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5000 4-2-17
A corner of the apartment kitchen of the Washington Irving High
School
FOOD
ITS COMPOSITION
AND PREPARATION
A TEXTBOOK FOR CLASSES
IN HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE
BY
MARY T. DOWD
AND
JEAN D. JAMESON
Teachers of Household Science
Washington Irving High School, New York City
FIliST EDITION
' ' > J J * > 0. 3i
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1918
COPTBIGHT, 1918
BY
MARY T. DOWD and JEAN D. JAMESON
PRESS OF
BRAUNWORTH & CO.
300K MANUFACTURERS
BROOKLYN, N. Y.
^
PREFACE
In presenting this book for the consideration of the
pubHc, the authors are well aware of the present very general
practice of furnishing all necessary instructions and theory
to Domestic Science classes through the medium of notes
taken by the students. Indeed it is to the conviction,
resulting from long experience with the problem, of the
futility and inefficiency of this practice that the book owes
its origin. Much of the time thus spent by the teacher in
dictating, and by the student in writing, can and ought to
be saved for more profitable use.
It is questionable whether the advantages derived from
note taking by elementary classes are as great as popularly
supposed; certainly they do not compensate for the amount
of valuable experience in the broader applications of the
subject that is lost when the time is thus used. Moreover,
notes taken hurriedly, as under the conditions of the class
room, are often incorrectly copied, and the girl's attention
is unfortunately fixed upon the mechanical process of getting
down all that the teacher has said, rather than upon the
comprehension of what has been said.
It is believed by the authors that, if the subject is to be
taught with any degree of uniformity throughout a large
school or in a city where there are several teachers supposedly
presenting the same subject matter, there should be some
common material that may be put directly in the hands of
the pupils for home study.
The text is an elaboration of the notes dictated by the
authors to their own High School classes. It is designed
IV PREFACE
to supplement the laboratory work and to bring to the pupils
a clearer conception of the relation between the cost of
foods and their nutritive value.
No recipes are given for the reason that, after close
association with many Domestic Science teachers, the con-
clusion has been reached that each one has her own special
recipes and considers no others quite so good. Again, the
tendency of the age is to get away from the teaching of
hard and fast rules for doing things and to teach, rather, the
application of well-defined principles. The general adoption
of a card catalogue system for the purpose of filing recipes
makes a cook book unnecessary.
No attempt has been made to deal with such matters as
setting the table, table service or table etiquette, as it is
believed that these can be taught satisfactorily only by
actual demonstration and practice. The subject of special
diets for invalids and infants is omitted as coming more
properly within the scope of a treatise in dietetics.
In studying foodstuffs, it has been the experience of
the writers that a consideration of the simple compound
water, made up of but two elements, is the natural starting
point from which the pupils may be carried by easy stages
to a consideration of the more complex compounds.
A vocabulary of the subject has been inserted in the
course, as familiarity with the commoner technical terms
will be found of great assistance to a clear understanding
of the chapters that follow.
Mary T. Dowd.
Jean D. Jameson.
New York.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGE
Introductory 1
Definition of Food. — Classification of Foods. — Food as a
Source of Energy. — How Food is Like the Body Tissue. —
Composition of Foodstuffs. — Tests for Foodstuffs. — Function
of Foodstuffs in the Body. — Purposes of Cooking. — Processes
of Cooking . — Digestion . — Absorption . — Assimilation ,
CHAPTER II
Water 8
Composition. — Kinds of Water. — Function of Water in
the Body. — Water in Food. — Water as a Cooking Medium.
CHAPTER III
Carbohydrate in the Form of Sugar 12
Composition. — Monosaccharides. • — Disaccharides. ^Func-
tion of Sugar in Nutrition. — Digestion of Sugar. — Commercial
Sugar. — Molasses. — Maple Sugar. — Honey. — Effects of Cook-
ing Sugar.
' CHAPTER IV
Carbohydrate in the Form of Starch 18
Composition. — Source and Structure. — Food Value. — Func-
tion in the Body. — Tests for Starch. — Cooking of Starch. —
Cellulose.— Digestion and Food Value of Cellulose. — Dextrin.
— Glycogen. — Some Unusual Forms of Starch. — Tapioca, Sago,
and Arrowroot.
CHAPTER V
Cereal Foods 24
Cereals as Breakfast Foods. — Wheat. — Oats. — Indian Corn.
— Rice. — Buckwheat. — Barley. — Rye. — Digestibility of Cere-
vi CONTENTS
PAGE
als. — Cooking of Cereals. — Macaroni, Spaghetti, and Noodles.
— Use of Double Boiler. — The Fireless Cooker. — The Thermos
Bottle. — The Pressure Cooker.
CHAPTER VI
Flour Mixtures 39
Definition. — Leavening Agents. — Baking Powders. — Clas-
sification of Flour Mixtures. — Hot or Quick Breads. — Cakes. —
Sponge Cakes. — Butter Cakes.
CHAPTER VII
Flour Mixtures — Bread and Pastry 53
Varieties of Wheat. — The Protein of Wheat. — Milling of
Flour. — Yeast Bread. — Bread Mixer. — Kinds of Yeast. —
Function of Yeast in Bread Making. — Digestibility of Bread. —
How to Know Good Bread. — Pastry. — Digestibility of Pastry.
CHAPTER VIII
Vegetables 64
Definition. — Classification of Vegetables. — Composition and
Food Value of Vegetables. — Digestion of Vegetables. — Selec-
tion and Care. — Cooking of Vegetables. — Preserving Vege-
tables.— Legumes. — Food Value. — Cooking. — Soy Bean. —
Tubers. — The Dasheen. — Bulbs, Leaves, Stems, and Shoots. —
Fruits. — Flower Buds. — Digestion and Food Value of Green
Vegetables.
CHAPTER IX
Fruits 77
Definition. — Composition. — Digestibility. — Selection of
Fruit. — Preparation and Cooking. — Dried Fruits. — Nuts. —
Food Value of Nuts. — Use of Nuts in Cooking.
CHAPTER X
Fats and Oils 83
Composition. — Properties. — Function of Fats in Nutrition.
— Digestibility. — Sources of Fats. — Cooking in Fats. — Prepar-
ation of Fats.
CONTENTS • vii
CHAPTER XI
PAGE
Milk 90
Value as Food. — Composition. — Digestibility. — The Care
of Milk.— Skim Milk.— Sour Milk.— Certified Milk.— Pas-
teurized Milk. — Sterilized Milk. — Condensed Milk. — Milk
Powder.— Modified Milk. — Malted Milk. — -Milk in Cooking —
Milk Products. — Butter and Cheese.
CHAPTER XII
Eggs 97
Structure. — Composition and Food Value. — DigestibiUty. —
Selection and Care. — Preparation and Cooking.
CHAPTER XIII
Meats 104
Structure. — Kinds. — Composition. — Digestion of Meat. —
Food Value of Meat. — Selection of Meat. — Cooking of Meat. —
Methods of Preserving Meat. — Cuts of Beef. — Cuts of Veal. —
Sweetbreads. — Cuts of Lamb and Mutton. — Cuts of Pork. —
Internal Organs Used as Food. — Gelatin.
CHAPTER XIV
Poultry and Game 114
Definition. — Composition and Food Value. — Selection. —
Picking. — Chickens. — Turkeys. — Ducks and Geese. — Squab
and Guinea Fowl. — Preparation and Cooking of Poultry.
CHAPTER XV
Fish 118
Quality and Flavor. — Composition. — Digestibility of Fish. —
How to Choose Fish, — Cooking of Fish. — Ways of Preserving.
— Common Food Fish. — Specially Prepared Fish. — Unusual
Tyjjes of Fish Recommended by the Bureau of Fisheries. —
Shell Fish. — Oysters. — Clams. — Mussels. — Lobsters. — Crabs.
— Shrimps . — Te rrapin.
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER XVI
PAGE
Mineral Matter 125
Definition. — Function in Body. — Sources of Mineral Matter.
— Calcium. — Iron. — Phosphorus. — Sodium Chloride. — Vita-
mines. — Function of Vitamines in Body.
CHAPTER XVII
Beverages 129
Tea. — Composition. — Classes of Tea. — Grades of Tea. —
Adulterants of Tea. — Coffee. — Preparation for Use. — Substitu-
tion and Adulteration. — Chocolate and Cocoa. — Effect of Bev-
erages on Body.
CHAPTER XVIII
Condiments and Other Accessories 136
Value in Diet. — Salt. — Vinegar. — Spices. — Flavoring Ex-
tracts.
CHAPTER XIX
Food Requirements of the Body 140
The Necessity for Food. — Amount of Food Required. —
Calories. — Computation of Energy Value of Foods. — Require-
ment for Growth and Repair. — Requirement for Body Regula-
tion.
CHAPTER XX
Food Combinations in Meals 143
Planning Meals. — Per Cent of Income for Food. — Food for
Adults and Children. — Cost of Food. — Balanced Meals. —
Variety in Diet. — The ^Esthetic Considerations. — Desirable.
Foods. — ^Food Combinations. — Suggestions for Planning Meals
— Sample Meals Showing the Approximate Number of Cal-
ories Furnished.
CHAPTER XXI
The Preservation of Foods 156
Why Foods Spoil. — Ways of Preserving Foods. — Canning
by the Open Kettle Method.— The One-Period Cold Pack
Method. — Intermittent Sterilization. — Use of Preservatives. —
Kinds of Preservatives. — Drying of Fruits and Vegetables.
Glossary 165
FOOD
ITS COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
1. Definition of Food. — Food is any substance which,
when taken into the body, is capable of building body
substance, yielding energy, or regulating body processes.
2. Classification of Foods. — Foods may be classified as
organic and inorganic. The organic foods, as the name
implies, are derived from an organism, which organism may
be a plant or an animal. As organic foods serve the purpose
of replacing tissues which have been oxidized (burned)
they themselves must be oxidizable.
Inorganic foods serve to replace tissue which has not
been oxidized; they are water and mineral substances and
are not oxidizable.
3. Food as a Source of Energy. — A plant has the power of
taking carbon dioxide from the air, and with the aid of the
light and heat of the sun, combining it with water from the
soil, thus forming such compounds as starch, sugar and
protein. Heat is absorbed during the process; therefore,
when these compounds are oxidized in the body, they
decompose into their original constituents, at the same
time liberating the same amount of heat as was absorbed
during their formation. This liberated heat is the source
of all body energy.
While animals cannot make use of such simple substances
as are found in the air and the earth, they can use such
substances when they have been transformed by the plant.
The animals, in their turn, convert the simple substances
into more complex substances which man designates as
animal food.
4. How Food is Like the Body Tissues. — If food is to
build body tissue, it must bear some likeness to that tissue.
As this likeness does not lie in appearance it must in com-
position, and chemical analysis shows this to be the case.
Food and the body tissues are made up of similar elements
and compounds.
The elements are: Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon,
sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, fluorine, silicon, and iodine.
The compounds are: Water, fat, carbohydrates, protein,
and mineral matter. These compounds, when spoken of in
connection with food, are called foodstuffs and must not be
confused with food materials, such as eggs, meat, cereals, etc.
5. Composition of Foodstuffs. — Water is composed of
the two elements oxygen and hydrogen.
Fat is composed of the three elements oxygen, hydrogen,
and carbon.
Carbohydrates, which include starch and sugar, are
composed of the same three elements that form fat, but in
the carbohydrates the oxygen and hydrogen occur in the
proper proportion to form water.
Water, fat, and carbohydrates are the first of the great
foodstuffs which the plant manufactures from the simple
inorganic compounds.
Proteins are the most complex of all the foodstuffs.
They contain, in addition to the three elements found in
fats and carbohydrates, other elements, the chief of which
are nitrogen and sulphur. The nitrogen occurs in simpler,
substances called amino acids, and these by different com-
binations form the various proteins.
INTRODUCTORY 3
Mineral Matter includes such chemical elements as iron,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulphur,
and phosphorus. Some of these occur as elements while
others are found only in combination ; some occur in organic
material while others exist only in their inorganic form.
6. Tests for Foodstufifs. — Water may be detected in
food by heating a small amount of the food in a test tube.
Drops of water will form on the sides of the tube.
Starch may be detected by adding to the food, or a
solution of the food, a few drops of iodine. The material
will turn blue if starch is present.
Sugar may be detected by boiling a small portion of the
food in water and then adding Fehling's solution.* A
reddish brown precipitate is formed if sugar is present.
Fat may be detected in the following way: stir some of
the food with ether or benzine, allow it to stand ten minutes,
then filter it and allow the ether to evaporate. The fat will
remain.
Protein may be detected by the use of nitric acid and
ammonia. The substance turns yellow if protein is present.
Mineral Matter may be detected by burning a sample of
the food. The residue which will not burn is mineral matter.
7. Functions of the Foodstuffs in the Body. — The
function of water in the body is to build tissue and regulate
body processes.
The chief function of fat is to yield energy, but it may be
stored in the body as fatty tissue.
The chief function of carbohydrate is to supply energy
to the body, but it may furnish building material also.
The chief function of protein is to build tissue, but it
may also furnish energy.
The chief function of mineral matter is to furnish build-
ing material and to regulate body processes.
Vitamines are substances essential to growth and nerve
activity.
♦Fehling's solution is copper sulphate, Rochelle salts, and caustic soda.
4 FOOD
8. The Means by which Food is Made Available. — Food,
in order to become available to the body, must undergo
certain physical and chemical changes. These changes
are brought about by such processes as cooking, digestion,
absorption, and assimilation.
Cooking is the preparation of food by the aid of heat.
Such foods as milk, eggs, and certain fruits and vegetables
may be eaten without cooking, but this is possible only
because they have previously been subjected to a process
similar to cooking. In the cases of the first two the. heat
coming from the body of the animal really did the cooking,
and in the third the heat from the sun during the process
of ripening performed the same operation.
9. Purposes of Cooking. — Cooking is necessary for three
distinct purposes:
1. To kill micro-organisms.
2. To make the food more digestible.
3. To improve and develop flavor in the food.
10. Processes of Cooking. — The different methods of
applying heat to food are known as processes of cooking^
and are:
1. Boiling. — Cooking in boiling water or at a temperature
of 212° F.
2. Broiling. — Cooking directly over or under a flame.
3. Pan-hr oiling. — Cooking on a very hot frying pan
without any fat.
4. Baking. — Cooking in a hot oven. •
5. Roasting. — Cooking in a very hot oven.
6. Frying. — Cooking in sufficient hot fat to cover the
food.
7. Sauteing. — Cooking in a frying pah in a small amount
of fat.
8. Steaming. — Cooking over steam.
(a) Dry, as in a double boiler.
(b) Moist, as in a steamer.
INTRODUCTORY
9. Stewing. — Cooking in water below the boiling-point,
180° F.
10. Braising (or pot roasting). — A combination of stew-
ing and baking.
11. Fricasseeing. — A combination of stewing and saut^-
ing.
11. Digestion. — Digestion is the process of changing
insoluble foods to soluble. This
process takes place in that part
of the body known as the alimen-
tary canal, Fig. 1. This canal
measures from twenty to twenty-
five feet in length. Into this canal
is poured secretions from such
organs as the salivary glands, the
pancreas, and the liver, all of
which aid in the work of digestion.
The parts of the alimentary
canal are the mouth, the oesopha-
gus, the stomach, the small in-
testine, and the large intestine.
12. Work of the Alimentary
Canal. — Each part of the alimen-
tary danal has its special work to
do and is furnished with mechan-
ical and chemical agents for ac-
complishing its task. The food-
stuffs are acted upon chemically
in different parts of the canal.
The Mouth. — In the mouth all
food is acted upon mechanically by
the teeth, which grind it, and by
the saliva, which moistens it.
The starchy foods are further
acted upon chemically by an enzyme called ptyalin, which
is found in the saliva, and which has the power of changing
Fig. 1. — Front view of the
digestive organs.
a, c, e, colon;
d, duct of the gall bladder;
g, gall bladder;
i, small intestine;
I, V, liver;
o, e, esophagus;
p, n, pancreas;
st, stomach.
6 FOOD
the insoluble starch into a form of sugar called maltose.
From the mouth the food passes through the CEsophagus
into the stomach.
The Stomach. — In the stomach the food is kept in motion
by the muscular walls, which by their churning bring all the
food in contact with the gastric juice. The connective tissue
of meat is here dissolved, and the meat fibres loosened.
The walls of fat cells are also dissolved, as well as certain
mineral salts such as phosphate of lime. The protein foods
are acted upon chemically by two enzymes found in the
gastric juice. The first of these, pepsin, has the power of
changing, in the presence of hydrochloric acid, the non-
dialyzable proteins into dialyzable peptones. The second
enzyme, rennin, coagulates the caseinogen of milk, which is
a necessary change before the milk can be digested by the
pepsin. It is thought by some that a third enzyme is
present in the gastric juice which acts upon emulsified fats.
After the food has remained in the stomach from one
to five hours the mass is reduced to a grayish, semi-liquid
state in which condition it is known as chyme, and begins to
pass in small amounts into the small intestine.
The Small Intestine. — Here the food comes in contact
with the pancreatic juice, an important digestive fluid fur-
nished by the pancreas; with the bile, a fluid manufactured
by the liver; and with the intestinal juice, which is secreted
by the glands that line the small intestine.
Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes: trypsin,
amylopsin, and steapsin or lipase. The trypsin acts upon
any proteins which may have escaped the action of the
pepsin; the amylopsin acts upon undigested starch, changing
it into maltose even more quickly than the ptyalin can;
and the lipase serves to emulsify fats and to some extent
break them up into fatty acids and glycerin. The action
of the bile is to help in the absorption of fats and by its
alkalinity to counteract the acidity of the chyme.
The intestinal juice has no special action except upon the
INTRODUCTORY 7
sugars, converting maltose into grape sugar. After the
food has been acted upon by the various fluids in the small
intestine, it changes from acid chyme into alkaline chyle,^
in which condition much of it is absorbed. Food which is
by nature indigestible, or which has been made so by im-
proper cooking, passes from the small intestine into the
large.
The Large Intestine. — While the large intestine has no
enzyme of its own, the walls furnish a fluid which helps to
complete digestive changes which have already begun.
Absorption takes place here to some extent and the residue
of the food is here evacuated from the body.
13. Absorption. — Much of the digested food is absorbed
from the small intestine. All the digested carbohydrate
and protein foods are taken up by the epithelial cells, and
the fats are taken by the lacteals or lymph vessels. These
are tiny thread-like tubes which convey the fats to the
thoracic duct, lying in front of and to one side of the back
bone. From there the fats are poured into the blood stream.
The other foods are absorbed by the blood capillaries which
carry them by the portal system to the liver and thence
to the heart to be sent with the blood to nourish all parts
of the body.
14. Assimilation. — Assimilation is the process by which
each part of the body works over into its own substance
material derived from the food eaten.
CHAPTER II
WATER
15. Composition. — In composition water is the simplest
of the foodstuffs, as it is made up of but two elements,
oxygen and hydrogen.
While water is not capable of yielding energy because
it contains no unoxidized hydrogen, its function in the body
is of such vital importance that it must be considered most
essential.
16. Kinds of Water. — Water is hard or soft, according
to the amount of mineral matter present in it. The hard-
ness of some water is due to the presence of lime salts which,
if in excess, may interfere with the general health. These
salts may be eliminated by boiling the water. This process
will drive off the carbon dioxide which holds the carbonates
in solution and the lime will be precipitated. Boiling also
removes organic impurities. To remove the insipid taste
which results from boiling, the water, after having been
cooled, may be shaken vigorously.
17. Functions of Water in the Body. — Water serves as
building material, two-thirds of the body weight being made
up of water. It gives firmness and elasticity to the tissues
and constitutes four-fifths of the blood.
Water acts as a great solvent in the body, carries nutri-
ment to all the tissues, and conveys the effete matter to the
organs through which it is eliminated. It also keeps the
fluids of the body in their liquid state.
Water acts as a body regulating substance and a stimu-
lant; particularly is it important in the digestive tract
where experiment has shown that the production of hydro-
WATER 9
chloric acid in the stomach is greatly accelerated after
drinking a glass of water. There is proof also that water
aids digestion by acting as a diluent on certain digestive
juices, thereby increasing their solvent power.
18. Amount of Water Required. — The amount of water
which the body requires varies and is dependent upon the
surrounding temperature, the amount of muscular activity
indulged in, and the nature of the food eaten.
One of the most prevalent dietary errors is the use of
too little water in the diet. The daily requirement is
approximately four pints. About one-fourth this amount
is obtained from the food eaten.
19. Water in Food. — All foods, no matter how dry they
may appear to be, contain some water, and some vegetables,
such as asparagus, contain as high as 94 per cent of water.
The keeping quality of all foods depends largely upon the
amount of water they contain. Foods containing more than
20 per cent of water cannot be stored, owing to their tendency
to mold. Flour or cereals that are to be kept any length of
time must not contain higher than 10 to 12 per cent of
water.
TABLE I.— FOODS HAVING A HIGH WATER CONTENT
Weight in ounces of the 100-calorie portion
Watermelon 28| ozs.
Cucumbers 20^ ozs.
Celery 19 ozs.
Lettuce I85 ozs.
Muskmelon 18 ozs.
Asparagus 16 ozs.
Rhubarb 15j ozs.
Tomatoes 14^ ozs.
Egg plant 14| ozs.
Spinach 14f ozs.
Radishes 12 ozs.
Peaches 10§ ozs.
Cabbage 11^ ozs.
Buttermilk 9| ozs.
10 FOOD
20. Water as a Cooking Medium. — Water is necessary
in the preparation of food and for this purpose soft water is
preferable.
All foods are not cooked at the same temperature, and
the degree of heat must be adapted to the food in question.
If water is raised slowly to the boiling-point, the following
changes will be observed. Tiny bubbles will appear on the
bottom and sides of the vessel but will break before reaching
the surface. These bubbles are caused by the air and gases
which have been confined in the water being driven off
by the heat (it is the loss of these which causes the flat
taste of boiled water). As the temperature rises, the
bubbles in the water will become larger and more nearly
spherical and will reach the surface before the}^ break. At
this point the water is said to boil, and a thermometer intro-
duced into it will register 212° F. or 100° C; for an open
vessel at sea level, no matter how rapidly the water may boil,
the temperature, under ordinary conditions, will rise no higher,
the surplus heat being used to convert the water into steam.
21. Raising the Boiling-point. — The boiling-point of
water may be raised: (1) By increasing the pressure — for
example boiling in a confined space, as in a steam boiler
under a pressure of five pounds of steam, when the water
will not boil until it reaches 227° F.
(2) By increasing the density — for example a very
strong salt solution will not boil until it reaches 226° F., and
a sugar solution may have a boiling-point between 215°
and 350° F.
22. Lowering the Boiling-point. — The boiling-point of
water is lower than 212° F. when the pressure of the atmos-
phere is less than fifteen pounds to the square inch. In high
altitudes, as in Denver, Colorado, water boils at a tempera-
ture of 202° F., and on some points in the Himalaya Moun-
tains it boils at a temperature as low as 180° F. Under
such conditions it is difficult to properly cook foods which
require a high temperature.
WATER 11
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. To Show the Effect of Boiling on Hard Water. —
Half fill a beaker with lime water. Blow through a glass tube into the
water until it loses its cloudy appearance and becomes clear. (This
shows that excess of carbon dioxide keeps lime in solution.) Boil this
water and notice the deposit of carbonate of lime on the bottom and
sides of the beaker. Add a little acid to this deposit and observe the
effervescence that takes place.
Half fill an evaporating dish with water from the faucet. Let it
evaporate over a Bunsen burner, and test the residue as in the above
experiment.
Experiment 2. To Show Effect of Density on the Boiling-point
of Water. — (a) Boil water, taking the temperature.
(b) Boil a saturated salt solution and take the temperature.
Experiment 3. To Show the Rapidity of Evaporation. — Put the
same amount of water in each of two vessels; one deep and exposing
but little surface, the other shallow and exposing a large surface.
Boil both slowly and observe in which vessel the water boils away first.
CHAPTER III
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR
23. Composition. — Carbohydrate foodstuffs are a com-
bination of the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen are present in the com-
mon foods of this class in the proportion to form water.
For purposes of more thorough study, the carbohydrates
are sometimes divided into three main groups according
to their molecular weight.
Group 1. Monosaccharides. — These comprise simple
sugars which cannot be split into other sugars of the same or
simpler form. They are: glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Group 2. Disaccharides. — These comprise the complex
sugars which may be split into two simple sugars. They
include: sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
Group 3. Polysaccharides. — These are substances which
yield an unknown number of simple sugars. Included in
the group are: starch, dextrin, arid glycogen.
24. Monosaccharides. — Monosaccharides are soluble crys-
talline substances which are absorbed into the blood stream
without further change.
The members of this group have the common formula
of C6Hi206- The source and distinguishing characteristics
of each of the simple sugars will be considered in turn.
Glucose, sometimes called dextrose, is the most important
of the simple sugars as it is in this form that sugar appears
in the blood. Normal blood contains about 0.1 per cent
of glucose which is being burned continually to produce
body energy. Any surplus of glucose absorbed from the
digestive tract is stored in the body as glycogen, which is
12
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR 13
in turn reconverted into glucose to be burned as needed for
energy.
Fructose, or levulose, like glucose, is found as such in
some plants and vegetables and in large quantities in honey.
Galactose is of considerable importance in nutrition
since it is a product of the digestion of milk. It is utilized
in the formation of glycogen in the liver.
25. Disaccharides. — The disaccharides are complex sugars
having a formula of C12H22O11. They are soluble sub-
stances and are changed to simple sugars in the process of
digestion.
Sucrose, or cane sugar, is found in nature in the juices
of certain plants. Sugar cane and the sugar beet yield
large quantities of sucrose and form the chief sources of the
commercial sugars.
Maltose is formed from starch by the action of acids
and enzymes. Maltose also occurs in malt and malt
extracts.
Lactose, or sugar of milk, is found in the milk of mam-
mals. It is obtained for commercial use from the whey
of milk after the curd has been removed in the making of
cheese. Lactose is not easily fermented and is, therefore,
used in modifying cow's milk for infants.
26. Polysaccharides. — Polysaccharides are complex sub-
stances. They are considered at length in Chapter IV.
27. Functions of Sugar in Nutrition. — (1) As a Source of
Energy. The chief function of sugar in nutrition is to supply
energy to the body. It is especially well adapted for use
as an energy producer because it is ready for almost immedi-
ate absorption into the blood stream. Theoretically, sugar
is not essential in a modern dietary where starches are
used, since all starches are changed to sugar in the process of
digestion. It is recommended that sugar be used in small
amounts for flavoring and to give variety to the diet rather
than as a source of energy.
(2) As a building material. Sugar, in the form of galac-
14 FOOD
tose, is found in the growth stimulating part of the nerve
cells. An excess of sugar in the system is converted into
fat and stored in the body substances.
(3) As a body regulating substance. Without carbo-
hydrate, fat cannot burn normally in the body. In other
words, fat must burn in a flame of carbohydrate. Unless
the calories furnished by carbohydrate exceed those furnished
by fat, an abnormal condition of nutrition known as acidosis
is liable to obtain. This condition is caused by the presence
of acid in the body substances rather than in the blood.
28. Digestion of Sugar. — There is no ferment or digestive
juice in the body that acts upon the monosaccharides,
glucose, fructose, and galactose. These substances are
absorbed from the intestines without further change, and
pass into the portal vein by which they are carried to the
liver. Some of this sugar is changed to glycogen and
stored in the liver, and the rest is passed on through the
blood stream to the tissues, where it is burned to CO2 and
H2O to yield energy for work, or is stored in the muscular
tissue as glycogen or fat.
In the case of the complex sugars or disaccharides, there
is no digestive action in the mouth or in the stomach, but
the intestinal membrane secretes a substance known as
succus entericus, or intestinal juice, containing the three
enzymes, sucrase, maltase, and lactase, which act in turn
upon the disaccharides and change these double sugars
into two single sugars as follows:
Sucrose + sucrase = glucose and fructose.
Maltose +maltase = glucose and glucose.
