 


Siberia the elephants are still found, even with their hair intact, pre- 
served in Nature’s refrigerator for ages. There is evidence that north- 


440 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


western America and northeastern’Asia were more closely connected 
by land than now. The Siberian elephant roamed from one continent 
to the other. ‘I can not imagine a state of circumstances,” writes 
Gray, ‘‘under which the Siberian elephant could migrate and temper- 
ate plants could not.” So the floras of America and Asia again became 
coterminous. 

Now came another change, The Terrace epoch came slowly on. The 
arctic lands were elevated, the waters receded, and the temperature 
fell. The earth approached its present condition. The plants were 
again driven southward down Asia and America. The western coast of 
America, by reason of ocean currents, was warmer than the eastern 
region or than the Japanese region, and the temperate floras went 
down or persisted in similar climates, giving our Alleghany regions and 
eastern Asian and Himalayan countries similar floras. Subsequently 
only minor distributions have taken place. The eastern Asian flora 
has shown some tendency to extend westward, and some species have 
reached Europe. Thus we have an explanation of the remarkable fact, 
long ago noticed by Bentham, that American species have reached 
Europe through Asia. 

‘‘Under the light which these geological considesanuan Pes upon 
the question, I can not resist the conclusion,” writes Gray, “that the 
extant vegetable kingdom has a long and eventful history, and that the 
explanation of apparent anomalies in the geographical distribution of 
species may be found in the various and prolonged climatic or other 
physical vicissitudes to which they have been subject in earlier times.” 

A certain flora “established itself in Greenland,” says Sir J. W. Daw- 
son, ‘and probably all around the Arctic Circle, in the warm period of 
the earliest Eocene, and, as the climate of the northern hemisphere 
became gradually reduced from that time till the end of the Pliocene, 
it marched on over both continents to the southward, chased behind by 
the modern arctic flora, and eventually by the frost and snow of the 
Glacial age.” Says Dawson, again: 

If, however, our modern flora is thus one that has returned from the south, this 
would account for its poverty in species as compared with those of the early Tertiary. 
Groups of plants descending from the north have been rich and varied. Returning 
from the south, they are like the shattered remains of a beaten army. * * * It 
is, indeed, not impossible that in the plans of the Creator the continuous simmer 
sun of the arctic regions may have been made the means for the introduction, or 
at least for the rapid growth and multiplication, of new and more varied types of 
plants. * * * What we have learned respecting this wonderful history has served 
strangely to change some of our preconceived ideas. We must now be prepared to 
admit that an Eden can be planted even in Spitzbergen; that there are possibilities 
in this old earth of ours which its present condition does not reveal to us; that the 
present state of the world is by no means the best possible in relation to climate and 
vegetation; that there have been and might be again conditions which could convert 
the ice-clad arctic regions into blooming paradises, and which at the same time would 
moderate the fervent heat of the tropics. We are accustomed to say that nothing is 
impossible with God; but how little have we known of the gigantic possibilities 
which lie hidden under some of the most common of His natural laws! 


o_o 


AMERICAN AND EASTERN ASIAN FRUITS. 441 


All these considerations go to establish three general laws: (1) That 
distribution of plants and animals is determined largely by climatic 
and other physical causes. (2) That species have a local or single 
origin. (3) That the origin of our present temperate flora is in the 
north. These generalizations were written before Darwin’s theories 
appeared and before Heer had published the fossil histories of the 
arctic regions, and they at once establish Gray’s place among philo- 
sophical naturalists. 

We have now observed that the very facts which led Schouw, De Can- 
dolle, and others to accept an hypothesis of the multiple origin of spe- 
cies are the ones which chiefly explain and prove the conclusions of 
Gray. In the vicissitudes of geologic time plants retreated up the 
mountains or persisted along the cold shores of the northern lakes, 
giving rise to the curious fact of arctic and subarctic plants upon Lake 
Superior, Mount Marey, Mount Washington, and Mount Katahdin. 
But, what is more to our present purpose, we can now understand the 
similarities of the eastern American and Asian floras, because like 
plants have persisted in similar climates when they were pushed down 
from the north upon all sides of the globe. The curiously dismembered 
diffusion of the Phryma Leptostachya is intelligible; and we can explain 
Schouw’s perplexity concerning the less extended and undetached dis- 
tribution of the mammals and higher plants, for these may, in many 
cases, have developed or originated since the epoch of these great 
dispersions. 

The climates of eastern America and eastern Asia are still similar, 
as shown by the similar floras of the present time. The facies of the 
Japanese, northern Chinese, and Himalayan floras are strikingly those 
of our own Alleghany flora. The magnolias are peculiar to these 
two great regions. The tulip tree, confined to our Eastern States, has 
recently been discovered in China. The story of shortia and schizo- 
codon—independent names for the same type of plant discovered in 
the two continents—is familiar to botanists. Lately, horticulturists 
have seen a striking instance of this relationship in the remarkably 
rapid diffusion in this country of the Japanese plums, fruits which are 
more closely allied to our native species than the common or European 
plums are, and which are also unquestionably adapted to a much wider 
range of conditions than the European plums. We all know that the 
horticultural flora most resembling that of Europe is upon our Pacific 
Slope; there the European wine grape, the olive, the citrous fruits, the 
walnut, the fig, and the prune and raisin industries are already well 
developed. In like manner we may expect that in the course of time 
the horticultural industries of eastern America and eastern Asia will 
acquire the similarity of facies which the floras of these regions now 
enjoy. One may therefore look with favor upon the introduction of 
Japanese plants, for it is certain, both from the known resemblances of 
its flora to our own and from the early introduction of its plants into 


442 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


western Asia and Europe, that the most promising field for horticul- 
tural exploration and for the study of the ancestry ef our fruits is now 
in the interior of China. 


FOREIGN CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR POMOLOGY. 


It is yet too soon to fally measure the value of the contributions of 
eastern Asia to our pomology, although the importance of the hardy 
ornamentals derived in great numbers from that region is everywhere 
conceded. Yet this antipedean region has already given us quite as 
important species of fruits as Europe and western Asia, despite the 
fact that these latter regions were the source of our colonization and 
civilization. The following list includes all the fruits of the United 
States which have come from the Europo-Asian region and from the 
Chino-Japanese region: 


Europo-Asian. 


Plum. 
Almond. 
Apple. 

Pear. 

Medlar. 

Sour cherry. 
Sweet cherry. 
Quince. 
Raspberry.! 
Strawberry.! 
Red currant. 
Biack currant. 
English gooseberry. 


Wine and raisin grape. 


Olive. 

Pomegranate. 

Date. 

Fig. 

Filbert. 

European chestnut. 

English walnut. 

Pistachio. 
Twenty-two species. 


Eastern Asian. 


Japan plum. 
Prunus Simonii. 
Japanese pear. 
Peach. 
Commen apricot. 
Chinese apricot. 
Wineberry. 
Kaki, or Japanese persimmon. 
Orange. 
Mandarin. 
Lemon (including lime and citron). 
Kumquat. 
Loquat. 
Hovenia. 
Chinese jujube. 
Litchi. 
Eleagnus. 
Myrica. 
Japanese walnut. 
Japanese chestnut. 
Ginkgo. 

Twenty-one species. 


The eastern Asian species of fruits now grown in this country are 
already nearly equal in number to those from Europe and western 
Asia—the latter country “the cradle of the human race”—and they 
comprise some of the most important fruits known to man, the 
orange, lemon, peach, apricot, and kaki. There is certainly abundant 
reason for looking toward oriental Asia for further acquisitions, either 
in other species or in novel varieties. 


ithe raspberry and strawberry mostly supplanted by the American species. 


nied 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 


By Cuas. Ricnarps DopGE, 
Special Agent in Charge of Tiber Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION. 


Who has not heard of the “grass cloth” of China, that delicate and 
most beautiful tissue which since time immemorial has been manufac- 
tured in oriental countries? Produced by rude hand manipulation from 
a fiber of gossamer fineness, extracted by equally laborious methods 
from coarse, woody stalks, there is, to the popular mind, something of 
the marvelous in its fabrication. The fiber employed is the ramie of 
commerce, known in the raw state as China grass, though it is not in 
any sense a grass further than that a handful of the greenish yellow 
filaments has a grass-like appearance. The plant from which this del- 
icate and astonishingly strong fiber is produced—one of the strongest 
and most durable in the fiber economy—may be described as a cluster 
of tuberous roots surrounded by a mass of fleshy rootlets, supporting 
a growth of 10 to 80 stalks which shoot upward to a height of 4 to 8 
feet. At maturity these stalks vary in dimension from the size of a 
lead pencil to the thickness of a man’s little finger. 

The stalks are clothed with large ovate-acuminate leaves of a warm, 
green color on the upper surface, and whitish or silvery beneath (in the 
variety known as Bahmeria nivea), the fiber being formed in the bark 
surrounding the woody portion, this having a pithy center protected on 
the outside by a thick epidermis. The plant grows rapidly, producing 
two to four and even five annual crops without replanting, dependent 
upon the country and climate where cultivated, and one planting 
suffices for several years. 

Almost a century has passed since the attention of the government 
of India was first called to the value of this fiber in the textile economy 
by Dr. Roxburgh. About 1840 a second attempt was made to utilize 
the plant, but it was not until 1869, when a prize of £5,000 was offered 
by the British Government for a satisfactory process or machine with 
which to supersede the laborious hand methods of cleaning the fiber, 
that serious effort was inaugurated. 

Probably no fiber in the vegetable economy has attracted such wide- 
spread interest as ramie, for nearly every government on the face of the 
globe, in countries where the plant will grow, has encouraged the estab- 
lishment of the industry in one form or another, or capitalists in these 

443 


444 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


countries have liberally aided invention and private experiment in the 
hope of securing the golden reward it has offered. Through these unre- 
mitting efforts, and the lavish use of private capital, there is now a 
flattering prospect that the industry will ere long be fairly established, 
and ramie fabrics will be found in the markets of the world side by 
side with those from silk, from cotton, and from flax. European con- 
cerns even now are running thousands of spindles, turning out hun- 
dreds of tons of yarns annually, and are enlarging their works. 


THE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA. 


It is nearly forty years since the plant was introduced into the United 
States, and a quarter of a century marks the period of our struggle with 
the decorticator problem. Experiments in culture during this period 
have demonstrated that the plant will grow thriftily in the Gulf States 
from Florida to Texas, and in certain localities in California, such as 
the valleys of the central and southern portions of the State. It has 
been shown that after the first year two to four crops annually may 
be expected from one planting, dependent upon locality, and that the 
ground will not need to be again disturbed for four or five years. 

But it has also been demonstrated that we have yet a great deal to 
learn regarding the details of cultivation, as the profitableness of the 
crop must depend wholly upon the yield per acre of spinnable fiber. 
The cultural problem of the immediate future, then, will be to learn 
how to produce on a given area the greatest quantity of fiber of spin- 
nable quality at a cost that will allow of competition with other coun- 
tries. This means careful experiments not only in culture but also with 
the stripping, cleaning, and after-manipulation of the fiber derived 
from these experiments, to ascertain the precise yield, quality, cost, and 
commercial value. In other words, it is not enough to grow a crop of 
stalks of the requisite height and size—we must know that these stalks 
contain the proper quality of fiber, in sufficient quantity to make the 
culture profitable; and we must know all the conditions essential to 
bringing about such results. 

Between the Chinese imported and the home-grown fiber there will 
always be this disadvantage and difference: The machine-prepared 
fiber can never be so clean and free from gum, and therefore will bring 
a lower price, the range dependent upon the percentage of pure fiber it 
contains and upon the thoroughness of decortication. This difference 
is clearly shown on Plate V. 


COMPARISON OF RAMIE AND FLAX. 


Comparison between ramie and flax will illustrate some of the diffi- 
culties with which the ramie industry has had to contend, and show | 
why ramie can not be grown, cleaned, prepared, spun, and woven as 
cheaply as flax and other textiles the production of which are recog- 
nized industries. 


PLATE IV. 


Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1894, 


RAMIE—DRIED STALKS, RAW FIBER, DEGUMMED FIBER, AND MANUFACTURES. 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 445 


Ramie is a coarse, pithy stalk, with an abundance of leaves, often 
growing as high as a man’s head, the fiber of which is extracted with 
difficulty by costly machinery, and which, after drying, must be further 
subjected to chemical treatment before it can be sold to the manu- 
facturer in the form of degummed ramie. And according to French 
experts this degummed ramie represents hardly more than 2 per cent 
of a given weight of the green stalks with leaves that were harvested 
from the field. In harvesting a ton of flax the semidried straw is pulled 
from the ground, and it is only necessary for it to remain in the shocks 
for a few days when it becomes thoroughly dry like the straw of wheat 
or barley, having lost only its moisture. In harvesting a ton of green 
ramie we are handling 80 per cent of water and a mass of leaves and 
succulent tops equal to a weight of eight or nine hundred pounds to 
the ton. If the dry system of decortication is to be employed these 
stalks must be shocked in the field and handled several times, so that 
all the leaves may fall to the ground and the air reach every part of 
the shock, and even then the stalks will not sun-dry to brittleness in 
the Gulf States. 


METHODS OF DECORTICATION. 


If the green system of decortication is to be followed, this great bulk 
of succulent material (8 to 12 tons per acre) must be harvested and 
hauled to the machines, and if the machines will not strip the leaves 
automatically—for the stalks must be worked at once, while fresh—the 
stripping must be accomplished by hand. The requisite number of 
machines will be regulated by the area under cultivation, for a single 
decorticator that would even clean the product of an acre in a day 
would only be able to finish, say, 50 acres in eight weeks of working 
days. It will readily be seen, therefore, that if the fiber has reached 
proper maturity when the cutting begins at the end of eight weeks 
it must suffer a change that will give different grades of fiber in the 
same crop. Hence, only the farmer who grows a very few acres may 
expect to harvest his fiber with one machine if he desires to secure 
an even standard of quality, unless he resort to the dry system, with 
which the fiber may be extracted at any time, provided the stalks are 
thoroughly dry. 

In comparing the different methods of treatment of these two fibers, 
flax and ramie, it will be readily seen that one is simple, chiefly me- 
chanical, the retting being accomplished by nature at small outlay for 
labor; the other quite complex, requiring the handling of 8 to 10 tons, 
or even more, of green matter per acre, which must either be dried 
or passed through a machine while in fresh condition, and the ribbons 
finally subjected to chemical processes requiring more or less of tech- 
nical knowledge and the employment of special apparatus. Flax, 
which is treated so simply, yields from 15 to 25 per cent of fiber, while 
ramie yields hardly 2 per cent of the weight of green stalks and leaves 


446 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


harvested. The cost of retting, breaking, and scutching flax, to secure 
its fiber, is a known quantity; that of ramie, at present, is unknown. 

To the advantage of ramie over flax, in our comparison, let it be said 
that, under proper cultivation, an acre of the former should produce, 
in its two crops, 16 to 25 tons annually, while 1 or 2 tons of straw is 
all that can be expected in an annual crop of flax, save 12 or 15 bushels 
of seed that should be reckoned into the account. Then flax must be 
grown from the seed annually, while one planting of ramie roots will 
give crops for several years. 

The question is frequently asked, Does the Department of Agricul- 
ture encourage cultivation at the present time? The Department cer- 
tainly advocates experimental cultivation, in order that farmers may 
become familiar with the growth of the plant, and also to insure a 
supply of roots for more extensive pianting when all the other prob- 
lems have been solved. And it is true that at the outset, when the 
time comes that cultivation may be profitably engaged in, there will 
be a large demand for roots, which for a few years will assure a profit- 
able revenue to those who have a supply to draw upon. But in this 
experimental culture not over two or three acres should be put under 
cultivation by one farmer, and he should go to work intelligently, 
keeping both eyes open, and without expectation of immediate money 
return. By this statement it will be understood that the United States 
Department of Agriculture can not encourage cultivation as a money 
crop, in connection with the regular staples, as long as the decorticator 
problem remains unsettled and the farmer can not be assured of a 
ready means of converting the crop into salable fiber that will compete 
with the hand-prepared China grass of commerce. The foreign prod- 
uct can now be supplied to manufacturers at from 6 to 8 cents per 
pound, and is almost wholly relied upon as the supply of raw material 
used in the European ramie-manufacturing establishments, and the 
same must be said of our own country until the home-grown fiber can 
be more economically produced and extracted than at present. 


CLIMATE, SOIL, AND CULTURE. 


In general terms it may be said that the ramie plant requires a hot, 
moist climate, with no extremes of temperature, and a naturally rich, 
damp, but never a wet soil, the necessary moisture to be supplied by 
frequent rains or by irrigation; in other words, a climate and soil in 
which the growth will be rapid and continuous after it has once begun. 
In the United States the best localities, so far as experiment has deter- 
mined, are portions of Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, on 
the Gulf, and central California, on the Pacific coast. The other Gulf 
States, doubtless, will prove equally favorable to this culture, when 
more extensive experiments have been undertaken than are now 
recorded. Regarding the northern limit of commercial culture, no pos- 
itive statement can now be made. The plant thrives in South Caro- 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 447 


lina, and it is fair to suppose that two annual crops are possible, though 
the quality and yield of the fiber can only be ascertained to a certainty 
by careful tests of the product of both crops. 

Mr. William R. Smith, the Superintendent of the United States Bo- 
tanic Garden, Washington, D. C., considers the District of Columbia 
the northern limit of its growth, botanically speaking. But commer- 
cial cultivation in this locality or in Maryland or Virginia is out of the 
question, for only in particularly favorable years will the plant make a 
good growth, and even then but a single crop will be possible. In 1894 
the entire season’s growth of the little plat at the Botanic Garden was 
barely 3 feet high, and the clusters of flower racemes had not begun to 
mature their seed on the lst of November; and cultivation northward 
from the District of Columbia, for instance in the State of New Jersey, 
as recently suggested, must be set down as a mere vagary. 

The question of soil is animportant one. In the present day the soil 
usually chosen in China is a red clay, “ with sand mixed in,” and the 
plantation is established with roots dug from old plats in the fall. In 
India the plant appears to thrive in almost any soil, though preference 
is given to rich, light sandy loams, thoroughly worked. In the Kangra 
district “rich loams ” are chosen. The French experimenters, whose 
experience relates to France, Spain, and Algeria, prefer a deep soil— 
‘“ silico-caleareous, or sandy alluvial with a permeable subsoil.” But 
marshy lands or retentive clay soils are always avoided. 

In our own country, in the Gulf States, ramie has been grown exper- 
imentally in a great variety of soils, ranging from the light sandy 
uplands to the rich black lands of the Louisiana bottoms. But light 
sandy alluvial soils have always given the best results. In California 
deep alluvial, sandy, or loamy lands which, when well prepared, will 
hold their moisture through the growing season, or that can be irri- 
gated, are most commonly selected. 

In preparing the land for a plantation, thorough tilth—that is, deep 
plowing and cross harrowing—are essential. The ground is frequently 
broken to a depth of 15 inches or more, but never less than 12 inches, 
to secure good results; and lumpy land is rolled. 

In all countries where ramie has been grown commercially or experi- 
mentally the necessity for heavily enriching the soil by the application 
of the farm manures or chemical fertilizers isemphasized. It wasshown 
many years ago by lorbes Watson that the alkalies, especially potash, 
amount to almost one-half and phosphoric acid one-tenth of the weight 
of the ash constituents from a plant of ramie, or about 80 pounds of 
the former to 40 pounds of the latter in a ton of dried stalks. Asa 
crop of wheat is said to take from the soil but 30 pounds of alkalies 
and 28 pounds of phosphoric acid, the importance of properly enrich- 
ing the soil will be readily understood. The amount of mineral constit- 
uents found in the fiber is very small, and as the fiber is the only valu- 
able portion of the crop, the leaves and woody waste, or the refuse of 


A448 YEARBOOK OF. THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


decortication, can always be returned to the soil. The French writers 
lay great stress on the use of the leaves for fertilizing material, as they 
are rich in potash. The leaves alone that are produced upon one acre 
may amount to 4 or 5 tons weight for each cutting. 

Professor Hilgard’s experiments at Berkeley, Cal.,in this direction 
are very interesting. He makes the total of mineral ingredients with- 
drawn from the soil in a single year, four cuttings, 2,143 pounds. 
Among these are lime, 658 pounds; potash, 252 pounds; phosphoric 
acid, 156 pounds, and the figures for nitrogen are 370 pounds. The 
stalks contain about three-fifths of the potash, and the leaves one- 
quarter of the total. Nearly 87 per cent of the lime, 50 per cent of the 
phosphoric acid, and 55 per cent of the nitrogen is found in the leaves. 

We learn, then, that lime, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen are 
the constituents of a proper ramie fertilizer, and these elements of fer- 
tility may be supplied in several ways. If the refuse of a ramie crop is 
burned and returned to the land with the leaves a large saving in the 
purchase of fertilizers will be effected. According to Professor Hilgard, 
should the leaves and not the stalks be returned to the soil the amount 
of potash permanently removed from the soil would be increased by 156 
pounds—lime, 72; phosphoric acid, 78; and nitrogen, 106. 

A good ramie fertilizer recommended by Mr. 8. B. Allison, a Louisiana 
rainie grower, is 300 pounds each of cotton-seed meal and kainit. Pro- 
fessor Stubbs uses two parts cotton-seed meal and one part acid phos- 
phate at the rate of 400 to 480 pounds per acre. In French practice 
well-decomposed stable manures and well-ground chemical fertilizers, 
guano, and oil-cake have been used successfully. : 

The land having been put into proper condition as to tilth and fertil- 
ity, the preparations for planting follow, but before considering this 
point in the agricultural practice it will be well to know what the farmer 
isto plant. Three methods of propagation of the ramie may be followed: 
(1) By the use of seed; (2) the employment of subdivided roots, and (3) 
the practice of layering. Ramie plantations are most commonly estab- 
lished by the planting of roots, the stand being supplemented by layer- 
ing the shoots that spring from these roots, thus rapidly multiplying 
the individual stools, or hills, from which the clusters of stalks will 
spring. Thus, by planting roots instead of seed, time is saved and 
stronger plants are secured at the outset. 

If, however, roots can not be obtained in sufficient quantity, the nec- 
essary plants must be produced from the seed—an operation requiring 
the utmost care, as the seed is very small. Outdoor propagation can 
hardly, therefore, be relied upon, and the young plants must be grown 
in the hotbed or cold frame. The principal care is to avoid covering 
the seed with more than a light sifting of fine earth, also to keep the 
bed moist and to protect the young plants from the sun. When they 
are 2 or 3 inches high sunlight may be admitted, and in five or six weeks 
they may be planted out in the field. The Chinese mix 44 pints of fine 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 449 


moist earth with 1 pint of seed, and by the use of earth and seed thus 
mixed no covering is necessary. <A. pint of seed will suffice for six or 
seven beds, each containing 4 square feet of surface. 

For root planting the supply is obtained from the root masses of old 
plants, these being subdivided into lengths of 4 or 5 inches, containing 
several eyes. Twelve hundred bushels of roots have been taken from 
a single acre in an old plantation, that were sold for $1 a bushel. Refer- 
ence may be made to the illustration of roots which accompany these 
pages. The top or crown roots (fig. 111), which resemble small, slender 
tubers, are never employed, and should be thrown out when the old 
roots are subdivided. The old roots are shown in figure 112, 


Fia. 111.—Plant showing crown roots. Fia. 112.—Plant showing roots to be subdivided. 


In preparing for planting, the first step is to cross-plow, harrow, and 
roll the ground that has already been fall-plowed and harrowed. ‘This 
may be done about the 1st of February. Mr. Allison’s practice is to 
allow the land to lie for one month after this is accomplished before 
laying up the surface in flat beds, which should be 45 feet from centers, 
the centers having an elevation of 6 inches. The rows are barred 
off with a scooter plow to the depth of 4 inches; the roots are then 
placed in the rows and covered with two furrows. A week later, when 
the roots have begun to sprout, a harrow with a board at the back 
of itis run over the ground in order that the plants may push up in 
mellow soil. | 

There is the greatest difference of opinion in regard to the proper 
distances apart that the plants should be set, but a safe mean will be 
to establish the rows 4 to 44 feet apart with the plants 1 foot in the 
row; in California somewhat closer setting is practiced. The close 

Peo we 94 Le 


450 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


system of planting recommended by the French requires 14,000 to 
16,000 plants to the acre, while the 4-feet by 1-foot system requires only 
about half as many plants to the acre. 

Layering is practiced when the stalks from the first growth are about 
3 feet high. The earth is mellowed and made damp, the stalks bent 
and held in place by crotchets, and covered with about 4 inches of soil. 
In four weeks they will have become independent plants, which may 
be left in their places to form new stools or may be transplanted in 
other plats. Another method of propagation has been recommended 
in California, which, in brief, is to set out obliquely sections of stalks 
some 6 inches in length, nearly covering them with earth. Itis claimed 
that if the work is accomplished before the period of hot weather, no 


Wh 
Fig. 113.—Ramie stalks ready for cutting. Fig. 114.—Stalks of ramie showing new growth 
of leaves. 


special care, as watering and shading, will be necessary, though all 
weed growth should be kept down. The planting in Egypt, Algeria, 
and Spain is done from the end of October until April; in France, from 
March to the end of May. 

The only after-cultivation necessary is to plow or hoe between the 
rows, aS may be necessary, to keep the soil free from weeds or in good 
condition. This work is usually performed in the spring or early sum- 
mer months. As to the operations of the second year, the detailed 
account of Mr. Allison’s experience will give a hint of the practice — 
that should be followed. Earlyin April, when the danger of frosts had 
passed, all young growth was cut off but not saved, Fertilizers were 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 41 


applied, and the soil between the rows plowed and hoed. About the 
first of July the first crop was cut, followed by another plowing and 
hoeing. The stalks were then allowed to grow until about November 
1, the time for the second cutting. I think, however, it would be 
better not to delay the last cut so late, in order to avoid a “second 
growth” which takes the form of clusters of leaves, eventually produc- 
ing branches, which appear at the point of juncture of the leaf and 
stalk after the old leaves have fallen. The accompanying figures illus- 
trate this: Figure 113, the stalks and growth of alternate leaves; figure 
114, with the beginning of a new growth of leaves at the point of con- 
tact of the old leaf with the stalk; figure 115 shows clusters of flower 
racemes and formation of seed. 

“¢ What is the expense of establishing a ramie plantation?” asks the 
farmer. At the present time it is difficult to answer the question, 
because the cost of roots, the chief expense, 
depends largely upon demand and supply. It 
will be a simple matter to figure out the cost 
of plowing, harrowing, and planting, and we 
may even assume a price for roots, but the 
figures must apply only to the present time, 
when the demand for roots is limited. 

In this country ramie has never been grown 
over large areas, and the records of experi- 
ments that appear in the meager literature of 
the subject are very vague and incomplete. 
The figures given are made up from a careful 
analysis of returns received in reply to a 
special circular on this subject, and while the 
results will not be found far out of the way, 
these figures must not be regarded as abso- 
lute. By the Louisiana Experiment Station 
the first year’s expense is set down at $20, 
the cost of fertilizers and of roots not given. 
The Mississippi Experiment Station figures, 
including cost of fertilizers but not of roots, 
are $19.50. Mr. Natho, a Texas grower, makes the statement that the 
expense of preparing the land, planting, and after-cultivation for the 
first year will amount to $21.50. Mr. 8. B. Allison’s figures, including 
fertilizers to the value of $12 and the labor of layering a part of the 
first growth, are $24. Mr. Allison’s land was very poor, and required 
a large amount of fertilizer. 

The figures of the United States Department of Agriculture, based 
not only upon the returns from the circular but upon all available 
information that could be secured from other sources, without counting 
the cost of roots, amount to $25.88 per acre. This allows for fertilizers 
$9 and for the labor of planting $8. By these returns the expense of 
the second year’s cultivation, with fertilizers, is shown to be only $13.29, 


Fic. 115.—Seed-bearing racemes. 


452 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


HARVESTING THE CROP. 


In general terms, a crop of ramie is ready for cutting when the leaves 
can be readily detached by passing the hand down the stems, and when 
the bases of the stalks have begun to turn brown. The sprouting of 
the buds at the base of the leaf stem is another indication. No rule 
as to dates can be laid down, as temperature and climatic conditions 
vary so greatly in different sections and in the same section in dif- 
ferent years. In France the first crop is cut from June to July and 
the second from September to October. 

It is a question whether we can economically harvest in this country 
by hand cutting, especially if the stalks are stripped of their leaves 
in the field. Then, too, the system of decortication to be employed, 
whether the green or the dry, will need to be considered. Mr. Kauffa- 
man states that the harvesting can be readily done by reaping machines 
or self-binders, which will reduce the expense to the minimum. If 
this mode is adopted without stripping the leaves, the decortication 
must follow immediately, for the mass of stalks and leaves will soon 
heat.and the stalks rapidly mold or mildew. Personal observation at 
the time of the ramie trials of 1892 at New Orleans leads to the con- 
viction that heating may begin in twelve hours, and that the bundled 
stalks will show positive signs of mildew within twenty-four hours. 
With stripped stalks the heating will be less rapid, but even when 
denuded of their leaves and lying in heaps, the stalks will soon be 
affected to an extent that will seriously injure the fiber. 

It is not believed that ramie in Louisiana can be sun-dried to a state 
of sufficient brittleness to give best results in working; and kiln-dry- 
ing will not only cause additional expense, but may result in injury to 
the fiber by overhardening the resinous principle or gum holding the 
filaments together. The dry system seems best adapted to California, 
where the climatic conditions differ so greatly from those of the Gulf 
States. 

The Chinese strip the fiber by hand, producing, it has been stated, 
less than 2 pounds per day per laborer. This practice admits of care- 
ful selection of the stalks, and no doubt the even quality of the China 
grass of commerce at the present time is due to such careful selection. 
It is a question, therefore, if cutting the crop with a harvester, as has 
been recommended, where the stalks will be of varying lengths, even 
including short and immature growth, will produce an even quality of 
fiber. Such careful selection of stalks in our own practice can hardly 
be recommended, owing to the extra expense it would involve, but there 
is no question as to the enhanced value of the fiber that would result. 

It has been shown that a crop grown in a rainy season will produce a 
softer, less resistant fiber than one grown under normal conditions, and 
it follows that there may be similar variation in parts of the same stalks 
that have been grown in successive periods of inundation and drought, 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 453 


These facts only emphasize the importance of harvesting mature stalks, 
and it should be the aim of the cultivator to bring about, as far as such 
control may be in his power, those conditions of growth that will insure 
even maturity. 

YIELD OF RAMIE. 


Estimates of yield, as a rule, are overstated. In the past newspaper 
literature of the subject the tendency has been to “boom” the industry 
by telling only the bright side of the story, or by advancing alluring 
“probabilities,” the exaggerations, in rare instances, approaching the 
marvelous. But in spite of the enthusiastic utterances of the mere 
promoter, and the overzealous assurance of the misinformed news- 
chronicler, few farmers have gone into cultivation recklessly, though 
some capitalists have lost money in unwisely conducted experiments. 

To get at the truth of the matter a careful study has been made of 
the figures of our own and other countries, the figures of actual experi- 
ence being selected as the basis of estimate; and it has been possible 
to find a key by which the published figures of estimate from small 
areas may be tested. 

According to Hardy’s experiments in Algiers it is estimated that an 
acre of fully grown green stalks, with their leaves, will produce a weight 
of about 48,000 pounds, which will yield 4,900 pounds of dried stalks and 
1,400 pounds of cleaned ribbons from one cutting. This, reduced to 
equivalents, gives a yield of 229 pounds of dried stalks to a long ton of 
green stalks with leaves, from which is obtained about 65 pounds of 
cleaned ribbons, yet tobe degummed. Thisis equivalent to 630 pounds 
of ribbons from a ton of dried stalks. Professor Hilgard estimates two 
cuttings in California to yield 12,900 pounds of dry stalks, and that 
the minimum product of raw fiber from this weight of dry stalks would 
be about 15 per cent, or, say, 1,935 pounds. This is equivalent to 336 
pounds of raw fiber to the long ton of dried stalks. Both the Algerian 
and Californian figures represent estimates based on the yield of small 
areas (hardly more than garden plats), and should not be taken as abso- 
lute. Indeed, Mr. Hardy’s yield per acre of 96,000 pounds of green 
ramie per year (two cuttings) is not paralleled in any ramie literature 
that has come to my notice. 

In De Mas’s Italian experiments two cuttings the second year gave 
a product of 52,000 pounds of stalks with leaves per acre, or 27,600 
pounds of stripped stalks giving 9,800 pounds of dry stalks, and yield- 
ing 944 pounds of dry fiber. This means 472 pounds of fiber from one 
cutting, or 40 pounds of raw fiber from 1 ton of green stalks. Per- 
centage of dry to green stalks 10 per cent, and of dry fiber to dry stalks 
17.9 per cent. These percentages are much nearer the mark, and may 

be more safely taken. 
Regarding Dr. Hiligard’s figures, it should be stated that the product 
is estimated from actual cuttings on two plats, about one seventy-first 

i aA 94 18 


454 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of anacre. The high rate of yield at Berkeley is readily accounted for 
by the fact that in these small plats (18 by 34 feet) the crop was grown 
under the best possible conditions, and doubtless with garden culture. 
Similarly measured plats of second crop Louisiana ramie, cut at my 
request by Mr. Allison, when weighed showed a yield equivalent to 
23,000 pounds and 25,000 pounds in round numbers per acre, the first 
lot being white ramie, the second lot green ramie, and Mr. Allison is of 
the opinion that with good culture this yield may be maintained. This 
is equivalent to 20 and 22 tons of green stalks and leaves per acre 
annually. 

A careful study of the yield of all countries justifies as a fair esti- 
mate 8 to 10 tons of stalks with leaves per acre at a single cuiting, or 
for two cuttings, which is the average for Louisiana, 20 tons; and it 
is possible, under the most favorable conditions, to secure a yield of 
even 25 tons per year after the plants are well established. 

The careful experiments of Mr. Charles Rivitre, director of the Bo- 
tanic Garden of Algiers, have given us a ready basis of estimate of yield 
where ramie has been properly grown. These figures have been proved 
by the later experiments of Landtsheer. A French ton (1,000 kilos= 
2,200 pounds) of stalks and leaves will yield 520 kilos (1,144 pounds) 
of stripped stalks; the 520 kilos of stripped stalks will give 104 kilos 
(228.8 pounds) of dry stalks, and these will yield 20.8 kilos (45.7 pounds) 
of decorticated product (a little less than 20 per cent), and this weight 
will give 11.2 kilos (24.6 pounds) of degummed filasse. This means that 
a long ton of green ramie stalks with leaves will yield 464 pounds of 
decorticated fiber, which will give 25 pounds of degummed fiber, and 
calculations made on this basis will never be overstated or misleading. 
The figures of De Mas are 40 pounds of fiber per ton of well-grown 
stalks and leaves for first year’s growth, and 44.2 for second year’s 
growth. In our own country Mr. Allison’s experiments have given 
very nearly the same results, having himself grown the stalks and 
extracted and degummed the fiber. 

It is only through such practical experiments, covering the whole 
ground of production of the fiber, decortication, and degumming, under 
one direction, that we shall ever be able to solve the many apis 
that beset be industry. 

Regarding the number of cuttings that may be depended upon in the 
United States there is but one point to consider, and that is the num- 
ber of crops that will mature sufficiently to produce spinnable fiber of 
even quality in the different cuttings. Taking ten weeks as the aver- 
age time required to mature the crop, three crops would require a grow- 
ing season of thirty weeks. If the climatic conditions of the section 
where the crop is growing are such that the requisite degrees of heat — 
and moisture can be kept up uniformly for a period of thirty weeks, 
then three crops can be readily grown. If, on the other hand, the first 
and third crops are of slow growth, while the second crop, which has 


ew 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 455 


been produced in midsummer, is of rapid growth, a uniform grade of 
fiber in the three crops can not be produced, and two sure crops will, 
therefore, be better than one sure and two uncertain crops. In order 
to grow two sure crops the early spring growth will need to be mowed 
off, say, from the first to the middle of April. 

It is believed, therefore, that two cuttings are possible in Texas and 
Louisiana, three in portions of Florida, and, as has already been stated. 
by Professor Hilgard, from two to four in California. 


EXTRACTING THE FIBER. 


It is not important to record here the consecutive history of ramie- 
machine invention in America, particularly as it would necessitate 
describing almost a score of machines that, one after another, were 
brought to the attention of the public for a time, only to be practically 
abandoned when it was proved that they were unable to fulfill the 
claims of their inventors. Since 1867 the persevering eflort to produce 
a Satisfactory machine has naturally resulted in a gradual improve- 
ment in mechanical construction; new principles have been worked 
out and the causes of subsequent failures studied, with the result that 
substantial progress can be recorded, though full economic success can 
hardly be claimed. 

Ramie machines may be divided into two classes: (1) Delignators, or 
simple bark strippers, and (2) decorticators, which not only remove the 
bark but make some pretense of removing the outer pellicle, or epider- 
mis, and the layer of cellular matter covering the fiber layer proper. 
The bark strippers produce the fiber in the form of flat ribbons, only 
the wood of the stalk being eliminated; they are usually constructed 
with some form of knife, or knives, with which the stalks are split 
before being subjected to the action of the breakers and beaters. The 
decorticators usually first crush the stalk by means of metal rollers 
presenting the flattened mass to the action of the breaking or beating 
devices, and frequently there is a system of mechanisms for combing 
the fiber before it is finally delivered to the aprons. The product of 
the delignators is always the same—a flat ribbon of bark, whether the 
dry or green system of decortication has been employed. The product 
of the decorticators, on the other hand, is almost as variable as the 
machines which turn out the fiber. In some of the worst machines 
this product is little more than a mangled strip of bark, neither a 
delignated ribbon nor decorticated fiber, but something more fit for the 
trash heap. In the best of them, individual filaments, by the green 
System, somewhat resemble China grass, though darker and less clean, 
while by the dry system the fiber is already soft enough to spin into 
coarse cordage without further manipulation. Between these two 
extremes every quality of ribbon is represented. 

Taking China grass, or commercial ramie, as the highest form of the 
fiber, since it is degummed with a loss in weight of only 15 to 50 per 


456 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


cent, it will readily be seen that the value to the manufacturers of the 
machine-cleaned ribbons must be in exact ratio to the degree to which 
the cleaning and freeing from gum have been carried. The simple 
delignated ribbon, containing all the gums, cellular matter, and epider- 
mis, must be the lowest form of raw fiber, as it will show the largest 
percentage of loss (extraneous matters) in the after-process of degum- 
ming; and the expense of degumming, according to French experi- 
ments, is shown to be in direct ratio to the bulk of foreign matters to 
be eliminated. This, however, will be referred to in its appropriate 
place further on. (See Plate V showing hand-cleaned and machine- 
cleaned fiber.) 

But we have considered that these different products or grades of 
product differ only in the degree to which the elimination of the gum 
and waste matters has been carried, and that the proportion of gum, 
cellular matter, and epidermis is the only consideration. In point of 
fact the product of many machines which otherwise might be called 
good fiber has been so filled with fragments of the woody portion of 
the stalks, or so ‘chewed up” by harsh treatment, or, finally, so snarled 
and tangled in the delivery that it has had little value for any purpose. 
The product should be delivered straight, unsnarled, and untangled, 
free from chips, and without breaks, cuts, or bruises, whether in the 
form of stripped bark or semicleaned fiber, and its value will be deter- 
mined by the percentage of pure fiber it contains. 

We may fairly assume, then, that the nearer a machine approaches 
in its product the ramie of commerce, Chinese hand-cleaned fiber, the 
higher the price of its product and the more desirable the device pro- 
ducing it as an economic agricultural implement. 

Having discussed quality of fiber produced let us turn our attention 
to that other great problem, the question of quantity or output. In my 
first report! is an account of the running of five French machines sey- 
eral years ago, and the record of one of the best of these machines in 
a field trial (in 1888) was commented upon. A single machine worked 
twenty-five days on the product of one hectare, or 24 acres. With 20 
acres at this rate it would have required two hundred days, and a 
farmer with one machine, decorticating three crops produced in a season, 
on 100 acres, would have to run the machine ten years of three hundred 
working days each to accomplish it. To state it differently, to decor- 
ticate at this rate the product of a single cutting on 100 acres, in one 
month of thirty days, would require 33 machines. Yet one can imagine 
the French attendant of this machine, who is showing it off to a novice, 
sending three stalks through the mechanisms in aS many seconds, and 
with a complacent “Voila, Monsieur!” presenting the beautifully 
cleaned fiber to his delighted gaze. Such an exhibition before a capi-— 
talist who has not “read up” is sometimes worth the value of a hun- 


1No. 1, Fiber Investigations Series, United States Department of Agriculture. 


PLATE V. 


Yearbook U. S, Department of Agriculture, 1894. 


* 2, MACHINE-CLEANED FIBER 


RAMIE STALKS 


) 


{ 


3, CHINESE HAND-CLEANED FIBER. 


RAMIE IN DETAIL 


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FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 457 


dred shares of stock (at par). But ramie machines have been vastly 
improved since 1888, and it is now possible to run through the product 
of an acre in a day, without, however, considering the question of 
quality. It would doubtless prove interesting to speak of the many 
machines that have appeared at the official ramie trials held in this and 
other countries in past years, but limited space forbids. 

At the New Orleans machine trials of 1892 the machines ran on 
stalks that had been stripped of their leaves by hand, and no machine 
was able to run through the first 500 pounds of stalks weighed out, on 
account of stoppages, and finally the trial was abandoned. In 1894 
the machines took the stalks with their leaves, as hauled from the field, 
and worked continuously. The quality of the product of decortica- 
tion at the first trials was little better than simply delignated ribbon, 
some of it badly bruised and injured; at the second trial the decortica- 
tion was excellent, though one machine seriously injured its product in 
the delivery. This shows decided progress, and one of the immediate 
results of the trials just held will be the further improvement of both 
machines exhibited, the work having already been undertaken. Re- 
viewing the experience of even the last five years, we are able to record 
such substantial progress in machine construction that the outlook is 
hopeful, and experimenters are beginning to feel great encouragement. 


AFTER-PROCESSES AND MANUFACTURE. 


Those who are familiar with the varied processes of the extraction 
and first preparation of the fiber of flax and hemp know that there are 
four stages, or operations, between the work of the farmer and that of 
the manufacturer, as the retting—in water or upon the ground—break- 
ing, scutching, and finally the hackling, which combs out the tow and 
leaves the fiber in shape for the manufacturer. Withramie the retting 
is omitted, and the stalks are broken and cleaned either green or dry 
with all the gums in their natural condition. This corresponds to the 
breaking and seutching in the treatment of flax, the two operations 
being combined in one when the work is done on a machine. Before 
the ramie fiber is hackled (combed), however, it must be subjected to 
a chemical operation analogous to retting, to which the French have 
given the name degommage—hence the English term degumming. The 
gums holding together the filaments of flax are soluble in water, and 
therefore the retting accomplishes the separation of these filaments 
without difficulty. The gums which hold together the structure of 
ramie bast are not soluble in water, but require peculiar chemical treat- 
ment, which can be more economically applied to the extracted fiber 
than to the fibrous substance as it exists in its natural state in the stalks 
as harvested. Owing to this fact the retting, or degumming, of ramie 


is usually done by the spinner, who, knowing the use to which the pre- 


pared fiber will be applied, degums the raw product to suit his own 
Special needs. The farmer, then, has nothing to do with this operation 


A58 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


and need not interest himself in it further than to know whether his 
product when extracted and degummed is fit for spinning, or, in other 
words, is up to a standard of quality that will insure profit from the 
culture. This operation is not connected with the work of decortication. 

Through the researches of the late M. Fremy, member of the French 
Institute, it has been shown that the gums and cements holding 
together the filaments of ramie are essentially composed of pectose, 
cutose, and vasculose, while the fiber itself is composed of fibrose, cel- 
lulose and its derivatives. The theory of degumming, therefore, is to 
dissolve and wash out the gums without attacking the cellulose. In 
order to eliminate the vasculose and cutose it is necessary to use alka- 
line oleates or caustic alkalies under pressure, and even bisulphites and 
hydrochlorites. The gums being dissolved, the epidermis is detached 
and can be mechanically separated from the layer of fiber by washing. 
The larger number of degumming processes in present use embody these 
general principles. 

Lest it may be understood that it is only necessary to place any raw 
ramie fiberinthedegumming bath to separate at once its different constit- 
uents, at a fixed cost, it should be recognized that upon the degree of 
cleanness of the fiber to be degummed depends the expense of the opera- 
tion. It has been held by some inventors, or others controlling machines 
for decortication, that it makes little difference whether the ribbon to 
be operated upon is simply stripped bark or a well-decorticated prod- 
uct, as the resolving agency, followed by a volume of water, may be 
depended upon to render the separation complete and to wash out all 
extraneous matters, giving the pure fiber. The quantity that may be 
turned out in a given time, rather than quantity with quality, has been 
the main consideration. The waste matters in the bark of the ramie 
stalks must be wholly eliminated before the fiber is fit for the spinner, 
and if the machine does not accomplish any part of this work the 
degumming bath must do it all, but at a cost in direct ratio to the per- 
centage of waste matters that remain in the ribbons after leaving the 
machine. 

French experimenters have shown that it costs no more to degum 
the China grass that will fill a kier, or tank, of certain dimensions than 
the charge of simple stripped ribbons that will fill the same tank.. Yet 
the weight of China grass that will fill this kier will be almost double 
that of the stripped bark; and while the kier of China grass will show 
a shrinkage (waste) of only 30 per cent, let us say, the shrinkage for 
the stripped bark may be 66 per cent. To state this differently, a half- 
ton charge (1,120 pounds, French) of China grass may give 775 pounds 
of degummed fiber, the expense of degumming (at $20 per charge, let 
us say) being about 22 cents per pound. Now, the same kier, when 
charged with simple stripped bark, will hold only 660 pounds, and give 
but 264 pounds of degummed filasse. But as the cost of degumming 
the contents of the tank will be the same in both instances, the last 


FACTS CONCERNING RAMIE. 459 


operation has cost 74 cents per pound for each pound of pure fiber 
turned out. These figures are from French experiments made several 
years ago, recorded in Mr. de Landtsheer’s brochure The Truth About 
Ramie, and the cost of degumming has since been somewhat cheap- 
ened. At the present time the cost of the operation of degumming 
is about $50 per ton of finished fiber, and the commercial value of the 
fiber about 134 cents per pound. 

It should be stated regarding the degumming process in use in this 
and other countries, that they are either patented or secret processes, 
and as such the Department has made no special investigation into 
their comparative merits, and has no official knowledge of the formulas 
employed. But at the same time, many specimens of the finished fiber 
produced by these processes have been received, carefully examined, 
and preserved in the reference collection of the Office of Fiber Investi- 
gations, United States Department of Agriculture. 

In recent years a number of more or less successful factories have 
been started for the production of ramie goods from the China grass of 
commerce, notably the German factory at Emmendigen, the Austrian 
mill at Bregenz which has recently been purchased by an English syn- 
dicate, the French association of Feray et Cie. at Essones, of A. Goulon 
at Rouen, and others, the companies operated so successfully by Mr. 
Fayvier, at Valobre, and latterly in England, where the recent suc- 
cess of French experimenters in economically degumming the fiber has 
led to the establishment of new companies for the production of ramie 
goods, one of these being the Boyle Fiber Syndicate of London. 

At the present time there are two filatures, or spinning mills, in 
France, two in Germany, one in Austria, one in Switzerland, and one 
or more in England. 

As to the possibilities of ramie in manufacture there seems to be no 
limit. Stuff goods for men’s wear, upholstery, curtains, laces, and 
embroideries, plushes and velvets, stockings, underclothing, table 
damask, napkins, handkerchiefs, shirtings, sheetings, sail duck, car- 
pets, cordage, fishing nets, and yarns and threads for various uses not 
enumerated. Even the Chinese recognize this wide utility, and while 
they manufacture the fiber from one variety of the plant into grass cloth 
and similar fabrics, they use another for fishing lines, nets, and the 
many useful products that may be classified under the general term 
cordage. 

Regarding these various uses of ramie fiber in manufacture, however, 
M. Roux says we should not conclude that this textile is destined to be 
employed so largely. The cost of its preparation will always prevent 
its common use as a substitute for the textiles that can be more cheaply 
grown and prepared. He concludes that while it has the brilliancy, 
it has not the elasticity of wool and silk, nor the flexibility of cotton. 
But it will always be preferred for making articles requiring the 
Strength to resist the wear and tear of washing or exposure to weather. 


460 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


This faculty to imitate all other textiles is even one of the principal 
causes which have kept back the development of the ramie industry; 
and if, instead of launching out into a series of experiments, attention 
had been concentrated upon the exclusive manufacture of those arti- 
cles to which the properties of the plant were peculiarly and naturally 
adapted, this industry would, probably, be in a more advanced condi- 
tion than it is at present. The United States Department of Agricul- 
ture has held this position since its work in this field was begun. The 
folly of building up a ramie manufacturing industry on a false basis, 
that is, by employing the textile as a substitute for something else, is 
to be deprecated. The fiber should be used in those articles of eco- 
nomic necessity which would appear on the market as ramie, in order 
that any distinctive merit the textile may possess may become known, 
not only to the trade, but to the consumers of the product. Even then 
there will be an abundant demand for the textile, and for the waste 
fiber or combings, for use in mixing with other textiles, or for employ- 
ment as out-and-out substitutes for them. Nor will the wearing quali- 
ties of these manufactures at all suffer through the substitution. 

Ramie manufacture in our own country can hardly be said to have 
reached the commercial stage, though quite satisfactory results have 
been attained. The simpler forms of ramie fabrics were experimentally 
manufactured twenty years ago, but serious effort belongs to the pres- 
ent decade. 

But it is needless to dwell on this phase of the industry, as success- 
ful growth and the machine question are the vital considerations. The 
spinning and weaving of ramie are no longer problems, and with these 
industries fairly established, as they are in Europe, improvements in 
machinery and processes to enhance the beauty of the products, to sup- 
ply new forms of fabrics, and to reduce the cost of manufacture, will 
naturally follow, and the ramie industry will take its place with the 
linen industry and the other vast textile occupations which are such 
sources of wealth to the countries where they are carried on. Briefly 
summarizing the situation, the outlook is most hopeful. 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 


By B. E. FERNowW, 
Chief of the Division of Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 


The following four chapters have been written with the view of aiding 
farmers who own small timber tracts or wood lots, or who wish to plant 
some part of their land to forest. This country varies so greatly in 
soil, climate, and flora that it is only possible, within the limits assigned 
for the present discussion, to outline general principles everywhere 
applicable. Nevertheless, wherever suggestions have approximated 
the laying down of rules of practice, the writer has had mainly in mind 
the conditions prevalent in our northeastern States. Moreover, for the 
reason already referred to, limitation of space, it has not been possible 
to give more than a comprehensive view, without much detail. 

The succeeding chapters should be read connectedly, as they are 
more or less interdependent. The first treats of the behavior of a 
forest plant; the second, of the principles which should guide the 
planter in setting a crop; the third, of the manner in which a natural 
forest crop should be produced; and the fourth chapter points out how 
the crop should be managed afterwards in order to secure the best 
results in quantity and quality of material. 


1. HOW TREES GROW. 


Trees, like most other plants, originate from seed, build up a body of 
cell tissues, form foliage, flower, and fruit, and take up food material 
from the soil and air, which they convert into cellulose and other com- 
pounds, from which all their parts are formed. They rely, like other 
plants, upon moisture, heat, and light as the means of performing the 
functions of growth. Yet there are some peculiarities in their behav- 
ior, their life and growth, which require special attention on the part of 
a tree grower or forest planter, and these we shall briefly discuss. 


FOOD MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS OF GROWTH. 


Trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and 
in part from the soil. The solid part of their bodies is made up of 
cellulose, which consists largely of carbon (44 per cent of its weight), 
with hydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions as in 


water. The carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air, which 
461 


462 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


enters into the leaves and, under the influence of light, air, and water, 
is there decomposed; the oxygen is exhaled; the carbon is retained and 
combined with elements derived from the water, forming compounds, 
such as starch, sugar, etc., which are used as food materials, passing 
down the tree through its outer layers to the very tips of the roots, 
making new wood all along the branches, trunk, and roots. 

This process of food preparation, called “assimilation,” can be car- 
ried on only in the green parts, and in these only when exposed to light 
and air; hence foliage, air, and light at the top are essential prerequi- 
sites for tree growth, and hence, other conditions being favorable, the 
more foliage and the better developed it is, and the more light this 
foliage has at its disposal for its work, the more vigorously will the 
tree grow. 

In general, therefore, pruning, since it reduces the amount of foliage, 
reduces also, for the time, the amount of wood formed; and just so 
shading, reducing the activity of foliage, reduces the growth of wood. 


SOIL CONDITIONS. 


From the soil trees take mainly water, which enters through the 
roots and is carried through the younger part of the tree to the leaves, 
to be used in part on its passage for food and wood formation and in 
part to be given up to the air by transpiration. 

In a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will con- 
tain half its weight in the form of water chemically combined, and the 
tree, in addition, will contain from 40 to 65 per cent and more of its dry 
weight in water mechanically or “‘hygroscopically” held. This last, 
when the tree is cut, very largely evaporates; yet well-seasoned wood 
still contains 10 to 12 per cent of such water. The weight of a green 
tree, a pine, for instance, is made up, in round numbers, of about 30 per 
cet of carbon and 70 per cent of water, either chemically or hygroscop- 
ically held, while a birch contains a still larger percentage of water. 

The largest part of the water which passes through the tree is tran- 
spired—i. e., given off to the air in vapor. The amounts thus transpired 
during the season vary greatly with the species of tree, its age, the 
amount of foliage at work, the amount of light at its disposal, the eli- 
matic conditions (rain, temperature, winds, relative humidity), and the 
season. These amounts are, however, very large when compared with 
the quantity retained; so that while an acre of forest may store in its 
trees, say, 1,000 pounds of carbon, 15 to 20 pounds of mineral sub- 
stances, and 5,000 pounds of water in a year, it will have transpired— 
taken up from the soil and returned to the air—from 500,000 to 1,500,000 
pounds of water (one-quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops). 

Mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities, and 
these are mostly the commoner sorts, such as lime, potash, magnesia, 
aud nitrogen. These are carried in solution to the leaves, where they 
are used (as perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a 


« 
/ 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 463 


part of the water, in food preparation. The main part of the mineral 
substances taken up remains, however, as the water transpires, in the 
leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves 
are shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and 
make humus. 

Hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is 
explained, the minerals being returned in more soluble form to the soil; 
as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust the soil of its minerals, 
provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground. 

For this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops, as 
far as their mineral needs are concerned; the same kind of trees can be 
grown on the same soil continuously, provided the soil is not allowed 
to deteriorate from other causes. 

As the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when 
sufficient water is at its disposal, the amount of growth is also dependent 
not only on the presence of sufficient sources of supply, but also on the 
opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply, and this opportunity 
is dependent upon the condition of the soil. If the soil is compact, so 
that the rain water can not penetrate readily, and runs off superficially, 
or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that the water rapidly sinks out 
of reach of the roots and can not be drawn up by capillary action, the 
water supply is of no avail to the plants; but if the soil is porous and 
moderately deep (depth being the distance from the surface to the impen- 
etrable subsoil, rock, or ground water) the water not only can penetrate 
but also can readily be reached and taken up by the roots. 

The moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for 
tree growth, the greatest attention must be given to its conservation 
and most advantageous distribution through the soil. 

No trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil, 
although some can live and almost thrive in such unfavorable situa- 
tions. A moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and deep enough or 
fissured enough to be well drained, and yet of such a structure that 
the water supplies from the depths can readily be drawn up and be- 
come available to the roots—that is the soil on which all trees grow 
most thriftily. 

The agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as possible 
by plowing, drainage, and irrigation, and he tries by cultivating to 
keep the soil from compacting again, as it does under the influence of 
the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper layers by sun and 
wind. 

The forest grower can not rely upon such methods, because they are 
either too expensive or entirely impracticable. He may, indeed, plow 
for his first planting, and cultivate the young trees, but in a few years 
this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the first 
operation will be lost. He must, therefore, attain his object in another 
manner, namely, by shading and mulching the soil. The shading is 


464 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


done at first by planting very closely, so that the ground may be pro- 
tected as soon as possible from sun and wind, and by maintaining the 
shade well throughout the period of growth. This shade is maintained, 
if necessary, by more planting, and in case the main crop in later life 
thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops, or by the accidental death 
of trees, it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush. 

The mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to 
remain and decay, and form a cover of rich mold or humus. This pro- 
tective cover permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate without at 
the same time compacting the soil, keeping it granular and in best 
condition for conducting water, and at the same time preventing evapo- 
ration at the surface. 

The soil moisture, therefore, is best maintained by proper soil cover, 
which, however, is needful only in naturally dry soils. Wet soils, 
although supporting tree growth, do not, if constantly wet, produce 
satisfactory wood crops, the growth being very slow. Hence they must 
be drained and their water level sunk helow the depth of the root 
system. 

Irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops, 
except perhaps in the arid regions, where the benefit of the shelter belt 
may warrant the expense. 

Attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the 
selection of such kinds of trees as shade well for a long time, to plant 
closely, to protect the woody undergrowth (but not weeds), and to leave 
the litter on the ground as a mulch. 

Different species, to be sure, adapt themselves to different degrees 
of soil moisture, and the crop should therefore be selected with refer- 
ence to its adaptation to available moisture supplies. 

While, as stated, all trees thrive best with a moderate and even stipes 
of moisture, some can get along with very little, like the conifers, espe- 
cially pines; others can exist even with an excessive supply, as the bald 
cypress, honey locust, some oaks, ete. The climate, however, must also 
be considered in this connection, for a tree species, although succeed- 
ing well enough on a dry soil in an atmosphere which does not require 
much transpiration, may not do so in a drier climate on the same 
soil. 

In the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils, the 

water conditions of the soil should, therefore, determine the choice. 


LIGHT CONDITIONS. 


To insure the largest amount of growth, full enjoyment of sunlight 
is needed. But as light is almost always accompanied by heat and 
relative dryness of air, which demands water from the plant, and may 
increase transpiration from the leaves inordinately, making them pump 
too hard, as it were, young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not 
built for such strains require partial shading for the first year or two. 
The conifers belong to this class. 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 465 


In later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the 
development of the tree, namely, with reference to soil conditions, 
with reference to form development, and with reference to amount of 
growth. 

The art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so 
as to secure the full benefit of the stimulating effect of light on growth, 
without its deteriorating influences on the soil and on form develop- 
ment, 

As we have seen, shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture: 
Now, while young trees of all kinds, during the “ brush” stage of devel- 
opment, have a rather dense foliage, as they grow older they vary in 
habit, especially when growing in the forest. Some, like the beech, 
the sugar maple, the hemlock, and the spruce, keep up a dense crown; 
others, like the chestnut, the oaks, the walnut, the tulip tree, and the 
white pine, thin out more and more, and when fully grown have a much 
less dense foliage; finally, there are some which do not keep up a dense 
Shade for any length of time, like the black and honey locust, with 
their small, thin leaves; the catalpa, with its large but few leaves at 
the end of the branchlets only, and the larch, with its short, scattered 
bunches of needles. So we can establish a comparative scale of trees 
with reference to the amount of shade which they can give continu- 
ously, as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged, in various gradations. If 
we planted all beech or sugar maple, the desirable shading of the soil 
would never be lacking, while if we planted all locust or catalpa the 
sun would soon reach the soil and dry it out, or permit a growth of 
grass or weeds, which is worse, because these transpire still larger quan- 
tities of water than the bare ground evaporates or an undergrowth of 
woody plants would transpire. Of course, a densely foliaged tree has 
many more leaves to shed than a thinly foliaged one, and therefore 
makes more litter, which increases the favorable mulch cover of the soil. 
Another reason for keeping the ground well shaded is that the litter 


then decomposes slowly, but into a desirable humus, which acts favora- 


bly upon the soil, while if the litter is exposed to light, an undesirable, 
partly decomposed ‘‘raw” humus is apt to be formed. 

Favorable soil conditions, then, require shade, while wood growth 
is increased by full enjoyment of light; to satisfy both requirements, 
mixed planting, with proper selection of shade-enduring and light- 
needing species, is resorted to. 

As the different species afford shade in different degrees, so they 
require for their development different degrees of light. The dense 
foliage of the beech, with a large number of leaves in the interior of 
the crown, proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work with 
a small amount of light; the beech is a shade-enduring tree. The 


_seanty foliage of the birches, poplars, or pines shows that these are 


light-needing trees; hence they are never found under the dense shade 
of the former, while the shade-enduring can. develop satisfactorily 


466 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


under the light shade of the thin-foliaged kinds. Very favorable soil 
conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter, and climatic 
conditions also modify their relative position in the scale. 

All trees ultimately thrive best—i. e., grow most vigorously—in the 
full enjoyment of light, but their energy then goes into branching. 
Crowded together, with the side light cut off, the lower lateral branches 
soon die and fall, while the main energy of growth is put into the 
shaft and the height growth is stimulated. The denser shade of the 
shade-enduring kinds, if placed as neighbors to light-needing ones, is 
most effective in producing this result, provided that the light is not 
cut off at the top; and thus, in practice, advantage is taken of the 
relative requirements for light of the various species,! 

The forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of 
securing tall, clear trunks, free from knots, and he is able, moreover, 
by proper regulation of light conditions, to influence the form develop- 
ment, and also the quality of his crop, since slow growth and rapid 
growth produce wood of different character. 

There are some species which, although light foliaged and giving 
comparatively little shade, are yet shade enduring—i. e., can subsist, 
although not develop favorably, under shade; the oaks are examples of 
this kind. Others, like the black cherry, bear a dense crown for the 
first twenty years, perhaps, seemingly indicating great shade endur- 
ance; but the fact that the species named soon clears itself of its 
branches and finally has a thin crown, indicates thatit is light needing, 
though a good shader for the first period of its life. Others, again, like 
the catalpa, which is shady and shade enduring, as the difficulty with 
which it clears itself indicates, leaf out so late and lose their foliage 
so early that their shading value is thereby impaired. Black locust 
and honey locust, on the other hand, leave no doubt either as to their 
light-needing or their inferior shading quality. 

That soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown devel- 
opment aud shade endurance has been well recognized abroad, but in 
our country this influence is of much more importance on account of 
the great variation in those conditions. Thus the box elder, an excel- 
lent shader in certain portions of the West, is a failure as soil cover in 
others where it nevertheless will grow. 

We see, then, that in determining the shading value as well as ths 
shade endurance of one species in comparison with another, with refer- 
ence to forestry purposes, not only soil and climate but also the char- 
acter of foliage and its length of season must be considered. 


This Be LB of the ctecent species aa varying light WR os their compara- 
tive shading value and shade endurance, is one of the most important facts to be 
observed and utilized by the forester. European foresters have done this, but since 
they had to deal with only a few species and over a limited territory, they could 
quite readily classify their trees with reference to their shade endurance, and take 
it for granted that shade endurance and density of foliage or shading value were 
more or less identical. With our great wealth of useful species it will be necessary 
ani profitable to be more exact in the classification. 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 467 


PHYSIOLOGY OF TREE GROWTH. 


As we have seen, root and foliage are the main life organs of the 
tree. The trunk and branches serve to carry the crown upward and 
expose it to the light, which is necessary in order to prepare the food 
and increase the volume of the tree, and also as conductors of food 
materials up and down between root and foliage. <A large part of the 
roots, too, aside from giving stability to the tree, serve only as conductors 
of water and food material; only the youngest parts, the fibrous roots, 
beset with innumerable fine hairs, serve to take up the water and min- 
erals from the soil. These fine roots, root hairs, and young parts are 
therefore the essential portion of the root system. <A tree may have a 
fine, vigorous-looking root system, yet if the young parts and fibrous 
roots are cut off or allowed to dry out, which they readily do—some 
kinds more so than others—thereby losing their power to take up water, 
such a tree is apt to die. Under very favorable moisture and tempera- 
ture conditions, however, the old roots may throw out new sprouts and 
replace the fibrous roots. Some species, like the willows, poplars, 
locusts, and others, are especially capable of doing so. All trees that 
“transplant easily” probably possess this capacity of renewing the 
fibrous roots readily, or else are less subject to drying out. But it may 
be stated as a probable fact that most transplanted trees which die 
soon after the planting do so because the fibrous roots have been cur- 
tailed too much in taking up, or else have been allowed to dry out on 
the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting; they were 
really dead before being set. Conifers—pines, spruces, etec.—are espe- 
cially sensitive; maples, oaks, catalpas, and apples will, in this respect, 
stand a good deal of abuse. 

Hence, in transplanting, the first and foremost care of the forest 
grower, besides taking the sapling up with least injury, is the proper 
protection of its root fibers against drying out. 

The water, with the minerals in solution, is taken up by the roots 
when the soil is warm enough, but to enable the roots to act they must 
be closely packed with the soil. It is conveyed mostly through the outer, 
which are the younger, layers of the wood of root, trunk, and branches 
to the leaves. Here, as we have seen, under the influence of light and 
heat itis in large part transpired and in part combined with the carbon 
into organic compounds, sugar, etc., which serve as food materials. 
These travel from the leaf into the branchlet, and down through the 
outer layers of the trunk to the very tips of the root, forming new wood 
all the way, new buds, which lengthen into shoots, leaves, and flowers, 
and also new rootlets. To live and grow, therefore, the roots need the 
food elaborated in the leaves, just as the leaves need the water sent up 
from the roots. 

Hence the interdependence of root system and crown, which must be 
kept in proportion when transplanting. At least, the root system must 
be sufficient to supply the needs of the crown. 


468 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 


“SAP UP AND SAP DOWN.” 


