The canning of foods; a description of the methods followed in commercial canning

LIBRARY

/

IflBued June 6, 1912.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY— BULLETIN No. 161

U. W. WILKY, Chief of Bureau.

THE CANNING OF FOODS;

A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS FOLLOWED IN COMMERCIAL CANNING.

BT

A. W. BITTING,

Food Technologist f Bureau of Chemistry.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE.

1912.

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LEHER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department op Agriculture,

Bureau of Chemistry,
WasMngton^ D. C.^ December 6^ 1911,

Sir: I have the honor to submit for your approval a bulletin on
the canning of foods, prepared by A. W. Bitting, food technologist
of this bureau, who has conducted quite extensive investigations along
these lines, both in the field and in the laboratory. The preserving
of foods by heat in sealed containers has become a most important
industry, not only from a commercial standpoint, but also from that
of good living. The principles involved in the wx)rk are not par-
ticularly new, but some of them are not generally understood. Many
of those engaged in the work of canning follow certain steps accord-
ing to a prescribed formula rather than from a knowledge of why
they are necessary. The consumer often accepts the contents of a
can in lieu of the fresh article as a matter of necessity but with
misgiving as to its wholesomeness.

The object of this bulletin is to give, in a rather popular form,
a description of the conditions in the better type of factories and
the methods followed, so as to indicate to manufacturers what is
expected in a modern plant; to give to teachers of domestic science
more nearly accurate information upon this line of work than is now
available; and to inform the consumer what goes into a can and
what he may reasonably expect. The description is general and there
are many variations due to local conditions which it is not possible
to detail. Some of the trade practices are not wholly approved by
this bureau and their presentation here does not mean an indorse-
ment. There are changes going on, particularly with regard to
grading and labeling, which in time will make it possible for the
purchaser to know just what he is buying. The purely technical
investigations on the composition of the products, the physical and
chemical changes which they undergo in canning, the effect of the
container upon the food, the bacteriology of spoilage, etc., have been
withheld for future consideration.

I recommend the publication of this manuscript as Bulletin No.
151 of the Bureau of Chemistry.

Respectfully, R. E. Doolittle,

Acting Chief,

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture,

CONTENTS

Pace.

Historical note 7

Early theories on preservation by canning 10

Sterilization 12

Historical note 12

Modem methods of sterilization 13

Determination of temperature and time of processing. 15

Modem factory equipment and methods -. 16

Sanitation 16

Methods and processes 20

Raw materials 20

Grading 20

Washing 21

Preparation and blanching 21

Washing and filling the cans 22

Exhausting 22

Capping and testing for leaks 22

Processing and cooling 23

Containers 24

The label 26

Use of the term "canned" 28

Spoilage 28

Effect of heat and cold 30

Home canning 31

Cost of canned foods compared with fresh 32

Extent of the canning industry in the United States 33

Detailed consideration of the various products 36

Emits 36

General discussion 36

Apples 37

Apricots 38

Blackberries 38

Cherries 38

Gooseberries 39

Grapes 39

Peaches 39

Pears 41

Plums 41

Raspberries 41

Strawberries 42

V^etables 43

Asparagus 43

Beans, green 44

Beans, Lima 45

Beans, wax 46

5

6 CONTENTS.

Detailed consideration of the various products — Continued.

Vegetables — Continued. Pag«.

Beets - 46

Com, sweet 47

Peas 50

Pumpkin 54

Rhubarb 55

Squash (see under "Pumpkin") 55

Succotash 56

Sweet potatoes 56

Tomatoes 57

Marine products 61

Crabs 62

Oysters 62

Saknon , 66

Sardines 68

Shrimp : 69

Milk 71

Specialties and soups 72

Beans, baked 72

Hominy 74

Sauerkraut 75

Soups 76

THE CANNING OF FOODS.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS FOLLOWED IN COMMERCIAL CANNING.

HISTORICAL NOTE.

Canning is the art of preserving a food product in a hermetically
sealed container, the preservation being accomplished through ster-
ilization by means of heat. In its highest sense the object is to retain
the food in as nearly a fresh condition as possible as to appearance,
palatability, and nutritive quality or in the condition in which it is
usually consumed. It affords the means of having wholesome suc-
culent vegetables or other products at all times and in places where
otherwise the cost or the labor of preparation would be prohibitive.
The art was evidently of slow development and the result of various
dissociated experiments. The real foundation was laid by Spallan-
zani, who in 1765 made experiments which disproved the then popu-
lar theory of spontaneous generation. These consisted in placing
various nutritive liquids in tubes, sealing them, and then boiling in a
water bath for an hour. He showed that the liquids remained
unchanged as long as the seal was unbroken and free from external
air. He therefore concluded that the " eggs " which cause spoilage
are somehow carried in the air. This was canning on a very small
scale. The experiments also demonstrated that there was a difference
in the effect of moist and of dry heat; that whereas life was de-
stroyed by water at a temperature of 45° C, in the dry state 80° C.
was necessary.

The first practical application of this discovery was made by
Scheele, a Swedish chemist and apothecary, who preserved vinegar
by boiling it in jars or bottles and sealing it at once. This was in
1782, and at that time the keeping of good vinegar for extracts and
other pharmaceutical processes was of much greater importance than
can be realized now. There is no record, however, that Scheele
carried his work further than the preservation of the pharmaceutical
product

In 1795 Nicholas Appert, a Frenchman of exceptional training in
experimental work and of large practical experience in confection-
eries, kitchens, breweries, and distilleries, began work on food preser-

7

8 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

vation. His work was stimulated by offers of reward on the part of
the Government for better methods of preparing foods for the army
and navy. According to Appert's own story he was unsuccessful
until 1804. At that time he learned the secret of preserving by heat
in a sealed container, then continued his experiments until 1810, when
he published his methods in detail. According to the records he
succeeded with many products and produced results which it would
be difficult to improve upon at this time. The essential points in the
method described by him are that the food to be preserved is placed
in glass bottles with water and corked carefully, after which the
bottle is placed in a water bath and heated for a period dependent
upon the nature of the food used. At the end of the heating period
the bottles are removed from the bath and cooled. By this method
the temperature attained was from 190° to 200° F., the maximum
being 212° F. He says, " I chose glass as the matter most impen-
etrable by air and have not ventured to experiment with vessels of
any other substance." Appert's publication won for him the prize
of 12,000 francs offered by the French Government and general recog-
nition as the founder of the art of canning.

In 1807 a Mr. Saddington presented a paper before the English
Society of Arts, entitled "A method of preserving fruits without
sugar for house or sea stores." Mr. Saddington did not claim the
discovery of the method, and being a traveler it is supposed that he
learned the general facts abroad, though he may have made some
modifications. His method was essentially as follows : The fruit was
placed in bottles and loosely corked. The bottles were placed in
cold water up to the neck, heat applied gradually until 75° C. was
reached, and then kept at that temperature for an hour. After this,
the bottles were filled with boiling water, corked lightly, and laid
on their sides to swell the cork. Later the corks were cemented.

Peter Durand, early recognizing the possibilities of preserved foods,
took out an English patent in 1810, covering both the preserving of
" animal, vegetable, and other perishable foods," and also the con-
tainer, covering " vessels made of glass, pottery, tin, or any metal, or
fit materials." The essential feature of the preservation was that the
food be heated and hermetically sealed in the container. This is the
first record of using the tin can as a container ; therefore its invention
is attributed to Mr. Durand. It is known, however, that even pre-
vious to 1800 the Dutch put up fish in tin, though their methods were
not those now generally recognized for canning. The fish, on being
caught, were dressed at once, boiled for a short time in salt brine, and
smoked for two days, after which they were put in the cans, covered
with hot butter or olive oil, and sealed. The tin can was practically
coincident with the art of canning.

HISTORICAL NOTE. 9

The first improvement in the tin can, adapting it especially to
canning purposes, was made in 1823 by Pierre Antoine Angilbert, a
Frenchman. His improvement consisted in first putting the fruit and
water in the can and covering it with a lid having a hole in it. The
cans were set in a water bath and boiled for some time, after which
the hole w^as closed with a drop of solder. The first patent on a tin
can to be issued in this country was in favor of Mr. Thomas Kensett
in 1825.

All the early tin cans were made by what was known as the plumb
joint; that is, the edges along the sides were butted together and
soldered, as were also the two ends. The entire work was done with a
pair of scissors and a soldering iron. Only a few cans could be made
in a day, 100 being considered a very large number for one workman.
It was not until 1847 that Mr. Allen Taylor invented the stamped
can with the extension edges. In 1849 the pressed top was added as
an improvement.

From the beginning, bottles were too costly and broke too easily to
be used for the cheaper articles of food. The earthenware jars were
heavy and not sufficiently well glazed. The tin can lent itself to com-
mercial purposes best, but it was expensive and the evolution of its
manufacture was slow. At present it is manufactured by automatic
machinery at low cost and in enormous quantities.

At first the temperature employed in canning was from 190° to
212° F., but this was found to be insufficient for many products. A
higher temperature was secured by adding salt to the water in the
bath, and later this was gradually supplanted by calcium chlorid.
With the latter it was possible to secure a temperature of 240° F.,
thus shortening the period of cooking and also making it possible
to process some products which could not be sterilized by boiling
alone. It was not until 1874 that Mr. A. E. Shriver, of Baltimore,
invented the closed-process kettle for cooking with superheated
water. About the same time, Mr. John Fisher, of the same city,
patented a kettle in which live steam could be used. These same
methods, boiling in water in the open, in a bath of calcium chlorid
(now being superseded by oil), in superheated water, and with steam
in closed kettles, are still in common use, the only difference being in
certain modifications for doing the work easily. The most recent
addition to the equipment for heating is an agitator, which has the
effect of stirring the contents inside the cans so that all parts are
heated uniformly and rapidly, and is advantageous for certain
products.

Shortly after Appert's method had been published and the tin
can found to be suitable as a container, small canneries were estab-
lished in Aberdeen, Scotland, in Sligo, Ireland, and in European

10 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

fishing ports. In 1845 the canning of sardines was begun in France ;
in fact, the early products were nearly all sea foods.

The first canner in this country was Ezra Daggett, who learned the
trade abroad. He and Thomas Kensett packed a few salmon, lob-
sters, and oysters in New York in 1819. The next year William
Underwood and Charles Mitchell began operations and a factory
was opened in Baltimore. In 1839 Isaac Winslow began experiment-
ing with the canning of corn in Portland, Me. His early efforts were
mostly failures, but he had a persistence worthy of any cause, and
by continuous work he felt warranted in 1852 in asking for a patent.
So skeptical was the Patent Office that letters were not granted until
1862. In 1841 the first real fish cannery was established at East-
port, Me., the product being lobsters and mackerel, and by 1860 there
were a number of canneries on the coast, handling both fish and
vegetables. The first cannery in the Central States seems to have
been established in the early sixties in Cincinnati, closely followed
by one at Indianapolis. Canning was begun at San Francisco in
1856 and in the Alaskan waters in 1878.

The Civil War gave the first great impetus to canning in this
country. That event showed the enormous advantage of having
canned foods and emphasized their general superiority over the dried
foods in palatability. The more recent extension of the industry has
been due largely to a better knowledge of the wholesome character
of canned products and the economy in their use.

EARLY THEORIES ON PRESERVATION BY CANNING.

From the beginning there were numerous theories explaining the
preservation of foods by canning. The first was that of the exclu-
sion of outside air. This theory was recognized in part by Appert
in his description of the preservative process.

It is obvious that this new method of preserving animal and vegetable sub-
stances proceeds from the simple principle of applying heat in a due degree to
the several substances, after having deprived them as much as possible of all
contact with the external air. It might, on the first view of the subject, be
thought that a substance, either raw or previously acted upon by fire, and
afterwards put in hot bottles, and they completely corked, [would] be preserved
equally well with the application of heat in the water bath. This would be
in error, for all the trials I have made convince me that the absolute privation
of the external air (the internal air being rendered of no effect by the action of
the heat) and the application of heat by means of a water bath, are both
indispensable to the complete preservation of alimentary substances.

Appert did not know what was in the air to cause spoilage, but did
recognize that it was the external and not the internal air. At this
time some foods and wines were being preserved by excluding the
air, the method being to cover the surface of the food or wine
with hot oil. The experimenters, following Appert, laid special
stress on excluding air, and when tin cans were first used care was

EARLY THEORIES ON PRESERVATION. 11

taken to heat the contents well before sealing; later the cans were
heated, then vented, and again heated. Sometimes a second venting
was given. The belief was general that every trace of air must be
removed. This theory was held until recently, particularly for meat
and fish products, corn, and others difficult to process, as there was
no recognition of the more resistive varieties of bacteria found on
some substances. The theory of exclusion of air has had followers in
the practical operations up to the present time.

The next theory advanced was that it was the vacuum which pro-
tected the food substances. This was believed by the workmen
almost from the beginning, as they found that heating and then
sealing the can resulted in more or less of a vacuum. This theory
was closely associated with that of excluding the air, and those
believing in it developed mechanical methods for producing the
vacuum; these, however, are not of as much practical importance in
canning as expected. The cold vacuum is useful in preserving meat
and fish products which have been cured by salting, drying, or smok-
ing, for fruits which have been partly cured by drying, sugaring,
etc., and for jams, jellies, preserves, etc. The vacuum aids in pre-
serving where the organisms causing spoilage require oxygen for
growth.

In factory practice more or less of a vacuum is secured by passing
the cans through an exhaust box which will heat them to 180° or
more, or by adding hot brine or sirup before the can is sealed. To
some products, particularly meat and fish, heat is applied, and the
can vented to drive out the air ; essentially the same result is accom-
plished in home canning in that the caps are not tightened until the
contents are thoroughly heated. A recent procedure is to cap the
cans and seal the vent in a strong vacuum chamber, instead of heating
and later venting. The tin can with a good vacuum always shows
the ends drawn in when cooled. Cans packed and sealed cold will
have the ends flush or upon becoming warm they may spring out,
producing so-called " flippers " or " springers," and while not spoiled,
they have the appearance of swells and may not be merchantable.
While the role of the vacuum as an aid in preserving is not to be
underestimated, it has not the importance in canning that was
attributed to it.

The theory of the arrest of chemical activity was early advanced
as being effected by hermetic closure. The French Government ap-
pointed Gay-Lussac to investigate the cause of the preservation as
introduced by Appert. Gay-Lussac reported that decomposition
was a series of oxidation changes in a substance, and that driving out
the air and preventing its ingress prevented these changes from
taking place. This explanation was satisfactory until microorgan-
isms were discovered and their relation to spoilage proved.

12 THE CANNING OP FOODS.

STERILIZATION.
HISTORICAL NOTE.

The present status of our knowledge of canning is based on the
modern science of bacteriology. The invention of the compound
microscope and its many improvements has revealed the presence
of minute vegetable organisms in the air, in water, and on everything
with which we come in contact. These organisms are bacteria, yeasts,
and molds, and are present either in their vegetative or spore state,
being the " eggs " which Spallanzani thought were in the air.

Bacteria and germs were first seen in 1683 by Leeuwenhoek, who
constructed a crude compound microscope. He knew nothing of
their character nor of their relation to higher organisms, but as
many of them were motile he regarded them as animals, and from
their habitat named them " infusoria." Almost nothing further was
discovered until 1786^ when O. F. Miiller described some of the
structural characters. Another lapse occurred until 1838, when Ehren-
berg published a work upon the so-called infusoria, in which he
added to and systematized the information to date, some of his names
being still used. Dujardin, Perty, Cohn, and Nageli added much to
the knowledge of the structure and life habits of micro-organisms,
but none of these associated the organisms with any economic
problem.

Pasteur, about 1860, was the first to discover that these organisms
were the cause of the changes known as fermentation ; also the cause
of the supposed spontaneous generation. He recognized that they
had a definite relationship to economic activities and later he ap-
plied the knowledge gained in the laboratory in a practical way to
many industries. He discovered that by heating certain food prod-
ucts to a certain degree and for a certain period the time of keeping
might be prolonged. The principle had a practical application to
many substances on which boiling would have an objectionable effect
and is taken advantage of on a large scale in wine and beer making
and in dairying. He found further that by heating and cooling at
intervals, as on successive days, sterilization might be accomplished ;
also that the organisms on different substances had varying resistant
powers to heat and that in intermittent heating different tempera-
tures must be employed, according to the predominating organism.
All of the fundamental principles that Pasteur discovered have an
important relation to canning.

In 1876 Dr. Robert Koch discovered the relation of specific germs
to diseases, and a few years later elaborated methods for separating
germs into pure cultures. Since that time progress has been rapid
and the relation of various organisms to the different industries has
become fully established.

STERILTZATTON. 13

The first direct application of bacteriological methods to spoilage
problems in canning in this country seems to have been made by
H. L. Russell, of Wisconsin, in 1895.^ He investigated the cause of
swells in peas and found it to be due to bacteria as a result of in-
sufficient processing. The Wisconsin packers were processing the
peas at ^30° F. for from 10 to 11 minutes, and were having heavy
losses. He advised, as a result of his experiments, that the tempera-
ture be raised to 242° F. and maintained for 15 minutes, which caused
a cessation of the trouble.

In 1896 Prescott and Underwood ^ began the study of swelled and
soured corn, and later turned their attention to soured peas. Their
first results were published in 1898. In that year they gave the first
of a series of addresses before the National Canners' Association,
which had a most marked effect in establishing canning on a scientific
basis. They identified the bacteria causing spoilage in corn and peas,
determined the thermal death points, the degree of heat attained in
the center of cans, and the time required to attain it.

In 1897 the Canadian Government caused work to be done on
spoilage in canned lobster, or black lobster, as it was called. It was
determined that it was due to bacteria.

In 1903 Harding and Nicholson,^ of the New York Experiment
Station, studied the swelling of peas; they gave additional descrip-
tions of the organisms, and, as a result of their experiments, recom-
mended that the process be changed to 240° F. for 30 minutes.

Since 1900 there have been numerous contributions on the organ-
isms causing spoilage. These usually deal with one particular prod-
uct or some special phase of bacterial activity. There has been no
systematic effort made to classify the organisms, to determine their
relation to different products, the kind of spoilage produced, nor the
exact methods of dealing with each. Several large packers employ
experts to work out their own problems, but hold the results secret.
It is evident that in the preparation of food there is a rich field for
scientific research, with great possibilities for valuable and practical
results.

MODERN METHODS OF STERILIZATION.

Sterilization may be accomplished by heat below, at, or above the
boiling temperature, depending upon the length of time the heat is
applied and the number of applications made. It is not practicable
to sterilize all foods in the same way because of injury to quality
or prohibitive expense. Sterilizing below the boiling point is feasible
only for a few products, principally fruits, and then is advisable

1 Wisconsin Agr. Exper. Sta. Report, 1895, pp. 227-231.

2 Technological Quarterly, 1898, pp. 6-11.

'New York Agr. Exper. Sta., Geneva, 1903, Bui. 249.

14 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

only when it is desired to preserve a very fine appearance. This
may be accomplished above 180° F. by maintaining the temperature
for a longer time than when boiling, or by repeating the operation
on two or more successive days. The object is to prevent breaking
the tissue and loss of juices from the fruits by excessive heat. This
method of sterilization has been applied experimentally and in
private canning with gratifying results, but it involves so much time
and labor that it is not used commercially except in a limited way.
Sufficient work has not been done to say definitely what products can
best be treated in this way nor what temperatures are best suited for
different foods. It has been used chiefly with goods in glass, though
equally satisfactory results are obtained with foods in tin.

Cooking at boiling temperature is practiced with nearly all fruits,
as the germs present are easily destroyed. Most of the fruits are
processed for from 12 to 25 minutes. The tomato is the most im-
portant vegetable processed at boiling temperature, which is usually
maintained for 50 minutes.

Cooking at a temperature above the boiling point|is necessary or
advantageous for most vegetables, fish, milk, and meats. It is accom-
plished in retorts where steam is admitted under pressure, in retorts
where water can be superheated, on the open calcium chlorid or oil
bath.

Among the vegetables requiring a high temperature in processing
are corn, peas, beans, both green and dry, pumpkin, beets, and sweet
potatoes. Corn is one of the difficult products to can, requiring a
temperature of from 245° to 250° F. for from 75 to 80 minutes, de-
pending to a considerable extent upon how dry it is packed. If
very dry, the heat will penetrate to the center of the can very slowly,
the actual time required to raise the center to the temperature of the
bath being from 55 to 65 minutes. In a can of peas this is accom-
plished in 6 or 7 minutes, the difference being due to the fact that
heat currents are set up in the liquid portion of the peas while they
are absent in the corn. The necessity for a high temperature is
therefore dependent upon the ease with which the heat can penetrate
the product, as well as the resistance of the organisms. Some prod-
ucts which were formerly processed by boiling for a long time are
now given a higher temperature for a few minutes, as the product
has a much better appearance when it is not overcooked.

Meat products, as a rule, contain highly resistant organisms, besides
which the majority of these foods are of such a consistency that the
heat penetrates them very slowly. As a class they require the heav-
iest process. Milk also contains very resistive germs, but being
liquid it heats rapidly; in order to keep it smooth and prevent the
portion in contact with the tin from scorching, the cans are turned
or agitated almost continuously during the cooking.

