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Yearbook U. S. Dep: - - 1906.
Frontispiece.
Henry Cullen Adams, of Wisconsin.
Born November 28, 1850. Died July 9. 1906.
Mr. Adams represented the Second I gi -- naJ District of Wisconsin in trie Fifty-
eighth and Fifty-ninth - ses. He was an active member of the Committee
on Agriculture, and was the author of the aet for the increased endowment of the
iltural experiment stations, generally known as the Adams Act
TEAEBOOK
OF THE
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
1906.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1907.
[Chapte: . - - at L., 1S95.]
[AH ACT providing for the public j'rinting and binding and the distribution of public documents.]
- :on 73. paragraph 2:
The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted
and printed in two parts, as follows: Part One. which shall contain purely business
and executive matter which it is necessary for thr 5c -ubmit to the Presi-
dent and Congress: Part Two. which shall contain such reports from the different
us and Divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompa-
nied by suitable ill v.- - Shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially
suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general
report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be
printed of Part One. one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the
House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture: and of Part
one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred
and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty
-and copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustratio:.-
the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance
with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject
to the approval of U .riculture: and the title of each of the said
- hall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself.
PREFACE.
The Yearbook for 1906 closely follows in the main the style and
character of its predecessors. The Annual Report of- the Secretary of
Agriculture is reproduced in compliance with the act of Congress,
which requires that the Yearbook shall " include a general report of
the operations of the Department."
The special papers contributed by the several Bureaus and Offices
of the Department number twenty-rive and occupy 332 pages. These
papers are all contributed by employees of the Department, and the
subject-matter of each is closely related to some line of departmental
work.
An earnest effort has been made not only to maintain but to extend
the scope and value of the Appendix so far as this could be done with-
out too greatly enlarging its dimensions. It may be stated here, as
an answer to many inquiries, that it has been found impossible to
admit any but national associations in what may be termed the agri-
cultural directory, which forms an important part of the Appendix.
More than usual attention has been given to the presentation of
agricultural statistics, as these constitute one of the most important
features of the Yearbook. There appear in this volume all the usual
Yearbook tables showing acreage, production, prices, values, etc., of
the principal farm crops of the United States, production of the same
crops in nearly all foreign countries, international trade in many lead-
ing products, and statistics of all the principal animal industries. The
exports and imports of agricultural products are presented with the
usual fullness. One very valuable feature of these statistics is the
presentation of data for previous years (usually four or more) so that
comparison may reveal the increase or decrease of production or trade.
The statistical portion has also been considerably enlarged by includ-
ing a number of new tables. The most important of these are tables
giving statistics of the cotton crop of the United States for one hun-
dred and seventeen years (1790-1906); production of sugar in the
United States and its possessions for fifty-three years (1854-1906); and
farm and factory results in the beet-sugar industry for six years
(1901-1906). The statistics of international trade have been amplified
by the inclusion of tables showing the international trade in corn,
3
4 PREFACE.
.t and wheat flour, hops, tea. coffee, oil cake and oil-cake meal,
resin, spirits of turpentine, india rubber, wood pulp, hides and skins,
butter, and cheese. Many of the facts embraced in these new tables
are, it is believed, brought together and presented in this form for
the first time in any publication.
The Appendix includes a review of weather conditions during the
crop season of 1906; a review of the live-.-tock industry during the
year, involving a statement of the greatly increased scope of the Gov-
ernment meat inspection: reports on plant d> aes, and the principal
injurious insects in 1906: the areas surveyed and mapped by the
Bureau of Soils: an account of what is being done under the new
"pure food law:v a report on the progress of forestry, and a report
on game protection for the year.
The portrait of Hon. Henry Cullen Adams, Representative in the
Fifty-ninth Congress for the Second district of Wisconsin, has been
selected for the frontispiece. In view of the conspicuous services
rendered to agriculture by Mr. Adams during his public career,
recently cut short by death, this selection will be appreciated by the
friends of agriculture throughout the country.
The tendency in pa.-t years has been to increase the size of the
Yearbook. This tendency ha.^ been rigorously controlled in the pres-
ent volume, with the result that it contains nearly 100 pages less than
the Yearbook for 1905. and only 13 plate-, as against 73 in the previous
volume. The result has been to produce a volume more convenient
in size than several of its recent predecessors.
Geo. Wm. Hlll,
Department Editor.
Washington. D. C, May 29, 1907.
C O X T E X T S .
Page.
Eeport of the Secretary 9
New Problems of the Weather. Bv "Willis L. Moore. W. J. Humphreys,
and 0. L. Fassig 121
The Present Status of the Nitrogen Problem. By A. F. Woods 125
Object-lesson Roads. By Logan Waller Page 137
Introduction of Elementary Agriculture into Schools. By A. C. True 151
Cage-bird Traffic of the United States. By Henry Oldys 165
The Use of Soil Surveys. By J. A. Bonsteel 1S1
Birds that Eat Scale Insects. By W. L. McAtee 189
The Effect of Climatic Conditions on the Composition of Durum Wheat. By
J. A. LeClerc 199
The Game Warden of To-day. By R. W. Williams, jr 213
Range Management. By J. S. Cotton 225
The Preparation of Unfermented Apple Juice. By H. C. Gore 239
Foreign Restrictions on American Meat. By Frank R. Rutter 247
Methods of Reducing the Cost of Producing Beet Sugar. By C. 0. Townsend. 265
Corn-breeding Work at the Experiment Stations. By J. I. Schulte 279
Nuts and their Uses as Food. By M. E. Jaffa 295
Some Recent Studies of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. By W. D. Hunter. 313
Cloud-bursts, So-called. By Edward L. Wells 325
New Citrus and Pineapple Productions of the Department of Agriculture. By
Herbert J. Webber 329
Distribution of Tuberculin and Mallein by the Bureau of Animal Industry.
By M. Dorset 347
Promising New Fruits. By William A. Taylor 355
Freight Costs and Market Values. By Frank Andrews 371
New Tobacco Varieties. By A. D. Shamel
Opportunities for Dairying:
I. General. By Wm. Hart Dexter 405
II. New England. By George M. Whitaker 40S
III. The North Central States. By B. D. White 412
IV. The South. By B. H. Bawl... 417
V. The Pacific Coast. By E. A. McDonald 422
Lime-sulphur Washes for the San Jose Scale. By A. L. Quaintance 429
National Forests and the Lumber Supply. By Thomas H. Sherrard 447
Appendix:
Organization of the Department of Agriculture 453
Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years end-
ing June 30, 1905, 1906, and 1907 458
Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having
courses in agriculture 45S
5
6 CONTENTS.
Appendix — Continued. Page-
Agricultural experiment stations of the United .States, their locations,
directors, and principal lines or work 461
iation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. . 464
Officials in charge of farmers' institutes 464-
American Association of Farmers' Institute Workers 464
State officials in charge of agriculture 465
National dairy associations 465
American National Live Stock Association 466
American Association of Live Stock Herd Book Secretaries 466
National Wool Growers' Association 466
The Corn-belt Meat Producers' Association 466
Protection against contagion from foreign cattle 466
Stock breeders' associations 466
Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests 468
.-sociations 469
Schools of forestry 469
National Bee Keepers' Association 470
National Association of Economic Entomologists 470
- - .iation of Official Agricultural Chemists 470
National horticultural and kindred societies 470
State highway officials 471
State officials in charge of protection of game 471
Organizations for protection of birds and game 472
American Bre- - - a :>ciation 472
Farmers' National Congress 472
Patrons of Husbandry 472
Review of weather conditions during the crop season of 1906 473
The live-stock industry in 1906 492
Plant diseases in 1906 499
The principal injurious insects of 1906 508
Areas surveyed and mapped by the Bureau of Soils 517
Progress in food and drug inspection and correlated investigations
Review of road laws enacted in 1906 521
o farm management in 1906 524
: forestry in 1906 525
Game protection in 1906 533
Farmers' institutes 541
Statistics of the principal crops 542
Farm animals and their products 632
International trade in animal products 637
Farm animals and their products in continental Cnited States 648
Transportation rates - 665
Imports and exports of agricultural products 670
Legal weights per bushel 690
Index 695
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES.
Page.
Henry Cullen Adams, of Wisconsin Frontispiece
Plate I. Buildings and apparatus at Mount Weather, Va 122
II. Appliances in use at Mount Weather, Va 122
III. Buildings and instruments at Mount Weather, Va 122
IV. Fig. 1. First object-lesson roads built by the Office of Public
Roads. Atlanta, Ga., 1895. Fig. 2. Tarring road at Jackson,
Tenn. — Latest advance in road surfacing 142
V. The evolution of a country-road, Uniontown, Ala 142
VI. Macadam road at Auburn, Nebr., built through river bottom 148
VII. Fig. 1. Crushing plant, Walla Walla, Wash. Fig. 2. Preparing set
grade for macadam road with traction engine and road machine,
Arkansas City, Kans. Fig. 3. Concrete bridge, Texarkana, Ark . 148
VIII. Methods of shipping and testing cage birds 170
IX. Lady Gould finch 178
X. Photomicrographs of cross sections of wheat grown under varying
conditions 210
XL Whole wheat showing (1) flinty, (2) half starchy, and (3) starchy
grains 210
XII. Fig. 1. A stallion used in improving a herd of range horses in
North Dakota. Fig. 2. Range horses, the progeny of stallions like
that shown in figure 1 236
XIII. Fig. 1. Polish women thinning beets. Fig. 2. Belgian method of
topping beets 274
XIV. Fig. 1. Power hoe that may be utilized in blocking and hoeing
sugar beets. Fig. 2. Siloing sugar beets for the factory 274
XV. Fig. 1. California Indians pounding acorn meal for food. Fig. 2.
California Indian leaching acorns for food 306
XVI. Early versus late planting in the control of the boll weevil 322
XVII. Colman citrange 332
XVIII. Savage citrange 332
XIX. Rustic citrange 332
XX. Fig. 1. Branch of the Savage citrange. Fig. 2. Branch of the
Colman citrange 332
XXI. Thornton orange 338
XXII. Fig. 1. Deliciosa pineapple. Fig. 2. Dade pineapple 338
XXIII. Fig. 1. Coquina pineapple. Fig. 2. Jupiter pineapple 342
XXIV. Fig. 1. Jensen pineapple. Fig. 2. Orlando pineapple. Fig. 3. Bis-
cayne pineapple 342
XXV. Magnate apple 356
XXVI. Oliver Red apple 358
XXVII. Rabun apple 358
XXVIII. Early Wheeler peach 360
7
ILLUSTRATION-.
Page.
XXIX. Banner grape 360
XXX. J ..sephine persimmon 364
XXXI. Chappelow avocado 364
XXXII. Pecan varieties 368
XXXIII. Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco
XXXIV. Hazlewood Cuban tobacco
XXXV. Brewer Hybrid tobacco 396
XXXVI. C -ley Hybrid tobacco 396
XXXVII. Plants for cooking lime-sulpbur wash. Fig. 1. A single-kettle fur-
nace. Fig. -. A w ell-arranged plant for cooking the wash on a
large scale 443
XXXVIII. Plants for cooking lime-sulphur wash: 1> A western Xew York
outfit. (2) an inconvenient cooking plant, and (3) an outfit with
two large tanks for cooking, with boiler between
XXXIX. Outfits used for spraying lime-sulphur wash 444
XL. Departures from normal temperature for the crop season of 1906,
from March 1 to September 30
XLI. Total precipitation for the crop season of 1906, from March I
tember 30
XLII. Departures from normal precipitation for the crop season of 1906,
from March 1 to September 30
XLIII. Successful example of planting denuded State land 530
TEXT FIG"
Fig. 1. Black olive scale 193
lie 195
3. Oyster-shell bark-louse 196
4. Pasteurizer for apple juice _4 5
5. Value of pork. lard, cattle, and beef exported. 1S66-1906 248
6. Laborers' houses — one method of solving the labor question in growing
273
7. A portable house used in some parts of the sugar-beet area .'-.
S. Percentage composition of an oily nut and a starchy nut 300
9. Map of cotton belt in the United States, showing area infested by boll
weevil in 1906 and difference in amount of annual normal precipita-
tion in different portions of infested and uninf ested territory 314
10. Section of skin S a ^nd Col man citranges 331
11. Typical leaf of Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco 390
- Typical leaf of Hazlewood Cuban tobacco 392
13. Typical leaf of Brewer Hybrid tobacco 394
Typical leaf of Cooley Hybrid tobacco 396
15. Two plans for conducting steam into barrels
16. Top view of plant for cooking lime-sulphur wash 442
17. Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor-
mal of many years for Missouri Valley and Pacific coast
Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor-
mal of many years for Middle. South Atlantic, and Gulf States 475
19. Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor-
mal of many years for Lake region, upper Mississippi Valley. Ohio
Valley, and Tennessee 476
20. Areas covered by the Soil Survey 517
21. Rise in prices per thousand feet of different kinds of lumber, 1S94-1906. 527
22. Map <A S:ate forest reservations 530
YEARBOOK
OF THE
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Mr. President:
In presenting- my Tenth Annual Report of the work of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the position of the producer from the soil in the
development of our country is indicated.
It will be seen that he is making progress in the sciences and arts
of agriculture; that the researches of the Department and of the
experiment stations are enabling him to meet the requirements of a
growing population for larger quantities of held products; that the
time of the man and the yield of the acre become more responsive as
more imperative demands are made upon them; that our research
extends to all the States and Territories and to our island possessions;
that every feature of interest in soils, plants, and animals has due
attention; that explorations during the past year in extreme northern
latitudes of Europe and Asia have resulted in accessions of plants
suitable to our dry regions that promise to help in bringing them into
profitable production. •
The laws made by Congress at its last session to be put into execution
by the Department have required and have received special attention.
The meat law is being enforced with but little friction. At this time
inspection is made in about 1,000 houses, and about 1,300 experts have
been added to the inspection force of the Bureau of Animal Industry.
Rules have been made, as required by Congress, for the execution of
the pure-food law, and hearings are being given to parties interested.
The law regarding the extermination of the cattle fever tick {Boophi-
lus an mil at us) of the Southern States is being put in force and good
results are following. Progress is being made in dealing with the
gipsy and brown-tail moths in New Englaud, imported parasites being
successfully established. A beginning has been made in determining
correct rules for grading grain and acquiring facts regarding methods
of handling it in its movement toward the market.
9
10 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The law providing for the humane treatment of live stock in tran-it
is receiving careful consideration, and violations will be reported to
the Department of Justice.
REVIEW OF PRODUCTION.
NATIONAL DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURE.
Economic revolution in the art and science of agriculture, which
became noticeable in this country half a dozen years ago, has continued
during 1906, with tremendous effect upon the nation's prosperity.
Crops so large as to be beyond any rational comprehension have
strained the freight-carrying ability of railroads. Directly and
indirectly the farmer has set up a demand for iron and steel that has
exceeded the productive power of the chief producer among nations.
His contribution to the supply of loan capital has been beyond calcu-
lation and recalls the fact that the depression in the loan and invest-
ment market of 1903 was cleared away by the following crop.
Meanwhile the farmer has been a generous consumer, and has given
powerful support to the market of the industrial producer, to the
trade of the merchant, and to the wages of the workingman.
The farmer has become aware of the importance of the place that
he occupies in the Republic, and in the pride of his occupation he is
ready to offer this yearly account of himself to the people.
Preliminary crop estimates, subject to modification, must be used in
the following review of the year's farm production, in advance of the
final estimates of the Department, to be made a little later. The esti-
mate of total agricultural wealth production has been continued from
previous years and is again presented as an indication of the financial
results of the year's operations. All attempts in the past, by subtract-
ing from this grand total of value such products as are used wholly or
in part in the making of other farm products in order that the farmer's
net wealth production might be ascertained, have given no indication
of what that net production was and have only obscured the matter.
TOTAL WEALTH PRODUCED.
Taken at that point in production at which they acquire commercial
value, the farm products of the year, estimated for every detail pre-
sented by the census, have a farm value of I-6.794.O00.000. This is
.000,000 above the value of 1905, $635,000,000 above 1904,
£877,000,000 above 1903, and $2,077,000,000 above the census for
1899.
The value of the farm products of 1906 was 8 per cent greater than
that of 1905, 10 per cent over 1904, 15 per cent over 1903, and 44 per
cent over 1899.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11
A simple series of index numbers is readily constructed, which shows
the progressive movement of wealth production by the farmer. The
value of the products of 1899 being taken at 100, the value for 1903
stands at 125, for 1901 at 131, for 1905 at 134, and for 1906 at 111.
GAINS AND LOSSES.
Analysis into items of the grand total of wealth produced discovers
that most of the increase over 1905 is due to horses and meat animals,
and this is so partly because of the Department's much increased esti-
mate of the number of these animals last January, and more largely
because of higher prices than a year ago.
The price of milk ran higher than in 1905, but the value thus gained
in wealth produced was perhaps more than offset by the lower prices
for butter. So, in the case of poultry, the gain in live and dressed
poultry was more than balanced by the reduced egg value, since the
mean farm price of eggs, as ascertained by this Department, declined
from 18. 7 cents during 1905 to 17 cents during 1906.
Crops, in a general balance of gain against loss in value, in com-
parison with the crops of 1905, have made substantial but not large
gain — about $22,000,000; so that the previous foremost year in value
of products, 1905, is exceeded by 1906 in both crops and animal prod-
ucts, and thus this year became the leading one in value of farm
products in the history of the country by $485,000,000 over 1905.
On the side of gains over 1905, two short crops are conspicuous;
hay leads with a gain of perhaps $80,000,000 in value, and the oat
crop is second, with a gain of possibly $14,000,000. Barley and cotton-
seed each promise a gain of $10,000,000; beet sugar, $7,000,000;
tobacco, $2,000,000 or more; and hops, $1,000,000.
Against these gains are the losses of three abundant crops —
$60,000,000, more or less, for wheat, and $10,000,000 each for corn
and potatoes. The loss on rye and cane sugar may be about half a
million dollars each, if anything. The net decline for all cereals may
be $40,000,000.
The foregoing gains and losses in value, as well as others not men-
tioned, are exceedingly uncertain, and are to be regarded only as
indicative of a general conclusion.
CHIEF CROPS.
All cereals. — While the value of all cereals dropped about
$40,000,000 below the total of 1905, and about $12,000,000 below the
total of 1904, the number of bushels for 1906, which was 4,688,000,000,
was 120,000,000 bushels above the yield of 1905, 570,000,000 above the
yield of 1904, and 835,000,000 bushels above the yield of 1903.
12 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Corn remains by far the most valuable crop, and the figure that it
may reach this year is $1,100,000,000 for 2,881,000,000 bushels— per-
haps a little under the value of the next largest crop, that of 1905.
The cotton crop, fiber and seed combined, follows corn in order of
value, although it is only three-fifths of the value of the corn crop. No
comments here must be regarded as indicating what the Department's
estimate of the cotton-fiber production is to be. Upon the basis of the
general commercial expectation of a crop, it should be worth to the
grower nearly $61:0,000,000. In Texas alone the cotton crop is greater
than that of British India and nearly three times that of Egypt, and it
is half as much again as the crop of the world, outside of the United
States, India, and Egypt.
Hat is a crop that receives small popular attention, and yet it is the
third one in value if cotton seed is included in the cotton crop, and
this year it approaches $600,000,000 for a product that is short by per-
haps 8,000,000 tons.
Wheat. — The fourth crop in order of value is wheat, which this
year may be worth over $150,000,000, a value that has been exceeded
in several years; but in quantity this year's crop, with its 710,000,000
bushels, is only 8,000,000 bushels below the largest crop grown — that
of 1901.
Oats. — The crop of oats, on account of unfavorable weather, has
fallen below the usual amount, but its value will be perhaps not far
under $300,000,000, or about the same as for 1905, and not much
under the highest value reached, in 1902.
Potatoes.— With a probable crop of fully 300,000,000 bushels
potatoes reach next to their highest production, which was in 1904;
but the total value, $150,000,000, rests upon a rather low average per
bushel and has been exceeded in other years.
Barley. —Seventh among the crops in order of value is barley, a
cereal that has gained 21 per cent in production in seven years. The
145,000,000 bushels grown this year may be worth $65,000,000, both
bushels and dollars being much more than for the highest preceding
jTears — 1904 being the previous record year for yield and 1902 for value.
Tobacco, which has shown weakness for- several years on account of
low prices, while not }~et recovering its former place in pounds
grown, has a crop this year of 629,000,000 pounds, with a value which
is in close company with the three years of highest value, and it is
expected will be worth $55,000,000, or perhaps $2,000,000 more.
Sugar. — A remarkable development has been made within a few
years by now the ninth crop — beet sugar. The production in 1906 is
placed at 345,000 long tons, with a value supposed to be near $34,000,000.
Seven years ago only 72,972 tons were produced, and their value was
about $7,000,000.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13
The year was a rather bad one for eane sugar, but in spite of this
the total production of beet and cane sugar slightly exceeded the highest
previous figure, although in value of sugar the year stands second.
The value of all kinds of sugar, sirup, and molasses reaches a total of
$75,000,000, second only to 1904, which was cane sugars best year.
Flaxseed. — The 27,000,000 bushels of flaxseed have been exceeded
by three years, although the value, §25,000,000, reaches the highest
point.
Rice, standing twelfth in order, is another crop with its highest
value, perhaps §18,000,000, although in production the 770,000,000
pounds of rough rice are second to 1904. Markets that have developed
in Hawaii and Porto Rico have helped to keep the price high enough
to account for the total value placed upon the crop.
Rye has become a minor crop and has now fallen below rice in
value. The crop of this year is below the larger crops of recent
years, and is about 28,000,000 bushels, worth perhaps §17,000,000.
Hops. — The fourteenth crop is hops, which reached its largest
dimensions this year Avith 56,000,000 pounds, and as high a value as it
ever had, except in 1901, say. §7,000,000.
Summary. — On the whole, crop values have been neither notably
high nor low in comparison with recent years, but the crops are so
many in number that losses meet gains, and the crops have been on
such a high price level in the general average that they have raised
the total crop value somewhat above 1905 and the high preceding
years. To reach a still higher point in this extraordinary series of
high annual values than had been touched before is an achievement that
deserves attention.
EXPORTS OF FARM PRODUCTS EXCEED FORMER YEARS.
Farm products continue to be so far beyond the national require-
ments that the farm still overshadows the mill, the factory, and the
workshop in providing exports. With his surplus beyond the nation's
need, the farmer has loaded the fleets of oceans. These products were
exported to the value of §976,000,000 during the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1906 — enough to build a high-class railroad halfway around
the earth. This is the largest amount ever reached by agricultural
exports for this or any other country, and exceeded by §21,000,000 the
extraordinary value of 1901, which had previously been the record
year.
PEIXCIPAL ITEMS.
Principal among the items that make the increase over the fiscal
year 1905 are grain and its products, chiefly wheat and flour, for
which the gain was $79,000,000; packing-house products, for which
14 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the gain was over $37,000,000; cotton, $19,600,000: various seeds,
$6,355,000; dairy products, $3,900,000; and live animals, (2,400,000.
Products exhibiting a decrease were mostly inconsiderable. In hops,
the decline was £1,355,000: tobacco, $992,000; vegetable oils. £7:26.000;
fruits. $440,000.
HIGHEST VALUE OF COTTON" EXPORTS.
Cotton maintains its long lead over other chief exports, with a
value of 1401,000,000 for 3,631.000.000 pounds, so that the latest year
was exceeded only by 1898, 1899, and 1905 in quantity exported; but
in value of exported cotton the figures for 1906 are $19,600,000 higher
than for 1905, which was previously the record year, and $29.000.0<>J
higher than for 1901. which was third in order in the value of these
exports.
In exports of grain and grain products for 1906 the value again
reached a high amount and has been exceeded only 13 times in the
last fifty-six years. The value of this class of exports last year was
almost exactly the average of the preceding twenty-five years.
LEADING YEAR FOR PACKING-HOUSE PRODUCTS.
Packing-house products are another class of exports that found their
leading year in value in 1906, the amount being $907,700,000. No pre-
vious year had reached S200.000.000. and only two years had passed
$1SO,000,000. The value of exported fresh beef. £21.300.000. was
well up to the average of recent years; lard exports to the value of
$60,000,000 and a quantity of 712.000,000 pounds went far beyond the
highest figure of preceding years in both respects; bacon took an
upward turn with exports valued at $36,000,000 for 361. 000. 000 pounds
and rose well up toward the higher export years of the past. The level
of recent years was reached in the exports of hams, their value being
120,000,000 and weight 191,000,000 pounds. The highest exports,
both in quantity and value, of oleo oil in previous years were far over-
topped by the exports of this commodity in 1906, and the 210,000. oOO
pounds exported were valued at $17,500,000.
IMPORTS OF FARM PRODUCTS.
The imports as well as the exports of agricultural products reached
their highest value in 1906, when the amount was $554,000,000. or less
than one-fourth of a million dollars over the value of 1905. which was
then the highest record. The principal increases over 1905 in these
imports were $20,000,000 for packing-house products, almost entirely
composed of hides, skins, hair, and bristles: $4,400,000 for tobacco;
$2,700,000 for vegetable fibers; $1,900,000 each for seeds and vegeta-
ble oils; $1,800,000 for fruits; $1,200,000 for nuts; and $1,100,000
for vegetables. On the other hand, there were decreases in imports
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15
which nearly balanced the increases, and principal among1 these were
coffee, with a loss of $11,000,000; sugar and molasses, with a loss of
$12,600,000; wool and silk, with a loss of $7,000,000 each; and tea, with
a loss of $1,650,000.
The principal imported articles are the same year after year, and
among them for 1906 the imports of packing-house products were
valued at $96,000,000; of sugar and molasses, $86,000,000; of coffee,
$73,000,000; of silk, $54,000,000; of vegetable fibers, $50,000,000; of
wool, $39,000,000; of tobacco, $22,000^000; of fruits, $21,500,000; of
tea, $14,600,000; and of vegetable oils, $12,600,000.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS.
On account of the increasing value of forest products, the exports
of these commodities in 1906 reached a considerably higher figure than
ever before, with a value of $77,000,000, or $13,748,000 more than
in 1905. The imports of these products also increased in value by
$3,000,000; all items exhibit an increase except india rubber, the
imports of which declined by $4,800,000. In total value the imports
of forest products were $95,700,000 in 1906, an amount far above that
of any preceding year except 1905.
BALANCE OF TRADE.
The so-called balance of trade in the international exchange of agri-
cultural commodities continues to run in favor of this country by an
enormous amount; for 1906 the agricultural exports exceeded similar
imports by $433,000,000, an amount which places this year with the
seven high years beginning with 1898 and much above the balance of
1905. This new foreign credit, which equaled that of a rich nation,
was mostly offset by large borrowings in this country from Europe for
the purpose of enlarging railroads and other capital.
While the farmer placed to the National credit in other countries
$433,000,000 in 1906, other producers, all included, secured a balance
in favor of this country of only $85,000,000. During the last seven-
teen years the farmer has built up a balance of trade in foreign
exchange of agricultural products amounting to $6,068,000,000, while
all other producers find themselves at the end of the same period with
a total on the debtor side of the account to the extent of $459,000,000.
INCREASE OF FARMING CAPITAL.
Having produced fabulous wealth during the year and having sent
to foreign countries out of the wealth of the preceding year enough
to pay the interest-bearing national debt, the farmer may now take
account of his farming capital. The large rate of increase in its value
since 1900 is not a mere matter of a higher price level and higher land
values. In the meantime the farmer has earned a surplus income,
16 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
much of which he has invested in his farming equipment, in buildings,
in many improvements, in live stock, in machinery, and in furtherance
of the comforts and pleasures of living.
REAL ESTATE AND FARM EQUIPMENT.
The farm real estate, as ascertained by this Department last year,
increased in value $6,131,000,000 since the census year, or enough to
raise the census value to $22. 715,000,000. Domestic animals were
worth $2, 979. 000,000. according to the census enumerators, and now
they are estimated to be worth more than $1.000, 000,000. There has
been a very active demand for implements and machinery, not only
by farmers who have become financially able for the first time to buy,
as in the South, but by farmers already provided with them, who have
needed to reduce their dependence upon human labor by getting more
serviceable machines.
If real estate, domestic animals, other live stock, and implements
and machinery are combined, the farmers' capital, as composed of
these items, has increased by perhaps $8,000,000,000 since the
census valuation, or about 10 per cent, and now amounts to perhaps
528,000,000,000.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The domestic animals of the farm number about 200,000,000 at
the time for which it is estimated by the Department, which is Janu-
ary 1. Strictly beef cattle, sheep, and swine are each one-fourth of
the total, and dairy cows and draft animals each about one-tenth.
The value of these animals has increased during the year, and only
a very rough estimate can now say how much, in advance of the
careful estimate to be made in January. Perhaps the gain is about
$100,000,000; at any rate, the increase seems to be as much as 10 per
cent.
MEAT SUPPLY.
NUMBER OF ANIMALS SLAUGHTERED.
Upon the farmers' vast herds of meat animals the nation depends
for its most expensive class of foods in various kinds of meat and for
one-third of its dietary. The figures of meat production, which are
the result of a recent large and searching investigation by this Depart-
ment, strikingly express the magnitude of the farmer's occupation, as
evidenced by only one of its branches, and the largeness of its per-
formance in national sustenance and exports.
In the last census year, 1900, 93,502,000 meat animals were slaugh-
tered and exported, and of these 18,809,000 were cattle, including
calves; 21,518,000 were sheep, including lambs; and over one-half, or
50,115,000, were hogs. Every time the clock ticks a second during
ten hours of a workday the farmer drives nine meat animals to the
butcher.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17
POUNDS OF MEAT PRODUCED.
The meat production of 1900, in terms of dressed weight and weight
of edible parts not included in dressed weight, was 19,186,330,000
pounds, of which 2, 1-33, 035,000 pounds, or 12.68 per cent, were
exported, so that the national consumption was 16,753,295,000 pounds.
Such great numbers may be better understood if they are reduced
to the average of the census private family, 1.6 persons. To such a
family in 1900 the farmer supplied 49 pounds of veal, 131 pounds of
beef, 30 pounds of lamb, 39 pounds of mutton, and 165 pounds of
pork, including lard, or, in all, 1,011 pounds of meat, amounting to
half a ton.
If the exports had been consumed at home, they would have given
to each family more beef than the foregoing by 50 pounds, more pork
by 97 pounds, or together 117 pounds.
In the consumption of meat, expressed in terms of entire animals,
each family asks the farmer for over one-third of a calf, over two-
thirds of a steer or cow, over three-fourths of a lamb, nearly three-
fourths of a sheep, and two and one-half hogs, and the farmer
responds so liberally that one-eighth of his supply is left over for the
foreigner. It is upon the selling of this surplus in foreign countries
that the farmer depends for the maintenance of profitable prices for
his meat animals.
LAROE PLACE OF THE SURPLUS INr THE WORLD'S TRADE.
This fraction of one-eighth is small, but it becomes remarkably
magnified when it crosses the Atlantic Ocean. The national surplus
of meat for one .year, if composed of the different kinds as actually
used in consumption, is sufficient to feed either the United Kingdom
or the German Empire for nearly half a year, or both for nearly one-
fourth of a }Tear, and the population of these two countries in 1901
was 98,000,000, as compared with a population of 76,000,000 in this
country the }*ear before.
This little fraction of the national product of meat which goes to
other countries looks large when viewed in another aspect. In the
world's international trade in packing-house products and live meat
animals the place occupied by the exports from the United States is
indicated by about 10 per cent of the total value.
IMPORTANCE OF SWIXE.
As a meat producer, the importance of the hog appears in the fore-
going statement. The yearly turnover or slaughter of hogs is equal
to about four-fifths of the number on hand June 1, and the meat, in-
cluding lard, produced in 1900 was 9,279,583,000 pounds, or more than
3 A1906 2
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A6BICULTTJBE.
half a billion pounds over the 8,771,2 pounds of year and beef,
and _ht times the 1,1 ainds of lamb and mutton.
Id i State alone. Iowa, the pork products for 1906, includii
5 to nearly the entire exports of the meat
products of swine in Should Iovra suddenly lo rine, for
the time g xports of their products must substantially cease or
the home consumption of them be reduced one-fifth.
Briefly mentioned, such are some of the main results of the Depart-
ment's investigation of the meat supply. They indicate the pro
tions of the part that the farmer of this country take-, in only one
direction of his work, as a provider of meat to n< I fellow-
countrymen and to the rest of mankind.
COHSUHKBB' yearly meat bill.
Meat consumers, as well as farmers who are meat producers, have
concern with the national dietary. This nutritive element contributes
one-third or more of the total assimilated nutrients of the diet
both in pounds of protein, or flesh-forming material, and in calories off
energy. In expense to the consumer the fraction is undoubtedly
much larger. The investigations of the National Bureau of Labor into
the retail prices of food indicate, for the many representative family
budgets included in the investigation--, that the average retail price of
meat, for all kinds in the proportions of actual consumption, was 2
cent- in 1900, 13 cents i and 13* cents in 1905; the average
increased, perhaps, to 13f, or at the most to 14. cents in 1
At these average meat prices and with the meat consumption of 1
national retail meat bill was 279. . and it
Every increase of one-
:h of a cent per pound in the national av rail price of meat
raises the total yearly expense to consumer- by $41, The
increase of one cent a pound since 1900 cost consumers this
si;;;.- :
FUTURE PRODUCTION.
PATOIS OF TITE PAST.
The mighty production of the farm for one-third of a century has
come out of an agriculture having many faults. In a large degree
en one-crop farming: crop rotation, as practiced, has often
a too short and ui _ . _ crops
have been negle -lie animals . ntly entered
into the farm economy, and man . have been kept at a
The fertilizer- made on the farm have been regarded as a nuisance in
• regions: they have been wasted and misapplied by many farm-
ers; humus has not been plowed into the ground as generally a- it
ild have been: and in many a place the unprotected soil has been
wa.-hed into the streams.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19
IX. >N< IMIC JUSTIFICATION.
This, in few words, is the historic story of agriculture in a new
country ; yet the course of agriculture in this country, had as it may
seem in its unscientific aspect, has had large economic justification.
While pioneers, poor and in debt, are establishing themselves they
have no capital, even if they had the knowledge, with which to earn-
on agriculture to the satisfaction of the critic. They must have build-
ings, machinery, and live stock, even at the expense of the soil.
Millions upon millions of acres of fresh land have been coming
into production faster than domestic consumption has required, and,
at times, beyond the takings of importing countries. For many
years the farmer was threatened with -±0-cent wheat. 20-cent corn, and
5-cent cotton, and at times he was face to face with the hard condi-
tions implied in these destructive prices. A more scientific agricul-
ture would have raised wheat that no one wanted to cat. corn to store
on the farm and perhaps eventually to be used for fuel, and cotton
not worth the picking.
LARGER PRODUCTION INDICATED.
So it has happened, with reason, that the production per acre has
been low: but there is no likelihood that low production is iixed and
that the farmer must continue his extensive system. When consump-
tion demands and when prices sustain, the farmer will respond. The
doors of knowledge and example are opening wider to him.
There is abundant information concerning crop rotation, the depend-
ence of high production upon the domestic animals, concerning grasses,
clover, and alfalfa, and concerning the mixing of vegetable matter
with the soil. Systems of farm management and soil treatment have
assumed greater importance in their effect upon production; and
there is the breeding of plants, which alone can multiply production
so as to glut the market.
MC'.Tiri.ICATIOX OF THE COTTON CROP.
If there were need to do so, the cotton farmer and planter could
double the present crop of two-fifths of a bale per acre, and the feat
would need nothing more than demonstrated and well -understood prin-
ciples of farm management. It would be no work of magic to multiply
the production of cotton per acre by 3 and get a bale and a quarter;
and, besides this, the planter has more than three times the pit sent
actual acreage in cotton readily available and awaiting his use. More
than the present area of cotton can thus be grown in a three-year crop
rotation when the needs of the world demand it.
20 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
r CORK.
In accordance with principles demonstrated, known, and applicable,
bints of which have been given, the corn crop per acre can be increased
by one-half within a quarter of a century, and without any pretense
the limit has been reached. No wizard's services are needed for
this, but just education.
MORE WHEAT PER ACRE.
The same statement is applicable to wheat. There is no sensible
n whv half as much again wheat may not be had from an acre
within less than a generation of time. It is only a question of knowl-
edge, of education, of cultural system, and of farm management, all
of which learning is and will be at the service of the farmer as he
needs it.
GATS IN* OTHER CROPS.
Equally feasible is a 50 per cent increase in the crops per acre
of oats, barley, rye. and buckwheat. Potatoes, instead of growing
- - than 100 bushels per acre, should double their production.
Wherever only - K) pounds of tobacco are got from an acre,
-fourths of a ton is the prospect.
Fruits, berries, and vegetables have a future too large to estimate.
The cannery and the railway fast freight and refrigerator car have
•ome obstacles of latitude, of longitude, and of season, and there
erv indication that the farmer can supply any possible demand
for these foods at home or abroad.
AXIMAL PRODUCTS.
Farmers will learn how to feed more prolific breeds and strains of
ne than the ones which they are now chiefly raising, and thus will
pork and its products be increased per individual of the permanent
k of hogs. One -fourth of the dairy cows of the country do not
for their feed, and more than half of them do not return any
profit; in proportion as the dairyman weighs the milk of each cow and
applies the Babeock test will he increase the supply of milk, butter.
and cheese. It is merely a matter of education.
Poultry is one of the steady and helpful sources of farm income.
Movements are already on foot which may be expected to incr
the egg production per hen by at least a dozen per year within a gen-
ion; and there are poultrymen who are not enthusiasts who t
tell double that increase. If the hens of this year had each laid a
dozen egg> more than they did, the increased value of this product
would have been possibly $£ ,
DUCATION.
The farmer will not fail the nation if the nation does not fail the
farmer. He will need education to know the powers of the soil which
REPORT OF THE feECKFTARY. 21
are now hidden from him. The prospective yeany oxpenditure of
$10,000,000 for educational and research work by Nation and States,
with such increases as may come from time to time, must have enor-
mous effects. There may 1 >e agricultural schools for the small children,
and agricultural high schools for the larger ones, and their education
will be continued in the colleges.
The work of the Department of Agriculture has already had results
which are valued at hundreds of millions of dollars annually, and yet
the Department feels that it has barely crossed the threshold of its mis-
sion of discovery and education. Cooperating to the same ends arc 60
experiment stations in 51 States and Territories, the 63 agricultural
colleges, thousands of farmers* institute meetings yearly, many excellent
agricultural periodical publications and new instructive books. Then
there is a new line of work which is so productive of results that it is
constantly extending, and that is the demonstration farm, the encour-
agement of individual farmers to change their agriculture so as to
multiply their yields and their profits, and thus afford object lessons
to other farmers.
Thus it appears that forces are now at work which will very consid-
erably increase the production of the farms within a generation, and
which promise to continue the increase indefinitely. He who would
write the last chapter of the progress of the agriculture of this country
must await the procession of the centuries.
OPENING OF A NEW ERA.
The farmer is financially in a position now to do what he could not
have done previous to the recent years of his prosperity.
ADVANCE OF FARMERS* WELFARE.
National welfare has been promoted by few revolutions in agricul-
tural economics to the extent that it has been and will be promoted by
10-cent cotton. The greater part of the cotton planters are out of
their former bondage to future maintenance, and they are paying no
enormous rates of interest for advancements— rates which were esti-
mated fifteen years ago to average 40 per cent a year.
In the Middle West the prosperity of the farmers during the last
half dozen years and over has advanced in such mass and with such
speed that no parallel can be found in the economic history of agri-
culture. One of the great changes that have come over this region
is the conversion of a million agricultural debtors, paying high rates
of interest and finding great difficulty in procuring the wherewithal
out of prices much too low, into financially independent farmers, del it-
free, and begging the banks to receive their savings at as small a rate
of interest as 2 per cent.
22 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT Ox ACffilCTTLTUEE.
Farmer- are using -their new capital to abolish the waste places of
the land. The river is leveed and alluvial bottoms subject to overflow
become worth hundreds of dollars per acre for vegetables: a mar
drained by ditch< liles and celery make> it the most valuable
land in the county: semiarid land is ^ntly cultivated so as to make
a mulch of finely pulverized earth on the surface, and the crops that
it will grow make the farmer prosperous; durum wheat or alfalfa is
luced and again the - are made to do the will of
the cultivator: legumino: give humus and nitrogen to the sandy
and profit of the farmer: the unused rocky, stony
field or mountain • both to the economic and to the
ith the apple, the peach, the pear, and the
plum, and adds to the evidences that every square foot of the land
may be made productive unless it is arid: and even then irrigation
work^ as far as water is available, swell the evidence. Along all of
: production using their newly acquired
tal and are : . : before in their prosperity.
- rmerly there was an abundance of farm labor and a dearth of
fanning capital: i editions are reversed and lal f.rce
and capital abuudan idiog the farmers* inability to do
some thing's for want of labor, the new situation i- a great improve-
the old one. The farmer can now employ every labor-
g device and thus reduce both the labor and the cost of produc-
: he can raise his land to a higher state of fertility than can be
made by chemical fertilizers alone, because he can advance the nc
capital for perm .1 improvement and is in a position to await
roduee things that requi. for the first cro]
in the case of fruits: he can teeded to is-
and thus co a to kirn to a gn
extent than ever before: he can .-ecure a better education for his
children to the end. among other thing>. that they may do better with
the old farm than he did.
LOOK.
The farmer's standard of living is rising higher and higher. The
::ion things of his farm go to the city to become luxuries. He is
becomir._ hone and his daily mail and
-paper. Hi- healthful to body and sane to mind, and
I fever of the city have not become the craving of his
nerves, nor his ideal of t: sores of life. A new dignity
agriculture, along- with its economic strength; and the
farmer has a new horizon far that of his prairie and his moun-
tains, which is more promising than the sky-line of the city.
REPORT of the secretary. 23
For the abundance that ator has - 1 the farmer in sap-
plying, for the stability of the national agriculture, and for the com-
forting prospect of a future, there are many evidences that the
people are ready to join in a day of revere you-; Thanksgiving.
It is no little gratifi bo the head of this Department in pre-
senting the foregoing picture of the far:: momy of
the country and picturing the possibilities of his future to realize that
this Department and its work have had an important share in the
development which ha-; culminated in the farmer's present prosperity,
and that they are bound, if intelligently and generously administered,
to play an important part in the future of American agriculture.
Wfth this thought in mind I will proceed to present for your coi
eration a review of the various channels through which the Department
performs it^ important work and to place on record what has been
done through them during the past year.
WEATHER BUREAU.
FORECASTS AXD WAR XI N
The Weather Bureau has issued warnings of dangerous gales on the
Great Lakes and along the seacoasts. and has kept the great commer-
cial and agricultural Interests of the country as fully
■>le of the coming of adverse weather conditi
EXT OF THE FIELD OF OBSERVATION.
Irs tieki of observation i- being gradually extended in the hope that
a view of the atmospheric conditions which prevail over the great
oceanic and continental area- will prove of especial value is making
forecasts for this country. The two points from which advic- -
atmospheric changes are most desin sent are Siberia and the
region in and about Bering Sea. It is hoped to obtain reports from
Sil ria through the courtesy of the Russian [Meteorological Service.
The laying of a cable by the United States Signal Servi ■-/meeting
Alaska with this country, makes it feasible to secure much-desired
weather reports from that part of the globe.
EXTEXSIOX OF STORM-WARNING SERVICE TO VESSELS AT SEA.
During the year a plan has been perfected whereby vessels at
equipped, with wireless telegraphic apparatus may receive warnings of
re storms if within communicating distance of shore stations, or
of other vessels which have received a warning.
OBSERVATORY BUILDINGS.
Five observatory buildings have been completed during the year,
and one (the physical laboratory at Mount Weather, Va.) has been
partially completed. The number of buildings of all classes now
owned and occupied by the Weather Bureau is 41.
24 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DISTRIBUTION OF FORECASTS THROUGH TELEPHONE EXCHANGES.
The number of telephone subscribers receiving the daily forecasts
on June 30, 1905, was 464,738. This number was augmented during
the year by over half a million, so that at the close of this fiscal year
more than a million telephone subscribers were receiving the daily
forecasts.
INVESTIGATION OF FROST CONDITIONS IN CRANBERRY DISTRICTS.
A special investigation has been carried on during a part of the
year, having as its object the establishment of a scientific basis for
accurate frost predictions in the cranberry regions of the country,
especially in Wisconsin. The conditions of both soil and air which
shortly precede and accompany frost have been studied closely, and
valuable data have been secured.
INCREASE IN THE WEATHER SERVICE.
The utilities of the Weather Bureau are such that there is a constant
and growing demand for an extension of the service so as to provide
for telegraphing and publishing more meteorological data and estab-
lishing additional Weather Bureau stations. However, special effort
is made to meet these demands with the existing appropriation, and
no request that involves asking Congress for additional funds is
honored except after a careful and thorough investigation of the
necessities of the case.
There is already an extensive output of meteorological information
that comes from the 1S3 full meteorological stations maintained by the
Bureau and from several hundred stations reporting only temperature
and rainfall. The daily output finds its way to the public mainly
through the columns of the newspapers and in the maps and bulletins
issued at Washington and outlying stations. Outside of Washington
there are 105 stations which issue an aggregate of 25,000 weather maps
daily, making a yearly issue of over 8,000,000 copies. The number of
monthly climatological reports printed at 40 different section centers
1,944, being an average of about 700 copies per month from each
center; these contain the daily climatological features of various
climatic districts. There is a constant demand from agricultural, com-
mercial, and shipping interests for an additional amount of such data.
MOUNT WEATHER RESEARCH OBSERVATORY.
Progress has been made in the establishment of the Mount Weather
Research Observatory. A station of the first order has been main-
tained throughout the year for taking and telegraphing reports that
are useful in making forecasts.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25
In the preparation for kite and balloon work, a number of import-
ant instruments have been installed and made ready for systematic
work. Observations of the upper air are now being regularly taken
in concert with similar aerial research institutions in foreign countries.
The interior finishings of the magnetic observatory buildings, the
erection of the piers, and the installation of the magnetic instruments
were completed during the }rear, and automatic and other records are
now being continuously made.
RECORDS OF EARTHQUAKES.
The attention drawn to scientific observation of earthquakes by the
calamity that befell San Francisco on April 18, last, has prompted the
Department to authorize the Weather Bureau to install an additional
number of instruments at places of observation where the Department
owns buildings and suitable ground. It is probable that during the
coming year about 15 or 20 additional stations will be equipped with
seismographs, so that the progress across our continent of earth
vibrations can be more accurately measured and the data submitted for
scientific discussion. These additional observations can be secured
with only the expense involved in the purchase of instruments and
their installation.
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
THE MEAT INSPECTION.
Meat inspection has been for several months a very live topic before
the public. During the year the Federal meat inspection was con-
ducted by the Bureau of Animal Industry at 163 establishments in 58
cities, and 42, 901, 284 animals were inspected at the time of slaughter,
nearly all of them having also been previously inspected in stock
3^ards. This represents the greatest amount of work done in any one
year since the inspection was inaugurated in 1891. Of the animals
inspected, 158,953 carcasses and 126,159 parts of carcasses were con-
demned for disease or other cause. The total cost of the meat inspec-
tion, including the microscopic inspection of pork • for export to
certain countries, was $852,561.70.
The importance of more thorough meat inspection and sanitation las
been forcibly shown by the recent agitation and investigations relat-
ing to some of the paeking-house methods. The new law which was
designed to correct certain evils was passed by Congress June 30, 1906,
and hence the work of the fiscal year under review was performed
under former laws, which were, in many respects, defective and unsat-
isfactory. The act of March 3, 1891, as amended March 2, 1895, pro-
vided for the inspection of all live cattle intended for export or whose
carcasses or products were intended for export; also for the manda-
tory ante-mortem inspection of cattle, sheep, and hogs, and the
26 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGBICTXLTUBE.
add: assive post-mori pection of their carcasses for
interstate trade. It has never been <\ however, to apply the
all the establishments coming' within the law. since the
rheient for that purpose. Many
. ments which desired inspection have badl refused because
;k of funds to e?ctend the service. Many that should have been
compelled t :i were able to avoid it. as the former
j'ompell tion only in the . export I'
The law grave the Department no authority whatever to control the
itation o: rent adulters
or the use of chemicals and preservatives: nor was any authority given
for following up meats which had once been inspected and passed imme-
diately after slaughter, or for conciemniii,. :h meat which might
afterwa. me unwholesome or and r during the
process of canning or packing or before being placed on the market.
lection was therefore practically limited to the ante-mortem
inspection of ani - -pection of the carcasses immediately
after slaughl ? meat found free from disease and otherwise
wholesome at the time of this post-mortem inspection i erly
ked, and that found di lestroyed. This
■etion was efficient so far as it went, and it wont as far a- the law
and the limited appropriations permitted. In its efforts to maintain an
inspection the Department sometimes even assumed auth<
not conferred by law. notably by requiring the destruction of con-
demned carca sses. In all the recent agitation the who!
Beat lias not beei - ioned. The dis-
clo> .^satisfactory conditions have related almost wholly to I
over which the Department had no 1- \\ as the
_ -. and cured m< .. the use of
ad the insanitary condition and - of the packing
-.
Realizing the shortcomings of the old law. the Department has
recommended the enactment of new legi-da-
the increase of appropri on and improve-
ment of the service. Bills designed to remedy some of the del
at different tim< .need in Congress but failed to p:
Even before the appearance of recent pal - criticizing the
aitary conditions at the Chicago stock yards and packing hor- -.
and reflecting upon the Federal m tion servi had
. taken to invest - • matter-. A c >nan ttti • consisting
of Dr. John R. Mohler, chief of the Pathological Division of the
Bureau 1 Industry. Dr. Rice P. S . chief of the In-
tion . and Mr. licitor of
the Department, was -out to Chicago and made a thorough investigation,
y made an exhaustive report, which was promptly transmitted to
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27
the President and was afterwards by him laid before Congress. An
independent investigation was also made under the President's direc-
tion by Messrs. Charles P. Neill and James B. Reynolds. Prompt and
vigorous measures were taken to remedy the conditions disclosed by
the reports of these committees, but it was realized that the Depart-
ment could do very little under existing law and that the real remedy
lay in new legislation backed by public sentiment.
Such new legislation was provided by Congress in the so-called
meat-inspection amendment to the agricultural appropriation act of
June 30, 1906. This law provides for a more thorough and comprehen-
sive inspection system and makes a permanent annual appropriation
of $3,000,000 to pa}' the cost of the inspection. With the greater
authority now vested in the Secretary of Agriculture and with the
largely increased appropriation, the service will be greatly extended
in scope and in the number of establishments and quantity of product
covered. The inspection will be extended as rapidly as possible to
establishments engaged in interstate or foreign commerce and which
come within the law. It will be applied not only to the live animals
before slaughter and their carcasses at the time of slaughter, as here-
tofore, but also to the meats and meat food products in all the subse-
quent stages and processes of preparation, curing, canning, etc. Sani-
tary equipment, conditions, and methods will be required, the use of
harmful chemicals and preservatives and of false and misleading labels
will be prevented, and the transportation of meat in interstate and for-
eign commerce will be supervised and regulated. It is probable that it
will be necessary to request Congress to appropriate an even larger sum
to provide inspection for all establishments embraced within the law.
American live stock has long been considered the healthiest in the
world. With our enlarged and improved inspection system, the stamp
of the Government will be more than ever a mark of wholesomeness.
We must not imagine, however, that since the packing houses have
been cleaned up and the inspection improved all the meat found in our
local markets may be considered clean and wholesome. It must be
borne in mind that the Federal jurisdiction is limited to interstate and
foreign commerce, and that this inspection can legally be applied only
to establishments doing an interstate or foreign business. To be sure,
the Department insists on inspecting the entire output of each estab-
lishment at which its inspection is maintained, even though part of the
product is to be consumed within the State; but the Federal inspec-
tion does not and can not reach the establishments doing business
exclusively within a State. The Department, under the new law, can
and will enforce cleanliness and sanitation in the establishments doing
an interstate and export business, but it is powerless to reach the local
houses. The latter must be looked after by the State and municipal
authorities. Each State or community must protect itself against
28 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
unwholesome meats originating within the State. In the absence of
an efficient local inspection the consumer's only safety lies in seeing
that meat hears the Government label.
INSPECTION OF EXPORT AXI">: I -.
The export trade in live animals is fostered bj the inspection con-
ducted by the Bureau of Animal Industry. During the fiscal year
more than 1 ■ inspections were made before exportation, and
over half a million animals were again inspected on arrival at British
ports by Bureau inspectors stationed there. Seven hundred and forty-
nine inspections of vessels carrying export animals were made before
clearance, and they were required to conform to certain regulations
■ space, fittings, attendants, feed, water, ventilation, etc. The
percentage of animals lost in transit was less than one-quarter of 1
per cent.
INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF IMPORTED ANIMALS.
Our domestic live stock is protected from the contagion of destruc-
tive diseases which exist in other parts of the world by a rigid system
of inspection and quarantine of imported animals, in this service
during the year 168,600 animals were inspected, and 1,898 of these
were quarantined.
The quarantine stations on the Atlantic seaboard, with one excep
tion, are in satisfactory condition. The station near Baltimore will
soon have to lie abandoned because of the dilapidated condition of the
buildings and the building up of that locality. When a suitable I
tion i- secured an appropriation by Congress for the equipment of the
new station will l»e necessary.
I. OF CONTAGIOUS DISEA£
The work for the control and eradication of contagious diseas.es of
live >tock in our own country has been attended with encouraging
result . Sheep scab and cattle mange, which a few y. _ had
spread over the greater part of the Western States, are gradually
yielding to our efforts. It is believed that their complete eradication
will be only a matter of a few years. Duriug the year sheep scab has
n greatly diminished in Arizona and Idaho, and practically .-tamped
out in Utah and Wyoming. Even more rapid progress has been made
with cattle mange. Washington and Oregon, and large portions of
Kansas. Colorado. Wyoming. Texas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, have
been freed from this disease and released from quarantine, and it is
expected that the same will soon be true of extensive areas in North
Dakota and South Dakota and other portions of Wyoming and Texas.
EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY.
29
Maladie du coit, or dourine. an insidious venereal disease of horse-,
"which existed in portions of South Dakota. Nebraska, and Iowa, is
now believed to have been eradicated, after several years of vigilant
work. Out of 965 inspections during the year no positive cases and
but 3 suspicious cases were found.
ERADICATION OF THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK.
Under the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 30,
1906, appropriating $82,500 to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to
undertake experimental work in cooperation with State authorities
in eradicating the ticks transmitting Southern cattle fever, the Depart-
ment has for some months past been assisting the States and Terri-
tories from California to Virginia along these lines. Anticipating the
action of Congress an investigation was made respecting the laws of the
various States, and through the various attorneys-general inquiry was
made relative to the existence of State laws under which the Govern-
ment could undertake the work of tick eradication. It was found
that, while some State laws afford ample provisions, other States either
have no law bearing on the subject, or the statutes are inadequate.
The table following shows the particular points covered by the inves-
tigation and the general trend of the information received.
- of state laws relating to quarantine, disinfection, etc.
Alabama .
Arkansas .
California ,
Florida
Georgia
Indian Territory
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi.
Questions and answers.
Are local officers author-
ized and empowered to
enter premises to in-
spect live stock and
enforce quarantine,
including counties,
districts, farms, and
ranches, and to control
the movement of live
stock?
Are State offi-
cials authorized
to issue rules
and regulations
" &SBEL
ing quarantine
lines?
Are such officers
empowered to
enforce such dis-
infection of ani-
as may be nec-
essary ?
Mar the State con-
fer authority
upon Federal
represent a tives
to act as officials
of the State in
such matteis.'
No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law.
Peaceofficers may enforce No
quarantine lines fixed
by law and by the
United St;
Yes
Impliedly
No
Yes
No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law.
Yes; impliedly so Yes Yes.
No law to cover these matters.
Yes Yes | Yes .
Y"es; impliedly so Yes | Yes.
No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law.
ri No No.
North Carolina Yes No.
Oklahoma.
South Carolina ..
Tenne?>ee
Texas
Virginia
Y'es.
Yes.
Yes .
Yes .
Yes .
No law to cover these matters.
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yi -
Yes
As county officials
only.
Not prevented.
Yes.
N
No.
Yes.
Yes.
Y - Not prevented.
Yes No.
Yes Yes.
30 I'JBOOK . DEPAJBTMEIST OF AGBICU1 _.
The matter was early taken up with the proper officials in th
ere made fc:
:■ work has been dune in
ch the local authorities, who were permitted to
ies or localities to be covered and : immend
for:. _ the Department men acquai:. the
loct tive local iti> s.
TL in which it "
■
1. Calif or:,
i'. ":
Kentucky. Tenn- >pi.
:h Carol:
uia and 2s~orth Carolina.
The work possible - ge of the
in July before it could be begun at all. and even
later before it could be taken up in some s
in the diffei idely divert
the plans of procedure and m oyed necess y varied
itly. In son. ere held at w hi
rockmen. and other i.
I - s*s ended to be largely educa-
an opportu - te autho:
relief an ference for local inspectors, thus developing
an enthusiasm and interest that can only come from a c! -onal
identification with a: of this -
necessary to employ inspectors who could live in He and wield
?o like a cowboy. These men worked in _ f about a d>
each group L cook an I >ing outtit. They covered their
territory system roping and examining wherever found,
and informing the owners of infested animals of the most pra-
method ol ig rid of 1 .' found ad to buy a
carload of crudv tm (in barrels) for use in the treatment of
-ted animals. This oil was distributed and used uuder the imme-
diate su] partment in
States, and was doubtless the means of doi . ould have been done
in no other way. as the crude oil is difficult to obtain in small quantities
ion.
ble following - - the number of her : :ed,
the number of cattle inspected, the numkr found free of ticks, and
umber found to be infested — the grand total of :.
ntaining 522,52 I cattle.
REFOET OF THE SECRETARY.
31
'.', 1906.
Inspections.
Herds.
Alabama 780
Arkansas 1,62^
California 1,015
\ I 4.474
icky a 4, 077
Missouri 126
North Carolina
Oklahoma
Tennessee t> 6, 317
Texas ] 410
Virginia
'
Free. Infected. Total.
4
6, 071
3,000
1,430
07. S60
23, 204
86, 682
16.972
15,840
S
4, 430
Total 20,315 SOS, 044
Number
of
counties.
n.In addition, in Kentucky 1,300 herds and 0,004 cattle were reinspected.
fcln addition, in Tennessee 822 herds and 4,174 cattle were reinspected.
The work is still progressing in some States, but vail be practically
discontinued about December 1 on account of the lack of funds. The
outlook for next season's operations in the different infested sections
is very encouraging, and the work should be resumed in the early
spring.
In considering the work done and the results attained thus far it
should be borne in mind that the season was well advanced before the law
was passed, and that, although some steps were taken in anticipation of
its passage, yet the actual plans and organization for the work were
late in formation. It should also be remembered that the amount
appropriated was only intended to be used to inaugurate the work,
and yet, as set forth above, employees of the Department have inspected
15 herds, containing 522 529 cattle, and have, in connection with
local authorities, so attended to their disinfection and to the suoer-
vision thereof that forty whole counties and parts of eleven other
counties, with an aggregate area of almost 50,000 square miles, will
probably be released from quarantine before the end of this fiscal year.
This is an area larger than that of the entire State of Virginia. Plans
are laid and specific work is outlined for resumption in the early
spring. The State officers, cattle owners, and others affected are
intensely interested; educational work will be carried on, and there is
every reason to believe that, with proper funds at the disposal of the
Department next season, large inroads may be made into the territory
now quarantined, and hundreds of thousands of cattle be given an
unrestricted market, thus giving direct results to an immense number
of people. This will stimulate interest in those States in which active
interest is now lacking and will doubtless result in a more general
movement against the cattle tick.
If the Congress at its n^xt session will appropriate $250,000 for
extending these operations and will continue to adequately sustain
YEARBOOK C 7 Z B B I El L.TUBS .
them, and the States intei I part in th f enact-
ravorable law> and appropriating money to b- this cooper-
- only a question of time when the southern cattle tick
in this country will be a thing of the past.
sc:: -
The scientific inve- .ontagious di y the Bureau of
Animal Industry hi Lai importance with
regard to tuberculosis and hog cholera during
and alarming frequency of tuberculosis in hog-
observed in the mea~ luring recent years, led to
experiments to determine the most probable source of infection of
animals. The practical conclusions of res ligations are
that the most freque - of tuberculosis in hogs are to be found
in the common practices : allowing these animals to follow cattle in
the f eed lot and of f eedir _ immed mill: use.
The feces of tuberculous cattle have been found to be heavily
with tubercle bacilli. The expei tals with
tuberculous lungs, while rate a: up
tuberculous materia. - icilli fr- val-
lowingthem. having them issthi gh their in! . and discharging
them with their feces. Hogsi idily contract tubei sis from eating
the excrement of tuberculous cattle. For milk to be infected with
tubercle bacilli it is not nee tat the udder should be
infected feces are believed to be a common cause of contamination of
milk drawn in the environment of tuberculous e
-eased cow may be the means of infecting the milk of
an entire herd.
Other experin: location of lesions in the bodies
of animals affected with tubei losis . ban-
nel of infection. For ins! - as in the lungs have usually h
tofore been regarded as ind: \ acquired by
inhalation. The incorre ahown by producing
lun^ lis iseby inoculating hogs in the tip of the tail and by feeding
them with tuberculo v.
- tsemphasi the great importance of ev rmer
keeping his herd free from tuberculo -
periments in the application : the tuberculin
when proper precautions are taken tuberculin is as accu-
in detecting tuberculosis in hogs as in the case of cattle. The
found reliable in V7 rimental
animals.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33
HOC CHOLERA.
Hog' cholera has long- been a cause of heav}^ loss to the farmers, and
for years scientists in the Department and in various parts of the
world have been working on the problem of the cause and prevention
of this disease. Recent work of the Bureau of Animal Industry has
demonstrated that the contagion consists of a virus which exists in the
blood and other fluids of diseased animals, but which can pass through
the finest filter, is invisible under the microscope, and therefore can not
be isolated or discerned by any of the usual methods. This important
discovery, which has since been continued by eminent scientific
authorities in England and on the Continent of Europe, affords an
explanation of the failure of past efforts to produce a satisfactory
vaccine.
The real cause of the disease having at last been determined, the
Bureau has during the past season conducted experiments with a view
to producing a vaccine or serum which will prevent or cure the dis-
ease. Successful results have already been obtained in an experimental
way, and efforts are now being made to adapt the method to practical
and general use. The method has been patented b}^ the Department
in the name of the scientist who evolved it, Dr. Marion Dorset, the
patent having been taken out in such a manner as to insure to all the
people in the United States the right to its use free of ro}Talty..
PARASITES OF SHEEP.
The stomach worm or twisted wireworm of sheep, a parasite causing*
great damage to flocks in many parts of the United States, has been
studied, and the principal facts in its life history, which have hitherto
been unknown, have been worked out. The eggs of the parasite are
scattered over the pastures in the droppings of infested sheep or cattle.
The embryos, which in a certain stage are enveloped in a sheath which
enables them to withstand freezing and dryness, climb up blades of
grass. When infested grass is eaten by a sheep the embryos continue
their development in that animal. Experiments now in progress
indicate that with certain precautions it is entirely feasible to raise
lambs free from this and some other troublesome parasites.
BLACKLEG VACCINE.
The Department has continued to supply blackleg vaccine free of
charge to stock owners, and reports indicate that the prevalence of
this disease is gradually being reduced. During the year 1,350,915
doses of this vaccine were prepared and distributed. The losses
among animals treated with this vaccine during the previous year wen-
less than one-half of 1 per cent.
3 a 1906 3
34 YEARBOOK OE IflE DEPARTMENT OE AfiEICULTUBE.
l'El . [ATION8.
After consultation with officers of American pedigree record r
ciations, the Department has radically changed the regulations
the importation of animals for breeding purposes. Hiti
certificates of approved domestic and ft is have been
accepted with the requirement that they should show the a
two generations. This requirement caused inconvenience and d:
isfaction to importers, but the Department felt that unl >uld
supervise m ery the books of record such a requirement
necessary to give a reasonable assurance of pure breeding. The new
regulations simply require that animals imported for bi pur-
poses shall be registered in an approved American book of i
order to be entitled to free entry. Where a breed has no book of
record in the United States the certificate of the Chief of the Bureau
of Animal Industry must be obtained. The records of the approved
associations are closely supervised by the Department and n.
form to prescribed conditions in order to remain on the approved
list. This change should prove beneficial to the breeding industry.
It will not only make officers more careful in the management of pedi-
gree registers, but will practically compel the registration of imported
pure-bred animals in American books.
HORSE-BREEDINU INVESTIGATION -.
Satisfactory progress is being made in the experiments in breeding
heavy harness horses at the Colorado Experiment Station. The stud
has been increased by the purchase of two Kentucky mares of c:
able strains of breeding. It i- eo I advisable to increase further
the number of experimental animals, and the Department should be
prepared to pure! -eptionally good ma: ffers.
line of experiments promises to be of theg ) Ameri-
can stockmen and should be carried out systematically and thoroughly.
Experiments have been begun, in cooperation with the Venn
Experiment . in breeding Morgan horses with the object of
preventing the loss of the Morgan blood, pi^erving the type, and
increasing the size. Seven mares and two fillies were purchased in
Vermont and two mares in Kentucky for these experiments.
FECUNDITY OT
Some unexpected but instructive results were obtained by a study
of the fecundity of Poland-China sows. It had been supp*
this breed of hog declining in fecundity, and the ment
. d to undertake experiments with a view to ovcrcon.
tendency. An investigation into the pedigree re
son of two periods of years, based upon nearly 55,000 litter-, showed
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35
that the average number of pigs per litter was 7.04 during the years
1882-1886, and 7.52 during 1898-1902. There was thus an increase of
0.48 per litter instead of a decrease. These results led to a similar
investigation of the Duroe-Jersey breed, and while the popular sup-
position that this breed is more prolific than the Poland-China
confirmed, it appeared that the average size of litters of Duroc-Jer
had remained practically stationary for several years, the figures being
9.22 for 1893-1897 and 9.27 for 1898-1902. These investigations are
being followed with studies of the inheritance of fecundity.
POULTRY BREEDING.
Investigations, with a view to developing a strain of chickens with
increased egg-laying capacity, are being* conducted in cooperation with
the Maine Experiment Station. Several hens have been found to lay
more than 200 eggs in one year, and the results seem to indicate that
by selecting the best layers for breeding purposes and by proper
feeding the average egg yield of a flock can be increased. The great
benefit of such an increase is too obvious to require comment.
EXPERIMENTS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION.
A careful scientific study of the fundamental principles of animal
nutrition by means of a respiration calorimeter has been in progress
for several years at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station by coopera-
tion between the Department and that station, and some important
and valuable results have been realized. Beginning with the food as
a source of energy to the animal machine, the investigators follow this
energy through to its ultimate effect, determining how much escapes in
the undigested residues of the food, how much is expended in the
digestion and assimilation of the food, and what surplus remains tc
tain the life of the animal or to enable it to produce meat, milk, or work.
The results thus far published include experiments with timothy
hay, red clover hay, and corn meal, and they have shown that the so-
called "fuel value" of feeding stuffs can not be taken as a measure of
their nutritive value. The experiments have amply demonstrs
that the real nutritive values of stock feeds are much less than their
fuel values, the former ranging from 56 to 07 per cent of the latter in
the particular feeds used. Experiments to study the effect of age and
breed upon the percentage of food energy utilized have not been
concluded.
FEEDING COTTON-SEED PRODUCTS TO HOGS.
The Bureau of Animal Industry has conducted experiments during
the year to test the harmful properties of cotton seed and cotton-seed
meal when fed to hogs. These substances proved fatal to the hogs,
the time required to cause death being longer when a varied ration was
36 YEARBOOK ■ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fed " n jDnly one kind of grain was fed in addition to the cotton-
seed meal. lined by experiment stations as to the
jed products in combination with corn meal
were confirmed, bat it from the Department's experiments
that bran and middlings, instead of neutralizing the injurious effect of
the id been concluded from experiment station work,
gave very little better than corn meal. The experiments with
bran and middlings will be repeated and otlr :iade. Chemical
and pathological - are being made with a view to discovering the
"larmful effects of cotton seed when fed to h<
THE DAIEY INDUSTRY.
>rk of the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Indu>tiy
. ably extended during the year. Results of a valuable
and 1 nature to the dairy industry have been obtained from
inve . the manufacture and storage of butter and cheese
and the production and delivery of market milk: and a good begin-
ning . - n made in . k for the improvement and develop-
ment of dairying in the South and the investigations and studies
action of dairy buildings and the organization and
management of dairy enterpi i
BriTEE ixvestigat:
at 5, inds : butter were made under different conditions
and stored for eight months at different temperatures. The conclu-
91 experiment is that the use of cream received at the
.lition. light salting of the butter, and low
temperatures (10° F. below zero to 10° F. above zero) give much the
suits for storage butt
o common troubles of butter makers — mold in butter tubs and the
or of butter — have been studied. The coating of tubs with
d found to be an effective method of preventing mold.
Investigation 2 ling the fishy flavor have not progressed far
enough to deterr. cause of this trouble and are being continued.
A -ystem of market inspection of butter at New York and Chicago
th a view to assisting cream'". - * improve the
quality of their product. When butter arriving at one of these mar-
>und deficient in quality a statement of its condition is sent to
■utter m aler who purchases the butter, and to the
dairy and food commissioner of the State in which the butter was
produced.
Further work was done during the year in the manufacture and
leese. A quantity of American Cheddar style cheese was
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37
made, cured, and stored under varying conditions, and the details of
the experiments, with a review of previous work on the subject, were
published. The cheese that scored highest was that placed in storage
at 32° F. directly from the press, while that scoring lowest was cured
entirely in the factory curing-room at about G5° F. Cold curing
appears to derive its value chiefly from its effect on what otherwise
might be poor cheese. The popular taste is growing decidedly toward
mild cheese, and to meet this demand it seems 'desirable. to have cheese
ripened, so far as it is ripened at all, at low temperatures.
The experiments in the manufacture of soft cheese of leading Euro-
pean varieties have been continued throughout the year in cooperation
with the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station. During the winter a
scientist connected with this work spent two months in Europe study-
ing the manufacture of cheese, and these studies have resulted in
marked progress in our investigations regarding Camembcrt and
Roquefort cheese. While there are some problems yet to be investi-
gated, the knowledge so far gained of the fungi, methods, and condi-
tions necessary in the production of these kinds of cheese indicates
that it is entirely practicable to manufacture in this country soft
cheeses of these types fully equal to the best European product.
THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF MILK.
Probably no article of food is more generally consumed than milk,
and in striving for pure foods a wholesome milk supply must be con-^
sidered of prime importance. During the year the Dairy Division x
has investigated the milk supplies of various cities, and has begun
studies of the organization and working of milk sanitary commissions
and other bodies whose object is to improve the quality of market
milk. . .
The competitive exhibit of milk and cream at the National Dairy
Show in Chicago in February was in charge of the Dairy Division
and gave an object lesson of great educational value. It was demon-
strated that milk and cream produced under sanitary conditions could
be shipped long distances and kept sweet for several weeks without
any other means of preservation than cleanliness and low temperatures.
DAIRY IMPROVEMENT IN THE ,«OUTH.
A careful survey of dairy conditions in the South has been made as
the first step in the work of improving these conditions and promoting
the dairy interests of that section. This preliminary work has shown
that while in some cases southern dairy herds are yielding as good
results as are ordinarily expected in any part of the country, there is
great need throughout the South for education in improved methods of
dairy breeding and feeding and milk production. Many of the south-
ern people show a desire to learn more of dairying so as to get away
38 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
from the one-crop system. One serious handicap is the inferior class
of cattle found there, probably due largely to the presence of the cattle
tick.
other dairy woek.
To meet the demand for information and assistance as to the con-
struction of dairy buildings, some studies and experiments have been
and are being made. A circular giving plans for an improved dairy
barn was published, and many plans for daily buildings of various
kinds have been worked out and sent to farmers throughout the country.
Some experiments have been made in building silos of three types of
construction.
Investigation-; into the organization, equipment, and management of
creameries and cheese factories have been undertaken to enable the
Department to give advice and assistance on these subjects.
RENOVATED BUTTER.
In the administration of the portion of the law of May 9, 1902,
which relates to renovated butter, the Department has continued its
supervision of the manufacture and sale of this article. The factories
and ingredients are inspected to insure sanitary conditions and whole-
someness, and the product is inspected in the markets with a view to
detecting and preventing violations of the law and regulations as to
proper labeling. The factories are in better sanitary condition than
in past years, and as a rule the manufacturers show a disposition to
comply with the law and regulations. Evidence of the illegal sale of
renovated butter by dealers in several cities has been collected, how-
ever, and some prosecutions have been instituted. The regulations of
the Department have been sustained in two court decisions.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.
A leading feature of the work of the Bureau of Plant Industry dur-
ing the past year has been the cooperative demonstration work with
farmers, fruit growers, and others. It has been my established policy
to have our own officers carefully scrutinize all operations, including
those which involve the conducting of business as well as those in
which both field and scientific investigations are concerned.
INTRODUCING NEW CROrS AND NEW INDUSTRIES.
The search by agricultural explorers in foreign lands for new crops
has been continued. A trained man has spent the last year in the cul-
tivated fields and wild mountains of north China and Manchuria
searching tor new plants and seeds worthy to be transplanted to this
country and for wild forms of our cultivated fruits and vegetables
which mav have characters of hardiness or unusual vigor that will
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39
make them useful for the plant breeders of the United States. Ship-
ments of scions and of seeds representing hundreds of interesting-
things have been sent in and arc now growing in the trial gardens of
the Department. Among the things secured are new hard}' Pekin
persimmon varieties, interesting varieties of the English walnut, the
Chinese pistaehe. wild and cultivated apricots, the wild peach from its
supposed original home, hardy apples and edible-fruited hawthorns,
millets and field beans, a lawn sedge that is promising, and a very
remarkable lot of Chinese grape varieties, not to mention a most
unusually interesting collection of ornamental trees and shrubs suited
to the climate of the Eastern and Middle States.
New alfalfas and other ckofs. — One of the most important achieve-
ments of the Bureau's exploration work is the recent discovery by Prof.
X. E. Hansen, of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station,
who is now abroad in the interest of the Department, of the existence of
a Siberian alfalfa, an excellent forage plant with yellow instead of the
usual blue flowers. This plant is native on the dry steppes of Siberia,
where the mercury sometimes freezes without snow, thus proving the
ability of the plant to withstand with no protection a temperature of
about 40 degrees below zero. The existence of this alfalfa has been
suspected for many years, and its final discover}', it is believed, may
mark an epoch in the agriculture of the northwestern prairie regions
of the United States, where the rainfall is slight and the winters are
exceedingly cold. Professor Hansen is making a very careful study of
this plant, with a view to its cultivation in this country. A quantity of
the seed of this valuable crop has been secured, which will be given a
thorough trial by the Department at an early date. It will supplement
durum wheat in a rotative system and avoid the necessity of summer
fallowing.
The most distinct of any of the alfalfas is the newly introduced
Arabian, characterized by its large leaflets, hairiness, and vigorous
growth. Its quick recovery after cutting renders an extra cutting
possible in long seasons. It is proving of special value in the irrigated
sections of California and the Southwest, though its lack of hardiness
makes it unsuited to the colder parts of the country. Attempts are
under way to establish strains resistant to cold and drought.
A species of vetch called the Tangier pea has proved superior to all
others in California in its luxuriance of growth, having yielded as
high as 9 tons of green feed per acre. On account of this great
amount of herbage it chokes out weeds very effectually. As a green
manure crop it promises in California to supercede all others. Its
value as forage remains to be ascertained. A large quantity of seed
is being grown so as to introduce it extensively next season.
A most luxuriant subtropical grass, called the Parti grass, has proved
well adapted to the Gulf coast region, Arizona, and California. Where
J AGBICULTUBE.
sufficient m provided tL g hay
per acre. I: in quality, but very nutritk seed is
very poor in quality, but the grass can readily be grown from
e plant covering - or rno:
planned to distribute the cur a spring ol
Encourage i jstbt. — The Unite
every year larger and larger quantities of hand-made floor coverings
made from several - f aquatic rj sedges _ row
pretty generally over the world. In re than ." . ads
were imported, and more than $4, twith-
Hng the fact that looms have been invented that can weave the
rushes into useful floor mats. These loom- merican
miry, when tended by single o| . can turn out
ards of matting a day — a strong com ~he hand looms in
in foreign countries from which we draw our - of matting.
The common rushes of our neglected swamp lands and tidal regions
can be made into m : the deli rac-
ter of the cultivated forms in use in the Orient. India, and Africa.
Our explorers have been gathering living plants of the best for
selecting the m pes for
trial plantings in the abandoned rice plantations arolinas and
for the delta regions of the Mississ rrande, where cheap
lands, which are not now growing profit;. "airing for a
new plant culture.
UTROPic .7. — The Florida fru'" \ sra have had
their enthusiasm aroused this year by the ripening of several of the
delicious, fiberl— Indian mangoes which artment has
introduced. The collection is one of the 1 the world, and
Florida growers are waiting to s the behavior of the differ'
now under trial before planting larg- fruit, without doubt
one of the great fruits of the world.
.TE cultuek — The late palms introduced by the
Department into southern California and A hun-
dreds of pounds of delicious fruit this year. Even the famous Deglet
Noor from the Sahara has ripened p«:
proving that this unique ilture 1 the stage of a
p>ure experiment into that of a n-
he net. — The inve- gal a prorni-
dry-land nut crop. L -d in a distinct widening of :. -' >ili-
rough the introduction from Tori f hardy
forms. Three wild spe« :j introduced
from the dr: of the Old World, and a very hardy stock has
ired in northern China.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41
INVESTIGATIONS BY THE PATHOLOGIS
• The year has been an unusual one in the field of plant pathology.
There have been serious outbreaks of disease and the staff of men
engaged in this work has been kept very busy.
Pear blight. — The Department has worked out by careful bacte-
riological investigation methods of controlling- this serious menace to
the pear and apple industry. The disastrous attacks of the old eastern
pear blight upon the magnificent pear orchards of California have
brought into prominence, the importance of this work. During the
past six years the Department has been engaged in demonstrating on
a small scale in certain isolated orchards the practicability of control-
ling the disease, mainly by the eradication of the blighted portions of
the tree and the antiseptic treatment of the wounds. Strenuous
efforts are being made by the Department, in cooperation with the
State experiment station and the State and county horticultural com-
missioners of California, to assist in applying these methods in saving
the California orchards. The pear orchards of California represent a
valuation of about Sl5.Gtio.oon. producing an average annual income
to the fruit growers of $1,500,000. One-third of this, at least, has
already been destroyed, but we hope to help the growers to save the
remainder. Pear blight is destroying the pear industry in several
other western States, and urgent requests have been made for assist-
ance, which the Department expects to grant as far as it is able.
Littll: peach and peach yellows. — The little peach disease has
now been kept under control for three years on the test area in
Michigan, and it is believed that the efficacy of the method has been
fully demonstrated there. Work has therefore been transferred to a
similar demonstration, in cooperation with the Cornell Experiment
Station, in a test area in Niagara County, X. Y. This is confidently
expected to show the possibility of greatly reducing the ravages of
the little peach disease and also of the peach yellows.
Peach yellows has been unusually destructive in West Virginia and
Maryland during the past season. Department experts have been
studying the disease in cooperation with the West Virginia State
Experiment Station and urging the application of eradication methods.
In one district, at least, in West Virginia, fully 90 per cent of the
peach trees have been destroyed by the yellows during the past three
years, and mainly during the present season,
Apple bitter rot in the Ozark Mountain region. — Last sea-
son's successful spraying experiments in Virginia demonstrated for
the first time the possibility of controlling bitter rot of the apple on
the Yellow Newtown variety and indicated the exact dates of treat-
ment. This work has now been transferred to the Ozark districts of
Missouri and Arkansas. Here it has been tested on a much larger
42 YE \RB00K OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
scale and on different varieties of apples. The results fully corrobo-
rate last year's conclusions and have demonstrated the entire feasi-
bility of practically complete control of this serious orchard disease.
Some minor rots and defects of the apple have also been more com-
pletely brought under control as a result of this treatment.
Gumming fungus ok shot-hole fungus of the teach. — The
gumming fungus or shot-hole fungns has been increasing in California
i alarming rate during- the last five or .six years and has resulted
in very severe losses to the peach growers of that State. It threatens
the destruction of the peach industry of the Sacramento and San
uin valleys. A treatment was suggested, after proper study by
Department officials, which has been wholly successful.
Wllt-besistant melons. — Wilt has nearly destroyed the water-
melon industry in many sections of the South. All known varieties of
melons Lave been tested, but none resistant to the disease was found.
It was found, however, that the citron is resistant, and the Depart-
ment undertook by hybridization to breed this quality into the melon.
The result lias been successful, and there has been secured and fixed a
variety of melon very resistant to wilt — a heavy yielder, of excellent
quality, and well adapted to shipping. Next season it will lie propa-
gated for distribution.
Wilt-resistant cottox. — The wilt-resistant selections of Sea
Island cottons are now regularly used in the infected soils in the Sea
Island districts of South Carolina. The loss from wilt has thus
been practically eliminated in the principal region in which this
special cotton is grown. The disease is still causing much loss in the
interior districts, where this variety of cotton is grown, owing to the
fact that many of the growers do not appreciate the value of resistant
seed. Demonstration tests, however, are rapidly convincing them.
Excellent wilt-resistant selections of Upland varieties have also been
secured. Seed will be distributed this year to cooperators and propa-
gated next year for more general distribution.
Disease-resistant potatoes. — For several years this Department
has been testing various American and European varieties of potatoes,
especially for disease resistance, and has now secured several good
varieties resistant to both the early and late blight, as well as to tip-
burn and Ilea beetles. The work is carried on principally in coopera-
tion with the Vermont Experiment Station, though several other
Stutes are also cooperating.
PROGRESS IX CEEEAL WORK.
Extension of the winter wheat area. — About four years ago
the Department began a .systematic distribution of the Kharkof wheat,
and extensive trials of this variety in cooperation with the State experi-
ment stations. It is the hardiest winter wheat vet grown in this
REPORT OF THE SECEETABY. 43
country, and is now thoroughly established. By its use the area in which
winter wheat can be successfully cultivated has been much extended
to the northward and westward, particularly in Nebraska and Iowa,
while 8 considerable amount is now grown in South Dakota and
southern Minnesota. It will be conservative to state that wherever
this wheat has been introduced the yield per acre is being increased
on an average of 5 bushels.
tablishmext of wiXTER barley. — Much attention has I
given this year to the introduction and development of winter varieties
of barley. It is well known that fall-sown grain will yield much more
on the same ground than spring-sown grain, in addition to the fact
that winter grain is almost always or uaiity. Excepting some
Southern States, winter barley has heretofore been practically un-
known in this country. After three 3Tears of demonstration work,
the Tennessee Winter barley is now well established in Kansas, Okla-
homa, and southern Nebraska, in addition to a few successful trials
that have been made in the North Central States. The results of the
introduction of this barley are remarkable and very interesting.
Wherever it has been grown it is now often yielding 50 per cent more
to the acre than the ordinary spring barley. Besides, it has the advan-
tage of giving much winter pasturage in seasons that are favorable for
pasturing.
The unusual success of some of our introduced Swedish and Aus-
trian pedigreed barleys is opening up the great possibilities of pure
strains of this cereal, especially for malting purposes.
Durum wheat. — In the field work on durum wheat all efforts are
now being- concentrated on its improvement, particularly in the devel-
opment first of pure types. Much help is being given in the investi-
gations of this wheat by the experiment stations, particularly those of
North Dakota, South Dakota, and Colorado. It is so well demon-
strated that the Kubanka variety is the best, considering all qualities, for
the northern districts that farmers everywhere throughout the North
are urged to sow only this type. A number of experiments, including
baking tests, all of which have been published, have proved conclu-
sively that it i> equal to the best No. 1 hard spring wheat for making
bread. The results in the sale of this wheat during the last season
and so far this season have been favorable far be\'ond expectation.
Last year about 10,- bushels were exported to foreign coun-
tries, and the price on an export basis at New York City and on the
Canadian border was at several times equal to that of the hard spring
wheat. Probably at least 20,000,000 bushels were produced in 1905,
which, after making ample allowance for seed, leaves several million
bushels that must have been used for bread in this country. A good
portion of this was used in Minneapolis. For the crop this year a
44 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTYIEN I RICULTUKE.
safe estimate would ibout 50, bushels, oi ximately
one-twelfth of the usual wheat crop of this country.
From the daily and weekly reports received from the markets
appears that about 12, . bushels : this rop have so far been
sold for export. This - n, at New York City, durum wheat i«
far selling uniformly at 5 or 6 cei - than the s : Mani-
toba hard. The increasing export demand from dealers who know
how to judge this class of wheat ought to ;
value to American manufacturers, and it is hoped that in the future
our home consumption will increase much more rapidly.
Sixty Day oat. — In previous reports attention has ailed to
the superiority of the introduced Swedisl fcand-
ard varieties throughout the Northern States. Duiii . same time
another variety of oats has been introduced from Russia, known as the
Sixty Day. but which matures, however, in a little over ninety ins
of sixty days. It is so much earlier than other varieties that it often
escapes many fungous and insect pests that attack other well
as the effects of severe periods of drought. It is very prolific
rule, and has an unusually wide adaptatioi ally.
Amarillo testing farm. — The testing farm at Amarillo. Tex.,
been in operation one year, and the fall seeding of the second year is
now finished. The operations here are to a large extent in the nature
of pioneer work to demonstrate to the inhabitants of the large area of
the Panhandle of Texas that agriculture can actually be conducted in
that region. The experiments were conducted previously at Chan-
ning. Tex. That much success has been attained in this work is indi-
cated in the many crops that have been successfully grown throughout
that territory during the last year, the farmers having been induced to
sow these crops largely through the influence of these inv< • _
Investigations in California and the Southwest. — Experim
for the purpose of improving the quality of wheat in California have
been conducted for two years at M si a City, Cal. In
addition, seed of some of the most promising varieties of wheat used
in these experiments has been furnished in cooperative trials with
farmers in othei of the Southwest. From the results of the
work so far it is evident that at least two of these new wheats are very
well adapted to the southwestern United States and are at the same
time good milling wh
Chemical and baking tests of flour and grain. — In eooperal
with the Bureau of Chemistry many chemical anal I other I sts
been made of introduced grains, particularly oats and bar:
to determine their feeding value. An important piece of work has
been the investigations of the comparative value of durum-w
Hour for bread making conducted for this Department by the Colum-
bus Laboratories uf Chicago.
EEP0ET OF THE SECRETARY. 45
A study of wheat deterioration. — During the year a special
investigation, also in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry, has
been made to determine the causes of the deterioration of wheat from
the milling standpoint. An important clue to the solution of this
problem has been discovered, and when the matter is full}- worked out
it will, without doubt, enable the farmer to prevent the production of
soft and light-colored grains that are much inferior in quality.
Rice investigations. — A series of experiments for the thorough study
of rice, its varieties, methods of handling, irrigation, etc., has been
inaugurated in cooperation with the Louisiana Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Crowley, La., having been selected as the place of oper-
ations More than 300 distinct varieties of rice are under experiment.
The'results of this season already show that a good beginning has been
made in this work.
grain staxdaedizatiox.
From time to time during the past rive years demands have been
made upon the Department for aid in the grading and handling of
grain. It has been fully recognized that this is a matter which
demands most careful investigation, as both our home and foreign
markets are involved. Grain grading as now practiced by the various
State and other organized bodies has not been satisfactory, chiefly on
account of the lack of uniformity. The Department has consistently
held the ground that some system of standardization is absolutely nec-
essary as a first step toward securing uniform methods of grain grad-
ing. With a view to eventually bringing about this standardization,
Congress at its last session authorized the establishment of laboratories
for the purpose of examining and reporting upon the nature, quality,
and condition of any sample, parcel, or consignment of seed or grain
entering into interstate or foreign commerce. After a careful study
of the situation, two laboratories, all the funds at hand would permit,
have been established — one at Baltimore, Md., the other at New
Orleans, La. At both places the Department has received the cordial
cooperation of the chambers of commerce, and is now about to enter
upon the regular duties connected with the laboratories.
It will be the object of these laboratories to make a thorough study of
present systems of grain grading with a view to reaching, if practica-
ble, conclusions which will make standardization possible. It is rec-
ognized that much preliminary work must be clone, and, furthermore,
that special apparatus will have to be devised for quickly determining
the moisture content of grain, and for conducting other observations
and investigations. A moisture-determining apparatus has already
been devised and is now in use at our laboratories. It is believed that
improvements can be made in these devices and the Department's
officers are already at work on this problem.
TEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
:ognizing the need for the closest relations with the grain trade,
the Department has secured the services of an expert ingrain gradi
hould be of the greatest value in working- out
the many problems wh: rily be connected with this
important line of work.
DRY-LAND FARMING.
Recognizing th sity for more systematic efforts along- the line
of dry-land farming-, during the past year important held and
laboratory i:. s lions have been arranged for, which, it i< believed,
will be of great value to the iiave already settled or who con-
template settling .rid areas where irrigation is impracticable.
The Great Plains area, lying between the ninety-eighth and one hun-
dred and fourth meridians and including approximately 33 uare
miles, is one of the most important di here this work is being
conducted.
.: of the investigations. — Throughout this vast area there is
not a single State experiment station, although there are several sub-
station-. The plan of the work is to establish special substations in
cooperation with the : periment stations in North Dakota. South
ta. Nel . Oklahoma. Colorad aid Texas. At
the- -■ ill be carried on which will enable the
S< :-- authorities and the Depart mei.: definitely important
questions as to systems of cropping and farm management in this
:ded area. Th- - -ful work already inaugurated with the
durum wheat to the belief that there are several other crops
which might al-o prove highly ful.
Advice to prospective settlers. — On account of the efforts made
by land agents for the pa.-t two or three years to induce farmers to
up land in this region it seem- proper to make a few cautioi
gard to this enti n of country. While there
ricultural possibilities in the region", the fact must not be
hat farming there must be conducted along radically differ-
ent lines from those of the more humid portions of the Unite
■ tiers ha who will be
pointed in the near future. In spite of the fact that
given abundant rainfalls, the evidence is
5 will s d resume their norn
which is one of semiaridity. and onditions must be met in a
way for which few farmers of the section are now prepared. It is
Iful to look with groat caution upon the staten :ianating
from interested parties - bability of continued rainfalls and
the growing- of • ommonly known to the
mo: -the United £
REPORT OF THE BBCBEXABT. 47
GOOD SEED FOR THE FARM]
Feral linos of work carried on duri; year have for their
object the improvement of the seed upon which th must depend
for his crops. The iaves Df seed adulterations previously
mentioned in these report- have been continued, and there i- ev< ry evi-
dence that the publication of the names of firms found to be selling- adul-
terated seed has beea the means of checking the evil. In all this work
the Department has but one object, namely, to protect the farmer from
unscrupulous dealers who make a practice of foisting bad seed i
him. The rank and file of American seedsmen do not follow any such
practices and are as anxious as the Department to protect the farmer.
A campaign of education. — The Seed Laboratory ha ' >oth
seedsmen and farmers hundreds of sample- - during the past year,
and in this way has greatly encouraged the propaganda for good seed.
A feature of the work has been a campaign of education for bet
Cheap seed is often the most expensive thing connected with a crop.
•v cent< saved on each pound of alfalfa or clover seed may cost
the farmer all of his work in preparing and fertilizing the ground,
besides the loss of an entire season in getting the crop started. The
Bureau has also been actively engaged in encouraging the good-seed
work through addresses at farmers' institutes and other meeting-.
Better grades of seed corx. — Special work has been done during
the past year in demonstrating- the great importance of high-grade
I corn. The work was inaugurated to establish the great value of
proper care of the ordinary seed as grown by the farmer. The main
point at issue was the gain in yield due to the vitality of the seed.
Actual held demonstrations have shown that, taking corn in the aver-
age— that is. corn from different parts of the United States as ordi-
narily saved for seed by farmers— the yield would be increased about
15 per cent if the vitality were perfect. The Department has pointed
out simple methods of testing vitality that any farmer can follow, and
has shown in field practice that the adoption of such methods by the
farmer may increase his yield from 10 to 15 per cent. Similar work
has been conducted with a number of other crops.
WORK OX THE SUOAR BEET.
Production of high-grade strains of seed. — The work on breed-
ing high-grade strains of sugar-beet seed has been very satisfactory
during the year. This work i- being conducted in cooperation with a
number of experiment stations and private individuals. The first
commercial crop of seed raised from roots selected tinier departmental
supervision was harvested this year by a grower in Washington State
and some 15,000 pounds of seed were secured, all from beets which,
48 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARIMEN'T OF AGRICULTURE.
commercially analyzed 1 -partment. showed sugar contents of
22] r. In the work of selection rigid attention is given to
y detail of size, color, form of root, shape of leaf. etc. The
Department has received from a number of sources satisfactory evi-
dence that the American seed which it is developing is highly satis-
fact ne factory alone reports that the American-grown seed
increased the yield 1.19 tons per acre on an area covering 391 ac
divided amo: _ Farmers. 1 was put out in competition with
some of the most expensive grades of imported seed obtainable. As
a line of work closely connected with the foregoing, the Department
iref ally investigating and testing various varieties of sugar-beet
seed imported, together with all strains of sugar-beet »Town by
d firms.
— Very satisfac Its have been secured in
the development of a su_ seed which will contain a single germ,
highly importai I 1 which will eliminate a con-
. able portion of the work of thinning. The latest returns from
our inv- us along this line >how that our beets are averaging
about 26 per cent of single-germ seed and that such seed is producing
lding from 16 to 17 per cent sugar. The purity coefficient is
round to be satisfactory.
The important work on fertilizers, the improvement of cultural con-
ditions, and the extension of the sugar-beet area has been continued.
FRUIT MARKETING. TRANSPORTATION. AND STORAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
Experimental investigations of the methods of harvesting, packing,
transporting, and storing fresh fruits of various kinds have been con-
tinued during the year. The fruit transportation studies have been
confined chiefly to questions involved in the transcontinental shipment
of deciduous and citrus fruits of the Pacific coast to eastern markets.
. .ipments OF PEACHES and plums. — Experimental carload ship-
ments of perishable varieties of peaches and plums, which were allowed
to remain on the tree- in California until they reached much fuller
ripeness than has previously been considered safe by shipper-, dis-
tat such fruit can be delivered in eastern markets in
" ically as sound condition as when taken from the tree. The supe-
riority in flavor and wholesomeness of such sound, ripe fruit as com-
pared with fruit either overripe and decayed or prematurely picked
and which makes up so large a portion of the commercial sup-
ply of our citie-. sarly apparent. Special treatment of these
experimental shipments consisted simply in the quick cooling of the
packed fruit from the higli temperatures which it possessed when picked
from the tree to a temperature of 4< F. before it was loaded
in ordinary iced cars for shipment. Carloads of fruit thus treated not
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49
only required less ice in transit, but maintained more uniform tempera-
tures in the top and bottom of the car, with resultant greater uniform-
ity of condition of contents when unloaded.
Experiments in citrus fruit transportation. — Along similar
lines, but with closer attention to methods of harvesting and manipu-
lating the fruit, a careful study of orange-handling methods in southern
California was made. This revealed many interesting and important
facts. It was found that the difference in the carrying quality of
oranges from different producing districts in southern California was
due primarily to the methods of handling practiced rather than to
inherent characteristics of the fruit itself. Oranges free from mechan-
ical injuries, inflicted during the various processes of harvesting,
rarely showed decay during the ordinary shipment period, even when
transported without icing. On the contrary, similar fruit which had
suffered from inconspicuous cuts or abrasions of the skin developed
from 25 to 75 per cent of decay under similar conditions. A compre-
hensive series of experiments, in which fruit treated by different
methods was subjected to conditions favorable to the development of
deca3T, showed that where unmutilated fruit as it came from the tree
developed but 1.5 per cent of decay, similar fruit, when dry brushed,
showed 4.5 per cent, and washed fruit 10.5 per cent. The whole
trend of the results of the investigation thus far indicates that com-
plexity of methods and appliances in the handling of oranges results
in increased mechanical injury and correspondingly heavy losses from
decay in transit.
A study of the transportation of oranges across the continent, in
which different methods of shipment were compared, showed that
where oranges that had been mechanically injured were shipped under
ventilation, 1-1 per cent of decay developed. Similar fruit shipped
under ordinary icing developed 7 per cent of decay, while fruit that
was precooled and shipped in iced cars developed but -1 per cent.
Studies of the effect of holding the packed fruit before shipment
showed that, on the average, fruit shipped the first day after packing
developed but 2 per cent of decay; that shipped the third day, 3.5 per
cent; the fifth, 8.6 per cent, and the seventh da}^, 9.5 per cent. The
proportion of decay developed in the mechanically injured fruit
included in the above experiments was very much above these general
averages, the important fact developed being that prompt shipment
after packing greatly reduces the risk in transit.
Results of fruit transportation wtork.— These investigations
have had the active support of growers, shippers, and transportation
interests. In the citrus industry advantage is being taken of the
results of the work. Packing houses are being remodeled and simpli-
fied, the fruit is being shipped more quickly after picking. All the
3 A1906 4
50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
interests involved have shown a disposition to take advantage of the
eloped in the investigations. One of the prominent shipping
interests of the Pacific coast has estimated that the work of the Bureau
along this line saved the grower- at leasl ■--■ 000 in the season of
- : FRUIT STORAGE. — In the f ruit-storage investigations the
study of the effect of sod and tillage on the keeping of
eeu continued with the New York State Agricultural
oent Station, and special studies in relation to ternperat
d made in the East. The apple- storage investigation- have
tended to Pacific roast fruit, considerable quantities of apples
from different California apple districts having been stored in that
and in the East for comparison. Special attention has been
given to farm storage-house questi
Export shipments of fruits. — In the fruit-marketing investiga-
tions the experimental export shipment of summer apples from Dela-
ware was continued, and similar shipments also of winter varieties
from New York and Virginia. The problems connected with the
exportation of winter apples to European countries arc recognized as
of the highest importance in this ion and are being studied as
thoroughly as the conditions render practicable. The importance of the
apple export trade to our domestic fruit industry is shown by the fact
that while the crop of 1905 was estimated to bo the smallest during
the past decade, the portion exported was but 7 per cent le^s than the
avei _ lie previous rive years, constituting, as nearly as can be
mated, mure than 5 per cent of the estimated total crop. Fuller
information as to conditions prevailing in ocean transportation and in
j;n mark atly needed.
The exportation of eastern-grown "Bartlett" and other early pears,
i : apartment experiments in 1901, shows a grati-
fying . the total exports of pears during the fiscal year being
vale 7i\ the larger part of which were of eastern-
ficial effeet of this export movement of pears
• lent in our markets, where good prices prevailed in eon-
DEVELOPTNG NEW CROPS BY BREEDING AND SELECTIOX.
rk in developing, by breeding and selection, new
s been very successful during t! ear'.
I, son i . which have been
I with ;_ • .\v being grown on a large scale.
—The production of the >up of fruits,
far-reaching
ut triumph- whi achieved a- a result of care-
fully xperiments. Three varieties— the Rusk, Wil-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51
lits, and Morton — have already been named, and trees have been dis-
tributed to about 2,000 fruit growers and nurserymen, principally in
the Gulf States and in Oregon and Washington. Two other new vari-
eties have been produced, having large fruits similar in appearance to
ordinary oranges, and these will be named and distributed in the near
future. Both of these varieties are somewhat different from the sorts
previously named, and are believed to possess superior merits in cer-
tain characters. Both are large, fine-appearing acid fruits, and are
very juicy. They will prove valuable, especially for culinary purposes
and in the making of acid drinks. Another variety has been secured
which has fairly good fruits, and gives promise of utility as a hedge
plant and lawn tree. The citranges are of special value for cultiva-
tion in regions slightly too cold for the ordinary orange, and can be
recommended for planting throughout the Gulf States and in regions
of low altitude in Oregon, Washington, Arizona, and New Mexico.
New pineapple varieties. — Three of the new varieties of hybrid
pineapples have this year been distributed to a number of good grow-
ers, and next year stock of all of the new varieties developed by the
Department will be available for distribution. The further experi-
ments in this field have resulted in the discovery of six more new
hybrids which possess qualities that will render them valuable for cul-
tivation. These will be placed with growers at the earliest possible
date. All of the new varieties of pineapples are superior in flavor to
the ordinary varieties, and many of them have smooth or spineless
leaves, a quality of considerable value to the grower. All pineapple
growers who have had an opportunity to examine and test these
hybrids are impressed with their superior quality and promise.
A new early variety OF cotton. — It has been claimed by ento-
mologists and others studying the control of the cotton boll weevil
that varieties of cotton are needed which will mature their entire
product very early in the season, in order to permit the crop to be
harvested and the stalks destroyed early in the fall. A new early
defoliate variety has been produced by an agent of the Department,
working in cooperation with the Texas Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, which possesses these qualities in marked degree and which, at
the same time, is a productive sort having fairty large bolls. This
new variety, the present season, ripened its fruit and matured earlier
than any other of the varieties tested in comparison with it, among
them being the King, which is probably the earliest variety cultivated.
The new variety gives promise of being of great value for planting
in boll-weevil infested regions. Several other varieties of cotton
selected to secure earliness and productiveness, fitting them for boll-
weevil conditions, have been under experimentation, and select seed
of two of these sorts, the Edson and Triumph, will be distributed
this winter.
D'2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGMCTILTTJBE.
New strains of corn. — In the corn-breeding experiments great
advances have been made. One variety, which has been carefully bred
in central Ohio. has. for the last four years, shown an average yearly
gain of 10 bushels per acre over the original variety. Seed of this
variety has been sent to numerous farmers and is giving excellent
results. The breeding work with sweet corn, having as its object the
improvement of -trains for canning* purposes, has been continued with
good suce--. It has been demonstrated that an excellent quality of
sweet coro steed can be grown, and that with good care it will germinate
much better and produce a better crop than such seed as is customarily
purchased by canning companies.
Improvement of oats. — The most promising features of the oat-
breeding work are the new hybrids recently developed. These are
large grained and early in season, and retain the vigor and size of the
late-season parent. They bid fair to excel and eventually succeed all
the early varieties now grown in the central Mississippi region. Selec-
tions for disease resistance have also been made, and the year's experi-
ments have proved that it is possible to secure smut-resistant varieties.
One selection of the Burt variety has proved to be almost smut proof.
Crops resistant to alkali and drought.— The testing of different
varieties of the leading field crops with regard to their alkali resistance
is being continued and extended. Much information that will permit
of a choice of crop plants and plant varieties for alkali lands and pro-
vide a solid basis for the increase of resistance by breeding has been
obtained. The held investigations of crop plants in relation to alkali
are being supplemented by extensive laboratory experiments. As a
part of the investigations of the Bureau in dry-land agriculture, the
breeding of drought-resistant strains of important field crops has been
taken up in cooperation with some of the State experiment stations.
PROGRESS IN TOBACCO WORK.
The tobacco-breeding experiments have proved particularly succ ss-
ful. and several of the new sorts produced in the course of the Depart-
ment's experiments have already been planted extensively by tobacco
growers, and are giving excellent results in increa.-ed yields of a superior
grade of tobacco.
Connecticut wrapper tobacgos. — In the work of improving Con-
necticut wrapper tobaccos two new hybrids have been produced — the
Brewer and the Cooley. The Brewer i- a hybrid of the native I
necticut Broadleaf with the imported Cuban, while the Cooley is a
hybrid of the native Connecticut Havana Seed variety with the
Imported Sumatra. In the hybrids the good qualities, hardiness, and
adaptability to Connecticut condition- of the native varieties are com-
bined with the superior wrapper qualities of the imported Cuban and
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53
Sumatra. The product of the hybrids has superior qualities for cigar-
wrapper purposes, possessing characters which go to make up a valu-
able wrapper tobacco. Numerous growers have been pleased with the
superior grade of tobacco produced by these hybrids and are this year
growing a considerable quantity of the new varieties and selecting seed
to extend their planting next year.
Wrapper and filler tobaccos in the South. — The experiments
conducted in Florida in the improvement of tobacco varieties have
demonstrated the value of this work to growers. Carefully selected
strains of Sumatra have clearly shown their superiority, both in qual-
ity and yielding capacity, to the ordinary Sumatra-grown. The crops
grown from select seed furnished by the Department to 12 different
planters are far superior to the remainder of their crops and are
decidedly the best crops of tobacco in the State. As a result of this
demonstration of the value of the methods of selection and preserva-
tion of seed worked out b}T the Department of Agriculture, almost all
of the large tobacco growers are this }"ear using similar methods, aud
more than 50,000 paper bags have been used during the past summer
by growers in covering the flower clusters of their select seed plants.
Maryland smoking tobaccos. — Experiments in the improvement
of the Maryland smoking tobaccos have been carried on during the
year in cooperation with the Maryland Agricultural Experiment
Station. Selections made to secure greater uniformity and increased
yields have shown striking results. The fields of tobacco grown from
select seed are believed to be the best tobacco grown in the State the
present season.
Miscellaneous tobacco work. — One of the most important features
of the tobacco-breeding investigations is the development of methods by
which the grade and quality of the tobacco produced can be accurately
determined. During the last year an apparatus has been devised for
testing the burn of cigars accurately and another for testing the burn
of strips of leaves. These machines will prove of great value in con-
nection with the breeding experiments and probably also in the com-
mercial testing of samples of wrapper tobacco. Investigations of the
curing of tobacco have been undertaken, directed more especially
toward the control of pole burn by means of artificial heat. Several
diseases of tobacco are receiving attention, and the breeding of varie-
ties for disease resistance gives promise of good results.
Extension of experiments. — The tobacco-breeding experiments
are being extended to the tobacco-producing areas of Kentuck}-, Ohio,
and Virginia, and it is probable that results can be obtained in these
regions as important as those produced in Connecticut and Florida.
The introduction of the methods of seed selection and seed separation
alone in these extensive tobacco-producing States will add many thou-
sands of dollars to the value of the crop grown.
5-1 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT i: ■ lTIONS.
Work on camphor. — Rapid progress has been made in the investi-
gation of camphor production, a number of camphor trees of various
ages having been placed at the disposal of the Department for experi-
mental work. More than 30 pounds of camphor were prepared, which
on purification gave very favorable results. Tests of a scientific nature
showed the identity of this product with that of the Orient refill
survey of the camphor trees now widely scattered throughout Florida,
and of the conditions of soil, drainage, etc.. in which they occur, has
made it seem reasonably clear that camphor will nor.. - r a large
part of the area from which frost has driven the orang ndustry.
Studies of poisonous plants. — In the poisonous-plant investiga-
tions chief attention has been given during the year to the poisonous
action of the so-called loco weeds in causing the loco disease in horses
and cattle. The general outcome of this work has shown very clearly
that these weeds are able to produce the symptoms characteristic of
locoism and are unquestionably the chief cause o:
-tock-grazing interests of the West. Remedial measures are now
being sought, as are also means of exterminating the weeds and meth-
ods of counteracting the poison.
PROGRESS IX GROWING AMERICAN TEA.
The work in South Carolina for the purpose of determining the
ibilities of the commercial production of tea in the Unite IS -
has prog s Factorily during the year. The younger
have given an increased yield, due in part to a change in the method
of picking which sted during the year. As a result of all :..
ences th< eld during the history of the experhn
obtained, .-.'.met king over 12.000 pounds of dry tea. In tin
some new machinery was tested. The compression of finely ground
tea into tablets was attempted with a machine of the same
type as that . 1 by m taring chemists, the result . that
after a few trials a hard, sightly 3 which
dissolves i:; h >t water. The superior adapt 3 form of
paration for - is desired is appai
In addition to the work in South Carolina a tea g
t Pierce. Tex. The work at this point gi - se of
very satisfactory results.
IMPROVEMENTS IN DISTRIBUTING NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA.
The method of distributing cultures dried on cotton for the inoc
tion of leguminous crops was discontinued during the year, and in
its place the plan adopted of distributing pure liquid cultures her-
metically sealed in glass tubes. This has been proved to be a g
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55
improvement over the old system. It is planned to distribute during
the current year larger cultures to the farmers, and thus render it pos-
sible to reduce the time formerly required to develop a rich culture
for inoculating- leguminous crops. Many held tests in this work are
under way on large farms, and it i- hoped by this, careful experi-
mental work to acquire much valuable information concerning the
best manner of treatment of certain soils and crops in order to obtain
successful inoculations.
WORK OX WATER CONTAMINATION.
The work of the Bureau of Plant Industry in the treatment of water
supplies with copper sulphate for the destruction of alga? and patho-
genic bacteria has passed from the experimental stage to that of actual
practical use. Investigations of the use of copper sulphate in sewage
disposal have indicated that in small sewage plants the use of copper
will make it possible to produce sewage effluents that are entirely free
from pathogenic bacteria. Work is being planned to test the etneieney
of copper in connection with filtration. Additional work is to be car-
ried on throughout the United States in order to determine the value
of copper in various types of water. The copper treatment of water
supplies, sewage disposal, etc.. should in all cases be supervised by an
expert. Before this method of purification is attempted the condi-
s must be worked out on a scientific basis in each instance.
FARM-MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATIONS.
The farm-management investigations during the past year have been
carried on along two principal lines, namely, the study of farm prac-
tice and demonstrations in improved methods. The object of the
first is to make a careful study of farm methods as followed by sue-
i essful men in different sections of the country and representing
different types of agriculture. These studies lead to the securing of
data which enable the Department to assist farmers and others in
planning methods of cropping and maintaining soil fertility. In con-
nection with this work special attention has been given to crops
adapted to new sections and to the relation between certain improved
crops and soil fertility. Alfalfa has been found to be adapted to an
important soil formation in Alabama and Mississippi, and is rapidly
becoming a valuable crop of that section. This soil is heavily charged
with lime. In this connection the Bureau of Plant Industry follows
closely the work of the Bureau of Soils in its soil mapping. A spe-
cial study has been made during the year of the practices of farmers
in the East who have been successful in growing alfalfa.
Methods of storing silage.— In connection with the studies of
farm practice, a special investigation has been made during the year
56 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of methods of storing silage. The kinds of crops used for silage, the
cost of growing and of siloing them have all been considered.
Control of Johnson grass. — The farm-management investigations
also deal with the question of weed control. It is believed that data
have been secured which will enable the farmer to control Johnson
grass and utilize it in a satisfactory way in crop rotation in the South.
The secret of success in this work lies in the fact that in a Johnson
grass sod left undisturbed for two or three years the rootstocks are
found only at the surface. In this condition the pe-t i- easily destroyed
by -hallow plowing and a little extra cultivation the next summer.
This permits Johnson grass to be grown in a rotation, such as <otton,
corn and cowpeas. winter oats, and Johnson grass for two years.
Where the pest is allowed to grow on land that is cultivated in cotton
or corn the rootstocks penetrate deeply into the -oil and eradication
is extremely difficult.
Cactus-feeding experiments. — Investigations into the value of
cactus as food for cattle have been continued. A carload of steers were
fattened on cactus and cotton-seed meal, at a cost of Z-h cents per pound
of gain. As a feed for dairy cows 0 pounds of fresh cactus equaled
1 pound of sorghum hay when fed with a mixture of grain and mill stuff.
Object-lesson farms. — The object-lesson farms referred to in for-
mer reports have been continued. A- the result of the work on one of
these farms, many farmers in Alabama have sown alfalfa and are thus
preparing for the advent of the boll weevil. The great advantage of
pasturing hogs on alfalfa in that section has been demonstrated. In
order to meet the demand for object-lesson farms in the South the
system of establishing these farms has been changed. Instead of
assuming close supervision of the farms, working plans are now pre-
pared. This enables the Department to reach many more localities
than were possible under the former -y stern.
Nearly all successful farms are unique in their management. They
represent systems wrought out by men of unusual energy and intelli-
gence who have gone resolutely about discovering and utilizing the
full possibilities of their land. From such men we are learning facts
which when properly classified will constitute the art of farm man-
agement. These farms demonstrate the great value of intelligent
management, as compared with hard work applied unintelligently.
SPECIAL WORK OX COTTON.
The special work on cotton which has for its object the meeting of
the ravages of the boll weevil in the South has been continued along
pretty nearly the -tune line- set forth in my last report. The coope-
rative work with farmers has been a special feature and has been
extended into Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas. This work is
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57
now carried on in the States mentioned, and in addition special atten-
tion has been devoted to Texas, which is in the heart of the boll-
weevil infested territory. Experience has enabled the Bureau of Plant
Industry to systematize the work so as to reach practical farmers and
secure their interest and cooperation. It is estimated that through this
work the Department is now reaching, directly and indirectly, in the
neighborhood of 100,000 farmers in the States mentioned.
The plan is a simple one, and from its very simplicity is found to
be effective. Meetings of farmers are held in different communities
and arrangements made whereby representative men agree to handle
a part or all of their land with the advice and assistance of the Depart-
ment's agents. No radical recommendations are made in the matter
of changing the existing systems, unless such systems are known to
be bad. The varieties of cotton known to be best adapted for boll-
weevil conditions are recommended and planted. Systems of fer-
tilization are suggested and, wherever practicable, diversification is
encouraged. The farmers who are cooperating with the Department
in the work receive regular visits from our agents and, in addition,
furnish weekly reports setting forth their operations and the results.
At the end of the season there is, as a rule, a demonstration as to the
effectiveness and value of the sj^stems laid out as compared with the
old methods. A special point which the Department makes in all
this work is that no radically new methods are being urged. We
simply endeavor to have put into practice methods which are already
known to be highly successful, encouraging the farmer himself to
take the leading part in the work.
The breeding work, having for its object the securing of types of
cotton better adapted to boll-weevil conditions, has already been
referred to under the head of plant-breeding investigations. As a
part of this special work on cotton, investigations of root rot have
been continued,- the same being largely field studies to determine the
value of crop rotations in eradicating the pest from the soil. Inves-
tigations of cottons found in Guatemala and other southern countries
have also been continued and some interesting results secured. Some
of these cottons give promise of proving valuable for use in connec-
tion with breeding work. Having developed for a long series of }Tears
in combat with the boll weevil, the}^ have characteristics quite different
from an}T tj'pes of cottons which we now possess.
DEPARTMENT GROUNDS AND ARLINGTON FARM.
The Department grounds, consisting of 40 acres, are now in a well-
developed state. During the year all the roads have been improved,
a special appropriation of $3,500 being used for the purpose. The
glass houses on the grounds have been further improved and are now
being used for manv lines of work carried on by the Bureau.
LKBOOK OF THE BKPABTMKNT OF AGBICUL.TT .
Arlington Experimental Farm t"here are about 350 acres
under cultivation. Many varied line> of work are being carried on.
indn _ iriety tests of all seeds and
er crops for orchards, variety orchard and other
frur e farm i. - a well-equipped range of g
work and all the newer portions of the land
are . ._ ight into good tilth, by the use of proper management
and green ma
DOS SAL .~EED DISTRIBUTION.
TL nal seed work for the year has conducted along
practical .me lines as in the past. The number of package
mi- »le and flower seed sent out during the year was
abov \ There has been no change in this number during
i
FIELD LABORATOl D TESTING GARDENS.
•pi Valley laboratory, located ar the
Bur ...... [ many of the
which affect foi fruit trees in th
of treating : 3 have also been "orkecl out during the y
tven to t:. rn-gall disease of
orchard and other fruits, with the object of finding a means for prevent-
ive further spread of I Hie results obi .ined have shown
gall of t " ry large! nted
rting and by - - pping" °f
paper. It has found that this
- other hand, the
►e transmitted through the soil and mav be
one vineyard to another. American
staot to the disc
and" trol will consist ..ow-
roof ha- to the
lure of the crown-gal - le fruits.
rk on various _ ation of
inued at various the
- of the living tree w ■ • sti ted,
particularly I .. of rot which d
it. A L .
fitment liminary rhis
on could be prevented. Th. -dan increase of
at of lun. meaning st a total pre-
The m - rked our is .. tried by
lumbermen on a >
BEFORE OF THE SECBETABY. 59
At the Subtropical Laboratory, Miami. Fla., the Bureau is eondi
iug inyestigatious of the diseases affecting tropical and subtropical
plants, such as the mango, avocado, and citrus fruits. Methods have
been worked out for the control of these troubles. Experiments in
the propagation of tropical and subtropical fruits con-
ducted at this laboratory.
The Bureau of Plant Industry is carrying on at its Plant Introduc-
tion Garden, located at Chico, Cal.. experiments in the pr . _ )n of
many seeds and plants introduced from foreign countries. Trial- of
forage crops'and vegetables suited to the Southwest are also being
conducted at this garden. Twelve acre- at the garden have beei
aside for experimental work on European grape varieties cut-
tings having been rooted during the past season. A number of these
were distributed during the past spring among the experimental vine-
yards maintained by the Bureau in different parts of Califoi
Experimental work in the propagation of tigs and of the pistache nut
is also being carried on at the _ n and with growers in the South-
western States.
In addition to the fore. he Bureau is conducting an experi-
mental farm :it San Antonio. Tex. The object of the work at
farm is to test ne - likely to prove of v. to the regie a
sented. and to find the best methods of tillage by which the relatively
large but irregular rainfall of the region may be utilized in th
able production of the staple crops.
FOREST SERVICE.
NATIONAL FOREST RESERVES.
The fiscal year 1905-6 was and will remain notable in the history
of the Forest Service for the progress made in actually applying a
National reserve policy. In area the reserves were increased during
the year from - 122 to 106,999,138 acres. In revenue the
reserves brought in $767,219. against I >r the previ-
ous year and S~ for the year 1903-4. In timbe - here
were disposed of for immediate or early removal nearly 300 million
board feet of lumber at stumpage prices ranging up to Si per thou-
sand - other material to a large value), as again-:
board feet, with a maximum price of $2. per thousand in
and ard feet in 1903-4. The number of free-use per-
mit-granted in the same showed progressive increase. In
the year 1904-fi the reserves were under Forest control only
after February 1.
One fiscal year of full control has establishe aportant fact. —
that the reserves advance the present interests of the people of the
West and that they will speedily pay the cost of administering them.
(50 YEABBOOK 0¥ EBEB DEPAETME>~T OF AGEICVLTUBE.
PUBLIC UTILITY of te:
These National fores s lug made useful now. The benefits which
thev are to secure are not deferred benefits. Through Government
control the interests of the future are safeguarded, but not by sacri-
ficing those of the present. Far from handicapping the development
of the States in which they lie. the reserves will powerfully promote
development. They work counter to the prosecution of no industry,
and retard the beneficial use of no resource.
The wealth of the West lies, and will long lie. in what the soil will
produce and in what the earth hides. Labor and capital will here
find employment mainly in turning to use the farm land, grazing land,
timber land, and mineral lands of the region, and in the commerce to
which these great productive industries will give rise. That the
reserves beneficially affect all of these industries is becoming clearer
to the people of the West every day. and in consequence the policy of
public administration of our unappropriated timber lauds become*
more and more firmly established in the approval of a united public
sentiment. Local sentiment has sometimes been unfavorable to the
creation of res rv - before their effect upon the public welfare
understood: but opposition has alwa] ssolved under th.
oal experience.
The reserves do not withhold land from agricultural use. but greatly
increase the amount of available farm land. Though they were made
from the most rugged and mountainous parts of the West and were
intended to include only land unsuited for agricultui . the act of
June' 11. 1906, the right is given settlers to homestead within the
reserves wherever strips and patches of tillable land can be found. At
the same time, through their water-conserving power. the>e forests fix
in region- of -canty rainfall the amount of land which can be brought
under the plow, since at be-t much otherwise fertile land miht go
uncultivated for want of water. Without forest pi n much
of the land now under irrigation would have i andoned again to
the desert. Thus the promotion of agriculture is one of the main ends
of the forest-reserve poll
Mining in the West is mainly in regions surrounded by reserve -
included within them: but the reserves do not imped.- iopment
of mineral resources. On the contrary, by guaranteeing future sup-
plies of timber they are indispensable to the future development of
these resour s, - the great mining interests well know. They do
not interfere with the pi r, who has the same right to prospect
and locate in forest reserves that he has on any other part of the
public domain.
Administrative control of the forest reserves is beneficial to the
grazing industry. The sentiment of stockmen throughout the West is
unitedlv in favor of such control, because of the gain to them now
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61
that the reserve ranges are safe from overcrowding and deterioration.
Thus the rights of the individual user are respected and the permanence
of this great resource is assured. I wish to commend particularly in
this connection the heartiness and good spirit with which the associa-
tions of western stockmen have cooperated in our efforts to enforce
fair and just measures for the regulation of grazing in the interest of
all users of the forests, and in the interest of the public, to whom these
forests belong. The charge of a grazing fee, made for the first time
during the past year, though reasonable in view of the advantages of
grazing regulation to the stockmen and the costof reserve administration
to the Government, and justly due in the interest of the public, might
have been expected to cause dissatisfaction and friction. On the con-
trary, as soon as the reasons for the charge and the method in which
it would be applied had been explained, it was generally approved
and paid willingly and promptly. It was followed by no falling off in
the number of stock grazed in the reserves. In some cases the asso-
ciations of stockmen have voluntarily aided the Service in settling
local difficulties. Their whole conduct has shown remarkable modera-
tion, far-sightedness, and readiness to recognize and accept what is in
the permanent interest of their industry, even though it involves the
sacrifice of immediate personal advantage.
Finally, Forest Service administration of the reserves is beneficial
alike to the lumber industry and to the timber-consuming public.
There is now standing on the reserves not less than 300 billion board
feet of merchantable timber. This is not locked up from' present
use as a hoarded supply against future needs; it is ready for the
immediate demands of a developing country. It will not be rushed
upon the wholesale market in competition with the cheap stumpage
prices of private owners anxious for ready money, and it will not be
disposed of under a short-sighted policy of utilization which would
leave a gap between the end of the present supply and the oncoming
of the second crop; but it is and will continue to be available, first for
the small user — home-builder, rancher, or miner — and then for the
needs of lumber concerns, large miners, and railroads, for which a
timber supply is indispensable, and which in turn are indispensable to
the prosperity of the West.
The supply of timber furnished by the matured crop now on the
ground is so vast in proportion to the present demand that there might
seem to be no need for caution in its use. Were no more cut than
last year it would suffice for four hundred years. In the mature
forest production is at a standstill, so that from the point of view of
the largest possible production of timber lumbering under such
methods as will insure a second crop is highly desirable. The demand
upon the reserves, however, is as yet insignificant in proportion
to even the present need, most of which is met by the suppl}' from
62 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEZs'I Of AGEICULTY
private holdings. The reserves form the heart of the western timber
lands. They are generally less accessible than the private holdi
which surround them, and would naturally form the last re-ource of
the lumberman. They must be so maintained as first of all to be
readv to meet the future demands of the regions in which they lie.
"With a growing population and expanding industries these demands
will far exceed those of the present. The crucial problem of ma:
ment will be to insure a timber and water supply for the great W
and to conserve the summer stock ranges. To meet it successfully
will require careful foresight and the best technical information.
Timber sales are now made with strict attention to the welfare of the
forest, and at stumpage prices often decidedly in advance of the market.
TCE RESERVES BKU-SOSTAIKI*
The income from the reserves is as yet but a small fraction of what
may be expected as they approach full utilization. Yet their admi
tration is already on a sound busi : only are they meet-
in «r from their receipts a very large part of the cost of their main-
tenance: thev are even now beginning to show a decided decrease in
net expense to the Government. My estimate of the appropriation
necessary to meet the general expenses of the Forest Service is I- --
by $100,000 than the appropriation of last year, notwithstanding that
the total area of the i has been substantially enlarged by E:
tive action, that increasing use necessitates greater expense of admin-
istration, and that in general the work of the Service is growing very
rapidly. Though the administration of tl. - rmsbutapai
the field of work, it may confidently be expected that within rr
from the transfer of the reserves to this Department the Fore-t Serv-
ice will cost the taxpayer nothing whatever.
In reaching this result no unjust burden will have been laid on
est As public property the National f< mid yield to the
public a reasonable return for whatever of value private individuals
re from them for their own profit. In accordance with this prin-
ciple, applicants for special privile. rights of way. i
wer-house site-, and similar concessions— have been called
upon to pay for such privileges on the b;: eir commercial value.
example, in the case of water powers duly located under the State
laws, but which can not be developed without the y of re-
land, besides a charge for the land occupk
-t land, a small charge per unit of power developed is made, not
the use of the water itself, which is granted directly by tl
but for the tion of the supply which the preservation of the
forests furnishes, and which, were it not for the existence of the
rve, the water-right owner could secure only by himself acquir-
ing great bodies of forest land. Suchacharg ssentially similar
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 63
to the charge for stock grazed upon the reserves. It is a return for
actual value received, and throws upon those who profit by public
control of the reserves a -hare of the cost of maintaining that control.
By the wise and just provision of Congress in enacting at its last
on that 10 per cent of the gross receipts from the National reserves
shall be made over to the several States in which they are situated, for
the benefit of the counties which would otherwise receive no revenue
from a part of their area, a real grievance was redressed. Even with
the present use of the reserves the benefits thus reaped from them by
the communities in their neighborhood are of substantial importance.
As time goes on the importance of this provision will increase, and
eventually the counties will find themselves far better off than they
would have been without the reserves, for private ownership followed
by exploitation would have destroyed the sources of revenue by leav-
ing little or nothing of permanent taxable value, whereas now every
resource is conserved and will be made to pay its just share of income.
Since the fundamental purpose for which reserves exist is to secure
the best permanent use of all resources, their effect is to add to prop-
erty value, and by turning over 10 per cent of their gross receipt.- to
local use they will contribute far more to the local public needs than
the taxes they would pay if they were private property.
Protection of the reserves from tire has been the most important
task laid upon the Forest Service. It is cause for congratulation that
the loss by tire during the year was so .slight. Indeed, the saving
which resulted from the organized care of the reserve force was
undoubtedly worth more than the whole cost of administering the
reserves. Only about eight tires of any consequence occurred on the
reserves during the calendar year 1905, a season of extreme dryness
and one in which under ordinary circumstances the damage from tires
should have been unusually large. This small number was due in large
part to the system of patrol, which leads to the discovery of tires
before much damage has been done. So far during the calendar year
1906 the damage from tire has been extremely small, even in compari-
son with that in 1905. Increased efficiency of the patrol system, com-
bined with favorable climatic conditions, has led to this favorable
result.
WORK OF THE YEAR.
FOEE-T MANAGEMENT.
The progress made by the Forest Service in the brief period of
seventeen months, during which it has had charge of the reserves, in
introducing management upon a vast field of operations in virgin
forests of varied types, compares favorably with anything that the
history of fore-try can show in any country. From Minnesota to
southern California and from Washington to New Mexico, reserve
64 TEAEBOOK OF I HE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTV
timber is now being cut under regulations looking to a second crop.
With larger the method- now applied will doubtless be
found faulty in some respects, and with opportunity for more
intensive use which the rising value of timber will afford, much more
- tisfacl Its will be possible; but tho important fact is that,
confronted with a problem of unexampled magnitude in its kind, the
roved able to substitute conservative for destructive
. while greatly increasing the use itself.
Live timber i< cut on the reserves under stipulations on
actual study of the forest condition- to protect the forest and the
water supply from injury. Piling- of the waste left by logging is
always required, a diameter limit is set to prevent too heavy cutting.
- ire left where necessary to provide for reproduction, full
utilization of all salable material i> compelled, and young growth i-
bed from injury. All this the purchaser is under contract to
perform, under the >rirerv;-ion of the forest officers, who are held to
efficiency by systematic inspection. Yet in spite of these require-
ments, which -lightly reduce the profits of lumbering to the pur-
. - . record stumpage prices have often been obtained, and the
average pri - □ far above that u-ually paid in the
same regions. Living trees to be cut are marked beforehand by
the forest officers, who also scale the lumber before it is removed.
Though some large ^ales of timber have been made in regions where
great quantities of mature forest were available and exposed to dete-
rioration, the constant policy has be I icourage the -mall user.
-. in more than 99 cases out of every 100
the sale- were of less than 5 million board feet.
le of timber on th - es were nearly r'i
while the contra - - of the year reach a total of o-
Five years i- the longest period allowed under these contracts in which
to cut the timber sold. Timber which can be harvested with profit
only by large operations and with a heavy outlay for the construction
of a milling plant or means of transportation, or both, must neci ss -
rily be -old under a contract extending over several years: but no
sales made permitting the speculative holding of timber again.-t a
.
The la: _ - jales States in S nth Dakota (73 mil-
lion board feet), Wyoming (71 million feet), and M er 53
million feet). In the latter two Si ' 9 heavy lodgepole pine foj
are ready for the ax, but difficult to lumber from their inaccessibility.
Attn - tmand for lodgepole pine raili
opened a market for this timber and made it post 3ell by large
tracts under conditions which will permit a second cutting after
thirty or forty yen-. In South Dakota a special reason exists for
of timber with the utmost energy. By the ravages
BEPOET OF THE SECBETABY. 65
of a bark beetle great quantities of timber are being destroyed, and
the annihilation of the entire forest of the region is threatened. Only
by extensive cutting of infested trees can the spread of the beetles be
checked and the damaged timber be utilized.
In Colorado and Arizona sales of timber totaled over 27 million
board feet for each State, and in Utah and California over 10 million.
In Colorado and Utah these sales were mainly of tire-killed tin:
largely used in mining. In Arizona large quantities of mature
accessible timber permitted extensive cutting without injury to the
forest. In other States cutting was comparatively insignificant in
amount, save in Idaho, where nearly 9 million feet were cut.
Little difficulty was experienced in preventing timber trespass upon
the reserves. Where .-ueh trespass occurred the full value of the
timber taken was recovered. Practically no loss was sustained from
theft.
COOPERATIVE MAXAGEMEXT.
The Forest Service continues to receive application- from private
owners for as-istance in introducing forest management upon their
holdings. So far as possible the Forest Service will give aid in this
work as in the past, since it is plainly in the public interest to promote
the practice of fore-try among private owners on business principles.
It is significant that while at the first it was necessary to prepare a
working plan for every timber tract before recommendations for con-
servative management could lie made, during the past year, out of o-t
timber tract- examined, it was pos-ible on 43 to outline at once a sys-
tem of management and the regulations to put it into effect. Working
plans were made during the year for 6 large tracts in New York,
Kentucky. Michigan, and South Carolina, and for 100 woodlots in 16
States.
In the woodlot work, which assists small owners, particularly farm-
er-, to make the best use of their woodland, special attention was
given to the Middle West. Very different problems are here pre-
.-ented from those of the Eastern State-, hitherto the main field of
woodlot study. As the need of timber becomes more pressing, the
yield from these small forest areas, which nevertheless in the aggregate
form a large part of our total woodland area, will become increasingly
important. On the whole, the farmer knows how to utilize his wood-
land far less intelligently than any other part of his farm. If he' can
be brought to an early realization of the future value of good timber
and knowledge of how to grow it. great benefit will result, both to the
farmer and to the community, which later will stand in need of every
available supply.
Cooperative forest studies were carried on during the year with
the States of California. New Hampshire, and North Carolina; with the
Office of Indian Affiiir> of the Department of the Interior, on the
3 a 1906 5
66 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPABTMENT OP AGBICT7LTUEE.
Wisconsin Indian Reservation; with the War Department, on the mili-
tary reservation in New Mexico; and with the Hydrographie Division
of the United States Geological Survey, upon the Potomac River
watershed. Tie production in Wisconsin and Minnesota, in coopera-
tion with the Northern Pacific Railroad, and the effect of sulphur fumes
from smelters on neighboring forests in Tennessee, in cooperation
with private forest owners and with the Bureaus of Chemistry and
Entomology, were also studied.
FOREST EXTENSION.
The field of forest planting in the United States broadens with
every year. In the East the economic conditions are bringing rapidly
nearer intensive forest management, which will involve extensive
planting, both to stock the land fully and to shorten the interval
between crops. In the Middle West the rising value of lumber is
tending to make the growing of trees profitable on land now in pas-
ture or under the plow. Knowledge gained by past investigations of
how to make trees grow under adverse conditions opens enlarged
possibilities to private owners in the more arid parts of the far
West. By far the most important part of the field, however, is that
of reserve planting. Here in the future a gigantic task will be pre-
sented, upon which the Forest Service has already begun a prelimi-
nary attack. Planting wiil furnish a future timber supply, improve
drainage basin-, and replace inferior species with more valuable trees.
Of the 107,000,000 acres of reserves enormous areas are partly or
wholly unforested.
In the Middle West alone are 5 reserves, aggregating over 750,000
acres, which are practically treeless and on which planting is now
under way. Doubtless future additions to the reserves will .still fur-
ther increase the task. While some of this land may never support
trees, the public welfare will eventually demand that the larger part
of it be forested. Unaided natural reproduction can never accom-
plish the task in time. As the need for wood and water increases,
planting on a scale as 3Tet entirely unthought of in this or any other
country will be carried on.
For private planting the two most serious obstacles to widespread
activity are the high cost and the poor quality of both the nursery
stock and the tree seeds now commercially obtainable. In some cases
eastern tree planters have been compelled to import from Europe
nursery stock of American trees, and adulterated seeds are common
on the market. It is not possible for the Forest Service to suppl}r
nursery stock for private use, but it is doing what it can to aid the
planter by tests pf the purity and germinative powers of seeds fur-
nished by different dealers, and by information as to prices at which
seeds and stock may be obtained in different regions.
EEPOET OF THE SECEETASY. 67
For planting on the reserves the Forest Service must raise its own
material. Six planting stations are now established, with an annual
capacity of 6,000,000 seedlings. Yet to plant 1 square mile requires
more than 700.000 seedlings. Though four years have passed since
the first nursery station was established, the work as yet done has
been hardly more than experimental, and in the newer nurseries few
of the seedlings are old enough to plant out. To meet the needs of
the reserves, preparations for planting must be made on a vastly
greater scale.
As a first step, nursery sites will be established at rangers* head-
quarters on all the reserves. As rapidly as possible the reserve force
will be traiued to carry on this work, and nursery stations will be
multiplied.
The real progress made toward reserve planting appears not in the
number of trees set out or the present capacity of the stations, but in
the fact that practical methods of doing the work at reasonable cost
have been found. In spite of the high cost of labor in this country,
an acre of land can now under ordinary conditions be planted to forest
by the Service almost as cheaply as the same work is done in Ger-
man.}-. The whole problem of successful forest planting under the
conditions of aridity, elevation, lack of transportation facilities, and
scarcity of labor, combined with the lack of an}- experience which
could guide to right action, was one of extreme difficulty. Though
much yet remains to be done before a perfected system of planting-
will have been secured, the work now done amounts to a demon-
stration that success is within reach. This in itself is no small
achievement.
COOPERATIVE PLANTING.
The Forest Service cooperate^ with private owners to secure forest
extension by preparing planting plans for them. Two years ago the
average size of the planting plans made was 68 acres. Last year it
was 310 acres. This is significant of changing conditions. Increas-
ingly as the necessity of provision for the future needs becomes plain,
large owners are seeking the cooperation of the Service. A number
of railroads have begun to plan for tie production from planted tim-
ber: coal companies are preparing to utilize waste land, and cities are
seeking to improve their watersheds and at the same time derive a
revenue from the land held for watershed protection.
Examinations were made of over 300.000 acres on which the owners
wish to consider planting, and detailed planting plans were made for
over 10,000 acres in li' States.
Cooperation with other Departments, by the preparation of planting
plans, included the War Department, the Bureau of Fisheries of the
Department of Commerce and Labor, and the Reclamation Service of
the Department of the Interior.
68 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DENDROLOGY.
The investigation of turpentining methods was pushed along lines
which promise important economic results by diminishing the wound
inflicted on the tree and greatly prolonging the period during which a
tract may be worked. A chemical study of the turpentine from differ-
ent specie^ of pines (conducted in cooperation with the University of
North Carolina) is under way to learn which specie- furnish the most
valuable yield.
Studies of forest distribution and resources were continued. The
experimental basket-willow holts demonstrated the success of the cul-
tural methods advocated by the Service by producing a crop of rods of
the finest quality. Analyses of willow barks established their value
for use in tanning. By the identification of many samples of woods
valuable information was furnished wood user-.
FOREST PRODUCTS.
An important means of reducing the drain upon our forests is the
treatment of wood by seasoning, by the use of chemicals, or by both
combined, to make it last longer. Careful experiments are under way
to determine the most effective and economical methods of treating
railroad ties, telephone and telegraph poles and cross arms, and fence
posts. Material cut at different times of the year, seasoned at differ-
ent times of the year, and by different methods, and treated by differ-
ent processes is being tested in service to find out how it can be made
most durable.
Wood distillation to utilize the waste product of lumbering, and the
lability of untried woods for making paper pulp, were made the
subjects of s] studies.
Over 12, 0 tests of the strength of timber were made. The woods
tested include loblolly pine, red fir, western hemlock. Norway pine,
tamarack, white and red oak. and eucalyptus. By these tests, which
show the suitability of the various kinds of wood for different uses,
bo;h timber-land owners and those who employ wood in building and
manufacturing have received great benefit. New woods have been
brought into use and economy in the use of material has been pro-
moted. The present facilities for this work are inadequate, and it is
important that a special laboratory be provided at Washington.
By statistical study of the production and consumption of lumber
in various forms and compilation of the various grading rules now in
information greatly desired by the lumber trade but never before
obtainable was gathered, better conditions were promoted, and light
was thrown on the highly important question of the probable duration
of the country's lumber supply. Special studies of the manufacture
of cooperage stock, of vehicle^ and implement-, and of boxes, and of
certain kiln-drying method-, gave results of decided value both to the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69
manufacturers and to timber-land owners. Wood as a paving mate-
rial was also studied, and experiments were started to discover the best
kinds of wood to use and how they should be treated and laid.
BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.
The activities of the Bureau of Chemistry during- the year included
a great variety of investigations.
EXAMINATION OF BUTTER, MILK, AND CREAM.
More than 800 samples of butter were investigated, to see if they
complied with the requirements of the law relating to renovated
butter. A study of the effects of cold storage upon the chemical com-
position of milk and cream was inaugurated, to determine the length
of time during which such products can be safely kept in cold storage.
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS.
The effect of environment upon the content of sugar in Indian sweet
corn was studied. The almost universal use of sweet corn for food
throughout the country renders such an investigation of peculiar inter-
est to consumers as well as to producers. A single variety of seed was
planted in different localities from South Carolina to Maine, and the
quantity of sugar in the product was carefully determined. At the
same time meteorological data were secured which are utilized in
determining the effect of environment in all of its factors upon the
composition of the product. It was found that within twenty-four
hours after harvest, if exposed to ordinary temperatures, a very con-
siderable percentage of the sugar has disappeared from the grains of
the corn. This fact has led to the observation that it is necessary to
market the product as soon as possible after harvest, and meanwhile
to keep it at as low a temperature as can be secured.
Studies looking to the improvement of the different varieties of
Indian corn, by selection based upon analytical data, were under-
taken. These studies are a continuation of those conducted the pre-
ceding year upon the effect of environment on the chemical composi-
tion of the sugar beet. In all, over 3, GOO analyses were made of cere-
als in the prosecution of the above investigations. These investiga-
tions also include the effect of environment upon the chemical compo-
sition of barley as related to the brewing industries.
STUDY OF DENATURED ALCOHOL.
An important investigation was also begun upon the economic pro-
duction of alcohol from various raw materials in relation to the pro-
duction of denatured alcohol for industrial purposes. The object of
this investigation was to discover the value of various waste materials
70 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of factories — wood, molasses, sweet potatoes, cornstalks, etc. — in the
production of alcohol for denaturing. This work is likely to prove
of great value to our farmers in developing new sources of income
from the production of denatured alcohol for industrial purposes.
TESTING OF SUPPLIES FURNISHED UNDER CONTRACT.
In the Contracts Laboratory, the object of which is the examination
of materials furnished to the different Departments of the Govern-
ment under contract, 69 samples were examined for the War Depart-
ment, 19 for the Navy Department, 65 for the Department of the
Interior, 36 for the Treasury, 73 for the Post-Office, 1 for the Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor, 73 for the Government Printing Office,
and 59 for the Department of Agriculture. These examinations were
of the most rigid character, and the result of the work has been to
secure a much higher quality of material than was formerly supplied
under the contract system.
EXAMINATION OF DRUGS.
The examination of drugs has been particularly fruitful during the
year. Five hundred and fifty-three samples were examined for purity
and quality. A large part of the work of the Drug Laboratory has
been in connection with the Post-Office Department for the purpose of
suppressing traffic in fraudulent preparations transmitted through the
mails. As the result of these investigations a large number of fraud
orders have been issued forbidding the use of the mails for such pur-
poses. Other important investigations were undertaken in the testing
of chemical reagents, of oils and essences, and of plant drugs.
ANALYSIS OF WATERS. INSECTICIDES, AND CATTLE FOODS.
The examination of waters used as beverages has been continued,
and also the analysis of waters used for irrigation. Thirty-nine sam-
ples of insecticides were investigated during the year. Studies were
made also of the lime-sulphur-salt wash and allied mixtures. One
hundred and fifty-four samples of cattle food were analyzed to deter-
mine the quality of the cattle foods sold upon the markets. Studies
were also made of the injurious effects of fumes from smelters upon
vegetation, and testimony was given in the courts relating thereto. It
is evident that the sulphurous acid fumes produced in most smelters
are of a character to injure vegetation and also animal health in a
region very widely extended about the factory. It appears probable
that in the near future smelters will be required to convert the sul-
phurous acid into sulphuric acid or some other substance which will
not cause the injuries above mentioned.
REPORT OP THE SECRETARY. 71
STUDY OF TANNING MATERIALS, PArER, AND TURPENTINE.
The study of tanning- materials was continued, especiall}T of the
Sicilian sumacs. The effects of different tanning materials upon the
character, qualit}*, and durability of leather were investigated. Inves-
tigations of great importance, not only to the various Departments of
the Government but to the people in general, are those relating to the
character of paper used for public records. Investigations have been
continued respecting the composition of turpentine distilled from wood
and its relations to the ordinary turpentine.
FOOD INSPECTION.
The food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, imposes upon the Depart-
ment additional duties of a most important character. The two chief
purposes kept in view by this act throughout all its sections are, first,
to prevent the introduction of any injurious or debasing substance into
foods or drugs, and, second, to secure the correct labeling of all food
and drug products. This act applies to all interstate and foreign
commerce in all foods and drugs, and also to all imported meat food
products. The proper enforcement of this act must prove of immense
benefit to all the people of this country in securing freedom from adul-
teration and fraud. Regulations providing for the administration of
the law have been carefully prepared, and 30.000 copies have been
distributed throughout the country.
The inspection of imported foods at the ports of entry has been
extended, especially at New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The
earthquake and fire at San Francisco in April unfortunately destroyed
our laboratory at that port. It is hoped that this enforced suspension,
however, will not be of long duration.
Five thousand seven hundred and forty-nine samples of imported
food products were examined during the fiscal year. Of the 1.246
samples which were found not to comply with the law, 531 were
released without prejudice because it was evident that no intent
to defraud or deceive the people of the country existed; 577 were
admitted after being relabeled so as to comply with the provisions of
the law; 138 invoices were required to be reshipped beyond the juris-
diction of the United States. In addition to the above number of
samples, 8,735 inspections were made upon the floors of the appraisers
stores.
The effect of the food-inspection law on foreign commerce has been
most salutary. In many cases kinds of food products which were
formerly very generally misbranded are now found to be almost uni-
versally free of suspicion. There has been a very decided improve-
ment in the qualit}r of imported food products, due to inspection.
, '2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
food STrr:
The Division of Foods has also conducted special investigations into
at of domestic adulteration of food products and an investiga-
tion of tropical and subtropical fruits, as well as of fruits of domestic
| i taction.
A very extensive investigation made to determine the character of
distilled liquors, both those imported into the United States and those
of domestic manufacture, has been practically completed.
The study ot the effects of colors, preservatives, and other sub-
stance- added to foods has been continued during the year, and most
valuable data relating thereto are now being prepared for publication.
This investigation is particularly valuable because the experiments
are made upon human be'
MICROSCOPIC WORK.
T^e microscope has become one of the most valuable adjuncts in the
lination of food products and materials used for technic-al pur-
- -. Micro-chemical investigations have been largely made in the
work of the Bureau of Chemistry and have extended not only to
foods but also to leathers, papers, tanning materials, and bacteriolog-
ical examinations. The total number of samples examined during the
year was I. The bacterio-chemical work has been of extreme
importance. Thi^ is especially true in connection with the work
authorized by Congress on the effects of cold storage upon wholesome-
ness of food products. Particularly in investigating the relative
merits of drawn and undrawn fowls when placed in cold storage, the
bacterio-chemioal examination is of vital importance. Studies have
fore been made to determine whether the bacteria of the intesti-
nal tract migrate to the fle>h of the fowl during the period of cold
-torage. and. if so. what chemical changes are produced thereby.
The bacterio-chemical investigations have extended to a large number
of other Eurticularly to the chemical changes which take
place in milk, cream, and evaporated and condensed milks, and to the
g teral changes of a bacterial character which foods undergo on
keeping.
BUREAU OF SOILS.
Underlying all attempts to improve the general agricultural welfare
of the country lies the necessity for a correct knowledge of the char-
acter and variety of its - -. ^uch knowledge is fundamental, and
without it no grc - can be made in securing further diver-iri-
ps,tbe introduction of new crops, or the more economical
production of the great staples now known.
EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 73
THE SOIL SURVEY.
Since 1899 the Bureau of Soils has been conducting an investigation
of the soils of the United States which will ultimately result in a
thorough familiarity with the vast, varied, and but partially appre-
ciated soil resources of the country. The purpose of this work is
to ascertain the variety and extent of the chief characteristic soils of
the country, to determine the crop or crops which can be raised to the
best advantage upon each of these soils, and to discover what pecul-
iarities of soil management are best suited to secure the maximum
results on each soil in different and widely separated localities.
EXTENT OF THE SURVEYS.
During the fiscal year 1900 soil surveys covering 19,311 square
miles, or 12,370,210 acres, were made in 29 States and 2 Territories.
In all, to June 30, 1906, 251 different surveys have been made in 13
States and 1 Territories, covering a total area of 118,687 square miles,
or 75,959,680 acres. These surveys have covered not only a wide
range of soil and climatic conditions, but also the typical soils upon
which the chief staple crops as well as many new and special crops are
being produced.
THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED.
The work of the soil survey in 1906 and in preceding years, while
dealing chiefly with the characteristic soils upon which the staple
crops — corn, wheat, cotton, grass, etc.- — are produced in different sec-
tions and under different conditions of soil and climate, has also
encountered rnamx specific problems of wide interest and application.
The opening of large areas for agricultural occupation has necessitated
in several States a stud}T of the existing soil t}Tpes in order that the
appropriate crops for production upon each might be determined.
The widespread interest in the agricultural capabilities of undrained
lands in many sections has led to demands for surveys which shall
determine the character of crops to which such soils may be farmed
after reclamation. The breaking up of large dry-farmed ranches for
more intensive forms of agriculture under irrigation has also neces-
sitated surveys which could be used as a basal guide in crop selection.
The extension of crops like tobacco and alfalfa into entirely new areas
whose soil adaptations were formerly unknown has been made possible
by the soil surveys. The introduction of new crops has been accom-
plished along the lines suggested by the surveys. One of the chief
purposes and uses of the surve}Ts has been to aid individual farmers
in the selection of land suited to general or special crops in regions
unknown or but partly known.
74 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TITE SOIL RESOURCES OF THE COUNTRY.
In the work of the soil survey, since its inception in 1899, 461 dis-
tinct types of soils have been encountered. Some of these types
are of great extent, covering areas measured by thousands of square
miles. Still others are of local extent and distribution. Some arc
distributed over a considerable range of climatic environment. Others
are so restricted that they may be said to lie in a single climatic belt.
The great striking fact, however, is that with such a great variety of
individual soils onl\* about a dozen important crops are now produced
in the entire country. Again, the same crop is produced with the
greatest diversity of success or failure upon a great variety of soils, to
some of which the crop is well suited while upon others it is annually
produced at a loss. Before the farmers of all sections of the United
States can reduce agriculture to a basis of permanent business success
the knowledge of these facts must be thoroughly disseminated and
fully understood.
It has been found that in addition to the broad subdivision of the
country into a humid region, an arid region, and a rather indefinite
semiarid region, there are at least thirteen grand divisions among the
soils which may be termed soil provinces. The soils of the Atlantic
and Gulf Coastal Plains differ materially from those of the Piedmont
Plateau. The soils of the glaciated region of the Northern States are
materially different from those of the limestone valleys, and from the
alluvial bottom lands or the residual prairies of the Western States.
Still greater differences exist between the soils of the Pacific coast
valleys or the Great Interior Basin and those of the Eastern State
provinces. All of these differences have their deep significance in the
selection of crops and in the management of the soils. Even within
single provinces there are groups of soils which differ profoundly
from all others, and these differences must be recognized and their
crop signification understood. Each series also ranges from the coars-
est sandy and gravelly types or individuals to the finest-grained clays.
No two of the numerous individual soils possess exactly the same
characteristics, and no two are, therefore, adapted in the same degree
to exactly the same crops nor to the same treatment and handling.
\\ 'hen all of these differences have been ascertained, and when the
significance of these differences comes to be understood, the country
will be able by the introduction of new crops and by greater special-
ization in crop production to increase greatly the agricultural efficiency
of every tilled acre.
DEMA2TDS FOP. THE WORK.
Each }Tear brings an increasing number of requests for survey work
in particular localities to serve a great diversity of interests. The
development of new lands in the United States has not ceased and the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75
need for specific and unprejudiced information concerning soils in
newly developed regions has become widely recognized. The exten-
sion of tobacco culture through certain portions of the Gulf States has
led to numerous requests for surveys to locate areas of soil where
the Cuban t}Tpe of tiller tobacco may be grown successfully. Only a
few soils are suited to the production of this leaf, and unless such soils
are found in an area the attempt to introduce the crop must result in
failure. The growth of the fruit interests in all sections of the coun-
try has led to widespread demands for surveys to determine what soils
are peculiarly adapted to the growing of apples, pears, peaches, grapes,
or citrus fruits, the location of these soils, and their extent. The
depression of farm values in some sections has called attention to the
possibility of rehabilitating these farms and soils through the introduc-
tion of new crops and of new methods, and surveys are requested to
furnish guidance along these lines. New areas for the production of
market-garden and truck crops are being developed along the Atlantic
and Gulf coast lines, and surveys have been requested for many of
these areas. The northward spread of the culture of rice upon prairie
lands has given rise to requests for surveys to indicate soils and regions
where this crop might be introduced.
As a result the Bureau of Soils has always on file requests for several
times as many surveys as can be made during any one year, and the
completion of each year's work is accompanied by an increased rather
than a diminished volume of requests. While such a condition is
gratifying from the standpoint of public appreciation of the value of
the work, it is embarrassing and unsatisfactory because of the neces-
sity for selecting among so many requests of almost equal urgency
those areas which may be undertaken each year. The public demand
for the making of these surveys and the constant application for sur-
vey reports, not only for areas which have been surveyed, but also for
those which have not yet been undertaken, both evince the necessity
for a considerable increase in the volume of soil-survey work in the
immediate future.
RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS.
The progress of the work on the several alkali reclamation tracts dur-
ing the fiscal year just closed has been gratifying, both as regards the
immediate success of the experiments and as regards the stimulating
effect that these results have had upon private initiative in the work
of reclaiming similarly affected neighboring lands.
PROGRESS ON THE UTAH TRACT.
On the Swan tract, near Salt Lake City, Utah, the work consisted
largely of experiments with various crops, as the removal of alkali
had practically been accomplished by repeated flooding in 1903 and
76 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTMKBTT OF AGRICULTURE.
1904. The thrifty growth of alfalfa and of other crop-, not perhaps
as sensitive to alkali, clearly demonstrates the great changes that have
taken place in the soil since it has been treated. Formerly this field
presented a desolate appearance, with large areas heavily incrusted
with alkali. The success of this experiment can not but be far-reach-
ing in its influence upon the alkali question in the Salt Lake Valley.
COMPLETION OF WORK AT FEE-
Our earlier work on the Toft-Hansen tract, near Fresno. Cal.. had
freed the upper layers of soil from alkali, and very satisfactory crops
had been grown: however, while the alkali question had been solved,
a constant source of danger was the high ground water, which rises
very rapidly in this district after water is turned into the canals each
spring. The original drainage system was not very deep, and the
question of keeping the drains free from sand and silt proved serious.
In order further to experiment with the lowering of the ground water,
it was thought advisable to install a new drainage system. This was
completed in November. 1905. The entire drainage system was low-
ered from 1^ to 2i feet, and the ground water is now kept at a safe
depth, not only under the land drained, but under adjoining farms to
the extent of 200 acres.
The success of this work has proved of great value to the farmers
of the alkali and seepage-infested district about Fresno, and many have
signified their intention of undertaking work similar to that carried
on by the Bureau of Soils. At the close of the irrigation season of
1906, the Bureau's work in the Fresno district will close, as the owners
of the land are well pleased with the reclaimed condition of the soil
and the success of the newly installed drainage system.
CONTIKUATION OF THE WORK AT YAKIMA. WASH.
In Washington, in the Yakima Valley, the results have not been
quite as satisfactory as was hoped when the work was commenced.
"While parts of the Gervais tract, near North Yakima, have been
thoroughly reclaimed and produced in 1905 a heavy crop of hay. valued
at $160, other parts of the tract have not yielded to treatment so
readily. That some parts of the tract still contain appreciable quan-
tities of black alkali is evident from the crop returns, from repeated
chemical tests, and from the characteristic dark stains in the soil. It
mewhat difficult to explain the retention of alkali by the soils of
the Yakima Valley. It is well known that hardpan retards the move-
ment of alkali, and it seems probable also that the volcanic a.-h soils of
this valley may have a high absorptive capacity, enabling them still to
retain injurious quantities of black alkali in spite of repeated flooding.
Good lands in this region produce such profitable crops that the exact
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 77
treatment for the alkali lands should be ascertained if possible, even
though the total cost of reclamation be great as compared with other
districts.
EAPID COMPLETION* OF THE RECLAMATION WORK IN ARIZONA.
The record of the Cummings tract, near Tempe, in the Salt River
Valley, Arizona, is excellent. The drainage system was installed
early in 1904, but no water was available for leaching out the alkali
until many months later. When the water supply became more
abundant the removal of the alkali was comparatively simple. At
the present time 1-H acres support a fine stand of alfalfa, planted in
November, 1905, while the remainder has produced a heavy crop of
barley. The owner of the land is full}' satisfied with the showing of
the crops and only awaits the seeding of the small tract to alfalfa before
accepting the land according to the contract originally agreed upon.
As the water supply of the valley is still further increased by the
extensive operations of the United States Reclamation Service in
constructing storage reservoirs, the subject of eliminating alkali and
controlling the ground water will become more important, and the
Bureau is very fortunate in having undertaken and completed this
work at such an opportune time.
RESULTS IN MONTANA.
The showing of the O'Donnell tract in the Yellowstone Valley,
Montana, is fully as good, if not better, than the one just mentioned.
The drainage system was installed during 1901, but too late to allow
any flooding. During 1905 the land was continuously flooded for sev-
eral months. From the outset the drainage system worked perfectly
and large quantities of alkali were removed by the drainage water.
Tests made in June, 1900, showed that the alkali content to a depth of
1 feet had decreased to approximately 0.2 per cent over the entire
tract. In 1901 the soil contained more than 1 per cent to a depth of
4 feet, largely concentrated in the first and second feet. The compar-
ison shows the extent to which the alkali had been removed by a sin-
gle year's flooding. Early this year the soil was put in order and
seeded to oats. This crop produced a yield that compared favorably
with the most productive lands in the valley.
Since it has been shown that alkali can be removed from the soils in
the Billings district the outlook is most promising. One of the worst
alkali and seepage areas has been included in a drainage district, and
a deep outlet ditch now constructed will serve to carry the surplus
water from smaller, more detailed drainage systems in individual fields.
Smaller local drainage systems are also being formed by private
enterprise.
78 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGLICULTUEE.
NEED BOB CONTINUING THE DEMONSTRATIONS.
In carrying on the work in reclaiming alkali soils we have had many
different conditions to meet and local difficulties to overcome. At
each tract the character of the soil differed from that of the other
ts, and at no two places are the alkali conditions nor the details of
attacking the problem the same. This makes plain the wisdom of
nding the work to other affected districts in order that full and
exact plans may be placed in the hands of the farmers suffering this
common evil of the arid YCest.
Already urgent requests for the extension of this work are on file in
the Department, and in view of its great economic importance it is the
intention to follow the completion of the present demonstrations with
the reclamation of small tract- in some other of the worst affected
ions. There is no one soil problem more important to a large
number of our western farmers than this, and none, happily, that is
capable of such quick solution or that involves so great and so certain
immediate increase in their wealth.
TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS.
During the fiscal year just closed the Bureau of Soils has continued
its investigations for the improvement of tobacco in Texas. Alabama,
Ohio, Virginia, and Connecticut.
EXPERIMENTS IN TEXA>.
The tobacco grown in Texas during the preceding year was distrib-
uted to the trade for the purpose of ascertaining its commercial value.
In all 300 samples were sent out. and from the numerous replies
received it can be positively stated that the tobacco produced in Texas
meets the requirements of the trade as a high-class domestic tiller.
About 200 acres are now being grown on the Orangeburg soils in
Nacogdoches. Anderson. Houston, and Montgomery counties in east
hile in central Texas, in Lavaca and Lee counties, experi-
ments were conducted on similar soils. The industry is now assum-
ing a conun itus. as a ready market has been created for the
leaf. Great interest has been shown by the trade, by railroads, and
by local interests in east Texas as a tobacco-producing region, and,
with the promising beginning made in the counties mentioned, there
is every reason to believe that this section of the State will soon be
recognized as an important factor in our tobacco industry.
-I'ECTS IX ALABAMA.
The investigations for the production of filler leaf in Alabama have
this past year been extended into Dallas County, in the southern part
of which the Orangeburg soils appear. In Perry County the acreage
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79
increased over 100 per cent. A ready market has been found for the
product, and this has proved a stimulus to the growers. The tobacco
produced is similar in quality to the Texas and Florida leaf, and the
cost of production is a little less.
FERMENTATION AND SELECTION IN OHIO.
In Ohio the work of introducing' the bulk method of fermentation
has been continued, and over 25,000,000 pounds of tobacco have been
fermented according to the method prescribed by the Bureau of Soils.
It has taken a period of live years to accomplish these results, and the
system is now so well established in Ohio that the packers should be
able to proceed without further supervision by our experts. Besides
the fermentation work, the work of introducing Cuban seed filler in
Ohio has been continued, 25 acres having been planted by the farmers
under the direction of the Bureau. This was contracted for with local
packers at prices ranging from 18 to 20 cents a pound.
In Ohio, also, cooperative experiments have been conducted with
the Bureau of Plant Industry in the selecting and breeding of improved
types of tobacco, with a view to securing types of leaf giving a larger
yield and having a uniform quality. Selections were made of Zimmer
Spanish, Little Dutch, Ohio Seedleaf, and Ohio Cuban. It is believed
that by this method of selection of seed native varieties of Ohio
tobacco may be greatly improved, since where so man}7 varieties are
grown, as in the Miami Valley of Ohio, there is great danger of their
becoming mixed.
EXPORT TOBACCO IN VIRGINIA.
The experiments begun in Virginia in 1901 with heavy fire-cured
tobacco have been continued during the past fiscal year. In the first
year of this work it was demonstrated that by the use of carefully
selected fertilizers the profits in growing this type of leaf could be
increased considerably as compared with those obtained by the Virginia
farmer. During the past year the same treatment of the same land
was followed, and, between the two crops of tobacco, rye was sown
as a cover crop and plowed under in the spring of the year. The
results obtained show the accumulative effects of the fertilizer and
cultural methods used. The land was divided into 3-acre plats. On
one the fertilizer practice common to the locality was followed, on the
second a slightly bettor brand was applied, and on the third a still
more expensive application was made.
The cost of production of the three plats was respectively ^44.50,
$63.60, and $85.49, which shows a net profit of $15.63 on plat 1,
$37.01 on plat 2, and $10.10 on plat 3. It is interesting to note that
the same plats of ground receiving the same treatment in 1904 netted
profits of $5, $21, and $2-1, respectively, showing gains in 1905 over
80 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGETCCLTULE.
19*4 of $10.63, $16.01, and $16.10, respectively. These results are
highly significant as indicating what may be clone in this important
tobacco district by the use of such methods as are practiced, for instai
by the Connecticut Broadleaf growers.
BEGINNING OF EXPERIMENTS WITH VIRGINIA BRIGHT TOB.V.
Investigations for the improvement of the Bright tobacco of Vir-
ginia were also begun during the past h-cal year (ended Jure
1906), in cooperation with the Virginia Experiment Station, the
experimental held being situated near Chatham, in Pittsylvania County,
the center of the Bright tobacco belt of Virginia, and within 90 miles
of Danville, tbe largest market for this class of tobacco. The experi-
ment is still in progress, and it will be impossible to report definite
results until next year.
CONNECTICUT SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO.
In the Connecticut Valley the work of producing, under shade, a
wrapper leaf having all the qualities demanded by the trade fa -
continued in connection with the breeding experiments of the Bureau
of Plant Industry. Eleven selections were taken in a 4-acre tent, seven
from Sumatra seed and four from Cuban seed of the third generation
in Connecticut. The yield of Sumatra ranged from 1.445 to 1,619
pounds per acre, and of Cuban from 1,134 to 1,384 pounds per acre.
Out of these eleven types there have been selected two types of Sam
and one of Cuban seed that appear to meet the demands of the trade.
Besides the area in the experimental tent of the Department, there
were grown by private planters during the year about 120 acres under
cloth shade, both Cuban seed and Connecticut Broadleaf being planted.
This is a slight increase over the acreage planted the pre
and indicates that the trade is becoming interested in the shade product.
One firm growing Broadleaf sold the tobacco for $1,061 an a re. giving
a profit of about $300 an acre. The Cuban tobacco was sold for $1,2
an acre. During the summer of 19u6 the crop grown by the De partment
from selected seed of both the Cuban and Sumatra variet
tributed to thirty-three of the largest leaf dealers and cigar manul
turers in the principal cities of the East. These were sent out with a
request that they test the leaf and report to the Department their
opinion of its quality and its adaptability for manufacturing purp
Up to the time of closing this report answers have been received from
twenty-live of those to whom samples were sent, and with one excep-
tion they report that the tobacco has all the qualities demanded by the
trade in a domestic cigar wrapper, and if tobacco similar to the samples
can be grown on a commercial scale they do not he
that a ready market can be found for it.
There can be no question that tobacco of this quality can be produced
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. §1
on a commercial scale by careful growers if the methods used and
recommended by the Bureau of Soils are followed. Notwithstanding
the uniformly favorable reports received from the trade on the merits
of this tobacco, the Bureau, however, would caution the prospective
grower against embarking in the industry on too large a scale at the
outset.
PREVENTION* OF POLE SWEAT.
Owing to the serious damage caused annually in Connecticut by pole
sweat or house burn, the Bureau of Soils conducted some preliminary
investigations in curing sheds containing both the cut and primed
tobacco. A detailed record of the moisture and temperature condi-
tions in each shed was kept, as also of the condition of the tobacco,
with a view to determining the point of relative humidity and tem-
perature of atmosphere at which tobacco would begin to pole sweat
and the means to prevent the atmosphere of the shed becoming such
as to favor its spread. This study will lie closely followed, as it is
believed that results can be obtained which will be of great value to-
the Connecticut growers.
Urgent demands have been made upon the Department to extend its-
operations into Florida, Maryland, Wisconsin, and Tennessee, but
owing to the limited appropriation for this work it has so far been
impossible to comply with these requests.
BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY.
Practically all of the investigations under way in the Bureau of
Entomology at the time of my last report have been continued with
excellent results, and several new and important lines of work have
been begun.
THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.
Encouraging progress has been made in the work against the Mex-
ican cotton boll weevil, as shown by an extensive canvass of the cotton
planters who have followed the recommendations of the Bureau.
Owing to climatic conditions in the summer and fall of 1904 and in
the winter of 1904-5, some of the area that became infested late in the
summer of 1901 was entirely devoid of weevils in the early part of
1905, but the fall movements of the weevil in 1905 more than covered
this area. This permitted studies for which there had been previously
little opportunity, and many points which had a bearing upon the
possibility of the continued advance of the pest were investigated.
EXPERIMENTAL FARMS.
The continuation of the experimental farms at fourteen places in
Texas has been deemed desirable, as the value of experimental field
work depends largely upon the number of seasons through which it has
3 A1906 6
82 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
been carried. Two additional experimental farms bare been carried
on in Louisiana. The whole acreage placed under contract in these
experiments is 877.
The modifications in the cultural system of lessening damage, made
necessary by the change in habits of the insect, were carefully studied
in connection with the work carried on in the laboratory.
OTHER FIELD WORK.
In addition to experimental plats on a large scale numerous field
experiments were conducted, including an extensive experiment in
the hand picking of infested bolls and considerable other work
directed to the solution of questions which can not be tested with the
fullest practical effect in the laboratory.
The continued spread' of the weevil has been carefully watched, and
publications regarding the new territory infested have been issued in
cooperation with the "Weather Bureau. Careful study has been made
of the conditions in western Texas in order to determine whether the
weevil is likely to spread to that part of the State in spite of the gen-
eral idea that such spread will not take place
LABORATORY WORE.
In the well-fitted laboratory now located at Dallas, Tex., the effects
of different temperatures and the condition of food supply upon the
development of the weevil were tested, the breeding of parasites was
continued, and a special study was made of a native ant which seems
to be becoming more and more an important factor in the natural con-
trol of the weevil. Investigations of the distribution of this ant, its
adaptability to different soil conditions, and the possibility of its arti-
ficial propagation have also been made.
TRUE PARASITES OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.
Since the weevil entered Texas native parasites have had little effect
upon it until recently. During the year, however, it was found that in
the Brownsville region — first entered by the weevil about 1893 — native
parasites have accommodated themselves to its habits, and now at least
50 per cent of the early stages are sometimes destroyed by these
parasites. Consequently much attention is being paid to the parasite
question, in order to determine whether it will be possible to assist the
work of these beneficial insects. It seems probable that the small
results gained from the work of parasites down to the present time
are largely due to the recent invasion of the cotton fields of the South
by the injurious insect.
COOPERATION WITH THE LOUISIANA CHOP REST COMMISSION.
Cooperation with the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission, begun in
l!»04, was continued during the year, three assistants being employed
by the Bureau for work in Louisiana. During the season of 1905 it
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. S3
was planned to enter upon an extensive study of the so-called migra-
tory movement of the boll weevil in order to learn, if possible, some
method of checking- its further advances, or at least to learn more
definitely the approximate time when other regions may become
infested. On account, however, of the occurrence of yellow fever
and the consequent rigid quarantine, it was impossible to carry on
this work in full, but a number of important observations were made.
In cooperation with the commission more than 25,008 weevils were
carefully studied under natural conditions during the winter.
THE COTTON BOLL WORM.
The work on the cotton bollworm during the fiscal year was largely
in the character of demonstrations, indicating the value of conclusions
already reached and detailed in the last annual report of the Ento-
mologist, aud successful efforts were made locally in the extermination
of the bollworm by means of poisons.
OTHER COTTON INSECTS.
The work on other cotton insects has been done largely in cooperation
witli the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. A field agent of the
Bureau was stationed at the Texas Agricultural College, devoting his
attention to the other insects affecting the cotton plant. The important
discovery has been made that it is possible to propagate the predaceous
enemies of the cotton plant-louse, an insect which sometimes causes great
damage to young cotton. It is believed that this work will lead to a
practical method of controlling the pest.
INTRODUCTION OF BENEFICIAL IXSECTS.
The most important work in connection with the introduction of
beneficial insects has been the importing from Europe of the para-
sites and predaceous enemies of the gips}T and brown-tail moths, in
cooperation with the officials of the State of Massachusetts.
PARASITES OF THE GIPSY MOTH AND BROWX-TAIL MOTH.
It has been shown that it is an easy matter to bring the European
parasites of these injurious insects to this country, simply by collect-
ing numbers of the larvae and chiysalides in different parts of Europe
and sending them direct to Boston. A certain percentage of these
insects on arrival in New England have given out the European para-
sites, which have either been cultivated in wire-gauze inclosures, with
plenty of food, or have been liberated in the open, there being chosen
for this purpose patches of woods not subject to forest fires or to
remedial work against the insects. It has been ascertained further —
and this is a fact hitherto unknown even to European entomologists —
that the young larvae of the brown-tail moth in their overwintering
S4 YEAEBOOK OF THE BEPAETMENT OF AGEICULTUEE.
- in Europe are extensively parasitized. Therefore, during the
winter of 1905-6 over 117.000 nests of the brown-tail moth were col-
lected in 33 different localities in Europe, ranging between North Ger-
many. South Hungary, and West Brittany, and comprising a large
range of varying elevations and climatic conditions. More than ft), I
parasites were reared from the - n --on American soil. About 8 per
- . were hyperparasites; that is. parasites upon parasites.
By means of specially constructed cages the hyperparasites were
separated and desti The primary parasites were placed in out-
of-door cages or liberated in the open. The largest colonies included
1 . ,15, 0, and 25,000 parasites, respectively. Owing to the very
wet season a fungous disease prevailed among the caterpillars, vitiat-
ing to some extent the results of the experiments, but nevertheless
thiv : parasites were seen to lay their eggs in American-
born caterpillars, and there is positive proof of the development on
American soil of at least one complete generation of two of the Euro-
pean species. It has been shown that they may breed successfully
through the season.
:>f the brown-tail moth have'also been imported dur-
ing the summer, and have been seen to lay their eggs in the egg- of
N rth American injurious insects. Two important European preda-
ground beetles have been successfully imported, and have bred
through an entire generation upon American soil. Large numbers of
ina flies have been reared from European specimens of the larvae
of both the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth, and are breeding in
vicinity of Boston.
The greatest care ha- been taken to prevent the introduction of
hyperparasites and other injurious insects, and there seems every
reason to suppose that sooner or later the complete natural environ-
ment of both the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth will be estab-
lished in New England, placing them on a par with European condi-
tions, thus greatly reducing their present importance.
BW LADYBIRDS FEOM EUROPE.
During the late winter months and spring of 1906 several species of
European ladybirds, well known as destroyers of plant lice, scale
-. and soft-bodied insects of other groups, have been imported
from Germany. France, and Austria. All of these have been liber-
ated in the vicinity of the parasite laboratory at North Saugus, Muss,
the country about being orchards and forests, with an occasional
table garden, promising plenty of food for the beneficial species.
THE KELEP OR GUATEMALAN ANT.
rts i - wfi illy overwinter in Texas the kelep or Guatemalan
ant enemy of the cotton boll weevil have failed and a possible useful
role for this i :t in Texas is seemingly very slight. It is possible
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85
that this species may have some economic value in some of our tropical
or subtropical possessions, where the climate will be more suitable
than in Texas.
THE SENDING OF USEFUL INSECTS ABROAD.
It is possible, in many iustances, to secure the sending of beneficial
insects by the official entomologists of other countries without expense
to the Department, as was done notably in the case of the introduc-
tion of an important enemy of the black scale from the government
of Cape Colony. South Africa. In return for such services and as an
earnest for possible future courtesy of the same sort exportation* of
parasitic and predatory insects have been made, under the auspices of
the Bureau of Entomology, to foreign countries. A notable instance
has taken place during the fiscal year. A scale insect which occurs
abundantly upon various fruit trees in portions of the United States is
a serious enemy to the mulberry tree in Italy, and therefore large
sendiugs of parasitized scales of this species have been shipped to
Professor Berlese. Director of the Royal Station for Agriculture and
Entomology, at Florence. After arrival two species of parasites were
bred in some numbers, and efforts are now being made to colonize
them in Lombardy. It is hoped that they will prove effective aids in
the eradication of the mulberry scale.
INSECTS DAMAGING FORESTS.
Investigations of insects damaging forests have progressed in a
satisfactory manner in cooperation with the Forest Service of the
Department. Numerous problems have been studied and a large
store of general information upon forest insects has been accumulated.
Field work has been conducted from stations in West Virginia,
North Carolina, South Dakota, Idaho. Washington, and California,
the locations of the stations being determined by the advantages
offered at the points selected for the study of some special problem or
problems.
A special investigation was carried on in regard to the Black Hills
beetle, which has extensively ravaged the forests in Colorado, and the
results prove to be in the highest degree satisfactory and have been
published in Bulletin 56 of the Bureau. The recommendations are
now being actively followed by private persons with excellent chances
of checking what might otherwise prove a most serious invasion.
The conditions in the Black Hills are not so encouraging, owing,
doubtless, to the failure of the parties interested to realize the importance
of the recommendations of the Bureau. These difficulties, however,
have now been partially overcome, and all concerned seem alive to the
seriousness of the situation.
86 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Investigations in the South of the destructive pine-bark beetle and
of a number of important insects injurious to forest products have
been carried on, and studies have been made in regard to the insect
enemies of forest reproduction. Special studies and recommendations
have been made concerning the western pine-bark beetle in the region
north of Boise. Idaho, and a study of the forest insects of the Pacific
slope has been carried on.
INSECTS DAMAGING DECIDUOUS FRUIT TREES.
For the investigation of insect enemies of deciduous fruit trees
field stations at Youngstown. N, Y.. and Fort Valley. Gat., were car-
ried on to the close of the growing season of 1905. and in the spring
of 1906 others were started at Myrtle. Ga.. and North East. Pa.
Later another one was established at Nebraska City. Nebr. In the
course of this work some studie-s have been made of the parasites of
the San Jose scale, and experiments have been made with a numl>er of
insecticide mixtures. The chemical study of the lime-sulphur and
other washes has been undertaken in cooperation with the Bureau of
Chemistry. New studies have been made of the plum curculio. The
peach borer has also been studied throughout its geographic range, and
extensive demonstration work has been done in Nebraska on remedies
for the codling moth, in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry,
which at the same time was dealing with the apple scab, combination
treatments for both being carried on cooperatively. Cooperation in
this work is also under way with the several other experiment stations
and the Georgia State entomologist.
FIELD-CROP IN'SECTS.
The mo.-t important work in connection with field-crop insects has
been upon the Hessian fly and jointworms, especial investigations
having been made of the Hessian fly in the spring-wheat regions. It
was predicted that this insect would not damage wheat in regions
where the spring crop is exclusively grown. This has proved to be a
fallacy, and by reason of remarkable changes in the life history of the
insect it lias adapted itself to the conditions existing in the far north-
western country. This means a radical modification in remedial work,
and the studies have indicated that it will not be difficult to bring about
conditions of comparatively small insect damage. Important results
have also been reached in the study of parasites of the Hessiaa fly,
which will probably have a marked effect upon the multiplication of
the fly. In the same way the jointworm investigations have resulted
in the acquisition of important knowledge, both regarding possible
remedial work and the handling of parasites. Studies have also been
made of clover seed and clover insects, and also of other lield-crop
pests.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87
INSECTS AFFECTING VEGETABLE CROPS AND STORED PRODUCTS.
Work on insects affecting vegetable crops and stored products has
been continued along the same lines as conducted in previous years.
Insects affecting the sugar beet have been studied with care, and a
special investigation has been made of a leaf hopper affecting this
crop in Utah, Idaho, and Colorado. Many other insects of this group
have been under careful observation, and results of value. have been
obtained.
INSECTS WHICH CARRY DISEASE TO MAN AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The work of the Bureau on the subject of mosquitoes has been con-
tinued. A further stud}' of the yellow-fever mosquito was made in
the autumn of 1005, and experiments were made with remedies and
methods of destruction against both kume and adults. Kecords have
been brought together of the life histories and geographic distribu-
tion of the majority of the mosquitoes inhabiting North and Central
America and the "West Indies.
In the spring of 1906 a publication was issued upon the subject of
the house fly, calling attention to its agency in the spread of typhoid
fever, pointing out proper methods for its control, and urging the
adoption of these methods by individuals and communities.
It was shown by observations made by the Bureau of Entomology
upon a series of stables in two different sections of the city of Wash-
ington that it is a comparatively easy matter greatly to reduce the num-
bers of the house lly in any given community at a comparatively slight
expenditure of funds and effort.
The investigation of the life history of the Texas cattle tick, men-
tioned in the last annual report, has been continued in cooperation
with the entomologists of the States of Louisiana, Arkansas. Alabama,
Tennessee, and South Carolina. This work has considerably increased
our knowledge of the development of the tick, and in connection with
this work the life history and habits of a number of other common
ticks, frequently confused with the fever-transmitting species, have
been investigated.
SCALE INSECTS AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK WITH INSECTICIDES.
This work, in special charge of the Assistant Chief of the Bureau
of Entomology, has been continued. An immense amount of material
in this group is sent in to the Bureau for identification and advice and
the work grows in importance and value.
A thorough inspection was made of all new plants which the Depart-
ment of Agriculture is importing from different parts of the world to
detect and destroy any new insect enemies, principally scale insects,
which might be brought in with them.
^s YEAP.BOGK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGEICULTUEE.
e work with insecticides has covered tests with standard insecti-
cides, fumigation of mills, granaries, and dwelling- _ ist insect pests,
and many new insecticide ideas or mixtures, which come to the Bureau
for attention almost daily, have been examined and reported on.
Te-t- carried on upon a large scale and in a very thorough manner
with sulphurous-acid ga- have fully demonstrated its usefulness.
BEE CULTURE.
The work on bee culture has greatly increased. A large number of
3 of different varieti - sre reared and distributed from the
irtment apiary, as well as from the substation at Chico. Cal.
Investigations of the giant bees of India and the Philippines were con-
tinued through the year.
The various methods of queen rearing have been tested in rearing
queens for distribution, and studies in bee diseases and in the impor-
-ubject of honey -producing plant- have been carried on.
.-ILK CULTURE.
There has been no change in the method and scope of the work on
silk culture dining the year. The correspondence was increased; a
supply of eggs has been brought from Europe and distributed to cor-
respondents in the United States: mulberry stock has been distributed,
and cocoons have been purchased from correspondents and reeled.
OTHER INVESTIGATION.-.
Work on ins ta injurious to strawberry, raspberry, blackberry,
and other bush fruits has been continued, and studies have been made
of insects injurious to flower gardens and in greenhouses. An especial
- of the insect enemies of roses is under way. The study of
ts affecting shade and ornamental trees has also been continued,
and an investigation has been made into the habits of the gad die-.
Routine work iu the laboratory ha- greatly increased and biological
- liave been made of nearly 500 species not hitherto -tudied.
- also been noted in the work of determining specimens
for the entomologists of experiment stations and other workers. Many
thousan dmens have been received for this purpose.
BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION".
LIFE AXD CROP ZOXES.
The Biological Survey deal- with many of the problems of the farm,
orchard, and stock range, and aims to answer in a practical way many
of the questions that arise in their management. One of the most
EEPOET OF THE SECEETAEY. 89
important of these is the selection of crops and breeds of stock adapted
to the local peculiarities of temperature, moisture, and other climatic
factors that prevail, not only in different areas, but which in mountain-
ous regions often characterize different parts of the same farm. A
direct and reliable guide to such selection, apart from costly experi-
mentation, is afforded by the distribution of the native plants and
animals, for it has been learned that animals and plants are not scat-
tered haphazard over the land, but in their distribution are governed
by fixed laws. Thus the association, on a given area of certain birds,
mammals, trees, and shrubs, presupposes the existence there of certain
climatic and physical conditions.
It naturally follows that there is a direct relation between the plant
and animal life of such an area and the nature of the crops that can
be grown upon it. The purpose of a biological survey of the several
States is to supply life-zone maps based upon a study of the natural
animal and plant life, followed by crop-zone maps with lists of fruits
and crops which will best thrive in such areas. A generalized report
of this nature, covering the United States as a whole, has been already
published (Bull. 10, Biological Survey). The work is now being car-
ried on in more detail and on larger scale maps in several of the
Western States.
DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF DUCKS AND SHORE BIRDS.
As the game birds of the country diminish in numbers, and as their
importance in the eyes of sportsmen and for food increases, the neces-
sity of legislative protection becomes more imperative.
In order to afford an accurate basis for such legislation, the routes
of migration and the time of arrival and departure of ducks and geese
and the shore birds have been carefully studied.
ECONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS.
ECONOMIC MAMMALOGY.
The field included in this branch of the work is wide and important,
the losses inflicted upon the agricultural and stock-raising interests in
the United States by noxious animals amounting annually to many
millions of dollars. The most prominent offenders are the wolves and
the gnawing animals known as rodents — especially the rats and mice,
rabbits, ground squirrels, and gophers. Much time and ingenuity and
vast sums of money have been expended in devising means to restrict
the numbers and minimize the damage done by these animals. Traps,
poisons, and gases have been carefully experimented with under vary-
ing circumstances, and have proved more or less effective, but the
farmer does not always possess the requisite time and skill to employ
them to best advantage, and even when they serve to accomplish the
object intended the cost is considerable.
90 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Meanwhile agriculture la assuming more and more importance in
the United States, and with increasing crops comes a corresponding
increase in the numbers of the pests that destroy them.
In the hope of rinding a remedy, the Bureau of Biological Survey
is now engaged in experiments with epidemic diseases — diseases which
in the course of nature break out at intervals and serve to reduce the
numbers of rabbits, squirrels, mice, and other noxious animals to
below the danger point. As some, if not all these diseases, are of
bacterial origin, it is thought possible to obtain and preserve cultures
of them for employment when and where occasion arises. Prior to
their use in the field, however, a series of careful experiments is nec-
rv to determine the character of the diseases — whether limited, as
some undoubtedly are. to particular animals — the degree of their viru-
lence, the extent of their communicability from animal to animal of a
colony, and above all to make sure that human beings and farm stock
are immune from their influence.
In cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry, experiments
have been already made with a virus for destroying rats and mice,
and in cooperation with the State Agricultural Experiment Station at
Pullman. Wash., experiments are being tried with a disease endemic
to one of the ground squirrels of that region. The results of the latter
experiments are awaited with peculiar interest, since the area infested
by ground squirrels in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho is very large,
and everywhere over it great damage is done to the wheat crop.
With a view to eliciting timely information as to the prevalence of
epidemic disease among rabbits, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, rats,
and mice, a circular of inquiry has been widely distributed. The sub-
ject is one of large possibilities, and time and money will be well spent
if effective and economical methods are found to relieve the farmer of
part of the burden and expense of protecting his crops from rodent
pests, which are as numerous and destructive as they are ubiquitous
and elusive.
UEPKEDATIONS BY WOLVES.
In cooperation with the Forest Service investigations are being made
with a view to the reduction of the numbers of wolves on the stock
ranges and on the game and forest reserves of the West. Wolves are
still numerous in certain sections, and by reason of their size and
strength constitute a formidable enemy to stock and to wild game.
It is thought that effective means for the abatement of the nuisance
have been found and a report on the -abject will soon be ready for
publication.
THE EABEIT I\
The damage to nurseries, orchards, and crops of the United States
by rabbits has always been great, though happily nowhere reaching
the proportions reported in Australia. Many experiments have been
EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 91
made by assistants of the Survey for the purpose of discovering cheap
methods of protecting orchards by wire fencing and by other means,
and of reducing the number of rabbits by traps and poisons. It is
believed that young trees in orchards and in forest reserves, where
they are particularly liable to destruction by rabbits, can be cheaply
and efficiently protected by cylinders of woven wire, and experiments
arc being undertaken in cooperation with the Forest Service for test-
ing- the efficiency of such protectors. Babbits in various parts of the
country appear to be peculiarly susceptible to epidemic diseases, and
as they are one of our most destructive rodents special efforts are
being- made to detect the presence of one of these epidemics for the
purpose of securing cultures as a means of reducing their numbers.
THE BOLL WEEVIL.
During the year investigations were continued in the Texas cotton
districts with reference to birds that feed upon the weevil. The
results are encouraging. In all, 28 species of birds have been found to
be more or less active enemies of the insect. Included in this number
is the nighthawk, heretofore not known to eat the weevil. The night-
hawk proves to be an active consumer of the insect. Its protection by
law therefore is earnestl}' recommended. This is all the more neces-
sary, since the bird is often shot for food.
Of all the birds that prey upon the weevil, orioles are the most
active and persistent. For this reason the possible introduction into
the Gulf States of one or more additional species of these birds is
being considered. Only one of the three species that visit the cotton-
producing belt breeds extensively within it; hence if one is introduced
it should be a species likely to make its summer home within the area
infested by the weevil, as all birds are particularly assiduous in their
search for insects during the time they are feeding the young.
CALIFORNIA FRUIT ORCHARDS!.
Work in the California fruit orchards is being continued and a study
made of the food habits of birds destructive to orchard fruit, with a
view to the suggestion of preventive measures.
Careful investigations are being conducted also into the food habits
of all birds that live in and around orchards, so that the orchardist
may be clearly informed as to the beneficial species, in order that he
may be able to discriminate between friends and foes.
HALE INSECTS.
Few kinds of insects are so inimical to the health and existence of
fruit trees and other crop plants as the scales, and owing- to their small
size and peculiar habits few are so diffcult to cope with. It has been
generally supposed that birds lend no assistance in the destruction of
scales. This proves to be an error, for the Biological Survey has
92 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
already found that more than 50 species of birds eat scale insects. Not
only is thi> true, bat in the case of certain species, as the grosbeaks,
scales have been ascertained to form a large percentage of the food.
GAME PROTECTION AND INTRODUCTION.
The experience of many countries proves how widespread is the
desire to introduce foreign mammals and birds. When these are
merely for cage pets or for exhibition in zoological collections, little
or no harm results. But when, as frequently happen.-, exotic species
are liberated in the hope that they will become acclimated and form
permanent additions to the fauna, there is always danger that, like the
English sparrow, they will be only too successful in adapting them-
selves to the new environment and prove serious pests. The disas-
trous experiments of Jamaica. Porto Rico. Hawaii. New Zealand,
Australia, and other regions abundantly illustrate this danger. Sev-
eral countries take the precaution of regulating such importations,
the United States among the number. Since 1900 the Department of
Agriculture has supervised all importations of live birds and mammals
into the United States. A few well-known species of birds and mam-
mals are allowed to enter without special authorization, but all others
are refused entry except under permit by the Department. The num-
ber thus entered during the year was 651 mammals 274,914 canaries,
and 47,256 miscellaneous birds.
The growth of the trade in imported birds is made manifest by the
fact that the figures show an increase of 25 per cent over those for
last year, and of 33. 27. and 37 per cent, respectively, over those for
-1. 1902-3, and 1901-2. Despite the large number of birds and
mammals imported under permit, averaging more than 6,000 a week
throughout the past year, it is believed that no prohibited species was
brought into the country.
Increased interest is shown in the importation of foreign game birds
for stocking covers. During the year 861 European partridges, 116
capercailzie. 73 black game, and 59 other game birds were imported
for this purpose. Some of these experiments promise excellent
results.
>tocking covers with birds hatched from imported eggs has hereto-
fore been unsuccessful in most cases. Last spring, however, of 5,564
ccrg< imported under permit by the Department, 5,500 were English
pheasant eggs secured by the game commissioner of Illinois, who
reports that 3,000 live, healthy chicks were obtained — an unusually
large percentage.
Large shipments of birds are examined by inspectors and the number
and kinds are reported to the Department. The expense of fees has
hitherto been borne by importers, since no appropriation for the pur-
pose was made by Congress. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory
EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 93
and protest was made by importers. Since February 1. 1906, the
Department has undertaken to pay these fees, and an appropriation
should be made to sustain the service, as in the case of inspection of
meats. The lack of such appropriation permits inspection onlv of the
most important shipment-.
INTERSTATE COMMERCE IX GAME.
The close surveillance of interstate traffic in game established in the
Middle West has driven illegal shippers to the use of freight instead
of express, and has brought the situation in that region under partial
control. Attention will therefore be centered during the coming year
on the Southwest, where systematic violations of the law are frequent.
An effort will be made also to check numerous illegal shipments that
occur in the South, particularly in West Virginia. Virginia, and North
Carolina.
The limited means available for this work make progress slow and
difficult. A sufficient sum should be appropriated to permit the
employment of three supervisors, at Chicago, St. Louis, and Balti-
more, respectively, to study conditions, secure evidence of illegalities,
assist prosecuting officers, and aid generally in a more effective
enforcement of the law.
BIRD RESERVATIONS.
One of the most successful methods of preserving the birds of a
country is by setting aside regions that contain important colonies of
breeding birds as bird reservations or '"refuges." England. Aus-
tralia. Canada. New Zealand, and other countries have followed this
plan with great success, and in 1903 the United States inaugurated it
by making a bird reservation of Pelican Island, Florida, to preserve
the only colony of brown pelicans on the east coast of Florida.
Afterward- two more reservations were established — Breton Island,
Louisiana, and Stump Lake. North Dakota — and in the year just
ended four more were added to the list, two in Florida, consisting of
Pas-age and Indian keys, at the mouth of Tampa Bay, and two in
Michigan, comprising the Huron Islands and the Siskiwit Islands in
Lake Huron.
These reservations contain large colonies of water birds — ducks.
gulls, terns, pelican-, etc. — and their establishment will serve to pre-
serve certain native species from possible extermination and provide
favorable places for the study of bird life. It has been found essen-
tial to have Federal authority to punish trespassers instead of depend-
ing on varying State laws, and accordinglv. at the suggestion of this
Department. Congress passed an act (approved June 29, 1906) provid-
ing a penalty for trespass on bird and game reservations. This law
will enable the wardens on bird reservations to protect them from
marauders.
94 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BIG
It is gratifying to state that part of the herd of dwarf elk presented
to the Government by Miller and Lux was successfully transferred to
the Sequoia National Park in November. 1905, thus insuring the pres-
ervation of this rare speeies.
It is now possible, also, to transfer to an ideal buffalo range in the
Wichita game preserve the herd of buffalo offered to the Department
by the New York Zoological Society, as Congress at its recent session
appropriated $15,000 for the construction of the fence necessary for a
proper Enclosure.
The plan of preserving big game from extermination by providing
game refuges where shooting is either prohibited or carefully regu-
lated is at present attracting attention all over the world. In order to
profit by the experience of other countries in a matter that must soon
be of pressing interest in the United States, investigation has been
made of the systems employed in Canada, particularly Ontario and
Quebec, the Transvaal. Natal. British East Africa. Sudan, and Cape
Colony. This work has been carried on by correspondence and will
be continued and extended during the coming year.
GAME PROTECTION" IN" ALASKA.
The preservation of the game of Alaska continues to present dif-
ficult problems. With the present unsatisfactory game law, and no
appropriation available for enforcing its provisions, the efforts of the
Department have been confined to preventing export of heads and
skins by trophy hunters and dealers in hides, a fruitful source of
destruction.
INFORMATION" CONCERNING GAME.
In performance of the important duty of collecting and disseminat-
ing information relating to game, the annual summary of game 1
posters of close seasons, and directory of officers and organizations
concerned in the protection of game have been published as usual, and
also various pamphlet* relating to special features of game protection.
In the near future it is intended to secure and publish information
concerning hunting-license statistics, game refuges and preserves,
introduction and propagation of game birds, duties of the modern
game warden, and the cage-bird traffic of the United States.
The constant demand for information on these and kindred mat:
shows how important is this phase of the work. It is impossible to
meet this demand satisfactorily with the present limited force and
available means, and an increase in both is much needed.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95
DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS.
The work of the Division of Publications continues inevitably to
increase with the growth of the Department. The number of publi-
cations issued in 1904 was 372; in 19G&, 1. "7:2: and in 1906, 1.171.
The somber of copies Issued in 1S06 aggregated 13,1SS.021. The
larger proportion of these publications consisted of reprints, but the
new publications in 1906, exclusive of those of the Weather Bureau,
numbered 111.
FARMERS* BULLETINS
The total number of issues of Farmers' Bulletins during the tiscal
year was 137. of which 404 were reprint-, and the total number of
copies was 6^*68,000,
The demand for Farmers' Bulletins by Senators and Representa-
tives, who under the law are entitled to SO per cent of the whole
number printed, has been so much larger than usual that practically
none were left to carry over to the present tiscal year. There being
therefore no surplus available and the appropriation for the current
tiscal year being no larger than formerly, the number available for
each Congressman will this year be greatly reduced. 1 have there-
fore felt obliged to include provision for an increase in the number
of these bulletins in my estimates for the ensuing year. The num-
ber of copies of Farmers' Bulletins distributed during the past year
on Congressional orders aggregated .3.i'7'.,.17t'>.
A DVLSORY COMMITTEE.
On January i!3. 1906, in accordance with your Executive order of
the 30th of that month. I appointed an advisory committee on the sub-
ject of printing and publication, as follows: The Assistant Secretary,
chairman; the Chief of the Weather Bureau, and the Department
Editor, secretary. The rules laid down for the guidance of the com-
mittee in the Executive order referred to, conform so closely to the
regulations governing the printing and binding of this Department
imposed upon the Division of Publications, of which the Department
Editor is the chief, that it was not found necessary by the committee
to adopt a different system of work or to recommend many changes in
the existing orders. The services of the committee were, however,
extremely helpful in disposing of many questions submitted to it by
the Department Editor, which would otherwise have called for my
personal intervention. I'p to date the committee has held ten meet-
ings, not at stated times, but at the call of the chairman whenever
questions of importance were ready to be submitted to it.
96 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.
BSSIOirAIi PUBLICATION-.
S .eral important amendment- to the law governing the public
printing and binding have resulted from the special investigation con-
ducted 1' int Committee on Printing of the Senate and House.
One of these provides that the nr-t cost of all publications known as
-ional publications shall be charged to the printing fund of
the Department itself instead of to the appropriation for the printing
and binding for. Cong: ess, I _rether with the cost of the copies assigned
fcary for Departmental use. This has made it necessary.
of course, 1 - are an i: - in the appropriation for printing for
: this Department, and the additional amount estimated, as
above made n y. has been duly appropriated by Congress. This,
in reality, is not an increase, but a transfer from one fund to another.
Another amendment provides that public documents ordered printed
— may be printed in two or more editions not exceeding
in the aggregate the total number authorized by law. This provision
applies not only to the number assigned to the use of Congress, but
to the number assigned to the use of the Department. This
amendment will doubtless tend greatly to prevent waste by over-
publication.
LIMITATION OF APPROPRIATION FOR PRINTING.
A further amendment to the law provides that estimates for the
printing and binding of each Department shall be included in a single
item, and that after the expiration of the current fiscal year no appro-
priations other than those made specifically and solely for the printing
and binding shall be used for such purposes. In this connection. I
topi -f on record as strongly favoring the inclusion of
the appropriation for printing and binding in the regular appropria-
tion bill for the support of this Department, instead of being, as now,
included in a separate appropriation in the sundry civil bill for the
general printing and binding of the Government.
INCREASING DEMAND FOR PUBLICATIONS.
T:.e demands for publications continue to increase more rapidly
than does the ability of the Department to meet them. The policy
followed in the past of continuing the distribution after supplying the
. d Jar divisional lists, including libraries, agricultural colleges, and
stations, exchanges — foreign and domestic — and persons actively coop-
erating in the work of the Department, to all miscellaneous appli-
cants until the edition was exhausted, and then ordering a reprint to
satisfy further demands, while perhaps the best method to be pursued
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97
in any plan of unlimited gratuitous distribution, was found verv
unsatisfactory.
In the first place, the funds at our disposal precluded the possibility
of unlimited reprints, and thus, while a great many persons were sup-
plied who undoubtedly did not need the publications they asked for. a
large number of persons to Avhom the publications would prove useful
were unavoidably left unsupplied, including very often persons whose
services to the Department gave them a special claim on us for our
publications. Such a plan might have been satisfactory enough in the
days when the demand for the Department's publications was not so
great, though even then it was wasteful; but at the present time to
undertake to supply all miscellaneous applicants — and this is the only
fair way if the principle of gratuitous distribution is to obtain —
would involve a cost far exceeding any sum which Congress is likely
to provide. In the face of the difficulty thus presented to me for
solution, I concluded to abandon any attempt at general gratuitous
distribution of all Department publications other than Farmers' Bul-
letins and circulars.
FIRST EDITIONS.
On April 14, 1906, I issued a general order which limited the first
edition of every publication to the number of copies necessary to
supply libraries, educational institutions, the press, State and foreign
officials connected with agriculture, exchanges, and such persons as
render tangible service to the Department, either by actively cooperat-
ing in its work or as special correspondents, and including- a small
number to be reserved for emergencies and for use in correspondence,
and to furnish a small supply to be placed in the hands of the Super-
intendent of Documents for sale. I am indebted to the courtesy of
this official for the subjoined statement, showing the total number of
the publications of this Department sold by him during the last fiscal
year and the sums received therefor, and, for purposes of comparison,
the total number sold of all Government publications and the amount
received:
Publications of Department of Agriculture copies. . 47, 745
Amount received therefor $5, 388. 28
All Government publications _ copies.. 75,828
Amount received therefor $16, 495. 88
REPRINTS BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
I am also indebted to the Superintendent of Documents for a report
showing that under the provisions of joint resolution No. 11. approved
March 28, 1901, and with the concurrence of this office, as therein pro-
vided, 13 reprints of Department publications were ordered by him from
the Public Printer during the year ending June 30, 1906, in editions of
3 a 1906 7
98 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
from 100 to 1,500 copies, in order to satisfy the requests of purchas-
ers. Under the terms of the resolution referred to, these reprints,
which aggregated over 10,000 copies, were paid for from the funds
received by the Superintendent of Documents from the sale of our
publications. This sale of Government publications under the pro-
visions of the resolution, which authorize him to reprint as occasion
requires, defraying the cost of same from the sums received by him
as purchase money, affords the most equitable plan for the distribu-
tion of these publications to miscellaneous applicants. It involves no
waste, meets the requirements of all parties interested at a minimum
cost to the Government, and provides for a supply adequate to any
ole demand.
To make this system a complete success requires the extensive
advertising of the existence of these publications, and to this end this
Department supplies each month to all persons desiring it a list of the
publications issued during the month previous. By this means, and
through the intelligent courtesy of the press, our publications are widely
advertised. A second requirement is, in my opinion, that these pub-
lications should be sold at cost of paper, printing, and binding, the
cost of the first edition, which includes the making of the plates, being
properly defrayed by the Government. Another great convenience
would be afforded to intending purchasers if the Superintendent
of Documents were authorized to receive postage stamps as cash.
This is especially true where the sums involved amount to or include
fractions of a dollar.
DEMAXD FOR PUBLICATIONS BY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
A great many demands are being made upon us by educational insti-
tutions for publications of this Department to be used as text-books,
and as these demands usually involve supplying whole classes of stu-
dents with the same publication, the question promises to present some
difficulties. Heretofore I have made it a point to grant such requests,
but how long I can continue to do so gratuitously, in the face of
rapidly increasing demands of this character, is problematical. In
many cases, especially where there has been cooperation between State
institutions and this Department, the number desired is so great that
the parties themselves desire the privilege of purchasing hundreds,
and sometimes thousands, of copies.
Under the law regulating such matters the Public Printer is author-
ized to sell not more than 250 copies to any individual, and the appli-
cant must tile his order before the publication goes to press. In the
- I refer to. this number is generally inadequate, and moreover it
is impossible to comply with the condition. There is then left to the
institution or official desiring the publications the alternative of pur-
chasing the plates, with a view naturally to saving the cost of composi-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99
tion. Under the law no saving- can be effected in this way. The Public
Printer is compelled to charge not only the cost of the metal in making
the plates, but also the original cost of composition. I would suggest
an amendment to the law, authorizing the Public Printer to supply
duplicate plates of Government publications at the cost of such dupli-
cation, with 10 per cent added for handling, to all applicants duly
indorsed by the head of the Department issuing the publication.
BUKEAU OF STATISTICS.
SUMMARY OF THE WORK DURING THE YEAR.
The work of the Bureau of Statistics is performed in three divisions:
(1) The Division of Domestic Crop Reports, (2) the Division of Foreign
Markets. (3) the Miscellaneous Division.
As in former years, the principal work of the Bureau of Statistics
has been the collection and dissemination of information regarding the
acreage, condition, and yield of the principal agricultural crops of the
United Stat* s.
The Division of Domestic Crop Reports handles the great mass of
reports received from month to month by the Bureau for the use of
the Statistician and the Crop Reporting Board in preparing the esti-
mates of the Bureau.
The work accomplished in this Division is supplemented by reports
received from salaried State statistical agents, one of whom is located
in each State, and from special field agents who travel within and
throughout defined territory, consisting of two or more States, exam-
ining the crops in the field and securing information for the use of the
Bureau from all available sources, such as country bankers, agricul-
tural implement dealers, representative farmers, country merchants,
and others.
During the year the scope of this work has been very greatly
broadened, the increase being approximately 100 per cent. Twenty-
live crops not previously dealt with by the Bureau have been added,
concerning which reports of condition are made from month to month.
This has taxed the working capacity of the clerical force of the Bureau,
and has rendered it necessary that they be required to do considerable
work above and beyond the regular hours of service ordinarily required.
The special field service of the Bureau of Statistics, as well as the
corps of State statistical agents, has been considerably strengthened
and the work of these employees has been placed upon a uniform,
scientilic basis, such as did not formerly prevail. The reports of the
Bureau and the methods employed in making them seem to have met
with general approval, and have largely increased the confidence of
producers, consumers, dealers, and the public generally in their
integrity and accuracy.
100 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In order to prevent the possibility of information regarding the
reports of the Bureau being prematurely given out, methods have been
adopted which render such leakages impossible. These are explained
and described in detail in the annual report of the Statistician of the
Bureau. The value of the monthly crop reports of this Bureau has
been so thoroughly established that any suggestion looking to their
curtailment meets with vigorous objection and opposition from all who
are interested in the promulgation of fair, unbiased estimates regard-
ing acreages, conditions, and yields of the products of agriculture.
The Division of Foreign Markets compiles information regarding
the imports and exports of all the different classes of farm products;
also of manufactured products as far as the output of packing houses
.can be so denominated. The information thus gathered is published
annually in bulletins, to which wide circulation is given. In addition
to this regular work, studies are made of conditions in countries com-
peting with the United States in the world's markets, with regard to
packing-house products and meat animals, and a large amount of
instructive matter has been collected and published.
Investigations have also been conducted by this Division of the
world's meat trade; of the comparative healthfulness of meat animals
in different countries; of the situation throughout the world with regard
to cotton production; of the British market for dairy products and
its sources of supply; wheat growing in Russia; freight rates, and the
world's production and trade in barley, rye, potatoes, wheat, tobacco,
cotton, and other agricultural products.
During the past }Tear a very interesting study was consummated
upon the subject of the increase in farm values in the United States,
the results of which have been published in bulletins which have
attracted wide attention and interest.
In the Miscellaneous Division of the Bureau of Statistics, which
embraces the statistical library, the necessary translations incident to
the work are made; and a few clerks are engaged in special work,
such as the compiling and preparing of material to be used in answer-
ing inquiries for agricultural statistics made by Members of Congress
and others. The services of the .clerks in this Division are called into
requisition in the tabulation and computation of the monthly crop
reports, or for any other purpose for which they may be required.
An employee of the Bureau of Statistics is stationed in London and
from that point makes trips to the different European countries, col-
lecting information regarding crop acreages, conditions, and yields,
which he sends to Washington each month for publication in the Crop
Reporter, a monthly publication of the Bureau, in which are given the
reports of the Bureau, placed in comparison with reports for previous
37ears at the corresponding dates, together with various other statis-
tical information of interest to farmers and dealers in and cousumers of
farm products.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101
Much statistical work in the way of tabulation and computation
has been done for other Bureaus of the Department, and though the
regular work has been greatly increased through the enlargement of its
scope, all the statistical service required by other Bureaus has been
accomplished promptly and satisfactorily. The work of the Depart-
ment is being- unified and made cooperative in man}- lines of research
and demonstration.
Investigations have been carried on through a series of years regard-
ing the cost of producing farm products, and results of these investi-
gations have been embodied in bulletins, which, it is believed, will be
of great value and interest.
THE LIBRARY.
The growth of the Library has exceeded that of an v previous }Tear,
so that at present the scientists of the Department have available for
their use a collection of scientific books, periodicals, and pamphlets
numbering over 92,000. All new publications of value relating to
general agriculture and to special subjects concerning which investi-
gations are being carried on b}r the Department have been purchased,
over 500 periodicals alone being received regularl}\ This Library is
gradually growing to be the most complete collection of agricultural
literature in the country. Many valuable purchases and gifts have
been included in the 5,000 additions of the past year. For the advance-
ment of work in connection with food and drug regulations, meat
inspection, and game protection an unusual amount has been expended
for law books and other works published in this country and abroad
relative to these subjects. EvenT new line of work entered upon by
the Department makes a correspondingly new demand upon the
Library.
t CATALOGUING.
The card catalogue of 160,000 author and subject entries is the most
valuable key to the resources of the Library. The cataloguing has
been kept up to date, so that the material on a given subject is readily
available. Cooperation with the Library of Congress and with other
institutions which print cards has enabled the Library to secure a larger
number of printed cards for its catalogue than ever before. These
cards are not onl}- for books and pamphlets of its own, but maivy show
what may be found on subjects of interest to this Department in other
departmental libraries. By this means the scope of the catalogue is
largel}r increased at the least cost of time and mone}T.
The cataloguing of the publications of the Department has progressed
from year to year until now there is a card catalogue to these documents
up to the latest bulletin issued. These cards are valued by all libraries
receiving our publications regularly, affording as they do the only
LQ2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGRICULTURE.
up-to-date means of reference to all author- and subjects of the publi-
On account of the ii ? demands for this catalogue and
of the la rary for handling and storing the cards, it
been found advi- I :;sfer the printing and distribution of
care- rary of C _. --. This cooperation has given satis-
factory results in the advancement of the work.
t only is the Library indispensable in connection with the work of
the Department, but much work has been done in it by visiting spe-
cialists, and to many agricultural colleges, and experiment stations
temporary loans of publications not elsewhere to be found in the
been made.
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
SELAT1 - : . ITDBAIi EXPERIMENT STATI
Tie great value of the agricultural experiment stations as agencies
for the advancement of agriculture through scientific research was
gnized by Congress in a signal manner during the past year by
age of the Adam- A . This measure, introduced and cham-
pioned 1 Hon. Henry Oullen Adam-, of Wisconsin, had the
unanimous appr he committees on agriculture in both He
d in C jj sa without a dissenting vote, and received the
r jval of the I arch 16, 1906. It provides that each State
and Territory shall annually receive from the National Treasury a
grant of money in addition to that given for the establishment and main-
tenance of agricultural experiment stations by the act of March 2,
1887 Harch Act . The initial appropriation to each State under the
1 for the fiscal year 1906. To this amount $3
3 be added each year for five years, after which an appropriation
is ( ontinue annually. Thus in 1911 and each year there-
after each Si will receiv< j . double the amount hitherto
granted under the Hatch Act. The new act recognizes the fact that
through previous National and S legislation the stations are
thoroughly organized, are equipped with lands and buildings, and have
funds for the printing and di ion of publications.
-ion and strengthening of th ;nental work of the
herefore made the sole object of the Adams Act, and the
additional funds are "to be applied only to paying the necessary
- of con o original lies or experiments bearing
directly on the agricultural industry of the Unite -." The
Adams fund is thus essentially a research fund, and if properly used
Id produce 2 the greatest and most permanent value to
rican agriculture. The Stal experiment .-" ave already
performed service of great value. They have done much to secure
radical and wid- -_ ats in agricultural pra they
have contributed in lar^e mc ition of a new American
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103
literature of agriculture and made it available to every farmer; they
have collected much of the material from which a science of agricul-
ture is being formulated as the basis for the instruction of successive
generations of farmers in colleges, schools, and farmers' institutes.
As their work has developed, it has naturally divided itself into several
broad classes, which may be briefly summarized as (1) original research;
(2) verification and demonstration experiments, often of a local char-
acter and import; (3) inspection service; and (1) dissemination of infor-
mation. So great has been the local pressure for work of the last
three classes that by far the greatest share of the National and State
funds has been spent in these lines. The Adams fund now comes in
to enable the stations to broaden and deepen their original researches,
on the results of which largely depends the success of their other work.
Previous to the passage of the Adams Act the funds of the stations
from sources within the States had steadily increased, until in 1905
they exceeded the revenue derived from the National Treasury.
There is every reason to believe that the States and local communities
will continue to deal liberally with the stations, and that thus they
will be able to extend their more popular and directly practical work.
The United States will thus have a much more thorough and compre-
hensive s}Tstem of agricultural experiment stations.
Congress having put in my hands the administration of the Adams
Act, I have assigned to the Office of Experiment Stations the duty of
dealing with the experiment stations in matters relating to this act.
The untimely death of Mr. Adams has taken away one of the fore-
most leaders in the cause of agricultural progress in this country.
His clear insight into agricultural problems and needs, his thorough
sympathy with farmers, his appreciation of the benefits accruing to
agriculture from the work of properly trained scientists, his independ-
ence of thought and action, his fearless advocacy of measures which
he deemed of importance to agriculture, his experience in public life
both as an administrator and as a legislator, his thorough honesty,
which won the respect and confidence even of those who opposed him,
put him in a position to render the highest and best service in National
councils and legislation. In consideration of the important social and
economic changes which our rural communities are passing through
in these days, as well as of the vast material interests involved in our
agriculture, the loss of such a leader is most keenly felt. Great, how-
ever, was his achievement in the short period in which he was a mem-
ber of Congress, for the name of Representative Adams, of Wisconsin,
will ever be linked with that of Senator Morrill, of Vermont, and Rep-
resentative Hatch, of Missouri, as the author of a measure of funda-
mental and permanent importance to the institutions which advance
and disseminate the knowledge on which our agricultural progress
and permanent prosperity largely depend.
104 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.
In response to demands from numerous sources the work of the
Department relating to agricultural education has been gradually
broadened, until now it touches nearly every phase of the subject.
This Department, through the Office of Experiment Stations, has been
active in aiding the establishment of agricultural high schools and the
introduction of agricultural subjects into the curricula of the public
schools. Representatives of that Office have addressed important edu-
cational and agricultural meetings in the interests of agricultural
education in a number of States, have given advice regarding legisla-
tion and courses of study, and have assisted in the inauguration of
agricultural instruction and the securing of agricultural teachers in
different localities. The agricultural colleges have been visited and
conferences have been held with their officers and teachers. A special
study has been made of the agricultural work in the colleges for
negroes.
The general interests of higher education in agriculture have been
promoted through cooperation with the Association of American Agri-
cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. As chairman of the stand-
ing committee on agricultural instruction, the Director of that Office
has aided in studies with reference to the improvement of courses of
instruction in the agricultural colleges and schools. He has also acted
as dean of the Graduate School of Agriculture, which held a second
successful session at the University of Illinois the past summer. The
faculty of this school consisted of 35 of our leading agricultural teach-
ers* and experts from this Department and the agricultural colleges
and experiment stations. The students, drawn from 34 States and
Territories, were mainly the younger men already engaged in agri-
cultural teaching and experimenting.
With the development of the Department's work along educational
lines it has become clear that it may accomplish important and valua-
ble service as a central agency for the promotion of agricultural edu-
cation in cooperation with the State departments of agriculture and
education, the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, and the
State and National agricultural organizations. The most important
lines of educational effort in which the Department should engage
may be briefly outlined as follows:
(1) To aid the agricultural colleges to reduce the results of the
investigations made by this Department and the experiment stations
to pedagogical form for use in agricultural colleges and schools of dif-
ferent grades. This work is now proceeding too slowly to keep pace
with the accumulation of material, and the lack of well-ordered
manuals and illustrative materials is a great hindrance to the effective
organization of agricultural instruction.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105
(2) To promote the efficiency of agricultural instruction in the negro
land-grant colleges, in order that the funds granted for negro education
by the Federal Government may contribute toward keeping the negro
on the farm and making him a more efficient factor in agricultural pro-
duction for his own good and that of the nation, rather than, as is
largely the case at present, drawing him away from the farm into the
uncertainties and dangers of city life.
(3) To aid the agricultural organizations in the several States in
promoting an efficient organization of agricultural high schools, con-
solidated common schools, and other educational agencies best adapted
to secure a high state of prosperity and contentment in rural life. It
is along these lines that the great educational effort of the immediate
future is to be made. The forces behind the movement for industrial
education have hitherto devoted themselves very largely to the pro-
motion of instruction in the city industries. It is now apparent that
a similar work needs to be done for the great fundamental industries
grouped under agriculture. Much work will be required to bring the
masses of our agricultural population into sympathetic touch with the
progressive movement in education and to secure for them a school
system in harmony with their environment and their relations to the
world's work and civilization. As the nation's representative of agri-
cultural enlightenment and progress, this Department should be in a
position to render effective aid in this enterprise, on the success of
which depends so largely the permanent prosperity and contentment
of our agricultural people.
(4) Since the success of agricultural instruction in the public schools
will depend very largely on the teachers, this Department should aid
the agricultural colleges and other State educational institutions in
preparing and inaugurating training courses for teachers of agricul-
ture in secondary and elementary schools.
(5) Since agriculture as a fundamental industry is of vital impor-
tance to all our people, this Department should present such results
of its work and that of the experiment stations at home and abroad as
are adapted to instructional purposes in connection with nature study
and elementary agriculture in a form available to teachers and pupils
in both country and city, the object being to impress our youth with
the dignity, value, and attractiveness of country life and pursuits.
THE FARMERS1 INSTITUTES.
Interest in the farmers' institutes continues to increase throughout
the country, and a larger attendance is reported for the past year than
ever before. The Department is keeping in close touch with the
State organizations under which the institutes are held, and is especially
aiding the lecturers to obtain up-to-date information regarding the
106 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
progress made in agricultural science and practice. In many locali-
ties there is a demand for more extended and definite instruction than
can be given in the ordinary institutes. The Department is therefore
having short courses of lectures prepared by experts, which may
used in so-called movable agricultural schools. Inquiry is also being
made regarding the value of various other means more or less exten-
sively used for interesting farmers and their families in improved prac-
tice on their farms and in their households. Representatives of the
Department have accompanied the special railroad trains which have
carried exhibits and lecturers to thousands of farmers in many parts
of the country, proving a popular and effective mean- of awak-
ening interest in the work of the Department and the experiment
stations. The farmer-;' institutes and other forms of what is often
called extension work in agricultural education are very important
supplements to the publications of the Department and the stations,
as well as to the regular work of the agricultural colleges and schools.
The Department should share in this extension work and seek to pro-
mote its general inter
EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN ALASKA, HAWAII, AND PORTO RICO.
A systematic, effort has been begun to determine the feasibility of
the live-stock industry in Alaska. A small herd of Galloway cattle
has been purchased and located at Kenai. in Cook Inlet, and at Wood
Island. These cattle have subsisted during the summer upon the
native grasses, and a considerable supply of grain hay has been grown
at the Kenai Station with which to maintaiu them during the winter.
Wheat, rye. barley, and oats matured in 1905 and 1906 at the Rampart
Station in the Yukon Valley, but 300 miles farther south, in the Copper
River Valley, cold and drought killed all but the hardiest varieties of
cereals. A large amount of grain hay was obtained at the Copper
Center Station and sold at a highly remunerative price. It has been
shown that many of the Alaskan soils require lime, and a method has
therefore been devised for the cheap local production of iime in small
quantities. Arrangements have been made to open a station near the
prosperous mining towns of Fairbanks and Chena. on the Tanana
River, as soon as funds are available for this purpose.
The Hawaii : 9 an increasing appreciation of its en
toward diversifying the agricultural industries of the islands,
a direct result of three years* experimental work with tobacco it is
said that this year fully 200 acres were planted. The discovery by
the station chemist that Hawaiian feeding stuffs are deficient in lime
is an important one, and will make it possible to arrange more satis-
factory rations for live stock. The investigations on the marketing
of tropical fruits promise to open markets in the Pacific coast, which
can best be supplied from Hawaii. Investigations begun with the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107
object of rehabilitating the rice industry have been so favorably
received that private individuals have generously contributed consid-
erable sums of money to aid in carrying them on.
The Porto Rico station is extending its influence, and requests for
cooperative work are coming from numerous sources. While the
income of the station has been too limited to enable it to meet these
demands, yet they show a growing sentiment in favor of the station
which is very encouraging. The coffee experiments have begun to
show results, and the improved methods of pruning and cultivation are
quite apparent in the increased yields obtained. A successful effort
is being made to grow lowland rice, and this industry should be greatly
extended. The Porto Bicans are large consumers of rice, most of
which is now imported. Among- the forage crops experiments with
cowpeas have been most successful, and it is believed that they can
be grown throughout the island. Numerous horticultural experiments
arc in progress, and studies are being made of insect pests and plant
diseases.
The work of the stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico is now
so well established that the}' can profitabl}- make use of' increased
funds. Considering the fact that all buildings, equipment, and live
stock must be provided for these stations from the Federal funds, there
is even greater need of more liberal appropriations for their mainte-
nance than in the ease of the State experiment stations. I* therefore
recommend that an appropriation be given to the stations in Alaska,
Hawaii, and Porto Rico equal to the amount given the State stations
under the Hatch and Adams acts.
PROGRESS IN NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS.
The investigations on the food and nutrition of man, conducted in
different States and Territories under the auspices of the Office of
Experiment Stations, have, as in the past, been carried on in coopera-
tion with universities and other schools, as well as public institutions,
but chiefly with agricultural experiment stations and agricultural col-
leges. By this cooperation the Department funds have been materi-
ally supplemented in various ways and the scope and possibilities of
the work greatly increased. The chief object of the investigations is
to learn the nutritive value of agricultural products of animal and
vegetable origin and the proportions in which such food materials of
different kinds may be most intelligently used to the advantage of
both producer and consumer. The general policy has been to under-
take, in the different centers of investigation, work for which the
institution or region offered exceptional facilities. Thus, at the Cali-
fornia Agricultural Experiment Station studies have been undertaken
with fruits and nuts and the products made from them; at the Minne-
sota and Maine experiment stations with wheat, corn, and other cereal
foods; at the University of Tennessee with cowpeas and other legumes;
108 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., with cheese made
and cured in different ways. New experiments have been undertaken
whenever the finishing- up of any line of work has rendered this pos-
sible, and it has been the purpose to select for study especially those
problems which have a direct bearing- upon agriculture.
The experiments which have been conducted at the California Agri-
cultural Experiment Station have furnished additional evidence of the
considerable amount of nutritive material which may be supplied in
readily digestible form by fruits and nuts intelligently used as part
of the diet. It appears further that fruits and nuts are more useful
when eaten in combination with other food materials than in large
quantities by themselves or at the end of an otherwise hearty meal.
The studies of cereal breakfast foods undertaken at the Maine and
Minnesota experiment stations have shown that different classes of
goods made from the same grain do not differ materially in nutritive
value though there is a considerable range in price. As a whole,
cereal breakfast foods are nutritious and reasonably economical. As
regards digestibility the}- closely resemble bread made from the coarser
flours and are somewhat less thoroughly assimilated than bread made
from white flour. It has also been shown that flour products other
than bread closely resemble bread in digestibility and total nutritive
value.
From studies with corn products, undertaken at the Maine Experi-
ment Station, it appears that corn bread of different sorts has about the
same digestibility as bread made from coarse wheat flour, and that it
is well worthy of a place in the diet as a reasonably inexpensive source
of nutritive material, as well as for the sake of variety.
The studies of different methods of cooking meat carried on at the
University of Illinois have shown that it is possible to control cooking-
processes so that a fairly uniform product may be obtained when simi-
lar cuts of meat are cooked by either boiling or roasting. As a whole,
meats of different kinds and cuts supply nutritive material, particu-
lar^' protein and fat, in forms which are very well assimilated.
Investigations on the digestibility and nutritive value of cheese
carried on at Middletown, Conn., have shown that cheese (American
cheddar) is very thoroughly assimilated and is not productive of diges-
tive disturbances as commonl}- supposed. When desired it may be
used in comparatively large quantities as an inexpensive source of
protein and energy in the diet. Cheese, being rich in protein and fat,
should be combined with cereal foods, fruits, and similar products,
which supply an abundance of carbohydrates, and when eaten in con-
siderable quantities should replace rather than supplement such
nitrogenous foods as meat, eggs, and dried legumes. The experiments
furnish the first extensive demonstration by scientific methods of the
high nutritive value of this important dairy product. The great
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109
importance of cheese as a source of protein has not been hitherto ap-
preciated and in a sense its commercial value as a food has lacked
satisfactory basis.
The investigations carried on with the respiration calorimeter at
Middletown, Conn., have furnished new and valuable factors regard-
ing- the average amount of energy in the form of food required by men
at rest and performing various kinds of work, the carbon dioxid and
energy output at different times of the day under different conditions
of work and rest, and related topics.
The investigations undertaken at the Hawaii Agricultural Experi-
ment Station have furnished interesting data regarding the nutritive
value of tropical food products and the kinds and amounts of food
consumed by persons living under different circumstances in tropical
regions.
At Columbia University, New York, the investigations which have
been undertaken furnish new and valuable data regarding the demands
of the body for the ash constituents of food.
The results of the nutrition investigations are made public by means
of technical bulletins and popular summaries, and a great deal of mis-
cellaneous information is also supplied to teachers, students, and other
persons by means of correspondence, the increasing demand for pub-
lications and other data being an indication of the favorable way in
which the work is regarded by the people at large.
Extended use has been made of the nutrition publications as text-
books in a large number of schools, colleges, and medical schools
throughout the country, owing to the fact that satisfactoiy text-books
on these subjects have not hitherto been available. In this connection
it nia}T be mentioned that there are 45 agricultural colleges or similar
institutions receiving Government aid for white students, and an equal
number for colored people, where some of the courses of instruction
necessitate the use of such data.
The proper economical feeding of families or groups — that is, the
best methods of utilizing the food products which come from the
farm — is a subject the importance of which can hardly be overesti-
mated, and a knowledge of the important facts regarding the nutri-
tive value of different foods can not fail to bring about improved
standards of living on farms and elsewhere and benefit alike the pro-
ducer, the distributer, and the consumer of food products.
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS.
Three years ago the Office of Experiment Stations detailed some of
its irrigation experts to work out and introduce the right methods of
irrigation in some of the older districts where water is scarce and
costly and where skill and economy in its use are of the utmost impor-
tance, and also took up giving practical advice to beginners in irriga-
tion in sections where irrigation was being introduced. The conditions
110 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
under which these men worked therefore were widely different, but
the results have been the same in each case. Wherever this educa-
tional work was begun there has been a marked appreciation of it-;
value. Each one of these men hi fixture in the State and
ion where he was first located. Every attempt to send him to a
different section to take up this work has been met by protests and
remonstrances which could not be disregarded. The result has been
that request- for similar work in other localities made by Membei
-. governors, and communities could not be responded t".
although the value of the work and the reasonableness of the requ< - -
were fully appreciated. To meet these demands the number of men
engaged in this work should be increased during the coming year.
Thus far this work has been carried on entirely in aid of settlers
under private works, but it is believed that the time has come when
this Department should take up the work of educating and aiding set-
tlers under Government reclamation projects, and that experts should
.•■tailed to these projects to show the methods of applying water
which should be adopted, the kind of tools to be used, the time when
land should be irrigated, the quantity of water which should be used,
and the cultivation which should follow this i g
The experience of the past few years has also shown that this edu-
cational work and the successful conduct of original investigations can
both be best carried on through the establishment of farms where the
best methods can be worked out and illustrated and their results dem-
rated. While bulletins and report- are of great value, they are
not equal to an object lesson. Nothing will teach these farmers how
they should do their work so quickly as to be able to see iields pre-
pared in the right way. water handled in the right way. and the
cultivated in the right manner. I believe therefore that on each
reclamation area a demonstration farm should be established, on which
the methods of irrigation can be taught by a practical expert from
this Department, and trust that provision will be made for this by
the next Congress.
ive irrigation extension stations for the demonstration of methods
of u^ing groundwater and flood and storm waters in irrigation as sup-
plementary to dry farming have been located in the semiarid belt dur-
ing the past year. At these stations it is expected to work out and
demonstrate the methods and practices for utilizing limited water sup-
plies in the irrigation of from 1 to 10 acres of land, and the meth-
of irrigation and tillage needed to conserve this moisture in the
soil, and the benefits which will come by making such irrigation a fea-
ture of i 'liarid farm. This work has assumed a new impor-
tance because of the great wave of settlement which is now sweeping
over this region.
F.EFORI OF THE SECBETAET. Ill
A number of influences, some of them proper and some questiona-
ble, are aiding in this settlement. Among those that are legitimate
are the greater possibilities due to the introduction of drought-resist-
ant crop-, the improved methods of tillage, and the series of wet
years with which that section has been favored. But there will come
other dry years, and the permanent prosperity of these settlers will
largely depend upon their having fortified themselve- _ : the risk
of drought by utilizing every opportunity for a water supply that the
region affords. Nothing will aid more to enhance their comfort >:>r
relieve them from the danger of dry years than to have from 1 to 1")
acres of land irrigated where crops can be grown regardless of the
rainfall. Provision for such irrigation will enable the farmer to grow
trees for fruit and shade, have a limited area of high-priced prodi
enough vegetables for his family, and forage for his cows and hoi
It will also enable him to make the surroundings of his homestead
attractive, thus adding to the comfort and contentment of country
life in these regions.
That the demonstration farm is an effective influence in promoting
the extension of this kind of irrigation has been proven by the results
of the oldest of these stations, located at Cheyenne. Wyo. This
tion. through the utilization of underground waters lifted by windmills,
has produced crops equaling those of the old irrigated district-. It
ha< shown the extent and value of water resources hitherto neglected.
The station was visited during the year by fully 5,000 people, and its
methods and results observed and described in a large number of sci-
entific newspapers and magazines, as well as in the local press of that
region. It has encouraged a large number of farmers to conserve and
utilize water supplies which were hitherto going to waste, and the
year's results are considered as marking the beginning of a new e.
agriculture in that section.
In many parts of the arid and semiarid region water for irrigation
can be secured only by pumping. The Department has a constant
call for information as to the cost of such irrigation and the types of
pumps and the kind of power which should be used. We have col-
lected a large amount of information on these subjects, which is now
being prepared for publication, and recently have inaugurated some
comprehensive tests to determine the value of alcohol as a power agent
in pumping water for irrigation and drainage, and in other agricul-
tural work, with a view to giving practical information to farmers
about the value of denatured alcohol as compared to gasoline, and
the conditions under which it should be used to secure the maximum
efficiency.
Every year the area of irrigated land that needs drainag
increased, which proves that irrigation and drainage must go hand in
hand. During the past year the Department has been carrying on
112 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
extended drainage investigations of some of the irrigated districts
injured by surplus water in Utah, Washington. Nebraska, and Cali-
fornia, this work been paid for in part by State appropriations. These
investigations have been carried on as a preliminary step in the prep-
aration of drainage plans.
The past year has also demonstrated the benetits of good engineering
in securing the efficiency of drainage as a remedy for alkali. The
drains put in by .the farmers of Utah on lands which were regarded
as ruined by alkali have so relieved the lands in a single year that
they are now ready for cultivation, and land drained three years ago
according to plans prepared by the engineers of this Department, this
year produced -875 worth of sugar beets to the acre. Equally encour-
aging results on a larger scale have followed the carrying out of the
plans of the Department's engineers in the State of Washington.
The drainage of the swamp overflowed lands in the humid parts of
the United States would extend or greatly improve agriculture over
an area almost equal to that of the States of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.
This makes farm drainage a matter of National interest and importance.
Nor will the increase in agriculture mark the full measure of the bene-
fits of this drainage. Many of these swamps are a menace to the
health of surrounding neighborhoods and a great obstacle to the devel-
opment of commerce and manufacturing. The reclamation of some of
these areas, like the coastal swamps of the Carolinas. the Everglades
of Florida, and the St. Francis Basin iu Arkansas, presents agricul-
tural and engineering problems of great complexity, which can not
be solved by private enterprise; the cost and the area of country
involved are both too great. As a rule agricultural drainage requires
special legislation to provide for the organization of the district to be
benerited and the raising and expenditure of funds under public or
semipublic authority. The general interest manifested in drainage
in this country, with the large amount of work done at present, has
given rise to many important questions, legislative, financial, engineer-
ing, and agricultural. The calls on the Department along these lines
have been far greater than could be met. During the past year it has
rendered important aid by conferences with State officials and others
in making surveys and investigations to determine the feasibility of
large drainage projects and prepare plans for the work. During the
year this Department has carried on these surveys and investigations
in thirty-one of the forty-six States.
OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS.
Throughout the country, and more particularly in the rural districts,
there is a steadily growing demand for information as to the best
methods of road construction. Considering the country as a whole,
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 113
it is probably true that in no phase of development are we so back-
ward as in the extension of hard and durable roads. In the cases in
which the people are willing to expend money on the improvement of
their highways, it frequently happens that, owing to inexperience
and lack of organization, the money is partially or totally wasted. In
some communities abundantly able to support a system of good roads,
very little work is done, owing to a lack of knowledge of what can be
accomplished with the resources at hand. It is precisely in cases like
these that the work of the Office of Public Roads is proving of signal
value. While it is no part of the scope of its work to undertake the
construction of roads that can be and should be the care of communi-
ties within the States, the educational value of employing expert
supervision, as well as. to a limited extent, machinery for the con-
struction of sections of improved roads in different parts of the coun-
try, has been amply demonstrated.
The act of Congress making appropriation for the Office of Public
Roads makes three distinct requirements in relation to the work to be
performed, viz, to investigate systems of road administration through-
out the United States, to give expert advice on road construction, and
to investigate the chemical and physical properties of road material-.
During the past year the work of the Office lias been arranged in three
general divisions along the lines indicated.
The Office is also collecting information as to comparative cost of
road work, methods of building various types of roads. State-aid
roads, legislation regarding road management, the value of wide tires.
the use of convict labor in road building, cost of wagon transportation,
and bond issues for road improvement. Numerous inquiries are
received asking for information on the subject of the road laws of the
various States, and a complete digest of the road laws of all the States
is being prepared for publication.
EXPERT ADVICE OX ROAD COXSTRTXTIOX.
Expert advice on road construction has boon given and experi-
mental field work carried on by the Office. There were employed on
this work at the close of the fiscal year, in addition to the chief
engineer. 3 engineers. 1 consulting engineer. (3 engineer students.
(3 road experts, and 5 expert roller operators. Whenever it is pos-
sible and where application has been made in the proper Avay, object-
lesson roads are constructed for the purpose of illustrating the best
methods of road building. The local authorities furnish all material,
common labor, teams, and fuel, the Office supplying supervising engi-
neers and in some cases part or all of the necessary machinery. In
addition to this, tests are made to determine the best material
3 a 1906 8
114 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTV
available for the road. It freqa ippeas that these short -
- of object-lesson roads have subsequently led to the construction
of fin the localities in which they were
built. Daring the p I year 17 roads ;ilt in 11 Sta;
resenting" a wide diversity in character of construction and kin.;
material used.
In many cases in which rued ad the
miction of an obje . road, engineers and experts of the
Office are able I i give advice that enables local authorities to improve
the conditions and surmount difficulties. It is evident that wl
only small amount- of money are available for road improvement it is
frequent. r to improve the highways already existing than to
apt the construction of macadam roads. Special attention has
been given to this >rk and the Office has been able to do
much in developing- t - sand clay and burnt clay for roads in
large areas of cour. specially in the South, where no stone is
available.
In order to give expert advice on special problems which are con-
tinually arising in road construction and maintenance, it
to carrr on experimental work. Daring the past year method
rend ring - ted Hie growing as
motor vehicles L »d difficult problem to engineers
and road builder-. 3 xperiments were carried on at Jack-
son, Tens., daring spring and with
the citv engineer, to determine the value of coal tar for preventing dust
and preserving th' surface of macadam road-. iade
with Texas oil and its residuums on earth and macadam roads. The
- entailed in these experiment- was nnalL The quantity of tar
applied per square yard average-. _ lion and the cost of labor for
applying this quant: - : nan 1 cent per square yard.
.. -. including the winter season of 1906-6,
the tarred roads are .still in excellent condition.
Additional experim re conducted during the summer of 1
on the Potomac River driv. in W :>. D. C. ration
the .Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds. Crude coal tar
similar to that used at Jackson. Tenn.. was r. Fork. These
have been completed ttime. The great demand
: the country for - >rt of treatment of road
surfaces to .suppress the growing du-t nuisance has developed a num-
ber of materials which i imed will the purpose. Many
hese nia i h are mainly emulsions of oil and tar with
fcer, have been given trade names and patented. Il e hoped
careful experiment will show that some material like crude coal
tar. wb: b •• obtained and easily applied wherever ther.
plant, will prove to be efficient if properly used. It may be said that
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115
a large number of trials of crude tar in France and a few in this coun-
try, notably the one at Jackson, Tenn., have given excellent results.
In other cases partial or entire failure has followed the experiments,
and it yet remains to be determined whether the successful use of
materials of this nature can be developed. The Office will make
unremitting eli'orts to solve this problem by such experiments as can
be carried on in different parts of the country in cooperation with
local authorities.
In order to recruit th< ranks of engineers that arc necessary to the
success of the work of the Office, the plan was adopted of appointing
graduates from civil engineering schools to the positions of civil engi-
neer students, as fully explained in the annual report of the Office of
Public Roads for 1005. Up to June 30, 1006, nine students had been
appointed, at $600 per annum. Of this number three have been given
permanent appointments at increased salaries. The other six have not
yet completed the one-year course.
A number of schools and colleges have within recent years estab-
lished summer schools in road building.
INVESTIGATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF ROAD MATERIALS.
During the past year 381 samples were received at the laboratory
for routine tests, of which number 273 were samples of rock, intended
for macadam road building. Of the 273 samples, about 12 per
cent were limestone, 11 per cent dolomite, 10 per cent trap. S per
cent sandstone, and 8 per cent granite. The remaining samples were
of a miscellaneous character, including brick, cements, and sand.
Some of this testing work is done in cooperation with various Depart-
ments of the Government. A comparison of the demand for tests
with the records of previous years shows that it has increased about
33 per cent.
A significant fact, in connection with the laboratory work, is that a
very large number of samples have come from the Eastern and Mid-
dle States, which have not received much assistance in the form of
object-lesson roads. This tends to distribute uniformly the benefit
arising from the work of the Office.
There is a growing amount of cooperation between the various State
geologists and the Office in the preparation of data showing the
character of material suitable for road work in the different States.
From one State alone more than 80 samples have been tested. The
information thus secured has been used in a bulletin, recently prepared
and published by the geologist in charge, on the road-building
resources of this State. Chemical and physical examinations have
included practically all materials which directly or indirectly come
into use in road construction.
116 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The studies of decomposition of various kinds of rock dusts under
the action of water, which were undertaken in order to determine
the reasons for the important quality of binding power in macadam-
road materials, have brought to light some specially interesting facts.
For instance, it has been found that by mixing certain rocks of
inferior binding power on the surface of the road a much higher bind-
ing power results, as in the case of limestone and granite. As the
binding or cementing power of rocks is one of the chief factors in the
life of a road, the value of this discovery is of obvious importance.
These results, originally obtained in the laboratory, have been con-
firmed by observation and experiment on roads. In the course of this
investigation it was found that the decomposing action of water on
certain t}rpes of ground rocks went much further than had been pre-
viously believed to be the case. This applies to the alkalies, and
especially the potash, contained in many rocks. The results have sug-
gested the possible use of ground rock as a potash fertilizer. Work
along this line has now been turned over to another Bureau of the
Department, where it can be appropriately followed up and carefully
investigated.
Owing to the numerous complaints of farmers in regard to the rapid
deterioration of the modern fence wire in comparison with that manii-'
factured in former years, an investigation of the subject was begun to
see what could be done to remedy the defect. Farmers' Bulletin 239
contains a report of this investigation, which has aroused the interest
of manufacturers and has determined some of them to take active
steps toward producing a fence wire more resistant to atmospheric
corrosion.
The scarcity of timber in many sections of the country, not only for
construction work, but for fence posts, has in recent years led to a
more general use of concrete. This material is admirably adapted for
farm purposes, but there seems to be a general lack of knowledge con-
cerning its preparation and use. After a series of tests and investi-
gations, Farmers' Bulletin 235 was issued, giving full information
concerning cement, cement mortar, the mixing of concretes, and the
construction of concrete sidewalks, driveways, fence posts, etc. A
number of persons throughout the country who claim to have obtained
special patents on concrete fence posts have attempted to prevent
fanners from constructing their own posts by threats of prosecution
for infringement. In view of the fact that concrete construction of
all kinds reenforced with plain, straight, metal strips, bars, and tubes
has been in general use in all countries for many years, the claims ol
such persons are usually without warrant. The Office has been enabled
to be of great service to farmers by making it clear to them that, unless
special forms and devices of reenforccment were employed which were
REPOKT OF THE SECRETARY. 117
distinctly patentable, no rights were infringed l>3r the use of concrete
with plain metal reenforcement.
Before being- assigned to work in the field the engineer students
employed in the Office receive a course of instruction in the testing
laboratory. This work consists in actually making the various tests
of road materials and computing results. The information thus
obtained is considered necessary in connection with the selection of
the best materials for road construction before a thorough understand-
ing of the relations which exist between laboratory tests and the
behavior of these materials under traffic can be gained.
A number of new projects and lines of investigation have been
mapped out for the immediate future.
Outside of the laboratory a study of road machinery will be under-
taken to determine the suitability of various t\Tpes for different kinds
of road work.
Cooperation will be sought with the Geological Survey for the pur-
pose of indicating the various classes of roads on topographic maps
issued b}T the Survey. Cooperation has been begun with the Forest
Service in laying out and constructing wagon roads and trails in forest
reserves to facilitate lumbering. As a beginning one engineer has been
detailed to this work and has been some months in the Yellowstone
Reserve. The tield report indicates that much good will follow the pre-
liminary survey which has been made.
Cooperation with the Post-Office Department has been begun in
order to facilitate rural delivery b}r the improvement of country roads.
This work is of vital importance. The plan, which carries the approval
of the Secretary of Agriculture and the Postmaster-General, provides
that whenever a road upon which a rural route has been or is about
to be established is reported by the carrier or inspector to be impassable
or in bad repair, the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General will advise
the Director of the Office of Public Roads of the fact and request that
he have an engineer inspector detailed to examine the road and give
such advice and instruction to the local officials as may be required.
Upon receipt of such information from the Fourth Assistant Post-
master-General, the Director of the Office of Public Roads will com-
municate with the local officials and supply them with a copy of the
circular of instructions and a blank form for making application for
the detail of such engineer inspector. It is not the purpose of the
Office of Public Roads to actually construct the road or to make any
contribution in money, materials, or labor. In most cases a road is
impassable on account of defects which can be remedied by the use of
proper methods. The engineer inspector who examines the road will
note carefully all such defects and advise as to what steps can be taken
to place the road in proper condition without great expense. If prac-
118 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tic-able, and if so desired, he may in some cases assume temporary
direction of the work for the purpose of instruction.
A - the chief aim and purpose of the Office of Public Roads is to bring
about a general and uniform improvement of the country roads through-
oat the United States, a cooperative plan such as the one described
above offers the best possible means of achieving positive result- in
furtherance of that purpose. By this means correct methods of road
building and road maintenance will be introduced into practically every
section of the country. The engineer inspectors assigned to thi> work
will, in visiting places which have requested assistance of this charac-
ter, follow an itinerary which will include a number of places in a
d territory. This will greatly minimize the expense of each
inspection and permit the inspector to cover a much larger territory
than would be possible in a special assignment to each place. A begin-
ning has been made during the current fiscal year, and efforts will be
made to increase the scope of the work in the future.
EXPENDITURES ANT) EMPLOYEES.
Congre<> appropriated $7,175,690 for the maintenance of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for the year ended June 30, 1906. This was
$1,081,150 more than the appropriation for the preceding year. In
addition the Department received from various sources, chiefly sales
of product-. Si;,. 4~oAo. At the close of the vear there was >till
unexpended, of the appropriation. $1,175,362.15, nearly all of which
will be required to meet outstanding obligations. The unexpended
balance for the year 1904 ($55,712.37) was. on June 30, 1906, covered
into the Treasury. The account for 1906 was still open. Of the
special appropriations aggregating $1,250,000 for new building-.
- _ r.25 had >>een expended prior to September 1". 1906.
For the current year (ending June 30, 1907) Congress appropriated
I LO, 44" for the regular work of the Department. The increase i-
chiefly due to the broadening of the meat inspection. For that service
the permanent appropriation is $3,000,000. The estimated revenues
" . ••«> from sales of products of the forest reserves and $780,934. 68
available for the new buildings bring the total amount to be disbursed
by this Department during the current year up to $10,691,374.68.
The number of persons on the rolls of the Department of Agricul-
ture on July 1. 1906, was, outside of "Washington. 4,648; in Washing-
ton. 1,594; total. 6,242, showing an increase during the year of 796.
Of the total number, more than l.<s<X) have been on the rolls for six
year- or longer. In the classified service i'17 were promoted in salary
and clas-. and 403 resigned. The total number of deaths during the
vear was 28.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 119
NEW BUILDING FOR THE DEPARTMENT.
The act approved February 9, 1903, authorizing an appropriation of
$1,500,000 for a new building, made possible the beginning of the
construction of suitable quarters for the accommodation of the Depart-
ment'.'- work.
It was very necessary in the new building- operations to make
arrangements for future requirements, and with this in mind, together
with the imperative need for suitable laboratories to carry on the
important investigations of the various Bureaus, it was concluded to
erect two segments of a building, so arranged that extensions could be
provided as required, these segments to be used primarily for labora-
tory work and to provide fireproof accommodations for the Library.
Contracts have been awarded for structures of suitable type and
design to correspond with other Government buildings in the city, the
ba>e being constructed of granite and the superstructure of white
marble.
The work has now progressed, with the exception of the interior
finish, to approximately the fourth-floor line, and it is probable that
the roof will be on before the winter season. The rooting and closing
in will allow the interior work to be carried on during the winter
without interruption, which, without unforeseen complications, will
insure the completion of operations within the contract time, namely.
November 11, 1907, and within the 8l.5n0.O00 authorized by Con-
gress. The mechanical equipment work, including the heating and
ventilating apparatus, the electric wiring and conduit systems, and
the electric elevators, has been started, and these systems will be
read}* for use at the time of the completion of the buildings.
The estimated growth of the Department, made at the time the
appropriation for the new building was approved, has been greatly
exceeded. Statistics show that there has been during this period of
approximately three and one-half years, exclusive of the Weather
Bureau, an increase in the number of emplovees of from 1,037 to 1,183
in Washington, D. C making a percentage increase of 13. Further,
the space required by this force of employees has increased from 137,963
square feet to approximately 261,000, this being a 00 per cent
increase, and the rentals paid from the Department appropriation
have increased from $21,700 to $51,108.00. or over 150 per cent.
This rapid increase will require other segments of the proposed
buildings to be constructed before the Department will have sufficient
and suitable accommodations for its work and before the large amount
paid annually for rentals can be substantially decreased.
To carry on the work of the Department in an efficient manner on
the lines laid down in the foregoing report has necessitated provision
for somewhat increased appropriations. This report will fall short
120 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of its purpose if it has not made clear the importance of the interests
the Department is designed to serve, and the necessity for carrying
on its work. Moreover, the duties devolving upon it are imposed
upon it by law. and it is with full appreciation of these several con-
siderations that estimates for its expenses must be viewed. The esti-
mates for the ensuing year have been most conservatively prepared,
based upon the lines of work imposed upon the Department by the
Congress, and I earnestly commend them to the favorable considera-
tion of that body.
Kespectfully submitted.
James Wilsox, Secretary.
Washington, D. C,
November &£, 1906.
NEW PROBLEMS OF THE WEATHER.
By Willis L. Moore, W. J. Humphreys, and O. L. Fassig,
Of the Weather Bureau.
A knowledge of the coming- weather enters so intimately into every
contemplated human action that the question is often asked: What are
the prospects for further improvement in the accuracy of weather fore-
casts, and can the seasons ever be foretold ? The answer is that, while the
Government has a corps of forecasters who are now applying all of the
knowledge of the atmosphere that has been revealed, little hope for
material improvement in their work can be held out until a substantial
addition is made to the pure science of the problem. This can only
come through experiment, stud}7, and research. With 200 stations
engaged in applying the "science, it is a wise economy to devote at least
one of them to the work of adding to the knowledge that is now costing
us nearly a million and a half dollars annually to apply. Accordingly,
those in charge have endeavored to lay out a plan of study and research
leading to an increase in our knowledge of the laws governing the
atmosphere such as should eventually enable our successors, if not
ourselves, to add to the accuracy of weather forecasts and to make
them for a longer period in advance.
THK MOUNT WEATHER RESEARCH OBSERVATORY.
In order that this country ma3T do its share toward the advance-
ment of meteorology along the lines that specially relate to conditions
in America, it is imperative that the Weather Bureau should establish
an observatory for its own special research work. A piece of land has
therefore been secured and work has been inaugurated at an estab-
lishment that is intended to respond to the present and prospec-
tive needs of meteorology. This establishment is called the Mount
Weather Research Observatory, and is organized on a broad and
elastic basis, so that it may from year to year expand with the growing
knowledge of our needs. (See Pis. I— III. )
STUDY OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE.
In order to prosecute the researches contemplated at Mount Weather,
a plant has been established there especially adapted to the investiga-
tion of the physical condition of the atmosphere at great elevations
above the surface of the earth. Hitherto our knowledge of the
121
122 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
conditions of temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind velocity and
direction has been based upoo observations made at or near the
surface of the earth or upon mountain peaks. Current conceptions
of the laws of storms and of the general circulation of the atmosphere
are based upon such observations almost entirely. Records obtained
in recent yean by means of balloons have demonstrated the existence
of hitherto unsuspected variations and contrasts in temperatui
very great elevations, and have shown thai rations on mountain
tops and at equal elevations in the free air vary widely.
The necessity for a better knowledge of temperature condition- at
great elevations has directed the minds of many mete ists to the
study of the best method- for lifting self-recording instruments high
above the earth's surface. The result has been the invention in recent
years of ingenious forms of kites and of specially designed balloons
for this purpose. The kite has again become an instrument for
scientific research, and now enables us to bring down ro
atmospheric conditions at elevations of 2 and 3 miles, and even of 4
miles, as was recently demonstrated at the German aeronautical
observatory near Lindenberg- By mean .all rubber balloons.
marvelously light self-recording instruments have been carried up to
the remarkable heights of 10 to 15 miles, bringing back record- of
low temperatures and high wind velocities which have been a revela-
tion to meteorologists — records which are compelling a reconstruction
of existing ideas concerning the dynamics of the atmosphere.
Pioneer work along these lines was begun some years ago by means
of kites, both at Weather Bureau stations and. under the direction of
Mr. A. L. Botch, at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Bo-ton. Mass.
By experiments begun at St. Louis at the time of the World's Fair
in the summer of 1904, Mr. Botch also initiated the practice in this
country of -ending up small rubber balhu, 5.
The observatory at Mount Weather is now well equipped with the
necessary plant for carrying on this new and promising work of aerial
Eurch, and has for nearly a year been cooperating with European
institutions and with the Blue Hill Observatory in -ending up. on
prearranged day-, kite- or captive balloon-. These kite- may be
raised in wind- varying from 10 mile- per hour to 35 or 40 mile- at
tie- surface. With winds of less than 1" miles per hour it is necessary
to employ captive balloon-. To attain great height- -mall free nil
balloon- of -l or :) cubic yard- capacity, called pilot balloon-, are
employed. The instrument- carried by the kite- and balloons vary
in weight from 1£ to 3 or i pounds and record variations in the tem-
perature, the pre-sure. the humidity of the air. and the wind velocity.
The balloons are filled with hydrogen gas in order to secure the
greatest lifting power. This necessitates the use of special apparatus
for the manufacture of hydrogen. At the Mount Weather Research
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate I.
Buildings and Apparatus at Mount Weather, Va.
p..— Power house and balloon shed. 2.— Revolving kite and balloon shed. 3.— The Siegs-
feld kite balloon. 4. — Hergesell balloon meteorograph in protecting basket]
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate II.
Appliances in Use at Mount Weather, Va.
[1. — French balloon meteorograph. 2. — Marvin kite meteorograph with anemometer.
3. — Hargrave-Marvin box kites. 4. — Marvin meteorograph, with record.]
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Plate III.
Buildings and Instruments at Mount Weather, Va.
[l.-Administration building. 2.-Magnetic observatory buildings. 3.-Interior of m
observatory-magnetometer and indicator. ^.-Interior of magnetic observatory-decli-
nometer and theodolite.]
NEW PROBLEMS OF THE WEATHEL. 123
Observatory a strong electric current is passed through water, break-
ing up the liquid into its constituent elements of hydrogen and oxy-
gen. These gases are then collected and stored in appropriate tanks
for future use as occasion may require.
.V- the small pilot balloons carry up their Instruments to height.-, of
many miles, where the prevailing temperatures are at all times very
low (sometimes exceeding 100 : Fahrenheit below zero), it is neces-ary
to test the accuracy of the thermographs at these low points. For
this purpose the observatory is equipped with a plant for the manu-
facture of liquid air. by means of which the instruments may Detested
to the lowest points likely to be reached at great elevations.
In the near future these small rubbei pilot balloons, carrying with
them to elevations of 30.000 to 50,000 feet the light self-recording
instruments referred to, will be liberated simultaneously at 20 to 30
Weather Bureau stations surrounding typical storm centers. Obser-
vation.- obtained in this manner at various elevations when com-
pared with the records made at the same time at the surface of the
earth will doubtless throw much new light upon the mechanism of
storms, cold waves, etc.. and give to meteorologists a better under-
standing of the general circulation of the atmosphere.
STUDY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN sL'N AND WEATHER.
As one of the primary objects in view in establishing Mount Weather
Observatory is to make a study of the relations existing between the
various forms of solar radiation and terrestrial weather conditions,
much attention has been given to the instrumental equipment and to
securing men to study the variations in the amount of heat energy
given off by the sun from day to day and variations in the amount of
heat absorbed by the atmosphere. Some work along these lines has
already been done; but a special building and instruments will soon be
necessary for the study of these important problems of solar physics.
At present the most sensitive index of changes in solar energy is the
Suspended magnet. There is no doubt that changes in the intensity
and direction of the magnetic force as registered at the earth's surface
are coincident with the appearance and disappearance of certain well-
recognized periodic phenomena observed on the face of the sun. Ic
is fortunate that we have in the magnetism of the earth a terrestrial
element which varies in delicate sympathetic relation with the activi-
ties of the sun and is at the same time subject to continuous observa-
tion and registration. To appreciate the value of terrestrial magnetism
as a faithful index of the state of the sun it should be understood that
not only are there regular ebbs and flows of magnetic force in response
to the sun's annual approach and recession, his axial rotation and daily
passage through the heavens but even the outburst of a solar spot is
simultaneously announced by a disturbance of the earth's magnetism.
124 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
So important to the study of the sun is a continuous record of the
magnetic variations that one of the first steps in the establishment of
the observatory was the installation of a magnetic plant consisting of
the best modern instruments for the direct observation and for the
continuous registration of the variations in the magnetism of the earth.
The standard observatory instruments, both for continuous registra-
tion and direct measurement, are of the type devised by Wild for the
model magnetic observatory at Pavlovsk. Russia. These are supple-
mented by a set of Eschenhagen magnetographs, the extreme sensi-
tiveness of which peculiarly fits them for recording minute fluctua-
tions of the earth's magnetic force.
The principal application #f the results of the observations will-be
to supplement the direct observations of the sun. and thus to carry on
the record of the solar activity continuously day and night in all con-
ditions of weather. Researches will also be carried on to determine
the existence and measure the extent of probable direct relations
between meteorological disturbances and magnetic variations. The
magnetic records will also be specially studied in conjunction with the
results of observations of the radioactivity and the electrical condition
of the air. particularly during thunder-storms and at times of auro-
ral displays, for the purpose of revealing their relation to meteoro-
logical conditions.
EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS.
The physical laboratory is not yet completed, and consequently it
has not been possible to undertake investigations here in experimental
physics. However, through the kindness of the authorities of the
University of Virginia a good deal of spectroscopic work has been
done at that institution. Some of the results have been published in
the Astrophysical Journal, and there are many data yet on hand to be
worked up at the earliest opportunity. An investigation, by the aid
of a large telescope, of the causes and meteorological relations of the
scintillation of stars is in progress at the University of Virginia along
line- suggested by one of the Mount Weather officials. A special
photometer has been devised for the purpose of measuring the relative
densities of clouds, particularly when the entire sky is covered. As
soon as the laboratory is completed and equipped investigations will
be begun on atmospheric electricity, its origin, distribution, and laws,
the causes and nature of precipitation, heat and light absorption, and
other physical phenomena of importance to the meteorologist.
THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE MTROGEX PROBLEM.
By A. F. Woods.
Pathologist and Physiologist and Assistant Chut of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
INTRODUCTION.
One of the greatest problems in the maintenance of soil fertility
for the maximum production of crops is how to secure and keep a
sufficient supply of available nitrogen at the least cost. For mosl
our arable lands it is now pretty well agreed that this is a problem of
bacteriology, with the soil as a culture medium. As in most other
great problems, nature and practical experience hare pointed the
way to its solution. Many of the standard practices of cultiva:
crop rotation, etc.. which have developed from experience have very
important relations to bacterial action in the soil. In fact, the true
relation of many of these practices can be understood only from the
standpoint of bacterial activity. It remains for science to explain.
systematize, and improve practice, placing conditions more accu-
rately tmder our control. The sources of nitrogen supply are. first.
the nitrogen already contained in soils: second, that supplied to the
soil by the decay of organic matter; and, third, the fixation of atmos-
pheric nitrogen.
THE DIRECTLY AVAILABLE NITROGEN CONTENT OF SOILS.
The nitrogen in soils is of two types: (1) The ammonia, nitrites,
and nitrates, in which forms it is available to crops; and (2) the-
nitrogen locked up in organic matter and not directly available. The
nitrate nitrogen (nitrogen in the form of nitrates) is in most soils
present only in small quantity. This supply is quickly taken out by
crops or washed out by rains, and if it is not renewed by the action
of certain bacteria on the nitrogenous organic matter in the soil or
from the atmosphere by other bacteria it must be added direct:
nitrate of soda or nitrate of potash, or some other manure musl
used containing directly available nitrogen. Manures containing
directly available nitrogen are very expensive. The best of these is
nitrate of soda, and at the present rate of use the known supply will
be exhausted in less than fifty years. More than 1.543.120 tons were
used in 1905. Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson has reiterated in a
125
126 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
recent address0 the prophecy of Prof . William Crookes. that we shall
have a wheat famine unless the yield per acre, averaging for the
whole world 12T", bushels, can be increased. He believes with
Crookes and many others who have studied the question carefully
that the supply of nitrates is the most important factor in the situ-
ation, and it is important not only for wheat but for all other crops.
We are not. howeYer, as Prof--.' Thompson seems to believe,
dependent on the electrical method, briefly discussed later in this
paper, for obtaining this supply. The larger part of the nitrogen
required in agriculture is now and will always be obtained from the
atmosphere through the _ in soil bacteria. By careful
iiiiisms and their requirements we can greatly
increase their activity. The electrical method, however, will be use-
ful m supplying a part of the immediately available nitrate needed
in intensive agricultural operati
THE DECAY OF ORGANIC MATTER.
The organic matters which are added to the soils in manures and
in vegetable and animal remains must go through certain proo
of decay before the plant foods they contain become available to
crops. Bacteria and fungi of various kinds are the active agents
which bring about these changes. Decay is not a simple process, the
in all placi ider all conditions. The process varies when
the same materials under the same conditions are acted upon by
different organisms or groups of bacteria which produce it.
In general, organic materials contain two classes of compounds:
The nit: _ us or albuminoid compounds, like flesh and blood
and the protoplasm of plant celh: 2 the nonni'
enous compounds — the carbohydrates (such suf! starches, and
cellulose and the hydrocarbons, as fats. The firs: class contains
the nitrogen formerly taken from the soil as nitrate by some plant.
which i: its highly organized form is unavailable to crops until
converted into ammonia or nitrate again by certain bacteria. The
compounds of the second class serve as food for certain bacteria
which are al .tain their nitrogen from the air and will be dis-
cussed later.
The highly organized nitrogenous materials above mentioned, in
containing a good supply of phosphates, potash, carbonate of
lime, and air. moisture, and the right kinds of bacteria, are first mod-
ified or digested into soluble peptones by a class of bacteria which
secrete a peptonizing ferment. Bae&hu i ■ Zopf, B. rfUn-
;ron. B. myetrides Fliigge. etc.. are good examples of this
p. 355, 1906.
THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 127
class. These peptonized products (peptones and albumoses) are
then converted into ammonia through the action of these same species
and other ammonifying bacteria. The ammonia may then be con-
verted into nitrite by another class of bacteria, principally Nitro-
monas europse, widely distributed hi Europe, and by species of Nitro-
coccus, said to be peculiar to the soils of America and Australia,0 The
nitrite is then oxidized to nitrate by still another kind of bacterium,
Nitrobacter.
On the other hand, if the soil is poorly aerated or deficient in mois-
ture, lime, or other miner;:! plant foods, the course of this digestion or
decay of organic matter is modified. Acids accumulate, and the
bacterial action is largely replaced by that of fungi and forms of bac-
teria that can grow in the presence of acids. The organic matter
becomes more or less pickled or humified. The more active forms of
peptonizing and ammonifying bacteria and the nitrifying forms are
suppressed by the conditions unfavorable to their development. Pea ty
soils represent the extreme of this type. In the improvement of such
soils the great stores of nitrogen and carbon of the humus may be
made available by the addition of the mineral foods if they are lack-
ing— especially carbonate of lime or potash — by proper aeration, and
finally by the addition of the peptonizing, ammonifying, and nitrify-
ing bacteria. In the present state of our knowledge the last is best
accomplished b}T spreading a few hundred pounds per acre of good,
naturally rich, well-worked loam, which usually contains these bacte-
ria. Care should be taken, however, to secure this inoculating soil
from fields known to be free from serious weeds, insects, and plant-
disease organisms. It is to be hoped that our knowledge of soil bac-
teriology will develop in the near future to the point where we will be
able to determine by bacterial analysis what organisms are present in a
given soil and what bacteria are needed to raise the bacterial activity
to the highest state of efficiency, assuming of course that the proper
conditions for their growth have been supplied. Briefly, these con-
ditions are a warm temperature, good aeration brought about by
thorough and frecment cultivation, proper moisture conditions, also
favored by thorough and frequent cultivation, good drainage, and a
gooel supply of decaying organic, matter, carbonate of lime, phos-
phates, and other mineral foods.
a Hall, Alfred D. The Soil, p. 72, 1903.
12S
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The following table, taken from Bulletin 60 01 the Delaware College
Agricultural Experiment Station, by F. D. Chester, shows the vary-
ing activity of some of the bacteria here under discussion:
Chemical functions of certain soil bacteria.
Liquefaction and pep-
tonization <>i" media.
1 ulturc.
Bacillus tumescent Zopf:
Culture I
Culture 5139
Cul
Cur. ir " -
Culture 5201
Bacillus cllenbackiensis Caron:
Culture I
Culture 5167
Culture 5200
BaciUus alcaligcnrs Petruscbky
var. i<ulvinatus Chester
:'igcncs var. dcla-
rariensis Chester
Strcptothrix scli Chester
■ri.r brown sp. indt
Bacillus mycoides Flugge
descent Ford
lim. (?)
Bacillus sp. indt.:
Culture 5140
Gi latin.
Blood
serum.
+ +
-
+ 4-
+
++
+
+ +
-
+ +
+
--
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
-
+
+
+
+ +
+
Milk.
II.
Ammo-
nifying
-
cient.
1.2
1.6
2.3
3.0
•1.2
10.0
25.0
25.0
Trace.
13.0
f.O
5.0
12.0
10.0
IV.
\ei lifying coeffi-
cient.
III.
. ion
of nitra
to nitrites. Dext rose
broth.
Saccha-
rose
broth.
1. 66
1.85
3. tO
1.40
2.55
2.44
2. HI
1.55
0
0
0
0
0
0
2. 22
2.71
1.80
1.S0
0
0
1.30
111 this table a single plus sign ( +) indicates feeble or slow activity,
a double phis ( + + ) indicates a strong activity of the kind indicated
he head of the column, and a minus sign ( — ) indicates no activity
of the kind. The figures in column II indicate the relative ammonify-
ing activity, and those in column IV the acidifying activity. One
important deduction from this table is that the different species vary
widely in their ability to accomplish certain work and that cultures of
the scies vary greatly. There is therefore opportunity to
increase bacterial efficiency in a soil by selection and introduction of
the most effective species and the most effective strains of these spe-
and to reduce in number the inefficient and injurious species,
king of conditions favorable to a beneficial or desired
is not sufficient to insure its development unless there is a
large number of individuals of the desired species present. There are
many species of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent — that can
develop under the same conditions, just as there are many weeds that
grow vigorously under conditions favorable to crops. It may be
THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 129
necessary in some cases to reduce the number of these forms. It
is essential that an accurate knowledge be gained of all the organisms
occurring in various soils, the changes that they produce, their sym-
biotic and antagonistic relations and the conditions affecting them,
and the relation of their activity to crop production. Chester" has
suggested a very good method for accomplishing this in a uniform
manner. A few examples of some of his determinations of bacterial
or zymotic efficiency of various soils will be instructive.
A soil from the experiment station garden, Newark, Del., consisting
of a heavy clay loam which had been brought to a high state of fertility
by plowing under crimson clover for a number of years and kept under
active tillage, gave the average results of two analyses as follows:
Per gram
of dry soil.
Streptothrix soli 1, COO, 000
Bacillus tumesa ns 1, 200, 000
Bacillus alcaligenes var. delavariensis 330, 000
Total 3, 130, 000
As shown in the table on page 128, B. turnescens is the only one of these
organisms that can convert nitrogenous matter into peptones with any
degree of energy. The relative ammonifying power of these organ-
isms is proportionate to the ammonifying power of the individual
organism and to the number of organisms. On this basis this soil
has a relative ammonifying efficiency of 13.73 and an acidifying
efficiency of 2.22.
Nearly a year later (April 11, 1903) an examination of this same
soil showed a great reduction in the number and activity of the
bacteria present:
Per gram
of dry soil.
Streplothrix soli 20. 000
Bacillus turnescens 745, 000
Bacillus alcaligenes var. pulrinatus 20, 000
Bacillus ellenbachiensis 170, 000
Bacillus mycoides 20, 000
Streptothrix sp. indt 319, 000
Total 1, 294. 000
The relative ammonifying efficiency of the soil at this time was
determined to be only 2.48 and the total acidifying efficiency 1.81.
The bacterial or zymotic efficiency of this soil is therefore much lower
than it was at the first examination.
" Bui. G5, Del. Col. Agric. Exp. Sta.
3 a 1906 9
130 Yi ARBooK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
i to May 11. 1903, a simple of soil from sandy land which had been
brought into a good state of fertility was examined, with the following
Its:
-ram
of d r.
Ba< ■.sis 140.000
Bacillus alcaligenes var. delarariensis 3S0. 000
Bacilli's I -0. 000
Total 540. 000
The relative ammonifying efficiency is 8.9; the acidifying efficiency
only o.'v It is interesting to note that the bacterial efficiency of
this soil is nearly three times as great as that of the station soil at the
id examination, though the latter contained approximately three
times the number of bacteria. This is explained by the great effi-
ciency of Bacillus (.llcnbachiensis.
Nitrification and nitrogen-fixing activity can be determined and
expressed on a relative basis in a similar manner. The addition of
available nitrogen to soils through the decay of nitrogenous matter
can never exceed or even approximate the amount taken from the
soil in the production of that organic material. It represents a gain
in nitrogen only in the sense that it is saved. It is not desirable that
its conversion into soluble form should much exceed the demands of
the crop: otherwise it may be lost. It is evident, however, that with
the great waste of organic matter which must inevitably go on we must
have other sources of nitrogen to cover the loss and meet the rapidly
increasing demand for it, not only in agriculture but in other arts.
THE FIXATION OF ATMOSPHERIC XITEOGEX BY SOIL BACTERIA.
Leaving, now, the question of the changes in the nitrogenous organic
matter in the -oil. we will consider the fixation of atmospheric nitro-
gen by a class of bacteria that uses the carbohydrate constituents
(sugar, starches, cellulose, etc.) of the vegetable matter in the soil.
There are two classes of bacteria that can fix atmospheric nitrogen:
(1) Those that are not associated with any particular crops, and 2
the root-nodule forms associated principally with legumes. The first
p depends on the carbohydrate material in the organic matter of
the -oil derived from decaying vegetation or from certain minute
(the Cyanophyceae or blue-green aigsB). The second group depend;-
principally on the carbohydrates supplied by the plants in the roots
of which the bacteria are growing. The latter class will be considered
later.
The independent soil forms are widely distributed and belong to
several genera. A very good comparison of some of these has been
made by Chester, and is shown in the table on the following page
taken from Bulletin 66, Delaware College Agricultural Experiment
Station.
THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM.
131
Gains of n < ecliabyari assimilating organisms.
Si. i tn culture.
Milligrams
Dura- oi nitrogen
tion of per 100 c. c. of
cuUure amnoculated
in days. medium
(blank'.
Millie
of oil ■
per lOOc.c.
in culture.
Cains of
nil rogen in
culture in
milligrams
per 100 c.c.
Percent-
age of
gaiu of
nitro-
gen.*
organism purccul-
M
40
15
30
10
28
IG
28
15
30
28
15
30
28
28
28
28
15
30
15
30
0. 600
. 538
.490
.578
.440
. 4 to
.400
. 400
.490
.578
l.CO
.490
. 578
1.00
l.Oi)
1.00
1.00
. ; o
. 578
.490
.57S
l. 184
2.450
1.490
1.000
1.710
1.720
1. 872
1.542
2.12
1.172
2.940
1.87
1.81
1.87
2.25
1.642
1.792
2. 536
0. too
1.470
. 994
t.872
1.011
1. 151
1.3»
i se
.888
.064
1. 12
.483
2.362
.87
.81
.87
1. 25
1.102
1.312
1.502
1.978
100
Do
Do
r<:< ■.'.'■'«.'' tnmesttns
Do
27*
324
23 1
259
J'tci.doi: set ns var. nanli-
§27
Do
330
160
Do
Do
1C7
112
1S9
401
Do
S7
81
s7
.
125
icterwitfc—
235
227
acster with—
26G
: [2
"Tli ttiis column are aboul 108 lose than those given in the bulleti cil d nd showthe
actual par cent of gain in nitrogen.
Ill warm, well-aerated soils containing sugars, starches, and cellulose
from decaying grasses and other vegetation, and well supplied with
carbonate of lime or other bases and mineral foods, these bacteria fix
considerable atmospheric nitrogen. The amount, of course, depends
upon the nature and amount of carbohydrate food available, the
specie.-, present, their number, and the degree of favorabieness of the
other factors mentioned. In ordinary cultivated soils the supply of
available carbohydrate materials is the factor that usually limits free-
nitrogen fixation. The almost complete removal of crops leaves very
little carbonaceous food for these bacteria. To stimulate the develop-
ment of these bacteria, assuming that they are present, it is essential
that considerable carbonaceous matter be incorporated into the soil.
In grass lands and in wild lands generally, where much of the carbon-
aceous matter produced finally becomes incorporated with the soil, the
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by the Azotobacter group" and the
a Beijerinck, who described these forms, hold? that Azotobacter can fix atmospheric
nitrogen only ir association with other forms, such as Granulobaeter and Radiobacter.
This point, however, is not yet definitely settled. It is settled, though, that these
- working together fix nitrogen much more actively than when they work inde-
pendently.
132 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
other independent nitrogen-fixing bacteria is very great. An exami-
nation of two fields at Rothamsted which had run wild for more than
twenty years showed an accumulation of nitrogen of approximately 45
pounds per acre per annum hi a field poorly supplied with carbonate of
lime, and 98 pounds per acre per annum in a field well supplied with
carbonate of lime. Bacteriological tests of these fields showed that
Azotobacter was present in much larger numbers and had greater
powers of fixation in the field containing an abundance of carbonate of
lime.'7
This has been going on in connection with, but entirely independent
of, nitrification for ages, wherever the conditions are favorable and the
proper bacteria are present. This is true especially of prairie soils in
all parts of the world. The work of these organisms represents an
absolute gain hi available nitrogen. It is highly essential that we
should learn more about them and get better control of their activities
for the benefit of agriculture. An attempt has been made to do this in
the preparation of "'Alinit/'' which is a culture of Bacillus eUeribachi-
. This is. however, a species of very small, if any. nitrogen-fixing
power. It is of more value as a peptonizer and ammonifier. When it
has given good results it has probably been where it was needed for such
work rather than nitrogen fixation. Success in the use of cultures can
come only when bacteria of high efficiency are selected for a particular
kind of work, and are used under conditions favorable to their develop-
ment and where examination indicates that they are needed. A few
failures due to imperfect knowledge must not discourage workers in
this important field. Excellent work is being accomplished hi the
study of these forms hi this country, especially by Voorhees and Lip-
man, of the Xew Jersey station, and Chester, of the Delaware station.6
ROOT-NODULE BACTERIA.
The bacteria of this class, like the Azotobacter group, are able under
favorable conditions to fix more or less atmospheric nitrogen hide-
pendent of legumes. They reach their highest efficiency, however,
when growing hi the roots of legumes (clovers, alfalfa, peas, be
. where they usually form nodules. The origin of the specii
sibly from a soil form. Radiobacter, commonly growing in associa-
tion with Azotobacter.
The value of leguminous crops as soil improvers has been well
known for centuries, and they are regularly used for this purpose,
especially in the older agricultural countries. It is. however, only
since the work of Hellriegel and TTilfarth in 1SSS that it has been
a Science, ivv, . XXII. p. 455.
• Bui. 1n>. X.J. Agr. Exp. Sta., and the station reports for 1903 and 1904; also
the Dela a q bulletins previously referred to.
THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 133
universally recognized that the ability of these crops to grow in soil
devoid of nitrogen is due to the presence of certain bacteria in the
root nodules. These bacteria have been carefully studied by many
investigators in Europe and in this country, and much valuable infor-
mation has been secured regarding them. The literature of the sub-
ject has been reviewed so many times in various publications that
it is not necessary to go over it again.0
It has been amply demonstrated, not only by hundreds of years
of actual experience but by numberless carefully conducted experi-
ments in many countries and under widely varying conditions, that
clovers and numerous other legumes supplied with tubercle bacteria
obtain from the air through the agency of these bacteria, under favor-
able conditions, all the nitrogen they require, and that they leave
in the soil considerable quantities for succeeding crops. In Germany
the amount of nitrogen added to the soil by legumes, besides that taken
off in the crop, is estimated at 200 pounds per acre. In the United
States the average for sixteen States is 122 pounds, equivalent to
not less than 800 to 1,000 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre.a These
effects, of course, are secured where the conditions for fixation are
favorable, viz, where the soil is abundantly supplied with nodule
bacteria of high efficiency and where the available nitrogen content
of the soil is low and the soil is well supplied with carbonate of lime
or its equivalent, and when the phosphates and other elements of
available plant food are present in sufficient quantity. If the soil
is already rich in nitrates, the leguminous crop may do no more than
maintain the nitrogen equilibrium. This is an important thing to do,
however, inasmuch as this nitrogen will be required by subsequent
crops in the rotation and the requirement of expensive nitrogenous
manures is thereby reduced.
VARIETIES AND EFFICIENCY OF ROOT-NODULE BACTERIA.
It is now pretty well agreed that the nodule bacteria on most
legumes belong to the same species. However, there are well-defined
strains or varieties especially adapted to certain genera and species
of legumes which adapt themselves with more or less difficulty to
other genera and species. The immediate efficiency of the bacteria
will, therefore, depend upon the natural or artificial inoculation of
the particular legume with the best strain of bacteria adapted to it.
In soils, therefore, where it is desired to cultivate a particular legume,
and where that legume or a closely related species has not been suc-
cessfully cultivated and well supplied with nodules, it is desirable
that the proper bacteria be supplied. Experiments and practical
tests made by this Department show that there is great variation
a See Bui. 71, Bureau of Plant Industry.
134 YEARBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGKICVLTV
in the nitrogen-fixing power of these bacteria, dependent in part
upon the conditions under which they have been growing. If they
are in a soil which provides them with an abundant supply of c
bined ni they ultimately Lose, t- ge extent, the power
of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Under such e of
little or no benefit to the crop. It is an easy matt select strains
of high nitrogen-fixing power as indicated by the • aria
on the crop when growing in comparatively nitrogen-free - Is The
cultivation of these selected strains on nitrogen-free media f
few 2 a greatly increases their nitrogen-fixing
therefore their value for inoculation purposes. Exactly ■
sinks apply to these bacteria as apply to other plants. There
are some strains of beets that will make IS to 20 per oe
These are worth cultivating for their sugar: but the ordinary -
from which these have been developed by selection contained
5 or 6" per tent of sugar. A man who wants to make a sv
growing sugar beets plants seed? of high sugar-producing
The importance of using selected seed for all crops lias been so amply
demonstrated that no argument in favor of the practice is needed.
It is the very foundation of progress in plant culture. S eria
are no exceptions to the rule, and pure-bred bacteria for specific «
are as clearly an economic necessity as pure-bred cattle or pure-bred
sugar beers.
-;niBrTio> - >il.
We are often told that these bacteria arc widely distributed and
are present in n - .-. This is fan - -plied to the older ..
vated areas, where various legumes have been cultivated, but it
not follow that soils containing a few or even a considerable nun
of these bacteria would not be benefited by inoculation with -
kinds of bacteria. The varieties present ma; e adapted to the
legume which it is desired to plant, and may have little or no benefi-
cial effect on it, or if the proper strain is present in small numbers
it may, ami usually does, take several years to bring the bacterial
content of the soil up to an efficient basis. This, of course, i-
slow a pi cess. It would be just as reasonable to depend on getl
>p of clover or bluegrass in this way. It can be done in some
places, but it is at least a makeshift method, and does not appeal to
a practical up-to-date farmer.
In newer regions, where legume? have not been cultivated, very
few soils ha> i gh of these bacteria in them to be of any'pnu
value, and inoculation is essential. This may be accomplished
either by the use of soil from a field where the crop is making a vigor-
growth, with the roots well supplied with nodules, indicating that
the soil contains the right bacteria, or by the use of pure cultures
THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 135
from selected plants. The soil method, of course, introduces not
only the nodule-forming species, but numerous oilier forms, such
as those previously discussed in this paper, and these may often he
as much needed as the tubercle forms. "Where they as well as the
nodule forms are needed, soil transfer is usually the most satisfac-
tory method of inoculation. This is likely to be the case in "sour"
soils. It is, however, expensive and cumbersome, especially where
the soil has to be transported for some distance.
Another and much more serious drawback to this method is the
danger of introducing into a farm injurious and disease-producing
bacteria and fungi, as well as troublesome weeds. It is not safe to
use soils from areas in which such pests occur. Anyone who has seen
the great injury wrought by root nematodes, the wilt diseases of
melons, cowpeas, tobacco, cotton, tomatoes, potatoes, flax, the black-
rot of cabbage and cauliflower, the various stem and root diseases
of clover and alfalfa, and diseases of other crops almost too numer-
ous to mention, and widely distributed, will investigate carefully
before importing soil that may contain the spores of these organisms.
PURK-Cn.TFRE INOCULATION".
For the reasons above mentioned, pure-culture inoculation must
eventually mainly replace the soil-transfer methods for all kinds of
soil inoculation, but this has not yet been put on a practical basis
for any except the nodule bacteria. The improved cultural and selec-
tion methods introduced by this Department in the practical handling
of these forms have brought within reach of every farmer who ma}* need
them pure cultures of the most virile, vigorous, and best types of root-
nodule bacteria for each particular leguminous crop. It requires care
and skill, however, to make and keep these cultures in good condition.
For lack of this, many who have tried to make these cultures have
failed. The pure-culture method has come to stay, however. It will
be improved by experience and continue to increase in usefulness in
the hands of careful and progressive workers. It is suggested, before
using cultures from any source, that farmers secure from this Depart-
ment and read carefully Farmers' Bulletin 240. The Department of
Agriculture is distributing the bacteria during the present season
(1906) in nitrogen-free liquid cultures hermetically sealed. Excel-
lent results can also be obtained in distributing the cultures in dry
form. They must be dried quickly, however, from solutions con-
taining very small amounts of soluble salts, and kept dry until ready
for use; otherwise they are likely to mold and spoil. This Depart-
ment has used this method very successfully for several years. It is
also used successfully by Ferguson, of the Virginia Experiment
Station/7
a See Bui. 159, Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta.
136 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE FIXATION OF NITROGEN FROM THE ATMOSPHERE BY ELECTRICAL
METHODS.
While much can be accomplished through the agency of soil bac-
teria in conserving and increasing the supply of combined nitrogen,
there will always be a demand, in intensive culture especially, for an
immediately available supply of nitrates or other forms of fixed nitro-
gen. The great Chilean deposits, which furnished more than one and
a half million tons in 1905, will, at the present rate of use, according
to careful estimates, be exhausted in less than fifty years. It has
long been known, however, that atmospheric nitrogen can be oxidized
under the influence of electricity, producing nitric oxid fumes, which
are then combined with water, to form nitric acid, or with quicklime,
forming calcium nitrate. Other bases may also be used. Various
attempts have been made from time to time to develop a process by
which nitrogen can be combined commercially. The most promising
results have thus far been secured with Franck's process of making
calcium cyanamid and with the Birkland and Eyde process of pro-
ducing nitrates. The former process consists in combining nitrogen
with the carbides of alkalis, producing cyanids, or, in the case of
calcium, producing calcium cyanamid (CaCNg), contaming 35 per cent
of nitrogen — more than twice the amount present hi Chile saltpeter.
The calcium cyanamid, when properly used, has proved to be an excel-
lent nitrogenous fertilizer for many crops, and quite equal to ammonia
compounds, into which it can be readily converted. The ammonia
thus produced can be further oxidized by conducting it over highly
heated metallic oxids, thus producing nitric acid.
The Birkland and Eyde process, however, appears to be the most
promising as a means of producing nitrates. A special electric furnace
is used, in which an alternating electric arc between 3,000 and 4,000
volts is produced in connection with a large electro magnet, which
forces it to take the form of a roaring disk of flame. Air is forced
through this furnace at the rate of about 3,000 cubic feet per minute,
the nitrogen being oxidized in the furnace to nitric oxid. These
fumes are then collected, and after further oxidation are absorbed
in water towers, forming nitric acid, or by powdered quicklime,
forming calcium nitrate. Of course, the nitric acid can be com-
bined with almost any desirable base, such as soda or potash. With
cheap water power nitrates can be produced by this process to com-
pete in cost with nitrate of soda.a
These direct pi of securing nitrogen will certainly be rapidly
improved, and what has been accomplished already in this direction
should remove the last vestige of doubt that we shall be able to secure
at a reasonable cost all of the immediately available nitrogen we may
i. in addition to the great supply that may be secured through
ion.
oS.v "Nature, " v-l. 7:1. p. 355; also, Exp. Sta. Record. Vol. XVII. pp. 74(v-750.
Fi r a full, illustrated account Bee Engineering News. vol. 57. No. G. pp. 159, 151.
OBJECT-LESSON ROADS.
By Logan Waller Page,
Director of the Office of Public Roads.
NECESSITY FOE, INSTRUCTION IN ROAD BUILDING.
Improvement of the public roads of the United States is a work of
so great magnitude and involves the solution of so many problems
of economic importance that it demands attention from every unit of
government, from the township to the National Government. At the
present time the township, the county, and the State are providing
means for the construction and maintenance of roads to the extent of
approximately $70,000,000 annually, according to information com-
piled by this Office. It is unfortunately true, however, that the
expenditure of the greater portion of this large sum is intrusted to
men who have practically no knowledge of road building and who are
acting under systems of road administration and management that are
obsolete and totally inadequate.
Until very recent years highway engineering has received slight at-
tention in the engineering schools of the country, and, consequently,
the supply of properly equipped men for this branch of engineering
has not been equal to the demand. With approximately 2,300,000
miles of rural highways in the United States and an approximate
annual expenditure of $70,000,000, the absolute necessity of placing
road construction and administration on a correct basis may there-
fore be seen.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY.
Congress, in 1893, realizing that much work of an investigative and
educational character, which could be done best by the National
Government, was necessary before any effectual progress could be
made in the improvement of public roads, established the Office of
Road Inquiry for the purpose of investigating systems of road man-
agement and disseminating information on the subject of road build-
ing. An appropriation of $10,000 was made to carry out the provi-
sions of this act. Slight changes have been made from time to time
in the language of the appropriation bills, and the amounts have
137
13s YEARBOOK OF THE !
been increased until the Office of Public R -
the investigation - - " ~
advice on road - restigation
ical and -
upon t: -
1907 is $7
The act of ?ress provides for r - nal
and investigative work. _ on the
involved, and the other upon the pra J featores
road construction and maintenance. The work b
is defined by the requirement that .
investigated. The practical side of the work by the pro-
ds of the bill winch require that expert advi
road materials be investigated. The g g :>f expert a - I
deal primarily with the construction and maintenance of all •
roads, while the investigation of road materials inclu;.
laboratory t* ell as an investigation into the quantity,
and location of road-making materials in all parts
OBJZCT-I.E^SOX ROADS.
The Office of Public Roads, in endeavoring to carry out the pro-
visions of the act of Congress, has adopted a method of instruction
known as the object-lesson road method. Its purpose >
local road builders in the principles of road construction, to demon-
te the advantage of a properly built road, and I ^certain the
local material available for road building.
The Office maintains a corps of highway engineers, expert road
foremen, and machinery operators for field duty; and also chem
geol _ a :.,ers to investigate by la"
properties and relative values of road materials. Wh
or community desires to improve its roads, applies" - made to
I )ffice on a form which is furnished upor. -: .
provides that the local authorities shah g
all materials, common labor, teams, and fuel, the Office furni-"
-urveys, estimates, expert su] a, and i
hinery. The following questions accompa:
form sent out :
rich plan u
What is i':
WhaJ is the general | L, lolling, or hilly?
i od -what te
a This
OBJECT-LESSOX EOADS. 139
<
Have you a crasher or any road-building machinery that you will furnish? If so,
what?
What is the cost of labor per day?
What amount of money is available to be expended on this work?
What months are preferable for carrying on this work'? Why?
What Is the earliest date this work can start?
What kinds of road-building materials are locally available, and how far are they
situated from the road'? Samples of such materials should be selected and shipped to
this Office, that tests may be made before construction is started. Blank forms and
instructions are supplied for this purpose.
The system now in effect provides for an inspection report by the
engineer first sent out to examine the road proposed for improvement,
this report covering the following essential points:
Miles of road inspected and location.
Length of section to be improved.
Relative amount of travel over road compared with other mads in vicinity.
Local authorities having jurisdiction over road to be improved.
Individuals or organizations especially interested in the work.
Amount from public treasury.
Amount from private subscription.
Total amount of money ready for the work.
Nearest shipping point. Xante of railroad.
Best time of year for doing work (state earliest and latest months), and why.
Nature of materials and distance from road.
Present grades: drainage; nature of soil.
Cost of labor and teams per day.
Engineers or surveyors in vicinity competent to make plans and profiles of road.
If, after consideration of the inspection report, it is decided to
undertake the work of construction, surveys are made and estimates
prepared, after which the expert foreman, machinery operator, and
necessary road machinery are provided. Daily reports are required
from the beginning of the work. These daily reports contain exact
and detailed information, as shown by the copy of the blank form
on the following page. It will be seen from the form that the unit
cost may be computed from the data contained in these reports,
thereby affording a basis for estimating cost of additional mileage.
When an object-lesson road is completed a final report and sum-
mary of the work done is prepared by the engineer in charge of the
construction, which shows all details of the work, such as the length,
width, thickness, and kind of surfacing material; method of construc-
tion and time consumed; kind and size of machinery used for excava-
tion, crushing, loading, distributing, and rolling stone; kind, size, and
length of all side, cross, and under drams and culverts; together with
the total cost of the road to the community and to this Office, and the
unit cost (that is, the cost per cubic yard, square yard, or ton) for
excavation, quarrying, crushing, hauling, spreading, sprinkling, and
rolling.
140 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Daily Report of Work on Object-Lesson Road at
Date: . Weather:— . Length of working day: hours.
Signature: .
Force empli
Work done.
Total in Pay pet-
hours \ hour
or days. ■ or day.
Total.
Earth exca-
Sta. to Sta.
Su bgrade
First course
placed
Second course
sq. vds.
Excavation:
Sta. ...to Sta. ...
Sta. ...to Sta. ...
Sta. .. .to Sta. ...
Shaping:
Surface course
Road surface
completed . .
Material
sq. vds.
Quarry:
Sta. ...to Sta. ...
Teams
Crusher:
Men
Hauling surfacing mate-
rial :
Materials used, paid for by unit measure.
Quantity.
Price.
Total.
Surfacing ma-
Loading surfacing mate-
Spreading surfacing mate-
Fuel for
Fuel for roller.
Oil, waste, re-
Drain pipe,
Total
Remarks:
In every ease samples of all available road materials are secured by
the inspecting engineer and sent to the laboratory of the Office for
analysis and comparative tests. Such tests are made free of charge to
citizens of the United States, and proper instructions for shipping the
mples are furnished upon request, with details as follows:
(1) All samples should be selected to represent as nearly as possible an average of the
rial.
(2) A sample of rock for laboratory tests must consist of stones which will pass
through a 3-inch but not through a li-inch ring — excepting one piece, which should
measure approximately 4 by 6 inches on one face, and be about 3 inches thick. The
whole sample should weigh not less than 30 pounds. It is desired thai samples of rock
be shipped in burlap bags.
OBJECT-LESSOX ROADS. 141
(3) A sample of gravel must weigh not less than 25 pounds, and should not contain
stones over 1 inch in diameter. Such samples must be shipped in boxes, sufficiently
tight to prevent the liner material from sifting out.
(4 > A sample of paving brick must contain 36 whole bricks, or 24 blocks, which must
curely packed in a box for shipment.
(5) A blank form and addressed tag envelope will be supplied by the Office for each
sample. The blank form must be filled and placed in the tag envelope, which must be
used as the address for tin- sample. It is essential that the blank forms be filled with
the utmost care, as they are filed as records of the samples.
(G) The Office desires to keep a record of the actual wear on roads built < >f the mate-
rial- tested. If the material which this sample represents has been or is about to be
used on roads, this Office desires to be informed of the addresses of those in charge of
the construction and maintenance of such roads.
The engineer, when making his preliminary investigation, gives due
consideration to transportation facilities, railroad rates, and nearest
material within shipping distance, in case local materials are unsuita-
ble, inaccessible, or available only at prohibitive cost.
The cooperation in object-lesson road work is entirely free, and the
local authorities are not required to pay any portion of the salary or
expenses of the Government engineers or experts, or for freight or
repair of machinery owned by the Government.
The construction crew consists of one expert foreman and one expert
roller and machinery operator. Heavy- machinery requiring the direc-
tion of an expert operator is unnecessary, except in the construction of
macadam roads, and it frequently is the case that only an expert fore-
man is assigned to the work. Engineering assistance is given from
time to time as the case requires, the work being under the general
direction of the chief engineer or the assistant engineer, one of whom is
present at some stage in the construction of each road.
The extent of the machinery equipment is governed by the require-
ments in each case, the outfit for a macadam road usually consisting of
wheel and drag scrapers, plows, road machine, crushing plant, distrib-
uting and dumping wagons, sprinkler, and roller. (See PI. IV, figs.
1 and 2.) A modern crushing plant consists of crusher, elevator, re-
volving screens, and bins for at least three sizes of crushed stone. The
capacity of the average portable crusher is from 60 to 100 cubic yards
per day. A gravel road usually requires the same machinery, except
the crushing plant, while sand-clay roads may be easily constructed
with a plow, road machine, and horse roller, though if excavation is
required, wheel and drag scrapers maybe necessary.
The horse rollers generally used by this Office are from 3 to 4 tons in
weight. Ten-ton steam rollers have been used on most of the object-
lesson roads, although 7^-ton rollers were used in a few cases.
The assistance given by the Government in object-lesson road build-
ing is not designed to extend beyond the educational stage, and it is,
therefore, usually confined to such length of time as is necessary to
instruct properly the local road foreman, who is expected to continue
the construction begun by the Government engineers. Xo definite
142 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
length of road is guaranteed to be built, but it may be said that it
rarely exceeds a mile, and is usually less than that distance.
It may be well to state that owing to the immense number of appli-
cations for object-lesson roads it is never possible to comply with ail
requests, and the practice is therefore followed of apportioning assist-
to those sections of the country which have previously received
the smallest percentage, or which stand in greatest need of this kind of
instruction. Requests receive due consideration in order of priority,
so far as vhe location of the construction outfits will permit.
PURPOSES OF OBJECT-LES-OX ROAD WORK.
Briefly stated, the purposes of object-lesson roads are, first, to intro-
duce among local road builders correct methods of construction and
maintenance; second, to demonstrate the advantages of a properly
built road in order to stimulate public sentiment for road improve-
ment and arouse a spirit of progress: third, to afford a basis for esti-
mating cost of additional road construction, which may be subse-
quently carried on by the county or community: fourth, to demon-
strate the availability and relative value of local materials as far as
practicable; or, where no local material exists, to determine whether
materials can be shipped in by rail so as to make the construction of
hard roads feasible at moderate cost.
The most important effect of the object-lesson road is the consequent
improvement in methods of construction. The widespread igno-
rance of the elementary principles of road construction has already
been mentioned. It is fortunately true, however, that these princi-
ples are not intricate nor difficult to learn, and a small amount of
instruction properly directed in each community will go far toward
promoting a general improvement of the public roads. This instruc-
tion can not be given theoretically with entire success, for actual expe-
rience i- essential to the acquirement of a working knowledge of the
subject. Practical instruction is easily understood and the knowledge
"ained; furthermore, it is an unanswerable reply to incorrect the-
ories often firmly fixed in the minds of the ultraconservative element
of a eomnnmity.
Another advantage which frequently accrues to localities through
this medium is the substitution of less costly methods of construction
for those already in use. In 1905 the construction of a short section
of sand-clay road, near Troy. Ala., established the wisdom of provid-
ing s - id-clay roads supplemented by macadam only on
heavily traveled thoroughfares. At the time of the construction of
the sand-clay road the county was almost on the point of issuing
bonds for a large amount to construct macadam roads exclusively.
The result has been the saving of a large sum of money, with no
material curtailment of transportation facilities.
Nearly all innovations, whether labor-saving inventions, scientific
discoveries, or economic achievements, have met at their inception
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate IV.
Fig. 1.— First Object-lesson Roads Built by the Office of Public Roads,
Atlanta, Ga., 1895.
Fig. 2. -Tarring Road at Jackson, Tenn.-Latest Advance in Road Surfacing.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate V.
Fig. 1. — Before Improvement.
. — Sjbgrade Ready for Macadamizing.
Fig. 3. — Fp.Smed Maca;av Road.
The Evolution of a Country Road, Uniontown, Ala.
OBJECT-LESSON EOADS. 143
with determined and bitter opposition from the majority. It is the
energetic, progressive minority to whom we must look for material as
well as intellectual progress, and so it is in many communities with
regard to road improvement, where the narrow conservatism of the
majority may stand as an obstacle to the inauguration of any, well-
defined and comprehensive scheme looking toward the betterment of
the roads. The cooperation of the local authorities in the construction
of an object-lesson road is frequently accepted as a compromise measure
and serves as a sort of test case to determine whether a progressive or a
passive policy shall prevail in the community. The road thus serves
as the entering wedge in the establishment of a system of improved
highways and the consequent development and advancement of the
material prosperity of the country.
While the cost of roads varies widely, owing to the variation of the
factors entering into road construction, such as the amount of excava-
tion, cost of material, depth and width of material, and wages of
laborers, it is possible to approximate the cost of additional road
building in a section of country where an object-lesson road has been
built by applying the unit-cost data of the completed road to the
known conditions. For instance, while it would not be safe to say
that because an object-lesson road was built at a cost of $4,000 per
mile the average cost for additional construction should be $4,000,
it would be practicable to arrive at the total approximate cost by
comparing each unit of cost and allowing for differences known to exist.
In some cases satisfactory roads are being constructed at a great
cost not justified by existing conditions. The object-lesson road often
serves as a check upon this kind of extravagance or dishonesty.
In some localities hard roads are being built of material brought in
by rail, whereas a local material could be used to advantage at lower
cost. In other cases no effort is made to build macadam roads
because of the lack of a suitable material in the immediate locality.
Macadam roads have been built at moderate cost of material hauled
by rail distances exceeding 100 miles. In still other cases inferior
materials are used when good material may be had at the same cost.
The object-lesson road, in conjunction with the testing laboratory, is
designed to meet these conditions.
Until the fiscal year 1905, the Office of Public Roads was unable
to perfect a system whereby complete cost data and record of con-
struction could be obtained and placed in the hands of local road offi-
cials. Under the present system the file for each object-lesson road
contains application, inspection report, profile and cross section, esti-
mate, machinery report, daily reports of work, final report, laboratory
tests, and photographs showing various stages of progress. Dupli-
cates of these records are available for the use of the authorities having
jurisdiction over the road improved.
144 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGEICITLTr/EE.
EXTENT OF OBJECT-LESSON ROAD COXSTEt'CTIOX.
The first object- i oads were constructed on the grounds of the
Bit Atlanta, Ga.. in 18
instructed, of macadam, sand, and earth, respec-
tive, j - \vn in Plate V. figure 1. The macadam road was 300 feet
in length, in - &ch of different grade, the first being
level, and th - - aid 10 percent grade, respectively.
I and earth roads were each 200 feet in length, divided into
• - nd conforming in grades to the macadam road.
- .am road was composed of Trenton limestone
brought from quarries near Chattanooga, Tenn.. the depth of material
Inches and the width 12 feet.
o with experiment stations in carrying on object-lesson
work in conformance with the provision in the act of Congress
_- the Office of Road Inquiry to assist agricultural colleges and
riment stations was first undertaken at Geneva, X. Y., during the
fiscal vear 1895-96. It was found at the beginning of the work that
to restrict it to cooperation with experiment stations would limit
ilness too greatly, and since 1896 the construction of object-
n roads has been carried on throughout the entire country in
dire-. ' n with local officials. Dtiring the fiscal year 1896-97
-1 >son roads were constructed at New Brunswick and Florence.
X. J.; L Y.: Warren. Pa.: and Kingston. R. I. During the
foil. _ ,.r the scope of the work was broadened materially. Four-
teen - -re built that year, located in Maryland. Ohio. Minnesota.
- . I ... Xebraska, and the District of Columbia,
all be noticed that at first this object-les^m work was confined
rn States, but during the year 1- " most of the work
s done in the Middle West.
During the fiscal y« u 1 - 9-1900 there was a marked curtailment
in th I -lesson road work, only 5 roads having been constructed
Since 1900 this branch of the work has had
nior 14 roads having been constructed in 1901, 15 in 1902,
1, 3 in 1904. 19 in 1905, and 17 in 1906.
rger appropriation and increased facilities, it is expected
a greater number of object-lesson roads will be completed during
7 han in any previo1 ^ince the Office was
..ready roads have been completed at Seattle, Wash.;
nd Pendleton. Oreg.: Bozeman. Mont.: Benton. La.: Dyers-
.. V...: Chevy Chase. Md.. and Washington.
ads are under construction at Oswego. Kans.: Xew
Orleans. La.: Paintsville. Ivy.: Lenoir City. Tenn.. and Williamsburg
and > Va.
In ail. 113 object-lesson roads have been constructed since the
beg a - .<. distributed in 32 States, as follows: 12 in Ohio;
th Carolina : 7 in Florida. South Carolina, and Virginia, respec-
in Alabama: 5 each in Missouri and Tennessee; 4 each in
OBJECT-LESSON EOADS.
145
Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, and Pennsylvania; 3 in
Arkansas, Michigan, New York, and Washington, respectively; 2 in
the District of Columbia, Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi,
Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, and Texas, respectively; and 1
each in Iowa, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and
Wisconsin.
Local materials were used in the construction of these roads where-
ever it was possible. Limestone was the principal material, though
various grades of granite and trap rock were used in mamr places.
The number of roads built of each particular variety of material was
as follows: Limestone, 30; granite, 21; gravel, 12; trap and basalt,
9; sand clay, 9; chert, 9; shells, 3; novaculite, 4; steel track, 4;
gneiss, 3; earth, 2; brick, 2; slag, 1; burnt clay, 1; hornblende-
schist, 1; marl, 1; and oil, 1.
The following table gives in brief form all of the essential details
relating to the dimensions and cost of the object-lesson roads built in
1904-5:
Data in relation to object-lesson roaels constructed in 1904-5.
Place.
Fcrnandina, Fla
Pensacola, Fla
Jacksonville, Fla
Neosho Mo
Beaumont, Tex
Tallahassee, Fla
Pensacola , Fla
Gainesville, Fla
Shreveport, La
Walla Walla, Wash..
Beliingham, Wash...
De Kail), 111
Gainesville, Fla
Spr'mgr.eld, Mo
Arkansas City, Kans
Chagrin Falls, Ohio..
Columbus, Ohio
Lebanon, Mo
Ciarksdale, Miss
Materials used.
Kind.
Shells
Granite and trap
Marl
Novaculite
Clara shelis
Sand -clay
Sand -clay
Flint
G ravel
Tiap
Granite
Limestone
Sand -clay
Novaculite
Limestone
Sandstone and
granite.
Bricks and gran-
ite.
Novaculite
Burnt clay
Source and trans-
portation.
Local
Ballast from Ger-
many.
By rail 2.30 miles..
Local
By boat 28 miles..
Local
Local
By wagon 6 miles.
By rail 32 miles.. .
By rail 13 miles...
By rail 30 miles...
By rail 100 miles..
Local
By wagon 2.} miles
Local
Local
Local
Local
On road
Dimensions
of road.
Cost.
Ft.
1, 199
50G
5,280
2, 640
3,154
4,480
1,800
265
3,306
2,048
2,050
4,510
5,280
1,310
3,615
2,400
S35
2,950
300
Per
square
yard.
so.. us
.42<J
.592
. 434
1.019
.055
.140
.278
.334
.415
.78.5
.985
.107
.335
.396
.800
Rate per
mile.
S4,899.S4 SI. 00
8,0.53.70 1.2.5
5,211.03
a 3, 055. 36
6 9,565.01
516. 27
c 1,232. 00
11,416.53
3, 135. 15
4,382.40
6, 908. 00
6, 934. 40
881.25
3, 144. 53
3, 252. 48
4,693.33
.976 ^10,306.56
.335 «1,76S.S0
.210 / 1,478. 40
1.2.5
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
2.00
1.75
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.25
a Includes S40S.25 for culverts.
6 City and county prisoners used for labor. Cost was for material only, at S2.15 per cubic yard.
c Convict labor used.
<i Bricks from burned buildings were crushed and rolled for foundation; bowlders from fields were
crushed and used for surfacing.
« Novaculite from fields was used.
/ This was an experimental road.
3 a 1906 10
146 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Iii view of the fact that the width of the roads built durin_
varied from 9 to 70 feet, it will be interesting to compare the
mated average cost of each kind of road constructed, per square
yard, and also per mile, for a roadway 12 feet wide. This info:
tion is shown in the following table:
Kind
-■
-
Granite
I
Marl
Trap reek
■
Gravel
Flint r
Burnt
y
4
" i
i -
_
i
.
!
■
■ 2
•
1
"
. .
i
1
1
_"
'" .
..
; -
-
It will be seen that the avera_ rent kirn" -
roads in 1904-5 was 44 cents per square yard, and that the avei
rate per mile for a 12-foot roadway
The maximum cost of macadam roads constructed during the
fiscal year 1905-0 was $1.42 per square yard, the average 67 cents,
and the minimum 24 cents. vSee table on p. 147.) The clam and
oyster shell roads cost 39 cents per square yard, an I
chert roads, 11 tents. The average cost of the -
4 \ cents per square yard. It will be noticed tha ..iximum
and the aver:. - ..dam roads during - mewhat
higher than in 1904-5. This is due to the fact that the i si
and had advanced during the year 1905-6 and tha
unfavorable conditions were encountered during :.r. The
average depth of material in the roads built during the ;
was about 7 inches. The average widti acadam \
and the average rate per mile for the macadam roads cons
2
If all the roads constructed in 1905-6 had been only 12 I
wide, then the rate per mile for the macadam roads, at tl
rate of 67 cents per square yard, would have been $4,716.80; the
of the oyster-shell road, at 39 cents per square yard
been 5.60; the cost of gravel and che: - per
square yard, would have been about $774.40 per mile and the
of sand-clay roads, at the rate of 4_ per square yard, would
have been $217 per mile.
OBJECT-LESSON ROADS.
147
Data in relation to object-lesson roads constructed in :
Materials used.
Dimensions of road.
Place.
Kind.
Miles
from Length. Width. Depth. -"fa
source.
A re a
Texarkana, Ark. . .
Uniontown, Ala . .
Coshocton. Ohio Gravel, sand, and limestone. .
Auburn, Xel;r Limestone
Columbia, Mo Limestone
Macon. Mo Limestone
Pullman. Wash Basalt
[Chert
l<: ravel
San Antonio. Tex Limestone
Lafayette. La Clam and oyster shells
Snow Hill, Ala Limestone
[Limestone
(Chert and slag
Abbeville. S. C G ravel and chert
Union, S. C G ranite
Kenansville, S. C Sand-clay
Kinston. X. C Sand-clay
New! ern. X. C Sand-day
Washington, X. C Sand-clay
Mount Weather, Va . . . Hornblende-schist
Inches. Sq. yd.*.
10
6,623
2,081
4.445
4,478
982
5, 928
4.47;;
G, 893
13,111
1,066.6
1,066.G
' -
4,783
Cost.
Place.
Total cost.
square
yard.
Pate per
mile.
Cost of
labor and teams
per day.
Coshocton. Ohio i S2. 820. 29
Auburn, Nebr 9,416.07
Columbia. Mo 5,1 194, 28
Macon, Mo 3. 220. 16
Pullman, Wash 2, 438. 50
Texarkana. Ark 2,968.99
San Antonio. Tex 4,393. 57
Lafayette, La
Snow Mill. Ala 2, 465. 53
Uniontown, Ala 2.i;.77. 06
Abbeville, S. C 496.00
S. C 1,671.42
Kenansville. S. C 440. 35
Kinston, X. C 31.45
Newbern, X. C 28. 86
igton, X. C 375. 50
Mount Weather, Va '-2. 620. Si
SO. 48
1. 12
.54
.561
1.17
. 668
.981
.39
.41
.11
. 242
.033
.03
.027
.09
$2,534.00
to 4. 221. 15
"12, 4%. 00
5, 120. 44
4, 607. 67
9,600.00
4,702.02
<- 15,711.70
3, 200. 00
2,886.40
f 2,460.00
I to 2. -
1,419.73
5, 404. 37
387. IS
276. 02
190.00
739. 13
M n.
81.60
1.50
1.50
1.50
2. 50
1.50
1.50
1.25
L.OO
--
Teams.
-
3.00
3.00
4.50
■
3.O0
3. CO
2. 25
-
2.50
1.00
-
o Including curb 10 inches wide and 12 inches deep, built to protect road from floods.
b Cost more than usual, on account of curb, extra depth of material, and other extras. Road entirely
submerged by floods for seven days during construction.
t A great deal of tain and very hot weather prevailed, which made it expensive to prepare the subgradc
of " black gumbo '* soil. This work was located on a city street, but the cost ol curbs together with ti e
of lowering water and gas mains and making sewer connections, has been omitted, so th
red with the cost of country roads.
d Convict labor use I; price paid for subsistence was $0.30 per day.
< Trad on engine use 1 for hauling surfacing material; cost per day. $5.50.
/ Traction engine used for hauling stone: cost per da]
0 Twenty-three convicts were employed on this work, at $0.75 per day.
h Cost of curbs, catch-basins, and brick-paved gutters has been omitted, in order that the cost may
be compared with that of countrv roads.
148 YEARBOOK • DEPARTMENT RICULTD
The foregoing data relating to cost of object-lesson roads do not
include the expense incurred by this Office, which is approximately
10 per cent of the total cost. It must not be supposed, however, that
the same kinds of roads as those which have been built under the
direction of this Office can aiwaj -meted in any locality
the same rate, but it is safe that where the same conditions
prevail as to the cost of labor, mater: the rate should be prac-
ime. or less if the work is done on a large scale.
RESULT -
It is interesting to observe that progress in road building has
usually followed the construction of object-lesson roads.
This has been demonstrated beyond doubt in a number of a
among which may be mentioned the following
Kxoxville. Texx. — In 1S99 an ol - >n road was constructed
at this place which occasioned much no! illy in Knox
County, but in adjoining counties. The - of Bradley County,
after a careful inspection of the road at Knoxville. started a m
men: I issue bonds to the amount of - for the purpose of
carrying on similar work in Bra<: nty. After much opposition
the plan was put into effect. The improvement in the
roads was of such general benefit that additional bonds were issued,
bringing the total issue ->■ These bonds met so great a
demand that -_ a realized from their sale. Lands that
were worth from $8 to $10 per acre before road improvement now
find ready sale at from SI 5 to $30 per acre.
Madis :ty. Texx. — This county has expended $150,000
and is preparir._ :r>end an equal additional amount on road
building, following thee on of an object-lesson road in 1901.
Madison County has now ov es of high-class macadam roads.
Pr .. Fla. — The following is a report on the object-lest
Since its construction the work of building! with.
good results, and now the city in th
street improvements, and this sum, to..-
holders under our law of apportionment - pended for
this purr>
Gainesville. Fla. — The following is a report on the object-lesson
road built in 19
We immediai - >:d in machinery, the du] and
have constructed as nearly as possible lil 2 1 are
following sewer construction on ot":. — n.
I feel confident that your object lesson h< the
community. We had an abundance of raw material f Low to
use it.
Directly traceable to your work here is con? iderable
of Jacksonville, Fla., as well as Lai:
to examine your work, and are proceed: same material.
Yearbook U. S. Dep: - e 1 906.
Plate VI.
Fig. 1. — Method of Construction. Showing Curb to Prevent Washing.
Fi3. 2.— Road Under Wate^
KM
Bbkv
Fig. 3. — Completed Road.
Macadam Road at Auburn. Nebr., Built Through River Bottom.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate VII.
Fig. 1.— Crushing Plant, Walla Walla, Wash.
Fig. 2.— Preparing set Grade for Macadam Road with Traction Engine and
Road Machine, Arkansas City, Kans.
Fig. 3.— Concrete Bridge, Texarkana, Ark.
OBJECT-LESSON BOADS. 149
Uniontown, Ala. — An official of this place reports as follows upon
the object-lesson road completed in 1906. Plate VI shows the various
stages in the construction of this macadam road.
a result of the work done here by your Department, the city is now expending
¥25,000 on the streets.
The whole county is alive with good-roads ideas. The county commissioners will
take the matter in hand as to the advisability of making road districts and issuing
bonds to improve the roads. All of this comes directly from the object-lesson road
built by your Office 1 mile north from city limits.
Auburn, Xebr. — The following is quoted from a letter concerning
the road built in 1906:
There has been an additional mile of road improved as a result of the object-I -
work done at this place, and the Auburn Commercial Club, working in conjunction
with the board of county commissioners, expect to go right on with the good work
until every public highway leading out of this city has been put in first-class condition.
The splendid effect following the object-lesson road work at this place is so exten-
sive that adjoining counties arc sending representatives here to inspect the work and
I i familiarize themselves with the construction of the road.
It is generally conceded that we now have the finest and most durable -
good roads in the State of Nebraska.
Plate VII illustrates the peculiar conditions met in the construction
of the object-lesson road at this place.
IMPROVEMENT OF RTJB VL MAIL ROUTES.
In order to promote the efficiency of the rural-delivery service and
at the same time render effective aid in the improvement of roads
throughout the United States, the following plan of cooperation has
been arranged between the Post-Office Department, through the
office of the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General, and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, through the Office of Public Roads. This plan
of cooperation was approved by the Secretary of Agriculture July 3,
1906. and the Postmaster-General July 10, 1906.
Whenever a road upon which a rural route has been or is about to
be established is reported by the carrier or inspector to be impassable
or in bad repair, the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General will advise
the Director of the Office of Public Roads of the fact and request
that he have an engineer inspector detailed to examine the road and
give such advice and instruction to the local officials as may be
required.
Upon receipt of such information from the Fourth Assistant Post-
master-General, the Director of this Office will communicate with the
local officials and supply them with a circular of instructions and a
blank form for making application for the detail of such engineer
inspector.
It is not the purpose of this Office actually to construct the road or
to make any contribution either in money, materials, or labor. In
150 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTLIEXI OP AGRICULTURE.
" cases a road is impassable on account of defects which can be
remedied by the use of proper methods. The engineer inspector who
examines the road will note carefully all such defects and advise as to
what bteps. can be taken to place the road in proper condition without
great expense. If practicable, and if so desired, he may in some cases
assume temporary direction of the work for the purpose of instruction.
There will be no expense to the community on account of the
detail of such engineer, as his salary and expenses are paid by the
Federal Government.
LECTURES OX OBJECT-LESSON METHODS.
ie present plan of confining the object-lesson road work to practi-
cal instruction will probably be improved in the near future and the-
oretical instruction by means of lectures will be given in conjunction
with instruction by the object-lesson method. A lecture may of
itself be entirely inadequate to impart a working knowledge of road
struction; and on the other hand it is probable that instruction
by the object-lesson method alone will fail to convey a sufficient
st difficult points in connection with road build-
ing. The theoretical portion of the instruction will probably cod
of one or more lectures during the continuance of the work, in which
subjects of primary importance will be discussed, such as grading,
drainage, selection and preparation of materials, maintenance of
roads, operation and repair of machinery, organization, methods of
ration, and computation of cost data. These lectures, while
intended particularly for road overseers, road foremen, and all offi-
having connection with road building, are open to the general
public and occasion will be given for a general discussion of w
means, methods, and practice, in addition to the subjects of the lec-
ture. The or^aiiizatk-n and practice governing teachers" and farmers'
tutes will to some extent be applied to these road institutes. It
is expected that the authorities having jurisdiction over the road
under construction -will lend their cooperation in securing the pres-
ence of the persons to whom this instruction should be given. In
som< the county court, county commissioners, or county super-
.ve authority to direct the various road ove: partici-
pate in the construction of the object-lesson read and in the road
*ute held in connection with the work: in othe: they can
2je the presence of the overseers. It will of course be n<
be made to correspond with local conditions
in each ci
By this means it is hoped that the influen ce ! h road institute
and object-lesson road will extend far beyond the immediate neigh-
borhood and result in a more widely extended improvement in the
public roads than would be possible by following the present plan.
INTRODUCTION OF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE INTO
SCHOOLS.
By A. C. Tbue,
Director of the Office of Experiment Stations.
The teaching of improved methods of agriculture to the masses of
our agricultural youth has recently been advocated by the President
of the United States, the Secretary of Agriculture, a former United
States Commissioner of Labor who is now the president of a Massa-
chusetts college, the president of one of our greatest railroads, the
president of the University of Virginia, the superintendent of schools
of New York City, acting as president of the National Educational
Association, and by such bodies as the National Educational Associa-
tion, the National Grange, and the National Irrigation Congress.
This mav fairly be taken as a sure indication that the discussion of this
subject has become very widespread, and that public opinion is becom-
ing crystallized in favor of using the schools for the dissemination of
agricultural knowledge. After a long period of comparative neglect
of agricultural interests by the leaders of thought and action in this
country, a great awakening to the tremendous issues which are
involved in the permanent prosperity of our agriculture and in the
maintenance of a high level of intelligence among our agricultural
people has come, and happily the minds of our most influential men
are turning more and more to the public schools as the fittest and best
centers from which to spread a knowledge of the principles of agricul-
ture and in which to inculcate a love of country life and an apprecia-
tion of the dignity of agricultural pursuits. Sentiments favorable to
agriculture are no longer expressed by our public men simply as a
compliment to our farmers. It is rather a new and serious sense of
the real importance of the farmer to the commonwealth, and a fear of
the perils into which the crowding of our population in great cities and
the neglect to maintain the fertility of our soil are sure to bring us,
that are leading thoughtful men of all classes to pay earnest attention
to the educational needs of our rural population. This means a great
step in advance on this subject. It is now possible to secure a fair
hearing of the claims of agriculture to a place in our public schools and
a thorough testing of plans for the teaching of this subject in a wide
and effective way. It becomes important, therefore, to look more
closely at the methods which are being pursued to acquaint our
151
152 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fanners, educators, and legislators with the needs of the rural schools
in different parts of our country and to make definite suggestions for
then improvement.
Under the authority of Congress and the Secretary of Agriculture
the Office of Experiment Stations has been collating information from
various sources regarding the progress of this movement, and the
present summary is presented to show in brief the results of this
investigation.
INTEREST AMONG FARMERS- ORGANIZATIONS.
Our investigation shows that in the farmers' organizations through-
out the country, which as a rule comprise our more intelligent and
progressive farmers, the introduction of agricultural instruction into
the schools is being actively discussed and warmly approved. Local
organizations are passing this question up to the State organizations,
and these in turn are sending it on to the National organizations.
Committees on legislation are being appointed, and there are many
evidences of an earnest and -persistent effort to secure definite results.
Xot content to wait for the formulation of definite courses of
instruction in agriculture for the rural schools and the training of
teachers in this subject, there is in many places an effort to do some-
thing tangible to arouse the interest of farmers' boys in the study of
agriculture. Through the agency of farmers' organizations cooperat-
ing with the State agricultural colleges and State and county depart-
ments of education, boys' agricultural clubs have been organized,
largely in connection with the schools, in Georgia, Illinois. Indiana.
Iowa. Kansas. Nebraska, Ohio, Texas, and probably other States.
The members of these clubs have regular institute meetings and
lecture courses, go on excursions to educational institutions and large
farms, conduct variety tests with corn, cotton, sugar beets, and other
crops, and exhibit then products at school, county, and State fairs.
The agricultural press is devoting a larger space than ever before to
the discussion of educational topics, and wherever an attempt is made
t>. establish the teaching of agriculture in the schools it i.-. widely and
fully advertised. Entire numbers of some papers are given up to the
presentation of various phases of agricultural education.
ATTITUDE OF SCHOOL OFFICERS AND TEACHERS.
A remarkable change has taken place in tiie attitude of school offi-
cers and teachers regarding nature study and elementary agriculture
as school subjects. A few years ago it was unusual to find any sub-
ject relating to agriculture in public schools in the programmes of
teachers' meetings. Xow scarcely an educational meeting of impor-
tance is held anywhere in the United States without at least one paper
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 153
on some phase of this subject, and in many cases whole sessions are
devoted to the discussion of various topics relating to it, from nature
study and school gardening to the more formal courses in agriculture.
A few examples will serve to show how widespread is this interest.
At the sixty-seventh annual convention of the American Institute
of Instruction at New Haven, Conn., in July, 1906, which is largely
attended by school officers and teachers from different parts of New
England, the teaching of elementary agriculture was largely discussed
in the department of rural education, formal papers on this subject
being presented by the superintendent of education of Vermont and
the professor of agriculture of the Massachusetts Agricultural College.
New England has also been aroused to a serious and thorough dis-
cussion of this matter by the report of a commission on industrial and
technical education presented to the legislature of Massachusetts in
April, 1906. The chairman of this commission was Hon. Carroll D.
Wright, for many years United States Commissioner of Labor and
now president of Clark University at Worcester, Mass. This com-
mission was appointed by the governor of Massachusetts in accord-
ance with an act of the legislature, -and spent nearly a year in a study
of the relation of children to our industries and the condition of indus-
trial education at home and abroad. The commission found that
"there is a widespread interest in the general subject of industrial
education, or special training for vocations," but that our people gen-
erally, and even those who are most interested in the subject, have no
definite ideas as to its proper scope or method. "Compared with the
opportunities afforded in Europe for acquiring knowledge and skill in
productive industry, the work now being done in Massachusetts is
strikingly and painfully inadequate," and while in this country "the
general public has been strangely blind to the narrowness of the public
school education," in Europe there is " the universal recognition of the
necessity of special education for every form of industrial life."
Among their conclusions were the following:
The State needs a wider diffusion of industrial intelligence as a foundation for the
highest technical success, and this can only be acquired in connection with the general
system of education into which it should enter as an integral part from the beginning.
The latest philosophy of education reenforces the demands of productive industry by
showing that that which fits a child best for his place in the world as a producer tends to
his own highest development physically, intellectually, and morally.
There seem to be two lines in which industrial education may be developed — (1)
through the existing public school system, and (2) through independent industrial
schools. In regard to the former the commission recommends that cities and towns
so modify the work in the elementary schools as to include for boys and girls instruc-
tion and practice in the elements of productive industry, including agriculture and
the mechanic and domestic arts, and that this instruction be of such a character as to
secure from it the highest cultural as well as the highest industrial value; and that the
work in the high schools be modified so that the instruction in mathematics, the sci-
ences, and drawing shall show the application and use of these subjects in industrial
154 YEAEBOOE OF THE DEPAP.TME^T Of AGRICULTURE.
life, with special reference to local industries, so that the students may see that these
ts are not de-signed primardy and solely for academic purposes, but that they
may be utilized for the purposes of practical life — that is. algebra and geometry should
be so taught in the public schools as to show their relations to construction; botany to
ulture and agriculture: chem - ..gri culture, manufactures, and domestic
sciences, and drawine to every f cm of industry.
Tho commission would also recommend that all towns and cities provide, by new
elective industrial courses in high schools, instruction in the principles of agriculture
and the domestic and mechani
This commission has been continued, and Prof. Paul Hanus, profes-
sor of the history and art of teaching in Harvard University, has been
appointed chairman. Professor Hanus is thoroughly alive to the
need of industrial education, believing that "the education demanded
by democratic society in modern times must be a preparation for
active life." and that '"the only real preparation for life's duties,
opportunities, and privileges is participation in them, so far as they
can be rendered intelligible, interesting, and accessible to children
and youth of school age." This being so. he favors •'liberal provision
for elementary training in agriculture, industrial and commercial
pursuits, in addition to general manual training, at the upper end of
the grammar school and also at the upper end of the high school."
In New York, at the annual meeting of the State Association of
School Commissioners and Superintendents, held at Cornell Univer-
sity, in October, 1906. the best means of adapting rural schools to
their environment was discussed, and it was generally agreed that
agriculture should be taught as a part of the general scheme of peda-
. of which it should be the basic factor.
In Indiana the county superintendents in twelve counties have
:_ized clubs for the study of crops, and th Ass Nation of County
rintendents has asked Purdue University to organize a training
school for teachers in agriculture and nature study.
Th Teachers' Association of Michigan at its meeting in 1
ted resolutions favoring the teaching of agriculture in the public
schools.
In Missouri the State superintendent made the following statement
in his report for 1<»04:
ged at county teacht. -ons and granges that the ele-
ments of agriculture be taught in public schools. Since then sentiment has grown
until then a lemand for it. For five years the law has recognized it by making
it one of a group of subjects from which appli- . : to be examined for first-
grade cert i Sea* S ertificate. T ago State norm;.'. ?:ablished
depa: agriculture and na: There are now many teachers in the
agriculture.
In 1905 the Missouri State Teachers' Association asked that agri-
culture be made a requirement for any grade of teachers' certificate;
Id ; .r a joint meeting of the : fcion
and the State Farmers' Institute, held at the University of California
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IX SCHOOLS. 155
in December, 1905, and attended by some 7,000 persons, the subject
of agricultural education was discussed from various points of view,
and as a result of this meeting a committee was organized to promote
the interests of such education in the public schools of the State.
At a conference for education in the South, held at Lexington, Ky.,
in May, 1906. and attended by leading educators from a number of
States, much attention was given to the claims of agriculture to a
place in the school curriculum.
At the meeting of the Virginia State Teachers' Association and
affiliated organizations in November, 1906, the teaching of agricul-
ture in the public schools was widely and thoroughly discussed, and
President Alderman, of the University of Virginia, in the closing
address of that great meeting, declared that among the things which
should be considered as settled in the campaign for a better school
system now being actively carried on in that State was that agricul-
ture in some form should be generally taught in the schools.
At the annual convention of the National Educational Association,
held at Asbury Park, N. J., in July, 1905, elementary agricultural
instruction was a prominent subject of discussion, and such instruc-
tion was favored in the annual address of the president, DrAYilliamH.
Maxwell, superintendent of schools of New York City, delivered to
thousands of teachers at the opening session. The committee on
industrial education in schools for rural communities, appointed two
years before, brought in an elaborate report, in which it maintained
" that the rural schools, which train nearly one-half of the school popu-
lation of this country, should recognize the fact that the major portion
of their pupils will continue to live upon the farm, and should pro-
vide specific, definite technical training for them for the activities of
farm life. It adduceel strong arguments in support of this position
and emphasizeel the educational value as well as the practical utility
of courses of study framed with this end in view. The committee
favored the consolidation of rural schools in orelcr that teachers
specially fitted for this work might be secured and the instruction
made more efficient. It also advocated the establishment of high
schools to meet the special needs of the rural population for secondary
education directly related to agricultural practice."
PROGRESS IX LEGISLATE >X.
Steady progress is being made in securing legislation favorable to
the teaching of agriculture in public schools. The laws of over 30
States now permit or require such instruction. Among the States
which rcepjire the teaching of agriculture in all elementary schools
are Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, North
Carolina, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Vv'isconsin. Legisla-
tion on this subject is commonly accompanied with provisions making
156 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
agriculture one of the subjects on which teachers may or must be
examined. In Nebraska, for example, candidates for first and second
grade county certificates must pass an examination in the elements
of agriculture. In Wisconsin, since 1901, teachers have been required
to pass an examination in elementary agriculture in order to secure
any grade of teachers' certificate. In New Hampshire teachers in
>ndary schools are required to hare training in agriculture. In
Virginia teachers securing first-grade certificates must pass an exami-
nation on either physical geography, elementary physics, or elemen-
tary agriculture. In Alabama. Georgia. Mississippi. Missouri. North
Carolina, and South Dakota all teachers must pass examination on
this subject. In New York the new syllabus for elementary schools
contains nature study and agriculture, and teachers in training
classes are required to cover all subjects in the syllabus. In Ohio the
Teachers' Reading Circle requires the study of one text-book on ele-
mentary agriculture each year. The laws are also beginning to rec-
ognize the fact that definite provision should be made for the training
of teachers along agricultural lines. Thus a recent act in Michigan,
which enables counties to maintain normal training classes with State
aid, requires the teaching of agriculture to such classes. In Massa-
chusetts the legislature appropriated $5,000 for normal work at the
State Agricultural College as one result of the report of the commission
on industrial education above referred to.
It is also being seen that the high schools are very largely the insti-
tutions in which the teachers of the rural schools receive their most
advanced training, and this fact is now making it easier to secure
legislation for high-school instruction in agriculture. Already under
State laws there are agricultural high schools in Alabama. California,
Minnesota, and Wisconsin. In 1905 the Minnesota legislature passed
an act providing for local option in the establishment and mainte-
nance of county schools of agriculture and domestic economy, limiting
JO, 000 the amount: which any county may appropriate for this
purpose in one year. Two or more counties may unite to establish
such a school. Each school must have connected with it a tract of
land suitable for experiments and demonstrations of not less than
10 acres.
At the session of 1906 the Georgia legislature passed an act estab-
lishing 11 agricultural high schools, as branches of the State College
of Agriculture. These schools will each receive from the State about
00 a year, derived from the inspection fees collected by the State
department of agriculture, but each community in which such a
school is located must furnish not less than 200 acres of land and the
necessary equipment. The people are responding enthusiastically to
this requirement, and about S^OO.OOO in land and money lias been
offered for the equipment of these schools.
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 157
In New Hampshire, beginning with. 1906, high schools and acade-
mies may be approved b}T the State superintendent of education if
they are prepared to teach agriculture.
Recent legislation in Virginia provides for the establishment of
public high schools under the authority of the State superintendent
of education. Arrangements are being made to open about 150 such
schools, and it is intended to make instruction in agriculture a feature
of the course in such of these schools as are located in the rural
districts.
FORMULATION OF COURSES.
One of the objections often made to the introduction of agriculture
into our schools is that the teachers do not know what should be
taught under this head. This may have been a valid excuse in the
past, but to-day is no longer so. While there is still much differ-
ence of opinion as to details, the general scheme of instruction has
been pretty well worked out. For example, the Office of Experiment
Stations has published an outline plan of a course in nature study
and elementary agriculture for rural schools. This was prepared by
a committee of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and
Experiment Stations, and therefore represents broadly the views of
educators in different parts of the countr}' on this subject. In this
publication, a which may be obtained on application to this Depart-
ment, it is suggested that during the first six years of the child's
attendance at school he should be led to make observations of the
plants and animals on the farm and in the fields and woods, together
with simple studies of soils, weather conditions, and other natural
objects and phenomena. A more formal study of climate, soils, fer-
tilizers, farm crops, fruits, domestic animals, dairying, farm build-
ings and machinery, market ing, and farm accounts is outlined for
the seventh and eighth school }~ears. The committee has followed
this with a series of simple exercises and demonstrations on some of
the elementary principles of agriculture. These have recently been
published as a circular of the Office of Experiment Stations.
In Missouri a course in agriculture for the public schools was pre-
pared several years ago by the State superintendent of schools. This
has since been superseded b}^ a more nearly complete presentation of
this subject in a bulletin prepared by the State superintendent and
published by the State board of agriculture. This bulletin advocates
presenting the subject of agriculture "(1) by experiments at home
and in the field, (2) by studying facts as given in texts and bulletins,
and (3) by school gardens connected with school grounds." Nu-
merous experiments and observations are suggested throughout the
bulletin.
a Office of Experiment Stations Circular 60, The Teaching of Agriculture in the
Rural Common Schools.
158 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In Illinois a somewhat detailed course has been prepared by the
dean of the College of Agriculture. This course is arranged bv
nionths, and gives suggestions for a large number of experiments and
observations bearing on all the divisions of agriculture. Consider-
able reading along agricultural lines is suggested, as well as drawing,
composition, and other work intended to correlate agriculture with
other school work. This Illinois course has not only been used in
thai State, but has also been adopted by several other States and
published in the reports of their State superintendents of education.
In Minnesota a bulletin prepared by Prof. W. M. Hays, then pro-
fessor of agriculture of the College of Agriculture and now Assistant
- retary of Agriculture, has been widely used in the schools of that
and other States. This bulletin contains a large number of practical
and illustrative exercises for use in connection with elementary
instruction in agriculture.
In "Wisconsin the State superintendent of public instruction, in
1906. prepared an outline for instruction hi the elements of agricul-
ture for the use of teachers in common schools. In this outline it is
recommended that agriculture be taught in the last half of the eighth
year, and that nature study be given in all grades through general
exercises and in connection with language exercises, geography, reading,
and history. The outline is divided into three parts, (1) agriculture,
including the soil, water and the soil, tilling the soil, soil enrich-
ment, the plant, the leguminous plants, plant enemies, rotation of
crops, selection of seed, the farm garden, weeds, and home and school
gardens: (2) farm animals, including care and feeding, type forms,
and farm economics, and (3) farm poultry.
Outlines of courses, sample lessons, and other helps for teachers have
also been published by the State departments of education in Georgia,
Indiana. Maine, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Xew
Hampshire, Xew York, and probably in other States.
The Xew York State department of education has published a sylla-
bus of a course in agriculture for high schools, and this will be followed
by a detailed series of lessons and laboratory and field exerci
PREPARATION OF TEXT-BOOKS AXD MANUALS.
The demand for text-books, manuals, and reference books on agri-
culture adapted to school use is steadily growing. The agricultural
experts connected with our agricultural colleges and experiment sta-
tions are thus encouraged to prepare such books, and publishers are
now active hi seeking for books of this character. The number of bul-
letins useful to teachers and students which are issued by the United
States Department of Agriculture and the State experiment stations
has greatly increased in recent years, and the demand for these from
educational institutions is now, large. Among elementary text-books
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 159
which are already used more or less extensively in schools are Burkett,
Stevens and Hill's Agriculture for Beginners; Goff and Mayne's First
Principles of Agriculture; Bailey's Principles of Agriculture; Good-
rich's First Book of Farming; Brooks's Agriculture; Jackson and
Daugherty's Agriculture through the Laboratory and School Garden;
Shepperd and McDowell's Elements of Agriculture (prepared espe-
cially for North Dakota schools), and Hatch and Haselwood's Ele-
mentary Agriculture with Practical Arithmetic. The last mentioned
is an interesting attempt to correlate instruction in agriculture with
that in arithmetic by connecting with the several lessons in agriculture
a number of practical arithmetical problems directly relating to the
farm. For the high-school library and the teachers' use we have such
advanced manuals as Hunt's Cereals in America; Smith's Profitable
Stock Feeding; Henry's Feeds and Feeding; Jordan's Feeding of
Animals: King's Soil, Irrigation and Drainage, and Physics of Agricul-
ture ; Decker's Dairying; Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life ;
Mead's Irrigation Institutions; Taylor's Agricultural Economics,
and others. For general reference books we have the new Interna-
tional Encyclopedia; Bailey's Encyclopedia of Horticulture; Wilcox
and Smith's Encyclopedia for Farmers; Bailey's Garden Craft and
Rural Science Series; the Yearbooks of the United States Department
of Agriculture, and others of similar character. The bulletins and
books which the schools can easily secure contain many descriptions
and illustrations of simple and inexpensive apparatus and other facili-
ties which may be purchased or made by the teacher. There is no
excuse for keeping agriculture out of the schools to-day because of a
lack of suitable books or other aids to such instruction. Suggestions
for the adaptation of country schoolhouses to this new work are now
being made. At Cornell University a model schoolhouse is being
erected, which, in addition to the usual recitation room, will have a
large laboratory for nature study and elementary agriculture.
PROVISION FOR TRAINING TEACHERS.
Realizing that a vital point in the effective teaching of agriculture
in our public schools is the training of teachers in this subject, the
friends of this movement are now making active efforts to establish
agricultural courses for teachers in our colleges and normal schools.
The agricultural colleges in a number of States have given instruction
to considerable numbers of teachers at summer schools. They are now
beginning to establish regular normal courses, provision for such work
having recently been made at the colleges in Illinois, Mississippi,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, and Xew York. The colleges in
Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, New York, Mississippi, and Rhode Island also h
so-called extension departments which are seeking to come into close
160 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
touch with teachers as well as with country boys and girls, and thus
promote the wider diffusion of agricultural education. These colleges
are also using their influence to turn students in their regular courses
to the career of teaching. The agricultural high schools, whether
attached to the agricultural colleges or independent of them, are also
training teachers. Some of the normal schools in Alabama, Georgia,
Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, California, Louisiana, Maine. Massachusetts,
Michigan. Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota. Oklahoma,
Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin
are giving regular instruction in nature study and elementary
agriculture.
ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS.
Meanwhile the establishment of courses in agriculture in secondary
and primary sch< k >1s is g» >ing on in different parts of the country. The
agricultural high schools organized in connection with the agricultural
colleges in Minnesota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Wash-
ington report an increased number of students, and are better equipped
than ever before. The National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa., has
been recognized by the State legislature, which granted it an appro-
priation of $1 2,000, to be used for agricultural instruction. This
school now receives more applicants for admission than it can accom-
modate, and is obliged to keep a waiting list. In Wisconsin the Dunn
County School of Agriculture and Domestic Economy at Menominee
has graduated three classes — 21 boys and girls in 1004. 19 in 1905, and
16 in 1906. The California Polytechnic School, at San Luis Obispo, has
become firmly established and has a good equipment and a consider-
able number of agricultural students. The nine district agricultural
ils in Alabama are steadily growing in popularity, and the effi-
ciency of their agricultural work has been much increased. The agri-
cultural course at the Mount Hermon School, in Massachusetts, is being
well maintained. In Missouri agriculture is being taught in 200 high
schools, hi Ohio in 30, and in one or more schools in Alabama, New
Hampshire, Pennsylvania, New York. Iowa, Kansas, Nebr:
la, Indiana, Maine. Idaho. Montana. North Dakota. Oklahoma,
South Carolina, Tennessee. Texas. Utah. Virginia, Washington, and
Wisconsin.
agricultural high schools have recently been org a *>kston,
Minn., and Calvert, Md. At the latter a graduate of the Iowa Agri-
cultural College has been elected principal, and a course of study
ly following the course recommended by the committee on
instruction in agriculture of the Association of American Agricul-
tural Colleges and Experiment Stations" has been adopted, and the
a Office of Experiment Stations Circular GO.
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 161
agricultural work is arousing much, interest not only among the pupils
but also among the farmers of the county. The principal visits other
schools in the vicinity for the purpose of getting their teachers and
pupils interested in agricultural subjects. The school is strictly rural,
and although it has been running only since the 1st of November, 1906,
there is an enrollment of 47, the school building is crowded, and already
there is talk of a new building next year. Georgia is organizing eleven
such schools. The agricultural courses in schools for negroes at Hamp-
ton, Va., and Tuskegee, Ala., are maintained very efficiently, and
efforts are being made to strengthen the agricultural courses of sec-
ondary grade in a number of the land-grant colleges for negroes in
other Southern States.
In Ohio it is reported that elementary agriculture is taught in
approximately 500 township schools; in Missouri in 3,000 schools; in
North Dakota in 300 schools; and this subject is regularly taught in a
considerable number of schools in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Indian Territory, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Nebraska, New Hampshire,
New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Virginia,
Wisconsin, and Washington.
NUMBER OF PUPILS STUDYING AGRICULTURE.
Reliable statistics of the number of pupils studying agriculture in
our public schools are not available, but from the reports recently
received at the Office of Experiment Stations it is certain that they
are numbered by thousands. From the report of the State super-
intendent of education of Missouri for 1905 we have gathered the
following interesting statistics: The total number of schools doing
high-school work in that State is 555, with 1,428 teachers and 28,354
students. The total number of students in agriculture is 1,180. In
the sciences, which are more or less related to agriculture, the num-
bers are as follows: Botany, 2,742; zoology, 1,905; chemistry, 1,492;
physics, 3,386; physical geography, 4,215; physiology, 3,411. Latin
is taken by 14,117 students, but Greek by only 200. In manual
training there are 2,582 students, in bookkeeping 1,534, and in
stenography 436. As some indication of the number of farmers'
children in these high schools it may be stated that there are 4,000
nonresident pupils. From these high schools come very largely
the teachers required by the elementary country schools, and 3,000
new teachers are needed for these schools in Missouri each year.
These statistics show several things: (1) That a good beginning
has been made in teaching agriculture in the Missouri high schools;
(2) that there is so much elementary science taught in these schools
that there should be little difficulty in laying a proper foundation
for effective agricultural instruction; (3) that there are so many
3 A1906 n
162 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
farmers' children in these schools that with proper courses of instruc-
tion the high schools of Missouri may easily become powerful agen-
- for sending back to the farms yoimg people thoroughly alive
to the advantages of country life and the requirements of a pro-
gressive agriculture: (4) that it is vital to the advancement of the
best interests of the elementary rural schools that the atmosphere
and instruction of schools should be favorable to agriculture, for to
these high schools the country school must largely look for teachers.
HOW FARMERS MAY HELP THE SCHOOLS.
Having now reviewed the progress which has been made in recent
years in opening the way for the teaching of agriculture in our public
ols. it may be well to give brief attention to some of the v.
in which the farmers themselves may further promote the improve-
ment of the rural schools in this and other respects. Our agricul-
tural communities have never been so prosperous as to-day. And
there is every reason to believe that with intelligent management
of the land and sound judgment in the marketing of the products
this prosperity may be permanently maintained. The farmers
now have the means to improve not only their lands and buildings,
but also their general social conditions. The experience of the past
century has shown that a thorough and effective school system in
which the curriculum recognizes the industrial, intellectual, and
social needs of the community is a most influential factor in pro-
moting material wealth, as well as a broad and satisfactory life.
Our farmers will be wise, therefore, if they use a portion of their
increased means to strengthen and improve the rural schools. Some
have feared that agricultural prosperity would lead to a neglect of
education in our rural communities. But the indications are that
this is not to be so. Our agricultural colleges and schools report
both an increase in the number of students and an improvement in
their quality. It appears that with the improvement of agricultural
conditions there is a renewed interest in farming as a business, and
farm boys of strong mental caliber and active ambition are seeking
in larger numbers to prepare themselves in the best way for a life on
the farm.
There is also widespread recognition of the fact that our present
agricultural prosperity rests on a different basis from that of pre-
vious periods in our history. There have been times when multitudes
of our farmers were prosperous because they had occupied large ai
of virgin soil freely granted them by the Government or purchased at
a very low price. To-day our agricultural prosperity has come partly
from increased demand for farm products at home and abroad and
partly from the more skillful use of the land and the growing of im-
proved crops and animals. And the improvement of agricultural
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 163
methods and products has been very largely the result of the
work of the United States Department of Agriculture and the State
experiment stations. Technical and scientific knowledge is, as never
before, a requisite of the most successful farming. The schools can
be made efficient aids to the acquirement of that knowledge which
our farm youth must have in order to perpetuate and extend the
prosperity which their fathers now enjoy. Therefore our intelligent
farmers are seeking to improve the rural schools, and will do so
more actively as they come more generally to understand the im-
portance of such action.
Better-trained teachers, improved school houses and grounds,
more apparatus and books, free transportation of pupils to consoli-
dated schools, high schools made available to all country children,
and the teaching of agriculture and home ecomonics will cost some-
thing, and if they are to be had they must be paid for. But unless
all past experience is a false guide, this improved school system will
be one of the most profitable investments ever made by a civilized
community. And if our farmers are alert to their interests they
will push these improvements along rapidly, and they will not permit
the entire expense to come out of the taxable farm property. The
villages and cities, whose prosperity rests on the farms, and the
accumulated wealth of the State should contribute to the education
of the rural people. This is already recognized in a number of our
States as a wise and just principle. The nation has also recognized
it by appropriating large sums for the higher agricultural education.
It can not be too strongly urged that the movement for the im-
provement of the rural schools, and in particular for the teaching
of topics directly relating to agriculture and farm home life, should
receive the active support of the masses of our farmers. And this
support should be felt in our legislatures, boards of education, and
local school management. This, will require study of the present
condition of our rural schools and careful consideration of their
needs. As regards agricultural instruction there should be an under-
standing of what the elementary and secondary schools may prop-
erly teach and the relation of such studies to those ordinarily pursued
in our schools. For example, our farmers should come to under-
stand that it is not the ordinary practice of agriculture which can
or should be taught in the public schools. It is rather the observation
of the things in the natural world which the farmer has to deal with,
the use of natural laws for the benefit of agriculture, the reasons
why certain farm practices are beneficial and others injurious to
the land that the school may teach. For example, in a dairy region
the composition of milk, the causes of the souring of milk, and the
ways of preventing this may be taught in school; in a potato-growing
region, the nature and cause of potato blight, the reason why it is
necessary to spray the vines before the disease appears; where the
164 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
soils are deficient in nitrogen, the advantage of green manuring
with leguminous plants and the reasons therefor: in an arid region,
the use of the soil mulch and why it prevents the escape of soil mois-
ture. And, above all. the farmer should see to it that the rural
school-teacher is a friend of agriculture and loses no good opportunity to
show his or her pupils the advantages and opportunities of country life.
The farmers can also do a great deal to promote the teaching of
agriculture in the rural schools by encouraging the teachers to take
up tins subject and to prepare themselves to give instruction in it.
The farmers are very largely the managers of rural schools and their
children are the teachers in them. Merely by taking an active inter-
est in the local schools, inviting the teachers and scholars to visit the
farm, especially when there are unusually good crops and fine ani-
mals to be seen there, or sending specimens of products or injurious
birds or insects to the school, the intelligent farmer may help to create
a sentiment hi favor of agricultural instruction there. Teachers,
like other workers, will inevitably respond to an active demand for
new things. As soon as it becomes izeiierallv understood that the
farmers are bound to have agriculture taught in the schools, candi-
dates for teachers' positions will get ready to teach it. "With many
of our educational leaders fully believing that subjects directly related
to the life work of the pupils should be taught and a host of the intel-
ligent farmers insisting that our future agricultural prosperity will
largely depend on such teaching in the schools, a way will surely be
found to bring this great reform to a successful issue. Meanwhile let
us have great patience with even the most imperfect attempts on the
part of our schools to work along this line. The whole matter of
elementary and secondary instruction in agriculture is in an experi-
mental stage. Many trials of courses, methods of teaching, books,
apparatus, and other facilities must be made before plans fully adapted
to the conditions of different agricultural regions can be matured.
Intelligent and kindly criticism should be invited and utilized by all
who are engaged in this work. In this way alone can the best prog-
ress be made.
What is now being done, with all its imperfections, is tremendously
important. Principles of action are being determined. Every suc-
cessful example of the effective teaching of agriculture, whether in a
little country school or in the agricultural high school, is helping to
indicate along what line the future growth of this movement must
proceed. There is therefore much cause for congratulation that in
so many different States and under such a variety of conditions
honest and substantial efforts are being made to solve the problems
of our rural schools and to test the usefulness of agricultural instruc-
tion as a means of improving country life and perpetuating agricul-
tural prosperity.
CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES.
By Henry Oldys,
Assistant, Biological Survey.
INTRODUCTION.
Three hundred thousand cage- birds, largely canaries, are annually
imported into the United States. Some of these are destined for
zoological parks and a few for private aviaries, but the great majority
find their way into the hands of those who desire to have a cage-bird
or two to brighten the home. This yearly influx of captive birds may
seem large, considering the comparatively small number usually in
evidence; but it must be remembered that they are scattered over an
area of more than 3,000,000 square miles, and are distributed among a
population of more than 80,000,000, which allows but 4 birds a year
to every 1,000 persons, or about 400 birds to a city of the size of
Columbus, Ohio.
The practice of keeping live birds in confinement is worldwide and
extends so far back in history that the time of its origin is unknown.
It exists among the natives of tropical as well as temperate countries,
was found in vogue on the islands of the Pacific when they were first
discovered, and was habitual with the Peruvians under the Incas and the
Aztecs under Montezuma. Caged birds were popular in classic Greece
and Rome. The Alexandrian parrakeet — a ring-necked parrakeet of
India — which is much fancied at the present day, is said to have been
first brought to Europe by one of the generals of Alexander the
Great. Before this living birds had been kept by the nations of west-
ern Asia, and the voices of bulbuls and other attractive singers doubt-
less added to the charms of the hanging gardens of Babylon, while
in China and Japan the art of domesticating wild birds has been prac-
ticed for many centuries.
It is not difficult to account for the motive that underlies this wide-
spread habit. The same spirit that leads to the domestication of wild
flowers for adornment of the home and the pleasure derived from their
beauty or fragrance is responsible for the similar transplanting of
wild birds from their natural homes to those of their captors, and
the parallel extends to the subsequent production of new varieties.
As a people, Americans have less of this spirit than prevails else-
where. Despite the multitudes of birds weekly entering the country —
a single vessel will occasionally deliver ten or fifteen thousand — our
165
166 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
interest in avicultural pursuits is comparatively slight. In Europe
aviaries are numerous and their owners maintain a common interest
by means of avicultural organizations and periodicals. Bird shows
are held annually or oftener in London, Berlin, and manjr other Euro-
pean cities. A friendly but keen rivalry prevails among the owners
of aviaries as to which shall first succeed in breeding species that have
not previously been bred in captivity or in producing new hybrids.
The journals and magazines devoted to aviculture serve as a medium
of exchange of methods and experiences and keep their readers in touch
with each other. In Germany, particularly, the practice of keeping,
rearing, and studying cage-birds is very common. In many a dwell-
ing one room is set apart for birds, and these bird rooms are not con-
fined to a particular class, but are found in the homes of people of
every rank and condition. As long ago as 1880 some 200 societies
of amateurs existed, and several weekly publications and magazines
devoted to birds attested the general interest in avicultural pursuits.
The breeding of cage-birds for sale is a regular occupation in several
parts of Europe. Germany produces hundreds of thousands of sing-
ing canaries in the Harz Mountains, those of St. Andreasburg being
unrivaled songsters ; in England, Scotland, and Belgium fancy vari-
eties of canaries are regularly bred for the trade; and at the Royal
Society's zoological gardens of Antwerp, Belgium, the breeding of
many species of foreign cage -birds is systematically conducted.
The United States has few aviaries, and most of these are devoted to
pheasants and other large birds. For a few years an avicultural peri-
odical was published, but the support it received was apparently insuf-
ficient, and at present there seem to be no periodicals and very few
associations strictly devoted to aviculture. Hence in this country
there is not that community of interest and information that charac-
terizes the avocation in Europe. America supports a few small shows,
mainly exhibitions of canaries; and small exhibitions of cage birds,
mostly canaries, are usually held as adjuncts to the annual poultry
shows of New York, Boston, Chicago, Toronto, and other cities.
The breeding of canaries and cage-birds for the trade in any numbers
is practically unknown on this side of the Atlantic.
TRAFFIC IN DOMESTIC BIRDS.
The once extensive trade in native American birds has dwindled to
the vanishing point. Formerly mockingbirds, bluebirds, cardinals,
tanagers, indigo birds, and nonpareils were caught in large numbers
and sold either here or abroad, and more or less trade in other species
prevailed. Bluebirds, which are known as blue robins or blue
nightingales in England and France, were imported into England some
time before 1869, as in that year they were first bred in the London
CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 167
Zoological Gardens. They are regarded with much favor by amateurs
and have been repeatedly bred in private aviaries. Mockingbirds
were bred in French aviaries before 1873. While intolerant of cage
mates, they are much valued in Europe for their song, which, how-
ever, is there considered inferior to that of the nightingale — a judg-
ment partly assisted, perhaps, by patriotic bias and association.
Scarlet tanagers and cardinals are ranked very high in Europe,
and frequently win prizes in bird shows. Evidence of the esteem as
cage-birds in which the latter are held is shown by the fact that they
are listed on the price list of a London bird dealer for September,
1906, at more than $5 apiece. Of interest in this connection is the
statement of Gemelli Careri, quoted by Nuttall in his Manual of
Ornithology published in 1832, that "the Spaniards of Havana in a
time of public distress and scarcity bought so many of these birds
[cardinals], with which a vessel was partly freighted from Florida,
that the sum expended at $10 apiece amounted to no less than
$18,000." Indigo birds and nonpareils are valued for their attractive
plumage. Of the latter thousands were annually exported to Europe,
where they sold for $1.50 to $2 apiece.
In consequence of the continual trapping to supply the increasing
demand, several of these birds became rare in localities where once
they had been common. Nearly every State had a law protecting
nongame birds, but such laws were at that time imperfectly framed
and ineffectively enforced. The usual exception authorizing the keep-
ing of birds in cages as domestic pets was unaccompanied by any
restriction on trade, which, in consequence, flourished. Imperfect as
these laws were, they were rendered still less effective by the absence
of public interest in their observance and adequate provision for their
enforcement. Gradually, however, the influence of the bird-protec-
tive movement began to make itself felt and the laws were improved.
One State after another adopted a model law framed by a committee
of the American Ornithologists' Union, which instead of simply pro-
hibiting the killing of a few birds specifically named, as had formerly
been done, prohibited the killing, capture, or possession of all birds
other than game birds and a few injurious species, and interdicted all
trade in them. The interest in bird life awakened by the efforts of
this organization and the various State Audubon societies caused
these laws to be more or less vigorously enforced, and the trade in
native birds declined proportionately. Supplies were still obtained,
however, from States that had not adopted modern laws, and the
export trade to Europe continued brisk. One by one these remain-
ing strongholds were carried by the forces of bird protection until
finally, in 1904, Louisiana, the only State left from which birds were
procurable, adopted the model law, and now, beyond a few surrepti-
tious and illegal shipments, the domestic and foreign trade in native
168 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
American birds has been entirely abolished. Occasionally a smail
consignment of mockingbirds or cardinals is smuggled to Hamburg
or some other European port, but the life of the trade is gone.
TRAFFIC IN FOREIGN BIRDS,
The importation of foreign cage-birds has grown to its present pro-
portion, not only in this country, but in Europe as well, within the
last fifty years. Up to the middle of the last century, apart from
parrots and some other of the larger species, few birds were imported
into Europe, and as late as 1860 only about 60 different kinds of for-
eign birds were brought in, and these in moderate numbers. But
about this time a rapid increase began, and by 1S80 the species im-
ported approximated TOO and the individuals from 500,000 to 800,000.
The Japanese robin, a favorite cage-bird of to-day, was first brought
to the London Zoological Gardens in 1886, and the shell parrakeet of
Australia, now one of the best known of exotic birds, and sold at whole-
sale in London for about $1.37 a pair, was first brought to England
by Gould in 1840. and for the next ten years commanded $100 to $1*25
a pair.
In the United States the growth of importation has undergone a
similar development, lagging, however, slightly behind the Euro-
pean growth. In both cases the sudden invasion of the markets by
foreign birds was due to the advantages of quick transportation. When
supplies from distant lands were brought by sailing vessels but few
birds survived the long vo3'ages. But the steamship afforded oppor-
tunity for conveying birds with speed and safety, and dealers were
quick to avail themselves of the changed conditions. As long ago as
1865 there was a brisk Americau trade in foreign cage-birds of all
kinds, and by 1880 this had so increased that a single dealer in New
York City handled 70,000 canaries each season.
NUMBER OF BIF.D8 IMPORTED.
The decline in the trade in domestic cage-birds has doubtless
stimulated the trade in foreign cage-birds, which advanced from
235,433 imported under permit of the Department of Agriculture in
the 3Tear ending June 30, 1902, to 322,297 in the year ending June
30, 1906, an increase of 37 per cent in four years. At the beginning of
this period the model bird-protective law previously mentioned had
been adopted by 16 States; at its close it was in force in 35.
Of the birds imported in the jTear ending June 30. 1906, 274.914
were canaries and 47,383 miscellaneous birds. The canaries were
nearly all raised in Germany. Thirty-three per cent of the miscella-
neous birds were from the Orient, 30 per cent from Europe. 22 per cent
from Australia, 7 per cent from Cuba and Mexico, 6 per cent from
CAGE-BIKD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 169
Africa, and 1 per cent from South America. The remaining1 1 per
cent were of unknown origin. In addition to these, 2,700 canaries,
mostly from Germany, and about 6,000 oarrots from various tropical
countries came in without permit, no permit being issued for these
birds when they are unaccompanied by others.
HOW BIRDS ARE SECURED.
A peep behind the scenes is always interesting, and when we see
diverse and remote regions of the world pouring their treasures of
bird life into our country a desire is awakened to know by what means
this is accomplished.
In some cases the method is as old as the history of maritime com-
merce. From the time when vessels began to make voyages to other
countries sailors have brought back trophies of various sorts, includ-
ing specimens of the fauna of distant lands. Some birds are still thus
brought in and are bought by dealers in the various ports of entry.
This method, somewhat systematized, prevails at San Francisco,
where the trade, temporarily suspended by the earthquake and fire, is
now beginning to revive. Supplies are here obtained from the crews
of steamers coming from China and Japan, who make a regular business
of transporting cage- birds, usually under an arrangement with the
steamship companies by which they are employed whereby freight
is paid out of the proceeds of sales. The birds thus imported are con-
siderable in number, but few in species, being mainly Java sparrows,
diamond sparrows, Chinese mockingbirds, and other common kinds.
But most of the birds imported are secured by more highly organized
methods. Several of the leading importers maintain forces of men to
secure the desired birds either in their native haunts or in European
ports to which they are brought by the agents of other importers.
Parrots are generally taken while still in the nest. During the nest-
ing season the leading American houses send men to Cuba, Mexico, or
South America to obtain stock. Headquarters are established by these
agents at some point convenient to the parrot country and natives are
employed to secure the young birds, which are forwarded to the United
States in periodical shipments. Agents have sometimes been sent from
this country to Africa to secure supplies of the favorite African
gray parrot, but these are usually obtained in European ports from
vessels arriving with supplies for the large European houses.
Small birds, other than canaries, are generally captured with nets.
Expert netters continually visit remote regions in the interest of whole-
sale houses of Hamburg, London, Liverpool, and other large cities of
Europe. Similar expeditions are dispatched from New York and
Philadelphia to Cuba and Mexico and occasionally to more distant
lands — even India; but the principal American houses maintain con-
nections with establishments in Germany, through which their supplies
of Old World and South American birds are more commonly procured.
170 YEABBOOK OF THE BEPABTMEXT OF AGBICTTLTUBE.
Canari - btained by agents who visit breeders in the Harz
Mountain.-, the Tyrol, and other parts of Europe. A few, b
:nported at San Francisco from breeders in China and Japan.
HOW BEKDS ***** SHIPPED.
of the small birds received from Africa and Australia are
shipped in large bo: .ially prepared for the pur] PI.
VIII, fig. 1 » are of different sizes and accommodate from
1 to 125 or 150 bir - ._ rise of box or of birds shipped.
Shell parrakeets are sent from Australia in especially large box--,
som* - many as 500 making the journey in a single box. The
birds so shipped are of a peaceable disposition and may be caged
I rher without fear of their injuring one another; but some bi
such as buIU . -. g bes, :tnd male canari- .me,
and each bird has to be placed in a separat
-mall wicker ca_ n of which are
;g on a n-tituting what is technically known as a row.
VThen shipped across the ocean these rows a: 1 and a linen or
burlap sack specially made for the purpose is placed about each crate
(see PI. VIII. rigs. 2and3). Aerate usually contains 33 rows. To para-
phrase the old riddle — every sack has 33 row- has 7 cages,
_- has 1 canary (or sometimes 2 if the occupants are the more
peaceable females). Often more than two doze - are shipped
in one consignment. Each of these must be opened every day of the
ry row re . and food and water placed in the ca .
In this daily re-crating the rows are rearranged so that the benefits of
- >ns may be m ^mong the birds.
1 hn arrival in port consignments of birds 'which pay no duty) are
entered at the custom-house under permit from the Department of
Agriculture, usually secured in advance by the importer. The larger
shipments are generally examined by one of the special inspectors of
irtment stationed at the principal ports of entry. Nearly all
shipments subject to such inspection enter at New York and Phila-
delphia. After the inspector has examined a consignment to ascer-
tain that it contains no objection- ies, and has noted, for sub-
sequent report to the Department, the number and kinds of bir
con. ie importer is free to dispose of it.
It is the aim of the importer to seli dc as qui: jle,
to dimini-h his losses by death and so increase his profit. It is esti-
mated that the mortality en route and in the store among some of the
more delicat- birds, such as African finches, may reach 14
per cent.
7. ological parks and aviaries are usually supplied direct by the
importers, but the general public is reached by way of the retailer.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate VIII
Methods of Shipping and Testing Cage Birds.
[1.— Cage for shipping small birds | see p. 170). 2.— Crate oi canaries ready for shipment
(see p. 170). 3.— Crate of canaries partly open to show rows of cages see p. 170).
*■— Testing singing of canaries (see p. 173).]
CAGE-BIED TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 171
Many small bird stores are scattered over the country, and some of
the large department stores have added birds to the great variety of
merchandise the}^ handle. Small consignments are shipped to retail
dealers by express (at double rates). In the cages or boxes are placed
water and food sufficient to last until arrival at destination. Some-
times, when the distances are unusually long, the express messengers
supply fresh water and food en route, and large consignments are
often accompanied by agents of the importers. Several of the princi-
pal importers have branch establishments at various points, such as
New Orleans, Chicago, and San Francisco, which fill western orders.
THE RETAIL TEADE IN BIRDS.
While retailers do more or less business during the entire year,
three well-defined seasons are established. In February canaries
begin to breed, and for the first two or three months of the year the
trade in breeding canaries, especially females, is brisk. About the
time it subsides the first shipments of young parrots arrive from Cuba
and Mexico. These at once take the stage and hold it until the mid-
dle of August, when it is no longer possible to secure young birds.
Interest then turns chiefly to singing canaries and the many other small
cage-birds that are imported. The sale for these grows greater and
greater and reaches its maximum by Christmastide, after which it
abruptly declines. Many dealers probably make more sales in Decem-
ber than during all the rest of the year. In the Christmas season of
1905 one Philadelphia department store sold 4,000 canaries, besides
other cage-birds.
From the character of the demand for cage-birds it is evident that
the retail trade is, as a rule, not enough by itself to yield a profitable
income. It is usually, therefore, combined with some trade of an
allied nature. In retail bird stores one may usually find fowls of
various kinds, pheasants, dogs, monkeys, squirrels, white mice, guinea-
pigs, goldfish, and even lizards and snakes. The sale of food and
cages also constitutes an item, and sometimes the proprietor acts as
surgeon and physician to domestic pets.
SPECIES IMPORTED.
During the year ending June 30, 1906, more than 200 species of
cage-birds were imported into the United States. These comprised
canaries, parrots (under which term we may include parrakeets, cocka-
toos, macaws, and lories), European birds, Oriental birds, African
birds, Australian birds, and a few South American, Mexican, and
Cuban birds. It is obviously impossible, in the space of the present
article, to consider all these in detail; but a brief account of some of
the most important will be of interest.
172 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
So widely known has the sweet -singing canary become that should
an inhabitant of one of the civilized countries of the world visit the
Canary Islands and hear the wild birds in their native home the strains
would, in all probability, bring to the traveler memories of his own
home. The clear and varied notes of this favorite singer are familiar
to young and old. and many dwellings, from the great mansion to the
obscure cottage, are alike brightened by their beauty. The position
of the canary among cage-birds is unique — not only because of its
widespread popularity, but also from the fact that centuries of domes-
tication have rendered it peculiarly dependent on man. Its cage has
become its natural home and to it liberty would probably mean death.
The bird is a native of the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Funchal
(Madeira), and is said to have been brought from the Canaries to Spain
and kept as a cage-bird by the Spanish nobility shortly before the time
of the discovery of America. Other accounts make Italy the tirst
country into which it was introduced and place the time early in the
sixteenth century. It is sufficient for present purposes to note that
it has been domesticated and prized as a cage-bird for the past four
centuries. The wild bird is smaller than the bird now so familiar, and
is also differently colored, having less bright yellow and considerable
olive and brownish in its coloring. Nor does it sing as sweetly.
Nevertheless, it is so attractive that soon after its introduction it
became a general favorite, and was bred so assiduously that it is said
that by the beginning of the eighteenth century 27 different varieties
were produced. It is interesting to note that canaries are now
exported from England to the Canary Islands.
The canary is a very good imitator. Mature birds have been known
to reproduce very closely the songs of even such birds as chewinks,
house wrens, and others, and the faculty has been utilized by breeders
to determine to a certain extent the quality or character of the song of
a voung bird. In Germany young canaries have been associated with
nightingales and in England with woodlarks to this end. But the
method commonly employed at present is to place the young bird with
a canary that possesses a superior song and is kept solely for training
purposes. The tine singers used for this purpose are called "cam-
paninis" and command high prices. Singers are measured by the rich-
ness and sweetness, not the strength, of their tones. Thus the voice
of one of the choice St. Andreasburg " rollers" (which sell at whole-
sale for $2-4 to $36 a dozen, according to season, while ordinary canaries
range from §15 to $21 a dozen) could easily be drowned by the sing-
ing of many an inferior canary. A single bird with a superior voice,
especially a campanini. will sometimes command a price for which
several dozen ordinary singers can be bought. Ordinary female birds,
CAGE-BIED TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 173
on the other hand, which are purchased mainly for breeding purposes,
may be had as low as $6 a dozen at wholesale.
As previously stated, singing canaries are bred in the Harz Moun-
tains of Germany. Large numbers are raised by the cottagers of this
region and are bought directly from them by buyers for the wholesale
establishments of Germany and England and the German branches of
American establishments. How much the industry means to the peas-
ants near St. Andreasburg, the Brocken, and other localities in the
Harz Mountains may be gathered from the fact that thirty years ago
it was estimated that the trade amounted to $300,000 a year.
Some canaries sing much more freely than others, and immediately
after the arrival of a consignment at the store of the importer the inter-
esting process of testing the singing qualifications of the different
individuals is begun. Cages are piled one deep in a tier containing 40
or 50 rows. In front of this large, somewhat semicircular pile, each
cage containing a single occupant, sits the tester, watching and listen-
ing (see PL VIII, fig. 4). Many notes are to be heard, but it is difficult
to determine from which of the many scores of throats they proceed.
This is the duty assigned the tester, and when he is certain that any
particular bird is singing, he places a chalk mark on the cage contain-
ing it. Marked cages are subsequently removed and their occupants are
sold as guaranteed singers. Testing canaries is difficult and requires
both patience and training, yet on a clear, sunny day, when the birds
sing more freely and can be more clearly seen, an expert will some-
times mark 500 cages.
In the breeding of canaries song has not been the only desideratum,
but has shared consideration with shape and color. The potency of
artificial selection is as well shown in this pursuit as in the rearing of
fancy pigeons, and some quite as distorted shapes are produced. Thus
Belgium has succeeded in giving to the world a big canary with broad
shoulders abnormally raised above the small head. And Scotland has
produced a type — the Scotch fancy canary — that is bent like a bow, so
that when the bird is at rest on a perch a line drawn from bill to tip
of tail would pass well in front of the feet. Other abnormal products
of breeders* ingenuity are the Yorkshire canary, very long and very
slim, and the Lancashire or Manchester coppy, well proportioned, but
a veiy giant among canaries.
Still other fancy varieties are the Norwich canary, at present a
popular favorite, the London fancy canary, the border fancy canary,
and the lizard canary, a dark bird with gold or silver spangles and
yellow crown. All these are further subdivided by breeders and
fanciers. Norwich canaries and Manchester coppies are frequently
ornamented with crests. Endowing with a crest a bird that has none
naturall}* is striking evidence of the possibilities of artificial selection.
174 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.
The diversity is further augmented by color possibilities. All
canaries are either "yellow" or "buff.'* These are technical terms,
however, and are somewhat misleading. A yellow (or jonque) canary
is one whose plumage is lustrous; a buff (or mealy) one is one whose
plumage is dull and has a frosted appearance. Cinnamon canaries with
pink eyes, and green and piebald canaries also, are bred, and a few
decades ago it was discovered that by feeding young canaries freely on
cayenne pepper the yellow could be deepened into a rich orange. The
combinations offered by these different characteristics are very numer-
ous, and when to them are added the results of hybridizing with other
species — goldfinch, linnet, siskin, and others — as is done for the pro-
duction of the much-prized "mules." unlimited possibilities seem to
open out before the breeder. In breeding for shape and color, singing
qualities are neglected, and canaries in which these are so highly
developed often have little left of the sweet song that was the chief
cause of their original domestication.
In view of the great number of varieties that have been produced
and the differences in style and quality of song, and taking into con-
sideration also the patience, care, and skill bestowed by breeders in
producing and maintaining at an established standard the various
results of their work, it is not surprising to find great differences in
the prices of canaries. Ordinary male canaries may be bought for
$1.50 to $2 apiece at retail, and from this the prices rise, through
Norwich. Yorkshire, lizard, Manchester, and Belgian canaries in order,
and reach in the last a wholesale rate of $30 to $50 a pair. Song pro-
duction has not been led into bizarre channels, and that "beauty of song
is more highly estimated than odd shape is shown by the fact that
one of the finest singers among the "rollers" may command as much
as *150.
PARROTS.
So far as known, the first introduction of parrots into Europe
occurred in the fourth century B. C, when, it is related, one of the
generals of Alexander's army, returning from India, brought with
him specimens of the ring-necked parrakeet. These parrakeets, which
were called "Alexandrian parrakeets," after the monarch in whose
reign they were introduced, are still very popular with bird-fanciers,
and are so common in India that sailors continually bring them to
Europe and America. They are docile, and while slow in acquiring
speech, finally make excellent talkers. Roman writers inform us that
they were not eaten in India, but were held sacred because of their
ability to reproduce human speech.
African parrots were brought to Rome in the time of Nero from
beyond upper Egypt, where they had been discovered by explorers.
They were highly prized, both a^ pets and as table delicacies, by the
CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 175
Romans, who kept them in cages of tortoise-shell and ivory with silver
wires, and often paid more for one than for a slave.
The earliest knowledge we have of the keeping of West African
parrots as pets in Europe dates back to 1455, when Senegal parrots
were first introduced. American parrots owe their introduction into
the Old World to Columbus, who carried a few back with him on his
return from his first voyage to America. They were among the
objects of interest when he made his formal entry into Seville on
March 31, 1493. Five years later the Portuguese circumnavigated
the Cape of Good Hope, subjugated a part of India, and reintroduced
the Indian parrots into Europe.
The most popular parrots are the little green Australian parrakeets,
variously known as shell or grass parrakeets, budgerigars, or love
birds. These birds, familiar on the city streets in the capacity of
fortune-tellers and performers of tricks, are retailed in this country
at $4 or $5 a pair. They are among the easiest of all foreign birds to
breed and are raised in large numbers in Europe, from which source
come many of the birds brought to the United States. In the year
ending June 30, 1906, we imported 5,387 to supply the demand, includ-
ing a few of a yellow variety produced by the breeders of Belgium
and France. Shell parrakeets are easily transported from Australia,
owing to their ability to exist for long periods without water, and
have frequently been carried to Europe in sailing vessels, making a
three or four months' vo}7age, without being supplied with water.
Cuban parrots have recently risen in favor and several thousand
were needed to meet the year's demand. These medium-sized green,
red, and blue birds with whitish crowns make fairly good talkers, and
sell at wholesale for $24 to $27 a dozen.
Amazons from Mexico and Central and South America, which aver-
age $6 apiece at wholesale, are favorites among the larger parrots.
They are known as blue-fronted, red-fronted, yellow heads, double-
yellow heads, etc., according to the markings of the head. The blue-
fronted amazons seem to be preferred in Europe; but the double-
yellow heads make the best talkers, and when well trained command
prices ranging as high as several hundred dollars apiece.
The African gray parrots are probably unrivaled in ability to repro-
duce human speech, and have been popular pets in Europe since the
Middle Ages. Unfortunately they do not stand transfer very well
and the great majority of the few imported die soon after arrival.
The larger parrots have not yet learned to talk when they arrive,
and, as a rule, are disposed of at once to retailers. By these they are
often taught by means of specially constructed graphophones, which
automatically repeat, for hours at a time, selected words, phrases, or
songs.
176 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Parrots often attain great age — gray pariots have been known
to live ninety years. They display affection and intelligence, and
make very interesting, albeit somewhat noisy pets. They should be.
allowed frequent liberty from the cage for exercise, where it is
feasible: and they are much pleased and benefited by simple toys with
which to relieve the tedium of confinement — an empty spool, a piece
of tape fastened to the wire of the cage, or some similar object.
Macaws, large birds with glaring reds, blues, yellows, and greens
in their coloration and with voices to match, are secured in tropical
America: a few lories are brought from the Pacific regions: and many
cockatoos from Australia and neighboring islands. Of the last the
rose cockatoo from the Moluccas -eems to be preferred. Nearly 300
were imported during the year. Both macaws and cockatoos are diffi-
cult to handle. Their powerful beaks are weapons not to be despised.
and are used so freely that specially strong cages and perches are
needed to withstand their destructive attack-. Macaws were greatly
prized as pets by the Peruvians before the Spanish conquest.
The little yellow-crested cockateels from Australia seem to win less
favor here than in England, where they are fairly common in avia-
while but 30 or 40 seem to be enough to supply our annual needs.
Thev retail here at $8 apiece and in England at about $2.50 a pair, a
difference in price that may partly account for the difference in favor.
EUEOPEAN BIRDS.
The European birds ordinarily imported are sold at wholesale for $9
a dozen, with two exceptions — siskins, plain-colored birds, which are
usually secured for crossiug with canaries and which bring only £6 a
dozen, and trained or "piping" bullfinches, which command $15 each.
The handsome goldfinches are easily first in popular estimation. a> is
shown by the fact that 5,000 are annually brought in. Of bullfinches,
'. mostly untrained, entered during the year. More than a
thousand each-of siskins and linnets are imported each year and several
hundred skylarks and chaffinches. Song thrushes, blackbirds, and
black-caps show some degree of popularity; and so doubtless would
the robin redbreast — the true robin of our nursery tales and jingles —
were it easier to keep alive in confinement. Nearly a hundred night-
ingales are annually brought across the ocean, but very few ever again
utter the song that has become so famous. Their silence is a mute but
eloquent protest against their captivity, and serves to remind us that
in caging a bird we do not necessarily cage its song.
ORIENTAL BIRDS.
The Orient furnishes several of the most popular cage birds — Java
sparrows, of which we imported 6.285 in the year ending June 30, 1906;
CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 177
Japanese robins, of which 4,530 were brought in; Japanese nuns of
various kinds, which aggregated 1,780; and strawberry finches, of which
1,280 were needed to supply the demand.
Java sparrows, also known as paddy or rice birds because of their
destructive work in rice fields, are hard}?- and breed freely in captivity.
Their general color is a soft bluish gray, set off by the red bill and
conspicuous white marking about the face. A white variety has
been produced in the Orient. These retail for $3.50 each, while the
grays bring only $1.50 apiece. Pure whites are not very common —
in most white birds more or less of the blue-gray appears. Java
sparrows were among the earliest foreign birds imported both in Europe
and the United States, and those procured for the trade are, like
canaries, chiefly cage-bred birds. The Japanese now breed these
birds in large numbers. In order to increase production they raise
the }Toung by hand, feeding them with a sort of spoon cut from a thin
bamboo splint. The old birds, thus relieved of the care of their young,
are free to breed again at once.
Japanese robins, usually called Pekin nightingales by English avi-
culturists (who know our cardinals as Virginia nightingales), were
imported to the number of 4,539. They are peculiarly colored — dark
and greenish with distinctive 3rellow and orange on breast, bill, and
wings. The\^ are easy to keep, possess a sweet and musical song, and
have a song period of ten months, which contrasts favorably with those
of most cage-birds, the nightingale, for example, which, when it sings
at all, is in song for only two months. They are native in China, Japan,
and India, and were first brought to England about 1866 and to the
United States ten or fifteen years later. They retail at $4 each.
Nuns are small birds of different species, such as the black-headed,
white-headed, and tricolored nuns, the spicebird or chestnut finch, and
others. Most of them have more or less dark brown in the coloring.
A pure white variety and a buff and white variet}7 of one species — the
Japanese nun, also known as bengalee or mannikin — bear testimony to
the assiduity of Japanese breeders.
An attractive singer that seems to be growing in popularity is the
shama thrush from India. Its song suggests by turns those of catbird,
bobolink, and brown thrasher, but contains some clear mellow tones
not in the repertoire of those singers.
A few bulbuls are brought from India, mainly red-vented bulbuls,
but including other kinds. These do not include, however, the famous
bulbul of Persia, the oriental counterpart of the European nightingale,
and they add comparatively little to the total number of songsters
imported.
The hill minas of India, like parrots, can be taught to talk, but very
few are imported. These retail at $17 apiece.
3 A1906 12
178 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AFRICAN UIKDS.
Most of the cage-birds from Africa, which are brought to London,
Liverpool, Marseille, Bordeaux, and other European ports in immense
numbers, are secured for beauty of plumage, not song. The African
weavers, 994 of which were imported during the year, in addition to
attractive coloring offer an interesting exhibition of their skill in the
art that has given them their name. At nesting time, if furnished with
worsted or other suitable material, they will weave this in and out of
the wires of their cages, making neat and compact examples of their
handiwork. Bishops and Madagascar weavers are brilliant red and
black in coloring, cut-throats have a band of red across the throat,
from which is derived the name, and whidah birds (incorrectly called
"widow" birds) have extremely long tails. The group furnishes an
instance in which one family contains both bishops and cut-throats.
A Napoleon also figures among its members, and all are frequently
associated with Japanese nuns and Brazilian cardinals.
Waxbills numbered 555 in the year's importations. These include
the dainty little cordon bleu, or crimson-eared wTaxbill, various species
of silverbills, and several other kinds. The violet-eared waxbill, a
bird of radiant, prismatic beauty, is brought to England, but has
apparently not yet come to the United States. The tin}- zebra finches,
easy to keep and breeding readily in captivity, are favorites with the
bird-keeping public, 591 coming in during the year. African siskins
are also somewhat popular, and a small but increasing number of edel-
singers, or African gray singers, one of the few African species that
have a pleasing song, are imported annually.
African birds generally bring $1.50 a pair at wholesale. Most of
them have light, unmusical, but not disagreeable, notes, and being
bright and active, give life to room or aviary where they are confined.
While the breeding time of most of them is during our winter (the
seasons being reversed south of the equator), many of the little immi-
grants adapt themselves readily to the changed conditions and breed
in the summer of the North Temperate Zone.
AUSTRALIAN BUUDS,
Ordinary Australian birds also sell for $1.50 a pair wholesale. Of
these, apart from shell parrakcets, diamond sparrows are imported in
the. largest numbers, the year's supply being 332.
Australia is notable, however, for its charming Lady Gould finches,
which, perhaps, reach the highest point of beauty and elegance attained
by any of the smaller cage-birds of the world (see PL IX). Few are
sold in this country, possibly because of their high price— $9 to $10 a
pair at wholesale — and because they are difficult to keep (an English
fancier says of them that they suffer all the ills that beset other cage-
birds and several special ones of their own). They are highly prized
Yearbook U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate IX.
/
Lady Gould Finch.
CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 179
in England, where they have been bred a number of times. The main
reason for their unusual mortality seems to be improper treatment.
Because they come from the warm climate of Australia, the}" are
usually kept where they have plenty of sunlight. As a matter of fact,
however, as recently pointed out by a writer in '"Bird Notes," they
inhabit dense scrub, and in their natural habitat avoid the direct rays
of the sun. To place them in a small cage in the sunlight is a \
effective method of destroying them. Lady Gould linches are attract-
ive in their ways as well as in appearance. They tame readily, are
not pugnacious with cage mates, and exhibit many individualities of
disposition. They have a very interesting little dance that sometimes
forms a part of their courtship. a
Eir.D.S FROM SOUTH AMERICA, MEXICO, AND CUBA.
Omitting parrots, gray cardinals are the principal cage-birds
imported from South America. In England these vie in favor with
our own cardinal, from which they differ in being gray in color, with
no red excepting about the head. During the last fiscal year we
imported 455, which were retailed at ^3.50 each. A number of differ-
ent species of small birds are annually brought from Mexico and
Cuba, but none in important numbers except tomeguinos, known also
as grassquits or melodious Cuban linches and olive Cuban linches,
according to species. These sell for $1.50 a pair wholesale, and 665
entered during the year.
BIRDS BRED IX CAPTIVITY.
In Europe, as has been stated, great interest is manifested in breed-
ing cage-birds. This interest attaches to the propagation, not only of
rare birds, but of niany species that are commonly found in aviaries.
There is a great difference in the ease with which birds maj" be bred
in captivity. Some, such as shell parrakeets, zebra finches, Java spar-
rows, strawberry finches, and our own bluebirds and indigo birds, breed
readily and their young can be raised without much difficulty. But
some of the parrots and small cage-birds refuse to mate, others will
not sit on their eggs, and others yet neglect their young. To breed
such species requires much patience and ingenuity, and success is valued
accordingly. In the United States, where bird-fanciers are few and
lack association, there is not the same general interest in the breeding
of captive birds. Few Oriental birds other than Java sparrows and
but few of the small cage-birds from Africa and Australia have been
successfully bred in the United States. Among the more important
birds that have been reared in this country are the canary, shell par-
rakeet, black-crested mina, all-green parrakcet. gray parrakeet, cocka-
teel, graceful ground-dove, barred-shoulder dove, zebra finch, white
a See a detailed account of this dance by Captain Perreau in "Bird Notes" for
November, 1905, Vol. IV. No. 8, p. 203.
ISO YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Java sparrow, gray Java sparrow, cut-throat finch, and saffron finch.
Some hybrids have been produced by breeding canaries with gold-
finches, linnets, and other birds, thus securing well-known and greatly
valued mules.
OPPORTUNITY FOR AMERICAN ENTERPRISE.
The large and rapidly growing demand for canaries and other cage-
birds that has sprung up in the United States and that is now satisfied
by importations from abroad suggests the possibility of establishing
the industry of raising birds for market on this side of the Atlantic.
It is more than likely that interest in the keeping of cage-birds will
continue to spread, and that its growth will result in the development
of societies, periodicals, annual shows, and other features that mark
it- advance in Europe. Breeding canaries for market brings, as has
been shown, several hundred thousand dollars annually to the peasants
of the Harz Mountains of Germany, canaries of fancy shapes that com-
mand high prices are regularly bred in England. Scotland. Belgium, and
other countries: and it is important to note that in nearly every instance
the pursuit is carried on as an adjunct to some other occupation. There
is no reason why the American market should not be supplied by
American breeders. The need already exists: imported birds are not
so well adapted to our climate as those raised here, and home produc-
tion would obviate the large losses incident to the ocean voyage.
Many difficulties must be met. Captive birds are subject to numer-
ous diseases and. under the most favorable circumstances, require
careful treatment. Attention to diet is important, particularly in the
case of soft-billed birds, whose food is chierly insects. Questions of
suitable temperature for aviaries, of securing sufficient open-air exer-
cise without undue exposure, of preventing destruction of birds or
their eggs by cage-mates, of inducing birds to breed, and many other
problems constantly tax the patience and skill of the aviculturist: and
owing to climatic differences between Europe and America many of
the<e questions would doubtless have to be settled anew.
But American ingenuity and energy should be able to meet and
overcome all obstacles and establish the business on a paying basis.
Due weight should be given the fact that the experiment requires
little capital. It can easily be started at small expense and extended
only as the profits justify extension. The field i- a promising one.
The success attending cage-bird breeding in Europe, the great demand
for birds as pets in this country revealed by our large importations,
the superior value of those bred in America, and the facility with
which the business can be established and maintained offer strong
inducements to American enterprise.
THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS.
By J. A. Box steel,
In Charge of Soil Survey, Bureau, of Soils.
The soil of the United States constitutes the one great inexhaustible
natural resource of the country; from it spring not only the food and
raiment of the people, but nearly one-half (42 per cent) of the mate-
rials used in manufacture and a majority of the materials exchanged
in commerce. From the soil, in the present generation, the farmers
of the United States have won a living for themselves and for their
countrymen, and in addition have furnished the commodities whose
sale and exchange have much reduced the dependence of this country
upon the capital of foreign nations.
SMALL PROPORTION OF LAXD UNDER TILLAGE.
The agricultural domain of the United States (exclusive of the
outlying possessions) in 1900 comprised 5,739,657 farms, aggregating
841,201,546 acres. Of this area almost exactly one-half is improved
land and the remainder consists of woodlots, swamps, and land that
has never been plowed or cropped. Although this is a great total,
less than one-half of the whole land area has been turned into farms,
and less than one-fifth is actually improved. Even upon this show-
ing the farm lands of the United States comprise seven times the
farm-land area of France, with 39 million people; eight times the
farm-land area of Germany, with 60 million people; and thirty-one
times the farm-land area of England and Wales, with 34 million peo-
ple. The American farms now existing could be made to produce
enough to feed many times the country's present population were
the best and most intensive agricultural methods of European coun-
tries applied, and still have a surplus for export.
It is to the full development of these vast but dormant resources
that the soil-survey work is devoted.
SOIL RESOURCES MAY BE GREATLY INCREASED.
The soil itself is not a fixed and generally decreasing source of
income, as are many of the other natural resources of the country.
The wealth of the soil may not properly be compared with a fixed
bank account upon which drafts in the form of crops are continuously
181
182 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
drawn with the ultimate result of the complete exhaustion of the
capital involved. The suil is more nearly comparable with an
invested fund whose annual interest is paid in the form of crops and
which, under proper management, may be continually increased from
its annual earnings. The forces of nature which have produced soils
have not ceased to act. and through their steady, continued operations
they are capable of maintaining and renewing the producing power of
this great natural resource when they are properly directed and
sted by the husbandman. In tins respect soils, as a natural
resource, differ most materially from mines. The mine of metal or of
mineral fuel constitutes a resource whose extent may be ascertained
and whose total content may be measured. It is possible under
certain conditions for skillful engineers to estimate with considerable
exactness the total amount of material which may be removed from a
mine and the length of time which it will continue to yield. With the
soil this is n^t possible. Even where surface soils are bodily removed
and use] - - are exposed, these, if only left to nature, may in
time be brought to useful productivity: when nature is properly
-ted the process becomes rapid. When through mismanagement
the crop-producing power of a soil is impaired, a simple change in
crop rotation or in the mechanical handling of the soil is often suffi-
cient to make its continued cultivation possible and profitable. Thus
the soil, under businesslike and scientific management, is capable of
yielding not only annual but annually increasing profits. While
management, neglect, or avarice may cause a temporary check in the
producing capacity of the individual field, hi-
prove that, in all civilized countries, through all historic times,
soils of the world have re .-ponded with increased crops increasi]
intensive culture for the support of growing It is only
within brief periods of time and over limited areas that improvio
or neglect has been able to cause decreased returns from the -
The time has not yet arrived when even the present kn >wn resources
of Americas soils are fully called upon to feed the p-.
nation. Xo such intensity ol cultivation is demanded as in Germany,
where the average farm comprises V, -r in France, where it is
34 a< in England and Wales, where it is 63.4 acres. In
the United States land is still so abundant that the average farm
tains 14G.2 acres and less than half of it is improved. The time may
some day come, and doubtless will — it may be when there are 300
millions of Americans instead of 85 millions — when more land will be
needed for farms. Much sooner will come a time when the farm land
now in use must be handled more intensively and more effectively
and each acre must be made to produce to its maximum capacity the
crops for which it is best fitted.
THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS. 1S3
STUDY OF LARGE PROBLEMS.
It is partly in anticipation of that time that the soil survey is
examining into the total soil resources of the country and investigat-
ing the broad problems of the relationship of soil to crop, which must
be solved before American soils and American farmers can do their
best, the one for the other. In crop production, even under ordinary
farm methods, there are two groups of influences which control the
selection of appropriate crops — the planning of crop rotations and the
adoption of correct systems of farming. These are the influences of
the climate and the soil. Neither may be neglected by any man who
hopes for complete success, and the due and relative importance of
each must be ascertained.
EXTENT OF SURVEYS ALREADY MADE.
The work of making soil surveys was began in 1S99. and by June 30.
100(3. an aggregate area of rJ8,886 square miles, or 75,959,865 acres,
had been mapped. This comprises something less than one-tenth of
the area actually in farms and about one twenty-fifth of the entire
area of the United States. These surveys have been made in 43
States and 4 Territories. They have been so distributed as to
constitute numerous studies of each important geographical and
agricultural district.
SOIL TYPES. SERIES, AND PROVINCE-.
The work of the soil survey is based upon the principle that there
are differences among soils which so affect plants that not all soils are
equally suited to the production of all crops. This work, therefore,
comprises a study of both the character of these soil differences and
the effects which they produce in the growing of farm crops.
In the field work of the soil survey the soils are studied to determine
their texture, or the relative amounts of coarse or fine particles of
which they consist: their structure, or the relationship of these parti-
cles one to the others: their organic matter content, both quantity
and distribution: their internal natural drainage, and their topo-
graphic relief. These factors operating together determine the char-
acter of the home which plants are to find in the soil. All masses or
areas of soil which are found to be closely similar in all of these
respects are said to belong to the same soil type. Under similar
climatic surroundings the type is capable of producing similar kinds
of crops, and under the same conditions of farm management and of
farm efficiency they may be expected to produce practically equiva-
lent amounts of crops.
It has also been found that several soil types in a given region may
differ only in their texture, being identical or similar in all other
184 -3BOOK o* r::z department of agricultuee.
resp S ich a group of soils - called a series. Again, several
series have been found to be derived from the same cl material
by similar processes and to exist in a region having similar climatic
features in the broadest sense. Such a region constitutes
province.
PES.
The soil survey recognizes at present 13 gre 3, 58 soil
series, and 461 soil types. Of these types some 130 are more oi
local in character, while the remainder are of widespread occurrence
within their respective provinces. For example, the Norfolk sand is
a warm, porous soil of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain Province,
suited to the production of truck een mapped
in 34 different areas, located in 14 States, extend a Eng-
land to The total area covered by this in the areas
mapped amounts to 1.702,000 ac: _ s uare miles. Its
extent within the total area of these 14 States is many times as great.
Throughout the region where it occurs this soil has a definite crop
adaptation, and the variety of crops which may be raised sucessfully
upon it is limited by nature.
Similarly the Marshall silt loam has been mapped in 22 ar
located in 9 differen: - n extent of _ s, or 6,126
square miles. It is again safe to say that within these States several
times as many acres exist as have been mapped. Seven-eighths of
the area of this soil is preeminently adapted to corn production, and
the remaining one-eighth, while under climatic surroundings unfavor-
able to corn, is well suited to the production of one or more other a
of equal value.
Although these two types of soil are extreme cases, they are by no
means the only valuable soils of wide distribution and well-recog-
nized crop adaptation. Among the other 459 types then me of
which areas as large as the small 5 - have already been mapped.
There are others of which areas scarcely larger than a single town-
ship have so far been encountered and mapped. Whether exten-
or limite'd in area, each pre- - and no two
could safely be classed together as possessing identical properties and
the same utility.
ADAPT. SOILS.
Enough has been said to demonstrate the wide range and the won-
derful richness of the soil resources of the country. The other prob-
lem of equal importance, possibly the greatest agricultural problem of
the nation as a whole, is that of the proper and complete development
of these resources along lines which shall give not only increased crop
values, but also increasing ability to produce crops upon the part of the
soils.
THE USE OF SOIL, SURVEYS. 1S5
Careful consideration must be given to the fact that at least 461 types
of soil possessing distinctive properties are already known to exist. It
rests with some one, whether a private individual or a public official,
to determine the crop or crops to which each one of these soils is best
adapted; to devise the methods of soil management by which each
one of these soils may be made to produce a sufficient crop to repay all
expenses and to render a profit ; to adapt the systems of farm economy
through crop rotations, tillage, and fertilization so that these different
soils may produce their crops for long periods of time at least without
deterioration and. if American farming is to become a science, with
actual increase in crop-producing power.
Moreover, it is necessary that the discovery, introduction, and cul-
ture of crops adapted to these various types shall follow such lines
that the greatest food values as well as the highest commercial values
shall be rendered by each soil. It is also a necessity that upon
widely extended types such crops shall be grown as are subject to
wide demand in the markets of the world. Otherwise the farmers
engaged in crop production must face a destructive competition or
else portions of the soil type must be neglected or but feebly utilized.
One may anticipate the time when all areas of Norfolk sand having
suitable climatic conditions and transportation facilities can be made to
produce great crops of those vegetables which now constitute winter
luxuries for the few. At the present day such widespread produc-
tion, coupled with a limited demand, would force prices to a point
where the returns from the crop would only pay the charges of trans-
portation and of retailing and the producer would be left with neither
expenses nor profits paid. Therefore, before such anticipations can be
realized, either demand must increase, as it will with increasing popu-
lation and individual wealth, or transportation costs must diminish,
as they also will with the progress of invention and a proper increase
in competition.
The soil-survey work thus possesses a dual aspect: (1) It must deal
with those problems of crop and soil adaptation which concern the
present individuals and generation; and (2) it must accumulate a
fund of information in regard to soils which will assist in solving the
broad problems of the nation's soil resources and the utilization of
these resources, not only for the support of a growing population, but
also for maintaining a favorable balance of trade for the nation.
REPORTS OX ACTUAL USES OF SOILS.
The individual report upon each soil-survey area contains an
account of each soil type within the area. It gives a description of
the characteristic appearance of the type and summarizes the crop
uses to which it is put within the area. The methods of handling the
soil are given, and a general statement is also made of the range of
1S6 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTMESl iBICUI/TUKE.
crop production. Such, a report summarizes the actual uses of the
ed limits, and it also summarizes the farm
practices in ~ Each. report also contains an account of
the in othe. -here the same tvpe of soil has been
encountered: ai. - new crops, new methods of soil
management, and new industries are made a f this wider
knv i -ecuredfroni mi::, vs.
PBESEXT USES ES.
se reports on soil surveys the individual farmer may 1
the relationships of the soils upon his own farm. :
in the immediate neighborhood, but to sons of the same character
in widel; :edregi-:.~. He may tl. st tidy under-
standingly the methods and results obtained under the most ft
conditions 1; -sful farmers upon - :i of
:vation is e:: i nd he may more surely be experience
ion of others to his owr. 1 condi-
- able to wnfarm.n' :edprop
nship to other farml-
and in a re-_
iiidividiu .me of a
fixf a.
the pr. - - of the com.
there is slang ease
new : general
agriculture or for the production of special crops. Inquir
person
•h will enable him tb compare c.
Uy kn< -a ikies m
::. Inq re are c received at the
V ; artment of Agriculture, and wherever possible the infori
supplied by the reports and maps covering the a: erned.
or that is conin: he information v
h a judgment may be based. The - -
i means d to rep
r newly ope: -rieultnral occupation.
■ i -
calling the attention of individual farm Jar loc;
the older States where possible advantages may be gained from the
-d lands and the purchase of others which, for the
time, aire offered t figure. Gi
during the past : _ .s in the
■m and - ' States nn for those in any o^ier local:
n of individuals and of investors is
oekj shown bv this demand.
THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS. 187
During the past decade the funds accumulated by large invi slment
companies have increasingly sought a farm-land outlet. The soil-
survey reports are regularly requested by many such companies.
Some only desire the reports in particular circumscribed regions.
Others desire these reports as an unprejudiced basis upon which a
judgment of land uses and of farm development in widespread and
remote regions may be based. Obviously, the common interest of the
entire community is served by these reports of soil facts, just as the
individual interests of the persons concerned are safeguarded at the
same time.
The use of the soil-survey maps and reports by educational institu-
tions has greatly increased within a few years, accompanying a
renewed activity in the study of soils and in the teaching of soil sub-
jects. Not only are the maps and reports used by those institutions
directly for the study of soils, but they are also used in studies of crop
production, of farm economics, and of the distribution of agricultural
products. Xonagricultural colleges and universities are also using
these reports in connection with courses in commercial geography.
It has thus become necessary to hold such uses in mind in the distri-
bution of the individual soil-survey reports and of the annual report
known as Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils.
FUTURE NEED FOR EXACT INFORMATION.
All of these uses of soil maps and of soil-survey reports are imme-
diate and present. They are more or less personal to the individual
farmer, investor, or student. They do not constitute the only use
nor possibly the greatest use of these surveys. As agriculture, based
on the soil as its fundamental resource, is the greatest business of the
country at the present time, so it must remain for many generations
to come. Agriculture is still a generalized business, although its
specialization into horticulture, market gardening, tobacco culture,
cotton culture, and other subdivisions has begun. With increasing
population, with greater intensity of cultivation, greater demands
will continually be made upon the soil and greater precision and skill
in the selection and handling of soils for special crops will be required.
It will be extravagantly wasteful to allow these developments to occur
along the lines of chance and to secure the ultimate ends as the result
of haphazard trial or experimentation. The soil and climatic factors
which goA*ern plant and crop growth must be understood and appre-
ciated. Whenever through any cause a particularly valuable crop
is brought to perfection upon a given soil, the extent and geographic
distribution and the climatic environment of that soil must be known
in order to insure the successful spread of its culture.
Even at the present day there is continual inquiry as to the soil
conditions under which specific crops may be successfully grown, and
188 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A4TOIC1ILTUBE.
crops formerly confined to na: jions are spreading to other locali-
se culture of alfalfa, the production of sugar beets, the intro-
duction of new varic tobacco oi of old varieties into new regions.
all illustrate this tendency. Discussions of soils in connection with
the great staple crops are usually confined to corn soils, wheat soils.
>r grass - - Little attention is paid to the pertinent
fact that each of these crops has developed well-marked varieties
I to quite different regions, climates, and soils. It has become
nece— ly not toba< s ils, but cigar-wrapper tobacco soils
or cigar-filler to1: - Us. This is rec _•:..;: The equally impor-
tant fact that corn and wheat, cotton, rice, and the other great staples
should be studied as varieties adapted to different kinds of soil has
een equally emphasized.
From the stuc i . ?rican soil difference - . adaptations, and
soil resources, and h . mg-continu vat ion. classification,
and correlation of soil and crop f ts ascertained by the spe-
cialist new ses, now unperceived. of each and every acre of agricul-
tural land, so th will no longer report less than one-half of
the land of the country apportioned into farms and less than one-fifth
actually improved and tilled. From these studies and from the devel-
opment of la - : - nd plant - iation it will undoubtedly be
possible, at some future day, to increase the number of great staple
crops from as lozen to several score, each occupying its proper
place in the farm economy of the country and each produced under
those circumsl a f soil and climate best fitted to its growth.
ither problems, even now appearing in American agricul-
ture, of the rehabilitation of so-called "worn-out" and abandoned
farms, of maintaining and even increasing the producing capacity of
broad areas, while they are probably economic and farm-management
problem- I nsiderable extent, are only capable of solution after a
thorough study of th iditions in the field. These problems may
not - outlined without the aid of soil-survey work: much less
can they ed.
le time has come in the agricultural development of the United
$ irate and detailed knowledge of the soil — its charac-
ter, - viabilities, and adaptati >f great importance;
and as the years go by such knowledge will become more and more
important, until ultimately our greatly increased population will need
and will be able to utilize fully the diverse capabilities of these 401
different types of soil.
BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS.
By W. L. McAtee.
Assistant, Biological Survey.
IXTEODUCTIOX.
The importance of birds to the farmer in his warfare against insects
is everywhere recognized; indeed, it maybe said that successful agri-
culture would be well-nigh impossible without their aid. One
important role, however, is filled by birds, in which the value of their
services has not been appreciated, chiefly, no doubt, because the facts
are not generally known. This is as destroyers of scale insects. Very
little has been published on the subject, although at least six foreign
species and about the same number of native ones have been reported
as feeding upon scales. These facts have been either overlooked or
little weight has been attached to them. Indeed, only recently cur-
rency has been given to a statement that birds never feed upon scales.
Xot only is this statement not true, but investigations by the Biologi-
cal Survey prove conclusively that scales are eaten by many species
of birds and that with some species they are a favorite food.
DAMAGE TO TREES AXD CROPS BY SCALE IXSECTS.
Before attempting to estimate the value of the services of birds in
reducing the number of scale insects, it will be well to review briefly
the nature and extent of the damage inflicted by these pests. Many
authorities class the scales among the most destructive of insects.
They have caused the loss of hundreds of valuable orchards and are
dreaded by the horticulturist above all other insects, being especiallv
feared because of the insidiousness of their attack. When present in
small numbers they are easily overlooked and thus may become nrmly
established in an orchard before their presence is detected.
When young and still more or less active, scale insects are carried
from tree to tree by numerous agencies, and hence spread with great
rapidity. When adult they firmly attach themselves to the plant.
upon the sap of winch they feed, and then combined attacks gradually
reduce its vitality till finally death ensues. Many varieties of plants
are infested by them, and often large trees are completely incrusted
by a mass of scales composed of hundreds of thousands of individuals.
Even perfectly healthy trees do not survive the attacks of these
minute pests more than two or three years.
' 1S9
190 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT! 01 DT.TUBE.
In such extreme cases all methods of relief generally fail, and when
once the vigor of a tree is seriously impaired by scales there i- no
remedy. The old growth must be cut down and burned and new stock
introduced. In most instances of scale attack, however, the problem
is less serious, and \ suppressive measures are effectual. It is
during the lighter infestations that the controlling power of natural
•enemies of the scale is most apparent.
NATURAE ENEMIES OF SCALE INSECTS.
In. extreme cases of infestation by scales their natural enemies are
rarely able to control them, at least until the insects have done much
damage. The greatest value, therefore, of the natural enemies of
scales is in preventing undue increase of the insects, in restraining
them within what may be termed natural bounds, when the harm they
do is comparatively of little moment.
As an example of a species usually harmless but occasionally inc:
ing beyond the limit of safety, the plum scale {Eidecarmim ■
maybe cited. Of this species Lugger, in a report on Minnesota ins
says: "This is usually an uncommon species, but is now found in
destructive numbers, not alone upon the cherry, but also more fre-
quently upon the plum: though apples, pears, and other trees do not
escape."0
The plum scale is injurious also in Xew York, but in many parts of
its range it is not numerous enough to be a pest, which indicates that
in tl enemies have been able to hold it in check and
a maintain the balance. This is the ideal state. Under primitive
conditions a balance among organisms, both animal and vegetable,
quent and more stable than it now is. when man's inter-
ference with the operation of natural laws, desta cies
and protecting and propagating others, constantly disturbs the equi-
librium.
Owing to various changes, among the most important of which has
been the importation of unlimited numbers of foreign scales, which
a time at least, have enjoy t i entire immunity from natural
enemies, the balance between scale insects and their enemies has been
most seriously affected, and th have increased enormo
Hence in attempting to reduce the numbers of scale insects « \
effort should be made to foster their natural enem
For the purpose of considering their economic value, the latter i
be divided into two groups — the parasitic and the predaceous eneo
fectively do the n great part minute Hymenopt
iwaragj ales that they sometimes destroy not lesathfl
per cent of the j _ ether with then eggs. Neverth has
been stated by Dr. L. O. Howard, "'it is perfectly obvious that these
a Bui. 69, Agr. Exp. Sta. Univ. of Minn., p. 217, 1900.
BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 191
parasites wiU not accomplish complete extermination." However
they do not have to fight the battle alone, for as allies they have the
group of predaceous enemies which comprises beetle-, svrphus and
lace-wing Mies, and true bugs among insects, and also mites, birds,
and mammals. Among these, beetles are undoubtedly the most im-
portant. Coccinellid beetles, or ladybirds, of many species feed upon
the scale insects, and in their ranks are the most successful destroyers
of scales known. One of them almost completely exterminated the
cottony cushion scale, formerly the most destructive insect of its
kind in California.
Mammals may be dismissed in this connection with the statement
that so far as known they count for but little in the warfare against
scales: one instance is known of mice devouring the Lecanium scales
from a peach tree in England.
- was noted in the introduction, comparatively little has found its
way into print as to the part birds play as destroyers of scale insects.
Among the most interesting published observations on this point are
th^se of R. Xewstead, Chester. England.'7 He mentions four scale
insects which were preyed upon by five species of birds, and it is to be
noted that two of the scales and two of the birds are identical with
species occurring in the United States. The house sparrow was found
apparently feeding upon the hawthorn scale (Eulecawmm genevense),
which occurs only in Europe. Another scale insect, nevertheless,
and an injurious one. the oyster-shell bark-louse £ MyiUa&pis pGino-
. which was eaten by the birds Mr. Xewstead studied, is a com-
mon pest in the United States. It was fed upon by the tree-creeper,
a near relative of our own brown creeper. The English author says:
Many tim.^ I have seen. with the aid o£ held glasses, the tree creeper
collecting thL? species during winter and spring: and from what I have
.. tit iP[o/-us] palustris) and the blue tit (P. aeruleus they,
ies.
He found a few of these scales likewise in the stomach of the
long-tailed tit {Acrcdula caudaia). The latter bird, together with the
blue tit. fed also upon another scale insect which occurs in the United
States. This is a golden-colored scale {Asteroleaznium rariohsi
which is sometimes injurious to shade trees. Xewstead ss
I firmly believe tk: sought tor by various species of tits. Here, in
shire, the characteristic little depressions made in the twigs of the oak by this
-ands. Rarely is it that the Ooccids are found in them.
This fact for many years led me to suspect the birds had taken them. It was not until
1S9! that the matter was placed beyond doubt [by stomach examination]. The May
record is at the g - .n-rest. as at that time there would be a gi ion of bird
food. It prove-, therefore, that the species is a selected item in the dietary o! the two
species of birds.
a The Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 2d ser., VI [XXXI], pp. S4-S6. 1S95.
192 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It is significant that the fourth species of scale insect (Aspidiotus
zonatus) found by him in the stomachs of birds is related to the
notorious San Jose scale. It was eaten by the blue tit {Paras caru-
leus) . Among other foreign birds known to feed upon scales is a South
African species, the white-eye (Zosterops capensis), which selects the
larger soft scales (Lecaniinse).
Recent investigations show that a very much larger number of our
North American birds prey upon scales than was expected, and some
eat them to a considerable extent. Their influence upon the number
of these pests, while doubtless less than that of the predaceous insects,
is of far more importance than has yet been recognized. Among the
scales they devour are some most notorious pests.
SCALES EATEX BY XORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.
At least two native birds eat the plum scale, which is destructive to
cherry and plum trees. One of them is the beautiful rose-breasted
grosbeak (Zamelodia Ivdoviciana). A female of this species collected
by the writer in Indiana had eaten 36 of these scales, composing 95
per cent of the stomach contents. Two other grosbeaks from Illinois
did still better. One consumed about 45 plum scales, which made up
95 per cent of its food, while the other had eaten nothing but plum
scales, of which its stomach contained more than 100. The cardinal
or redbird also feeds upon the plum scale, one taken in Texas in April
having consumed a number sufficient to form S4 per cent of its
stomach contents.
These two species of birds devour other scale insects also, some of
which are closely related to the plum scale. The rose-breasted gros-
beak has been found to eat the hickory scale (Eulecanium carysc) and
the tulip scale (Eulecanium tulipiferse). The latter is very destructive
to shade trees in some parts of the eastern United States. While both
the rose-breasted and the cardinal grosbeak eat scales of the genus
Eulecanium in large numbers, we have been unable to identify spe-
cifically any others, with the probable exception of the locust scale,
Evlecanium robinarium (Douglas), from the stomach of a cardinal
collected in Texas. Another grosbeak, the black-headed (Zamelodia
nocephala), at home in the western United States, preys upon
scales of the same genus. It is known to select the frosted scale
(Evlecanium pruinosum), which attacks fruit trees such as apricot,
peach, prune, and cherry, and is already important economically, with
possibilities of becoming a serious pest if imchecked. It relishes also
the apricot seal? (Eulecanium armeniacum), winch is an enemy of
apricot, prune, pear, and other trees.
In the southeastern United States occurs an allied genus of scale
insects. Toumeyella. The cardinal feeds upon at least one species of
this group.
BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS.
193
Distributed chiefly along the Pacific coast is a scale which is closely
related to those of the above-mentioned genera and is preyed upon by
many birds. This is the black olive scale (Saissetia olese, fig. 1). Its
great economic importance is emphasized in the following quotation
from Mr. C. L. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology:
The most destructive insect enemies of fruits in California are undoubtedly the scale
insects, few if any other insects, aside from the grape Phylloxera, at all approaching
them in this respect. Of these the ones of greatest moment, and in the control of
•which vast sums of money are expended, are the black scale, the red scale, and the
San Jose scale. * * * Of the three, * * * the most serious pest at the present
time in California is undoubtedly the black scale. * * * This insect is not only a
Fig. 1.— Black olive scale (Saissetia olex). (From Koebele, Bureau of Entomology,
after Comstock.)
heavy drain on the vigor of the trees, but exudes a great quantity of honeydew, in
which a fungus propagates, creating a black, stifling deposit, which adheres closely to
the twigs and leaves and discolors the fruit. This scale infests both citrus and
deciduous trees, but is particularly injurious to the former, and also to the olive. a
This abundant and injurious scale is at present known to be fed
upon by no less than 29 species of birds, and their importance in
checking its increase can not be overlooked. These include three
woodpeckers, a jay, an oriole, five sparrows, four vireos, six warblers,
a Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1896, p. 220.
3 A1900 13
194 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGKICTTLTV
two wrens, a nuthatch, four tits, a gnatcatcher, and a bluebird.
Several of them consume the black scale in great numbers, the two
{■est conspicuous in this respect being the black-headed grosbeak
and the bush-tit (Psaltriparus minimus). Eighteen per cent of the
entire food of 120 grosbeaks consisted of black olive scales, while 21
per cent of the year's subsistence of more than 350 bush-tit=> was of
the same nature.
The work of birds upon the black scale is so conspicuous that it
ha? attracted the attention of field observers. In a letter to the
Biological Survey. F. S. Daggett says (March 17, 1903 :
A thick top of pepper tree is opposite a window of my house. It is infested by black
scale, and the past few years I have noticed several varieties of hirds going through
p. carefully picking off scale. Audubon warblers do it. especially when it is cold
and no insect* are flying; when it is warm they stay about the top. flying out after in-
sects, but do not seem to take the scale. The intermediate sparrow, however, is com-
monly seen in small flocks working on this scale, and they go through many gymnastic
motions, not expected in a sparrow, in order to get at the scale on the underside of
the twigs. The top is scarcely 10 feet from the window and I have watched them
closely. There is an overgrow* cypress hedge under one side of the tree, from which
"arrows work r.p.
Prof. F. E. L. Beal. of the Biological Survey, while at Haywards,
Cal.. May. 1006. noted particularly the relation of birds to this scale.
He writes: u I have proved that they eat them freely."
Following is a list of the birds which thus far are known to feed
upon the black olive scale :
Willow woodpecker i Dryobates tun-- Lutescent warbler (Hclmintlophila c.
Nuttall woodpecker | Dryobates nuttaUi . Sifts*
California woodpecker I M clan er pes J. Audubon warbler Dendrov: a a udubt
la; Pacific yeflowthroat (Geothlypu t. arizela).
California jay (Apkidmxmna caLifon* Golden pfleolated warbler Wihonia p.
Bullock oriole | Icterus bull pileelata ►.
Intermediate sparrow (Zonotrichia I. Black-headed grosbeak Zamdodia me-
gar,- hnocepl
-n- . i • • , /c • 77„ „ Cactus wren (Eeleodytes brvnneicapiUus).
rn chipping sparrow iSpizella s. _. . _ l
1 hryomanes b. spun.
_ „. .. , . Slender-billed nuthatch (i Sittac. aeulcato*.
Spurred towhee iPrprlom. megatony ¥UJm ^^ {Bsgolopkug i]Wrna(,
rma towhee | PxpOo - nut-backed chickadee tParvs ru/es-
: n warbling vireo ( I ireo g. strain- cms)
80 ' Wren tit Chamsea fmciak
. cassini)
Hutton vireo ( Mreo mttkn
-- vireo (I7reo pusill
Yellow warbler I Dendroica sest '
Myrtle warbler I'cndroica coronata)
California bush-tit 'Psaltriparus m. cali-
forrt
Black-tailed gnatcaicher iPolioptUa ecdi-
forn
Western bluebird [SiaKa m. occid
Several of the above birds eat other scales, besides the one which
infests the olive. One of these is the greedy scale (Aspidiotus rn pax,
fig. 2), which Dr. L. O. Howard says "was found until recently only
on the Pacific c< >ast and in the far Southwest." where "it levies a heavy
BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS.
195
annual tax on the fruit growers,- ' and which "has the present season
[1S94] made its appearance in Mississippi and Texas."0 The greedy
scale attacks both citrus and deciduous trees, infesting a very large
number of food plants, among which it shows little preference,
and is one of the destructive scale insects. Investigations by the
Biological Survey prove that at least four species of birds — the
myrtle and Audubon warblers, wren-tit, and bush-tit — devour this
scale, some individuals examined having their stomachs filled with it.
Another scale insect which is eaten by several birds, but which
differs from the last-mentioned species in that it confines itself to a
single host plant, is the oak scale (Kermes). Oak scales are not
conspicuously injurious, but this fact does not detract from the
value of the birds which feed upon them, since we can be assured
fe (Aspidiotus rapax>. (From Howard. Bureau of Entomology.)
they do not neglect other kinds which are destructive. In fact, one
of the oak-scale feeders, the rose-breasted grosbeak, is already known
to feed upon other and harmful scales.
The following species of birds have been found to devour the oak
scale:
Rose-breasted grosbeak.
Red-eyed vireo.
White-eyed vireo.
Worm-eating warbler.
Magnolia warbler.
Blackpoll warbler.
Canadian warbler.
The oak-, infested as they are by the comparatively innocuous
Kermes, are fortunate in comparison to the maples, which are attacked
by Pulvinaria. The cottony maple scale (Pulrinaria innumercv-
is a special pest of the tree from which it derives its common name, but
a Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1S94, p. 249.
196
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
it is found upon scores of others. The writer once observed an infesta-
tion of this scale so severe that shade trees along the streets of a small
town in Indiana, together with fruit trees, appeared almost white
from the choking masses of cottony wax produced by the scale insects.
Maples, poplars, and cherry trees were the principal hosts in this case.
According to Dr. L. O. Howard, "birds destroy the full-grown
scales, although one would hardly suppose a mouthful of wax to be
verv palatable." Doctor Howard "has often observed the English
sparrow apparently feeding upon this species.'" ■
The same little vagrant foreigner that attacks the maple scale, and
about whose value there has been unending discussion, must be cred-
Fig. 3. — Oyster-she'l bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum). '.From How-
ard. Bureau of Entomology. |
ited with preying upon still another of these destructive pests. Dr.
C. V. Riley and Dr. L. O.Howard note that " Miss Jennie R. Bush, of
San Luis Obispo County, Cal., finds it destroying a scale insect upon
the climbing rose."6
Among scale insects eaten by birds other than those above men-
tioned is a very abundant and widespread species, the oyster-shell
bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum, fig. 3), which is sometimes quite
injurious. Indeed it is said that in some sections the oyster-shell
bark-louse is, with the exception of the San Jose scale, the most
a Bui. 22, t". S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, p. 12, 1900.
b Insect Life, V, p. 349, July, 1893.
BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 197
destructive scale insect. It will be remembered that in England this
scale was found to be devoured by titmice and the tree creeper.
In America the same kinds of birds also select it. In regard to the
brown creeper of the United States (Certkia familiaris americana) ,
V. H. Lowe says:
That it feeds extensively on scale insects there is little doubt. It may often be seen
on scale-infested trees both in summer and winter pecking at the scales, especially the
larger ones, such as the oyster-shell bark-louse, evidently for the purpose of getting the
eggs or the live scales. a
Of American titmice the black-capped chickadee is known to devour
the same pest. In an analysis of the stomach contents of one of these
birds Prof. C. M. Weed mentions "bark-lice (Coccidse), apparently
oyster-shell bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum).'' b The white-breasted
nuthatch of the same family of birds also manifests a liking for the
scale. Mr. E. N. Forbush records the following concerning this species :
March 20, 18;)5, Mr. Bailey brought in specimens of apple twigs infested with the
bark-scale louse (Mytilaspis pomorum). He reported that the nuthatch was feeding
on them. c
With this insect ends the list of scales which have been specifically
determined to serve as food for birds. It is to be remarked, however,
that scales are difficult to identify d under the most favorable condi-
tions, and in the state in which they are often found in the stomachs of
birds their identification is impossible. Hence there are a number of
birds which, while not mentioned in connection with particular scale
insects, are nevertheless known to feed upon scales. These birds, 16
in number, include several woodpeckers, which, as their method of
feeding would indicate, pick up many scale insects. The downy
woodpecker is one of the most successful in gathering these minute
tree pests.
Following is a list of birds ascertained to feed upon scale insects
none of which were specifically identified :
Hairy woodpecker {Dryobates villosus).
Northern downy woodpecker (Dryobatcs
p. medianus).
Red-eockaded woodpecker (Dryobatcs bo-
realis).
Arctic three-toed woodpecker (Picoides
arcticus).
Yellow-bellied woodpecker (Sphyrapicus
varius).
Red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes ery-
throcephalus).
Blue jay (Cyanodtta cristata).
Orchard oriole {Icterus spurius).
Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula).
Cedar waxwing (Ampclis cedrorum).
Townsend warbler (Dendroica townsendi).
Tufted titmouse (Bseotophus bicolor).
Bridled titmouse (Bseolophus icoUweberi).
Carolina chickadee (Parus carolincnsis).
Ruby-crowned kinglet (Bcguluscalcndula).
Varied thrush (Irorcus nscnus).
a Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. and Bureau for Farmers' Inst. Rpts., p. 321, 1898.
b Bui. 54, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 93, 1898.
cMass. Crop Rep., p. 384, 1895.
''Mr. James G. Sanders, of the Bureau of Entomology, has named several of the scale
insects mentioned in this paper and has given assistance in other ways.
198 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTME>~I 0* AGBICULIURE.
SUMMARY.
All told, 57 species of birds have been found to eat scale insects. It
is interesting to note that this number comprises representatives of 12
families, differing widely not only in structure but in habits. They
are distributed as follows: 9 woodpeckers. 2 jays. 3 orioles. 8 sparrows,
1 waxwing, 6 vireos. 11 warblers. 2 wrens. 1 tree creeper, 2 nuthatches
and S tits of the titmouse family, 1 kinglet and 1 gnatcatcher of the
Old World warbler family, and the varied thrush and the bluebird.
At first thought it seems strange that the larger birds should take
the trouble to pick up such small insects as scales. Yet the numer-
ous representation of woodpeckers on the list and the fact that the
grosbeaks among the bulkier species are most conspicuous scale
destroyers prove it unsafe to assume that a direct relation exists
between the size of a bird and its insect food. At the other extreme
of size among scale eaters are some veritable feathered midgets, as,
for example, the ruby-crowned kinglet, the black-tailed gnatcatcher,
and the bush-tit. the last of which makes more than one-fifth of its
food of scales.
Among the majority of these birds, both great and small, there is
noticeable one similarity of habit. They are tree frequenters. On
their arboreal excursions they must constantly come across scale
insects, and as the latter are no doubt nutritious and are toothsome
to the avian taste, it is only natural that birds should feed upon them.
A few species which do not often visit trees, but which are included
among the birds known to eat scales, probably secure them very
rarely.
It is worthy of note that the buds thus far found to prey upon
scales are practically the only species in their respective families that
have been carefully studied. Thus only a few stomachs of the black
and white creeper, one of the most exclusively arboreal birds in North
America, have as yet been examined: and while it can not be included
hi the present list, there is little doubt that, in common with many
of its warbler kin. it subsists partly upon scale insects. Investiga-
tion of the role birds play in destroying these insects is far from com-
plete, and, bearing in mind the number of scale-eating birds of each
of the families named above, it is fair to conclude that the majority
of the species of woodpeckers, vireos. arboreal warblers, nuthatches,
tits, kinglets, and gnatcatchers ultimately will be found Co eat scale
insects. The fact that 57 kinds of buds feed upon scales. 20 of them,
destroying one of the two most destructive species hi the United
States, is most encouraging
While in the p. ate of our knowledge it can not be claimed
that birds are among the chief enemies of i yet they are proven
to be one of nature's means of keeping these insects in check, and
there is no doubt that their aid is important.
THE EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ON THE COM-
POSITION OF DURUM WHEAT.
By J. A. Le Clerc,
Of the Bureau of Chemistry.
IMPORTANCE OF DURUM WHEAT.
The growing importance of durum wheat in this country, as shown
by the ever-increasing acreage devoted to its culture (the season of
1906 yielding a crop of over 50,000,000 bushels), makes this kind of
wheat a profitable subject of investigation. When one considers
that it is only since 1 S99 that any sj'stematic attempt has been made
to propagate this valuable crop in the United States,0 the value of the
investigation to our agricultural interests is evident.
Durum wheat (Tr'rtieum durum, in contradistinction to Triticum
vulgare, under which name ordinary spring and winter wheats are
known) is grown extensively in Russia, Algeria, Italy, and Spain.
In this country it flourishes remarkably well in the Great Plains areas
of the Middle West, where the climate is hot and dry, similar to that
of those European countries whence this wheat was obtained.
Durum wheat is a hard, flinty, translucent grain, very rich in gluten
and comparatively rich in sugars. The gram is long, and may be
either dark or light in color, according to the variety and the condi-
tions under which it is grown. It is somewhat poorer in gliadin than
the best bread wheats. Like other good varieties of wheat, durum or
hard wheat is one of the most nutritive and healthful of human foods,
containing as it does protein and nonnitrogenous substances in almost
the ideal ratio for maintaining the body in a normal condition, the
gluten (protein) being used in repairing waste body tissue, and the fat,
starch, etc. (nonnitrogenous substances), furnishing the heat and
energy required by the system. On account of its highly glutenous
nature it is extensively used, especially in Italy and France, in the
manufacture of macaroni, vermicelli, and other edible pastes. For
this reason it has been called "macaroni wheat. " There is likewise a
growing demand for durum wheat on the part of millers here and
abroad, both for making straight durum flour and for mixing with the
softer and less glutenous varieties in order to improve the quality of
the flour, making these wheats, therefore, valuable as bread wheats.
°U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bui. 3, Macaroni wheats, and Bui. 70,
The commercial status of durum wheat, Carleton. The influence of environment upon
the composition of cereals is now the subject of cooperative study by the Bureau of
Chemistry and the Bureau of Plant Industry.
199
200 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
For these reasons we may expect the price of durum wheat in the near
future to be as high or higher than that of the ordinary spring or
winter wheat.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE QUALITY OF GRAIN.
In studying the influences which affect the quality of grain, one
may either grow the same variety of gram in a great many localities,
or else grow it in the same locality during a long series of years. In
either case we are able to note marked changes in the crop, due to the
climatic conditions under which it is grown. As it is only two years
since this cooperative work was undertaken, we are limited to a com-
parison of the same varieties grown in many different localities during
this time only. The requirements for growing a plant are many, and
the deficiency or excess of any one of them has its influence on the
crop. In order to grow, cereals require plant food, water, oxygen,
heat, and light. A wheat seed must have an initial temperature of at
least 42z F. in order to germinate, and only when the temperature is
above that does the plant grow.
Cereals are influenced both in quantity and quality to a greater or
less extent by the soil in which they grow, the plant food contained
therein, the temperature of the season, the rainfall or the amount of
water they receive during the growing period, the amount of sunshine
they get. the humidity of the atmosphere, the previous crop, the time
of harvest, the length of the growing period, the kind of seed, etc.
In our study of the chemical and physical changes which durum
wheat has undergone in growing in different localities or in different
seasons, the following determinations have been made: Water, ash,
phosphoric acid, nitrogen (gluten), the weight per thousand grains,
the weight per bushel, and the character of the gram (whether flinty
or mealy). As far as possible the folio whig data were also collected:
The monthly temperature and rainfall and the elevation above sea
level of each locality, the time of growing and harvesting, the yield,
the successive number of crops grown after the introduction of the
original seed into this country, and whether or not the crop was
grown under irrigation.
The percentage of water in the grain was determined in all cases,
that all results might be calculated to a water-free and therefore com-
parable basis. The ash is of importance in showing the amount of
plant food taken up by the plant and transmitted to the grain. The
determination of phosphoric acid shows the amount of a most impor-
tant and too often neglected food constituent, it haying been shown
that the phosphorus of wheat occurs as an organic compound having
a decidedly beneficial effect on nutrition.
The weight per thousand grains is of greater importance than is
generally supposed, for when taken into consideration with the
weight per bushel it forms the basis of valuation of commercial
CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 201
wheats; for the heavier the wheat per bushel and per thousand
grains, the more protein, as a rule, does the sample contain, and there-
fore the more nutritious and valuable it is. The weight per thousand
grains is also of value in indicating the amount of seed to be sown, as
the larger the seed the greater the volume that one should sow.
The nitrogen determination0 is the most important, as the food
and commercial value of cereals depends in a large measure on the
amount of gluten they contain. The character of a grain, whether
it be flinty or mealy, is likewise a good indication of the nutritive
value of a wheat, a more flinty or horny appearance always indicating,
in the same variety, a higher amount of gluten. The difference in
percentage of protein, as will be seen later, may be as much as 6 per
cent in favor of the flinty grain over the mealy one. In many places
the price of wheat is dependent mainly upon the gluten content.
This is especially true in Budapest, in Magdeburg, and in other
markets where buyers depend on weight per bushel and the flinty or
amber appearance of the grain, for the more flinty or amber a wheat
of the same variety is the higher is the gluten content.
Before discussing the results obtained from the chemical studies
and field observations, it may be well to say that of all the samples and
varieties investigated three varieties of durum have been selected for
comparison — Kubanka, a Russian or northern wheat, and Pelissier
and Marouani, Mediterranean wheats, the latter two being from
Algeria. These wTere chosen because they had been grown under a
greater diversity of conditions, thus giving better opportunities for
more correct interpretation of the influence of the various conditions
on the chemical and physical characteristics.
In order to be able to judge correctly of the changes which a plant
undergoes in changing its habitat one should know the composition
of that plant in its own home. As only a very few of the original
samples were available for analysis it was necessary to rely on the
published results of wheat analyses for information concerning the
character of wheat grown in Russia and other countries. From these
sources it appears that Russian spring wheat contains about 3 per cent
of nitrogen, an amount slightly greater than that in the average of
our American-grown durum wheat, though many individual samples
of our durums far surpass that figure. The average per cent of pro-
tein in Italian durums is about the same as in those grown under our
best conditions. On the other hand, American-grown durums con-
tain several per cent more protein than those grown in Roumania.
The samples of Kubanka were grown in 1903, 1904, and 1905 in
every State west of the one hundredth meridian (approximately a
straight line drawn through western Dakota to Texas), most of them
« Mr. T. C. Trescot, Bureau of Chemistry, made the nitrogen determinations and Mr.
Leavitt and Mr. Keister assisted in the analytical work.
202
YEAEBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
coming from the great semiarid region. Some were grown in the irri-
gated lands of Colorado. "Washington. Idaho, and Utah, and some in
the dry sections of those States.
EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE MOISTURE.
In comparing the results the remarkable influence which irrigation
or rainfall exerts when either is in excess is very striking. For exam-
ple, in 10t)3 eight samples were grown in the arid or semiarid regions
and seven samples in more humid localities, as given in the following
table:
Comparison of wheals grown in arid and humid regions.
ARID AND SEMIARID REGIONS.
La bo-
ra torv
X
gen.
1 Phos- g Weight
phoric per I
arid. grains. bushel.
Belt. Mom
Reiburg. Idaho
Idalia.Colo
Westport, S. Dak
Brooking:?. S. Dak ....
Culber 1493
Heath, Xebr
Havs. Kans
Per d.
2. 03
3.16
- ■
! ■ •
3.00
- 72
2. SB
-
. -
2.50
2.05
. IS
Per ct.
-
.91
1.10
1.04
.83
1. IS
Grams. a
-.
32.9
33.S
33.6
-' -
- I
- !
Rain-
grains.
Pounds.
Per cent.
Inches.
63.7
100
14
_
95
15
-
100
12
60.2
95
23
58.1
100
28
100
100
13
57.1
33
Average.
;
3D.
•■>
nCMIP AND IRRIGATED REGIONS.
Colo 638
Crest one. Colo 1560 1.84
Ibapah. Utah ... 477 2.46
I v.Mich 1489 1.96
East Peru. Iowa 1491 2.78
Fargo. X. Dak
Mavfield. Utah 1,483 - B
-
2.18
0.99
34.1
(»)
2.10
1.00
40.0
63.1
20
. -
.99
-
(»)
j 2.09
.98
25.3
S
IE
-4
.
1.03
27.4
"
95
36
2. 14
1.05
.88
34.9
34.4
22
■■
-
"■
2-l.i
.98
33.5
68
a Or.e ounce=approximately 2S grams. ^ Crop was in
The most striking result is the higher nitrogen content of wheat
grown in the drier localities, the difference amounting to 0.57 per cent
of nitrogen or 3.2 per cent of protein 7 = protein1. There hap-
pens to be very little difference in per cent of ash or of phosphoric acid,
but the weight per thousand grains is considerably higher as a general
rule in the more moist regions. A glance at the column headed
" Flinty grains " will likewise reveal the fact that in the humid or in the
i ted regions the general tendency of the wheat is to become mealy
tarchy. Similar results were obtained in 1905. though owi: _
the presence of more moisture than usual in the semiarid regions the
difference in the nitrogen content is only 0.3 per cent, which is equiv-
alent to 1.7 per cent protein. The weight per thousand grains was as
31.7 is to 35.6, the humid regions producing the larger gra
CLIMATE AXD THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT.
203
In 1904 thirteen samples of Kubanka were o-rown in as many dif-
ferent places. By separating these into two classes, one consisting of
7 localities with IS inches or less of rainfall, and the other of 6 locali-
ties with more than 15 inches of rainfall or having irrigation, it is again
seen that the wheats from the drier regions contain 0.47 per cent
more of nitrogen (2.7 per cent of protein). Furthermore, the wheat
of the humid regions contains a larger percentage of mealy kernels,
showing that there is a very close relation between the percentage of
protein and the percentage of flint}- grains— that is, generally, the more
flinty the kernels the higher is the percentage of protein. An excess-
ive amount of rainfall or irrigation is almost always accompanied by
a crop containing a very low percentage of protein. This is further
shown in the work done in 14 different localities in the far Western
States; 7 of these places were irrigated and the percentage of protein
averaged 12.1, while in the 7 places where no irrigation was practiced
the protein content of the wheat was 15.4 per cent.
Two samples of durum wheat grown in Mexico Avere recently
received and analyzed. They had been grown from the same seed
and on adjacent land. One sample was irrigated, the other was not,
there being, moreover, very little rainfall during the growing season.
The following table shows the difference in the two samples:
Comparison of irrigated and nonimjjated durum wheats gro:- ;<:o.
Samples.
Original seed
Irrigated
Xonirrigated
ratorv
No.
Protein.
Flinty
grains.
Weight
of 1,000
grains.
17S0
1781
17-2
Per cent.
12. 3
11.1
17.7
Per cent.
100
20
100
Grams.
38. S
29.4
29.2
The nonirrigated sample consisted of flinty kernels entirely and con-
tained 5.4 per cent more protein than the original seed and 6.6 per
cent more protein than the irrigated sample. The irrigated sample
contained, moreover, very few flinty kernels (only 20 per cent).
The difference in protein content between the irrigated and nonirri-
gated samples is the greatest that the writer has ever observed, the
irrigated sample showing a marked deterioration both in chemical and
physical properties.
Such observations on the influence of excessive amounts of moisture
corroborate the results obtained by Lawes and Gilbert, in which
they showed that the hot, moderately dry seasons produced the
best quality of wheat, the cold,, rainy seasons yielding the poorest
crops in the history of England. The six seasons of bad crops showed
rain to have fallen during each of 190 days. The seasons of good
crops had but 136 days during which it rained. The probable reason
for such differences is that an excessive rainfall dilutes the nitrates
204
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
in the soil too much, and there being but small amounts of carbo-
hydrates in the process of formation, owing to lack of sunshine, less
protein is formed. The result is a mealy grain of low protein content.
EFFECTS OF PROPER IRRIGATION IN DRY REGIONS.
Without water, however, there can be no vegetable production: even
the best soils must lie sterile. When, therefore, there is too little rain-
fall for plant growth, irrigation is the salvation of the crop. It supplies
water when needed, and in proper amounts. It is capable of doubling,
even trebling, crop?. Backhauls found that irrigation increased wheat
straw 94 per cent and wheat grain 169 per cent, the actual value of
the increase in crop per acre-foot of water being $27 to $70.
In the mountain States of the West, where irrigation is practiced,
in Colorado for example, ideal conditions for plant growth prevail, for
there the sky is clear, the sunshine intense, the air dry. Therefore,
if water can be supplied when the crops are in need of it. assimilation
will go on at its best and the production of organic substance will be
all the more favored. The result will be a large crop of large-sized
grain. The results, in fact, show this to be true. Whereas the aver-
age weight of a thousand grains grown in the semiarid regions from
Texas to North Dakota varies from 23 to 31 grams, a thousand grains
in the mountain States of Colorado. Wyoming. Idaho, etc.. where
irrigation is in vogue, average over 36 grams. The table following
shows the differences in the same variety of wheat (Kubanka] when
grown during three successive seasons with and without irrigation:
A }xml-(i wheats groirn under dry-land farming and under irrigation.
UNDER DRY-LAND FARMING.
Year.
Locality.
L 1 '
ratorv
i
Nitro-
gen.
Ash.
Phos-
phoric-
acid.
Weieht
of 1.000
grains.
Weight
per
bushel.
Flinty '
grains.
Per d. :
Per ct.
Per cf.
Grams.a
Pounds.
Fer ct.
1903
Idaho
14S1
1.75
0.91
32.9
62.1
95
1904
Colorado
ffiS
3.16 '
2.12
1.10
•
-
100
-
1.93
1.00
33.3
97
Idaho
1548
-_
2.05
-
31.1
57.1
100 j
Do
1554
2.60
2.03
1.00
■
63.0
95
Colorado
1562
2.61
2.32
1.21
23.3
61.5
100
1905
Do
Average
Idaho
""-
2.64
2.40
1.26
14.5
56.3
100 ;
-
2.20
1.11
-
-
1555
3.01
1.76
.79
35.0
63.5
100
Do
G
3.15
208
1.12
27.3
60.9
100
Colorado
1559
2.41
. 25
1 15
33.6
63.1
95
Do
Average
2.45
2.16
1.19
33 1
.
90
-
2.16
1.06
32 2
K
- "
. .
1 07
30.3
tO 9
98
i One ounce = approximately 2S grains.
CLIMATE AXD THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT.
205
Kubanka wheats grown under dry-land farming and under irrigation — Continued.
UNDER IRRIGATION.
Year.
Locality.
Labo-
ratory
No.
Nitro-
gen.
Ash.
Phos-
phoric
acid
Weight
of 1,000
grains.
Weight
per
bush-].
Flinty
grains.
1903
1904
1905
638
LS60
Per et.
1.63
1.84
Per ct.
2.18
2.10
Per et.
0.99
1.00
Grains.
34.1
40.0
Pounds.
63. 1
Per ct.
20
Do
Average
Idaho
Do
Colorado
Do
Average
1.74
2. 14
1.00
37. 1
20
1552
1549
1516
1517
2.37
2.04
1.9S
2.02
2. 22
2. 11
1.90
2. 25
1.13
1.06
.97
1.10
39.7
37.0
37.0
35.8
62.8
62.8
63.1
60.9
82
46
38
47
2.10
2. 12
1.06
37.4
53
1553
1563
1518
2.30
1.85
2. 11
2.24
1.97
2.05
1.13
.89
1.00
35.8
36.1
33.7
62.1
64. 5
61. 6
90
50
70
Do
2.09
2.08
1.00
35.2
70
2.02
2.11
1.03
36.6
62. 7
55
These samples were grown in Colorado and Idaho, some under dry-
land farming, the others under irrigation. One of the first differences
noted is that under dry-land farming there is 0.73 per cent more nitro-
gen (or 4.16 per cent more protein) in the dry-land wheat than in that
grown under irrigation. The weight per thousand grains, however, is
greater under irrigation. The percentage of flinty kernels is markedly
greater under dry-land farming. It is almost alwa}Ts the case that
irrigation tends to produce a mealy grain, although in several instances
it has been noted that even under irrigation the grain has kept its
flinty character. This is explainable only on the theory that the irri-
gation has not been excessive, and suggests a line of research just
entered upon — that is, the investigation of the effects of varying
amounts of irrigation at different periods of growth. The grain
grown under dry-land farming contains practically the same, amount
of phosphoric acid in the ash as that grown under irrigation, the per-
centage being 49 in each case.
INFLUENCE OF SOILS, FERTILIZERS, AND TEMPERATURE.
Soils and fertilizers also have more or less influence on the quality of
the crop. This influence is much less marked, however, than is that
of rainfall or of climate in general. One would naturally expect that
soil would exert less influence than the character of the season, from
the fact that only 5 per cent of the plant constituents are derived from
the soil. Yet it is a well-known fact that nitrogenous fertilizers affect
the straw content of cereals, and, to a certain extent, the percentage of
protein in the grain, Wiley having long since established that the nitro-
gen of the grain was present in proportion to the nitrogen of the soil.
206
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTO
Lawes and Gilbert showed that manure performed the function of
lessening relatively the transpiration of plants. They established the
fact that for every gram of organic matter elaborated 250 to 3
as much water had been transpired, but that when the land was rich
in plant food, after having been well manured, for example, a rela-
tively- smaller amount of " ken up and given off by the p]
Therefore, fertilizers not only supply the plant with the necessary f
but lessen the relative amount of water transpired. It would follow
from tins that fertilizers are of considerable assistance in combating
drought, for we know that potash increases the water-holding capacity
of soils, and that one of the chief uses of transpiration is to obtain for
the plant the necessary plant food : it is a means rather than an end.
The temperature of the season likewise has its influence on the qual-
ity and quantity of plants, hot seasons producing the s »undant
crops. As hot seasons are more or less dry seasons also, and wet and
cold seasons go together, the latter yielding the poor crops, one must
assume that it is not so much a matter of temperature alone as it is of
both temperature and moderate rainfall.
ADVANTAGE OF SHORT BROWING SEASON.
The length of the growing period also exerts its influence, the longer
period of growth giving, as a rule, a lower percentage of protein.
This is conclusively shown in the table following, the crops having
been grown without irrigation.
/' QTcnrth on nitrogen content and \cright of vrheat.
KG PERIODS IX THE SA15I V.
FUice
T.abora-
1905
am
Idalia. Colo
Do
Do
I>ai:
Holyoke, Colo
Per c»«f.
:
111
1H
-
:-. ~
1559
"
.
30
33.6
1486
i
2.45
»
33.1
i
I
1 "
_•-
33.6
1477
123
- -
33
34.3
1
130
. %
22
35.6
119
'
33.5
rTH. DIFFERENT LOCAL]
as
Uafao 1904
1904
Do 1905
1905
IlnjToke, Colo
A vcr.g;
I "
i .
14*
■ ■
133
B
140
S3
153
130
2. 41
.-
■
-
12
3L1
-
23.3
■
33.6
30
33.1
34.5
22
35.6
30
3L4 ]
CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT.
207
Effect of long and short periods of growth on nitrogen content and weight of wheat-
Continued.
SHORT PERIODS OF GROWTH, DIFFERENT LOCALITIES.
Place.
North Enid. Okla . .
Fitzgerald. Okla. . .
Oakley, Elans
Fargo, N. Dak
Fullerton. H. Dak..
Heath. Nebr. _
Rexburg, Idaho. . .
Idalia, Colo
Cowichi, "Wash
Cheney, Wash
HoLyoke, Colo
Average .
Year_
Labora-
tory No.
1903
1593
1903
659
1904
1049
1903
649
1904
1487
1905
1522
1903
1481
1904
1558
1904
1533
1984
1537
1903
16(56
Days.
Nitro-
gen.
71
82
96
99
86
102
85
97
73
70
ri9
Ptr cent.
3.42
. _
3.05
2.37
2.40
3.21
2.78
2.64
2.85
1.99
3.45
2. 80
Rain-
fall.
Weight
of 1.000
finches.
29
22
21
22
21
24
15
21
10
14
11
Grams.
40.3
31.6
33.2
34.9
19. 6
30.0
32.9
14.5
37.6
38.7
33.3
31.0
The number of days varies from 71 in Oklahoma to 254 in Washing-
ton, where the sample was grown as a winter variety. The difference
in the average results between the short and long growing periods
is 0.35 per cent nitrogen or 2.1 per cent protein. From the length of
the period of growth and the average temperature during that period
some conclusions may be drawn as to the number of heat units
required to mature a crop in the various localities and tinder the vary-
ing conditions. We find, for instance, that North Enid. Okla., with
71 days as the growing period and 64° as the average temperature of
that period, requires 4,544 heat units to mature a wheat crop. On the
other hand. Idalia, Colo., required 157 days with an average tempera-
ture of 58°, or 9,106 heat units.
Professor Ladd, of North Dakota, found that for conditions prevail-
ing in that State an average of 98.5 days or 6,215 heat units were
required for wheat to mature. The results obtained by the writer
are very close to these figures, giving an average of 6,280 heat units
for North Dakota. For North Dakota, South Dakota. Kansas, and
Nebraska, averaged together, 7,037 heat units are required. Practi-
cally the same amount. 7.054, is found necessary in Colorado, Mon-
tana, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. Heat is the chief factor in the
distribution of plants, as they only live where the air and soil are
warm enough to carry on the vital processes. The absorption of
water, and therefore of plant food, by the root hairs, the assimilation
of carbon by the chlorophyll of the leaves, stooling. flowering, and
maturing all require so man}- heat units. As a general thing the
length of the growing period, and therefore the heat units, decrease
as one goes toward the pole; in Norway, for example, barley requires
but 1,500 heat units to mature.
208 YEARBOOK OF IKE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
INFLUENCE OF SEED AND PREVIOUS CROP.
As to the influence of the seed on the crop, there is here also a
diversity of opinion. Fischer, in Germany, maintaining that it has
no influence, whereas in the work done by Hopkins, of Illinois, in grow-
ng corn for protein or for oil. the seed was selected because of the high
protein or oil content.
Considerable work is being done to determine the influence of the
previous crop on the quality of grain, such work being carried on in
cooperation with the experiment stations of Tennessee and California.
As the fertilizers exert more or less influence it is to be expected that
such crops as legumes will play some part in modifying the composi-
tion of wheat.
EFFECT OF TIME AND MANNER OF HARVESTING.
The time of harvest also affects the quality of a grain to a marked
degree. If harvested too early, the grain is shriveled and so of inferior
quality: if harvested too late, the quantity only is appreciably affected,
as a considerable loss is apt to take place through shattering. The
most propitious time for harvesting is when the grain is of a waxy
consistency and can be cleanly broken by the finger nail. From this
time on there is no appreciable change in the chemical composition of
the dry matter. Any delay in harvesting after the waxy consistency
of the grain makes its appearance may result in considerable loss, not
only through shattering, but from the effect of unfavorable weather
conditions. Even during the time of the Romans the saying was
'"Better to harvest two days ahead than two days too late."
The changes which take place during the growing period are of
exceeding interest. Up to the time of full flowering, wheat has
elaborated S7 per cent of the dry matter and has absorbed all the
nitrogen, lime, and potash that it requires and 74 per cent of the
phosphoric acid. From this it will be seen that the plant continues
to absorb phosphoric acid from the soil until almost mature. Shortly
before maturity the mother plant ceases to draw any further nourish-
ment from the soil, and it then becomes the function of the plant to
transport the elaborated materials to the head and grain. At this
time a severe drought, accompanied by excessively hot weather, is
apt to check the process of transporting the soluble substances elabo-
rated in the leaves and stems to the head and gram, thus causing the
production of a shriveled wheat.
In 1905 the writer collected several samples of wheat at Brookings,
S. Dak., some of which were harvested early, i. e.. in the soft dough
stage, and some after fully maturing. In every case those samples
harvested early gave a very low weight per thousand grains and
were more or less shrunken. Those harvested late were plump.
The following table shows the results more in detail, giving the per-
CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT.
209"
centage of nitrogen, the weight per thousand grains, and the percent-
age of flinty kernels. Enough samples were harvested so that part
of each one could be allowed to ripen in a protected place (indoors)
and part outdoors or exposed. In every case also part of the
sample was harvested with the stems, that is, the whole plant was.
harvested, and of part only the heads were collected.
Comparison of ivhcats harvested early and late awl under other varying conditions^
WHOLE PLANTS HARVESTED
Laboratory
No.
Tested for—
Harvested early.
Harvested late.
Protected
after
harvest.
Exposed
after
harvest.
Protected
after
harvest.
Exposed
after
harvest.
S230
821°
8213
(Nitrogen per cent . .
■[Weight of 1,000 grains grams..
I Flinty grains per cent . .
(Nitrogen per cent..
- Weight of 1.000 grains grams. .
[Flinty grains per cent..
(Nitrogen per cent. .
■ Weight of 1,000 grains grams. .
[Flinty grains per cent..
(Nitrogen per cent..
1 Weight of 1,000 grains grams..
[Flinty grains per cent..
(Nitrogen per cent. .
■{Weight of 1.000 grains grams. .
[Flinty grains per cent. .
2.02
29.94
95.00
2.01
30.16
95.00
1.91
29.10
95.00
2.14
26.50
98.00
2.01
26.84
80.00
1.88
30.74
S5.00
1.93
28.50
90.00
2.08
24.00
90.00
1.99
:;:. 68
95.00
1. 80
33.78
95. 00
2.04
35.64
90.00
2. 11
35. 98
95.00
1.99
36.48
90.00
1.89
34. 24
90.00
1.97
36.16
95.00
2.09
3a 86
95.00
5643
Average. .
2.02
2a 92
96.00
1.98
27. 52
86.00
1.99
35.77
94 00
. 1.99
35.19
9a 00
HEADS ONLY HARVESTED.
8230
(Nitrogen per cent..
•{ Weight of 1,000 grains grams. .
[Flinty grains per cent. .
(Nitrogen percent..
•{Weight of 1,000 grains grams..
[Flinty grains percent..
(Nitrogen percent..
• Weight of 1,000 grains grams..
[Flmtv grains per cent..
(Nitrogen per cent..
^Weight of 1,000 grains grams..
[Flinty grains per cent..
(Nitrogen per cent. .
^Weight of 1.000 grains grams. .
2.15
23. 94
100.00
1.90
30.90
95.00
1.96
2.5.80
2.17
23.20
1.94
37.08
1.92
36.48
90.00
1.91
34. 66
95.00
1.91
35. 42
8212
90.00
1.99
27.78
90.00
1.93
27.30
85.00
1.92
35.64
95.00
2.01
34.64
8213
5C43
90. 00 ! 85. 00
2.09 • 2.02
24 56 25. 64
95. 00 ! 85. 00
90.00 j 90.00
2. 14 : 2. 10
36.94 I a5.90
95. CO 100. 00
Average. .
2.03 i 2.03
26. 30 25. 90
95.00
2.00
36.07
91.00
1.96
35.61
94 00
The table shows that when only the heads are harvested early the
grain thereon is small and shriveled, whereas if harvested late the
grain is plump. The reason for this is that the heads harvested early
being cut off from the stems, the supply of elaborated food in the
latter is actually lost to the grain. The grain, therefore, is unable to
increase in weight. On the other hand, the heads which had ripened
on the stem, that is, those harvested late, had received from the latter
much of the elaborated material. The difference in the number of
flinty kernels in the grain harvested early and late when the samples
were protected is too small to afford any conclusions; but when the
3 A1906 14
210 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
samples were exposed, the one harvested early had a smaller number
of flinty kernels. This was true likewise of the samples harvested on
the stems: the one which was harvested early and exposed contained
.aller amount of flinty grains than the one collected at full ma-
turity. This was due to the effect of weathering, as it is well known
that intermittent rains have an injurious effect on the grain in the
shock, much more so than when the grain is still standing. The grain
which was harvested late was not materially affected, so far as its
flinty character is concerned, by exposure, whether the heads only or
the whole plants were collected. Likewise there is little difference in
the weight per thousand or the percentage of nitrogen, showing that
at full maturity no more change goes on in the plant.
This table also shows that the percentage of nitrogen or protein is
practically the same in every sample whether harvested early or late,
heads separate or the whole plant, and whether these samples were
protected or exposed. The chief difference here is the the weight per
thousand, the samples harvested late weighing 7 to 10 grams more
than the early ones. This simply means that on ripening the elabo-
rated organic material in the leaves, stems, and heads is transported
to the grain and that this material is also rich in proteid substances.
The number of starchy grains, that is. those having white spots, is not
very great in any case, as is shown by the percentage of flinty kernels.
The samples harvested early and exposed have the greatest number
of starchy grains.
From the table on page 209 it will be clearly seen that the sam-
ples of heads only, which are harvested early, yield a grain which is
appreciably smaller than when the whole plant is harvested early.
The same explanation here holds true as was made above when con-
sidering early and late harvesting of heads only, but to a less degree.
In this case only a comparatively small part of the elaborated mate-
rial is transported from the stem to the grain, giving it a higher
weight per thousand, that is. the weight per thousand grains where
the heads only were harvested early is 26.3 grams, whereas when the
whole plant is harvested at the same time the weight per thousand
ha- increased to 28.9 grams. Such experiments clearly show that
harvesting by means of ■"header.-" should be carried on only when
the grain is fully mature, as otherwise an incompletely developed or
shriveled grain will be obtained.
VALUE OF DURUM WHEAT.
Professor Shepard. of South Dakota, has recently issued a report on
durum wheat, in which it is shown that Kubanka contains less bran
than Red Fife, that more flour is made from Kubanka. and that the
flour contains a larger amount of the proteid of the wheat than does
flour made from northern spring wheat. Baking tests, however, show
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate X.
Photomicrographs of Cross Sections of Wheat Grown Under
Varying Conditions.
[1.— Flinty wheat grain grown under dry farming. 2.— Half-starchy wheat
grain. 3.— Starchy wheat grain grown under excessive irrigation.]
Yearbook U. S. Oept. of Agriculture, 1906
Plate XI
k
Whole Wheat showing (1) Flinty, (2) Half Starchy, and
(3) Starchy Grains. (X4i.)
CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 211
that spring wheat makes a larger loaf and contains a larger amount of
gliadin in the gluten than is the case with Kubanka wheat. Taking
it all in all, however, Professor Shepard states that "for the yield,
hardiness, flour yield, protein distribution, and the quality of both
bread and macaroni, durum wheat, especially Kubanka, is to be
recommended for general use."
Several years ago Clifford Richardson, of the Bureau of Chemistry,
published the results of several hundred analyses of wheat grown in
the various States of the Union, from which it appears that the aver-
age protein content of our American spring and winter wheat ( Tri-
ticum vulgare) is 12.2 per cent, whereas the average proteid content of
considerably over one hundred samples of durum analyzed by the
writer is 14.7, or 2.5 per cent more than that of the common wheat.
Durum wheat grown in Algeria contains only from 8 to 10 per cent
of water. Common wheat grown in countries adapted thereto con-
tains from 10 to 16 per cent of water, according to the moisture of the
atmosphere. The difference in the water content was sufficient to
make the French officials hrrestigate the advisability of buying wheat
from dry-land regions, which wheats would contain less moisture, and
thus not only a large saving would be made in the cost of transporta-
tion, but more wheat per bushel would be actually obtained.
IRRIGATION EXPERIMENTS.
As climate is the great factor in influencing the composition of crops,
and as we are powerless to change it in any way, it devolves upon us
to make as wise a selection of our grains as possible, choosing those
which are more apt to resist the unfavorable elements. Though we
can not control rainfall, we are able in irrigated districts to determine
how much water a crop shall receive by irrigation. As excessive
irrigation tends to change the hard, flinty durum into a soft, mealy
grain, thus robbing it of its most important physical characteristic, as
well as lowering its nitrogen content below that of a true durum, it is
important to carefully determine the amounts of water that should be
given to a wheat crop and the times during the period of growth when
it should be applied. This question is the subject of an investigation
which is being conducted in cooperation with several of the Western
States where irrigation is practiced and facilities exist for irrigating
with definite amounts of water at stated periods.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF OVER-IRRIGATED GRAINS.
The photomicrographs shown in Plate X represent cross sections of
grain grown under dry-land farming and under irrigation. Figure 1
represents a durum grown on land not irrigated, being flinty, hard, and
translucent, and containing over 18 per cent of protein. No. 2 is an
212 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
intermediate grain, showing both the starchy and the flinty charac-
teristics. Xo. 3 represents a grain from the same kind of seed as that
which produced No. 1 and grown on adjacent land, but under ex -
sive irrigation, the result being a soft, mealy, dull-looking grain, some-
what shorter than Xo. 1 and containing only 12 per cent of protein.
It has lost its durum characteristics entirely, and is no more suitable
for making good macaroni than are our soft wheats. Plate XI is a
reproduction of an enlarged photograph of the whole wheat grains,
and represents the same samples as are shown in Plate X. Xo. 1
showing the dark amber color of the flinty grain. Xo. 2 the inter-
mediate sample, and No. 3 the light starchy grain. Both the photo-
micrographs and the photographs shown in these plates were made
by Burton J. Howard, chief of the microchemical laboratory of the
Bureau of Chemistry.
NECESSITY OF PRODUCING HIGH-PROTEIX WHEATS.
In conclusion, it may be well to emphasize the fact that the coun-
tries which are the great buyers of wheat purchase generally on the
basis of protein content, that is. on the basis of the weight per
bushel and the weight per thousand grains, while in some localities
wheats are bought on the basis of the chemical analysis itself. It is
therefore of the utmost importance, in order to retain our foreign
markets and maintain our commercial supremacy and national repu-
tation as producers of high-grade wheat, that the closest attention be
paid not only to the production of high-yielding wheats but al-
the cultivation of varieties having a high protein content, with a v
to growing wheats which combine these two characteristics — high
gluten content and large yields.
THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY.
By R. W. Williams, Jr.,
Assistant, Biological Survey.
INTRODUCTION.
For several hundred rears the enforcement of criminal laws of
all kinds in this country has been intrusted to sheriffs, constables,
and police officers, and until the middle of the nineteenth century
this method was considered satisfactory. But with the growing
demand for more stringent enactments for the preservation of game
and the increasing complexity of statutes for this purpose it was
found no longer practicable to include the burden of enforcing them
among the duties devolving upon general officers, and their enforce-
ment has consequently been intrusted to special officials, usually
called game wardens.
The origin of the term "warden" in relation to game is somewhat
obscure, but it was probably adopted in analogy to church and wood
wardens in England, where the word first came into use. However
this ma}' be, a game warden is now generally understood to be an
officer charged with the enforcement of laws for the protection of
game and fish. Several substitutes for the term are in use in a few
States and Canadian Provinces. Thus in New York all, and in Xew
Jersey and Pennsylvania some, game officers are styled " protectors;"
in Xew Hampshire the designation "detectives" is employed; in
Prince Edward Island, "inspectors," and in Alberta, Manitoba, and
Saskatchewan, "game guardians."
Wardenships for the protection of fish existed quite early in the
histoiw of this country, and some time after the establishment of
similar offices for the protection of game the duties of the two were
united and intrusted to the same officers. Consequently to-day, in
all but a few States, the game warden is a fish warden also and per-
forms manifold duties in that capacity. The present article does
not deal with this phase of his duties, but is limited in scope to those
he performs solely as a game warden.
In the United States the establishment of a special office for the
protection of game and the enforcement of the game laws dates back
to 1852, when the legislature of Maine created the office of moose
213
214 VEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
warden, directed the governor to appoint one for each of the counties
of Oxford, Franklin. Somerset. Penobscot, Piscataquis. Aroostook,
and Washington, and allowed the warden three-fourths of the fines
recovered for killing moose and deer contrary to law. This seems to
be the first game wardenship established in this country. For three
decades there was very little further activity in this direction. A
few State- authorised the appointment of local wardens, but the
experiment was almost entirely a failure. During the period between
1878 and 1888, however, the urgent necessity for enforcement of
game laws became apparent, and in that decade ten States created
a State office or department charged with the enforcement of the
game laws. Other State- quickly followed, and at the present time
in thirty-six States and Territories the enforcement of the game laws
is intrusted to a State board, a warden, or. as in North Carolina and
Delaware, to an incorporated association. Florida. Georgia, Ken-
tucky. Louisiana. Nevada, and South Dakota .-till adhere to the
county warden system, and Texas. Alabama, and Arkansas provide
no special officer for protection of game. Correlated with the estab-
lishment of these offices has been the increasing complexity of game
law.-, until at the present time the modern game statute assumes the
magnitude of a criminal code, and to enforce its provisions and exer-
cise the powers thereunder requires a high degree of judgment and
skill. The necessary qualifications of an officer in this department
of the State's service are consequently much greater to-day than
formerly. This is apparent from an examination of the one hundred
and fifty-six sections of the Colorado game law. which, it may be
noted, do not include the provisions relating to nongame birds.
THE OFFICE OF GAME WARDEN.
Since the establishment of State offices or departments for the pro-
tection of game, the position of warden, whether the jurisdiction
extends over the entire State or is confined to a .-mall area, has
assumed an importance and dignity it did not formerly pose
Fortified by plenary power to enforce the game laws, and with a
consciousness of the important public service performed, the warden
of to-day stands upon an equal footing with other executive officers
of the Government, and commands like respect. The salary attached
to the position of State commissioner or warden in those States pro-
viding for a salary compares favorably with the compensation of
other State officials. In Xew York it is So. 000 a year, in Illinois
sl'.oOO, and in other States it varies from $1,000 to 12,060. In the
States which intrust the administration of the game laws to a board
of commissioners, position on the board, except in Connecticut.
Ma--aehusetts. and Maine, is honorary and without compensation.
Such is the case in Arizona. California, Xew Hampshire, Xew Jersey,
THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. ZIO
Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island, but even under
these circumstances the States have no difficulty in securing ready and
capable men.
The compensation of deputies varies more than that of the State
officers, and the system of payment adopted by each State has fea-
tures distinct from those of any other. A few States pay their
deputies salaries. In Montana each of the eight district wardens
receives a salary of 8100 a month, and in California the salary of
county warden is graduated according to the population of the county,
$50 to $125 per month, with an additional allowance of $25 for ex-
penses. Colorado allows each of her five chief wardens S900 a year
and S300 for expenses, besides a share of fines and officer's costs. In
Illinois the ten district game wardens receive $900 a year each and
their actual and necessary expenses while under the direction of the
commissioner. Game protectors in New York, except the chief, first,
second, and third assistant protectors, who receive annual salaries of
$5,000, $2,000. $1.400, and $1,200, respectively, are paid $600 a year,
and receive one-half of the fines in actions brought upon information
furnished by them; and they are allowed also $450 a year for their
expenses. In some States the deputies receive the whole or part of
the lines, together with tho usual fees of a sheriff or constable. In
Tennessee the State warden serves without compensation.
The terms of service are usually the same as those of other officers.
The State warden of Tennessee, however, is appointed for eight years,
a longer term than is usual for any State officer.
It may be of interest to note, as showing the type of men required
for this work, that the present warden of Tennessee was a former
member of the Federal House of Representatives; that one of the
Members of Congress from Michigan was the fust warden of that
State; that the present game commissioner of one of the States was
formerly United States minister to Turkey; and that several promi-
nent lawyers and physicians are serving their States in the capacity
of State warden or as members of boards of game and fish commis-
sioners. The governor of Nebraska is nominally fish and game com-
missioner of that State, but the active work of the office devolves
upon his chief deputy. This somewhat anomalous condition is due to
a constitutional prohibition against the creation of any executive
State office not provided for in the constitution. Hence the law of
1901 establishing the office of game and fish commissioner provided
that the duties of the position should devolve upon the governor.
DUTIES.
The duties of a game warden are those usually performed by a
sheriff, but they differ in one important particular, and this differ-
ence inheres in the object for which the wardenship was established.
216 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
eriff ordinarily acts only in pursuance of preliminary proceed-
ings by private persons or by a court officer and usually under a
warrant issued by a court commanding him to arrest a certain person,
summon a jury, or perform similar acts: but a warden can not await
the initiative or detection of a violation by others. He must act,
must himself search out violations, find the evidence wherewith to
convict offenders, and institute prosecutions. This is one of the
primary reasons for the existence of a special officer to enforce the
game laws.
During the open season much of the game warden's time is spent
in examining shipments, and if his territory includes a railway cen-
ter this service is arduous and requires much night work. The
devices employed by shippers to conceal contraband trade in game
compel wardens to examine many packages the contents of which
are not exposed to view. It frequently happens that the warden
must perform detective duty in order to secure the evidence necessary
to convict suspected parties, and this means that occasionally he is
subjected to all the dangers of such service. In States prohibiting
sale or possession of game he must periodically visit and inspect
hotels, restaurants, and other resorts where it is likely to be served
to guests, and must keep a watchful eve on markets and cold-storage
plants. In a few States and in several of the Canadian Provinces
wardens issue hunting licenses, and in consequence are compelled to
keep accounts. By the passage of laws in several States prohibiting
the hounding of deer and directing the wardens to kill dogs found
chasing or molesting deer or found in the deer country, another task,
and often a disagreeable one, is added to the warden's duty. The
secretary of the game commission of Pennsylvania, in January, 1906,
estimated that 1.500 dogs had been killed in that State during the
few months of the operation of the law. Examination of hunting
licenses issued to nonresidents requires the warden's attention, and
it is always necessary for him to make sure that all persons found
hunting are provided with proper licenses. In many States wardens
are required to destroy traps and devices employed to capture game,
and in a few to seize guns and shooting paraphernalia used in viola-
tion of law. They often perform the duties of auctioneers in the
sale of confiscated game, guns, traps, nets, etc. Occasionally when
an offender against the game laws has escaped into another State
the warden is required to enter that State and. with proper requisi-
tion papers, apprehend and bring back the fugitive. In nearly
every State wardens are empowered to serve criminal and civil proc-
ist as a sheriff would, and this requires knowledge of the proper
procedure.
Every statute providing for the appointment of a warden defines
his duties, some more explicitly and in greater detail than others;
THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 217
but the officer who would perform the greatest service to the State
must do many things not laid down in the law. As a rule, the active
field work of the game department is performed by deputies under
instructions from the State warden, but the laws of Idaho and Wyo-
ming declare that the State warden shall be an active executive officer,
and when possible shall take the field in person in performance of
his duties.
An officer who realizes the responsibility of his position can do
much to bring game protection into popular favor. He may easily
become an educator, however circumscribed his field. Much of the
wanton destruction of animal life proceeds from thoughtlessness,
and few persons once impressed with the importance of preserving
wild creatures continue to destroy them. In North Carolina the
bird and game wardens, in addition to their official duties, spend a
considerable portion of their time educating the public as to the value
of birds and game to the State. During the close seasons they visit
farmers, explain and discuss the game laws and their object, and
hear complaints. Each warden is supplied with a selection of stand-
ard books on birds and is required to familiarize himself with them,
so as to be able to answer the numerous questions propounded.
A very useful and interesting feature of a warden's duties in Illinois
is the periodical census made by him of certain species of game. In
this way the commissioner, with reasonable accuracy, can determine
the status of certain species and recommend necessary legislation.
Similar service is performed by the wardens in Pennsylvania. The
general adoption of this scheme over the entire country would greatly
facilitate the drafting of proper laws and in addition furnish very
interesting statistics.
Another valuable service performed by the Illinois wardens con-
sists in rendering aid to the farmers in enforcing the trespass laws.
Telephone connection makes it possible to quickly reach the scene
of a trespass, and ready response has greatly reduced the number of
such offenses in that State. The Illinois and Wisconsin wardens, as
part of their duties, periodically examine and check up the hunting-
license accounts of the county clerks.
The rapid decrease in the number of quail in several States, due
to starvation in severe winters with heavy snows, has awakened the
citizens of those States to a realization of the necessity of providing
food for the starving birds during such periods. The game depart-
ments in some of the States have adopted a systematic plan for pur-
chasing and distributing this food by the aid of wardens. During
the winter of 1904-5, which was very severe and protracted as far
south as North Carolina, thirty wardens in that State devoted much
of their time to distributing grain for the quail and in enlisting the
cooperation of the farmers in their behalf. During the same winter
21S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
some of the wardens of Mew Jersey .purchased grain at their own
expense and distributed it widely in their territory, and the Indiana
wardens employed men with sleighs to distribute food for the quail.
In Illinois quail were systematically fed by the game department dur-
ing that winter. An expenditure of $25 in each county was author-
ized by the State game commissioner to be used in February, and
with the means thus supplied the wardens were able to scatter a large
amount of grain throughout the region inhabited by quail. The
mounted police on duty in the neighborhood of Washington, in the
District of Columbia, under instructions from their superintendent,
who is ex-officio game warden of the District, carry with them regu-
larly, during severe weather, bags of grain from which they scatter
food for the quail.
POWER.-.
The powers exercised by the wardens of the present day are very
extensive. Indeed, were it not so. enforcement of game laws and the
consequent preservation of game would be impossible. It is the
exception now for a State to withhold from its game wardens the right
to arrest without warrant persons found in the act of violating the law.
and a number of States confer upon their wardens the right to search
summarily any place where they suspect contraband game to be con-
cealed. In Xew York the power of search without warrant under the
game law* is granted to game protectors, but is withheld from peace
officers, who otherwise exercise all the powers of protectors in the
enforcement of the game laws. Several States have excepted dwell-
ings from the general warrant of search, thus preserving the ancient
and time-honored sanctity of the home. "While the warden may be
lawfully invested with broad powers, it behooves him to use tact and
discretion in exercising them, so as to give no just grounds for com-
plaints of oppression.
In Michigan and Wisconsin wardens are authorized to conduct
prosecutions in the courts in the same manner and with the same
authority as prosecuting attorneys, and in Oklahoma and West Vir-
ginia they may do so without the sanction of the prosecuting attorney.
In Tennessee the State warden may compromise or discontinue cases
where the violations are technical or where he believes the prosecution
or fine would be oppressive. In Maine the commissioners of inland
fisheries and game may entirely prohibit the taking of any kind of
game in any part of the State for a series of years, not exceeding four.
These are some of the extensive powers granted wardens, and they
illustrate the position of the service at the present day. In this
connection may well be quoted the instructions given the deputy and
county wardens of Michigan by the game warden of that State:
The proper observance of the fish and game laws depends almost entirely upon the
vigilance and good judgment pi the county and deputy wardens. Keep your eyes and
ears open for violations, but do not be too hasty in acting upon what you hear. Be
THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 219
careful nut to let the public know your plans. Be vigilant and fearless in enforcing
the laws, hut try to do so without being obnoxious. Be gentlemanly at all times.
Show no favoritism, and be especially careful that all persons are treated alike. It is
important that the people should be awakened to the importance of respecting the
laws for the preservation of iish and game. Use your influence to arouse public
sentiment in this respect. (Game 'Warden Dept. of Mich.— Instructions to Wardens,
1903. )
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT.
The equipment of the game warden diners very little from that of
other officers who enforce criminal statutes, but on account of the
character of the territory to be patrolled several States in the past few
years have provided launches for wardens doing duty on water courses.
Massachusetts for several years has kept in service along the coast a
naphtha launch, the efficiency of which the commissioners of that
State declare to be equal to that of a hundred men. The Audubon
Society of North Carolina, an incorporated body, which, under the
terms of its charter, administers the game laws in that State, main-
tains a launch for the use of its wardens along the Atlantic coast.
This boat is used in winter for patrolling the ducking grounds in
the larger inlets along the coast of Xorth Carolina, where wild fowl
resort in great numbers and are extensively shot for market ; and in
summer it does duty in the region about Cape Hatteras and Ocracoke
Inlet and around the islands in Pamlico Sound, where large numbers
of sea birds rear their young. The game commissioner of Illinois has
recently provided a cabin cruising launch for the use of the wardens
along the Illinois River, and early in 1906 New York authorized the
purchase of a steam or electric launch for the use of the two game
protectors on Jamaica Bay and adjacent waters, and appropriated
$1,500 for the purpose.
The police department of the District of Columbia maintains a
launch for service on the Potomac River largely to enforce the game
laws on the marshes along the river.
The National Association of Audubon Societies, always desirous to
cooperate with game wardens, owns a launch with which its warden
patrols the southern coast of Florida in the interests of the nongame
birds of that State; and in Louisiana its warden, who has supervision
of the Breton Island Reservation in the Gulf of Mexico, is the owner
and captain of a schooner which he uses in his work of protection.
CIVIL-SERVICE SYSTEM FOR GAME WARDENS.
With increasing necessity for enforcement of the game laws and the
corresponding intricacy of these laws arises increased necessity for
more intelligent officers to execute them. The civil-service rules,
winch have worked so well in other departments of the State govern-
ment, have recently been applied to the game departments of Massa-
chusetts and Wisconsin, and their example will, without doubt, soon
220 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
be followed by other States. The system, besides insuring a higher
grade of officers, has the advantage also of eliminating politics from
the service. An examination of the questions propounded to candi-
dates for the position of game warden in Wisconsin shows that in that
State great importance is attached to ability to endure exposure and
hard plvysical exertion. Some account is taken of the applicant's
familiarity with the game laws and conditions in his territory, and
enough arithmetic is required to test his ability to keep his accounts.
On the other hand, in Massachusetts less importance is attached to
physical endurance, but applicants for the position of deputy fish and
game commissioner are required to answer exhaustive questions on
their powers and jurisdiction under the game laws, and in relation
to the preliminary procedure in the courts.
Applicants should be examined upon the subjects usually included
in the common-school course. Physical fitness and such previous
experience as would be serviceable in the position sought should
have due weight. Other qualifications being equal, the applicant
who is an experienced hunter should command precedence over one
who is not.
In order to secure the largest measure of efficiency in the game
department, civil-service questions should be framed to test the
applicant's qualifications to perform any and all services likely to
devolve upon him in the performance of his duties. They should
elicit his knowledge of the powers, duties, and jurisdiction apper-
taining to the position of warden and the methods of procedure in
case of violation of the game laws. He should have a general knowl-
edge of the object of game laws, and should show fair acquaintance
with the fauna of his territory, especially with the species classed as
game; he should be familiar with the limit of hunting seasons, with
prohibited devices and methods, limitations on amount of game per-
mitted to be killed, and restrictions on hunting by residents and
nonresidents, and on sale and transportation. If the examination is
for one of the higher positions in the service, such as chief warden,
the applicant should know something of the decisions of the higher
courts in cases involving game, at least in his own State.
ASSOCIATIONS OF WARDENS.
In the early part of December, 1892, the fish and game wardens
of the two Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois met in
convention at St. Paul, Minn., for the purpose of considering a uni-
form game law for the States mentioned. A bill providing for such
a law was agreed upon, but failed of adoption in the several States.
Since this meeting similar conventions have been held in other sec-
tions of the country, with like objects in view, but no permanent
association was organized until July 21, 1902, when the State wardens
THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 221
and commissioners of Colorado, Minnesota, Montana, Oregon, Utah,
and Wyoming, together with several other persons interested in game
protection, met at Mammoth Hot Springs in the Yellowstone National
Park, pursuant to previous agreement. A permanent organization
was effected under the name of the National Association of Game
and Fish Wardens and Commissioners. Papers were read and dis-
cussed on various phases of game protection, spring shooting, hunting-
licenses, export and sale, bag limits, and the right of search. The
primary object of the association. was to secure cooperation between
the States. The constitution adopted made all State and Federal
game officials eligible to membership, and fixed the entrance fee at
$10. The discussions at this meeting had a marked effect upon sub-
sequent legislation and have resulted in more stringent enforcement
of the game laws. This association was reorganized on February 11,
1904, and, with dues reduced to $5, now numbers among its meni-
bers the State game officials of-most of the States where such office
exists.
A personal acquaintance with the deputy and county wardens in
the State is always of great advantage to the State officer in the
administration of his duties, and in recent years several officials have
called conventions of their deputies for this end and to discuss mat-
ters pertaining to then duties. One of the first meetings of this
character of which the writer has any knowledge occurred in Mon-
tana in 1901, shortly after the creation of the offices of State and
district game wardens, when, in compliance with the summons
of the State game and fish warden, the eight deputies met at his
office in Helena for the purpose of mutual acquaintance and instruc-
tion by him in the duties of then position.
Quite the most notable and successful of these conventions met
in the Armory Building at Springfield, 111., on January 26, 1904, pur-
suant to a call issued by the game and fish commissioner of that
State. There were seventy-five wardens present, and after organ-
ization the commissioner stated that the object of the meeting was
to become acquainted, discuss matters of general interest in game
protection, study carefully the new game law in order that all might
understand its provisions, and outline a general policy for its
enforcement. Some very interesting and important papers touching
various phases of bird and game protection were read and discussed,
and new legislation was proposed, some of which was enacted at the
following session of the legislature. (A detailed account of this
meeting will be found in American Field, vol. 61, p. 119.)