The growing tree, in all its parts, is more or less saturated with 
water, and as the leaves, under the influence of sun and wind and 
atmospheric conditions generally transpire, new supplies are taken in 
through the roots and conveyed to the crown. This movement takes 
place even in winter, in a slight degree, to supply the loss of water by 
evaporation from the branches. In the growing season it is so active as 

to become noticeable; hence 
£ the saying that the sap is 
“up,” or “rising,” and when, 
toward the end of the season, 
the movement becomes less, 
the sap is said to be “down.” 
But this movement of water 
is always upward; hence the 
notion that there is a stream 
upward at one season and in 
one part of the tree, and a 
stream downward at another 
season and perhaps in another 
part of the tree, is erroneous. 
The downward movement is 
of food materials, and the two 
movements of water upward 
and food downward take place 
simultaneously, and depend, 
in part at least, one upon the 
other, the food being carried 
to the young parts, wherever 
required, by a process of diffu- 
sion from cell to cell known as 
‘¢ OSMOSIS.” 

These food materials are, 
by the life processes of the 
active cells, changed in. chem- 
ical. composition as need be, 

Fic. 116.—Physiological importance of different parts of from Sugar, which is soluble, 

Ba a pathways of water and food materials. (Sche- into starch, which is insoluble, 

and back into sugar, and com- 

bined with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material, 
protoplasm (fig. 116), 

In the fall, when the leaves cease to elaborate food, both the upward 
and the downward movement, more or less simultaneously, come to 
rest (the surplus of food materials, as starch, and sometimes as sugar, 
being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues), to begin again simul- 
taneously when in spring the temperature is high enough to reawaken 


CARBONIG 
aAcio 


— 


OXYGEN 


HEARTWOOD, NO MOVEMENT. 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 469 


activity, when the stored food of last year is dissolved and started on 
its voyage. The exact manner in which this movement of water upward 
and food materials downward takes place, and the forces at work, are 
not yet fully understood, nor is there absolute certainty as to the parts 
of the tree in which the movement takes place. It appears, however, 
that while all the so-called “sapwood” is capable of conducting water 
(the heartwood is probably not), the most active movement of both 
water and food materials takes place in the cambium (the growing 
cells immediately beneath the bark) and youngest parts of the bark. 

The deductions from these processes important to the planter are: 
That injury to the living bark or bast means injury to growth, if not 
destruction to life; that during the period of vegetation transplauting 
can be done only with great caution; that the best time to move trees 
is in the fall, when the leaves have dropped and the movement of water 
and food materials has mostly ceased, or in spring, before the move- 
ment begins again, the winter being objectionable only because of the 
difficulty of working the soil and of*keeping the roots protected against 
frost. All things considered, spring planting, before activity in the 
tree has begun, is the best, although it is not impossible to plant at 
other times. 


PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. 


Like the wheat or corn plant, the tree seed require as conditions for 
sprouting sufficient moisture, warmth, and air. Tree seeds, however, 
differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power of germi- 
nation easily; with few exceptions (locust, pine, spruce), they can not 
be kept for any length of time. 

The first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those of 
the mature tree, which may cause their being confounded with other 
plants, weeds, ete. 

The little seedlings of many, especially the conifers, are quite delicate, 
and remain very small the first season; they need, therefore, the pro- 
tecting shade of mother trees, or artificial shading, and also protection 
against weeds. The amount of light or shade given requires careful 
regulation for some of them; too much light and heat will kill them, 
and so will too much shade. This accounts for the failure of many 
seedlings that spring up in the virgin forest. 

The planter, then, is required to know the nature and the needs of 
the various kinds of seeds and seedlings, so as to provide favorable 
conditions, when he will avoid sowing in the open field such as require 
the care which it is impracticable to give outside of the nursery. 


GROWTH IN LENGTH AND RAMIFICATION. 


While the stalk of wheat or corn grows for one season, exhausts 
itself in seed production, and then dies, the tree continues to grow 
from season to season, in length as well as in thickness. The growth 

a) “Os 19 


470 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


in length of shaft and branches proceeds from buds, made up of 
cell tissues, which can subdivide and lengthen into shoots, as well 
as make leaves. These buds are formed during summer, and when 
winter begins contain embryo leaves, more or less developed, under 
the protecting cover of scales (fig. 118). When spring stimulates the 
young plant to new activity, the buds swell, shed their scales, dis- 


TES 
PORTS 
ae} 


Fig. 117.._Bud development of beech. B, as it would be 
ii all formed buds were to live; A, as it is, many buds 
failing to develop. 


tend their cells, increasing their number 
by subdivision, and thus the leaves ex- 
pand, and the bud lengthens into a 
shoot and twig. During the season new 
buds are formed, and the whole process 
repeats itself from year to year, giving 
rise to the ramification and height 
growth of the tree. The end buds being 
mostly stronger and better developed, =~ 
the main axis of tree or branch increases = Fra. 118.—Buds oP dakypli A, longitudinal 
more rapidly than the rest. All these eee at a intend eae a 
buds originate from the youngest, central _ jeaves of last season. B, cross section 
part of the shoot, the pith, and hence through end bud, showing folded leaves 
z . in center and scales surrounding them. 
when the tree grows in thickness, envel- 
oping the base of the limbs, their connection with the pith can always 
be traced. This is the usual manner of bud formation; in addition, 
so-called ‘‘adventitious” buds may be formed from the young living 
wood in later life, which are not connected with the pith. Such buds 
are those which develop into sprouts from the stump when the tree is 


i ee) ae 


—_ 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 471 


cut; also those which give rise to what are known as ‘‘ water sprouts.” 
Many buds, although formed, are, however, not developed at once, and 
perhaps not at all, especially as the tree grows older; these either die 
or remain “dormant,” often for a hundred years, to spring into life 
when necessary (fig. 119). 

The fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an 
important one to the timber grower; it explains knotty timber and 
gives him the hint that in order to obtain clear timber the branches 


) 


Fieé. 119.—Dormant bud, K, on a 12-year old branch of 
beech. The bud is still capable of development 
and is connected with the pith, mm, of the stem by 
a fine trace of pith, S. 


first formed must be soon removed, 
either by the knife - by tabi ati Fia. 120.—Section through a 12-year old stem 
shading, which kills the branches and of beech, showing manner of bud and limb 
thus ‘ clears” the shaft. formation. a, dormant buds; b, their trace 

. ; , of pith extending to the pith of the stem; 

The planter has it also in his power ce, alimb which started two years ago from 

to influence the form development of 4 dormant bud; d, normal limb; ¢,a limb 
: dead for four years; f, adventitious buds. 

the tree by removing some of the 

buds, giving thereby better chance to the remaining ones. This 

pruning of buds is, where practicable, often better practice than the 

pruning of limbs. 

Since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds it is evi- 
dent that a limb which started to grow at the height of 6 feet has its 
base always 6 feet from the ground, and if allowed to grow to size, 
must be surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem 
or trunk. If a limb is killed and broken off early, only a slender stub 
composed entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood, is left, occasioning, 
therefore, only a small defect in the heart of the tree; but if left to 
grow to considerable age, the base of the limb is incased by the wood of 
the stem, which, when the tree is cut into lumber, appears as a knot. 


472 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The longer the limb has been allowed to grow, the farther out is the tim- 
ber knotty and the thicker is the knot. If the limb remained alive, the | 
knot is ‘‘sound,” closely grown together with the fibers of the tree. I 
the limb died off, the remaining stub may behave in different ways. In 
pines it will be largely composed of heartwood, very resinous and dura- 
ble; separated from the fibers of the overgrowing wood, it forms a 
“loose” knot, which is apt to fall out of a board, leaving a hole. 

In broad-leaved trees, where no resin assists in the process of heal- 
ing, the stub is apt to decay, and this decay, caused by the growth of 
fungi, is apt to penetrate into the tree (fig.121). In parks and orchards, 
pruning is resorted to, and the cuts are painted or tarred to avoid the 
decay. In well-managed forests and dense woods in general, the light 
is cut off, the limb is killed when young and breaks away, the shaft 
‘clears itself,” and the sound trunk furnishes a good grade of material. 
The difference in development of the branch system, whether in fall 
enjoyment of light, in open stand, 
or with the side light cut off, in 
dense position, is shown in the 
accompanying illustration (fig. 
122). 

Both trees start alike; the one 
retains its branches, the other 
loses them gradually, the stubs 
being in time overgrown; finally 
the second has a clear shaft, with 
a crown concentrated at the top, 
while the first is beset with 
branches and branch stubs for its 
whole length (fig. 123). 

When ripped open lengthwise, 
oak wood. a, wood of the knot; band ¢, wood cal- the interior exhibits the condi- 
lusof the stem covering the wound; shaded portion, tion shown in figure 124, the dead 
decayed wood; black part, a cavity remaining. parts of the knot being indicated 

in heavier shading. Since the branches grow in more or less regular 
whorls, several knots, stumps, or limbs are met every 6 to 24 inches 
through the entire stem. ; 

Hence, in forest planting, trees are placed and kept for some time close 
together, in order to decrease the branching in the lower part of the 
tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber. 


GROWTH IN THICKNESS. 


The young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much 
resemble in interior structure that of any herbaceous plant, being 
composed of a large amount of pith, loose squarish cells, and a few 
bundles of long fibers symmetrically distributed about the center, the 
whole covered with athin skin or epidermis. Each strand or bundle of 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 473 


fibers, called fibro-vascular (fiber-vessel) bundles, consists of two kinds, 
namely, wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different 
structure on the outer side. Between these two sets of fibers, the bast 
and the wood, there is a row of cells which form the really active, 
growing part of the plantlet, the cambium. The cambium cells are 
actively subdividing and expanding, giving off wood cells to the inte- 
rior and bast cells to the exterior, and extending at the same time side- 
wise, until at the end of the season not only are the wood and bast 
portions increased in lines radiating from the center, but the cambium 
layer, the wood cells, and the 
bast cells of all the bundles 
(scattered at the beginning) join 
at the sides to form a complete 
ring, or rather hollow cylinder, 
around the central pith. Only 
here and there the pith cells 
remain, interrupting the wood 
cylinder and giving rise to the 
system of cells known as med- 
ullary rays. The cross section 
now shows a comparatively 
small amount of pith and bast 
or bark and a larger body of 
strong wood fibers. The new 
shoot at the end, to be sure, 
has the same appearance and 
arrangement as the young 
plantlet had, the pith prepon- 
derating, and the continuous 
cylinder of cambium, bast, and 
wood being separated into 
strands or bundles, 

During the season, through 
the activity of the cambial part 
of the bundles, the samechanges 
take place in the new shoot as 
did the previous year in the Fic. 122.—Development in and out of the forest. A, 
awe teedling, pihile, at the, cpg ti See: Bol 0, suns 
same time the cambium in the responding stages of the tree grown in the forest. 
yearling part also actively sub- Numbers refer to annual growth in height. 
divides, forming new wood and bast cells, and thus a second ring, or 
rather cylinder, is formed. The cambium of the young shoot is always 
a continuation of that of the ring or cylinder formed the year before, 


-and this cambium cylinder always keeps moving outward, so that at 


the end of the season, when activity ceases, it is always the last minute 
layer of cells on the outside of the wood, between wood proper and 


474 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


bark. Itis here, therefore, that the life of the tree lies, and any injury 
to the cambium must interfere with the growth and life of the tree. 
The first wood cells which the cambium forms in the spring are 
usually or always of a more open structure, thin walled, and with a large 
opening or “lumen,” comparable to a blown-up paper bag; so large, in 
fact, sometimes, is the “lumen” that the width of the cells can be seen 
on a cross section with the naked eye, as, for instance, in oak, ash, 
elm, the so-called “pores” are this open wood formed in spring. The 
cells, which are formed 
later in summer, have 
mostly thick walls, are 
closely crowded and 
compressed, and show 
a very small opening or 
“Inmen,” being com- 
parable, perhaps, to a 
very thick wooden box. 
They appear in the cross 
section not only denser 
but of a deeper color, 
on account of their 
crowded, compressed 
condition and thicker 
walls. Since at the be- 
ginning of the next sea- 
son again thin-walled 
cells with wide open- 
ings or lumina are 
formed, this difference 
in the appearance of 
“spring wood” and 
“summer wood” ena- 
bles us to distinguish 
the layer of wood 
formed each year. This 
‘annual ring” is more 
Fic. 123.—Trees in and out of the forest. D, tree grown in the conspicuous in some 
open; D’, tree grown in the forest. kinds than in others. 

In the so-called “ring porous” woods, like oak, ash, elm, the rings are 
easily distinguished by the open spring wood; in the conifers, espe- 
cially pines, by the dark-colored sammer wood; while in maple, birch, 
tulip, ete., only a thin line of flattened, hence darker and regularly 
aligned, summer cells, often hardly recognizable, distinguishes the 
rings from each other. Outting through a tree, therefore, we can not 
only ascertain its age by counting its annual layers in the cross section, 
but also determine how much wood is formed each year (fig. 125), We 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 475 


can, in fact, retrace the history of its growth, the vicissitudes through 
which it has passed, by the record preserved in its ring growth. 

To ascertain the age of a tree correctly, however, we must cut so 
near to the ground as to include the growth of the first year’s little 
plantlet; any section higher up shows as many years too few as it took 
the tree to reach that height. 

This annual-ring formation is the rule in all countries which have 
distinct seasons of summer and winter and temporary cessation of 
growth. Only exception- 
ally a tree may fail to make 
its growth throughout its 
whole length on account 
of loss of foliage or other 
causes; and occasionally, 
when its growth has been 
disturbed during the sea- 
son, a “secondary” ring, 
resembling the annual 
ring, and distinguishable 
only by the expert, may 
appear and mar therecord. 

To the forest planter this 
chapter on ring growth is 
of great importance, be- 
cause not only does this 
feature of tree life afford 
the means of watching the 
progress of his crop, cal- 
culating the amount of 
wood formed, and there- 
from determining when it 
is most profitable for him 
to harvest (namely, when 
the annual or periodic 


wood growth falls below a 

. ° Fig. 124.—Sections of logs showing the relative development 
certain amount), but since of knots. E,;from tree grown in the open; EF’, from tree 
the proportion of summetLr grown ina dense forest; @ and c, whorls of knots; b, dea 


wood and spring wood limb; sk, ‘‘sound knot;’’ dk, ‘‘dead knot.” < 
determines largely the quality of the timber, and since he has it in 
his power to influence the preponderance of the one or other by 
adaptation of species to soils and by their management, ring growth 
furnishes an index for regulating the quality of his crop. 


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FORM DEVELOPMENT 


If a tree is allowed to grow in the open, it has a tendency to branch, 
and makes a low and spreading crown. In order to lengthen its shaft 
and to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its 


476 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


growing space, to shade its sides so that the lower branches and their 
foliage do not receive light enough to perform their functions. When 
the side shade is dense enough, these branches die and finally break 
off under the influence of winds and fungous growth; wood then forms 


\ 
Yering 
RS / 


Fic. 125.—Scheme to illustrate the ar- 
rangement of annual growth. 1, 2, 3, 
etc., represent the parts of the stem 
grown during the first, second, third, 
etc., twenty years of the life of the 
tree. k, knots; the shaded part of each 
is the ‘‘dead knot’’ of lumber. 


over the scars and we get a clean shaft 
which carries a crown high up beyond the 
reach of shade from neighbors. 

The branches being prevented from 
spreading out, the shaft is forced to grow 
upward, and hence, when crowded by 
others, trees become taller and more 
cylindrical in form, while in the open, 
where they can spread, they remain lower 
and more conical in form (figs. 126, 127). 

There are, to be sure, different natural 
types of development, some, like the wal- 
nuts, oaks, beeches, and the broad-leafed 
trees generally, having greater tendency 
to spread than others, like spruces, firs, 
and conifers in general, which lengthen 
their shaft in preference to spreading, 
evenintheopen. This tendency to spread- 
ing is also influenced by soil conditions 
and climate, as well as by the age of the 
tree. When the trees cease to grow in 
height, their crowns broaden, and this 
takes place sooner in shallow soils than in 
deep, moist ones; but the tendency can 
be checked and all can be made to develop 
the shaft at the expense of the branches 
by proper shading from the sides. 

It follows that the forest planter, who 
desires to produce long and clean shafts 
and best working quality of timber, must 
secure and maintain side shade by a close 
stand, while the landscape gardener, who 
desires characteristic form, must maintain 
an open stand and full enjoyment of light 
for his trees. 

Now, as we have seen, different species 
afford different amounts of shade, and in 
proportion to the shade which they afford 


can they endure shade. The beech or sugar maple or spruce, which 
maintain a large amount of foliage under the deuse shade of their 
own crown, show that their leaves can live and functionate with asmall 
amount of light. They are shade-enduring trees. On the other hand, 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. A477 


the black walnut, the locust, the catalpa, the poplars, and the lareh 
show by the manner in which their crowns thin out, the foliage being 
confined to the ends of the branches, that their leaves require more 
light—they are light-needing trees; so that the scale which arranges 
the trees according to the amount of shade they exert serves also to 
measure their shade endurance. 

In making, therefore, mixed plantations, the different kinds must be 
so grouped and managed that the shady trees will not outgrow and 
overtop the light-needing; the latter must either have the start of the 
former or must be quicker growers. 


RATE OF GROWTH. 


Not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height and 
girth, but there is in each species a difference in the rate of growth 
during different periods of life, and 
a difference in the persistence of 
growth. 

It stands to reason that trees grow 
differently in different soils and sit- 
uations, and hence we can not com- 
pare different species with respect 


elif 
Le 


: 
Se fie ia tam 


ae) 
, " yp) 
f id \ ¥ 
4} wen me 


Fia 126.—Oak tree grown in the open. Fia. 127.—Maple tree grown in the forest. 


to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same conditions. 

Thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash cn 
a rich, deep, moist, warm soil, but will soon fall to the rear in a wetter, 
colder, and shallower soil. 

Given the same conditions, some species will start on a rapid upward 
growth at once, like the poplars, aspen, locust, and silver maple, making 
rapid progress (the most rapid from their tenth to their fifteenth year), 
but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum height early. 
Others, like the spruce, beech, and sugar maple, will begin slowly, often 
occupying several, sometimes as many as 10 to 15, years before they 
appear to grow at all, their energy all going into root growth. Then 
comes a period of more and more accelerated growth, which reaches its 
maximum rate at 25 or 30 years; and when the cottonwood or aspen 

1: «a4 ia* 


478 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


has reached the end of its growth in height the spruce or pine is still 
at its best rate, and continues to grow for a long time at that rate; in 
later life the rate decreases, yet height growth sometimes does not 
cease altogether for centuries. As a rule, the light-needing species are 
the ones which show the rapid height growth at the start, while the 
shade-enduring are slow at the start, but persistent growers. 

This fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest growth 
in nature; the persistent shade-enduring species crowd out the light- 
needing, and the latter rapidly take possession of any openings that 
fire or storm has made. It is also important with reference to the man- 
agement of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations; the light- 
needing species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring species 
as are slower growers than themselves. 

The diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate, and is, of 
course, influenced in the same way by soil, climate, and light conditions, 
as the height growth. 

In the juvenile or brush stage, lasting 6 to 10 years in light-needing and 
20 to 40 years in shade-enduring species, the diameter grows compara- 
tively little, all energy being directed to height growth and root growth. 
When the crown has been definitely formed, more food material is avail- 
able for wood formation, and the increase in foliage is accompanied 
by a more rapid increase of trunk diameter; in favorable situations, 
the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth years; in the 
poorer situations, between the fiftieth and eightieth years, which rate 
continues for some time. Then comes a period of slower rate, which 
finally in old age dwindles down almost to zero. 

But neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings 
alone tells us directly what amount of wood is forming. The outer 
rings, being laid over a larger circumference, although thinner than the 
preceding rings, may yet have greater cubic contents. The statements 
of diameter growth are, therefore, misleading if we are interested in 
knowing how much wood is forming. 

Accordingly the growth in volume must be considered separately, as 
determined by the enlargement of the cross-section area and the height. 
The growth in volume or mass accretion is quite Small in young trees, 
so that when wood is cut young the smallest amount of crop per year 
is harvested, while, if it is allowed to grow, an increase more than pro- 
portionate to the number of years may be obtained. 

Only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it begin to 
make much wood. Its volume growth progresses then at compound 
interest, and continues to do so for decades, and sometimes for a cen- 
tury or more. 


On poorer sites the rate is slower, but remains longer on the increase, 


while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached. 

Ot course, in a forest, where light conditions are not most favorable, 
because form development and soil conditions require shade, the total 
wood formation 1s less than in an isolated tree, favorably placed. Just 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 479 


so the dominant trees in a forest—i. e., those which have their crowns 
above all others—show, of course, the advantage they have over the 
inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their neighbors. 

Finally, if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth, 
and determine, for instance, how much wood an acre of such forest pro- 
duces at different periods, we must not overlook the fact that the num- 
ber of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older. Some of them 
are overshaded and crowded out by the others, so that a young growth 
of spruce might start with 100,000 little seedlings to the acre, of which 
in the twentieth year only 10,000 would be alive, while in the fortieth 
year the number would be reduced to 1,200, and in the hundredth year 
to 280. Hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of 
what the acre of forest will do. 

Thus, while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in vol- 
ume when about one hundred years old, then making wood at the rate 
of, say, 1.5 cubic feet per year, an acre of pine on good soil, containing 
about 1,600 trees, may make the most wood in the thirtieth year, then 
growing at the rate of 170 cubic feet per acre, while in the hundredth 
year the rate would not exceed 70 cubic feet; and an acre of pine in a 
poorer location, with about 1,400 trees, may make the most wood in the 
fortieth year, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per acre. 

From the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil con- 
ditions, to form development, and to rate of growth, we may make the 
following deductions of interest to the forest planter: 

In order to secure the best results in wood production, in quantity 
and quality, at the same time preserving favorable soil conditions, the 
forest should be composed of various species, a mixture of light-needing 
and shade-enduring kinds. The light-needing ones should be of quicker 
growth; the shady ones, in larger numbers, should be slower growers. 
For the first fifteen to twenty-five years the plantation should be kept 
as dense as possible, to secure clear shafts and good growth in height; 
then it should be thinned, to increase crown development and diameter 
growth; the thinning, however, is not to be so severe that the crowns 
can not close up again in two or three years; the thinning is to be 
repeated again and again, always favoring the best developed trees. 


REPRODUCTION, 


All trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed. Man can secure 
their reproduction also from cuttings or layers; and some kinds can 
reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump when the parent tree 
has been cut. This latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree 
by different species; chestnuts, oaks, elms, maples, poplars, and willows 
are most excellent sprouters; most conifers do not sprout at all, and the 


- Shoots of those that do sprout soon die (Sequoia or California redwood 


seems to be anexception). Sprouts of broad-leafed trees develop differ- 
ently from seedlings, growing very rapidly at first, but soon lessening 
in the rate of growth and never attaining the height and perhaps not 


480 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the diameter of trees grown from the seed; they are also shorter lived. 
With age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting. To secure best 
results, the parent tree should be cut close to the ground in early spring, 
avoiding severe frost, and a sharp cut should be made which will not 
sever the bark from the trunk. 

Not all trees bear seed every year, and plentiful seed production, 
especially in a forest, occurs, as a rule, periodically. The periods differ 
with species, climate, and season. 

Not all seeds can germinate, and in some species the number of seeds 
that can germinate is very small, and they lose their power of germina- 
tion when kept a few hours, like the willows. Others, if kept till they 
have become dry, will ‘lie over” in the soil a year or more before ger- 
minating. The same thing will occur if they are covered too deep in 
the soil, provided they germinate at all under such conditions. 

In order to germinate, seeds must have warmth, air, and moisture. 
The preparation of a seed bed is, therefore, necessary in order to supply 
these conditions in most favorable combination. In the natural forest 
inillions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting, and millions of seedlings 
sprout, but soon perish under the too dense shade of the mother trees. 

Man, desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop, can not afford to be 
as lavish as nature, and must therefore improve upon nature’s methods, 
making more careful preparation for the production of his crop, either 
by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them, or else 
by cutting away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the 
young self-grown crop better chances for life and development. 


2. HOW TO PLANT A FOREST. 


Forest planting and tree planting are two different things. The 
orchardist, who plants for fruit; the landscape gardener, who plants for 
form; the roadside planter, who plants for shade, all have objects 1n view 
different from that of the forest planter, and therefore select and use 
their plant material differently. They deal with single individual trees, 
each one by itself destined for a definite purpose. The forester, on the 
other hand, plants a crop like the farmer; he deals not with the single 
seed or plant, but with masses of trees; the individual tree has value 
to him only as apart of the whole. It may come to harvest for its tim- 
ber, or it may not come to harvest, and yet have answered its purpose 
as a part of the whole in shading the ground, or acting as nurse or 
‘‘forwarder” as long as it was necessary. 

His object is not to grow trees, but to produce wood, the largest 
amount of the best quality per acre, whether it be stored in one tree or 
in many, and his methods must be directed to that end. 

As far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is con- 
cerned, the same general principles and the same care in manipulation 
are applicable as in any other planting, except as the cost of operating 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 481 


on so large a scale may necessitate less careful methods than the gar- 
dener or nurseryman can afford to apply; the nearer, however, the 
performance of planting can be brought to the careful manner of the 
gardener, the surer the success. The principles underlying such 
methods have been discussed in the chapter “ How trees grow;” in the 
present chapter it is proposed to point out briefly the special consid- 
erations which should guide the forest planter in particular. 


WHAT TREES TO PLANT. 


Adaptability to climate is the first requisite in the species to be 
planted. 

It is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is 
known to be adapted to it. With regard to species not native, the 
reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring planters 
and upon experiment (at first on a small scale), after study of the 
requirements of the kinds proposed for trial. 

Adaptation must be studied, not only with reference to temperature 
ranges and rainfall, but especially with reference to atmospheric 
humidity and requirements of transpiration. 

Many species have a wide range of natural distribution, and hence 
of climatic adaptation. If such are to be used, it is important to secure 
seeds from that part of the range of natural distribution where the 
plants must be hardiest, i. e., the coldest and driest region in which it 
occurs, which insures hardy qualities in the offspring. For instance, 
the Douglas spruce from the humid and evenly tempered Pacific Slope 
will not be as hardy as that grown from seed collected on the dry 
and frigid slopes of the Rockies. Lack of attention to this requisite 
accounts for many failures. It must also be keptin mind that, while a 
species may be able to grow in another than its native climate, its wood 
may not there have the same valuable qualities which it develops in 
its native habitat. 

Adaptability to soil must be studied less with reference to mineral 
constituents than to physical condition. Depth and moisture condi- 
tions, and the structure of the soil, which influences the movement of 
water in it, are the most important elements. While all trees thrive 
best in a moist to “fresh” soil of moderate depth (from 2 to 4 feet) 
and granular structure, some can adapt themselves to drier or wetter, 
shallow, and compact soils. Fissures in rocks into which the roots can 
penetrate often stand for depth of soil, and usually aid in maintaining 
favorable moisture conditions. In soils of great depth (i. e., from the 
surface to the impenetrable subsoil) and of coarse structure water may 
drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots. 

Soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric 
moisture; for, while a species may thrive in an arid soil, when the 
demands of transpiration are not great, it may not do so when aridity 


482 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of atmosphere is added. Trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent 
to soil moisture and to thrive quite well, if not better, in drier soils. 

Adaptability to site—While a species may be well adapted to the 
general climatic conditions of a region, and in general to the soil, there 
still remains to be considered its adaptability to the particular “ site,” 
under which term we may comprise the total effect of general climate, 
local climate, and soil. The general climatic conditions are locally 
influenced, especially by the slope, exposure, or aspect, and the sur- 
roundings. Thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable to 
frost, western exposures more liable to damage from winds, southern 
more apt to be hot and to dry out, and northern to be cooler and 
damper, having in consequence a shorter period of vegetation. Hol- 
lows and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to 
variations in soil moisture, etc. 

Hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species 
which can best withstand such local dangers. 

The use value, or utility, of the species is next to be considered. This 
must be done with reference to the cominercial and domestic demand, 
and the length of time it takes the species to attain its value. The 
greater variety of purposes a wood may serve—i. e., the greater its 
general utility—and the sooner it attains its use value the better. 
White pine for the northeastern States as a wood is like the apple 
among fruits, making an all-round useful material in large quantities 
per acre in short time. Tulip poplar, applicable to a wider climatic 
range, is almost aS valuable, while oak, ash, and hickory are standard 
woods in the market. Other woods are of limited application. Thus 
the black locust, which grows most quickly into useful posts, has only 
a limited market, much more limited than it should have; hickory soon 
furnishes valuabie hoop poles from the thinnings, and later the best 
wagon material, not, however, large quantities in a short time; while 
black walnut of good quality is very high in price, the market is also 
limited, and the dark color of the heartwood, for which it is prized, is 
attained only by old trees. The black cherry, used for similar purposes, 
attains its value much sooner. 

3y planting various species together, variety of usefulness may be 
secured and the certainty of a market increased. 

The forest value of the species is only in part expressed by its use 
value. As has been shown in another place, the composition of the 
crop must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable soil con- 
ditions, as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself. Some 
species, although of high use value, like ash, oak, ete., are poor pre- 
servers of soil conditions, allowing grass and well to casita the plan- 
tation and to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage. Others, like 
beech, sugar maple, box elder, etc., although of less use value, being 
dense foliaged and preserving a shady crown for a long time, are of 
great forest value as soil improvers. 


Pa 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 483 


Again, as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from 
knots, straightness, and length, it is of importance to secure these 
qualities. Some valuable species, if grown by themselves, make crooked 
trunks, do not clean their shafts of branches, and are apt to spread 
rather than lengthen. If planted in close companionship with others, 
they are forced by these “ nurses or forwarders” to make better growths 
and clean their shafts of branches. 

Furthermore, from financial considerations, it is well to know that 
some species develop more rapidly and produce larger quantities of 
useful material per acre than others; thus the white pine is a “big 
eropper,” and, combining with this a tolerably good shading quality, 
and being in addition capable of easy reproduction, it is of highest 
“forest value.” 

Henee, as the object of forestry is to make money from continued 
wood crops, use value and forest value must both be considered in the 
selection of materials for forest planting. 

Mutual relationship of different species, with reference especially to 
their relative height growth and their relative light requirements, must 
be considered in starting a mixed plantation. 

- Mixed forest plantations (made of several kinds) have so many advan- 
tages over pure plantations (made of one kind) that they should be 
preferred, except for very particular reasons. Mixed plantations are 
capable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied 
material, preserve soil conditions better, are less liable to damage from 
winds, fires, and insects, and can be more readily reproduced. 

The following general rules should guide in making up the compo- 
sition of a mixed plantation: 

a. Shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk (five-eighths to seven-eighths) of 
the plantation, except on specially favored soils where no deterioration is to be 
feared from planting only light-needing kinds, and in which case these may even 
be planted by themselves. 

b. The light-needing trees should be surrounded by shade-enduring of slower 
growth, so that the former may not be overtopped, but have the necessary light and 
be forced by side shade to straight growth. 

ce, Shade-enduring speciesmay be grown in admixture with each other when their 
rate of height growth is about equal, or when the slower-growing kind can be pro- 
tected against the quicker-growing (for instance, by planting a larger proportion of 
the former in groups or by cutting back the latter). 

d. The more valuable timber trees which are to form the main crop should be so 


disposed individually, and planted in such numbers among the secondary crop or 
nurse crop, that the latter can be thinned out first without disturbing the former. 


Where a plantation of light-foliaged trees has been made (black 
walnut, for instance), it can be greatly improved by ‘‘underplanting” 
densely with a shade-enduring kind, which will choke out weed growth, 
improve the soil, and thereby advance the growth of the plantation. 

The selection and proper combination of species with reference to 
this mutual relationship to each other and to =e soil are the most im- 
portant elements of success. 


484 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Availability of the species also still needs consideration in this 
country; for, although a species may be very well adapted to the pur- 
pose in hand, it may be too difficult to obtain material for planting in 
quantity or at reasonable prices. While the beech is one of the best 
species for shade endurance, and hence for soil cover, seedlings can not 
be had as yet in quantity. Western conifers, although promising good 
material for forest planting, are at present too high priced for general 
use. Some eastern trees can be secured readily—either their seed or 
seedlings—from the native woods; others must be grown in nurseries 
before they can be placed in the field. 

Whether to procure seeds or plants, and if the latter, what kind, 
depends upon a number of considerations. The main crop, that which 
is to furnish the better timber, had best be planted with nursery-grown 
plants, if of slow-growing kinds, perhaps once transplanted, with well- 
developed root systems, the plants in no case to be more than 2 to 3 
years old. The secondary or nurse crop may then be sown or planted 
with younger and less costly material taken from the woods or grown 
in seed beds, or else cuttings may be used. 

In some localities—for instance, the Western plains—the germinating 
of seeds in the open field is so uncertain, and the life of the young 
seedlings for the first year or two so precarious, that the use of seeds 
in the field can not be recommended. In such locations careful selec- 
tion and treatment of the planting material according to the hardships 
which it must encounter can alone insure success. 

Seedlings from 6 to 12 inches high furnish the best material. The 
planting of large-sized trees is not excluded, but is expensive and 
hence often impracticable, besides being less sure of success, since 
the larger-sized tree is apt to lose a greater proportion of its roots in 
transplanting. 

METHODS OF PLANTING. 


Preparation of soil is for the purpose of securing a favorable start for 
the young crop; its effects are lost after the first few years. Most land 
that is to be devoted to forest planting does not admit of as careful 
preparation as for agricultural crops, nor is it necessary where the 
climate is not too severe and the soil not too compact to prevent the 
young crop from establishing itself. Thousands of acres in Germany 
are planted annually without any soil preparation, yearling pine seed- 
lings being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground. This absence 
of preparation is even necessary in sandy soils, like that encountered 
in the sandhills of Nebraska, which may, if disturbed, be blown out and 
shifted. In other cases a partial removal of a too rank undergrowth 
or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing is resorted to, or else 
furrows are thrown up and the trees set out in them. 

In land that has been tilled, deep plowing (10 to 12 inches) and 
thorough pulverizing give the best chances for the young crop to start. 
For special conditions, very dry or very moist situations, special 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 485 


methods are required. The best methods for planting in the semiarid 
regions of the far West have not yet been developed. Thorough culti- 
vation, as for agricultural crops, with subsequent culture, is successful, 
but expensive. A plan which might be tried would consist in breaking 
the raw prairie in June and turning over a shallow sod, sowing a crop 
of oats or alfalfa, harvesting it with a high stubble, then opening fur- 
rows for planting and leaving the ground between furrows undisturbed, 
so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the furrows and a . 
mulch between the rows. 

The time for planting depends on climatic and soil conditions and the 
convenience of the planter. Spring planting is preferable except in 
southern latitudes, especially in the West, where the winters are severe 
and the fall apt to be dry, the soil therefore not in favorable condition 
for planting. 

The time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen; for spring 
planting, before or just when life begins anew. In order to be ready 
in time for spring planting, it is a good practice to take up the plants in 
the fall and “heel them in” over winter (covering them, closely packed, 
in a dry trench of soil). Conifers can be planted later in spring and 
earlier in fall than broad-leafed trees. 

The density of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail. The 
advantages of close planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil, hence 
the better preservation of its moisture and improved growth and form 
development of the crop. These advantages must be balanced against 
the increased cost of close planting. The closer the planting, the sooner 
will the plantation be self-sustaining and the surer the success. 

If planted in squares, or, better still, in quincunx order (the trees in 
every other row alternating at equal distances), which is most desirable 
on account of the more systematic work possible and the more complete 
cover which it makes, the distance should not be more than 4 feet, 
unless for special reasons and conditions, while 2 feet apart is not too 
close, and still closer planting is done by nature with the best success. 

The following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting 

at distances as indicated: 


Tg RR Td, Sobel Shy 4 Fook cles. -oSh neo 5, 44 

erates i ee 1d, 580 119 by Stade Voi AN er 4, 840 
er grat TOCC8. Coa. oes wens ite RO, BOO.) S Dye feeb. oe i sid Ra ae 3, 630 
Pibweieetors: lsc suave ek. 20h tr by Efeek oio6s Yes odslied iva 2, 722 


To decrease expense, the bulk of the plantation may be made of the 
cheapest kinds of trees that may serve as soil cover and secondary or 
nurse crop, the main crop of from 300 to 600 trees to consist of better 
kinds, and with better planting material, mainly of light-needing species. 
These should be evenly disposed through the plantation, each closely 
surrounded by the nurse crop. It is, of course, understood that not all 
trees grow up; a constant change in numbers by the death (or else 
timely removal) of the overshaded takes place, so that the final crop 
shows at 100 years a close cover, with hardly 300 trees to the acre. 


486 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Afier-culture is not entirely avoidable, especially under unfavorable 
climatic conditions, and if the planting was not close enough. Shallow 
cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent weed growth and to 
keep the soil open, until it is shaded by the young trees, which may take 
a year with close planting and two or three years with rows 4 by 4 feet 
apart, the time varying also with the species. 

It is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts; gaps or fail 
* places occur, as a rule, and must be filled in by additional planting as 
soon as possible, if of larger extent than can be closed up in a few 
years by the neighboring growth. . 

When the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy, the forest crop 
may be considered as established, and the after-treatment will consist 
of judicious thinning. 


3. HOW TO TREAT THE WOOD LOT. 


In the northeastern States it is the custom to have connected with 
the farm a piece of virgin woodland, commonly called the wood lot. Its 
object primarily is to supply the farmer with the firewood, fence mate- 
rial, and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time for 
repairs on buildings, wagons, etc. 

As a rule, the wood lot occupies, as it ought to, the poorer part of the 
farm, the rocky or stony, the dry or the wet portions, which are not well 
fitted for agricultural crops. As a rule, it is treated as it ought not to 
be, if the intention is to have it serve its purpose continuously; it is 
cut and culled without regard to its reproduction. 

As far as firewood supplies go, the careful farmer will first use the 
dead and dying trees, broken limbs, and leavings, which is quite proper. 
The careless man avoids the extra labor which such material requires, 
and takes whatever splits best, no matter whether the material could 
be used for better purposes or not. 

When it comes to the cutting of other material, fence rails, posts, or 
dimension timber, the general rule is to go into the lot and select the 
best trees of the best kind for the purpose. This looks at first sight 
like the natural, most practical way of doing. It is the method which 
the Jumberman pursues when he “culls” the forest, and is, from his point 
of view perhaps, justifiable, for he only desires to secure at once what 
is most profitable in the forest. But for the farmer, who proposes to use 
his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind, it is a method detri- 
mental to his object, and in time it leaves him with a lot of poor, useless 
timber which encumbers the ground and prevents the growth of a 
better crop. 

Gur woods are mostly composed of many species of trees; they are 
mixed woods. Some of the species are valuable for some special pur- - 
poses, others are applicable to a variety of purposes, and again others 
furnish but poor material for anything but firewood, and even for that 
use they may not be of the best. 


i . 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 487 


Among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should men- 
tion the white pine—king of all—the white ash, white and chestnut oak, 
hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry, the last three being 
now nearly exhausted; next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar maple, 
chestnut, various oaks of the black or red oak tribe, several species of 
ash and birch, black locust; lastly, elms and soft maples, basswood, 
poplars, and sycamore. 

Now, by the common practice of culling the. best it is evident that 
gradually all the best trees of the best kinds are taken out, leaving only 
inferior trees or inferior kinds—the weeds among trees, if one may call 
them such—and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless. 

It does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which 
was of little use for anything but a timber crop before, is still further 
deteriorated under this treatment, and being compacted by the con- 
stant running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made 
nearly impossible. It would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or 
pasture; the farm has by so much lostin value. In other words, instead 
of using the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used 
up together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed. 

This is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the man- 
agement of the wood lot and the smallest care is taken to avoid deteri- 
oration and secure reproduction. 


IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS. 


The first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. 
Instead of culling it of its best material, it should be culled of its 
weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce, and which, 
like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. This weed- 
ing must not, however, be done all at once, as it could be in a field crop, 
for in a full-grown piece of woodland each tree has a value, even the 
weed trees, as soil cover. 

The great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regula- 
ting of water supplies; the manuring in part and the cultivating entirely, 
as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to this end. In forestry 
these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means are 
resorted to. The principal of these is to keep the soil as much as pos- 
sible under cover, either by the shade which the foliage of the tall trees 
furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter which accu- 
mulates and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch. 

A combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, 
woody underbrush where the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy 
layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result. Under such 
conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage and 
litter, reaches the ground only gradually, and therefore does not com- 
pact the soil as it does in the open field, but leaves it granular and 
open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. 
Secondly, the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade 


488 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


and lack of air circulation in the dense woods, so that more moisture 
remains for the use of the trees. When the shade of the crowns over- 
head (the so-called “crown cover,” or ‘“canopy,”) is perfect, but little 
undergrowth will be seen; but where the crown cover is interrupted or 
imperfect, an undergrowth will appear. If this is composed of young 
trees, or even shrubs, it isan advantage, but if of weeds, and especially 
grass, it isa misfortune, because these transpire a great deal more water 
than the woody plants and allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and 
therefore in water capacity. | 

Some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where 
but little light reaches the soil. When they appear it is a sign to the 
forester that he must be careful not to thin out the crown cover any 
more. When the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a 
sign that too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already 
deteriorated. If this state continues, the heavy drain which the tran- 
Spiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture, without any 
appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil still 
further. 

The overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there 
are not enough trees on the ground to close up the interspaces with 
their crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which make up the 
forest do not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a 
beech, a sugar maple, a hemlock, is so densely foliaged that but little 
light reaches the soil through its crown canopy, while an ash, an oak, 
a larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to 
penetrate. 

Hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, 
we must be careful not to interrupt the crown cover too much, and 
thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. And for the same reason, in 
the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out, we 
shall not only consider their use value but also their shading value, 
trying to bring about such a mixture of shady and less shady kinds as 
will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover, the shade-enduring 
kinds to occupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy, and to be more 
numerous than the light-needing. 

The forester, therefore, watches first the conditions of his soil cover, 
and his next care is for the condition of the overhead shade, the “crown 
cover;” for a change in the condition of the latter brings change into 
his soil conditions, and, inversely, from the changes in the plant cover of 
the soil he judges whether he may or may not change the light condi- 
tions. Thechanges of the soil cover teach him more often when “to let 
alone” than when to go on with his operations of thinning out; that 
is to say, he can rarely stop short of that condition which is most favor- 
able. Hence the improvement cuttings must be made with caution — 
and only very gradually, so that no deterioration of the soil conditions 
be invited. Wehave repeated this injunction again and again, because 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 489 


all success in the management of future wood crops depends upon the 
care bestowed upon the maintenance of favorable soil conditions. 

As the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable 
kinds from the present crop, but to prevent as much as possible their 
reappearance in subsequent crops, it may be advisable to cut such kinds 
as sprout readily from the stump in summer time—June or July—when 
the stumps are likely to die without sprouting. 

It may take several years’ cutting to bring the composition of the 
main crop into such a condition as to satisfy us. 


METHODS OF REPRODUCING THE WOOD CROP, 


Then comes the period of utilizing the main crop. As we propose to 
keep the wood lot as such, and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood 
crop in place of the old one, this latter must be cut always with a view 
to that reproduction. There are various methods pursued for this pur- 
pose in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small 
areas, especially when these are expected to yield only small amounts 
of timber, and these little by little as required. It is possible, to be 
sure, to cut the entire crop and replant a new one, or else to use the ax 
skillfully and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years; but 
we want in the present case to lengthen out the period during which 
the old crop is cut, and hence must resort to other methods. There are 
three methods practicable. 

We may clear narrow strips or bands entirely, expecting the neighbor- 
ing growth to furnish the seed for covering the strip with a new crop— 
“the strip method;” or we can take out single trees here and there, 
relying again on an after-growth from seed shed by the surrounding 
trees—the “selection method;” or, finally, instead of single trees, we 
may cut entire groups of trees here and there in the same manner, the 
gaps to be filled, as in the other cases, with a young crop from the seed 
of the surrounding trees, and this we may call the “ group method.” 

In the strip method, in order to secure sufticient seeding of the cleared 
Strip, the latter must not be so broad that the seed from the neighbor- 
ing growth can not be carried over it by the wind. In order to get the 
best results from the carrying power of the wind (as well as to avoid 
windfalls when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward side) 
the strips should be located on the side opposite the prevailing winds. 
Oaks, beech, hickory, and nut treesin general with heavy seeds will not 
seed over any considerable breadth of* strip, while with maple and ash 
the breadth may be made twice as great as the height of the timber, and 
the mother trees with lighter seeds, like spruce and pine, or birch and 
elm, may be able to cover strips of a breadth of 3 or 4and even8 times 
their height. But such broad strips are hazardous, since with insuffi- 
cient seed fall, or fail years in the seed, the strip may remain exposed 
to sun and wind for several years without a good cover and deteriorate. 
It is safer, therefore, to make the strips no broader than just the height 
of the neighboring timber, in which case not only has the seed better 

1 <A 94——20 


490 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


chance of covering the ground, but the soil and seedlings have more 
protection from the mother crop. In hilly country the strips must not 
be made in the direction of the slope, for the water would wash out soil 
and seed. 

Every year, then, or from time to time, a new strip is to be cleared and 
“regenerated.” Butif the first strip failed to cover itself satisfactorily, 
the operation is stopped, for it would be unwise to remove the seed trees 
further by an additional clearing. Accordingly, this method should be 


PSXSs 
PETTITT SY 


Fig. 128.—Showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop. 1, 2, 3,4, sueces- 
sive groups of young timber, 1 being the oldest, 4 the youngest, 5 old timber; a,wind 
mantle, specially managed to secure protection. 


i 


used only where the kinds composing the mother crop are frequent and 
abundant seeders and give assurance of reseeding the strips quickly 
and successfully. 

The other two methods have greater chances of success in that they 
preserve the soil conditions more surely, and there is more assurance of | 
seeding from the neighboring trees on all sides. 

The selection method, by which single trees are taken out all over the 
forest, is the same as has been practiced by the farmer and lumberman 


aie 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 491 


hitherto, only they have forgotten to look after the young crop. Millions 
of seed may fall to the ground and germinate, but perish from the exces- 
sive shade of the mother trees. If we wish to be successful in estab- 
lishing a new crop, it will be necessary to be ready with the ax all the 
time and give light as needed by the young crop. The openings made 
by taking out single trees are so small that there is great danger of the 
young crop being lost, or at least impeded in its development, because 
it is impracticable to come in time to its relief with the ax. 

The best method, therefore, in all respects, is the “growp method,” 
which not only secures continuous soil cover, chances for full seeding, 
and more satisfactory light conditions, but requires less careful atten- 
tion, or at least permits more freedom of movement and adaptation to 
local conditions (fig. 128). 

It is especially adapted to mixed woods, as it permits securing for each 
species the most desirable light conditions by making the openings larger 
or smaller, according as the species we wish to favor in a particular group 
demand more or less shade. Further, when different species are ripe 
for regeneration at different times, this plan makes it possible to take 
them in hand as needed. Again, we can begin with one group or we can 
take in hand several groups simultaneously, as may be desirable and 
practicable. 

We start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is 
already on the ground, enlarging around it, or where old timber has 
reached its highest usefulness and should be cut in order that we may 
not lose the larger growth which young trees would make; or else we 
choose a place which is but poorly stocked, where, if it is not regener- 
ated, the soil is likely to deteriorate further. The choice is affected 
further by the consideration that dry situations should be taken in hand 
earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable, and 
that some species reach maturity and highest use value earlier than 
others and should therefore be reproduced earlier. In short, we begin 
the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists, or where 
the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily with the 
least artificial aid. Of course, advantage should be taken of the occur- 
rence of seed years, which come at different intervals with different 
species. 

If we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground, 
our plan is to remove gradually the old trees standing over them when 
no longer required for shade, and then to cut away the adjoining old 
growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around 
the young growth. When the first band has seeded itself satisfac- 
torily, and the young growth has come to require more light (which 
may take several years), we remove another band around it, and thus 
the regeneration progresses. Where no young growth already exists, 
of course the first opening is made to afford a start, and afterwards the 
enlargement follows as occasion requires. 


492 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


SIZE OF OPENINGS. 


The size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be 
enlarged vary, of course, with local conditions and the species which is 
to be favored, the light-needing species requiring larger openings and 
quicker light additions than the shade-enduring. It is difficult to give 
any rules, since the modifications due to local conditions are so mani- 
fold, requiring observation and judgment. Caution in not opening too 
much ata time and too quickly may avoid failure in securing good stands. 

In general, the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half 
an acre or more, and the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing 
bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the surrounding timber. 

The time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in 
winter, when the farmer has the most leisure, and when the wood sea- 
sons best after felling and is also most readily moved. Since it is 
expected that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring, 
all wood should, of course, be removed from the seed ground. 

The first opening, as well as the enlargement of the groups, should 
not be made at once, but by gradual thinning out, if the soil is not in 
good condition to receive and germinate the seed and it is impractica- 
ble to put it in such condition by artificial means—hoeing or plowing. 

It is, of course, quite practicable—nay, sometimes very desirable—to 
prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed. Where 
undesirable undergrowth has started, it should be cut out, and where 
the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping 
of cattle, it should be hoed or otherwise scarified, so that the seed may 
find favorable conditions. To let pigs do the plowing and the covering — 
of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad. 

It is also quite proper, if the reproduction from the seed of the sur- 
rounding mother trees does not progress satisfactorily, to assist, when 
an opportunity is afforded, by planting such desirable species as were 
or were not in the composition of the original crop. 

It may require ten, twenty,or forty years or more to secure the repro- 
duction of a wood lot in this way. A new growth, denser and better 
than the old, with timber of varying age, will be the result. The prog- 
ress of theregeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying plan, 
the different shadings showing the successive additions of young crop, 
the darkest denoting the oldest parts, first regenerated. If we should 
make a section through any one of the groups, this, ideally represented, 
would be like figure 129, the old growth on the outside, the youngest 
new crop adjoining it, and tiers of older growths of varying height 
toward the center of the group. 


WIND MANTLE. 


On the plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded, surrounding 
the entire plat (fig. 128, a), representing a strip of timber which should 
surround the farmer’s wood lot, and which he should keep as dense as 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 493 


possible, especially favoring undergrowth. This part, if practicable, 
should be kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of selection, 
i, e., by taking out trees here and there. When gaps are made, they 
should be filled, if possible, by introducing shade-enduring kinds, which, 
like the spruces and firs and beech, retain their branches down to the 
foot for along time. This mantle is intended to protect the interior 
against the drying influence of winds, which are bound to enter the 
small wood lot and deteriorate the soil. The smaller the lot, the more 
necessary and desirable it is to maintain such a protective cover or 
windbreak. 


Old timber. 3d. 2d. Ist cutting. 2d. 3d. Old timber. 
Fic. 129,—Appearance of regeneration by group method. 


COPPICE. 


Besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by 
planting, there is another reproduction possible by sprouts from the 
stump. This, to be sure, can be done only with broad-leafed species, 
since conifers, with but few exceptions, do not sprout from the stump. 
When a wood lot is cut over and over again, the reproduction taking 
place by such sprouts we call coppice. 

Most wooded areas in the Eastern States have been so cut that repro- 
duction from seed could not take place, and hence we have large areas 


A94 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


of coppice, with very few seedling trees interspersed. As we have seen 
in the chapter on “How trees grow,” the sprouts do not develop into 
as good trees as the seedlings. They grow faster, to be sure, in the 
beginning. but do not grow as tall and are apt to be shorter lived. 

For the production of firewood, fence, and post material, coppice man- 
agement may suffice, but not for dimension timber. And even to keep 
the coppice in good reproductive condition, care should be taken to 
secure a certain proportion of seedling trees, since the old stumps, after 
repeated cutting, fail to sprout and die out. 

Soil and climate influence the success of the coppice; shallow soils 
produce weaker but more numerous sprouts and are more readily dete- 
riorated by the repeated laying bare of the soil; a mild climate is most 
favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump. 

Some species sprout more readily than others; hence the composition 
of the crop will change, unless attention is paid to it. In the coppice, 
as in any other management of a natural wood crop, a desirable com- 
position must first be secured, which is done by timely improvement 
cuttings, as described in a previous section. 

The best trees for coppice in the northeastern States are the chest- 
nut, various oaks, hickory, ash, elm, maples, basswood, and black locust, 
which are all good sprouters. 

When cutting is done for reproduction, the time and manner are the 
main care. The best results are probably obtained, both financially 
and with regard to satisfactory reproduction, when the coppice is cut 
between the twentieth and thirtieth years. AJl cutting must be done 
in early spring or in winter, avoiding, however, days of severe frost, 
which is apt to sever the bark from the trunk and to kill the cambium. 
Cutting in summer kills the stump, as arule. The cut should be made 
slanting downward, and as smooth as possible, to prevent collection of 
moisture on the stump and the resulting decay, and as close as possible 
to the ground, where the stump is less exposed to injuries, and the new 
sprouts, starting close to the ground, may strike independent roots. 

Fail places or gaps should be filled by planting. This can be readily 
done by bending to the ground some of the neighboring sprouts, when 2 
to 3 years old, notching, fastening them down with a wooden hook or 
a stone, and covering them with soil a short distance (4 to 6 inches) 
from the end. The sprout will then strike root, and after a year or so 
may be severed from the mother stock by a sharp cut (fig. 130). 

For the recuperation of the crop, it is desirable to maintain a supply 
of seedling trees, which may be secured either by the natural seeding of 
a few mother trees of the old crop which are left, or by planting. This 
kind of management, coppice with seedling or standard trees inter- 
mixed, if the latter are left regularly and well distributed over the 
wood lot, leads to a management called “standard coppice.” In this — 
it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice, viz, failure to 
produce dimension material and running out of the stocks. The former 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 495 


object is, however, only partially accomplished, as the trees grown with- 
out sufficient side shading are apt to produce branchy boles and hence 
knotty timber, besides injuring the coppice by their shade. 


PLAN OF MANAGEMENT. 


In order to harmonize the requirements of the wood lot from a sylvi- 
cultural point of view, and the needs of the farmer for wood supplies, 
the cutting must follow some systematic plan. 

The improvement cuttings need not, in point of time, have been made 
all over the lot before beginning the cuttings for regeneration, provided 
they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated. Both 
the cuttings may go on simultaneously, and this enables the farmer to 
gauge the amount of cutting to his consumption. According to the 


< VV ——Sa- 
=WY 


Fic. 130.—Method of layering to produce new stocks in coppice wood. 


amount of wood needed, one or more groups may be started at the same 
time. It is, however, desirable, for the sake of renewing the crop 
systematically, to arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot. 


4. HOW TO CULTIVATE THE WOOD CROP. 


Where only firewood is desired, i. e., wood without special form, size, 
or quality, no attention to the crop is necessary, except to insure that 
it covers the ground completely. Nevertheless, even in such a crop, 
which is usually managed as coppice,' some of the operations described 
in this chapter may prove advantageous. Where, however, not only 
quantity but useful quality of the crop is also to be secured, the develop- 
ment of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced by controlling 
the supply of light available to the individual trees. 


1 See page 493 for description of coppice. 


496 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


It may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in 
previous pages regarding the influence of light on tree development. 


EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WOOD PRODUCTION. 


Dense shade preserves soil moisture, the most essential element for 
wood production; a close stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this 
shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil moisture, making 
it available for wood production. But a close stand also cuts off side 
light and confines the lateral growing space, and hence prevents the 
development of side branches and forces the growth energy of the soil 
to expend itself in height growth; the crown is carried up, and long, 
cylindrical shafts, clear of branches, are developed; a close stand thus 
secures desirable form and quality. Yet, since the quality of wood pro- 
duction or accretion (other things being equal) is in direct proportion 
to the amount of foliage and the available light, and since an open 
position promotes the development of a larger crown and of more foli- 
age, an open stand tends to secure a larger amount of wood accretion 
ov each tree. On the other hand, a tree grown in the open, besides 
preducing more branches, deposits a larger proportion of wood at the 
base, so that the shape of the bole becomes more conical, a form which 
in sawing proves unprofitable; whereas a tree grown in the dense for- 
est both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth and makes 
a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk, thus attaining a more 
cylindrical form. While, then, the total amount of wood production per 
acre may be as large in a close stand of trees as in an open one (within 
limits), the distribution of this amount among a larger or smaller num- 
ber of individual trees produces different results in the quality of the 
crop. And since the size of a tree or log is important in determining 
its usefulness and value, the sooner the individual trees reach useful 
size, without suffering in other points of quality, the more profitable the 
whole crop. 


NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE. 


The care of the forester, then, should be to maintain the smallest 
number of individuals on the ground which will secure the greatest 
amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of which the soil 
and climate are capable, without deteriorating the soil conditions. He 
tries to secure the most advantageous individual development of sin- 
gle trees without suffering the disadvantages resulting from too open 
stand. The solution of this problem requires the greatest skill and 
judgment, and rules can hardly be formulated with precision, since for 
every species or combination of species and conditions these rules 
must be modified. 

In a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre | 
varies greatly, from 3,000 to 100,000, according to soil, species, and 
the manner in which it originated, whether planted, sown, or seeded 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 497 


naturally.'! Left to themselves, the seedlings, as they develop, begin to 
crowd each other. At first this crowding results only in increasing 
the height growth and in preventing the spread and full development 
of side branches; by and by the lower branches failing to receive suf- 
cient light finally die and break off—the shaft ‘clears itself.” Then a 
distinet development of definite crowns takes place, and after some 
years a difference of height growth in different individuals becomes 
marked. Not afew trees fail to reach the general upper crown surface, 
and, being more or less overtopped, we can readily classify them accord- 
ing to height and development of crown, the superior or “dominating” 
ones growing more and more vigorously, the inferior or “dominated” 
trees falling more and more behind, and finally dying for lack of light, 
and thus a natural reduction in numbers, or thinning, takes place. This 
natural thinning goes on with varying rates at different ages, continn- 
ing through the entire life of the crop, so that, while only 4,000 trees 
per acre may be required in the tenth year to make a dense crown cover 
or normally close stand, untouched by man, in the fortieth year 1,200 
would suffice to make the same dense cover, in the eightieth year 350 
would be a full stand, and in the one hundredth not more than 250, 
according to soil and species, more or less. As we can discern three 
stages in the development of a single tree—the juvenile, adolescent, 
and mature—so, in the development of a forest growth, we may distin- 
guish three corresponding stages, namely, the ‘“‘thicket” or brushwood, 
the “‘pole-wood” or sapling, and the “timber” stage. During the 
thicket stage, in which the trees have a bushy appearance, allowing 
hardly any distinction of stem and crown, the height growth is most 
rapid. This period may last, according to conditions and species, from 
5 or 10 to 30 and even 40 years—longer on poor soils and with shade- 
enduring species, shorter with light-needing species on good soils—and, 
while it lasts, it is in the interest of the wood grower to maintain the 
close stand, which produces the long shaft, clear of branches, on which 
at a later period the wood that makes valuable, clear timber, may 
accumulate. Form development is now most important. The lower 
branches are to die and break off before they become too large. (See 
illustrations of the progress of “clearing,” on pp. 473 and 474.) With 
light-needing species and with deciduous trees generally this dying off 
is accomplished more easily than with conifers. The spruces and even 
the white pine require very dense shading to “clear” the shaft. Dur- 
ing this period it is only necessary to weed out the undesirable kinds, 
such as trees infested by insect and fungus, shrubs, sickly, stunted, or 
bushy trees which are apt to overtop and prevent the development of 
their better neighbors. In short, our attention is now devoted mainly 
to improving the composition of the crop. 


1If the crop does not, at 3 to 5 years of age, shade the ground well, with a complete 
crown cover, or canopy, it can not be said to be well established and should be filled 
out by planting. 

1 <A 94 


20* 


A98 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


WEEDING AND CLEANING THE CROP. 


This weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is 
from 3 to 5 years old. Later, mere cutting back of the undesirable trees 
with a knife or hatchet may be practiced. In well-made artificial plan- 
tations this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or tenth 
year. But in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense 
as to inordinately interfere with the development of the individual 
trees. The stems then remain so slender that there is danger of their 
being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out 
later. In such cases timely thinning is indicated to stimulate more 
rapid development of the rest of the crop. This can be done most 
cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes one yard wide and as far apart 
through the crop, leaving strips standing. The outer trees of the strip, 
at least, will then shoot ahead and become the main crop. These weed- 
ing or improvement cuttings, which must be made gradually and be 
repeated every two or three years, are best performed during the sum- 
mer months, or in August and September, when it is easy to judge what 
should be taken out. 


METHODS OF THINNING. 


During the “thicket” stage, then, which may last from 10 to 25 and 
more years, the crop is gradually brought into proper composition and 
condition. When the “pole-wood” stage is reached, most of the sap- 
lings being now from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet 
in height, the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and 
more marked. Some of the taller trees begin to show a long, clear 
shaft and a definite crown. The trees can be more or less readily 
classified into height and size classes. The rate at which the height 
growth has progressed begins to fall off and diameter growth increases. 
Now comes the time when attention must be given to increasing this 
diameter growth by reducing the number of individuals and thus having 
all the wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals. 
This is done by judicious and often repeated thinning, taking out some 
of the trees and thereby giving more light and increasing the foliage of 
those remaining; and as the crowns expand, so do the trunks increase 
their diameter in direct proportion. These thinnings must, however, 
be made cautiously lest at the same time the soil is exposed too much, 
or the branch growth of those trees which are to become timber wood 
is too much stimulated. So varying are the conditions to be considered, 
according to soil, site, species, and development of the crop, that it is 
well-nigh impossible, without a long and detailed discussion, to lay 
down rules for the proper procedure. In addition the opinions of author- 
ities differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning, the old 
school advising moderate, and the new school severer thinnings. 


FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 499 


For the farmer, who can give personal attention to detail and whose 
object is to grow a variety of sizes and kinds of wood, the following 
general method may perhaps be most useful: 

First determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or 
“final harvest” crop. For this 300 to 500 trees per acre of the best 
grown and most useful kinds may be selected, which should be dis- 
tributed as uniformly as possible over the acre. These, then—or as 
many as may live till the final harvest—are destined to grow into 
timber and are to form the special favorites as much as possible. They 
may at first be marked to insure recognition; later on they will be 
readily distinguished by their superior development. The rest, which 
we will call the “subordinate” crop, is then to serve merely as filler, 
nurse, and soil cover. 


WHAT TREES TO REMOVE. 


It is now necessary, by careful observation of the surroundings of 
each of the “final harvest” crop trees, or “superiors,” as we may call 
them, to determine what trees of the “subordinate” crop trees, or 
‘‘inferiors,” must beremoved. AJ] nurse trees that threaten to overtop 
the superiors must either be cut out or cut back and topped,if that is 
practicable, so that the crown of the superiors can develop freely. 
Those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side, without 
preventing their free top development, need not be interfered with, 
especially while they are still useful in preventing the formation and 
spreading of side branches on the superiors. As soon as the latter 
have fully cleared their shafts, these crowding inferiors must be removed. 
Care must be taken, however, not to remove too many at a time, thus 
opening the crown cover too severely and thereby exposing the soil to 
the drying influence of the sun. Gradually, as the crowns of inferiors 
standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the superiors, 
the inferiors are removed, and thus the full effect of the light is secured 
in the accretion of the main harvest crop; at the same time the branch 
growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept shaded. Mean- 
while thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop, in order to 
secure also the most material from this part of the crop. This is done 
by cutting out all trees that threaten to be killed by their neighbors. 
In this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead material, only 
good for firewood, lessened. It is evident that trees which in the strug- 
gle for existence have fallen behind, so as to be overtopped by their 
neighbors, can not, either by their presence or by their removal, influ- 
ence the remaining growth. They are removed only in order to utilize 
their wood before it decays. 

It may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants 
interferes in no way with the development of the main crop, but, on the 
contrary, aids by its shade in preserving favorable moisture conditions. 
Its existence, however, shows iz most cases that the crown cover is not 


500 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


as dense as it should be, and hence that thinning is not required. 
Grass and weed growth, on the other hand, is emphatically disadvan- 
tageous and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open. 

The answer to the three questions, When to begin the thinnings, 
How severely to thin, and How often to repeat the operation, must 
always depend upon the varying appearance of the growth and the 
necessities in each case. The first necessity for interference may arise 
with light-needing species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year; with 
shade-enduring, not before the twentieth or twenty-fifth year. The 
necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat 
interdependent. It is better to thin carefully and repeat the operation 
oftener than to open up so severely at once as to jeopardize the soil 
conditions. Hspecially in younger growths and on poorer soil, it is 
best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close 
up again within 3 to 5 years; rather repeat the operation oftener. 
Later, when the trees have attained heights of 50 to 60 feet and clear 
boles (which may be in 40 to 50 years, according to soil and kind) the 
thinning may be more severe, so as to require repetition only every 
6 to 10 years. 

The condition of the crown cover, then, is the criterion which directs 
the ax. As soon as the crowns again touch or interlace, the time has 
arrived to thin again. In mixed growths it must not be overlooked 
that light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier 
neighbors. Shade-enduring trees, such as the spruces, beech, sugar 
maple, and hickories, bear overtopping for a time and will then grow vig- 
orously when more light is given, while light-needing species, like the 
pines, larch, oaks, and ash, when once suppressed, may never be able to 
recover. 

Particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather 
denser “wind mantle” all around small groves. In this part of the 
grove the thinning must be less severe, unless coniferous trees on the 
outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches 
low down, thus increasing their value as windbreaks. 

The thinnings, then, while giving to the “final harvest” crop all the 
advantage of light for promoting its rapid development into service- 
able timber size, furnish also better material from the subordinate crop. 
At 60 to 70 years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and 
only the originally selected “superiors” remain on the ground, or as 
many of them as have not died and been removed; 250 to 400 of these 
per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable form and size, ready 
for the final harvest, which should be made as indicated in the preceding 
chapter. 


BEST ROADS FOR FARMS AND FARMING DISTRICTS. 