Lactose + lactase = glucose and galactose.
The processes of absorption and assimilation as glucose,
fructose, and galactose go on with but little tax on the
digestive organs.
The polysaccharides are taken through a much more
complicated process of digestion, but finally reach the same
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR 15
end and serve the same purpose in the general scheme of
nutrition. The digestion of starch probably continues for a
time in the stomach, or until the reaction of the contents
has become acid, and then ceases until the small intestine
is reached. Here is found another enzyme, secreted by the
pancreas and known as amylopsin, which completes the
change of all starch not already taken care of by the ptyalin
in the mouth to maltose, a double sugar.
29. Commercial Sugar. — The commercial forms in which
sugar may be obtained are more or less familiar to all. Cut
sugar is undoubtedly the purest form in which cane sugar
may be purchased. Granulated sugar is the most desirable
for general use. There is very little difference chemically
between sugar made from sugar cane and that made from
the sugar beet, but many housewives prefer the cane sugar
for cake and candy making.
30. Molasses. — Molasses is the liquid left after the sugar
crystals are removed in the manufacture of sugar. It
contains a considerable quantity of sucrose and many of
the other constituents of the sugar cane juice.
The adoption of modern methods in the making of sugar
has had a tendency to increase the amount of sucrose
removed by crystallization and to decrease the amount of
molasses remaining, as well as to lower its sugar content.
The molasses of the present time is inferior in sweetening
power and in other characteristics to that formerly produced.
31. Maple Sugar and Syrup. — By evaporating the sap
of the sugar maple until more than half of the water has
been removed and the product is of proper consistency,
maple sugar and maple syrup are obtained. Maple syrup
is highly prized for table use. The unadulterated article is
expensive and difficult to obtain. It is not uncommon to
find maple syrup adulterated with a solution of refined cane
sugar, since the latter is less expensive than the pure maple
sugar.
32. Honey. — Pure honey consists of a mixture of cane,
16 FOOD
grape, and fruit sugars, collected from the flowers and
modified by the bees.
In addition to sugar and water, honey contains a very
slight amount of protein, 1 per cent of mineral matter,
and certain volatile oils to which are due the pecuUar odor
and flavor. The differences in color and flavor are attrib-
uted to the characteristic nectars in the different flowers
upon which the bees feed. Clover honey is considered
far superior to the dark colored and strong flavored article
commonly supposed to be made from buckwheat blossoms.
Honey, as has been stated, contains more fructose
than glucose and is therefore more readily absorbed into the
blood stream than cane sugar. It is also less liable to cause
digestive disturbances due to fermentation. One cup of
honey is equal to one cup of cane sugar in sweetening power
and may be used in place of sugar. Honey is also a sub-
stitute for molasses and may be used in any way that
molasses is used. It must be remembered, however, in
using honey that the acidity of honey is about one half
that of molasses and only one-fourth teaspoonful of soda
is required to one cupful of honey to neutralize the acid.
Like maple syrup, strained honey is easily adulterated with
sugar syrups.
33. Effects of Cooking Sugar. — The boiling of cane sugar
and water together, called the hydrolysis of sugar, changes
it into equal parts of glucose and fructose.
Cane sugar, when cooked for a long time with acid
fruits, is converted into grape sugar or glucose and thereby
loses about one third of its sweetening power. This is the
reason why the sugar should be added to jams, jeUies, and
sauces made from acid fruits when the cooking process is
nearly completed.
Cane sugar cooked alone is changed first to barley
sugar, then to caramel, and finally to carbon. When the
sugar is melted and changed to a light brown color, it has
made the first change and is known as barley sugar. As the
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR 17
melted sugar is heated to a temperature of 350° F. this brown
hquid is converted into a non-crystalUzable fluid having a
sUghtly bitter but pleasant taste, which indicates that it
has reached the caramel stage. This caramel is used as a
flavoring substance for creams and sauces and to give color
to soup stock. Because of its mildness caramel is frequently
recommended as a desirable flavoring in invalid cookery.
Carbon, which is the next step after cararrxel, is the final
stage in the cooking of sugar. It is the burned product.
Table II will be found a valuable aid in the preparation of
icings and caramel and in candy making when a chemical
thermometer is used.
TABLE II
Stages in Cooking Sugar
Small thread '. 215° F.
Large thread 217" F.
Pearl 220° F.
Blow.... 230° F.
Feather 232° F.
Softball 238° F.
Hardball 248° F.
Crack 310° F.
Caramel 350° F.
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. — Compare cane sugar and glucose as to: (a) struc-
ture; (6) solubility; (c) taste.
Experiment 2. — Test different kinds of sugar with FehUng's solu-
tion and state the results of your tests.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter
make:
Cake icing. Use this on Marguerites.
Candy, and compare the cost of home-made with factory candy.
Caramel sauce.
CHAPTER IV
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH
34. Composition. — Starch, which is made up of the three
elements carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, is the most important
of that class of carbohydrates known as the polysaccharides.
Not only is it important as a food substance, but from it
is made dextrin or British gum, <;ommercial glucose, and
other products. \
35. Source and Structure. — Starch is formed in all
plants. It is the form in which the plant stores its food
for future consumption and is confined
in tiny sacs or cells. The seeds, roots,
tubers, and bulbs are the storage points.
If examined under the microscope, the
starch is seen to be in the form of
minute granules or grains which differ
in size and shape according to the
source from which they come. The
grains in potato starch. Fig. 2, are
relatively large, being 3^^ of an inch
in diameter and shaped like a kidney
bean. The grains of wheat starch are small, totTo of an
inch in diameter. The walls of the cells are composed of
cellulose. Starch is obtained commercially from corn,
potatoes, and wheat. Glucose, as has been stated, is pro-
duced from starch by subjecting it to the action of acids.
Dextrin and maltose are intermediate products of this
action.
36. Food Value. — Starch from different sources forms
18
Fig. 2. — Grains of
potato starch.
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH 19
a large part of our diet, and because it can be manufactured
by the plant from carbon dioxide and water, it is an inex-
pensive product.
As the starch in its natural state is not soluble and there-
fore cannot be made available to the body, it must be
changed chemically during the process of digestion. This
change is brought about by the action of certain enzymes
found in the mouth, pancreatic, and intestinal juices. The
effect of their action is to change the starch first into dex-
trin, then into maltose and finally into glucose, in which
latter form it is absorbed into the blood stream. The ease
with which these changes are affected depends greatly
upon the source from which the starch comes; potato
starch is supposed to be acted upon much more readily
than starch from cecals. Rice starch is comparatively
easy of digestion, though this ease may possibly be attrib-
uted to the small amount of cellulose present.
37. Functions of Starch in the Body.::— While the chief
function of starch in the body is to yield energy, this is by
no means its only function. Starch plays a most important
part in the construction of body tissue, appearing as it
does in small quantities in the nucleo-protein of all proto-
plasmic tissue.
Starch also acts as a body regulator. Owing to its
high oxygen content and the ease with which this oxygen
may be liberated, it furnishes an excellent method of con-
veying this element to the various tissues. Starch, because
of its non-stimulating and colloidal nature, protects the
delicate walls of the intestines from the action of the more
irritating crystalloids or sugars.
The body shows a decided preference for starch as a
source of energy, and the over consumption of this sub-
stance is not attended by the harmful results which follow
over indulgence in other foodstuffs. When more starch
is eaten than the body requires, it is stored as glycogen
and later as fatty tissue, or when not stored, it is completely
20 FOOD
oxidized to carbon dioxide and water and eliminated through
the lungs a^id kidneys.
. 38. Test for Starch. — The presence of starch in a sub-
/ stance may be detected by the use of iodine which, when
/ added to a solution of starchy gives a blue reaction.
V 39. The Cooking of Starch. — Although there is at present
some question as to the desirability of the high temperature
and the long cooking popularly supposed to be a necessary
preliminary to the proper digestion of starch, the superior
/ flavor of thoroughly cooked starch over that of the under-
( cooked offers a strong plea for long cooking.
Starch will not dissolve in cold water unless modified
/ chemically; neither does cold water affect the starch granule.
Hot water at first merely causes the starch grains to
/ swell, thereby stretching the cellulose covering until so thin
/ that the water will pass through. Prolonged action of
I boiling water brings about chemical changes which result
in a soluble substance.
Owing to its physical properties, starch can be used as a
thickening substance, and for this purpose, it comes in the
form of a white, glistening powder. When so used, it should
be mixed with a cold liquid, with sugar, or with fat before
adding it to a hot liquid. These substances separate the
j starch grains so that the hot liquid reaches all the grains
j at the same time, causing them to swell uniformly and
Y produce a smooth, gelatinous mass free from lumps.
40. Cellulose. — Cellulose is classed with starch as a
carbohydrate, and is the substance which forms the cell
walls in all plants as well as the frame work of the plant.
The amount of cellulose present varies in different parts
of the plant and at different stages of the plant's growth.
It is more abundant in old than in young plants. The
increased difficulty of digesting vegetable foods as compared
to animal food is attributed to the presence of cellulose
which, by enclosing the nutrients in its fibrous envelope,
prevents the free access of the digestive juices.
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH 21
41. Digestion and Food Value of Cellulose. — While some
animals can digest cellulose, the human digestive tract is
furnished with no enzyme for this purpose. The cellulose
from young plants is sometimes digested in the human
organism, but this is brought about by the action of intes-
tinal bacteria, the result being probably the formation
of sugar that may yield energy.
Cellulose cannot be regarded as having much food value,
but it does fulfill a mission in giving a certain amount of.
bulk to the food and acting as a stimulant to peristaltic
action. The virtue attributed to the cellulose present in
certain whole grains is now questioned, and the theory is
advanced that the stimulating properties of the grains may
be due to the salts found in the grain covering rather than
to the covering itself.
42. Dextrin. — Dextrin is made from starch which has
been subjected to a high degree of dry heat, 2C0° C,
and also by heating starch with dilute acid. It is soluble
in water and is more digestible than starch, having taken
one step towards the formation of sugar. This fact accounts
for the increased digestibility of the crust of bread, over the
crumb, and of crisp toast over plain bread.
43. Glycogen. — Glycogen, sometimes called ''animal
starch," is the form of starch found stored in the liver and
muscles of the body. After meals, when there is a specified
amount of glucose in the blood of the portal vein and
sufficient oxygen is present, the liver changes glucose (sugar)
into glycogen and holds it until called for by the tissues.
Later on, however, the liver changes some of this glycogen
back into sugar in order to provide oxygen for its own
respiration.
44. Less Familiar Forms of Starch. — (1) Tapioca is
derived from a plant of the cassava variety belonging to
the milk weed family. These plants are poisonous owing
to the natural development in them of prussic acid. This,
however, is a volatile substance, and when the cassava
22 FOOD
root is heated or boiled or even subjected to the direct
rays of the sun for a few hours, most of the poisonous ma-
terial disappears.
The tapioca is prepared by grinding the root of the plant,
then washing it in water and, while the starch is still satu-
rated with moisture, subjecting it to a low degree of heat
which is gradually increased until the starch grains are
disintegrated into a firm, gelatinous mass. The heat is
then continued at a suitable temperature until all the
moisture is evaporated. To this process is due the ease
with which tapioca is cooked and digested.
(2) Sago or Palm Starch is made from the pith of the
sago palm. It closely resembles tapioca.
(3) Arrowroot is so named from the fact that the natives
in the countries where it grows use the bruised rhizomes
of the plant as a poultice for poisoned arrow wounds. The
starch from arrowroot has greater thickening properties
than starch from other sources.
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. Potato Starch. — Grate a raw potato into a piece
of cheese-cloth, squeeze out all water and wash the contents of the cloth
thoroughly in cold water. Allow the water to clear, pour off the
clear Uquid, and dry the residue at a temperature of 70° C. in a water
bath. Test a small portion of the residue with iodine. Use one
teaspoonful or this starch to thicken J cup of liquid. Use one tea-
spoonful of corn starch to thicken j cup of liquid. Compare the thick-
ening properties of potato starch and corn starch. Dry the fibrous
substance left in the cloth to show the cellulose.
Experiment 2. Effect of Boiling Water on Dry Starch. — Pour
boiling water on dry starch and observe the effect. Break open and
examine the lumps formed.
Experiment 3. Effect of Boiling Water and Stirring upon Starch. —
(a) Mix two tablespoonfuls of starch with two tablespoonfuls of cold
water. Add I cup of boiling water, stirring constantly. Note the
effect.
(6) Proceed as above, using one tablespoonful of sugar in place
of cold water. Add boiling water. Note the effect.
(c) Proceed as in (a), using two tablespoonfuls of fat in place of
cold water. Add boiling water. Note the effect.
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH 23
E3q)eriment 4. Effect of Acid on Starch. — (a) Add lemon juice
to a starch solution and continue cooking. Observe the effect and
explain. Divide the result in two portions.
(b) Test result of (a) with iodine.
(c) Test result of (a) with Fehling's solution.
Explain.
Experiment 5. Experiment Showing Starch Digestion. — Collect
and filter a small amount of saliva. Add it to starch paste in a test
tube. Keep the tube in a water bath not above 98° F. for fifteen
minutes.
Test one-half the amount with iodine.
Test one-half the amount with Fehling's solution.
Explain the results of the tests.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Make a mould of corn starch pudding.
Make a cup of medium white sauce.
CHAPTER V
CEREAL FOODS
45. Cereals. — The cereals, so named, from Ceres, god-
dess of grain and the harvest, include the grains or cultivated
grasses whose seeds are used for food. The cereals most
Used in the various preparations known as breakfast foods
are wheat, oats, and Indian corn or maize.
Rice, rye, barley and buckwheat belong to the cereals,
but they are not commonly made into mush or porridge
to be served as a breakfast dish.
46. Wheat. — Wheat is the typical bread-making grain,
although innumerable preparations of wheat in the form
of breakfast foods are to be found on the market. Of these
Farina, Wheatena, and Cream of Wheat, in which the wheat
kernels are finely ground, are very generally used. Cracked
Wheat, Pettijohn, Shredded Wheat, and Puffed Wheats are all
well-known preparations.
47. Oats. — From Table III, in which is given the com-
position of cereals, it will be seen that oats are rich in pro-
tein, fat, and mineral matter. They contain also a good
percentage of carbohydrate. Oats are probably the most
nutritious of all the cereals
In the preparation of whole oats, or Scotch oats, the
grains are first scoured and the husk removed. For the
rolled oat products, the form in which oats are most com-
monly used as breakfast food, the grains are rolled instead
of being crushed or ground, that is, they are subjected to
great pressure which breaks down the cellulose and flattens
the grains so that they are easily softened by the cooking
process. By the application of heat during the rolling
24
CEREAL FOODS
25
RICE RYE BARLEY
Fig. 3. — Heads of the common grains.
26 FOOD
process, the grains are partially cooked, though not to the
extent claimed upon most packages.
This application of heat is also said to act upon the fats
present in such a manner as to preserve their natural flavor
and to prevent them from becoming rancid when they
stand.
48. Indian Corn or Maize. — Corn is a native American
plant, and is important as a crop in this country because
of its value as food for man and for fattening animals.
Corn is used for food chiefly in the form of meal, from
which mush and many varieties of hot breads are made.
Meal is the name given to the product made by grinding a
whole grain without separating or bolting to remove the
outside or bran coats. Yellow corn meal and white corn
meal have practically the same food value, and may be used
interchangeably in preparing corn dishes.
Hominy, samp, and hulled corn, are other preparations
of corn in which the kernels are broken to varying degrees
of fineness. Hominy is popular as a breakfast food, while
samp and hulled corn are gaining in favor as a dinner dish
in place of potatoes or other starchy foods.
Commercial starch and corn syrup, or commercial glu-
cose, are made from corn.
49. Rice. — While rice is the poorest of all the cereals in
protein and fat content, it has the highest percentage of
starch. This starch is found in small and easily digested
granules, which give to rice a special dietetic value in cer-
tain diseases. Rice is eaten whole with cream or milk or
in soups. The polishing of rice, by which a part of the
outer coat is removed, improves its appearance and increases
its selling quality, but decreases its nutritive value. About
one-half of the mineral matter, which is chiefly in the form
of phosphates, is lost in the polishing process. This mineral
matter is of great importance in the maintenance of health.
People are coming to realize this fact and to demand of
the dealers the brown or unpolished rice.
CEREAL FOODS
27
Fig. 4. — Corn.
(From McCall's "'"Studies of Crops.")
28
FOOD
50. Buckwheat. — Although buckwheat is not a cereal
in the sense of belonging to the grasses, it is sometimes
grouped with the cereals as a matter of convenience. From
this grain is made the flour which is used for buckwheat
cakes. It also forms a poultry food highly prized by poultry-
men, as it is popularly thought to increase the laying capacity
of the hens.
51. Barley. — The chief characteristic of barley is its
richness in mineral matter. Barley is sold as pearl barley,
which is the whole kernel after the hull has been removed
by machinery, and in the form of a meal used in preparing
barley water and barley gruel. The meal is also mixed with
other meals in the making of a black bread extensively
used in some countries.
In this country barley is used largely in the production
of malt.
52. Rye. — Because of the amount and quality of the
gluten it contains, rye flour can be made into bread. This
is practically the only use made of this grain in the United
States.
It should be noted that, of all grains, wheat and rye
are the only ones that contain gluten in the proper pro-
portion to make bread of a hght and porous texture.
TABLE III.— PERCENTAGE OF FOODSTUFFS IN DIFFERENT
CEREALS
Cereal.
Wheat
Rye
Rice (polished)..
Rice (in husks). .
Oats
Maize
Barley
Buckwheat
Protein.
Carbo-
hydrate.
Fat.
Mineral
Matter.
Water.
11.0
71.2
1.7
1.9
12.0
10.2
72.3
2.3
2.1
11.0
6.9
79.4
0.4
.5
12.4
6.8
68.1
1.6
4.0
10.5
13.0
68.6
8.1
2.1
6.9
9.7
68.9
5.4
1.5
12.5
10.1
69.5
1.9
2.4
12.3
10.2
64.3
2.2
2.2
13.0
Cellu-
lose.
2.2
2.1
.4
9.0
1.3
2.0
[1.8
Ll.l
CEREAL FOODS 29
53. Digestibility of Cereals. — The digestibility of all
cereal products depends largely upon the thoroughness
with which they are cooked. It is desirable that the cell
walls of the starch grains be softened and ruptured by
thorough cooking to prepare them for the action of the
digestive fluids. It has been demonstrated that cooked
starch is more easily and quickly changed to maltose than
raw starch.
As a group, the nutrients of the cereals are readily
absorbed and assimilated. Cereals rank next to the animal
foods in this respect. The cellulose, which is not itself
digested, furnishes bulk to the food to excite the peristaltic
motion of the stomach and hasten the digestive process.
Thorough mastication is essential with starchy foods,
since it not only divides the food into smaller particles but
also insures a thorough mixing with the saliva, thus making
possible the action of the ptyalin on the starch.
Fruits eaten with cereals are valuable aids to digestion,
as the added flavor and increased attractiveness of the
dish stimulates the glands to an increased flow of digestive
juices.
Numerous uncooked cereal preparations are offered for
sale. These have the advantage of being ready for immedi-
ate use, thereby saving time, labor, and fuel, but undoubtedly
have a questionable nutritive value, as compared with the
cooked whole grains.
54. The Use of Sealed Packages. — Package cereal foods,
although more expensive than the same weight sold in
bulk, are usually to be preferred on account of the possibility
of greater cleanliness which they offer. The packages are
sealed to protect the contents from dust, dirt and germs,
and the additional few cents per pound in cost is a wise
expenditure of money. So much stress has been placed
upon this precaution of recent years that it is now almost
impossible to obtain cereals in bulk.
55. Cooking Cereals. — The chief purposes in cooking
30 FOOD
cereals are to sterilize them, to improve their flavor and
appearance, and to make them more digestible by breaking
down the cell walls, thus enabling the digestive juices to
reach the nutrients.
Since it has been found that starch grains are not
ruptured by heat below that of the boiling-point of water,
it is important that the first part of the cooking process
should take place at that temperature. This may be accom-
plished by placing the vessel containing the cereal directly
over the fire for the first five or ten minutes, after which
the cereal may be allowed to steam until completely cooked.
The time required for cooking varies with the kind of grain
and the method of preparation. In general, the finely
ground or rolled products require less time than the whole
grains.
The theory that long exposure to a high temperature
is harmful to the growth-producing element found in the
whole grain should be considered, and excessive heating
should be guarded against.
Before cereals are ready for eating, a sufficient amount
of water must be added to swell the starch grains and form
a mixture of the proper consistency. As a rule the coarse-
rolled grains require twice as much liquid as there is cereal,
and the finely ground wheat or corn products about four
times as much.
Table IV shows the proportions of cereal and water, and
time of cooking for the different cereal foods.
56. Fruits and other Accompaniments to Cereals. —
Since the cereal foods are largely carbohydrate, the addi-
tion of fruits, fresh or stewed, increases their nutritive
value by adding mineral salts and other nutrients, as well
as their palatability by supplying flavor and variety. Dates,
figs, or raisins, moulded with the cereal and served with
cream, make a pleasing and satisfying luncheon dish for
children. Fresh fruits, such as berries, bananas, and ripe
peaches, are a suitable addition to the uncooked and to
CEREAL FOODS
31
TABLE IV.— PROPORTIONS AND TIME OF COOKING FOR
THE COMMON CEREALS
Kind.
Amt. Cereal,
Cups.
Water,
Cups.
Time,
Hours.
Rolled oats
H.O
Quaker oats ....
Whole oats
Petti John
Whole wheat. . . .
Cream of vvhecit.
Wheatena
Corn meal
Hominy
Rice (steamed) . .
Rice (boiled). . . .
Barley (steamed)
4
6-8
2
1
4
6-8
4
1
31
3
4
1
21
2
8-12
20min
3
2
many of the cooked cereals. The acid and mineral substances
which they contain are desirable adjuncts to starchy
foods.
Starch, as has been stated, is converted into sugar in the
digestive process, therefore sugar is an unnecessary addition
to breakfast foods except to give flavor. If used at all, it
should be used sparingly. Milk and cream, however, sup-
ply the protein and the fat in which cereals are more or less
deficient, and in addition furnish the growth-stimulating
principles or vitamines which milk and cream are known
to contain.
57. Macaroni, Spaghetti and Noodles. — Macaroni, spa-\
ghetti and kindred substances are made from a hard, spring |
wheat flour which is rich in gluten. Because of the gluten,
a substance is produced which can be drawn or moulded
into various different forms such as tubes, shreds, letters,
etc. Water is added to the flour to make a paste of the
proper consistency, which, when formed as desired, is
thoroughly dried. All of these products absorb about three
32 FOOD
times their weight of water in cooking and increase in bulk
to a corresponding degree.
Domestic macaroni and similar products manufactured
in factories in this country are to be preferred to the home-
made products of uncertain cleanliness. Good macaroni
may be judged by its deep cream color and rough texture.
The best macaroni breaks without spUtting and keeps its
shape after cooking.
By the addition of cheese or various other sauces to
macaroni or spaghetti, a simple and satisfying meat sub-
stitute may be made.
Noodles, made from flour, salt, and egg, in a variety of
forms, are added to soup stock to make noodle soup or
may be served in place of a vegetable with the meat
course.
58. Use of the Double Boiler. — A double boiler, or its
equivalent, a small sauce pan placed in a larger pan of water,
is commonly used in cooking cereals. When the cereal
has been started in the inner boiler directly over the fire,
the parts of the boiler are placed together and the cooking
completed by the dry-steaming method. The double boiler
does away with the necessity for stirring and watching to
keep the food from burning. The only care required is to
keep the lower part of the boiler or the larger saucepan
one-third, or thereabouts, full of water. The food in the
inner boiler never reaches the boiling-point, therefore a
much longer time is required for thorough cooking.
59. The Fireless Cooker. — In Fig. 5, are shown the
essential parts of a fireless cooker. The food to be cooked
is first placed in one of the covered metal containers and
heated over the fire to the boiling-point or cooked for a
given time as indicated in Table V. The container with
its contents is then placed in the food chamber, which is
surrounded by a good insulator to retain the heat and
utilize it for cooking the food. All commercial fireless
cookers are equipped with one or more hot plates or radiators
CEREAL FOODS
33
for use in baking and in maintaining a cooking temperature
for a longer period of time. These plates are first heated
over the fire and then placed in the cooking chamber under-
neath or above the food container. The racks upon which
these plates rest, when the cooker is used for baking pur-
poses, surround the space occupied by the bread or cake.
Fig. 5. — A commercial fireless cooker.
The principle upon which the fireless cooker is based
may be applied to the keeping of iced or frozen mixtures
at a low temperature. In this case the heat-insulating
material surrounding the food chamber prevents the entrance
of heat from without, and thus maintains the low tempera-
ture of the food. If the cooker is well insulated, a food
34
FOOD
may be cooking in one compartment while a mixture is
kept chilled in another compartment of the same cooker.
60. Selection and Care of Fireless Cookers. — In choos-
ing a fireless cooker the attention should be directed to the
durability of the different parts. The outside case or box
may be of finished hard wood or metal, preferably of metal
because it is easier to keep clean. The lining of this box
should be of a durable material and at the same time one
that will clean easily. The food chamber should have a
seamless metal lining to prevent the collection of germs.
The food containers should also be free from seams or
corners where particles of food might find a hiding place.
Each food container should be fitted with a tight cover
held in place by fasteners. The hot plates are best when
made of soapstone, which heats slowly but retains the heat
for a long time. The racks should be firm and strong enough
to bear the weight of the hot plates.
Various non-metal substances, such as asbestos, excelsior,
or paper, are used for insulating the different cookers. The
more perfect the insulation the better the results. A
vacuum, the insulator employed in the construction of some
of the more expensive cookers, is the most effective means
of maintaining a constant temperature.
61. A Home-made Fireless Cooker.
— An improvised cooker that will serve
the designed purpose in a satisfactory
manner may be constructed at a very
slight cost. Such a one is shown in
Fig. 6. A box, lard pail, candy pail, or
other container having a tightly fitting
cover; an agate, tin, or aluminum cook-
ing utensil, also having a close fitting
cover; and asbestos, hay, cork, paper,
or excelsior for packing purposes, are
the essential things.
To make the cooker select a box or other container of
Fig. 6. — A home-made
fireless cooker.
CEREAL FOODS 35
suitable size, having the required tight cover, and line
it throughout with asbestos or paper. Choose an inner
food container, having a tight cover, of suitable size to allow
for a three-inch space between it and the outer box or pail,
and cover with asbestos or stout paper. Pack the bottom
of the box three or more inches deep with one of the above-
mentioned insulating materials. Put the covered container
in place on the bottom pad and pack the space around it
with more of the insulating material, filling the space within
three inches of the top of the box.
Make a pad of muslin filled with the insulating material,
that will exactly fit and fill the box. Close the fitted cover
tightly when in use. The insulating packing material
should be changed frequently to keep the cooker clean and
free from odors.
62. The Use of the Fireless Cooker. — Cereals are
probably the food suited above all others to cooking in the
fireless cooker. Dried beans, peas and lentils, which have
a high starch content linked with protein and require long
cooking, are palatably and economically prepared in the
fireless cooker.
Tough cuts of meat, such as are used in preparing soup
stock and stews, and especially tough fowls are successfully
cooked in a fireless cooker. Corned beef, hams, tongues,
and other cured or salted meats shrink less when cooked in
this way. In fact the cooker is admirably suited to all foods
requiring a long, slow cooking to make them palatable and
digestible.
It is, however, of extreme importance that the foods thus
cooked be reheated before serving, to remove any gases
that may have been formed in the slow-cooking process.
The fireless cooker is recommended highly for use in
canning small fruits such as cherries and all kinds of
berries. The bright color is preserved and the appearance
of the canned goods much improved by this method of
canning.
36
FOOD
A more extended use of the fireless cooker is recom-
mended for housekeepers who are obHged to be away
from home the greater part' of the day. The saving in
both time and fuel will overbalance the initial cost of the
cooker.
TABLE 5.— TABLE FOR COOKING SOME COMMON FOODS
IN THE FIRELESS COOKER. (Mitchell)
Food.