One of the most recent meetings was that of the game protectors
of New York, who met in Albany during February, 1906, and formed
a permanent organization. Hereafter they will meet yearly for the
purpose of discussing matters pertaining to their duties.
222 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PERILS OF THE WARDENS POSITION.
The record of fatalities incident to the warden's official life testifies
to the perils of the position. Exposure to inclement weather, with
attending discomforts, may be reasonably accounted part of the
chances a warden assumes when he enters upon the duties of the office;
but conditions should not be such as to compel the risk of surren-
dering his life to the depravity of his fellow-men. Yet such is the
fact. Several deputies and other officials have been killed within
recent years while in the discharge of their duties. In not a few cases
the culprits have received merited punishment for then crimes and
have been sentenced to prison for longer or shorter periods. In
other instances they have gone unpunished, as in the case of a
plume hunter who killed a Florida warden while he was attempting
to arrest him for shooting herons in a colony of nesting birds and
who escaped through refusal of the grand jury to indict him. In cases
of miscarriages of justice like this, however, it should be remembered
that game laws and game wardens are of comparatively recent origin
in the United States, and that only a short time ago the popular
idea respecting fish and game was that wherever found they were
almost as much the property of the individual citizen as the air we
breathe. The creation of a healthy public sentiment everywhere
in regard to the protection of game and the enforcement of game
laws is only a matter of time, and the wonder is, not that violations
of the law, followed by occasional tragedies, occur in remote districts.
but that respect for the law is so widespread, cooperation so general,
and the cause of bird and game protection so far advanced in public
estimation in so short a time.
The most serious problem the warden of to-day has to contend
with in some sections of the country is the control of certain classes
of immigrants who in increasing numbers infest the woods and fields
of some of our Northern States at all seasons intent upon the slaughter
of all kinds of birds. They set at defiance the game and trespass
laws, and to warnings not to hunt upon the farmer's land they
sometimes respond with the use of weapons, occasionally with fatal
results. The seriousness of the situation is echoed in the following
paragraph from the report of the board of game commissioners of
Pennsylvania for 1904, page 3:
We are deeply impressed with the grave condition that surrounds the enforcement
of our game laws in communities where the foreign element * * * is in
any force, and recognize in this question the most serious one we are compelled to
meet. This class seems possessed with the same purpose throughout the State, and
is the most persistent and determined in not only violating the law. Inn in resisting
arrest and attempting to evade punishment after they have been arrested. Hardly
a week passes without an assault of some kind upon our officers from these people.
THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 223
REVENUE FOR THE WARDEN SERVICE.
The long delay in establishing a practical and efficient scheme for
enforcing game laws in the United States was due more to lack of
financial means than any other one cause. Only a small part of the
people in each locality hunted, and the suggestion to levy a special
tax or to appropriate funds from the general treasury for the support
of a wardenship excited strong opposition. It was argued that
citizens who, from lack of inclination or convenience, do not hunt
should not be taxed for the maintenance of the sport. So strong was
this sentiment that advocates of game preservation undertook to
find a way by which the laws could be so framed as to provide funds
for their own enforcement. A provision was inserted in the game
laws providing that the informer should be entitled to a moiety of
the fine or that the game warden should receive the whole of it.
But competent men were not readily found to work for such uncer-
tain and inadequate compensation and the game laws were not
enforced in many localities. Finally, within the last twelve years the
hunting-license system as a means of raising revenue for game pro-
tection has proved to be more successful and more equitable than
any other, since those who hunt and are directly benefited by the
enforcement of game laws contribute the funds for the protection of
game. Since the inauguration of this method nearly every State has
established a game department, and several of them support their
departments wholly from hunting-license fees.
At first the nonresident was the only one required to take out a
license to hunt, and this is now the usual license issued ; but it was
found that public sentiment in several States favored a small fee for
residents and in 16 States this additional fee is now required. In
Illinois the fund derived from this source is so large (the receipts in
1905 amounting to $127,988) that after payment of all salaries and
other expenses of administration a large surplus remains, which the
legislature has authorized the State game commissioner to use for the
purchase and propagation of quail, prairie chickens, and pheasants.
The commissioner has established a game farm near Springfield and
has stocked it with several species of game birds, foreign and native.
This project has met with marked success and bids fair to furnish the
State with game to stock depleted covers. Thus the license s}^stem,
originally adopted merely for the purpose of supporting the warden
service, has very materially broadened the scope of the State game
department.
CONCLUSION.
It will be seen from the foregoing that game wardenship in this
country has reached its present state of efficiency within a compara-
tively short time. Beginning with the very local moose wardenship
224 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
iii Maine in 1852, "the service has been gradually extended in scope
and purpose until now there is scarcely a locality in the United States
where a game warden is not in service — scarcely a wild bird or animal
which does not come under his protection.
This satisfactory condition lias not been attained without a strug-
gle. Many obstacles have been placed in the way of progress by an
unwilling, because uninstructed, public, and these have been over-
come onty by the persistence and devotion to duty of those who have
occupied the office during the formative period. The game warden
of to-day should recognize this obligation to his predecessors and
endeavor not only to maintain but to surpass the high standard estab-
lished by them.
Some of the former antagonism against game laws still persists,
and in certain parts of the country the wardenship is yet in an experi-
mental stage; but it may be safely predicted that in the near future
every State in the Union will have established its game department
on a footing with its other executive offices. In spite of its growing
importance and power, however, the office of game warden is a diffi-
cult one to fill, and it is the duty of every good citizen to lend this
important public servant every assistance and encouragement in the
discharge of his duties.
RANGE MANAGEMENT.
By J. S. Cotton,
Assistant in Range Investigations, Farm Management Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry.
THE PRESENT SITUATION.
At the present time the greater part of western grazing lands is
badly overstocked. Some of the ranges are so crowded that the
stockmen are experiencing difficulty in getting sufficient grazing for
their herds. Many herds have been cut down in order to meet these
conditions, while in some instances, rather than run the risk of an
unusually hard winter or a period of drought, stockmen are going out
of business entirely.
When the first stockmen drove their herds on the western range
lands there was a great abundance of feed, and it was generally
believed that this feed would never be fully utilized. As a conse-
quence these men increased their herds as much as possible, so as to
use all of the feed they could. Others, seeing the prosperous condi-
tion of these men, began to bring in large herds, that they also might
get their share of the free grass. Thus it was only a few years until the
range was carrying more stock than it could properly support.
During the past few years there has been a heavy immigration of
settlers to several parts of these grazing lands. These settlers have
taken up large bodies of the very best grazing lands for farming pur-
poses. The men ranging their stock in these areas were for the. most
part crowded back to the ranges of other stockmen, thus greatly
aggravating the already crowded condition of the range. As a neces-
sary result of all this overcrowding the range began to deteriorate.
The rate of this deterioration has been governed somewhat by
accessibility, a range that is easily accessible being much more
likely to be overstocked than one that is difficult to reach. It has,
however, been governed much more largely by climatic conditions.
In the northern range States, where the severe winters and the lia-
bility of a heav}* fall of snow acted as a cheek, and where the rainfall
is sufficient for the growth of a good crop of grass, the deterioration
of the range has been rather slow until the past few years. In the
South, where the stock can be grazed the year round with perfect
safety, the range has been stocked to the highest number it would
3 A1906 15 225
226 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
earn* during favorable seasons. When a period of drought has
occurred, with a consequent shortage of grasses and other forage
plants, the same number of animals has been still on hand to be sup-
ported. This has resulted in severe grazing of the native grasses and
other forage plants, preventing the vegetation from yielding seed
with which to reproduce itself, thus greatly lowering the carrying
capacity of the range. This carrying capacity is, of necessity, gov-
erned largely by the amount of rainfall. In years when there are
ample rains there is an abundance of vegetation for grazing, but in
the periods when the rainfall is light the growth of vegetation is much
less. Much damage has been done to the ranges through the inability
of the stockmen to reduce their herds during periods of drought.
With the exception of the western portions of Oklahoma. Ka: -
and Nebraska, the carrying capacity of the range is much lower at
the present time than it was in the early days, or even a decade ago.
Reports from various stockmen indicate that the majority of the
ranges are not carrying one-half as many animals as formerly.
Ranges which formerly required from S to 12 acres to support a single
steer throughout the entire year now usually require from 20 to 35
acres. Instances are cited in Arizona where from 50 to 100 acres are
needed to support a single beef animal.0 In western Nebraska the
carrying capacity of the range is considerably higher than formerly.
This is because the stockmen of that region have protected their
ranges from the ravages of prairie fires.
Overcrowding the public ranges has caused considerable friction.
In many sections there have been bitter fights between the sheepmen
and the cattlemen. The majority of these fights were eventually
settled by a division of the range and the establishing of dead lines.
There have also been serious difficulties between the stockmen and
the homesteaders. In some instances the stockmen tried to keep the
settlers out ; in other places the settlers have taken up the watering
places or settled on land adjoining them, and have kept the stock
from watering in their accustomed places either by building fences
or by driving them away.
The stockmen have tried in many ways to adjust themselves to
these conditions. Some have obtained virtual control of their ranges
by buying up or leasing all the watering places. Others have been
able to buy railroad land and deserted homesteads or to lease school
lands, and thus bring their ranges under direct control.
In other regions, where the land could not be brought under control
by these methods, stockmen hare divided the ranges by mutual con-
sent. Later they began to build drift fences on these lines in order to
prevent their cattle from straying from their ranges. These drift
fences were gradually extended until large tracts of Government land
a Bui. G7, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Dept. Agr.. pp. 33 and 34.
RANGE MANAGEMENT. 227
were inclosed. The fencing in of large pastures proved to be so con-
venient to the stockmen in the handling of their stock that it became
quite general in several of the range States.
ATTITUDE OF STOCKMEN TOWARD LEGISLATION.
Recently an Executive order was issued requiring that these fences
be removed. The results of this order have greatly emphasized the
necessity for some legislation which will effect a distribution of range
land among those having stock on the ranges, so as to secure to them
by lease, purchase, or other legal means the possibility of managing
their ranges with a view to maintaining their productiveness. The
stockmen, who in the absence of legislation had gradually developed
a system of range division among themselves, all recognize that this
division was a primitive arrangement, devoid of legal status, but
made necessary by the exigencies of the business. For the most part
they are heartily in favor of legislation which will give stockmen a
legal right to protect whatever range may be assigned to each.
A few years ago the stockmen were bitterly opposed to any form of
legislation for the division of the public domain through leasing or any
other system. They felt that if they were deprived of free feed they
would be unable to make a living from the range, for they could not
afford to lease or purchase the feed. All they wanted was that the
range should be " let alone."
Now, with the greatly changed conditions caused by overstocking
and the taking up of large areas of the best range lands for farming
purposes, the more progressive stockmen realize fully that unless
some such step is taken the open range will soon be destroyed.
Although the majority of the stockmen now favor some form of
legislation for the future disposal of that part of the public domain
which is suitable for range purposes only, there is still a great diversity
of opinion concerning the character of the laws needed. The greater
number seem to be in favor of some system of leasing the land in indi-
vidual pastures for terms of five to ten years. Nearly all believe that
the area of land leased to a given person should be some multiple of the
area to which he holds title in the vicinity, but that there should be a
maximum limit in order to prevent any one man or company from
securing control of too much land.
BANGS IMPROVEMENT.
So long as it remains public domain, and is consequently free to all
without restriction, nothing can be done to improve the range land
of the country, for whatever improvement might be effected would
almost immediately be destroyed by the stockmen in their eagerness
to be the first to profit by it. But when the land is brought under
228 YEAEBOOK Of THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE.
control by lease, purchase, or other means the problem of handling
the range is radically changed and the stockman is on an entirely
different footing. Instead of living in uncertainty as to when his
ran^e will be a thing of the past, he will know just how much land he
can use and depend upon. Then he will not feel that he must graze this
land as hard as lie can while he has the opportunity. Instead, he will
be in position to protect it and get the greatest amount of good from
it from year to year. He will then be able to fence the land and keep
off all outside stock, and to regulate the number of his own grazing
ther-
Many stockmen are firmly convinced that stock can not be run at a
profit in pastures that are owned or leased. Numerous citations of
large cattle companies that have lost heavily in leasing grazing lands
on Indian reservations are made. It is true that many of the cattle
.tanies have lost large sums of money in leasing these lands.
Careful investigation, however, will usually show some special reasons
for such I - First, the majority of these companies were handling
a very poor grade of cattle. These yielded so small a margin between
the cost of putting them into the pasture and the returns from put-
ting them on the market that they could not stand the extra expense
incurred in leasing. Then the cattle seemed to be unadapted to such
irage conditions. Instead of grazing contentedly in the pastures
they spent the greater part of their time wandering along the fences.
Another reason for this failure, and a very important one, is that the
number of acres allotted to an animal was usually placed too low. and
overgrazing resulted.
stock companies did not adapt themselves to
the changed conditions. While a few men or companies have not
mad >f running stock in inclosed areas, a very large number
have succeeded. At the present time the most successful stockmen
of such States as Texas. California, and Washington, where the free
range is almost a tiling of the past, run their stock in pastures.
[DANCE 05 OVERGRAZING.
In making the change from the open range to the inclosed pastures
stockmen must not lose sight of the fact that when they have thus
shut out all stray stock they have not changed the carrying capacity
of the land in the least. They must therefore be careful not to over-
graze the inclosed areas, which is often done from a mistaken idea
that the mere fencing of a range increases its carrying capacity. The
majority of stockmen using the public domain place a very conserva-
tive estimate on its carrying capacity. Yet when they come to
inclose an area and pasture it. they are quite inclined to put in more
stock than their estimate calls for: consequently their pastures are
badly overstocked, and in some instances are actually grazed closer
RANGE MANAGEMENT. 229
than the outside range. This means not only that the pasture has
been seriously damaged, but that the stock are in poorer condition at
the end of the season than if they had run outside. It is safe to say
that nine out of ten men changing from the outside range to pastures
will overgraze their land the first season. Many of these will change
their methods immediately and soon get their pastures on a support-
ing basis; others will take two or three years to really learn the true
carrying capacity of their pastures; and still others, who can not get
out of the rut, will continue to overgraze, with the result that their
pastures will continually run down, while their stock grows poorer in
quality from year to jTear.
RESTING THE LAND.
Where an area of land has been very severely overgrazed in the past
it will be absolutely necessary that it be very carefully pastured for the
first two or three years. The native grasses and forage plants must
have a chance to regain their former vigor and to go to seed. A very
large number of stockmen advocate resting the land — that is, keeping
all stock off for a period of three or four years. That this remedy will
bring about the desired results has been definitely proved in numerous
instances. In Arizona the Department of Agriculture has a large
area of land in the Santa Rita Forest Reserve that is entirely protected
from stock. This area contains about 50 square miles, and includes
range country that varies from very poor mesa to fairly good moun-
tain range. Before it was fenced this area was in a very badly
denuded condition. In less than two years, under protection, it has
improved wonderfully. A large percentage of the new vegetation is
of little value, however, as many of the seeds present were of plants
not relished by stock. But the better kinds of grasses scattered
among this vegetation are increasing.
In the State of Washington experiments and observation of inclosed
areas covering a period of five years have shown conclusively that a
given range can be very greatly improved and in some cases brought
back to its original carrying capacity in from two to five years if it
is properly protected. The length of time required for the range to
be fully restored depends partly on how complete the overgrazing has
been and largely on the amount of rainfall.
While resting will bring about the desired results, there are very few
men who can afford to allow their land to remain idle for so long a
period, as the taxes, interest on the investment, and cost of mainte-
nance go on just the same whether the land is in use or not. Resting
would in the end be cheaper than to continue overgrazing the land,
but it is really not necessary. There is no reason why, by judicious
management, the feed on such an area should not be utilized. If such
a pasture be grazed very lightly during the early part of the season
230 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
until the grasses can get their growth and go to seed, it will then have
a chance to improve, although this improvement may be slight. It
would be much better if the pasture could be protected until the
grasses have gone to seed and the seed has fallen to the ground. Then
the dry feed can be utilized without damage to the range.
ALTERNATION OF PASTURES.
This improvement can best be accomplished by dividing the pas-
ture into a number of smaller ones and alternating the stock from one
to another. The number of pastures will depend somewhat on the
size of the range and how it is watered. In order to secure the best
results there should be not less than three pastures, while four, or even
more, would be much better. In all parts of the country the more
successful stockmen have a fenced area that they reserve for winter
pasture, while those who run their stock entirely on their own land
nearly always subdivide to the extent of a summer and a winter pas-
ture. It is noticeable that in nearly every instance the winter pasture
shows an excellent stand and produces much more feed than the sum-
mer pasture. This is solely because the grasses, being grazed only in
the winter, have a chance to remain in healthy condition and also to
produce a crop of seed with which to supply new plants as the old ones
give way. Again, there being a good covering of vegetation, the
ground is protected so that the wind and hot sun do not take all the
moisture out of the ground. Instead, the moisture is utilized in grow-
ing vegetation for feed.
In Texas many of the stockmen have found that it pays them to
alternate their pastures. Some even assert that' with their pastures
in the best of condition they carry more stock on a given area where
alternation of pasture is practiced than where one big field is used.a
Even in the East, where there is plenty of moisture, alternation of
pastures is being more strongly advocated each year, as the farmers,
are gradually learning that their pastures can be made to carry more
stock by this method.
RESEEDING THE WORN-OUT RANGE.
The problem of reseeding the range has received much attention
from the Department of Agriculture. So far, experiments have shown
that in the extremely arid portions of the range country reseeding is
impracticable. The only method of restoring such areas is to rest the
overgrazed portions. In case such ranges are grazed the year round,
alternation of pastures is the only solution that can be offered at the
present time. Fortunately, on account of the scarcity of water, the
great majority of these areas are used only for winter pastures. In
a Bui. 10, Division of Agrostology. U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 22. 1899.
EANGE MANAGEMENT. 231
this way these areas have a chance to make a good growth and to go
to seed during the summer season. Thus they have ample oppor-
tunity to restore themselves in case they are not overgrazed.
In the semiarid regions, such as the bunch-grass hills of Washing-
ton, Oregon, and Idaho, and the grama-grass regions of Montana, the
Dakotas, and Wyoming, alternation of pastures will be equally useful.
Ordinarily, unless the overgrazing has been very severe, the restora-
tion process will not take many years, in some instances only four or
five. If, however, the overgrazing has been complete enough to
practically destroy all the native plants and has been so long in dura-
tion that no seed is left in the ground, the process will be very slow
mdeed, for there is nothing left on which to base improvement.
Under such conditions weeds of almost no forage value are very likely
to take the place of the valuable forage plants that have been de-
stroyed. In order to prevent this, it might be feasible in some locali-
ties to gather seed of these native grasses and scatter it on the over-
grazed portions. In the State of Washington, farmers have taken seed
of the tall lime-grass (Ely m us condensatus) , called rye-grass by stock-
men, and sown it on areas where it formerly grew. Instances are known
where these men are now cutting lime-grass hay from these same areas.
Experiments carried on b}T the Washington Agricultural College in
cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry have shown that this
could probably be done in favorable seasons with bunch-grass. In the
Dakotas and eastern Montana it is quite noticeable that wherever a
part of the prairie land is plowed up and then allowed to revert it will
in time be covered with wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale) . If it is
plowed and nothing else is done the wheat-grass will take possession
of the area very quickly. This and the rapidity with which this grass
works into overgrazed places that are rested a little show very plainly
that the overgrazed areas where it grows naturally can be easily re-
stored by reseeding with this grass. Whether the grama grasses of
these regions could be restored by this process is not known. Many
of the leading stockmen are inclined to believe that they could, but
think it would be a difficult matter to procure the seed.
RESEEDING IX THE MOUNTAIN AREAS.
In the mountain areas, where the rainfall is much greater, the
problem of restoring the range is not nearly so difficult. Where the
devastation has not been too complete the range will soon restore
itself if protected. On those areas where overgrazing has left the
range in a denuded condition the restoration will take a number of
years. It can, however, usually be greatly hastened b}~ reseeding
with some of the cultivated grasses. Experiments carried on during
the past four years in the mountain areas of Washington have thor-
oughly demonstrated that timothy can be used to excellent advantage
232 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in the mountain meadows and in the parks of that State where the
original vegetation has been destroyed by sheep. This grass proved
to be the best of a number used in reseeding the devastated mountain
meadows (1) because it made the best growth and stood pasturage
well, and (2) because it was the cheapest and easiest to start.
According to these experiments, the cost of reseeding land is from
60 cents to $1 an acre, depending on the amount of seed used and on
the cost of getting it into the mountains. Eight pounds of seed
per acre ought to give a stand that if cut for hay would yield approx-
imately three-fourths of a ton of hay per acre. That would mean
that it would yield nearly enough forage the second season after it
was sown to pay for the reseeding. If the seed were sown in the
autumn before snow falls it would need no further treatment, but
if sown in the spring it should be harrowed in, which would greatly
increase the cost.
These experiments have also proved that orchard grass and tall
fescue would do well on those areas that arc a little too dry for
the successful growth of timothy, and that Bromus inermis will
be of very great value in range improvement along the drier edges
of the meadows and parks, provided the seed can be secured at a
price that does not make it prohibitive. Redtop has given good
results, but it has been very slow in establishing itself. It made
almost no showing until the third }Tear, but by the fourth season it
had attained an excellent stand and was beginning to crowd out the
native vegetation growing in the meadow with it. It will furnish a
large amount of excellent feed in the mountain meadows.
In the Sierra Nevadas of California redtop and timothy have
shown themselves to be of great value in reseeding along the edges
of the worn-out and badly overgrazed meadows, provided they are
not sown on those areas where there is standing water throughout
the greater part of the year. Redtop seems to do especially well in
the mountain areas. Judging from the results of experiments, when
once introduced it will spread over a great part of the meadow and
will form a dense sod that will in time crowd out other vegetation.
Orchard grass also grows very well in meadows, and also will appar-
ently do well on some of the drier hillsides where there is not enough
moisture for timothy or redtop. In fact, one of the rangers of the
Sierra Forest Reserve has succeeded in growing a fair crop of orchard-
grass hay for his saddle horses just on the lower edge of the timber
belt, where the land has been cleared of chaparral and the conditions
are quite arid.
CONSERVATION OF WATER.
The water problem is of extreme importance in range improve-
ment, for without plenty of good water stock can not be expected to
make good gains. When the land is once brought under control the
RANGE MANAGEMENT. 233
stockmen can afford to go to considerable expense to secure plenty of
water. In many instances, as in parts of Montana, Wyoming, and
the Dakotas, large reservoirs, or "water holes," can be made, which,
with the local showers during summer, will insure plenty of water
throughout the year. In other sections, as in the sandhills of
Nebraska or in southern California, the water can be easily obtained
by means of wells and storage tanks, the water being pumped by
windmills or gasoline engines. In many sections of the countiy, as
in Washington, Oregon, and Nevada, there are numerous springs
which formerly watered a large number of cattle, but which have
gone dry through the incessant tramping of stock about them. If
these springs were dug out and fenced and the water conducted to
troughs they could again be made to furnish an abundance of water
for a considerable number of stock. The water thus stored in troughs
will be kept clean for the stock and none of it need be wasted
through seepage. In Nevada the digging out and protection of the
springs is considered to be of the greatest importance."
Every opportunity should be taken to increase the number of
watering places, so that the stock using them would need to travel
011I3* comparatively short distances. In this way the range can be
improved greatly, as the stock will not need to tramp over so much
ground in traveling from the grass to the water and back. It will
also be beneficial to the stock themselves, as the time spent now in
traveling for water can be spent in resting or in feeding, and thus in
making larger gains.
rREMATURE CRAZING TO BE AVOIDED.
One of the great dangers in handling range stock is the tendency
of many of the stockmen to put their stock out on the range just
as soon as the grass begins to start in the spring and before the ground
is thoroughly settled. The vegetation, being nipped off before it
gets a fair start, or, as the stockmen say, "gets strong," is greatly
retarded in its growth and does not produce as much feed that season
as it would if it had a better chance. Where the soil is clayey the
damage caused by the premature grazing is greatly increased by the
tramping of the stock, which tends to pack it into a hard layer that
is impenetrable to plant roots. This packing of the soil has been one
of the greatest factors in the destruction of the feed in many mountain
meadows.
RAISING WINTER FEED.
In order to obtain the greatest returns from his land, the stockman
of the future will need to grow enough feed to carry his stock through
the winter without danger of loss and to keep them in good growing
a Bui. 55, Nevada Agr. Exp. Sta. , pp. 14 and 26.
234 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
condition. With the extra cost of running his stock in pastures he
must keep them constantly gaining, or they will prove a loss. If he
can not get water for irrigation either from some stream or through
storage reservoirs, such as are common in the Dakotas, that will
catch enough surface water to insure sufficient pasture, he will need
to grow grain hay.
Of the different cereals that can be used for hsij, rye will prob-
ably prove to be the surest to }Tield a good crop over the greatest
area of country. It will stand the hard winters of the North as well
as any of the other cereals and requires the least moisture of any of
them to mature a crop of ha}". It can also be made to yield a fair
crop with as little effort as any of the other cereals, and can thus be
grown at the least cost. Many of the stockmen are greatly prejudiced
against this plant as forage. This is probably very largely due to
the fact that they have allowed it to get too ripe before cutting. If
cut when just in the milk it makes excellent hay with which to
winter stock. Beardless barley is another excellent crop to grow
for grain hay. It produces a better quality of feed than rye and
in some localities is preferred to any of the cultivated grasses for
feed. It probably could not be depended on to produce as large a
yield as rye, nor is it so certain a crop. In some sections of the coun-
try, as in the Dakotas, durum wheat will produce a considerable
amount of forage in the more favorable years. In other sections
many of the farmers seem to be well pleased with spelt. These last
two plants are not so desirable for stock as some others on account of
their heavy beards. These beards will often cause sore mouths,
especially when fed to horses, and will also cause losses among
sheep. In the more favorable localities wheat, barley, and oats
can be grown.
In the Dakotas and eastern Montana a number of stockmen raise
corn for forage and find this to be exceedingly profitable. These men
are thoroughly convinced that by feeding corn fodder to their calves
and yearlings they get enough better gains to pay them well for their
extra work. It is noticeable that the men who are doing this are
topping the markets with grass-fed cattle from their sections. This
they ascribe largely to the fact that they get better gains on their
young stock. In most instances these men are really raising a better
grade of cattle than their neighbors, which must also be taken into
consideration.
Where a little water can be stored for irrigation, brome-grass
(Bromus inermis) produces a fair crop of hay and is becoming quite
popular. This is especially true of the western half of the Dakotas.
It is quite probable that with the same amount of water alfalfa
would give a larger yield. Alfalfa will grow on much drier land than
is often supposed. In many parts of the West the stockmen have
RANGE MANAGEMENT. 235
been trying to start this plant. Some succeed, while others fail. A
large number get very poor results, as their alfalfa seems to 'winter-
kill" badly. Experiments that are being carried on at the substation
at Dickinson. X. Dak., appear to indicate that much of the winter-
killing is due to a lack of nitrogen-gathering bacteria, which are
essential for the successful growth of alfalfa." Alfalfa is really worth
a considerable effort in order to get it started. In case of failure it
should be tried again on a small scale until it has been determined
whether it can be made to succeed.
AREA OF LAND NEEDED.
The area of land required to justify- engaging in the stock business,
without other source of revenue, varies greatly in different sections.
In the northern range States, where stock must be fed for a period of
three or four months during the winter season, and where the rain-
fall is fairly abundant. 2.500 to 4.000 acres of land would ordinarily
be needed to make a fair living for a family. If the settler were for-
tunate in selecting a range that had not been very much overgrazed
and on which there was very little waste land, he might be able to
get along with only 2,000 acres. Such areas will, however, be diffi-
cult to find. In the more southern range States, where the rainfall
is much less and not so well distributed throughout the season, the
number of acres required for an animal will be much greater. Here
the area required to support a family will vary from 10.000 acres in
the better sections to 25,000, and in some cases as much as 40,000 acres
are required.
IMPROVING THE GRADE OF STOCK.
Improvement of the class of stock using the grazing lands is becom-
ing constantly more important. In the old days, when there was
plentv of free range, almost any kind of animal could be sold at a
profit. Under the present crowded conditions the cost of mainte-
nance is much higher, and the poor-grade animal, or "scrub," will no
longer yield satisfactory returns.
The man who is running his stock in inclosed areas or contemplates
so doino- in the future will find it necessarv. if he is to be successful,
to carry that class of stock that will net him the greatest returns.
This statement holds equally true for the outside range. In fact,
there are only two methods whereby the man who expects to con-
tinue running his stock on the public domain can meet the existing
conditions successfully. One is the raising of sufficient feed to carry
his stock through the winter safely: the other, to run a grade of stock
that shall make the largest possible returns in the shortest time.
a For information <n\ nitrogen-gathering bacteria sec Bulletin No. 71 of the Bureau
of Plant Industry.
236 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A cattleman can no longer afford to run steers until they are 4, 5,
or 6 years old. but he will need to raise quick-maturing animals that
"will be ready for market by the time they are 2 or 3 years old — -4 at
the very latest. Not only must these cattle mature early, but they
must be of a quality that will dress a good percentage of beef.
This means that the "cattleman will need to raise high-grade cows
a:ii supply the very best bulls he can secure — if pure bred, so much
the better. In many instances the cattlemen are so crowded for
_ :* that they find it difficult to produce beef because the grass is
icient for the steers to make rapid gains. Men in other sections
find " - of too poor a quality to fatten steers. These men will
need to grow cattle for the eastern feed yards, to be sold to the
feeder in the autumn as calves, yearlings, 2-year-olds, or 3-year-olds.
In producing such cattle many of these men will find it necessary to
improve their herds greatly, for quality and not quantity is what the
rn feeder wants. Many of these feeders complain bitterly
because they can not obtain the class of cattle they need. It is notice-
able that in the sales of "feeders and stock'ers" at Omaha, duct _
*ock yards those of poor quality are hard sellers and
I very low figures.
In the South the cattlemen realize that they must cut down their
herds and instead of large ones of low-grade cattle they must raise
smaller and better herds. "Many of the cattlemen are making this
by culling out their poor-grade cows and heifers as fast as
can.
Aa an example of what may be done on the open range under pres-
ent overcrowded conditions, the methods of a stockman living near
Reva. S. Dak., may be mentioned. A few years ago this man,
becoming dissatisfied with the kind of cattle that he was running,
bought a registered bull and began to grade his cattle up. By using
good registered Shorthorn bulls, which he changes every three years,
and by selecting good-grade cows, he has been grading up his herd
until now his cattle outweigh and outsell those in his immediate
_hborhood. At first his neighbors made considerable sport of
him for importing registered stock and prophesied that he would
make a failure of it. Instead of a failure his cattle are so much better
in quality that they may be distinguished a long distance away
;y by their body outline and their increased size. In order to
. I :Iie most good out of his animals this man was. of course, obliged
lo a good deal more work in taking care of them. He found
it necessary to "line ride'" his range every day in order to keep his
stock from straying and to see that his bulls served his own cows and
not those of his neighbors. This extra work has paid him well, as
he rarely loses i attle through straying and does not need to belong
to any of the round-up associations. The prime value of this work
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XII.
Fig. 1.— A Stallion Used in Improving a Herd of Range Horses in North Dakota.
Fig. 2.— Range Horses, the Progeny of Stallions like that Shown in Figure 1
RANGE MANAGEMENT. 237
is shown in his calf crop, which averages about 95 per cent, while
that of his neighbors averages only about 60 per cent.
Now that the range is becoming so crowded that it is difficult to
get sufficient grass to fatten steers, he is preparing to increase his
breeding stock and cut down the number of his beef steers, so that
when he can no longer grow beef he will be in a position to dispose of a
high class of feeding cattle, which he will aim to sell as yearlings or
2-year-olds to eastern feeders. This he can do without any sacrifice
whatever, as he has a type of cattle that is exactly such as the feeders
want but find it difficult to obtain.
What has been said of cattle holds equally true of horses. To-day
there is almost no place for the small horse or "cayuse," while good
animals are in demand. That one can afford to raise good horses on
the range has been demonstrated by a stockman living in western
North Dakota. During a period of low prices for range horses this
man bought a high-priced stallion. With this animal and nine range
mares of average size and quality as a nucleus he built up a fine herd.
When the stallion died he was replaced with two registered Percherons,"
which continued to build up the herd until it was one of the finest
herds of range horses in the United States. One of these stallions is
shown in Plate XII, figure 1, while some of the progeny are shown in
Plate XII, figure 2. When this man got his first horse his neighbors
believed that he had made a serious mistake in buying so expensive an
animal. For several years, while he was building up his herd, at which
time horses were of almost no value, he was considerably in debt. As
his stock began to improve and the price of horses increased he began
to realize well from this herd, and during the last two years he has sold
geldings in carload lots at $125 a head, unbroken. In the summer of
1906 he sold his entire herd, 227 head, at $85 a head straight for all
branded stock — an unusually high price for range horses. There were
two mares of his own raising in this herd for which the buyers refused
$550 unbroken. This man estimates that his first stallion made for
him many times what he paid for it.
MOVEMENT TOWARD FARMING RANGE LANDS.
With the first extension of the railroads through the Western States
large areas of land that had been previously inaccessible except for
stock were taken up for farming purposes. At first only the choice
areas that would grow good grain crops or those places that could be
easily irrigated were selected. Within the last ten or twelve years
people have learned that, by careful tillage and the use of machinery,
land that had hitherto been considered of no value except for grazing
can be made to produce paying crops of grain. This, together with
the vast extension of irrigable lands through private enterprise and
the different Government projects, has caused a heavy immigration
238 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
to these regions. If the present demand for western lands continues
it will be only a short time before all of the public domain except the
mountainous portions and the extremely arid sections will be taken
up for farming purp.
While the rapid strides that have been made in arid-land cultiva-
tion make it impossible to tell exactly what lands will produce - -
cessful crops for a period of several years, it would seem that n
of the people who have settled in the arid region- will eventually be
compelled either to give up their places or combine stock ra^
with their dry-land farming.
PROBABLE FUTURE OF RANGE STOCK INDUSTRY.
Present tendencies indicate that the range-stock industry of the
future will be confined to those regions that are too rough for culti-
vation or too arid for the successful growth of crops. Except in the
high mountain regions, where the grazing season is very short, or in
the desert areas, where, on account of the scarcity of water, grazing
can be carried on only during the winter months, the grazing will
eventually be carried on in inclosed fields or on definitely assigned
tracts. The stockmen will endeavor to get bodies of land large
enough to support their stock, either by purchase, leasing, or. in
case the homestead act should be amended to fit range conditions,
by homesteading. Many living in close proximity to forest res-
will secure grazing permits, allowing them to run stock in these areas
during the summer season. "Wherever possible these men will raise
enough feed to carry their stock safely through the winter season.
THE PREPARATION OF UNFERMENTEI) APPLE JUICE.
By H. G. Gore,
Of the Bureau of Chemistry.
Ail inexpensive method of preserving apple juice so that the product
will be free from objectionable sediment and a pronounced "cooked"
taste, and can be kept hi closed containers without the use of chem-
ical preservatives, has apparently never been devised. Experimen-
tal work was undertaken with a view to developing such a method,
and it is believed that a satisfactory procedure has been evolved.
The main problems were: (1) The clarification of the juice; (2) the
sterilization of the juice; (3) the carbonation of the juice; and (4)
the question as to the best containers for the sterilized product.
THE CLARIFICATION OF THE JUICE.
Fresh apple juice contains notable quantities of solid matter, which
will settle out on prolonged standing, forming a bulky deposit. In
the case of raw juice this consists of dirt particles, starch grains, frag-
ments of the cell walls of the apples, and, finally, albuminous matter,
yellow-brown in color and very bulky. The albuminous matter com-
poses by far the greater part of the sediment. The character of this
sediment when heated to 140° to 158° F. (60° to 70° C.) remains
about the same, except that the starch grains are no longer apparent,
the starch being wholly or partly gelatinized.
This sediment is very objectionable, since its presence seriously
detracts from the appearance of the finished juice after sterilizing
by heat. In the finished juice the albuminous matter forms slimy
particles, yellow to dark brown in color, which very readily mix with
the juice when agitated, and are slow to settle. The product looks
as though the most uncleanly methods had been used in its prepara-
tion, whereas the reverse may have been the case. The removal of
the materials which form the sediment is, therefore, one of the most
important steps in the preparation of a marketable product.
The methods at present used for this purpose are two: (1) Filtra-
tion, and (2) sedimentation of the sterilized juice in large casks.
Filtration is expensive and slow, and, while a product of great
brilliancy is obtained, the cost of the plant and the operation of the
process will undoubtedly prevent its extended use. Paper pulp is
239
240 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGPJCULTUEE.
ordinarily employed for the filter material, and the albuminous mat-
ter in the juice quickly forms a dense layer over the surface. The
ensuing filtration is very slow, and a large filtering surface is required
for practical use.
Sedimentation by gravity of juice heated to 140° to 158° F. (60°
to 70c C. . and then allowed to cool in closed casks, is very slow.
Unheated juice can not, of course, be used, owing to the fact that
fermentation soon sets in. A period of five to seven days is required
to produce a juice relatively free from sediment. At this time as
much as possible of the supernatant juice is withdrawn from the sedi-
ment. The objections to this method lie in (1) the difficulty of keep-
ing the juice sterile during the sedimentation period; (2) the large
amount of cooperage required for any considerable output of juice,
and (3) the fact that, owing to the bulk of the sediment, considerable
quantities of juice can not be drawn off. The juice left with the
sediment is then only suitable for vinegar stock. In addition only
partial clarification is secured. These objections to sedimentation
are the result of numerous tests with barrel lots of juice.
A method of clarification which is free from the above objections,
and is also cheap and may be applied on a small or large scale, is clari-
fication by use of a cream separator. Repeated trials have shown
that a cream separator can successfully clarify the juice, leaving onl}7"
s of sediment in the product. Absolute clearness of the juice is
not produced by use of the machine, but practically all sediment can
be removed by this process. In the experimental work to be described
a hand-power cream separator of the disk type was employed. The
first trial of the method indicated that a satisfactory clarification of
apple juice could readily be obtained by use of the separator, and
many further trials have confirmed these early indications. The sus-
pended matter in the juice collects in the bowl of the separator, while
the clean juice runs out through the milk and cream screws. After a
run of the juice through the machine, the heavier particles originally
present — the starch grains and any soil or dirt particles, together with
some albuminous matter — are to be found tightly packed in the lower
of the tubular shaft in the bowl of the machine, while a heavy
layer of albuminous material is invariably packed on the inner side of
the bowl and a lighter layer on the inner side of the bowl cover. The
disks remain quite free from sediment. When the space between the
disks and the sides of the bowl is quite filled with sediment, the flow
from the milk screw ceases and the flow from the cream screw is much
increased. At this time the machine should be stopped and the bowl
cleaned. The juice from the milk screw is invariably considerably
clearer than that from the cream screw. The reason for this is not
apparent: the fact, however, was always observed. The juice from
the cream screw is. in turn, much clearer than the untreated juice.
PKEPAKATIOX OF UXFERMEXTED APPLE JUICE. 241
An extended series of tests established the following facts with
regard to the method of clarifying by passing through a separator,
using unfermented juice and a machine of the size indicated:
First. The amount which may be run through the machine before
it is necessary to stop and clean the bowl is from 25 to 40 gallons,
depending on the quantity of sediment present in the juice.
Second. The rate at which the juice passes through the machine is
about 45 gallons per hour, where a delivery tube of 450 pounds per
hour (for milk) is employed. On fitting the separator with a delivery
tube of 750 pounds capacity per hour, less perfect clarification was
effected than when the smaller delivery tube was used.
Third. But very little increase in the degree of clarification or capac-
ity for sediment was secured when juice heated to 140° to 158° F. (60°
to 70° C.) was run through.
Fourth. When heated juice was allowed to stand over night and to
cool and settle before passing through the separator, the supernatant
juice contained much less sediment than the original juice and two to
three times as much could be passed through the machine before
cleaning became necessary than when unsedimented juice was used.
Fifth. Two separations are necessary when working with a "sepa-
rator of the size employed. The first treatment removes the bulk of
the sediment, and the second takes out nearly all of the remainder.
Sixth. Running the juice more than twice through the separator
improves the character of the product but little, as only very small
amounts of the suspended matter in the juice are removed.
Seventh. The best conditions, as worked out by experiment, for
clarifying apple juice, are as follows, working with a hand machine
with a capacity for milk of 450 pounds per hour.
(a) The juice must be freshly expressed and, to be of high quality,
should be prepared from sound, well-ripened fall or winter apples.
(b) It should be received in a clean barrel or cask, which must not
contain any fermentation residues." This point is very important, as
experience has shown that the very fine deposit formed in fermenting
juice can not be successfully removed by the separator, and this
deposit is difficult to clean from the sides and bottoms of fermentation
casks.
(c) The juice is then passed through the separator, using the neces-
sary precautions as to oiling and starting the machine, and turning the
crank at the rate of 45 turns per minute. Twenty-five to forty gal-
lons of fresh juice can be run through before the capacity of the bowl
for sediment is reached. The juice which comes through the milk
screw is collected separately.
(d) As soon as the milk screw becomes clogged the machine is
stopped and the bowl is cleaned.
3 a 1906 10
242 K OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(e) The juice collected from tlie milk screw 1- j assed through again
• he juice then coming from the milk - before.
The clarii: >ns of juice, using i hine of the
ic&y indicated and a jui ining sedun* .ch quantity
that a run of that amount would fill the space between the disks and
the sides of the bowl with sediment, requires about one hour and a
qua irough the bowl twice.
THE STEELLIZATIOX OF THE JV.
- soon as the juice is clarified
ized in closed containers. The points which have been carefully
med in this work have been the lowest safe temperature and
the shortest pe: mating for bottles and for cans.
If the not to be packed and shipped, fruit jar
dth patent stoppers, may be employed, but to -tand shipping
well, sealed cans ;st be used.
i>: bott:
In the work with bottles, quart 1 - of the champagne type were
These were filled with clarifh some air space being left
•low for expansion of the liquid on heating. The bottles were
ed upright and entirely submerged in water in a tank which
could be heated by a jet of steam. it fifteen minutes were
required to bring the water in the tank up to the tern} - em-
•d in the sever . - >f experiments, nam :. 140' .
F. 60° i . . -rift . the
tank from twenty-fr - were required for the con-
tents of the
e begin:.: a imt tim - —
fifteen minui lemperatu:-?. and fifteen
minutes holding at this temperature for the juice in the bottle to
in the bath temperature. The bottles were withdrawn at inter-
and set away on their sides in baskets, being kept in a warm
room whose temperature was quite c day and night, between
3 were agitated and notes taken on them
from day to day.
e results show that a temperature of 149° F. 5° C. for one
hour jive good results and that 158° F. 7 for one-half
hour also gives good results. Only a ver. cooked
given to the juice b; 15S° for one hour — slightly
than is given by heating . . for the same pei
PREPARATION OF EXFEEriEXTED APPLE JUICE. 243
STERILIZING IX CANS.
One-gallon packers' cans were employed. These were first care-
fully rinsed with water, filled, sealed (rosin dissolved in alcohol being
used as flux), and then heated in the same manner as the bottles.
The juices employed were thoroughly typical and were clarified by
passing twice through the separator. A full half hour was found by
a careful test to be necessary for heating the contents of the can up
to the bath when the water in the bath was cold to start with, and
this period was only slightly shortened when the bath was hot at the
time the cans were placed in it.
Unfortunately, the periods of heating were not short enough nor
the temperatures used low enough to indicate unsafe conditions,
since none of the cans spoiled; but proper treatment was found to be
very readily given at low temperatures and for brief periods. It
was expected that the cans which were only heated up to 140° F.
(65° C.) in the hot water and then removed would surely spoil.
These cans remained sound, however, and thus the period of heating
indicated as sufficient for canning is unexpectedly short. When the
cans were removed, they were cooled over night and allowed to stand
in the same room as that hi which the bottles were held. Owing to
the large bulk of jniee in the cans of the size employed (1 gallon), it
is evident that the juice was maintained at a sterilizing temperature
longer than if bottles or small-sized cans had been used. This fact
must be kept in mind if the results here obtained are applied to other
sizes than gallon cans.
THE CAEBOXATIOX OF TTIE JI'ICE.
In addition to experimental work on clarifying and on heating the
juice, investigations were made on carbonating it with a view to dis-
guising the slight cooked taste which it is impossible entirely to avoid.
Carbonating also increases the palatability of the juice hi the opinion
of many persons. The method used consisted in carbonating the
juice under slight pressure and then heating in bottles or cans, and
no difficulty was encountered. In the simple experiments devised
and carried on in connection with this work, the carbon dioxid (car-
bonic-acid gas) was secured from a firm handling soda-water sup-
plies. It was obtained in liquid form in a steel cylinder furnished
with a reduction valve and a gauge and delivery tube, so as to
deliver at pressures up to 30 pounds.
After clarification, the juice was carbonated by pouring it into a
clean keg and running in the gas up to a pressure of 15 pounds. The
keg was provided with a thick pine bung, through the middle of
which was bored a half-inch hole, which received the rubber delivery
tube from the cylinder of compressed gas. The bung was soaked in
244 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
bt for a few niinutes before use. so that it could be driven in to
make a tight joint, and was so fitted that it projected beyond the
surface of the keg and could be readily loosened when carbonation
nnished. About 12 gallons of juice were poured into the keg.
Carbon dioxid was admitted before driving the bung in air-tight in
order to expel the air which fills the space in the keg not occupied
bv the juice. The bung was then driven in by tapping with a ham-
mer and more gas admitted. The keg was vigorously rocked so as to
thoroughly agitate the juice and so accelerate the absorption of the
The gauge was watched, and in these experiments the pressure was
not allowed to go beyond 15 pounds per square inch. The juice
used in the carbonating work was quite cool, ranging from 4S° to 6S°
F. _ ' in the different experiments. As the carbonating of
liquids is apparently well understood, no attempts were made to cor-
relate the pressure, temperature, and amount of gas which could be
ived in the juice. In these experiments the juice was carbon-
ated at a pressure not exceeding 15 pounds until a sample was drawn
ing distinctly of the gas, this being the amount of carbonation
. ed. Working under these conditions in the different trials, from
fifteen minutes to one-half hour was required to carbonate 12 gallons
of juice. The stream of gas was then stopped, the bung cautiously
I ->ned, the contents of the keg poured out, and the juice bottled
or canned.
The gas remains for some time in the juice when under atmos-
pheric pressure and only gradually diminishes in quantity, so that
t haste in sealing the juice is not necessary. If the carbonated
juice is to be sterilized in cans they must be heated in stout frames
to prevent distortion of the can while hot and consequent bursting.
The finished canned product bulg - the ends of the cans to some
:: :it, but not enough to cause permanent bending. The juice must
d I be too highly charged with the gas nor removed from the frames
while still hot, or such bending, with consequent weakening of the
soldered joints and bursting of the can, may occur.
THE BEST CONTAINERS FOB STERILIZED JUICE.
In the work with juice treated as above described, bottles and cans
have been used as containers. The other containers which might
have been tried were barrels or kegs, and jugs. Owing to the great
liability to leakage and consequent infection of juice when treated
in barrels and kegs, these containers are considered impracticable
when the juice is to be kept indefinitely. Jugs are considered to be
cumbersome and at the same time too fragile to be handled
lily in comparison with cans.
PKEPARATION OF TJNFERMENTED APPLE JUICE.
245
& <sr£w+r
For bottles, sound corks, well soaked in hot water, should be used.
These can be wired in before the bottles are heated; or tin cork hold-
ers, which may be bought on the market, may be used. The exposed
end of the cork should be dipped in hot paraffin or hot grafting wax
after heating, to prevent the cork from drying out with consequent
serious danger of infection of the bottled juice.
No trouble was experienced in sealing the cans. As previously
noted, standard 1-gallon packers' cans were employed. These had a
2jVinch opening and were filled to within about one-quarter inch of
the opening. The can was then wiped and the flux, consisting of
rosin dissolved in alcohol, was applied.
Hemmed caps were employed for seal-
ing— that is, the tin cover which fitted
over the opening in the can was fitted
with a rim of solder. For sealing the
can, a capping steel and soldering cop-
per are required, also a gasoline fur-
nace for heating the steel and copper,
and a supply of flux, solder, and sal
ammoniac.
Barrels and kegs can be successfully
used as containers for sterilized juice
when it is desired to keep the juice
sweet for a limited period of a few
days or weeks. The cask must be
thoroughly cleaned and well steamed,
and filled with the juice heated to be-
tween 149° and 158° F. (65° and 70°
C). The cask can then be bune;ed,
out considerable contraction takes
place on cooling, with resulting strain
on the cask and consequent increase in
the danger of leakage. It is a much
better procedure to close with a clean
cotton plug, and when the cask and
contents are cool to remove the plug
and quickly insert a wooden -bung which has been sterilized by soak-
ing in. alcohol. Two experiments were carried on with success with
50-gallon barrels, following this procedure. This juice kept for ten
days without showing fermentation. At this time the barrels were
emptied and used for other purposes.
In the experiments with barrels, and in all other work in which
the juice was heated except in bottles and cans, a pasteurizer (fig. 4)
designed by Mr. Given, of the Bureau of Chemistry, was employed.
It proved to be a very useful machine and was capable of heating
the juice with perfect control of temperature at any desired rate up
to several hundred gallons per hour.
«vtfr rot? */u/C£~
Fig. 4.— Pasteurizer for apple juice.
246 YEARBOOK OF THE DBPA 1 OF AGRICULTURE.
Th< - : handling apple juice when it can be obtained perfectly
fresh in clean barrels is slight. The only expense of separating the
juice is for the labor, and if a small steam generator be used in con-
nection with a turbine separator this cost can probably be lessened.
Bottles of the champagne type cost from 3 to 5 cents each, and
gallon cans t " ich in lots of 1.000. On account
of the acid nature of apple juice, the cans employed be made
. grade of tin plate and. as with other canned products, the
juiee not be allowed to stand in the can after opening. With
a view to les the action of the juice on the walls of the can,
lacquering the inside of the can with a vegetable gum was tried.
isiderably less action of the juice on the tin was noted when the
lacquered can was used.
-rilizing requires a tank of water which can be heated by steam
or in any other way so that it can be easily maintained at the desired
temperature. The apparatus for carbonating is simple and cheap,
and the method is easy of application.
The chemical work in connection with the experiment has been to
determine the composition of the juices employed and the effect of
the treatment on the composition of the juice. The results of this
: show that the chemical composition is practically unchanged
ie treatment of clarifying, carbonating, and heating.
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT.
By Fkaxk Pi. But.
Assistant ChUj. Division of Ft ' Cms.
The preeminence of t lie United States in the meat supply ol the
worid has been attained in spite of obstacles of many kinds. By
high tariff rates, by severe restrictions, and even by direct prohibi-
tions, the markets of Europe have been made difficult of capture on
the part of our exporters. In spite of all difficulties, the United States
has come. to export in a single average year a greater value of live
stock and packing-house products than its six leading competitors
combined in any two years.
i overcome obstacles in the way of trade expansion, it is of the
utmost importance to know precisely the nature of the restrictions.
To this end. at the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, the State
Department, with the aid of our diplomatic representatives abroad,
obtained and transmitted to the Department of Agriculture a valuable
collection of the laws and regulations in force in the principal foreign
countries. These enactments, supplemented by additional informa-
tion obtained by a careful search through other available sources,
form the basis of the present paper.
GROWTH OF MEAT EXPOETS.
The development of the live-stock and meat exports of the United
States is of comparatively recent origin. During the five years ending
June 30,. 1870, the average exports of this class were valued at
$17,000,000 (gold) and formed 7 per cent of the total exports of agri-
cultural products. Thirty-five years later, during the five fiscal }
1901-1905, the average value of the live stock and packing-house
products annually exported from this country reached over $228,-
000.000 and represented 26 per cent of our total agricultural exports.
The increase in this line of trade since the civil war has been continu-
ous, and during the last five years for the first time the average live
stock and packing-house products exported from the United States
exceeded in value the exports of gram and grain products, ranking
second in importance only to cotton. As compared with total agri-
cultural exports, live stock and packing-house products reached the
highest percentage in 1S96-1900.
247
24S
YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Four items — pork. lard, live cattle, and beef — comprise the bulk of
the shipments of live stock and packing-house products from the
United States, representing generally between SO and 90 per cent of
the total. The essential feature of the progress of tins line of trade is
the much earlier development of pork and lard exports than of the
exports of cattle and
beef. During the five
years ending June 30,
1875, the average ex-
ports of pork and lard
constituted over 75 per
cent of the total ex-
ports of live animals
and packing-house
products, while live
cattle and beef com-
prised only 7 per cent.
During the thirty years
subsequent to that pe-
riod, the exports of live
cattle and beef had
grown to 32 per cent
of the total, while pork
and lard constituted 50
per cent. The rapid
increase in the cattle
and beef exports is
illustrated in figure 5.
The sudden rise of
cattle and beef exports
into importance during
the years 1S75 to 1SS0
is a most striking fea-
ture of the trade and
calls for special expla-
nation. The regular
export of fresh beef in
ships provided with re-
frigerating apparatus began for the first time in the fall of 1S75 and in-
creased rapidly. In 1 877 live cattle were exported inconsiderable num-
bers. The area of grazing land available for settlement in the West and
Xorthwest was enormously enlarged by the construction of the Pacific
railroads in the late sixties and early seventies, and the increased sup-
ply of cattle called for new markets. On the other side of the ocean
Fig
5.— Value of pork, laid, cattle, and beef exported from the
United States, 1S60-1906.
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 249
the needs of the market called for new lines of supply. The
United Kingdom in 1S76 imported cattle (not including calves)
from the continent of Europe to the number of 222,000. At that
time cattle were admitted freely from most European countries
and from the remainder (except Russia") on condition of immediate
slaughter. The severe outbreak of rinderpest throughout Europe
in 1ST" decreased enormously the imports into the United Kingdom
from the continent. The supply from Germany and Belgium
was absolutely excluded by decree of June 27. 1S77: importation
from Russia was already prohibited; and the ravages of the disease
cut down the number available for shipment. In 1S77 the imports of
cattle from the continent decreased 70.000 head. This condition of
affairs warranted immediate shipments from the United States.
which rapidly increased in number and soon formed an important
part of the British supply. It is interesting to note that the first
opening for American cattle was caused in part at least by the exercise
of the power of restriction for sanitary purposes which subsequently
has affected so injuriously the exports of American annuals and
animal products.
PROHIBITIONS AFFECTING PORK.
The important laws and decrees excluding United States meat and
live stock from foreign countries fall generally into two periods, the
first covering pork and the second cattle and beef.
The earliest of these regulations affecting the imports of pork,
including bacon and hams, from the United States were issued during
the decade following 1S79. Swine products from the United States
had begun to reach continental Europe in large quantities and were
sold usually at prices below those charged for similar native products.
For alleged sanitary reasons, several countries provided for a total
exclusion of these products. On February 20, 1S70. the Italian Gov-
ernment issued a decree prohibiting the importation of swine, pork,
and hog products from the United States. Less than three months
later this prohibition was made to apply generally to such products, no
matter from what country imported. Portugal followed the example
of Italy in March. 1879, excluding pork and other hog products used
for food when imported from the United States. Hungary issued a
similar order in September. 1S79: Spain and Germany in 1880;
France. Turkey, and Roumania in 1881; Greece in 1S83, and Den-
mark in 1888. In 1SS1 the exclusion of swine, pork (including bacon) .
and sausages from the United States was made applicable to the entire
Austro-Hungarian Empire, and in 1SS3 the earlier German decree was
extended so as to prohibit the importation of swine and bacon and
hams, as well as other kinds of pork and sausages. The Netherlands
in 1885 excluded swine comins: from the United States. The
250 YEABBOOK OF THE PEPAUTMEXT OS AOETCULTUEE.
prohibit! ably in Greece, Roumania, and Turkey, did
not cover rendered lard.
The restrictions of France and Germany naturally proved h
injurious te eh r trade. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1881, ihe
United States exported no less than GS, 000, 000 pounds of bacon and
ban: - tee, valued at nearly -So. 000, 000. To Germany during the
same year the < : :' bacon and hams readied nearly 42,000,000
poun 3.000.000. The sudden stop to these in
lines of trade, forcing the products to find new markets
preventing entirely their sale abroad, led this Government to make
the t efforts to have the restriction^ removed. Sfx
inquiry was made as fco the health of swine in the United Stab
compared with those abroad, and the German Government wm
invited to name a representative on a commission appointed by the
President to report upon this subject. Tins invitation was not
accepted. The reason for the prohibitions given and tenaci
maintained by the foreign governments was that the present of
trie! I in American products in many «.
and that it then practii stitute a sufficiently 1
or.gh mil tion on importation to guarantee that no
affected meat should be passed. No prospect of a modification of the
decree was held out unless a thorough inspection should be instituted
on the part of the United - before exportation.
In 1891 the Department of Agriculture undertook the inspection,
as far as pra . of all pork and beef for exportation. Follow-
ing this action. Germany. Denmark. Italy. France. Austria-Hungary,
and finally Spain, modified their regula . - - - to admit swine
acts from the United States on presentation of an official certifi-
cate. Greece had already withdrawn -its prohibition early in lvs43
so that the only countries in which the prohibit]
tained were Portugal. Roumania, and Turkey, while swine continued
to be prohibited by Denmark, Italy, and the Netherlands*
The decade during which pork shipments from the United States
were so severely restricted witnessed not merely a temporary loss.
Exports to Germany, it is true, reached in the fiscal year 1898 a point
higher than that attained in any previous year except 1873. In no
other year, however, were the figures of ls:>l equaled, and subse-
quently another decline occurred, bringing the exports of bacon
and hams from the United States to Germany d >wn to less than
10.000.000 pounds in the fiscal year 1905, and only 1.">.m>0,000 pounds
in 1906, notwithstanding the increased shipments that took place
during the early part of the year to avoid the anticipated increase in
duties that took place on March 1.
In the case of France, the highest point reached by the bacon and
ham shipments from the United States after 1881 was in the year
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 251
ending June 30, 1900, when the exports amounted to 14.000,000
pounds, valued at about si. 000. 000. only about one-fifth of the mag-
nitude of the trade before the prohibition went into effect. Moreover,
by a considerable drop since 1900, the shipments in the fiscal year
1906 fell to 133.000 pound.-, valued at $13,000. The effect of the
pork restrictions is clearly seen in figure 5,
PROHIBITIONS AFFECTIXG CATTLE AXD BEEF.
The second period of special prohibitions against American products
began in 1894. In the latter part of that year various German States
issued decrees prohibiting the importation of cattle and fresh beef
from '•America." Denmark, which since 1879 had excluded cattle
from the United States, published a similar order: and Belgium pro-
hibited the importation of United States cattle. Early the following
year France likewise prohibited the importation of cattle from the
United States. The cause assigned by Germany was the prevalence
of Texas fever in this country. Belgium explained its prohibition by
the need of preventing the introduction of contagions pler.ro-pneu-
monia. while France attributed its action to the presence of diseases
not existing in France. The magnitude of the trade thus destroyed
is indicated by the fact that the exports of cattle from the United
States to Germany. Belgium, and France in the year ending June 30,
1895, during part of which the trade was prohibited, were valued at
$i.soo,ooo/
The exclusion of United States cattle from Belgium was of com-
paratively short duration. The prohibition was withdrawn May 25,
'. but the immediate slaughter of cattle imported from trans-
Atlantic countries was required. In June. 1899, Germany prohibited
the importation of fresh beef from Belgium.0 The prohibitions of
Germany, Denmark, and France are still in force, and in the case of
Germany and Denmark cover fresh beef as well as live cattle.
EESTRICTIVE AXD PROHLBITOEY EXACTMEXTS OF VARIOUS COUXTRIES.
The various countries which have raised special requirements for
the admission of live stock and meat haA-e brought about this result
in widely different ways. While it is important to bear hi mind the
two special cycles of restriction — the first affecting pork products,
the second cattle — to which attention has already been directed, it
is necessary to describe separately the measures adopted by each of
the principal countries.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY'.- FAR-RE ACHING RESTRICTIONS.
f p to the close of 1905, the great bulk of the live stock imported
into Austria-Hungary came from Servia and was entered at reduced
rates of duty under a treaty which terminated February, 1906.
a Foreign Relations, 1900. pp. 493-195.
2-52 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGRICULTV
Failure of ne_ new treaty was followed by restrictions
and even prohibitions that practically cut off the importation of Ser-
vian live stock.
In July. 1906, foreign supplies were further reduced by decrees pro-
hibiting in general the importation of animals and meat from coun-
tries outside of Europe, except in special cases with the permission of
the minister of the interior. This restriction affects the United
States, except as to swine, pork, bacon, and sa _ - hen accom-
panied by a certificate of the United States Department of Agri-
culture attesting their microscopic inspection in this country.
IMMEDIATE SLAUGH: .TTLE IX BELGIUM.
No direct prohibition of the importation of live stock or m
from the United States into Belgium is at present in force. The
conditions to which the importation of live animals into Belgium
from countries across the sea are subjected require their entry at
Antwerp. Ghent, or Ostend. and their slaughter in the public abattoirs
of those cities within three days.
GENERAL 7-1 LUSEOH BY DENMARK.
The law of Denmark is very strict in regard to the animals and
animal products admitted from non-Scandinavian countries. All
animals imported from Sweden and Norway, and horses imported
also from other countries, are subjected inert ly to sanitary inspec-
tion at the expense of the consignee. Ruminants and swine from
the United Kingdom and Finland are liable to "limited prohibition."
which covers the importation of animals of the kind;
casings, unless air-dried and salted, horns and hoofs, unwashed wool,
milk, hay and straw, and manure. From all other countries the
s - general prohibition" of ruminants and swine, together
with fresh meat and all raw products of those animals, is in force. In
consequence the imports into Denmark from the United States do
not include any live meat ani:. _■ the packing-house
product- nly meat (other than fresh . lard, tallow and -
and oleomargarin and oleo oil. Pork and swine products not pre-
pared, including bladders and unrefh. an lard, may be imp'
from the United States if accompanied by an ofrL ncate of
inspection.
-
The important restrictions on United States products are 1 1 the
prohibition of cattle sine- " _' the requirement for salted, smoked,
or pickled pork of a United Stat - certificate of inspection, entry at
one of six ports, and on arrival reinspection at the cost of the con-
signee: (3) the inspection of sausages from the United States, for
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 253
which, however, no fee is charged. These special restrictions, together
with discriminating tariff rates, have placed the United States at a
great disadvantage as compared with its competitors. In 1904 less
than 10 per cent of the live animals and packing-house products
imported into France came from the United States. The official
export statistics of this country show a decline during the decade
from 1895 to 1905 in the exports of packing-house products to France
from §4,700,000 to §1,500,000. In other words, this line of trade is
in value less than one-third of its magnitude ten years ago.
MEAT PROHIBITIONS OF GERMANY.
Largely because of the constantly increasing sales of American
lard in Germany, the exports of American packing-house products to
that country show a continuous increase since 1SS5. In that year
$5,700,000 worth of these products was shipped to Germany; in 1895,
$13,800,000 worth; in 1905, $21,900,000. Lard alone, however, consti-
tutes over two-thirds of the aggregate value of this trade and accounts
for over 810,000,000 of the total increase of 816,000,000 in the twenty
years. It must be borne in mind, moreover, that the low figure in
1885 was reached while the prohibition against pork was in full force,
and the subsequent increase is undoubtedly due in part to the with-
drawal of that prohibition in 1891. The importation of cattle into
Germany has been totally prohibited since 1894, while the importa-
tion of other kinds of meat animals is subject to four weeks' quaran-
tine, together with subsequent supervision on the part of the Govern-
ment for five months, if not slaughtered. Xo meat animals whatever
have reached Germany from the U/nited States since 1900, and only
ten during the preceding six years.
The restrictions upon the importation of meat are much more
important than those affecting the importation of animals. A general
prohibition is in force since the passage of the meat inspection law of
1900 in regard to the importation of canned meat and sausages from
all countries. Dog meat and prepared horse meat are entirely
excluded, while fresh horse meat may be imported only when clearly
marked "Pferdefleisch" (horse flesh).
While these provisions apply to all countries, the prohibition of
canned meat and sausages affects particularly imports from the United
States. In 1900, prior to October 1, when these prohibitions went into
effect, the United States alone furnished nearly 81,600,000 worth of
these products out of a total of only $2,200,000. Other restrictions
affect only meat imported from the United States. In addition to the
total exclusion of fresh beef from America since 1894, the importation
of pork of all kinds is permitted only on presentation of a certificate
of inspection.
25-1 YEARBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ITALT AI :.ICAX FORS AND LARD.
The ministerial decree of March 31. etermines the treatment
to be accorded to imports of foreign animals and animal products.
The entry of cattle and sheep from South Africa. Australia, and cer-
tain European countries is prohibited, but not from Argentina or the
United States. Swine from the United States. Turkey. Cyprus, Egypt,
Aa-Herzegovina. Crete, and Denmark are prohibited, but salted
cured pork, while excluded generally. tedfrom
United States and from specified European countries when
accompanied by official certificates. In all ■ a arrival in Italy
imports must undergo inspection, and, with the exception of lard from
the United S tes and certain European countries, they must be
accompanied by an official certificate.
PROHIBITION" . HE N'ETH:
Meat animals from France. - : m Belgium,
and cattle and sheep fr< i /.any. may be imported for bree
purposes if accompanied by a certificate of health: otherwise such
animals must under _ .-in twenty-four hours if imported
France or Belgium, and within foi hours if from Ger-
No : .imais may be imported from any other country
unless under special ministerial permit.
The importation of meat into the Netherlands is nominally pro-
hibited, but if shown not to be injurious in character it may be im-
ported under special dispensation of the authorities in the different
provinces. Apparently meat and other animal products enter the
Netherlands freely and no doubt this form of regulation was adopted
merely to retain full coni or the character of imports.
NORWAY
Only two lines of trade in live meat animals are unimpeded: (1) The
importation of reindeer, and (2) the shipment of all meat animals
from the Arctic Sea ports of Eu- rinmarken, the extreme
northern province of Norway, from which province animals will at
received into other parts of the Kingdom. From Sweden rumin
maybe imported under numerous restrictions: from other countries
neither ruminants nor swine are admitted..
The im - alted or prepared, and of unren-
dered ta rohibited from A Italy. Greece. Turkey. Russia
(except the Arctic ports when destined to Finmarken . and all :
European countries. Raw animal products, except hides and skins
from Sweden, are generally prohibited.
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 255
RUSSIA PROHIBITS FORK.
Russia is essentially an agricultural country, and exports much.
larger quantities of animals and animal products than it imports.
Since 1873 all lands of pork products intended for food have been
prohibited, with the exception of rendered lard. Under special per-
mission of the minister of agriculture and domains, samples of foreign
hog products are admitted when necessary to enable Russian export-
ers to compete. The ministry of the interior is authorized to prohibit
the importation of live swine whenever it seems necessary.
FEW RESTRICTIONS IX SPAIN".
The prohibitions of Spain affecting meat animals and meat are few
in number. From the United States unrendered lard alone is prohib-
ited, and from Algeria the importation of swine and sausages is like-
wise prohibited. Pork imported from the United States with an offi-
cial certificate of inspection is admitted into Spain without any
further microscopic examination.
SWEDEN" EXCLUDES AMERICAN" SWINE PRODUCTS.
In Sweden animals and raw animal products from a place infected
with foot-and-mouth disease or rinderpest are entirely prohibited, as
well as such imports if in transit they have touched or passed through
infected places. In the case of ruminants imported from places infected
with other contagious diseases, a consular certificate and a veterinary
certificate are required, and on arrival at a Swedish port the animals
must be reinspectcd and quarantined for periods varying from 10 to
120 days. These restrictions are not enforced against the United
States, because this country has not been declared by the Swedish
Government to be infected with any of the diseases named.
Swine and swine products from the United States are, however,
subjected to stringent restrictions, owing to the fact that the govern-
ment of Sweden has declared the United States, as well as Victoria
and the principal countries of Europe, to be infected with hog cholera.
Live swine may be imported only if accompanied by a veterinary
certificate viseed by a Swedish consul, stating that before sailing all
animals on board have been inspected and found free from disease,
and on arrival must be reinspected and quarantined for 60 days.
Slaughtered swine and all swine products are also prohibited, with
the exception of lard and well-salted pork, including bacon.
SWITZERLAND REQUIRES IMMEDIATE SLAUGHTER.
The situation of Switzerland, with no seaport, renders impossible
direct importation from any countries except France, Germany, Aus-
tria, and Italy. Its restrictions and prohibitions are consequently
directed primarily to animals coming from any of these countries.
256 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Immediate slaughter, within periods varying to some extent in the
different Cantons, is required. In all cases the animals and meat
imported undergo inspection.
GREAT BRITAIN OFFERS AX OPEX MARKET.
Since June 3, 1898, the importation of swine from the United States
into Great Britain has been prohibited, but no exclusion of other meat
animals has been enforced, except during the period from December
1, 1902, to September 28, 1903, when the importation of such animals
from the New England States was temporarily suspended.
Strong efforts have been made by this Government to have revoked
the requirement that cattle shall be slaughtered at the port of entry
within ten days after landing. While this restriction entirely pre-
vents the importation of cattle for fattening, and undoubtedly pre-
vents the realization of the best prices for the animals imported, it
offers no discrimination against the United States as compared with
any other foreign country or any British colony.
The United States now furnishes 74 per cent of the total value of
live meat animals imported into the United Kingdom; ten years ago
it contributed only 63 per cent. The change is due largely to the
prohibition of live animals from Argentina and Uruguay since 1900,
except for the period from February 3 to May 12. 1903, when the
British market was reopened to La Plate cattle. Xo restrictive
measures affect the importation of meat, and Argentina and Uruguay
now furnish large quantities of frozen beef and mutton for British
consumption. The fresh beef alone imported into the United King-
dom from Argentina in 1904 was valued at nearly twice as high a
figure as the cattle imported in any year before the restrictions of 1900
went into effect.
The continued large shipments of cattle from the United States is
a striking feature of the trade between these two countries. During
the ten years ending 1904 such shipments increased in quantity 32 per
cent, while the imports of fresh beef from the United States increased
45 per cent. The continued importation of live cattle in such large
numbers, notwithstanding the great improvement that has taken
place in refrigeration and the enormous packing-house industry of the
United States, is probably due mainly to the strong preference of the
British consumer for domestic meat. If home-grown meat can not
be obtained, home-killed meat is preferred to foreign-killed, and this
preference is doubtless rendered more possible of realization, owing
to the stringent laws prohibiting the sale of food products under any
misleading designation. A number of prosecutions have taken place
on account of the sale of foreign for domestic bacon.
The importation of meat animals into Ireland from foreign coun-
tries or British possessions is prohibited.
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 257
FEW RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED BY XOXEUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
Outside of Europe, the most important exports of live stock and
packing-house products from the United States take place to Cuba,
Canada, Mexico, and the British West Indies. During the fiscal year
1905 large shipments of canned beef were recorded to Japan, but with
the cessation of the war in the Far East a considerable decline occurred
in 1906. Of the American markets named, Canada alone restricts
seriously the imports from the United States by requiring, since
December 31, 1905, the quarantine of all swine for thirty da}^s, thus
cutting off the entry of United States hogs for slaughter."
Cuba not only offers no impediments to the importation of liye
stock and packing-house products from the United States, but by
special reduction in tariff offers United States animals and products
a considerable advantage over those from other countries. This
advantage amounts to 33 cents per 100 pounds on salted or pickled
pork and lard and to 65 cents per 100 pounds on hams and shoulders.
SUMMARY OF PROHIBITIONS NOW IN FORCE.
At the present time the importation of live meat animals from
the United States is prohibited by Denmark, the Netherlands, Nor-
way, and Ireland. Moreover, Austria-Hungary, France, and Ger-
many exclude cattle, Italy and Great Britain swine, and Austria-
Hungary sheep and goats, when imported from the United States.
The only European countries to which live stock are shipped from
the United States in any considerable number are Great Britain and
Belgium.
The importation from the United States of all meat, except pork
and sausages, is prohibited by Austria-Hungary. Pork is excluded
from Russia. Norway prohibits the importation of all fresh meal
from the United States; fresh pork is excluded from Sweden and
other fresh meat from Denmark; while Germany excludes American
fresh beef. Canned meat, sausages, cured horse meat, and dog meat
are prohibited by Germany, while Belgium also refuses to admit
cured horse meat.
SPECIAL REGULATIONS.
In addition to orders which absolutely prohibit the importation
of live stock and meat from the United States, many countries restrict
in various ways these lines of trade.
In regard to the trade in live animals, enforced quarantine is required
in some cases, while in others the contrary policy of enforced
slaughter is observed. The former imposes a considerable expense
ee Monthly Cons. Repts., Jan., 190G, p. 166; also Report of Canadian Min. of Agr..
1906, p. xli.
3 A1906 17
25S YEABBOOK OF THE DEFABTXTEXT OF AGBICULTTJEE.
on the importer, while the latter, by limiting the opportunity for
sale and in some cases preventing the animals from fully recovering
from the exhaustion of the sea voyage, operates clis advantageously
upon the price realized.
Restrictions affecting both live-stock and meat imports are the
requirement of a certificate, inspection on arrival, and the limitation of
the ports at which such imports are admitted.
If fresh meat is imported, some countries require that the whole
carcass be presented. A few countries specify the preservatives that
may be used.
QUARANTINE RESTRICTIONS.
Live stock from the United States is subject to quarantine in
Sweden. Germany. Spain, and Canada. Swine imported into Sweden
from all countries except Finland and Xorway must undergo quar-
antine for sixty days: Germany requires the detention of swine,
sheep, and goats from America for a period of four weeks: Spain
requires a quarantine of ten days before animals are admitted; Canada
isolates all swine for thirty days.
IMMEDIATE SLAUGHTER REQUIRED.
On the other hand, the United Kingdom. Belgium, and the Neth-
erlands aim to prevent any possible danger to domestic animals
bv requiring the immediate slaughter of the live stock imported.
The United Kingdom, since ISTO.has required that cattle, sheep, and
swine imported from the United States shall be slaughtered at the
port at which they are landed. This requirement is now general
in its application, and meat animals, no matter from what country
imported, must be slaughtered within ten days from their arrival
without coming in contact with any British animals. Belgium
requires the slaughter of all animals imported from across the sea
within three days. The Netherlands imposes the requirement of
slaughter within twentv-four or fortv-eight hours in the case of
such animals as are admitted, but live meat animals from the United
States are totally excluded.
PRESENTATION OF CERTIFICATES.
The presentation of a health certificate is a prerequisite to the
admission of live stock into Austria. France. Italy, the Netherlands,
Mexico, and Cuba, while Mexico also requires a health certificate
in the case of fresh meat imported, and Austria and Italy in the case
of all kinds of meat. Sweden requires a certificate only when the
animals are imported from countries infected with contagious dis-
eases, in order to ascertain that the animals imported have not
been directly exposed to contagion. Canada requires the presen-
tation of a health certificate in the case of swine.
FOREIGX RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 259
In some special cases the admission of swine and swine products
from the United States is made dependent on the presentation of
an official certificate from the Department of Agriculture. Austria
requires such a certificate on the importation of swine, pork (includ-
ing bacon), and sausage; France in the case of cured pork; Denmark
in the case of fresh pork, bladders, and unpurified steam lard, and
Spain and Germany in the case of all kinds of pork.
INSPECTION OX ARRIVAL.
Inspection of imported live animals is generally required. France
and Mexico, moreover, require the inspection of all fresh meat im-
ported; Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium the inspection of all
kinds of meat, and Italy the inspection of all animal products.
France provides especially for the inspection of cured pork and
sausages from the United States, notwithstanding the fact that the
first of these products must in all cases be accompanied by a United
States certificate of inspection. On the importation of cattle, with
the exception of those for immediate slaughter, the tuberculin test
is required by France and Denmark.
FEES IMPOSED.
In most cases fees a are charged for inspection, which constitute a
very considerable factor in raising the price at which the product may
be sold. These fees differ widely in amount. In addition to the
ordinary fees, a special charge is imposed in Germany for an exam-
ination to discover the presence of trichime, to determine whether a
shipment is horse meat, or to ascertain the presence of forbidden
preservatives. The inspection required by France on salt pork when
imported from the United States, but not from other countries,
entails a charge of 13 cents per 100 pounds. For the special inspec-
tion required in the case of sausages from the United States, however,
no fee is charged.
PORTS OF EXTRY LIMITED.
European countries in most cases restrict the importation of live
stock, and in some cases also the importation of meat to certain ports
in order apparently to facilitate inspection. This requirement is
general in its application by the United Kingdom, Denmark, Swe-
den, Germany, and Spain. Belgium, however, limits more strictly
the importation from trans-Atlantic countries than from European
a Fee for imported cattle, per head (cents): Belgium, 19 to 39; France, 10 to 29; Italy,
39. For imported meat, per 100 pounds (cents): Belgium, 2; France, 9; Italy. IS.
In Germany ices on live stock are of local or State origin, and differ widely. For
fresh meat, per carcass (cents): Cattle, 3G; calf. 12; swine. 14; sheep or goat, 10. For
prepared meat, per 100 pounds i cents): Sausage casings, 5; bacon, 11; other, 22. These
rates superseded on February 15, 1907, the higher rates previously in force.
260 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
countries. France restricts the importation of cured pork from the
United States (which alone is compelled to undergo inspection on
arrival) to six ports — Dunkirk. Havre. Bordeaux, Marseille. Boulogne,
and Dieppe. A larger number of ports are specified for the importa-
tion of cattle which must be subjected to the tuberculin test, w
other animals may be entered at a still larger number of custom-
houses.
CARCASSES OR SPECIFIED CUTS.
Belgium. Franco, and Germany prescribe minutely the form in
which fresh meat may be imported. In Belgium such meat may be
imported only as whole carcasses, halves, or forequarters with the
lungs attached. As to horses and other solipeds, all the breathing
organs, including the head, must be present. France requires in the
case of fresh beef and pork that the whole animal be presented. For
convenience of shipping, the carcass may be halved or quartered, but
in these cases the parts must fit exactly and the lungs must adhere
naturally. Internal organs must show no trace of scraping or scratch-
ing. Choice cuts of beef, such as the tenderloin or sirloin, may be
admitted separately. Fresh mutton may be imported only in quar-
ters, the pluck adhering to one of the forequarters.
Germany requires that fresh meat of all kinds shall be imported
only in whole carcasses, but carcasses of cattle (with the exception
of calves) and of swine may be cut into halves. The pleura and the
peritoneum, the lungs, the heart, the kidneys, and in case of cows the
udder, also must be attached to the carcass in natural connection.
The importation of salted meat in pieces weighing less than 9 pounds
(4 kilograms) is prohibited, but this requirement does not apply to
hams, bacon, and sausage casings.
RESTRICTIONS OX THE USE OF PRESERVATIVES.
In the United States, under the meat-inspection law approved
June 30. 1906, the use of drugs, chemical-, dye-, ami preservatives is
restricted much more stringently than in most foreign countries.
The regulations issued by the Department of Agriculture under that
law prohibit entirely in the preparation of meat products the use of
any drug, chemical, or dye, and of any preservative other than com-
mon salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar, pure spices, and temporarily
saltpeter.
The requirement in regard to the use of drugs, chemicals, and
dyes affects export products equally with those intended for domestic
consumption. In regard to preservatives, a slightly wider range is
permitted in the preparation of products for export to countries in
which the requirements are less strict than those in force here. To
this end the law of June 30, 1906, provides —
That, subject to the rules and regulation; of the Secretary of Agriculture, the pro-
visions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat food products lor ■ :
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 261
to any foreign country and which arc prepared or packed according to the specifi-
cations or directions of the foreign purchaser, when no substance is used in the prepa-
ration or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said
article is to be exported.
The United Kingdom, Austria, Italy, and Denmark prohibit in
general terms the use of any ingredient that is injurious to public
health, but do not prohibit any specific preservatives. The United
Kingdom expressly provides that food products may contain pre-
servative or coloring substances, provided that they are not used
in such quantities as to render the article dangerous to health. Italy
similarly provides that the addition of a noninjurious substance
which is necessary to fit the article for sale or transportation shall
not be deemed an adulteration. France prohibits adulterations in
general, and specifically the use of salicylic acid and formaldehyde.
Cuba by a recent law prohibits the use of all preservatives for meat
except common salt. Germany and Belgium, instead of a general
prohibition, name the preservatives the use of which is prohibited.
These are in Germany formaldehyde, alkali and alkaline earth
hydroxides and carbonates, boracic, salicylic, hydrofluoric, and sul-
phurous acids, hyposulphites, and chlorates. In Belgium the pro-
hibited substances are salicylic acid, formaldehyde, sulphurous acid,
sulphites or bisulphites, antiseptics, and in general substances injuri-
ous to health. It is to be observed that the greatest latitude is
permitted in countries such as the United Kingdom, which are com-
pelled to depend for an import ant part of their food supply on products
carried long distances.
TREATY LIMITATIONS.
It is universally admitted that sanitary considerations necessitate
at times the exclusion or restriction of imports from certain regions.
It is not this principle, but what are deemed unjust applications of
it, that have called forth protests in the past. A treaty provision
guaranteeing that no prohibition shall be applied to imports from
any one country unless made applicable to imports from all countries,
such as is contained in the treaties of the United States with Austria-
Hungary, Prussia, and other European countries, necessarily requires
qualifications when actual sanitary reasons exist. Yet in the guise
of sanitary needs there is undoubtedly a temptation to extend the
requirements of this kind in such a way as to constitute unjust dis-
crimination. More precise definition of the obligation imposed in
this respect by the treaty guarantee of most-favored-nation privi-
leges is urgently needed to safeguard a country against unfair treat-
ment. An unqualified guarantee that no prohibition shall be directed
against the products of an individual country is far less effective than
a careful definition of the rights retained by each.
262 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The recent treaties entered into between Germany and various
European countries have clearly stated, in the form of an exception
to the most-favored-nation clause, the right to prescribe the sanitary
measures necessary "to protect animals or useful plants against dis-
ease or injurious insects or parasites." But, on the other hand,
this right is qualified by the proviso that such restrictions •'shall
apply to all countries or to those countries in the same condition"
in regard to the prevalence of disease and measures for its control.
In presenting the treaties to the Reichstag for ratification, the
imperial chancellor emphasized the advantages gained in regard to
the establishment of sanitary measures. Under the former vet-
erinary treaty with Austria-Hungary, except in the case of rinder-
pest and contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Germany could not prohibit
the importation of Austrian cattle unless a contagious disease within
its own borders had actually resulted from such importation. Under
the new treaty, prohibitions may be imposed whenever a contagious
disease is conveyed from one country to the other, or whenever such
a disease is prevalent in one of the countries, but in the case of most
diseases (not including rinderpest or foot-and-mouth disease) may
be directed only against the particular district affected, and not the
whole country. The prohibitions may in no case be maintained more
than nine months after the end of the infection as officially declared.
The importation of cattle and sheep for immediate slaughter in public
abattoirs may be prohibited only on account of the more virulent
diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease. Such prohibitions shall
apply only to the particular districts affected, and must be withdrawn
within thirty days after the districts have been officially declared
free from the contagion. Owing to the division of Austria-Hungary
and Germany into small districts in regard to contagious diseases, the
burden involved in temporary prohibitions is vastly decreased, with
no decrease in the efficacy of the measure.
With other countries, however, Germany retains much fuller liberty
of action with regard to sanitary prohibitions. By treaty with
Russia. Germany guarantees that imports from that country shall
not be subjected to stricter veterinary measures than are taken
against other countries, which, in regard to the prevalence of con-
tagious diseases and in regard to veterinary control, are in the same
situation as Russia. While Germany maintains a nominal prohibition
against the importation of hogs from Russia and Austria, a special
exemption is granted by which SO. 000 animals may be imported
annually from Austria-Hungary and 130,000 animals from Russia.
DISCRIMINATING TARIFFS.
As a rule the tariff rates imposed do not discriminate against the
United States. At the present time no country of Europe, except
France, imposes on any United States product higher rates than
FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON" AMERICAN MEAT. 263
those applicable to the products of its most highly favored com-
petitor. Even in the case of France, the benefit of the lowest tariff
rate is accorded to the United States on several of its leading packing-
house products.
The commercial agreement of 1898 with France specified as among
the products of the United States which would be admitted at the
minimum rates canned meats, sausages and assimilated products,
and lard. At that time a uniform duty was imposed on imports of
meat animals and of fresh and salted meat of all kinds, with the
exception of salted beef and mutton, on which the minimum rate of
duty was very slightly below the general rate. The general rate of
duty, which was imposed on this product when imported from the
United States, was $2.63 per 100 pounds, while the rate imposed
under the minimum tariff was $2.37 per 100 pounds. With the excep-
tion of this item and one or two others of merely nominal importance
in our trade, the United States was put on an equality with its com-
petitors on the French market in respect to live meat animals and
packing-house products.
On July 31, 1903, a new law was passed by which the duties on
cattle, sheep, goats, and swine, and on fresh and salted meat, were
largely increased, while a minimum tariff rate was enacted but little
in excess of the rate previously in force. In consequence of this
change, United States meat was placed at a great competitive dis-
advantage, varying from $1.31 to $2.75 per 100 pounds.
The year 1906 witnessed the withdrawal of discriminating duties
by two European countries. Beginning January 1 , 1 906, United States
products were admitted into Switzerland at the lowest rates of duty
and on September 1, 1906, the same treatment was first accorded by
Spain.
The high level to which import duties on live stock and meat
have been carried is also a factor of considerable importance. Dur-
ing the year 1906 no less than twelve new tariffs were put into effect
by European countries. Three of these — the tariffs of Belgium,
France, and Sweden — while issued in the form of new tariffs, repre-
sented in fact merely a complete revision of the tariffs already in force;
two more, the Italian and Russian, left the rates on live stock and
packing-house products practically unchanged; while seven — the tar-
iffs of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, Roumania, Servia, Spain,
and Switzerland — increased those duties very materially.
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF TRADE EXPANSION.
The present- study discloses some discouraging features. Cattle
and meat from the farms and packing houses of the United States arc
placed at a great disadvantage by the prohibitive and restrictive
decrees of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Denmark, and by the
differential tariff duties of France.
264 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
But there are also features of a peculiarly favorable character.
The great meat market of Europe, that of the United Kingdom, is
open wide for the admission of American meat, and places American
cattle and sheep on a footing as favorable as that enjoyed by any
other dountry or by any British colony, and more favorable than
that applied in the case of many of our chief competitors.
The advantage gained by the United States in obtaining for its
products admission into Switzerland and Spain at the lowest rates of
duty will undoubtedly prove of value to the meat exporters of this
country.
It was predicted in some quarters that the complaints made during
the first six months of 1906 in regard to the methods employed by
some packing houses in the United States would result in a serious
decline in our meat exports and in further exclusion of such products
from foreign countries. Fortunately the first part of the prediction
has not been realized and the second part only in a small measure.
The exports of meat and meat products from the United States show
an increase in the calendar year 1906 aggregating $15,000,000 over
the value for the preceding year. The only product showing a
noticeable decrease is canned meat, of which large quantities were
exported in 1905 to Japan for use as an army ration. Except in the
case of Austria-Hungary, moreover, no new restriction was decreed
affecting meat imported from the United States. The trade with
Austria-Hungary in meats other than pork (which was not affected by
the decree) was already small, amounting to only 883,000 in the year
ending June 30, 1906, and less than 822,000 the preceding year. The
actual effect will therefore be much less injurious than would be antic-
ipated from the general terms of the decree, but its potential effect in
preventing any future expansion is far more serious.
Instead of leading to increased restriction on American products,
the events of 1906 really afford an excellent reason for the removal
or modification of the restrictions that in the past have exercised so
injurious an effect on the trade in meat and live animals. The exten-
sion of the powers of the Bureau of Animal Industry in 1891 over the
inspection of exported meat led to a considerable relaxation of the
restrictions against American swine products. There is no reason why
the stricter control now exercised over all processes of slaughtering
and preparation of meat should not induce the leading foreign govern-
ments to modify the more serious restrictions and admit American
meat on freer terms. Such action is more feasible because treaty
relations among European countries are still undergoing revision, and
within many of those countries a strong demand has sprung up for
the freer admission of foreign cattle and meat.
METHODS OF REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING
BEET SUGAR.
By C. 0. Townsend,
Pathologist in Charge of Sugar-Beet Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.
INTRODUCTION.
The first refined beet-root sugar produced in commercial quantity
was made about one hundred years ago, at a cost of approximately SO
cents a pound. The cost of producing cane sugar was then somewhat
higher than that of beet sugar. The amount of raw sugar extracted
from the beet at that time varied from 4 to 0 per cent, and the amount
of refined sugar obtained was from 1 to 2 per cent of the weight of the
beet. The cost of producing an acre of beets was estimated at approx-
imately $35, while the yield was from 6 to 25 tons per acre. When
it is considered that upward of 15 pounds of refined sugar can be
obtained at retail to-day for the original cost of manufacturing 1 pound
of beet sugar it must be realized that many improvements have already
been made in the quality of the beet, in cultural methods, and in factory
operations, all of which have tended to reduce the cost of the finished
product.
The advances that have been made in cultural methods have been
offset to a very great extent by the increased cost of labor in this coun-
try, so that the actual reduction in the cost of producing beet sugar
has been due to the improvement of the beet or to less expensive oper-
ations in extracting and refining the product. It appears, therefore,
that there are three avenues through which the cost of producing beet
sugar may be increased or diminished. This article will deal only
with those methods for reducing the cost of beet sugar which bear
directly or indirectly upon the improvement and production of the raw
material — the sugar beet — while the questions connected with extract-
ing and refining the sugar will be left to the sugar chemist and to the
sugar engineer.
In this connection it may not be out of place to mention the possi-
bilities of utilizing to greater advantage the by-products of the beet-
sugar factory. The first beet-sugar factory built (1S05) manufactured
raw sugar, wine, spirits, and vinegar. After several years of successful
operation, the owner of this factory stated that if the sugar paid only
for operating the factory the enterprise would still be a success. He
further reported that the utilization of the beet leaves and pulp
enabled him to double the number of cattle on his farm, and the
265
266 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGEICUL1UEE.
manure thus produced greatly increased the yield of his wheat.
Stockmen are rapidly coming to understand the value of beet pulp as
a cattle food, while the possibilities of manufacturing alcohol, fusel oil,
vinegar, fertilizers, etc.. from the refuse molasses have already been
demonstrated. It may be that the ever-increasing demand for
cheaper sugar, and the constantly advancing possibilities of utilizing
the by-products, may eventually place the manufacture of sugar in that
class of industries in which the factories are operated for the sake of the
by-products. However, that time is far distant, and if the onward prog-
ress of this new industry is to be maintained the manufacture of sugar
for sugar's sake must be fostered.
THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE BEET.
INCREASING THE SIZE OF THE BEET.
One of the most promising lines along which the cost of producing
beet sugar may be reduced, so far as the epiestion relates to the raw
material, is that of the improvement of the beet. "When one examines
the wild beet and notes that the roots weigh but a few ounces each,
he can not help wondering at the large tonnage that was sometimes
produced early in the nineteenth century, when according to pub-
lished reports the yield frequently reached 25 tons of roots per acre.
It is true that the average yield was much below this point, but it
undoubteelly eompareel very favorably with the present average yield
of beets in this country, which according to obtainable figures is from
8 to 10 tons per acre. It would appear, therefore, that little progress
has been made along this line. That the individual roots of the- culti-
vated beet arc larger than those of the wild beet there is no question;
but it would seem from a study of comparative yields that the larger
the root the fewer the beets which can be produced per acre. This is
undoubtedly true within certain limits: but, after the most satisfac-
tory relation between the number of beets per acre and the size of the
beets has been determined, there are three methods by which the yield
of beets per acre may be increased without diminishing the percentage
of sugar in the beet: (1) By improved cultural methods; (2) by the
use of fertilizers: and (3) by selection.
In regard to cultural methods used with sugar beets our foremost
agriculturists do not agree. They are unanimous, however, in regard
to the importance of early thinning. Undoubtedly many tons of
beets are lost to the farmers and to the factories annually by delaying
this important operation. In the use of other cultural methods we
are constantly gaining new information through our experiments and
through the growers' experience, which must eventually result hi an
increased tonnage of beets.
Thorough cultivation can not be too strongly emphasized as a factor
in producing good sugar beets. It is a common saying among the
REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 267
Germans that "the sugar must be hoed. into the beet," While it is
true that the sunshine and the air are the principal factors in sugar pro-
duction, the cultivator and the hoe are important aids in keeping the
beet vigorous and active. At no time in its life should a beet be allowed
to cease growing, for if it once becomes stunted it is doubtful whether it
will ever make as good a beet as it would have been under conditions
of continuous growth.
Numerous experiments have been conducted by the United States
Department of Agriculture, by the State experiment stations, and by
growers to determine the proper relation between fertilizers and the
sugar-beet crop. While there is still much to be learned in regard to
fertilizers, there can be no doubt about the benefit to be derived from
their judicious use with sugar beets.
The rotation of crops is an important matter in the growing of sugar
beets, and while the rotations must necessarily vary in different locali-
ties there should always be some green crop in the rotation, preferably
a legume, that can be plowed under to furnish humus and to supply at
least a part of the nitrogen. .
Having done everything possible by means of cultural methods and
by the use of fertilizers of different kinds, there are still promising
possibilities in the selection method. By this- process, in which experi-
ments are already under way in the Bureau of Plant Industry, it is
proposed to select for seed production large beets rich in sugar, and
by repeated selection and crossing to produce a strain of beets 'that
will greatly increase the yield without any decrease in the sugar con-
tent of the beets. The results should be a much larger quantity of
sugar per acre without any increase in the cost of production.
INCREASING THE SUGAR CONTENT.
Another possibility of improving the beet is to increase its sugar
content. _ If this is done, even without increasing the size of the bee?, a
greater yield of sugar per acre may be obtained. When the percentage
of sugar obtained from the beet a century ago is compared with the
present sugar content of our cultivated beets, it is seen that much
progress has already been made in improving the beet in this direction
A comparison of the average percentage of sugar actually obtained
from the beet with the high sugar content of the best samples indi-
cates that there is still opportunity to greatly increase the average
sugar content of our beets.
If a largely increased yield of beets is combined with a much higher
sugar content it is entirely possible to obtain three times as much sugar
per acre as is produced on an average at the present time. For
example, the present average yield of beets per acre in the United
States is about 10 tons, and the percentage of sugar actually extracted
and refined does not exceed 12, making the average yield of sugar per
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUP.E.
acre approximately 2.400 pound-. Yields of more than 30 tons of
beets per acre are sometimes obtained, and yields of more than 20 tons
are common. From 20 to 25 per cent of sugar in the beets has been
so frequently that it is safe to assume that an average sugar
content of 18 per cent is within the limits of possibility. If an average
yield of 2 per acre and an average sugar content of 18 per cent
I be reached, we would have an average yield of 7.200 pounds of
his could be realized without increasing the cost of
ing the bee - add be entirely possible for the grower to
furnish the raw material to the factory at a somewhat lower cost than
present practicable. This is the first important step toward
reducing the c production.
One of the most important factors in producing a beet rich in su
is the proper selection of beets for seed production. This is the seeds-
man".- problem, and is, under the present methods of beet -seed produc-
birely outside the province of the grower of factory beets.
However, the sugar content of bee* depends to a very great
extent upon the soil and climatic conditions. For example, in 1903
the Bureau of Plant Industry planted several varieties of sugar-beet
i »n the Arlington Experimental Farm, near Washington This seed
duced from beefs that tested from 16 to 18 percent of sugar.
The beets grown from the seed tested in no case more than 12 per cent
- a ly all the samples tested less than 10 per cent.
- were sent to Utah and planted for seed in 1904. The
from the seed produced from these roots tt
16 t<> 17 per cent of sugar. It will be seen, therefore, that while the
bee - *d the tendency to produce a high sugar content, the
soil and climatic conditions in the vicinity of Washington, D. C, in
1903 kept the sugar production too low for practical purpi
If the c 1 li i - litions in any locality appear to be unfavorable
forsuga: m, it is not advisable to undertake to grow
le until a beet has been developed by
selection or otherwise that is adapted to that particular locality. It
been found that clay loams and sandy loams are very satisfactory
igar-beet production, provided other conditions are favorable;
but more depends upon the physical condition of the .-oil and upon
methods of cultivation than upon the particular kind or variety of soil
'.. The soil should be well supplied with humus and well drained.
«T OF GROWING BEETS.
LAND YA
In considering the methods by which beet sugar may be produced
at a smaller the raw material is concerned, there are
certain factors which tend to increase rather than to diminish th<
of production. One of these is the increase of land values. Duiing
REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 269
the past decade there has been a remarkable advance in the price of
farming lands, especially in those localities where beet-sugar factories
are in successful operation. These lands have become more valuable
not only because they produce large quantities of sugar beets, but
because there is a ready market for the crop and because other valu-
able crops form with the sugar beets a very satisfactory rotation.
There are thousands of acres of good farming lands where sugar beets
may be grown with profit as soon as sugar factories are constructed.
Five years ago the land in a certain valley in Utah was offered for
sale at- $20 an acre. Since that time a sugar factory has been built,
and from 6,000 to 8,000 acres of sugar beets are grown in that valley
annually, bringing to the owners a return of $75 and upward per
acre. As a result, practically none of the land is for sale at the pres-
ent time. If by force of circumstances a tract of this land changes
hands, the price obtained is $100 or more per acre.
In some parts of Colorado sugar beets, potatoes, and alfalfa form a
rotation series to which small grains arc sometimes added. When it
is realized that potatoes often yield from 600 to S00 bushels per acre
and sugar beets upward of 20 tons per acre, it is not surprising that
this land is held at several hundred dollars per acre; and it may
be stated that in none of the sugar-beet areas is the price of land
decreasing.
The theory that sugar beets will ruin the land has long since been
exploded. The best crops of sugar beets and other farm products
are found on many of the farms where sugar beets have been grown
longest. This is in part due to the fact that good farmers have become
better farmers through their experience in growing beets. Proper
rotation of crops, good cultivation, and the judicious use of fertilizers
are the factors that keep the land in good condition and enable farmers
to obtain the highest possible returns for the labor and money in-
vested. The situation in regard to land values, so far. as they relate
to sugar beets, may be stated as follows: Inasmuch as sugar beets
require the best quality of soil and demand that it shall be in the
highest state of cultivation to produce the best results, sugar beets
must remain a comparatively high-priced crop, and any attempt to
reduce then price must result either in producing an unsatisfactory
crop or hi eliminating sugar beets from the system of crop rotation
in many localities.
COST OF LABOR.
Another factor which up to the present time has had a tendency
to increase rather than to diminish the cost of sugar-beet production
is the cost of labor. The price of farm labor, like land values, has
increased materially within the past few years. This is especially
true of hand labor for thinning, pulling, and topping beets. In view
of the greatly increased cost within the past decade of nearly all the
270 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGSICUL.TUBE.
necessaries of life, and with every indication that the cost of living
will not be materially reduced in the near future, it can not reasonably
be expected that farm wages will be appreciably lowered within the
next few years, at least. It is clear that the increased cost of labor
thus far has had a tendency to increase rather than to decrease the
cost of beet sugar.
AMOUNT OF L ."
Another phase of the labor question should be considered in this
connection, and that is the amount of labor required in growing an
acre of beets in order to obtain the greatest profit from the crop. The
average cost of growing and harvesting beets at present is estimated
to be approximately $30 per acre. It would undoubtedly be poor
economy to lessen the cost of growing beets by reducing the amount
of labor per acre under the present conditions. There are some indi-
cations that a still larger expenditure of labor upon the crop would
produce a much greater return. For example, several yi - one
of the leading agricultural papers of this country offered a series of
prizes for the best crop of sugar beets to be grown under certain con-
ditions. One of the winners produced approximately 30 tons of
beets on an acre of ground. The total cost of growing this acre of
beets was nearly $60. A little reflection will show that a much
larger profit per acre was obtained in producing 30 tons oJ - on a
given area at an outlay of $60 per acre than would have been made
by spending $30 in growing the present average tonnage on the same
area. From this and other examples that might be cited, th.
sion is obvious that the production of sugar per acre may be inert
by increasing the amount of labor per acre in growing the beets.
: ABOR.
The question of obtaining a sufficient number of the right kind
of laborers to grow the sugar-beet crop has become one of the most
complex and at the same time one of the most important problems
in connection with the sugar-beet industry in nearly all the beet
areas in this country. Scarcity of labor has an important bearing
upon the cost of sugar production in several ways, but especially in
delaying the work and in leaving certain operations undone, the.
reducing the yield of sugar per acre.
In some localities no difficulty is experienced in obtaining a suffi-
cient number of suitable laborers throughout the season, especially
in those sections where the farms are small and the country is th:
settled with good farmers. Under these circumstances the in
farmer is usually found growing a small acreage of beets — frequently
not more than from 3 to 10 acres — which he is able to care for with
his own family, with possibly some assistance now and then from his
neighbors. In this wav beets are irrown more satisfactorilv as
EEDL'CIXG THE COST OF PEODT* CIXG BEET SUGAE. 2 1 1
regards labor than in any other. In most of our sugar-beet sections,
however, it is necessary to depend to a greater or less extent upon
outside help. Just how this labor is to be secured, how it is to be
retained throughout the season, and how it can be made a permanent
factor in the sugar-beet industry are problems upon the correct
solution of which the future of the beet-sugar industry depends to
a very great extent. Efforts are being made to work out these
problems in the various localities where help is needed; and. while
the conditions in the different sections are not identical, a brief
review of some of the important methods used may be helpful.
In the Middle and Eastern States, and in some of the Western
States, a large part of the labor in connection with sugar beets
must be done during the summer, at which time a large number of
pupils and teachers from the public schools are available for the
work. Many growers take advantage of this fact, and hundreds
of school children are employed annually in thinning, weeding, and
hoeing beets. In some localities the teachers, both men and women.
spend a part of the long vacation in the beet fields, much to their
advantage physically as well as financially. When this kind of labor
can be employed it is generally satisfactory, and improves from season
to season with the experience gained. Unfortunately there is not
enough of this kind of labor to supply the demand, and in a few
localities it is reported unsatisfactory.
If the sugar-beet area is located near one or more large cities a
considerable portion of the temporary labor comes from that class
of city residents who have no permanent employment and who are
willing to go out and work in the fields. This is especially true of
certain members of the foreign population, both men and women,
who often make excellent farm hands. Most of these laborers
insist upon returning to then homes in the city at the close of the
day. Xumerous instances might be cited of Polish women who
walk from 2 to 4 miles in the morning in order to do their dav's
work of thinning, hoeing, or topping beets, or other farm work
that their employer may require. (PL XIII. fig. 1.) At the close of
the day they walk back to their homes only to repeat the same
operation the next day and each day throughout the season. Some
of the employers state that this is the best class of labor that they
are able to obtain on their farms.
Some of the laborers become very skillful at this kind of work:
others were familiar with it before coming to this country and depend
from the first upon finding employment of this kind. However,
many of these laborers are seeking permanent employment in the
factories and other enterprises in the city, so that this class of farm
labor is in constant danger of depletion. At best this kind of labor
is limited by the number of people who are willing to go out from
272 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.
the city and do work of this kind, and also by the small number of
farmers who are near enough to the city to allow the laborers to
return home at the close of the day. If some of the farmers living
farther away from the city could induce some of these families to
become permanent residents of the rural districts it would undoubt-
edly be mutually beneficial in many cases. Various methods are
being used in different places to accomplish this result. In one sec-
tion where labor is scarce the officials of the sugar company - _-
gested that each farmer build at least one tenant house for the ac-
commodation of some of the labor required. The farmers are acting
upon thi tion, and undoubtedly within a few years this com-
munity will be well supplied with good labor.
It is well known that many families, especially those of foreign
birth, hesitate about going into the country for the reason that they
would, in a way. become practically isolated from their countrymen.
In order to overcome this difficulty and at the same time to solve
the labor problem for the sugar-beet industry, several sugar com-
panies have purchased large tracts of land and have offered various
inducements to laborers to settle upon the land in colonies. For
example, one sugar company divided its land into small farms of 40
acres each, which were sold at a low price on easy terms. The only
requirement was that the purchaser should grow a small acreage of
sugar beets for at least two years, upon the presumption that if beets
were grown for two years the purchaser would be a permanent
grower. This plan, which was started four years ago. worked out
satisfactorily. All the land was sold and each year upward of 6.000
acre- *ar beets are grown for the near-by factory.
In another sugar-beet section the sugar company has divided its
land into small farms, which it has equipped with the necessary stock
and tools and on which it has built comfortable houses. These places
are rented to farmers, who are growing small areas of sugar beets.
This plan is working satisfactorily for the sugar company and, like the
preceding method, is of inestimable benefit to many families desirous
of becoming independent citizens.
Still another sugar company has set apart a portion of its land with
a view to forming a Russian colony. This land is divided into acre
ts, and a small house is built on each tract. Figure 6 shows
four of these houses: that is. the two buildings shown consist of two
houses each, placed side by side. These houses are rented to Russian
families with the definite understanding that when a family has
worked for the company a given number of years a deed for the house
and lot will be given to that family. This plan is of comparatively
recent origin, and the effect that it will have upon the solution of the
labor question is still problematical. If there is any disadvantage in
this plan over the preceding ones it undoubtedly lies in the fact that
REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR.
273
the tract of land is not large enough to support a family: hence, the
workers must seek employment on other farms, necessitating the
expenditure of considerable time and energy in getting to and from
their work.
In the same community another plan has been adopted which
promises good results. The important point, the nucleus of this plan,
is a portable house. The outfit, as shown in figure 7, consists of
a farmer's handy wagon, the wheels of which are 28 inches in diameter
and have a 5-inch tread. The construction of the house is shown in
the cut. The outfit consists of a laundry stove, cooking utensils,
woven-wire folding cots, mattresses, and blankets. Each house will
accommodate from two to five workmen, and costs about 875. The
laborers occupying one of these houses contract to do the hand work
for several beet growers at a price ranging from SIS to $21 per acre,
depending upon the number of hoeings, etc., included in the contract.
"
:i. 'h%
&
Fig. ij. — Laborers' houses, one to each acre tract — one method of solving the labor question in grow-
ing sugar beets.
The agreement is that when they have finished one operation, such as
thinning, for one farmer, he will take his team and haul the house to
the next farm. This house is portable, not only in the sense that it is
on wheels, but also from the fact that it is capable of being taken
down and shipped on the cars. In this way it is easily shifted about
from community to community, to the place where it is most needed.
The laborers using these houses are mostly Belgians, who seem to
be very satisfactory in the beet fields hi most instances. They are
tireless workers, and when employed by the acre often utilize every
moment of davlight in caring for the beets under their contract.
Their method of topping beets, as shown in Plate XIII, fig. 2, is one
that seems to be peculiar to themselves, and is very rapid. The beets
are pulled and thrown in rows, with the tops all one way, and then in a
bent position, as shown in the illustration, the laborers go up and down
the rows, cutting off the tops and throwing the beets into piles. The
two brothers shown in the illustration were photographed in 190-i
3 A1906 18
2:-:
dzp.
..::::Tirvr.z.
:; on one of their r( 1906) thev rented a
I arm and are growing their own b»: re to predict that
in a lew liey will be landowners and employers of labor.
In - number s esc are employed for
sag; For s riven community the Japanese art.
-rough their leader, who agrees under bond to fu:
so many laborers for the hand work at some stipulated price,
price is abas me in all the sugar-beet see:: — i-20 per acre.
army of laborers, often consisting oi ml hundred under one
b, and usually is, divided into smaller squads, which
are e he various field- needed. They usually
form a camp in which they live by themselves. Under the dire
of a con. jreman they are capable of doinsr excellent work, but
. - . ... _ ^
:hing
become c
that ma] id or done.
in the Y^ : he Chinese as labor-
ers in the sugar-beet fields, but owing to our t ion laws
ihey are necessarily xery scarce, this beir _]]y true of the
younger and more active members of the race.
■.:"-.
of labor, as well as its scarcity, has acted as an ineen-
ine of beet seed and dev: r means
whereby beets may be grown with less hand labor, vr
wn that all the labor performed in produci:
crop of q order to obtain the best r rider
: may be possible to perform one or more of these
in some other manner with _ood or
- expense. ¥ ipie.the
production of single-germ beet seed is but a method of thinning t
he seed ,-d.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XIII.
Fig. 1 .—Polish Women Thinning Beets.
Fig. 2.— Belgian Method of Topping Beets.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XIV.
Fig. 1.— Power Hoe that may be Utilized in Blocking and Hoeing Sugar Beets.
Fig. 2.— Siloing Sugar Beets for the Factory.
REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 275
Production of single-germ seed. — Commercial beet seed con-
sists for the most part of from two to seven individual seeds welded by-
nature into one mass. It is evident that plants produced from such a
mass of seeds must necessarily be very close together, and thus far no
mechanism has been devised whereby the plants can be properly
thinned. It is clear, therefore, that if we expect to do away with the
hand thinning of our sugar beets it can probably be accomplished only
by changing the construction of the seed ball, either naturally or
artificially, so that there will be but one germ in each ball. Repeated
efforts have been made to break up the seed balls by passing them
through various forms of rollers and grinders so that each seed could
be planted by itself. The seed coats are so hard that any device that
has been tried thus far that will crush or break the seed ball breaks a
large number of the seeds and renders them useless.
An effort is being made by the Bureau of Plant Industry to produce
a single-germ beet seed by selection. The results of this work up to
the close of last season (1905) are reported in Bulletin Xo. 73 of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, in which it is shown that the percentage of
single-germ seeds has been increased from less than 2 to upward of 25
per cent.a In the light of the advance that has already been made it is
reasonably safe to assume that this object will finally be accomplished
by this means. After a plant possessing single-germ seed balls has
been produced it will necessarily be a number of years before a suffi-
cient quantity of this seed can be produced so that it can be used
commercially.
Thinning. — Meantime, as the industry grows, there will be an ever-
increasing demand for hand labor for thinning the beets. Many
growers have not yet learned the importance of early thinning, and
consequently they try to do the work with an insufficient force, letting
this operation, which should be done within a few days, extend over a
period of several weeks, much to the detriment of the yield and con-
sequently to the returns from the crop.
Hoeing. — The number of hoeings given a crop of sugar beets varies
from two to five. A single hoeing is much less expensive than the
single operation of thinning or of harvesting, but the total number of
hoeings, if properly done, will cost more than either of the other opera-
tions. It is important, therefore, that something be done to reduce
the cost of hoeing sugar beets. As already pointed out, it would be
poor economy to reduce the cost of hoeing beets by giving them a
smaller number of hoeings or by doing the work less thoroughly. On
the other hand, there are indications that better beets could be grown
o Since this paper was -mitten the single-germ seeds produced in 1906 have been
separated and counted, and it is found that several of the plants yielded upward of
49 per cent of single-germ seeds. A large number of the plants produced more than
30 per cent.
276 YEAEBOOK Of THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
if more attention were given to this phase of sugar-beet culture. If
anything is to be gained over the present method of hoeing beets it
must be by means of a machine that will do the -work more thor-
oughly or at a lower cost per acre. A power hoe has recently been
invented and successfully used in the cotton fields. Although not
yet tried in connection with sugar beets, it would seem from its con-
struction that it could be used to considerable advantage in the beet
fields. This hoe consists of a metal disk which may be forced into the
ground to any desired depth, and is made to rotate rapidly in a plane
parallel to the surface of^the ground. The power that causes the
disk to rotate is furnished by a gasoline engine, while the movement
around the plant is guided by the human hand, as shown in the illus-
tration. (See PL XIV, fig. 1.) It is claimed for this machine that
from five to six times as much work can be done per day with one
of these hoes as can be done by the same man with a hand hoe. If
this particular implement is not adapted to sugar-beet work it will
doubtless lead to something whereby artificial power may be used in
blocking and hoeing sugar beets.
Cultivating. — Several cultivations are necessary in the growing
season. The number of cultivations and the depth and distance
from the beets that the teeth of the cultivator should operate are
moot questions among agriculturists. It is agreed that different
conditions require different treatments, and hence the expense of culti-
vating beets must depend somewhat upon soil and weather conditions.
However, the single cultivator has given way to a great extent to the
two-row cultivator, and recently a four-row cultivator has been
devised and put in operation, so that the cost of each cultivation is
greatly reduced. The initial cost of the four-row cultivator is greater
than that of a single-row cultivator, but the additional outlay is soon
made up if there is a considerable acreage of beets to be cared for.
Harvesting. — Harvesting sugar beets consists of three distinct
operations, viz, lifting, pulling, and topping. For many years lift-
ing or loosening the beets has been done by horse power. In some
parts of the West steam power is now being used for this purpose.
Two kinds of lifters are in general use, one consisting of a side' plow,
which passes along one side of the beet row and loosens each beet by
pressing slightly against it and at the same time plowing it up. The
other form might be described as a plow with two points or shoes, so
arranged that as they pass along on either side of the beet row each
individual beet is caught between the points and lifted slightly, so that
it is left perfectly loose in the ground. The beets must then be pulled
and topped by hand.
Many forms of beet harvesters have been constructed, but none
has come into general use. It is the aim of the inventor of the
beet harvester to perform the three operations at the same time.
REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 277
Some inventors aim to top the beet and then pull it; while others
maintain that the beet must be first pulled and then topped. If the
beets are topped and afterwards pulled, there seems to be some diffi-
culty about getting all of them out of the ground. On the other
hand, if the beets are first pulled and then topped, considerable diffi-
culty is experienced in topping them correctly, owing to the variation
in the size of the beets and the difference in the length and size of the
crowns. Several new harvesters are in the field this year (1906), and
it is probably a question of only a few years when the harvester in the
beet field will be as common as it is in the grain field. The cost of
hand work in harvesting beets is from $5 to $8 per acre. It must be
remembered that no machine annihilates the cost of any farming
operation, but that a satisfactory beet harvester would greatly reduce
the expense of harvesting the crop is evident.
Transporting to factory. — Another important factor in the cost
of producing the raw material is the expense involved in transporting
the beets from the farm to the factory. If the field is located near the
factory and the roads are level and well made the beets may be
delivered at a minimum cost. As the distance from the factory
increases, more time is consumed, and consequently the expense is
increased. The importance of good roads can not be overestimated.
It frequently happens that the fall rains begin before the beets are
delivered, and unless the roads are well made they are soon full of
holes and ruts that make it impossible to haul more than half a load
at a time, practically doubling the expense of delivering the crop.
One effect of the sugar-beet industry is the improvement of the coun-
try roads, and conversely the improvement of the country roads is an
aid to the sugar-beet industry.
Railroad facilities and rates play an important part in the cost of
delivering the sugar-beet crop. Very few factories grow all their
beets within hauling distance. The grower and sugar company are
fortunate if the railroads so radiate from the vicinity of the factory
that the beets grown in a given community can be brought in over one
line of road. It is often the case, however, that the cars must be sent
over two or more roads, which necessarily increases the expense. It
too often happens that there is an insufficient supply of cars at the
time they are wanted or the cars furnished are not adapted to handling
sugar beets; consequently considerable time is lost in loading and
unloading the beets. All these things are adjusting themselves gradu-
ally to the betterment of the industry through the persistent efforts of
those interested.
Destroying weeds. — The improvement of farming methods has
been mentioned as playing a significant part in sugar-beet growing.
One point that should be emphasized in this connection is the impor-
tance of destroying weeds. This work should not be confined to the
278 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
beet fields. Adjacent fields, roadsides, fence rows, and vacant lots
should be watched and the weeds destroyed before they go to seed.
It is not uncommon to find beet fields that are in fairly good condi-
tion while the roadside just over the fence is full of weeds. Some of
the seeds of these weeds will certainly be scattered by various agencies
over the field and be ready for growth the next year. The destruc-
tion of weeds for a single season will not always produce appreciable
results, for the reason that a large number of weed seeds remain alive
in the ground for a number of years. Persistent efforts in destroying
weeds, however, will result after a few years in greatly reducing the
labor of keeping beet fields free from these pests.
Siloing the beets. — Another expense that must be reckoned
with under certain circumstances is that of siloing the beets. This
becomes necessary when the beets must be harvested faster than
they can be handled at the factory. It will be seen at once that
siloing the beets necessitates an extra handling of the crop, since they
must be reloaded into the wagons and hauled to the factory or dump-
ing station. Inasmuch as siloing factory beets has not yet come into
general practice in all of the beet-growing localities, a fair idea of the
methods employed and labor involved may be gamed by referrm
Plate XIV. figure 2. In addition to the extra expense involved, which
varies from 20 cents to SI a ton. there is more or less shrinkage in weight
due to evaporation. To avoid the expense and loss incident to siloing
the beets an effort is being made by the Bureau of Plant Industry to
lengthen the harvesting season by producing an early-maturing beet.
It is hoped by this means to so distribute the ripening period that the
factory will be able to handle the beets as soon as they are harvested.
SUMMABT.
While the methods of cheapening the process of making beet sugar
can not be adequately treated in a short article of this kind, the
principal points to be aimed at may be summed up as follows:
(1) Increasing the tonnage without increasing cost of production.
(2) Improving the quality of the beets without additional expense.
(3) Improving the beet in size and quality, or both, at additional
expense, but in such ratio that the gain is greater than the outlay.
(4) Providing a sufficient quantity of suitable labor at the proper
time so that the beets may be kept growing without interruption.
(5) Modifying the beet seed so as to render thinning unnecessary.
(6) Modifying the beet so that siloing for the factory will not be
necessary.
(7) Devising machinery that will do away with hand labor.
Improving farming methods and operations so that less labor
will be required to produce the crop.
(9) Improving wagon roads and railroad facilities.
COKX-BKEEDIXG WORK AT THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
By J. I. Schume,
Of the Office of Experiment Stations.
The com produced m the United States each year is worth more
than a billion dollars— nearly twice as much as any other crop This
immense resource has been practically created since the United States
has existed as a nation. Corn was cultivated by the Indians before
tne Western World was discovered, and hence was the first of the
common cereals to be grown under the care of man on American soil
ihe most rapid development in com production, however, has taken
place during the last forty years, the annual yield for the entire coun-
try having approximately trebled during that time The vast
increase m production is of course- mainly due to the increase in the
acreage devoted to corn culture, but it may also be attributed in part
to improvement in the plant itself. Ever since corn came under the
beneficent influence of agriculture, such improvement has been in
progress, at first unconsciously and later consciously, but with the
principles of corn breeding very little understood. The earlier work
which was of slow progress, adapted the crop to a wider range of lati-
tude ami assured greater success in its culture over large areas, par-
ticularly m the northern portions of the corn belt. While we are .till
far from completely understanding the principles underiying the im-
provement of the com plant by breeding, the work of the experiment
stations has elucidated the subject to a considerable extent and has
shown the farmer how to apply the principles alreadv demonstrated
During recent years the improvement of our corn varieties has
become a matter of great general interest among experiment-station
men and progressive farmers. There has been a sort of agricultural
awakening, largely due to the realization of what can be accomplished
with a crop of such magnitude and one so ready to respond to intelli-
gent treatment. Experimental work in agricultural lines, especially
if its results are to be far-reacliing, generally requires considerable
time lor the accumulation of data, their verification, and the dis-
semmation and application of the information secured, but in the
work of corn improvement the stations have been successful in inter-
esting the farmer, and even the general public, in a comparatively short
period of time.
279
280 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE MOVEMENT.
An increase in yield is brought about by bettering the environment
of the plant or by improving the character of the plant itself. All
improvement within the plant is based, on the one hand, on varia-
tion or the tendency of offspring to differ in some respects from par-
ents, and, on the other, on heredity or the tendency of progeny to
possess characteristics in common with parents and other blood rela-
tives. That the corn plant has undergone a marked change since the
beginning of its culture is unquestionable. Until quite recently all
of the corn crop was harvested by hand, winch gave the grower an
opportunity to observe all the larger, well-formed ears, and to select
the best appearing ones for seed. Simple selection of the ears was
the beginning of corn improvement and the only method followed
from the earliest periods of American agriculture. It is not surprising
that artificial crossing was not employed in the early improvement
work when we consider that it was only a little more than two hun-
dred years ago that the sexuality of plants was discovered and that
the manner of manipulating the blossoms in the process of cross-
breeding was even then not so well known either inside or outside of
scientific circles as it is at present. Only during the last century has
this knowledge found a more or less large and direct application in the
improvement of cultivated crops.
It was by constant and continued selection for a long series of years
that many of the common and well-known varieties, such as Reid
Yellow Dent, Golden Eagle, Iowa Silver Mine, Learning, and Boone
County White, were brought to their present high standard of per-
fection, with their characteristics generalby well fixed and uniformly
reproduced, thus showing that marked improvement in varieties
of corn may be brought about by selection without crossing. Cross-
breeding has entered into the origination of some of the standard vari-
eties, as, for instance, Riley Favorite, established a little more than
twenty years ago, which is a hybrid resulting from a cross between
Golden Yellow, a large late variety, and Pride of the North, a small
early maturing sort. In the more recent efforts to fix the character-
istics of the desired type the breeding-plat idea was adopted, the
new seed being planted by itself away from other corn and all tassels
of barren and otherwise undesirable stalks removed as soon as they
appeared, to prevent them from producing pollen and fertilizing the
future seed on the healthy and otherwise normal plants.
In animal breeding selection is comparatively easy and a pedigree
record on both the male and female sides is readily established, but in
plant breeding we meet with considerable difficulty in this connection.
We can be absolutely certain of the male parent of an ear of corn only
CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 281
when we have excluded all pollen from the mother plant and fertilized
the blossoms with the pollen from a particular plant. It is possible
to do this only with a few plants on account of the time required for
the proper performance of the work, and on a larger scale it becomes
impracticable. The only practical and the nearest possible solution
of the problem is the use of the isolated breeding plat, in which only
seed of known breeding is planted and in which all blossoms are
naturally fertilized with pollen from plants of equal breeding, although
it is impossible by this method to know the individual stalk or stalks
furnishing the pollen for any particular ear or the stalk producing the
pollen for any particular blossom or rudimentary grain. In this
connection it may be pointed out that even in the breeding plat with
its plants of equal breeding there may be three different relationships
between the pollen and the blossom which it fertilizes, or, as we may
say, three kinds of pollination are possible, namely, self-pollination,
close-pollination, and cross-pollination. In self-pollination the pollen
produced by a particular plant falls upon the silks and fertilizes the
blossoms of the same plant. In close-pollination the pollen from a
particular plant fertilizes the blossom of the plant grown from the
same seed ear, i. e., the two plants have the same mother ear. In
cross-pollination the pollen from the tassel of one plant fertilizes the
blossoms of another plant grown from a different mother ear. Recent
experiment-station work has brought forth a system of-corn breeding
in which inbreeding is practically entirely prevented. By this
method self-pollination and close-pollination become impossible, and
breeding between distantly related plants becomes merely a remote
possibility.
The first lines of the experiment-station work with corn comprised
variety tests of cultural factors, such as depth and time of plowing;
time, manner, and depth of planting; distances between rows and
intervals between plants in a row; depth, frequency, and manner of
cultivation; and other problems. After considerable light had been
thrown upon many of these questions, the improvement of corn by
selection, and by breeding and selection, received more attention.
This work was inaugurated and is still continued with a view to
getting larger yields of shelled corn, rich in starch, oil, or protein, as
the purpose for which the crop is intended may require. By their
work the stations have shown the susceptibility of the corn plant to
change in location of ears, quantity of leaves, and number of suckers,
as well as to change in the composition of the grain and other char-
acters. The increase in yield has, of course, received the most
attention, and in this connection it has been shown how individual
ears may differ in productivity, although of the same variety and
produced under identical conditions.
282 YEARBOOK 01 SffCUI/TU
r.E" ire.
The principal obje» d breeding at the experi:
an increase in the yield of shelled corn per aci orn plant varies
in height from 2 to 15 feet, according to variety and climate. The
:iges from three 1 - "en months.
The ear varies in shape, ^ize. thi ge of grain,
ad depth and width of kernel. The stalk varies in
as, number and tvpe of -ition of
ear. productivity, tendency to sucker, el - aria t ions are all
turned to account in com breeding. The problem is to indicate how
the vari. lay be best ion should be nu
and how favorable- characteristics which appear may be fixed and
retained.
- --POTT.TXATIOy.
Experiments in the improvement of corn by cross-fertil uve
been carried on by seven -. but this line of
inves i seems to have been more prominent some years ago
than it i- the work in breeding being at present largely devoted
reeding on a lanj by methods applicable in
provement by lination rried on at the Ka:
I ^90. and numerous * hus
red wei : I The different races, such as de:
sweet, and pop corn, apparently crossed readily. In a com-
paratively f n aerally in sweet-corn varieties, the effec
-ing were visible the first year. The second generation usually
more or less completely blended and often exactly inter-
between the two parent typ re rarely the grains of a
single ear were unlike each other, resembling closely or remotely one
parent or the other. The third year the produce was generally true
»d.
:ie blue kernels, found on ea immediate par
were known to have shown no kerne! r. were planted, and
one of the resulting e 1 with pollen from th alk.
ear contain 1 A which 206 were blue. 71 pink. 71
orange-yellow, and 22 pure white. Five other ears from the same
he pollen of other va: owed the same variation
with a slightly smaller percentage of blue. In studying the
prepotency of the blue corn a large number of ears on other plats
near by were examined, and it was found that about half the number
of uninclosed ears had from 1 to 5 blue kernels, while of inclosed
not one showed a trace of blue. This result also showed that inclosing
the ears in ci ven cloth sacks is et: in keeping out foreign
pollen.
CORX-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 283
Observations on the effects of cross-fertilization at the Iowa station
have brought out the fact that the tassels and the silks of the upper
primary ears generally appeared about the same time, and that the
pollen of the upper central spikes of the tassels usually falls about
twenty-four hours before that of the lateral spikes. The first silks
protruding through the husk are from the lower end or butt of the
ear. and the silks above them appear gradually until all are exposed,
the time required for this process being usually from two to five days;
but frequently the upper silks are not more than twenty-four hours
later in appearing than the lower, and sometimes they are ten days
later. It was found that usually twenty-four hours elapsed before
the silks were in the receptive condition after their first appearance.
When it takes four or five days for all the silks to appear, the lower
grains of corn start their development before those farther up on the
ear begin to grow and are, therefore, strong enough to rob the younger
and weaker grains and to cause them to die from starvation. These
conditions are considered the cause of the lack of proper filling at the
point of the ear. But when the silks all appear within twenty-four
hours or less, the ears develop simultaneously at both ends, making
a properly filled ear from butt to tip. It is concluded froin the obser-
vations made that the best corn for Iowa, when well grown, should
not exceed 9§ feet in height, the ears being oh feet from the ground,
and each stalk having 13 blades. In its early improvement work
this station demonstrated the value of planting the corn in an isolated
field for the purpose of carrying on breeding experiments, and the
results obtained, together with the experience at other stations, sug-
gested the idea of developing the breeding plat.
Work in corn improvement was begun at the Illinois station in 1S89,
crosses being made between varieties of dent corn and varieties of
dent, sweet, and pop corn. In the crosses between varieties of dent
corn of the same color or between varieties of sweet corn of the same
color the change in the crossed ear could not with certainty be
attributed to the influence of the pollen, the variations in these ears
being apparently no greater than in those of the same variety left to
form naturally. Ears produced by crossing white sweet corn with
pollen of the yellow dent corn were nearly as dark as the male parent,
with kernels very, much like flint corn in appearance and with the
taste characteristic of dent corn. Where both sweet and dent kernels
appeared on the same ear the dent kernels were always the heavier.
It was observed that color, where it is a character of the kernels and
not of the seed coat, tends very strongly to pass from one variety to
another. Crosses in which yellow dent corn was the male and sweet
corn the female, yellow sweet the male and white sweet the female,
and yellow pop corn the male and white dent the female, exhibited the
greatest degree of success. On 19 ears produced by these various
284 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
crosses only 2 kernels did not show distinctly the effects of the pollen.
Of sweet corn stalks bearing 2 ears, one crossed artificially and the
other left to be naturally fertilized, there was no indication of any-
thing but sweet corn on the naturally fertilized ears. All crosses
except the pure dent corn crosses were planted, and during the first
growing season the uniformity of the plats was very noticeable. The
number of rows of kernels on the ear seemed to be modified about
equally by each parent, and the number of ears to the stalk showed
a tendency to follow the same type as the stalk. The ears from each
of the crossed plats were as uniform as the commonest varieties of
corn, and the crosses of different varieties showed the characters of
each parent to about the same extent. The crosses between pop corn
and dent corn seem to show the effect of the male more than of the
female parent, while those of which pop corn was the male parent
were more flinty than those in which the dent corn had furnished
the pollen. The corn grown from the crossed seed was in nearly all
cases increased in size as a result of the crossing.
The second year the corn continued to be comparatively uniform
in type where the parent varieties were similar, but where the}* were
different, as in the crosses between sweet and dent, the progeny
tended strongly to run back to the parent forms, while at the same
time taking on other forms different from either. Nearly all the
corn grown the second year was smaller than that grown the first
year, although most of it larger than that of the parent varieties.
Some of the varieties which might be supposed to be most nearly
related, as the sweet corns, showed very little increase when grown
from crossed seed, while the two varieties of pop corn, which would
seem as nearly related to each other as the varieties of sweet corn,
gave a very decided increase in size when grown from crossed seed.
Corn from the crosses of Black Mexican and White Dent, two widely
different varieties, showed a decrease in size, while that from Flour
corn and Golden Coin, varieties apparently as widely different as
any crossed, gave ears showing the greatest proportionate gain in
size. There seemed to be a strong tendency of the progeny of the
different varieties of dent, sweet, and pop corn toward the flint type.
In 1S92 in each of five cases the yield from plats of cross-bred corn
was larger than the average yield of plats planted with varieties
which had not been crossed, the average increase being more than
9 bushels per acre. In 1893 seed from cross-fertilized ears in every
instance produced a larger yield and larger stalks than seed from self-
fertilized ears, but the cars of the latter were more uniform in char-
acter. In 1893 in three out of four cases the yield from cross-bred
seed was greater by 2.3 bushels per acre than the average yield of
the parent varieties. In 1894 the seed from cross-fertilized plants
selected in 1S92 and 1893 gave an average increase of 12 bushels per
acre over the parent varieties.
COBfT-BBEEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 285
Of numerous crosses made by the Wisconsin experiment station,
Wisconsin No. 8 corn on Toole North Star has given promise of the
best results. The new variety appears to have a larger ear than the
Wisconsin No. S and a shorter maturing period than the Toole North
Star. In a culture test this variety was ripe for cutting September
26. 126 days after planting, while the preceding year Wisconsin No.
S ripened in 120 days and Toole North Star in 133.
OBSERVATIONS OX THE MIXING OF CORN.
At the Minnesota station Mercer Yellow flint corn hi proximity to
Black Mexican sweet corn produced several black grains on some of
the ears. A dozen of these dark-colored grains were planted and
protected from pollen from other varieties. The ears produced
showed that the Black Mexican corn had fertilized dark-colored
grams on the ears of flint corn the preceding year. Besides the yellow
hint and black sweet grams, there were white sweet and white flint
grams on nearly every ear. which is taken as showing the ancestry
of this cross. It is possible that both parents had been crossed with
different varieties and that the different ancestral characteristics
reappeared, and from these results the importance of keeping seed
pure is evident.
The Rhode Island station planted Longfellow flint corn in close
proximity to sweet corn, but the resulting ears failed to show any
kernels of the sweet corn type on the ears of the flint corn, although
the yellow kernels were very numerous on the sweet corn, being
mostly found on ears taken from rows next the yellow corn.
CHANGING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE KERNEL BY BREEDING.
After cross-fertilization and its effects had been studied for a series
of years, the efforts of the stations were turned toward the improve-
ment of the chemical composition of the kernel. At the Illinois
station this special study was begun in 1S96. and the first results
indicated that kernels of the same ear are much more uniform in
chemical composition than different ears of the same variety, which
often show a wide variation in this respect. Similar work at the
Kansas station showed that in 33 varieties under investigation the
nitrogen content ranged from 1.56 to 2.26 per cent: in different ears
of a variety grown for thirty years it ranged from 1.53 to 2.24 per
cent, and in ears of a cross originated the previous year from 1.35 to
2.22 per cent. In these tests the nitrogen content of single kernels
from the same ear also showed variations, but not to so great an
extent as among different ears of the same variety. It was also
found that the specific gravity of kernels is too uncertain a factor for
the selection of corn rich in nitrogen. Of the original 33 varieties.
286 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
21 were selected for breeding purposes, and for three years the cr
obtained showed remarkably high percentages of nitrogen in many
-. In 12 cases the average was about 2.40 per cent of nitrogen,
or 15 per cent of protein.
Subsequent to the preliminary work above referred to, the Illinois
ion took up the work of breeding for high and low protein and
high and low fat content in the kernel, and developed in this connec-
tion a method for the arrangement and the maintenance of a breeding
plat. In six tests the shelled corn grown from seed selected for high
and low protein and high and low fat content showed differences
ranging in protein from 0.50 to 1.25 per cent and in fat content from
0.67 to 1.45 per cent. Investigations on the relation of the size of
the kernel to the percentage of protein or fat showed that the weight
of kernels from 24 ears high in protein averaged 0.372 gram per kernel,
from 16 ears low in protein 0.337 gram per kernel: from 12 ears high
in fat 0.345 gram, and from 16 ears low in fat 0.42 gram per kernel.
In general, the tendency of corn high in fat content was toward small
kernels and of corn low in fat content toward large kernels. It was
also found that a high percentage of germ is correlated with a high
fat content. These results seem to show that by proper selection
of seed the protein, fat, or carbohydrates of corn may be increased
or decreased.
Together with the chemical composition of the kernel its physical
composition was also studied. The different parts which go to make
up the physical composition of the kernel, as worked out by the
Illinois station, are the tip-cap. hull, horny gluten, horny starch,
white starch, and germ. The tip-cap covers the tip or base of the
kernel, by which it is attached to the cob, and comprises about 1.5
per cent of the grain, and the hull is the very thin outer coat, consti-
tuting about 6 per cent of the kernel and containing a smaller per-
centage of protein than any other part of it. The horny gluten, lying
immediately under the hull, comprises from 8 to 14 per cent of the
grain, and is more abundant in the kernels with high protein content.
It contains from 20 to 25 per cent of protein and is the richest in
this substance of all the parts of the kernel. The horny starch is the
chief substance in the sides and back of the kernel, making up about
45 per cent of ordinary corn. In high-protein corn the percentage
of this substance is much higher and in low-protein corn much lower
than 45 per cent. This part of the kernel is rich in starch and, while
containing only about 10 per cent of protein, it furnishes a greater
total amount than any other part, because it constitutes a larger pro-
portion of the entire gram. The white starch, occupying the center
of the crown end of the kernel and usually partially surrounding the
germ, comprise- about 25 per cent of the kernel, being less in high-
protein corn and greater in low-protein corn. It contains only from
CORX-BSEEDIXG WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 287
5 to S per cent of protein. The germ comprises about 11 per cent of
the kernel and varies according to the oil content, constituting a
higher proportion in high-oil corn and a smaller proportion in low-oil
corn. In these investigations the oil in the germ ranged from 35 to
40 per cent and from SO to So per cent of the total oil present. Corn
high in protein contains a larger proportion of horny gluten and L
starch and a correspondingly smaller proportion of white starch. In
corn of high protein content the horny parts constitute about 00
per cent of the kernel and contain about SO per cent of the total
protein.
Two strains of corn bred for four years for a high and a low oil
content showed an average difference of 1.97 per cent in the oil con-
tent and 0.18 per cent in the protein content, or. in other words, a very
high degree of correlation between oil and protein. It is concluded
that as the percentage of protein increases the starch decreases and
the oil content remains practically unchanged, and that the selection
of high-protein seed corn shotdd be governed by a high proportion of
germ. In a study of four strains of pedigreed corn, the crop repre-
senting the seventh generation, the protein content of low-protein
ears varied from 6.36 to 7.9 per cent, with an average of 6.71 per cent,
while the protein content of the high-protein ears varied from 1
to 15.01 per cent, with an average of 14.44 per cent. The average
oil content of the low-protein ears was 4.21 and of the high-protein
ears 4.93 per cent. In a further test of the composition of the kernels
a correlation between oil and protein was apparent only to a small
degree, the high-oil corn containing nearly three times as much oil as
the low-oil corn, but being less than one-seventh richer in protein.
A very marked correlation between oil and germ was shown, the low-
oil ears containing an average of 2.52 per cent of oil and 7.74 per cent
of germ and the high-oil ears an average of 7 per cent of oil and 13. S4
per cent of germ.
The effect of breeding in charging the composition of the different
physical pans of the kernel is shown by the fact that the germs from
the low-oil corn contained about 25 per cent of oil and those from the
high-oil corn nearly 42 per cent, while the endosperms from the low-
protein ears contained less than 6 per cent of protein and those
from the high-protein ears nearly 14 per cent. Breeding for high or
low protein produced no marked effect upon the ash content or the
oil content of either the germs or the endosperms and only slightly
influenced the protein content of the germs. As calculated on the
basis of 100 pounds of corn, there was a maximum difference of only
0.75 pound of protein in the germs from 100 pounds of low-protein
and high-protein corn and a difference of 7.06 pounds of protein in
the endosperms.
2^"> YEARBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
At the North Dakota station corn selected for high nitrogen con-
tent in 1901 gave in most cases corn of high nitrogen content in 1902,
but the crop of 1903 presented some marked variations. The phys-
ical method of selecting corn of a high nitrogen content was found
quite reliable.
THE DEVELOPMENT Or TOE BEEEDIXG PLAT.
The development of the breeding plat and its introduction into prac-
tical corn breeding, aside from experimental work, mark an important
step in the progress of corn improvement. The object of the breeding
plat is to produce highly and purely bred seed and to enable the
breeder to keep a record showing the breeding of every seed ear
secured and the productive capacity of each individual ear planted
in the plat. The principal purpose of its location, arrangement, and
management is to prevent all foreign or outside pollen, as well as the
pollen from diseased, poorly developed, or otherwise abnormal plants,
from fertilizing the blossoms of the seed plants, and also to avoid self-
pollination and close pollination within the plat. Corn, being a wind-
pollinated plant, is with difficulty kept pure in breeding, and the first
followed in establishing a breeding plat was to isolate it or to
locate it at such a distance from other growing corn plats (a quarter
of a mile if possible and preferably in the direction opposite to the
prevailing winds' as to make it only a remote possibility that outside
pollen would be carried into the plat by the wind and thus blossoms
of one variety be fertilized with the pollen of another.
The fact that individual ears similar in appearance and scoring
equally high may still show great differences in yields was early
recognized, and led to establishing the performam-e record of each
ear and the selection of seed from only those ears showing the greatest
vielding power. The most practical, if not the only, method of com-
paring the productiveness of individual ears is the parallel-row system
advocated by the stations generally. The first recommendation for
the arranging of the breeding plat with these points in view made by
the Illinois experiment station was to the effect that 40 selected ears
be planted in 40 separate parallel rows, one ear to a row. the rows
being long enough to require each about three-fourths of an ear for
planting them. It was also advised to plant the very best seed ears in
the middle rows, grading them uniformly to either side, so that the least
desirable ears might be planted in the outside rows, and to shell the
remainder of the corn from all of the 40 ears and use it for planting
several rows entirely around the breeding plat to give additional
protection, especially from foreign pollen. In this stage of its develop-
ment the breeding plat gave a comparison of the different seed ears,
showing their individuality, and by isolation reserved the fertilization
CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 289
of the blossoms to the pollen produced within the plat. This arrange-
ment, however, did not preclude either self or close pollination.
In the experience of the stations, removing the tassels from corn
plants can truly be said to be of benefit only in breeding work, where
it is applied in the prevention of self-pollination or the transfer of
pollen from the tassel to the silks of the same plant. As demon-
strated by the Illinois station, it is possible for inbreeding to take-
place in the field, because the plant sheds part of its pollen at a time
when some of its own silk is already matured and in a receptive condi-
tion. In order to prevent inbreeding in connection with the parallel-
row system of planting, this institution practices and recommends
detasseling every other row before the pollen matures and selecting
seed from the detasseled rows only. This makes sires of the plants
in the tasseled rows and dams of those in the detasseled rows and
positively prevents self-pollination. It also makes close pollination
or the transfer of pollen from the tassel of one plant to the silks of
another plant in the same row of dams impossible, so that the seed
selected is entirely cross-bred. Even before the detasseling of the
entire alternate rows was practiced by the station, all abnormal-^
especially barren and otherwise imperfect — plants were detasseled
before their pollen matured in order to prevent the transmission of
their undesirable characters.
The next step taken by the Illinois station in perfecting the breed-
ing plat was to devise a method of planting which would give assur-
ance that the seed of both sires and dams is cross-bred, and a practical
commercial system insuring cross-breeding to the greatest possible
extent was worked out. In studying the arrangement of the breed-
ing plat up to this stage it may be seen that there still remains the
possibility of introducing related blood, as the breeding is carried on
from year to year, because the pedigree is established only on the
female side, while it is impossible to tell just from what sire plant
the pollen came which fertilized the flowers of any particular ear.
As it is most likely that a row of dam plants is fertilized by the pollen
of the rows of sires growing nearest to it, the station concluded that
the breeding plat might be planted in such a way as to insure cross-
breeding of plants not related to each other, or, at least, very remotely
related. Based on this idea, and with this end in view, a mathemat-
ical arrangement of seed ears for planting was worked out and adopted.
SELECTION AS A FACTOR IN CORN IMPROVEMENT.
We have seen how artificial pollination may be employed in corn
improvement, but it remains very evident that it is really only a
small factor when compared with selection, upon which the great and
general progress in corn breeding must be based, because crossing
3 a 1906 19
290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGP.ICULTUEE.
without subsequent selection can accomplish but little, and for the
further reason that selection is the more generally applicable of the
two means. The farmer is already familiar with selection along a
certain line and only a wider application of the principle is necessary.
The endeavor of the experiment station anti the agricultural college
is to teach him how to apply it scientifically and practically, not only
with reference to the ear, but also with reference to the kernel, the
entire plant, and even the row.
Experiment-station work has brought about a marked change in the
methods of selection. As already pointed out. the original method
consisted in basing the selection upon the type of ear, and great
progress in the improvement of corn has been thus accomplished,
but experiments conducted by many stations have shown that even
carefully selected seed ears, alike to all outward appearances, may
still have a wide variation in yielding capacity, amounting to even
more than 100 per cent. In fact, at the Nebraska station 10 seed
ears compared for this purpose ranged in yield from 35.0 to Sl.G
bushels, or a difference of 40 bushels per acre. The "Wisconsin station
in a recent test found the yields of different ears of Silver King corn
to vary from 14 to 97 bushels of shelled corn per acre, and the yields
of select seed ears from Ik pounds to 50 pounds per ear of seed corn.
The difference in productiveness is not revealed by an examination of
the ears, but must be ascertained by actual test, so that the yields may
be measured. This indeterminable factor is called the individuality
and is analogous to the individuality in animals, wlrich also shows
itself in the progeny.
As in the development of the breeding plat, selection has gone
through various stages. In some of the earlier work with corn the
station efforts were largely directed toward testing and comparing
varieties for the purpose of singling out those best suited to certain
localities and conditions. This was selection applied to the variety
as a whole, and as a typical instance some of the work of the iuinne-
sota station may be cited. This station made a selection of var
grown in the State and compared them. This collect ion was regarded
as i foundation stock from which the best variety was to be selected.
The varietal names, if any such existed, were disregarded and the
samples received were simply indicated by a serial number. Of
these varieties and strains No. 13 proved most promising, the distin-
guishing character being a high yielding capacity. The variety was
tested for several years and selected according to scientific principles
and then disseminated under the name of Minnesota Xo. 13. At
present it is grown quite extensively in southern Minnesota and it
has also been distributed in South Dakota by the experiment station
of that State. The Wisconsin station has selected a .-train of this
variety, known as Wisconsin Xo. S. the seed having been secured
CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 291
from the Minnesota experiment station, and has used the same as the
male parent in breeding for earlier maturity in some of the late
heavy yielding- varieties of yellow dent corn, in order to make them
better suited to Wisconsin conditions. While this line of work is of
the greatest value and must be carried on continuously, selection
has been introduced to a much greater extent in procuring: seed
either for the improvement of the variety itself or for the maintenance
of its desirable characters.
Formerly in seed-corn selection only the type of ear was considered,
but it is now widely recognized, and the stations are continually
dwelling upon the point, that this is not enough, but that selection
must be applied to the individual plant and to the individual ear with
reference to its productiveness. As shown by station work, it is the
performance record rather than any particular point about the ear
that forms a definite basis for the selection of its progeny for seed.
Even the size of the ear, which undoubtedly was regarded as one of
the principal and desirable features, and probably in most cases
determined the selection of seed, can not be relied upon as indicating
the best yielding qualities. In experiments to determine the relation
of size of ear to yield the Nebraska station found that the average
weight per ear of the five highest-yielding varieties under test was
0.705 pound, while the average weight per ear for all the varieties
was much higher. In some cases large-eared varieties were rather
low in yield, thus indicating that no definite relation between the size
of the ear and the yielding capacity exists. It was further brought
out by cooperative tests that the size of the yield varies with locality
and is dependent upon soil, climate, and elevation, and the data
secured showed plainly that for western and central Nebraska a
smaller-eared type of corn should be selected than for the eastern
portion of the State.
The effect and value of careful selection in corn growing are shown
by the results of numerous other experiments and are especially and
more definitely thrown into relief by cooperative work. In work
of this kind by the Wisconsin Experiment Association in 1905 with
Silver King corn, a variety which had undergone selection at the
station for several years, an average yield of 59.2 bushels per acre
was secured, while the best of all other not so long and carefully
selected varieties observed in the comparison yielded on an average
10 bushels less.
At the Wisconsin experiment station the results of corn breeding
in accordance with the plat system show an increase in the propor-
tions and average yields of seed corn and marketable corn in the crops
produced. In 1905 each row in the breeding plat produced on an
average 22. G pounds of seed corn, 97 pounds of marketable corn, and
7.2 pounds of nubbins, and in 1906, 53.1 pounds of seed corn, 132.8
292 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
pounds of marketable corn, and 13 pounds of nubbins. The average
yield per acre of the plats in 1906 was at the rate of approximately
75 bushels per acre. The increase in yield was in some instances
largely due to soil and season, but the increase in seed corn was
greater in proportion than that of the nubbins, thus indicating that
a constant selection from the breeding plat will materially increase
productiveness and quality. An experiment was also made to deter-
mine to what extent the bearing qualities of different stalks would
be transmitted to the progeny. Seed com was selected from stalks
bearing a single large ear and from stalks bearing two ears. A greater
total yield was secured where the selection was made to increase the
number of single ears in the plat than where it was made to increase
the number of double ears. Where two ears were borne on a stalk
generally one or both were small and poorly formed.
The Rhode Island station has pursued for several years a somewhat
similar line of work with sweet corn by selecting the upper and lower
ear of stalks producing the largest number of ears. This was done
to ascertain whether the lower ear would increase lower-ear produc-
tion, together with the number of ears on the stalk, as compared with
seed from the upper ear. In 1901, 35 per cent of the plants bore more
than one ear and in 1905, 90 per cent bore more than one ear, the
highest number of ears from a single plant being 13. Although the
earlier results seemed to show that the character or the individuality
of the corn plant from which the seed is taken is of much greater
importance in corn breeding than the position of the ear on the stalk,
it was found that selecting seed from the lower ear was not so satis-
factory as selecting it from the upper ear.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE WORK.
The corn-breeding work of the experiment stations has exerted a
wide influence in all corn-growing sections of the country. Partly
through the station publications and the agricultural press and partly
through the activities of agricultural college extension forces, in coop-
eration with station workers, the farmers' institutes, the corn-growers'
associations, and other similar factors, the results of this work are
presented to the farmer and every effort is made to induce him to
apply the principles demonstrated as advantageous and profitable.
Every gathering at which the value of highly bred corn is discussed
reflects the interest of the farming population in the subject and indi-
cates the confidence placed in the station results and recommenda-
tions. Progress is most rapid when the individual farmer understands
all the essential features of the work, but such a degree of efficiency is
most readily reached through cooperation with the stations and such
mutual assistance as the farmers themselves are able to give to each
other.
CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 293
Associations organized for the purpose of producing highly bred
seed corn are doing good work in a number of States, prominent among
them being Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri.
In 1900, only about four years after the Illinois station inaugurated its
corn-improvement work, the first seed-corn growers' organization,
under the name of the Illinois Seed Corn Breeders' Association, was
formed and the methods of corn breeding advised by the station were
put into use throughout the State. As an example of different lines
of endeavor of such associations the work of the Kansas Corn Breeders'
Association may be cited. This organization endeavors to establish
improved types and strains of corn meeting the needs of different sec-
tions of the State, to stimulate and to promote the growing of pure
seed corn within the State, to furnish means bj" which valuable native
strains showing purity of breeding maybe recognized as pure bred, to
establish a bureau of inspection with authority to give certificates of
type and breeding for corn grown by breeders, to furnish information
on seed corn to farmers and purchasers for their convenience and pro-
tection, to aid in enacting legislation protecting the grower of pure-bred
seed corn, to establish a score card or standard of perfection for each
recognized breed of corn, and to further in every way the interests of
corn culture. Corn maybe recognized as pure bred by a vote of the
association when it has been bred and selected by itself for five years
or more and the proper association authorities have inspected and
examined the corn in the locality in which it is grown and have recom-
mended to the association that such corn be recognized as a pure-bred
corn. In addition to these stipulations the breeder is required to
bring a bushel of selected ears of the particular variety to the meeting
of the association in which the vote is cast and to give a detailed
description, including the history of its breeding and its production.
Another plan of cooperation followed in some localities consists in
the production of seed corn by one of a group of neighbors whose farm
is suitably located and presents average soil conditions. This farmer
plants the best variety for the locality, as previously determined, and
grows a crop under approved methods of corn improvement and cul-
ture, with the understanding that the other parties to the agreement
will buy the seed corn produced at a stipulated price. In the work of
continuous improvement and the maintenance of a high standard of
production throughout the entire country all associations of corn
growers and corn breeders are a most important and helpful factor.
Our farm lands are steadily increasing in value, and in view of this
condition, together with the fact that American agricultural labor
should always be well paid, we must obtain greater yields from the
same areas without very materially increasing the cost of production
in order to get the proper return on the money invested in our farms.
This result may be achieved in corn culture by the use of higher
294 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and better bred varieties, as no greater expense is involved in grow-
ing a variety ranking high in yield and quality than in growing an
inferior one.
The experiments showing the value of a full stand of healthy plants
grown from strong and vigorous seed, the inquiries into the effects of
detasseling, the observations on the mixing of different t}Tpes and
varieties, the investigations in crossing, the studies of the chemical
composition of the kernel, and similar lines of work constitute the pre-
liminary measures which led to the establishment of the breeding plat,
with its superior facilities for comparing the yielding power of indi-
vidual ears, insuring cross-pollination and pure breeding, and estab-
lishing a pedigree of seed ears. The data derived from all the different
lines of corn improvement by the experiment stations have been S3^s-
tematically and scientific ally grouped by these same institutions and
are now presented to the farmer and the commercial seed-corn grower
as a harmonious whole in the form of a complete and practical system
of corn breeding for the improvement of the corn plant in both yield
and quality and for the maintenance of a high standard of excellence.
NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD.
By M. E. Jaffa.
Assistant Professor of Nutrition, University of California.
IXTRODUCTIOX".
The constantly increasing consumption of nuts throughout the
United States augurs well for a better appreciation of their food
value. The time when nuts were considered merely as a luxury, or
as something to be eaten out of hand at odd times, is rapidly passing
away. In earlier days the native hickories, butternuts, walnuts, chest-
nuts, and many other nuts found in the United States were to be had
in country regions for the gathering and were of no commercial impor-
tance. On the other hand, the English walnuts (to give them their
most common name), almonds, cocoanuts, etc., brought from other
countries, were relatively expensive luxuries. Conditions have mate-
rially changed and our principal native nuts are now staple market
commodities and bring good prices. At the same time, owing to
changes in market conditions, the price of the imported nuts has
dropped so that they are well within the reach of the majority.
Some nuts, like the native hazelnut and beechnut, have practically
no commercial value and, though palatable, are almost never offered
for sale, doubtless because they are so small and difficult to gather in
quantity. The chinquapin, a small nut allied to the chestnut, finds
a limited sale in southern cities, but is seldom seen in other markets.
From available statistics it appears that in 1905 the total quantity
of almonds, cocoanuts, Brazil nuts, filberts, peanuts, walnuts, and other
nuts, shelled and unslielled, imported into the United States was. in
round numbers, 86,238,000 pounds, with a value of 86,138,000. In
1905 the total almond crop in California reached 4,200,000 pounds
and the walnut crop 12,800,000 pounds. The richest yield of peanuts
was reported from the Southern States, chiefly Virginia, Georgia, and
Tennessee, and amounted to 225,000,000 pounds.
The total quantity of home-grown nuts, including both native and
cultivated varieties, must far exceed the quantities imported, but in
the nature of the case no estimates of the total quantities gathered
and eaten are procurable. When we consider the constantly increasing
demand for nuts and the large quantity which we import the p.
bilities of the industry for the American nut grower are obvious.
As the use of nuts lias increased, many persons have turned their
attention to the growing of native and foreign nuts on a commercial
296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
scale. This work has been forwarded by the Department of Agri-
culture, through the Bureau of Plant Industry, and by the Califor-
nia. Florida, Michigan, and other agricultural experiment stations.
With nuts, as with other crops, it has been found that, by selection
and breeding, improved varieties are obtainable, of larger size, bet-
ter flavor, thinner shells, or other desirable characteristics. The
increased demand for nuts is due in the main to two causes, namely,
a better appreciation of their appetizing qualities and the numerous
ways in which they form a palatable addition to the diet of the
average family, and, secondly, to then use by the vegetarians and
persons of similar belief — a group small in proportion to the total
population, but still fairly large numerically — who use nuts, and
more particularly the peanut, as a substitute for meat and other
nitrogenous and fatty foods.
Many special nut foods, such as malted nuts, meat substitutes, etc..
have been devised and extensively advertised by the manufacturers
for general use in the diet and for the special needs of vegetarians and
fruitarians. It is said that some of these American nut products con-
tain soy beans, but apparently the peanut plays a very important part
in their composition. In either case, since the peanut, like the soy
bean, is a legume, these preparations might more properly be compared
with the bean cheese and other soy-bean products so much used in
China, Japan, and other eastern countries than with such nuts as
the walnut, almond, or cocoanut.
DESCRIPTION OF NUTS.
The term "nut" is not a definite one botanically speaking, but is
applied indiscriminately to a variety of certain fruits or parts of
fruits and implies a more or less hard, woody covering surrounding a
meat or kernel. The most diverse plant groups contribute to our nut
supply, many of the nuts being the product of our beech, chestnut,
walnut, and other deciduous trees and bushes, some of pines and
tropical palms, and others, like the peanut and pistache or pistachio,
being the fruit, respectively, of a vine-like plant and a small tree,
both belonging to the family of legumes. Still another, the water
chestnut, is supplied by a water plant.
Most of the native and foreign nuts winch we use are too familiar
to need description. Several, however, are not so generally known.
Pinenuts, which grow in the cones of a number of varieties of native
and foreign pines, are now fairly common in our markets. The
Indians have always known and appreciated them and have passed
<m their knowledge to the white race. Then, too, many immigrants
who came to this country knew the pinenut. for it lias long been much
eaten in Italy and other parts of southern Europe, where there are a
number of nut-yielding pines. The small, rather pointed white nuts
NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 297
are usually marketed shelled; but as they grow are covered with a more
or less hard, woody shell. The pistaehe nut (now grown in California)
has long been used and is prized by confectioners for its delicate
flavor and attractive green color, yet it is by no means common.
The nuts are small, not unlike a bean in size and shape, though more
pointed, and before marketing are freed from the pods in which they
grow. The individual nuts are covered with a gray or purplish skin,
and are blanched before they are used.
The so-called lichi nut, which is really a dried fruit surrounded by
a nut-like shell and not unlike a raisin in flavor, is a favorite in
China and has become quite common in this country. The ginkgo
nut, the fruit of an ornamental tree quite widely grown in the United
States and sometimes called the maidenhair tree from the shape of
the leaves, and which fruits abundantly in some regions, is seldom
eaten except by the Chinese, who gather it whenever possible. The
small, roundish, oval, thin-shelled nut is surrounded by a very acrid.
bad-smelling pulp, the whole fruit being not unlike a green damson
plum in size and appearance. In China. Korea, and other parts of
the Orient this nut is much used as a food, and, so far as can be
learned, is always cooked in some way. Roasted like a peanut, it is
palatable. The ginkgo nuts are on sale in the Chinese shops in San
Francisco and doubtless in other cities, and were studied at the Cali-
fornia experiment station some years ago. together with other Chinese
foods.
The water chestnut, or horn chestnut (T/npa bispinosa), an aquatic
plant, produces a seed or "nut" which somewhat resembles two
curved horns united in one, the kernel of which is largely used as a
food by the inhabitants of Asiatic countries. This so-called nut
is also on sale in the United States, but chiefly in Chinese shops.
Another water plant (Eltocluiris tuberosa) is also known as the
water chestnut, but in this case it is the conn or bulb that is eaten. It
is not unlike a chestnut in shape, and has a tough, brown skin. This
is grown in Asia, but is imported by the Chinese in this country. A
three-cornered pointed nut or seed, the pit of the Chinese olive
(Canarium sp. ), is also on sale at Chinese shops in the United States.
The kernels are oily but palatable, and are used in Java for making
a nut milk much thought Gf for infant feeding:.
The chufa, nut grass, or earth almond is a small tuberous root of a
sedgelike plant and perhaps should be classed with the vegetables
rather than with nuts. It is not common, though sometimes eaten.
From time to time new nuts make their appearance on the market
as some nut prized locally becomes known to the trade. A nut which
seems to be growing in popularity, though still uncommon, is the Par-
adise nut of South America, which resembles a Brazil nut in appear-
ance and flavor. Still less common is the South African cream nut,
298 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
though it is sometimes shipped to this country. The choicest member
of the Brazil-nut group is the true "butternut " of the Tropics, which
is very seldom found outside that region. Its flavor is very delicate
and delicious, but it does not keep well : and even if it would bear ship-
ment successfully, the available supply is at present very small. The
cashew nut of tropical regions, which many consider one of the most
delicious nuts grown, has long been known, but has never become com-
mon. It is sold to some extent and brings high prices. This nut is
roasted before it is eaten, as the raw nut contains poisonous properties
winch are readily destroyed by heat.
The oval. flat, and rather large seeds of a pumpkin-like fruit, tabe-
buia (Ttlfairia pedata), from Zanzibar, which has been grown in a
limited way at the Porto Rico experiment station, are roasted and
eaten like a nut. The flavor is oily and fairly palatable. This sug-
gests the use in Russia of the raw sunflower seed, which is rich in oil
ami not unlike some of the common nuts in composition. The seeds
are eaten out of hand at ail times and by all classes.
THE FLAVOR OF NUTS.
The flavor of nuts is very largely dependent upon the oils which
thev contain, though in some there are also specific flavoring bodies.
The nut oils readily become rancid, the very disagreeable flavor of
spoiled nuts being due to this property. Some nuts, for instance, the
chestnut, have a starchy flavor as well as a "nutty" taste. The
small native nut is much more highly flavored than the large Italian or
the Japanese chestnut. The almond possesses the cyanic-acid flavor,
which is characteristic of peach pits, plum pits, etc.. and this might be
expected when it is remembered that the almond is the dried pit of an
inedible fruit somewhat resembling the peach in appearance and
lv related to it botanicallv. Most almonds are mild flavored,
though in the so-called bitter almonds the cyanic-acid yielding glucosid
is more abundant. In raw peanuts there is a decided flavor resem-
bling that of the closely related beans and peas, and to some persons
tins is not unpalatable. In the roasted peanut, winch most of us
prefer to the raw. the flavor is largely dependent upon the browned
oil- and starches or other carbohydrates.
MLPOSmON OF NUTS.
The composition of nuts and nut products has been studied at a
number of the agricultural experiment stations, notably California,
Maine, and Iowa, and the table on the following page summarizes the
results of tins work, the American data being supplemented in a
number of cases by the results of European analyses. For purposes
of comparison several other common food materials are also included.
NUTS AND TKEIK USES AS FOOD.
299
Avmyc composition of nuts and nut products.
Kind of food.
Refuse.
Edible portion.
Water.
Pro-
tein.
Carbohy-
drates.
Fat.
Sugar,
starch.
etc.
Crude
fiber.
Fuel
value per
pound.
Nuts and nut products: Per efc
Acorn, fresh 17. 80
Almond H.W
Beechnut [ 30. 90
B ra zil nut 49. 3.3
Butternut 80. 40
Candle nut
Chestnut, fresh
Chestnut, dry 23. 40
Horn chestnut or water chest-
nut
Chut'a (earth almond)
Cocoanut 34. 06
Filbert 52.68
Ginkgo nut (seeds)
Hickory nut 02. 20
Lichi nut 41. 00
Paradise nut 4-3. 70
Peanut 27. 04
Pecan 50. 10
Pignolia (shelled)
Pistachio
"Walnut
Almond butter
Almond paste
Peanut butter
Malted nuts
Cocoanut candy
Peanut candy
Chestnuts, preserved (marron
glace) , air dried
Walnuts preserved in sirup,
air dried
58.80
Cocoanut milk
Cocoanut, desiccated
Peanut coffee made from en-
tire kernel
Chestnut flour
Cocoanut flour
Hazelnut meal
Other foods for comparison:
Moat, round steak
Cheese, Cheddar
Eggs, boiled
Wheat flour, high grade .
White bread
Beans, dried
Potatoes
Apples
Raisins
20.00
2.3.00
10.00
Per ct.
34.7
4.9
0.6
4.7
4.5
5.9
43.4
6.1
10.6
2.2
13.0
5.4
47.3
3.7
16.4
2.3
7.-4
3.4
6.2
4.2
3.4
2. 2
24.2
2.1
2.0
3.9
3.0
IS. 2
16.9
92.7
3.5
5.1
7.8
14.4
2.7
65.5
27.4
65.0
12.0
35.3
12. 6
75. 3
84.6
14.0
Per ct.
4.4
21.4
21.8
17.4
27.9
21.4
6.4
10.7
10.9
3.5
6.6
10.5
5.9
15.4
2.9
22.2
29. S
12.1
33.9
22.0
IS. 2
21.7
13.1
29.3
23.7
2. 4
10.3
1.3
Per ct.
4.7
54.4
49.9
65.0
61.2
01.7
6.0
7.S
.7
31.6
56.2
61.0
.8
67.4
.8
62.6
43.5
70.7
48.2
54. 5
60.7
61.5
23.9
46.5
27. i
11.9
16.6
. 5
13. § ; 20. 0
.1 1. 5
0. 3 57. 4
27.9
4.0
20.6
11.7
19.8
27.7
12.4
11.4
9.2
22. 5
2.2
.4
2.0
50.1
3.4
2.1
05.0
13.6
36.8
10.7
1.0
1.3
1.8
.1
.5
3.3
Per ct.
50.4
13.8
18.0
5.7 [
3.4
4.9
41.3
70.1
73.8
50.2
13.7
Per ct.
4.2
3.0
3.9
l.o
2.9
1.4
10.5
8.9
11.7
43.1
.9
11.4
78.0
10.2
14.7
2.4
8.5
3.7
6.5
1.4
i:
.6
29.4
17.1
43.9
66.9
4.5
2.1
79.7
I
48.6
4.6
31.5
12. 3 J 2. 4
80.8
45.9 | 10.1
17.8
74.8
52.6
85. 2
15.0
13.0
73.6
.3
.5
4.4
.4
1.2
2.5
Per ct.
1.6
2.5
3.7
3.3
3.0
3.3
1.4
2.4
2.6
2.0
1.6
2.4
2.0
2.1
1.9
2.7
2.2
1.6
3.8
3.1
1.7
3.0
1.6
5.0
2.2
.0
1.1
1.3
2. 2
3.4
0.9
2.2
1.1
4.0
. 7
.5
1.1
3.5
1.0
.3
3.4
Calories.
1,265
2,895
2,740
3,120
3,370
3,020
1,140
1, 840
3UU YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Refuse, mostly shell, constitutes a considerable proportion of the
nuts as purchased, varying greatly with the different kinds. With
fresh chestnuts the proportion is nearly 16 per cent, peanuts 27 per
cent, almonds 47 per cent, and butternuts 86 per cent.
The edible portion of nuts, with few exceptions, is very concentrated
food, containing little water and much fat. In general, nuts are also
rich in protein. Those ranking highest in this nutrient, the pignolia,
a variety of pinenut imported from Spain, with 33.9 per cent, the pea-
nut with 29.8 per cent, and the butternut with 27.9 per cent protein,
surpass most ordinary animal or vegetable foods in this respect. The
almond, beechnut, and pistachio, with 21.4 per cent, 21.8 per cent, and
22.6 per cent, respectively, compare favorably with dried legumes.
The Brazil nut contains 17.4 per cent protein, the filbert 16.5 per cent,
the walnut IS. 2 per cent, the hickory nut 15.4 per cent, the pinenut
14.8 per cent, the pecan 12.1 per cent, and the dry chestnut but 10.7
per cent. The dry acorn, fresh chestnut, and cocoanut, with, respec-
tively, 6.4, 6.4, and 6.6 per cent, are not as rich in protein as bread.
:■—£= 2 5^-1 . ^t\y V\ yC r^^ 59°fo WATER
FROTE.W /66 <%>' ' l~ " .- ; ;■ £• \ /r; '"^NT~~ 107 °f> RROTEIN
FAT 634 <%, 1- ■ I lmffl^\ \ f/' "°?V ""- 70°t> FAT
STARCH.SUGARETC IZ.S^c*. V \l JL-' £->!. v / tj ~^\ — 715 % STARCH SUSARETC.
CRUDE FIBER 26%-.^ \^.-\I'-\ ./ '%^27°?0 CRUDE FIBER
ASH 1 4 fy^S^C~~5\-%U \n'- .'Jt'"22 ^' ASH
WALMJT. CHESTVJT.
Fig. 8.— Percentage composition of an oily nut (walnut) and a starchy nut (chestn ;.
Of the nuts here included the richest in fat is the pecan, with an
average of 70.7 per cent, but 7 other varieties — the Brazil nut, butter-
nut, candlenut, filbert, hickory nut, pinenut, and walnut — contain
upward of 60 per cent. The almond, cocoanut, and pistachio yield
between 50 and 60 per cent of this nutrient. The beechnut, peanut,
and pignolia contain about 50 per cent. In other words, in 13 of the
varieties of nuts appearing in the foregoing table, half or more of the
edible portion is fat or oil.
Only a few of the commonly used nuts yield any notable amounts of
total carbohydrate matter, the dry chestnut, with 73 per cent, rating
highest. Beechnuts, pinenuts, and peanuts have about IS per cent.
The quantity of starch found is, with some exceptions, quite small,
ranging from 3 per cent in the beechnut to 27 per cent in the chestnut.
Figure 8 shows in diagrammatic form the percentage composition
of an oily nut, the walnut, and a starchy nut, the chestnut.
Xuts are, comparatively speaking, well supplied with mineral mat-
ter, this constituent in the majority of nuts exceeding 2 per cent.
The ash of the walnut, almond, etc., is rich in phosphoric acid, and
NUTS .VXD THEIR USES AS FOOD. 301
in this regard compares favorably with that of cereals. It would
appear from the data on the digestibility of nuts that the mineral
matter is as well assimilated as that from other common foods.
DIGESTIBILITY OF XUTS.
With the exception, perhaps, of dried beans and cheese, no food
material has the reputation for indigestibility that has been accorded
to nuts. Discomfort from them is largely due to insufficient mastica-
tion ami to the fact that nuts are often eaten when not needed, as after
a hearty meal or late at night, though it is undoubtedly true that nut
protein as ordinarily eaten is not so easily or so completely digested as
meat protein. Very likely the concentration of nuts, with but 3 to 5
per cent water, as compared with meats containing from 50 to 70 per
cent water, is a contributing cause. If careful consideration were
given to this matter and if attention were paid to the proper use of
nuts and their correct place in the diet, there would be less unfavor-
able comment on their digestibility.
The results of investigations carried on with fruit and nut diets at
the California Agricultural Experiment Station afford tentative con-
clusions regarding thoroughness of digestion which should be of value
to those who wish to use nuts as a staple article of food rather than as
an occasional article of diet. This work has comprised 15 dietary
studies and about 100 digestion experiments with elderly men, young
men, women, and children, of whom some had been vegetarians for
years, and some had even limited their diet almost exclusively to fruit
and nuts; others had previously lived on the usual mixed diet. The
average coefficients of digestibility reported for 28 experiments with
2 men and 1 woman were: Protein, 90 per cent; fat, S5 per cent;
sugar, starch, etc., 96 per cent: crude fiber, 54 per cent; and ash, 68
per cent, with 86 per cent of the energy available. The correspond-
ing figures for three experiments with the same subjects in which no
fruit or nuts were used are: Protein, 94 per cent; fat, 92 per cent;
sugar, starch, etc., 96 per cent; crude fiber, 49 per cent, with 88 per
cent of the energy available. The latter coefficients agree very closely
with those in the average of nearly 500 experiments with different
sorts of mixed diet, namely : Protein, 92 per cent ; fat, 95 per cent ; and
carbohydrates, 97 per cent. In view of these facts regarding compo-
sition and digestibilit}' of their diet, it is evident that nuts must be
regarded as the main source of protein forthe fruitarians. The studies
with fruitarians have all indicated that nut protein is fairly well assimi-
lated ; and that this is true with the average healthy person is well illus-
trated by an experiment with a university student, who, though en-
tirely unaccustomed to such fare, gradually changed from an ordinary
mixed diet to one of fruit and nuts, which he followed for a time with-
out apparent loss of health or strength.
302 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It is somewhat difficult to arrive at definite conclusions regarding
the actual percentage of nut protein digested or assimilated. The
experimental data obtained at the California station show a range
of 75 to 82 per cent digestible protein when fruit and nuts were
eaten together, but the figure for nut protein is doubtless higher.
These coefficients were in all probability influenced by the fruit pro-
tein, which has been found to be less digestible than the nut protein.
The digestibility of protein in 28 experiments with mixed diets, to
which were added fruit and nuts, averaged 90 per cent.
As fruits, with the exception of the avocado and olive, yield only
a small amount of fat, the fat which is contained in a fruitarian diet
must be very largely obtained from the nuts. The average coefficients
of digestibility for this nutrient in 30 experiments with men on a diet
of fruit and nuts was 86 per cent, and in the 28 experiments just re-
ferred to it was 85 per cent. These figures are about 10 per cent
lower than the average coefficient for digestibility of fats in the ordi-
nary mixed diet. The digestibility of the carbohydrates in nuts, so
far as the available data show, is about equal to that of the same
ingredients in other foods.
So far as can be ascertained no experiments have been made on the
ease or rapidity of digestion of nuts. In the absence of such data it is
fair to assume that within reasonable limits the finer the state of
subdivision of the food material, the easier, the more rapid, and per-
haps the more nearly complete will be the digestion or assimilation,
presupposing, of course, that the nuts are not eaten in addition to a
heart a* meal. Too much stress can not be laid on the necessity of
thorough mastication of nuts. This is emphasized by the results ob-
tained with one of the subjects at the Calilornia station, who ate
largelv of nuts but did not properly masticate his food. The coeffi-
cients of digestibility of the food were far lower than for other sub-
jects who chewed their food thoroughly. The experiments with fruit
and nut diets in general indicate that nut protein is as easily, even if
not quite so completely, digested as protein from bread and milk.
The present discussion refers only to the nuts included in the
studies at the California station, viz, the almond, Brazil nut, coeoanut,
peanut, pecan, pignolia, and walnut. It is believed that these are
typical of the ordinary edible nuts, but further digestion experiments
are much needed for the purpose of testing some other nuts.
As regards the work of other investigators, both Memino0 and
Merrill6 report experiments with cooked chestnuts. Memmo's sub-
ject was a farm laborer, 53 years old, working eight hours a day.
The experiment lasted four days. During the first two the food con-
sisted exclusively of chestnut products. This was modified during
a Ann. Inst. Ig. Sper. Univ. Roma, n. s., 4 (1894), p. 263.
>> Maine Sta. Bui. 131, p. 146.
■U1E AXD THEIE BGB S FOOD.
the last two days by the addition of herring and cheese. In
rlinent 75 pear cent of the protein. 87 per cent of the fat. 97 per
cent of the total carbohydrates, and S3 per cent of the ash were assim-
ilated. The last figure is high: the others correspond to those
reported for the California experiments with i nd nut diet.
Tl. :' Merrill's experiments were two men aged 23 and 34
lively. A mixed diet was used. Each subject consumed
daily _ : .- . ..-ooked chestnut flour, which furnished abou" _
per cent of the proteids. 50 per cent of the fat. nearly 50 per cent of the
carbohydrate-, and not far from 40 per cent of the total fuel value of
the food. The average digestion coefficients obtained for chestnuts
with the two subjects were protein 56 per cent, fat 63 per cent, and
total carbohydrates OS per cent, while 89 per cent of the energy
avadable. Mem in o also studied a kind of acorn bread eaten in Italy.
and found it was fairly well assimilated, though not very palatable.
Saikia found tl. I raw Italian chestnuts was relatively
indigestible.
It would appear, then. that, while it is not possible to state the e:
b coefficients for all nuts, enough has been done to indicate
their lugh nutritive value and digestibility.
PLACE OF NUTS IX THE DIET.
It has been shown by numerous invest that nuts are rich in
protein and fat and that these nutrients can be fairly well assimilated.
- uch a concentrated food, their proper pi
a matter for more careful consideration than is tfa y of
our ordinary food materials. It must not be l Tg-nten that a cea
bulkiness of the diet is conducive to its normal aa that
too concentrated nutriment is often the ea\> urb-
ances. It might be expected, then, that nuts could : advan-
Mialj used in connection with more bulky :
etc. Most rationally used, they should
constitute an integral part of the menu rather >plemen
already abundant meal. Since nuts a:
considerable quantity out of hand at odd times will mean an over-
supply of food if a corresponding reduction is not made in other foods.
The distress sometimes experienced when nut undoubt-
edly often due to improper mastication or to overindulgence. The
investigations made at the California station indicate clearly
considerable quantities of nuts properly eaten do not cause disti
pular belief that a little salt with nuts prevents the diges-
tive disturbance resulting from eating them. To most persons, salt
undoubtedly adds to the palatability of the nuts, but no i:.
tions have been found on record which demonstrate any a.
improvement in the digestibility of nuts due to salt.
oJour. Bi - 251.
304 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT 09? AGRICULTURE.
Nuts may be readily used as staple articles of diet, as an ingredient
in salads and in soup- 9 - Tuning for poultry, in the making of
Berts, and in many other ways. Wild turkey stuffed with pecan nuts
is a dish popular with old Virginia cooks, just as goose stuffed with
chestnuts is prized in Germany. Salted nuts and nuts crystallized
in sugar are very common accompaniments of other foods. In general,
the nuts rich in protein and fat should be used in combination with
carbohydrate foods, as bread, fruit, green vegetables, etc.. while such
nuts as the chestnut , which do not contain much protein or fat, but are
rich in carbohydrates, may be properly combined with meats, milk
and cream, eggs, and other foods containing protein and fat.
Since nuts are relished by most persons, are nutritious, and may be
readily used by themselves and in various palatable combinations as
an integral part of the diet, they have a legitimate place in the menu.
Those who, for any reason, wish to live on vegetable foods and dairy
products or any form of vegetarian or fruitarian diet will almost
inevitably look to nuts, particularly such as the peanut, for a con-
siderable proportion of their total nutritive material. A fruit and
nut diet may be arranged to furnish sufficient protein, mainly from
nuts, to satisfy the requirements of the body, but the consensus of
opinion of well-informed physiologists seems to be that such a diet is
not generally advisable nor to be recommended for the majority of
mankind in place of the more usual mixed diet. It should also be
remembered that numerous experiments have shown that the protein
from mixed diet has a higher coefficient of digestibility than nut pro-
tein, which indicates that the protein of nuts is the less economically
utilized by the body. The argument which is so often advanced that
primitive man lived on nuts and fruits exclusively and hence Ins
descendants should do so. is not generally accepted.
The comparatively high price of many of the edible nuts, particu-
larly when shelled, and the difficulty of cracking some varieties —
like pecans, black walnuts, and hickory nuts — and extracting the
kernels at home, greatly militate against the freer use of nuts in the
household. The consumption of peanuts and English walnuts is per-
haps increasing faster than that of some other nuts: but. whatever
sort is selected, they should, as already noted, form a part of the diet
and not supplement an already sufficient meal.
NUT BUTTERS.
Within the last few years so-called nut butters have been used in
increasingly large amounts, and at least one variety, namely, peanut
butter, is made and sold in ton lots. It has already been sta4
in order to insure the best physiological results from the ietel use
of nuts they should be thoroughly ground up by the teeth and I
other things being equal, the digestion coefficient will vary directly
NTJTS AXD THEIR USES AS FOOD. 305
with the fineness of division. The nut butters, made as they are
from the finely ground nuts with or without the addition of 'some
water, oil, and salt, have a homogeneous consistency nut unlike true
butter., and when properly made the material is so finely divided that
even if it is not thoroughly chewed it will presumably otter much less
resistance to the digestive juices than nuts hastily eaten. Nuts, and
hence nut butters, are very rich in fat winch readily becomes rancid
and unpalatable. This is doubtless one of the reasons why nut but-
ters are quite commonly marketed in jars, etc., containing small
amounts which may be utilized in a short time. The nut butters
are recommended by vegetarians as a substitute for butter in culi-
nary processes and for use at the table. With persons who are not
vegetarians they are commonly used for making sandwiches and in
other ways for their agreeable flavor and for the pleasing variety
which they give the diet.
Nut butter may be easily made at home. The nuts may be
poimded in a mortar, but a mill for grinding them is much more' con-
venient and may be readily procured, as there are a number of sorts
on the market. The process of making nut butters has been fre-
quently described in journals and cookery books. Either the raw
or the roasted peanut may be used for making peanut butter, but
the roasted nut is the more satisfactory. The kernels should be freed
from chair and reduced to a paste in the grinding mill. Freshly
roasted nuts are necessary, as those which have stood for a day or so
after roasting lose in crispness, do not grind well, and tend to clog
the mill. Any sort of nut may be used, but experience has shown
that it is more difficult to make butters from the almond or Brazil
nut than from the peanut. Blanching these nuts requires consid-
erably more time and labor than is needed to free the peanut from
the skin which covers the kernel, and they are also more difficult to
grind. Nut butters will keep well if sealed in glass or earthernware
jars. Tin cans also may be used, but are not quite as desirable. As
might be expected, nut butters do not differ materially in composi-
tion from the nuts from which they are ground. (See table, p. 299.)
The nut butters just mentioned are entirely different from cocoanut
butter and from cocoa butter, which are expressed and purified fats.
These "butters" are of considerable commercial importance and are
used for culinary purposes, though perhaps they are more commonly
used in other ways.
NUT TASTES AXD NUT PRESERVES.
Paste? which are used by confectioners for candy making and in
other ways are made from nuts with the addition of sugar° Some-
times water and starch are added, but such admixtures are inferior
to the nut and sugar pastes. The most common material of this
3 a 1906 20
306 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sort is the almond paste, which is manufactured in large quantities
in the United States and is also imported. It is used for making
cakes, candies, etc., the highly ornamented cakes called "marzipan,"
so popular with the Germans, being one of the very well-known
almond-paste confections.
Chestnuts preserved or candied in sirup and then dried, the mar-
ron glace of the confectioners, are esteemed a delicacy and are eaten
alone or are used in confectionery, etc. Thus prepared, they are a
common commercial article. Much less common are the Eu^
walnut meats in sirup, which are manufactured in Europe and
exported to this country in limited quantities. In the Tropics a
thick, sweet preserve is made from cocoanut and sugar which is
much liked locally, though those who are not familiar with it con-
sider it very sweet and insipid. As the data in the table on page
show, these products are rich in carbohydrates, owing to the added
sugar.
NUT FLOURS AND MEALS.
Among nut products may be mentioned nut flours and meals.
Some of these are used in large quantities and are made on a com-
mercial scale, while others, perhaps owing to the trouble and expense
incidental to manufacture, find only a limited use. In general, meals
are made from the ordinary edible nuts by blanching, thoroughly
drying, and grinding. By using a nut mill such meals may be ground
at home. Analyses of some products of this character will be found
in the table on page 299. Almond.meal lias been on the market for a
long time, being used as food for diabetics and for making cakes,
etc., as well as in a number of technical ways.
Special mention should be made of chestnut flour, which is on sale
in the United States and is used for most of the culinary purposes for
which the fresh nut is recommended. In Italy it constitutes a con-
siderable part of the diet, in some regions being extensively used for
making a sort of bread or cake. One of the most complete studies of
the dietetic use of chestnuts has been reported by Memmo.a Accord-
ing to the author, the chestnut often serves almost as the exclusive
food of the peasants of Tuscany for a considerable part of the year.
The whole nuts are eaten in a variety of ways; for instance, boiled in
water without hulling, hulled and boiled, or roasted. From the flour
various cakes and other foods are made. Acorn meal made into a
sort of bread with the addition of about 75 per cent of flour is a
common article of diet in several regions, notably Umbria and Tus-
cany, but the bread is black and heavy and not very palatable.
The early travelers and explorers make mention of the extended
use of nuts by the American Indians, and the custom of using acorns
a Loo. cit. ; see also p. 302.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XV.
Fig. 1.— California Indians Pounding Acorn Meal for Food.
Fig. 2. -California Indian Leaching Acorns for Food.
XUTS AXB THEIB USES AS FOOD. 307
as a staple food is still kept up. The methods of preparing acorns
followed by the Indians of northern California have been described by
P. E. Goddarda in a publication of the University of California, and
by V. K. Chesnut,6 formerly of the . Department of Agriculture.
Briefly speaking, the shelled nuts are split, dried, and ground with a
mortar and pestle. The sifted flour is placed in a hollow in the sand
on a convenient river bank and leached to free it from the bitter prin-
ciples present . From the leached meal a porridge or mush is made, which
to the ordinary palate is much improved by the addition of salt. Plate
XV shows the way in which the nuts are pounded into flour, and
also shows an Indian woman leaching the meal. These typical Indian
foods, when well prepared, are relished by many persons who have
tried them, and it seems not improbable that improved methods of
removing the tannin and bitter principles present in most varieties of
acorns might result in the utilization of the acorn crop, which is
fairly large and is generally wasted.
According to Chesnut'sc investigations, the California buckeye or
horse-chestnut is also used by the Indians as a food and is leached to
free it from poisonous or objectionable matters in much the same way
as the acorn. Many attempts have been made in Europe and else-
where to treat the fruit of the common horse-chestnut in some way so
that it might be made wholesome and palatable, for it undoubtedly
contains an abundance of nutritive material, particularly starch; but
none of these attempts has been really successful.
The use of partly extracted peanuts and other nut meals with
wheat and rye flour for bread making should be mentioned. Such
breads have been used for patients with diabetes, but have never
come into general use, perhaps because they are not very palatable,
since the nuts become rancid so readily.
NUT CAXDIES.
One of the most extensive uses of nuts is in the manufacture of
candy of various sorts, such as sugared almonds, burnt almonds, nut
chocolates, caramels, pinoche, nut brittle, etc. "While there are some
differences in the process of manufacture followed in these candies,
they all in the main consist of nuts and sugar in varying proportions,
with flavoring extracts, and in some instances butter and flour.
The table on page 299 shows the composition of common sorts of
nut candy. As may be seen, the water content is low and these can-
dies are highly concentrated foods. On account of the added sugar
the carbohydrate content is high. The proportion of nuts used in
candies varies. By assuming that the nuts furnish the bulk of the fat
a Univ. Gal. Pubs.. Amer. Arch, and Ethnol., 1 (1903), No. 1, p. 27.
61". S. Dept. Agr., Div. Bot., Contrib. Nat. Herbarium, 7 (1902), p. 333.
cLoc. cit., p. 366.
BBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in the candy imated that nuts constituted about 50 per cent in
the specimen- I rzed. It is perhaps well to suggest that nut can-
dies and other candies which sometimes cause digestive disturbances
would be tisfactory if eaten in a rational way and at the pr
time. Since they are concentrated foods, they should naturally
replace an equivalent amount of some other food material and not be
eaten in quantity simply for their palatable flavor in addition to an
otherwise adequate daily ration.
NUT COFFEES.
A number of coffee substitutes made from nuts have been devised
and placed on the market, peanut coffee and acorn coffee being by far
the most common. The nuts are parched and sometimes otherwise
treated. Such coffee substitutes lack the stimulating properties of
true coffee, and the infusion does not have the high nutritive value
which is sometimes claimed for it.
GEE EX NUTS.
A number of kinds of nuts are used before they are fully ripe, and
are esteemed a delicacy. In California in spring the markets quite
commonly offer green almonds — that is, the almond picked from the
tree while the husk is of a decided green color and easily separated
from the soft and immature shell. The kernel, after the skin is peeled
off. is eaten with or without salt, and is relished by many persons.
The price of green almonds in California markets commonly varies
from about 20 ~ und. Green almonds are found to a
limited extent in fancy fruit shops in eastern cities and elsewhere,
and are perhaps purchased as much for their ornamental appearance
as for their palatability. They are much more commonly used in
Europe than in the United States. Green English walnuts and green
hazelnuts are also eaten to :i considerable extent in Europe and are
it favorites. The nuts are gathered when the shells are fully
matured but not thoroughly ripe. Sometimes these given nuts are
imported into the United States. Many who have grown up in the
.try will recall the delicate flavor of the immature butternut and
hickory nut and the stained lingers which they caused. Such green
nuts have apparently never been marketed.
Whole green walnuts and some other nuts are also used in a quite
ature state for pickle making. They are picked when still
er enough to be easily pierced by a large pin; then, after being
in brine for a number of days, they are exposed to the sun until
they turn black. Afterwards they are placed in jars and covered
with hot vinegar and spices. Sometimes they are treated with dry
NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 309
salt instead of brine before pickling. It is claimed that nuts thus
treated will blacken without being exposed to sunlight. Such pickled
nuts are considered by many as a very palatable dish for use with
meats and poultry. Walnut catsup is also made from green walnuts.
NUT OILS AND OIL-CAKE MEALS.
In some parts of Europe almond oil, walnut oil, and beechnut oil
are manufactured and prized as salad oils, and in South America
Brazil-nut oil is used for table purposes. Cocoanut oil is an important
oil in the Tropics. Peanut oil finds a large technical application and
is also used in large quantities as a salad oil and for culinary purposes.
Oils are also made from the kernel or nut of the peach and apricot,
but these, like most nut oils except those mentioned, are used for
medicinal or technical purposes.
The various nut oils, which are practically pure fats, have a very
high fuel value, and, like olive oil and other oils, may constitute an
important energy-yielding constituent of the diet. It is commonly
assumed that, like olive oil, these oils are readily assimilated when
properly combined with other food materials, as in salads, as " shorten-
ing" for various dishes, and in similar ways.
The oil-cake meals, as the ground products remaining after the
expression of the nut oils are called, are much used as food for live
stock and all kinds of poultry, and this is especially true of the peanut
and cocoanut oil cakes. It has been suggested that such oil-cake
meals might be valuable dietary articles if properly manipulated, as
they of course contain a higher percentage of protein than the original
nut. Some attempts have been made to thus utilize peanut-cake
meal, but the results have not been very satisfactory.
PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF NUTS.
The composition and digestibility of nuts have been discussed in the
foregoing pages, but little has been said regarding the cost of nutrients
and energy which they supply as compared with other and more com-
mon food materials. The table on page 310 shows the comparative
cost of a pound of protein and 1.000 calories of energy when furnished
by different nuts and nut products and some other staple foods, and
also the amounts of nutrients and energy which 10 cents' worth of
these foods would supply, rating the foods at certain average prices
per pound.
The common nuts — though, with the exception of the peanut, they
are more expensive sources of protein and energy than meat and a
number of the common foods — may yet be considered reasonably
cheap sources of nutrients and energy, and hence may be regarded
as justifiable additions to the diet on the score of economy. For
310
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTM] ICULTUBE.
--egetarian or fruitarian, wh< I to nuts as the chief sou:
protein in the diet, the peanut must he i nch the :
Lomical. As may be seen by a referenc nts
will purchase in in and i hen expended for the fl
and meals than : : the other foods, but it must be remembered
in this connection that these are tl materials requir. s
siderable preparation before they are palatable. This is n< \
sary with fruits and nuts, except in the ■: tut and chi -~-
nut, winch are usually roasted before they
by most persons, though there are those
considering nuts, it is readily observed that 10 <
the same amount of nut pi = of animal protein, except in the
case of cheese and skim milk. If spent for peanuts, it will |
more than twice the protein and six times the enem could be
bought for the same expenditure for porterl. - ;tk.
Price
per
pound.
one
pound
protein.
- .
1,000
An:
Kind of food.
Total
-
1
-
-
.ucts:
I
-
Pound*.
Pounds.
Pound*.
I
.
S
20
1.76
13.0
8.3
■
0.06
.04
.07
0.14
-
.44
78B
1 rata
1,196
"
_
•
.
.
Hickorv cuts
9
"
1.11
-■
1
1
t*
7
-
3.6
1.43
.31
'
.
1
"
.
Pignolias
Pistachios
.74
.40
!
.14
.11
:
■
Z
40
3. 17
21.0
E
.04
.13
h33
AJmo
475
Peanut t otter
20
7.1
'
-
.09
1.412
jt candy
.'
_ S
11.8
.04
1
.
• foods for com-
ison:
1.31
.07
!
4
1.21
12.0
. "
■
.13
■
i
.
i
.
.03
1,330
: flour
3
-
3. S3
•
- ■
" • '
Beans, dried
i
3.1
!
LIP
H
-
1.11
t,4
■ 1
.09
~,
It is of more than passing interest to note that 10 vorth of
will contain about 4 oun-o - - and
calories of energy, which is more protein and en- _ n is
furnished by many ratio:.- _ led as adequate for a day. Alth a
peanuts supply protein and energy for a smaller sum than brt
are outranked by dried I oich. at 5
NUTS AND THEIR USES AS POOD, 311
for 10 cents over 200 grams of protein ami 3,200 calories of
If more peanuts and dried beans were used by fruitarians, their diet
would be enriched and the cost decreased. The almond, so much
in favor with fruitarians, furnishes for 10 cents about one-fourth
the protein and less than one-third the energy supplied by peanuts.
HANDLING AND MARKETING NUTS.
Within the last few years the trade in shelled nuts has very mark-
edly increased, and shelled walnuts, hickory nuts, almonds, Eng
walnuts, pecans, etc., are now very commonly found in shops. The
bulk of the nut crop is. however, marketed unshelled. Some of the
unshelled nuts, notably pecans and peanuts, are very often pol-
ished before marketing by rotating them in rapidly revolving drum-
in such a way that the shells are worn down until they are more or
less smooth. This method of treatment also removes any dirt anil
is supposed to make the nut more salable. It is worthy of note,
however, that the highly prized, large fancy pecans are marketed
without such treatment.
For shelling nuts on a commercial scale a number of ingenious
machines have been devised. In order to meet the market demand
for clean and uniformly colored nuts, many nut growers have resorted
to the process of bleacliing their product. The first attempts in this
direction were made by sulphuring: that is, by exposing the nuts
to sulphur vapor. This treatment, though improving the color,
proved decidedly injurious to the flavor of the nuts and lessened the
keeping qualities. At the California experiment station experi-
ments with bleaching solutions have been carried on and very satis-
factory results have been obtained with a mixture of sal soda, chlorid
of lime, and water. According to reports of the imperial department
of agriculture of the West Indies,0 a similar process has been sue* - -
fully used for bleaching peanuts. The consumer should bear in
mind that the bleaching of nuts is entirely unnecessary and in no
way increases their food value. The process is carried on solely for
the purpose of improving the appearance of the nut and thus com-
manding a higher price. It will doubtless be continued as long as
the public is willing to be guided by appearance rather than food
value. The term '•bleaching,'* as applied to nuts, must not be con-
founded with the household term ••"blanching," which applies to the
process of removing the skins from nut meats, as almonds, by immers-
ing them for a short time in hot water.
Vegetables and fruits exposed for sale under ordinary condition-
may be readily contaminated with bacteria, dirt, and dust. Nuts
sold in their shells are protected in large measure from such contami-
nation, yet many careful housewives wash, or at least wipe, the nuts
aIinp. Dept. Agr. West Indies Pamphlet No. 43, n. s.
312 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
which are to be cracked and served in the shells, as anything which
adheres to the shell would readily contaminate the nuts after crack-
ing, if all were mixed together in a dish. Shelled nuts, if exposed to
dust in shops and markets, should be washed before they are used for
salads, etc. If exposed to damp conditions, nuts mold and decay, and
even under favorable conditions the nut oils and pits become rancid
on long-continued storing. In the main, however, the keeping quali-
ties of most nuts are excellent. Nuts should be stored in such a way
that they may be free from attacks of insect enemies. When such
precautions are not taken, "wormy" nuts are by no means uncommon.
SUMMARY.
Summarizing the foregoing data, it may be said that nuts are a
very concentrated food, even more so than cheese, but when ration-
ally used they are well assimilated and may form a part of a well-
balanced diet. Nuts are a very valuable source of protein and fat,
these two nutrients being the characteristic constituents of the more
common nuts, of which the walnut and cocoanut may be taken as
types. In nuts like the chestnut, carbohydrates are a characteristic
constituent. For most families it is undoubtedly wiser to use nuts
as part of the regular diet than as a condiment or supplement to an
otherwise hearty meal.
Vegetarians and others who use nuts in place of meat should not
depend upon them as the main food supply, but should supplement
them with more bulky foods with a low content of protein and fat.
As a whole, nuts may be classed among the staple foods and not
simply as food accessories. At usual prices, nuts are reasonable
sources of protein and energ}'. Peanuts supply protein and energy
very cheaply, even compared with such staple foods as bread and
beans. There are a number of nut foods on the market, but it may
be stated that there is little to be gained from the standpoint of food
value or economy in their use, especially by healthy persons who
are willing to masticate their food thoroughly and to use nuts in
reasonable combinations. Unless something has been added, the
nutritive materials in such special preparations can not be greater
than the nuts from whiteh they are made, though in the mechanical
condition or in some other way the foods may be better fitted for
ready assimilation. Furthermore, nut butters and similar foods
give a pleasant variety to the diet, and they are relished by many
who would not care for the unprepared nuts.
Though less subject to contamination than many other foods, nuts
should be handled and stored under good conditions, and especially
should be protected from dampness and insect enemies.
SOME RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL
WEEVIL.
By W. I). Hunter,
In Charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, Bureau of Entomology.
INTRODUCTORY.
The boll weevil problem still remains a most important one for the
cotton industry of this country. The insect continues to spread.
Climatic barriers have given it temporary checks, but they have been
successively overcome. The prediction that the pest will eventually
reach the limits of cotton culture in this country has 'repeatedly been
made, but an important consideration connected with the future
spread has received less attention, largely because it has more recently
become evident. This consideration is that damage in new regions
is likely to be more severe than it has been in the territory infested
up to this time. The experience of the past two years has rather
tended to obscure some of the features of the weevil problem. The
large crops produced in Texas have given an erroneous impression of
the prospects. It is true that very remarkable results have been ob-
tained in the work of the Department of Agriculture. Making due
allowance for this important work, it must be stated that the recent
large crops are largely due rather to a combination of conditions favor-
able to the growth of the plant and unfavorable to the weevil than to a
lessened capacity for damage on the part of the insect. The work of
the Bureau of Entomology has shown that in Texas, except in unusu-
ally wet seasons, a fair crop can easily be produced. The possibilities
of production in a favorable season are shown by the fact that in 1906
the infested area produced about one-third of the total crop of. the
United States; but the same success will by no means necessarily
follow in other regions where the conditions are different. There-
fore future developments must be awaited with some solicitude.
THE STATUS OF THE COTTOX BOLL WEEVIL IX 1906.
The total area infested by the cotton boll weevil in 1906 is indi-
cated on the accompanying map (fig. 9). It extends over the
greater part of the cotton-producing region of Texas, much of Lou-
isiana, and comparatively small areas in Oklahoma and Arkansas.
313
314
YEABBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
This area extends a distance of about 590 miles northward from
Brownsville, where the insect first invaded the State of Texas. The
insi ct I >read both to the west and to the east. At present
the infested area extends a distance of 400 miles east and west.
Within the i area the annual rainfall ranges from about 12
inches in the west to more than 50 inches in the east. The altitude
RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLE WEEVIL. 315
varies from sea level to about 2.600 feet. The mean annual temper-
ature varies from 72° at Brownsville, Tex., to 62° at Paris, Tex.
During the season of 1906 the increase in the infested area con-
sisted of a belt varying in width from 20 miles in northwestern Texas
to over 60 miles in northern Louisiana, and Oklahoma. Over
1,500,000 acres of cotton land became invaded. This dispersion,
however, began in August, so late in the season that no appreciable
damage was done in this area. As a matter of fact, estimates of the
damage for the year 1906 must be made upon the basis of the area
infested in 1905.
One of the most interesting features of the situation in 1906 was
the fact that a considerable advance was made directly northward
into Oklahoma and Indian Territory. The insect reached points as
far north as the Red River as early as 1904, specimens being found in
Lamar County at that time. For three successive years the advance
had been checked by winter conditions, but the season of 1906 wit-
nessed a net gain northward of about 60 miles. The causes for this
great advance after repeated checks are somewhat obscure. The
preceding winter conditions in northern Texas were not especially
favorable for the weevil. The precipitation was about normal,
although the temperature was slightly higher than usual. Some
study has been given this matter, but on the whole it does not seem
that the climatic conditions alone would account for the northward
advance. A more reasonable explanation seems to be that the weevil
has gradually acquired an ability to withstand conditions that pre-
viously checked it. We thus have apparently another illustration
of the adaptive capacity of the insect.
LOCAL VARIATIONS AXD TIIEIE CAUSES.
In such a large area, where the climatic and geographic variations
are so important that entirely distinct agricultural provinces have
been formed, it would naturally be supposed that the boll weevil
problem has various local aspects. It is true that there is no uni-
formity in the damage that is done throughout the affected area. In
some regions the weevil has caused great depreciation in land values,
while others have not suffered appreciably in this respect. In gen-
eral, the drier and freer from timber the less is the damage by the
weevil. The reasons for this are that dryness increases the death
rate of immature stages in the fallen squares enormously in the sum-
mer and the absence of the protection afforded by timber contributes
equally to a decrease in the number of adults in the winter. When
the foregoing conditions are combined with low winter temperatures,
as happens in northwestern Texas, there is a total of conditions most
disastrous for the weevil. The reverse of these conditions is found
316 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in the timbered valleys of eastern Texas and Louisiana, where the
precipitation is much heavier.
In addition to the variations in weevil damage due to the decided
constant differences in climate that have been mentioned, there are
also local and temporary differences of climate and other conditions.
These add to the large-area variations local modifications within the
special regions. For instance, a local severe outbreak of the leaf
worm in eastern Texas has been known to give that particular area
comparative immunity from damage for one season.
Much information about the local variations affecting the weevil
problem was gained in the spring of 1906 by a series of examinations
to determine the number of hibernated weevils present per acre and
later by a series of examinations to determine the extent of infesta-
tion by the first broods. These examinations were made practically
simultaneously at over thirty localities. At each place entomologists
made examinations of fields in different locations as regards the prox-
imity of timber and other conditions which have a bearing upon the
number of weevils which successfully pass through the winter. By
a plan of examining a certain number of groups of plants in each
cotton field it was possible to determine the average number of wee-
vils present in that particular field. By averaging the number of
weevils found in the different fields examined in any one locality the
number of weevils per acre for that region was determined. By far
the greatest number of hibernated weevils was found in eastern
Texas, in Rusk and Shelby counties. In that quarter an average of
more than 500 weevils per acre was found, and in some cases the
number per acre reached nearly 700. This area extended well into
Louisiana and comprised at least 500 square miles. A study of the
conditions in this quarter gives the best possible indication of the
conditions which will arise in the central and eastern portions of the
cotton belt when they are reached by the weevil. Two widely sepa-
rated regions showed an average of over 300 hibernated weevils per
acre. One of these was in northeastern Texas, another in the coast
region including Bee, Refugio, San Patricio, and Nueces counties.
These areas were separated by extensive ones wherein comparatively
few hibernating weevils were found.
Much of the recent advance in our knowledge of the boll weevil is
the result of comparative studies of these areas of great damage and
of other areas of comparative scarcity. The study has been con-
tinued by an examination of the statistics of production as far as
available. The production by counties up to December 13, 1906, as
determined by the Census Bureau, has been used. The crop of 1904
has been used as a basis of comparison for the reason that it may
properly be considered a normal crop. In Louisiana, in the heavily
infested portion, the percentage of increase of the crop of 1906 over
RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.
317
that of 1905 was 9.7 per cent of that of 1904. In the lightly infested
area of Louisiana, however, the percentage of increase, determined in
the same way, was 44.6 per cent. In Texas the increase in the
heavily infested portion of the eastern part of the State was 12.9 per
cent, and in the lightly infested region in the north-central portion
of the State it was 59.9 per cent. These figures show clearly the
temporary advantage gained through the scarcity of weevils in cer-
tain restricted regions.
THE RELATION BETWEEN WEEVIL DAMAGE AXD PRECIPITATION.
For a long time it has been recognized that the most important
single factor in assisting in the production of a cotton crop in a weevil-
infested region is dryness during the growing season. An excellent
illustration of this is furnished by the conditions in Victoria County,
Tex., during the spring of 1906. The crop of that year in Victoria
County is much the largest ever produced, although the acreage prob-
ably was not as large as has been planted in other seasons. The
exact records regarding production are not available at this time,
but a very conservative estimate of the crop of Victoria County for
1906 is 13,000 bales. From the accompanying table it will be seen
that May and June were abnormally dry months; in fact, the total
precipitation for April, May, and June (4.19 inches) was less than
half of the mean total for those months for the five preceding years
(9.28 inches).
Comparison of spring precipitation with the cotton crop in Victoria County, Tc.v.,
1901-1906.
Year.
Precipitation.
April.
1901
1902
1903
190-1
1905
1900
Inches.
2.43
2.85
1.03
3.33
7.58
2.88
May.
Inches.
0.59
3.23
2.25
4.37
2.45
.63
Cotton crop,
"n bales of
total \f„„fv,i„ ' in baies oi
June. for three vonP:,„'> 500 pounds
months.
Inches.
Inches.
1.14
4.16
1.38
2.03
8.11
2.70
4.05
7.33
2.44
5.32
13.02
4.34
3.77
13. 80
4.60
.GS
4.19
1.39
9,060
9,236
5, 355
6,495
9,016
ol3,000
c Estimated.
While the total for April, May, and June, 1906, was only 4.19 inches.
the mean total for 1901 to 1905 was 9.28 inches.
There can be no error in estimating the effect of dryness in this
case, on account of the number of weevils present. In fact, far more
than the usual number of hibernated weevils appeared in the fields
of Victoria County up to the end of April. In one instance a total
number of about 1,500 per acre was shown to have come to a certain
318 YEARBOOK OF THE TEPAETZMEX .TUBS.
field. O: . clue allowance must be made for tlie effect of the
id the ant 8 . referred to else-
re. However, the dryness rather interfered with the work of the
ant and certainly di. ilitate greatly the work of the p
therefore, must be considered as the controlling factor.
In the facta brought out in the preceding paragraphs we have the
most ex present available for an estimate regarding the
manner in which the boll weevil will affect cotton production in the
more humid regions that it is now invading. Taking Vicksburg,
Miss., as a typical location in the Mississippi Valley, we find that the
normal precipitation for April is 5.86 inches, for May 4.85 inches, and
for June 4.31 inches. This gives a mean total for these months of
2 inches as again riches at Victoria, and a monthly average
for the same three months at Vicksburg of 5 inches as against 3.09
inches for Victoria. From these figure- leaf that the weevil
conditions in a region like that of Vicksburg will normally be similar
hose of the years of greatest precipitation in Texas.
FACTOR- IX THE NATURAL CONTROL OF THE BOLL WEEVIL.
Valuable results have been obtained in an extensive study of the
as in the natural control of the boll weevil. Many climatic and
other conditions are known to exert influences in reducing weevil
damage. Low summer temperatures check the insect by lengthening
the period of development, and the amount of the food supply is
a controlling element. Aside from such general influences and cul-
tural expedients, the following are the principal factors which are now
affecting the boll weevil in the infested region:
1. Heat and dryness during spring and summer.
2. The ant Solenopsis geminata and other predaceous inse
3. Winter temperatures and moisture.
•u.
5. Para-/
6. The cotton leaf worm.
7. Determinate growth of the cotton plant.
irds.
The above arrangement places these factors in the probable order
of their importance at the present time. It must be remembered
that future developments will undoubtedly necessitate a rearrange-
ment of the above lif ill prob-
ably increas ar. and the effect brought about by the
leaf worm will give that i: greater importance as the weevil
invades the Mississippi Valley proper. The above arrangement n
merely to the present conditi
The importance of proliferation has been brought out forcibly by
the writ .-. Dr. W. E. Hinds, in Bulletin No. 5( . Bureau of
RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 319
Entomology. During the year 1006 special attention has been paid
to heat and dryness, an;s, and parasites, the last two of which are
factors of which practical use could more or less easily be made.
Altogether 86,982 squares and bolls were collected and examined to
learn the effects of these three factors. This material was collected
in many localities in Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. In it were
found 38,883 weevil stages. Of this number 21.1 per cent had been
killed by heat and dryness, 27.1 per cent by ants, and 4.3 per cent by
parasites. The total effect of the three factors in Texas and Louisiana
was to destroy 52.3 per cent of the weevil stages; that is to say,
natural causes cut off more than one-half of the possible number of
weevils. Moreover, more than one-half of this destruction was caused
by the ant alone.
A comparison of the efficiency of these natural factors in Texas and
Louisiana is of interest in showing the probable future aspects of the
weevil problem. The combined effect in Texas was the destruction
of 53.8 per cent and in Louisiana 44.1 per cent of the weevil stages.
The rather close approximation of these percentages is due to the
greater work of the ant in Louisiana, the two other factors being rela-
tively unimportant in that State. In the case of ants the percentage
of destruction in Louisiana was 35.7 and in Texas 31.3; in the case of
heat and dryness 5.9 in Louisiana and 27.7 in Texas: and in the case
of parasites 0.7 per cent in Louisiana and 3.5 per cent in Texas.
The work of the native ant Solenopsis geminate deserves special
attention. The insect is distributed throughout the cotton belt, and
in fact was found by Mr. E. A. Schwarz to be an important enemy of
the boll weevil in Central America. It must not be confused with the
Guatemalan ant, the importation of which has proved a failure. In
country the native ant was quite carefully studied by Mr. Schwarz
and others in the early eighties. It has always shown an inclination
to attack insects that it encounters in its travels up and down the
cotton plant primarily for the purpose of obtaining nectar. It was
natural to suppose that it might acquire a habit of feeding upon
the boll weevil. Nevertheless, the rapidity with Avhich the ant seems
to be acquiring this habit is surprising.
Our attention was first especially directed to this matter during an
ariment which was being made to test the effect of direct sunlight
in destroying the immature stages of the weevil. One hundred and
fifty squares believed to contain larva? were divided into two lots and
placed on the bare ground in the cotton plat at the laboratory in Dal-
las, Tex. One lot was left dried while the other was moistened to
determine whether the mortality would be equally great in both cases.
The squares were placed on the ground at 4.30 p. m., September 5.
The following morning numerous ants were noticed running over and
around them, although no signs of a nest had been seen the previous
320
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
evening. Subsequent observations showed holes in several of the
squares in size and external appearance resembling weevil emergence
holes so closely that at first they were mistaken for them. A more care-
ful examination showed that the weevils had not emerged, but that the
holes were really entrance holes made by the ants to enable them to get
at the weevil wihin. Practically all of the squares had been opened.
In the 75 squares kept dry the ants had entered 64, destroying prob-
ably 44 larval stages and 20 pupal stages. In the lot kept wet the
ants had entered 73 of the 75 squares, destroying 50 stages probably
larval, and 23 probably pupal. A remarkable fact was that out of the
150 squares in the lot only 13 were not entered by the ants, and 9 of
these 13 were found on examination to have no weevil stages within
them. It seems reasonable to conclude that the ants have some
ability to determine from the outside whether there is some stage of
the weevil within the squares.
It was thought that conclusions from this single experiment might
be unreliable on account of artificial surroundings and the nearness of
the squares to the nest, which, however, was more than 3 feet away.
Subsequent experiments in cotton fields and the examination of
thousands of fallen squares have all led to the, opinion that the work
attributed to the ants was not overestimated. The following are
some records of the work of the ant shown by examination of squares
picked at random from the ground in cotton fields in various par
Texas: At Beeville, Tex., August 13, out of S74 weevil stages found
6S4 had been destroyed by ants. In another field, also at Beeville,
on September 3, the ants had destroyed 11 out of 117 stages. At Dal-
las, on October 15, the ants had destroyed 39 out of 247 weevil stag a.
The following statement shows the results of extensive observations on
the percentage of mortality in weevil stages brought about by the ant
under different conditions :
rUagcs of mortality of xoeevil stages brought about by the ant Solcnopsis giminata.
Weevil stages.
..lity.
In Louisi- ta _
ana.
Percent. Percent.
9 11.8
27. 7
11.8 ! "
20.7
In view of the abundance of weevil food, there is certainly nothing
surprising in the present indication that the ant is rapidly becoming an
important enemy of the weevil. We have many letters from farmers
scattered throughout the infested territory informing us of observa-
tions similar to ours on the work of the ants in cotton fields.
RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 321
Some practical conclusions may be drawn from a comparison of
mortality among weevil stages in fallen squares and bolls with the
mortality found when the fruit remains attached to the plant \
■ careful investigation of this matter will be detailed in a bulletin to be
issued in the near future by the Bureau of Entomology. The hanging
forms referred to are only those which are to be found in a perfectly
dead and dry condition but still attached to the plant by a thin strip of
bark. This tendency seems to be more developed in the duster varie-
ties of cotton like the Dickson than in those that are more frequently
planted m the infested region at the present time. However, indi-
vidual plants in fields of any variety observed occasionally show the
same tendency toward holding their fruit, and certain climatic and
soil conditions seem to increase this tendency, sometimes to a con-
spicuous degree even in case of cotton of unknown pedigree.
It was early observed in the present investigation thai the hanging
forms show a considerably higher percentage of parasitism of we'evil
stages than the fallen ones. For instance, in a very extensive series of
observations m Texas the percentage of parasitism in fallen squares
was 3.5, but in hanging, 13.9. In Louisiana a somewhat less extensive
series of observations showed a percentage of parasitism in fallen
squares of 0.7 and in hanging squares of 8.3. At first these fio-ures
seemed to indicate that a variety which would more or less uniformly
retain instead of dropping its infested fruit would be highly desirab'e
in weevil-mfested regions. Further data, however, show the fallacy
of such a supposition and also incidentally indicate the danger of erro-
neous conclusions in such a complicated biological problem as the
boll weevil presents. While the hanging forms showed much hi-her
percentages of mortality due to parasites, the fallen forms showed a
much greater percentage due to the other factors in natural control
namely heat and dryness and the ant Solcnopsis geminata. In
Texas the percentage of mortality due to ants, in hanging squares,
was 18.2, while in fallen squares it was 31.3; in Louisiana the hangino-
squares showed 32.3 mortality and the fallen squares 35 7 from the
same cause. In Texas heat and drying brought about a mortality of
18.6 per cent m hanging squares and 27.7 per cent in fallen squares ■ in
Louisiana the same factor resulted in a mortality of 5.9 per cent and
20, per cent, respectively. In other words, the combined effect of heat
and dryness and ants in the fallen squares was much more important
than the individual effect of parasites in the hanging squares
From the results of the examinations made upon hanging forms it
appears that the mortality found among nearly 10,000 weevil stages
present averaged 42.6 per cent, while in the case of fallen forms
among approximately 30,000 weevil stages, there was a mortality of
56 per cent, From this extensive series of observations, covering a
very wide range of variable conditions, it appears that the average
3 a!906 21 "
ARTMENT OF AGI.ICULTV
salting from the three natural faetors iin<
13.4 per cent greater in fallen than in hai -. The .
y in hang v&ey near) fallen!
he mortality in fallen squares is nearly twice as great as in hang-
•ie. too. that a very large majority of weevil
und were in the fallen squares.
These results indicate that those varieties of cotton which shed
- 1 squares and small bolls most readily and most com-
pletely will have an advantage by bringing the weevil stages con-
tamed in those forms under the most effective action of these impor-
tant natural factors.
ADDITIONAL DATA CONCERNING IMPORTANCE OF FALL DESTRUCTION
<;F COTV
It has been considered by many that the destruction of cotton
ter killing frosts was of little value in the control of the
weevil. All htave agreed that this pro : pafan*
fore that time. Recent data snow clearly that the ckstruf-
tion of t . after several severe frosts is of great value ; in fact, it
:parem! o efficacious than earlier destruction.
the first kill -: in the fall of 1000 occurred on
-ember 19. On t hnateof
.ber of weevils per acre on a 00-acre experime. nta-
- made. In different portions of the field 35 plants were
mined and calculations were made on the basis of 8,300 p]
— probably not far from the usual number in Tex-. From
the 35 plants examined 20 live weevils were taken, indicating the
nee of 6,477 live weevils per acre. On November 22 another
.notation gave an estimated number of 6.403 weevils per acre.
additional examination was made on December 1 after many
heavy frosts. A: this time 14 hibernating weevils were taken from
36 plants, indicating that 3.22s weevils per acre were present in the
field. Examina i;ions of the remains of bolls on plants on Novem-
ber 21 revea- 2 Is in 3251 lis; thai is, 6 per cent of the
idom in the field protected 7 On December
I ibernating adults were found in the examination lis.
From the above data it is evident that a farmer : atrol the
number of v rable extent by the fall destruc-
The advantag
shown : ; mi-
fore the first killing - red. Ar
lime the leaf rubbish on revealed adult weevil- at th<-
per acre. After tin ding frost a similar examina-
The frost had forced large numl
of weevils from the plant- to the protection afforded on the ground.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1906.
Plate XVI.
Early Versus Late Planting in the Control of the Boll Weevil.
[The upper illustration shows a cotton field planted late and yielding nothing. The lower
illustration shows a field on the opposite side of the turnrow on same plantation, planted
and treated in accordance with directions of the Bureau of Entomology, and yielding
three-quarter-; of a bale per acre. | Original).]
RECENT STUDIES OP -X COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 323
The very great advantage the farmer may obtain by removing from
the field and burning at the earliest possible dace all debris w
favors the hibernation of the weevil is evident.
LATE PLANTING.
An important step in the present method of control perfected by the
Bureau of Entomology is early planting. At various times for a num-
ber of years different persons have s I the possibility of con-
trolling the boll "weevil by late planting. It has been urged that early
planting merely serves to breed myriads of weevils to injure the crop
of the farmer who has been unable to plant early. It was thought
possible that better results might be secured by lengthening the hiber-
nation period by fall destruction of the plants, followed the next
spring by late planting, and that this practice might actually result in
the complete extermination of the weevil over as large areas as it
could be applied to uniformly. (See PI. XVI.)
Previous work (referred to in Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 21G, pp. 20
resulted in a very small crop and seemed to show the fall
of the proposed method. However, it was decided to obtain more
exact information than was possible at the time of the previous
experiment. Accordingly, at four j presenting different cli-
matic conditions, carefully planned experiments in late planting were
conducted in 1906. For these experiments fields were selected which
completely isolated from other cotton to prevent the inflow of
weevils from other fields, which might have happened in the case of
the previous experiment. In brief, the results of this work have
amply verified previous conclusions. In .not one of the four e
any cotton whatever produced. The plants grew well, in some
3 reaching a uniform height of about 5 feet, and the only apparent
factor in preventing the maturing of a crop of cotton was the presence
of the weevil. The most striking of the four experiments was located
on the Edwards Plateau, about 30 miles west of Kerrville, Tex. At
this place was found a field of 16 acres which had been in cotton hi
1905. Very earlv in Xovember of that vear the owner turned a large
herd of goats into the cotton field during a drought which had reduced
his pasturage area. In a few days no traces of green portions of the
its were visible. The goats stripped the stalks of leaves, squ;
and bolls. Cold weather following during Xovember prevented the
growth of any sprouts from the stalks that might have furnished
nance for the weevils. Xo other cotton was planted nearer than
9 miles from this field either in 1905 or 1906. During 1906 the field
was planted on June 10. The cotton grew to a height of about 5
but weevils appeared practically as soon as the plants came
and soon multiplied sufficiently to cut off all the fruit. There
is no reason to suppose that the weevils that did this damage were
not those that passed the winter in the immediate vicinity. The
324 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
appearance of the first specimens found clearly indicated, that they
were hibernated individuals. Their numbers and the time of their
appearance, together with a considerable amount of data now avail-
able as to the distance hibernated weevils can fly, show clearly that
they had survived the long period from November to July without
food.
Data obtained from weevils placed in cages in the fall of 1905 throw
considerable light upon the obscure point of the possible length of
the hibernation period. In an excellent series of experiments insti-
tuted by the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission at Keatchie under Mr.
Wiimon Newell's direction, it was found that the weevils placed in
wire compartments in the field on November 18 did not emerge until
the 27th and 28th of the following June. In this case the arrangement
of the experiment precludes any doubt whatever as to the ability on
the part of the weevil to live in hibernation for a period of 221 or 222
days. Long before the last weevils had emerged the temperature had
approximated that of the summer season and, of course, was much
higher than that which caused weevils to seek hibernation in the fall.
An interesting point in connection with the study of the possibility
of controlling the weevil by late planting was the general occurrence
of volunteer plants coming from seeds falling to the ground in the
fall. It was found at Dallas, Tex., for instance, that volunteer plants
appeared in the spring at the rate of over 200 per acre. The number
of such plants growing in the fields was greater in the western regions
as the climate became drier, but numbers of volunteer plants were
found in cotton fields along the roads near Memphis, Tenn., and in
the neighborhood of Yicksburg, Miss., in a region having at least 50
inches of annual precipitation. The occurrence of this volunteer cotton
of course could hardly be prevented. It would give a supply of food
for weevils which would be practically certain to carry them through
even in case planting could be deferred universally by the planters.
As the result of the work that has been mentioned we have empha-
sized the three following vital difficulties in the way of controlling
the weevil by late planting:
(1) Emergence from hibernation may be deferred until practically
the first of July.
(2) Everywhere numbers of volunteer plants occur which would
furnish food for a certain number of weevils, regardless of how late
planting might be deferred.
(3) Testimony from a large number of planters, which has been
solicited on this point, and in fact the whole tendency of cotton plant-
ing show that to defer planting the crop until as late as the time
when the last weevils may be expected to emerge from hibernation
would prevent obtaining a crop, even if the weevils were entirely
eliminated from the problem.
CLOUD-BURSTS, SO-CALLED.
By Edward L. Wells,
- Section Director, Weather Bureau.
RELATION OF PRECIPITATION TO IRRIGATION.
It is the proud boast of the irrigator that he is independent of the
elements; that it matters not to him whether his fields are wet with
refreshing showers or whether the heavens are brass above them, and
this is apparently true. But to him who takes more than a superficial
view of the question it becomes evident that the irrigator is not inde-
pendent of the forces of nature, for the streams from which he draws
the water of which he boasts are supplied primarily by precipitation,
which is subject to the same laws that govern the rain that falls in
the field. Therefore he who would make no mistake in constructing
reservoirs and canals to store the water and convey it where it is
needed should know these laws and their application to the region
from which the water is to be drawn. In making studies of climatic
conditions preparatory to inaugurating irrigation projects the mistake
is sometimes made of considering only the normal annual precipitation
as determined by the records extending over a period of years. This
might answer well enough in some instances, but in general the infor-
mation should be much more complete. As for the annual values,
in addition to the normal amount, one should know something of
abnormalities that are likely to occur, particularly the least amount
of precipitation that may be expected to occur in a year. Then there
are various types of distribution- of rainfall throughout the year. On
the California coast, for instance, we find what is known as the Pacific
type, in which there is a wet season extending from October to March,
with the late spring and summer months nearly rainless. In Idaho
there is the sub-Pacific type, with heavy precipitation in the winter
and a secondary maximum for May, rendering the irrigation season
shorter and storage comparatively simple, for the May maximum
occurs at about the time of the most rapid melting of mountain snow,
resulting in a large surplus of water in the height of the growing
season; and the period of storage does not necessarily extend over
more than three or four months. In Arizona is found what is known
as the Arizona type, in which May and June are the months of least
rainfall and more than one-third of the annual amount falls in July
and August. Here the irrigating season is also shorter than in the
Pacific type, but storage is much more difficult.
Another feature of precipitation which should not be overlooked is
the intensity of the rainfall At Phoenix, Ariz., for instance, during
325
326 'K OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A.GBICUI/TTJ
1904 the average amount of precipitation for each rainy day
was 0.25 inch, while Winnemucca, Nev., with a much greater annual
xotal. had only 0.11 inch per day. "When rain falls during the grow-
ing season the cause of irrigation may be best served by the more
intense type of precipitation, up to a certain limit, that limit itself
being extremely variable in different localities, depending on the
topography of the country, character of the soil, etc. The more rapid
the rate of rainfall the higher vrill be the percentage of immediate
run-off, but when the run-off reaches a sufficient magnitude it may
become destructive to irrigation works and other property, and then
any further increase in the intensity must lessen the benefits received.
APPLICATION OF THE TEEM " CLOED-ErPST."
That rain does sometimes fall with such intensity as to result in
r damage to property and even in the loss of human life is a matter
of history, though it is very probable that these dov>nrpours are not so
common as is generally supposed, and that their magnitude is greatly
aerated. It has become a common practice to apply to such a
rain storm the name of cloud-burst, though it is probable that few
people at this day associate these storms with the phenomena, real or
ginary, Jo w] 3 name was originally applied. Dr. Hugh
Robert Mill, of Edinburgh, in his book entitled ""The Realm of
Nature," has this to say relative to cloud-bur
The rapid condem f in the axis of a tornado, or in the compara-
- whirlwinds that sometimes occur in all parts of the world, produces a
dark funnel-shaped cloud tapering downward to the earth. Such a cloud occupying
- a ascending eddy of air is called a waterspout. When it strikes the
ground the heavy fall of rain on a very small area sometimes proeluei - . -truc-
r a lake or river, the low pressure hirling air
of a waterspout often sucks up a column of water and whirls it on for considerable
}h or swarms of frogs are sometimes raised high in the
air, carried for miles inland, and dropped as - of fish or frogs to the wonder of
. happens that the upward rush in a tornado is strong c-r.
the condensed war rail a great quanta -
;ain. but like a river, ancl the phenoniei- - - ken of
pes cloud-bur- a. to hollow out
a few minutes. Severe accidents of thi :i occasionally occur
in the Cordilleran district oi North in may be sin:
accumulated, and the Istorms occur during the passage of a tornado.
This reads very well, but, before accepting it, it is well to remem-
ber that cloud-bursts are most often heard of in mountainous regions,
while tomadi . .zely a phenomenon of the plains.
Gen. A. TV. Greely, while Chief Signal Officer of the United States
Arm}-, in his entitled "American Weather," wrote of cloud-
burst.- as foH<
Apart from e\ "ingly heavy showers or ~ I the enor-
mous masses of water which now and then fall, and which are popularly known in
CLOUD- -'J-CALLED. 327
In such
v.o must equal rainfalls which are otherwise deemed ex
or even a month in the region. These downpours of torrential rain are form
L in the less densely populated part
In his report on the rainfall of the Pacific coast and Western Terri-
tories, issued in . eneral Greely speaks of cloud-bur-
It is well known that enormous quantities of water occasionally fall in these arid
as, the phenomena being known as cloud-bur- downpours of rain, while
injurious and even destructive at the time. yet. being taken up by the earth.
Eully later -upply. through the medium
springs. The h fall in a single cloud-burst can not be calculated, but
e . can be expressed by no other w
He follows this with an account of a number of instances of precipi-
tation considered by hirn worthy of mention under this head.
CONCENTRATION OF EALXFALL AS AFFECTED BY TOPOGKAPHY OF
COUXTRY.
It might seem from the foregoing- that we would be justified in
putting these extremely heavy rainfalls in a class by themselves and
in applying to them the term ••cloud-bursts." However, since the
publication of the (pinions already quoted there has been a wonder-
ful increase in the population of the WL and Territories.
-ration stations have been multiplied, and much of the mystery
that formerly surrounded the so-called " ' meriean Desert '
been cleared away; and modern meteor. I bave come to believe
m many i:: the damaging flood- ned by
what are called eloud-burste are not so much a result of ex:: -
dinary and unexplained meteorological phenomena as they are the
resuh of a topography favorable to a high percentage of . - and
a concentration of this run-oft into a comparatively narrow and swift-
moving stream. This belief is expressed by William Morris Davis.
■ ssor of physical geography at Harvard College, in his Elemen-
tary Meteorology, as foil
Thecloud-bu: (B are only -:Tns.
-md short-lived, and seem to result from the erturnir..
Tkeclou accompany
;re indicative
the end of i .aing with ordinary cumulus clou.".
little rain falls that it ■:--
. through the thirsty lower air. and :hed
ground; next to more active local thunderstorms of the usual type: and all -
culminating in the drone! :>m the c: A namr
country is inundated by such storms for a short distance: -hen
rush down channels that are nearly dry at other times, gathering sand and dusr. and
delivering the discharge rm to the main rk, muddy ton
many miles from the place of the rainfall.
32S YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
It is a notable fact that storms to which the term " cloud-bui -
is applied do occur in mountainous districts, and that the damage
caused is nearly always confined to narrow valleys through which the
run-off from considerable areas must find its war. Stop to consider
that even 1 inch of rain represents a fall of more than 72.000 tons
ater on a single square mile, and it will become evident that it
does not require such a remarkably heavy rain storm over a catch-
ment basin of. say, 10 miles square, discharging through a narrow
canyon, to produce all the effects that we e with a cloud-
burst. A rain of 6 inches over such a basin would represent a fall
of 43.509.S32 tons of water. Among the more recent destructive
floods arising from this cause may be mentioned that which destroyed
the town of Heppner. Oreg.. in June. 1903. causing the death of nearly
people. An investigation of the area covered by the storm and
the amount of water discharged through the valley was made almost
immediately by Mr. John T. Whistler, a representative of the United
States Geological Survey, who reported that a fall c^ an inch and a
half of rain over an area of 20 square miles, the probable area of the
storm, would account for all the water of the flood. To show that
this is not a phenomenally heavy downpour, the following instances
may be cited: At St. Louis, on August 15. 1848, a precipitation of
5.05 inches occurred in one hour: at Indianapolis, on July 12. 1876,
2.40 inches fell in twenty-five minutes; at Huron. S. Dak., on July
20. 1885, 1.30 inches fell in ten minutes: at Sandusky. Ohio, on July
11. 1879, 2.25 inches fell in fifteen minutes: at Madison. Wis., on
August S. 1906. 4.45 inches fell in one hour and twenty minutes: at
Jacksonville. Fla.. on May 12-13. 1903. 8.03 inches of rain fell in less
than twenty-four hours. In the records none of these rain storms
was spoken of as a cloud-burst, but had any of them occurred among
our western mountains, over such a drainage area as that discharging
through the Cottonwood at Boise, for instance, all the phenomena
usually attendant upon a cloud-burst would have been in evidence.
Commenting on Mr. Whistler's report of the Heppner flood Mr.
Edward A. Beals. district forecaster in charge of the local office of the
Weather Bureau at Portland, says:
ntist? have never been able to account for " cloud-bursts" as anything more than
heavy thunderstorms: therefore Mr. Whistler's conclusion that the ruggedness of the
_:aphy rather than the quantity of the rainfall causes their great destructiveness
appears to be well taken, and. if correct, loss of life and property in such <
due t isitation of Providence" so much as to the "folly of man" in building
cities and towns in such exposed localities.
It would seem, then, that one of the most important things to be
sidered by engineers in planning irrigation works would be the
probable maximum intensity of the rainfall, in its relation to such
features of the topography of the country as might favor the dis-
charge of lar^e amounts of water through narrow valleys.
NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE."
By Herbert J. Webber,
Physiologist in Charge of Plant-Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.
Xeav Citraxges.
Of the new group of citranges or cold-resistant oranges, there have
previously been described three new varieties which were produced in
the course of experiments conducted by the Department of Agricul-
ture, namely, the Rusk, Willits, and Morton. Nursery trees of these
three varieties, budded on trifoliate orange stock, have been distrib-
uted to a limited number of interested growers hi order that the varie-
ties may be thoroughly tested and become generally disseminated.
It is the object of the Department to make but a limited distribution
of any variety, striving only to secure its thorough trial and general
adoption hi cultivation if the variety proves valuable. As soon as
good stock is obtainable from a number of nurserymen there is no need
for its further distribution by the Department. The first trees of the
Rusk and Willits were distributed in the spring of 1905 and the Morton
was distributed a year later. Sufficient time has not elapsed to allow
any of these trees to reach bearing age, and no further data are thus
available in regard to their adaptability to various sections, soils, etc.
In the Department's experimental orchard the trees have been con-
tinued under trial. The Rusk has proved a very prolific variety, pro-
ducing numerous well-formed fruits. The fruits of this variety, which
are rather small, have for the last two seasons been larger than those
produced in the early fruiting of the same trees, showing a tendency
to produce somewhat larger fruit as the trees mature in age.
The WiUits has in some respects proved disappointing. The fruits
of this variety, which were described as rather rough and furrowed,
have, as the trees grew older, become more irregular. Fruits are
frequently developed which have several of the segments protruding
above at the apex in free ends, similar to the so-called "fingered
citron," though none of these free ends are so long as hi that fruit.
When a number of the segments protrude in this way, as occurs
in some instances, the shape of the fruit reminds one strikingly of a
aIn an article in the 1904 Yearbook entitled "New Citrus Creations of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture," the writer, in conjunction with Mr. Walter T. Swingle, described
two new citranges, the Rusk and WiUits; one new tangelo, the Sampson: and two new
tangerines, the Weshart and Trimble. In the 1905 Yearbook, in an article entitled
"New Fruit Productions of the Department of Agriculture," tbe writer described one
more citrange, the Morton; two limes, the Palmetto and Everglade; and five new pine-
apple hybrids, the Miami, Seminole, Eden, Matthams. and Gale. The work of the
Department in the breeding of oranges and pineapples was at first conducted jointly by
Mr. Walter T. Swingle and the writer, but since 1S97 has been carried out by the writer,
who has received valuable aid from Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Dr. E. A. Bessey, and P. J.
■r, of the Department's Subtropical Garden, in connection with the experim
and from Mr. J. B. Norton and Mrs. L. H. Webber in testing the fruits and making the
necessary notes.
329
330 YEABBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OE AGEICULTUEZ.
summer squasli. Even u bl st deformed fruits, however, the pulp
is very juicy and can be used as a substitute for the lemon or lime. This
variety tendency , furthe :> drop a
before it ripens, probably due to the abnormality and
erfect development. The writer would advise that this variety be
propagated sparingly. It is, however, an interesting and euri
fruit and is well worthy of propagation as a lawn tree.
The Morton trees at the experiment station at Lake City, Fla.,
and in the Government orchard at Glen St.
produced a good crop of fine-shaped and fine-appearing fruit. The
variety is without doubt one of the : the eitran^es. Bv Rids-
way's standards the skin color of the Morton is deep chrome to cad-
mium yellow and the pulp is between chrome and saffron yellow.
The- : . . Is of color by Ridgway's standards were not given in the
original description of the Morton.17
The writer wishes again to emphasize the statement that the cit-
ciust not be confounded with oranges. They are not oranges,
and are no more to be compared ..res than are lemons.
new fruits of the citrus group which are much hardier than the
orange or lemon, and which may be grown from 3 : miles n
of the present orange region. They are principally of value for culi-
nary purposes and for making citrangeade. As an ade fruit they are
to be highly recommended, as the different v. present different
and attractive flavors.
Many inquiries have reached the Department regarding the methods
of propagating the cicrange varieties. The writer would advise that
they be >n 2 or 3 year old seedlings of the Trifol
This is a perfectly hardy slock, which can be grown successfully
anywhere in the southern Unit- The ordinary 1 of
eye-budding which is 1 in the pn d of oranges, apples.
. is used. It has thus far been in to con
experiments in the manuring and cultivation of the citrange^ and
hi the absence of exact knowledge the writer would recommend that
in the difieren; sections about ie manuring and cultivation
..iven as is used with oranges, pears, or apples in those sections.
In this paper there will be described three new ges — the
lan, the Sav the Rustic. All of these varie
fruits of the TVillits and Morton, all having developed from seeds of a
single fruit of Trifoliate orange which was crossed by Mr.TT. T. Swi
with pollen of the common sweet orange in the spring of 1S97, in the
grove of Col. G. H. Norton, at Eusiis, Fla. Forty js were
grown from this single hybrid fruit, which, since their germina
have been under the care of the writer. A careful study has been
0 The colore referred to in tl: the determir.
of the colore by a cai . with the sta . _iven
in A Xoruenclature l: - by Ruben Bidgway: Boston, -
NEW CII'LUS A1\D PINEAPPLE PEODt
noi
3 of the 40 different seedlings and, with the publication of this
r, 5 of them will have been named as new varieties of citranges.