By Roy STONE, 
Special Agent and Engineer, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


So few really good roads have been made in purely agricultural dis- 
tricts that experience avails but little toward determining what will 
best serve the needs and suit the means of the average farmer. 

In the first place, the road that will best suit the needs of the farmer 
must not be too costly; in the second place, it must be of the very best 
kind, for the farmer should be able to do his heavy hauling over it when 
his fields are too wet to work and his teams are free. 

The roads which have been built by counties have not always satis- 
fied the farmers who had to use them. In some portions of Ohio we 
find the country people in dry weather traveling in the ditches to save 
the bare feet of their horses from the rough stone. 


KIND OF ROAD FOR THE FARMER. 


The road that would seem to fill the farmer’s needs, all things con- 
sidered, is a solid, well-bedded stone road, so narrow as to be only a 
Single track, but having an earth track alongside. <A fine, dry, smooth 
dirt track is the perfection of roads; it is easy on the horses’ feet and 
legs, easy on vehicles, and free from noise and jar. It holds snow bet- 
ter than stone or gravel, and requires less snow to make sleighing; and 
where such a track has a stone road alongside to take the travel in wet 
weather it will suffer hardly any appreciable wear. The stone road, 
on the other hand, wears by the grinding of the wheels and the chip- 
ping of the horses’ calks in dry weather more than in wet. If it can 
be saved this wear for an average of six months in each year, so much 
will be clear gain. 

The questions raised regarding this method of construction are, Can- 
the junctions of the earth and stone sections of the road be kept even, 
so as not to have a jog in passing from one to the other, and can the 
meeting and passing of loaded teams be provided for? But practical 
experience has already been sufficient to settle both these points. The 
Canandaigua (New York) roads show no sign of division between the 
earth and stone, and those who use them say no difficulty is found in 

i 501 


502 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


the passing of teams, since practically no two teams ever turn out at 
exactly the same spot, and no rutting of the earth road occurs. The 
purposes of a wide, hard road are better served by a narrow one, and 
all the objections to it removed, while the cost is cut down one-half, 
and the charges for repair nearly three-fourths. 


WY yj Yj YU Ucar Wy WY, y~f 

Wy MM: Vn Yy Widdiddlla 
Z YY, LTT UML lYMMMMfhwHyfffPrrn eth Vf YY —Yy UY ‘ 
/ y YW Me Y YY, Yj yj YMMMCeJuewwu’'’’ Yyy foie ZZ 


Fig. 131.—Cross sections of Canandaigua roads. 


The cross sections of the Canandaigua roads shown in figure 131 give 
the simplest forms for narrow, hard roads; both these forms are sym- 
metrical, having the stone road in the middle. One of them has a dirt 
track on each side; the other has only a shoulder of earth to keep the 
macadam in place. While the users of these roads are so pleased with 
the novelty of their hard roads that they do not seem to care for the 
dirt track, they will doubtless in future find their advantage in having 
at least one such track m all cases. One of the great highways in 


oe Se 


Waal YZ =e lll py fla 
a “ 


Fia. 132.—Underdrain for wet places in roads. 


Ohio was built in this manner thirty years ago and has given great 
satisfaction. 

Where roads are already graded wide enough, it is better perhaps to 
have the three tracks, one of stone and an earth track on each side, but 
two will serve all purposes of use quite as well. Two tracks will require 
a roadbed about 21 feet wide. 

In all wet soils or springy places there should be an underdrain 
beneath the stone track, as shown in figure 132, with side outlets at 
places where they are practicable. The space above the drain tile up 
to within 6 inches of the surface can be filled with any cheap coarse 


Pa LSE 


WUE IV az Y) Y 


Fic. 133.—Underdrain for porous roads. 


material, first covering the tile with straw to prevent the earth wash- 
ing into the joints. Field stone, common gravel, sand, or burnt clay 
will serve for such filling. This should be well rolled and the road 
finished with a layer of the best broken stone or gravel obtainable, 
also well rolled; or, better still, with two layers of 3 inches each, rolled 
separately. 


ROADS FOR FARMS AND FARMING DISTRICTS. 503 


Where the underlying soil is naturally porous, the simple construc- 
tion in figure 133 is all that is required, but the ground under the 
macadam should be well rolled and compacted and all soft places exca- 


<opsted ek), tiijtjz};.EZE 


Wiis Udddllilttddddddddddiddd 4/3 
ZZ, 


Fig. 134.—Drainage for macadam bed. 


vated and filled with good material. If the ground is not porous, yet is 
not wet enough to warrant the expense of subdrainage, it is well to pro- 
vide a drainage for the macadam bed, in the form shown in figure 134. 
All that is required for this is to give a slight outward slope to the bot- 
tom of the bed, roll the ground thoroughly, and provide an occasional 
drain through the earth shoulder into the ditch. 


\ 


Yj YY, SERA RET 
a 
Y Ve 
Fia. 135.—Three-track road. 


The three-track road, figure 135, requires a roadbed about 27 feet 
wide; its construction corresponds with that of the two-track. 


FARM ROADS. 


Another form of narrow, hard road is one used by Judge Caton, of 
Chicago, on his Illinois farms. While these roads are made for farm 
use they would serve equally well for the lesser public roads of the 
neighborhood. The roadbed is made by plowing two furrows, 16 inches 


; WY eo 1 Y 
Y WY 
YY = Wy WWWWW- o 


Fia, 136.—Prepared roadbed. 


wide and about 12 inches deep, under what are to be the wheel tracks, 
turning the earth inward, and two more for ditches, also turned inward, 
which results in a slight raising of the bed; the inner furrows are then 
filled with field stones or coarse gravel and a light coating of fine 
gravel spread over the whole. 


W// YY Mo ee % WY Yy 
i Y/ Y Yj 2 Y y tj “Ny Yy 
Ya yf ld Hy YY Udddddde 

Fig. 187.—Finished road. 
Figures 136 and 137, respectively, show the roadbed prepared and 


the finished road. This plan gives a very solid bed of material under 
the wheels and a sufficiency elsewhere, and if occasional side outlets 


504 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


are provided the furrows are quite efficient as blind drains. Occasional 
passing places would need to be provided on public roads for the meet- 
ing of loaded wagons; elsewhere a width of 11 feet between the ditches 
would be sufficient for ordinary light travel. Such a road would use 
the minimum of material with the maximum of efficiency, and, having 
a great depth of stone just where it is needed, should bear the heaviest 
loads without injury, and require only an occasional resurfacing to last 
indefinitely. The amount of material required is less than 800 cubic 
yards per mile. 


MAINTENANCE OF ROADS. 


Regarding the maintenance of roads, what Mr. Charles E. Ash- 
burner, jr., C. E., who has had a wide experience in such work, says 
of the macadam road applies with equal force to any, even the simplest 
of roads, and his observations are reproduced here for the benefit of 
those who utilize the suggestions above offered, as well as of all who 
are interested in the road question generally: 


The old saying, ‘‘A stitch in time saves nine,” never applied more appropriately to 
anything than it does to the maintenance of a macadam road. Inspect your roads 
constantly and carefully; never allow the smallest hole to remain, but use the pick 
to loosen the surface as one forms and then carefully fill with chips one-half inch in 
diameter, or even smaller, of the same material of which the road is built, and roll. 
In filling be careful not to change a hole into a hillock, which would eventually 
cause two holes, one on each side. Equal attention should be paid to maintaining 
thorough drainage, so that the water will run off without saturating the edges of 
the roads. When the road surface at last becomes worn out, pick it thoroughly 
(picking by the steam roller is by far the most economical), then apply stone, and 
proceed as in the original construction. 

Roads now in my charge, built four years ago of Virginia gray granite (rejecting 
such as contained much mica), were only 7inches thick. They have been constantly 
under heavy traffic of the worst kind, namely, country teams, which drive one behind 
the other in the center of the road, yet not one cent has been spent in repair, and 
they are as free from holes as the day they were constructed. They are worn, how- 
ever, as the fine granite dust taken from the gutters will prove; but the wear has 
been denudation simply, owing to the fact that they were constructed upon a road- 
bed of uniform hardness and smoothness, and all material used was uniformly 
tough. 


STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 


By GEORGE A. PERKINS, 
Chairman Massachusetts State Highway Commission. 


FIRST EFFORTS FOR IMPROVED ROADS. 


Road improvement in this country is now an important factor in State 
as well as in municipal elections. It is incorporated into party plat- 
forms, and candidates must now declare how they stand upon this issue. 
This has been brought about by constant agitation on the part of those 
who have made a study of the question from an economic standpoint, 
and who have realized the immense loss resulting from the bad condi- 
tion of the ways. 

In Massachusetts the question on a large scale was first brought 
before the legislature in 1887. The people had not been made to realize 
the great importance of a better and more complete system of high- 
ways, so that at first the matter was not given that serious considera- 
tion it deserved. It was conceded that the roads were not of the best, 
but it was claimed that the cost necessary to improve them would be 
too great for the smaller towns to bear. It was argued before the com- 
mittee that much money was uselessly applied and wasted, and that 
there was an entire absence of systematic methods employed. It was 
shown that many towns were obliged to maintain long stretches of 
highways of little importance to them, but used as ways of communi- 
cation between large centers. It was maintained that manufacturers, 
teamsters, and farmers would be greatly benefited by the construction 
of a general system of roads, as the cost of transportation would be 
ereatly reduced. 

The subject was annually brought before the legislature, each suc- 
cessive year finding a larger number of advocates. In 1892 the demand 
for action was so great that the legislature gave it particular attention, 
and its committees gave a number of public hearings which were largely 
attended by people from every section of the State, all agreeing that 
the State should lend its aid and assistance toward the construction 
and maintenance of certain highways. The legislature fully appre- 
ciated the force of the arguments and, realizing the great scope of the 
subject, enacted a law providing for the appointment of a commission 
of three to inquire into the entire subject and report to the legislature 
of 1893, and granted a liberal appropriation for the purpose. 

505 


506 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The commission thus created immediately commenced work, and at 
the outset could obtain but little data from any published reports as to 
methods and cost of construction and maintenance of roads. It at 
once entered upon a comprehensive plan to obtain the desired informa- 
tion by public hearings, communications with the different town officials, 
and personal investigation by traveling over hundreds of miles of ° 
country roads. In its report made to the legislature in 1893 the com- 
mission showed the importance and necessity of legislation providing 
for a more uniform system of road construction and maintenance under 
scientific supervision. From the many public hearings given by the 
commission and the replies to interrogatories sent to public officials, it 
became evident to the commission that the existing system was defect- 
ive; that the ways were in a generally bad condition, and that the 
towns were unable to cope with the problem; that there was need for the 
State to undertake the construction and maintenance of a comprehen- 
Sive system of State highways. It should be stated in this connection 
that outside of the cities there are a little more than 20,000 miles of 
roads in Massachusetts. It is estimated that from 10 to 15 per cent of 
this number are roads directly connecting the towns and large centers 
and such as might reasonably be asked to be made State highways. 
Fully 50 per cent of the annual appropriation for highways is expended 
for the maintenance of these intertown roads. By relieving the towns 
of the burden of maintaining such roads, it can readily be seen that 
they can use their appropriation for the improvement of their own 
ways. 


SOME PROVISIONS OF THE ROAD LAW. 


After careful consideration of the commission’s report the legislature 
of 1893 enacted a statute which, with the amendment made by.the legis- 
lature of 1894,is the law of Massachusetts to-day. It provides for the 
appointment of three competent persons to serve as the Massachusetts 
highway commission. Their terms of office shall be so arranged and 
designated at the time of their appointment that the term of one mem- 
ber shall expire in three years, one in two years, and one In one year. 
The full term of office thereafter shall be for three years. 

The duty and power of the commission are defined, but among those 
of importance and value may be mentioned the following: 

They may be consulted at all reasonable times, without charge, by officers of 
counties, cities, or towns having the care of and authority over public roads, and 
shall without charge advise them relative to the construction, repair, alteration or 
maintenance of the same; but advice given by them to any such officers shall not 
impair the legal duties and obligations of any city or town. They shall each year 
hold at least one public meeting in each county for the open discussion of questions 
relating to the public roads, due notice of which shall be given in the press or other- 
wise. They shall each year make a report to the legislature. 

County commissioners and city and town officers having the care of and authority 
over public roads and bridges throughout the Commonwealth shall, on request, fur- 


STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 5OT 


nish the commissioners any information required by them concerning the roads and 
bridges within their jurisdiction. 


The law also contemplates the building of State highways and pro- 
vides that— 


Whenever the county commissioners of a county, or the mayor and aldermen of a 
city, or the selectmen of a town, adjudge that the public necessity and convenience 
require that the Commonwealth take charge of anew or existing road as a highway, 
in whole or in part in that county, city, or town, they may apply by a petition in 
writing to the Massachusetts highway commission, stating the road they recom- 
mend, together with a plan and profile of the same. Said highway commission 
shall consider such petition and determine what the public necessity and conven- 
ience require in the premises, and, if they decide that the highway should be laid 
out or be taken charge of by the Commonwealth, shall file a plan thereof in the 
office of the county commissioners of the county in which the petitioners reside, 
with the petition therefor and a certificate that they have laid out and taken 
charge of said highway in accordance with said plans, and shall file a copy of the 
plan and location of the portion lying in each city or town with the clerk of said 
city or town; and said highway shall, after the filing of said plans, be laid out as a 
highway and shall be constructed and kept in good repair and condition as a high- 
way by the said commission, at the expense of the Commonwealth, and shall be 
known as a State road, and thereafter be maintained by the Commonwealth, under 
the supervision of said commission. And all openings and placing of structures in 
any such road shall be done in accordance with a permit from said commission. Said 
commission shall, when about to construct any highway, give to each city and town 
in which said highway lies a certified copy of the plars and specifications for said 
highway, with a notice that said commission is ready for the construction of said 
road. Such city or town shall have the right, without advertisement, to contract 
with said commission for the construction of so much of such highway as lies within 
its limits, in accordance with the plans and specifications, and under the supervision 
and subject to its approval, at a price to be agreed upon by said commission and 
said city or town. If said city or town shall not elect to so contract within thirty 
days, said commission shall advertise in two or more papers published in the county 
where the road or a portion of it is situated, and in three or more daily papers pub- 
lished in Boston, for bids for the construction of said highway under their super- 
vision and subject to their approval, in accordance with plans and specifications to 
be furnished by said commission, Such advertisement shall state the time and place 
for opening the proposals in answer to said advertisements, and reserve the right to 
reject any and all proposals. All such proposals shall be sealed and shall be kept by 
the board, and shall be open to public inspection after said proposals have been 
accepted or rejected. Said commission may reject any or all bids, or if a bid is sat- 
isfactory they shall, with the approval of the governor and council, make a contract 
in writing on behalf of the Commonwealth for said construction, and shall require 
of the contractor a bond for at least 25 per cent of the contract price to indemnify any 
city or town in which such highway lies against damage while such road is being 
constructed; and the Commonwealth shall not be liable for any damage occasioned 
thereby. All construction of State roads shall be fairly apportioned by said com- 
mission among the different counties, and not more than 10 miles of State road shall 
be constructed in any one county in any one year, on petition as aforesaid, without 
the previous approval thereof in writing by the governor and council. 

For the maintenance of State highways, said commission shall contract with the 
city or town in which such State highway lies, or a person, firm, or corporation, for 
the keeping in repair and maintaining of such highway, in accordance with the rules 
and regulations of said commission, and subject to their supervision and approval, 
and such contracts may be made without previous advertisement. 


508 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Upon the completion of the road one-quarter of the money expended is to be repaid 
by the county in which the way petitioned for lies, so that in the first instance the 
State pays for the entire expense, and collects of the county 25 per cent of the cost. 
In this way the towns and cities do not pay anything except the cost for the original 
survey and the plan and profile which must accompany the petition. 

Said commission shall keep all State roads reasonably clear of brush, and shall 
cause suitable shade trees to be set out along said highways when feasible, and shall 
renew the same when necessary, and may also establish and maintain watering 
troughs at suitable places along said highways. 

No length of possession or occupancy of land within the limit of any State high- 
way, by an owner or occupier of adjoining land, shall create a right to such land in 
any adjoining owner or occupant or a person claiming under him, and any fences, 
buildings, sheds, or other obstructions encroaching upon such State highway shall, 
upon written notice by said commission, at once be removed by the owner or occu- 
pier of adjoining land, and if not so removed said commission may cause the same to 
be done and may remove the same upon the adjoining land of such owner or occupier. 

Cities and towns shall have police jurisdiction over all State highways, and they 
shall at once notify in writing the State commission or its employees of any defect 
or want of repair in such highways. No State highway shall be dug up for the lay- 
ing or placing of pipes, sewers, posts, wires, railways, or other purposes, and no 
trees shall be planted or removed, or obstruction placed thereon, except by the 
written consent of the superintendent of streets or road commissioners of a city or 
town, approved by the highway commission, and then only in accordance with the 
rules and regulations of said commission. 

Said commission shall give suitable names to the State highways, and they shall 
have the right to change the name of any road that shall have become a part of a 
State highway. They shall cause to be erected at convenient points along State 
highways suitable guideposts. 


It will be seen that the commission can not lay out State highways 
unless petitioned for. The amended statute took effect June 20, 1894, 
and $300,000 were appropriated. 

The commission notified all county, city, and town authorities that, 
owing to the lateness of the season, action could be expected this year 
only on such petitions as should be received by the 1st day of August. 
So great was the interest that eighty-five petitions were received up 
to that date. 


THE APPORTIONMENT OF ROADS. 


The statute requires that the commission shall fairly apportion all 
construction of State roads among the fourteen counties. The commis- 
sion apportioned the appropriation so that each county should receive 
nearly an equal share. It was thought wise to distribute the work so 
that sections could be constructed in as many places as possible, in order 
that the people could see what they might expect to be the policy and 
methods employed by the State, and that such roads would be object 
lessons. Under the law the municipalities in which a section of road 
to be constructed lies have the right, without previous advertisement 
and without bond, to contract directly with the commission for the build- 
ing of the same. The reasons for this are that the money expended 
shall go directly among the townspeople, and that the officials and work- 


STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 5O9 


men may have experience in such work. It also creates an interest 
among the people for better and more systematic work and method on 
local roads. 

Of the eighty-five petitions the commission has acted favorably upon 
thirty-seven, and have contracted for that number of pieces averaging 
1 mile each. These pieces in each case form a link in a through road, 
and in all probability will be extended. In this way it will take but a 
few years to complete asystem of Stateroads. It can fairly be assumed 
that every town in the State will petition, and in a few years a State 
road will have been completed or commenced in every town. It is the 
aim of the commission that State highways shall be intertown roads 
leading to the large centers. 


MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS OF THE LAW. 


The commission furnishes blank petitions, together with all necessary 
information. The law requires that each petition shall be accom- 
panied by a plan and profile, the expense of which shall be borne by 
the petitioners. The commission requires that all plans and profiles 
shall be of a uniform scale, 40 feet to the inch horizontal, and 8 feet to 
the inch perpendicular, samples of which and all necessary instructions 
are given. The State then causes cross sections of the road to be made, 
thus enabling a thorough study of the grades. 

Although the selectmen of a town, or the mayor and aldermen of a 
city, can, under the statute, petition for a State road, it requires the 
vote of a town meeting or the city council to authorize the selectmen 
or mayor to contract, so that in every case where the towns or cities 
have contracted authority has been voted the officials. This shows 
that the people are in sympathy with the work. 

As might be expected, the town officials at first were somewhat fear- 
ful of the risk to be assumed in entering upon such a contract, as, from 
lack of experience and knowledge, they might not be able to comply 
with the terms of the contract, as well as the liability of causing a loss 
to the town. But after thorough explanation, and their implicit confi- 
dence in the commission, and the fact that a resident engineer repre- 
senting the State was to be always on the ground to direct and explain, 
these thirty-seven municipalities have contracted and entered upon the 
work with excellent results. 

The contracts are based on the unit plan, i. e., so much per ton for 
stone, so much per cubic yard for earth and rock excavation and for 
surface grading, so much per linear foot for drains, fencing, and pipe, 
so much per cubic yard for rubble masonry, so much per square yard 
for telford, ete. | 

From the faet that the work was begun so late in the season only five 
sections have been completed, the remainder being in various stages of 
construction, and will be completed in the spring. 


510 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


All work is done according to specifications and plans furnished by 
the commission, the engineer in chief having charge of all the work. 
In each case a resident engineer or inspector is provided, who is con- 
stantly on hand to direct the work. He makes daily and weekly returns 
of ali work done and all material used. The town has full charge of 
the labor and teams, and all contracts for the same are made in the 
name of the town. In this way the work is progressing admirably, and 
the road officials of the town are being taught how to build roads in 
a Scientific manner. The towns are paid for all work and materials 
used up to the 15th of each month. | 


METHODS OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION. 


With one exception, broken stone has been used on all the roads. 
Each road is carefully examined with reference to its natural soil— 
whether clay, loam, sand, or gravel. Where the soil is clayey or heavy 
the commission has used telford. The method of constructing this tel- 
ford is to first shape the subgrade to nearly correspond to the surface 
of the proposed finished roadway, and to roll this either with a steam 
or horse roller until it ceases to yield beneath the roller; to put ina 
drain on both sides if necessary, connecting the drain with some culvert, 
water course, or main drain. The drain is made by first excavating a 
trench to the depth of 24 feet below the center of this subgrade, the 
bottom of the trench being about 1 foot in width and the top from 14 
to 16 inches wide. From 2 to 3 inches of gravel or broken stone are 
placed in the bottom of the trench, and on this is laid a 5 or 6 inch vit- 
rified clay pipe with open bell joints; then on this pipe gravel from 
one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch in size, or broken stone, is filled 
to the depth cf about a foot; over this is filled coarser gravel or broken 
stone; the road surface is then covered with about 4 inches of gravel, 
and on this the telford is carefully laid by hand to the depth of about 
8 inches, covering as far as possible the whole surface of the ground, 
the spaces being filled in with wedge-shaped stones, driven down- 
ward, the whole making a solid pavement. This telford foundation is 
then rolled with a steam roller until it ceases to settle; upon this is 
placed broken stone from 14 to 24 inches in size and thoroughly rolled 
with a steam roller so that when compressed it will be 4 inches thick. 
On top of this is placed another layer of stone ranging from one-half 
to 14 inches in size, which is thoroughly rolled by a steam roller to a 
thickness of 2 inches. No water is used upon these two courses. On 
this last layer of stone, from one-half inch to an inch of the finer stone 
and dust from the crusher is spread. This is wet and rolled, and con- 
stitutes the binder. 

The method and process of building the macadamized roads are the 
same as employed on the telford foundation. The commission has found 
that upon loose, sandy soils much stone is wasted by being driven down 


STATE HIGHWAYS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 511 


into the sand; in such cases gravel, when accessible, has been placed 
upon the sand to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, and on this is laid the stone. 
By so doing the cost of the work is greatly reduced. In one instance 
on Marthas Vineyard, where the sand is very loose, cheap cotton cloth 
has been spread, upon this the stone is laid, and itis found that the sand 
does not work up through the stone, and much less stone is required. 
Layers of tarred paper were tried, but without success, as the stones 
‘ were pressed through the same. 

- Outside of the villages the width of the hardened way is made 15 
feet, with from 24 to 3 feet of gravel on either side. The crown on sub- 
stantially level roads is made one-half inch to the foot, but on grades 
it is made greater. The thickness of the broken stone is in most cases 
6 inches in the middle and 4 inches on the sides. In all cases a steam 
roller is required. On grades where considerable surface water is likely 
to flow, cobblestone gutters are laid on the sides. The commission has 
not established any fixed grades, but so far the maximum has been 5 
feet in the hundred. 

In some of the roads petitioned for there are street railway tracks, 
In each instance the commission, before it would lay out a road as a 
State highway, has insisted aah the municipal authorities cause the 
tracks to be located according to the plans of the commission. 

Whenever the lines of the road as proposed by the commission have 
interfered with or cut off adjoining land, the towns have procured 
releases signed by the owners, relieving the State of any claim for land 
or grade damage. 

At all angles in the road are placed stone monuments 6 feet long, 6 
inches square on top, and dressed 12 inches from the top. On one side 
is cut the letters ““M. H. B.,” standing for ‘Massachusetts Highway 
Bound.” The monuments Be set 5 feet under ground. 


PROPERTY RIGHTS, ETC. 


When the road is completed and accepted, it is a State highway, and 
the State assumes the maintenance of it ever after. This is one of the 
greatest advantages gained to the towns, as by this relief their annual 
appropriation can be used for permanent improvements upon other _ 
roads. One of the results of the work by the commission is that towns 
are looking more to permanent work, and in some cases it has been voted 
in town meeting that a portion of the appropriation shall be set aside 
for such purpose. 

At the beginning of the work by the State there were but few towns 
owning stone crushers and steam rollers. There were several large 
crushing plants in the State owned by private parties. Stone could be 
obtained from these and delivered on cars to points on railroads at an 
average price of $1.40 per ton. This was for stone delivered in proper 
sizes. But when the road to be constructed was a considerable dis- 
tance from the cars, the cost of hauling brought the price so high that 


512 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - 


it became necessary to devise some other means. Therefore arrange- 
ments have been made with parties owning crushing plants to set up 
a crusher, elevator, screens, and bins, and break the stone at from 30. 
to 40 cents per ton. The agents of the several crusher machines have 
entered into this, so that no difficulty is now had. In many instances 
the town has purchased a plant and breaks the stone. The town 
delivers the stone in sizes suitable for the crusher. 

When a town does not own a steam roller, arrangements have been ° 
made with private parties and agents to let one to the town, the town 
paying for the use either by the day or per ton of stone rolled. As in 
case of stone crushers, many towns are buying rollers. 

The commission, as called upon by the law, has given a series of hear- 
ings in the counties. ‘These have been largely attended by people com- 
ing to seek information as to road building and maintenance. There has 
been great interest shown in the work of the commission and enthu- 
Siasm expressed for the continuation of the State roads. 

Surveys are being made by many towns, and by spring no doubt many 
more petitions will be received. It is believed that a substantial sum 
will be appropriated for 1895, and the work begun continued. 


IMPROVEMENT OF PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA. 


By Prof. J. A. HOLMEs, 
State Geologist and Secretary of the North Carolina Road Improvement Association. 


HISTORICAL SKETCH. 


Early in the present century the State of North Carolina devoted 
a considerable share of attention to the subject of internal improve- 
ments, first with regard to increasing the facilities for navigation on all 
of the principal rivers, and then the construction of public roads from 
the head of navigation on each important river into the interior of the 
State. In 1819, and at intervals for more than a quarter of a century 
thereafter, the State board of interral improvements, as authorized 
by the general assembly, cooperated with the local authorities, on a 
small scale, in having roads surveyed and constructed through the 
more sparsely settled counties in the interior and western portions of 
the State. 

In 1823 the engineer of the board, Hamilton Fulton, recommended 
the adoption by the State of the following general system: In building 
public roads, the roads were to be divided into three general classes: 
(1) A few leading roads, to be designated State roads; (2) those of 
lesser importance, to be known as county roads; and (3) private roads, 
or those of only local importance. The roads of the first class were 
to be constructed from a fund of which the State should contribute 
one-half the expense, and the counties through which the roads pass 
contributing their respective halves of the expense; the roads, once 
constructed, were to be kept in repair by the several counties traversed 
‘ by them. The roads of the second class were to be both made and 
kept in repair by the counties, while those of the third class were to be 
made and kept in repair by the private individuals who were more 
specially benefited by the same or through whose. lands the roads 
passed. Unfortunately, however, this plan was never adopted by the 
State, although in a number of cases the State did cooperate in the 
construction of public roads, and in 1850 to 1860 it cooperated in the 
construction of several plank roads in the middle and eastern counties. 

It was about this time that the interest in railroad construction 
greatly increased in North Carolina, and for several decades thereafter 
the plans for public improvements turned in this and other directions, 
to the complete neglect of the public roads, and there was a growing 
belief among the people that the railroads, in a large measure, did 


away with the need for other public highways. 
| 513 


514 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The modern movement for better public roads in North Carolina may 
be said to have begun in 1879 with the passage by the general assembly 
of the Mecklenburg road law. This was intended as a general or State 
law, but at the time was applied only in Mecklenburg County. It pro- 
vided for the working of public roads partly by taxation and partly 
by the old labor system; the tax revenue to range from 7 to 20 cents on 
the $100 worth of property (at the discretion of the township authorities), 
and a labor assessment of four days on all ablebodied citizens between 
the ages of 18 and 45 living along these roads. The general manage- 
ment of the work was placed in the hands of the township authorities. 

As illustrating the condition of public opinion on the subject at this 
time, it may be said that immediately after the enactment of this law 
the opposition to it in Mecklenburg, one of the most wealthy and pro- 
gressive counties of the State, was so pronounced, and the demand for 
the repeal of the law so general, that it was repealed by the general 
assembly in 1881, This dissatisfaction was doubtless due in part to the 
’ fact that the work done was not altogether satisfactory, and was not car- 
ried far enough to demonstrate the benefit it would ultimately be to the 
public; butit was probably due still more largely to the general opposi- 
tion in the State to any form of taxation for road improvement. The 
law had been searcely repealed, however, before a reaction set in in its 
favor so strong among the intelligent people of the county that 1t was 
reenacted by the legislature of 1883. Krom that time to the present the 
extent and efficiency of the work has increased, the popularity of the 
new system has grown, until at the present date practically all opposi- 
tion to the work has disappeared, and the only complaints now heard 
are to the effect that the good roads are not being extended to the outer 
limits of the county with sufficient rapidity. 

For several years following the inauguration of the Mecklenburg 
road system the movement for better roads attracted but little interest 
in other portions of the State; and it was not until 1887 and 1889 that 
any decided movement was made among other counties. At this latter 
date new road laws were adopted by the general assembly for Ala- 
mance, Cabarrus, Forsyth, and Iredell counties, and for Raleigh Town- 
ship, in Wake County. In 1891 several additional counties were added 
to the list, and since the session of the general assembly of 1893 a.still 
larger number have started the improved road work, including Bun- 
combe, Cherokee, Henderson, Macon, Mitchell, Rowan, Chatham, Hdge- 
combe, Wayne, Lenoir, New Hanover, Onslow, and Robeson. 

The laws adopted for these several counties vary considerably in their 
details. In nearly every case they retain in part the requirement that 
able-bodied citizens shall be liable for labor on the public roads for a 
limited number of days, and with this they combine provision for a 
varying rate of taxation for road purposes. In a few of the counties 
the money necessary for the new road work is paid out of the general 
county fund. In a few cases, especially in Edgecombe, the old labor 


PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA. 515 


system has been abolished entirely, and the roads are being worked 
by taxation alone. In nearly all of these counties convict labor is 
employed in the road-improvement work, and in the majority of cases 
a limited amount of improved machinery and implements has been 
purchased by the counties and is being used in the work. The con- 
struction of stone roads has been undertaken in Mecklenburg, Wake, 
Alamance, Cabarrus, and to a lesser extent in Rowan and Durham 
counties. Buncombe County has just purchased a complete outfit of 
machinery, and is now beginning to macadamize. The work in other 
counties has thus far been limited to the improvement of earth roads 
by grading, draining, and in some cases changing the location of the 
old roads. 

In February, 1893, alargely attended and enthusiastic road congress 
was held at Raleigh, during the session of the general assembly. In 
October following, another road meeting was held in Raleigh, during 
the State fair, and the North Carolina Road Improvement Association 
was organized. During the summer of 1894, under the auspices of this 
association, road conferences had been held at the State University 
(Chapel Hill), Raleigh, and Charlotte, and an enthusiastic road meet- 
ing was also held in Asheville in July of this year. The question of 
better public roads is now being agitated in every portion of the State, 
and itis probable that in the near future the plans for road improve- 
ment will be adopted in a number of additional counties. 


ROAD IMPROVEMENT IN THE SEVERAL COUNTIES. 


In Mecklenburg County the work has now been in progress for eleven 
years. During this time 32 miles of roads have been graded and drained, 
and 30 miles have been macadamized. The general plan adopted, and 
which has been adhered to, was to start at the city limits of the county 
seat and to grade and macadamize all of the important public roads 
from this point out toward the township and the county limits. These 
roads have a width of 40 feet for the first 2 miles from the city limits, 
and beyond this point a width of 36 feet. They have a maximum grade 
of 4 feet in 100. For cross drains sewer pipes are used in all cases 
where practicable, and strong wooden bridges with stone piers have 
been put in wherever needed. 

In attaining the above grade in places where it was impracticable to 
change the location of the road, cuts through the hills have been made 
to a depth in places of from 10 to 15 feet, and fills have been made 
which in places have a height above the ordinary ground surface of 
from 10 to 20 feet for a distance of a few hundred yards to half a mile. 

In macadamizing, the following general plan has been adopted: Upon 
the graded and settled earth surface, a macadam road, 12 feet wide and 
about 9 inches thick, is constructed, usually in the center, though in 
places on one side of the road. An excavation from 4 to 6 inches deep 
is nade in the earth’s surface, and the bottom is then carefully rolled 


516 YEARBOOK OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


with a steam roller. Upon this excavated surface is placed a layer of 
field stone about 4 inches thick, and this is then thoroughly rolled. 
Upon this surface is placed a 3-inch layer of stone crushed to from 1 to 
2 inches in size; and after this has been thoroughly rolled there is 
placed a third layer, about 2 inches thick, of finely crushed stone, 
including screenings, and this latter is in turn thoroughly rolled. The 
average cost of these roads, including the macadamizing and grading, 
is about $2,000 per mile. The general appearance of the roads is shown 
by the accompanying plate (No. V1) which gives an idea of the loads 
hauled over these roads; one wagon with 12 bales of cotton (6,000 
pounds), and three wagons, each with a cord of wood. Much the 
larger part of the work for the permanent improvement of the roads 
in this county is done by convict labor. The average number of con. 
victs employed is about eighty, and the average cost of this labor per 
convict, including their food, clothes, medical attention, and guarding, 
is from 20 to 22 cents per day. In charge of the work is one superin- 
tendent and one engineer (during a part of the time) and six guards. 
Usually the convicts have worked in one squad; at the present time 
they are divided into two squads. The rate of taxation in the county 
at the present time is 18 cents on the $100 worth of property, and the 
entire amount raised in this way for the support of the convict force in 
road-improvement work during the past year was about $18,000. In 
addition to this, each township levies a tax varying from 7 to 15 cents 
on each $100 worth of property. 

The Mecklenburg law, as stated above, requires all able-bodied citi- 
zens along the public roads either to labor four days of each year on 
the public roads or to pay the sum of 50 cents per day in lieu thereof. 
This class of labor is used upon the roads independent of the convict 
force, and principally in the work of grading or in the general repairs 
of those roads or portions of them upon which the convict force is not 
engaged. | 

In Wake County Raleigh Township has been working its roads by 
taxation and labor during the past four years. It has purchased a 
steam-roller, road machine, crusher, spreading carts, and a complete list 
of smaller implements for road work. The tax rate for road purposes 
is now 62 cents on the $100 worth of property, and the total amount 
thus raised for the past year was $4,600. The number of convicts. 
employed on an average during the present season is fifty-seven, and 
the average cost per convict per day, including food, clothes, medical 
attendance, and guarding, is 20$ cents. All the county prisoners whose 
terms are less than ten years can be used in this work. Convicts do 
every kind of work except the most difficult part of the bridge con- 
struction. Twenty miles of road have been graded and 12 miles have 
been macadamized, the work having been divided between the princi- 
pal roads in the township, starting from Raleigh. By special arrange- 
ment with the county authorities, the work has been extended for 1 to 
14 miles beyond the township boundary on three of the principal roads. 


Yearbook U.S De 


partment of Agriculture, 1894. 


SECTION OF MACADAMIZED ROAD NEAR CAMDEN, N. C., 


SHOWING SIZE OF LOADS HAULED OVER IT. 


PLATE VI 


— Oe 


PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA. 517 


The new roads have a total width of 45 feet, including ditches, and 
are reduced to a grade of 1 foot in 30. Of this total width 24 to 26 
feet have been macadamized, leaving on one side a 12-foot earth drive- 
way and 4 feet on each side of the road for water ways or ditches. 

In putting down the macadam the foundation is carefully drained in 
wet places and a telford foundation is there used. In more favorable 
locations a sand foundation is used; where the road surface is sandy 
or a hardpan, the bottom layer of macadam is laid directly on that. 
This foundation, of whatever kind, is carefully rolled, the bottom layer 
of macadam (4 inches thick on the telford foundation, or 6 inches 
thick on the sand) of broken stone which will pass through a 4-inch 
ring. This layer is carefully rolled with a 15-ton steam roller, and upon 
it is then spread a 4-inch layer of broken stone that will pass through 
a 2-inch ring. This is well rolled with the steam roller, and is then 
covered with 1 inch to 14 inches of crushed stone, including screenings 
and fragments less than 1 inch in diameter. This surface material is 
spread and rolled with a 24-ton horse roller. The rock used is a biotite 
granite, rather soft for the best results. The cost of these roads, 
including both the grading and macadamizing, is reported as ranging 
from $1,500 to $1,700 per mile. 

In Alamance, Cabarrus, and Rowan counties a limited amount of 
macadamizing has been done, and many miles of earth roads have been 
greatly improved by grading and draining. These counties use their 
convicts in working their important roads. Cabarrus employs about 
twenty convicts, at a cost of 42 to 45 cents per day each, while Ala- 
mance uses about the same number, at about an average cost of 22 
cents per day. In the latter a county tax is levied, and able-bodied cit- 
izens are still liable under the law to work on the public roads, as here- 
tofore. In the former, nine out of the twelve townships levy a tax of 94 
cents on $100 worth of property and 294 cents on the poll. 

Buncombe County, out of its general tax fund, maintained an aver- 
age force of about sixty convicts at work on its more important public 
roads during 1893 and 1894, at an average cost of about 35 cents per 
convict per day. For general road work the old system still prevails. 
Many miles of earth roads have been regraded and drained, and in 
places relocated. A complete outfit for macadamizing work has re- 
cently been purchased, and this latter work will begin at once. As 
illustrating the intelligent interest in the subject of road improvements 
in this county, it may be stated that the county authorities recently 
sent a committee of six representative citizens on a tour of examina- 
tion of the most important roads in New Jersey and New York, in order 
that such a committee might be able to examine carefully the road sys- 
tem adopted in those States and advise the authorities as to the best 
plans to be adopted for the work in their own county. At an early 
date it is expected that the county will vote upon a proposition to issue 
a quarter of a million dollars’ worth of bonds to be used in the con- 
struction of stone roads. | 


518 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


In the other counties mentioned above no macadamizing work has as 
yet been undertaken, though in several of those counties the question 
is now being agitated, and in the near future they will doubtless begin 
to construct such stone roads. Inallof them the earth roads have been 
improved, to a greater or less extent, by grading, drainage, and changes 
in the location of these roads. These improvements are increasing the 
popularity of the movement, and are thus paving the way for larger 
expenditures, which will be necessary in the construction of the stone 
roads. One of the most encouraging features of the movement has 
been its growth in several of the eastern counties during the past few 
years. 

Several years ago the strongest opposition to the movement came 
from these eastern counties, where the surface of the country is com- 
paratively level, and where the stone for macadamizing purposes is 
either exceedingly scarce or entirely absent; but during 1803 and the 
present year Wayne, Lenoir, Edgecombe, and New Hanover counties 
have adopted plans for improving their earth roads and have pushed 
the work forward with vigor and success, accomplishing results of 
decided benefit and at a small expenditure of money. This has not 
only brought the movement into favor in these counties, but has 
resulted in arousing considerable interest in the subject in a number 
of adjoining counties. 

In New Hanover County a tax of 4 cents on $100 worth of property 
has been levied, which yields about $3,000 per annum. By the expend- 
iture of this small sum a limited amount of grading and draining 
has been accomplished, and the sandy road surface has been improved 
by the admixture of clay, and, no doubt, in the near future these road 
surfaces will be still further improved by being covered either with 
crushed stone or with oyster shells from the adjoining sounds. A few 
years ago a Shell road was constructed in this county for a distance of 
8 miles (from Wilmington to Wrightsville), which since that time has 
been maintained in excellent condition by the employment of one man, 
who, with a cart and horse, drops small quantities of oyster shells at 
such points on the road as show indications of wear. This road now 
serves as an object lesson in showing the ease with which an excellent 
road can be constructed in this region and the small expenditure neces- 
sary for keeping it in repair. It extends through a level region, 
sandy and marshy at intervals. Ditches about 20 feet apart were dug 
on both sides, 2 to 4 feet deep, for the purpose of draining, and the soil 
removed from these ditches was thrown into the center thus elevat- 
ing the roadbed. In the center of this roadbed a space 12 to 14 feet 
wide was covered to a depth of 6 inches with oyster shells. The travel 
soon ground the uppermost shells to powder, and the whole mass was 
packed and cemented, thus giving a hard, smooth surface. The attract- 
iveness of the driveway has been increased by planting trees on both 
sides. The accompanying plate (No. VII) shows the appearance of the 
road and illustrates the wisdom in these sandy regions of having trees, 


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‘IA 3LV1d 


PUBLIC ROADS IN NORTH CAROLINA. 519 


and especially pines, grow close by the roadside. The leaves from the 
trees cover the sandy surface and enable vehicles to pass over these 
surfaces without cutting through into the sand. 

In LHdgecombe County, as is the case also in New Hanover, no con- 
victs are at present employed on the public roads, but it is expected 
that they will be so employed in both counties at an early date. A 
tax of 15 cents on $100 worth of property and 45 cents on the poll 
is assessed for road purposes, yielding a revenue which at present 
amounts to $7,600. Machinery is used, including a road machine, 
scrapers, plows, and a horse roller; ordinary labor is employed at a 
cost of about 65 cents per day. The policy adopted in this county has 
been to first improve the particularly bad places in the roads in differ- 
ent parts of the county, and in this way, although some slight loss of 
time has resulted from this moving of the outfit from place to place at 
short intervals, the result has been to give general satisfaction with 
the work in many parts of the county, because the beneficial effects of 
the work became apparent at once in as many places. 

In Wayne and Lenoir counties the plan of improving the more 
important earth roads is somewhat similar to that in Edgecombe, but 
the tax fund is smaller in both, and convict labor is used. The truck- 
ing industry in these latter counties is one growing in importance, and 
this has greatly increased the demand for a road surface over which 
large loads can be hauled at a rapid rate without serious jolting. 
This demand wiil doubtless prove a great stimulus in the permanent 
improvement of public roads and will ultimately result in their being 
macadamized, although the material for the purpose will have to be 
brought from adjoining counties. At Newbern, in Craven County, so 
great has been the demand for better roads that recently a consid- 
erable sum was subscribed by private individuals for macadamizing a 
road leading from the town through one of the important trucking 
districts, and this road, in the building of which the county cooper- 
ated with private individuals, is now being constructed. <A beautiful 
and serviceable macadam road was built a few years since from the 
town to the Federal cemetery by the United States Government, the 
stone used being a shell limestone. 

In Guilford County the two townships which join at the county seat 
(Greensboro) have voted a small tax for the improvement of the earth 
roads, and have pushed this work slowly along during the past two 
years. In one a road machine has been used, and in the other the 
work has been done entirely with the pick and shovel. The notable 
feature in connection with the results in the two townships 1s the fact 
that in the township using the road machine the roads have not only 
been given better shape, but the wear of the roads has been more 
satisfactory. 

In Iredell County for the present year a tax of 10 cents on the $100 
worth of property and 16 cents on the poll has been levied, and a road 
fund of about $4,000 has been raised. During the latter part of the 


520 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


present year about thirty convicts have been used on the roads, and 
they have graded about 20 miles of road—a few miles on each—starting 
from the county seat. 

In Forsyth County, after improving the earth roads in the immediate 
vicinity of the county seat (Winston-Salem), the convicts, fifty to sixty 
in number, have been transferred to various parts of the county and 
have been employed in improving the worst places on the important 
public roads. The tax levy is 8 cents on $100 worth of property, and 
this yields a road fund of about $6,900, including $1,300 from the general 


tax fund. 
ROAD MATERIALS. 


In the central and western counties of the State there is usually an 
abundance of stone for use in macadamizing roads. The larger part 
of this stone is granitic in character, and some of this is rather soft 
for use in surfacing the road; but at intervals in all of these counties 
harder and tougher material can be found in the form of hornblende 
granite, diorite, trap, and other eruptive rocks, and where these occur 
along the lines of railroad they can be crushed and transported to the 
points where the macadam is needed, in many cases at a small cost. 
In the eastern counties good stone for macadam is scarce or entirely 
wanting; but in quite a number of these counties limestone or shell 
rock can be obtained at intervals, and the fact that they make a serv- 
iceable road has been demonstrated by the experiment at Newbern, 
where an excellent road to the Federal cemetery was built of shell rock 
from the Trent River, and on the streets of Goldsboro, in Wayne County, 
where a considerable amount of macadamizing was done some three 
years ago with shell rock from Castle Haynes, on the Atlantic Coast Line 
Railroad. In the latter case the shell rock was laid down in thickness 
only 3 to 4 inches. The surface was packed by the ordinary travel, 
and it has now withstood the constant wear of the vehicles on the main 
streets of Goldsboro during the past three years without the need of 
any repairs. 

In the counties bordering the coast excellent roads can be built and 
maintained by the use of oyster shells, as has been shown in the case 
of the shell road between Wilmington and Wrightsville, in New Hanover 
County. In quite a number of counties limited amounts of gravel can 
be obtained for use on the roads, but this is usually quite inferior in 
quality to the Glacial gravel which abounds in many of the Northern 
States. Along many of the streams, however, where crossed by public 
roads, a sufficient supply of gravel and coarse sand can often be found, 
which will very greatly improve the surface when spread over it, and 
again in the eastern counties, where the sand prevails at intervals, 
along the roadside can frequently be found deposits of clay which, | 
when mixed with sand, improve the road surface there considerably. 
In a few places gravel and sand deposits are found which have a suffi- 
cient amount of clay and oxide of iron intermixed to cement the mass 
into a hard surface. 


APPHNDIX. 


] A 94 ZL 


CONTENTS. 


Organization of the Department of Agriculture... 2.2... 2220+. ++ eee eeeneee- 
Agricultural institutions and experiment stations............-.---.---..-i--. 

List of institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture. .. 
The locations, directors, dates of organization and reorganization, and princi- 


pal lines of work of the ag ricultural experiment stationsin the United States. — 


Weather conditions of the cr op OF: 1094 oso. 2. oo eS eee ta er 
Directions for procedure in case of apparent death by lightning...-..-...-... 
Wholesale prices of principal agricultural products in leading cities of the 
Limited States i. so. SUS DS ie ee SS re bees He eee Seen wan cw eee tt ee 
Exports of the products of domestic agriculture for the y ears ending June 30, 
1890; 1891, 1992, Tas, and 1BO4 oo os he aia new eee 
Imports of agricultural products for the years sending June 30, "1890, 1891, 1892, 
1299, and 1694 205 65 see cess asin’ ce ba eee 
Farm prices on December 1, 1890, “1891, "1892, 1893, ‘and 1894... 0. 
Freight rates in effect J anuary it, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, in cents per 100 
POW 92 eat lsh Scopes «oie elaine wheels chee me teetmiela Sarnia iat ie = a 
Human foeds... ...- tee. 2+ -4-'- - ese ee ea eee =f ~ a 

Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, nutrients—and fuel 
Talue Per POUNG 2. omens cece neal wee tone > Saeko Rete 

Nutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices SEP Ss 

Prices used in estimating cost of daily dietaries......-.- : 

Daily dietaries—food materials furnishing approximately ‘the 0.28. pound 
of f protein and 3,500 calories of energy of the standard for daily dietary 
of a man at moderate muscular Work ......-.. 22. -2--s2eeee-eeeeee eee 

Standards for daily dietaries for people of different classes.....-....---.- 

European standards for daily dietaries........-. .- <0. 2c. eee aes 

American standards for daily dietaries --- 22-2. 2S So ee ee 

Feedine stuffs for animals... -..\.-2---). sce. se sa= aps sao es oor ee 
Composition of feeding stalis.....- seco. sk acs oc eee eke eee eee ee 
Digestibility of feeding stuite 220i. ha See. Lo. ae eee eee 

Meedin? StAndaTAs- ..- S25 ieee noice sem pints riage ele = Sm pe oie age oi eel 

Galenlation of rationa....00-.-0. -.022. cess the ce Pieces le oo 

Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products.........-...----- 

TANG i ide ews = em pines ee hie Sen in renal o> «amas ee ee 

Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals..........-- 

Methods of controlling injurious insects, with formulas for insecticides..._-- 

Insecticides (directions for their preparation and use)......-.--...-----.----- 
Paris creen and london purple-_..-- 5222-2 -- 2 eco == ne sa 


Pinson Wait oo. wed is eck.s bee oes Meese on 02 2 ck SR : 


TABU EDONG Sricein wie leone riniwiaicin = cic Ris eee. c aides ain. o.e,a=.n 0 e/a ain err 
PVYTOCMTOM ond oc cn doen ss esse es emarcss p20 creel Ens. ooo) 2 
ONDE. piensa ele ne ence Bebe eae ae eet RI wa oie ons -15 see ee 
Kerosene nGlMiOD 2. aioe cms ocee se se ee Sas es wa. ee ene oa ne ce ee 
The VESTN WABI fe coche otic Santee ee eee os acces vs lees cee een 
The hydrocyanic-acid gas treatment. .-: .-.........-.... teks «eee ee 
Bisulphide of carpon...- cscs ec <-> pan =A). - > - +) + = >= aie 
A cheap orchard-spraying Outi... .- 82-2 es eee ee ee ee 
Treatment for fungous diseases of plants.....-...--..---------.--++ -00-ss00=- 
Formulas for TURP CIG6S . 05:2 <a en sicles = — njeein cen a - oo ae » ons Shp a 


Grasses as sand and sail Dinders:. 5 S.ds ie cee ons oe cl Oke eee 42 


Table of one hundred WCU sc. awi cca, Seek < a0 eawic cits o's o's dpe ee Oe 
BMavrsere’ byl lati su acd ain es oto Ka! acts ad Woble pian. © niin Weil ww sere we cane ies a 


522 


APPENDIX. 


ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT Of AGRICULTURE. 
[Location, The Mall, between Twelfth and Fourteenth streets. ] 


SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, J. Sterling Morton. 


The Secretary of Agriculturo is charged with the supervision of all public business 
relating to the agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of 
the Department, with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the 
Weather Bureau, who are appointed by the President, and directs the management 
of all the divisions, offices, and bureaus embraced in the Department. He exercises 
advisory supervision over the agricultural experiment stations deriving support from 
the national Treasury, and has control of the quarantine stations for imported cat- 
tle, andof interstate quarantine rendered necessary by contagious cattle diseases. 


AssISTANT SECRETARY, Chas. W. Dabney, jr. 


The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be prescribed by the Secre- 
tary. To his office has been assigned the control and direction of the scientific 
policy and operations of the following divisions and offices: The Divisions of Botany, 
Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Agrostology, Pomology, Chemistry, Economic 
Ornithology and Mammalogy, Entomology, and Agricultural Soils; the Office of 
Experiment Stations, the Office of Irrigation Inquiry, and the Office of Fiber Inves- 
tigations; and the Department Museum. 


CHIEF CLERK, D. MacCuaig. 
LIBRARIAN, W.P. Cuiter. 


BUREAUS AND DIVISIONS. 


WEATHER BUREAU (corner Twenty-fourth and M streets NW.).—Chief, Mark W. 
Harrington; assigned as Assistant Chief, Maj. H. H. C. Dunwoody, U. 8. A.; Chief 
Clerk, James R. Cook; Professors of Meteorology, Cleveland Abbe, F. H. Bigelow, 
Henry A. Hazen, Charles I’. Marvin. 


The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; tho issue of storm 
warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agriculture, 
ecommerce, and navigation; the gauging and reporting of rivers; the maintenance 
and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of 
marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation; the reporting of 
temperature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and other interests; 
the display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of meteorological infor- 
mation in the interests of agriculture and commerce, and the taking of such 
meteorological observations as may be necessary to establish and record the cli- 
matic conditions of the United States, or as are essential for the proper execution of 
the foregoing duties. 


BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.—Chief, Dr. D. E. Salmon; Chief Clerk, P. L. Lyles. 


The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of con- 
tagious pleuropneumonia and other dangerous communicable diseases of live stock, 
superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original investigations as to 
the nature and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the condition and means 
of improving the animal industries of the country. It also has charge of the 
inspection of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels for the trans- 
portation of export cattle, and of the quarantine stations for imported neat cattle; 
supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and inspects live stock and their prod- 
ucts slaughtered for food consumption. The work of the Bureau is assigned to the 
following divisions: Division of Animal Pathology, Inspection Division, Division 
of Field Investigations and Miscellaneous Work, and Dairy Division; the last 
named division having been established while the present volume was in press. 


523 


524 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


DIVISION OF STATISTICS.—Statistician, Henry A. Robinson; Assistant Statistician, 
Henry Farquhar. 


The Division of Statistics collects information as to the condition, prospects, and 
harvests of the principal crops, and of the numbers and status of farm animals, 
through a corps of county correspondents and the aid of a supplementary organiza- 
tion under the direction of State agents, and obtains similar information from 
European countries monthly through the deputy consul-general at London, assisted 
by consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. It records, tabulates, and 
coordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution, and consumption, the 
authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards of trade, and individual 
experts; and writes, edits, and publishes a monthly bulletin for the use of editors 
and writers, and for the information of producers and consumers, and for their 
ee against combination and extortion in the handling of the products of 
agriculture. 


OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.—Director, A. C. True; Assistant Director, E. W. 
Allen. 


The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its relations to 
the experiment stations which are now in operation in all the States and Territories. 
It seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investigation through- 
out the United States. It collects and disseminates general information regarding 
the colleges and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations at 
home and abroad. It also indicates lines of inquiry, aids in the conduct of cooper- 
ative experiments, reports upon the expenditures and work of the stations, and in 
general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote the 
purposes for which they were established. It is also charged with investigations on 
the nutritive value and economy of human foods. 


DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.—Chief Chemist, Harvey W. Wiley; First Assistant Chemist, 
W.G. Brown. 


The Division of Chemistry makes investigations of the methods proposed for the 
analyses of soils, fertilizers, and agricultural products, and such analyses as pertain 
in general to the interests of agriculture. It can not undertake the analyses of 
samples of the above articles of a miscellaneous nature, but application for such 
analyses should be made to the directors of the agricultural experiment stations of 
the different States. The division does not make assays of ores nor analyses of min- 
erals except when related to general agricultural interests, nor analyses of water. 


DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.—Entomologist, L. O. Howard; First Assistant Entomolo- 
gist, C. L. Marlatt. 


The Division of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding 
insects injurious to vegetation; investigates insects sent to the division in order to 
give appropriate remedies; conducts investigations of this character in different 
parts of the country; and mounts and arranges specimens for illustrative and 
museum purposes. 


DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY.—Ornithologist, C. Hart Merriam; 
First Assistant Ornithologist, T. S. Palmer. 


The Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy studies the geographic distribution 
of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also inves- 
tigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for 
the preservation of beneficial and destruction of injurious species. 


DIVISION OF ForEsTRY.—Chief, B. E. Fernow; Assistant Chief, Charles A. Keffer. 


The Division of Forestry is occupied with experiments, investigations, and reports 
dealing with the subject of forestry, and with the dissemination of inforniation 
upon forestry matters. 


Division OF BotTany.—Botanist, Frederick V. Coville; First Assistant Botanist, 
J. N. Rose. 


The Division of Botany maintains the National Herbarium, publishes information 
on the treatment of weeds, experiments with poisonous and medicinal plants, tests 
seeds with a view to their increased purity and commercial value, and investigates 
other questions of economic botany. 


DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY.—Chief, B. T. Galloway ; 
First Assistant, Albert F. Woods. 


The Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology has for its object a study of 
the normal and abnormal life processes of plants. It seeks by investigations in the 
field and experiments in the laboratory to determine the causes of disease and the 
best means of preventing the same. It studies plant physiology in its bearing on 
pathology. 


ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 525 


DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY.—Chief, F. Lamson-Scribner; I’irst Assistant, Jared G. 
Smith. 


The Division of Agrostology is charged with the investigation of the natural his- 
tory, geographical distribution, and uses of grasses and forage plants, their adaptation 
to special soils and climates, the introduction of promising native and foreign kinds 
into cultivation, and the preparation of publications and correspondence relative to 
these plants. 


DIVISION or PomMoLoGyY.—Pomologist, Samuel B. Heiges; Assistant Pomologist, W. A. 

Taylor. 

The Division of Pomology collects and distributes information in regard to the 
fruit interests of the United States; investigates the habits and peculiar qualities 
of fruits, their adaptability to various soils and climates, and conditions of culture; 
and introduces new and untried fruits from foreign countries. 


DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL SoILs.—Chief, Milton Whitney. 


The Division of Agricultural Soils has for its object the investigation of the 
texture and other physical properties of soils and their relation to crop production. 


OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS.—Special Agent in Charge, Chas. Richards Dodge. 


The Office of Fiber Investigations collects and disseminates information regarding 
the cultivation of textile plants, directs experiments in the culture of new and hith- 
erto unused plants, and investigates the merits of new machines and processes for 
preparing them for manufacture. 


OFFICE OF IRRIGATION INQUIRY.—Chief, Charles W. Irish. 


The Office of Irrigation Inquiry collects and publishes inform ation regarding the 
best modes of agriculture by irrigation. 


OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY.—Special Agent in Charge, Roy Stone. 


The Office of Road Inquiry collects information concerning the systems of road 
management throughout the United States, conducts investigations regarding the 
best method of road making, and prepares publications on this subject. 


GARDENS AND GROUNDS.—AHorticulturist and Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, 
William Saunders. 


The Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds is charged with the care and orna- 
mentation of the park surrounding the Department buildings, and with the duties 
connected with the conservatories and gardens for testing and propagating economic 
plants. 


DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.—Chief, Geo. Wm. Hill; Assistant Chief, Joseph A. Arnold. 


The Division of Publications has entire supervision of the printing and publishing 
of the Department, and is especially charged with the preparation, publication, and 
distribution of farmers’ bulletins. It also has general supervision of the work of 
illustrations. The division issues advance notices and a monthly list of publications, 
and prepares for publication any information of special interest to agriculturists. 


DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSING OFFICE.— Chief, Frank L. Evans; Assistant 
Disbursing Officer (in charge of Weather Bureau disbursements), A. Zappone; 
Cashier, Everett D. Yerby. 


This office is charged with the adjustment of all claims against the Department; 
decides questions involving the expenditure of public funds; prepares contracts for 
annual supplies, leases, and agreements; issues requisitions for the purchase of sup- 
plies, requests for passenger and freight transportation, and attends to all business 
relating to the financial interests of the Department, including payments of every 
description. 


SEED DIVISION.—Chief, M. E. Fagan. 


The Seed Division collects new and valuable seeds for propagation in this country, 
and supplies them to Congressmen and others for distribution as required by law. 
Special Agent for the Purchase of Seed, Enos 8. Harnden. This officer is charged with 
the purchase of seeds, bulbs, vines, cuttings, plants, etc., distributed by the Depart- 


‘ment. 


DOCUMENT AND FOLDING Room.—Superintendent, Will H. Bane. 


This division has charge of the receipt, care, and mailing of the Department publi- 
cations. 


MuseuM.—Curator, James M. Watt. 
ENGINEER.—Chief, John A. Harvey. 


526 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 


List of institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture. 


| 
State. ame of institution. Locality. | President. 
Alabama .....:,--:- Agricultural and Mechanical College ...| Auburn ...... _ | W.L. Broun. 
Rrisots 005.2. H2 University Of Arizona. (2 oles. aes MESON fstecic also T. B. Comstock. 
Arkansas..-..--< Arkansas Industrial University......... Fayetteville ...... J. L. Buchanan. 
California ......- College of Agriculture of the University.| Berkeley..:..-.--. M. Kellogg. 
Colorado ......<.- The State Agricultural College......... Fort Collins ...... Alston Ellis. 
Connecticut ..... Storrs Agricultural College ............. Wansient.-. 5 co-e B. F. Koons. 
ae Scientific School ef Yale Uni- | New Haven......-. Timothy Dwight 
versity. ae -s | Se: 
Delaware .......- Wekigane LU a ie? pees Newark ....2-ces-c A.N. Raub. 
State College for Colored Students...--- Dower a5. ELS Wesley Webb. 
Biormia. .....s=---+ State Agricultural and Mech. College...| Lake City......... O. Clute. 
Florida State Normal School...........- Tallahassee ....... I. De 8. Tucker. 
Georgia.......... College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts.| Athens........... H.C. White. 
DARIN Se en nia College of Agriculture of the University .| Moscow ..----..... ¥F. B. Gault. 
SthimiGig Fs... College of Agriculture of the University.| Urbana........... T. J. Burrill. 
Indiana... .....-- School of Agriculture, Horticulture, and | LaFayette........ J. H, Smart. 
Veterinary Science of Purdue Uni- | 
versity. 
net See SL, College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts.| Ames........-...-- W. M. Beardshear. 
IGHHSAS 2 Socom = Kansas State Agricultural College.....-. Manhattan ...-.-. Geo. T. Fairchild. 
Kentucky -.2.2¢- Agricultural and Mechanical College...| Lexington -..-...... J. K. Patterson. 
State Normal School. ......-2------..---- Frankfort .......- J. H. Jackson. 
Louisiana -...... State University and Agricultural and | Baton Rouge....-- J. W. Nicholson. 
Mechanical College 
Southern University and Agricultural | New Orleans....-- H. A. Hill. 
and Mechanical College. 
NETO aso ate o atia ante | The Maine State College....-.......-..- Ofine.. 5850s A. W. Harris. 
Maryland ..=. 2... Maryland Agricultural College. ...... -=<| (College Park. .2.—. R. W. Silvester. 
Massachusetts...| Massachusetts Agricultural College..... Ambersat 7 << scc<s H. H. Goodell. 
Michigan ........ Michigan Agricultural College.......... ee Col- | L. G. Gorton. 
ege. 
Minnesota ......- College of Agriculture of the University - Minweapolis nomame Cyrus Northrop. 
Mississippi ...... Agricultural and Mechanical College...| Agricultural Col- | S. D. Lee. 
lege. 
Alcorn Agricultural and Mech. College. Woeainide is casasibeerg T. J. Calloway. 
Missouri......... College of Agriculture.and Mechanic | Columbia.......-. Richard EH. Jesse. 
| Arts of the University. 
‘Montana......... College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts-| Bozeman.........- James Reid. 
Nebraska......-. Industrial College of the University...| Lincoln........... J. H. Canfield. 
Bevees... 6 .5..2.. School of Agriculture of University..| Reno.............. J. E. Stubbs. 
New Hampshire-| College of Agriculture and the Me- | Durham.........- C.S. Murkland. 
chanic Arts. 
New Jersey...--- Rutgers Scientific School.............--. New Brunswick ..| Austin Scott. 
New Mexico..... College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts-| Mesilla Park...-... S. P. McCrea. 
New ork. ccs Corneil WWHiVenrsiby <5 ssc... 45- assent Tihataj.s<oss5=2- J.G.Schurman. 
North Carolina...| College of Agriculture and Mech. Arts -| Raleigh..-........ A. Q. Holladay. 
North Dakota:...| North Dakota Agricultural College..--. Pattee! oc l5is ei J: B. Power. 
\Ohjess2: pista i5- Ohio State University........-----.....- Columbus .......- W.H. Scott. 
‘Oklahoma. ......-. Agricultural and Mechanical College...| Stillwater......... E. D. Murdaugh. 
Oreson..... -. 228-- Oregon State Agricultural College..-.-. @Cervnlltis. .. 3252. 2: John M. Bloss. 
Pennsylvania....| Pennsylvania State College.........----.- State College...... George W.Atherton. 
Rhode Island ....| College of Agr’ture and Mechanic Arts-| Kingston ......... J.H. Washburn. 
South Carolina...; Clemson Agricultural College........--- Clemson College..| E. Bb. Craighead. 
; College of Agriculture and Mechanics’ | Orangeburg ...... L, M. Dunton. 
ate Institute of Claflin University. 
South Dakota....| South Dakota Agricultural College....-. Brookimes .....-... L. McLouth. 
‘Tennessee ......- State Agricult. and Mech. College ...-... Knoxville ......-- C. W. Dabney, jr. 
a are State Agricult. and Mechanical College.| College Station...| L. S. Ross. 
LO i Se eee Agricultural College of Utah............ Hogan -.4- 4. bcs Joshua H. Paul. 
Wermant.:.°....: State Agricultural College of the Uni- | Burlington ....... M. H. Buckham. 
versity. 
Aik Rertoalberdl and Mechanical College.-.| Blacksburg...---. J.M. McBryde. 
Normal and Agricultural Institute..... Hampton ........% H. B. Frissell. 
Washington -.... Agric, College and School of Seience.-..| Pullman ........-- ¥. A. Bryan. 
West Virginia...| West Virginia University.....-..-....-. Morgantown ..... P. B. Reynolds. 
The West Virginia Colored Institute. ...; Farm ............. J. H. Hill. 
Wisconsin....... College of Agric. of the University....| Madison .......... C. K. Adams. 


Wryoming........ College of Agric. of the University...} Laramie .........- A. A. Johnson. 


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528 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


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529 


WEATHER CONDITIONS, CROP OF 1894. 
WEATHER CONDITIONS OF THE CROP OF 1894. 


By H. H. C. DuNwoopy, 


Assistant Chief of Weather Bureau, in charge of Forecast Division. 


The 


hout the season. 


ures 138 and 139 show for selected stations how the temperature and rainfall 
1 conditions from week to week throug 


ared with norma 


Fig 
comp 


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Fic. 188,—Average daily departures from normal temperature and weekly departures from normal 


1894. 