Amount.
Amount
of Water,
Amount
of Salt.
Time on
Stove in
Minutes.
Time in
Cooker in
Hours.
Rolled oats
Corn meal mush.
Hominy. . :
Rice
Soup stock .
Stew.
Corned beef .
Tongue ,
Ham.
Ic.
Ic.
1 c.
Ic.
2 lbs.
meat
lib.
meat
8 lbs.
Dried beans, peas, or
lentils
Ic.
2| c.
4|c.
5 c.
2ic.
2 qts.
2ic.
Water
to
cover
Water
to
cover
Water
to cover
3 qts.
1 tsp.
1 tsp.
U tsp.
1 tsp.
1 tbs.
1 tsp.
To taste
5
5
10
Bring to
boiling
point.
10
simmer-
ing
o
simmer-
ing
Simmer,
30-40
Simmer
20-30
Simmer
20-30
Boiling-
point
2-12
5-10
10-12
1
9-12
4-6
10-12
10-12
7-10
8-10
63. The Thermos Bottle. — The various styles of thermos
or vacuum bottles now in use depend upon the vacuum
surrounding the inner bottle to act as insulator to maintain
the temperature of the contents of the bottle. This is an
application of the same principle as that upon which the
fireless cooker is based.
CEREAL FOODS
37
In Fig. 7, is shown a thermos bottle closed, and in
Fig. 8, the construction of the same. The glass vessel
in Fig. 8 is double , walled with a vacuum or insulating
space between. This glass vessel is set upon a spring in
the outer container which prevents breakage in handling.
The material of the outer container may be of tin, agate,
Courtesy of Landers, Frary & Clark.
Fig. 7. — Thermos bottle
closed.
Courtesy of Landers, Frary & Clark.
Fig. 8. — Vacuum bottle showing the
various parts.
1 Vacuum vessel or glass filler;
2 The spring steel shock absorber;
3 Nickel-plated brass case in which glass filler
is placed, resting on shock absorber;
4 Nickel-plated shoulder which screws to case,
holds filler in place;
6 Gasket which fits to neck of bottle so that no
liquid can enter case;
6 Cork stopper;
7 Nickel-plated cap or drinking cup which screws
to base.
glass, nickel, silver, etc., depending upon the price and the
use.
The convenience, comfort and value of the thermos
bottle for the school lunch box, the laborer's lunch box,
picnic parties, and long motor trips cannot be overestimated.
The range of prices brings some kind of a vacuum bottle
within the reach of all.
38
FOOD
64. The Pressure Cooker. — A steam pressure cooker,
Fig. 9, made of solid aluminum and equipped with a steam
gauge .which registers the
amount of steam pressure
used, is to be had in sizes
suitable for family use. Cook-
ing food under steam press-
ure in the home is a com-
paratively new idea and one
that is not yet in general use.
The points which recommend
the pressure cooker to the
housekeeper are the saving
in time, labor and fuel.
Foods will cook in one-half
or less time than in the ordi-
nary cooking utensils. The
pressure cooker is highly
recommended for use in can-
ning fruits and vegetables
because it shortens the period
Fig. 9. — Pressure cooker.
(Fanners' Bulletin 839, U. S. Dept. ^f sterilization.
The high price of the
pressure cooker as now made places it beyond the reach of
the average household, although it is claimed that by the
saving in fuel alone it will pay for itself in a short time.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In ronnection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Cook oatmeal in a fireless cooker.
Cook rolled oats as an example of coarse cereals.
Cook farina as an example of fine cereals.
Boil and steam rice.
Cook macaroni or spaghetti and serve with white sauce.
CHAPTER VI
FLOUR MIXTURES
65. Definition. — Flour mixtures are such mixtures as
contain flour as the chief ingredient. The essentials in
flour mixtures are flour, liquid, salt, and some kind of a
leavening agent. The additions, or non-essentials, are the
ingredients added to produce an agreeable taste, to improve
the texture, or to introduce a larger proportion of nutrients.
These are seasoning, shortening, fruit, nuts, and flavorings.
66. Leavening Agents. — To leaven means " to make
light." It is necessary to introduce some kind of a leaven-
ing substance into a flour mixture to render the mixture
light, porous, and digestible. A leavening agent as used in
cookery is a substance which contains a gas, or which has
the power to produce a gas. The expansion of this gas
during the process of baking causes the mixture to rise.
The leavens are air, steam, and gas, produced by the
action of some kind of a leavening agent incorporated in the
mixture.
Air is the simplest of the leavens. By beating, folding
or rolling a mixture, a sufficient volume of air is often intro-
duced to cause the mixture to rise satisfactorily. Examples
of such mixtures are sponge cake, pie crust, and beaten
biscuit.
The steam produced from the liquid added to a mixture,
together with the air incorporated by beating or other
manipulation, forms the leaven in such mixtures as pop-over
batter.
Gas produced by chemical agents introduced into the
mixture for this purpose, such as baking powder and bicar-
bonate of soda, is the ordinary leavening agent made use
39
40 FOOD
of when time cannot be allowed for the longer process of
fermentation. Examples are quick bread and cake mixtures.
A second way in which gas for leavening may be pro-
duced within the mixture is by the use of yeast. The yeast
causes alcoholic fermentation of the sugar present, setting
free the gas, carbon dioxide (CO2). This is the purpose of
the yeast used in bread making.
67. Baking Powders. — Three different kinds of baking
powder are in general use. All of thes. contain bicarbonate
of soda as a source of carbon dioxide (CO2) and require an
acid reagent capable of liberating this gas.
Tartrate powders are those in which tartaric acid or
its salt, cream of tartar, is employed as this acid reagent.
Phosphate powders are those made with calcium or
sodium phosphate as the acid reagent. Crystallized mono-
sodium phosphate as produced by a recently demonstrated
chemical process is the phosphate used in the best of this
class of powders.
Alum powders are those in which the ammonium and
sodium alums are used to release the gas.
In addition to the above chemicals a small amount,
about 20 per cent, of corn starch or some other substance is
used to prevent the gathering of moisture which will cause
deterioration of the powder.
There is also in each case a small amount of residue
or by-product resulting from the action of the ingredients
in the powder. It is a question whether this by-product is,
in any case, as harmful as was formerly believed. Dis-
cussions of the relative merits of the different powders
savor so much of commercialism that it is hard to find
unprejudiced information on this point. It is safe to say
that in the small amounts in which baking powders are
ordinarily used, the deleterious effects from the by-products
are negligible.
68. Analysis of a Cream of Tartar Baking Powder. —
Cream of tartar baking powder is composed of two parts
FLOUR MIXTURES 41
by weight of acid potassium tartrate, or cream of tartar,
to one part of bicarbonate of soda, with an addition of
twenty per cent of starch as a filler. When this compound
comes in contact with the liquor in a batter or a dough,
the two soluble ingredients gradually dissolve. In solution
a chemical change takes place and new compounds, carbon
dioxide and sodium-potassium tartrate, commonly known
as Rochelle Salts, are formed, as is shown by the following
reactions:
Acid potassium tartrate. Bicarbonate soda. Sodium-potassium tartrate.
HKC4H4O6 + NaHCOs = NaKC4H406+C02+H20
69. Source of Cream of Tartar. — Cream of tartar,
together with other salts and some coloring matter, is
found as a deposit in the form of crystals called argols on
the sides of wine vats. These argols are melted and filtered
through bone black to remove the color and other impurities.
The resulting liquid is then recrystallized as pure cream
of tartar. These crystals are ground to an extremely fine
powder before combining with soda to form baking powder.
70. Source of Bicarbonate of Soda. — Although there
are other ways of making bicarbonate of soda or baking
soda, the ammonia or Solvay process, with reactions as shown
below, is still used. Equation (1) shows the chief reaction,
while equation (2) shows the recovery of the ammonia,
which is the key to the commercial success of this process.
(1) NaCH-NH4+H20+C02 = NH4CH-NaHC03.
(2) 2NH4C14-Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2+H204-2NH4.
71. Action of Soda with Sour Milk, Molasses and
Chocolate. — Sour milk contains an acid (lactic) which acts
chemically upon bicarbonate of soda, setting free the CO2.
Sour milk and soda may be substituted for sweet milk and
baking powder in making many of the quick breads and
cakes. The chief difficulty for the beginner is to determine
the degree of acidity of the milk and to know how much
42 FOOD
soda "is required. Ordinarily one-half teaspoonful of soda
will be sufficient for one cup of sour milk or buttermilk.
In using molasses the free acid present will be neutralized
by the addition of one-half teaspoonful of soda for each
cupful of molasses.
Soda has the power to darken the chocolate in a mixture
and to neutralize the free fatty acids present in the chocolate
and release the gas.
72. Home-made Baking Powder. — Many housekeepers
prefer to use cream of tartar and baking soda as a substitute
for baking powder. When so used, a scant teaspoonful
of soda mixed with two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar is
an equivalent for three teaspoonfuls of baking powder.
It is best to prepare a small quantity of the mixture in the
proper proportion and have it ready for use as required.
The materials should be weighed accurately and mixed
thoroughly by sifting several times after combining. This
mixture should be kept tightly covered in a glass jar.
73. Classification of Flour Mixtures. — According to kind:
. . , f Hot or quick breads
^ ^ \ Yeast breads
r Pies
(3) Pastry Tarts
i Patties
According to thickness:
Pour
(1) Batters | ^^^^
Soft
(2) Doughs I g^.^
A hatter is a mixture of some starchy substance, as
flour or meal, and a liquid, in proportions to form a com-
bination that can be beaten with a spoon.
FLOUR MIXTURES
43
I I
\^
%.
Courtesy oj Royal Baking Powdtr Co.
Fig. 10.— Waffles.
Courtesy of Royal Baking Powder Co,
Fig. 11.— Muffins.
44 FOOD
A dough is a flour mixture stiff enpugh to be kneaded on
a board.
Pour-batter is the thinnest of the flour mixtures, and
contains about an equal amount of flour and liquid. A
definite proportion cannot always be maintained, since there
is a variation in the thickening power of the different flours,
as well as in the wetting capacity of the different liquid
ingredients. Griddle cake mixture and pop-over batter
are excellent examples of this class of flour mixtures.
Drop-hatter is a mixture containing approximately two
parts of flour to one part of liquid. A good example is
muffin batter. In this case as in the case of the pour-
batters, the proportion of the essential ingredients will
depend upon the kind of flour used and upon the properties
of the other ingredients.
Soft-dough contains from two and one-half to three
parts of flour to one part of liquid. Biscuit dough is typical
of this class.
7 Stiff-dou^h has the proportion of flour and liquid of
four to one. Pie crust is the best example of this class of
doughs.
^ 74. Hot or Quick Breads. — As the name indicates, hot
or quick breads are prepared in a much shorter time than
that necessarily taken for yeast breads which are discussed
in the succeeding chapter. Some chemical means of pro-
ducing CO2 is depended upon to give the necessary lightness
to this class of breads.
75. Cakes. — The cake mixtures are divided into two
classes, sponge and butter. The first class comprises all
varieties of cake batter not containing shortening of any
kind and depending upon air for leavening. The second
class includes all forms of cake batter which contain butter
or other fats and depend upon the gas released from soda,
as in baking powder, or the use of baking soda and some
acid substance, for leavening.
76. Sponge Cake. — This is the simplest of the cake
FLOUR MIXTURES
45
Courtesy oj Royal Baking Powder Co.
Fig. 12. — Cinnamon Buns.
Courtesy of Royal Baking Powder Co.
Fig. 13.— Corn Cake.
46
FOOD
mixtures in respect to the number of ingredients, but it
is the most difficult to make successfully. Since air is
depended upon for leavening, it is most essential that the
means of combining the few ingredients be the one that
will imprison the greatest amount of air. The white of
egg will hold more air than the yolk, therefore the parts of
the egg are beaten separately and, as a last step, the stiffly
beaten white is carefully folded into the other ingredients.
More air may be incorporated into the white of egg
than into almost any other substance, because of the albumin
it contains. When beaten this albumin forms the wall
Fig. 14.— Butter Cake.
inclosing the air bubbles. The addition of acids, such as
lemon juice or cream of tartar, toughens this thin albumin-
ous covering, and makes it possible for the gas to expand
without rupturing the containing wall, thus giving the
spongy texture from which the cake derives its name.
77. Butter Cake. — Butter cake mixture is a modified
muffin batter. More shortening, sugar, and egg is used
and some kind of flavoring substance is added, together
with the special ingredient which determines the particu-
lar variety of cake; e.g. chocolate, fruit, nut, etc.
78. Ingredients and Their Effect on the Mixture.* — For
* Suggested by Cornell Bulletin No. 73.
FLOUR MIXTURES 47
satisfactory results in cake making, it is most essential
that all the ingredients should be of the best quality in
respect to flavor and freshness.
Flour. — A good, standard grade of flour should be used.
This should be sifted twice before measuring. There is
less variation in the weight of different flours after they
are sifted twice, and more uniform results may be obtained
through observing this precaution. Flour is sifted to
remove foreign substances, to take out lumps, and to incor-
porate air. The amount of air introduced is greatly increased
by a second sifting. Many cake rules call for pastry flour
but when this is not obtainable, bread flour may be sub-
stituted, using two tablespoonfuls less for each cupful of
flour than the rule specifies. It has been demonstrated
that two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch added to each cup
of bread flour makes an excellent substitute for pastry
flour.
Too much flour in a cake will cause it to become tough
and bread-like. On the other hand, if not enough flour
is used, the cake will fall because there is not enough gluten
in the rhixture to stiffen on baking and hold the cake up.
The starch in the flour binds the other ingredients together
and gives body to the cake.
Sugar.^A fine-grained, granulated sugar should be
sought for cake making, since it dissolves more readily than
the coarse grained and makes a cake of finer texture. When
powdered or brown sugar is used in place of granulated, it
is advisable to make the substitution by weight rather
than by measure, as from one and a quater to one and a half
cupfuls are required to furnish an equivalent sweetening
to one cupful of granulated sugar. Since sugar dissolves
and increases the moisture in a cake, too much tends to
make the cake rise high in the oven and then fall before
the baking process is finished. In this case the crumb
will be sticky and the crust gummy. Too little rugar
produces a coarse-grained cake.
48 FOOD
Butter or Other Fats. — Butter used for cake making
should not have an objectionable flavor or odor, as both of
these may be detected in the cake when baked. Butter has
the effect of making a cake rich, tender, and of fine texture,
but a definite proportion (1:4) between butter and flour
should be maintained for the best results.
Cheaper fats may be substituted for butter fat for use
in cake making. Of these fats, fresh lard, chicken fat, and
cottonseed oil are most frequently used. A less amount of
the softer fats and oils is needed when substituted for butter
because they contain less moisture and are free from curds,
salt, or other foreign substances and have a correspondingly
greater shortening power. Seven-eighths of a cupful of lard
is equivalent to one cupful of butter.
A rich cake, one that contains an excess of fat, will be
fine grained, crumbly, and hard to get out of the baking
tin, while one containing a small amount of fat will be light
and porous but will dry out rapidly. An increase of fat
in a recipe calls for a corresponding increase in the amount
of flour and egg or baking powder.
Eggs. — Eggs impart lightness and smoothness of texture
to a cake and help to bind the ingredients together. They
also give toughness, especially the white. Therefore,
when whites are used in place of yolks, one teaspoonful
of fat should be added for each additional white to make up
for the fat content of the yolks (J of which is said to be fat).
Because of this fat, which will not allow it to hold air, the
egg yolk cannot be beaten to a stiff froth like the white.
This is demonstrated when a little of the yolk is left in the
white and prevents the formation of a stiff froth that will
keep its shape.
Good cold-storage eggs, or eggs preserved by some of
the common household methods, may be used instead of
fresh ones when the price of strictly fresh eggs is prohibitive.
It is possible to make a cake light and at the same time
good-tasting with a small amount of egg by increasing the
FLOUR MIXTURES 49
quantity of baking powder. An example is the one-egg
or standard cake, which is good when eaten soon after
making, but which dries out quickly.
Liquids. — Although sweet milk is the liquid generally
called for in cake recipes, other liquids are often used.
Water, which toughens the cake slightly, is probably the
chief substitute for sweet milk.
Sour Milk. — When sour milk or buttermilk is used as
the liquid in a cake recipe, bicarbonate of soda (one-half
teaspoonul for each cupful of tnilk) is ordinarily required
to neutralize the acid before adding baking powder.
Sour cream takes the place of both fat and liquid in a
recipe. One cupful of sour cream is regarded as equivalent
to one-third to one-half cupful of shortening and two-thirds
to one-half cupful of sour milk.
Fruits. — Fruits are added to cake to improve the flavor,
to add weight and food value and to prevent its drying out
quickly. Certain dried or candied fruits such as currants,
raisins, citron, cherries, figs, and dates are used in cake
making. When adding dried fruits, the batter should be
slightly stiff er than for plain cake, in order to hold the fruit
in place. Also, more shortening should be added to counter-
act the effect of the extra flour used. Raw fruits, such as
blue berries and cherries, require a smaller amount of extra
flour. Cooked fruits apple sauce, blackberry, and other
jams require very little additional flour. Dried or raw
fruit should be mixed with a small amount of flour and
added to the mixture just before baking.
Nuts. — Nuts, which are lighter than fruit, do not need
additional flour to keep them from settling to the bottom of
the tin. They add such richness to a cake mixture that one
cup of nuts is equivalent to one tablespoonful of fat.
Chocolate and Cocoa. — Cocoa may be used in any recipe
calling for chocolate by allowing two tablespoons of cocoa to
an ounce, or a square, of chocolate. The starch found in
the chocolate or cocoa thickens the batter, which accounts
50 FOOD
for the fact that less flour or more liquid is called for when
chocolate or cocoa is used. The fat of the chocolate or
cocoa adds richness to the cake and may be taken into
consideration in the addition of other fats.
Spices and Flavoring Extracts. — Spice may be added to
a cake mixture by sifting with the dry ingredients or by
first scalding with about twice as much boiling water as
spice, and adding to the liquid ingredients. The latter
method is highly recommended because it improves the
flavor of the spice and imparts a richness to the cake.
Strong vanilla, lemon, almond, or other extracts are not
needed in a cake made of good materials, and should be
used only in quantities sufl&cient to impart a delicate flavor
rather than as a disguise to the objectionable flavor and
odor of poor materials.
79. Baking Cake. — Experience is the only guide to
successful baking unless a reliable oven thermometer is used.
More cakes have been spoiled in the baking than by faulty
recipes or careless mixing. A loaf cake should be baked on
the bottom shelf of the oven in order to have the greater
heat underneath. Cookies and small cakes are baked more
evenly on the upper shelf.
In fining the pan bring the batter up against the sides
so that the center will not be higher than the sides, and
in this way bring a larger proportion of the batter in con-
tact with the heat at the sides of the pan. This makes the
cake rise evenly. The pan should not be more than two-
thirds full of batter, or the cake will rise over the sides of the
pan and fall later.
An over-hot oven does not allow the cake to rise evenly
and an oven too cool allows the mixture to become over-
light, thus spoiling the texture of the cake. Since the range
of oven temperature runs from 250° F. (cool) to 500° F. (very
hot), some reliable means is necessary to accurately measure
the heat of the oven. The methods of testing oven tem-
peratures most commonly employed when a thermometer
FLOUR MIXTURES
51
is not used are: Testing with the hand, noting how quickly
a piece of paper browns in the oven, and allowing a stated
time after the gas has been turned on before putting in the
cake. Any one of these may be adequate in the hands of
an expert, but for the inexperienced the only sure method
is the use of an oven thermometer.
A dish of cold water placed on the upper grate will lower
the temperature of the oven. Leaving the door ajar is safe
only after the cake is partly baked.
TABLE VL— OVEN TEMPERATURES
(From Teachers' College Bulletin No. 8)
Cool.
Moderate.
Hot.
Very Hot.
250-350° F.
Custards
Meringues
Sponge cake
350-400° F.
Ginger bread
Butter cakes
Cookies
Bread
400-450° F.
Rolls
Pop-overs
Biscuits
Muffins
450-500° F.
Pastry
80. Stages in Baking a Cake. — The time required for
baking a cake may be divided into four periods. First, the
cake rises to its full capacity. Second, a crust is formed on
top which is brown in spots. Third, the cake is an even
golden brown. Fourth, it shrinks from the sides of the tin,
becomes elastic to the touch and a broom splint inserted
will come out clean.
81. Care After Baking. — After a cake has stood in the
tin long enough to become moist around the sides, it should
be removed from the tin and inverted on a rack to cool.
This usually takes about three minutes. Cakes to be iced
need to be partly cooled before the icing is put on or the
heat of the cake will cause the icing to run.
82. How to Know a Good Cake. — A properly made cake
should be of uniform thickness, fine grained, and of delicate
texture. Cake that rises in the middle or at the sides of the
52 FOOD
tin, either has too much flour in it or has been improperly
baked. A coarse grain and texture indicate careless measur-
ing or insufficient mixing. A good cake is light, tender,
and moist, easily broken, but not crumbly. The crust
should be thin, tender, and evenly browned.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Make pop-overs, griddle cakes, waffles, fritters, muffins, and tea
biscuit.
Make sponge and butter cakes, cookies, and gingerbread.
CHAPTER VII
FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY
{Continued)
83. Varieties of Wheat. — Spring wheat is grown in the
Northwestern States and Canada. It is sown in the spring
and grows and matures during the short, hot, summer
months and is harvested in the early fall. Spring wheat,
because it is rich in the right kind of proteins, is considered
best for bread flour.
Spring wheat flour is known by its creamy white color,
its gritty feeling when rubbed between the thumb and
finger, and its power to absorb water.
Winter wheat, which is sown in the
fall, reaches maturity in the early sum-
mer. The kernels of winter wheat are
softer and contain more starch than
those of spring wheat, and for this
reason winter wheat is used for making
pastry flour. This flour is whiter in
color than bread flour. It has a smooth,
starchy feeling and holds its shape when
squeezed in the hand.
84. Structure and Composition of a
Wheat Kernel. — The structure of a
wheat kernel is shown in Fig. 15. The
principal parts are:
(a) The endosperm, which forms the
mass of the kernel and is made up of
starch and protein cells.
(6) The aleurone cells, or layer of large square cells sur-
53
Fig. 15. — Longitudinal
section of a grain of
wheat.
a, endosperm;
b, aleurone cells;
c, bran coats;
d, gerna.
54 FOOD
rounding the endosperm. These are rich in phosphorus and
gluten.
(c) The hran coats, which comprise several layers outside
of the aleurone cells. These are rich in mineral matter.
Here is also found more cellulose than in other parts of the
grain.
(d) The germ, or embryo, located at one end of the kernel,
is the young plant which grows on germination. It is rich
in protein, fat and mineral matter.
85. The Proteins of Wheat. — The two most important
proteins found in wheat are glutenin and gliadin. These
are united chemically, when flour is kneaded with a liquid,
and form gluten.
86. The Milling of Flour.— The history of the develop-
ment of the milling process is an interesting topic for home
reading. The roller process now in use yields about 75 per
cent of the cleaned wheat as white flour. The remainder,
called shorts and bran, is used for feeding cattle.
The high grade or standard flours are those made from
wheat yielding not only a high percentage of gluten but a
gluten that is composed of the proper proportions of gliadin
and glutenin. It is the proportion in which these important
profteins occur, quite as much as the total gluten content
of the flour, which makes possible a large, light, and porous
loaf of bread.
Whole wheat flour is wheat meal from which the coarsest
of the bran has been removed. It contains the germ and a
portion of the aleurone layer. Graham flour is the unbolted
wheat meal. Gluten flour is the spring wheat flour after a
good part of the starch has been removed.
87. Yeast Bread. — Some form of leavened bread is
universally depended upon as a staple food. It is the most
wholesome and, all things considered, the most economical
of foods. Yeast bread is made from the staple grains,
wheat and rye, because they have the properties which are
needed to form a light and porous loaf. Other grains are
FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 55
often combined with these to form different varieties of
bread.
88. Quick Process Bread. — Bread made with a large
amount of yeast, which hastens the rising and shortens the
time required, is called quick process bread. The amount of
yeast used regulates the time of fermentation but does not
affect the quality or flavor of the bread. A yeasty odor is
due to insufficient baking or over-fermentation rather than
to an over amount of yeast.
Two cakes of compressed yeast to one cup of liquid is
not too much for two or three hour bread. The quick
process plan of bread making is a decided improvement
upon the old, slow method where the dough was liable to
become sour.
89. Mixing and Kneading. — The ingredients for bread
should be mixed thoroughly and only enough flour should
be used to make the dough stay up. The softer the dough,
the better.
(1) Place the salt, sugar and fat in the mixing bowl
and pour over them the scalded milk or other liquid. When
this mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast rubbed to a paste
in lukewarm water and mix thoroughly. Add flour enough
to form a drop batter, and beat this batter until bubbles
of air begin to form in the mass. Then add gradually the
remainder of the flour or enough to make a dough that
will form a ball around the mixing spoon and leave the
sides of the bowl free from flour.
(2) After the dough has been mixed place it on a floured
kneading board and knead, handling lightly, until the
dough is smooth and velvety and does not stick to the hands
or board.
(3) Put the dough aside in a warm place to rise. The
fermentation period is the most important of all. Bread
should not be allowed to rise longer than is required for it
to double in bulk. If fermentation is allowed to continue
too long, the dough is liable to become sour.
56
FOOD
(4) When the dough has doubled in bulk, the gas bub-
bles may be removed by lightly punching the mass down
Fig. 16. — Kneading bread.
in the bowl; after which, let the dough rise again until
about two-thirds its former bulk.
(5) Mould the dough into loaves by stretching, folding.
FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 57
and shaping a portion to fit the baking tin. Push down the
corners and sides to make an even loaf and let the loaf rise
again. Moisten the loaf on top to prevent a hard crust
from forming during the rising process.
90. Baking. — Bread is ready for the oven when the loaf
has settled in the corners and the dough has very nearly
doubled in bulk. The temperature of the oven should be
about 400° F. The loaf should not begin to brown until
it has been in the oven ten minutes. The pan should be
turned around after three minutes baking to keep the loaf
even. Sixty minutes is required for baking the average
size loaf.
Rare or slack baked bread resulting from under bak-
ing is the worst and most frequent fault to be guarded
against.
91. Effect of Ingredients on the Loaf. — Too much flour
will cause a loaf to spUt in the middle in baking. Three
cupfuls of flour to one cupful of liquid is a good proportion.
A green dough (mixture not light enough when put in the
oven) will have the same effect as too much flour. Sugar
hurries along the action of the yeast by supplying quickly
the material needed to produce carbon dioxide (CO2).
An excess of salt retards the fermentation process.
One teaspoonful of salt is sufficient for one loaf. Fat in
large amounts has the same effect upon the mixture as
salt. Not over one tablespoonful to a loaf should be
allowed. Fat is not a necessary ingredient in well-made
bread.
92. Rolls. — The various kinds of bread dough intended
for rolls require a little different treatment after the first
rising. The punching down to take out the gas should be
omitted. Rolls should be allowed to rise until at least
double the original bulk before baking. Rolls are baked in
eighteen to twenty minutes and require a hotter oven than
a loaf of bread will stand.
58
FOOD
Courtesy of Landers, Frary dk Clark.
Fig. 17. — Bread mixer.
93. Bread Mixers. — A good mixer brings about the
same results as hand kneading, if the correct proportion
of flour and liquid is used
and the mixer is turned for
eight minutes. The mixer
undoubtedly saves time and
strength in making large
quantities of bread, but for
less than three loaves the
hand method is easier.
94. Yeast. — Yeast is a
tiny, single-celled plant.
The individual plants are
round or oval in shape as
in Fig. 18, and consist of a
thin cell wall of cellulose
filled with protoplasm. The
dark spot or point in the cell is called the nucleus.
Under normal conditions the yeast plant develops or
grows rapidly by the process
known as budding, which is
one of the simplest forms of
cell reproduction.
95. Sources of Yeast. —
Wild yeasts are abundant on
the skins of fruits and vege-
tables and in the atmosphere.