STERILIZATION. 15

DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF PROCESSING.

In sterilizing, the heat must be applied equally to all cans, and it
is therefore necessary to deliver steam at the bottom of the kettle,
whether open or in a retort, to insure a circulation of the heat. In
retorts, whether steam or hot water is used, there must always be a
vent open to give off steam in order to hold the heat uniform at all
points. The thermometer is the all-important tester, for if it does
not show the proper degree of temperature, spoilage will fallow. To
test the uniformity of temperature in a retort, self-registering ther-
mometers are sealed in a number of cans when placed in the crates,
the cans are marked, and when the cooking is completed the ther-
mometers are examined and compared^ so that the heat may be
adjusted until all give like readings. In a similar manner the time
required for the heat to reach the center of the can is obtained, experi-
mental lots being run for varying periods, and the temperature noted.
The calcium chlorid or oil bath acts in the same way as the open
water bath.

The Avriter employs two methods of determining the temperature
in the center of a can and the rate of penetration. First, a ther-
mometer is placed in a packing joint which is soldered into the can
so that the bulb will just reach the center. By placing a collar an
inch above the gasket the can may be submerged in oil and heat
applied until a certain temperature is reached. The length of time
necessary for the thermometer inside the can to reach the same point
as that on the outside, or within from 2° to 5° of it, as experience
demonstrates may be sufficient, must be allowed in the retort and the
heating then continued for such an interval as may be found neces- '
sary for sterilization. For example, if the spores of certain organ-
isms are killed at 230° F. in 12 minutes, and it should take 20 minutes
to cause the content of the can to become heated, it would require 32
minutes as a minimum for processing, and as a margin of safety the
recommendation would be for a longer time, probably for 40 minutes.

The second method of determining temperature in different parts
of the retort and in the center of cans is to seal a thermocouple in the
can and connect it with a recording apparatus. Thus a time and
temperature curve is obtained directly. One of the important points
learned from the latter apparatus was the effect of stirring or agitat-
ing the contents of cans which ordinarily required long cooking. A
can of corn in a retort requiring 65 minutes to reach 245° F. requires
only 30 minutes when rolled back and forth. The effect of the agi-
tation was a shorter cooking, a brighter color of the corn, and a bright
can on the inside. The principle is good, but some mechanical diffi-
culties in successful operation have yet to be overcome.

16 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

The varying temperatures and methods used in canning produce
a certain amount of strain on the cans. These strains also vary with
the temperature at which the tipping is done. The contents of
a can expand with heat and contract upon cooling. If a can of corn
is tipped at 190° and placed in the retort to process, it is at once
subjected to an external pressure of from 10 to 13 pounds per square
inch, and the expansion of the contents will increase until the internal
pressure equals or slightly exceeds the external, or it rises to from
12 to 14 pounds per square inch. During a part of the cooking
process the strains become equalized, or nearly so, but when the
cooking is stopped and the retort is thrown open there will be an
outward strain equal to the internal expansion, and this will gradu-
ally decrease until the temperature falls to that at which the tipping
is done. When the temperature drops to ordinary room temperature,
instead of there being an internal pressure it is from without and
at 70° will amount to 7 pounds. This accounts for the ends of the
cans being drawn in. The can has therefore undergone a strain, first
of pressure from without on being placed in the retort, then from
expansion from within when the retort is opened, making a total
strain of 25 pounds per square inch. The smaller cans, such as No.
2 or below, are not much affected by these strains, but in the larger
sizes leaks are likely to occur. The more suddenly these strains are
applied, as by the wide opiening and closing of the steam valve, the
greater the danger, and the turning on of a large volume of cold water
results in buckling. This principle holds good for all products, the
variation from these figures depending upon the temperature used.

MODERN FACTORY EQUIPMENT AND METHODS.

SANITATION.

A modern cannery is no longer the rough, crude shed that once
was thought to be sufficient for this purpose. First of all the loca-
tion must be sanitary, away from manufacturing processes which of
themselves are objectionable, such as soap making, tanning, render-
ing fats, etc., or any other processes which may give rise to noxious
odors or be productive of organisms of decomposition. The yards
and drives about the factory should be cleaned daily, and in summer
dust should be prevented by frequent sprinkling or by the application
of crude or specially prepared oil to the drives. The application of
oil is especially to be recommended where there is much hauling
and there is no pavement, or the factory is to be run for a short season
only, as in the case of tomatoes. A single application made a couple
of weeks before the season opens will suffice for several weeks; by
putting the oil on early it will become incorporated in the earth and
not be tracked into the factory to any great extent. The drainage

SANITATION. 17

must be such as to prevent any surface overflow from adjoining
property, and also be ample to keep the stock in good condition at
all times. It should be ample to care for the waste, as this is some-
time a serious problem. If the natural body of water available is
not sufficient, settling tanks or filters may be necessary. Fermenting
material, such as tomato trimmings or corn refuse, should not be
tolerated within or near the factory. The supply of water should
be sufficient for all purposes and of good quality ; that used in wash-
ing, blanching, and brining should be free from excessive hardness
or iron, otherwise the finished products may be damaged. If the
water for this purpose is not naturally of the right quality, artificial
treatment will be necessary. The water used for washing about the
factory should have a good pressure for cleaning. A factory with a
poor location, or an insufficient or poor water supply, has a handicap
which is difficult to overcome. The facilities for bringing in or
sending out of stock should be ample, so that materials used need not
be delayed, especially when it may mean deterioration.

The buildings should be designed with reference to the special
products to be packed, but there are some features which should be
common to all. The ceilings of all rooms should be high, with ample
provision for light and ventilation. The light should come from
numerous side windows, or, if the rooms are large, from turrets, or
a saw-tooth-roof construction. Either of these two arrangements
can be made to give a flood of light and at the same time provide
good ventilation. An advantage in the saw-tooth construction arises
from the cooling and drying effect. When the straight section, or
windows, are turned toward the north, the sun beating upon the
southern incline will heat the layer of air underneath, causing it to
rise. This creates a circulation within the room which tends to dry
floors and tables and to lower the temperature. Tests made in fac-
tories so constructed have shown several degrees lower temperature
on hot days than was recorded in factories having the usual form
of roof.

One of the marked contrasts between the newer and older con-
struction is the provision for plenty of light. Light has a beneficial
effect upon employees, contributes to cleanliness, and is an active,
constant disinfectant. High ceilings and proper roof construction
usually render artificial ventilation unnecessary, but if mechanical
measures are employed a blower system, with provision for cleaning
the air, is to be preferred to suction. An abundance of light and air
is a combination which will contribute to the maximum of labor
efficiency.

A tight, hard floor is a necessity, and in all rooms where manu-
facturing processes are conducted it should be pitched about IJ inches
for each 10 feet. The pitching should have special reference to the
24210''— Bull. 151— 12 2

18 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

position of machines and tables where there will be more or less
water or waste, so that this may be confined and the floors be flushed
clean and kept reasonably dry with the minimum of labor. There
should be frequent trap connections with the sewer. The kind of
material best adapted for a floor will depend in a measure upon
whether it is to be used for dry work and storage or whether water
is employed more or less freely. Factories having a short packing
season, as in the case of tomato canning, find concrete to be the best.
Wood shrinks, swells, and cracks with changes of moisture; the
cracks are hard to clean, leakage is almost certain to occur, and these
conditions become aggravated in factories which are idle a part of
the time. Wood with a smooth covering, such as sheet roofing, makes
a good floor, but will not last long. Concrete is more or less porous,
wears rough, and is not an ideal floor, but is the best for certain
conditions. Asphalt wears away and crumbles too easily. Upper
floors should not be chosen for food preparation if plenty of ground
space is available, for the reason that it is difficult to keep, them
tight. Furthermore, the work can be supervised to better advantage
on one floor than on many, unless the departments are so large as to
demand a superintendent in each. Conveyers can be obtained to
handle products from one machine to another, and these are more
easily kept clean than are floors. Conveyers and overhead tracks
should be used in handling the product as far as is possible in prefer-
ence to trucks, as the latter are destructive of floors and are not so
clean.

The use of slat gratings to cover the floor about the kettles or others
places where there is a splashing or overflow of water is especially
to be commended. These may be made in sections about 2 by 4 feet,
and can be taken up for cleaning. There is no excuse for floors being
so wet or sloppy that the workers must wear rubbers, which is some-
times the case. All side walls, partitions, ceilings, and supports should
be smooth, to admit of easy cleaning. Preferably they should be
light colored and, as far as possible, of such material as can be washed
with a hose, as this is the easiest method of cleaning or of applying
whitewash. Some factories need to be divided by partitions to pre-
vent unnecessary heating by steam from the cookers. In other cases
the room where the material ready for the can is kept should be
separated from the rooms in which the preparation is going on, in
order to protect it from dust. That part of the factory in which
prepared material is in any way exposed should be screened to keep
out flies and dust. The latter precaution is often of greater impor-
tance than the former, for during the working period the moving of
machinery and escaping steam will drive away insects.

The tables used in the preparation of foods should be plain and
of a material that is easily cleaned. There should be no sharp angles

SANITATION. 19

or grooves where waste can accumulate, nor any places beneath where
material can be stored. Hard wood, such as maple or ash, is prob-
ably the Ix'st material for the majority of factories. These woods
will absorb little water or juices, they show soil quickly, and clean
easily with soap, water, and scrubbing brush. Opal glass or porcelain
makes excellent table tops but is expensive. Enamel-coated metal
has come into use, and under certain conditions gives excellent re-
sults. The important point is that the tables may be cleaned easily,
and that it be done often. The machinery used should be of the most
sanitary type, and set in such a manner as to be accessible from all
sides for cleaning. Conveyers for fruits, tomatoes, and all other
products should have automatic washers and brushes in their course
to keep them clean. The amount and kind of equipment varies
gi-eatly, depending upon the product. Peas, corn, and beans require
the most, fruits the least. The details of the special requirements
will be considered under each product. Water and steam pipes, with
hose attachment, should be conveniently placed about the factory for
cleaning tables, machines, floors, walls, and ceilings. This is a neces-
sary part of a modern equipment.

Provision should also be made for the cleanliness and comfort of
the employees. Water should be placed at convenient places that the
workers may wash their hands often, and sanitary drinking fountains
installed to take the place of the common cup. A factory is not
complete without proper toilet and clothes rooms. The toilet should
have facilities for washing the hands with soap and water and hand
brushes should be provided. There should be lockers for storing
the outer clothes, as wearing apparel should not be hung about the
factory. Providing special suits and a manicurist are refinements
which are found at some factories and are not so much of an
extravagance as less progressive firms would argue. For factories
running continuously and employing the same help, there is no ques-
tion but that uniforms are advantageous. For such operations as
picking, peeling, and pitting fruits, etc., which can be done as well
sitting as standing, stools should be provided. Standing all day at
tables is more than tiring, it is exhausting and decreases efficiency.
This is clearly evident to every factory inspector, especially after
the season has advanced. The stool is to be preferred to the common
bench, so that the individual may stand or sit as may be most com
fortable. If standing in one place over cement floors is necessary,
wooden springboards should be provided for the restful effect upon
the feet. The various States provide the general conditions under
which labor can be performed, age limit, number of working hours
in the day or week, physical condition, etc. No person affected with
communicable disease should be employed in a food factory.

20 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

METHODS AND PROCESSES.

The steps in canning will vary with the product, but, in general,
there are certain processes which are common to all and may be
described in this outline, as receiving the product, grading, washing,
preparing for the can, filling, exhausting, capping, processing, and
cooling.

Raw Materials.

The first requisite in all canning is that the product be delivered in
first-class condition, fresh from the fields or orchard, and in a manner
to prevent injury. Fruits, such as berries, must be handled in boxes
as for the market, tomatoes in shallow crates, corn, peas, and beans
in such quantities that they will not heat, and marine products cold
or chilled and in compartments to avoid bruising. The condition of
the material on delivery is of the greatest importance, and for that
reason the factory should be located near the point of production,
or, if shipment be made, the distance should be short and direct. A
cannery which depends upon long-distance shipments or purchasing
the supplies on a city market will generally be found to put out an
inferior article. In any delivery the seller should be held responsible
for the condition of the material; the grower has no more right to
deliver decayed tomatoes than the canner has to use and ship them.
The first case is usually a violation of a State law and should be
dealt with accordingly; the second may be reached by Federal
statute if the shipment becomes interstate.

Grading.

The second step, that of grading or sorting for quality, is one of
great importance. A general inspection or classification of all prod-
ucts is made by the foreman at the time of receipt, but this is
insufficient. The real grade of any product depends upon the
quality of the original stock rather than upon the sirup or brine
added or any subsequent operation, and the best time to make a sepa-
ration is before the work of preparation is begun. A large part of
the sorting can be done better by a few especially trained helpers,
although some of it may be continued in subsequent operations. The
hard and faulty ears of corn can be picked out more easily while it is
being conveyed to the silker than by the cutter feeders. These men
have enough to do to keep the machines busy and can not take the time
to sort properly. A few persons can pick out green, defective, and
wrinkled tomatoes which will not peel economically and do a better
job before the fruit reaches the scalder than can be done by the
peelers. The same principle holds true for peaches and many other
products. Those who peel or fill the cans should have the minimum
of grading to do. The sorting is usually done upon belts or special

METHODS AND PROCESSES. 21

table tops to expedite the work. Berries are picked, stemmed, and
defects picked out, when graded, to save handling.

Washing.

The next operation is generally that of washing, the method de-
pending upon the material canned. In general, most products are
placed in a tank of water to loosen adherent dust and dirt, are gently
rolled over by the agitation of the water, and sprayed as they emerge.
The spraying is the important step, therefore, it is desirable that the
water have force rather than a large volume. A small spray with
force will cut off dirt and adherent mold very successfully. The
principle is the same as cleaning a floor with a hose having a nozzle,
or with one having an open end; the former will use less water but
will clean better. Some hard-coated products, as peas, are washed
in revolving wire cylinders, known as " squirrel cages." Soft fruit,
such as raspberries, require very gentle washing, and if the fruit
appears clean some packers object to washing it at all, claiming that
it causes injury and loss of flavor. Whatever method is used, the
cleaning should be thorough.

Preparation and Blanching.

Many of the fruits need no special preparation other than cleaning
and sorting, after which they are placed directly in the cans.
Peaches, apples, pears, etc., must be peeled and cut into pieces of the
proper size. Nearly all vegetables require more or less treatment;
peas are shelled, graded for size and quality, and washed and
blanched by automatic machinery; corn is cut, silked, brined, and
cooked ; beans are snipped and strung, graded for size, and blanched ;
asparagus is cut into lengths and blanched; sweet potatoes and beets
are peeled and graded, and so on. The operation of blanching is in
reality parboiling. Vegetables are dropped into boiling water for
from one to five minutes, as a rule, to cause softening, and at the
same time to remove some of the mucous substances which form
upon the surface. The effect produced by a short boiling in the open
as compared with boiling in the closed can is surprising. Peas or
beans, which are a little aged and hard, will soften quickly in the
blanch but retain their condition in the can. In almost any case of
very cheap peas some may be picked out which, if thrown upon a
table or the floor, will bounce a couple of feet or more. This is
evidence that they were not^ properly blanched, and that softening
did not take place in the can. The operation of blanching is of much
importance in putting up good vegetables. It is not a matter of
whitening, as the name might seem to indicate, though it does have
the effect of producing a much clearer liquor than would otherwise
be present.

22 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

Washing and Filling the Cans.

The cans should be washed just prior to being used. In the ship-
ping and storing, more or less dirt and dust find lodgment on the
inside, and washing is the only method of removing it. The quantity
of dirt which can be obtained from a thousand cans is usually a matter
of surprise. The work is done very effectively at the present time by
machines. The filling may be done by hand or by machine. There
are many products, especially fruits, which can not be successfully
filled by machine because of crushing or otherwise injuring them.
When filled by hand the contents should be regulated by weight
rather than by volume, so that the finished product will be uniform.
If the filling be done by machine, care should be taken to get the best
results possible. It is illogical to use care in peeling a 3-inch tomato
and then have it squeezed through a 2-inch opening in front of a
crude plunger; or that great care should be exercised in washing and
blanching peas, which are to be run through a filler that will cut or
crush enough to make a muddy liquor. Machines should be designed
to fill with reference to the nature of the product and not to be merely
" can stuffers." Vast improvements have been made in filling ma-
chines in the past few years, so that most of the work can be done
with nicety and precision. All filling machines operate upon the
principle of delivering a certain volume rather than a given weight,
and for most products this method is very satisfactory. In all cases,
whether the can be filled by weight or volume, the amount of ma-
terial used should be all that can be put in the can in first-class con-
dition. Brining and siruping have also been improved, the old-
fashioned unsanitary dip box giving way to a sanitary filler.

Exhausting.

After the can is filled the next step is exhausting. This is best
for all articles packed cold, but is unnecessary for corn, peas, or prod-
ucts which enter the can hot or are covered with a hot sirup. Ex-
hausting consists in passing the filled can through a steam box and
heating the contents to 160° F. or above, the preference being for
180°. The time required for exhausting will vary from one to three
minutes.

Capping and Testing for Leaks.

Open-top cans are sealed by a special machine known as a double
seamer. The lid is pressed into place and steel rollers crimp it on
without acid or solder. This action is automatic, a single can at a
time, but at the rate of 30 per minute, or 1,800 per hour. Cans with
solder tops are sealed by automatic machinery, 12 at a time, 85 per
minute, or 5,000 per hour. The top is wiped, the cap placed on, acid
applied, the hot soldering irons drop into place, and the vent is after-

METHODS AND PROCESSES. 23

wards closed, all in one series of operations, without touching by
hand. As the cans pass from the capping machine they may be
submerged in a bath of boiling water to test for leaks. Any imper-
fection in the can or defect in sealing will be shown by a series of
air bubbles issuing from the opening, and the can is at once taken out
by the inspector for repairs.

Processing and Cooling.

After capping, the cans are processed according to the nature of
the contents. The cans are collected in large iron baskets, which
usually hold 270 No. 2 or 180 No. 3 cans, and three baskets fill a re-
tort. If the processing is conducted at boiling temperature, the
retort is not closed, but steam is turned into the water which covers
the cans. If the temperature is to be above the boiling point, the
retort is closed and either the steam is turned into the retort until
the proper pressure and temperature has been reached, or water is
first turned in to cover the cans and the steam is admitted until the
temperature has been attained. In processing fruits it is customary
to use long vats containing boiling water and equipped with auto-
matic conveyers, which carry the cans or crates through at such a
speed as will process them for the necessary length of time. This
period varies with the product. Sterilization depends on adminis-
tering the proper amount of heat, and heating above the required
temperature or for longer than is necessary only cooks the material
to no purpose.

As soon as the processing is completed, the cans should be cooled
with water. Unless this is done, the heat will be held so long that
the contents become overcooked — fruits are softened, and tomatoes
become liquid, even blacken, peasr break and make muddy liquor,
while corn acquires a brown color and a scorched taste. The cooling
may be done by turning cold water into the retort, by removing the
basket of cans to a cooling tank, or by spraying with water in the
air. There is less difference in the results obtained by different
methods of applying either heat or cold than some claim; the im-
portant point is to accomplish these steps quickly.

In calming operations the product, salt, sugar, or other seasoning,
and water are the only materials used. No hardener, bleach, or pre-
servative is employed, and in commercial canning there never was
as much preservative used as is common in the household operation.
Saccharin and sulphites were formerly used in com and peas, but
their use has now been practically discontinued ; on the other hand
the practice of selling a "canning compound" to housewives still
continues, and will only cease when the nature and effects of such
chemical preservatives are known, and the lack of necessity for their
use is appreciated.

24 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

CONTAINERS.

The first container used was the ordinary glass bottle with a com-
paratively small mouth, and was closed with a cork. The next step
was the use of a resinous wax to cover the cork. The bottle was
modified to the more convenient or jar form, and a groove run around
the top so that a tin cap might be sealed in place with wax. This
method of sealing was common in domestic canning until about 1890.
The metal screw cap with the rubber ring and various other devices,
most of which depend on a rubber or fiber joint to exclude the air,
have been introduced since that date. The glass jar is largely used
in domestic canning, but not commercially, as it is heavy, breaks
easily, can not be handled by automatic machinery, will not stand
hard processing without special precautions, and increases freight
rates. Glass containers are used for preserves, spiced and pickled
fruits, and for the limited canning for which the consumers are
willing to pay a fancy price. Very recently improvements have been
made in glass jars and the methods of sealing, which may extend their
usefulness, especially to such products as can not be preserved to the
best advantage in tin.

The earthenware jar was brought out to offset the high cost of the
glass jars; some of these were glazed inside, some outside, and some
on both sides. They were generally sealed with a tin cap by means
of wax, though a few had earthen tops. Various forms were given
to these jars, and some may still be found which have been in use
for many years in rural districts. The earthenware jars had only
one advantage over glass, that is in cost, but they had the disadvan-
tage of having blow or sand holes. The earthenware jar is not used
to any large extent in commercial canning, though some are used to
pack bulk jams and stock for preserves, etc.