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ation from April 9 to October 1 


precipit 


al weekly precipitation. 


normal, the light solid line the 
, and the dotted line the weekly 


heavy horizontal line in the diagrams represents 
average daily departure from normal temperature 
departure, in inches or fractions thereof, from the norm 


21* 


530 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Similar diagrams may be constructed for any Weather Bureau station. 

January was @ warn month, except in California, Arizona, and portions of Mow 
Mexico, and nearly normal temperature prevailed in the Northwest. Everywhere 
east of the Mississippi and over the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope the month 


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Fig. 139.—Average daily departures from normal temperature and weekly departures from normal 
precipitation from April 9 to October 1, 1894. 


averaged decidedly warmer than usual, the temperature excess amounting to 6° per 
day in the central valleys and lake regions, and to 9° per day in the West Gulf 
States. 

Except over a few areas of limited extent the precipitation of January was much 
below the average east of the Mississippi River, in the West Gulf States, and in 


“WEATHER CONDITIONS, CROP OF 1894, 531 


southern California; but in northern California and on the north Pacifie Coast, and 
‘thence eastward to the Dakotas, the precipitation was in excess of the January 
average. 

all averaged a cold month throughout the country, with the exception of 
southern Florida and along the immediate northwestern border from upper Michigan 
to western Montana, where it was slightly warmer than the average, The most 
marked deficiency in temperature occurred from the Central and Lower Mississippi 
Valley to the Pacific Coast, where, for the most part, the temperature averaged from 
6° to 9° per day below the normal. East of the Mississippi the deficiency was le$s 
marked and only exceeded 3° per day in New England and in the States adjacent to 
the Lower Mississippi. 

The precipitation of February was deficient in New England, southern Florida, 
the lake region, the Dakotas, Upper Mississippi Valley, West Gulf States, and gen- 
erally throughout the plateau region, while on the north Pacific Coast, over the 
central Rocky Mountain slope, and from the East Gulf States northward to the lower 
lakes, including the Atlantic Coast States south of New England, there was more 
than the average precipitation, there being a decided excess over the greater part of 
the country east of the Mississippi and on the north Pacific Coast. 

March averaged a warm month east of the Rocky Mountains, the daily average 
temperature excess exceeding 6° over the entire region from the Missouri Valley to 
the New England and Middle Atlantic Coast, and amounting to 9° per day in the lake 
region. In the plateau districts and on the Pacific Coast March was colder than 
usual, 

The precipitation of March was decidedly deficient in California and to the east 
of the Mississippi, but in the States immediately to the westward of the Mississippi 
and from the upper lakes to the Pacific Coast there was a marked excess, a large 
portion of the area named receiving from 1 to 5 inches more than the average for 
March. Over much the larger portion of the Atlantic Coast States but little more 
than one-half of the average amount of rain fell. 

The first and second decades of March were unusually warm throughout the 
country east of the Rocky Mountains. The effect of this warm period was to force 
vegetation far in advance of the season, and thereby expose it to damage from the 
exceptionally cold weather that prevailed during the closing days of March and the 
beginning of April. By the 23d of March the season was generally reported from 
two to three weeks earlier than usual throughout the central and northern districts 
from the Mississippi Valley eastward. The remarkably warm weather of the first 
three weeks of March was followed by a period of unusual cold, during which zero 
temperatures prevailed in some of the Northwestern States, and the line of freezing 
temperatures was carried southward to the Gulf Coast during the closing days of 
March. The damage resulting from the cold weather and frost was very great, and 
necessitated the entire replanting of many crops in the Southern States, Although 
the actual loss from the destruction of early vegetables, etc., was very great, it was 
fortunate that the cold occurred sufficiently carly to enable farmers to replant the 
destroyed crops in ample time to secure good yields. Many tree fruits in the middle 
and southern portions of the country were killed, however, and the peach crop in 
the Middle Atlantic States was almost a total failure. The temperature extremes of 
the last decade of March were very unusual, both the highest and lowest ther- 
mometer readings ever recorded in March occurring over a large part of the country 
east of the Rocky Mountains. 

The first decade of April averaged warm over the southern portions of the country 
and in portions of the Northwest, but it was cooler than usual over the central Rocky 
Mountain region, and from the Upper Mississippi Valley eastward to New England, 

Tho last half of May and the first decade of June averaged cooler than usual over 
the principal agricultural districts east of the Rocky Mountains, and during this 
period warmer weather would have proved more beneficial to crops, but after June 
10 the temperature for several weeks was above the normal and no week was sufii- 
ciently cool to prove unfavorable. 

The most unfavorable features of the crop season of 1894 were the cold period 
covering the last week of March and beginning of April, and the protracted drought 
of July and August over the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, except in the Southern States. 

The seasonal rainfall from March 1 io October 1 was largely deficient from the 
Missouri Valley eastward to the Atlantic, including the Coast States from the Caro- 
linas northward. A marked deficiency also occurred in the Central Gulf States and 
California, The seasonal deficiency in rainfall exceeded 10 inches in portions of 
New England and the Middle Atlantic States, eastern Florida, on the Central Gulf 
Coast, eastern Tennessee, and from the Ohio Valley northwestward over the Central 
Mississippi and Missouri valleys. In but one week, from April 30 to September 10, 
did the rainfall for Huron, S. Dak., which is in the region of severe drought, exceed 
the weekly average at that station, while the temperature was above the normal 


532 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


throughout almost the whole of the same period. While the actual deficiency in 
rainfall of 12 inches in central Iowa was equaled or exceeded in portions of Florida’ 
and eastern Tennessee, in no other section of the country east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains did the seasonal rainfall form so small a percentage of the normal amount as 
in Iowa and the eastern portions of Nebraska and South Dakota, where the actual 
rainfall was only about 50 per cent of the usual seasonal amount, although portions 
of New England, the Middle Atlantic States, and eastern Tennessee received less 
than 60 per cent of the seasonal rainfall. 

The extensive and protracted drought of July and August was very injurious to 
crops, most seriously affecting the corn crop, the principal corn-producing States 
being covered by the region of severest drought. 

The damaging effects of the prolonged drought were greatly intensified over South 
Dakota, Iowa, and portions of Kansas and Nebraska during the latter part of July 
by the prevalence of hot winds! peculiar to that region. These winds at times 
attained velocities approximating 40 miles per hour, and were accompanied by ex- 
tremely high temperatures, ranging trom 100° to 109°, with relative humidity down 
to 20 per cent. During the prevalence of this hot period the prospect for crops, 
already very unfavorable on account of prolonged drought, were greatly reduced. 
Much corn was completely dried up and cut for fodder. Inplaces apples were actually 
burned upon the trees. 

Concerning this hot period the director of the South Dakota weather service reports: 

“During the early part of July showers were frequent over most of the State, 
except the southeast portion, but droughty conditions soon set in again, with very 
high day temperatures, hot winds at intervals, and much sunshine, except in the 
west portion. Hot winds of more than usual severity occurred on the 10th, 11th, 
17th, 18th, 23d, and 26th. Probably the most permanent and damaging injury to 
corn was done by the extreme hot winds of the 11th and 26th. All vegetation suf- 
fered from the frequent hot winds of this month, and by the close it was evident that 
all crops east of the Missouri River would be a partial to total failure.” 

The director of the Kansas weather service states: 

‘‘The extraordinary high temperatures and hot winds characterized the week end- 
ing July 30, and all crops were seriously affected.” 

The director of the Iowa weather service states: 

‘‘July added to the severity of the drought by excessive temperatures and hot 
winds. It was altogether the driest July ever experienced in Jowa since records 
have been kept. The mean temperature was 76.4°—about 2.3° above normal. The 
culminating period of the drought was on the 25th, 26th, and 27th, during which 
period the wind attained maximum velocities ranging from 25 to 38 miles an hour} 
and the maximum temperatures ranged from 100° to 109°. The average rainfall for, 
the month was 0.63 of an inch—3.67 inches below the normal. Fourstations reported 
only a trace, and fully three-fourths of the State received less than half an inch 
during the month. The mean relative humidity at the central station was only 46, 
per cent.” 

The effects of the severe drought reduced pasturage to such an extent that it was 
necessary to feed stock during much of the summer, and the scarcity of water proved 
a serious inconvenience. Short pasturage, the unfavorable prospects for corn, and. 
the low prices being paid for wheat induced farmers to begin feeding wheat to stock. 
During the past summer, for the first time in the history of the country, wheat has 
been used extensively as feed for stock, the result of which practice has been such 
that it is quite likely that the custom will continue to prevail, and doubtless in 
future years, when the wheat crop is abundant and the yield of corn is short, the feed- 
ing of wheat to stock will form an important item in the consumption of that staple. 

In the Southern States, after the cold period of the latter part of March, the general 
weather conditions were favorable, although there was too much rain for cotton in 
portions of Texas and in the eastern half of the cotton region during July, August, 
and September. While the severe and prolonged drought greatly reduced the corn 
crop in the principal corn States in the West, an unusually heavy crop of corn was 
made in the Southern States. 

After March 1 but little rain fell in southern California, nearly the normal amount 
occurred over northern California, and more than the seasonal amount fell on the 
north Pacific Coast. 

The seasonal temperature from March 1 to October 1 (215 days) averaged above 
the normal in all districts east of the Rocky Mountains, except along the Gulf Coast, 
where practically normal temperature conditions prevailed. From the Missouri Val- 
ley eastward to the Atlantic Coast the temperature for the season averaged 2° or 
more per day above the normal, and from the Dakotas eastward to the lower lakes 
and St. Lawrence Valley the daily average excess amounted to 3°, while a maximum 


1A special study of these hot winds has been made by Dr. I. M. Cline, Weather Bureau, and Mr. 
G. E. Curtis, formerly of the Weather Bureau, and the results of their investigations published. 


APPARENT DEATH BY LIGHTNING-——TREATMENT. 533 


excess of 4° per day occurred in portions of Wisconsin and the Red River Valley of 
the North. 

The last weekly issue of the National Weather Crop Bulletin was that of October 
2. During the winter the Bulletin is issued monthly only, but from December to 
about the close of March there is issued weekly, on ‘Tuesday, a chart showing the 
depth of snow on the ground throughout the country at 8 p. m. Monday. As a cov- 
ering of snow affords great protection to winter wheat, these bulletins have proved 
of great value to grain interests, while the reports of thickness of ice in the differ- 
ent sections of the country, as published in the table accompanying the snow chart, 
have been of much interest. The growth and extension of the State weather service 
that has marked the year gives assurance that more thorough work in all its lines 
will be accomplished during the coming year. 


DIRECTIONS FOR PROCEDURE IN CASE OF APPARENT DEATH 
BY LIGHTNING. 


* * * Electricity seldom kills outright, though the condition of suspended ani- 
mation which it induces would result in death if not counteracted. 

All things considered, it is rational to attempt the resuscitation of those appar- 
ently killed by electricity, and, if not teo long delayed, the effort promises fair 
chances of success, provided proper means are instituted. 

If the body has actually been submitted to a current of sufficient volume to pro- 
duce destructive tissue changes, all efforts at resuscitation will of course be futile. 

If, on the other hand, only respiration and the heart’s action have been tempora- 
rily arrested, there is a condition of syncope simulating apparent death by drowning 
or from anesthetics, and the physician knows that patients in this condition are fre- 
quently revived. Laymen will appreciate the nature of this condition if it is 
explained as one of exaggerated faint, and would not feel appalled upon encounter- 
ing it if previously instructed how to cope with it. In an ordinary fainting spell 
the necessity to stimulate is universally appreciated. In syncope resulting from an 
electric shock stimulation is likewise indicated, but more vigorous measures are 
required, This is the only difference. 

= * * The condition is one of exaggerated faint; prompt stimulants are neces- 
sary. The man must be made to breathe, if this is possible, and the efforts to induce 
respiration must not be suspended until breathing is fully and normally restored, or 
until it is absolutely certain that life is extinct. This can not be assured in less than 
an hour’s persistent, energetic, tireless effort. 

Directions for artificial respiration.—An efficacious method is that known as Howard’s, 
which keeps the passage through the windpipe free without the aid of an assistant, 
and is recommended for that reason. It is as follows: 

Place the subject on his back, head down and bent backward, arms folded over 
the head (under no conditions raise the head from the ground or floor). Place a hard 
roll of clothing beneath the chest, with the shoulders declining slightly over it. 
Open the mouth, pull the tongue forward, and with a cloth wipe out saliva or mucus. 
Thoroughly loosen the clothing from the neck to the waist (but do not leave the 
subject’s body exposed, for it is essential to keep the body warm). Kneel astride 
the subject’s hips, with your hands well opened upon his chest, thumbs pointing 
toward each other and resting on the lower end of the breastbone; little fingers upon 
the margin of the ribs and the other fingers dipping into the spaces between the ribs. 
Place your elbows firmly against your hips, and using your knees as a pivot, press 
upward and inward toward the heart and lungs, throwing your weight slowly for- 
ward for two or three seconds, until your face almost touches that of your patient, 
ending with a sharp push, which helps to jerk you back to your first position. At 
the same time relax the pressure of your hands, so that the ribs springing back to 
their original position will cause the air to rush into the subject’s lungs. Pause for 
two or three seconds and then repeat these motions at the rate of about ten a min- 
ute until your patient breathes naturally, or until satisfied that life is extinct. If 
there is no response to your efforts, persistently and tirelessly maintained for a full 
hour, you may assume that life is gone. 

No matter which method for respiration is used, it is important to maintain the 
warmth of the body by the application of hot flannels, bottles of hot water, hot 
bricks, warm clothing taken from bystanders, etc. 

Firmly and energetically rub the limbs upward so as to force the blood to the heart 
and brain. If an assistant is present let him attend to this. Remember above all 
things that nothing must interrupt your efforts to restore breathing. 

When swallowing is established, a teaspoonful of warm water, wine, diluted 
whisky or brandy, or warm coffee should be given. Sleep should be encouraged. In 
brief: 

1. Make the subject breathe by artificially imitating the respiratory movements of 
the chest. 

2. Keep the body warm. 

3. Send for a physician. 


YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


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EXPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 


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542 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


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IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 5A3 


IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS FOR THE YEARS END- 
ING JUNE 30, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. 


Articles. 1890. | 189]. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. 
is Se Leas eazi a ees 
Sugar and molasses: | 
ep ee as ES $96, 094, 532 |$105, 728, 216 |$104, 408, 813 $116, 255, 784 | $126, 871, 889 
BERMAN GOM Jockct uk ows aecbacemees 5 =~ 795 76 | 2, 659, 172 2, 877, 744 "| Ls 992) 334 1, 984, 778 
Sugar drainings.........---.--- st 1, ads oe ewerccecee- apenas [a wewncecesces 


Total sugar and molasses. 101, 266, 726 


Tea, coffee, and cocca: 


14, 373, 222 | 13, 857, 482 | 14, 144, 242 


2 CS Re RS Eas Sh a a: 12, 317,493 | 13, 828, 993 

INO a coo dochitetenenicn sa Cmpee dan 78, 267, 432 06, 123, 777 | 128, 041, 930 80, 485, 558 90, 314, 676 
Cocoa and leaves and shells of- . 2,312, 781 2. 817, 168 3, 221, 041 4, 017, 801 2, 402, 382 
Unenumerated items.-..--....-. 556, 931 603, 683 He 724, 007 683, 643 708, 709 


Total tea, coffee,and cocoa. _ %, 454, 637 | 113, 113, 373, 621 | 146, 146, 360, 200 99, 044, 484 | 107, 570, 010 


Animals and their products, except 


Total animals and their 


products, except wocl..| 39, 268, 979 


i 2 ae eee eee 6, 471 | 5, 531 12, 136 
| 
42, 834,249 | 39, 648, 887 


| 
42, 244, 073 | 25, 244, O41 
} 


I Se! 


wool: 
COLT Set SRM ie ai Se Se ge! 214, 747 102, 978 47, 466 45, 682 18, 704 
ER RRS cheapo sw) ater aS otek w mierecion 4, 840, 485 3, 265, 254 2, 455, 868 2, 388, 267 1, 319, 572 
2 See Oe ee 1, 268,209 | 1,219, 206 1, 440, 530 1, 682, 977 788, 181 
Ali other and fowls....-.-...--. 413, 491 357, 927 307, 752 | 525, 269 274, 789 
Ll SCC SS Slee eee eee 1, 286, 219 1, 857, 988 1, 455, 058 | 1, 508, 258 929, 231 
SUC NES SO ae ane 13, 679 58, 541 16,549 | ~ 13,479 23, 356 
MEM MBE OT aS ercintea Ssitdin a eae Sasa 1, 295, 506 Ls 358, 732 1, 238,166 | 1,425, 927 1, 247, 198 
NEE at ecco hes hid hn Site wae 2, 074, 912 1, 185, 595 522, 240 392, 973 199, 536 
OG Ne Bie ie ee Ce seer ree 471, 829 497, 340 495, 519 567, 756 400, 240 
Baas See eee 264, 089 430, 335 271, 421 419, 625 256, 287 
Lo SS Oe a Ee es eee pes 2, 866, 231 2, 265, 714 1, 685, 562 2, 005, 796 839, 972 
MNO Ss Sroka cela miicinys wisn = 25 21, 881,886 | 27, 930, 759 26, 850,218 | 28, 347, 896 16, 786, 152 
Hide cuttings, etc.......-.....- 348, 440 353, 943 303, 302 365, 525 280, 062 
ri PIG OGE -wreccic emanate 236, 648 587, 444 7 97, 529 554, 902 235, 232 
eats— 

J21G) GG) ae 407, 038 521, 322 430, 048 558, 284 412, 666 

ALT) GURBE 3S eine 272, 199 144, 049 97, 893 115, 376 114, 901 
LL 5 gene aes BEE Se ees es 102, 954 105, 633 95, 947 110, 186 102, 336 
21, 327 1, 232 

Sausage Neo 5-2 eae 494, $53 572, 817 566, 650 583, 217 495, 116 
Unenumerated MA is MAST as 478, 988 513, 171 539, 033 611, 351 519, 278 

| 
| 


Fibers: 
Animal— 
VINE, EE en eee Ome 15, 264,083 | 18,231,372 | 19,688,108 | 21, 064, 180 6, 107, 438 
Silk, unmanufactured...... 24, 325, 531 19, 076, 081 25, 059, 325 | 29, §36, 986 16, 234, 182 
Vegetable— 1 
0S nes eee 1, 392, 728 2, 825, 004 3,217, 521 4, 688, 729 3, 097, 297 
2 RED Gees Ee ae 2, 188, 021 1, 656, 779 1, 964, 163 1, 879, 152 1, 336, 845 
Hemp and substitutes...... | °%,, 041, 956 7, 949, 650 7, 354, 088 9, 061, 855 4, 253,173 
BURBS eae bole ca. ori years | 3,249, 926 3, 862, 858 3, 021, 174 2, 467, 828 1, 716, 298 
Sisal grass and other vege- 
table substances.........- 7, 064, 184 5, 829, 514 5,187,620 | 6, 005, 484 3, 742, 073 
Fibers not elsewhere speci- 
BC sche ina ie etal o,og2- ane 697, 680 I, 987, 904 1,597,049 | = 1, 957, 236 | 1, 115, 092 
Total Abers.—....23...0-. 61,524,109 | 61,419,162 | 67,089,048 | 76,961,520 | 37, 602. 398 
Miscellaneous: 
Breadstufis — | ; 
1S. i) ene, eee ces we mae 5, 629, 849 3,222,593 | 1,592, 040 $21, 605 358, 744 
OT 1 RES Son Bre ee ene 908 1, 651 10, 752 1, 265 1, 503 
0: RSS eee os Say eee ens 8, 950 5, 056 8, 224 8, 897 3, 923 
CLE U2 ae ee ene ae eet 59, 300 31, 089 27, 942 25, 642 24, 483 
TEAS Obs cote Cini nlebtaast abate bt ence 115, 657 98. 227 67, 567 7,055 37 
RIGEIG, > sce whines bercten at ece 112, 303 431, 940 1, 955, 385 707, 053 769,177 
| 5, 049 43, 180 4, 231 2, 223 1, 946 
Breadstufis and farinaceous 
substances, not elsewhere 
BPECIRGE AR ee Se 1, 210, 982 1,194,473 | 1,223, 066 1, 266, 835 1, 042, 064 
PAGERS 3 i nitson<thiepninceseeieiaibncbaias 209, 283 342, 517 | 154, 954 208, 884 243, 408 
SPCR SAG WIVES ie scoss ha eerie 20, 747, 774 26, 015, 374 | 20, 968, 262 23, 689, 659 18, 754, 771 
Lo 2 a ie Aeron ae ee Le E 1, 143, 445 445, 461 715,151 964, 755 761, 940 
LEC eS a SR es SET 1, 053, 616 1, 797, 406 883, 701 1, 085, 407 484, 415 
EIN nin imps ia nsdn ienchaasnalii a 1, 827, 937 1, 600, 630 1, 779, 716 3, 137, 511 1, 218, 576 
Fg oS: a ne ae 161, 666 78, 433 6, 148 4,411 5, 576 
Oils, vegetable— | 
Fixed or expressed— 
Ob eae nee en Se as Se 819, 110 733, 489 | 876, 613 891, 424 909, 897 
Chalten <2 cost Sec wees 1, 340, 551 1, 465, 001 _ 2, 239, 540 2, 754, 372 1, 730, 787 
Volatile or essential........ 1, 061, 631 1,523,491 | 1, 676, 064 1, 654, 036 J], 102, 108 


544 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS FOR THE YEARS END- 
ING JUNE 30, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894—Continued. 


Articles. 


Miscellaneous—Continued. 
Opium, crude 
Plants, trees, and shrubs......- 
Rice and rice meal 


er 


Unground— 
NUum6is -528-- 22 eee n -< 
Pepper 
FAVOUR EE = 6 =. c= cases celal 
Mobaceus lea meo-:--sc4sessace = 
Wearaliia), NOANS < ascites = on ai=!< 1-5 
Vegetables— 
Beans and pease...--..----- 
Potaboese-— 6 -ceen ee aes 
Pickles and sauces....-.--- 
All other— 
In their natural state, 
or in salt or brine....-. 
Prepared or preserved... 
\Wines— 
Champagne and other 
gugparkilan ole <2. Si7.ctete scree: 
Still wines— 
niGasksts. a: ceaeep eee 
In bottles 
Unenumerated items..........-.--- 


Total miscellaneous 


RECAPITULATION. 


Sugar and molasses........... i Se 
Tea, \cofiee, and cCocoa...-.2.-)..-:-- 
Animals and their products, except 


77010) ARE O SES AES 8 SSeS oa 5m 
Fibers, animal and vegetable....... 
MSeellANGONG .. 5. - 3 ac <rcen eneemeed 

Total agricultural.-......-. 
otal imports 4. <e~\i--2 <= 
Per cent of agricultural 

IUAULOL cee hace eee 


ee eS ee? OE eee ee eee 


$1, 183, 712 

343, 226 
2, 540, 674 
4, 089, 814 


249, O77 


534, 340 

1, 619, 215 
820, 439 
17, 605, 192 
559, 867 


1, 307, 702 
1, 365, 898 
386, 307 


885, 390 
10, 077 


4, 752, 572 


2, 450, 174 
1, 657, 210 
40, 777 


78, 439, 674 


101, 266, 726 
93, 454, 637 


39, 268, 979 
61, 524, 109 
78, 439, 674 


373, 954, 125 
789, 310, 409 


47. 38 


$1, 202, 375 
189, 763 

4, 559, 540 
3, 266, 230 


262, 682 


686, 019 
1, 338, 637 
865, 882 
13, 284, 162 
594, 744 


2, 078, 571 
2, 797, 927 
511, 163 


1, 020, 194 
668, 519 


5, 615, 872 
2, 641, 816 


1, 749, 372 
95, 313 


108, 388, 737 
113, 373, 621 


42, 834, 249 
61, 419, 162 
82, 458, 792 


408, 474, 561 
844, 916, 196 


48. 34 


$1, 029,203 | $1, 186, 824 
155, 018 137, 503 
3,030, 883 | 2, 790, 151 
2,264,837 | 2, 757, 010 
307, 738 298, 008 
750, 813 613, 743 

1, 069,268 | 1, 278, 062 
920,006 | 1, 110, 197 
10, 332, 423 | 14, 702, 440 
803, 696 763, 935 
957,824 | 1,734, 228 
186,006 | 2, 066, 589 
421, 292 454, 099 
563, 297 691, 968 
754, 808 639, 805 

4,571,816 | 5,579, 054 | 

2,464,484 | 2, 505, 024 
1,908,203 | 2, 121, 275 
130, 766 146, 827 


107, 286, 557 | 118, 248, 118 
146, 360,200 | 99, 044, 484 
39, 648, 887 | 42, 244, 073 
67, 089,048 | 76,961, 520 
66, 811, 677 | 78, 907, 776 


427, 196, 369 
827, 402, 462 


51. 63 


415, 405, 971 
866, 400, 922 


47.95 


78, 907, 776 
| 


$1, 691, 914 

124, 143 
2, 374, 835 
2, 395, 603 


257, 845 


395, 977 
665, 576 
943, 155 
10, 985, 386 — 
727, 853 


1, 117, 969 


1, 277, 194 
341, 135 


653, 259 
505, 510 
3, 498, 522 
1, 817, 813 
1, 423, 143 
54, 249 


58, 664, 487 


128, 856, 167 
107, 570, 010 


25, 244, O41 
37, 602) 398 
58, 664, 487 
357, 937, 603 
654, 994) 622 


54. 65 


Fertilizing constituents contained in a crop of cotton yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre. 


Fertilizing constituents (cal- 


Pounds per acre. 


culated). In 300 In 654 In 404 In 575 In 658 In 250 | In 2,841 

pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds 
lint. seed. bolls leaves. stems. roots. |totalcrop. 
MEtTOSOM etre sect ctiec nese oe 0. 72 20. 08 4.50 13. 85 5.17 1. 62 45. 94 
Phosphoric acid, P,0;.-..---. 0.18 6. 66 1. 14 2.57 1. 22 0. 38 12.15 
AGUAS GO tere emieipiassa wie ee mice 2. 22 7. 63 12. 20 6.57 7.74 2. 75 39. 11 
AEE ala [GCG a ee a ag 0. 08 0.12 0.19 1. 61 0. 65 0. 38 8.03 
DG MAO A maa lepine eae 3 0. 46 1. 22 3. 1D 31.57 5. 59 1. 36 43.95 
Magnesia, Mel) oc. swee ne 0. 41 3. 26 1.01 5. 73 2. 43 0. 80 13. 64 
Sulphuric acid, SQ ,.......-.- 0. 26 0. 84. ile, Wels 3. 38 0.74 0. 28 7.25 
Insoluble matter.......-...... 0. 08 0.15 1.14 6. 48 0. 89 0.55 9. 24 
Pounds. 
BV 00d Charcoal’. Jones. nace ae on omer oie delete eile te ichonis ainierelateimia > o14m ol cwibla on ier ee sletarern atelier e 1 
Balphur. -. 2-6-2. cece cccecewec cbc enctesscasessswn as eannneeesacccncccn secs cesenscens assubucs a= eeeeae 1 
Rodinm chloride. soak 326 Wore eo bie eiaewtes detec cielsew om ope Wierd aia ete aiele tn /# © ye'o.5 aie )e\p males are ye ire 2 
Rodis bicarbonate) =... ad.sedardes aac cue sweets etinicle arolamce eee ecieeds pone sem ineeee Slee h iat rie 2 
Sodiam hy posdlphite 2. - el Siesta ccna deca tae sh once sde ree ak ss eves ses asen shy ient nana enh ee 2 
Bodium sulphate... . 0. ..chawcbos ole nee bee b me bbe sr cerbee nese eesscnertncchscoeny thay ese sane 1 


Antimony Sulphide. ........c..cccccencncccccwcee cee e ne cence teen secre a cenncscensseacceensensnes 1 


545 


FARM PRICES OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 


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546 YEARBOOK OF THE U, §, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


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HUMAN FOODS. 5AT 


HUMAN FOODS. 


Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, wheat, etc., consist of— 

Refuse.—As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, skins of potatoes, bran 

of wheat, etc. 

Edible portion.—As the flesh of meat and fish, the white and yolk of eggs, wheat 

flour, ete. The edible portion consists of water and nutritive ingredients or nutrients. 

The principal kinds of nutritive ingredients are protein, fats, carbohydrates, and 

mineral matters. 

The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are called nonnutrients. In 
comparing the values of different food materials for nourishment they are left out 
of account. 

Food supplies the wants of the body in several ways. It either— 

Is used to form the tissues and fluids of the body; 

Is used to repair the wastes of tissues; 

Is stored in the body for future consumption ; 

Is consumed as fuel, its potentialenergy being transformed into heat or muscular 
energy, or other forms of energy required by the body; or, 

In being consumed protects tissues or other food from consumption. 

The fuel value of food.—Heat and muscular power are forms of force or energy. 
The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly 
used in this measurement is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the 
temperature of a pound of water 4° F, 

The following general estimate has been made for the average amount of potential 
energy in 1 pound of cach of the classes of nutrients: 


Calories. 
PUM” ROGAN oe ooo lone wie aha o «ag one ame ain Teles eas ame 1, 860 
Pmek OUNG. Gf fats. .- s+ p22 - a8 2 EES SURG Re. Ee a: tesa Ha 4, 220 
nnn AT CAE MONYOTATOS os. .. -aG adn ns pods came ee connie ees ores 1, 860 


In other words, when we compare the nutrients in respect to their fuel values, 
their capacities for yielding heat and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean 
meat or albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of sugar or starch, and 
a little over 2 pounds of either would be required to equal a pound of the fat of 
meat or butter or the body fat. 

For further explanation see article on Food and Diet, page 357. 


TAaBLu A.—Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, nutrients—and fuel 
value per pound. 


seat | Edible portion. 


H | 
| | 
» | Refuse 
ber = (bones, | Nutrients. | Fuel 
Food materials. ae skin, | res | Value of 
ana- | Shell, | Water. Pp | Car- | Miner-|1 pound. 
lyzed. etc.). Total. | rc Fat. | bohy- | al mat-| 
anes | drates.| ters. 
ANIMAL FOODS AS PUR- | | | | | | | 
CHASED. ! | 
Beef: | | Pound. | Pound. Pound.!| Pound.| Pound. |Pound. Pound. Calories. 
cS Se ite Oe Cae be | OR YOR TEE | 0.01 | 730 
SRS cece ties bs 19 Oe a i Seer |. See cant eo. | Ob | 940 
Showlder.......4-..... 7 ae eae 98 | 16 EP ee "01 | 760 
Shoulder clod with | 
si eS 2 13 | 57 30 ita 19 Wet S20 01 | 830 
Wels. tip... 5k: 17 21 44 85 | «13 - i oe .01.| 1,140 
Ue Ties OS Bl 1] 15 52 34} .15 Sa a 01 | 1, 030 
Sinigies. 62,.004;0... 10) 210 54 36 | "17 i CS ea ‘01 1/100 
Porterhouse .........- Sour .124 53 35 | .15 a a eae O14 2s 
NTE RG nin com nied 2 15} .204 45 35 PES fe) | Gad awn cies -O1 | ‘3,380 
GGMOte  . oe rcv ce vawe 17 .09 | 62 Bet ae gee Fie RR; 01 | 780 
NR AS non waccnues oe. a Paps ob) Oa et aa a: + FS 
Hind shank........... 12 55 31 14 yh Ree ee eee re . 004 | 355 
OS 0 ieee wht 70 30/ .22 | .05 | 0.02 | 01 | 665 
Breit 5.0 S, cupcsene SBS  csd 5. eS eT a Se 01 1, 160 
OOD BUG cs ine doneseee a: ebarscan . 64 i ee a the  |pewesttes } OL | = 1,085 
Dried heef..........<. eee 51  4t2. , a 07 Ol 10 885 
Corned rump......--- 3 06 RRS ee ial nas 2 aa | 03 03 
Corned Hank. .....<.-- 2 | 12 44 44 12 ec lantern 03 | £1,460 
Corned and canned. ..! ee 54 - 46 27 | 1 See | 04 | 2,30 
Tongue, canned......- | ZO 46 ty > Sk aie” et ae } .04 | 1,475 
Tripe, pickled......... Af eee 88 Me, Ot 01 | 002 260 


548 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE A.—Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, etc.—Continued. 


Food materials. 


ANIMAL FOODS AS PUR- 
CHASED—continued. 


Veal: 
Shoulder 
Chuck 
Wank sss. 220 oesise 
Loin (chops) 
Eee (cutlet) 


ee ee ee ee ed 


Loin (chops)..-..----- 
Shoulder 
Shp leg 


weer ceee ee 
were nee eee ee eH 


Sparerib (chops) 
Smoked shoulder 
Smoked ham 
Bacon 
Salt pork 
Pork sausage 
Bologna sausage 
Frankfurt sausage 
Poultry: . 
Whicker acc. < ces -cee 
Fowl (old hen) 
Turkey 
Fish, ete.: 
Fresh cod, dressed.... 
Fresh mackerel, 
dressed 
BME SYS. 2 <c<isismioce se 
Shad, whole 
Smelts, whole 
Lake trout, dressed... 
Red snapper 
Halibut, sections 
Freshsalmon, dressed. 
Salt coda 
Salt cod, bonedb 
Saltmackerel, dressed c 
Canned salmond 
Oysters, solids........ 
Long clams, solids.... 
Round claims, solids... 
Eggs with shell 
Lard and cottolene 
Oleomargarine 
Dairy products: 
1 bl es Seo ae 
Skim milk 
Butter 
Cheese, whole milk.... 
Cheese, skim milk 


ANIMAL FOODS, EDIBLT POR 
| TION. 
Beef: 


INDCK: toto odes ceaer ane 
Chuck 


PHOMIMGl eae aoa waer eet - See Ps eee 


Shoulder clod 
W hole rib 
Loin 


Sirloinie... ..2scee ees 


Porterhouse: ;-.sc.r02™ 
Rump 


ROUUCEY 2.2 9> «te patos 


Plank Miatcsoscese ape 
Hind shank 
Liver 
Heart 
Tongue 


Num- 
ber of | Refuse 
speci- | (bones, 
mens | Skin, 
ana- shell, 
lyzed. | &tc.). 
Pound 
2 seul 
6 sig 
Css 
10 .18 
7 61 
Hs | aera. 
10 . 26 
16 14 
io .22 
15 .18 
2 18 
10 1 
4 .14 
14 pe 6} 
8 . 09 
7 . 08 
ie ea erstece 
a ee 
Ors canic Soe 
oi . 38 
1 . 43 
1: . 82 
3 . 30 
1 41 
a .49 
7 . 50 
2 42 
A. .30 
25 .49 
3 .18 
ch 24 
2 .25 
OW creye ahaa 
A .33 
iB, | Paneer ee 
Cape eee 
Re ee 
1 es ee 
4 ole 
DY |eeraa)s 2 ne 
Bi iGee ass oe 


eee eee we ewww 


Dried peel.< -.s«ms an ke hae, ees 


Corned rump 
a Salt, 17.2 per cent. 


b Salt, 21.5 per cent. 


Water. 


Total. 


42 


cSalt, 7.1 per cent. 


Edible portion. 


Nutrients. 
Car- 
Fto- | Fat. | bohy- 
drates. 
| 
| 
Pound. Pound. |Pound 
eligi OO st exc Sere 
. 16 A051. ores 
.19 LST ete ree 
Cae ae: 1 ea 
08; || “(O27 een 
Ayal SOE ees dete 
Py ee | tO Maecenas 
ls fo Mees ere tere 
nko Be) 2 ag) Me pepe ee 
iD Hdl See 
14 2G) sae 
oie! By se eee 
ql} a wal pecoore 
.07 Par tc lll bpp yee 
Bala VOT EAR toe 
. 04 )09)) “eee see 
~ 12 . 40 OL 
.19 Ani Vi . O01 
a4 | ake . 004 
nals: OW Ane eee 
11 OMe eee 
om LOG nals. Sa 
Sit: mOO2 Le erent 
Rati 04. Hees eee 
.10 SD. ol ange Pe cucu 
. 09 05" seeecces 
pO KOM alepsaermeeets 
12 Olina sae 
210 OUT ln Seca 
15 704 S22 eee 
eal SOA See 
. 16 004 eee 
- 22 O03" be aetearere 
15 SAG 45 aes 
220 eGo lvac:: eee 
. 06 . 02 . 05 
. 09 SO . 02 
. 07 . 004 . 04 
a dls} Bate oe oe 
meee coe ere STOO alert Nesp n= 
OL . 8d . 004 
. 04 . 04 705 
. 04 SO .05 
OL . 8d sO 
, 20 36 . 02 
poll Fe i 02 
. 20 15: sae 
.18 - 18 * rleelaeaere 
. 20 Paps Sa ane oe oe 
. 20 Pig I me ae 
Hale » 21 ba ee | 
.18 OF tesa 
<18 6D Pad atone cmere 
17) | SOU 
a7 O6% \ceeae eee 
. 20 Bahan t 
5 Lye ol sierra aparece 
. 20 JO eae 
.22 . 05 . 02 
16 5 DOC Rae aeier 
apy oS dl eccootanns 
32 07 pOW 
15 9 I Ue ache ese 


Fuel 
value of 


Miner- |1 pound. 


al mat- 
ters. 


Pound.| Calories. 


OL 
01. 


675 
510 
895 


1, 270 


d Salt, 1 per cent. 


HUMAN 


FOODS. 


549 


TaBLE A.—Composition of different food materialsa—refuse, water, etc.—Coutinued. 


a Salt, 23 per cent. 


bSalt, 21.5 per cent. 


c Salt, 10.6 per cent. 


Edible portion. 
deg Refuse 
gneck (bones, Nutrients. Fuel 
Food materials. = ens | ®kin, = value of 
ana. | Shell, | Water. Pp Car- | Miner-|1 pound. 
lyzed etc.). Total phy Fat. | bohy- | al mat- 
drates.| ters. 
= A i 2 dia 
ANIMAL FOODS, EDIBLE POR- | 
rloN—continued. | | 
Beef—Continued. Pound |Pound.| Pound. Pound. | Pound.| Pound.| Pound. | Calories. 
Combed flank......s2nloissenes vale BS .50 .50| .14 . 33 | a aie .03 1, 675 
Corned and canned....|........ etecaets 54 46° L237 a eee 04 1,170 
OMSUC, CANN... 2.20) ccceenes eetegts -47 53 21 Se lekeamn ee . 05 1, 540 
irre, PICKIOG. .....-5+)ceccners bike «sae . 88 13 -10 -O1 01 . 002 260 
Veal: | 
(17 TG Cae ae aS ae a ee ed ieee . 68 382 . 20 a See 01 820 
ho wie cos Biats <dncleecaddecledensand .13 oan .19 A? | eh ese 01 630 
ind pass aang cane feigned on A i. ae ae ee 01 895 
CEN ODS) « acen scnn sta vone clacaseet s . 69 zou . 20 aya ie oe .O1 820 
ae bene ae eee ae sikh . 29 . 20 AORh, Neier a. -O1 705 
RD a oo eee cco amet [Rie cw acne «|(aaroreie oe w 74 . 26 21 « OFF rece ee Ok 560 
Mutton: 
NE aie eatin nace dlopcannad}anann ane . 56 .44 cal A a ee ree 01 1, 410 
eam AONODS) «inns a n-}- ce .000- pene 48 . 52 15 a ae Bee: OL 1, 800 
eS eee, ina Ree caeks . 59 42 17 SG ee 01 1, 310 
ata tam nl Gawssaeate mann ont . 63 37 .18 a) Sa .01 1, 095 
Pork: 
eS ee a ee ae .51 . 49 aT a con | eee 01 1, 625 
ot GL) a, a . 53 47 ma ly A A Poe .O1 1, 545 
Dingeed SNOUIGOr. ..- 22). 2c.cccs|ocscecee . 43 AGTH 15 Bs a eae . 04 1, 890 
BUNGE O NAN soi:000 0 <= clcrmcaninnis Petar - 43 .57 .16 BOO merce chee . 05 1, 800 
EM LI IER «5:0 2s ohio cara’ vena sie b's ~22 .78 12 i Bi ie ee . 04 2, 855 
0 es Se ae eee -16 . 84 05 By | ae ees S eeget .05 3, 255 
Pork sausage............. Sioa esclpea stab -44 . 56 12 . 40 OL . 02 1, 920 
Bologna sausage......-... Bears Ts Setee - 60 - 40 .19 ae . 001 . 04 1, 080 
Frankfurt sausage........ Peo grtlat joel ican dt ie . 58 42 21 -17 . 004 . 04 1,110 
Poultry: 
0 | Mah a ae ee 5 eae 72 . 28 25 Pa a Oe eS .01 535 
LS ESS es ee eee |e . 67 .33 . 20 6 5) hy eee ae O01 890 
PE Sas 20S isis dition sccm = [8 sen dwn . 66 34 24 Ae a ee -O1 810 
Fish, ete.: 
RE nix erate kal s.a aviaea cfs comm ate . 83 apy .16 A eee ae .01 310 
Fresh mackerel....... "Se as tal hie .74 0} 19 a eee ree 01 605 
ENE RGNR NS stat ae <<. o.5 1 chow wimve'e nll'eim od a wo 79 . 22 .19 al ie = Spee <UL 405 
0 SEE a eras a nee as ak .29 .19 As |) a ee pee -01 745 
ST SS Ee aes | eee .19 . al ay) PP ap ae. Pe . 02 400 
IP CMUROM bets Sc 2052 «|s.c0isc ceslome na soe . 69 1 -18 Bip is Fa a. 98 pees -O1 820 
CS ee) eae een 19 «22 .19 (1) pe) EE eee -O1 400 
Halibut, sections ...../........ Ibaeerake i fae, 38 A ee et ocean . 560 
PORN GANNON. c5.-.-..|00..0.n- ase ae . 67 33 .19 Pa 5g hte ee .O1 885 
ONCE ie 8D ac. cm Apatya ou win fern vein . 54 23 21 ROOM Sater | . 02 410 
meln Com, DONGI.D... 2. -|05......).caccees . 54 . 24 22 SOUS [oii an as . 02 425 
oe a ee . 42 vay . 22 5 il eee . 03 1, 365 
Cmmned Salmond... <<) 555...-.\s00.00-. | 62 37 . 20 ee ee - 01 1, 035 
Cyprers, S018... ....--)saccees- ne rae nae 87 als . 06 . 02 04 - 01 260 
) aS a ns . 86 .14 . 09 . 01 . 02 .03 240 
Hound clams, selids..|........|...-.... . 86 .14 . 07 . 004 . 04 .03 215 
i SS Be Rees ee 74 . 26 ef CHO eee awe « .01 720 
AE SG COULOLONOs «cis au.s|'s ace cc ule cc- sh |ecsewees Ws OOy |e arte cits DOGS oom era |e ote ee 4, 220 
SRCOTR ME PAIN Ged 6 o5 .o.5 asin 50 ws coche eens eta! - 89 -01 . 85 004 03 3, 605 
Dairy products: 
1st 2 Re ae a Pats 2 |e eee . 87 13 . O4 . 04 a is . 01 325 
SO Rene MBL 8 ore Simei Stic oa ou clei co ork w . 90 -10 . 04 OL ~ 05 .O1 180 
IERbL Oe cas goss heer olen. Salsas oe Pevib . 90 . OL . 85 - OL . 03 3, 615 
Cheese, whole milk...|........|........ . 34 . 67 . 25 . 36 . 02 . 04 2, 005 
Uleess, BRIM UH... logsedapufincee ss. 46 .55| .31 17 . 02 . 04 1, 495 
VEGETABLE FOODS. 
Flour and meal: 
NOR RMOUE: «nisn<en so a ee «1d . 88 ll . 01 Pal . 01 1, 645 
Wheat flour (‘‘entire 
VCE LS ES ee rt ee A a -13 . 87 .14 . 02 .70 . 01 1, 640 
Graham flour ......... eae ee e- «lo . 87 ~12 . 02 Sr. .02 1, 625 
EMOUUGUD 25 sks cece my (i eee ee .13 . 87 . 07 .O1 79 .01 1, 625 
Buckwheat flour...... 9 joeseeeee 15 . 85 . 06 . O01 my i ¢ . 02 1, 585 
Corn or maize meal... pM) ot Sie ae Ao . 86 . 09 . 04 Ay (i . 01 1, 650 
White hominy........ ee .14 . 87 . 08 . 004 .77 . 004 1, 620 
Oaimeal 2. .s.-.505...5 AO [eae ee wes . 08 | 92 .15 . 07 . 68 . 02 1, 850 
dolledvaeats:;..06... 21. | rh hee Beet . 08 . 92 .16 . 08 . 67 . 02 1, 855 
Pearl barley.......... | Bet. thes 12 . 88 . 08 01 Pa 1, 635 


d Salt, 1 per cent. 


550 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE A.—Composition of different food materials—refuse, water, ete.—Continued. 


Num 
ber of 

Food materials. a 

mens 
ana- 
lyzed 
VEGETABLE FOODS—cont'd.| 
1 eV ee ee Se ae 10 
Peaneadry soo cc 5.- At 6 
Peanuts in shells......... 1 
Peanuts, ‘‘meats’’:...2.... 1 
Bread, crackers, ete: 
Wheat bread... 02... 13 
Graham bread .....-..- 1 
Graham crackers..-..-- 1 
Boston crackers. .---.-- 1 
Miik or cream crackers 1 
Oyster crackers...-...- 1 
Macaroni and vermi- 

“oe UE eee eae 23 
SURG Nise carste spa iate 2 ule aoe easel 
Tapioca, pearl.....---.--- | 1 
Sugar, cranulated ees SS eet ee 
Molasses. 2.0... -ccsce52555 fee ede 
Vegetables: 

(POEBLOCS Ussieee eos hae Siamese e 
Potatoes,edibie portion 12 
Sweet potatoes eS ee wy ale 
Sweet potatoes, edible 

PORLION |< -pascacssee 6 
DCCs > cine SISSON eee os oes 
Beets, edible portion . 12 
Turnips Ce SES eee Seer 
Turnips, edible por- 

HON 222 sas soe cee es 7 
Oni@ns: 62 S-phase as aces 
Onions, edible portion. 6 
Sq 5 ERE PRET LF Sie © 
Seudek edible portion. 3 
CaGHMDETS Peo. 4s S5ellaqe0e 2: 
Cucumbers, edible 

POLMONE ssses sso a 2 
GaADWARC tae tae aoe || inae'els 2 
Cabbage, edible por- 

THOM [65 Sec ees Stee 4 
Cauliflower 322555520 i 
Mevplgur.: -wof2s ss se: 1 
Wuetince- s.2b Fer o233%. 3 
Spinach... 2. es 3574 1 
SASPAaVaMs cose sac 3 
Great perA . 22 62 2'5>22- 1 | 
Strine heans:.. 2.22... 2 
Lima beans, ereen BE ora i 
Green sweet corn.....- 1 
ALOTMMALGES 2 bats tae nae 14 
Watermelon, flesh or 

PUMP cess sas sascseoa 1 
Fruits, etc.: 

PAGE Tele Reet ae Geese 
Apples, edible portion. 7 
Bananas, with skin... 1 | 
Bananas, with pulp... 2 
Cherries, flesh........ 1 
Strawberries.-.-:..... 19 
Black berries|..---.--5- 1 
Whortleberries........ 1 
Craxtberries. Gs... .-2- 5. i 
GTaAPCS a0 - ore Sei ce ene mmm Pe 
Grapes, edible portion. 1 
Lemons, flesh....-..... 2 
Oranges, flesh......... 13 
Canned: 
Baked beans, canned... 12 
Peas, CANNCG....2----5. 82 
String beans, canned. -| 18 
Lima beans, canned... 15 
Squash, canned.-....... 2 
Tomatoes, canned..... 11 
Corn, canned......--<.- 44 
Succotash, canned..... 1 


we aeee ree 


= ecceeee 


we eee eee 


a ee 


lee e eee we 
lewe wee ee 
pet tte cee 

Se 
ee 
wee ee eee 
ee 
weer rw ee 


| 
2x he 


| 
| 


i 


jwwen wees 
ee 
lewecreee 
woes ene 


ee 


Edible portion. 
Nutrients. 

Car- 
Pro- | wat. | bohy- 
drates. 

Pound. | Pound. | Pound. 
.07 . 004 79 
2 . 02 60 
13 22 5 
20 . 32 .40 
.10 01 55 
10 01 53 
.10 14 .70 
ll 10 . 69 
09 13 . 69 
11 05 .78 
12 92 .73 
Rebs) 00 Sats ae 
. 003 002 . 88 
a2gsaeets i xmhate 1. 00 
Saea #aat eteeees 73 
02 | 004 15 
02 001 18 
.01 | .003 23 
02 004 26 
01 001 07 
. 02 .001 | .09 
01 001 . 06 
01 . 002 . 08 
01 003 09 
01 . 003 .10 
. 004 001 05 
01 . 002 .10 
a . 002 02 
01 . 002 03 
02 . 003 04 
. 02 . 003 05 
02 01 05 
01 . 003 05 
02 01 04 
02 01 . 03 
02 . 002 03 
04 01 16 
02 . 004 10 
07 OL 22 
03 01 14 
01 . 604 05 

| 

01 01 . 06 
.004} .01 12 
01 01 16 
OL . 002 15 
02 01 27 
01 01 il 
.O1-|° .01 .07 
01 02 08 
01 03 14 
004 OL 11 
01 Ol .16 
02 02 21 
OL OL 08 
01 01 09 
07 03 . 20 
04 . 002 10 
01 001 . 04 
04 . 0038 14 
01 . 003 “3 
01 . 002 04 
03 01 20 
04 OL 19 


al mat- 
ters. 


| Fuel 
value of 


Miner- |! pound. 


Pound. | Calories. 


. 004 
- 03 
-O1 
. 02 


- 01 
. 02 


1, 630 
1, 605 
1, 660 
2,475 


1, 265 


Te 


HUMAN FOODS. 5D51 


TABLE B.—Nutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices. 


Te: ‘nce et Ww vill buy — 
Prices : 
Food materials as purchased. per Total Nutrients. 
pound. | food ma- | [ mt ae 
terial. | Protein. Fat. ietbetan: Weare 
ANIMAL FOODS. 
Beef: Cents. Pounds.| Pound. | Pound. | Pound. | Calories. 
INES «asrawgie oF sda older bai matigeiee 4 2, 50 0, 36 OSS. Bcc nnts 1, 825 
1: SERS Ss Se Sa ican 6 1. 67 24 Py | de eee 1, 220 
eta nav wang An ah ode me Shee ate he 8 125 18 Pa ee es 910 
OY 5 ns kg vB sn cine deBeeRE 8 1.25 1 Be |) ate 1,175 
oa, i th sw uecetannbund 10 1. 00 15 el re 940 
etre sclera a ethan cata sialic Aas clea 14 Pa 4 Pe by 6 i i a tiegtars aie 695 
PMB cies nS oi. nin wate ala ceeae t 6 1. 67 aol AB i ee Ses 1, 270 
dhe 5 Sala a eer SE 9 Ei .18 aig 1.5 ee reer 5 
Li: & Seo ee ae st ek ee 12 . 83 14 «OD Wee was dniag 630 
RR ree eee ee 10 1. 00 13 sg eis 1, 140 
1 gk) ee ee ee ae ee ee 12 . 83 Po: a eee 945 
SII a, on Snk,G aun. elas mate Sueno 16 . 63 . 08 Pere 720 
So ES eee nee a a eae a 12 . 83 14 ys eS 915 
MR ci sing Exe 2 3a Ben sede 5 15 . 67 ie i 2B Dieeahhs ame 735 
"pata athe a agannis tien 18 155 09 PAO TR as 605 
cite N Su 0.5 8s «52220 20 .50 . 08 WF leesaeend 550 
IMPAIR WIM te na Sree ae ie maeee 10 1. 00 rs ap hi i eee 780 
Do ae 2 ee Se ee ee pe 12 . 83 ab OST eo 645 
lias) BARS Se eee eee ee 15 . 67 Pp A Pee 525 
oo ae Bee Se ce ea Soee ee 5 2. 00 . 43 pap | 0. 04 1, 330 
1, SS Sa = ee ee ee 8 1325 aol 07 . 02 830 
eried mic smoked... 22.52. 2... 15 . 67 ol 1's [Ree Spree a 595 
lin: - AP Pe Ee es es eee oe 20 500 .16 BG a ee 445 
| > SiS eee Senna 25 40 aE: A 3 eee ve 355 
Canned ena ES nin ote ba ighae oe 10 1. 00 ok fe Dee eee 1,170 
Me eS oo ss 12 :83 "22 a8 ee 970 
uh 9). SESE Be eer 16 . 63 mei STO he oe ae 735 
Veal: 
DEIEMNIS = rio.c oS tos oo sale ook een oe 8 125 Py! j Po) a eae ee 845 
8 ge Ne SS ES 2 eee eee 10 1.00 Paty SGN Coe ols can 675 
ee aaa 14 71 112 _06 | matiertatel 480 
CS a eee eo 15 . 67 me 400, lowes nanos 445 
LG (SS OOS ee oe ae ee 20 . 50 . 08 Pe! Sl ie eee 335 
Leg 5 (eutlet) FRE UPL Ba oat 15 . 67 05 es 155 
jen aS OF ee ea oe 29 ee ee 20 . 50 . OF AOE he ee 120 
Rolston: | 
SLAP ee ae i See 5 2. 00 . 26 ud Gsiltaooks ripsoam nto 2, 050 
Logi SS ES eS. ce oe te 1. 43 .19 BP. ee ee 1, 465 
125.) SRR Se eee eee 10 1.00 <e |!) eee 1, 025 
[get (_) 0) 5) eae ee 8 I. 25 .16 1 1d Ca ees 1, 935 
oe e eee  eeee 12 . 83 eu Ph eae aS gat ee 1, 285 
Ly oe ee 16 . 63 . 08 ape ee ae encore 975 
Se ee eee 8 1.20 19 A I eee oe 1,140 
TG = 25: Se Se ee 12 . 83 ap ly ae 755 
Li - ee Ceo Se rr 16 . 63 . 09 ee sees oe oe 575 
Pork: 
| SE ee 10 1. 00 14 hy ee eC ee 1, 300 
i a GES Se Se See ee een 12 80 12 i) 1 ee 1, 080 
BME oh Ore ak btn eres Ne ess cca J 14 we! -10 a leik nc oes 925 
Smoked ates Ree ee 12 . 83 . 06 Sars ee 1, 430 
Do oe SE Ee Sica a eee 16 . 63 . 04 24 | IA a 1, 090 
SNE dh ne ot eater Srottatee me Aint wad 20 . 50 . O4 21 a a ee 860 
Seicked NNOULC GH. cee dete ne ee 8 25 .16 rc ae ee 2, 030 
* Peat d: dwicieiaha xan a edadeoatnaitsere oo 10 1. 00 Ba 5} 3 | ees 1, 625 
Ceca ns ciate quaelemnWeice wont se 14 pari . 09 sae | Rice uke be code 1, 150 
Salt 3 ooay ese Se een, + Bates ie ak ire 10 1.00 . O4 1 5 ees 2,995 
<M? SOE ek ed ee et Ape ee 14 Sel . 03 pa A) |e a 2, 125 
Pork LOWED ie Sees ane Ey arcane sane 8 1.25 15 50 02 2, 430 
UU DES Res 2) Ser te 8 oe ee 10 1.00 12 40 .O1 1, 945 
Cg a OE SE a a8 De eS 12 se me 33 01 1, 615 
Bologna sausage..........-c0.------ 8 1,25 oot > a ees 1, 350 
edeck cons oe Sian ee ou eee re Sees we 10 1. 00 19 Rf) ee ey 1, 080 
Fish: 
Wresh ead; dressed..........0..-.-«. 6 1, 67 LS: eaayn « = a'ae bain creel 340 
: Pe, RES RS EY OY SEE 8 1, 22 hh 8) Se eee ee ae ee 255 
Ee TR a BBS ad 12 . 83 pit Ioninanadscth-halpbeseies 170 
Fresh mackerel, dressed ............ 2 83 09 | OT: nas ocr 300 
- ae eee Be fly ees 15 . 67 . 08 mir ar eee 240 
eet hoy ee eee as 18 e0o . 06 |? hl |e 200 
Biuofish POOR FON Shc cnc acces oan 8 1. 25 12 + ees 255 
ee eR ee SE Rt OE RRR a! a RE 12 . 83 . 08 A Ml Ker ee < 170 
rine torah en een ee 16 | 63 ed Ee, See ae 130 
Halibut PORN CR e ee io a telie eci ek oles 15 | . 67 -10 POE esto takes 310 
MRM A Sab han Meehan Sees a is cla eee 18 «58 .08 Mgt Se 255 
LTS V7 LER Ri es ee 25 | . 40 - .06 MR ee eek oe 270 
OTN. ee eae. Sack cama deeens 50 | » 20 . 03 ahah lc keer at een 135 


552 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE B.—WNutrients obtained for 10 cents in different foods at ordinary prices—Cont’d. 


Food materials as purchased. 


ANIMAL FOODS—continued. 


Fish—Continued. 


Salt Taare eee CARES see a 


Oysters: 


S0icents a Quart. - oF ...22-<ece- 
40 cents a quart............... 
50 cents a quart............... 


Eggs: 


ft 5yCents'aGozZen:. oc << =. -c.52s- 
Micents a dozens <= sc5,oc sce 
25 cents adozen-........cces< 
30 cents 4 dozen... .-5......05%. 


Milk: 
Sweet— 


4cents a quart..-.--.-.0.- 
6cents a quart............ 
Sicew@ts avg Wark. ase selec 
Skim, 3 cents a quart.-....---.- 


Cheese: 


Potatoes: 


As cents a PUShel -.-<2<.02ccie0 ce. 
60 cents a bushel....4../...... 
75 cents 2 bushel 2..~..-.0sce2 
90 cents a bushel.............-. 


Sweet potatoes: 


90 ceuts a bushel..........--.- 
$1.20 a bushel: ..sssewes ae ess 
$1.50 a bushel: i..-ciceee en 2 5 
PUPS. nts2essteer eters ens os~ eed 
POON sc Pee bst os.bu see Nebo med ces 
ORS So See ie ae de Wee eens 


Prices 


per 


pound. 


toe 


DOR SW OM O MD OOD KH Or 7 Cn Or mC OO DO WO DS 


cellrentLaed 
Bei BR RAH OAK 


Ok Or NNe 


Total 


food ma- 


terial. 


Pounds. 
2 


a 


I Se et SU Se 


ae aoe ee 


bs eS Bee 


a ee tae tee tet er marie Og RO AROS RO E2 CONC Fee 


Ten cents will buy— 


Protein. 


Pound. 


Nutrients. 
Carbo- 
Fat. hydrates. 
Pound. | Pound. 
, 19s aansaseee 
1S ssseesaeee 
JOD s.35-c ears 
01 |. «settee 
.O1 . 03 
Ol . 02 
.O1 01 
o12.| cee 
09" a ae 
207 | > aaa 
06H. cehoaeene 
. 20 | . 24 
. 138 .16 
ml) a2 
A038 . 34 
« DAA amie eee 
BG. cae ssa 
26:1. ee 
. 30 .O1 
23 .O1 
mals 16 
. 06 3.74 
. 04 2.99 
. 03 2. 49 
.18 3. 56 
Bn by, PHY 
roe: PROT 
.18 1.71 
14 1. 36 
.01 1.59 
. 01 1.14 
203 1.38 
. 02 B Ae | 
. 02 . 92 
Bul . 69 
. 20 nay 
ily 1 
22 1.16 
15 bik 
. 08 1.29 
. 05 . 86 
ee ee 1. 23 
eee . 98 
eke 2. 50 
tarehoretetoretee 2.00 
EE ig tes 1. 67 
.O1 2. 03 
-O1 1.52 
.O1 1.22 
OL 1.01 
. 02 1.52 
02 1.14 
OL 91 
.O1 . 46 
. 06 1. 98 
. 05 1. 49 
. O4 1.19 


Fuel 
value. 


Calories. 


HUMAN 


FOODS. 


553 


TABLE C.—Prices used in estimating cost of daily dietaries. 


Price per 


; . 
| 


_ 
~~ 
| 
= 
o | 
3 
° 
" 


| Price per | 
| pound. pound. | pound. 
. ‘ . ' / mT) 2 
Food material. | gia Food material. .| 8 {A | Food material. |} .| aia. 
a| 8 22 a | 5 |eo la] 3 los 
| Se € 3 |Re (ei) a ae 
}2| 3 4a eared Parelh 
|O|Aa B 0 /A | | [Oo |A R 
Ra a es es ee ee ee Be iF us. a eee 
Beef: ots. Ots. Cts.|| Eggs—15, 24, and |Cts. Cts. Cts. | Vegetables—con’d. (Ots. Cts. Cts. 
NBG ecw n'0's'e!~ 4/ 6; 8] &80cents dozen...| 10 | 16 | 20 | Sweet pota- 
Chuck ....-.... S| 10 | Té-|| Layd:...:-22....-9 8 | 10 | 12 | t oe s—$0.90, | 
Shoulder .....-.. 6 | B72 | Flours, ete.: | : $1.20, and 
Shoulder clod ..| 9|10/12]} Wheat fiour....| 2| 24] 3 $1.50 bushel... 13, 2) 2 
1 3 ee 0/12 15 |; Graham flour...| 3 {| 4 |... Turnip s—60 
Raver o6-.....<s 5| 8/10 Rye flour....... 2 | Oe and 90 cents | 
Canned corned .| 10 | 12 | 16 Corn meal...... Sita eee bushel ...-... Lh Ease 
Corned......... 8 | 10 | 12 Oatmeal.....-.- 3 | 4) 5 Beets — 22, 30, 
J” | ae 15 | 20 | 25 OG 5 fos = asign oy ee and 38 cents 
Mutton chops...... 8 | 12 | 16 || Bread, ete. : 1g SO Oe 14, 24 & 
Pork: | Wheat bread...| 4/ 6] 8 Onions—15, 22, 
sparerib........ 10 | 12 | 14 Rye bread...... oi -Orses and 30 cents | 
Smoked ham ...} 12 | 16 | 20 Brown bread...| 4) 5] 6 PGCE 2.5252. rive. 2 
Salt pork....... 10 4-14 |... Milk crackers..| 6} 9|.... Squash: . <<... 2| 3] 4 
Sausage........ 8 | 10 | 12 Boston crackers} 5/| 6 |.... Boans..:5-222-4 8) 4/5 
Fish: Corn starch’...2) °:9°}' 101.53. Canned toma- 
Fresh cod...... 6! 8 | 12 PO PAT Boss. fees 4-0) se ja oa 4{ 6] 8 
Galt cod ...-.... Of 8 ids Molasses — 50. Fruit: 
Boned cod...-..- CB Ui (Ca |e 60, and 70 Strawberries...| 4] 7] 10 
Salt mackerel ..| 8 | 12 |....! cents gallon..| 64) 74! 83 Oranges .....--. | 2 epee 
Canned salmon.| 12 | 16 20 || Vegetables: ' Bananas ....... a ee 2 
OS 16 24 | 32 Potatoes—60, 75, Asp ples=<n.2 2 1| 14 2 
op 12 116 |.... and 90 cents Grapes 3.5.52 3| 8 | 12 
Milk—4, 6, and 8 | | bushel. ....... L| 14 13 
cents quart ...... 2{ 3 4 
| 


TABLE D.—Daily dietaries.—Food materials furnishing approximately the 0.28 pound 
of protein and 3,500 calories of energy of the standard for daily dietary of a man at 


moderate muscular work.' 


[Cost estimated from prices given in TableC.] 


+ Cost. 
Food materials. nt he eS FR 
| Me. |jExpen- 
& Cheap-| qinm. | sive. | Total. 
Ounces.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents. Lbs. 
ee eee 4 0.3 0.4 0.4) 0.02 
ETS) yo 16 2 3 a Balls: 
Se Sarno emacs ton. c oes 4 “o 8 1 - 03 
(Te ides. Gaga ae Seer 1 .8 a Te liye Pa . 04 
PS 5. ko. sos 8 cee a. ae, 09 
Lo STe eS ee 6 el tS 1.9 .31 
DUD Dear Se Se aed 8 1 td 1, .44 
OSA T CEE | a ees ee 8 1 LAS a .43 
RROD Ede... op «came acme 2 .3 .4 4 = ala 
A er Pee ] «2 3 | A - 06 
RNG tae - o.oo perae act 2 | .8 Seale haa ES . 09 
i, Se Tae | _ 53] 85| m7] 189] 1.75 
MUU. S «cists sig Sete cn cee 6| 2.3 3 3 . 06 
Milk, one-half pint ........ © ie 1 1.5 2 . 06 
RCO rae oe cts ea eee eco 2 2 3 4 - Le 
SS eres s*.2 3 4 . 03 
Ee DOT, J. ..-. cccecsnscees 4 3 4 4 . 02 
UV OCG ea ae ee 6 4 .5 .6 .07 
Vo. i os Ses See es ee 7 1.3 Ay ye Be ( 
ONGC ILOUEE -& .< =: ae «nina a vee 12 1.5 1.9 2.2 . 65 
Oatmeal (or corn meal, 3 

BFPO EC. = os ceases ba 23 .5 a: .8 .14 
Se pene 14 4 | 5 6 . 09 
Lo) 46} 9.9 | 13.4 | 16.2] 1.59 


, Nutrients. 
ee - wee se 
ro . Jarbohy-| value. 
tein. Fat. drates. 
| ———}-— 
Lb. | Lb. | Lbs. |Calories. 
alee b-*Gntiel tetris 95 
0.04) .04 0. 05 325 
aaa ar ee 115 
02 Se ee Ce es 125 
fi) Se eee 08 | 160 
(08 |. 01 22 | 600 
MEW. Bl 37 820 
05 . 02 36 | 825 
ay eee .10 | 205 
SEE RIN 06 | 115 
Pre dw A: hal tec hice ao Q9 | 165 
27 15 1.33 |. 8, 550 
yt | ae a ee ee 
. 02 . 02 02 165 
ee ty es 450 
ee — eeeeeees| 130 
bey re 9 <2 | bh POSSE FR 95 
a | Sea 06 120 
10 | 5 268, 26 | 700 
. 08 01 | 56; 1,230 
| | 
.02! 01] mip 290 
ncaa boon sates 09 | 175 
29 20 1.10| 3,475 


'In some cases supplementary items are given to show the effect of the addition of*particular food 
materials on the cost and nutritive value of a dietary. 