Cultivated yeast, or distillers'
yeast, intended for baking purposes, is either grown in quan-
tity for use or is a by-product of the manufacture of malt
liquors. In Fig. 19 is represented the entire process of making
compressed yeast from the scouring of the grains to the
shipping of the finished product.
96. Commercial Yeast. — The usual forms in which yeast
appears in the market are compressed yeast, dry yeast, and
liquid yeast.
Fig. 18. — Yeast cells.
FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY
59
BARLEY
MALT
SOURING
TANK.
FILTER TU3
SMALL
LACTIC ACID
MAGH
MIXING MACHINE
CARS TO AGENCIES
REFRIGERATOR
Courtesy of Fleischmann Co.
Fig. 19. — Manufacture of yeast.
60 FOOD
Compressed yeast is to be preferred when it can be
obtained. It has the advantage of providing a large amount
of yeast in small bulk, but it will not keep for any length of
time and should be fresh when used.
In dry yeast the yeast cells have been mixed with tapioca
or other flour and dried before being put up in packages.
Dry yeast requires a longer time to do its work and is not
as effective as other forms, since many of the plants are
killed by the drying process.
Liquid yeast may be made at home or bought at most
bakeries. Liquid yeast is made by mixing yeast with a
liquid which contains flour and sugar or other food for the
yeast plant, and allowing it to stand in a warm place until
the mixture is filled with yeast plants as shown by the
bubbles of gas.
Compressed yeast cakes are more uniform in strength
and therefore more reliable for general use than other forms
of commercial yeast.
97. Functions of Yeast in Bread Making. — Since yeast
plants develop best at a temperature between 75° and 90° F.,
the materials for bread dough should be lukewarm. When
the materials have been thoroughly mixed, the mass should
be kneaded until it will not stick to the hands or the board
and is elastic to the touch. It should then be set aside to
allow time for the growth of the yeast plants. Under
proper conditions, that is, the presence of warmth, moisture,
and food, the yeast plant will multiply rapidly.
Flour contains a small amount of sugar and also a ferment
which is capable of changing starch into sugar. By the
action of the yeast this sugar is broken down to form carbon
dioxide (CO2) and alcohol. The bubbles of gas thus
formed are entangled in the dough, causing it to be
spongy and light. In the oven these bubbles of gas expand
and increase the size of the loaf. The heat of the oven
also kills the yeast plant and drives the alcohol off as a
vapor.
FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY
61
98. Digestibility of Bread. — The nutrients in yeast
bread like those of other cereal products are digested and
absorbed with relative ease and thoroughness. A light,
thoroughly baked crumb is digested with less difficulty
than heavy or rare baked bread. The latter tends to form
a waxy mass in the stomach, which resists the action of the
digestive fluids. The crust is partly dextrinized and is
crisp and dry. In this state the change from dextrin to
maltose is easily made by the digestive fluids.
Hot breads are less easily digested than yeast breads
Fig. 20. — Oatmeal bread, Rye bread, and Corn bread.
because the warm crumb tends to form a waxy mass in the
stomach.
99. How to Know Good Bread. — The loaf should be of
medium size. (A large loaf is liable to be underdone in the
center). It should be regular in shape, rounded on top
and even on the sides, with a crisp, golden-brown crust.
The texture of the crumb should be fine and even. (By
texture is meant the size and . uniformity of the holes.)
Large holes near the top of the loaf indicate that the dough
was kept too warm during the fermentation process.
The color of the crumb should be white or creamy. A
62 FOOD
gray color is due to over fermentation or to a cheap grade
of flour.
The odor should be " wheaty." A yeasty odor suggest-s
lack of sufficient baking. Underdone or slightly sour bread
is unwholesome.
100. Pastry. — Pie crust, tarts, and patties belong to the
stiff dough mixtures and contain a large proportion of
shortening or from one-third to one-half as much as of
flour.
Pastry should be light, flaky, and tender. Since pastry
depends upon the air incorporated into the mixture for
lightness, this property is increased by skillful handling
and by keeping the ingredients at a proper temperature.
The colder the ingredients the greater the expansion in
baking, hence the greater the degree of lightness.
Pastry is made flaky by having the fat in rather large
flakes in the flour before adding the liquid, also by spreading
more fat on each time the folding and rolling process takes
place. Tenderness of pastry is determined by the amount
of fat used and by adding the least possible amount of mois-
ture to make a dough. The various fats such as butter,
oleomargarine, lard, lard substitutes, nut butters, and beef
drippings, may be used alone or in combination for this
purpose.
101. Baking Pastry. — Pies should be baked in an earthen-
ware, granite or aluminum pan, or better still, in a Pyrex
plate. The upper crust, when used, should have several
openings to permit the escape of the steam generated in
^)aking. In the case of a pie with only a lower crust it is
advisable to bake the crust on the outside of the inverted
pan. Prick the crust in several places with a fork before
baking, to allow the confined air to escape before the heat
expands it and spoils the shape of the crust.
The temperature of the oven for all kinds of pastry
should be what is termed very hot, or from 450° F. to 500° F.,
until the crust begins to brown. Then the temperature
FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 63
should be reduced to allow for the thorough cooking of the
filling.
102. Digestibility of Pastry, — The combination of so
much fat as is commonly used in pastry with flour forms
a coating of fat over the starch, which retards the action of
the digestive juices. Soggy pastry is not so easily digested
as the crisp and flaky kind; therefore, for one-crust pies,
the crust may be baked before the filling is added to prevent
the crust from soaking up moisture and becoming soggy.
The deep fruit pie with an upper crust only is most
desirable, since in this way the crust may be crisp and flaky.
This pastry also affords a pleasing way of serving cooked
fruits.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter,
make:
Bfead, short and long process.
Rolls, plain and fancy.
Nut breads, raisin breads.
Whole wheat bread, corn bread, coffee cake.
Dutch apple cake.
Pie crust, tarts, patties.
One-crust pie, two-crust pie.
CHAPTER VIII
VEGETABLES
103. Definition. — In the strictest sense of the word cereals
and fruits may be termed vegetables, but what is commonly
known as vegetables are the plant products that have a
very high water content. Those containing 70 per cent or
more of water are spoken of as succulent.
104. Classification. — Vegetables may be classified in
different ways:
(1) As to the part of the plant used: Seeds; roots; tubers;
bulbs; stems; leaves; flowers; fruit.
(2) As to co7nposition: (a) those containing much water;
(6) those containing much starch; (c) those containing
much protein.
(3) As to flavor: (a) mild in flavor; (h) strong in flavor.
105. Composition. — The foodstuff other than water that
appears in greatest abundance in vegetables is carbohydrate,
either in the form of starch or sugar. Protein is present
in varying amounts in the form of globulin and vegetable
casein, the latter sometimes called legumin. Comparing the
protein of vegetables with that of animals, the following
distinctions may be made :
(1) Vegetable protein is deficient in nucleo protein, while
animal protein is rich in this material.
(2) Globulin, the form in which the protein occurs in
vegetables, contains less sulphur than the animal albumin,
and is insoluble in pure water though soluble in a salt solu-
tion.
(3) Vegetable protein yields, on decomposition, a much
higher percentage of glutamic acid than animal protein.
64
VEGETABLES 65
Extractives are present in vegetables and belong to the
class of chemical substances known as amines.
Mineral Matter, the presence of which adds so much to
the nutritive value of many vegetables, occurs largely in
the form of potash and phosphorus; but as these salts do
not appear as chlorides, common salt is a welcome addition
to a vegetable diet. Small amounts of citrates, phosphates,
and silicates of lime are also found, and sulphur occurs in
such vegetables as onions, cabbage, and the legumes.
Fat occurs in vegetables only in minute quantities and
in the form of olein.
106. Food Value. — With the exception of a few of the
starchy vegetables and the legumes, plant substances are
not considered very nutritious, but they are necessary as
body regulators and to give flavor, bulk and variety to the
diet. They yield a certain amount of energy in the body
at comparatively low cost in normal times.
107. Digestion of Vegetables. — Owing to the . large
amount of cellulose present in vegetables, they are more
difficult of digestion than animal food, and experiments
have shown that their completeness of digestion is very
much less than that of animal foods. The formation of
undesirable gases from the sulphur present in strong flavored
vegetables causes the flatulence experienced by many peo-
ple after a too liberal diet of these varieties.
108. The Selection of Vegetables. — In selecting vege-
tables buy those that are in season as they are then much
better flavored and less expensive.
Buy by weight rather than by measure; choose firm,
crisp vegetables, heavy for their size and of medium size
only, as large ones are apt to be old and fibrous. See that
the skin is unbroken. Earth adhering to vegetables is
evidence that they have not been freshened by soaking in
water.
109. Cooking Vegetables. — The changes that are to be
effected by cooking are as follows:
<
66 FOOD
(1) The cellular tissue is to be loosened and softened.
(2) The starch granules must absorb water and swell.
(3) Pleasant flavors are to be developed and unpleasant
ones dissipated.
The method of cooking should he such as to lessen the
waste as much as possible. Cooking in water, the way most
commonly employed, effects a withdrawal of nutrients,
especially the mineral matter — a loss which occurs to a
much less extent in steaming, and not at all in baking.
Keeping vegetables whole while boiling minimizes the waste.
All green vegetables, roots, and tubers should l^e crisp
and firm before cooking. If they are not they should be
allowed to stand in very cold water about one hour. All
vegetables should be most carefully cleaned before cooking.
Those in heads, such as cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and cauli-
flower, should be placed head down in cold, salted water
to which a little vinegar has been added. This will draw
out any animal life that may be present in them.
All vegetables except the legumes are best cooked by
putting into rapidly boiling water and keeping them at
this temperature until the vegetables are tender. The
cover of the saucepan should be partly off to allow for ven-
tilation and the evaporation of the disagreeable volatile
gases developed by the heat. Over-cooking is to be avoided,
as it destroys the chlorophyl and other coloring matter
and injures the substances which give the pleasant flavors.
The practice of adding bicarbonate of soda to the
water in which vegetables are to be cooked is no longer
advised. .It has been found by experiment that cooking
in an alkaline solution dissolves some of the vitamines,
thereby decreasing the nutritive value of the vegetables.
110. Blanching Vegetables. — Blanching is supposed to
improve the flavor by removing the strong, acrid taste of
some vegetables, to harden the tissue, and to set the color.
This is done by dipping the vegetables, which have been
thoroughly cleaned and placed either in cheese-cloth or in a
VEGETABLES
67
wire basket, into rapidly boiling water, covering and keep-
ing at this point from five to ten minutes. Drain, and if
the vegetables are not to be used for canning (in which case
they are plunged immediately into cold water), put them
into a saucepan with as little water as possible, partly cover
and allow to cook gently until tender, when most of the
water should have evaporated. Salt, pepper, and butter
should be added before serving.
111. Preserving Vegetables. — Vegetables are preserved
in a variety of ways, although canning and drying are
perhaps the most popular. These processes will be treated
at greater length in a separate chapter. Simply packing
fresh vegetables between
layers of salt will preserve
them. Salt with the addi-
tion of vinegar is used in
pickling. Commercial cold
storage has done much to
conserve the surplus in
vegetables as in other foods,
and is of course effective in
checking bacterial growth.
Preserving vegetables by
the use of such preserva-
tives as borates, benzoates,
etc., is to be condemned.
The so-called winter vege-
tables such as turnips, cab-
bage, onions, carrots, par-
snips and beets may be kept
in good condition by being
buried or stored in a cool
place.
112o Legumes. — The le-
gumes belong to the pulse
family. They are the fruit of the plant and are usually in
Fig. 21.— Lentils.
(Farmer's Bulletin 121.)
68
FOOD
the shape of a pod. There are many kinds, but those used as
vegetables are peas, beans, and lentils. The unripe peas
and beans and the edible pods of the latter contain much
water and are classed as succulent vegetables. While they
are not as rich in nutrients as the matured ones, they are
Fig. 22. — Peanut vine showing nodules on the roots.
(Bulletin 121.)
more delicate in flavor and more easily digested. The
lentil is never eaten except when fully ripe.
113. Food Value of Legumes. — The legumes, except in
war times, are a particularly cheap source of protein or
nitrogen to the body. They are the only plants that can
make use of the nitrogen of the air to build their own tissue,
and for this purpose their roots are furnished with nodules
thickly populated by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The dried
VEGETABLES 69
legumes are fully matured and, while deficient in flavor they
contain a high percentage of protein. In cases where they
can be digested without too much difficulty the legumes may
be used as a substitute for the more expensive animal foods.
114. Cooking Legumes. — The green legumes are cooked
in the same way as other fresh vegetables; but the way
in which the dried ones are cooked greatly influences their
digestibility. Dried legumes should be cleaned, then soaked
over night in cold water, and in the morning cooked in this
same water until tender. Making the legumes into a puree
renders them more available as a source of nourishment.
It separates the more digestible pulp from the skin. The
digestibility of legumes is increased if they are eaten in
combination with other food rather than alone.
115. Soy Beans. — The soy bean, Fig. 23, which is some-
times spoken of as the Togo bean, has been used as food in
China and Japan since ancient times; but in this country
its use as such is just beginning.
Up to the present time it has served only as a fertiUzer,
as food for hogs, or as a source of oil to be used as a sub-
stitute for more expensive oils.
Composition. — Like most legumes the soy bean is very
rich in protein. Compared with the cereals it contains
three limes as much protein as wheat or rye flour, and five
times as much as corn flour. The amount of fat present
in the soy bean is ten times as much as is present in any
cereal. It is deficient in carbohydrates.
Appearance. — In appearance the soy bean is round and
yellow, somewhat similar to the garden pea. There arc
two hundred varieties, but it is the yellow-seeded variety
which is best for food.
Cooking. — The soy bean may be cooked in a variety of
ways, and may be combined to advantage with many other
foods such as rice, cheese, tomatoes, and corn. It may be
soaked over night and baked the same as the navy bean,
but without the addition of fat of any kind.
70
FOOD
Courtesy of Extension Department.
Fig. 23. — Soy beans.
The plant to the left inoculated, the one to the right uninoeulated.
(From McCall's " Studies of Crops.")
VEGETABLES 71
116. Tubers. — A tuber is a short, fleshy, underground
stem. The common edible tubers include white potatoes
Jerusalem artichokes, and sweet potatoes.
While white potatoes are rich in starch and are, there-
fore, a source of energy to the body, they are chiefly valuable
for their antiscorbutic properties, due to the nature of the
mineral matter present. Very new and very old potatoes
contain less starch and more soluble sugar, which accounts
for their lack of mealiness when cooked. After potatoes
begin to sprout, the starch content is changed to glucose
by a ferment present in them.
Jersualem artichokes contain no starch, and so resemble
the turnip rather than the potato. They do contain a small
amount of sugar and another form of carbohydrate known
as inulin.
Sweet potatoes are about the same in composition as the
white, containing a little more sugar and being somewhat
laxative.
117. The Dasheen. — This comparatively little known
vegetable is of the starchy variety and rather closely resem-
bles the potato (Fig. 24), though it is more dehcate in
flavor and contains less water. After cooking, the flesh
becomes gray or violet.
Any method of cooking which may be applied to the
potato may likewise be applied to the dasheen. If scraped
before cooking, it should be handled under water to which
sal-soda has been added (one teaspoon to one quart of
water). This is done to prevent the juice from the outer
layer from exerting an irritating effect upon the hands.
118. Roots. — The roots most commonly used as foods
are beets, radishes, turnips, carrots, salsify, parsnips and
celeriac.
Beets, carrots and turnips, when used as summer vege-
tables, are the quickly grown variety and are gathered
while small. When intended for winter use, they must be
allowed to mature or they cannot be successfully stored.
72
FOOD
Celeriac is a variety of the familiar celery but is culti-
vated for its turnip-like root, rather than for its stalk.
119. Bulbs. — The underground leaf-buds of certain
plants are known as bulbs. Onions are the most generally
used of this type, but others used more sparingly and for
flavor only, are garlic, leek, shallot and chives.
120. Leaves, Stems, and Shoots. — The edible portions of
cabbage, lettuce, celery, asparagus, and spinach are the
Fig. 24.— The Dasheen.
(Journal of Home Economics.)
leaves, stems or shoots of the plants. While the food value
of these vegetables is not high, they are refreshing and a
pleasant source of mineral matter. Contrary to custom,
leaf vegetables should be cooked in as little water as pos-
sible and the water saved as it has been found to contain
valuable vitamines.
121. Fruit. — The seed-bearing part of a plant is called
the fruit. The common vegetables used as foods, which are
known to the botanist as the fruits of the plants, are torn a-
VEGETABLES
73
74 FOOD
toes, okra, squash, pumpkin, cucumber, egg plant and
peppers.
122. Flower Buds. — Among the food plants of which
the parts eaten are the flower buds may be mentioned:
cauliflower, broccoli and French artichokes.
Broccoli is a variety of cabbage. It resembles the cauli-
flower but has a taller stem.
French artichokes are large flower buds; the buds must
be used before they are open. The edible parts are the
thickened portion at the base of the scales and the part to
which the leaf -like scales are attached.
Brussels sprouts are a variety of cabbage having about the
same composition as the cabbage.
Kohl-rabi is very similar to the turnip in appearance
and flavor.
Okra is a plant much cultivated in the South for its
young, mucilagenous pods. It has very little food value
and is generally used for flavoring soups. In localities
where it is grown the very young seeds are sometimes cooked
in the same way as green peas. The tender pods may be
boiled and served as salad.
123. Green Vegetables. — The so-called green vegetables,
or salad plants, are those usually eaten without cooking.
Lettuce is the best example and most widely used of these,
but endive, cress, mint, green peppers, celery, cucumbers,
and escarole are much used.
Green vegetables are composed largely of water (90 per
cent or more) and cellulose. Their most valuable con-
stituent, infinitesimal though it may be in amount, is mineral
matter. This exists largely in the form of potassium salts,
though small amounts of iron are also present and certain
substances which impart an agreeable flavor.
124. Digestion and Food Value of Green Vegetables. —
Green vegetables are not easy of digestion except when
young. With age the amount of cellulose increases, making
them tough and stringy. Owing to the amount of water
VEGETABLES
75
Fig. 26. — Brussels sprouts.
(From Yeaw's Market Gardening)
76 FOOD
they contain, green vegetables must be eaten while fresh,
as they wilt easily, due to the evaporation of some of this
water.
None of these salad plants are of high nutritive value,
but they are cooling, antiscorbutic, and gently laxative.
Because of their low nutritive value they may be eaten in
addition to the protein and fuel foods without unduly
increasing the total amount of food consumed. This prop-
erty makes them very useful in the limited diet of those
who are reducing.
Whether green vegetables are to be cooked or not,
they must be very carefully cleaned by soaking in very
cold, salted water and removing all decayed parts. Some
authorities advise dipping in boiling water for one minute
in order to kill any living organisms that may be present.
125. Lettuce, Roumaine and Escarole. — These vegetables
are cultivated for their pleasant flavor and are in the market
all the year round as they can be grown successfully under
glass.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Cook potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, cabbage, onions, or any vegetable
in season.
CHAPTER IX
FRUITS
126. Definition. — In a restricted sense all seed-bearing
portions of plants are termed fruits, but in the usual sense
the term fruit is used to indicate only those seed-bearing
portions containing a large amount of water and a small
amount of dry matter in the form of sugar and non-nitro-
genous compounds. Any food, for example, rhubarb,
which takes the same place in the diet, may be classed as a
fruit.
127. Composition. — Fruits, like vegetables, contain a
large amount of water. Some authorities go so far as to
classify them according to their water content, those having
more than 80 per cent of water being classed as "flavor
fruits.''
Another more common classification is as: stone fruits;
pome fruits; and berries.
The most important solid nutrient of fruit is carbo-
hydrate. This occurs as a form of sugar;' cane sugar, grape
sugar (glucose), or fruit sugar (levulose). The last two
sugars are usually found together in about equal proportions
and are sometimes referred to as "invert sugar."
Fatf except in the case of such fruits as the olive and
the avacado or alligator pear, exists in fruits in such small
quantities as to be negligible.
Mineral mattery b. most important constituent of all
fruit, is found in the form of potassium salts, phosphorus,
lime, and iron. Acids are present in varying amounts,
from 1 to 2 per cent in apples to 7 per cent in lemons. The
most common fruit acids are malic, citric, and tartaric.
77
78 FOOD
Protein is found in fruits only in very small amounts.
128. Digestibility. — The ease with which fruits are
digested depends upon the nature of the fruit and the
degree of ripeness and freshness. Unripe fruits are indi-
gestible because of the large amount of cellulose present,
and because the large amount of acid acts as an irritant
to the digestive organs. Overripe fruits are indigestible
because of the fermentation products which have begun
to form.
129. Food Value. — ^While fruits are not a source of much
nourishment to the body, they yield energy and are of
inestimable value as body-regulators. Their acids stimulate
the flow of the digestive juices, and because of the organic
potassium compound which they contain, fruits when oxidized
in the body, leave basic or alkaline salts which help to neu-
tralize the undesirable acids that are a necessary accompani-
ment of all body metabolism.
Fruits containing malic or citric acid serve as a laxative
when taken before or at the beginning of breakfast. Fruits
tend to lessen intestinal putrefaction, because of their
fibrous nature which stimulates peristalsis, and because
they furnish a condition unfavorable to the growth of
intestinal bacteria.
130. Selecting Fruit. — Fruits owe much of their popu-
larity to their pleasant flavor. This flavor is due to ethereal
substances that, as their name implies, may easily be lost.
Therefore, fruits that are not perfectly fresh show the fact
by loss of flavor as well as by loss of color. As fruits deterior-
ate, their coloring matter undergoes various chemical
changes which give the faded, dull appearance noticeable
in fruit of inferior quality. Fruit in prime condition
should be firm and heavy in proportion to its size, and the
skin should be unbroken.
131. Preparation and Cooking. — Because of the great
improvement in culture, storage facilities, and transportation,
the season for fresh fruit has been greatly lengthened.
FRUITS 79
Moreover, commercially dried fruit has come into greater
use, so that fruit of some kind is now considered a necessary-
part of the daily ration.
As so much fruit is eaten uncooked, great care should
be observed in preparing it; otherwise it may be a means
of conveying harmful organisms to the body. The popular
idea that fruit must not be washed no longer prevails. It
should be carefully washed, but only just before using,
as most fruit is apt to mould. Fruits may be cooked in
various ways, and in some cases the digestibility is increased
by so doing, but the fact must be borne in mind that cooking
often injures the flavor and changes the nature of the salts
and acids present. Fruit discolors when pared and exposed V
to the air. This is due to the action of the oxydases (natural
ferments) in the fruit, upcn the tannin in the fruit, in the
presence of air.
The utensils used in cooking fruit must be of a mate-
rial not easily acted upoi;i by acids. A silver knife should
always be used in preparing fruits.
132. Storing. — Fruit to be stored must be in perfect
condition, firm and free from the slightest bruise. It may
be packed in barrels and kept in a clean cool place, not dry
enough to cause the fruit to shrivel or moist enough to
cause fermentation. The store room should be well ven-
tilated, as fruits quickly absorb odors. Fruits keep best
when wrapped individually in tissue paper.
133. Preserving. — Fruits may be preserved by canning,
drying, pickling and candying, and in the form of jellies,
jams and marmalades. These processes are" considered
under a separate heading.
134. Dried Fruits. — Since the drying of fruit has become
such an important industry on our western coast, such
fruits as peaches, apricots, prunes, figs, and raisins are now
easily obtained at all times, and are found to be cheaper in
proportion to the solids they contain than are the fresh
fruits.
80 FOOD
When properly cooked, dried fruits are a palatable and
useful addition to the diet. They should be thoroughly
cleaned, allowed to remain over night in sufficient water
to cover them, then cooked in the same water until tender,
with little or no sugar. Prunes are best flavored when
cooked without sugar.
135. Jellies, Jams, and Marmalades. — These methods
of preserving are particularly applicable to fruits and fruit
juices. Their solidity and the presence of sugar in fairly
large amounts, render them impervious to bacterial action.
Their solidity is due to the existence in fruit of a carbo-
hydrate substance called pectin, which closely resembles
and has many of the properties of starch.
136. Nuts. — The increasing popularity of nuts as a part
of the diet is probably due to a growing appreciation of
their food value and appetizing qualities, as well as to a
wider knowledge of the various ways in which they may be
used to advantage.
Composition. — Owing to their deficiency in water, nuts
offer a very concentrated form of nourishment. They are
a rich source of proteins, some (the peanut for example)
yielding as high as 29.8 per cent of this foodstuff. In the
analysis of thirteen different varieties, half the edible portion
of the nut consisted of fat or oil. Carbohydrate does not
appear to any extent except in the chestnut. Mineral
matter is an important constituent of all nuts, walnuts and
almonds being especially rich in phosphorus.
Flavor. — The flavor of nuts is largely dependent upon the
nature of the oil present, though in some instances special
flavoring substances are also present. This oil becomes
rancid quickly and gives the intensely disagreeable taste
to spoiled nuts.
Digestibility. — The difficulty experienced by some in
digesting nuts is probably due to improper mastication and
to the indiscriminate use of nuts at such times as the end
of a meal or late at night. To their concentrated form
FRUITS 81
also may be attributed some of the difficulty in their diges-
tion. This is obviated if nuts are eaten at the proper time
and in proper relation to the rest of the diet. Experiments
in the use of almonds, peanuts, pecans, and walnuts have
brought out the fact that, in a fruit and nut diet, the nut
protein was digested quite as easily, though not quite so
completely, as the protein of milk.
137. The Use of Salt with Nuts.— While the addition
of salt to nuts may improve their flavor, no proof exists
that it in any way facilitates their digestion, as it is so
popularly supposed to do.
138. Food Value of Nuts. — Because of the composition
of nuts, vegetarians have been in the habit of using them
in their diet as a source of protein and fat. At the present
time many others are gradually being forced to adopt the
same plan, owing to the constantly increasing cost of animal
food. In the use of nuts, however, satisfactory results
can be obtained only by a thoughtful arrangement of the
menu. The nuts should be made to take a definite place
in the meal rather than to supplement an otherwise suffi-
cient one. Because of their concentrated nature they
should be combined with foods of a bulky type, such as
vegetables, fruits, etc. Those of high protein and fat con-
tent should be combined with the various carbohydrate
foods, while the carbohydrate-containing chestnut may be
advantageously used with milk, meat, and eggs. Nut
butter, notably peanut, is very digestible owing to the fine
division of the nut substance, and is in a form often relished
by people opposed to nuts in other forms. Peanut oil
may be substituted for olive oil in dressing salads.
139. Use of Nuts in Cooking. — Nuts are more often
eaten raw than cooked, though some, like the peanut and
chestnut, are much improved in flavor by roasting. Nuts
are now coming to be used very often in the making of
soups, stuffings, salads, breads, cakes, etc.
140. Storing Nuts. — Nuts should be stored in a dry place,
82 FOOD
because dampness quickly makes them rancid. Shelled
nuts must be carefully protected from insects.
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. The Test for Pectin. — Add two teaspoonfuls of
alcohol to two teaspoonfuls of cooked fruit juice. Mix thoroughly.
The formation of a gelatinous mass indicates the presence of pectin.
Experiment 2. The Test for Tannin. — Extract the juice from
unripe fruit, filter and add ferric chloride. A black color indicates the
presence of tannin.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Cook fruits in various ways, as boiling, baking, scalloping, stewing.
CHAPTER X
FATS AND OILS
141. Composition. — Fats and oils are a combination of
the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The oxygen
is less in proportion to the carbon than in the carbo-
hydrates, which accounts for the greater yield of energy by
fats and oils. The fats and the oils were the first of the
organic foodstuffs to have their composition determined.
Upon study it was found that all fats are formed by the
chemical union of fatty acids and glycerol or glycerin.
The kind of fat depends upon the fatty acids in the com-
bination. The common fatty acids, beginning with that
having the lowest melting-point, are butyric, oleic, palmitic,
and stearic.
Glycerol has the power to unite with one, two, or three
fatty acids to form simple or complex glycerides.