While the final value of none of the ci .ranges has yet been certainly
hed, the writer feels certain that they will ultimately prove
of inestimable value and be cultivated extensively in many parts of
the world.
The hardiness of the Colman, Savage, and Rustic citranges described
m this paper has not been thoroughly determined, but the experi-
ments have shown them to be apparently as hardy as any of the
other citrange varieties. At Glen St. Mary and Lake City, Fla., and
at the Georgia and Alabama experiment stations they have several
times endured freezes without injury, when the temperature we::
low as 15° and 16° F. There would seem to be no doubt that inmost
locations these trees may be successfully grown in regions from 300 to
400 miles north of the present orange belt of Florida. The writer
would recommend their thorough trial in South Carolina, Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi Louisiana, and the warmer parts of Tennessee,
Arkansas, and Texas. They can certainly be grown in regions of
low altitude in Xew Mexico and Arizona and in the warmer sections
near the coast of Washington^ Oregon, and northern California.
Thev mav be safely recommended for any section which is only
slightly too cold for the ordinary orange.
THE COLMAN CITEAXGE.
LTE XVII; ?LATE XX, FIGURE 2.]
The Colman citrange is a hybrid of the Trifoliate orange with pollen
of the common sweet orange, and is closely related to the Morton
and \Yillits, having developed
from another seed of the same
hybrid fruit. This new citrange
has been named the Colman in
if the valuable serv-
ices to agriculture and to this
Department of Hon. Norman J.
Colman, under whose admin-
a, as Commissioner of
Agriculture, the agricultural
work of the Government was
organized as a separate Depart-
ment. The Colman is a remark-
able hybrid, having fruits as large as the ordinary orange and of
line appearance. It is very different in character from any other of
the citranges and is easily recognizable.
Description" of frett and tree. — Fruit comps lierical, frequently n
ided or oblique, largo but rather smaller than the Morton, 2\ to 2| inches high
and from 2| to3| inches in diameter; color light '.range or lemon yellow, lighter than
Fig. 10.— a, Section of the skin of the Savage citrange,
showing the shape and arrangement of the oil
glands; b, section of the skin of the Colman ci
showing the shape and arrangement of the oil
glands. (Twice natural size.)
do- - lBBOOK )F I 7 AGP.ICrXTV
I
]
main s -
- . I
Uy with a .
•
-
thin.
in the ord . . _ .
-mall
-
-
;
r than tl. -
mem
lerived from the Trifoli sis small one-
fourth
i
L seed 1 5 from other citrus
frun. _
frui! - in many in general
Inn frequently unii
.her.
Tlie Colman eitra: _ - an exceedingly in - 2 ybrid in
comb in;." * -
thus far secured which has inherited in any marked degree the 1
fruit character of the Trifoliate orange. The fuzz on the Colman
fruit, however, in no way detracts from its good appearance and is
thus not a detrimental character. The foliage is in general slightly
larger than any of the other Tri: .nge hybrids which have
been secured and is nearly half unif ■ .ike the orange. In foli-
haracters, therefore, the Colman is mor. jiiod or.
than any of the other citranges. In odor and flavor it is nearly inter-
mediate between the two paj nts. In shape and arrangement (
glands it is different from either parent or from any other citrange
which the writer has examined. TVhiie the majority of the Colman
fruits show very little indication of furrow 5, s as for
instance, one shown in Plate XX. figure 2. have pronounced fin:
radiating from the base and reaching nearly to the apex of the fruit.
The tree of the Colman is very thorny, but the writer has obs rved
many branches having the tl - sf entirely suppress .1 it
is highly probable that the thorns may be bred
varieties of the common orange, by selecting Is for propagation
from such thornless branches. The almost
variety is somewhat remarkable and greatly adds to the value of the
fruit. A record of 102 fruits examined in the last two .->ws
an average of only 1 seed to 6 fruits.
The Colman is primarily re use in making citra:. -
ade. It makes a rich 01 re-colored ade of high qua
of bitterness, which -
like the bitter principle of the grapefruit, is o jss stinro
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XVII.
£j.ScJLd£:
COLMAN ClTRANGE. NATURAL SlZE
Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture. 1906.
Plate XVIII.
£j.£'JL<J£:
Savage Citrange. Natural Size
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XIX.
Rustic Citrange. Natural Size.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1!
Plate XX.
_ S>
fA "m
' "^
^^B*
1
T*i
3SBX
■$
W IP
*
^ ^
BF
1
Fig. 1.— Branch of the Savage Citrange. One-half Natural Size.
Fig. 2.— Branch of the Colman Citrange. One-half Natural Size.
NEW CITRUS AXD PINEAPPLE PKODT 333
and healthful. The juiciness of this variety, its seedlessness, and its
. specially lit it for use as an ade fruit. It also makes a very
fair marmalade, and other uses for the fruit will doubtless he found.
The tree is of fine appearance and well worthy of cultivation as a
lawn tree, aside from the value of its fruit.
THE SAVAGE CTTEAXGE.
[PLATE XVIII: PLATE XX. FIGURE 1.]
One of the best eitranges in size, shape, and appearance which have
been secured in the course of the Department's experiments is hybrid
Xo. 779. a cross of Trifoliate orange with pollen of sweet orange, and
ster seedling of the Willits, Morton. Colman, and Rustic. This
hybrid has been named the Savage, after Mr. Frank Savage, of El]
Fla.. in whose orange grove many of the Department's hybridization
experiments were started. The Savage produces a large, usually
well-shaped fruit and is apparently a valuable variety, differing con-
siderably from any of the other citrange varieties. Following is a
technical description of the varietv:
Description- of fecit and tree. — Fruit spherical or slightly compressed spherical,
frequently slightly oblique: of medium size, from 2 h> 2j inches in height and from 2\
to 3^ inches in diameter: weight from 3 to 8 ounces, average about 6 ounces, consider-
ably lighter than water, being less dense than the Colman; color light orange yellow
(by Ridgway's standards between saffron yellow and Indian yellow . thus being almost
the same color as Colman and lighter than the Willits and Morton; surface in some
fruits smooth, in others considerably roughened by depressions: many fruits have very
pronounced furrows, running from the base to the apex, while others show only slight
furrows or none: with a few hairs on rind, but these very small and invisible without
lens; calyx persistent but inconspicuous as in ordinary orange: rind of medium thick-
ness one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch, adhering rather closely to fruit,
gests orange in taste, but with considerable bitterness from the Trifoliate parent: oil
glands spherical or ovate, similar in shape and appearance to those of ordinary oranee
and being different in shape and more numerous than those of Colman I iig. 15, a : pulp
tender, translucent, light yellow (by Ridgway"s standards between wax yellow and
Naples yelli rw : pulp vesicles fusiform, varying in size, smaller than in ordinary orange
but much larger than in Trifoliate; segments S to 10: separating membranes moderately
tender, slightly bitter, texture tender and juicy: axis small, one-fourth to live six-
teenths of an inch in diameter; flavor a sprightly acid, somewhat bitter, not so sour
and bitter as Colman. more similar to the Morton; seeds few. usually averaging 3 or 4
per fruit: aroma pleasant but light, has a suggestion of apple odor: tree similar to Tri-
foliate, very vigorous and proline: hardy, evergreen or semi-evergreen: without pruning
grows rather tefl andslender: foliagedense: leaves mainly trifoliolate, some unifoliolate,
large; season of maturity medium early, from September 15 to last of November.
The Savage citrange is apparently the most fruitful of all of the
citrange clous, or varieties, aside from the Rusk. The trees in the
Government test grove were last year (1906) laden with a very full
crop of nice appearing fruit, hanging on the tree in bunches. The
fruit runs uneven in size and shows some tendency toward freakish-
ness. a few cases of protruded segments having been observed. From
the fewness of these among the comparatively large number of fri
developed, it is believed that it is not a seriously detrimental char-
acter. The fruit is not quite so sour and bitter as the Colman, bei
more nearly like the Morton. By those who like a sour fruit it can
be eaten out of hand with sugar. It makes a good ade and a fair
334 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETZMEX T OF AGETCULTlT;E.
marmalade, and can doubtless be used in many places where •
and lemons are now used.
The tree lias dense dark-green foliage and will make a fine appear-
ing; lawn tree. It may make a good hedge plant when pruned, but
pruning on top would probably be necessary, as the test trees do not
seem to develop many basal branches. The Sava j of the most
vigorous growers of any of the Trifoliata X orange hybrids, and, i
produces a considerable number of seeds, it is worthy of careful trial
hardy stock on which to bud the varieties of the ordinary sweet
orange. The Trifoliate orange is used extensively at the present time,
but many orange growers object to it. owing to iis tendency to dwarf
the trees. The Savage, being much more closely related to the sweet
orange, an exceptionally vigorous grower, and wholly resistant to
any degree of cold which would affect the sweet orange, would -
to posses; all of the desirable qualities of the Trifoliata e - and
would probably not have the same dwarfing tendencies. It might
be supposed that, being a hybrid, the seedlings would be too variable
to permit of using them in this way. While the vi y of the
seedlings of the various citrange clons has not been fully determined.
a number of seedlings have been grown, and the foliage characters of
b are in all cases remarkably like those of the parent variety, show-
ing no reversions to the pure Trifoliata or jnire orange, as i
expected. TThile the value of the Savage as a stock is entirely prob-
lematical, it is sufficiently promising for the writer to recommend its
thorough trial.
THE RUSTIC CITFAXGE.
[PLATE XIX.]
All of the citranges which have been named have tree chara<
which render them desirable for cultivation in the South as orna-
mental lawn trees or hedge plants, entirely aside from their value for
the fruit the}' produce. Hybrid Xo. 783, which, as stated previously,
is a seedling from the same hybrid fruit as the Column and Savage
and is thus a hybrid of Trifoliata with pollen of sweet orange, does
not produce as good a fr .ose varieties, but produces a rather
■ bushy, low-growing tree, which is believed to render it es
ciaiiy desirable for cultivation as a lawn tree or hedge plant. This
hybrid has been given the name Bustle, which suggests the use for
which the variety is recommended.
scbiptH)N of Fr.rrr and tkee. — Fruit nearly spherical, of medium size. &
and from 2 to 2| inches in height; v. _ lium, aven
r fruit: density lighter than water: color light yellow (by Ridg-
iards chrome yellow i ; surface covered with small incoi - which
altering arid hardly visible without lens, fairly smooth.
of the oil i many sweet oranges, frequently with -
furr ws radiatinsr from the stem and extei . :of fruit but seldom t
ing beyond middle of fruit: calyx persistent but inconspicuous, as in i
aedium thin, one-ei. en thirty- f an inch in thicl
! irr.it. as in ordinary orange, bitter t .1 glands prominent,
NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 335
mainly round or pear-shaped, with major axis at right angles to surface; pulp light,
translucent, greenish yellow, similar to the pulp color of ordinary lemons (by Ri< Lgway's
standards nearest to primrose yellow, but this color is not exactly correct); pulp
Les small and slender, not so juicy and melting as the Rusk, Colman, or Savage;
segments 6 to 12, separating membranes rather thicker and firmer than in ordinary
orange, slightly bitter; texture of fruit moderately tender; axis small, one-fourth
inch in diameter; flavor a characteristic citrange acid with some bitterness, rather
similar to the Willits; number of seeds variable; some fruits have as high as 24 se< ds,
while others are seedless; aroma light but pleasant; tree similar to ordinary sw< et
orange, spreading and branched below, differing in this regard from other citra :
vigorous and cold-resistant, evergreen or semi-evergreen, of medium height and
shapely; leaves trifoliolate, dark green, larger than those of Trifoliate orange; season
of maturity medium early, from middle of September to last of November.
The tree of the Rustic budded on Trifoliate orange stock differs
considerably in shape from that of any of the other citranges, devel-
oping fairly long lower branches, which are more widely spreading
than in the Trifoliate orange or the other citranges, and giving the
tree greater breadth near the ground. The tree of the Rustic is thus
in shape much nearer to that of the ordinary sweet orange. In the
other citranges there are fewer large branches developed near the
ground, and such as there are have a tendency to grow erect and
stiff, giving the tree a shape more nearly like the Trifoliate orange.
The foliage of the Rustic is dense, dark green, and mainly evergreen,
and the twigs, as in the case of all of the citranges, are armed with
long, stiff spines. It thus possesses all of the characters which fit it
for use as a hedge plant. The Rustic fruits in the seasons of 1904
and 1905 developed numerous seeds, ranging usually from 12 to 24
seeds per fruit. In 1906, however, for some unknown reason almost
all of the fruits were nearly seedless. If the variety is to prove satis-
factory for hedge purposes seedy fruits are desired, and it is desirable
to learn what factors are conducive to seed production. The writer's
experience at the present time is not sufficient to enable him to give
intelligent suggestions, but he believes that ordinarily a sufficient
number of seeds will be produced to use for propagation purposes.
While the seedlings will doubtless vary somewhat, the experience
with the citranges up to the present time indicates that they almost
invariably produce seedlings with foliage characters like those of the
parental variety. Cuttings from the citranges can be rooted fairly
easily in hothouses with bottom heat, and it may prove practical
to propagate trees in this way. Satisfactory stock for planting-
hedges could be secured by budding on Trifoliate orange stocks,
but this would make the plants rather too expensive for hedge
purposes.
As in the case of the Savage, it is believed that the Rustic might
also prove a desirable hardy stock on which to bud the various clons
of the ordinary sweet orange, lemon, etc. If it develops sufficient
seeds from which stocks may be grown the writer would suggest its
careful trial for this purpose.
While the fruit of the Rustic is not so large or juicy as some of the
other citranges, it is nevertheless of fairly good quality, and, as in the
336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
case of the other citranges, makes a good citrangeade and may be used
in making marmalades, pies, cakes, etc.
New Loose-skinned Oeaxge — The Thorxtox.
In the citrus-breeding experiments of the Department the improve-
ments which it would be desirable to obtain were carefully studied
and the combinations of parents were planned which would be most
likely to produce these improvements. The loose, easily removal >le
skin or "kid-glove" character of the tangerine and mandarin oranges
was recognized as a very valuable character, as probably the majority
of oranges are eaten by peeling and separating the segments. The
various clons of the tangerine and mandarin group of oranges, how-
ever, are sweet, rather insipid, and dry, and as a class lack the rich
juiciness and sprightly high quality of the ordinary orange. It was
thought that by hybridizing the tangerine with the common orange
hybrid varieties might be secured combining the most desirable
qualities of the two classes of fruits. With this in view many
hybrids were made of the tangerine with the common orange and
the reciprocal combination. None of these hybrids which have thus
far fruited has given the desired combination of characters. It is
surprising, however, that almost the exact fruit sought has resulted
from a hybrid of the pomelo with pollen of tangerine, the same com-
bination that gave the tangelo, though not from the same hybridized
fruit. This hybrid, Thornton Xo. 5, has the loose skin and easily
separable segments of the tangerine and also shows the tangerine
in the form and color of the pulp vesicles and the green color of the
cotyledons. The character of the pomelo or grapefruit, which is
supposed to be the female parent, is, however, hardly discernible
in any character. The writer, from the characters of the fruit,
would suppose it to be an orange X tangerine hybrid rather than
pomelo X tangerine. The original label of this hybrid was lost, but
only pomelo X tangerine hybrids were sent to Mr. Thornton, who
grew this hybrid to fruiting, and there would thus seem to be no
doubt as to the parentage. An error may have been made, however,
and if so it will probably be discovered later in the course of the fur-
ther experiments. Regardless of the parentage, this hybrid is be-
lieved to possess valuable characters and to be worthy of general
cultivation. It has therefore been named the Thornton, in recogni-
tion of the aid which Mr. C. E. Thornton, of Orlando, Fla., has given
the Department in connection with these experiments. A technical
description of the variety follows:
Description of fruit and tree. — Fruit oblate, flattened at the apex and tapering
from about the middle to the I . medium large, 3| to 3| inches in diameter by
high; color orange, about the same shade as the ordinary Florida sweet
oranges; surface Bomewhal rough, similar to the King orange, but not so markedly
rough as in that variety; skin medium thick, one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch
(rarely as thick as shown in PI. XXI), flexible and tough, being easily removable, like
NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 337
the skin of the tangerine; oil glands large and conspicuous; segments 10 to 12, s< pa-
rating easily like tangerine and with considerable adhering white soft membrane, as
in that fruit; separating membranes comparatively thin and tender; axis small,
except in old fruits, one-half inch in diameter, mainly hollow, as in tangerine; quality
excellent; texture tender, very juicy; flavor a mild, rich subacid, very attractive
but characteristic, not like any other citrus fruit; no indication of bitterness from
pomelo; pulp orange-colored; seeds 5 to 12 per fruit, resembling orange in shape but
with greenish cotyledons, similar to the tangerine; aroma not unlike ordinary orange
with suggestion of bitter-sweet orange, attractive; tree evergreen, having general
characters of ordinary sweet orange; leaves unifoliolate; time of ripening midseason.
It might be assumed from the supposed parentage of this hybrid
that it should be classed as a tangelo. The fruit, however, is sweet
and not bitter, and more resembles an orange than a pomelo. From
the general characters of this fruit it would be classed as a loose-
skinned common orange, while the tangelo may be described in gen-
eral as a loose-skinned pomelo. Some of the fruits of the Thornton
have been affected with the orange scab to some extent, showing the
susceptibility of the variety to this disease, as would be supposed
from its similarity to the tangerine. As the fruits grow old they
become rather large and puffy, as in the case of the tangerine, and it
is a section of such an old fruit that is shown in the lower half of
Plate XXI, which is not characteristic of the fruit when in prime
condition. It is believed that the Thornton is a valuable fruit, and
it should be tested thoroughly.
Pineapple Hybrids.
In the 1905 Yearbook of the Department five new varieties of
pineapples were described, namely, the Miami, Seminole, Eden, Mat-
thams, and Gale. Since that time a considerable number of the
fruits of these varieties have been carefully tested, and a limited dis-
tribution has been made of slips of three of the varieties. The Miami
has proven to be one of the best appearing fruits of the various
hybrids, but, while of fairly good quality, it is much inferior to many
of the hybrids in this regard. It is, however, apparently a good
shipper, and, as its quality is certainly superior to that of the orri-
nary varieties of pineapples, it should prove a desirable sort. Tie
Seminole and Gale produce fruits of exceptional appearance aid
very high quality; both of these varieties, however, produce but fev
slips and suckers and their propagation is thus very slow. This s
the only important factor against the general cultivation of thee
varieties. The Matthams has proven to be an all round good sot.
At the Graduate School of Agriculture, held at the University >f
Illinois in July, 1906, the writer had the pleasure of having a lare
number of these hybrids tested by the various students and instruc-
ors, fully fifty individuals taking part in the test. A vote on tfe
quality of the fruits tested resulted in an almost unanimous vote 1
favor of Matthams for first, Eden for second, and Miami for thid
plaice. The Seminole and Gale were not fruiting in sufficient quai-
3 a 1906 22
338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
be entered in this test, but about forty different hybrids were
■ 1 in comparison with Red Spanish. The Matthams is a yeliow-
ed variety of a rich - r. which on first testing is likely
to be preferred by many people. The writer, however, believes it to
be inferior in flavor to the Eden and to the Deliciosa. which is described
la.er in this paper.
In the present paper 7 new varieties are described. These are all
very distinct from any of the known varieties, and 6 of them have
smooth-margined leaves: thus the experiments have resulted in
adding 9 smooth-leaved varieties to our list, where only one smooth-
leaved sort, the Smooth Cayenne, was known at the time the experi-
ments were started. Since the experiments were started, however,
a variation of the Red Spanish has gradually come into cultiv
which has nearly smooth-margined leaves. Some of the leaves of
this variation are still in parts serrate, but unquestionably a purely
smooth-leaved sort Can be established by the selection of slips from
plants showing the least indication of spine development.
r has been unable to learn the history of this smooth-leaved
Red Spanish, but a considerable number of the fruits with smooth-
leaved crowns can be observed in the market, so that it must be
cultivated to a considerable extent. These fruits seem usually to be
mixed with the spiny-leaved Red Spanish, as though the smooth-
leaved type had not been distinguished as a distinct variety.
The writer wishes to strongly impress upon growers the desirability
)f only taking slips and suckers for propagation frorn those plants
h have produced the finest appearing and best fruits. Several
)f the hybrids which are being named and distributed produce fruits
vhich have certain characters that are variable, and some undesirable
its may be produced. Some varieties occasionally produce too
• crowns or compound crowns of undesirable shape. By propa-
gating only from plants producing fruits with good crowns this
teidency may probably be easily bred out. In the case of varieties
i as the Orlando and the Biscayne. described later, in which a
iderable number of the plants produce no slips, this tendency will
daibtless be bred out in the course of then regular propagation, as
tb preponderating number of slips will be taken from prolific plants.
THE DELICIOSA PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXII, FIGURE 1.]
Pineapple hybrid Xo. 9C, by all c^ hose who have assisted the
witer in testing hybrids, has come to be considered as the standard
:cellence. Mr. W. A. Taylor, of Penological Field Investigations,
indescribing this hybrid, said: "If any pine is entitled to the name
Diiciosa. this is it."" Folio wing this suggestion, the writer has given
it name Delk-wsa to this hvbrid.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Plate XXI
Thornton Orange. Natural Size.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agncultur
Plate XXII.
h S
CO m
NEW CITRUS AXD PINEAPPLE PRODUCTION Sji 339
The Deliciosa is a hybrid of Envillo with pollen of Porto Rico
and is one of a series of 34 hybrids developed from seeds of the
same fruit of Enville, a, number of flowers of which were crossed by
Mr. Swingle in the spring of: 1S97. The first- fruit was produced in
1901.. and- since that time an increasing number of fruits has been
produced each year. The Eden pineapple, described in 1905, is
also one of this series of hybrids. A considerable number of the
hybrids of this series are of remarkably high flavor. In the descrip-
tion of the Eden (Xo. 90) the Deliciosa was referred to as probably
the best-flavored fruit, but rendered worthless for cultivation by its
small size and very large crown. In the summer of 1908 a larger
number of fruits of the Deliciosa have been produced than in any
preceding year, and for some reason they have run considerably
larger in size, while the crowns have been smaller. The writer
interprets this change as occurring normally in the clon as it becomes
older in bud-propagated generations. In several cases, at least, such
changes in clons or bud-propagated varieties have been noted. In
sugar cane, for instance, it has been found that the normal sugar
content of a clon can not be determined until it has passed through
several bud-propagated generations. It may be that this improve-
ment in the fruits of the Deliciosa is due to better manuring and
cultivation, but, whatever the explanation, it would seem that, if
put under good conditions, the variety will produce a fruit of about
2 to 2| pounds weight. At best, however, it is small and of poor
shape, and, as in the case of the Eden, it is only its exceptionally
high quality and flavor that justify its being named and distributed.
In the case of both the Deliciosa and the Eden, however, it is believed
that a special high-class market can be found for them, and in any
case many growers will desire to cultivate a few of them for home use.
A technical description of the Deliciosa pineapple follow^:
De.-; ription of plaxt and fruit. — Plant usually large and spreading;; leaves
broad, recurved, rigid, dark green in color, and with a distinct central purplish stripe
1 inch wide; margin straight or somewhat undulate, serrate or spiny, with closely set
medium-sized reddish .-pines; crown of medium to large size, mainly single but sone-
times compound; average crown 8 to 9 inches high, with spread of 6 to 7 inches; ap-
pearance in general rather long and slender for shape of fruit; leaves of crown sei
4 to 10 inches long and from 1 to 1\ inches wide; fruit small, usually weighing from 2 a
2\ pounds, conical in shape, being rather tall and diminishing gradually in size frcn
bottom to top, height 5A to 8 inches, diameter 3 to 4 inches: color of fruit in genenl
orange yellow (by Ridgway's standards, fruits have been found to vary from dep
chrome to orange oebxaceous), the eye bracts frequently having a tinge of coral
the color is often considerably hidden by a whitish scaly covering similar to the bloon
of other fruits; surface of fruits rough: aroma usually strong and attractive: eys
small, averaging about five-eighths by five-eighths of an inch, similar to Enville i
shape and considerably protruded: eye bracts medium in size, tip live-eighths f
an inch long, with serrate margins frequently of coral or Indian red color: generl
quality of fruit excellenl ; text are very tender and brittle; flavor a very rich sweet su-
acidj very attractive; flesh light yellow or cream yellow, rather open; eye pita com-
paratively shallow; axis small, three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter, com pa r-
tively tender and brittle; in most fruits being of fair flavor and edible; slips numerou
usually from 3 to 10, rather too close to fruit; suckers 1 to 2: shipping quality appa
ently fairly good; season of ripening mainly between May 15 and July 1.
340 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The Deliciosa is very different in character from either of the par-
ents and it is difficult to trace any resemblance to the parental charac-
ters. The eyes are small and considerably protruded and the fruit is
conical in shape. In these characters the Deliciosa most closely re-
sembles the Enville. which was the mother parent. The very high
flavor is also probably derived mainly from the Enviile. though it is
surely superior to the Enville in tins regard. In no particular charac-
ter can the influence of the Porto Rico be discerned and no one would
suspect that the Porto Rico was one of the parents.
The Deliciosa is considerably different from its sister variety, the
Eden, being smaller and of darker orange ochraceous color. The
crown is larger in comparison to the fruit, but of the same general
shape. The leaves are also more erect and not so broad as those of
the Eden, and the edges are raised, the leaves resembling a gutter.
The central stripe of the leaves is rather narrow and dark purple.
The fruit, which is elongated and tapering, is carried on a long stem.
The Deliciosa is remarkable for its exceptionally delicate and deli-
cious flavor and its tender, brittle flesh and core. It is not as juicy
■me fruits, but is sufficiently juicy to be good. Its detrimental
characters are its small size, poor shape for shipping, and rather
large crown. By selecting slips for propagation from the largest,
-shaped fruits with small crowns, the variety can doubtless be
much improved. As in the case of the Eden, the writer would rec-
ommend that the variety be cultivated for home use and gradually
introduced into the market. If the superior quality of this fruit
and the Eden for table purposes were recognized by the market they
would be in great demand.
THE DADE PINEAPPLE.
LATE XXII. FIGURE 2.]
Pineapple hybrid No. 168, which has proven to produce a fruit of
-lent quality, is believed to possess characters of merit, and for
variety the writer proposes the name Dade. This fruit is a
hybrid of Enville with pollen of Smooth Cayenne. The cross-fertil-
fruit which produced the Dade gave only 3 seedling-. Nos. 166,
If. and 168. No. 166, which is a serrate-leaved seedling, has already
q discarded. No. 167, winch is smooth-leaved like Xo. 16S, is a
farly good variety and is still under trial. The Dade resembles the
Errille in eye, size, and shape, and has the smooth-margined leaves
life the Smooth Cayenne. The first fruits of this variety were pro-
1 in 1904, and since that tune several fruits have been produced
yerly. Following is a technical description of tins variety:
Rescript] and fruit. — Plant medium to large, mainly rather spread-
urved. rather rigid, green to dark green in a ilor, and usually with
..ewhat indistinct central purplish strir.»e about i inch wide: margin undulate,
but in some alternately emooth and spiny or simply with a few spines
x. Crown of medium to h - - -ingle: average crown about 8 to 10 inches
hjh, with spread of 6 to S inches, general appearance good; leaves of crown mainly
NEW CITKUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 341
smooth, from 5 to 6 inches in length and from three-fourths to 1| inches in width,
rut her flaccid, with lower leaves rather long and frequently reflexed over apex of fruit;
fruit of medium to small size, usually weighing from 2\ to 3| pounds, ovate to conical in
shape, height from 5 to 7 inches, diameter from 3i to 4h inches; color of fruit light lemon
yellow or orange chrome: surface of fruit comparatively smooth; aroma attractive,
spicy, fairly strong; eves small to medium in size, similar to Enville in shape, flat and
but slightly protruded; eve bracts small or medium in size, with slightly serrate mar-
gins; general quality of fruit excellent; texture tender and brittle, slightly stringy;
flavor a sweet subacid with little or no acridity; flesh yellow, attractive in color, juicy,
rather open; eve pits of medium depth: axis large, averaging about 1 inch in diam-
eter, lender and brittle and of fair edible quality; slips numerous, ustially 3 to 10, not
too close to fruit; suckers 1 to 2; season late, the majority ripening in July.
The Dade pineapple is inferior to the Deliciosa in flavor, but is a
better-shaped fruit, of good appearance, having mainly smooth-mar-
gined leaves. This variety, like a number of others of the hybrids
where a spiny-leaved sort was crossed with the Smooth Cayenne,
seems to be somewhat in doubt what sort of leaves to produce; fre-
quently a leaf will be found which has scattered spines on the margin
and occasionally a leaf will be almost wholly serrate. In general,
however, it would be ranked as a smooth-leaved sort. The fruit is
rather small for the size of the crown, but it has a bright, attractive
color and good surface. It has some tendency to develop a fruit of
slightly irregular shape, being in some cases slightly constricted in the
middle. The plant is of good, vigorous habit;, and the fruit stem is
short and stout. Some fruits when received have been found to show
some eye-rot, but the variety in general would probably ship well.
On the whole the variety is probably not as promising as some others,
but is worthy of careful trial under different conditions.
THE COQUIXA PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXIII, FIGURE 1.]
To this pineapple hybrid No. 169 (Green Ripley crossed with pollen
of Smooth Cayenne) has been given the name Coquina. It is the only
seedling which developed from a single hybridized fruit, but is of the
same parentage as the Gale, described in the 1905 Yearbook.
The seedling of the Coquina fruited first in 1902, and in 1905 a con-
siderable number of fruits were produced. It adds another smooth-
leaved sort to our list of promising varieties. The illustration of this
fruit shown in Plate XXIII, figure 1, shows a poor fruit of the variety.
A technical description follows:
Description of flaxt and fruit.— Plant large, compact or somewhat spreading;
Leaves broad, recurved, rather flaccid; color light green, mainly without a distingiish-
able central band, but in some specimens with an indistinct pale green band ahait 1
inch wide; margins mainly straight, but in some cases slightly undulate, smooti, or
with a few serrations at the apex; crown of medium to large size, about 9 inches ligh
and with spread of about 7 inches, single and usually of good shape and size in connari-
Bon with fruit ; crown leaves 5 to 10 inches long and 1 inch wide, with smooth mai ins;
fruit of good appearance, medium size, weighing from 3 to 4 pounds, oblong elliptcal,
aches in height and from 4} to 5 inches in diameter. Color of fruit orangi yel-
low (by Ridgway's standards deep chrome); eyes small to medium, somewhat irregllar
in shape, about medium in degree of protrusion; eye bracts of medium size, int< me-
diate between smooth and serrate; flesh rather open, moderately juicy, of rich yelow
color; texture brittle and solid, slightly stringy; flavor subacid, rich, sweet, attractve;
342 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
-mall, one-liali inch in diameter, tough and scarcely edible; eye pits shallow;
aroma moderately strong and attractive; general appearance and quality excellent;
; to 12; suckers 1 to 4: season mainly July.
The Coquina usually produces an attractive, good-sized fruit with
good crown. The surface of some fruits has been slightly cracked and
checked, but not sufficiently to seriously injure its good appearance.
The flesh is of an attractive rich yellow color. The eyes in general
resemble those of the Ripley, the female parent, while the crown and
smooth leaves are mainly like the Smooth Cayenne.. The variety
produces a large number of slips and suckers, and may thus be
rapidly propagated. In some fruits the slips are rather too close to
the fruit, but seldom so close as to seriously injure the fruit in cutting
or tweaking it. While this fruit is not equal to some of the other
hybrids in quality, it is believed to possess sufficient merit to justify
its propagation.
THE JUPITER PINEAPPLE.
[PLf\TE XXIII, FIGURE 2]
Pineapple hybrid No. L8S (Green Ripley crossed with pollen of
Smooth Cayenne) has proven a very desirable sort in the tests made,
and the writer has named this variety the Jupiter.
The Jupiter is one of* a series of 20 hybrids developed from seed of
the same original hybrid fruit. Many of these seedlings exhibit desir-
able characters, and one of them, the Gale, was described in the 1905
Yearbook.
Following is a technical description of the variety:
Description of plant and fruit. — Plant of medium to large size, spreading;
haves broad, recurved, rigid; margin of leave- mainly more or less undulate, and
r in some cases marly spiny; color of leaves green, in most cases without
central stripe1 but occasionally showing indistinct purplish central stripe about 1 inch
impound, of medium size, averaging about 8 inches
i! of 7 inches, of good appearance and symmetrical; crown leaves dark
i. from 1 to 7 inches about 1 inch in width, margins smooth or serrate,
I; fruit of excellent appearance, medium in size, weighing
5 pound- lliptical, from oh to 7 inches in height and from 4} to 5
: coloi of fruit dark orange (by Ridgway's standards orange ochra-
: medium size, about three-fourths by seven-eighths inch. flat, giving a
fruit m smooth surface: eye- bracts small to medium in size, with smooth or slightly
serrate- margins; flesh solid, very juicy, yellow, and attractive in appearance: texture
rather tough and slightly stringy, in Borne cases the fruits being recorded as render, this
chars! !ev.bat: flavor subacid and sweet: core rather large, 1
inch n diameter, tender and edible, at least in some fruits, recorded as tough in other
fruits: eye pits shallow; aroma light but attractive; slips few. 1 to 2. sometimes none;
■n June and July.
' Jupiter is a rather peculiar hybrid in its variability when
propagated vegetatively, and there is some possibility that it will
prote too variable to give satisfactory results. Some of the fruits are
of isry excellent quality and appearance, while others are but little
be ordinary in these regards. Some fruits have the surface
sligitly cracked, but this in the fruits examined has not detracted
- from the appearance. The foliage presents a peculiar inter-
file of the spiny and smooth character of the two parental varie-
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXIII.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXIV.
NEW CITKUS AXD PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 343
leraJ fcbe leaves h "th reaggias, but some B
spiny throughout, while others have scattered r grou]
spin- anged OBt the margin, still others being spiny
e apex.
The fruit of the Jupiter is. in general, about the same size and sb
m Red Spanish, being thus of good market size and shape. It is
apparently a good keeper. This variety gives evidence of bei:
good canning sort, as it peels economically, and the core is soft enough
in general, so that it probably can be sliced without cutting out the
core. The solidity of the flesh and the sweetness of the variety also
recommend it for this purpose. In flavor and quality the Jupiter is
certainly inferior to a number of the hybrids, but it is superior in these
respects to many of the varieties commonly cultivated.
THE JEXSEX PIXF.APPLE.
[PLATE XXIV, riGTRE 1.]
Pineapple hybrid Xo. 17 is a cross of Green Ripley with pollen of
Smooth Cayenne. It is one of 24 seedlings grown from a single fruit
of Ripley which was cross-pollinated in 1898. Xone of the other seed-
of this series has thus far proved valuable, and the majority of
them have already been discarded. A few, however, are still under
The first fruit of the Jensen was produced., in 100:?, and in 1905
and 1906 a considerable number of line fruits were produced. A
technical description of the variety follows:
Description of r-LAXT and nu*rr. — Plant medium to large, compact or somewhat
.ing: leaves of medium width to broach recurved, rigid; color green or
green without central band or with an indistinct purplish band about 1 inch in width:
niacins more or less undulate, smooth or spiny at i n single, of medium
coin}'. • inches in height, with spread el from 4 to S inches, of excellent -
and appearance: crown leaves from 4 to I inches in length and from thr -
ich in width, with smooth margins, frequently with very distinct purplish bands
Lriiits strongly rerlex^-.l over apex of fruit; fruit of excellent appear-
. medium size, weighing from 2 to 4 pounds, oblong, conical. 5 i :■_ o] inch's in
• and 3} to 4\ inches in diameter: color light Lk>W; by Ridgway's
•leep chrome: i hum size, seven-eighths by s*>ven-
eigfitbs inch, somewhat protruded or nearly liar . giving a good sunace: eye 1
small or medium in size, with smooth or slightly iargins: rlesh solid, very
juicy, of rich yellow attractive color: texture very tender, soft, and stringless: flavor
a rich, sprightly acid, very attractive, and with very little indication of acridity:
small, one-ltidf to five-eighths inch in diameter, tender and edible: eye pits siu
aroma fairly strong and attractive: slips usually about 5 or 6, in some cases nther
too close to the fruit : suckers 1 1 3 2 : season June and July .
The Jensen pineapple produces a very bright, finely coined.
attractive fruit of good shipping size, with symmetrical crown. The
eyes protrude but little, so that the surface is fairly smooth. Lithe
eye character and hi shape and size of fruit it is much like Ripley,
the female parent, but fortunately it has inherited the smooth lerces
of the male parent. While the traits are solid and very juicy, the
majority of them have reached Washington hi excellent conditon,
with little sign of roiling. It is probable, therefore, mat the friits
will be found to be fairly good shippers. On some there is a }ro-
nounced neck between the fruit and the crown, but this hi no vay
344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
detracts from the excellent appearance of the fruit. The flavor of
the Jensen is a sprightly acid, but it is nevertheless sweet, spicy, and
of high quality. The flesh is remarkably juicy and tender and can be
eaten very close to the surface. Withal, the Jensen is believed to
be a verv valuable variety, worthy of general cultivation. Because
of its shallow eyes, solid, juicy flesh, and tender core it may also prove
a good canning sort.
THE ORLANDO PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXIV. FIGURE 2.]
Pineapple hybrid Xo. 212. a cross of Green Ripley with pollen of
the Smooth Cayenne, is one of the best appearing and most prom-
ising of the various sorts under trial. For this variety the writer
proposes the name Orlando. The fruit of the Orlando is very dif-
ferent from either of the parental varieties or from any other of the
known varieties. It has smooth, entire-margined leaves like the
Smooth Cayenne, but differs from that variety in shape and size of
fruit and in having much smaller eyes. In eye characters the
Orlando somewhat resembles the Ripley, but could not be mistaken
for that variety. The cross which resulted in the Orlando was made
in the spring of 1898, and the first fruit was produced in 1903. Fol-
lowing is a technical description of the variety:
Description" of plaxt axd fruit. — Plants small to medium in size, compact or
somewhat spreading, light green: leaves broad, recurved, rigid, mainly without cen-
tral band, but occasionally with indistinct purplish or yellowish band about three-
fourths inch wide: margin of leaves undulate, smooth, and spineless, or at least with
only a few spines at the apex: crown single, of medium size and excellent appearance,
10 inches high, with spread of 4 to S inches: width of crown leaves three-fourths
to 1 inch: fruit of excellent appearance, but rather small in size, weighing from 1 to
4£ pounds, and usually averaging about 2^ pounds, ovate oblong, 4 to S inches high
and from 3 to 5 inches in diameter; color in general a bright orange ibyRidgway's
standards between orange and orange ochraceous. with the base of the eye bracts
ochraceous buff); surface medium in smoothness and attractive in appearance; aroma
light but pleasant: eyes small to medium, three-fourths by three-fourths inch: in
il flat or intermediate in degree of protrusion: eye bracts small to medium in
size, x-ith smooth margins: general quality of fruit excellent, very juicy, texture
usually brittle and tender, with slight stringiness: flavor a rich, sweet subacid if not
overripe, very pleasant and spicy, with very slight acridity; flesh yellow, solid: eye
pits usually very shallow: axis small, averaging about three-eighths of an inch in
diameter, usually rather tough and with little flavor, but in some fruits tend*
ediblt; slips rather few. in some fruits 3 to 6. in others none: not too close to the fruit;
suckers 1 to 4: season mainly June and July.
Tie fruit of the Orlando in general is very fine in symmetry, appear-
ance, and all those characters which go to make up an excellent
variity. The color is rich and attractive. In some fruits the eye
brads are somewhat cracked at the base, but this has in no
seriously detracted from the general good appearance. Some of the
fruit are too small in size, but they are usually large enough to suit
the market. In quality, the Orlando v. ill rank very high, if eaten
before it is overripe. When the fruit ages, it is liable to become
sonewhat water-logged and too sweet to suit the majority of
tastes. It is difficult to determine the season of a pineapple until it is
NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 345
grown on a fairly large scale. The Majority of the fruits of the
Orlando have ripened in June and July, but some have been har-
vested in December. There is little waste to this variety, as the
shallow eyes allow it to be peeled very thin. A feature of importance
in connection with this fruit is the possibility, owing to its small size,
of its being a desirable sort to use as the Natal variety is used in
South Africa, according to the observations of Mr. D. G. Fairchild.
There single fruits of the Natal are commonly purchased by pedes-
trians on the streets, peeled and eaten much as we eat apples in this
country. The fruit of the Orlando peels without much waste, and is
normally of small size. If the plants were grown considerably
crowded together it is probable that numerous fruits of three-
fourths to 1 pound weight could be produced, which, owing to their
excellent appearance and smooth leaves, would be well adapted to use
in this way. For such use they would probably be superior to the
Natal, primarily because of their smooth leaves.
THE BISCAYXE PINEAPPLE.
[PLATE XXIV, FIGURE 3.]
Pineapple hybrid No. 228, a cross of Pernambuco with pollen of
Porto Rico, is one of the finest appearing and best of the various
hybrids with smooth leaves which have been secured by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and has been named after the beautiful Bay Bis-
cay ne, on the shores of which it has been grown. The original
crossed fruit from which the Biscayne developed gave 35 seedlings,
31 of which have fruited. Either the plants or the numbers of the
other 4 were lost. Of these 31 seedlings, 21 have entire or smooth
leaves, while 10 have serrate leaves. In this case both parents have
serrate leaves, and it is difficult to account for the preponderating
number of smooth-leaved plants among the hybrids. The proportion
is exactly what would be expected in crossing a smooth with a spiny-
leaved sort when the smooth character is dominant. It is difficult to
understand how an error could have been made in the fruits, but the
writer would be inclined to believe from the characters of the various
hybrids that the Smooth Cayenne was used as the male parent
instead of the Porto Rico. None of the other hybrids of this series
has thus far been selected for propagation, though several of them
are still under trial. The first fruit of the Biscayne was produced
in 1902, and a considerable number of the fruits have since been
grown and tested. Following is a technical description of the variety:
Description of plant and fruit.— Plant medium to large in size, spreading or
somewhat compact . green or green suffused with purple; leaves broad, recurved, rigid,
with purplish central band about 1 inch wide; margin straight or undulate; smooth or
entire except lor few spines at apex of leaves; crown single or compound, of medium
size and usually excellent appearance, 3 to 6 inches high, with spread of from 4 to 6
inches; crown leaves usually rather narrow, from one-half to seven-eighths of an inch;
346 YEARBOOK OF THE I L -VIZ.
■A exeeUea
obloi _ and 3| to 5 inches
Ridgway ?s stac
i 11 to medium in . - _
foun
small -half inch I m
of fruit excellent, jui
-
diam
1 to 3: season. June to July.
The Biscavne is somewhat similar
-ie Orlando. It is different in shape and appearance of surface.
however, and is istingui-
fully compared. Thee: I ..yre isfreqi:
and in some cases this detracts from the appearance of ti.
In no case, however, has the crown been so large and compound I
injure the character of the apex of the fruit, and the compound
nature of the crown has seldom detracted seriously from the
ance of the fruit. The surface of the fruit is par: :md
even under these conditions the ey nparativ
Ordinarily fruits with flat eyes hfti while i: - are
strongly protruded the eye pits are usv .ape the
Biscavne is rather remarkable. Xo variety known to the wi
ms in so marked degree its full diameter entirely to the apex. In
almost all qualities the Biscavne is an excellent pineapple, and is
believed to be worthy of general propagation.
DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN BY THE
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
By M. Dorset.
hemic Division, Bureau of Animal Industry.
IMPORTAXCE OF EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES.
In order to cope successfully with infectious diseases we must pos-
sess means for their early recognition. for, aside from the very great
advantages which are thus obtained in cases where treatment is to be
applied, an early diagnosis enables us to protect, by methods of quar-
antine and disinfect ion. healthy individuals that might otherwise be
exposed to the contagion. Indeed, the success of any struggle with
an infectious disease which is spread by contact of healthy individuals
with those that are diseased may be measured directly by the certainty
with which the disease in question can be recognized. This fact is
obvious when it is remembered that infectious diseases are each
caused by a specific micro-organism and that these micro-organisms
are, in many diseases, discharged from the infected individual in large
numbers. The longer the disease remains undiscovered the greater
is the danger of the infection of other animals, which in their turn
act as distributing agents for the virus.
Among the infectious diseases which affect cattle and horses, and
which we are forced to combat chiefly by methods of quarantine.
probably none cause greater losses in this country than tuberculosis
of cattle and glanders of horses. It happens, also, that these two
diseases are. in their early stages, among the most difficult to recog-
nize.- and this is especially true of tuberculosis. The onset is fre-
quently insidious: the animal may remain apparently well when the
disease is far advanced, and the infecting organisms may be discharged
in large numbers, even though no lesion can be demonstrated by. the
usual clinical examination:
Under these circumstances it is indeed fortunate that for b« th
tuberculosis in cattle and glanders in horses we p specific diag-
nostic agents to aid and supplement the clinical examination. Tl
diagnostic agents, which are known as tuberculin and mallein, are
derived from the bacteria which cause the two diseases, and are n< w
regarded as indispensable in any attempt to eradicate these diseases
if a successful result is to be attained.
347
.'.-- YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In order that the mode of applying these substances in dealing with
tuberculosis and glanders may be more readily understood, it may be
well to relate briefly the history of the discovery of tuberculin and
mallein. and the manner of fighting d their use.
TUBERCULIN AND ITS Ufi
As is now quite generally known. Prof. Robert Koch, in the year
1890. first recommended the use of a solution prepared from pure
cultures of the tuberculosis bacillus for the treatment of tubercui
All live bacilli in glycerinated bouillon cultures of this bacillus were
first destroyed by heat and removed by filtration. The filtrate,
evaporated to a small bulk, constituted the tuberculin and consisted
of the soluble and noncoagulable portions of the culture medium,
together with those products of the growth of the tubercle bacilli and
those portions of the bacterial cells which were like ise - table and
not coagulable by heat.
Professor Koch observed that minute quantities of this tuberculin,
injected under the skin of tuberculous animals, exercised a specific
stimulating action upon the tuberculous foci and at the same time
produced a systemic reaction, which was characterized by a marked
rise in temperature a few hours after the injection. Tuberculin was
originally thought to p ssess musual value as a curative agent.
Although P: Koch's expectations in this respect were not borne
out by numerous practical tests, his discovery had a far-reaching
influence upon the very futile struggle which had hitherto ber
against tuberculosis in cattle: for hardly had his discovery been
announced before the specific reaction produced in tuberculous indi-
viduals by tuberculin was recognized as a possible means of diag:
in obscure cases of bovine tubercui.
Experiments to determine the value of the use of tuberculin for
this purpose were begun immediately by veterinarians in all par
the world, and the literature of the past fifteen years is filled with the
records of their work. Without attempting to review these experi-
ments in detail, it may be stated that while some have reported
adversely upon the use of tuberculin as a diagnostic agent, the failures
were, in many instances, due to a faulty application of the test or to
improper interpretations of the results obtained. There appear to be
possible sources of error in connection with the tuberculin test:
(1) Apparent reactions in healthy cattle and (2) a failure of tubercu-
lous cattle to react to the te-
In regard to the first-mentioned p<> authorities are
agreed that this source of error is exceedingly small, if. indeed, it
s at all. Xocard. the eminent French authority, has stated that
-itive tuberculin reaction is absolute proof of tuberculosis, and
if a post-mortem examination fails to reveal tuberculosis we have
DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. 349
evidence not of the inexactness of tuberculin, but of its extreme deli-
cacy in revealing lesions which are too minute to be discoverable by
the ordinary methods of post-mortem examination.
On the other hand, experience has shown that a very small percent-
age of tuberculous cattle may fail to react to the test, though this is
not a serious objection, for the reason that the failures of this kind
are usually observed in advanced cases of the disease, which can be
readily recognized by the ordinary physical examination. It is a
curious fact that cattle which are affected with tuberculosis in an
exceedingly slight degree may exhibit much more pronounced reac-
tions than others which are extensively diseased.
There can be no doubt that the tuberculin test is a remarkably
accurate means of detecting tuberculosis in cattle, and the methods
employed for ridding a herd of this disease without destroying even
the affected animals will be readily understood. In the early days of
the application of the test it was the common practice to test the
entire herd and then to destroy all reacting animals. This has been
found to be in most cases unnecessary and undesirable unless the
number of reacting cattle is small and the animals not of particular
value. The practice most generally followed is known as the ' ' Bang
method" of dealing with, tuberculosis, so named after the originator of
the system. By this method the entire herd from which tuberculosis
is to be eradicated is subjected to the tuberculin test. All of the
animals which fail to react are immediately removed to new quarters
and kaept entirely separate from the reacting animals of the herd. The
latter may be fattened and slaughtered subject to post-mortem
examination, or they may be used for breeding purposes if they are
high-grade stock. Tuberculosis is extremely rarely transmitted from
parent to offspring, and if calves of tuberculous cows are removed from
their mothers immediately after birth they may be placed with the
healthy portion of the herd and fed with boiled milk from the tubercu-
lous cows or raw milk from the healthy cows. Within six months or a
year the healthy portion of the herd should be retested and the react-
ing animals, which will probably be comparatively few, should be
immediately removed from the healthy ones as in the first instance.
If this system be carefully followed, with regular retests of the non-
reacting portion of the herd, tuberculosis can be eradicated within a
few years at comparatively small cost to the owner and with a tremen-
dous gain in the productiveness of the herd. It has been quite defi-
nitely proven that tuberculin does not injure healthy cattle, nor does
it render the milk unwholesome.
MALLEIN AND ITS USE.
The methods used for preparing mallein and the manner of applying
this test for glanders are quite similar to those used in the case of
350 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPART:
tuberculin. In foot, the use of mullein was a direct outgrowth of
experiments made with tuberculin. The bacillus of glanders Bo<:
mallei) is grown in pure culture upon artificially prepared, media and
the soluble noncoagulable portions of the bacterial growth, are
dieted. This exrract is preserved by means of some suitable i
: and is injected subcutaneously into horses suspected of being
affected with glanders. Tnfi reaction obtained in diseased ho:
the same general nature as that obtained by injecting tuberculin into
tuberculous cattle, though there are certain difference - b the
form of the fever curve. In horses reacting to nialleiii there is also
usually a marked swelling of the tissues around tto at which the
maliein was injected. This swelling, which does not occur in tubercu-
rter a tuberculin injection, is one of the character-
features of the reaction of glandered horses to maliein.
In I be reliability of the maliein test, it must be ackn
edged that, although a reaction to maliein or a failure to rea
generally a correct indication of the existence or nonexistence of
glanders, the results i f this test can not be accepted with the a
a that follows a properly applied tuberculin t
been cases in which apparently typical reactions were obtained with
maliein, although the horses tested exhibited no symptoms what
of the disease: and likewise failures have been recorded in v
appeared to be undoubted cases of glanders.
It is the general opinion, however, among those who have had
experience in the practical use of maliein. that it is a very valuable
aid in the diagnosis of glanders, and it seems not unreasonable to hope
that improvements in the present technique employed in making
this test, together with a fuller knowledge of the mechanism of the
I ion, will eventually produce even more trustworthy results than
those now obtained.
In combating glanders the general practice is to destroy h
which are positively known to be affected with the disease and to
quarantine those which are merely suspected of being d.
MAZvS"ER OF DISTRIBUTING TUBERCULIN AXD MALLELX.
In order to be in a position to enforce more effectively its quarantine
regulations, the Bureau of Animal Industry began in the year 1893 the
preparation of both tuberculin and maliein. and it was de the
b time to supply these substances free of charge to properly con-
stituted health cfheers and official veterinarians in the various i
Territories. This distribution was undertaken for the purp< -
cooperating with State officials in their efforts to restrict and eradi
infectious diseases under authority conferred upon the Seer,
of Agriculture by act of Congress.
This distribution is restricted to Federal, State, county, or city
officials, who are supplied with tuberculin and maliein upon their
DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN.
351
agreeing to furnish the Bureau of Animal Industry with records of
all tests and with the results of the autopsies on all animals that are
slaughtered, and upon the further understanding that all tests shall
be conducted under their supervision by practitioners who are skilled
in the use of tuberculin and mallein. In addition to furnishing
tuberculin to the above-mentioned officials, considerable quantities
have been sent to inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry sta-
tioned at various places along the Canadian border and at other
points where cattle are offered for importation without the required
certificates of freedom from tuberculosis. In order to carry out more
effectively the plan to exclude tuberculous cattle from this country,
an inspector of the Bureau is stationed in England, and there tests
all cattle intended for export to the United States and refuses cer-
tificates to those found to be diseased.
As was to be expected, in the first few years after the preparation
of tuberculin and mallein was undertaken by the Bureau of Animal
Industry comparatively small quantities were sent out. But the
demand for these substances has steadily increased, this increased
demand being especially noticeable during the last few years. In the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1906, somewhat more than 103,000 doses
of tuberculin and 10,000 doses of mallein were supplied to officials
in different States and Territories, as follows:
Distribution of tuberculin and mullein in the year ended June SO, 1906.
Distributed to—
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
do
Connecticut
District of Columbia .
England
Georgia
Hawaii
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Mai no
Maryland
I IMiS'Mts
Michigan
ota
Missouri
Montana
Ippi
Doses.
Tulweulin. Mallein.
24
754
16S
G19
COO
130
120
221
2,067
344
1,1,90
288
19,385
912
1, -.in
1,304
203
12
151
12
252
516
2
54
272
12
45
4,110
20
Distributed to-
Nebraska
Xt'.v Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina. . .
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Porto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina. . .
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
War Department.
Washington
Wisconsin
Total.
Doses.
Tuberculin. Mallein
14
1,008
78
161
l,.'.Mi
2,944
1,300
CO
731
50
30
6
734
19, 674
139
12.936
12
SC9
192
78
12
325
6
24
68
84
1,612
IP. 105
352 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGBICULTV
The legislatures of a number of the States in the above list have
- requiring that all cattle which enter these States -hall
either prest ni proper certificate of freedom from tuberculosis or else
pass the tuberculin test at the time they enter the State: in addition,
ts of herds within the State which are suspected of being affected
with tuberculosis are also provided for. These tests are usually con-
ducted by a live-sl k -military commission or by the State board of
health, and are compulsory in som- S - and made upon request
in others. In many of the States having specific laws covering this
subject the reacting cattle are red subject to post-mortem
inspection and the owner is paid a certain percentage of the appraised
value of the condemned animals. Similar regulations are in force
concerning glanders. In addition to supplying these State boards,
the Bureau furnishes a considerable quantity of tuberculin to city
officials whose duty it is to detect tuberculosis in the dairy herds
from which the citys milk supply is derived.
the disteibut:
The results achieved by the distribution of tuberculin by the Bureau
.iiirnal Industry are best appreciated by referring to the reports
of the several 5ta1 that have had supervision over the use of
tuberculin supplied them by this Department. These officials have
received from the Department in the last ten; a round numbers.
,000 doses of tuberculin. "This tuberculin has been used almost
exclusively for testing dairy cattle, and the reports show a percentage
of tuberculosis in these herds which varies from 1 to SO per cent, or
. more in some instances. The average percentage of tubercu-
I sis in dairy herds revealed by these tests certainly falls very little,
if any. below 5 per cent of the umber tested. In the vast
majority of cases the diseased anim. been removed from the
herds, either by quarantine or ghter. It appears, therefore,
that not less than 25,000 tuberculous cattle have been removed from
our dairy herds through the agency of this governmental distribution
of tuberculin. The great gain which must ultimately result to the
owners of the herds from which these ini individuals have been
removed is seen in reports of retests of herds which were found highly
tuberculous upon the first examination. All reports bearing upon this
subject show that the number of reacting animals in the second test
11 — at times none — and the owners are thus being enabled
to rid their herds of the most serious menace winch confronts them.
>:>r are the benefits derived from this work to be measured by an
economic standard only, for an even more important object is being
attained — the protection of the public health. The consensus of
- mtific opinion now is that bovine tuberculosis is transmissible to
DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. 353
man, and it is an undoubted fact that tuberculous cattle frequently
discharge tubercle bacilli from their bodies through their milk, even
though no demonstrable lesion of the udder exists.
Any tuberculous cow may therefore be a source of real danger to
the people who partake of her milk, and in the case of large dairies,
where the milk from the whole herd is usually mixed together before
being distributed to the consumers, a few tuberculous cows may cause
the contamination of large quantities of milk. This mixing together
of milk serves to distribute the infective bacilli through all of the
dairy products, thereby increasing greatly the number of persons
exposed to -the infection. The good which has been accomplished by
the removal of the 25,000 tuberculous cows from dairy herds in this
country is thus seen to be much greater than would be at first sup-
posed, for it is probable that the milk from at least five times as many
cows has been rendered wholesome by the removal of these distribu-
ters of the tuberculosis virus.
The good which has resulted from the distribution of mallein can
not be so readily determined, but it can not be doubted that the
destruction of the many glandered horses which have reacted to the
mallein test has protected many others from the infection. And in
the case of glanders the diseased horse is not only a menace to
others belonging to the same owner, but to horses that are exposed
to infection through the agency of the public drinking troughs which
are maintained in most of our cities.
Quite apart from this distribution of mallein to civilian authori-
ties must be considered the supplies which have been furnished the
War Department. The Bureau of Animal Industry has been ready
at all times to furnish mallein to that Department, and upon the
request of the Quartermaster-General has sent out many thousand
doses. During the war with Spain large quantities of mallein pre-
pared in these laboratories were used for testing the horses and mules
purchased for the use of the Army, and the facilities for preparing
mallein are such that large supplies are always available.
It is hoped and believed by the Department that, in addition to the
actual benefit derived by stock raisers from the tests which have been
carried out, the educational value of the work has been of great
advantage to stock-raising communities. For it is reasonable to sup-
pose that a dairyman who has once had his herd freed from, tuber-
culosis will not knowingly again introduce the disease among his
cattle. He will insist upon a tuberculin test of all animals which are
purchased, and this demand on the part of the purchaser for healthy
cattle will force upon breeders and raisers the necessity of supplying
them.
3 a 190(3 23
354 YEARBOOK or THE department of agriculture.
Ii seems not unreasonable to believe that if this testing of cattle
for tuberculosis coul ried out on a sumcientlv laree scale, and
if it were in all cases followed up by careful and intelligent quarantine
measures with periodical retests of the herds, the percentage of tuber-
culous cattle could at least be reduced to a very small fraction of that
which is now known to exist. If tuberculosis can be eradicated from
one her-. - me can be done for others. The whole question would
seem to be simply one of organization and cooperation between the
Federal and the local authorities and the stock raisers themselves.
PROMISING NEW FRUITS.
By William A. Taylor,
Pomologist in Charge of Field Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.
INTRODUCTION.
The question as to what varieties of fruits and nuts to plant is one
that confronts the orchardist when he contemplates an increase of
his orchard or vineyard. Requiring a more or less permanent invest-
ment of capital in the form of land and labor, as well as cost of nursery
stock, it is essential that he choose such varieties as shall not only
be adapted to his climatic and soil conditions, but also to the markets
or uses for which their products are intended. The desires and needs
of consumers change as time rolls on, so that sorts that were once
profitable cease to be so, even though they do not deteriorate in any
way; hence continual attention by the grower to the new sorts that
come to notice is advisable. A few of the more promising new varie-
ties for cultivation in different sections of the country are described
and illustrated here in continuation of the series begun in the Year-
book for 1901 and contributed yearly since that time.
MAGNATE APPLE.
(Synonyms: Magnet of some; Slayman's Superior; Stayman's No. 1 of some; Stay-
man's No. 2 of some.)
[PLATE XXV.]
This promising early winter variety is a seedling of Winesap which
originated with the late Dr. J. Stayman, at Leavenworth, Kans., in
1866.° After the original tree came into bearing it appears to have
been considerably disseminated by the originator, in the form of
scions for testing, from about 1884 until his death, in 1903. While a
number of descriptions and outlines of the variety made by Doctor
Stayman are preserved in the extensive collection of such material
bequeathed by him to the Department of Agriculture, it is appar-
ently impossible at this time to determine under what designation
the variety was first disseminated.
It appears to have reached Mr. J. W. Kerr,6 Denton, Md., in the
winter of 18S4-85 under the designation "Stayman's No. 1" with
others of Doctor Stayman' s seedlings in the form of scions from
a MS. notes of Dr. J. Stayman in Pomologieal Collections, Bureau of Plant Industry.
b Letters from J. W. Kerr, December, 1906.
355
350 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAPJMEXT OF AGRICULTURE.
J. Silvanus Gordon., of Sergeantsville. N. J. Mr. Gordon had received
the scions from Doctor Stayman a short time before.0 About lv^7
it reached the nursery of the Michigan Agricultural College,6 appar-
ently direct from Doctor Stayman. under the same designation. In
1S90' Mr. Benjamin Buckman, of Farmingdale, 111., received scions
of it from the Michigan Agricultural College orchard labeled "Stay-
man's Xo. 1," and in 1S93 under the designation "Stayman's Supe-
rior"' he received scions direct from Doctor Stayman. Having
fruited both and finding them identical, in 1901 he sent specimens
of the fruit to Doctor Stayman for authentication of name, and
received from him a strong expression of Ins conviction^ that the
apple sent was in fact Ins •Stayman's Xo. 2." The original tree is
reported by Mr. George H. Black, its present owner," to be living still,
though it was almost destroyed by a severe windstorm in September,
Messrs Stayman and Black propagated a considerable num-
ber of trees of it for their own planting in the winter of 1897-98 at
Leavenworth. Kans., where some seventy trees about 6 years old are
now in bearing.
The earliest publication of the variety appears to have been by
Prof. L. H. Bailey in >^7.; when, as "Stayman's Xo. I," it was
included with several others of Doctor Stayman's seedlings in a list
varieties growing at the Michigan Agricultural College. In 1S96
Mr. Benjamin Buckman published the names •Stayman's Superior''
and •• Xo. 1 Stayman's" in his " List of Fruit Varieties."? their identity
not having been discovered at that time. The first commercial
introduction of the variety appears to have been by Mr. J. W. Kerr,
who catalogued it for the fall of 189S and spring of 1S99 as •Stay-
man Xo. 1."
It is evident from Doctor Stayman's notes and correspondence
that at different times he had different names for the variety under
consideration, such . Sap, "Stayman's Superior." ••Mag-
net." and "Magnate." and it appears strongly probable that scions
were distributed by him for testing imder all these names, as well as
imder the designations "Xo. 1" and "Xo. _'." His final choice
appears to have been "Magnet."' but conflict of this with a previ-
.v published variety of Wise igin causes the present
a Letter from J. Silvanus Gordon. December. 1906.
b Letters from Prof. L. R. Taft and Prof. L. H. Pk: mber, 1900. and January.
1907.
c Letters from Benjamin Buckman. December. 1906.
<* Letter of Dr. J. Stayman to Benjamin Buckman. O IflOL
Letter of George H. Black. January- 12. 1907.
/Michigan Agricultural College Bulletin 31 S8! T>4.
0List of Fruit Varieties in Private Experimental Orchard of Benj. Buckman,
Farmingdale. 111., fall 1S96. pp. 4-5.
rf Dr. J. Stayman to Benj. Buckman. December 17. 1900.
» Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 18
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXV.
9.4*fc
<*4W"?-»-I~0-?-C-
Magnate Apple.
PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 357
adoption of his previously unpublished name ''Magnate," under
which it was planted in nursery and orchard by Messrs. Stayman
and Black. The Magnet apple listed hi Bulletin 56 a of the Bureau
of Plant Industry is the Wisconsin variety, and the publication of
"Stayman Superior'' as synonymous with it in the revised edition
of that bulletin6 appears to have been due to a misapprehension as
to its identity.
DESCRIPTION.
Form round to roundish conical; size medium to large; surface
smooth, but gently undulating and glossy; color rich yellow, washed
with crimson over almost the entire surface and indistinctly striped
with dark purple and covered with whitish bloom; dots variable in
size, numerous, yellow or red; cavity regular, large, deep furrowed
and but faintly russeted; stem slender, curved, short, rarely extend-
ing beyond the cavity; basin regular, of medium size and depth, and
gradual slope, furrowed, and showing traces of bloom; eye medium,
closed; calyx segments of medium size, converging, tube rather long
and narrow; skin moderately thick, tenacious; flesh yellowish, stained
with red, fine-grained, half tender, juicy; core small, conical, closed,
clasping; seeds of medium size, plump, brown, numerous; flavor rich
subacid; quality very good. Season, September to December in
eastern Kansas, about the same as Jonathan.
The tree is reported to be an upright open grower, loaded with
wiry shoots, and requiring little pruning. The variety appears to be
especially promising for the middle and northern portions of the
region where its parent, the Winesap, succeeds.
The specimen illustrated on Plate XXV was grown near Leaven-
worth, Kans., in 1906.
OLIVER RED APPLE.
(Synoxyms: Ail-Over Red; Oliver; Oliver's Red; Senator.)
[PLATE XXVI.]
One of the striking features of the Arkansas fruit exhibit at the
World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in' 1893 and the Cotton
States Exposition at Atlanta in 1895 was a brilliantly colored red
apple conspicuously marked with large light dots. It had then been
grown for many years in certain localities in Washington County,
Ark., both hi orchards and nurseries, under the name Oliver's Red,
and according to some accounts as ATI-Over Red. It does not appear
to have been known outside of the Ozark region until after it was
exhibited with other Arkansas apples at Chicago.
"B. P. I. Bulletin 50, Nomenclature of the Apple. January 25, 1905, p. 189.
&B. P. I. Bulletin 56, Nomenclature of the Apple, revised July, 1905, p. 393.
358 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
nearly as can be ascertained, this variety originated early in
the nineteenth century ° on the John Oliver farm, 7 miles south of
Lincoln, in Washington County, Ark. It was first propagated by
Earles Holt about the middle of the century, who grafted it on a
place 2 miles north of Lincoln, where it has been locally known
and propagated ever since that time under the name Oliver's Red.
At various times one or two other seedlings appear to have been
somewhat confused with it, but at the present time no other sort is
recognized in the locality under that name. In 1898 Prof. John T.
Stinson* described it under the shortened name Oliver, but this had
previously been published0 for a very different sort.
the variety has been quite widely disseminated by the
k Brothers Nurseries and Orchards Company under the name
which was registered by them in the LTnited States Patent
Office on November 22, 1898, as a trade-mark. In view of the fact
that the earlier name had been well established for half a century in
the region where it originated and continues to be practically the
onlv name known for it there, that name. Oliver Red, is here accepted
e one to winch the variety is entitled under the code of nomen-
clature of the American Pomological Society.
DESCRIPTION".
nn oblate to roundish oblate; >ize medium to large; surface
smooth and glossy, excepting occasional russet knobs and numerous
color deep yellow, washed over most of the surface with
bright mixed red and brokenly striped with dark crimson; dots very
oicuous, russeted, mostly aureole: cavity large, regular, deep
m short, rather stout: basin large, deep, regular, grad-
ual, furrowed; eye large, closed; calyx segments of medium
size, converging, tube very short and broad; skin moderately thick,
tenacious : flesh yellowish, frequently stained, moderately fine grained,
breaking, juicy: core medium, conical, open, meeting the eye; seeds
lium in size, plump, brown: flavor subacid, pleasant; quality good
ry good.
The tree is a strong, upright grower, somewhat subject to sun scald
unless headed low. but coming into bearing at an early age and bearing
well. It is a choice dessert apple, well adapted to fancy trade, and
thy of testing throughout the important apple districts of the
country.
The specimen illustrated on Plate XXVI was grown in 1906 by
G. TV. Collins. Lincoln, Washington County, Ark.
o Letters of Win. G. Yincenheller. December, 190i, and It D. Holt and Gr. W
Lincoln, Ark., January. 1907.
i> Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 49. January. 1898, p. 16.
£ Magazine <*i Horticulture. i853, p. 165.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXVI.
9.49*
cx4M 2->T-<>7-C^
Oliver Red Apple.
Yearbook U. S. Dept o* Ag
Plate XXVII.
■4^/\Q<rt^
Rabun Apple.
PROMISING XEW FKUITS. 359
RABUN APPLE.
(Synonyms: Rabun Bald; Rabun BaU.a through typographical error.)
[PLATE XXYIl.]
One of the most promising new apples for the lower Appalachian
region, comprising western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and
northern Georgia, is the Rabun. Its history as furnished by Prof.
C. C. Newman,6 of Clemson College, S. C.,is substantially as follows:
The original tree was found about 1S90 by Mr. Andy Hanby in clear-
ing land on his place on the TValhalla and Franklin wagon road, about
13 miles northeast of Clayton, Ga., where it still stands. It was
small when found, and is thought by Mr. Hanby to have been about
5 years old at that time. About 1900 Mr. Hanby dug up eight young
sprouts about the parent tree and planted them elsewhere, all of which
are now in bearing and are identical with the parent tree. Fruit from
the original tree was exhibited at the Georgia State Fair in 1904 and
1905 under the name "Rabun Bald,"' which was suggested by the
location of the tree, which is on a spur of Bald Mountain. It has
since been locally known under this name, which is here reduced to
Rabun to conform to the code of nomenclature of the American Pomo-
logical Society. It was first described and illustrated by Prof. C. C.
Newman c in 1905 in Bulletin 9 of the South Carolina Agricultural
Experiment Station. Some 2,500 trees of this variety have been
planted at Clayton, Ga., but aside from tins it does not appear to have
been commercially disseminated.
DESCRIPTION.
Form oblate, slightly ribbed; size large; surf ace smooth ; color yel-
low, washed with mixed red, splashed and striped with bright crimson;
dots numerous, small, russet; cavity large, regular, deep, russeted;
stem short, stout; basin regular, large, deep, of gradual slope, fur-
rowed; e}*e medium to large, closed; calyx segments medium, con-
verging, refiexed at tip, tube long, flaring; skin moderately thick,
tenacious; flesh yellowish, tine-grained, breaking, juicy; core large,
oblate, open, clasping; seeds medium, plump, brown, very numerous;
flavor subacid; quality good to very good. Season, November to
March in northern Georgia.
The tree is described as a stocky, vigorous grower, of spreading
habit, requiring severe pruning when young. The bearing habit is
distinctive in that the fruit is largely borne on spurs along the older
branches, the crop being thus quite evenly distributed throughout the
° South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 9. May, 1905. p. 24.
& Letters of C. 0. Newman. January, 1907.
c South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 9, p. 2-i.
360 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tree. The original tree is a heavy cropper in alternate years, bearing
about a half crop in the " off year.*' It yielded 15 bushels in 1905.
The specimen illustrated on Plate XXVII was grown in 1905 by
Prof. C. 0. Newman, at Clayton. Rabun County. Ga.
EARLY WHEELER PEACH.
Synonyms: Wheeler Cling: Early Wheeler Clint
IPLiTE XXVIII.]
The lengthening of the peach season through the origination of both
earlier and later varieties of good quality is a matter of much impor-
tance to peach growers, especially in the Southern States. At the
present time so large a proportion of the trees in southern orchards
consists of the one variety, Elberta, that almost the entire peach crop
of each important locality must be harvested and marketed witliin a
period of ten days or two weeks. This causes serious labor shortage
at the critical times, overburdens transportation facilities, and tends
to produce that most expensive menace to profitable peach growing,
a glutted market. If the weather conditions chance to be unfavorable
during this short harvest period, the evils are accentuated and most
of the returns for the year's work are not infrequently lost through
the shortness of the marketing season. Peach growers and nursery-
men have long recognized the need of earlier market varieties, and a
large number of early sorts have been brought into notice from time
to time. Among these the Greensboro, Carman, Waddell, Mamie
Ross, and Hiley varieties have attained a more or less stable foothold
in different sections as commercial sorts.
Most of the varieties earlier than these, however, unless grown under
very favorable conditions, are of inferior flavor and deficient carrying
quality. The Early "Wheeler, which was one of a large number of
seedlings of Heath Cling grown by Mr. E. W. Kirkpatrick, of McKin-
ney. Tex., and first fruited in 1900, appears to be an exception in these
respects, being as early as Alexander, as large as Mamie Ross, and of
as excellent dessert and shipping quality as Oldmixon Cling. It was
experimentally disseminated by Mr. Kirkpatrick immediately after it
first fruited, being sent out as Early Wheeler Cling. About 1903 tins
was reduced to Early Wheeler, and on April 17, 1906, an arbitrary
device bearing tins name and a portrait of the originator was regis-
tered in the United States Patent Office as a trade-mark by the Texas
Nursery Company, of Sherman. Tex., which introduced it commer-
cially in that year.
DESCRIPTION.
Form roundish oblong to oblong conical: size medium to larg
cavity regular, large, broad, of medium depth and slope, marked with
red; stem short, moderately stout; suture shallow except near
Yearbook U. S. Oept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXVIII.
S.^c
chW-Z-j-z-o-t-O-
Early Wheeler Peach.
Yearbook U. S. Oept. of Agriculture, '906.
Plate XXIX.
£f v/o<M?»r-orC
Banner Grape
PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 3(31
cavity, from which it extends to the protruding apex; surface smooth,
covered with loose, soft, velvety down; color creamy white, marbled,
splashed and dotted with crimson; skin moderately thick, tenacious;
flesh whitish, distinctly stained with red near the skin, firm and meaty,
but juicy; stone oval, of medium size, adherent; flavor subacid;
quality good to very good. Season, very early, May 15 to June 1,
practically with Alexander in northeastern Texas. Leaf glands reni-
form; blossoms very large and red.
The variety has already been considerably planted in commercial
orchards in eastern Texas, and while less precocious than some sorts,
is considered sufficiently productive for a commercial variety.
The specimen illustrated on Plate XXVIII was grown by E. W.
Kirkpatrick, at McKinney, Tex.
BANNER GRAPE.
[PLATE XXIX.]
This very promising variety for the Southwest is said by its
originator, Mr. Joseph Bachman, Altus, Ark.,a to have been grown
in 1898 from seed of Lindley crossed with Delaware. It would
appear from the vigor and productiveness of the vine and the large
size of the cluster, however, that some other variety, probably one
of his other seedlings that stood near by, was concerned in the cross,
and the originator appears to incline to this opinion, as he states
that the Lindley blossoms were not protected from other pollen at
the time of pollination with Delaware.
The original vine bore a crop of twelve clusters in its third year,
1901. Two of these were exhibited by the originator at the Pan-
American Exposition in that }^ear under the name Banner, which
the late Judge Samuel Miller published for the variety in a commu-
nication in Colman's Rural World for September 18, 1901. The
variety was first propagated in 1902, and was experimentally dis-
seminated in the spring of 1906. So far as known, it has not yet
been fruited elsewhere than on the grounds of the originator. It was
commercially introduced in 1906 by the Stark Brothers Nurseries
and Orchards Company under the name Banner, which when printed
in a certain arbitrary typographical form was registered by them as
a trade-mark in the United States Patent Office, May 1, 1906.
DESCRIPTION.
Cluster large, broad conical, heavily shouldered, very compact;
stem short; berries globular, of medium size, adhering tenaciously
to the small green peduncles; skin moderately thick, and rather
tough; amber red and glossy, but covered with a profuse bloom; flesh
« Letters of Joseph Bachman, August and September, 1906, and January, 1907.
362 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
translucent, juicy, and rather meaty: seeds few. very small, brown;
flavor refreshing subacid to sweet and aromatic; quality good to
ven* good. Season, late August and early September in Franklin
County, Ark., ten days or two weeks later than Delaware.
The vine is reported by the originator to be very vigorous and
productive.
The cluster illustrated on Plate XXIX was grown by Mr. Joseph
Bachman. at Altus, Franklin County. Ark.
J< iSEPHINE PERSIMMON.
■
[PLATE XXX]
Of the varieties of this valuable native fruit that have thus far
been brought to the attention of the Department of Agriculture, the
- rt quality is the one here described. It was received
first from T. V. Munson & Son. of Denison, Tex., who have catalogued0
it since "American Horny." their dissemination consisting
chiefly of seedlings grown from a top-grafted tree standing upon their
grounds. Attention to the apparent identity of American Honey
and Josephine, a variety gratuitously disseminated by the late Judge
Samuel Miller, of BlufTton. Mo., having been called by Mr. Benjamin
Buckman,6 of Farmingdale. 111., recent investigation has revealed
the following interesting fact-:
About 1SS2 or lSc-3 the late Judge Miller discovered a wild per-
simmon tree bearing fruit of superior quality on the farm of Mr.
Dennis Watson, about a mile east of BlufTton, Mo.c The tree was
then about 3 inches in diameter, and stood close to the bank of the
Missouri River, where it was in danger of being undermined by that
unruly stream. Though a large tree of this species to transplant,
in 1SS3 Judge Miller, with the help of his sons, dug it up and trans-
ported it in a small boat to his home garden at BlufTton. The trans-
planted tree never thrived in its new location, but the variety was
preserved by grafting, and was gratuitously disseminated by him
am" iends and correspondents in many parts of the country.
Later he named it Josephine, in honor of a daughter of Mr. Watson,
on whose farm the original tree was found. Tins name Mr. Miller
published in 1894.- Meanwhile, Prof. T. Y. Munson had received from
Judge Miller, about 1SS3 or 1884/ three lots of native persimmon
scions designated as follows: ""Flat fruited," "'round fruited," and
a Letter of T. V. Munson. November. 1906.
k Benjamin Buckman in Rural New Yorker. February 20, 1904, p. 130.
c Letter of Samuel E. Miller, December. 1906.
d Colman's Rural World. February 15. 1894. p. 51.
1 Letters of T. V. Munson. November, 1906.
PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 363
"oblong fruited." These he grafted on native roots, getting one
tree of each to grow. Of these, the ones labeled "flat fruited" and
"round fruited" bore fruit, the one labeled "oblong fruited" proving
to be staminate flowered, and therefore sterile. The flat one was found
to be of better quality than the other, and after fruiting both for
several years, Professor Munson, unaware that Judge Miller had mean-
while disseminated and named it Josephine, christened it "American
Honey" and offered it in his catalogue for 1896, as previously
mentioned.
The name Josephine having previously been applied and published
by the introducer and used on scions for grafting entitles it to accept-
ance by pomologists, and it is so accepted by Professor Munson since
the facts have become known.
The case well illustrates how easily varietal names of fruits may
become confused during their preliminary testing periods. Nothing
less than the utmost exactness and care by disseminators and propa-
gators will suffice to prevent confusion and duplication of names in
such eases.
DESCRIPTION.
Form oblate to roundish oblate, or quadrangular; size medium to
large; surface smooth, except shallow radiating grooves near the
calyx and the four sutures; color pale, translucent, yellowish, covered
with a profuse whitish bloom; cavity large, broad, of medium depth,
furrowed; stem short, moderately stout; calyx four parted, of me-
dium size, pale green; apex a slender point in a slight depression;
skin thin, tender; flesh yellowish, translucent, with yellow veins;
seeds rather numerous, rather large, short, broad, plump, brown;
flavor sweet, rich, and aromatic; quality very good. Season, early,
following Early Golden.
The tree is reported to bear regular crops, and the earliness and fine
quality of the fruit render the variety worthy of test by all persimmon
growers.
The specimens illustrated on Plate XXX were grown by T. V.
Munson & Son, at Denison, Tex., in 1906.
CHAPPELOW AVOCADO.
[PLATE XXXI.]
Interest in the avocado as a salad fruit continues to increase. The
market demand is so strong in eastern cities during late autumn and
winter that south Florida growers are enlarging their plantings of the
later ripening sorts of the West Indian type, such as the Trapp,° in
the expectation that their culture will prove highly profitable. In
southern California quite a different condition prevails, the smaller
and more hardy Mexican type being apparently better adapted to
a Described and illustrated in Yearbook for 1905, p. 508, Plate LXYI.
364 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
conditions in the localities where avocado culture has thus far been
attempted. While no commercial plantings as large as those in south
Florida have yet been made in California, certain individual trees in
particular localities have proved productive and profitable, and, as
the local demand at all times of the year is thus far in excess of the
supply, regularity of bearing and acceptable quality of fruit in that
State outweigh all other varietal characteristics.
So far as known the only variety thus far perpetuated by bud
propagation in California is the Chappelow. The original tree of this
variety was grown by Mr. William Chappelow, Monrovia, Cal., from
seeds sent him by the Division of Pomology of the Department of
Agriculture in July, 1893. The seeds had been received shortly before
that time from Mr. F. Foex, then of Eddy, N. Mex., who had obtained
them from fruits found by him on trees near Monterey, Mexico, where
they had been subjected to a temperature of about 22° F. during
several consecutive nights when in blossom during the preceding
winter. As the other avocado trees of the vicinity had been killed or
badly damaged b}^ the low temperature, while these had survived and
matured half a crop of fruit, it was presumed that these were especially
resistant to cold, as has since been proved true in the case of seedlings
descended from them.
Mr. Chappelow grew but a single tree from the four seeds sent him.
This was grown in a pot at first, being transplanted to the open ground
when about a foot high. The first winter, when about 4 feet high, it
was cut down to the ground by a temperature of about 24° F., but soon
recovered and developed into a fine, vigorous tree. It began bearing
in 1898, and has rarely failed to produce at least a partial crop since
that time. Scions from this tree were sent Prof. P. PI. Rolfs, of the
Subtropical Laboratory, at Miami, Fla., in 1902, and fruits grown
on a tree top-worked therefrom were illustrated by him in 1904.°
The variety was named Chappelow by Professor Rolfs b and has since
been sparingly disseminated under that name. Mr. Chappelow has
not kept a continuous record of the product of the tree, but states
that in 1905 it bore more than 1,200 fruits. The net return to
him from this tree in recent years, in addition to fruits retained for
home use, has been as follows: c 1903, $32; 1904, $54; 1905, $130;
1906, $65. The tree blossoms at Monrovia in November and Decem-
ber, and ripens its crop from July 15 until September, sometimes
continuing into early October.
DESCRIPTION.
Form oblong, slender, pyriform or ''bottle necked;" size medium
to large for the Mexican type; cavity small, shallow, and wrinkled;
a B. P. I. Bulletin 61. The Avocado in Florida, July 7, 1904, fig. 9 B, p 26.
b B. P. I. Bulletin 97. S. P. I. Inventory No. 12934.
c Letters from William Chappelow, August and October, 1906.
Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXX.
5
-«^«^^
Josephine Persimmon.
YearDOOK u S. Dept. o* Agr Cji-^re 906
= ^-~E XXX:
9 %%<*>.
Chappelow Avocado.
PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 365
stem stout; surface undulating, smooth, glossy; color dull purple,
with reddish-brown dots; apex a mere dot; skin vers' thin, tender,
adhering closely; flesh pale greenish-yellow, buttery; seed large in
proportion to size of fruit, roundish conical, filling internal cavity:
flavor pleasant, though less rich than the best varieties of the West
Indian type. Season, July to October at Monrovia, Cal.
The tree is a vigorous, rather diffuse grower, with slender wood. It
is productive, although being an early bloomer it is sometimes caught
by frost. It is considered worthy of testing in the thermal belts of
southern California, and for domestic use along the northern edge of
the avocado districts of Florida, where its superior hardiness is likely
to outweigh the disadvantages of relatively small size and early time
of ripening.
The specimen illustrated on Plate XXXI was grown on the original
tree on the grounds of Mr. William Chappelow, Monrovia, Cal.
PECANS.
[PLATE XXXII.]
The pecan continues to engage the attention of nut growers in the
South Atlantic and Gulf States almost to the exclusion of other nut-
bearing trees. The increasing popularity of the nut, doubtless due
in part to the development of systematic methods of grading and
cracking by machinery operated by steam or electric power, which
render possible the marketing of the meats ready for use, have com-
bined to produce a market demand considerably in excess of the
present supply. Under this stimulus and the production of consid-
erable numbers of budded and grafted trees of choice varieties in
southern nurseries the planting of pecan orchards is proceeding rap-
idly in many portions of the South. Much of this planting up to the
present time has of necessity been done rather blindly as regards the
adaptability of varieties to soil and climatic conditions, very few
varieties having yet been fruited sufficiently outside of the localities
of their origin to determine their probable behavior elsewhere. As
the earlier plantings of budded and grafted trees come into bearing,
it is unfortunately becoming apparent that in the infancy of the
industry the stock of several of the leading varieties was consider-
ably mixed with other sorts. In some cases closely related seedlings
inferior to the sort whose name they bore appear to have been propa-
gated from. This confusion of identity is now giving rise to diverse
reports as to the behavior of particular varieties in different sections,
and will doubtless require some years of careful work by nurserymen
and orchardists to rectify.
Seedling orchards grown from nuts of the large varieties, such as
Centennial, Frotscher, Stuart, Van Deman, Russell, etc., that came
into public notice from 1875 to 1895, are now coming into bearing
366 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
throughout the South, and as both the trees and nuts commonly bear
a general resemblance to their parents, they are in many instances
being discussed and even labeled with the names of the parent varie-
ties. As such seedlings are likely to disclose characteristics even
more diverse from their parents if budded or grafted from and planted
elsewhere, they should never be designated otherwise than as seed-
lings until found worthy of distinctive varietal names.
The utmost care in selection of authentic stock of these earlier
varieties to bud and graft from is necessary at the present time to
insure trueness to name in the nurseries and orchards. It is not safe
to use grafting or budding wood of any of these sorts from trees that
have not borne, except where such stock can be unquestionably traced
to bearing trees that are true to name.
Less confusion exists among the more recent introductions, although
some of these have in various ways been more or less confused with
one another. A few of the more promising of the newer ones are
described and illustrated.
Alley Pecan.
The original tree of this variety was grown by Mrs. C. H. Alley,"
of Scranton, Miss., from a pecan of unknown variety presented to
her by the late Col. R. Seal, of Mississippi City, Miss., in 1871. This
nut she planted in a box the same fall, transplanting the young
seedling that resulted therefrom to its present location in her garden
in 1872. The tree began bearing at the age of about nine years and
has the reputation of being a steady and prolific bearer. The variety
was first propagated by Mr. F. H. Lewis, of Scranton, who set buds
and grafts of it in 1S96, and since that time it has been considerably
disseminated by him and others under the name Alley. The original
tree bore about 200 pounds of nuts in 1905, and had a fair crop when
the storm of September, 1906, occurred. This destroyed a consid-
erable portion of the crop and broke several large branches from the
tree, though not enough to permanently injure it.
DESCRIPTION.
Size medium, averaging 60 to SO nuts per pound; form, oblong to
ovate conical, with moderately sharp quadrangular apex; color,
bright yellowish brown, with rather long and conspicuous black mark-
ings; shell brittle, thin; partitions very thin; cracking quality excel-
lent; kernel plump and well filled out, though deeply grooved and
considerably undulated and irregularly indented; kernel bright,
brownish straw color; texture firm and fine grained; flavor sweet,
delicate, and free from astringence; quality very good.
The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown on the
original tree in the garden of Mrs. C. H. Allej^, at Scranton, Miss.
a Letter from Mrs. C. H. Alley, November, 1906.
PROMISING NEW FEUITS. 367
The tree is a moderately strong, though rather slender, grower and
is reported to be productive in several localities where it has been
top-worked during the past five or six years.
Teche'-? Pecan-.
(Synonyms: '' Frotschcr Xo. g;" " Duplicate Frotscher;" ''Fake Frotschcr;" "Spuri-
ous Frotschcr." )
Among the budded trees of the Frotscher pecan when first dissemi-
nated by Mr. William Xelson and the late Mr. Richard Frotscher,
of New Orleans, about 18S5,6 it has recently been discovered that
there were trees of at least one other variety quite closely resembling
it in wood and habit of growth, but yielding a smaller and more con-
ical nut. This sort, which reached a number of growers, including
Mr. J. B. Wight, c of Cairo, Ga., and Dr. J. B. Curtis, of Orange
Heights, Fla., in this way, has proved to be of sufficient merit to
entitle it to a distinctive name. The place of its origin is not known,
but since it appears to trace to the first lot of Frotscher scions received
by Mr. Xelson d from Mr. Frotscher for propagation, all of which
were supposed to have come from the original Frotscher tree near
Olivier, La., on the Bayou Teche, it is probable that the parent tree
of this one was somewhere in that vicinity. Acting on this suppo-
sition, the committee on nomenclature and standards of the National
Nut Growers' Association, at its annual meeting at Scranton, Miss.,
in November, 1906, named the variety ''Teche" to distinguish it
from the true Frotscher. As there appears to be good reason to sup-
pose that several other varieties closely resembling Frotscher have
been and still are mixed with that variety in many orchards and
nurseries, the name Teche should not be indiscriminately applied to
all the "spurious" Frotschers, but should be restricted in its appli-
cation to the one which is here described from specimens grown by
Mr. Wight on trees obtained from the Nelson nursery in 1895.
DESdUPTIOX.
Size medium to large, averaging oo to 65 nuts per pound; form long
oval, compressed, tapering gradually, with the smaller specimens
slightly curved near apex: color bright, light, and free from the objec-
tionable brownish veining ot the Frotscher, with few broken black
stripes; shell comparatively thin, but thicker than Frotscher, with
which it was disseminated tlirough error; partitions thin and soft:
cracking quality excellent: kernel bright, plump and uniformly well
a Pronounced Tosh.
l> Yearbook. 1904. p. 408.
'Letters from J. D. Wight, November, 1906; also The Nut Grower, June, 1906, p. 190.
d Wm. Xelson in The Nut Grower, August. 1906. p. is
368 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
filled, with shallow grooves; texture of meat firm, fine grained, solid,
creamy in color; flavor delicate, rich: quality very good.
The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by Mr. J. B.
Wight, Cairo, Ga.
The tree is of more slender and upright habit of growth than
Frotscher, and is reported to be fully as productive as that variety
in Georgia and Florida. It is worthy of trial wherever that variety
succeeds.
Curtis Pec ax.
(Synonym: Curtis No. J.)
The original tree of this variety was grown by Dr. J. B. Curtis, of
Orange Heights, Fla., from a nut of the " Turkey Egg" pecan obtained
from Arthur Brown, of Bagdad. Fla., in 1SS6. It bore about a dozen
nuts in 1893, and has borne a crop each year since then, except in
1902, when heavy rains at blooming time prevented fertilization of the
blossoms. It was first propagated by Doctor Curtis in 1896, and was
disseminated by him somewhat later. The original tree, though
heavily cut for scions, yielded SO pounds of nuts in 1905. a The vari-
ety appears to have been first described and illustrated by Hume6 in
1900.
DESCRIPTION.
>ize medium, 60 to 70 nuts per pound; form ovate conical, com-
pressed, with a sharp pointed base and an inclination to curve near
apex: color bright, with very few black stripes, but sparsely stippled
with black over most of the surface; shell very thin and brittle; par-
titions thin; cracking quality good ; kernel very plump and thick, free
from indentation other than the narrow grooves, which are of medium
depth; color bright, except certain brownish stippling that percepti-
bly darkens the tint in some specimens: texture firm, crisp; flavor
sweet and rich: quality very good.
The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by Dr. J. B.
Curtis, at Orange Heights. Fla.
The tree is reported to be slender and rather pendulous in habit
of growth and regularly productive. The variety is of special prom-
ise for Florida glowers, as it is one of the few sorts that have origi-
nated and been thoroughly tested in that State. It is reported to be
rather hard to propagate, the wood being slender and the buds not
numerous. Doctor Curtis reports it free from attack by the bud worm
where such sorts as Rome and Centennial are badly damaged by it.
a Dr. J. B. Curtis in the Nut Grower. June. 1906. pp. 200-201. and letter of February
11, 1907.
*> Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 54. August. 1900. pp. 203-209.
Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, ,906.
Plate XXXII.
DELMAS.
£JSJL
1**s6r
Pecan Varieties.
PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 369
Georgia Pecan.
(Synonym: Georgia Giant.)
The original tree of this variety is one of a large number of seedlings
grown in nursery row by Mr. G. M. Bacon, a of Dewitt, Ga., from nuts
of unknown parentage in 1885. Enough of these seedlings for a 30-
acre orchard when planted 30 feet apart were transplanted to their
present locations the following year. In 1891 this tree, which was the
first in the orchard to bear, yielded 32 nuts, which are said to have
weighed 1 pound. The following year its crop was 2\ pounds, increas-
ing annually until 1902, when it yielded 4h bushels of nuts. Its bud
propagation, begun in that year, has resulted in such heavy cutting of
the young wood that the crops since then have been comparatively
light.
DESCRIPTION.
Size large to very large, averaging 40 to 50 nuts per pound; form
round ovate, with a tendency toward inequality of sides; color rather
dull and dark grayish brown, sparsely striped with black; shell rather
thick, with moderately thick and soft partitions, yet cracking well;
kernel broad, plump, rather bright and very attractive; texture
rather soft and inclined to be coarse, though of pleasant flavor and
excellent quality.
The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by the G. M.
Bacon Pecan Company, at Dewitt, Ga.
The tree is a sturdy, strong grower, precocious and productive, and
worthy of thorough test throughout Georgia and adjacent States.
Delmas Pecax.
The original Delmas pecan tree was grown from a nut planted by
Mr. A. G. Delmas at his place at Scranton, Miss., about 1877. It
began bearing in 1884, and has been known under the name Delmas
since the following year. It was propagated in a limited way by Mr.
Delmas about 1890 by grafting both in nursery and orchard. Its gen-
eral dissemination, however, appears to have occurred in connection
with the "Schley" about 1902, mixed scions of the two varieties
received from Mr. Delmas having been grafted in the Pierson nursery,
at Monticello, Fla., and disseminated under the name Schley before
the admixture was discovered. The wood of the Delmas is so much
stouter and more erect than that of the Schley variety that little diffi-
culty is experienced in separating them even in the nursery row.
The original Delmas tree was blown down by the September storm
of 1906 before the crop was ripe, but was severely headed back soon
thereafter and righted, so that it is hoped it will survive.
a Letter from II. C. White. Dewitt. Ga.. January. 1907.
3 Aui0B 24
370 tEA TLTUEE.
. 2 _ 50 nuts per pound ; form
iuntly (ji jular
rked ,-ieuous ridges extending
- of the nut: color grayish brow: -
iek, with partitions soft
good plump and well filled.
arrow, but shallow, and surface undulating: k i
".■•"-•: textu: and open; flavor
XXXII were grown by Mr. A. G.
I
. erect and roundish head, very, dis-
I from the Schl ith which it has been somewhat mixed in
. Is. It is productive and promising for the tower
I region, where it originated.
FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET YALIES.
By Frank Andrews,
Scientific Assistant in Transportation, Division of Foreign Markets, Bureau of Statistics.
FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES OF COTTON AND WHEAT.
It is well known that goods whose value is high in proportion to
their weight are likely to be charged higher freight rates than goods
of relatively low value. It is understood, however, that value is not
the only condition affecting freight charges; under some circum-
stances a higher rate may be charged for a less valuable than for a
more valuable commodity between the same points. The influence
of value and weight upon the cost of carrying is illustrated in the
case of two of the most important farm products of the United
States — cotton and wheat. And it is of no little interest to note that
this rule of freight traffic applies to the cost incurred by farmers in
hauling their products from farms to shipping points.
An investigation was made by the writer, under the authority of
the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture, in Sep-
tember, 1906, to learn certain facts about hauling farm products on
country roads, and from results of this inquiry it is estimated that
it costs an average of 16 cents per 100 pounds to haul cotton from
farms to shipping points, while the cost for wheat is 9 cents. The
average distance of cotton farms from local shipping points is ll.S
miles, the average weight of a wagonload of cotton is 1,702 pounds,
and the average cost of hauling the load, $2.76; the corresponding
averages for wheat are 9.4 miles, 3,323 pounds, and $2.86. It is
plain that cotton may be profitably hauled for greater distances and
in smaller loads than wheat, since the value of an average load of
the cotton picked in 1905 was more than $170, while a load of wheat
was worth about $40.
CHARGING WHAT THE TRAFFIC WILL BEAR.
The average railway freight rate for cotton from local shipping
points to seaports is estimated at 40 cents per 100 pounds, while
the corresponding rate for wheat is about 20 cents. This difference
in railway charges between these two commodities illustrates the
tendency of value to influence transportation costs, and also shows
one of the several phases of the principle of railway rate making
which is often described as "charging what the traffic will bear."
371
372 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RELATIVE VALUES AND OCEAN" RATES.
On the ocean, also, freight charges for cotton are higher than
those for wheat. The rates quoted for regular lines of steamers for
canning cotton from Galveston. New Orleans, and New York to
Liverpool averaged during the year ending June 30. 190(3. about 32
cents per 100 pounds, while the corresponding rate for wheat was
only one-fourth that sum. or S cents per 100 pounds. A cargo of
cotton shipped from Galveston to Liverpool frequently contains as
much as 5,51 pounds, and the value in 1005-6 of such a cargo
at Galveston was not far from $600,000, while the same quantity of
wheat would have been worth from 870.000 to 890.000. The entire
cost of carrying this amount of cotton from the farms in the United
States to Liverpool, not including costs of transfer and terminal
charges, at the average rates estimated in this article, would be
about -Soil. 000. while the corresponding cost for wheat would be
12
COTTON.
COST OF HaTLING FROM FARMS.
The cost of hauling cotton and certain other products from farms
to shipping points has been determined with the aid of the county
correspondents- of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of
ulture. In answer to questions sent out by the Department
in August. 1900. correspondents in 555 cotton-producing counties
returned, in addition to other data, information as to the number of
pounds of cotton usually hauled at one load, the time required for
the longest haul by any considerable number of fanners, and the
usual cost per day for hiring teams.
The cost of hauling a wagonload of cotton from the farm as deter-
mined here is the cost of hiring such work done, though it is usual
for a farmer to do his own hauling and not to hire such work done.
The actual cost to an individual farmer at a given time may vary
ly from the usual cost of hiring a team, wagon, and driver: he
may haul his cotton when he has nothing else to do and when his
team would be otherwise idle, or he may be compelled to haul at a
time and under conditions that may involve no little sacrifice of
labor and expense. However, in determining an average value of
the service of hauling it may be assumed that in a given community
usual cost per day for hiring a team, wagon, and driver is a fair
measure in that community of the average outlay of capital and labor
required to perform the service in question.
TWO REGIONS COMPARED.
By this method .the cost of hauling cotton from farms in the South
Atlantic States was found to be 13 cents per 100 pounds, while the
FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 373
average for all the cotton regions west of Georgia and the Allegheny
Mountains was 17 cents. The difference in cost between the two
regions was due chiefly to the difference in the average distances
from farms to shipping points, the distance for the South Atlantic
States being 9.6 miles and for the South Central States and Terri-
tories 12.7 miles.
FREIGHT RATES TO SEAPORTS.
Nearly three-fourths of the cotton arriving at Galveston is carried
by railroads at a uniform rate, and comes from stations serving a
large part of the area of the State of Texas. The railroad" freight
rate from Texas "common points'' to Galveston was 55 cents per
100 pounds during the year ending June 30, 1906. Of the 188
Texas counties which produced cotton in 1905, 118 were in the region
to which the "common points" rate of 55 cents applied. The usual
rate for stations in 14 counties was 65 cents, for 7 counties 58 cents,
5 counties 49 cents, 4 counties 66 cents, 4 other counties 54 cents,
2 others 63 cents, while the rates to Galveston from stations in 34
counties, which were situated between the region of the "common
points" and Galveston, ranged from 6 to 48 cents per 100 pounds.
The average rate from all points in Texas, taking into account the
quantity of cotton affected by each rate quoted, was 52.9 cents per
100 pounds. The average cost of shipping cotton from Indian Ter-
ritory to Galveston during the year just mentioned is estimated
roughly at 66 cents per 100 pounds, and the average rate from Okla-
homa to Galveston is estimated at 72 cents per 100 pounds.
GALVESTON, NEW ORLEANS, VXD SAVANNAH.
Taking into account the relative quantity of cotton produced in
the region affected by each rate, the average charge to Galveston
from local stations in Texas, Indian Territory, and Oklahoma during
the year mentioned was 54 cents per 100 pounds.
Average rates from points of original shipment to Xew Orleans,
Savannah, and Xew York were estimated by adding the rates given
for a large number of representative local shipping points and
dividing the sum by the number of items. In this manner the mean
rate to Xew Orleans from 347 stations in Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Tennessee was SI. 14 per bale, or about 23 cents per 100 pounds.
Cotton sent to Savannah from 738 stations in Georgia, South Caro-
lina, Florida, and eastern Alabama was charged a mean rate of 41
cents per 100 pounds.
ROUTES AND CHARGES TO XEW YORK CITY.
Consignments of cotton to New York City from local stations in
the cotton regions may be carried all the way in freight cars or may
be sent down to some southern port and there transferred to one of
374 YEAEBOOK OF I IfKNT DP AGFJCTLTUF.E.
the lines of coasting vessels for shipment northward. The charges
on cotton to New York are from 20 to 25 cents higher than the .
from the same stations to New Orleans and Savannah. The r
rate per 100 pounds to New York from 2981 - - ssippi,
by railroad routes exclusively, was 4s cents, _ Ls more than
the rate to New Orleans as given above, and the mean rate to
York from 402 stations in North and South Carolina. Georgia, and
tii Alabama was 05 cents by all-rail routes and 59 cents by :
and-water routes. These charges, it will be seen, are from IS I
cents above the rates from practically the same regie - vannah.
The mean freight charge to New York from 700 local points among
the cotton fields in Mississippi, Xorth Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, and eastern Alabama is taken as 54 cents per 100 pounds,
the same as the estimated average rate from stations in Tl
Oklahoma, and Indian Territory down to Galveston.
PRICES AT WW
If the relative quantity of cotton exported from each port be taken
into account, the average of the freight rates on cotton to Galvesi
Xew Orleans, Savannah, and Xew York from local shipping points
would be 40 cents per 100 pounds. At the four cities named the
mean of the daily closing prices for Upland middling t( n for the
year ending June 30, 1000. was 11 cents per pound, which was about
the same as the average export value of all cotton for all United
States ports during this year. The mean annual price at Xew
Orleans and also at Galveston was 11 cents, at Savannah 10.S. and
at Xew York 11.3 cents per pound. Thus it appears that in 1005-6
the value of cotton at the seaboard was twenty times the cost of
transporting that product there from the farms, the freight chai
plus the cost of hauling in wagons being 50 cents per 100 pounds.
TWO CLASSES OF OOEAX FREIGHT TRA}
Ocean freight charges are subject to more frequent changes than
are railroad rates. On the ocean competition is practically free,
for any man with a ship may compete for business. If the vessels at
a certain port have a large amount of available space for cargo and
the quantity of goods to be shipped is relatively small, freight rates
are apt to be low. Such a condition may easily occur when pass-
enger liners are in port, for their dates of sailing are fixed by a sched-
ule previously arranged, and they must start on time whether their
cargoes be largo or small. Quotations of freight rates on goods
ied by steamship lines are published regularly in the leading
ports on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the Umu - - The
mean of the quotations for cotton to Liverpool for the first week of
each month dining the year 1905-6 was 33 cents par 100 ix>unds from
FEEIGHT COSTS AJSTB MARKET VALUES. 375
New Orleans and 17 cents from New York. The rates from Gal-
veston and other leading Gulf ports are regarded as practically the
same as those from New Orleans.
Besides the regular lines of vessels, there are a large number of ships
engaged in freight traffic which have no regular routes, but make
contracts frequently for a single voyage at a time. On account of
their wanderings throughout the commercial world these vessels
sometimes called "tramps."
ONE TEAK'S RECORD OF A '"TRAMP'5' STEAMER.
An account of the first year's work of one of these "tramps"
appeared in a daily paper in September. 1906. The A'essel in ques-
tion was built in England and on its first voyage carried a cargo of
coal from Cardiff, Wales, to Algiers. The next trip was in search of
business and the ship went in ballast from Algiers to Port Arthur,
Tex., whence a cargo of cotton and cotton seed was taken to Bremen,
Germany. Again a voyage in search of freight was made, and at
Cardiff a second load of coal was taken aboard; this time the desti-
nation was Teneriffe, in the Canary Islands. Then a second voyage
was made across the Atlantic without cargo, and this time also bus-
iness was found at Port Arthur, Tex., where corn was leaded for
Sharpness, England. Another voyage in ballast brought the ship
to Bremen and the load of kaiiiit received there was taken to Savan-
nah. Leaving Savannah and sailing up the coast, again in ballast,
the vessel ended its first year of service as it entered the harbor of
Baltimore. Here it was to receive a full cargo of grain for the Baltic
Sea. Some ships are not so successful as this one in finding cargoes
and occasionally lie idle for months at a time waiting for employment.
AVERAGE OCEAN" RATE OX COTTC'X.
The average ocean rate on cotton from the United States to Liver-
pool for the year 1905-6 was about 32 cents per 100 pounds, exclud-
ing terminal charges, the same as the annual mean of the quoted rates
from Savannah to the United Kingdom. It will be noted also that
the average railway rate from all local points to all ports,- as estimated
above, was 40 cents, while the charge from local points to Savannah
was 41 cents per 100 pounds. In regard to both land and water
rates Savannah occupies a medium position.
VALUES IN" EXGLAXD.
The sum of the cost per 100 pounds for transporting cotton on
country roads, on United States railroads, and across the Atlantic,
as estimated above, is SS cents, and, with an allowance of 2 cents for
transfer to ship at some United States ports, the entire cost of carry-
ing may be taken as 90 cents per 100 pounds.
376 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The mean price of cotton in England for the twelve months ending
June 30, 1906, was about 12 cents per pound; the annual mean of
the cash prices for Upland middling cotton at this market at the close
of each business day for the year mentioned was 12.1 cents.
The difference in price between the four leading cotton ports of
the United States and Liverpool was 1.1 cents per pound, while the
cost of carrying the cotton across the ocean was about one-third of
1 cent per pound, leaving two-thirds of 1 cent for profits and other
items, such as insurance, selling commissions, and cartage. The
total cost of transportation from United States farms to Liverpool,
including cost of transfer to ships at United States ports, was about
7.5 per cent of the value of the cotton in that city.
SUMMARY OF FREIGHT CHARGES ON COTTON.
The total cost of hauling the cotton crop of 1905 from farms to
shipping points, at the rate of 16 cents per 100 pounds, as estab-
lished by the investigation mentioned near the beginning of this
article, would be $8,000,000; and the cost of carrying that portion
of the cotton crop which was exported to Europe from farms in the
United States, at the rate of 90 cents per 100 pounds, would amount
to $33,000,000, of winch the cost of hauling from farms would be
86,000,000, freight charges to seaboard cities 815,000,000, and ocean
transportation, including transfer to ship, 812,000,000.
A summary of the transportation costs for cotton mentioned in
the preceding paragraphs is given below:
E*t' incited average costs of carrying cotton in the United States and to the United Kingdom
during the year eliding June SO, 1906.
_ Cents per
Jnrom — 100 pounds.
Farm? in 555 cotton-producing counties, by wagon, to local shipping points. . 16
200 local points in Texas, Indian Territory, and Oklahoma, by all-rail routes,
to Galveston 54
347 local points in Mississippi. Louisiana, and Tennessee, by all-rail routes.
to N ew Orleans 23
- local points in Georgia, South Carolina, Florida, and eastern Alabama,
by all-rail routes, to Savannah 41
298 local points in Mississippi, by all-rail routes, to New York 48
402 local points in North Carolina, South Carolina. Georgia, and eastern
Alabama —
By all-rail routes to New York G5
By rail-and-water routes to New York 59
Local shipping point- to seaports, average lor United States 40
Gulf ports and New York, by regular steamship lines, to Liverpool 32
Savannah, by chartered vessels, to the United Kingdom 32
United States to United Kingdom, average for all ports 32
FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 377
WHEAT.
FROM FARMS TO LOCAL SHIPPING POINTS.
The average cost of 9 cents per hundredweight for hauling wheat
from farms to shipping points, as mentioned, at the beginning of
this article, was obtained by the use of returns from 1,051 wheat-
producing counties. The cost for the Xorth Central States is S cents
per 100 pounds, but in Kansas. Ohio. Indiana, and Michigan the rate
is 6 cents, and farmers in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and
Nebraska do this hauling at an average cost of 7 cents per 100
pounds. In Missouri the mean cost is 9 cents per 100 pounds, in
Xorth Dakota 10 cents, and in South Dakota 11 cents per 100 pounds.
In the wheat region west of the Rocky Mountains the average cost
is 10 cents per 100 pounds, the relatively high rate being largely due
to the long distances over which the grain is moved.
The average farm value of wheat, as given by the Department of
Agriculture, is the price at the local shipping points, for practically
all wheat is sold by farmers at a price which includes delivery at
some local market or shipping point. The average farm value of
wheat in the United States on December 1. 1905. was 74. S cents per
bushel, and the average cost to the farmers of delivering this wheat
at 9 cents per 100 pounds is 5.4 cents per bushel. Hence the actual
value on the farm would be 69.4 cents per bushel. As the wheat
crop of 1905, excluding seed, was about 622,000,000 bushels, the
cost of hauling the crop from farms to places of local delivery may
be given as 834.000,000, while the total value of the crop delivered
at these markets and shipping points was 8465,000,000.
RAILWAY CHARGES TO INTERIOR MARKETS.
From the wheat regions east of the Rocky Mountains large quan-
tities of the grain are gathered into such interior cities as Minneapolis,
Chicago, and Kansas City. The mean of the railway freight rates
on wheat from 562 local stations in Illinois and Nebraska to Chicago
in 1905-6 was 16 cents per 100 pounds, the same as the mean rate
to Minneapolis from 311 local stations in Minnesota, Xorth Dakota,
South Dakota, and Nebraska. In estimating the mean charge to
Chicago from all local shipping points, rates from Illinois and Nebraska
were taken as typical of low and high rates, respectively. To Kansas
City, from 456 stations in Kansas. Missouri, and Oklahoma, the mean
rate is found to be about 14 cents per 100 pounds. Making allow-
ances for the relative quantities of wheat received at each of these
three primary markets during the year 1905-6, the average rate on
wheat from local shipping points to primary markets in 1905-6 was
15.5 cents per 100 pounds, which, added to the average cost of haul-
ing wheat from farms in the North Central States, makes a total cost
37S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of transportation of 24.5 cents per 100 pounds, or 14.7 cents per
bushel from farm to primary market.
JDSS AND VALVES OF WHEAT.
No attempt is made here to obtain an average market value for
all wheat received at one or more leading markets. In the case
of cotton, it was found that the price for the Upland middling grade
at the leading United States ports and at Liverpool was approxi-
mately the average for the entire crop. But important grad-
wheat are too numerous for such a method of obtaining an average
value. At one city the principal grade may be "No. 2 red winter."
while "Xo. 1 northern" may predominate in another market. Then
the various practices and standards of grading wheat at the different
trade centers give rise to still more classes for which price quotations
are made.
MINNEAPOLIS AND CHICAGO.
The mean annual price of Xo. 1 northern wheat at Minneapolis
for 1905-6 was 86.3 cents, and the mean freight rate from 311 sta-
tions in Minnesota. North Dakota. South Dakota, and Xebraska
- ».6 cents per bushel. The average price of wheat at local ship-
ping points in these four States on December 1. 1005. was 68.6 eents
per bushel, so that the cost of this wheat at Minneapolis would be
7- _ cents, plus such items as elevator charges, fees for in.-pection
and weighing, and dealers' profits, making a total cost of probably
n<»t more than 80 cents per bushel, or about 6 cents less than the
value of No. 1 northern.
At Chicago the mean price of Xo. 2 red winter wheat for the rear
named was S6.9 cents, and the average farm price in Xebraska and
Illinois for all wheat on December 1, 1905, was 71. S cents, including
of hauling from farms, while the mean freight rate to Chicago
from local stations in those two States was 0.6 cents per bushel.
V c >rdins to these figures all the marketable grades of Xebraska
and Illinois wheat were worth, in the Chicago market, probably
about S3 cents per bushel, or 3.0 cents less than Xo. 2 rati winter.
RATES AND PRICES AT KANSAS CITY.
In Kansas. Nebraska, Missouri, and Oklahoma the average value
of wheat at local points December 1. 1005. was 70. S cents, and the
mean freight charge from these stations to Kansas City was 8.4
cents per bushel. The cost. then, at Kansas City, would be 70.2 cents,
plus minor charges. The mean annual value of Xo. 2 hard wheat
at this market for 1905-6 was 81.1 cents. In this case, the only one
of the three mentioned, there i> an approximate agreement in the
prices used: the farm value and the price at the primary market
seem to apply to grades of about the same average quality.
FRSIOHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 379
The average of the three prices just mentioned for Chicago, Min-
neapolis, and Kansas City, allowing for the relative importance of
each price in proportion to the quantity of wheat received at each
market, is 85.1 cents per bushel, and the average farm value, includ-
ing cost of hauling, of the crop in the States and Territory named,
was 70.8 cents. The average freight rate being 9.3 cents, the average
value on December 1, 1905, at the three primary markets for all
marketable grades of the wheat of this region, would be probably
not more than S2 cents. This would make only 3.1 cents difference
between the average value of all wheat and the price of three of the
better grades.
RAIL AND WATER ROUTES TO SEABOARD.
From the interior wheat markets to the seaboard there are two
general routes, one eastward to Atlantic ports and the other leading
south to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the eastward routes the rail-
roads have to share their traffic with the waterways formed by the
Great Lakes and the connecting rivers and canals.
The Mississippi River is a potential although not always an active
competitor for the traffic from the wheat regions to New Orleans.
During 1904 and 1905 practically no wheat was carried by river
from St. Louis to New Orleans.
RATES FROM PRIMARY MARKETS.
The freight charge from Chicago to New York or Boston for wheat
intended for export was 15 cents per 100 pounds in 1905-6, by all-rail
routes. During the same year boats on the Great Lakes were chartered
to cany wheat from Chicago to Buffalo at rates ranging from 1.25
to 3 cents per bushel, and the railway charge from Buffalo to New
York was 4.5 cents per bushel on wheat intended for export.
The lake-and-rail rate, then, from Chicago to New York ranged
between 5.75 and 7.50 cents per bushel. Shipments by way of the
lakes and Erie Canal were sent at still lower rates. During the
calendar year 1905 the mean rate by lake and canal to New York from
Chicago was 5.53 cents per bushel, by lake and rail the rate was
6.40 cents, and the railroads charged 9.90 cents for carrying the
wheat the entire distance. The all-rail rate from Chicago to Balti-
more and Norfolk was 3 cents per 100 pounds less than the rate to
New York or Boston and 1 cent below the charge to Philadelphia, on
exported wheat. The mean all-rail rate on exported wheat from
Chicago to the Atlantic seaboard may be taken as about 13 cents per
100 pounds, or 7.8 cents per bushel. On wheat intended for domestic
consumption the rate to Boston from Chicago was 4.5 cents per 100
pounds above the export rate, and the mean rate on domestic wheat
from Chicago to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
Norfolk, exceeded the mean export rate by 3 cents per 100 pounds, or
l.S cents per bushel.
380 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DIRECT SHIPMENTS AT LOWER RATES.
The average rate on wheat from local points in the interior to the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts is less than the sum of the charge from
those points to primary markets plus the charge from these markets
to the seaboard. It ma}' be assumed that the cost of shipment to
the coast from Kansas City, Omaha, and Minneapolis is not less than
the average from local points in the wheat region surrounding those
cities and is probably greater than the rates from many important
shipping points lying near the seaports. The mean rate from local
stations in the wheat region east of the Rocky Mountains to the
Atlantic seaboard is taken as 13.4 cents per bushel, which is the
mean rate from Kansas City and Omaha to that coast, and the rate to
the Gulf as 10.8 cents, the same as from Kansas City to New Orleans
and Galveston. The average rate from local shipping points to both
coasts, allowing for the relative quantity of wheat exported from each,
would be 12.6 cents per bushel.
SHIPS CHEAPER CARRIERS THAN WAGONS.
Ocean rates were higher than usual during the year 1905-6, and
the mean charge for carrying wheat by regular steamship lines to
Liverpool from New York, a distance of about 3,100 miles, was 3.8
cents per bushel, or 1.6 cents less than it cost a farmer to haul the
wheat 9 .4 miles from his farm to a neighboring railroad station. Some-
times the rate on wheat from an Atlantic port in the United States to
Liverpool is as low as 1.5 cents per bushel, or 3.9 cents less than
the average cost of hauling from the farms. The cost of shipment
in chartered vessels from Baltimore to ports in the United Kingdom
for the }rear 1905-6 was about 7.8 cents per bushel on an average,
a cost much higher than the rate charged by vessels of regular lines,
and 2.4 cents more than the cost of wagon transportation. The mean
rate by regular lines from New Orleans was about 6.8 cents per bushel
and may be taken to represent the Gulf coast as the New York rate
is in general typical of the rates from Atlantic ports.
The large number of grain ships chartered at Baltimore during
1905-6 makes it fairly safe to take the cost of charters at that port
as an approximate average for the whole coast and not far removed
from charter rates from the Gulf to England. The average of the
rates on wheat to Liverpool by regular lines from New Orleans and
New York and by chartered vessels from Baltimore, not including
costs of transfer, may be taken as 4.8 cents per bushel, or 0.6 cent less
than the cost of hauling in wagons from farms to shipping points.
PRN ES AT LIVERPOOL.
The mean price at Liverpool for "No. 2 red winter" wheat for five
months ending June 30, 1906, the season when this grade was most
frequently quoted there, was 92.6 cents per bushel, and the cost of
FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 3S1
transportation to Liverpool from local points in the Middle West is esti-
mated at 17.4 cents per bushel. Deducting this freight charge from
the price just quoted, and allowing 1.5 cents for profits and minor
costs, the value of this quality of wheat at local shipping points in
Illinois. Minnesota. Missouri. North Dakota. South Dakota. Nebraska,
Kansas, and Oklahoma would be 73.7 cents, or only 2.9 cents per
bushel above the average value of all wheat at those points.
THE PACIFIC COAST.
The Pacific coast wheat trade has some features distinct from
the trade east of the Rocky Mountains. The wheat exported from
the Pacific coast to Europe is carried almost entirely in sailing vessel-.
The rates quoted for chartering sailing ships for these long voyages
showed but little variation during the year, the average charge to
the United Kingdom from San Francisco. Portland. Tacoma. and
Seattle being 16. S cents per bushel for wheat, not including costs of
transfer. Owing to the small exports of wheat from San Francisco
in 1905-6. the rates from that port have practically no effect upon
the average just mentioned.
The mean of freight charges to Tacoma. Seattle, and Portland from
459 local stations was 10.2 cents per bushel, which, added to the ocean
rate, made the total transportation cost from these local points to
Liverpool 27 cents per bushel. The mean Liverpool price for the year
ending June 30. 1906. being 96 cents for white Walla Walla wheat, the
value at shipping points near the farms in the Pacific Northwest
would be CY^ cents, less minor costs of marketing the grain. These
minor costs of marketing may be estimated as between 1 and 2 cents
per bushel, thus making the value of this grade of wheat in local
markets near the farms 67 or 6S cents per bushel, being but a slight
variation from the actual average of all wheat at these slapping
points, which on December 1. 1905. was 66.2 cents. The average local
value for the year 1905-6 was a few cents less than the price on
December 1.
APPARENT DISCREPANCIES EXPLAINED.
However, if the mean railway rate to the coast from local points in
Oregon. Washington, and Idaho be subtracted from the mean price of
Bluestem wheat at Portland. Oreg.. for the year ending June 30. 1906,
which was 74.5 cents, the value of this variety at those local points
would be 64.3 cents per bushel, from which minor costs of marketing
are still to be deducted, and the net value would remain not far from
63 cents. There is an apparent discrepancy here, for the average
value of all wheat on December 1. 1905, including grades inferior to
Bluestem, was 66.2 cents per bushel, or about 3 cents higher than the
value of Bluestem. A greater discrepancy occurs when the mean
YEARBOOK Or THE HEP.. T OF AGEICULTURE.
m club " _ cents per bush.
i :ed to a value at local shipping points by subtracting the freight
I icr bushel.
TL i e due apparently to relatively high prices on the
-ember, 1905. the month in which the December
farm values were actually obtained, and from this he farm
for wheat in Paeifk ist S - r December 1,1!
cents higher than the average for the entire year. About the 1st of
ember, 1905. Bluestem wheat at P rtlan :. I >:•_-.. was quoted at
s, and the Tacoma price for northern club was 74.5 cents per
bushel. The average value of these grades at local shipping
.ated by deducting freight and other cost from the mean of the
st quoted, is from 64.1 to 65.1 cents per bushel.
1.1 or 2.1 cents less than the average value of all at those
poii: rained for December 1.
The average cost of hauling wheat from farms in Washington.
Ore-. a 12 cents per 100 pounds, or 7.2 seats per bu
The . ■ rami price on December 1. 1905. for these three Sj
being 66 .2 the net value on farms woul a cents per bushel.
a
The apparent increase in the consumption of wheat in the United
States in the rive years ending June 30. 1906. and the accomparr
decrease in exports was attended by a rise in local prices, which, if
ibuted proportionally in all parts of the country, would ah
forbid the exportation of any wheat at all. During the year ending
June 30. 1902, the exports of wheat, including flour (in terms of
gramj, from the United States amounted to 235.000,000 bushels and
the average farm value, including cost of haulin_ J. 4 cent-
bushel. For the next four years the annual exports and a v. :
farm values were, respectively. 203.000.000 bushels and 63 cents per
bushel. 121.000.000 bushels and 69.5 cents. 44.000.000 bushels and
92.4 cents, and i " 6 the exports Ave:. 3 I bushels and the
farm value 74. S cents per bushel. The value of wheat sent to Liver-
pool in this last-mentioned year and the freL ng the
expressed hi averages applying to the Unite: - whole, were:
Value of reheat and cost of carrying from T~ .* farms to United Kingdom. 1:
Cents per
bushel.
Value on farms in Unite-; 3 : ^re hauling 69. 4
i hauling to local shipping points
farm value, including cost of hauling
Rail-way freight charges from local points to seaport 11. 6
Ocean freight charges to United Kingdom
Minor costs of sale and shipment
Value at port in United Kingdom
FREIGHT COSTS AKB MAP.KET VALUES. 3S3
MAXIMUM FARM V.V1VE OF EXPORT WHEAT.
The value in the United Kingdom as estimated upon a basis of a
farm value in the United States of 74. S cents per bushel (including
cost of hauling) is a few cents higher than the actual prices of United
States wheat at Liverpool. The average import value of all wheat
brought into the United Kingdom from the United States during the
year 1905-6 was 05.0 cents, and the mean price at Liverpool during
period for Xo. 2 red winter and "Walla Walla white grades was
04.3 cents per bushel.
-. <>i F.XrORTIXG KANSAS WHEAT.
For wheat shipped from Kansas for export th and frei
rates were as follows for the year ending June 30. 1906:
Value of wheat and cost of carrying from Kansas fa 5-6.
Ce: '
Value on h r ■ hauling
I o L >eal shipping pi 'int.-
Farm value, including cost of hauling
Rail v. . Gulf pot ts 10. 8
Ocesu . ol
Min' - <.'\ shipment 1.5
Value a t Liverpool
The corresponding value of wheat shipped from Minnesota to
Liverpool by way of Xew York would be SO. 7 cents per bushel. Xone
of these estimates of value hi Liverpool include selling costs and
dealers' profits hi England, which of course are included in the prices
quoted above for specific grades. The mean price hi Liverpool for
Xo. 2 red winter grade being 02.6 for the season 1005-6. the value
just estimated for Kansas wheat allows a margin of 2.5 cents for
minor charges in the United Kingdom and for differences between
the average price of all Kansas wheat and the price of the Xo. 2 red
winter grade.
S15IMAEY FOR WHEAT.
For the sake of convenience the principal transportation costs and
market values mentioned in the foregoing discission of wheat are
collected in this statement:
Wl 'pal values ami freight charnes mentioned in this art'
VAl
Cents per
bushel.
age value on farms in the United States before hauling. !
Average farm value, including cost of hauling. December 1. 1905 74. 8
3S4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
• - per
sheL
Average price in Chicago. Minneapolis, and Kansas City, year ending June 30,
1906. for certain gra I
Price of Bluest em. Portland, Oreg., November 2, 1905 "-
Price of northern club. Tacoma. Wash., November 1, 1905 74.5
Average farm value, including cost oi hauling, Oregon, "Washington, and Idaho.
December 1. 1905
Mean price No. 2 red -winter. Liverpool, live months ending Jam. .....92
Mean price Walla Walla white. Liverpool, for year 1905-G
Mean price of Bluestem, Liverpool. 1905-G 97
FREIGHT COSTS FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30. 1906.
Hauling from farm to local shipping points 5.4
Average rate from 1 .329 local shipping points in Illinois. Minnesota . Xorth Dak
South Dakota. Nebraska. Kansas. Missouri, and Oklahoma to Chicago. Minne-
apolis, and Kansas City
Mean rat e on export wheat. Chicago to Atlantic ports " i
Mean rate on export wheat. Missouri River to Atlantic ports 13. 4
Average rate on export wheat. Kansas City. Omaha. St. Paul, and Minneap<>". -
X ew Orleans and Galveston 11.4
Average rate from all local shipping ports in above-named States t" Atlantic and
Gulf ports 12.6
Average rate from 459 local shipping points in Oregon. Washington, and Idai.
Portland. Tacoma. and Seattle 10. 2
Average rate from all local shipping points to all ports in the United Stales 11. 6
Average ocean freight rate. Atlantic and Gulf ports to the United Kingdom 4. S
Average ocean freight rate. Pacific ports to the United Kingdom 16. S
Average ocean freight rate, all United States ports fa the United Kingdom 9.6
OCEAX FREIGHT RATES AXD BRITISH IMPORTS.
In the United Kingdom, where a large part of the wheat consumed
is imported, the cost of ocean transportation is an important matter.
During the calendar year 1905 the wheat, not including flour, im-
ported into that country amounted to 1S2,000,000 bushels and the
average cost of ocean freight was about 9 cents per bushel, thus
making the total cost of carrying it on sea more than $16,000,000.
The average of 9 cents per bushel was estimated from the mean
annual freight rates from eight leading regions of supply to the
United Kingdom. The rates quoted for all the countries except the
United States and Canada were taken from the London Times and the
Review of the River Plate (of Buenos Aires), while the other :
were found in commercial papers and hi circulars issued by freight
brokers at various ports. The mean annual rates on wheat from
each of these regions to the United Kingdom for 1905 are given on the
next page.
No. 2 red winter at Chicago, No. 1 northern at Minneapolis, and No. 2 hard at
Kansas City.
FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 385
Mean annual freight rates on wheat to the United Kingdom.
t-. Cents per
From— bushel.
Canada : 4
United States. Atlantic and Gulf ports t> 5
Russia . Bla< k Si a p< at s 7
Roumania 7
British India 9
Argentina 11
Australia ■ 14
United States. Pacific ports & 17
Average d 9
remote Sources of England's wheat supply.
The effect of applying to wheat the same rates as arc charged some
other articles in ocean traffic would be alarming to the British people
and to all other nations winch receive an important part of their wheat
supply from over the sea : and the readjustment of prices brought
about by such changes in transportation costs might have serious
results for the agricultural interests in many countries of supply.
The bread of England is made from wheat carried over vast distances
and at rates lower than would have been dreamed of a few generations
ago. To Liverpool from the Atlantic coast of the United States and
also from the Black Sea the grain makes a journey of 3,000 miles,
while twice that distance is traversed from the River Plate and from
Bombay: large supplies are carried 10,000 miles from Australia: and
3,000,000 bushels in 1905 were taken by sailing vessels from Puget
Sound, down the west coast of America and around Cape Horn, a
voyage of 15,000 miles, or more than one-half of the distance around
the globe. From these distant ports, from 3,000 to 15,000 miles
away, the average charge for carrying wheat to England for the year
19C5, as mentioned in a preceding paragraph, was 9 cents per bushel,
or only one and two-thirds times the cost of hauling over 9 miles of
country roads in the United States.
It bhe average cost of carrying- cotton the 3,00o or 4,000 miles from
United States Atlantic and Gulf coasts to the United Kingdom were
applied to transportation of wheat over the routes mentioned above.
ranging in length from 3,000 to 15,000 mile-, the rate per bushel
would be 19 cents instead of 9, and the margin between prices in
England and in countries of supply would average 10 cents per bushel
more than in 1905.
<7 Rate from Boston used here.
b Fur year ending June 30. 1906.
'Mean rate of eight quotations.
d Weighted in proportion to imports from each region named.
1234 a 1906 25
386 YEARBOOK OF THK DEPARTMENT <»F AGRICULTURE.
FUTURE CHANGES IX FREIGHT COSTS.
Judging- from the changes during the past few generations, it is
natural to expect that costs of freight on land and water may be
lower in the future than at present. Improved methods of loading
and unloading freight, economies in the disposition of cars and vessels
so as to avoid more than at present the hauling of empty car- and the
making of voyages in ballast, and an increase in the quantity of valu-
able freight paying high rates per unit of weight would all tend to
lower the cost of transporting farm product-.
In hauling products from farms in wagons there are opportunities
for a saving in cost. In many regions in the United States the
improvement of a road, or a short rough section of a road, would
allow much larger loads to be hauled than at present. If it were pos-
sible to increase the average weight of a wagonload of cotton in the
United States from 3 bales, as it now is, to -i bales, without increasing
the cost of hauling the load, the saving on a crop equal to the one
picked in 1905 would amount to $2,000,000; and if the average load
of wheat, now 55 bushels, were increased by 20 bushels, the saving
effected in ' ailing a crop like that of 1905 would be more than
$8,000,000
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES.
By A. D. Shamkl.
Physiologist in Charge of Tobacco Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry.
HOW THE NEW VARIETIES WERE BRED.
The four varieties of cigar-wrapper tobacco described in this paper
have been produced by the writer in the breeding experiments of the
Department of Agriculture. These experiments were first undertaken
in the Connecticut Valley in the fall of 1903, at which time the writer
began a study of the varieties of tobacco grown in the valley, made a
large number of crosses of the native with standard foreign-grown
varieties, and selected about 400 individual seed plants growing at
that time in the fields. These hybrids and selections, together with
others made later, about 750 in all, have been tested, under the super-
vision of Dr. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Plant
Breeding Investigations, in the field, laboratory, and manufacturing
establishments during the past three seasons, the inferior and unde-
sirable types have been discarded, and the valuable types have been
used for further tests. Out of all the many selections and hybrids
made in 1903 two hybrids and two selections have proved to be
valuable not only in the Connecticut Valley but in other sections of
the United States adapted for growing cigar-wrapper varieties of
tobacco.
In the hybridization experiments considerable care and attention
were given to the selection of varieties used as parents. The object
of these experiments was to secure varieties of tobacco adapted to
the soil, climatic, and trade conditions of the valley, producing the
size, shape, and quality of leaves best suited to economical cigar-
wrapper manufacture. The native Connecticut Valley varieties of
tobacco produce long, large, and pointed leaves, from one of which
it is possible to cut only from two to four good cigar wrappers. On
the other hand, the typical leaf of the Cuban and Sumatra varieties
of tobacco is short and round, from which the American cigar maker
cuts from six to eight and even more wrappers. The Cuban and
Sumatra varieties used as parents in these experiments were grown
under shade in the Connecticut Valley to a limited extent in 1903,
some of the plants of which bore leaves of the character that is most
desirable for making cigar wrappers. These best plants were selected
387
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
for breeding and m ssed with the best plants of the native
onecticut Havana Seed and Broadleaf varieties. There was
usually found on each plant about a dozen flowers at the right s< _
of development fur - _. All of the other flowers on the same
I head were cut off and thrown away. The flowers used for cr< - -
Lag were then emasculated, and a small, one-quarter pound, light
manila-paper bag - laced over each individual flower. In about
forty-eight hours the bags were removed, the pollen to be used for
pollination was dusted over the receptive stigma, and the I
replaced. As the individual pods set from three to seven thousand
ich, the possibility of raising a large progeny from every <
is apparent.
A large number of cj sses "ere made, in one case using the Con-
ticut varieties as the mother parents and in the other instance
using the imported varieties as the mother parents. In 1904 about
one hundred plants were grown in the fipld from every cross-fertilized
pod of seed. The results of this test made it possible to weed out a
large number of the unprofitable hybrids at once and to save for
planting in 1905 a comparatively few plants from a few of the best
geny rows. Two of these plants were so clearly new and distinct
types that they stood out strongly from all the rest of the plants in
the fields. The progeny of these plant- have come true to seed in
the - sons of 1905 and 1906 and are recognized as of such value
that they have been named and their seed distributed to a limited
extent for commercial growing. In all ^'-fertilized seed has
been used every y.jar for planting, and no such violent breaking up
in type has been observed at any time as is the case with hybrid vari-
eties of corn cotton, and certain other en -
The original selection of seed plants in the crop- of the Connecticut
Valley grown from Florida Sumatra and imported Sumatra seed
were made in the s a of 1903. with a view to securing improved
uniform varieties adapted for growing under shade. In these
fields the plants varied in type to a remarkable degree. Some of
them were of a desirable type, while many were wholly worthless for
_ .-wrapper produce
In these fields the writer found individual plants of types not here-
tofore known in Connecticut or Florida or other districts where this
variety had been grown, which possessed certain characters that
were extremely important from the standpoint of cigar-wrapper
production and manufacture. The seed of many individuals of all
ral types of plants growing in the fields under shade was saved
under bags to protect the flowers from cross-pollination. The seed
of these individual plants was sown in separate sections of tobacco
. beds in 1904. and test rows of about 100 plants were raised in
the field, a row of plants from every seed plant. In the season of
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 389
1904 seed of the best plants in the rows producing the best tobacco
was saved under bag for planting on a more extensive scale the
following season. In these tests two types of plants, one from
Sumatra seed and the other from Cuban seed, possessing the qualities,
vield, and other characteristics necessary for a superior cigar-wrapper
variety adapted for growing under shade were observed. These
varieties have been shown to be improvements on previous varieties
adapted for growing under shade, and seed for growing them on a
commercial scale has been distributed in the Connecticut Valley,
Florida, and other tobacco-growing sections.
In the following description of four new varieties of cigar-wrapper
tobacco detailed descriptions and records of performance are omitted,
these data being reserved for publication in technical bulletins of the
Department. Short descriptions and statements of the value of
these varieties are presented with a view to calling the attention of
growers and breeders not only to their value but to the importance
of breeding new varieties for the tobacco industry. In tests of these
varieties by growers it is advisable that only a small area of any
variety be grown until it is proved by experience that the variety is
adapted to local conditions. It is also important that the growers
save the seed of these varieties under bag, free from any possibility of
cross-fertilization. The Department can not undertake to test the
adaptability of these varieties in all of the different cigar-wrapper
sections, so that it is necessary for the grower to use caution and
test them carefully before planting them extensively on a commer-
cial scale.
TIIE UNCLE SAM SUMATRA TOBACCO.
The original plants of this variety were found by the writer growing
in a crop of tobacco under cloth shade grown by Mr. M. L. Floyd, near
Tariffville, Conn., in the season of 1903. This crop was raised from
seed brought to Connecticut from Florida and which originally came
from the island of Sumatra, In this field of the so-called Sumatra
variety of tobacco were found, upon careful investigation, 11 very dis-
tinct general types of tobacco plants which were strongly enough dif-
ferentiated by certain characteristics of habit of growth, shape and
size of leaves, and quality to be designated as incipient varieties.
Among these types was found one which most nearly approached the
ideal of a cigar-wrapper plant, both as regards development of plant
and character of leaves, ami strikingly different from every other
type found in this field or in other fields. This was designated
as "Type No. 3" for convenience in the breeding experiments, and
was so known until it was considered of sufficient importance to be
named.
The original field in which the first plants of this valuable type
390
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
were found consisted of about 4o acres, and contained a total of
about 50,000 plants. Out of all of this number only 28 plants of
the type known as No. 3 were found. It might be said here that the
writer in ail his experience in studying tobacco plants in other fields
CTown under shade in the Connecticut Taller, in Florida, and i
where, has never found a single plant which could be clearly class*
with this type. On account of the few plants of this type found in
the field and their very marked characteristics it was not considered
likely that their seed would come true to type. However, on account
of their valuable characters the seed of every plant was carefully
~ed under bag and
great care was taken to
prevent any possible
—fertilization or ac-
cidental injury. In a
violent storm late in the
-on one seed head.
borne by one of the best
individual plants, was
broken off before the
I had matured suffi-
ciently to admit of its
being saved, so that the
I of only 27 plants
ved for experi-
mental purp« ■-• s.
In the spring of
the seed of each of the
27 plants was sown sepa-
rately in the seed beds.
and about 100 of the
seedlings of every par-
ent plant were trans-
planted into test r
in the breeding field of
Mr J S Dewev near
Granby, Conn. T< i the surprise and gratification of everyone concerned
it was found in the breeding field that the progeny of every parent
plant as grown in the test rows came uniformly true to type, not a single
plant of a foreign or different type appearing in any of the test r
In the opinion of the many t- growers, plant breeders, and others
who visited this field there has never been under their observation so
striking an example of the imiformity of the progeny of individual par-
ent plants in any crop propagated by seed. The habit of growth of the
plants, the shape, - lor, and venation of the leaves, the number of
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 391
sucker branches, the arrangement and characters of the seed pods in
the seed head, and the number of leaves of the individual plants in
every progeny row were remarkably uniform and true to the type of
the parent plants. The best plants in thesetest rows were selected for
seed production and the seed was saved under bag. The tobacco
produced in the test rows and by the individual seed plants was har-
vested separately in order to get an accurate laboratory test of the
quality of the cured and fermented tobacco. After an examination
of the fermented tobacco from the test rows and tests made for
taste, burn, body, color, stretch, economy in cutting cigar wrappers,
and other qualities, the seed produced by the most desirable plants
in the five best rows was reserved for planting the following season.
In 1905 tests of the progeny of individual plants were again carried
out: seed was furnished the Bureau of Soils for a commercial field
test in the Connecticut Valley and seed was sent to Florida and
elsewhere for field tests. The results of these and other tests
have proved beyond a doubt the value of this variety for growing
commercially, together with the fact that the seed comes true to
type year after year when saved under bag.
The name "Uncle Sam Sumatra" was given to this variety — a
section of a field of which is shown in Plate XXXIII, figure 2 — from
the fact that it was found among plants grown in the United States
from seed which was brought to this country originally from Sumatra.
It is a cigar-wrapper variety of tobacco and adapted for growing under
shade in the cigar-wrapper producing regions.
The plants of the Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco reach an average
height of about 8 feet at the time of maturity. The plants bear an aver-
age of about 26 leaves before topping. The leaves are bone in a
characteristic slightly drooping position, as c -n be seen in the illus-
tration (PI. XXXIII, fig. 1). The color of tie flowers and the size
and arrangement of the seed pods are characteristic of this variety,
very few pods being produced by the plants. Few and small suckers
are produced, thus greatly reducing the labor of suckering the field
crops. The plants grow vigorously, are resistant to unfavorable
conditions, and are of early maturity.
The leaves are characteristically round (fig. 11) and specially
adapted for economical cigar-wrapper cutting. The cured leaves
will average about 16 inches in width by 20 inches in length,
although the size varies according to the cultivation and fertilization
of the soil, the location of the field, and other conditions. The size and
shape of the leaves are very uniform from the top to the base of the
plants. The green leaves have a deep-green color and the cured
leaves a beautiful cinnamon-brown color. The veins are small and fine
and regularly arranged in the leaves. The burn is excellent, leaving a
gray, consistent ash, and the flavor is neutral, there being no dis-
agreeable taste. On cigars the tobacco has a good life and stretch,
392
YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sufficient body or strength to withstand ordinary handling without
injury, a dull gloss characteristic of the fermented tobacco, and a
rich appearance desirable in all high-class cigar wrappers.
The yield of the crops of this variety is high, being as much as 1,600
pounds of cured tobacco to the acre under favorable conditions. The
percentage of the best grades of wrapper in these crops is correspond-
ingly high and satisfactory to the grower and manufacturer alike.
THE HAZLEWOOD CUBAN TOBACCO.
The crops of tobacco grown in the Connecticut Valley under cloth
shade from imported Cuban seed in 1903 were extremely variable
with respect to the type of
plants. This variation in
type of the plants grown
from Cuban seed was not so
marked as in the case of the
plants grown from Sumatra
seed, but there was found
. in the Cuban varieties a
I large proportion of worthless
A plants, apparent reversions or
I freaks, which were almost a
I total loss to the growers.
M Five distinct general types of
tobacco were found in the
f crops of Cuban tobacco, and
340 plants of these types were
kept for seed production, the
seed being all saved under
bag. Two of these types,
^B / numbered 11 and 13 tempo-
's'• ,.-' rarily for convenience in the
V - tobacco-breeding series, were
^B ..•■'"" desirable for cigar-wrapper
;/ oroduction, the plants of
which constituted about one-
no. 12-Typical leaf of Hazlewood Cuban tobacco. ^^ rf ^ ^^ nmnbrf m
the field in which the selections were made. Type Xo. 13 was specially
desirable from a practical standpoint, the plants having the habit of
growth, with freedom from suckers, and bearing the character of leaves
necessary for producing a profitable yield of cigar wrappers. In the first
seed selection of plants of this type, 32 typical plants were found after
a careful examination of a field of about 48 acres grown under shade from
seed imported from the island of Cuba. The seed of these plants, free
from cross-fertilization, was carefully saved and tested the following
year according to the methods employed in the tests already described.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXXIII
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXXIV.
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 393
The transmitting power of the parent plants of this type was found
to be very marked, the uniformity of the-plants in the progeny rows in
1904 being very remarkable. In 1905 the bagged seed from the best
plants in the best rows of 1904 was tested in a commercial field test in
the Connecticut Valley by the Bureau of .Soils, in further progeny
tests, and in field tests in Florida and other cigar- wrapper tobacco
icgions. The results of these tests were so satisfactory that it was
decided to give this type a varietal name and distribute limited
quantities of seed to interested tobacco growers for use in 1906.
The past season's tests have shown conclusively that this variety is
valuable and an improvement on any of the Cuban cigar-wrapper
tobaccos heretofore grown in the United States.
This variety (PL XXXIV) was named the Hazlewood Cuban in
honor of Mr. William Hazlewood, who brought to the LTnited States
the original Cuban seed from which the variety was developed. It
is adapted for growing under shade, and possibly to a limited extent
outside, for cigar-wrapper production in the cigar-wrapper tobacco
districts.
The plants of the Hazlewood Cuban variety when grown under
shade reach a height of about ~h feet at the time of maturity. The
leaves have a partially erect habit of growth, the seed production
is comparatively small, and the time of maturity is very early. The
plants bear but few sucker branches (see Pi. XXXIV, fig. 1 ), differing
in this very greatly from the ordinary Cuban varieties, in which the
tendency to sucker production is usually very marked. The average
number of leaves borne* by the individual plants varies somewhat
with conditions, but is about 21 after topping. The yield of the
crops of this tobacco has been heavy for Cuban tobacco, reaching
under favorable conditions 1,400 pounds of cured tobacco to the
acre. The percentage of the best grades of tobacco in these crops
has been high.
The leaves are about 18 inches in length by about 15 inches in
breadth and are of a round shape adapted to economical cigar-
wrapper cutting (fig. 12). The color of the green leaves is a very
deep green, and of the cured leaves a velvety brown. The grain
in the leaves is very marked, being evenly distributed from the tip
to the base of the leaves. The veins are small and fine, the burn
excellent, leaving a white to gray-colored ash, and the flavor is very
?ood, no obnoxious taste being present. The tobacco has sufficient
body and stretch so thai when wrapped on cigars it stands han-
dling without injury. When the plants are grown without shade
the tobacco has a pleasant aroma and can be used for cigar-filler
production.
I'll I. BREWEB HYBRID TOBACCO.
The Brewer Hybrid tobacco is the result of a cross of the Con-
necticut Broadleaf variety with the Cuban variety. This cross was
394 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
made in 1903 in the Connecticut Valley, plants of the Connecticut
Broadleaf variety grown by Mr. N.*S. Brewer, of Hockanum, Conn.,
being used for the mother parents and plants of Cuban tobacco
grown in the Connecticut A'alley from freshly imported Cuban seed
being used for the male parents.
The object of making tins cross was to secure a hybrid combining
the characters of habit of growth, adaptability to Connecticut Valley
conditions, burn, and other qualities of the Connecticut Broadleaf
variety with the size and shape of leaves, grain, and texture of the
Cuban tobacco. Twenty-six crosses of this kind were made, even-
one of which was
successful, so that
26 seed pods were
obtained. In 1004
the seed from all
these pods was
sown in separate
compartments of
the seed bed and
the plants were
transplanted to
test rows in the
experimental
field. The plants
in 6 of the test
rows showed suffi-
cient uniformity
of characters to
admit of further
selection and
breeding. The
best plants of
these rows were
carefully selected
for seed produc-
tion and their seed
was saved under bag. In one i >f the test rows the progeny of a parent
plant numbered lc in the breeding records was found a striking plant,
different from either parent or the other hybrid plants, but clearly
approaching the ideal plant sought for. This plant was carefully
tested in 1905 and found to come true to seed. The other progeny
test rows this season showed considerable variability. Some of the
rows were very much more uniform than others, but the important
row was the progeny of the striking plant 1c. The best plants in tins
row were selected for seed production and the seed was saved under
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 395
bag. In 1906 this seed was tested in a large number of localities,
some of which were adapted to the production of this type of tobacco
and others unfavorable to it. Under favorable conditions the crops
were uniform and of desirable yield, and the tobacco of improved
quality as compared with the parent Connecticut Broadleaf. While
there is opportunity for further improvement of this variety by breed-
ing and seed selection, its characteristics are sufficiently marked and
desirable and the seed comes so true to type that it can safely be
tested by tobacco growers who raise cigar-wrapper varieties of tobacco.-
The name ''Brewer Hybrid" was given to this variety (shown in
PI. XXXY, fig. 2) in honor of Mr. X. S. Brewer, of Ilockanum.
Conn., the grower of the parent Connecticut Broadleaf variety, who
has furnished unusual opportunities for experimental work with this
variety on his farm. It is adopted for growing in northern cigar-
wrapper districts and for the production of cigar wrappers.
The plants of the Brewer Hybrid reach about 5 feet in height at
the time of maturity, and the leaves have a slightly drooping habit
of growth. (PI. XXXV, fig. 1.) The plants bear about the same
number of suckers as the Connecticut Broadleaf variety, although the
character has as yet a tendency to vary under different conditions.
The plants mature in about the same length of time as the Connecti-
cut Broadleaf variety.
The leaves of the Brewer Hybrid are medium in size, averaging
about 22 inches in length by 19 in width. The shape of the leaves
is very round and especially well adapted for cigar-wrapper cutting
(fig. 13). The grain is evenly distributed from the tip to the base of
the leaves. The texture resembles that of Connecticut Broadleaf
tobacco, but this tobacco when wrapped on cigars has a smooth, rich
appearance not found in the Connecticut Broadleaf variety. The burn
is good, leaving a gray ash: there is no bad flavor, and the stretch is
particularly good, so that the tobacco on cigars stands handling very
well. The color of the growing leaves is light green and of the cured
leaves a bright cinnamon-brown. The fermented tobacco has the dull
finish characteristic of Cuban tobacco. The yield of the crops is large
under favorable conditions, reaching 1,800 pounds to the acre, and the
production of high-grade wrappers in the crop is comparatively high.
THE COOLEY HYBRID TOBACCO.
The Cooley Hybrid variety of tobacco is the result of a cross
between Connecticut Havana seed as the mother parent and Sumatra
tobacco as the male parent. This cross was made in the summer of
1903, using Connecticut Havana seed plants grown by Mr. D. P.
Cooley, of Granby, Conn., as the mother parents and Sumatra plants
grown under shade in the same district tor the male parents. The
object of this cross was to secure a variety adapted to the conditions
396
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of the Connecticut Valley, having the habit of growth, burn, and
other characters of the Havana Seed tobacco, combined with the
improved shape of leaves, venation, and other characters of the
Sumatra tobacco. Eighteen flowers in carefully selected Havana
Seed plants were cross-fertilized with Sumatra pollen, all of which
set seed and were found to be successfully cross-fertilized. The
resulting seed produced in the 18 seed pods was tested in progeny
rows on the Cooley farm in 1904,8 of which were determined upon
careful examination and testing to be promising for future breed-
ing experiments.
In these S rows 3
plants of particular
merit were found
and reserved for a
special test in 190"),
together with many
other plants, all of
the seed of which
was saved under
bag. It was found
that the progeny of
the 3 particular
plants saved in
1 904 produ c e d
strikingly charac-
teristic and uniform
types of tobacco in
1905. (See Plato
XXXVI, fig. 2.)
The habit of growth
of the plants, the
shape and size of
the leaves, and the
quality and other
characters of the
Fig. 14.— Typical leaf of Cooley Hybrid tobacco. , t i\
■ v tobacco ot these
progeny rows were so desirable that seed was saved from the besl
plants in 1905 for special field tests in 1906, as well as for continued
breeding experiments. The final tests have demonstrated that under
conditions favorable for the growth of the plants the variety is a
valuable acquisition to the tobacco industry, and it was consequently
named, and preparations were made for the distribution of a limited
quantity of the seed for commercial planting.
- The Cooley Hybrid plants (PI. XXXVI, fig. 1) grow to a height
of about 6 feet, bear on the average about 21 leaves before topping,
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXXV.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906,
Plate XXXVI.
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 397
have few small suckers, comparatively small seed production, and
mature about the same time as the Connecticut Havana seed variety.
The leaves (fig. 14) are about 22 inches in length by about 17
inches in width, having in the growing condition a deep-green
color and after curing a fine light-brown color. The venation is fine
and regularly arranged in the leaves; the texture is uniform from
the tip to the base of the leaves; the burn is good, leaving a white
ash, and the flavor is satisfactory, no sharp or disagreeable taste
being present in the fermented wrapper. When the Cooley Hybrid
tobacco is wrapped on cigars it stretches well and covers the cigar in
a satisfactory manner.
The yield of this variety under favorable conditions is about 1 ,750
pounds of cured tobacco to the acre. The yield of the best grades
of wrappers is high, and this percentage can doubtless be increased
by continued breeding and seed selection.
NECESSITY OF BREEDING EXPERIMENTS.
The object of the tobacco-breeding experiments undertaken by
the Department of Agriculture is the production of improved varie-
ties for the established tobacco-growing regions of the United States
and for new sections of this country which are found to be adapted
for tobacco culture. The great increase in the use of tobacco for the
manufacture of cigars, smoking and plug tobaccos, and for other pur-
poses has resulted in a demand which the areas now under cultivation
adapted for the production of this crop have not been able to supply.
This condition must be met either by extending and increasing the
yield of the areas now cultivated in tobacco and developing new
sections having the proper soil and climatic conditions for its suc-
cessful culture or by depending upon increased importations of foreign-
grown varieties.
It is an established fact that there are great areas in the United
States not now growing tobacco which have the soil, climatic, and
other conditions suited for growing valuable tobaccos and which for
the welfare of American agriculture should supply the demand of the
manufacturers. One of the most important phases of the develop-
ment of these undeveloped sections is the production of varieties of
tobacco adapted to their soil and climatic conditions. The experi-
ments of the Department of Agriculture during the past four years
have demonstrated that the production and introduction of such
varieties can best be effected by the use of careful and systematic
methods of seed selection and breeding.0
"The writer in the work of growing and testing the new varieties of tobacco described
in this paper has been materially assisted by the active help and interest of Mr.
W. W. Cobey and Dr. W. W. darner, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and of Mr.
.1. B. Stewart, of the Bureau of Soils.
398 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICT7LTUEE.
In the old and established tobacco-growing regions of the United
States it is a matter of common observation that the varieties of
tobacco which have been cominously cultivated in some of these sec-
tions have become more and more subject to the attack of certain
fungous diseases, insects, and other enemies. The loss to the growers
due to these injuries has become such that unless relief is obtained
the industry in these regions must be abandoned. Two typical illus-
trations of this condition are found in the injury to tobacco plants in
the Connecticut; Valley by the fungous disease Thielavia \ or
root-rot. and the destruction of plants in many fields in Florida and
Georgia by the nematod?. an enemy which threatens the success of
this important tobacco-producing section. Varieties of tobac€o
resistant or immune to the attacks of some of these enemies have
been produced in the course of the breeding experiments conducted
by the Department, demonstrating the practicability of suecessfully
combating fungous diseases and the attacks of insects through the
origination of resistant or immune varieties by breeding and seed
selection.
The variety of manufactured tobacco products due to the individu-
ally different tastes of consumers has resulted in the demand by
manufacturers for particular varieties and grades of tobacco adapted
for use in their specialties. The great number of brands of cigars,
smoking mixtures, and plug tobaccos is sufficient evidence of the
demand for different kinds of tobacco suited to the individual wants
of the consumer. This demand has been met in part by the use of
varieties of tobacco grown in different sections of the country, blend-
ing them in cigars or in smoking or plug tobaccos, and by the treat-
ment of the tobacco while growing, or when undergoing the curing.
fermenting, or manufacturing processes. The breeding experiments
of the Department have proved conclusively that varieties of tobacco,
adapted for particular purposes of manufacture by reason of their
quality or other characteristics, can be produced by breeding, and
can be propagated uniformly year after year by the use of proper
methods of seed selection.
An illustration of the practicability and value of the breeding of
varieties of tobacco for special purposes can be found in the varieties
grown in the Connecticut Valley. As the result of breeding, the
Havana Seed variety yields a high percentage of light-colored cigar
wrappers having a smooth, glossy finish, while the Broadleaf variety
produces largely medium to dark-colored wrappers with a rough and
dull finish. One of the possibilities in this very important phase of
tobacco breeding is the production of varieties of cigar-wrapper
tobacco yielding uniformly throughout the crop leaves of particular
size an I shape adapted to the most economical wrapping of different
sizes of cigars. Numerous other illustrations might be given to show
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 399
the necessity and importance to growers and manufacturers alike of
producing varieties adapted for special purposes in all classes of
tobacco.
METHODS OF BREEDING.
The methods of breeding employed by the writer in the production
of new varieties of tobacco may be described under the general terms
of hybridization and selection. Hybridization has been used for the
purpose of combining in new varieties the essential and valuable
characters of two established varieties by crossing, winch necessarily
has been followed by careful and rigid selection of the best individual
hybrid plants for seed production every year. The term "selection,"
as used in these experiments, may be defined as the method of pro-
duction of new varieties by saving the seed of mutations or striking
variations in the type of plants found in the established varieties
without artificial cross-fertilization. Such mutations, or "sports,"
may be the result of breaking up in type or of variability resulting
from their being grown under new climatic or soil conditions, methods
of cultivation, accidental cross-fertilization, peculiarity of season or
food supply, or other cause.
From the fact that these breeding experiments were first under-
taken and results secured with cigar tobaccos, the methods described
will be those used in the production of new varieties of those tobac-
cos; but the same methods are being successfully used and are appli-
cable to the production of new varieties of all other tobaccos.
Hybridization. — The success of hybridization as a means for the
improvement of tobaccos depends largely upon the judgment of the
breeder in the selection of parent varieties and plants for crossing.
In the first place, the crossing of widely different varieties of tobacco
has given few, if any, valuable results. For instance, the crossing
of varieties of cigar tobaccos with varieties of smoking tobaccos has
not produced, so far, at least, a single improved type for either cigar
or smoking tobacco manufacture. The crossing of different varieties
of cigar tobaccos, however, has made it possible to secure improved
varieties of this class. The varieties grown in this country may be
grouped in a general way into three great classes, viz, cigar, smoking,
and plug tobaccos. The experience of the writer is that crosses
bet veen the varieties in any one class may be beneficial, but that
cross 5S between varieties of different classes are usually followed by
failure.
It is absolutely necessary that tobacco breeders have clearly in
mind the type of plant desired before any crossing of varieties is
undertaken. Promiscuous crossing of different varieties of tobacco
is certain to be unproductive of any valuable results. The best
results have been secured by using an established variety for one
parent and then crossing the best individual plants of this variety
400 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
with other varieties which possess the characters lacking in the first.
It is important that a large number of crosses be made in order that
the breeder may have an opportunity to find ideal plants for propa-
gation.
In the Connecticut Valley, Broadleaf and Havana Seed are the
two varieties which have been generally grown for cigar-wrapper
production. The plants of these varieties produce large, pointed
leaves, with coarse venation, which — on account of their size, shape,
and venation — can not be economically used for cutting cigar wrap-
pers. This tobacco, however, is adapted to the soil and climatic con-
ditions of the Connecticut Valley, and has a good burn, taste, body,
elasticity, and other valuable characters. The Cuban and Sumatra
varieties of plants bear comparatively small, round leaves, with fine
veins, but are not adapted for growing under the same conditions
as the Connecticut Valley varieties. The crossing of the Connecticut
Broadleaf and Havana Seed varieties with the Cuban and Sumatra
varieties, followed by a rigid selection of seed plants for several gen-
erations, has produced several valuable and improved varieties of
tobaccos. As a rule the best results have been secured by using a
native or established variety as the mother parent and a foreign-
grown variety for crossing as the male parent.
Selection. — Selection is the most practicable means for the pro-
duction of new varieties of tobacco and is most likely to yield profit-
able and permanent residts. Many of the established varieties may
be traced to the selection of new types of plants in tobacco fields
for seed production by tobacco grower-. A well-known illustration
of this method of production of new varieties is the White Burley
variety, originated by George Webb, of Brown County, Ohio, and
now grown extensively in Kentucky, Ohio, and other tobacco-
producing States. The history of the origin of this variety shows
that Mr. Webb, a successful tobacco grower, noticed in his field of
Red Burley tobacco a few plants having a characteristic light-green
color and peculiar habit of growth. These plants were saved for
seed, and upon finding that the cured leaves of these plants were
more valuable than the ordinary Burley tobacco the grower used the
seed extensively the following season. In a few years the value of
this tobacco was recognized by manufacturers and growers, and the
variety was grown on an extensive scale. It is now one of the most
important varieties grown m the United States.
The change of seed from one tobacco-growing region to different
soil and climatic conditions, particularly from the South to the North,
is likely to result in the breaking up of the type of the variety and the
appearance of plants with characteristic- very different from the
established type. These new types of plants can be propagated bo-
using self-fertilized seed, and uniform varieties of tobacco can be
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 401
secured by continued selection of the best individual plants for seed
production. The use of Florida-grown and imported Sumatra seed for
growing in the Connecticut Valley during the past few years is a good
illustration of the effect of a change of seed. The plants grown from
tins foreign-grown seed were extremely variable, individual plants of
new and unknown types of tobacco appearing in the fields. The seeds
of desirable individual plants of these types were saved under bag,
free from cross-fertilization, and several valuable new varieties have
been secured adapted to the conditions in the Connecticut Valley and
uniformly coining true to type year after 3Tear.
It is a matter of common observation among tobacco growers that
an occasional plant producing the ideal leaves and other characters
desired by the growers and manufacturers is found in their fields. A
lack of appreciation of the value of these plants for breeding purposes
results in their being topped and thus lost for seed production and prop-
agation. It is the belief of the writer after several years of careful
observation along this line that if tobacco growers could be interested
in carefully studying their crops from the time the plants are set out
in the field until they are topped, for the purpose of finding these occa-
sional plants of the ideal t}Tpe and saving their seed under bag, free
from accidental cross-fertilization, for planting the following season,
more progress could be made in the production of improved varie-
ties of tobacco than by any other means.
THE TESTING OF NEW VARIETIES.
The value of new varieties of tobacco must be established by care-
ful experimental tests as well as practical experience before they are
introduced for growing on a commercial scale. This feature of the
successful production of new varieties is of special importance with
this crop, because the. value of varieties of tobacco depends not only
upon their quality, yield to the acre, and economical use by manufac-
turers, but also upon the reputation established by years of successful
production for a particular market requirement. The consumer of
tobacco does not easily change from one kind of tobacco to another,
after finding a satisfactory article, and consequently the manufacturer
is slow in making any change in the variety used for making particular
brands of cigars, smoking mixtures, plug tobaccos, or other manufac-
tured products. It is therefore important that the breeder make all
possible tests of the value of new varieties before distributing the seed
to tobacco growers.
The new varieties of tobacco produced by the Department of Agri-
culture are tested in the field for habit of growth and yield; in the
laboratory for the quality of the cured and fermented product; and
finally samples of the tobacco of these varieties are subjected to actual
manufacturing tests by manufacturers.
3 A1906 26
402 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Field tests. — The held tests must necessarily be conducted in
those section- and under those circumstances in which the variety is
to be grown. The influence of soil and climatic conditions upon the
behavior of the tobacco plant is such that the results obtained in one
section of the tobacco-growing regions can not be depended upon for
other sections having different conditions.
In the tests of cigar- wrapper varieties a 1-acre field is considered
large enough ro secure the necessary data as to the uniformity of the
individual plants in the field, yield, and other characters that can not
be determined by row tests in the breeding experimental fields. The
area devoted to the field test, however, must frequently be modified
by circumstances, but less than an acre is likely to be unsatisfactory,
owing to the fact that in such cases not enough tobacco of any one
grade can be secured for entire bales or packages. The larger the area
that can be used for such tests, other things being equal, the more val-
uable and reliable the results from the practical standpoint.
In the field tests of new varieties of tobacco every phase of the cul-
ture of the crop — from the time the carefully selected seed is sown in
the seed bed until the tobacco is harvested, cured, and fermented — -
should be so arranged as to give the crop the most favorable circum-
stances possible for growth. In all cases, however, the amount of
money expended for any and all operations must be governed by prac-
tical experience of growers of other varieties of tobacco in the same
class as the experimental crops. The results of these experiments, to
be of value, must show the profit under practical conditions of field
culture of the new varieties compared with the established varieties:
or, in sections where tobacco has not been grown, the profit that may
be expected by growers under normal conditions. A record of the
actual cost of all of the operations in the production and handling of
the crop, the yield, and the selling value of the product is necessary
in order to determine the comparative or actual value of the new
varieties.
Laboratory tests. — The laboratory tests of new varieties of cigar
tobaccos include a study of the tobacco during the curing and fer-
menting process in the warehouse, and an examination of the color,
burn, body, elasticity or stretch, and flavor and aroma of the fer-
mented leaves. As an illustration of these tests the character of the
burn of the Department's new varieties is tested in the smoking
machine devised by Dr. W. W. Gamer,0 of Plant Breeding Investi-
gations, supplemented by other tests, including the ordinary tests of
the tobacco buyers. The elasticity and strength of the leaves are
determined by the aid of a specially designed, apparatus for this pur-
pose, and finally representative samples are made up into cigars and
a See Bui. 100, Part IV, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, '-Methods of Testing the
Binning Quality of Cigar Tobacco."-
NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 403
submitted to experts for a test of the flavor, aroma, and other char-
acters necessary for a desirable toba<
MAxri-AcrrinxG tests. — The manufacturing tests of new varh
are made by sending representative samples of the fermented tobacco
to manufacturers for use in the products for which the varieties are
adapted. The final test of the value of any tobacco is its useful
in filling the demand of the manufacturer: therefore this test is of
supreme importance from the standpoint of securing reliable infor-
mation as to the desirability of growing a variety extensively.
Tobacco manufacturers are, as a rule, anxious to test new varieties
with a view to securing a more valuable tobacco for their established
trade or for the purpose of supplying the demand for other products
for the manufacture of which the established varieties are not adapted.
It is a common practice, therefore, for manufacturers, through their
buyers, to purchase small crops of new varieties and test them in
comparison with their regular supply of tobaccos. In this way the
tobacco breeder may get a practical test of new varieties, and if they
prove valuable the demand of the manufacturer will encourage
increased production.
THE PRESERVATION OF TYPE.
The production and introduction of new varieties of tobacco must
be followed by continued effort on the part of the growers to preserve
and improve the type, in order that the fullest and best results may
be obtained. Without selection of seed plants year after year by the
growers, the life of tobacco varieties is comparatively short. The
accidental cross-fertilization of seed saved without protection, the
use of inferior plants for seed production, and many other causes
contribute to the deterioration, breaking up of type, and so-called
running out of varieties. This fact is so well established that growers
find it necessary frequently to secure seed from some new source rather
than to use their own tobacco seed. In view of the fact that the
profitableness of a variety depends to a considerable extent on the
production of a uniform character of tobacco year after year for a
particular purpose, the importance of preserving the type of the
variety can not be overestimated.
The uniformity of varieties of tobacco can be effectually controlled
by protecting the seed of carefully selected plants from accidental
cro-s-fertili/.ation and by seed separation. The best individual plants
of the variety grown should be selected for seed production. The
variability of the individual plants in the field offers an opportunity
for the continual improvement of a variety by the intelligent selection
of seed plants baring the habit of growth ami bearing the character
of leaves most nearly meeting the ideal of the grower and the needs of
the manufacturer. The flowers borne by these seed plants can be
404 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
successfully protected from cross-fertilization with the .plants in the
same field, or of other fields or varieties, by inclosing the flower heads
of the selected plants, before the flowers open, with alight but strong
manila-paper bag. The tobacco flowers are perfectly self-fertile, and
several years of extensive practical experience have shown that
tobacco seed saved under bag — that is, self-fertilized seed — is equal
if not superior to seed cross-fertilized within the variety. These
paper bags should remain over the seed heads until all of the flowers
have set seed, as showm by the development of seed pods; then they
can be removed and the seed allowed to mature under natural con-
ditions. In northern districts it lias not been found necessary to
remove the bags, and they may be left over the seed heads until the
seed is shelled. In southern districts it has not only been found
advisable to remove the paper bags, but it is an advantage, before
using the bags, to perforate them with small holes, as with a needle,
to admit of a circulation of air without danger of cross pollination.
The paper bags prevent the cross-pollination of the flowers under the
bag by wind, insects, or other agencies.
The methods of bagging the seed, seed separation, and, to a limited
extent, the row test, outlined in this paper and more fully described
in the Yearbook for 1904,a have been extensively adopted by tobacco
growers of established varieties. The use of these methods of breed-
ing as a means of preserving the types of new varieties of tobacco is
of very great importance and should receive the attention of every
grower.
CONCLUSION.
The experience of the writer during the past four years has shown
that breeding experiments systematically carried out can be made of
great practical importance to the tobacco industry. It costs no
more to grow an improved variety of tobacco giving a higher yield
of a better quality than to grow unimproved and irregular varieties.
The tobacco plant is particularly susceptible of improvement and
satisfactory for the work of the breeder in that it is both fully self-
fertile and easily cross-fertilized. The large number of seed pro-
duced by single plants, frequently a half million or more, makes
the propagation of a valuable variety, once it is secured, particu-
larly easy and rapid. The active interests of the manufacturers
in the production of improved varieties adapted to their needs and
the willingness of the manufacturers to pay increased prices for better
qualities in improved varieties make tobacco breeding remunerative
to the grower.
aShamel, A. D., Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1904, p. 435,
"The Improvement of Tobacco by Breeding and Selection."
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING.
I. GENERAL.
By Wm. Hart Dexter, Ph. D.,
Assistant Dairyman, in Charge of Dairy Literature and Extension Work.
DEFINITION.
Strictly speaking, dairying is the business of conducting a dairy
farm. Commonly, however, we use the word to include the varied
industries which have to do directly with the production and handling
of milk and milk products. The industrial salvation of this country
depends ultimately on its agricultural resources. The profits of
agriculture depend ultimately on the intelligent cultivation of the
soil. Dairy farming is increasing in almost every section of the
country, largely because it is recognized as one of the most economical
forms of agriculture where the preservation of soil fertility is con-
sidered. Taking this broad view of dairying, we find it one of the
greatest wealth-producing industries in the land.
Opportunities for dairying are found everywhere in the United
States. The different sections of the country have characteristic
peculiarities, but all need milk and its products. Success awaits
the dainrman who fits his work to the conditions of the place in
which he lives. He should know the value of a good dairy cow and
how to treat her. He should recognize the necessity of cleanliness
from the time the milk leaves the udder until the finished product
is in the hands of the consumer. He should know and meet the
needs of his market.
OPPORTUNITIES IN VARIOUS LINES.
The equipment and practice found on the dairy farm afford great
opportunity for improvement. Better buildings as to construction
and sanitation need not be expensive. The best machinery and
utensils are available at moderate prices. Thorough and cleanly
management in the stable and milk room is simple and cheap. The
necessary refrigeration can also be provided without elaborate or
costly fittings. The indispensable silo can be erected of such material
as may be best suited to the climate.
The maintenance and increase of soil fertility constitutes one of the
greatest opportunities for dairying. A ton of wheat, worth $22,
405
406 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
removes from the soil $7.50 worth of plant food. A ton of butter,
worth $500, takes less than 50 cents' worth of plant food from the
soil. Land on the Pacific coast, reduced to such poverty by the con-
tinued raising of wheat that it produced only 8 or 9 bushels of wheat
per acre, has been so restored by dairying that it now produces from
20 to 40 bushels, and the land has doubled in value.
Careful dairying goes hand in hand with the most helpful rotation
of crops, encouraging especially the production of legumes. Diver-
sified farming needs dairying for its best results. The improvement
of the forage crops best suited to a given locality is the natural study
of the dairyman.
IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE.
The improvement of dairy cattle offers great opportunity. The
cows supplying Iowa butter factories are making an average of only
140 pounds of butter per year. By the weighing and testing of the
milk of each cow those which fail to pay their board can be detected
and rejected. The rearing of the heifer calves from the most profit-
able cows is the simplest course for the improvement of the herd at
least expense. In this selection regard must be had for dairy type
of form and function. A pure-bred daily sire should be at the head
of every dairy herd. It is entirely })racticable to add largely to the
wealth of every dairy farmer in this way, and every dollar added to
the average income from the dairy cow in the United States adds
$20,000,000 to the nation's production of wealth.
To assist in tins improvement of the dairy herds cooperative test
associations have been organized. They were introduced ten years
ago in Denmark, and are now found in most of the prominent dairy
sections of Europe. In Germany these associations have been the
means during the last five years of increasing the income of the dairy
farmers by an average of $14 per cow per year. Similar associations
in a few States of our own country, led by Michigan, have shown the
practicability of increasing the income from dairy farming at least
one-fourth without additional expense to the producer. Coopera-
tion in the organization and management of these test associations
is needed to promote their practical and general efficiency.
The associations of breeders of j)ure-bred dairy cattle have a simi-
lar opportunity to increase the value of their records of tests of dairy
cows. By agreeing upon uniform rules under which these tests
should be conducted, general standards of dairy performance would
be established, and by the registration of all such records in a national
office their general acceptance and use would be secured.
IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.
Opportunity for dairying appears also in the increased demand for
pure milk, especially in the larger cities. This opportunity is for
OPPORTUNITIES FOE DAIRYING. 407
intelligence and cleanliness in the production and for reliable purity
in the product. The market-milk producer can now profit b}r im-
proved methods for the care, distribution, and sale of milk of the best
quality. There seems to be practically no limit to this market.
On many dairy farms near cities and places of popular resort oppor-
tunity for profit is afforded by the demand for ice cream. One great
advantage in supplying cream is the saving of the skim milk for the
feeding of farm stock and ultimately for the fertility of the soil.
Farm dairy butter of the highest quality is always in demand at
the highest prices. Uniformity of excellence must be maintained,
and this requires patient attention to details. Success in this lino
will follow the use of the improved methods which have been worked
out in the creameries, with such modifications as may be required in
the smaller operations of the farm. The new rapid method for the
determination of water in butter will be of material assistance.
Taints and defects must be promptly discovered and corrected. The
farm separator must be kept clean.
The furnishing of fancy farm-made cheese offers an opportunity
for great profit. Recent investigations have shown that it is entirely
practicable to produce in this country the finest grades of cheese of
the Camembert and Roquefort types, heretofore only had by impor-
tation from Europe. Prices for such goods are high, and the farm
dairy can easily be equipped for their production.
There is large opportunity for profit in dairying by the improve-
ment and varied uses of the by-products from the manufacture of
butter and cheese, such as casein, ash, and milk sugar. While some
forms of these by-products require expensive machinery, others are
entirely within the reach of the farm dairy. Under present condi-
tions, however, the most profitable use of skim milk and whey is as
food for farm stock and poultry.
CONTROLLING MOTIVES.
In fairly estimating the advantages of dairying one should con-
sider the opportunities presented for the legitimate gratification of
the strongest and best motives to action. The best dairyman is the
one who is most effectively controlled by such motives.
The desire for profit is strong. A Connecticut dairyman makes 22
per cent net profit annually on Ins investment. In Georgia one acre
and one dairy cow have produced in one year, under careful manage-
ment, a net cash profit of $28.75 in addition to $20 worth of manure
contributed to the fertility of the soil. The dairyman's income is
conveniently distributed throughout the year, enabling him to keep
out of debt. Supplying home markets keeps money at home. There
is no danger of overproduction with the world for a market.
The desire for leadership is strong. It may be gratified in the
408 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
organization and management of dairy enterprises. There is oppor-
tunity for leadership in plans of cooperation connected with cream-
eries, test associations. State experiment stations, and the improve-
ment of the condition of the rural community.
The desire for knowledge is strong. The dairyman has opportuni-
ties for the search after truth in scientific investigations concerning
the soil, the culture of forage crops, the breeding and care of live
stock, the chemistry and bacteriology of milk products, and the
principles involved in the invention and use of machinery.
The desire for pleasure is strong. The dairyman has opportunity
for pleasures of the better sort, in the enjoyment of the poetry and
beauty of rural life at its best. He may enjoy the improvement of the
farm home. Love for animals finds pleasure in their daily care.
The endeavor to supply the best of pure food gratifies love for Ins
fe!lo\v-men. the highest of merelv human moth'es.
II. NEW ENGLAND.
By George M. Yn'hitakek,
Dairy Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry.
PASTURES AND GREEX FORAGE.
New England offers exceptional advantages to the dairyman.
The leading crop in the feeding of cows is grass; and the soil and
climate of New England are such that grass grows readily. The
strong, retentive clay soil of the hillsides is excellent grass land,
producing large crops of hay with ordinary care. Grass also grows
naturally; and many hills, too rough and rocky for cultivation, will
grow wild grasses if the ever-encroaching bushes are kept back. In
these pastures of low-priced land many cows and young stock get
their summer living at very little expense to the owner. The crop
of second importance is the corn plant, which is grown more for forage
than for the grain. It grows well in almost every section, and responds
readily to cultivation and fertilization. It is frequently fed green
from the field, as the pastures begin to dry, in order to keep up the
flow of milk. Large amounts are cut for the silo, grain and forage
both going into the pit. The geological formation in many parts of
New England is such that an abundance of pure water gushes from
thousands of mountain springs. There are likewise excellent oppor-
tunities for getting ice of the best quality, winch almost every dairy-
man puts up for his summer use.
MARKETS.
New England's second distinctive advantage is m excellent, well-
located markets. Her surface is liberally dotted with manufacturing
OPPORTUNITIES FOE DAIRYING. 409
towns and cities where reside a large part of her population. New
England, with only one-fiftieth of the area of the contiguous United
States, has one-fourteenth of the population. According to the
census of 1900, Rhode Island is the most densely populated State in
the Union, having 407 persons to the square mile. Massachusetts,
though forty-fourth in territorial rank, is seventh in amount of
population and second in density of population among the States
and Territories of contiguous United States. Connecticut ranks
fourth in density of population, while New Hampshire and Maine,
though further down the list in this respect, have a number of large
manufacturing cities and towns.
But the superiority of New England's markets for dairy products
is not told wholly in statistics of a large population located on a
comparatively small area. The purchasing ability of tins popula-
tion is large, as it is largely composed of well-to-do merchants, pro-
fessional men, and skilled mechanics. Even the unskilled common
laborers have steady employment at good wages and consume large
amounts of dairy products.
Such markets mean a quick demand for all dairy products. Aside
from milk and cream, New England does not produce all the dairy
products she consumes. Hence there is always a good demand for
the fresher article produced near by. The New England dairyman
has an advantage as to price. Even in the wholesale market New
England butter is usually quoted at one or two cents above western.
But many dairymen are located so that they can sell milk, cream,
or butter in a near-by market or direct to consumers, thus getting
the further advantage of a retail price. And few New England
dairymen are located so far away from a center as to be out of reach
of the milk car to the city, the cream gatherer for some butter factory
or cream-shipping station, or the cheese factory. The producer of
milk and its products in New England is closer to the consumer than
in other sections.
Not a few New England dairymen are so favorably located and
have so much skill that they get an advance above the ruling price
for an article of extra quality.
DISADVANTACxES.
The disadvantages of New England dairying are a comparatively
sterile soil, cold winters, relatively short growing seasons, rough,
rocky topography, and high freight rates on small shipments for
short distances. But the quality of the market offsets these to a
large degree. Thorough cultivation and plenty of applied plant
food make the land under cultivation produce large crops. Four
tons of hay per acre is frequently harvested, though this is above
the average, and 6 tons is no uncommon production. High yields
of ensilage corn are common.
410 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.
Dairying is the leading agricultural specialty in New England.
Market gardening receives much attention near the cities and L
towns, but many market gardeners keep a dairy herd to consume the
refuse from the truck garden and to increase the size of the manure
pile. Fruit growing is also a specialty with many, but even in those
s - dairying is often a side issue of importance. Hence dairying is
almost universal. All the leading breeds of dairy cattle are repre-
sented by pure-bred animals of high quality. Some of the famous
pure-bred dairy stock of the country is of New England ownership or
origin. All of the leading national breeders" associations have many
Xew England members, two have come to Xew England for secreta-
ries, while prominent officers of others are Xew England men.
Market milk is the leading feature of Xew England dairying. Milk
cars for Boston every morning leave northern Xew Hampshire, cen-
tral Vermont, western Massachusetts, and central Connecticut. Be-
tween thirty-five and forty carloads of milk arrive at Boston daily,
almost all being of Xew England origin. The supply of milk for the
smaller cities is also a business of large dimensions. The increasing
use of cream makes that product of second importance. Maine
sends a carload of cream to Boston daily, while large quantities are
received from other sections along with the regular milk sir.
Much of this market cream is separated by the farmers either by
Cooley process or the centrifugal separator, gathered by
where it is run through a separator for standardizing, and then shipped
to the city in bulk.
In northern Xew England much butter is made. All the butter pro-
duced in Xew England is consumed while it is comparatively fresh —
in many instances while it is only a week or two old. Cheese pro
tinn is no longer prominent in Xew England, although many fact
still exist in Maine and Vermont, and many private dairies still manu-
facture cheese.
Among methods characteristic of the section perhaps the use of the
Cooley creaming system is the chief. The Cooley system of c:
gathering was of Xew England origin, and the apparatus has always
been of Xew England manufacture, so that this particular method
gained such a strong foothold there that the separator has not yet
supplanted it. although many separators are now in use and the
number is yearly increasing.
NEEDS OF NEW ENGLAND DAIRYMEN.
The needs of Xew England dairymen are chiefly those common to
dairymen generally: (1) Improvement of methods: (2) elimination
of cows that do not pay their board; (3) more attention to the little
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 411
details of cleanliness; and (-i) more of a spirit of cooperation and less
cutthroat competition, particularly in the selling of milk.
The needs of dairying which seem to be peculiar to New England are
four. The first is an appreciation of the good markets in this section.
People generally see at close range the hard work and perplexities of
their own business, and have a vivid realization of them; hence it
often happens that one is a poor judge of the relative advantages of
his occupation. New England dairymen are no exception to this rule,
and they lose sight of the broader and relative side of their business.
More appreciation of the advantages of the situation would lead to
better utilization of it.
A second need of New England dairying is more attention to the
pastures. Here can be obtained, at a merely nominal expense, large
amounts of the very best cow feed. Yet it is the common testimony
that on the whole the pastures of New England are retrograding; the
coarse weeds, bushes, and encroachment of the forest are driving out
the native nutritive grasses.
The third need is more attention to growing legumes. The New
England dairyman is to-day dependent upon the West for most of the
nitrogenous element in his cow rations, this being bought in the by-
products of the factories which handle grain either for grinding or the
manufacture of "breakfast foods," glucose, and other articles. If the
New England milk producer raised more clover, peas, and other
legumes, he would be more independent ; his farm would be more nearly
self-sustaining; it would increase in fertility, and his dairy products
would cost less. Several dairymen have experimented with alfalfa,
which in some cases has promised well for a few years, but no permanent
successes are as yet reported. The experiment stations are doing good
work in introducing vetches, rape, and soy beans; but in the common
old-fashioned red clover farmers have a convenient and valuable
legume.
The fourth need is the doing of business, in most cases, on a larger
scale, making it possible to practice some of the economies which come
from wholesale methods of production and selling. Too many go to
market with such small amounts of butter as to be compelled to
accept whatever the village trader may offer.
THE OUTLOOK.
As long as business s prosperous and population continues to con-
centrate in the cities and towns, requiring them to reach out farther
and farther for supplies of fresh milk, the market-milk business will
crowd back the making of butter and cheese, especially of the ordi-
nary grades; and factories for their manufacture will be abandoned
in order to sell milk or cream to the city. The outlook, therefore, for
the market-milk business, as far as demand is concerned, is good. The
412 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
question is that of price. The farm-labor situation is acute, the
cost of grain feeds is high and increasing, and the awakening of health
authorities to the importance of clean, sanitary milk is adding to the
s of production. There seems to be no danger of the overproduc-
tion of milk, cream, or fancy fresh butter.
We may conclude with the statement of Prof. W. A. Henry: "The
rn farms, for inherent beauty, for all that goes for home-making,
for possibilities in the range of crops, and for good markets, are with-
out a rival anvwhere in the world."
III. THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES.
By B. D. White.
,ng and Management Investigai
RECENT PROGRI
Wonderful progress has been made in the dairy industry during
the past decade, and many changes have taken place, especially in
the North Central States. Among the States which have become
prominent in dairying recently are Michigan, Indiana, North Dakota,
th Dakota. Oklahoma, and Missouri. Northern Oklahoma and
souri are especially adapted to dairyi:
In the last fifteen years the States of Illinois, Iowa. Wisconsin, and
Minnesota have made great progress in dairying. In the last two
[sands of farms have been taken up and put under culti-
vation, and hundreds of creameries and cheese factories have been
built and put in operation, manufacturing the milk or cream from
hundreds of thousands of cows into prime butter or cheese. There
is yet much untilled land not only in those States but in many others
in the Middle West waiting to be converted into fine farms.
FAVORABLE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
There seems to be a belt particularly favorable to the dairy industry
in the North Central States. This belt extends from Ohio west to the
Missouri River slope and to the arid region east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. Some profitable dairying, however, is carried on in all the
and Southern States, but thus far it has not been made a
common adjunct to general farming as it has in the North and E
The northern climate seems to be conducive to dairying. The
farther north we go the more dairying we find, until the pine-timbered
region is reached. Even this is being converted very rapidly into
dairy farms. Silage has come to be recognized throughout this sec-
tion as the cheape-' le kind of roughage in a succulent and
palatable form. Another northern condition favorable to dairying
is the abundance of fine natural grasses and the adaptability of the
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 413
soil to clover, especially in the timbered sections of Wisconsin and
Minnesota. The coolness of the nights in summer also makes it pos-
sible to keep milk and cream easily, and this makes the work of dairy-
ing more agreeable. Even the necessity of giving stock proper
protection during the winter months tends indirectly to increase
dairying, and especially winter dairying, which the northern farmers
have found to be the most profitable.
The reasons for the greater profit in winter dairying are not hard
to find. Higher prices are paid during the winter months for milk
and cream. Cows freshening in the fall will, if properly fed, give milk
all winter, and when turned out to grass in the spring will give prac-
tically as much milk as when fresh. Farmers have more time in
winter to do the work required for dairying. Calves may be fed on
skim milk during the winter months, and when turned out to grass
in the spring need very little more care, and the skim milk may then
be fed to the spring pigs. Under the system of winter dairying, cows
go dry in July and August, at a season of the year when the farmers
have the most work to do and the least time to give to the care of
cows and calves.
SOIL CONDITIONS.
The soil throughout the dairy districts of the Xorth Central States
is generally good, except in a few localities which are sandy: but on
account of the large number of cows and other animals kept, the fer-
tility even of the poorer soils is kept up, and such crops as are neces-
sary for the maintenance of a dairy herd are raised. In sections
where a portion of the land is too rolling or hilly to be fit for the
growing of crops it is used for pasture, and only the lower land is
used for tillage. In other localities, where lakes abound, the land
near the shores for a certain distance is too wet for cultivation, but
makes good pasture and is used for that purpose. In such localities
also the stock is well supplied with water; hence both the high land
and the low is used to good advantage for stock raisins; and dairying.
Throughout the localities where dairying and stock raising are exten-
sively carried on the fertility of the soil has not only been kept up,
but in many sections it has been largely increased.
' dairy cows.
It is with regret that one must say that a large percentage of cows
throughout the Xorth Central States are yielding only a trifle more
than 100 pounds of butter each per year. In some dairy States the
average yield is less than 150 pounds per cow per year, when it is
possible, under quite ordinary conditions and with grade cows of dairy
breeds, to produce twice that amount. Evidently there is plenty of
room for improvement. By proper selection, care, feeding, and
breeding of dairy cows the output of dairy products can be doubled
414 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.
without increasing the number of cows now in the country. On
many farms the dairy herd could be made to produce an increased
profit simply by testing all the cows and disposing of those which are
proved to be unprofitable.
The increase in the number of cows is noteworthy. Take Minne-
sota as an example. The number of cows supplying creameries
increased from 382,356 in 1901 to 458,466 in 1904. Considering the
average cow worth $30, the assets of Minnesota dairymen were thus
increased 2\ million dollars in these three years, besides the amount
obtained from the sale of young stock.
In Iowa the number of cows su]>plying creameries increased from
600,000 in 1905 to 650,000 in 1906.
MILK.
The center of butter production has been gradually moving west-
ward, while market milk is relatively of less importance westward
than in the East. Eastern cities are learning the value of milk and
milk products for food. The agitation by boards of health for cleaner
and purer milk seems to have stimulated the demand, and difficulty
is experienced in most of the large cities in obtaining an adequate
supply of milk and cream during the winter season, though prices are
higher to the consumer than in former years. Condensing factories
are using large quantities of milk, which in its condensed form is
shipped to nearly every country on the globe. A considerable quan-
tity of milk is being used in the manufacture of fancy brands of cheese.
It has been estimated that skim milk is worth from 15 to 25 cents
per hundred pounds for feeding purposes on the farm. It is difficult
to estimate the total feeding and fertilizing value of skim milk to the
farmer. Without it less stock will be raised on the average farm.
With less stock there will be less manure, and the fertility of the soil
will decrease year by year until the land has reached such a stage of
poverty that it will no longer produce profitable crops. Farmers
should receive at least 25 cents per hundred pounds for skim milk
sold from the farm. Even where that price is received, the average
farmer does not invest an equal amount, as he should, in commercial
fertilizers. When more stock is kept and the skim milk fed to it, the
fertility taken by the crops is replaced and the land kept in proper
condition. The farmer of the North Central States is learning this
lesson. The price obtained for milk in these States is not as high as
in the East, but the net profit seems to favor the western farmer, as
he is able to produce milk more cheaply on account of the abundance
of feed which can be raised on his fertile soil.
BUTTER.
Western methods followed in the manufacture of butter are worthy
of note. The system of delivering fresh sweet milk daily to the butter
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 415
factory, which was the common practice after the discontinuance of
the gathered-cream system, has been largely changed. The farmers
have bought separators, and they now skim the milk at home, feed
the fresh warm skim milk to the stock, and deliver only the cream to
the factory. This is the ideal system from the farmer's standpoint,
but new obstacles have appeared which tend to lower the quality of
the butter made. The farmers do not deliver the cream as often as
they should, because many butter factories will accept cream which
is no longer sweet.
Many factories also solicit cream shipments from farmers, either
direct to central plants or to receiving stations at points on railroads,
from which it is forwarded to the central or churning plants, in some
cases hundreds of miles from the source of supply. At these stations
or central plants cream is received in any condition, without regard
to age or quality. On account of the poor quality of butter made
from such cream and the cost of transportation, the price to the
farmer has been during the past season about 4 cents per pound
less for butter fat than is paid at the creameries where the cream or
milk is delivered sweet, so that it can be made into a first-class article
of butter. A loss of 4 cents per pound for all the butter fat delivered
to creameries for butter-making purposes in six of the largest dairy
States would mean a loss of about 13 million dollars per year, or a loss
of about 3} million dollars in such a State as Iowa, Minnesota, or
Wisconsin.
The manufacture of butter seems to be increasing rapidly, especially
in the sections where the cooperative system prevails — in Wisconsin,
northern Iowa, and Minnesota. The creameries in Wisconsin, as
reported by the State authorities in 1900, made 60,000,000 pounds of
butter, and in 1905, $8,500,000 pounds. The increased creamery
production has not decreased the amount of butter made upon the
farms, which, according to reports, in 1900 was 25,000,000 pounds,
and in 1905. 34.500,000 pounds.
In Iowa the product of butter has increased from 77.000,000 pounds
in 1900 to 91,000,000 pounds, which sold for more than 820,000,000,
in 1905.
Minnesota shows an increase from 44,000,000 pounds in 1900 to
77.000,000 pounds in 1905. In other States proportional increases
have probably been made.
There has been increase during the last year in nearly every particu-
lar. The number of smaller centralizing plants has increased, as have
the number of the dairy farmers and the size of their herds. The per
capita product of the cows has increased and with it the demand for
cattle of the dairy breeds.
From the increased production we are led to ask the question:
What effect does the increased production have upon the price ? The
416 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
census reports give the total number of pounds of creamery butter
made in the United States in 1899 as 420,126,546. The amount of
butter of all grades exported for five fiscal years ending with 1900 was
114,923,530 pounds, at an average price of 15| cents per pound. The
amount of creamery butter made in 1904 was 531,478,141 pounds, and
the amount exported for the five years ending with 1905 was only
68,931,172 pounds, at an average price of 17^ cents per pound. The
average price of extra creamery butter as quoted in New York for
the five years ending with 1900 was 20.3 cents per pound, and for the
next five A^ears 22.24 cents per pound, which indicates that the de-
mand for butter at home has increased at a greater rate than the
production, causing an advance in the price. At the present time
a large proportion of the extra creamery butter sells at a premium of
1J to 2 cents per pound above the quoted prices.
From present indications it would appear that the outlook for the
dairy industry, especially the production of butter, in the North
Central States is bright. The increased demand for milk and cream
for direct consumption, with the increase in population, will have a
great influence on the consumption of butter at home. Another
hopeful sign is the probability of increasing exports to Cuba, which
has been largely supplied by Denmark, and to European countries
which have been largely depending upon other nations for their supply
of butter.
The butter exported from the United States has heretofore been
principally of an inferior quality. The demand at home has taken all
of the better grades at good prices. It is only natural to expect that
a large percentage of the butter made in this country will hereafter
come from the North Central and Southern States and that there will
be an increasing demand for the best grades.
CHEESE.
Throughout the Xorth Central States there has been a steady
increase during the last five years in the production of cheese, as well
as butter, but the amount of cheese made is less than the amount of
butter, except in Wisconsin, where more cheese is made. In 1900,
78,000,000 pounds, and in 1904, 109,000,000 pounds were made in fac-
tories in that State. The percentage of increase in other States has
in some cases been as large as that of Wisconsin, which is the largest
cheese-making State among the North Central States.
Recent investigations have led to the use of improved methods in
the manufacture of cheese. Many of the causes for the poor quality
of the cheese previously manufactured have been learned and cor-
rected. By the cold curing and ripening of cheese a more uniform
article is produced, and it is commanding an increased price as con-
sumption and demand increase.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 417
In some of the North Central States which have not yet undertaken
the manufacture of cheese there are excellent opportunities for profit-
able production to supply the increasing local demand. In localities
where there is not enough milk for the profitable supply of a butter
factory a cheese factory could be operated with success. It appears
to require about 400 cows to produce the milk for a successful butter
factory, whereas cheese can be made with profit from the milk of 200
cows.
The cheese factory can usually afford to pay more for the milk than
can the butter factory ; and for the last year cheese making has been
more profitable for the dairy farmer in the North Central States than
has the manufacture of butter.
The success of the Wisconsin cheese factories has been largely due
to the fine quality of cheese made, which finds a ready market in the
West and South. The demand for cheese, as for butter, depends
chiefly upon the quality. Quality should be the watchword of every
farmer who produces the milk, as well as of the manufacturer of the
cheese.
Another important element in the outlook for the cheese industry is
the evidently increasing appreciation of the food value of cheese.
Americans have been slow to learn that cheese is one of the most
economical, wholesome, and digestible of our concentrated foodstuffs.
IV. THE SOUTH.
By B. H. Raml.
Expert in Dairying, in Charge of Southern Dairy Investigations.
REVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY, BY STATES.
A survey of dairy conditions in the South, extending during the
last year to 103 towns in 10 States, affords the material for this
sketch.
South Carolina. — In South Carolina the dairy industry is, on the
whole, developed to a very limited extent, although the northern sec-
tion of the State is especially suited to this industry. The dairies
of this section are, in the main, using very inferior stock, their build-
ings and equipment are frequently very inadequate, and they have
no system of marketing their product. In several places, however,
the dairies were found to be profitable, the animals in good health,
and such dairy farms are distinguished from others of the commu-
nity by their generally improved condition. With but two excep-
tions, none of the dairy farmers were using silage, and only a few of
them are feeding liberally enough on green feed. That part of the
State, with its especially fine climate, good lands, and abundance of
3 a1906- — -27
418 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGRICULTURE.
cool water, will, with a proper development, eventually become a
dairy section. The southern portion of South Carolina is usually low
and in many parts very productive. Forage crops can be grown in
great variety and cheaply, but the dairymen are for the most part
confined to the towns and cilies and rely principally upon commercial
foodstuffs. The re, as a rule, inferior to those in the northern
part of the State and. while there is an abundant water supply, fre-
quently artesian, the temperature is on an average much higher than
in the northern portion of the St The principal menace to the
industry in the southern part of this State may be said to be the
existence of the cattle tick.
Georgia. — In Georgia the conditions vary from the mountainous
counties of the northern part of the State to the flat, level counties
of the coast. In the northern counties there is an abundance of
land that is not utilized, with natural pastures, an abundance of cool
r, having in many cases a temperature of 54c or 55~ F.
>n is above the Texas fever quarantine line, the cKm
and it is well suited to the production of butter and cheese. In the
.^ern part of the State there is vers* little dairying, except for the
purpose of supplying milk to the cities. Silag g -rally in
use. and the city dairymen as a rule rely largely on i Bed meal
and hulls fur feeding: yet they are often prosper s.
Florida. — In Florida little attention is given to dairying, and the
dairies in the vicinity of the places visited — Lake City and Jackson-
ville— are engaged in supplying to the towns milk at a high price
and of a rather inferior quality. Inferior scrub cattle are generally
in use, and no special provision is made for economical production of
I i _e crops for feeding. Owing to the attention which is usually
given to the production of fruit and vegetables, and to the large
amount of swamp lands, the outlook for dairying is limited, t<
the 1
Alabama. — The northern portion of Alabama is very similar to
the northern portion of . being mountainous, well supplied
with an abundance of cool water, thickly populated, and having
numerous towns and a great variety of industries. Dairy products
command a very high price and the conditions are excellent for
dairying. In the vicinity of Birmingham one dairyman visited by
the writer found his dairy very profitable: in the same vicinity, how-
ever, under exactly the same conditions, others were found to be very
one exception, no silos were found in use in
that section of the State, and the buildings and stock were inferior.
puthern portion of ti Stal - is the case in the southern
portion of Georgia, the milk production is confined principally to
supplying tl. There are a few dairymen in middle Alabama
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 419
that are making good profits, and have been in the business for a
number of years, but, on the whole, the dairy industry of this section
is uncertain. Feed can be raised very cheaply, however, and dairy-
ing should be made profitable.
Louisiana. — In Louisiana the principal interest in dairying is foimd
in the vicinity of New Orleans, the greater portion of the State being
devoted largely to the production of cotton, com, sugar cane, and
rice. In the small towns near New Orleans, however, a considerable
dairy industry is found. The cattle in that section usually run on
the coast, where a variety of grazing is found almost the entire year.
New Orleans offers a practically unlimited demand for dairy products.
The cattle used are frequently very inferior, and while, especially
at Hammond, the dairy industry is much more advanced than it is
in any other place in the coast section, many improvements are
needed. The dairymen need silos, they need to improve their herds,
they need to produce more feed on their farms, and to abandon the
excessive use of cotton-seed hulls. Several successful dairies in this
vicinity indicate that, in spite of the disadvantages, the possibilities
for the skillful dairyman in this section are eneourasrino;.
Mississippi. — In Mississippi the pine "lands of the southern part
show little agricultural development. In recent years the removal of
the timber from the lands has left what are known as the stump lands,
which are very cheap. The soil is light and rather sand}-, but pro-
ductive when improved; and the development of a dainr industry
in that section which is near Xew Orleans would be profitable. Fertil-
izers are needed, which dairying would supply. In the central part
of the State there are few dairymen of the better class, although
there is a large production of hay, this section being favorable to the
production of all kinds of forage crops. In the northern part of the
State, in the vicinity of Memphis, Tenn., there are a number of dairies
shipping milk to that city. The conditions there are somewhat
similar to the conditions in the vicinity of Xew Orleans, except that
the country is probably not quite so low. Some dairymen are mak-
ing money, but many of them are not. There are very few silos in
use, and the dairy buildings are usually inferior. The conditions in
the State of Mississippi warrant the development of a good dairy
industry.
Texas. — In Texas there is a small creamery industry in some sec-
tions. In many cases, however, the promoters of the creameries
seem to have misled the farmers, who, having been disappointed in
their venture, are not now very optimistic about the dairy industry.
The conditions that exist in Texas are very similar to those of Mis-
sissippi, and the dairy industry at present is in its infancy. There
are some excellent herds of pure-bred dairy cattle near Marshall, San
Antonio, Dallas, Fort Worth, El Paso, Houston, and other towns,
420 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
from which the equipment and practice of the dairy farms in these
localities are gradually being improved. The opportunities for dairy-
ing in Texas are almost unlimited.
Arkansas. — In Arkansas many different conditions exist. In the
northern part of the State magnificent pastures are seen and an
abundance of cool water, with an excellent climate for all seasons;
but there is very little dairying there, notwithstanding these favor-
able conditions. In the southern part of the State we find level
lands but a more limited supply of water, and much attention is
given to the production of sugar cane. Between Little Rock and
Memphis, however, there are a number of small towns that produce
a considerable amount of milk and cream. The section of Arkansas,
however, that offers the best opportunities for the dairy industry is
the northern portion of the State, and there are few sections where
better natural advantages may be had.
Tennessee. — Tennessee may probably be called the dairy State
of the South. It is above the cotton belt, and also above the Texas
fever quarantine line. Mountainous conditions prevail in the eastern
part of the State, and here the dairy industry is well developed in
the valleys. In the Sweetwater Valley are found in use many silos,
and many good herds, including some pure-bred stock of a high class.
The central part of the State, with its natural bluegrass pastures and
supply of pure water, is already the home of many herds of pure-bred
dairy cattle, and produces market milk and butter of the highest
grades. There is no State in the South in which the dairy industry
is as highly developed as in Tennessee, and the outlook here is very
favorable.
North Carolina. — In the western portion of North Carolina the
conditions are very similar to those of eastern Tennessee, although
on the whole the dairy industry is not as well developed as in Tennes-
see, and in many cases very inferior dairies are found, both in equip-
ment and methods and in the kind of stock kept. In the eastern
section of North Carolina the conditions are more like those in the
coast sections of South Carolina and Georgia.
THE SOUTH AS A WHOLE.
In reference to the conditions that exist in the South as a whole,
attention should be called to the following facts: In some cases
herds are found producing as good results as are ordinarily made in
any section of America. At other places dairy products are made
as cheaply as in any of the dairy sections. Altogether there is an
enormous demand in the South for dairy products; almost all of
the butter and cheese is imported, some cream is shipped in from
States a great distance away, and a great deal of condensed milk is
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 421
used as a substitute for milk because of the scarcity and the poor
quality of the fresh milk put on the market. Silage is used to a very
limited extent, but in a number of the different sections, on the coast
of Florida especially, the silage is of good quality. Probably the
greatest reduction in profits is usually caused by the use of inferior
cattle, which are found in a large majority of the dairies throughout
the entire South.
On the cotton farm cotton is usually the all-absorbing crop, and
little attention is given to feed crops. In many cases no more animals
are kept upon the farm than are actually necessary to cultivate the
cotton crop, and often there is not enough feed raised to supply even
these. This system is of course exactly the reverse of dairy farming,
in which the feed crops are converted into more easily marketable and
more profitable products, and practically all the fertilizing ingredients
of the feed (the manure) are returned to the soil, which continues to
increase in productiveness.
The labor is often irresponsible and this discourages many from
going into dairying, even though the}* appreciate its advantages.
The warm summers and the disorganized condition of the dairy mar-
kets have also been discouraging. However, with the use of artificial
ice, which is cheap, improved transportation facilities, and the mild
winters, the thinking man is about convinced that the seasons are not
unfavorable to the dairy industry.
The demand for dairy products in the South has become enormous,
and inasmuch as the markets have not usually been supplied with
fresh products, the trade does not demand absolutely first-class arti-
cles, although the prices are comparatively very high.
"With the highly improved southern farms, the question of cheap
feed is settled, for there is probably no section of America that can pro-
duce cheaper feed. Especially is the great variety of legumes that
thrive in the South worthy of notice, and these crops, with cotton-
seed meal, settle the question of protein.
While very little attention has been given to the development of the
southern pastures, it is demonstrated on farms throughout the South
that an unexcelled pasture can be maintained for at least eight months
in the year.
The old southern plantation with its haphazard system is being
gradually transformed into a well-organized and diversified farm, and
in the transformation dairying promises to be one of the most potent
factors. It will occupy a portion of the cotton farms, and even if it is
conducted in such a way that the dairy itself is not profitable, it will
make the farm fertile and therefore profitable in other lines.
While the southern dairyman therefore will have some difficulties
• that are not found in the northern sections of the country, he also has
many advantages over the northern dairyman in the milder climate,
YEARBOOK OF THE DBPABTMSHT OF AGKICUIjTUKB.
cheaper cost of buildings, the greater variety of forage crops, and good
markets. The South will always he a great cotton country, but it will
some day be also a great dairy country.
T. THE PACIFIC COAST.
By E. A. McDoxald.
Dairy Inspector. Bureau of Animal Industry.
TUBAL ADV.. DAEBYi:
section of the United States offers greater returns to the intelli-
dairyman than the Si - on the Pacific coast. Owing to the
numerous streams which have their origin in the snow-clad peak
the I ^nge, the Cascade Range, and the Sierra Nevada Range,
there is a never-failing supply of fresh, pure water. In this equable
climate young stock and beef cattle can run out the year round, while
dairy cows require to be stabled only from two to four months, accord-
ing to the locality. The soil on the western slope of the I ^nge
incl nsive alluvial deposits, and that on the east side is com-
posed largely of volcanic ash. Owing to the productiveness of these
:ed that twice as many cows can be fed on these lands as
can be fed on the same amount of land in the East . These advan*
have not been fully appreciated. The early pioneers made their
money so easily, growing from 40 to 50 bushels of wheat to the acre
and from 80 to 120 bushels of oats, that they did not give thought to
the fact that their land would some day become impoverished. The
time has come when these farmers must recognize the value of diver-
sified farming. During the last five years there has been a strong
movement toward more intensive farming and a system of crop rota-
tion which will restore and preserve the fertility of the sofl. The dairy
cow has been called upon to perform a leading part in this wor
has in other parts of the country.
TRY LXI
The following table shows the manufacture of creamery butter and
factory cheese in the years 1897 and 1904 on the Pacific coast. Re-
turns of farm-made products are not complete.
Manufacture of crtemery butter and factory cheese on the Pacific coast, 1897 and 1904.
l;-:r. Cfceeae.
: * -.
■ "
; -i ■-
7 : . " . ;' .
7 :-- ■- :
7 '.-•* ..'
7 tmmdt
-
" 722
":>:- :-• 4
"-'.. •;.
2,565.000 !
5,080,599 I
2,235,592
::.-.. ■.-.-.
■ '
.'
:.•:.:: r:
*,r "3;; ." j- -
Oregon .
CafifonB*
Total 15,536,108^ 3&,6*>,«6 - 7,608,989 j
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 493
The grade of cows on the coast lias been verv greatly improved
during the last ten years. Many of the prominent dairymen have
been securing pedigreed pure-bred stock: others are simpl.v using
pure-bred bulls to head their herds and breeding up from their best
grade cows, so that the average herd shows good dairy characteristics.
Here and there are found pure-bred herds of Jerseys, Holsteins, and
Guernseys, and there are a few Ayrshires. The yield per cow has
been gradually increasing. Many farmers weigh and test the milk
of each cow, and in this way discover the profitable cows, bo that
there is a general weeding out of the poorest cows of the herd. In
every valley on the coast maybe found mixed herds, which have been
bred up in this manner, and which are now lar^e producers.
MOVEMENTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.
Butter and cheese manufactured in Washington is mostly consumed
m the home markets, a small amount being shipped to Alaska. But-
ter and cheese manufactured in Oregon is only partly consumed in
the home markets, the surplus dairy products being shipped to San
Francisco and to the cities on Puget Sound. California, after supply-
ing her own markets, ships her surplus to Alaska and foreign ports
and, during the first three months of the year, California is'shipping
more and more each year to the Eastern States. Washington is the
only State on the coast which still handles a large amount of eastern
butter. One reason for the demand for eastern products in Wash-
ington is her trade with Alaska. Being nearest to Alaska and having
more regular means of transportation, she naturally secures a laro-e
percentage of that trade.
The possibility of increasing our trade with foreign countries
depends on our ability to produce as cheaply and to'" deliver the
product in as good condition as do other countries. When the coast
States have a surplus, South American countries and the Orient seem
to be the natural outlet. There is a large demand throughout the
Orient for tinned butter and condensed milk and cream and for
cheese. The markets at present are largely supplied by Australia.
Holland, Germany, and France, with a few shipments from Sweden.
Price does not seem to be so important a factor as quality, and espe-
cially uniformity. San Francisco has been making an effort to secure
this trade with fair success, using a vacuum 1-pound tin. A Port-
land firm has also shipped some tinned butter to the Orient with
varying success.
DAIRYING IX WASHIXGTOX.
The State of Washington may be divided into four sections, differing
from each other in rainfall, temperature, and agricultural products!
The first division is the west side, or the section west of the Cascade
424 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGBICr/LTVRE.
Mountains, for the most part heavily timbered and characterized by
a rainfall varying in different parts from 30 to over 100 inches,
according to direction and distance from the mountain ranges. As
in all other parts of the Pacific slope, by far the largest part of the
rainfall is confined to the winter months, the summer months being
comparatively free from rain. This section includes the fertile valleys
along the numerous rivers and creeks, the tide lands, and the fresh
and salt water deltas. The soil is rich in alluvial deposits. The
climate is ideal for the dairy industry. The water supply consists
of beautiful streams from the mountain sides which flow through
these valleys. On account of the mild winters and proximity to the
market centers, the west side is eminently adapted to dairying.
The upland prairies of eastern Washington constitute the second
section of the State. These prairies lie east of the Columbia River,
extending to the mountains of Idaho and from the Blue Mountains
on the south to the mountains of Stevens and Okanogan counties on
the north. The Palouse and Big Bend prairies, which have a world-
wide reputation for their immense yields of wheat, are included in
this section. Except where land is far removed from the mountains
dairying is profitable. The rainfall is sufficient, as the soil is a
retentive clay loam. Since the coming of the hand separator there
has been a gradual increase in dairy products. There is a tendency
to diversified farming, making dairying an adjunct to the growing of
whe
The third section includes the Walla Walla. Yakima, and Wenat-
chee valleys of central and southern Washington. These lands are
all in the drier parts of the State, and their low altitude gives them
warmer summers than are found elsewhere in the State. These are
_ brush lands, and when irrigated are very productive.
This is a great fruit and dairy section. Alfalfa is the principal
forage crop, and yields under proper cultivation from 5 to 7 tons
to the acre, making this section particularly adapted to the dairy
industry.
The farming areas of the fourth section are scattered widely. They
are situated east of the Cascade Range, and are at a higher altitude
than the land in the third section. The Kittitas. Colville. and
Kalispel valleys are included in this section. Timothy, clover, root
crops, and all the cereals are grown. The tendency of the farmers in
this section is to diversified farming, with dairying as the leading
branch. The Kittitas Valley will lead all the others in the amount
of butter produced.
The valleys of the State are so productive that, everything else
being equal, butter and cheese can be produced at a less cost here
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 425
than in the Middle West or the Eastern States. Rich, succulent food,
pure water, and a temperate climate are the essentials in the manu-
facture of a "nutty," high-flavored, sweet butter. Nature has been
lavish in her gifts to the State of Washington in this respect, and we
may look forward to this State becoming a large producer of butter.
There is also every reason to believe that the State will become noted
for a high grade of butter which will command the highest price.
Owing to the diversified industries of the State — consisting of fish,
lumber, coal, and other minerals, the development of which will
employ a large number of men — the rapid growth of her cities, the
development of Alaska, and the growth of trade with the Orient,
South America, and the islands of the Pacific, the State can always
count on the demand for dairy products being greater than the supply.
DAIRYING IN OREGON.
The State of Oregon is in the same latitude as South Dakota and
the New England States, but the Japan Current equalizes the tem-
perature and gives Oregon an ideal climate. All kinds of forage
crops are grown without irrigation, except in a very small area in
southeastern Oregon. The State has five natural dairy divisions.
The coast section lies between the Coast Range and the Pacific
Ocean. The northern part of this section has become famous for
its salmon. The annual value of the salmon industry is approximately
$3,000,000. The profits in this industry have been so large that very
little attention has been given to dairying, which is still in its infancy.
Tillamook County is the great cheese section of the Pacific coast.
It is an ideal dairy section. Six different streams traverse this county,
taking their rise in the Coast Range and emptying into the Pacific
Ocean, so that this valley has an abundance of pure fresh water.
'fhe Willamette Valley includes the counties on either side of the
Willamette River, lying between the Cascade and Coast Range of
mountains, a distance of about 100 miles. If the natural resources
of this valley had been properly utilized they would have made it
a greater butter producer than any other section on the Pacific
coast; but the soil became so impoverished by continuous crop-
ping with wheat that where 40 bushels were once produced 13
bushels per acre is now an average crop. How shall we redeem the
land? There is but one reply: By the use of the dairy cow. This
valley can be made to produce butter to supply ten times the popu-
lation of the State. New blood, dairy literature, and farmers'
institutes are the leaven which is changing the "mossback" into an
intelligent dahwman. Here and there may be seen pure-bred herds
of Jerseys, Holstein-Friesians, and Ayrshires.
426 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Southwestern Oregon has the most desirable climate in the State,
having neither excessive rainfall nor excessive heat. Two beautiful
rivers — the Umpqua and Rogue— and their tributaries traverse
this section, which has already become famous for its apples. On
the higher lands the dairy industry will flourish, and alfalfa will
be the principal forage crop. The manufacture of butter has been
increasing very rapidly. Almost every farmer has the foundation
for a daiiy herd. Creameries with modern equipments are in opera-
tion in several places.
Northeastern Oregon constitutes the fourth section. Wheat and
beef cattle are the principal agricultural products, and dairying is
still to be introduced.
The fifth section is the undeveloped part of Oregon. It lies to the
southeast. One can travel through this section only by stage or
private conveyance. Here are thousands of acres of rich, alluvial
loam and volcanic ash, capable of being irrigated. It is certain that
this section, which a few years ago grew only sagebrush and whose
principal inhabitants were the jack rabbit and the coyote, is des-
tined to become the home of thousands of prosperous dairymen.
Portland, the metropolis of Oregon, located near the confluence of
two great rivers— the Columbia and the Willamette — is the only city
of any commercial importance in the State. This city must find
ways and means of disposing of the vast resources of Oregon and of
providing the implements of production for the development of this
great State.
DAIRYING IX CALIFORNIA.
California has a soil and climate so varied that all fruits, both
deciduous and citrus, can be grown to perfection. All kinds of cereals
are grown with success. California has also great possibilities as a
dairy State.
The counties surrounding the bay of San Francisco comprise the
best developed dairy district of California. It is from these counties
that California is receiving one-third of its butter and San Francisco
all of its milk. The production of butter in these counties is already
up to the limit, as the city of San Francisco and the contiguous cities
draw their milk supply from these counties, so that California will
have to look to some other section of the State for her future supply
of butter.
The second section is an ideal section for the production of milk
and for converting it into butter and cheese. This section includes
all the counties north of the bay counties to the Oregon line,
between the Coast Range and the Pacific Ocean. The soil is very
rich and almost all of it is productive. The natural grasses are
OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 427
clover and rye grass. The size of the average herd of dairy cows is
20, and the produce averages about 200 pounds of butter per cow.
This section has been the greatest butter producer in California, but
the production has apparently reached the limit.
In the third section, including the counties south of the bay coun-
ties, extending along the coast to the Mexican line, we find varied
conditions. With irrigation and proper management the section
about San Luis Obispo should become a large butter producer, as
it is better adapted to the dairy industry than to any other branch
of agriculture. The butter from this valley is shipped to Los Ange-
les and San Francisco. Los Angeles County is credited with the
manufacture of over 2,000,000 pounds of butter per year, which
would indicate that this county is especially adapted to the dairy
industry. This, however, is not the case, for, while there are some
good dairy herds in this country, a large proportion of the cream
comes from outside the county. The country along the coast from
Los Angeles to San Diego enjoys an equable climate well suited to
fruit growing with irrigation, but the small rainfall will always hin-
der this section from becoming great in dairying. The hope of
southern California is in what is known as the Imperial Valley. This
valley contains 500,000 acres of very rich land, which is being irri-
gated from the Colorado River. When irrigated, this land will grow
large crops of alfalfa. There are two drawbacks to this section, the
heat and the flies. Dairying will undoubtedly be carried on to a
considerable extent, but the difficulty of securing labor will be a seri-
ous disadvantage. This valley will probably become a great live-
stock section.
The fourth section includes the San Joaquin Valley. To this sec-
tion and the Sacramento Valley. California must look for the great
increase in dairy products. A large portion of the San Joaquin Valley
is irrigated by means of artesian and pumping wells, assisted by irriga-
tion ditches which draw their supply from the rivers near their sources
in the Sierra Range. The conditions of soil and climate are ideal for
the growth of alfalfa. Grass starts with the fust fall of rain and con-
tinues through the winter, so that there is green grass throughout
the year-. Xear Stockton is one of the largest and best of pure-bred
dairy herds. Nature has provided all the conditions for an ideal
home for dairy cattle and the owners are utilizing these conditions in
the most practical manner. The barns are strictly modern, well ven-
tilated, and with every convenience for the comfort of the cows.
We now pass to the fifth section, the Sacramento Valley. This
entire section has been noted for its immense yields of wheat and bar-
ley, but continuous cropping with wheat has impoverished the soil
428 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
so that where 30 bushels were once grown now from 8 to 10 bushels
is all the land will produce. The dairy cow will be called upon to
reclaim these impoverished lands, with the aid of irrigation, and
they will be made to blossom with the alfalfa flower. The surface
of this wonderful valley has only been scratched. One can not esti-
mate the possibilities of the increase in the dairy industry. The
scarcity of labor is a great hindrance to the development of this valley.
If California could secure labor at a reasonable wage, the State could
easily triple its production.
CONCLUSION.
Sufficient data have been given to show that the Pacific coast
States will become large producers of dairy products. Owing to the
unparalleled growth of the cities and the varied industries, it may
be that the supply will not increase more rapidly than the demand,
but a reasonable conclusion to be drawn is that there will be a sur-
plus within a few years. The markets of China and Japan, the coun-
tries of South America, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean are the
natural outlets, and everything should be done to secure these mar-
kets for the dairymen of the Pacific coast.
LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR THE SAN JOSE SCALE.
By A. L. Quaintaxce.
In Charge of Deciduous-fruit Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology.
ORIGIN AXD EARLY USE.
The lime-sulphur-salt or so-called California wash has been for
many years the principal treatment for the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus
perniciosus Comst.) in orchards in California and elsewhere on the
Pacific slope, and within the last five or six years it has become prac-
tically the standard treatment for this insect in the East. Originally
developed as a dip for the control of scab on sheep, it was first used
as an insecticide on fruit trees, according to Quayle,0 in 1886 by a
Mr. F. Dusey, of Fresno, Cal., who experimented with a sheep dip
prepared by Mr. A. T. Covell. The wash proved very efficient, and
with modifications came quickly into favor. Lime-sulphur prepa-
rations, either dry or in the form of washes, have long been more or
less used by orchardists in the control of insects and fungi, but these
preparations are not comparable to the boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash,
and practically the usefulness of the latter as a scalecide was an inde-
pendent discovery. Since first used on fruit trees the wash has been
variously modified in formula, and it has been shown to have a con-
siderable range of usefulness, both as an insecticide and as a fungicide.
HISTORY OF USE IX THE EAST.
Upon the discovery of the San Jose scale in eastern nurseries and
orchards, attention was naturally drawn to the treatments which had
been found so effective on the Pacific coast. In the fall of 1894
Messrs. C. L. Marlatt and D. W. Coquillett,6 of the Bureau of Ento-
mology, carried out an extensive test of washes in a scale-infested
orchard in Maryland, among which were the lime-sulphur-salt wash,
as used in California, and the Oregon wash, both being used at ordinary
strength and at double strength. Examination of the treated trees
about a month after applications had been made indicated that these
washes had been fatal to only a very small percentage of the scales,
and these conditions had not changed by late April of the following
a Bui. 166, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1905).
b Bui. 3, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 56, 71 (1896).
429
430 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
spring, when further observations were prevented by the application
of a soap treatment to ihe orchard under experiment, and there was
thus no opportunity to observe the later action of the wash. The
negative results from these tests, attributed to the heavy rainfall in
the East as compared with the drier climate of California, discouraged
further experiment on the part of entomologists, and no further tests
in the Eas: appear to have been made until the spring of 1900. when
the lime-sulphur-salt wash was again tested by Mr. Maiiatt,a he having
in the meantime assured himself by personal investigation of its
effectiveness in California, a matter which his earlier experiments had
somewhat led him to doubt. These experiments in 1900, by the
Bureau of Entomology, gave excellent results, attributed in part by
Mr. Marian to the favorable weather conditions following applications,
and really marked the beginning of the series of extensive experiments
with this wash by various State and experiment station entoi:
and others in the East.
During the fall of 1901 the wash was adopted by Dr. S. A. Fori -
in his scale control work in Illinois, as a result of an investigation of
its effectiveness in California and Oregon, in which latter State the
rainfall is quite as heavy as in the East. Definite experiments were
planned by Doctor Forbes in the spring of 1902. and carried out by Mr.
E. S. G. Titus, at that time his assistant. Also, in the fall of 1901
experiments with the wash were inaugurated by Prof. F. M. Webster
in Ohio c when entomologist of the Ohio agricultural experiment
station, and carried out by Messrs. A. F. Burgess and Wilmon Newell.
In the spring of 1902 experiments were begun in Connecticut by Dr.
YV. E. Britton/ in Georgia by Mr. W. M. Scott/ by the writer'
in Maryland, and possibly by others. The general results of these
tests, made in widely separated localities and under different climatic
conditions, pointed strongly to the probable effectiveness of this
in destroying the scale even in a climate of heavy rainfall, as in the
East. During the year or so foDowing the entom f many
of the Eastern States, confronted with the scale problem. 1
experiments with the wash under their respective conditions,
the favorable results from these and previous tests led to its speedy
adoption by many orchardists in preference to the mineral oils and
soap washes previously largely used. Its adoption was the more
rapid for the reason that the mineral oils, on the whole, had proved
unsatisfactory on account of frequent injury to the trees.
a Annual Report of the Entomologist, Annual Reports, I". S. Dept. Agr.. p. 31
(1900); Bui. 30. n. a., Div. Ent... I". S. Dept. Agr.. p. 34 .1901 |.
bfiui. 71. 111. Act. Exp. Station (1902).
'Bui. 37. n. b., Div. Em.. U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 33 (19 -
d Bui. 40. n. s., Div. Ent.. V. S. Dept. Agr.. p. -
e Bui. 37. n. a., Div. Ent.. U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 4S I 1902..
/Bui. 37. n. s.. Div. Ent.. U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 37. and Bui. 40, p. 36.
LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 431
It is of interest in this connection to note that, following the recom-
mendations of an agricultural journal, the wash had heen used in the
control of the scale in the spring of 1901 by Mr. X. P. Oreeley/' of Bur-
lington, X. J., who successfully treated a 14-acre peach orchard; by
Mr. C. E. Hathaway.6 of Somerset, Mass.; and by Mr. S. S. Stouffer,
of Sharpshurg. Md., who treated several thousand peach and apple
trees, and had constructed an excellent steam cooking plant. An
examination of this last orchard by the writer during the summer
of 1001 proved to him that most satisfactory results had been obtained.
At the present time the general effectiveness of the wash, when
properly made and applied, in controlling the scale under eastern
conditions may be considered as established. It is especially satis-
factory on the peach, plum, and pear, and mainly so on the apple,
although some orchardists have not secured satisfactory results in
controlling the scale on apple. It is held by some that the dense
pubescence which more or less covers the terminals of apple twigs of
many varieties prevents the thorough treatment of these parts, with
the result that the "lice" from females which have thus escaped treat-
ment are forced to migrate to the young fruit, where they settle and
breed, so that at picking time apples from sprayed trees are often
badly marked with the scale. The unsatisfactory results which
have at times been reported as following the treatment of large trees,
owing especially to infestation of the fruit, are due partly to the condi-
tions above mentioned, but more especially to lack of thorough appli-
cations, as such work offers serious practical difficulties.
INGREDIENTS OF THE WASH.
As the name indicates, the wash is made of lime, sulphur, and salt
with water; the salt, however, is often omitted. These are boiled
together for a sufficient length of time, during which boiling chemical
action between the lime and sulphur takes place, producing in solution
the insecticidal properties of the wash.
As generally understood, the word " lime " refers to burned or quick-
lime, known chemically as calcium oxid (CaO), and it is this form
that is used in the preparation of the wash. The limestone, or car-
bonate of lime, from which lime is obtained varies greatly in purity,
thus affecting the purity of the resulting quicklime, which in addi-
tion may be more or less contaminated with the ashes from the fuel
used in burning it. An important impurity of limestone is magnesia
(MgO), existing as magnesium carbonate, and replacing the lime (CaO)
a Farm Journal, Vol. XXVI. p. 24 (1902).
b Farm Journal, Vol. XXVI. p. 03 (1902).
432
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
up to 21 .7 per cent . when the rock is said to be a dolomite. Magnesian
and dolomitic limestones are those in winch magnesia occurs in smaller
proportions than just indicated. Mechanically mixed with limestone
may be varying amounts of impurities, such as sand, clayey and car-
bonaceous matter, oxids of iron, etc.. giving rise to different kinds of
limestone, depending upon the proportion of the respective substances
present.
In the following table are given analyses of several samples of lime,
all from the State of Maryland, indicating the variations in the compo-
sition of lime to be found in a single State, though it should be remem-
bered that Maryland is unusually rich in limestone:
Analyses of lime CaO from Maryland limestones.0
[Prof. H. J. Patterson and Dr. n. B. McDonelh analysts.]
Mary-
land
labo-
ratory.
Description of sample.
Insolu-
able
matter.
Iron and
alumi-
num
oxids.
Lime
Magnesia
Undeter-
mined.*
Total.
1043
1044
1732
1790
Woodsboro lime
Cavetown lime
Wrigbtsville lime
G roves lime
Howard County lime
Oyster shell lime, fresh burned. .
P(T Cent.
Percent.
Per cent.
1. 85
3.10
91.10
2.75
4.83
73.90
.15
1.50
07.44
25.00
2.40
47.10
6.02
1130
75.40
5.79
2.71
Per cent.
0.92
17.94
30.91
25.16
2.00
Per cent.
3.03
.58
.34
3.28
5.92
Per cent.
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.49
a Bui. 61, Md. Agr. Exp. Sta.
I Mostly water and carbonic acid gas.
According to composition, limes have been classified by Gillmore as:
(1) Good or fat limes, containing as a rule less than 10 per cent
of impurities.
(2) Poor or meager limes, containing from 10 to 2.5 per cent of
sand or other impurities.
(3) Hydraulic limes, with from 30 to 35 per cent of various
impurities.
(4) Hydraulic cements.
The so-called fat limes slake readily with water, forming a creamy
mixture, whereas the poor or meager limes, containing considerable
magnesia, slake more slowly, forming a poor mixture. Hydraulic
limes and cements need not be here considered. In the preparation
of lime-sulphur washes the fat limes containing less than 10 per cent
of impurities should be used, giving a better wash and one more free
from sand and grit, which rapidly wears out the valves of the pump
and the caps on the nozzles. With formulas containing an excess
of lime there is little danger of an insufficient amount, even though
impure lime be used, but in a formula where equal quantities of lime
and sulphur are used, in case of very impure lime the quantity of
this ingredient may be insufficient to unite chemically with the
sulphur.
LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 43$:
Sulphur may be regarded as the important ingredient of the wash,.
as the compounds formed by its union with the lime are the active
agents in destroying insects, and its insecticidal effect will be largely
determined by the proportion of sulphur employed.
Sulphur occurs naturally in large quantities in the form of sul-
phids, as pyrites or sulphates, as gypsum, and native in volcanic,
regions in vast beds, more or less mixed with gypsum and various-
earthy materials. The sulphur is separated from the ore or its.
impurities by a process of fusion, and the melted sulphur thus
secured, which is caught in molds, is the ordinary brimstone of com-
merce. Brimstone is not sufficiently pure for all purposes, and is
refined by sublimation, which consists in heating the brimstone in
suitable retorts until it vaporizes. The sulphur vapor passes into
a condensing chamber, and that which first comes over is condensed
by coming in contact with the cold walls of the chamber and deposited
in a minutely divided condition. This deposit is scraped from the
walls of the chamber before the latter become hot, and constitutes
the so-called flowers of sulphur. After a few days' continuous use
the condensing chamber becomes sufficiently hot to cause sulphur
to fuse or melt and run to the bottom of the condenser, where it
is collected and run into molds, producing stick, or roll, sulphur.
This, when finely ground, is designated flour sulphur, two grades
being commonly found on the, market, light and heavy flour, depend-
ing on the grinding and bolting processes. In the process of sub-
liming, the impurities in the brimstone do not pass over into the
condensing chamber, and the flour and flowers of sulphur are equally
pure, differing practically only in fineness, though the latter may be
somewhat more acid. Either the flour or flowers of sulphur may
be used in the preparation of lime-sulphur washes, and in the writer's
experience they are equally satisfactory. There appears to be no
basis in fact for the preference of some orchardists for flowers of
sulphur as against flour sulphur, and as the latter is somewhat,
cheaper it should be preferred.
Ground brimstone has been utilized to a limited extent in lime-
sulphur washes, but exact data are lacking as to its suitability for
this purpose. When comparatively free from impurities and finely
ground and bolted, as in the preparation of flour sulphur, it would
appear to be quite as suitable as the latter, and by its use the cost
of the wash could be considerably lessened.
The so-called "crystalline" sulphur that has recently come into
limited use in some parts of the South is brimstone obtained directly
from the mines, being melted in the earth by means of superheated
water and then pumped out into bins, where it is allowed to cool..
3 a 1906 28
434 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It is put on the market in lumps just as it breaks under the pick,
and in this condition it is much too coarse for use in making lime-
sulphur washes, since even after prolonged boiling much free sulphur
remains in the residue and is wasted.
Common salt, or sodium chlorid (XaO), has been considered a
necessary ingredient of the wash, its function, however, not being
definitely ascertained. It was a constituent of the wash when used
as a sheep dip, and its usefulness seems not to hare been questioned
for some years. Pierce,0 as a result of careful tests in California,
was not able to detect anv advantage from its use in washes against
peachleaf-curl and recommended its omission. Kecent experiments
in various eastern States, representing a considerable range of lati-
tude, with washes made with and without salt, support the con-
clusion that its use is not at all essential. Numerous entomologists
recommend its omission, while others leave its use optional. Chem-
ical studies of washes made with and without salt show that its
presence does not affect the chemical nature of the wash. It has
been claimed that the use of salt, by raising the specific gravity of
the wash, raises its boiling-point, insuring a better union of the lime
and sulphur; also that it causes the wash to adhere to the trees
better, and that it renders the precipitate more flocculent, so that it
remains in suspension longer. The penetrating power and causticity
of the wash may also be increased by the salt, it being a matter of
common remark among sprayers that a wash in which salt is used
is noticeably more caustic to the face and hands than one from which
it has been omitted. Notwithstanding these supposed advantages
from the use of salt, the actual tests in the majority of cases have
shown that it is not possible to distinguish between the insecticidal
effect of washes made with and those made without salt. Its use is,
therefore, not considered necessary.
VARIATIONS IX FORMULAS.
The original sheep-dip formula, namely, lime SO pounds, sulphur
100 pounds, salt 10 pounds, sugar 20 pounds, and water 160 gallons,
first used on fruit trees, has been variously modified, often on mistaken
conceptions as to the insecticidal properties of the several constituents.
Some believed that lime was the active ingredient, and that the others
were necessary to get the lime into solution. Until recently the
necessity for the salt appears not to have been questioned, and practi-
cally nothing was known of the chemistry of the wash until the studies
"Bui. 20, Div. Veg. Phys, and Pathol., U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 155 (1900;.
LIME- SULPHITE WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 435
of Mr. J. K. Haywood, a of this Department, in 1900 and subsequently,
and of Prof. R. W. Thatcher,'' begun in 1903. Definite field experi-
ments to determine the necessary quantity and proportions of ingre-
dients were first reported by Pierce in 1900, c in connection with his
studies of peachleaf-curl in California, and similar tests in the control
of the San Jose scale under eastern conditions were begun but four or
five years ago. Recently, however, a large amount of experimental
work has been done and there is at present a considerable literature on
the subject. Experiments have been made with washes containing
the usual ingredients in varying proportions ; with various methods of
preparation; with self-boiled washes, etc. In general it has been
shown that all of the stronger well-boiled washes are about equall}T
effective in killing the scale, and it has been difficult to decide upon
one as against another. Numerous formulas have thus come to be
recommended, which, while undoubtedly effective in killing the scale,
differ more or less in the proportion of ingredients and mode of prepa-
ration, and this has had a tendency to confuse prospective users and
has not alwa}^s been conducive to economy. With an insecticide and
fungicide coming so generally into use, it would appear highly desir-
able, if practicable, that a standard formula and method of prepara-
tion be adopted, based on greatest economy consistent with effective-
ness. Present recommendations of a number of State and station
entomologists and of the Bureau of Entomology are given in the table
on page 437, calculated on a uniform basis of 100 gallons of wash.
The quantity of lime per 100 gallons of wash is seen to vary from
25 to 80 pounds, ranging, in the majority of formulas, however, from
30 to 50 pounds. The variation in sulphur (the more expensive
ingredient) per 100 gallons is considerably less, namely, from 25 to
40 pounds, ranging mostly between 30 and 35 pounds, which quantity
is sufficient to insure a satisfactory wash. In numerous formulas
salt has been omitted entirely or its use left optional. When rec-
ommended, the amount varies from 10 to 33J pounds. The period of
cooking varies from thirty minutes to two hours. There is also much
diversity in details of preparation (not shown in the table) as to the
treatment of ingredients, the order of placing them in the cooking
vessel, and the use of hot or cold water in the final dilution.
During the last two years the Bureau of Entomology has devoted
some attention to field experiments with lime-sulphur washes in
order to determine an efficient and economical formula and to secure
information on other questions pertaining to its practical use. As
a part of this investigation an extended chemical study of lime-
oBul. 30, n. b., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 35 (1901); Jour. Am. Chem. Soc,
Vol. XXVII, p. 247 (1905).
6 Bui. 56, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1903) ; Bui. 70, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1906).
c Loc. cit.
436 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sulphur washes has been made by Mr. J. K. Haywood, of the Bureau
of Chemistry. a In the field experiments the same formulas were
tested in three distinct latitudes, namely, in Georgia, at Fort Valley;
in Maryland,6 at Laurel. Jessups. and Patuxent: and in western
New York, at Youngstown. in 1905. and at North East. Pa., in 1906,
It was thought that by making tests of identical formulas in a north-
ern, a middle, and a southern State possible differences in results due
to climatic or other conditions would be more readily explained.
The experiments have included the treatment of scale-infested
apple, peach, and Japan plum trees, and unless otherwise indicated
applications of sprays were made shortly before growth of trees had
begun in spring. Peach and plum trees treated were average 5 to 7
year trees and the largest apple trees were S or 9 years old. In
general satisfactory results were obtained from all of the well-boiled
washes containing not less than 15 pounds of sulphur to 50 gallons
of water, with a slight balance in favor of the stronger washes, espe-
cially for first treatment of badly infested trees. Washes containing
somewhat less than 15 pounds of sulphur to 50 gallons of water were
not satisfactory in killing the scale. Some conclusions reached by
these tests are:
(1) An efficient and economical formula is lime 20 pounds, sulphur
15 pounds, water to make 50 gallons, and boiled for one hour.
(2) Salt is not a necessary ingredient of the wash.
(3) The self-boiled lime-sulphur-caustic-soda wash is reasonably
efTective and should be used when it is not practicable to provide a
cooking plant for making the boiled wash. The self-boiled lime-
sulphur wash is much less efficient and is wasteful.
i4> Applications in late fall give good results, but not so good as
applications in spring.
From general observations careless preparation and lack of thor-
ough application are considered the principal causes of unsatisfactory
results in the use of the lime-sulphur wash.