1 A 94——22 


554 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE D,—Daily dietaries.—Food materials, etc.—Continued. 


[Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.] 


3 Cost. Nutrients. 
: 3 —_——->— | ——————]| Brel 
Food materials. iS) 
Me- |Expen- Pro- Carbohy-| value. 
a Cheap. dium.| sive. Total. tein Fat. drates. \ 

Ounees.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents.| Lbs. Lb. EB. Lbs. |Calories. 
Peek, Ob 3556 - S-pcon ned 4 3 4 4 MRS. navies x 95 
Canned corned beef ....-.-. 4 235) 3 4 me fi -07 oe NY i lepeaaenere 7 290 
er eine Ree eee gtr oe yr a8 3 A RS ee it FO ee 130 
AUDIKO: 5 ea See ak aa 4 Aa .8 1 03 01 -01 01 89 
gpbberr oe sies. £55 = tetas ce 1 1 15 2 SST lecno Stel OS |: Beta eee 225 
ot, Le ate pie, a1 ‘ney. 8 2.5 .03 .02 MOE cae 90 
IPOUMOCS. Bolt Seton cee ches 8 a5 .6 .8 09 BION We 2 ee ae . 08 160 
Reena line 525520 adasteae 5 ao es 1.6 227 s07 -O1 19 500 
Wheat owns. ese 28 e oe & at Ws 1.5 44 06 01 37 820 
Cortnieal 2233 -- .e 4 =o a? ath sOt 02 .O1 18 410 
Ti TOROS A ics «an = 5+ eee 4 5 ear +o 22 O28 8s sae - 20 405 
UAT chistes <a deh + did onewels 3 ~8 9 At ST itetso wie iol o agen ae .19 350 
ROTAL = sien 'aci= Sao shee 4h 10 13.5.1 5 DBF L. 69 . 28 .19 1.22 | 2, 505 
AMURB Se 52 tooo sso pean 8 .5 .8 L NG | «2 wound ahaa . 06 125 
Reet ode, aoe 4 3 4 4 cf i eos ene aera 01 35 
ER OGoN ee os ieee ane 56 10.8 14.7 18.1 1. 76 28 29 1. 29 3. 110 
Beefingeley. 36s SGeeieous wo, 25! a7| 5 pees 08 07 ene 455 
Bened codec 2 4 soca 4 253 25 2.5, 06 «06 She. «.<ipimhs ceee 105 
Milk, one-half pint........- 8 a a bay 2 06 . 02 . 02 02 165 
BT i. Sh 14 3 bass 23 & eS ee ge OS | ae casein. 340 
TRO a5 i ses uote eee is “Di .6 Per OGRA eee EAU; Ul Wasps a 2605 
‘Potatoes 2 icste soe eee 10 6 | .8 af 11 OL bo 2eccee .-10 200 
LUN Ae een ares eee a Ore 16 2 20 3 87 alt: OL Pa 13) 1, 645 
TR Vere aa SU eat El es paces 2 6 9 ee) 16s OR sciaetenrete -10 205 
A a Ng 1 3 .3 4 OB ns ome eee . 06 115 
We tale eee eats rae Se Rs es (Soe Lo PY 2 1, 56 . 29 24 1. 03 3, 495 
Bananas (or apples, 7)------ 6 ae dbs 1.9 (I a el pede 05 110 

Canned tomatoes (or grapes, | 
Pp OUNCES) 5 ance Se ances ce 18! 2x 3.7 5 | 02" |... ce Sener . 03 70 
opel anuscts woke : G93; 14.9] 20.3) 25.38| 1.64 29 | 24 1.11 3, 675 
pe ee ee | 92 | 4 6 8 24 .07 . 08 09 650 
Chees@2ii.c.5 3s 0s eke 6 4.5 6 6 22 . 09 13. .Seeees 750 
Boston Crackers .n-cssce<< 18 5.6 5.8 5.8 1. 01 S12 Beit 78 2,130 
2 ATT ARR Cy Mae 56 | 14.1 | 17.8| 198 | 1.47 28 82 . 87 3, 530 
Beer, SHOU ccc. sce bee 12 4.5 6.8 9 20 12 PSs cee ere 570 
Canned salmon... -. <2. --; 4 3 4 5 09 05 a ee sis ee 260 
Milk, one-half pint......... 8 1 na) 2 05 02 . 02 02 165 
AMEE DE? 2 = hide ako ale abbaie see 1 1 5 2 Wat Asc c=— OB | crotemenre 225 
AAT i he wa sweat otal nis 2 2 1 12 1.5 Tig) ee ae 013 eee 530 
MeOEAbORS cone een keee ss s7 10 .6 .8 .9 Bt AOL taksim ees -10 200 
Se at aR Ree: (Ours. a | ase base 6, 55 207 01 “AT 1, 025 
BS Se eee ook ee Se 23 .8 1 ae Lat 13 OL | waeawees 2412 255 
MGS 32.3 Se todct: dBase | 2 | 5 -6 .8 BDH Fa wionst cies aaa | .13 235 
ee A RE TOPOS. 51p) (13.7 | “49.1 | 224.2] | 1.45 28 33 . 84 8, 465 
Canned tomatoes........... ets De, 3 OO RRe 222. eae eee . 02 40 
PTIARINS on Nessa xn nie hwraaienes 3 4. .6 .8 1) Weal ten Pe 01 20 
| ee ee 603| 15.6 | 21.9 | 28 | 1. 48 28 33 87 | 3,525 
NAD OAL ois einciciens aw noces 9 4.5 5. 6 6.8 18 09 OB wats etasleels 525 
Milk, three-fourths pint.... 12 1.5 2.3 3 10 . 03 - 03 04 245 
Daitter 325530 teense ase Sven 2 2 3 | 4 TOMPES o.cxicee LO) mccrqrerate 450 
ft epee Laren RR a foe oe ee 2.5 03 .02 OW lustre: 90 
Wepat0es 52 «in, scien oe: 10 sie .8 .9 11 OL es aes .10 200 
OEDIPS.tSase.. cauewences 5 B 4 5 08) ho vnsime cena . 02 45 
Le iene os eee cect SE SER. 8 1 Nee aL) 44 . 06 » Gk oor 820 
Moe bread ci..i... tbaaes 8 2 3 4 31 O4d namedae 4 640 
Oatineal - 5252/5252. act eee 2 .4 .5 .6 74 . 02 03 .09 230 
SRE 55 ce nboredvivenlaens 3 BS 9 Dal | 1D iis sim af etanenne .19 350 
nn) Os; | 61| 14.3| 19.7 | 24.9 | 1. 60 27 25 1.08 3, 595 
COP ROG NiO OF io iste cise ctarew L 8 4 5 6 .16 08 . 08 l Sasece 470 
Pork @80G8L6... n2.-0n.cee'eve 4 2 O35 3 . 48 03 «10 |. --engaee 485 
Milk, one-half pint......... 8 1 1.5 2 -.05 02 . 02 02 165 
SIMETOR oso xnwe ae a oie 1 1 1,5 2 Fa, ul Pog a hgh UOT enix nani 225 
OCORE: Co ibldes dense 2 1.5 2 2 BLN 03 BE A 250 
EVILS | cs cceese doesn 12 Sy 9 i [epi ele OWS ieee ALY 240 


. SS eS 


HUMAN FOODS. 555 
TasLy D.—Daily dietaries.—Iood materials, ete. —Continued. 
[Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.}] 
“ Cost. Nutrients. 
. (Sees roll Fuel 
Tood materials S) yn 
Me- |Expen-| Pro- *, Carbohy-| value. 
§ Cheap, gium.| sive. | 1°%l-| tein Fat. | Grates. 

ee ia SHEER eae pa of es 
Ounces.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Lbs. Lb. Lb. Lbs. |Calories. 
SNES GOOD clasw noobie < Osc hh Wi SGilo BS: 42 . 06 OL 35 290 
INS e ides som iehes vine a 6 8 9 ural . 32 Sl eee ee . 28 615 
Oe ee 3 1.2 1.4 16 REM sa nash Al coeiwrs $5 ) 14 250 
_ POR RS 54. | 14.7] 19.5] 23.8| 1.47 27 30 | . 90 2, 999 
Canned corned beef........ oh ee ee. .08 £05 | 03 | Ba Re ies, 
OS a a ee 8 3 4 6 . 05 . 05 [orttet ee eres eres 100 
1 2 are Tibet 3 4 13 O41) 04 | 05 325 
li ema She eB he BOF he 3B rps eee rv ae ee 565 
ee rere 12 7 Mil EB .12 fg eee ae 240 
ae ees Sta ie! <8 . 44 . 06 OL . 37 $20 
iso Ch) Ss rere 3 .4 6 6 sie . 02 .O1 ails 310 
PROMO TOUT s6 sew. ie =~ 0 3 6 .8 .8 15 et inl RE ee Pps 200 
Wheatlet _ | Ei RES 2 5 6 +f 11 .02 | te .09 200 
ee ni iniciainanciennen 2 Ab. +6 malt Os on es recuttgmen inte obs oes 23 
1 es a Se 1 4 5 6 eS REESE: MAP i . 05 85 
GaN Seana 603} 13.5| 18.2| 2s | 1.55| .27] «22 | 106! 3,405 
Ss a aeearenaiaiea iy leu 2 2.5 03 3 ae, | eM: | 90 
_ SS aaa 624, 14.7| 20.2| 265 | 1.58] .20| 23 |_1.00 | 3,495 
Shouider clod (or neck)... -. 8}. 4.51: 5 ae eu 10 | 07 | ate att 465 
CO 0G 4 FB: 255 225 . 06 pol ane Ce AN. 105 
Milk, one-half pint......... Ri: T tip 3 . 06 . 02 . 02 | 2 165 
oa 241 2.5 37 5 Po 9 opomerliael eaapis " g iow Res win 565 
Dotstees 22. 262.24... ---- 7 4 UG). 7 . 08 zt Fer 07 240 
ee 1 5 .6 7 MB ates a pete rage 265 
ee 8 1 1.3 1.5 . 44 . 06 01 . 37 820 
OC ee ee 2 4 a Or 12 . 02 | 01 . 09 230 
Brown bread ....---.--.---- ele hee Loh a3 Se Se > £15 365 
SS) es 4 .3 3 .3 P|”, | Seen es Stat . 03 55 
OS a ae 3 Pr a9 Lik om | eee ee | mahal ws ahaa -19 | 350 
EE EER 50 | 15.1] 18.8| 29 | 1.51 51 | 28| .31 | 92| 3,525 
EE 2 ER te take Cee ete selena 585 
Milk, one-half pint......... Sls, ai 1.5| 2 (06; 102! 02 02 | 165 
(ae 2 2..5 3.8 5 See aneee y G ipaasaiipa po 565 
ST es 16} 1 bon. 16 i OFT. see .15 320 
SS ee eee ct ae: 3 4 . 34 .05| 01 . 28 630 
SE OTEINGA esis xn a caipicin odin © i 29 js a Le: Jot O4 | , 02 31 720 
Ee raneinienees es ~-- 3 i 9 1.1 y OT 5 0 = Stes eee 19 350 
LOS, ae 564 15.6 | 20.8| 26.2/ 1.48| .27| .26| .95| 3,335 
(MPNOURNE sae S 0 oo ee oo ees 6 Vaal anti 1.9 | Ri 2 : Rae, cS Mi aan . 05 110 
Canned tomatoes.........-. Ei; 1 Lay 2 ct ae & Saat eee .O1 | 25 
DS 5 RE AAA 4 ST TR pA Fo PE pee - 02 | 40 
PR vn slokince -sxisoas 70s} 18.1] 243] 30.7] 1.55 a7 | .26| 1.03| 3,510 
Mutton chops...........--- Be a, oh oe 1b 8 i 1 ae ares | 7715 
Dried beef...--..--.- PRP NS eh Seb a ei 4. 7 . 08 06 01 01 | 165 
Milk, three-fourths pint.... 12 LS 2.3 3 .10 . 03 .03 . O4 245 
SOE EN RE 1-2 3 4 ple aber este Gaeseeae 450 
bo SEES pea Pilger 10 6 a a ap oli Cele 10 | 200 
el ES Mae ay S| eB. Tay ob .42 . 06 01 .35 790 
NE Oe 1 ne a .3 05 Oe aero - O4 | 115 
MAL KY GraicitGhic« owsiens.c-cces 2 .8 nS kok .12 .OL . 02 09 250 
DROME So oo a: on civisox Guerra oe aos 3 .4 Py .6 .16 BU Meee oS nd 14 310 
GID ccc aninake ainacubes 3 ete 1 2 3 4 FAMED & fos aoe; badass 06 | 115 
WME cncno tccats cee 52 | 15 21.7| 28 1. 42 27 | 32 .83| 3,415 
Ts RRR epee F $4. Ese], <2 2.5] 08 4 ee, | & eee 90 
TN aaa rg = 4; .5| 8] 1 DOE Regan Veco 01 25 

Strawberries (or oranges, | 
POOMCEE) as 5 wapine oan ate 6 | 15| 26) &7) .0B}.-.....- |--<-202- | 03 65 
ee hy act e1| 183] 27.1| 35.2| 149/ .20| 33 87 | 3,595 
1S ye tes sie NG 8| 6 | ec) ae os eS ee RS Siena 
RE oc Gi te a ok ae oon 08 | 102/01 250 
Bik, 14 pints... nee mi, 2hy Ss 6 ts .3 .05| .05 | . 06 405 
Sache IS Aaa RE et Me IER: «chiens ie gee 225 
MEREGEG: iiihs. Since US ake 12 a SRE 38 Y  eaeeatian ey 240 


556 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TaBLe D.—Daily dietaries.—Food materials, ete.—Continued. 


Food materials. 


[Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.] 


Amount. 


BOW. 222.28 Secu oerer secs sah 


ERE he moe rac ae 


RROAG (meee ecco s a5 ates 
RS ae eee eter 


Apples..2. 22. <e2 bs 2a. oe. 
JOT EAI OS < 24585 seo. com oee ose 


Beet TOUNG, eo eoet-s—ecses 
Dried beeh-s-....e2s 55522225 
Milk, three-fourtks pint. ... 
LATIN eee oo beep iologDCOCO OE 
Egg,l ...-..-- Tae ee ee 
POtabOCs a. ote ee fac sean ciel 
Mieheat HOURS a. 5-55 --csce2 
Breage: heehee oseces 
Cor: meal. s<ecGssesoessee 
BO GAT os be neh naa0s2e2 5-20" 


Constant: 


PUblELeR: . co cet es aseee 
Milk, one-half pint ..--.. 
Wotatoesin2s.252252 22008 
MVhoeat Wourssso 2.22.2 
Wom Meal. <-o Soces=,- = 
Mille crackers. = ---2.<<: 
DU GAL - noe. senna seccsee 


Total constant.....- 


Variable A: 1 


Heer, sirloin <a2--- es. - 
Dried. PEC. 5,25 Siew 0022 


| hale eo 


Variable B: } 


Beet MOCK sc.cdereaec-cts 
Canned corned beef..-.. 
Oatmeal ses cs cose vec Ans 


Total’. 2... toes aoe. dees 


Variable C:} 


Balt COO"Usitsamiewecae ee 
BOQTIG RE boo inians dae Seale 


OTE Sxixioca te wie is Re 


Constant: 


Galt mackerél...cn.226s% 
ON ta ow ala’ vin up win oe 
POtALOGE oor cv ntca naan cae 
W heat flour.....-.<:- we: 


no 


1) 
— 


Nir 


ce, eee ee 

wWwlmwwo| 
an , MPNOF 
oO CO © oo opnno 


DoH OwS 
. wo, . . 
wo, 


| 


Lo 


H © 00 


28 27 “91 

eae "07 

a Sane | "03 
28 27 1.01 

Shor: a-le saseees 
“03 "02 “03 
Pattee ake ai 
08 “Oi 56 
03 “OL 97 
01 02 "09 

pee | oan "06 
15 09 Le 
9. \"°\ aa eee 
04 01 


. 05 OH piers eraeeee 
07 ODE oon 
01 .O1 . 06 
28 .18 D Fpl ei’ 

OD: ts 03a eee 

. 08 OL 22 

. 28 10 1538 
04 pO Neco ere 

ecco SLUMS eeceee 
ODe as arse 15 
06 | 01 Sow 


Nutrients. 
| ove 
Pro Carbohy- Vatue. 
tein Fat. drates. 

mp | Lb Lbs. | Calories. 
06 01 37 820 
“02 01 "18 410 
a, OBA deg tie 13 235 
26 33 861 3,445 
02 OL-|... eee 90 
28 34| .86| 3,535 
ame 40-1:5 eg ee 
es SOB ieee 340 
-08 OT eae 375 
OT aes naaee 240 
"10 “01 185 1, 265 
“02 “03 “17 500 
ei Se eee 06 115 
28 29 .89 3, 425 
5 ead (3c PRIS, 08 155 
eh Garo ‘01 15 
28 | - .29 98 | 3,595 
07 Prgms 
06 ‘01 “01 165 
03 "03 Od 245 
een * |. AG eee 630 
“02 01“: ieee 90 
i Gere ret “10 200 
"Odd o-oo ae i 310 
05 “01 "98 630 
2 “01 "18 410 
poe he -16 295 


1To make a complete dietary the totals of variable items should be added to totals of the preceding 


constants. 


HUMAN FOODS. 5D7 


TABLE D.—Daily dietaries.—Food materials, ele.—Continued. 


|Cost estimated from prices given in Table C.} 


+ Cost. Nutrients. / 
P = Ser i = Fuel 
Food materials. ° Ma. |i “4 3 i akc 
aoe - |Expen-} rp Pro- . Carbohy- value. 
§ Cheap, dium | sive. Total. tein. Fat. | drates. 

Constant —-Centinued, Ounces., Cents. a Cents. | Lbs. Lb. Lb. | Lbs. |Calories. 
COMP H Ls cn csieae whew 6 .8 pea 1k | 31 03 | 01 | 27 620 
PS i nS ae 2 i eee 6 12 02 OL 09 230 

Total constant...... 38 | 7.2| 10 | u.7| 1.21 7) 1%! 83 | £670 

Variable A; ! | 
eet. BIPIOIM J26. 0d o<62... 9 La (a eat | 11.3 20 09 | AH hy eee eee 620 
Milk, one-fourth pint. ... 4 Pe .8 1 03 01 | 01 | 01 80 
ls aa ciccwat onan x 1} 4 | 5 a) Og Cee eee) eee 09 | 175 

—— - - - | —_ eo - —_— '] 
MG dbo nkis wd aback cae 524, 14.8} 20.3 | 24.5 | 1.54 ne 98 3, 545 

Variable B:! RY 4 dees ai / Ban a 
ROG POUT Oa cce ices 8 5 6 7.5 | 14 09 - 1 5d Re 390 
Milk, three-eighths 

PUM ewese Nass 5 Fo aen «6 6 | Fe. Rea 1.5 | 05 01 02 | 02 120 

er 24 6 .8 9 8 See Bhat + | 16 295 
= = eS SS EE aS 1S a ERR ae 

JS oS se 544| 13.6 17.9 21.6) 1.57 27 . 24 | 1. 06 3,475 

Variable C:} pay apo | y Pr ries ee 
Pee MOR or o/a.5.0 3, ~)oisaravm « pe ee Re 3.5 4.4 .12 09 . 02 01 90 
Milk, one-half pint..... ee 15) 2 | .06 02 . 02 . 02 | 165 
ee ee 3 of 9 1.1 | ohD favcsedse senseuns 19 | 350 

i i 56 | 11.1| 15.9| 19.2 | 1.59} .28 21; 1.10) 3,475 
| 


1To make a complete dietary the totals of variable items should be added to totals of the preceding 
constants. 


’ 


STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIETARIES FOR PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT CLASSES. 


The figures of the following tables represent the amounts of nutrients which 
different investigators have estimated to be proper for the daily food of people of 
different classes. Those of the first table are compiled from European sources; 
Nos. 1-6 are from investigations mainly by Voit, Forster, and Cammerer, in Ger- 
many; Nos. 7 and 8 are the well-known standards of Professor Voit, of Munich; 
No. 9 is by Moleschott, in Italy; No. 10, by Wolff, in Germany; and Nos. 11-15, by 
Playfair, in England. 

The figures for American standards are proposed by Atwater. They are based 
upon the European and American data. They differ from the European standards 
mainly in that the quantities are more liberal and that they are expressed simply in 
terms of protein and energy. 


TABLE E.—Luropean standards for daily dietaries. 


Nutrients. | 
a LOL Nutritive 
Class. | Carbo- value | ratio 
Protein. Fats. | hydrate s.| 
Pound. Pound. | Pounds. | Calories. 
1 | Children, 1 to 2 years, average........... 0. 06 0.08 | 0.17 765 | re | 
2 | Children, 2 to 6 years, average........... MY; . 09 | 44 1, 420 | 1. 35h 
3 | Children, 6 to 15 years, average.........-. .17 -10. 72 2, 040 | 1: 5.6 
ct Us WORN Ca etaeed ton cance te. .18 .11 | 57 1, 860 1:47 
5 Aged ET See ee emer Jee aeieee one cee. 22 AD ray a 2,475 1: 5.0 
6 | Woman at moderate work............... . 20 -10 | . 88 2,425 | i: 
7 | Man at moderate work (Voit).......-.--- . 26 -12 | 1. 10 8, 055 1: 5.3 
S|. ian ab hard work (Voit) <s-22cc.-2s. cos . 32 . 22 99 | 3, 370 1: 4.7 
9 | Man at moderate work (Moleschott) ..... . 29 - 09 | #21.) 3, 160 re oe!) 
10 | Man at moderate work (\Wolff).........- . 28 . 08 | Lid 3, 030 1: 4.9 
11 | Subsistence dict. (Playfair) .............. .13 .03 | .75 1, 760 | cee 
12 | Diet in quietude (Play fair).............- 16 . 06 .75 1, 950 | eh 
13 | Adults in full health (Playfair)......... . 26 -1l 1. 17 3.140 1: 5.4 
14.) Active laborers (Playfair) .-:2-.-s....-% . 34 | . 16 1.25 | 3, 630 1:47 
15 | Hard-worked laborers (Playfair)........ 41 | .16 1. 25 | 3, 750 re 


| ' | 


558 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE F.—American standards for daily dietaries. 


: Fuel Nutritive 

Class. Protein. alae cane 

Grams. | Calories. 

Woman with light muscular exercise..-.. Sta(ajaleiass |x tevajaxieiaie ween Batata Ales 90 2, 400 a ers aes) 
Woman with moderate muscular MOLI aaa eee oe co sate aca meer eae 100 2, 700 125.6 
an WwalhOw bunUSe war WON soo eats os pare te sees clelnare amas ane aan 112 3 000 ern 

Man: with light: musedlar wile... ghd «ona Sos eka ek he eee gnenows ‘ : pay 
Mian with mod eraLennmus Gili WOPKAs -. sas 008 ccc cisidemictndc cee oeman tee iiyas: 3, 500 a S508 
Mon WitneDerd JTUSO Ul AURORE «5 Bic ots shins Secs oisjc omidio eh winree cle Bos 150 | 4, 500 1: 6.3 


FEEDING STUFFS (POR ANIMALS). 
EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS USED IN THE TABLE. 


Waier.—All feeding stuffs contain water. The amount varies from 8 to 15 pounds 
per 100 pounds of such dry materials as hay, straw, or grain to 80 pounds in pilaige 

and 90 pounds in some roots. 

Ashis what is left when the combustible part of a feeding stuff is burned away. 
It consists chiefly of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron, chlorine, and carbonic, sul- 
phuric, and phosphoric acids, and is used largely i in making bones. Part of the ash 
constituents of the food is therefore stored up in the animal’s body; the rest is 
voided in the manure. 

Protein (or nitrogenous materials) is the name of a group of materials containing 
nitrogen. Protein furnishes the materials for the lean flesh, blood, skin, muscles, 
tendons, nerves, hair, horns, wool, and the casein and albumen of milk, ete., and is 
one of the most important constituents of feeding stuffs. 

Fiber.—Fiber, sometimes called cellulose, is the framework of plants, and is, as a 
rule, the most indigestible constituents of feeding stuffs. The coarse fodders, such 
as hay and straw, contain a large proportion of fiber, and are, for this reason, less 
digestible than the grains, oil cakes , ete. 

Ni itrogen-free extract includes starch, sugar, gums, and the like, and forms an 
important “part of all feeding stuffs, put especially of most grains. The nitrogen- 
free extract and fiber are usually classed together under the name of carbohydrates. 
The carbohydrates form the largest part of all vegetable foods. They are either 
stored up as fat or burned in the system to produce heat and energy. 

Fat, or the materials dissolved from a feeding stuff by ether, is an impure product, 
and includes, besides real fats, wax, the green coloring matter of plants, ete. The 
fat of food is either stored up in the body as fat or burned to furnish heat and energy. 


Composition of feeding stuffs. 


Pie Nitrogen- 
Feeding stuff. Water.} Ash. | j4;,. | Fiber. free Fat. 
Sieiy extract. 
GREEN FODDER. 
Corn fodder, all varieties: Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct.| Perict. | Peret 
PTE YEG 2 mle a ao isp hn atis wlahniais laioraie ab lelelamioais 51.5 0.6 0.5 1.9 3 0.1 
EB RANTUINY (6 on iad ok es malin i erin m oes 93. 6 2.6 4 11.4 36.3 1.6 
TSE LIOO Hi ow mm aie pion 5 oiniaind claiiai in Teapots 79.3 1.2 1.8 5 12.2 -o 
ga Pedder AVETARS. ..-- o0-2-nnavceccue-buteee-s 76.6 1.8 2.6] “118 6.8 6 
Oat fodder, average ..-..---.---------+------ +225. 62. 2 2.5 3.4 ple he 4 19,3 1.4 
Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris),a in bloom, aver ager...) (65:3 2,3 2.8 il EW AY 9 
Tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum),b av- 
aE OE Pe: CORRE AP re IEE ORC tPA ORC BCR A Newnee $9.5 2 2.4 9.4 15.8 .9 
Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), average...--. 73 2 2.6 8. 2 13.3 .9 
Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis), average..--..- 69.9 1.38 2.4 10.8 14.3 .8 
Italian rye grass (Lolium italicum), average....-- 73.2 2.5 Sev 6.8 13.3 1.3 
Timothy (Phleum pratense),c at different stages: 
Minis | ok. pan % bees ee Deo boas ae 47 1.4 a3 5:1 10. 1 .6 
MAX CE 5 de a:n sn DEE Be ome nob an gains bas 78.7 Buz - 8.8 19, 4 28.6 2 
MV OVA OR tin Sind sate deb ebro wineiteny sliecnck ee eies 61.6 2.1 3.1 11.8 20. 2 1.2 
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis),d at different 
stages: 
MSTA iti nS 2 mete bas nisi Bootes tle Cee ee Slay Mats 2.4 3.8 6.5 .8 
IMaAsiINUNLs..2 <i .2 bee tos ase decode oer eee 82.5 4.8 | 7.2 14.8 26. 6 eet 
APRA << 5 nn aStngl vas Odes ds ee 65.1| 2.8] 41 9.1 17. 6 1.3 
Hungarian grass (Setaria), average...........---- (pe 1S 3.1 9.2 14.2 oa 
a Herd’s grass of Pennsylvania. e Herd's grass of New England and New York. 


b Meadow oat grass. d June grass. 


ee” — ——— a a 


FEEDING STUFFS. 559 


Composition of feeding stuffs—Continued. 


] if | 


: Pro- |Nitrogen- 
Feeding stuff. Water. Ash. | {4; Fiber. free | Fat. 
cin. ; 
extract. 
GREEN FODDER—continued. | 
Red clover (Trifolium pratense), at different 

stages: Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per et. | Per ct. 
OMT RMRSINRND cre Sel Ah sshd oa Dam aha, aa oie a iehe eras wx 47.1 9 L7. 1.8 | 3.5 .3 
EPRI gcd) i SbR = eke Petia nicia-k Aciow waka aaaekee = 91.8 | 4 yh Cy amar 25.8 1.8 
pO ST ee ee 0a ne eeeieurahin 70. 8 2.1 4.4 | 8.1 13.5 1.1 

Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum),a average... .- 74. 8 2 3.9 | 7.4 11 9 
Crimson clover (Trifolium inearnatum), average..| 80.9 Lik 3.1 | 5.2 8.4 Phi 
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa),b atditterent stages : 
Is 6 abe walt a= sie Omcba'rs ocawcledee drags ox 49.3 1.8 3.5 2.5 10.8 .6 
a6 g aon emngn es cc$cuandgabessenee 82 5.1 Es 2 14.8 11.5 1.2 
IE w Soto ae aw we Sie 6 5 arenas abidinte Sx 71.8 2.7 4.8 7.4 12.3 1 
Serradella (Ornithopus sativus), average .....-.-.- 79.5 3.2 2.7 5.4 8.6 a 
ST less 5 wis ahiatare = w0.p ewe wana sendin os 83.6 ET 2.4 4.8 %, ik 4 
Soja bean (Soja hispida), average............-.--- cay 2.6 4 6.7 10.6 1 
Horse bean ( Vicia faba), average.... ...--..----- | 8&2 1,2 2.8 4.9 6.5 4 
Flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris), average.......-..-.| 66.7 2.9 8.7 7.9 12. 2 1.6 
I og wh chek <= a quits Sedenwl = n<emeemen > 81.5 2 2.3 2. 6 8.4 5 
SILAGE. 
Corn silage: 
SS I Re Ee ee ane ee ; 62.4 3 at 3 5.1 a 
Ma laren ke ness wis 9 Sasi gsm oP ore dle > 87.7 3.3 3.6 10.5 24.2 2 
0 SE ee Pee eee a 79.1 1.4 1.7 6 1L .8 
Red-clover silago, average.........-.....--.....-- 72 2.6 4.2 8.4 11.6 £2 
Soja-bean silage, average..........-....-...-..--- 74. 2 2.8 4.1 9.7 | 6.9 2.2 
Cowpea-vine silage, average.-.......-.-....e-ee-- 79. 3 2.9 2.7 6 7.6 1.5 
HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER. 
Corn fodder,ec field cured : 

: RRM INER Sc erate nd, nielee xara Sidisioe oie kiwenss 22.9 1.5 2.7 7.5 20.6 .6 
NINE ie cia tasiad sm otdias abore oe nin ale @ wie onharneliesa.s 60. 2 5.5 6.9 24.7 47.8 2.5 
Ee ina a cpae nls winks s metahnic ea ok gins ¢ «$0 bn’ ontsba 42.2 2.7 4.5 14.3 34.7 1.6 

Corn leaves. field cured, average.................. 30 = 5 6 91.4 35.7 1.4 
Corn husks, field cured, average........-.......-. 50.9 1.8 2.5 15.8 28.3 i 
Corn stover,d field cured, average......-.......... 40.5 3.4 3.8 19.7 31.5 ia! 
Hay from: | 
Redtop,e cut at different stages— 
PIT aa Sale naire ct reece daeemcd ces 6.8 | 3.8 5.9 24 44.8 1.4 
MINNIE © sinisinlee nites usin «obevin se Sudiens 11.6 7 10.4 31.8 50.4 3.2 
Oe ee ee ee ee oe 8.9 5. 2 7.9 28. 6 47.5 1.9 
Orchard grass, Average........-.-.--....--<-. 9.9 6 8.1 32. 4 41 2.6 
Timothy,./ all analyses— 
VEL Se eee oe Seen ee ee 6.1 2.5 3.8 22,2 | 34.3 ] 
US a ae Se ac 28.9 6.3 9.8] _ 38.5 | 58.5 4 
Co eee ae ae ee ee eee eae 13.2 4.4 5.9 20 | 45 2.5 
Kentucky blue grass— 
OS ae eee eee ane ce. tod 4.5 5.3 47 31.8 2 
BE ee ne ee 32.8 7.8 12.9 26.8 51.1 4,2 
6 SES ee Ee eee ies 21.2 6.3 7.8 | 23 37.8 3.9 
Hungarian grass, average......-.......---.--. hak 6 7.5 27.7 49 2.1 
Meadow fescue, average ..............---..--- 20 6.8 | 25.9 38. 4 LW 
Italian rye grass, @verage..........-.......--. 8.5 6.9 7.5 30.5 45 1 
Mixed grasses— 
LT Tp ie ase A Se Oe ar ee oR 6.5 Zaidi 4.8 21 33. 4 1.3 
— Pete Soma © EM EAI AE A RR 33.4 | 6.9 12.1 38.4 50.8 4.9 
RRR Ciigk atcha orn aps Sethe = Seine s.< ae hurd = « 15.3 5.5 7.4 1,2 42.1 2.5 
Rowen (mixed)g— | 
(OUST PEUT Oia RR St A A op a 8.2 | 5k 9.6 20.1 33. 6 2.2 
ESTES” SRO nae ET Logke | 2a ges} ee 44.3 4.5 
RE RAT RRS) ste atl tons anal ain sie winlne Sots ww 16.6 | 6.8 11.6 22.5 39. 4 3.1 
Mixed grasses and clovers— 
(ee LS ae ae ee ee 8.2; 3.9 5.5 19.7 31.8 1.5 
A SSR Bs cons ede aia cme Shells ao chante nde» oe oe 9.6 14.4 35.1 | 48.9 3.1 
ARWORD EGS 52cm se sialavin anand cele sive sc eel albnee ee A 5.5 10.1 27.6 | 41.3 2.6 
Red clover— 
VRE NENA UN. Sickle oc odarthellenies ale eerabes sopckinees © Gre. 3.9 10 15.6 | 27.3 1.5 
ROP UETNE | le Horns ate oideanshnae als pred, as attire s|). < led. | 8.3 20.2 3h: 7 52.2 5.9 
PREV OTA LS niet AtHEL, cicidichaiatedote 0 wiltbeetea/n dntackatite « 15.3 | 6.2 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 
AISIES ClOVers BVELALEG. Cubs. <b an tec seda eee us oT 8.3 12.8 25. 6 40.7 2.9 
White clover (T'rifoliwne repens), average......- Ce} 8.3 15.7 24... | 89.3 2.9 
CHADSOMCLOVOrIAVGLA BOs. < evince dine «owen wala 9.6 8.6 15.2 27.2 | 36.6 2.8 
Japan clover (Lespedeza striata), average...-.. | 11 8.5 13.8 3, el 39 Of 
WR VOTO casein cht aq deveknesssdadwaecese Le 7.9 17 25. 4 | 26.1 2.3 
@ Swedish clover. d What is left after the ears are iiarvested. 
db Lucern. e Herd’s grass of Pennsylvania. 
e Entire plant. J Herd’s grass of New England and New York, 


g Second cut of hay. 


560 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Composition of feeding stuffs—Continued. 


Feeding stuff. 


HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER—continued. 


Hay from: 
Serradella: averages 2. : iy Sen). Sees hoes 
Allfaltasa vera ere Bese. ba aces k eo achraoaers 
Cowpes, averare Cts 227. eee Bane dh. 
Soja eam, Average... 2.5.4... ~ ob <2 . 00'S dns 
Flat pea (Lathyrus), average.....-..---.....-- 
Peanut vines (without nuts), average.......-- 

Soja-bean Straw, Average... <5... <5. esee-Saaw's oe 

Horse-bean' straw; average. 22.02 20-45-50. = seceee 


JERSE oe co nog act abe din Sen GosydspsSsdescteeuse 
BRGHITAW, OVETALOS. 2. oo oie Sones one te rele eae 
Oat straw: 

AVEO s:2,5 Sk mle oes che dee rttsrermiciayebe ceraye.s cfeiaierateter 

Maximum .......< Pain ik nt aninln aeeaeraeic ak ames 

JQ EERE) See OH SNe Aedes Sap aesoe COST eo oe aeeasor 
Buckwheat straw, average... -cc-ccceccscscceusss 


ROOTS AND TUBERS. 


DUP ar Ves a Vel AC Ore «oct emai olotiosiainalaie meiaetele 
Mangel-wurzels, average... 6240.6 se oe cients 
Ruta-bacas; average. (notes S eke. eee 
IDALPOTS aVClAlO o— ser sore ae cioee een a. = eee las 
JATMOCNOK CS, cAV OVAL Coes oct na eiam ac anew ainin asinine 


GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. 


Corn kernels, all varieties and analyses: 
ji Sees 17017 6 en IS a Bs ae, Oe ie aR Os 5 
Te RCTIVELT “eboe Se lee ec le war oa 2 ese aint ere 
ING GUEI EE, Sate nn oo anne dead sa copae poo oegsnsomes 
Barley: 
gM Gi rifcrhcl (soe ee Cee a ee aa ee 
VU eSUTAT EMM ere, ofa, eo aie ce Eel csojai-ne Sete eniee See etna 
GE SSE Ne Seo cere een Sc Haat aes 
Oats: 
IMGs... nee ics oa tted Sots oe Se Oe 


JNA YS) Be Adc SOS ASSO Se Bode seSSoaeostuesSb< 
Rye: 
LEST a Eee See ee Seine aie an 


USOT CG) se in he SAO Ob ta OOS 4 OO pee Saab a Se 
W heat, all varieties: 

SUS OCINIAU NN oe, oe oe alors wake etavere oc) sis cm see yaisia ore 

AV eaP TEIN dura) 2 we teva: ove Sete tavee cals ens maya coho treet 

VEG 27) pe SOSOES Geer Ee 6 UBS Ene Sp eo CURSO OC 
Sunflower seed (whole), average.............-.... 
Cotton seed (whole, with hulls) : 

IMGT UN ><... PaaS ices es Sewanee eres 

Loic lt Ree ee aes OBA SSA e EOE rons Cee Soe 

ONO ete oe een aigeetel ata iale,o) hiete lute o's aioneielatata = 
Peanut kernels (without hulls), average....-...-. 


IGPRG EAM pe rias = = merce wo ote Ne cisin'o oid ols (ese wins) emintois 


SOV DOA AVOESPC. a sic os /snia sls e anism inininleinia a= linia 
SWIC UN OTALD ca wali soe nic op ona naa cle widaninien mathew 


MILL. PRODUCTS. 
Corn meal: 
Behe t fi) ent eS ens ie ae, = Ae eee eae: Ee 
Marci). 3c6 Ce ee ace oes dcthlee masteeenewes 
BV OTR EG i = oe eee ee ein eleeatale Aelia = eee 
Corn and cob meal: 
Gini GM | og bdo dae atoas Coen ame eum aires 
WEBSTED cc oc 5c o Oren orate Barton te oe societies 


BVOVOCO sts oxi cow = goede aie a ajewidteies selectins 
Oatmeal; AVOTALC <b os dee tas a postin piso riaseieel ! 


Barley meal AV erage vs waste aw senae cave ehe open seem 
WOR IMGCHL, DVOTALO 95.26 as cami nas ate real n matalminnere' ols 


WASTE PRODUCTS. 


Ost feed. AVOIALO. 2: -tndessowewekvee coracsnee cae’ 


Nitroven- 
Water.| Ash. BA Fiber. tree 
; extract. | 
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct 
9.2 ae 15. 2 PALE 44.2 
8. 4 7.4 183) 25 ED | 
10.7 7(5.55 16.6 20.1 42.2 
iS hoe 15. 4 2200 38. 6 
8.4 7.9 22.9 26, 2 81.4 
GGE PLO RS 10.7 23. 6 42.7 
10.1 5.8 4.6 40. 4 37.4 
9.2 8.7 8.8 37.6 34.3 
6.5 3 2.9 34.3 31 
17.9 v | 5 yi 50. 6 
9.6 4.2 3.4 38.1 43.4 
Tal ou 3 38. 9 46. 6 
6.5 any 7s Ti 31.8 Soa 
11. 4 6.7 6.9 45.1 46. 6 
9.2 ayy al 4 37 49.4 
9.9 5.5 BE?) 43 Abyal 
86.5 .9 1.8 .9 9.8 
90. 9 ial 1.4 me 5.5 
88. 6 2 12 13) Neos| 
88. 6 u uaa Use 7.6 
79.5 i 2.6 18 15.9 
[ 4.5 i 7 aad 61.8 
20.7 2.6 15.3 ey? 76. 7 
10.9 15) 10.5 Dell 69. 6 
ee: 1.8 8.6 Te) 66.7 
12. 6 ee I 7 4.2 73.9 
10.9 Deal 12.4 207 69.8 
8.9 2 8 Lad Bt) 
325 4 14.4 12.9 | 66.9 
TAL 3 Ls 9.5 59.7 
8.7 1.8 9.5 1.4 | Mleie 
13.2 1.9 UP Dy il 73.9 
1G 1.9 10. 6 esta (285 
eal .8 8.1 4 | 64.8 
14 3.6 Le2 Seal! FET 
10.5 1.8 11.9 Sah 71.9 
8.6 2.6 16.3 29.9 21.4 
7 AAS) 14.5 20.3 17.3 
uly (3) 4.5 Pale 28.7 29.1 
10.3 ys 18.4 20.2 24.7 
eo 2.4 27.9 Viet 15.6 
Mes 3.8 26.6 Waee| 50. 1 
10. 8 AT 34 4.8 28.8 
|) 48 3,2 20.8 AR ayer | 
8 .9 Tol 20 60. 4 
27.4 4.) 1359 3. 74 
15 1.4 9.2 1.9 68.7 
9.5 ae 5.8 nlite 56.8 
26.3 U9 12h2 9. 4 69.7 
15.1 1.5 8.5 6.6 64.8 
7.9 2 14.7 .9 67.4 
11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 
1 OS 2.6 20. 2 14.4 bia 
| 
| eon 3.7 16 6.1 59.4 
fo a 3.6 12.3 7.3 61.8 
10.2 5.7 23.2 10.7 48.5 


a Lucern., 


y 
a | 
iv) 


= 
PGR Os 60 ho ER ee enoues 


wm © OOo aw Nor ow Ae > 


Fat. 


t. 


PP Im go Or RorDs 


DoCS et pt et 
wwn 


Ber ep Fits Cees 
to DO RO 


Oe conn Pwr 


bo 


Om Doe 


PRA R Ne go gite 
wworoNa cor 


host 
NOH 


wan KNONMNNWN 


FEEDING STUFFS. 56L 


Composition of feeding stuffs—Continued. 


Bigs Nitrogen- 
Feeding stuff. Water.| Ash. | 4,;,. | Fiber.| free | Fat. 
; extract. | 
EL cee i a Sali alah Pa temo I: — ——— 


WASTE PRODUCTS—continued. 


Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | ct. 
Brewers’ grains, wet, average ..........2..-2+.65- 75.7 1 5.4 3.8 12.5 1.6 
Brewers’ grains, dried, average. ..............2-6- 8.2 3.6 19. 9 11 51.7 5.6 
pT Ee Os eee eee eer ee 11.6 3.6 14.7 3.5 63.8 2.8 
heat bran, all analyses: 
xd ciradesaets ctu dsanwnadednd cékiwns 7.4 2.5 12.1 2.4 45.5 1.5 
EY 5 lie wine cdg) ctaktvonics wuakane aires 15.8 7.8 18.9 15.5 63. 2 7 
PS water csdiivedeswetiscsvetesyeueses 11.9 5.8 15.4 9 53.9 4 
Wheat middlings- 
NINES a bikin Sistas Ped kad a saddode ene oman avy anys 9.2 1.4 10.1 1.3 53 2.1 
VS 7 Tr SS Se 4, Se ra eee eee 16 6.3 20 12.7 70.9 5.9 
SAMENESS ciaisie  d wins wtiw dis) oin nin malaniarg ewermere ord 12.1 3.3 15.6 4.6 60.4 4 
Wheat shorts: 
NE ix iad daw bs Gen chews pines aie «wk om har 4.1 2 Tha 6 50 2.5 
Sh a She hae as hk cadena 8 veKe ss sine wes 15.5 6.2 19.4 10.5 67 6.1 
anise lain ce eewiin cies tocdiwes vedere 11.8 4.6 14.9 7.4 56. 8 4.5 
‘Wheat screenings, average ..........-........---- 11.6 2.9 12.5 4.9 65. 1 3 
ee ar ee 9.7 10 12.1 9.5 49.9 8.8 
ee ne 8.2 13. 2 3.6 35.7 38. 6 sa 
Oe 10 6.7 11.7 6.3 58 7.3 
Buckwheat middlings, average...............---- 13.2 4.8 28.9 4.1 41.9 y Pe 
Cotton-seed meal: 
IC errs Gah oe - ect okeccesdactscuees 5. 8 5. 7 23.3 1.3 15.7 8.8 
og SSN a ae 18.5 8.8 50.8 10.1 38.7 18 
VG EA Se ea 7 ee 8.2 7.2 42.3 5. 6 23. 6 13.1 
Cotton-seed hulls: 
0 SS ee 9.2 1.8 2.2 37.9 12.4 | 6 
MMR NNSA es Seas oon se =a sas eee aise cet ecielee * 16.7 4.4 5.4 67 41.8 5.4 
Average ........ ck eee ee gee ae 11.1 2.8 4.2 46.3 33. 4 2.2 
Linseed meal, old process: 
ried ad aha Sh ons ae studoanue dv cetness 5.6 4.6 27.7 4.7 28. 4 5.2 
SS ee ee ee 12.4 8.2 38. 2 12. 9 41.9 11.6 
emits aye liniira'<iaiels oo dina wid a ee mele x's « 922 5.7 32.9 8.9 85. 4 7.9 
Linseed meal, new process: 
a ded ooh p08 none daadesacccneateam® 6 5 27.1 7.6 35. 2 1.3 
NIM on Se nurs whsoc sh eden's os neacka lnc a 13.4 6.9 38. 4 4 48 4.4 
BROS g ou cots ode tad sen da'dnle cle wn wancadacias 10.1 5.8 33. 2 9.5 38.4 3 
Peanut meal: - 
CT Re a ae eee See aoe Cm ine 6.6 3.7 37.5 2.5 28.5 5.8 
(oe eS © a a le Seen aS ee 15.4 5.5 52. 4 7.4 30. 8 17.5 
POE civic ects oot a's cine seh tien comes ceee ow 10.7 4.9 47.6 5.1 23.7 8 
Peanus Dulisp average... -....... 23 5...---.s cee 9 3.4 6.6 64.3 15.1 1.6 
Hominy chops: 
oo Se Ee ee Oe ae aoe 8.1 1.9 7.9.; 2.5 61 4.5 
oo ee, OO eee eee ore 13.5 3.1 11,2 6.7 oboe 11.2 
LS BSE SSS es ee Seen ee Tick 2.5 9.8 3.8 64.5 8.3 
REFUSE FROM CORNSTARCH FACTORIES. 
Corn germ: 
Ce SE ee eee ne 9.4 1.9 9.7 1.9 61.9 5.2 
a oe, (2 ees ee eee > 13 7.4 9.9 5.8 67.4 11.2 
foe) SEPT ee ca OE es aR ee 10.7 4 9.8 4.1 64 7.4 
iirn-germ meal, average:i.....-2.5/....2...05... 8.1 1.3 1 | 9.9 62.5 Vest 
Gluten meal: 
Se a eon © ee oe 6.2 5 21.3 3 34 3.4 
MURUREINRCNREND cx ddl ware be'ed ej Oca ic s «nae on ods 12.3 2 39. 2 7.8 58.5 20 
RON a win oles PARSER win os de Pails oo gn cave lao 8.8 8 29.7 2.2 49.8 8.7 
Recent analyses— 
(EU Soe vehi cah cash weed tea can nad 6.2 5 21.4 6 34 6.6 
pI Ee pe er ae ea a Ea 2 39. 3 7.8 58. 4 20 
PECOUOMES Maden snacks diedess sds in cba a ee 8.2 9 29.3 3.3 46.5 11.8 
CRICERO  AVCTAGO <6 «inc Gdcde cence vaceacns 10.1 it 30.1 1.6 48.7 8.4 
SUMO MV OVERO. A sca Son so kinad uae nes 8.2 .8 23.3 6.1 50. 4 11.2 
Oreati gluten, average. -... ... 2. deccccssscseina-- 8.1 oll, 36.1 | 1.3 39 14.8 
Gluten feed: | 
NE 66-013 2.5 en's auc Rirebe sina ew Ne Ws kaa se 6.3 a? 19.5 | 1.6} 44,5 7 
ETON: S.-M ENO cues ds tet... 9 1.8] 283 BB). fie 12.6 
PURE hid. roma d fold. Ine ede atbith pan ngid awl ws 7.8 Ll) 24 5.3 | 51.2 10.6 
Chicago maize feed, average.................2...- 9.1 -9} 22.8 | 7.6 52. 7 | 6.9 
Glucose feed and glucose retuse, average......... 6.5 11} 20.7 4.5 56.8 | 10.4 
Dried starch feed and sugar feed, average........ | 10.9 eee oe | 4.7 54.8 | 9 
Boarely feed, “wot, average. ...... cscce. ssc ncccwace | 65. 4 o 6.1. 8.1 22. | 3.1 
| 


1 aA 94-29% 


562 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS. 


Tho preceding tables give the total amounts of nutrients found by analysis in 
different feeding stuffs. But only a portion of these amounts is of direct use to the 
animal, i.e., only that digested. The rest passes through the animal and is excreted 
asmanure. Theamounts of the different food constituents of feeding stuffs digested 
have been determined by careful experiments on different classes of animals. The 
results thus obtained in American experiments have been used in caleulating the 
amounts of digestible protein, fat, and carbohydrates contained in 100 pounds of 
different feeding stuffs shown in the table below. These are the figures which must 
be consulted in determining the food value of a given material and in selecting 
feeding stuffs for making up a ration. 

The last column of the table, headed ‘fuel value,” indicates the value of the food 
for producing heat for the body and energy for the work. It is stated in calories, a 
calorie being the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of 
water 4° F, . 


Dry matter and digestible food ingredients in 100 pounds of feeding stuffs. 


+ att Dry ‘ Carbo- Fuel 
Heedins shut | matter. Protein, hydrates. ae value. 
Green fodder: Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Calories. 
Corn fodder a (average of all varieties)......-- 2007 1.10 12. 08 0.37 26, 076 
Rye delete. cb 00 Sighs a 23.4 2. 05 14.11 . 44 31,914 
MAC TOCUCE: — 22 Fob SRC... = Bootes mide sis ates 37.8 2. 69 22. 66 1. 04 51, 624 
Kedtop, GP Dloonwe -- Sh aoe tae rare loro a4. 7 2. 06 21.24 . 58 45, 785 
Orchard srass, tn bloom. =... aste sss 27 1.91 15. 91 .58 35, 593 
Meadow téscue, i blooms... ssi eee OLA 1. 49 16.78 |. . 42 34, 755 
Timothy,b at different stages.................. 38. 4 2. 28 23.71 ~ th 51,591 
Kontneky DlUe CE aGS oe Side a 0: entre si cron Seda 34. 9 3. OL 19. 83 -83 45, 985 
EEN arian Oras ees eee cies orice sales Seen oa 28. 9 1n92 15. 63 - 36 34, 162 
Red clover, at different stages...-....--..0..-- 29.2 3207, 14. 82 - 69 36, 187 
Crimeen Clover... 2 2. 125 cue ‘aperene dae cic ik 19.3 2.16 9.31 44 23,191 
. ‘Alfalfa eat different stages. su... 2.06... 2 5 cade. 28.2 3. 89 11.20 41: - 29, 798 
CARVG  Ca NS SOR eIbeE SORE ROR OC AER OBS S bose RaAa Oe 16. 4 1. 68 8. 08 Ay 45. 19, 209 
BOTA Gade = a etek io wane Saree nie epee 28.5 2. 79 11. 82 - 63 29, 833 
SRO SIND. Go ko SS se Parte e me eee aoe 20. 9 . 56 11.79 - 65 25, 714 
Cogn todder, afield cared. q ..cedae tn ceidwos cere f.28 57.8 2. 48 33. 38 Lis 74,554 
Corn stover, field curd). <. sc1.oe iste sense el tetas or 59.5 1. 98 33. 16 oe 67, 766 
Hay from— 
Wreath Br a66 5 Si. sini b case's +h oor eas 90.1 4.78 41.99 1. 40 92, 900 
ROUGOD 020) 5.<.o op oa ws niin Rabatns « bekb wee eee 91.1 4, 82 46. 83 - 95 100, 078 
Timothy,® all analyeie..26 so 20.0 ds eco gases 86.8 2. 89 43.72 1. 43 92, 729 
Kentucky blue @7ass.. 2 ois vias dona sn ranineioes 78.8 4.76 37. 33 1. 95 86, 516 
SAA SAV CTAB or. ya alka si ara Re erriiqoaoe 92.3 4. 50 51. 67 1.34 110, 131 
Wie atoay, MESCUCE 6 06 oc le oh halo bieis aol tore eens 80 4. 20 43. 34 1.73 95, 725 
Ee ERISES 20 5. ne Se hase or catenin does 87.1 4, 22 43. 26 1. 33 93, 925 
BARONY Gilt MAKE Oem 22a yordn tos eee hoor cielale nasa ce 83. 4 7.19 41, 20 AS 96, 040 
Mixed orassesiand clovercns ss 3:t s2eoen aase ase 87.1 6.16 42.71 1.46 97, 059 
SpA OME ae Se <acca sa qosses cee anes anaeeeUee 84.7 6. 58 35. 35 1. 66 84, 995 
PANTO ICLOVO! Aco ccceccoaseces ccs saTcee cee oes 90.3 8.15 41.70 E36 98, 460 
VY MIGONEROVCR 3. Udiele sat Geautlioss cbt ear aabulbe 90.3 11. 46 41.82 1. 48 105, 346 
CTUNBENICIOVEls coc. oo abonic Hisee seen eee 91.4 10. 49 38.13 1.29 95, 877 
PRM Nba cc: wp tekal wate teodeins Mba de ciclo wetlen 91.6 10. 58 37. 33 1. 38 94, 936 
COW PEeee ao a'cm aemece laos aden.- op teubeictos wobewe:- 89.3 10. 79 38. 40 15k 97, 865 
POTD DECAL faa Sa we pmcivce dnc os sae on oweeseadete ase 88.7 10. 78 38. 72 1.54 98, 568 
EC AD SOl Wee ses A mine ode thee clo weet vate ome 90. 4 . 80 37. 94 - 46 73, 998 
MES UL UW ks seis s!> alone nicks sf 2 ae NIE orc cipher semneln Sa sleoeres 92.9 74 42.71 - 35 82, 294 
CRAG SESW oe ono bab eree. cob ol te bbae oe diecascacmetes 90.8 1.58 41. 63 74 83, 493 
BOA VEAIMBLUAW to cce sees pase J clelndsemeeeisicgecs sas 89. 9 2. 30 39. 98 1.03 82, 987 
Roots and tubers: R 
POLATOCR eos oo im ar At ean thot esate nena 21.1 1,27 15.50 teacksmaee. 31,.360 
BOC eaten inn oe epee =, 6 ha mteatn orate Mapnsisin haope. 13 1. 20, 8. 84 . 05 18, 904 
MAN GOl-WUPZOIE she 6 on nns lle: oc beinas sen qeciawtnn 9.1 1.03 5. 65 «ik 12, 888 
OVER ATV SNe o:2 ot ho woh 2 oi age otat eral =e he i=’ nip aio neo’ s 9.5 - 81 6. 46 «it 13, 986 
oT Eee soe oe Capp ieney ee) ae eee eae 11.4 88 7.74 ~ikl 16, 497 
ORNTOUG SS So ee sed arerd eee eee cin a eeeaiseaistt ate c 11.4 . 81 7.83 wine 16, 999 
Grains and other seeds: 
Corn (average of dent and flint)............-.- 89.1 7.92 66. 69 4, 28 156, 836 
BATIOP Is oo. csp sedisals as eo bevew sabes ss ianemwe 89.1 8. 69 G4. 83 1. 60 143, 499 
Oita Pio acs casbasvaganeelienn cides 208s aces 89 9. 25 48. 34 4.18 124, 757 
eee ee ory 2 pe ree) ee eee Se 88. 4 9.12 69.73 1. 36 152, 400 
W heat:(all varietids) oc 1-5 8s. c eens eee 89.5 10, 23 69, 21 1. 68 154, 848 
Cotton seed (whdlé}ier cack os 32ds Ads oe booe 89.7 11. 08 33.13 18. 44 160, 047 
Mill products: 
Cra PORN «o's 0's dinar wanna od wiare holes Pre eee aie 85 7. 01 65. 20 3. 25 148, 026 
Corn and cob’ meal ici: tecss de nc eclicnscsennanke o 84.9 6. 46 56. 28 2. 87 128, 808 
OSTIOR o's ewmide dia owen eet pa uielin enter eee 92.1 11. 53 52. 06 5. 93 143, 802 
a Corn fodder is entire plant, usually sown thick. b Herd’s grass of New England and New York. 


ce Lucern. 


FEEDING STANDARDS. 563 


Dry matter and digestible food ingredients in 100 pounds of feeding Hehe peeram 


eer Dry ae | Carbo- | zw Fuel 
Feeding stulf. | matter, | 2 Totein. | “hy drates. | Fat. valon 
+———___—_—_—— _———— — — = 

Mill products—Continued. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 
POMTIGY MOAR, 2. 5. ences dee secls scene cewedesca- 88, 1 7.36 62. 88 1. 96 138, 818 
Ground corn and oats, equal parts....-.-.---- 88.1 7.39 61, 20 3. 72 143, 276 

; MERI tr) 6-0, loi ots ts Grants acialaee cia oka of abiceai oar ne 89.5 16. 77 51.78 . 65 130, 246 

Waste products: 
RECON COR oS. stk twat elp on sen aa- 92. 2 20. 40 43. 75 8. 59 155, 569 
RTT MRORE tp ad il wiedameath Ala va= abe gba = oinir'@ 91.2 25. 49 42. 32 10. 38 169, 930 
PM OMRODE on ada dona dvigh enahidehinep ae Seas oc 88.9 7.45 55. 24 6. 81 145, 342 
Malt SPTOULS - ~~ +++ - 2+ - eee eee eee ee eee ee 89.8 18. 72 43. 50 1.16 120, 624 
Brewers’ grains (wet)......-.-.------2+-+-++-- 21.3 4 9, 37 1. 38 30, 692 
Sere were Grains (Cried)... ..n0)-----rdeakhe-=- OT, 1 14. 73 36, 60 4.82 115, 814 
1 oT a Sy ae ee ee eee aa oe oe 88.4 11. 45 50. 28 1. 96 123, 089 
Wheat bran, all analyses...........--.-------- 88.5 12. 01 41, 23 2. 87 111, 138 
Re MLCLTARIE Doyo oc ova nS py conv cewshpaes ae 84 12. 79 52, 15 3, 40 136, 996 
SS ES ee a ae eee 88. 2 12. 22 49, 98 3. 83 131, 855 
Mak weeRt MIddlings. .....55,..6020cden-==-s- 86.8 17. 34 26. 58 4, 54 100, 859 
PUL NN, WLOML St. 2. o-oo p pe cso cedeaacce 91.8 37. 01 16, 52 12. 58 152, 653 
eRIReOME INU Na c=. ~iot a vig sian tae db = 2 = 24 88.9 42 30. 95 1. 69 65, 480 
Linseed meal (old process)..........-.---.---- 90.8 28. 76 82. 81 7. 06 144, 313 
Linseed meal (new process)..----...-...-.----- 89.8 27. 89 36. 36 2. 73 131, 026 
Se RCT A conn ow ocr ee aeolian oleate esin u's 89.3 42.94 22, 82 6. 86 151, 263 

Milk and its by-products: 
RNa Mie 25 BS dg re ae Bin aie cla a oe ie Awe © 21 12.8 3. 48 rT 3.70 30, 866 
Skim milk— 

Cream raided by setting: .--....-des------ 9.6 3, 13 4, 69 . 83 18, 048 
Cream raised by separator Lia ae saree Stee ay 9.4 2. 94 5. 24 . 29 16, 439 

EE Ta ei ali ies ee ae peas ea age EE 9.9 3. 87 4 1.06 37, 685 
Ne Pasinistoie na ciara nnla wis's a’ Rechte whip daadig Ss 6.6 . 84 4.74 31 11, 687 


FEEDING STANDARDS, 


Attempts have been made to ascertain the food requirements of various kinds of 
farm animals under different conditions. From the results of experiments feeding 
standards have been worked out which show the amounts of digestible protein, fat, 
and carbohydrates supposed to be best adapted to different animals when kept for 
different purposes. The feeding standards of Wolff, a German, have been most 
widely used. They areas follows: 


Wolff's feeding standards. 
A.—PER DAY AND PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 


or 
aes Total Digestible nit chia es 
ind of animal. organic 
Carbohy- 7 yalue. 
matter. | Protein. dent ae Fat. | 
| 
Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 
ES IS 2 ee 17.5 0.7 8 0.15. 16, 815 
Wool sheep, coarser breeds............---.2-+----- 20 13 10, 3 .20] 22,235 
WY @OL BROGD, DRT WRCOEG cvicecccnnccnccncnscsecnnss 22.5 1,5 11.4 o25 | 25, 050 
Gach moderately worked..... 3. ...-0....-.csse00.-. 24 1.6 11.3 .30| 24,260 
See NCR WIR WOTK OM oe on oo cag aoe cela = gees 26 2.4 13.2 50 | 31, 126 
Horses moderately worked ..................-..--- yes) 1.8 41.3 60 | 26, 712 
dborses heavily. WOTKGG. 4. ....6-500.-c0se cecwen eee 25.5 2.8 | 13.4 . 80 | 33, 508 
RE Se ey SS eee ee 24 2.5 | 12.5 . 40 29, 590 
Fattening steers: | 
a ETE Re hike oe Se Le at 27 2.5 | 15 50 | 34, 669 
ates SOUS Boki ht As. oud ees Jae 26 oS 14.8 .70| 36, 062 
POTION adage baked tees oa sated dee ee uaa oo 25 27 | 14.8 | -60| 35,082 
Fattening sheep: | 
First: PURE I OG eure ni ws Patni die eats whan gaa is Oot oe wed 26 3} 15.2 | - 50 35, 962 
Second period .....-.....2ec-ececeseseseeccnee | 25 3.5 14.4 | . 60 | 35, 826 
Fattening swine: 
PC SONNOE AC) cwimanpanit ones be eeta ave se ot | 36 | 27.5 | 60,459 
(OSE 2 Sn ene eee ie, COT ey. anne 31 4. | 24 52, 080 
ER DOTIOM 5. «ip -naibipeicens« ls hs0sune'ow Swi eos | 23.5 | 2.7 : 17.5 37, 570 


564 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Wolff’s feeding standards—Continued. 
B.—PER DAY AND PER HEAD. 


Average | otal ‘Digestible food materials. 
: : live | 
Kind of animal. " organic 
weight & - | Carbohy- | value. 
per ane matter. | Protein. dates. Battier ol 
| 
Growing cattle: 
Age— Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 
2 LOW MONT) ison cae ccc oeete sce 150 3.3 0.6 Qo 0. 30 5, 116 
3) $016 MONS ws sesso ~ 6 ne ee iew-c 300 7 1 4,1 . 30 10, 750 
G fowls MOnTESM ost os esc tere o5.5 500 12 1.3 6.8 . 30 16, 332 
J2ooOMSaMontligns. asec... deec se 700 16.8 1.4 9. 1 . 28 20, 712 
ASLOe2e MONEMS tae sok eee 850 20. 4 1.4 10.3 . 26 22, 859 
Growing sheep: 
Age— 
HS tovG:monbhs eh 25s. 22.sSeee a 56 1.6 18 87 . 045 2,143 
6 FOr MONTHS: Se ec .schisee eee 67 1.7 17 85 . 040 2, 066 
§ tomllsmnonthsrs-2-. 2 22 eee oe 75 1.7 16 85 037 2, 035 
PE OMLS AN OMGUS sige ocicencee wet cie 82 1.8 .14 89 . 032 2, 051 
V5 sOrZO MONTHS Aaais.ciorelereete Sens ores 85 1.9 .12 88 . 025 1, 966 
Growing fat swine: 
Age— 
2 tO Mont hse sccos aac eee eo as 50 2.1 . 38 1. 50 3, 496 
3 to Sanonths 22-2 asec mesic 100 3.4 . 50 2. 50 5, 580 
StoiG months: : . 22 - --)-6k see eerscee 125 Bo) 54 2. 96 6, 510 
6 to:S monthsyeres cei ee eee 170 4.6 . 58 3. 47 7, 533 
StomM2months sh. - ccc ee nies 250 | 5. 2 . 62 4.05 8, 686 


CALCULATION OF RATIONS. 


In order to explain the use of the preceding tables let us calculate the daily ration 
for a cow, assuming that the farmer has on hand clover hay, corn silage, corn meal, 
and wheat bran. Wolff’s standard for a cow of 1,000 pounds calls for 2.5 pounds of 
protein, 12.5 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.4 pound of fat, which would furnish 
29,590 calories of heat. From the table showing the amounts of digestible nutrients 
we find that 100 pounds of clover hay furnishes 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.58 
pounds of protein, 35.35 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.66 pounds of fat, equivalent 
to a fuel value of 84,995 calories. Twelve pounds would have 10.16 pounds of dry 
matter, 0.79 pound of protein, 4.24 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.20 pound of fat, 
giving a fuel value of 10,199 calories. In the same way the amounts furnished by 20 
pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of corn meal, and 4 pounds of wheat bran are found. 
The result would be the following table: 


Method of calculating ration for dairy cow. 