The tin can is preeminently the container used in commercial can-
ning, and it is also used to a very large extent in home canning.
Those used for the latter purpose retain the deep ring about the open-
ing for the insertion of caps and sealing with wax; these are com-
mercialy known as wax-top cans. In commercial canning solder is
used exclusively for sealing stud hole or cap cans. The tin can has
undergone a number of changes. The first cans had flush sides and
ends, or plumb joints; these gave way to the stamped-overlapped
ends, and all inside soldering has been superseded by lock seams and
outside soldering. Most solder caps are hemmed, so that only the
amount necessary to seal is used. The solder can has been super-
seded in many cases by the open top, or so-called sanitary can, and
in this case the sealing is done by double seaming on the top, no
solder being used on the can except in making the side seam. The
former objections to acid and solder, on the ground that they con-
taminated the foodstuffs, have thus been largely overcome.

CONTAINERS.

25

The most recent improvement in the tin can is the inside coating
or hicquering. Tliis type of can is known to the trade as the " enamel
lined " can. Various coatings have been tried at different times
without entire success, and while the present lining, is not perfect,
it does effect a marked improvement in many lines of packing. There
are fruits and vegetables which attack the tin coating with more or
less vigor, resulting in a loss of color, flavor, and quality, and at the
same time form salts of tin which are objectionable. The inside lac-
quered cans are especially effective in holding such articles as rasp-
berries, cherries, plums, beets, pumpkin, hominy, etc. They do not
add to such products as corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, or those which
have little action upon the tin. Inside coating is accomplished in
two ways — by baking the lacquer on the sheet and by spraying it
on the inside of the finished can; further improvement in the con-
tainer may be expected along these lines. The tin can is made in a
great variety of sizes and shapes, but there are certain forms known
as standard.

Sizes of standard cans.

Number of

Diameter

Height in

Capacity in

can.

in inches.

inches.

ounces.

1

f

4

11.6

Itall
2

12.3
21.3

2i

4

4}

31.2

3
Stall

JJ

sf

35
39

8

^x

(>|

104

10

6A

4

107

The size of package used for certain products is fixed by trade
custom and not by the needs of the consumer. For example, com,
peas, beans, and such products are almost exclusively packed in No.

2 cans, tomatoes in No. 3, and California fruits in No. 2J cans. The
No. 2 can of high-grade peas or corn contains about 22 ounces, or
too much for one service for a family of two, three, or four persons,
and with peas in particular the unused portion is not so good when
served a second tune. A can holding 16 ounces would more nearly
meet the requirements. The same is true for a No. 3 can of tomatoes.
The excess is waste in many cases and represents not only good
material but the labor expended upon it, a larger can than is neces-
sary, and boxing and freight. These are all items which contribute
to cost and a consequent lessening of the use of canned foods. The
No. 2i can was developed as a short weight from the No. 3 and does
not adequately represent the interval in size between the No. 2 and the
No. 3. The No. 2J sanitary can holds only slightly less than the No.

3 in the older style, as the latter can not be filled so nearly full and

26 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

sealed. Recently a new style of can has been introduced for Califor-
nia fruits, especially for peaches, known as the luncheon size, which
is one-half the height of the No. 2|. These are desirable because they
will take in the large pieces of fruits and apparently are meeting a
demand. The same style in the square can is being used for aspar-
agus tips.

At the present time some packers are trying to meet certain de-
mands by varying the fill rather than the size of the can. For ex-
ample, a well-filled can of tomatoes might retail at 15 cents, the
packer may reduce the quantity, add water, and make the cans sell
two for a quarter, or carry it to an extreme and sell for 10 cents.
A customer finding that the 10-cent can will furnish the amount of
tomato wanted and without waste will repeat the order. The same
methods are used more or less in packing fruits, using a quantity
which will make the can sell for a certain price. This is a crude,
unsatisfactory, and manifestly expensive method, and also open to
fraud by those who are unscrupulous. It would be far better for the
packer to determine what size is wanted and use such sizes, filling
them properly.

THE LABEL.

The label should tell the truth in terms which are direct and easily
understood. It should give the name of the article, the grade, by
whom packed and where packed, or the name of the distributor.
Neither the names nor the illustrations used should be misleading.
A picture of green peas in pods in clear relief and subdued type stat-
ing that the contents are soaked is hardly appropriate. If given a
geographical name it must be the true one. Corn grown in Iowa is
not Maine corn though obtained from Maine seed. The use of such
terms as " Maine style " for cream corn is in reality only an attempt
to circumvent the intent of a true label.

There are no fixed standards for canned goods, though the canner
and the trade do recognize and describe certain qualities in jobbing,
and prices are made accordingly. The consumer has not been edu-
cated to know these differences. The labels usually carry descriptive
terms implying superlative quality, as extra select, extra choice, extra
fancy, select, choice, fancy, extra standard, and, less commonly,
standard. There are too many designations for the same product,
and, furthermore, Mr. A's fancy may not be the same as Mr. B's.
The grade may not be the same in two consecutive seasons, due to
drought, excess of rain, intense heat, or other cause; neither may
it mean the same in different sections of the country in a normal
year. In other words, at the present time the grade does not have
a fixed character.

THE LABEL. 27

Again, when the sirup is one of the factors in grading a product,
that fact should be given, though it is not required. A consumer
can not go to the grocery and buy peaches in a 40°, 30°, or 20°
sirup, though the packers use care in preparing such sirups to use
for their different grades. Such designations as heavy, medium,
and light sirup are also inadequate. A heavy sirup may mean any-
thing between 35° and G0°, a medium between 20° and 45°, and a
light between 10° and 30°, depending on who uses it. These varia-
tions are too wide to be carried under such elastic terms. There is
no doubt that some fruit packed in light or 20° sirup is just as good
as that put up in medium or 30° sirup, but there can be no harm
done by giving the exact facts. On general principles, if it is worth
while for the packer to select his stock carefuly and put up different
grades, the consumer should know how to select them.

A can of any food should be as full as it can reasonably be packed
and processed without injuring either the quality or appearance
of the product. There is such a thing as overfilling as well as
under filling, an.d one is as much a fault as the other. All foods
packed in a liquid or semiliquid condition, or as solids surrounded by
liquid, should fill to within one-half inch of the top, and when free
liquid is present it should cover the solids. Corn or peas an inch
below^ the top would be a slack fill, even though covered with liquid.
The fruits present a more perplexing problem, depending upon the
size of the pieces and the degree to which they shrink in the sirup.
The very choice large peaches, having only 5 or 6 pieces to the can,
will weigh only 18 or 19 ounces and be as full as they can be sealed.
A slightly smaller size, of 7 to 9 pieces to the can, will weigh 20
ounces, and for more than 10 pieces the weight will be from 21 to 22
ounces. After they have been cooked in the sirup the pieces will
soften, the weight will change, and the fill will not be the same,
though in all the amount was as much as could be sealed. If the
cans be judged upon weight of the solids alone, the highest grade
would be short weight ; the quality must also be considered. The pres-
ence of only 18 or 19 ounces of low-grade peaches would be mani-
festly slack filled. Soft berries, like strawberries and raspberries, if
filled as full as the can will hold and sirup or water added, will
appear only one-third to one-half full of solids upon opening and
considerable variation will occur, depending upon their condition.
Some foods can be packed so as to give a fairly uniform net weight
upon opening, but with others the volume of solids and its own liquid
is a fairer measure. The buyer is entitled to a full can and most pack-
ers try to furnish it. The net weights given for several products at
the close of the descriptions of processing are intended to represent
the minimum; the amount actually obtained should exceed these
figures. A lower net weight may be regarded as " slack filled."

28 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

USE OF THE TERM " CANNED.*'

The term " canned " as applied to food products put up in her-
metically sealed packages is capable of more than one meaning.
Originally it meant any food put up in any container which might
be hermetically sealed and the preservation accomplished through
sterilization by heat. In commercial use the term " canned " applies
only to foods put up in tin containers and sterilized by heat. Under
that construction any foods put up in glass or other containers than
tin are not rated as canned foods, nor are foods put up in tin in
which preservation is accomplished by some means other than heat.
Fish cured in brine, pickled, or spiced, but packed in tin, is not canned
within this meaning of the term. Fruits preserved with sugar, placed
in glass or tin jars, and sealed in vacuum are not canned in the com-
mercial sense. The same is true of smoked meats, such as dried beef,
and fish, as smoked herring. In domestic canning glass jars are
generally used, and the product is referred to in the home as canned.
It is unfortunate that the term should have so many meanings. In
the trade it is now common to refer to fruit in glass, sliced bacon
and chipped beef in glass or tins, sliced or smoked fish in glass or
sardines in tins, and candied fruits in glass.

SPOILAGE.

Spoilage may result from insufficient processing, defective con-
tainers, or the use of unfit material. These losses are generally
classed under the heads of swells, flat sours, and leaks. Formerly
losses were heavy at many factories, but these are becoming less each
year, due to a better knowledge of what is necessary in material,
handling, and improved appliances. More attention is paid to
testing for bacteria, and greater care is taken in obtaining accurate
thermometers and gauges, automatic temperature-regulating devices,
and time recorders, so that little is left to the judgment of the
processor or helper.

Spoilage due to insufficient processing is generally divided into
two classes — swells and flat sours. In the former there is generation
of gas, causing the ends of the can to become distended ; in the latter
the content of the can is sour, but there is nothing in the appearance
of the can to enable the customer to determine the condition until
the can is opened. Swells are generally due to underprocessing good
material, while flat sours most often result from giving the regular
process to material which has been allowed to stand for some time,
such as peas remaining in a load overnight or corn left in a car or
in a pile until it begins to heat. The raw material may show no
evidence of fermentation on superficial examination, but this condi-
tion frequently exists under the conditions just cited. Swells are

SPOILAGE. 29

therefore more likely to be associated with nish operations and flat
sours with an overstock or delay in getting at the raw material. It
is not intended to give the impression that swells and sours may not
occur under other conditions, such as changes in the consistency of
the corn, nor that swells may not occur in material which has stood,
and sours result from underprocessing, but only to state a general
rule.

Swelling or souring may take place shortly after processing or
the spoilage may be delayed for weeks or even months. Swelling
is more likely to occur and be detected early, while souring is apt to
be delayed, though it may occur early. The heat used in processing
may have been insufficient to kill the vegetative forms or spores, but
may have injured them to such an extent that time was necessary for
recovery and subsequent development. A microscopic examination
of the material a few days after processing, or of the incubating cans
during a short period, might not show anything wrong. It is only
by incubating samples for a number of days that early recognition
can be made of some cases of spoilage or possible spoilage. The
canner often sends his goods from the factory with full confidence
in their condition, and it is not until after they have been in the
broker's warehouse or upon the grocer's shelves many weeks or even
months that he becomes aware that anything is wrong. The spoilage
may amount to only one can to the case, or the percentage may be
high; but in either event the goods are rejected with loss.

Spoilage from the use of improper material — i. e., material which
has been allowed to stand until fermentation has begim — is generally
more or less sour to the smell and taste, but is sterile, the heat of
processing having killed the bacteria.

Can leaks may occur along the side, " seam leaks " ; at either end,
" end leaks " ; at the cap, " cap leaks " ; at the tip, " tip leaks " ; or
may be due to defective tin plate. Can making has reached such a
point of perfection that manufacturers guarantee all above two to
the thousand. These imperfect cans are usually due to the solder
not making a perfect union or to defects in crimping or double seam-
ing. With the use of the automatic capping and tipping machines
there are fewer leaks than formerly occurred when the work was done
by hand; leaks in sj^nitary cans are generally due to poor adjustment
of the rollers. Leakers are recognized, as a rule, by inspection in
the hot bath, few getting into the wareroom. Leaks may be very
small, even microscopic in size, and, therefore, difficult to detect, or
pieces of the can content may be driven into the opening and seal it
for the time. Leaks invariably cause swells. A check on spoilage
can be kept by placing a few cans from each day's run in a room kept
at a high temj^erature (08^) , as these will incubate much more rapidly
than if kept in a storeroom.

30 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

There are two conditions, known to the trade as " springers " and
" flippers." A springer is a can the end of which will bulge slightly
after a time, but on opening there is found neither gas nor spoilage,
though the cans have the appearance of being swells. This condition
has been found to be due to overfilling or to packing cold. Such
goods when placed in a warm grocery will bulge, due to the tempera-
ture. A flipper is a springer of such mild character that the head'
may be drawn in by striking the can on a hard object. It is always
possible to tell a swell from a springer by the use of a microscope, as
in the former there will be large numbers of organisms while in the
latter there will be very few.

While a spoiled can of food should never be eaten, tho danger of
poisoning from fruits and most vegetables is very remote. Ptomains
or other poisons may form in meat, milk, and fish, but rarely, if ever,
in vegetables.

EFFECT OF HEAT AND COLD.

Canned foods may be injured by an excess of either heat or cold.
Some products are injured more than others. The effect of pro-
longed heating is to cook the contents to a pulp. This is seen at
times, in the case of peas and tomatoes in particular, when the cans
have been stacked tightly before being fully cooled. The liquor will
become cloudy from short heating, thick and heavy from prolonged
heating, and the peas softened and broken if it is continued for a
number of days. The writer has seen peas stacked that were warm
for three weeks after packing. Tomatoes become soft and pulpy,
and often turn a walnut brown if stacked hot and the heat is retained.
All fruits become murky and lose their distinctive flavor and odor.
Canned foods will stand the high temperature of summer very well,
but as far as possible they should not be placed in the hot sun nor
kept in a very hot storeroom. The effect of moderate heat is not
nearly so marked as might be expected.

Cold seems to have no ill effects upon canned goods unless it goes
below the freezing point. Most canned foods will stand a little
freezing without appreciable change. Repeated freezing and thaw-
ing cause the goods to become flabby and give a flat taste. In all
cases the interior of the cans shows a distinct attack upon the tin.
With fruits, the coating of the cans is made to appear as though
it were galvanized. Canned foods will resist a fair degree of heat
or cold without serious injury, but continued heat or a very high
temperature, or repeated freezing and thawing will cause deteriora-
tion in quality.

Foods properly prepared and kept under reasonably good condi-
tions deteriorate very slowly, so that cans carried from one year to
another may be as good as, or better than, the latest pack, depending

HOME CANNING. 31

upon the comparative quality of the fresh product used. On general
principles, however, it is desirable that a product should not be car-
ried over several seasons. The amount of tin dissolved also increases
with time, which is an additional reason for not holding canned
goods any longer than is absolutely necessary.

HOME CANNING.

It is not possible to accurately estimate the amount of home can-
ning that is being done, but it must aggregate many millions of cans.
In the rural districts in particular it is considered to be a part of
the season's work to put up canned foods for the winter, and from
50 to 100 cans is no unusual stock for a family. The products canned
are usually fruits and berries, as these are the most easily handled
under home conditions.

The household department of numerous weekly papers gives much
space to instructions in home canning, and many cook books give
recipes and details of the operation. There are also manufacturers
of small home-canning equipments who give glowing accounts of
the profits to be made from doing such work. Whether it is profit-
able to can for home consumption depends upon the cost of the raw
material, fuel, and labor. It may be said that it is not generally
profitable to buy fruits or vegetables in a city market and put them
up in cans. Lots of a bushel, half bushel, or crate generally lack the
necessary freshness, are in too small a quantity to permit of grading,
and there is too much waste. The labor involved is disproportion-
ately large for the amount handled, and the expense for cans and
sugar must not be omitted in determining the cost of the finished
product. Home canning may be profitable when the raw stock costs
little or nothing, when no account is taken of the labor, and the
satisfaction of having one's own handiwork is worth more than the
money value of the article.

Home commercial canning is being encouraged to a certain extent
and whether it will prove profitable or not will depend upon local
conditions. The outfit needed for canning most fruits and tomatoes
is very small and where a crop can not be marketed except at a very
low price or the labor can not be otherwise advantageously employed,
a fair profit may be obtained. The canning of special articles or
putting them up in a certain way for an established trade is often
successful, but on standard articles like tomatoes, corn, peas, string
beans, etc., the chances of home canning in competition with a mod-
ern factory are about the same as those of a hand meal grinder as
compared with a modern grist mill. The product of the average
home cannery will grade in quality on about the same par as country
butter. Both depend upon the producer, but as a class neither ranks
very high. The small home cannery is useful in saving good food

32 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

which would otherwise go to waste, and its development should be
encouraged, but the idea of large profits should be held in abeyance.
For the novice and many others it would be better to learn how to
buy the best prepared foods rather than to attempt to pack them.

COST OF CANNED FOODS COMPARED WITH FRESH.

In making a comparison of the cost of canned and fresh products
of the same kind, a number of factors must be taken into considera-
tion. First, the cost of the raw material and the waste when pur-
chased in the small quantity used in a single meal; second, the cost
of labor and preparation used in making it ready for the table. It
is obvious that a comparison can not be made for time, as the canned
article may be had throughout the year and the fresh for only a
limited season, and purchase of a product out of season is usually
at a high cost. In making a purchase of either the fresh or canned
article, the smaller the quantity, the higher the price ; the single can
costs more than if bought by the dozen or case, as does the half peck
of apples compared with the bushel or barrel.

Take, for example, a No. 3 and a No. 10 can of whole apples;
the former usually retails for 10 cents and the latter for 25 to 30
cents. Those who can use the latter have a decided advantage, as
it will contain between four and five times as much as the former.
Only in apple districts, and for short seasons, can the same quantity
of the fresh fruit be purchased at the same price. Wherever the
fresh fruit sells at the rate of $2 per bushel when purchased by the
peck, and this is below average prevailing prices in cities, the canned
article is the cheaper. In the raw stock there is loss in peel and core,
from bruises, short weight, and often rot, all of which is eliminated
in the can. The canned variety usually cooks better, and for the pie
or dumpling is generally the cheaper.

Neither corn nor peas can be purchased in large cities, nor in many
smaller ones, as cheaply as in the can, and then they are not so fresh.
In up-to-date canneries the article is put up the day it is picked, while
3 or 4 days may elapse from the time the raw product is harvested in
the garden (in transportation, in the hands of the commission house,
and in the grocery) before it reaches the consumer's table. It requires
nearly 2 quarts of good peas in the pod to make one can, and often
more than 3 quarts of the heavy-podded variety found on the market.
At no time can the smaller peas nor fine-kerneled com be purchased
as cheaply as in the can. It requires 2 bushels of good peas to yield
one No. 2 can of petit pois, or 1 bushel to yield one can of extra
sifted, and from 4 to 8 ears of small corn to make one can. The pea
and corn packer, however, handles tons of these crops especially
grown for him, and uses the highest class of automatic labor-saving
machinery in all operations, so that the real labor on a single can

CANNING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATEB. 33

is very small. The consumer can not purchase peas at from 30 to 50
cents per bushel, nor corn at $9 to $12 per ton, and these represent
initial costs in large quantities.

In fruits, as berries, the consumer must figure that a No. 2 can
will require not less than 12 ounces of well-selected fruit, and for a
Xo. 2^ can (22 ounces). The latter is equivalent to two boxes of
berries by the time they are picked over. Sirup is added to the can,
which offsets the sugar necessaiy for the fresh fruit.

There is a vast difference in canned foods, and, as in many other
lines of commerce, the cheapest in price is often the most expensive.
The can of water-packed tomatoes, the green hard pears, the handful
of berries in a pint of water, or poor-quality beans disguised with
tomato dressing and offered at a low price, when measured by their
food value are the highest. Goods which are strictly standard
should give the best food value for the cost. Peas, corn, beans, and
tomatoes which are good field run, but which lack the uniformity
and niceties which are necessary for the fancy article, will have all
the nutritive properties, and be just as palatable, but cost several
cents less per dozen. There is much that is pure fad in the purchase
of canned foods ; the asparagus must be white and the fewest possible
stalks in a can ; the green is just as good and a medium number of
stalks furnish a more edible product. The little peas are, naturally,
the costly ones, for less than 5 per cent are of that kind; the large
ones are the better flavored and more nutritious, and one-third the
cost. Similar examples might be cited of a number of other prod-
ucts. Canned foods should be purchased by the dozen or case,
straight or in mixed lots, rather than by single cans.

EXTENT OF THE CANNING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES.

The figures presented by the Bureau of the Census give one a
general idea of the importance of the canning industry. In 1909.
there were 3,767 establishments engaged in canning and preserving,
the capital invested was. $119,207,000, that paid for raw material was
$101,823,000, and the finished product was worth $157,101,000. The
number of cases of the principal vegetables was as follows : Tomatoes,
12,883,414; com, 7,447,765; peas, 5,873,748; beans, 3,774,923; and all
others 3,093,493. The number of cases of the principal fruits was as
follows: Peaches, 1,479,601; apples, 1,169,730; berries, 792,244; pears,
628,485; apricots, 562,811; and all others, 717,144. The number of
pounds of fish was: Salmon, 99,831,528; sardines, 90,694,284; oysters,
28,192,392 ; and all others, 16,700,509. The total number of pounds
of condensed milk was 494,796,544.

The accompanying table, which shows the time and place of can-
ning the principal fruits and vegetables, is not complete, but was
made up from the reports of those canners who replied to the series
of questions addressed to them.
24210"— Bull. 151—12 3

34

THE CANNING OF FOODS.