"Bui. 101, Bureau of Chemistry. The Lime-Sulphur-Salt Wash and Its Substi-
tutes.
& Experiments in Maryland in cooperation with the Maryland Agricultural Experi-
ment Station.
LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE.
437
Lime-sirf phitr-salt wash formulas recommended in various xStates and hi/ the Bureau of
Entomology.
Quick-
lime.
Alabama
California:
Agricultural experiment sta-
tion.
State horticultural commis-
sion.
Connecticut :
Storrs agricultural experi-
ment station.
Agricultural experiment sta-
tion.
DelawE re
Georgia:
State board of entomology. .
Experiment station
Illinois
Kentucky
Maryland
Massachusetts.
Michigan
Missouri (agricultural experiment
station).
Ohio:
State department of agricul-
ture.
Agricultural experiment sta-
tion.
Oregon.
Tennessee
Pennsylvania
New York:
Agricultural experiment sta-
tion.
State entomologist
New Jersey
North I
Virginia
Washington. .
Bureau of Entomology. U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.
: Lbs.
42
50
.50
50
SO
40
42
30
50
40
331
40
30
33$
30 or 40
331
42
44
40
40
33i
40
30
25
40
Flour or
flowers of
sulphur.
Lbs.
Salt. Water.
Time of cooking.
Lbs. Galls.
33J
33J
40
35
40
32
36
30
35
30
331
30
30
331
30
33J
36
34
30 i
30
331
16J
2.3
0
n
30or0
20 or 0 ;
lOorO
0
331
34 20 or 0
30 '
25 j 0
30 I 0
100 35 minutes, or until of a dirty
yellowish-green color.
100 1 to 2 hours.
1 2 hours, or until sulphur is thor-
oughly dissolved.
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
30 to 45 minutes.
Three-fourths to 1 hour.
30 minutes.
40 minutes to 1 hour.
35 to 40 minutes, or until mix-
ture is yellowish-green color.
1 hour.
35 minutes.
1 hour.
1J hours or longer.
1 hour or more.
2 hours.
100 1 hour.
100 45 minutes at lsast.
100 \ 1 hour, or until mixture is of a
deep blood-red color.
100 1 hour.
100 1 hour.
100 , 1 hour.
100 30 minutes at least.
100 Boil until mixture becomes deep
amber color.
100 30 minutes.
100 40 minutes.
100 30 minutes to 1 hour.
100 1 hour.
CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Considerable attention has been given to the chemistry of lime-
sulphur washes, notably by J. K. Haywood,0 of the Bureau of Chem-
istry of this Department, and by Prof. R. W. Thatcher,6 of the
Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. These investigations
aBul. 30, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 35 (1901); Jn. Am. Chem. Soc, Vol.
XXVII, p. 247; Bui. 101, Bu. Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.
b Bui. 56, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta, (1903); Bui. 7(5, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1906).
438 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGBICULTUBE.
have thrown light on several important questions connected with
the preparation and use of these washes, explaining results noted
in practical experimentation and indicating in precise terms the
conditions of its economical preparation.
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT PERIODS OF BOILING.
Analyses of washes boiled for different lengths of time show that
the sulphur is not sufficiently dissolved by 15 minutes' boiling, and
that 30 minutes is nearly but not quite long enough, while boiling
for 45 minutes to 1 hour dissolves practically all of the sulphur pres-
ent. Analyses of the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash show that only
about one-twelfth of the sulphur present is dissolved, there being,
therefore, a great Waste of sulphur. In a properly prepared self-
boiled lime-sulphur-caustic-soda wash about 80 per cent of the sul-
phur present is put in solution, whereas if such a wash in addition
be heated for 15 or 20 minutes about 95 per cent of the sulphur is
dissolved.
USE OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF SULPHUR.
Analyses of washes made with flour sulphur and flowers of sulphur
show that there is no essential difference between them as to their
solubility with a given period of boiling, practically all sulphur going
into solution with 1 hour's boiling. In washes made with the so-called
crystalline sulphur, the amount of free sulphur remaining after 1
hour's boiling varies widely, depending on the size of lumps of the
sulphur employed, there being, however, in all cases quite too much
waste to render its use advisable. Crystalline sulphur, when finely
ground, largely goes into solution after thoroughly boiling from lh
to 2 hours. Generally the latter period will be found preferable.
OMISSION OF SALT: EFFECT OF REHEATING.
Repeated analyses have shown that salt has no effect whatever on
the chemical composition or physical character of the wash, thus con-
firming the conclusions as to its uselessness in practical field tests.
Reheated lime-sulphur washes do not differ chemically or physically
from freshly prepared washes of ordinary strengths. A very strong
wash, as. for example, one yet undiluted, upon cooling forms many
crystals, which, however, dissolve upon reheating.
PBEPARATIOX OF THE WASH.
The recommendations made at the present time for the prepara-
tion of the lime-sulphur washes vary more or less as to the handling
of the ingredients preparatory to cooking, but these variations appear
to be of little if any importance as affecting the character of the
finally prepared wash. The satisfactory results obtained from the
LT.UE-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 439
use of washes prepared in various ways indicate that it is quite imma-
terial whether the lime be first slaked in whole or in part and the sul-
phur added, or the sulphur be added to the cooking vessel followed
by the lime, or all ingredients be added together. Manifestly the
practice least troublesome should be followed. More importance,
however, must be attached to the period of cooking, concerning which
recommendations are not uniform. If cooking is insufficient, free
sulphur will remain in the wash imcombined with the lime and,
according to present belief, will be largely wasted. If cooking is
continued longer than necessary to effect a chemical combination
of sulphur and lime, there is simply a waste of labor and fuel, but
perhaps no other objectionable effect. The period of cooking will
vary somewhat, depending upon the heat maintained'and the kind of
sulphur used.* Practically, as chemical studies show, there will be no
difference between the flour and the flowers of sulphur in regard to
the time required to bring into solution. Sulphur in coarser par-
ticles, or lumps, as the so-called crystalline sulphur, will yield to boil-
ing much more slowly: and even after prolonged cooking there may
remain in the wash a considerable quantity of free sulphur. If salt is
to be used in the wash, evidently it should be added early during the
process of cooking, since one of its supposed functions is to increase
the specific gravity of the wash, thus raising the boiling-point.
THE METHOD REO >MMEXPF.n.
Numerous methods of preparing the wash, as followed by practical
orchardists. have been investigated by the Bureau of Entomology, or
tested by it in the course of its experimental work. The following
formula and method of preparation have uniformly resulted in a sat-
isfactory wash, and are quite simple:
Lime pounds. . 20
Sulphur < flour >>r flowers) do 15
Water to make gallons. . 50
Preparation. — Heat in a cooking barrel or vessel about one-third
of the total quantity of water required. When the water is hot add
all the lime, and at once add all the sulphur, which should previously
have been made into a thick paste with water. After the lime has
slaked, about another third of the water should be added, preferably
hot, and the cooking should be continued for an hour, when the final
dilution may be made, using either hot or cold water as is most con-
venient. The boiling due to the slaking of the lime thoroughly
mixes the ingredients at the start, but subsequent stirring is necessary
if the wash is cooked by direct heat in kettles. If cooked by steam no
stirring will be necessary. After the wash has been prepared it must
be well strained as it is being run into the spray pump barrel, or tank.
.440 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
COOKING.
The ingredients of the wash, in proper proportion, are boiled to-'
gether in water, by which means chemical action between the lime
and sulphur is brought about, producing in solution the insecticidal
properties of the wash, the extent of chemical action depending
directly upon the length of time cooking continues. From 45 minutes
to an hour of vigorous boiling will put practically all of the sulphur
into solution, and preference should be given to the latter period. A
properly cooked wash is a heavy, caustic, orange-yellow liquid, with1
a strong sulphurous odor. Upon standing, the sediment settles to the
bottom, leaving the liquid relatively clear. Sometimes the wash is
dark green when the lime is thoroughly mixed with the liquid portion,'
but when the wash is allowed to settle the supernatant liquid is the
usual orange-yellow. This is probably due to the presence of iron and
manganese sulphids in the lime. Prolonged boiling tends to produce
small quantities of other sulphur and lime compounds, but these are
of practically no importance. Aside from the waste of fuel, prolonged
cooking is much preferable to insufficient cooking. The residue or
insoluble matter left in vessels after cooking should be frequently
examined. If, with sufficient cooking, it shows up yellow, it indicates
the presence of free sulphur, and more lime is needed. The presence
in the residue of both lime and sulphur indicates that more boiling
is needed. The kind of apparatus employed in cooking is immaterial,
but it should be efficient, convenient, and economical. Scarcely any
two cooking plants are alike, and there is afforded opportunity for
the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction to best
meet individual conditions.
OUTFITS FOR COOKING ON A SMALL SCALE.
For small orchards, of 50 acres or less, it may not be considered
advisable by owners to fix up a steam cooking plant, but the writer
believes it would be economy to do so where orchards of 25 acres or
more are to be treated, especially if the trees are large ones. If but
small quantities of wash are needed, as for the treatment of a small
home orchard, an ordinary kettle or hog scalder will be satisfactory.
It may be placed on bricks on the ground and the fire built beneath, as
in the ordinary heating of water. The kettle should hold 35 to 40
gallons, and preferably more if a barrel spray pump is to be kept sup-
plied; and it will be necessary to make final dilution of the wash in the
spray-pump barrel. With some such facilities for cooking, one barrel
sprayer can be kept busy most of the time.
For larger orchards, if a steam outfit is not considered advisable,
large iron kettles holding from 60 to 80 gallons should be placed in
a brick furnace, one or more kettles being used, according to size of
orchard and the number of spray gangs which it is proposed to run.
LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE.
441
With a battery of three or four large kettles and with proper water facil-
ities from 150 to 200 gallons of wash may be prepared every hour.
An important objection to this method of cooking is that the wash,
when prepared, must be dipped from the kettles and poured into
the spray barrel or tank, entailing an important loss of time; and
to prevent burning, while cooking, the wash must be constantly
stirred. Time and labor saving conveniences, however, may often
be provided which will considerably lessen these difficulties. Thus in
Plate XXXVII, figure 1, is shown a convenient single-kettle furnace.
The water is forced from a spring by means of a ram into barrels
slightly above the level of the kettle, to which it is supplied in pipes
by gravitation. From the kettle the cooked wash is poured into a
trough which delivers it directly through a strainer into the spray tank.
K&T£>4A* //^/C£:7~
Fig. 15.— Two plans for conducting steam into barrels: A, pipe entering from above, and terminating
in double T. with perforations in the arms; B, pipe entering barrel near base, and forming a circle.
(From Waite.)
STEAM COOKING OUTFITS.
In most of the larger commercial orchards which are infested
with San Jose scale steam plants have been provided for cooking
the wash, and these vary much in detail. The steam boilers used
for supplying steam vary from 3 or 4 horsepower to 12, 15, or 20
horsepower — the smaller usually of the upright type, the larger
mostly horizontal and stationary, though some portable boilers
are in use. Boilers of 3 or 4 horsepower, such as are used for feed-
cooking purposes, are suitable when but 2 or 3 barrels of wash are
to be prepared at a time, and will in addition keep 1 or 2 barrels
U2
YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of water hot. A boiler of 12 or lo horsepower will furnish sufficient
steam for cooking simultaneously S to 10 barrels of wash, keeping
hot the necessary amount of water, and operating the pump for
supplying the water tank with water. In general, 1 horsepower
will be required for each cooking barrel or similar vessel, but there
should be allowed an excess of power amounting to 25 or 30 per cent
for heating water, pumping, etc. The general arrangement of
three cooking plants is shown in Plate XXXYIII. An outfit such as
shown in the middle figure of Plate XXXYIII lacks much in con-
venience, as is at once apparent. The plant shown at figure 2 of
Plate XXXVII is an especially convenient one, and might well serve
as a model for persons contemplating the construction of a steam
cooking plant with a capacity of 6 or 8 barrel.-.
Fig. 16. — Top view of plant for cooking lime-sulphur wash, showing piping
plan when steam is supplied from above barrels; also water inlet and pipe
for drawing off the wash. (From Waitf>.
In the construction of steam cooking plants attention should be
given to the following requisites:
(1; The platform should be strong and roomy and of sufficient
height to permit the wagons to be driven alongside and the spray
tanks to be filled directly from the cooking vessels by gravitation.
_ The >team boiler should be of sufficient size to allow approx-
imately 1 horsepower for each cooking barrel or equivalent, with a
2.5 or 30 per cent excess of power for heating water and pumping
water into the water-supply tank.
The arrangement of pipes should be such that these will be
as little in the way as is consistent with their use. Valves should
be provided which will permit the operation of one or more cooking
vessels independently of the others.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XXXVI
Fig. 1. — A Single Kettle Furnace.
[Water is supplied by a rani tn barrels, from which it runs by gravity to kettle. The prepared
wash is delivered by trough to spray tank. ( Original. )]
-.-* ■ : " '"'. '---a.-
Fis. 2. — A Well-arranged Plant for Cooking the Wash on a Large Scale. (After R. I. Smith.)
Plants for Cooking Lime-sulphur Wash.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, :906.
Plate XXXVIII.
Plants for Cooking Lime-sulphur Wash.
[Top Beure.-A western New York outfit. Middle figure.-An inconvenient cooking plant
the wash being dipped from barrels by hand. Bottom r.gure.-An outfit with two large
tanks for i king, with boiler between.]
LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOE SAX JOSE SCALP:. 443
(4) There must be an ample supply of water, preferably so situated
that water may be supplied to cooking barrels and spray tanks by
gravitation.
When barrels are used as cooking; vessels one of two plans of piping
is followed. In the first the main steam pipe, which should be of the
same size as the outlet at the boiler, extends along the base of the
barrels, with a smaller steam discharge pipe leading directly into
each barrel, terminating in a single perforated coil (fig. 15, B, and
PI. XXXVII, fig. 2). In the other plan the steam is conveyed above
the barrels, to which it is supplied by smaller vertical pipes, reaching
to within a few inches of the bottom of the barrels, terminating in a
double T. with arms of perforated pipe (fig. 15, A, and fig. 16).
While the 50-gallon barrel makes a convenient unit as a cooking ves-
sel, some orchardists prefer large round or square tanks (PL XXXVIII,
bottom figure) in which a large amount of wash can be made up at
once, often sufficient for the day's use. By this means it is claimed
a saving in fuel and labor is effected. In using large tanks, however,
there should be an abundance of perforated pipe along the bottom
to secure proper distribution of the steam.
In portions of the country where individual orchards are small, but
situated close together, a central cooking plant may often be used in
cooperation, or by an individual who supplies the wash during the
spraying season to the orchardists of the community. The practi-
cability of this plan has already been demonstrated.
TIME OF APPLICATION OF THE WASH.
Lime-sulphur washes, as herein considered, are suitable only for the
treatment of trees which are in a dormant state, being much too strong
for application to trees in foliage. Experiments indicate that the
best results follow applications in spring, just before the growth of
the tree begins. These late applications insure a maximum amount of
wash on the trees when the young 'dice " begin to appear later in the
season from females which may have escaped treatment. The later
effect of the wash is quite as important as its direct insecticidal
action on the insects when applied. In large commercial orchards,
however, it is necessary to begin spraying operations at the first suit-
able time in spring, or even during favorable periods in the winter, on
account of the large amount of work to be done. The unfavorable
weather conditions often prevailing during spring and the urgency
of other work have led some orchardists to spray in late fall and early
winter. The value of fall applications in killing the scale and their
effects on the trees have been investigated to some extent by ento-
mologists, principally in Maryland a and New York,6 and by the
" Bui. 90. Md. Agr. Exp. Station (1903).
b Bui. 273, X. Y. Agr. Exp. Station (1905).
444 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Bureau of Entomology. In general it appears that fall treatment of
trees will keep the scale in cheek, though more or less of injury may
result to ;-orac fruits, as peach and plum, by the destruction of fruit
buds and terminal shoots, varying with the time of application, ripe-
ness of the wood. etc. If spring applications can not be made, late
fall or early winter applications are advised; the possible injury to
the tree will be in a measure balanced by its increased vigor in growth,
due to control of the scale.
EQUIPMENT FOR SPRAYING.
Spraying outfits for applying the lime-sulphur washes are those used
for spraying generally. Barrel spray pumps are much used by the
smaller orchardists. and tanks holding 100 to 300 gallons, fitted with
large hand pumps with double vertical or horizontal cylinders, are
used by the larger orchardists. (See PI. XXXIX. fig. 1. Lese
generally, gasoline or other power outfits are employed. Whatever
the outfit used, provision should be made for keeping the wash in the
barrel or tank thoroughly agitated: the hose should be of ample
length and should be fitted with a bamboo extension rod to reach the
higher portions of the trees and to protect the sprayers as much as
possible. At the junction of the hose and extension rod a stopcock
should be provided whereby the spray may be shut ofT when desired,
as in passing from one tree to another. In spraying high trees some
form of elevated platform should be provided on the wagon, as shown
in Plate XXXIX, figure 2, thus facilitating thorough applications to
the tops of the trees.
The spray nozzle is one of the most important parts of the outfit,
and many of the nozzles in use by orchardists are practical handicaps
to good work. Orchardists are urged to give more attention to this
part of their spraying equipment. The Yermorel and nozzles of that
type are best, and should always be provided with a plunger for remov-
ing any temporary obstruction in the outlet orifice. In spraying the
lime-sulphur wash caps should be used with an orifice one-sixteenth
of an inch in diameter, and a supply of caps should be kept on hand
to replace the worn ones when the spray becomes too coarse. In the
operation of ^praying a pressure should be maintained of not less
than 75 pounds, and preferably much higher. To maintain this
with a barrel or tank hand pump with two leads of hose, each with
two or more nozzles, requires constant hard work in pumping. The
tendency will be to allow the pressure to lighten, with a consequent
falling off in efficiency of the spraying. While there is some differ-
ence in ease of working of the different makes of hand pumps, the
danger of working with too low pressure will always be present, and
especially if careless labor is employed. Power outfits are. therefore,
advised where their operation is practicable and the orchard interest
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 15
Plate XXXIX.
— A Gasoline Power Outfit Used in Western New York. (Original.)
Outfits Used for Spraying Lime-sulphur Wash.
LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 445
warrants their purchase. In treating the San Jose scale thorough
spraying is particularly important, and especial pains should be taken
to coat every part of the tree thoroughly, from the topmost twigs to
the ground. "When quite dormant, trees may be thoroughly drenched
without danger of injury, and excessive spraying is preferable to
deficient spraying. During windy weather thorough spraying is
often impossible, and under such conditions, or if for any other reason
the first treatment has not been satisfactory, a second application is
very desirable to reach the places that have been missed during the
first treatment.
The caustic, disagreeable character of the wash is frequently com-
plained of by orchardists and orchard workers. Much may be done
to remove the objections to its use by spray gangs by supplying the
men with rubber coats and gloves. The use of vaseline on the face is
advisable in working during windy weather, and clear glass goggles
may be used to protect the eyes. Lime-sulphur wash is very hard on
the pumps, and these should be thoroughly cleaned at the close of
each day's use.
SELF-BOILED WASHES.
The expense of establishing cooking plants and of their operation
constitutes an important objection to the lime-sulphur wash, and some
attention has been given by entomologists to the devising and testing
of washes made simply by the heat generated by the slaking of the
lime, or by the additional heat following the addition of caustic soda.
SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR WASH.
This wash is prepared without direct heat by placing in a barrel or
other suitable container 40 pounds of good stone lime and adding 15
pounds of flour or flowers of sulphur which has been worked into a
paste with water. The lime is started slaking by the addition of 10
or 12 gallons of hot water, and the mixture should be stirred occa-
sionally as the slaking proceeds, the barrel or vessel being kept cov-
ered as much as possible. After the lime is all slaked, water is added
to bring up to 50 gallons of wash. In the experiments of the Bureau
of Entomology this wash has not been satisfactory. Sufficient heat
is not generated during the slaking of the lime to bring into solution a
sufficient quantity of sulphur.
SELF-BOILED l-IME-SULPHUR-CAUSTIC-SODA WASH.
To prepare this wash, place in a suit aide barrel or other vessel 30
pounds of good quicklime and start slaking with sufficient hot water
to prevent air-slaking. As soon as the slaking is well under way add
15 pounds of sulphur previously worked into a paste with water, and
stir thorousdilv. Hot water is added from time to time in sufficient
446 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
quantity to bring the mixture up to a thin paste. After slaking has
ceased add 5 or 6 pounds of commercial caustic soda, stirring until
the soda is dissolved. To this should be added sufficient water to
bring up to 50 gallons of wash.
RANGE OF USEFULNESS OF LIME-SULPHUR "WASHES.
In the foregoing discussion the wash has been considered more par-
ticularly with reference to its value in destroying the San Jose scale.
There are numerous other insects which may coexist on fruit trees
with the San Jose scale, and the wash is very useful in destroying
some of these, as well as in reducing fungous diseases. Without
doubt most of the scale insects of the subfamily to which the San Jose
scale belongs (Diaspinre) will be controlled by the wash. This has
been shown to be the case for Forbes scale (Aspidioius forbesii) , West
Indian peach scale (Diaspis peniagona), the scurfy scale (Chionaspis
furfura),. and the oyster-shell scale {Lepidosa plies ulmi). Unfortu-
nately, however, it appears to be ineffective on Lecanium scales, such
as the terrapin scale {Eulecanium nigrofasciatum) . Its value in
destroying the winter eggs of aphides affecting the foliage and twigs
of the apple has been demonstrated by Prof. J. M. Aldrich,a and
observations by Mr. Fred Johnson, of this Bureau, in western New
York in 1905, indicate that it is quite effective in destroying the eggs
of the pear tree Psylla (Psylla pyri). There is no doubt of its efficacy
in destroying the pear-leaf blister mite (Eriojiliycs pyri), which winters
in the adult condition behind the bud scales of its host plant, and also
the so-called "silvering mite" of the peach (Phyllocoptes cornutus).
In California Mr. W. T. Clark6 has shown that the lime-sulphur wash
is entirely satisfactory as a remedy for the peach twig borer (Anarsia
lineatetta), which on the Pacific slope is a very serious enemy of the
peach.
It has been demonstrated by Pierce and others that the lime-
sulphur wash is practically a specific for peachleaf-curl, and recent
experiments at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station6
indicate that it may be substituted for Bordeaux mixture as the
dormant-tree treatment for apple scab. Its usefulness in a similar
way for scab on pears is very probable. But few dormant-tree sprays
have a greater range of usefulness than lime-sulphur wash. In prac-
tice, one thorough application in spring shortly before the buds open is
calculated to control effectively not only the San Jose scale, but other
scales, excepting lecaniums, and to an important degree the insects
and fungous diseases above mentioned on their respective host plants.
a Bui. 40, Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. (1904).
6 Bui. 144, Cat. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1902:.
cBul. 262. N.'Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.
NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LIMBER SUPPLY.
By Thomas H. Sherrard,
Assistant Forester, Forest Service.
The problem of securing the most effective use of the land concerns
the people of the United States as never before. The readjustment
of the stock-growing industry to benefit an overcrowded range and
the new agriculture — which in the East takes expression in diversified
farming, large drainage projects, and more intensive methods and in
the West in the great movement for extended irrigation of arid lands
and in dry farming — are but phases of its solution. And in no way is
the question more urgent than in the use of our forest resources.
From pioneer days almost to the present time every energy was
bent to conquer the forest and to win homes from the wilderness.
Conversion of the forests into farms and the use of wood in building
homes was an essential part of the wonderful development of the
nation, but the spirit of destruction, which grew out of the long
battle with the forest, survived long after the reason for it was past.
The hardships and difficulties resulting from an inadequate supply
of wood and water were first encountered when settlement reached
the great treeless plains of the Middle West, and long before a timber
famine had been thought of in the East. Almost everywhere a point
has now been reached where development of the country is made, not
in the face of the forest but with its essential aid.
ECONOMIC PHASES OF THE FOREST PROBLEM.
Early legislation and the propaganda of theorists and sentimental-
ists are mainly interesting as a matter of history, for they were alike
without effect upon the action of the owners of timberland, but
certain economic conditions have now become powerful checks to
forest destruction.
The north woods of Maine and New York, once so prominent in
the lumber activity of the nation, long ago dropped out of sight as
lumber-producing regions, although the bulk of the pulpwood used
in the manufacture of paper is still drawn from them. The region of
the Lake States, which was for many years the undisputed center of
the lumber industry, gradually 3*ielded its supremacy to the South and
West. As early as 1800 lumber companies which had cut over their
holdings in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota were compelled
either to go out of business or to turn elsewhere for available timber.
Then followed the rush to the southern pineries and the great virgin
forests of the Pacific coast. During recent years the production of
447
448 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
lumber in the southern pine belt has been enormous, and so great
have been the inroads upon the available supply of southern pine
that it is a question of only a few years, hastened by the construction
of the Panama Canal, when the great production of lumber will shift
to the Pacific coast. The old process of exhausting the supply of
timber in a region and then seeking new fields is very nearly over.
Already the industry is turning back on its tracks. A quality of
timber is eagerly sought in the Lake States which a few years ago
was passed over as utterly worthless, and certain sawmills have
depended for a part of their supply upon the recovery of logs which
have sunk in the waterways in process of transportation. In the
South the whole pine region is being gone over in close search of the
old field pine. This inferior and once despised growth of timber is
now bought up at prices greatly in excess of those once paid for the
magnificent timber of the virgin forests.
Great improvement in logging and sawmill machinery, signal suc-
cess in reducing the waste in manufacture, wonderful railroad exten-
sion, concentration, and systematic organization of producers to
reach the consumer most effectively through the markets, have all
combined to cheapen the cost of production and increase the profit
in the lumber business. Yet the price of lumber has never before
been as high as in the year 1906. This increased price is in spite
of an increased production which it taxes the railroads to transport.
The price of stumpage is far more stable than that of lumber, and
responds very tardily to fluctuations in the lumber market. The
usual policy of disposing of Federal and State timber for prac-
tically nothing has acted powerfully, particularly in the West, to
keep the selling price of stumpage far below its legitimate value.
It is not surprising that it has always been impossible for the bulk of
the owners of timber to have a broad view of the lumber industry and
close acquaintance with the lumber market, for most of the cost of
producing lumber lies in logging and manufacture, and the margin
of profit has varied widely. The price of stumpage has always been
artificially depressed, and has lagged far behind the constantly
increasing value of lumber.
ACQUIRING LUMBER UNDER LAND LAWS.
The act of June 3. 1S7S. generally known as the timber and stone
act, provides for the purchase of public timber land at the uniform
price of 82.50 per acre. The purpose of Congress in enacting this
law was to make it possible for settlers, miners, and other actual
users of timber to. satisfy their needs. Records of the General Land
Office show that in 1904 over 55,000 entries had been made under
this act. covering an area of nearly S, 000, 000 acres. Probably
10,000,000 acres of carefully selected public timberland has by this
time passed into the control of private owners under this law alone.
It is well known that most of the entries under this law have been
NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LUMBER SUPPLY. 449'
made, indirectly, by nonresidents for speculation. And the great
bulk of the entries have almost immediately passed into the hands
of timber syndicates, with profit to the original entrymen amounting
to no more than bare wages. Thus the law has reacted greatly to
the disadvantage of the very classes whom it was intended to help,
and the bona fide settler and miner and the small sawmill man have
seen the public timber rapidly withdrawn and pass into the hands,
of speculative syndicates.
The same law permits the cutting of timber for domestic purposes
from mineral lands. The area classed as mineral land in the tim-
bered portions of the public land is very great, and the construction
put by the courts upon the provision of the law that the timber
might be used for domestic purposes has been so broad as to include
practically every purpose for which timber can be used. This act
has never been repealed.
Abuses have grown up under the other laws which provide for the
disposition of public land. More land has been disposed of under
the "homestead law'' than under all other land laws combined.
Entries of timberland under the homestead law are common, notably
so under the commutation clause, which permits a brief period of
residence on condition of a cash payment.
Thus the land laws, while they have provided for the rapid dis-
posal of public timberlands, have tended strongly to the segregation
of large holdings of timberland for speculative purposes.
PURCHASE OF NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER.
The acquisition of timberland under the land laws has been cited
in order to contrast it emphatically with the purchase of timber itself
for immediate use under the National forest laws.
The act of March 1, 1891, which gave to the President the power
to set aside National Forests, did not provide for their administra-
tion, and therefore effectually locked up timber from use. That of
June 4, 1897, enlarged the powers of the Secretary and provided for
a protective force.
At first the National Forests had no appreciable effect upon the
lumber industry. The Forests largely comprised inaccessible tim-
ber, and its purchase was not encouraged. Consumers of wood and
other forest products, who were dependent upon the Forests, were
confronted with impractical and troublesome regulations. Unneces-
sary delay in the transaction of business worked added hardship
and fostered a feeling of hostility toward National Forests among those
who came into closest contact with them, and who should have been
made most sensible of their benefits. During succeeding years vast
areas of timberland were taken up under the land laws, and cheap
timber was on the market in immense quantities.
It was not until the large withdrawals of land by the creation of
new National Forests in 1903 and 1904 that bodies of timber attractive
3 A1906 29
450 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICTXTURE.
to private enterprise were included. By these withdrawals entries
under the timber and stone act and the lieu land law were checked.
At the same time the rapid extension of railroads and the great increase
in settlement and industrial development in the West were operating
to enable the lumberman to enter regions once remote from market.
In February, 1905. the administration of the National Forests was
transferred to the Department of Agriculture, and the policy of the
- - legitimate use of all resources of the Forests has been
definitely adopted. Under the enlarged powers of the Secretary,
regulations governing the cutting of timber have been greatly sim-
plified, and annoying delays in the transaction of business wiped out.
An especial effort is made to facilitate applications for the free use of
timber and for small purchases.
The effect upon the use of the timber of the National Forests was
instantaneous. Money receipts from the sale of timber for the
fiscal year ended June 30. 1905. were $50,000. During the present
fiscal year (1907) receipts from timber sold will probably exceed half
a million dollars and contracts for the sale of timber, extending from
one to five years, will reach a value of over 1£ million dollars.
The money return which the Government realizes from these sales
is in striking contrast to that received from the sale of timberland
under the land laws. Under the timber and stone act timberland
could be bought for $2.50 per acre, and under the lieu land law it could
be acquired in exchange for denuded and worthless land without
money payment. Timber from the Forests is now purchased by the
thousand board feet, and payment is made upon the actual scale of
the logs when cut. The cut varies from 5.000 to 20.000 feet per acre.
- ■ at. at the comparatively low stumpage rate of $2.50 per thousand
feet, the Government receives from five to twenty times as much for
the timber as erred under the timber and stone act and retains
the fond. To cite a single example: A sale of 12,000,000 feet of timber
was recently made on a National Forest in Wyoming, at a rate of $5
per thousand feet. The proceeds from the sale of the timber alone
will be $4 The timber averages s.000 feet per acre and covers
1.500 acres. Had the sale been made under the timber and stone
law it would have yielded but $3,750 for both timber and land.
It might be argued that the Government is not in the lumber
business and that it should dispose of its remaining timberlands as
rapidly as possible, leaving it to private enterprise to exploit them.
But public opinion is emphatically in favor of a more conservative
use of what remains of the National Forests than would be possible
were they turned over to lumber companies, whose sole concern
would be their quick conversion into cash. The Government has
been forced into the lumber business solely that a supply of forest
products may be guaranteed to future generations.
The ratio of the present yield of timber cut from the National
Forests to that of the whole country , or even to that of the Western
NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LUMBER SUPPLY. 451
States, is insignificanc. Probably 65 per cent of the total stand of
merchantable timber within the Forests is located on the Pacific coast,
where for a long tune the enormous supply of privately owned timber
will satisfy most of the demand. This more accessible private timber
surrounded the Forests as the meat of an apple surrounds the core.
But this belt of private timber has been entirely eaten away in many
places, while in others it is locked up for purposes of speculation.
The thing to remember, then, is that this immense body of public
timber is there as a great reserve against the time when private
timberlands will be depleted, and for use as a weapon against monop-
oly. Already, even on the Pacific coast, actual operators, who are
not speculating in timber, but who, if they are to meet the demands of
commerce, must have logs to supply then mills, are turning to the
National Forests.
The advantages in the purchase of timber from the National Forests
to the actual operator, and especially to the sawmill man of small
means, are many. There is no large initial investment required in
acquiring timberlands and no possibility of annoying litigation over
defective title to lands. The purchaser is entirely relieved of taxes
and the cost of protection. The Government assumes the entire risk
of loss by fire or other causes.
EFFECT OX THE PRICE OF LUMBER.
The first effect of National Forests upon prices, particularly where
there is still a great deal of available timber, is to raise the price of
stumpage toward its intrinsic value by withdrawing the excess supply
of low-priced timber from the market. On the other hand, as the
supply of timber dwindles and values are forced upward by holding
for speculation, the effect of the Forests will be to check advance in
prices and make them lower.
In the Rocky Mountain States and Territories the major part of
the small remaining supply of timber is in the National Forests, and
here their beneficial effect upon the lumber supply may be more
plainly seen than on the Pacific coast. The demand for timber from
the Forests throughout this region has come very generally from small
sawmills which supply towns and ranches located off the railroads
and from mines which use the timber for their own development.
NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT.
Iii the virgin forest, growth is just about balanced by decay. In
the western forests, however, natural deterioration is greatly aug-
mented by forest fires. Destruction of merchantable timber is usually
the measure of the damage done by forest fires, but, great as this
injury is, vastly more actual loss in forest wealth is caused by the
fires which year after year burn, practically unnoticed, in the grass
and undergrowth of the forest. While these ground fires do not con-
sume the large trees, seedlings are destroyed outright, growing trees
receive injuries winch result in their early decay, and the forest floor,
452 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
composed of a mold of needles, twigs, and :. sses is burned away.
Thus the wonderful recuperative power of the forest is lost. That
the damages done by fires can be reduced has been proved on the
National Forests by actually reducing them. The great need is that
there should be more men on the protective force.
From the foresters standpoint, mature timber should be cut in
orde: i the small trees more light and a chance to grow and to
make way for reproduction. From the standpoint of national econ-
omv. the mature timber on the Forests should be utilized as needed
fur the development of the West, provided the local supply is not
reduced below the point ui safety. The whole weight of the move-
ment in favor of National Forests is squarely against a reckless use of
the timber resources, but it is emphatically in favor of the legitimate
use of timber. The points of vital importance are that the remaining
supply of timber must be used with the utmost economy and that in
everv case reproduction must be absolutely assured.
No live timber is cut on the Forests until it has been determined by
careful study on the ground that lumbering will not injure the forest.
In eveiw sale of timber, rules to insure careful logging are made a con-
dition of the sale. It is often found advisable to remove only the
larger, mature trees and to leave the smaller ones, which, although
of merchantable size, can be lumbered more profitably when larger.
Seed trees are left, whenever necessary, to insure a second crop. In
felling timber, vigorous measures are taken to prevent the destruc-
of promising young trees and to prohibit their use in logging.
In order to protect cut-over areas against fire, the brash, or "slash."
is piled and burned, and in dry seasons, when the danger from fire
reatest, the cutting areas are watched or. if necessary. 1 _
- - tended. Waste in logging is effectually prevented by rules framed
to apply to the particular class of timber to be cut. and the cut-
ting of low stumps and the - .11 the merchantable material in
irtly unsound logs is enforced by close supervision. Graz-
ing is regulated so that the range is not overcrowded to the injury
ot the Forest, and if necessary t-> encourage reproduction it is pro-
hibited altogether. In these and in many other ways the forest is
safeguarded.
Far beyond the present influence of the National Forests upon the
lumber supply will be their importance in the future. The United
51 tea is now facing a serious decrease in the available supply of
timber. That from the National Forests will aid greatly to bridge
over the period of inevitable lack of mature timber which will last
from the time the old trees are gone until the young trees are large
enough to take their places. The definite result, therefore, of the
sale of timber from the Forests will be to sustain the lumber business,
to maintain a steady range of timber values and thus to lessen spec-
ulation, and. far more important still, to render possible the unin-
terrupted development of the great industries dependent upon wood.
APPENDIX.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a
Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson.
The Secretary exercises personal supervision of public business relating to the
agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of the Department
with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau,
who are appointed by the President, and directs the management of all the Bureaus,
Divisions, and Offices embraced in the Department. He exercises advisory super-
vision over agricultural experiment stations which receive aid from the National
Treasury, has control of the quarantine stations for imported cattle, of interstate
quarantine rendered necessary by sheep and cattle diseases, and of the inspection of
cattle-carrying vessels, and directs the inspection of domestic and imported food
products, under the meat inspection and pure-food laws. He is charged with the
duty of issuing rules and regulations for the protection, maintenance, and care of the
National forest reserves. He also is charged with carrying into effect the laws pro-
hibiting the transportation by interstate commerce of game killed in violation of
local laws and excluding from importation certain noxious animals, and has authority
to control the importation of other animals.
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Willet M. Hays.
The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be required by law or pre-
scribed by the Secretary. He also becomes Acting Secretary of Agriculture in the
absence of the Secretary.
Chief Clerk, S. R. Burch.
The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks and employees; he is
charged with the enforcement of the internal regulations of the" Department; and is,
by law, superintendent of the buildings occupied by the Department of Agriculture.
He represents the Department on the Government board of the Jamestown Expo-
sition, Norfolk, Va.
Appointment Clerk. Joseph B. Bennett.
The Appointment Clerk prepares all papers involved in the making of appoint-
ments, transfers, promotions, reductions, details, furloughs, and removals, for the
entire Department, and decides all questions relating to the civil-service regulations
affecting the same. He has charge of all correspondent'" of the Department with the
Civil Service Commission, and of all certifications and communications issued by the
Commission to the Department; and he reports to the Commission all appointments
and other changes in the service. He keeps the personal records of all employees of
the Department, and is custodian of their oaths of office and efficiency reports. He
is also custodian of the Department seal.
Solicitor, George P. McCabe.
The Solicitor acts as the legal adviser of the Secretary, and is charged with the
preparation and supervision of all legal papers to which the Department is a party,
and of all communications to the Department of Justice and to the various officers
thereof, including United States attorneys. He examines and approves, in advance
of issue, all orders and regulations promulgated by the Secretary under statutory
authority; represents the Department in all legal proceedings arising under the vari-
ous laws intrusted to the Department for execution, and prosecutes applications of
employees of the Department for patents. He is also a member of the Board of Food
and Drug Inspection.
« The organization of the Department here given is in accordance with the act
approved March 4, 1907, making appropriations for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1908, and shows changes in personnel to April 1, 1907.
453
454 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Chief of Supply Division. Cyrus B. Lower.
The Supply Division has charge of purchases of supplies and materials paid for
from the general funds of the Department.
Weather Bureau (corner Twenty-fourth and M Btreete NW.). — Chief, Willis L.
Moore; Assistant Chief, Henry E. Williams: Chief Clerk, Daniel J. Carroll: Editor of
M<>,dhly Weather Review, Cleveland Abbe: In charge of Division of Meteorological
Records, Frank II. Bigelow; In charge of Instrument Division. Charles F. Marvin;
In charge of Forecast Division. Edward B. Garriott; In charge of Special Research and
Forecaster. Alfred J. Henry: In charge of River and Flood Service and Forecast"-,
Harry C. Frankenfield; In charge of Weather Bureau accounts. Edgar B. Calvert.
Chiefs of Division: Climatological. James Berry: Publications. John P. Church:
Telegraph, Jesse H. Robinson: Ocean Meteorology, James Page: Supplies, Frank M.
Cleaver: Librarian. Herbert H. Kimball.
The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue of storm
warnings: the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agriculture
commerce, and navigation; the gaging and reporting of river stages: the maintenance
and operation of Beacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of
marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation: the reporting of tem-
perature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and other interests: the
display of frost and cold-wave signals: the distribution of meteorological information
in the interests of agriculture and commerce: and the taking of such meteorological
observations as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic conditions of
the United States, or are essential for the proper execution of the foregoing duties.
Bureau of Animal Industry. — Chief, A. D. Melvin; Assistant Chief, A. M. Farring-
ton; Chief Clerk, F. B.Jones; Chief of Inspection Division, Rice P. Steddom; Chief
of Quarantine Division, Richard W. Hickman: Chief of Pathological Division, John
R. Mahler; Chief of Bioehemic Division. M. Dorset: Chief of Dairy Division. Ed. H.
Webster: Chief of Division of Zoology . B. H. Ransom: Superintendent of Experiment
Station. E. C. Schroeder; Animal Husbandman, George M. Rommel: Editor.
James M. Pickens.
The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of dan-
gerous communicable diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their con-
trol and extirpation, makes original investigations as to the nature and prevention of
such diseases, and reports on the condition and the means of improving the animal
industries of the country. It supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and
inspects live stock, meats, and meat-food products intended for interstate and for-
eign commerce. It conducts feeding and breeding experiments. It has charge of
the inspection of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels fox the trans-
portation of export animals, and of the quarantine stations for imported animals. It
also has supervision of the manufacture, interstate commerce, and export of renovated
butter.
Bureau of Plaxt Industry. — Pathologist and Physiologist, and < kief Beverly T.
Calloway: Pathologist and Physiologist, and Assistant Chief, Albert F. Woods: Chief
Clerk, James E. Jones: Editor. J. E. Rockwell; Pathologist in charge of Laboratory of
Plant Pathology. Erwin F. Smith; Pathologist in charge of Investigations of I>iseases
of Fruits, Merton B. Waite; Physiologist in charge of Plant Lift History Invest 'no-
tions. Walter T. Swingle; Physiologist in charge of Cotton and Tobacco bra ding
Investigations. Archibald D. Shamel; Physiologist in charm of Corn Breeding Investi-
gations, Charles P. Hartley; Physiologist in charge of Alkali and Drought Resistant
Plant Binding Investigations, Thomas H.Kearney; Physiologist in charge of
Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations, Karl F. Kellerman: Bionomist in
charge ofBionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, ('rat or F. Cook;
Physiologist in charge of Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations and ]'<a ('■
Investigations. Rodney H. True: Physicist in charge of Physical Laboratory. Lyman
J. Briggs; Expert in ehargt of (rop Technology Investigations, Nathan A. Cobb;
Botanist in charge of Taxonomic Investigations, Frederick V. Coville: Agriculturist
in charge of Farm Management Investigations, William J. Spillman; Crrealist in charge
of Grain Investigations, Mark A. Carleton; Horticulturist in charge of Arlington
Experimental Farm. LeeC. Corbett; Pathologist i/t ehargt of Sugar Beet Investigations,
Charles 0. Townsend; Agriculturist in charge of Western Agricultural Extension
Investigations. Carl S. Sco field; Agriculturist in charge of Dry Land Agriculture
Investigations. E. Charming Chileott; Pomologist in charge of Pomological Collections,
Gustavus B. Bracken; Pomologists in charge of Field Investigations in Pomology.
William A.Taylor and G.Harold Powell; Superintendent of Experimental Gardens
ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 455
and Grounds, Edward M. Byrnes; Superintendent of Vegetable Testing Gardens, W. W
charge of Seed Laboratory, Edgar Brown; Expert in charge of Grain Standard i :a/ion,
John D. Shanahan; Pathologist in charge of Subtropical Laboratory and Garden,
Miami, Fla., Ernst A. Bessey; Expert m charge of Plant Introduction Garden, Chico,
Cal., August Mayer: Pomologist in charge of South Texas Garden, Brownsville, Tex.,
Edward ('. Orcein; Special Agent in charge of Cotton Culture Farms, Seaman A.
Knapp, Lake Charles, La.
The Bureau of Plant Industry studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture. Its
work is classified under the general subjects of Pathological Investigations, Physiolog-
ical Investigations, Taxonomic Investigations, Agronomic Investigations. Horticul-
tural Investigations, and Seed and Plant Introduction Investigations.
Forest Service (Atlantic Building, 928-930 F street NW.). — Forester and Chief,
Gifford Pinchot; Associate Fo rcsta; Overton W. Price; Lair Ofivr, P. P. Wells;
Editor, Herbert A. Smith; Dcndrologist, George B. Sudworth; Branch of Grazing,
Assistant Forester in Charge, Albert F. Potter ; Branch of Opt ration. Assistant For-
ester in Charge, James B. Adams; Chief, Office of Maintenance, Hermon C. Metealf;
Fiscal Agent anil Chief, Office of Accounts, George E. King; Chief Of ice if Organiza-
tion, C. S. Chapman; Assistant Chief, Office of Organization. Clyde Leavitt; Chief,
Office of Engineering, W. E. Herring; Chief, Office of Lands, George F. Pollock;
Branch of Silnrulture, Assistant Forester in Charge, William T. Cox; Chief, Office
of Extension, Samuel N. Spring; Chief, Office of Silcics, Raphael Zon; Chief. Qffiee
of Mimuiji in nil, E. E. Carter; Assistant Chief, Office of Management, W. O. Weigle:
Branch of Produces — Assistant Forester in Charge, William L. Hall; Chief, Office of
Wood Utilizatio7i,R. S. Kellogg; Chief, Office of Wood Prrser rat ion, O O. Crawford;
Chief, Office of Publication, Findley Bums.
The Forest Service has charge of the administration of the National forests, and con-
ducts examinations on the public lands to determine the propriety of making changes
in the boundaries of existing National forests and of withdrawing other areas suitable
for new forests; gives practical assistance in the conservative handling of State and pri-
vate forest lands; investigates methods of planting and kinds of trees for planting, and
gives practical assistance to tree planters; studies commercially valuable trees to deter-
mine the best means of using and reproducing them; tests the strength and durability
of construction timbers, railroad ties, and poles, and determines the best methods of
extending their life through preservative treatment; and studies forest tires, the effects
of grazing on forest land, turpentine orcharding, and other forest problems.
Bureau of Chemistry (corner Fourteenth and B streets SW.). — Chemist and Chief,
Harvey W. Wiley; Board of Food and Drug Inspection, 11. W.Wiley, F. L. Dun-
lap. andG. P. McCains Chief of Division of Foods, W. D.Bigelow;: Chiefs of Food and
Drug Inspection Laboratories : New York, R. E. Doolittle; Philadelphia, C. S. Brin-
ton; Boston, B. H. Smith: Chicago, A. L. Winton; New Orleans, C. W. Harrison;
San Francisco, R. A. Gould; St. Paul, A. S. Mitchell; Chief of Sugar Laboratory,
C. A. Browne, jr.; Chief of Miscellaneous Laboratory, J. K. Haywood; Chief of I) airy
Laboratonj, G. E. Patrick; CMef of Plant Analysis Laboratory, C. C. Moore; Chief
of Drug Laboratory, L. F. Kebler; Chief of Contracts Laboratory, P. H. Walker;
Chief of Li other and Paper Laboratory, F. P. Veitch; Chief of Micro-chemical Labora-
tory. B. J. Howard; Chief Clerk, M. T. Read.
The Bureau of Chemistry investigates methods proposed for the analysis of plants,
fertilizers, and agricultural products, and makes such analyses as pertain in general
to the interests of agriculture. The work on foods includes the analysis of adulterated
products, experiments to determine the effect of adulterants on the human organism,
the investigation of food products imported into the Ignited States, and the examina-
tion of foods and drugs in accordance with the Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 19()(j.
The Bureau does chemical work for some of the other Bureaus and Divisions of the
Department, and for other Departments of the Government which apply to the Secre-
tary of Agriculture for such assistance.
Bureaf of Soils (2(>S 214 Thirteenth street SW.).— Chief ', Milton Whitney; CMef
Clerk, A. (i. Rice; In charge of Soil Laboratories. Frank K. Cameron; In charge of
Soil Sii/T()/, Jay A. Honsteel; In charge of Alkali Reclamation Investigations. Clarence
W. Dorsey; In charge of Tobacco Investigations, George T. McNess; In charge of
456 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Soil Management, Frank D. Gardner; Tn charge of Fertility Investigations, Oswald
Srhreiner.
The Bureau of Soils is intrusted with the investigation, survey, and mapping of soils;
the investigation of the cause and prevention of the rise of alkali in the soil, and the
drainage of soils; and the investigation of the methods of growing, curing, and fermen-
tation of tobacco in the different tobacco districts.
Bureau of Entomology. — Entomologist and Chief, L. O. Howard; Entomologist and
Acting Chief in absence of Chief, C. L. Marlatt ; Chief Clerk, R. S. Clifton; In charge of
Breeding Experiments, F. H. Chittenden; In charge of Forest Insect Investigations,
A. D. Hopkins; In charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, W. D. Hunter; In
charge of Cereal and Forage-plant Insect Investigations, F. M. Webster; In charge of
Deciduous-fruit Insect Investigations, A. L. Quaintance; In charge of Apicultural In-
vestigations, E. F. Phillips; In charge of Gipsy and Brown-tail Moth Work, D. M. Rog-
ers; Engaged in White Fly Investigations, A. W. Morrill; In charge of Gipsy Moth
Laboratory, E. S. G. Titus; Engaged in Silk Investigations, C. J. Gilliss; Assistant in
charge of Editorial Work, R. P. Currie; Librarian, Mabel Colcord.
The Bureau of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding injurious
insects affecting Held crops, fruits, small fruits, truck crops, forests and forest products,
and stored products; studies insects in relation to diseases of man and other animals and
as animal parasites; experiments with the introduction of beneficial insects and with
the fungous and other diseases of insects; and conducts experiments and tests with
insecticides and insecticide machinery. It is further charged with investigations in
apiculture and sericulture. The information gained is disseminated in the form of
general reports, bulletins, and circulars. Museum work is done in connection with the
Division of Insects of the National Museum, and insects are identified for experiment
stations and other public institutions and for private individuals.
Bureau op Biological Survey. — Biologist and Chief, C. Hart Merriam; Administra-
tive Assistant and Acting Chief in absence of Chief, H. W. Henshaw; Assistant in
charge of Economic Investigations, A. K. Fisher; Assistant in charge of Game Preserva-
tion, T. S. Palmer; Assistant in charge of Geographic Distribution, Vernon Bailey.
The Bureau of Biological Survey studies the geographic distribution of animals and
plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country ; it also investigates the economic
relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the preservation of
beneficial and the destruction of injurious species. It is charged with carrying into
effect the provisions of the Federal law for the supervision of interstate commerce in
game and the importation and protection of birds, and certain provisions of the law for
the protection of game in Alaska.
Division of Accounts and Disbursements. — Chief and Disbursing Clerk, A. Zap-
pone; Assistant Chief, Edgar B. Calvert; Auditor, Everett D. Yerby; Cashier,
M. E. Fagan.
The Division of Accounts and Disbursements audits, adjusts, and pays all accounts
and claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure of
public funds; prepares advertisements and schedules for annual supplies and letters
of authority; writes, for the signature of the Secretary, all letters to the Treasury
Department pertaining to fiscal matters; issues requisitions for the purchase of sup-
plies and requests for passenger and for freight transportation; prepares the annual
estimates of appropriations, and transacts all other business relating to the financial
interests of the Department.
Division of Publications. — Editor and Chief. Geo. Wm. Hill; Editor and Assistant
Chief, Joseph A. Arnold; Associate Editor, B. D. Stallings; Assistant in charge of
Document Section, R. B. Handy; Chief Clerk, A. I. Mudd; Assistant in charge of
Indexing, Charles II. Greathouse; Assistant in charge of Illustrations, Louis S.
Williams.
The Division of Publications exercises general supervision of the Department print-
ing and illustrations, edits all publications of the Department (with the exception of
those of the Weather Bureau), has charge of the printing and Farmers' Bulletin funds,
and distributes all Department publications with the exception of those issued by the
Weather Bureau and those turned over by law to the Superintendent of Documents
for sale at the price affixed by him. It issues, in the form of press notices, official
information of interest to agriculturists, and distributes to agricultural publications
ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 457
and writer? notice? and synopses of Department publication?, and has charge of all
correspondence -with the Government Printing Office.
Bureau of Statistics. — Statistician and Chief, Victor II. Olmsted; Associate Statis-
tician. C. C. Clark: Assistant Statistician. Sal C. Murray: Chief Clerk, E. J. Lundy:
Chief of Division of Foreign Marlats. George K. Holme?: Chief of Division of
Domestic Crop lit ports. F. J. Blair: Crop Reporting Board: Victor H. Olmsted,
Charles C. (lark. Nat C. Murray, George K. Holme?, and one member selected from
month to month from the corps of field agent? and of State statistical agents.
The Statistician collect? information as to the condition, production, etc.. vi the
principal crops and the status of farm animals through State agents, each of whom
- --isted by a corps of local reporters, through separate corps of county, township.
and cotton correspondents, through traveling agents, and through a special foreign
correspondent, assisted by consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. He
record?, tabulates, and coordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution,
and consumption, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards
of trade, and individual experts: prepares special statistical bulletins upon domestic
and foreign agricultural subjects, and i??ue? a monthly crop report for the information
of producer? and consumers. Special bulletins are published giving information of
domestic and f >reign trade and of the conditions under which foreign trade may be
extended. Investigations are made of land tenures, cost of producing farm products,
country-life education, transportation, and other lines of rural economic?.
Library. — Librarian. Josephine A. Clark: Assistant Librarian. Claribel R. Barnett.
The Librarian has charge of the Library and supervise? the arrangement and cata-
S Log of bonk?, the preparation of bibliographic? and similar publications, and the
purchase of new books. The mailing lists for the distribution of Department publi-
cations to foreign countries are under the supervision of the Librarian.
Office of Experiment Stations. — Director. A. C. True: Assistant Director and Editor
of Experiment station Record, E. W. Allen: Chief of Editorial Division, W. H. Beal:
f pf Division Stations, W. H. Evans; Special Agent, Alaska, <
GeorgesoD : S pedal Agt nt, Hawaii. Jared G. Smith: Special Ag> nt, T'orto Rico. D. W.
May: Chief of Nutrition Investigations. ('. F. Langworthy; Chief of Irrigation -and
Drai7iage Livestigatioiis. Elwood Mead: Fanners' Institute Specialist. John Hamilton:
E pert in Agricultural Education. D. J. Crosby: Chi<f Clerk. Mrs. C. E. Johnston.
The Office of Experiment Station? represents the Department in its relation to the
experiment stations, which are now in operation in all the States and Territories, and
directly manages the experiment stations in Alaska. Porto Rico, and Hawaii. It
seeks to promote the interest? of agricultural education and inve?tigation throughout
the United States. It collects and disseminates general information regarding agri-
cultural schools, colleges, and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural inves-
tigations at home and abroad. It also indicate? line? of inquiry for the stations, aids
in the conduct of cooperative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and work,
and in general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote
the purposes for which they were established. In a similar way it aids in the devel-
opment of the farmers" institutes throughout the United States. It is charged with
investigations on the nutritive value and economy of human foods. It conducts
investigations of the laws and institutions relating to irrigation in different regions,
the use of irrigation waters, the removal of seepage and surplus waters by drainage,
and the use of different kinds of power and machinery for irrigation and other agricul-
tural purp -
Office of Public Roads. — Director. Logan Waller Page: Assistajit Director. Allerton
S. Cushman; Chief Engineer, Vernon M. Peirce: Chief of Records, Maurice 0.
Eldrid-^e: Testing Engineer, Philip L. Wormeley. jr.: Chief Clerk, James Edmund
Pennybacker. jr.
The Office of Public Roads collects and disseminates information concerning sys-
tem? of road management throughout the United State?: conducts investigations and
experiments regarding road-building material? and methods of mad construction;
makes chemical and physical test? of road material? and material? of con?truction
relating to agriculture: gives expert advice on road admini?tration and road con-
struction: demonstrate? the best methods of construction, and prepares publications
on these subjects.
458
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR
THE FISCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1905, 1906. AND 1907.
Object of appropriation.
1905.
1907-
Salaries, Department of Agriculture
Library. Department of Agricultur-
Contingent Expenses. Department of Agriculture
Collecting Agricultural Statistics
Bureau of Plant Industry, General Expenses
Botanical Investigations and Experiments
Entomological Investigations
Vegetable Pathological Investigations
Grai:. s . ns, 1906
Rent of quarters. Plant Bureau (deficiency act
Biological Invest:.: "
Pomoiogical Investigations
Laboratory, Department of Agriculture
- • tions
Nat; Administration, etc.. 1S07 and 1908
Wichita Forest and Game Preserve
Survey and Report, Appalachian and White Mountain
Watersheds, 1907 and 1908
.g Timbers, Louisiana Purchase Exposition. St. Louis.
Mo. (deficiency act ;
Experimental Gardens and Grounds. Department of Agri-
culture
Soil Investigations
Grass and Forage Plant In ve stigations
Greenhouses, Department of Agriculture. 1904-i'-> •"
Agricultural Experiment Stations [for stations under Hatch
and Adams acts; 1810,000, 1905; $794,660. ISO •
10.000.09
37.000.00
139. 500. 00
37.000.00
67.500.00
70.000.00
63. 840.00
-
155.640.00
25.000.00
10.000.00
37.000.00
" 112.900.00
_ .ia. :>>
307.500.00
2.50000
34.000.00
43.500.00
135.000.00
388.000.00
44. 420. 00
-
793. 180. 00
;.
4 395. 930. 00
902. 210. 82
1.052.500.00
15.000.00
- 00.00
16 MX Of
25.000.00
170.000.00
42.500.00
35 00.0
20.320.00
170.000.00
1907}-
Nutrition Investigations
Public Road Inquiries
Cotton Boll Investigatior s
Publications, Department of Agriculture
Sugar Investigations
Purchase and Distribution of Valuable Seed-
a and Expenses. Bureau of Animal Industrv
Ticks. 1907 and 1908
Bureau of Animal Industry (deficiency act
Irrigation Investigations.*.
Tea Culture Investigations
Arlington Experimental Farm
Building, Department of Agricultur-
. BOB H
20,00ft •
35.000.00
250.000.00
210.000.00
7.500.00
290.000.00
"-
20.000.00 i
:
190.000.00
/ 132. 250. 00
7.500.00
242.930.00
- '.0.00 1.456.538. 00
67. .500. 00
10,000.00
20.000.00
250.000.00
. . 00.00
74.500.00
8.500.00
20,000.00
950.000.00
1S5.000.00
-:5. or.
20.000.00
230.000.00
S 132. 250. 00
M
3.946.980.00
107.500.00
':. - ■
-■
4.'00.>SOO.OO 5.719.700.00
TVEATHEE BtTBEAC.
Salaries, Weather Bureau
Fuel, Lights, and Repairs. Weather Bureau...
Contingent Expenses, Weather Bureau
General Expenses, Weather Bureau
Buildings. Weatb
: Land Lines, Weather Bureau
Salaries, Station Employees, Weather Bureau.
ISO, 44). 00
. .. .
10.000.00
1.064.300.00
27 «T0. 00
191.340.00
10.000.00
10.000.00
1.093. .565. 00
53.000.00
35.000.00
£94,690.00
• •■ ..-.,r,
i ,009 a
630.000.00
53.000.00
.54i.5oO.00
Total, Weather Bureau.
total
1.337.740.00 1.392.990.00
:j.O0 7.112.690.00
a Includes $4,900 for Foreign Markets Investigations.
"> Includes $11,300 for rent and repairs; $.5,000 for Ozark Mountain investigci- served
from sale of fruits and vegetables; also appropriations heretofore made under the names of Botanical
Investigations. Vegetable Pathological Investigations, Pomoiogical Investigations. Experimental
•.nd Forage Plant Investigations, Sugar Investigations. Tea Culture
Investigations, and Arlington Experimental Farm.
'Included under Bureau of Plant Industry.
& Includes $300,000 for enforcement of Food and Drugs Act.
t Expeus'3 of Offiesof Experiment Stations and inc. 5 from sale of Experiment Station
card indexes in 1S07.
/ Does not include $300,000 for the Yearbook and $185,000 in general printing fund.
a Does not include $300,000 in general printing fund.
INSTITUTIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.
459
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN
UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. «
THE
College instruction in agriculture is given in tlie colleges and universities receiving
the benefits of the acts of Congress of July 2. 1862, and August 30. 1890. which are
now in operation in all the Stales and Territories, except Alaska. Hawaii, and Porto
Rico. The total number of these institutions is 65, of which 63 maintain courses of
instruction in agriculture. In 21 States the agricultural colleges are departments of
the State universities. In 15 States and Territories separate institutions having
courses in agriculture are maintained for the colored race. All of the agricultural
colleges for white persons and several of those for negroes offer four-year courses in
agriculture and its related sciences leading to bachelors' degrees, and many provide
for graduate study. About 55 of these institutions also provide special, short, and
correspondence courses in the different branches of agriculture, including agronomy,
h< >rt iculture. animal husbandry, p >ultry raising, cheese making, dairying, sugar making,
rural engineering, farm mechanics, and other technical subjects. The officers of the
agricultural colleges engage quite largely in conducting farmers' institutes and various
other forms of college extension. The agricultural experiment station- with very few
exceptions are departments of the agricultural colleges. The total number of persons
engaged in the work of education and research in the land-grant colleges and the
experiment stations in 1906 was 5.<;:>7: the number of students in these colleges, 63,471 ;
the number of students (white) in the four-year college courses in agriculture. 2.770;
in short and special courses, 4,764. There were also 1.70 8 students in agriculture in
the separate institutions for negroes. With a few exceptions, each oi these colleges
offers free tuition to residents of the State in which it is located. In the excepted
i ases scholarships are open to promising and energetic students: and. in all. opportu-
nities are found for some to earn part of their expenses by their own labor. The
expenses are from $125 to $300 for the school year.
Ag icultural colleges and other institutions in the I nited States havvrJ) courses in agriculture.
State or Territory.
of institution.
Location.
President.
Alabama ' Uabama Polytechnic Institute.
Agricultural and Mechanical
College for Negroes.
Arizona University of Arizona
Arkansas University of Arkansas
California University of California
Colorado The State Agricultural College
of Colorado.
Connecticut Connecticut Agricultural Col-
lege.
Delaware Delaware College
State College for Colored Stu-
dents.
Florida ' University of Florida
Florida State Normal and In-
dustrial College.
Georgia Georgia State College of Agri-
culture and Mechanic Arts.
Georgia State Industrial Col-
lege.
Idaho I niversity of Idaho
Auburn. .
Normal..
Tucson
Fayette vitte
Berkelev
Fort Collins
Storrs.
Newa rk .
Dover. .
Gainesville.. .
Tallahassee. . .
Athens
Savannah . . .
Moscow.
Illinois..
Indiana .
Iowa
Kentucky.
Louisiana.
University of Illinois
Purdue University
Iowa State College of Agricul-
ture and the Mechanic Arts.
Kansas State Agricultural Col-
lege.
Agricultural and Mechanical
College of Kentucky.
The Kentucky Normal and In-
dustrial Institute for Colored
Persons.
Louisiana State University and
Agricultural and Mechanical
College.
Southern University and Ag-
ricultural and Mechanical
lege.
Urbane . . .
Lafayette.
Ames
Manhattan. . .
Lexington
Frankfort
C. C. Thach. LL. D.
W. 11. Councill, Ph. D.
K. C. Bahcock. Ph. D.
.T. N. Tillman, B. LL.
B. I. Wheeler. Ph. D..LL. D.
15. <). Avlesworth, LL. D.,
Litt. D.
R. W. Stimson. A. M.
G. A. llarter. Ph. D.
W. C. Jason, M. A.
Andrew Sledd, Ph. D..LL.D.
N. B. Young. M. A.
II. ('. White. Ph. D..LL.D.
R. R. Wright, LL. D.
J. A. MacLean, Ph. D.,
LL. D.
E..1. .Tames. Ph. D., LL. D.
W. E. Stone. Ph. D.
A. B. Storms. D. D.. LL. D.
E. R.Nichols. A. M.
J. K. Patterson, Ph. D.,
LL. D.
J.S.IIaihawav. M. A..M. D.
Baton Rouge T. D. Boyd, LL. D.
New Orleans II. A. Hill.
a Including only institutions established under the land-grant art of Jury 2. 1862.
460
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ether institutions in the United States having courses in
agriculture — Continued.
State or Territory.
:' institution.
Location.
President.
Maine
Maryland
I
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
:ri
Montana
^ka
la
Mexico
■
North I
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
I vania . .
I sland . .
South <
South Dakota.
Verm' :
Virginia
-"
West Virginia.
Wiaoox
Wyoming
The University of Maine
nd Agricultural College
Princess Anne Academy. East-
ern Branch. Md. Agr" Coll.
Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
-
Michigan State Agricultural
College.
The University of Minnesota .. .
ppi Agricultural and
Mechanical College.
Alcorn Agricultural and Me-
chanic
ihe V: Missouri
n Institute
The Mont gc
culture and Mechanic Arts.
The D .ska... :
iversity
The New Hampshire College of
Agriculture and the Mechanic
Arts.
. rs Scientific School, the
Jersey State College for
the Benefit of Agriculture and
the Mechanic Arts.
The New Mexico College of Ag-
riculture and Mechanic Arts.
. University
The North Carolina College of
Agriculture and Mechanic-
Arts.
The Agricultural and Mechan-
ical College for the Colored
-
North Dakota Agricultural Col-
lege.
Ohio State University
ma Agricultural and
j.anical Co; j>
Agricultural and Xormi..
Oregon State Agricultural Col-
The Pennsylvania Sta(
Rhod< I . :' Agri-
culture and Mechanic Arts.
Clemson Agricultural College of
Sout b
The Colored Normal. Indus-
trial. Agricultural, and Me-
chanical ' - South
ina.
rri -ultural Col-
-
: T-'T.nessee
Agricultural and Meci.
-■
Prairi- Normal and
Industrial College.
The Agricultural Col'. »
Utah.
rmont and
Stat
The Virginia Agricultu-
Miy/hanica! College and Poly-
•;Tute.
The Hampton Normal and Ag-
ricultural Insti:
The State College of Washing-
ty
The West Virginia Colored In-
stitute.
:" Wyoming
Orono
College Park
Princess Anne
Amherst
Agricultural Col-
lege.
St. Anthony Park
Agricultural Col-
lege.
Lorman
Columbia
Jefferson City. . ..
Bozeman
Lincoln
Reno
Durham
New Brunswick .
G. E. Fallows, Ph. D.. LL.D.
R. W. Silvester. M. .-.
F. Trigg. M. A.
K. L. Butterfield. A. M.
J. L. Snyder. Ph. D.
C. Northrop. LL. D.
J. C. Hardy. LL. D.
L. J. Rowan. B. S.
R. H. Jesse. LL. D.
B. F. Allen. LL. D.
J. M. Hamilton, M. S.
E. B. Andrews. LL. D.
J. E. Stubbs. D.D..LL. D.
W. D. Gibbs. M. S.
W. II. S. Demarest.
Agricultural Col- Luther Foster. M. S. A
lege.
Ithaca
West Raleigh
Greensboro..
Agricultural Col-
lege.
Columl .
J.G.Schurman. B.Sc.LL.D.
G»T. Winston. LL. D.
Still water...-
I J I ID
:lege. ...
Clemson College .
Orangeburg
Brookings
Knoxville
College E
Prairie View
Logan
Burlington
;rg
Hampton
Pullman
Morgantown.
" .ie
Laramie.
J. B. Dudley. LL. D.
J. n. Worst, LL. D.
W. O. Thompson, D. D.,
LL.D.
A. C. Scott. LL. M.
I. E. Page, M. A.
T. M. Gatch. Ph. D.
J. A. Beaver.
Howard Edwards, LL. I>.
P. H. Mell. Ph. D..LL. D.
T. E. Miller. LL. D.
R. L. Slagle. Ph. D.
Brown Avres. Ph. D.. LL. D.
H. II. Harrington. LL. D.
E. L. Bla<?kshear.
W. T. Kerr. D. Sc.
M.H.Buckham.D.I'..LL.D.
J.M.McBrydc,Ph.D.,IX-D.
II. B. Frissell. P. D.. LL. D.
E. A. Bryan. LL. D.
D.B.Purinton.Ph.D. LL.I'.
J. Mell. Jones. A. M.
C. R. Van Hise. Ph. D.
F. M. Tisdf 1. I'h. D.
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
461
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
THEIR LOCATIONS, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OF
WORK.
Station, location, and director.
Alabama (College), Auburn:
J. F. Duggar
Principal lines of work.
Alabama (Canebrakei, Uniontown:
J. M. Kicheson a
Alabama (Tuskegee), Tuskegee Insti
tute:
0. W.Carver
Arizona, Tucson:
R. II. Forbes.
Arkansas, Fayetteville:
W. G. Vincenheller. .
California. Berkeley:
E. J. Wicksonft. .
Colorado, Fort Collins:
L. <;. Carpenter
Connecticut (State). New Haven:
E. H. Jenkins
Connecticut (Storrs), Storrs:
L. A. Clinton
Delaware. Newark:
Harry Ha v ward. .
Chemistry; botany: soils: analysis of fertilizers and food mate-
rials: agronomy; horticulture: plant breeding: diseases of-
plants and animals: animal husbandry; entomology: dairy-
ing.
Agronomy: horticulture: floriculture: plant breeding: diseases
of plants and animals.
Agronomy: horticulture: diseases of plants: animal industry;
poultry investigations; dairying.
Chemistry: botany; agronomy; horticulture; improvement of
ranges; animal husbandry; irrigation.
Chemistry; agronomy; horticulture: plant breeding; diseases
of plants and animals; animal husbandrv; dairying; ento-
mology; poultry experiments: nursery inspection.
Chemistry; soils; bacteriology; fertilizer control: agronomy;
horticulture, including viticulture and zvmology; botany;
meteorology: entomology; animal husbandrv;" dairying;
poultry experiments: irrigation and drainage:' silviculture;
reclamation of alkali lands; animal and plant pathology;
nutrition investigations.
Chemistry: meteorology: agronomy; horticulture: forestry:
plant breeding: diseases of plants; animal husbandrv; veter-
inary investigations; entomology; irrigation.
Chemistry; inspection of fertilizers, foods, feeding stulTs. Bab-
cock test apparatus, and nurseries: diseases of plants: plant
breeding; forestry; agronomy; entomology.
Food and nutrition of man and animals: dairy bacteriology;
agronomy: horticulture: plant breeding: poultry culture:
dairying.
■ Chemistry; bacteriology; mycology: agronomy: horticulture;
plant breeding: diseases of plants and animals: animal hus-
_ bandrv; dairying; entomologv.
Florida, Gainesville:
P.H.Rolfs Chemistry: agronomy: horticulture: diseases of plants; feed-
_ ing experiments: veterinary science; entomologv.
Georgia, Experiment:
M. V. Calvin Chemistry: agronomy; bacteriology; horticulture; plant breed-
ing; plant diseases; entomology: animal husbandrv; dairy-
ing.
Idaho, Moscow:
I!. T. French Chemistry: physics: botany: agronomy; horticulture: plant
breeding: diseases of plants: entomology: animal husbandry;
irrigation.
Illinois, Urbana:
E. Davenport Chemistry; soil physics: bacteriology: agronomy: horticulture:
forestry: plant breeding: diseases of plants and animals; ani-
mal husbandry; dairying.
Indiana. Lafayette:
Arthur Goss Chemistry: soils: agronomy: horticulture: plant breeding;
animal husbandry; dairying: diseases of plants and animals:
entomology.
Iowa, Ames:
C. F. Curtiss Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture: plant breeding:
forestry; diseases of plants: animal husbandry; poultry
investigations; dairying; entomology; rural engineering;
good roads investigations.
Kansas. Manhattan:
C . \\ . Burkett Chemistry; soils; horticulture: plant breeding: agronomy;
animal husbandry: poultry experiments: diseases of ani-
mals; dairying; entomology; extermination of prairie dogs
and gophers: irrigation.
Kentucky. Lexington:
M. A. Scovell Chemistry: soils; inspection of fertilizers, foods, feeding stuffs,
orchards, and nurseries: agronomy: horticulture; plant
breeding; animal husbandry: dairying; diseases of plants;
entomology; apiculture.
"Assistant director.
^Acting director.
462
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICT/LTURE.
literal experiment stations of the United States, their loeetmm - and pri?i-
cipal lines of work — <A>ntinu.<l.
Station, location, and Ml
Principal lines of work.
Louisiana iSugare Xew Orleans:
W. R. Dodson Chemistry: bacterioli _
making: drainage: irricv I
Louis: . Baton Rouge:
W. K. Dodson Geology: botany: bacteriology; soils: inspection of fertilizers.
foods, and ! _ _ any: horticulture: animal hus-
bandry: diseases of animals; enton.
na ' North), Calhoun:
\Y. R. Dodson Chembtr; 'ilizers: agronomy; horticulture; animal
husbandry; stock raising; poultry experiment -
Maine. Orono:
C. I'. W Is Chemistry inspection of foods fertilizers I
feeding' st v.:' - glass
patholrgy; antrft
entomology.
Mary: E Park:
II. .'. Patterson
Massachusetts. Amherst :
W. P. Brooks
Mictugan. Agricultural I
CD. Smith
Minnesota. St. Anthony Park. St.
Paul:
W. M. Liggett
Chemistry; fertilizers; agronomy: horticu '
ing; diseases of plants and animals
try; poultry expe:
Chemistry; meteorology; inspection of fertilizers, eon
feeding st in: • _ _ nomy;
horticulture: diseases of plants and animals; animal hus-
y; dairying; gy; em ct of electricity on plant
growth.
Chemistry: analysis and control of fertilizers; bacteri dogy;
agronomy: horticulture: plant bn - _ ; plants
and animals; animal > ento-
mol ■_
Chemistry; soils: fertilizers; agronomy; nortieultux'
estry; diseases off plant!
investigations; -. ry; dairy-
ing; entomology; farm ma - ■ . .
issippi, Agricultural
W. L. Hutchinson Fertilizers: agronomy: horticulture; biolog ling:
animal husbandry: dts
dairying: enter . g g ong.
Missouri (College), Colom
HL J. Waters Chemistry: soil survey: botany: agronomy: i : dis-
■ i >f plants and wis
ing: dairying; entomology.
Missouri t Fruit . Mountain Grove:
Paul Evans Horticu]:
Montana. Bozeman:
F. B. Linfield Chemistry: meteorology: botany; agronomy: dry farming;
horticulture; animal husbandry; poultry
rying: entomology: irrigation and drain _
Nebraska, Lincoln:
E. A. Burnett Chemistry; botany:
tore; plant and annuals; for-
estry; animal husbandry; dairying
Nevada, Bene:
J.E.Stubbs Chemistry: botany, soils: meteorology; agronomy; horticul-
ture; forestry; pi g - animal hns-
jry: entomology; irriga*
New Hampshire. Durham:
TV. D. tUTibs Chemistry; botany: agronomy: '
forestry; animal husbandry
ing; entomology.
Xew Jersey i State . Xev; Brunswick: Hnemistry; oyster culture; botany;
E. B. voorhei s [ foods, and commercial f- . Domy; horticul-
Xew .' w Brunswick: | tare; plant breeding: <J.-
E. B. Voorhees I husbandry; entomology; soil b i gal
Xew Mexico. Agricultural Coll -
Luther Foster Chemistry: bet _-- - _
ture; animal hue gy;
Xew York (State . Genera:
W.H.Jordan Chemistry: bacteriology: n -tion
Ej stuffs ad Paris
green; agri ' -
plants: arm ,ry: poult:
entomology; irrig
Xew York (Cornell i. Ithaca:
L.H.Bailey Chemistry; agronomy: horticnlt a
of plants: ardmal husbandrj dairy -
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
463
Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations, directors, and prin-
cipal lines of tcorlc — Continued.
station, location, and director.
Principal lines of work.
North Carolina. Raleigh:
B. W. Kilgore
North Dakota. Agricultural College
J. 11. Worst
Ohio, Wooster:
C. E. Thome.
Oklahoma, Stillwater:
W. L. English
Oregon, Corvallis:
J. Withvcombe.
Pennsylvania State College:
II. P. Armsby
Rhode Island, Kingston:
II. J. Wheeler
South Carolina, Clemson College:
J. N. Harper
South Dakota, Brookings:
J. W. Wilson "....
Tennessee, Knoxville:
II. A. Morgan
Texas, College Station:
J. W. Carson"
Utah, Logan:
P. A. Yoder.
Vermont, Burlington:
J. L. Hills
Virginia, Blacksburg:
A. M. Soule
Washington, Pullman:
E. A. Bryan
West Virginia, Morgantown:
J. H. Stewart
Wisconsin. Madison:
W. A. Henry
V. , -mm^r Laxsmt
' B. C. Bulium...
Chemistry; soils; agronomy; horticulture; animal husbandry;
diseases of animals ami plants; poultry experiments; dairy-
ing; tests of farm machinery.
Chemistry; soils; botany; agronomy; plant breeding; horticul-
ture; forestry; diseases of plants and animals; animal hus-
bandry; poultry experiments; drainage; inspection and
analysis of foods, spraying materials, paints, drugs, and pro-
prietary products.
Chemistry; soils; agronomy; botany; horticulture: plant
breeding; forestry; diseases of plants; animal husbandry;
entomology.
Chemistry: agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding; forestry;
botany^ bacteriology; diseases of plants and animals: animal
husbandry; entomology.
Chemistry; bacteriology; soils; fertilizers; agronomy; horti-
culture; plant breeding and selection; diseases of plants;
animal husbandry; poultry experiments; dairying: ento-
mology; irrigation.
Chemistry: meteorology: fertilizers; horticulture; plant dis-
eases: agronomy; animal husbandry; animal nutrition;
dairying.
Chemistry; meteorology: soils; inspection of fertilizers and
feeding stuffs; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding;
poultry experiments.
Chemistry: inspection of fertilizers: soils; botany; agronomy;
horticulture: plant breeding; diseases of plants; animal hus-
bandry; dairying; veterinary science; entomology.
Chemistry; botany; agronomy; horticulture; plant breeding:
diseases of plants and animals; animal husbandry; entomol-
ogy.
Chemistry; soil investigations; inspection of fertilizers; agron-
omy; horticulture; plant breeding; seeds; weeds; diseases
of plants and animals; animal husbandry; poultry investi-
gations; apiculture; dairying; entomology.
Chemistry; soils; agronomy; horticulture: animal husbandry:
diseases of animals; entomology: irrigation; seed testing:
feed inspection.
Chemistry: alkali soil investigations: agronomy; horticulture;
diseases of plants and animals; animal husbandry; dairying;
poultry experiments; entomology; irrigation; arid farming.
Chemistry; botany; bacteriology; inspection of fertilizers,
feeding stuffs, ami creamery glassware: agronomy; horticul-
ture; diseases of plants; animal husbandry; dairying.
Chemistry; geology: biology; agronomy; horticulture; plant
breeding; bacteriology; mycology; analysis of foods and soils;
inspection of orchards; animal husbandry: veterinary sci-
ence: dairying; entomology; cider and vinegar making"; fer-
ments.
Chemistry: botany: bacteriology: soils: agronomy: horticul-
ture: plant breeding; diseases of plants; animal husbandry;
veterinary science; dairying; entomology; irrigation.
Chemistry: inspection of fertilizers, orchards, and nurseries;
soils; agronomy; horticulture; diseases of plants and ani-
mals; animal husbandry ; poultry experiments; entomology.
Chemistry; bacteriology; soils: agronomy: horticulture: plant
breeding; animal husbandry; dairying; irrigation, drainage,
and agricultural engineering.
Chemistry: mycology; botany: meteorology: soils; range im-
provement; fertilizers; agronomy; plant selection; food
analysis; animal husbandry; irrigation.
« Vice-director.
464
YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
President. L. H. Bailey, dean of College of Agriculture and director of New York
(Cornell) Experiment Station. Ithaca. X. Y.: m< -Mary-treasurer. J- L. Hills, director
Vermont Experiment Station. Burlington. Yt.
OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FARMERS' INSTITUTES.
Farmers' Institute Specialist. r><partmcnt of Agriculture.
John Hamilton. Washington. District of Columbia.
Stab - i nts.
State or Tt rritorv.
S
TosT-office.
Alabama.
Alaska.. .
Arkansas.
California. ..
Colorado
Connecticut .
Delaware.
Florida .
Georgia .
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
is
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mail..'
Maryland
Michigan ,
-ota
Mississippi ,
Missouri
Montana
-ka
-a
New Hampshire...
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North F>akota
Ohio
Oklahoma
a
sylvania
Porto Rico
Rhode Island
Carolina
ta
Tennessee
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington. .
Wist Virginia.
sin
Wyoming
C. A. Cary. Alabama Polytechnic Inst it ate
G. W. Carver, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..
C. C. Georgeson, Agricultural E\ : Station
R. H. Forbes, Director Agricultural Experir
W. G. Vincenheller, Director Agricultural Ext»,
Station.
E. .1. Wickson. University of California
EL M. Cot troll. Director of Farmers' Institutes
J. F. Brown. Se-eretary State Board of Agriculture
.1. G. Schwink. Secy Connecticu: Daii ... ..iaiion.
11. C. C. Miles. Secretary Connecticut Pomotog - .
. Director of Farmers' Institute... . .
H. Hayward, Director Agricultural Experiment Station.
R. W. Clothier, University of Florida
EL C. White. President State College of Agrieult v.-
Jordan, Director of Farmers' Institutes
J. G. Smith, Agricultural Exp: n
II. T. French, Director Agricultural E nation-
Frank 1L Hall. BecretaryFarmers' Institutes
W. C. Latta. Purdue University
J. C. Simpson, Secretary State Board of Agricultr.
.1. II. Miller. Superintendent of Farmers' Inslitm. -
Hubert Vreeland. Commissioner of Agrieuliure
-::missioner of Agriculture
A. W. Gilman - culture
\V. L. Amoss, Director of Farmers' Institutes
J. I*. EUswortl - : Board of Agrieult
L. R. 1 - tendeht of 1
0-. C. Gregg i i statutes
E. K. Lloyd. Director of Farmers' Inst tut -
Gk o. P. Ellis. - -Tate Board of Agriculture
F. B. Linfield, Director Agr. E1
E. A. Burnett, Director Agricultural 1
J. E. Stubbs, President N -
N. J. Ba - Board of Agriculture
Franklii - taryStat rd of Agricutti
.lohn D. Tinslcy. Superintendent of Fa
F . E . Da
S. L. Patterson. Commissioner of Agriculture
E.E.Kaufman. P.: raters' Institutes
T. L. Calvert. Secretary State 1
C. A. Mi Secret of Agriculture
.'.With .tor Agricultural Experiment Station
A. L. Martin. Deputy Secretary of Agriculture
D. W. May, Agricultural Exper
John J. Dunn, Secret Stat of Agrieult
J. X. Harper, Director Agricultural E
A. E. Chamberlain. Superintendent of Farmers" Institutes.
W. W. Ogilvie. Commissioner of Agrieult ure
.1 . W. Carson. Director of Far::.
P. A. Yoder, Director Agr. Exp Hon
5 Stat attun
0. W. Koiner. Commissioner of Agriculture
. oltural Exp 3t .lion
E. E. Elliott. Agricultural College
H. E. V> : Agriculture
G. B. MeKerrow. Director Farmers' Institutes
B.C. BniTum. Director Agricultural Experiment Station..
stitute.
■
T tic son.
ville.
Berk-ley.
N. Stonington.
Hartford.
Milford.
Newark.
- ville.
Atlanta.
Honolulu.
w.
Spring-
Lalay
nes.
Mauha-'
Frankfort.
Baton Rouge.
- -ta.
Boston.
lynd.
Agricultural
man.
.
Conoc -
Trent
-
ville.
Raleigh.
-
'"JS.
Guthrie.
Corvallis.
Harri>
-
Clemson Coll
Howard.
1 :lle.
- • ion.
-
Wood stock.
Richmond.
Blacksl>urg.
Pullman.
•■ ■
Madison.
Lara::
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF FARMERS' INSTITUTE WORKERS.
President. E. A. Burnett, director of Agricultural Experiment Station. Lincoln.
Xelir.; secretary-treasurer, John Hamilton. Farmers' Institute Specialist, I . 8.
Department of Agriculture. Washington. D. C. *
STATE OFFICIALS IX CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE. 465
STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE. a
Commissioners of Agriculture.
State or Territory.
Name of official.
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Montana
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Pennsylvania
Philippine Islands.
Porto Rico
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
Washington
J. A. Wilkinson
Guy B. Tucker
B. E. McLin
T. G. Hudson
Allen Miller, Com'r of Immigration, etc
Hubert Vreeland
Charles Schuler
A . W . Oilman
J . A . Ferguson
J. W. Raynolds, Secretary of State
Chas. A. Wieting
S. L. Patterson
W. C. Gilhreath
N. B. Critchfield, Secretary of Agriculture
W. C. Welborn, Chief, Bureau of Agriculture
Lawranee II. Grahame, Commissioner of the Interior.
E.J. Wa t son
W. W. Osilvie
R. T. Milner
Geo. W. Koiner
Sam II. Nichols. Secretary of State
Post-office.
Montgomery.
Little Rock.
Tallahassee.
Atlanta.
Boise.
Frankfort.
Baton Rouge.
Augusta.
Helena.
Santa Fe.
Albany.
Raleigh.
Bismarck.
Harrisburg.
Manila.
San Juan.
Columbia.
Nashville.
Austin.
Richmond.
Olympia.
Secretaries of State Boards of Agriculture.
California J. A . Filcher
Colorado V M. Hawley
Connecticut J. F. Brown."
Dela wa re Wesley Webb
Ha waii C. S. Holloway
Illinois W. C. Garrard
Indiana I Chas. Downing
Iowa J. C. Simpson
Kansas F. D. Coburn
Maryland ! Wm. T. P. Turpin, Supt. of Immigration.
Massachusetts J. L. Ellsworth
Michigan i Addison M. Brown
Minnesota E. W. Randall, Sec. State Ag'l Society. . . .
Missouri George B. Ellis :
Nebraska W. R. Mellor
Nevada Louis Bevier
New Hampshire j N. J. Bachelder
New Jersey ! Franklin Dye
North Carolina T. K. Bruner
Ohio ' T. L. Calvert
Oklahoma C. A . Mc Nabb
Oregon F. A. Welch
Rhode Island John J. Dunn
South Dakota | C. N. Mcllvaine
Vermont ' George Aitken ;
West Virginia T. B. Garvin
Wisconsin John M. True
Wyoming C. T. Johnston, State Engineer
Sacramento.
Fort Collins.
North Stonington.
Dover.
Honolulu.
Springfield.
Indianapolis.
Des Moines.
Topeka.
Centerville.
Boston.
Agricultural College.
St. Paul.
Columbia.
Lincoln.
Carson City.
Concord.
Trenton.
Raleigh.
Columbus.
Guthrie.
Salem.
Providence.
Huron.
Woodstock.
Charleston.
Madison.
Chevenne. .
a Officials of Territories and island dependencies are included. So far as learned, Arizona, Missis-
sippi, and Utah have no State official charged with agricultural interests, but letters addressed to
the Secretary of State would probably receive attention.
NATIONAL DAIRY ASSOCIATIONS.
Name of organization.
National Association of Dairy Instructors and
Investigators.
Association ol State and National Food and
Dairy Departments.
National Dairy Union
National Creamery Buttermakers' Association..
Boston Cooperative Milk Producers' Association.
Five States Milk Producers' Association
3 A1906-
-30
Secretary.
Post-office.
C.B.Lane U. S. Department of Agri-
culture. Washington, D.C.
R. M. Allen Lexington, Ky.
Charles V. Knight 1.54 Lake street. Chicago.
E. Sudendorf 154 Wa shington street, Chi-
cago.
V> . A. Hunter 10 Florence street, Worces-
ter Mass.
H. T. Coon Homer, N. Y.
466
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AMERICAN NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION.
President. Murdo Mackenzie. Trinidad. retary. W. M. Tonilin?on. Denver.
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF LIVE STOCK HERD BOOK
SECRETARIES.
President, C. EL Thomas, Independen • cretarv. Charles F. Mill?. Spring-
field, 111.
NATIONAL WOOL GROVv^RS" ASSOCIATION.
President. Francis E. Warren, Cheyenne; secretary, George S. Walk nno.
THE CORN-BELT MEAT PRODUCERS- ASSOCIATION.
President. A. L. Ames. Buckingham. Iowa: secretary. II. C. Wallace. Des Moines,
Iowa.
PROTECTION AGAINST CONTAGION FROM FOREIGN CATTLE.
An act of Congress of August 28, 1894, prohibits the importation of cattle and cattle
hides, but by the act of March 2, 1895, making appropriations for the Department of
Agriculture, it is provided that the prohibition may be suspended by the President
whenever the Secretary of Agriculture shall certify to the President what countries
or parts of countries are free from contagious or infectious disi - - mestic animals.
The President, by proclamation of Noveml >er 8, 1895, lifted the embargo with reference
rway, Sweden, Holland, Great Britain. Ireland, the Channel Islands, and the
countries of North. Central, and South America bo as to admit cattle under sanitary
regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture: also from all countries - . -
Lmit hides under regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury.
STOCK BREEDERS" ASSOCIATIONS.^
s and addresses of stock association secretari-s. with breeds and n f registered
stock in United States, December 31,
CATTLE.
Number registered.
.
Male.
i
Female.
OgOS...
Thos. McFariane.. Union Stock Y
Chicago, 111.
■
112,780
71.907
5.403
14.601
249.800
n
- \
- ■
13.717
11,080
: -
3.500
• J
6.000
14.199
5.500
10.000
6,480
■
(c)
L. P. Sisson N.
11. tj. Richards.. 1 ;.
Guernsev
Hereford
in Friesian. .
Polled Durham
Red Polled
C. W. Gray
Chicago, 111.
Wm. n. Caldwell.. Peterboro, N. II.
C.K.Thomas 225 W. 12th st.
- City, Mo.
Frederick L. BrattleT>oro. Vt
Houghton.
J.J.Hemingway.. 8 W. 17th st., New
York, N. Y.
Bines.. Indianapolis, Ind
H. A. Martin Gotham. Wis
Shorthorn
:
Brown
John W. Groves... Union Stock Y
Chicago. 111.
m Lea Nashville, Tens
391. 600
185
3.150
100
1.500
a Under the provisions of paragraph 473 of the act of J ". amended March 3. 1903. any animal
imported specially for breeding purposes shall be admitted, free, provided that no such aninial shall be
admitted free unless pure bred, of a recognized breed, and duly registered in the book of record estab-
lished for that breed. The Secretary of the Treasury, upon the advice of the Secretary of Agriculture.
April 24. 1903. regulations for the importation of animals under this law. and designated the
recognized breeds and the books of record established for these breads.
* Owing to a change in date of making up the books of breeders' associations no new figures could be
obtained to show the numbers of registered stock for December 31, 1906. The numbers in the table are
for December 31, 1905.
c No data.
LIVE-STOCK ASSOCIATIONS.
467
Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
lir< stock in Urdted States, December 31, 190S — Continued.
HORSES.
Breed.
Cleveland Bay. .
Clydesdale
Coach, French.
i'T'IK-h .
Coach, German
Coach, G e r m a n
(Oldenburg).
Draft, Belgian
Draft, French
Hackney
Morgan. . .
Pcreheron .
Percheron
Saddle Horse,
American.
Shetland Pony
Shire
SulTolk
Thoroughbred
Secretary.
R. P. Stcricker...
K. B. Ogilvie
Chas. C. Glenn....
Duncan E. Wtllett
J. Crouch
C. E. Stub lis.
J. D. Connor, jr. .
C. E. Stubbs
A. II. Godfrey
H. T. Cutis
Geo. W. Stubble-
field.
Charles C. Glenn..
I. B. Nail
Trotter, American.
Jacks and Jennies.
Mortimer Levering
Charles Burgess. . .
Alex. Galbraith
James E. Wheeler.
Wm. II. Knight...
J. W. Jones
Post-ollic V.
80 Chestnut ave., W.
Orange, N. J.
Union Stock Yards,
Chicago, 111.
Columbus, Ohio
Maple ave. and l tar-
rison st., Oak Park,
IU.
Lafayette, Ind
Fairfield, Iowa
Wabash, Ind
Fairfield, Iowa
Tichenor Grand Bldg
61st and Broadway,
New York City.
Middlebury, Vt
Union Stock Yards,
;o, 111.
Columbus, Ohio
Louisville, Ky
Lafayette, Ind
Wenona, 111
Janes viUe, Wis
571 Fifth a vc, New
YorJk, N. Y.
355 Dearborn St., Chi-
cago, IU.
Columbia, Tenn
Number registered.' Number living.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
1,236
502
1, 050
400
a 12
,370
(6)
(*>)
130
4
125
4
1,656
360
246
23
1,500
I'll
225
14
2,056
9.000
c 726
266
5,000
c 1,542
2.055
c i,s4
265
c 1,416
(■5.021
1,640
c 2. son
1.460
c3,765
1-9,000
c2,100
12, 000
928
d 2, 529
102
3,549
913
94
2,300
6,062
159
a 4£
3,500
2,148
88
,309
2,000
B
2,500
(6)
150
42,597
c 152, 700
(b)
(»)
1.000
750
750
51 i0
SHEEP.
Cheviot
Cotswold
Dorset Horn
Hampshire Down
Leicester
Lincoln
Merino (Delaine)
Merino (Delaine)
Meiino (Delaine)
Merino (Delaine) .
Merino (French).
Merino (German)
Merino (Spanish)
Merino (Spanish!
Mr! ino (Spa dish
Merino (Spanish)
Merino (Spanish)
Oxford Down . . .
Sh ropshire
Southdown
SulTolk
F. E. Dawlev
F. W. Harding...
J. E. Wing
Comfort A. Tyler.
A. J. Temple
Bert Smith
II. G. McDowell..
George A. Henry.
R. P. Berry
J. B. Johnson
D wight Lincoln. .
E. M. Moore
E. N. Ball
Wesley Bishop. ..
J. II. Earll
J. P. Ray
C, A. Chapman. ..
W. A. Shafor
Mortimer Levering
Frank S. Springer
Geo. W. Franklin.
Fayetteville, N. Y...
Waukesha, Wis
Mechanics!) urg, Ohio
Notta wa , Mich
Cameron, 111
Charlotte, Mich
Canton, Ohio
R. F. I). 8. Beliefem-
taine, Ohio.
R. F. D. 3, Eighty-
four, Pa.
24S WTPitee st., Can-
onshurg, Pa.
Miiford Center, Ohio.
Orchard Lake, Mich.
Ann Arbor, Mich
R. F.D.I, Del- ware,
Ohio.
Skaneatejes, N. Y...
R. F. D. 3, E. Bloom-
field. N. Y.
Middlebury, Vt
Hamilton, Ohio
Lafayette, Ind
Springfield, 111
Des Moines, Iowa . . .
a 10,700
a 36. 610
5.573
3,538
5, 754
3,703
12, 844
5. 437
8.246
a 9, 401
000 14,300
<-5,054
6,805
162
12,530
16,69!
7.916
1 . 275
('11.259
11,599
191
37,700
33,384
11,912
1.500
575 | 2,650
a 14,000
a 217,850
c 32, 798
100,000 134,000
a 19,983
a 1,013
1,000
3,000
2, 972
i, 100
2.800
9,080
4,567
5,900
a [.:■
2,500 8.000
c 1,500 c3,OQ0
1,500
m
105
400
2,842
280
100
Cm
(ft)
20,000
5,000
(6)
175
4.300
8,035
1 . 875
290
(")
(ft
40,060
a 10.201)
a 550
a Total of males and females. h No data. <■ Estimate for 1904.
d Includes geldings
468
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered
lire stock in United States, December SI, 1906 — Continued.
_
Number registered.
Number living.
Breed.
Secretary.
Post-office.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Berkshire
Frank S. Springer.
510 E. Monroe st.,
O88.0S0
"33.000
Springfield. 111.
Ed S. Hill
Freeville. N. \
Columbus, Ohio
1,225
2.115
8,912
275
600
Chester White
Ernest Freigau
2.000
J. C. Hiles
Cleveland, Ohio
3.403
9.000
1.800
6.200
proved.
Duroc Jersev
T. B. Pearson
Thorntown, Ind
$.026
18.450
(«)
M
Duroe Jersev
Robert J. Evans...
Peoria. Ill
21,800
55.000
a 30.000
Hampshire (Thin
E. C. Stone
Armstrong, HI
294
540
155
3S7
Rind).
Poland China
YV. M. McFadden..
Union Stock Yards,
Chicago. 111.
52.331
130. 620
27,000
68,000
Poland China
A. M. Brown
Drawer 10, V\ inches-
ter. Ind.
32.000
72.000
10.000
23.000
Poland China
Geo. F.Woodworth
Marvville, Mo
39.008
93, 2.34
2.000
IS. 000
Poland China
H. P. Wilson
Gadsden. Tenn
091
1.030
400
GOO
E. N. Ball
Ann Arbor, Mich
White Bear Lake,
c 1
2,860
949
3.640
fl
2,000
200
Yorkshire
Harrv G. Kruni
3.200
Minn.
a Total of males and females. l> Xo data. <■ Estimate for 1904.
SANITARY OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF LIVE STOCK INTERESTS.
State or Territory.
Name and post-office.
Official position.
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut . . .
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts.
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi. . . .
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
C. A. Cary. Auburn State veterinarian.
J. D. Carter. Prescott Secretary live-stock sanitary commission.
J.C. Norton, Phoenix Veterinarian.
R. R. Dinwiddie. Fayetteville State veterinarian.
Charles Keane. Sacramento ' Do.
L. B. Sylvester. Denver ] President State board of stock inspection
commissioners.
Charles G.Lamb. Denver State veterinary surgeon.
Heman O. Averill. Hartford Commissioner for domestic animals.
Alex. Lowber. Wilmington Secretary State board of health.
H. P. Eves, Newark Instructor in veterinary science. Delaware
College.
Thomas J. Mahaffy. Jacksonville Veterinarian. State board of health.
Thos. G. Hudson. Atlanta Commissioner of agriculture.
Victor A. Norgaard. Honolulu Territorial veterinarian.
George E. Noble. Boise State veterinarian.
H. ET Wadsworth. Springfield Secretary board of live-stock commis-
sioners.
3, M. Wright, 1S27 Wabash ave.. State veterinarian.
Chicago.
A. W. Bitting. Lafayette Do.
Paul O. Koto. Forest City State veterinary surgeon.
John D. Baker. Peabody! Live-stock sanitary commissioner.
F. T. Eisenman. Louisville State veterinarian.
W. H. Dalrvmple, Baton Rouge Veterinarian State exoerirnent station.
F. O. Beat. Bangor I
John M. Deering, Saco [-Board of cattle commissioners.
Frank S. Adams. Bowdoinham J
G. Allen Jarman. Chestertown Chief veterinary inspector.
Wade II. D. Warfield. Baltimore Secretary livestock sanitary board.
Austin Peters. Boston Chief of cattle bureau of State board of
agriculture.
Willian-fttf. Morris. Cass City State veterinarian.
H. H. Hinds, Stanton President State live-stock sanitary com-
mission.
B.H. Ward. St. Paul Secretary State live-stock sanitary board.
C. E. Cotton. Minneapolis Veterinarian live-stock sanitary board.
H. M. Bracken. St. Paul Secretary State board of health.
J. C. Robert, Agricultural College Professor of veterinary science.
D. F. Luckey. Columbia State veterinarian.
Geo. B. Ellis. Columbia Secretary State board of agriculture.
M. E. Knowles. Helena State veterinarian.
W. G. Preuitt. Helena Secretary live-stock commission.
Charles A. McKimm. Lincoln State veterinarian.
I. W. u'Rourke, Reno Do.
FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS AXD SCHOOLS.
Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests — Continued.
469
State or Territory.
Name and post-office.
Official position.
New Hampshire.
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York.
North Carolina...
North Dakota
N. J. Bachelder, Concord
E. B. Voorhees. New Brunswick.
W. C. Barnes, Las Vegas
Harry F. Lee, Albuquerque
C. A.'Wieting, Albany
W. H. Kellv. Albany.
Tait Butler. Raleigh
S. L. Patterson, Raleigh
W. F. Crewe. Devils Lake
Ohio Paul Fischer. Columbus
T. L. Calvert. Columbus
Oklahoma ' C. J. Davis, Guthrie
Thomas Morris. Guthrie
Oregon William McLean, Portland
j Wm. H. Ly tie, Pendleton
Pennsylvania [ Leonard Pearson. Philadelphia..
Porto Rico Thos. A. Allen, San Juan
Rhode Island John S. Pollard, Providence
John J Dunn, Providence
South Carolina Louis A. Klein, Clemson College..
South Dakota Thos. H. Hicks, Milbank
Tennessee R. H. Kittrell. Nashville
Texas J. H. Wilson, Quanah
Utah John Austin, Heber Citv
Vermont
Virginia
Washington . .
West Virginia.
Wisconsin
Wyoming.
H. S. Wilson. Arlington
J. G. Ferneyhough, Blacksburg.
S. B. Nelson. Pullman
J. B. Garvin, Charleston
David Roberts. Janesville
John M. True. Madison
William F. Pflaeging, Cheyenne.
George S. Walker, Cheyenne
Secretary board of cattle commissioners.
President State board of agriculture.
Secretary cattle sanitary board.
Secretary sheep sanitary board.
Commissioner department of agriculture.
Chief veterinarian.
State veterinarian.
Commissioner of agriculture.
State veterinarian.
Do.
Secretary State live-stock commission.
Territorial veterinarian.
Secretary live-stock sanitary commission.
State veterinarian.
Sheep inspector.
State veterinarian.
Veterinary inspector, health office.
Veterinarian State board of agriculture.
Secretary State board of agriculture.
State veterinarian.
Do.
State live-stock commissioner.
Secretary live-stock sanitary commission.
President State board of sheep commis-
sioners.
Cattle commissioner.
State veterinarian.
Do.
Secretary board of agriculture.
State veterinarian.
Secretary State sanitary board.
State veterinarian.
Secretary State board of sheep commis-
sioners.
FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS.
American Forestry Association. — President, Hon. James Wilson. Secretary of Agri-
culture; vice-presidents, Edward Everett Hale. F. E. Weyerhaeuser, James YV.
Pinchot, B. E. Fernow, John L. Kaul; secretary. Thomas E. Will, Washington, D. C.
International Society of Arboriculture. — President, Gen. William J. Palmer. Col-
orado Springs, Colo.; vice-president. Henry John Elwes, F. R. S., Colesborne. Chel-
tenham, England; secretary. J. P. Brown, Connersville. Ind.
Society of American Foresters. — President. Gifford Pinchot. Washington, D. C;
secretary, George B. Sud worth. Washington, D. C.
SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY.
Yale University. Forest School. Xew Haven, Conn. — A two-years graduate course,
leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Under the direction of the officers of the
Yale Forest School, a two-months summer course. July and August, is conducted at
Milford, Pike County. Pa. Prof. Henry S. Graves, Director.
Biltmore Forest School. Biltmore, X. C. — Course covers entire year; daily lectures
in all branches of applied forestry, elements of botany, mathematics, geology, law.
and political economy; practical work, especially lumbering operations, on the
domain of the Biltmore estate: forest investigations. Dr. C. A. Schenck. Director.
University of Michigan. Forest School, part of the general Department of Literature.
Science, and the Arts. Ann Arbor, Mich.— A two-years graduate course leading to the
degree of Master of Science in Forestry. Filibert Roth. Professor of Forestry.
Harvard University. Forest School, Cambridge, Mass. — A four-years undergraduate
course, in connection with the Lawrence Scientific School. R. T. Fisher, in charge of
curriculum. %
Pennsylvania State College, Forest School, State College, Pa. — A four-years tinder-
graduate course, in connection with the State Department of Agriculture.
Courses in forestry are now given at the University of Maine. Orono, Me.. Gordon E.
Tower, in charge; the Michigan State Agricultural College. Agricultural College,
470
YEARI THE DEPAEIAIENT OF AGEK'ULTUBE.
Mich.. E. E. Bogus Sfa ra, H. P. Baker, in
charge: Unrwere Lincoln, Nebr., Fraiik G. Miller, in charge; M
sippi Agricultural m I College. Agricultuj s M ge L.
Clothier, in ch. :_ iversity oi l Akerrnan.
..do CoBege. Colors i Purdue I
I.'.d.. Pr :..! h Iter, in charge ; V
Park. Minn.. Prof. Samuel j liege, Beren. E
Flaneiy. in ch g h Dakota School el ineau. N. Dak.. J. Allen
-
A i afly at the Massachusetts State Agricultural College.
Amherst, by Fl .land
Agricultural College . . ' by Fred Maryland:
at th n, by Edward M. GrifhiL -
nsin: and at C I College, 1 ; high P. Baker,
restry at - fa I i State < II ge.
NATIONAL BEE KEEPERS' ASSOCIATION.
-idem. L. kson, Mich.; secretary , J. A G Junction,
Colo.: general m .1 treasurer. X. E. .'
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OP ECONOMIC ENTCXOLOGISTS.
President, H. A. Morgan, Knoxville, - --.jy. A. F. 15 .:
street. Reading
ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGKTCCLTirRAL CHEMISTS.
Pre hn P. Street. New retary, H. W. "Wiley
Depar
NATIONAL KOETICCLTCTtAL AND ETNDEED SOCIETIES.
Name of organization.
>
-
American Apple Grew*-
American Association of Xur-
American Carnation Society . . . ."
American CranV -
American Institute Farmers' Club
American Institute. Horticultural Secti
American Nursery :ation..
ri an Pomo!' _
American Retail Nurserymen's Protecii
sociation.
Amen - ietf
-
the N
anthemuni Society of America D:.
Georg
A. J. Rider
1Ym. A. Ear
Leonard Barron
- H. Meehan.
J-ohn Crgiff
Guv A.
Ko.
Rochester. X. Y.
X.J.
York, X. Y.
Ithaca. X. Y.
Wm. J.
■ :i Xurseryr:
Internatioi.
-ippi Valley Apple Growers' Association..
: r! Valley Horricultun-. If
.n! League of Commission Merchants of
I
Xational Xot Growers' Association
Xorthwesrern Fr.: lotion
- -ociat ion . . .
Peninsula llorrjcnitur?. IS
American Florists "and Ornamental
Iloriicult:;-
Southwestern Xu r '•- ssoeiation
rvmen
Wrr:
A. Warren Patch.
J ames H andl v
A. Warren Patch.
C V. Huffman..
Wm. j . -
vlor
E. J. Holman
Louis.
• 1 Home v.-
• Y.
I
• . 111.
P. F. I
Bostoa.
Pouiarj.
N. Y.
:on place. I
-V. . --.
T.
Leaver.-
STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS.
STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS.
471
State.
Name and title.
Post-office.
California
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Colum
bia.
Illinois
Ii-wa
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
New Hampshire.
New Jersey
New York ,
North Carolina..
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
N. Ellery, commissioner department of highways
James H. MacDonald, commissioner, State highway depart-
ment.
Francis A. Price, State highway commissioner for Newcastle
County.
C. B. Hunt, engineer of highways, Dist rict of Columbia
Dr. E. J. James, chairman
A. N. Johnson, highway engineer, State highway commission.
Prof. A. Marston, dean, division of engineering
T. II. McDonald, assistant in charge of public roads, State
College.
Paul D. Sargent, commissioner of highways
William Bullock Clark, State geologist ,
Walter W. Crosby, chief engineer highway division, geolog-
ical survey.
William E. McClintock, chairman
A. B. Fletcher, secretary State highway commission
Horatio S. Earle, commissioner
Frank F. Rogers, highway engineer, State highway depart-
ment.
Gustave Scholle, president
George W. Cooley, engineer, State highway commission
Arthur W. Deaii, State engineer, highway department
Elisha C. Hutchinson, chairman
R. A. Meeker, supervisor State commission of public mads.. .
Frederick Skene, State engineer and surveyor
Samuel L. Patterson, chairman State highway commission...
Sam Huston, commissioner State highway department
Joseph W. Hunter, State highway commissioner
R. D. Beeman, assistant commissioner
John II. Edwards, chairman State board of public works
Charles W. Gates, State highway commissioner
P. St. Julien Wilson, State highway commissioner
Joseph M. Snow, State highway commissioner
Sacramento.
Hartford.
Wilmington.
Washington.
Springfield.
Do.
Ames.
Do.
Augusta.
Baltimore.
Do.
Boston.
Do.
Lansing.
Do.
Minneapolis.
Do.
Concord.
Trenton.
Do.
Albany.
Raleigh.
Columbus.
Harrisburg.
Do.
Providence.
Montpelier.
Richmond.
Olympia.
STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF PROTECTION OF GAME."
Maryland
Massachusetts...
Michigan.
Minnesota
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
New Hampshire.. .
Newr Jersey
Alabama John II. Wallace, jr., State game commissioner
Arizona W. L. Pinney, secretary fish and game commission
California Chas. A. Vogelsang, chief deputy board of fish commissioners.
Colorado D. E. Farr, State game and fish commissioner
Connecticut E. Hart Geer, secretary commission of fisheries and game
Delaware A. D. Poole, president Delaware Game Protective Association.
Idaho W.N. Stephens, fish and game warden
Illinois Dr. John A. Wheeler, State game commissioner
Indiana Z. T. Sweeney, commissioner of fisheries and game
Iowa G. A. Lincoln, State fish and game warden
Kansas D. W. Travis, State fish and game warden
Maine L. T. Carleton, chairman commissioners of inland fisheries and
game.
Oregon Milton Dennis, State game warden
Dr. George W. Field, ehairman commissioners of fisheries
and game.
Chi rles II. Chapman, game and fish warden
Carlos Avery, executive agent, hoard of game and fish com-
missioners".
Joseph II. Rodes, game and fish warden
William F. Scott, State game, and fish warden
George L. Carter, chief deputy game and fish commission
Nathaniel Wentworth, chairman board of fish and game com-
missioners.
Benjamin P. Morris, president board of fish and game com-
missioners.
New Mexico W. E. Griffin, game and fish warden
New York James B. Whipple, forest, fish, and game commissioner
North Carolina T. Gilbert Pearson, secretary Audubon Society
North Dakota Wr. N. Smith, game warden, district No. 1
William McKean, game warden, district No. 2
Ohio < leorge C. Blankner, secretary commissioners of fish and game.
Oklahoma Eugene Wat rous, Territ orial game and fish warden
Oregon | J. W. Baker, game and forestry warden
Pennsylvania ' Dr. Joseph Kall.fus, secretary board of game commissioners. .
Rhode Island ' John II. Flanagan, chairman commissioners of birds
South Carolina B. F. Taylor, president Audubon Society
Montgomery.
Phoenix.
San Francisco.
Denver.
Hadlyme.
Wilmington.
Boise.
Springfield.
Columbus.
Cedar Rapids.
Pratt.
Augusta.
Baltimore.
Boston.
Sault Ste. Marie.
St. Paul.
Sedalia.
Helena.
Lincoln.
Hudson.
Long Branch.
Santa Fe.
Albany.
Greensboro.
Grafton.
Sanborn.
Columbus.
Enid.
Cottage Grove.
Harrisburg.
i 'ri n idence.
Columbia.
a Corrected to May 1, 1907
472 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
State officials in charge of protection of game — Continued.
State.
Name and title.
Post-office.
Utah
H. B. Cromar, State fish and game commissioner
Henry G. Thomas, fish and game commissioner
Salt Lake City.
Stowe.
Bellingham.
Huntington.
Vermont
Washington
West Virginia
ORGANIZATIONS FOB PROTECTION OF BIRDS AND GAME.
Name of organization.
American Ornithologists' Union, Committee on
Protection of North American Birds.
Bird Protective Society of America ;
Boone and Crockett Club
League of American Sportsmen
National Association of Audubon Societies
National Association of Game and Fish Wardens.
New York Zoological Society
North American Fish and Game Protective Asso-
ciation.
Secretary.
A. K. Fisher, chair-
man.
Edward C. Pease
Post-office.
Madison Grant
G. O. Shields, presi-
dent.
William Dut cher ,
president.
George L. Carter. . . .
Madison G rant
E. T. D. Chambers...
Department of Agriculture,
Washington, I'. C.
28 Stafford Building, Buf-
falo, N. Y.
11 Wall street, New York,
N. Y.
1209 Broadwav, New York,
N. Y.
141 Broadway, New York,
N. Y.
Lincoln, Nebr.
11 Wall street, New York,
N. Y.
Quebec, Canada.
AMERICAN BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION.
President, James Wilson, Washington, D. C; vice-president, L. H. Kerrick,"
Bloomington, 111.; secretary, W. M. Hays, Washington, D. C; treasurer, Oscar Erf,
Manhattan, Kans.; chairman animal section, A. P. Grout, Winchester, 111.; secretary
animal section, C. B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. ; chairman plant section,
Chas. W. Ward, Queens, N. Y.; secretary plant section, N. E. Hansen, Brookings,
S. Dak.
FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS.
President, John M. Stahl, Chicago, 111.; first vice-president, B. Cameron, Stagville,
N. C; second vice-president, Joshua Strange, Marion, Ind.; treasurer, W. L. Ames,
Oregon, Wis.; secretary, George M. Whitaker, Washington, D. C; first assistant secre-
tary, Luther H. Tucker, Albany, N. Y. ; second assistant secretary, John H. Kimball,
Port Deposit, Md. ; executive committee, president, secretary, and treasurer, E. W.
Wickey, East Chicago, Ind.; Levi Morrison, Greenville, Pa.; A. C. Fuller, Dows, Iowa.
PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY.
OFFICERS OF NATIONAL ORAN'CK.
Master, N. J. Bachelder, Concord, N H.; overseer, T. C. Atkeson, Morgantown,
W. Va, ; lecturer. G. W. F. Gaunt, Mullica Hill, N. J.; treasurer, Mrs. E. S. McDowell,
Rome, N. Y.; secretary, C. M. Freeman. Tippecanoe City, Ohio; executive commit-
tee, E. B. Norris, Sodus, N. Y.; C. J. Bell, East Hardwick, Vt.; F. A. Derthick,
Mantua, Ohio; N. J. Bachelder, ex officio, Concord, N. H.
"Deceased.
WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 473
KEVIEW OF WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING THE CROP SEASON
OF 1906.
By James Berry, Chief of Climatological Division, Weather Bureau.
The accompanying illustrations (see figs. 17 to 19 and Plates XL to XLII) and
tables (pp. 490 and 491) show how the temperature and rainfall over the United
States during the crop season of 1906, from week to week, compare with the normal
conditions of corresponding periods of former years. The diagrams exhibit the depar-
ture from normal by districts, and the maps show, respectively, the departures from
normal temperature, the total precipitation, and the departures from normal precipi-
tation during the crop season.
January.
January, 1906, was exceptionally mild over much the greater part of the country,
the average temperature being above the normal in all districts, with the exception
of the central portions of the middle and southern Plateau regions and extreme south-
ern Florida, where it was slightly below, and in portions of the Gulf States, where it
was about normal. The excess in temperature throughout the central and northern
portions of the country was unusually marked, ranging from 6° to 13° per day. In
the Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Red River of the North valleys, the Lake region,
and southern New England the temperature excess generally was more than 9°. On
the Pacific coast the temperature excess was slight, except in Washington and over
the interior portions of central and northern California, where it was more than 3°
per day.
The precipitation exceeded the average in the upper Mississippi, lower Missouri,
and lower Arkansas valleys, the northern portion of the upper Lake region, the greater
part of the South Atlantic States, the western portion of the central Plateau region,
and in California, except in the vicinity of San Francisco and in the extreme southern
part of the State. Over areas extending from western Arkansas to southern Illinois
and from western Florida to southwestern Virginia the precipitation was unusually
heavy, amounts ranging from 6 to more than 9 inches being reported from these dis-
tricts. Generally throughout New England and the Middle Atlantic States, the lower
Lake region, upper Ohio Valley, eastern Tennessee, in the central and west Gulf
States, southern Plateau region, and on the north Pacific coast the precipitation was
below the average, being decidedly deficient in New England and the lower Lake
region and in portions of the central and west Gulf districts.
LITTLE SXOW OX THE GROUND.
At the close of the month the districts east of the Rocky Mountains were wholly
free from snow, with the exception of a comparatively small area extending from the
upper Missouri Valley eastward to Lake Huron, including a small part of the upper
Mississippi Valley. There was practically no snow in New England, except in shel-
tered places in the northern portion.
February.
As a whole, February, 1906, averaged colder than usual in the Middle and South
Atlantic and Gulf States, Ohio Valley, and portions of the lower Lake region and the
upper Mississippi Valley. The deficiency in temperature was most marked in the
upper Ohio Valley and in the central Gulf States, where it amounted to 6° per day.
Generally throughout the South Atlantic and Gulf States and in the Ohio and central
Mississippi valleys the deficiency amounted to more than 3° per day. Over the north-
ern portion of the Lake region, along the New England coast, and over the south-
eastern Rocky Mountain slope the month averaged slightly milder than usual; it was
decidedly milder than usual throughout the Rocky Mountain and Plateau regions
and in the upper Missouri Valley, where the temperature excess ranged from 3° to
12° per day, being most marked in Montana.
From the 1st to the 3d the maximum temperatures on the central and southern
California coasts equaled or exceeded the records of former years for the- first decade
of February; on the 19th and 20th unseasonably high maximum temperatures occurred
in central Nebraska, the upper Michigan Peninsula, and in northern New England,
and on the 23d and 24th the maximum records were broken at numerous stations in
the lower Lake region, lower Ohio Valley, and New England.
474 YEAEE'-'K OF THE DEPABTMEHT OE AGRKULTUEE.
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WEATHER AXD CROP COXDITIOXS IX 1906.
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476 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPAETME^T OF AGEICrLTUEE.
to
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19u6 from the normal of man] I The Lake region, the .ssippi Valler.
V alley, and Tennessee.
■aaaa :f
the Ohio
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, >9°6
Plate xl.
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate xli.
Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate xlii.
WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 477
COLD WAVES.
The first well-defined cold wave of the winter of 1905-6 advanced from Manitoba
to the Atlantic coast States from the 1st to the 3d of February, with temperature 30°
below zero at Winnipeg, Manitoba, on the 1st and 24° below zero at Sault Ste. Marie,
Mich., on the 2d. On the morning of the 3d the temperature was below zero in the
interior of New York and New England. The line of 10° was traced through the Dis-
trict of Columbia and southwestern Virginia and the line of freezing temperature
through northwestern Florida. From the 3d to the 6th a cold wave advanced from the
Rocky Mountains over the central valleys and the Middle Atlantic and New England
States, carrying the line of zero temperature to Kansas, the Ohio River, and the
interior of New York and New England. From the 13th to the 15th a cold wave
swept from British America to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, with zero temperature in
the States of the lower Missouri Valley on the morning of the 14th and a fall in tempera-
ture of 20° to 30° in the interior of the Atlantic and east Gulf States by the morning
of the 15th. A moderate cold wave overspread the central valleys and the eastern
and southeastern States during the 26th, 27th, and 28th, attended by heavy snow
from the middle Mississippi Valley over a great part of the Ohio Valley and in southern
portions of the Middle Atlantic States, and by frost to the middle and east Gulf coasts
and northern Florida.
Generally the precipitation was below the average, the month being exceptionally
dry in the lower Lake region, Ohio Valley, and over the greater part of the interior of
the Atlantic coast and Gulf districts. From the northern portion of the central Gulf
States northeastward to the lower Lake region the deficiency in precipitation ranged
from 2 to more than 4 inches, the most marked deficiency occurring in Tennessee and
the adjacent portions of Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and
Kentucky. Over a large part of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and in the upper
Missouri Valley the total precipitation for the month amounted to less than one-fourth
of an inch and was decidedly below the average. In the lower Missouri Valley, por-
tions of the central Mississippi Valley, along the immediate Atlantic coast from New
Jersey to South Carolina, and in southern Florida, the precipitation exceeded the
average, the excess being quite marked in eastern North Carolina, southern Florida,
and portions of the central Missouri Valley. More than the average precipitation also
occurred over the southern portions of New Mexico, Arizona, and California, in parts
of central and northern California, and in western Oregon and southern Washington.
At the close of the month the area covered with snow was generally confined to the
extreme northern districts, although portions of the central Mississippi and Ohio val-
leys and the Middle Atlantic States were covered to considerable depths. The
amount of snow on the ground in northern New England was much less than usual
at this time of the season.
March.
The prominent features of March, 1906, were abnormally low mean temperature
during the first and second decades, lack of sunshine, and generally excessive precipi-
tation, although the latter was much below the average on the north Pacific coast and
in portions of the west Gulf States, and portions of the Lake region and South Atlantic
States received less than the average. Damaging freshets occurred in California and
in portions of the northern Rocky Mountain region, upper Mississippi Valley, and
east Gulf States. There was very general complaint of excessive cloudiness and
moisture and of low temperatures in nearly all districts east of the Rocky Mountains.
The month averaged colder than usual throughout the country, with the exception
of a comparatively small area embracing the southern portions of California, Arizona,
and New Mexico and extreme western Texas, where the temperature was normal or
slightly above. The month was decidedly cold in the middle and northern Rocky
Mountain regions and eastward over the central valleys and the greater part of the
Lake region and Atlantic coast and Gulf districts. The region in which the greatest
deficiency occurred extends from Idaho southeastward over the middle Rocky Moun-
tain slope and the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and lower Ohio valleys, including
the western portion of Tennessee and the northern portion of the central Gulf States,
the average daily temperature in these districts ranging from 6° to 10° below the
normal. Along the immediate coast from Florida to southern New England the tem-
perature was generally below the normal, but the departures were not marked.
FROSTS AND LOW TEMPERATURES.
The cold wave of the closing days of February caused heavy frost in extreme north-
ern Florida on the morning of March 1. From the 1st to 5th a moderate cold wave
advanced from the British Northwest Territory to the east Gulf and South Atlantic
478 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
s, attended by zero temperature in the extreme Northwest, by falls in tempera-
ture of 10° to 20° in the central valleys and the Eastern State?. and~by heavy frost on
the East Gulf coast and at Jacksonville. The second decade of the month was excep-
tionally cold, "with heavy snow, from the middle and northern Plateau and Rocky
Mountain regions over the States of the Missouri and up] d'pi valleys and the
northern Lake region. During this period temperatures 20° to 30° below zero occurred
in the up] M -- iri Valley: zero temperatures were reported from Wyoming, the
middle Miss ::i Valley, Minnesota, and upper Michigan: and at the close of the
le the interior of Texas, the middle and east Gulf coasts, and extreme northern
Florida were visited by heavy frost. From the 21st to 23d a moderate cold wave
advanced from the British Northwest Territory eastward over the northern districts.
No well-defined cold wave appeared after the 23d.
The t- >tal precipitation exceeded the average in the Middle Atlami. Stat I »hio.
tipper Mississippi and Missouri valleys, middle Rocky Mountain slope, middle and
southern Plateau region. California, and portions of the central and east Gulf B
and Lake region. The monthly precipitation ranged from 6 to more than 12 inches in
central and southern Mississippi, central Alabama, and norther: a while the
Ohio Valley and the greater part of the Middle Atlantic States and New England
received from 4 to more than (i inches. There was much less than the average precip-
itation in the greater part of Texas and over a narrow area extending thence to south-
rn Virginia. On the P;. the precipitation was abnormally heavy in
California, the greater part of that S iving from 4 to 12 inches, while Oi
and Washington received much less than the average.
At the dose of the month very little snow remained on the ground in the districts
: the Rocky Mountains, except incite upper Michigan Peninsula alone the e
of Lake Superior, where the depth ranged from IS inches to more than 2 fe t.
The Crop Seasox. April-September. Summary by Weeks.
By weeks, ending with Monday, from April 9 to October 1. the weather conditions
may be summarized a* foil
April 'j. — Although there was much cloudiness, generally favorable weather condi-
tions prevailed, especially during the latter part of the week, in the central and
northern distri 'he Rocky Mountain-. There was, however, to., much rain
in portions of the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys. In the southwestern dis-
tricts, from Oklahoma an -ward over the Plateau region, the week
. ad stormy. Frosts occurred . :ih as the northern portions of the
central and east Gulf districts.
This week averaged warmer than usual in the Lake region, central valleys. Middle
Atlantic, and central Gulf States, and on the north and middle Pacific coasts. The
-- in temperature ranged from r day in the central valleys, tl
part of the Lake region, and along the immediate coasts of Washington, Oregon, and
northern California, the most marked departures occurring in Minnesota and North
L>akota. In northern New England and the Florida Peninsula, and over an area
embracing the central and southern PL - uthern California, the south-
eastern Rocky Mountain slope, and erature averaged below the normal.
The precipitation was much above the average over tin- - Plateau r< g
rn Rocky Mountain slope, the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys,
and over the greater part of the Lake region, amounts ranging from 1 inch to 2 i:
being reported r part of these districts. In the Atlantic and Gulf coa«t
districts, the northern Plateau region, and on the Pacific coast t: itation was
below tin- . uly light showers occurring in the Middle Atlantic States and on
the north Pacific coast, with practically no rain over a large part of the South Atlantic
and eat in central and northern California, and over much of the northern
Plateau region.
SEVERE LOCAL STORMS.
7 16. — While this * ged milder than usual throughout nearly the whole
country, the latter part was decidedly cool, with light to heavy frosts on the 15th and
16th as far south as the northern portions of tin- Southern States. Oomph
much rain were received from the Middle Atlami. 1 portions of the Missouri
Valby. The mild temperatures and generally light precipitation in the Southern
• favorable. In the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys there was much
sunshine, especially during the fore pan of the week, while in the Middle Atlantic
■ the duration of sunshine was below the av. i
Violent and destructh i the 12th and 13th in portions of the
an, upper Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and west Gulf Sta
WEATHER AND CHOP CONDITIONS IN 1 479
The precipitation was very heavy in New England and the Middle Atlantic Sta -
where amounts generally ranging from 1 inch to 4 inches were reported. 1!
rains also occurred in portions of the central Missouri and Red River of the N
valleys, and more than the average nil over a large part of the Lake region, middle
Rocky Mountain slope, anil local areas in the South Atlantic States and Texas. In
the Ohio Valley and portions of the tipper Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley
and generally throughout the Southern States and the Plateau and Pacific
regions the precipitation was below the average, no appreciable amount being reported
from western Texas, southwestern New Mexico, the southern portions of Arizona and
California, northern California, the greater part of Oregon, eastern Washington, north-
ern Idaho, and western Montana.
. — During this week much the greater part of the country experienced very
favorable temperatures, although some complaint of cool w< ather during a part of the
week was received from portions of the west Gulf and Atlantic coast districts. There
ample sunshine, except in the central and west Gulf States, where much of the
■work was cloudy or partly cloudy. There was an absence of rain over a large part of
the central valleys and east Gulf States and New England, with only light showers in
the Lake region and Middle Atlantic States, while heavy rains occurred in Texas.
The need of rain was beginning to be felt in Tenni - and Florida. F
g rieral occurrence at the beginning or close of the wi-vk in the Lake region.
Ohio Valley, and the interior portions of the Middle and South Atlantic States.
low temperatures: local droughts.
"/ SO. — While the temperature conditions to the eastward of the Rocky Moun-
tains were generally favorable, there was much complaint of cold nights during the
fore part of the week in the districts east of the Mississippi River, light frost? occurring
as far south as the Carolinas and the northern porti - G< rgia and Alabama, with
heavy frosts and freezing temperatures in the higher portions of the more northerly
districts. Over the middle and southern Plateau regions the temperatures were
asonably 1 ally during the middle of the week, when heavy frosts were
general. The droughty conditions reported in the previous week in Tennessee and
portions of the east Gulf States continued, the area needing rain being materially
increased, at this time embracing North Carolina and a i - ble part of the upper
ssippi and lower Ohio valleys. Severe local - nrred in a number of the
s, and also in Tennessee and northern Georgia, from the 26th to the
2S;h. As a whole, there was ample sunshine.
May 7. — This week averaged warmer than usual in the middle and north Pacific
listricts and over the western p irti< >nsof the middle and northern Plateau regions:
averaged warmer than usual in the west Gulf States and in all districts east of the
Mississippi River, with the exception of the upper Mississippi Valley, the western
portion of the upper Lake region, and the interior of northern New England. In the
middle and south Atlantic coast districts and in northern California, the temperature
- ranged fn »m i>D to 9° per day. and it exceeded 3° per day in southern New England,
the upper Ohio Valley, eastern Tennessee, and in the central and west Gulf districts
and north Pacific coast region. In the southern Plateau region and over the eastern
.- Mountain slope and the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys the week aver-
colder than usual, the deficiency in temperature being less than 3° per day
most of the area comprised by the districts mentioned, but ranging from 3° to (i° per
day over ;; a Rocky Mountain slope and the upper Missouri Valley. Light to
heavy frosts were general in the middle Rocky Mountain districts and throughout the
Lake region and central valleys.
HEAVY RAINS IN' PORTIONS OF THE COTTON REEL.
The rainfall was above the average over the greater part of the Southern States.
being exceptionally heavy in the central and northern portions of Alabama and V
sippi and in Arkansas and northeastern Texas, where amounts ranging from 2 to ]
than S inches fell. Moderate to heavy rains occurred in eastern Nebraska, porti
northwestern Iowa, the central portions oi Illinois and Indiana, the northern portions
of Minnesota and Wisconsin, and at some stations in southern New England and the
Middle Atlantii - In the lower Missouri and upper Ohio valleys, the greater
part of the Lake region, the eastern portion of the Carolinas. and the Florida Peninsula,
along the immediate Gud a >ast. in western Texas, and generally throughout the Plateau
and Pacific coast regions, the precipitation was below the average, no appreciable
amounts of rain falling in the southern Plateau and Pacitic coast regions, except light
showers in southeastern California. Excessively heavy rains proved damaging over
480 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the northern portions of the central Gulf States. The droughty conditions in the pre-
vious week were very largely relieved. The greater part of Florida and portions of
South Carolina and Missouri, however, continued to need rain. There was much
cloudiness in the Lake region and in portions of the Gulf States. The weather condi-
tions on the Pacific coast were favorable, except cool nights in Washington and Oregon.
UNUSUAL WARMTH IX THE UPPER MISSOURI VALLEY.
May 14- — This week averaged wanner than usual on the north Pacific coast, through-
out the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, and in the Missouri and Red River of fhe
North valleys. The average daily - st marked in the more northerly of
these districts and ranged froni 6° to 9° from the upper Missouri Valley westward to the
rn portions : Oreg a and Washington and northern Nevada. On the southern
California coast, in the west Gulf States, and in all districts east of the Mississippi River
the week averaged cooler than usual, being abnormally cool in the lower Lake reg
Ohio Valley, and the Middle and South Atlantic and east Gulf States, where the defi-
ciency in temperature generally ranged from 6° to 11° per day. being most marked over
the interior portions of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and over the western por-
tion of northern Xew England. Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in
the upper Missouri Valley on the 10th and 11th. when temperatures ranging from 90°
to 96° were reported.
P zing temperatures, or temperatures below freezing, occurred in the upper Mis--
souri Valley, over the greater part of the Lake region, in the upper Ohio Valley, in the
interior porti< »na of the Middle Atlantic States, and in northern New England. Killing
- were general from the 8th to the 11th throughout the central valleys and Atlantic
districts, and light frosts occurred as far south as the interior portions of the cen-
tral and east Gulf St. -
DRY WEATHER PREVALENT.
The rainfall w the average in nearly all districts east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. : being practically rainless over the greater part of the central an>.
Gulf States and in Tennessee and in portions of the lower Ohio and central Mississippi
valleys. The northern portion of the upper Lake region and the interior portion of the
Middle Atlant: - received only light - and in places no appreciable
amount. There was more than the average over the southern portion of the upper Lake
region and also in the middle Plateau region and portions of California. Showers,
m one-fourth to 1 inch, occurred in the north Pacific coast region, buv
. the precipitation in that region was below the average. The w much
drier than usual, being practically rainless in the central and west Gulf States, Ten-
. and in portions of the Middle Atlantic St. Ohio and central Missis-
sippi valleys, in all of which districts rain was needed.
DECIDED TEMPERATURE EXTREMI>
May 91. — This week averaged cooler than usual in the central and northern Pacific
coast districts and over the western portions of the middle and northern Plateau
s. the deficiency in temperature ranging from 3° to 8° per day over the interior
portions of central and northern California and from 3° to 5° per day in western Nevada
and in Oregon and the adjacent portions of Idaho and Washington. On the immediate
west Gulf coast and in extreme southern Florida the week averaged slightly cooler than
usual, but elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains and over the southern Plateau
raged warmer than usual, being decidedly warm over the middle
wtain slope and throughout the central valleys. Lake region, and Middle
Atlav where the average dailv temperature excess eeneralfv ranged from 6°
The maximum temperature records of former years for the second decade of May were
led at a number of stations in the upper Mississippi Valley on the 17th and 1 Sth.
and at some st. - uthern Xew England and the Middle Atlantic States on the
nd 19th. Freezing temperatures occurred in the middle Plateau and northern
untain regions and in the extreme northern districts eastward of the upper
iri Valley, and light to fa - irred in the Dakotas and Minnesota and
generally throughout the 1 \ n and northern Xew England on the 19th and 20th.
As a whole, the week was drier than usual, a large part of the Atlantic coast and
- and portions of the central valleys and the Lake region receiving no
appreciable amount of rain. There was also a general absence of rain in the southern
Plateau and south Pacific coast regions. On the north Pacific coast the rainfall was
WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 481
considerably above the average, more than an inch being reported from the coast dis-
tricts of northern California, Oregon, and Washington. Heavy rains occurred in north-
ern Texas and portions of Oklahoma and Indian Territory. Minnesota, eastern North
Dakota, Montana, and portions of South Dakota, Iowa, and southern Florida received
more than the average. A large part of the central valleys and Middle Atlantic States.
had now experienced a period of more than two weeks without appreciable rainfall,
and droughty conditions, more or less serious, prevailed over practically the whole
territory east of the Mississippi River and also in portions of the Missouri Valley and
west Gulf States.
May 28. — On the Pacific coast and in the middle and northern Plateau and Rocky
Mountain regions the week averaged much cooler than usual and the precipitation
was exceptionally heavy for the season, especially in California, over the greater part,
of which State the weekly rainfall ranged from 1 inch to nearly 4 inches, the heaviest,
that had occurred during the last decade of May in more than twenty years. The week
was also unseasonably cool and wet in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, freezing
temperatures occurring in the Red River of the North and upper Missouri valleys,,
with exceptionally heavy rains in southern Minnesota. In the lower Missouri, cen-
tral Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, and in the lower Lake region and Middle Atlantic
States the greater part of the week was much warmer than the average, but the last
two days were unseasonably cool, and light frosts occurred in the central Missouri and
upper Mississippi valleys and upper Lake region.
HEAVY RAINS ON THE PACIFIC COAST AND IN FLORIDA.
Throughout the Pacific coast and middle and northern Rocky Mountain regions and
also in the upper Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Red River of the North valleys the
rainfall was much above the average, and over the greater part of central and northern
California it was unusually heavy for the season, ranging from 1 to nearly 4 inches.
The total fall at San Francisco was 2.6 inches, which was the heaviest that had occurred
at that place in the third decade of May since 1884. While portions of the central
Mississippi and lower Ohio valleys and lower Lake region received very light rainfall,
good rains fell over most of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. Depths rang-
ing from 1 to more than 3 inches fell in New England, while southern Georgia
and the greater part of Florida received from 2 to more than 4 inches, the total fall at.
Jacksonville, Fla., exceeding 13 inches. Portions of central and northern Texas also
received more than the average, but in eastern Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and in
portions of Missouri, southern Illinois, and the western portions of Kentucky and
Tennessee the rainfall was very light. The drought conditions which had become
severe in the preceding week were wholly or partially relieved over the greater part
of the area affected. Drought continued, however, in portions of the central and west
Gulf States, and in portions of the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and lower Ohio
valleys.
June 4. — The week ending June 4, 1906, as a whole, was unseasonably cold in the
Plateau regions and over the greater part of California, and the fore part of the week
was also unseasonably cold in the northern districts eastward of the Rocky Mountains;
and in the east Gulf States. Light to heavy frosts occurred in exposed places in the
Lake region and upper Ohio Valley, and also in portions of the middle and northern
Rocky Mountain and Plateau regions.
The rainfall was below the average over a large part of the Gulf States and through-
out the Lake region, but was ample and generally well distributed in New England,
the Middle Atlantic States, the lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, and over
the northern portion of the west Gulf States. Throughout the northern Plateau region
and the greater part of the northern and middle Pacific coast districts the rainfall was
phenomenally heavy for the season, especially in Idaho and the eastern portions of
Oregon and Washington.
LOCAL STORMS AND DROUGHT.
Damaging local storms occurred in portions of the New England and Middle Atlantic-
States on May 31 and June 1.
Drought continued in northern Missouri, extreme southern Illinois, southern Arkan-
sas, and in portions of Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, being especially severe in the
southeastern part of the last-named State.
June 11. — In the northern Rocky Mountain region, the middle and northern Plateau-
districts, and the northern and middle Pacific coast districts, the week ending at 8 a. m.^
June 11, 1906, averaged cooler than usual, and was the fourth consecutive week in
which the temperature in these districts had been abnormally low. The deficiency
3 a 1906 31
482 YEARBOOK OF THE HBPABXMKHI OP AGBK'ULTURE.
in temperature - - le and northern
bh regions and the interior of nonhern California. Over the s- 'inheastern B
Mountain slope, the ] Valley, weat Gttlf Staf ..:d of
--ppi River, with ti: week was
warn rature ex :nuch
B named. I res occurring in the
Lake region, Ohio Valley, and pon- - Middle A
Unseasonably high maximum temperatures occurred n
Gulf States at sfc « from New leans, La., 1 -
ratures equal : -ling the 1.:. orded m the first d
ne. Freezing I curred over limited areas in the I rrion.
where, however, the minimui^ aged from 343 to 40°.
71X1 "ATIOX
The ereater part of Nehraaa ~a and p nonhern Illinois, north-
rthern Virginia i s ."din
southeastern Texas and in per e central Guli ■ m Kansas
and pen ions of the a y and up: red from fa
rains and fresh -
. ler than I northern Cali-
fornia, on the north I a nearly all Ifoun-
ficieney in temperature r. _
fthedistri \ -
memo, central 1 southern :' the Lake
a, and the interior . f the Middle Allan" 3 /.and.
Over the eastern Rocky Mountain slope, southern Plateau I I
fornia, on the and in extreme eastern M.. -aged
_ tly warmer than tisu. .
lay.
y high maximum temperatures occurred in the Rio Grande V
\ - ranged f r
110°. Uaaeaaoi minimum temperatures occurr- I a til - "the
Lake region, upper Ohio Valley, nonhern portion of the Middle Atlar
and in Xew England, numerous stations reporting the lowest readings yet recorded
in the second d- ase.
heavy Kama ix the atiaxt:
General]; _ , thvataceoac
- ater part of the east Gulf States, the ra: :.iuch
_
Florida, and eastern Ala'oama. in portions 9 front 4 1
more than 11 inches was ad Oregon.
north . n Kansas northward
the eastern porf -rage
rainfall. From the west Gulf Lake region the precip:
Plateau r a
ver a large part of T an area exten< _ Arkansas north-
to Minn- - rainfall.
■■and in places by hail. Lake
: and Middle Atlantic St. -
COOL WEATHER EH THE IXTEV.
—1 ek ending . 25 avenged w mer than usual
Atlantic. Gulf, and Pacr - - :n which rage daily
temperatui -- Sacn here
it amounted to 7°. Over tlv ice region the
average daily temperature lor the week was nearly normal. ; week
aver:.. : than usual, being decidedly cool <>n the northerr.
and from the upper Ohio Valley westward to the central and nonhern F
Throughout the central valleys and middle 8 main region th- • daily
temperature deficiency amour r more, and in the northern B ntain
region and the upper ■uaaottii Valley it ranged imrn 9° to 12L the mffl marked depar-
tures from the normal occurring in th< M raska. Wj - and eastern
Montana.
WEATHER AND CBCBP CONDITIONS TX 1<X)6. 483
Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in California and southern Ari-
zona on the 18th. Freezing temperatures occurred in Wyoming, and minimum tem-
peratures below 40° were reported from a large part of the Plateau region and from the
northern portion (A North Dakota. In the Middle Rocky Mountain region and central
Missouri and central Mississippi valleys the minimum temperatures on the 20th. 21st,
24th, and 25th were unseasonably low, numerous stations reporting the lowest yet
recorded in the last decade of June.
The rainfall was below the average over an area embracing the southern portion of
the upper Lake region and the northern portions of Illinois, Indiana, and northwestern
()hi». The rainfall was also below the average on the southern New England coast
and generally throughout the Southern States, although the eastern portion of the
Carolinas. southern Florida, and scattered areas of limited extent in the central and
• iulf States received more than the average. Over a large part of the central and
west Gulf States there was no appreciable rainfall, and similar conditions prevailed
in the middle and s outturn Plateau and Pacific coast districts. Very heavy rains
fell in the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys. Middle Atlantic
States, and over the greater part of New England, from 2 to 4 inches being reported
from the lower Missouri Valley and from 1 inch to more than 2 inches in the Ohio
Valley and the Middle Atlantic States. Considerably more than the average rainfall
occurred in the Red River of the North Valley and over the northern portion of the
upper Lake region. The droughty conditions prevailing in the previous week in the
upper Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys were largely relieved, but drought con-
tinues generally unbroken in Louisiana and southern and eastern Texas, while por-
tions of northwestern Missouri and southern Mississippi and central and western
Tennessee, Oklahoma, and western South Dakota needed rain.
Numerous local storms of considerable severity, in places accompanied by hail,
occurred in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States during the latter part of the
week.
Jubj t. — This week was warmer than usual in the Lake region, central valleys,
Atlantic coast, districts, and over the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope. The aver-
age daily temperature excess was most marked over an area extending from the middle
Atla&tk coast westward to the central Mississippi Valley, including a part of the upper
Lake region, where it ranged from 3° to 6°. The temperature averaged nearly normal
in the west Gulf States and on the northern California roost. The week was cooler
than usual on the north Pacific coast, over the greater part of California, throughout
the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, and in the upper Missouri Valley. The
average daily deficiency in temperature amounted to 3° or more over the greater part
of the Plateau regions and exceeded 6° in portions of California. Nevada. Utah, Wyo-
ming, and Montana.
The rainfall exceeded the average in the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and
Red River of the North valleys, southern New England. Louisiana, and eastern Texas,
and over limited areas in the South Atlantic and east (lulf States. Portions of Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa, northern Illinois, South Carolina. Louisiana, and Texas received
amounts ranging from 2 to more than 4 inches. There was also more than the average
precipitation on the extreme north Pacific coast and over a considerable part of the
northern Plateau region. Over most of the Middle and South Atlantic and east Gulf
States, and in the Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, and central portion of the Lake
region the rainfall was below the average, no appreciable amount having fallen in
southern Florida, eastern Kentucky, and in portions of southern Illinois.
LOCAL DROVGHT RELIEVED.
The prolonged drought in Texas. Louisiana, and northwestern Missouri was largely
relieved. There was now sufficient moisture for present needs in all districts east of
the Rocky Mountains, with the exception of southern Florida, Tennessee, and portions
of the Ohio Valley, and apparently no section was suffering as a result of heavy
preeipitation.
Wlide local storms, in places accompanied by hail, occurred during the latter part
of the week in the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys. Lake region, and Middle
Atlantic States, they were not unusually destructive.
July 9. — The week ending July 9 was abnormally cool in the middle and southern
Rocky Mountain regions and throughout the central valleys. Lake region, and greater
part of the middle Atlantic coast districts. Very general complaints of cool nights
were received from the central valleys, west Gulf States, and southern Rocky Moun-
tain region, and while the temperature conditions were not conducive to rapid growth
of vegetation, they were especially favorable for harvesting. On the north Pacific
OOtsI the week was exceptionally hot and dry.
4S4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HIGH TEMrERATl KES IX THE PACIFIC C< 'AST REGION8.
July 16. — In the Lake region and upper Ohio Valley and on the west Gulf coast the
temperature averaged slightly above the normal. Elsewhere east of the Rocky
Mountains the week averaged cooler than usual, the deficiency in temperature over
the eastern Rocky Mountain slope, lower Missouri Valley, and the interior portions of
the central and east Gulf States generally ranging from 3° to (>D per day. the most
marked depart ures occurring over the middle E< >eky M< luntain slope. Over the west-
ern portions of the Plateau districts and in the Pacific coast States, except along the
central California coast, the week averaged warmer than usual, being decidedly warm
over the interior of central and northern California and in Washington and Or g
where the temperature excess ranged from 3° to 12° per day.
Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in the middle and north Pacific
coast regions, readings ranging from 100° to 10S° occurring in central and northern
California, and from l00° to 104° in portions of Oregon and AVashington. At Rosebtirg,
Oreg.. the maximum of 102° on the 12th was 2° higher than any maximum previ
recorded at that station in the second decade of July. The minimum temperature- on
the morning of the 16th in the upper Mississippi Valley were unusually low. 52° at
Des Moines. Iowa, corresponding to the lowest minimum temperature previously
recorded at that station in the second decade of July.
HEAVY RAINS IX THE GULF STATES.
Over most of the Gulf States the rainfall exceeded the average and in many places
was excessively heavy, although scattered areas received less than the average. North-
ern Florida and portions of Georgia. Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas received amounts
ranging from 2 to more than 6 inches, the heaviest occurring in northern Florida, where
a fall of more than S inches was reported. The Middle Atlantic States and portions of
the Mississippi and Central Missouri valleys and upper Lake region also received i
than the average precipitation, but. as a whole, there was less than the average in the
central valleys. Lake region, and northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States.
Light showers, giving from 0.1 to 0.5 inch, occurred on the north Pacific coast and
over the southern Plateau region.
Droughty conditions existed to a considerable extent in the southern portion of the
upper Lake region, in parts of the lower Missouri and central Mississippi valleys, and
in the northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States.
As in the preceding week, local storms were comparatively few and caused very
little damage.
July 23. — Generally throughout the Plateau districts and in the Lake region. New
England, and the Middle Atlantic States, the temperature during this week was ah rye
the normal, the excess ranging from 3° to 6° per day in the northern Plateau region and
from 2" to 4° in the Lake region. Xew England, and the northern portion of the Middle
Atlantic States. In the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and the
South Atlantic States, and on the Pacific (.oast, the temperature was nearly normal.
In the central Missouri Valley and the central and west Gulf States the week was
cooler than usual, the average daily deficiency generally ranging from 1° to 5°.
In the Middle Atlantic States. Ohio Valley, and Tennessee, and over the greater part
of the Gulf States, the precipitation during the week was in excess of the av
being unusually heavy in portions of the Middle and South Atlantic and Gulf States.
Kansas, eastern Nebraska, and portions of the Lake region and upper Mississippi
Valley also received more than the average rainfall, but over the greater part of the
Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley there was less than the average.
DROUGHT IX rORTIOXS OF THE COKX BELT.
Northeastern Missouri and portions of Iowa. Illinois. Indiana, and the Dak
needed rain, drought being quite severe in northeastern Missouri and the central-
western counties oi Illinois, but elsewhere in the principal agricultural States (
was ample moisture, heavy rains having occurred from the central and west Gulf
coasts northeastward to the lower Lake region, in the Middle and South Atlantic Suites,
and in southwestern Missouri and central Ksmtem.
Damaging local storms attended the heavy rainfall in the South Atlantic anu
Cult States, and hailstorms caused considerable damage in Kansas.
The general weather conditions on the Pacihe coast were favorable, although very
high temperatures occurred in central and northern California, western Idaho, and the
eastern portions of Oregon and Washington.
July SO. — Throughout the central valleys and Atlantic coast districts and over the
greater part of the Lake region and Gulf States this week averaged cooler than usual,
WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 485
the mean temperature being considerably below the normal in the central valleys
and over the northern part of the middle and west Gulf districts. In the Rocky
Mountain and Plateau regions and in the Pacific States, except on the immediate
coast, the week was hot and generally dry.
East of the Rocky Mountains both the maximum and minimum temperatures were
lower than usual, the maximum not exceeding 80° at some stations in the Lake region
and on the New England and middle Atlantic coasts, and being below 90° elsewhere,
except in the Gulf States and at a few stations in the central Mississippi and Missouri
valleys, where they ranged from 90° to 9S°. Some high maximum readings, ranging
from 100° to 112°, were reported from the northern and southern Plateau regions and
from the interior of central and northern California, the highest occurring at Phoenix,
Ariz., where the previous maximum record for the last decade of July was exceeded
by 1°.
DROUGHT IX CENTRAL VALLEYS; TOO MUCH RAIN IN GULF STATES.
Much of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and portions of the central and
west Gulf State;? suffered to some extent from heavy rains, while moisture was gener-
ally needed in the upper Missouri Valley and over a considerable part of the lower
Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, drought being serious in the greater
part of northern Missouri. The area now affected by drought in the central valleys
was less than in the previous week, but in the upper Missouri Valley the area needing
rain apparently was greater.
A few severe local storms occurred, mostly in the South Atlantic States and upper
Missouri Valley, but as a whole the week was comparatively free from storms of this
class.
TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS FAVORABLE.
August 6. — During the week ending August 6 the temperature averaged much above
the normal in the central valleys. Lake region, and Middle Atlantic States, in which
districts the preceding week for the most part was decidedly cool, while the tempera-
ture was generally deficient in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast districts, where
in the preceding week it was mostly above the normal. Generally the temperature
conditions throughout the country were favorable.
The Atlantic coast districts, with the exception of northern New England, suffered
from excessive moisture, while portions of the lower Missouri, central Mississippi,
and Ohio valleys continued in need of rain, drought being very severe in portions of
Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. Drought was also prevalent on the north Pacific
coast, and forest fires were burning in Oregon.
The week was comparatively free from local storms.
Light frost occurred on July 31 and August 1 in the upper Michigan Peninsula.
DROUGHT LARGELY RELIEVED IN CENTRAL VALLEYS.
August 13. — Except in the northern Plateau and north Pacific coast regions, where
the week was very hot. the temperature conditions were very favorable.
The droughty conditions prevailing in portions of the lower Missouri, central Missis-
sippi, and Ohio valleys in the preceding week were relieved, except in northwestern
Missouri. Parts of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and scattered localities in
Tennessee were beginning to need rain, while dry weather and sunshine would have
proved beneficial in the Middle Atlantic States. Ohio Valley, and portions of Texas.
Portions of the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys, upper Lake region, and
Middle Atlantic States Buffered from excessive rains. Droughty conditions in Wash-
ington were relieved in part, but in Oregon drought continued, only light showers
having occurred in northeastern counties.
Notwithstanding the heavy rainfall over a large part of the country, the week was
comparatively free from storms of a damaging character.
HIGH TEMPERATURES PREVALENT.
August 20. — The States of the Missouri Valley and the northern Rocky Mountain
region experienced the warmest weather of the season during this Aveek. and the
mean temperature was decidedly above the normal throughout the central valleys
and Lake region. Very high maximum temperatures, ranging from 95° to more than
100°, occurred in the- upper Missouri Valley, some damage having lieendone by hot.
winds in North Dakota. From the west Gulf coast to southeastern California and on
the north Pacific coast the week averaged somewhat cooler than usual.
486 YEARBOOK OF THK DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Light frost occurred in elevated district? in Utah, also in Maine and New Hampshire
on the morning of the 16th, and minimum temperatures nearly low enough for frost
were reported from the higher districts in the eastern and northern portions of New
York.
The Missouri Valley, the lower Lake region. New England, the northern part of the
Middle Atlantic States, and the greater part of the Gulf States and upper Lake region
received less than the average rainfall during the week, no appreciable amount having
occurred over the northern part of the Middle Atlantic States and southern New
England. There was also a general absence of rain over a large area extending from
west em Texas northward to eastern South Dakota. Heavy rains occurred in Virginia.
North Carolina, portions of South Carolina, the interior of the central and east Gulf
States. Ohio Valley, and portions of the upper Mississippi Valley, in which districts
amounts ranging from 1 inch to more than 4 inches fell. The Plateau regions, espe-
cially the central and southern, received much more than the usual rainfall, nearly 2
inches being reported from Yuma. Ariz. There was no appreciable rainfall on the
Pacific coast, except in extreme northwest Washington.
The central Missouri Valley, northern New England, a large part of the Lake region.
and local areas in the east Gulf States needed rain; elsewhere cast of the Rocky Moun-
tains there was sufficient moisture, portions of North Carolina having suffered from
excessive rains. Rain was badly needed on the north Pacific coast.
Local storms of considerable severity occurred in the Ohio and upper Mississippi
valleys.
August 27.- This week was cooler than usual in the valleys of the Red River of
the North and the upper Missouri, throughout the Rocky Mountain and Plateau
regions, and in California, and there was a slight deficiency in temperature in por-
tion- of Oklahoma and north central Texas and over the greater part of the Florida
Peninsula. Generally throughout the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions and in
the upper Missouri Valley the average daily temperature deficiency ranged from 3°
to more than if0, the most marked departures occurring over portions of Montana and
Idaho. Over the western portions of Oregon and Washington the temperature aver-
aged slightly above the normal. From the lower Missouri Valley southward to the
west Gulf coast and in the districts east of the Mississippi River, with the exception
of Florida, the week was warmer than usual, being decidedly warm in the upper
Mississippi and Ohio valleys and Lake region and over the interior portions of the
Middle Atlantic States and New England, where the average daily temperature excess
ranged from 0° t o 9°.
UNUSUALLT HEAVY RAINS IX MONTANA, UTAH, AND NEW MEXICO.
During the week there was less than the average precipitation in New England,
the lower Lake region, portions of the upper Lake region and upper Mississippi and
central Missouri valleys, and over a large part of the central and west Gulf States,
although limited areas in all these districts received good rains, the average amount
falling in some places. There was also less than the average rainfall in the upper
Ohio Valley, the eastern portions of Kentucky and Tennessee, the western portions
of Virginia and North Carolina, and on the north Pacific coast. The Middle and
South Atlantic States, lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, lower and upper
portions of the Missouri Valley, and the northern portion of the west Gulf States
received more than the average rainfall, very heavy rains having fallen in portions of
the Middle and Smith Atlantic States, lower Missouri Valley, and in portions of South
Dakota. Kansas. Missouri, and Arkansas. There was also more than the average pre-
cipitation throughout the States of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and in the
middle and northern Plateau regions, more than an inch of rain being reported from
portions of Utah, New Mexico, and western Montana, where such rainfalls are very
unusual. Dry weather continued on the north Pacific coast, where rain was also much
needed. Rainfalls unusually heavy for that region, ranging from one-half inch to more
than an inch, occurred over a large part of the Plateau districts.
TOO MUCH RAIN IX MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.
Septembers. — While the fore part of this week was unseasonably cool in the central
valleys and Lake region, as a whole the temperature conditions in the districts east
of the Rocky Mountains were favorable. Light frosts occurred in the Dakotas and
Minnesota, upper Michigan, and northern New England. Over the southern Plateau
region the temperature averaged unusually low. and light to heavy frosts occurred in
Utah and Arizona.
WEATHER AXD CHOP CONDITIONS IX 1906. 487
Excessive moisture proved unfavorable in the Middle Atlantic State-, while the
central Gulf States and parts of the Missouri Valley and New England needed rain.
Elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains the rains were generally well distributed,
ample, and not harmful. Little or no rain fell on the Pacitic coast and drought con-
tinued in Washington and Oregon.
The week was almost wholly free from local storms of severity.
UNUSUAL WARMTH THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY
September 10. — Throughout nearly the whole country the week ending September
10 was unusually warm, the mean temperature ranging "from (>° to more than 12° above
the normal from the Lake region westward to Idaho. In California, southwestern
Texas, and northern New England the week averaged slightly cooler than usual.
Light frosts occurred during the fore part of the week in parts of the upper Lake
region and northern Xew England, and during the latter part of the week in the
southern Plateau region, eastern Oregon, and Idaho.
NEEDED RAINS ON NORTH PACIFIC COAST.
The week was practically rainless in most of the northern districts east of the Rocky
Mountains and also over the middle and southern Plateau regions and in California.
Heavy rains occurred in Texas, Tennessee, portions of the east Gulf States, and over
limited areas in Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern North Carolina, causing local damage
in portions of Texas and Alabama. Rain was much needed in northern Xew England,
portions of the Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley, and in the northern Rocky
Mountain region. Good rains terminated the drought in western Washington and
showers afforded needed relief in Oregon.
September 17. — This week was abnormally cool in the Plateau and Rocky Mountain
regions, but in the districts to the eastward it averaged much warmer than usual,
although cool during the latter part in the more northerly districts. Light frosts
occurred on the 13th and 14th in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and upper Lake region, and
on the loth at a few places in the lower Lake region and northern Xew England.
Freezing temperatures occurred over a large part of the Plateau and northern Rocky
Mountain regions.
Parts of Xew England, the Lake region, Ohio Valley. Tennessee, and central and
east Gulf States needed rain: elsewhere the rainfall was generally ample. Good rains
fell on the north Pacific coast and generally throughout the Plateau and Rocky Moun-
tain regions, and very heavy rains occurred in Oklahoma, western Kansas, Nebraska,
eastern South Dakota, southern Minnesota, and western Iowa.
September 24- — Over most of the country this week averaged warmer than usual,
the temperature excess being very decided in the districts east of the Mississippi
River and from Minnesota westward to the north Pacific coast. The week was some-
what cooler than usual from the central Missouri Valley westward over the middle
Rocky Mountain region, including the northern portion of the southern Plateau
region. Xo freezing temperatures were reported from stations within the United
States, the lowest, 34°, being reported from the Yellowstone National Park. Wyo.,
and Northfield, Vt.. and no frost occurred in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains.
but light to heavy frosts occurred in the higher portions of Nevada, Utah, Arizona,
and Xew Mexico.
Heavy rains occurred in the east Gulf States, in portions of the Carolinas. Tennessee,
and Kentucky, in southern Xew England, and over an area extending from Oklahoma
northward to eastern South Dakota. In these districts amounts ranging from 1 inch
to more than 3 inches are reported. There was more than the average over local anas
in the Lake region and central and west Gulf States. In the Middle Atlantic States
and Florida and generally throughout the Lake region, central valleys, and west
Gulf districts, the rainfall was below the average, areas of considerable extent in Texas
and the central Mississippi Valley receiving no appreciable amount. There was a
general absence of rain throughout the Plateau regions and in southern California.
Light showers giving from one-fourth to one-half inch occurred in the middle and
northern Pacific coast districts.
DAMAGE BY HIGH WINDS.
On the 17th the Carolinas suffered considerably from the high winds accompanying
the tropical storm off the south Atlantic coast on that date, and heavy rains and high
winds in Minnesota on the 20th caused much damage.
488 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DAMAGING STORM IN" CENTRAL AND EAST GULF DISTRICTS.
October 1. — During this week the rainfall was very heavy from the central and east
Gulf coasts northward to the upper Mississippi Valley and upper Lake region, over
which region the total rainfall accompanying the tropical storm on the 27th and 28th
generally ranged from 2 to more than 8 inches, nearly 14 inches having fallen at Pen-
sacola. The central and east Gulf districts sustained severe losses as a result of high
winds and excessive rains accompanying this storm.
The temperature conditions were generally favorable, being above the normal over
nearly the whole country. Freezing temperatures occurred, however, in portions of
the Rocky Mountain and upper Lake regions and in northern New England, with
light to heavy, but generally harmless, frosts in the northern districts from the Mis-
souri Valley eastward during the latter part of the week.
REVIEW OF THE SEASON.
The season from March 1 to October 1, 1906 (215 days), closed with a decided short-
age in precipitation in the central valleys and west Gulf States and over a large part of
the Lake region and south Atlantic coast districts. A marked deficiency also existed
on the north Pacific coast. In California and generally throughout the Plateau and
Rocky Mountain regions the seasonal precipitation was much above the normal. An
excess was also shown over the interior portions of the south Atlantic and east Gulf
districts and on the middle Atlantic coast.
For the period from March 1 to this time the seasonal temperature was above the
normal over the greater part of the country east of the Mississippi River, the high mean
temperatures during the last six weeks having overcome the seasonal deficiency exist-
ing over a large part of this region in the earlier part of the summer. The aver-
age daily excess was most marked in the upper Lake region and on the southern
New England and middle Atlantic coasts, where it ranged from 1° to 2° per day. The
seasonal temperature was also in excess of the normal on the north Pacific coast, on
the immediate coast of extreme southern California, and in the upper Missouri Valley.
It was below the normal in central and northern California and throughout the middle
and southern Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, the departures ranging from 1° to
2° over the middle Rocky Mountain slope and middle Plateau region.
October.
The mean temperature for this month was below the normal over most of the country
from the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope to the south Atlantic coast, the defi-
ciency being most marked in the Gulf States, where it generally ranged from 3° to 5°
per day. A slight deficiency was also shown over the Ohio and lower Missouri valleys,
the western portion of the upper Lake region, and northern New England. Over the
greater part of the Lake region, however, and in the upper Mississippi and Middle
Atlantic States the mean temperature differed but slightly from the normal. In
eastern North Carolina, southern Florida, and the upper Missouri Valley, and gen-
erally throughout the Plateau and Pacific coast regions the mean temperature was
above the normal, the average daily excess ranging from 3° to 5° over the northern
Plateau and the greater part of California.
The lowest minimum temperature, 6°, occurred at Devils Lake, N. Dak., and the
next lowest, 8°. at Flagstaff, Ariz. In the Plateau region, upper Missouri Valley, and-
western portion of the upper Lake region the minimum temperatures generally ranged
from 12° to 20°; in the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and the
greater part of the Lake region and New England, from 20° to 30°; over the northern
portion of the Southern States, from 30° to 40°; and along the south Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, from 40° to 50°, except in extreme southern Florida and on the west Gulf coast,
where they were above 50°. Freezing temperatures extended as far south as the west-
ern portion of southern Texas and the northern portions of Alabama and Georgia.
The precipitation during October exceeded the normal over the middle Rocky
Mountain slope, central Missouri Valley, and the greater part of the central Gulf
States, and also in the knver Lake region, Middle Atlantic States, and portions of the
South Atlanl ic States and New England. The total fall was heaviest on the west Gulf
coast, where it ranged from 6 to 10 inches, while amounts ranging from 4 to more than 7
inches were reported from portions of the lower Lake region, Middle Atlantic States,
and southern New England. In the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Ohio
valleys, in Florida, and in portions of New England and the South Atlantic States,
there was less than the normal precipitation, the deficiency being marked in the lower
Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys and in Florida. There was more than the usual
amount in portions of western Washington, but elsewhere on the Pacific coast there
was a marked deficiency, as compared with the October normal.
WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906.
489
HEAVY SNOW IX COLORADO AND WYOMING.
From the 19th to the 23d a severe storm prevailed in the Rocky Mountain region,
the snowfall in Colorado and Wyoming being exceptionally heavy.
November.
"While the weather was unusually dry in California, the north Pacific coast experi-
enced unusually stormy weather during the greater part of the first half of the month,
the heavy rains causing damaging freshets in Oregon and Washington. Another
marked feature of the month's weather was the stormy period from the 19th to the 21st
in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, very heavy rains occurring in eastern Arkansas,
northern Mississippi, the western portions of Tennessee and Kentucky, and the south-
ern portions of Indiana and Illinois. In the Atlantic coast and east Gulf districts
weather conditions were mild, with much less than the usual rainfall.
The mean temperature was above the normal over most of the country east of the
Rocky Mountains, the average daily excess being less than 3° per day, except over
portions of the upper Lake region and Middle Atlantic and central Gulf States, where
it ranged from 3° to 5° per day. In Tennessee and portions of the central Mississippi
and lower Missouri valleys and in the middle Rocky Mountain region and northern
California the mean temperature was nearly normal. Generally throughout the
Plateau regions and in southern California the month averaged colder than usual, the
deficiency in temperature ranging from 3° to 4° per day over an area covering portions
of California, Nevada, and Utah, and in portions of eastern Oregon and Washington.
The precipitation during this month was much below the average in the Atlantic
coast and Gulf districts, except in extreme southern Florida and on the southern Texas
coast, where it was much above the average. The total amount in the coast districts
from southern New England to central Florida was generally less than 2 inches, and
over a large part of this regio.. there was less than 1 inch, making the deficiency range
from 1 inch to more than 2 in. hes. There was also less than the usual rainfall in the
lower Lake region and upper Ohio Valley, over portions of the central Missouri Valley,
and in Oklahoma and California. The precipitation was excessively heavy in the
lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, where it ranged from 6 to 18 inches, the
largest amounts being reported from eastern Arkansas, northern Mississippi, and
western Tennessee. Generally throughout the Plateau and north Pacific coast regions
the precipitation exceeded the average, a large excess being indicated over the south-
ern Rocky Mountain region and the greater part of Oregon and Washington.
At the close of the month the upper Michigan Peninsula and portions of northern
Minnesota. North Dakota, and Montana were covered with snow ranging in depth from
1 inch to 11 inches. Stations in portions of Nevada and Utah reported depths at the
close of the month ranging from 4 to 12 inches.
Average daily departures from normal temperatures {degrees Fahrenheit) saisoa of 1906.
Section.
New England
Middle Atlantic States
South Atlantic States
Florida Peninsula
Eastern Gulf States
Western Gulf States
Ohio Valley and Tennessee.
Lower Lake Region
Upper Lake Region
North Dakota
Upper Mississippi Valley.. .
Missouri Valley
Northern Slope
Middle Slope
Southern Slope
Southern Plateau
Middle Plateau
Northern Plateau
North Pacific Coast Region
Middle Pacific Coast Region
South Pacific Coast Region
From
For week ended-
to
Apr. 2.
April —
Ma
J
inclu-
sive.
9.
16.
. '3'
30.
4.
14.
21.
28.
+ 1.4
-0.1
+ 1.1
+ 3.0
-1.1
+ 1.0
-4.0
+3.2
-0.7
+0.0
+ 1.8
+3.5
+ 5.8
+ 1.0
+ 5.8
-5.1
» +5.2
+ 1.4
-0.7
+0.4
+6.1
+ 1.1
+ 1.9
+6.5
-7.5
+3.5
-1.4
-1.2
-2.7
+ 1.7
-0.3
+ 1.3
+3.0
-0.7
+0.7
-0.3
-2.3
+ 1.0
+3.2
-1.1
+2.9
+ 3.9
-8.4
+2.5
-2.1
-1.5
+0.0
+ 0.4
-2.3
+3.4
+ 1.7
-4.8
+2.0
+ 0.8
-1.2
+2.8
+3.9
0.0
+3.9
+2.3
-6.9
+ 5.8
+ 3.9
+ 1.2
+ 1.9
+ 4.4
+ 2.5
+0.5
+0.0
-5.9
+4.1
+ 4.4
+ 2.0
+ 3.2
+3.7
+5.3
+3.4
-0.1
-3.4
+6.4
-0.9
+3.0
+ 5.3
+ 1.0
+ 9.3
+6.3
-4.0
+ 2.7
+0.7
-8.3
+0.1
+ 3.9
+ 1.4
+3.0
+5.3
-1.0
-1.4
+ 5.5
+ 1.3
+ 1.7
+2.2
+0.4
+ 5.5
+ 4.6
-7.3
+ 3.7
+7.0
+0.1
+2.4
+ 1.3
+ 2.1
+ 9.3
+ 1.7
-3.0
+6.1
+3.1
-0.0
+0.9
-1.7
+ 0.7
+ 4.2
+2.7
-2.2
+ 1.5
+6.3
-0.5
-0.7
-2.5
+ 0.5
-3.5
+ 4.0
-1.5
-1.0
+ 1.7
-0.7
+ 1.2
-3.5
+0.8
+3.7
-4.7
-2.5
+0.3
+0.7
-5.3
+ 1.4
-1.2
+ 1.4
+ 7.2
-3.8
+ 1.4
+ 3.5
-0.3
-4.5
+ 1.4
+2.0
+2.0
+ 7.8
+0.2
+2.2
+ 6.6
-3.3
-5.2
+ 1.9
+ 3.7
+ 1.0
+ 5.3
+ 1.9
+2.6
+ 1.9
-3.4
-2.3
+ 1.7
+ 3.0
+ 2.0
+3.0
-3.0
+0.3
+0.3
-5.3
-6.7
+ 2.0
-0.5
+ 1.0
+ 5.0
-5.0
+ 1.0
-1.2
— 2.2
-4.8
490
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
partures from normal temperatures idegret? Fa'' ■ sea/ton of 1906 — •
I
For week ended-
-
JUD<^
Julv-
:■•.
23.
-2.2
—1.2
Soot/- les —0.6
Florida Peninsula +0.3
-0.5
-- !
Ohio Valley and Tennessee ... _ _
Region —3.5
Region. —1.1
- "
Upper Mississippi Valley —1.2
' —1.6
—4.1
-0. 5
T>e 0. 0
Southern Flatten -0.3
Middle Plateau -6.2
-.teau
. Pacific Coast Region.. —0.3
Middle Pacific-Coast Region. . — 4.7
South Pacific- C oast Region . . -4.0
-
-. "
-0.3
+3.5
+3.9
+5.4
+5.1
-0.3
4-2.1
-: -
-2.1
+3.0
-3.7
-0.3
-3.7
-3.2
-2.0
0.0
-3.7
-3.9
-3.4
-0.7
-1.5
-1.1
-o.l
-5.2
-4.0
-1.0
— 5.0
-1.9 ;
+0.9
-1 2
-0.7
+3.0
-0.3
-2.0
-2.3
-3.7
-
-3.1
-1.4
+1.0
-0.3
+ 1.9.
+0.4 :
-3.3 I
-3.1
-3.5
-9-0
-6.9
-7.9
-9-4
—6.5
-0.3
-0.S i
-4.5
-4.3
+ 1.0
- -
-r0.9
+3.8
+3.2
0.0 I
-
+2.8 I
_ ' |
-3.5
-1.7
-0.1 ,
-3.0
-
1
-32
-1.0
-3.3
-3.4.
-1.9
-2.0
-0.3 ■.
-0. 5 ,
-2.8 |
-2.8
-3.1
-3.3
+ 1.0
-5.7
-4.9
-2.4
-7 -
-8.0
• -
-1.3
+5.9
+5.3
-. -
-1.1
-2.5
-0.7
-1.9
-0.6
-1.2
+ 1.0
-1.5
-1.0
-3.5
-2.7
-5.3
-2.7
-0.7
+ 1.8
+6.1
i
+3.5
+3.3
-2.4
+0.5
-0.3
-1.1
-1.4
-0.4
+ 2.8
4-2
0.0
-02
-1.8
0.0
-1.3
-0.2
+ 1.2
!
-0.3
+0.5
-1.4
-1.9
-2.5
-0.7
-1.1
-1.2
-3.2
-l.C
-( :
0.0
—2.2
-L7
4-1
+ 1.3
+ 1.0
+ 1.1
-1.7
For week ended-
August—
.-!■•:-- :': T-
Octo-
ber.
Xew England — 1.0
Middle Atlar.- 4-3.4
South Atlantic Stat es —0.3 - .7
Florida Peninsula — 1.>
Eastern Guif States -•'-• -2.0
- Guli States
- : - —2. 1
Lower Lake Region —4.2 +1.8
Upper Lake Region +2.9 —1.2
akoxa -3.0 — : ...
4-2.7 +0.7
+0.8 -1.7
- :••- —2.9
Middle Slope. -0.7 -2.2
pe -2.0 -2.3
Southern Plateau —1.7 — L2
Middle Plateau -1.'
-:.-
Xorth I 'ac-ine Coa*t Region. . —0.7
Middle Pacific Coat:
South Pacific Coast Region. . - 0. 2 -1.2
- 1.7
- L9
- 2.3
0.0
- l.i.
- 0.1
- . a
■ -
4-10.3
-
- 1.3
- 1.3
- 1.5
- 1.0
- 1.9
+ 2.2
-
+3.8
-1.5
-0.7
-3.2
+5.8
-'
+ 5.9
-6.0
+0.4
— 5.7
+0-8 ;
-0.3
-3.8
— o. o
' !
-3.2
-
+ 1-7
- '.
0.0
0.0
+0.8
-0.2
-0.8
-0.5
+0.3
0.0
-3.0
-0.3
+3.8
+ 1.4
-1.0
i
- 0.3
- 1.4
- 1.5
+ 1.3
+ 2.0
- 11
- .
+ 6.6
- "
- 9-0
- 3.0
- 1.0
0.0
-
+ 0.7
+ 0.3
- 0..3
-1.8
-4.5
—3.5
J-1.0
-ro.0
+4.1
■ -
+6.5
+0.3
+6.8
-5.1
+ 1.3
-3.7
-7.0
-1.6
-1.3
-
- " •
+ 1.3 '
+ 3.0
-
-
+ 8.0 !
+ 6.4
!
- 4.1
- 3.3 j
0.0
-0.7
- 1.7
-
+ 1.3
-2.0
--
-0.3
+2.8
+ 1-1
+4.0
-
hi
+ 1.8
+1.6
-4.1
+0.5
+ 1.0
--
+2.8
+3.8
- "
WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906.
491
Departures from normal precipitation (inches and hundredths) season of 1906.
Section.
New England
Middle Atlantic States
South Atlantic States
Florida Peninsula
Eastern Gull states
Western Guli St ites
Ohio Valley and Tennessee.
Lower Lake B egion
Upper Lake Region
North Dakota
Upper Mississippi Valley. . .
Missouri Valley
Northern Slope
Middle Slope
Southern Slope
Southern Plateau
Middle Plateau
Northern Plateau
North Pacific Coast Region
Middle Pacific Coast Region
South Pacific Coast Region
From
Jan. 1
to
Apr. 2.
inclu-
sive.
-0.61
- 1. aa
-1.21
+2.36
-1.07
-:;. 72
-3.40
-2.82
+ 0. IS
-0..-.0
+0.66
+0.41
+0. 39
-0. 39
-1.22
+0.72
+ 1.45
-0. 25
-5.20
+ 5.S7
For week ended—
April-
May—
-o. 59
-8.58
-o.so
-0.48
-1.05
-0. 57
-0. 22
+ 0.12
+0.12
-0.11
+ 0.32
+0.13
-0.02
+0. 59
+0. 85
+0. 30
+ 0.29
-0.27
-0. 66
-0.03
-0. 16
+ 1.22
+ 1.16
+ 0.09
+0.70
-0.20
-0.18
-0. 16
+0.32
+0.01
+0.30
-0.27
+0.14
-0.14
+0.21
-0.28
-0.04
+0.03
-0.20
-0.82
-0. 54
-0.28
-Ox;
-0.58
-0.(9
-0. 27
-0.97
-0.31
-0.77
-0.37
-0.S8
-0.50
-0.71
-0.65
-0. 26
-0.28
+0.58
+0.06
-0.09
-0.28
-0.73
-0.46
-0.28
30.
-0.37
-0.58
-0.51
-0.41
-O.tS
-0.70
-0.52
-0.45
-0.35
-0. 32
-0. 53
-0.11
+0.26
+0.33
-0.48
0.00
-0.23
-0.08
-0.18
+0.66
+0.31
7.
14.
+0.17
-0. 49
+0.13
-0. 63
+ 0.06
-0.52
-o.eo
-0.25
+ 1.08
-0.66
+0.89
-0.89 •
+0.17
-0.86
-0.21
+ 0.14
-0.05
-0.13
-0. 05
0.00
-0.20
-0.28
-0.02
-0.76
-0.02
-0.26
-0.40
-0.S1
-0.34
-0.32
-0. 05
-o.o;
-0. 02
+ 0.34
-0.33
-0.26
-0. 73
-0.13
-0.50
-0.28
-0. 06
+0. 17
-0. 06
-0.72
-0.77
-0.22
-0.61
-0.23
-0.78
-0.74
-0. 52
+0.56
-0.49
-0.64
-0. 16
-0.18
-0.51
+0.06
-0. 16
+0.O.)
+0. 48
+ 0.32
-0.07
+ 0.95
+0.20
+ 1.48
+3.20
+ 0.37
-0.45
+0.22
-0. 45
+0.02
+ 1.28
+ 0.76
+ 0.25
-t-1.14
+0. 16
0.00
-0.06
+0. 51
+ 0.50
+0. 26
+ 1.79
+-1.(0
Section.
For week ended -
June-
July-
New England
Middle Atlantic Slate:;
South Atlantic States
Florida Peninsula
Eastern i lull States
Western Gull States
Ohio Valley and Tennessee.
Lower Lake Region
Upper Lake Region
North Dakota
Upper Mississippi Valley...
Missouri Valley
Northern Slope
Middle Slope
Southern Slope
Southern Plateau
Middle Plateau
Northern Plateau
North Pacific Coast Region
Middle Pacific Coast Region
South Pacific Coast Region
4.
11-
+ 0.16
+ 0.81
9.09
+0. 13
-0.41
+ 0.14
-0. 76
+1.18
-0.61
-0.69
+0.19
-0.81
-0.08
+ 0.14
-0.80
+ 0..-4
-0. 52
+0.41
+0.40
+ 1.42
-0.43
-0.07
+0.04
-0.66
+ 0. 12
+0. 23
-0.32
-0.56
+ 1.41
-0.53
0.00
-0.07
+0.18
-0.01
+1.67
-0.02
-0. 03
+ 0.38
+ 0.08
+ 0.03
+0.10
-0.02
18.
+ 0.53
+0. 52
+ 3.56
+ 2.07
+ 0.63
-0. 76
-0.18
+0.10
-0. 59
-0.39
-0.89
-0.14
-0.25
+0.10
-0. 70
-0.06
-0.04
-0.08
+0.61
+ 0. 22
-0.01
25.
+0.22
+ 0. 42
-0.59
+ 0. 16
-1.08
-0.12
-0.08
-0.29
-0.14
-0.46
-0.09
+0.34
-0. 02
-0. 12
-0.31
-0.08
-0.09
-0.24
-0.39
-0.09
0.00
+0.09
-0.31
-0.50
-1.41
+0.02
+0.14
-0.47
-0.19
+ 0.36
+ 0.86
+ 0.17
+0.20
-0. 22
-0.05
-0.56
-0.12
+ 0.12
+ 0. 15
+ 0.20
+ 0.07
0.00
+0. 22
+ 0.14
+0. 51
+0. 96
-0.02
+ 0.04
+ 0.02
+ 1 . 03
-0.63
-0.74
-8.65
-0.80
-0.36
-0.34
+ 0.08
+ 0.47
+ 0. 24
-0.04
-0. 25
-0.03
0.00
16.
23.
30.
-0.22 ■
+0.12
+0.33
-0.13
+0.85
+0.32
-0.03 i
-0.42
-0.09
-0.20
-0. 40
+0.03
+ 0.10
+ 1.00
+o.4i ;
-0.04 I
-0.02
-0.12
-0.08 |
0.00 i
0.00 I
-0.22
+ 0.02
+ 0.49
-0.07
+ 1.08
+ 0.34
+ 1.32
+0.31
-0. 19
-0. 40
-0.28
+0.19
-0. 27
-0.10
+ 0.11
-0.19
-0. 06
-0.03
-0.16
0.00
0.00
+ 0.27
+ 0.39
+ 0. 42
+ 2.36
+0.01
+ 0.37
-0.02
+ 0.24
+0.37
-0. 16
-0.01
-0. 43
-0.0S
+0.S6
-0.22
-0.21
+0.16
-0.07
-0.16
0.00
0.00
Section.
For week- ended—
August -
September-
G.
New E ugla nd +0.11
Middle Atlantic States +0. 35
South Atlantic States +0.38
Florida Peninsula +0. 91
Eastern Gulf States —0. 71
Western Gulf States -0. 40
Ohio Valley and Tennessee.. . — o. 59
Lower Lake Region —0.36
Upper Lake Region —0. 14
North Dakota +0. .53
Upper Mississippi Valley +0. 03
Missouri Valley +1. 27
Northern Slope + 0. 55
Middle Slope +0.01
Southern Slope +0. 22
Southern Plateau +0. 48
Middle Plateau +0. 05
Northern Plateau +0.02
North Pacific Coast Region. . —0. 14
Middle Pacific Coast Region . . 0. 00
South Pacific Coast Region. . . -0. 02
13.
20.
-0.35
-0.87
+ 1.07
-0. 12
-0.73
-0. 24
+ 0. 40
-0.76
-a 26
+0. 25
+0.67
-0. 15
+0.40
+ 0.34
+1.08
-0.38
+ 0.17
-0.43
-0.09
-0.05
+0.97
+0.48
+0.67
-0.57
+0.23
+0.02
+0.20
-0.28
+ 1.85
-0.46
-0.15
+ 0.24
-0.09
+ 0. 18
+ 0.24
+0. 11
-0.04
-0.09
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
0.00
-0.22
+0.43
+0.01
+0.7S
0.00
-0.06
-0. 09
+0. 20
+0.74
+ 0. 45
+ 0.02
+ 0.54
+ 0. 64
+ 0.61
+0. 65
+0.20
+0.43
+ 0. 11
-0. 25
-0. 02
+0.02
3.
10.
17.
+0.08
-0. 54
-0.43
+0.46
-0.82
-0.34
+0. £0
-0.47
-0. 76
-0.80
-0. 92
-1.37
-0.31
+0.78
-0.36
-0. 65
+0.30
-0. 51
-0.25
-0.13
-0. 26
-0. 13
-0.69
-0. 66
-0. 28
-0.79
+0.07
-0. 32
-0.30
+0.42
+0. 03
-0.51
+ 0.01
-0.10
-0.49
+ 1.42
-0.08
-0.22
+ 1.09
+0.92
-0.22
+ 1.86
+o. 19
+ 0.10
-0.22 |
-0.19
-0.19
+0. 12
+0.14
-0.16
+ 0.1.6
-0. 13
-0. 05
+ 0.23
-0.39
+ 1.C0
+0. 62
-0. 05
-0. 03
-0.03
0.00
0.00
+0.02
492
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 1906.
By A. D. Melvix. Chief of Ou I _~
Iu spite of ilie violent agitation which prevailed during a considerable
year against conditions at some of the large pa a •--. and which seriously affi
the trade in certain classes of meat products, it can truly be said thai 1
respects a highly successful year for the live-stock: industry. The public prejudice
against the lower grades of meat products reacted in favor of the better grades, and the
prices obtained for the latter reached a very remunerative point for the producer.
DECREASE IX PMC]
As regards the cattle trade, prices have risen all along the line. The average price
of native cattle at the Chicago stock yards for the year was $S . - _ t J "5 in
1905. This is an increase of 55 very 100 pounds of live weight, or 11 per
Texas cattle rose from (4-20 to $4-45, and western cattle made the highest gain of any.
their average going from | - £4.40. Another ii ftheprospei
of the cattle trade may be cited in connection with the public sales of pure-bre-.-
cattle in the United States during 1906. which totaled ■ ! — an
advance of fully 10 per cent on 1905: and there was also a considerable increase i
average price per head.
Hog growers had a phenomenally successful year. The hogs sold at Chics _
the year, according to a good market authority, realized $15,000,0
than was received in 19<i.5. and the average price on the market was an even $1 per
hundredweight more than in 190.5 — an increase of 19 per cent. Sheep raisers had a good
year also, although their increases were not as great as the preceding.
IXCEEASE IX EXPC I -
While the home market thus maintained a highly satisfactory condition, the ex]
trade in animal products reached the highest amount yet attained, the total value of
these exports for 1906 being $2 527 588, an advance of $23,144,694 over 1905. I
ously the highest total value of animal products exported in one year had
$2£ ^20.152. in 1901. There was a heavy falling off in exports of canned meats in 1906,
due. of course, to the agitation before mentioned, but it is gratify:: _
was more than offset by gains in other classes of meats. The public. : a :. and
domestic, has evidently discriminated very carefully between canned meats, which
were most affected by the insanitary conditions at packing houses, and fresh :
the wholesomeness of which was never seriously questioned in all the di- issi . :
packing-house conditi
NUMBERS AND VALUES OF FATIM AXIMALS. JAXCARY 1. 1907.
The prosperous condition and the vastness of the live-stock industry are well shown
by the annual estimate of the number and value of farm animal.-
January 1. 1907. by the Bureau of Statistics of this Department. ..-
mber and value of/arm animals in the Xh Si ■ -. January i, 19t
Farm animals.
Xumbe r.
com-
pared
with
Januarv
• -
hes.4.
. ae.
--- a
-.- i
53. 240. 000
100.9
- '
102.4
-
S33.51
- '
•
--■
'
Other cat tit- -.
••
204. 210. 000
117 ;
The total value reaches the stupendous sum of %A . -".000. The above £
ment shows an increase during 1906 in the number of all ..nimals ex
'"other cattle" and swine, and the decrease in swine wa« insignificant. A striking
enhancement in the value of farm animals during the year is shown by compari:.-
THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IX 1906.
493
average prices per head as estimated on January 1, 1906, and on January 1, 1907. The
increase per head in each class is as follows : Horses. 812.79; mules. 813.85; milch cows,
$1.56; other cattle, $1.25; sheep, $0.30; swine, $1.44.
- LIVE-STOCK EXHIBITIONS.
- Live-stock shows are an important educational factor for improvement in breeding
and feeding. The two principal exhibitions of the year were the ••American Royal,"
at Kansas City, in October, and the '•International.'' at Chicago, December 1 to 8. At
each of these shows there was brought together a splendid collection of fine breeding
and fat stock. In number and high quality of exhibits and in magnitude of attend-
ance the International Exposition of 1906 surpassed all previous exhibitions. There
were on exhibition in this show 6,043 animals, as follows:
Exhibits at tin International Exposition at Chicaijo. December. 1006.
Class.
I
Individual
exhibits.
Carload exhibit?.
X umber of
carloads.
Number oi
animals.
Fat cattle
' 1.067
97
29
1.45.5
780
Ij09
897
17
2
877
Hoes
■•
100
Total
2. K'A
155
3.212
Most of the animals were in the younger classes, and the grand champion of the show
was a Hereford calf 11 months old.
CHANGE IN" LAW REGARDING TRANSPORTATION OF LIVE STOCK.
The statute commonly known as the twenty-eight hour law was changed by act of
Congress approved June 29, 1906. The old law, passed in 1873, prohibited the con-
finement in cars, boats, or other vessels, for a longer period than twenty-eight consecu-
tive hours, of cattle, sheep, swine, or other animals in transit from one State to another,
without unloading the same for rest, water, and feeding for at least live hours, unless
the animals were carried in cars, boats, or vessels in which they could and did have
proper feed, water, space, and opportunity to rest. For some years there had been
many violations of this law by railroads, despite the Department's efforts to enforce
it. While the object of the law was good, in many cases it was a greater hardship to
the animals and to the shippers to have the law complied with than to carry the ani-
mals on to destination without unloading. At length the dissatisfaction on the part
of shippers led to the enactment of the new law, which permits an extension of
the time to thirty-six hours on the written request of the owner or person in custody
of the shipment. This request must be separate and apart from any printed bill of
lading or other railroad form. Sheep, on account of their well-known objection to
moving at night, are not required to be unloaded during the night, but the time of
their confinement may not be extended beyond thirty-six hours. In most other
respects the new law is similar to the old, though occasion was taken to correct some
defects of the old law. The penalty for each -violation is from S100 to $500.
THE MEAT INSPECTION.
An important event of the year was the extension of the meat-inspection service
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, consequent upon the passage of the law of June 30,
1906.
As the conditions at the Chicago stock yards and packing houses have been so
prominently before the public, it may be well to point out certain facts regarding
the meat-inspection service- as conducted by the Bureau.
Until the passage of the new meat-inspection law on the last day of the fiscal year
(June 30, 1906). the inspection was carried on under the act of March 3, 1891, as
amended by the act of March 2, 1895. That law provided for —
1. The inspection of all live cattle which were intended for export or whose car-
casses or products were intended for export.
4^4 YEA. ;he department of agriculture.
2. B, and hogs which
■d -which were aVmt I gktered at
g salting. | - rend« rir ! duasente in any •
". 1 for
-uinption in a: r £ t Termor nbia.
rtern examination of cai all cattle.
be prepared for human consumption at any slaughter;,
cam, _ ■ . - s iment in any State or Territory M
and whi b ssasesce.
In other von while the .
mortem cxamir.
id limitation.- oi thai law ■
mder which the- iimfw < liii va? conducted. In the first place,
gnl ered
- the carcasses or products of whi' b
made for funds with -whi
perfo spriatieB b sufficient to enable
Lisbmente carrying
man] - which applied for I on account of
Wh of meati and products which on inspection
united the into i - nest
sad products found diseased , provision and
. and rendering unfit for food purposes the diseased and
- A?a matter of fact, however, it has long been
the t • :he Bureau to require the destruction of all condemned carcasses and
-.d oi the precjrk ; f ith such <■:
bo withdraw inspection,
ibtfulvhef . ay authority for folio?
-1 and pawed immediately after slaughter or fat
such meat which might afterwards become unwholesome or andean
Log pi d the mar-
« re any such authority or not is a purely academic ques-
tack of fun end the inspection to cover all
Mo authority whs
anritatiori ef the establishment ilteration or A chemicals
f the- law.
Th- .-i fined to the ante-:.
animals and th n of the ediateiy after slaughter. The meat
found leof this post- mortem in-
y marked, and that J runwho].- leBtroyed.
was emci- - it went and that it vent
1. In all
-
related aln the canned and
prep. a and me
- whi^h the E ntrol
Tne nev lav of JFnne 3D, 19t _ tkepoven Agri-
cnlti. pernssnent annual appropriation of $3,099,000 to Bay the o
meat the additional authority and a* rrice
has \y extender! and - ned.
st important changes in the meat BUIBM fiun bf -peration
e summarized .
:. is carried on i
i 31.
- Preri - ;»n only l»efore and at the lime of slaugh-
ter. The inspection is now es all departments of the abattoirs and packing
covers all the vari< 3 stages • - E preparation, curing, canning,
. no obbsj -anitatioi ice-baa been extended to
BBSSSss have >.>een made at practically all i -
Itthments. ranging from flight modifications to almost < rrniBBh li
Weekly reports on sanitation are received.
taw required inspection only at booses doing export beef business.
The ne-sr law requi: ion for all bstersaate a-- well as export business
in the case of farmers and retail butchers and ; plying their customers.
THE LIVB-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 19W. 495
(6) Previously there had been no control over transportation of moats ami moat
food product?. Under the now law there is complete control over interstate trans-
portation. Every shipment must be covered by a certificate showing either that the
meat has boon inspected and passed or tlmt it is exempt from inspection.
Instead of no authority over trade labels, the Department is now empowered to
prevent fraudulent and misleading labeling of meat products.
I 7 i From no control over processes of preparation of moat food products and the use
of chemicals, preservatives, etc., the Department has complete control over such mat-
te:-. Careful chemical examinations are made to enforce this feature of the new law.
- Formerly it was possible to withdraw animals that had been rejected at ante-
mortem inspection and have them slaughtered elsewhere for local use. This is no
longer permitted. All animals must be slaughtered and properly disposed of at the
establishment for which bought and where the inspection takes place.
It should be remembered, however, that the Federal jurisdiction is limited to inter-
state and foreign commerce, and that this inspection can legally be applied only to
establishments doing an interstate or foreign business. As a matter of fact, the Depart-
ment insists upon inspecting the entire output of each establishment at which its
inspectii <n is maintained, even though the greater part of the product is to be consumed
within the State; but the Federal inspection does not and can not reai h the establish-
ments doing business exclusively within a State. Some of the worst conditions have
boon found at places of the latter kind. Such places must be looked after by the State
and municipal authorities. In the absence of an efficient local inspection the con-
sumer should see that meat bears the Government label.
ERADICATION OF THE CATTLE TICK.
The year 100G also witnessed the inauguration of systematic work by cooperation
between the United States Department of Agriculture and State authorities for the
eradication of the tick which transmits the infection of Texas fever of cattle. Pot
many years this tick and the infection which it spreads have been a great handicap to
the live-stock industry of the South. It is estimated that the tick is responsible for
about 8-tO.OOO.OOO of loss annually to the people in the infected country, and that it
also lowers the assets of the South by an additional S23.250.000.
On June 30. 1906. Congress appropriated *82,500 for the Department to undertake
the work of tick eradication in cooperation with State authorities. Although fhe time
was short for effective work during that season, the results accomplished wore very
gratifying and encouraging. They indicate that the eradication of the tick is entirely
possible, though it is recognized as a large and difficult undertaking- one that will
require several years and considerable money for its accomplishment. It is believed
that, as a result of the work during 1906, forty whole counties and parts of eleven other
counties, with an area larger than the State of Virginia, can be safely released from
quarantine. In some States adequate laws are lacking, and in some no funds are avail-
able fur such work. These conditions must be remedied if the work is to be continued
successfully. The eradication of the cattle tick will be of incalculable advantage to
tin- South and of great benefit to the entire country, and it is believed that money
wisely spent in this work will be a splendid investment for the States and the Nation".
An important conference of Federal and State representatives engaged in the work of
tick eradication was held at Nashville. Tenn.. December 5 and 6, 1906.
CONTROL OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.
The work of eradicating sheep scab and cattle mange in the West was continued
vigorously during the year by the Bureau of Animal Industry, with the cooperation
of State and Territorial authorities. Those diseases are being gradually brought under
control. Already Wyoming. Idaho. Utah, and Arizona have been practically freed
from sheep scab, and the disease lias been greatly diminished in other States." Such
satisfactory progress has not boon made, however, against cattle mange on account of
the lack of the same hearty cooperation from cattle owners that is received from sheep
owners. This Work consist- principally of inspection and dipping on the range and
at shipping points, the object being to strike the evil at its source and thus prevent the
contamination of the channels of interstate commerce and the spread of the infection.
This work means an immense saving to the stockmen of the country. The eradica-
tion of sheep scab results in the production of a much larger amount of wool than is
possible when the disease is present, (bio flockmaster with 40,000 head of sheep has
stated that the dipping increased the yield of wool of his sheep H pounds a head.
which, at the value of 20 cents a pound, amounted to $12,000. In many flocks the
proportion of increase has been much greater.
496 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The free distribution of blackleg vaccine to stock owners by the Bureau of Animal
Industry,- has been continued, with the usual good results. During the year 1.279,280
- were prepared and sent out. The losses among vaccinated calves are extremely
small, and the prevalence of the disease is being gradually reduce 1.
- lEXTIFIC INVESTIGATION" OF DISEASES.
The scientific investigation of animal diseases by the Bureau of Animal Industry
yield pecial importance regarding tuberculosis and hog cholera during
1906.
The urgent need to strengthen the fight against tuberculosis, especially among cattle,
is becoming more apparent even." day. and it is believed that the eyes of the breeders
and feeders of animals are opening to this fact. It has been shown by the work of
the Bureau of Animal Industry that the most important factor in the dissemination of
tubercle bacilli by cattle is their feces. Heretofore it has been supposed that milk
was not likely to contain the germs of tuberculosis unless the cow's udder was affected.
Experiments made at the Bureau Experiment Station have demonstrated, however,
that the excrement of tuberculous cattle is usually heavily charged with tubercle
bacilli, and that with the usual methods of milking the milk easily becomes contami-
nated by particles of bacilli-laden manure. In this way a single tuberculous cow may
be the means of infecting the milk of an entire herd.
It has also been demonstrated that probably the most fruitful causes of tubercu
in hogs are the common practices of allowing "these animals to follow cattle in the
lot and feeding them on skimmed milk or separator refuse. The alarming incres
tube: s . 3 is almost entirely traceable to their association with affi
cattle. The sterilization of all skimmed or separated milk from public creameries
r pigs is recommended.
The relative importance of dried and pulverized tuberculous material as compared
with that which is moist and fresh has re . e attention, and it ha i ;ited
out that the danger from the latter has been undervalued, mainly beeau-e dried and
pulverized material is in better harmony with the commonly accepted respirj
theory of infection with tuberculosis. The respiratory theory has been shown to be
unnecessary to account for the frequency with which tuberculosis is an infection of
the lung, and it has been shown that the tubercle bacilli usually reach the lung irre-
spective of the manner of their introduction into the body. For instance, tubercu-
: ihe lungs was produced by inoculating hogs in the tip of the tail.
The tuberculin test, with proper precautions, w I to be about as accurate
with i h cattle. Reliable resui' tained in 97 per cent of the animals
- d. It is necessary, however, to keep the hogs very quiet before and during the
. prevent i jperature from causes other than the tuberculin.
TL s i the year, both by the Bureau and by outside in
gat<>rs. have tended to confirm the view that human and bovine tuberculosis can not
I as two distinct - - - that tubercle bacilli of persons and of animals are
not distinct and separate varieties but vary only as a result of adapting themseh
the different environments encountered in different - : animals, and that
to protect persons against infection with tuber :n anima:-
jsary.
Whether regarded from the standpoint of protecting human health or of promoting
the welfare of the li industry, it is highly important for our farmer.-, stock
rs, and dairymen to eliminate tuberculosis from their h :
For many years hog cholera has been a cause of hi the farmer and a puzzle
to the rs ago the Bureau of Animal Industry d
that the cause of the most acute and virulent forms of the disease is a virus that can
through the finest lilter and is invisible under the microscope. This has been
confirmed by later experiments by the Bureau and by Eur - During
the past year t : ■ i of the Bureau have been directed toward developing a vaccine
-urn which will prevent and cure the 1 remedy has been
worked out in an experimental way. and efforts are being made to adapt it to practical
and . This method lias been patented by Dr. Marion Dorset, chief of the
Division of the Bureau, in such a way as to allow anybody in the United
States the right I its - • :ree of royalty.
e valuable work in the investigation of internal paras: -
the Bureau in 1906. The pcevale;. has done great damage to the
■ industry in the eastern half of the Unit - s, and has caused th
fanners to abai ;> raising. By carefully studying one of the most trouble-
some of these parasites the stomach worm. . u) and establishing
THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IX 190<3. 497
the principal facts in its life history, the Bureau has placed before sheep raisers infor-
mation (Circular No. 102. Bureau of Animal Industry) which will enable them very
largely to prevent its ravages. Experiments indicate that it is entirely feasible to.
raise lambs free from this and some other injurious parasites.
ANIMAL BREEDING AXD FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.
The experiments in breeding horses in Colorado, conducted cooperatively by the
Bureau of Animal Industry and the Colorado Experiment Station, have attracted
considerable attention. The object is to develop from native stock a strain of carriage
horses. The stud is headed by the stallion Carmon 32917. American Trotting Register.
The first crop of foals came during the spring of 1906, and while it is early to pass an
opinion on them, they show the stallion to be a good investment as a sire.
Experiments in breeding Morgan horses were begun in Vermont in 1906 by coopera-
tion between the Bureau and the Vermont Experiment Station, with the object of)
preventing the loss of the Morgan blood, preserving the type, and at the same time
increasing the size over that of the old Morgan. Xine mares have been purchased,
and a stallion will probably be added.
During the year experiments were also begun by the Bureau, in cooperation with
the Wyoming Experiment Station, in breeding range sheep. In spite of the great
development and prosperity of the sheep industry of the West, breeding methods are
not systematic, and most breeders are continually crossing, the result being a lack of
uniformity in the stock and. to a certain extent, a failure to attain as high a standard
as might otherwise be possible. The requirement of the range is a breed of sheep that
will yield a profitable clip of wool, produce good mutton lambs, and that will stand
flocking in large numbers. It is believed to be possible to combine these character-
istics in one breed of sheep, and this is the object of the experiments.
The Bureau being urged to undertake experiments to counteract the supposed
decline in fecundity of Poland-China sows, made a careful study of the pedigree records:
for several years, with the surprising result that the average litter was found to have
increased from 7.04 pigs in 1882-1886 to 7.52 in 1898-1902. Similar studies for the
Duroc-Jerseys showed the rate to be practically stationary at about 9.25.
The following cooperative experiments are also under way and are progressing satis-
factorily: Animal nutrition, studied with the respiration calorimeter (Pennsylvania);
oeef production in the South (Alabama); poultry breeding and management (Maine),
and turkey breeding with the object of developing resistance to the disease known
as blackhead i Rhode Island). The Maine poultry experiments have shown that
the egg-laying capacity of hens may be increased by selective breeding and proper
feeding. Several of the hens have laid more than 200 eggs in one year. The success
of this work means a substantial addition to the income of the farmers of the country.
During the year the Bureau of Animal Industry began experiments near Washington,
D. C, in feeding poultry to test the relative values of moist mash, dry mash, and
so-called self-feeding hoppers.
PEDIGREE REGISTRATION.
The regulations of the Department of Agriculture with regard to the pedigree regis-
tration of animals imported for breeding purposes were radically changed during the
y^ar, new regulations having been issued as Bureau of Animal Industry Order Xo.
136, effective July 1.
The tariff laws of the United States permit a citizen to imporl animals free of duty
for breeding purposes if they are purebred, of a recognized breed, and duly registered
in the books of record established for the breed, the Secretary of Agriculture being
authorized "to determine and certify to the Secretary of the Treasury what are recog-
nized breeds and purebred animals.'' To carry out these provisions the Secretary
of Agriculture certifies certain pedigree-record associations to the Secretary of the
Treasury, and only animals which are recorded in these books are entitled to free
entry. Foreign books of record are certified only as the associations controlling them
may be affiliated with American associations, except in cases where a recognized
foreign breed may have no book of record in the United States, in which case the
foreign book is certified direct. It follows, of course, that in practically all cases only
animals registered in American books can be imported free. The Department closely
supervises the certified American associations, requires them to submit annual reports,
and examines their books when nec< ssary. The certification of the Secretary of Agri-
culture adds considerable prestige to an association doing business in this country,.
and two States (Wisconsin and Iowa) have passed laws requiring stallions standing as
purebred to be registered in a studbook so certified.
3 a 1906 32
498 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A0BICULTTJ
. THE HAIRY INDUSTRY.
Results of great practical value to the dairy industry were accom]
of the Dairy Division during I
• experiment, begun in 1905 and concluded in 1906, consisted in niai:
- :' butter under different conditions and carrying it in Btc
months at different temperatures. The conclusion was that light Halting :Uid [ow
peratures and the use of sweet cream give much the best results foi - _ itter.
Further experiments with the - _ I about 3,000 pounds of butter made in 191 •
still in progress.
The quality and character of butter received at some of the principal mark*.-: -
studied and defects reported to the makers and creamery owners. En a I ning
this work was looked upon rather skeptically by the butter merchants, but
are heartily in favor of its continuance because of the consequ- vement in
butter and because it helps to establish confidence between the butter merchant and
the butter maker. Over a thousand creameries h. — I I in this way. -
of them to their material advanl -
.ting butter tubs with paraffin was found " ; i method ting mold,
and a simple and rapid method of determining the WJ " nt of but:
Both these methods were described in publications issued during the year. The
determination of water in butter is a matter of much interest and
the butter maker and dealer, and the methods previously in use have requu
give apparatus, skill to operate it. and several hours to make a determination. !■
use of the new method, requiring apparatus g[butafewdollac
intelligence may make moisture determinations, the time required being i:
to twenty minn
Investigations in cooperation with the Storrs I Conn. ) Experiment Station regarding
the manufacture of European varieties of cheese have demonstrated that the Oamem-
beri and Roquefort types of cheese can be made successfully and profitably in the
United States. Experiments in the manufacture and storage of Amelia
have shown the value of cold curing to meet the growing demand i
A splendid object lesson in the value of sanitary i was given at tL
dairy show in February. 1906. Milk and cream were shipped hundreds of mil- -
kept for weeks with no means of preservation other than cleanliness and cold.
Recent improvements in milking machines have led to their introduction and •
tical use in some of the larger dairies of the country. Over a thousan .
machines are reported to be in use, and there are indications
cal use in the near future and 1 important tor in the
industry. The Dairy Division has made a careful study of the milldng machin-
boili the practical and the scientihc standpoint, and a preliminary 3
published. These investigations are being continued.
The Dairy Division has also made and is making . - ury build-
such as creameries, cheese factories, barm icehouses, mi
(.•rating plants, etc. A limited nun - a drawn of th< •
typ. s of buildings for individuals in various parts of the country, with a vis-
ing the conditions necessary to be met and fulfilled in buildings for thee
The inspection of renovated butter and of the h - . nder
the law of May 2. 1902. has resulted in a marked improvement in the quality of this
product. The general sanitary condition of fact • nateriaily
past years, and there have been fewer violati
A careful preliminary survey of dairy conditions in the South J ■.
first step in the direction of improving and developing the dairv industry ii
on. In some cases - were found prodw ing - -
expected in any section of America. At other places milk was | eaplv
as in any dairy section of the country. On the whole, there was an er:
for dairy products. Almost all butter and cheese
some cream being shipped a great d • Condensed milk an
market throughout all the southern cities. Silage is us nt in
the South. One of the great drawbacks to dairying in the South •
of cattle found there. It is probable that th - tality of dairy - - le in
large pan to the presence of the cattle tick and the infection of 1
t need throughout the South ion in unproved methods of dairy breed-
ing and feeding and milk production. The invest.. - • there
is a great desire on the | nthern people to know more about
They are anxious for something that will enable them to £.-t away from the om •
system. The action of . in appropriating 20,00 - : this
work during the fiscal year 1907 indicates that its importance is begin: :
realized. The prospects are very good, and there is every reason to I ■
work will be the means of developing a splendid dairy ind'ustry in ihe South.
PLAXT DISEASES IX 1U06. 499
PLANT DISEASES IN 1906.
By \V. A. Ortow Plank Pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry.
This article summarizes reports on the distribution and prevalence of plant diseases
received during the year in this Department and the several State experiment stations,
whose cooperation is gratefully acknowledged. Especial assistance has been given
>>y the following collaborators of this Department in their respective experiment
stations: G. E. Stone. Massachusetts: H. H. Whetzel. New York; J. lb S. Norton,
Maryland: A. D. Selby, Ohio; J. L. Sheldon. West Virginia: F. L. Stevens. North
Carolina: E. Mead Wilcox. Alabama; L. H. Pammel. Iowa; F. D. Heald. Nebraska;
H. b. Bolley, North Dakota: W. Paddock, Colorado; lb Kent beanie. Washington.'
Comparisons may be made with conditions in previous years, which are recorded
in the eight preceding yearbooks. The data available does not include some sections
of the country, and the distribution of the diseases is not fully known, particularly
in the case of the less important ones.
POME FRUITS.
Apple. — Bitter-rot (Glomrrella rufomaculans (Berk.) Sp. & von Schr.) was less
destructive than last year, though it occurred generally throughout Virginia and West
Virginia and in North Carolina, South Carolina. Tennessee, and Kentucky. There
was less in Maryland. Ohio, and Indiana. It was reported from Delaware, New
Jersey, and Nebraska.
Black-rot and Canker \Sph.acropsis malorurn PkA were reported everywhere from
New Hampshire to Alabama, and from Nebraska.
Blackspot canker (Gloeosporium walicorfias CorcQey) occurred about as usual west
of the Cascade Mountains in Washington and was found by Doctor Heald in western
Nebraska.
Blight {Bacillus amylovorw (Burr.) De Toni) was much more severe than usual in
Delaware, New Jersey. Maryland. New York. Virginia, West Virginia. Tennessee,
Kentucky. Missouri, and Arkansas. The loss in Nebraska was estimated at SI0.000.
It continues to spread in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, and in the Sacramento Valley
of California. It was much less severe than last year in Alabama, Georgia, and North
Carolina, and was comparatively slight in New England.
Blotch \Phyllosticta sp. >, a disease hitherto unstudied, has been described by W. M.
Scott, of this Department, in Farmers' Bulletin 283. It occurs in Maryland. Virginia,
West Virginia, and Arkansas, and has often been confused with seal) by growers there.
Spraying experiments by Mr. Scott resulted in the control of the disease.
Brown-rot I 8<-l rotinia 'jnnti'jtna I Pers. | Schrt. i was observed on apples in Nebraska,
Missouri, and West Virginia.
Crown-gall was increasingly serious in Colorado. Utah, and Washington, and very
common in Maryland. Kentucky. North Carolina, and neighboring Stales.
Fly-speck CLcptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) and Sooty blotch ( Phyllochora
■<na (Schw.) Sacc. i were very prevalent in Connecticut. New York, Pennsyl-
vania. Maryland, West Virginia, and eastern Nebraska; less common this year in
Ohio and Indiana, and quite rare in northern Vermont.
Illinois canker ( Nummuktria (Hscreta (Schw.) Tub) was reported from Illinois.
Missouri. Arkansas. Nebraska, and West Virginia.
Leaf-spot (PhyUosticta spp. and other fungi i defoliated unsprayed trees six weeks
before the normal period of leaf fall in Nebraska, Missouri. Arkansas, West Virginia,
anil North Carolina. Less injury was reported from Ohio, about the usual amount in
Indiana, and considerable in Illinois. There was very little in Vermont.
Physiological fruit-spot was reported to be much worse in New Hampshire.
Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheea mail iDuby) Burr., and Podosphaera o.vycanthac
(DC I De By. occurred in Iowa. California. Washington, and West Virginia, especi-
ally on nursery stock.
Root-rots (CUtoeybe parasitica Wilcox, in part?) were reported from Arizona, Colo-
rado. Washington, southern Indiana, Arkansas. Missouri, and North Carolina.
Rot ( Penicillin),) glaueum Lk.) was mentioned as the cause of decay of fruit in
storage in Nebraska. Iowa. New Jersey, and Vermont.
Rust (Gymnosporangium man-opus Lk.. etc.. I) was reported as of local occurrence
near red cedar trees in Indiana. Iowa. Nebraska. Missouri. Arkansas, Tennessee,
North Carolina, South Carolina. West Virginia. New Jersey, and Vermont.
Scab ( Venturia inaequalis (Cke. | Aderh. I was unusually light over the whole eastern
and central western parts oi the United States. It was almost absent in Idaho, but
was worse in the Sacramento Valley, California.
500 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Pear. — Blight B(vlllas amyloiorus | Burr. De T< aii was more prevalent in Connecti-
cut. Massachusetts, New Jersey. Man-land. Virginia. Kentucky;, and Smith Carolina. In
New York it did more damage than for fifteen years. In Iowa and in Colorado and
Idaho it was less prevalent. Spring weather conditions in California led to a large
development of the disease there. Utah and Wyoming reported inc-re. -
Leaf-blight Entomosporium maculatum Lev. i was less prevalent in Ohio than in
1905. It was reported from New Jersey and West Virginia and was more severe in
southern Georgia, but not in northern Georgia.
Leaf-spot [Septmia pirieola Desni.i was reported from New York. Ohio. Missouri,
and West Virginia, in the last two States causing much loss from defoliation.
Rust Gymnosporctt - I) was reported from New Jersey.
Scab Vt ~na Aderh. appears to have been less prevalent in New England,
New York. Ohio, and Indiana. It was reported from Washington and. owing to spring
rains, was in California still worse than in 1905.
Quince. — Black-rot 8phaeropsi$ malorwm Pk. , was less severe than usual in Ohio,
Indiana, and West Virginia. Estimated loss. 6 to 10 per cent.
Blight Bacillus amylovonu 'Burr. De Tom) occurred as usual or somewhat less.
Reported frurn Indiana. Ohio West Virginia, and North Carolina.
Leaf-spot | Entomosporium maculatum Lev.: caused serious defoliation of quinces
in New Jersey. Ohio, West Virginia, and Missouri.
Rust {Gymnosporangium sp. I was observed in North Carolina.
STONE FRUITS.
Apricot. — Brown-rot • 8derotinia fructigena 'P. I Schrt.) caused considerable damage
;ng twigs of apricot in California.
Cherry. — Black-knot [Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc.) occurred as usual in
New Jersey. Ohio, Indiana, and West Virginia, and is reported to have caused the
abandonment of cherry raising in western North Carolina.
Brown-ro: 5 tigena P. Schrt.- v. revalent in New Jen
Pennsylvania. Ohio, and Iowa: 25 per cent losses were reported from Missouri, and
as high as 50 per cent from New York, sweet cherries suffering most. It was reported
on Prunus bessegi in Nebraska.
Leaf-spot rylindrosporium padi Karat.) prevalent in Ohio. Indiana.
Nebraska, and Iowa. Serious defoliation was reported from western New York,
northwestern Pennsylvania. Maryland, West Virginia, and Missouri.
Powdery mildew Podosphaera oxycanthae (DC.) De By. was reported as occurring
on young trees in Colorado. Ohio. Iowa. Nebraska. West Virginia, and Kentucky.
Peach. — Bacterial spot Bacterium pruni Erw. Sm. defoliation in some
a
Black spot Cladosporium carpophilum Thum. i appears to have been more prevalent
this year. It was reported common in Massachusetts. New Jersey. Maryland. Indiana,
and Kentucky: destructive in West Virginia: in Ohio disfiguring 20 to 50 per cent of
the fruit, in southern Missouri 70 per cent of the Elbenas. and in Nebraska -50 per cent
of late pea
Brown-rot [Sderotinia fructigena (P. Schrt.: was very destructive this year. In
jia it prevailed throughout the peach belt, causing losses of 10 to 50 per cent.
In Virginia. Maryland, Delaware. New York. Ohio, southern Missouri, and northern
Arkansas it was mon
Crown gall was reported this year only from Alabama. Florida, and Ohio.
Frosty mildew | CereogporeUa perskae Sacc.) was reported from North Carolina and
rirginia as causing but little injury.
Gumming disease ' which has been in California for
n the increase and has caused alarming I *hree
re. Early winter spraying, advised by Mr. M. B. Waite of this Department,
has been found to completely control th £ ience, XXV. 3
Leaf curl Exoaseu* d>j - reported from Alabama. West Vir-
ginia, New York, Indiana. Nebraska, and Washington. It was more prevalent in
ia, Iowa, and New Jersey, and less bo in Maryland and Ohio.
Little Peach has spread at only a moderate rate in Michigan and New Y< rk.
Powdery mildew Sphacrotheca pannosa AVallr. i. was reported more abun-
dant in New York and in Colorado.
Pustular spot [SelmaUl carpophibn Lev. was less common this vear in
Ohio.
Rosette occurred to a considerable extent in southern Missouri and in Georgia.
Rust /'/;>/ pmni P., was reported as occurring to a slight extent in Ohio and
North Carolina.
PL AST DISEASES IX 1906. 501
Yellows occurred from New England through New Jersey. Maryland, and Virginia
to western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, and west to Indiana and southern
Illinois. The past year there has been an outbreak of unusual virulence in western
Maryland and adjacent pans of Virginia and West Virginia, almost completely destroy-
ing many orchards.
Plum.- — Black-knot (Plourightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc.) occurred about as usual
even-where, from New England to North Carolina. Alabama. Tennessee, and Ken-
tucky, and to Indiana and Minnesota, especially on the damson and wild plums.
Black-spot I Clados poriu.m earpophtUum Thiim. » was more injurious in Iowa.
Brown-rot I Sderotiniafructigena < P. | Schrt. | occurred as usual over most of the east-
ern and central United States. It was worse than usual in West Virginia. Ohio. Indi-
ana, and Iowa, and serious in western Washington.
Leaf-spot [Cylindrosporium padi Karst. i caused early defoliation, followed in some
cases by fall blossoming in West Virginia and Missouri. It injured 20 to 80 per cent
of the crop in Ohio, but was reported less prevalent in Indiana and Iowa.
Plum-pockets (Exoascus pruni Fckl. i was reported as occurring to an unimportant
extent in North Carolina. Xew Jersey. Ohio, Iowa. Nebraska. Wisconsin, and North
Dakota.
Rust (Puecinia pruni P.) was reported from Georgia and Missouri as unimportant.
SMALL FRUITS.
Blackberry. — Anthracnose (Gloeosporium renetvm Speg.) prevailed to the usual
extent in Ohio and Indiana.
Crown-gall was reported from one locality in Ohio.
Leaf-spot (Septoria rabi Westd. > was reported from Ohio, Indiana. Nebraska, and
West Virginia.
Rust {Gymnoconia interstitialis (Schl.) Lagh.) was common and in some cases destruc-
tive in California, Florida. Indiana. Missouri. New Jersey. Ohio, and West Virginia.
Cranberry. — Anthracnose did considerable damage in some localities in Massa-
chusetts.
Erobasidium raccinii (Fckl. I Wor. caused serious injury in Massachusetts.
Scald was more severe in New Jersey on account of excessive rains.
Currant. — Anthracnose {Gloeosporium ribis (Lib.) Mont. & Desm.) was reported
from Ohio.
Cane-blight (Xectria cinnabar ina (Tode) Fr.) was reported from Ohio.
Leaf-spot (Cereospora angulata Wint.) was reported from West Virginia, Ohio, and
Iowa: (Septoria ribis Deem.) from Vermont. New Jersey. Ohio, and Nebraska. Con-
siderable defoliation resulted in both cases.
Powdery mildew (Spuerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) B. & C.) was reported from Ohio,
Nebraska, and Washington.
Rust | Cronartium ribicolum Dietr. | was reported for the first time from New York
by F. C. Stewart.
Gooseberry. — Leaf-spot (Septoria ribis Desm.1) was reported slight in Ohio. Indi-
ana, Nebraska, and West Virginia.
Powdery mildew Sphaerotheca mors-uvae 'Schw. B. & C.) was prevalent in New
Jersey. Ohio. Indiana. Nebraska. North Dakota, and Washington.
Grape. — Anthracnose ■Sphaceloma ampelinum De By.) was reported from New
Hampshire. West Virginia, and Ohio.
Black-rot (Guignardia bidwetlii i Ell.") V. & R.) was almost absent this year from the
Lake Erie region of New York and Pennsylvania, but in central New York and the
Sandusky region of Ohio there was great loss, as was also the case in southwestern
Michigan, where the loss was estimated at 30 to 40 per cent. It was more prevalent
in Connecticut. Delaware. Maryland. Florida, and Indiana, and injurious in New
Jersey, North Carolina. West Virginia. Kentucky. Missouri, and Nebraska.
Downy mildew (Plasmopora riticola (B. .i- G. I Perl, oc De T. i did a slight amount of
damage in Vermont. New Hampshire, New York. Maryland. Ohio. West Virginia,
Kentucky. Missouri, and Nebraska.
Powdery mildew ( UncintUa necator iSchw.^ Burr.) was very injurious in Florida,
and of occasional occurrence in Colorado. Iowa. Ohio. West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.
Persimmon. — Anthracnose I Gloeosporium diospyri E. <fc E.) was reported as of occa-
sional occurrence in West Virginia.
Raspberry. — Anthracnose 'Gloeosporium renetum Speg.) was troublesome in Ohio
and New York, and reported from Indiana. Iowa. Wisconsin. Nebraska. Kentucky,
Maryland, New Hampshire, and Washington.
Crown-gall was reported to be the cause of serious loss in Delaware, Ohio, and
Nebraska.
502 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Leaf-spot (Septarie nibi Westd.) was common but unimportant in Ohio. Indiana,
West Virginia, Missouri, and Nebraska.
Rust Gynmocoma nttcrstiHalis I Schl. | I agh. | was locally injurious in Indiana. Chin.
West Virginia. Iowa, and New York. A rust doe to Kihneoia albida Magn. was rep
from Weal Virginia.
Wilt {Leptosphoerie coniothirriiim (Fckl.) Bat - injurious in Connecticut, and
was reported from Ohio.
Strawberry. — Leaf-spot {Sphatrdla fregariae (TdL) Sacc. | was common in the
eastern and central States and in Washington.
TROPICAL FRt ITS.
Avocado. — Anthracnose (Colhtotrichiuit yloeosporiodes Penz.) blighted 50 to 75 per
cent of the blossoms in southern Florida.
Citrus fruits. — Anthracnose or Wither-tip i L'olhtotrichum glocosporwidts Penz.)
caused heavy losses in Florida, the blossom blight of limes taking in some cases TO to
100 per cent of the crop. Wither-tip has been common, though successfully controlled
by proper treatment. The same fungus has injured the fruit of oranges and pomelos.
Blight prevailed as usual in Florida.
Die-back has become much less prevalent on account of the more rational ue
fertilizers.
Root-rot {Fusarium limonis Briosi) was prevalent in Florida in undrained soils on
account of the heavy rainfall.
Scab | Cladosporium sp.) was much more prevalent in all sections of Florida.
Brown-rot \Pythiacystis citrophtharu Sm. cv. Sm_), a new disease which has caused
much loss to California lemons during storage, has been worked out by R. E. and
E. H. Smith of the California Station (Bot. Gaz.. xlii. 215 .
Giava. — Ripe-rot {GUrmertUa psidu (G. Del. i Sheldon), a disease hitherto uiide-
Bcribed, has been studied by Dr. J. L. Sheldon (West Virginia Station Bulletin 104)
from material collected in a greenhouse in Washington. D. C. It occurs in Florida.
Porto P.ico. and other tropical countries.
Mango. — Anthracnose i Colhtotrichum ylocosporioidcs Penz.1 occurred in Florida as
blossom blight, fruit rot. wither-tip. etc.. according to the part of the plant attacked.
Heavy losses resulted, but careful spraying was found to control the trouble.
Pineapple. — Pineapple disease Thielaviopsis cthaceticus Went.) caused considerable-
injury in Hawaii.
VEGETABLE AND FIELD CROPS.
Asparagus. — Rust {Pu.ccinia aspmaai DC.) now occurs in every State where aspara-
- grown and continues to do much damage, particularly in the Central and Western
States. During 1906 it appears to have been less prevalent than heretofore in the I
Beak. — Anthracnose [Cotletotrickum KndemiUhumum (Sacc. & Magn.) Bri. & Cav.i
was very serious in Florida and prevailed generally in the Atlantic States, though it was
not as bad as last year. In New England and New York it caused exceptionally heavy
- of beans grown for canning, but was less injurious to the later crop of dry beans.
Tin- loss in Ohio was estimated at 20 per cent.
Bacteriosis /.'• ; :x. ift F.rw. Sm. | was reported from Xew York. Yew Jersey.
Nebraska, and Vermont.
Downy mildew {Phytopthora phascoli Thax. > was less injurious in Connecticut than
last year. It was quite prevalent in Delaware. Maryland, Xew Jersey, and Penn-
sylvania.
Leaf spots Phyllosticta phaseolvna Sacc. and Iaa Iseola Sacc.) occurred in
Wesl Virginia.
Powdery mildev,- E ysiph ;■ ilygom D< prevalent in Ohio.
Rust | t romyces o/ P. Lev. 1 from Indiana. Xew Jersey.
Ohio. West Virginia. Pennsylvania, and Kentucky and was abundant in California.
Beet. — Curly-top of sugar beets did considerable injury in local areas in California,
but was less prevalent in Colorado, Utah, and Texas.
Leaf-blight | ( 'ereospora bcticola Sacc.) appeared later than usual, but was neverthe-
destructive to sugar beets from Nebraska eastward, particularly in fields pre-
sly planted to sugar beets. It was more noticeable in Colorado than formerly.
Phyllosticta bctac Chid, was reported from Colorado and Xorth Carolina.
Rhizoctonia root-rot occurred to a slight extent in Colorado. Iowa, and Michigan.
Cabbac.e. — Black-rot i Bacterium campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) appears to have
been generally prevalent, and in some cases quite injurious, according to reports
from Delaware. Indiana. Iowa. Nebraska, Kentucky. Louisiana. Maryland. New
Jersey, New York, North Carolina. Ohio. South Carolina. Vermont, and Washington.
PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. 503
r Club-root (Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.) is everywhere increasing. It was reported
this year from New Hampshire, New York, Xew Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Ver-
mont, Washington, and West Virginia.
Root-knot (Ifeterodcra radicicola (Greef.) Mill.) was sent in from Texas.
Wilt (Fusarium) continues to do injury in old gardens in North Carolina.
Cantaloupe. — Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Hals.) pre-
vailed in Indiana. Nebraska, New Jersey, and West Virginia.
Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis (B. & C.) Rost.) injured the crop to a
slight extent in Ohio and Vermont.
Leaf-blight | Altcrnarki brassicae var. niyrescens Pegl.) was again the cause of marked
injury, especially in the large cantaloupe-growing sections. It was reported from
Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Indiana. Maryland, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia.
Root-knot (Hetcrodcra radicicola (Greef.) Miil.) was reported from North Carolina.
Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from Massachusetts, Ohio, and
Indiana.
Wilt (Fusarium) was reported from Arizona.
Cauliflower. — Black-rot {Bacterium campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) was injurious
locally in Louisiana and Ohio.
Celery. — Leaf-blight (Cercospora apii Fres.) occurred in Florida, where 80 per cent
of the crop was injured; also in Delaware. Georgia, New Jersey. New Hampshire,
Ohio, and Nebraska.
Leaf-spot (Septoria petroselini Desm. var. apii Br. & Cav.) was reported from Dela-
ware, New York, and Ohio.
Collards. — In North Carolina collards were attacked by Allernaria brassicae
(Berk.) Sacc, Peronospcra parasita (Pers.) De By., Bacterium campestris (Pam.)
Erw. Sm., Fusarium sp. and Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.
Cucumber. — Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarm m I Pass, i Eli. & Hals.) occurred
in Ohio, where the injury is estimated at 25 to GO per cent of the crop, and in New
Jersey. North Carolina, West Virginia, Nebraska, and Wisconsin.
Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubcnsis (B. & 0.) Rost.) occurred in Florida
to a serious extent. The disease prevails through the winter there and attacks the
young plants. Some injury was reported from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New
Jersey, while in Maine, New Hampshire, and Ohio there was a serious epidemic in
August .
Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from Massachusetts, New
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Norfolk, Va.
Eggplant. — Fruit-rot and Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta hortorum Speg.) was prevalent in
New Jersey and on Long Island.
Ginseng. — Alternaria blight has been destructive in New York as in preceding
years, causing some plantations to be abandoned. Prof. H. H. Whetzel, of Cornell
University, reports complete control through spraying with Bordeaux mixture.
Root-rot and Stem-rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) were reported by Whetzel from New York,
Virginia, and Wisconsin. Another disease of the stem due to Phytopthora caetorwm
(Cohn. & Lei).) Schrt. has been found by J. M. Van Hook of the Ohio station in both
Ohio and New York.
Lettuce. — Drop (Sclerotinia libertiana Fckl.) was very injurious in the Atlantic
States, especially in cold frames and greenhouses. Florida growers suffered losses in
many cases of 70 to 100 per cent, and the disease was severe in Georgia, North Caro-
lina, Delaware, Ohio, and Alabama.
Leaf-mold (Botrytis cincrea P.) was reported from Florida and North Carolina as of
minor importance.
Leaf-spot (Septoria consimdMs Ell. & Mart.) was reported from New York and North
Carolina.
Root-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Creel, i Mai.) was the cause of complaint in Texas.
Rosette (Rhizoctonia sp.) and Tipbnrn were also mentioned in Ohio.
Onion. — Anthracnose ( Virmicularia circinans Berk.) did considerable injury in New
York.
Downy mildew (Peronospora schleideniana De By.) was reported froni Colorado, New
York, Ohio, and Vermont. It appears to have been less prevalent than last year.
Smut ( Urocystis cepulae Frost) was reported from Connecticut, Massachusetts, and
Ohio. In Ohio the formalin soil treatment continues to prevent the disease, but some
thousands of dollars were lost on untreated fields in the Scioto Valley.
Pea. — Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni DC.) caused injury in New Hampshire,
especially on late peas, and in Iowa. Ohio, Nebraska, and West Virginia.
Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta pisi Lib.) was somewhat less injurious in Ohio but worse
in Xew York, injuring 50 to 80 per cent of the crop in some fields. It was also reported
504 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
from New Jersey. J. M. Van Hook has shown in Bulletin 173 of the Ohio Station that
the epidemic in that State the past three years has been largely due to seed infection.
Potato. — Brown-rot (Bacterium solanacearum Erw. Sm.) occurred to a slight extent
in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana. Nebraska, and Washington.
Dry-rot (Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht). Reports of local losses came from New
York, Ohio, and Vermont this year.
Early blight (Altemaria solani (E. & M.) J. & G.) was somewhat less prevalent on
the early crop in Florida and other South Atlantic States, but was more injurious
northward on the main crop. Most of the injury to potatoes this year from New Eng-
land and New York to Wisconsin was due to this disease, as the dry season favored
it. The crop in Wisconsin is estimated to have been reduced 4 to 6 million bushels
by it. Its occurrence was noted in Utah and Washington. Great loss, estimated at
50 per cent of the crop, was reported from Wyoming.
Leaf-blotch (Cercospora concors (Casp.) Sacc), a new disease of minor importance,
has been found in Vermont for two years and is described by Prof. L. R. Jones in the
Report of the Vermont Station for 1906.
Late-blight (Phytophthora infestans De By.) was for the first time in six years held
in check by dry autumn weather. It was somewhat harmful in Florida in May and
developed on Long Island and in New England in June and July. Dry weather later
prevented its spread and the losses in the great potato sections were small compared
with those of previous years. All potato diseases were controlled in Maine by the
general spraying practiced there during the past few years and good results were
reported in other states. Late blight was reported injurious in western Washington.
Scab (Oospora scabies Thax.) was in most cases reported less injurious the past sea-
son. In Maine and in other States where the danger of soil infection has not been
considered, an increase has been observed. The estimated injury in Nebraska was 15
per cent.
Rhizoctonia disease (Corticium vagum B. & 0. var. solani Burt.) caused heavy
losses in portions of Colorado and Wyoming and was reported from Arizona. It was
less common this year in Florida, Ohio, and the Eastern States.
Salsify — Root-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Greef .) Mul.) was injurious in one locality
in North Carolina.
White rust (Cystopus tragopogonis Tul.) was reported from Nebraska.
Squash — Bacterial wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from New
York. A Fusarinm wilt occurred in Arizona.
Sugar Cane — Dr. N. A. Cobb has issued from the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experi-
ment Station, Bulletin No. 5 on Fungus Maladies of the Sugar Cane, an important
monograph. The prevalence of the diseases mentioned for 1906 is given by Doctor
Cobb as follows:
Eleau caused small losses, estimated at less than 1 per cent.
Pineapple disease ( Thielaviopsis ethaceticus Went.) prevailed about as usual, causing
losses varying from 1 to 10 per cent.
Rind disease ( Melanconium sp.) was less prevalent, though losses in some cases
amounted to 25 per cent.
Root disease {Ithyphallvx coralloides Cobb.) destroyed 10 per cent of the crop in the
worst districts, but, following the discovery of the parasite, good results have come
from the treatment advised. Root disease ( Marasmitis saccharii Wak.) was somewhat
more prevalent, the loss being estimated as high as 10 per cent of the ratoon crop.
Leaf-splitting disease ( Mycosphaerella striatiformans Cobb.), a serious trouble, has been
found by Doctor Cobb to be due to the fungus named.
Sweet potatoes. — The following diseases were reported from the States named.
Their actual distribution is no doubt more general.
Black-rot {Ceratocystis fimbriate Ell. & Hals.), Alabama, Ohio, Tennessee.
Dry-rot (Phoma batatae Ell. & Hals.), Alabama, Tennessee.
Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta bataticola Ell. <& Mart.), North Carolina.
Soft-rot (Rhtopus nigricans Ehrb.) Alabama, North Carolina, Maryland, very bad.
Soil-rot (Acrocystis batatas Ell. & Hals.), Alabama.
Stem-rot (Xcctria ipomoeae Hals.), Ohio.
White-rot (Peniciltium sp.), Alabama, serious.
White-rust (Pytopus ipomoeae-pouduranae (Schw.) Farl.), Georgia.
Tobacco. — Bed-rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) prevailed as usual in Ohio, the estimated loss
being 7 per cent. Dr. A. D. Selby, at the Ohio station, finds soil treatment with for-
malin to assist in its control.
Broom-rape (Orobanche ludoviciana Nutt.i occurred in very local areas in Ohio.
Mosaic disease was troublesome in the Chemung Valley. New York, but less common
in Ohio.
Root-rot (Thielavia basicola Zopf. ) was quite injurious to tobacco seedlings in Con-
necticut and to a lesser extent in Ohio.
PLANT DISEASES IX 1P06. 5(35
Wilt, bacterial. — The Granville wilt in North Carolina was estimated as 40 per cent
more destructive than last year, causing a loss of $20,000.
Tomato — Anthracnose ( CoUetotrichum phomoidcs (Sacc.) Chest.) was reported from
New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and North Dakota.
Blight (Bacterium solanacearum Erw. Sm.) was reported from New Jersey, North
Carolina, and Alabama.
Leaf-mold (Cladosporium fulrum Cke.) caused complaint in Xew Hampshire.
Leaf-spot iSeptoria lycopersui Speg.) was prevalent in Delaware. Maine, Maryland,
Nebraska, Xew Jersey. New York, and "West Virginia, i Altemaria solcnu (E. & M.) J.
& G.) was reported as of minor importance in Maine, Ohio, and West Virginia.
Point-rot was more destructive than usual in California and in Xew York and Ver-
mont, but less so in Ohio. It was reported from Alabama. Maine, and West Virginia.
Root-knot (Heterodcra radicicola (Greet. ) Mul.) was injurious in Arizona and Florida.
Western blight was much less prevalent in Utah this year, but was bad in Washington,
causing losses of 35 to 90 per cent, and in Colorado.
Wilt ( Fusarium sp.) caused losses of 25 per cent in portions of Arizona and Louisiana.
It is widely prevalent in Florida, but losses are avoided there by rotation of crops. It
was less abundant in California.
Turnip. — Black-rot [Bacterium carnpestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) caused unimportant
injuries in Ohio.
Club-root ( Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor. ) was this year reported on this host only
from Ohio and Xew Jersey.
Watermelon". — Anthracnose (CoUetotrichum lagenarium | Pass. > Ell. & Hals.) was
epidemic in the Ohio Valley, especially in West Virginia. It was reported also from
Xebraska. Indiana, Ohio, Rhode Island, and South Carolina.
Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis (B. & C.) Rost.) was observed in Ohio.
Leaf-spot (Cercospora citrulina Cke.) was reported to occur to a slight extent in
West Virginia.
Wilt | Xeocosmospora vasinfeeta var. nivea Erw. Sm.) occurred as usual in the South
Atlantic States from Florida to Virginia.
Barley. — Mildew \Erysiphe graminis DC.) was reported injurious to beardless
barley in one locality in Xew York.
Rust [Puccinia graminis P. I was as usual widely distributed, but not injurious to
the crop.