Total | Digesti- | Disestt- 


: | a ble car- | Digesti- Fuel 
Ration. | dry mat- | ble Pre- | bohy- | ble fi. | valion 
; ; drates. 
| ro 
Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pownds.-| Calories. 
LZ POUNAS TOL ClOVED NAY jsoccccsece cas, veSalescle sc 10. 16 0.79 4, 24 0. 20 10. 199 
AP PoUnAs Oncor Sllagver sees. .5-- 22s - sce ee eas 4.18 silt 2. 36 - 13 | 5, 143 
ASOOMUAUS OFeCOrn MEAL | f2)\5-2/.4-b team cioeicat clelee c's - 3. 40 . 28 2.61 13 5, 921 
Ppounas OL wheat Dra... 20) Se eeloessncseaee ses 3. 54 48 | 1. 65 evel 4, 446 
Aha 1 See Se ep ai, 9 Ie ee are Spee 21:28 1. 66 10. 86 oi 25, 709 
Wolff's standard ...-- 3) SERRE Se en erent) tear 24 2. 50 12. 50 .40/ 29,590 


This ration is below the standard, especially in protein. To furnish the protein 
needed, without increasing the other nutrients too much, a feeding stuff quite rich in 
protein is needed. The addition of 4 pounds of gluten feed would make the ration 
contain : 

Completed ration for dairy cow. 


| re | Digesti- 

Total | Digesti- = , ; 
tation. dry mat-| ble pro- be pe a 
ter. tein. aratiaas 


12 pounds clover hay, 20 pounds corn silage, 4 | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Calories. 
pounds corn meal, and 4 pounds wheat bran....-. 21. 28 1. 66 10. 86 0.57 | 25, 709 
< DOUDUS LUGCD 1066 sien ce as aor pene mse oman 3. 69 . 82 1.75 . 34 | 6, 223 


DOL 5 .Wesbisss ccna napeeevases weeseuy caren 24. 97 2. 48 12. 61 91 31, 932 


FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS. 565 


This ration, it will be seen, contains somewhat more carbohydrates and fat than 
the standard calls for, but is close enough to the standard for practical purposes. 
The calculation may be considerably simplified by considering only the protein 
and the fuel value without impairing accuracy. For example, suppose the farmer 
feeds his cows dry corn fodder (not stover), good timothy hay (herd’s grass), and a 
grain mixture composed of equal parts of corn meal, wheat bran, and gluten meal. 
A ration might be made from these as follows: 


Ration per cow daily. 


; Dry : Fuel 
Ration. matter. | Protein. value. 
Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 

LD OMA 2h. ciwapeb pbk vesuitdnlen« auwehnelVal cbndenendte ae 8. 68 0. 30 9, 273 
NRE Criy TG00CN 52.01 .'o wS = an asndlc ddunaedt ons fu 0b's ceaaneeess 5. 78 25 7, 155 
EE SS Oe ey ee no) eee ee eee bbe ae 3. 40 - 28 5, 921 
OMG 6 fata nn cede py abiesh aw heeded tek esse ncvesstsuesees® 3. 54 - 48 4, 446 
UME IRCMPEUTEUOL INGA ae rain. So eb d balm mn cls s aade ewe rots beke= se eoesassenane 3. 62 1, 02 6, 797 
GDS eee te es, | or a Ee Venere eas 25. 02 2.33 | 33,592 


This ration is higher than the standard in fuel value, owing to richness of the 
materials in carbohydrates and fat, and slightly lower in protein. The substitution 
of 1 pound of new-process linseed meal in place of 1 pound of the corn meal would 
give 0.21 pound more protein, which would make the ration contain 2.54 pounds of 
protein. 


FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM 


PRODUCTS. 

si | | Phos- | 
Material. Water. Ash. (Nitrogen. phorie | Potash. 

| | “acid. | 

| 
da 2° Salata Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. 
RE ies on dae csak es cobra dens ne Dubeees a. 78.61 | 4. 84 0. 41 | 0.15 | 0. 33 
US Oe eee or oe eee eos 2 2 a .23 . 09 . 23 
thin PNigs 3s «xv oe inane n= <b at oa «= Ga cas socdes . 33 15 | 13" 
SE eee eine are ee oe ee 83. 36 | 1.31 .49 13 . 38- 
cS SSS Se ee ae ee CE Te cs wet sgh 61 .19 41 
I ae SEE un fe w= oainwaes ney <7 igi ee nos seaciee . 53 . 20 . 34 
Pimmgarsen prass (Setaria) ...........c0senecnccenee (CS aor .39 . 16 55 
Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) a....--..------- 73.14 2. 09 . 43 . 16 76 
Timothy grass (Phlewm pratense) a...........+---- 66. 90 2.15 48 205 | . 76 
Perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne) a....-------- 75. 20 2. 60 47 . 28 1.10 
Italian rye grass (Loliwm italicum) a.......--.---- 74. 85 2. 84 54 . 29 1.14 
EEE OUUDHALUTO, SPASSES)- f-... <4 52-2 seen edie ess 63. 12 | 3. 27 91 ays 15 
Red clover (Trifolium pratense).-........--..------ BU net erase ree . 53 Pa ae . 46 
White clover (Trifoliwm repens) .........---..----- Be eee ne eet 2016; . 20 . 24 
Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum)....-...------- 81. 80 1. 47 44 | a A . 20 
Scarlet clover (Trifolium incarnatum).......--.--- Boe OU eek orate . 43 13 .49 
uiinare Cemegge GA0WA): .. 2.2 6 2 oi ce dents aeons 75. 30 2. 25 . 72 13 . 56 
RMR AIRS fe Se tee bode tise ak SoCaa 20s 78. 81 1.47 27 .10 31 
Serradella (Ornithopus sativus)........-..--------- 82. 59 1. 82 4] .14 . 42 
SHO CDSE OE (olay [7 Ad O08 O00 (1) aa ee ee TE RAC ean re . 29 .15 .53 
MITER NORM CP ICL JOUR) anon sce tctccce ao See ase ssc v6 ae ee . 68 . 33 1. 37 
White tupine (Lupinus albus) c. 3.2.25 ces. cee c se. | S550" |. eee eee . 44 a0 | 1. 73 
Yellow lupine (Lupinus luteus) a..........-------- 83.15 . 96 (61 re aad .15 
Flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris) a.....-....---.+----- | 71.60 1.93 1.13 118 | 58 
Common vetch (Vicia sativa) a...........--.--.--. 84. 50 1.94 . 59 1.197" .70 
Prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum) ....---! 84. 36 2. 45 42 By es . 75 
Cup aL OG eS See Eat: Cok eer aa eee TUR | ae wa Oe . 28 Sef | . 37 
Ore POMalS BUGLE Guo corse tear eee cast. os: 75 1. 05 32 | 15 . 40 


HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDERS. 


| 
Corn fodder (with ears) ........-.22. cee cccscnnene 7. 85 | 4. 91 1.76 | eal . 89 
Corn stover (without eurs)....-..-- Ste RE rere 9.12 3.74 1. 04 29 | 1. 40 
Teosinte (Huchleena luxurtans) ...-..-necncecseceee 6. 06 6.53 1. 46 55 3.70 
IOC sc ous oe ti sw Sock gwgd decwea ny aseens od eee Be 1. 28 | 49 1. 69 
RLM kp facia en GaeltiehnaWpaigden © mel | 10.45 5. 80 1.11 40 1. 22 
PR GGATIAN  BIASS... «ina ewe ee een ose led caw enn ens 7. 69 | 6.18 1. 20 35 1. 30 
Pee er AGU) BIARSOKR 8 oo... oan ce cde Ree dae wees } 11. 99 | 6.34 | 1.41 27 1. 55 
Wawen Of mixed prassGs .-. <2... co. - cece a dsinaccns 18. 52 | 9. 57 | 1,61 .43 1.49 
edtop (Agrostis vulgaris)... .. 02.2... .cececceeess 7.71 | 4.59 | 1.15 . 36 1. 02 


a Dietrich and Kénig: Zusamensetzung und Verdaulichkeit der Futtermittel. 


566 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


FPERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF PEEDING STUFPS,- BTC.—Cont’d. 


Phos- | 
Material. Water. Ash. |Nitrogen.| phoric | Potash. 
acid. 
HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDERS—continued. 
Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent, 
AANOUR YY jose Sees poe e sa SCS Raw et ee ex 7.52 4.93 1.26 .o8 . 90 
Gavlnndyerceise = 5.5: Ae ee ee 8. 84 | 6.42 1.31 Ps tee ane 
Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis).............- 10. 35 4.16 1.19 40 ten, 
Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) ...........----- 8. 89 8. 08 59 . 40 2.10 
Tallmeadow oat grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum) 15535 4.92 1.16 . 32 1. 72 
Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis)..........-. 15. 35 5. 24 1.54 . 44 1.99 
Perewniwl THO CUES sage" eas on. oS eee Ce 9.13 6.79 1. 23 . 56 1.55 
DRM aR PE POR oe ce Rie os win = 315 seins oe sa Bo (it spngse55a- 1.19 . 56 Ly, oF 
Sapamose Dmelow heabacs se - 2 = Ok so.cieeces ced tech we Lae (Ad, eee er 1. 63 . 85 3.25 
IL. SORE es a Os eg See a NY TS 11.33 | 6. 93 2.07 . 38 eur 
Mammoth red clover (Trifoliwm medium)......-.. 11. 41 8. 72 Pes .55 Loe 
Bee COON BE oreo cE 6 aos = ene oben Se bet aa tenes sees wee 2.75 . 52 1, 81 
Rene CLOW We aes hn ee nad meeneaccebenca ae 18. 30 7.70. 2.05 . 40 Bel 
eT Ty  ~ E aeg etey “iy 3% 9.94 11. i 2. 34 . 67 2. 23 
OS ES ae a ees ee ee eee ae eee 6.55 7. 07 2.19 ol 1.68 
Blue melilot (Melilotus cwruleus)...............--. 8. 22 | 13. 65 1. 92 Sau 2. 80 
Bokhara clover (Meltlotus alba) ..-.........--.5.-- 7.43 | 7710 1. 98 .56 1; &3 
Saimfom (Onobrychissative) |.) 22s) anciecmp nas oo eels 12.17 (e 5s 2. 63 . 76 2. 02 
Sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) .--.--.---..-+-+--- Deseo an ee 2.46 »45 2.09 
Sgt s VISES Bie. aco e eee cee pepe ae 11.52 | 8.23 | 2.10 . 59 1.81 
Beia bean (whole plant) 2.2). 6. conse mins cape ners - 6. 30 6.47 2. 32 . 67 1.08 
9053S RDA TEIN) nd cence ep as ne Siebk ic be ee ea ap Me appa eon IIB a . 40 1,32 
Cowpea (whole plant).........-----200-00ee eee eee | 10.95 8. 40 1.95 52 1.47 
SOrracelays oc soos oe cmaeeeeaies Sees eee eae 7.39 10. 60 2.70 .78 . 65 
Oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) ..--- 9. 65 6. 37 28 44 1, 25 
Dry iCarro WlOps'.- encore asec 3 eeee sincere. cee oe 9. 76 12. 52 3. 13 Gill 4. 83 
Darley - BURA S07 Coke eres eee wee ia celae hae 11. 44 5. 30 1.31 . 30 2. 09 
apdemghast 2005 25. See se wee BA BT EN ORE BEE ei eee ee 1.01 .27 .99 
Wy heas straws <0 0-2 cierto s siete se otaae SE ee 12. 56 3. 81 59 12 51 
MV GMb Chath oon emo ee ane see eee ee eee 8. 05 7.18 . 719 = 10 242 
SEO MW Soe oe a be ein beatieeu eh teehee eee eee 7.61 3. 25 46 . 28 79 
SOG EEIN dt EEE ag oo ns we uh ateewicine soleus seer ane me 9. 09 4.76 62 . 20 1, 24 
Bek wheat bullas- os iccecss ces neha sowe caeteegee- PASO | at oe cigs 49 . 07 52 
ROOTS, BULBS. TUBERS, ETC. . 
PE OLALORS fe oe arent oe wn Aaa <b ere A Ge fee 719.10 99 21 . 07 29 
We WR eS TS SELENE aon oe ee Ree 87.73 1.13 24 .09 44 
Mellow fodder beets; (ods. -oace se eS \ss eee $0. 60 95 19 .09 46 
Spr beeks Sova 1 eis. «tae lieds do, Be 86. 95 1.04 22 .10 48 
BERD Pe WHrGOls os 2.5 rie os ain dn oss se pe 87. 29 1. 22 19 . 09 38 
MPATNNIYS = <5 BP te bai < side winin ord saat cis Ree 89.49 | 1.01 18 . 10 39 
NM Dar ds SS oe aa se wc oo 2 ty ane ee eee 89. 13 1. 06 19 12 49 
Gmrots): 2 ee. Sd Behe ste oe aac Soe eee 89. 79 9. 22 15 . 09 51 
GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. 
Cer kernplsm.-s53-scee to eet eee ec cee eee 10. 88 1.53 1. 82 .70 . 40 
SerpmUn ROCK... = fsb nani oe ees + clas See EE Clon HAS 4 vil'sio nares 1.48 .81 42 
TERRE so sca ae pind apis en 5 <item Beda nin hae 14.3 2. 48 1.51 19 48 
LCE SEs Se Srey ore YER ie a SECS A. Ss | 18.17 2. 98 2. 06 . 82 62 
eS ee eee ener meeps Free 14. 35 1.57 2. 36 . 70 39 
Memes Owiniter) 25.506 esenase Th bee sd AE | DTD Usecea a eee 2.36 . 89 61 
SD aise ve its oa Sue eet ms 26 oc ett sada ate ceucetas ak | 14,004. i2e e385 1.76 . 82 54 
PENA THINGS 8 See ena Se vost pee bes PE NS ata naetoee x 2. 04 . 85 36 
Eh or. |e a Se lS y= | VS BB: Ponisi hte 1.73 . 69 38 
NE i te AR ones pew ain Soko Sone Me GRE 12. 60 se 1. 08 .18 09 
a. BABE aoeereer per er errs a rsa PSO iscadve 2h 1.44 44 21 
Se OTs 1D ee ee eo oe 5 Se ae Pe ey Ares a oy | 18. 33 4.99 5. 30 1. 87 1.99 
MILL PRODUCTS. 
IO crac cin sig et oe a enh aie ans < omnis a= 12. 95 1. 41 1.58 . 63 . 40 
CEN S00 POURRA oo asec ns =>) ier eiie ss peeates Se BOB arsine 1.41 oT 47 
GroOnnd O81 ses oa ciiee cpio m dais we pale sh eh g aeerea bi hig 3. 37 1. 86 aoe .o9 
DAINTY. oa sae soe eee ee eine eee os 13. 45 2. 06 1.55 66 34 
BVO HOOT Lo ocoud dopisemote see ao aewise = cohen M2 e408) ep oecioe 1. 68 . 85 65 
W heat fot. . wis cic nbc dusc pawn dace ieee ee 9. 83 1.22 2. 21 57 54 
POD MOAN nat ioe sedadioaine sxc eee pee as 8. 85 2. 68 3. 08 . 82 99 
BY-PRODUCTS AND WASTE MATERIALS. 
BEN CODE bic due > oha'n Sopree eco okas ones eae ees 12. 09 . 82 50 . 06 60 
pe Ee eee ap AP eaten iP 8. 93 2. 21 1. 63 . 98 49 
GIO ICDA oe oi 0 oo a cpeein dela Rete sas eee es 8. 59 73 5. 03 .33 05 
Starch feed (glucose Tefuse) .. os <0re0--cecccasoecs- BR) vacate kote | 2. 62 . 29 15 
RESID BULOREEs,. 52 02-1 aan ba oar outa ool ek barnes 18. 38 12. 48 3. 55 1. 43 1. 63 
Eee Werk’ grain’ (Ary) 265 «sor cseeve torres geyiedar ss 9.14 3.92 3. 62 1.03 09 
POW OTR BUGIOS (WEY) sdneins os bs skraeed ar emer atnwn ‘i Nl 89 31 05 
RyO Drak: . .jaddodv vrais is doeb ens deeebiet A dy duee 12. 50 | 4. 60 2. 32 2. 28 1. 40 


FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS. 


567 


PERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS, ETC.—Cont’d. 


Phos- 
Material. Water. Ash. |Nitrogen. — 
acid. 


Potash. 


BY-PRODUCTS AND WASIE MATERIALS—continued. 


| Per cent. | Percent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 


Rye OS OE ee a See eee ae 12. 54 3. 52 1. 84 1. 26 
os SS peas Riess ee Saran tamer ee eee 11.74 6.25 2. G7 | 2. 89 
je OO ee | ee eee ae ae 9.18 2.30 2. 63 95 
MPC TUAN cis «con IMD» <n eco BRM oc a code aes wil 10, 20 12. 94 71 - 29 
CS a eA eee eee mee a eee 10. 30 9 1,97 2. 67 
Teor eat OCIS. .... 2. .nidies os <ameeeaee ane 14. 70 1. 40 1. 38 . 68 
PON Lo. Saw accdunueveea wcpeguaeases 9. 90 6. 82 6. 64 2. 68 
AIMCO INU LIS 2 hide a wo on cco a > o code eels os 10. 63 2.61 Pa (3, 18 
Linseed meal (old process)...-....-.-.---s«--<0--- 8. 88 6. 08 5. 43 1. 66 
Linseed meal (new process) ..............---.-«--- cat 5. 37 5.78 1. 83 
JOIG POMASS. ......--------- 20% mee SS See 80. 50 Py | 23 02 
VEGETABLES. 
LUN GLO Ss > So oe a ATE, oO 81. 50 . 99 . 36 bs 
5 EE eee ee ee eee ee Pee ee 93. 96 1 .67 . 29 . 08 
Ss SEE Se Oe s ee ee pao ee 15. 86 8: 53 3.'29 . 95 
I RR aes Sciae S nhe sa ce bb bc ce subweb ages «en 88. 47 1. 04 24 b. 09 
SS ee 2 eee a eee 90. 52 1. 40 . 38 b.11 
EE vex bo ee ee eg ee: eo 88. 59 1. 02 .16 .09 
UC: a. a ee ae ie oe 90. 82 . 81 .13 .16 
NE lid ahead as a wae aunties apedaann~ ae 78. 90 |, 1. 09 1. 92 .19 
NEES fe ah SO we scenes Bonn enanitsessedae 95. 99 . 46 16 12 
a ee ee 76. 68 1. 87 . 36 .07 
Le ESD, ie, SEE RS Se a a 91. 08 27 48 Pas 
IN NG ERTVG noe oi on pang eee pwnenas cee 93. 68 1. 61 . 23 b. 07 
OO SIGCESS 62 2 SD poe ee Pe ee ae, Se 87. 55 oT 14 . 04 
Peienips 2. .5..... Pehl Te Fw as mnie GET astira x 'carals oe te ith 80. 34 1. 03 . 22 | 19 
eas: 
EER Saher Shh Pilg See bo ox x ayia n a Se oo 12. 62 3.11 3. 58 . 8t 
Small (Lathyrus sativus), whole piant......... 5. 80 5. 94 2.50 . 59 
Ce SE ES a ea 92. 27 . 63 b.11 b.16 
Rhubarb: 
IE Sx Sin siete aed as ea S's se Ailes 2 74, 35 yA) «Do . 06 
SMMMIME LOT OS d 550.2 oi Sb wintee oo ccna db oon 91. 67 | Phy» .13 . 02 
ay oe Se oe ai AO nh ee eet her aes 88. 61 1.15 19 12 
fo ST Le Se en Se tC ie Se OC, Oe 92. 42 1. 94 .49 16 
Sweet corn: 
0 Ete oR eee er eee ee 80. 10 .o9 sal . 05 
PEDaRS oe Palys oie ok he ae vines aera ce ible s o's as OO 86. 19 . 56 -18 07 
EN ae eas 5 coo als ha ates via cleanin a male 82. 14 . 56 . 46 .07 
CELTS =i: SE po Se a Se ee mere 80. 86 125 . 28 .14 
Sweet potatoes: 
BURNIE te yoo ace od ae iatfa aS eros, le eeca'e 72. 96 . 95 sae .10 
oo ) Be et ee 2 ee See 83. 06 2.45 42 .07 
Tomatoes: 
se Mw occ i cite sabe he won wa oe 93. 64 me .16 . 05 
URDU Soon ee ee oe eee een | ee 73-81 A. 72 oe . 06 
Ce ee ee Oana er te) oe ee ee 3. 61 3 Soe . 07 
ES eee ae ee le ee 90, 46 . 80 .18 -10 
FRUITS AND NUTS. 
Apple leaves: 
Oo RT Oa ae ee ee ae 72. 3 2. 33 std <20 
Collected in September. . 22-646... -.ecase-ss 60. 71 3. 46 . 89 .19 
An or Ss, SS ery Re aoe: eee 85. 30 39 | 13 01 
Apple trees (young): 
bor 7 RS eee a a ae 83. 60 wi Oe lake, onlieteerers . 04 
RE AN nse s ink a alte bn Te aac wn wo nadie su « 64. 70 ESC Rae aun 
SENN sas trae a5 baht IO tha nec i aw wets od 51. 70 US." | Re See . 06 
RIN 6 5 wah sie MBs ule a Sen skeet -s- GONG (= sages ae 235 . 05 
1 RE, GR ee ee: ee 85. 16 .49 .19 . 06 
CCR gs ol xs hi. caeabew le mathe ay sab enn Gp sas 88. 91 .58 15 . 09 
PRIN, Darates ohh wea tee nt sata aat elas binds ~ v5 82. 69 .16 14 | . 05 
CHOCO Rs EUUMbew as .aeyen/siwancdd dhe dics OMe <b ince ocean 86. 10 .58 18; a.06 
Cherry trees (young): | | 
OOO foc whi din yp wiaseeeatolaine chisic owes <asaeke = wx 79. 50 ote tneatiwe ed . 05 
PRCOMULUP, eter aged iw Or arc oe eae yy eet ee 67. 20 1. 22 | Shae ant ice .08 
PRES CURES yt evan io ol le: odo ici crene. oh aps recess te a ce 53. 20 81 |....--.--- | - 04 
ERRIISSCLIMOR§ ccaas win ov came wae cuieomhen cob on Se ttnirage 16. 52 |! 4.13 | 1.19 .43 
Cranberries : 
PPL G MME ar.< c,<w ow b:6.a dani ote RWG ays dn sintn wie chao ois 89. 59 Say eee 2 ee . 03 
PURE iT tis ia SS: ox ssa le wc cea Sonia rey cea Gitmathialt Wikia casi, w ar ae 2.45 |. -secnees oud 
I TER ee. iw oO eens aad och ue ebliewas akan 86. 02 a Ye ae ee ae 
PE LEU TEORM sci iwes wi edun ew sedeebe se oeeeue 83 . 50 | .16 . 09 
EE TURNER SANG ooo soo 5's apitiun eens 42s asl wie een eee Re: Var week os -42 
EMM otartacdl. chen eset sus'sascuwccks<caesOudsane se i 83. 83 - 56 15 | . 06 


a Dietrich and Konig. - b Wollf. 


Per cent. 


568 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS, BTC.—Cont’d. 


Phos- 
Material. Water. Ash. hiakew cra phoric | Potash. 
acid. 


FRUITS AND NuTS—continued. 
Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. 
79 .50 


Neotarines 225.2 <<...) Beet os seen Sat Bae Beet e112 4252260602 eee 
Olives: 
OO 0 eg SE a ee a ae eR 58 1. 42 -18 -12 . 86 
Deaves {Ses Sec eb tee cloce eae e reece cob sees ous 42. 40 2b -91 . 26 . 76 
Wood of-targer branches. -....2--. 0.2.5. sus.3. 14. 50 94 88 obr 18 
Woodioftsmall branchess 2. oc... ose ae ic eueece 18. 75 . 96 . 89 Rly. . 20 
Oranges: 
CROMER Fock «cee css ce Le cee Se cee eee 85. 21 . 43 .19 . 05 ay il 
OTTO see oe ene ce eee so ok ee Bao ck eee Sg) Wal area pare ale . 08 . 48 
Peaches: 
TURE fosee sacs ace set ca alc on Rew ee aeRiee ee ewes C 87. 85 BOY ial (ee nee pa .- 05 24 
Wiiodlor DEANGHOS 2 2227 eee wea eeee cee tes 58. 26 1. 93 . 90 Bye . 50 
PEARS ITUtb: oes neces clack cab ens sastees eee seeeeene 88. 92 . 54 . 09 - 03 . 08 
Pear trees (young): 
BTANORESS cc cnyo.c se ateecca soo netba eset oO eRe Sewer: 84 7 SRE sees 04 . 08 
RODS sees oo occ c enie uals c's ave siorenioed sas wineteeie aie sae 66. 70 AOS Re ccrectee - 07 aah 
SBEWIKG ie sates soe cae cess ne sebestac ta Sees tee eee 49. 30 aT owerelere cree 07 13 
CPIGUES tate Bele lee Coe cae Soke Ree Ree ee CRE Ae 47. 43 54 18 02 24 
NPAUWOS ae Se ate ee oloake Sas as ae te Ten See Chee ae DAE Ca 77. 38 .49 .16 07 ok 
NP UCTEOS aces --- 6 ae =o ae ei eh ae eee ne 81. 82 55 -15 -48 35 
Strawberries: 
IOrnits. seaceccs ce shia sees eee Stee eee ees 90. 84 . 60 15 nia! 30 
WAMEST.cBe = eae on sak 53 ers SE Beeson nee aes OR b wien eee S5O4e ecm eee - 48 3b 
Chestnuts; mative .22 2... 2254S 3S: oe neo See eeee es 40 1. 62 1.18 . 39 . 63 
Peanuts: 
gS 1 Fe SNS a ee eee Se ee eh A a 10 2.99 1. 04 oa . 81 
TKOTUOIUS ss aus os cee See ee te ioe one ee eos 10 ae: 4,01 . 82 . 88 
Vines after blooming: 2% 022222 2.00052.% . cs. oes 10 9250 eee eee «29 . 90 
Vines before blooming......... ScosnodacanddAce 30 URC | pasgon ass - 32 1.16 
DAIRY PRODUCTS. 
UA ENPRS AT et eer oes ets ia ac A eee a aia center mees 87 5 7(5) .53 .19 .18 
San Ga ni a ee Se ee eee A eae 90. 25 . 80 . 56 . 20 .19 
RGHOSIN so hte wiacicio ns We Bow HAs eee eee es ee Wein 74. 05 . 50 a= AO ep! .13 
PAE GGO TAC oo a oie ac bie Stele ane Seine Poideareeiete poe eee 90. 50 70 48 17 16 
URN ook i neck oes ad Sober ene sks Coes 92. 97 60 15 14 18 
LOT eee fa ioe ee ee nee ee ate ee ee eee 79. 10 15 12 04 04 
GREGHO See ee ene eee ees ce Ws cia Seb Deere 33, 25 2.10 3. 93 60 12 
WOODS 
CRIN SAW Olly a wis co) 2 oe ewe oi aa Siaie Ne wipaiaisia seis eee 10 SS2U |S samiaeanee . 012 . 149 
Chestnut: 
Sai ce tego Sw be oles sic ss a/c ee Rin cee See Oa 10 So Olver cee .il4 . 278 
WVOOGE oe hae cee petra ee abeee ae soe cme 10 A116). Baeeciances O11 . 029 
Dogwood 
ATG ae ok Suis, cielo auc ck Se eee se ee 10 Oy Finl ec cs see 140 341 
WOOO Gece ais ok Bae occa hace teas see eee eee 10 BGS Ul ate a coe smi 057 190 
Hickory 
TP TLR AiR ely CR SO GRR ee Sie aS Se EN ORD ge 10 SEO TA an ciawd Saas 061 141 
STG | RRC Se eee, Seeger Sar Sas Sere 10 SABA oe eerste . 058 138 
Magnolia: 
TEE ces Seg i See A eT Cc OEE oe Sores ee 10 BGS ila =n See 095 192 
WOO isn eb ciccne nate PR eialainaje ae eric 10 2362/SRe ks eee . 082 . O71 
Were AT Sites is a2 ence o's sia cies ec'sis'e's file een aisse 10 9.49 essere . 421 1.197 
Oak A 
OAM OMINEUR OU etn ceiac'sinic, oo Sicle canvas (ola Sime Sieraciel| aiate cineimtele 4,70) leis owe ad ccsi] seen Ree eee 
POS DAE Raa. = 0 tees loans Salen) d wa nal Eee ere 10 AYP (8 RST 116 . 249 
LSD: WOON s = <n obese eetiset os a raw .cn psi ee ner 10 PLA hel oS tetas hee . 070 169 
PEA ADAMS co eee cSareisict Seeiteleccicice ee serene 10 bi aed Yale ot etch . 103 .179 
OUT WO GU a. sic senes crite nne = Asis dicate eee 10 AM ema. . 060 - 140 
WVIe rik: 6255 See ees ciate Seton sone teats 10 5205 ee oeeeeee . 074 . 125 
WW HIGG WOOO: 32 fits ctoses ccebewrcec os oboe sae 10 S26 Mie cee . 025 . 106 
Pine: 
Ce ER gli ny SN ip 6 Nien eh ey he ie SE At ION SCC ICRICII pL Shira clit tetris = 
Reorgie, PAPK. ...f-dn- oes ere a eeer cee ae a aa 10 BS ill Peete eee . 013 . 024 
Georgia, wo = 2328 eesti esas} dae eee 10 Sch oes yor - 012 - 050 
Old fold Bark <ricse. cto ea ceen ene 10 104 1.2 ces . 095 .077 
Old flelds Wood ...¢6 2 ie mp beeeetecc nos oe eee a 10 4 183|\ ce ereeeee . 007 . 008 
trays WAKO a. goes ee ae ec ee ain clot ne etna asl) Stara oS Tera 1 is hea Roeper lle eens er 
WGMOW,, WOOO sinc vcdeoekne sees vane wanes sae 10 Soil etia mare eae . 010 . 045 
DIACK WOOK. - ca kewcmc ate reb oivaec occa eee 10 sta eee cee ares . 009 . C30 
Sycamore, wood ............ ite ee ies aea tue Rusees 10 Be AS paket .121 . 230 


569 


GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 


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570 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


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"VOM JOU SI TIOSqNS UOT AL PUY ‘[LOSs 

‘STOIVNUS PoLOJpOYS ‘WAVAL 1OJ JUL JOppos yUdTTIIXT 
‘100d YSNoOY} ‘BUOLyVAYTO TOIT 

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: “UMOLS 0 
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r 


ERTILIZERS. 


571 


Table showing weight and cost of the seed of four mixtures, each designed to cover an acre 
upon the basis of 10,000,000 plants, compiled from Table 1. 


Seed. 


Timothby..... Set Te A SB Se ee ee eee eee 
ee See at! Se eee 
PPrBRArd. PTOGG. 2.2. cde ca chi cansnsn sodebed nawewarcegdasceses 
MGM) iolitad dads ccdls Mh Gade itongessebhmbdees sph oceens 
NO: CADE a 56 ier mein d's derdie ss haaclcitn aa demndumnn wie ogee sh oan 


creer ares ho 8S Oe SE wate ue uae opin 53 ee 


RN I case h a a pike aktewidikche whi hh eminem any eae ano oe 
fC MERN UL Ses Se tN re a mig bend cate eee eo dete © cies 
Rt a a Gs See ee i ae ee es ee he ete. a Oe Bee 
NER ORLCHIR ENE eo eS oe a eran ale wou bilan je eee 


cop pe OE I OF et epee ae OE | Pe ee ny er) Tee 
OE RONG ia ts cs a aed = Sinanerp «6c Shins eye abies iee 


Number of | 


| Mois- 
ture. 


Fertilizer. 


ay = a | 


COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 


aeda: Pounds. | Cost 
6, 700, 000 5. 72 $0. 57 
1, 650, 000 2. 33 47 
1, 650, 000 2. 23 .78 
10, 000, 000 10. 28 1. 82 
5, 000,000 4.27 43 
1, 000, 000 Al .07 
700, 000 1, 21 . 36 
1, 650, 000 2. 33 47 
1, 650, 000 2. 23 .78 
10, 000, 000 10.45/ 2.11 
4, 000, 000 | 3. 42 34 
1, 200, 000 50 09 
1, 000, 000 1.73 52 
500, 000 55 .19 
1, 650, 000 2.33 47 
1, 650, 000 2. 23 .78 
10, 000, 000 10. 76 2.39 
2,790.000} 10 | 1.50 
2, 121, 000 3 . 60 
3, 089, 000 2. 64 . 26 
2, 000, 000 3.31 . 66 
ARE, abe ee | nse 
10, 000, 000 18.95 | 3. 02 

PERTILIZERS. 
| Phosphoric acid. | | Sul 
Nitro-| -Pot- |—_____—_—_ Mag: | puric| Chlo- 
gen. | ash Solu. | Re- Total *| nesia. Pp aeid | rine. 
ble. verted. . Bescon 


=e 


Per ct. 


Ashes: Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct. Per ct.'Per ct. |Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. 
Teeter seavseded. 050.) 45:45. |,...202 Ss. 3 eee eae: Bek 8 ya eer / 
Wood, leached: .:........ | Uy ada Ro 1 Pee ier Pe See 1.51 | 28.08 | 2.66 | 0.14] 
Wood, unleached ...-.-... 1 12.60 |, ...2.. eee \ seeesae 1.70 | 34 $404 cccse 

eS ae G1 B00 | 2S Le ROP Se E S80 te fe ss casas Si oon 

ISM ONE (SL edhe sel ae ape 6 keting at | eabrerks | sons Cee |e atanicat SOsO0 Tl Fate) Neocon eet ee emcees 

ME MIGOM scot ee as 30.05 5 nn ry TA RID eo (ES A ese oye ok ree Ue Ae Ce.) Ae 
MA acsicn iol yindnioe:n| saciawe|s v0 25% $2407) 0 T.S0 YP liens oe fee ones Cee ; 

MMO MOA .2.. 2625-4 < 5-5-2. (Oe ae 3 - eee RT re OE Teele ie eer al hiner mat fide ts See as 
ie a, Sa fh ee 13. 53 EIA tee iota ce Poexsae 
ree trem a0 sis os ois. cee. Ve Say MAS: ER aes Meee tow caeals tsenes eas aie / 

Brom gine factory .accnx|-0--0-0 512: A ER ER ey, ce eae GOR. SA co cceilsetitch bakes 
Castor pomace.............- O50) 56 4: DBO Y cawed<lponmnns CAS See eee eee ee | 
Cotton-hull ashes........... (chee Sere 22otoh ecole G50-| 8.85.) 9.605) looted ccs. 
Cotton-seed meal: 

TROOOES Sook ds 66» ehettece's ci Be ee ee ee Sd Ee ae eee ers fis wines 

WERGOOUEY 5 ds Dede ok Sen eted ee ee eee 8 Ree eee eens cree aa 
Dirt DOO «cuss 5 ett « wiciws ow a ai, eats Seen Bier fetta es He rcrcluacianuthecie eaten oon eo rematet m 
Dried fish....... eee aaceie ri ay CP hs NRK NM IN eg eee Se 
Eel 5) apaeata marina) ..| 81.19 35 fhe lteeete ic ocecee . 07 51 SSF 1225367 
Grey RETO Nro coven S wartenets Wiese OY Petre nee | wn oe sed eae heise wlels msiiceme d os 43. 66 8.30 | 20.73 
MAG Vin. doin = «Genkoan wees BAD A: Se ISG Hi so asa eeatfaccues 4 1.15 9.80 | 20. 25 
Kelp (Laminaria saccharina 

MG Lh: AGUA) i. wrninwinin ojos 87. 75 . 20 a | RN . 06 40 DO. | xctesknc 

RUMORELUMCTSUPS eae tera a cic owner DOs | ee ech ln watv elapse + MOT een oe ls eee ln ane ee 

Mona Island guano......... 13. 32 SA Nei a 5 oie N ee aig els ct I eee 1 Ole Ae owns omie| maces 

MOE. Semin? «(eek ee 50 1.10 Ae eee) Pee 9051 5S awe dancass lasacte pean aie 

Muriate of potash .......... te ee RG Orie, cheb whieh dd cies doknenbes leekd claek sae 

Navassa phosphate ......... Gln el EIE > Ssisiei Allin aid Veiceionimeeneys re OR Oe eae Pees 

Nitrate of potash........... doh | it e069 Ey SEY bee EARP RIES jaya Sle 

Nitrate of soda............. i +, ARMM RRA 1p 8 Bees age A, ABS LSP 

Oyster-shell limea.......... LG? Spl aceace OBS aackchaettn wae 18 | 55 35 60 

Rockweed (Fucus nodosus | 

and F. vesiculosus)........| 76.90 «Bl. SSC lad soe ted eke bes 10; .47 oS ey. 

Seaweed ashes ...-.......--- yt pee Wire nc ated 30} €.06/| 4.37) 2.98 

South Carolina rock: | 
DABSOLVE . ... e cecncceleceneec|souccea|scesess 11. 60 | 15. 20 [2.22 eres eres 
TORRE, .. oceasagwanens ono]: As BO Lececug) forcrne- 27 |. .07 | 28,03 | 41.87 | 3.03 j....... 


@18.5 carbonate. 


(see ee ee 


>. 


572 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


FERTILIZERS—C ontinued. 


Phosphoric acid. Sul 
sy Nitro- Se | Mag- BY. -| Chie. 
Fertilizer. Lime. | 8 |phuric| 
en. Solu- | Re- | nesia. |P2U rine. 
& ble. |verted. Total. acid. 
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS— 
continued. 
Per ct.|Per ct Per ct. |Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct. |Per ct. 
Sulphate of ammonia....... OOO Ma e's A oe Scheie as | Sacacadlaeamaiele soos ce) gh) Mill. er 
Sulphate of potash (high 

Prado) e222 bo. he Bes OA ee ee St QandO Seda cll cinta ail Merce cel ae EIS Se 4D TI oeac 
Wankare.2 25.0 552.1. See ee Cr | US ek eae 6:10) |) AL. 80 cc ccle soe eels ees ee ree 
Mhomas Slee% . ==5- Seat ABs ee so ln eden eee 3..06 |:23..49)) 48566 .|: .3. 42) ).. 22a ance 
Tobacco stalks ........--.-. 370 |, GaGartet ache hoes 65-|. 2.22)... .5Otole eel ee ioe 
SLOBACCOLSUCMIS 2.0 a:<.c<cemciece 7) | ehh al SSS 5 5 ooneoe .70 | 4.20 80 65 0. 65 

FARM MANURES. 
Cattle excrement (solid, 

PA) PB Beek Gaels Bers ke 0, 29). 0510 | settee ole ceane| O01T 7) ce enka ase Sees 
Cattle urine (fresh) ...-..---]..--..- 208 [AG ln slate’ = 1oll\E je wo o.ci| od ices hela ma iorsi il iota Sees | See ee eer 
Hen manure (fresh)......--- 60 1.10 FOO We seis omic moar oBDilcicie:ciaeiclle cares |e oe ee eee 
Jiorse excrement (solid) ..-.|....... 44 Roo sles inte eels eieios oT. | a.s<atecreilts xine alate Sneeeeae oe ae 
Horee marine), (fresh))q...2:-,..-.02%| santos « P55. DSO alc ce see | Se wean aarp cee wares eee | See ee See 
Human excrement (solid)...| 77.20 | 1 SO bee oe ee eae T.00us. 2.3 clnecescclbeer eee Seeeeee 
Hinman: UTING once sesec se 95. 90 . 60 PaO als .ccewia aliGemracnie 217 | seccboltt set | ee eee 
Pigeon manure (dry)........ 10 e520 Gill ees adel cra lee ae 1.90 |. 2.10 |. -0: 80, } 20560 0: 50 
Poudrette (night soil).--...- 50 . 80 Fo. Rissa be See 1. 40 . 80 . 60 - 40 . 08 
Sheep excrement (solid, | 

MESS) ' 2 32 Lo sess te eee eee . 05 5 US sop aos |b ease SOUS PREF 52 |\- are asin nim setae latet | Same 
Sheep urine (fresh)......-.--.)+<.+s6. SO OPE) ese ols cere 2010-22 sees Ne aioe 2 tie Siete es See 
Stable manure (mixed) -.-.. 73. 27 -50 POU Risseeee le aseae £809) .5 ts Ae ae | Saapeeten Sees 
Swine excrement (solid, | 

APCS) sce ocelot anced ose seers . 60 PIO oeeacee le emeciee 640 |i nooo cloce eee eee eee 
Swine urine Gresh) -.)5...4.-|c-.- ==. .43 Sor lteees Sel tioceis<.< Ay Gili | oe cae ool See eee 
Barnyard manure (average).| 68.87 | .49 eee otis |e sisiessia Noo eete ae Beeetee se 228 Soe ae 


Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals. 


[New York Cornell Experiment Station. ] 


Per 1,000 ds of li ight. ; 
er pounds of live weig Value of 


Animals. Amount | Value per | Value per eae ty 

per day. day. a year. a@ por. oe 
Pounds. Cents 
SVE) hy 3h Se OB SRO RGN AB AAGHG DF a AO ONE ADODODE Aone S 34. 2 $26. 09 $3. 30 
ROIS arts wa tote aie dcrnlcs faiara pcos tahass ates See meee ae 67.8 6.2 24. 45 2.18 
VO = Beater aincniai=: fimo wise =o ike sree te telat fe ectote siere 83. 6 16.7 60. 88 3.29 
COWS oo eat oe ee wie oa die si awit nye Tac Ravwiele Bee eee eee 74.1 8 29. 27 2. 02 
ELOUBOS) Sees ee oie cle wis aenic = cies oclajefe apie lajalavelcie se iaiee eis ote 48.8 7.6 27.74 2.21 


a Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 44 cents per pound. 


METHODS OF CONTROLLING INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH FOR- 
MULAS FOR INSECTICIDES. 


By C. L. MARLATT, First Assistant Entomologist, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. 
REMEDIES FOR IMPORTANT INSECTS. 


ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH (Gelechia cereallella Oliv.). Prompt thrashing of grain 
after harvesting; bisulphide of carbon in bins and granaries. 

APPLE-LEAF SKELETONIZER (Canarsia hammondi Riley). Spraying with arsenicals 
(paris green and london purple) in June; hand picking of leaves with larve. 

APPLE-ROOT PLANT-LOUSE (Schizoneura lanigera Hausm.). Kerosene emulsion under 
and above ground; scalding water poured freely about roots; bisulphide of car- 
bon underground about roots; ashes around trunk. 

APPLE-TREE BORER, FLAT-HEADED (Chrysobothris femorata Fab.). Painting trunk 
and larger branches in June with strong soap solution, washing soda, or mixture 
of whitewash and paris green; placing bars of soap in crotches of trees, to be 
washed down by rain. 

ARMY WORM (Leucania unipuncta Haw.). Burning over fields in winter; ditching; 
paris green. 


—_ 


CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS. 573 


ASPARAGUS BEETLE (Crivceris asparagi Linn.). Prompt marketing of all canes; 
dusting with lime; arsenical mixtures (paris green and london purple). 

BEAN WEFVIL (Bruchus obtectus Say). Treating with bisulphide of carbon in air- 
tight vessels. 

BLISTER BEETLES (Dpicauta vittata Fab., EH. cinerea Lec., E. pennsylvanica DeG., 
Macrobasis unicolor Kb.). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 gallons of water. 

BOLL WoRM. (See Corn ear worm.) 

BUFFALO GNAT (Simulium pecuarum Riley). Smudges; oil, grease, etc., applied to 
stock. 

CABBAGE BUG, HARLEQUIN (Murgantia histrionica Hahn). Spring collecting from 
trap mustard; hand picking. 

CABBAGE WORMS (Pieris rapw Sch., Plutella cruciferarum Zell., Plusia brassice 
Riley). Pyrethrum; kerosene emulsion; paris green, dry, with’ flour or Jime—1L 
part of the poison to 50 to 100 of the diluent. 

CANKERWORM, SPRING (Paleacrita vernata Peck.). Arsenical mixtures in spray ; trap- 
ping temale moth in oil troughs or tar bands about trunk of trees. 

CARPET BEETLE OR BUFFALO MOTH (Anthrenus scrophularie L.). Benzine; hot iron- 
ing of carpets over damp cloth; killing by steam. 

CHINCH BUG (Blissus leucopterus Say). Burning wild grass land and all rubbish in 
early winter; kerosene emulsion; contagious disease; trap crops; ditching. 

CLOTHES MOTH, SOUTHERN (Tinea biselliella Hum.). Airing and sunning; benzine; 
naphthaline; packing in paper bags. 

COCKROACH, GERMAN; CROTON BUG (Phyllodromia germanica L.). Pyrethrum or 
buhach; bisulphide of carbon in tight rooms or compartments away from fire. 

CODLING MOTH; APPLE WORM (Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.). Arsenicals; first appli- 
cation as soon as blossoms fall; second, one or two weeks later, just before the 
fruit turns down on the stem; trapping larve by applying bands to the tree; 
prompt destruction of infested fallen fruit. 

COTTON WORM (Aletia xylina Say). Paris green dusted on as dry powder. 

CORN ROOT-WORM (Diabrotica longicornis Say). Rotation of corn with oats or other 
crop. 

CORN STALK-BORER, LARGER (Diatrea saccharalis F.). Plowing under or burning 

- stubble. 

ConrN EAR WORM; BOLLWORM (Heliothis armiger Hbn.). Late fall plowing; poi- 
soned baits; for cotton, planting corn as trap crop. 

CURRANT WORM, IMPORTED (Nematus ventricosus Klug). Hellebore, 1 ounce to 2 
gallons water, in spray. 

CUCUMBER BEETLE, STRIPED (Diabrotica vittata Fab.). Protecting young. plants 
with netting; arsenicals. 

CutrworMs (Agrotis, Leucania, Mamestra, Hadena, Nephelodes, etc.). Distribution 
of poisoned green bait; late fall plowing; burning waste tracts and rubbish. 

ELM LEAF-BEETLE, IMPORTED (Galeruca xanthomelena Schr.). Arsenicals, 1 pound 
to 100 gallons water. 

FLEA-BEETLE, STRIPED (Phyllotreta vittata Fab.). Kerosene emulsion; arsenicals. 

FLUTED SCALE (I[cerya purchasi Mask.). Introduction of its ladybird enemy, | edalia 
cardinalis; hydrocyanic-acid gas treatment; soap, 1 pound to 2 gallons hot water. 

FRUIT BARK-BEETLE (Scolytus rugulosus Ratz.). Burning trap trees and infested 
trees at any time, but preferably in winter. 

GRAIN WEEVILS (Calandra granaria Linn., C. oryza Linn.). Bisulphide of carbon 
in bins and granaries. 

GRAPE PHYLLOXERA (Phylloxera vastatrix Planch.). Submersion; bisulphide of car- 
bon, kerosene emulsion or resin compound about roots; use of resistant stocks. 
GRAPEVINE LEAF-HOPPER (L/rythroneura vitis Harr.). Spraying with kerosene emul- 

sion in early morning; catching on tarred shield. 

GyPrsy MOTH (Ocneria dispar L.). Spraying with arsenicals; hand collecting of 
cocoons and eggs. 

HESSIAN FLY (Cecidomyia destructor Say). Late planting; selection of wheat less 
subject to attack; rolling; pasturing to sheep; rotation of crops. 

Hop PLANT-LOUSE (Phorodon humuli Schr.). Destroying all wild plum trees in 
vicinity; spraying others in fall or spring with strong kerosene emulsion; spray- 
ing vines with kerosene emulsion or fish-oil soap; destroying vines after hops are 
picked, 

HORN FLY (Hematobia serrata R.-D.). Application of strong-smelling greases and oils 
to cattle, or lime or plaster to dung. 

Locust, CALIFORNIA DEVASTATING (Caloptenus devastator Scudd.). Poisoned bait of 
bran, sugar, and arsenic. 

Locust, LESSER MIGRATORY (Caloptenus atlanis Riley). (See Rocky Mountain locust.) 

Locust, RED-LEGGED (Caloptenus femur-rubrum DeG.). (See Rocky Mountain locust.) 

Locust, Rocky MOUNTAIN (Caloptenus spretus Thos.). Catching with hopperdozers; 
ditching; burning; rolling; plowing under of eggs. 


574 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Ox BoT (Hypoderma lineata Vill.). Strong-smelling fats and oils applied to cattle. 


OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE (J/ytilaspis pomorum Bouché). Kerosene emulsion; | 


strong soap or alkali washes. 

PEACH-TREE BORER (Sannina exitiosa Say). Cutting out the larve or scalding them 
with hot water in late autumn or early spring; painting trunk with arsenicals in 
thick whitewash; wrapping trunk with grass, paper, ctc. 

PEAR-TREE PSYLLA (Psylla pyricola Forst.). Kerosene emulsion: First, a winter 
application diluted seven times; second, in spring as soon as leaves are unfolded, 
diluted nine times. 

PEAR-TREE SLUG (£riocampa cerasi Peck.). Hellebore, 1 ounce to 2 gallons water in 
a spray; whale-oil soap, 12 pounds to 50 gallons water; arsenicals. 

PEA WEEVIL (Bruchus pisorum Linn.). Keeping seed over to second year; bisulphide 
of carbon in tight vessels. 

PLUM CURCULIO (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst). Arsenical spray: First, before 


the bloom appears or as soon as foliage starts; second, immediately after blossoms _ 


fall; third, a week or ten days after the last; collection of adults from trees by 
jarring. 

“eg ye Saas COLORADO (Doryphora 10-lineata Say). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 
gallons water. 

PURPLE SCALE OF THE ORANGE (Mytilaspis citricola Pack.). Kerosene emulsion, 
applied immediately after appearance of new brood. 

RICE WATER WEEVIL (Lissorhoptrus simplex Say). Draining. 

ROSE CHUAFER (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.). Planting spiras, etc., as trap 
plants, and collecting beetles in special pans; arsenicals; kerosene emulsion. 

SAN JOSE SCALE (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.). (See ante, pp. 272-276, for life history 
and remedies. ) 

SCREW WORM (Compsomyia macellaria Fab.). Prompt burning or burying of dead 
animals; smearing wounds with fish oil; washing with carbouic acid. 

SQUASH BORER (Melittia ceto Westw.). Planting early summer squashes to be de- 
stroyed; late planting of main crop; destruction of all vines attacked as soon as 
crop can be gathered; collecting moths. 

SquasH BUG (Anasa tristis DeG.). Early burning of vines and all rubbish in fall; 
biweekly collection of eggs. 

STRAWBERRY WEEVIL (dnthonomus signatus Say). Trap crops; protecting beds 
with cloth covering; using staminate varieties only as fertilizers and as few plants 
of the former as necessary; spraying with paris green. 

SUGAR-CANE BORER (Diatrea saccharalis Fab.). Burning trash and laying down seed 

cane underground. 

WEB WORM, FALL (Hyphantria cunea Dr.). Prompt removal and destruction of webs 
with larve; arsenical spraying. 

WHEAT Isosoma (Jsosoma tritici Riley). Burning stubble; rotation of crops. 

WHEAT PLANT-LOUSE (Siphonophora avene Fab.). Rotation of crops. 

WHITE GRUB; JUNE BEETLE (Lachnosterna spp.). Luring the beetles by lights over 
tubs into water withskim of kerosene. Against larve: Kerosene emulsion; liberal 
use of potash fertilizers; collecting after the plow. 

WIREWORMS (Drasterius elegans Fab., Melanotus fissilis Say, and Agriotesspp.). Fall 
plowing; poisoned baits; rotation of crops. 


INSECTICIDES. 


{DIRECTIONS FOR TIEIR PREPARATION AND USE.) 


Paris green and london purple (arsenicals).—These are especially adapted to biting 
insects, including the majority of the injurious caterpillars, many beetles, and locusts, 
and are applied either in water or as powder. Paris green or london purple is used 
at the rate of 1 pound to 100 to 250 gallons of water, or 1 ounce to 6 to15 gallons. The 
stronger mixtures are for resistant foliage, as that of potato, and the greater dilu- 
tious for more sensitive foliage, as that of peach or plum. An average of 1 pound to 
150 gallons of water is a good strength for general purposes. Make the poison into 
a thin paint in a small quantity of water, and add powdered or quick lime equal to 
the amount of poison used, to remove the danger of scalding, and strain into the spray 
tank. Always use lime with london purple in any application to peach or plum; to 
the stronger foliage of apple and most shade trees paris green without lime may be 
safely applied at the rate of 1 pound to 150 gallons. 

If it be desirable to combine in one application a fungicide with the insecticide, 
bordeaux mixture may be used instead of water as a diluent for the arsenical, the 
lime of this fungicide at once neutralizing the soluble arsenic. 

Application in form of powder is valuable for any low-growing crop, and particu- 
larly cotton. In cotton fields the dry powder is usually dusted over plants from 
osnaburg bags attached to each end of a pole carried by a man on horseback. The 


INSECTICIDES. 575 


application is preferably mado in the carly morning or late evening, when the dew is 
on. From 1 to 4 pounds are required to the acre. Garden vegetables may be dusted 
from bags or with powder bellows, using a mixture of 1 ounce of poison with 6 
pounds of flour or 10 of lime. 

Poison bait.—This method is available for cutworms, wireworms, and local inva- 
sions of locusts. For locusts, take one part by weight of white arsenic, oneof sugar, 
and six of bran, to which add water to make a wet mash. Place a teaspoonfui of 
this at the base of each tree or vine, or apply just ahead of the advancing army of 
grasshoppers, placing a tablespoonful of the mash every 6 or 8 feet, and following up 
with another row behind the first. For cutworms and wireworms, small bunches of 
green plants, such as clover, dipped in a very strong arsenical solution, are distrib- 
uted about in the infested fields, and protected from drying by covering with boards 
or stones. ‘The bran-arsenic bait will also answer for cutworms. 

Hellebore.—This insecticide is valuable for the currant worm and less so for other 
biting insects. Mix fresh white hellebore with water at the rate of 1 ounce of the 
former to 3 gallons of the latter. This poison can be safely applied to vegetables 
shortly before they are to be eaten. 

Pyrethrum.—This insecticide is adapted for indoor use, or small patches, against 
all sorts of insects. Applied wet in a spray, it should be used at the rate of 1 ounce 
to.3 gallons of water, allowing it to stand twenty-four hours before applying. In 
the dry form it may be dusted about rooms and over plants, either pure or mixed 
with an equal bulk of air-slaked lime. 

Soaps.—Any strong soap dissolved in water makes a good insecticide against soft- 
bodied insects, and may be used at the rate of half a pound to the gallon of water 
for plant-lice, pear slug, ete. Used at the rate of 14 or 2 pounds to the gallon of 
water, it is one of the most satisfactory winter washes known against scale insects. 
The whale-oil soaps are very much the more effective, and spray more readily than 
solutions of other soaps. 

Kerosene emulsion.—This is especially adapted to sucking insects, including plant 
bugs, plant-lice, scale insects, thrips, and plant-feeding mites. The kerosene and 
soap emulsion is prepared as follows: 


et ee ae wa tet wee ey tae che ons wo on gates eee et galions.. 2 
emia soay (or quart bolt soap) . .... 6... .20-cqn enn anne see pound... 4 
iieias ais Jarier GOLE Tels ila os dG as Sheu ones gallon... 1 


Dissolve the soap in boiling water, and add the hot solution, away from the fire, 
to the kerosene. Agitate violently for five minutes by pumping tho liquid back 
upon itself with a force pump until the mixture assumes the consistency of cream. 
Well made, the emulsion will keep indefinitely, and should be diluted only as 
wanted for use. 

In limestone or hard-water regions it is best to use the milk emulsion. 


EE il ce MGs ce oeitie Gace anda ee kc sain whole aint. gallons.. 2 
RE RS 8 A RS a A oe De 7 aS ee do.... 2 


Heating is unnecessary; churn as in the former case for three to five minutes, or 
until a thick, buttery consistency results. Prepare the milk emulsicn from time to 
time fur immediate use. 

For summer applications for most plant-lico and other soft-bodied insects, dilute 
these emulsions with 15 to 20 parts of water; for the red spider and other plant 
mites, the same, with 1 ounce of powdered sulphur per gallon; for scale insects, 
larger plant bugs, larve, and beetles, dilute with 7 to 9 parts water. For subter- 
ranean insects, such as root-lice, root maggots, white grubs, ctc., use either kerosene 
emulsion (or resin wash), wetting the soil to a depth of 2 or 3 inches, and follow 
with copious waterings, unless in rainy season. 

For winter applications to destroy scale insects, stronger mixtures may be used. 

The resin wash.—This is valuable for scale insects in dry seasons: 


ts ee ee ee Ln ae Liad Seed o “Witnbininn 4b ha. pounds.. 20 
POO, COMSIG BORA 1U DEF GOING) wine ae cow scons o-oo ween sees cucess a, 
Od ec ee ee ee oe cueenees pints... 24 
AV apex tO. make Cenimmier WAS) =... 62. nnn. ee kee cece ene gallons.. 100 


Ordinary commercial resin is used, and the caustic soda is that put up for soap 
establishments in large 200-pound drums. Smaller quantities may be obtained at 
soap factories, or the granulated caustic soda (98 per cent) used—3} pounds of the 
latter being the equivalent of 5 pounds of the former. Place these substances, with 
the oil, in a kettle with water to cover them to a depth of 3 or4dinches. Boil forone 
or two horfrs, making occasional additions of water, or until the compound resem- 
bles very strong black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water, or 
with cold water added slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture, to be diluted to 
the fullamountas used. When sprayed the mixture should be perfectly fluid, with- 


576 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


out sediment, and should any appear in the stock mixture reheating should be 
resorted to. 

As a winter wash for scale insects, and particularly for the more resistant San 
Jose scale ( Aspidiotus perniciosus), dilute one-third or one-half less for California and 
Florida. In colder climates it is not satisfactory. 

The hydrocyanic-acid gas treatment.—This is especially valuable for scale insects. 
Tents of blue or brown drilling or 6-ounce duck, painted or oiled with linseed oil, to 
make as near air-tight as possible, are adjusted over small trees by hand or with 
poles, and over large trees with a tripod or derrick. Fused potassium cyanide (58 
per cent purity), commercial sulphuric acid, and water are used in generating the 
gas, the proportions being 1 ounce by weight of the cyanide, slightly more than 1 
fluid ounce of acid, and 3 fluid ounces of water to every 150 cubic feet of space 
inclosed. Place the generator (any glazed earthenware vessel of 1 or 2 gallons capac- 
ity) on the ground within the tent, and add the water, acid, and cyanide (in lumps) 
in the order named, the operator immediately withdrawing. Allow the tent to | 
remain on the tree for one-half hour for large trees or fifteen minutes for small ones. 
The treatment is best made on cloudy days, early in the morning, late in the evening, 
or at night. 

Bisulphide of carbon.—This substance is a cheap and effective remedy for insects 
affecting stored food and seeds, natural-history specimens, etc., and is one of the 
best means against insects affecting the roots of plants. It readily volatilizes and 
the vapor is highly inflammable and explosive, and should be carefully kept from fire. 
For root-lice of grape, apple, peach, etc., put one-half ounce of bisulphide into holes 
about plant, 10 to 16 inches deep, 14 feet apart, and not closer to trunk than 1 foot, 
and close the holes. For root maggots, put spoonful into hole at base of plant and 
close immediately. For ant pests, pour an ounce of the liquid into each of several 
holes in the nest; close the opening with the foot or cover with a wet blanket for 
ten minutes and then explode the vapor at mouth of hole with torch. (For insects 
affecting stored grain, see p. 277.) 


A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT. 


Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those of the orchard and 
garden, has reached so satisfactory and inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by 
every progressive farmer as a necessary feature of the year’s operations, and in the 
case of the apple, pear, and plum crops, the 
omission of such treatment means serious loss. 
The consequent demand for spraying apparatus 
has been met by all the leading pump manufac- 
turers of this country, and ready-fitted appara- 
tus, consisting of pump, spray tank or barrel, 
and nozzle with hose, are on the market in 
numerous styles and at prices ranging frm $20 
upward. The cost of a spraying outfit for 
orchard work may, however, be considerably 
reduced by purchasing merely the pump and 
fixtures and mounting them at home on a strong 
barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing 
a style that has proven very satisfactory in 
practical experience, is illustrated in the accom- 
panying figure. It is merely a strong pump 
with an air-chamber to give a steady stream 
provided with two discharge hose pipes. One 
of these enters the barrel and keeps the water 
agitated and the poison thoroughly intermixed, 
and the other and longer one is the spraying 
24 hose and terminates in the nozzle. The spray- 
os ing hose should be about 20 feet long and may 


Fic. 140.—Orchaid-spraying apparatus, be fastened to a light pole, preferably of bam- 
boo, to assist in directing the spray. ‘The nozzle 
should be capable of breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet the 
plant completely with the least possible expenditure of liquid. The two more satis- 
factory nozzles are those of the Nixon and the Vermorel type. <A suitable pump with 
nozzle and hose inay be obtained of any pump manufacturer or hardware dealer at 
a cost of from $13 to $15. If one with brass fittings be secured it will also serve for 
the application of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted on a cart 
or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this way facilitating the spraying of 
trees, or for more extended operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water 
tank. 


577 


TREATMENT FOR FUNGOUS DISEASES. 


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‘SINVId JO SHSVESIG SNODNOI HOd LNAWLVEUL 


578 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


*13YIVOAM JOM AIOA JO OSBO 
ut Aressoo0u oq Atur uoryeorrdde qIXIs VW 


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‘osvost(y 


FUNGICIDES. 579 


FORMULAS FOR FUNGICIDES, 


(1) Ammoniacal copper carbonate solution : 


rh Cl CN ee wi Mec ey val igd ven dddes= nu bess hind. oees ounces... 5 
TIO Come WOR CREE iia dion aG'u oon a as os ae Rone onbmekaen meek wie pints.. 3 
Ee, elu Ghee Gia a nb ue AMSA ay mesakSeo eo Aave ann sense gallons... 50 


Place the copper carbonate in a wooden pail and make a paste of it by the addi- 
tion of a little water. Then pour on the ammonia and stir until all the copper is 
dissolved. If the 3 pints of ammonia is not sufficient to dissolve the copper, add 
more until nosediment remains. Pour intoa barrel and dilute with 45 or 50 gallons 
of water, and the mixture is then ready for use. 


(2) Bordeaux mixture: 


OI AULD TREND, g bap iniil ork kde ateesarape esa timabele eae: oneawicieet eienennimace pounds.. 6 
NO NIE FANEIION ie. yal cecnsiictt = epharinpclighorahihaiel wil Bint weal do B+ i vatserimnetiny AO wien Me 
RE ee ES eta ag ais bale dels woh ou + Rin UPA Ne KAA ad ane iees gallons.. 22 


In a barrel that will hold 45 gallons dissolve the copper sulphate, using 8 or 10 
gallons of water, or as much as may be necessary for the purpose. In a tub or half 
barrel slake the lime. When completely slaked add enough water to make a creamy 
whitewash. Pour this slowly into the barrel containing the copper sulphate solu- 
tion, using a coarse gunny sack stretched over the head of the barrei for a strainer. 
Finally, fill the barrel half full of water, stir thoroughly, and the mixture is ready 
for use. The 50 or 60 gallon formula is made in the same way except that 50 or 60 
gallons of water is added instead of 22 gallons. For further directions in making 
large quantities see Bull. No. 6, Div. Vegt. Path., pp. 8-11. 


(3) Potassium sulphide: 


MINTER HORE EVADUCUES aia, Spciore: sls stpnipegs See ath ose > ota nmnq> Sole ono Soi ounees.. 24 
any ST RRR se A a ER eis 


Dissolve the potassium sulphide in water and the mixture is ready for use, 


(4) Hot water treatment. 


This treatment is used for smuts of oats and wheat. Place two large kettles or 
two wash boilers on a stove; provide a reliable thermometer and a coarse sack or 
basket for the seed. A special vessel for holding the grain may be made of wire 
or perforated tin. The vessel should never bo entirely filled with grain, and in the 
kettles there should be about five or six times as much water by bulk as there is 
grain in the basket. In the first kettle keep the temperature of the water at from 
116° to 130°, and in the other at 132° to 133°, never letting it fall below 130° lest the 
fungous spores may not be killed, nor rise above 135° lest the grain be injured. Place- 
the grain in the basket and then sink it into the first kettle. Raise and lower it 
several times or shake it so that all the grain may become wet and uniformly 
warm. Remove it from the first kettle and plunge it into the second, where it 
should receive fifteen minutes’ treatment. Shake about repeatedly, and also raise 
the basket containing the grain completely out of the water five or six times 
during the treatment. If the temperature falls below 132° let the basket remain 
a few moments longer; if it rises, a few moments less. Have at hand cold and boil- 
ing water with which to regulate the temperature. At the expiration of fifteen 
minutes remove the grain and plunge into cold water, after which spread it out to 
dry. ‘ihe seed may be sown at once, before thoroughly dry, cr may be dried and 
stored until ready for use. In treating oats keep them in water at 132° for only 
ten minutes and spread out to dry without plunging into the cold water. 


(5) Resin wash: 


LS a SR eS NY Se Ry ae ae aT eer ee pounds... 20 
aeGie Bota (9S: POT COI a soln <us sci tub cakes > a niineies eee apni do.... & 
eee OLE CRUE NILE) wioscay cea Gd a Waseca 9 ale. + a dae AR eee lk nepiale: ine pinis.. 3 
POR GO BEVIIEG sc ass cin ew 8 RE i te Aces inay ibs Bitterness signal gallons... 15 


Place the resin, caustic soda, and fish oil in a large kettle. Pour over them 13 
gallons of water and boil until the resin is thoroughly dissolved, which requires 
from three to ten minutes after the materials begin to boil. While hot add enough 
water to make just 15 gallons. When this cools, a fine, yellowish precipitate settles 
to the bottom of the vessel. The preparation must therefore be thoroughly stirred 
each time before measuring out to dilute, so as to uniformly mix the precipitate with 
the clear, dark, amber-brown liquid, which forms by far the greater part of the 


580 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


stock preparation. When desired for use, take 1 part of the stock preparation to 
9 parts of water. If the wash be desired for immediate use, the materials, after 
boiling and while still hot, may be poured directly into the spray tank and diluted 
with cold water up to 150 gallons. 