Seasons for packing various products in the different States.

state.

Apples.

Apricots.

Asparagus.

Baked beans.

Arkansas

July 23 to Aug. 15
Sept. 17 to Nov. 26
Sept. 1 to Oct. 31
Sept. 30 to Oct. 30
Sept. 20 to Oct. 10
Aug. 1 to Sept. 1
Aug. 10 to Nov. 15
Oct. 1 to Nov. 15
Oct. 1 to Oct. 28
Oct. 1 to Nov. 1

California

June 1 to Aug. 10

Mar. 25 to July 1
May 1 to June 30

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

Georgia

Illinois

May 20 to June 20

Indiana

do

Kansas

Maryland

Jan. to Dec

Massachusetts

do

Michigan

Aug. 1 to Nov. 1
Aug. 15

Sept. 18 to Oct. 17
Sept. 1 to Nov. 1

do

Minnesota

do

Missouri

Nebraska

New Jersey

May 13 to July 1

New Mexico

Oct. 15 to Dec. 25
Sept. 15 to Dec. 31
Oct. 1 to Nov. 20
Aug. 25 to Dec. 1
July 1 to Dec. 1
Oct. to Nov.
July 25 to Dec. 1
Sept. 1 to Oct. 20
A IIP. 15 to Dec. in

Aug. 1 to Aug. 15
July 20 to Aug. 20

New York... .

May 10 to July 15

-Tan t.n Dpp

Ohio

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Tennessee

Apr. 15 to May 10
Apr. 26 to June 10

Utah

July 24 to Oct. 1

Virginia

Washington

July 1 to Aug, 1

State.

String beans.

Beets.

Blackberries.

Cherries.

Arkansas

July 1 to Aug. 15
May 29 to Sept. 10

California

Aug. 1 to Sept. 15

May 15 to July 28
June 15 to Aug. 1

Colorado ....

Delaware

July 1 to July 20
June 10 to June 20

Georgia

July 1 to Aug. 1

Illinois

June 15 to July 15

Indiana

June 1 to Oct. 1
June 8 to July 27
July 10 to Aug. 20
June 10 to Sept. 15

Kansas

'

Maryland

July 4 to July 20
July 15 to Aug. 24

June 8 to June 30

Michigan

July 1 to Oct. 1
June 20 to Oct. 22

June 25 to Aug. 10

Minnesota

Nebraska

J une 10 to July 15

July 1

July 5 to July 15
July 23 to Sept. 1
July 1 to Aug. 10
July 15 to Oct. 15

July 1

June 9 to June 20

New Jersey

June 15 to July 25
July 15 to Nov. 25
June 25 to Nov. 10

New York

July 1 to Oct. 28
July 1 to Sept. 30
July 15 to Oct. 15
July 10 to Oct. 15
June 15 to July 10
June 30 to Oct. 1
July 20 to Aug. 20
July 20 to Aug. 30

June 20 to Aug. 1

Ohio

June 1 to June 30

June 10 to Aug. 20

Pennsylvania

Termessee

Aug. 1 to Sept. 15

Aug. 17 to Oct. 1
May 25 to June 25

June 15 to July 5

Utah

July 1 to Aug. 15

Vermont..

Virginia

July 1 to Aug. 1

June 1 to June 30

Washington

June 25 to July 20

Wisconsin ..

July 10 to Aug. 25

State.

6oTU.

Currants.

Gooseberries.

Grapes.

California

June 5 to June 30
June 15 to Aug. 30

May 21 to June 1
May 15 to June 30

Aug. 1 to Dec. 1

July 15 to Sept. 15
Aug. 1 to Oct. 1
Aug. 1 to Oct. 15
Aug. 5 to Oct. 1
July 24 to Sept. 15
Aug. 20 to Sept. 20
Aug. 1 to Oct. 20

Illinois

Kansas

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Sept. 1 to Oct. 1
Aug. 1 to Oct. 1
Aug. 10 to Sept. 27
Aug. 1 to Oct. 1
Aug. 25 to Sept. 20

July 1 to Aug. 1

June 20 to July 30
June 1 to July 1

Missouri

Nebraska

New Hampshire . . .
New Mexico

t»- ■

Sept. 15 to Oct. 1

New York

July 26 to Oct. '17
Aug. 1 to Nov. 1

July 1 to Aug. 5

June 20 to Aug. 1
June 10 to June 20
June 1 to July 10

Ohio

Oregon

June 1 to July 15

Sept. 15 to Oct. 30

Pennsylvania

Utah

Aug. 15 to Oct.' 15

June 15 to July 10

Augr 25 to Sept. 25
Jiity 20 to Oct. 20
Aug. 10 to Oct. 10

Virginia .^

June 1 to June 30

Wisconsin "^

CANNING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES.

36

Seasons for

packing vatious

products in the different States — Continued.

state.

Hominy.

Lima beans.

Okra.

Peaches.

July 15 to Aug. 15
Aug. 1 to Oct. 1
June 25 to Oct. 25

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Jan.

to Dec.

Aug. 15 to Sept. 15
June 1 to July 1

July 25 to Aug. 15

Florida

::::::::::::::::;::::

Georgia

June 20 to July 25
Sept. 10 to Oct. 10

Illinois

Jan.
Jan.

to Dec.
to Dec.

Indiana

July 20 to Aug. 30
Aug. 10 to Aug. 30

Maryland

Aug. 1 to Sept. 1
Aug. 15 to Sept. 20

Michigan

Sept. 11 to Nov. 1
Aug. 11 to Sept. 5
Sept. 10 to Oct. 10

Missouri

Nebraska

Aug. It* Sept. 30

June 1 to Sept. 20

New Mexico

Sept. 1 to Oct. 1
Aug. 25 to Oct. 20
Aug. 10 to Aug. 31
Aug. 10 to Oct. 10

New York

Jan.
Jan.

to Dec.
to Dec.

July 29 to Oct. 15
Aug. 10 to Oct. 30

Ohio

Or^on

Pennsylvania

Jan.

to Dec.

Aug. 15 to Sept. 15

Tennessee

July 20 to Aug. 20

Texas

June 15 to Sept. 1
Sept. 6 to Oct. 6
Aug. 1 to Oct. 15
July 15 to Sept. 30

Utah

Virginia

Washington

State.

Peas.

Pears. ! Pineapples. Plums.

California

May 20 to June 20

July 1 to Oct. 27
June 15 to Aug. 15

July 1 to Sept. 10

Colorado

Connecticut

Sept. 30 to Oct. 20

Delaware

June 1 to June 30

Sept. 20 to Oct. 20

Florida

May 15 to Sept. 1

Georgia

June 1 to June 15
June 14 to July 14
May 26 to July 15
June 5 to June 30
June 5 to July 1

Illinois

Indiana

Kansas

Maryland

Sept. f ti) Nov. i
Oct. 1 to Nov. 1

Massachusetts. . .

June 2 to June 10

Michigan

Aug. 20 to Nov. 5

Minnesota

June 15 to Aug. 1
June 6 to June 25

New Jersey

Oct. 10 to Nov. 15
Sept. 15 to Oct. 15
Aug. 25 to Nov. 9

New Mexico

New York

June 15 to Aug. 31
June 1 to July 10
June 1 to July 20

May 14 to June 25

Atig. 5 to Sept. 20

Ohio

Oregon

Aug. 25 to Oct. 10
July 25 to Oct. 25
July 15 to Aug. 30
Aug. 26 to Sept. 18
Sept. 1 to Oct. 15
Aug. 1 to Oct. 15

Tennessee

Texas

July 1 to Sept. 1
June 10 to July 25
May 20 to June 19

Utah

Vlrghiia

Washington

Wiscon^

June 15 to Aug. 28

State.

Pumpkin.

Quince. Raspberries.

Rhubarb.

Arkansas

Oct. 15 to Nov. 15
Sept. 15

Oct. 1 to Dec. 31
Oct. 10 to Oct. 20
Aug. 10 to Nov. 20
Oct. 1 to Nov. 20
Oct. 1 to Nov. 24
Sept. 10 to Oct. 10

California

Sept. 6 to Nov. 2

June 28 to Oct. 6

Colorado

May 15 to June 30

Delaware

Illinois

Indiana

Kansas .

Maryland

Massachusetts

Oct. 1

July 3 to July 18
July 1 to July 15
Sept. 1 to Oct. 1

Michigan

Oct. 1 to Dec. 25
Sept. 25 to Nov. 7
Sept. 15 to Nov. 15
Oct. 1 to Nov. 1
Sept. 1 to Nov. 1
Nov. 1 to Nov. 15
Sept. 10 to Nov. 13
Sept. 25 to Nov. 24
Aug. 15 to Dec. 1
Sept. 20 to Nov. 30
Oct. 15 to Nov. 15
Oct. 15 to Nov. 15

July 1 to Aug. 1
June 1 to July 1

Minnesota

Missouri

Nebraska

June 1 to July 1

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

Oct. 1 to Dec. 1

June 25 to Aug. 15
June 7 to July 20
June 15 to JtUy 15

May 15 to July 1

Ohio

Oregon

June 1 to July 30

Pennsylvania

Tennessee

June 15 to July 8
July 15 to July 30

Utah

May 15 to June 30

Virginia

Sept. i to Sept. 30

Wisconsin

Oct. 10 to Nov. 12

36 THE CANNING OF FOODS,

Seasons for packing various products in the different States — Continued.

State.

Sauerkraut.

Spinach.

Squash.

Strawberries.

California

Nov. 1 to Nov. 13

July 16 to Sept. 28
May 30 to June 30

Colorado

Oct. 15 to Mar. 31

Connecticut

Sept. 30 to Nov. 20
Oct. 10 to Oct. 20

Delaware

Georgia

Sept. 1 to Dec. 30
Sept. to Nov.
Sept. 1 to Apr. 1
Sept. 1 to Dec. 1

Illinois

Indiana

Kansas

Nov. 2 to Nov. 24

Maryland

June 20 to July 4
June 1 to July 8
Jime 15 to July 15

Massachusetts. .

Michigan

Minnesota

Dec. 1 to Jan. 1

June 15 to July 1

June 1

Sept. 15 to June 25

Nebraska

Oct. to Nov.
Sept. 20 to Oct. 30

New Jersey

New Mexico

Dec. 26 to Feb. 1

New York

June 10 to July 1
May 25 to Nov. 30

Sept. 15 to Dec. 1
Oct. 1 to Nov. 10
Sept. 15 to Dec. 1

May 30 to July 15
May 25 to June 30
Jiuie 6 to July 20
June 1

Ohio

Sept. 11 to Nov. 15

Tennessee

Texas . . .

July 1 to Sept. 1

Utah

Aug. 1 to Oct. 20

Oct. 1

State.

Succotash.

Sweet potatoes.

Tomatoes.

AlfthATTIA. , .

Nov. 1 to Dec. 1

Aug. 1 to Oct. 10
Aug. 1 to Oct. 1
Aug. 8 to Dec. 1
Aug. 20 to Oct. 1
Aug. 15 to Nov. 1
Aug. 1 to Oct. 20
Aug. 10 to Oct. 1
Aug. 10 to Oct. 20
Aug. 1 to Nov. 1
Aug. 10 to Oct. 15

Arkansas... .

California

.....X

Colorado

Connecticut.

Delaware .'.

Oct. 6 to Oct. 18
Aug. 1 to Sept. 1

Georgia

Illinois . . . :

Iowa

Kansas

Oct. 8 to Oct. 26

July 27 to Oct. 5
Aug. 1 to Sept.
Aug. 20 to Oct. 20
Sept. 1 to Oct. 1

•

Maryland

Massachusetts . ....

Aug.

Oct. 10 to Nov. 1

Michigan

Aug. 15 to Nov. 1

Minnesota

Sept. 1 to Oct. 10

Mississippi

July 20 to Oct. 30

Missouri

Aug. 20 to Oct. 1
Sept. 1 to Oct. 5

Nebraska

Sept. 1

New Jersey

Oct. 1 to Nov. 1

Aug. 15 to Oct. 25

New Mexico

Aug. 1 to Nov. 1
Aug. 1 to Nov. 2

New York

Aug. 15 to Oct. 15
Aug. 1 to Sept. 15

Ohio

Aug. 10 to Nov. 15

Oregon

Sept. 1 to Nov. 1

Feb. 15 to Sept. 15

Aug. 1 to Nov. 1

Tennessee

Oct. to Nov.
July 1 to Sept. 1

July 15 to Oct. 15

Texas

June 15 to Sept. 1

Utah

Aug. 7 to Oct. 30

Virginia

Aug. 15 to Oct. 15

West VIreinia

Aug. 1 to Nov. 7

Aug. 15 to Oct. 1

DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF THE VARIOUS PRODUCTS.

FRUITS.

General Discussion.

Fruits are the easiest of all articles to can, boiling for a short
period being sufficient to sterilize in nearly all cases. Formerly it
was the practice to pack all fruit in No. 3 cans, but within the
past few years a change has taken place ; eastern fruits, especially
the high grade, are put up in No. 2 cans. The apple is the one excep-

FRUITS. 37

tion to the rule. California fruits are packed in No. 2 and No. 2J
cans, the No. 3 can being almost wholly supplanted by the smaller
size. In displacing the No. 3 can, the open-top can has been sub-
stituted for the solder top, with the result that the cans may be filled
with less injury to the fruit and may be sealed full. The quantity
obtained in the No. 2^ open-top can is in most cases equal to or more
than was obtained in the solder-top No. 3, and it is in better con-
dition.

In the canning of fruits the general practice is to fill the can level
full, or nearly so, without crushing, and then add the necessary sirup.
The sirup will abstract a certain amount of juice, so that the can
will not be full upon opening, and this condition will vary with
the different fruits. The softer the fruit, such as strawberries, the
less will be the fill, while hard fruits, such as pears, will be scarcely
affected. The question of fill will depend in part upon the variety
of the fruit used, the state of maturity, the density of the sirup, and
the time of processing. The proper selection and handling of the
fruit so as to get a can with all the desirable qualities distinguishes
the real canner.

The weight of fruit used in a can will vary somewhat when the fill
is made by volume, as the interspaces in the case of large and small
fruit or soft and hard are not the same. In order to secure greater
uniformity, it has been proposed by one of the packers' associations
to fill all fruits by weight, 21 ounces for a No. 2| and 22 ounces for a
No. 3 can, before cooking. This is a fair average fill for small or
sliced fruits, but peaches in large pieces or whole pears, plums, etc.,
will weigh less.

In the packing of high-class fruits sirup is used, and this may
vary from a very light to a heavy sirup, or between 10 and 60 degrees.
Most fruits require the addition of sugar before they are used, and
it should be added during cooking, and in canning it has a great
deal to do with the development of the proper flavor. The water
pack is used only upon the poor grades, or pie stock. The amount of
sugar used will depend upon the acidity of the fruit and the flavor
desired. It is unsafe to follow a rule-of-thumb method to get the
highest class goods ; and as the real flavor will not develop until the
foods have been put up for some weeks, it requires an expert to
determine the proper sirup.

Apples (Pybus malus).

Apples used for canning should be of such varieties as cook well.
They should be slightly acid, smooth and sound, and without bruised
spots. Poor apples can not be used in canning and make a first-class
product. The peeling is done by hand or power peelers and the

38 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

core removed by the same operation or with a coring machine. Apples
which are intended for dumplings are left whole and graded into
size to give a certain number to the can, but those intended for pies
or other cooking purposes are sliced in quarters or smaller pieces.
The peeled apple is placed in cans as quickly as possible and hot
water added to make the fill. If the apples can not be packed in
the can at once, they are held in tubs of cold water to prevent their
oxidizing or turning brown. The process on apples is about 8 min-
utes at 212° F. for No. 3 cans and about 10 minutes for No. 10 cans.

Apricots (Prunus armeniaca).

Apricots are produced almost exclusively for canning in California.
They are grown and handled the same as peaches, though not quite
so carefully, and are graded for size by running over screens having
openings of forty, forty-eight, fifty-six, sixty-four, and sixty-eight
thirty-seconds of an inch, respectively. The ripe apricot is not peeled,
as a rule, but the skin is well wiped either by hand or machine, after
which the fruit is pitted. The canning operation is the same as for
the peach, though the sirup used is generally lighter. (See Peaches.)

Blackberries (Rubus villosus).

Blackberries should be given the same kind of treatment as rasp-
berries, though they are more solid and will stand being handled in
larger volume. They do not require so heavy a sirup. (See Rasp-
berries.)

Cherries (Prunus cerasus).

Cherries should be brought to the factory in small boxes just as
they are handled for the retail trade. They should be stemmed and
then washed. The California fruit is graded for size over screens
having openings of twenty-two, twenty-four, twenty-six, twenty-
eight, and thirty-two thirty-seconds of an inch. The cherries may
or may not be pitted, but generally it is preferable that this be done.
The new machines do the pitting rapidly and well. The cherry rests
in a cup-shaped opening and the seed is forced out by a small cross-
shaped plunger. There is naturally some lacerating of the flesh, but
not more than is usual in the pitting by hand. After the cherries have
been pitted they should not be permitted to accumulate in masses of
more than 2 inches in depth. The quantity should be weighed for
each can and a heavy sirup added, or they should be heated in a pre-
serve kettle and filled in the cans hot. The latter method gives a
better fill, but breaks or tears the fruit to a greater extent. The
enameled can is preferable for this fruit. The process is 18 minutes
for a No. 2^ can. White cherries are usually canned without pitting,
and in a lighter sirup than is used upon the red.

FRUITS. 8d

GOOSEBEBBIES (KUBUS QBOSSULARIA ) .

Few gooseberries are canned, and these are largely used for pies.
The berries are gathered when nearly ripe and are handled in bas-
kets and shallow boxes. The firet operation at the factory is to re-
move the stems and brown blossom ends. This was done formerly
by running them over a vibrating screen upon which was directed a
strong blast of air. This removed part of the blossoms and stems,
and the i^niainder were either rubbed off by hand or were passed with
the fruit. An improved gooseberi*y cleaner consists of a slitted disk,
below which parallel knives revolve. The berries are poured above
the disk and made to roll over and over by light dragging chains.
This causes the stem or blossom to fall into the slits, where they are
cut off close to the berry. The berries are then washed and filled
into cans by weight. Those intended for pie making usually have
only water added, while those for the general trade have a sirup.
The filling, exhausting^ and capping are the same as for other berries.

Grapes (Vitis vinifeba).

Grapes have not been used very extensively for canning purposes,
but there has been a noticeable increase in the past few years. In
the East the white variety is used almost exclusively, but on the
west coast both the white and the colored grapes are canned. The^
are gathered when the flavor is fully dcA^eloped, but the f rbit-js firm.
The bunches are hand picked, washed, and put in cans to within one-
fourth of an inch from the top. A hot sirup is added, the cans are
exhausted, and then closed. The process is about 14 minutes at
212° F. for a No. 2 J can. In California the grapes are also graded
by size, being run over screens having holes twenty, twenty-two,
twenty-four, and twenty-six thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter.
The sizes thus separated are not indicated on the label and the con-
sumer is unaware of this refinement except as it is indicated by the
price.

Peaches ( Pbunus persica ) .

The peach is one of the most popular fruits canned and the quan-
tity so used is enormous. It leads all other fruits in value. The
principal packing is done in California, New York, and Michigan.
In California the lemon cling, or some one of its varieties, is the
favorite, while in New York and Michigan the freestone variety is
preferred. Tlie growing, picking, and handling are the same as for
the market; that is, they are hand picked just before turning soft
and handled in crates or baskets.

The conditions for growing peaches are so favorable in California
and they acquire such size that they are purchased on the basis of
being 2J inches or more in diameter, those below that size being re-
ceived at a reduced price. The eastern packers can not make such

40 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

close discrimination. If the peaches are well ripened, they are run
through the factory at once. If they are under ripe, or hard, they
may be kept in a cool place for a time. It is the practice of some
to pick the peaches over each day and take them out when at their
best, but as a rule they are held until all can be used at the same
operation. Holding the fruit in cold storage is not advisable, as the
flavor is impaired. Some varieties of peaches are graded for size
before peeling, and this is done on an orange grader, the space be-
tween the rolls being adjusted to deliver three, four, or five sizes as
desired. When the lye-peeling system is used the grading is gen-
erally done after peeling. The holes in the screen are sixty-four,
sixty-eight, seventy-two, and seventy-six thirty-seconds of an inch in
diameter, which, with those that will not go through the largest
opening, gives five sizes. Careful grading for size is almost wholly
limited to the California product.

There are three methods of peeling : By hand, with the knife ; by
steaming and slipping the skin ; and by the use of lye. There have
been some machines devised for peeling, but they have been used but
little. The knife used for hand peeling is provided with a somewhat
curved blade and a guard to limit the depth of the cut. This is the
method used almost exclusively in the East and on a portion of the
California pack. After the peach is peeled it is split along the line
of natural cleavage and the pit forced out in the freestone or removed
with a pit spoon in the cling varieties.