142. Properties. — As to physical properties the fats
and oils differ in that fats are solid at ordinary temperature
while oils are the reverse or liquid at ordinary temperatures.
The chemical difference in the various fats and oils depends
upon the fatty acid predominating. In tallow and lard
the glycerides are mainly stearin and palmatin with only a
small percentage of olein, but in the softer fats and oils,
olein predominates.
In butter the glyceride is chiefly butyrin. Small amounts
of various other glycerides are found in combination.
Fats have a varying melting-point because they are
mixtures rather than pure glycerides. Hard or animal
fats have the highest melting-points and oils or liquid fats a
low melting-point.
83
84 EboD
143. Function of Fats in Nutrition. — Fats are broken
down in normal metabolism and yield twice as many calories
of heat per gram as carbohydrate and protein. The primary
use of fats in the body is as a fuel or heat producer, only
excess amounts being stored as fat in the body tissues.
As a building material fat is changed into the composi-
tion of the protoplasm of the cells or is stored as body fat
in certain parts of the body. The tissues around the liver
and the abdomen are, as a rule, the first to store this excess
fat.
Some fats hold in solution substances that are essential
in normal nutrition and thus serve as body regulators. The
fat of milk, of egg yolk, and to some extent the soft fat of
beef, belong to this class. A deficiency of these foods in
the diet will be shown in the slow growth and development
of the body.
144. Digestibility of Fats. — The fats and oils are changed
back to fatty acids and glycerin in the digestive tract, and,
as such, are absorbed through the intestinal walls into the
lymphatics. From there they go into the general circula-
tion of the blood and are found again as a fat. The reuniting
of the parts takes place at the time of absorption into the
blood stream.
It is now a well established fact that the fineness of the
emulsion into which a fat is changed determines the length
of time and ease of the process of digestion and assimilation.
The finely emulsified fats found in milk and eggs may
have the digestive process completed in the stomach. Those
forming a different emulsion and having a higher melting-
point are not changed until they reach the intestines and
come in contact with the bile salts and other juices which
act upon the fats.
There is some difference of opinion as to the extent
of the influence of fats in the process of the digestion of
other foods. The fact that fats are unaltered in the mouth,
except for being melted or divided into fine particles, that
FATS AND OILS 85
only certain kinds are modified in the stomach, and that
others, by coating the mucous Uning of the stomach with a
film of fat, interfere with the action of the gastric juice,
leads to the conclusion that a meal rich in fat will be slow
of digestion. Therefore, in summarizing, it may be said
that the digestiblity of a fat depends upon its melting-
point and the fineness of the emulsion in which it occurs.
145. Sources of Fats. — Fats are obtained from both
animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats
are cream, butter, egg yolk, fat of beef, mutton, pork and
bacon, bone marrow, chicken fat, and cod liver oil.
Vegetable fats are those derived from the seeds of plants,
as olive oil, cottonseed oil, corn oil, and nut oils.
Butter and cream are the most highly prized of the
animal fats because of the ease with which they are digested
and because they supply important vitamines, fat-soluble
substances. They are expensive foods and often, where
cost must be considered, it is necessary to substitute some
less expensive fat for ordinary use. Butterine or oleomar-
garine may be used in place of butter, except for table use.
Butter contains 84 per cent of fat, about 12 per cent to 13
per cent of water, a little curd, and nearly 2 per cent of
salt.
Butterine and oleomargarine are made from suet and
cottonseed oil churned together in milk, or milk and cream,
which impart a small amount of the growth-stimulating
substances found in butter. The materials used and the
process of manufacture are usually absolutely clean and
wholesome and the product is then to be preferred to
renovated butter or even fresh dairy butter made under
undesirable conditions.
Bacon fat ranks with butter and cream in the matter
of expense and should be saved and utilized in the cooking
of other foods.
Lard is the fat of pork rendered and refined. The best
grade is called leaf lard, and is extracted from the soKd
86 FOOD
fatty tissue around the kidneys. Other grades are the
rendered fat of different parts of the animal.
The various lard substitutes or lard compounds sold
under such trade names as Crisco, Snow Drift, etc., are
chiefly mixtures of beef fat and cottonseed oil.
Beef suet is the hard, kidney fat of the animal and is
used in making rich puddings and mince pies. It may be
melted with a fat of a lower melting-point to form a medium
fat suitable for other cooking purposes.
Mutton fat or mutton tallow, on account of its strong odor
and flavor, is not combined with other fats for household
use.
Bone marrow, the fat found in the shin bones of the
beef animal, is a fat of low melting-point and, consequently,
is easy of digestion. It gives a richness and flavor to soup
stock made from a marrow bone which is not found in
other stock. Its chief value, however, is that it contains
vitamines having a remarkable stimulating influence upon
the body.
Chicken fat is an excellent substitute for butter in cake
making. As a matter of fact, it may be used for any purpose
for which butter is used except on bread.
Cod liver oil is a well known fat recommended as a body
building medicine, and probably owes its beneficial action
to the presence of fat-soluble substances of value in the
building and repair of the body tissues.
Olive oil is manufactured from ripe olives. The fruit
is gathered just before it turns black, because at this stage
it contains the maximum amount of oil. To obtain the
oil, the olives are first crushed and the oil is then extracted
by pressure. The first oil that flows under slight pressure
is considered of superior quality, and that extracted by
greater pressure is of a second grade. The dark color is
removed by allowing the oil to stand until the sediment
settles and then filtering it.
The flavor of olive oil is dependent upon the variety
FATS AND OILS 87
and ripeness of the olives used and upon the temperature
and amount of pressure used at the time it is obtained.
Cottonseed oil is used in combination with other fats
and as an adulterant of and substitute for olive oil. It is
undoubtedly the most important of the vegetable fats
now in use. The oil which is extracted from the seeds by-
pressure is refined by a secret process which removes the
characteristic flavor. The cost of the best quality of cotton-
seed oil is less than one-half that of a medium grade of
olive oil and the value is essentially the same since both
contain practically 100 per cent of .fat.
Many of the common nuts furnish an edible nut butter
or oil of low melting-point, which is much valued as a fuel
food.
146. Cooking in Fats. — Fats, when heated to a high
temperature, slowly decompose, giving off acrolein, sl sub-
stance having a disagreeable odor and an irritating effect
upon the mucous linings of the body.
Deep fat frying, when properly done, is not so undesir-
able as formerly believed by many people. If the fat is
not heated to the extreme temperature at which it decom-
poses so that the food does not carry with it this objectionable
acrolein, there is little to be said against fried food for the
adult having a normal digestion. It is the abuse of this
method rather than its use that should be condemned. In
selecting a medium for frying, it is important to consider
the temperature at which decomposition takes place. Olive
oil, considered by many people as the best medium for frying,
may be heated above 600° F. before burning. Crisco and
some of the other compounds will bear much more heat or
about 800° F. Cottolene has a burning point of 450° F.
and lard of about 400° F. Butter has the lowest burning-
point or about 350° F. and is, therefore, not desirable as a
fat for frying.
The temperature of the fat suitable for this method of
cooking ranges from 400° F. to 450° F. according to the
88 FOOD
nature of the article to be cooked. A piece of bread one
inch square will turn a golden brown in one minute in a fat
that is at the right temperature for frying an uncooked
mixture such as doughnuts or fritters, and in forty seconds
when the fat is at the right temperature for a cooked mixture
such as croquettes. Foods likely to absorb fat during this
process of cooking should be protected by a covering of egg
and bread crumbs. The egg coagulates readily and with
the crumbs forms a crust which prevents the soaking up
of fat provided the temperature of the fat is sufficiently high.
147. Preparation of Fats. — Many of the animal fats may
be utilized in combination with other foods. For example,
suet drippings and other hard fats may be tried out, clarified,
and mixed with cottonseed oil or any fat having a low
melting-point. This produces a mixture having a medium
melting-point which may be used in making cakes and pastry.
It may be employed also as a medium for deep fat frying.
At this time when great stress is placed upon the elimina-
tion of waste in the household the use of fats hitherto unused
is extremely important.
148. To Clarify Fat. — Fats may be clarified by adding
slices of raw potato to the fat and heating slowly until it
stops foaming, then cooling and straining through a cloth. If
the fat is small in quantity, add a considerable amount of
boiling water, stir vigorously, and allow to cool. When the
fat has hardened, remove it in a cake from the top of the
water. A sediment will be found on the bottom of the cake
of .fat which may be removed with a knife.
149. Rendering Fats. — To render fat remove the out-
side skin and lean from fat meat and cut the fat in small
pieces. Place the fat in a kettle and cover it with cold
water. Cook slowly in an uncovered vessel until the water
is all evaporated, then reduce the heat and let the fat slowly
try out. When the fat is quiet and the pieces of fatty
tissue are settled at the bottom of the kettle, cool, strain
through a cloth and allow to harden.
FATS AND OILS 89
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. Solubility of Oil in Water. — Pour a teaspoonful
of oil into a test tube and add the same quantity of water. Shake
well and then examine. Set aside for a while and examine again. Is
oil soluble in water?
Experiment 2. Spoon Test for Butter. — Heat a piece of butter
about the size of a bean in a tablespoon, stirring with a toothpick.
Note the amount of foam produced, and the noise made in boiling.
Genuine butter makes very little noise on boiling, but produces much
foam. Renovated butter boils noisily, but it produces little foam,
while oleomargarine boils with more or less sputtering, but produces
no foam.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Render and clarify fats.
Fry in deep fat croquettes, fritters, and French fried potatoes.
Prepare salad dressings: French, boiled and mayonnaise.
CHAPTER XI
MILK
150. Value As Food.— Milk contains all five of the
foodstuffs and on this account is sometimes spoken of as a
perfect food. It is a perfect food only for an infant, for
while it contains all of the nutrients required by the body,
these are not in the right proportion for the nourishment
of an adult. Owing to the large percentage of water which
it contains, it is too bulky; to get the proper amount of
other nutrients a man would have to consume at least eight
pints a day.
TABLE VII.— AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK
Protein 3.3%
Fat 4.0%
Carbohydrates 5.0%
Mineral matter 0 . 7%
Water 87.0%
Milk in normal times is one of the cheapest sources of
animal protein; the amount of protein in one quart of milk
being equal to that in one pound of beef or in eight or nine
eggs. Milk depends largely for its fuel value on the amount
of fat present. Milk with only four per cent of fat will
yield 675 calories per quart; from 97 to 98 per cent of milk
protein is said to be absorbed. The fact that milk has no
waste and may be used without preparation should make it
a very valuable part of the diet. That it is a tissue building
and growth producing food makes it especially valuable
in the feeding of children.
151. Composition. — Milk varies greatly in composition;
much depends upon the breed, age, and food of the cow.
90
MILK
91
The amount of fat present is a good indication of the quaUty
for milk rich in cream is always found to be correspondingly
rich in protein and sugar. Usually the amount of fat sets
the price standard commercially, and most states require
milk to contain 4 per cent of fat.
Protein in milk is represented by casein and albumin.
The casein is different from the albumin in that it contains
phosphorus and sulphur. Casein is coagulated by acid and
rennet. The action of acid is called ''curdling," and that
of rennet, ''clotting." In curdling, the casein is simply
precipitated without undergoing any chemical change ; this
is supposed to be due to the fact that acid separates the
lime salts from the casein, and then it becomes insoluble.
TABLE VIII.— COMPARATIVE FOOD VALL^ OF MILK AND
THE EDIBLE PORTION OF OTHER COMMON FOODS
Refuse.
Water.
Pro-
tein.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydr-
ates.
Miner-
als.
Food
Value,
Calories.
Whole milk, 1 lb. .
0.00
0.87
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.01
325
Skim milk, 1 lb. . .
0.00
0.90
0.04
0.05
0.01
170
Cheese, lib
0.00
0.34
0.26
0.34
0.04
1965
Butter, 1 lb
0.00
0.11
0.01
0.85
0.03
3605
Baef (round), 1 lb.
0.08
0.61
0.18
0.12
0.01
870
Pork (ham), 1 lb. .
0.14
0.35
0.13
0.34
0.04
1655
Wheat bread, 1 lb.
0.00
0.35
0.10
0.01
0.53
0.01
1205
Oatmeal, 1 lb
0.00
0.07
0.16
0.07
0.68
0.02
1860
Dried beans, 1 lb .
0.00
0.13
0.22
0.02
0.59
0.04
1590
Potatoes, 1 lb. . . .
0.15
0.67
0.02
0.15
0.01
325
Albumin is present in very small quantities and is coagu-
lated very slowly when milk is heated.
Fat is represented by cream which is distributed through
the fresh milk in the form of globules, but these, being
lighter than water, rise to the surface as the milk stands.
Commercially speaking, fat is the most important constituent
of the milk as from it butter is made.
92 FOOD
Carbohydrate is represented in milk by the milk sugar
or lactose; this is somewhat different from cane sugar,
as it is not so sweet and does not easily ferment. It is
affected by certain bacteria that split it and produce lactic
acid.
Mineral matter is represented by phosphorus and calcium
compounds in relatively large quantities, and a small amount
of iron.
152. Digestibility. — When milk enters the stomach, it
clots through the action of the rennin present in the stomach.
That it is not curdled through the action of the gastric
juice, which is acid, is probably due to the fact that the
alkaline salts of the milk neutralize the acid first, and so
gives the rennin time in which to act. This clot in some
cases becomes very tough and leathery, and on this account
many people find milk difficult of digestion. The addition
of lime water or an aerated w^ater to the milk is said to be
efficacious in preventing the formation of this tough curd.
If for any reason milk is not digested in the stomach, it is
found to be readily digested in the small intestine. Milk
is constipating when used alone, because the residue left
from it is not sufficiently bulky to produce peristalsis.
Milk does not yield uric acid in the body or produce intes-
tinal putrefaction.
153. The Care of Milk. — The greatest care should be
exercised in handling milk; absolute cleanliness and a low
temperature are essential, because milk furnishes one of the
best mediums for the growth of bacteria. A temperature
of 50 degrees is desirable. Milk should be bottled at the
place of production and kept in contact with ice until it
reaches the consumer. Old milk should never be mixed
with new, and if kept at 50 degrees should remain sweet
at least twelve hours.
154. Skim Milk. — Milk from which the fat or cream
has been removed is called skim milk. The amount of fat
which remains depends upon the method of creaming. With
MILK 93
the exception of fat, skim milk contains all the constituents
of whole milk, and may be used advantageously.
155. Sour Milk. — When milk stands too long or in a
warm place, the bacteria in it rapidly multiply and change
the sugar, or lactose, into an- acid called lactic acid. This
acid acts on the casein, hardening it and giving to spur milk
its characteristic curdled appearance. As the greater por-
tion of lactic acid is formed during the first twenty-four
hours and the process is generally completed in forty-eight
hours, it follows that sour milk should be made use of without
further delay.
156. Certified Milk. — Certified milk is milk that has
been produced under the very best sanitary conditions
and under the supervision of a medical milk commission.
Its cost is about twice that of ordinary milk because of the
extra expense in producing it. It forms less than one per
cent of the milk of commerce.
157. Pasteurized Milk. — Pasteurized milk is milk that
has been heated to a temperature of 140° F. or 145° F., kept
at this temperature twenty to thirty minutes, and then
cooled rapidly. This process does not kill all bacteria, but
is supposed to destroy bacteria of diseases transmissible
by milk, such as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, etc.
158. Sterilized Milk. — This is milk that has been raised
to a temperature sufficiently high to kill all active bacteria
present. In the light of the latest scientific investigations
there is no difference in the nutritive value of boiled and
unboiled milk.
159. Condensed Milk. — Milk from which a large pro-
portion of the water has been evaporated is known as con-
densed milk. The unsweetened or commonly called ''evap-
orated" milk has a creamy consistency, is sold in bottles,
and must be used within a few days. The sweetened has a
large amount of cane sugar, 40 per cent, and being sealed
in tin cans may be kept indefinitely.
160. Milk Powder. — By milk powder is meant milk that
94 FOOD
has been evaporated to a fine white powder. When water
is added, the product resembles ordinary milk and may
be used in cooking.
161. Modified Milk. — Modified milk is cow's milk which
is designed to replace mother's milk in the feeding of infants.
As the proportion of the foodstuffs differ in the two milks,
the cow's milk containing more protein and less sugar than
human milk, this difference is remedied by adding to the
cow's milk lactose, or some digestible carbohydrates such
as rice flour or arrowroot, and a certain amount of sterile
water. The casein of cow's milk is harder to digest on
account of the toughness of the curd formed.
The custom of adding lime water to milk with the mis-
taken idea of increasing the alkalinity of the milk no longer
holds good, as it has been found that lime water decreases
rather than increases this alkalinity, because of the pre-
cipitation of the calcium phosphate.
162. Malted Milk. — Malted milk is a mixture of des-
iccated milk, wheat flour, barley malt, and bicarbonate of
soda. This milk is sometimes found to be more easy of
digestion than ordinary milk; this is due to the fact that the
casein, like that of condensed milk, clots very loosely or
not at all.
163. Milk in Cooking. — The addition of milk to any
recipe greatly increases the nutritive value. Bread made
with milk is much higher in food value than that made
with water. Milk soups are a great source of nitrogenous
material in a diet. White sauces are not only useful nutri-
tively but economically in utilizing left over food. Simple
desserts made principally of milk are highly recommended
dietetically.
164. Butter. — Butter is made from the cream of milk.
The practice of pasteurizing the cream before churning is
to be recommended, not only to eliminate all danger of
disease, but to get rid of the bacteria present so that bacteria
that will produce only the desired acid fermentation may
MILK • * 95
be added. The pleasant flavor and aroma of butter is due
to this fermentation.
TABLE IX.— COMPOSITION OF BUTTER
Fat 84.0%
Casein 1.30%
Moisture 12.73%
Salts. 1.97%
Butter is one of the most easily digested and absorbed
forms of fat. This may be due to the fact that the butter
fat is about 40 per cent olein, a substance which enters
largely into the composition of body fat; also because of
its low melting-point.
Butter is the greatest source of fat in the diet of most
people and is especially valuable in the treatment of such
diseases as phthisis, 'diabetes, etc.
165. Butter Substitutes. — Butter which has stood so
long that it has become rancid may be melted to get rid
of the disagreeable odor and flavor and then rechurned
with fresh milk or cream. The product is known as renovated
butter.
Oleomargarine is made by churning fat together with
milk or milk and cream.
166. Cheese. — Cheese is made from the curd of milk
which undergoes processes of ''ripening," coagulating,
removing whey, salting and pressing.
Cheese may be divided into two classes:
1. Hard: Chedder, Edam, Swiss, Parmesan, Roquefort.
2. Soft: Brie, Camembert, Gorgonzola, Lim.burger,
Neufchatel, Stilton.
Contrary to popular opinion, cheese is not difficult of
digestion if eaten at the proper time and in suitable amounts.
Recent experiments show that 95 per cent of the protein
and more than 95 per cent of the fat is digested and absorbed.
Cheese, like milk, is digested chiefly in the intestines.
Food value. — As cheese is deficient in carbohydrates, its
96 FOOD
food value is greatly increased by serving it with carbo-
hydrate foods such as bread, rice, etc. As it is a highly
concentrated food it is well to use it in combination with such
bulky foods as vegetables. As it is practically the same
type of food as meat, fish, and eggs, it should be used to
replace these articles in a meal, not to supplement them.
If not used in too large quantities, cheese will be found
useful in a diet.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Make butter, cottage cheese, junket, cocoa, and cream soups.
CHAPTER XII
EGGS
167. Structure. — Structurally the egg is divided as
follows :
Shell. — Composed largely of lime and magnesium salts.
White. — Composed of water, protein, ash, and small
amount of fat.
Yolk. — Composed of water, protein, fat, and ash.
Membranes. — (1) The tough skin covering the whole of
the egg under the shell.
(2) The delicate tissue surrounding the yolk.
168. Composition. — Eggs, like milk, contain a large per-
centage of water and an important amount of protein, fat
and mineral salts, but no starch.
The average composition of egg as purchased is water
65.5 per cent; protein 11.9 per cent; fat 9.3 per cent; and
mineral matter 0.9 per cent.
The protein of egg is albumin which is a valuable tissue
building food. White of egg consists of several albumins,
the chief of which is ovalbumin. Popularly, egg white is
called pure albumin. Egg yolk also contains a number of
different proteins, including a large percentage of vitellin
and lecithin which furnish phosphorus in a form available
for the body needs.
The fat of egg is found chiefly in the yolk, and, like
milk fat, exists as an emulsion. Held in solution in the
fat of the egg yolk is found a vitamine ( fat soluble A is the
name given to this substance by scientists), which is essential
for the best growth and development of the body. A
yellow coloring matter called lutein is dissolved in the fat
97
98 FOOD
of the yolk and gives it the characteristic color. This color-
ing depends somewhat upon the nature of the food of the
hens. Pale-colored yolks are thought to indicate a deficiency
in green food.
The chief ash constituents of the egg are phosphorus,
calcium, iron, and sulphur. The yolk of the egg is much
richer than the white in these compounds, which are adapted
to an important part in the building of blood, bone, and
muscle. The edible portion of an egg shows an average
of 0.0030 per cent of iron in forms available for use in the
body. The richness of the egg in iron compounds is one of
the reasons for the early addition of egg to the diet of a
young child.
The high sulphur content of egg, found chiefly in the
albumin of the white, results in an excess of acid forming
elements and makes the egg an acid-forming food. In this
particular, egg resembles meat rather than milk. The
sulphur present forms hydrogen sulphide on the decomposi-
tion of the albumin, giving the bad odor to rotten eggs.
169. Food Value. — An egg of average size will yield
about 75 calories. An egg weighing two and two-third
ounces will yield 100 calories. One pound of egg (eight
eggs of average size) will yield 672 calories or twice as
much as are furnished by an equal weight of milk and
a little less than the calories from a pound of lean meat.
This indicates that eggs at ordinary prices are an economical
substitute for meat. The exceptional nature and* high
food value of the nutrients of egg places it among the indis-
pensable articles of diet in every household and gives it a
prominent place in the dietary of anaemic and tubercular
patients.
170. Digestibility. — Egg protein or albumin is digested
and absorbed as completely as milk protein or case in (97-98
per cent absoibed), and the fat of eggs is digested as thor-
oughly as milk fat. Experiments have shown that eggs
slightly cooked at a temperature below that of boiling water,
EGGS 99
are more easily and quickly digested than those cooked at
a higher temperature. Moderate heat makes the albumin
tender and jelly-like, while strong heat makes it tough,
hard, and dry, in which condition it offers more resistance
to the digestive juices.
171. Selection and Care. — Eggs are divided commercially
into groups according to freshness, appearance, size, cleanli-
ness, and color.
In absolutely fresh eggs, the contents very nearly fill
the shell and the white is jelly-like in consistency and is
practically free from bacteria. As soon as an egg is laid,
the water begins to evaporate through the porous shell,
gradually increasing the size of the air space inside the shell.
As the evaporation continues, this space is being filled with
micro-organisms which set up fermentation and cause the
egg to spoil.
Freshness is determined in various ways. Candling
and the salt solution tests are most frequently employed
where large numbers of eggs are to be examined. Shaking
to determine the fullness of the shell, and observing the
roughness of the shell are the simplest of the household tests.
Candling consists in looking through the egg toward a
bright light and noting the appearance of the contents. A
perfectly fresh egg appears unclouded or translucent, as
is shown at A in Fig. 27. If decomposition has begun, a
dark spot may be observed which gradually increases in
size as shown in B and C. A bad egg or one unfit for use
appears dai'k colored all over as in D.
Crack shelled eggs are easily inoculated with bacteria cr
contaminated by odors and can be kept for only a short
time. They are sold much cheaper and may be used when
it is certain that they are fresh and clean.
Dirty shell eggs are undesirable because they have been
in contact with filth and are liable to be contaminated.
Seconds are the undersize, cracked, or soiled eggs, or those
otherwise unfitted to be classed as first grade.
100
FOOD
Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.
Fig. 27. — Appearance of different grades of eggs before the candle.
EGGS 101
The color of the egg-shell influences somewhat the mar-
ket value but not the food value. Analysis shows that there
is no uniform difference in the properties and food value of
brown-shelled and white-shelled eggs. Brown-shelled eggs
bring the higher price in the Boston markets, while white-
shelled eggs are preferred in the New York markets.
172. Specific Gravity. — At the New York State Experi-
ment Station it was found that the average fresh egg has a
specific gravity of 1.090. The changes in specific gravity
correspond to the changes in water content. As the egg
becomes older its density increases through the evaporation
of water through the pores of the shell.
173. Preservation. — A large percentage of the eggs used
are produced hundreds of miles from the consumer, thus
necessitating safe methods of transporation and preservation.
Eggs designed for shipping long distances should be perfectly
fresh. They should be carefully packed in special cases to
insure freedom from contact with materials having strong
or unpleasant odors. Eggs are most plentiful and cheapest
during April, May, and June, and should then be stored
for use in the winter months.
The methods of preserving eggs may be grouped under
three general classes :
(1) By preventing contact with the air, by immersing
the eggs in a solution of some sort.
(2) By keeping them at a low temperature, as in cold
storage or freezing.
(3) By evaporating the moisture as in drying.
For the individual housekeeper, preventing contact with
the air is probably the most satisfactory. To accomplish
this. pack the eggs in a suitable container and pour over
them a 10 per cent solution of water-glass (sodium silicate)
until the eggs are completely covered. It is claimed that
this method will keep the eggs in a wholesome condition
from four to six months and retain to a surprising degree
the flavor and appearance of freshness. Packing in salt,
102 FOOD
bran, or sawdust, little end down, has been found an adequate
means of preserving eggs for cooking purposes by many-
housekeepers. The object in all these methods is, of course,
to fill the pores of the shell and prevent the evaporation
of the contents.
When fresh eggs are put in cold storage, at a temperature
of 32° to 34° F., they keep for several months with but
slight change in quality and flavor. Eggs should be candled
after removing from cold storage. It is advisable to use
storage eggs soon after they are taken from storage, as they
deteriorate rapidly after changing the temperature con-
ditions. Sometimes eggs are broken and sold in the bulk.
This necessitates freezing and keeping at a temperature of
30° F., or a little below freezing-point.
Broken eggs are often dried or desiccated. The product
is usually ground into a powder. This powder is thoroughly
mixed with water and used in place of fresh eggs.
A number of egg substitutes are on the market. They
are usually a compound of corn starch and casein and do
not really take the place of eggs because they do not furnish
the nutrients which give the egg its prominent place as a
food material.
174. Preparation and Cooking. — Eggs may be cooked
in a variety of ways. In the shell, as soft cooked or hard
cooked; broken and left whole, as baked or poached; beaten,
as in omelet or scrambled egg; or in combination with other
materials, as in puddings, custards, cakes and sauces. In
all cases the effect of heat upon albumin should be kept in
mind. When the white of egg is heated to a temperature of
134° F., it slowly changes to a semi-transparent mass. When
heated to 160° F., it is coagulated or becomes opaque and
more or less solid. The yolk of egg coagulates at a some-
what lower temperature than the white, or about 122° F.
Custards should be poached or baked in a pan of water
which is not allowed to reach the boiling-point, in order
to insure a smooth, jelly-like mass.
EGGS 103
The coagulation of albumin is demonstrated in the use
of egg for clearing coffee. As the coagulated albumin
rises to the surface it carries with it the scattered grounds
and clears the coffee.
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. The Effect of Heat upon Albumin. — (1) Place the
white of an egg in a beaker and heat gradually in a saucepan of
water. Test with a thermometer and note: (a) the temperature at
which it begins to harden; (6) the temperature at which the egg is
completely hardened.
(2) Examine and compare the coagulated albumin in the beaker
in (1) with an equal amount of egg white that has been boiled five
minutes. Draw conclusions as to the temperature at which albumin
should be cooked to make it tender and easily digested.
Experiment 2. Comparison of Lightness of Egg Beaten with a
Dover Beater and with a Swedish Beater. — (a) Beat the white of an
egg with a Dover Beater and measure the product in a standard meas-
uring cup.
(6) Beat another egg with a Swedish beater.