(6) Corrosive sublimate solution : 


Gortosive: sabe be a2. eee cha toe wetness See aoe eo ounces... 24 
WMS SRR Le EEE ae Eh a Fh. ie A Teer 8 gallons... 15 


This solution is used for potato scab. The corrosive sublimate is dissolved in 
about 2 gallons of hot water, and after an interval of ten or twelve hours diluted 
with 13 gallons of water. The potatoes to be planted are immersed in the solution 
for one and one-half hours, after which they are spread out to dry, then cut and 
planted as usual. A half barrel is a convenient receptacle for the solution. The 
potatoes may be put into a coarse sack and suspended in the liquid, first washing» 
the tubers. Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous and should be kept out of the way 
of childrea and animals. All treated tubers should be planted or destroyed. 


GRASSES AS SAND AND SOIL BINDERS. 


[Alphabetical list of the grasses mentioned in the article on grasses as sand and soil biaders by 
Professor Lamson-Scribner, with the Latin equivalents of the English names. ] 


Alkali grass= Distichlis maritima Raf. = Distichlis spicata Green = Brizopyrum spica- 
tum Hook. 

Beach grass = Uniola paniculata Linn. Also applied to Ammophila arenaria. 

Bermuda grass = Cynodon dactylon Pers. = Capriola dactylon Kuntze. 

Litter panic grass = Panicum amarum Ell. 

Black grama = Muhlenbergia pungens Thurb. 

Blady grass = Imperata arundinacea Cyr. 

Broad-leafed spike grass = Uniola latifolia Mx. 

Coast couch grass = Zoysia pungens Willd. 

Common reed = Phragmites communis Trin. = Phragmites phragmites Karst. 

Couch grass—= Agropyrum repens Beauv. 

Creeping panis = Panicum repens Linn. 

Fine-top salt grass = Sporobolus airoides Torr. 

Fresh-water cord grass = Spartina cynosuroides Willd. 

Giant rye grass== Ilymus condensatus Presl. 

Hungarian brome grass= Bromus inermis Linn. 

Tndian reed = Cinna arundinacca Linn. 

Johnson grass== Andropogon sorghum var. Halapense Hack.= Andropogon halapensis 
Brot. = Sorghum halapense Pers. 

*Kilittag” (Danish) = Ammophila arenaria Link. 

Knot grass = Paspalum distichum Linn. 

Knot-root grass Muhlenbergia mexicana Trin. 

Long-leafed sand grass = Calamovilfa longifolia Hack.= C. longifolia Hook. 

Long-leafed spinifex = Spinifex longifolius k. Br. 

Louisiana grass = Paspalum platycaule Poir. = Paspalum compressum Nees. 

‘“Marehalm” (Danish) =£lymus arenarius. 

Marram grass = Ammophilaarenaria Link. = A. arundinacea Host. = Psamma arenaria, 

Pimento grass — Stenotaphrum americanum Schrank. 

“Rancheria grass” = Elymus arenarius Linn. 

Redfield’s grass = Redfieldia Jlecuosa Vasey. 

Reed = Arundo donax. (See Common reed. ) 

Reed canary grass = Phalaris arundinacea Linn. 

Rolling spinifex = Spinifex hirsutus Labill. 

Running mesquit = Hilaria cenchroides H. B. K. 

Salt cedar = Monanthochloé littoralis Engel. 

Salt grass = Distichlis spicata Green = Distichlis maritima Raf. 

Sand reed = Ammophila arenaria. (See Marram grass.) 

Sea lyme grass = Llymus arenarius Linn. 

Southern wheat grass = [schamum triticeum R. Br. 

St. Augustine grass = Stenotaphrum americanum Schrank. 

Swamp millet = [schamum australe R. Br. 

Switch grass = Panicum virgatum Linn. 

Upright sea lyme grass = /lymus arenarius Linn, 

Usar grass == Sporobolus orientalis Kunth. 

Water oats = Uniola paniculata Linn. 

Western rye grass == Llymus condensatus Presl. 

Witch grass Agropyrum repens Beauv. 


581 


TABLE OF ONE HUNDRED WEEDS. 


*sdor0 ‘sorngsed *XaezTOs 
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! 
“poes MBOIp |" *""" >” 1) igletas BAor Ss atte Caine. oyoturd | weer 
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| 


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‘SGGEM CEHYCNOH SNO AO DIEava 


YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


582 


TONVATH NO {Sut ‘sorngsed 


-paos Jo woruoAolg |‘ s MO peo P| s[vmruar ‘spoeg 


‘sutddouro 
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‘OWIVE [VOLUOO T, 


*SOULUM TOUINLOD 


FARMERS’ BULLETINS. 587 


PARMERS’ BULLETINS. 


Applications for bulletins of this series should be addressed to the 
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., stating both the number 
and title of the bulletin desired. 


[Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 13 are not available. ] 


No. 3.—The Culture of the Sugar Beet. Pp. 24, figs. 9. Contents: Climatie con- 
ditions—V arieties—Soil—F ertilization—Constituents—Rotation—Preparation of the 
land—Cultivation and cost—Harvesting—Siloing—Production of seed—Manufacture 
of sugar—Development of the cane and beet sugar industry—Consumption in the 
United States, 1890. 

No. 6.—Tobacco: Instructions for its Cultivation and Curing. Pp.8. Contents: Seed 
bed on new and old land—How to sprout the seed—How to cover with canvas—How 
to hasten the growth of plants—Preparation of the soil for transplanting—Cultiva- 
tion—Pruning and topping—Curing—Effects of climate. 

No. 7.—Spraying Fruits for Insect Pests and Fungous Diseases, with a Special Consider- 
ation of the Subjectin its Relation to the Public Health. Pp.20. Contents: Insecticides 
used in the form of a spray—The arsenites—Spraying from the hygienic standpoint— 
Does it pay to spray ?—Fungicides or remedies used in spraying—How and when to 
spray—Treatment of apple scab—Apple powdery mildew—Treatment of pear scab, 
cracking, andleaf blight—Treatment of leaf blight of the cherry, plum, and quince— 
Treatment of black rot of the grape—Downy mildew of the grape—Anthracnose of 
the grape—Use of copper compounds from a hygienic standpoint. 

No. 11.—The Rape Plant: Its History, Culture, and Uses. Pp. 20, figs. 4. Contents: 
Need of the rape plant in the United States—Description and history—Different 
varicties—Adaptabilty of large areas—Experience in growing rape in the United 
States—Adaptability of soils—Preparation of the soil—Fertilizers—Seed and sowing— 
Cultivation—Uses—Rape as a pasture—Rape as a soiling crop—Rape as a catch crop— 
Rape as a green manure—Rape as a cleaning crop—Precautions to be observed in 
feeding rape. 

No. 12.—Nostrums for Increasing the Yieldof Butter. Pp. 16. Contents: Gilt-edge 
butter compound—Black pepsin in butter making—Methods of advertising black 
pepsin—Butter made with the compound—Analyses of butter compounds—-Butter 
making by a new process—Composition of butter-making compounds. 

No, 14.—Fertilizers for Cotton. Pp. 31. Contents: Does cotton require potash, 
phosphoric acid, and nitrogen ?—Proportions and amounts of potash, phosphoric acid, 
and nitrogen required—Calcareocus manures—The best time for applying nitrate of 
soda—Yield of lint per acre. 

No. 15.—Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to Prevent Them. 
Pp. 8, figs. 3. Contents: How the diseases may be distinguished—Fungicides or 
preventives to be used—When and how to apply the fungicides—Cost of the work. 

No. 16.—Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. Pp.24. Contents: 
Green manuring, history, and explanation—How plants get nitrogen from the air— 
Crops for green manuring—Composition of green leguminous crops—Green manuring 
compared with feeding the crop—Green manuring on medium rich soils and sandy 
loam soils—Alfalfa and crimson clover for feeding—Cow pea for feeding—Advantages 
of sciling—Value of leguminous crops for feeding. 

No. 17.—Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. Pp. 20, figs.7. Contents: Distribution— 
Distinguishing characters—Preventive measures—Connecticut and Pennsylvania 
yellows laws. 

No. 18.—Forage Plants for the South. Pp.30. Contents: Forage crops for ditterent 
soils—lormation and care of meadows and pastures—Forage plants successfully 
grown in the South. 

No. 19.—Important insecticides: Directions for Their Preparation and Use. Pp. 23. 
Contents: Relation of food habits to remedies—Insecticides for external biting 
insects (food poisons)—Insecticides for external sucking insects (contact poisons)— 
Dusting and spraying apparatus—Remedies for insects. 

No. 20.—Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Pp. 22, figs. 6. Con- 
tents: Chemical relations of the soil to surface washing—Methods to prevent 
washing—Recovering gullied hillsides by reforestation—Preparation for planting 
forests—Grasses and similar vegetation to prevent washing of land. 

No. 21.—Barnyard Manure. Pp. 32, figs.7. Contents: Manure as a farm resource— 
Amount, value, and composition of manures produced by different animals—Com- 
parative value of solid and liquid parts—Influence of quality and quantity of food— 
Management and use of manure—Lasting or cumulative effect of barnyard manure, 


588 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


No. 22.—The Feeding of Farm Animals. Pp.32. Contents: Principles of feeding— 
Composition of the animal body—Composition of feeding stuffs—Digestibility of 
feeding stuffs—Feeding standards for different kinds of animals—Calculation 
of rations—Selection of feeding stuffs—Feeding for fat and for lean—Wheat as 
a food for animals—Tables showing composition of feeding stuffs. 

No. 23.—Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. Pp. 32, charts 2. Contents: Nutriment 
in food and how it is used in the body—Chemical composition of food materials— 
The fuel value of food—Definition of food and food economy—Composition of food 
materials—Digestibility of food—Dietaries and dietary standards—Calculation of 
daily dietaries—Waste of food—Food and health—Tables of composition of food 
materials and of daily dietaries. 

No. 24.—Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Pp. 16. Contents: General charac- 
ters—Symptoms—Appearance on post-mortem examination—The cause of these dis- 
eases—Diagnosis and prognosis—Formula for remedy for hog cholera and swine 
plagne—Sanitary measures to prevent the introduction of hog cholera and 
swine plague—Prevention of disease by proper breeding and feeding. 

No. 25.—Peanuts: Culture and Uses. Pp. 24, fig. 1. Contents: Description and 
history—Composition—Varieties—Climate and soil suitable for peanut culture— 
Manuring and culture—Harvesting—Uses. 

No. 26.—Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. Pp. 30, figs.4. Contents: Propagation— 
Character and preparation of soil—Transplanting—Cultivation—Manurin g—Har- 
vesting and storing-—Varieties—Fungous diseases and insect enemics—Uses—Cost of 
production. 

No. 27.--Flax for Seed and Fiber in the United States. Pp. 16. Contents: Can 
both seed and fiber be saved ?—Soil selection and preparation—Fertilizing—Rota- 
tion—Sowing the seed—Meteorological considerations—Weeds—Harvesting the 
fiber—Saving the seed—Retting the straw—Practical considerations. 

No. 28.—I¥ceds; and How to Kill Them. Pp. 31, figs. 11. Contents: General meth- 
ods of eradicating weeds—List of weeds attracting especial attention during 1894— 
Table of one hundred weeds. 

Notre.—Other bulletins of this series are in press, including the following subjects: 
Silos and Silage; the Feeding of Sheep; the Feeding of Poultry. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


The publications of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture are of three classes; (1) 
serial publications; (2) scientific and technical reports; and (3) popular bulietins. 

The first two classes are issued in limited editions and are not intended for miscel- 
laneous applicants, being particularly designed for scientific students and for libra- 
Ties and institutions of learning. To persons requesting serial publications sample 
copies will be sent, together with instructions for making application to receive the 
sameregularly. The popular bulletins treat in a practical manner of subjects of par- 
ticular interest to farmers and are issued with a view to the widest possible circula- 
tion. All applications should be addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, stating 
both the number and title of the bulletin desired. 

The Department has no list to whom all publications are sent; the variety of the 
subjects treated naturally restricts the distribution of most of them to the sections 
of country to which they are specially suitable. The monthly list of publications, 
issued the 1st of each month, will be mailed to all who apply for it. In it the 
titles of the publications are given with a note explanatory of the character of 
each, thus enabling the reader to make intelligent application for such bulletins 
and reports as are certain to be of interest to him, which will be mailed on receipt 
of the application addressed as above. 

The Department can not undertake to furnish complete sets of either Farmers’ 
Bulletins or other publications, except to libraries and educational institutions, 
where it is desirable to preserve them for reference and study. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Abattoirs, large, advantages, etc ..............- ERT ED CE ae ag psf Pee e 71 

ee, SEVER sols sche ee erred dN ea Aden nerd coms enins apes nance seremy 307 

Accounts, Division, and Disbursing Office, organization and duties ........-. 525 

WO 0 eR ee acy bc nab suk ae ea.cehasemese vamasé 47 

ITT, CONGCUCT oi cc ance ides e eas eo mciewin aa etasinasécv.agee meee aacnen 183 

NENT NT DOTTONIN, “RCCL 22s pin os can ats Pane gain een dng nnnnemedeua quae vecces 57 

eR, CG) TVR an Sa Sax wine nine We hin aoa fad te « <hea Pee hen 91 

SURGOM, OPES ORAM MMOS coin ae ean aan naan onda aens bane de mp 95 

DRORULED QUO. Sasae iia pa aks <sle acts atk eae be are 92 

Causation, NTSt plate [22 . .. a ae oun x dete aae eed ae en 82 

TET RCON, LOL Ia oes a navi ee sa oe ong.n be sie ae nace 85 

Ti Pee WIMR EE UME enhance wee a me minicnirkcmiians oe ae 81 

plans in New Jersey and other States ................ 87 

presen status. - 225 ocs ss. ce. ous cee woke aed eas ocean 

BemereePOrOTLE WUMOLONEE ote scale nly ae ne niual geo mad eka 3 103, 113 

MEM SULIT WG VCATR. 2 a ace aa aka wenden sss cunb= a9 ae ocean’ 540 

PRED ETM RET OUON » oo eS eae coe cae dene wane «meee ete A eee at 

Moats LOL VG yOArs:..-.2 cue .oecs 2 Leeds vena nee « ca keene 543 

institutions and experiment stations, list........-....-......---- 526 

growth in United plating tearm! See earn! 81 

products, principal, of leading cities, wholesale prices. ......-.-.-- 534 

Soils, Division, organization Ga Tanned... 2... es eee 525 

establishinent of Division ..........-.--..-.---++ccceseeee- 25 

PiMCMimine. BeMIMGheh SOCTOtAry, QUIEN 56 oo. Foci nce mee Saver ncns none omens 523 

ener eee MV TEE COULER OE go waren xo a Pew acie eK GAES « om CM owe 111 
Department. “(Sce Department of Agriculture. my 

MOUNT E POCUMEBEN 00 nia 5 0's x 4 40.4 Gah cigs 6 «EX aa g' Oxle ae Seiad 9 

Meee SRR AT SUNOS coi at Walon avant hw LN Osim wei ig ee a el 86 

CaN ree ARC re he ca rte gee a Ma MGs = 4 gas wn nae Wee oa oa ee 523 

SNOT ONTMR CB acts a cee ac wate Rie Sica mas vig t am nw era haw’ es tee eee 65 

WIGURHMOEMOHDEREINS (hd sem uvas deat roe ca eae ns oe eee 121 

CRIME TRIEMRIOR” 22 rie foci s Sei nei veld wae gt seed cee ateccscre eeeesce= ee 574 

Agrostis alba, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete..--.- 569 

Agrostology, Division, organization and duties........-....... 2.2.2.2. -2246- 525 

establishment of Divisiomrecommended................-------- 24 

IE MEMICGG, S20 fer cr oe tefl N Cec dep Se uk Es ca neta ce eee tak sek ea oesee 573 

Alfalfa, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, cte......----- 570 

PE nmerCMinG-OTAGS) MODES: 222055556 oes sc cadens cae cne caceae scuccecesnen- 430 

Almond shot- SPEER CCIE, SURES IIIOENG. ofS Soot ie Peltses se eneks ea ssae ae wees 577 

Alopecurus pratensis, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete. 570 

Alsike clover, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc..... 570 

ALvonrp, H. E., article on ‘The dairy herd: Its formation and management”. 295 

ersenty MOTSeSsIOt F Mele MGPKets so... ce ec wee ween en cee 22 

Ammoniacal copper car rbonate, Suemiiee TO PUNPSICTAS: 05 to ew hea ca cess 579 

EIS CONN SIOLOM tooo 2 Shs ae iets oe Sa me Se se wenn wane we eads ceeese 425 

Anasa trislis, remedies Poem ees Pie ses ooesc s obs Fc PSS S oo ee ce wece acc 574 

Pemrennaeeer ss WTUREY MMO, MOON foe fs SS SS ei os oe Saeco ed ace ak eaweee censtes 281 

PE eS IRs lt pee eee aCe bce kes pee ane bean 572 

mnie), COnposihion Of feeding Btuis 5. 2.665. ce i eer co Seca cece cece cn 558 

distribution, fundamental principles ..-...---.--2- 62-2 ee eee ee ee eeee 211 

fatagtry, Duread, appropriagious 22s 22 srsel. co Seds io oes See So eae SSS 36 

extension of Civil -serviee)).. 5 i.0. 6. sees ses once 33 

OT OaniCAon GUNG Caer. 4s. ooo. woes os ceow eee 523 

VQNES OG CINE WOME. 2 SOR acn sed vc. aon acn dese eewnan 33 

Animals, amount and value of manure produced. -............----.------ ee 572 

diseased, from United States, charge made.............-.-.----.---- 12 

in North America, geographic distribution.............-......--.-- 203 

Annual reports of weather stations, extracts..........-..------------+----+---- 125 

TOU WO! PARGR REW cals. lsaeien's cass peeled e wens sess wen cenes 51 

Anthonomus signatus, re iG HD Milas se sac SER geen ae ee eee 74 

Anthoxranthum odoratum, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost, ete. 570 


590 INDEX. 


Page 

Anthrenus scrophulariw, remedies....-. -.-- ++ -- 200+ - 2-2 eee seen see cate meee 573 
Anthyllis vulneraria, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre, etc.. 570 
Apatites, earliest mineral phosphate fertilizer; origin and composition....... 177 
Aplomade faleon, MObeE:. 45. asheaciee ose oe ed ot ane os ae oe eee ee 228 
Appendix to Ye arbook, fable sof On Gangs: foe's sie hte ns hee te Re cee 522 
Apovle leaf skeletonizer, WOMB MUGS (5 aed eos axe ee epee snnine se ets Samia nee eee 572 
root plant louse, OAc hk neces 572 

scab; Lregbient ieee ep ees one cies ap <o nd) iietsns t= ae 577 
trade, United Stages with Wintland «oo ooo eo. 8 ot enim pee cis pe ee 21 

(tree borer, Hat-beaged, remedies... on ema os Seen: sae See 572 
worn (eqdline main), comedies. 2.1... 0... sae ee han ee ae ee 573 
Mnples, IMnvestigatien Of WAMICEIOS 1... 2b oi oe an synedaas mall eee 46 
Appropriation 1895 and estimate 1896, comparison.........--...---.----.----- 48 
for experiment ait oot 3. eee ee 49. 
Appropriations, amount saved fiscal year ending June 30, PG. 2 ee ee 9 
prices Shot-hole fun us, ‘irediment 2525, 0. meg ob ne ee eee Soe ee jut ged 577 
Arctic life zone, description ai ita garni AS ofp gree ae ea ae ae 2 ile 210 
Said and humid rerions Compared oe on assee eree oni oe aden = ve an oe eee 157 
résion, Gepth of cor Membure oo es eased ie ae Doe Cee 159 

BOIS ian =~ eyepiece etnias iene) cay Oe oy cheery SST eae ee 155 

ET REE ao fa ane a Sa pais perm Sapien pte Sica teat che Dh eas 163 

Pe MOTT, TOMICOIES.. oso Ga ood wae ome Seti e wes Wag mek le ae 572 
Arrhenatherum avenaceum, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost, etc... 569 
Asparsgus heetic, remedies“... 5.065. oe soe ens eee ae eee 573 
soil adapted adm «ine Wlalgiiee aecelah giana a bie) eee ao peer 5 eel rr 133 

MEPUAOTES Per nicidsws, NOTES! a cw Senin dese ane a Saw aha wap emcee eee Ee Nee 
POMNOMICS, . So Sie cea pease ia miey eee > 2 ee 574 

Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, divisions assigned to his direction... -- 24 
COS oo 6p in tan can a * pment oop er 523 

Atkinson, Edward, researches in focd nutrition........ gine ate 39 
Silane seaboard track Tangs. oo no ie ie ccna a 129 
vaine of Tand and track 2-2. oe. pe ae ee 131 

arwater, W. O., articles on *Poebd and diet? <i o- neo. ocean eee 357 
investigations im Tood Tutrition ..... 0 .o.22-<. ~~ see 39 

Austroriparian life zone, description Saleh ere Sad Sw ng cia in, tee 211 


Awnless brome grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre. 569 


Bacon exports to United Kingdom...........-- (a emigiuid obanid keer ues ic. ge v7 
imports inte United Kingdom. - 2.6: ).2-- 2-40.21 42: ee 13 
relative value of Danish and American ...- 02). 2. .2- eee eee ee ee ees 15 

BalILeEyY, L. H., article on ‘‘ Relationship between American and eastern Asian 

PWM oe oe Leh e be tate eect sae ee ee eee 437 

Bait, poison, preparation and use as insecticide. _-... 25... - 22 sae eee 575 

Bald cagle, notes, ).: <0 worine teh thyes oy eee ines ROSE Beni 227 

Bark-beetle, fruit, remedies... 2.225. peso nenieees eemdnet ooeeia: oe ae 573 

louse, oyster-shell, notes... ... 2.2. 2 5... teste eshte aie oe aes) ose Ae 254 
BOMOCMMOE Soir an errs Gms Bhgeioned aaron - eo 574 

RETUUEEY , TANGO 2 ornate 1 8 he vy Sean fw ad aa eyeye Wma eel we os Legge enn 259 

Marley. exports to Great Britain. oi. 135. ie sosns Sheil svc emer 20 
farm price on December 1 of five Years oe asic wsre oni sn idl + de eee 545 

PTICS WAGTSAG GPE AIN 255 he cictat orins mers wh pete «a/b pane emer aang eee 19 

pmut, hot-water treatment 5.522.600. 2. 2s. cbs eet LA oe ee 417 
tremimews.:. oo... 85 Gi ce tian wel So cb eo! 22k wg 577 

NBN TATG IT OORT fo oi. eS ei tape reveals 2 md mime so = shalt hcl laste gn 414 
wholesale price in leading Cities... <--> pablegupet= ~ a+ 25 soa 537 

PE OWL BHR Soe oe sik sO Serine witpincne =a Unlbials -se- pec ieeets token nes a 223 

Barred owl, nebee 2.26 he Oe oe ed ee ei eee: ed ede eel eee 225 

Basic slag. ae B LOTR OR bo on jo 9 jak om 'npe. asim om aja eich pane apenas arden ee, aig 186 

phosphates, Adv ter aphOMeiess 5c care oils aaeibenudinteingeain nie salem ele 190 

Beach grass (water oats) aa soil bimAee . oan. wccectmeunensew see ene ces cee 430 

BEAL, F. E. L., article on ‘‘Crow blackbirds and their food” .......:......--. 233 

Been weevil, remedios: 2... 22.  -oieds haieoe adicee dance bben dee 573 

Beef cattle, exports to United Kingdom...............-.. yee a eee 10 

dressed. (See Dressed beef.) 

imports into United Kingdom. . ... 2.0. - 202.2 n-ne nseee nee one eee meee 13 

price in Great Britain: 5. - 5. 000 ovo Lie bn =ik« «\~tidels anaes abe eee 19 

quarters inspected, 1892, 1893, 1894 ...... 2.22 «.«ns <ontwiagind « «2m wlan oaaeeell 68 
mais bak Pe TAD a psa aracs amet ah achianenihes gens capes nena 67 

trade, conduct in BMgiand, .).-.<seaawies sens bese a5 gents aw see eeteiee 1i 


.- on 


INDEX. 


Beet seeds, germination test......-- apnea rien asnseian, = since: Gil Aad At ga Uesininlincn an : 
fermude grass as-soil binder... ....... 2... 22. e220. one rn hibiatia abil vast wavs 
Boverages imported, inspection suggested ... 2. 22. ene ee ee eee eee cee . 
Biological survey, experimental ORE AAS SAL alae pn sagen alle Selnlaiatitd oa libata 
PIOVISION dor AF MLOIMAAIC 2 ano o ose occ cinnin coe viens es amsiece 
NTS COMINEER, MARIBOR: sis cin cians wieitaintpigny a, oie a aes Me cnccemibioeictis wibby aie Mets lain mibind 
I RN can asc reel ner yen mi a, 6 nmin hcmchandhbnw we tidus wih beac couh 
rere eG mariana), oe tama Gia a ask oi ow nti nie heen ce ccinc cinco 
foot trefoil, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. . 
of prey, Found Babin oacenn eeietaaiegul <ieeibieicas anid <tebudnisatgan diebads 
SOO ABO itis a cece cok ts <A ASS AS mwinin oo pawbisiline 
PAMOCIONA, .£OmMe CharacterisWOes. 0 oe 5 nis nin cee ceiwss wre s Sees See ow-wae 
Bisulphide of carbon, preparation and use as insecticide. ...............-.... 
Bitter panic grass as de SI RR SER EIR eae © deree poeeeeiee oa 
Blackbirds, crow. (See Crow blackbirds. si 
RO BOE OU i iam nin mesic enim nin 5d aed ae and im bine tee we 
UGS TPOItS BS FOOD, nna osa m2 = Fetes po aban bh meni opis hese ii ‘ 
stomachs, list of vegetable substances found.......-..-......-.- 
Black knot of plum and cherry, | taealaaelt a: sige opis aid aso ee hele <aehes 
SNR NNO a oan nie saree cde ins ide abate «nace osinaoe ees 
“Blady grass” as soil binder............ Cen Re ae ae Rae Oe ge NE OR Bae AOE TS St 
Dur t, aead ot pear, treatment |... dnicienen siteseinanicicureseemebs nie te daild 
UNaMNMNDg: SIPO III oct ca emacs backs > ms ine le een iatie cen a a 
Biiseus Jeucopterus, and blister beetles, remedies... ....-- 2.2.20: -s0s+ cone cease 
eee eames PNG Me woll Aviskdey.. on ss cw ee ein be inten abe ice « mane oe Sees 
ES ee a be tn aA sense. yeh tirks, aa eae 
Bordeaux ‘mixture, Ponmene yom Aree. oe ee ok ow: oink meio cnien dalek vmne 
aren, 1ai-neatied apple-irce, reme(lies ....... ..-- ~~... 62 cow nnn woe lec ceeewens 
peach-tree, squash, and sugar-cane, remedies............----.----- 2. F 
Botany, Division, organization wel gE SARA ee aR Om DAES, * 
Se AI NO I snc ws Snr, nc Rabe eds o wee So ee 
Prime Satbcwoglasia, gharacher. <i. nnn wan ett ee ded wold acide on on eeceee 
PERNT IIS xn ica yp ayn, «eon eA ell 
investigations NI TN 6 ices ha ose Psa oath argon ‘ 
FREVGUICYOS WOGRRUPCS _... = a deicisl Seed nets osu cote 
reisiven to pewlic Weglhh oan cer sccs + dbjaisieiend «a neie 
suggestions for prevention and suppression..........-... 
i i Sree igi gaa oye AIEEE ee hs aha eeg a is 
composition, cost, and fuel value of 1 pound..........-.-..- id ees aad a 
I TUN as ra ining ae in pes Gar baie wa ny euns watwlegmn 
Brome grass, awnless, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. 
MEM TT, 15) OL ITN OMT oo + secre in alas hs mye bk wea ake wi 
Bromus inernis, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete.... 
ANID ICRI TES sn ice aieceinis. pig m onic m petit nibks Kinicibn min "eimebebibibinle Sod bbtins 
Buffalo gnat and buffalo moth (carpet beetle), remedies... 2 nese edo eee. sws 
Pee ricgeln Cabbare, remedies... ..... -... -..<o0 enn cnn pone ded eecemicmeanns 
a a on a nn ce Cab = Man SaKE wth hie nie 
PS Peed ORGS AIO POUIONS . 2, 2 -- oe eee oe nce none on sdermnince ees nese 
Nm TIN ne SINUS TRIN a et ne a ais Seti adioiee ainmnidieamees 
ES a a ee ee ee a 
Bureau of Animal Industry, organization and duties................-.---.-.. 
Mi C2LRSl, OFEAMIzRION ONO CUTIES .. . ~~... 2-2 nnn seewirns menses sane 
RN CURE ANIM os i its wisxm x xv y ein bie © vimninisearn einen ile ih a ee 


Cabbage bug, harlequin, and.cabbage worms, remedies ............----.---.. 
RINE ha ilk RR aia a en alan son dees 0425 wallow eee abled ob ee 
REE + SUA CER d ba DRA Knee danas see ccedaceann aise cualade cine 
Calandria yranaria, NOCCS... 5 .1s ses esses coe pincer Seipha ile acan wee SORE at ueutiedaeme 
OMIIG As <iicin dl nice as niu a qed PD Rcigia le dine ob 4 abt we Webel 

ONYSA, MOTOR... 2.5 vee ccece ade meee eect mse mes swe ces wewses etn Jesees 

POMIOMLIGS: w'css baad ceints o.cnes,e nach dpebinkecdwcke cee dds bbws 
California-devastating locust, remedies... . 22.25. seco ee eect eee eee 
Caloptenus atlanis, C. devastator, C.femur-rubrum, and C. spretus, remedies .-.... 


OG FOUN TLOOI, CREB. iad. ae acne sane celts aes ideme anse Less eeees sce 


mum ber carcasses.inspected, 1892, 1893... 2... wane ne cece anne sew eeee 


cal vine -time-and-drying Off COWSs 02.2.6... eke tee dec csc ccc emewens te ceee ews 


Camptobrochis grandis and C. nebulosus, scale insect enemies .........---.----- 
PaetIg te LITG! FONG MOSCTIDTION esis «6 nn oc cna cane wens ween cone comees saenes . 


280 
573 


579 
573 
nwo 


O78 
308 
68 

306 


253 


210 


592 INDEX. 


Page 
Canarsia hammondi, TEemedies:... = 2.-csce cows aks ee vo eae aa eee 572 
Canary grass, reed, NOEs. CoS ae sc nak tee a Pe 433 
number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost — acre,etc. 569 
Cankerworm, remedies. 22<<.22 Une we eed wuee ts Wcrned ] (OR Ce 573 
Canned meat, number packages stamped 1891, 1892 ....0..2..00¢ se... 520 oR 67, 68 
Carcasses; reasons for-condeniiing + $..04- 2 21 es. eer ee te. SEI OO A 70 
Garolinian: life-zone, Weserintiemiiiss ob 25.2 a soc he Godin seen ae 211 
Carpet beetle (buffalo moth), and Carpocapsa pomonella, remedies.........-..- 573 
CathartusGemeliatus, Nees TEL Poo Lh So EO oe Oe 290 
Cattle, beef, exports46 United Kingdom .......... 500.000.0204. eae ee 10 
dairy. (See Dairy cattle.) 
diseased, trem United States, charge made 2.22) ).0ss.. 208. eo 12 
losses reduced in shipment; number a SMELLS - OSL eee ao 
shows in Massachusetts. (22326. es.coant YORE: AO RE ee 84 
Cecidomya destructor, remedres os.) 2.2 ee a oe 573 
Census, annual ‘acricultural 2222 22.6 sce). denne ce dk EO a ee 57 
Cheese exports te United Kingdom...2.. oii. 290 2 Le Lee 18 
Chemicals for preserving milk oe) cet es DLC 8 BSL Lae 332 
Chemistry, Division, organization and duties):2.22.-..55 25221 seh ee 524 
work. of the wyear.. ce. 10s. co eA eee eee 45 
Cherry black knot and leaf-blight, treatment......... 2.2.2. sie. J20 0200s eee 517 
Chilocorus bivulnerus, scale insect-enemy.........-... ~~. 1282502221. ee eee 253 
Chinch- bug, remedies . oe noi ee eR ee eee 573 
Chtonaspts-furfurus, NOt ...200.00 2S A ee eee 259 
CHITTENDEN, |I’.H.,article on ‘‘Moreimportantinsectsinjuriousto stored grain”. 277 
Chrysobothris femorata, remedies wr. ssc. soso erssiort een esinns on ee Ce ee 572 
Civil service, extension in Bureau of Animal Industry .............-.:-2..-:-. 33 
Olay (mechanical separakion its... a4. beh SOLU ee 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 
Chmate required for ramie....., <Sssso ens 2s ee ee ee 446 
Climatic data; compilation... ee Sek Ps Sh a 119 
fOr SAWItATiANS -202 sous seen sk 6 es ok 2 120 
Clothes moth, southern, remedies |... 52.2 ssa Seosuecuss ee SUL Ree eee 573 
Viouds, systematic study... 0. 6.4 2 te SS ee oe 120 
Clover, alsike, red, and white, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, ete.... 570 
Coast couch prass.n8 sand binder . oc soese STN Ue SE Le eee 433 
Cockreach, German, remedies. 3...0 02 io. ek ct Le See ee eee 573 
Codling moth (apple wernt), remedies? - 2.42205. }2n 28 Ss Pas 573 
College,;-the first agricultural son 1.1 sea gens co tisinnews sien aes Oe 91 
Colleges, agricultural, bills granting lands... 2. ...\ 2.20... 3. 2 95 
Morrill act .2s<aes $sh-s2cs cac55025 ei eee 92 
having courses In agriculture 2. 20).-2/..5082 522 a eee eee 111 
Colorado potato beetle, remedies... =. . =... 2.22052. seo OSes eee 574 
rainfall available for crops .232 [Ae 2 Pk 232-22 ee eee 157 
Compsomyia macellaria, TeEMmedies. < « sc sac,2sanc ree sewe dee eee ee Hee eee 574 
Congress, Washington’s messave..2t 2/00 l ue eees (ee ee Le ee 83 
Connecticut tobaced: soils oc. csc ee cnesds wee peels oe tk 2 os eee 143, 146 
Conotrachelus nenuphar, remedies 2. 202-24 +4 22025-60000 dienes Soe 12S eee 574 
Wooper 8 awk MOtes s2 oos.o0 vere deve coded 4 ugae cree ese es Sa eee 231 
Copper sulphate treatment for stinking smut of wheat.......-.--..----.----- 417 
Doppice, management... 2.3.2 455 Poses ood eee woes sc 202221420) 2 eee 493 
Coprolites, origin and composition... 2.0205 - 2.2. eee ok oe a 177 
Cord grass as‘soil ‘ynder: 6252356322008 ce5 300.0542 05 2A e lL a 436 
fresh-water, ap.s0il binder: 2s. sccte se osc ws 6 saad coy coe ee eee 436 
Corn, averarve yield in Kansas. .2525sscascs csecoe ces sss dh'sieete ele W- EL 158 
ear worm (bollworm), remediesic.. .. 65.0 2 ono 302 son nes hk eee eee 573 
farm. price.on December 1 of five;years...- 056.0008 .0ssiews gee wccteeee 515 
EOE WORM, TODO TCG ai inicio mein 3 cme tin cyano) ogg ewes 573 
PBN ERIN ER TEEN anes 5e ein ecelm tnke, ODages ns ea 414 
Stalk-horer; TEMOGies occ oom wie. a. 00s0:nce:m nam nos neh a aula BLES oe 573 
wholesale price in leading Cities... acciaiec.nnipne rive chic eRe sas 534 
Correlation of the life zones. 5.2 2% eos s kee es bees «Stew a oe Ma 207 
Cotton exports to Unifed Kingdom... 0s oacecisxen + ndmn anvinneeeaes «see 18 
farm price on December 1 of five years: i): <.066 -duwsos.eerehe beeen ee 545 
fertilizing constituents in 300:pounds.of lint. 202.4 seas. «hae ee 544 
wholesale prieé.in leading cities... ....- ++ «++. gtwodcnsiens exes ae 539 
WOT, TOMI GOI Fa nie wo on ann «0b 6 MES, auld « Jtudalaceiaiae nea eee a 573 
Couch grass (witch erase) 8 801) binder... =< 5.220eshs.4heelivld @ Sein ae 435 


const, au:eand, DINER > a.oin iin sdsiniare pha'swia where ps deeds eee 433 


INDEX. 593 

Page 

Rte ie ec ntad sd sn ance vpdb sobesdveue dcccadnedakae 565 
dairy. (See Dairy cow.) 

aGll, MIN CANVMAI DUNG: o 2. coe oe oa bees cece anes cows cepeoncve 306 

SGI MOUIRCTL CAINE OTN hE S26 Ls as scl s cach ean wees tdbccccedeves 311 

St OMT ER Sh S Sane acl ddecds acco anda satin hee oeb'e see 313 

Creeping fescue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete... 569 

NRO I RGR Aken a reise neu eeibneld sen de been cdae specu abate 433 

Crested dog’s-tail, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.. 570 

IG MG RINTC HOUNERIIOM cubs «kn ae Sika olsen seb ssa et leee eedeac cd ween eeeshs 573 

al Lee, Wenther CONGIMONS 1500) 625s does ones wk cee ween ecet coeubs cree 529 

MIMO bLON, TOIADION OF BOUG Ilo awk te hoe Slee oo lee ieee uaeseviccanase 129 

Daneeon piras. one their food OU Pies soe Pea Seis th is dea ened eece sacece 233 

Contents OF MOUMGANO sr. s. so eke lee Clee kel Soles ete eeee eee 238 

BOCCTA PING Tabi e ties sale eas ose ioe. co pos vt eee. 233 

Onbervations Of Cet. anes oT ssa slates ove deo uaee 235 

iemien Dectice, atriped, remedies. ........0200 05 2S soa e een skeen ewes mesa 573 

TRE TON OUNOS* 5. Lato Soe sl redid oe ee ulus these 574 

Currant worm, imported, remedies ....-...---- TA ee ee Py tee Pp ee 573 

i PPMECBONE arias sth tau Seek aoe See eee dhe s Pies Sep Pee ehs ad eee oe 66 

ears Wor. appointment ad Librarian ..052s 6.602. cs eoeie ce ween cee cns sblawes 61 

Pierre TOMeCMIeS:..4...-42..5050.i55--- 5 Sie cea ake Bs hs ahs hak tech ta ee Bis ale 573 

ron Re BOL DINGCT . 4. os nnn eceveknsacads shades Shelsee meas. MSeee 431 

Cynosurus cristatus, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete.. 570 

DABNEY, Dr. CHARLES W., Jr., appointment as Assistant Secretary. ..-....--- 23 

Dactylis glomerata, number seeds per pound, amount tosow, cost peracre,ete.. 569 

SP  EMUTMINMORUCQM. Oabaccn) aeccanes shes sa kes) lacus Joo eSe See oe eee 369 

bela tit biG Cally 6; 250s Se aces So sS hl. Selle eee ean aces 296 

pure-bred and grades, relative importance.................----- 298 

Seleet, cor fpecial adaptationc.:-:- 552225 2ees 22 SST E Sas aees w See 296 

cow, completed ration, and method of calculating ration. ......-..----- 564 

po meemnmedations Tequireds.:. 2'.225: To. OSes se SS oe ee Sees 302 

ScecnU ance aie Miki ge ios de~ Soaks oS Sa Sac ods cei ee cens Sak 310 

Salling by individuality and record <2. 2.222.720.5222 See eee 300 

POMS ssa ROOD EE A. fe CLEP DECI ES Bae et tere 314 

forniation and managements ...5.6.5522 05-0060. ee eco ee 

Meubon-camendored £¢ 3. cts d vucewsss seeds cas 25s Rel Poa aes 304 

mirplications relating, lish 211.2220 22. Sess occa cie Sos tes én eqewe 316 

BreetnenwOk WOM s2es.525 22. asieses 4 bass 282 esol lt csi ieees 299 

ee anroy tre OUI1On, Pesultely. 2.02 cles Se Joo a aa cde epee 206 

Dn rnem- DE TaIMIe, MOthOGS:.. -2.6csc0cdiass Pee Slls ee See ea teee 445 

Department of Agriculture, duties.........-.-. Lexi ceed ee ee 100 

Orgunimetin nd: setts. 2st elle eee ore oawces cas 523 

orsign. and development: (25-9525 227 Sas SS 99 

printing office, statement of work. [7.22 J. 5.2.2... 222... +25. <:-- 52 

muacreuce tangicorme and D. vittata, remedies...........5..2.0--2.6 22 eee eee- 573 

Diatrwa saccharalis, remedies .......--..-.-- See tee oe sees eal cae eens 573, 574 

ISS Ge SIS 0 1 og peas a a cee a ce a 357 

bird, various articles............ Se ORT OS ter ee te eee reese: tre 239 

on CLOW WIGOm mnt, ONMOEVELIONS.. 2.650 225s o0cd coos eed wees cae aee cece 235 

eeeente an OE ROTI RINNE oc ogo pu ch a sac oe SSSCES Ses hee eeAR eS. 376 

rei AMOreMOtnntee -fors oS ek... cosa bocce cee oesemaes 4. 369 

PPeInNliDy, \Omret OF, HOFER tION:. oo... occ s sateen Se OU SSS Pees es 341 

ir PMCOING Re@iihc.s =. ssiecet eds SN ucteee de UCU 2S 55 Seen 562 

oe i Se ree ere pie Pee ee: 

Disbursing Office and Division of Accounts, organization and duties....-.---- 525 

Disease of oranges, fertilization as affecting.........--..----..-----+-----+--- 199 

Diseases discovered by meat inspection... ..-... 2... 22-22. - ee ee ee eee eee eee eee 69 

Disinfectants for bovine tuberculosis... 2... 5... 20.2.6 22a. 22 oe eee eee eee eee 326 

Division of Accounts and Disbursing Office, organization and duties.......--. 525 

Agricultural Soils, establishment of Division.........-----.--.---- 25 

organization and duties.........--..----..---- 525 

Agrostology, organization and duties. ......---.-----.------------ 525 

Botany, organization and duties........-------------------+-+---- 524 

Chemistry, organization and duties. .....------.------------------ 524 

Entomology, organization and duties...-...----.--------++-+-+---+-- 524 

Forestry, organization and duties........-...-.-------------+--+-- 524 

Gardens and Grounds, organization and duties....-.------------- 525 

Ornithology and Mammalogy, organization and duties..---.-.---- 524 


594 INDEX. 

Page. 

Division of Pomology, organization and duties......... a 2: wih oaleip ei een ee 

Publications, organization and duties ....... gin Beppe webin ce eas 525 

Seeds, organization PT ASICS eet. we Jct chenieunstetbs: 525 

Statistics, competitive examinations -- - 2.0. 2002+ ee pepe) Sea! oy 5a 

ebjecks amd arose 2 ees 20 on oe: ie oe eee eee 54 

organization and -duties ....-...-....- aberdeen eae 524 

Stateiand county meents -. -...~..-meteoe eects eee es 5d 

SORE SOON pope sine cach Sk ck eee ieee 56 

Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, organization and duties.... 52d 

Document and Folding Room, organization and duties. ........--......- va ae 52d 

slatement of Worke.1- ja-scclesee cee eee a2 

Documents issued by Office of Experiment Stations ---....-2...--.... cyte , 345 

DovGE, CHAS. RICHARDS, article on “ Facts concerning ramie”.........----- 443 
Dog’s- tail, crested, number seeds per pound, amount tosow, cost per acre,ete.. 570. 

Dor: yphora 10- lineata, and Drasterius elegans, remedies... -...2-...------------ 574 

Pewny niildew of »rape, dreatment .................sachensweaeeciiese bee eee 577 

Reece beef, adaptation for shipment; imports into United Kingdom. rere : 12 

ry ing off cows. and Calving GUM q. ..<.j2<)50n).5 alee pis Lede enki ts 

DUNWOODY, H. H. C., arlicle on ‘‘Value.of forecasts” ...........-paa oe eee 121 


‘‘Weather conditions of the crop of 1894” .. 529 


Eagle, bald, and golden, notes......... Me cate wae anes reroaded Oe AIR swung 227 
SSI 0 CENt0S UERDELOSNS HBOS 204 oi UL Gadel LAE E eee 289 
Edibles imported, inspection. suggested....2...: nsec eoce 6 eee ee oe eee 12 
Education, agricultural. (See Agricultural education.) ; 
Elm leaf-beetle, imported ......-. pian dhe Pee Beebe aleectnaes eins sticks Se 
le MUS ANENATIUS, MOLES © Loos Sos ie ee pe See J eee os eee 428 
Emulsion, kerosene, preparation and use as insecticide ..-. .. inate Sei Saas ee 
English markets for American sAhorses...... ....--.--=--+----+- nie el tetas en eit 22 
WHEE oe Sc niccwinds tee pees Soke ee ic Lees 19 
walait scale, aembes . cook. hae ckeeeecx tdi cee to ieee 268 
Entomology, Division, organization and duties ......---... ai ane a pai 524 
work of the year... ...- << Hs. te wah ate oe lagel es ene 4i 
Rphestia iuehniclla, notes... 2.2.5.4 Se wae ide Be eee eS eek asses 283 
Epicauta cinerea, E. pennsylvanica, and E. vittata, remedies. .......1..teetaeenne 573 
Erythroneura vitis, OTOCI RS OE 5s an ear reciaeicedh Gace bidet Be eae 573 
Peapoeration, controlling. 2... 22 Sea eae ec an ee nections se kme 174 
from foliage, loss of water o....ja:b52 ites Jascid haiti sehr 173 
Bwerglade kite, mates... ...12. 28.3 Basen nea eed 2G bee eee 218 
Examinations, competitive, Division of Statistics -.........--- becsaoaeh ee 55 
Hxpedition, Death Valley, resulliis......- 2...<-m0x. o-soceak itn selon tab aes 206 
Papentimres-on pay-Toll eos ete Loe cei BSL eee raya 8 48 
FEGOChION.. 22020 fe nce ised ecre es ite ee AT 
Experiment stations, agricultural . oscar Bitte sees e Soe ones Soe 103, 113 
“and agricultural dnetitutions, Bist. ..0 2.22... J eels 526 
appropriations j-wiaietl paencrey mele ie AG bites wee etal mies SSE 49 
office. (See Office of Experiment iantiewens ) 
supervision of expenditures. ...... 2.00. nieces wus 38 
Buporis, agricultural, for Tye years... sco acpi one wisn Sslas eens 540 
Fairs, agricultural, at Washingtbon......-0.22 ni. scinccciee nen 5 et atau RS 8 48 84 
Biticon, Aplomatlownd praimie, MOLES on --ei as eww a oes See ee . 28 
fon! web swarm, remedies~. 9.82 See ne RR LS. ee ee 574 
Farm products, American, for femetes: man einbs atkins cab lc cic se ee 9 
Soe met) Cae a at ee PME, LAB Jiechi: 65 
puices‘on (December 1 ef five years... 2.2.25 ee les 545 
Plarmer:ond moeteanalody | oo ote Oe A EO Ee) ee 117 
cost of phosphatic fertilizer...) 2 eee 180 
hawks and owls from jhis:standpoint. 2.20.2 eb LL 215 
kind .of -monil muantied:: 6 si0 fey. ee See, See ee 501 
Rarmers:and forestey..22 22. oeets il ts A eee 461 
the besiapeda ecb ea oe ee 501 
bidictina, lieth oo. eS hai Ee ee 587 
principal :beecl snamicet...........-cgilan.Coh ces ee ee 9 
Farming, truck. (See Truck farming.) 
Benlerai meat inepection.....-.... 2b bee 67 
Mieding sinndarde, Walt oon note 5 oe Di eee Oe ee 563 
stuffs and farm products, fertilizing constituents......-..--.--..--.- 565 


INDEX. 595 
Page. 
EE A ONCIRSINN oS So ae mone con ns emcncn es wens Save sank. Wises 562 
On Gels Gnemipenition -. 2.2. ic mane nese ceile esc Seliedeidcs.. 888 
PON PMO Cees et SU. SU eel aoe lt ee bi 314 
FERNOW, B. E., article on ‘‘ Forestry for farmers” ...... 2.202.002.2222 2- ee cee 461 
Ferruginous roughleg, GN seek LAs esti th 2) Boras duieas oe 219 
Fertilization as affecting CMR ee Sickie one 199 
ebees Upon. orange Insecta. -oo.e seo ee nek ll wee, 201 
o& sei) as: affecting the orange... ssid sdb cect cease 193 
Fertilizers, effect on orange in health; fertilizers for WeWRE ios 4 bl Aisi 195 
eeiidihs (abhaeD Oke edie au BOL 145 
ER NEE GRUNT OD oi. career orci oto Solas WS olds. ele CL Eee 571 
meen phosphates..ucces es BS. bends cost lal. cok 177 
mhgepoatic, cost to the Garment a ce. cannes ene «©6180 
Pelee. DOE PRON eae nie cn mans sean SITS. ae. | A 
pene far erameens suisison Soc bint oes. elccsielesui 2 2sneee. 197 
Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products...........-.....- 565 
OO SS a ee a goer MRE SP TCR Ue | oot ade 193 

Fescue, meadow, sheep’s, and various-leafed, number seeds per pound, amount 
to sow, cost per acre, aia ceiel aicasmmye ecto eR SSC dee ss 569 

Festuca heter ophylla, FF’, ovina, 'F. pratensis, and I’. rubra, number seeds per pound, 
amount to sow, cost per acre, PON OE ARB 599 
mn GWE... es ikul ose bl ee. 307 
Fiber Investigations, Office, organization and duties. ............-.-. 222. .+.. 525 
statement of work..........--. pihisics inn BRE KE 61 
INN TMS i ho ngs cenit pnirrnerenion retin. oes bse CS en 455 
FisuEnr, A. K., article on “Hawks and owls from the standpointofthe farmer”. 215 
ee ENECIEAPE OR EIGNUE 0G ois 2 anid ie majo opin ond nee nee coe nms wae anvlage 65 
Flat-headed MIPRNE LEGG, DOLGT, TOIMOGIOR 8 oh cence cee cower enn clom nein meld wenn ieee 572 
IIIS EMRE CEANIME TIONED ho. sc bid i cn bm win ope Blernimteante = rye nh wmenediehlgicee tire 444 
eee I GRIP. DCRR ss csi wi 5 tes eet tel > wb ote nd « eern mck « Bi eee 573 
Flies, Syrphus and lace-winged, scale insect enemies..........-.........-.-- 253 
ER REE DES SEE ES SO Ca Oe re ee ae nee ae ee 120 
eeeras. gimitiavity of Asian and AmMmericanngsn oars ing emer canine ose nnn e ones oon 441 
i re NADeS, TOUT TY POR... --. oon 2 4 ee acne se co eens mmtnew anbiniweee ne 178 
I a arn RE ae aly nk Sorc ia ds sR A hall wea kia aoa 136 
IIE... Dard Ok. OS ar Reus isu, c kind > <leeed repephere woken ecenieintntl 288 
SORTER EE BSE 5 SUDAN 5 i i new inc miemse, emis mn cient ae <n 288, 289 
PILAR, PEO ICEL ADOAD, THO BOD a ein. eis sewn wd lamremrers oe mowed ome new me mame 283 
I MENRIERM Dy. ESC ei cre. Jan te oe ck te a im wicca «slo waited me eer el 573 

Folding and Document Room. (See Document and Folding Room.) 
eee toer.or water by evaporation... . . 0... -.6eeee 2c ence ss cemace oes 173 
SIRT, TRIPE IINGING SME COST. 4 a )0 2c Senin np nie as oe cee ees beieweleanm «aes 359 
I MC ISTENT 35. is a One wae ay hin w= sd ems ape meenaede afeiaremet 357 
RE Mae MER RLTIS RT UENO ai a as os Sie enis be mimeenens Sates enrh> pete a oe seas 242 
I OER oh Oo isl Sica dk aemabbenin warp eer aaneeit ete os wisi n «'s 367 
RUNES SiMe eA nV N's Win eidva WE ain Sito Meet Dew ee mse wider ow 358 
ER BE RITE ALIEN iki. doch oh pee x oe GE sional ati tied meena eve ain ‘eine ach 381 
NT ellis Die - preci iet Lentil tlt deers wiferbbourecm trie 387 
ne ir CONES SEER lil peel Loren — sepia ence inp e> ecieiey 2 el = 367 
a ee aime cittiner mn oleiw nema lee meen aye vem aenenpee 245 
Seema Ol URED TENT aie SW G's = se creme mire Seem oe ng eee bene 217 
materials and conditions of growth of trees. .......----. ---2+. -+---+-- 461 
classification by composition cnc hot on eesti eid: Annabel ab 364 
GSh- OL TPE UIMNGING «6S cis cidade Fetes on 366 
TAREE GS OTE FO a as a agg a nets we evin rere sien pam meege'h tr = simenste 382 
aaa NT RR Sa i Lab ae erecgnia iarionenigininrere ves kg sew he mareieers seewslagn maine 361 
value, RE aD ac Rin nish an. <2 Al > Ahan <p berger teat see oats 116 
SR ORE Oe a ok ice hte hdd ht min cs eeeicaeemrer? x menace om nenemeentin im erate Sap 215 
ABET Ee) A igen coma iy mele irae ec ie erp pe OME oc 233 
people in business and. professional life... .............-.---------- 372 
TAR, PRN eikeshee ich cet ni pan elim fark le aE cetctantlign wba, << ase binparnp halite = 385 
SRICSe. ROMAN WEINTG SCHIG. . 2.4. 2 u 2 ns come pmimncne smn nine ewe 265 
HOW DOGG BOMIG. 86a. cen as nes wmane ov aens eho caméars embsnisien ems 266 
Oyster-shell bark louse... .. .. 26/60 scemes «semucine sipeeaneces 256 
Bewer LACAN 6 nae ce & 3 ens elles tno cess pein amet ~ateesinoh 271 
SSAA OGG COMI CF icc. 6 oc cue noma panes = 0a, demuieen agen Jenlai 268 
SCUrLY Dark LOUGG a. << 6-564 eee e we eae s deen s <5 05a tiene ap eee 260 
the greedy scale .... ...- 2-21. - neces cme teens ene cess ceceees 262 
products, value of weather forecasts......----- acer. roma Oey 122 
ois Deane aE a o'd cn vec cua\ves ewe cocnac smengucese ode eee 8 ; 
ei; we a ah ei be Ole etal ee a ee 4 


work, and wages in United States........-.--. 


596 INDEX. 
Page. 
Foods, cheap and dears. 02.2325. te. eee ts Ake 5 Se ee ee 364 
hunian, composition. (45000 40, oh. eae oan BER ia eee Re ieee 547 
Forage plants and grasses, number seeds in 1 pound.......--.............--. 569 
. weight and cost.of seed of four mixtures -:2o/02. Meesd. cee 571 
Ford, Worthington. C., statieties,quoted....-1.5.2090 5. .dsceds yeh eee “a7 
Forecasts, improvement. S222 525.226 fo atk Sabeells Soe RLS oe it] 
interests affected and benefited; values! .ccsasssesn: eae 121 
of Weather Sareea 2a socu.0..0¢ 006 ahd weve he ee doe ee 29 
Forest, development of trees inia@nd \outi its: . 2 sdk seh See We 473, 474 
how 10 PRAM ee A SUE So Seen ee Seed and wae eee 480 
products, value:of. exPorts:/s2-- 2262.2. -.d.n. .eedtione ered gee cee 65 
Forestry, DivisionPorganization and duties... ....0dslceod4 eee 524 
WOEK Of tho yeargk.2 . see elise Paes 44 
for farmers... 22 C2052 Le tedke Nae see Re eee 461 
Foxtai:, meadow, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete.. 570 
Freight rates in effect on January lof five years. $2.0)... } 0.220 See 546 
French ““cadelie;” notes.2. 2. 0. in eee I eee 290 
Fresh-waterscord grass as soil binder avel ies 2222s 202. OR8 so ks Cee 436 
Prait bark-beetle, remedies 2ii2.....00 05. os Lees. A IR eee eee 573 
spot: of ‘quinee, treatments. 2 lol A ee eee 578 
Fruits. as blackbird food). :..6...-.0c0c.. cc0 3 Oe t SRE Ae, Oe 242 
eastern Asian and American, relationship .............03.02sue Jee 437 
from eastern Asia and Europo-Asian region.........--.....-.---.----- 442 
value :of .weatherforeeaghs. 22226 04 22d fetal... codon deena 122 
Pingieres; formwmlas.3 2c ose dees ek eek ca ee eee 577 
Fungous:diseasesiof plants, treatment... ce 236 0 eal. : ee ee eee 579 


Galega officinalis, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.. 570 


Galeruca canthomelaenay remedies... .:—. 23.42 2s cee sss. Le eee 573 
GALLowAyY, B. T., and ALBERT T. WooDs, article on ‘‘ Water as a factor in the ~ 
sTrowth of plants” ‘iol. 2 = - 22 a ee et eee 165 
Gardens and Grounds, Division, organization and duties .................... 525 
statement of work-.2.lS eee 53 
Gelechta-cercatelia, WOES . 1... 622 F shee ees ee iss La eee 281, 282 
remedies: Pocceswerss. Wee Ae oo ee 572 
German cockroach; remedies = 220029 fete co os foe oS eee 573 
Gnat, buttalo, remedies:s.... 2225 see eee tee a eee 573 
Goat’s rue, officinal, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete. 570 
Goldén- eagle, notes 2.2. con sees eee oS eee 227 
Gophers, pocket, study’. 3. 2200's 2222227 ee ee eee 43 
Gophaawk; wo0tes > fr. Soe eee ee en eee 231 
as blackbird foods 22... ec See a eee 242 
Grain beetle, remedies: .~.0./. roe ee ee eee 291 
saw-toothed, notes... eer Sl Ae eee 287 
square-necked, ‘notes 7252 ee ee ee ee 290 
feods for daity*heras141 seek eee ee eee 315 
fresh, prevention of infestation by insects “-.2.22./. 022.2... 2 eee 292 
insects, nature and extent of damape........... 2... «2... ea ee 278 
origin, introduction, and habits... 00.222... 2.4.2 22. 2 eee 277 
parasites and natural enemies...-."...2.. 20) oe eee 278 
sulitis, causes and prevention ...o. 2." oo. se) ee 409 
stored, injurious insectsiss 2. i220 2. fi. Le Le eee 277 
triers for aced: testing, motes 2). eae. 2 Se eee ee ee 406 
meevila remedies! 7. Uses: eee ee cwac -o- 4 oc nuns e becuse 573 
Grape black rot and downy mildew, treatment .... 2... ..-. <2 Ghee eneeee 577 
Grapevine leaf-hopper and phylloxera, remedies ...........--..---.---.---t2% 573 
Gross seeds, germination: test. 2.0: .ocecs ide Ss Be 400 
Grasses, and forage plants, number seeds in 1 pound...........-.------------ 569 
as ‘sant and. soil’ binders... !o22c5)s2e) « -'sin' eo ool oe ee ee ee 421 
list, mentioned in article on ‘‘ Sand and soil binders” ............... 580 
sand-binding,- distri bution «10, 2.) hale olde aloe oes & 423 
Gravel, mechanienl separation. .i...503:...sces eee eee 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 
Gracklo,:. purple,’ nObCG— ua) -as'e No! one ae Ree ee eee eee 233 
Granary weevil; notewisie sic no eae we etilewe Mavs meee ee Hen ee ee 279 
Great Britain, inspection of animals from United States...........-....------ 79 
orned OW), MOLORS foo 5a 5's eis ocean od vide dala eo ee eee ae ee 229 
Greedy senile, ates Cos soy ca cr Sha cn WEA ene ae a ee 261 


a 


INDEX. 597 


Page 
Rete WLEe. Cl @ WOGLLS), FEMOCICS. .. 00. ccecscrcnccesdcedltcevdevesvieseer 574 
mepey moth, remedies .................- shtp swe ees eames oy ce VEN ea wal aN te buns 573 
RET trail, ROMADUUEON cic 5 c)sa's oak ooo oS eian bass Voeddelne Wiese ec deuce wows 573 
Hairs, root, in the soil, showing absorption of moisture..................--.. 169 
EN: COMIMLLOU MINOOM. ooo se nomen s Katie cove ttveeeccdacséabcavvese 17 
PUMOTE MALO \RITOO, SIN GOOM. 6 co cd ee ne tees Sey Dowden eeleweens 13 
nit COUR EO DU, TOMCAICS. .ie5 60 5 cae en sacenice dp icas, Suddclen tear secs 573 
HARRINGTON, M. W., article on ‘‘ Meteorology and the farmer” .............. 117 
nn Tye SITILOC, TIOCES 2 <'ac vx Pitan MEE Noe Ves we soca uepcssecs se lees eases ont 222 
ND TNUOD. x5 a0 i'n ao nbn a a kee Se Garte . Iwas GS ws ones ew el ws 231 
ferruginous rough-leg, rough-legged, and squirrel, notes ............. 219 
marsh, red-shouldered, and red-tailed, notes................222.eecce- 220 
pigeon and Richardson’s, notes... --. sinus sgutnapits tease Sh ody Gee 228 
RRND OTE ANGUS, TOLD. on so Sait own ae tO Od wa tlle awe no Wien et se evird eens 232 
BEERS TIDOD soo 6 aise ou wine's Wes wal aly Whin SE ae me J oditeinae eb eee 223 
RIES ie FOOBID So cit en's irons nc bw ee wk Aa a araire pilates aii 222 
REST SEMA IOO TUG ON sic. Sau c= sew oe oa eee Chom pain dweta nae wean 218 
Dee acOm standpoint of the farmer .. ..... 5. 20s anche cows ob Sever advelwesuis cue 215 
igi Sa 2 ee SS eee a, mis ar of intet cian ns pk Wel ren. / dala ora oer ADS 229 
PPMROE BD BCIO GG cats chica Ws ca sn oa ao OU + We wa ate die wales Una ae — 
eee One MIae 32 2250 OSS Poe BS lack cke sok bones ot aoa aeen 220 
Pere OMG Mnia. Oro cs5 12252 SS bed pag ooo Pas saad wees Wow meee 219 
Hay, amount cured annually in United States; estimated annual value....... 24 
Ener ECILUCEE TOSNIPRIOUN, oo! c incite a's owe ddecoewanans «+s eavanwaliaion 18 
ere orice-on December 1 of five years: [oi505 5 ic. oe cnn odanosctun exes 545 
Beeeeaie price tm leading Cities’ i000. 20.17 lees neces ccceweesneewee 538 
eer aainry NOrd CONSIMOred.... 2226226 secede ceca es een es we serene swan cau 304 
public, relation of bovine tuberculosis. ....- ..02.0......006 cses Sevens 329 
Patan, ©..,appoimtment as Pomologist.. .... 5.25. .20. 2.25 0 l cee dececk os 46 
entmnnNm@ne FONIOCIOR: 6625554265526 nats snc dsdceel de vou eeu ee eee eae neck 573 
Hellebore, preparation and use as iusccticide...... 2.2... ..- 22. eee eee ween eee 575 
Hemisarcoptes. coccisugus, scale insect onemy. ......... 2-22... eee eee ee cee eee 253 
Herd, dairy. (See Dairy herd.) 
I PEINPUIMON 2s 6620 oboe ted es cdc ogo Meee oY ewe tut Fie dea deat Bawden 573 
Hicks, GILBERT II., article on “‘ Pure seed investigation” ..................-- 389 
Per ave.smoace Ol Massachusetts. «oo 22.2655 lis oss see e eos sae Woeces ewes caus 505 
Hog products, American, exports to United Kingdom........................ 13 
Hogs, number carcasses inspected, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. ....................-. 67, 68 


Holcus lanatus, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete... 570 
Houmes, J. A., article on ‘‘Improvement of public roads in North Carolina”. 513 


Pennie touse and horn fly, remediess~. .... 2.2 < snenns esse cee see cc emencnceee 573 
meeees, american, for English markets. .. ... 2.0.00... sc ccec cess ca sens cewens 22 
Hot winds, effect on crops and means to prevent... .....2. 222. eee nee cone ee cees 162 
Howard, LU. .()., appointment as Entomologist. ... 222002. 5.06 cee ces sees eee 41 
article on ‘‘ Some scale insects of the orchard” ..........-.... 249 
DeePeRRIEY LIte AGC OESCTI NUON 5. 5250s 52 eens e dese awed ceed dll ee caseee nese 210 
ee FOOTE. OU ORUWNON 6. oe no lu os awe -cdecs bc CCS EUS E Lie eed wee ie demi 547 
RENE IE) MEV TUCO COMPATOC 2 s45e25 5200 sen csw esc d lise ies ce sete lees 157 
Beemer asiit UEOMG Grane ae SOll DING. . cock css cease cseee bee eke eweeee bheeds 435 
mvyarocyanic-acid gas treatment for insects. <...2. 56... c ee sc cece cetiest code tece 576 
Hyphantria cunea and Hypoderma lineata, remedies. ...-....-...--------------- 574 
ren eee hte cee onan cided, cadae> anim oes eeehs cess eave eee 573 
enn CROP Ste Sly so aia esse oe cts asm sine seth acne vena wed 435 
Imported animals, inspection and quarantine -.--.. ...... 2-2... eee eee eee ween 80 
Giteh FO Ore EORIMIGN fo 2. ceals coun SO bade teehee sbecus wun nasume 573 
SreOrts, SEPCULULAl, SOF 1 VG. YOON cos. pcocks Soamac Cue les ces cccssenaeng annus 543 
Min MeaT MNGGN MEE cSt ccc ss cat eteec a Vadbae sduwad esen seen ss Senne aaa en 285 
TOE, MOON. cece shee ake ROSNER Sue es aoe adee meek sees os «<4 08s ns 00 Cane 434 
Mierenionts, nutritive, Of F600. <5. <02.na5 wo ean s Coe dene woes cnweeevesncnns vows 361 
TC HIMON S.No. ares vost. wad ands owen has eRe A aie, © ace cnn tan ae eas Cee 433 
Insecticides and methods of controlling injurious insects .........--.---.----- 572 
PIGHATALION ANE WE’. 2. ..2. nec cetcnewes weneee nee aubecsEcees= 574 

Insects, grain. (See Grain insects.) 7 
Fmportant, TOMEGIOS. . ... ue. a occ co cigs enn eew eee cncsetcecessnnecs 572 
injurious, methods of controlling, and insecticides........-..-------- 572 
tt MROTOR BEGIN . Po ccce wens wdsanests <<. tube ence hae eS oa ese i 

orange, fertilization affecting ..-.-.-. SewedS vennns cues swat heease Saeene 201 


scale. (Sce Scale insects.) 