Peeling by means of steam is possible with only a few varieties.
This method consists in splitting the peach, removing the pit, and
placing the halves in a single layer, split side down, in a tray which
has a covering of cheesecloth. When the tray is covered, the cheese-
cloth is folded over the peaches and the tray slipped into a steam
box. The peaches are heated in this way for about 3 minutes and
then the skin may be slipped by picking it up between the fingers.
This method involves very careful work, but results in a handsome
product.

T^Tlen the lye system is used, the peaches are first split and pitted
and the halves placed in special machines containing hot, weak solu-
tions of caustic soda or lye. They are carried through just fast
enough to allow the peel to be removed, the time usually being 12 to
18 seconds. As soon as they emerge from the soda solution they are
thoroughly sprayed and are kept under sprays or in water until they
are placed in the can. Where the lye peelers are installed, the
peaches are usually delivered to the filling tables, graded into sizes,
as already indicated, but the fillers sort for quality, separating the
pieces perfectly ripened, those unevenly ripened or defective in color,
and those imperfect in form or in quality.

FRUITS. 41

With these different grades (>0% 50% 40°, 30°, and 20° sirups are
used. In addition peaches are canned hi slices, and while formerly
it was the practice to use the imperfect halves and small sizes for
this class, now equally as good stock is used and siruped in the same
way as the halves. There is a grade of water or pie peaches made
from the lower grade stock. The cans are filled by weight.

One of the best factories using the steaming system to loosen
the skins, placed the peeled peaches on pie plates and weighed the
quantity necessary to fill each can. The plate was washed every time
it was used.

Hot sirup of the degree desired is added to each can until it is
full. It is exhausted for 3 minutes and processed for 25 minutes at
boiling temperature.

Peabs (Pybus communis).

Pears used in canning are grouped generally in two classes, hard
and soft, the former being represented by the Kiefer and the latter
by the Bartlett. While the Kiefer yields very well, the consumption
is small, largely because of the poor quality; the Bartlett is much
better, but often the label does not adequately tell the story.

The canning of pears is similar to that of canning apples. The
work of peeling, coring, and halving, however, is done by hand.
Considerable care is taken in trimming to a symmetrical form and
in removing the core to cut away only so much as may be necessar>^
to remove all trace of seed cells. They are graded in three classes,
dependent upon size or number of pieces required to fill a can, and
uniformity of shape and texture. This is done according to the
judgment of the filler and not by machine. They are put into cans
the same as apples and a sirup is generally used instead of hot water,
as it retains the flavor much better. The process is 16 minutes at
212° F. for No. 2| cans.

Plums (Pbunus domestica).

The classes of plums are generally quoted on the market as green
gage, yellow egg, and Lombard. Other varieties are used, but these
are the popular ones. The plums are selected when just ripening.
On the Pacific coast they are graded for size by running them over
screens having openings thirty-two^- forty, forty-eight, and fifty-six
thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter. They are washed, put in cans
with sirup, and processed 14 minutips at 212° F. for a No. 2J can.

RaSPBEBBIES (RuBUS OCCIDENT alts AND R. IDAENS).

Raspberries are grown and harvested the same as for the market
and should be delivered to the factory in berry boxes. At the factory
they are handled in exactly the same manner as are strawberries.

42 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

Red raspberries and black caps should be kept separate. Columbia
berries are regarded as inferior in appearance to Cuthberts, being
less bright in color, but they have excellent flavor. The use of a sirup
of the right density has much to do in bringing out the full flavor.
The cans should be enameled-lined to retain both color and flavor.
The process is 12 minutes at 212° F.

Strawberries (P^'ragaria virginiana).

Strawberries used for canning are grown the same as for market,
and such varieties as are firm and of uniform size should be used.
They should have a well-developed flavor, a little more acid than is
desired for eating raw. They should be gathered the same as for the
market, in boxes holding not more than 1 quart and preferably only
1 pint, the object being to deliver them in the best possible condition,
without bruising or mashing.

A distinctive method of handling berries on the Pacific coast is in
a chest of shallow crates. These chests are well made and hold four
tiers of five trays each. Each tray measures about 8 inches wide,
15 inches long, and IJ inches deep inside. The boxes holding the
berries are therefore very shallow and there may be two or more in
a tray. The fruit arrives at the factory or market with the mini-
mum of bruising.

On arrival at the factory different methods are followed, but one
of the best, as practiced by one of the large packers, is as follows:
The boxes are delivered to tables, where they are turned out upon
enamel pie plates. The berries are stemmed, defective ones sorted
outj and any foreign substance removed. The plate containing the
berries from a single box is passed to another helper, who washes the
fruit under a spray ; the next one weighs each plate and adds the cor-
rect amount to fill one can. The berries are poured from the plate
into the can, in which operation a special half funnel is sometimes
used. The can should be filled a little above the level. Hot sirup
is added and the can given a 2-minute exhaust, sealed, and processed
for 14 minutes at 212° F. The cans should be preferably enamel
lined, with open tops.

In the handling of the fruit at this plant the pans are washed after
each separate usage. The work involved is greater than in some
other systems, but the product can hardly be excelled in cleanliness
and in flavor.

At some other plants the berries are stemmed from the baskets and
are run through a fruit washer to remove any leaves or dirt ; they are
then filled directly into cans without weighing or are collected in
large pans, and when a sufficient quantity has accumulated are then
put into a preserving kettle with sugar and heated until they just

VEGETABLES. 43

come to a boil. The berries and their sirup are then filled into the
cans.

Strawberries do not admit of bein^ handled by automatic machin-
ery. The stemming must be done by hand, but in the plate system
they are not touched after once being washed. In the system in
which considerable dependence is placed upon the fruit washer the
cleiming is well done, and in a manner not to injure ^r break the
fruit. Cans which are well filled with cold fruit will not be full of
fruit after processing. The heat causes the breaking down of the
tissue and consequent loss of juice, so that the berries will float.
Berries heated with sugar in the preserve kettle will give a better fill
in the can, as more juice is cooked out than can be returned to fill
the space between the solids. In this practice there is a distinct
difference between the manufacturer who attempts to give a can
with the maximum of food solids and the one who cooks the berries
to abstract the juice for other use, such as fruit sirups for soft
drinks. A sirup should be used in all cans, as it holds the flavor much
better than water. Sugar is always used with such fruit, and the
proper time for its application is when it is being cooked. The
degree or density of the sirup is a matter of taste, but preferably it
should be fairly heavy. The enamel-lined can is decidedly the best
for preserving flavor and color, and also for resisting the action of
the fruit on the can. Strawberries are also put up in glass and
given the same general treatment.

VEGETABLES.
Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis).

Almost the entire asparagus pack of the United States is put up
in California. The asparagus beds are located on the bottom«lands
which have been reclaimed from the Sacramento and San Joaquin
Rivers and are exceedingly rich. Dykes have been constructed, canals
dug, and pumping machinery installed, so that it is possible for the
growers to control the conditions to such a degree as to produce
enormous yields of a very high quality. The advantage is so great
that other points can not compete successfully.

The asparagus is grown in large fields in rows, and in the fall
the plants are cut, the tops acting as a mulch. The earth is banked
over the rows to the depth of a foot or more. In the spring the
stalks come through this light soil and mulch and are practically
bleached. They are cut every day or every other day, the stalks
l>eing selected just as they appear through the ground. The work
of cutting must all be done by hand by means of a long chisel-like
knife, and is very laborious. /The object is to cut the stalk back 7
inches or more. The asparagus is collected in hampers or crates and

44 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

hauled promptly to the cannery. It is essential that the work be
done promptly to insure a crisp article. A delay will cause a fine
product to become tough and stringy. At the factory the first opera-
tion is to turn the crate upon a sorting table, where the stalks are
sorted into five grades, based on size, also into two qualities, de-
pendent upon whether the stalks are wholly blanched or partially
green. A further sorting is made, dependent upon whether the
stems are straight or crooked. All the sorting is done by hand.
The five grades for size are known as giant, mammoth, large, medium,
and small, and these are based upon the number of stalks which will
go into a standard No. 2J square can. With giant stalks about 14
are required; mammoth, 20 to 22; large, 30 to 33; medium, 40; and
small, 50. What are known as asparagus tips are put up in cans
just one-half the regular size, and about 30 per cent more stalks are
required to fill the can. AVhat are known as hotel tips are the cut-
tings made in trimming the asparagus to size, and the whole stalks
which are crooked or deformed. The quality of these is just as good
as the other, though not so pleasing in appearance. Some of the
large asparagus is peeled, or stripped, as the operation is more prop-
erly called.

After the grading the tips or stalks are cut in lengths to fit the
can, and then thoroughly washed in cold water. They are next
blanched in wire baskets, the stalks being held in position so that
they will not move about. The length of the blanch depends upon
the condition of the stalks, being a mere dip in hot water in some
cases, and as long as 3 minutes in case of advanced growth. On
coming out of the blanch they are dipped in or sprayed with cold
water to prevent softening, after which the cans are filled immedi-
ately. A light brine is used to fill the interspaces, the can exhausted,
the cap placed on, and a process of 240° F. given for 12 minutes.
The cans must be well cooled at once.

A great deal of fancy is shown by the consuming public in buying
asparagus. The absolutely white is demanded, and brings a premium
of from 25 to 50 per cent in the market. The green is just as good
and in many instances better, though it does not look quite as attract-
ive, and the liquor is likely to have a more or lass cloudy appearance,
due in part to the breaking of tips and side buds.

Beans, Green (Phaseolus nanus).

String beans form a regular side dish at almost every hotel, and
they are generally the canned article. There is a large pack of beans
put up each year, and while hotels and restaurants were formerly
the principal buyers, a large demand for home use has been created
in the past few years. The beans raised for canning are produced
the same as for the market. The growth is best when the season is

VEGETABLES. 45

fairly moist ami cool, the majority being produced in northern New
York and Michigan, and more recently large packs have been put up
in Wisconsin.

The beans are picked by hand and the object is to gather them
as young as possible. Tlie best are about 2i inches long and less
than a fourth of an inch in thickness; the large beans become tough
and stringy. At the factory the beans are graded in five sizes by
means of special machinery, the essential feature of which is a series'
of vibrating screens made of rods or bars running in one direction.
These rods are generally set eighteen, fourteen, eleven, and eight
sixty-fourths of an inch apart. The beans are fed in over the coarser
screen first and those which fail to pass through constitute one grade,
and as they pass to each succeeding screen the next larger sizes are
separated and the smallest pass through the last. The work is done
better than was formerly done by hand.

The next step is to snip or string the beans. Some varieties of
beans are so nearly stringless that the simple snipping of the ends is
sufficient, but when they become old, hand stringing is necessary.
The cutting of the ends, or snipping as it is called, can be done well
by machinery. It is also the practice to cut the large beans in lengths
of about 1 inch. All beans are well washed, placed in wire baskets
and blanched, or they may be blanched in the cylinders used for
peas. The time required for blanching will vary with the age; the
small size of young beans will require only about IJ minutes, the
larger ones if tender will require about 4 minutes, and if hard and
tough they may require 8 or 9 minutes. It is the rule of good process-
ors to blanch until the beans are tender, irrespective of time, and for
that reason many prefer the basket in a tank of boiling water to the
pea blancher.

The blanched beans are filled into the can by means of a special
bean filler. This machine carries a tray, holding 4 dozen cans, and
has a hopper above it with holes corresponding to each can. The
beans are poured into the hopper, the quick vibrating motion of
which shakes the beans into the can. As a further precaution
against short weight, each can is weighed and any deficiency in fill
is made up by hand. A weak hot salt brine is used to fill the inter-
spaces in the cans, which are exhausted, capped, and processed for
30 minutes at 240° F.

as for peas. A full can should weigh not less than 13 ounces, ex-
clusive of the liquor.

Beans, Lima (Phaseolus lunatus).

Lima beans are grown for canning both as a green bean and as the
bean in succotash. There are two varieties, the pale or true Lima
and the bush variety. The former is but little grown for canning,

46 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

as it must be gathered by hand the same as string beans, while in
the case of the bush beans the whole vine is taken up and hauled
to the factory, as in the case of pea vines, and then run through
a pea viner to shell the beans. The speed of the viner is changed
to meet the altered conditions. The beans are graded generally
into four sizes, if canned, but are left ungraded if intended for
succotash. It is also becoming the custom, as with peas, to can
some beans ungraded. A better flavor seems to result from the com-
bination than is found when they are canned separately. The sizes
are as follows, and are obtained by sifting over the screens with open-
ings twenty-four, thirty, thirty-one, and thirty-two thirty-seconds of
an inch. Those passing through the first screen are called tiny;
through the second screen, fancy ; through the third screen, medium ;
through the fourth, standard. Those passing over the last screen
are sometimes designated large or mammonth beans. The beans are
blanched the same as peas, and the can filled, so that after processing
it will be full and just covered with brine. The process is the same
as for peas. A full can should weigh not less than 13 ounces, ex-
clusive of the liquor.

Beans, Wax.

Wax beans are handled in the same way as string beans. More
attention, however, is paid to sorting, as any spot will show on the
light surface. The weight of the beans in the can should be not less
than 10. ounces, exclusive of the liquor.

Beets (Beta vulgaris).

Beets grown for canning must be of a deep-red variety, evenly
colored throughout. Pale or uneven colored beets present a very
poor appearance in the can. The beets used for canning are mostly
grown in New York, and are cultivated the same as for the garden,
but in large acreage. The tops are cut off and they are hauled to
the factory as are tomatoes. The time of packing is in the fall,
usually the latter part of September.

At the factory the beets are graded into four sizes — small, some-
times called rosebud, the beet being less than 1 inch in diameter;
medium, the beets being from 1 to 1 J inches in diameter ; large, those
from 1^ to 2 inches; and very large, those over 2 inches. The very
large beets must be cut into pieces for canning, and for that reason
are called cut beets. The grading is done in a wooden squirrel cage
having the slats set at proper distances or over tables having holes of
the size indicated.

. After being graded the beets are soaked in tanks of water to
soften the adherent dirt and then sprayed well. The beets are next
placed in large iron crates or heavy iron baskets, placed in the retort,

VEGETABLES. 47

and steamed for 20 minutes at 220° F. This loosens the skin so that
they may be peeled with the best possible results. The peeling is
done by hand, as is also the filling of the cans. Only water is used
on the beets, though salt may be added at the rate of a teaspoonful
to the can ; enamel cans should be used, otherwise the beets will be
discolored. The process on beets is 245° F. for 1 hour.

Corn, Sweet (Zea mays).

Canned corn is the result of the persistence of Isaac Winslow, of
Maine. He was a sailor by occupation, and in his wanderings upon
the high seas visited France and learned of the method of preserving
food by canning. The advantage of such foods, particularly to
sailors, was obvious. Mr. Winslow began experimenting on the
canning of corn in 1839, the first trials consisting in boiling the com
on the kitchen stove for varying periods of time. The cans were
marked and a record kept of each lot. The results were mostly fail-
ures, but a sufficient number of cans were saved, and these were of
such good quality that the efforts were continued. The succeeding
years gave essentially the same result. In 1843 he built a small boiler
to generate steam and a wooden box in which to put the cans, so that
the cooking might be done in a closed steam chamber. As the results
were less successful than in the previous years, the steam box was
discarded. It was not until 18*53 that he had sufiicient success to war-
rant applying for a patent on his method, and it was regarded with
so much distrust that the letters were not granted until 1862. Wins-
low first packed the corn on the cob, but this was bulky, and he
believed that the cob absorbed some of the sweetness. He next pulled
the kernels off the cob with a fork, and finally cut the corn with a
case knife. Winslow's apparatus and methods were crude, but he
discovered the principles which underlie the canning of corn. It
may also be said that he and his succcvssors brought fame to Maine
com as a canned product, and this reputation persists to the present
time.

The canning of com is a large industry in Maine and other States
extending from New York to Maryland, west to Iowa, and north to
Minnesota. In most of the Eastern States the crop is grown by
numerous farmers in small patches of a few acres, while several of
the western factories raise their own corn., covering hundreds of
acres. At Hoopeston, 111., two canneries use the product of 7,500
acres. Claims are made that certain sections produce better and
sweeter corn than others. This is not always sustained by facts,
for quality is also affected by the variety and state of maturity when
gathered. Again, some canners pay more attention to the quantity
of corn grown on an acre than to the quality. The seed used is
grown by specialists, as a rule, and a very large part of it comes

48 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

from Connecticut, a State in which no canning of corn is done. The
type of corn used now is quite different from that canned several
years ago. The effort is to develop a tender, fine-flavored sweet
com. The ears are of two types, those having large, flat kernels
arranged in rows and those with small, long kernels irregularly
placed. StowelPs Evergreen is typical of the former type and
Country Gentleman of the latter. The corn is planted and culti-
vated like field corn, and is gathered by snapping off the ear when
it is in its prime. The ears are hauled to the factory in the husk
in order to protect the kernels from injury in handling and from
dirt and exposure.

A modern corn-canning plant is a large establishment, equipped
with valuable automatic machinery to do the work in a rapid, cleanly
manner. l\Tien the com arrives at the factory it is dumped from
the wagon onto a conveyer, which carries the ears to different parts
of the husking shed as they are needed. Most of the husking is
done by hand, but this will undoubtedly give way to machine meth-
ods, as the husking machines have been almost perfected in the past
year. As rapidly as a bushel measure is husked it is put upon a con-
veyer, and while on the way to the silking machine is sorted for
quality. A high grade can be secured only by selecting ears with
grains which are uniformly tender. .Com which is too old or too
young to make a fancy grade of goods is taken out and held until
a sufficient quantity accumulates to make a run on a lower grade.
The silking is done by means of rapidly revolving rolls and bnislies.
As the ear revolves on its axis and at the same time is carried for-
ward, it is gently wiped by rapidly revolving brushes, which pick
up any silk that may be attached. This work is done with re-
markable rapidity and b}^ machinery so carefully adjusted for any
irregularity in the size of the ears or even in the same ear that there
IS no chafing or bruising of the tenderest grains. This process is
immediately followed at some factories by a thorough spraying with
water, while at others this is omitted, the claim being made that a
certain flavor is lost.

The corn is cut by machinery, and from the time the ear is fed
into the cutter until the corn is sealed in the can it is not again
touched by hand. The ear is forced through a series of curved
knives, mounted in an adjustable circular frame, so that they will
accommodate themselves to the varying size of the cob. Scrapers
complete the work by removing the grain and soft bits of kernel at
the base. The corn again passes through a machine to remove bits
of silk, husk, or cob, so that the final product is as clean as labor
can make it. This cleaner consists of a series of wire combs, which
intermesh as the com passes through, and- wire cylinders which act
as sifters.

VEGETABLES. 49

The corn is next mixed and cooked, and in this operation it is
necessary to add some water, otherwise it would become a dry, tough
mass in the can. The quantity of water used will depend upon the
consistency desired and the condition of the corn. Some varieties
require more than others, but the average quantity used in cream
corn is about 5 ounces per can. It is also usual to add both salt
and sugar to the corn to give the desired flavor. This is used in all
grades, though more carefully in the high grades than in the low.
The eastern packers, as a rule, use more sugar than the western.

The care with which the cooking is done before the corn enters
the can determines in a large measure its appearance. The addition
of too much brine will give a sloppy can, while the use of too little
gives a dry can. Insufficient cooking will leave the brine and com
separated; the quantity of brine may be right but the corn may be
dry in the bottom of the can and most of the brine on top, or they
may be mixed but not blended. The preliminary heating is done by
steam, using automatic machinery, which heats and evenly mixes the
corn and brine and at the same time fills the cans. The corn enters
the cans at about 180° F., and the capping is done in the usual
manner.

Corn is one of the most difficult products to process. It requires
a temperature of about 250° F. for 75 minutes to insure sterilization.
There are packers who process at from 240° to 245° for 90 minutes,
and others who process their corn twice to insure keeping. The
higher the temperature the browner the corn and the more pro-
nounced the cooked taste. The consistency of the corn makes a great
difference in the heat which must be given; the drier the com the
slower the heat penetration.

Corn is packed as "cream com," or, as it is sometimes called,
" Maine style," the kernels being cut as already described and the por-
tion scraped from the cob added. The product should be of a thick,
creamy consistency. Again the corn is cut from the cob as closely
as possible by knives, but only the whole grains are used, the bits and
scrapings being discarded; com used in this way must have long,
slender grains, commonly called " shoe peg," and the quantity of
brine be such as to keep the kernels separate. This method of prep-
aration is called " Maryland style " by the trade. In some instances
the corn is run through a recutter, which gives a grainy effect or one
like the cream com, depending upon the method of handling. This
procedure is also followed in working up corn which has become too
old to make a good regular pack. Corn may be mn through slitting
machines, which cut the grains open on the end and then squeeze out
the contents, leaving it free from hull. Cut corn is also run through
a " cyclone," a machine for forcing the creamy portion of the kernel
24210°— Bull. 151—12 4

50 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

through a fine sieve, thus removing all of the hull and giving much
the appearance of green com meal.

Field com is not used in canning. Some of the sweet corn used
produces very large ears and coarse grains, which give rise to the
suspicion that field corn has been substituted. There has been a very
general improvement in sweet corn in the past 10 years, and it will
probably not be long before this coarser variety will give way to a
better and sweeter one.