Covered smut (Ustilago horde i (P.) Kell. & Sw.) prevailed as usual in Iowa. Min-
nesota. North Dakota, and neighboring States.
Loose smut (Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw.) was widely distributed and inju-
rious. The loss was estimated at 7 to 10 per cent in Wisconsin and Minnesota and
appears to be increasing.
Yellow-leaf (Helminthosporium gramineum Rbh.* was more prevalent in Iowa,
attacking probably 1 per cent of the crop.
Corn. — Leaf-Might (Helminthosporium inconspictntm C. & E.) was locally abun-
dant in Maryland, Ohio, and West Virginia.
Mold (a sterile fungus) injured 5 to 50 per cent of the mature crop in North Carolina.
Rust i Puccinia sorghi Schw. I is widely distributed, but seldom injurious. One case
of severe loss was reported from Vermont.
Smut ( Ustilago zeae (Beckm.) TJnger) occurred everywhere. The average loss for
the whole country was 1 to 2 per cent of the total crop. It was especially"prevaki:T
last year in North Dakota. The losses in Xebraska were estimated at 2 to 10 per cent.
Millet. — Smut i Ustilago crameri Kom.) was of slight occurrence in Ohio and Min-
nesota.
Oats. — Rusts {Puccinia graminis P. and P. coronata Cda.) occurred about as usual
or a little less, the late varieties as usual suffering most.
Smut ( Ustilago avenae (P.) Jens.) occurred everywhere as usual, but appeared to
be relatively worse in the South I 12 per cent in Xorth Carolina). In the northern
Mississippi Valley seed treatment is more generally applied. The loss in Wisconsin
was estimated at 5 per cent. Reports of loss come" from western Washington also.
Rice. — Black smut i Tilhtia horrida Tak.) was reported from two localities in Lou-
isiana.
Blast was almost absent in South Carolina this year, the season being very wet.
It occurred locally in Texa*.
Green smut (Ustilaginoidea rirens (Cke.) Tak.) has been known to occur in this
country for five years, but only to a slight extent. It appears, however, to be on the
increase.
Rye. — Ergot (Claciccps purpurea (Ft.) Tul.) was reported from Ohio and Minnesota.
YEARBOOK of THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Bust3 Puccinia rubigo- Wint. and P. ornminis P. I, though everywhere
present, do no serious damage.
Sorghum. — Blight sorgJri Burr, | caused hisses estimated in Iowa and
Ohio at about 5 per cent. Reported from Nebraska.
Smut Sphacdotha Link. | Clint, has assumed serious proportions in Kan-
1 'klahoma. and the Texas Panhandle and is rapidly spreadir ig S 'iana
(Kuhn* Clint.i was widely distributed, but not in serious quantity.
Wheat. — Leaf-bligr.- - reported from Nebraska.
Leaf-rust -tractive in the northern
Valley and the southern Great Plains region, the injury being estimated
by Prof. H. L. Boiley at 10 per cent in North Dak
Stem-rust Puccinia graininii P. I was less injurious than usual in nearly all the
-.
Scab Fisarium culrnor ■ - - * to have been, much
alent this year.
Loose smut T'stilago tritici (P. J< Mely distributed and increasing in the
no and Middle Western St
Stinking smut TUletiafoetaru B. & < . Tul. I was widespread and abundant,
cially where seed wheat was not treated. T:.- estimated loss in Arizona wa
per cent: in Indiana. 2 per cent: in Washington. 10 to 15 per cent.
FORAGE CROPS.
Alfalfa. — Bacterial blight, a new disease, reported by Pi 1. W. Paddock, in I
Bulletin 28 Ethel loi -.ai'-n. was hrst seen there in 1903. but is now more abun-
dant, and has also appeared in Utah and Ka:
Anthracnose CoUetotrichum tri/olii B. & E. was reported from Tennessee.
Dodder ' ■■•/to epithymum 1 me quite widely distributed with
the extension of alfalfa culture, but its dangerous character
nize 1 and control measures adopted.
Leaf-spot 'P- ported more injurii
"•" Jersey, and Wyoming. Most States where alfalf. rtthis
it not as a serious one.
Boot-rot was w..r-e than usual in northern Texas, where the injury was considerable.
but less common in Arizona.
Bust Uomyces striatal- was reported from Nebraska.
•"£R. — Anthracnose CoUetotrichum trifolii B. & E. is generally distril
Tennessee and is common in West Virginia. Gloeotporvum eautivorum Kirch, was
-eported from West Virginia.
Dodder Cuscuta epithymum Murr. t occurred on clover much as on alfalfa.
Black-spot I'hyllachora Id.), a minor disease, was mentioned only in
a. Kentucky, and West Virginia.
Leaf-spot Maerosporium sarcinae/onrte Caw.) tras injurious to young clover in
Virginia.
Boot-knot • IPterodera radicicola Greet". Mull, i has been found by Dr. J. L. Sheldon
to be widely distributed in the Ohio valley oi West Virginia.
East Cromyces trifolii A- & S. Wint. unor trouble in Indiana,
Iowa. Kentucky. Man-land, and West Virginia.
pea. — Boot-knot and Wilt Hetarodera radicicola Mull. < and
mospora vasinfecta var. tracbeipkila Erw. Sm. > prevailed as usual in sandy soils from
North Carolina to Florida and west I
FIBER PLANTS.
— Angular leaf-spot and Blackarm Bacterium malvaccarum Erw. Sm.) was
generally distributed through the cotton belt, though less prevalent than in
Anthracnose ' 'oUetotrichum gossypii Swth. i was injurious locally in States,
especially in western Georgia.
Texas root-rot was w< .r-e in central and northern Texas than •
very heavy losses.
Wilt Xt.oeosmospora vasinfecta <Atk. I Erw. Sm. i is increasing in the Coastal Plain
from North Carolina to Florida and westward to Louisiana, and has also been found
in Tennessee. Missouri, and Indian Territory.
Flax. — WOt . -■-■•ciated troubles. Anthracnose
Jstotrichum sp.) and Boll disease (AUernaria -p. •. prevailed as usual in Minnesota and
North Dakota, though progress is being made in securing the adoption by tarn.
methods of treatme.
PLAXT DISEASES IX 1906. 507
NUT, FOREST, AND SHADE TREES.
The following diseases have heen reported as indicated:
Ash. — Rust {Pucxinia fraxinata (Lk.) Arth. | was reported from Nebraska as less
common.
Balm of Gilead. — Leaf-spot (Scptoria populicola Pk.) was reported from Nebraska.
Rust (Melampsora populina (Jcq.) Lev.) was reported from Nebraska and West
Virginia.
Black walnut. — Leaf-spot (Marsonia juglandis (Lib.) Sacc. > was reported from
West Virginia, New Jersey, and Iowa, and as much more prevalent in Nebraska.
Catalpa. — Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta catalpae E. & M.) was reported from West Virginia
as destructive to foliage of young trees.
Cedar. — Rust ((ri/mnosporangium macropus Lk.) was reported from Nebraska. New
Jersey. Iowa, and West Virginia.
Cottonwood. — Crown-gall was reported from Wyoming. (15th Report Wyoming
Expt. Sta,. p. 33.)
Rust (Melampsora populina (Jcq.) Lev.) was reported from Nebraska, Iowa, and
North Dakota.
Chestnut. — Anthracnose (Marsonia ochrolcuca (B. & C.) Humph.) was reported
from West Virginia.
Dogwood. — Leaf-spot (Septoria cornicola Desm. i was reported from Nebraska.
Elm. — Black-spot (Dothidilla ulmi (Duv.) Wint.) was reported from Nebraska and
New Jersey; and Gnomonia ulmea (Sacc.) Thiim., from Nebraska.
Honey locust. — Black-leaf < Lcptostroma hypophyllum B. & Rav. ) was reported
from Nebraska.
Horse chestnut. — Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta pariae Desm.) was reported from West
Virginia.
Kentucky coffee tree. — Leaf-spot (Cercospora gymnocladi Ell. & Kell.) was
reported from Nebraska.
Maple. — Leaf-spot (Rhytisma acerinum (P.) Fr.) was reported from Iowa. Kentucky,
New Jersey, and Nebraska.
Mulberry. — Leaf-spot (Cercospora moricola Cke. ) was reported from Nebraska.
Pecan. — Powdery mildew ( Microsphacra alni (Wallr.) Salmon) was reported from
Georgia and Florida as of little importance.
Rosette was reported from South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama as a seri-
ous disease.
Scab (Fitsicladium effusum Wint.) was more injurious this year in South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida. Alabama, and Louisiana.
Pine. — Rust (Coleosporium senecionis (P.) Fr.) was reported from Connecticut,
Minnesota, and Georgia.
Seedling: blight (Cladosporiitm hcrbarum (P.) Lk.) was reported from Nebraska.
Privet. — Anthracnose (Gloeosporium dngulatum Atk.i was reported from Ohio.
Sassafras. — Red heart-rot (Fomcs ribis (Schum.) Fr.) has been found by Dr. P.
Spaulding to be common around St. Louis, Mo.
Willow. — 31ack-spot (Rhytisma salicinum Fr.) was reported from Nebraska.
Rust {Melampsora so.) was reported from Iowa and West Virginia; M. farinosa (P.)
Schrt. on Salic amygdaloides, from Nebraska.
ornamental plants.
Aster. — Wilt (Fusarium sp.) was more prevalent in Massachusetts.
Yellows was more prevalent again in Vermont and Massachusetts.
Carnation. — Rust i Oromyces caryophyllinus (Schrank.) Schrt.) occurred to a slight
extent in Iowa and North Carolina.
Spot (AUernaria sp.) has been reported from Maryland, the District of Columbia,
Pennsylvania, and Connecticut.
Stem-rot (Fusarium sp.) was reported from North Carolina and New York, and
(Rhizoctonia sp.) from Ohio.
Stigmonose was found in Indiana and Rhode Island.
Chrysanthemum. — Leaf-spot (Scptoria chrysanthemi Cav.) and Rust (Puccinia chrys-
anthemi Roze.) were prevalent in North Carolina and New Jersey.
Petal-rot {Botrytis vulgaris Fr.) was found by Dr. P. Spaulding to be quite prevalent
on exhibition plants in St. Louis. The same fungus also destroyed Poinsettias in
greenhouses.
Hollyhock. — Leaf-blight (Cercospora althaeina Sacc.) was reported from West Vir-
ginia and Nebraska.
50S YEAEBOOK OE THE DEPARTMENT OE AGBICULTUBE.
Rust Puccinia malcaeearurn Mont.) was destructive in New York. Massachusetts,
New Jersey. Pennsylvania, and West Yirginia: also on Malta sp. in Colorado.
Lilac. — Powdery mildew < Micros phaeria alni (Wallr. i Salmon) was reported from
New Y rk. Iowa, Kentucky, and West Yirginia.
Peony. — Leaf -spot Cladosporium paamiae Pass. | was reported from New Jersey.
Rose. — Leaf-blotch AeHnonema rosae Lib. Fr. was reported from Pennsylvania,
Kentucky. West Virginia, and Nebraska.
Powdery mildew < Sphaerotheca pannosa Wallr.) Lev. i was very prevalent through-
out the Eastern. Southern, and Central States and was reported from Colorado.
Bust Phragmidium subcorticima (Schrank) Wmt. i was reported from California,
"inrmia. and Nebraska: and P . turn from Iowa.
Yiolet. — Leaf -spot Q "corpora viola* Sacc. did scime injury in North Carolina.
Marsonia violae Pass. Sacc. I was reported from Connecticut for the first time.
Yirginia creeper. — Leaf-spot Cercospora ampelopsidis Peck. | was reported from
Nebraska.
Powdery mildew Undnula neeator Schw. | Burr.' was reported from Nebraska.
THE PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906.
Prepared in the Bureau of Entomology.
In accordance with the plan adopted in 1905. the records of the principal injurious
insects of the year 1906 are arranged in relation to food plant or host. The reports for
the subject covered by each division or section of the Bureau have in each ca*e been
prepared by the expert in charge and cover not only the records made directly by the
Department, but all the records available for the year.
In connection with these annual reports it should be noted that for the great mass
of injurious insects the conditions are substantially uniform one year with another.
In the case of certain insects, however, there are notable local outbreaks here and
there which, as with some of the big grain pests, may become very widespread and
amount to a considerable disaster to the crop. Any unusual local abundance or new
form of injury, or any new pest, is very apt to be reported to this office or to the ento-
mologist of the experiment station. On the other hand, familiarity with any pest,
and with the remedy for it. soon leads to a cessation of reports: yet this does not" neces-
sarily indicate any diminution in the numbers of the pest nor its disappearance.
The list could be very greatly extended if all the injurious insects of the year were
included, but an attempt has been made to limit it to insects which have been rather
more prominent than ordinarily.
The insects affecting the great staples, such as the Hessian fly. chinch bug. boll
weevil, corn worm, or bollworm. San Jose scale, and codling moth, must necessarily
be the cause, one year with another, of the greatest monetary loss, and no new u
unless it at once affects a great staple, wdl ever compete with these in this respect.
Such newcomers, however, are likely to appear at any time, a- is illustrated by the
boll weevil. The past year has witnessed minor losses from a number of insects
which have not previously been of serious economic importance. Such are the
Mexican bean weevil, the asparagus miner, the splitworm of tobacco, an Oriental
moth attacking shade and fruit trees in Connecticut, a sawfly injurious to the leaf
stems of maple, and a related species affecting the foliage of fruit tr-
Insects Injurious to Cotton and Other Southern Field Crops.
The area infested by the cotton boll weevil {Anthonomu* grandis Boh. was greatly
increased during 1906. The eastern limit of infestation was extended to within
about 20 miles of the Mississippi River, and on the north a considerable portion of
southeastern Oklahoma has become infested. While the damage inflicted was not as
heavy as during previous seasons, the resultant loss probably exceeded that of 1905
by about $2 D00, making an estimated total of approximately >'20.000.000. In
the central and southern portions of Texas unusually dry weather during the growing
d greatly reduced the number of weevils. On the whole, the season of 1906 was
one of rather abnormal freedom from weevil damage.
The total loss due to the ravages of the bollworm | Ileliothis obsoleta Fab. I probably
did not exceed that of the preceding year and. as usual, was confined mainly to T
Oklahoma, and Louisiana. The injury to cotton in the two northern tiers of counties
of Texas westward from Lamar and Delta to Clay and Jack counties was exceptionally
severe.
PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1900. 509
The cotton-leaf caterpillar {Alabama argillacea Hbn.) was abundant in Louisiana
and portions of Texas. The defoliation of cotton late in the season, however, is
beneficial rather than injurious in territory infested by the boll weevil.
The cotton aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) appeared very generally upon cotton in the
spring, but the injury inflicted was less severe than in 1905 owing to the increase of its
natural insect enemies.
The cotton square borer ( Uranotes melinus Hbn. ) seems to be increasing in numbers
from year to year. This species is distributed over the entire cotton belt, but its in-
juries have been most felt in Texas and Oklahoma, and particularly in the northern
portion of the territory infested by the boll weevil.
The garden webworm (Loxostegc similalis Guen.) did considerable damage to young
cotton in certain localities in northern Texas. Replanting was necessitated in some
instances.
The cotton red spider ( Tttranychus gloveri Bks.) was reported injuring cotton in cen-
tral Alabama.
The cotton leaf-beetle (Luptrodes varicornis Lee.) was reported from South Carolina
and Georgia, where it inflicted slight local injury on cotton.
The cutworm (Autographa rogationis Guen.) injured the stand of cotton in certain
localities in northeastern Texas by cutting off the young plants in the spring.
The cotton leaf-bug (Calocoris rapidus Say) was very abundant throughout Louisiana
and eastern Texas, where it probably injured cotton to some extent by sucking sap
from the cotton bolls.
The tobacco thrips (Euthrips nicotianx Hinds) did considerable injury to cigar-
wrapper tobacco grown under shade in Florida, southern Georgia, and eastern Texas.
The injury was less, however, than during 1904, owing to greater precipitation during
the past season.
The budworms of tobacco (Ileliothis obsoleta Fab. and Chloridea virescens Fab.) rank
with the thrips in amount of injury to cigar-wrapper tobacco in Florida.
The splitworm or leaf-miner of tobacco (PhthorimAa operciddla Zell.) has come to be
of economic importance during the past two years, owing to the infestation by it of
cigar- wrapper tobacco. Its injuries have been confined principally to a single county
of Florida.
Insects Injurious to Cereal and Forage Crops.
The Hessian fly (Mayctiola destructor Say) was not excessively abundant, except
locally in the east, and on the Pacific coast, where it destroyed the wheat crop in some
sections. Indeed, over large areas it scarcely appeared at all. In the central Atlantic
States this was due to late seeding of wheat, made necessary by the extremely wet
weather of August. In the spring-wheat regions of the Northwest the absence of
the pest was due to the prevalence of parasites, notably Polygnotus, one or two species
of which seem to control this pest so far as it is controlled by natural agencies. This
parasite was introduced from North Dakota to western Kentucky and Tennessee in the
spring of 1905. During 1906 it was abundant in the sections where it was introduced,
and was repeatedly observed ovipositing in the eggs of the Hessian fly. The peculiar
breeding habits of these insects render them of the utmost value, and this experiment
indicates that they may be readily introduced from one section of the country into
another perhaps thousands of miles distant.
The chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus Say) was excessively abundant in northern
Texas, southwestern Kansas, and northern Ohio. The long and short-winged forms
again appeared in the timothy meadows of northeastern Ohio and attacked grass lands
in Florida .
The slender, red seed-corn ground beetle (Clivina impressifrons Lee.) did great dam-
age in many sections in the corn belt by devouring the seed after it was planted and
before it had sprouted.
The alfalfa fields in many sections of the arid regions of the West were seriously
injured by several species of grasshoppers. In Wyoming one species (Melanoplus
differentialis Thos.) was, in some instances, almost swept out of existence by a para-
sitic fly (Sarcophaga georgina Wied.). This fly deposited its eggs on the bodies of the
grasshoppers and the maggots hatching from the eggs entered the bodies of the grass-
hoppers and destroyed them.
The wheat jointworm (Isosoma tritici Riley) continued excessively abundant in
some parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan, though several parasites appeared to be
subjugating the pest. A new factor in its control was indicated by the gnawing of
the insect galls on the stems of wheat and the destruction of the larvpe in the field,
supposedly by the short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda). It has been determined
by breeding experiments that the passing of the grain through the threshing machine
510 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEKT'LTUKE.
result- in the death of nearly all the larv;e. This enables the farmer, by cutting his
grain hers of the pest and thus prevent their
ing in his 1
Th- -ai hi- A ■ - unusually and destructively
abundant dtryland. as -well as I In
Maryland, where the injv. inter
ick.
The fall army w-™ I erda 8. and A - fields -man
milb" and sorghuni in Texas, sugar cane in Louisiana
in Wyoming. It was abundant in some par- ina.
yet determine'. 1 hundreds of acres of wheat
durine late fall in Montana.
ghnm webworao A oia] sorghiflla Riley i attacked sorghun
her similar insect (J
_■ Ya.. and attacked the heads of timothy at
Arlineton. Ya.
Tv, . \ .iphorvts pa yll. and 5. venatu* Say> did
oa injury I \ Va. larvae oi Sphenoph observed
dne wheat in - lina and Kansas, a: -te.
.it-head ai 1 the he;,
othy in meadows in southern Minnesota, and tl nny w<..rm | H. umptoKfa B
did serious injury- in some « rginia an I y
Tw c ." rrneades tessellata Harr and C. puncti§era Walk, attack.?'
... while a " "tacked corn, and a : lena
| j at. Carnaedes rubefaclaife Grote seri
S i
_rain aphis Toioptera grainmum Rond malty infested wheat
thegxau r.oma during the fall. Its unusual
- • d rendered - ]x»or.
Manv Texas En - on account of the
ted.
The » van granaria Buck, and if. eerealis Kak. <
i
mmon staTJk tacked wheat in considerable
1 generally, but to a less degree, about
Ind.
The smaller - '-onaria L> ibundant
in stems of wheat on th Uureau at
. Pa.
Exsni
The common spread southward to Cincin-
rd itself in several ..rolina. these repre-
. ,ve been invaded by the apei
The more injurious in 1906 than
• ed. and is now particularly I principal aspa:. a --
grow:: .. it bids f. ;ne a pest of considerable
ed in Virginia and in California.
and tJ al but unknown damage by this species
The - i>frmophagus] pcctoralis Shp. was identified
species has not hithert*
rders. Th ne likelihood of its pern . dishnient
- ithern Texae and else -.btropical.
The pea aphis [Macrot phora] destructor Job repined inju-
irginia, and 111.
and i:. Txas.
ebworm {LoxoUcge
L. was reported des . - eet fields in portions of Colorado.
ilis Guen. were observed in T
jured. The siout hern beet web worm \Pachy-
- concerned in injuiy- to table
in Texas, where it occurred with the garden webworm which it resembles in the man-
: injury.
The beet api. - erally present in the be*.
- the beet leaf-miner
(P : Lint. : i' .ah.
PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1006. 511
The rhubarb flea-beetle (Psylliodes pvnctulata Mel?.) was very generally destructive
to young plants of sugar beet in California, Utah, and Colorado, its ravages extending
into British Columbia, where it caused the loss of many thousands of dollars in hop
fields. It was also injurious to hops near Sacramento, Cal.
Cutworms devastated fields of sugar beet in Michigan.
The little negro bug (Corimclacna pulicaria Germ.) was very injurious to celery in
northern Ohio. A somewhat similar species, Cosmopepla carni/cx Fab., was injurious
to potato in northern Maine.
The striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata Fab.) is always troublesome and
the year 1906 was normal. The western 12-spotted cucumber beetle (D. soror Lee.)
was reported the most destructive sugar-beet pest in portions of southern California.
D. balteata Lee, which was injurious to vegetables in 1905 in Texas, again did damage
in that State, particularly to horse beans and vetches. The related D. picticomis Horn
accompanied it but did less injury.
The striped cabbage flea-beetle ( Phyllotrcta vittata Fab.) was unusually troublesome
in New York State, including Long Island, extending its ravages to Maryland and
the District of Columbia. The larva was also somewhat injurious to roots of radish
and turnip.
The water-cress sowbug (Mancascllus brachyurus Harger) attracted very considerable
attention because of its troublesome numbers in water cress grown for market in por-
tions of Virginia. West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.
The usual amount of damage by cabbage "worms" was reported throughout the
country. The cabbage looper (Autographa brassiae Riley), which has not been gen-
erally injurious in its more northern range for a number of years, was somewhat abund-
dant about the District of Columbia, particularly in Virginia, and was the cause of
considerable damage to lettuce grown in greenhouses. The potherb butterfly (Ponlia
napi L.) was destructive to cabbage, turnip, and other erueifers in Montana and Alaska.
The harlequin cabbage bug ( Murgantia histrionica Hahn), always a pest in the
South, after an absence of about six years in the latitude of the District of Columbia,
reappeared in noticeable numbers in near-by points in Maryland and Virginia.
Root maggots wore the subject of less complaints than in the preceding four or five
years. The seed-corn maggot (Pcgomya fusciccps Zett.) was injurious to turnips in
Alaska, to cabbage in South Carolina, and to sea kale introduced from England, where
the species is also injurious. The imported cabbage maggot (Pcgomya brassiest
Bouche) was the subject of considerable correspondence, but injury appears to be
considerably lessened since 1905. Great injury, however, occurred in various portions
of Alaska. Elsewhere the insect was noticeably abundant in northern Ohio and
Minnesota. The imported onion maggot (Pcgomya cepctormn Meade) was also less
injurious than in the two or three previous years. The chief injury reported occurred
in Indiana. The black onion fly ( Trilo.ra flea Wied.) was injurious to onions in por-
tions of Illinois and Minnesota, and was associated with the onion maggot. In portions
of Illinois also there was another maggot on onions, Lonchxa polita Say), while in Ohio
the barred onion maggot < Cho.topsis)cnea Wied.) was destructive.
The tarnished plant bug (Lygus pratensis L.) appeared on the whole to be only
moderately numerous, but was injurious to onions grown for seed in Indiana, to potato,
celery, ornamentals, and pear buds in Maine, and was concerned in injury to beets in
California and cabbage in Alaska.
The onion thrips ( Thrips tabaci Lind.) was injurious to onions in Texas, Massachu-
setts and Indiana.
Injury by the melon aphis (Aphis gossypii Glow) was somewhat general throughout
its range. As usual, the greatest losses were to cantaloupe, although other melons,
cucumbers, cotton, some ornamental plants, and others were badly affected. Many
complaints were received from Texas, Florida, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and
California, somewhat general injury was incurred in Ohio and Illinois, and local injury
was done in New York. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. In portions of
southern California cantaloupes were almost completely destroyed. In Oklahoma 60
per cent was lost in some localities.
The pickle worm (Diaphania nitidalis Cram.) appeared in injurious numbers about
the District of Columbia for the first time in about ten years. It was also destructive
in Arkansas.
The common stalk borer (Papaipcma nitela Guen.) was less complained of than in
the previous two or three years. Local injury, however, to a variety of vegetable
crops and ornamentals was reported in New York, Pennsylvania. New Jersey, Con-
necticut, Michigan, Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, and Mississippi. Wheat was attacked
about Lawrence, Kans., and Richmond, Ind.
The variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia Hbn.) was destructive in California,
doing mischief in greenhouses in Minnesota, and injuring vegetable crops and berries
in Alaska and Mexico.
512 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Injun," by white grubs > Ladmosterna spp. i was very general in the northern United
States from Xew England to Iowa and Wisconsin. The usual crops — potatoes, straw-
berry beds, beets, and other vegetables — were affected, and much complaint was
made of damage to lawns. Injun.- to the roots of strawberry and to young orchard
was reported in Oregon.
Wirt worms were more injurious than in most years, complaints being most noticeable
from California. The principal injury was caused to garden vegetables and sugar corn.
Insects Injurious to Deciduous Fruits.
The codling moth | Car)x>cap$a pomondla L. ) has been for some years notably inju-
rious in orchards in the Middle West, especially in the Ozark regions.
The apple maggot yRhagoUtis pomondla Walsh) is apparently becoming increas-
ingly troublesome in some of the Xew England States, as Maine. Xew Hampshire,
and Vermont, and has been the subject of frequent communications during the summer
and fall. It was also quite abundant in the vicinity of Douglas. Mich., attacking
principally the summer and early fall varieties of apples.
The green fruit-worm Xylina antennata Walk, i was reported seriously destructive
to apple orchards in southern Illinois, boring into the young fruit and destroying in
orchards a considerable percentage of the crop.
The apple leaf-hopper | Empoasca mali LeB.i has been more than usually abundant
in the vicinity of Washington. D. O. and was the subject of complaint from the
proprietor of a large nursery in Pennsylvania.
The spring canker-worm [Pahacrita vernata Peck was much complained of in
northern Virginia, central and western Pennsylvania, and eastern Ohio, where it
appears to have been even more troublesome than in 1905.
The fall canker-worm (Ahophila pomctaria Hair. | was received along with the pre-
ceding species from localities in western Pennsylvania, where, in the practical absence
of remedial measures, it seems to be increasing in destructiveness.
The forest tent caterpillar | Malacosoma disstria Hbn. ) and its near relative. M. plu-
viatu Dyar. were reported as very abundant and destructive in Washington State,
attacking apple, plum, cherry, and rose.
A tussock moth | Orgyia sp. i was also very destructive in Washington State, causing
ub defoliation of orchards.
The yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar (Datana mmistra Dru. I became quite
abundant in appie orchards in northern Virginia, adjacent portions of West Virginia,
western Pennsylvania, and Maine.
The red-humped apple-tree caterpillar tSddzura condnna S. & A.) along with the
preceding, was very abundant in apple orchards in Maine, the two species causing
considerable alarm from their depredations.
The trumpet leaf-miner | Tistheria rnalifolidla Clem. i. which became very abundant
in the vicinity of Washington. D. C. during the two previous years, was almost equally
numerous in 1906, though it was not the subject of as much complaint as previously
from near-by States and elsewhere.
The apple' bud-borer I Epinotia pyricolana Murt . I was decidedly in evidence in young
apple orchards in Virginia and Maryland in the environs of Washington. D. C, doing
material injury by boring down the terminal shoots, thereby causing an undesirable
branching.
A climbing cutworm, Prodaria sp.. was troublesome in apple orchards in northern
Virginia and adjacent territory in West Virginia, young trees being practically stripped
of foliage and the branches of older ones more or less denuded. Injury was most severe
in orchards which had been in sod for the past two or three years.
The pear psylla [PsyUa pyri L. I was reported seriously injurious to Kieffer pears in
one locality in Virginia. This species was abundant in Virginia and Maryland in 1894,
but has not since attracted much attention.
The plum curculio (Conotrachdus nenuphar Ubst.) was the subject of a very large
amount of inquiry from various portions of the territory over which it is distributed.
The peach 1 orer Satin inoidea critiosa Say | maintains its place with the plum curculio
as one of the two principal enemies of the peach. Frequent inquiries come, especially
from the South and Southwest, concerning this insect, particularly from persons who
have recently gone into peach culture.
E ■ ppe prunifolldla Chamb. became destructive to peach at Saugatuck. Conn., fold-
ing the leaves along the edge and also at the tip.
A new sawfly enemy of the peach | Lyda sp. I is reported to have been quite injurious
.ecticut. The slugs feed on the foliage, stripping the trees more or less
completely.
PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. 513
A plum aphis (Aphis setarix Thos.) became unusually abundant in the spring in parts
of the South. Numerous complaints were received from southern Louisiana, in the
vicinity of New Orleans and Lake Charles; also from Alabama, Georgia, and Ken-
tucky. The insect occurred mostly on the plum, but in one instance the peach was
at lacked.
An unusually serious attack on the peach by the scurfy scale (Chionaspis furfura
Fitch) was noted in Georgia in a block of three or four- year-old trees, the insect rivaling
in destructiveness the San Jose scale. Judging from the injury caused by this insect
there are doubtless two or more broods in that section each year. The species is
reported uncommonly abundant in certain orchards in the Hudson River Vallev in
New York State.
The oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) continued seriously injurious in Mary-
land and Pennsylvania.
The terrapin scale (Eulecanium nigrofasciatum Perg.) has become very trouble-
some in a few peach orchards in western Maryland, and its occurrence in unusual
numbers was noted in New Jersey.
The San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.) continued to attract much atten-
tion, especially in regions recently invaded by it. It was observed in new localities
in apple-growing regions of the Ozark Mountains, and the orchardist of that section
will undoubtedly have to contend with it in the near future.
Another scale insect became prominent as a pest of deciduous fruits, namely,
Howard's scale (Aspidiotus howardi Ckll.). This insect was reported abundant and
destructive in orchards on the west slope in Colorado, infesting pear, prune, plum,
almond, and apple, as well as certain shade trees.
The grape root-worm (Fidia viticida Walsh) became a very serious pest in the Erie
grape belt in Pennsylvania, and was somewhat more destructive in the Chautauqua
grape belt in western New York than for the preceding year or so.
The grape berry moth (Polychrosis viteana Clem.) was seriouly destructive in the
same territory as that mentioned above for the grape root-worm, as well as in northern
Ohio.
The grapevine leaf-hopper ( Typhlocyba comes Say) continued a serious grape pest
in the Erie grape belt.
The grape curculio (Craponius insequalis Say) was quite as destructive in West
Virginia as during 1905.
The rose-chafer ( Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.) is apparently again on the increase,
as indicated by the numerous complaints made. Specimens were received from many
localities in the East-Central States — for example, Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York. Serious injury or total destruction of grapes,
cherries, apples, and peaches was noted by correspondents.
Amphicerus punctipennis Lee. was received in grape canes from Miami, Fla. The
species is also recorded from Tiger Mills, Tex., and Riverside, Cal.
Insects Injurious to Citrus and Other Tropical Fruits.
There is little change from year to year in the amount of damage from scale and
other common enemies of citrus fruits. The black scale (Saissetia olex Bern.) and the
red scale (Aonidiella aurantii Mask.) continue to be the prominent pests in southern
California, and the white fly (Aleyrodes citri R. & H.) and the purple scale (Lepi-
dosaphes beckii Newm.) in Florida. Work under a special appropriation for the white
fly is under way in Florida, and this insect will be studied in the coming year through-
out its range on the Gulf coast.
Very good reports are still coming of the South African parasite of the black scale in
southern California, but the work of this parasite has not by any means eliminated the
black scale as an important pest.
Insects Injurious to the Nut Industry.
The pecan crop of Texas was reported generally short. Only two insects, however,
were especially prominent as pests. The pecan huskworm (Enarmonia caryana Fitch)
was injurious in portions of Georgia and South Carolina, and, on the authority of Mr.
F. C. Pratt, did injury also to walnuts at Boerne, Tex. Shortage in the pecan crop in
other portions of the South was attributed to this pest. The pecan weevil (Balaninus
caryse. Horn) was somewhat unusually abundant.
The chestnut crop in some sections also showed a shortage, but the chestnut weevils
(Balaninus rectus Say and B. proboscideus Fab.) were not complained of so frequently
as in previous years. Loss in one locality in Pennsylvania, however, was estimated
3 a 1906 33
51-4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
at 40 per cent, a gradual growth beginning with 5 per cent loss experienced five years
previously. A red spider. Tetranyehus bicolor Bks.. was the occasion of complaint
among chestnut growers in portions of Pennsylvania and Connecticut, and this pest,
together with "blight." was doubtless responsible for other losses of which there was
complaint.
Insects Injurious to Shade and Ornamental Trees.
The brown-tail moth {Euproctis chrysorrhoa L. i has extended its western range to the
vicinity of Amherst. Mass.. and seems to be proceeding in a westerly direction more
slowly than it has been spreading to the northeast. It is now found more than halfway
up the Maine coast and has been reported from Eastport. It occurs in the two lower
tiers of counties in Xew Hampshire in considerable numbers and has been collected
in the White Mountain region.
The gipsy moth (Ocneria [PortJutria] dispar L.) has been found during the year near
Stonington. Conn., and several colonies have been located in Rhode Island. It occurs
very generally in the southern tier of counties of Xew Hampshire, and recent scouting
in Maine has shown the establishment of the species at several points in the south-
western portion of that State. Its western limit still seems to be in that part of Massa-
chusetts which lies in the longitude of Worcester.
As a result of the widespread interest which the occurrence of these two species
occasioned in Xew England and neighboring States, certain other caterpillars were the
subject of considerable complaint. Prominent among these was the black walnut
caterpillar iDatana inUgcrrlma G. & R. . which attracted attention in Xew York. It
was also injurious to walnut at Bristol. Tenn.. and at Roekford. HI., and to pecans at
Staunton. Ya. The hickory tussock moth i Halisidota caryx Harr. | was destructive to
elni in Massachusetts and was the subject of complaint also in Xew Y'ork.
The sugar maple borer iPlagionoivs speciosus Say'i continued to be a serious pest in
Xew York, and some complaints were made of its injuries in Ohio.
The white-marked tussock moth i Hemerocampa Uucostigma S. <x A. | was abundant
during the year 1906. but not nearly so troublesome as in many other years. It was
particularly numerous in the States of Xew Y'ork. Pennsylvania. Maine. Connecticut,
Virginia, and Iowa, attracting most attention as a pest in public parks and in the streets
of cities and large towns. It was similarly abundant in the District of Columbia and
in Xova Scotia.
The fall webworm \Hyphantria cuiua Dru. > was. on the whole, remarkably scarce,
small colonies only occurring. Among the localities infested were the District of
Columbia. Lynn. Mass.. Xew Wilmington. Pa., and Xew Y"ork City.
The imported willow curculio ( Crypt orhynchus lapathi L.) was destructive to willow
and poplar, especially in nurseries in various parts of Xew Y'ork State.
The cottony maple scale {Pulvinaria innumerabiiis Rathv.), which was bo abundant
in 1905 practically disappeared as a pest in Xew Jersey.
The false maple scale (Phenacoccus acericola King! was abundant in several cities
in Xew Y'ork. and especially in the vicinity of Xew Y'ork City.
The catalpa sphinx f Ceratomia cataJpx Bdv. | was very destructive to the foliage of
catalpa. reports of defoliation having been received from Xew Jersey, where the pest is
generally distributed, and from portions of Ohio and Alabama. In Maryland and
Virginia the species was abundant, but not so troublesome.
The elm-tree borer [Saperaa tridentata 01. 1 was the cause of considerable complaint,
injuries being especially noticeable in the vicinity of St. Louis. Mo., and Evanston. 111.
A new oriental moth ( Cnidocampa flavesctns Walk, k whose original home is in Asia.
was observed on a variety of shade, orchard, and wild trees in the vicinity of Dor-
chester. Mass. As its habits as thus far studied in this country show that it is capable
of subsisting on all sorts of vegetation, such as bush fruits and rose, there is danger of
the permanent introduction of this species into America as a pest.
The maple leaf stem-borer < Priophonts acericaulis McG. I was injurious to maple
shade trees in the vicinity of Xew Haven. Conn., and probably elsewhere. The
species has not hitherto been noted as a pest and was only recently described because
new to science.
The currant leaf-hopper iErnpoasca malt LeB.( was very abundant on shade trees
in the District of Columbia, doing particular damage to the hop tree. It also attacked
violets grown in a greenhouse in Yirginia.
The greenhouse red spider ( Tctranyehv.s bimaculatus Harv. | was extremely trouble-
some, both in greenhouses and fields and on shade trees, its injuries extending from
York and the District of Columbia to Illinois. General complaint of mite injury
to shade trees was also made in Xew Jersey and is probably attributable to this species.
PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. 515
Insects Injurious to Forests and Forest Products.
The Black Hills beetle (Dcndroctonus ponderosse Hopk.) continued its depredations
to such an extent in the Black Hills Forest Reserve of South Dakota that as yet it has
not been practicable, owing to the lack of sufficient funds and other facilities, to
accomplish anything of importance toward carrying out the recommendations for its
control. The radical measures adopted in the vicinity of Colorado Springs and the
Pikes Peak Forest Reserve, Colo., under the same recommendations, have, on the other
hand, apparently brought the pest under complete control in that locality.
The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus monticola Hopk.) was the direct cause of
the death of a considerable amount of lodgepole pine in the higher elevations of the
Yosemite National Park and in other localities in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in
California. It was also reported in destructive numbers in Oregon, Idaho, and Utah.
The destructive pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm.), while continuing to be
a menace to the pine forests of the South, was not more than usually abundant in the
South Atlantic and Gulf States. For the first time since the disastrous outbreak of
1891-92 it was found as far north as Virginia. Investigations in the southeastern part
of that State indicated that it had been present in limited abundance for several years,
apparently without much, if any, increase in numbers.
The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopk.) was not reported in destructive
abundance in any section of the country. It was found in small numbers attacking
spruce in New Hampshire, northern Michigan, and the Black Hills of South Dakota,
and the western form was reported as causing some injury to the Engelmann spruce
in Colorado and Wyoming.
The Douglas spruce beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugse Hopk.) was reported as
destructive to the red fir or Douglas spruce in many widely separated localities in the
Rocky Mountain region.
The larch beetle (Dendroctonus simplex Lee.) was found attacking larch or tamarack
in small numbers in the upper peninsula of Michigan. Although not at present a
serious enemy of the tree, it may prove to be of importance in connection with the
depredations of the larch sawfly.
The western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis Lee.) was found attacking pine
in the Yosemite Valley and other localities in California, and reported from Oregon.
In Idaho the recommendations of this Bureau for its control have been adopted by
certain of the larger lumbering concerns.
The two-lined chestnut borer (Agrilus bilineatus Web.) was found in Massachusetts
attacking and hastening the death of oak trees which had been defoliated by the gipsy
and brown tail moths.
The white-pine weevil (Pissodes strobi Peck) occurred in its usual abundance in the
Eastern States. It was found also in Michigan, in young white pine reproduction,
and appears to be increasing in abundance there.
"Cerambycid borers (species at present unknown) were reported as injuring telephone
poles in Maryland and West Virginia. They attack the poles near the surface of the
ground, and so weaken them as to cause them to break.
Cedar heartwood borers ( Trachykele blondeli Mars, and T. opulenta Fall) were identi-
fied as the cause of serious injury to the heartwood of various western cedars. The
injury has been long known, but the insect causing it has been unknown until this
year.
Powder-post beetles (Lyctus spp.) continued to be a source of frequent complaint
from dealers and manufacturers of hardwood products. L. unipunctatus Hbst. was
the most common species infesting oak and hickory spokes, handles, etc. ; L. plani-
collis Lee. was found attacking ash lumber in the South, and L. parallelopipedum Mels.
injuring persimmon shuttle blocks in Georgia. The red-shouldered powder-post borer
(Sinoxylon basilare Say) caused serious injury to last and shuttle blocks of persimmon
wood in Georgia and Ohio.
The larch sawfly (Holcocneme [Nematus] erichsonii Hartig) was unusually abundant
and destructive in the upper peninsula of Michigan. Complaint of injury was received
in 1905, but it appears that the area over which the larch was defoliated was consider-
ably more extensive in 1906. Defoliation of the larger trees over a large part of the
upper peninsula was complete, but as yet none appear to be dying from this cause alone.
The fir tussock moth (Notolophus oslari Barnes) was the cause of extensive defoliation
of the tops of white fir (Abies concolor) in Mariposa County, Cal., and was also found
in considerable abundance attacking the same tree in Colorado. It is supposed that
the repetition of this injury is responsible for the dead tops common on fir throughout
a large portion of the Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada regions.
Dalcerides ingenita Hy. Edw., a species of slug caterpillar, was reported seriously
defoliating "live oak scrub" near Payson, Ariz. The habits of this insect were not
known previously.
516 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Insects Injurious to Stored Products.
The Mediterranean flour moth \Eph($tia kududeUa Zell. |, that scourge of the flour
mill, greatly increased its range, having been reported from four times as many locali-
ties as in any previous year. Its injuries were particularly noticeable in new-
localities in California. Oregon. Maryland. Ohio. Michigan. Pennsylvania. New York,
nsin. and Illinois. It was doubtfully reported from South Dakota. Iowa, and
West Virginia.
The European grain moth (Tinea granella L. has apparently become established
in thL? country, as considerable correspondence was received in regard to its occur-
rence in seed storehouses and mills in portions of Connecticut. Michigan. Xew York,
and Canada. It bred in corn seed and dry stalks, and in ground buckwheat.
The spider beetle ' - L. > caused serious damage to a case of uniforms of
heavy felted cloth in an Ohio locality, and was also found in some numbers in flour
in a flour mill at Ontario. Canada.
Hadrobri rmatus Say. another ptinid beetle new as a household pest, made
its appearance at Toledo. Ohio, and Hamburg. Mich., working somewhat after the
manner of the powder-pnst beetles {Lydut spp. . in white ash and basswood flooring,
the former wood being comparatively new and the latter very old.
The cigarette beetle yLasioderma serric appears to be increasingly destruc-
tive year by year, many complaints having been received during 1906. It affected
tobacco of ail kinds, and its injuries were well distributed throughout the eastern
United States and extended westward into Arizona. It also injured herbarium
specimens at St. Louis. Mo., and was troublesome in upholstered furniture in the
District of Columbia. West Virginia, and New Jersey.
Inskctg and Ticks as Animal Parasites and as Conveyors of Disease.
The insect and tick parasites of domestic animals and man vary but slightly as
regards abundance from year to year. The following observations, however, on some
of the ae pests are of inte:
The cattle tick (Boop/nhu amsuioftu Say does not vary decidedly in numbers
from vear to vear. In 1906 the usual loss from Texas fever, 'estimated at $40,000,000
- 10,000,000, may be attributed to it.
Trie lone star tick i Amblyomma americanum L. ranks next, though its importance
is immeasurably less because it does not transmit disease. In 1906 it was very minier-
ous. especially in regions where sheep and goats are kept.
The tropical horse tick I Dermacentor nitens Aud. was discovered in this country
for the first time by an agent of the Bureau of Entomology, and its occurrence over a
considerable area in southern Texas was determined.
The gulf coast tick Amblyomma ntaculatum Koch . which has previously attracted
no attention, was found very commonly along the coasts of Texas and" Louisiana
infesting cattle, horses, dogs, and man.
The tropica] tick I Amblyomma cc Koch was observed in Texas as far north
as Beeville.
The dog Rhipicephalus Rhipictphalus sp. was found commonly over a large area
in southern Texas. Its close relationship to disease-transmitting species gives it
considerable inr
A fa - Tabanus opacus Ooq. caused much annoyance to horses and cattle in
Wyoming.
The screw worm Chrysomyia macellaria Fab. . always a source of trouble in Texas.
was annoying to stock. The same is true of the horse bot *Ga$trophilus equi F.
which was observed in the same State everywhere as far west as Ozona.
Miscellaneous or Unclassified Insect Pests.
insects injurious in greenhouses and in flower gardens.
The violet gall midge Contarinia [I>iplosis] violicola Coq.) has become a very serious
pest in the extensive violet-growing industry in the Hudson River valley region of
Xew York. The rose leaf-beetle yXodonota pinicficollis Say was injurious" to ruses in
the vicinity of the District of Columbia. The rose leaf-hopper ( Typhlocyba rosx B
was quite troublesome during the year and caused considerable complaint bear
rk on rose bushes in and about the District of Columbia, as also in Xew York State.
The red-banded leaf-hop; >:phala eoccinta Forst. was injurious to ornamental
plants in Central Xew York and in the District of Columbia, China aster, roses, and
hibiscus being particularly injured. Lilac bushes at Stony Brook. X. Y.. were
reported badly damaged by a giant scarabseid beetle. Xylory'cUs satyr.;.? Fab. The
greenhouse leaf-tyer (Phlycixniaferrugalis Hbn. | was a pest in greenhouses in Michigan.
SOIL AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED.
517
STRAWBERRY INSECTS.
The strawberry crown girdler (Otiorhynchus ovatus L.) was very destructive in King
County. Wash. , to strawberry plants. An estimated loss of about $55,000 was made for
that county. It was observed on ornamental plants about Chicago, 111. The straw-
berry leaf-roller (Ancylis comptana Frohl.) was abundant in Maryland and Virginia
near the District of Columbia, and was complained of in Illinois and Missouri. The
strawberry sawfly (Harpiphorus maculatus Nort.) was injurious in Massachusetts.
MISCELLANEOUS.
The Rocky Mountain locust (Melanopliis spretus Thos.) was very destructive in por-
tions of South Dakota. One correspondent reported the total destruction of nursery
plantings, the damage aggregating $800.
A red spider (Tetranychus sp.) was reported as causing much damage to hops in
portions of the State of Washington, one grower reporting an almost total loss.
The calloused bill-bug (Sphenophorus callosus 01.) was destructive to chufa, and
was concerned in injury to timothy in Virginia near the District of Columbia.
Of pests related to insects, a sowbug (Porcellio Isevis Latr.) was injurious to mush-
rooms grown commercially in the District of Columbia and Kansas. Many complaints
were also received of slugs and their injuries to plants of various kinds. Angleworms
also were present in troublesome numbers in gardens, on lawns, on golf links, and in
some cases in large fields.
AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED BY THE BUREAU OF SOILS.
By A. G. Rice, Chief Clerk, Bureau of Soils.
The following statement shows the location and extent of soil surveys made up to
December 31, 1906. The Bureau prepares and issues a lithograph map, drawn on a
scale of 1 mile to the inch, for each area surveyed, indicating in colors the distribution
of the various soil types. The accompanying sketch map (fig. 20) gives the location
of these areas.
Fig. 20. — Areas covered by the Soil Survey.
The statement gives a list of the areas surveyed with the number of square miles
in each, and the total area surveyed in each State and Territorv. The total for the
United States is 128,198 square miles, or 82,046,720 acres.
518
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1906.
Square
miles.
Alabama:
Blount County 625
Dallas County 992
Fort Payne area 509
Huntsville area 506
Lauderdale County 708
Lee County ." 629
Macon County 621
Mobile area 461
Montgomery County 780
Perry County 762
Sumter County 893
Arizona:
Buckeye sheet 43
Phoenix sheet 243
Solomonsville area 108
Tempe sheet 163
Yuma area 340
Arkansas:
Fayetteville area .
Miller County
Prairie County...
Stuttgart area . . .
California:
Bakersfleld area
Fresno area
Hanford area
Imperial area
Indio area
Los Angeles area ....
Sacramento area
Salinas sheet
San Bernardino area .
San Gabriel area
San Jose area
Santa Ana area
Solidad sheet
Stockton area
Ventura sheet
Willow area
Colorado:
Arkansas Valley area.
Grand Junction area .
Greeley area
San Luis area
569
026
656
251
195
628
216
,084
234
570
924
189
755
259
313
275
155
521
240
375
945
168
687
628
Connecticut :
Connecticut Valley.
Delaware:
Dover area
Florida:
Escambia County. .
Gadsden County. . .
Gainesville area
Leon County
Georgia:
Bainb ridge area.
Cobb County
Covington area. .
Dodge Ounty...
Fort Valley area.
Spalding County.
Waycross area. . .
Idaho:
Boise sheet
Blackfoot area.
Caldwell sheet .
Lewiston area.
662
548
485
67S
364
346
225
489
186
205
609
1"55
428
244
308
Illinois:
Clay County 460
Clinton County 491
Johnson County 339
Knox County 717
McLean County 1, 159
O' Fallon area 68
Sangamon County 866
St. Clair County 650
Tazewell County 645
Winnebago County 526
7,486
Square
_ , miles.
Indiana:
Boonville area 264
Greene County 535
Madison County 435
Marshall County 445
Newton County 393
Posey County 387
Scott County 197
Tippecanoe County " " " 499
Indian Territory:
Tishomingo area
2,102
6,933
2,428
505
2,370
2,424
1,135
Iowa:
Cerro Gordo County 567
Dubuque area 440
Story County 576
Tama County 720
Kansas :
Allen County 504
Brown County 573
Garden City area 335
Parsons area 398
Riley County 634
Russell area 270
Wichita area 465
5,921
Kentucky:
McCracken County 242
Madison County 437
Mason County * 225
Scott County 280
Union County 361
Warren County 533
Louisiana:
Acadia Parish 636
Caddo Parish 898
De Soto Parish 825
East Baton Rouge Parish 451
Lake Charles area 202
New Orleans area 410
Ouachita Parish 605
Tangipahoa Parish 788
Maryland:
Calvert County 217
Cecil County 376
Harford County 418
Kent County . .* 293
Prince George County 480
St. Mary County 363
Worcester County 463
Massachusetts:
Connecticut Valley
Michigan:
Allegan County 828
Alma area 282
Cass County 500
Munising area 407
Oxford area 210
O wosso area 270
Pontiac area 307
Saginaw area 984
Minnesota:
Blue Earth County 749
Carlton sheet 413
Crookston area 779
Marshall area 233
Mississippi:
Biloxi area 615
Cry stalsp rings area 231
Jackson area 737
Mayersville sheet 193
McNeill area 198
Montgomery County 405
Pontotoc County . . ". 498
fimedes area 463
Yazoo sheet 463
3,155
3,179
2,07S
4,815
2,610
809
3,788
2,174
3,803
SOIL AEEAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED.
519
Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1906 — Continued.
Square
miles.
Missouri:
Crawford County 747
Howell County 919
O'Fallon area 552
Putnam County 523
Saline County 748
Scotland County 410
Shelby County.". 511
Webster County 605
5,045
Montana:
Billings area 107
Gallatin Valley area 325
432
Nebraska :
Grand Island area 440
Kearney area 792
Lancaster County 857
Sarpy County 227
Stanton area 323
2,645
New Hampshire:
Merrimack County 923
New Jersey:
Salem area 493
Trenton area 810
1,303
New Mexico:
Carlsbad sheet 80
Roswell sheet 49
129
New York:
Auburn area 161
Bigflats area 223
Binghamton area 229
Long Island area 845
Lyons area 515
Madison County 649
Niagara County 547
Syracuse area 416
Tompkins County 493
Vergennes area . ." 160
Westfield area 260
4, 798
North Carolina:
Alamance County 365
Asheville area 497
Cary sheet 63
Chowan County 178
Clayton sheet 214
Craven area 897
Duplin County 824
Hickory area 98S
Kinston sheet 257
Mount Mitchell sheet 197
Newbern sheet 46
New Hanover County 192
Parmele area 236
Perquimans and Pasquotank
counties 461
Princeton sheet 248
Saluda area 190
Statesv ille area 784
Transylvania Countv 372
7, 309
North Dakota:
Cando area 283
Carrington area 720
Fargo area 406
Grand Forks area 3R.
Jamestown area 496
Ransom County 856
Williston area 585
3, 660
Ohio:
Ashtabula area 340
Cleveland area 509
Columbus area 472
Coshocton area 551
Meigs County 443
Montgomery County 480
Toledo area 103
Westerville area 476
Wooster area 169
4,143
Square
miles.
Oklahoma:
Oklahoma County 720
Oregon:
Baker City area 158
Salem area 284
442
Pennsylvania:
Adams County 534
Chester County 760
Lancaster area 269
Lebanon area 669
Lockhaven area 278
Montgomery County . . 496
3, 006
Porto Rico:
Arecibo to Ponce 330
Rhode Island.
State 1, 085
South Carolina:
Abbeville area 1, 006
Campobello area 515
Charleston area 352
Cherokee County 361
Darlington area 599
Lancaster County 486
Orangeburg area 709
York County 669
4,697
South Dakota:
Brookings area 484
Tennessee:
Clarksville area 547
Davidson County 501
Grainger County 307
Greene ville area 664
Henderson County 499
Lawrence County 618
Madison County 561
Pikeville area 440
4,137
Texas:
Anderson County 1,069
Austin area 705
Brazoria area 845
Henderson area 581
. Houston County 1, 192
Jacksonville area 100
Lavaca County 995
Laredo area 155
Lee County 666
Luf kin area 99
Nacogdoches area 97
Paris area 548
San Antonio area 484
San Marcos area 515
Vernon area 277
Waco area 495
Willis area 215
Woodville area 100
9, 138
I'tah:
Bear River Valley 334
Provo area 3/3
Salt Lake sheet 249
Sevier Valley 235
Weber County 310
1,501
Vermont :
Vergennes area 227
Virginia:
Albemarle area 1,110
Appomattox County 340
Bedford area 632
Chesterfield County 478
Hanover County 475
Leesburg area 419
Louisa County 505
Norfolk area 303
Prince Edward County. 430
Yorktown area 598
5. 590
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETME^ -Kl< ULTUEE.
Areas of soU surreys in ■ her 31. li- .ued.
Square
mflea mflea
^ ■' j.---.z.z~. .- i Wisconsin:
>--- i - ■■-it-'.;- .. '-..-.--■ .-.t i:f-
-. —-—^r-. .' Portage County
- i^jr.i- =:.- - j_- R&f.-iae County 326
Walla Walla area 201 -riorarea 182
Yakima sheet 85 Viroquaarea 50*
i
West Yngnria:
Vt. ?~~-~ ■'.'■--■—-.?.. ... •■ Lanmiearaa
Wheeling ares. 315
Total.
PROGRESS IN FOOD AND DRUG INSPECTION AND CORRELATED
INVESTIGATIONS.
By H. W. Wiley. Chief of Burea
The passage of the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, a:
obtain sach legislation for more than a quarter of & undoubtedly u
est advancement in the field of investigations covered by the work • I
Chemistry during 1906 and marks what may almost be called a reformation in many
industries connected with the production of foods and medical and pharmaceutical
preparations. Much work had been done in the Bureau in the direction of revealing
the conditions that necessitated this L - publication of analyse-
purchased in the open market, the disclosure of discrepancies between the lal>el
and the product, the compilation of State food and drug laws showing need of uni-
formity and the difficulties and injustices suffered by dealer, consumer, and the
honest manufacturer alike when interstate commerce was conducted under such
varying conditions. Cooperation with the Post-Office Department in excluding
fraudulent medicinal preparations from the mails had revealed an evident need of
regulation of such preparations which were often harmful as well as fraudulent.
Although the law did not become operative until January 1. - effect was
noticeable soon after the passage of the act. The great majority of manuiac*
have shown that they are anxious to comply with the law and have h
make the necessary changes in their products and labels. It is apparent that as
far as most of the reputable manufacturers and dealers are concerned the law will be
largely self-operative, and as a rule the decisions of the Department are ace
without protest. Careful inspection will, of course, be necessarv. Ik- rder
to protect these interests from unfair competition with such dealers or manufacturers
as might, by misbranding and otherwise misrepresenting their goods, undersell the
honest merchant. To this end a number of laboratorie-
tion in which this work wifl be largely conducted, are being established in addition
to the six laboratories at Chicago, Philadelph: rk. Boston. JXem - and
San Francisco, at which ports imported foods have been inspected during the pa^ I
years. The improvement in the labeling of imported goods, the statements made as
to colors and preservatives, etc.. show continuing improvement under this inspe
The improvement to be expected from the regulation of th . ^nd phar-
maceutical preparations is already evidenced by the steps taken to produce pure
products and to eliminate misrepresentations and false claims as set forth in the 1..
Other progressive activities set in operation by this law include the attention being
given to the establishment of much needed standards for the various products sub-
ject to the act and the work of the council on pharmacy and chemistry, in whk h
Bureau has cooperated, which has called to account many remedies which have in
the past masqueraded under false colors.
In the same way a vast amount of research work has been inaugurated and -
phases of it completed looking to the determination of the effect of pr - and
coloring matters on health and digestion ; the effect of cold storage, especially on :
birds, and eggs; and the bacteriological-chemical studies of milk, ice cream, etc.. for
the better protection of public health and the establishment of re.
lations governing such products. During the past year the study of the er:
servatives made at the hygienic table of the Bureau has been devoted to the special
investigation of certain points which the previous work indicated as being of special
significance or needing further elaboration, the same preservatives be: -das
in the more general studies, i. e.. boric acid, sulphurous acid, and sulphites. The
physiological effects of formaldehyde, benzoic acid, and copper sulphates have
ROAD LAWS ENACTED IX 1906. 521
also investigated along the lines followed in the bulletins on borax and salicylic acid
(No. 84. Parts I and II) already issued. The results with these additional preservatives
are now almost ready for publication.
In nearly all of the laboratories of the Bureau investigations are in progress which
bear upon the subject of food and drug control, the establishment of standards, the
character of goods on the market, and methods for the improvement of processes and
products. Among these may be mentioned the following:
An investigation, in the miscellaneous laboratory, of concentrated feeding stuffs as
eold on the American market, including the analysis of approximately 400 cattle foods
to determine their composition and whether or not they are adulterated. Also the
study of the composition of mineral waters in the United States has been continued,
providing valuable data in connection with the enforcement of the food and drugs
act as affecting this class of products. Illustrative of the efforts made to improve proc-
esses may be mentioned the investigation of materials and methods used in canning
foods.
The most striking investigation looking to the improvement of the quality of. raw-
materials is perhaps the experiment made with wheat grown in semiarid regions and
under irrigation, or in localities having a heavy rainfall. The work at its present stage
appears to indicate that, of all the factors influencing the composition of wheat, water
plays a predominant part, the wheats grown under semiarid conditions being much
higher in nitrogen. Both pot experiments and field work have pointed toward the
same conclusion, i. e., an excess of water is accompanied by a decrease in nitrogen con-
tent, which opens up the possibility of determining the amount of irrigation which
should b« practiced to produce a crop of wheat containing the maximum nitrogenous
content and making the largest yield.
In thus outlining the progress made along a few of the lines of activity opened up or
made more vital by the demands of the new law. it is important to emphasize the fact
that their complete and satisfactory accomplishment can only be effected by conserva-
tive methods; but the effect of the institution of such work and the enactment of such a
law has been far-reaching in its practical and beneficial effects even in its initial
stages — beneficial alike to consumer, producer, and our commercial status as a Nation.
REVIEW OF ROAD LAWS ENACTED IN 1906.
By M. O. Eldridge, Chief of Records, Oftice of Public Road*.
The legislatures of only about one-fourth of the States were in session during the
year 1906. Notwithstanding this fact, some very important road laws were enacted.
The legislatures of twelve States adopted 81 bills relating to road improvement and
administration. A brief synopsis of the most important of these measures is pre-
sented herewith.
Iowa. — An act approved February 14, 1906. authorizes the use of the split-log drag
in maintaining earth roads. Dragging must be done under the direction of the road
superintendents, who may allow not to exceed 50 cents per mile for each dragging or
$5 per mile for dragging the road for one year.
Another act, approved March 10. 1906. provides that all persons who use wagons on
public roads with tires not less than 3 inches in width for hauling loads exceeding 800
pounds in weight shall receive a rebate of one-fourth of their highway tax. provided
such rebate shall not exceed $5 per annum.
Kentucky. — Any county in this State owning turnpike roads is authorized by an
act approved March 21, 1906. to collect tolls on such roads, provided the same is agreed
to by a majority of the legal voters of the county. The fiscal courts are required to
appropriate to each road on which tolls are collected all the money so collected for the
purpose of keeping the road in repair. Where the capital stock of turnpike roads is
owned by the commonwealth of Kentucky and any county or counties, the share
owned by the State may be transferred to the county, according to an act approved
March 17, 1906. provided the county agrees to maintain the road and to collect no
tolls thereon.
If agreed to by a two-thirds vote of the people, a special tax of not to exceed 25 cents
fin each $100 worth of assessed property may be levied for the construction and repair
of roads in the various counties of this State, according to an act approved March 21.
1906. In working out this tax the road overseer may allow $1 for each day's work
and $2.50 per day for each two-horse team and wagon.
New Jersey. — The salary of the State commissioner of public roads is increased
by an act approved April 2,*1906, from $1,500 to $5,000 per annum: the allowance for
522 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
hi? expenses is also increased from $1,500 to $4,000 per annum, and the salary of the
State supervisor, who shall be a competent civil engineer, is fixed at $2,500 per "annum.
According to a law approved June 26. 1906. roads constructed by the boards of chosen
freeholders of the counties, with or without State aid. may be maintained bv the
township, town, or borough in which they are located, under the direction of the State
commissioner of public roads.
Another law provides that the purchase or condemnation of toll roads which have
been permanently improved with stone or gravel may be paid for, one-third by the
State and two-thirds by the county. Ten per cent of the two-thirds may be paid by
the township or municipality in which the road is located. The county mav borrow
money temporarily to pay its share for such roads.
Xew York. — The issuance of $50,000,000 in bonds, provided for in section 12.
article 7. of the constitution, was legalized May 16. 1906. Funds realized from the
sale of those bonds are to be expended under the Higbie- Armstrong State aid law
. in the permanent improvement of the public highways, the State paying one-half of
the cost, the counties 35 per cent, and the townships or property owners 15 per cent.
The bonds are to be issued in two classes, A and B. Class A bonds are to run for a
period of 50 years and bear interest at 3i per cent and be redeemable from a fund
maintained by the State. An annual tax of 0.0055 mill upon each $1 worth of property
for every million dollars worth of bonds outstanding is provided to pay the interest
and to create a sinking fund with which to redeem Class A bonds. Class B bonds
also bear interest at the rate of 3h per cent and are to be paid in 50 equal annual
installments by the county and townships wherein the proceeds have been applied
to the improvement of highways. The counties and towns which do not desire to
avail themselves of funds derived from the sale of these bonds may pay their share of
the cost of State aid roads in cash. Interest and principal on Class B bonds are paid
by a tax which is levied on a basis of 70 per cent upon the county and 30 per cent
upon the township. The sum of $5,000,000 was appropriated for 1906 out of moneys
realized from the sale of these bonds for the purpose of improving the highways accord-
ing to the State aid laws.
The town law relating to highway commissioners is amended according to an act
approved May 10. 1906, so as to provide that towns which have adopted the money
system and have more than one highway commissioner, may reduce the number <:'f
commissioners to one. if agreed to by a majority of the voters at a special meeting.
The highway law was amended May 10. 1906. so as to provide that supervisors and
the highway commissioner or commissioners of towns receiving State aid shall annu-
ally report to the State engineer, on forms provided for the purpose, all expenditures
for road and bridge purposes, sources of revenue, machinery and tools on hand. The
highway commissioners and supervisors are required to use, for keeping accounts of
moneys collected and expended, such forms as may be prescribed by the State
engineer.
Ohio. — The county commissioners are authorized by law. approved March 3. 1906,
to issue bonds for the purpose of reimbursing boards of road commissioners appointed
by the county commissioners for indebtedness in connection with road improvements
carried on by virtue of any legislative act. Such bonds may be issued for such amounts
and such length of time and for such rate of interest as the county commissioners may
determine. The commissioners are authorized to levy an annual tax on all property
within the precinct or road district out of which to pay interest and principal.
Revised Statutes of Ohio in relation to the National Road were amended March 29.
1906, so as to provide that the county commissioners in any county through which the
National Road (Old Cumberland Road) passes are authorized to require township
trustees to maintain portions of the road which pass through their township.
Rhode Island. — An act passed February' 20, 1906, provides for the issuance of
scrip or certificates of indebtedness in the name of the State to the amount of $600,000.
They are to mature in at least thirty years and bear interest at the rate of not to exceed
3 per cent. Of these bonds. $200,000 are to be issued and sold before January 1. 1907,
and the balance on or before January 1. 1908. in such installments as the State treas-
urer may determine. The amount necessary to pay the annual interest and provide
for a sinking fund to pay off the bonds is to be included in the annual appropriation
bill for State expenses. The funds derived from the sale of these bonds are to be
expended under the direction of the State lx>ard of public roads in the construction
of a system of State roads, the State paying the whole cost, as provided by law.
Yirglxia. — On March 6. 1906, a law was approved which provided for the estah-
lishment of a State highway commission, consisting of a State hiehway commissioner,
appointed by the governor, who shall be a civil engineer and a citizen of the State,
EOAD LAWS EXACTED TX 1906. 523
and the professors of civil engineering of the University of Virginia, the Virginia Mil-
itary Institute, and the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. The highway
commissioner is to receive a salary of $3,000 per annum and traveling expenses, and
an assistant to the commissioner is to receive $1,800 per annum and traveling expenses.
Clerks and other assistants are also provided for. The sum of $16,000 was appropriated
for the use of the commission from July 1. 1906, to February 28, 1908. The commis-
sion is to collect and disseminate useful information on road building, to prepare plans
and specifications for the improvement of roads throughout the State when requested
by local authorities to do so, and to direct the construction of such roads.
The commission is further authorized to furnish as many convicts from the State
prison as may be necessary to build the roads according to the specifications of the
commissioner and under the direction of an engineer appointed by him, provided the
local authorities agree to furnish all necessary material, tools, and teams. The State
highway commissioner is authorized to have general supervision of the construction
and repair of the main traveled roads throughout the State and to recommend to local
authorities and to the governor needed improvements in the public roads. The pro-
fessors of civil engineering at the universities and colleges mentioned are required to
aid the commissioner when not actually engaged in their academic work by inspecting
road work and giving such information as may be desired.
Another act, approved March 6. 1906, provides for the use of State convicts in the
improvement of public roads and in the preparation of road-building material through-
out the State. Such convicts when engaged in this work in any county are placed
under the direction of a civil engineer and road builder appointed for the purpose by
the State highway commissioner. The sum of $25,000 is appropriated annually out
of which to pay the transportation of the convicts to and from the penitentiary and for
guarding, clothing, and feeding them when engaged in this work.
The law relating to the establishment, construction, and permanent improvement
of public roads was amended March 17. 1906. providing among other things that the
county superintendents of roads, road district boards, road subdistrict supervisors, and
the State engineer shall have control, supervision, and management of the public
ruads. The bill also provides that the regular county levy and district levy may be
used in defraying the county's and district's proportion of the expense of constructing
roads for which State aid has been obtained. Rules and plans for making roads in the
counties are subject to the approval of the State highway commissioner.
The boards of supervisors of the various counties, according to an act approved
March 14. 1906. are authorized to enact such local legislation as may be necessary for
the protection of roads and bridges.
According to an act approved March 8. 1906, bonds may be issued by any county for
the purpose of permanently improving roads and bridges, provided the same is agreed
to by a majority of the qualified voters of the county. The maximum amount of such
bond issue shall not exceed 10 per cent of the total taxable valuation, and the bonds
shall be payable in not to exceed thirty-four years. A tax of not to exceed 90 cents on
each $100 worth of property must be levied to create a sinking fund and to pay the
interest thereon. All roads built from such bond issues must be constructed according
to the directions of the State highway commissioner.
Counties in which no special road law is in force may be divided by the board of
supervisors into road subdistricts. The qualified voters of such subdistricts are author-
ized to meet and elect a chairman, secretary, treasurer, and one or more road surveyors
and to assess a subdistrict road tax of not to exceed 50 cents on each $100 of taxable
valuation. These funds are to be expended under the direction of the road surveyor
of the subdistrict and according to such instructions as he may receive from the State
highway commissioners, the county supervisors, or the subdistrict meetings. The
surveyor is also required to furnish such information to these authorities as may be
requested from time to time. The State highway commissioner is required to furnish
plans of split-log and other drags to supervisors of subdistricts and to instruct them in
their proper use.
An act relating to turnpike companies was so amended, March 17, 1906, as to provide
that when the collection of tolls on turnpikes has been suspended for a period of four
months on account of the bad condition of the same, three disinterested supervisors
shall be appointed by the circuit court to make an examination of the road, and if it is
reported by them to be in bad condition the circuit court is authorized to require the
turnpike company to forfeit its franchise and charter.
Chapter 43 of the code of Virginia was so amended on March 19, 1906, as to provide
that taxes levied for road purposes by the boards of county supervisors shall not be
levied on property located in incorporated cities and towns which maintain their own
streets.
524 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PROGRESS IN FARM MANAGEMENT IN 1906.
By W. J. Sfillman. Agriculturist in Charge of Farm Management Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry.
Progress in the development" and extension of agricultural industries and efforts
looking toward the adoption of improved methods of farming have been hampered in
all sections of the United States during the past year by a lack of farm labor. The
amazing development of transportation and manufacturing industries has absorbed
the available labor, and the farmer has been compelled to operate with an insufficient
supply. Especially in Xew England and in the Southern States the labor is drifting
toward the cities. The State of South Carolina has been making efforts to remedy this
difficulty by securing immigration. The State of Maryland is taking steps in the same
direction. Modification of our immigration laws has been suggested as a means of
ameliorating this condition. It is believed that the present interest in agricultural
education will lead to the development of schools of a type that will open the door of
opportunity on the farm, and thus hold a larger proportion of the rural population, to
some extent remedying the difficulty.
Because of insufficient labor many farmers have been compelled to abandon types of
farming which require much labor and to seed much of their land to grass, thus
reducing the amount of labor needed, but at the same time reducing the income from
the land.
One of the most notable movements in connection with progress in farm management
during the past year has been the tendency toward diversified farming in the cotton
belt. The primary factor in this movement is the injury done to the cotton crop by the
boll weevil. Diversified farming in that section is taking the direction of an increase
in trucking and fruit growing, dairying, hay production, the raising of hogs, and to
some extent the production of beef. The development of trucking and fruit interests
has been greatly hampered because of difficulties connected with the marketing of
perishable farm products. On account of the absence of statistics relating to acreages
of such crops the farmer has no idea of the acreage of any particular crop it is safe for
him to plant. Because of lack of organization for marketing such products, he does not
know where to send his material when it is ready for market. The further fact that
the producer has no adequate protection against unfair treatment from consignees
has discouraged many farmers from engaging in trucking. In some sections icing
charges and high freight rates leave no profit to the producer. If these difficulties
could be remedied there would undoubtedly be an enormous increase in truck farming
throughout the South.
The present effort to eradicate the cattle tick in the South causes renewed interest in
all types of cattle fanning. If the effort is successful, it will undoubtedly result in a
large extension of cattle raising just at a time when range cattle in the West are decreas-
ing rapidly, because of the occupation of range land by settlers on the one hand and
the extension of sheep grazing on the other. The elimination of the cattle tick would
also doubtless cause a large increase in the dairy industry in the South.
The increased price of wool for the past few years has caused renewed interest in
sheep raising in all sections of the country, and the number of sheep on American
farms is increasing.
There are still some sections of the country which have not yet been farmed suffi-
ciently long to deplete the original fertility of the soils, and in these sections single-crop
systems of farming, especially grain farming, prevail very generally. In at least one
notable instance this type of farming has been continued too long and has resulted in
marked deterioration of the soil. Just at the present time the owners of the vast
wheat fields in the Sacramento Valley are seriously considering a change in their
system of farming with a view to building up the fertility of the soil. In the Plains
region the change to a more diversified system of farming has made more progress,
and where formerly corn and wheat were practically the only crops, alfalfa, sorghum,
Kafir corn, and other forage crops are becoming more important, and the amount of
live stock on the farms is increasing. In the Dakotas. where grain farming has been
the rule, much interest is manifested in dairying, and that industry is beginning to
show very satisfactory development in that section.
The recent demonstration of a cheap and effective method of eradicating Johnson
grass will doubtless render it possible for that valuable hay grass to be utilized in crop
rotations in the South somewhat as timothy is now utilized in the North. Taken in
connection with the eradication of the cattle tick, which is now in progress, this fact
can not fail to have an important influence on the development of live-stock farming
in the cotton belt.
PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906.
525
Alfalfa continues to occupy an important place among those crops which are increas-
ing in area on farms in the eastern half of the United States. Its successful culture is
having an important influence in modifying cropping systems and types of farming,
and where it has become established it has considerably increased the income from the
land.
PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906.
By Quincy R. Craft, Forest Service.
The fuller utilization of forest products which characterized the operations of lum-
bermen in 1906 marked the greatest gain of the year in private forestry. In the
work of the National Government and the States remarkable advance was made in
the creation, protection, and use of public forests. Eminent success in systematic
effort to prevent damage by fire was attained by private owners, the States, and the
Federal Service.
That forest preservation has come to be regarded as a matter of deep concern to every
citizen is manifest. News of improved methods and their results is published widely
by the press, and commented on in wise and vigorous editorials. The reprinting of
forest reports entire by the trade journals is now common. In 16 States 30 forest asso-
ciations are engaged in active propaganda, and the General Federation of Women's
Clubs is advancing forestry locally and giving it prominence at State and National
meetings.
Private forestry has grown until not only are professional foresters employed regu-
larly by a number of the larger firms, but firms of consulting and contracting foresters
supervise cutting operations and guarantee to the owners renewal of the trees desired
in the forest. Large users of forest products tend more and more to apply sound
methods to the raising of wood crops and to their careful utilization.
BUSINESS FORESTRY IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS.
Within three decades after the first Federal recognition of forestry, and sixteen years
from the date when the first "timberland reserve" was created, there have been estab-
lished (May 1, 1907), in the interest of the whole people, 150 million acres of National
Forests, effectively protected against fire and trespass, and thrown open on advan-
tageous terms to the use of the public. Forests have so large a place in the national
life that in some measure every citizen shares the benefits which attend successful
effort to preserve, restore, or establish them. Yet it will always be the Western indus-
tries which will most profit from the presence of the existing National Forests, upon
whose resources — mainly wood, water, and range — they are largely dependent. The
Government always favors settlers and home builders and prior users, both by grant-
ing free use of timber and by encouraging small sales. The business of the National
Forests must increase largely; for so vast are the resources of timber and minerals, and
the opportunities for various business enterprises and for the development of power
and irrigation, that the utilization of the Forests can be said to have only fairly begun.
Throughout the year marked progress has been made in securing the most prompt,
simple, and precise business methods, and in bringing the forest officers in the field
and, through them, the public into closer touch with the aims of the Government in
its forest policy. On January 1, 1906, the area of the National Forests was 97,773,617
acres, and on December 31, 1906, 127,154,371 acres; but the receipts increased in
greater proportion— from $273,660 in 1905 to $1,004,185 in 1906. In addition, 15,000
permittees (near-by settlers and ranchmen) were granted timber free of charge to the
value of $75,000. The progress of National Forest administration in business matters
is indicated by the following table-.
The results of business forestry .
Fiscal year (July 1 to
June 30).
Area of Na-
tional
Forests,
June 30, 1906.
Total gross
revenue.
Total ex-
penditure.
Deficit.
Expend-
iture per
acre.
Deficit
per acre.
1901-2
A ares.
59,966,090
62, 962, 849
63,027,884
85,693,422
100, 999, 138
$25, 431. 87
45, 838. 08
58, 436. 19
73,276.15
767, 219. 00
$325, 000. 00
300, 013. 50
379, 150. 40
508, 886. 00
979,519.00
$299, 568. 13
254, 175. 42
320, 714. 21
435, 609. 85
212, 300. 00
$0. 00.34
.0048
.0060
.0059
.0091
$0. 0050
1902-3
.0040
1903-4
0051
1904-5
.0050
1905-6
.0020
526 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In disposing of timber on the National Forests, even* effort has been made to meet
the local conditions in each Forest and in the different parts of each Forest where the
character of the timber and the market require special consideration. This has been
done not only by varying the size of the trees which are cut under the sales in accord-
ance with the kind of timber and the situation, but also by supplying the needs of the
people in each vicinity with the particular kind of timber required by them in their
industries.
The institution of a charge for grazing in the Forests, with the adoption of regula-
tions to prevent damage to the range, and with satisfactory allotments of territory,
both between the cattle owners and sheep owners and between individual owr.
the same kind of stock, were important accomplishments of the year.
Planting operations are at present centered in S nurseries within or near a* many
different forests. There are now on hand a total of 6.000.000 seedlings, and 750 .
will be planted in the spring of 1907. Four of the nurseries have been established long
enough to grow seedlings of size for planting. Three, those at Fort Stanton and near
Las Vegas. X. Mex.. and near Pocatello. Idaho, have recently been established. In
addition to these many small nurseries have been placed at rangers" headquarters.
some of which will be enlarged into planting stations.
Better facilities for communication, through public and private telephone lines now
being constructed and the improvemen: :he greatest assistance in
the conduct of forest business, and especially in the control of tires. The use of the
forests by the public will also be stimulated by the marking of roads and trails, g
the direction and distance to the nearest I irn, ranch, or camping ph.
The record of 1906 has continued the business success of the Government policy, and
thus given encouragement to the development of the technical sidr When.
through studies now under way. a better knowledge of the growth and habits of our
western trees is secured and the forests have been brought, through the utilization of
ground at present unoccupied, to greatly increased product iveness. still larger benefits
may be expected.
MOVEMENT WESTWARD AXP SOUTHWARD OF THE LUMBER IXPI "-
Where lumbering methods remove only mature trees or an annual cut equal to the
aggregate growth of the forest tributary to the mill, forest products, like field crops.
must increase as operations extend. The din of the lumber camp and the mill . and the
whistle of the locomotive and steamboat hurrying their product to market, will then
announce not the passing of the forest but its pre n through use. When, on the
other hand, lands are denuded and left waste, deeper penetration into the woods with
the enlarged capacity which comes of skill and invention can only hasten the exhaus-
tion of supply.
Too much wasteful exploitation has made heavy inroads in the forest which once
lied almost unbroken from the Atlantic to the prairies. In obedience to the law
of supply and demand, lumber prices have gradually advanced in the past twenty
years, in some a much as 10S per cent. Yet these advances have not
kept pace with those of stumpage values, and do not. therefore, fully reveal the
changed condition in the timber supply. These changes show conclusively that it is
high time for the introduction of conservativ .ethods in the management of
"ands everywhere. There are now a million acres of private woodland on which
f orestry is being applied under plan* prepared during the past four years by the F
Service: but this is only a beginning. The scope of this management must be
increased many fold.
To supplement and complete the statistics of forest products there is great need for
accurate knowledge of the standing timber in the country and its stumpage value. S
and species are now used which formerly were left as unmerchantable, so that all former
estimates are out of date. Any future estimate of timber should leave out of consid-
eration the present merchantable value of timber, and should aim to show the actual
stand of timber regardles- ecies. or quality. The inadequacy of former esti-
mates is shown by a single instance in which the coniferous cut since 1S80 has
exceeded by 80 billion feet the total estimated stumpage of those woods at that time.
And this is not only because of the scarcity of better grades and larger sizes, but also
because of the improvement ...rgely brought about through the
application of forestry.
PRIVATE FOREST LAXDS THE MATS" SOURCE OF SUPPLY.
The Nation can and should maintain forests in isolated and mountainous regions
where their principal value is for the protection of watersheds, the sources
and the many industries dependent upon an equable supply of water and a sufficient
- But on private lands the practice of forestry can be expected only where it
PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906.
527
92.00
insures profit in perpetuating a source of timber supply. . Since four-fifths of the for-
ests of the country, and. in general, those most productive and accessible, are in the
hands of private own-
ers, the future timber 1894 1895 1896 IS97 1898 I&99 I900 1901 1902. 1905 1904 1905 1906
supply rests chiefly
with them. Timber-
land owners are realiz-
ing this fact. In the
eastern part of the
country forests under
management are now
so numerous that some
one of them can be
visited for inspection
by a few hours of rail-
way travel. On the
Pacific coast the neces-
sity of protection from
fire is especially felt;
and a lumber company
in northern California
is successfully carry-
ing out a plan for fire
protection on a tract
of 70.000 acres and at
a nominal cost.
At no previous time
have the prospects for
success in private for-
estry been so good.
Depleted supply en-
courages conservative
use, and increased
knowledge of the less
familiar forest trees,
of improved methods
of management, of sea-
soning and kiln-drying
methods, and of mar-
kets, enables the lum-
berman or landowner
to lay his plans with a
confidence hitherto
impossible.
More and more is
the entire tree being
utilized, by cutting
the trunk nearer the
ground and higher into
the crown ; by the use
of modern equipment
which secures the min-
imum of waste at the
mill; and, in the hard-
wood regions, by the
construction of char-
coal blast furnaces and
chemical plants to uti-
lize the bark, limbs,
edgings, slabs, and
even the sawdust in
the manufacture of
charcoal, wood alco-
hol , and acetate of lime.
90
85
80
75
70
65
(0 55
<
J
J 50
O
0 47
'45
hi
O
a.
a. 40
16. 50
15
11.50
IO
,--"
J
/
/
/
/
/
f
WH
TE
PINE
F
OUGI
1 UF
per:
WHO
LE5A
l_E P
RICE
BU
^FAL
-O, r-
.Y.
/
/
/
/
{
Y
ELLC
Wv P
OPL/
kP,
I'Xf
V AN
D u
>. 12'
-16'
IST/
AMD
2D =
FO.
3. NE
*W >
'ORK
ren-
TONS
rvooi
> /
ts
r an
D 2D.
t /
/IX
S'Ar
UDUP
'C-I6
/F.a
J. NE
W Y
DRK/
sou-
■HER
M YE1
.LOW
PINE
"A Fl
tAT C
•RAir
) FLO
DRIN
;/
s.
DE
JVEI
(ED PRICE
v
y
22^
<VND
23c
RAT
E
s
/
U^^,_
'HE
1LO<
:k
PENr
tSYL>
/ANI/
*, ST
>CK
WH
>LES
M.E
NEVV
YOF
K Pf
SICE
53.50
44.00
29.50
22.25
1891 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 I904 1905 1906
-Rise in prices per thousand feet of different kinds of lumber,
1894-1906.
MORE EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF FOREST FIRES.
The first essential at all times to successful forest management is protection from
fire. There are reasons for believing that decided gains have been made toward solving
528 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
this perplexing problem. Reports from State fire wardens, from National Forest
supervisors, and from those engaged in systematic effort to prevent fires from gaining
headway on private lands, give renewed confidence as to the effectiveness of the
measures employed. In Michigan the loss during the year was estimated at $460,000,
and in Idaho, Washington, and Oregon it was also heavy; but throughout the country
in general, loss from this cause, of timber standing and in the mill, has been com-
paratively light. In the National Forests the area burned over was 115,416 acres, or
0.12 of 1 per cent of the 97,000.000 acres from which reports were received. Thus,
even as compared with the excellent record of 1905, when the area burned over was
0.16 of 1 per cent, a gain in efficiency of one-fourth was made.
RAILROADS AND MINE OWNERS APPLY FORESTRY.
For four years railroads have been cooperating with the Government in investigating
the present tie supply, the possibilities of planting trees for ties, and methods for
prolonging the life of ties through mechanical devices to lessen wear and through
preservative treatment. Studies in seasoning and preservation have enabled railroads
in the Northwest to use lodgepole pine as tie timber, and have stimulated the building
of treating plant? by railroads in the Mississippi Valley. Other roads, through the
advice of the Forest Service, have begun planting on a large scale. One of these, the
Pennsylvania, is the first to appoint a forester to supervise the care and planting of
the company's forest lands. Already 500,000 trees have been planted ; and 681 acre? i >f
land near Altoona, Pa., wdl be stocked with chestnut and white oak in the next two
years. The Santa Fe Railway has recently purchased 8,330 acres near San Diego. Gal . ,
on which to grow timber for its own use. A tract of 2.600 acres will be planted to
eucalypts. The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company will plant 378 acres in Carbon
and Schuylkill counties. Pa., with chestnut. European larch, and Scotch pine. The
Delaware and Hudson Company was led by the results of a cooperative study with
the Forest Sen-ice to appoint a forester to look after the extensive woodlands of the
company and attend to the planting work.
The Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company has been investigating how
mine props may be made to last longer through impregnating with creosote by the
"open-tank" treatment. Mine props cost this company alone nearly a million dollars
a month. The results of this treatment are so satisfactory that plans have been made
for the erection of a plant, with a capacity of about 800 cubic feet a day, with which to
continue the treatment on a commercial scale. This work has shown the economy of
the open-tank treatment and encouraged its wider use.
SOME PROJECTS OF THE FOREST SERVICE.
A planting plan was recently prepared for a tract of 800 acres on an island in the
Cimarron River in Oklahoma. The owner desires a crop of posts and poles of quick-
growing and durable wood, and for this purpose in that region black locust was recom-
mended. It is designed that the tract shall eventually form a pleasure resort for the
city of Enid, from which it is 20 miles distant.
Unusual interest in forest methods has recently been manifested by companies
engaged in redwood lumbering in California. A plan prepared for a tract of 15,000 acres,
which provides for planting eucalypts on cut-over redwood lands, has been put into
execution. The eucalypts, besides growing one or more crops while the redwood is
maturing and thus hastening the returns on the investment, will in the competition
for growing space assist the redwood to form long, branchless trunks. Where the
tempering influence of the coast fogs is felt, conditions are ideal for the growing of
eucalypts suitable for lumber, and, because of the lack of other hardwood timber, a
good market is promised. The indications are that similar plans will be adopted by
other companies.
An improved system of map files has been introduced with a central equipment,
known as the Forest Atlas. By this means maps containing all available data, topo-
graphic, political, industrial, and geological, are filed flat in compact form in dust-proof
and fireproof cases, indexed for ready reference. Forest and grazing conditions are
noted in the fullest detail. At the headquarters of every forest supervisor will be filed
atlas sheets relating to the Forests under his administration.
During the year the Forest Service has made examination of 54 timber tracts, located
in 25 different States, aggregating 2,288,132 aeres; and of 70 woodlots with a total of
6.255 acres.
Through an investigation of the piling used in wharf construction, data have been
secured showing the enormous loss resulting from marine borer attacks and the ineffi-
ciency of present protective measures and the possibility of cheapening and improving
them.
PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 529
Timber tests for several months have been chiefly concerned in determining the
strength and other physical properties of Douglas fir, western hemlock, loblolly pine,
Norway pine, and tamarack, in such forms as car sills, bridge stringers, and other
structural timbers. Tests of eucalypts indicate that they can be used as substitutes
for hickory and oak for many purposes.
In cooperation with the Northern Pacific Railway, experimental sections of track
are being laid to study the influence of different methods of handling timbers. Tests
are to be made of the rate of seasoning of timbers cut during different months, to deter-
mine the relation between the season of cutting and rate of absorption of preservatives,
and to determine the comparative durability of seasoned, treated, and green timbers
in use in the track. The species used are Douglas fir, western tamarack, western hem-
lock, and giant arborvita?.
Studies of the requirements and adaptability of wood for specific uses promise a
saving in the substitution of new woods. Further economy has been found possible
in the use of sound dead and down timber on the National Forests. The lumbermen
and the Forest Sendee have been brought into closer touch through cooperation in
compiling a report seeking to assist in the standardization of grading rules and detailed
classified statistics of forest products. Experiments in turpentining have shown that
the economy effected by the cup and gutter system may be increased by reducing the
wound made in chipping. Trees shallowly chipped according to the new method
produce at least as much resin and of better quality for a much longer period with
remarkable saving as a result.
FORESTRY IX THE STATES.
Forest work carried on by the States made greater advance during 1906 than in any
previous year. More than 20 States now have forest officers, and 10 have State forest
reservations (fig. 22). In "Wisconsin the State forests, comprising 254.072 acres, are
scattered through 17 counties, situated north of a line from St. Paul to Green Bay.
Isolated lands are being sold and lands purchased contiguous to the main body on the
headwaters of the "Wisconsin. Within the boundary of the Catskill Preserve* in Xew
York there are 92,708 acres of State lands and 483.412 acres privately owned: the total
area of the Adirondack Preserve is 3,313,564 acres, of which the State now owns 1 .347,280
acres. The Hawaiian reserves include an area of 300.000 acres, of which the Territory
owns nearly half, but all is managed under plane prepared by the Superintendent of
Forestry.
In 5 States — Connecticut. Xew Jersey, Pennsylvania. Michigan, and "Wisconsin—
the removal of mature timber from State forest lands is now permitted, a provision
which is a fundamental principle of forestry.
In Nebraska, Iowa. Maine, and Mississippi additional data concerning State forest
conditions have been secured through studies conducted by the professor of forestry
at the State college or university. It is the duty of the State forester in Maryland
and Massachusetts to give a course of lectures each year at the State agricultural college,
and in Wisconsin at the State university.
The University of Texas is still engaged, with the Forest Service, upon a study of the
State's forest resources: in a similar cooperative study, the Missouri State Experiment
Station has just completed an investigation of the timber resources of the Ozark
region; the Kentucky legislature last March provided for a commissioner of forestry,
and appropriated 82,000 to be expended in a cooperative study of the State's forests.
A year and a half have enabled the State forester of California to organize fire patrol
in 10 counties, as well as to interest a large number of associations and clubs in fire pro-
tection and to prepare a large planting plan for a eucalyptus plantation on cut-over
redwood land at F< >rt Bragg. Fire wardens to the number of 367 have been appointed,
and 30 miles of fire lines, from 30 to 60 feet wide, have been cleared, encircling the
Redwood Park.
The chief progress during the year in Connecticut was the organization under the
new law of a fire-warden service of 300 members. This service was instrumental in
extinguishing 64 fires at an average cost of $7.50 and in largely reducing the loss
through forest fires. The feeling of increased security from fire resulted in more forest
planting in Connecticut than was ever done before in a single year. Under the direc-
tion of the State forester, 150.000 trees were planted by the State and private owners.
The Delaware State Experiment Station, in cooperation with the Forest Service, is
making a study of forest conditions on which to base recommendations for a State forest
policy and plans of management for different stands of timber and different classes of
land.
3 A1906 34
530
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
. - - - State forest reservations.
Area and location of State Forest rese-
Name and J -
Total
Connecticut.
Hawaii
Middlesex Countv
2. Union Tract. Tolland County
Indiana
Maryland . .
Mich..
Minnesota.
Kew Jersey
York.
Pennsylvania.
1. Kaipanau, Oahu
_'. Hamafau Paii. Hawaii
3. Hi!o, Hawaii
4. Koolan Maui, Maui
5. Halelea. Kauai
C. Kealia. Kauai
7. Ewa, Oahu
6. Honuaula. Hawaii
0. Kau, Hawaii
10. Waianae-kai, Oahu
11. Lualualei, Oahu
12. Hana, Maui
te reservation. Clark County
* Countv ."
2. State reserve, Baltimore County
State reserve. Roscommon and Crawford counties
1. Burntside I ranty
2. Pillsbury Tract, Cass County "
State Park, Clearwater, Becker, and Hubbard
counties
s Landing Tract, Atlantic County.
2. Bass River Tract, Burlington County.
3. Blairstown Tract, Warren Count- ....
Acres.
1,060
300
913
16. 133
12.771
14,300
10.990
1 '
" •
665
35,960
3,150
3,743
ISA
3,500
40
20.000
1,000
21 . 80S
-
1.550
551
Wiaoi Min.
1. Adirondack Preserve. Clinton. Essex, Franklin. Fulton,
Hamilton. Herkimer. J. la, St. Lawrence,
Saratoga. Warren, and Washington counties 1.34", 230
2. Cal -, Delaware, Greene, Sullivan, and Ulster
counties . " ■
State reserves, Adams,Bedford,Cameron,Center,Clearfield.
Clinton, Cumberland, Dauphin, Llk, Franklin, Fulton.
Huntingdon, Juniata, Lackawanna, Lycoming. Mifflin.
Monroe, Pik<-, Potter nion, and V.
ming counties "
Fore>- Ashland, Bayfield, Burnett, Dout.'
Florence. Forest. Gates. Iron. Langlade, Lincoln. v
nette. Oneida, Polk, Price, ...is, and Wash-
burn counties
A errs.
1,360
117,532
2,000
3,548
:9,ooo
42,800
2.474
1,439,988
830,000
I
In the Territory of Hawaii a - : y supplies plant mate-rial free - and
other public purposes and at a low price for private use. District foresters and district
Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.
Plate XLIII
Fig. 1. — Transplant Beds of Nursery at Saranac Inn, N. Y. Norway Spruce, 3 Years Old,
Foreground; Scotch Pine to the Left.
Fig. 2. — Scotch and White Pine, 5 Years Old, in the Lake Clear Plantation.
Successful Example of Planting Denuded State Land.
PE OGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 531
fire wardens have been appointed, who report regularly to the superintendent of
forestry.
The* Indiana forest commission has been engaged on a study of the natural and
planted forests of the State. The results, which have been published and distributed,
should greatly stimulate the practice of forestry. Trees have already been planted
on 300 acres of the State reservation, and 57,000 more trees are to be transplanted from
the State nursery this spring.
The Kansas commissioner of forestry is gathering statistics of forest planting through
annual reports from those to whom stock lias been furnished.
The commissioner of forestry of Louisiana, in the enforcement of the forest law passed
in 1904, gives first attention to the suppression of fires.
The class Ln forestry in the University of Maine made a study of forest conditions in
Indian Township, Washington County, a tract of 24,072 acres of State land, securing
data lor a map and an estimate of the stand of timber. Facts concerning the growth
of largi '-tooth and Trembling aspen and gray birch were also secured. A study of wood-
lot management, now in progress, aims to learn the best methods of marking trees
and the cost of cutting and yarding logs and of piling and burning the brush.
On July 1 a forester was appointed by the newly created Maryland board of for-
estrv. A portion of the autumn was spent in making a reconnaissance of the forest
lands of the State.
Forest work in Massachusetts is carried on along three general lines — education,
the installation of typical plans of management, and the gathering of technical data.
Effort is being made to assist landowners in transforming large areas now practically
idle on account of mismanagement into profitable woodlots. Fifty-five students
took the course in forestry at the agricultural college last year.
Marked progress was made in Zdichigan in improvements, surveys, fire lines, and
planting on the State forest reserve. Forty acres were seeded to western yellow pine
last spring and 200,000 conifers were planted. Two and a half million seedlings are
now on hand in the nursery.
Through the splendid efforts of a volunteer patrol the excellent fire law of Minne-
sota was made effective in keeping forest fires well under control. The damage for
the year is placed by the State iire warden at §10,000.
Two experimental forest nurseries and a study of actual profits in the eastern part
of the State will increase the knowledge of the possibilities in forestry in Nebraska,
the leading tree-planting State.
New Hampshire occupies a unique position in that besides the State forestry com-
mission, reorganized and active, it has a forest association, which maintains a State
forester.
A State fire warden and 70 township wardens have been appointed in New Jersey
under the law which became effective July 1, 1906. The fall season was remarkably
exempt from serious fires. At the beginning of the year 1907 a State forester was
appointed, who will give assistance to private landowners, give courses of instruction
to teachers and farmers, and cooperate with the State fire warden and with the Forest
Park Reservation Commission.
Under the law of 1905 the superintendent of forests of New York was able to patrol
the State preserves efficiently during the dry season at small expense. To supply
stock for planting in the preserves the State maintains 3 large nurseries for conifers
in Franklin County and 1 for hardwoods in Ulster County, in the Catskills. The
three Adirondack nurseries combined have a capacity of a million 3-year-old trans-
plants per annum. One of these, the Saranac Inn Nursery (PI. XLIII, fig. 1), was
established by the State in 1903 and the others, Axton ajtd Wawbeek, were first
established by the Cornell College of Forestry and were placed in charge of the State
forest commission in the spring of 1906. Five plantations, embracing an area of 1.500
acres, have been planted. (PI. XLIII, fig. 2.) In 1905 and 1906, 50 acres of pines
and spruces were planted by the seed-spot method, with encouraging results. Broad-
cast sowing last March of white pine, red spruce, and balsam was not satisfactory.
An interesting experiment is being conducted with 5 species of Siberian conifers —
pines, fir. and larch — to determine their fitness for planting in the North Woods.
In Ohio the department of forestry at the State Agricultural Experiment Station
was engaged in cooperative work in planting with the farmers of the State. Planta-
tions aggregating 500 acres were thus established.
The State nurseries of Pennsylvania were doubled in size in 1906 and now compri.-e
6 acres at Mont Alto, the location of the State forestry academy, and 2 acres in Hunt-
ingdon County. Last spring 160.000 white pine seedlings were set out, and 400 pounds
of white pine seed is to be planted this spring. The last legislature voted to expend
§400,000 annually for five years in purchasing additional State forest lands.
In Vermont planting of waste lands is being encouraged by the commissioner of
forestry, who estimates that there are 4,000,000 acres of land now unproductive, but
532 YEARBOOK OE THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
suited to the growing of timber. These, if rightly handled, he asserts, would give an
annual income of from $1 to $2 per acre. From the State nursery at Burlington plant
material will be supplied at cost. Through cooperation with the New York forest
commission the assistance of a trained forester is secured.
The appropriation of §25,000 by the Washington State legislature was exhausted at
the beginning of the forest-fire season of 1906. The action of the lumbermen of the
State in coming promptly to the rescue of the State fire warden with individual sub-
scriptions of funds ample to defray the expenses of patrol until the next session of the
State legislature is one of the encouraging evidences of a practical belief in forest
protection.
Over 300 fire wardens have been appointed in "Wisconsin, whose services were
secured at a cost for the season of $1,530. They report 160 fires, which burned ever
76.125 acres. Sixty per cent of the fires were cans <1 by settlers in clearing and burn-
ing for pasture. With lessened danger that their investments will be swept away by
fire, lumbermen have begun to limit the diameter to which they cut, and to buy young
growth and protect it from fire.
Since Rhode Island, during the past year, passed a forest law and appointed a for-
ester, all of the New England States — indeed, all but three of the original thirteen —
with an area equal to that of the National Forests in the Western States, are equipped
with State officers charged with the welfare of their forest interests. Westward this
chain extends, including Ohio and Indiana, and the three Lake States which for
twenty years have furnished one-third of the lumber produced in the country.
FOREST LEGISLATION.
Only a few of the State legislative assemblies were in sessinn during the winter of
1905-6, and in consequence there was but little additional legislation enacted. The
laws passed are briefly summarized as follows:
United States. — Agricultural settlement was permitted in restricted portion of
Yellowstone Reserve (34 Stat., 62). Appropriations for agricultural experiment sta-
tions in the States and Territories were increased to §30,000 each, the added income
to be used at discretion in forest experiments (34 Stat., 63). A grant was made to
Edison Electric Company of easement to occupy land in San Bernardino, Sierra, and
San Gabriel National Forests for power plants (34 Stat., 163). Cutting, chipping, and
boxing trees on public lands was prohibited (34 Stat., 208). Appropriation or destruc-
tion of American antiquities was prohibited, except under certain conditions (34
Stat., 225). The Secretary of Agriculture was empowered to list lands within National
Forests as agricultural for entry under homestead laws (34 Stat., 233). Recession
by California of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Tree Grove was accepted (34
Stat., 831). Lands were granted to Wisconsin for forest reserves (34 Stat., 517). The
President was empowered to set aside game preserves in Grand Canyon (34 Stat.,
607).
Iowa. — Taxes on "private reserves," under certain conditions, were fixed at $1
per acre, fruit-tree reserves included. Secretary of the State horticultural society
was designated to be State forester, and authorized to have deputies (Ch. 52, addi-
tional to code, Ch. 1, tit. 7).
Kentucky. — The State board of agriculture, forestry, and immigration was em-
powered to act as forestry commission. This board is permitted to expend $2,000
to further forest interests, this money to be spent in cooperation with the Federal Gov-
ernment, if the latter provides a like sum (Ch. 90, repealing S. 37 and 38, Ch. 4,
Ky. Stat.).
Maryland. — The State board of forestry was created; the appointment of a forester
was provided for; this official was authorized to have general protective power over
parks and forest reserves, to cooperate with corporations and individuals, and to
appoint fire wardens, the latter to force service from inhabitants, when necessary, to
fight fire. An appropriation was made of §3,500 annually for 1907 and 1908, and pen-
alties are to be paid to the forest-reserve fund. Counties are empowered to spend
money in forest protection and to recover from land owners for expenses in fire fight-
ing. Fire warnings are to be posted; criminal and civil liability was provided for
unlawful fire building; offenders are also to be liable to the State and county for fire-
fighting expenses; locomotives not burning oil are to be equipped with fire-prevent-
ing appliances, under penalty (Ch. 294).
New Jersey. — State board of forestry was authorized to cooperate with munici-
palities, corporations, and individuals for control of forest land, for establishment of
GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 533
an arboretum, and for experiments in forest culture (Ch. 25). The commissioners
are to fix price and contract for the purchase of forest reserve land. Municipalities
are empowered to use their land for forest purposes, to sell timber, to contract with
State board of forest park commissioners for control and management of land, lands
so used being declared devoted to public use (Ch. 146). The State fire warden is to
be appointed by the State board, and the fire warden system was established. Com-
pulsory service of male inhabitants and property, with remuneration, was authorized.
Provision was made for. and allotment was made of, fire-fighting expenses; fire warn-
ings are to be posted; large fires are to be reported to the State warden; the season
for brush burning was limited; fires must be watched; back firing is allowed under
certain conditions. Process, appeal, and execution in fire cases were provided.
Money was appropriated (Ch. 39, acts 1902) to be used solely for fire fighting (Ch. 123,
repealing or amending a number of former acts).
New York. — State forester is authorized to appoint a secretary. Salaries of sub-
ordinate officers are fixed (Ch. 206, amending S. 154, 172, and 224a, Ch. 20, laws 1900).
Commissioners are empowered to appoint a chief fire warden and five inspectors (Ch.
519, amending S. 224a, Ch. 20, laws 1900).
Ohio. — A department of forestry at the agricultural experiment station was created,
to cooperate with the Federal Government. The State forestry bureau connected
with the State University was abolished (P. 54).
Rhode Island. — Office of State forester was created forester to publish informa-
tion .and to recommend legislation (Ch. 32).
GAME PROTECTION IN 1906.
By T. S. Palmer, Assistant, Biological Survey.
The record of game protection in 1906 is noteworthy in several respects. New leg-
islation, while small in volume as compared with that of 1905, included several impor-
tant measures. The question of Federal control of the protection of migratory game
birds again attracted widespread attention and was the subject of much discussion.
More than the average number of cases based on game laws were decided by courts of
last resort. In the establishment of game preserves under private, State, and Federal
auspices notable progress was made. The destruction of quail by the severity of the
two preceding winters resulted iu large shipments of these birds from Alabama and
the Southwest in the effort to restock some of the Northern and Eastern Stat< s.
Experiments were continued also in introducing new game birds, and English pheas-
ant eggs and gray partridges were imported from Europe in unusually large numbers.
LEGISLATION.
Game legislation in 1906 was remarkable for the unusual number of bills under con-
sideration by Congress and the small number of changes in State laws. The Federal
laws enacted comprised acts authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to lease 3,500
acres of land in South Dakota as a buffalo preserve, prohibiting trapping or trespass
on bird refuges, establishing a game refuge on the Grand Canyon National Forest in
Arizona, and prohibiting hunting in the greater part of the District of Columbia. An
appropriation of $15,000 was made for the erection of a fence for a buffalo inclosurc
on the Wichita Game Preserve in Oklahoma.
Only 15 States and 8 provinces held regular legislative sessions during the year,
and the number of new laws enacted was about 60, including 7 in Canada, while the
total number of bills introduced in the United States and Canada exceeded 150. The
most important measures adopted were entire new game laws in Mississippi, laws pro-
tecting nongame birds in Iowa, and radical amendments to the sale laws in Massachu-
setts. The failure of all general game bills and the passage of 18 local measures in
Maryland showed that the system of county laws is still preferred, but the local acts
passed tended in general toward greater uniformity in seasons. The only changes in
hunting license fees were the establishment of a $25 nonresident license in South
Carolina and a $20 nonresident license in Mississippi, both good only in the county of
issue. In Vermont the nonresident license was extended to include birds, and in
Maryland minor changes were made in the license laws of the counties bordering the
Patuxent River and of Somerset County. Important sale restrictions were adopted
in Mississippi and Massachusetts. In the former State the sale of all protected game
was prohibited and in Massachusetts sale of imported quail Avas prohibited except in
November and December, sale of imported ducks except during the open season, and
534 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
the sale at any time of prairie chicken? and sharp-tailed grouse. For the first time in
Mississippi a game-warden service was installed by providing lor the appointment of
county wardens to look after the enforcement of game laws in place of sheriffs and
local peace officers.
Among the numerous bills which failed to pass were some measures of special inter-
est. Ten of the 11 bills introduced in Kentucky failed to receive favorable considera-
tion, and in Massachusetts only 10 of the 30 bills introduced became laws. Bills to
prohibit the use of automatic shotguns in hunting game in the District of Columbia,
Georgia. Massachusetts. Mississippi. Xew Jersey. Xew York. Ohio. Rhode Island,
and Virginia were introduced, but none received favorable action. The general game
bill in Maryland contained a provision making it lawful to kill cats found searching
for birds. Three special cat bills were introduced also in Massachusetts. One of
these declared a cat to be property if it wears a collar with the name and residence cf
the owner, another provided a penalty for abandoning cats, and a third made it an
offense to harbor cats known to kill game or wild birds. Among the 10 bills which
failed in Virginia were two to create the office of State game commissioner and others
providing for a $100 nonresident license and a $1 resident license.
DECISIONS OF THE COURTS.
The decisions rendered by courts of last resort in cases affecting game were more
numerous than in 1905. and although none of the questions decided were especiaily
novel. several, affecting sale, duties of common carriers, and rights of hunting and
fishing clubs, were of considerable interest. Probably the most important decision of
the year was that rendered in February by the court of appeals of Xew York (People
ex rel. Silz v. Hesterberg. 76 X. E.. 1032) involving the sale during the close a
. tain game birds imported from Europe. In this case the contention of the State,
first maintained in 1S75. that imported birds were subject to the restrictions of the
local laws to the same extent as birds captured in the State was upheld. The decision
is important also in being the first construction of a higher court of section 5 of the Lai- ey
Ac: relative to imported game. In line with the same decision was one rendered by
the supreme court of New Y'ork in October in the case of People v. '\Yaklorf-Asu.ria
Hotel Co. ("Forest and Stream." LXYII. p. 6S7l In Arkansas the supreme court
of the State held (Wells-Fargo Express Co. v. State. 96 S. Y\~ ., 189) that the fact that an
express company did not know the contents of a package containing game was no
defense in a prosecution for transporting game out of the State, particularly as com-
mon carriers were authorized by the law of that State to open and examine any pack-
age suspected to contain game. An important decision confirming the rights of the
Big Lake Shooting Club, at Big Lake. Arkansas, was rendered by the United States
circuit court of appeals (Harrison v. Fite. 148 Fed., 781). This club, controlling a
preserve of some 25,000 acres in Mississippi County. Ark., obtained from the United
States circuit court an injunction, which was sustained by the circuit court of appeals,
preventing one Harrison and 36 others from shooting on the club's preserve In Colo-
rado, a decision in a suit by the State for the possession of deer hides, following Horn-
beke v. White i 76 Pac. 926;. held that a person having them must establish affirma-
tively that his possession is lawful (People v. Johnson. 68 Pac. 184). In Louisiana a
decision of interest to club members was rendered in the case of Burns v. Crescent
Gun and Rod Club i 41 So.. 249 '. in which it was held that the club owning land bor-
dering a navigable stream could be enjoined from preventing persons not members of
the club from fishing in such stream. The comprehensive game law enacted in Mis-
souri in 1905 was the subject of more or less litigation and at least three cases were
carried to the higher courts. In one of these. State ex rel Rodes r. 'Warner | 94 S. \Y.,
962 I, it was held that the provision directing fines to be paid into the State game fund
was in conflict with the constitutional provision that all fines be paid into the county
school fund and to this extent was void. In the others the provisions relating to
resident licenses gave rise to two opposite constructions, the St. Louis court of appeals
holding that a person was not required to obtain a license to hunt in the county of
residence I Ex parte Helton. 93 S. W.. 913 I and the Kansas City court of appeals hold-
ing that such a license was necessary (State v. Koock. 96 S. W., 721). In Xorth
"a the marking provision of the Lacey Act was construed by the Federal court in
United States p. Thompson (147 Fed., 637). In Oklahoma one of the first decisions
affecting game rendered by the supreme court sustained the right of the Territory to
impose fines on any carrier, or its agents, for reception and possession of game for trans-
portation (Cameron v. Territory. 86 Pac, 68).
Among the numerous case? in the lower courts are three worthy of mention. One
was a decision of the circuit court of Muskingum County. Ohio, based on technical
errors, but indicating the opinion of the court that the game law. prescribing an open
GAME PROTECTION IN 1906.
535
season for quail " from the 15th day of November to the 5th day of December," should
be construed as excluding November 15 and including December 5. The other two
were Pennsylvania cases in which juries acquitted a defendant charged with killing
a bear in close season on the ground that his action was required by self-defense,
and also a game warden charged with. homicide for killing a game-law violator who
resisted arrest.
ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS.
Officials. — Changes occurred in the personnel of several of the State game commis-
sions, including the State warden of Maryland and the warden of the first district of
North Dakota, the secretary of the Delaware Game Protective Association, and the
president of the North Carolina Audubon Society. The board of game commissioners
of New Jersey lost one of its members through death. In Canada the office of game
inspector was established in Prince Edward Island.
Changes among the deputy wardens were numerous, but whether or not the total
force of officers on duty was increased is uncertain through lack of statistics of former
years for comparison. A census of 30 States and Territories showed that about 20
States maintained regular salaried wardens, the number of deputies varying from one
in Iowa to 65 in New York and 88 in Wisconsin. The number of deputies serving
without salary varied from 3 in Wyoming to 800 in Colorado. The total number of
wardens on duty in these States during the latter part of the year, as shown in the fol-
lowing table, was 370 under salary, 489 paid per diem, and 4,914 serving without salary;
in all, a total of 5,773.
Table showing number of game wardens on duty in 30 States in 1906.
State.
Sala-
ried.
Per
diem.
With-
out
salary.
Total.
State.
Sala-
ried.
Per
diem.
With-
out
salary.
Total.
63
350
SOO
G
03
362
806
142
7
17
1G0
100
251
300
40
234
269
119
218
514
New Jersey
24
167
67
450
78
26
165
40
132
463
200
38
191
12
6
142
1
G7
Colorado
Now York
North Carolina..
65
S
44
515
52
78
an
10
15
26
150
10
8
40
9
39
75
250
29?
229
244
5G
210
510
Pennsylvania
8
4
16
1
173
44
1
Utah
22
154
479
Washington
34
235
Maryland
5
1G
24
8
4
38
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Total
88
3
88
Minnesota
Montana
Nebraska
25
3
31
370
439
4,914
5,773
a County wardens; there are many deputies not listed as the information was not obtained in time.
Convictions. — Convictions resulting in heavy fines were reported in at least 10 States.
The following cases illustrate the character of offenses for which fines of $100 or more
were imposed: In Colorado, for killing a mountain sheep $300 fine and $140 costs;
in Illinois, possession of game in close season $100, killing 4 quail in close season $100
and costs, two nonresidents hunting on resident licenses $100 and costs, illegal shipment
of quail $200; in Michigan, for illegal shipment of venison $100 and costs and 60 days
in jail; in Minnesota, illegal possession of 2 saddles of venison $115 and costs, shipping
deer from the State in excess of limit two fines of $100 and $147; in New Jersey, for
possession of 4 blue jays $100 and costs, possession of 5 robins $100 and costs, possession
of 4 robins and 1 thrush $100 and costs, possession of 5 birds $100 and costs; possession
of 6 birds $120 and costs; in New York, for violation of the anti-hounding law $200 and
costs, illegal possession of 4 deer $200, illegal possession of quail $110 and costs or total
of $290, possession of grouse and quail out of season $600; in five cases, offenses not
specified, fines of from $100 to $550: in Oklahoma, for shipping 30,000 quail $350 and
costs; in Oregon, for serving birds out of season $100; killing deer contrary to law two
fines of $100 each, three of $125, and one of $250; in Pennsylvania, for removing wild
turkey chicks from the nest $250; in Vermont, for killing deer contrary to law seven
fines ranging from $100 to $177 each.
In a number of cases the defendants were committed to jail in default of payment
and in a few instances received a jail sentence in addition to a fine. Among the cases
resulting in imprisonment were the following: In Illinois two defendants each of whom
had killed a prairie chicken were committed to jail for 10 days for failure to pay fines,
536 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
one defendant was committed to jail for killing a pheasant, throe for hunting without
a license, one for hunting before sunrise, and another for killing quail out of season.
In Michigan two defendants received a Bentence of 60 days in jail and §100 fine each
for attempting to ship venison out of the State, and another fur shipping venison to
market. In New Jersey one defendant was sentenced for 10 days for illegal possession
of a blue jay, and another 10 days for killing one partridge; in North Carolina one
defendant was imprisoned 30 days for hunting on land without permission in David-
son County; in Oregon one offender received a sentence of 12^ days for trapping beaver,
and two other defendants were committed to jail in default of payment of fines for kill-
ing deer out of season: in Pennsylvania two aliens were sentenced for 370 and 400
days, respectively, for hunting without licenses and killing song birds; and in Texas
two men were sentenced to jail, one for 10 days and the other for 30 days, for illegally
trapping and shipping quail.
Aliens. — The violation of the game laws by aliens was the subject of special comment
in the reports of several State game commission-, particularly those of Maine. Penn-
sylvania, and West Virginia. In Pennsylvania the commission reported that they had
14 officers shot at during the year, 7 shot, 3 of whom were killed, 3 very seriously
wounded, and one other although not serving under a commission of the board was
killed while in performance of game protective duty. All of this work was done, so
far as could be determined, by unnaturalized foreigners. As a result of these condi-
tions the commission recommended the adoption of a law similar to that passed in New
York in 1905 prohibiting aliens from carrying firearms, as a matter of greater protection
to the game and also as a measure of public safety.
Indians. — An invasion of "Wyoming by Indians from Colorado during the summer
resulted in serious consequences to the game. Two bands of Utes, each about 500
in number, entered the State in the latter part of July and the first week in August
and penetrated some distance northward in Converse, Weston, and Crook counties.
The Indians were well armed and stripped the country of game wherever they trav-
eled, slaughtering hundreds of sage hens, scores of antelope, and many deer. The
game wardens and local authorities were utterly powerless to prevent these depre-
dations, and it was only by the aid of Federal troops that the Indians were finally
rounded up and returned to their reservation.
Tusk hunters. — The demand for elk tusks was responsible, as in former years, for
the destruction of many elk. In Washington a few Indians from the Quinault Reser-
vation were engaged in killing elk for tusks in the Olympic Mountains, but through
the efforts of the Indian agent the practice was promptly stopped. On November
20 an important seizure was made at Los Angeles, Cal., of a carload of trophies, com-
prising the heads, skins, scalps, and horns of many elk killed in Wyoming and on the
border of the Yellowstone National Park, and shipped from Idaho to a taxidermist
in Los Angeles. Two of the shippers were arrested while unloading the car. At the
preliminary hearing it was shown that they belonged to a party of four notorious
tusk hunters who had been operating in western Wyoming, north of Jackson Hole,
and along the southern border of the park. In default of bail they were committed
to jail to await the action of the Federal grand jury in April, 1907.
ORGANIZATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF GAME.
The year 1900 was notable in the concerted efforts made by game protective asso-
ciations and other organizations. New State associations were formed in Alabama,
Idaho, Texas, and West Virginia. In January the National Association of State Com-
missioners and Wardens held a meeting at St. Paul. Minn., at which official repre-
sentatives from 14 States were present. This meeting gave opportunity for conference
and interchange of views, and proved an important factor toward securing trreater
uniformity of action on the part of State officials. The widespread interest in bird
protection was strongly exemplified by a bequest made to the National Association
of Audubon Societies which became available during the year through the death of
Albert D. Wilcox. Mr. Wilcox had become deeply interested in the work of bird
protection and left the association a specific bequest of -S100.000, at the same time
giving it one-half of a much larger residuary legacy. The total amount of the bequest
to the association was 8322.770, the income of which is to be devoted to educational
work, promotion of legislation for the protection of birds and game, maintenance of
warden service, and cooperation with State officials and local organizations in efforts
to secure better enforcement of laws.
HUNTING ACCIDENTS.
The number of persons killed each year in hunting accidents is apparently increas-
ing, and the unnecessary loss of life from this cause in 1906 was appalling. An effort
was made by the Department to collect reports of such fatal accidents for the purpose
GAME PROTECTION IX 1906. 537
of ascertaining not only the number and the cause?, but also the possibility of devis-
ing a method of reducing the number of similar accidents in the future. The reports
showed that more than 100 persons lost their lives during the year, and of these at
least eight were women and a dozen or more children under 15 years of age. These
accidents occurred in 25 State- and the District of Columbia, but were most frequent
in Michigan and Wisconsin. Contrary to expectation, comparatively few were caused
by persons being mistaken for deer or other big game. Several were caused by .22-
caliber rifles and a number of others by ordinary shotguns.
Many of the accidents were due simply to gross carelessness in the use of firearms
such as pulling a gun out of the boat by the muzzle, or looking down the barrel of a
loaded weapon; others to handling of firearms by boys who had not been taught or
who failed to observe the most elementary precautions. In a few instances these
accidents were attributable directly to violation of the game laws. It is worthy of note
that in States which prohibit the killing of does, or of deer with horns less than 3
inches in length, accidents were comparatively few. while in Michigan and Wisconsin,
where there are no restrictions of this kind, more than the usual number of accidents
occurred. It seems, therefore, that certain classes of accidents may be reached by
legislation requiring a hunter to pause long enough to make sure that an object mov-
ing in the undergrowth is a deer with horns of sufficient length to come within the
law. This delay is oftentimes sufficient to prevent the fatal mistake of wounding or
killing a man for a deer. Legislation providing severe penalties for shooting pe
by mistake has not thus far accomplished the desired object. Although such laws
have been on the statute books of Maine. Michigan, and Minnesota for several years.
apparently no conviction has thus far been obtained. Action was begun in at least
one case in each State this year, but these cases are apparently still pending. The
experience of the year seems to indicate that restrictions on the* use of the .22 caliber
rifle and the more general adoption of measures prohibiting killing deer with horns
below a certain limit promise better results in preventing accidents'than in declaring
such accidents homicide, punishable by severe penalties.
COXDITIOX OF GAME.
Big game. — Statistics of the number of big game annually killed are now obtain-
able from several States, and form a fairly satisfactory basis for estimating increase or
decrease from year to year. In Maine the number of moose shipped through Bangor
was 185, a slight falling off from the record of 216 in 1905. The deer shipments, how-
ever, showed a decrease of about 20 per cent. 3.572. as compared with 4.791 during the
previous year. In Vermont the commissioner reported that 634 deer were killed, an
increase of about 125 over the number shot in 1905. In New York about 60 deer were
killed on Long Island during the four days of open season, and in the Adirondack?,
notwithstanding the fact that the season was shortened a month, the number of deer
carried by the transportation companies increased about 200. These shipments com-
prised 2.413 carcasses. 108 saddles, and 102 heads, as compared with 2.196 carcasses.
108 saddles, and 180 heads transported in 1905. In Pennsylvania the number of deer
killed was estimated at 600 to 650. In Michigan estimates placed the number cap-
tured at 12,000. In Wisconsin. Minnesota, and Texas deer were reported plentiful.
In Wyoming the State warden estimated the number of head of big game killed at 4.798.
Detailed reports showed that about 20 per cent of this number . 1^011) comprised 598
elk. ] 82 deer. 184 antelope, and 47 mountain sheep. Reports from two of the Canadian
Provinces indicated that 99 deer were killed under license in Manitoba, and the total
number killed in Ontario approximated 10.000.
Quail. — Quail suffered less during the winter than in previous years, but several
States found it necessary to increase their supply by importing birds from tbe South
and West. Most of these birds seem to have done well, and in many sections quail were
reported in normal abundance.
Grouse and woodcock. — Ruffed grouse were reported plentiful in Xew England
(except Vermont) and. in Xew York. Xew Jersey. Pennsylvania. Virginia. Xorth
Carolina. Michigan. Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Prairie chickens continued to increase
in Illinois and Nebraska, but in other parts of their range seemed to be decreasing. In
the Rocky Mountain region, particularly in Montana. Utah, and Idaho, the grouse
seemed to have suffered from the wet spring. In Wyoming and Colorado, however,
sage hens were reported plentiful. Woodcock were fairly common in Vermont. Con-
necticut, and Xew York, but comparatively scarce in Pennsylvania and the Middle
West.
Wild foul. — The fall flight of ducks proved a disappointment in nearly all parts of
tine country, and the number of birds seemed to be much less than in either 1904 or
1905. Only a few places reported ducks in their usual abundance. In some instances,
538 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
no doubt, the apparent decrease was due to unfavorable weather conditions, which
caused the birds to hasten on their way south without stopping as long as usual,
but whether the flight of 1906 was actually or apparently much smaller than those of
the two previous years can only be determined by future observations.
GAME FOR PROPAGATION.
Restocking with both big game and certain game birds attracted much attention in
several of the Eastern States. The restocking of the Adirondacks with elk, which
began in 1901, chiefly by private efforts, has now progressed beyond the experimental
stage. A number of animals were liberated during the year and the total number of
elk is now estimated at more than 300. The effort to reestablish beaver also progressed
satisfactorily. Under the appropriation of §1,000 made by the legislature several were
obtained and arrangements were made to secure additional animals from the Yellow-
stone National Park. The total number in the State park now exceeds 40. The
experiments with moose have not been so successful, but an appropriation of $2,150
was made to continue the work in the hope of ultimately establishing the species in
its former haunts. In Xew Jersey the deer liberated in former years have increased
steadily, and are now found in at least one-half the counties of the State. Only 8
additional animals were liberated during the year. In addition to the deer 60 rabbits
and 50 Canadian hares were distributed in various parts of the State. In Pennsylva-
nia 30 female deer were purchased by the game commission for stocking the State game
preserve. The State warden of Tennessee, through private subscription, pure!
a herd of about 400 deer belonging to the Belle Meade Farm and liberated them in the
vicinity of Nashville. Under the provision of the State law affording complete pro-
tection for two years, it is hoped that these deer may be able to establish themselves
and form a nucleus for restocking other sections of the State.
Owing to the severity of previous winters, quail were in great demand for restocking
depleted covers, particularly in Massachusetts. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland.
Indiana, and Illinois. The demand was greatly in excess of the supply, and several
of the States tailed to Becure birds in adequate numbers. The Massachusetts Fish and
Game Protective Association, however, liberated 4.41(i; the fish and game commission
of Xew Jersey 7. 208. the game commission of Pennsylvania about 3,700, and the game
commissioner of Illinois secured several thousand. Most of these birds were trapped
in Alabama and the Southwest, and the manner of their capture caused much criticism
by residents in the States where the trapping was done, and some complaints on the
pan . if consignees. More than 60,000 birds were shipped from a few points in Alabama,
where the birds were trapped in such wholesale numbers as to deplete the local stock,
and were shipped without the attention to details necessary to insure their safe arrival.
In consequence an undue proportion of the birds perished in transit or died soon after
arrival. In Texas the wholesale trapping led to several arrests and the imprisonment
for several weeks of thr< >eof the principal trappers. Attempts to secure a supply of birds
from Mexico met with indifferent success. The important experiment inaugurated by
the game commissioner of Illinois in 1905 of establishing a State game propagating farm
made substantial progress. One hundred and sixty acres of land have been leased 23
miles south of Springfield. 111., where pheasants, quail, and other birds are raised in
large numbers for distribution in the State. In .Tidy. 1906. the commissioner reported
that 3.000 healthy pheasant chicks had been hatched from a consignment of 5.500
eggs imported from England, and there were then on the farm about 8.000 young
English and ring-necked pheasants besides a number of blue quail, a few wild tur-
keys, and prairie chickens.
Experiments in rearing quail in captivity were made by a number of individuals.
In some cases, particularly in Kansas and Oregon, a number of birds were reared, but
elsewhere failures were frequent. The American Breeders' Association appointed a
special committee on breeding wild birds for the purpose of coordinating the efforts
now being made by individuals and State authorities to encourage the propagation of
game birds. This same line of work received recognition from the Carnegie Institu-
tion, of Washington, which made a grant of $500 to Prof. C. F. Hodge, of Clark Univer-
sity, Massachusetts, to enable him to continue his experiments in propagating ruffed
grouse and other game birds in captivity.
IMPORTATIONS OF LIVE ANIMALS AND BIRDS.
During the calendar year 489 mammals. 381,324 birds, and 5,604 eggs of s:amo birds
were imported into the United States under permit. Among the mammals were 3
beaver and 234 squirrels; and of the birds 326,990 were canaries, 9,774 game birds, and
14.500 miscellaneous species. In comparison with the importations of 1905 these
GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 539
figures show a decrease of about 800 mammals and increases of about 65,000 birds and
3,271 eggs. Among the game birds were 3,772 pheasants, 2,644 partridges, 113 caper-
cailzie, 122 black game, 28 willow grouse, 19 hazel grouse, 2,359 quail, 340 ducks, and
377 miscellaneous birds. Among the rarer game birds were 4 Manchurian, 4 black-
backed kalege, 3 Setchuan, 3 Mongolian, and 12 Prince of Wales pheasants, 4 brush
turkeys, and 4 rufous tinamous. The Mongolian and Prince of Wales pheasants com-
prised the second importation of these species ever brought to the United States.
Among the rarer miscellaneous birds worthy of mention were 4 keas, 6 weka rails, and
4 kiwis from New Zealand, 6 black-footed penguins, and 49 shama thrashes. The
opening of the new bird house of the New York Zoological Society was occasion for
the importation of a large number of European birds and a number of rare species from
other parts of the world.
The most notable features of the importations of game birds were the unusually
large number of European partridges brought over in the attempt to introduce the
species in several localities, the importation of 5,500 eggs of pheasants by the State
game commissioner of Illinois for propagation on the State farm near Springfield, and
the continued imports of capercailzie and black game. In the consignment of pheasant
eggs only 18 were broken in transit and unpacking, 1,809 proved unfertile, and over
3,000 healthy chicks were hatched, Capercailzie and black game have been imported
in steadily increasing numbers during the past four years. In 1903, 65 capercailzie
were imported for the Algonquin Park in Ontario; in 1904 about 100 capercailzie
and 25 black game were liberated on the preserve of the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company,
on Grand Island, Mich. ; and in 1905, 117 capercailzie and 74 black game were imported,
many of them intended for the same preserve. In 1906, the total number of the two
species imported increased to 235, and these birds were consigned chiefly to preserves
in the Adirondacks. In addition to the birds br< night to the United States, 22 capercail-
zie and 35 black game, imported direct from Copenhagen to British Columbia, were
liberated at various points in that province. Seventy-six birds were purchased in
Copenhagen and 74 reached Vancouver safely in October, but 17 died from the effects of
the long journey. Of the 57 surviving the trip, 22 were capercailzie and 35 were black
game. Of these, 19 black game were liberated on Vancouver Island, 16 black game
near Nicomen. on the Fraser River, and 8 capercailzie on the North Arm of Burrard
Inlet, 14 miles from Vancouver. The total cost of the experiment was $1,695. The
black game have apparently not done as well as the capercailzie, but it is hoped that
the latter species at least will ultimately become acclimated.
So far as known, no injurious species were introduced into the United States, but
the English sparrow, still extending its range in the Southwest, was reported for the
first time from Southern California at Newhall, in Los Angeles County. a
PRIVATE AND STATE PRESERVES.
The private preserve promises to become the most satisfactory means of providing
good hunting and at the same time one of the most effective means of preserving and
increasing the supply of game in the region in which it is situated. Private preserves
owned or leased by individuals or associations continue to be established wherever
conditions are favorable and suitable land can be obtained. Statistics of the indi-
vidual preserves created in 1906 are incomplete, but reports show that such preserves
were established in at least 20 different States.
In North Carolina the Audobon Society purchased Royal Shoal Islands and the
islands known as the Legged Lump, in Pamlico Sound, as a refuge and breeding
ground for gulls and terns.
In Pennsylvania definite and satisfactory progress was made in the creation of State
game preserves under the provisions of the act of 1905. Three parks, each containing
from 3,000 to 4,000 acres, were located in the forest reserves in Clearfield, Clinton, and
Franklin counties. Each park is to be surrounded by a fire line or path 8 to 10 feet
in width, and along this path a single wire is stretched from tree to tree, on which are
fastened notices calling attention to the purposes of the inclosure and prohibiting
trespass within its limits for any purpose. The work on the preserves in Clearfield
and Clinton counties was completed, and the corners of the preserve in Franklin County
were located and the cutting of the fire line begun.
Reference should be made also to two provincial game preserves established in
Canada. One of these, comprising 16 sections, was set apart in Alberta, about 30
miles northeast, of Edmonton; the other, known as the Gaspesian Preserve, was estab-
lished by the Province of Quebec, on the Gaspe Peninsula. The latter preserve com-
prises about 2,500 square miles, and is comparable with the largest preserves on the
"Condor, IX, p. 28, 1907.
540 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
continent, such as the Laurentides National Park in Quebec, the Algonquin Park in
Ontario, the Canadian National Park in Alberta, and the Yellowstone National Park.
NATIONAL PARKS, REFUGES, AND RESERVATIONS.
More progress was made in the establishment of refuges for birds and game than
during any previous year. By Executive order dated February 10, 1906, Indian Key,
an island of 90 acres at the mouth of Tampa Bay, Florida, was set aside under the
charge of the Department of Agriculture as a preserve and breeding ground for native
birds. An item of $15,000 included in the agricultural bill provided for erecting a
fence for a buffalo inclosure on the Wichita Game Reserve in Oklahoma. The con-
tract has been let, and the work of constructing the fence is now in progress. Congress
authorized the lease of a tract of not more than 3,500 acres of public land in Stanley
County, near Pierre, S. Dak., for the benefit of the Phillips herd of buffalo, and on
June 29 authorized the establishment of a second game refuge in the Grand Canyon
National Forest, in northern Arizona. This game refuge, as created by proclamation of
November 28, comprises 2,267,300 acres. In this connection may also be mentioned
the act of June 30 prohibiting upland hunting in the District of Columbia, which
practically renders the District a game and bird refuge.
Reports from all of the preserves previously established showed satisfactory progress.
The results were especially noteworthy on the Pelican Island Reservation, in Florida,
and on the Breton Island Reservation, off the mouth of the Mississippi River. On
Pelican Island nesting began unusually early, 600 nests having been constructed by
November 18, 1905, and many young hatched before the close of the year. In Feb-
ruary, during a period of cold and inclement weather, 600 or 700 of the young birds
perished, but about 150 young survived. On April 15 the old birds again began to
nest, and succeeded in raising about 400 young, so that the total number of birds reared
on the island exceeded that of any previous year since the reservation was established.
The Breton Island Reservation comprises some 8 islands, and near by, along the Lou-
isiana coast, are 17 islands included in the Audubon Reservation, the latter controlled
and maintained by the State Audubon Society of Louisiana. These two reservations
together make up one of the greatest sea-bird breeding areas in the world. Here an
immense number of laughing gulls, Forster terns, black skimmers, and royal terns
were raised, estimated at 100,000 in all. The severe hurricane which passed over the
reservations in September killed some of the birds, and materially changed the con-
ditions on certain of the islands. Grand Cochere, one of the best breeding grounds,
was reported submerged and waves broke over Breton Island, carrying away the house
of refuge, but at the same time causing the destruction of the raccoons and other
animals which infested the island and interfered with the nesting of the birds.
In the Yellowstone National Park, as shown by the report of the superintendent,
the buffalo herd has steadily increased from the 2 bulls and 18 cows purchased in 1902
until it now numbers 57. Arrangements were completed during the summer for
moving all the young buffalo of this herd to the mouth of the Lamar River, at the
mouth of Rose Creek, where hay will be raised and the animals gradually turned loose
under conditions where they can readily obtain feed at all times. The old buffalo
will be kept as heretofore at Mammoth Hot Springs, and this division of the herd will
act as a safeguard against the spread of disease which might break out in either hand.
About 1,500 antelope came down to the feeding grounds near the haystacks in the
vicinity of Gardiner, and at the same point 1,200 elk were seen and counted one
evening during the latter part of the winter. In spite of the heavy fall of snow, the
percentage of loss of big game was very small, and the animals came through the season
in good condition.
FARMERS INSTITUTES.
541
FARMERS' INSTITUTES.
Farmers' institutes were held during the year ended June 30, 1906, in all of the
States and Territories excepting Alaska, Florida, Nevada, New Mexico, and Wash-
ington. The following table gives a summary of the work for the year:
Statistics of farmers' institutes for season ended June 30, 1906.
Meetings.
Total
attend-
ance.
Speak-
ers on
State
force.
Funds for institutes. RX,dtingsPr0-
State or
Territory.
Total
num-
ber.
One
day.
Two
days
or
more.
Num-
ber of
ses-
sions.
Appropri-
ated for
year ended
June 30,
1906.
Appropri-
ated for
rear ended
June 30,
1907.
Pub-
lished.
Num-
ber of
copies.
35
21
31
83
40
24
IS
21
4
21
103
250
00
155
25
22
50
49
125
335
105
110
27
21
28
55
24
24
18
17
4
5
118
12S
1
22
50
37
125
259
98
108
8
3
28
16
4
8
10
108
132
69
27
24
12
76
7
2
85
21
42
272
123
83
40
42
8
105
667
918
402
522
122
44
102
125
153
934
238
220
8,590
1,307
7,150
22,801
16,675
4,895
7,200
4,500
300
7,875
79,428
129,894
66,959
27,300
13
3
6
37
23
60
11
34
9
13
109
46
5
21
S600. 00
608. 85
400. 00
9,000. CO
4,000.00
1,S25.00
725.00
2,500.00
33. 45
1,000.00
30,281.55
12,500.00
8,096.06
2,000.00
1,750.00
2,000.00
5,000.00
6,000.00
3,000.00
15,000.00
20,238.40
3,000.00
S600.00
No....
No
No. . . .
6,000.00
Yes . . .
Yes...
No
12,500
10,000
600.00
2,500.00
"*i,"666.'66'
17,150.00
10,000.00
7,425.00
2,500.00
15,000.00
2,000.00
5,0(10.00
6,000.00
3,000.00
7,500.00
18,000.00
3,000.00
Yes...
No
5,000
Georgia
Yes...
No. . . .
1,000
Yes...
No. . . .
20,000
No. . . .
Kentucky
Louisiana
2,657
6,967
10,762
19, 125
122,573
51,211
10,000
20
27
8
69
42
105
21
Yes...
2,500
Maryland
Massachusetts
Yes...
Yes...
Yes...
No....
15,000
9,500
Minnesota
Mississippi
35,000
71
1G0
10
40
259
90
43
245
31
44
220
1
1
54
59
35
27
45
3S
til
71
15
33
111
95
17
2
40
63
1
54
17
5
25
40
38
7
89
1
7
115
1
26
245
29
4
163
1
42
30
2
5
133
515
34
116
1.062
195
162
1,225
149
109
987
1
2
74
119
68
35
73
76
65
224
243
64
7,890
72,894
3,000
11,611
134,989
25, 950
20,310
81,816
7,460
10,350
165,553
50
300
11,149
10,000
6,000
4,500
6,680
7,962
19,500
4,4S0
32,200
3,401
25
38
12
14
64
21
47
27
9
8
56
3
4
15
14
11
39
17
■1(<
11
29
24
1
5,000.00
8,607.00
2,100.00
3,000.00
20,000.00
5,500.00
6,379.07
17,629.89
660.00
2,500.00
20,500.00
4,000.00
6,000.00
1,600.00
3,000.00
20,000.00
3,500.00
6,000.00
22,000.00
Ves...
No. . . .
5,000
New Hampshire..
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina...
North Dakota
Ohio
Yes...
No
2,000
Yes...
Yes...
Yes...
Yes...
No....
15,000
30,000
10,000
15,000
2,500.00
20,500.00
No. . . .
Pennsylvania
Yes...
No
50,000
10C. 00
4,524.40
6,500.00
2,500.00
540. 00
2,000.00
5,000.00
5,000.00
3,966.12
2,000.00
1,107.59
Yes...
No. . . .
2,000
5,000.00
5,000.00
2,500.00
South Dakota
Tennessee
Yes...
Yes.. .
No. . . .
COO
5,000
Utah
1,500.00
Yes...
Yi'S. . .
No....
7,000
3,000
5,000.00
4,000.00
12,000.00
1,000.00
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
81
81
11
.50
81
4
31
7
Yes...
Yes...
No
60,000
Total
3,365 1,998
1,367 10,999
1,262,272
1,197
264,672.38
232,375.00
315, 100
a No report received.
■--
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMENT OF AGBICULTUEE.
STATISTICS OF TEE PRIXCTPAX CROPS.
3 sis.]
CORN.
Cm ■ •?.
:
1<<C.
1904.
- '
- .
Bui
2.2-44 .
-
1.000
Lui l
. ' ' :<<4.000
''COOO
... ■ . - _ - . .-.-■-
_
_-:: :■::.: :
■
am
7 - . - .;:...::.•-:■;...
"
■ 1,477 1.00
5,289,000 5.000 4.41i
"
raiy:
Hni.:-
BOSZL.
-Hna-
-.000
-
•,.000
-
15,255
' ■
" ,.000
- -
■ . : . ooo
12 •_
- "
7.v- ...
Italy
r. -. .
.
-'
• 272 I
.
QafN < .' G - B -•:•■ ....
'.
2.00 "
-
■
LLASIA.
- •- M
-
-
"
-
' '
/
'
'
: .
r.000 139. 304. COO
24
"
s
i
-
".•'..000
'
" -
a
10.:;.
11.'
Total Rb:
-
i ' .
-
-.ol.OOO
Hpnfn
000
-■ -'.
~"-.000
i
-
-
21.431.000
■""J.OOO
-
000 - -
3,4»0, 000
30.000.000
. - 000 -J. 000
74
777,000 j 3,1 1;
-
STATISTICS OF COEN. 543
Acreage, production, value, prices, ami exports of corn of the United States, 1866-1906.
Aver-
Aver-
age
farm
Chicago cash price per
bushel, No. 2.
Domestic
exports,
including
Year.
Acreage.
yield
Production.
price
"per
Farm value.
Dec. 1.
December.
May of
following
com meal,
fiscal
bush-
year.
vea r be-
Dec. 1.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
July 1.
.1 cres.
Bush.
Bushels.
Cents.
Dollars.
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
Bushels.
34,306.538
25.3
867,946.295
47.4
411,450.830
53
62
64
79
16,026,947
32,520,249
320,000
57.0
137,769,763
61
65
61
71
12,493,522
ISBN
37,246
26.0
906,527. (XX)
46.8
424,056.649
38
58
14
51
8,286,665
37,103,245
23.6
N 4. 320, 000
59.8
522,550,509
56
67
73
85
2,14
187
38,646,977
2S.3
1,094,255,000
49.4
540, 52
41
59
46
52
10,676,S73
1871
34,091.137
29.1
991.S98.000
43.4
430,355,910
36
39
38
43
35, 727, 010
18*2
35,526,836
30.8
1,092,719,000
35.3
3s3.736.210
27
28
34
39
40, 154. 374
1873
39,197,148
23. 8
932,274,000
44.2
111,961,151
40
49
49
59
35, '>
1874
41,036,918
850,148,500
58.4
496,271,255
64
76
53
67
30, 025, 036
1ST.",
44.841.371
29.5
1.321,069,000
J
484,674,804
40
47
41
45
50,910,532
1876
49,033,364
26.2
1,283,827,500
34.0
436.108,521
40
43
43
56
72,652,611
1877
50,369,113
26.7
1,342,558,000
34.8
467,63.5,230
41
49
35
41
87,192.110
1878
51,585,000
26.9
218,750
31.7
440,280,517
30
32
33
36
87,884,892
1879
85,450
29.2
1,547,901,790
37. 5
580,4-
39
43 }
32?
364
99,572.320
62,31'
27.6
1.717.434.543
39.6
679,714,499
35 1
42
114
45
93,648.147
1881
64,262,025
18.6
1.194.916.000
63.6
.^2,170
53|
63}
69
76}
44, 340. 683
1882
65.6"
24.6
1.617.025,100
48.5
• 7.175
491
61
.53}
56f
41,655.653
1883
68,301
22.7
1,551,066,895
42.4
51,485
54 J
63}
524
.57
46. 258, 606
1884
25.8
1,796,528,432
35.7
640,7
34 J
40}
44f
49
52.-"
1885
73. 130. 150
26, 5
1,936,176.000
_ •
635.674,630
36
■i-i
34}
36|
64, 829, 617
75,694,208
22.0
1,665,441,000
36.6
610,311,000
3.5 J
3S
36+
39i
41, 0
1887
72,392,720
2D.1
1,456,161,000
44.4
646, 106, 770
47
5'i
54
60
25.360,869
188S
75.6..
26.3
1,987,790.000
34.1
677.. 56 1,580
334
35|
■•m
35*
70.841.073
1889
78,319,061
27.0
2.112.^92,000
28.3
597,918,829
29*
35
32|
35
103. 41 8. 709
1«90
71,97
2.1.7
1. 4 f 9. 970, 000
50.6
754,433,451
47?
53
55
694
32.041,529
1891
76,204.515
27.0
2, 080, 154, 000
40.6
835,439,228
39*
59
40}
olOO
76. 002, 285
1892
" 26,668
23. 1
164.000
39.4
642,146,630
40
m
36J
39*
444
47.121.S94
1893
72 16,465
22.5
1.619,496,131
36.5
591.62.3.62".
34}
36J
3S4
66,489,529
1894
-.269
19.4
1,212,770,052
45.7
.354.719.162
44|
47*
471
554
28, " -
1895
"..830
26. 2
2,151.138.580
25.3
544.985.534
25
26]
274
294
101, 100, 375
1896
81,027,156
2^.2
2,283,875,165
21.5
191.006,967
23f
23
234
178,S17.417
1*7
£0. 095. 051
23.8
1.902,907,933
20.3
501,072,952
25
27 V
32?
37
2:2.055.543
1898
77,721,781
24.8
1,924,184,660
28.7
552.023,428
33}
38
32}
31a
177.2.55,046
1S99
82,li
25.3
43, 933
30.3
629,210,110
30
3U
36
404
213.123.412
1900
83. 320, 872
25.3
2,105,102,516
35.7
751,220,034
35}
40}
42|
58J
181,405,473
1901
91,349,928
16.7
1,522,519,891
60.5
921,5.55,768
62*
67*
50I
64 J
28. 02
1902
94.043.613
26.8
••iS.312
40.3
1.017,017.349
43J
57}
44
46
70.039,261
1903
88,091,993
25.5
2,244,176,925
12.5
968,801
41
434
47}
50
222,061
1904
92.231,581
26.8
180,934
44.1
1,087,461,440
43i
49
4S
644
90,293,483
190.3
94,011,369
28.8
J. (07,993,540
41.2
1,116,696,738
12
50i
474
50
119,893,833
1906
96,7".
30.3
_ " 416,091
39.9
1,166,626,479
40
46
a Coincident with "corner."
Visible supply of corn in the United States and Canada, first of each month for tenyears.a
Month.
Bushels.
Julv 21, 501, 000
August 20, 01S. 000
September ' 37. 528. 000
October > 45. 412, 000
November > 52. 9S0. 000
December 49. 559, 000
January I 4S. 292. 000
February 1 53, 522. 000
Ma rch . .". 52. 457. 000
April 52. 228. 000
May ; 34. 734. 000
Jurie > 28. 288. 000
a Those figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by
Bradstreet's.
544 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
le supply of corn in the United States and Canada, etc. — Continued.
:•-:-■■.
1903-i.
1904-5.
1905-6.
1906-7.
July
September
October. . .
November
December.
February .
March
April
May
June
Bushels.
9, 013. 000
3, 823, 000
4.607,000
22
- 552
i
11,. 53-5. 000
15,180,000
16,901,000
7,039,000
Bushels.
13,410,000
■
■
12.147.000
!
16,669,000
:
72
Bushels.
_ -
8. 014. 000
10,703.000
5,119,000
:
15.351.000
\
16. 752. 000
!
Bushels.
9,571,000
10.101,000
8,080,000
5.183,000
10. 230. 000
17.830,000
22.010,000
24.531.000
17,653.000
7. 074. 000
7,366,000
Bushels.
i
5, 133. 000
8,404,000
14,097,000
_ •_" 00
17.011.000
Acreage, production, value, and distribution of can United States in 1906, by
States.
r Territory.
Crop of 1906.
Stock in farmers' hands
Shipped out
of county
Acr g
Production.
\ alue.
where grown.
Acres.
Bushels.
Dollars.
Bui'-
Per cent.
Bushels.
12.350
450.950
- -
■ -
19
4,570
New Hampshire
. . i
; ---
2
25
0
56.491
44. 799
2.005.430
1,778 '.
1.183.204
1,067,112
501.358
515.771
25
29
0
0
Rhode Island
10.011
331.364
212.073
_
34
3.314
55.595
2.22-3.800
1,334,280
.
29
22.238
050.000
277.749
_- -o.OOO
10.(-_ _
13.384. 150
5.343.613
3 9.750
, -A. 561
35
42
453.700
1.512.343
Pennsylvania
1,44
57.900.239
30. 139. 324
- -2.108
45
4.057,217
196, 472
a - •
" 394, 160
22.0 ' 325
2.475.-547
9.903.521
2,943
io. -a n
50
47
2.357.664
Maryland
6,162,191
Virginia
1,85
45.1-- 52
24,85 --
19.882.9.50
44
4,061 :
:rginia
750.000
22.725.000
12. -:
-i.OOO
36
1.130.250
North Carolina
2,731 •-
41,7
_ E1.855
18,39
44
1.2.53.905
South Carolina
1,935
. 11.233
' -.0.200
11,093 -
47
472.225
Georgia
4,33*
52. 0 "
34.--
24.471.300
47
1.501.998
25
3.325.000
782
-"5.000
141.645.000
- ■ 767
4. 262, .500
55.241.550
201,756
2.543.750
GO. 907. 350
113,257
37
43
44
- ""
Ohio
41.077.050
Indiana
-
•-
347. 1
124,981,051
41.401
48
142. 3-39. 530
1.475.000
54.575.000
24.013.000
_ - -0.000
40
3.274.500
Wisconsin
■- n
60. 105. 732
43.350
23,441,235
39
1,803,172
Minnesota
1,492 '
50.1: 277
17.050.754
18.053.740
36
6.017.913
15 i.OOO
373.275.000
119,44$
.4.750
49
97.051.500
7.075.000
150.000
._• 522,500
4.170.000
- 538, 550
-■..300
- _ • 75
1. 042.500
43
25
29.707.925
1
•
South Dako:
1.875.000
12.500
18,215 25
32.034.375
51
12. .5*2. .500
' .5.000
. 782 -
72.430.925
- 6, 000
48
122. 393. 425
Kansas
".i.OOO
195.075.000
62.424.000
79.250
39
' '71.750
■5.072
105. 437. 370
44. 283. 098
47.4'
45
12. 652. 485
75 3 .
86. 4. - .
40.021.589
39.757.300
46
12. 904. 337
Vlabama
10,587
" 149,392
30.623.011
21. 532. 220
45
956.988
ppi
2,204,822
40.789.207
24.--
17.947.251
44
315,784
Louisiana
1,52
_ 217,633
15. 730. 580
9.1" 72
35
202. 176
Texas
J4.657
155.- 1,782
•r2.391
50.0- "_.
36
6.232.191
Indian Territory
. - -
193,264
21.917.844
i S2, 104
43
23. 972. 042
Oklahoma
1,998
737,326
19.721.198
30. 896, .543
47
21.035.944
-S
2. 2- : "
- ->2.569
24 -17.207
23.7-
45
1,584.077
Montana
3.980
93.132
60.536
13.970
15
0
Wyoming
- ---
- 25
40.271
13. 051
20
0
lo
113.159
3.157.136
1.578.568
24
189.428
. loco
40.211
1.182.203
851,186
295. 5-51
25
59.110
Arizona
3 -
220.129
187.110
66.039
30
2.201
11.126
5.231
356.032
263.464
32
71.200
29.007
20
20
3.560
Idaho
0
Washington
11.444
158, 614
43.258
15
S.G52
Oregon
•
499.091
324.409
59.801
12
4.991
California-
.57. 15S
1,9
1 . 330. 525
339.118
17
259. 326
Unit'vl States
7.581
. -.-.410.091
. 13
'78,958
44.3
079.543,770
STATISTICS OF CORN. 545
Average yield per acre of com in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Bush.
37.0
34.0
35.0
32.5
31.0
31.5
31.0
31.5
36.0
29.0
33.0
18.0
24.5
13.0
9.0
11.0
8.0
32.5
30.0
32.5
31.5
33.0
26.0
29.0
26.0
17.0
24.0
30.0
18.0
23.0
21.0
12.0
14.5
17.0
18.5
Bush.
40.0
41.0
43.0
40.0
34.0
37.0
33.0
37.0
37.0
25.0
31.0
22.0
29.0
14 0
10.0
9.0
9.0
37.0
36.0
30.0
34 0
35.0
32.0
35.0
26.0
19.0
28.0
21.0
16. 0
31.0
26.0
15.0
18.0
18.0
25.0
Bush.
36.0
39.0
36. 0
36.0
31.0
39.0
31.0
39.0
32.0
22.0
32.0
20.0
20.0
13.0
9.0
10.0
10.0
36.0
38.0
36.0
25.0
35.0
33.0
31.0
26.0
23.0
26.0
28.0
27.0
" 21.0
20.0
12.0
16.0
18.0
18.0
Bush.
36.0
37.0
40.0
38.0
32.0
38.0
32.0
33.0
25.0
24 0
'26.0
16.0
27.0
12.0
7.0
10.0
8.0
37.0
38.0
37.0
36.0
40.0
33.0
38.0
28.0
16.0
27.0
26.0
19.0
26.0
20.0
11.0
11.0
17.0
18.5
Bush.
39.4
3a 5
40.0
40.5
32.1
39.0
33.0
36.9
35.0
30. G
34 2
22.2
23.0
12.0
6.9
10.0
9.0
26.1
19.8
21.4
34.5
27.4
26.3
25.0
10.1
22.6
21.0
14 1
7.8
15.6
14 2
10.9
10.9
13.7
11.6
12.0
7.3
8.1
25.0
39.5
17.1
31.6
18.0
19.4
23.0
17.5
20.8
31.0
Bush.
21.7
23.3
21.8
31.3
28.4
31.5
25.0
34 5
30. 1
28.0
32.4
22.0
26.5
13.9
10.4
9.0
8.6
38.0
37.9
38.7
26.4
28.2
22.8
32.0
39.0
19.4
18.9
32.3
29.9
27.0
21.9
8.4
11.5
12. 5
8.1
24.9
25.8
21.3
22.0
19.8
16.5
22.0
20.2
20.1
24.7
23.0
23.4
30.5
Bush.
30.2
21.0
23.4
24 0
30.1
22.4
25.0
24 0
31.2
27.5
28.7
21.8
22.6
14.7
10.3
11.7
9.9
29.6
33.2
32.2
33.5
29.3
28.3
28.0
32.4
25.2
27.2
26.0
25.6
26.6
23.5
14 8
18.4
20.6
24. 2
27.7
23.3
20.9
24 1
19.4
19.8
24 0
22.4
21.4
34 5
23.1
25.8
30.7
Bush.
39.7
27.3
35.9
36.0
34.1
38.9
27.3
38.0
34 0
30.4
33.4
23.3
25.3
15.2
12.4
11.9
10.7
32.5
31.5
36.5
28.6
29.7
26.9
32.6
26.2
21.2
28.1
32.8
20.9
26.9
25.0
15.0
19.1
19.9
22.6
32.4
28.1
21.6
22.2
32.5
20.5
22.7
23.8
33.2
29.3
24 7
28. 8
28.6
Bush
34 3
37.0
34 7
37.5
32.5
42.7
31.5
35.8
38.9
30.4
36.9
23.4
29.8
13.9
10.9
11.0
10.1
37.8
40.7
39.8
34 0
37.6
32.5
34 8
33.8
27.5
31.8
32.8
27.7
29.7
24 6
14 8
14 3
13.7
21.3
32.7
25.3
17.3
19.4
26.9
23.8
25.3
27.0
36.2
27.2
24 2
23.0
32.0
Bush.
37. 0>
37. 5
35.5.
39.7
33. 1
40.0
34 9
36.3
40.2
30.0
35.0
24 3
30.3
15.3
12.2
12.0'
11.0
Ohio
42.6
39. 6
30. 1
37.0
41.2
33. 6.
39.5.
32.3.
27.8
South Dakota
33.5.
34 1
28.9
33.0
28.1
16.0-
18.5
17.2
22.5
33.6
19.0
20.0
23.0
22.0
17.0
20.0
26.0
19.0
15.0
34 0
19.0
22.0
32.9
16.0
18.0
12.0
19.0
27.0
20.0
28.0
16.0
18.0
21.0
23.6
23.4
27.0
Colorado
27. 9-
29.4
29.5
Utah
22.0
21.0
20.0
20.0
32.0
Idaho
28.3;.
18.0
25.0
31.5
12.0
24.0
26.0
23.0
22.0
27.0
20.0
23.0
25.0
25.2
27.6-
34 9
General average
23.8
24.8
25.3
25.3
16. 7
26. 8
25.5
26.8
28.8
30. a.
Average value per acre of corn in the United States, based upon farm value December 1 ,
1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
Maine $17. 39
New Hampshire : 15. 30
Vermont I 15. 05
Massachusetts ! 15. 28
Rhode Island ! 16. 74
Connecticut i 15. 43
New York j 12. 40
New Jersey j 1 1. 97
Pennsylvania j 22. 24
Delaware 8. 70
Maryland I 9. 90
Virginia I 6. 84
West Virginia ' 9.80
North Carolina ' 5. 59
South Carolina j 441
Georgia 5. 28
Florida 4 40
Ohio ' 8.12
Indiana I 0. 30
Illinois o. 83
3 a 1906 35
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
$19. 20
$18.00
$19. 80
$29.94
$16. 06
$19. 93
$32. 16
$23. 67
18.86
19.11
20.72
30.03
17.01
13. 23
19.66
25.53
IS. 92
10.92
20.00
29.20
14 82
14 51
26.21
23.60
19. 00
18. 30
20.52
30.78
23. 16
15.84
25.92
26.25
21.70
10.43
21.44
24.40
22. 15
24. 38
28. 04
23.08
19. 24
19.50
20.90
29.25
23. 31
15. 01
28.40
i:0. 32
14 19
13. 95
15.04
23.70
16.75
15.00
17.47
19.21
14 80
15. 00
14.85
24 35
19.32
13. 08
22.04
19.09
14 80
13. 12
11.25
21.70
20.94
17.78
20.06
21.01
7.75
7.48
9.12
17.10
13.72
13.48
14.90
1429
10. 8.5
11.52
10.06
19.84
16.52
14 04
16.70
17.71
7.70
7.60
7.84
13. 10
11.44
11.55
13.75
12.40
10.73
11.70
13.50
14 95
14.31
14 40
10. 19
15.79
0.02
0. 11
6.84
8.76
8.34
8.97
9.42
K.90
4.60
4 50
4 48
5.80
7.18
7.11
8.68
8.07
4 32
5.00
5.70
8.20
6.57
a 07
8.45
7.70
4.50
5.30
4 80
7.65
6.02
7.23
8.02
6.67
9.99
10. 80
12.58
14 88
15. 90
13.91
14 95
16.25
9.00
10.26
12.16
10.89
13.04
11. 95
12.91
15. 47
7.50
9. 30
11.84
12.20
13.93
11.59
14 23
15.12
1906.
$23. 68:
24.00
20. 95-
23. 82-
21. 18
24 0O
20.59
19.24
20. 90
12. 60-
15.75
13.37
16. 66.
10.40
8.91
8.04
6.82
10. 61
14 26
13.00-
-
TEABBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGBICT7LTTTEE.
:Jue per acre of corn in th>: " -' ' based upon farm value December lt
I ned.
I: i.i:. : — .: :t
DM b ma
A'iL. : ;.. ;
Itari um
^ ynming.
Colom lo
Azfa o na
I ;. -. *
v. . ■ i- -
C tEA i nda
: :
Z2it Xote. — S-nbsiamiallj- the international trade of the -b-c rid. It eioul .
that the world's export and import totals for any will
are t&ese: (1 1 Different periods of time covered in the "year" of the ~
r ---:'■ -•* - '- - ----" " " "• i" ' - --i- r. -„:.-. ;.-_:.- ..:;- . ... -•■_:. .-. : ;■ .•
count r rent practices and varying degrees of failure in'rec siding gin and
ultimate destination: (5t different practices of recording reexported goods: . -is of
::-•:.'':- r . - .. r: r- '':.. r. .: :.. .7 - _-- '.::-• : *.-• ;. : -free uei.1.
The exports given are domestic exports and the imports given are im |
as it is feasible and consistent so to express the facts: no statement is for net
While there are some inevitable omissions from such a table 1 some
duplications became of ieshipments that do not appear as such in official rej
EX
. . "J r. ~ r. .
A U5t ria-HnngB ry
'. ■ .-- ::.. .
1 ..-■ .-. •.
_'■"■ :;.- -.
r. _"- . . :
Russia
-
U .-..:-•- : Stan -
: _' : : : ._- -
• l-UOi.
STATISTICS OF CORN.
547
International trade in com, including com meal, 1901-1906 — Continued.
IMPORTS.
Country.
Year be-
ginning-
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
Bushels.
1905.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bvshels.
Bushels.
Austria-Hungary
Jan. 1
8, 647, 130
5,874,971
11,130,274
14,090,377
18,511,369
Belgium
Jan. 1
14,954,812
14,5S3,O0S
3), 323, 863
19,4'4,330
24, 169, 780
Cape of Good Hope
Jan. 1
2, 833, 220
1,943,886
3.471,281
1,236,927
2,171,601
Cuba
Jan. 1
1,486,138
1,150,176
619, 326
696, 517
0988,03-9
Denmark
Jan. 1
11,988,644
12,365,050
8,772,022
9,284,777
10,859,257
Egypt
Jan. 1
426, 907
55. 266
142,537
53,017
1,279,749
Jan. 1
11.611,509
8,674.931
11,347,114
10,124.353
11.121.S06
Germany &
Jan. 1
46,978,877
35,454,243
37,527,343
30,450,853
36, 538, 366
Italy
Jan. 1
9,985.324
8,216,902
15,092,527
8, 365, 123
5,904,844
Jan. 1
963,047
142,102
496.028
c 476, 182
c 1,454, 327
Netherlands
Jan. 1
IS. 635, 890
15.817,237
20,160,078
16,547,198
16,234,785
Norway
Jan. 1
743,642
637,387
765, 246
555, 991
541,949
Portugal
Jan. 1
434,416
759,967
366,605
531,889
2, 607, 130
Jan. 1
351, 7S6
135, 822
457,715
025,526
161,218
Jan. 1
2,637,703
99:;, 272
1,484,490
2,761,426
1,904,186
Jan. 1
5S5, 747
191,958
189,357
234, 9S6
491,035
Switzerland
Jan. 1
2,130,011
2,404,644
2,611,202
2.704.457
2,498,380
Jan. 1
■< 1,042,166
1,306,038
2,197.476
1,422,985
d 1,642, 166
United Kingdom
Jan. 1
105,S19,438
89,371.445
101,284,919
86,076,697
84,156,490
6, 939, 000
10.415,000
18,652,000
15,313,000
17,852,000
Total
249. 7S5, 407
210.483,315
257,091,403
221,026,611
241,088,477
a Average, 1901-1901. * Not including free ports. <• Preliminary figures, d Ayerage, 1902-1904.
Average farm price of corn per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
1S97.
1898.
1S99.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Cents.
47
4.")
43
47
54
49
40
3S
34
30
30
38
40
43
49
48
55
25
21
21
27
25
24
17
24
32
21
17
22
35
36
46
45
45
41
Cents.
48
46
44
49
64
52
43
40
40
31
35
35
37
43
46
48
50
27
25
25
34
28
24
23
27
36
23
22
26
27
29
41
39
41
34
Cents.
50
49
47
51
53
50
45
40
41
34
36
38
45
47
50
50
53
30
27
26
36
30
24
23
30
33
26
23
25
37
39
47
46
44
36
Cents.
55
56
50
54
67
55
47
45
45
38
41
49
50
57
64
57
60
34
32
32
37
33
29
27
32
42
29
31
32
40
49
58
58
50
47
Cents.
76
78
73
76
76
75
72
66
62
57
58
59
65
73
84
82
85
57
55
57
52
52
45
52
67
46
45
54
63
61
65
77
74
75
SO
76
76
81
90
72
74
77
90
90
60
58
57
68
Cents.
74
73
68
74
78
74
67
56
58
49
51
52
54
60
69
73
77
42
36
36
52
50
40
33
33
45
41
30
34
42
47
67
61
66
66
43
39
49
72
59
59
78
101
67
62
65
lie,
77
Cents.
66
63
62
66
81
67
60
57
57
49
51
53
64
61
69
69
73
47
36
36
46
43
38
38
34
42
35
28
36
56
49
57
54
58
48
39
"38
51
62
58
54
75
90
70
57
55
67
74
Cents.
81
72
73
72
84
73
64
58
59
49
50
59
64
62
70
71
75
46
41
39
52
46
36
33
44
40
36
33
41
49
50
60
56
57
52
40
39
53
68
57
54
78
91
72
70
66
61
78
Cents.
69
69
68
70
71
71
61
55
54
47
48
53
53
64
74
70
66
43
38
38
46
42
33
34
37
36
31
32
33
43
50
64
65
61
49
37
32
55
68
75
47
69
97
70
66
60
59
70
Cents.
64
64
59
60
64
60
59
53
52
42
45
55
55
68
73
67
62
Ohio
39
36
36
44
41
34
32
38
39
29
29
32
42
47
64
61
60
50
32
20
38
52
43
43
58
26
43
59
60
48
64
30
40
65
50
38
58
29
66
55
40
56
47
65
59
50
72
85
Utah
55
60
59
63
74
56
55
53
56
42
60
62
5r>
64
60
59
57
61
55
65
67
General ayerage
26.3
28.7
30.3
35.7
60.5
40.3
42.5
44.1
41.2
39.9
548
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Wholesale prices of corn per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
New York.
Date.
No. 2.
I Low. High
1902.
January
February
March. ."
April
May
June
July
August
September. . .
October
November. . .
December
1903.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. ..
October
November. ..
December
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. . .
October
November . . .
December
1905.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September...
October
November. ..
December
1906.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. . .
October
November. ..
December . . .
as.
66
66!
65
654
eel
68|
65|
634
67*
* 671
61!
57
55
.->.->}
50;
51
52!
56
561.
58J
531
51}
•J'.",
m
511
53
543
52i
55'
47;
53!
55|
56J
.v>;
■>4;
53
51J
51
52
51
52
57f
59!
60
59
58*
52
50|
47
47*
52
.-,.-,■'
58
563
55
563
54}
52f
50
Baltimore.
Mixed.
Low. High
as.
72}
71}
71i
73
73
71J
73
69!
72*
70}
67
64
US!
59
56*
53i
55
60|
60
60}
59f
54
52f
53J
56
63
57
56
60
50!
55|
62J
603
623
69
54!
524
54J
543
52!
58}
024
054
023
61
62?,
024
533.
51J
493
52
56J
58
(ill
60
58
581
504
56
53
as.
58!
60}
63
63*
66|
67J
67
59
64
65
47
434
51!
52!
4~1
481
51
544
5X>
58"
56
53
40 4
461
4!'!
40;
50}
:,oi
511
50J
50J
534
504
44i
■14
45 4
48
483
50 J
58
56
56
51
42
42
47:;
45i
40
40
:,:,
55
553
54}
53*
511
40
50
as.
69J
684
68
69
70
72
77
67
69
69
68
55}
60
55
52f
52!
55*
59
61
60
60
55
544
40 i
50
54.1
52|
52^
54
53f
53J
5X4
58f
Cincinnati.
No. 2.
Low. High
.50.4
50!
54
524
56J
04"
65
03'.
63
63
01
51'.
49f
54}
573
58
57!
55!
54 ::
54'
52
51 J
as.
62
61
62
604
64
634.
634
58
60
60
45
44
45'.
40
40
45'
48J
50
524
48
45',
45!
444
45',
454
46
50i
514
524.
55
554
56£
4.5 4
454.
46
48
474
40
54
57
54
544
554
454
44
42
43
47
514
514
534
50*.
48
48
47',
43"
Chicago.
No. 2.
Detroit. 1 St. Louis.
No. 2.
Low. High. Low. High
as.
684.
644
64
67*.
67}
664
69
64
634
62j
60
50
48|
48
47
40
47 1
54
53
544
53
40
46
46
404
474
51
54
564.
51
554
574.
57"
59
58J
52
40
48*.
52
504
544
57
594
574
504
56J
53"
47
40,
444
48
524
554
54
554.
54J
504
50
4X4
48
as.
564
56f
56
56|
594,
61
56
54
57
55
52|
43!
45;
424
41|
41|
44
47}
40
504
4.51
43*
41|
41
42J
40
40
40,4
471
53}
47}
51}
51
50
50
434
42
42!
454
46
48
51f
53|
53
513
50
454
42
41
413
50
434
47'.
50^
404
48|
47"
44J
44
40
as.
044
61}
61Ji
644
64| :
71*
88
60
621 '
014
58 |
57}
481
45
45i
453
40
52
53
53
52!
40
44!
43 :;
47J
544
504
50;
50
594
50
:,^<
54|
43J
45J
4x4
40 4
044
56j
59
57
54 4
54!
51
50}
45
454
44"
4X
50
54!
53
51
50
47}
47}
40
Cts.
57
59
59
594.
634.
63}
66
66
55!
574
60
47
47
404
414
404
404
51
544
51"
474
404
44"
No. 2.
Low. High
as.
67!
62
614
644
654
664
67
67
594
60"
664
704
474
454
48
55
55J
554
56!
514
4s\
484
No. 3.
42
454
444
4X4
51
4.X.4
49
514
53-1
52
474
444
45
4.5.4
48!
404
494
54"
57}
5.5.4
544
55!
44J
44;
44!
45"
43}
4X4
50!
52
53
•"'-'1
49
48}
40!
4X4
51!
50 |
54 I
57}
58
57
55*
59 |
55*
454}
45!
46!
47
52
53 4
55
55
54
52
49!
4o-;
404
as.
59
58!
59
59!
62*
62
61
54
56!
56
44!
40!
4U
41
39
39j
41'
48
48
48
45
414
414
414
43!
44J
44 i
48
48
47 I
48!
51J
51 !
514
484
42J
43!
44
46
46}
48
50!
51 !
511
514
50"
414
41*
as.
69}
63
63
67
66
67
66
61!
60!
58*
49"
494
444
44!
45
42 4
47 1
55
51!
514
50
45
433
45
40 1
514
54"
50.
52!
r,r,
54
54*
57
4"
45
47
49
40 4
53
56
58.
54!
544
534
5l|
40 4
41!
39!
40}
4.34
40
48
50*
46!
46"
44
41
39!
SI. 30 SI. 45
1.
1.
1.'
San Fran-
cisco.
No. 1, white
(per cwt.) .
Low. High.
43!
424
444
511
51
554
544
51
47-
40
454
45"
1.30
1.30
1.174
1.17!
1.17!
1.20
1.25
1.55
1.474
1.30"
1.25
1.25
1.274
1.25"
1.30
1.37!
1.424
1. 40"
1.40
1.40
1.50
1.40
1. 374
1.25"
1.25
1.321
1. 324
1. 324
1.324
1.40"
1.40
1.40
1. 324
1.30
1.30
1. 324
STATISTICS OF _, WHEAT. 549
Condition of the corn crop of the United States, monthly, 1892-1906.
Year.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Year.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Year.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
1392
81.1
82.5
79.6
79.8
1897....
82.9
84.2
79.3
77.1
1902. . .
87.5
86.5
84.3
79.6
1S93
93.2
87.0
76.7
75.1
; 1898....
90.5
87.0
84.1
82.0
1903...
79.4
78.7
80.1
80.8
1894
95.0
69.1
63.4
64.2
1899....
86.5
89.9
85.2
82.7
1904...
86.4
87.3
84.6
83.9
1895
99.3
102.5
96.4
95.5
■ 1900....
89.5
87.5
80.6
78.2
1905...
87.3
89.0
89.5
89.2
1896
92.4
96.0
91.0
90.5
1901....
81.3
54.0
51.7
52.1
1906...
87.5
8S.1
90.2
90.1
WHEAT.
Wheat crop of countries named, 1902-1906.
[Substantially th3 crop of the world.]
Country.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
NORTH AMERICA.
Bushels.
670.063,000
Bushels.
637,822,000
Bushels.
552,400,000
Bushels.
692,979,000
Bushels.
735,261,000
Canada:
468.000
26, 904, 000
54,7.50,000
13, 524, 000
877,000
4.000,000
471,000
22.583,000
41,381.000
15,598.000
1,238,000
4,000,000
371,000
13, 030, 000
40,397,000
16,447,000
968,000
4.000,000
418,000
22,195,000
57,519,000
26,930,000
2.379,000
4,000,000
420,000
Ontario
22,806,000
63.181,000
Saskatchewan
38,207.000
3,896.000
Other
4,000,000
100, 523, 000
85,271,000
75,213,000
113.441,000
132.510,000
Mexico
8,477,000
10, 493, 000
9.393,000
5,000,000
5,000,000
Total North America
779. 063. 000
733,586,000
637.006,000
811,420,000
872,771,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
56,380,000
10,641,000
7. 1*4,000
103,759,000
10,114,000
5, 240, 000
129,672.000
17,948.000
7,565.000
150,745,000
20,000.000
6,000,000
134,931,000
Chile
15, 800, 000
4,606,000
Total South America
74.625,000
119,113,000
155,185,000
176,745,000
155,337,000
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungary proper
49,655,000
170,884,000
12,017,000
2,384,000
46, 19S, 000
161,958,000
14, 664. 000
3,901,000
53, 734, 000
137,078.000
9,841.000
3,753.000
54,531,000
157,512,000
13,077.000
3, 016, 000
58,255,000
197,408,000
10,343,000
Bosnia-Herzegovina
2,693,000
Total Austria-Hungary...
234, 940, 000
226,721,000
204,406.000
228,136,000
268,699,000
14,521,000
35,000,000
4.528,000
79.000
327.841,000
143,315,000
8,000.000
136.210.000
200.000
5. 105. 000
265.000
10,400.000
7(1.220. 000
12,350.000
35,551.000
4.461,000
130. 000
364,320,000
130, 626, 000
8,000,000
184,451,000
200,000
4,258,000
307.000
8, 000. 000
73.700,000
13,817,000
42,242.000
4,302,000
133,000
298. 826, 000
139. 803. 000
8.000,000
167,635.000
200.000
4, 423, 000
212,000
6, 500. 000
53. 738, 000
12,401,000
40,736,000
4,083,000
130,000
335,453.000
135,947.000
8,000,000
160,504,000
200.000
5.109.000
329, 000
5,000.000
103,328,000
13,000,000
55, 076, 000
4, 400, 000
130,000
France
324. 725, 000
144, 754, 000
8,000.000
Italy
168, 000, 000
200,000
4, 700, 000
300. 000
8,000.000
113,867,000
550 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Wheal crop of countries named, 1902-1906 — Continued.
Count ry.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
EUEOPE — continued
Russia:
Russia proper
Bushels.
463, 2-58.000
20.349.000
77.069.000
Bushels.
' 4.54.
19.255.000
77,941,000
Bushels.
519.964,000
21.241.000
81,132.000
Bushels.
451,327,000
20.239.000
96.S17.000
Bushels.
35S.000.000
19 000 000
73 000 000
Total Russia ( European i.
560. 676. 000
i 551.792.000
622,337,000
5tiS.3S3.000
450.000.000
11.409.000
133.523.000
4. 757.000
4.200.000
25.000,000
10.SS5.000
5.538.000
4.000.000
26.000.000
11,676.000
95,377,000
5.135.000
4,000.000
23.000.000
11.262.000
92.0.54.(100
5,529,000
4,000.000
20.000.000
13.211.000
154.090.000
6.227.000
4.000.000
22.000.000
Sweden
S wit zerla ad
Turkey '..European |
Kingdom:
■ Britain —
England
Wales
Ireland
55.216,000
1,856,000
1.391.000
1,602.000
46.524.000
1,528,
1.093.000
1.176.000
35. 624. 000
1.499.000
919.000
1.040.000
57.424.000
2,130,000
1.204.000
1.430.000
57.5S3.000
2. 0
1,308,000
1.400.000
Total United Kingdom. . .
60. 065, 000
50.321.000
39.OS2.000
62,188.000
62,354,000
Total Europe
1.796.254.000
1.830.590.000
1,744,844,000
1.802.772.000
1.S25. 733.000
ASIA..
British India, including native
9 where reporting
Cvprus
227, 380, 000
297.601.000
2.477.000
359.936.000
2.176.000
2S3.063.000
2.000.000
319, 586. 000
2.000.000
Japanese Empire:
Japan
Formosa
20. 243. 000
107. 000
9. 600. 000
179.000
19.7.54.000
190.000
IS. 437.000
200 000
IS. 000.000
200.000
Total Japanese Empire. . .
20. £50. 000
9.779.000
19.944.000
18.637.000
is. 200. 000
Persia
13.600.000
16.000.000
16.000.000
16.000.000
16.000.000
Russia:
15.S97.000
30. 796, 000
20.995.000
48, 670. 000
12.S22.000
31,590,000
25.491.000
42.411.000
21 000 000
Sil^eria
35.000.000
Total Russia 1 Asiatic
4-1.693. 000
69,665,000
44. 412. 000
67.902.000
56. 000. 000
35.000.000
33,000,000
33.000.000
33.000.000
33 000 000
Total Asia
343.920.000
428.522,000
47.5. 468, 000
420.ro2.000
444.7
AFRICA.
Algeria
Egypt
Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian
Tunis
33,896,000
2.0110.000
12.000.000
4.000
300.000
4.127.000
34.03.5.000
1.7.5.5.000
11.000.000
4.000
294.000
7. -523. 000
25.4S4.000
2.000.000
12.000.000
7,000
486,000
10.519.000
20.000.000
2.000.000
12.000.000
4.000
5.729.000
28.000.000
2.000.000
12.000.000
400.000
4.409.0CO
Total Africa
52.327.000
54.611.000
50.496.000
40.216,000
46.813.0CO
TRAXASIA.
Australia:
Queensland
1.746.000
15.275.000
12. .510. 000
- 5. 000
963.000
994.000
6.000
1.63.5.000
50.000
6. 5.5,5. 000
1.017.000
905.000
. "14.000
28.196.000
29. 425. 000
13.626.000
1.935.000
792,000
2.217.000
16. 983. 000
21.606.000
12.454.000
2.077.000
■ 1
1 173 oro
- rath Wales
21 3"il 000
24. 1 ■
20 77° GOO
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
2,381,000
S01. 000
ToMl Australian Com- l
monwealtb
753, 000
12.768.000
76.4SS.000
56.215.000
70 6S1 000
Xew Zealand.
4.174.000
7. 6Q3. 000
8,140.000
9,411,000
7 013 000
1
43.927.000
20.461.000
84.C2S.000
6.5. 626. 000
77. 694. 000
Grand total
5.090.116.000
383,000
3.147.627.000
3,317,381,000
3. 423, 134. 000
a Includes government of Chernomorsk.
STATISTICS OF WHEAT.
551
International trade in wheat, 1901—1906.*
EXPORTS.
Count rv.
Yea r be-
ginning—
1901.
1902.
1903.
Argentina tan. 1
Australia Jan. 1
Austria-Hungary Jan. 1
ium.. ....... Jan. 1
British India Apr. 1
Bulgaria Jan. 1
Canada Jan. 1
Chile Jan. 1
Germany 6 Jan. 1
rlaiius Tan. 1
Roumania Jan. 1
Russia 'an. 1
Servia Jan. 1
United States July 1
Other countries
Bushels.
"3.22.1.924
20.2lO.O5S
13,773,674
4.901.652
26. 117. 530
57.350
3. 410. 976
37.427.119
83, 408, 574
2. 186, 913
154. 856, 102
;
Bushels.
23. 696. 306
8, 9ft'. 282
518, S 8
12.4' 7,375
19, 542. 525
8,624, 508
32. 9S5. 745
918,661
3. 019. 553
36,979,823
33,750,616
111,977,478
114,181,420
9.054.9S9
' Bushels.
61,778,175
1,172,838
603. 379
11,751,205
■
L, 979, 146
39,740,530
30,611,933
1,841,636
44. 230, 169
4,547,909
1904.
Bushels.
33,071,653
117,282
80, 475. 855
-
14.700.315
2,718,470
_
40,681,553
26,107,148
" i
i
5,294,121
Bushels.
105. 391. 256
24,648,182
'.453
35,171,216
" J. 1.17
6.050.111
53,052,451
63.066.299
176,789,611
3, 422. 554
34, 973, 291
3.1< -
Total 424. 059,656 418,572,590 435,946,057 504,268,487
Belgium Jan. 1
Brazil Jan. 1
Denmark Jan. 1
Finland Jan. 1
France Jan. 1
Germany b Jan. 1
Greece..' Jan. 1
Italy Jan. 1
Japan Tan. 1
Netherlands Jan. 1
Portugal Jan. 1
Spain Jan. 1
Sweden Jan. 1
Switzerland Jan. 1
United Kingdom Jan. 1
Other countries
i
4. 209, 246
5.070.715
1.504
■ • •'
78,418,416
-
38,444,603
190. 833
48, 145. 253
3. 392, 04S
5. 273. 16S
6,321,228
14,253,502
129.557.0V2
13. -•93.372
57.002. 144
5.501.214
4.329.013
11. US
9.029.614
76,225,923
27J
4 •■:. 274. 04S
192. 298
47,293,883
336, 955
2. 556. 594
7.510.655
S -- '
150. S93. 534
15,741,532
-
I
17,365,172
i ■--
6. 109, 739
43,115,829
2,748,269
22
- _ - _
i
23,58
i
7.112.130
■
. 878
•
74,2
5. 132. 775
" -■ i
- - '■■
50. 510. 097
282,29*
S. 192. 527
8,082,561
17.220.343
•
21,296,518
-J.991
7,873,514
3,447
4.215
6, 7 1
;
5. 753. 503
• ■
2 281,022
61,992,589
4. '.72. 573
32.517.7S5
7.255.222
16,158,553
1S1.579.S27
9. 409. 308
Total 414.111.705 441. 410.347 477.7- 292 11,732 527.170.S14
a See "General note" p. 546.
b Xot including free ports.
International trade in icheat flour, 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
Country.
Year be-
ginning—I
1901.
Argentina Jan.
Australia
Austria-Hungary Jan.
Belgium Jan.
British India Vpr.
Bulgaria Jan.
Canada Jan.
Chile Jan.
Germany *> Jan.
Netherlands Jan.
Roumania Jan.
Russia Jan.
Seryia Jan.
United States July
Other countries
Total.
Barrels.
806.959
987. 89S
208.906
302. 473
146.246
1,086.648
3.959
325. 498
Si J. 566
269.970
728.631
8.849
17,759,203
1,105,783
24,800.132
Barrels.
439. 125
336. 949
1,114,607
316. 272
410.330
154. 697
1,287,766
27 -"
_ -
82.21S
214,505
4. 402
9,716,484
1.209.7S6
Barrels.
809.636
62,214
1,095,357
358.132
463,098
211.311
- S87 ■
295.698
106.207
277 557
1.025.773
38.827
16,999,432
•
Barrels.
1.052. .500
589.426 !
2:32. 315
1.321.469
95,099
616. 939
1*1.372
135.900
1.172.442
28
S. S26. 335
. 258 28
Barrels.
1.628.271
1,573,663
1
512. 329
214. 5S7
991,701
199. 777
484.511
970. SOS
21.79S
13.919.048
5.169,334
26,186.055 24.454.171 18,265,101 2S. 9.54. 384
a See ''General note " p. 546.
b Xot including free ports.
552
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
International tra<l> in vital flour. 1901—1906 — <"<nunued.
IMPORTS.
Country.
Year lie-
ginning—
1901.
Belgium Jan.
Brazil Jan.
Denmark Jan.
Finland Jan.
France Jan.
Germany a Jan.
Greece . ." Jan.
Italv Jar.
Japan
Netherlands
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom.
Other countries. .
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Total.
Barrels.
232.9(19
1,502,173
350.992
574. 505
282 25
432. 713
23. OSS
14. 037
425.002
2.030.724
33.930
■ ".-
4S1.500
12,714,516
1902.
Barrels
99.022
1,187,695
379. Sot;
670, 193
32S. 927
354. S18
. •
12.470
496.633
1.S79.773
14. 17S
98. 375
406.907
11.040.771
6.170.616
1903.
Barrels.
1,317.531
467,774
764. 152
255.777
359.704
21.762
13.085
1.411.611
1.974,151
6.002
93.494
379.004
11.754.350
. 2
24,960,460 23,167,086 26.660,406
1904.
Barrels.
40.255
1.474.049
416. 460
757.085
232. 150
S4
11.700
1.291.886
■ ■
13. 094
a ■■•_
411.596
8, 384. 319
5.906.077
41.516
I '" 14
653,978
! - 74S
140.854
240. -W0
_- B
12. 513
I 242 981
■ 28
■ " "
73 U
a
21.165.347
o Not including free ports.
International trade in wheat, including flour, 1901- 1906.*
EXPORTS.
Country.
Year be-
ginning—
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
Argentina Jan. 1
Australia Jan. 1
Austria-Hungary Jan. 1
Belgium Jan. 1
British India Apr. 1
Bulgaria Jan. 1
Canada Jan. 1
Chile Jan. 1
Germany * Jan. 1
Netherlands Jan. 1
Roumania Jan. 1
Russia Jan. 1
Jan. 1
July 1
Seryia.
United States. .
Other countries.
Total
Bushels.
S58.24
24. 705. 599
5.1S5.254
14.107.813
15.134.802
5. 559. 759
31.007.446
75.166
- .--
- n
22. 104. 492
S6.6S7.414
. .. ?
234,772,!
14,569,635
Bushels.
25,672
10.515.552
5. 534. 270
13,890,599
21.3S9.010
9,320,644
• "-
1.043.8S3
4,044,662
37.349.S04
34.715.SSS
114 872 26
S75 v.
202.905.598
14.499.026
Bushels.
65.421.537
1.452. S01
5. 532. 4S5
13.362.799
50.6S4.27o
13.1S5.710
23. 923. 22S
2.270.72S
7.956.750
40. 21 S. 462
■
158,064,833
2.016.35S
120.727.613
9.311.307
90.115.119
7,807,9
3, 9S4. 7*9
IS. 217. 597
28 272
i -
- ."
3.146.416
•
- 268,223
26.7U
174.334.1S2
■ .
44.112.910
10. 955. 247
But I
112.7:- "
72
" 08,25
47.2
10,512 " "
53.951.447
"■ .-:
97.009.007
. 370,401
535,660.252 " "-"•-. "• 461,444 " ■ 93.090
IMPORTS.
Belgium
Brazil
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany »
Greece..'
Italy
Japan
Netherlands
Portugal
Spam
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom.
Other countries. .
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
55.982
11.374.024
6,650,179
- a 73
" - ■
6.492.956
38.510.469
2.103.342
57.283.511
3.393.200
5. 425. 853
6.710,600
. 23
ISO. 772. 404
39,272,978
.. . . u
10. 845. !*42
■ 27!
.
10. 509. 7S6
73 --. G -
6,396,218
43.330.190
2.427.146
55. 752. Sol
336. 955
2.620.395
7.953,343
17.057.583
200.577.004
43. 509. 304
. . .
12.129.189
5. 791 . 296
3.442.444
72. 501 . 263
6,207,666
43.174.711
9,164,759
58,552,554
2,748.5
- •
• S .
18.030.145
217.100.937
58.579.453
64.160.4.55
13.745.350
• - • -.
3.413.760
• ." .
75.430.443
5.207.403
29. 670. 497
6.702.045
a
282 - •
S. 253. 950
19.072.525
219.713.498
- ; ■
14,983.262
5.9 '
3. 98
7,343 Si
85,136,923
' - ..742
38.7-
! S3
243
"-.573
35. 902, 559
7,51!
7,898, *.
212. 0S9. 144
■" 283
Total 526.433*772 545,712.235 597.758.121 578.255,793 608,783
M-neral note," p. 546.
l> Not including free ports.
STATISTICS OF WHEAT.
World'' s visible supply of wheat, first of each month, for ten years. a
553
Month.
Bushels.
88,378,000
77,390,000
87,075,000
119,162,000
139,321.000
156,010,000
157,008,000
151,717,000
140,571.000
132.037.000
111,233.000
June 103, 845, 000
July
August
September.
October
November.
December..
January
February. .
March
April
May.
1897-98.
1898-99. I 1899-1900. I 1900-1901.
Bushels.
86,773,000
70,101,000
66,511,000
83.090,000
106. 886, 000
135,846,000
147,197,000
146,458,000
151,124,000
144,950,000
139,521,000
136.952,000
Bushels.
140.299.000
134, 525, 000
142,595.000
162.877,000
191,189,000
203.477,000
200,388,000
190,535,000
181,527,000
184.141,000
175.776,000
159,405,000
Bushels.
149.839,000
150,193,000
164,629,000
188,200,000
200.892.000
203.237,000
200,534.000
197.851,000
192,749,000
187,817,000
171,753,000
152.51S.000
Bushels.
135.092.000
132,379.000
141,071,000
159.465.000
169, 854, 000
202.108,000
200.990.000
202.278,000
191,877.000
179,789.000
155.480,000
131.255,000
Month.
July
August
September
October...
November
December.
January. .
February.
March. . . .
April
May
June
1902-3.
Bushels.
103.671,000
93.944,000
102,364,000
133.370.000
163,491,000
179,483,000
174, 640. 000
168.170.000
163.658,000
149.748.000
127,088.000
112.963,000
1903-4.
Bushels.
95, 820. 000
87.566.000
96.907,000
132. 972. 000
145.018,000
101.S91.000
107.712.000
159,464,000
152.035.000
147.859.000
145.840,000
133,190,000
1904-5.
1905-6.
1906-7.
Bushels.
IIS. 073. 000
103,740,000
115.183,000
144,400,000
170,240.000
186,891,000
178.710.000
171.124.000
165,370.000
155.744,000
141,734.000
123,770,000
Bushels.
114,
106,
113.
138.
157.
189,
192,
188,
193.
183.
159.
139,
302.000
838,000
511.000
759.000
735.000
323.000
690.000
030. 000
520.000
687.000
406,000
154.000
Bushels.
124,081,000
'i 41 ,"459 .'666
170.474,000
195.739,000
215.930,000
208,351,000
193.548.000
198, 020, 000
a From Broomhall's Corn Trade News.
Visible supply of wheat in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.
EAST OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS.*
Month.
July
August . . .
September
October...
November
December.
January. .
February.
March. . . .
April
May
June
1897-9S.
1S9S-99.
Bushels.
27,090,000
23,793,000
20.302,000
31.508.000
42.609,000
49. 859. 000
54,173,000
51,105,000
45,021.000
40.577,000
31.039.000
27.479,000
Bushels.
009,000
430,000
499.000
857.000
930,000
914,000
057,000
648.000
0S5.000
747.000
258.000
092,000
1899-1900.
1900-1901.
1901-
Bushels.
46,544,000
49,155.000
48.087,000
60,040,000
77,195.000
84.687,000
89.252,000
87.473.000
83,935.000
77.113.000
70,764.000
57,617,000
Bushels.
59.063.000
60, 398. 000
69.003,000
76.071.000
82.238.000
89.591,000
88. 456, 090
80.324,000
79.300.000
73.879.000
60. 298. 000
47, 109, 000
Bushels.
37,819.000
40, 924, 000
42,242.000
53,790,000
64,616.000
85,631.000
94.900.000
88,800,000
82,790.000
73,576,000
54. 610, 000
37,676,000
1904-5.
1905-6.
1906-7.
July
August . . .
September
October.. .
November
December.
January. .
February.
March
April
May
June
Bushels.
26,786.000
31,436.000
33,579,000
44,217,000
67,490.000
78. 352. 000
80,769,000
81,348,000
76,336,000
67.954.000
52, 585. 000
36, 040, 000
Bit
24,
21,
22.
33]
49.
59,
shels.
142,000
480,000
824,000
043.000
269,000
050,000
961,000
818.000
459.000
639.000
307. 000
685,000
Bushels.
21,131,000
19,508,000
20,905.000
29. 230. 000
41,252,000
54.387,000
56. 892, 000
54. 597, 000
52,907.000
46, 865, 000
40.158.000
28,532,000
Bushels.
20. 476. 000
21.314.000
21,705.000
28,894,000
53,745.000
62, 402, 000
71.634.000
73,151,000
70, 530. 000
66, 599. 000
54, 856. 000
40.347.000
Bushels.
33.810.000
39.633.000
43.611.000
56. 907. (K)il
45. ii94. 000
51.862.000
56,137.000
54,344.000
51.338,000
49,813,000
52.482,000
a The figures for stocks east of the Rocky Mountains represent 62 principal points of accumulation,
including Manitoba elevators and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by Bradstreet's.
554
YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
1risible supply of wheel in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten
years — Continued.
PACIFIC COAST.
Month.
1897
1898-99.
1899-1900.
1900-1901.
1901-2.
July
Bushels.
1,112.000 ,
2, 247. 000
4.051,000
6,251,000
7,391,000 1
6,944,000
6.661.000
5.318.000
4,424.000
3, 406. 000
8.051,000
_ 6,000
Bushels.
2,935,000
2,608,000
3, 065. COO
4,071,000
5,621,000
0.269,000
5,923,000
5, 030, 000
5, 104, 000
4,321,000
4.455,000
3.635,000
Bushels.
3,409,000
4,188,000
6, 282, 000
8, 858, 000
11.0S5.000
10,678,000
9, 022. 000
8,923,000
7,814.000
7,207,000
7,09
o. ! 1
Bushels.
5,903.000
5.770.000
7.1S3.000
10. 208, 000
9, 983, 000
10, 057. 000
8,686.000
8,717,000
6, 972. 000
6, 325, 000
5.0S4.000
4,672,000
Bushels.
3,228,000
3, 935. COO
September
4.260,000
6,235.000
November
December
January
February
March
April
Mav
June
7.262.000
7. 878. 000
7.186,000
6,521,000
5, .542. 000
5,428.000
3, 685. 000
3,139,000
Month.
1902-3.
1903-4
1904-5.
1905-6.
1906-7.
July
September
October
Bushels.
2.725.000
2. 345. 000
3.024.000
4, 737. OCO
4,719.000
5,361.000
4, 992. 000
4,373.000
3,435,000
3, M0, 000
3. 6S3, 000
2.546.000
Bushels.
1,775.000
1 . 400, 000
1.798,000
3, 227. 000
3. U7.000
3,591,000
3, 282. 000
2,689.000
2,930,000
2,472,000
2,078.000
2. 078. 000
Bush ft*.
1.668,000
1.351, OCO
1,582
4,106,000
3,874,000
8.733,000
3,458,000
3,051,000
1,673
2,486,000
1.860,000
1,461,000
Bushels.
839,000
581.000
1,130,000
3,156,000
4.486.000
5.^66,000
5.511.000
5, 295. 000
4 v 18,000
4.621.000
3. 017. OCO
3,349.000
Bushel*.
2,586,000
1,898.000
1, 943, 000
3.431.000
3,459.000
December
January
February
March
May
2,689.000
2.047,000
2,059.000
1.744,000
1,661, COO
1,731,000
Statement showing th amount of wheat in farmers' hands, the visible supply of the United
s and Canada, and of tht world, on March 1. 1892-1907.
Year.
Stocks in Visible supply
farmers' hands of the United Visible supply
in United States and of the world!
States. Can
Bushels.
1892 171,070,881
1893 135 _
1894 114. 059, 560
] 895 71
1896 123, 045, 290
1897 88. 149, 072
1898 121
1899 198. 050. 4: 0
1900 ' 158, 745, 595
1901 128,098,074
1902 173, 702. 5S3
1903 164, 047. 100
1904 132, 60S, 382
I'd.-, 111. 054. 050
1906 158, 403, 478
1907 206. 64 1 . 70S
Bushels.
68.007,000
110.693,000
105.863,000
110.546.000
98,834,000
63,521,000
49,445,000
.56. 189, 000
91,749.000
31 J 72. 000
88,332.000
79,771,000
58, 389, 000
54,580.000
75,42
.53,OS2.000
Bushels.
181,400,000
229.300,000
222. 400, 000
212,400,000
0191.900,00
155. .500, 000
140, 6C0. 000
151,100,000
LSI.- 500. 000
192. 700.000
191, 900. COO
163.700,000
1.v\ikj0,C00
165.400.000
193."-
19S, 020, COO
STATISTICS OF WHEAT.
555
Condition oj the wheat crop of the United States, monthly, 1888-1907.
Decem-
ber of
Winter wheat.
Spring
wheat.
Year.
When
When
April.
May.
June.
inly.
har-
June.
July.
August.
har-
vested.
vested.
p. a.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
1888
95.9
82.0
73.1
73.3
75. 6
77.4
92.8
95. 9
87.3
77.2
1889
90.8
95.3
94.0
81.0
96.0
80.0
93.1
78. 1
92.0
7ti. 2
89.4
73.5
94.4
91.3
83.3
94.4
81.2
83.2
83.8
1890
79.8
1891
98.4
96.9
97.9
96.6
96. 2
96.7
92.6
94.1
95. 5
97. 2
1892
85.3 ■
81.2
84.0
88.3
89.6
87.6
92.3
90.9
87.3
81.2
1893
87.4 :
77.4
75.3
75. 5
77.7
a 74.0
86.4
74.1
67.0
1894
91.5 ;
86.7
81.4
83.2
83.9
a 83. 7
88.0
68.4
67.1
1895
89.0
•81.4
82. 9
71.1
65.8
a ;:,. 4
97.8
1.12. 2
95.9
189G
81.4
77. 1
82. 7
77.9
75. 6
a 74. 6
99.9
93.3
78.9
1897
99.5 :
81.4
80.2 ;
78.5
81.2
a85.7
89.6
91.2
86.7
1898
86.7
77.9
86.5 ;
76.2 !
90.8
67. 3
85.7
65.6
a 86. 7
a 70. 9
100.9
91.4
95.0
91.7
96.5
83.6
1S99
92. 0
1900
97.1 1
82.1
88.9 i
82. 7
80.8
a 09. 6
87.3
55. 2
56.4
1901
97.1
91.7
94.1
87.8
88.3
a82.8
92.0
95. o
80.3
1902
8G. 7
78.7
76. 4
76.1
77.0
a 80.0
95.4
92. 4
89.7
1903
99. 7
97.3
92.6
82.2
78.8
a74.7
95. 9
82.5
77.1
1904
86.6
76. 5
76. 5
' 77.7
78.7
93.4
93.7
87.5
66.2
1903
82.9
91.6
92. 5
85. 5
82.7
93.7
91.0
89.2
87.3
1906
94.1
89.1
90.9
82. 7
85.6
93.4
91.4
86.9
83.4
1907.
94. 1
89.9
82.9
.
o Includes both winter and spring.
Acreage, production
, valw
. juice*, am! , tpoi
is of icheat
'n the
United States, 1S6C-1906.
Aver-
age
Chicago cash price per
bushel.
Domestic
Aver-
exports, in-
Year.
Acreage.
age
yield
per
Production.
price
per
Farm value,
Dec. 1.
December.
May of
following
cluding
flour, fiscal
year be-
acre.
el,
Dec. 1.
ginning
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
July 1.
Acres.
Bush.
Bushels.
Cents.
Dollars.
Cts.
Cts.
a?.
Cts.
Bushels.
1866
15, 424, 496
9.9
151,999,906
152. 7
232,109,630
129
145
185
211
12, 646, 941
1867
18,321,561
11.6
212,441,400
145.2
308,387,146
126
140
134
101
25.2S4.S03
1868
18, 460. 132
12.1
224, 036, 600
108.5
243, 032. 746
80
88
87
96
29,717,201
1869
19,181.004
13.6
260.146,900
i u. .)
199.024.9iin
63
76
79
92
53,900,780
1870
18,992,591
12.4
235, 884. 700
94.4
222,766,969
91
98
113
120
52, 580, 111
1871
19,943,893
11.6
230, 722. 400
114.5
264,075,851
107
111
120
143
38,995,755
1872
20, 858, 359
11.9
249.997,100
111.4
278.522.068
97
108
112
122
52,014.715
1873
22,171,676
12.7
281,254,700
106. 9
300,669,528
96
ion
105
114
91,510.398
1874
24,967,027
12.3
308, 102. 700
86.3
265.881.167
78
83
78
94
72,912.817
1875
26,381,512
11.1
292, 136, 000
89.5
261,396,926
82
91
89
100
74,750,682
1876
27,627,021
10.5
289,356,500
96.3
27s.:l;i7.23S
104
117
130
172
57, 043, 936
1877
26, 277, 546
13.9
364, l'J4.14ii
105. 7
385,089.444
103
108
98
113
92,071,726
1878
32, 108, 560
13.1
420. 122, 400
77.11
325,814.119
81
84
91
102
150, 502, 506
1879
32,545,950
13.8
448,750.630
110.8
497,030.142
12'7
133^
112.'.
119
180, 304, 180
1880
37,986,717
13.1
49S, 549. 868
95.1
474.201,850
931
109}
101
112?
180,321,514
1881
37,709,020
10.2
383, 280, 090
119.2
456, 880, 427
1241
129
123
140
121,892,389
1882
37,067,194
13. 6
504, 185, 470
88.4
445, 602, 125
9i;
94}
108
113?
147,811.316
1883
36, 455.593
11. 6
421,086.160
91.1
383,649.272
94?
99>
85
94}
111,534,1S2
1884
39, 475, 885
13.0
512,765,000
64.5
330, 862, 260
69J
76*
853
90}
132, 570. 366
1883
34, 189, 246
10.4
357,112,000
77. 1
275, 320, 390
82?
89
72*
79
94,565,793
1886
36, 806. 184
12.4
457,218,000
68.7
314,22(1,020
75*
79J
80}
88}
153, 804, 969
1887
37,641,783
12.1
456, 329, 000
68.1
310,612,960
75*
79|
811
891
119, 625. 344
1888
37, 336, 138
11. 1
415.868.000
92.6
385,24S,030
90*
105*
"i
95*
88,600,742
1889
38,123,859
12. 9
490,560,000
69.8
342.491,707
76|
8O.1
89}
100
109, 430. 467
1890
36,087,154
11.1
399,262,000
83.8
334. 773. 678
m
923
98?
108
106,181,316
1891
39,916,897
15.3
611,780.000
83.9
513,472,711
89jf
931
80
85}
225,665,812
1892
38, 554, 430
13.4
515,949,000
62.4
322,111,881
l.'.l'.
73
08}
76}
191,912,635
1893
34, 629, 418
11.4
396,131,725
53.8
213,171,381
591
64£
52*
60|
164, 283, 129
1894
34,882,436
13.2
460,267,416
49.1
225,902.025
•52}
63|
60}
851
144,812,718
1895
34,047.332
13.7
467,102.947
50.9
237.938,998
53^
64}
57*
67?
120.443,968
1896
34,618,646
12.4
427,684,346
72. il
310. 602, 539
74J
93|
0SJ
971
145,124.972
1897
39,465,066
13.4
530, 149, 168
80.8
428,547,121
92
109
117
185
217,306.005
1898
44.055,278
15. 3
675,148,705
5S. 2
392, 770, 320
62J
70
681
79£
222, 61S, 420
1899
44,592,516
12. 3
547, 303, 846
58.4
319,545,259
04
69|
63?
67i
186.096,762
1900
42, 495, 385
12.3
522, 229. 505
61.9
323,515,177
69J
74?
70
75J
215.990,073
1901
49,895,514
15.0
748,460,218
62.4
467, 350, 156
73
79i
72?
76}
234.772.516
1902
46,202.424
14.5
670,063,008
63.0
422,224,117
VIS
771
74}
80?
202.905,598
1903
49, 464, 967
12.9
637,821,835
69.5
443,024,826
77}
87
873
101J
120.727,013
1904
44,074,875
12.5
552,399,517
92.4
510, 489, 874
115
122
89£
113}
44,112,910
1905
47,854.079
14.5
692, 979, 489
74.8
518, 372, 727
82£
90
801
87}
97,609,007
1906
47,305,829
15.5
735, 260, 970
66.7
490, 332, 760
q
75
556
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Acreage, production, value, and distribution of wheat in the United States in 1906, by
States.
State or Territory.
Maine
Vermont
New York
• New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina ,
South Carolina
Georgia
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Texas
Indian Territory
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
United States .
Crop of 1900.
Acreage.
A cres.
8,038
1,388
467,509
111,093
1,642,553
121,745
806,401
744, 546
384,241
582,091
318,281
316, 107
2,117,750
2, 322, 750
1,976,200
1,041,600
288.040
5,119,412
585, 660
2,144,250
5, 992, 000
3,131,000
2, 376, 560
5,422,508
818, 624
871,418
98, 639
1,761
1,228,364
240, 849
1,333,133
177,338
137, 389
30,352
254,355
44,826
15,542
178,417
27,604
336, 736
1,204,201
712,411
1,572,144
47,305,S29
Production.
Bushels
199, 342
30
9,350
2,033
29, 073
1,947
12, 902
9,306
4,879
5,297
2,960
3,161
43, 202
48, 080
38, 535
13, 644
4,690
55, 801
9,212
31,734
77, 896
41,955
52, 288
81,830
11,542
10, 892
1,085
17
14,126
2,890
18, 663
1,915
3,297
871
8,266
1,120
391
4,888
869
8,231
25,075
14,215
26, 883
735, 260, 970
Dollars.
201,335
26, 619
7,667,148
1,626,402
22,095,623
1,383,023
9,160,715
7, 538, 528
3,952,687
4,926,236
3, 256, 045
3,224,291
30,673,491
33, 656, 648
26,589,771
9,824,371
3, 377, 387
36,271,034
5, 895, 820
21,262,383
49,074,480
25, 592, 794
29, 804, 554
47,461,754
8,426,097
8, 496, 326
1,019,927
15,321
10,877,163
1,791,917
10, 265, 124
1,436,438
2,110,295
635, 904
5,373,250
930, 140
403, 408
3, 177, 607
739,097
4,938,979
15, 546, 660
9,443,222
20,162,746
490,332,760
Stock in farmers'
hands March 1, 1907.
Shipped out
of county
where
grown.
Bushels.
69, 770
9,595
3, 646, 570
609,901
11,629,275
681,772
3, 483, 652
2,978,184
1,610,354
1,748,019
651,209
727,046
15,120,735
12,501,040
9,633,975
3, 820, 589
1,735,602
16,740,477
3, 132, 154
7,299,027
24,926,720
12,167,066
16,732,381
21,275,959
2, 308, 520
3,049,963
217,006
0
1,836,404
462,430
4, 665, 966
497,965
1,220,014
348, 441
2,479,961
280, 162
86, 165
1,955,450
260,858
2,634,122
4,262,794
2, 843, 119
4,301,386
206,641,798
Per cent.
35
31
39
30
40
35
27
32
33
33
22
23
35
26
25
28
37
30
34
23
32
29
32
26
20
28
20
0
13
16
25
26
37
40
30
25
22
40
30
32
17
20
16
28.1
Bushels.
0
0
2.898,556
406,600
7,268,297
1,051,877
7,870,474
2, 512, 843
683, 181
370, 792
59,201
94, 832
22,465,092
25,002,081
19,267,950
4,775,736
422, 173
39,619,130
2,303,054
15, 550, 101
66,211,600
32.725,212
35,556,311
63,009,570
3,347,353
3,049.963
10,850
0
3,672,808
1,410,192
12, 318, 149
114,915
857,307
43, 555
4, 133, 269
44, 826
15,666
1,564,360
34,781
4,609,713
19,558,701
7,818,578
14,517,177
427,252,826
Acreage, production, and farm value on December 1 of winter and spring ivhcat in the
United States in 1906.
Winter wheat.
Spring wheat.
State or Terri-
tory.
Acreage.
2
a .
•r* c
o o
<
PI
Average farm
price, Dec. 1.
Farm
value,
Dec. 1.
Acreage.
2
"» .
a u
be a
<
Produc-
tion.
Mi
2 °>
Fa rm
value,
Dec. 1.
Acres.
Bu.
Bushels. Cts.
Dollars.
Acres.
8,038
1,388
Bu.
24.8
22.3
Busheh.
199, 342
30, 952
Cts.
101
Dollars.
•>m -«5
86 26, 619
New York
467, 509
111,093
1,642,553
121,745
806,401
744, 546
384, 241
582,091
318,284
316, 107
2, 117, 750
20.0
18.3
17.7
16.0
9, 350, 180! 82
2,033,002; 80
29,073,188 76
1.947.920 71
7,667,148
1,626,402
22,095,623
1,383,023
9, 160, 715
7,538,528
3,952,687
4,926,236
3,256,045
3, 224, 291
30, 673, 491
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Maryland
16.0 12. 902.4161 71
Virginia
12.5
12.7
9.1
9.3
9,306,825 81
4, 879, 861 ! 81
5,297,028! 93
2.960.041 110
West Virginia
i
North Carolina . . .
South Carolina . . .
Georgia
10.0 3,161,070 102
20.4 43,202,100 71
..
Ohio
STATISTICS OF WHEAT.
557
Acreage, production, and farm value on December 1 of winter and spring wheat in the
United States in 1906 — Continued.
State or Terri-
tory.
Winter wheat.
Spring wheat.
Acreage.
ti ■
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota.
South Dakota.
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi.
Produc-
tion.
Acres. Bu. Bushels. 'Cts
2,322,750 20.7 48,080,925
1,976,200! 19.5 38,535,900
1,041,600! 13.1 13,644,960
62,440, 18.4 1,148,896
65,660j 22.3; 1,464,218
2,144,2501 14.8 31,734,900
2,041,560 23.2 47,364,192
5,131,800 15.3. 78,516,540
818,624! 14.! n,. 342, 598
871,418' 12.5 10,892,725
98,639 ll.O! 1,085,029
1,761 10.0 17,610
Texas..." 1,228,364 11.5 14,126,186
Indian Territory . 240,84912.0 2,890,188
Oklahoma 1,333,133 14.0 18,663,862
Arkansas 177,338 10. S 1,915,250
Montana
Wyoming '
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Farm
value.
Dec. 1.
Acreage.
Dollars. Acres. Bu.
33,656,648
26,589,771
9,824,371
827, 205
937, 100 1
21,262,383'
225,600 15.7
5,119,412 10.9
520,000 14.9
Produc-
tion.
\> si
Farm
value,
Dec. 1.
Bushels. \Cts. Dollars.
3,541,920: 72 2,550,182
55,801,591 65 36,271,034
7,74S,OO0 64 4,958,720
57 26,997,589
58j 45,539,593
731 8,426,097
8, 4%, 326
1,019,927
15,321
10,877,163
1,791,917
10,265,124
1,436,438
5,992,000 13.0 77,896,000
3,131,000 13.4 41,955,400
335,000 14.7 4,924,500
290,708, 11.4; 3,314,071
63 49,074,480
61 25,592,794
57 2,806,965
58 1,922,161
Nevada
Idaho
Washington. ..
Oregon ' 364,251 22.3
California ' 1,572,144 17.1
167,545
327,315
25.4
24.1
4,255,643
7,888,292
8,122,797
26,883,662
United States. 29, 599, 961 ; 16. 7 492,888,004
2,553,386
4,890,741
5,361,046
20,162,746
68. 3 336, 435, 081 17, 705, 868
137, 3S9 24.0
30,352 28.7
254, 355
44,826
15,542
178,417
27,604
169, 191
S7li,S8H
348, 160
32. 5
25.0
25.2
27.4
31.5
23.5
19.6
17.5
297,336
871,102
266,538
120, 650
391,658
888, 626
869, 526|
975,988
186,966
092, 800
242, 372, 966 63. 5 153, 897, 679
2,110,295
635,904
5, 373, 250
930, 140
403,408
3,177,607
739, 097
2, 385, 593
10,655,919
4,082,176
Average yield of wheat in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905.
Year.
United
States.
Russia.
Ger-
many.
Austria.
Hungary.
France.
United
King-
dom.
1S96 .•
12.4
13.4
15.3
12.3
12.3
15.0
14.5
12.9
12.5
14.5
9.0
7.3
9.8
9.1
8.1
7.9
11.1
10.6
11.5
10.2
(6)
26.4
25.3
27.2
28.4
27.9
23.5
30.3
29.3
29.4
28.6
(b)
15.9
13.2
18.0
18.9
15.5
16.7
19.0
17.7
19.5
19.6
(b)
19.4
11.7
17.1
17.8
16.9
15.1
20.7
19.0
16.3
18.4
(«)
20.0
15.1
21.1
21.2
19.2
18.5
20.2
22.8
19.3
20.8
34.7
1897
30.0
1898
35.8
1899
33.8
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
29.5
31.9
33.9
31.1
27.8
33.9
13. 5 9. 5
27.6
17.4
17.2
19. 8 32- 2
a Winchester bushels.
b Bushels of 60 pounds.
558
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Average yitbt per aire of wheat in the United State?. . by States.
State or Territory-
1399. 1900. 1901. 1E02. 1903. 1904. . 1905. 1506.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina . . .
South Carolina . . .
Georgia
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
iri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Texas
d Territory.
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
Bush.
16. 5
10.0
17.0
20.0
21.4
• I
19.7
21.5
la 2
12.0
13.4
8.0
B.7
I
16.9
13.0
7.9
15.6
12.5
13.0
13.0
9.0
10.3
•
14.5
15. 5
13. G
11.2
10.0
10.0
19.0
10.5
32.5
25.0
24.0
24.0
13.0
21.0
24.3
22.0
23.5
17.0
10.0
Bush.
19.5
19.0
22.5
20.0
21.2
17.4
17.5
13.3
15.3
14.1
13.8
-
10.6
10.0
1 6. 9
15.6
11.0
-
18. «
15. 3
14.4
12.4
16.4
14.2
15.4
13.2
12. 0
13.9
Bush.
22. 5
17. 2
22.0
IS. 3
18.5
14.5
- ■
14.1
8.4
9.3
6.5
6.8
14.2
9. >
10.0
3.4
15. 5
13.4
13.0
9.9
- ■
10.7
10.3
9.3
9.1
B.7
"
1L1
Bush.
19.5
16.3
23.5
2L8
17.7
19.1
13.5
20.3
19.5
11.9
9.8
9.6
9.0
9.1
6.0
5.3
13.0
"
15. 5
10.5
12.5
4.9
6.9
12.0
17.7
13.0
9.9
9.5
9.G
IS. 4
Bush.
23. 9
Bum. Bush.
23. 3 23. 0
■ ■
2a 9 25.1
14.9
11.0
29.5
_ :
i
23.8
31.7
2S.0
29.0
31.0
24. 2
20.5
9.1
13.3
8.6
25.7
If •
23.7
■
15.3
mi
13.0
24.2
22.7
19.2
14.1
19.0
10.1
2
17. G
__
21.0
14.6
2a 9
24.5
_ ■
23.5
13.8
10.3
13.1
16.8
17.1
;
17.2
10.9
10.9
8.7
8.8
■ .
15.3
i ■
17.6
11.1
12. 9
13.1
17.1
13. 5
12.1
10.8
8.8
8.9
16.4
8.8
2a s
24.5
24.1
21.5
21.8
20.5
25.1
21 2 I
-
21.1
13.0 .
16.8
16. 0
15.8
16.5
14.7
5.7
5.3
5.6
6.0
17.1
1^0
17.9
18.1
13.9
12.7
19. 9
15.9
12.2
20.9
ia4
as
■ .
6.0
8.0 I
9.0
12.3
11.1
9.1
2:15
13.0
17.1
lv7
21.2
27. 1
22.1
22. 2
io!o
ltt9
J ■
14.0
15.6
10.2
12.5
■ "
10.2
5.1
-
13.7
iao
■ -
15.5
13.1
12.4
■ 1
12.7
I
15.7
14.1
N4
7.1
9.1
&0
13.4
12.0
14.9
7.0
_■ _
20.9
In 4
25.3
22.'.
27
21.1
20.3
11.2
11.3
13.3
14.1
14.9
13.4
10.2
10.1
8.6
8.1
11.5
-
15.5
12.8
11.6
17.7
-
13.6
12.4
11.4
11.5
10.3
8.8
10.7
14.1
11.7
10.1
23.9
22.1
22.8
12 ■
25. 5
. I
22.9
Iao
10.8
Bu->h.
24 -
22.3
21.0
16.4
17.1
13.3
16.3
11.4
12.3
I
17.1
13.3
16.0
■ !
13.3
14.2
12.4
14.0
13.7
13.9
11.3
7.2
9.6
10.8
S.9
iao
a2
7.9
23.8
25.4
25.0
24 A
2
27.0
23.2
24
ia6
9.3
General average 13. 4 > 15. 3 12. 3 12. 3 15. 0
12.9 12.5 14.5
20.0
-
17 :
16. 0
16.0
12.5
12.7
ai
9.3
10.0
- -
20.7
13.1
10.9
15.7
14.8
13.0
13.4
22.0
15.1
14.1
12.5
11.0
iao
1L5
12.0
14.0
10.8
24.0
32.5
25.0
ZS .
23 4
31.5
24.4
20.8
20.0
17.1
15.5
Averane value per acre of wheat in tl v I upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States.
State or Territorv.
1897. 1398. 1599. 1900. -1901.
1904. 1905. 1906.
Maine $17.
New Hampshire 17.
Vermont 17.
Connecticut 20.
New York 19.
New Jersey 17.
Pennsylvania 17.
re 20.
Maryland 1".
Virginia 11.
West Virginia 11.
North Carolina 7.
South Carolina 10.
Georgia 9.
Ohio 14.
Indiana 11.
Illinois 7.
Michigan 13.
-in 10.
Minnesota 10.
Iowa 9.
Missouri 7.
North Dakota 7.
South Dakota 5.i
Nebraska 10. (
4.
$20.47
$17. 55
■«23. 13
r24.99
S24.23
-
tests
rJI
17 48
20.25
16. 34
18.70
15.00
H
i 1
20.49
19. 35
-■
.
m
17. ei)
15.26
-
■
17.05
■■
i
13.27
14.42
12.32
16.40
m
12.70
10.88
14.13
12.10
12.16
11.43
14. »3
14. 43
14.64
S3
-
J
12.31
11.53
12.32
15.23
13.45
21
9.13
14.21
13.13
12. 33
"
11.32
11.38
W
10.71
9.59
12.21
10.58
•-
14.20
13.37
11.36
"4
9.31
5.30
- 57
7.96
4.50
7.31
11.12
10.03
10. 12
99
9.80
6.60
i .rto
- "
6.31
■ 1
11.01
10.95
10.29
52
" ■
5.49
1 37
7.13
4.88
10.23
6.83
3.48
27
9.96
9.09
8.62
5.71
6.56
10. 21
n
10.23
•■>
■
6.66
• ■
5.88
5.95
11.09
7.38
10.20
93
11. 15
9.09
-
12.14
10.96
12. 65
14.02
■
9.83
27
3.71
11.06
10.88
1 •
n
15.01
14.49
6.30
• .
12.14
10. 56
6.30
13.94
12.96
13.31
j
-
7.88
12.21
11.94
10.58
14.61
9.43
-
. -
-
9.92
10.48
11.61
11.22
15. 13
11.73
01
■ :
7.37
_
7.74
9.04
11.14
7.08
8.68
7.15
9.20
9.75
6.96
7.69
10.48
10.08
10.07
65
' '•
a 14
1 •■
10.97
11.54
11.23
9. 30
9.92
.
7.34
-
- -•
7.07
9.22
8.00
9.56
9.66
8.19
"_•
6.20
■ ■
4.00
6.84
6.95
8.56
1 '■
■
■ 1
OO
7.71
5.05
6.36
9.23
10.23
• 17
11. S3
12. -:
12.54
STATISTICS OF "WHEAT.
559
Average value per acre of v heat in (he United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by Staffs— Continued.
State or Territory.
1897. 1898
1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903.
Kansas $11. 47
Kent ucky I 12. 10
Tennessee 10. 04
Alabama 10. 10
Mississippi 9. 90
Texas 14.06
Indian Territory
Oklahoma 14. 44
Arkansas 8.82
Montana 22. 10
Wyoming 17. .50
Colorado 16.80
New Mexico 18.00
Arizona 13. 32
Utah 14.28
Nevada 21.87
Idaho 15.40
Wa shington 15. 98
Oregon 12. 24
California 8. 30
S7.10
9.53
8. 84
10.80
11.54
10.00
7.75
6.38
17.11
16.35
14.73
14. 76
15. 12
27.55
15. SI
13.07
12.71
6.55
$5.10
6.01
6. 79
6. 76
6.01 i
7.55
$9.73
8.97
7.82
8.45
8.06
11.78
7.05
5.50
15.68
12.(»
13.51
8.42
9.79 I
10.97 i
13.68
12. 10
11.58
10. 18
8.74 I
10.07
6. 57
16.23
13.38
13.33
14.28
11.53
11.49
17.15
9.57
11.99
7.59
5.97
S10.92
8.71
7.99
[ 7.66
7.57
i 6.94
8.42
10.33
17.70
16.91
10. 15
15.48
I 18.53
14. 36
22. 09
12.93
13. 07
11.37
7.80
S5. 73
6.88
5. 47
5.5S
6.80
0. 03
7.50
0.44
0. 10
16. 12
19.04
13. .50
14.71
19. 04
10.11
25.56
15.44
14.44
13.37
58.33
6.80
5.96
8.65
7.44
10.45
8.28
9.39
5.40
18.61
1.5. 47
17.56
13.80
23.53
18.08
27.32
1.5. Ni
14.04
13. 9S
9.74
411.06
12. 43
12.77
11.85
8. 89
11.77
13.82
j 10.88
| 10.20
21.2s
1 19.89
22. 7.5
13. 57
28 K
22. 88
24. 10
IS. 34
17.77
1.5.37
< 9.50
9.83
6.55
9.70
10.26
7. s3
7.70
5.66
7.11
10. 90
18.29
17.50
19.98
20. 21
17.69
20.79
18.49
16. 13
7.03
$8.75
10.29
9.75
10.34
S.70
8.85
7.44
7.70
S. 10
1.5.30
20.95
21.13
20.7.5
17.81
2... 77
14.00
12.91
13.20
12. 82
General average 10. S6 8. 92
7.61 9.37 9.14 8.66 11.5s 10. S3 10.37
Averegi farm price of wheat per bushel in the United States, December 1. 1897-1906, by
States.
State or Territory.
Maine I
New Hampshire 1. 10
Vermont 1. 04
Connecticut 1. 00
Now York .90
New Jersey 93
Pennsylvania 91
Delaware 94
Maryland 93
Virginia 92
West Virginia 89
North Carolina 94
South Carolina 1. 18
03
Georgia
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota...
South Dakota...
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Texas
Indian Territory
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon."
California
Is-v
S0.S9
.92
.90
.88
.72
.73
.68
.69
.70
.66
.71
.78
.94
.98
.66
.03
.60
.64
.59
.54
. .52
.59
.51
.50
.47
.50
.62
.67
.90
.83
.68
General average
1899. 1900.
SO. 91
.95
.95
so.eo
.92
.78
.82
.77
74
.72
.70
.71
.72
.77
.82
1.01
.95
.71
.70
.i.4
.69
.04
.03
.59
.63
..58
.58
.53
.69
.79
.89
.84
.64
1901. 1902. 1903. 1904.
SO. 97 SO. 92
" "i."6y
. 94
.72
.71
.71
.73
.77
SI. 04
l.'lo"
.7v)
.70
.73
.7.5
.72
.79
.82
.92
1.02
.98
.71
.68
.59
.69
.64
.61
. 55
.58
58
.57
.49
. 55
.74
.70
.93
.85
.77
.01
.58
.07
.02
.si
. ,5
.86
1. 05
.70
.98
.70
. 05
.81
.82
.79
.78
.79
.84
.85
.97
1.01
.96
.80
.78
.75
.77
.72
.69
.'•2
.71
.63
.1.2
.54
.59
.81
.84
.95
.93
.584 .619 i .624 I .630 j .695
1.09
1.10
l.OS
1.08
1.06
1.09
1.09
1.19
1.26
1.26
1.10
1.00
1.01
1.08
.98
.87
.90
.96
.81
.79
.87
.86
1.09
1.11
1.15
1.01
1.10
.98
.93
1.01
.89
.90
.91
1.06
1.13
.86
.92
.80
. 80
.81
SI. 00 SI. 01
1.02
1.11
1.07
.82
.82
.81
.79
.70
.71
.71
.79
.69
.07
.71
.87
.91
1.01
.95
.90
.71
.72
.70
.90
1.17
.67
.77
.66
.68
.82
1906.
.82
.80
.70
.71
.71
.81
.81
.93
1.10
1.02
.71
.70
.69
.72
.72
.65
.04
.07
.63
.01
.57
.58
.73
.78
.94
.s7
.77
.62
.55
.75
.04
.73
. 65
.83
1.03
.85
.60
. 62
.66
.75
.667
560
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Wholesale prices of wheat per bushel in leading cities of the, United States, 1901-1906.
Date.
]901.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November. .. .
December
1902.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1903.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November.. . .
December
1905.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. . .
October
November. ..
December . . .
New York.
No. 2, red
winter.
Low.llligh.
.79J.S0.83J
.s.v;
.851
.82
.82
. 88 i
.87-;
.70:
.71;
.731
.73?
.76
• 76|
.78-1
■MS
.78*
.79"
.81J
.85
.80]
.833
.si,'
.821
.833
.S9J
.92*.
.94
1.01
1.04
1.06
1.04
1.00
1.00
1.08
1.13}
1.17}
1.16
1.18
1.20}
1.1U
.91'.
-Qi i
1.03|
.90
• 842
.858
.88'
.90
.923
.Nl>
.82 J
.841
.84|
. 85 1
.793
.80*
.77|
• sol
.83*
. 89j
.84
• 83J
.8(1',
.89"
.87
■ 89|
.89[
.89*.
.9ir
.92
.99
Baltimore.
Chicago.
Southern, No. 1, north-
No. 2, red. ern spring.
Low. High
SO. 73,'
.76
.77;
.7(1'.
■ 78 J
.72
.693
.72
.78'.
.70T
.74J
.78*.
. s 1 3
.80
.76
.75
.81
.76
.703
.66}
.68
.69
.71}
.71}
.77|
.78}
.79
.78}
.76J
.79
.78}
.80*
. 82|
.85"
1.01
1.15
1.11
1.101
1.20
1.15}
1.16
1 . 203
1.25}
1.26}
1.253
1.24}
1.253
1.25*
1.212
1.15
1.11}
1.14}
1.09}
.9lj
.'112
.99
.98}
1.01
.94
.99
.98*.
. 99 '
.82
.82
.88?
1.03}
1.13
1.08}
1.083
1.01
1.01',
.98
.83
.83}
.73
.75
.76
. 753
. 7(1'
.76"
.78
.85|
.85
. 85 '.
.87*
.83
.813
.74}
.723
.75*
.77*
.77"
.83
.81
.81
.83
. 82 '.
.82
.81
.83
.83)
.86
.87
. 88
.94
1.12
1.05}
1.05
1.08
1.03}
.89
1.09}
1.14
1.18
1.15}
1.15
1.19*
1.17
1.141
1.09*
1.071
1.031
.92
.84
.84}
.861
.85}
.87
Low. High,
.71810.761
.743
.74
• 721
.693
.70
.72|
.71}
.71{
.6S}
.70
.67*
.691
.711
.81}
.86
.88}
.851
.873
.92
.94*
1.02
1.16
1.1.5
1.15
1.15
1.18
1.15
1.12
.88.
.S9J
1.07^
1.12
1.03
.88
.86
.85
.82*
.76}
.741
. 751
.77}
.713
.77
.il
.711
.733
. 79*
. 80*
.761
.76
.763
.76}
.753
.79
.76
.95
. 751
.771
.77|
.84
.90}
.93
,88
.86}
.87
.93
1.10
.98|
.96"
1.011
1.00
1 06
1.20
1.22
1.22
1.20
1.22
1.21
1.24
1.183
1.18
1.13
1.20
1.20
1.15
.95
.92}
.92
.90
Detroit.
No. 2, red.
St. Louis.
Minneap-
olis.
Low. High
$0. 78
. 78*
. 78.7
.74"
.741
.c.7:;
.661
.68}
.70*
.70
.73
.79
.86
.84}
.77}
.77*
.80"
.79
.72
.68*
.703
.72
75}
.771
.773
.79
.74}
.75}
.76
.773
.76*
.78*
.79
.823
.84
.89
.92
.94}
.97;
.98
1.021
1.01
.97
.98
1.111
1.16
1.16
1 . 15
1.19
1.17*
1.07*
.96
.97
1 . 00
.8(1
.81
.82
.80
.87J
.86
SO. 82}
.80}
.80
.78
.77}
.77}
.71
.7(1',
.73}
.71"
.79}
.'JO1
.93*
.S7}
.853
.87}
.88
.81*
.82
.73
.74
.763
.80:
.83
. S3'
.81
.79
.773
. 79*
.82
.80
.84
.84
.87}
.9(1
.'.'1
.95
1.12
1. 01',
1.0J
1.12*
1.13
1.07
1.16
1.23
1.21
1.22
1.20
1.23
1.24
1.21
1.07}
1.08
1.09
1.05
.84
.853
.90}
.90}
No. 2, red
winter.
No. 1, north-
ern.
Low. High,
.72 $0.77
.73} .753
.74
.71
.73'.
.633
.61}
.661
■ 70J
.70*
.72J
.81
.86*
.83}
.761
.77}
.76*
.76"
. 65*
.63"
.66
.673
.69
.69
.73}
.73*
.70"
.691
.72
.76
.77}
.791
.84
.85
. 85*
.90"
.89*
.94"
.98
.97
.98
1.00
.91
.91
1.08}
1.13}
1.12*
1.13
1.14
1.16}
1.111
.98
.95
.92
.83*
.82}
.82
.88
.89
.923
.753
.76}
.76
.7.5}
. 703
.73"
.72*
.73}
.80
.88}
.92*
.89*
.863
.83}
.84}
.80
.78
.68}
. 68*
.72
.71
.74}
«0.73
.73
.73
.70}
• 701
.621
.60}
.(1(1
.661
.do
.68}
.713
.732
.72}
.70*
.702
.74
• 73J
.762
.74}
.66*
.68'
.1X1
.76}
.77*
.75}
.731
.76}
.83}
.82
.85
.90*
.94
.97
1.12
1.08.
1.08
1.10
1.103
1.12
1.14}
1.21
1.21
1.18
1. 18*
1.20
1.19*
1.17
1.12
1.13*
1.06
.9.5*
.88
.90
.95
.95
1.01
Low. High
San Fran-
cisco.
No. 1, Cali-
fornia
(per cwt.).
Low. High
$0.77}
.712
.742
.74}
.74}
.743
.693
.71*
.69J
■68J
.7l|
.77
.79*
• 75j
• 75J
.772
.78
.77
.80
.79:
•71}
.731
.74*
.74|
• 73J
.75|
.74|
.741
.76
.79}
.83}
.832
.82
.78}
.772
. 80*
.843
.90
.94*
.90|
.93}
.93*
.942
1.03*
1.12
1.112
1.062
1.061
1.08*
1.073
1.05
.912
.952
1.04
1.01}
.83*
.75}
• 782
.79
.773
.78
.77-
.77;
• 80J
• 88J
.89}
1.00
.913
.86
.82J
• 83J
$0,971
.95
.95
1.00
.97*
.96}
.95
.97}
.96}
. 95
.982
1.01}
1.05
1.07*
1.10"
1.10
1.11}
1.11}
1.133
1.12}
1.12*
1.181
1.32}
1.371
1.30}
1.433
1.35
1.35
1 . 32*
1.32*
1.32*
1.45
1.37*
1.30}
1.38?
1.333
$1.01}
.98J
1.02}
1.05
1.01}
1.00
1.00
.98|
.97}
. 98J
1.01J
1.06}
.91.1
1.05
1.01*
.983
.982
.97}
1.02
1.242
1.24*
1.22"
1.192
1.14}
1.13*
1.123
1.111
1.08|
1.24
1.09',
1.091
1.11
.80
•871
.84*
.81"
1.35
1.35
1.36}
1.27*
1.26J
1.233
1.233
1.37
1.40
1 45
1.45
1.45
1.45
1.50
1.50
1.45
1.45
1.50
1.50
1.45
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.35
STATISTICS OF OATS.
561
Wholesale prices of wheat per -bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1901-1906-
Continued.
New York.
Baltimore.
Chicago. Detroit.
St. Louis.
Minneap-
olis.
San Fran-
cisco.
Date.
No. 2, red
winter.
Southern,
No. 2, red.
No.l, north-' N j
em spring. |
No. 2, red
winter.
No.l, north-
ern.
No. 1, Cali-
fornia
(per cwt.).
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.1 Low. High.
Low.
High.
Low. High.
Low. High.
1906.
January
.89*
,90|
.85
.88J
.93
• 91|
.81
.77J
.77
.97
.96J
.891
.92)
.95
.97
• 92|
.814
.81"
.84
.84*.
.81
.83
.86?
.871
.75?
.71
.68
.74
.73*.
.73f
.86?
.86?
.84?
.88?
.89-3
.91
.81?
.75
•74J
■ 75|
.75*.
.75
.81J
.79}
.74.1
.77"
.801
.81?
.75?
.735
.77
a. 71
o.71|
a. 721
.85} -85
.83Ji .84
.79*1 .81
.83*1 .85*
.87}! .89}
. 85f . 86
.84 ■ .74?
.88
.86*.
.86
.89
.93*
.89"
.85*
.92*.
.88
.89
.90
.88
.80
■ 71"
.68J
.69
.74
.74
.74
.96
.94
.98
.98*
.82
.72j
.75*
.77}
.76}
.76}
February
March
April
May
July
.77| .721 -75
.79 .72 ; .75}
0.735 -74f .78}
a. 74} .77*1 784.
a. 75 ! .76| .781
September
October
./8* .83|
.SOJI .84 J
.801 .83
November
December .
o No. 2. red.
OATS.
Oat crop of countries named, 1902-1906.
[Substantially the crop of the world.]
Country.
1903.
1905.
NORTH AMERICA.
Jj$ lishfls
United States 9X7. 843. 000
Canada:
New Brunswick.
Ontario
Manitoba
Saskatchewan. .
Alberta
Other
Bushels.
784.094.000
Bushels.
894, 590, 000
Bushels.
953,210,000
5,481,000
109,780.000
35, 565. 000
7,196.000
3.S96.000
43.000.000
5,974,000
113,337,000
34,077,000
9.453.000
5.351.000
43.000.000
Total Canada 204, 924, 000
I .
Mexico
Total North America 1, 192. 7S0, 000
211,192,000
EUROPE.
Austria -Hungary:
Austria
Hungary proper
Croatia-Slavonia
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Total Austria -Hungary. .
Belgium
Bulgaria
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Rouma'nia
Russia:
Russia proper
Poland
Northern Caucn sia
Total Russia (European) .
13,000
995,299.000
125.473,000
82; 807, 000
6,301,000
3.001.000
128.330,000
87,334,000
7, 330, 000
5,612,000
217,582,000
228,606,000
5. 316. 000
105,393,000
37,434,000
11,095.000
5,786,000
43,000,000
5.659,000
108,890,000
46,917,000
19,819,000
9,814,000
43,000,000
208.024.000
234,099,000
IS, 000
17.000
1,102,638,000
1.187,332.000
109,611,000 123,880,000
62,775,000 78,009,000
4,907,000 6,075,000
3,829.000 2,935.000
181,122,000 210.899.000
45,588,000
10,000.000
40,822,000
15,190,000
276.948,000
514,452,000
13,000,000
19,241.000
6,674.000
21,905.000
48,345,000
11.3S9.000
41,176,000
17,046,000
300,366,000
542,432,000
16,000.000
20,112,000
9,091,000
33,108,000
37,499,000
11.179.000
38. 183, 000
16,995.000
257,811,000
477,852.000
14,000.000
18, 592. 000
6,922,000
12, 608, 000
807,888,000
63,167,000
16,112,000
650,405,000 1,006,102,000
58,745,000 44,393,000
18,933.000 14,593,000
728,089.000 11,065.088,000
33,786.000
10,263.000
32.659,000
15,000,000
269,581,000
451,017,000
16,000,000
16,045,000
9,868,000
18,974.000
767,550,000
61,933,000
22,228,000
Bushels.