Compare (a) and (6) as to quantity and as to the size of the air
cells.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter
prepare :
Eggs: soft and hard cooked, poached, scrambled, and omelets.
Boiled and baked custards.
CHAPTER XIII
MEATS
175. Structure. — ^Meat, which is the flesh of animals
used for food, is made up of the lean or muscular tissue,
fatty tissue, gristle, and bone.
If a piece of lean meat be examined under the micro-
scope, it will be found to consist of fiber held together in
bundles by a thin membrane which is the connective tissue.
On closer examination these fibers are seen to be hollow
tubes filled with a liquid which is called muscle juice.
176. Kinds. — Meat may be either tender or tough.
Both kinds may come from the same animal, but from
different parts of the creature.
Tender meat comes from the muscles of the animal that
are used but little. There is a minimum amount of con-
nective tissue in tender meat, and it is delicate and easily
broken. The tube walls are also delicate.
Tough meat comes from the muscles of the animal that
are used a great deal. The fibers are coarse and the con-
nective tissue thick and hard.
177. Ripening. — The process known as ripening has much
to do with the texture of meat. Immediately after slaughter-
ing, the meat is juicy and tender, but shortly afterwards a
stiffening of the muscles takes place, probably because the
myosin of the muscle juice clots. The meat must then be
allowed to hang or ripen, during which time an acid is formed.
This acid not only acts as a solvent upon the coagulated
myosin, but also imparts a pleasant flavor to the meat.
178. Composition. — Meat contains:
1. Proteins such as, albumin, myosin, collagen, and
104
MEATS 105
elastin, and also gelatin, which closely resembles true
protein.
2. Fat in varying amounts from 3 per cent as in dried
beef, to 90 per cent in fat pork.
3. Carbohydrates, less than 1 per cent and in the form of
glycogen or muscle sugar.
4. Mineral matter in the form of potash, lime, magnesia,
iron, etc.
5. Water varying from 50 to 75 per cent.
179. Digestibility. — Meat contains the most easily and
quickly digested forms of proteins, 98 per cent of which is
digested and absorbed. Fat is digested according to the
amount eaten, large quantities retarding digestion. The
extractives, which are the substances which give to the
different meats their characteristic flavors, also aid digestion
by stimulating the flow of gastric juice.
180. Food Value. — Because of the high protein content
of meat and the ease with which it is digested, meat has a
high food value. Too much meat, however, may be harm-
ful, probably owing to the fact that the decomposition
products are difficult to eliminate from the body. The
uric acid forming substances are abundant, and meat pro-
tein is very susceptible to intestinal putrefaction. The
fuel value of meat depends to a great extent on the
amount of fat eaten.
181. Selecting Meats. — All meat should come from
healthy, well-fed animals, and should be free from dyes,
chemicals or preservatives that in any way render it unfit
for food. In choosing meat such points as color, texture,
amount of fat, etc., will differ with the different kinds of
meat, but general points to observe are freshness, soundness,
and absence of odor.
182. Cooking. — The way in which meat should be cooked
depends upon whether it is tough or tender. The object
of all cooking is to kill parasites and bacteria, to improve
the flavor and appearance of the meat, and to loosen the
106 FOOD
fibers so that they may be more readily acted upon by the
digestive juices. Tender meat should be so cooked as to
retain the juices. This is accomplished by applying a
high degree of heat at first. This sears the surface of the
meat by coagulating the albumin, thus preventing the
evaporation of the juices.
Tough meat should be so cooked as to soften the con-
nective tissue and change it into gelatin. This is best
accomplished by cooking in water below the boiling-point
for a long time.
183. Methods cf Preserving Meat. — Meat may be pre-
served by refrigeration, freezing, drying, canning, pickling,
smoking, and the use of such preservatives as salt, sugar,
vinegar, and saltpeter. Meat that is to be sold as fresh is
kept in such condition, for a certain length of time, by
simply hanging in the ordinary cold storage room. Certain
states have laws governing the length of tim.e the meat
may be kept.
If meat is to be kept a very long time, it must be frozen —
that is, none of the juices may remain liquid, and the fibers
must be separated by layers of ice. This condition may be
brought about by subjecting the meat to a temperature of
about 15° F. Frozen meat should be thawed very slowly
before cooking, otherwise it will be flabby.
184. Beef. — Beef is more extensively used than any
other kind of meat. Farm cattle are supposed to give a
higher grade of beef than ranch cattle. Good beef has the
following characteristics:
(1) The color is bluish red.
(2) The flesh is firm and elastic, scarcely moistening
the finger when touched.
(3) It is almost odorless.
(4) In the more expensive cuts, the fibers are fine with
very little connective tissue.
(5) The lean part is well marbled with fat.
(6) The fat is firm, clear, and free from spots.
MEATS
107
1. Neck.
2. Chuck.
3. Kibs.
4. Shoulder clod.
5. Fore shank.
6. Brisket.
7. Cross ribs,
8. Plate.
9. Navel.
10. Loin.
11. Flank.
12. liump.
13. Rpund.
14. Second cut round,
15'. Ilind shank.
Fig. 28. — Diagrams of cuts of beef.
108
FOOD
(7) An acid reaction is given to litmus paper. An
alkaline or neutral reaction indicates that some preservative
has been used.
185. Cuts of Beef. —(See Fig. 28.)
(a) Fore Quarter
Part
Uses
1. Neck
Beef tea
2. Chuck
Steaks and Roasts
3. Ribs, 5th and 6th
Roasts
4. Shoulder
Pot Roasts
5. Fore shank
Soup
6. Brisket
Corning
7. Cross ribs
Pot roast
8. Plate
Stewing and corning
9. Navel
Stewing and corning
<
(6) Hind Quarter
Part
Uses
10. Loin
Steaks and roasts
11. Flank
Steak and corning
12. Rump
Steak, roasts, corning
13. Round
Steaks, Beef a la Mode
14. Second cut of round
Pot roast and corning
15. Hind shank
Soups
186. Veal.— Veal
is the
flesh of the calf. Good veal
mes from an animal about two months old. The color
should be dull pink.
A recent investigation as to the comparative food value
of immature veal and mature beef, has brought to light the
fact that the difference in composition between the two
is so slight as to be of no physiological significance. How-
ever, the larger proportion of connective tissue found in the
veal makes it necessary to cook veal slowly for a long time
so that this connective tissue may be softened. When this
MEATS
109
is done the veal has been found to be quite as easily digested,
and as reliable a source of nitrogen, as the beef. This dis-
covery does away with any ground for the old prejudice
against veal as an article of food.
187. Sweetbreads. — Sweetbreads are obtained from
the calf. That known as the heart-bread is the thymus
gland. It is round and much more delicate than the throat-
bread, which is the thyroid gland, and is long and thin.
The pancreas or stomach bread is now used very little.
1.
Nock.
6. Ribs.
2.
Chuck.
7. Loin.
3.
Shoulder.
8. Flank.
4.
Fore shank.
9. Leg.
5.
Breast.
10. Hind shank
Fig. 29. — Diagrams of cuts of veal.
188. Lamb and Mutton. — The best mutton comes from
a sheep about three years old. The flesh should be fine
grained and dull red, while the fat should be white, hard,
dry, rather than oily, and well distributed through the lean.
All lamb should be less than a year old. Spring lamb
is from two to three months old. While the color of the
flesh differs from that of mutton, the better way of judging
between the two is by the bone. In lamb the ends of the
limb bones are separated from the shaft, while in the older
animal the ends become a part of the shaft and form one
bone.
no
FOOD
189. Cuts of Lamb and Mutton. — (a) Hind-quarter:
Leg; loin; flank.
(6) Fore-quarter: Fore ribs; breast; neck.
Loins. — The loins are used for roasts and chops. When
the bone of the rib chop is scraped free from meat, it is a
French chop. The rib chops are considered more delicate
than the loin chops and are more expensive. The loin
1. Neck.
2. Chuck or fore-rib
3. Breast.
4. Flank.
5. Loin.
6. Leg.
Fig. 30. — Diagrams of cuts of lamb.
chops, however, have less bone and are tender and fine in
flavor. Shoulder chops, when not too high in price and
from a good animal, are very satisfactory. ^
Breast and Flank. — In mutton the breast and flank are
used for stewing, while the breast of lamb is used for both
stewing and braising.
Neck. — The neck of both lamb and mutton are used
for stews and broth, and, if lean and juicy, may be used for
casseroles.
MEATS
111
Saddle of Lamb or Mutton. — The saddle is formed by
leaving the two loins joined together, the carcass not being
split. This makes the finest of the mutton roasts.
Crown of Lamb. — This is formed by Frenching several
of the rib chops, then fastening them together to form a
circle. This is roasted and the center filled with vegetables
before serving.
190. Pork. — Pork is the flesh of the hog, and because of
a. Head.
2. Shoulder.
3. Back.
4 Middle cut,
5. Belly.
6. Ham,
7. Ribs.
Loin.
Fig. 31. — Diagrams of cuts of pork.
its indigestibility (owing to the large amount of fat present),
and the possible presence of trichina or bladder worm,
it is less desirable for food than the other meats. Good
pork is pale red and the lean part is firm, while the fat is
soft and oily. Pork should be thoroughly cooked, as this
is the only way of killing any parasites that may be present.
191. Internal Organs Used as Food. — The internal
organs of animals used for food are: Brains; tongue; heart;
kidneys; liver; sweetbreads; tripe.
112 FOOD
Brains are composed largely of fatty material, and,
while very readily digested, are absorbed to such a small
extent (43 per cent) as to make them of slight food value.
Tongue. — While beef tongue is the one that is usually
indicated when the word tongue is used, calf's tongue as well
as lamb's is also used. The latter is usually sold pickled.
Good tongue may be recognized by its thickness and firm-
ness. There should be a plentiful supply of fat on the under
side.
Heart is very much like ordinary meat in com.position,
but being denser in structure it is difficult of digestion unless
made tender by very long cooking.
Liver and Kidneys are very compact in structure and
contain no connective tissue. They are considered difficult
of digestion, and while they contain much protein, it is
in a different form from that found in ordirary meat.
Sweetbreads, also mentioned under veal, page 109, are
cellular in structure, the cells being held together by a loose,
delicate connective tissue. On this account, they are among
the most easily digested of all animal foods.
Tripe is the cleaned and boiled lining of the stomach
of the beef animal. It is largely composed of connective
tissue. This may be changed by boiling into gelatin and so
made very digestible. Tripe has considerable fat, but owing
to the absence of extractives, has but little flavor.
192. Gelatin. — Gelatin is obtained from bones, tendons,
connective tissue, skin, and from calves' feet. When pure,
gelatin has no odor or taste and is transparent and spark-
Hng.
Composition. Gelatin is something like protein in com-
position and is very digestible. Unlike protein it is not
capable of building tissue, but is sometimes used as a pro-
tein sparer because the body can make use of it in the pro-
duction of heat and energy, thus sparing the more valuable
forms of protein. It is much more easily broken down
than the other proteins.
MEATS 113
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. Effect of Cold Water upon Meat.— (a) Cut raw
beef into very small pieces and allow it to stand in cold water. Ob-
serve the change in the color of the water and of the meat. Explain.
(6) Strain off the water from (a) and heat it slowly in a glass beaker.
Observe and account for any change in color and the presence of solid
particles in the water.
Experiment 2. Effect of Boiling Water upon Meat. — (a) Place
small piece of beef in a saucepan of rapidly boiling water. Does the
water change color as in the above experiment? Why?
Account for the hard surface of the meat, and the change in color
of the outside.
Experiment 3. Effect of Nitric Acid on Beef Juice. — Squeeze
some of the juice from raw beef and add to it a small amount of nitric
acid. Account for the result.
Experiment 4. Effect of Dry Heat upon Tough Meat. — Scrape a
piece of raw beef until only the connective tissue remains. Place
the tissue on a hissing hot pan and observe. Explain.
Experiment 5. Effect of Slow Cooking in Water below the Boiling
Point on Tough Meat. — Cook a small piece of beef at 180° F. until the
fibres can be torn apart. Explain the easy separation of the fibres.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
Cook tender meat; boil and pan broil steak and lamb chops.
Cook tough meat; make soup stock, and brown stew.
Use left-over meat in meat-pie, hash, and sandwiches.
CHAPTER XIV
POULTRY AND GAME
193. Poultry. — The domestic birds used for food are
chickens, fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks, guinea fowls, and
pigeons.
194. Game. — The more common wild birds and animals
hunted for food are wild geese, wild ducks, quail, partridge,
reed birds, squirrels, rabbits, and deer.
195. Composition. — In poultry and game, as in all other
flesh foods, protein and fat are the important nutrients.
The white meat or breast of chicken and turkey, has practi-
cally the same protein content but is poorer in fat than the
dark meat. Also the flesh of a young bird yields more
protein and less fat than the flesh of a fowl.
Poultry contains, pound for pound, a little more of the
building material needed by the body and less of the energy-
giving materials than the red meats, beef and mutton.
However, poultry compares favorably with meat in the
amount of available nutrients furnished and is interchange-
able with fish and meat in the diet. Chicken is the cheapest
kind of poultry and in the matter of economy is comparable
with the cheaper cuts of beef and mutton. It also offers
an agreeable variety to the diet and should be used in place
of meat or fish as the main course of the dinner.
At the present time game animals and birds are con-
sidered a luxury, and as such are not an important part of
the food supply of the country. Game is considered best
after it has hung for some time or until it may be called
^'high."
196. Digestibility. — From the viewpoint of complete-
114
POULTRY AND GAME 115
ness of digestion, poultry and game may be rated with the
other flesh foods. If considering the relative ease of diges-
tion, chicken is more digestible than lean meat, while duck
and goose, because of the larger percentage of fat, are on a
par with pork. The light meat, or breast of chicken, is
composed of shorter and more tender fibres, contains less
connective tissue and usually less fat than the dark meat,
such as leg muscles. For these reasons light meat is pre-
ferable for children and persons having weak digestions.
197. Selection. — The breed of fowl, as well as the sur-
roundings and food, have an influence upon the economy,
wholesomeness and quality of the flesh. Birds having
plump breasts and rounded legs are more economical as well
as better flavored than the large boned fowls bred for laying
qualities alone. The flesh of poultry allowed to roam the
fields and feed upon all kinds of food is inferior in flavor
and quality to the flesh of chickens fed upon grain or pre-
pared food.
198. Picking. — The best grade of poultry is dry picked.
Scalding is an easier way of removing the feathers, but by
this method some of the flavor is lost, while from 8 to 10
per cent of water is added for which the consumer must pay
food prices. If the bird has been dry picked, the flesh
is plump, the skin is flexible, and the fat on the breast is
yellow. A scalded chicken has a smooth, tight-stretched
skin, often rubbed in places, and the legs are hard to bend
back.
The animal heat should be removed as soon as the
fowl is picked. This should be done by hanging in cool
dry air for about twenty-four hours. Poultry should be
shipped in refrigerator cars and kept cool and dry.
199. Chickens. — Young and tender chicken may be
recognized by smooth legs, a soft thin skin, and a flexible
breast bone. Rough legs, heavy blunt claws, thick rough
skin, and a hard breast bone all indicate age in a fowl.
The season for broilers (chicken from two to four months
116 FOOD
old) is from May to October. Roasting chickens are in
the market from September to December, inclusive. Those
bought at other seasons are probably cold storage birds.
200. Selecting Turkeys. — Turkeys under one year old
have black feet, a thin skin, and a flexible breast bone.
The season for fresh turkeys begins in November and ends
in late February. Turkeys weighing from fourteen to
twenty pounds are preferred to the larger and heavier
birds. The choicest and finest turkeys in the market are
dry picked, and are delivered without packing in ice.
201. Ducks and Geese. — Spring ducks and geese begin
to reach the markets in May and may be had until January.
Old ducks and geese may be obtained any season of the year.
White Pekin ducks are valued highly for table use. They
weigh from six to eight pounds when at their best. Geese
at sixteen to eighteen pounds weight are considered prime.
202. Squab. — Young pigeons, called squab, are prime
for eating when about four weeks old. Eight pounds to
the dozen is the standard weight for squab. They are most
plentiful in the summer months, but may be obtained all
the year around.
Pigeons, which are rarely seen in the markets, are much
cheaper than squab. The flesh of the pigeon requires
special cooking to make it tender and palatable.
203. Guinea Fowls. — Young guinea fowls are ready for
market in the early fall. Old fowls are in the market all
winter. The flesh of the guinea fowl is darker in color
than that of the common fowl, and the fibres are shorter.
The demand for guinea fowl for table use is increasing. In
flavor the fl€sh resembles that of game birds.
204. Preparation of Poultry. — The average housekeeper
prefers to have her poultry drawn (i.e. internal organs
removed) at the market. Directions for the proper pro-
cedure may be found in any reliable cook book in case they
are to be prepared at home.
Boiling, stewing, roasting and broiling are the methods
POULTRY AND GAME 117
of cooking commonly used with poultry. In any method
the heat of cooking develops the flavors, kills micro-organisms
and produces changes which render the meat more appetiz-
ing by improving the flavor and appearance. Long, slow
cooking, which softens the muscle fibres and connective
tissue, should be used with old and tough birds. Roasting
and broiling are the methods of cooking employed for young
and tender birds. In these processes the flesh is subjected
to a high temperature at first in order to harden the protein
near the surface. This forms a crust which prevents the
further escape of the juices. After this crust has been
formed, the temperature should be reduced to allow the heat
to penetrate to the center without burning the outside.
Frequent basting, or pouring the escaped juices over the
roasting meat, helps to form a coating over the surface.
In roasting poultry the cavity is usually filled with stuf-
fing or dressing. This stuffing is a highly seasoned mixture
which serves the purpose of seasoning the bird and keeping
it in shape. Some chefs prefer to roast birds without
stuffing, contending that the juices of the meat are drawn
out by this dressing, leaving the white meat of the breast
dry and lacking in flavor.
A general rule for the roasting of chickens and turkeys
is to allow twenty minutes to the pound for cooking. Ducks
and geese, because of the amount of fat, require a longer
time for the cooking process.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Stuff and roast fowl.
Broil chicken.
Fricassee of chicken.
FrieS chicken.
CHAPTER XV
FISH
205. Quality and Flavor. — Fish, like meat, is a protein
food, but unlike meat it is from one-third to two-thirds
refuse and its flesh has a very large amount cf water. Fish
may come from fresh or salt water; those of much size
usually come from lakes and the ocean, those of medium
size from rivers, and very small ones are obtained from
brooks.
The quality and flavor of fish depend upon various
factors, chief of which are: The season, the kind of water
in which they live, the substances upon which they feed,
the method of capture and the way in which they are
killed.
Most fish are best just before spawning, when they
are said to be in season. During spawning, fish are likely
to become flabby, with a few exceptions, such as shad and
herring, which are at their best at such times.
Fish that live in deep, clear, cool water with a rocky or
sandy bottom are superior to those that live in warm,
shallow water having a muddy bottom. Fish which feed
upon Crustacea and plant substance are preferable to those
which feed upon sewage products.
Fish should be killed immediately upon being removed
from the water, for if allowed to die slowly, rapid decom-
position results.
206. Composition. — While fish resembles meat in com-
position and contains the same foodstuffs, there is a dif-
ference in the amounts present. The flesh of meat has
a much higher percentage of fat than that of fish. The
118
FISH 119
form of protein known as collagen (a substance which yields
gelatin on boiling) exists in greater abundance in fish
than in meat. Fish, unlike meat, is deficient in extractives
and haemoglobin, which explains the absence of flavor and
color in this food. Mineral matter is present to the extent
of about 5 per cent, and occurs in the form of phosphates
of potash and lime with some sodium chloride. As most
fish lack carbohydrates, they should be eaten in combination
with some starchy food.
207. Digestibility. — ^Fish is supposed to be more easily
digested than meat, doubtless due to the fact that the
fibres are short and easily separated. Those kinds con-
taining the smallest amount of fat are the most digestible.
The accumulation of uric acid in the system is apt to be
much less on a fish than on a meat diet.
208. Choosing Fish. — While the ideal way is to keep
fish alive in pools of cool water until just before cooking,
this unfortunately is usually impossible. Most market
fish are packed in ice after having been killed, and so kept
until sold. Cold storage fish are frozen solid and kept in
this condition until sold. Just how much this treatment
affects the taste and wholesomeness of the fish has not yet
been determined, but fish so treated, if not cooked immedi-
ately after thawing, are very likely to develop ptomaines.
In choosing fish see that the eyes are full and bright, the
gills red, the flesh firm and stiff with no disagreeable
odor.
209. Cooking. — ^Any method of cooking which is appli-
cable to meat may also be applied to fish. The sooner
fish is cooked after it is caught the finer the flavor. Boiling
is considered the least economical method of cooking fish,
as experiment has shown that when so cooked the loss in
weight is between 5 and 30 per cent. If vinegar or other
acid is added to the water in which fish is boiled, the protein
hardens more quickly and the fish is prevented from falhng
apart. Fish is cooked sufficiently when the flesh becomes
120 FOOD
dry and opaque and separates easily from the bone. Serving
fish with lemon or some piquant sauce improves its flavor
and makes it acceptable to many who otherwise find it
tasteless and insipid.
210. Preserving.— Large quantities of fish are preserved
by canning, drying, smoking, and salting. The methods
of canning have now reached such a degree of perfection
that much of the original flavor of the fish is retained.
Canned fish is economical, as the greater part of the refuse
has been removed before canning.
Dried fish usually loses about 30 per cent of its water
during the process of drying. Pound for pound therefore,
it is more nutritious than fresh fish.
211. Common Food Fish. — Fish are sometimes classified
according to the amount of fat which they contain.
(1) Those containing more than 5 per cent of fat are:
salmon, shad, herring, Spanish mackerel, and butter fish.
(2) Those containing between 2 and 5 per cent of fat are :
white fish, mackerel, mullet, halibut, and porgy.
(3) Those containing less than 2 per cent of fat are:
smelts, black bass, blue fish, hake, flounder, yellow perch,
pike, pickerel, sea bass, cod and haddock.
212. Specially Prepared Fish. — Sardines, so named
because they were first found off the coast of Sardinia,
belong to the herring family and sometimes small herrings
are substituted for them. Sardines are used fresh in Europe
but only canned in oil in the United States.
Sturgeon known as white or Oregon sturgeon are found
on the Pacific coast. Some are very large and until quite
recently were appreciated only for their eggs or roe, from
which caviar is made. Caviar is prepared by removing the
eggs from the fish, then rubbing them to separate them
and remove the membrane which envelops them. A certain
amount of salt is then added, the first effect of which is to
dry the eggs, but after a time the salt draws the water
from the eggs and forms a brine. This brine is poured off
FISH
121
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122 FOOD
and the eggs are allowed to drain from eight to twenty hours
after which they are put in cans. The caviar is prized for
its flavor and for its food value, which is about the same as
that of the fish itself. In the roe is found lecithin which is
a phosphorized fat.
213. Unusual Types of Fish Tested and Recommended
by the Bureau of Fisheries. — Burhet. — This fish, though
little known, belongs to the same family as the cod and is
the only one of that family which is found in fresh water.
The flesh is firm, white and fine in flavor, and as it comes
to the market skinned, dressed, and without the head, it
may be considered a very cheap food.
Bowfin. — This is very good smoked and salted.
Catfish. — While not generally appreciated catfish has
been found to have a very high calorific value as food.
One pound of it yields eleven hundred calories.
Sablefish. — Sablefish is sometimes called black cod. This
fish is fine in texture and of delicious flavor. Although it
comes from the deep waters of the Pacific, it can be very
successfully shipped, and so can be obtained frozen as far
east as New England.
Gray fish. — Gray fish is now appearing fresh in all markets
along the coast but it is very good canned or smoked, and
may be so obtained anywhere.
Tile fish were first discovered off the coast of Nantucket,
in 1879, but while its food value was being determined and
before it could be placed upon the market, it was completely
exterminated, supposedly by a sudden chilling of the waters
brought about by the receding of the Gulf Stream. With
the return of this current some years later, the fish again
appeared, and it is hoped that with an increasing knowledge
of its great food value, its abundance at all seasons, and the
ease with which it is captured, it may now become of great
importance in the fresh fish market.
214. Shell Fish. — Under the general name of shell fish
are included:
FISH 123
(a) The mollusks. — Oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels.
(6) The crustaceans. — Lobsters, crabs, and shrimps.
Shell fish, like other fish, are used as a source of protein
in the diet. Unlike the others they contain the carbo-
hydrate substance glycogen which somewhat increases their
food value. They are expensive, and with few exceptions
are difficult of digestion.
215. Oysters. — Oysters, which are perhaps the most
used of the shell fish, are found in salt water. They vary
in size according to the variety, and are not eaten until
they are at least two years old. Oysters were formerly
named from the locality from which they came but that
custom no longer prevails. For example, Blue Points were
originally a small variety which came from Long Island,
New York. Now any small variety not measuring more
than two or two and a half inches is commonly so-called.
Saddle rock is a name given to very large oysters.
Season oysters are at their best from September to May
on the Atlantic coast. They should be eaten as soon as
they are removed from the shell. The practice of opening
large quantities at a time and keeping them in tubs until
purchased is to be deplored.
Floated oysters are those that have been treated with
fresh water in order to increase their size. They usually
lose flavor by this treatment, owing to the loss of some of
their natural salts. There is danger also of their being
contaminated.
While oysters are more easily digested when eaten without
cooking the ease with which they transmit disease germs
makes this a dangerous practice. Slight cooking is advisable.
Long cooking toughens the oyster and renders it indigestible.
216. Clams. — There are two varieties of clams, the
long, or soft clams, always used in the famous New England
clambake, and the round, or hard clam, usually to be found
in the markets south of New York.
Little Neck clams are a very small round variety noted
124 FOOD
for their fine flavor. They are usually eaten raw and take
the place of oysters when the latter are not in season. The
composition of clams is about the same as that of other fish
but many people find difficulty in digesting them.
217. Mussels. — Mussels resemble oysters, but the shell
is smoother and they are found in fresh water. They are
not very palatable and are not extensively used.
218. Lobsters. — Lobster is highly prized for its sweet
flavor which is due to the large amount of glycogen that it
contains. It is very expensive, as about 50 per cent of it
is refuse, and is considered indigestible mainly on account
of the coarseness and density of its fibres.
219. Crabs. — Crabs are classified as hard shelled and
soft shelled. Soft shelled crabs are those which have recently
shed their shell. The flesh of the crab is more delicate
than the flesh of the lobster.
220. Shrimps. — Shrimps are high in food value, one-
fourth their weight being made up of protein. The tail is
the only portion eaten. They are usuaUy used canned.
221. Terrapin. — Terrapin is a turtle-like reptile found
in the salt water of bays and lagoons. It is valuable for
the delicacy of its flesh as well as for its fine flavor and
digestibility. It is scarce and very expensive. The diamond
back is considered the choicest variety.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Broil mackerel; bake bluefish; boil cod; make clam chowder;
scallop oysters, fry scallops.
Prepare hollandaise, tartar, and egg sauce.
CHAPTER XVI
MINERAL MATTER
222. Definition. — The term mineral matter or ash is
applied to those substances found in food that are produced
by the combination of the elements calcium, phosphorus,
iron, sodium, potassium, magnesium, chlorine, silica, iodine,
and flourine with food materials.
223. Function in Body. — These substances are essential
as body builders and as body regulators. In the first instance
they — especially the compounds of calcium — furnish the
very important elements which enter into the formation
of the bones, teeth, hair, and nails. In the absence of these
elements the bones lose their rigidity and the muscles lack
the ability to contract.
As body regulators mineral substances are particularly
valuable to certain fluids of the body, notably the blood,
which owes to the iron in the haemoglobin its power of
holding oxygen and conveying it to other tissues in the
body. To the presence of calcium the blood owes its power
of coagulation. The blood, as well as other tissue depends
primarily upon these mineral substances, for alkalinity.