A can of fancy corn upon opening should be well filled (within
three-eighths of an inch of the top), should be absolutely young and
tender stock, medium moist, practically free from silk or bits of cob
or husk, only slightly darker than natural or of a light golden-brown
color, and have the distinctive young corn flavor. The weight of
the contents should be about 21 ounces. If put up in " Maryland
style," the kernels should be separate and the brine nearly clear and
the corn should weigh not less than 13.5 ounces, exclusive of the
liquor.

A can of standard corn should be well filled, reasonably tender,
fairly bright color or slightly brown, and nearly free from silk, bits
of cob, or husk. The flavor should be characteristic of young sweet
corn. If put up in " Maryland style," a part of the kernels may be
somewhat hardened and the brine a little cloudy.

Peas (Pisum sativum).

The transition from growing a small patch of peas in the garden
to supply a few meals of a choice vegetable during the groAving sea-
son to that of growing hundreds of acres to supply a canning factory
packing an article available at all seasons is but an incident in the
development of a great industry. The garden bed was spaded, raked,
and planted by hand. Brush was obtained from the orchard or wood
lot, and the rows " stuck " in order to insure the vines proper support.
When the green peas were picked and carefully prepared, they made
what was at one time styled a dainty dish. The fields are now cul-
tivated, sowed, and the crop harvested by machinery the same as any
farm crop. There are several factories which take the entire yield
from more than 1,000 acres. The plants selected have sufficient rigid-
ity, no added support being necessary. The whole plant is hauled to
the factory while fresh and green, the same as a load of hay.

The canning of peas dates back to the beginning of canning, and
is one of the three large crops packed. In this country it is confined
largely to those States having a cool spring and plentiful rainfall.
The southern limit of successful growing seems to be from Maryland
west to Indiana and northwest to Minnesota. Some peas are also
grown on the highlands in Colorado and a few on the western coast.
Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, and Indiana lead in this crop.

VEGETABLES. 51

The pea used for canning belongs to the garden variety, Pisum
mtivum, of which there are two general chisses, early, or round
smooth pea, and the w^rinkled pea. The latter are much the sweeter.
The Little Gem and Alaska are typical of the fii*st class, and Horse-
ford's Market Garden, Admiral, and Advancers of the second.

The peas are generally sown upon good ground, well prepared, as
early in the spring as frost will permit, and no subsequent cultiva-
tion given (except in California). Instead of all being sown at one
time, the seeding is made to extend over several weeks, in order to
prevent too many maturing at one time. '\Mien the peas are well
grown and are still very tender, they are cut by mowing machines or
special pea harvesters, and are then loaded upon w^agons and hauled
to the factory. Until a few years ago, the pods were picked from
the vines in the field and taken to the factory in baskets or bags.
This necessitated a very large force of men, women, and children in
harvesting, and added much to the cost of the product. There are
only a few factories in the United States which follow this method
at the present time, and it is limited to a part of the pack.

The vining machine, which is used for separating the peas from
the pods while they are still on the vine, is a very simple and in-
genious device to accomplish a difficult task — the shelling of the
tender pea so carefully that it will not be injured. It consists of a
large cylinder, perforated with many holes, which are large enough
to permit the peas to pass through, but not the vine. Within the
cylinder is a heavy shaft, bearing strong paddles or beaters. The
cylinder is made to revolve rather slow^ly and the beaters very rapidly,
in the opposite direction. The vines are fed in at one end of the
cylinder, are carried upward by its motion, and fall upon the beaters,
which strike the pods, causing them to burst open and discharge the
peas. The peas roll out through the holes in the cylinder, and the
vines pass out the opposite end. The present vining machine is a
modification of the podding machine which was invented by Madam
Faure. It was the first important step in the development of the
pea-canning industry.

The next step in the process is that of cleaning, and it consists of
two operations; fii-st, that of passing the peas through a fanning
mill to remove pieces of pods, leaves, and dirt, and second, in wash-
ing, which is done in wire cylinders known as squirrel cages. These
cylinders are set on a slight incline and made to revolve slowly,
so that peas which enter at one end gradually roll out the opposite
end, and while doing so they are well sprayed with pure cold
water. After the washing, the peas are graded for size. This is
done by passing them over vibrating screens, which have holes of a
definite size, or through cylinders, with sections having perforations
corresponding to those in the screens. The perforations are standard

52 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

and give the following sizes in the peas: Petit pois, extra sifted,
sifted, Early June, marrowfat, and, in the case of late peas, the tele-
phone. If the peas are properly labeled, they should be uniform in
size. Some manufacturers, instead of turning out all these sizes,
combine two sizes in one. A few peas are sold ungraded or with
only the first and second size taken out. The petits pois should pass
through an eighteen sixty-fourths inch hole ; the extra sifted, or extra
fine, through a twenty sixty-fourths inch hole; the sifted, or fine,
through a twenty-two sixty-fourths inch hole; Early June, through
a twenty-four sixty-fourths inch hole; while the marrowfats pass
over the ends of the screens. With sweet wrinkled peas, a twenty-
six sixty-fourths inch screen is used to separate the marrowfats and
those remaining above pass over as telephone size. These desig-
nations, which were partially adopted from the French, have been
in use for a long time, and refer to size and not to variety nor
to time of gathering, as would be inferred from the name "Early
June." The term " Early June " has, in recent years, come to have
another meaning, that of including all of the smooth or Alaska group
of peas in distinction from the sweet wrinkled varieties. We there-
fore find smallest-sifted Early June, extra-sifted Early June, and
sifted Early June, as distinguished from the same names applied
to sweets. The trade terms have little meaning to the consumer and
could be supplanted by proper descriptive terms to the advantage of
all concerned.

Peas are also graded for quality, those being small, young, and
tender, so they will crush easily between the thumb and finger are
considered to be the highest grade, while those which have a consid-
erable percentage hard, turn brown upon processing, or cause clouded
liquor in the can, are of a lower grade. The grading is done largely
upon the judgment of the inspector as the peas arrive, and later by
the superintendent.

The peas may be mechanically graded for quality before, but
preferably after, grading for size. This is done on the basis that
the old or hard peas are heavier than the younger and more tender
ones. Peas will not all mature alike on the same vine, nor in the
same field, so that it is not possible to cut them to secure absolute
uniformity. The more slowly the peas mature under fairly cool
moist conditions, the tenderer they will be, so that in some sections
the necessity for grading for quality is less than in others. This
grading is effected by means of brine, which is made to a strength
that will float those that are tender, the harder ones sinking. The
first quality can be skimmed off, and those that sink again separated
in another and heavier solution, giving a second and third grade.
The first grade will be lighter in color, softer on pressure, and give
a clear liquor on canning; the second grade will be slightly darker,
and the liquor cloudy; while in the third grade, the size will be

veoetabi.es. 68

uneven, the peas dark and hard, and the liquor very cloudy and
thick. In dry seasons the gradhig will not be so good as there is
less diti'erence in the weight of the peas. It is j)ossible to get 15
grades of peas, depending upon size and quality, from the same
load, the difference being sufficient to be easily distinguishable in the
finished product.

AVhen the peas leave the graders they pass over slowly moving
belts in a single layer, and those which are split, off color, or defective
are picked out. This is the only operation in which it is necessary
to touch the peas with the hands.

The peas are blanched, or more properly parboiled. They are
boiled just long enough to soften them uniformly and to remove the
mucous substance on the outside. The time for the blanching will
vary from one-half minute for the very tender small peas, to 15 min-
utes for the overmatured large ones, some variation being necessary
for each size and degree of hardness. Most of the blanching requires
from 1 to 4 minutes.

The matter of blanching is exceedingly important, for upon it
depends in a large degree the appearance of the peas and the charac-
ter of the liquor. There are several different styles of apparatus in
use for blanching, the simplest being a large trough containing scald-
ing water in which wire baskets containing the peas are placed for the
required time. Another device consists of a cylinder which is made
to revolve in a tank of water and gradually cause the peas to pass
through in a continuous stream by means of a large screwlike con-
veyer. The latest type is a tank having three compartments; the
peas are fed in at one end and the hot water at the other, so that the
water in which the peas are first scalded is being constantly renewed
from the next tank, and, as the peas emerge, they come from the
freshest, cleanest bath. The peas are again washed after blanching
and before going to the filling machines.

The pea fillers should measure out a given quantity of peas and
deliver it into the can with the minimum of cutting or bruising.
The greater the number of injured peas the less attractive the con-
tents, both because of splits and cloudy liquor. The fillers should be
adjustable that the cans may receive a fill according to size and age.
The younger and smaller the peas the greater the fill, and vice versa.
Old peas absorb liquor in the process, while the succulent ones take
up very little. The liquor used in canning peas is made up of water,
salt, and sugar, the proportions being a matter of taste. The eastern
packers, as a rule, use more seasoning than the western. The liquor
is added after the peas have been put in the can. The subsequent
capping and processing is the same as for corn. The process is from
235° to 240° F. for from 35 to 40 minutes, depending upon the fresh-
ness and state of maturity. The cans of peas should be given a cold

54 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

bath at once after the process is finished, in order to arrest cooking
and insure a clear liquor.

The canning of peas requires special care. If a fine product is to
be secured, there must be careful selection in the field and continuous
and rapid work from start to finish after the vines are cut. " Only
an hour from the field to the can '' is not literally true, but it is ap-
proximately so. The work is almost wholly done by automatic ma-
chinery, connected by special conveyers in such manner as to insure
continuous action. At all the various steps the washing is of the
most thorough character, and in some of the best factories almost a
gallon of water is used in the preparation of each can. The highest
grade of American peas represents the best that is accomplished in
the pea-canning industry, and are unexcelled by any foreign pro-
duction.

The cost of a can of peas will vary with the size and quality. The
very tender smallest sifting peas, or " pet its pois," are the most ex-
pensive for the reason that but comparatively few are produced ; not
more than 5 per cent of a good crop will be of that grade. The price
gradually decreases through the sizes to the marrowfat, which is the
cheapest. There is more nutrition in the larger sizes and. if properly
graded, they have the better flavor. Ungraded peas have a par-
ticularly good flavor, though they are not so attractive because of
lack of uniformity.

A well-filled No. 2 can of peas should have a net weight of about
21.5 ounces, of which slightly more than 14 ounces should be peas
and 7 ounces liquor.

A can of fii-st-grade peas should be from selected field stock, or
the lightest weight if separated, and the can should be well filled with
peas that are uniform and true to the size indicated, even in color,
absolutely tender, of good flavor, and covered with a clear liquor.
The weight of the peas, exclusive of the liquor, should be not less than
12.5 ounces.

A can of standard peas should be well filled with good field-run
stock, the peas fairly uniform, of the size indicated, and covered
with liquor, which may be more or less cloudy but not thick. There
may be some variation in color, but the peas should be tender, or only
a small proportion hard, and of good flavor.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.).

It used to be the custom to associate pumpkin pie with the Thanks-
giving season, but the tin can has lengthened its season to the full
year, and made it especially convenient for the home piemaker.

The pumpkins used for canning should be of a hard, sweet variety,
and evenly ripened. The meat should be of good texture, golden

VEGETABLES. 55

yellow, but not watery. It has been the custom generally to grow
the pumpkins with the corn, but a few canners find that a more satis-
factory yield and a far more uniform quality are obtained by grow-
ing in the open field as a special crop.

The pumpkins are carefully selected, stemmed, and well washed
to remove any adherent dirt. They are cut into large pieces, either
by knives or roller disks, and are given a general washing in a heavy
squirrel cage, the principal object being to remove the seeds and loose
fiber. The pumpkin is then put into large iron crates and cooked
in the retort until it softens, which requires about 20 minutes at 240°
F. ; it is next run through a cyclone, which removes the hard part
of the skin and the tough fiber. The pulp proper is cooked very
little if it is of a good consistency, but if light or thin it is evaporated
until it is of the right body. It is filled into cans while hot, sealed at
once, and processed at 250° F. for 90 minutes.

Some packers cut the pumpkins in halves and peel and core with
special revolving knives. This necessitates considerable extra hand
work, but is particularly advantageous when the pumpkins do not
ripen uniformly. It does not have any apparent advantage over the
direct-heating method if the raw material is of uniformly good
quality.

Pumpkin is packed almost exclusively in No. 3 cans, which should
be enamel lined, thus preventing action on the tin, and also aiding in
the retention of better color and flavor.

A good can of pumpkin when opened should be filled within one-
half inch of the top ; should be fairly heavy, smooth, evenly screened,
free from fiber, and uniformly colored. A can lacking an inch or
more of being full, coarse, containing fiber, or being thin and watery,
is not a first-class article and is short weight. A No. 3 can should
contain at least 32 ounces. Squash {Cucurbita ovifera) is grown and
handled the same as pumpkin.

Rhubarb (Rheum bhaponticum ) .

Rhubarb is grown in fields, in rows 4 feet apart and hills about
2 feet apart in the rows, and is cultivated the same as are potatoes.
The soil must be rich to give a luxuriant growth. It is harvested
when the leaf stems are of large size, which may be at any time from
the middle of May until the middle of August.

In harvesting the best stalks are selected, the small or undesirable
ones being left to take care of the plant. The pulled stalks are made
into bundles ; the leaf and butt are then cut off and the stems placed
in crates to be hauled to the factory. The hauling is done the same
as in the case of tomatoes.

At the factory the rhubarb is washed in large tanks of running
water and at the same time inspected for any imperfections. The

56 THE CANl^ING OF FOODS.

next step is the cutting, and this is accomplished by means of a series
of small saws set 1 inch apart on a shaft. The rhubarb is laid
on a carrier, which feeds each stalk crosswise to the saw. The pieces
ready for the can are therefore 1 inch in length and the size of the
stem. The cans are filled with a string-bean filler, and as much is put
in as can be shaken below the level of the rim. Hot water is added
to fill the interspaces.

The practice in some factories differs in some particulars from that
given here. First, in that the stems are stripped or peeled before
being cut, and, second, in that the rhubarb is heated in a preserve
kettle before filling into the can. In the latter case only a very small
quantity of water is used, as in the cooking sufficient juice is extracted
to furnish part of the liquor in packing. This style of pack is put
up in No. 3 and No. 10 cans. The former is put up only in No.
10 cans for pie purposes. The process is 13 minutes at boiling
temperature.

Succotash.

Succotash is a mixture of green corn and green beans, the Lima bean
being the one generally used. Succotash has also been made from
green corn and soaked beans, as in most places the corn and beans
will not come to maturity at the same time. The flavor of succo-
tash made from good corn and strictly green beans is better or more
delicate than that made with dried beans; otherwise the latter is in
no way inferior to that made from the green bean; but when the
dried bean is used the fact should be indicated on the label. In the
regular field run of Lima beans some will be further advanced than
others; while the pods may all be green, in blanching some of the
beans may turn white and on breaking they may appear mealy, and
thus give the appearance of being soaked when the can is opened.
In fancy succotash these white beans are picked out by hand. A suc-
cotash should consist of not less than 20 per cent of beans, and in the
high grades there is more nearly 40 per cent beans, either graded
or ungraded for size. The cut corn and blanched beans are mixed,
after which they are treated the same as corn, being given the same
sugar and salt brine, preliminary cooking, and process. The net
weight in a No. 2 can should be not less than 19 ounces.

Sweet Potatoes.

Sweet potatoes can be canned to good advantage for use in those
sections where they can not be raised. They usually come under two
classes, the long yellow variety, growing extensively in New Jersey,
and the light or southern variety. The former is preferred in the
market at present, partly because of its better appearance. The
southern variety turns dark and may become watery.

VEGETABLES. 57

The potatoes are washed and the skins removed by running them
through a potato parer or abrading machine such as is used in hotels,
by dipping in a hot, weak lye, or by boiling until the skin can be
scraped off easily. If they are not large in diameter, the cooking may
be continued until they are tender to the center or two-thirds cooked.
If they are large, it may be better to cook first until the skin can be
removed and then give a second cooking, either in boiling water or in
a steam retort, until they are about three- fourths done. They are
packed in the cans as closely as possible without mashing and pref-
erably without the addition of water. They may also be grated or
mashed, and in this form are offered for sweet-potato pies. They are
then thoroughly exhausted and processed for 70 minutes at 240° F.
or for 3 hours in boiling water.

Tomatoes (Lycopebsicum esculentum).

The time is easily within the memory of many persons when toma-
toes were thought to be poisonous. A few persons in the Eastern
States used them 70 years ago, but they did not become common until
a much later period. In the West the prejudice against them per-
sisted until less than 40 years ago. The first record of canning
tomatoes is that of the work done by Harrison W. Chrosby in 1847
at Jamesburg, N. J. Tomatoes are now used in enormous quantities
in the fresh state and head the list of all vegetables as a canned prod-
uct. Thousands of bushels are also used in the manufacture of
ketchups, chili sauce, and soups. The tomato is produced over a
larger part of the United States than any other vegetable. It may
be handled with few and simple appliances, and ma}^ therefore be
canned in the home and in small factories where little capital is re-
quired, as well as in the large factories.

The development of a tomato suitable for canning purposes has
been a specialty in itself. For this purpose the fruit should be
moderately large, smooth, so that it will peel readily, ripened evenly
to the stem, of a clear, red color, and having a large proportion of
solid meat of good flavor. Varieties which ripen unevenly or are
irregular in outline are difficult to peel and the percentage of waste
is too high. Tomatoes which are yellow or purple do not have an
attractive appearance on opening, and those with excessive seed cells
or which are soft and watery will give the can the appearance of be-
ing slack filled or packed with water. A good pack is therefore
dependent upon having a variety possessing the right qualities. The
canner can not accept tomatoes of a half dozen or more varieties and
get good results. He must therefore specify the variety grown or
furnish the plants for his growers. The production of plants in hot-
beds and cold frames to supply several hundred acres is of itself a
very large task. The plants are grown in the field, the same as

58 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

other crops, and a single large cannery will use the product of 1,000
acres. One ketchup manufacturer takes the entire product from
more than 5,000 acres. A fair yield is 5 tons of fruit for an acre, but
good cultivation and fertilization sometimes brings this up to 20 tons
or more. Thirty-three bushels weigh about 1 ton.

At harvest time the fruit must be picked every day, or every other
day, in order to insure collecting it when it is in its prime — just
ripe, without green butts, and not overripe. It is preferable that
the tomatoes be put in crates, which are wide and flat rather than
deep, and which will hold not more than a bushel. They can be
delivered to the factory in better condition in the flat crates than
in the deep ones or in baskets, as the fruit will crush if piled in too
many layers. The arrival in good condition lessens the time re-
quired for peeling as well as the loss in parts cut away. The toma-
toes should be delivered to the factory promptly, as deterioration
begins soon upon standing.

AVhen the tomatoes are delivered at the factory they are weighed
and inspection should be made of each load. One crate is taken out
at random and dumped into a tank of water. xVll defective fruit can
be detected at once, picked out, weighed separately, and the load
docked accordingly. Rotten fruit can not be used and green fruit
must be held to ripen. The separation at the factory entails extra
expense in the inspection and sorting. The rotten fruit should not
have been picked and the green should have been left in the field;
the only way to reduce this waste to a mimimum is by means of a
system of dockage.

The first step in manufacture should be proper sorting. This
can be done better by a few persons than by the many peelers. Toma-
toes which are green should be taken out and held in crates for one
or two days, as may be necessary, but small green spots can be cut
out by the peelers. The tomatoes with rot should be discarded.
Tomatoes which are small, rough, misshapen, and sound, but which
will not peel well, can be set aside for pulp. Such a separation will
lessen the work and waste in the factory and in the end be economical.
The sorting is best done upon a conveyer table, the tomatoes which
are passed being fed directly into the washer.

The washing should be thorough and done without bruising or
crushing the fruit. It is preferable that the fruit be dropped into
a tank of water and rolled over and over gently, either by actually
turning the tomato or by strongly agitating the water, and then
spraying under a strong pressure as they emerge from the water.
This latter operation is of greater importance than is generally sup-
posed. As before stated, a comparatively large volume of water
without force behind it is far less efficacious than a much smaller
volume having forc€. The latter cuts the dirt and organisms off,

VEGETABLES. 59

the former only wets the skin and makes it look bright. Allow-
ing tomatoes to dry in the sun after washing by each method will
deiirly demonstrate the diU'erence. The water in the tank should
be changed continuously by the addition of the water used in the
spray, an overflow being provided for the tank. The majority of
tomato washing machines are inefficient.

The tomatoes are scalded, while passing slowly through a tank
or steam chamber, by the continuous action of hot water or steam.
The scalding is only sufficient to loosen the skin and not to heat or
soften the tomato. As the tomato emerges from the scalder it is
sprayed with cold water, which causes the skin to split and arrests
the heating of the fruit.