964, 905. 000
5, 875, 000
111,756.000
52,291.000
24,721,000
14.209.000
43,000,000
251.852,000
17,000
1, 216, 774, 000
154,551.000
87, 733, 000
6,200,000
3,836,000
252,320,000
40,000,000
18,793.000
38.000,000
16.000,000
258,454,000
580, 875. 000
18,000.000
18.000,000
81000,000
26, 165. 000
851,711,000
544,873,000
66,424,000
21,968,000
633. 265, 000
3 A1906-
-36
562 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Oat crop of countries monad, 190^-1906 — Continued.
Country.
1902.
.
1904.
1905.
1906.
eueope — continued.
Bushels.
4.044,000
23.349.000
57.323.000
Bushels.
4,398.000
22.942.000
59.641.000
Bushels.
3,167.000
18,500.000
51,578.000
Bushels.
3,50,000
22.305.000
58.488.000
Bushels.
42 000
Spain
32 000
■
United Kingdom :
Great Britain-
89,809.000
36.760.000
7.924.000
65, 570. 000
85. 400.000
36,379,000
6,832,000
58,816,000
"28,000
37.034.000
7.661.000
60.142.000
76.453.000
36.390.000
7.264.000
60,754.000
^4 102 000
35 107 000
Wales
8 063 000
Ireland
60 000 000
Total United Kingdom . . .
200.063.000
187.427.000
191,565.000
180.861.000
187.272.000
Total Europe
2. 353. 34*. 000
2.270.168.000
2,402.661.000
2.201.006.000
2.214.049.000
ASIA.
Cyprus
236.000
481.000
417.000
400.000 |
400.000
Russia .
Central Asia
9.433.000
34.07S.000
11.342.000
60.352.000
8.014,000
51.101,000
14.279.000 .
70.672,000
9.806.000
69.872.000
Total Russia (Asiatic)
43.511.000
71.694.000
59.115.000
M .-51.000 '.
" • "8.000
Total Asia .
43.747.000 !
85.351.000
80.078.000
AFRICA.
Algeria
Cape of Good Hope
8.732,000
1.750,000
9,000
324. 000
7.976.000
2.503.000
6.000
1.631,000
6,631,000
2.000.000
43.000
4,635,000
6.000.000
2.000.000
8.000,000
2. 000. (Win
Natal
Tunis
9.000 i 9.000
2.032.000 j 2.411.000
Total Africa
10.815.000
12.116.000
13.309.000
10.041.000 12.420.000
AUSTRALASIA.
Australia :
Queensland
44.000
709,000
6.937.000
4S4.000
164.000
1.756.000
1,000
363.000
4.542,000
640,000
173,000
1.808,000
73.000
1.292.000
13.858.000
931,000
267.000
1.673.000
16.000
673. 000
6,353.000
573.000
233.000
6. 000
911,000
7.460.000
897.000
293.000
1.216.000 | 1.238.000
Total Australian Corn-
10.094.000
7.527.000
18.094.000
9.064.000
10.805.000
15.519.000
22.452.000
15.5S3.000 J 15.012.000
13.108.000
25,613.000
29,979,000
33.677.000 24.076.000
23.913.000
Grand total
3.626.303.000 3.379.737.000
' 1
3.611.817.000 3.507.806.000
3.547.234.000
Visible supply of oats in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years."
Bushels.
July 12,912.000
August 9. 604. 000
September 13, 784. 000
October 15, 573, 000
Noyember 20,096.000
December IS
January 16. 148. 000
February 20. 245. 000
March. 17, 925. 000
April 15. 609. 000
May 14. 402. 000
.Tune 10. 421, 000
1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-2.
Bushels.
S. 716. 000
4. 971. 000
7,360.000
9.286,000
11,352,000
9.460.000
10.893.000
13.231.000
14.782,000
15. 725, 000
13,971.000
13.661.000
Bus\i.
10.262.000 I
■• no
10,973,000
13. 12; . 000
13. 254. 000
11.789.000
12, 004, 000
11,876.000
12, 449. 000
14, 176. 000
13, 845. 000
12,301,000
Bushels.
12.716.000
13.853.000
17.140.000
20.528,000
•
16,175.000
16,800.000
15. 823. 000
16.824.000
14.989.000
Bush:
15.275.000
" •• ■
10.603.000
14.445.000
12.899.000
10.109.000
vXOOO
8.537.000
_ 7.000
6. 606. 000
5. 010. 000
4,571,000
« These figures represent stocks ayailalsle at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba eleyators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by
Bradstreet's.
STATISTICS OF OATS.
563
Visible supply of oats in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years-
Continued.
July
August...
September
October...
November
December.
January..
February .
March
April
May
June
1902-3.
Bushels.
2, 420, 000
2, 988, 000
5, 159, 000
11,241,000
10,661,000
10,401,000
8, 794, 000
8,727,000
12,437,000
12, 432, 000
9,992,000
7,160,000
Bushels.
6, 686, 000
8,623,000
11,714,000
10, 876, 000
13, 332, 000
13, 995, 000
13, 785, 000
14, 774, 000
15,241,000
15, 377,. 000
12, 955, 000
8,296,000
1905-1).
Bushels.
6,766,000
4,044,000
19, 607, 000
31,553,000
33,693,000
34, 103, 000
31, 343, 000
26,095,000
22, 570, 000
22, 667, 000
19, 395, 000
11,325,000
Bushels.
11,174,000
8,007,000
20,597,000
28,018,000
37, 526, 000
40, 206, 000
39,301,000
35,791,000
31,726,000
28,006,000
22,033,000
12,785,000
Bushels.
10,020,000
7,607,000
13,241,000
15,969,000
17, 275, 000
20,011,000
19,766,000
18, 034, 000
15, 664, 000
14,435,000
14,815,000
Condition oj
the oat crop of the
United States, monthly,
1889-
1906.
u
ffi
u
£>
.Q
&
Year.
6
a
3
>>
3
en
3
60
3
i
CD
Year.
i
"3
OQ
3
60
3
a
&
a
Year.
6
a
3
>>
3
3
Eh
3
a
ft
5
Hs
>->
■«!
CO
^
^
<
m
*
Hs
■<
02
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct. P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
1889....
93.8
94.1
92.3
90.0
1895....
84.3
83.2
84.5
86.0
1901....
85.3
83.7
73.6
72.1
1890....
89.8
81.6
70.1
64.4
1896....
98.8
96.3
77.3
74.0
1902....
90.6
92.1
89.4
87.2
1891....
85.1
87.6
89.5
90.7
1897....
89.0
87.5
86.0
84.6
1903....
85.5
84.3
79.5
75.7
1892....
88.5
87.2
86.2
78.9
1898....
98.0
92.8
84.2
79.0
1904....
89.2
89.8
86.6
85.6
1893....
88.9
88.8
78.3
74.9
1899....
88.7
90.0
90.8
87.2
1905....
92.9
92.1
90.8
90.3
1894....
87.0
77.7
76.5
77.8
1900....
91.7
85.5
85.0
82.9
1906....
85.9
84.0
82.8
81.9
Acreage, production, va
lue, prices
exports, etc., o
/ oats
of the United States, 1866-1906.
Av-
Chicago cash price per
Domestic
Acreage.
Av-
erage
yield
per
acre.
Produc-
tion.
erage
farm
price
per
bush-
el,
Farm
value,
Dec. 1.
bushel
, No. 2
exports,
including
oatmeal,
fiscal
year be-
ginning
July l.o
Imports
during
Year.
December.
May of
following
year.
fiscal
year
begin-
ning
Dec.l.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
July l.o
Acres.
Bush.
Bushels.
Cts.
Dollars.
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
as.
Bushels.
Bushels.
1866
8,864,219
30.2
268,141,077
35.1
94,057,945
36
43
59
78
825,895
778, 198
1867
10,746,416
25.9
278,698,000
44.5
123,902,556
52
57*
122, 554
780,798
1868
9,665,736
26.4
254,960,S00
41.7
106,355,976
43
494
56!
62*
481,871
326,659
1869
9,461,441
30.5
288,334,000
38.0
109,521,734
40
4*1
46*.
53*
121,517
2,266,785
1870
8,792,395
28.1
247,277,400
39.0
96,443,637
37!
41
47|
51
147,572
599,514
1871
8,365,809
30.6
255,743,0001 36.2
92,591,359
30|
33
34!
42*
262,975
535,250
1872
9,000,769
30.2
271,747,000
29.9
81,303,518
23*
25J
30
34
714,072
225,555
1873
9,751,700
27.7
270,340,000
34.6 93,474,161
34
40*
44
48*
812,873
191,802
1874
10,897,412
22.1
240,369,000
47. li 113,133,934
51|
54*
571
64*
504,770
1,500,040
1875
11,915,075
29.7
354,317,500
32.0 113,441,491
29*
30*.
28?
31*
1,466,228
121,547
1876
13,358,908
24.0
320,884,000
32.4! 103,844,896
31f
34*
37*
45!
2,854,128
41,597
1877
12,826,148
31.7
406,394,000
28.41 115,546,194
m
27
23
27
3,715,479
21,391
1878
13,176,500
31.4
413,578,560
24.6; 101,752,468
198
20*
24?
30*
5,452,136
13,395
1879
12,683,500
28.7
363,761,320
33.1
120,533,294
32|
36!
294
34*
766,366
489,576
1880
16,187,977
25.8
417,885,380
36.0
150,243,565
29*
33*
36J
39*
402,904
64, 412
1881
16,831,600
24.7
416,481,000
46.4
193,198,970
43*
46!
48!
56*
625,690
1,850,983
1882
18,494,691
26.4
488,250.610
37.5
182,978,022
34f
41*
38!
42!
461,496
815,017
1883
20,324,962
28.1
571,302,400
32.7
187,040,264
29|
36*
30!
34*
3,274,622
121,069
1884
21,300,917
27.4
583,628,000
27.7
161,528,470
22*
25}
34*
37
6,203,104
94,310
1885
22,783,630
27.6
629,409,000
28.5
179,631,860
27
29
26*
29*
7,311,306
149,480
1886
23,658,474
26.4
624,134,000
29.8
186,137,930
25|
27J
25*
27*
1,374,635
139, 575
1887
25,920,906
25.4
659,618,000
30.4
200,699,790
28$
30*
32*
38
573,080
123,817
1888
26,998,282
26.0
701,735,000
27.8
195,424,240
25
26*
21*
23*
1,191,471
131,501
1889
27,462,316
27.4
751,515,000
22.9
171,781,008
20
21
24!
30
15,107,238
153,232
1890
26,431,369
19.8
523,621,000
42.4
222,048,486
39|
43*
45*
54
1,382,836
41,848
1891
25,581,861
28.9
738,394,000
31.5
232,312,267
31*
33*
28*
33*
10,586,644
47,782
1892
27,003,835
24.4
661,035,000
31.7
209,253,611
25*
3l|
28!
32J
2,700,793
49,433
1893
27,273,033
23.4
638,854,850
29.4
187,576,092
27*
29*
32*
36
6,290,229
31,759
1894
27,023,553
24.5
662,036,928
32.4
214,816,920
28!
29*
27J
30!
1,708,824
330,318
1895
27,878,406
29.6
824,443,537
19.9
163,655,068
16§
"4
18
19*
15,156,618
66,602
a In years 1866 to 1882, inclusive, oatmeal is not included.
564
YEABBOOK <"»F THE PEPABTMEXT OF AGBICTLTUBE.
Afrragr. production, value, prices, expotti ftke United States, 1866-1906 —
I i
Acreage-
Acres.
Bu-th .
Btuhele.
Or.
Dollar *.
a*.
CU.
Ctt.
Bushels.
Bu-htlt.
.-
.- ' ' ■'
a "
i
18.7
132,485,033
18f
18?
S'.725.0«
131.204
■ 1
;
27.2
», 767,80!
21.2
147.974.719
--
23*
.
-
73.880,307
-
II
.' 775 U
28.4
"
25.5
186,4'
26
27$
-
27!
33.-534.362
a
26.341.380
30.2
79 177 713
24
198,167,975
.-
23
21}
23f
45.048,857
-
29.6
2s ■
25.8
9,233
21*
V>1
-
31
4- 268,931
. - :
1
i
-• •• • ".-.
39.9
293,658,777
42
4-
41
49j
13,277,612
■ 71
HOJ
28,653,144
34.5
" ■ . v:
30.7
303,584,852
32
33f
8,381,805
;
28.4
;
34.1
267,661,665
344
3S
44}
1,960,740
~
32. 1
894,595,552
31.3
279.900.013
.-
32
m
32
8,394,692
:
.
340
53,2
29.1
277 -57,537
-
32?
-
48,434,541
40.025
■■ _
31.2
964.904,522
31.7
306,2'-.
33
34
H. production, value, and distribution of oats in the United States in 1906. by 8i
Crop
Stat nitory.
Acreage. Production. Value.
Stock in farmer.- hands %^2?*
March 1. 1907. .^f?™^
where grown.
nipshire .
Uaad...
Connecticut
rk
'
Pennsylvania . . .
West V - .
b roliiL'i . .
-
G :.
. . -
:
n
Iowa
I
H -
South :
Ska
Kentix ■
see
is
L-
:
Indu
-'.-■
Wye t iiqg
A rj m
'.'6.
. . ..
California
112.817
12,29
- ej
1.604
9,976
1.245.62*
62,512
1,161, 186
■
31.834 i
102.000
- ' .
191,259
216.922
1,475.000
1.780.000
2,215.728
4,165,000
1.245.711
1,275,000
: -V a
206.063 I
146. 573
i
90.374
_ .
914.440
21 : . 730
350.000
184,571
196.802
50.103
:. .
i ■
172 767
284,660
-
Bushels.
■
424.212
2,862,72
214.472
!
341.179
40.2
.'.819
31.816.496
95. 991
2.85-
2.101.200
3,169 724
3.5.- . -
3.3'-
394.240
48,380.000
50,19
107, 7
43. 747. SCO
■ .000
72.011.160
140.777.000
- 503
40,485
'000
73 --■.000
. - .000
3.151.320
3,167 '
. ! .
-.'
31.822.512
7.44' 571
12.040.000
"■ "
8,3 I
1.979.068
5,962,394
424.507
2,0S ••
252 ■ ■
.534
• 1*1. 508 ■
5.1'
DoUort.
1,777,094
!
1.230.972
94.308
21.149
143. 295
16.093.514
i
12.090.26S
177
1.229.213
840,480
1.553.165
2.01- -.
- -■
15,965
16. 062 72
33,4 '■•
14. 4' • "
28.4' r
19.443.013
38,009.790
21
10.931.114
11.6rr2.5O0
18,791,500
S -:800 :
1,6K '
1,292
1.6:"
i i
218.802 ,
"230
. -J.903
3.371.200
I -■■ 157
m n2
791.627
220.744
20.437
924.255
4.137.248
■ ."
Bushels.
1.494.374
US. 779
1.173,718
77. 210
14.569
! I
19.714.554
" ■ U
13.99i.25S
. I "
283.004
914. 763
819,468
665.642
'
504,344
--■
■
37.717.22-5
i;
-
i
60,534,110
■ :
. " 72
22 i
. '. 73
1.329.106
' ■ '
292 •".
' -
4,334.400
945.926
3.230.701
514.558
■■
106.127
■ ."'
718,88
63, 224
11 -
2,089,79
2,982,667
773.445
United States.
- .522 306,292.978 384
Per cent.
37
28
41
36
31
28
49
44
34
35
32
39
21
16
15
10
38
30
35
40
43
43
43
53
49
45
39
30
28
17
18
15
20
30
•i6
25
38
26
40
25
.
35
2.5
40
28
I
15
Bushelt.
0
0
2.145
0
.';.4i2
- • 10, 365
1,39 ■_'
10.559
72 "
114.345
-
-2.600
20: 07
49.571.210
10.499.400
14.660.800
25.20?. 906
45. 04*. 640
1.4-
7.692.266
13. f/.
-
i '
: .
31.079
. '
0
' " .-
1,41
3.4
-■ -•
•" t.406
72
1.490.598
■
_ '
25,29
1.5-
2 B5 414
: To. 098
1,4
-
STATISTICS OF OATS. 565
Average yield of oats in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905.
Yen r.
United
States.
Russia.
Ger-
many.
Austria.
Hungary.
France.
United
Kingdom.
1896
25.7
27.2
28.4
30.2
29.6
25.8
34.5
28.4
32.1
34.0
C)
19.2
15.7
16.5
23.6
19.5
14.0
21.8
17.7
25.7
20.7
41.8
39.9
47.1
48.0
48.0
44.5
50.2
51.3
46.3
43.8
(6)
23.1
21.5
27.3
30.2
25.3
25.6
27.6
28.4
24.3
27.6
(6)
S1.4
24.3
30.2
33.3
28.1
28.1
34.0
34.5
25.6
30.7
(a)
27.0
23.1
29.0
27.8
25.7
23.5
29.2
31.6
27.2
28.6
(a)
39.2
1897
40.1
1898
43.6
1899...
41.8
1900
41.2
1901
40. G
1902 ...
45.9
1903...
44.2
1904 .
42.1
1905...
41.7
Average
29.6
19.4
46.1
26.1
30.0
27.3
42.0
a Winchester bushels. t> Bushels of 32 pounds.
Average yield per acre of oats in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
190G.
Bush.
31.0
35.0
33.0
32.0
32.0
29.0
31.0
25.0
28.2
22.0
24.0
12.0
20.0
13.0
15.5
14.0
9.0
32.0
30.2
32.0
26.0
34.0
26.0
30.0
22.0
23.0
22.0
31.0
24.0
18.0
10.0
13.0
14.0
18.0
25.0
Bush.
36.0
33.0
38.0
32.0
27.0
28.2
27.5
19.6
23.3
22.0
19.5
16.1
19.5
14.3
17.2
16.6
15.4
30.9
29.2
29.0
32.8
36.1
36.3
34.0
17.0
30.7
26.8
32.1
18.0
22.4
18.7
16.8
18.5
18.1
29.7
Bush.
35.0
35.0
37.0
33.0
26.0
28.0
31.0
24.0
33.0
20.0
23.0
14.0
23.0
12.0
12.0
9.0
9.0
36.0
32.0
38.0
34.0
36.0
32.0
33.0
25.0
30.0
26.0
30.0
29.0
18.0
14.0
10.0
10.0
18.0
25.0
Bush.
37.5
32.6
34.9
36.8
30.9
31.0
27.9
29.6
31.1
21.0
24.0
14.8
21.0
13.9
15.5
15.0
11.3
38.0
32.7
38.0
36.7
32.0
25.2
34.0
27.4
10.3
21.5
21.8
31.6
21.3
16.6
14.4
14.0
18.0
38.0
Bush.
35.0
29.5
33.0
31.0
29.4
28.7
21.6
16.0
18.9
18.5
18.8
14.9
18.7
14.4
15.8
14.8
13.1
31.5
28.6
28.2
29.0
29.1
32.1
29.8
11.2
32.6
28.8
19.8
18.6
19.7
17.5
14.5
15.2
13.4
16.3
25.0
20.7
12.3
42.0
41.0
33.8
31.6
35.0
33.0
43.0
38.3
47.5
31.5
30.4
Bush.
39.0
35.0
40.0
32.2
36.2
34.5
40.0
32.2
36.5
22.6
26.7
17.5
28.6
12.7
13.1
11.1
13.6
41.1
35.4
37.7
39.9
39.9
39.0
30.7
32.5
38.4
34.8
34.6
33.5
22.2
17.3
10.9
15.4
15.2
23.2
32.6
47.8
20.0
41.9
36.0
26.8
19.1
31.7
35.5
34.8
42.1
46.2
28.7
30.5
Bush.
39.5
31.1
38.2
31.7
28.1
31.2
34.0
25.4
28.6
22.2
20.6
13.8
21.7
11.4
14.0
13.6
13.2
30.6
24.4
26. 6
30.5
32.8
32.3
24.0
22.1
27^4
38.6
29.5
26.2
20.1
18.5
15.8
15.0
15.9
35.5
30.0
26.4
18.6
46.4
29.4
33.3
22.6
35.5
36.4
28.6
41.5
47.9
33.8
34.8
Bush.
36.6
33.2
37.9
34.0
25.4
33.5
34.1
32.5
33.9
28.2
29.7
21.1
26.4
15.8
17.1
14.8
12.9
40.9
33.1
32.0
32.5
35.0
39.2
32.0
22.7
37.4
39.0
30.7
17.8
24.0
21.1
14.9
19.2
18.4
32.0
32.2
21.2
22.7
37.7
30.2
35.4
19.6
30.1
37.6
37.0
39.3
44.9
23.1
34.1
Bush.
39.5
32.8
39.4
32.0
29.4
34.5
34.2
32.0
34.0
31.2
27.7
17.8
24.1
15.3
16.3
15.1
12.0
35.8
35.3
35.5
35.6
39.0
37.5
35.0
27.2
38.9
39.0
31.0
27.1
25.5
20.2
16.5
18.5
16.0
31.4
36.0
33.0
20.3
41.3
39.9
35.0
29.5
31.2
39.8
37.2
39.4
50.0
24.1
28.0
Bush.
35.8
34.5
37.2
34.0
29.3
34.2
32.3
26.6
27.4
24.5
25.4
18.0
20.6
16.2
18.5
15.5
14.0
Ohio
32.8
28.2
29.5
30.7
37.4
32.5
33.8
22.8
32.5
36.4
29.5
23.6
21.5
21.5
17.2
18.0
17.2
34.8
34.2
34.4
17.0
42.0
35.0
34.0
35.5
22.8
40.6
31.2
35.8
38.8
19.0
38.0
30.0
27.0
24.0
22.2
39.0
34.2
32.8
30.1
20.5
43.2
39.5
40.4
34.6
34.4
Utah
35.0
39.7
34.0
35.9
43.7
38. S
36.3
48.0
32.0
18.0
43.6
41.9
27.0
33.0
34.0
37.0
30.0
31.0
36.6
34.4
18.5
24.6
40.7
43.2
33.8
California
31.5
General average
27.2
28.4
30.2
29.6
25.8
34.5
28.4
32.1
34.0
31.2
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Avero per acre of oats i ." ted States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906. by States.
1 rritacy.
1897.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Manv
$9.92
1130
10 56
10 56
9. 86
■ '
7. -50
7.61
5.06
a 24
4«
6.00
•
5.88
477
6.40
5.74
i !
' H
6.46
4 94
480
4 IS
' -
3.96
5.32
486
280
5.59
6 16
M
6 75
$12.24
12.54
1130
1L84
9.99
10 15
as3
6.08
6.99
6.60
5. 65
1 "
5. 85
5.29
7.74
- n
a32
7.42
a
•
a so
ao6
7.62
191
- ■
5.63
642
196
605
5.24
6.89
7.77
6.88
a32
$1130
1165
1169
12.54
9.62
1136
10.23
7.92
9.57
100
6.90
462
105
492
164
432
450
9.00
7.36
836
9.52
; --
7.04
627
600
a io
198
6.60
6.38
176
430
100
7.20
7.50
$14 25
12.39
12.56
1198
11.74
10 85
193
9.18
9.33
6.30
7.44
148
7.14
6.26
7.44
7.15
1 65
9.88
7.52
■ M
9.54
7.36
6.05
6.80
6.30
130
116
123
160
5.81
6.34
6.44
7.20
1L40
$17.50
1134
16 50
17.05
1188
15.50
10 37
7.52
150
a33
7.71
6.26
ao4
7.34
9.80
9.92
9.43
12.28
10 87
1L28
11.89
1L35
10 91
10 73
482
10 76
9.79
7.33
aoo
ao8
7.87
9.28
9.58
ao4
9.78
1L50
1015
7.01
1112
19.68
16.90
1196
2LO0
16.83
3110
1185
16 63
10 71
1138
$17. 55
1140
17.20
14 m
1157
14 14
14 40
12.56
12.41
9.49
ins
7.35
11.73
*«
i. id
188
130
1115
9.91
1156
1117
1L97
1153
! "
9.10
1137
10 09
165
iaoo
7.99
100
7.85
7.60
11.37
12.06
1125
120
11 OS
1100
11 67
12.99
2178
1168
24 36
2121
22.64
1L77
1155
$17. 77
14 93
1181
1153
12.65
14 04
1194
1192
1158
a n
124
193
9.98
193
126
7.48
7.92
1L02
7.81
151
1198
11.15
9.69
196
7.07
149
1L19
7.97
a 24
7.77
a53
7.65
7.31
15.62
1150
198
118
1124
14 70
1165
14 01
2L65
17.84
19.45
1168
1120
14 87
1179
$16. 47
1160
1168
1130
11.94
14 74
12.96
1100
12.88
1L56
1169
9.07
11.62
122
1126
114
7.74
1109
9.93
9.60
1172
9.80
1119
aoo
7.72
a 98
9.75
7.67
5.87
9.60
7.80
aos
9.98
3 -*
14 08
12 24
7.63
9.76
17.34
11.78
1128
1L17
22. 27
17.67
2131
19.65
19.31
1186
19.44
$11 55
14 10
■ ■
1176
12 35
14 49
12.65
1L84
12.24
12.48
9.97
194
9.40
7.19
1%
aoo
124
1L10
9.53
9.94
1168
1153
9.00
140
a 16
a 95
a 97
7.44
7.59
158
7.88
a42
9.25
7.20
12.56
1L88
9.57
a53
17.76
1136
14 35
17.11
19.97
17.51
19.34
1155
2150
1136
14 28
$1175
15.18
1100
\'i--i.' - nnntt - .
14%
TMwMlp T^lftTHi . .
1119
14 36
V:,rk
12.92
1111
10.41
9.31
■.- 1
9.65
7.74
■ ,i
^■aroliTifl .
7.94
South Carolina
1154
168
9.52
Ohio
1182
9.02
9.14
1113
1L59
MiniM'jjMiUi
8L77
9.13
7.52
178
Sooth Dakota
9.10
Willi ■ ill ■
7.67
7.32
117
182
■ ■ t i_ ■ i
1 ; - ; -
: naiana
• ■"
182
7.74
14 27
1194
' V iv - - i _
9.63
5.61
1186
12.25
14 56
1L55
11.02
16.80
1L20
- a
a 61
14 21
12. «
14 68
15.91
■ ■
1170
1 -
1O80
16.50
6.46
14 82
12.00
1L34
10 56
1160
12.92
-i. :•:
12.30
14 57
7.77
16.38
16 07
14 10
14 45
1180
14 64
1176
7.59
1L32
161
Wyoming
19.01
1180
1118
17.99
Hah "
qgton
":•;£• ■
OaBfionria
22.36
19.66
24 S3
17.50
17.71
14 53
1138
rare
.
7.23
- :.
7.63
10.29
1160
1
1115
9.89
/ oats per bushel in th-e United States, December l. 189",
8tak
'- - ■
It "
1891
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Maine
. :■
— ' 1 BMtbl
CcnU.
32
•
32
33
34
34
27
30
S
23
26
29
30
37
45
42
53
20
19
Cent*.
34
■
35
37
37
36
31
31
30
30
29
29
30
37
45
48
54
24
23
Cents.
38
39
37
38
37
37
33
33
29
25
30
33
35
41
47
48
50
25
23
Cenit.
38
38
36
38
38
35
32
31
30
30
31
37
34
45
48
49
50
26
23
Cents.
50
52
50
55
54
54
47
45
45
41
42
43
51
62
67
72
39
38
Cents.
45
44
43
45
43
41
36
39
34
42
38
42
41
51
59
53
61
32
28
Cent*.
45
48
44
49
45
45
41
43
37
40
40
43
46
52
59
55
60
36
32
Cents.
45
47
44
45
47
44
38
40
38
41
36
43
44
52
60
55
60
32
30
Cents.
43
43
40
43
42
42
37
37
36
40
36
39
39
47
55
53
52
31
27
Cent?.
44
44
43
44
R)WMfc» Tk1«ti<1
45
42
fa*
40
38
38
38
38
43
40
rjrolmi.
49
57
Florida
Ohio
Indiana.
56
68
33
32
STATISTICS OF OATS.
567
Average farm price of oats per bushel in the United States. December 1, 1897-1906, by
States — Continued.
State or Territory.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Bush.
18
23
19
19
16
19
26
18
15
18
27
28
43
44
38
27
Bush.
23
27
24
21
24
23
26
21
20
22
27
28
41
42
38
28
Bush.
22
28
23
22
19
24
27
23
22
22
32
32
43
50
40
30
Bush.
23
26
23
24
20
23
32
24
24
23
31
35
44
46
40
30
Bush.
40
41
39
34
36
43
33
34
37
43
41
45
64
63
60
60
46
50
57
36
48
50
60
60
51
70
44
35
34
44
Bush.
28
33
30
27
25
28
27
29
25
30
36
42
55
51
50
49
37
34
41
36
50
51
68
75
47
70
48
49
41
51
Bush.
32
36
34
30
29
32
31
29
27
30
41
42
54
51
46
44
35
34
44
35
50
41
62
61
49
68
45
38
44
54
Bush.
30
33
28
26
25
34
24
25
25
33
40
37
54
52
45
44
38
36
43
46
39
46
57
74
47
63
50
43
47
57
Bush.
28
30
27
24
24
30
23
23
24
28
35
39
51
50
45
40
33
29
42
43
41
41
58
64
44
52
42
41
43
51
Bush.
31
33
31
27
27
33
27
25
26
31
38
41
51
49
45
Texas
41
32
28
33
33
35
32
41
29
35
40
41
41
34
39
40
42
44
35
42
47
43
48
42
44
Wyoming
Colorado
40
45
52
65
Utah
33
38
40
44
45
64
32
35
35
49
36
40
40
50
38
38
41
47
40
40
41
46
43
41
43
52
General average
21.2
25.5
24.9
25.8
39.9
30.7
34.1
31.3
29.1
31.7
Wholesale prices of oats per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
New York.
Baltimore.
Cincin-
nati.
Chicago. 1
Milwau-
kee.
Duluth.
Detroit.
San Fran-
cisco.
Date.
No. 2.
No. 2,
No. 2,
No. 2,
No. 2,
No. 1, white
mixed.
mixed.
mixed.
white.
white.
(perewt.).
Lowj High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low | High
1902.
Cts.
as.
as.
Os.
as.
as.
as.
Os.
as.
as.
Os.
as.
Os.
as.
Jan
464
53
48
52
46
50
38*
46*
441
49
40*
47i
45
50*11.25 $1.40
Feb
48
50
47
49*.
46
48
40}
44i 1
42}
47
38*
431
46
47* 1.27*1 1.42*
Mar
46}
52
47*.
49
454
47
40}
45*
44
47
40
43
46
48}l 1.25 | 1.40
Apr ....
46*
49*
47*
49
44
46*
41
44*'
43}
47}
40
46*
46
48* 1.27* 1.45
May
45*
48
47*
48*.
44
46
41
49*
441
46
42*
45*
46
48*
1.35
1.50
June
444
55
47*
55
43
52
39
48*
43
54
28}
34
464
57
1.35
1.50
July....
55
64}
54
60
32}
57
30
56
51*
58
304
34*
57
61
1.20
1.35
Aug
34*
65
31
59
27
31
25
31
331
58
27*
30
34}
60
1.15
1.30
Sept
32
35
29
32
28*
31*
26*
27J1
31*
35
29
31*
36}
39*
1.17*
1.30
Oct
33
34*
29*
33*.
30
32
27}
30
32
34
29*
32
38*
41}
1.15
1.32*
Nov
34
36
32*
35*.
29*
34
274
29*
30*
34
28*
32
41}
48
1.20
1.35
Dec
36
38}
35*
40
33
39
29*
32 1
32*
34
31
32
48*
51
1.25
1.40
1903.
Jan
38*
44
39*
42*
35
39
31}
34*
33*
36}
32*
34*
36
38
1.22*
1.35
Feb
42*.
43}
39*
41
37*
39*
334
36
36
36}
34
35*
38
40
1.22*
1.374
Mar.
42
44*
40
41*
37
39
31}
34|
36
36
31
34*
38
39
1.22*
1.32*
Apr
38
42
38
414
33*
37
32*
35}
36
36}
32*
33*
364
38*
1.20
1.324
May...-
38
39*
37*
39
33
37*
33*
38}
36
38
33*
35*
37
39
1.20
1.30
June
39}
43*
38*
44
36
43*
35*
43J
36*
40*
35
40
39
45
1.17*
1.274
July....
40
43
36*
44
31*
41*
33*
45
364
41
32*
37*
36
41*
1.17*
1.30
Aug
38
404
34*
39
33
35J
33*
36}
37
38*
34
35*
35*
36}
1.17*
1.324
Sept
38
42
39
41*
35
39
35*
38
37
40
35}
38*
3V*
40
1.17*
1.324
Oct
40*
42
40
41
36*
39
34*
38*
37*
39
35
37*
38*
39}
1.20
1.324
Nov....
40
42
38*
40*
35*
37*
331
38*
36*
38*
32*
35}
36*
38*
1.25
1.324
Dec
40*.
42*
39
40*.
37
39
34i
38 :
37*
38
34}
35*
37*
39
1.25
1.324
568
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Wholesale prices of oats -per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906 —
Continued.
Date.
1904.
Jan . .
Feb..
Mar..
Apr. .
May . .
June..
July..
Aug . .
Sept . .
Oct...
Nov . .
Dec.
1905
Jan. .
Feb..
Mar. .
Apr. .
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct . .
Nov.
Dec.
1906.
Jan . . .
Feb...
Mar. . .
Apr. .
May..
June..
July..
Aug..
Sept. . .
Oct...
Nov..
Dec...
New York.
No. 2,
mixed.
Low High
Cts.
42J
46
46
43i
45!
443
41
35!
34|
34J
35
34i
3."..'.
36
35|
34J
34?
34A
33 j
29
29
32?
34?
36
36
34
34 J
36|
37
39
40
34',
34 1
37!
37?
as.
45J
55!
55!
47
47
46
45
43
36
36
35
36!
37j
37
37?.
36
35!
30"
36!
33"
33?.
37,j
36
37
37J
36
36!
37"
39
47.
43 A
39"
37?
3SJ.
39?
3?)
Baltimore.
No. 2,
mixed.
Low High
as.
41
43
45!
43
43!
43!
43!
34!
33
33
33
35!
36J
37.
35
33?
33?
33?
33
27?,
28"
32
34
34
34?
34"
34$
35!
37!
38?
3SJ
33?"
34"
37
37
Cincin-
nati.
No. 2,
mixed.
LowHigh
as. as.
43! 38
41!
47J
162
47,?
453
47,?
47,"
35
34
351
36
37
304
3(3 1
352
34?
362
36!
322
32?
35"
34]
36i,
41
40
412
41
40
32*
33"
31 1
31
32]
32]
32]
3l|
30*
301
32*,
28
25
26
29
31?
33"
37
37,?
37,]
38
39
45!
42! ' 34
39J 30
37 , 31!
373 35
38! 35
39! 36
322
32
32
33
33
37
422
44i
44?
43"
424
44"
412
402
34?"
33*
331
333
33?
33?
34?
32?,
32?
Chicago.
No.
Low High
34
32
30
32
33?
35?
as
36!
39|
38
36|
391
39|
38!
31!
29§
28J,
29
2y£
29?
293
28]
2V,
33!l 30J
27
25}
25
27!
29"
29?
34
29!
33?
29*
33?
28*
35
30*
3/
32*
43
m
41
303
34
29*
36
80
30?
32i
30.?
33
38
33
41!
46
423
411
44f
421
45
40
334
31!
32J
32
31
323
33J
32
32
333
341
29?
30"
30?
31?
32]
32
30]
29|
32]
34]
42]
39J
32
341
34]
351
35|
Milwau-
kee.
No. 2,
white.
Low High
as.
35
40
39
37
41
38
37
31|
29!
28!
294
29"
31!
32
32
32
313
33
33
27J
28
29
31
31!
No 3
30
29
29
30J
32
333
33
29
29
32
32
324
as.
41
444
44"
433
45
44
41
42
33!
33
32
32
32!
33
34!
33!
34
34!
35!
34
30
32
32
33!
white
32
31!
32i
333
35!
43
40
35!
34
34!
343
354
Duluth.
No. 3.
Low H igh
as.
35!
38|
38i
37J
40
40
36
321
30
273
29
28J
(a)
283
28|;
28!
28!
28|
301
27!!
25!
251
29
284
2sl
291
31 1
33]
31]
30
291
31 i
32
31 1
as.
39!
421
401
41
43
42!
38
38
32|
30|
29|
29|
30
m
29]
312
34?
41"
38
31
33
33
32;
34
Detroit.
No. 3,
white.
Low High
I
Cts.
39 !
423
44
42!
45
424
414
33":
32
313
32
324
33!
33ii
334!
33 j
33
333
35
27 j
261
29J
323
323
33
32!
32 j
33J
35!
37i
38
32 i
33
36
364
35
as.
42!
48i
46!
451
45!
46!
44
43!
33!
34
32! 1
3341 1
San Fran-
cisco.
No. 1, white
(per cwt. 1.
Low High
25 SI. 37!
25 1.372
27? 1.372
274 1.40
324 1.50
40 I 1.50
1.50
1.50
1. 52!
1.55
1.60
1.60
34! 1-45
343 1.45
34! 1.45
341 1.45
343, 1.45
34![ 1.65
37
35!
30! 1-374 1.47!
323 1.37! 1.45
1.00
1.60
1.60
1.68
1.672
1.80
35
33]
34
35
371
43?
42
39
362
362
382
37
1.374 1.50
1.45"! 1.
a No grade of oats in Duluth for 1905.
BARLEY.
Barley crop of countries named, 1902-1906.
[Substantially the crop of the world.]
Country.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
NORTH AMERICA.
United States
Bushels.
134,954.000
Bushels.
131,861,000
Bushels.
139,749,000
Bushels.
136,651,000
Bushels.
178,916,000
Canada:
New Brunswick
110.000
22, 580, 000
12,222.000
308.000
488,000
3,000,000
108,000
25,147,000
8,982,000
687,000
1,111,000
3,000,000
96,000
25,342,000
11,530,000
617,000
1,659.000
3,000,000
100,000
25,030.000
14,507,000
922,000
1,830,000
3,000.000
102,000
Ontario
26,049,000
Manitoba
18,085,000
1,358,000
Alberta
2,242,000
Other
3,000,000
Total Canada
38,708,000
39,035,000
42,244,000
45,389,000
50,836,000
6,045,000
9,061,000
7,355,000
6,000,000
6,000.000
Total North America
179.707,000
179,957,000
189,348,000
188,040,000
235.752,000
STATISTICS OF BARLEY. 569
Barley crop of countries named, 190g-1906 — Continued.
Country.
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungary proper
Croatia-Slavonia
Bosnia-Herzegovina .
Bushels.
73,788,000
62,350,000
3,259.000
3.208,000
Total Austria-Hungary.
142,005,000
Belgium
Bulgaria
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands.
Norway
Roumania . . .
4,974,000
11,000,000
23,287,000
3,628,000
41,948,000
142, 392, 000
6,000,000
4,652,000
2,143,000
24,586,000
Russia:
Russia proper
Poland
Northern Caucasia.
274,899,000
22,185,000
35.530,000
1903.
1904.
Bushels.
73,873,000
64,577,000
3,839,000
4.145,000
Bushels.
66,815,000
49,915,000
2,285,000
3,496.000
146,434.000 122,511,000
3,923,000
12,773,000
23,340,000
5,233,000
43,345,000
152,653,000
8,000,000
3,823,000
3,255,000
29,716,000
5,003,000
12,911,000
22, 708, 000
4,916,000
38,338.000
135,409,000
7,000,000
3,606,000
2,496,000
11,567,000
1905.
Bushels.
70,469,000
62,452,000
2,804.000
3.236.000
139,021,000
4,518.000
12,080,000
21,146,000
5,000,000
40,841,000
134,204.000
8,000,000
4,013,000
3,464.000
26,383.000
289,699,000 290,766,000 272,694,000
20,819,000 ! 17,705,000 22,732,000
39,980,000 | 31,254,000 43,430,000
Total Russia (European).
Servia . .
Spain . .
Sweden.
United Kingdom:
Great Britain-
England
Scotland
Wales
Ireland
332,614,000 i 350,498,000 I 339,725,000 | 338,856,000
3.495,000
81,279.000
12,283,000
3.424,000
64,359,000
13,570,000
3,162,000
53, 800, 000
13,452,000
3,670,000
45,974,000
12, 858, 000
56,679,000
8.394,000
3,518,000
8,273,000
50, 628, 000
7,739,000
2,981,000
6.0/6,000
48,511.000
7,408,000
3,077,000
5,478,000
48,778,000
8,257,000
2.906,000
7,181,000
Total United Kingdom .
Total Europe ' 913, 750, 000
ASIA.
76,864,000 J 67,424,000 ! 64,474,000 ! 67,122,000
931.770,000 841,078,000' 867.150,000
Cyprus.
Japanese Empire:
Japan
Formosa
1,374,000
3, 969, 000
3,122,000
3,000,000
74.078.000
13.000
59,737,000
38,000
80.795.000 !
58.000 !
. 436, 000
50,000
Total Japanese Empire .
Russia:
Central Asia
Siberia
3,775,000 : 80,853,000
, 486. 000
Bushels.
76,024,000
69,747,000
3.007,000
3.000.000
152,384,000
5,000,000
12,882.000
22,000.000
5,000,000
37,004,000
142,901,000
8,000,000
4,000,000
3,000.000
33,539,000
Total Russia (Asiatic). .
Total Asia
AFRICA.
3,008,000
2,828,000
2,759,000
4,213.000
2,262.000
4.268,000
3,145.000
4,965,000
6, 972, 000
8.110,000
70,710,000
Algeria .
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
Cape of Good Hope
Natal
Tunis
47.912,000
200,000
800.000
8,000
3,201.000
Total Africa.
52.121,000
AUSTRALASIA.
Australia:
Queensland
New South Wales. .
Victoria
South Australia
Western Australia.
Tasmania
286, 000
107,000
716,000
251,000
37,000
173.000
38, 496, 000
216,000
949,000
4,000
11,322,000
50,987,000
4,000
19,000
579,000
327,000
48,000
207.000
Total Australian Com-
monwealth
1,570,000
1,184,000
New Zealand
Total Australasia.
883,000
1,172,000
2.453.000
2,356,000
Grand total 1, 229, 132, 000 1, 235., 786, 000
90,505.000 , 88,596,000
36,125,000
251.000
850,000
6,000
14,815.000
52.047.000
35,000.000
327,000
8.50,000
7,000
7,119,000
43,303,000
527,000
180,000
1.256,000
503,000
55,000
219,000
342.000
275,000
902,000
35S.000
39,000
168,000
2,740.000
2,084,000
1,104,000
3.248.000
1,176,915,000 1,190.337,000
243,020,000
23,351.000
37,319.000
304.290,000
4,848,000
91,185.000
14,952,000
51,543,000
7,803.000
3,116,000
7, 000. OIK)
69,462.000
910, 447. 000
73,000.000
50,000
73.050.000
5,136,000
2,614,000
7. 750. 000
83,800,000
40,000.000
300,000
850.000
6.000
7,863,000
49.019.000
04,000
115,000
1,096,000
522.000
51.000
97.000
1,945,000
1,056,000
3.001.000
1, 282, 019, 000
570
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
1'isibh supply of barley in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten
years.11
Month.
July
August. . .
September
October...
November.
December.
January. .
February.
March....
April
May
June
1897-98.
Bushels.
1,574,000
1,051,000
1,578,000
2,630,000
4,267,000
6,318,000
5,115,000
3, 455, 000
2,571,000
1,492,000
1, 159, 000
815, 000
Bushels.
587, 000
584, 000
548, 000
2. 125, 000
3, 777, 000
4,406,000
4, 372, 000
4,017,000
3,067,000
2,626,000
1,913,000
1,555,000
1899-1900.
1900-1901.
Bu
1,
1,
1,
3,
4,
3,
shels.
Bushels.
059,000
1,038,000
694,000
702,000
055,000
1, 158, 000
739,000
2, 779, 000
925,000
5,396,000
695, 000
6,053.000
122, 000
5,395,000
303,000
4,331,000
138,000
3,903,000
712,000
2, 879. 000
720,000
1,761,000
267,000
1,351.000
1901-2.
Bushels.
528,000
335,000
956,000
3,610,000
4, 813, 000
5, 416, 000
4,580,000
5,244,000
5,065,000
4,075,000
2,146.000
1,836,000
Month.
July
August . . .
September
October...
November
December.
January .
February.
March
April
May
June
Bushels.
847,000
217,000
419. 000
2,460,000
5,064,000
5,680.000
4, 389, 000
3,843,000
3,107,000
2, 426, 000
1,493,000
1,133,000
Bushels.
602,000
471,000
1,024,000
5,017,000
7, 313, 000
7,975,000
6,907,000
6, 338, 000
5,441,000
1,975,000
3, 969, 000
3,105,000
Bushels.
2,046,000
1,656,000
1,694,000
6,551,000
9, 329, 000
9, 620, 000
10, 403, 000
8, S01, 000
6, 952, 000
4,674,000
3,354,000
2,231,000
Bushels.
2,557,000
1,031.000
1,358,000
5,524,000
8,509,000
10,217,000
10,657,000
8,526,000
7, 686, 000
6,567,000
4,251,000
2,053,000
1906-7.
Bushels.
1,620,000
1,814,000
1,244,000
3, 520, 000
4,476,000
5, 156, 000
4, 698, 000
4, 137, 000
3, 034. 000
3,708,000
3,441,000
o These figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the
Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals as reported by
Bradstreet's.
Condition of the barley crop of the United States, monthly, 1891-1906.
Year.
June.
July.
Au-
gust.
Sep-
tem-
ber.
Year.
June.
July.
Au-
gust.
Sep-
tem-
ber.
1891
P. ct.
90.3
92.1
88.3
82.2
90.3
98.0
87.4
78.8
P. ct.
90.9
92.0
8S.8
76.8
91.9
88.1
88.5
85.7
P. ct.
93.8
91.1
84.6
69.8
87.2
82.9
87.5
79.3
P. ct.
94.3
87.4
83.8
71.5
87.6
83.1
86.4
79.2
1899
P. ct.
91.4
86.2
98.8
93.6
91.5
90.5
93.7
93.5
P. ct.
92.0
76.3
91.3
93.7
86.8
88.5
91.5
92.5
P. ct.
93.6
71.6
86.9
90.2
83.4
88.1
89.5
90.3
P. ct.
86.7
1892
1900
70.7
1893
1901
85.8
1894
1902
89.7
1895
1903
82.1
1896
1904
87.4
1897
87.8
189S
1906
89.4
Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of barley of the United States, 1866-1906.
Av-
Chicagocashpriceper
Av-
erage
farm
price
per
bushel, No. 2.
Domestic
exports,
fiscal
year
Imports,
fiscal
year
begin-
Year.
Acreage.
erage
yield
Produc-
tion.
Farm
value,
Dec. 1.
December.
May of
following
bush-
year.
beginning
ning
el
July 1.
July 1.
Dec.l.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
.4 cres.
Bush.
Bushels.
Cts.
Dollars.
as.
as.
as.
as.
Bushels.
Bushels.
1866
492,532
22.9
11.283.807
70.2
7.916,342 59
70
85
100
3,247,250
1867
1,131,217: 22.7
25,727,000 70.1
18.027,746 150
180
227
250
9.810
3,783,966
1868....
937, 498j 24. A
22,896,100, 109.0
24.948. 127 140
170
149
175
59,077
5,069,880
1869. . . .
1,025,795! 27.9
28, 652. 200 70. 8
20. 29S. 164 74
85
50
62
255,490 6,727,597
1870. . . .
1,108,924 23.7
26, 295, 4(>o! 79. 1
20, 792, 213 68
80
72
95
340,093 4,866,700
1871
1,113,735 24.0
26,718,500] 75.8
20.264,0151 55J
64
55
71
86, 891 1 5,565.591
1872....
1,397,082 19.2
26,846,4001 68. 6
18, 415, 839 60
70
71
85
482,410 4,244.751
1873....
1,387,106
23.1
32,044,491
86.7
27,794,229
132
158
130
155
320. 399
4,891,189
STATISTICS OF BARLEY.
571
Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of barley of the United States, 1866-1906 — ■
Continued.
Av-
Chicago cash price per
Av-
erage
farm
price
per
bushel,
No. 2.
a
Domestic
Imports,
fiscal
year
begin-
Ye*
ir. Acreage.
erage
yield
per
acre.
Produc-
tion.
Farm
value,
December.
May of
following
fiscal
year
bush-
year.
beginning
ning
el
July 1.
July 1.
Dec.l.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Acres.
Bush.
Bushels.
Cts.
Dollars.
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
Bushels.
Bushels.
1874
... 1,580,626
20.6
32,552,500
86.0
27, 997, 824
120
129*
115
137
91,118
6,255,003
1875
... 1,789.902
20.6
36,908,600
741
27,367,522
81
88
62*
72*
317,781
10,285,957
1876
... 1,766,511
21.9
38, 710, 500
63.0
24, 402. 691
63|
68*
80
85
1, 186, 129
6, 702, 965
1877
... 1,614,654
21.3
34, 441, 400
62.8
21,629,130
56}
64
461
52*
3,921,501
6, 764, 228
1878
... 1,790,400
23.6
42, 245, 630
57.9
24,454,301
91
100
64
73
715,536
5, 720, 979
1879
... 1,680,700
24.0
40, 283, 100
58.9
23,714,444
86
92
75
80
1, 128, 923
7, 135, 258
1880
... 1,843,329
24.5
45, 165, 346
66.6
30,090,742
100
120
95
105
885,246
9, 528, 616
1881
... 1,967,510
20.9
41,161,330
82.3
33, 862, 513
101
107
100
100
205, 930
12, 182, 722
1882
... 2,272,103
21.5
48,953,926
62.9
30, 768, 015
79
82
80
80
433,005
10,050,087
1883
... 2,379,009
21.1
50, 136, 097
58.7
29, 420, 423
62
67
65
74
724, 955
8, 596, 122
1884
... 2,608,818
23.5
61,203,000
48.7
29, 779, 170
53
58
65
65
629, 13C
9, 986. 507
1885
... 2,729,359
21.4
58,360,000 56.3
32,867,696
62
65
58
60
252, 183
10,197,115
188(5
... 2,652,957
22.4
59, 428, 000 53. 6
31,840,510
51
. 54
57
57
1,305,300
10, 355, 594
188/
... 2,901,953
19.6
56, 812, 000
51.9
29,464,390
80
80
69
77
550,884
10,831,461
I8KK
... 2,996,382
21.3
63,884,000
59.0
37,672,032
1,440,321
11 368,414
1889
...1 3,220,834
24.3
78,332,976
41.6
32, 614, 271
58
58
1,408,311
11,332,545
1890
... 3,135,302
21.4
67,168,344
62.7
42, 140, 502
973, 062
2, 800, 075
3,035,267
5,078,733
3,146,328
1891
... 3,352,579
25.9
86,839,153
52.4
45,470,342
1892
...[ 3,400,361
23.6
80,096,762
47.5
38,026,062
65
67
65
65
1,970,129
1893
...1 3,220,371
21.7
69,869,495
41.1
28,729,386
52
54
55
60
5,219,405
791,061
1894
... 3,170,602
19.4
61,400,465
44 2
27, 134, 127
53*
55*
51
52
1,563,754
2,116,816
1896
...! 3,299,973
26.4
87,072,744
33.7
29,312,413
33
40
25
36
7, 680, 331
837, 384
1890
... 2,950,539
23.6
69, 695, 223
32.3
22,491,241
22
37
24*
35
20,030,301
1,271,787
189/
...! 3,719.116
24.5
66,685,127
37.7
25, 142, 139
25*
42
36
53
11,237,077
124,804
1898
... 2,583,125
21.6
55, 792, 257
41.3
23,064,359
40
50*
36
42
2, 267, 403
110,475
1899
... 2.878,229
25.5
73,381,563
40.3
29, 594, 254
35
45
36
44
23,661,662
189, 757
1900
... 2, 894, 2S2
20.4
58,925,833
40.8
24,075,271
37
61
37
57
6, 293, 207
171,004
1901
...1 4,295,744
25.6
109, 932, 924
45.2
49, 705, 163
56
63
64
72
8,714,265
57,406
1902
... 4.661,063
29.0
134, 954, 023
45.9
61,898,634
36
70
48
56
8, 429, 141
56,462
1903
... 4,993,137
26.4
131,861,391
45.6
60,166,313
42
61*
38
59
10,881,027
90,708
1904
... 5,145,878
27.2
139, 748, 95*
42.0
58,651,807
38
52
40
50
10,661,655
81,020
1905
... 5.095,528
26.8
136,651,020
40.3
55,047,166
37
53
42
55*
17,729,360
18,049
1906
... 6.323,757
28.3
178,916,484
41.5
74, 235, 997
44
56
"■ Prices from 1895 on are for No. 3 grade.
Acreage, production, and value of barley in the United States in 1906, by States.
State or Territorv.
Acreage.
Average
yield per
acre.
Production.
Average
farm
price
Dec. 1.
Farm
value
Dec. 1.
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
New York
Pennsylvania . . .
Maryland
Virginia
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota. .
South Dakota . .
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Texas
Oklahoma
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
Acres.
7,661
1,507
12, 810
86, 193
8,518
1,436
2,398
21,775
8,486
25,298
70,000
728,000
1,128,265
556,000
1,048
013,000
790,000
120,000
359,000
673
1,045
4,001
15,666
14,313
3,000
18,531
Bushels.
31.5
21.4
32.8
26.3
25.0
31.0
28.6
30.0
29.4
30.0
26.1
30.7
28.0
28.3
24 2
25.8
29.0
28.0
23.5
26.0
23.0
24.5
29.8
33.0
31.4
41.0
Bushels.
241, 322
32,250
420,168
2, 266, 876
212, 950
44, 516
68,583
653,250
249, 488
758, 940
1,827,000
22, 349, 600
31, 591, 420
15, 734, 800
39,882
15, 815, 400
22,910,000
3, 360, 000
8, 436, 500
17, 498
24, 035
112, 724
466, 847
472, 329
94,200
759, 771
Cents.
05
64
62
55
55
47
56
46
52
42
49
45
35
35
48
33
32
31
33
55
60
61
33
56
04
54
Dollars.
156, 859
20, 640
260,504
1,246,782
117, 122
20, 923
38, 400
300, 495
129, 734
318, 755
895, 230
10,057,320
11, 056, 997
5, 507, 180
19, 143
5, 219, 082
7,331,200
1,041,600
2,784,045
9,624
14,421
08,762
154,060
264, 504
00,288
410, 276
572 TEAEBOOK OF THE PEPABTMEXT OF AGBICULTfEE.
production, and value of barley in the United States in 1906. by State*— Can.
State or Territory.
Acr- -
Average
yield per
acre.
Prod action.
Average
farm
price
Dec. 1.
Farm
value
Dec. 1.
Ac-
hod
13.404
12.000
7.089
47.028
59:862
1.425.000
1
29
42.2
44.0
36.8
41.0
36.5
35-0
27.2
Bushels.
15.012
' " -
528.000
260.875
1.C--
" ■ 2 1
2.095.170
- 7-0.000
Cents.
!
54
58
-
54
Dollars.
9.45S
^°9.893
285. 120
180.004
ington
964.074
1.089. 4S8
20. 930. 400
United Stains
23,757
178 N B4
41.5
74. 235. 997
Average yield per acre of barley in the United States. 1897—1906, by States.
- 1 :e or Territory.
> ■•
■>■'-.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Mai-
Bush.
2-5.0
22 •
.- ■
34.5
25.0
24.5
Bush.
27.0
23.5
30.0
24.5
.* :
25.2
19.4
Bush.
29.0
25.0
31.0
30.0
:•■ :
24.0
21.0
Bush.
27.4
22.7
29.1
.- •
28.0
22.0
19.0
Bush.
27.5
21.5
• 29.6
Bush.
29.4
21.2
29.7
Bush.
29.9
19.8
29.2
Bush.
32.7
20.7
33.1
Bush.
29.0
20.8
31.5
Bush.
31.5
21.4
32.8
V--- Y-rV
14.0
17.2
18.0
24.9
24.9
25.4
24.5
22.8
27 2
25 :
23.6
1 :
28.2
22. 4
16' 0
15.9
19.4
16.8
13.5
22.0
39.0
32.5
B "
31.7
35.0
33.0
40.2
43.5
30.6
26.0
28.5
21.0
27.0
18.3
32.3
2S.0
28.6
33.8
28.6
26.3
25.0
31.6
29.2
31.1
16.0
2-5.9
21. S
36.0
37.0
24.4
16.1
25.2
32.1
34.3
46.3
43.7
31.9
!
26.6
21.3
25.9
24.4
23.3
22.8
28.2
25.2
27.7
25.3
23.4
18.3
21.6
31.4
26.6
31.9
21.4
20.6
24.4
26.9
40.2
21.3
3S.3
23.1
32.8
37.5
34.6
34.4
37.9
33.2
25.7
26.8
22.6
21.8
24.7
27.5
29.2
27.1
24.1
30.0
28 -.
23 -
20.3
28.1
28.0
27.4
21.6
20.6
22.0
31.0
30.1
29.9
30.1
37.1
23.6
33.6
38.3
35.9
37.4
34.8
28.7
22.7
25.7
25.0
31.0
28.0
- -
28.0
30.0
27.0
29.9
27.0
26.0
23.0
28.0
30.0
27.5
22.0
24.0
21.6
24.0
26.0
33.0
31.7
33.0
21.0
44.0
37.0
34.0
40.0
40.0
31.0
21.5
26.3
25.0
31.0
a
Ohio
a -
19.0
25.0
21.5
28.0
25.5
24.0
19.0
22.5
20.0
22.0
17.5
20.0
18.0
25-0
28.7
23.4
27.3
25.2
29.1
28.4
26.0
20.0
. -
23.0
27.1
28.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
-
25.0
29.0
24.0
30.0
25.0
26.0
18.0
24.0
23.0
26.0
17.0
21.0
11.0
18.0
27.0
.-.
25.6
23.9
25.5
22.4
26.4
20.8
8.2
14.3
17.6
21.5
-•
14.7
24.6
30.0
20.4
30.0
30.7
28.0
Iowa
iri
-■
24.2
25.8
290
28.0
23.5
.
23.0
SM.S
29.8
M mtana
380
36.0
350
33.0
31.4
32.5
30.5
33.8
28.0
32.0
24.8
29.0
41.0
-
42.2
Utah .
31.0
35.0
45.0
32.5
23.0
37.0
35.0
39.8
29.1
10.5
33. 0
35.0
35.0
.- "
; 26.0
36.5
- ■
33.4
> -
16.7
44.0
lington
Oregon
California
36.8
41.0
36-5
35.0
27.2
24 r
21.6
25.5
20.4
25.6
29.0
26.4
'- ~
:■ *
2S.3
ot value per acre of barley in the U States, based upon farm \ oJ .her 1,
n rr-i
state or Terntorv.
1900. 1901. 1902.
titit
1904. 1905.
Maine
New Hampshire .
Vermont
Vi;;. :"--:5---?. .
P.i.: -.-: '.-..--.. . .
New York
i ~".=j.~i.~::-. . . .
Maryland
Virginia
Ohio
13.50
13.11
22.77
15.12
10.50
9.55
13.63
14.10
16.17
17. OS
12.10
8.54
S17. 11
16.25
16.12
-■: 4'
20.30
12.00
10.29
16.99 ;$1S.43 $19.99
15.21 17.20 15.90
15. 13 19. 54 18. 12
17. 80
21.56
11.22
9.50
121.23 $23.22 $19.72 $20.48
16.63 15.53 15.18 13.70
17.52 21.8-5 21.18 20.34
11.69 12.(3 12.t<j 11.61
" -4
10.15
9.36
11.70
12.70
15.68
11.34
13.23
- 8^
15.83
14.63
11.93
12.95
13.91
11.65
15.28
12.66
13.95
15.07
14.30
13. SS
13.75
14.88
15.40
11.79
14.47
13.75
14.57
16.02
13.80
STATISTICS OF BARLEY.
573
Average value per acre of barley in the United States, based upon farm valve December 1 ,
1897-1906, by States— Continued.
State or territory.
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska 5.
Kansas 4.
Kentucky 8.
Tennessee I 10.
Texas ; 10.
Oklahoma
Montana I 19.
Wyoming
Colorado I 14.
New Mexico 17.
Arizona I
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
1898.
$10.30
10. 65
11.09
11.64
9.37
8.84
7.20
7.66
6.21
6.78
7.56
6.40
10.08
10.00
1899.
$11.25
13.63
11.52
12.00
7.75
8.06
7.56
7.92
6.67
7.80
4.59
9.03
7.04
11.88
20.52 i 17.85
$11.56
12.03
11.23
11.22
8.51
9.77
9.36
2.87
4.43
5.81
7.10
15.73
9.11
17.71
14.03
18.59
General average .
13.95 | 17.39
16.80
17.91
14.26
6.82
9.25 8.93
15. 40
19.52
17.16
16. 10
15.40
14.00
13.00
18.62
12.40
17.98
20.07
16.40
13.03
12.14
7.18
$12.95
12.99
12.31
13.87
11.61
11.09
9.08
11.28
9.41
6.56
7.15
13.77
11.76
11.88
10.78
22.23
21.12
18.08
20.61
19.52
18.55
23.10
21.31
17.83
14.99
10.66
$12.88
12.58
14.87
15.55
10.58
9.47
13.75
11.38
11.10
10.26
6.08
14.50
9.76
15.34
15.12
18.87
18.30
15.78
11.43
22.93
18.94
27.44
24.54
20.10
16.59
16.38
10.28
8.32 I 11.57
$11.40
12.41
13.10
13.30
9.36
8.42
9.88
7.78
10.36
8.78
10.85
13. 48
13.39
17.08
11.84
23.32
15.34
23.36
14.78
23.62
22.13
29.41
17.89
18.95
19.59
15.68
1904.
$14.02
11.65
13.25
12.90
9.09
10.01
12.59
7.87
8.96
8.49
7.99
13.39
14.08
22.63
12.04
18.54
17.16
21.15
21.24
31.25
21.83
25.85
23.56
17.05
16.93
13.62
13.28 ! 12.05
1905.
$12.60
12.60
12.69
12.26
8.64
7.80
10.12
8.40
8.70
8.52
7.04
10.56
12.31
15.84
10.40
18.48
18.70
17.49
14.49
35.64
19.61
23.80
19.20
18.80
16.12
12.68
1906.
11.40
10.
$15. 29
12.60
12.79
13.82
9.80
0.90
11.62
8.51
9.28
8.68
7.76
14.30
13.80
14.95
9.83
18.48
20.10
22.14
17.01
32.07
23.76
25.39
20.50
17.89
18.20
14.69
11.74
Average farm price of barley per bushel in the United States December 1, 1897-1906, by
States.
State or Territory.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Cents.
55
60
46
66
54
42
39
Cents.
56
58
47
66
61
48
44
Cents.
59
65
52
68
70
50
49
Cents.
62
67
52
69
77
51
50
Cents.
67
80
66
Cents.
68
75
61
Cents.
71
84
60
Cents.
71
75
66
Cents.
68
73
54
Cents.
65
64
Vermont
62
L
56
59
52
47
51
51
53
54
51
45
47
55
40
42
41
45
71
70
88
49
52
65
63
65
68
53
70
53
41
49
41
56
54
49
54
49
46
44
52
46
37
36
55
36
38
33
38
56
61
72
42
51
75
60
71
91
59
80
53
46
52
63
55
56
50
57
50
50
44
52
48
37
36
54
36
33
33
34
63
65
70
44
58
72
61
64
72
59
85
52
50
59
61
57
56
64
61
52
48
43
55
43
32
36
62
28
32
31
37
65
64
73
40
62
57
.57
90
93
57
72
63
49
59
60
54
55
48
55
45
45
42
47
41
32
30
44
30
29
31
32
44
57
66
40
56
59
53
69
81
53
70
48
47
52
59
55
55
47
56
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
41
44
38
40
32
24
24
40
27
22
24
25
40
59
43
44
44
39
44
40
33
34
36
29
27
25
27
40
56
50
45
45
47
48
40
31
31
42
33
29
30
27
43
64
66
43
47
47
47
44
38
37
45
35
31
33
33
55
62
72
46
52
42
49
45
35
35
48
33
32
Nebraska
31
33
Kentucky
Tennessee
Texas
55
60
61
33
Montana
50
57
51
48
56
64
51
55
46
55
55
61
50
62
54
New Mexico
63
76
Utah
45
47
52
55
54
69
42
43
. 45
54
48
45
49
65
46
44
50
50
50
39
42
43
50
49
52
54
37.7
41.3
40.3
40.8
45.2
45.9
45.6
42.0
40.3
41.5
574 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUEE.
Average yield of barley in certain countries, in bushel* per acre, U
189"
i
23.6
24 5
21.6
25.5
20.4
25.6
29.0
26.4
-
! :
1
12.8
U-8
14 9
11.1
11.4
11.2
15.6
15. 5
14 4
14 3
30.7
29.0
32.2
33.8
33.4
33.3
35.1
36.2
33.6
33.3
19.3
17.6
22.0
24 9
20-2
22.5
24 5
24 0
M
a
23.6
24 0
20.9
2ao
25.1
-
-
J
fl "
. •
2L1
24 5
B
23 4
: .
1897
. >
1S9S
■ -
1899
• "
1900
. "
1901 ...
1902
36.9
1903
.. i
1904
1905
35.9
\verage
25.1
13.3
33.1
22.3
22.4
B i
:-: •
3 Winchester bushels.
: UBds.
Wholesale :irley per bushel in hading citi.es of tin Dmtt 1908-1906.
Cincinnati.
Chicago.
?t. Lords. '
_■ . ' - - .: _•
San Fran-
Date.
EltT;. -
spring.
Ha
Malting.
medium to
choice.
-
-
Low. High.
Low.
High.
Low. High.
Low.
High.
Low. High.
1902.
Cents. Cents.
67 70
Cent*.
■ ■
■•
61
64
64
48
41
38
35
35
36
45
47
46
46
48
49
47
47
a
46
43
42
37
40
40
38
38
35
36
38
38
37
38
38
38
37
40
40
40
43
Cents.
65}
64
67
70
".
71
73
65
63
60
58
70
56
55
55
56
54
53
57
63
.
61}
61}
61
61
54
60
59
59
I
54
53
52
50
48
49}
50
50
CenU. Cents.
59 66
56
>-.:■•
54
51
51
a
56
50
41
35
a;
32
30
30
35
-.
40
40
40
40
34
54
40
35
33
30
32
36
34
33
33
32
a
30
33
32
32
33
33
36
37
36
39
Cents.
- .
B
-.
il
67
52
63
62
69
60
60
--
00
>
■-
0
52
:'
55
'"
a
57
"
0
•••
54
- .
■-
*_
50
53
56
47
46
if
45
45
44
44
46
46
$0-80
.90
M E
n
67
!
69
70
74
69
69
. -:
95
1.02}
60
•
1.03}
: .-.
92} 1.01J
Julv
92} 1.00
55
55
55
55
55
56
56
55
55
55
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
62
62
62
52 67
50 62
i- 61
61
50 61
50 61
50 61
48
4S 57
96} 1.15
. 1.25
LIS} 1.30
-'-■ - -:
1903.
No. 1 feed.
L15 -
Llli
1.05
1.05
.90
• 97}
: :■-:
: :>H
i.iii
L10
1.07}
1 r-;
L«f
.95
1.05
1 "
: .-.-
: j
L16i
Mav
1.UJ
. :>
JulT
L10
1.13*
61
62
60
60
- .
■ -
62
62
71
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
55
-
1.16J
54 65
50 64
49 63
48 65
50 65
4S 64
1
1.16}
1.15
LIS
1904
L13i
L15
1.15
April
: :-
Mav
: M
1.06i
July
1 03}
59
59
45 ! 54
44
1.10
1.12}
55
55
55
52
a
52
52
54
54
62
60
60
58
58
58
58
58
58
i m
L13j
_
1905.
45
45
47
53
■<53
51
48
i aj
: -■
: :>:
1 ■
May
l ■
June. . .
L35
STATISTICS OF RYE.
575
Wholesale prices of barley per bushel in leading citus of the United States. 1902-1906 —
Continued.
Date.
Cincinnati. | Chicago.
Extra No. 3.
spring.
No. 3.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
St. Louis.
Malting,
medium to
choice.
Low.
High.
Minneapolis.
San Fran-
cisco.
No. 1, feed
(per cwt.).
Low. ' High. Low. High.
July
August
September.
October . . .
November.
December. .
1905
January . . .
February . .
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October...
November .
December. .
1906.
Cents.
54
54
54
54
54
54
Cents.
58
58
58
58
58
58
52
61
52
61
56
62
07
62
Cents.
40
37J
374
36*
374.
37
Cents.
52
50
52
53
55
53
51
53
53
55j
58
54
53
55
56
56
56
Cents.
Cents.
46
45
45
a 414
a46"
a 47
a 41
a36
46
45
46
49
534
52"
534
o42
a 47
<• 51
a45
<»38
57
58
58
58§
Cents.
35
30
32
32
34
34
Cents.
48
48
47
$1.10
1.021
1.05"
1.10 j
1. 224J
1.22J
$1.30
1.10
1.13|
1.30
1.27J
1.27J
a Feed barley.
RYE.
Rye crop of countries named, 1902-1906.
[Substantially the crop of the world.]
Country.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
NOETH AMERICA.
Bushels.
33,631,000
Bushels.
29,363,000
Bushels.
27,242.000
Bushels.
28,486,000
Bushels.
33, 375, 000
Canada:
Ontario
Manitoba
Other
3,620,000
51,000
800,000
3,064,000
51,000
800,000
2,065,000
130.000
800,000
1,769,000
179.000
800,000
1,369,000
104,000
800,000
4,471.000
3,915,000
2,995,000
2,748,000
2.273,000
Mexico
100,000
136,000
67,000
60,000
60,000
38,202,000
33, 414, 000
30, 304, 000
31,294,000
35,708,000
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary:
82, 482, 000
49,458,000
3,049,000
257,000
81,130,000
47,355,000
3,386,000
396,000
91,685.000
43,880.000
2,038,000
360,000
98, 192, 000
54,089,000
2,537,000
374,000
99,246,000
51,962,000
2,409,000
Bosnia-Herzegovina
395,000
Total Austria-Hungary...
135,246,000
132,267,000
137,963,000
155,192,000
154,012,000
22. 374, 000
8,000,000
18,779,000
8,841,000
47,051,000
373, 768, 000
3,200,000
13,971,000
776,000
6,958,000
21,756,000
7,750.000
19, 305, 000
10,598,000
57,951,000
389, 923, 000
4,000.000
13,973,000
857,000
7,145,000
21,988.000
7,772,000
16,546,000
10,362,000
52,141,000
396,075,000
3,000,000
13,517,000
717,000
2,201,000
21,349,000
7,541,000
19,245,000
9,000.000
58,116,000
378,204,000
4,000,000
13,742,000
982,000
7,344,000
22, 000, 000
Bulgaria
10,818,000
19,000,000
Finland
10,000,000
51,095,000
378, 948, 000
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Roumania
4,000,000
14,000.000
800,000
8,900,000
576 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICUI/TUKB.
Rye crop of countries named, 1902-1906 — Continued.
Country.
1902.
1903.
1904.
190.x
1906.
ECROPE— continued.
Russia:
Bushels.
S10.537.000
75.2-57.000
■'4.000
Bu-'hels.
803.290.000
69.100.000
7.49-8.000
Bu<
893,205.000
76.606.000
8.179.000
Bu~
n, ooo
-S.OOO
"■3.000
Bushel*.
56S.200.000
Poland.'. *
6.400.000
Total Russia ^European).
S'i4. 448.000
829,894,000
CC7.OQ0.000
70S. 709, 000
638,400,000
Servia 1.084.000 i 1,091.000 1.031.000
Spain 36,187,000 22.511.000 14.1S5.OO0
Sweden 22.293.000. 23.9X1.000 20.708.000
Crrted Kingdom 2.000.000 2.000.000 2.000.000
Total Europe
ASIA.
Russia:
Central Asia
Siberia
1,103.000 1.560.000
26.500.000 31.S2S.000
24.393.000 26.247.000
2.000.000 2.000.000
1.584.970.000 1. 594.381. 000 1.078.196.000 1,437.420.000 1.373.008,000
1.489.000
23.080.000
1.066.000
30,982,000
1.088.000
29.300.000
690.000
28.043.000
000. 000
29,900.000
Total Russia v Asiatic) !
Total Asia
24.569.000 32.048.000 30.448.000 28.733.000
30. 500. 000
24.569.000 32.048.000 30.44S.000 28.733.000
30.500.000
ArSTEA.LA.SIA.
Australia:
Queensland
New South Wales
Victoria
Western Australia
Tasmania
Total Australian Com-
monwealth.
New Zealand. 28,000 40.000 21.000 33.000 05.000
Total Australasia. 98.000 118.000 152.000 118.000 164.000
Grand total 1,647.S45.000 1,659.961.000 1.739.100.000 1,497,565,000 1,439,980,000
7.000
35.000
22.000
5.000
9.000
2.000
83.000
31.000
4.000
11.000
1.000
35.000
32.000
5.000
12.000
2.000
39.000
15.000
3.000
13.000
51.000
30.000
5.000
11.000
70,000
78.000
131,000
85.000
99.000
Visible supply of rye in the United States (nwi Canada, first of each month, for ten years."
Month.
1897-98.
1898-99.
1899-1900.
1900-1901.
1901-2.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bu*~:
Julv
2.404.000
9SS.O0O
904.000
806.000
August
1,946.000
305.000
638.000
725.000
753.000
iber
2.499.000
721.000
1
1,056.000
1.804.000
3.004.000
3.832.000
894.000
1.200.000
962.000
1.906.000
1.210.000
1.513.000
2.440.000
November
. -3.000
December
3.932.000
1.212.000
-■2.000
1.754.000
Januarv
4.430.000
1.573.000
-"<.000
"1.000
3.257.000
Febrnirv
4.291.000
1.570.000
1.734.000
1,530.000
.70.000
March
4.099.000
1.724.000
1.000
1.532.000
- 72.000
April
-2.000
1.0.58.000
1.500.000
1.333.000
. ..V.OOO
Mar
3.039.000
1.335.000
1.441.000
1.112.000
1.910.000
June
1.520.000
•
975.000
1.206.000
938.000
950.000
Month.
1902-3.
1903-4.
1904-5.
1905-6.
1906-7.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Julv
442.000
926.000
938.000
920.000
1.544.000
Aueust
328.000
S67.000
96S.000
823.000
1.480.000
September
903.000
800.000
1.233.000
1.081.000
29.000
1,362.000
1,828.000
2.159.000
"4.000
2.3-54.000
. .73.000
1.088. 000
1.259.000
".000
1.744.000
-.3.000
1. "40.000
1.717.000
1,483,000
1 -.80.000
2.055.000
2.525.000
2.504.000
. 2.59.000
1.901.000
1.554.000
1.O2-.000
2.251.000
. " 3.000
2.990.000
. - ".000
2.723.000
2.452.000
1.793.000
1.906.000
-4.000
2.038.000
■ 1.000
-71.000
April
1.037.000
May
1.8"9.000
1.554.000
1.336.000
1.954.000
1.416.000
2.027.000
1.180.000
1.064.000
1.734.000
a These figures represent stocks available at 62 ot the principal points of accumulation east of the
Rocky Mountains, stocks ir. Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by
Bradst reefs.
STATISTICS OF RYE. 577
Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of rye of the Vnited States, 1866-imit:.
Year.
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881.
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1SSS
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
Aver-
age
Acreage.
yield
per
acre.
Acres.
Bush.
1,548,033
13.5
1,689,175
13.7
1,651,321
13.6
1,657,584
13.6
1,176,137
13.2
1,069,531
14.4
1,048,654
14.2
1,150,355
13.2
1,116,716
13.4
1,359,788
13.0
1,468,374
13.9
1.412,902
15.0
1.622,700
15.9
1,625,450
14.5
1.767,619
13.9
1,789,100
11.6
2,227,894
13.4
2,314,754
12.1
2,343,963
12.2
2, 129, 301
10.2
2, 129. 918
11.5
2.053.447
10.1
2,364.805
12.0
2,171.493
13.1
2,141,853
12.0
2,176,466
14.6
2, 163, 657
12.9
2,038,485
13.0
1,944,780
13.7
1, 890, 345
14.4
1,831,201
13.3
1,703,561
16.1
1,643,207
15.6
1,659,308
14.4
1,591,362
15.1
1,987,505
15.3
1,978,548
17.0
1,906,894
15.4
1,792,673
15.2
1,730,159
16.5
2,001,904
16.7
Production.
Bushels.
20,864,944
23,184,000
22,504,800
22, 527, 900
15,473,600
15, 365, 500
14,888,600
15.142,000
14,990,900
17,722,100
20,374,800
21,170,100
25,842,790
23, 639, 460
24.540,829
20. 704, 950
29, 960, 037
28,058,582
28,640,000
21,756.000
24,489,000
20,693.000
28,415,000
28,420,299
25,807,472
31,751,868
27,894,037
26, 555, 446
26,727,615
27,210,070
24,369,047
27, 363, 324
25, 657, 522
23,961,741
23, 995, 927
30,344,830
33, 630, 592
29,363,416
27,241,515
28,485,952
33,374,833
age
farm
price
per
bush-
el,
Dec.l.
Cents
82.2
100.4
94.9
77.0
73.2
71.1
67.6
70.3
77.4
67.1
61.4
57.6
52.5
65.6
75.6
93.3
61.5
58.1
51.9
57.9
53.8
54.5
58.8
42.3
62.9
77.4
54.2
51.3
50.1
44.0
40.9
44.7
46.3
51.0
51.2
55.7
50.8
54.5
68.8
61.1
58.9
Farm value,
Dec. 1.
Dollars.
17,149,716
23, 280, 584
21,349,190
17,341,861
11,326,967
10, 927, 623
10,071,061
10, 638, 258
11,610,339
11,894,223
12,504,970
12,201,759
13,566,002
15,507,431
18,564.560
19,327,415
18,439,194
16. 300, 503
14,857.040
12, 594, 820
13,181,330
11,283.140
16,721,869
12,009,752
16, 229, 992
24,589,217
15,103,901
13, 612, 222
13,395,476
11,964,826
9, 960, 769
12, 239, 647
11,875,350
12,214,118
12,295.417
16,909,742
17,080,793
15, 993, 871
18, 748, 323
17,414.138
19,671.243
Chicago cash price per
bushel, No. 2.
December.
Low. High
as. cts.
132
1064
66
67
62
57!
70
93
67
65!
55!
44
73J
82
96*
57
56J
51
58!
53
55*
50-
44
644
86
46
45
474.
32
37 ;
453
524
49
45?
59
48
50J
73
64
61
157
118
77i
74
63J
70
81
99|
68r
73
56J
44J
81
91!
98
58!
60
53
61
54!
61!
52
45!
68!
92
51
47!
49
35s
42!
47
55!
52
49f
65|
49|
524
75
68
65
May of
following
year.
Low J High
as.
142
173
100
78
81
75
68!
91
103
61!
70
54
47
73!
115
77
62
60!
68
58
54!
63
39
49!
83
70J
50!
44!
62!
33
323
48
56!
53
51!
54I
482
69s
70
58
as.
150
185
115!
83!
91
93
70
102
107!
70!
92!
60
52
85
118
83
67
62!
73
61
56!
68
41*
54
92
79
62
48
67
364
35!
75
62
561
54
58
50!
78
84
62
Domestic
exports, in-
cluding
rye flour,
fiscal yea r
beginning
Julvl.
Bushels.
234,971
564,901
92, 869
199,450
87, 174
832, 689
611, 749
1,923,404
267, 058
589, 159
2,234,856
4,249,684
4,877,821
2,943,894
1,955,155
1,003.609
2,206,212
6,247,590
2,974,390
216, 699
377, 302
94, 827
309,266
2,280,975
358, 263
12,068,628
1,493,924
249, 152
32,045
1,011,128
8, 575, 663
15,562,035
10,169,822
2, d82, 012
2, 345, 512
2,712,077
5,445,273
784,068
29, 749
1,387,826
Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1906, by States.
State or Territory.
Yermont
Massachusetts
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
3 A1906 37
Acreage.
A cres.
1,754
3,977
10, 569
138, 081
78,363
346, 265
1,037
19, 704
16,407
11.336
15,427
4,015
14,206
52,000
65,000
64,324
400,000
267,427
88,448
52,711
18,000
Average
yield per
acre.
Bushels.
17.4
15.0
18.0
17.6
17.2
17.4
15.0
14.7
13.4
12.2
11.0
8.5
8.3
19.5
17. C
17.0
14.5
17.0
19.3
18.6
15.8
Production.
Bushels.
30,520
59,655
190,242
2. 430, 226
1,347,844
6,025,011
15,555
289,649
219,854
138,299
169,697
34,128
117,910
1,014,000
1,105,000
1.093,508
5,800,000
4.546,259
1,707,046
980, 425
284,400
Average
farm
price
Dec. 1.
Cents.
62
65
66
65
61
64
64
60
70
70
85
125
105
57
58
56
59
58
50
50
60
Farm value
Dec. 1.
Dollars.
18,922
38, 776
125,560
1,579,647
822, 185
3,856,007
9,955
173, 789
153, 898
96,809
144, 242
42,660
123,806
577,980
640,900
612, 364
3,422,000
2,636,830
853,523
490.212
170. 640
578 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1906, by States — Continued.
State or Territory.
North Dakota -
South Dakota.
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Texas
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
Utah
Idaho
Washington .
Oregon
California . . .
United States 2,001,904
Acreage.
Average
yield per
acre.
Production.
Average
farm
price
Dec. 1.
Farm value
Dec. 1.
Acres.
Bushels.
BusheU.
Cents.
Dollars.
23,200
18.7
433.840
47
203. 905
33,084
18.8
621.979
45
279.891
95,000
21.0
1,995,000
44
877,800
64,142
16.0
1,026,272
50
513, 136
10, 675
15.2
162,260
70
113, 582
10,036
13.0
130,468
74
96,546
1,673
12.5
20.912
105
21,958
4,728
14.6
69,029
85
58,675
2,9.55
13.9
41,074
57
23.412
1,971
12.0
23,652
83
19.631
2,021
20.5
41,430
66
27.344
428.
19.0
8,132
72
5,855
2,179
20.0
43,580
56
24.405
3,775
24.0
90,600
65
58,890
1,575
25.2
39,690
60
23,814
2,678
19.6
52,489
65
34, 118
10.049
17.2
172, 843
74
127,904
62,684
12.8
S02.355
71
569,672
2,001,904
16.7
33, 374, 833
58.9
19,671,243
Condition of the rye crop of the United States, monthly, 1888-1907.
Year.
Decem-
ber of
previous
year.
April.
May.
June.
July.
August.
When
har-
vested.
1888
Per cent.
96.0
97.2
96.4
99.0
88.8
89.4
94.6
96.2
94.9
99.8
Per cent.
93.5
93.9
92.8
95.4
87.0
85.7
94.4
87.0
82.9
88.9
92.1
84.9
84.8
93.1
85.4
97 9
82.3
92.1
90.9
92.0
Per cent.
92.9
96.5
93.5
97.2
88.9
82.7
90.7
88.7
87.7
88.0
94.5
85.2
88.5
94.1
83.4
93.3
81.2
93.5
93.0
88.0
Per cent.
93.9
95.2
92.3
95.4
91.0
84.6
93.2
85.7
85.2
89.9
97.1
84.5
87.6
93.9
88.1
90.6
86.3
95.3
89.9
Per cent.
95.1
96.7
92.0
93.9
92.8
85.3
87.0
80.7
83.8
93.4
94.6
84.9
84.0
93.5
90.3
89.3
89.1
92.9
91.3
Per cent.
91.4
95.4
86.8
89.6
89.8
78.5
79.8
84.0
88.0
89.8
93.7
89.0
76.0
83.6
90.5
87.2
91.8
92.6
90.8
Per cent.
92.8
1889
91.6
1890
85.4
1891
95.1
1892
88.5
1893
82.0
1894
86.9
1895
83.7
1896
82.0
1897
90.1
1898
89.4
1899
98.9
98.2
99.1
89.9
98.1
92.7
90.5
95.4
96.2
82.0
1900
84.2
1901
84.9
1902
90.2
1903
84.1
1904
86.9
1905
90.8
1906
90.5
1907 . .
Average yield of rye in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905.
Year.
United
States.
Russia.
Ger-
many.
Austria.
Hungary.
France.
Ireland.
1896
<«)
13.3
16.1
15.6
14.4
15.1
15.3
17.0
15.4
15.2
16.5
10.9
9.3
10.5
12.8
12.5
14.0
12.5
12.2
13.7
10.1
22.7
21.8
24.2
23.6
22.9
22.4
24.5
26.3
26.3
24.9
TO
16.3
13.9
17.7
18.7
13.0
16.9
18.2
18.2
19.3
20.2
TO
18.2
13.5
16.9
17.7
15.1
15.8
19.1
18.2
17.1
19.2
TO
18.7
13.4
18.3
18.2
16.9
16.7
14.3
18.1
16.6
18.5
TO
25.4
1897
21.6
1898
25.8
1899
25.8
1900
25.6
1901
27.4
1902
28.0
1903
26.9
1904
26.0
1905
27.0
15.4
11.8
24.0
17.2
17.1
17.0
26.0
a Winchester bushels.
6 Bushels of 56 pounds.
STATISTICS OF RYE. 579
Average yield per acre of rye in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Massachusetts. .
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania...
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia. ..
North Carolina..
South Carolina. .
Georgia
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota...
South Dakota...
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Texas
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
Utah
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
General average 16. 1
Bush.
13.5
18.0
16.0
19.5
19.0
18.5
17.0
19.0
17.0
11.0
11.5
8.8
6.6
7.4
18.0
13.0
15.5
15.0
16.0
17.2
16.0
12.0
14.5
16.5
17.0
14.0
13.0
10.0
9.6
12.0
Busk.
18.0
17.5
19.1
16.7
18.0
17.5
15.5
16.1
14.5
11.2
11.2
9.1
8.5
8.0
17.4
15.5
14.8
15.3
15.3
20.5
19.0
13.1
15.0
16.6
18.8
15.6
13.0
10.5
11.1
12.0
Bush.
15.0
15.0
17.0
16.0
18.0
16.0
15.0
15.0
1900.
14.0
9.0
10.0
7.0
5.0
6.0
16.0
13.0
15.0
14.0
15.0
18.0
18.0
13.0
15.0
15.0
16.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
10.0
11.0 ! 11.4 11.0
15.0
12.0
18.0
19.5
19.5
15.0
12.2
18.0
14.4
9.0
14.0
17.0
Bush.
17.2
17.1
16.6
16.9
17.0
15.1
15.9
15.3
16.0
11.0
15.0
16.5
10.5
10.5
8.9
7.5
7.0
16.6
15.1
17.2
14.6
15.8
19.5
18.0
14.0
5.2
10.6
14.2
15.2
13.1
11.0
7.8
16.5
11.5
16.8
17.5
16.3
16.1
13.0
1901.
Bush.
18.3
15.9
18.0
14.9
15.0
15.9
15.3
14.4
11.1
12.0
8.5
7.7
7.6
16.9
14.5
17.0
14.0
15.9
19.3
18.4
14.2
13.8
14.4
15.0
14.3
14.0
11.3
8.0
11.1
14.8
8.7
26.7
24.0
16.1
14 2
15. 0
17.5
15.7
12.8
15.3
1902.
Bush.
16.9
15.2
17.4
17.5
16.4
16.0
13.5
14.0
9.6
8.1
8.2
7.6
6.3
17.5
14.5
19.1
17.9
18.9
22.3
17.4
18.2
20.2
18.8
20.3
12.0
13.4
11.0
10.0
9.9
16.0
12.3
25.0
18.0
15.9
12.4
20.2
17.8
13.4
12.0
17.0
1903.
Bush.
19.4
13.7
17.0
15.2
13.8
15.6
14.8
13.7
12.2
11.5
8.8
7.6
7.9
15.3
12.6
16.5
15.5
16.6
18.4
16.9
12.8
15.7
20.2
14.2
16.2
11.6
13.4
10.6
14.2
17.9
9.7
24.6
18.0
18.3
16.1
18.5
21.0
14.2
12.3
1904.
Bush. Bush.
16.9
17.0
16.9
14.8
17.5
15.5
11.8
14.8
15.7
12.5
9.9
7.5
8.3
16.1
14.6
17.6
13.2
16.2
17.7
17.2
14.4
18.5
16.5
15.8
13.2
13.7
11.7
10.4
13.1
9.4
11.1
19.9
19.5
19.1
16.0
19.7
19.0
14.4
7.6
15.4
15.2
15.0
15.5
18.0
16.0
18.0
17.0
10.0
14.5
11.8
11.8
9.5
8.1
7.7
18.0
15.4
18.0
16.0
16.5
18.2
17.5
15.5
19.5
19.0
18.0
15.7
15.0
12.1
11.7
14.0
12.1
12.0
20.0
23.0
19.0
18.0
25.0
18.5
15.0
13.0
Bush.
17.4
15.0
18.0
17.6
17.2
17.4
15.0
14.7
13.4
12.2
11.0
8.5
8.3
19.5
17.0
17.0
14.5
17.0
19.3
18.6
15.8
18.7
18.8
21.0
16.0
15.2
13.0
12.5
14.6
13.9
12.0
20.5
19.0
20.0
24.0
25.2
19.6
17.2
12.8
16.5
16.7
Average value per acre of rye in the United States, based upon farm value, December 1,
1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Massachusetts. . .
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia...
North Carolina..
South Carolina..
Georgia
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin. ..
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota...
South Dakota...
Nebraska
Kansas
1897. 1898. j 1899.
$15. 12
13.12
11.08
10.52
10.80
8.75
7.75
7.57
$12. 60
12.15
10.54
12.64
11.52
8.96
8.25
7.65
1900.
$14.10
14.02
10.13
12.68
11.05
8.46
8.74
8.11
7.82
7.83
7.98
8.58
5.50
5.15
4.77
6.09
5.87
5.82
6.20
6.72
5.28
5.82
5.25
a 76
5.68
8.67
5.45
7.87
6.81
7.84
6.72
7.21
7.92
7.83
8.80
9.13
5.46
a 67
6.24
7.55
6.82
6.51
7.05
8.08
6.30
6.58
7.28
7.01
6.56
6.58
7.20
7.74
6.36
7:79
7.56
8.19
5.76
7.60
7.20
7.38
5.28
6.16
6.50
7.14
5.22
5.40
5.55
2.13
5.78
5.64
5.55
4 13
5.44
6.39
aos
5.68
5.60
5.77
4.62
a 54
1901.
$14.64
12.56
12.96
9.24
8.85
9.54
a 87
&06
a 77
7.80
a 63
ass
8.06
9.30
7.68
9.69
7.28
a 27
9.46
9.20
9.51
5.93
6.19
6.90
7.87
1902.
$iaoi
12.16
laos
10.15
10.00
a48
a 37
a 12
6.34
5.51
6.97
a 59
6.93
9.27
6.67
9.55
8.77
9.45
9.59
7.31
a 74
a 69
7.71
7.31
5.40
1903.
$12. 61
10.00
12.07
9.27
8.83
9.67
9.03
8.08
8.05
& 17
7.39
a 13
9.01
a 87
6.68
ass
7.90
a30
a28
7.44
7.04
6.75
a 08
5.25
7.13
$12. 51
li94
13.35
10.80
12.25
11.01
a 61
11.25
11.62
9.63
a 61
9.45
a 47
11.91
10.07
12.32
9.50
11.18
11.33
10.32
9.22
11.10
9.41
a 69
a58
1905.
1906.
$9.75
12.25
U32
10.72
11.88
11.05
6.60
9.43
a38
8.26
a 17 i
9.64
a39
11.16
9.24
10. SO
9.44
9.73
9.65
9.27
9.61
9.75
9.31
8.64
a48
$10. 79
9.75
11.88
11.44
10.49
11.14
9.60
a 82
9.38
a 54
9.35
10.63
a 72
11. 12
9.86
9.52
8.56
9.86
9.65
9.30
9.48
a 79
8.46
9.24
aoo
580
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL/TURE.
Average value per acre of rye in the United States, based upon farm value, December 1,
1897-1906, by States — Continued.
State or Territory.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
$6.89
5.80
11.33
8.64
$7. 15
5.56
1L65
8.52
$7.00
6.03
8.32
8.20
S&2S
7.48
a 03
1L05
$9.&
&36
R32
10.32
10.36
7.74
16.02
19.20
a ge
9.23
10.05
10.85
10.36
7.30
$a3i
a 03
10.50
7.52
7.52
a9S
16.00
9.00
a90
7. 56
12.12
1L39
9.78
9.00
fa 00
9.92
1L45
10.51
a95
a 15
15.50
12.42
1L16
10.46
12.02
15. 12
ia77
9.47
$10.96
9.24
12.48
11.27
5.83
9.77
15.32
7.80
12.41
10. 72
14.77
15. 01
12. 82
5.93
$10.65
&32
1134
11.90
7.50
1L16
noo
14.26
10.64
1L70
1100
12.95
12.15
10.01
'10 64
Tennessee
Texas
Oklahoma
9.62
13.12
12.41
7 92
Arti»nqfl<; .
a46
7.41
a 14
&28
g •..
Montana
13.53
Wyoming
1168
Colorado
Utah
7.80
7.20
aoo
8.97
6.72
8.16
9.07
9.10
11.20
15 60
Idaho
15 12
Washington
Oregon
California
12.09
8.85
7.93
10.44
10.37
6.30
9.60
7.70
11.70
9.45
9.82
7.54
12.74
12.73
9.09
General average
7.18
7.23
7.36
7.73
a 51
a63
a39
10.46
10.07
9.83
Average farm price of rye per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906. by
States.
State or Territory.
1897.
1891
1899.
1900.
190L
1902.
1901
1904.
1905.
1906.
Cents.
82
84
60
61
59
48
50
43
Cents.
84
75
58
63
60
50
50
47
Cents.
84
81
62
79
64
56
55
51
Cents.
82
82
61
75
65
56
55
53
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
New Hampshire
Vermont
80
79
72
62
59
60
58
56
61
65
78
111
106
55
53
57
52
52
49
50
67
43
43
46
55
67
74
104
93
70
89
60
80
62
'
67
62
66
57
77
80
75
58
61
53
62
58
66
68
85
113
110
53
-
50
49
50
43
42
48
43
41
36
45
62
73
105
76
47
73
50
56
'■1
60
64
73
'.'
65
73
71
61
64
62
61
59
66
71
84
107
114
58
53
52
51
50
45
44
55
43
40
37
44
69
74
108
74
50
84
63
69
61
66
65
72
97
77
74
82
79
73
70
71
73
76
74
77
87
126
102
74
69
70
72
69
64
60
64
60
57
55
65
80
79
120
86
62
88
77
40
66
.:
75
79
89
78
65
79
74
67
66
65
66
65
71
TO
86
119
109
62
60
60
59
59
53
53
62
50
49
48
54
71
77
114
85
62
93
65
62
56
65
56
70
81
7,
62
Massachusetts
65
Connecticut
66
65
61
64
64
46
50
51
60
86
92
44
42
44
42
41
37
36
44
36
15
32
40
53
58
118
72
54
46
52
64
102
98
45
43
44
43
43
38
40
47
36
34
34
37
55
53
105
71
57
53
62
75
109
112
55
48
47
52
48
42
40
50
37
37
38
42
70
67
104
82
52
58
64
76
105
103
55
50
47
«
49
42
41
51
41
39
40
43
63
68
103
67
60
70
70
85
125
105
Ohio
57
Indiana
Illinois
58
56
59
58
50
50
60
47
45
Kansas
44
.50
70
74
Alabama
Texas
105
B6
57
Arkansas
65
74
72
83
66
72
Utah
52
60
50
46
48
4*
54
52
56
65
60
Washington
Oregon
California
02
59
65
58
70
60
70
n
58
61
58
65
74
71
General average
44.7
46.3
51.0
51.2
55. 7
50.8
54.5
618
61.1
58. 9
STATISTICS OF RYE. 581
Wholesale prices of rye per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
Philadelphia. ! Cincinnati.
Chicago.
Date.
January...
February. .
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October.. .
November.
December. .
1902.
January...
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October...
November.
December . .
January...
February . .
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October.. .
November.
December..
January. . .
February . .
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December. .
January. ..
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December. .
1903.
Low.
Cents.
69
68
65
64J
64
58
56
57]
55]
56
54
57
til
61
59
58
56
58i
High.
No. 2.
Cents.
71
70
69
67
66
85
79]
72"
63
65f
70
73}
68
66*
65
63
58.i
58
58
60
56
55|
55]
62
60
61
59
-,s>.
59
■)»}.
r.s.i
58]
61 i
65j
63
60|
60
58
60j
80
72
96
91
87]
87]
90 J
m
83"
75"
66
693
76]
76
73
73
67
65
63
62]
62
61]
60
56]
62
62]
65
65
Low High. Low. High.
Cents.
66
64
63
62
60
54
55]
51
52]
52
51
51
55]
57}
56
55
54
57
56
55
59]
61
58
59
80
81]
84
80
80
80
60
56
56
67
70
70
Cents. Cents.
71]' 56
67
65 I
64 I
63]
59 [
58
56
55]
53
54
56 I
59
58]
-,sl
58"
58
58
57]
60
63
63
62
62]
64
81
80
78
80
80
78
76]
83
87
87
86
86
86
87
86
83
83
83
60
66
74
74\
64
62
tit;
tiS1,
72"
:-2i
56
54]
54]
54]
-)f>5
.721
48
49
4S
48]
48
48
48|
485
48
48
49
49
50]
53
53
51]
50]
51
56
66
69
63]
63
62
69]
75
76
73
~4]
74'
75
73
70
75
58
57]
60
67
(V,
64
Duluth. iSa,n Francisco
(percwt.).
Low.
Cents.
67]
60]
58
57]
58
58
61]
54
50]
50]
51]
49f
503
51]
51]
51
50]
53j
51]
53]
60
56]
58]
52]
75]
78
78]
78]
84
79
75
60
72
73]
72i
68
65
63
621.
62"
62
60
56A
63"
m
65
65
Cents
54
53
52
52
54
55}
51}
46
47i
47"
49
48
54]
58
63
64
65
55
55
62
72
77
74
71
72]
73
73]
74
70
70
57]
55>
59
63
62
62
High. I Low.
Cents. Cents
64 77]
57]
54]
56
57
56]
58
51
49
49
49J
49"
49
49
49 \
50]
50
52
50
52]
55]
54
54
52]
57
73
71
68i
69'
67
80
75
77
791
80
74
60
61
59
57
57
57
57 !
53
56
59]
61
61
92]
85
95
95
85
90
85
105
102]
110
105
110
105
115
112]
115
112]
117
110
117]
110
115
110
115
110
116J
115
120
117]
125
120
130
125
130
125
130
125
130
125
130
127
135
130
135
130
135
130
135
130
135
125
130
125
132]
127]
140
137]
140
137]
145
140
147]
142]
150
145
160
150
160
150
165
155
165
160
175
140
150
147]
152]
150
152]
145
152]
145
147]
145
1.50
1
;:•;;;;:
582
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTTOE.
BUCKWHEAT.
Condition of the buckwheat crop of the United States, monthly. 1SS7-1906.
When
When
When
Year.
Aug.
Sept.
. har-
vested.
Year.
Aug.
Sept.
har-
vested.
Year.
Aug.
Sept.
har-
vested.
P.cl.
P.ct.
P. ct.
P.ct.
P. ct
P.ct
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
1887
93.3
89.1
76.6
1894....
82.3
69.2
72.0
1901....
91.1
90.9
90.5
1888.
92.5
93.7
79.1
1S95....
So. 2
S7.5
1902. . . .
91.4
S6.4
80.5
1889
95.2
92.1
90.0
1S96....
96.0
93.2
S6.0
1903. . . .
93.9
91.0
83.0
1890
90.1
90.5
90.7
1897....
94.9
95.1
90.8
1904. . . .
92. S
91.5
1891
97.3
96.6
92.7
1898. . . .
87.2
88. S
76.2
1905....
92.6
91.8
91.6
1S92
92.9
89.0
85.6
1899....
93.2
75.2
70.2
1906....
93.2
91.2
1S93
88.8
77.5
73.5
1900....
-"
80.5
72. S
Acreage, production, value, and prices of buckwheat in the United States. 1866-
Average
Year.
Acreage.
Average
yield per
acre.
Production.
farm
price per
bushel,
Dec. 1.
Farm value,
Dec. 1.
Acres.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Dollars.
1866
1.045.624
21.8
22.791,839
67.6
15.413,160
1867
1.227.826
17.4
21.359.000
78.7
16.S12.070
1868
1.113.993
17. S
19.863.700
78.0
15. 490. 426
1869
1.028.693
536.992
16.9
IS. 3
17.431.100
9.841.500
71.9
70.5
12. -534, 851
1870
6.937.471
1871 -.
413.915
20.1
S. 32S. 700
74.5
6, aw
1S72
448, 497
18.1
S. 133. 500
73.5
5. 979. 222
1S73
454.152
17.3
" S7,7O0
75.0
' £78,629
1S74
452.590
17.7
S. 016. 600
72.9
" -43.645
1875
575.530
17.5
10.0S2.100
62.0
6. 254. 564
1S76
666.441
14.5
9.66S.800
66.6
6. 435. 836
1877
649.923
15.7
10.177.000
66.9
6,808 18
1878
673. 100
18.2
12. 246. 820
52.6
6.441.240
1879
639.900
20.5
13.140.000
59.8
7,856,191
1880
822.802
82S.815
847,132
857.349
914. 394
917. 915
910.506
912. 630
S37.162
S49.364
S61.451
815.614
7S9. 232
763. 277
754. S9S
717,836
678. 332
670. 148
637.930
811.164
B94 389
804.393
793. 625
760. US
789.208
J
11.4
13.0
8.9
12.6
13. S
12.9
11.9
13.2
14.5
14.7
15.0
14.1
14.9
16.1
20.1
18.7
20.9
17.3
16.6
15.0
18.6
18.1
17.7
18.9
19.2
18.6
14.617.535
9.4S6.200
11.019.353
" S.954
11.116.000
12.626.000
11.S69.000
10..44.000
12.050.000
12.110.329
12. 432. 831
12.760.932
12.143.185
12.122.311
12.668.2O0
15.341.399
14,089.783
14.997.451
11.721.927
11.094.473
9.566.966
15. 125. 939
14.529.770
14.243.644
15.008,336
14.585,082
14.641.937
59.4
86.5
73.0
S2.2
58.9
55.9
54.5
56.5
63.3
50.5
57.4
57.0
51.8
58.4
55.6
45.2
39.2
42.1
45.0
55. 7
55.8
56.3
59.6
60.7
62.2
5S.7
59.6
■
1881
S. 205. 705
1882.
1883... ..
6. 303. 980
I«JW ..
6.549.020
7.057.363
1886
6.465.120
U87
6. 122. 320
188S
7,623 43
1889 --
6. 113. 119
1890
7.132.872
1S91
7.271.506
1892
6.295.643
1893
7.074.450
1894
7. 040. 23S
1895 -
6.936.325
1896.
5.522.339
1S97
6.319.188
1898
5.271.462
1899 .
6. 1S3. 675
1900
5.341.413
1901
- r 23. 317
1902 ...
64, 704
1903 ...
- 650,733
1904..
9.330.768
1905 .
■ -5.499
1906
• "27.443
STATISTICS OF BUCKWHEAT. 583
Acreage, production, and value of buckwheat in the United States in 1906, by States.
State.
Maine
New Hampshire .
Vermont
Massachusetts..
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania. . .
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia...
North Carolina. .
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
Nebraska
Kansas
Tennessee
Average
Acreage, yield per
acre.
Acres.
22,783
1,874 |
7,706
2,359
3,350
321, 552
11, 598
252,000
1,331
8,124
18,078
21,131
5,603
13,000
4,315
3,787
52,000
20,842
4,538
9,000
1,501
861
1,348
527
Bush.
28.0
22.0
21.0
20.0
17.0
19.0
18.0
19.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
18.0
14.0
19.0
16.0
19.0
13.0
15.0
14.0
12.0
18.0
15.0
17.0
16.0
Production.
Bushels.
637,924
41, 228
161, 826
47,180
56,950
6. 109, 488
208, 764
4. 788, 000
22, 627
146, 232
343,482
380,358
78,442
247,000
69,040
71, 953
676,000
312,630
63,532
108,000
27,018
12,915
22, 916
8,432
Average
farm
price
Dee. 1
Farm value
Dec. 1.
Cents.
59
73
58
68
75
61
60
57
61
60
58
65
64
57
64
75
55
62
54
76
74
62
74
83
Dollars.
376, 375
30,096
93,859
32,082
42,712
3, 726, 788
125,258
2,729,160
13.802
87,739
199,220
247, 233
50,203
140,790
44,186
53,965
371,800
193, 831
34,307
82,080
19,993
8,007
16, 958
6,999
United States.
789.208
18.6 ' 14,641,937
59. 6 8, 727, 443
Average yield per acre of buckwheat in the United States, 1897-1906, by States.
State.
Maine
New Hampshire .
Vermont
Massachusetts...
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia . . .
North Carolina..
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota...
Nebraska
Kansas
Tennessee
Oregon
1897.
General average 20. 9
Bush.
35.0
27.0
24.0
19.0
17.0
22.0
16.0
21.0
19.0
19.0
14.0
19.0
11.0
18.0
14.0
13.0
17.0
18.0
17.0
17.0
15.0
14.0
18.0
18.0
1899. ! 1900.
Bush.
26.5
20.0
21.4
20.0
19.0
16.8
21.0
17.2
16.5
12.2
17.3
20.5
19.5
20.0
18.4
14.0
14.2
15.5
15.0
16.0
15.8
12.8
18.0
14.0
17.3
Bush.
22.0
20.0
23.0
20.0
19.0
13.0
21.0
20.0
18.0
13.0
14.0
17.0
17.0
16.0
16.0
15.0
11.0
15.0
17.0
16.0
14.0
16.0
12.0
17.0
Bush.
30.0
22.0
25.0
17.0
16.0
14.0
16.0
14.0
13.0
15.0
13.0
17.0
13.0
16.0
14.0
15.0
14.0
14.0
15.0
15.0
13.0
16.0
14.0
13.0
16.6 15.0
Bush.
31.7
21.0
25.1
18.9
18.0
18.8
19.0
19.5
17.8
17.5
15.9
20.6
15.6
16.1
13.1
11.0
14.1
12.4
14.5
13.5
6.0
11.5
11.5
7.9
14.2
1902.
1903.
1904.
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
30.4
29.8
32.5
20.0
19.6
25.1
25.0
24.0
26.3
14.4
13.7
16.2
18.4
17.5
16.3
17.7
18.3
18.8
22.5
18.1
20.8
18.1
16.5
18.8
15.2
15.2
12.1
17.0
16.3
18.2
16.6
18.6
17.0
22.5
17.2
19.1
14.5
12.1
14.7
13.9
16.6
16.9
17.6
16.8
16.1
15.5
15.3
17.9
13.0
15.5
15.4
16.0
15.6
17.7
13.9
15.2
15.1
16.0
15.1
14.8
16.0
14.8
13.5
10.0
12.7
13.5
14.7
19.0
14.7
12.0
18.4
14.0
18.0
14.7
15.5
1905.
Bush.
30.0
23.0
19.0
20.0
16.0
19.0
21.0
20.0
17.0
19.0
18.0
19.0
15.0
17.0
17.0
16.0
16.0
15.0
14.0
13.0
16.0
1906.
14.0
11.0
16.0
Bush.
28.0
22.0
21.0
20.0
17.0
19.0
18.0
19.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
18.0
14.0
19.0
16.0
19.0
13.0
15.0
14.0
12.0
18.0
15.0
17.0
16.0
18.1 I 17.7
18.9
19.2
18.6
584
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tgevahupt i States, based upon farm ralue December 1,
U 7-1 Stmt*.
189
1904. 1905. 1906.
Maine
New Hampshire .
Vermont..
Massachu> I
Connecticut
New York
New .Terser
Pennsylvania
Delaware . . .
Maryland
Yirginia
Wesi Virginia. . .
North Carolina . .
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
s nsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
N rtfaDftk "
Nebraska
Kansas
Tennessee
1
9.40
10.00
M
. 1 •
. .
14.00
11.97
i '
11. 34
u -
10.80
• -.
-"
" "
" '
I
B
•
:. :■
a
9. 35
9.44
• ■
i
6.05
.
7.35
• M
■
.
-■
• H
11.44
12.50
. M
10.40
" I
9.44
9.52
r 2»
""
7.14
• .
I
- "
:-.
::..-.
■ .
Si
10.01
11.55
U ■
11.53
11.70
i n
■■
10.92
7.99
■ .
> ?
■
4.56
:: y
10.44
14.40
I
r N
-'
-
6. 39
9.44
i .
:: ;•:
-
• -
- -
I
: ■■-
■
" •
11.17
i a
-
13.11
14.35
." i
14.73
11.47
■
. H
" I
E
: s?
--
. ■
u s
U M
r ■
U. IS
LOG
-
£
:; ;-
11.30
:: ::
.: ,':
9.69
14.30
:: '.»
.
: .
11.30
9.69
i
■
- if
- •
I . ::■
:; :;
General average • i
*: '-
:• r
- !
:.: ••.
. ■■
11-59
". s
1. S
■
: >
:: :•;
:. ■
• i
: s.
. .4
- a
■ u
r ■
■ i
9.12
:. :
v -ember 1. 1897—1906t
-
51 -
• i
> •
1899.
:h: .
.-• :
.*.■-.
yyy.
-y>
44
55
46
S
40
49
42
36
9
50
49
49
m
49
S3
•
•
45
49
1
m
47
46
61
'■-
45
H
44
40
53
B
-
--
51
51
52
.
40
49
■
■
Ocnis.
44
v
a
a
■
54
49
I
54
"
49
■
■
a
55
63
52
58
49
52
50
a
■
a
a
""
■
■•
61
E
H
-
-
69
m
55
.■:
•-
"
••
.
60
51
\
1
60
•
'r
a
■
-
74
n
■
64
61
60
.
60
•
•
a
70
•
■
•
59
"
•
n
59
-
-
63
■f
■y
■'
:
H
53
71
"■
53
69
a
■ -
'
-.
-.
•:
■
63
64
JJ
n
72
TO
n
61
63
60
85
•
»
71
■
n
■
n
73
'
63
•
63
.
66
.
S
•
53
'
'"
70
■-
63
69
68
Qeatc
■•
.*
75
New York
New Jersey
60
-.:
•..:
•••
West \ irginia
a
i
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
•-
-
.
54
Iowa
-ri
76
51
-
1
63
"4
Tennessee . .
Oregon
Z
s
>
74
g
S3
General average
£ 1
45.0
".'
s ■
>• J
•.. •
>
s .
STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 585
POTATOES.
Potato crop of countries named. 1901-1905.
[No statistics for Switzerland, Portugal, Argentina, Transvaal, Egypt, and some other less important
potato-growing countries.]
Country.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
NORTH AMERICA.
Bushels.
187,598,000 |
Bushels.
284,633,000
Bushels.
247,128,000
Bushels.
332,830,000
Bushels.
Canada:
Ontario
Manitoba
New Brunswick.
Other"
Total Canada .
Mexico
Newfoundland a .
Total North America.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Chile.
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungary proper
Croatia-Slavonia
Bosnia-Herzegovina .
18, 688, 000
4,949,000
4,206,000
30,000,000
57,843,000
336,000
1,350,000
247,127,000
10,000,000
13,350,000
3,568,000
4,288.000
30,000,000
17,202,000
4,907,000
4,835,000
30, 000, 000
15,967,000 14,819,000
3,919,000 4,910,000
5,550.000 5,693.000
30,000,000 30,000,000
51,206.000 | 56,944,000 55,436,000
55,422,000
347,000
1,350,000
539,000
1,350,000
337,536,000 305,961,000
11,616,000 10,349,000
437,110,000 | 428,229,000
158,494,000 ' 141,538,000
17,512,000 ' 13,059,000
2,893,000 I 1,793.000
527,000
1,350,000
6 400,000
1,350,000
390,143,000
517,913,000
0,131,000
6,532,000
357.121,000 i 398,298.000
165,386,096 j 110,402,000
19,337,000 I 9,311,000
2,322,000 2,450,000
Total Austria-Hungary.
616.009.000 , 584.619,000
Belgium i 101 , 082, 000
Denmark 22, 002, 000
Finland 16, 325, 000
France 411, 055, 000
Germany 1 . 788, 950, 000
Italy •
Malta
Netherlands.
Norway
Roumania...
29.000.000
264,000
94,910.000
24,320,000
3,819,000
83,198,000
27,168,000
15,298,000
441,534,000
1,596,969,000
29,000,000
361,000
94,756,000
17,735,000
4,659.000
544,166,000 520,461,000
86, 580, 000
25,256,000
19,212,000
450,262,000
1,576,361,000
29, 000. 000
• 628, 000
73,394,000
22,851,000
5,246,000
91,632.000
24,214,000
15, 465, 000
451,039,000
1,333,326,000
29,000,000
733,000
94,421,000
17,253,000
3,001,000
581,822,000
168,221,000
6 15,000,000
2,485,000
767,528,000
57,159,000
29,953,000
16,500,000
6 438,000,000
1,775,579,000
29,000,000
387,000
87,043,000
25,832,000
3,733,000
Russia:
Russia proper
Poland
Northern Caucasia .
566,926,000 723,435,000
287,712,000 ! 288.447.000
10,801.000 16,154.000
675,330.000 | 705,170,000 I 686,502,000
194,829,000 : 179,997,000 I 331,529,000
17,441,000 ! 8,741,000 14,857.000
Total Russia (European!.1 865,439,000 1,028,036.000! 887,600,000 1 893,908,000
Servia . .
Spain 6.
Sweden.
1.237,000
84.000,000
43.793.000
1,402,000
84,000.000
51.377.000
1,527,000 | 718,000
84,000,000 84,000,000
59,317,000 51,314,000
United Kingdom:
Great Britain 137, 060, 000 | 119. 250, 000
Ireland , 125,896,000 j 101,761,000
108,779,000
88,227,000
133,961,000
98, 635, 000
Total United Kingdom... 262.956,000 j 221,011.000 197,006,000 232,596,000
Total Europe 4,365,161,000 4,281,123,000 |4, 062, 406, 000 3,843,081,000
Japan 10, 153, 000
Russia (Asiatic) 14,273,000
7.41S.000
13,142,000
9,824,000
19,364,000
11,274,000
18,800,000
Total Asia.
24.426.000 ! 20.560.000 ; 29.188,000 30,074.000
Algeria 1,673,000 i 1.851,000 1,596,000 1,655,000
Cape of Good Hope d 1.600, 000 | dl, 600,000 dl. 600,000 I 1,942,000
Natal 316,000 433,000 345,000 451,000
Total Africa .
3,589,000
3,884,000
3.541,000
4,048,000
1,032,8SS,000
1,232,000
84,000,000
74,819,000
140,474,000
127, 793, 000
268,267,000
4,691,920 000
6 10,000, 0(H)
18,865,000
28,865,000
6 1,700,000
02,000,000
466,000
4,166,000
o Estimated from returns for census year.
6 Average production.
c Average, 1896-1900.
d Estimated from statistics for 1899 and 1904.
0S*:' YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMENT OF AGBICTTLT"CRE.
Potato crop of count™ * named. 1901-1905 — Continued.
1905.
LU8KAUUU
,. L~--i-i.LL L
Victoria ...
r-_:u:i .-. :-:r_. u . . .
Western Australia .
I -, g — --.-' --.
monveatth
Ham Beatond
: 7i. .-.-L=-.Ti..i.i:-:. .
flaafeeb.
74? 0
. I 0
5.397,00
■-- 0
304 0
9U»
-
562.000
214.000
i .-. 0
.i ■
122.000
i H7 a
e.mooo
•- o
.-. a
105 •'
'1 I
659.000
2.118.000
262 0
I 1". 0
170.000
• 0
::• ■■ :o: i; .r4 >:»: :-: :•:■■ :o :: -■:•- >:•
Bushels.
718.000
1.820.000
- 7.000
210.000
4.127.000
11,984 a
a
■ ••
1: '" D
11.071.000
- -.: :•:•:
- nr M
7.7&r •:>:
r HI "
5.025.000
16.0%, 000
irand total 4.699.938,000 4,673,9" 0 .13.000 4.295.279.000 5. 0f». 492,000
Acreage, production, value, prices, exports. ttatoesofikt " --ales. 1866-1906.
r-
Chicago price
per
-
bushel Burbank.
1 : \ .•-..:
Imports
valoe
Dee. 1.
during
-'
-
Deoer
May of fol-
lowing
fiscal
vear be-
fiscal
year be-
■
ginning
ginning
Julv 1.
July 1.
1
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
~s:\<~,>- '.'::.
DoOart.
Butkels.
Bushels.
■ ',..; :;;■ - , ■
-
■ '
::_ is
■ . '
■■-■_--
•J
- - . -■
378.605
209,555
1 ■■-.- ....
i " i ".
_ . M f)
.
i
- j -.-i •
II
■- -•
•-> ;>,i
75.336
- ■■- r - - ...
"
74 za .
- 1 • 1 •
553. 070
■ -
'
"
621.537
96.259
_ -. ' : " : ■ ' "
. 12
515,306
■ -
• •_- - - . . .
Klffj i:'
I ' "
i
'
■ --
: 22
53
609.642
M
] \ -i lies
"
- !
-_ - -
827 00
-"■ -
77,31 '-.
74 272
'.
"
1 "
744.409
. ■-■
: "■ ■■<- - :-
:., i.- o
•• "
72 . ■--
625.342
:■"-. . . .
: '< <y. :■<;.&
1-1 :-: ±:<
1
' -
■
;
• L;^-
. " " •■
It
. .
2. 170, 372
.
• . 1.341
408.286
— - . -
■ - - 505
■" •
439.443
2.362,362
. . - - i .
:■:■■■ :-■, ,.\
-.. .
534,613
425.408
39.6
• .4.290
380.868
- - ■ i ,-
-- i
"• .'-5.403
-
33
50
494.948
1,937.416
.- -- r
:-.■ ". u
- '
44
47
'
90
434,864
1,432.490
. " . ' -
134.103,000
. 3 74
30
S3
65
85
403.880
- ' -■
- .
9 413.389
30
37
24
45
471.955
883,380
2.647 ■ 77.4
•1.441
*5.4
72 1.934
33
43
30
60
406. 618
3. 415. 578
. J
_ ' : _ -
I4i J-
"' •
112. :4l "
82
93
93
110
341.189
5.401.912
" i,--
_ 714 73
.'- .
• ■
91.01. -
30
40
30
50
557.022
. ■-: .
•4 •:-
-.520
60
72
70
98
^45.720
4.317.021
. ■ ' ' ■
4.303
1.801
51
60
64
S>
803.111
3.002.578
. - - -.
- -.-
53.6
'. 783
43
58
40
70
572.957
1.341.533
.' - ..-■ 1
.'-" . " "
-- -
73.984.901
IS
24
10
23
BH MB
175.240
" i'J
' ■ ' " _ -j.
J- '
72 182,350
18
26
19
26
926.646
246.178
-
'4 '
: 1.059
30
62
60
B
605.187
1.171.378
... ... ..
' "-'. . <■
41.4
. ..
30
36
33
52
53 ■
530.420
s.a
■ .
35
46
27
39
155.861
J 1
■ ' -•
4 :
' 11.167
40
48
35
00
741.483
371,911
" J "
. - - . ;i"
• -
14 "h.470
IS
82
38
100
'.■ 184
7,656.162
J ■
"i"
O :
134.111.436
42
48
4.
60
843.075
358.505
• u
vs
151.'- •
60
66
95
116
484,042
3. 166, 581
■ 4^
■. ; . r
45.3
13 -3.392
32
38
20
25
23
1S1.199
' 'Ji .'
..... ---
■ "
!■..: -.1 .'s:
55
66
4*
73
1.000.326
.->• . . . .
3.01-3,130 002.2
:: 1
157.347.392
40
43
STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 587
Condition of the potato crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1906.
Year.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Year.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
P. ct.
1889
95. 1
94.3
81.7
77.9
1898
95.5
83.9
77.7
72. .")
1890
91.7
77.4
65.7
61.7
1899
93.8
93.0
86.3
81.7
1891
95. 3
96.5
94.8
91.3
1900
91.3
88.2
80.0
74.4
1892
90.0
86.8
74.8
67.7
1901
87.4
62.3
52.2
54.0
1893
94. 8
86.0
71.8
71.2
1902
92.9
94.8
89.1
82.5
1S94
92.3
74.0
62.4
64.3
1903
88.1
87.2
84.3
74. 6
1895
91.5
89.7
90.8
87.4
1904
93.9
94.1
91.6
89.5
1896
99.0
94.8
83.2
81.7
1905
91.2
87.2
80.9
74.3
1897
87.8
1
77.9
66.7
61.6
1906
91.5
89.0
85.3
82.2
Acreage, production, and value of potatoes in the United States in 1906, by States.
State or Territory.
Maine
New Hampshire .
Vermont
Massachusetts. .
Rhode Island...
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania . . .
Delaw'are
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina . .
South Carolina . .
Georgia
Florida
Ohio
Indiana . . .
Illinois
Michigan..
Wisconsin .
Minnesota.
Iowa.
Missouri
North Dakota . . .
South Dakota. . .
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory.
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
United States 3,013, 150
Acreage.
Average
yield per
acre.
Production.
Average
farm
price
Dec. 1.
Farm value
Dec. 1.
A cres.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Cents.
Dollars.
109,516
210
22,998,360
50
11,499,180
19.329
112
2, 164, 848
60
1, 298. 909
26,300
101
2,656.300
55
1,460,965
29, 149
114
3, 322, 986
65
2, 159, 941
6,360
108
686,880
80
549,504
31,931
98
3,129,238
72
2, 253, 051
420.406
105
44, 142, 630
49
21, 629, SS9
67,353
120
8,0S2,360
66
5, 334, 35S
253. ,97
94
23, S56, 918
57
13,598,443
7,600
97
737,200
59
434,948
28,75]
93
2,673,843
56
1,497,352
55,656
75
4.174,200
67
2,796,714
34, 376
97
3, 334, 472
61
2,034,028
23, SI2
/O
1, 785, 900
74
1,321,566
9,065
82
743, 330
105
780,496
8,627
77
664, 279
110
730, 707
3,946
85
335,410
110
368,951
157.072
110
17,277,920
48
8,293,402
75,483
89
6, 717, 987
57
3,829.253
150,638
97
14,611,886
62
9,059,369
285,000
95
27,075,000
34
9,205,500
245,000
97
23,765.000
30
7,129,500
131. 7S2
92
12.123,944
37
4,485,850
140,000
95
13.300.000
43
5,719,009
85,228
S4
7, 159, 152
57
4,080,717
25. 171
98
2, 466, 758
46
1, 134, 709
35,422
100
3,542,200
35
1,239,770
84,530
87
7,354,110
52
3,824,137
85,000
79
6,715,000
70
4, 700, 500
34, 736
82
2,848,352
61
1, 737, 495
22,420
80
1, 793, 600
62
1,112.032
9,258
75
694,350
93
645,746
5,628
85
478,380
87
416, 191
12.000
62
744,000
75
558,000
31,097
77
2, 394, 469
87
2,083, 1SS
12, 247
76
930, 772
75
698, 079
10, 498
85
892,330
80
713, 864
20,837
80
1,666,960
67
1,116,863
14,099
152
2, 143, 048
61
1,307,259
4,202
115
483,230
65
314, 100
46,968
125
5,871,000
45
2,641,950
1,426
121
172. 546
90
155,291
11.987
165
1,977,855
50
988,928
2, 974
175
520,450
70
364,315
11.900
175
2.0S2.500
41
853,825
34, 199
129
4,411.071
56
2, 470, 536
40,083
101
4.04S.383
56
2,267,094
50,291
125
6, 286, 375
w
4,651,918
3,013,150
102.2
308,038,382
51.1
157.547,392
5SS YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICrLTTTRE.
■age yield per acre of potatoes in the United States, 1897-1906. by States.
State or territorv.
1898. | 1899. 1900. 190L 1902. 1903. 1904.
1905. 1906.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Ht__
Massaehc-
Rhode Island
ConnecticuT
NevY rk
New leraey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
laad
rv.a
. -ia
N rth Carolina...
5 :-.'- ■' :-: -.':- . .
Ohio
TnriiflTia
]
Michigan
W:>: raisin
M-V'r>::i
Iowa
Mia- ori
North Dakota
Sonth Dakota...
MHffiiii
Kins u
WmLuA]
^T^-Ji-T
AJal una
M ----- T
L: nuaaw
Texa.5
I- :. ■.:. . ~: -; .
Oklahoma
Arkansa s
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
Near Mersieo
Utah
id a
Mah~
zington
Oregon
C afilonria
59
51
70
62
110
54
62
s
s
61
56
•
65
52
75
42
31
-
13
99
106
60
-_
H
94
69
4*
O
40
55
59
64
60
150
"
90
14-
135
140
:■-
: ■:
130
>:
105
97
123
::»:
73
75
54
49
J ■..■•"-
139
127
132
134
142
w
•-
S3
-"
'-
64
66
13
57
56
m
69
71
76
96
H
103
H
100
82
103
:•
94
95
51
44
56
61
60
64
74 63
MM 141
120 125
1 . ■"•
126
101
134
"
-4
•>
81
B9
58
4*
55
:•»
80
61
78
'■«
60
76
83
n
103
81
n
93
52
73
66
72
70
54
69
H
70
62
130
: .
124
144
115
119
150
. >
90
77
-:
78
59
116
110
104
2 ■_ ■ ""
130
120
94
109
:-4
-■:
66
: .
55
60
71
52
70
64
62
54
31
35
>:
75
'•?
32
17
110
45
33
--
35
4
67
62
60
54
63
55
4:
157
113
50
114
141
::•>
117
90
101
"■
80
73
96
64
69
:•»
90
.-4
101
118
-.
115
n
:>
105
"4
137
138
:
50
E9
65
66
85
97
"-
153
MR
:■:•:
n
157
212
149
136
103
IIS
Zhul
196
9S
::■»
H
125
96
«>
99
91
-4
70
>4
80
67
81
73
82
v-
-
n
7!
:■>
64
56
K
f4
V-
-4
'•
73
-
50
67
70
78
70
176
167
145
177
117
160
145
107
130
215
135
::-
119
137
K
93
115
106
84
99
vi
101
78
»
70
102
93
::.»
121
126
102
136
96
111
*:
::■:
«•:
83
71
61
?:
70
n
69
85
77
143
161
159
62
137
131
139
120
S
129
I -■'
175
120
.-?
n
125
92
70
93
90
93
95
84
77
83
65
75
78
80
" .
67
-..«■
>-
>:
82
95
96
93
f-
85
80
80
110
64
64
76
""
65
120
170
160
75
132
120
140
142
110
165
210
112
101
114
106
105
120
94
97
93
75
97
""
»:
77
85
110
»"■
■
95
97
92
95
S4
■>
100
D
!
H
80
75
-■
85
80
152
115
125
121
165
175
175
129
101
125
General average 64.7; 752 8S.6 < 80.8 655 96.0 84.7 110.4; 87.0 | 102.2
ft value of potatoes in the United States, based upon farm value December 1. : -
1906. by States.
?tate or Territorv.
1898. 1899. 1900.
:-■: :?-..]
: <■ : »
Maine $52.51
New Hampshire 45. ■
V-rrziiz: .'. -.- • 44. ::
V_--i _z_ :>---; f.f s :'.. 11
Rhode Island. 106. 7-:
Connecticut 4>-60 55.00
rk 41.54 30.66
53.94
.rakiia a. St
re 39.00 33.81
Maryland 50.32 30.74
Virginia 42. 70 37. 40
Irginta 36.40 33.48
North Carolina 42.24 41.54
Sonth Carolina c&. 25 65.00
Georgia 52.00 40.50
Florida 90.00 76.80
Ohio 26.04 25.01
Indiana 19.22 29.11
Illinois 23.56 32.20
$58.38 $61.74 $100.50 $84.50 $109.76
58.43
53.53
V :-
-.; ■;
a. ■■:.
53.60
57.60
54.52
•. - •
~- ;.;
: 14
Es.a
■•• :
'.' i.
.---.14
123.00
102.50
;-J s
67.16
H •■
■ a
: 4:
-
- 4
4- V4
42.33
41.40
50.15
80.52
'.« .-.
36.55
30.74
47.12
47.31
■■ i-
26.52
-• >
-- *
4 -V
47.04
:- ■-.
29.70
4" _■
41.60
42.00
36.91
34.22
"- ■-
43.50
53.76
37. 44
4- >.
44.20
4* -
\ s:
37.62
i- <-
4- :•>
4- S»
4- :-
.
-- •:
77.00
■' -4
i? :?
52.36
67.84
52-20
-.- -;
-■' 5-
-.; -•:
- .i
41.36
103.32
30.53
a 4.
45.90
:•: '.:
;: •:.«
31.54
27.90
41.41
50.16
» X
37.72
32.55
49.56
51. S4
75.60
-.: :-
>4 4-
104.12
, 69.12
50.22
70.15
57.24
44.52
:•: --'r
n 4:
-- r.;
>: 4-
111.25
-.: ".
4 •
69.75
5S.50
-4.83
55.10
4" I
51.04
■■. :.:
H06.9I
67.20
74.10
V 4
70.56
51.45
79.20
52.08
50.25
59.17
55.50
86.10
54-70
93.50
52.80
50.73
60.14
STATISTICS OF POTATOES.
589
Average value of potatoes in the United States, based upon farm value December 1, 189r,
1986, by States— Continued.
State or Territory.
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota. . .
South Dakota...
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory.
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
"Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
1897.
$30.96
37.62
32.86
28.20
26.46
32.67
30.08
31.74
26.40
31.49
29.20
51.70
48.38
54.40
57.00
S21.33
23.52
21.25
24.00
29.04
29.58
20.16
24.05
35. 70
29.44
29.64
61.42
53.28
58.50
67.08
$21.12
26.78
24.00
23.00
33.20
27.81
21.06
23.50
42.75
31.11
28.60
48.72
62.22
48.60
58.24
46. 20
62.40
82.50
54.32
70.20
44.40
98.55
44.80
45.36
64.00
51.45
40.70
57.20
78.00
41.58
45.24
41.85
139. 50
64.80
42.14
40.42
52.25
44.73
74.73
76.25
46.20
33.32
60.00
91.80
75.64
72.00
56. 35
74.97
General average 35.37 31.11
34.60
S2.5. 22
28.84
24.30
26.64
32.55
25.48
26.28
32.34
34.56
35.00
31.32
56.58
54.78
55.30
54.56
41.04
71.02
67.32
45.92
21.66
56.64
87.36
63.92
54.52
49.50
55.12
$.55.08
50.25
45.56
30.08
18.02
53.90
38.25
34.65
27.04
30.45
39.56
73.03
71.30
60.60
67.50
78.12
69.30
57. 96
114.61
112.40
108. 00
59.00
68.40
128. 31
90.72
71.37
63.00
77.77
1902
$29.52
37.95
30.38
33.32
44.80
34.65
32.56
36.99
62. 10
42.40
39.68
46. 50
63.48
53.30
56. 10
54.40
74.69
48.96
70.50
65.27
51.00
58.32
70. 65
133.56
55.13
51.68
56.65
68.44
19Q3
$38.22
33.64
39.04
42.00
50.16
40.32
48.06
41.60
49.30
49.64
42.24
64.32
72.16
45.50
58.96
60.20
76.44
55.30
77.44
95.19
87.00
73.08
83.19
81.90
73.60
52.20
53.50
85. .SO
$35.09
35.28
29.58
38.08
46.08
35. 52
28.80
31.20
44.80
45.65
44.02
60.39
09. 70
63.70
66.96
51.75
65.45
57.75
87.23
99.82
58.83
48.36
65.76
85.15
87.57
67.20
51.33
86.43
1905.
1906.
S37.52
42.16
41.00
39.20
45.10
36.10
36.48
34.41
55.89
45.05
46.40
70.40
93.50
58.24
59.52
62.32
67.76
47.45
70.80
95.20
91.20
66.75
56.76
98.40
67.20
05.32
66.00
110.55 I
S32.30
29.10
34.04
40.85
47.88
45.08
35.00
45.24
55.30
50.02
49.60
69.75
73.95
46.50
06. 99
57.00
08.00
53. 00
92.72
74.75
56. 25
108.90
82.50
122. 50
71.75
72.24
56.56
92.50
34.78 ! 50.27 45.22 51.99 49.90
53.07
52.29
Average farm price of potatoes per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906,
by States.
State or Territorv.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Massachusetts. . .
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia. . .
North Carolina..
South Carolina..
Georgia
Florida
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota...
South Dakota...
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi ,
Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory.
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
1897. f 1898.
.90
.70
.90
.97
.90
.67
.78
.66
.65
.68
.70
.65
.64
1.05
1.00
1.20
.62
.62
.62
.43
.38
.31
.47
.63
.33
.32
.46
.55
.67
.73
.94
.82
.85
.95
80.46
.49
.42
.63
.64
.55
.42
.01
.58
.69
.53
.55
.54
.62
1.00
.75
1.20
.41
.41
.46
.27
.24
.25
.30
.44
.34
.28
.37
.51
.46
.57
.83
.72
.75
.86
IS! 19.
1900.
$0.42
.46
.36
.57
.50
.46
.40
.51
.43
.51
.51
.56
.52
.66
1.04
.83
1.24
.43
.43
.41
.32
.26
.25
.23
.40
.27
.27
.25
.45
.61
.65
.87
1.02
.81
.91
SO. 49
.53
.40
.66
.70
.70
.45
.60
.53
.60
.54
.59
.51
.65
1.00
.77
1.00
.40
.38
.41
.26
.28
.30
.37
.35
.49
.36
.49
.48
.50
.58
.82
.83
.79
.55
.55
.71
.53
$0.67
.79
.64
.90
.93
.94
.71
.85
.76
.78
.77
.74
.85
.72
1.10
1.06
1.29
.85
.90
.93
.68
.67
.07
.94
1.00
.49
.85
1.05
1.04
.87
.86
1.09
1.15
1.01
1.25
1.24
1.26
1.26
.73
$0.65
.69
.58
.81
.75
.73
.59
.61
. .57
.51
.52
.58
.51
.67
.96
.90
1.22
.44
.41
.42
.41
.33
.31
.34
.35
.33
.44
.27
.45
.53
.64
.93
.92
.82
.85
.64
.77
.68
.50
1904.
$0.56
.65
.50
.71
.82
.78
.56
.69
.62
.56
.60
.64
.66
.74
1.04
.94
1.26
.61
.66 i
.72
.49
.58
.61
.75
. 70
.48
.54
$0.48
.56
.47
.71
.76
.72
.54
.61
.54
.53
.51
.55
.54
.70
1.01
1.07
1.29
.47
.45
.47
.29
.28
.29
.28
.48
.32
.30
1905. 1906.
.65
.26
.85
.56
.68
.55
.64
.62 ,
.96
.99
.88
.85-
.91
.91
.88
.93 |
.86
.75
.98
.77
.79
.75
.44
.61
$0.61
.72
.71
.84
.89
.91
.70
.75
.65
.59
.58
.56
.58
.68
1.03
1.12
1.20
.63
.56
.67
.56
.62
.50
.49
.55
.38
.38
.37
.69
.53
.58
.88 |
.85
.91
.93
.82
.88
.73
.59 I
SO. 50
.60
.55
.65
.80
.72
.49
.66
.57
.59
.56
.67
.01
.74
1.05
1.10
1.10
.48
.57
.62
.34
.30
.37
.43
.57
.46
.35
.52
.70
.61
.62
.93
-87
.75
.87
.75
.80
.67
.61
590
YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGRICTTLTrEE.
Average farm price of potatoes per bushel in the United States. Decembe -1906,
by States — Continued.
State or Territorv.
1897. 1898. 1899. 1900.
1901.
1903.
1904. 1905.
~~~--.~.~z. . .
Colorado
Mexico.
Utah
I i
Idaho
Oregon
tO. 55
.56
.78
.30
.73
.32
.28
.40
.49
3eneu) .-- r .j .
$0.65 SO 61 SO 6$ SI. 00 SO 61 SO 57 SO 62
.54
.78
.31
.90
.54
.39
.47
-J
.90
.51
- M
SI
"■:
. m
4L4 39.0
L14
1.18
!a
18
.60
.45
.56
.91
.63
O
.84
.37
.47
.61
.38
.45
.70
.55
.53
""
.58
43.1
:■:. '
47.1
.37
n
.65
.63
•'
ML 66
::
.45
«V
.90
4
.50
.
.70
.41
-
.56
GO
.56
"
.74
6L 4 45. 3
6L7
Wholesale prices of potatoes in leading cities of the United States. 190-2-1906.
;::-::zn_:.
Chicagc
Milwaukee.
St. Lonis.
Date.
-r rr
Bw .- - .
per bushel.
Per bushel.
Bui-bank,
per bushel.
Low. High. Low.
1902.
$2.20
2.10
Mir ~
2.10
Vpr'
2. 4-5
Mav
. ."
Tmi i
*> 10
Julv
.90
Au;.:;:
90
SrTt-~'." rl.
95
1.25
-
1. 50
Decanter.
January
February..
March
ArrL
y.'r
June
July
- -
October
X:-e:_". er.
^ ■-:-:. . :
January
- ' - -":"• ■
March..*...
April
Tone
July
Auir:-
Beptonter.
October
December..
:-•-..
lammy. . .
Februarv..
March..*...
April
June
July
August
October. . .
November.
Deeenl er.
1.65
L50
1.50
1.35
1.65
1.50
1. 75
1.50
1.20
1.20
: -
2.40
2.60
3.00
aoo
2.40
2.40
1.05
1.35
L35
1.50
:. v
1.60
1.70
L65
1.90
aoo
2.25
L95
: >
: v
2.10
2.10
1.95
2.70
.3.75
aso
- "
2.00
L50
1.35
1.20
1.20
1.20
2.55
2.85
4 ;.
ia
4 s:
4.50
aoo
:. >:
L65
L50
1.50
1.35
Per bushel.
"•*
.35
.2.5
2-5
.25
.25
.45
.45
.45
.50
.60
.55
-Ll
.43
.40
.32
.30
.60
.55
.50
.55
.75
.75
. -:
Cents.
70
-
95
115
::.-...
Low. High. Low. High
80
■
v
100
100
60
95
91
102
:;•;
Uf
::-
CemU.
-.
72
70
70
50
40
30
28
:>
30
34
35
n
::
Cents.
-"
85
••
103
103
90
85
50
40
40
43
-
Cents. Cents.
a
30
25
26
H
'.
•■
BS
n
•-
78
:•
• b
SI
90
:•>
83
84
90
105
105
n
41
44
50
54
51
DO
50
55
51
54
50
53
42
54
45
63
65
125
40
65
55
n
67
so
65
68
s5 69 73
90 96
95 94
120 115 125
105 115
120
»
»
52
33 . 42 45
30 36 43
30 36$ 45
42
50
38
40
175
70
45
48
60
73
80
66
STATISTICS OF HAY.
591
Wholesale prices of potatoes in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906 — Con.
Cincinnati.
Chicago.
Milwaukee.
St. Louis.
Date.
Per busbel.
Burbank.
per bushel.
Per bushel.
Burbank,
per bushel.
Low.
High.
Low. High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
1906.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
$0.55
$0.65
55
66
45
58
58
82
.45
.62
47
57
35
50
53
61
.45
.75
43
68
35
62
51
70
April
.60
.85
57.
63
50
62
65
68
. .55
.75
48
73
45
75
60
88
June
.90
1.05
60
87
50
80
65
125
July
August
September
.75
.90
40
87
35
75
.58
.80
35
50
37
60
.55
.60
45
58
35
55
43
62
October
.50
.60
40
47
25
40
48
.45
.45
.58
.47
41
40
48
43
25
25
40
40
45
40
55
December
46
HAY.
Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of hay of the United States, 1866-1906.
Year.
1866
1867
186S.
1869
1870
1871
1872.
1873
1874
1875.
1876.
1877
1878.
1879
1880
1881
1882.
1883
1884
1885
1886.
1887
1888.
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
Acreage.
Acres.
17,668,904
20,020,554
21,541,573
18,591,281
19,861,805
19,009,052
20,318,936
21,894,084
21, 769, 772
23,507,964
25, 282, 797
25,367,708
26,931,300
27,484,991
25,863,955
30,888,700
32,339,585
35,515,948
38,571,593
39,849,701
36,501,688
37,664,739
38,591,903
52,947,236
50,712,513
51,044,490
50,853,061
49,613,469
48,321,272
44,206,453
43, 259, 756
42, 426, 770
42,780,827
41,328,462
39,132,890
39,390,508
39,825,227
39,933,759
39,998,602
39,361,960
42,476,224
yield
per
acre.
Tons.
1.23
1.31
1.21
1.42
1.23
1.17
1.17
1.15
1.15
1.19
1.22
1.25
1.47
1.29
1.23
1.14
1.18
1.32
1.26
1.12
1.15
1.10
1.21
1.26
1.19
1.19
1.18
1.33
1.14
1.06
1.37
1.43
1.55
1.35
1.28
1.28
1.50
1.54
1.52
1.54
1.35
Production.
Aver-
age,
farm
price
per
ton
Dec. 1.
Tons.
21
77s
627
26
277
000
26
141
900
26,
420
000
24
525
000
22
239
400
23
812
800
25
085
100
25
133
900
27
*73
600
30
867
100
31
629
300
39
608
296
35
49.;
000
31
925
233
35
135
064
38
138
049
46
864
009
48
470
460
44
731
550
41
796
499
41
454
458
46
643
094
66
829
612
60
197
589
60
M7
771
59
S23
735
65
766
158
54
874
408
47
078
541
59
282
1.58
GO
664
876
66
376
920
56
65o
756
so
110
906
so
59(1
877
59
S57
576
61
305
940
60
696
028
60
531
611
57
145
959
Dolls.
10.14
10.21
10.08
10.18
12.47
14.30
12.94
12.53
11.94
10.78
8.97
8.37
7.20
9.32
11.65
11.82
9.70
8.19
8.17
8.71
8.46
9.97
8.76
7.04
7.87
8.12
8.20
8.68
8.54
8.35
6.55
6.62
6.00
7.27
8.89
10.01
9.06
9.08
8.72
8.52
10.37
Farm value
Dee. 1.
Dollars.
220,835,771
,300
.589
. 933
.743
,939
,024
,241
,222
,377
,991
79
,015
,S04
,811
,131
,170
,834
,139
. 752
.437
, 440
,499
,374
,569
,113
,427
,8s2
,678
, 185
,145
,390
, 060
, 926
,53$
,191
. 036
.376
,107
,959
,539
268
263
268
305
317
308
314
300
300
27.,
26,4
285
330
371
415
371
383
396
389
363
413
408
470
473
494
490
570
468
393
388
401
398
411
445
506
542
551 i
515
592
Chicago prices No. 1 timo-
thy per ton, by carload lots. Domestic
exports,
fiscal
December.
Low. ! High.
May of follow-
ing year.
Low. High.
Dolls. Dolls. ' Dolls. Dolls.
year be-
ginning
July 1.
9.50
8.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
11.50
9.00
10.00
11.00
9.50
13.50
11.00
9.00
9.00
12.50
11.00
10.00
10.00
12.00
8.00
8.00
8.00
10.50
11.50
13.00
12.00
10.00
10.50
10.00
15.50
10.50
8.50
14.50
15.50
16.50
12.25
10.00
11.50
12.00
10.50
14.50
11.50
10.00
10.50
15.00
11.50
10.50
11.00
12.50
8.50
8.50
8.25
11.50
14.00
13.50
12.50
12.00
11.50
12.00
18.00
9.00
9.75
9.00
14.00
17.00
15.00
12.00
12.50
15.50
10.00
11.00
17.00
10.50
9.00
12.50
13.50
12.00
10.00
10.00
11.50
8.50
9.50
9.50
10.50
12.50
12.50
13.50
12.00
11.00
11.50
10.00
10.75
11.50
15.00
19.00
16.50
13.00
17.00
17.50
12.00
12.50
21.00
11.00
14.00
15.50
14.00
13.50
10.50
10.25
12.00
9.00
10.50
10.50
12.50
13.50
13.50
15.00
15.00
12.00
12.50
Tons.
5,028
5,645
6,723
4,581
5,266
4, 557
4,889
7,183
7,528
7,287
9,514
8,127
13, 739
12, 662
10, 570
-13, 309
16,908
11,142
13,390
13, 873
18,198
21,928
36,274
28,066
35,201
33,084
54,446
47, 117
59,052
61,658
81,827
64,916
72, 716
89,364
153,431
50,970
60,730
66,557
70, 172
592
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Acreage . production, and value of hay in the United States in 1906. by States.
Average
Average
Farm
Stat* or Territory.
Acreage.
yield
per acre.
Production.
price
Dec. 1.
value
Dec. 1.
Ac
Ton*.
Ton*.
Dollars.
Dollars.
Maine
1.329.835
1.20
1.595.802
10.25
16.356.970
New H ampshire
625.725
1.15
719.584
12.50
8.994.800
--"1.530
582.832
1.20
1.31
1.044.636
763. 510
10.00
17.00
10.446.360
MassaohusetT n
12.979.670
61.980
489.599
1.06
1.17
65.699
572. 831
17.40
15.00
1.143.163
Oomvctanrt
8.592.465
4.717.641
424.525
1.28
1.32
6.038,580
560.373
12.10
15.95
73.066.818
New Jersev
8,937.949
3.072.021
74.03$
1.30
1.25
3.993.627
92.548
13.40
15.00
53.514.602
1,388, 222
Maryland
-> :*:-:
1.26
353.167
13.50
4.7i.,7.7.54
Virginia
*23 _"
1.25
534,066
15.50
^.:'7$.023
• irginia
517.384
1.40
724.338
14.00
10.140.732
North Carolina
125.633
60,682
88.054
1.54
1.46
1.65
193. 475
8$. 596
145,289
15.00
15.25
15. 75
2.902.125
1.351.089
Georgia
2. 28$. 302
Florida
20,000
1.50
30.000
15.00
450.000
Ohio
2.850,000
1.22
3.477.000
12.00
41.724.000
Indiana
2.375.000
1.10
2,612,500
12.50
32.656.250
Illinois
2. 638
.98
2. 585. 274
12.50
32.315.925
Michigan
2.650,000
1.28
3.392.000
10.35
35.107.200
■ft isconsin
2.300.000
1.35
3.105.A00
9.00
27.945.000
858.465
3.500.000
1.70
1.35
1.459,390
4.725,000
5.50
7.00
&.'"-
33,075.000
2. 728. 349
177.368
221.422
1.350.000
1.724.154
447.202
339.446
.78
1.45
1.50
1.40
1.28
1.35
1.51
2. 128, 112
257, 184
332.133
1.890,000
2.206.917
603.723
512. 563
10.00
4.50
4.50
. 5.60
6.25
13.25
13. 4.5
21.281.120
1.157.328
1.494.598
10.584. 000
13. 793. 231
7.999.330
Tennessee
6.893.972
Alabama
56.350
1.95
109.882
13.30
1.461.431
Mississippi
43.873
1.90
83.359
11.4-5
954. 461
T/om'siana
21,488
1.93
41.472
11.50
476.928
Texas
379.836
1.80
683,705
8.50
5.811.492
46.140
298.969
1.40
1.40
64.596
5.50
5. 75
355, 278
OVIahoma
2. 40*i. 703
Arkansas
70.932
1.60
113.491
9.9t
1.12.3.561
Montana
373.827
1.85
691.580
8.90
6.155.062
W voming
188.327
2.25
423.736
I . <o
3.283.954
Colorado
ESS -::
2.50
1,596.542
9.50
15.167.149
New Mexico
76. 714
2.50
191.785
10.75
2.",:. '.$9
63,685
351.272
3.50
4.00
222,898
1.405.088
12.00
7.50
2. 674. 776
Ttah
10,538.160
Nevada
170. 175
1.50
255.262
8.00
2,042.096
Idaho
413.064
2.95
1.218.539
8.00
9. 748. 312
Washingt on
348.830
2.38
830.215
11.00
9.132,365
1 )regon
393. 977
2.18
858.870
7.85
6. 742. 130
612.684
1.85
1.133.465
11.25
12.751.481
United States
42. 476. 224
1.35
57.145.9.59
10.37
592.539.671
Average yield per acre of hay in the United States. 1897—1906, by States.
Stat* or Territory.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
190«.
Maine
New Hampshire
1 Ton*.
1 1.10
1.15
1.30
Ton*.
1.20
1.25
1.45
1.42
1.18
1.31
1.40
1.42
1.45
1.38
1.20
1.32
1. 54
1.70
L60
1.75
1.60
Ton*.
0.90
.89
1.14
1.13
.89
.94
1.04
.83
1.20
1.04
1.13
1.10
: .
1.50
1.22
1.45
1.46
Ton*.
0.90
.87
1.24
.97
.92
.89
.81
1.26
1.10
.98
1.09
1.16
1.1$
1.41
1.32
1.69
1.20
Ton*.
1.05
1.28
1.36
1.21
.92
1.01
1.30
1.32
1.19
1.12
1. 22
L20
1.37
1.66
1.46
1.46
1.48
Ton':.
1.07
1.06
1.27
1.60
1.03
L35
1.34
1.22
1.19
1.09
1.01
1.12
1.44
1.22
1.36
1.24
Ton*.
0.98
.92
1.18
1.36
1.07
1.11
1.26
1.28
1.27
1.64
1.24
1.30
1.3$
1.60
1.46
1.53
1.47
Ton*.
1.10
1.02
1.25
1.23
1.16
1.06
1.36
1.39
1.45
1.59
1.36
1.39
1.47
1.72
1.53
1.52
1.36
Ton*.
1.08
1.16
1.35
1.33
1.09
1.12
1.30
1.13
1.50
1.55
1.30
1.30
1.48
1.60
1.42
1.50
1.48
Ton*.
1.20
1.15
1.20
1.40
1.31
Rhode Island
Connecticut
1.15
1.20
.. 1.35
1.06
1.17
1.28
New Jersev
Pennsvlvania
1.75
1.40
L3S
1.32
1.30
1.25
Maryland
\ lrginia
.rginia
1.35
1.08
1.35
1.25
1.26
1.23
1.40
LSI
1.00
1.46
Florida
1.35
.. 1.00
1.65
1.50
STATISTICS OF HAY. 59S"
Average yield per acre of hay in the United States, 1S97-1906, by States — Continued.
State or Territory.
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota. . .
South Dakota . . .
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory .
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
1897.
Tons,
1.44
1.43
1. 29
1.49
1.35
1.57
1.50
1.15
1.60
1.25
1.60
1.30
1.17
1.45
1.45
1.48
1.90
1.40
General average.
1.S0
1.50
1.65
2.25
3.50
3.00
2.95
2.50
2.30
2.25
1.90
1.60
1.43
Tons.
1.39
1.45
1.56
1.36
1.50
1.80
1.75
1. CO
1.50
1.38
1.60
1.46
1.45
1.50
1.90
1.90
2.10
1.50
1.54
1. 45
1.96
2.20
3.75
3.50
3.25
2.60
3. 75
1.75
1.90
1.C0
1. 55
1899.
Tons.
1.30
1.34
1.29
1.22
1.47
1.70
1.34
1.37
1.58
1.43
1.66
1.57
1.29
1.31
1.66
1.44
1.95
1.43
1.48
1.42
1.47
2.10
1.70
2.63
2.50
1.87
2.50
2.02
1.97
1.63
1.35
1900.
1'ons.
1.06
1.21
1.27
1.29
1.15
1.16
1.42
1.29
.92
1.18
1.3S
1.32
1.40
1.40
1.85
1.75
2.00
1.80
1.63
1.60
1.68
2.23
2.06
2.31
2.65
2.43
2.80
2.16
2.35
1.51
1.2S
1901. 1902.
Tons.
1.36
1.27
1.08
1.26
1.29
1.55
1.25
.75
1.60
1.15
1.25
.91
1.34
1.52
1.75
1.69
1.85
1.25
1.46
.96
1.10
1.79
1.76
2.08
2.31
2.85
2.45
2.50
2.58
2.30
2.07
1.82
Tons.
1.43
1.46
1.50
1.45
1.90
1.76
, 1.68
1.59
1.66
1.23
1.74
1.70
1.44
1.44
1.50
1.40
1.80
1.40
1.32
1.26
1.60
1.68
1.65
1.92
2.40
2.34
2.62
2.91
2. 67
2.29
2.04
1.81
1.28 ! 1.50
Tens.
1.42-
1.47
1.54
1.37
1.S9
1.84
1.78
1.57
1.18
1.45
1.6S
1.58
1.46
1.58
.1.77
1.74
2.04
1.84
1.50
1.34
1.60
2.08
2.14
2.56
2.36
3.46
2.95
3.12
2.82
2.41
2.07
2.08
1.54
1904.
Ten*.
1.43
1.37
1.36
1.25
1.67
1.74
1.62
1.47
1.57
1.43
1.76
1.67
1.44
1.66
1.71
1.72
2.06
1.77
1.49
1.51
1.72
1.92
2.27
1.85
2.58
2.71
3.54
3.04
3.07
2.18
2.04
2.03
1.52
1905.
Tons.
1.49
1.48
1.35
■1.46
1.80
1.75
1.70
1.10
1.55
1.60
1.75
1.55
1.30
1.60
1.90
1.75
2.30
1.90
1.27
1.43
1.75
1.60
2.50
2.65
-2.70
3.75
3.25
2.50
3.10
2.65
2.30
2.40
1.54
Tons.
\.1f-
1.10
.98 .
1.28
1.35
1.70-
1.35
.78-
1.45
1.50
1.40
1.28
1.35--
1.51
1.95
1.60
1.93
1.80
1.4CX-
1.40
1.60-
1.85
2.25
2.50.
2.50
3.50
4.00-
1.50
2. 95
2,38
2.18
1.85
1.35
Average value per acre of hay in the United States, based upon farm value December J,
1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Massachusetts. .
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina . .
South Carolina . .
Georgia
Florida
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota...
South Dakota...
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama. . . :
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory
1S9S.
$9.12
11.56
9.21
17. IS
14. 93
14.61
8.05
13. 63
11.46
11.66
11.16
11.22
12.94
15.81.
15.20
20. 56
22.56
7.99
8.12
9.20
9.72
S.62
i;. or.
7.09
9.28
4.87
4.14
5.28
4.74
13.19
14.25
17. 57
15.96
19.74
8.77
vm.
S9.09
10. 40
10.55
17.52
15. 35
13. 63
10.87
12. 74
13.80
12. 12
13.73
11. 27
12. 19
15. 15
12. 50
19.07
22. 41
11.63
10.45
10.00
10.37
10.07
7.40
7.10
8.50
5.21
4.43
6.14
5.49
13.42
14.74
lx. 92
13. 32
18.92
10.15
S11.60
13.48
13.70
10.88
17.20
14. 89
11.38
20.22
15.29
13.67
15.31
15.43
15.81
15.79
15. 18
21. 55
16. 44
11.71
11.80
10.67
12.19
11.10
8.06
9.66
8.97
5.20
4.66
7.11
6.01
15.89
16.52
19. 52
17.41
18.80
12.24
$10. 90
S10. 74
15.87
14.36
13. 30
12.26
21.10
26. 64
17.54
19.46
14.77
21.19
13.75
14.11
18.86
19.08
15.90
16.66
13.84
15.73
16.07
14.19
14.41
14.39
18.91
10. 05
17.93
17.64
16.03
13.72
20. 92
18.22
22. 72
19.02
11.86
14.59
11.79
12. 60
12. 10
13.31
10.85
12.03
13.58
15.03
8.65
9.43
9.59
10.92
8.99
10.90
.5.84
6.09
5.16
5.10
7.71
7.59
7.25
7.33
10.25
16.27
18.71
16.99
21.12
17.42
17.62
14.35
20.50
21.10
13. 27
12.04
11.01
6.57
1902. i 1903.
S10.00
12. 20
12.84
22. 74
20.28
10. 80
13.81
19.70
17. 15
24.32
17.38
17.85
19.04
21.47
17.11
23. IS
27. 67
14.20
12. 58
12.83
12.23
14.17
12.16
9.72
10.49
5.48
6.71
7.53
7.60
17.62
19.42
21.93
20.18
23.15
15.09
8. SO
1905.
$10. 09
13.76
11.85
19.38
20. 10
15.78
14.20
20.39
17.14
22.09
If.. 97
17.44
18. 24
25.04
18.64
23.01
22.67
13. 23
11.7.5
11.78
11.36
13. 18
9.59
8.68
9.73
6.61
6.06
6.72
7.31
16.57
19.94
20. 74
18.66
25.13
14.37
6.88
15.08
12.73
20.24
17.73
16.35
13.49
16.74
17.90
21.19
15.50
16.41
17.24
20.48
IS. 97
23. 63
24. 05
11.92
11.16
11.16
11.24
13.05
10.15
8.67
8.62
6.71
6.43
7.24
7.87
13.82
18.43
23.79
19.55
26.45
15. 43
6.79
1900.
S12. 30
14.38
12. 00
22.27
18.44
17.55
15.49
21.05
17. 42
18. 75
17.01
19. 37
19. 60
23. 10
22. 27
25^99
22.50
14.64
13.75
12.25
13.25
12.15
9.35
9.45
7. SO
6. 52
6. 75
7.84
8.00
17.89
20. 31
25.93
21. 76
22. 20
15! 30
7.70 .
A1906-
-38
594
YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Average value per acre of hay in the United States, based upon farm value December 1,
1897-1906, by States— Continued.
State or Territory.
1S9 7.
1S98.
1S99.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
$6.59
12. 89
14.(0
12. 64
18.80
20.16
20.70
19.80
15.25
19.60
14.82
14.41
$6.68
15.04
12.67
12.01
IS. 99
26.83
19.18
29.73
14.69
20. 45
15. 26
17.03
1
15.17
18. 32
14.27
19.15
26.24
35.78
20.18
31.11
19.64
30.78
21.07
24.25
$7.40
16.89
16.70
13.05
12.41
29.46
40.22
22. 34
23.10
18.67
24.72
20.77
21.13
$7.03
16.80
12.32
15.52
21.73
29.03
46.39
21.68
21.25
18.29
25.63
17.80
24.12
$8 05
SI 1.25
11. 63
9.90
12. 38
24.50
15.00
14.01
12.50
12. OS
20. 25
14. 73
14.40
$10. 39
9.S6
11.40
11.88
42.00
14. 62
ia 20
18.37
13. 30
13. 78
22. SO
812.80
10.93
9.70
15. 43
1 g. 02
27. 22
17. 75
14.31
15. 75
17.98
13.49
13. 04
SI 1.43
13. 92
12. 26
16.95
20.39
20.10
21.07
18.71
18.20
20.52
12.31
15 84
16 46
17 44
23.75
26.88
42.00
20.00
12 00
Utah
93 60
26 18
17.11
°0 81
9.46
9.30
9.97
11.39
12. S5
13.61
13.93
13.23
13.11
13.95
Average farm price of hay per ton in the United States December 1, 1897-1906, by States.
State or Territory.
1S00.
1901.
1903.
1904.
1905.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
. ohusetts. . .
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New -York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
"West Virginia
North Carolina..
South Carolina..
Georgia
Florida ,
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
nana
Minnesota
Iowa
; ri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi ,
.Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory.
Oklahoma '...
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
"Washington
Oregon
California
11.50
9.25
13.90
14.50
13.00
8.25
10.75
9.15
10.00
10.50
10. 25
9.75
11.50
13.00
14.25
6.25
5.90
6. 15
, 75
6.25
4.50
4.25
6.15
3.25
2.95
3.00
3.40
10.00
10.75
10. 25
9.50
8.75
7.25
$7.60
9. 25
6.35
12.10
12.65
11.15
5.75
9.60
7.90
8.45
9.30
8.50
8.40
9.30
9.50
11.75
14.10
5. 1 5
5.60
5.90
7.15
5. 75
3.70
4.05
5.80
3.25
3.00
3.30
3.25
9.10
9.50
9.25
8.40
9.40
5.S5
S10. 10
11.75
9.25
15.50
17. 25
14.50
10.45
15.35
11.50
11.65
12.15
10. 25
9.45
10.10
10.30
13.15
15. 35
S.95
7.80
7.75
8.50
6.85
4.35
5.30
6.25
3.30
3.10
3.70
3.50
10.40
11.25
11.40
9.25
9.70
7.10
512.95
15.50
11.05
17.40
18.70
16.73
14.05
16.05
13.90
13.95
14.05
13.30
13.40
11.20
11.50
12.75
13.70
11.05
9.75
8.40
9.45
9.65
6.95
6.80
6.95
5.65
3.95
5.15
4.55
11.35
11.80
10. 55
9.95
9.40
6.80
8.65
7. 7.".
6.00
5.50
7.00
5.00
4. 75
5.00
5.25
9.00
7. 75
9.00
n
6.80
5.90
5.40
7.35
12.00
4.50
7.00
4.90
7.60
8.65
7.70
6.60
7.35
10.60
10.35
7.10
7.65
6.30
8.90
6.85
8.00
8.85
8 70
7.30
7.60
9.90
11.30
7.95
7.70
6.50
9.50
6.80
8.15
$10.44
12.40
9.82
17.49
19.06
14. (.2
10.58
14.29
13.64
12. 30
13.17
12.01
13.80
10.80
10.98
14. 33
15. 35
8.72
9.28
11.20
8.61
10.53
5.58
7.67
11.99
3.65
4.49
6.17
7.97
12.13
12. 31
12.07
10.51
11.08
10.62
7.54
6.86
11.72
8.18
7.18
9.04
10.34
9. IS
8.45
7.92
5.91
8.52
7.16
7.92
$10.04
13.55
9.65
10. 05
18.89
15.70
10.53
15.64
14.00
14.43
14.05
13.58
14.33
12.25
11.25
13.40
15.34
10.20
8.67
8.87
8.30
7.91
5.36
6.50
6.89
3.67
4.15
4.36
4.31
11.30
11.80
11.61
10.25
11.72
8.60
4. 98
5.30
9.40
7.54
7.2S
9.89
11.18
12. 23
7.32
9.05
5.50
8.93
7.48
9.41
$10. 20
13.26
10.88
16.72
18.95
15.19
10.96
15.39
13.50
14. S3
14.02
13.73
13.80
13. 42
11.72
15.15
18.82
10.00
8.50
8.33
8.93
7.50
0.61
5.46
6.68
4.64
4.63
4.48
4.81
12. 07
12.29
12. 39
11.60
11.35
8.20
5.91
5.61
9.48
8.81
0. I 7
7.48
11.12
10.34
6.84
9.97
6.86
12.77
10.18
11.66
$9.72
13.49
9.48
15.76
17.38
14.89
10.44
14.07
11.82
13.89
12. 48
12.55
12.41
14.56
12. IS
15. 14
10. G7
9.25
8.58
8.66
9.09
7.89
5.51
5.30
4.21
4.24
3.82
4.38
11.51
12. 01
12. 13
10.85
12.20
8.12
4.62
4.90
9.S2
8.70
5.75
6.71
11.42
14.84
6.31
7.60
6.08
11.34
10.18
10.41
$9.90
13.00
9.43
15.22
16.27
14.60
10.38
14.81
11.93
13.67
11.92
12.62
11.65
12.80
13. 36
15.75
16.25
8.00
7.54
7.70
7.25
5.80
5.10
7.84
4. 33
4.02
4.14
5. OS
10.63
11.52
12.52
11.17
11.50
8.12
5.35
4.91
9.60
7.70
6.21
8.20
10.75
12.37
6.67
8.50
6.90
9.67
7.74
10.05
General average.
6.62
6.00
7.27
10.01
9.06
9.08
8.72
S. 52
$10. 25
12.50
10.00
17.00
17.40
15.00
12.10
15.95
13.40
15.00
13.50
15.50
14.00
15.00
15.25
15.75
15.00
12.00
12.50
12. 50
10.35
9. 00
5.50
7.00
10. CO
4.50
4.50
13.25
13. a
13.30
1 1 . 15
11.50
8 50
5.50
5. 75
9.90
8.90
7.75
9.50
10.75
12.00
7.50
8.00
8.00
11.00
7.85
11.25
10.37
STATISTICS OF HAY.
595
Wholesale prices of hay (baled) per ton in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
Date.
1902
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1903.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1905.
January
February
March
April
May
Juno
July
August
September
October
November
December
1900.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Chicago.
No. 1 timothy.
Low. High.
$12. 50
12.00
12.00
12.50
12.50
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
13.00
13. 50
13.00
13.00
11.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10. 50
10.50
10.50
11.50
12.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
9.00
10.00
10. 00
10.50
10. 50
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
10.00
10.00
11.00
10.00
10.00
11.00
10.00
10.00
9.50
9.80
10.00
11.50
11.50
12.00
13.00
13.50
13.50
15.00
15.50
$13.00
12.50
12.50
13.00
13.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
12. .50
12.50
12.50
13.00
13.00
13. 50
15.00
15.00
15.00
13.50
13.50
12.00
11.50
11.50
12.00
12.50
12.50
13.00
14.50
15.00
15.00
14.00
15.00
12.00
12.50
12.50
11.50
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12. 50
12.50
11.50
12.00
12.00
11.00
10.50
12.00
12.50
12. 50
13. 00
10.00
10.00
10.00
15.50
17.00
18.00
Cincinnati.
No. 1 timothy.
Low.
$12. 50
12.50
12.75
12. 75
1.3.00
12.75
13.75
12.00
11.00
13.00
13.00
13.75
15.50
10.00
10.00
10.25
15.25
17.50
10.50
11.50
11.. 50
12. 50
12. 25
12.50
12.50
12. 50
12.50
13.75
14.00
13.00
12.00
11.50
11.00
11.50
1 1. 25
12.00
12.00
11.75
11.75
12.00
11.50
10.25
10.50
10.00
11.50
12.25
12.00
12.25
12.00
11.00
12.50
13. 50
14.50
15. 00
15.50
15.25
15.00
10.00
17.75
19.00
High.
$13. 75
13.25
13. 25
13. 25
13.50
13.00
15.50
15.50
13.00
14.00
14.00
10.50
17.25
10.75
17.50
18.00
18.00
19.50
18.00
17.00
13.50
13. 25
12.75
13.00
13.25
13.50
14.00
14.00
15.50
14.00
13.75
14.00
12.25
12.50
12.00
12.50
12.75
12.25
13.00
12.50
12.50
11.75
12.50
12.50
12.50
12.50
13. 50
13.50
13.00
12.50
13.50
14.75
10.25
16. 00
18.00
10.00
10.25
18.25
19.00
19.50
St. Louis.
No. 1 timothy.
Low.
$13.50
13.00
13.00
13.00
13.00
12 00
13.00
10.00
9.50
11.00
11.00
13.50
13.50
13.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
14.50
9.50
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.50
10.50
11.00
12.50
12.00
12.00
11.50
10.50
10.50
11.00
10.50
11.00"
10.50
10.50
11.00
10.50
10.50
10.00
9.00
10.00
10.50
12.00
12.50
12.00
11.50
12.00
13.50
14.50
14.00
11.00
12.00
13.50
14.50
15.00
17.50
High.
SIS. 50
14.50
14.50
15.25
15. 50
15.00
10.00
15.00
12.00
13.00
13.50
15.50
15.50
15.00
10.00
16.00
16.00
25.00
16.50
15.00
12.00
12. 50
12.50
13.50
11.50
11.50
12.00
13.00
13.00
13. 50
13.00
13.50
12.50
12.50
11.50
11.50
12.75
12. 50
12. 50
13.00
13.00
12.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
13.50
15.00
15.50
14.00
14.00
15.00
17.00
18.00
17.00
17.50
16.50
15.50
16.50
18.50
20.00
New York.
No. 1 timothy.
Low.
$17.00
17.00
17.00
17.00
17.00
18.00
18. 00
18.00
17.00
17.50
18.00
IS. 00
IS. 00
18.50
18.00
18.50
19.00
20.00
20.00
18.00
16.00
10.00
17.00
16.00
16.00
10.50
17.00
18.00
18.00
17.00
17.00
17.00
15.00
15.00
1.5.50
15.00
15.50
15.50
15.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
14.00
15.00
14.50
15.00
15. 00
14.00
10.00
15.00
15. 50
15.50
17.50
18.00
18.00
18.00
17.50
17.50
19.00
20.00
596
YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT E AGBICUL.TT7BE.
itton.
Cotton crop of countries named, 1901-1905.
[So statistics for Siam and some other less important cotton-growing countries. Bales of 500 pounds,
_ ~ - : net.]
1 : I ry.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
711 AMEKKA.
States
Bah*.
3
Bait*.
10.630,945
Bale*.
Bale*.
13.43S.012
1.076
Bale*.
10.575.017
— I" o r t o
■
Total Unit -
:
' ■
10.630,945
•:
13.439.0S8 |
10.576,898
-ala
gua f
r
1
British—
'147
103. 147
-
_
■' 147
103.910
3
147
■
i !
-
13
11
630
133
<-147
21 27
507
-
IS
402
658 i
30
243
"
264
33
D
d 290.000
$00
2
14
720
---
! •
445
-
■--
3
St. Vincent 1
53
113
91
*31
Turks acd Cai
5
1
1
Cuba
French —
1
12
-
'1
<12
llaiti*
.
W
n
rtta America
• -
10. 740.345
■ ■ .
13.701.054
10.S77.306
- DTB ' '
.
17
•
26
-v .=■•:
5,000
43.776
200
230.000
4
-:4
5.000
-.
45.672
200
495
270,000
a
5.000
200
8fi0
5.000
815
:a axid Venezuela
1 »r*
5.000
1
i 05. 000
200
-
349.305
■
" !
341.559
1 - —
j 765
700
• - ■
3,200
231
8,000
700
■ .
285
7.000
1 '
700
■ . ■
-"
no
700
S.200
Malta
340
7.000
-
!
20.3*.
'
• "
19,705
ASIA.
1 1
St - -
- "
-
1.200.000
U3
i •""
317
1.200.000
692
Jj.000
371
. • ••
•
3.5*>.00O
.-.
1.200.000
1.637
G-L Bd in the oil led. Quantity r.f iinters produced as
foBo« 196,223 n 1902, 500-pound bales. 194.496 in 1903, 241,942 »n 1904,
eOfl :«3-
< Ex| "
/E.v
t Less than one-half bale.
-
rage pi ition as nnoffieially estimated.
-
* Exports and mill consumption.
STATISTICS OF COTTON. 597
Cotton crop of countries named, 1901-190.5 — Continued.
Country.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
ASIA — continued.
Dutch East Indies a
Bales.
9,160
Bales.
8,267
Bales.
12,632
3
Bales.
15, 367
1
14
15,255
16, 262
70,000
71,509
/6,098
Bales.
13,280
b 1
Federated Malay States
French India a
7,815
25,762
70,000
e 64, 000
/6,098
11,139
19, 152
70,000
« 64, 000
6,098
13, 693
17,012
70,000
56,282
/6,098
c 15, 255
12,370
70,000
6 72,000
/6,098
Japan
Russia, Asiatic:
426,000
56,000
370,000
56,000
476,000
53,000
506,000
49,000
45,000
482,000
426,000
529,000
555,000
612,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
Total Asia
4,697,767
5,004,811
4,961,604
5, 038, 995
5,608,979
AFRICA.
British Africa:
1
119
449
609
125
121
3
1,805
598
001
59
45
1,658
208
East Africa
6
GO
3
22
Gold Coast 0
Natal
6 31
Nigeria —
Southern, Colony (in-
cluding Lagos) a
Southern, Protectorate a
16
■
606
2,680
°01
Northern, Protecto-
rate a
258
Sierra Leone <*
2
144
Uganda "
°01
22
27
752
4,415
5,447
Egypt
1,320,307
1,209,746
1,348,759
1,316,212
1,250,173
French Africa: <>
Dahomey
289
8
" 289
Madagascar
O)
1
2
c'8
Mayotte
Senegal
8
41
Somali Coast
(?)
c 41
Total French Africa
3
346
c 346
German Africa: a
East Africa
Togo
1
2
43
148
872
499
871
■■-•
Total German Africa
1
2
191
1,371
1,4S9
Kongo Free State «
1
Portuguese Africa — Angola h
Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian)
100
»'6,517
61
*" 6, 517
6
6,517
16
15,097
*6
19, 441
Total Africa
1,326,947
1,216,353
1,356,228
1,337,447
1,276,903
OCEANIA.
British — Queensland
1
1
18
1
48
56
79
French: a
New Caledonia
b 1
Tahiti
110
79
13 !
a
240
German — Bismarck Archi-
pelago a
656
Total Oceania
110
93
312
123
1S4
15,926,048
17,331,503
16, 701, 465
20,368,003
18 124 636
,
o Exports.
6 Unofficial estimate.
<• Exports, 1904.
* Average production as unofficially estimated.
<• A ye rage exports, 1903-1904.
/ Census, 1902.
a Less than one-half bale.
ft Imports from Angola into Portugal.
i Statistics for 1903.
598
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
International trade in cotton, 1901-1906.a
[Bales of 503 pounds, gross weight, or 47$ pounds of lint, net.]
EXPORTS.
Year
Country.
1 egin-
ning—
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
Brazil
Jan. l
.-,4.3)2
.-
61,170
b 111,059
British India
Apr. 1
1,347
1,42
1,1
1,334.111
1,741,096
Jan. 1
1,288,
1,37-
1.158,029
22
1,352,517
Jan. 1
127,715
117. 73S
132,127
'
Germany £
J. in. 1
216,810
319. 732
Net Jenunds
Jan. 1
100,719
82,530
110,568
104. 182
Peru
Jan. 1
36,948
30,826
35,289
34. 741
United States
J ulv 1
7,382
i,824
1 4,134
9,078,080
..•
-
304,868
391,000
581, S00
-
Total
10,704,280
11,215,803
10,593,910
12, s-
1 1 . 680, 730
IMPORTS.
a See " General note," p. 540.
t> Preliminary figures.
e Not including the free ports.
Condition of the cotton crop of Ou United Slates, monthly, 1889-1906.
Year.
June.
July.
Au-
gust.
Sep-
tem-
ber.
Octo-
ber.
Year.
June.
July.
Au-
gust.
Sep-
tem-
ber.
Octo-
ber.
1889
P. ct.
86.4
88 8
S5 9
85.6
88.3
81.0
97.2
83.5
P. ct.
91.4
89.6
82.3
92.5
86.0
P. ct.
89.3
89.5
82.3
80.4
91.8
77.9
80.1
86.9
P. ct.
85.5
70.8
64 -i
78.3
81.5
80.0
75.7
70 7
82. 7
65.1
60.7
70. 0
1898
P. ct.
89.0
BE :
82.5
96.1
74 1
83.0
77.2
84.6
P. ct.
91.2
87.8
" ■
81.1
i
77.1
88.0
77.0
83.3
P. ct.
91.2
84.0
76. 0
77.2
81.9
79.7
91.6
74 9
82.9
P. ct.
79.8
68.5
68.2
71.4
64.0
SI. 2
S4.1
72.1
77.3
P. ct.
75.4
1899
62. 4
1900
67.0
In'
1901
61.4
1902
58. 3
1894
1903
65.1
1904
75.8
.
1905
71.2
1897
1906
71.6
STATISTICS OF COTTON. 599
Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of cotton of the United Slates, 1899-1906.
Year.
1899-1000.
1900-1901.
1901-1902.
1903-1903.
1903-J90-1.
1904-1005.
1905-1900.
1900-1907.
Acreage.
A cres.
624,275,101
25, 758, 139
27.220,414
27,114,103
28,010,893
30,053,739
26,117,153
c32,049,000
Production.
Thousands
of pounds.
M
Pounds.
4,407,097
4,846,471
4,550,950
5,091,041
4,710,591
0, 420, 09S
5,000,205
6, 354, 108
Bales of 500
pounds
gross
weight, a
Bales.
9,345,391
10,123,027
9,509,745
10,630,945
9,851,129
13,438,012
10,575,017
13, 273, 809
Value, a
Dollars.
370,708,740
421,(587,941
570, 499, 824
501, 100, £80
556,833,818
640,311,538
New York closing prices per
pound on middling upland.
December.
Low. High
Cents.
7'
9]
8 »
8*
11.95
0.85
11.(15
10.45
Cents.
n
10ft
81
81
14 10
9.00
12. 00
11.25
May of fol-
lowing year.
Cents.
9
8ft
9f
Hi. 75
12. 75
7.85
11.25
Cents.
91
8ft
9!
12. 15
13. 90
8 85
12.00
■ >i vim ptio
exports,
fiscal
year be-
ginning
July 1.
Bales of
sou lbs.
6,201,106
(i, Or, I.7S1
7, 001 ; 558
8,609,698
7,268,080
a As reported by U. S. Census Bureau.
b According to Report of Twelfth Census; the acreages for subsequent years are as estimated by tho
Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture.
c As revised in June, 1907.
Prices of middling upland cotton in New Orleans, monthly, 1890-1906.
[In cents per pound.]
Year.
1S90
1891
1892
1S93
1894
1895
1890
1697
1S98
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1900
January.
Low. High
95
8-}.
91
7ft
5
m
6]
•r>r
101J
h\
7ft
91
7|
t; 3
JIu
8
7
5S
51
7|
9rs
8
82
15i«
7
Ui
February.
Low. High
io:?
8J
61
813
7ft
5
7i
5}
5J
72
9ft
7|I
H
13i
7
10i9s
1011
0ft
«
91
7ft
5ft
8
7ft
Bti
6
9
9ft
8ft
91
10ft
m
103
March.
Low. High
iop
si
61
8ft;
7i
Sft
7?
0l5
5ft
•r'Si
9
7ia
8}
■v.
14
71
10 V
11
81
64
9
7ft
51
7rS
7VI
55
6ft
»ft
9ft
9i
10
"I,1
111
April.
Low. High,
11
8 A
6|
71
o:§
5ft
5|
9i
8
If
13?
73
Hi
"U
73
6f
7|
7J
5|
5f
9J
8ft
9f
10ft
1 ■"•.■;
7ft
lift
May.
Low. High.
lift
8ft
7
71
Brl
6ft
7|
7ft
5}J
5!i
8*g
7 "
ME
9s
10ft
i-S
7|
11
n:
8J.
IP
71
7ft
7
7|
7ft
6ft
52
94
8
9|
Hi J
132
83
lift
June.
Low. High.
m
7ft
62
6i
6?2
71
52
54
81-2
n
81S
11 i"
103
81
io ft
HI
81
7|
7|
7
7J
71
6ft
5f
S!l
8ft
9ft
131
12J
9ft
Hi
Year.
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1890
1897
1898
1S99
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1900
July.
Low. High.
lift
n
7_
'Ti
6§
64
64
5s
92
si
8f
12|
104
91
105
11J
m
B
'i
62
61
6*1
51
101
8x7,
9t5
131
lift
H.i
H|
August.
Low. High.
101
7|
6}
6ig
6ft
6ft
m
7ft
51
51
91
8
12V
10}
102
9ft
11|
8
u
n
61
m
8
7Ji
dlB
5 \ I
10}
13}
lift
10ft
log
September. October.
Low. High. Low. High
9|
8
°li
5R
7ft
71
93
<IZ
8ft
9:1
10
UN
9}1
7,;
10 ft
81
7[[
Si
51
9ft
10ft
10}
10 ft
10 \{
111
November.
Low. High,
9ft
7^
7{{
7ft
4|
8A
51
41
75
'»
10
82
10J
91
74
54
5ft
7ft
92
7ft
8
lift
9ii
lift
HS
December.
Low. High.
5ft
71
6}|
5}
5
7ftr
9}
71
7{|
114
64
H|
10J
H
74
m
' IE
5ft
8ft
71
51
5|
74
9}i
8ft
8g
13|
8ft
12ft
HI
600 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT "F AGRICULTURE.
COTTON CROP OF THE UKITKD STATES, 1790-1906.
InteUigent use of the following table depends upon observing these explanations:
Year. — The year mentioned is. fur production, ihat of planting and growth; but
ginning continues ii "lowing calendar year. When, in want of figur
production, a commercial crop is taken, this represents the trade movement beginning
September 1 of the growth year and ending August 31 of the following year. The
year for exporte - - f the growth year for the period 1790-
1842(1842iaanine-m athsy ar); July 1 for 1843-18 - - .rteen-nic:-
and September 1 for 1867-1905; except that the average price of exports per pound
given for the years 1791-1800 "lowing and nearly coincident calendar
years adopted) is derived from a re] fS sury Woodbury (Ex
No. 1-46. 24th Cong., - - -
Production — f running bales.— 1790-1834 ..:. - '. net
weight in pounds divided by net weight per bale; - -
1865-1868,1870-187 Latham, A]
der & Company's l Movement ictuation; •
1899-1906, production, Census; 1861-1864, commercial n and Pri
Cotton for One Hundred Years, by James L. Watkins. Bulletin No. 9, Bureau of
Statistics. United States D pact tent of Agriculture. I - included, 1S99-1906.
Number of running bales of linters, 1S99. 114.544: 1900. 143,500; 1901.
196,223; 1903, 195,752; 1904. 245.973: 1905, 230,497; 1906. 322.064.
—linters included. 1899-1906. with same muni
bales as above for 1899-1902; 500-pound bales in 1903. 194.486: 1904. 241. • .
229.539: 1906. 321,68
Production — : —1790-1898, Bulletin above, and Latham.
Alexander & Company, above; 1899-1906. Census. Pinters not included.
right. — 1790-1S34. production, report ES i taryW Ibury,
above; 1839. production. Census: 1835-1838, 1840-1848, 1850-1858, 1860-1868, 1870-
578 • L888, 18S J98 mmercial crop, and 1849. 1859. 1869, 1S79. 1889, 1899-
production, number of bales multiplied by average net weight per bale. Linters
not included.
Price per pound of lint. — 1S69-1898. fami price. December 1. Bureau of Statistics,
Department of Agriculture, specific inquiry: 1899. Cent - farm value divided
by total net weight: 1900-1901, no information: 1902-1906. Census, New Orleans
Cotton Exchange value for upland cotton, computed by multiplying total net weight
by mean exchange price for estimal . - and Charleston and Savannah
n Exchange value for sea-island cotton. Linters not included.
.:/ value of lint. — Total net weight multiplied by price per pound, t :. 899.
Linters not included, because included in value of seed, which ws - Hows
for the only v - I rhich ascertainable: At the farm. 10,575; at the
mill. 1902. §80.209.194: 1903. 884.049.406: 1904, $90,931,250; 1905. 875.464.515: 1906,
35.699.
. iion. — Linters included. 1899-1905. No account . : - a at begin-
ning and end of year. The rigu: s are i I production plus net
imports minus dor.. ;nd do not stand i . consumption for any
certain year, concerning which see Bui. No. 63, Bureau of the Census.
<rU. — Including reexports. 1790-1800, not including reexports
American State Papers; 1820-1905, Bureau of Statist: b, Department of Com-
merce and Labor. Linters included. 1897-1905: uncertain included before
1897 and after this asol ton fin appeared in trad< - fterl870.
-. including reex] - 1 18 not including reexports.
1801-1818, American State Papers; 1819, Report ES Ibury, above; 1820-
1905. Bureau of Statistics. Department of Commerce and Labor: except that the
imports given for the years 1791-1793 are for the following cal - rs, being nearly
coincident with the commercial crop y
Linters. — 1899-1906. included in production of running balec quivalent 500-
pound bales, and in consumption. Included in domes: • - xplamed above.
Gold values. — All values have been reduced to gold for 1862—1878
Bureau of the Census.- — In the preparation of the following table the Bureau of Sta-
tistics of the Department of Agriculture has been favored with the cooperation of the
Bureau of the Census of the Department of Commerce and L
STATISTICS OF COTTON.
601
"fe
5,-Si S 5 c sb
11 z. — c &"3
W P. *
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602 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
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STATISTICS OF COTTON.
603
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YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Clots<' pound, in leading United Stales
'. - jfj.
: ' -
Jan " ■
Feb...
liar
Apr
Mav..
•
Ang...
&■•::... . "
Oct...
I . •
Dec...
:■■*>
Jan
■
:• ■
Apr
?
July
Oct
Kor...
Dec
3
11
1
.
.
STATISTICS OF TOBACCO.
605
lnt<r national trade in cotto7i-seed oil. 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
c°BHta* ISitl 190L 1902-
1903. 1904. 1905.
Gallons Gallons.
Belgium Jan. 1 878,907 877,851
Egypt Jan. 1 ! 197,013 479.155
Fiance Jan. 1 495,296' 375,361
Netherlands Jan. 1 37,450 '' 44,328
United Kingdom Jan. 1 5,206.109 S. 299,636
United-States Julv 1 33, 042, S4S 35.042.994
Other countries ! 131.000 72,000
i
Gallons. Gallons. Gallons.
714.319 1,252,803
426, 14S 397.446 24l'.--4.;
394.169 213. 0S7 511.743
230,762 168,425 168,686
6,725,236 4,865,745 5.323.636
29,013,743 51,535,580 43,793,519
11,000 . 1,000 ' 42. COO
Total 39, 988,623 45 . 79 1 . 325
37,471,713 57 S45 609 51 34° °30
■
IMPORTS.
Algeria Jan. 1
Australia Jan. 1
Austria-Hungary Jan. 1
Belgium Jan. 1
Brazil Jan. 1
Canada July 1
Egypt Jan. 1
France Jan. 1
Gemianv c Jan. 1
Italy < Jan. 1
Malta Vpr. 1
Martinique Jan. 1
Mexico July 1
Netherlands ; Jan. 1
Senegal Jan. 1
I" nited Kingdom Jan. 1
Uruguay : July 1
Other countries
Total
o See ''General note," p. 540.
6 Preliminary figures.
<" Not including free ports.
d Average, 11*1-1904.
TOBACCO.
Tobacco crop of countries named. 1001-1005.
[Production for South America (especially Brazil' largely understated, because domestic consumption
is unknown. No statistics for China, Persia, Central America (except Guatemala"!. West Indies
(except Cuba and Porto Rico), and several less important tobacco-growing countries.]
Country.
1901.
1904.
1905.
NORTH AMERICA.
United States:
Contiguous
Noncontiguous— Porto Rico
Pound*. Pounds.
818,953,000 i 821,S24.000
8,000,000 i 8.000,000
Pounds. ' Pounds. Pounds.
815,972,000 060,401,000 633,034,000
5,000,000 • 5,000,000 6,000,000
Total United States (ex- i
cept Philippine Islands). 826,953,000 829,824,000
820,972,000 605,461,000 639,034,000
Canada:
Ontario.
Quelle. .
Total Canada.
Cuba
Guatemala.
Mexico
3,114,000 3,071,000
6 5,000,000 6 5,000,000
2,423,000 3,035,000 : o6,275,000
6 5,000,000 ; 6 5,000,000 | a 3, 100,000
8,114,000 , 8,071,000
7,423,000
8,035,000
9,375,000
45,892.000 : 57,177,000
1,051,000 I 1,063,000
26,256,000 j 020,000,000
o38,731,000 042,421,000 j o48,783,000
1,065,000 • 1,983,000 c 1,300,000
29,156,000 ; 28,880,000 : o23,000,000
Total North America 908,266,000' 916,135,000
S97,347,000 746,780.000 721,492,000
a Unofficial estimate.
6 Estimated from census statistics for 1900 and unofficial estimate for 1905.
c Average production.
006 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tobacco crop of countries named, 1901-1905 — Continued.
Country.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentina «
Bolivia b
Brazil c
Chile &
Ecuador c
Paraguay
Perne
Total South America
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungary
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Total Austria-Hungary. . .
Belgium
Bulgaria
Denmark
France
Germany
Greece
Italy
Netherlands
Roumania
Russia
Ser via
Sweden
Turkey /
Total Europe
ASIA.
British India"*
Dutch East Indies:
Borneo
Java
Sumatra
Total Dutch East Indies. .
Japanese Empire:
Japan
Formosa
Total Japanese Empire. ..
Philippine Islands
Total Asia
AFRICA.
Algeria.
British Central Africa
Cape of Good Hope
Mauritius
Natal
Orange River Colony
Total Africa
Pounds.
28,000,000
3,000,000
73,791,000
0,000,000
42,000
6 10,000,000
1,500,000
1902.
Pounds.
31,000,000
3,000,000
99,473,000
0,000,000
179,000
8,510,000
1,500,000
1903.
Pounds.
22,000,000
3,000,000
51,583,000
6,000,000
399,000
10, 2%, 000
1,500,000
122,333,000 149,662,000
9,089,000
125,934,000
«9, 000, 000
144,623,000
10,647,000
5,590,000
293,000
55,905,000
88,213,000
6 14,000,000
12,734,000
2,708,000
(i, 249, 000
136,630,000
1,973,000
1,(180,000
6 100,000.000
94,778,000
1904.
1905.
Pounds.
31,000,000
3,000,000
52,832,000
6,000,000
89,000
d 13,228,000
1,500,000
107,649,000
12,038,000 15,895,000
99,228,000 134,507,000
e 9, 000, 000 « 9, 000, 000
121,106,000 159,462,000
581,305,000
11,266,000
6,423,000
363,000
54,610,000
83,111,000
6 14,000,000
11,052,000
2,211,000
6,0%, 000
232,767,000
2,358,000
1,636,000
d 71, 000, 000
9,685,000
19,060,000
342,000
57,466,000
72,911,000
6 14,000,000
12,188,000
1,771,000
10,113,000
222,785,000
2,488,000
1,706,000
d 110,000,000
14,047,000
88,768,000
e 9, 000, 000
111,815,000
13,983,000
8,914,000
6 340,000
37,767,000
75,797,000
6 14,000,000
13,464,000
d 1,500,000
3,999,000
6 200,000,000
2,380,000
4,118,000
d 90, 000, 000
618,059,000 693,977,000
450,000,000 450,000,000 4.50,000,000 450,000,000
578,077,000
736,000
31,414,000
44,512,000
70,662,000
336, 000
57,958,000
40,850,000
163,000
59,274,000
50,721,000
56,000
44,991,000
45,134,000
105,144,000 110,158,000 | 90,181,000
64,652,000
904,000
05,556,000
69,029,000
1,095,000
70,124,000
h 38, 600, 000 37,499,000
630,818,000 662,767,000
16,657,000
« 00, 000
h 5, 000, 000
6,000
4,271,000
9 750, 000
26,744,000
18,863,000
e 60, 000
h 5, 000, 000
26,000
3,479,000
9 750, 000
28,178,000
95,151,000
1,010,000
105,853,000
222,000
90,161,000 106,075,000
h 35,900,000 I h 33, 100,000
692,219,000 | 679,356,000
13,013,000
e 60,000
h 5,000,000
.28,000
4, 418, 000
9 750, 000
23,269,000
12,492,000
e 60,000
5,309,000
29,000
2,907,000
750, 000
21,547,000
Pounds.
43,000,000
3,000,000
44,953,000
6,000,000
122,000
6 10,000,000
1,500,000
108,575,000
15,644,000
6 112,000,000
8,753,000
136,397,000
16,046,000
8,080,000
6 340, 000
6 51,000,000
70,277,000
20,000,000
6 12,400,000
d 1,500,000
8,694,000
6 200,000,000
2,086,000
2,713,000
d 100,000,000
630,133,000
450,000,030
6 300,000
65O,(!O0,00O
6 45,000,000
95,300,000
105,853,000
6 808,000
100,661,000
h 3S, 200, 000
690,101,000
6 15,000,000
60,000
h 5, 000, 000
13,000
2,023,000
650,000
23,346,000
« Estimated from official data of acreage.
6 Average production.
c Exports.
'! Unofficial estimate.
e Official estimate for 1905.
/Including Asiatic Turkey.
g Official estimate for 1901.
A Estimated from returns for census year.
STATISTICS OF TOBACCO.
Tobacco crop of countries named, 1901-1905 — Continued.
607
Country.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
OCEANIA.
Australia:
Pounds.
452,000
21 o.OOO
35,000
Pounds.
055,000
221,000
39,000
Pounds.
204,000
292,000
S", (mo
Pounds.
09, 000
596,000
95,080
Pounds.
798,000
125,000
Total Australian Com-
monwealth.
700,000
915,000
583, 000
700,000
1,485,888
Fiji
47,000
56,000
74,000
58,008
1,000
747,000
971,000
057,000
818,000
1,480,000
2,270,213,000
2,375,772,000
2,402,247,000
2,134,227,000
2,175,193,000
Acreage, production, and value of tobacco in the United Slates in 190G, by States.
State or Territory.
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Massachusetts. .
Connecticut
New York
Pennsylvania. . .
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia.. .
North Carolina . .
South Carolina . .
Georgia
Florida
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
"Wisconsin
Missouri
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alai>ama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Arkansas
United States 790,099
Acreage.
Acres.
120
199
4,712
14,140
7,074
26,000
29,540
108,971
4,005
120,358
13,400
3,000
5,400
70,000
12,000
1,075
39,000
1,498
290,000
43,400
511
150
61
535
914
yield per
acre.
Pounds.
1,785
1,700
1,750
1,735
1,250
1,375
600
675
780
5S0
670
675
S75
1,060
915
820
1,275
730
870
785
510
440
475
550
695
857.2
Production.
rounds.
224,910
338,300
8,246,000
24,532,900
8,842,500
35,750,000
17,724,000
73,555,425
3,123,900
69,807,640
8,978,000
2,025,000
4,725,000
74,200,000
10,980,000
881,500
49,725,000
1,093,540
252,300,000
34,009,000
260,610
60,000
28,975
294,250
656,080
682,42S,530
Average
farm
price,
Dec. 1.
Cents.
17.0
17.0
18.5
18.0
13.8
13.7
6.8
8.2
9.2
10 0
10 5
30.0
35.0
11.5
6.8
7.0
13.5
9.0
7.7
7.5
22.0
28.8
27.5
24 0
12.0
10.0
Farm
value,
Dec. 1.
Dollars.
3S.235
57,511
1,525,510
4,415,922
1,220,265
4,897,750
1,205,232
6,031,545
287,399
6,9S0,764
942, 690
607,500
1,653,750
S, 533,000
740,640
61,705
6,712,875
98, 419
19,427,100
2,555,175
57,334
19,008
7,968
70,620
78,730
68,232,647
Acreage, production, and value of tobacco in tlie United States, 1900-1906.
Acreage.
Average
yield
per acre.
Production.
Average
farm
price per
pound
Dec. 1.
Farm value
Dec. 1.
1900
190 1
1902
1903
1904
1905
1900
A eres.
1,046,427
1,039, 199
1.030,734
1,037,735
806, 409
776,112
796,099
Pounds.
778.0
788.0
797.3
786.3
819.0
815.6
857.2
Pounds.
S14.345.341
818, 953, 373
821,823,9(3
815,972,425
660, 460, 739
633,033,719
682, 428, 530
Cents.
6.6
7.1
7.0
6.8
8.1
8.5
10.0
Dollars.
53,661,132
5S, 283, 108
57,563,510
55, 514, 627
53, 382. 959
53,519,068
68,232,647
608
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
:tional tradi in unmanufactured tobacco. :
EXPORTS.
Countrv.
J Year be-
ginning—
Algeria
.-Hungary Jan.
Jan.
Bulgaria
Jan.
Patch East Indies
Jan.
July
[lands
Philippine Islands
K ussia
Turkey * Mar.
United Stat - July
Other countries
Total . " 45 - - .
IMP'
ina Jan.
lia Jan.
Austria-Hungary Jan.
Belgium
British India Apr.
Canada July
Denmark Jan.
Egypt Jan.
Finland Jan.
France Jan.
Germany ' Jan.
Italy. . ." Jan.
Jan.
;■" Jan.
Portugal Jan.
Jan.
E Jan.
.Kingdom Jan.
- July
Other countries
tend " H
» Preliminary Ggni
c Average. 1901-1904.
d Exports :' ... lata.
e Not including free ports.
B
Hop crop
[Excluding Canada, for which the census o: - . .ction during the preceding year of 1.001.303
pounds. Other omitted countries are of very small production.]
Country.
1902.
XOETH AKEEICA.
Pa
5.SO0.000
California 10, 335, 000
I g ai
.ington
Total United States 39.000.000
j made.
9.000.000
10. 920. 000
17.550.0011
•-■ ■
.r i .. i i i
T , .
11.SSO.000 9.300.000
. - 000 14.235.000
000 22.191,000
7.410.009 9.750.000
■ - " OO 49. 125 0
12 rno.000
05.295,000
e Estimate based upon reports to Oal .erand .American Agriculturist.
STATISTICS OF HOPS. 609
Hop crop of countries named, 1902-1906 — Continued.
Country.
1902.
1903.
U04.
1905.
1906.
EUROPE.
Austria -Hungary:
Pounds.
19,829,000
Pounds.
9.010.000
S08.000
Pounds.
19.598.000
631.000
Pounds.
39.305.000
b 700.000
Pounds,
a 17,100,000
Hungary
631.000
al,600,000
Total Austria-Hungary... 20,460,000
Belgium 7. 360. 000
Franco 5, 251, 000
Germany 50. 185. 000
Netherlands 137. 000
Russia 11,000.000
United Kingdom: England 34.S37.000
Total Europe 129.230.000
OCEANIA.
Australian Commonwealth:
Victoria 252.000
T.i smania 651. 000
New Zealand 930,000
Total Oceania 1.833,000
Grand total 170, 063, 000
9,818,000 20.229.000 40.005.000 o 18,700,000
4,786,000
7.311.000
46.562.000
100.000
12,500.000
47,160.000
9.830.000
7. 753. 000
49.136,000
a 158.000
8, 700. 000
31.621.000
1lN.237.0OO 127.427.000
11.281.000
10,970.000
64.500.000
6 158.000
14,500.000
77.946.000
1.925.000
2.289.000
2.194.000
171.457.000 178.841.000
a5,000,000
a6,000,000
46,384.000
6 158,000
10.SOO.000
27,517.000
219.360.000 114,559,000
176,000 274.000 I 162.000 c 216, 000
S09.000 865,000 912.000 <" 809,000
940,000 1.150.000 | 1.120,000 d, 035,000
2,060,000
277,090,000 1S1, 914,000
o Estimate of Gutermann Sons. Saaz, Bohemia. Aug. 28, 1906.
b Average, 1900-1903.
= Average, 1932-1905.
International trad* in hops, I901-l906.a
EXPORTS.
Country.
Year be-
gin-
ning—
1901.
1902.
1903
Total
Aust ria-Hunga rj
Belgium
France
Germany b
Netherlands
New Zealand
Russia
United Kingdom . .
United States
Other countries
62, 452, 554
IMPORTS.
Australia Jan.
Austria-Hungary Jan.
Belgium Jan.
British India Lpr.
Canada July
Cape of Good Hope Jan.
Denmark Jan.
France Jan.
Germ any 6 .'an.
Netherlands Tan.
Russia Jan.
Sweden Jan.
Switzerland Jan.
United Kingdom Jan.
United States I July
Other countries
1,230,459
3,814,620
460. 208
789,598
d 797, 700
1.308,994
4. 779. 155
15. 390. 025
2,822,020
872, 016
1,536,240
938,949
12.447.232
2,805,293
3, 123. 698
1.140.3SS
1,025,811
4.427.816
495. 824
623.403
848, 96(1
1.300,617
4,312,256
6.004.068
2, 996. 258
945. 289
1,401.343
1.003.704
20, 593. 888
6,012,510
2. 920, 344
975. 658
4.4S1.556
6,478,233
517.328
781,822
555 . 856
1.401.037
5.045.432
2, 992. 995
2. 742. 861
807.085
1. 430. 809
1.012.142
11,876,032
2.758,163
3.247.109
913,830
2, 109. 162
4.826.301
469, 728
737,054
4^7. 424
1,359, 149
4. 428. 343
5. 346. 20S
4.020,148
1.363.547
1,298.174
1,168,891
34.437.312
4.339.379
2.453, 77S
Total ( 53.724.6S3 56,112.539 47,110,118 69.758,428
1.279.362
l.ls7.1.vj
6,617,221
448, 224
1. 0LX1.265
308,112
1,378,660
3. S79, 328
9.047.989
3,368.742
1,191.722
1.662.563
1.347.6*5
11,147,584
10,113.989
c 1,755, 691
55,754,326
a See "General note," p. 546.
3 a 1906 39
b Not including free ports. e Preliminary. d Estimated.
610 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
WhoUsaU price* of hop* per pound in hading cities of the ' 190S-1906.
New York. Cincinnati.
Chicago.
Date.
January. ..
Mar-'.
May
Aug.
mber.
mber.
I
1 1
April
May.
June
July
Aug.
■ ry . . .
March
May
July
Aug i
:aber.
:
Jane .
iarv..
... ..
Juie
July
January...
;j'ry_.
Marc b
April
May
Aug-
September.
Octo:
mber.
1904.
1905.
Pacific coast.
State.
Ch
common to
choice.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
High.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
14
16
14}
m
14
•
"
15
16
"
19
-\
13
-
20
15
18
22
19J
15
20
20J
211
21!
15
20
-
.
23
23
20
22
24i
28
25
22
25
26
-
261
.
25
26
-
37
-
29!
26
29
■15
-
30
30
26
30
'
■
30
31
Good to choice.
'
"
29
29
23
31
33
'
29
-
-"
31
30
35
29|
25
29
23
30
25
25
20
25
23
24
29
25
20
24
22|
--
24
24
22
J4
20|
23*
24
24
19
22
20*
-
24
24
21
25
24i
30
-'
25
26
28
30
33
26
26
20
a
30
_
26
26
24
26
35
27
23
24
27
u
1
:-
31
28!
34
36
38
31
34
30
35
38
30
32
32
34
33
36
30
32
30
34
33
35
-
31
30
35
32
"
29
30
30
_
32
34
29
30
30
31
.
35
29
X
30
34
33
37
29
31
28J
31
35
41
31
36
30
35!
36
41
36
"
32
37
■
38
34
36
33
"
-
37
33
33
30
34
30
36
.
31!
.
30
23
31
26
30
23
29
29
-
26
29
a
29
29
29
26
28
26
!
28
28
21
25
25
23
24
20
24
22
-
23
22
18
23
30
23
m
15
18
19
23
17
17
10
15
13
22
14*
14J
12
15
16
21
13J
13*
10
14
15
19
13
14!
12
14
14
17
13
14|
10
14
13
:.
14
9
14
-
15
12
17
10
17
11
15
12
15
15
11
14
12
15
14
12
"
12
17!
10
17
15
17
17
18
12
18
15
"
14
18
12
22
__
25
17
-
14
18
23
25
171
■
13
18
21
24
17»
12
18
STATISTICS OF FLAXSEED.
611
FLAXSEED.
Flax crop of countries named, 1903-1905.
[Substantially the crop of the world.] .
Country.
Seed. Fiber.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1903.
1904. 1D05.
XOKTU AMERICA.
United States
Bushels.
27,301,000
Bushels.
23,401,000
Bushels.
28, ■!
round-.
1
Pounds rounds.
Canada :
605, 000
295,000
8,000
479,000
171.000
5,000
337.000
411.000
9,000
1 "
Saskatchewan
Alberta
Total Canada
908, 000
655.000
757, 000
49,000
188,000
150,000
Total North
America
28, 258, 000
2-1.244.000
29.385,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentina
Uruguay
30, 070, 000
8, 176,000
36,912,000
5, 530, 000
29,133,000
6, 000, 000
Total South
America
38. 252. 000
42, 442, 000
35,133.060
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary:
Austria
1,120,000
276, 000
44.000
2,000
1,162,000
188,000
27. 000
3,000
1,370.000
190,000
2'.), 000
3,000
103,848,000
30, 348, 000
13,205.000
1,896,000
105. 850. 000
19,777.000
'.'.214,000
1,727,000
Hungary proper
Croatia -Slavonia . ..
Bosnia-Herzegovina
123, 127,000
19,000,000
9,000,000
1,428,000
Total A u stria -
Ilungarv
1,442,000
1,380,000
1,592,000
149,297,000
136,568,000
152,555,000
Belgium.. .
272,000
350. 000
544,000
300,000
36,000
008, 000
280,000
2,000
575, 000
24. 790. 000
0 20,000,000
43,587,000
19,327 000
41.917.1 'i'
IS. 497.000
12.267,000
27,385,000
« 2, 000, 000
52,445,000
20,924.000
41,917.000
22,348,000
=^ =
Bulgaria
25,534,000
France. . .
173,000
Ireland
45,515.000
24,353,000
41,917,000
IS, 4-10.000
Italy'-
Netherlands
Roumania
362,000
2, 064. 000
469.000
169,000
437, 000
335, 000
Russia:
Russia proper
Poland
17,269.000
728. 000
513.000
IS, 284. 000
649,000
471,000
17,000,000
600, 000
500,000
957,807,000
46, 434. 060
104.800,000
1,095,606,000
37,867,000
33, 331, 0(H)
1,000,000,000
Northern Caucasia <'
35, 000, 000
60,000,000
Total Russia
(European).
18,510,000
19,404,000
18.100.000
1.108.441.600
1,106,804,000
1.005.000.000
Sweden d
39,000
37,000
37, 000
1.032.000
2.241,000
1,209.000
2,070,000
905,000
2,000,000
Total Europe
23,583,000
22. 393, 000
21,35S,000
1,441.396,000
{, 476,963,000
1.409,297,000
ASIA.
British India, including
native States where
reporting
19, 263, 000
22.S73.000
13,896,000
Russia:
Central Asia...
325,000
709,000
156.000
630. 000
200.000
600, 000
12,722,000
3S.2'
'.'. 071.000
33.111.000
Siberia
9,000.000
35. 000. 000
Total Russia
(Asiatic)
1,034.000
786, 000
800,000
50, 987. 000
42,182.000
44,000,000
Total Asia
20,297.000 | 23,659.000
14,696,000
50.987.000
42, 1S2.000
44.000,000
AFRICA.
65, 000
36.000
:;:, Ron
' 1
Grand total
10, 455, 000
12,774,000
00,607,000 ]
,492,383,000
,519,145,000
1,453,297,000
a Estimated.
t> Average 1892-1895.
c Includes government of Chcrnomorsk.
d Includes small quantity of hemp.
612
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
. odiuiion. and . the United Stat- by States.
State or Territorv.
Acreage.
Average
yield per
acre.
Production.
Average
farm
price.
Dec. 1.
Farm value,
Dec. 1.
I
I • I
-^.
M :z:a.na
Idaho
Acres.
0
431.045.
-
-
L, 465,745
' 0
281
24 ■"'
If. 421
2,048
1.042
2,50c 27
BusheU.
14.0
11.0
11.4
7.3
9.9
10.5
• "
12.0
.
12.0
12.0
n.
Bush-els.
546, 000
4.741.525
--■
_ S .
■ '
" ■
141,015
533.000
50.272
298,26
--■ »
24. 576
12. 504
Cents.
104
103
95
93
102
100
95
88
95
100
85
125
125
25.576.140
101.3
Dollars.
-■ - m
4,883,774
216.600
243. 684
14.801.094
3.979.500
133,964
469.040
47.758
298.260
211,301
30,720
15, 630
25.899.165
Who'. faxseed per bushel in hading cities of tht United States, 1902-1906.
Cincinnati.
Chicago.
Date.
I
- - ~ ' ' :
Mr. r.
M-sy
-
;-: :-: ~ ~r
•'.•-':: -r
V : v -m ■ *;
Frime-
No. l.
Low. Hint.
High.
Low. High.
January
Hu
lb f
fine
I
j
-
I
N rem
B
ri
[
- -"
l
^ -:--r_ : ■: r
; •-
1.63
1.63
1.65
I '■
1.54
1.36
1.37
1.251
1.15
1.13
H
1.14
1.12
1.06
1.06
I •
•
.90
.93
.94
.»
.90
.902.
.*a
1.09
1.07|
.991
.99|
1.00"
1.02
1.151
1.09
1.07
1.08
1.11
1.15
1.15
1.23
1.23
1.25
1.25
2!
LOl
.92
.93
o Ko. 1 Northwestern.
$1.30
$1.40
1.30
1.40
1.30
1.40
1.30
1.40
1.30
1.40
a
1.35
1.30
1.40
1.2-5
1.30
1.2-5
1.2-T
1.25
1.25
1.2-5
1.25
1.25
: 25
1.30
1.30
1.30
.
1.30
1.30
1.10
1.30
1.00
1.10
1 1
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
. 1
1.00
1.09
LOO
1.00
1.00
1.00
: i
1.00
: i
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.10
1.10
1.10
l.M
1.10
1.10
1.10
SI. 73
1.74
1.74
. a
1.79
1.76
1.74
1.55
1.46
1.23
1.25
1.24
1.22
1.17
1.12
1.171
1.14*
: -.
1.05"
1.09
1.031
1.00"
1.021
1.19
1.184
1.16"
1.16
1.09 J
LOB
1.24
1.26!
1.28
1.18
1.194
1.26
1.23
1.35
1.391
1.40"
1.47
1.47
1.44
1.35
1.12
1.03
1.00
1.13
Milwaukee.
Low. High.
?1.61
1.66
•
1.74
1.76
1.73
1.43
1.40
1.25
1.19
■
1.20
1.21
1.16
1.00
1.09
1.11
1.01?.
.95]
.97
.99
.94"
•97!
1.03?.
1.16
1.13
1.06
LOSS
1.061
1.07"
' -
1.241
1.141
1.15!
I I
(°)
1.21
1.22
l!35!
1.37"
1.39
1.43
1.34
1.12
•
-
.99
LOO
51.73
1.73
' -
1.80
1.79
1.76
1.74
1.55
1.45
a
1.23
1.25
1.24
1.22
1.17
1.111
1.171
1.14"
1.021
1 . 05"
1.09
1.04
1 . 00
1.01!
1.19
1.18!
1.16!
1.141
1.10'
•
1.24"
1.26!
.
1.18*
1.191
1.26
1.23
1.23*
1.39*
1.40
1.47
1.47
1.44
1.35
1.12
1.03
1.00
1.16
Duluth.
Low. High.
$1.56!
1.65"
1.65
1.72
1.70
1.60
1.35
1.35
1.24!
1.15 J
1.15|
1.16
1.14!
1.11*
1.07|
1.101
.991
.95"
.961
.99
.92
.93!
.95"
1.01!
1.13|
1.14"
1.05!
1-051
1.071
1.09 \
1.23
1.161
1.131
1.14"
1.15
1.23
1.241
1.35"
1.39
1.40
1.47!
1.45"
1.30
.9"!
.96}
.98}
.9S'
$1,711
1.72
1.74
1.78
n
1.761
1.66
1.50
1.47
1.27*
1.20
1.21J
1.20
1.161
1.131
1.11
1.16
1.13
l.OOi
1.011
1.09
1.02|
1.00
1.00
1.17
1.17
1.15J
1.15f
1.08
1.091
1.24
1.261
1.28
1.171
L18f
1.25|
1.24
1.381
1.401
1.42
1.48
1.50
1.4S
1.48
1.30
1.00
l.OOf
1.16
STATISTICS OF KICE.
613
Wholesale prices of flaxseed per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906 —
Continued.
Date.
1906.
January
February . . .
March
April
May
June
July
August
September..
October
November. .
December. .
St. Louis.
Prime.
Low. High.
SI. 06
1.06
1.05
1.08
1.05
1.05
1.03
1.02
.98
1.03
1.0S
1.15
51.16
1.11
1.09
1.11
1.08
1.06!
1.07"
1.05
1.02!
1.07
1.17
1.19
Cincinnati.
$1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.12
1.12
1.12
1.12
1.12
1.12
1.12
1.12
High.
$1.12
Chicago.
No. 1 North-
western.
Low.
$1.06
1.06
1.04 j
1.06
1.06!
1.07"
1.05
1.055
1.03
1.04J
1.075
111.4
High.
SI. 2.5
1.164
1.14*
1.165
1.17
1.13
1.125
1.14
1.13
1.15
1.22
1.234
Milwaukee.
No. 1 North-
western.
Low.
$1,124
1.10"
1.11
1.12
1.124
1.11
1.05
1.10
1.0S
1.09!
1.13*
1.174
High.
$1.25
1.17
1.14
1.18
1.15J
1.134
1.124
1.14"
1.145
1.131
1.204
1.22
Duluth.
Low.
$1,115
1.103
1-10|
1.14 J
1.124
1.11?
1.11J
1.12
1.09*
1.111
1.14|
1.181
High.
$1.24
1.161
1.17J
1.20
1.18
1.141
1.14*
1.171
1.175-
1.15|
1.25f
1.224.
RICE.
Rice crop of countries named, 1901-1905.
[Mostly cleaned rice. China, which is omitted, has a roughly-estimated crop of 50,000,000,000 to
60,000,000,000 pounds. Other omitted countries are Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, Feder-
ated Malay States, Madagascar, Persia, Russia (Asiatic), Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey (Asiatic
and European), Venezuela, and a few other countries of small production.]
Country.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
NORTH AMERICA.
United States:
Contiguous
Pounds,
a 388, 0O0, 000
b 33, 400, 000
Pounds.
1319,400,000
b 33, 400, 000
Pounds.
a560,800,000
6 33, 400, 000
Pounds.
586,000,000
b 33, 400, 000
Pounds.
378,000,000
b 33, 400, 000
Noncontiguous — Hawaii
Total United States
(except Philippine
Islands)
421,400.000
352,800,000
594,200,000
019, 400, 000
411,400,000
Central America:
300,000
8, 100, 000
41, 800, 000
700,000
d 8, 100, 000
40,000,000
1,000,000
d 8, 100, 000
48, 700, 000
1,300,000
d 8, 100.000
62,000,000
c 1,300, 000
c 62, 000, 000
Total North America.
471,600,000
401,600,000
652,000,000
690, 800, 000
482,800,000
"SOUTH AMERICA.
e 2, 000, 000
29,300.000
800, 000
00,000,000
e 2, 000, 000
22,800.000
800,000
60,000,000
e 2, 000, 000
•24,500,000
1,000.000
60,000,000
t 2, 000, 000
31,200,000
1,900,000
00,000,000
e 2, 000, 000
32,800,000
e 1,900, 000
CO 000 000
British Guiana
Dutch Guiana
Peru
Total South America .
92,100,000
85,600,000
87, 500, 000
95,100,000
96, 700, 000
EUROPE.
600, 000
/ 9, 900, 000
670, 300, 000
382,900,000
700,000
79,900, 000
668,400,000
359,800,000
600,000
9, 800, 000
761,400,000
417,100,000
700, 000
12. 200, 000
760,500,000
394, 000, 000
800,000
10,800,000
676,600,000
478, 600, 000
Bulgaria
Italy
Spain
1,063,400,000
1,038,800,000
1,188,900,000
1,168,000,000
1,166,800,000
ASIA.
British India: <7
British Provinces
62, 153, 000, 000
h 711, 000, 000
72,688,000,000
h 799, 000, 000
68, 580, 000, 000
h 838, 000, 000
71,561,000,000
h 764, 000, 000
69,927,000,000
c 764, 000, 000
Total British India...
62,864,000,000
73,487,000,000
69, 418, 000, 000
72,325,000,000
70,691,000,000
a Commercial movement.
6 Census 1899. ■
« Figures for previous year used.
d 1901 figures used.
c Unofficial estimate.
/1899 figures used.
g Figures for British India refer to crop years
beginning in the spring of the calendar years men-
tioned in this table.
h Estimated from official returns for acreage.
t>14
YEAEBOOK OF THE DEFAETMEXI OF AGEICULIV
Rice crop of countries named. 1901-1905. — Continue!.
Country.
ML
1902. 1903.
N 1
;•■:•.
-oontinoed-
Pound*.
■96,300,000
-. nc oa n
Pound*. 7
.•J.000
c 5, 000, 000, 000 d 5. 000, 000, OOOt
J ■ :-.
to, 000, 000. 000
Pound*.
:■■-.■•'
■ ;.;,. ., ...
?e Empire:
Formosa
11. 533. 200.000' 14. 512. GOO. 000
- 296. GOO. 000
if •:>•" goi jot
. — : •. .....
n,M^ooo, no
^2,598,100,000
Total Japanes
- ■•,-..
300,000; 16. 309. 200. V.O
IS, 658.700,000
:-. ' .» ■"■ ■ "
I Madura
Korea
PhiliDp.r.
' «:.ooo.ooo
<*3. 400, 000. 000
<*3. COO, 000. 000
- ;:; ;,;. .. | - ., ,,
i3,3oo,oo( oc * i no, no, n
...... .... ■ m .,' ■;.
95.000.000
544,0-
3.300.000.000
• 95.000.000 £95.000,000
Total Asia
97. 794,300.000 105, r~ - SOO. 000 110.2 '30.000
AFRICA.
'■?ntral Africa
-
. 200.000>
«20,000.000 '20,000,000,
2.200.000; /2,200,000
<r 20,000,000
-.200,000
-. . ■ _•- :■:>: ■■
.. . ■
','•*..- r.i .:.
■ 1,300,000
100.000
= 3.000.000
a3.OCO.000 13.000.000
(>J>
Total Oceania
- '• M
3.500,000 :>•: ....
3,030.000
•--:,:•■ •• ::■ . >•: :•-. :.■■ ?;: -..> .... .
02. 191. 300. 000 106- 129. Iflft. ODD
-
- .res for previous yes.r:
< rnoraci&i estimate.
1 from official returns of exports of
this country, and from per capita consumption of
rice in Japan, including food, seed and waste bet
not including rice used for sake, for 1394-1903 (270
pounds per aim am
5 is. 1902.
_ - :_ ." ■-. :> :--.".-.
oduction. and i ;jf United Slat<s in 1906. by States.
North Carolina.
South '
Georgia
Florida
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas . .
Arkansas
| Average
r acre.
farm Farm value,
price, Dec 1.
Dec. 1.
Acres.
Bushels.
Z - -•
Cent*, i
DoOot*.
668
28.9
19,305
18.3(0
to, »
22.0
■ - 2
:
-
23.0 1
• : ..-
95
• : -- -
.
35.0
100 i
52 " -
23.0
: ' ■
100
■ :■,
20.0
"«.•
28.0 '
8,631.556
i "
234, I3i
36.0
v536
" ■
.
31.0
131,440
-
STATISTICS OF RICE.
Wholesale prices of rice per pound. 1902-1906.
615
Date.
1902
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1903
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1904
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1905
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1906
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
New York.
Cincinnati.
Lake Charles.
New Orleans.
Houston.
Domestic
(good).
Prime.
Rough. 0
Honduras,
cleaned.
(Head rice.)
cleaned.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
/'.Ills.
Dolls.
Dolls.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
Cents.
41
41
5i
fig
1.75
3.00
2J
51
31
5i
n
4|
64
1.75
3.00
2
6
31
51
n
41
54
2
6
4
54
51
5i
54
H
>1
54
6|
6.J
2
-
4
'■;
5
]
2
5|
4
«
53
54
6i
14
6
4
41
53
5J
61
6 j
H
If
64
4
54
54
41
'1
5J
5 J
4
4*
• 4
:,.'.
6J
2.00
3.40
l|
■">;
44
51
4*
4
53
51
1.90
3.25
11
51
44.
51
41
41
53
51
2.00
3.20
11
6A
44
51
5 5
53
51
1.75
3.30
11
63
44
5!
41 5
43
•53
1.75
3.40
1;
6i
44
5|
5 5
41
5}
1.75
3.40
1J
63
4 4
6
54J 5i
41
53
1.75
3.40
11
6|
■i\
6
53 53
41
53
U
64
44
44
51
53 51
4f
2|
23
64.
53
5|
41
53
5J
6|
64
4'.
6
53
5|
41
2i
4^
6&
5|
5!
4f
53
2i
6
4?
6}
4*
5*
41
5J
2.00
3.60
21
5§
41
6i
44
41
41
5*
1.75
3.60
1|
5|
41
63
43
41
41
54
1.60
3.25
1*
5J
43
5*
44
*3
41
5J
1.50
3.00
13
0
4
5
43
43
4?
•5}
•
1.50
3.00
14
41
31
4|
4
4
4!
53
1.50
2.75
I1,
4f
34
11
4
4
44
5
1.25
2.50
n
41
34
41
4
4
43
4i
1.25
2.25
1*
43
34.
43
»i
4
4J
41
1.25
2.00
11
4|
33
4
3jj
3?
H
41
1.25
2.00
1*
4
33
4
3*
31
31
4J
1.2.3
2.00
Is
43
3
4
3$
3?
3i
41
1.25
2.00
13
53
3
4
3*
3§
31
4i
1.25
2.00
11
4]
3
4
■4
31
33
43
1.10
2.00
13
0
3
31
3?
31
r4
43
1.10
2.00
11
5i
3
31
31
n
H
If
LOO
2.00
1A
53
3
31
31
31
33
43
1.00
2.00
li. 5J
3
31
3*
31
3?
43
1.00
2.00
1
4!
3
31
3*
35
3
4
LOO
2.35
1A
4|
3
31
31
31
3
4
1.00
2.25
i^
n
3
34
31
34
44
5
LOO
il
4',
3
34
31 31
4
1.00
2.50
2i
5
3
31
3| 3|
4
5
LOO
2.50
2J
41
3
4
3|| 3*
4
5
1.25
3.00
11
53
3
43
3?
4
4
5
2.00
3.25
11
58
3
43
41
4;
4
5
2.00
3.25
2 53
3
41
4;
41
4*
5i
2.00
3. 75
5|
3
5
44
41
41
53
2.00
3.S5
2
34
5
5
5}
41
53
2.-r>
3.S5
2| 51
4
51
0
53
4i
o3
2.25
3.S5
2| : 5J
4
51
5
5
41
5J
2.25
3.85
2 1 51
4
51
■H
5
41
51
n
n
21
31
4!
5
4»
53
6
3^
5
5
53
4|
51
53
31
53
53
54
43
51
2J
2
5|
31
53
53
53
41
54
2.50
3.85
6§
31
53
">4
53
4|
51
2.50
3.85
21
51
31
53
51
54
4?
51
2.25
3.85
24.
5|
li
51
5J
5|
41
51
2.25
3.50
2
5|
1'.
51
0
53
41
54.
2.00
3.25
11
51
4
51
a Per bsrrel of 162 pounds.
616
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Initrnational trait 1901—1906.*
[Mostly cleaned rice.]
E :>: .
!
g
1903.
Belgiam Jan. 1
i Jndia
........
Formosa
France Jan. 1
French Indo-China .. . Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Netherlands Jan. 1
Penacg Jan. 1
Siam Jan. 1
Singapore Jan. 1
Pound*.
- -.53.573
52 72 - ■
•■ • ."
H "3.252
■
. .i ■•- . ■-
... 53
" " 44
.-• J3.333
1,534,231,467
-- - ..
- J7J ,.
Pounds.
■
133 S
"" 235,338
2.459.480.031
22 '
2 23
" '.
"-' _
H 742,133
521,922
Pounds.
5.054.477.904
■•
;
1 770,569
"4. 515
223
25 ""- ■ i
22 -
£0,400
57 •
Pounds.
1 ri4.036
" 790, 144'
105. 792. 310:
197.154.447
52.021.579
. a 790,0441
■ 2 ' -
154,148,4001
■ -
" . 571,733
'•• 125,000
Pounds.
764,979
4,839,327,300
• 582,964
-- 566,374
54,091,776
1.371.
222 773,526
11,808
B3, 433
■ ~~;6,800
" 00,905
- - 15.000
Total 9,098,009,53712,034,1 -- 307, 134, 492 10, 216, 541, 441
IMPORTS.
Jan.
Belgiam Jan.
n
China :.. Jan.
Cuba Jan.
Dutch East Indies. . . Jan.
Jan.
Jan-
Japar . .* Jan.
Mauritius. Jan.
.- ::.• :. -.'-. .i . " .:
_■
Philippine Islands Jan.
Russia Jan.
i.r..\.; r *.-.::.
-i Kingdom Jan.
I
' " :::.:.•--
" "" ■
12 . '"
197.'! • 775
302.4-- . •
a ••
■■ .
■
1 . 339. 493. 984
7,567,92
7.93
. .-
414. .
142,25
"43.370
- 852 - "
i .
"43. 174
1,341,867
i m ■■■ '
' '■ ■ -
925,44:
154.
339.
g
■
445.
601.
.
(39.
138,
1.040.
169.
970
:. "
653.404
632, $29
482 732
420.533
841,863
" ■
27 ;
702. 495
209 BOf
__■
572 I J
345. 333
- i 77
i
3 '
' -
0
162.
-
o
-
140,
440.
■
236,
141.
495.
153,
■
154.
1.074.
■-":-
■• 2S3
72
! 22
' ■ ' ■
574. 339
099.790
159 745
359.026
. ' ---
654.000
143.562
"■•
i
- ' ■
i
221 772
U
I
134.
m
143
196,
71
104.
."
".
252.
157.
n
-
403, 926,
021,690
259.008
577.333.
i - .
382, 754
•
-•
833,603
-
" " .
778
SSO. 567
232,062
"•" 0
591,664
483,515]
744.000
234.
. ■
<*129.
297.
el77,
661.
•
414.
23
1.546.
114.
493.
•
d 160.
e.982,
85
24
525.043
J 2
413.516
312. 992
446, 016
055,467
727. 403
979. 896
854.789
278,011
121.733
012.080
955.916
859.300
411.974
521.396
300, 900
939. 744
Total - "• \ 681 273 " — ' 935.752 10.540.049.565 9, 430
-
c Average. 1901-1904.
d .Preliminary figures.
STATISTICS OF SUGAR.
SUGAR.
617
Sugar production of countries named, 1902-3 to 1906-7.
not include the production of China, Formosa, Natal, and some other less important sugar-producing
countries.]
Country.
Cane Sugar.
north america.
United States:
Contiguous-
Louisiana
Texas
Noncontiguous —
Hawaii
Porto Rico
Total United States
(except Philippine
Islands)
Central America:
Guatemala
Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Mexico . .
West Indies:
British-
Antigua and St. Kitts.
Barbados
Jamaica
Trinidad ....
Cuba
Danish— St. Croix
French —
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Haiti and Santo Domingo..
Lesser Antilles '
Total North America . '
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentina
Brazil '_.['■
British Guiana ! " ! ! "
Dutch Guiana ...
Peru ...[
Venezuela * ' " "
Total South America .
EUROPE.
Spain i
ASIA.
British India c
Java
Philippine Isfcmds [[[.[.....<
Total Asia
Tons, a
329, 220
(»)
391,062
85,000
S05, 288
8,000
0,000
4,500
3,000
112,679
18,000
38, 179
18, 772
42, 679
998,878
13,000
38, 498
29,035
50,000
12,000
2,198,508
130,000
187,500
121,570
13,046
123,906
3,000
579,022
28,000
1,906,784
842, 812
90,000
2, 839, 596
1903-4.
Tons, a
215,000
19,800
328, 103
130,000
Tons, a
335, 000
15,000
380, 576
145.000
Tons, a
330,000
12,000
383, 225
213.000
692, 903
7,040
6,300
4,235
3,275
107.547
19,000
58,081
14,255
44,058
1,040,228
13,000
35,976
23, 930
47,000
13,000
, 130, 434
142, 895
197,000
113,282
13,000
131,957
3,000
001,134
2S,000
1,871,980
885, 561
84,000
2,841,547
875. 570
938,225
7,040
5,588
4,235
2,305
107.038
24,000
41,600
11,251
31,000
1,103,258
11,000
30,000
29,980
47,000
13,000
2, 410, 477
0,795
5,944
4,400
1,377
107, 529
24,000
49, 804
12,523
55,000
1.178.749
13,000
36,000
42, 231
55,000
13, 000
2,543,637
128,104
195,000
101,278
13,000
150, 000
3,000
590,382
18, 592
137. 308
275,000
121,693
13,000
150, 000
3,000
700,001
14,512
2,169,000
1,008,900
106, 875
3,284,775
1 , 725, 300
990, 994
145, 525
2,801,819
1906-7.
Tons, a
230,000
13.000
390, 000
255,000
8SS.0OO
7,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
115,000
24,000
40,000
15,000
50, 000
1,250,000
13,000
36,000
40,000
60,000
13, 000
2,563,000
120,000
200,000
118,000
13,000
140,000
3.000
054,000
15,000
2,223,400
1,011,540
150, 500
3,385,440
1 ?T°ils °f.2>2*° Pounds, except beet sugar in Europe, which.is in metric tons of 2,204.022 pounds
o .Not estimated.
« Official estimates for such parts of British India as return statistics of production.
618 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Sugar production of countries named. 1902-3 to 1906-7 — Continued.
Countrv.
1902-3.
1903-
1904-5.
:
Egypt....
Mauritius.
Reunion..
Total Africa
OCEANIA.
Australian Commonwealth:
Queensland
New South Wales
Fiji
Total Oceania .
Total cane-sugar pro-
duction
Beet -
north america.
Unite 1
Total North America.
ErKOPE.
Austria-Hungary .
Belgium
France
Germany
rlands
Russia
Other cour.:
Ton.-.
■~ ■ I
150.349
39.624
Tons.
00.000
25
41.117
Tons.
60,000
142.101
30,000
Tom.
65.000 i
30. COO I
277.47:
. /
232. 101
-
21.000
35.503
21.500
50,000
. 525
47.000
170.000
20.000
... 1,000
55,725
n
6. 633. 333
.
;
216.173
■
279.393
11.419
201. 47S
57 -
224,090 I
.
102. 411
25 -.
1.167,959
209,811
804.308
. 27 -
1.206.907
441.116
i
598,164
136.551
:-■■"■-:
a -
1,089,684
2.415.136
- 1 -
415.000
Tom.
60.000
205.000
30.000
295,000
24.000
43.000
:
r, 161, 446
11,367
1,335.000
755.000
2.250.000
190.000
1.4.50.000
440,000
Total Europe
561, 257
.333 |
4. 70S. 700
700, 000
Total beet-sugar pro-
duction.
762, 73-5
6. HE
4.932.907
7.2:.
7. 143. 163
Total cane and beet
sugar
12.1S9.017
11.' •■
67,794
14.304.699
STATISTICS OF SUGAK.
619
Quantity and value of sugar imported into thf United States from the principal sources
of supply, 1902-1906.
QUANTITY.
Country from which imported.
Austria-Hungary. .
Belgium
Brazil
British Guiana
British West Indies
Canada
Chinese Empire
Cuba
Danish West Indies
Dutch East Indies.
Dutch Guiana
Egypt
Germany
Mexico
Netherlands
Peru
Philippine Islands. .
Santo Domingo
United Kingdom . . .
Other countries
Total
Imports for year ending June 30 —
1902.
Pounds.
111,818,771
479,655
349,794,400
181, 237, 759
194,909,474
2, 430, 647
2, 397, 107
984,216,925
10,037,082
636,710,315
16,861,587
59,557,384
217, 872, 627
338, 308
8,967,942
102,647,624
11,424,000
111,580,425
11,125,330
11,241,787
1903.
Pounds.
40, 857, 724
74, 159, 889
172,361,345
191,924,220
6,285,045
752, 2S5
2,396,497,779
41,205,950
891,758,090
15,722,225
62, 348, 580
91, 745, 860
2, 414, 373
200,000
88,848,044
18, 773, 333
112,988.775
119,739
7,144.850
1904.
Pounds.
3,525,512
14, ISO, 540
73, 295, 0S9
65,850, 114
4,034,551
4,602,045
2,819,558,402
20, S37, 461
440, 370, 139
6,994,540
22,222,552
5,480.349
1, 250, 252
48,671,777
61,670,614
95,790,189
70
12,382,811
1905.
Pounds.
2, 704. 200
20,820,667
49. 90S. 032
56,015,487
80,553,082
2,153,019
8,351,757
2,057,684,109
12,851,640
899, 394, 575
11,407.700
2,590.230
205.0S4.302
24,049,489
17.7S9.55S
77,997,424
109,111,209
1,541,724
10, 798, 632
3,031,915,575 4,216, 108, 106 3.700,023,013 3,680.932,998
1906.
Pounds.
1,676.257
784,000
28, S77, 781
50,930,124
37,367,355
51,246,131
785, 422
2,781,901,380
17,233,750
781,891,724
2, 427, 536
12, 480, 459
3,540,984
36,371.943
69, 373, 602
96, 845, 109
2, 880, 490
2.717.383
3,979.331,430
VALUE.
Austria-Hungary. . .
Belgium
Brazil
British Guiana
British West Indies.
Canada
Chinese Empire
Cuba
Danish West Indies.
Dutch East Indies..
Dutch Guiana
Egypt
Germany
Mexico
Netherlands
Peru.
Philippine Islands.
Santo Domingo
United Kingdom . .
Other countries
Total.
Dollars.
2, 288, 547
11,097
4,908,735
3.372,104
3,226,575
123, 441
03,429
18, 205, 411
377.581
12,325,518
349, 242
1.351, OSS
3. 597.2:14
9,408
232,963
1,910,311
L88.1S9
2,001,977
192,945
204,872
55,001,097
Dollars.
077, 830
1,176.049
3,333,032
3. 136, 172
256, 894
13,640
42,714,079
705, 587
13,251,810
301,235
1,014,831
1,370,305
103, 439
4,888
1,517,514
270, 729
2,107,428
2,241
131.258
72,08S,973
Dollars.
80, 393
200, 102
1, 428, 433
1,092,663
196,633
123,900
50.547.403
390, 384
7,409,996
134,902
415, 551
117,410
35,998
S00,605
884. 160
1,750,145
4
241,071
71,915,753
Dollars.