598 INDEX. 


Page. 
Inspection, diseases. dicouvered \.on55 ic. nccccaetoie utes. eee ee ee 69 
Hederal Meas coos wast Sahn SOL ada dione ae 67 
in Great Britain of animals from United States..............-.-.. 79 
meat. (See Meat inspection. ) 
af imported anbaksiei sites 2. site ae Sys os De ee 80 
weetela 2025250 9625 sid oe ce ee died GE ee 77 
principles gevermme... 2200... 1. cee Lh et eRe TE 
purpose of Marepeaa. ols). a... a elle ok se . 40 
Steck wordsribss sc & Seed eee loka ae SiS Ae 78 
Trash potatees, sail ada gied ooo i ee ee aL «Lema eee 133 
Irrigation for small tobacco fields suggested ....-... 222-02 222. eons ween ewne 155 


Inquiry, Office. (See Office of Irrigation Inquiry.) 
Fsosoma tritici. and wheat isosoma, remedies... .0.0. 0.2. 0.5020. 20525002 674 
Italian rye grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.. 569 


Aa TROIS, Bently: S222 Sb See chee Poe ones eta Sal soso ee ee eee 43 
supanese lawn prass as sand bintber-2222 22222 22 2 22 eee 433 
Jonmison wrasse ae so binder: 2.2 55 ics altered eee 435 
Juno beets (white.crub), remedies... 2522005... e2 ite. lo eee eee 574 
Kansas, average yield Of €OTn .. .0 62.5 t noes ce ee so /enho cee mpteeee ee 158 
raimtall available fOr Crops... 24.20 6 nice coe a 0 a de eee 157 
Kerosene emulsion, preparation and use as insecticide.......-.....--.-------- 575 
Kidney vetch, common, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost, ete. ...-. 570 
Eirhes, LOGl SPOCLES, WOES. ooo ase oe mm tetaeeme einen ele ee eo ae eee ee 218 
Hugt-r0ct grass as. soil bimder . 2... 652 525s a2 < peed wnat eee eae, Ot 
iuaboring people, Cietaries:.W...jc as... . srcatuececabh coieist 435 ca alee ae 376 
Bachnosterne. 2pp., POMCOICS 6 -..10)2.0.. 2 bee na damien Gel. a a eee ee 574 
Ladybird, scale insect enemy - ..- -- ~ -<-:4.2 540, --4--+---- +400 eS ee 253 
Land, tobacco, mechanical analyses of subsoils. ........-....-2.+---0- 146, 148, 152 
value on Atlantic seaboard ....2 seine dasees Sadie cee ee 131 
Lands, bills for granting to colleves.....-... .......:..tdesaeceettldeeee eee 95 
truck. (See Truck lands. ) 
Lard, American, in pails, short weigh si ic<n seech.{ Gem see tee kt cee 17 
exports to United Kingdom wt Gaciaw e's hac s es SiGSRt aoe te. en 17 
Law, road, of Massachusetts, “miscellaneous Provisions... .cscideee gee 506, 509 
Lawn grass, Japanese, as soil Widierssd. last sou. .(odccgas een ee eee 433 
luwaf-beetle; imported, ebm... -0..-60- cpcmiety di aces ace sim Cen Dae oe 573 
blighé.of cherry, treatmens. .. 6.h.0-6 Gicece piece) Ua Bee eee 577 
pear, treatment. .........-.. .-.-8nibeaietv a eee pee 578 
hopper, grapevine, remedies... ........2 Bigs e-e-seeetee ae eee 573 
rust of plum, prune, and peach, treatment. oo. 2.0. sce.ce 3 15 Jas ees 578 
spot of quince, treatment. ... ...-~ -dacucsadiaticd-cn--eepens alts o5) ore ee 578 
Lacaniun, New York splamy, mates 5. fo<spnnts heed see oe.s ae. ae 1a ee 272 
BOSCH, NOG ooo 56 oie d atime inelobei=)- tk Sas te & 270 
Tusper micratory locust, remedies ...-\-:. <<): ..5<ecin 4-20 2000 -25i 22k eee 573 
Tee anid Unép Uneld, TEMCALCG ..o6s< sain mine els ~isin wines $, Lie tied ja We'd oie oe 572 
EMMATy,, CUATOMETEOT WORK 6555 06, oa 4.0 5 arnigeicin ns 2 Olah Lee Sh eens TR 61 
Las zone, Arctic, Geseription, 52. o-jasn- no ha a aatis ons ec cjanemd Bue S 2ash> take eee 219 
Austroriparian, desceriptiom. pace: .oosen sl eects ne La Se 211 
Canadian, COBCLUPTGN —<prer = Rime wei dee nce oon ss toe eee oe 210 
Carolinian, Gesgceriptions. < oc oc ce ss aced as ne oss one es sp tee See 211 
Tindsertan ;OGSCTIBIION | oni oc at onalue < sie eo - s a <n es Se 210 
TEAVMUACT, CUGBOL IVD UALS oo oa nice erase ve peonie Lame yaninisheniiceme os tad ee 210 
Tropiesl Tagen, MeseFIPUTON 2.1 = oo emia weet iin he ee 211 
zones, Cor PORN ie eee te dee as ee 207 
SOVEH, Of NOLtO AMCs. . oo. ceases ee wan oc cake ene nie eee ae 210 
Laght conditions Jot Brees on. ooo Sin niece eae cine > dln sith pbc omh eee ee eee 464 
effect on wood production .....--.------ ---- 2-2 none ene nne nee tne sc newes 496 ] 
Lightning, procedure in case of apparent death... -.. 2.2.25. so ieee smwminteeian 533 ; 
Limo for btanges.. so ee ee 198 
Lissorhoptrus simplex, WOPOCUOS. aoe an oon oan woh www cppepye ale race nacelle ivan ge 574 ‘ 
Live stock, diseased, number Ciscovered.. ..<.- 2 2p. nin<icirnmunindo mn baesioe wile 5 =~ iene 69 : 
Locust, California, devasti WEB go ona ono 2 824 wheii-s > tara gee 573 
lesser migratory, red- legge d, and Rocky Mountain, remedies. -------- 573 
Lolium italicum and L. perenne, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, etc... 569 
Lendon purple, preparation and use... . 2. 2. ncn can dine cn cece smcen tena aecent 574 


a 


INDEX. 599 
Page. 
NN ew se eet w ssc dri g eee ress ven eevewness wnblieualeuadmiead 224 
i er eres BS CAN DINGMOY 2... ov ann « mednidewpwss ac ududv os savdueces 433 
I RO enc ne biotin niin eb Ao De aS Deed 432 
TSS EES 2 Re eee a re eT es OTP eee ee ee 412 
wheat, hot-water treatment... 22.0.0 <necemenamecesidder scace 417 
I RN liso os aid a nny eeisingy ee anme.cenmndiw pp einn ideale «anos 423 
i a MT -DOL, THOUOR no in onion. ope > wp anise newacdinc cs aededecmesacanecse 254 
RR ps RR IER ES ee ne eet | 259 
Lotus corniculatus, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. 570 
BTNOR, BPTI BOR, NOG iin oases odin sp onne pe mwdr cicenvedchewas wetee 428 
i MESeOr, TOMOOIOS: ... sik a0k peak pep ped Hwee du padecrerbiceicsil up svwee 573 
Macrodactylus subspinosus, remedies.......-----..---- ee Cee ada bile abc e seo 574 
rr Pe nees. fPATEOO sep ayipac beri ge even acmctehlakmidaimihlccnis antes 52 
Mammalogy and Ornithology, Division, organization and duties............- 524 
PM NentEs, S00 INGCWIFY.. -2 0. - = ono ppp en eoetwmaeelhe. <ccvsaecouss 43 
DIG, VAI OF CXPOTtS.... . 2.5 cn wc nee cucerece wuuwsewenuss casesereve 65 
Manure, amount and value produced by different animals..............-.-.-- 572 
Markets, English. (See English markets.) 
meron, for American farm products... 2. 2... 2.0. eon eewsoreeecoves 9 
Mar.atT, C. L., article on ‘“‘Methods of controlling injurious insects, with 
ENC TIRE CMONUNGN a aad ye wae a we ae ene now calm wen eternras sere Wiig bias pene 572 
RII a eho om, ole coca nl, obi wm om Rh erecta ueinginenter oinon SME 191 
INE foi oy rep nlaiaid moe mica e om dna ane a apne abeemihen aaa toe wen 425 
ORIN Ga os Sainte! arn ots = mm em Cepeda apetree nha seonie hapwignin hank aia 220 
NN lie pe oi vlna hig S'S ae 6 a wiimote oughly hey mabe gmake a ee 139 
CLT RO ETIGNV so anim Seine es os oan cee cannes ons aembhmaimenie ben 84 
IN ME MONO oe is hi een id seth ah ipieemr> qesnnincceltinid eekly Abie we 505 
Meadow fescue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete.... 569 
foxtail, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete.... 570 
grass, rough-stalked, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, ete. ..-. 569 
smooth stalked, number seeds per ponnd, amount to sow, etc.. 569 
oat grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre,ete. 569 
eT ENE UMM UO oS ie Seca sw! 8 SS mnie Smo Some me eden, So wen nnee er ome 285 
TEL MMMM eon oe, 5 aS OT pel tld aks en oerd an site wep eine eae 286 
Meat, canned, number packages inspected, 1891...............-.-2.--e2-----e 67 
salted and smoked, number packages stamped, 1892, 1893, 1894. . 68 
iImspecties:, -besinming and prowth ---. .... ---.-- 22-2 -2 22. ~ cone wees ewe 67 
I ee rele Sen tS ne 1 0% a tee sit eeae emcee rat nearer ial a ovale acre ae 72 
eT Sele oe dod tots Iofe te Setlesa tae folad EA pe pega 74 
caeoeniens terpurdingy post... oo 25.8. en sawn ocean 35 
products, amperts into United Kingdom......................--..----- 18 
salted and smoked, number packages inspected, 1891................--. 67 
Medicago lupulina and M. sativa, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, ete. 570 
PeeeeOne BOUT MON, NOCH. ok 8 nk ne ne we come e ccm cn emcees 283 
Metanotus fssilis and Meliitia ceio, remedies ...... 12.22. 2. 22 - one ween ween -- 574 
Se oe cS occ esa wean chinn va bee anc asacce cenemene 133 
MeErnrIAM, C. Hart, article on “Geographic distribution of animals and plants 
ren ANIC ee ieee oe Os Lol co ccn -- shee ewncveeencses 203 
en EE a a ae 117 
eo i aw wai ocgnve seen neg @. ob arial ms Sma Syne Gia 119 
Microscopical apparatus for seed investigation ............---..----.-.---.-.. 401 
perenoncoms, Drvemen, WOTK OL year. -) oo we ae oe ee eect come eens 61 
Masmcew, downy, Of grape, treatment. ...-... ...--..--- 5 -- ene eee cee eee wees 577 
Milk, different forms for pasteurizing or sterilizing....-.....-.-.......----.-- 344 
estimate of amount -of dirt contained... .............--. .--- 22-22. 2200. 331 
Rees PRE Pet Sc 5 coda able na che meneame monn oaadeehamame 307 
[ak On, RNG CMTENROMNINL Do oo. 5522052 bose accs canes comen e~cneenes 332 
infants and invaiids, preparation. ...... . 222. 2.2... cee teen concen 333 
Pee Bar ARNE oo 52a ce nadine meee Caan s Seies wp ewes sanasewnan aves 33 
pasteurization and steritization.... ....... 2.22.22. 22 ee eee eee ween 37, 331, 35 
a URN RUINS Rong hae o aie aes tet on 85a en Seenenae 338 
prenervation with Chemienis. .-... 2... 2. 22 oe tn en wn once ss co mewe ence sewnce 332 
Milking and attendance of dairy herd... .....-.. 22-2. . 222 2- wn een e cone see eee 310 
Mamet, ewamp, 06 soil binder... .... 2.2... 20 ced eee 252s cone cowe ween coense ce 435 
Mineral matters, amount in bread... ... 2... 2.2. 22 een cone wenn cee cone eee eee 40 
oils, exports to United Kingdom........---.-.--.-----------+---+-+:- 18 
phosphates as fertilizers.......... ---.------+-- +--+ 2 +++ e222 ee eee eee 177 
Mining, value of exports...........-....-.-----.--+--- Lees edectwackotwssh ian 65 


600 | INDEX: 


Mississippi Jcite, .m0tes <..0:5:42.i2s o0 = Pees 62 54 Ss 4a ee ee 
Moisture soil. (See Soil moisture.) 
Mold, sooty, of orange, treatment 
Morrill act, events leading (up) toc... \ ee te th ee 
HIS. < o0+ consis SEELE NAGA nt} 3 EEE eee oc ee eae er 
seeond .. cache ceeneen ust sc oe! eee nee eh te ee 
Morton, J. STERLING, communication in regard to printing Agricultural 
MepOLh.. = oi. cbs eeeeeoseech wow nt ete. +o <b e Peee eee eke eek 
Muck, injurious action upon oranee 2 .2.....52- .. See ee eee 
soil, effect of fertilizing with different phosphates ..............-.2..: 
Murgantia hisiwionicd, TOMeCAICS .66 oc Go~ 2 nn ade et ben pape cee ee 
Muselim; ore anizgggons 22 we bot e sen tePec ies. cs ce aueste cos se eee 
Matton; iniports'anto United, Kinedom,: -.+-.....505 02. Jesse ee eee 
Myiilaspis citricola, remedies. .<.. .= ssee ses veined os cueccs dS: vee See eee 
POMOTUM, NOES ISIC. SHRP ol SS ec POS Se. ees 
POMOGLES fi is pc veda pid aes Rec SRDS 2 Cone 


Nebraska, rainfall available: for Crops: 2... on. aon. «+ oceres ome none = 9 
NEMGINS VENTIACOSUS, TEMOUICS ve oc 2s oo poe eclnn «cases op deseo sine oo ee 
New peach seale;notes...::-:...22-4022. --.205- oes eo- See e555) oe rr 
New York plum tecanium, motes. 2.0. Lee eke 5 3 eee ee er 
Nitrogen, effect. on oranges -5 2220 262 lee cio. oi cas ch cece eon ee eee 
North Carolina, eastern; track dands- 2: / 2..23.2i¢22..220.-. te peeeeeee 
Nutriment of food and 118 €0St- ~~ ess cs. 55 6.2 ow ce eens ane, «=e 
Nutrition and workings power Of man.2)... 2.2... .2. 2.5). 5.2 2 eee 
mneredionts Of food. 25 562.2255 Tet ol ces Lo. co. ee ar 
InVEStIFAMOM.!. lou e oe Sects Vleck. el bot e esac eee ee ee 
of workingman and his elevation®. 2: .\-- 2... -.-+.-2=s25 eee 
value of ‘food, work. “assigned:...... 2.2202 2.222 2-7 ee er 


Oat grass, meadow, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. 
yellow, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete... 

smut, hot-water treatment... 7... -.-..--- --+- 2-25 «sates. eee 
potassium-sulphide treatment --...... 2. <-->... +--+ 5<:5s}- =e eee 
treatment... coe choc Sain fe nian «icka cies ach es eee eee ee 

Oats affected with loose smut. --25 2. 6<.c sei cm cern dope aces sen ee ee ee 
farm ‘price on December 1 of five years........~-1.0+-2s-s4s-5e- eee 
water. (beach grass), as soil binder ...:..-..........2.-2+ sees eee 
wholesale price in leading cities _/.....-... ... ~~ sccpk eee eee eee 
Ocneria dispar, remedies. ...-.. 22... - -s deen yo ckee so > Sane ee 
Office of Experiment Stations, documents issued .......-.----..<..-5 ss-ssuesse 
establishment: ...:..2..--cars pace Hee Se eee 

organization and. duties. ...2. (2. 5.025 ae 

summary of publications and work of year. .--. 

Fiber Investigations, organization and duties.........-......-.------ 
Irrigation Inquiry, or eanization and @uties...../:..-. - - = = +=. 
statement ef work ..-.......--.--.+--agenae 

Koad Inquiry, establishment ....-.......-..-.-. -:-- --<: oe 
organization and duties... <..<<.\::6: 4.) ee 

Officinal goat’s rue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. 
Oils, inineral, exports to United Kingdom... 22.2... 00-2 eas sa8 -c00.24 eee ee 
Onobrychis sativa, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc-.- 
Orange fertilization affected by soil moisture.........-..---..--.+-4--sass eee 
of soil as affecting; fertilizing for growth. .............. 

in héalth, effect of fértilizors 2. . fn ws «so maakt % See See ae 
insecis, fertilization affecting ..... <2. ~~~. 2. 56 onan meeeeeee 


gs 
purple seale/ remedies... -. 2. oe eee 6s eee saws ee eeae> eee 

sooty mold, treatment... oS eee anne nis «paeeas eS eee 
Oranges, as affected by nitrogen .:..-. 22.22. ..2--. s-cs0s semwlewey eons 
fertilization with lime and with phosphoric acid.................... 
fertilizers; injured by muck; potash fertilizers... .....-...-.- seseue 

quality controlled by fertilization ..... ~~... .-<nets ses ve ss eee 

Orchard grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc.... 
SCAICE, PLOVERLIVES ... 22.6 eos co wscn saeco ae oo ens eh Sepeh Seen een 
POURCCION 02 ccc sen ccs cuss cnsu'ceu vu dpe piwh oni Mpls ita len 

SOME GCALS IMEC |... 2. es ecto ws em mses ase keey a-ak cee eae eee 
apraying ontht, description. ......-.--. .--«<sspp awe sms owe sienna 
Ornithology and Mammalogy, Division, organization and duties ........---... 


scope of work and work of the year. . 


INDEX. 601 

’ Page. 

EE MMT hs Salsa alwlg WERE nn Suis odid cp wi'dedd cada cedous vesaus eddleden 223 

Remeen, DUTTOWING, Gnd soreech, NOTES. ..... «ccc cewcesentedccccscdcccebs 225 

iC: PUNNOM cardiigatin hs we's cabutle-asds svwuyataedustt0adt. bes tds tae 229 

pome-oared and short-cared, notes... 2.2... ..--.cccrececcce secccncccece 224 

ONG ary a oA eed ed a Se cide api ewiee dd «ele spenseware avaesussedeves 226 

SS SURTIGDOMNG OF TATMOPS 2s cece cece cscs cencess cusncbsvsseastctes 215 

an fri R Ml ola cnt lnrers 8 pen ata 'n's Soe w'w'sore-o'd a awk eee sc de vende tuck 229 

etal Oh dee Veh ae wena hrs Sycwe e's si adokwleccvs pacwades 218 

TCR oiled Rial Rds Giatintoraniivies inna cena dnl hate ceased deue 220 

RS Ba acne wiaig <ictena ash orewre «abil abespeliwad ap Sau ve celdpeewaee 574 

MIME, LOMBO, NOLCB ce tai ccna: caine news cua nae wi'woes ceeeee senda seu 254 

POINOCIOR Gy atredn Sd race abate cobs eoeawe bab eet ae'den’ 574 

en nate PENN OUIOM. . 2) cans dears s disse sv .o sun welns ws sews svelbaceakchns 573 

SEERe LT Ertaner, 006. GOl) WINGO! . oc. scwews ares cecece vsunsa coer cuans cone auwe 429 

Pereevces and natural cnemies of grain insects........ 2.2. cece eeeccccecesss §=248 

aruPUMrere aS MORFETRNS, CIGIME SUG walang o ae one's wad Sle a oan ew aah ele ele nese mee 254 

Ee, rOPAraglon-UNG WSS. .' 5... eacin pons ten cn wes meg orem ce bace enowws 574 

nme OF MT for CHIUOTON:... .. 27.) sui wo'e vos eas meme ciececs eae s 331, 332 

ED, WME ROU, CU GUEIOS,,. 5 che fle awn ernie ae Oe oo Saws meets 338 

eee ane: BOLI TOT COWS 21 .'s<-' > oa cane come ob Cecbuccanbec vaes conc 311 

Seen cm and peach leaf rust, treatment. ... 2.2.0.5. ecco s woe ce wecacceece 578 

EE RETURN CAEN ea SN Se Ne sean bo eee 270 

Pen Variety, resistance to frost... .. 2... loc. ice ads coc c ou wae recees 47 

IRIE TEUCA (80, c1 oo ow La cis Wks a ow ine ae BE eee ones RS ae 263 

IEEE CEMICECCN "24506 oo eS. . a ate hicked oeatncdscu vontles vataan saath 574 

Pee seer iene and pearscab, treatment: .... 2.2 222 ole pe econ cows ewes cnceee 578 

aeieeraenes PLU, ‘TOMGCICS ~ 20. < 2 c26 keels see oes ode ence nae ek pes 574 

ERO nl atin os last ene wake we mana daw db ane oat neenape 574 

ERE orn os So, ly pe wines Gnas Geet wewe ene ane vtacdaemenens 133 

ene MITER OOU AONE 2. 26 250 555 So 2 Goan cnn eee sie cnc sues sueeasnene ne 143, 151 

Denti mleerie, RUSS LNsOCh CHEMY ..:-- --- 5. - 52 eee ence wee nnn s eee meee cscs 253 

Perennial rye grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre,etc. 569 

PERKINS, GEORGE A., article on ‘‘State highways in Massachusetts”......-.-. 505 
Pernicious scale. (See San Jose scale.) 

Phalaris arundinacea, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre, etc. 569 

Phleum pratense, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost peracre, ete... 579 

RRR TS IOU NOS hha aS ow wa an ws ape Ree ee when's ascue «00% nak eee 573 

Cnr Mme RAOUL o's 22. nome occ nee and dw sen ones cape meow aw nen = anes 183 

MP MEMNERM ote 6 HC Son dann wa hem eins sed geet Clee ake ane eee 186 

rock, amount mined in 1893, value; statistics..............-.--.- 178 

RP PRNORE PONS CORI eet 2 ee At ca neg hn ania ine ind nl ine in a 179 

METS RUN IND a os a a Stang acct Sod a als Seah me ce ae a 177 

Deeper mste Glam, ACUIFEPAGION . . ~ 2. ws wwe ee cee ween ns edocs cems ene 190 

SeCnnI eye SUL MABE on an oy cnes omenieh bn edwin nan caeciee 189 

ER CR UUM Orne a pms speek eae «nine Sho aioe meen ae 180 

Penne CCUM IG BONE oe ge odo secu ome eee cepines wacepeansss 188 

Seen ee aN OS EO a darts, Ge Sante anh aca: ses ames on eee oe ah 178 

Et ot ern e n4 wiv oka << Dlwmcarer ns bob oae kena e ns 191 

SNORE EMME PIACIME ANS. d/o cnn en om ees sae ce oes epee 177 

Wenneeere. etlera) TOMGrKN.c 52. 505,6n-- 202. - = ce moan seenccnemais 179 

Peeeuaaic fertilizer, cost to the farmer... 2.2.22... 2225 occ eee ew ceceuce 180 

PREG LOT MTEC OURO o.oo. sn nn mcisnnn seen atsbeeebasaes 191 

eeeeEnrIC.BCIO, BVALADIO, MEATING.... .... 2... -- one wane wee enpecewcccnce 181 

Pe eiC ether TOC RM RAEION ws » oa 2am <a e +s Oh abn ese vos ang oes ane 198 

Phyllodromia germanica and Phyllotreta vittata, remedies ......-..------------- 573 

Bpeuererad, grape, and P. vastatrix, remedies. .. .- 2.2... 200 ene eee se ceee ce 573 

MIE GE GECO. SEO WA oho ion ca nin, cowed see eid wiadap sans wane cdanlenee suas 9% 467 

RII. PCHOGIES 2k 6 wire circ ama plea oles cee u ga ned dew wane esoesacnesdd Spe = 573 

REMC AW es TUOUCS «ooo oc cine See pine Same e vjbm weiesaicey weapieneccces sees esdimene 228 

INN cea. alee ne 5 kOe Sale aS 9 alee wd wigs bhwe 50 00 0 Ses pee eee 45 

Pant distribution, fandamental principles ...... 2.2.26 222s ee se seen wee ese eee 211 

srowth and water, SUMMATY .. 2... 22 cece es cee en es wegen ss co ecee eeceee 176 

Beas oa wa laneleician cite Cann /aseu mE Siam inon «heseenweee es 165 

Momee, BPNIG-TOOt, TOMOCICS oc ose ens woos oce o wee scnnececensansicnese 572 

MN COMMUIOS, 5 oc 58 Sean ee bwin es necked ge. cewe Meamewle sas tase tdnews 573 

MORO Ge POMMOUIOR < cc cCk wade aw wuigs wuwd be dcek bevanass sees setdapes 574 


1 A 94——24 


602 INDEX. 


Page. 
Planis, amount of water detrimental; how they obtain water; structure..... 168 
green, water in.-..---..--.---- ++ 2-22 pert eee eee ee eee eee eee eee 166 
in North America, geographic distribution. ...............+-.--.- sak i BS 
number distribtited. 2.00.0)... 2s. soo eR i. Joe Ca ee a 53 
treatment of fungous diseases . 2.0 cio one nee ewes ee eee 577 
water as a factor in growth.........-...---. tue. Tod cee ee 165 
Pledia interpunctella, nates. oe ceases oie oe ne a Sek ee 285 
Plum hlack knot, treatment. 52.5: sess eee ioe ood ee ee DIT 
curculio,. PemenIes fost See nk Kel ewe cine Seen own ee ok ee 574 
leaf rast, treatmenh ic. fy Seis ek one a neo wn oo ode encima ae 578 
lecanium, Now rk) me@bes. 2 el cee ae de 272 
Plusia brassice and Plutella er weijerariut, VOMPGICS -.0. 48016! = 6. a6 Ses oe 573 
Poa pratensis and P. trivialis, number seeds per pennd, amount to sow, cost, etc- 569 
Pecket cvophers; Study s.... .--.. 2-220 2 -- —- = be ere one eet eee ate eee 43 
Poison bait, preparation and use as insecticide... -.<.-). 54 ---..-5-- eneend -oeeee 573 
Pomology, foreign CONGET DINGIOUS 52 eee oie axes > eet enieens a eee ae 442 
Division, organization and daties.... 2. cme meiner ae ene 525 
work of the FORE 626 ee oes cen Reape <ecnte one 46 
Pear, paaple, waste.of food 2 ..o< cence cinlae 2 2+ pom errr pt ahs oe he 385 
Poore, Ben: Perley, history of agriculture in United States............-..-.- 84 
Pork, amount exported by Waited States... .. 20... os wou ache a 34 
microscopically examined . +. < epemsere ape oo imere severe wheat ofa 5 34 
BAO CMETONET <oe occes - uo oe ce es wa ae He aie vine o a's le we a oe 6 ~ amen 66 
cost of inspection by Bureau of Animal Industry-........-.....---.--.- 34 
exports to United Kingdom ....-..---------- +--+. +--+ +++ e eee eres 17 
imports into United Kin POOM 2 3 os oS eco e oe eee en ce ee ee 14 
Potassium sulphide, formula for FONGICIDE «4. 2. = nine = pi, meme tae 579 
$OT O86 BINNG 205 226. 226). S| eater en oe ee eee oe 414 
Patato beetle, Colorado, remedies ..- 2.2.20. -6 2.222. .ences 230 = - 5 - 574 
blight, rot, and seab, treatment .........--.--.----.0.-----G eee oem 578 © 
Potatoes, acreage in Various countties......-...-.-.-. --2=.ees 59 é 22 
cost of tr ansportation to Great Britain... --<-.0s «5.5 23 
Trish, soil adapted... n- cce som mire eiers antes arm ehereioyern ates ee eee 133 
price in Great Battaime) eo ob pb ce reieis cep eminiatiee ok «ee Lt Rs 
prices In New York ‘and England -- ._...~..- 2%: ous avse = = See 23 
sweet, soil adapted. 26 cone ee wee eee weclemas= = nee eee 133 
Prairie falcon, MOEN - one ee een, Eon wnnah a a 228 
Prices, farm, on December 1 of five years......-.-. 2. - 5 .-. <piieeqepe = BAS 
wholesale, of principal agricultural products in leading cities ..-..... 534 
Printing Office, Department, statement of work....-. ...-.. —-secseebeneeene 52 
Prune leaf rust, treatment Wide ese eae See SER oo Beeler ae oe 578 
Psylla, pear-tree, and Psylla p yricola, remedies. ... . 2... .tLamecseeneee eee 574 
Publications, Division, organization and duties...... ..---s.20-0.6-----+---e- 525 
of Department, costand number; price advocated. .........---- 59 
Weather Bureau, distribution... 2 iin. aha eee Soe ae eee ie or 28 
relating to dairy herd, fist..- 2... ...-. - ssn temcmen-- ooo 316 
Public roads in North Carolina, historical sketch and i improvement. .s<-iuce+ 513 
Pure seed tnvestioation. ...... 2) 2 en - ee ce eee ee etee wees. er 389 
Purple grackle, GER. eit ee nnn 233 
scale of the orange, remedies. -..- 2. - = - aren Meee ens bane eee 574 
Peeali« farimatis, Notes... .. 2.25 aoe - wn - oo ~~~ sehen senisere ern’ sree ee 286 
Pyrethrum, preparation and use aS INSECTICIEE. -.5)- onien cote cme es cers ene ee meses 575 
Quarantine of imported animals...-.. 2... 2... .2waw oisensie ov cmeles eb. eee 80 
Quince fruit spot; leaf spot, treatment. -. . 15.2 56c1s 240. saeid see - eee 578 
Quiscalus quiscula, DOES... wee moran caren diy tics ae2)y des» ew beatin eee 
Rainfall available for crops in Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado ..........---- 157 
Ramie, after-processes of manufacture. .---. -. 2. --.- nese ends cee tenn women 457 
and flax, comparison; industry in America........ 220 .2-- -.-.-e5e- Add 
elimaté,; soil, and eulture: 2c ° 12 23. 5282352 eects bh t+ cence: se 446 
extracting fiber, : 2262 52-532 2422 9220 Do Sele noe ences shine aie 455 
harvesting the crop. 5) 2026252 02 b05 2 6h. coment anon 6 en 452 
history and deseriptiony: 3.22.5 2 soadeicss id. oSdece ol. pes een ee 443 
machines; remavks<.: - 2222-2 ioc0 chet nes ceb soaces bn en eee 459 
methods of de -cortication. rene BEC ead Se Goes SLE AL CAS eat es 445 
Wiehe: ocse Soe eee ose kth k re es ea eee 453 
tapacious birds, some characteristics ......-- .-.- --2- conn ne wee eecinice clea s come 216 


INDEX. 603 


Page. 
Ee OUUOLOH. TOR OSITY COW «25. os <0.cn acces av css seeeunda del sin aewedleedsec 564 
Eas oc a yan ma0h eea.n, 0<n0 geusce duenannaespn veiaateech 565 
ecords and Editing Division, work of year.... ...~ -.... 02-0 cece ccescees cess 50 
Red clover, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete....... 570 
I nS A RIEL LOO aoe oa a ech eae wes vase ccmeesscnebaduvwpslumadih 433 
NR RPCIRER SIO ION x ome nanan aasines + canes cas ase envp.cummewss ¢ busi 573 
shouldered and red-tailed hawks, notes..... 2.22.2 0.20 cece econ cee ces cones 220 
Redtop, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete........... 569 
IN REN ECU 5h oa iid sig win mus ma on, 2 sm ble te Seat dduew on be amas 434 
number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc. 569 
TMS CUETO ocelot Mihaila bir cethigiv ie) dando 43 
I RON 2c... 5 arictaig WMI I cha Wie y lala iaaln oe aa idee « deceit ‘eaeln 433 
ES SET a i) a a er, os es 292 
EE EEL GAY Gy SYREN 5c cc 5 ating ny ee Wi alent «mina, = ana ie, nm nite nil 6, cine eg 51 
ME Lt. ne ae 9 
Meports, annual, of weather stations, extracts............ .c22.-se--ce coceens 125 
ei AGEMYIiG LOT TUNPICIO® .. ann cce oawnoe, once awit wesWececoncees 579 
preparation and use as Insecticide ...... cusses cancer nose cece 575 
I I a a i. di inisa bs ead Ae ai de lA a + dibs «aie, ks Nederda 574 
meevu, injury to groceries, wheat, corn, Cte: . .... - .s<a_s sacs cnccsnscossn 281 
ES Ra ne eee nye, ee ee ee, ere yrs 280 
ET OE SBN Bhs, SRN rans ms nda Alcea mio gel oo perenne 228 
RICHARDSON, JAMES D., letter regarding publication of Annual Report of 
NEE ORs ORE UNGIEG oie dsc mrein mrernirieie aiid Bhaiein eee pwn sees tewksncacdac 51 
gee. vo, retirement as Entomologist... ...... ..~.- -.-- neenne sees oe seeet- 41 
Road construction in Massachusetts, methods.......: 22.2.2 2222 eee cne once none 510 
improvement in counties of North Carolina .............. 2... -20------- 515 
Inquiry, Office. (See Office Road Inquiry.) 
law of Massachusetts, miscellaneous provisions ............-....----- 506, 509 
IAG CYE SUSIE UR A ARUONEW SG Sos nia a a ae eh men sxe a ccedeeeenbns bane 520 
Roads, best for farmers and farming districts -...--.2-- 2. .seccee eeen ce ceeeee 501 
i wnN Shh POROODCNUAPILS .. .. .- . ~~~ 26 sno soon sine enen ene aes wondes 505 
un Massachusetts, property rights, ete .-.- 2... 6-.n06 cee cencinsecns anes 511 
IS on fc ok we Sc Ne Wes, ask siews acess ge SN IRS aus ee 504 
os Mmassschupetis, apportionment... ....- . - 06. ~< += scene Sess meee te Semaine 508 
public, in North Carolina, historical sketch; improyvement-.-.-...-...-.- 513 
See MAI LOCTIAL, TOMIOGICS . 00. oc ons ecnisemin dnmesitmchne ween eesnsioweae’ 573 
Marling spitirex a8.coil binder...... ..-..<<.-...----- din nea yin Whe tk eae 431 
Hoot development, relation to water supply... - .2..-.-<--060 cens ce ceee cones 166 
hairs in the soil, showing absorption of moisture. ............-.--..---- 169 
ETD, TORO EOS oa nen nc nin i heed oe a aie Mba wely cebinnnene ¥ aiee kins 573 
TN 0). os na Sreeininn's wma wi ei ee eaten oe 6 willed 574 
Rereepok, + roressor, popalar iInstructial;y ~~. noo sncn -ndece oe cde dls wewsc cece 45 
MUON i ia os ce ae on ann cm noes aude ees wan be Seen enwes awsu 578 
I oa wmycitve, min he alpen ann ep oe} wae Gna nee 219 
Rue, officinal goat’s, number seeds per pound, amount tosow, cost peracre, ete. 570 
Rust, leaf, of plum, prune, and peach, treatment .... ..-.-. .....-......-.---- 578 
ELLE EET OT Te ee 436 
Italian and perennial, number seeds per pound, amount tosow,ete. 569 
ak 8 as, cic ci pictinrwote weenie hou Swe wine dele «o's 414 
Sainfoin, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete ........-. 570 
SaLMON, D. E., article on ‘‘ Federal meat inspection” ...-.............---..--. 67 
Panes ot oeeruzsiion of milk” .W2., ss 2. da Sad Vino ece cece 37 
Salted meat, number packages inspected, 1891......... 2... ..2. -- cece e coon ee 67 
SEBIDDOR,, FBOE cis cei Saha Se ese SUSee es iiss 68 
ears press (MIRA prams); MOLES... uo nas cnwdiied cutise cote cece caus cone ceuwes 430 
Peat a0 AOiL DORGOrs, list OF GTABSOG 22. en enccm rc ccenmnncueeetsacdeucdees 580 
PNRM NT, GEE OR NLOSR eae to ancin anime anndeg mencincuaWa Jies obs Jebandcuwed 425 
NG DE SURBBOE cpcciiced ase Ada ncinene Dtadtes«tuctmadadaeecae Gam 
binding grasses, distribution... 2.2225 ca cee a sec eee sec ces csesceeccece 423 
PLOPACAMON w... oo swine in 1d ceidecwccsemece seccue ceceues 425 
grass, long-leafed, as sand binder .... .......... 220+ s-20e- eo ee eee eee eee 433 
OT gs eo 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 
Sanitarians, collection of climatic data... .... 2... weecee ce cence cee ees oe cecces 120 
SE BOGLO, THOLOO aoe oh oct e we enn ens coswencereesvenany ssbenveveusues 267 
BRAUN SN i cinicisacinde mnie nner nine dbchaes a etetenine te La wd ite tS 574 
Maia BETT1O9G, TOMCKICS 22... ce ne eee ew cnn n see wen wore es pe ewees see ess cues 574 


‘Sap up and sap down” in trees .......-.. -.------ ++ --2- eee ee treet teers ee 468 


604 INDEX. 


Page. 
Saw-toothed grain ‘beetle, notes \..iis 5. kee ice’. ce eee eee eee ae 
Scab of apple, treatment ........-....------2 22-252 ob anc steht EEE eae 577 
pear aud potato, treatment 5.225. ha2 a eee oe oe ee 578 
Seale, English walneat, netes: 2.32222 522220 ne Soe eee ee ee eee 264 
fluted, remedies 2. k.0eS Lowen cui CULL eeneee Ue eee 573 
ereedy, nO teS.\.. LL Dak eee wate cence tus eeSeie eee eee mek op ee 261 
insects, Classification; species considered ..i..0..02 5.062 oe oe 251 
general life history and habits. \.022222 22 -S. Se oe 
natural Gmemies 0b ee ha ce ek eee ee oe eee “252 
of the opehard Pa.0 is Pots in Da OR ee oe eee 249 
table of parasites SeeetweUSEeGRL ee Ey kel ee es ee 254 
New Perel wees by Oe ee en ee 265 
purple, of the orange, remedies Ea es oc ESE NUL ees ee SS eee 574 

San Jose, notes. 2. 'be 2. sell e esta eek es Sete or 
Femnedies Seas acdas wise OU as 574 
Scales, orchard, remedies. 2.5.5... 5.2 es Sea Se eee eee 3 ae 2 eee 272 
Preventives <..5580.. .aucas ones See eee eee eee 276 
Schizoneura lanigera; remedies ...~.....- /22 32202208 2 San ee ee 572 
ScHWEINITZ, E. A. DE, article on “ Pasteurization and sterilization of milk”. 331 
Scolytus rugulosus, remedies ....2. 5.2.00 s 22 22 JL Cee set Ce Vee 573 
pcreech owl, motes co. Jue ke tec. be wae a. BRAS eee ee oars ee eee SRY 225 
Screw worm, POMCGICS. 0. 2 wes we SRS ae Sees bee ete abe Bes ees ee 574 
SCRIBNER, F. LAMSON, appointment as Agrostologist ffi Ads. eee 24 
article on ‘‘Grasses as sand and soil binders”........-. 421 
Seurfy bark louse; notes: W220 eo eee a oe a aeee eek ee 259 
Sea Islands storms, damave i. 2)<.52..22 25-28 aon ee oe alee ey oa eee 123 
jymo erass; upright; motes: o 2693s. Cis o eh es eee ene ee 428 
Seashore sand-binding @rasses®.o2/- 225200 202. 2. hol. en ee 425 
Seeretary of Arriculture,/duties i orsoe 2 ls oo oe at ee er 523 
POPOrt hse he ee ee 9 
Seed-cleaning apparatus, description....-....--..--.---2 -2- 2-2. =~. a woes 408 
colleciten for testing . ot... ~... 66-2 ES Eee ool Soe oe ee 408 
conttol is Tarope... Jocki este eee eee oe 394 
inethotis 2G Re Pa LEULE ita. hs ee 395 
cost.of distributional aces stat tS oe a ee 59 
distributed during year... ....---------- +--+ --- eee ee ete eee eee eee eee 58 
Division, organization and duties.....-...------- 2 525 
germinating apparatug !))-. da eeeec eet ten Peet CN ee 402 
gratuitous distribution deprecated 2222222 /22.-5-.. 2.2. 2-2 oe ee 60 
Oviis cS ASSN Oo rs Sas 58 
investigation and. control, necessity -. .. 22. 2.22. 2.26 oo. oo. ee oe See 389 
equipments tLae Rud P.y bemeeetnes pee eee 23.2 Rae eee 401 
of forage plants, weight and cost of four mixtures....--..------------- 571 
pure, -investieation 21.) i26.%.. Veto E eee ee ELE eee eee es cee 389 
samplers, motesec. Ui s che4l «268 soe ee DADA me ERS) ae ene Oe ee 406 
test, amount ‘to be sed 2/2 ).22 ese eee ee ee ee ss 395 
drawing sample... ..~ 24. SILLS Se eee. 2 ee 396 
duration of germinating experiment; germinative energy. .--.....- 399 
number seeds to be germinated... ..-..--.-----.-----+------ +--+ +--+ 398 
place of germination; previous treatment of seeds.......---.---.- 398 
testing, germinating appar atus for home work.......... +--+ -+see2eeeees 405 
trade, abuses ..... Un tnd cloth ee ine ted. Aaa ors Sa ts 390 
treated for smut, drying, increasing yield... .... ...0..0s.0.. 2) sb oeee 418 
treatment for emmt..ci2. 2: Does SSE eG eee ee SSE, Se 414 
Seeds an bird 4000; 2. 56... os wae oe URL Ree Un LE ee 245 
beet, germination. test ..-- 2... . ete eee kie wo. <3 Soe. Sage 400 
examination for purity and vitality............ 02020 Jigs. ee ee 44 
germinating tESb po oi. ns warintcciccwe cbse beets saat pela > © cake ne a ae 398 
grass, gorminabion test... in. <.2c cee in come emma sens pL Soke gee oe 400 
methods of ‘adulteration ....cccscs we ccasvcssnnae saeeeee wae cae 391 
number samples examined at Zurich, Switzerland...-...----.---.++---- 394 
of grasses and forage plants, grains in 1 pound ...........-.----------- 569 
rare plants, distribution to stations. 12 !scei/oicesc. ssh ece eae 38 
temperature required... 2. 2.20 s casino ee sisblnen saul Una eels a 398 
teet- for impUritiew: oon oc oe cece onto wee sae bladpiniemndale ba aseile we esr 397 
weighing for test... 2.- cess cena dene ct aeesiccinesne wena ty le Oh i Onmeee eee 401 
Seedsmen, duty respecting smut. .....-...-- os000- cen ean seodeeccuscenhees damm 419 
Sharp-shinned hawk, Motes. .2.5 os ..onn on oe niecaws bwin teen ns deer kais saeee ian ae 232 


Sheep, number carcasses inspected, 1892, 1893.....---.----. 2-22. ee eee eee . 68 


Stabling season ak Wee ons Te ees ce cc pagans es sca rcesel ube deb ds 


° INDEX. 605 
Page. 
Sheep’s fescue, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost ine acre, ete 569 
Muemwers, value of weather forecaste..... 2... 2.0.02 e es cece cs wots anccccce 122 
ee aera k's ots ssid Vass beni cabs'eeaces co acdc cece 224 
Shows, cattle, in IE SC abet Sea aes Rh 
Silt, mechanical separation......... j kageweeelas tieu ge esses 134, 135, 136, 147, 148, 152 
OU iV bs ws wi KGa mA K A 6a bee cease dcodic ceeds cdeces 287 
SEG DECUGTUME, TOMOCIOS .. . 2.2 2. css win eee ee eee ete ee cece ec cucees ce 573 
Siphonophora avenw, remedies .....--------------- 220+ eee eee eee eee 574 
Muaietonizer, apple-leaf, remodies..... /... 2.20 ...02.0 ccc cece ee cw eceeecees 572 
Slender-horned flour beetle, MOU rr a UCC CE Rh e ois ess banc wend cWas de 289 
NE SENIIOE 6 win'a' ain x nro nw Wnw'a Wills dine Won wmagicevd'suce er chee secs 574 
SMITH, THEOBALD, article on ‘‘ Some practical suggestions for the suppression 
apa prevention of bovine tuberculosis”... 2.2... .0 cece ee ccc ns cece wees 317 
Benen meat, packages inspected, 1891...-.. 2... 2... .222 2225 eee ce eee e ee 67 
number packages stamped, 1892... 22... eee eee wee 68 
ume arvine Of seed after treatment... . 02.22. ccs coca e ce reals oe oe eee 418 
ee ee ee ee ee ek. ap ee 412 
Pr MCALUNOMe lark halos l. SES EG oe eee sce 3st 577 
REUTER ING ora (cha a3 hw ae SOs W's odin Vee eee wesc eds Stes sacs se 578 
weer, Of Wheat, treatment. .2.. 2/525. 65 2 ss cel ec wc encase 578 
ireasment of seed increasing yield... 2... 2-222. 2526. cee ene cee e eee ee 418 
POP EOV OIG Ui ot ao ipietoan wisinh sade Woda bay dad dnee oo 414 
Demis, oenin, Causes and prevention...........-. once eee cee cece eee ween 409 
ee eve, GG COME. so... aul a teas vous ede dectce nate en 414 
ee ee Ee Oe Oe Pe eae ee 409 
memimemurnt Of GAMAPGE: 5.52. 2252.25 0S ee eee le es ee eee 410 
SE a 286 
ey noha Los Shea inc Seah warned +o qoes eels coe wees ees 226 
peaue, preparation and use'nas insecticide .-......--.- 2... 2-2. 22-5 ee eee 575 
Som, 2becrption of moisture by root hairs.....-.....-....--.------.------ 169 
SaeeeeD ee VOEIOUS VORCIAINGS.. 2 ono 5k ee oot Come ci eect cece 133 
Bae ete TMOGCE, Seb OF OTABSES. 2. 2. oo oes ee ee eee oe 580 
RE ERE CRIRMON e S or. 5 ose eles Seng cce wa deinen ecw cescces = 421 
conditions, benefit of understanding. - Sr EE Oe ey eee ge ee 163 
yo es Se a ee ea ee a ee eee 462 
ferisuzation 2s attecting the orange. ......2. .-.- 205-2 e eee eee eee ee 193 
ge eg 159 
eect on fertilization of orange... .. 2.5.0... ...2.. 2.2.6. 194 
muck effect of fertilizing with different phosphates..........-.-...- 189 
eC ES 0 484 
Memeo BOF TAMIC. 0.6. cc cee cee cece ees Mer MeL ss owe ee 446 
EGLO OPMGi eo. .. os ad eee SEALs, wae Seok oe os ceee sees 130 
vegetable, effect of fertilizing with phosphates..............---..-- 188 
Somememma pasture season for cowSs...... 22. .scs soe tee casee. eee ees wee ee 311 
nL EG LODACCO.. . 6 inc onc ceca sce So eew a sob e ce sce eee ed 144 
Agricultural, Division. (See Division of Agricultural Soils. ) 
TMi oc oye. e S24g eh al su Udle cone sone 46 
Oo ES On ee ene ee, | oe 155 
UMC GAN RUIN IR TRIMIIROUND C2 cco. cc ELM bo cee e eee suse cece snes 129 
tobacco. (See Tobacco soils. ) 
truck. (See Truck soils.) 
eer emnits OF OFMMMG, PROMUMNENE.c. 0 Lo. occ cee eon ct ce sae Joes cowses ceeaes 578 
@auener Clothes moth, remedies .......... .n2s0. 22. ocean eee. ce ckesewes 573 
WiCah memeeme GOtr WINGOR... 2... isle a sae Caan sdew es secwee ss 435 
TEIN HIME ED WWM, Soe 2k Shc die ad cnn oc ew ance sew daivew cad debe noes 136 
INET MW MMII). Sct wet ars pan nn sence ce wane SoU Wes bese nace es 223 
Spartina cynosuroides and S. glabra as soil binders ..---.-----..----------- 436 
juncea and &. olystachya, notes. .........-.-. 0-2. cece eee eee cece ee eees §=©—- 496 
RMON BOIL AAAPtEG 20s... 5 cee in ln oc cee Sees Seed ewes Wan eee cece ee we 133 
Spinifer hirsutus, as soil binder ...... 2.2... 22.20. cones cece ee cece ee cceees 431 
long-leafed, and S. squarrosus, notes bid ou temibhniaw eer wi wade Ue 432 
rolling, TCE EE SS MGT, RCS 17S Seem te 431 
Spot, fruit and “leaf, of quince, treatment... ... 22... cece ee Senses saneess 578 
Spraying outfit for orchard, description... ... 2... see cee een ee se cees cccees 576 
- Square- necked grain beetle, MONON eck foo sn 6 hain cued ies SUS eae on oan on 290 
Squash borer and bug, Meieiea Nig SO, PE es Foes Coss Oe PL ee 574 
Squirrel hawk, SR Sr ie aaa ee) SS Aes pee 219 
St. Augustine er ree GE TURMNOIES oea-e nd . 5 2 we ewn Ue owed dea ee US eeU NS oa 


606 INDEX. - 


Page. 
State highways.in. Massachusetts)... cas). deebse)-co0. sec sukd ahhet eee. re 3) 
Statistics, Division. (See Division of Statistics.) 
meaning and object........-.-.- etme cece ce cet a 54 
Sterilization of milk. 25 ....2.c6e¢ seen cecn bles be es ce - ehh eee c eed ee 1b eee 
discussion. . Llaie mjeinbeie, ainymn em wen = pam eee otek Rec 
effect on digestibili ty.. wecg beige cabin one SRG EGR obese ee ee 
Stinking smuts of WERE. cc cce cece sca keene dens ce cons bases eu aa 409 
copper-sulphate treatment... -. 52.0 snc. ssns so eee hee 417 
hot-water treatment... . siesis is nae~ Joid ean See 415 
freatment...-..-.---.<.cssiaw--ieoet 4460) eee 578 
eock Yards iMepechion <a uo. ei < oo ens pe eee See ee 3 78 
Stomach contents of crow blackbirds---....-- » tsi lin sk op 
Stomachs of blackbirds, list of vegetable s substances found........--.-.-2-e-- 242 
STONE, Roy, appointment as special agent in charge of Office of Road Inquiry. 53 
article on ‘‘ Best roads for farms and farming districts” .......--. 501 
Storm of March 27, 1890, damage; storms, Sea Islands and tropical --.....--- 123 
Strawberry weevil, TemediOs. os 6 acca cp come eden ok; Soe 574 
Striped cucumber beetle and striped flea beetle, remedies ...-.......-.----.- 573 
SMDSOIINe In arid TESION << 02 oe seews eran pree sent sees ot ReReeee Eee 163 
Subsoils.of tobacco Jand, mechanical analyses .iia-ies oe -rcind Se oc 146, 148, 152 
truck lands, mechanical analy ses-ic ii neue tonne ees 136, 137, 138, 139 
macar-cane porer, Temedics ..-..-.-- - «cseee-> ant Nees Od — ~*~ <e ee 574 
Saperphesphate,. character ..... 22... .s5-eec0¢ees ba Vadsl Dekh meee eee 183 
Survey, biological. (See Biological survey.) 
Swainson’s hawh,wotes ..-2.-..- --+2-¢ee eter cee enoc re 3 > -biwads ine eee 222 
Swallow-tailed hawk and kite, notes..-..-....-..- .-ssseKessseubi skew eee oe oe 218 
Swamp millet.as soil binder... ...- 2. -re- pecs peep osee es eben - pee 435 
Sweet potatoes, soil adapted:...... -...- . 2222+ -- 00400 porn cone -os= See 133 


SWINGLE “Ey WALTER T., article on ‘‘ The grain smuts: Their causes and preven- 


C1OM? . WW. cad ode pede peeecee reeds cep cece asec saa eee ee 409 
Switch grass as soil binder... .5.2 022 ccs pers se calenbe>s n= eee be =e 430 
Syrphus" flies, scale insect enemies... ..- 2.2 ~ Sa buns - <add he eee 253 
Telegraph. service of Weather Bareau ..--c..5..0464.<06 +44 J ee 32 
Tenebroides mauritanicus, notes...-..---- ole seid ete lin eam se eR ae 290 
Tennessee phosphates, general remarks... cassiu. nse Loe see eee 179 
Timothy, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc........- 570 
Tinea biseliielia, remedies... ...../- 4-8 «Beet ae Bad bee Oo ee ee 573 

granella, motes <2... ..0scoskeeeed- teers nik bee. BAL oe 286 
Tebacco, adaptation of soils, ....~.--.- .-m-<0--+pshesbnds ols ee ee 
commercial STOUPING s456he4—-5- 3006 0% «a 2nse ene ee 143 
distribution. of ty Pes...<. ~ 25-2 +0he-0inonn< <A he oles eee 

exports to United Kingdom. 2 2i22d ites tte vs cos U2 eee ee 18 

fields, small, irrigation suggested . ......suecssseub ics eee eee 155 
influence of fertilizers ......-0505566 ametan=-~nebeliowek 6c .ae pee eee 145 

land, mechanical analyses of subsoils..i:.. -.2......2.0 220008 146, 148, 152 

soils, amount of water. ....--s.05 cn<c-++s --- fetes ate see 150, 154 

of Connecticut and Pennsylvania.............2-.2c.4eeneeeene 143 

Valley... -2s0n200 Hin bool ci pip coe 146 

Pennsylvania cen ons 622 -o eda chk LL Ae 151 

Tematoes, soll.adapted .< wosisewe cee tee se ee wees es ee ok 133 
Tratsition life. zone, GescripClon. <n... nn. ncicnnnmmecseneesiles Sogls ae eee 210 
Traps, lure, for grait: IMGCCLS cnc x sien a nninincn cane «J clase: wy eink oe 292 
Tree, growth in length and ramification .\..-...-0.i.jcuvoet Joao eee eas * 469 
PV SOLO LY ini: nin nics mint eran bene ws pied seiula ohne see 467 

TEU aco lal gate eed pesis lsaeteie 1a so et 0 a a Se 472 

planting, proparation. of soil soa2 cic) Lice toe on seinen de Sb nl A 484 
progress:ot development ...... «....,.<s0.555 3 le ede SUNURL ed ee ee 469 
Trees, development in and out of forest... ee senda s oa se aes See 473 
food materials and conditions of growth .......-.5..2s0oees-bohee heen 461 

form. development... 010+ o2sininn 2 Sele hiee. USE ss UES ee ee ene 475 

Kind. $0 DIG. ani av.cjninain onatnncreen in bewbn nes s.c obits ae eee 481 

light. con@ifians -nu0 .oinn co cnn cnciaeen SLU Leh eee Les 10 as 0 ee 464. 
mothods of planting « ....02. 0200 o0.2 san Jebel doeee yee ae 484 

PONV OR UCEIOR ooo doc aime mn mood SRA Uae oa Ba tee 479 

number to be planted per acre. .......-~ -----ssbeeades «saueeseunee ee 485, 496 

SAGO OF VOWED a. nikis eine nn bide w cine wikis oe Coie) mts aoe Ae ee 477 

‘gop np AUG. 6ap. GOWN.” 5... eccedemerne di nemeldadh sy Gem tae Veen okt 468 

BOLL COMMIT AIG in ecd. nd indo. o:dcicsamnleDlalme svete Serie www ane nw eae ee a 462 


INDEX. 607 


Page, 

RE ET RIENNINE oh win n Vom a cen oboe 6 olen dwewltlne dame ceneewcees 485 

rr UCL SEC WOO CIORD. «ooo osc nena coeur camoedddadneeeearsaces« 499 

Trefoil, bird’s-foot, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete. 570 

number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, OGL 6 3-6Shiewen 570 

Tribolium confusum and T. ferrugineum, notes ........---- 22. eeeece coee eee 288, 289 
Trifolium hybridum, 7. pratense, and T. repens, number seeds per pound, amount 

to sow, cost per acre, Oe 6 tae natn sides hintaan tam ie agitemeuccedecs ondbos 570 
Trisetum flavescens, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre,ete. 570 
TOMO, 16 ZOUNC, COSCTIPUGM ce 2 n05 cp oc en secede cace cnctncesccceseeces 211 

storms, SRNR 2 ase GES Nabe Maine kwh eWew sida nas ratlitwaseichh den 123 
Truck, carly, suitable soil; truck farming, ames. im 1980....... +... Seite commen acs 130 
GebeTtIAl fACOLe .. . . . c.ccmencncvese 129 
NG io ose wile ewes oswe Cen nas sees 131 
lands, mechanical analyses of subsoils.......-..- 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143 
ee nO ROUMGRNE «caida uciduvinde sos sca ade kWiv sewn ews sawed sow 129 
GeaeTe DlOlG © AlGID. sande ree We 2s dws Venn monn ene recencee 137 
MM OMABUPIOUNLS. . ocd wesc cance ncowduesdece Beeoaeh Sh sais oo on iguana ciel 133 
re Ce Bt SU CRPORIIG a. . Wc wcialnman email oaddnaw oe noninlines't 136 
ITI INE aE ctl errccepcis ah hd tah oS > cent bahan ctaie egg il meatier ern inh 139 
We EE EA aac trate Fe cere gi nnje tae Sheet a ghrena AM el aae tis han ookabelion 138 
Matto on Atlantic seaboard. ....-..... 202200 coc orn cecae-on--oe cose 131 
TRUE, A. C., article on “Agricultural education in United States”. ......---. 81 
Tuberculosis. (See Bovine tuberculosis. ) 

Tyroglyphus (?) gloverii and T. malus, scale insect enemy ....--..--..-.--------- 253 
Uniola condensata and U. latifolia, notes ..........-..--. ee emearee a pee dccsteall 430 
EE MUIR? CUO: TIOGCS... 5 hic conn covans cnn commeetvbcsebpecedeeenn 428 
menMrminties, SORIO INBeCE ENEMY ..--.. 2... -- 02 - cane ee enw ee seer wnsneees 252 
Vegetable Pathology, Division, work of the 8 oe ee ete ee 42 
Physiology and Pathology, Division, organization and duties....-.. 524 
soil, effect of fertilizing with phosphates Daa tlk dcsten’ in Khas ort a: peas ached 188 
substances found in blackbird OO eats is ae oo nes bccn ware - 242 
EEE NOMEE pS ini owls nie in wm SE edna ase meee ee enionwlt mee 133 
; MMmnUer GT WRRENGU JOTOCASUR, ooo os Go ot ee ree coon oe noe ose e ween 122 
Velvet grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc ..---- 570 
Vernal grass, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, ete ..-.-- 570 
Vessels held in port by Weather Bureau warnings.-.....-....---...--.. eae 124 
BH Sai SSIES RT a OE ee er Pre oes 77 

Vetch, common kidney, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, 

i ecw cans ssc olen Wi deieisieat.. 6 ame aee dns men ere mecionn sews 57 
PUPPREIRE IC, OTIS... 2 news eo ens cee een ene ee ia ia ontsha, aa min w deal tiae 138 
een work, and food in United States... -- 2... on eee wees cen ee sccens 376 
Ge PMS, NIQUES... 2. 28. 2 sew wee ee cans cnmans swe coe ewrcesecess 264 
IN NN on on nn ons iw cin ee eed poe Seto wee ebewae wee nee 118 

Or wr enmnee bureau, Value... .....-6-. soccer ons Le er 29 

pee Wg. See a ee 124 

Washington, RM etCG 20 co yep wal gud eee as.yale ne < onenreeemnbs ames 84 
menimoton’s message to Congress ..-. .-.. 22-22. see cece e cone ere meerseves 83 
er sdia ome emer ents means scale Sela Jet 
Water, amount detrimental to plants; how plants obtain water..-..--.-.---. 168 
as a factor in growth of plants 1 See ssa sealers 165 

ne RES Sys eee one. Sake cd ct uia'ne os oe eaiwem ames sesh 166 

is CODGECG, Oss, AMOURE A.W... cnc wren enon stnw geen wes ono te- = 1G 1k 

POEs tir OP NOOLALLON IFOME TOUSES. . 2. 22. - <2 5 = sete nne Sawn cn cone scenes 178 

oats (beach grass) as soil EE OER SS ORE CNet 420 
supply, relation to root development........-.....-------- +--+ -++++-+- 166 
RCE, SRG: FORMATO on ilain cain ee ieee argos ne noes anieweeacesns 574 
Weather Bureau and West Indies cyclone SNS 830 2 Ee MES AES a 32 
appropriations and expenses, 1882 to 1894 ....-..------------ 28 

dissemination of information ........-. 2.2... 222 eee cone one 118 

distribution of publications........-.......--.----------+---- 28 

economy of administration --.........--. ....-.2- e--- eee eee 27 

forecasts; force at central office; value of warnings......--. 29 

organization ee el re eee ee Se 523 

present and proposed lines of work......------------------- 120 

promotions by, competitive examinations..-....------------- <s 


telegraph service .......... 2-22. coon ee cee nee wns ence ences 32 


608 INDEX. 


Weather conditions of crap .of “1804: S222) Ds7se eres ce ee ee ee an 
Map, Annual issie tf SSA sons eh eee 
stations, extracts from annual ‘reports: 220) .200 7 els eee 

WesBBER, H. J., article on ‘‘ Fertilization of the soil as affecting the orange in 

heaeh-and Wisease oneal. a ies Rew ee ae Oia ad beet ene oe nan ee a 

Weeb-worm,’ fall,’ rémetiies 220 os os ve Se nd ee 

Weeds, list, character, methods of eradication, ete. -...:....2.--- 6.2.22 sete ee 

Weevil, bean, remedies Ao sta es cee sb e es eee enemies aaa er 
STRBATY, MOLES. Sale ew ieee ae ho Seen oe wale ae bee eon 

pea, FemMed tess 2 fe ee ls Poa noe ae tl eon Sale ae coe ar 
rice, injuxy/to:.eroceries, wheat, corn, che: 222 2222.2 22a eee 
NOUR ye. ste nna cee mn dense oS Se bee cele Meme nee ee 
ava@er. Femediog ©. i222 ween ws al Le ee 
Strawberry, remedies 0 oe oo ee cee eee) eee 

Weev ils, Mont, M0ves -- - 5-42 eae ae oe So eae orneor . cos cc oe ne 
MER, TOMEULOS 2.0 sane es. bas pee a= s case. ne eee ett ee 

West Indies'cyclone service - PS o oie. oleae. oa. Sees ee eee 

Wheat affected “with loose smtits.s 2222. 2S oo eee es oe 

copper-sulphate treatment for stinking smut ....--.---.--..-.-.....-. 
farm price on December lof five years. 2... .-..-..--- eee 
erass, southern, assoil binder > -0os 50. 2s 00 Soe. ode ee 
hot-water treatment for loose’*smit. 57-2. 252... - 5.2 22 oe 
stinking smut.) 2... S22. 2. oo 

in fnelish ‘markets... 22050. 202. te Ss oe aes eee 
isosomnd, “remedies 2. 222.5. Sok Se Saw Was eto po bo ee Sele ee 
plant louse; remedies (cei oS Ss eee ee ek eee 
price in Great ‘Britain =o. see ee eee eee 
pmitts, extent Of damage. o2.escc 20. eee e coe. ok 
Blinking Ssmiais 12202 seer sss eo ee eee 
; TECAUMIEN Ge Ue oe aie pone s ce = oe Lapapen 
wholesale pricein teatiny etties. 22. Ooo. 'es lo. ob oo ee 

White clover, number seeds per pound, amount to sow, cost per acre, etc....- 

White-eye, bird, scale insect enemy. sic... - 2s. os. - ee ee a ee 

grub (June beetle), remedies2 ioc oc oi soe oe eee 

WHITNEY, MILTON; appointment as soil expert !*.- 5220-20222 Less eee 

article on ‘Relation of soils to crop production”......... 

WILEY, H. W., article on ‘‘Mineral phosphates as fertilizers” ..._-..-....---- 

Willits, Hon. Edwin, retirement as Assistant Secretary....-.....-..----.--.. 

Wind mantle-for forest: i222225 si fisebsiesol soos ines eee 

Winds, hot. (See Hot winds.) 

Wines, chemical examinations 7: 2 226. $2224.24. 62142 9213 

Wireworins, remedies 20. 0 A eo Ske rsa eo SS eee 

Witeh crass (couch grass) -as soil binders. 2 .<..s55.05 4.\ccns tas ~\lee Oe 

Wolf moth, notes. 2.0520 220 Be nae ae os ee re a 

Weod erop, how: tocultivate: 228 223.029 a ae oo oe 

methods of reproduction 222 220 252254032 230325.° .- pe < 
thinning v.02 J Res 38s epee. 6 so re 

weedine and cleaning. so: 2 cello occ lec tans 65s 5 en 

lot, treatment 22255. Fe oP I a os en 2 oo ete 
production; ‘effect of Tight’ 22552225 022206025005. Soc. ee oe 

Woops, ALBERT T., and B. T. GALLOWAY, article on ‘‘ Water as a factor in the 

growth of plants” ols oc. os .eccces es see tec ee sedge ese cle se. 6 ies 

Workmeman, nutrition lo Soe ital 2 oe ee. a eos ne ee = ee 


Yellow oat grass, number seeds per pound, amourt to sow, cost per acre, etc.. 
Zone, life. (See Life zone.) 


Zones, life, séven; of North America..3... 5.22 oe ne ie cee eon se 
Zosterops capensis, scale insect enemy ..... 6... 2226's cies oc cen serena veseaeepene 


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1894 
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