The clean-scalded tomatoes are delivered to the peelers in various
ways, in pails and pans by carriers or belts, or by moving table tops,
or they are delivered to the tables directly upon belts. Various
devices have been used to cany the tomatoes to and from the peelers
and to care for the waste, the object being to secure cleanliness and
careful handling of the fruit. The bucket system is an old one
and is in general use at small factories. The bucket is filled with
scalded tomatoes and the peeler works from one bucket into another,
dropping the refuse into a third bucket or into a trough under the
table. The objection to the bucket is that the fruit on the bottom is
mashed more or less before being reached by the peeler, and the same
is true of the peeled fruit. Wide shallow pans have an advantage
over the bucket in this respect. In peeling from the special tables,
the tendency is to heap the bowls too full, w^hich produces the same
disadvantages found in using the bucket. Some paint the buckets
different colors to indicate whether they are to be used for scalded
tomatoes, peeled tomatoes, or refuse. All buckets or pans should be
w^ashed each time they are used, no matter how many times a day
that may be. All tables and conveyers should be w^ashed each time
the plant stops^ and oftener w^hen needed.

The peelers hold the tomatoes w^th the stem toward the palm of
the hand, pull the skin back from the blos.som end, and close the oper-
ation by removing the core with the point of the knife, keeping it well
directed toward the center so as not to open the seed cells. This is
not only the quickest way to peel the tomato, but keeps it whole.
Green and undesirable spots are cut out.

The cans are filled either by hand or by machine. The sanitary
or open-top cans are filled by hand, as it gives a better appearance to
the finished product. In this class the cans are weighed to insure
the desired fill. If filled too full, which may easily happen, " spring-
ers " or " flippers " may result, and the product be unsalable though
perfectly wholesome. " Springers " or " flippers," as before ex-
plained, have the appearance of a swell, but are not due to fermenta-

60 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

tion. Solder- topped cans seldom bulge in this way for the reason
that they can not be sealed when too full, and, as a rule, they weigh
from 3 to 4 ounces less than the hand-filled cans. Overfilling also
necessitates a longer process, breaking up the fruit and detracting
from the appearance of the product* In order to bring out the flavor
some canners add one teaspoonful of a mixture of equal parts of
salt and sugar, or of one part of salt to two parts of sugar, to each can.
This is rarely done except upon high-grade goods and must be done
by hand in order to insure uniformity.

There are several types of filling machines for solder-topped cans,
which consist usually of a cylinder holding the quantity of tomatoes
necessary to fill a can and a piston to force them in. The result is
more or less badly broken fruit, though the contents are just as good
as in the hand-packed. Some of the newer machines fill the cans on
the principle of a collapsible tube, and the result is a decidedly better
appearance. In all machine filling the measure is by volume rather
than by weight. Cans which are filled full of whole tomatoes by hand
are known as " hand-packed " or " solid-packed " in distinction from
those filled by machine, or filled part full of whole tomatoes and
juice added. The adding of juice is done for two purposes, one in
high-grade stock to preserve the tomato whole or nearly whole, and
in the standard grade to complete the machine fill or to utilize the
entire product. In the first case the juice is taken from whole toma-
toes and usually condensed slightly by boiling. In the latter case it
is made from the trimmings and often of inferior quality. The use
of water in canning tomatoes is unnecessary and is an adulteration.

Somewhat too much stress is being placed upon the quantity of
solid meat which will be present after draining on a quarter-inch
screen. A very high percentage of solid meat may mean the use of
a variety which is hard and inferior, or fruit which is slightly green,
in which event the flavor is deficient. The full, rich flavor of the
tomato is not developed until it is thoroughly ripe, so ripe that the
processing will cause a portion of the tissue to break down, and after
long shipments they may be badly broken. AVliile it is desirable to
have a considerable proportion of the fruit whole or nearly whole, a
broken condition is not of itself evidence of improper methods or
poor quality. The cans are next run through an exhaust box, where
they are subjected to steam heat for from 2 to 3 minutes, after which
they are capped in the usual way. Tomatoes are given a process in
boiling water for from 35 to 55 minutes.

Tomatoes are packed in No. 3 cans as a general rule, though they
are also packed in all sizes from special cans for individual service
on dining cars and cafes to the No. 10, or so-called gallon cans for
hotel trade. Some of the latter are put up unpeeled. The No. 3 .
comes in the regular size and in what is known as extra tall. The

MARINE PRODUCTS. 61

tomato is also put up as condensed tomato, soup, paste, and puree.
To produce these, the tomato is run through a " cyclone " to remove
the hard portions and seeds, and then concentrated to different de-
grees. The use of condensed tomato or puree prepared from sound
material has many advantages for some purposes over the regular
canned article, and its use should be cultivated, especially for soups,
etc. At the price paid for the standard grade of tomatoes a better
article can be obtained as a puree or paste. Some puree is made from
peel and waste from the canning. If the material is clean and sound
there is no objection to its use, but too often this is not the case, as is
made evident by the presence of microorganisms, broken tissue, and
products of decomposition. A paste which is made from the whole
tomato and from trimmings by a system of spontaneous fermentation
and salting is used largely by foreigners. This article is no longer
permissible in interstate trade. Another grade of paste is made by
evaporating the pulp until it becomes very stiff and heavy. The
straining of the juice or pulp fi-om the seeds and hard portions can
be done better and with less waste by special machinery than in the
kitchen.

Tomatoes are sold under various trade grades, as extra choice,
extra select, choice, select, extra standard, standard, and seconds. It
is unfortunate that there are so many ways of designating the con-
tents of a can, particularly when the prefix is meaningless. What
one packer calls his "extra choice" or "extra select" may be no
better than an extra standard or a standard of another packer. The
real grade at present is dependent upon the packer's name, not upon
what he claims. There should be but two grades — selected or first
grade, and standard or field run for the second. A can of first grade
tomatoes should be from selected, prime, ripe fruit, having a fleshy
body, well-developed flavor, and uniform color. The can when
opened should be full and most of the tomatoes whole or in large
pieces, free from all peel, core, or defects. The net weight should
not be less than 32 ounces in a No. 3 can.

A can of standard tomatoes should be from sound, ripe fruit,
having a fair body and good flavor. The can when opened should
be full, and part of the tomatoes whole or in large pieces. They
should be well peeled and cored. The net contents of a No. 3 can
should not weigh less than 32 ounces.

MARINE PRODUCTS.

There is a very large variety of fresh and salt water products put
up in cans, and these have received the following classification by
Charles H. Stevenson:^

1 The Preservation of Fishery Products for Food. United States Fish Commission Bul-
letin for 1898. p. 512.

62 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

There are five general classes of canned marine products, viz, (1) plain
boiled, steamed, or otherwise cooked; (2) preserved in oil; (3) prepared with
vinegar, sauces, spices, jellies, etc.; (4) cooked with vegetables, etc.; and
(5) preserved by some other process, but placed in cans for convenience in
marketing.

The first class includes salmon, mackerel, herring, menhaden, cod, halibut,
smelt, oysters, clams, lobsters, crabs, shrimp, green turtle, etc. ; sardines almost
exclusively make up the second class.

The third class includes various forms of herring prepared as " brook trout,"
"ocean trout," etc., mackerel, eels, sturgeon, oysters, lobsters, crabs, etc.

The fourth class includes fish chowder, clam chowder, codfish balls, green
turtle stew, terrapin stew, and devilled crabs.

The fifth class is made up of smoked herring, halibut, haddock, carp, pick-
erel, lake trout, salmon, eels, sturgeon, etc., and brine salted mackerel, cod,
and caviar.

Cbabs . ( Callinectes h asta ) .

Canned crab meat in this country was the result of experiments
made by James McMenamin, of Norfolk, Va. He began at Norfolk
in 1878, but moved to Hampton in 1879, and that has been the chief
point of supply up to the present time. The season for catching crabs
is from April to October.

The live crabs are placed in large crates, well washed, and then run
into a steam box, where they are cooked for 25 minutes. After
cooling they are " stripped " — ^that is, the shell, viscera, and smaller
claws are removed. The meat is then picked out of the bodies
and large claws by hand, or it may be removed by centrifugal force
or by compressed air. The latter methods, which are of recent origin,
are effective and save much labor. In the centrifugal method the
shell and claw are cut across to expose the cells and a quantity so
prepared is placed in a centrifugal drum, almost the same as that
used for drying in a laundry. The drum is made to spin at a high
speed and all the meat is extracted. The compressed-air method
consists of an air compressor and a storage tank, with pipes leadmg
to a nozzle. The shell is held in front of the nozzle, the air is turned
on, and the meat blown out. Either method is faster, better, and
cleaner than the hand picking.

The meat is filled into cans and processed. The No. 1 cans gen-
erally used are first heated for a half hour in boiling water, vented,
and then processed for 35 minutes at 240° F.

Crab meat is not so easy to keep as some other kinds, the tendency
being to blacken more or less in the cans.

Oysters.

The oyster is a marine bivalve of the genus Ostrea^ the species used
in this country being Ostrea virginiana. It is found along the coast,
chiefly in the shallow waters at the mouths of rivers and in bays.
Chesapeake Bay has long been noted for the abundance of its oysters.
They are found naturally all along the Atlantic coast as far north as

MARINE PRODUCTS. 68

Massachusetts, and at one time were abundant in Long Island Sound.
Active dredging depleted the beds and now the supply is maintained
only by cultivation and restricting dredging operations. Some
oysters are canned on the coast of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Geor-
gia, but they are no longer canned north of Maryland. The oyster
occurs in the Gulf on the west coast of Florida and along the shore
to Texas. There is a large business in canning oysters in Mississippi
and Louisiana. A few oysters are found on the Pacific coast, but
not in sufficient quantity to warrant canning. The abundance of
oysters in Chesapeake Bay made canning operations most profitable
there, and the output acquired a reputation which still gives it some
preference in the market. Prior to 1900 probably 95 per cent of the
canned oysters were put up in Baltimore or in the immediate vicinity.
The southern or Gulf oyster, however, has been proved to be equally
good for canning purposes and the industry has rapidly assumed
large proportions in those localities.

The oyster grows naturally on the hard reefs in from 15 to 180
feet of water, depending upon the temperature. In the Gulf they
grow in shallower water. They will also grow in the bayous and
flats by transplanting and furnishing shells or hard objects to which
the spawn may become attached. Formerly no regulations were
deemed necessary as to the places at which oysters might be taken,
but since the rivers have become polluted with city sewage it is
necessary to guard carefully against oysters from contaminated beds.
The different States regulate the time when the fishing may be done,
which is generally from the 1st of September until the 1st of May.
The oysters for canning are usually taken from the beds between the
1st of October and the 1st of April.

Oysters were among the first products canned in this country. It
is recorded that some were put up in an experimental w^ay in New
York in 1819, though they did not become a commercial proposition
until the work was developed by Thomas Kensett in Baltimore in
1844. In the beginning all the oysters w^ere shucked raw^, by hand.
In 1858 Louis McMurray, of Baltimore, found that by scalding the
oysters in boiling water the shells would partially open and the labor
of shucking could be lessened. Two years later the system of steam-
ing them instead of scalding was developed, and no material change
in method has taken place since that time. McMurray is said to
have had a most excellent reputation as an oyster packer. His
method was to save all the liquor and condensed steam from the
steam boxes, filter it, and use it in filling the cans. He used neither
salt nor water. There is probably no packer in the business at the
present time following this method.

Oysters are obtained by dredging and by tonging, the former upon
the reefs and in the deeper water, and the latter in the shallow bayous

64 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

where planting has been done. The usual equipment consists of a
schooner of about 48-foot keel, 55 feet over all, and 16-foot beam.
When loaded, this will carry about 275 barrels of oysters. The crew
consists of a captain and four men. A dredge is carried on each
side of the boat and operated by two men. The dredge consists of
a heavy iron rake about 3 feet wide, to which is attached a chain or
heavy cord purse, the mouth of which is held open by an iron bar
just above the rake. The dredge is lowered to the ground and
dragged along by the movement of the boat. The rake loosens the
oysters from the rock or ground and they are collected in the purse.

At short intervals the dredge is drawn on board by means of a
windlass, the purse is emptied, and the operation repeated. The
oysters are culled in some places, the small ones being returned. The
catch is put in the hold if the boat is out in warm weather or is to
be gone for more than a day. The trips are generally limited to
from three to five days in order to insure delivery in a fresh condi-
tion at the cannery. Other varieties of smaller boats are also used,
though power boats are generally barred. The Gulf-coast factories
pay about 60 cents per barrel for oysters used in canning and 80
cents per barrel for those used in the fresh trade, owing to the
difference in size. The barrel is rated by measure and not by weight.
On the eastern coast the measurement is by the bushel.

The oysters are rated by size. If there are from 800 to 1,000 to a
barrel they are known as standard, from 600 to 800 per barrel as
selects, and from 450 to 600 per barrel as extra selects. The largest
oysters, known as " counts " on the east coast or as " plants " on the
Gulf coast, run less than 450 per barrel and are always sold raw.
The larger oysters are found on certain reefs on which work has
been prohibited for given periods or in certain water where plant-
ing has been done. The term " plants " when applied to eastern
oysters refers to those taken from deep water, transplanted in shal-
low water, and cultivated until they have attained a desired size.

When the oysters are brought in, they are hoisted directly from the
boat to the steaming car. These iron cars or crates are 28 inches
wide, 19 inches deep, and 8 feet long. They will hold five barrels
of 2J bushels each. As soon as the car is filled the oysters should be
given a thorough washing with clean water to remove the dirt and
mud attached to the shell before it goes to the steam box, otherwise
there is contamination during the shucking. The cars are wheeled
from the dock to the steam box, which accommodates three cars.
The steamer is a rectangular iron box, just large enough to admit
the cars, and is 25 feet in length. There are a few variations from
these sizes, but these are standard. The doors are closed at either
end ; steam is turned on until a pressure of 10 pounds is reached, and
this is maintained for 5 minutes. The doors are then opened and

MARINE PRODUCTS.

(S«

the oysters allowed to cool quickly in the air. It is important tliat
the oysters be steamed well so that there will be no shrinkage in the
can, but not long enough to cause them to become crummy. Both
the time and the temperature at which the steaming is done seems
to have been fixed by experience, as none of the superintendents
seemed to know what the effect would be if a lower temperature and
longer time or higher temperature and shorter time were given.

The car of steamed, oysters is pushed into the shucking shed, the
shuckers standing around the car and working until it is emptied.
The usual number of shuckers is from five to eight, and they are
generally women and children.

The steamed oyster has the shell partly opened, the meat being
easily removed by means of a short, heavy-bladed knife. The oysters
are deposited in pans which are hooked to the oyster car. The
shucker receives 5 cents for 3^ pounds of selects or 3 pounds of
standards. The oj^sters are weighed as received from the shuckers,
washed, and placed in cans by weight according to the grade and
order. The cans are filled with a weak hot brine (2 pounds of salt
to 10 gallons of water) by passing the cans through a dip box. This
method was used at one time in other lines of canning, but has been
superseded by more sanitary methods, and should be in this case.

The cans are capped in the usual manner, either by hand or ma-
chine, and are then processed in the retort at 240° F., the No. 1 cans
for 12 minutes and the No. 2 for 15 minutes. The different packet's
vary the time a few minutes, but practically all use the same tem-
perature.

The oysters are cooled as soon as sterilized,, and when dry are
ready to pack. The oyster is easily sterilized, it is not hard on the
can, and there is little loss from spoilage.

The cans used are the No. 1 and No. 1 tall, or shanghai, and the
No. 2 and No. 2 tall. These are given different fills, and here the
consumer is the victim. The practice in regard to size and fill is best
illustrated by the following price list obtained from packers :

Prices of the various grades and sizes of canned oysters.

Size and fill.

Price per
dozen.

Price per
oiince.

Standard oysters:

No. 1 can, IJ ounces

$0.37i

.60

.65

.70

1.30

1.40

1.50

1.30
2.50

1.50
2.M

SO 25

No. 1 can, 3 ounces.

.20

No. lean, 4 ounces . . ...

,16

No. 1 tall, 5 ounces

.14

No. 2 tall, 6 ounces

22

No. 2 tall, 8 ounces

.17i
.16

No. 2 tall, 10 ounces

Select oysters:

No. 1 tall, 6 ounces

22

No. 2 tall, 12 ounces

.21

Extra select:

No. 1 tall, 6 ounces

.25

No. 2 tall, 12 ounces

.24

66 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

The variation in fill is not different from that of some other
canned foods, but as there is nothing upon the label to inform the
consumer concerning the contents it admits of unfair dealing. As
the liquor is nothing but salt water and not juice, as many suppose,
its use in excess of the amount necessary for proper packing of the
article is not justifiable. It would undoubtedly be better for both
packer and consumer if the cans were confined to the standard No. 1
and No. 2 and the " short " and " intermediate " weights eliminated.
It is not possible to pack each can to weigh an exact amount, as some
variation will take place in the water absorbed in processing, and a
single oyster over or under weight, especially the large sizes, may
cause a variation of a fourth of an ounce or more either way. They
can be packed so that they will average the weights given, and the
No. 1 should not weigh less than 4 ounces.

The term " cove " is applied to any canned oyster. It originally
meant only the oysters obtained on the western shores of Chesapeake
Bay and was distinctive of quality. Gradually any oyster became
a cove oyster, and now it refers to canned oysters irrespective of
where they are obtained.

Salmon.

Salmon canning on the Pacific coast is one of the large canning
industries, and is of so much importance that Government aid is ex-
tended in maintaining fish hatcheries in order to keep up the supply.
The first salmon canning was done on the Sacramento River in 1864,
later on the Columbia River in 1866, in British Columbia in 1874, and
in Alaska in 1882. The value of the salmon pack on the Pacific
coast is more than $10,000,000 annually.

There are four species of salmon which have large commercial im-
portance, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha^ the chinook, quinnat, red
spring, or King Alaska; 0. nerka^ the sockeye, blue back, or red
fish ; 0. kisutch, cohoe, silver, or silver sides; and O. gorhuscha^ hump-
backs or pink Alaska. Preference is given to the bright pink color
by the consumer, but for real quality the paler cohoe excels some of
the others, the flesh being less dry and containing more oil and a
better flavor.

The salmon are caught in the rivers as soon as practicable after
the}^ leave the sea on the way to the spawning grounds. They are
caught by nets, seines, traps, and fish wheels. The catching of the
fish is done on an elaborate scale, an idea of which may be gained
from a brief description of a trap. This consists of a steel-wire
netting, starting at the shore and carried out into the stream at an
upward angle for a distance of about 2,500 feet. This netting is
supported by piles placed about 15 feet apart. At the outer end is a

MARINE PRODUCTS. 67

large square conij^artment known as the pot. This is usually about
40 by 40 feet and in water as deep as 65 feet. This pot contains a
dip net equal to its area. Just previous to reaching the pot the
trap is made to zigzag or assume a heart shape, so that the fish in
trying to pass up the stream will be directed into the pot. Adjoin-
ing the pot is a spiller, which is similar in construction, but of smaller
size, having a tunnel or opening connecting the two. The fish pass
from the pot to the spiller and are taken out by the dip net or brailer,
which is 12 by 12 feet and is cast and drawn on board the boat by
power, literally lifting out hundreds of fish at a time. They are
hurried to the factory as rapidly as possible, where they are unloaded
upon the dock by means of elevators or pews.

It is the general practice to permit the fish to remain out of water
in bins for 24 hours before canning, as a certain amount of shrinkage
takes place, otherwise there may be excessive blowing of the juice on
venting. The fish are washed free from slime or gurry before they
go to the butchering room.

The dressing of the fish, or butchering as it is called, is done speed-
ily, mostly by machinery. The head and tail are sawed off on a band
saw^, where formerly they were cut off with a cleaver. The fish is then
fed into the " chink " tail first and back down. By the revolution of
this wheel, the fins are removed by special knives, the body is split
open, the viscera torn out, and the interior wall scrubbed by revolving
brushes. The dressed fish is delivered into a tank of water, and the
offal delivered \vith the gurry. The iron chink does a better job than
is done by hand, and is the most important machine in the canning
of salmon. After the fish has been dropped into the tank of cold
water, it is scrubbed thoroughly with brushes until it is clean.

The dressed fish is placed upon a special slitted elevator, which
feeds it transversely into a series of revolving disks, which cut it into
lengths corresponding to the height of the can. There are a variety
of lengths used, but there are three which are standard; the No. 1
tall. No. 1 flat, and the half pound. Seven knives are used in the
gang for cutting for tall cans, 13 knives for flat, and 17 knives for
half-pound cans.

The grading of the fish is done on the basis of solid and less de-
sirable body cuts. The filling of the choice parts is done by hand,
and each can weighed. The short weights are supplemented by bits,
but overweight is not reduced. Much of the filling, especially of the
less expensive cuts, is done by machinery. The cans used must all be
open top, and this is later either soldered or the joint made with a
double seamer.

The solder capping of the cans is different from that practiced in
other packing. First a piece of tin wdth the corners bent up is placed
on the fish, then the can is set in a machine which wipes the upper

68 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

edge, after which the end is put in place, and the can passed through
another machine which crimps the end to the sides. This end con-
tains a small hole or tip. The can then rolls, head downward, into a
V-shaped groove which contains flux, and continues its rolling in
another section of the groove containing solder, and it is here that the
final sealing is done. The heating of the contents, due to the hot
solder, causes some steam to be generated, and it is for the purpose
of allowing this to escape that the piece of tin is placed within and
under the vent. When the can leaves the soldering trough it is turned
over and the vent closed or tipped. With sanitary cans no tin nor
vent is needed, the cap being attached and sealed by machinery.