79, 403
473, 749
1.206,275
1,460,969
1,020,078
146,644
227,260
64,366,104
382,861
15,611,568
317.s:;7
57, 190
4. 4(13. 237
933,284
1.015. 20S
1,498,399
3,490,933
41,724
243,726
97.045,440
Dollars.
44. 006
19, 672
39S, 153
988, 730
641,489
149,809
19,849
60,208,148
345,972
16,941,593
293,629
1,100,567
121,926
757. 356
1,424,167
1,871,608
62, 974
69, 840
85, 400, 088
_
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.
mat trad*
EM
Belgium
t :
British Guiana
L--..-L '. .-..
China
Cuba
"..- - ... ..
Formosa
Roan
v - '
:•--.:. - .... .t
Fi__T T ." I --iT. .5 . .
Reunion Island.
7r.7_ ..."
::. : ir.-.r.es
I ir. .
Fan.
Fan.
Ian.
Apr.
Apr.
Fan
Fan.
1 in.
FaiL
1 in.
Fan.
Fan.
Jan.
Jan.
' ~r
.Tiir_
Fan.
Povnd-e.
. -
■ - .
...
\ 417 •
-
-
■ -
■ - :
- • . • "
.
■ •-
.' - ■ 174
. -
282 752 '.'
■
. ■■ .,-
492.073. 00
Pounds.
1,50 882,18
. ".
! 283 771
■ • -
28 .
■ "
1 "-. '
1,904,371,1
■ 'J1.149
_
.
258.738.79
217 ■
'. -"
_■■
■
7,792,00
Pov ndf.
■ .
257 .
48,2c J67
282 25,76!
•- C4 ■ _
so,ooo
.- -
. - • - - -:
• i
TA.-- ','
43B,12 ■-
. . .41.034
.... ^
.
■■•
."•-"■
540.-. . • •■
90.4
115,2
180,000
Pound t.
5 .
2 '
. 72 574
80.432,
5;
i
304,193,
■ :
945<?1,9] - .
282 . 115,723,
■
- .
■ ■
7
•v
" 32]
93,931,
;
2
.. 154
72.. VIS.
320,347.
951
964
-
786
400
944
800
176
926
136
.
530
746
928
s>3
273
"■"
056
128
000
T " ... . 12, 072, -534,71 "'"'"-..',..".-- '113.753
IMPORTS.
. : ■
Canada
CiT> ■: ■ ■■'. !.-'•■
C ":...-■
I ^ r\ : •:
Finland
Plane
Fa| in
] ■ " :. : . , -.. . -
:■ ----- . ..:.
y -
r - : -
1 - .--
-■ . ■ - - 04,848;] 47*
-
z
a Average. 19 . I
t Average. 1903-1904.
/ Imports for 1899, latest available returns.
STATISTICS OF SUGAR.
621
Production of sugar in tlie United States and possessions. 1854-5 to 1906-7.
[Census data, as far as available, are given in italics. Beet-sugar production for 1S97-98 from Special
Report of Department of Agriculture; for 1901-2 to 1906-7 from Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in
the United States; for other vears from Willett & Gray. Production of cane sugar in Louisiana for
1904-5 to 1906-7. and of Texas "for 1903-4 to 1906-7, from Willett i Gray; earlier statistics for Louisiana
and other Southern States from Bouchereau. in part taken directly from his reports and in part from
the Statistical Abstract. Porto Rican production of cane sugar for 1S54-55 to 18S4-S5 from Rueb & Co.;
for later vears from 'Willett & Gra v. Statistics for Hawaii, 1874-75 to 1SS0-81, represent exports, from
Bureau of Statistics Bui. 30; for 1881-82 to 18S4-S5 from Rueb & Co. ; for later vears from AVillett & Gray.
Statistics for Philippine Islands for 1S54-55 to 1857-58. 1859-60 to 1806-67, 1872-73 to 1894-95 represent
exports as officially returned, taken from the Census of the Philippine Islands. 1903; for 1858-59, 1867-68
to 1S71-72 from Foreign Markets Bui. 14, representing commercial estimates of exports; for later vears
from Willett & Gray, the statistics for 1895-96 to 1903-4 representing exports, for 1904-5 to 1906-7, pro-
duction. Tons of 2,240 pounds are used throughout.]
Cane sugar.
Year.
Beet
sugar.
1863-64
1864-65
1865-66
1866-67
1867-68
1868-69
1869-70
1870-71
1871-72
1872-73
1873-74
1874-75
1875-76
1876-77
1877-78
1878-79
1879-80
1880-81
1881-82
1882-83
1883-84
1884-85
1885-86
1886-87
1S87-88
1888-89
1889-9o'( Census) .
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
189S-99
1898-99 ( Census) .
1899-1900
1899-1900 ( Cen-
sus)
1900-1
1901-2
1902-3
1902 ( Census)
1903-4
1904-5
1901-5 {Census)...
1905-6
1906-7
Louisiana.
1854-55
Long tons.
1855-56
1856-57
1857-58
1858-59
1859-60
1860-61
1861-62
1862-63
500
700
b 100
200
1,200
500
6 500
535
953
600
800
255
1,861
2,203
3,459
5,356
12,018
19,9o0
20,092
29,^20
37,536
40,3y8
32, 471
72,944
7S,97S
76,859
164, »27
194, 782
Long tons.
171,976
113,647
36,327
137,351
185, 177
113,891
118,332
235,858
43,232
37,723
4,821
8,884
19, 152
18,482
42, 434
44,399
75,392
65,583
55,958
46,090
60,047
72,954
85; 122
65, o71
106,908
8>,s22
121,867
71,3T3
135, 297
128,443
94,376
127,9.58
so.vy.i
157,971
144, 87S
124,772
ISO. 413
215,844
lo0,937
217, o25
2o5.836
317,334
237.721
282. 009
310, 447
2*i,512
248. 658
147,164
142. 485
270,338
321,676
329,226
214,825
216, 173
226. 715
279,393
431,7%
228, 477
335,000
330,000
230,000
Other
Southern
States.
Long tons.
13, 169
9,821
2,673
6,385
S,169
5,149
4,313
5,138
2,768
250
179
348
3,348
4,518
2,567
2,402
4,208
4.217
4,235
2,410
3, 454
4,046
3,879
5,330
5,090
3,980
5,500
5,000
7,000
6,800
6,500
7,200
4,535
9,843
9,031
8,159
4,089
6,107
4,500
5,000
6,854
\2sS
4,973
5,570
5,737
3,442
c 5,266
2.1)27
1,510
2,891
3,614
3,722
Porto
Rico.
Long tons.
58,377
82,000
85,000
69, 444
5S,000
57,000
67,000
68,000
63,000
61,590
63,375
64, 417
68,229
73,935
81,500
102,110
103,304
89,559
87,639
71, 755
72, 128
70,016
62,340
84,347
76,411
57,057
61,715
80,066
77,632
98,665
70,000
64,000
86,000
60.000
62,000
55,000
c 19,800
c 15,000
<• 12,000
<- 13,000
Hawaii.
Philippine
Islands.
Long tons.
50,000
70,000
50,000
60,000
52,500
50,000
58,000
54,000
53,826
35,000
80,000
85,000
85,000
130,000
145,000
11,197
11,639
11,418
17, 157
21,884
28,386
41,870
50,972
51,705
63,948
76,496
96,500
95,000
100,000
120,000
120,000
Long tons.
35,008
47.
36;
26.
50,
49.
45,
60,
51.
44.
46,
40,
55,
74,
68,
78,
87,
95,
99
126
128
121
120
129
178
205
148
193
120
200
182
169
158
224
142
125,000
115,598
140,000
136,689
131,698
201,632
224, 218
204, 833
252, .507
136
248
257
207
336
230
202
178
93
25S,521
94S, 008
321,461
317,509
391,062
328, 103
380, 576
213,000
255,000
383,225
390,000
145
150
Lonq tons.
278,530
252, 865
160,066
240,038
301,441
225, 053
234, 961
369, 953
160, 240
144,288
114,867
114, 6S5
146,324
171,416
195, 719
227,525
270, 769
255,285
232, 197
220,725
273,015
2S7,240
283:911
292, 701
340,270
357,774
436, 960
355, 958
465,860
418,590
449, 322
478, 277
436,234
486, 514
562. 631
452, 68S
400
637
000
m
000
525
500
536, 445
605, 197
681,935
696, 648
865,988
753,546
809,333
793, 415
6S0,758
578,441
S06,949
971,263
1,093,792
i,'66.5; 205
1, 198, 624
1.363,143
i; 470, 296
a Mean annual production; quantity varied from year to year between 300 and 500 tons.
b Production uncertain; not exceeding quantity stated.
c Texas.
622
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Sugar-beet acreage and beet-sugar production in the United States, 1901-2 to 1906-7.
[From reports of Department of Agriculture on Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in the United
States. Full explanations of the table are given in the report for 1'j
State and year.
Facto-
ries in
opera-
tion.
Area
har-
vested.
Aver
age
yield of
beets
per
acre.
Beets
worked.
Sugar
manu-
factured.
Aver-
age
extrac-
tion cf
su^ar.
beets.
age
length
of cam-
1906-7.
California
Colorado
Idaho
Michigan
Nebraska
Utah
Wisconsin.
Nine States hav-
ing oue factory
each
Total or aver-
I
1905-6
1904-5
1903-4
1902-3
1901-2
Xo.
A ores.
60,141
110,943
19,950
93,984
13, 650
24. 10S
Short
tons.
11.17
13.41
11.48
• "7
9.77
15.88
10.19
9. 75
Short
tons.
671,571'
1,487,383
229, 023
805,309
133, 3S7
15S,600
Pounds.
185,480,000
56,798,000
177,214,000
30,754,000
80,848,000
Per
cent.
13. 81
11.24
12.40
11.08
11.53
10. 56
11.10
Per
cent.
16.7
14.7
16.9
14.5
13.7
14.5
13.6
82.7
80.3
83.3
SO. 6
81.8
83.0
36S, 070 06. 524, 000
Days.
115
132
95
85
136
123
83
63
376. 074
11. 26 4, 236. 112 967, 224, 000
82.2
307, 364
197,784
242. .".76
216,400
175, OSS
S.67
10.17
8.56
8.76
9.63
2.665,913
2.071,539
2. 076. 491
1,685,689
iV25.841.22S
484,226,430
436,811,685
369, 211, 733
11.74
15.3
11.69
15.3
11.59
15.1
11.52
14.6
10.95
14.8
83.0
-3.1
(«)
83.3
. _
a No data.
CACAO.
Cacao crop of countries named. 1982-1996.
[This table, taken from the Gordian, Hamburg, purports to cover the entire production of the world.]
Country.
1902.
.
1904. 1905. 1906.O
St. Thomas (Portngues i
Pounds.
■15.000
55,04
41,910.000
35, 1J
1
21,851, 000
5,372,000
13, 173, 000
5, 893. 000
4,13
4.387, 000
5, 192, 000
1.962,000
3, 362, 000
2. 039, 000
1,429,400
1.731.000
Pound*.
47,291,000
51.232.000
45. 720. 000
32, 8 .
17,251,000
27,' "
5,064,000
'■58, 000
6,78
' 787.000
4.795.000
4. 905. 000
3, 215. 000
3. 638. 000
2. 535. 000
1.764.000
1.764.000
Pounds. Pounds.
-".000 46,579.000
51,059.000 | 46,
40,949,000 44.1 33. «»
Pounds.
"1.800,000
54,900,000
60, 4C0. 000
35. 10(1.000
Brazil
Trinidad
M0, 000
88, 76S, 000
12.540,000
13.7.
7.176.000
7.201,000
81.000
1,883.000
13,000
3, 638. 000
2.(378.000
2. 445, 000
1,764.000
1,070.000
510.000
1.764,000
28, 1S5, OCO
25. 795, 000
12.491.000
12, 028. OCO
7.S10.000
0.014.000
5, 160. CC0
3,553,000
3.289,000
3.273.000
2. 646. OCO
8, 613, 000
L 543, 000
1,31a
429. 000
1.764,000
24,300,000
Gold Coast (Lagos)
13,400,000
10,400,000
S. 400, 000
0,600,000
Haiti
5, 500. 000
4.400.000
3, 700, 000
Jamaica
4,900.000
French West Indies
3. 100. 000
3,500,000
1,800.000
Dominica
1,300.000
Koneo Free State
400,000
1, 643,000
1.764,000
1 300,400
Total
266, 625, 000
551,000
323,093,000 311.674.000
326,300,000
i Preliminary estimate.
STATISTICS OF TEA.
623
Cacao consumption of countries named. 1902-1906.
[From the Gordian, Hamburg.]
Count rv.
United States
Germany
France
England
Netherlands (net imports)
Spain
Switzerland
Belgium
Aust ria-Hunga ty
Russia
Denmark
Italy
Sweden
Canada
Australia
Norway
Portugal
Finland
Pounds.
50. 073. COO
45.419.000
42,644,000
44.943.000
20, 2-2-2. 000
20.415.000
12,582,000
5.021.000
4,013.000
4. Ojs. (XX)
1,768.000
1,028,000
1.304.000
689.000
1,223.000
904.000
248.000
104.000
Pounds.
62,850.000
47. aso. 000
45, 500. 000
38.550.000
23.657.000
13,242,000
12,911.000
6', 102. 000
4.4^" I 0
4,190.000
2,535.000
1.032.000
1,708,000
1.291.000
979.000
970.000
301.000
135.000
Pounds.
73.104.000
59,748,000
48. 000. 000
45,311.000
20.802.000
12,370,000
" 7t
6,155.000
5.534.000
4.532.000
2. I! 6,000
1.057.000
1,920,000
1.433,000
1.213.000
1.041.000
397,000
139.000
Pounds.
77.070.000
65.330.000 .
47.945.000
.XXI
23,672,
13.452.000
11,505
6,656,000 I
5.8S3,000
4,917,000
2,480,000
2.142.000
1,984,000
1,543.000
1.323.000
1.089,000
304.000
132.000
Total I 257.50S.000 ' 267.S1S.000
Pounds.
7.V4S0.O0O
75.40O.0CO
51.200,000
40.960.000
24.090,000
13.070.000
14.110.000
■0.000
6,610,000
5.510.000
2.050.000
2.430.000
2.210,000
1,650,000
1.430.000
1.210,000
330.000
140.000
306.150.000 313,958.000 : 335.S00.000
a Preliminary estimate.
TEA.
International trade in tea. 1901-1906. a
EXPOS - -
Country.
British India
Ceylon
China
Dutch East Indies.
Formosa
Japan
Singapore
Other countries
Year
begin-
ning-
Apr.
; Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Total.
1901.
1802
1903.
1904.
Pounds.
182,997,444
144.27
154.399.007
17.298.690 i
19.926.072
- 1 . 077
2.222.00;
3,891,000
568,991,625
Pounds.
183,985,406
!
202.561.467
15,637,322
43. 334. 372
1.903, S67
4,437,000
624.5S2.OO0
Pounds.
209.599.041
149.227.236
223,670,667
21.333.166
1,955,067
4.692.000
1S05.
Pounds.
215. > v
157,929,342
193,4!
2ti.0ll.407
21.735.027
47.1' •
2.752.-. 33
5.428.000 i
Pounds.
229,147.998
170. 183, 572
182.573.007
- I
23.779.542
3--. 566, 526
2 . -
64,612.000
2,285,544
670.147.1S2 077.215.101
IMPORTS.
Argentina
Australia
Austria-Hungary. .
British India. ..'....
Canada
Cape of Good Hope.
Chile
Dutch East Indies.
France
French Indo-China.
Germany c
Netherlands
New Zealand
Persia
Russia.
Singapore
United Kingdom.
United States
Other countries. .
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Apr.
July
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Mar.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
July
Total .
1,648,156
27,018.196
2.257.092
3,386,557
19.530,654
3,169,031
1.924.379
4.000.900
1,899,974
2. , 85, 335
7. 275. 253
7,956,562
I ■
d 6, 353, 224
125.924.142
4,179,333
252.003.527
75. 579. 125
12.305.000
505. 425. 050
1.652.S23
24.S22.544
2,258,194
3.921.503
23. 909.371
4,512,958
1,883,307
4,218,013
2,084,587
2. 90S. 707
7.501.607
7.989,226
d0. 353. 224
135, • . "
4.201.21X1
108,574,905
17,169,000
612.654.S79
1,798.310
24. 710. 420,
2.30.4.457
4,817
31,360,014
793,311
1,977,766
4;45S
2 2 ;
2)947
6. So
7,92
5.232.721
6,922.170
132.070.193
4,243,467
27.020
112,905.541
15,884,000
2,314,238
28,353,903
2.7'
5. 520. 043
25.0 ;
3.254.29S
2,427,520
6 4,1'
2,348 152
3.034.445
6,900.908
9,090,607
5,906,653
i 6, 353, 224
8112,584,435
6 4. 30
207.U97.32S
21,750
b 14, lil, 000
633, 701. OSS 017.099.936 600,710.016
2,418,217
i
5. 135. 126
20.314.242
3. 322. 815
1,760,302
4.044.S20
2,446,200
3,436,080
1 -
794,20$
5. 225. oos
5.7S4.277
121,648,892
4.602.533
270.514.472
11,025,000
n See " General note. " d. 546.
b Average, 1901-1904.
cNot including free ports.
d Average, 1903-1904.
« Preliminary figures.
624
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
COFFEE.
International trade in coffee, 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
Country.
Year
begin-
ning—
1901.
1902.
1903.
1905.
Brazil
British India
Colombia *
Costa Rica
Dutch East Indies.
Guatemala
Haiti
Jamaica
Mexico
Netherlands
Nicaragua
Salvador
Singapore
United States
Venezuela
Other countries
Total.
Jan.
Apr.
Jan.
•-Sept.
Jan.
Jan.
« Oct.
Apr.
J illy
Jan.
Jan.
July
Jan.
July
July
rounds.
1,952.404,204
28,564,704
55,000,000
36,539,460
72.185,647
75,414,600
58,123,824
11,551,557
48,949,705
164,050,182
12,963,920
50,101,756
9,621,067
27,532,353
6108,000,000
30,107,000
2,741,109,979 2,565,188,316
rounds.
1.740.434.770
30,146,480
60,000,000
30,311,568
115,448,887
85,674,400
64,428,104
12,079,872
41,837,859
168,524,286
19,628,876
41,iil9,090
12,355,333
29,768,945
71,206,846
41,723,000
Pounds.
1,709,984,152
32.620,448
100,000,000
38,211,860
116,334,830
63,150,500
47,853.529
8,966,832
40,698,861
181.1
18,431,643
58,097,158
15,125,067
32,614,390
125,582,423
35,375,000
2,624,243,479 2,278,346,148
Pounds.
1,326,027,795
36,920,464
130,000,000
27.730,672
77.168,254
71,653,700
81,407,346
5 781,440
d 41,855.368
166,468,567
21,661,621
75,314,003
10,638,667
Id. 109,251
6 128,000,000
1. 1.1.09,000
Pounds.
1,431,328,038
40,340,384
70,000,000
39,788,002
72, 864, 649
81,081,600
45,244,232
9,046,464
d 42,456,491
148,744,186
18,171,515
61,822,223
f 11,935,034
29,184,504
94,370,090
e 42, 204, 000
2,238,581,412
IMPORTS.
Argentina
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
Cape of Good Hope. .J
Cuba
Denmark
Egypt
Finland
France
Germanv/
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Russia
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom . .
United States
Other countries
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Julv
71
18
20
20
10
19
185
380
35
261
27
20
9
22
68
20
31
1,091
684,999
056,753
971,468
060,924
611,122
873,301
694,613
565,782
780,736
935,533
059,001
942,004
441,922
553,961
624,533
995,484
455, 09S
712,644
568,658
004.2.52
660,000
12,117,
99,434,
69,660,
25, 818 i
21,133,
23, 381 i
13,991,
22,130,
189,253,
379,945,
35,846,
291,984,
28,340.
21,483.
1.3,046,
20,419,
\ 555
22,313,
62,344,
915,086,
61,248,
621
846
936
323
898
119
78S
291
397
s7.S
933
983
658
649
soo
436
1.32
200
279
380
000
18,502,868
104,200,357
51,859,425
20,979,803
17,218,114
24,369,892
13, 196, 168
25,598,739
246,122,708
403,070,820
38,934,065
259,525,128
27,996,473
21,320,455
14,958,400
21,851,660
68,349,071
23,671.026
51,017,884
995,043.284
78,221,000
Total 2,479,252,848 2,386,537,567 2,526,007,340 2.478,902,977 2.258, 14S. 110
I
16
108,
154,
19,
20,
25,
12,
23,
168,
39S,
39,
193,
23,
20,
9,
39,
1.047,
51,
931,049
701,092
387,057
448,590
716,876
552,671
7S9,537
291,871
198,472
486,529
087,728
836,257
699,731
976,264
174,666
000, 781
623,344
.H.2.322
508,156
792,984
137,000
18,516,812
107,106,048
100,032,285
21,136,170
e 19,920,002
25,348,744
13,996,858
25,743,433
200,594,621
398,491,379
d 41,285,969
206.246,193
25,298,346
d 21,559,342
11,701,100
'21,816,840
66, 417,080
20,958,680
493,275
851,6*8,933
'59,816,000
« See " General note.'- p. 546.
t> Estimated.
'Year preceding.
d Preliminary figures.
t Average. 1901-1904.
/ Not including free ports
TRADE IX OIL CAKE AXD OIL-CAKE MEAL.
625
OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL.
lulu' national trade in oil cake and oil-rake meal, 1901-1906.**
EXPORTS.
Country.
Year
begin-
ning-
1901.
1902.
1903.
Argentina Jan.
Austria-Hungary Jan.
Belgium Jan.
Canada July
China Jan.
Denmark Jan.
Egypt Jan.
France Ian.
Germany & Jan.
Italy . . ." Jan.
Netherlands Jan.
Russia Jan.
United Kingdom '■ Jan.
United States July
Other countries
Pounds.
20,518.417
59.327,039
132; 103, 005
20, 745, 648
89,672,067
7,522,545
107,812,630
242,983,580
299,993.939
26,508,816
154,833.546
850,865.092
53,146.240
1,048,093,619
7,298,000
Pounds.
18,984,000
64,246,433
128,843,692
28,830,032
89,672,067
4,045,586
130,544,487
325,807,127
328,769,320
24,908,481
139,814,583
850,095,204
53,146,240
1,679,394,359
11,491,000
Pounds.
19, 989. SOS
88,614. 7vl
137,086,773
29,002,1.24
89,672,067
8,682,295
156,944,836
314,693,035
375,254,222
19,627.750
136,734,208
1,028,500,994
53.146,240
1,503, 232, 6S0
14,337,000
1904.
Pounds.
29.019,439
92.352.93S
145,834,669
10,115,392
83,999.467
4,417.928
160, 794; 106
351.62S.964
436,964,238
24,696,396
154,525,289
1,084,331,094
48,462,400
l.S94,577,648
26,149,000
1905.
Pounds.
29,277,380
77,134,433
160,163,061
26,227.370
95,344,667
5,676,571
147,961,001
339,529,396
397,800,450
c 24, 425, 228
143,290,470-
0 977,465,158
57,830,080
1,918,171,984
'■26,149.000
Total 3,721,424,183 3,878^352,617 3,975,498,813 4,547,868,968 4,426,446,255
i \__^ I I 1 I
IMPORTS.
Austria-Hungary Jan.
Belgium Jan.
Canada July
Denmark Jan.
Dutch East Indies Jan.
Finland Jan.
France Jan.
Germany 6 Jan.
Italy Jan.
Japan | Jan.
Netherlands Jan.
Sweden I Jan.
United Kingdom Jan.
Other countries
16,879,909
! 322,9
7,683.200
j 524,125.732
17.963,013
10,405,942
'■ 255.172.170
11,180,863,666
12,593,462
78,582,800
I 429,765,565
: 119,861,354
, 842.437,120
18,751,000
7,656,432
353.641.510
3,521,616
054,111,347
15,691,801
12,594.155
238,507,6S1
1.074,490,055
7,909,522
55,550,267
461,479,090
142,046,653
861,678,720
21,898,000
Total 3,838,033,859 3.910,777,449
21,750,589
421. 090. 899
3,808,224
776,875,723
15,977,041
7,205,192
279,9S0,299
1,108,3"" 853
9,645.221
71,402,S00
476,967,295
163,933.913
811,798,400
25,702,000
27,340,
445,202.
3.953.
757,481,
31,004,
13,948,
292,015,
1,231,409.
6,525;
73,540,
495,92L
219,913,
823,934;
54. 076.
840
134
370
664 I
951 !
954
079 I
255
902 I
133
130 !
686 I
720
000
26,
44S,
2
840 ',
20,
11,
323,
1,285,
c5,
101,
510,
226.
797,
<*54,
469,794
216,564
308,432
119 71.5
159, 201
179,475
719,234
529,859
209,963
574,267
951,427
374,498
368,320
070, 000
4,195,099.440 4,476,267,824 4,653,256,749
0 Pee " General note" p. 546.
l> Not including free ports.
c Preliminary figures.
•1 Figures for 1904 used.
RES1X.
International trade in resin. 1901-1906.a
EXTORTS.
Country.
ginning— 190K 1902- 1903- 1904-
1905.
Austria- II ungarv
Germany b
Netherlands
United States
Other coimtries
Pound'. < Pounds. ' Pounds. Pounds.
Jan. 1 , 3.621,312 ; 3.378.583 3,327,436 3,627,485
Jan. 1 j 42.257.533 1 33.756.511 44. .552, 705 45.017,597
Jan. 1 65.473.834 74.850.747 0,3.038.801 83.943.225
July l| 710.069,360| 671.019,440 723,830.24a 646.877,000
i 252,000 288,000, 373,000 338,000
Pounds.
3. 372. 410
46,370.255
58,544.509
682,795,1 30
c 177, 000
Total
821. 074. 039 7n3.299.2S1 S35. 122.242 780.403.507 i 791.259.854
" See 'General note," p. 540.
3 a 1906 40
i» Not including free ports.
c Preliminary figures.
02G
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
International trade in resin, 1901-1906 — Continued.
IMPORTS.
Country.
Argentina
Austria-Hungary.
Brazil
a
Chile
Cuba
Denmark
Finland
France
Italy
Japan
Netherlands
Russia
Servia
Spain
D
Switzerland
United Kingdom.
Uruguay
Other coin:'. I
Year be-
ginning-
Total.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
July
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
July
1901.
1902.
Ponnd.--.
- -IS, 335
56, 651
14,8
1,57
2.:
2,4
3, 019.50)
1.023. 414
235. 12.-.. 141
30.97
3. :
66. i
8>157
-
5 - -
1J4.034.400
i
3,367,000
1903.
Pounds.
18.292,214
58,450,261
- " i
--
- -
3,071,429
1,007,995
29,474,694
I
94,202,987
t5, 531 . 334
5,399,144
11.123.176
I
5,4! •
4.316.000
Pounds.
19,761,229
72,122,004
•
1,630,318
25,020,035
■
1S3.607.872
4. 390. 394
1904.
K05.
Pounds.
27,
19,1
2, 135. 176
3,38
463,167
I
65,4
4,887
3,98
13,44
10, 101
199,577
9. -68. COO
Pounds.
20, 409, 438
27 -.1.136
-
2.0 :5. 007
-
5,1
■5,556
7,894, MB
t> 5, i
11,4
177,0
» 7, 418, 000
" • 756,990,550 780, J
-
.
a Preliminary figures.
I Average, 1901-1904.
e Not in< hiding bee ports.
<l Including turpentine.
< Average, 1901-1903.
SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE.
International trad'' in spirits of turpentine, 1901-19Q€.a
E XI' OKI'S.
Country.
Year be-
ginning-
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
July
1
1
1
1
1
Gallons.
833,927
565, 179
941.527
1,48
19. !
60.31S
Gallons.
1,288,879
1.516,096
16,378,787
Gallons.
1,97*
'612,058
9SS,059
1,887
Gallons.
1,41
569,650
2,163,750
15, 8
-
Gsllons.
3,179.105
520, 750
Russia
United States
2.507,833
15,9
Total
23,062,178
20,672
22,738,297
21,076,984
23,237,930
IMPORTS.
Dtina
Australia
Canada
Chile
Germ, an \-6
Italy..."
Netherlands
New Zealand
Russia
Sweden
Switzerland Jan
United Kingdom Jan.
Other count riea
Jan. 1
July 1
.1 an". 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
J an. 1
Jan. 1
1
1
Total.
5!
875. 061
78, 87 I
8, 435. 772
!
-
a
140,774
-
9.701.051
515.546
213,099
941,003
69,044
8,077,490
663, 193
3.245.616
130, 881
142,741
124,723
313,363
22, 524, 131
276, 360
I
8,300,249
69, 596
201, 133
126. 194
8,012,184
493, 579
344. S77
963,138
816,629
2,220,156
372.367
7.907.418
290,192
■
134.191
S.53'3.910
153.999
190.595
li5,383
c 500, 376
22,270,002
a Sec " General note," p. 540.
i> Not including free ports.
c Preliminary figures.
TEADE IX FOREST PRODUCTS.
627
INDIA RUBBER.
International trade in india rubber. 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
Pounds.
AngoIa& Jar.. 1 5.000,000
Belgium Jar.. 1
Bot.via Jan. 1 7
Brazil Jan. 1
Dutch East Indies Jan. 1
Ecuador Jan. 1
France Jan. 1 0,000,033
French Jan. I
French E Jan. 1
Germany <• Jan. 1' 11,050,068
Gold Coast Colony. .. . Jan. 1 j 1,520,009
IvorvCcasr Jan. 1: :
Kanierun Jar.. 1 1,115,334
Kongo Free SI in. 1 I
Netherlands Jan. 1
Pern I Jan. 1
Senegal ' Jan. 1
Singapore Jan. 1 I
rn Nigeria -
rate Jan. 1
Venezuela J uly 1 / :
Other countries
Total 150,100,054
1902.
190:.
1901.
1905.
Pound*.
3,600,000 ;
13,0
i
- - ,000 j
1,5-
13.743,023
-•.974 '
2,01
920, 533
i
1
Pounds.
6,000,000
14,1 ■
69,'.'. .
1,090,988
6,390,101
-
b 13,350,000
231,008
4,64S
57
1,441,200
1,177 •
J,7
" '70,000
Pounds.
6,000,000
Id,:
4,91
3,590,439
6,6 -. -7
- :
10,07
V'
■
1,920,354
b 10,040,000
3, '
2..
3,026,133
2.40S,92fi
-
8,921,000
Pounds.
5,200,000
14,993
10,7
28 22
■
7.105
3,687
•;,030
2,141,777
10,7-
~ 0,814
4,290,160
d 1,631,933
- $42,831
2,876,110
"Jo.OOO
141,909,029 15S,324,1S2
171,S06,6S3 I ISO, 636,591
IMPORTS.
Jan. 1
Belgium Jan. 1
Canada July 1
France Tah. 1
Germany c ,Tan. 1
Italy Jan. 1
Netherlands Tan. 1
Russia Jan. 1
I Kingdom 1 an. 1
United States July 1
Other countries
Total
.294
7". -
-
11,79;
I
12,11 -~
19,34
a
12,061,674
1,550,022
•
10,9G0,379
55,010,571
3,020,000
i
16,977,346
. 782
I
3,920,000
.058,661 194,091,050 , 206,293,794
-
14,011,04!)
7a
i. 174,451
22,140,043
!
8,091,000
3,02
19,69
47, :
M,i-
» 13,' 172
29, (
A 0,926 tOO
a See ••General not:." p. 516.
» Estimated.
e Exoorts in 1
1901-1904.
« Not including free ports.
A Exports in 1902.
' 1-1905.
A Prelrr;.
"WOOD PULP.
national trade in wood pulp. 1001-1906.a
EXPORTS.
-
Belgium
Finland
Germany c
Norway
Sweden ,
Switzerland
United Sta
Other connl
Total. .
Jan.
Jan.
July
Jan".
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
July
Pounds.
176,960,000
58,016.833
136,071.573
-
- a
974,000
Pounds.
98,::..
57, 5S5,05>
309,120,000
57,000,121
;4,254
• 1,986
12,111
12,550,693
22, i
511,000
Pounds.
105.s74.7-7
J, 478
.000
"_
987,10".
790,80
j "
30.2' I, e
50,'».
Poun l»,
369. GOO, 000
130,027,777
155,086,119
981,029,727
- i "
7
Pounds.
252,529
"1,000
133,4"
■
14,004,420
5,19ii,000
1,934, 455, 9SS 2,302,15-3,400 2,499,135,636 2,759,086,460 2,740,159,963
a See ' ' General note," p. 546.
b Estimated.
'Not including free ports.
628
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
International trade ir, Ip, 1901—1906 — Continued.
IMP'
Country.
I
ginning—
1901.
1902.
Arg lltiDa
A f-:r. .-':. .-■ .:.
Belgium
Fraric*-
—
Japan
Russia.
SpiiiE
Sweden
.-•- .::■ -. :.':
Vr..-- •: y z-i- . -... .
:■
0:;.-t : _-:.-.■ r . . .
Fan.
Jan.
ran.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Julv
Pound*.
13,4
12.'
1
33,;. 1 322
•""
132, 4 •
3,87* 74
i
53
. -:- -
-A 911
1903.
1304.
1905.
Pound*.
' ' -
j •
183'-:-! ■
• '■
! '
." .
:
-
•
73.125,213
5,464,912
I
" ■-
3 -13,440
5,99
Pound*. !
. •"■
4,961,343
159,201
6L63t
420.541,612
91,195 " .
1 .
" 29,301
S TO. 926
' 57 72
10,344
-■ 2 ■
.4 4
12
Pounds.
35,123,171
: . ■
" - ■
-
405,941,055
S5,24 13
22 72
i .
■
1,22 ' .
5
- ■ 0
Pound*.
886. 404
4,702,018
174,530,000
07,310,417
490.998,886
748,067
i-93.7 " 2
22,769.993
t44;
59,570,926
579,205
19,6*
352,181,760
947.000
Total 69,782,67* 26,792,920 2,5 2,786,079,125 2, 75f 335,049
-
*• Preliminary figures.
BILK.
med, 1901—1905.
[Baton Silk Manufacturers" Association of 1
-
Italy
Aastria^llungary .
. - .
Pound-t.
717,000
:
Anatolia
-"-_;■• -zj.:- .:.-..'-. :r.:-.r. :■: -•-...
Ba_;
Greece and I Crete
■eaaoa
Persia and
922. 000
-
T tal.
. -
■
Eipoi
. ... 7,00
Total
- --
-
Pound*.
I 257 0
172.000
7,774,000
190, D00
0 I
Pounds.
■
170.000
894,000
11.793.00 5,00 13.045.0
■
419. 000
287 •
1.025.000
1.124.000
547,00
300.000
1.090.000
•
14:1,000
794,000
' ■
: "
I i
-
- '
-
9, 7 • ■
1.393.000
172,000
761,000
4.705,000 I
650,000
_- "-■ 0
181,000
T. .
12.114.Ctt3
. ■
•
4)9.000
155.000
1,014,000
>. 841. 000
4.409.000
10,183,000
393 0 617,000
24,050,008
' «i ' 41.513.000
a Exports fiom Bombay included for the first tune in
STATISTICS OF BEANS.
629
BEANS.
Wholesale prices of beans per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
Date.
1902.
January
February...
March..
April
May
June
July
August
September. .
October
November. .
December. . .
1903.
January
FebAiary...
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. .
October
November. .
December.. .
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July ,
August
September. . .
October
November. ..
December. . .
1905
January. . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October...
November.
December. .
1906.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. ..
October
November...
December. ..
Boston.
Pea.
Low.
$1.80
1.80
1.70
1.60
1.75
1.65
1.80
1.95
l.wO
2.15
2.35
2.30
2.40
2.35
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.35
2.30
2.20
2.30
2.25
2.15
2.10
2.00
2.00
1.95
1.95
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.75
1.85
1.80
1.72)
1.75
1.75
1.80
1.75
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.65
1.55
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.55
1.50
1.55
1.60
1.50
High.
$2.05
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.90
1.70
2.15
2.10
2.00
2.55
2.45
2.40
2.45
2.40
2.30
2.30
2.35
2.35
2.35
2.30
2.40
2.40
2.20
2.15
2.10
2.20
2.20
2.00
2.00
1.95
1.80
1.90
1.90
1.95
1.85
1.80
1.75
2.00
1.97
1.80
1.80
1.90
1.90
1.85
1.75
1.75
1.85
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.60
1.65
1.70
1.72
1.62
1.60
1.55
1.65
1.65
1.55
Cincinnati.
Pea.
Low. | High.
$2.60
2.60
2.60
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.30
2.25
2.20
2.25
$2.70
2.70
2.70
2.70
2.60
2.60
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.40
2.40
Navy.
2. 40 2. 50
2.25
2.30
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
2.05
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
1.65
2.50
2.40
2.40
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.10
2.10
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
Chicago.
Detroit.
Pea.
Pea,
Low.
$1.40
1.40
1.20
.85
1.50
1.50
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.78
2.15
2.15
1.25
1.20
1.25
.90
.90
1.25
1.20
1.15
1.50
1.05
1.05
1.35
1.00
1.25
1.25
1.00
1.10
1.10
1.10
1.10
.90
.90
1.10
1.20
1.25
1.00
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.25
1.20
1.25
1.25
1.40
1.40
High.
Low.
1.40
1.37
1.35
1.10
1.20
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.39
1.40
1.40
1.35
$1.83
1.75
1.65
1.80
1.85
1.70
1.90
1.96
1.90
2.49
2.30
2.30
2.40
2.30
2.25
2.20
2.30
2.35
2.23
2.25
2.50
2.25
2.15
2.00
1.90
2.05
2.05
1.85
1.80
1.78
1.70
1.65
1.65
1.75
1.70
1.70
High.
1.62
1.85
1.80
1.70
1.70
1.75
1.78
1.72)
1.68
1.65
1.70
1.70
1.62
1.58
1.55
1.62
1.62
1.65
1.04
1.58
1.53
1.48
1.46
1.45
$1.60
1.53
1.28
1.28
1.56
1.48
1.60
1.63
1.75
1.70
1.66
1.74
2.24
2.10
2.10
1.88
2.07
2.20
2.10
1.91
2.10
1.90
1.90
1.82
1.75
1.74
1.70
1.70
1.70
1.60
1.60
1.61
1.65
1.58
1.58
1.56
1.52
1.70
1.66
1.62
1.65
1.66
1.55
1.50
1.49
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.45
1.40
1.44
1.48
1.48
1.50
1.41
1.30
1.37
1.34
1.27
$1.79
1.62
1.51
1.62
1.75
1.60
1.90
1.90
1.85
1.98
1.88
1.81
2.35
2.23
2.16
2.10
2.35
2.25
2.21
1.96
2.35
2.28
2.00
1.90
1.77
1.98
1.95
1.80
1.87
1.70
1.61
1.78
San Francisco.
Lima
(percwt.).
1.72
1.64
1.62
1.65
1.85
1.77
1.75
1.68
1.09
1.68
1.63
1.65
1.63
1.68
1.65
1.61
1.55
1.47
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.52
1.50
1.44
1.40
1.37
1.30
Low.
$4.40
4.40
4.35
3.30
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.80
3.70
4,10
4.20
4.25
Small
2.90
2.90
3.00
3.00
2.90
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.85
3.00
2.75
2.40
2.75
2.80
2.85
2.90
2.95
2.90
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
2.75
3.00
3.00
2.75
2.75
High.
$4.65
4.60
4.40
3.60
3.80
3.85
3.85
4.10
3.90
4.35
4.50
4.55
white.
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.30
'3.25
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.25
3.25
3.15
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.10
3.15
3.10
3.05
3.00
3.00
3.10
3. 32*
3.30
3.30
3.30
3.30
3.45
3.45
3.40
3.50
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.60
3.15
3.20
630
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
CLOVER AND TIMOTHY SEED.
Wholesale prices of clover seed (60 pounds to the bushel), 1902-1906.
Cincinnati.
Chicago.
Toledo.
Detroit.
Date.
Prime (per
100 pounds).
Poor to choice
(per 100
pounds) .
Prime (per
bushel;.
Per bushel.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
nigh.
Low.
High.
1902.
88.66
S.65
8.00
7.10
C.85
6.86
6. 85
7.10
7.10
7.50
7.50
8.35
Perb
5.25
G.OO
6.25
6.00
5.40
5.40
S9.ee
9.20
9.20
S.35
7.50
7.30
7.50
8.35
8.35
8.75
9.20
9.20
ushel.
6.50
6.50
7.10
6.90
7.00
6.00
S7.00
6.50
6.00
4.00
5.50
6.00
6.00
6.00
7.00
7.00
8.00
8.00
8.50
9.25
5.00
8.00
8.00
8.00
8.50
5.00
6.00
4.00
6.00
G.OO
G.OO
6.00
7.50
6.00
6.00
7.00
S.OO
9.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
(
S.OO
9.00
9.00
S.OO
8.00
S.OO
9.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
9.50
7.00
6.50
7.00
7.00
7.00
8.00
8.00
8.00
8.50
810. 00
9.70
9.00
8.35
8.35
8.35
8.40
9.10
9.50
11.35
11.15
10.90
1J.90
11.90
12.50
12.25
12.50
11.75
12.50
12.50
11.00
11.50
11.00
11.25
11.50
11.25
11.05
11.00
10.75
10.75
11.25
12.75
12.50
12.25
12.25
13.00
13.00
12.50
13.75
14.40
13.50
13.00
13.00
13.00
12.25
13.25
13.25
13.25
13.25
14.15
14.00
13.50
11.50
11.25
11.25
12.50
12.75
13.00
13.40
14.00
S4.25
4.95
4.30
3.90
3.90
4.00
4.10
4.20
4.25
4.70
4.75
5.50
4.40
5.25
4.00
3.60
4.00
6.00
6.40
4.85
4.00
3.75
3.40
3.05
3.10
4.00
2.50
3.00
3.00
2.50
3.00
5.70
3.60
3.00
3.30
3.62J
3.25
4!6o
3.00
3.00
3.50
5.50
5. 75
4.00
3.00
3.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
4.00
3.30
3.25
3.00
5.00
5.25
4.50
3.50
3.60
3.50
3.00
$6.15
5.80
5.65
5.30
5.22*
5.25"
5.30
5.60
5.65
7.00
7.10
6.85
7.421
7.25"
7.42J
7.621
7.70
6.75
7.10
7.10
6.65
6.80
6. 82 J
7.05"
7.07.'.
7.024
7.15
6.621
6.35"
6.25
6. 60
7.(0
7.45
7.521
7.70"
7.95
8.00
7.60
8.20
8.85
8.00
7.40
7.50
7.50
7.45
8.22J
8.121
8.30
8.35
8.721
8.40
7.85
6.80
6.90
7.10
7.35
S.10
8.50
8.30
8.471
§5.70
5.55
5.10
4.C0
5.00
$6. 10
5.80
5.55
5.20
5.20
Not quoted.
July
Not quoted.
Not quoted.
5.15
5.15
5.35
5.60
7.25
7.00
0.95
6.ro
7.50
5. SO
5.T0
5.65
5.(0
1903.
• 7.30
7.10
7.40
7.25
7.50
Not quoted.
Julv
Not quoted.
Not quoted.
5.00
5.25
5.25
5.25
5.75
5.75
5.75
5.50
4.80
4.80
4.80
4.80
6.00
5.50
5.50
5.50
6.40
6.40
G.40
6.40
6.25
6.25
6.25
5.70
5.70
.5.60
G.OO
6.25
6.25
6.90
6.50
5.00
5.00
5.00
6.50
G.50
6.75
6.50
7.50
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.75
7.75
6.75
6.75
Not quoted.
6.45
6.50
6.80
6.75
6.75
6.20
6.20
6.30
6.90
6.60
6.95
1904.
7.00
6.90
7.10
6.55
6.35
Julv
6.25
6.50
7.05
7.30
7.35
7.70
7.45
7.40
7.55
8.00
7.00
6. SO
7.50
7.45
7.55
7.65
7.95
1905.
7.90
7.55
8.15
April
8.75
May
8.00
5.70
5.70
6.50
6.50
6.50
6.50
6.50
G.OO
G.OO
4.50
4.50
4.50
5.00
5.00
7.00
7.00
6.00
7.00
7.00
7.50
7.50
7.50
7.50
7.50
6.50
5.50
6.00
7.00
7.00
7.25
7.50
7.50
6.30
7.50
7.95
8.00
8.10
8.20
7.30
6.25
6.25
6.65
6. 65
7.00
7.30
7.95
8.00
8.20
7.40
8.25
S.10
8.15
1906.
8.30
8.70
8.35
7.80
6.75
0.75
Julv
6.95
7.50
7.90
8.30
8.25
8.40
a Poor to prime.
STATISTICS OF TIMOTHY AND CLOVER SEED. 631
Wholesale prices of timothy seed {45 pounds to the bushel), 1902-1006.
Date.
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December. .
January. . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December. .
January
February . .
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October...
November.
December. .
January. . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December. .
January. . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December..
1902.
1904.
1905.
Cincinnati.
Per 100 pounds
Low. High
January SO. 10
February 6.10
March I 6. 10
April | 0. 40
May.
3.90
3.80
3.30
3.40
3.40
$6. 40
6.40
0.40
G.G0
4.40
4.00
3.65
3.65
3.65
Per bushel.
1.55
1.55
1.45
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.25
1.25
1.20
1.20
1.25
1.25
1.20
1.20
1.20
1.20
1.20
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.20
1.20
1.20
1.20
1.40
1.35
1. 35
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.35
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.70
1.70
1.65
1.50
1.50
1.60
1.50
1.50
1.40
1.40
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.35
1.35
1.25
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.30
1.45
1.60
1.55
1.40
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.45
1. 80
1.80
1.80,
1.80
1.80
1.85
Chicago.
Per 100 pounds.
Low. Iligh.
$5.00
5.00
5.00
4.50
5.00
4.50
4.50
3.25
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.50
2. .00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.75
1.75
2.50
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.25
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.75
1.75
1.75
$6.55
6.60
7.00
7.10
7.35
6.35
5.75
5.75
4.75
4.20
4.25
4.25
4.35
4 35
3. »5
3.70
3.75
4.00
3.65
3.40
3.40
3.173
3.00
3.05
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.00
3.05
3.05
3.25
3.05
3.00
2.75
2.70
2. 72i
1
2.00
2.25
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.50
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
2.00
2.25
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.50
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.25
Milwaukee.
Per 100 pounds
Low. High.
(a)
2.80
2.92.
3.10
3.10
3.10
3.00
3.30
3.60
3.75
3.40
3.50
3.50
3.40
3.35
3.25
3.20
3.35
4.25
4.25
4.10
4.30
4. 25
4.40
4.50
$5.50
5.50
5.50
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.00
3.75
2.75
2.50
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
2.25
2.35
2.60
2.50
2.50
2.30
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.50
2.00
2.00
2.25
2.25
2.00
2.50
2.25
2.10
2.10
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.50
2.50
2.25
2.25
2.35
2.70
2.40
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.60
2.40
2.45
2.60
2.70
3.25
3.15
10
10
10
3.
3.10
$6.25
6.25
0.60
6.75
6.75
6.25
5.75
5.00
4.10
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.25
2.90
3.35
3.35
3.25
3.25
3.00
2.85
2.75
3.15
3.15
3.15
2.90
2.90
2.90
3.00
3.00
3.00
2.80
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.90
2.90
2.90
2.90
2.95
3.50
3.40
3.50
3.10
3.10
3.10
2.80
2.75
2.80
2. 95
4.00
4.00
3. 75
3.75
3.75
3.75
4.25
St. Louis.a
Per 100 pounds.
Low. High.
$6.30
5.75
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4 40
3.00
2.40
2.80
2. SO
2.90
3.00
2.75
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.40
2.75
2.50
2.48
2.20
2.25
2.25
2.50
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.40
2.40
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.60
2.60
2.50
2.50
2.40
2.40
3.00
3. CO
3.60
3.25
3. 25
3.25
" Poor to prime.
632
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS.
[Figures furnished by the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, except where otherwise
credited. All prices on gold basis.]
Live stock of countries named.
[Africa incompletely represented, through lack of statistics for large areas. Number of animals in
China, Persia, Afghanistan, Korea, Bolivia, Ecuador, Salvador, and several less important countries
unknown. For Brazil number of cattle alone estimated, but roughly. In general, statistics of cattle,
horses, sheep, and swine much more complete than those of other animals, as statements for the world.]
Year.
Cattle.
Total.
Dairy
cows.
Horses. Mules. Sheep.
1 1
Swine.
NORTH AMERICA.
United States:
Contiguous —
On farms
Not on farms . . .
Noncontiguous —
Alaska a
Hawaii «
Porto Rico
1907
1900
1900
1900
1899
1905
1905
1900
1900
1900
1900
1901
1898
1904
72,534.000
1.010,422
18
102.908
200,225
20.908.000
973,033
13
4.028
73,372
19.747.000 3.817,000 53.240,000
2,930.881 173.908 231,301
12,982 0,506 102, 09S
58,004 . 0.985 6,363
54, 794, 000
1,818,114
10
8,057
66,180
Total United
States (ex-
cept Philip-
pine Islands)
74,513,573 , 22,018,440
22,755,532 ; 4,004,399 53,579,702 56,686,361
i ! 6 1.246 ; '
Canada:
New Brunswick
230,000
2, 903, 018
521.112
472; 854
950, 632
1 !
111,084! 02,000 183,000 55.000
1.129,047 088,147 1 • 1.304,809 1,819,778
170,143
112,618
mi ais
215.819 ' 28,975
200,509
123,916
114,623
561, S66
240.500 1 121,290
220,534 1 154,260
Other
2,123.932 1,033,295
531,249 ' 1,178,872
Total Canada .
7,262,148 j 2,057,432, 1,964,315 : 2,971,212; 2,875,692
Central America:
190, 708
509. 812
1,200.000
15G, 509
308, 100
5. 142. 457
32.707
I
50.343 i 77,593
43,107; 14,004 11,806 111,581
Honduras
1900
1905
1902
1901
1905
1905
1901
1905
1905
1005
1904
<1906
1904
(*)
30,863 j 1,500 2S.000
54,974 ! 2,987 1 250 79,730
859,217 1 334.435! 3.424.430 610.139
8,851 78,058
c 93, 155
West Indies:
British —
3
d 1,437
1,908
111.703
050 [ <U,088
1,074 1.975
Grenada
72,8*7 ; • 10,976
246 '
28,500
Turks and Cai-
800
0 000
105 ! 1 125
255 300
342,568 ff9,982
905 177 26,582
8.819 ! 0,311 11.731
Virgin Islands . .
Cuba
2, 17o! 178
4,048
30,500
/1, 053, 847
9 358, 868
3. 596
Guadeloupe
"
Total North
91,710,888
! !
20,198,305 ; 4,409,432 | 60,211,864
60,885,586
1901
1905
1906
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentina
30,000.000
30,000,000
77,050
2,477.064
1
2,500,000
!
5.000,000 j 300.000 120,000,000
800,000
1,571 21,100
13.350
Chile
• 124, 057
098, &S0 i 1 27, 930 2, 405, 584 1 287, 612
a On farms.
* Including mules and asses.
eCows in 1904.
d Data for 1903.
« On December 31 of preceding year.
/Cows.
g Census for 1899.
A Latest official estimate furnished by the
French embassy to the United States, under date
of May 4, 1900. "
t Data for 1904.
} Data for 1902.
STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK.
Live stock of countries named — Continued.
633
Year.
Cattle.
Horses.
Mules.
Sheep.
Total. Dairy
cows.
Swine.
SOUTH AMERICA— Cont'd.
2,800.000 !
341.000
209
3.000
182,789
561,408
191.079
257.000
74
746,000
153
700, 894
214,058
18,608.717
176,668
2,300.000
Dutch Q mama
1904
1905
1900
1900
1899
8.290 :
4,500
2,879
100
Paraguay
Uruguav
2,283,039
3.490
22,992
89' 186
23,887
6,827,428 :
2. 004. 257
93, 923
1,618,214
Total South
76,481.028
7,579,936
700,678
142.873,234
5,139,965
1900
1S95
1895
ECROFE.
Austria-Hungary:
Austria
Hungarv
Bosnia-Herzegovina
9,511,170 '« 4, 749, 152
0,605.365 ; 6 3, 499, 724
c 1,417, 341 t
1.710.488
2, 308, 457
d 239. 020
20,323
1)911
2,621,026
8,122,682
3, 230, 720
4, 682, 654
7, 330, 343
662, 242
Total Austria-
17.533,876 '
4,264,571
22,234
13,974,428
12,675,239
'1906
1S05
1903
1903
1904
'1906
1904
1905
1902
1904
1900
1901
1906
1904
1900
1900
1906
190(3
1906
1906
'1906
1905
1905
1906
1906
1906
' 1905
Belgium
1,788,328 889,125
h 1.596,267 . i 442. 866
1,840.466 al,089,073
3,950
245, 212
536. 616
486,935
632
315,535
3, 169, 224
4,267.403
400
159,068
47, 545
741,739
19, 777
3.879
3,000
295,277
172.999
90,000
864,324
/6,915
11,828
Q 235, 722
8.081,816
876, 830
91,034
936, 333
17,783,209
7,907,173
1,046,519
463, 241
1, 456, 699
15
1,450,914 ol,066,251
14.315.552 1 "7,515.564
19,331,568 klO, 456,137
215,910
France
198,865
7,558,779
18, 920, 666
Greece
406,744
30,498
88,869
4, 568, 158
; 495, 170
k 6,900,000
16,611
18, 574
400,000
606, 785
998, 819
3,064,100
5, 655, 444
79, 716
Italy
*5, 000,000 !
327.276
no
2,968
* 1.800.000
Luxemburg
92.381
7,397 1
91,799
5,390
Montenegro
6O.000 ; 026.666
1,090,403 "973,098
950,201 1 a689,563
817,000
8,000
861,840
165. 348
Portugal
59,100
515
1,200,000
Rouraania
2,545,051 380,720
1,709,205
Russia:
Russia proper
31.994.S49
21.200.061
1,309,640
1,265,100
"49.114.500
"2,817,000
0 6,957,954
10, 372, 036
2,414.61*
800,470
Northern Caucasia. .
3, 157, 358
698, 335
Total Russia,
European. ..
1
37,566,825
23,834,801
58,889,454
11,870,841
943.967 ; » 153, 359
2,075,142
2,549,928 <» 1,763,857
1,497,904 o 785, 577
1 1,000,000 ; 0 300,000
172. 278
498, 157
554.999
135,091
600,000
130
707, 570
3,066,444
13,025,512
1,074,386
209,243
10,000,000
875,517
Spain
1,743,863
829, S8S
Switzerland
3,136
548, 355
United Kingdom:
Great Britain
Ireland
Isle of Man and
Channel Islands...
7,010,856 P 2, 738, 411
4.038,924 Pi, 490. 284
42.175 | P 17, 591
, I 51 8, 1 81
1531,858
o 9. 485
25, 420. 360
3, 714,832
74,843
2,323,461
1, 244, 193
13,080
Total United
Kingdom . . .
11. 091, 935 i>4.2.')2.286
92,110,024
29,210,035
3, 5S0, 740
Total Europe .
126,786,377 i
43, 589, 486
| 1,489,416
183.055,280
67,707,570
<> Cows.
i Cows over 1 year old, including buffalo cows.
<• Including buiTaloes.
* Including mules and asses.
t On December 31 cf preceding year.
/including asses: data for 1S95"
9 Data for 1895.
1 Census data, December 31, 1900.
» Cows, census data, December 31, 1900.
i Excluding lambs.
* Data for 1890.
i Including asses.
m Including cows kept for breeding purposes.
"Data for 1905.
o Including goats.
P Cows and heifers in milk and with calf.
2 Used for agriculture, and also unbroken.
634 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Lire stock of countries nam-cd — Continued.
Year
British India <: 1905
n 1905
Cochin China
Cyprus 1906
Hongkong 1905
Japanese Empire:
Japan
Formosa
Total Ja]
Java
Labuan
Philippine Islands.
Russia:
Central Asia (4 prov-
inces)
Siberia (4 provinces)
scaucasia
Other
rotal Russia,
Asiatic
1900
1903
1906
1906
1902
1903
Siam
Straits Settlements 1904
Turkey, Asiatic
Total Asia.
AFRICA.
Algeria 1905
I 4und 1904
British Central Africa..! 1906
British East Africa j 1905
Cape of Good Hop.' 1904
I
German East Africa 1905
:. Southwest Ai-
Madagascar ■
Mauritius » 1905
Mayotte (p)
1905
Orange River Colony. . . 1905
Reunion I (p)
St. Helena 1901
Seychelles 1905
Sierra Leone i
Southern Nigeria Col-
- >s) 1902
Sudan (Anglo-Egyp- ,
tian)« 1905
real
Tunis 91905
Total Africa
fcSS,920.714
1,489,882
109^000
52,916
976
Total.
Hairy
cows.
(-26,052,025
Horses.
Milks.
1,433,458
3.549
11.243
e 59. ICO
193
1.171.074
33,154
1.372.422
1,269,602 ' 1.372.4911
2.000
i
2.343.000
418. 400
3
144.171
Sheep.
2 _ 7!
■ I
2
3
3,590
290
1.909.391
1,624,000
6, 955, 190
1,104,751 .
3,000,000 .
35,812
1,997
BOO, 000
109,017,228 ..-. 11,235,606
1.066,404
. ;
1,954.390
350,000
K
I 90, 3S5
2,867,612
7.715
47.S94
525, 372
4. 721?
1.014
1.000
1.522
314,990
800.000
540, 310
c 32, 804
el, 118, 162
350,000
221.140
64,621
14
*186
80.000
73
2 "
1.074
577
21
54. 637
M
1,780
120
150
23
10S
9.314
r 52, 159
35. 596
55.077
174.234
-
18
64, 433
10,000
(■143
15
r 44. 153
15,995
A 9.113,000
24,631,258
i 43.920
45,000,000
91.324.613
9.062.036
-
S
2.100.000
-
1,560,000
333, 454
124
769,601
4,194,247
200
741
1,610
1.421.721
1,200,000
1,094.761
875.902 , 316,760 i 33,766,531 1.635,139
a Including Native States, as far as officially
shown. Statistics cover onlv six districts of Ben-
llected between 18K) aiid 1900.
b Including buffalo calves.
cCows.
a Of which 373,063 in Alwar include goats.
i Including mules and B
I less than 1 year old; 30 per cent may Ik?
added for those less than 1 year old.
p On December 31 of preceding vcar.
h Data for 1903.
< Including goats.
;' Excluding animals owned by natives.
* Excluding the Province, of Jubaland.
I Excluding the 'Windhuk district, in which
the ca
and goats al -
n> Not including animals in the public service.
n On su - only.
o Including asses; data for 1904.
p Latest ol ate furnished
French emlv ted £ -.under date
..•4, 1905.'
r Animals assessed foi I tax.
r Data for 1904.
STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK.
Live stock of countries named — Continued.
635
Argentina
British Guiana
Chii
Colombia
Dutch Guiana
Paraguay
Uruguay
Venezuela
Austria-Hungary
Austria
Hungary
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Total Austria-Hungary
"On December 31 of preceding year.
b Not including northern territory.
c Data for 1905.
d Including asses; data for 1905.
'Latest official estimate furnished by the
French embassy to ths United States, under da to
of May 4, 1906.
/ Including animals owned by Maoris.
a Including asses.
''On farms.
i Census for 1899.
i Data for 1902.
636 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Live stock of countries named — Continued.
Country.
Year.
Asses.
Buffaloes.
Camels.
Goats.
Reindeer.
EUROPE— continued.
«1905
1905
1903
1903
1904
al906
1904
1902
1904
1890
1901
1906
257,669
1.370,201
38,984
10
6,499
1,476,957
3,329,881
3,339.409
401
1,800,000
14,203
20,083
100,000
165, 497
214, 594
998,680
232, 515
124, 216
6 431,487
140, 104
365, 181
141,179
Italy
1,000,000
3,818
1904
1900
108,784
146,500
7, 186
1900
1905
1905
1905
a 1906
1905
1905
1906
..
43, 475
Russia:
224, .500
1,000
1 . 100, 500
13,500
347,000
. '
Total Russia, European. .
225,500
1,114,000
347,000
1,271
663, 004
1,652
7,710
495, 955
2, 385, 664
66,560
359,913
1,800
2.524,186
615,672
227,300
20,563,198
595,888
1905
1904
1903
1905
1904
Q1906
"1905
ASIA.
d 1,329,057
14,849,189
241,750
424,747
28,287,635
153,542
1,157
e 250, 306
164
Japanese Empire:
226, 620
72, 121
117,214
Total Japanese Empire. . .
226,620
189,335
1900
1903
1903
1903
1902
1903
2,436,031
/ 640, 871
124, 334
Russia:
Central Asia (4 provinces)
365,000
500
17. 122
296, 000
775, 000
230,000
745,086
802,000
Siberia (4 provinces)
38, 700
122,312
58, 500
338,042
Other
20,000
180,812
338,012
678,622
2,552,086
58. TOO
1,144,478
Turkey, Asiatic
2,500,000
9.000,000
Total Asia
4, 009, 869
19,876,981
1,104,526
40,557,402
58,700
1905
1904
1906
1905
1904
1900
1905
1903
1905
1904
AFRICA.
277, 523
i> 10
86
199, 715
4,030,208
A 1,625
30, 238
1,150,000
7, 162, 463
British Central Africa
12
British East Africa
Cape of Good Hope
100, 470
120,000
8.777
899
411
Egypt
300. ooo
40.000
24
3
1,820,000
» 100,118
66,747
5,223
German Southwest Africa
«On December 31 of preceding year.
b Census data, December 31, 1900.
c Including Native States, as far as officially
shown. Statistics cover only six districts of Ben-
gal, collected between 1890 and 1900.
*l Of which, 62,652 in Bengal, Alwar, Gwalior,
and Marwar include moles.
« Not less than 1 year old; 30 percent may be
added for those less than 1 year old.
/Carabaos.
<i Numbet of domesticated elephants returned
as 2,036.
h Excluding animals owned by natives.
i Excluding thg Windhuk district, in which
the cattle were, estimated at 1,774 and the sheep
and goats at. 2,P?0.
i Not including animals in the public service.
* On sufar estates only.
STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK.
Lire stock of countries named — Continued.
637
Country.
Year.
Asses.
Buffaloes.
Camels.
Goats.
Reindeer.
Africa — continued.
1905
1903
(a-)
1901
1902
1905
1904
«1905
58
1,792
3,096
1,916
774
1,508
908, 791
308,920
4, 156
1,001
2,600
1,329,711
Natal
:::::::::::.!::
Southern Nigeria Colony (Lagos)..
i
c 92, 272
33,013
97,990
132, 116
949, 876
147,229
574, 2S1
Total Africa
739,087
300.012
1,468,963
17, 557, SCO
<H905
1905
dl905
1905
OCEANIA.
Australia:
853
37,716
26, 948
17,980
1,694
1,953
Tasmania
Total Aistralian Corn-
2,806
84,338
1904
(«)
1891
Fiji
1
15, 361
6,111
9,055
2,806
114,865
8,221,072
20, 792, 665
2, 803, 595
90, 751, 486
654, 588
« Latest official estimate furnished by the
French embassy to the United States, under date
of May 4, 1908.
b Animals assessed for tribute and tax.
<• Including mules.
d On December 31 of preceding year.
' Including animals owned by Maoris.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ANIMAL PRODUCTS.
MEAT.
Value of imports of vuat animals ami packing-house products into thirteen European
countries and Cuba in 1904, and percentages derived from the United States.
Importing country.
Imported from all countries by —
United Kingdom
Germany a (for consumption)
Netherlands (for consumption)
France (for consumption)
Belgium (for consumption)
Switzerland (for consumption)
Austria-Hungary (for consumption) .
Cuba
Denmark (for consumption)
Spain
Italy (for consumption)
Russia (for consumption) (1903)
Norway
Sweden (1903)
Total 506, 715, 51
Total of
three fol-
lowing col-
umns.
Dollars.
283,158,215
83,600,900
28, 609, 594
19,675,069
15,93S,990
15,881,517
13,685.042
13,011,989
5,507,000
7, 944; 070
6,959,073
4,784,578
4,099,100
3,860,369
Live meat
animals.
Dollars.
50.263,256
28,558,800
253, 206
7,008,413
5,739,069
10,352.595
7,819,808
6, 639, 536
' 304, 100
3,264,703
1,244,792
2,266,604
468, 100
130, 646
124,313,748
Packing-
house
products.
Dollars.
223.171,623
43,472.200
28, 230, 364
9,842,335
9, 098, 21S
3,864,307
4,712,938
0,36S,05S
5,135,300
4,028.803
5,646, .532
2,461,257
3.577,500
3; 637. 540
353, 896, 975
Poultry,
game, rab-
bits, pig-
eons, etc.
Dollars.
9, 723, 336
11,569,900
75, 964
2,824,321
501,703
1,664,615
1,152,296
4,395
67, 600
650, 510
67,749
56,717
53, 500
92,183
28,504.789
63S
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Valu
< of imports of meat animals aiui packing-house products into thirteen European
untries and Cuba in 1904, eind percentages derived from the United States — Con.
Importing country.
Total of
three fol-
lowing col-
umns.
Live meat
animals.
Packing-
house
products.
Imported from the United States by —
United Kingdom
Germany " (for consumption)
Netherlands (for consumption)
France (for consumption)
Belgium (for consumption)
Switzerland (for consumption
Austria-Hungary (for consumption).
Cuba .".
Denmark (for consumption)
Spain
Italy (for consumption
Russia (for consumption) (1903)
Norwa v
Sweden (1903)
Dollars.
135,386,887
_■ _>7.400
16,336,441
(»)
5, 90S. 315
657.930
1,683,826
6,187
(»>
1,764,965
S21.000
Total I 194, 463, 457
United Kingdom.
Germany a
Netherlands
France
Belgium
Switzerland
A u st ria-Hunga ry .
Cuba
Denmark
Spain
Italv
Russia (1995
Norway
Sweden (IPC.
Dollars.
37. 066, 568
970. 0S6
1,919,460
39, 956, 136
Dollars.
25.206,000
16. 236, 433
(»)
4,938.229
4,264,011
(b)
• 1 .
1 . 764. 965
122. 268
S2 1.000
Poultry,
game, rab-
bits, pig-
eons, etc.
Dollars.
1,400
8
(ft)
(ft)
42
4,197
W
(&)
153,429,026 | 1,07
Percentage from the United States.
Per cent.
47.81
30.15
56.75
(*>)
37.07
4.14
12.30
47.55
(ft)
Total.
6.13
25.36
20.03
Per cent
73. 74
(ft)
16.90
2S.91
(ft)
c40.3S
Per cent.
57. P>
57.41
50.92
17. 02
35.73
66.96
12.08
31.26
4.97
22:95
Per cent.
11.03
(ft)
(*)
95.49
(ft)
(ft)
d4.30
2 Not including fre-
"a ted.
c Omitting France and Denmark.
4 Omitting t ranee, Belgium, Denmark, and Norway.
TKADE IN WOOL.
639
WOOL.
International trade in uool,a 1901-1906.°
EXPORTS.
1 Year
Country. | begin-
| ning—
I I
1901. 1982. 1S03.
1904. 19C5.
Algeria
Argentina
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Pounds.
7,042,341
503,443.071
451,500,039
Pon nds.
9,634,557
436,374,060
335,953,936
Pounds.
16,089,429
425.407,795
324,51-3,030
51,450,971
33,32
79,093,393
117.425,271
42,214,830
155,128,381
9,257,920
30,071,050
25,090.103
40,021,737
33,950,200
124,262
179,055,000
Pounds.
21,519,315
371,097,005
395,130,825
46,947,529
3S;602,768
78,411,050
130,119.445
33,032.572
126,834,850
7,952,000
35,2-
28,808,285
40,621,737
37,858,500
99,148,465
193,824,000
Pounds.
22,422,990
421,098,234
Jan. 1
Apr. 1
Jau. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
38,245,719
48,506.045
45,433,183
19,051,756
76,022,938
103,001,990
34,01-0,782
146,820,079
28,038,050
96,957,471
138,081,466
36,231,009
100,419,023
Cape of Good Hcpc...
74,311 010
116 405 477
31,8
139,912.737
9,944,007
c 31, 851,490
c25 096 103
Ppru
8,6'i
8,1 -
Russia '.
23,757,528
20,459,512
40,021,737
20,205,000
101,867,309
120,423,000
29,354,903
25, 835; 16-5
40,621,737
37,204,S00
95,637,488
160,652,000
Turtevd
United Kingdom
Uruguay
Mar. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
40,621,737
35,251,500
1 97,194,381
170,398,000
Total
1,721,791.729 1.687.744.733
1,658,746,881
1,685,800,082
1,741,070,909
IMPORTS.
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
British India
Canada
Fiance
Germany/
Japan. ."
Netherlands
Russia
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom.
United States
Other countries . .
J-m.
Jan.
Apr.
July
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jar-
Jan.
Jan.
July
72,179,986
118,479,050
9,784.739
10,360;738
547,508,307
370,476,806
6,652,S76
43,7: _
58.0S7.S72
8,499,894
12,402,949
421,520,875
166,576,906
53,000,000
So, 970. 337
122,180,634
7,452,021
7,994,702
519,i52,S12
416,038,627
5,505,283
45,4S1,019
65,114,737
9,809,111
13,305,114
392,752,036
177,137,796
58,692,000
Total ' 1,899.383,416 1,926,586,229
79 ,549, SI 7
119,472,000
7,431,310
7,339,309
523.823 309
425,726,618
7,282,080
49,990,876
71,607,060
10,164,381
13,465,390
351 928,151
173.7
63,550,000
1,905,085,195
83,296.792
117,205,945
8,807 926
7,017,211
465,475,496
413,781,976
21,281.995
50,207,0S4
10,471,454
14,139,564
344,758,631
249,135,746
60,020,000
1,S8S,S18,662
79,440,467
140,786,550
13,741,761
6,311,837
479.8St-.7L4
422,380,883
14,085,397
1,946
10,349,336
12,951,713
371,364,280
201,088,668
20,150,000
1,858,438,454
a Including wool combed, carded, and dyed.
b See ''General note," p. 546.
« Preliminary figures.
d Exports for 1899, the latest available data.
'Average, 1901-1904.
/Not including free ports.
640
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.
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rH T-t CO
01 t- Tf CO ^ •— i CI
0 ! ,-i l " ? J CI O
Cl X
x >.o
O oo
r- t-x?i x '•• t-
u0 O-O lOOOl'T
oo — ' ~"r-"eT'-^oo
c; -** cc o
— < "0 OO CO
co to ee r -
ocTi- co"
r- co cc t- ci ^ ci
oa co -o ic 'O o oa
'38 II
X -«r ci cc ex co r-
co oi ci '-o o r- x x ~
co c ) O cc c - o r t o x
hh5hCN -T -?' CC
oc -f oo i— < co t~- — *
CT- *? *0 — < to co
ci t oo o u5
oTco^T-h cf
t-- X' -r t- cj ~ o w — <
t XNNWClNrtC
CC "f Oi X O OC r 1 iQ
■* co ic"o"W cT— Ti-^
cj c;
;S5
O o.
~ ir.— —
■a
3
r. « -■' si JS ~
! O fi O oa aj P
)
c
X
1
3
C
—
0 d-
OdSC
^3 oj =3^3 c q\ q; ^
'■5 h
ZPh
646
YEARBOOK lRTMENT OF AGEICTTLIV _
BUTTEJ
Intcrnatio
exports.
:.:m
Denmark
i
untries
Australia Jan. 1
- m Jan. 1
Jan. 1
f Good Hope. .. Jan. 1
Raich . ... Jan. l
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Natal
tiands Jan. 1
Jan. 1
la
Jan. 1
Transvaal Jan. 1
Kingdom Jan. 1
:
. ..
;
I i
-
-
:
- .. . ,
"
-
" -■
. -
121,121
;
14. r.
. ■"
■ " -.-
.. . .
173 ■■•
- .
- -
! - -
--
- - - ■
- --
-
v.
- -
•:._•• j.y _.:-
tP« ares. •
TBADE IX CHEESE.
647
CHEESE.
International track in cheese, 1901-1906.a
EXPORTS.
Country.
Year be-
ginning—
1902.
Bulgaria.
Canada
Franco
Germany &
Italy
Netherlands
New Zealand...
Russia.
Switzerland
United States..
Other countries.
Jan. 1
July 1
Jan. 1
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan. 1
Jan.
July
Pounds.
6.449,020
17.7y.-i.274
3,211,683
24,104,435
104,269,090
11,680,928
1,610,414
60,075,729
27.203.184
7,924,000
Pounds.
5,651,335
229,099,925
20,545,803
3,119,981
28,841,967
104,785,152
54, 491 . 422
18,987, ITS
9,469,000
1903.
1904.
1905
Pounds.
7,064,3S5
233, 9S0. 716
23,119.970
2,813.539
33,158,617
109. 025.96S
8,375,360
1,41
12,863
23,335. 172
8,833,000
Pounds.
6,624,517
215,733,259
20,711,480
30,299,443
103,089,081
9,466,912
1,396,951
-
10. 134.-124
7,050,000
Pounds.
7,227
34,543
22, 125, 152
2.0.50,397
c 37, 694, 647
98,438,575
9,918,944
* 1,119, 497
61,383,731
16,562,451
co, 092.000
Total I : 465,279,188 485,0
504,756,147 463,772,9S3| 478.047.753
IMPORTS.
Argentina
Australia
Austria-Hungary. .
Belgium
Brazil . ._
Cape of Good Hope. ..
Cuba
Denmark
Egypt
i> ranee
Germany &
Italy
Russia
Spain
Switzerland
United Kingdom . . .
United States
Other countries
Total.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. l
Jan. 1
Jan. l
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
Jan. 1
July 1
2,777,464
- i
3,268,640
3,256,525
2,140,688
6,702,653
42,034,436
36,750,387
10,797,577
2,852,694
4.129.100
4,248,748
17,067,714
11,092,000
467,488,204
3,614
2,318
7,263
25,776
3,062,
3,689,
3, 119,
2,085,
6.947,
I .
35,067,
8,859,
4,280,
5. 710.
279,367
20,671
14,598
,879
,110
,348
,099
,639
, 35
835
131
70s
780
820
053
871
926
853
088
384
0» I
2,489,821
1,141,300
7.. 127. 020
27,994,030
2,90
4,251,460
2,900,902
2,052,503
6,947.710
48,434,148
35,859,059
9,474,363
3, 191. 252
4,033,420
5,879,065
29*3, 012, 52S
22.707.103
14,549,000
471,625,259 498,348,220
I
375,642
26,304,868
3,043,516
3,994.730
3,333,992
2,033,764
8,495,738
40,683,327
39,750,657
9,568,500
3,302,985
1,338,306
6,567,789
280, 125. 104
23,095,705
18,7S5,000
4,234,616
384,718
9,3.58,179
28,48
c 3, 119,540
3,249,035
<* 3, 152,814
7.472,566
9,512,371
43,254,168
44,698,270
c 9, 921, S01
744,573
c 4, 033, 420
5,530,515
267,722,560
27,286,81 6
c 12, 413,000
486, 082, 3S6
480,577,969
a See " General note," p 546.
6 Not including free ports.
g Preliminary figures.
d Average, 1901-1904.
64S
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS IN CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES.
HORSES AND MULES.
Number and farm value of horses and mil 1907.
Horses.
Mules.
January 1 —
Number.
Price per
head.
Farm \
Number.
Price per
head.
Farm value.
1867
5,401,263
2,793
8,248,800
8,702,000
0,900
q 222.470
9,333,800
9,504,200
9,735.300
10,155,400
10.329.700
10,938,700
11. 201. St 10
11,429,626
10,521,554
10,838,111
11,169,683
11,564,572
12,077
12. 49-5. 744
13.172,936
13,663,294
14,213,837
14,056,750
15,498.140
16, 2« •
16,081,139
IS 893,318
15.124.057
14.3- 4." ;
13,960,911
".307
13,537,524
16. 744. 723
16.. 531. 224
L6, 557,373
16,7
17,057,702
18,718,578
19,7* 38
859. 05
54.27
62.57
!
71.14
67. il
65.15
61.10
.57. 29
■' - !
56. 63
52. 36
54. 7.5
58. 44
•S..-3
74. 64
73.70
71.27
72.15
71.82
68 ^4
x 67.00
65.01
61.22
47.83
36. 29
33.07
31.51
34. 26
37. 40
44. 61
52 -
58.61
67. 93
70.37
93.51
S318.924.0S5
312.4:
396,222,359
556,250.529
619,038.564
606.111.449
1 12,273,159
608,072,797
580,707,854
557. :
567,016,871
584,998,503
572,712,085
613, 2%, 611 J
667,954,325
61.5.824,914
765,04].30v
833,734.400
852,282,947
S60,823.208
901.1 ^
946,096,154
VS2.194.S27
978,516.562
941,82 .
1.007.593,636
992. 225.lv,
:
576. :
500,140,186
452,1
478,3 -
511.074. 813
603.'
885,200,168
968.935,178
1.030.705.9.59
1,136,940,2! g
L2iW.310.020
1,510,8*
1,846,578,412
822,386
921 . 662
1.179. .500
1 242,300
1,276.300
i,3io;ooo
1.339,350
1 393,750
1,414,500
1,637,500
1,713.100
1,729,500
1.83.5.1(9
1,871,079
1.914.126
1,972,569
2.052.593
2.117.141
2.191.727
2.2.57.574
2.331.027
2,296,532
2,314,699
2,331,128
2.352.23!
. 27
a .
2,190,282
2.134.213
2 - 27
2,864,458
2 72
2,757,916
2 • • - 7
3.404,361
-
(66. 64
56.04
79. 23
90.42
91.98
87.14
85.15
81.35
71.89
64. 07
62.03
56.00
61.26
09. 79
71. 35
79.49
S4. 22
82. 3S
79. CO
78.91
79.78
79. 49
78.25
77.88
70.68
62.17
47.55
45.29
41.66
43.88
44.96
53.55
63.97
67.61
72. 49
78 38
1
■
112. 16
Sm." - - J
1869
47.
73.026.906
1870
106. "54.015
1871
115,272.194
1S72
111,221.919
1873
1874
111.546.171
108,
1875
197,044
1876
94,000,976
1S77
92,481,931
1878
101.579.278
1879
(41,589
1880
1"".94S.319
1881
120,0
18S2
130.
18s3
148,732,390
1SS4
161,214,976
1885
162,497,097
1886
163.381,096
167.057.538
1888
174,853,563
1880
179.444.4S1
1890 .
182,394,099
1891
178,847,370
1892
174.882.070
1893
164,763,751
1S94
146,2
1895
110,927 - 4
1896
103,204.457
ISi'T
92,302,090
189^
109.516
1S99
•
1900
111,3
1901
183,2 _ .
1902
411.704
1903
197.753.327
1904
217 ■
1S05
251, ■
10O;
334, i SO. 520
1907
42- D
Imports and exports of horses and mules, villi average prices. 1892-1
Imports of horses.
Year ended
June 3iV- !
Num-
ber.
1892
... 14.074
-
... 15.451
1894
... 6, 166
• :
... 13.09S
189G
... 9,991
1897
1898
... 3,085
1900
... 3.102
1901
... 3,785
1902
... 4,832
1903
4.999
1904
... 4.726
1905
... 5,180
1906
... 6.021
$2,455,868
38,261
1.319.572
1.055.191
662. 591
464,808
414.899
551.050
590. 592
985. 73S
1.577.234
1 . 536.. 296
1 . 460. 287
1 . 591 . 083
1.716.675
Value. Average
price.
5174. 50
154.57
214.01
80.56
06. 32
66. 42
134. 49
181.15
192. 32
260. 43
326. 41
307. 32
308. 99
307. 16
285.11
Exports of horses.
Exports of mules.
Num-
ber.
3. 226
-
5, -2V,
13.984
25. 126
39.532
51.150
45. 778
64.722
82.250
103.020
34. 007
42.001
34.822
40. 0S7
Value.
Average Xiim-
price. ber.
$611,188
7 IS. 607
1,108,995
2. 209. 29S
3.530,703
4. 769, 265
6.176. 569
5, 444. 342
7. 612. -.16
5,87
10,048,046
3.152.159
3,189,100
3.175.259
4. 365. SSI
S1S9. 46
242. 20
211.40
157. 99
140.52
120.61
120. 75
118.93
117.62
107.89
97.53
92. 09
75.93
91.19
108.91 !
1,965
1,634
2.0i.3
2.515
7.47:;
8.098
o. 7.55
43. 309
34. 40.5
27 ■'
4.294
■ ■
7.167
Value.
52 - ■
2
240. 961
186.452
406. 101
545. 331
664. 789
516. 90S
3.919.47S
3.210.267
2.692.29S
521,725
412.971
645. 464
989. 6-39
Average
price.
8121.42
116. SO
74.14
68. 63
72. 97
82. 09
76. 52
90. 3S
93.31
97. 60
121.47
112.90
110.79
138.08
STATISTICS OF HORSES AND MULES.
649
Number, average price, and farm value of horses and mules in the United States January 1,
1907, by States.
State or Territory.
Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Massachusetts . .
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina..
South Carolina..
Georgia
Florida
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota. . .
South Dakota . . .
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Horses.
Indian Territory .
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington
Oregon
California
United States 19, 746, 583
115, 500
GO, 600
92,721
80, 800
13, 667
60, 345
G95, 877
101, 8S6
607,010
36, 503
158, 180
307,920
186, 850
185, 846
83,026
139, 297
51,278
940, 440
79S, 102
1,575,000
696, 518
637,500
723, 141
1,390,950
948, 420
580, 880
548. 760
994,850
1,085,750
387,327
315, 435
158, 245
257,295
224,076
1,277,641
296, 400
432, 361
278. 761
291,970
119,054
261,655
119,258
99, 249
113, 827
90,541
149, 551
296, 400
282, 240
391,680
Average
price per
head
Jan. 1.
Dollars.
106. 00
93.00
101. 00
113. 00
119. 00
118. 00
111.00
115. 00
109.00
103. 00
90.00
99.00
95.00
114.00
126. 00
121. 00
100. 00
113. 00
110. 00
109. 00
111.00
107. 00
97.00
100. 00
93.00
96.00
84.00
87.00
89. 00
97.00
99. 00
87. 00
79.00
69.00
62.00
63. 00
78.00
73.00
63.00
55.00
66. 00
42.00
41.00
55.00
89.00
71.00
88.00
81.00
92. 00
Farm value
93.51
Dollars.
12,254,550
5,657,
°, 380,
,105,
,624,
,105,
,541,
,763,
,127,
, 70S,
, 24S,
,481,
,704,
,182,
,437,
,827,
,138.
,893,
,735,
, 990,
, 369,
, 340,
, 260,
,178,
,937,
,689,
,909,
, 362,
,848,
, 679,
,338,
,767,
,418,
,550,
,456.
,720,
. 598.
,304,
,379,
, 528,
,210.
,0o8,
,02-*,
,310,
, 622,
, 594,
, 195,
,827,
,120,
9,
1,
7
77
11
66
3
14
30
17
21
10
16
5
105
87
171
77
68
70
139
87
55
45
86
96
37
31
13
20
15
79
18
33
20
18
6
17
5
4
6
8:
io;
26,
22
36!
1,846,578,412
Mules.
Average
! Jan. 1.
Dollars.
4,208
116.00
487,140
5,223
127. 00
661,862
40, 864
123.00
5,024,210
5,824
120. 00
699,909
20, 120
116.00
2,331,945
50, 733
137. 00
6,972,232
10, 986
101.00
1,111,569
174,714
136. 00
23, 740, 137
134, 690
153. 00
20,598,121
229, 691
153.00
35,039,340
18,005
152. 00
2,732,275
19,728
114. 00
2,250,150
84,800
118. 00
10,017,424
141,909
117.00
16,668,630
3,076
115.00
422,579
4,985
106. 00
527,358
8, 657
94.00
816, 090
43, 655
108. 00
4,702,541
315,250
104. 00
32, 893, 203
8,457
103. 00
869, 324
7,970
86.00
685, 574
69, 300
102. 00
7,063,749
140, 390
103. 00
14, 468, 598
198, 850
109. 00
21,628,928
275,730
112.00
30,776,994
231,750
121.00
28,139,0X5
274, 437
114.00
31, 409, 335
165, 791
115.00
19,055,981
631,050
93. 00
58,763,376
70,200
93. 00
6,549,660
91,742
101.00
9,242,067
206, 944
93. 00
19,270,625
3,917
80.00
314,939
1,526
S2.00
124, 717
10,231
92.00
942, 176
5,719
69. 00
393, 537
4,001
77.00
309, 849
3,560
62. 00
219, 057
3,057
88.00
268, 758
2,397
89.00
212, 155
4,128
101.00
418, 500
7,077
90.00
639, 379
80,750
106. 00
8,599,875
3,816,692 ! 112.16
Farm value.
Dollars.
42S,063,613
650
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Range of prices for horses in Omaha, monthly. 1902-1906.
Date.
Drafts.
pos
Southern.
rtera-
Drivers.
Carriage
teams.
Low.
High, i
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High . |
Low. ■
Higl .
1902.
January
1 "
i
$55
$85
$35
«
$10
$50
" "
' --'
$200
$350
February
5
1S5
60
100
35
80
10
50
"
225
200
100
100
100
90
90
90
200
225
250
200
75
175
60
60
■
60
40
40
100
110
105
90
SO
80
35
30
25
20
15
15
80
65
60
45
45
10
10
.-
12
10
10
50
50
60
60
"
80
95
100
90
225
250
325
325
200
220
200
300
300
200
210
350
500
Mav
500
450
July
m
August
420
Sep ten:*
October
90
100
175
175
40
40
80
80
20
■
45
10
10
100
100
-
90
215
215
175
360
435
Novem
90
160
40
80
20
65
10
SO
90
325
230
370
December
100
:<
'
85
-
70
12
60
90
300
200
"•
1903.
JiT.uarv
90
175
50
80
■
-
10
50
'
225
200
350
Februar y
95
185
60
100
35
10
50
95.
225
200
350
100
100
110
90
90
90
200
250
250
200
175
175
60
60
65
65
50
45
110
110
105
100
SO
80
35
30
20
15
15
15
-
40
45
45
10
10
12
.-
10
■50
60
i
65
90
100
100
100
100
"
75
230
250
350
75
275
220
200
200
250
300
200
40C
500
May
550
450
July
400
Angmct
420
September
90
175
40
80
15
45
10
100
-
200
215
360
October
100
180
40
80
20
45
10
100
90
215
200
435
November
90
160
IS
i
20
60
10
80
100
325
225
370
December
100
185
"
20
60
--
60
100
300
200
375
1904.
January
120
175
65
90
45
90
10
50
150
300
4a
Februar v
120
175
70
90
40
80
10
50
150
300
4«
120
125
175
200
75
95
100
35
30
70
65
10
10
50
50
75
90
150
75
300
300
■ax
Ma"h:::::::::
m
140
135
125
120
120
-"-
250
200
175
175
SO
75
65
50
60
125
110
100
90
100
30
30
30
30
30
65
60
60
60
GO
15
15
15
15
35
40
65
90
110
125
125
120
100
100
300
300
175
175
175
300
300
300
300
300
75<
700
July
: «;
400
September
400
October
125
200
65
100
40
75
IS
100
125
200
300
4S(
November
130
235
70
100
40
90
10
35
125
200
300
45(
December
130
225
70
100
45
12
60
125
200
300
400
1905.
January
150
200
75
110
40
90
10
50
75
150
300
Ml
February
150
200
85
125
40
90
10
50
150
300
40t
March
150
200
90
135
35
90
10
50
1-50
300
4a
April
May
150
225
.0
120
35
80
10
50
90
175
300
4a
150
295
60
90
30
80
15
40
" 90
300
300
79
June
135
.-.:
60
90
30
75
15
50
90
300
300
791
July
125
200
60
100
30
70
15
.0
100
150
300
4a
130
60
100
30
70
15
117
100
150
300
4a
September
130
ax
65
100
35
75
15
110
100
150
300
in
October
140
200
70
110
45
85
15
95
IflO
175-
300
«a
November
150
250
80
125
30
100
15
70
125
200
300
&
December
150
250
80
120
x 50
95
10
65
125
200
300
400
I 06.
January
140
225
85
135
40
90
10
50
100
175
300
4a
February
140
225
85
135
35
90
10
50
100
175
300
45(
140
140
140
135
125
130
250
275
335
275
225
225
■"
BO
75
75
75
75
135
130
110
150
150
150
35
30
30
30
40
40
80
75
85
75
90
90
10
10
15
15
15
15
50
50
50
115
120
120
100
100
100
100
100
100
175
175
350
300
150
200
300
300
300
300
300
300
iU
500
Mav
750
7-50
July
400
August
400
September
130
225
75
150
40
90
15
122
100
..'
300
sa
October
140
250
75
150
40
90
15
80
100
200
300
iu
November
150
250
-■
150
35
90
15
75
125
_■'.'
300
45(
December
1.50
250
i
150
35
90
10
65
125
--.■:
300 400
STATISTICS OF CATTLE.
651
CATTLE.
Number and value of milch cows and other cattle, 1S67-1007.
January 1-
1867..
1868..
1869.
1870..
1871..
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
18S0.
1881.
18S2.
18S3.
1884.
1885.
1886.
ISS7.
18S8.
1889.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1930.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1900.
1907.
Milch cows.
Number. | P^dper Far
S, 348,773
8,691,568
9,247,714
10,095,600
10,023,000
10,303,500
10,575,900
10,705,300
10,906,800
11,035,400
11,260,800
11,300,100
11,826,400
12,027,000
12, 368, 653
12,611,632
13,125,685
13,501,206
13,904,722
14, 235,388
14,522,083
14,S56,414
15, 293, 625
15,952,883
16,019,591
16,416,351
16,424,0S7
16, 487, 400
16, 504, 629
16, 137, 586
15,941,727
15, 840, 886
15,990,115
16,292,360
10, 833, 657
10, 696, 802
17,105,227
17,419,817
17,572,464
19,793,806
20,968,205
?2S.74
26.56
29.15
32.70
33. £9
29.45
26. 72
25.63
25.74
25.61
25.47
25. 74
21.71
23.27
23.95
25. 89
30.21
31.37
29.70
27.40
26.08
24.05
23.94
22.14
21. 62
21.40
21.75
21.77
21.97
22.55
23.16
27.45
29.06
31.60
30.00
29.23
30.21
29.21
27.44
29.44
31.00
Other cattle.
8239, 946, 612
230,816,717
269,610,021
330,175,234
339, 700, 528
303, 43S, 398
282,559,051
274, 325, 680
280,700,645
283,878,809
283,778,030
290,S97,809
230,720,779
279, 899, 420
296,277,000
326,489,310
390,575,405
423, 4S6, (K9
412,903,093
3S9,985,5:3
378,789,589
366,252,1:3
366,226,376
353, 152, 133
3-16,397,900
351,378,132
357,299,785
353,998,601
362,601,729
363,955,545
369, 239, 993
434, 813, 826
474, 233, 925
514, 812, 106
505,093,077
488, 130, 324
510,711,914
508,841,489
482,272,203
582, 788, 592
645, 490, 9S0
Number. r™f£el" Farm value.
11,730,952
11,942,4S4
12, 1S5,3£5
15,338,500
16,212,200
16,389,800
16,413,800
16,218, ICO
10,313,400
16,785,X0
17,956,100
19,223,300
21, 408, ICO
21, 231, CC0
20,933,710
23, 280, 138
28,046,077
29,046,101
29, 866, 573
31,275,242
33,511,750
34,378,363
35,032,417
36,840,024
36, 875, C4S
37,051,239
35,954,196
33, 608, 168
34,304,216
32,085,409
30, 508, 408
29, 264, 197
27, 994, 225
27,610,054
45,500,213
44, 727, 797
44, 659, 206
43, 629, 498
43, 669, 443
47,067,656
51,565,731
S15. 79
15.06
13.73
18.87
20.73
18.12
18.06
17. ,'5
16.91
17.00
15.99
16.72
15.33
16.10
17.33
19. 89
21.81
23.52
23.25
21.17
19.79
17.79
17.05
15.21
14.76
15.16
15.24
14.66
14.06
15.86
16.65
20. 92
22.79
24.97
19.93
18.76
18.45
16. 32
15.15
15.85
17.10
$185,253,850
179,887,797
228,183,001
290, 400, 588
336, 859, 61 7
296,931,664
296,448,030
284,705,983
275,871,664
285,387,123
287,155,528
321,345,091
329,253,031
341,761,15!
362, S61, 509
463,009,50!
611,549,109
083,229,05-i
094,382,913
061,950,274
6f>3,137,920
611,750,520
597,236,812
560, 625, 137
544,127,903
570, 749, 155
547,882,204
535,789,747
482, 999, 129
508,928, 41<;
507,929,421
612, 296, 634
637,931,135
689, 486, 260
906,644,003
839,126,073
824,054,902
712, 178, 134
661,571,308
746, 171, 709
881,557,398
Imports and exvorts of live cattle, xoith average prices, 1892-1906.
Imports.
Exports.
"iear ended June 30 —
Number.
Value I Avera£e
value. price_
N amber.
Value.
Average
price.
1892
2,168
3, 293
1,592
140,781
217,826
328, 977
291,589
199, 752
181,000
146, 022
96,027
06, 175
16,050
27,855
29,019
$47, 406
45,682
18, 704
765, 853
1, 509, 850
2, 589, 857
2,913,223
2,320,362
2,257,694
1,931,433
1,608,722
1,161,548
310,737
458, 572
548, 430
$21.89
13.87
11.75
5.11
0.93
7.87
9.99
11.02
12.47
13.23
16.75
17.55
19.35
16.46
18.90
394, 007
287,094
359, 278
331,722
372, 401
392, 190
439, 255
389, 490
397, 286
459, 218
392, 884
402, 178
593, 409
567, 800
584,239
$35,099,095
26,032,428
33,461,922
30, 603, 796
34, 560, 672
36,357,451
37,827,500
30,516,833
30, 635, 153
37, 566, 980
29, 902, 212
29, 848, 936
42,256,291
40, 598, 048
42,081,170
$88.95
1893
90. OS
1894
93.14
1895
92.26
1896
92.79
1897
92.70
1893
86.12
1S99
78.35
1900
77.11
1901
81.81
1902
76.11
1903
74.22
1904
71.21
1905
71.50
1900
72 03
652
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Number, average price, and farm- value of cattle in the United States on January 1, 1907.
STAT" or. TERRITORY.
New Ham]
Vermont
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina...
South Carolina.. .
Georgia
Florida
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Daki ....
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory.
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
AVashington
Oregon
Caluoraia
Milch cows.
Other cattle.
Average
Average
Number.
price per
Farm value.
Number.
price per
Farm value.
Jan. 1.
Jan. 1.
185,286
$31. CO
55,743,866
156,005
$16.00
$2,511,677
132, 498
33.09
4,372,431
106, 35C
17. CO
1,772,860
293,931
2S.C0
8,230,068
225, 870
15. CO
3,370,751
200.273
42.00
S, 411, 466
93,371
18.00
1,076.937
25, 721
42.00
1,080,282
10, 443
20.00
210, 433
137, 485
37.00
5,086,915
84,028
20.00
1,695,680
1,826,211
36.00
65, 743, 590
944,734
18.00
17,307,520
190, 193
41.00
8,363,492
82,003
20.00
1,658,107
1, 111, 494
36.00
41,093,784
984,750
18. CO
17,479,308
36, 905
35.00
1,291/675
22, 455
19.00
436.075
153,364
31.00
4, 754, 28 1
140, 732
13.00
2, 570, SOS
290,700
28.00
8, 139. 600
566, 5C0
IS. 00
10,253,650
244. SCO
31.00
7.588,800
559, 980
21.00
11,703,574
282,600
24.00
6, 7S2, 400
445,954
12.00
5, 199, 820
136,911
28.00
3,833,503
218,502
12.00
2,619,840
305, 469
30.00
9,164,0.0
679,911
11.00
7,451,822
89,638
30.00
2. 6S9, 140
656,600
11.00
7,C45,318
919, 100
34.00
31,249,400
1,105,380
22.00
23,737,7S0
052, 610
33.00
21,536,103
1,141,778
21.00
24,080,090
1,161,500
35. GO
40,652,500
2,231,000
22.00
49,238,170
832,000
34.00
28,2S8,0C0
1,045,000
17.00
17,320,100
1,365,000
31.00
42,315,000
1, 148, 124
15.00
16. 7S5. 580
1,019,700
29.00
29,571,300
1,305,000
13.00
17,400,900
1, .555, 300
32.00
49, 769, COO
3,9C0,;JOO
23.00
90,288,000
075, 100
27.00
26, 32
2,397,000
19.00
45,950,490
220, 178
27.00
5,944,806
682,880
13.00
12,300,128
605, 768
28-{ )
10,961,504
1,485,000
19.00
28,823,850
870, 135
29.00
25, 233, 915
3,360,000
19. CO
65,307,720
729,274
2S.00
20, 419, 672
3, 704, 700
20.00
73,844,591
402,000
28.00
11,250,000
736,250
18.00
12,972,710
328, 250
23.00
7, 549, 750
601, 0C0
12.00
7,212,000
282,800
21.00
5,938,800
561,000
9.00
4,908,750
329, 669
21.00
6,923,049
600,950
9.00
5,408,644
188, 141
24.00
4,515,384
479, 750
10.00
4,905,414
993,122
24.75
24,579,770
8,236,549
12.00
100,S56,544
111,547
24.00
2, 077, 128
503,000
13.00
6,782,955
198. 102
24.00
4,754. 44s
1,387,151
16.00
22.807,179
400,000
17.50
7,000,000
739,000
7.00
5,512,940
65,948
35.00
2,308,180
916, 350
20.00
18,134,570
21,813
40.00
872,520
S55.000
22.00
19,023,750
136,712
30.00
4,921,032
1,425,000
20.00
28, 172, 250
21,820
37.00
807,340
948,240
17.00
15,7SS, 194
21,791
40.00
871,640
597, 07S
17.00
10, 405, 872
75, 919
30.00
2,277,570
300,000
18.00
5,661,000
16,988
36.00
611,568
386,120
18.00
0, 92.;, 451
66, 345
32.00
2, 123, 010
351,086
17.00
5,850, 118
173, 724
34.00
5,906,616
409,050
17.00
0,850,508
148, S14
32.00
4,762,048
750,000
15.00
11,428,125
405, 610
35.00
14,196,500
1,167,107
IS. 00
21, 474, 767
20, 90S, 2(35
31.00
045, 493, 9S0
"».731
17.10
881, 557.39S
STATISTICS OF CATTLE.
Wholesale prices of cattle per 100 pounds, 1002-1906.
653
Chicago.
Cincinnati.
Date.
Inferior to ' Fair to me-
primc. diuni.
January. . .
February . .
March. .". ..
April
May
Juno
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December.
January. . .
February..
March .'....
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December. .
January. .
February . .
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December.
January. .-.
February. .
March. . . ..
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December.
January. . .
February. .
March. .". ..
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December.
1904.
1005.
Low.
High.
Low.
$2. 20
S7.75
S3. 75
2.25
7.35
3.65
2.35
7.35
3.75
2. 35
7.50
4.25
2.50
7.70
4.10
2. 35
8.50
3.25
2.25
8.85
3.15
2.40
9.00
3.25
2.25
8.85
3.00
1.S0
8.75
2.90
2.00
7.40
3.00
2.00
14.50
3.00
2.00
0.85
3.15
2.35
6.15
3.10
2.50
5.75
3.35
2.50
5.80
3.75
2.50
5.65
3.25
2.25
5.65
3.00
2.25
5.65
2.85
2.15
6.10
2.50
2.00
6.15
2.25
1.G5
6.00
2.50
1.50
5.85
2.35
1.50
8.35
2.35
2.10
5. 90
3. 00
2.25
6.00
3.00
2.15
6.00
3.00
2.25
5.80
3.15
2.35
5.85
3.10
2.35
6.70
3.00
2.20
6.65
3.00
2.20
6.40
2.65
2.15
6.40
2.50
1.70
7.00
2.50
1.70
7.15
2.50
1.80
7. 65
2.25
1.85
6.30
2.65
1.90
6.45
2.65
2. 20
6.25
2.50
2.40
7.00
3.50
2. 35
6.85
3.15
2.30
6. 35
3.00
2.00
6.25
3.00
2.10
6.30
2.85
2.00
6.50
2.75
2.10
6.40
2.50
2.15
6.60
2.35
2.15
7.00
2.65
2.00
6.50
2.85
2.10
6.40
3.25
2.25
6.35
3.25
2.35
6.35
3.00
2.50
6.20
3.00
1.75
6.10
2.75
2.00
6.50
2.60
2.00
6.85
2.50
2.05
6.95
2.50
2.00
6.95
2.40
1.75
7.40
2.35
1.75
7.90
2.75
High.
$4. 65
4.75
5.25
5.40
5.35
5.25
5.25
5.25
4.40
4.25
4.15
4.25
4.35
4.25
4.40
4.40
4.40
4.40
4.10
4.00
3.75
3.65
3.40
3.75
4.00
3.75
4.00
4.00
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.00
3.75
3. 75
3.50
3.60
3.85
4.00
4.40
4.75
4.65
4.25
4.40
4.10
4.00
3.85
3.75
4.00
4.00
4.35
4.50
4.40
4.35
4.00
4.40
4.25
4.40
4.35
4.50
4.50
St. Louis.
Omaha.
Good to choice
native steers.
Low. i High.
$6. 10
6.35
6.40
6. 95 i
6.90
7.50
7.50
7.40
6.60
6. 35
5. 15
5. 25
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.00
5.10
5.15
5.25
5.60
5.40
5.15
5.10
5.15
4.90
5.00
5.25
5.05
5.75
5.90
5.60
5.75
6.05
5.15
5. 75
5.15
5.15
5.50
5.90
5.85
5.25
5.25
5.50
5.50
6.00
5.40
5.50
5.45
5.65
5.75
5.50
5.45
5.50
5.85
5.85
6.25
6.15
5.85
6.00
S7.00
6.50
6.75
7.10
7.50
8.00
8.35
8.75
S.00
7.10
7.25
6.00
5.75
5.25
5.40
5.60
5.50
5.25
5.35
5.55
5.70
5. 55
5.40
6.00
5. 35
5.35
5.35
5.40
5.35
6.40
6.25
6.00
0.00
6.60
6.60
6.00
5.50
6.00
5.65
6. 75
6.50
6.50
5.85
5.70
6.35
6.15
6.15
7.10
6.00
0.00
6.00
5.75
5.80
6.00
6.10
6.30
0.40
6.75
7.00
7.00
Native beeves.
Low.
$3.40
3.50
4.00
4.50
4.35
4.25
5.00
5.00
4.15
4.50
3.20
3.00
3. 35
3.15
3.45
3.20
3.85
3.75
3.65
3.85
3.60
3.90
3.00
2.05
3.20
3.00
2.75
3.00
3.00
3.50
3.40
3.25
4.00
4.25
3.10
3.10
3.05
3.15
3.20
3.25
3.75
3.70
3.50
3.25
3.40
3.10
3.50
3.05
3.10
3.00
3.10
3.35
3.50
3.35
3.10
3.05
2.90
3.75
3.25
3.00
654
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUTTER.
Wholesale prices of butter per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
New York.
Cincinnati.
Chicago. Elgin.
Date.
Creamery
extra.
Creamery.
Creamery Creamery
firsts. extra.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low. J
High.
Low.
High.
1902.
Cents.
23
26
27
22
22J
214
20l
19
194
224
25"
28
284.
26"
27
224
22
204.
19
19
19J
20
224.
23"
22
23
24
22
18
17f
174
174
19"
20
23
26
28
29}
25
27
201
194
204
20}
201
20
174
24'
25
26
27
21
19}
19i
204.
21
24
25}
27"
304
Cents.
26
30
30
33
25
224
21*
204
23"
25
28}
30"
28}
28
294
294
23"
22}
204
191
211
221
25}
25}
24}
264
26}
24}
24}
181
18
19i
21
23',
26}
28"
304
35}
31}
32"
27
214
21 J
22
211
22
24}
26
274
27}
274
2.V
22
21
21}
24;
2.V
27
304
33"
Cents.
22
22
23
23
19
19
IS
17
17
204
21}
25"
22
22
244
194
174
18"
15}
16}
18"
194
214
194
214
22
20}
174
174
17"
17
19
20
23
26}
28
30
24
26
204
19"
19}
20
20
204
22
234
25}
26}
27
23
19
t$
20'
214
24"
241
20
30
Cents.
23
26
24
27
20
20
21
19
21}
22}
25
27
25
26
26
20}
21
20
18}
20
20
22}
23}
22}
24
24
23
21}
19
19
19
204
22'
25}
28
30}
34
30
32
25
21
204
214
214
23"
214
25'
27
294
28"
27
22
21
229
24"
254
27"
31
324
Cents.
20
20
22
18
19
18}
184
16"
17
19
214
23
20
20
24
21
17
18
17
16
17
17
18
19
17
18
19
19
15
15
15
15
16}
17
19
20
22
25
22
22
18
18
18
184
18"
19
20
19
20
22
21
17
164
16}
18
18
204
22"
22
25
Cents.
24
29
28
31
23
22
214
20"
22}
24}
27
28}
28
27}
284
28}
22"
22
20
19
21}
21}
24}
25
234
26"
26
24}
23
18
18
18}
194
22
24}
Cents.
24
254
26"
22
22
21
20
19
19
224
24}
28
25
25
274
224
20"
20
18}
18}
19}
204
22"
24
22
23
24}
23
17}
17}
17
17
19
20
23
Cents.
24}
29
28
30
22
22
July
21
20
224
244
27
29
1903.
29
27
28}
April
28*
22}
22
July
20
19}
21}
21}
24
25
1904.
24
26
26
24}
23
17}
July
17}
19
20
23
25
28 j 25
30 | 28
34 1 29
28
1905.
294
34
32
31
24
204
20}
21"
21
22
23
24}
27
27>
274
26}
20"
21
20
23
24
25}
28}
31
25
27
21
194
20
20
20}
21"
22}
24
26
27
27
21
19
19'
20"
214
24"
24}
26"
30
33
31}
25
20}
July
20
21
21
22}
24
25
1900.
27
284
28}
20
21
20
July.. .
21}
23
24}
26
30
31}
STxVTISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.
655
CHEESE.
Wholesale prices of cheese per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
Date.
1902.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1903.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1905.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1906.
January
February
Mareh.."
April
May
Juno
July
August
September
Oetobei
November
December
New York.
September,
colored.
Low.
Cents.
n\
m
12}
13
10J
9~h
9j
94
10f
12
12'.
13
High.
11
14
it
141
9',
9',
11
111
124
13|
133
14
Cents.
11|
12V
13*
13J
13
9|
10}
tog
12
12'.
13
13',
Cincinnati.
Factory.
Low. High
Cents.
10
10'.
11
11
11 J
10l
10T
m
10J.
n
12
12
12
i;v,
137
is7
11"
11
n
12
13
13
13j
13J
Chicago.
Young
Americas.
Low.
Cents.
11
11
n|
m
12
12
ioi
10
m
12
12i
13^
134
nigh.
Cents.
10*
10*
HJ
13
12 *
10J
m
10i
]oi|
nil
• in
ill
13
m
i-'i
12i
10\
101
to
9
9i
to
10
10
Cents.
«S
12'.
12.',
13
131
12J
10J
11
11}
Hi
12
13}
St. Louis.
Full cream.
Low. High
Cents.
105
12'.
13"
13?
12;
11
111.
1H
11}
ll!
12|
13!
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGBICULTUEE.
SHEEP AND WOOL.
Xumber and farm ralue of s/h
-_•■- : .
~-:~7
. u r - . -
:> .
Farm Talae.
...
- •-: ..
" ?24 27
is::
-..
1S73.
I
re.
33,002 ■<:
-.:. :-'.«.:••:•:
:.:."■ -.:.:
;o. ; :.? .•:•
• <-; _■:»:
» 35; 740, 300
ISTv 38,123,800
is.-:
i:.T' r Si
iss: - " -
ISM " . .
" '■•
lSV
"39.314
5_ '."
. ■-
hi.A
L95
2.14
261
2 43
-
213
221
207
i
-
. 5
- S
- M
L&l
. . .^. ...
71,032
-:.:■:•: :::
99C
110
606
:■--:
' 57a
:.>.;;
»: : "
• -_-
■_ :
- ::« : •
S5.1M.646
76,361. CSS
:•
va ::: s-::
106,595.954
:i4 :.■:.- s ::
::; ?:■: -
:;- ... -,-
N unl -: r.
Price
-- • : . '
:>s?
:-■
ISA
lflH
1892
uos
1894
:>:-:
■
1887
1898
1900
1901
iac
190S
1904
1905
1901
1901
...
<_ ■- ■■ ::.-
44,336,1172
-: ".-: : ::•:
44,93s, 363
- -• ■-.:
■
4: •• ■ -
■ . _ .
5: :
2.13
250
- :••
266
: :.
L5S
1.70
. ■-
2.45
293
. -
- '
259
. S3
,_ ... ...
; i
: ;
116.1.
125. 509,264
*.- .:■• ::■:>
:
- 2
. n
- - '
■■ ~ -
:-.-
127
17
Number, crtragt price, end far^i re' s on January 1,1
State or Territorv. Xamber.
r-
-
-'.■
Z. ' i -
" - ■
Rhode Island
?•"
Delaware
V- .r . - :
V.-rizv
Virginia
if ::h C-r:. z
Georgia
F.:-/i.
Ohk
: ■ -. : . ■ r
1...
v
Dakota
- :
•"• '•
: :. ■
44,198
::.■:■-
: i ■-
' . .
-- •■
.: ■ ■
.". ■ -:
:: • -
101.255
3.140,720
:< -.-
777 .-
2.10S. 795
436.593
703.502
■ '
674, 4B&
- IS
-
2 44
_
- ■
223
■
5- S3
545
550.
-" " : -
:;
£59
:
i
:
.
731
71
.574
"-
1
:."- :
-::: I .v--; ; ..-"
Xr:7^.. "
Ki-s.ii .
.... ::••:. :>:•:
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi 183,280
: :•:-. '.-—
1.665,963
Indian Territorv -I 30. 977
•: ^_i:-- >.:•'.
.•:i.-:..; y.-z --:':
V :_-__:. " "::
WTOming. 4,986,796
Colorado
XewMeiieo. -:
Arizona 859,397
Utah -
Nevada ;| 1,599,977
: : :.- ;- .-^ ::v
V-_;-^.-;: -.- :.'
Oregon. . ■
. . -. . . ....
-
■ . - -
- . . ..
STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL.
657
Imports and exports of sheep, with average prices, 1892-1906.
Imports.
Exports.
Year ended June 30—
Number.
Value.
Average
price.
Number.
Value.
Average
price.
1892
380, 814
459, 484
242,568
291, 461
322, (192
405, 633
392, 314
345, 911
381, 792
331, 488
266, 953
301, 623
238, 094
186. 942
240, 747
81, 440, 530
1,682,977
788, 181
682, 618
853,530
1,019,668
1, 100. ^
1,200,081
1,365,026
1, 236, 277
956, 711
1,036,934
815, 289
704, 721
1, 020, 859
83.78
3.06
3.25
2.34
2.65
2.51
2.82
3.47
3 58
3.73
3.58
3.44
3.42
3.77
4.24
46, 960
37, 260
132, 370
405, 748
491, 565
244, 120
199, 690
143, 280
125, 772
297, 925
358, 720
176, 961
301,313
268, 365
142,690
$161, 105
126, 394
832, 763
2, 630, 686
3,076,384
1,531,645
1, 213, 886
853, 555
733, 477
1,933,000
1,940,060
1,067,860
1,954,604
1,687,321
804, 090
$3 43
1893
3 39
1894
6 29
1895
6 43
1896
1897
6 27
1898
6.08
1899
5 96
1900
5 83
1901
6.49
1902
5.41
1903
6 03
1904
6.49
1905
6.29
1906
5.64
Prices of sheep per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
Date.
Chicago.
Cincinnati.
St. Louis.
Omaha.
Inferior to
choice.
Goo .t
3 extra.
Good to
choice natives.
Native.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High. .
$2.00
$4.75
$3.00
$4.25
$4.25
$5.00
$4.00
$5.15
2.00
5.50
3.50
5.50
4.75
5.60
4.20
5.85
3.00
5.75
4.25
5.50
5.50
5.75
4.40
5.90
2.50
6.50
3.75
5.50
5.50
6.25
4.75
6.25
2.25
6.50
4.35
5.75
6.00
6.35
5.40
6.00
1.50
6.25
3.50
4.60
3.70
5.60
4.50
6.00
1.75
5.00
3.10
4.00
4.00
4.60
3.80
4.50
1.59
4.25
4.50
2.25
2.00
4.00
3.40
3.85
3.65
4.35
4.00
1.50
2.00
3.40
1.50
4.25
2.65
3.40
3.90
4.00
3.00
4.10
1.50
4.25
2.50
3.35
3.75
4.00
3.40
4.25
1.25
4.75
2.75
4.00
3.80
4.50
3.50
4.75
1.50
5.25
3.25
4.50
4.50
5.00
3.60
5.40
2.00
5.75
3.75
5.00
5.25
5.25
4.50
5. SO
2.00
7.00
4.25
6.00
5.50
6.15
4.60
6.75
2.25
7.00
4.10
6.25
6.00
6.25
4.50
6.75
-1.60
6.25
3.60
4.75
4.50
5.25
4.00
5.50
2.00
6.00
3.00
4.50
4.50
4.75
3.80
5.50
1.50
5.25
2.90
4.00
3.75
4.75
3.00
4.50
1.50
4.25
2.75
3.35
3.50
3.85
3.00
4.00
1.50
4.25
2.60
3.40
3.65
4.00
3.50
3.50
1.50
4.25
2.75
3.50
3.65
4.00
3.55
3.55
1.25
4.35
2.60
3.35
3.60
3. 65
3.25
4.00
1.50
4.25
2.60
3.75
3.65
3.85
3.25
4.40
2.00
4.75
3.25
4.00
3.75
4.75
2.25
5.10
2.00
4.75
3.40
4.60
4.75
4.75
2.60
5.25
2.00
5.50
3.65
4.50
4.75
4.90
2.53
5.25
2.50
6.00
4.00
4.50
5.40
5.60
3.25
5.65
2.00
6.00
3.75
4.55
5.50
5.65
4.00
5.90
1.75
5.50
3.00
4.40
4.60
5.50
4.00
5.25
1.50
5.50
2.75
4.00
4.00
4.25
3.75
5.00
2.00
4.25
2.75
4.00
3.75
4.00
3.40
4.35
1.75
4.50
4.75
5.00
2.75
2.75
2.75
3.50
3.50
4.00
3.75
4.10
4.25
4.00
4.50
4.75
1.50
1.75
3.75
4.50
2.50
5.65
3.50
4.50
4.75
4.90
4.00
5.50
4.50
5.85
4.10
5.25
5.15
6. 35
3.25
6.25
4.50
6.25
4.50
5.50
5.50
6.15
3.00
6.90
4.75
6.25
4.75
5.50
5.85
6.25
3.00
6.75
4.50
6.30
4.50
5.25
5.25
5.90
2.75
6.75
4.00
5.50
3.85
5.00
5.00
5.40
2.50
6.00
4.00
5.25
3.60
4.35
4.80
5. 00
2.50
5.70
4.00
5.90
3.60
4.75
5.00
5.50
4.75
6.00
4.00
5.65
3.75
4.50
4.60
5.20
4.00
5.30
3.80
5.40
4.00
4.75
5.00
5.00
3.75
5.25
4.00
5.70
4.00
5.25
5.25
5.60
4.00
6.00
4.25
6.10
4.10
5.00
5.25
5.75
4.25
6.00
4.25
6.25
4.10
5.15
5.50
6.00
4.50
6.25
1902.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1903.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August ; ,
September
October
November
December
1905.
Janua ry
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
3 A1906 42
658 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Prices of sheep per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States. 1902-1906 — Cont'd.
Chicago.
Cincinnati.
St. Louis.
Omaha.
Date.
Inferior to
choice.
Good to extra.
Good to
choice natives.
Native.
Low. High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
1906.
January
$3. 70
- -'
S4.50
$5.50
So. 75
- -
54.00
$4.60
February
3.50
0.25
4. 35
5.50
5.50
_
3.50
-
3.50
3.50
6.50
6. 50
5.00
4.00
5.75
5.75
5.50
5.50
6. 45
6.00
2. 75
3.25
6.00
April
Mav
6.15
3.75
6.50
4.10
4.75
6.00
_
4. 50
6.40
June
3.50
25
4.40
5. 25
6.00
0.10
3.80
6.50
Julv
3.00
6.25
4.10
4.75
5.25
5. 75
4.00
6.25
Aug ast
3.00
5.60
4.10
4.75
5.00
5.50
4.:"
5.85
September
3.50
5.75
4.10
4.75
5.35
i n
5.85
October
3.50
o. 15
3.85
4.75
5. 35
5.50
4.75
5. 65
November
3.25
O. 10
4.00
4.C0
5.50
5.60
4. 90
6.10
December
3.00
7.00
4.00
4.75
5.50
6.00
4.75
6.35
Wool product of the United States for 1906. by States.
[Estimate of National Association of Wool Manufacturers.]
State or Tenit nry.
Number of AJ£j**ffe Percent Wool,
~V « ™^ of shrink- -washed and
100? aSe>1£06- unwashed.
sheep Apr
1, KOO,
Wool,
scoured.
Maine
New Hampshire .
Vermont
Massachusetts. .
Rhode Island . . .
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania. . .
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia. ..
North Carolina . .
South Carolina. .
Georgia
Florida
Ohio
Indiana
Hlinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa .
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota . . .
Nebraska
Kansas
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Indian Territory-
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah.
Nevada
Idaho
Washington.
Oregon
California...
200,000
63,000
HO, 000
26,000
6,500
26,000
725.000
32,000
850,000
6,500
100,000
350,000
480,000
205,000
50,000
250,000
105.534
1,S50,000
800,000
550.000
1,500,000
SOO.OOO
350,000
500,000
714,264
375,000
575,000
250.000
170,000
575,000
275,1300
175.000
165,000
155.000
1,440,000
60,000
200,000
4,940,000
4,531,000
1,400,000
2,900,000
680,000
1,900,000
650,000
2,300,000
575,000
1,800,000
1,750,000
rounds.
6
6.2
6
5.S
5.5
5.5
6
5. 5
6
6
5.5
4.25
4
3.8
3
6.25
6. 25
6.5
6.3
6. 75
7
6.5
6.45
6.5
6.5
7.5
7. 5
4. 75
4. 25
3.25
4
3.7
6.5
4.5
7. 25
5.5
6. 5
6.5
8
7. 35
8.5
8.5
7.5
Per cent
40
50
51
42
42
42
50
50
50
50
45
38
48
42
42
40
40
50
45
48
50
48
52
50
48
61
60
67
'.7
40
40
42
42
66
67
41
65
68
67
62
66
65
69
67
70
70
67
6. 66
100,010,942
29,400,000
Total product, 1900 1 ' 298,915,130 | 129,410,942
United States ' 38,540,7?
Fulled wool ,
61.08
30
Pounds.
1,200,000
390,600
960,000
150,800
35,750
143,000
4,350,000
176,000
5,100,000
39,000
560,000
1,750,000
2
J01.25::i
200,000
950,000
316,602
1 ; _ :
5.000.000
3,. "75, POO
9,450,000
5,400,000
2,450,000
• J
2.437.5IM
3,737,500
1,275,800
1,116,875
680,000
573,500
9,360,000
360,000
900,000
35,815,000
32,849,750
9,450,000
15,950,000
4,420,000
12,350,000
5,200,000
10,905,000
4,887,500
15,300,000
13,125.000
Pounds.
720,000
195.300
87,464
20,735
52
2,175,000
88,000
2,550,000
19,500
275.000
1,085,000
n
.505.325
116,000
570,000
189,961
5,781,250
2,750,000
.-
1,170,000
-■
2,395,6/52
950,625
1,495,000
■ ""
1,693,375
070. 125
341.250
382,800
■-
118,800
531,000
52,535.250
10. 51!. 920
3.11-. 500
6,061,000
1,502,800
4,322.500
1,612,000
. ..
1,466,250
4,5PO,000
4.331.250
256,915,130
42,000,000
STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL.
659
Wholesale prices of wool per pound in leading cities of the United States. 1902-1906.
Boston.
New York.
Philadelphia.
St. Louis.
D:ite.
XX Ohio,
washed.
XX Ohio.
XX Ohio,
washed.
Best tub-
washed.
Low.
nigh.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High. .
1002.
Penis.
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
29
30
29
32
32
31
31
31
30
31
33
33
34
34
34
34
33';
33
33
32
32
32
34
34
34
34
35
34
34
- 34
34
34
84
36
35
36
36
30
35
:;-,
34
!
34
34
34
34
34
34
334
34
Cents.
27
27
27
27
27
27',
2S"
28
29
30
31
32
32',
33"
32
32
32
34
34
35
35
35
35
35
34
34
34
34
33
34
35
35
35
35
36
30
35
35
35
35
36
37
37
37
37
37
36
36
36
:,!'.
34$
344
34*.
:;-47
:."■
35
34 j
34
m
Cents.
20
26
26
26J
2-T
264.
264.
2!ii;
Cents.
27
27
27*
2Vi
27:
27.'.
27 1
27*
CattS.
20
28
26
20
26
20
26 j
27 j
27
27
31
31
31
31
31
31
30
32
32
32
33
33
33
33
33
33
325
31|
31 J
33
33
33
33
334.
34
34
34
34
34
34
35
35
35
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
334.
:;:;.'.
33|
33|
33
33
Cents.
27
27
27
27
27
27
27'.
29
30
32
32
32
32
32
32
31
33
33
33
34
34
34
33
33
33
33
324.
314
33
33
33
33
334
36
35
35
35
36
36
30
36
36
35
35
35
" 35
35
35
35
35
34 J
34
34
34
34
34
34
Cents.
24
2-1'.
Cents.
244.
244
24 24
April
24 24
May
24 25
J uue
24 25
July
24 25'.
25* 204.
26* 274
2t4
28 ' 27
28
30
31
31
31
31
30
30
30
31
28
28
28
28
2S
28
28
28
28
28
28
32
34
32
32
32
32
32
31
31
32
32
35
35
34
35
XX w
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
20
32
32
32
32
32
33
31
31
33
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
35
35
35
35
35
35
3.5
34
36
36
36
30
39
38
38
38
38
ashed.
38
38
38
38
3S
38
38
38
38
38
38
38
27'. 28 4
28 29
1S03.
29 29
29 ( 29
28 29
Apnl .
27 ! 28J.
May
27
23 29
July
29 294
29
30
SO
29!
30
304
31
December
30 i 30 4.
1&04.
30' 304
30! 31
March
304 31
304 31
30 J
32 33
July
33 344
35 35
35 36
October
34', 30i
37 40
40 41
1905.
40 41
39 i 41
37 38
37 394
30
41
41
414
42
42
41
41
33
31
30
30
38
38
38
37
37
37
37
38
43
424.
42
July
«4
42
424
42
414
1900.
35
38
38
40
39
384,
384.
38
38
37 '.
38
660 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Range of prices per pound of ivool in Boston, monthly, 1902-1906.a
Date
1902.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1903.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1905.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1900.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Ohio fine,
unwashed.
Low. High
as.
19i
20"
191
19J
19
19
20
20
21J
211
2l|
23
23
as.
20
20
191
191
19V
20
20
21
211
21»
22
23
Indiana
quarter-
blood,
unwashed.
Low. High,
as.
22
22
211
211
201
204
21"
22
22
23
23
24
231
24
22
22
22
22
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24.'*
241
25
24
L>4
27
28
28
28
30
31
a.«.
22
22
22
21i
20*
21"
22
23
23
23
23
24
25
251
2'..',
251
25
27
30
30
29
30
32
33
34
34
32J
32!
321
32}
34
34
34
34
311
32
Ohio XX,
washed.
Low. High
as.
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
29
30
29
32
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
331
331
34
as.
27
27
27
27
27
27?,
28
28
29
30
31
32
321
33
32
32
32
34
34
35
35
35
35
35
36
341
341
34>
341
341
35
35
;:r.
■Ml
34
341
Ohio, No. 1,
washed.
Low. High
as.
27
27
261
26i
26"
26
26
28
29
30
30
31
as.
27
27
27
261
26"
26
27
29
30
30
31
31
Ohio
Delaine,
washed.
Low. High
as.
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
30
311
311
311
33
34
34
331
331
331
34
36
36
36
36
35
35
35
35
35
34
34
34
35
351
351
35!
35.'.
37
37
36
36
36
36
39
38
39
39
37
3i;'.
36"
361
361
3l>!
361
361
36
361
36
36
351
351
36j
as.
29
29
29
281
281
29
31
33
32
32
33
35
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
3t,l
371
Michigan
X. washed. 6
Low. High
a Furnished by Commercial Bulletin, Boston.
b Since June 12, 1903, the standard quotation has been Michigan fine unwashed.
STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL. 661
Range of prices per pound of wool in Boston, monthly, 1902-1906 — Continued.
Date.
Fine select- Fine medi-
ed Terri- | um Terri-
tory, staple tory, eloth-
scoured. ! ing scoured.
1902.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1903.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1904.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1905.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1906.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
High.
Low.
55
44
55
46
55
45
52
44
52
42
52
42
55
45
57
47
57
49
57
49
58
49
59
50
GO
54
58
52
56
52
55
52
55
50
55
50
55
52
•56
52
56
52
56
52
56
51
55
51
52
50
55
50
55
50
55
50
53
50
58
50
62
53
63
58
65
58
65
60
70
60
70
65
70
62
70
60
68
60
70
60
74
62
76
65
78
67
78
67
78
68
78
68
78
66
78
66
78
65
76
66
73
66
73
66
73
66
73
66
75
68
75
68
75
68
75
65
72
65
73
66
Texas, 12
months,
scoured.
Low. High
Fine free
fall, Texas
or Califor-
nia scoured
Low. High
46
Pulled, A
super,
scoured.
Low. High
Pulled, B
super,
scoured.
Low. High.
2
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUEE.
SWINE.
■:t and far
t d farms January
.
Y -: :
Nino] Be.
per head.
.
1
ISB9
IS
B
- 62,20
- .
. " . •
34
1881 a 247
1832 ...
18S3
. '
iSv i 92,04
1888
UBB 1,592
189'
U91 25,10
1892
am
UBf . .
1897
1899
an - - •
fan ■. .
19J: ._ 2
MM
1906 17,320,511
1906 . . "
$4.03
4.01
•
4.80
6.00
5.66
5.57
" .
4.9v
n
4 is
■ ■
i
4.35
4.39
4.40
■ I
.
6.15
" -
2
!
! ---
127,45
22
-
IS - 251,110
i -
S •"" ..
' : '
71 " i
SI ! ..
!
220,8]
7 1
- 193,923
•1,415
295,43 ■ .
27 ■ .
272 77
174. 35
i
' 72 _
342. 1 2
364. "
!
417,791 .
»73
1,399
$40,092
i
- ■
!
• 77
61.390
7.00
n
".
- ■
1,625
10.25
- 2
" - "
11.38
"
9.85
"
. 74
9.13
75,12
' . 2
9.32
S3, 434
.
5.05
""
"". •
7.39
■
:
14.01
.
272 "
16.90
-
23 ■
i
55 '
"
"
'
2 2 "
9.09
75 J
5 75
7.49
. "■-
193.017
8.13
-
356. 764
7.91
91,148
2
"
1.146.630
11.99
11.39
23 75
397. 162
75
9.50
!
-
10.16
-
227 . "
10.80
.- 751
. "
10.30
14,411
2
7.67
:
6.88
7.71
-.
. ■
10.68
-
10.56
.
10.15
6.345
- ;
-
"
630. 998
10.66
13. 19
lue of " ■Slates on Janu
Vermont
Rhode Island
setic .:
Fork
I rrS-rT
Pennsylvania. . . .
Delaware
and
. oia...
ina..
. Carolina..
Georgia
Florida
Obi
Indiana
M. . ...r ."
Wist oai
K.-_: • ■
iri
. Dakota...
:.
i
61, 707
1 . •
" •-,
9.00
10.00
-
9.90
1
. 25
.-
156,952
::. •
989 G85
9.40
46,491
- •
296.130
2
' • -s
i 25
"■ -•
6.60
L,2 784
5.30
; .
5.60
1,582,7
6.00
-
3.30
2. 436. 797
• .'
2.924.87
VI
'.•?
: -■:-. r-4»
■ E
1.87 20
'
. 77.00
9.00
9.50
3.454.950
'
. 1 285
■ 75
»17 2
-
711 ""
- ■-
2 ;
72 -- .
9,303,039
71 -■
. _•• ■ :
2 "
• '•- 75
. . 744
h Dakota . . .
saa
ma
issi] pi
Louiaiaii
Texas
I
Oklahc::
_
la
Idaho
ington.
Ore? i
-
!
1.213.380
I 25 25
2,86 "
Tt .
1,174,20
16.777
124.54-5
23.291
55
22
172 "
■ 2
• -
5.50
i
4. 75
7.40
4.15
9.20
8.30
■ ■
7.00
7.50
- I
• I
I
6.90
I
$8,831,025
■ - 75
252 .
" 2 I
_
■
72
576 " :
139,249
163,037
I
25
5.54,;
7.62
STATISTICS OF HOGS.
663
Wholesale prices of live hogs per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States,
1902-1906.
Date
January . . .
February..
Mm rch
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October...
November.
December. .
January . . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October. . .
November.
December. .
January . . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December . .
January. ..
February..
March
April
May
Juiie
July
August
September.
October. ..
November.
December. .
January.. .
February..
March
April
May
June ......
July
August
September.
October.. .
November.
December. .
1002.
wo:;
1905.
1900.
Cincinnati.
Packing, fair
to good.
$0.00
6. 05
6.20
6.75
6.65
0.70
7.25
6.40
6.90
0. 50
5.85
6.05
6.25
6.70
7.05
ft 70
5.75
5.70
5.15
5.40
5.80
5.10
4 15
4.25
4. 75
4.85
5.35
4.90
4.50
4.55
5.25
5.20
5.55
5.00
4.45
4.35
4.00
4.80
5.00
5.25
5.30
5.30
5.45
5.90
5.15
4.95
480
4 80
5.30
5. 65
6.30
6.35
6.25
6.30
6. 65
6.00
6.10
6.10
0.10
0. 10
$6. 50
6.50
6.95
7.30
7.25
7.70
8.00
7.70
7.80
7.70
6.60
6.65
6.95
7.30
7.75
7.45
6.85
6.25
5.90
6.05
6.35
6.20
5.35
4 95
5.25
5.85
6. 00
5.50
5.00
5.55
5.95
5.85
6.25
6.10
5.20
4 90
4.95
5.35
5.65
5.80
5.60
5.55
6.20
6.35
6.25
5.70
5.15
5.45
5.80
5.45
6.75
6.75
6.62
6.85
6.95
6.72
6.80
6.80
6.50
6.55
St. Louis.
Mixed packers.
Low. High.
SO. 10
5.85
5.80
6.80
6.70
6.95
7.50
6.70
7.30
6.40
6.05
5.95
6.15
6.60
6.95
6.50
5.80
5.50
5.30
5.20
5.55
5.30
4 50
4 20
4. 65
4 70
5.20
4.75
4 55
4 57
5.10
5.10
5.30
4 90
4.50
4.25
4 75
4.97
5.25
5.60
5.40
5.42
5.75
6.30
5.00
5.15
4 95
5.00
5.10
5.35
6.10
6.25
6.22
6.20
6.55
6.05
6.12
6.15
6.07
5.95
S6. 90
6.50
6.924
7.50"
7.50
7.95
8.15
8.12J
8.20
7.90
6.90
6.70
6.95
7.30
7.60
7.40
7.05
6.20
5.95
5.90
6.20
6.25
5.50
4 85
5.25
5.80
5.75
5.671
4 90
5.50
5.75
5.721
6.25
0.30
5. 17*
4 85"
Chicago.
Low. High.
84 40
4 40
4 75
5.40
5.40
5.65
5.70
5.30
5.50
4 50
4 60
4 60
5.00
5.30
6.00
6.30
5.10
5.25
4 60
4 50
4 85
4 00
3.75
3.80
3.85
3.90
4 00
3.75
3.70
4 00
4 70
4.60
4 70
4 40
3.65
3.60
5.02
3.90
5. 20
4 10
5.57
4 15
5.70
4 50
5. 57
4 60
5. 65
4 50
6.20
4 80
6. 35
5.25
6. 00
4.40
5. 55
4 40
5. 12$
4 20
5.30
4 50
5.45
4.60
6.20
5.10
6.45
a 50
0. 65
5.15
6.57
5.10
6.75
5.25
6.97
5.60
6.67
5.10
6.67
5.25
6.70
5. 16
6. 42
5.20
6.45
5.30
SO. S5
6. S3
7.00
7.50
7.50
7.95
8.75
7.95
8.20
7.90
6.95
6.85
7.00
7.55
7.85
7.65
7.15
6.35
6.20
6.15
6.45
6. .50
5.50
4 90
5.20
5.80
5. 821
5.30
4 95
5. 47
5.90
5.80
6. 37*
6. 27|
5.25
4 87i
5.00
5.15
5.55
5. 7 J.1
5.65
5.65
6.15
6.45
6.20
5. SO
5.25
5.35
5.70
6.40
6.55
6.821
0. 671
6. 85'
7.00
6.80
6.80
6.85
6. 50
6.55
Omaha.
Low.
$5. 40
5.25
5.50
6.20
6.50
6.70
6.85
6.50
7.05
6.40
5.95
5. 75
6.00
6.35
6.75
6.60
5.50
5.50
4 90
492;
5.05'
4 80
410
4 15
4 20
4 50
4.60
4 50
4 20
4 27
4 50
4.65
5.00
4.92:
4 45
4 25
4 30
4.40
450
5.10
5.00
4.90
5.05
5.50
4 85
4 75
4 50
4 65
4.85
5.25
5.85
6.10
6.10
6.10
6.15
5.45
5.40
5. 92i
5.80"
5.90
664
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EGGS.
Wholesale prices of eggs per dozen in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906.
New York.
Cincinnati.
Chicago.
St. Louis.
Date.
Average best i
fresh.
Fresh.
Average best
fresh.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
High.
Low. High.
1902.
Cents.
26
27
Cents.
34
37
Cents.
22
21
134
14"
14
14
14
14
Hi'.
18
19
21
20
12
12
12
134
134
12"
124
18
19
20
20
23
19
144
154
15"
154
154
15"
16
18
21
22
22
24
144
15
15
14*
14"
14
17
184
23
24
16
13
13
14
14
14
14
144
19
22
28
25
Cents.
30
32
23
15
15
144
144
16
184
21
23
23
26
20
164
14
14
14
14
18
19
22
28
26
32
29
20
17
17
16
16
18
19
20
26
27
27
30
23
16
16
15
144
17
19
23
28
27
24
17
134
164
144
144
154
18'
21
24
29
29
Cents.
18
234
13J
14
144
14}
17
16
17
20
2 1 j
20
21
14
124
124
13
124
11
10
16
17
18
22
22
18
14f
154
14
13
11
11
13
13
17
16
18
20
144
144
14"
12
12
124
13
15
16
18
16
11
12
14
12
12
12
12
12
15
20
20
Cents.
28
334
264
16
154
17"
18
18
204
22
24
25
264
20"
20
154
15"
154
16
19
20
23
28
30
344
334
20
184
18
174
20
204
22
234
28
30
31
36
31
19
184
174
204
22
224
25"
30
31
27
214
17
194
18*
19"
184
204
244
27
32
36
Cents.
22
21
134
134
134
13
11|
13
15
17
194
2DJ
17J
124
11
11
12J
124
11
14
184
19
214
24
28
173
13i
144
13
14',
13"
16
174
19
214
24
22
28
14
144
124
14"
104
14
164
164
19
224
14
114
12
13J
13
15
12*
13"
15
18
20
21
Cents.
26
32
154 30
264
154
16
17
18
18
20
21
22
24
24
16
144
15
16
174
184
154
19"
21
90
28
27
20
16
17
17
174
174
19"
20
20
21
20
22
24
17
174
174
164
164
18
20
21
25
26
174
154
144
17
16
17
17
18
21
20
20
22
18
174
20
20',
21
24
25
26
29
2S
25
21
174
19
194
23
26
28
33
45
45
47
40
25
21
21
21
24
26
30
30
38
40
40
40
40
21
21
22
25
28
30
35
40
40
34
27
22
22
21
23
25
28
33
35
42
45
154
May
15
15J
July
144
16
20
184
224
224
1903.
224
18
164
14i
14
15
July
124
19
19
21*
26
28J
1904.
29
29
16
154
154
154
July
174
19*
204
204
27
27
1905.
29
34
224
154
164
154
July
14
161
164
19
24
24
190C.
22
17
15
16
14
17
July
13
15
174
22
26
26
TRANSPORTATION RATES.
665
TRANSPORTATION RATES.
Quotations of oc can freight rates on corn, wheat, cotton, and lard from United States
ports to Liverpool diiring 1906.
Article and port.
Corn and wheat (per
CO lbs.) :
Boston
New York
Baltimore
New Orleans
Galveston
Cotton(perl001bs.):
Boston
New York
Baltimore
New Orleans
Galveston
Lard, small pack-
ages (per 100 lbs.):
Boston
New York
Baltimore
New Orleans
Galveston
Mean for month.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Cents.
5.25
4.72
5.51
7.75
G.75
17.00
19.00
25.00
35.50
35.65
19.69
18.98
21.09
27.00
20.00
Cents.
4.07
4.07
3.94
6.82
6.38
14.75
18.00
21.50
33.00
30.58
16.88
16.88
19.69
27.00
18.00
Cents
3.36
3.26
3.68
6.30
6.00
12.
18.00
15.20
32.00
30.00
16.88
16.88
19.69
25.67
IS. 00
Cents
3.15
2.89
3.41
6.30
6.00
11.00
16.00
15.00
30.00
29.1
16.88
16.88
19. 69
23.00
18.00
Cents
3.15
2.76
3.41
6.30
6.00
11.00
15.00
12.00
29.20
28.25
16.88
16.88
18.28
23.00
18.00
Cents.
3.15
2.20
2.10
6.30
6.00
10.25
14.60
12.00
28.00
27.00
16.88
16.88
18.28
23.00
17.00
Cents.
3.15
2.43
3.68
6.30
6.00
10.25
13.50
12.00
26.00
25.9:
16.88
16.88
18. 28
23.00
17.00
Cents.
3.15
3.15
4.33
6.51
6.00
13.60
16.00
16. 00
30.00
29. 07
16.88
16.88
18.28
23.40
17.00
Cents.
3.15
3.04
6.17
7.22
7.50
15.00
18.40
21.00
34. 33
35.00
16.88
16.88
18.28
25. 00
19.00
Cents.
3.15
3.28
3.41
7.35
7.62
14.00
22.50
22.00
39.40
38.04
16.88
16.88
18.28
25.00
21.50
Cents.
3.15
2.63
3.94
7.74
7.62
12.80
18.00
22.00
40.00
40.69
16.88
16.88
18.28
25. 00
21.50
Cents.
3.15
2.84
4.73
7.48
7.31
12.00
17.80
22.00
37.50
38.71
16.88
16.88
18.28
2S.00
20.00
Mean
for
year.
Cents.
3.42
3.11
4.03
6.86
6.60
12.87
17.23
17.98
32.91
32.44
17.11
17.06
18.87
24.59
18.75
Live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per
100 pounds.
.
Dressed
Dressed
3
a
hogs.
3
S
hogs.
u
■a
o
■3
SB
o
B
Year.
cj
,9
o3 .
o
Year.
.3
O
"3
S.E
es
■3
!n ">
ss°,
cS
o
O
H
ft
0)
cj
XI
02
o
W
Mc3
CJ
ss
o
o
CJ
C
o
K
p.
CJ
CJ
.3
m
O
w
2
P
60 sj
CJ
a *
K cj
o
o
1882
36
40
31
31
29
32
28
26
53
50
44
43
CO
60
60
60
57
64
51
54
1895
28
28
28
28
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
CO
CO
60
CO
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
1883
1896 .
45
1884
1897
1898
45
1885
45
1886
33
30
49
CO
61
53
48
1899"
*"i
*>5
?"i
CO
40
40
45
40
45
1887
33
32
40
CO
62
59
54
1900
?8
30
30
CO
45
1888
oo
">0
31
CO
46
46
44
1901
*>8
30
30
60
42 9
42 9
1889
25
B3
30
°8
30
30
CO
CO
47
39
47
39
45
39
1902 .
28
98
30
30
30
30
60
60
41.2
45
41.2
45
41.2
1890
1903
45
1891
27
28
30
28
30
30
CO
CO
45
45
45
45
45
45
1904 .
28
30
30
30
30
60
60
45
45
45
45
45
1892
1905
45
1893
28
28
20
30
30
30
60
60
45
45
45
45
45
45
1906
28
30
30
60
45
45
45
1894
o Rates did not go into effect until February 1, 1899. Until that time the 1898 rates governed.
666
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
York by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per 100 pounds.
Yea r.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
The
vear.
39
39
39
34.5
30.5
30.5
30.5
30.5
30.5
30.5
31.5
35
33.41
1881
3o
35
35
30.5
"
_' "
21.5
21.5
21 5
21.5
21.5
21.5
26. 73
21.5
24.3
26
2>;
26
26
26
26
26
26
30.5
1S83
30.5
30.5
30.5
29.2
26
20
26
26
26
26
2 "
30.5
27.83
30.5
30. 5 23. 3
17.5
17. 5
18. 4
23
26
26
26
-
26
24. 22
188S
20
20.6
• "
17.5
17.5
21.5
21.5
21.5
22. S
26
21. 10
1886
2
-
26
-
26
_
-
26
26
27.7
26.14
1887
30.5
30.5
30.5
26
.
-
.
26
26
.
iss*
-
26. 3
.
26
19.9
17.3
15.5
18.8
21. 5
23.6
23.11
.
-
-
26
26
26
26
_
.
2
26
26
1890
26
.
26
26
26
26
26
24. 8
20
20
20
20
23.89
1891
20
-
21.5
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
-
-
26
. ;
_
26
26
26
26
_
_
-
26
26
26
_
_
26
2b
-
26
26
26
26
26
26.
26
2-3
26
-
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
.
26
26
26
26
-
26
26
26
26
26
-
26
26
26
26
26
- 1
-
26
-
26
26
26
26
-•
20
26
.
26
26
26
21.5
26
26
26
26
26
.
26
26
_
26
-
26
26
21. 5
26
2
26
26
26
_
26
_
.
26
26
21.5
26
-
26
26
26
26
_
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
21.5
26
-
26
26
26
26
21.5
2
26
26
26
26
23
26
26
21.5
26
26
26
26
21.5
26
-
26
26
26
21.5
_
26
21.5
20
26
26
I
26
26
21.5
26
-
26
26
21.5
25. 36
1890
23.70
1S93
25.43
1894
26
iS95
1896
26
1S97
-
_
24. S3
1900
26
1901
26
1901
26
19< '3
26
1904
26
1905 ...
25
1906...
26
Compressed cotton, by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per 100 pounds.
From Xew Orleans a
From Mem-
From New Orleans a
From Mem-
to
phis to —
Year.
to
—
phis to—
Year.
J
g
-
-
g
-i
—
z
>
--
—
a
I
z
>
a
z
a
z
o
>
—
_=
w Y,
c
i
-
-
z
C
:.
-
=:
-
X
-
-
z
-
m
fc
-
-
z pq
1883
60
■
52
72
77
1S95
53
48
4^
->
50.5 55.5
1884
60
•
53
52
54
.59
1896
55
50
50
50
50.5 55.5
1S85
60
U
.53
52
■
58
1S97
55
50
50
50
50 55
1n80
2
47
45
44
53 58
55
50
50
50
47 52
1887
50
45
43
42
53 58
1S99
'-
47
47
47
48 53
1888
50
45
43
42
47 52
1900
55
50
50
50
50. 5 55. 5
1889
52
47
45
44
50. 5 55
1901
55
50
50
50
50. 5 55. 5
1890
55
50
50
50. 5 55
1902
55
50
50
50
50. 5 55. 5
1S91
55
50
50
50
50.5 55
1903
55
50
50
50
50. 5 55. 5
1S92
55
50
50
50
50. 5 55
1904
55
50
50
50
50. 5 50. 5
1893
55
50
50
50
47 52
1905
55
50
50
50
40. 5 45. 5
1S94
51
50
50
50
50. 5 55. 5
1900
50
50
50
50
40. 5 45. 5
a These rates are mainly used for basing purposes.
TRANSPORTATION RATES.
667
Corn and wheat: Mean proportional export freight rates per 100 pounds from Kansas City
and Omaha to leading Calf and Atlantic ports during the calendar years 1905 and 1906.
Destination and article.
From Kansas
City.
From Omaha.
1905.
1906.
1905. ; 1906.
New Orleans:
Corn
Cents.
14. S
6 16.1
14.8
6 16.1
22.2
d 2.3. 0
22. 2
d 25. 0
21.2
'24.0
20.7
<*23.5
Cents,
a 16. 5
»17.1
16.5
17.1
23.4
t 21. 5
23.4
■ 21. 5
22.4
«20.5
21.9
«20.0
Cents.
15.8
6 17.4
15.8
6 17.4
22. 2
<*2o.O
22.2
<*25.0
21.2
<*24.0
20.7
d23.b
Cents.
- -
Wheat
Galveston:
Corn
Wheat
1S.1
23 4
Boston: c
Corn
Wheat
New York: c
Cora
23.4
t 21 5
Wheat
Philadelphia: c
Corn
22 4
"Wheat
«20 5
Baltimore: c
Corn
21.9
*20.0
"Wheat
a From April 25 to August 10, 1906, inclusive, rates used in computing this average include delivery
on board ship.
6 For July 25 to December 31, 1905, inclusive.
c Rates include delivery on board ship.
d For second half of 1905 only.
e Average based upon rates in force for two periods, amounting together to about 30 days.
Corn and Wheat: Mean rates, in cents, per bushel, Chicago to Xeic York.
Year.
Corn.
By lake By lake
and canal." and rail.
By all rail.
By lake
and canal.'*
By lake
and rail.
By all rail.
1S75.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
iss.-,.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
189'4.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
8 75
9.59
&83
10.49
13.41
7.77
0. 72
8.03
6.55
0.3
S. 45
8.5
6.71
6.32
5.93
6.32
5.95
7.18
4.93
4.50
5.75
153
6 3.81
6 5.08
6 4.07
6 4.61
6 4.83
6 4.85
6 3.63
6 4. 76
6 5. 51
11.34
9.68
13.42
10.45
12.2
14.43
9.42
10.28
11
8.5
8.01
11.2
11.2
10.26
8.19
7. 32
7.53
7.21
7.97
6.5
6.4
6.15
6. 92
4.41
5.83
4.72
5.16
5.51
5.78
4.82
5.19
5.72
19.5
14.12
18.03
16.39
14.56
17.48
13.4
13.5
15.12
12.32
12. 32
14
14.7
13.54
12. 6
11. 36
14
12.96
13.65
12. 32
10.29
10.5
11.43
9.8
10.08
9.19
9.21
9.94
10.54
10.38
9.40
9.52
9.82
11.09
9.96
11.87
13. 13
8.67
7.23
9.01
7
6.54
9.10
9.5
7.05
6.92
6,76
6.95
G. 45
7.66
5.11
4.86
6.19
5. 22
6 4.45
6 5.81
6 4.49
6 5.11
6 5. 26
6 5.4
t 4. 73
6 5. 53
6 6.03
12.09
10.19
14.75
11.99
13.13
15.8
10.49
10.91
11.63
10
9.02
12
12
11.14
8.97
8.52
v. 57
7.59
8.48
7
6.96
6.61
7.42
4.91
6.63
5.1
5.54
5.89
6.37
5.50
6.40
6.35
20.89
15.12
19.56
17. 56
17.74
19.8
14.4
14.47
16.2
13.2
13.2
15
15.75
14.5
15
14.3
15
13.8
14.63
13.2
11.89
12
12.5
12
11.6
9.96
10.62
11.29
11.12
9.90
10.20
a Including Buffalo charges and tolls.
6 Excluding Buffalo charges.
66S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGPJCT'LlTTiE.
is, per ton .
- i
- >
p
K
|l
-
«
—
£
z
5
- -
Y> ..:. •
H
a
a .
_ z
s
M
r _
^ - >
13
_ /
- .. --
. -
- -
=
-" r i =
-
5 ?
-
x f»
-
-
—
X
> = „
«
3 5 s
A — -
- -= -
>
X >. -
- - u
— :
— 5
-
—
-
= 5 t
M
=
> "3
~
pq
1 '
-
—
=-
-
=
c =
°
=
-
"-
1875.
24
1. 340
1.119
1.061
383
•
-
1.299
1.091
- S3 1.833
- 1 1
1 •"
1.421
183
2.218
1.139
_
972
.722
•-
S3
.
583
" -
- -
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1.217
1.955 l. I3':i
.954
• :
.813
.954
1. 024
1.035
1.719
1.949
1.361
2.135
32
: ;>■
1878. . . .
1. 5S2 1.113
.919
.960
.724
.914
.985
1.53V
1.354
. .
'
1.296
183
299 1.100
i
n
. 041
S3
754
1.523
.
1.054
"-■
1.153
1880....
L207
S3
•
73
.918
1.543
1 74
-
1.564
1.232
1. 038
n
.805
!
357
.745
• .
1.522
L22
1.241
. 78
!
38
-
1.17 1.064
- -
.749
28
"
.752
.753
1.417
--
■
1.253
. -
1.349
-
m
1.19 1.197
. 915
78
728
881
787
-
1.433
i
1.391
. 128
1. 325
1.205
1884....
1.093
. 719
.652
.804
~~~
-
1.097
.
1.008
1. 5o«
1.344
1.136
1. 00
.944
•-
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. 553
'
.577
-
.550
"
1.043
1 278
1.009
1.420
1.159
1.011
1.07
1.101
! '
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.639
. 755
.541
1.157
1.071
■
-
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.999
•
1.13
1.107
i .
33
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.730
717
.537
S3
1.012
1.089
-
1.213
1.075
.984
1888...
1.116 1.099
.753
.716
•
.723
•
.541
•
1.020
.973
1.170
1.049
1.001
1889
1.015 1.030
i
-
.632
.685
.69
' •
•
.971
. • "
'-'
•
.922
1S90
" 1. 105
.730
■
.044
.501
.942
i
.995
- •
1.138
75
.941
.991' 1.0S9
.74:i
.630
. 656
.70
. 525
.934
1.039
1.003
.980
1.131
■
• '
1892....
.925 1.057
.614
.602
. 047
~
".-
.90>
1. 055
.973
1.080
- -
1893....
.92;:
.701
.031
.599
-
.511
--"
1.039
.949
1.033
"
S78
1894. . . .
. 895 . 944
.733
-
S3
-
m
-
• 1.037
.974
.970
87
•
1895....
87*
".
.004
"
.565
.04
.425
■
. 34
.994
i
.831
-
1896....
.864
•
. 551
'
.425
.745
1.017 1.003
"
'"
-
1897..-.
.918
"
.610
' -
.501
.60
.419
--
* 1.008
.891
.
"
1 •
1898....
.S44
. 0/5
.530
.511
.57
'
.972
•
.950
! 3
.753
1899....
.771
"
.539
.481
-
.50
.
-■
.996 .937
90
1.016
724
1900....
■ i
SSE
••-
.504
•
.343
9
. 987 . 930
.794
1.050
!752
.729
1901....
.831
. 575
. 015
-•
i -
.56
••
1. 00;
72
.
--
■'■
1902....
'
.632
. 503
.590
.61
.4Cr2
.-
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n
.979
'-'--
1903....
•
-
.037
.519
5 -
-
.475
.591
L013 • '
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1904
.052
2
.60
.470
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.944 .S91
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83
- 1
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1905
(c)
.638
.645
.524
.604
■"
13
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.93:
•
■ -
■
.766
•ntioned end en J ...
lor different railways.
* Leased by the Boston and Maine Rafln
Bed by the New York Central and Hudson Rivtr Railroad.
TRANSPORTATION EATES.
Average rates, in cents, per passenger per mile.
669
Year.a
P3
to
u
-
o
0,
1
fit
<
1
O
OS -
~ >
S =
o
C 3
— —
o
w
c
u
§ n >.
--.-- p
OJ
'£
>
C
c
M
-•0
3 P
m &c
SIS
a
=3
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.*£
c
&.2
cJJ=
«o
o
.d
a
a
O
"c
pa
- = >
em/:
«_
■2 5
a
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OS £
u
>>
«
'3
rt
o
'£
£ ■
~-
'5
o
fi
c o
— i *j
> o
'3 '3
"P
*
°
Z
w
J
h
Si
a
M
o
o ~
O
p
3
1S75
1.910
2. ISO
1.885
1.955
2.088
2.259
2.407
3.231
2.882
2.6S7 2.690
2.755
2.878
3.219
2.378
1876
1.864
2.099
1.693
1.859
1.846
1.819 1.830
3.322
2.804
2.626 2.805
2.614
2.974
3.018
2.183
1877
1.947
2. 174
1.953
1.772
2.182
2.185 2.192
3.786
2.942
2.772 2.994
2.798
3.140
3.167
2.458
1878....
1.969
2.217
1.978
2.158
2.255
2.277 2.258
3.738
3.122
2.933 3.029
2.795
3.226
3.345
2.573
1879
1.888
2. 137
2.044
2.090
2.221
2.253 2.22S
3.630
3.066
2.971 2.908
2.417
3.444
2.484
18S0
1.885
2.096
1.999
2.041
2.135
2.222 2.156
2.959
2.514
2.806 2.868
2.076
3.476
2.442
1881
1.820
1.97C
1.862
2.016
1.988
2.152 1.895
2.989
2.164
2.666 2.856
1.828
3.341
3.168
2.446
1882 ....
1.715
1.993
1.S0S
1.948
2.156
2.249 2.024
2.605
2.388
2.505 2.579
1.951
3.300
2.706
2.391
1883
1.790
2.088
1.986
1.673
2.196
2.297 2.193
2.373
2.424
2.504 2.516
2.141
3.128
2.614
2.402
1884
1.651
1.908
1.942
2. 1S9
2.170
2.258 2.222
2.379
2.225
2.. 5 72 2.553
1.900
2.342
3.323
1885
1.833
1.838
1.419
1.756
2.058
1.950, 1.569
2.27C
2.211
2.466 2.563
2.026
2.749
2.103
2.216
1886
1.756
1.S53
1.845
1.89C
2.098
2.114 2.13C
2.131
2.208
2.420 2.415
2.023
2.135
2.436
2.142
1887
1.89
1.880
1.989
2.039
2.260
2.125 2.25.5
2.074
2.268
2.328 2.538
2.062
2.301
2.394
2.245
isv>....
1.978
1.976
1.967
1.851
2.280
2.111 2.10
2.025
2.197
2.312 2.445
2.123
2.248
2.429
2.349
1889
1.957
1.869
1.932
1.722
2.286
2.076 2.18
1.709
1.927
2.285 2.415
2.12S
2.135
2.370
2.165
1890....
1.915
1.S69
1.858
1.910
1.584
2.254
2.094 2.25
2.0-56
2 022
2.149 2.359
2.004
2.045
2.403
2.167
1891....
1.818
1.905
1.601
2.105
2.070 2.23
2.155
2.073
2.322 2.408
2.205
2.059
2.4S3
2.142
1892
1.916
1.828
1.887
1.5SS
2.183
2.028 2.00
2.181
2.101
2.308 2.464
2.043
2.104
2.44,>
2.126
1S93
1.869
1.835
1.832
1.551
2.195
1.968 1.98
1.989
1.999
2.095 2.414
1.981
1.987
2.432
2.108
1894
1.851
1.794
1.857
1.509
2.069
1.993 2.00
1.905
1.925
1.891 2.191
1.776
1.758
2.365
1.986
1895
1.819
1.770
1.837
1.560
2.215
1.971 2.06
1.980
1.995
2.146 2.411
2.119
1.962
2.318
2.040
1896
1.769
1.752
1.838
1.641
2.148
1.950 1.88
1.952
1.979
2.108 2.375
2.117
2.075
2.187
2.019
1897
1.811
1.754
1.S42
1.545
2.108
1.958
2.02
1.980
1.979
2.153 2.289
2.116
2.101
2.254
2.022
1898
1.826
1.750
1.806
1.548
2.032
1.953
2.02
1.943
1.938
2.092 2.362
2.058
1.945
2.152
1.973
1899
1.800
1.744
1 . 766
1.536
2.074
1.937
2.02
1.860
2.014
2.036 2.337
2.055
1.941
2.243
1.925
1900
1.805
1.754
1,793
1.54C
2.223
1.952
2.05
1.973
2.021
2.064 2.346
1.908
1.968
2.318
2.003
1901
(*)
1.742
1.799
1.541
1.993
1.992
2.09
1.9S4
1.960
2.095 2.324
1.936
2.085
2.355
2.013
1902
(O
(<*)
1.72I'
1.531
1.828
1.999
2.04
2.023
1.999
2.135 2.317
1.860
2.007
2.319
1.986
1903
(<•)
(*)
1.773
1.50C
2.066
2.015
2.05
2.044
1.971
2.157 2.309
1.981
1.941
2.369
2.006
KOI
(*)
w
1.761
1.452
2.067
2.020
2.03
2.072
1.970
2.203 2.305
1.948
1.907
2.387
2.006
1905....
M
w
1.719
1.464
2.055
2.000
2.05
2.019
1.839
2.135 2.373
1.730
2.231
2.292
1.962
a Beginning with 1888, the years mentioned end on June 30; prior to 1888 they cover different periods
for different railways.
b Excludes ferry earnings at Jersey City, N. J., at least since 1891.
c Leased by the Boston and Maine Railroad,
d Leased by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad.
Mean rates on grain, flour, and provisions, in cents per 100 pounds, through from
Chicago to European ports, by all rail to seaboard arid thence by steamers, from 1S97
to 1906.
Shipped to — Articles.
1S9S.
1899. 1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905. 1906.
Liverpool
Do
Do
Glasgow
Do
Do
London
Do
Do
Antwerp
Hamburg
Amsterdam..
Rotterdam...
Copenhagen..
Stockholm. ..
Stettin
Bordeaux
Grain
Sacked flour.
Provisions. . .
Grain
Sacked flour.
Provisions...
Grain
Sacked flour.
Provisions...
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
...do
33.6
36.81
44.4
35.23
39.06
52.5
34.00
36.12
48.14
51.09
51.00
52.00
52.00
57.28
68.53
57.28
64.13
34.35
37.66
47.15
36.00
39.06
52.5
35.00
37.25
49.69
52.5
52.00
52.5
52.5
58.13
69.25
58.13
65.75
29.72
3o!l2
40.5
32.35
31.25
44.69
30.6
33.5
44.14
47.5
46.00
47.00
47.00
51.72
62.97
51.72
59.12
29. 4S
27.9
48.84
30.98
31.56
55.31
31.1
35.01
55.87
51.09
50.00
51.00
51.00
55.31
64.5
55.31
64.12
21.47
23.00
36.00
24.1
24.38
45.16
23.23
25.5
44.75
46.25
44.00
45.00
45.00
47.7.5
53.25
47.75
54.25
20.85
23.5
36.25
21.75
22.75
41.88
21.75
24.00
39.06
41.5
39.00
40.00
40.00
42.00
45.00
42.00
51.25
22.68
25.19
41.9
24.43
25.38
46.88
23.56
25.19
44.06
49.69
47.1X1
42.00
42.00
49.69
52.5
49.69
56.25
20.19
21.00
36.56
22.38
23.20
44.06
21.50
22.2.5
44.06
48.28
46.00
42.00
42.00
46.88
49.69
46.88
56.25
19.16
22.40
38.49
20 00
22.50
43.23
20.23
23.64
40.88
43.70
45. 75
45.42
44.53
48.66
51.47
48.18
51.45
18.75
20.50
41.00
19.25
23.60
45.63
19.25
22,50
46.26
47.61
49.00
46.00
46.00
51.00
53.50
50.00
53.00
"
YEABBOOK OF THE DF.F -RICULTY
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690
YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL.
[From Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor.]
Legal weights {in pounds) per bushel.
Apples.
-
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Beans.
3
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24
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4.5 i55
48 "60
50
42
80
48
Ala
70
96
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52
56
4fi
48
Ariz
Ark
14
20
....
50
60
80 .... 70
'*"
Cal
50
40
Colo
60
14
20
Conn .....
c60
80
i
'
-56
56
56
56
56
(56
56
56
56
'56
56
56
56
56
50
56
'
56
56
56
56
'
56
56
"
5
. .. 44
4^ ....
4> ....
50 ....
50 ....
50 ....
SO ....
.50 ....
.50 ....
.50 ....
SO..
Del
Fla
648
44
4S
18
650
45
24
24
2.5
24
24
34
25
22
-
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24
24
48 <*60
47 «60
48
20
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::::::::::
70
70
Ga
14
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60
80 ....
48
4-
48
48
48
48
1
48
48
52
50
52
50
56
60
60
GO
60
60
Ill
Ind
'60
60
60
60
«60
46
46
*45
14
14
14
14
"
SO ....
so ....
90 38
SO ....
70
■
70
70
;70
Iowa
Kans
Ky
La
20
20
20
30
Me
60
60
48
48
48
50
48
52
a
50
50
45
50
Mass
48 *60
48 CO
20
60
60
60
CO
60
60
60
SO ...
SO .... 70
SO .... 72
SO .... 70
76 .... 70
SO .... 70
Mich
46
46
46
46
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i
14
14
14
14
14
Minn
Miss
Mo
Mont
48
48
48
48
60
«60
n»60
60
«60
62
60
60
20
20
20
20
57
N.II
N.J
50
48
25
48
48
48
46
47
48
20
50
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60
60
60
60
60
60
60
80 .... 70
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i
80 40 70
N. Y
so
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50
42
50
48
48
N. Dak....
50
50
24
60
60
60
i
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30
Ohio
Okla
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30
Oreg
40
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SO
48
R. I
48
25
60
B. C
S. Dak....
6.50
45
46
21
28
28
28
25
25
48
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60
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14
20
20
20
30 42
-
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"so"
so'
"so"
60
v60
60
60
60
CO
60
60
SO ...
SO 40 70
80 .... 70
80 ....
SO
56
56
56
-
56
56
Term
Tex
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48
Vt
-
Ya
48
48
48
«60
50
Wash
645
....
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'-
50
W.Ya
60
60
20
Wis
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SO ....
* Not defined.
a Small white beans, 60 pounds.
6 Green apples.
c Sugar beets and mangel-wurzel s.
<* Shelled beans, 60 pounds; velvet beans, 78 pounds.
« White beans.
/ Wheat bran.
9 Corn in ear. 70 pounds until Dec. 1 next after growth; 68 pounds thereafter.
A English blue-grass seed, 22 pounds; native blue-grass seed, 14 pounds.
' Rice corn.
/Corn in ear from Nov. 1 to May 1 following, 70 pounds; 68 pounds from Mav 1 to Nov. 1.
* Soy beans, 58 pounds.
' Cracked corn. 50 pounds.
"» Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds.
" Cannel coal, 70 pounds.
o Standard weight in borough of Greensburg. 75 pounds.
p Dried beans; green unshelled beans, 30 pounds.
? Red and white.
LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL.
Legal weights («w pounds) per bushel — Continued.
691
seed.
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jj
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32
32
32
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57
52
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44
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32
30
44
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45
45
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50
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56
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44
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8
44
44
57
33
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50
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68
8
11
44 .... 50 50
44 .... 50 50
44 .... 50 50
.... 43
57 -
33
33
57
•-
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56
14
39
Ma
52
45
Ml
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55
56
45
50 50
54
33
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28
33
33
44
14
14
36 ....
.... 06
56
56
56
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.52
32
33
....
44
44
44
.... 50 50
.... 148 50
50
57
57
Mo
d->S
14
36 44
.... 50
a
57
57 25
N
....
>
44 .... 50 50
-
S:3
X. H
X.J
30
44
55
.... 55
•55
56
....56
33
33
X. Y
1
X. C
X. Dak....
50
.50
52
55
\
44 50
48
33
Okla
50
50
R. I
30
44
-A .... 50 50
33
8.C
S. Dak
.56
-
-
32
32
30
32
32
32
52
56
Tc.nn
--
32
56
56
8
.... 4S 50
.... i
45
18 50
«28
14
33 50
;'50
50
--
Tex
57
.52
•37
Yt
Va
32
56
S
:
....
B
44
.
14
34
28
33
33
W.Va
....
Wis
30
44
8
44
a
50
44
* Xot denned.
a Green.
b Unwashed plastering hair, S pounds; washed plastering hair, 4 pounds.
<• Bottom onion sets.
<*Top onion sets.
« Button onion sets, 32 pounds.
; iiatured.
692 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Legal weights (in pounds) per bushel — Continued.
3
a
ca
Pn
#
w
n
o3
3
Ph
Pease.
o
03
O
Pi
a>
o
03
O
ft
03
is
CO
•6
ft
o
•a
a
■s.
o
03
bo
03
S3
3
"3
1
a
c
GO
•6
5
a>
6
I
o
CO
O
E
o
En
•6
Q
>>
XI
o
e
Eh
ft
B
s
Eh
State or
Territory.
o3
*
si
0
Pi
o3
U. S.
GO
60
56
60
Ala
60
60
55
56
56
56
54
56
56
55
60
60
Ark
60
60
50
14
50
60
57
60
Cal
60
Colo
60
60
60
45
50
60
60
54
45
60
50
20
60
D C
Del
60
Fla. . .
60
60
60
55
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
50
56
54
55
60
Ga ..
(50
43
45
60
22
60
a 45
i
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
Ill
50
55
46
50
55
45
45
45
45
45
55
55
55
60
60
Ind....
60
i>30
56
60
60
Kv...
60
60
La.;; i .
60
Me 1
60
60
56
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
50
50
60
Md .
60
60
60
60
60
<-60
60
60
00
60
60
60
60
60
60
54
56
55
60
56
14
14
45
50
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
20
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
58
55
42
50
55
60
Mich
60
Minn
52
57
42
42
45
60
60
Mo
48
45
56
14
50
60
60
50
30
60
N. H . .
.50
60
N. J...
i
54
54
60
N. Y
45
44
50
20
45
60
N. C.
22
60
N. Dak...
60
60
60
60
56
60
60
60
60
60
56
60
60
60
46
50
46
45
45
42
60
60
60
60
Ohio
56
60
Okla...
..
60
45
60
Pa...
60
R. I
i
c60
60
60
54
46
50
55
50
20
56
45
42
45
45
45
45
50
60
50
55
60
55
60
S. Dak .
60
Tenn
23 d 56 30
1
14
50
56
55
60
Tex
60
Vt
i
60
60
«60
Va.
22
56
12
60
Wash
[a 45
60
W. Va... .
45
45
42
60
Wis
I !
60
54
45
56
50
20
60
1 1
*Not defined.
a Green.
b Sorghum saccharatum seed.
« Including split peas.
<* Dried pears, 26 pounds.
« India wheat, 46 pounds.
LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL.
693
Commodities for which legal weights per bushel have been fixed in but one or two States.
[From Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor.]
States.
Apple seeds
Beggar-weed seed
Blackberries
Blueberries
Bromus inermis
Cabbage
Canary seed
Cantaloupe melon
Cement
Cherries
Chestnuts
Chufa
Cotton seed, staple
Cucumbers
Currants
Feed
G rapes
Goavas
Hickory nuts
Hominy
Horse-radish
Italian rye-grass seed. . . .
Johnson grass
Kafir corn
Kale
Land plaster
Middlings, fine
Millet, Japanese barnyard
Mustard
Plums
Plums, dried
Pop corn
Prunes, dried
Quinces
Rape seed
Raspberries
Rhubarb
Sage
Salads
Sand
Spelt or spiltz
Spinach
Strawberries
Sugar-cane seed
Velvet-grass seed
Walnuts
Pounds.
40
62
32
42
14
50
60
50
80
40
50
54
42
48
40
50
40
54
.50
60
50
20
28
56
30
100
40
35
30
40
28
70
28
48
50
32
50
4
30
130
40
30
32
57
7
50
Rhode Island and Tennessee.
Florida.
Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds; dried, 28 pounds.
Minnesota.
North Dakota.
Tennessee.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Iowa. Tennessee, with steins, 56 pounds; with-
out stems, 64 pounds.
Tennessee. Virginia, 57 pounds.
Florida.
South Carolina.
Missouri and Tennessee. Wisconsin, 50 pounds.
Iowa and Minnesota.
Massachusetts.
Iowa. Tennessee, with stems, 48 pounds; with-
out stems, 60 pounds.
Florida.
Tennessee.
Ohio. Tennessee, 62 pounds.
Tennessee.
Do.
Arkansas.
Kansas.
Tennessee.
Do.
Indiana; coarse, 30 pounds.
Massachusetts.
Tennessee.
Florida. Tennessee, 64 pounds.
Michigan.
Indiana and Tennessee. Ohio, in the ear, 42
pounds.
Idaho; -green, 45 pounds.
Florida, Iowa, and Tennessee.
Wisconsin.
Kansas. Tennessee, 48 pounds.
Tennessee.
Do.
Do.
Iowa.
North Dakota. South Dakota, 45 pounds.
Tennessee.
Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds.
New Jersey.
Tennessee.
Do.
INDEX.
Page.
Accounts Division, organization and work 45i3
Acorn , food use, note 306
Arrr'brfa caudata, usefulness against scale insects 191
Adams Act, aid of experiment stations, remarks 102
Henry Cullen. importance of work for agriculture 102, 103
Agricultural associations, officers 4t>4_46S, 470-472
colleges and schools, discussion 104-105
list with presidents, etc 4.39-460, 464
education, consideration by Massachusetts commission 153-154
experiment stations, directors, work, etc 461-463, 464
products, statistics, imports and exports, 1902-1906... 671
school-, organization 160-161
Agriculture, Assistant Secretary, duties 453
Department, appropriations, 1905, 1906, an< I 1907 43S
cooperation with Post-Office Department in road
building 117
expenditures and employees US
grounds, note 57
new building 119-120
organization 453-4.37
education, legislation, and formulation of courses 155-158
elementary, consideration by National Educational Association. 155
introduction into schools, article by A. 0. True... 151-164
production, review 10-23
Secretary, duties 453
recommendations 34. 93,
94, 96, 98, V9, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 120
report 9-120
State officials, list 465
teaching, State conferences 154-155
. reseeding on range 231
Alabama, alfalfa growing, note 55
dairy industry 4P3
objeetdesson road 149
tobacco investigations 7-.
Alaska, experiment stations, remarks 106
game protection 94
Alcohol, denatured, investigation, remarks 69
Alfalfa, diseases. 1906 ".._" 506
growing in Alabama and Mississippi 55
use on ranges 234
Alfalfas, new. remarks of Secretary 39
Alkali lands, drainage, remarks 112
reclamation, discussion 75-78
resistant crops
Alley pecan, origin, description, etc 366
Almonds, green, use as food
Ampelis cedrorum, usefulness against scale insects 197
Andrews, Frank, article on ••Freight costs and market values" 371-386
Animal breeding and feeding experiments, 1906 497
Industry Bureau, distribution of tuberculin and mallein, article by
M. Dorset 347-354
organization and work 454
work, review bv Secretary 25-38
matter, imports, 1902-1906 ." '. 670-672
nutrition, experiments 35
parasites, damages, 1906 516
products, farm, statistics, prices, etc 637-647, 654-664
Animal-, diseases, spread by insects, etc 87. 496
domestic, pedigree registration 497
See also Farm animals.
695
696 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Page.
Anthonomus grand**. See Boll weevil, cotton 508
Ants, use against boll weevil 84, 318-322
Aphides, eggs, destruction by lime-sulphur wash 446
Apple, bitter rot, Ozark Mountain region 41
diseases, 1906 499
insect injuries, 1906 512
juice, unfermented, carbonation and sterilization 242-243
clarification 239-242
packages for keeping 244-246
preparation, article by H. C. Gore 239-246
new varieties, descriptions, nomenclature, etc 355-360
Apples, statistics, export*, 1902-1906 685
Appointment clerk, duties 453
Appropriations, Agriculture Department, 1905, 1906, and 1907 458
Apricot, diseases, 1906 500
scale, destruction by grosbeak 192
Arid regions, cloud-bursts 327
Arizona, alkali lands, reclamation 77
Arkansas, dairy industry 420
Arlington Experimental Farm, remarks 58
Army worm, damage, 1906 „ 510
Asparagus, diseases. 1906 502
Asp idiotus forbesii, control, note 446
pernicioms. See San Jose scale.
rapax, destruction by birds 194
zonatus, destruction by birds 192
A sses, statistics, numbers 635-637
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, duties 453
Asterolecaniuiii Dariolosum, destruction by birds 191
Atmosphere, upper, study 121-123
Austria-Hungary, restriction of American meat imports 251
Avocado, diseases, 1906 502
new variety, origin, description, etc 363-365
resistance of cold 364
A zotobacter, relation to nitrogen fixation 131
Bacillus, spp. , relation to soil nitrification 128, 129, 130
Bacon, exports, 1 902-1906 682
prohibitions, foreign, against imports 249-251
Bacteria, nitrogen-fixing, distribution 54
two classes 130
relation to nitrogen supply for soil 126
root-nodule, nitrogen fixation 132-135
varieties and efficiency » 133
soil, chemical functions 128
conditions for growth 127
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen 130-132
B.rolophus, spp. , u.-efulness against scale insects 194, 197
Balloon, rubber, use in atmosphere study 122
Bananas, imports, 1902-1906 " 675
Banner grape, origin, description, etc 361-362
Bark-louse, oyster-shell, destruction by birds 196
Barley, beardless, forage use ." 234
diseases, 1906 505
exports, 1902-1906 685
production, note 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 56S-575
winter, introduction and growing 43
Bean, diseases, 1906 502
Beans, insect injuries, 1906 510
statistics, prices 629
Bee culture, study 88
Keepers, National Association, officers 470
Beef, exports, 1902-1906 682
growth 248
prohibitions, foreign, against imports 251
index. 697
Page.
Beet, harvesting and harvesters 277
insect injuries, 1906 510, 511, 512
seed, single-germ, production 275
sugar, hoeing and thinning 266, 275
improvement 266-268
transportation 277
weeding 277
work, review by Secretary 47—48
Beet-sugar. See Sugar, beet.
Beetle, pine bark, study - - 86
Beetles, damage to forests, 1906 515
Beets, growing, cost 268-278
siloing 278
sugar, labor in production 269-274
rotation with other crops, notes 269
topping, method of Belgians 273
yield per acre, means of increase 266
Belgium, imports of meat animals, regulation 252
Berry insects, investigation 88
James, review of weather conditions, crop season, 1906 473^191
Big game refuges, remarks 94
Biological Survey, Bureau, organization and work 456
work, review by Secretary 88-95
Bird reservations, remarks 93
Birds, African, imports and prices 178
Australian, imports and prices 178
boll- weevil destruction 91
cage, traffic in United States, article by Henry Oldys 165-180
captive, breeding 1 79
methods of procuring and shipping 169-171
domestic, for cage use, traffic 166-168
European, imports and prices 176
foreign, traffic 168
importation, notes , 92
number imported 168
Xorth American, destruction of scale insects 192-198
oriental, imports and prices 176-177
protection, 1906 533-540
protection societies, officials 472
raising for market, American opportunity 180
retail trade, remarks 171
scale eating, summary of facts 198
shore, distribution and migration 89
song, breeding 179
protective laws, remarks 167
South America, Mexico, and Cuba, imports and prices 179
species imported 171-179
usefulness against scale insects, article by W. L. McAfee 189-198
Biscayne pineapple, origin, description, etc 345-346
Bitter rot, apple, Ozark Mountain region 41
Blackberry, diseases, 1906 501
Blackleg vaccine, distribution, notes 33, 496
Blixsus leucopterus, damage, 1906 509
Bluebird, Western, usefulness against scale insects 194
Boll weevil, climatic conditions as factor in control 317-322
cotton, control 56-57, 324
effect of late planting of cotton 323
Entomology Bureau work 81-83
destruction by birds 91
hibernation, details of observations 316
parasites, remarks 82
recent studies, article by W. D. Hunter 313-324
status in 1906 313-315
damage, 1906, record 508
Boll worm, cotton, study 83
Bonsteel, J. A., article on "The use of soil surveys " 181-188
Books, text, agricultural, preparation 158
693 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Page.
Brazil nut, "butter nut," description 298
Bread, nutrition studies 107
Breeders' Association, American, officials 472
Breeders, stock, associations and officers 466-468
Breeding, animal, experiments, 1906 497
corn, changes in composition of kernel 285-288
work at experiment stations, article by J. I. Schulte 279-294
development of new crops 50-52
experiments, necessity 397-399
horse, investigations 34
live stock, pedigree associations, etc 34
plat, development 288-289
poultry, remarks — 35
tobacco, methods 399-401
necessity of experiments 397-399
production of new tobacco varieties 387-404
remarks 52
success, illustration 398
Brewer Hybrid tobacco, origin, description, etc 393-395
Bright tobacco, Virginia, experiments 80
Broadleaf tobacco, use in breeding 388, 393, 400
Brome grass, use on western ranges 232-234
Brom us biennis, use on western ranges 232-L'34
Brown-tail moth. (See Moth.)
Buckeye, food use, note 306
Buckwheat, statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 582-584
exports, 1902-1906 685
Buffaloes, statistics, numbers 635-637
Bulbul, remarks 177
Bureau, Animal Industry, etc. (See Animal Industry, Biological Survey,
Chemistry, Entomology, Plant Industry, Soils, Statistics, Weather.)
Bushel, legal weights, table by States and commodities 690-693
Bush-tit, remarks 195
Butter, farm dairv, remarks 407
industry, North Central States 414-416
investigate ins, remarks of Secretary 36, 38
New England, industry 410
nut, manufacture 305
preservation from mold, use of paraffin 498
prices, remarks and statistics 416, 654
production at Los Angeles, Gal., note 427
statistics, exports and imports of world, etc 646, 654, 670, 681
Butters, nut, discussion 304
Cabbage, diseases, 1906 502
insect injuries, 1906 511
Cacao, production and consumption 622-623
Cactus, feeding experiments 56
California, agricultural education, consideration 154
investigations 44, 76, 91
dairying 426-428
forestry..... 529
fruit marketing, remarks 48
nutrition experiments 107, 108
ranges, reseeding in Sierra Nevadas 232
Camels, statistics, numbers. 635-637
Camphor, growing of trees and production of drug in Florida 54
Canaries, breeding 166,173
kinds, singing, prices, historic notes, etc 172-174
shipment 170
test of singing 173
traffic in United States 165
Canarium sp. nut, use 297
Candies, nut, discussion 307
Cantaloupe, diseases, 1906 503
Cardinal birds, captive, traffic 166, 167
redbird, usefulness against scale insects 192
INDEX. 699
Cashew nut, remarks 298
Cattle, Alaska experiment 106
breeders" associations 466
diseases, seientihe investigation 32
exports, growth 248
feed, chemical study 71
foreign, contagion, protective law 466
mange, control 28
open market in Great Britain
prohibitions, foreign, against imports 251
raising on western plains, problems 228
range, improvement of grade a necessity 235-237
ranges. "Western United State*, overcrowded condition 225
statistics, imports, exports, 1902-1906 670, 681
numbers and prices 632-635, 651-653
tick, eradication 495
relation to dairy industry, notes 418
Texas, study 87
trade, increase in prices 492
tuberculosis certificates. State laws, note 352
diagnosis with tuberculin 343
investigation, 1906 496
Cauliflower, diseases. 1906 503
Caustic-soda wash, self-boiled 445
Celery, diseases, 1906 503
Cereal foods, nutrition studies 107, 108
investigations, chemical 69
Cereals, diseases, 1906 505-506
influences affecting quality and quantity
insects injurious, 19U6 509-510
production, note 1 1-13
Certhia famHiark amerioana, usefulness against i-eale insects 197
Chamxa fasciata, usefulness against scale inseete 194
Chappelow avocado, origin, description, etc 363-365
Cheese, farm-made, remarks 407
industry, Xorth Central States 416-417
investigations, remarks of Secretary 36
nutrition studies 108
statistics, exports and imports of world 647, 670, 681
prices, wholesale 655
Chemistry Bureau, organization and work 455
work, review by Secretary _ 69-72
considerations in lime-sulphur wash 437-438
Cherry, diseases, 1906 500
Che.-ter. F. D. , soil bacteria study, table 128
Chestnut, water, description 297
Chestnuts, cooked, digestibility 302
Chickadee, usefulness against scale insects 194, 197
Chief clerk. Agriculture Department, duties 453
Chinch bug. damage, 1906 509
ispin furfura, control, note 446
Cholera, hog, investigation, 1906 496
Chufa, nut, description 297
Cider, swee t, prevention of fermentation 239-246
See also Apple juice.
Citrange, new varieties, discussion 50, 329-336
propagation, suggestions 330
Citrus fruit, experiments 49, 50
diseases, 1906
insects injurious 513
productions, new, Department of Agriculture, article by Herbert J.
Webber * 329-346
Civil-service system, application fa i game-warden service 219
Climate, effect on composition of durum wheat, article by J. A. Le Clere. . . 199-212
Climatic conditions, relation to cotton boll weevil control 317-322
Cloud-bursts, so-called, article bv Edward L. Wells 325-328
Clover, diseases, 1906 506
7 yEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTTBE.
Page.
Clover, nitrogen fixation, remarks 133
seed, statistics, prices 630-631
Coal tar, use on roads 114
Cockateels. remarks 17*5
Cocoa. " sti s, imports. 1902-1906
Coffee, Porto Rico experiments, not«r
statistics, exports and impor:- 624,
nse of nuts, note 308
Cold waves, 1906, remarks
Colleges, agricultural, discussion I 4-106
list, with presiden> el 459-460, 464
Colman citrange, origin, description, ns-r. el 331-333
Columbia University, nutrition studies 109
Concrete, uses, remarks 116
Confections, use of nuts
Congressional publications, printing regulation changes
Connecticut, forestry and forest reservations 529. 530
nutrition studies 1 07, 108
tobacco, shade grown, experiment-
Valley tobacco, use in producing new tobacco varieti-r- 287
wrapper tobaccos, improvement
Contagious diseases, control - - COS
Cookery, use of nuts 304
Cooley Hybrid tobacco, origin, description, etc >- 7
Copper sulphate, use in water purification 55
Coquina pineapple, origin, description, eta 341-342
Corn belt, drought, 1906
breeders, associations, remarks 293
breeding at experiment - - .rticle by J. I. Schulte 27 204
changes in composition of kernel 285-288
meal, exports, 10^1006 686
mixing, observations
new varieties, remarks 52
results of crossing, detail- 21 .-4
review of work 282-288
selection as factor 280-202
diseases, 1906 505
forage usr _ -
insect injuries. 1906 r-
nutrition studies 107
production, note
seed, better grades 47
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc "42-549
- Kansas Citv and Omaha, to seaboard 667
j orts, 1902-1906
freight rates, Chicago-Xew York
ocean 665
- igar content, study 69
Cotton belt, diversified farming
heavy rains, 1906 479
boll weeviL Set Boll weevil, cotton.
compressed, rail rates, Cincinnati-New York 666
diseases, 1906 506
exports, remarks 14
freight costs, relation to wheat freights 71
rates '.
insects injurious, 1906 508—510
other than boll weevil and boll worm, remar -:- 83
5., article on " Range management " 225-238
late planting, relation to boll-weevil control
new early variety, remarks 51
prices at four parte 374
action, note 12
stalks, fall destruction, importance in boll-weevil control
"istics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc
exports; 1902-1906
freight rates, ocean r»65
INDEX. 701
Page.
Cotton values in England 375
volunteer plants, relation to boll-weevil control 324
wilt-resistant varieties 42
Cotton-seed products, feed for hogs 35
Cottonwood lumber, prices, rise, 1894-1906 526, 527
Cottony maple scale, destruction by birds 195
Cowpea, diseases, 1906 506
Cows, dairv, North Central States 413
statistics, numbers, etc 632-637, 651-653
Craft, Qiincy E., review of progress in forestry, 1906 525-533
Cranberry, diseases, 1906 501
Cream nut, South African, note , 298
separator, use in clarification of apple juice 240-242
Creeper, tree, usefulness against scale insects 191, 197
Crop reporting, Statistics Bureau work 99
season, 1906, weather conditions, article by James Berry 473-491
zones, study, remarks 88
Crops, adaptation to soils 184-185
alkali and drought resistant 52
damage by scale insects 189
principal, statistics 542-631
Cross-fertilization, tobacco, relation to preservation of type 403, 404
Cross-pollination, use in corn breeding 282-285
Cuban tobacco, Hazlewood, new variety, origin, description, etc 392-393
use in producing new tobacco varieties 287
Cucumbers, diseases, 1906 503
Curculio, plum, study 86
Currant, diseases, 1906 501
Currants, statistics, imports, 1902-1906 675
Curtis pecan, origin, description, etc 368
Cutworm, damage, 1906 510,511,512
Cyanic acid, flavor in nuts 298
Cyanocitta cristatu, usefulness against scale insects 197
Dade pineapple, origin, description, etc 340-341
Dairy associations, national, list 465
cattle, improvement 406
cows, North Central States 413
industry, discussion 36-38
extent on Pacific coast 422-423
New England, importance 410
review, 1906 498
southern conditions 420-422
products, chemical examination 69
imports and exports, 1902-1906 670, 681
improvement 406-407
Pacific coast movements 423
statistics, cows, products, etc 632-635, 646-647, 651-652, 654-655, 670, 681
Dairying, New England, advantages and disadvantages 408-409
opportunities, articles by Win. Hart Dexter, George M. Whitaker,
B. D. White, B. H. Rawl, and E. A. McDonald 405-428
Pacific coast 422-428
profits \ 407
southern, difficulties, etc 417-422
Dairymen, New England, needs 410-411
Dakotas, winter forage, note 234
Date culture, California-Arizona 40
Davis, William Morris, remarks on cloud-bursts in arid regions 327
Deer, killing, 1906 537
Delaware, forestry 529
Deliciosa pineapple, origin, description, etc 338-340
Delmas pecan, origin, description, etc 369-370
Dendroir/i spp. , usefulness against scale insects 1 94
Dendrology, studies 68
Department of Agriculture. See Agriculture, Department.
Dexter, Wji. Hart, article on "Opportunities in dairying — general" 405-408
Diaspis pentagona, control, note 446
702 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Diet, nuts 303-304
Dipping, sheep, increase in value of wool 495
Disbursements. See Accounts.
Disease, spread by insects, remarks 87
Division, Accounts; Publications. See Accounts; Publications.
Documents, Superintendent, sale of Department publications 97
Dorset, M., article on "Distribution of tuberculin and mallein by the Bureau
of Animal Industry " 347-354
Drainage investigations, experiment station 111-112
Dressed meats. See Meats.
Drought, danger in irrigated sections Ill
resistant crops .• 52
seasons, 1906 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 487
Drug inspection, 1906, review by H. W. Wiley - 520-521
plant investigations, remarks 54
Drugs, examination, for purity, remarks 70
Dry-land farming, remarks 46
Dryobaies, spp., usefulness against scale insects 194
Ducks, distribution and migration 89
wild, 1906 538
Durum wheat. See Wheat.
Dust less roads, experiments, remarks 114
Early Wheeler peach, origin, description, etc 360
Eden pineapple, remarks 337, 338
Education, agricultural. See Agricultural and Agriculture.
Educational institutions, demand for Department publications 98
Eggplant, diseases, 1906 503
Eggs, statistics, prices, imports and exports 664, 671, 681
Eldridge, M. O. , review of road laws passed in 1906 521-523
Electric methods, nitrogen fixation 136
ESeocharis tuberosa, nut, use 297
Elymus condensaius, reseeding on ranges 231
Engineers, road, demand, note 115
England, wheat supply, remote sources 385
Entomology Bureau, lime-sulphur wash, recommendation 437
organization and work 456
review of injurious insects, 1906 508-517
work, review by Secretary 81-88
EriopJu/es pyri, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446
Euc dypts, planting, plan 528
Eulecanium spp. See Scale.
Exhibitions, live stock, 1906 493
Experiment stations, agricultural, directors, work, etc 461-463, 464
classes of work 103
Federal, in Hawaii, Alaska, and Porto Pico 106-107
Office, organization and work 457
work, review 1 >y Secretary 102-] 12
Export animals, inspection, remarks 28
tobacco, experiments 80
Exports, agricultural, statistics, 1902-1906 681-689
American meat, growth 247-249
animal products 492
fruit, shipments 50
wheat, relation to farm values 382
Farm animal products, statistics, prices, etc 687-647, 864-684
animals, statistics, numbers, prices, etc 632-637, 848-653
January 1, 1907 492
hauling to market, cost 371,372, .".77
labor, sugar beet, cost and sources 269-274
management investigations, remarks 55-56
progress in 1906, review by W. J. Spillnian 524-525
production, future, discussion 18-21
products, exports and imports 13-15
values, wheat, relation to exports 382-384
Farmer, advance of welfare 21-23
INDEX. 7 OS
Page.
Farmers' Bulletins, distribution. 95
institute.-, officiate, list 464
statistics 541
work of Department 1 06
methods for aid to schools 102-164
organizations, interest in education 152
Farming, advantage of new forest-reserve management 60
capital, increase 15-16
dry-land, investigations 46
manuals of instruction 158
Farms, experim. ntal, use against boll weevil 81
object-lesson, remarks 56. 110
. 0. L.. Willis L. Moore, and W. J. Humphreys, article on "New
problems of the weather" 121-124
Feed, hogs, use of cotton-seed products 35
winter, supply for range live stock 2:;
Feeding, animal, experiments, 1906 497
stuffs, chemical investigations. 1906 521
Hawaiian, deficiency of lime 106
Fence posts, use of concrete, remarks 116
wire, deterioration, study 116
Fences, range, on western plains, remarks 22
Fermentation, tobacco, Ohio experiments 79
Fertilizer, potash, use of ground rock, note 116
Fertilizers, influence on composition of wheat 205
Fescue, fall, usefulness in reseeding western ranges 232
Fever, Texas, study of cattle tick 87, 495
Fiber plant, diseases, 1906
Field crop insects, study
crops, diseases, 1 906
southern, insects injurious. 1906 508-509
Fires, forest, control, remarks 63, 527
danger and protection 451. 452
Flax, diseases, 1906 506
Flaxseed, production, note 13
statistics, acreage, production, prices, etc 611-61
Florida, dairy industry 418
object-lesson roads 148
Flour, baking tests 44
exports and imports 551-552, 576, 686
freight rates, Chicago to European ports 669
nut 306
Flower gardens, insects injurious, 1906 S16
Flowers, diseases, 1906 507
Fly, Hessian. See Hessian.
house, spread of typhoid fever
Food, ash constituents, studies 109
inspection and studies, Chemistry Bureau, discussion 71 . 72
progress in 1906. review by H. W. Wiley 520-521
use of nuts, article by ML E. Jaffa 295-312
Forage crops, diseases, 1906 506
insects injurious, 1906 1 09-5 1 0
green, use in New England dairying 4ns
use of rye, wheat, barley, spelt, etc 234
Forbes. B. A., adoption of lime-sulphur washes 430
Forbush. E. X.. statement regarding nuthatch 197
Foreign markets, compilation of information 100
Forest extension, discussion 66-67
fires. See Fires.
insects, damages - 85, 515
management, timber cutting on reserves 63-65
planting on reserves and elsewhere 8
products, exports and imports, 1902-1906 673-674, 684
foreign trade - __ 1 *
insects injurious, 1906 SIS
704 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.
Page.
1 rest products, utilization of wood t>8-69
range, improvement under fence 229
reservations, State, table with map 530
- . National, discussion 59-63
Service, organization and work 455
some plans 528-529
work, review by Secretary 59-69
studies, cooperative, note 65
tree-. - - 3,1906 507
Fore-try, associations and schools 469-470
progress, 1906, review by Quincy K. ( raft 525-533
State work, discussion 529
sts, National, and the Lumber supply, article by Thomas H. Sherrard.. 447-452
management .* 451-452. 525-526
sales of timber, effect on prices, etc 446, 449-451
Formulas, lime-sulphur wash, variations 434-437
France, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 252
- ' sts and market values, article by Frank Andrews 371-386
future changes 386
rates, comparison of ships with wagons 380
d 372, 384, 665
per ton per mile, 1875-1905
seaport from interior 373. 667
effect on boll weevil 322
Fr sts, spring, 1906 477
Fruit, marketing, transportation and storage, investigations 4 -
new subtropical 40
nutrition studies, remarks 107, 108
orchards, California, bird injuries 91
s, insects injurious 86
Fruits, citrus, new. development 50
diseases, 1906 499-502
imports and exports 50. 675, 685
insect injuries. 1906 512-513
new, promising, article by William A. Taylor 355-370
nomenclature, with synonyms, remarks . * 355-357. 35S, 361, 362, 363, 364
Fungi, relation to nitrogen supply for soil 126
T ing 'us diseases, plant. 1906, notes 499-508
- - ach injuries, remarks 42
Gale pineapple, remarks 337
Galveston, freight rates on cotton 373
Game, census, Illinois 217
conditions, 19C G 537-538
interstate commerce 93
laws, administration and enforcement 218, 535-536
pre- r - - State and private 539-540
propagation 538
protection and introduction 92-94
officials, lists 471-472
organizations 536
1906, review by T. S. Palmer 53:>-540
reserves, parks, and refuges, national 94, 540
wardens, associations 220-222
early appointments and pay 214. 223
duties, powers, and dangers 21-5-219. 222
instructions in Michigan 218
of to-day. article by R. W. Williams, jr 213-224
requirements for fitness 220
special equipment in several States 219
Gardens, flower, insects injurious, 1906 516
1 field laboratories, remarks 58-59
vegetable, diseases of plants, 1906 502
insects injurious, 1906 510
Geologists, State, cooperation with Roads office, note 115
INDEX. 705'
Page.
Georgia, agricultural high schools 15fr
dairy industry 418
pecan, origin, description, etc 369
Geoihlypis t. artzeia, usefulness against scale insects 194-
Germany, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 253
Gingko nut, description 297
Ginseng, diseases. 1906 503
Gipsy, moth. See Moth.
Glanders, diagnosis by use of mallein 350-
Gnatcatcher, black-tailed, usefulness against scale insects 194
Goats, statistics, numbers 635-637
Gooseberry, diseases, 1906 501-
Goke, H. 0., article on "The preparation of unfermented apple juice" 239-246
Grain, chemical analyses for feeding 44
grading, standardization 45
of corn. See Kernel.
qualit v, factors of influence 200
statistics, exports and imports. 1902-1906 676, 6S5
freight rates, Chicago to European ports 669-
Grains, overinigated, illustrations 211
Grange, National, officers 472
Grape. Banner, new variety, origin, description, etc 361-362
diseases, 1906 * 501
insect injuries, 1906 512, 513
Grass, Johnson, control 56-
orchard, usefulness on western ranges 232
Para, usefulness, remarks 39-
Grasses. management for improvement of public ranges 229-232
Grazing, advantages of new forest-reserve management 60-61
National Forest, remarks 525. 526
western plains, overgrazing 228
Great Britain, imports of meat and meat products, regulation 256
Greely, Gen. A. YV., remarks on cloud-bursts 326. 327
Greenhouses, insects injurious, 1906 516-
Grosbeak, usefulness against scale insects 192, 194, 195
Grouse, condition, 1906 537
Guava, diseases, 1906 502:
Gumming fungus, peach 12
Gums, imports, 1902-1906 674
Hsemanch us contortus, study 496
Hams, prohibitions, foreign, against imports 249-251
statistics, exports, 1902-1906 682
Harvest, sugar beet 276
time and manner, effect on composition of grain 208
Hauling, farm, to market 371, 372, 377, 382
Hawaii, experiment station, remarks 106-
forestry and forest reservations 529, 530, 531
nutrition experiments 109
Hawthorne scale, destruction by sparrow 191
Hay, production, note 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 591-595
exports, 1902-1906
Hazelnuts, green, use as food 308
Hazlewood Cuban tobacco, origin, description, etc 392-393
Health certificates, live stock, presentation
public, protection from tuberculosis, note 352
Heleodytes bru.nneicapiO.us, usefulness against scale insects 194
Heliothis obsaieta, study 83
HeJminthophUa c hiiescens, usefulness against scale insects 194
Hessian flv, damage, 1906 509
study 86
Hickory scale, destruction by grosbeak _ 192
Hides, statistics, exports and imports of world 640-645, 671. 681
Highway officials, State, list „ 471
3 A1906 15
706 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Page.
Hog, breeding experiments, 1901 497
cholera, investigations 33, 496
product-, American, Swedish prohibition of imports 255
Hogs, breeders' associations 468
feed, use of cotton-seed products 35
prohibitions, foreign, against imports 249-255
statistics, numbers, etc 632-637, 662-663
tuberculosis 32
Hops, production, note 13
statistics, production, prices, etc 608-610
Horse-chestnut, food use, note 307
Horses, breeders' associations - 467
breeding investigations 34, 497
range, improvement of grade a necessitv 237
statistics, exports. 1902-1906 *. 681
imports, 1902-1906 670
numbers, prices, etc 632-635, 64S-650
Horticultural societies, national, officers 470-471
House fly, spread of typhoid fever ^7
portable, kind in use in sugar-beet work 273
Human disease spread by insects 87
nutrition, investigation 107-109
Humphreys, W. J., Willis L. Moore, and O. L. Fassig, article on "Ifew
problems of the weather " 121-124
Hlxter, W. P., article on "Some recent studies of the Mexican cotton boll
weevil " 313-324
Hunting, accidents 536
licenses, notes 216, 217
origin of system, fees 223
Hybrid, pomelo-tangerine, development as Thornton orange 336-337
Hybridization, tobacco 399
Hybrids, orange, trifoliate with sweet, development 329-336
tobacco, new varieties, origin, description, etc 387, 393-397
Hydrogen, use in atmosphere study 122
Ict&'us spp., usefulness against scale insect.- 194. 197
Illinois, agriculture course in schools 158
lime-sulphur wash, early use 430
nutrition studies 10S
station, corn breeding 286, 288
Imported animals, inspection and quarantine 28
Imports, agricultural, statistics, 1902-1906 670-680
British, relation of ocean freight rates
India rubber, statistics, exports and imports 627
Indiana, forestry and forest reservation 530. 531
Infectious diseases, importance of early diagnosis 347
Inoculation, soil, for introduction of nitrogen-fixing bacteria 134-136
Insecticides, scale insect work - 7
study 70
Insects, beneficial, introduction, etc
berry, investigation 88
cotton, study. 81-83
disease-carrying, remarks 87
field crop, study 86. 515
forest, damage x-~->
fruit, tree, damage 86
injurious, iy06, review by Bureau of Entomology 608-517
scale, destruction by birds, article by W. L. McAtee 189-196
insecticide work 87
natural enemies 190-192
stored products --7
usefulness against boll weevil
vegetable crop, remarks s7
Inspection, food, Chemistry Bureau, discussion 71
drug, etc", 1906, review by 11. \Y. Wiley 530-521
foreign, of meat animals, fees, etc 259
INDEX. 707
Page.
Inspection, meat, 1906 493-495
Texas fever, 1906, results 31
Iowa, butter making, remarks 415
forestry 529, 532
road laws, 1906 521
station corn breeding 283
Irrigation, effect on durum wheat 203
wheat in dry regions 204
experiments, effect on wheat 211
investigations, experiment station 109-111
relation of precipitation 385-328
Italy, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 254
Jaffa. Iff. E., article on "Nuts and their uses as food " 295-312
Jay, 1 ilue, usefulness, note 197
California, usefulness against scale insects 194
Jensen pineapple, origin, description, etc 343-344
J ohnson grass, eradication, remarks 524
Joint worm, study 86
wheat, damage, 1906 509
Josephine persimmon, origin, description, etc 362-353
Juice, apple. See Apple juice.
Jupiter pineapple, origin, description, etc 342-343
Kansas City, wheat rates and prices 378
forestry 531
station, corn breeding 282
wheat, exporting cost 383
Kelep, boll weevil enemy, uselessness in Texas 84
Kentucky, agricultural education, consideration 155
road laws, 1906 521
Kernel, corn, changes in composition by breeding 285-288
parts " 2sri
Kinglet, usefulness against scale insects 197
Kite, use in atmosphere study 122
Labor, cost, reduction in sugar-beet growing 274-278
sources, etc. , in sugar-beet production 269-274
farm, 1906, remarks 525
sugar beet, sources of supply 270-274
Laboratories, plant industry, and testing gardens 58-59
Laboratory tests, tobacco 402
Ladybirds, new, importation from Europe s4
use in destruction of scale insects " 191
Land laws, relation to lumber industry 448
sugar beet, values 268
United States, proportion under cultivation 181
Lard, freight rates, ocean 665
statistics, exports, 1902-1906 6S2
growth 248
Law, transportation, for live stock, changes 493
Laws, agricultural education 155-157
forestry 532-533
game, legislation and court decisions, etc 533-536
new, Department work 9
road, 1906, review by M. O. Eldridge 521-523
State, tubercul< isis requirements, note
Le Clekc. J. A., article on " The effect of climatic conditions on the com-
position of durum wheat" 190-212
Lecanium scales, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446
Legislation, agricultural education 155-157
game protection, 1906 533
meat inspection, discaesion 27-28
public range, attitude of stockmen 227
Legumes, nitrogen fixation, remarks 133
use in New England dairying 411
708 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tage.
Lemons, statistic?, imports, 1002-1906 675
Lepidosaphes uhn i, control, note 446
Lettuce, diseases, 1906 503
Library, Department, work, review by Secretary 101-102
organization and work 457
Liehi nut, description 297
Licorice root, imports, 1902-1906 676
Life zones, study 88
Lime, composition, variations and their relation to lime-sulphur wash 431-432
Lime-grass, reseeding on ranges 231
Lime-sulphur wash, boiling, effect of different periods 43S
chemical considerations 437-438
cooking, and cooking outfits 440-443
formulae, variations, and recommendation? 434-437
ingredients 431-434
preparation 438-443
time and outfit, for use on San Jose scale 443-445
usefulness 446
washes, field experiments and conclusions 435-437
San Jose scale, article by A. L. Quaintance 429-446
Liquid air, use in atmosphere study 123
Liquors, alcoholic, statistics, exports and imports, 1902-1906 677, 686
Little peach, control 41
Live stock associations, officers, etc 466-468
industry, 1906, review 492-498
interests, sanitary officers 468-469
pedigree associations 34-466
raising, area of range land necessary for success 235
range, improving grade, discussion 235-237
industry, future 238
ranges, overcrowded condition „■ 225
restrictions on imports by various countries 251-257
statistics, imports, 1902-1906 670
numbers and prices 632-637, 648-653
rail rates, Chicago-New York 665
transportation law, change 493
See also Stock.
Locust, Rocky Mountain, damage, 1906 517
Louisiana crop pest commission, cooperation of Department S2
dairy industry 419
Lowe, V. H., statement regarding scale-eating birds 197
Lumber industry, advantage of new forest-reserve management 61
movement westward and southward 447, 526
relation of land laws 448
price, effect of government sales 451
prices, rise, 1S94-1906 526, 527
sales, government, extent and growth 450—151
statistics, imports, exports, 1902-1906 675, 684
supply and national forests, article by Thomas H. Sherrard 447-452
private forest lauds, remarks 526-527
Macaws, notes 176
Magnate apple, origin, description, etc 355-357
Magnetism, terrestrial, relation of sun 123
Mail routes, rural, improvement 149-150
Maine, forestry 531
nutrition experiments 107, 108
Maladie du coit, horse disease, eradication 29
Mallein, distribution by Bureau of Animal Industry, article by M. Dorset .. 347-354
manner 350-352
preparation, use, etc 349-350
Mammalogy, economic, study S9-92
Mango, diseases, 1906 502
fiberless, Florida ripening 40
Market, hauling from farm, cost 371, 372, 377
values, relation of freight costs, article by Frank Andrews 371-386
Marketing, fruit, remarks 48-50
nuts 311-312
INDEX. 709
Ta=-e.
Markets, dairy, in New England 408-409
Maryland, forestry and forest reservations 530, 531. 532
smoking tobaccos, improvement 53
Massachusetts, agricultural education, commission study 153
forestry 531
Matthams pineapple, remarks 337, 338
Matting industry, encouragement 40
Maye&oUa destructor. ' See Hessian fly.
McAtee. W. L., article on " Birds that eat scale insects" 189-198
McDonald, E. A., article on "Opportunities in Dairvine. on the Pacific
coast " 422-428
Meal, nut 306
oil-cake, remarks 309
Meat. American, foreign restrictions, article by Frank R. Rutter 247-264
growth of exports 247-249
res trictions on imports by various countries 251-257
trade growth, prospects 264
animals, immediate slaughter requirements 258
imports, prohibitions and regulations 2^7-261
open market in Great Britain 256
inspection, 1906 493-195
discussion of changes, etc 25
increase of inspectors 9
supply, discussion by Secretary 16-18
Meats, dressed, rail rates. Chicago-New York 665
imports, regulations 260
treatv limitations 261-262
statistics, imports and exports 637-638, 672, 682
rail rates. Cincinnati-Xew York 666
Melanerpes f. bairdi, usefulness against scale insects 194
Melanoplus spretus, damage, 1906 517
Melon diseases, 1 906 504, 505
Melons, wilt-resistant, study 42
Melvix. A. D., review of live-stock industry 492
Meteorologic observations, upper atmosphere, recent developments 121-123
Mexican cotton boll weevil. See Boll weevil.
Miami pineapple, remarks 337
Michigan, agricultural education, consideration 154
forestry and forest reservation 530. 531
game warden's instructions 218
Microscopic work, remarks 72
Migration, duck and shore birds, remarks 89
Milk, market, business outlook 411
industry, Xorth Central States 414
New England, industry 410
production and handling, remarks of Secretary 37
skim, value to farm in North Central States 414
Milking machines, use 498
Mill, Dr. Hugh Robert, remarks on cloud-bursts 326
Miller, Judge Samuel, discovers of new fruits 361, 362
Millet, diseases, 1906 ". 505
Mina. India, note 177
Mining, advantages of new forest-reserve management 60. 528
Minnesota, agriculture in schools 156. 1 -IS
butter making, remarks 415
forestry and forest reservations 530, 531
nutrition experiments 107, 108
station, corn breeding 285, 290
Mississippi, alfalfa growing 55
dairy industry 419
River, freight route, factor in prices, note 379
Valley laboratory, remarks 58
Missouri, agricultural education, consideration 154
agriculture course in schools 157
Mocking birds, breeding in captivity 167
Mold, prevention in butter 498
710 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Page.
Montana, alkali lands, reclamation 77
winter forage, note 234
Moore, "Willis L., W. J. Humphreys, and O. L. Fassig, article on "New
problems of the weather" 121-124
Moose, killing, 1906 537
Morgan horse, preservation of breed, remarks 34
Morton citran^e, remarks , 330
Mosquito, yellow fever, study 87
Moth, brown-tail, parasites 83-84
gipsy, parasites 83-84
Moths, gipsy and brown-tail, damage, 1906 514
Mount Wt-ather research observaO >ry 121
Mountain areas, ranges, reseeding 231-232
Mules, exports, 1902-1906 681
statistics, numbers, etc 632-635,648-650
Mytilaspis jiuinorum, destruction by birds 191, 196, 197
Nebraska, forestry 529. 531
object-lesson road 149
Negro, education, proposed agricultural instruction 105
Nevada, springs as water supply 2 13
New England, dairying opportunities, article by George M. Whitaker 408-412
Hampshire, forestry 531
Jersey, forestry and forest reservations 52m. 530, 532
road laws, 1906 521
Orlean-, freight rate- on cotton, remarks 373
York, agricultural education, consideration 154
city, freight routes and rates for cotton 373
forestry and forest reservations 529, 530
State reserves and legislation 530, 531. 533
road laws, 1906 522
Newstead, E., observations on scale insect destruction by birds 191-192
Nighthawk, eating of boll weevil 91
Nightingale, notes 176, 177
Nitrate, production by use of electricity 136
relation to soil fertility, notes 127
Nitrogen, atmospheric, fixation by soil bacteria 130-132
content of corn kernels, changes by breeding 285-288
determination, durum wheat, remarks 200
fixation, electrical methods, discussion 136
pn 'blein. present status, article by A. F. Wt ods 125-1)36
See also Protein.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, distribution 54
N&romonca earopse, note 127
North Carolina, dairy industry 420
Dakota, alfalfa experiments ..., 235
Nurseries, national forest, remarks 524s
Nut butters, discussion '. 304-305
candies, discussion 307
coffees, remarks 308
flours and meals 306-307
milk, infant feeding, note 297
oils, remarks 309
pastes, discussion 31 S
pistache, investigation, description 40, 297
preserves, discussion 305
trees, diseases, 1906 507
insects injurious, 1906 513
Nuthatch, usefulness against scale insects 194. 197
Nutrition, animal, experiments 35
investigation-, progress 107-109
value of nuts 298-303
Nats, bleaching, remarks 311
composition 298-301
descriptions 296-298
digestibility 301-303
economy of use 309-311
I>'DEX. 711
rase.
Nuts, flavor, remarks _ 298
food use. article by M. E. Jaffa 295-312
green, food use 30S
marketing and handling 311-312
mastication, necessity 302
methods of use in diet 303. 304
nomenclature, synonyms : ■
nutrition studies 107. 108
shelling, machines 311
statistics, imports, 1902-1906
Oak scale, destruction by birds 195
Oat, Sixty-day, introduction 44
Oatmeal, exports, 1902-1906 686
Oats, diseases, 1906 605
improvement S3
production, note 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 561-5-
Ocean freight rates, relation to British imports; statistics 384. 665
value of goods 372
two classes 374
Office, Experiment Stations; Eoads. See Experiment Stations: Roads.
Ohio, forestry 531 , 533
road laws, 1906
tobacco fermentation and selection
Oil cake and oil-cake meal, statistic*, exports and imports
cotton seed, exports, 1902-1906
nut, meals, remarks 309
corn, content in kernel, changes by breeding 285-287
cotton-seed statistics, exports and imports '
use against dust on roads 114
Oils, nut, remarks 309
Olpys, Henry, article on '"Cage-bird traffic of the United States'' 165-180
Olive nut. use 29 7
scale, destruction by birds 193
list of bird enemies 194
Oliver Red apple, origin, description, etc 357-358
Orange hybrids, trifoliate with sweet, development 329-336
new loose-skinned, Thornton, production 336-337
Oranges, transportation investigations 49
Orchard grass, usefulness in reseeding western range* _ _
Orchards, protection from rabbits 91
Oregon, dairying 425—426
Oriole, eating of boll weevil 91
species, usefulness against scale insects 194. 1 97
Orlando pineapple, origin, description, etc 344-345
Ornamental plants, diseases. I'Kid 507
trees, insects injurious, 1906 514
Ortox. W. A., review of plant diseases in 1908 49!
Ozark mountain region, apple bitter rot 41
Pacific coast, dairying opportunities, article by E. A. McDonald 423-428
freight rates on wheat
Packing-house inspection, Chicago
products, exports, imports, etc 14. 67
Page, Logan Waller, article on ''Object-lesson roads" 137-150
Palmer. T. S. . review of game protection, 1906 533-540
Paper, chemical study 71
Para grass, usefulness, remarks
Paradise nut. note
Paraffin, use in coating butter to prevent mold
Parasites, boll weevil
insect, remarks
moth, of gipsy and brown-tail moths
sheep, remarks - 33
study of stomach worm 498
usefulness in control of cotton boll weevil 318-322
712 YEAEBOOK 0* THE DEPAETMENI OF AGEICULTUEE.
raze.
Parrakeets, kind?, qualities, etc ] 74, 175
Parrot.-, capture and supply 169
kinds, pri J 74-1 76
- ... usefulness again.-- - - 191.192,194,197
Passenger rates, railway 669
Pasture. New England, remarks. I Eange 408, 411
Pathol _ _ a 'ions 41
503
Tangier. usefulness, remarks 39
Peach, early Wheeler, new variety, origin, etc 360
enemies, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446
insect injurie- 512,513
curl, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446
yell - - - 41
Peaches, transportation, remark- 48
Pear blight, control metb - 41
diseases, 1906 500
sect injuries I 512
Peaty- - 127
Pecans, new varieties - ription, etc 365-370
Pedigree, K iti ..- 34
1906 497
-ylvania. forestry and f< : - 529, 530, 531
ties, relation to nitrogen supply in soil 126
jmon, new variety, origin, description, etc 362-363
PhyUocopU* . control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446
Physics, experimental, Mount Weather, Ya 124
solar, problems for study 1 23
Pickles, nut, - r - 303
i usefulness against scale ine - 197
Pine, prices, rise. 1894-1906 526, 527
Pineapple, diseases, 1900 _ 502
hybrids, discussion 337-346
new varieties, remarks 51
productions, new, Department of Agriculture, article by Herbert
J. Webber - -
Pine-bark beetle, study
Pinenut, description 296
I - - . lines against scale insects - 194
Pistache nut, investigation; c -
Plant dises - - W. A. Orion 499-508
Industry. Bureau, organization and work 454
work, review by Secretary 38-59
introduction garden, Chico, Cal. , remarks 59
Plum curculio. stud v 86
diseases, 1906". 501
scale, damage 1 90
Plums, transportation, remarks 48
Poisonous plant investigations, remarks 54
Pole sweat, tobacco, prevention 81
Polioptila caKforniea, usefulness against scale insects 194
Pollination, cr i corn breeding 281,282—285
Pomefru:- - 499-500
Poplar lumber, prio - - '4-1906 526,527
Pork, • - growth 248
imports Russian prohibition 255
prohibit: gn, i gainst imports 249-255
statistics, expo: be 2-1906 682
Porto Rico, experiment station, remarks 107
rhVe Department, cooperation in road building
1 - ads, improver. -rative work 117
] • lis ---. : 504
Potatoes, disease-resistant 42
production, note _ ^12
stat!- a production, prices, supplies, etc 584-591
Poultry-breeding experiments - 497
remarks - 35
INDEX. 713
Page.
Precipitation, departures from normal, 1906 491
January, February, March, and April, 1906 473, 477, 478, 479
relation to cotton "boll weevil damage 317-318
irrigation 325-326
<iho Rainfall and Bains.
Preservative?, meat, foreign restrictions of use 260
Preserves, nut, remarks 305
Printing, appropriation, limitation 96
Proliferation, relation to cotton boll weevil control 318
Protein, content of corn kernels, changes by breeding 2S5-288
high content in wheat, remarks 212
nut. digestibility, note 302
wheat, effect of time and manner of harvest 209
influence of length of growing season 206
Provisions, freight rates, Chicago to European ports 669
Psaltriptirus m >nim us, usefulness against scale insects 194
Psvlla. pear tree, use of lime-sulphur wash 446
Public Roads, Office, work and organization 112-118, 45 ,
Publications, advisory committee 96
demand, increase 96
Department, educational demand 98
Division, organization and work 456
work, review by Secretary 95-99
first editions and reprints 97
Pulvineiria mnumerabUis, destruction by birds 195
Pure-culture inoculation, soil improvement 135
Quail, care of game wardens 217
condition and propagation, 1906 537, 538
Quaixtanxe. A. L., article on "Lime-sulphur washes for San Jose scale'' .. 429—446
Quarantine, imported animals, remarks 2S
restrictions, foreign meat animals. 258
Texas fever, State laws, etc 29-30
Quince, diseases, 1906 500
Babbit pest, investigations 90
Rabun apple, origin, description, etc 359-360
Railroads, use of forestry 528
Railway, freight rates on wheat to interior points 377
rates, freight 665-668
costs, discussion 371-386
passenger
669
Rainfall, concentration, relation of topography 327
western, relation to ranges for live stock 226
See also Precipitation.
Rains, heavy, Atlantic coast, 1906 4m'
Gulf States, 1906 4^4
in cotton belt, 1906 479
Montana, Utah, and >*e\v Mexico, 1906 486
Pacific coast and Florida, 1906 481
Range cattle, improvement of grade a necessity 235-237
horses, improvement of grade a necessity 237
improvement, discussion 227-233
lands, cultivation, new movement 237-238
management, article by J. S. Cotton 225-238
stock industry, future, remarks 238
worn-out, reseeding 230. 232
Ranges, injury by premature grazing 233
western, carrying capacity, remarks 226
winter feed, necessity of raising 233-235
Raspberrv, diseases, 1906 - 501
Bawl, B.'H., article on "Opportunities in dairvint:— the South" 417-422
Recommendations, Secretary 34. 93. 94. 96, 98, 99, 104. 105, 106, 107, 110. 120
Redbird, usefulness against scale insects 192
Redtop, usefulness in reseeding western ranges 232
Redwood, planting plan 528
Regulus calendula, usefulness against scale insects _ 197
Reindeer, statistics, numbers - 635-637
714 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Page.
Renovated butter, inspection 38
Resin, statistic!?, exports and imports 625-626
Rhode Island, forestry and forest legislation 533
road laws, 1906 522
station, corn breeding 285, 292
Rick, A. G., statement of soil areas surveyed to December 31, 1906 517-520
diseases, 1906 505
growing in Porto Rico 107
investigations, remarks 45
. production, note 13
statistics, acreage, production, prices, etc 613-616
Road construction, expert advice, etc., remarks 113-115,117
laws, 1906, review by M. O. Eldridge 521-523
making outfit, articles 141
materials, investigation of properties 115-118
kinds and cost, tables 146. 147
tests 140-141
work, object-lesson, purpose 142
Roads, country, improvement as post routes, remarks 117
making, cost, remarks 143, 146
objectdesson. article 1 >y Logan Waller Page 137-150
construction, remarks 114
extent of construction 144-145
lectures 150
reports 139-140
post, improvement 149-150
Public, Office, organization and work 457
work, review by Secretary 112-118
Robins, Japanese, description and prices 177
Rock, fertilizer use, note 116
Rocks, binding power, study 116
Root-nodule bacteria, relation t< i nitrogen fixation 132-135
varieties and efficiency 133
Rot. bitter, apple in Ozark mountain region 41
plant disease, 1906, notes 499-508
Rotch, A. L. , study of upper atmosphere 122
Bobber, India, statistics, exports and imports 627
Rush, matting, introduction, remarks _ 40
Rusk citrange, remarks 329
Russia, imports of hogs and hog products, restrictions 255
Rust, plant disease, 1906, notes. 499-508
Rustic citrange, origin, description, use, etc 334-336
Rutter, Frank R. , article on "Foreign restrictions on American meat"... 247-2';4
Rve, diseases. 1 906 , 505
exports, 1902-1906
f. trace use on ranges 284
production, note 13
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 575-581
Rye-grass, reseeding on ranges 231
Salsify, disease, 1906 504
Salt, value in lime-sulphur wash, discussion 4o4. 4:;s
San Jose scale, control, time of application of wash 443
lime-sulphur washes, article by A. L. Ouaintance 42'.'-44»i
Sanitary dairying, notes .'
officers," live-stock, list 40S-469
Santa Rita Forest Reserve, range improvement 229
Savage citrange, origin, description, use, etc 333-834
Savannah, freight rates on cotton 373
Scab, plant disease. See Plant diseases.
sheep, control . .' 28
Scale, cottony maple, destruction by birds 195
greedy, destruction by birds '. 194
hawthorn, destruction by sparrow 191
insects, control, birds beneficial 91
use of lime-sulphur wash 446
INDEX. 715
Page.
Scale, insects, destruction by birds, article by W. L. McAtee 189-198
North American birds 192
insecticide work 87
natural enemies 190-192
plum, injuries to fruits 190
San Jose. See San Jose scale.
School officers, attitude toward elementary agriculture 152-155
Schools, agricultural, discussion 104-105
organization 160
agriculture as study, introduction, article by A. C. True 151-164
farmers' help, methods 162-164
forestry 469
relation to labor supply for sugar-beet growing 271
Schulte, J. I., article on " Corn breeding at the experiment stations " 279-294
Seaboard, wheat routes, rail and water 379
Seaports, freight rates from interior 373, 667
Seasoning, wood, studies, note 68
Secretary of Agriculture. See Agriculture, Secretary.
Seed, beet, relation to sugar content of beets 208
single-germ, production 48, 275
clover, statistics, prices 630-631
distribution, Congressional, remarks 58
good, for farmer, remarks 47
influence on composition of grain 208
timothy, statistics, prices 630-631
tobacco, effect of changes 400
relation to preservation of type 403-404
Selection, seed, use in corn breeding 289-292
tobacco breeding 400-401
Seminole pineapple, remarks 337
Shade trees, diseases, 1906 507
insects injurious, 1906 514
Shamel, A. D., article on "New tobacco varieties" 3S7-404
Sheep, breeders' associations 467
dipping, increase of value of wool 495
internal parasites, 1906 496
parasites, remarks 33
range, breeding experiments 497
scab, control 28
statistics, exports, 1902-1906 681
numbers, imports, etc 632-635, 656-658, 670
Sherrard, Thomas H. , article on "National forests and the luml >er supply ' ' . 447—452
Ships, freight rates, comparison with wagon rates 380
Shot-hole fungus, peach , 42
Slulia ni. oeeidentaHs, usefulness against scale insects 194
Silage, storage methods 55
Silk culture, investigations 88
statistics, exports and imports 628
imports, 1902-1906 671
Silo, use with sugar beets 278
Silos, need in dairy sections of the South 41S, 419
Silt'i c. arvlcatii. usefulness against scale insects 194
Skins, statistics, exports and imports of world 640-645, 671, 681
Smut. See Plant diseases, 1906.
Simw, crop season, 1906 473
heavy, Colorado and Wyoming, 1906 489
Soil, acidity, relation to 1 >acteria, remarks 1 27
bacteria, chemical functions
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen 130-132
conditions, dairy districts. North Central States, remarks 413
fertility, relation of dairy farming 405
inoculation, distribution of inoculated soil 134-135
use of pure cultures 135-1 36
reports, present uses 186-187
resources, United States, possibility of increase 181-1 82
remarks 74
716 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Page.
Soil, survey, areas surveyed, 1906, statement by A. G. Rice 517-520
surveys, use, article by J. A. Bonsteel . . . . 181-188
types, series, and province 183-184
Soils, adaptation of crops 184-185
Bureau, organization and work 455
work, review 1 >y Secretary 72-81
influence on composition of wheat 205
nitrogen content, availability 125
uses, reports 185
Soleno i > ■<!•> geminata, usefulness against boll weevil 321
Solicitor, Agriculture Department 453
South Carolina, dairy industry 417
dairy improvement, remarks of Secretary 37
dairying, extension, appropriation 498
opportunities, article by B. H. Bawl '. 417-422
S< »W8, fecundity 34
Spain, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 255
Sparrow, species, usefulness against scale insects 194, 196
Sparrows, Java, description and prices 177
Spelt, forage use 234
Sphyrapicus varius, usefulness against scale insects 197
Spillmax, W. J. , review of farm-management study, 1906 524—525
Spizi Ua s. arizome, usefulness against scale insects 104
Spraying, equipment fur lime-sulphur wash 444
Springs, use as water supply on western ranges 233
Squash, disease, 1906 1 504
Stars, meteorological relations, note 1 24
Statistics, Bureau, organization and work 457
work, review by Secretary '.. 99-101
crop, 1906 ." 1 542-631
farmers' institute 541
Stayman, Dr. J., apple propagation 355-356
Stock, live. See Live stock.
Stockmen, attitude on public-range legislation 227
Stomach worm, sheep, study, 1906 496
Stone fruits, diseases, 1906 501
Storage, fruit, studies 48, 50
insects injurious to agricultural products 87
Stored products, insects injurious, 1906 516
Storm, damaging, Gulf districts, 1906 488
St. .rms, 1906, notes 478
Strawberry, diseases, 1 906 502
insects injurious, 1906 517
Streptoihri.c spp., relation to soil nitrification 128, 129, 130
Students, Roads Office, notes 115, 117
Subtropical laboratory, remarks 59
Sugar, beet, content in beet, relation of climate and soil 268
cost of production, methods of reducing, article bv C. O. Town-
send i>r,r,-L'7s
increase of content in beet 267
lab< »r colonies 272
production, historical notes 265
note 12
statistics, production, acreage, prices, etc 617-622, 679
Sulphur, grades, effect of variation on lime-sulphur wash 438
occurrence, preparation, and use in lime-sulphur wash 433-434
Sumatra tobacco, use in producing new tobacco varieties 287
Sun, relations of weather 123
Sunflower seed, use 298
Supplies, Government, chemical, examination 70
Supply Division, Chief, duties 454
Surveys, soil , extent, problems, and demands (see aUo Soil-) 73-75
Swamp lands, drainage, remarks 112
Sweden, imports of American swine products, prohibition 255
Sweet potatoes, diseases, 1906 503
Swine. See Hogs.
Switzerland, imports of meat animals, regulation 255
INDEX. 717
rage.
Tabebuia, nut, use 298
Tangier pea, usefulness, remarks 39
Tanning materials, study 71
Tar, use on roads * 114.
Tariffs, discrimination against American meats and meat animals 262-263
Taylor, William A., article on "Promising new fruits" 355-370
Tea growing, American, progress 54
statistics, exports and imports 623, 679
Teachers, attitude toward elementary agriculture in schools 152-155
training, provision 159-160
Teche pecan, origin, description, etc 367
Telfairia pedata, nut, use 298
Temperature influence on composition of plants 206
Temperatures, crop season, 1906 473-491
departures from normal, 1906, table 489-490
Tennessee, dairy industry 420
nutrition experiments 107, 108
object-lesson roads 148
Texas, dairy industry 419
fever, eradication 29-32, 495
tick, damage, 1906 516
forestry 529
f reigbt rates on cotton 373
range improvement, alternation of pasture 230
tobacco experiments 78
Thielavia basicola, tobacco disease, note 398
Thornton orange, origin, description, use, etc 336-337
Thrush, varied, usefulness against scale insects 197
Thryomanes b. spilurus, usefulness against scale insects 194
Tick, cattle, eradication 29-32, 495
relation to dairy industry, notes 418
Ticks, damage, 1906 516
Timber, National Forest, disposal 525, 526
purchase 449
public, disposal under land laws 448
purchase, advantages in dealing with Government 451
sales, forest reserve, extent and character 64
supply, conservation by Government effort 447-452
forest reserve, management 61
syndicates, acquisition of public lands 449
tests, remarks 529
Timothy, insect injuries, 1906 509
seed, statistics, prices 630-631
usefulness in reseeding western ranges 231
Tit, species, usefulness against scale insects 191, 192, 194
Titmouse, species, usefulness against scale insects 194,197
Tobacco breeding, necessity and methods 399-401
diseases, remarks 398, 504
hybrid varieties and hybridization. 52, 53, 399
insects injurious, 1906 509
investigations, Soils Bureau 78-81
pole-sweat, prevention 81
preservation of type 403-404
production, note 12
statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 605-608
exports and imports, 1902-1906 679,689
study and breeding, progress 52-54
Sumatra, Uncle Sam variety, origin, description, etc 389-392
testing new varieties 401—103
varieties, new, article by A. D. Shamel 387-404
Tomato, diseases, 1906 505
Toumeyella, destruction by cardinal „ 192
Townsend, C. O., article on "Methods of reducing the cost of producing
beet sugar" 265-278
Tramp steamer, freight traffic 375
Transportation, citrus fruit, experiments 49
718 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tage.
Transportation, freight cost, relation to market values, article- bv Frank
Andrew- '. 371-386
fruit, remarks 48
game 93
rate.-?, statistics 665-669
sugar-beet 277
Trapn KsptaMO, nut, use 297
Treaty limitations, relation to meat importation 261-262
Tree planting, forest-reserve and cooperative 66-67
damage by scale insects ' 189
Trifoliate orange, hybrids with sweet, development 329-336
Trlti'v.n spp. Set Wheat.
Tropical food products, studies 509
fruits, diseases, 1906 BOB
insects injurious, 1906 513
Tkve, A. C, article on ' "Introduction of elementary agriculture into schools'" . 151-164
Tuberculin, distribution by Bureau of Animal Industry, article by ML Dorset . 347-354
manner 350, 352
results 35 2-354
preparation, use, etc 34S-349
test, accuracy 348-349
Tuberculosis, bovine, i (anger to man. remarks 362-353
_ a, remark- 32
investigation, 1906 496
Tulip scale, destruction by grosbeak 192
Turnip, diseases, 1906 505
Turpentine, composition, study 71
spirits, statistics, exports and imports 626,684
Typhoid fever, spread by house fly 87
Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco, origin, description, etc 389-392
Utah, alkali lands, experiments 75
i ne, blackleg, distribution 33, 496
Vegetable crops, damage, 1906 510
insects 87
matter, imports 1902-1906 672-680
Vegetables, 1906 502
Vermont, forestry 531
Vireo species, usefulness against scale insects 194, 195
Virginia, agricultural education, consideration ' 155
high school-, note 157
road laws, 190*3 522
tobacco, experiments with export and bright kinds 79
University, rueteorologic study 124
"Wagons, freight rates, comparison with ship rates 380
Wain:- : 1 308
"Warbler s\ - .ainst scale insects 194.195
"Warden, game, of to-day, article by K. W. Williams, jr 213-224
Wash, lime-sulphur, cooking and cooking outfits 440-443
formulas, variations 434-437
I lamtion 438-443
time and outfit for u-e on San Jose scale 443—445
usefulness 446
Washes, lime-sulphur, for San Jose scale, article by A. L. Quamtance 42!
, 445
Washington, alkali lands, reclamation 76
dairying 423-425
forestry
range-, improvement under fence 229
seeding 231
Water, analysis, remarks 79
notion
--rvation on western ranges
contamination, study 55
Watermelons, diseases, 1906 505
INDEX. 719
Page.
Wax wing, usefulness against scale insects 197
Weather Bureau, organization and work 454
work, review by Secretary 23-25
crop seasons, 1906, conditions 473—491
new problems, article bv Willis L. Moore, W. J. Humphreys, and
O. L. Fassig " ". 121-124
relations of sun 123
service, increase, remarks 24
Weaver birds, remarks 178
WTebb, George, originator of White Burley tobacco 400
Webber, Herbert J., article on " New citrus and pineapple productions of
the Department of Agriculture " 329-346
Webworms, damage, 1906 510
Weeds, destruction in sugar-beet growing — 277
Weevil, boll. See Boll weevil.
Weights, legal, per bushel, table by States and commodities 690-693
Wells, Edward L., article on '"Cloud-bursts, so called" 325-328
Wheat, California, decline in yield in Sacramento Valley 428
composition, effect of time and manner of harvest 208-210
influence of length of growing season 206
seed and previous crop 208
deterioration, study 45
diseases, 1906 506
durum, chemical determinations 200
composition, effect of climate, article by J. A. Le Clerc 199-212
description and importance 199
effect of excessive moisture - 202
forage use 234
improvement and production 43
quality, factors 200
exports, relation of farm values 382-384
famine, prophecy reiterated 126
freight costs, relation to cotton freights 371
rates, direct shipments 380
discussion 377-384
Pacific coast 381
grades and values, relation to freight rates 378
insect injuries, 1906 509
irrigation effect in dry regions 204
nitrogen content, investigation 521
Oregon, decline in Willamette Valley 425
Pacific coast, prices and freights, discrepancies explained 381
prices at Liverpool 380
production, note 12
statistics, acreage, production, supplies, etc 549-561
export rates, Kansas Citv and Omaha to seaboard 665
exports, 1902-1906 685
freight rates, Chicago- New York 667
ocean 665
supply, British, remote sources 385
Wheat-grass, reseeding on ranges 231
Wheats, comparison for arid and humid regions 202
durum, Mexico, comparison 203
high-protein, necessity of producing 212
Whisky, exports, 1902-1906 686
Whitaker, George M., article on " Opportunities in dairying — Newr Eng-
land" 408-412
White, B. D., article on "Opportunities in dairying — North Central States" . 412^117
White Burley tobacco, origin 400
White-eye, usefulness against scale insects 192
Wiley, H. W., review of food and drug inspection, etc., 1906 520-521
Willamette Valley, dairying prospects 425
Williams, B. W., Jr., article on "The game warden of to-day" 213-224
Willits citrange, remarks 329
Wilson, James, report as Secretary of Agriculture 9-120
WUaoniap. pileolata, usefulness against scale insects 194
720 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.
Page.
Wilt diseases, 1906, notes 506
Wilt-resistant cottons and melons, remarks 42
Winds, damage, 1906 487
Wines, imports, 1902-1906 677
Wire, fence, study 116
Wisconsin, agriculture course in schools 158
butter making, remarks 415
cheese industry 416-417
forestry and forest reserves 529, 530, 532
station, corn breeding 285, 291
Wolves, depredations, investigations. « 90
Wood pulp, statistics, exports and imports 627
utilization, note „ 68
Woodcock, condition, 1907 537
Woodland, management by private owners, assistance by Forest Service... 65
Woodpeckers, species, usefulness against scale insects 193, 194, 197
Woods, A. F., article on "The present status of the nitrogen problem" 125-136
Wool statistics, exports and imports; production and prices 639,658-661
Wren, species, usefulness against scale insects 194
Wren-tit, usefulness against scale insects 195
Yellow-fever mosquito, study 87
Yellowthroat, Pacific, usefulness against scale insects 194
Za melodea spp. , usefulness against scale insects 194
Zonotrichia spp., usefulness against insects 194
Zosterops capensis, usefulness against scale insects 192
o
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