In experiments to determine the effect upon the body of an
ash-free diet (that is a diet of fats, carbohydrates and protein
from which all mineral matter has been extracted), it was
found that, in the absence of the bases or alkaline salts of
the usual ash containing diet, the mineral acids resulting
from the oxydation of food as well as from the body meta-
bolism, were neutralized so slowly that the abnormal con-
dition known as acidosis resulted. The solvent power
and the power of osmosis (ability to pass through an animal
125
126 FOOD
membrane) possessed by many fluids of the body, depends
upon the presence of these mineral substances.
224. Sources of Mineral Matter. — The mineral sub-
stances required by the body are usually found in combina-
tion with other foodstuffs and, as a rule, pass into the blood
unchanged by digestion. It is difficult to fix the exact
amount of mineral matter required daily, but a well-known
authority states that only three forms need special con-
sideration. These are calcium, iren, and phosphorus.
Other forms of mineral matter probably occur in sufficient
quantities in any intelligently planned diet.
Calcium. — The body contains about 2 per cent of cal-
cium which should be maintained by the food. The mini-
mum amount required daily is 0.7 gram for an adult. A
larger amount should be supplied in the food of a growing
child to furnish material for the growth of bones and teeth.
Calcium helps in the utilization of iron and has been called
the ' 'body's great harmonizer."
Iron. — ^The body of average weight contains approxi-
mately 3 grams of iron. This should be furnished in organic
form, as it is only the iron in food that can be utilized in
building body tissue. Iron in inorganic or medicinal form
has been found to act only as a stimulant in aiding the
body to manufacture haemoglobin from food iron. It is,
therefore, effective only when combined with foods having
a high iron content. Iron is more necessary in the diet of
women and children than in that of men.
Phosphorus. — The approximate amount of phosphorus
required daily is 4 grams furnished in different compounds.
The appearance of this element as phosphorized fat in the
brain has probably led to the erroneous belief that foods
rich in phosphorus are essentially brain foods.
Sodium Chloride, or common salt, is the only form of
mineral matter usually added directly to the food. Often
more is used than is necessary or advisable. Salt helps in
the production of the hydrochloric acid of the stomach,
MINERAL MATTER 127
stimulates the appetite, and produces the thirst which
encourages the drinking of more water than many would
otherwise take.
TABLE XI —FOODS RICH IN MINERAL MATTER
Weight in ounces of 100 calorie portion
Almonds ^ oz.
Beans (dried) 1 oz.
Beef (lean) 2^ oz.
Carrots 7j oz.
Cheese (cottage) 3j oz.
Chocolate | oz.
Egg yolk 1 oz. (2 yolks)
Lentils 1 oz.
Milk (whole) 5 oz.
Oatmeal 1 oz.
Peanuts f oz.
Prunes 1^ oz.
Raisins 1 oz.
Salmon If oz.
Spinach 14f oz.
Turnips 9 oz.
Whole wheat 1^ oz.
Lettuce 18| oz.
225. Vitamines. — The name vitamines, meaning "essen-
tial to life/' has been given to a group of substances about
which little is definitely known. Attention was first directed
to these substances when it was shown experimentally that
artificial mixtures of the chemical compounds, no matter
how scientifically selected and combined, failed to promote
growth in young animals, but that, by adding to these
compounds minute quantities of such foods as egg yolk,
milk, butter and cereals, growth was at once stimulated
and proceeded in a normal way. This led to the belief
that there must be in natural food something besides pro-
tein, fat carbohydrate, mineral matter and water.
The form in which these vitamines exist is still a matter
of doubt. Some authorities hold that, as they exist in
128 FOOD
combination with fats, they are themselves of a lipoid or
fatty nature. Others claim that the fat may serve only
the purpose of holding them until called for by the body.
226. Function of Vitamines in the Body. — One form of
these vitamines, which has been found to be soluble in fat,
has a direct effect upon body growth. This form is present
in the fat of milk, eggs, butter, cod liver oil, muscle fat,
and in smaller amount in such cereal germs as those of
oats, rice, corn, and wheat.
A second form, which is found to be soluble in water
and alcohol, is supposed to have some marked effect upon
nerve tissue and nerve activity. This form is found in eggs,
meat, milk, and the outer layers, of bran, wheat, rice,
corn, and oats.
While these vitamines are required only in small amounts,
their absence has a disastrous effect upon the process of
nutrition. Therefore, foods treated in such a way as to
diminish their vitamine content should not be depended
upon exclusively for nourishment. Such processes as can-
ning, drying, boiling (in some cases, as for example milk),
as well as long keeping and too great refining diminish
the vitamines.
CHAPTER XVII
BEVERAGES
Besides water there are a number of beverages which
are taken mainly for their pleasant flavor and stimulating
effect. Tea, coffee, chocolate, and cocoa belong to this
class.
227. Tea. — Tea is made from the leaves and buds of a
Fig. 32.— Tea plant. (Bailey.)
species of evergreen shrub. Fig. 32, which grows from 3 to 6
feet in height. The cultivation of the tea plant is an im-
portant industry in China, Japan, India, and Ceylon. It
promises to become a considerable factor in the industries
of the Southern States, where the climate is fairly well
suited to the growth of tropical plants.
228. Composition of Tea. — The chemical constituents
of tea are found to be principally an alkaloid, formerly
called theiney but now known as caffein, and said to be
129
130 FOOD
identical with the same substance found in coffee, tannin,
certain volatile oils, and mineral matter in the form of
oxalates.
Caffein is mildly stimulating to the nerves and is easily
dissolved in boiling water.
Tannin, an astringent substance found also in certain
fruits and vegetables, is less easily dissolved in boiling
water. Upon this fact depends the principle of tea infusion.
229. Classes of Tea. — There are two general classes of
tea, black and green. The two kinds may be made from
the same leaves, the main difference being in the process
of curing.
Black tea is prepared by allowing the leaves to stand
and ferment before they are dried. This changes the color
and flavor and renders the tannin less soluble. An infusion
of green tea therefore contains more tannin than a like
infusion of black tea.
Green tea is made by drying the leaves quickly while yet
fresh. A green tea infusion has a pale color and a less
pungent odor.
230. Grades of Tea. — The choice brands of tea are
made from the very young buds and leaves. The older
and larger leaves form the less desirable and cheaper quali-
ties. The finest quality of China tea is flowery pecoe, made
from the leaf buds. The
next larger leaves form orange
\ pecoe, the still older and
^ larger leaves pecoe, and the
largest leaves a still lower
grade called souchong.
231. Adulterants of Tea.
Fig. 33.-Tea leaf. _^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ shipped into
this country is tested before it is distributed to make sure
that it comes up to the prescribed standard of purity.
Coloring matters are sometimes used to improve the appear-
ance of the tea leaves. These are also frequently used on
BEVERAGES
131
spent leaves, or tea that has been infused, to give it the
appearance of fresh leaves. Probably the usual way of
adulterating tea is by the addition of foreign leaves or
leaves resembling the tea leaf in size and shape. The
expert can detect these upon close examination, for the
Courtesy oj Bleeckers & Simon.
Fig. 34.— Coffee plant.
veining and midrib of the tea leaf are peculiar to this partic-
ular plant, see Fig. 33.
232. Coffee. — Coffee is the fruit of a shrub or tree
which under cultivation grows from 7 to 16 feet in height.
The fruit. Fig. 34, resembles a cherry, the beans correspond-
ing to the pit. T\yo beans grow, flat sides together, in the
pulp, enclosed in a tough hull. The fruit is dried and the
husk removed from the berries.
132 FOOD
The coffee growing countries rank, according to the
amount produced, as follows :
(1) Brazil, which furnishes more than half of the world's
supply.
(2) Mexico and Central America.
(3) Africa and Arabia.
(4) Asia.
Caffein and tannin, mentioned under tea, are equally
important constituents of coffee. In addition to these and
of equal importance, may be considered the volatile oil
caffeol, which imparts to coffee its characteristic flavor and
aroma.
233. Mocha and Java Coffee. — The terms Mocha and
Java no longer indicate the source of the coffee, but
are simply trade names signifying the quality of the
blend.
234. Preparation of Coffee. — For use as a beverage, the
coffee beans must first be roasted and then ground. The
degree of fineness to which they should be ground depends
upon the method of preparing the beverage. In finely
ground coffee the cells are opened and the aromatic oils
are dissolved by boiling water. It is generally maintained
that the longer coffee beans are kept before roasting the
better, but that after the roasting and grinding processes
take place the flavor escapes in the air and the mixture
deteriorates rapidly. Hence, when possible, it is desirable
to roast only small quantities at a time and to grind only
for immediate use. Roasting develops the caffeol and
must be done with care to prevent the burning of the smaller
or more immature berries. When this occurs, a bitter taste
is imparted to the whole mixture.
235. Substitutes and Adulterants for Coffee. — Chief
among the coffee substitutes are the cereal coffees of which
Postum is typical. Kaffee Hag and de Koffer are both prep-
arations of the coffee bean after the greater part of the
caffein has been extracted. It is believed that these prepara-
BEVERAGES
133
tions may be used safely by persons unable to stand the
stimulating effect of true coffee.
Chicory is the common adulterant of coffee, although
dried peas, beans, and grains are added to ground coffee
to increase the amount. The inferior beans are also coated
or glazed with substances that will improve their appear-
ance.
236. Chocolate and Cocoa. — Chocolate and cocoa are
made from the cocoa bean, which
is the seed of a native Central
American tree. The fruit of the
cocoa tree. Fig. 35, grows about
10 inches long and 4 inches thick
and has imbedded in the pulp 20
to 40 seeds about the size of ordi-
nary almonds. When the fruit
matures, these seeds are removed
and dried by the heat of the sun.
The next step in the manufac-
ture of chocolate is that of roast-
ing and the removing of the
shells. After this is done the
beans are coarsely crushed to
form cocoa nibs. The nibs are ground extremely fine, form-
ing a thick paste which, when allowed to cool, hardens
into a firm mass or cake.
Cocoa is the finely ground form of chocolate after most
of the fat has been removed by pressure.
Chocolate and cocoa contain a stimulating principle
closely related to caffein although milder in action, called
theobromin. In addition to quite a high percentage of fat,
the cocoa bean contains about 15 per cent of starch, a small
amount of protein, and mineral matter. These give choco-
late and cocoa a distinct food value. The fat, when
extracted, is known as cocoa butter and is used in toilet
preparations.
Fig. 35. — Cocoa beans.
134 FOOD
237. Effects of Tea, Coffee and Cocoa on the Body. —
The food value of tea and coffee is due to the cream and
sugar added rather than to the nutrients found in these
compounds.
The exciting and stimulating effect of tea, coffee, and
cocoa is due to the caffein or similar compounds present.
A cup of hot tea, by its agreeable flavor and stimulating
action upon the body, dispels the feeling of fatigue. This
stimulating effect upon the heart, kidneys, and nervous
system varies with different people. In some cases the
reaction of the stimulant is not noticeable, in others the
action of the heart is increased very perceptibly. This
increased action of the heart has a direct effect upon the
secretions of the cells of the kidneys.
Tannic acid in excessive amounts precipitates the
pepsin of the gastric juice. This interferes with the diges-
tion of protein foods. The small amounts of tannic acid
occurring in properly made tea and coffee can do no more
than to retard the digestive process. In some cases this
might be desirable. For example a cup of black coffee after a
hearty dinner delays the action of the juices upon protein
foods and at the same time allows others to be digested
in the normal manner.
The volatile oils of tea and coffee affect the body in
slightly different ways. Those in the former tend to open
the pores of the skin and keep the body moist, while those
of the latter tend to have the opposite action. This explains
why tea is given to warm the body when cold, by increasing
the circulation, and to cool it when heated by increasing
the surface evaporation.
Such beverages as chocolate and cocoa have a definite
nutritive value in themselves, which is increased materially
by the milk, cream, and sugar used in their preparation.
The mild action of the stimulating principle theobromin
makes cocoa a more desirable drink for children. Tea and
coffee, because of their irritating effect upon the delicate
BEVERAGES 135
mucous membrane of the digestive tract and their stimulat-
ing action upon the heart and nervous system, are con-
sidered most harmful to yoimg persons.
EXPERIMENTS
Experiment 1. Test for the Presence of Chicory in Coffee. — Add
one teaspoonful of the ground suspected coffee to a glass of cold water.
If chicory is present, it will make a brown streak as it sinks to the
bottom of the glass.
Experiment 2. To Detect Coffee Substitutes. — (a) Add a table-
spoonful of the ground coffee to a glass of water and note the length of
time it remains on top of the water. Coffee will float for some time,
as it contains a little oil. Coffee substitutes are heavier than the
coffee and quickly sink to the bottom of the glass.
(6) Many of the substitutes contain starch, which gives the char-
acteristic blue test with iodine. Boil one tablespoonful of coffee in one
cup of water for three minutes. Filter and cool, and then add a few
drops of iodine. The appearance of a blue color indicates the presence
of starch.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter,
prepare:
Tea and coffee.
Fruit punches.
CHAPTER XVIII
CONDIMENTS AND OTHER FOOD ACCESSORIES
238. Value. — Condiments and other food accessories
do not, as a rule, have a definite food value. That is, they
do not supply building material or furnish energy to the
body, although they may be considered body regulating
substances in that they stimulate the flow of the digestive
juices. For this reason they may be counted as essential
constituents of the normal diet. Many foods, otherwise
insipid, are made palatable by the addition of simple con-
diments to produce a pleasing flavor.
239. Salt. — Salt is probably the only condiment that is
absolutely necessary for the maintenance of health. Salt
is obtained in various ways, chiefly by mining rock salt
or by pumping brine out of salt wells, salt lakes, or the ocean,
and evaporating it in the sun. This crude product is refined
for use. About nine-tenths of the large yearly output of
this country comes from New York, Michigan, Kansas
and Ohio.
It has been demonstrated by experiments that high
grade or dairy salt is nearly pure (97 to 99 per cent) sodium
chloride. For table use, salt is frequently mixed with
starch or some other substance to keep it from gathering
moisture from the air. In this event the product should
be and usually is labeled to show this addition.
240. Vinegar. — Vinegar is one of the most useful of the
unclassified foods. Its flavor is stimulating and its action
in softening the fibres of tough meat and the tough cellulose
of green vegetables is illustrated in the use of vinegar in
preparing mint sauce for lamb, and in French dressing to
be eaten with salad.
136
CONDIMENTS AND OTHER FOOD ACCESSORIES 137
The original term 'Vinegar," meaning only a wine
product, has come to have a broader meaning and to include
the cider, malt, and sugar products.
Cider vinegar is made from the juice of apples. This
ferments on standing and produces acetic acid. Cider
vinegar is yellow or brownish in color and has the odor of
apples. It also contains the malic acid of the apple juice.
Wine vinegar is a similar product made from the juice
of grapes. For table use white wine vinegar, from the
white grape, is considered superior to the red, which is
made from the juice of the purple grape. Tartaric acid,
the characteristic acid product of the grape, is found in
wine vinegars.
Sugar vinegar is the result of the fermentation of sugar,
syrup, or molasses solutions.
241. Spices. — Most spices owe their characteristic taste
and odor to the presence of some one of the volatile oils.
Since their chief effect is to stimulate the appetite, their use
is not advised in the diet of children.
Ground spice is more often adulterated than whole spice.
The detection of finely ground foreign matter, such as
flour or other starchy or fibrous materials, is rather difficult
in the ground products. Whole spices are frequently
adulterated by removing a part of the important constituents
of the berries.
Allspice is the dried fruit of an evergreen tree grown
in the West Indies. The berries are gathered when full
grown but while they are still green. Allspice receives its
name from its resemblance in taste to a mixture of ground
cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg.
Anise is the seed of a plant of the parsley family native
to Africa but now cultivated elsewhere. It is used in breads
and other foods.
Bay Leaf is the dried aromatic leaf of a species of laurel.
Capers are the dried flower buds of the caper plant. This
bush, a native of Southern Europe, grows from 3 to 5 feet
138 FOOD
in height. The flower buds are gathered when about the
size of a pea and are preserved by pickHng in vinegar.
Celery seeds obtained from the common plant are used
as a seasoning substance either ground or in the form of an
extract.
Cinnamon is the inner bark of a small tree grown in
Ceylon. It has an agreeable odor and flavor and is used as
a medicine as well as a flavoring matter.
Cloves are the dried flower buds of the clove tree, an
evergreen grown in the West Indies and other places.
Ginger is the starchy root of a plant of Southern Asia.
Ginger is, therefore, a food as well as a condiment. The
rhizome, or underground stem, is dried and sold as root
ginger, or ground finely, for powdered ginger. The young
roots are sometimes cooked and preserved in syrup for the
preserved ginger of the market, or crystallized by boiling
in sugar.
Nutmeg is the dried seed of the fruit of the nutmeg tree.
The unground nut is commonly used, the spice grated into
the food as desired. It is preferred in this way since it
loses flavor readily when ground.
Mace is obtained from the surrounding membrane of the
nutmeg.
Pepper is the berry of a climbing plant found in tropical
climates. Black pepper is the ground berry before it ripens.
White pepper the ground berry after it ripens.
Cayenne pepper is made from the pod of a species of
Capsicum. It is a strong irritant to the skin and mucous
membrane.
Paprika is the ground ripe fruit of the capsicum, the
seeds and stems having been carefully removed before
grinding.
Mustard is obtained from the seeds of the black or white
mustard plant. Mustard grows wild in some localities
and is also extensively cultivated. The white mustard
seeds are sometimes used whole in pickles and relishes.
CONDIMENTS AND OTHER FOOD ACCESSORIES 139
Prepared mustard is made by grinding the seeds and mixing
with other spices and oils or vinegar. Ground mustard,
when appHed to the skin, acts as a counter irritant and is
often useful in relieving acute pain.
SaSe is a common garden plant, the dried leaves of
which/ are used extensively in the preparation of sausage,
and as a seasoning for other meats, poultry, and dressings
of various kinds.
Tmjvie is a perennial plant growing in the form of a
small shrub 6 to 10 inches high. The leaves and young
shoots are used for seasoning purposes.
242. Flavoring Extracts. — Of the relatively large num-
ber of flavoring extracts made, the extracts of vanilla, lemon,
and almond are the ones universally used.
Vanilla extract is made from the vanilla bean, which
is the fruit of a climbing vine belonging to the orchid family.
Those grown in Mexico are considered of a superior quality.
The beans are allowed to ferment before drying to develop
the characteristic properties. The extract which is sold for
flavoring purposes is made by soaking the beans in alcohol.
This fact accounts for the loss of flavor by evaporation,
especially in hot foods.
Lemon extract is obtained by soaking lemon peel in
alcohol, which extracts the volatile oil needed as a flavoring
substance.
Almond extract is a flavoring substance prepared by soak-
ing the seed of the bitter almond in alcohol.
CHAPTER XIX
FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY
243. Necessity for Food. — The body requires food in
definite quantities for three well-defined purposes: (1) To
furnish energy; (2) to provide material for growth and
repair; (3) to satisfy its need for those substances which
stimulate growth and regulate body processes.
244. Amount Required. — Several factors determine the
amount of food required daity for a given individual, but
the chief ones are age, weight, and activity of the body.
To estimate the amount of food necessary to fulfill the
first requirement, that of supplying energy, should be no
more difficult than to estimate the amount of gasoline which
an engine will use in running a certain number of miles.
As the fuel value of food is reckoned in terms of a unit known
as the calorie, it is most essential to know exactly what is
meant by the term. As the number of calories required
will vary with the body weight and the degree of activity,
it will be necessary to know how many calories per pound
of body weight, per day, will be used under these varying
conditions. And finally, as the calories are yielded by the
oxidizable foodstuffs such as protein, fat, and carbohydrates,
it will be necessary to know the proportion of these present
in the food materials, and to know how many calories a
given amount of each will yield.
By a calorie is meant that amount of heat which will raise
the temperature of one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit.
The number of calories required by an adult has been
found by scientific experiments to approximate the fol-
lowing:
140
FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY 141
At rest 13 to 14 calories per lb., per day.
At light exercise 16 to 18 calories per lb., per day.
At moderate exercise 18 to 20 calories per lb., per day.
At severe exercise 20 to 23 calories per lb., per day.
Using the above data, it will be seen that a person
weighing 150 lbs. and taking no exercise will require 150X14
or 2100 calories per day. The same person exercising
severely will require as high as 150X23 or 3450 calories per
day.
245. Computation cf Energy Value of Foods. — The \/
necessary information regarding the proportion, in terms of
grams, of the foodstuffs in various food materials, may
readily be obtained from any of the Government Bulletins-
As each of these foodstuffs yields a certain number of
calories, the protein and carbohydrates yielding 4 calories
per gram, and the fat yielding 9 calories per gram, the total
calories, furnished by a given amount of food may. readily
be computed.
Example. — To determine the total energy in calories furnished by
one pound of white bread. One pound of white bread contains 41.27
grams of protein, 7.26 grams of fat, and 241. 7Si grams of carbohydrates.
The energy furnished is therefore:
By the protein, 41.27X4= 165.08 calories
By the fat, 7.26X9= 64.35 calories
By the carbohydrate, 241.75X4= 967.00 calories
Total energy 1197.42 calories
246. Requirement for Growth and Repair. — The second \
requirement is often spoken of as the protein requirement
of the body, as it is upon protein that the body chiefly
depends for growth and repair may also be estimated in
terms of calories. One way of making certain that this
protein requirement is met is to see that from one-eighth to
one-tenth the total calories of the day's rations are derived
from protein foods. Another way is to allow from 2 to 3
142 FOOD
protein calories for each pound of body weight for an adult,
and from 4 to 6 protein calories per pound of body weight
for a growing child.
247. Requirement for Body Regulation. — To satisfy the
body's third requirement, that is, its need of growth stimula-
ting and process-regulating substances, is, at the present
time, by no means a definite, well understood task. All
that can be done along this line, in the light of present
investigations, is to make an intelligent use of all foods.
In this way a sufficient quantity of these substances to
meet the needs of the body is reasonably well assured.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the text of the previous chapter each pupil
should calculate her own food requirement per day.
Weigh and compare the 100 calorie portion of several of the common
food materials.
CHAPTER XX
FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS
The food requirements of the body have been defined
in the previous chapter. In the present chapter the ques-
tion of the combinations of foods that will meet these
requirements will be discussed.
248. Planning Meals. — Planning satisfying meals in-
volves, first of all, a definite idea of the family income and
of what part of this can properly be appropriated for feeding
the family.
The wise expenditure of money thus set aside falls upon
the housekeeper. The degree of success she will achieve
in her efforts will depend upon her knowledge of the body
needs of each individual under her care and of the kinds
of foods that will best supply these needs. She must know
the seasons at which various food supplies are most plentiful,
and therefore best and cheapest, and how to select, prepare,
and serve them in an attractive manner. By satisfying
meals is meant meals that satisfy hunger and please the
taste, as well as meet the body requirements.
249. Per Cent of Income to be Set Aside. — Catering
for a group of normal adults with all necessity for considering
the cost of food eliminated would be a comparatively simple
task. But the present pressure upon the economic side,
due to the high cost of the staple foods, is forcing the house-
keeper to exercise the greatest care and judgment in the
expenditure of the food allowance. Just what percentage
of the income this allowance should be, depends upon many
things, but chiefly upon the amount of the income. The
smaller the yearly income, the higher the percentage that
143
144
FOOD
Photo by Paul Thompson
Fig. 36.
FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 145
must be allowed for food. It has been estimated that,
in normal times, 25 per cent of an income of between $1500
and $2000 will furnish adequate nourishment for the average
family.
250. The Food of Adults and of Children. — From the
standpoint of nutrition, the planning of meals resolves itself
into something more complicated than the mere satisfying
of hunger. The housekeeper must take into consideration
the age and growth needs of the children and the occupation
and amount of exercise taken by each member of the family,
in order to be able adequately to judge the kind and amount
of food required by each. The man at active muscular
work will use up more calories than the man of sedentary
habits, and will be able to digest with ease the heartier foods.
Children require special attention with regard to the supply
of growth stimulating foods. It is an established fact that
a man can dispense with such foods as eggs, milk, cream,
and butter better than the women and children of the
family.
251. The Cost of Foods.— Important considerations in
planning meals are the cost not only of the raw food materials
but of the fuel consumed, and the time and labor required
in their preparation.
The problem of the cost of living is becoming more and
more serious every year. Whatever the reason for the
increase in the price of food, it is quite certain that former
low prices will not be restored. Fuel is more expensive.
Wages of domestic help are higher. Apparently the only
way by which to combat these conditions is through more
careful and intelligent buying. By studying market con-
ditions cheaper foods, equally wholesome and identical in
nutritive value, may be substituted for high priced foods.
Judicious buying implies a knowledge of the different
cuts of meat and their possibilities, and the ability to dis-
tinguish between waste (bone and gristle) and solid meat.
Judgment in buying staple goods in quantities whenever
146 FOOD
possible, and in buying perishable goods in season, as well
as an understanding of their value and place in the diet,
is gained by study and experience. This knowledge and
experience may be possessed by every housewife who is
willing to expend the necessary time and effort.
False economy in food results in a poorly nourished
family, the members of which are readily susceptible to
disease because their resisting powers are not kept high
by proper nourishment. It should be remembered that
money saved on food is often spent on doctor's Ijills.
252. Balanced Meals. — To so plan each meal as to supply
a definitely prescribed amount of each foodstuff is an impos-
sible task. The one time much over-worked term, ''bal-
anced meals," has therefore lost its implied meaning of
furnishing the correct proportion of the foodstuffs for each
meal. In its newer and broader sense, the term signifies
providing a well-selected variety of foods which will furnish
a well-rounded diet. In the course of the day such a diet
will offer a sufficient amount of all kinds of foodstuffs and
will thus meet all the various requirements of the body.
253. Variety in Diet. — The old saying, 'Variety is the
spice of life," holds good in the planning of meals. Effort
should be made by the housekeeper to furnish variety and
novelty in the preparation and serving of the more common
foods in order to tempt the appetite and relieve the monotony
of the ordinary diet.
\ Great variety is not desirable at one meal, but the
serving of any food prepared in the same way day after day
is the surest way of making it a drug on the appetite. With
over two hundred ways of cooking eggs, for instance, it
is possible to surprise the family with a new dish occasionally.
254. Aesthetic Considerations. — The appearance of a
dish when served is more of a factor in its proper digestion
than is always realized. A dish that is pleasing to the eye
whets the appetite quite as much as one that is pleasing in
flavor and lacking in attractiveness.
FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 147
Salads as a group of foods, offering as they do essential
foods alone or in combination, furnish endless opportunity
for the taste and originality of the housekeeper in producing
pleasing effects. The plainest and most ordinary foods,
by a tasteful use of some simple garnish, are made to appear
unusual and interesting. Garnishes should, however, be of
suitable materials, that is, should be some kind of edible
greens or other food substance. Desserts are improved in
appearance and hence in digestibility by dainty ways of
serving.
255. Protein Foods. — The protein foods are sometimes
classified as A, B, C, and D proteins, according to their
value in the nutrition of the body. To the A proteins
belong the animal foods, lean meats of all kinds, fish, eggs,
and milk, because they contain all the protein units which,
when taken together, form the body proteins.
Fish are plentiful and cheap in many localities and
especially so in sea coast towns where they may be had
fresh from the water. Fish offers a satisfying substitute
for the red meats at least twice a week, and is substantial
enough to take the place of the roast in the ordinary menu.
Eggs should be used as freely as the income will allow,
because of the combination of protein and the valuable
vitamine substances (see Chapter XVI, par. 226).
Milk should be provided for all members of the family
but more especially for the young children. An allowance
of one quart of milk a day each is urged for those members
of the family group who have not yet reached full growth.
This amount may be taken on cereals, in puddings, etc.,
if desired, instead of as a beverage.
It has been said that as much money should be spent
for milk as for meat in every household. Even at the
present price per quart, fifty cents will purchase more
nutriment in the form of milk than in the form of beef.
Cheese, a product of milk, is a highly concentrated form of
food and one which offers a good substitute for meat.