The cans are then placed in trays, the standard size being 35 inches
square and 3 inches deep. Each tray will hold 160 tall or 86 flat
standard No. 1 cans, the cans being on end in a single tier. The test
for leaks is to set the tray in boiling water for a few seconds and
watch for bubbles. Eight trays make a basket, and this constitutes
a charge for the retort.

The process consists of heating at 220° F. for 30 minutes, then
taking out the fish, venting, and retipping, and giving a subsequent
heating for 1 hour and 15 minutes at 250° F. When open-top cans
are used, the filled cans are run through an exhaust box very slowly
so that they are thoroughly heated before the cover is attached.
Venting becomes unnecessary, but the time of cooking remains un-
changed— ^that is, the single heating is equal to both periods under the
old method. The hot cans are immersed in lye to remove grease and
oil and are then cooled in water. The net weight of the 1-pound
tall or flat can should average 16 ounces.

Sardines.

The sardines caught on the Pacific coast are much larger than those
taken in the East and are handled in a different manner. They are
caught in nets at night, and on being brought to the factory in the
morning are put into bins and kept wet with running water for some
hours. They are then dressed, scaled, heads and viscera removed,
and again thoroughly washed in two or more changes of water.
They are next dipped in strong salt brine for a few minutes, rinsed,
and placed in wire trays to dry. In order to expedite the drying the
trays are carried through a mechanical dryer so that all surface
water will be removed. The crates are then dragged through a vat
of boiling oil, the length of time being that necessary to cook the
fish thoroughly, usually about 5 minutes. They are left in the crates
until cool, which is usually until the folloAving day, placed in the cans
by hand, oil or sauce added to fill the interspaces, carefully exhausted,
and processed at 240° F. for 1 hour and 15 minutes.

MARINE PRODUCTS. 69

SHBIMP.

The shrimp is a crustacean and belongs in the same general class
as crabs, crayfish, and lobsters. There are a number of varieties found
in this country, but the one used for canning is the Gulf shrimp,
Panaeus hrasiliensis. The shrimp found in the fresh waters and
west coast are used fresh, but are too small to be used in canning.
The Gulf shrimp resembles a large crayfish and is fi'om 5 to 7 inches
long. They inhabit the deep waters and come to the shore twice each
year. They are active swimmers and are provided with very long
antenntr. The abdomen is the only part of the shrimp that is used,
the head and thorax being thrown away.

The first attempt to can shrimp was made by Mr. G. W. Dunbar,
of New Orleans, in 1867. His efforts did not meet with success until
1875, at which time he devised the bag lining for the cans. In 1880
a factory was started at Biloxi, Miss., and from that time to the
present the majority of all the shrimp canned has been put up in these
two cities. It is only within the past 10 years that the canning of
shrimp has assumed considerable importance, but is still limited to
about a dozen places in Louisiana and Mississippi. A cannery was
started in Texas but failed to secure a regular supply, and the
oyster canneries in Florida could not secure enough to make it profit-
able to prepare to receive them. The early supply of shrimp was
obtained from Barataria bayou or lake, which gave the distinctive
name, Barataria shrimp. The name is often improperly used now.
The shrimp sent to England are called prawns.

Shrimp are caught in Febniaiy^ March, and April, and in Sep-
tember, October, and early November. The run is uncertain, and a
catch depends upon the state of the weather; the quantity taken is
very irregular. The shrimp are caught only in shallow water along
the shore. Previous to this year (1911) , all catches had to be made in
less than 6 feet. Newer apparatus has been- invented making it
possible to take them in water 10 feet in depth. The shrimp are
located by coursing over the ground in a small sailboat or a skiff
and trying with a cast net. This is a circular net from 6 to 8 feet
in diameter with leads every few inches around the edge and a cord
attached for drawing it together. A man stands at the bow of the
boat and makes trial throws until a school is located. When the
shrimp are found the large seine is anchored on the shore at one end
and the boat rowed out and around as large an area as the seine will
cover. As soon as the second end is brought to the shore the men
bring the two ends together and begin to draw in the seine. If the
weights hang close upon the ground the chances for a catch are good,
but if the seine should rise the shrimp will find a way out very
quickly. The handling of the seine requires wading in water from

70 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

2 to 4J feet in depth. The seine is drawn in such a manner as to
cause the shrimp to go into the purse in their attempt to escape.

As soon as the catch is made safe the boat is brought alongside
and the shrimp dipped out with scoop nets. They are stowed
promptly in the hold of the vessel and well iced if the weather is
warm or the trip is to continue for more than a day. The seines
used in shrimp fishing are from 150 to 225 fathoms in length (900
to 1,350 feet) and from 140 to 150 meshes wide. (A mesh is three-
quarters of an inch, giving a width of 105 to 112 inches.) The new
apparatus for handling the seine consists of a stake with special
pulleys near the bottom so that the seine may be drawn from below
without a tendency to raise it off the ground.

The boat equipment for catching shrimp is essentially the same as
for handling oysters, so that they are used interchangeably. The
seine takes the place of the dredges and windlass, and the crew is
usually made up of five or six men. The boats will carry about 140
barrels of iced shrimp.

Shrimps are weighed instead of measured, a barrel being 200
pounds. The pay for catching is $3.50 per barrel in the fall and $4
in the spring. The fall run is the more certain catch and requires
less ice, which makes the difference in the schedule of prices.

When the shrimp are brought on the dock they are stored in ice
until ready to use. The ice makes the peeling easier and is necessary
to prevent spoilage. The removal of the head and shell is known as
" peeling " the shrimp, and this is done for all canned shrimp. The
head and thorax break from the heavy tail with ease and a slight
squeeze will separate the fleshy portion from the shell. This work
is done rapidly ; the pay for peeling is about 1 cent per pound. The
peeled shrimp are thoroughly washed in two or more changes of
water and are then ready for blanching. The blanching consists in
boiling the shrimp in salt water^ which is done by suspending them
in a wire basket in the boiling brine. The time of the blanch is
usually about four minutes for the wet pack and five minutes for the
dry pack. The salt in the brine is in the proportion of about 1
pound per gallon of water. Up to the time the shrimp go into the
blanch they are white or slightly gray in color; the boiling in the
brine causes them to become bright pink or red.

The shrimp are turned out upon trays having wire netting. As
soon as cool they are filled into cans by hand, each can being weighed.
The shrimp are all packed in either No. 1 or No. 1^ cans, the former
having 4^ ounces and the latter 9 ounces. There is no attempt at
grading.

Shrimp are put up in what are known as dry and wet packs. In
the dry pack no liquor is added, while in the wet pack brine is used.
The process for dry shrimp is 1 hour at 240° F. or 4 hours at 212° F.

MILK. 71

for No. 1 cans, and 75 minutes at 240° F. and 4 hours at 212° F. for
No. Ih cans. The process for wet shrimp is 11 minutes for No. 1 and
12 minutes at 240° F. for No. IJ cans.

The fill of 4J and 0 ounces in the No. 1 and No. IJ cans has the
appearance of being light weight or slack filled. Experience has
shown, however, that close filling causes matting of the shrimp and
an unsightly appearance. The wet-packed shrimp are preferred by
those who are familiar with the fresh article. They have better
texture, odor, and taste than the dry packed. A barrel of good
shrimp will pack 100 No. 1 cans or 100 cans of No. 1|.

Formerly shrimp were put up in bulk with a preservative. These
were headless (only the head and thorax removed, the shell left on),
and since that method of preservation is no longer approved, very
few shrimp are obtained upon the market other than canned. Some
pickled headless shrimp are put up in 1 to 5 gallon cans for hotels.
These are boiled in strong brine for several minutes and put up in a
saturated salt solution. They keep, but are very salty, and as it takes
a long time to freshen them they are not available for immediate use.

Shrimp are difficult to keep. Put up in the ordinary tin can they
-will blacken in a short time and will attack the tin, making minute
holes. Success in canning shrimp was dependent upon lining the can.
This was first done by Mr. G. W. Dunbar, of New Orleans, in 1875.
The method consisted in inserting a sack in the can and filling it
with the shrimp to prevent their coming in direct contact with the
tin. Later a thin veneering of wood, corn husks, parchment paper,
asphaltum, and enamels were used. Parchment paper is used by all
packers, with possibly one exception, at this time ; in this case wood
veneer is used.

MILK.

Canned, condensed, or evaporated milk is one of the large indus-
tries in this country. It is put up as plain or sweetened evaporated
milk. The condensory is usually located in a good dairy section
where a sufficient quantity of milk can be obtained by direct delivery
in a very short time. The production must be under similar condi-
tions to those obtaining in city dairying. The cows must be healthy,
the dairy sanitary, the milking done in a cleanly manner, and the
milk cooled and delivered promptly. The matter of cooling and
prompt delivery is more important than in the city delivery, for the
production of a slight acidity will interfere with condensing to a con-
sistency where the product will comply with the law.

On being received at the condensory the milk is immediately tested
for acidity and fat, and if the former exceeds 0.2 of 1 per cent the
milk is rejected for regular trade, though it may be accepted at a
lower price for making a cheaper grade for confectioners' use.

72 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

The milk is run through a clarifier to remove any foreign mate-
rial not taken out by the home strainer. It is next drawn into a
large tank which will hold an amount sufficient to charge the pan.
The milk of several herds is mixed in order to secure uniformity
in the fat content. Each tank is tested for fat and solids so that
the exact ratio of concentration needed to give a certain result may
be known. The milk is given a preliminary heating, usually to
190° F., though there may be some variation in the different plants.
The milk is then ready for the vacuum pan, which consists of a
large copper kettle completely hooded and connected at the top
with a pump. The milk is heated in this kettle by means of a coil
on the inside. The pump draws a vacuum of 25 to 29 inches and
evaporation with violent agitation takes place at 130° F. ; the tem-
perature is usually kept below 150°. • When the batch is nearly fin-
ished, a " strike " is made or a sample is drawn to test the consistency.
The milk may or may not be run through a homogenizer to divide the
fat into such fine particles that the cream will not rise in the finished
product It is next drawn into a filler, and in so doing the tempera-
ture may be raised to about 165° or 170° F., or the can may be filled
cold.

The processing is done in retorts which differ from those used
in vegetable packing in that special crates are provided which carry
the cans and revolve so that the contents will be kept in a smoother
condition. Both the time and temperature for condensation vary
in different factories, and in careful work tests are made on a few
cans before the batch is processed. In general it may be said that
the temperature varies from 225° to 240° F., the time depending upon
the degree of condensation desired, the condition of the milk, and the
size of the can. Twenty minutes for a 6-ounce and 28 minutes for
a 12-ounce can at 240° F. is safe. Immediately at the close of the
cooking the cans are cooled, placed in cases, and shaken for three
minutes.

Condensed milk can not be used for all the purposes of fresh
milk, and is somewhat less digestible than the fresh on account of
the cooking. It is an excellent substitute for many purposes and
the evaporated — that is, the unsweetened product — has the advantage
of being sterile.

SPECIALTIES AND SOUPS.
Beans, Baked.

Pork and beans, beans and tomato sauce, and baked beans are
the ways which the labels read on the product which a few years ago
was known only as " baked beans." The beans used for this purpose
are the small white pea or navy bean. They are chiefly grown in
New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin and are a regular field crop,

SPECIALTIES AND SOUPS. 73

sowed, cultivated, and harvested when ripe and used only in the fully
ripe dried state. The quantity* used in this way is enormous.

The beans should be of good quality, small, white, machine-cleaned,
and hand-picked for defects. The first step in preparation is soak-
ing, and this- is done in tanks or barrels and lasts for from 12 to 24
hours, depending upon the method of handling. The water is
changed in the tank about once in 6 hours, or, on the fancy article,
about once in 4 hours.

From this point on the preparation varies greatly in different fac-
tories. For the very cheap trade the beans are boiled in a squirrel
cage or pea blancher for a few minutes before placing them in the
can; others boil them very slowly in an iron- jacketed kettle from 30
minutes to 3 hours l)efore canning. Some boil them just long enough
to slip the skin, the length of time depending wholly upon the grade
of the bean.

Before the cans are filled, a piece of pork is placed in the can, then
the beans, and finally the sauce. The sauce varies greatly, though
tomato sauce is the most popular at present. This is made from a
good heavy pulp, salt, sugar, and spices, the proportions being varied
to suit the fancy of the packer. Plain sauce is made with water,
salt, sugar, molasses, and spice. It is important that just the proper
quantity of pauce be added, for in the processing some moisture will
be taken up by the beans, and if too little sauce or moisture is added
they will be dry and hard, while if an excess be added they will be
sloppy.

In these methods there is no real baking, the beans having been
soaked and boiled. They are subsequently heated in the can at a
baking temperature, but no moisture can escape, and baking gen-
erally implies that the material is subjected to dry heat, usually in
an oven. The real characteristic is the change in and breaking up
of the tissues with loss of weight, due to the escape of moisture.
Formerly baking Avas done under hot ashes or coals, in clay or brick
ovens ; now it is done in stoves and special ovens, and the latter may
be heated by steam. Tlie same results may be accomplished in
superheated steam as in hot air. The difference between baking and
roasting is not always clear, but between baking and boiling there is
a distinction. The term "baked " beans, therefore, implies that they
have been exposed to a dry heat. This is accomplished by heating the
soaked beans for a short time, until they soften but do not break open
or become mushy. They are then placed in large pans in thin layers
and allowed to bake in ovens until they become dry and mealy and
develop the characteristic brown color. The beans, when poured
upon the filling table will readily separate from one another. An-
other method is to place the beans in large trays in the retort and
subject them to dry steam until dry and mealy. The result is almost

74 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

the same as in the oven — a loss of about 8 per cent in weight taking
place and giving the same dry baked bean. These are filled in the
can and sauced, as has already been described.

The processing of beans will depend altogether upon the method
of preparation, usually from 1 hour to 2i hours for a No. 2 can, at
a temperature of from 245° to 250° F.

There is probably no staple canned which presents more variety
in quality and flavor than the bean. The best is a high-grade prod-
uct, the beans used are expensive, and the dressing, if made of tomato,
is good pulp, the same care being given in its preparation as is used
in preparing any other. Not so much can be said for some of the
very cheap brands, the beans used are inferior, the pulp used is
from trimming stock, and the object is to get as much water in the
can as possible. The net weight of beans in a No. 1 can should be
not less than 19 ounces.

Hominy.

Canned hominy is used in every mining and logging camp in the
country. It is primarily the diet for the hard worker, but is also
used with milk to take the place of a breakfast food in thousands
of homes. It was first packed in 1895 by Mr. I. V. Smith, of Delphi,
Ind., and almost immediately others followed.

Hominy is made from selected white corn. The shelled grain is
screened to take out all small, defective, or split grains, and any chaff
or foreign substance. It is then washed and run into the lyeing ma-
chine. Here the corn is treated with a hot solution of lye, during
which time it is constantly cooked and agitated until the tough hull
loosens. The strength of the lye and the length of time required for
the cooking varies at different factories; the time of cooking varies
from 20 to 45 minutes. After the lye has accomplished its work the
grain is run through a huller, which is in reality a short conical
" cyclone," which removes the hull and tips.

The grain is next washed in a squirrel cage, pea blancher, or
hominy washer. The different canners use very different methods at
this point. Some soak the corn over night in order to have the
kernels swell to the maximum before canning; others soak and cook
for only a short time, an hour or two ; while some fill the cans at once
and depend upon the swelling in the process to give the desired result.
The soaking has the effect of getting rid of traces of lye, makes a
more tender kernel, and a clearer liquor. The cans are so filled that
when the process is completed the grains fill the can nearly full and
should be covered by only one-fourth inch of liquor. The liquor
should be fairly clear and few black tips present.

The standards adopted for hominy by the Indiana Canning Associ-
ation are —

SPECIALTIES AND SOUPS. 75

No, 3 Fancy: Minimum weight after draining a can, 22 ounces,
and to fill to one-half inch of the top of the can. Not more than 2
per cent of black ti[)s. Prepared from selected white corn.

No. 3 Standard: Minimum gross weight, 39 ounces, 18 ounces of
hominy after draining, and can to be filled to 1 inch of the top when
drained. Prepared from medium-sized white corn and to contain
not more than 5 per cent of black tips. This weight is too low and
should be not less than 20 ounces in a No. 3 can.

Sauerkraut.

Sauerkraut is made by the natural fermentation of cabbage in casks.
The cabbage heads are stripped of all outside or green leaves, leaving
only the white sound head. It is then cut into thin slices in a specially
constructed machine. The long, fine-cut cabbage is evenly spread and
well packed in casks. To each layer salt is added at the rate of about
2 pounds per 100 pounds of cabbage. The salt is used as flavor-
ing and to modify in some degree the fermentation. If too much
salt is used, a pinkish color results ; if too little, the fermented product
may become more or less slimy. The temperature of the weather at
the time of putting up the cabbage also influences the fermentation.
If the weather is very warm, the fennentation is too rapid, the
product has a very white but more or less slimy appearance, and the
cabbage is tough rather than of a natural crispness. If the tempera-
ture is very low, fermentation will be arrested. The best temperature
is probably between 60° and 70° F., and the process requires about
4 weeks. Fermentation begins as soon as the cabbage is placed in
the cask, but there is only a slight rise of temperature as compared
with most fermentation processes. A heavy foam rises to the top,
which must be skimmed off every day, and when this ceases to form
the brine goes down and the process is complete. Use can be made
of the kraut at once, though it seems to be better after standing.
The kraut will keep in the casks for a long time, provided there is no
leakage, and the spoilage is usually limited to a few inches on the top.

Kraut is easily canned, which is the only clean way of dispensing
it in groceries in small quantities. The canning should be done where
the kraut is made. The shipping of kraut in barrels to distant points
to be canned has nothing to commend it and much to condemn it.
The repacking in barrels means labor and loss of material, and in
too many cases the loss of natural brine, after which spoilage takes
place easily. The canning should be done while it is in the fresh-
est possible state at the point of production. Kraut is easily kept.
The cans should be filled full, weighed, and sufficient hot water added
to fill the can ; then exhausted, capped, and processed at boiling tem-
perature for 25 minutes.

76 THE CANNING OF FOODS.

A properly filled No. 3 can should not contain less than 22 ounces
of kraut, as determined by emptying upon a sieve of one-eighth inch
mesh and allowing to drain for two minutes.

SOUPS.

Soups of almost every description may be obtained in cans. There
is no standard, but each one is made according to the formula of the
particular packer. Some soups are concentrated, while others are
ready for use. They are practically all packed under Government
inspection, both of the plant and the materials used. No meat
products can enter interstate trade without being inspected, and since
nearly all soups contain either meat or stock made from meat, they
must comply with all the requirements governing meat inspection.

Soups are classed as meat or vegetable, though there are but few
of the latter that are not made from some kind of meat stock. The
usual procedure in making soup is to select the meat stock, which is
usually beef, though veal or mutton may be added. The meat used
by some of the best factories is of the very highest quality, not
merely any meat which has passed inspection. This is cut into
pieces, the size depending upon whether it is to be used in the soup
or only for the stock, and is placed in large steel kettles. These are
heated by steam and covered tightly, so that the stock may be cooked
slowly without evaporating. The cooking is continued below the
boiling point for several hours, depending upon the kind of meat
used and the care given to the making of the soup. The slow
cooking has the effect of bringing out the extractives, giving a better
flavor and a richer product. The liquor is skimmed at regular in-
tervals, and if the stock is for a clear soup or a bouillon, it is clari-
fied with eggs and filtered. If for a soup containing the meat, this
last operation may be omitted.

The vegetables used in making soups are carrots, turnips, parsnips,
peas, beans, onions, leeks, celery, okra, tomatoes, etc. As far as
possible, these should be used in their fresh state, but as it is not
possible to have them all fresh at the same time the canned article
must be substituted. The vegetables used are prepared separately,
washed, peeled, cut into pieces, cubes or special forms, blanched, and
in some cases given a separate cooking to get the proper tenderness.
These are mixed in the proportions desired, placed in the cans by
weight, and the stock added afterwards. The process will depend
upon the body, whether thick or thin, and the quantity of meat used.

The making of soups is peculiarly a chef's work ; it is not possible
to give a formula for so many pounds of meat and vegetables, set
a definite time for cooking each, and get a first-class product. The
characteristic flavoring depends upon the blending and the condi-

SPECIALTIES AND SOUPS.

77

ments iisecL which is a matter of training and judgment. For meat
soups the best packers foHow the practice of holding the cans in stock
for some weeks in order that they may improve on standing. A good
soup requires mudi work in its proper preparation, much more than
is given in the canning of fruits or vegetables. Many soups are made
according to formula, and while of good material, are not distinctive.
A list of soups includes the following: Beef, bouillon, celer}% ox-
tail, mock tuiile, veal, chicken, chicken gumbo, consomme, green
turtle, clam broth, clam chowder, mutton broth, tomato, tomato-okra,
vegetable, pea, asparagus, mulligatawny, vermicelli, and Julienne.

ADDITIONAL COPIES of this publication
■LX. may be procured from the Sdterintend-
ENT OF Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C, at 10 cents per copy

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