>•
148 FOOD
The B and C proteins are those foods which are rich in
protein but which contain more of other foodstuffs. In
these classes not yet clearly defined we have the cereals,
nuts, macaroni, and some vegetables. The protein content
of such foods is inferior to that of animal foods because the
units are in different relation to one another than the pro-
tein units found in the body. In vegetables certain of these
important units are lacking entirely. However, these foods
may be combined with left-over meats or used alone occa-
sionally to furnish a sufficient quantity of tissue building
material for the day.
To the D proteins belongs gelatin, which is of food value
only, as a ''protein sparer," (see par. 192) since it in no way
builds or repairs body tissue.
256. Carbohydrate Foods. — Of the foods classified as
carbohydrates, starches and sugars are the most important.
The chief sources of starch are the cereals, potatoes, and
bananas. Since it is necessary for normal metabolism
that the greater number of calories of body heat be produced
by carbohydrate foods, it is essential that some kind of
cereal food form a part of the daily food allowance. The
cereal savers — potatoes, sweet and white, and bananas —
when eaten freely, take the place of a part of the grain
products demanded.
Sugar, which is only a fuel food, should be taken in
combination with some building food, such as milk, eggs,
etc., or with foods containing mineral matter, as fruits or
green vegetables. Nearly all fruits contain sugar and may
be used as sugar sparers, since less sugar is required when
fruits are used in abundance.
257. Fats. — The foods classed as fatty foods are butter
and butter substitutes, cream, olive oil, bacon, and fat from
meat and nuts. Butter and cream are probably the most
important sources of easily digested fat.
258. Mineral Matter. — The average diet provides for
the ordinary mineral substances of the body in sufficient
FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 149
amounts. But the importance of iron, calcium and phos-
phorus in normal nutrition is great enough to warrant
special attention in selecting foods containing these in larger
quantities.
Milk is the chief source of calcium or lime, and where
it is used plentifully, a proper supply of calcium is provided.
Iron and phosphorus compounds are not always adequately
supplied by a freely chosen diet. A list from which to
select foods rich in the above minerals has been supplied
in the previous chapter and attention should be given to
selecting an abundance of these foods in planning meals.
259. Water. — Water is needed to supply the needs of
the tissues and to provide the fluids of the body. The old
predjudice against drinking water at meals has been super-
seded by the belief that one or two glasses of water at meals,
if not taken to wash dowTi the food, are beneficial. The
liquid is regarded as a help in the digestion of the solid
foods.
260. Desirable Food Combinations. — A well planned
menu leaves no room for criticism in regard to color, flavor,
and attractiveness, besides representing the essential food-
stuffs. In combining foods, the flavor, consistency, and
similarity need special consideration. Insipid foods require
piquant sauces. Two creamed dishes should not be served
at the same meal, nor two kinds of sauce or gravy at the
same time. The same kind of food should never be served
twice in the same meal; for example tomato soup and
stewed tomatoes as a vegetable, or fruit as an appetizer
and as a salad or a dessert. Rich desserts are not needed
after a hearty dinner. Fruit ices are better than rich creams.
A simple green salad with French dressing is better for dinner
than the heartier cheese, egg, or fish salad with mayon-
naise. A hearty chowder or vegetable soup calls for a less
heavy meat. Cream of vegetable soups are more suitable
for luncheon and may furnish the hearty part of the meal,
while the clear soups, consomme and bouillon, are better
150 FOOD
appetizers at the beginning of a hearty dinner. At least
one succulent vegetable should be served with the dinner.
Certain long-established food habits determine common
food combinations: for example, apple sauce is served with
pork or goose, boiled mutton is improved by caper sauce,
roast lamb by mint sauce or currant jelly, and cheese is
relished with pie. Back of each of these natural food
choices is a principle which is recognized as the body's
effort to regulate its own needs. The acid of apple sauce
in the first instance helps to digest the fat in pork and goose.
The sauces bring out the flavor of the meat in the second
case, and the cheese furnishes the protein which the pie
'lacks. These examples illustrate the normal cravings of
the body for foods easy of digestion, pleasant of flavor, and
balanced in foodstuffs.
261. Suggestions for the Meals of the Day. — (1) Break-
fast, which is the simplest and most informal meal of the
day, may consist of a choice of the following foods:
FruitSj fresh or stewed. The mildly acid fruits are most
desirable.
A cereal served with cream or milk. The whole grain
cereals are preferred because they furnish all of the nutrients
of the grain.
Meaty consisting of chops or steak or meat substitutes,
eggs served in many ways, small fish, bacon, salt fish.
Bread, hot or quick breads such as muffins, popovers,
Johnny cake, griddle cakes, waffles, rolls, or toast,
A beverage, as coffee, tea, cocoa, and milk.
(2) Dinner, which is the heartiest meal of the day, is
served at night or at the noon hour. The simple dinner
has a soup, a meat, a salad and a dessert course. An elab-
oration of these foundation courses constitutes the formal
dinner menu.
Soup — clear — consumme or bouillon.
Meat — served in the form of a roast, meat pie, steak,
stew, fish, and poultry.
FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 151
Vegetables — potatoes, and one other vegetable.
Salad — some kind of green salad vegetable with Fjench
dressing.
Dessert — ices, creams, simple puddings, fruits, with tea
or coffee and milk.
Soup and salad are not necessary at the same meal and
one or the other may be eliminated if desired. The chief
value of the clear soup at dinner is to stimulate the flow of
the gastric juice and prepare the stomach for the hearty
meal to follow. The salad course offers an opportunity
to introduce a succulent vegetable into the menu, the value
of which lies in its mineral and water content and the addi-
tion of an easily digested form of fat in the salad dressing.
(3) Limcheon or Supper, as the case may be, has the
same number of courses as the dinner, but is made up of
much less hearty foods. An informal luncheon may con-
sist of one or two courses only and still offer the needed
variety.
Soup — cream of vegetable, clam chowder, or vegetable
soup.
Meat — a hot moat dish such as hash, stew, chops, made
dishes, meat substitute dishes, scalloped dishes, fish, eggs.
Bread in some form.
Vegetables — poatoes such as creamed, scalloped, lyon-
naise, etc. , or other vegetables prepared in a simple way.
Salad. — The salad may be hearty enough for the main
course of the luncheon, as chicken, fish, egg, cheese, or fruit
with mayonnaise dressing.
Dessert — fruits, ices, creams, pastry, cakes, cookies,
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Plan three meals a day for the different seasons.
Estimate the daily food requirement and plan suitable meals to
meet this requirement.
152
FOOD
For Winter:
SAMPLE MEALS
Breakfast
Stewed Prunes
Oatmeal Cream or Milk
Muflans Omelet
Coffee
Breakfast.
Amount.
Calories.
Stewed prunes ....
4 or 5 medium
100
Rolled oats
2 tbsp. (cooked)
1 cupful
100
Thin cream
150
Egg muffins
Butter
2
1 square (1 tbsp)
1 egg
1 tbsp. thick
2 lumps
131
100
Omelet
Coffee:
Cream
Sugar
116
50
50
797
Luncheon
Mixed Vegetable Soup
Spaghetti and Rice Cheese Sauce
Gingerbread Whipped cream
Tea
Luncheon.
Amount.
Calories.
1 cupful
3 saltines
75
Wafers.
50
Spaghetti and rice with cheese sauce . . .
Gingerbread
f cupful
' Piece 2 X2 in
235
115
Whipped cream
2 tbsp. (unwhipped). . . .
2 thin slices
1 square (1 tbsp.)
100
Bread.
100
Butter
100
775
Dinner
Barley Soup
Roast Pork Mashed Potato
Roasted Onions Apple Sauce
Roumaine Salad French Dressing
Tapioca Sponge
Coffee
Dinjier.
Barley soup
Roast pork
Ma.^ihed potato (seasoned)
Roasted onion
Apple sauce
Roumaine salad and French dressing
Tapioca sponge
Bread
Butter
Total for day
Amount.
1 cupful
1 serving (about 4 oz.).
1 cupful
1 large
t cupful
1 small serving
f cupful
2 thin slices
1 square
Calories,
65
320
204
.65
96
100
241
100
100
1291
2843
FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS
153
For Summer:
Breakfast
Moulded Farina with Fruit Cream or Milk
Toast Coffee
Breakfast.
Amount.
Calories.
cupful farina, 1 banana
- cupful
2 slices
175
Whole milk
Toast
63
200
Butter
Coffee:
Cream
Sugar
1 square
1 tbsp
100
100
638
Luncheon '
Cream of Spinach Soup
Fruit and Nut Salad Boiled Dressing
Graham Tea Biscuit
Tea
Luncheon.
Amount.
Calories.
Cream of spinach soup
Wafers
1 cupful
3 Saltines
178
50
Fruit and nut salad with boiled dressing .
1 cupful
234
116
Butter
1 square
100
678
Dinner
Planked White Fish
New Potatoes Butter and parsley
String Beans
Cream Cheese and Prune Salad French Dressing
Lemon Ice Cookies
Coffee .
Dinner.
Amount.
Calories.
Planked fish . .
1 serving
3 small, 1 tbsp. butter . .
1 serving (J of qt.)
180
Potatoes with butter sauce
String beans
Salad:
200
54
75
Cheese
3 balls
100
1 serving
3 saltines
1 serving
2 medium
2 thin slices
1 square
90
Wafers
Lemon ice
Cookies
50
120
96
Bread. . .....
100
Butter
Total for the day ,
100
1165
2481
154
FOOD
For a Meatless Day:
Breakfast
Orange
Steamed Barley
Poached Egg
Cream or Milk
Toast
Coffee
Breakfast.
Orange
Steamed barley
Thin cream
Poached egg
Toast
Butter
Coffee:
Cream
Sugar
Amount
1 large
i cupful
i cupful
1
2 slices
1 square
1 tbsp. (thick). ,
2 lumps
Calories.
100
60
150
67
200
100
50
50
777
Luncheon
Baked Beans
Lettuce and Grapefruit Salad
Sponge Cake
Tea
Brown Bread
French Dressing
Luncheon.
Amount.
Calories.
i cupful
2 slices
5 of medium
200
Brown bread
150
Salad:
Grapefruit
French dressing
1 serving. -
140
Sponge cake
Piece 2 X2 in
169
659
Dinner
Little Neck Clams
Nut and Cheese Loaf Tomato Sauce
Stuffed Baked Potatoes Lima Beans
Hearts of Lettuce Russian Dressing
Deep Apple Pie
Coffee
Dinner.
Little Neck clams . . .
Nut and cheese loaf. .
Tomato sauce
Stuffed baked potato.
Lima beans
Lettuce and dressing.
Bread
Butter
Deep apple pie
Total for day
Amount.
^ doz
1 serving. . .
1 serving. . .
1 medium. . ,
J cupful. . .
1 serving. . .
2 thin slices .
1 square . . .
1 serving . , .
Calories.
40
389
93
116
100
224
100
100
224
1386
2822
FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS
155
For a Wheatless Day:
Breakfast
Baked Apple
Fried Corn Mush
Coffee
Maple Syrup
Breakfast
Baked apple
Fried corn mush
Maple syrup
Coffee:
Cream
Sugar
Amount.
1 large
1 serving
2^ tablespoonfuls
1 tablespoonfuls .
2 lumps
Calories.
200
100
150
50
50
550
Luncheon
Cream of Potato Soup
Lentil and Rice Cakes
Rye Rolls
Sliced Pineapple Oatmeal Cookies
Luncheon.
Cream of potato soup. . .
Lentil and rice cakes. . . .
Rye rolls
Butter
Pineapple
Oatmeal cookies
Amount.
1 cupful
2 (small)
2 (medium)
1 square (1 tbsp.)
1 slice
3 (small)
Calories.
213
205
100
100
100
75
793
Dinner
Roast Beef Sweet Potato Pone
Baked Stuffed Tomatoes
Asparagus and Pimento Salad Mayonnaise Dressing
Cornmeal Crisps Butter
Fruit Whip
Dinner.
Amount.
Calories.
Roast beef
Sweet potato pone
2 thin slices (size of hand)
1 medium
200
250
Baked stuffed tomato
1 medium.
35
Salad
1 portion
60
Mayonnaise dressing
Corn meal crisps .
1 portion . .
224
5 small
50
Butter
1 square
100
Fruit whip
1 portion
241
Total for day
1160
2503
CHAPTER XXI
THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS
262. Why Food Spoils. — The spoiHng of food is due to
two agencies. First, the action of bacteria, yeast, and mold
plants causes undesirable and sometimes harmful changes
to take place in food materials; second, there are present in
eggs, meat, and the seeds of plants substances having the
power to carry on certain changes in the foods. These
changes, or life processes, are the natural ripening and matur-
ing of fruits, the growing of seeds, and the final decay of all
substances.
The organisms which cause the fermentation and putre-
faction of food materials are microscopic, that is, they can-
not be seen without the aid of a microscope. Although we
are unable to see the bacteria and other micro-organisms,
they are present everywhere in the air, in the soil, and in
water. We have proof of their activity in the odor of
decayed food, the gas from fruit that is fermenting, and the
mold on bread and other foods. These micro-organisms
exist in two forms: the spore stage and the active stage.
When conditions are not right for their growth, they enter
the spore stage for rest. In this form they are able to resist
for hours a degree of heat equal to the boiling-point of water.
All micro-organisms require warmth, moisture, food,
and oxygen for normal growth and development. Con-
ditions favorable for the growth of bacteria and other plant
life are also favorable for the ripening, maturing, and decay-
ing processes. Therefore, if the food is to be kept for a
period of time it is necessary to protect it from the former,
and to prevent the natural changes due to the latter by some
form of preservation.
156
THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 157
263. Ways of Preserving Foods. — Foods are preserved,
according to their kind and condition, by any one of the
following methods:
(1) By the use of low temperature.
(2) By the use of high temperature.
(3) By the use of preservatives.
(4) By the removal of moisture.
264. Low Temperature. — By keeping them in cold
storage or by freezing, many foods may be maintained for
months in a fairly good condition. The low temperatures
interfere with the growth of the bacteria which causes
putrefaction and decay. Eggs, meat, butter, fish, and
poultry are the foods most commonly kept by this means.
265. High Temperature Canning. — Success in canning
depends upon the absolute sterilization (heating to the
boiling-point and keeping there long enough to kill all
living organisms) of the food and utensils used and the final
exclusion of air by sealing the jar.
A common method of canning is the open kettle method
in which the fruit or vegetable is cooked in an open kettle
and then packed in jars and sealed. This method offers too
many chances for troublesome bacteria to enter the food to
be entirely satisfactory. For this reason the open kettle
method has been replaced by more dependable ones.
The One-period Cold-pack Method* — This method of
canning fruits, vegetables, meats, and fish has been adopted
for use in the home canning-club work of the United States
Department of Agriculture in the Northern and Western
States. By cold-pack is meant that the uncooked cooled
product is packed in hot jars and covered with hot liquid of
* According to a statement given out by the Bureau of Chemistry of the
United States Department of Agriculture the danger of the food poisoning
known as " Botulism " is eliminated by boiling the contents of the can for a
few minutes before eating. The Bacillus Botulinus and the poison which
it produces are destroyed by this treatment.
158
FOOD
some kind. The jar is then partially sealed and placed
in boiling water to cook.
By one-period is meant the cooking of the product a
sufficient length of time to complete the process at one time.
This method necessitates less handling of the jars and con-
sumes less time than the method known as intermittent
sterilization.
266. Steps in Canning. — There are six steps to be ob-
served in the cold-pack method, as follows:
(1) Preparation of Food Products and Utensils. — The
jars and covers should be washed, placed in cold water
Fig. 37. — An improvised canning outfit.
and heated to the boiling-point. The foods should be
washed and pared, pits or cores should be removed, and the
foods should then be cut in pieces when too large to use
whole. All products for canning must be clean, sound,
fresh, and not overripe. It is especially important that
vegetables for canning be fresh from the garden. Most
vegetables lose crispness and flavor on standing.
(2) Blanching or Scalding. — The food materials should be
placed in a colander, frying basket, or a piece of cheese
cloth, and lowered into boiling water or live steam and kept
there from one to fifteen minutes according to the kind of
product. This process loosens the skin, takes out any
excess of acid, and preserves the coloring matter in the food.
THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS
159
(3) Cold Dip. — The food material should then be taken
from the boiling water or steam and plunged at once into
cold water (the colder the better) for a few seconds and
then drained.
(4) Packing. — The cold-dipped articles should be packed
at once into the hot jars. The jar should be filled as com-
pletely as possible. If a vegetable, one teaspoonful of salt
Fig.
38.— Unsealed
jar.
Fig. 39. — Jar ready for
sterilizing.
Fig. 40. — Jar com-
pletely sealed.
is added for each quart of material and the jar is filled with
boiling water. In the case of fruit, boiling syrup takes the
place of the water and salt. The scalded rubbers and tops
of jars should now be put in place and the jar partly sealed.
(5) Processing or Sterilizing. — The partially sealed jars
should be lowered into a water bath which completely
covers the jars and boiled for the length of time specified in
Table XII, for the particular kind of food.
(6) Sealing. — When the jars are removed from the hot
water bath they should be entirely sealed and then inverted
to cool. When sufficiently cool each one should be wrapped
separately in paper and stored in a cool dry place.
267. The Intermittent Method of Sterilization.— By
this method the food is sterilized in the hot water bath for
160
FOOD
TABLE XII.— TIME FOR CANNING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
(Bulletin U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Food Material.
Method of Preparation.
Time in Minutes.
Scalding or
Blanching.
Sterilizing.
Berries:
Blackberries
Blueberries .
Gooseberries
Raspberries
Strawberries
Soft Fruits:
Apricots . . .
Cherries. . . .
Currants. . .
Grapes
Peaches ....
Plums
Hard Fruits:
Apples
Pears
Quinces ....
Specials egetables:
Tomatoes ....
Pumpkin
Squash
Sweet Corn . .
Pod Vegetables:
Beans, wax . . .
Beans, green. .
Okra
Cauliflower . .
Root Vegetables:
Carrots
Beets
Turnips
Greens:
Chard
Kale
Asparagus. . . .
Spinach
Beet tops
Dandelion ....
Stem or hull, rinse in cold \
water, pack in hot j ars /
Peel
Stone
Stem
Seed
Peel and stone .
Wash
Peel, quarter and core ,
Peel, cut in half, core .
Peel, quarter
Remove skins
Peel and cut in pieces. .
Peel and cut in pieces. .
Remove husk and silk.
Wash and string. . . .
Wash and string. ...
Wash
Soak in brine 1 hour.
Wash and scrape . . . .
Wash and scrape
Peel and cut in pieces.
Look over and wash. .
Look over and wash .
Wash and scrape . . . .
Look over and wash .
Look over and wash .
Look over and wash.
1-2
1-2
U
U
1^
n
3
3
5
5-10
5-10
5-10
3
5
5
5
15 in
15 in 1
15 in
15 in 1
ISinl
15 in 1
live
steam
ive steam
ive steam
ive steam
ive steam
ive steam
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
20
20
20
22
120
120
180
120
120
120
60
90
90
90
120
120
120
120
120
120
THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 161
a given period of time on three successive days. All spores
that may have resisted the previous boiling processes are
destroyed at the end of this period. This extra sterilizing
is not always necessary but is considered a wise precaution.
268. The Use of Preservatives. — By preservatives is
meant such substances as prevent or hinder the development
of micro-organisms in food. They may be classed as harm-
less, of doubtful safety, and harmful. The harmless preserva-
tives are sugar, salt, vinegar, and spice. Those about which
there is some doubt are saltpeter and smoke. The use of
harmful preservatives comes under the regulations of the
Food Laws and will not be discussed here.
Sugar. — In a concentrated solution sugar will arrest the
growth of bacteria. In dilute form with spices or vinegar
it is also a valuable aid in restricting the growth of organisms.
Preserves and Conserves are mixtures of fruits, nuts and
spices with a high percentage of sugar to make them rich
and to control the growth of bacteria.
Jams and Marmalades are also rich, sweet compounds
containing the juice and pulp of the fruit. They, like pre-
serves, depend upon the fifty or more per cent of sugar to
keep them from spoiling.
Jelly.* — The jelly-making substance, pectin, is best
obtained by cooking the fruit with water until the juice is
freed from the pulp. Pectin, a substance closely related to
starch in chemical composition, is an essential constituent
* The United States Bureau of Chemistry recommends the alcohol test
to determine the amount of pectin present in a fruit juice and incidentally
the amount of sugar required to make a perfect jelly. Put a spoonful of
juice in a beaker and add to it a spoonful of 05 per cent grain alcohol. Shake
gently and note the amount of pectin precipitated. If the precipitate forms
in a mass, one cupful of sugar is required for each cupful of fruit juice. If
the precipitate is broken up into several parts, one-half to three-fourths
cupful of sugar for each cupful of juice is needed to form a perfect jelly.
If the pectin is precipitated but not in a mass, the proportion of sugar
required is one-half or less than the amount of juice used. Fruit juice that
shows *no precipitate in this test is lacking in pectin and will not make jelly
unless combined with juices rich in pectin.
162 FOOD
of fruit juice that is to be used for jelly making. The
amount of sugar needed for a perfect jelly must be in pro-
portion to the pectin in the juice. The time required for
cooking depends upon the degree of concentration of the
juice.
Salt and Vinegar are classed as preservatives chiefly
because they protect food materials from the action of
micro-organisms that cause decomposition.
Spices. — Some spices are slightly effective as preservatives,
others are entirely lacking in power to prevent the decay of
food. As condiments such materials stimulate digestion
and, if used in large quantities, are harmful because of the
danger of over stimulation of the digestive organs. Highly
spiced foods are recommended for use in small quantities
as condiments rather than for their food value.
268. Doubtful Preservatives. — Saltpeter is used in curing
meats. It prevents the removal of color by the salt in the
pickle. Because of its astringent action on foods, saltpeter
is of doubtful value as a preservative.
Smoke owes its preservative qualities to the creosote it
produces. It is sometimes used in curing beef, tongue,
hams, and dried beef, because of the action of the creosote
in arresting the growth of bacteria and also for the flavor
it imparts to the meat.
269. Removal of Moisture or Drying. — When fruits or
vegetables are cut in thin slices and spread out, they begin
to lose moisture by evaporation. If a current of dry,
warm air is constantly passed over them, the moisture will
evaporate more quickly and the materials will soon become
dry and crisp.
There are three methods by which the moisture of fruits
and vegetables may be removed. The sun's rays will
evaporate moisture rapidly. Many fruits and vegetables
are successfully dried by this natural agent. Artificial
heat removes moisture quickly and the heat of the stove has
been utilized for drying purposes in the many patent driers
THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS
163
now on the market. One of these is shown in Fig. 42.
The main object with all devices is to reduce the food sub-
stances to a dry leathery mass in a short time. In applying
artificial heat it must be remembered that heat greater than
Fig. 41. — Sun drying.
(U. S. Dept. of Agri culture.)
Fig, 42. — Drying by artificial heat.
150° F. is liable to scorch and brown the food, especially at
the beginning of the process.
A current of dry air constantly passing over food will
dry out the moisture in a comparatively short time. An
electric fan makes an excellent drier at small cost.
270. Advantages in Drjdng Fruits and Vegetables. — By
adopting some method of drying, the surplus of perishable
164 FOOD
foods, which would otherwise be wasted, may be conserved.
A considerable saving in the cost of food may often be
effected in this way. Advantage may also be taken of an
overstocked market and fruits and vegetables obtained in
quantity at relatively low prices. When properly prepared,
dried fruits and vegetables are acceptable substitutes when
fresh varieties are out of season or scarce and high priced.
Drying may be adopted in place of canning, when jars
are scarce. The dried products may frequently be stored
in quantity in less space than would be required for jars
or other containers.
271. Preparation of Foods for Drying. — Vegetables should
be scrubbed clean, peeled or scraped, and sliced thin, or
put through one of the various patent slicers or shredders,
,to make the pieces of uniform thickness so that they will
dry evenly. Blanching is desirable for vegetables that have
a strong flavor and odor, because it takes out some of the
objectionable flavor and odor and also helps to soften the
fiber. Fruits are prepared as for canning except that
larger fruits should be cut in small pieces to facilitate the
drying process.
272. Storing Dried Foods. — Food materials should be
packed in tightly covered containers promptly after drying.
Tin cans and glass jars may be used, but pasteboard recep-
tacles with tight covers or even paper bags are protection
enough for properly dried materials.
To test when foods are dry enough to store, place a crisp
cracker in the container with the food and allow it to remain
overnight. If the cracker is still crisp when removed in
the morning, the product is without moisture.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE
In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter:
Can fruits and vegetables in season by the one-period, cold-pack
method.
Dry fruits and vegetables in season.
GLOSSARY
Absorption: The process of being absorbed or swallowed up.
Accelerate : To quicken, or hasten a process.
Acid: A substance capable of combining with a base to form a salt,
and of turning blue litmus paper red. Sour to the taste.
Acidity: Sourness to the taste.
Acidosis: An abnormal body condition when acid is present in the
tissues.
Acrid: Sharp or bitter to the taste; causing irritation.
Adjunct: Something joined to another thing without being a part
of it.
Adulterate : To make a substance impure by mixing with it another
substance of less value.
Aerate : To combine with gas.
Alkali: A caustic base which neutralizes acids and turns red litmus
paper blue.
Amino Acids: A constituent of body protein.
Assimilation: Conversion of food into the substance of an animal
or vegetable body.
Calorie: The unit of heat.
Carbonate: A compound formed by the union of carbonic acid
with a base.
Cell: A tiny particle of matter consisting of protoplasm, in which
floats a nucleus, surrounded by a cell wall.
Cellulose: The plant fiber which is an essential part of the wall
membrane of plant cells.
Chlorophyl: The green coloring matter of plants.
Coagulate: To change from a fluid into a curd like or thickened
mass.
Colloid: Semi-solid, non-crystallizable substance hke glue or jelly.
Colloidal: Containing a colloid in solution.
Compound: A substance composed of two or more elements.
Dialyzable: Capable of diffusion through natural membranes.
Dietary: A fixed allowance of food; a rule of diet.
Dietetics: The science of diet; the study of food and nutrition in
health and disease.
Diluent: Making thinner or weaker by admixture usually of water.
165
166 GLOSSARY
Disintegrate: To break up. To separate into parts.
Effervescence: The process by which gas is given off from a
liquid.
Effete: Worn out with age.
Element: The simplest form of matter in which all atoms are alike.
Emulsion: A Hquid full of tiny fat globules.
Enzyme: A group of substances found in plants and animals, which
has the power of decomposing certain carbon compounds found
associated with them.
Esophagus: The tube which takes the food from the mouth to the
stomach.
Evaporate : To pass off in the form of vapor.
Ferment: A substance formed by the living cell and capable of acting
chemically on food without any change taking place in itself.
Fermentation: A chemical change of organic substances by which
they are decomposed and recombined into new compounds.
Fibrin: The form of protein found in coagulated blood.
Filter: To purify by passing through a porous substance.
Filtrate: The substance which has been filtered or purified.
Formula: A symbolic expression by letters or figures, of the chemical
constituents of a compound.
Function : Appropriate action of a physical organ.
Inimical: Opposed to, unfriendly.
InuliN: a form of carbohydrate found in many plants; heated with
water or dilute acid it is converted into laevulose.
Intermittent: Coming and going at intervals.
Lacfeals: That part of the lymphatic system which carries the food
from the intestines to the thoracic duct.
Liver: The largest gland in the body, lying immediately under the
diaphragm. The cells of the liver separate certain substances
from the blood and manufacture them into a dark green liquid
called bile. The liver cells also act on certain parts of the food
brought by the blood vessels from the intestines and hold some
of it in storage.
Lymphatics: Small blood vessels which carry food from the intestines.
Microbe: A small living thing.
Micro-organism: A microscopic organism, as a bacillus.
Mucous Membrane: The lining membrane of the alimentary canal.
Nucleus: A differentiated round or oval body embedded in the proto-
plasm of a cell.
Nutrient: - Something that nourishes.
Precipitate: A substance which separates in the solid state when
two liquids are mixed.
GLOSSARY 167
Protoplasm: An albuminoid substance resembling white of egg,
and capable of manifesting vital phenomena. The chief part
V of every cell.
Protoplasmic: First formed as a constituent of organic bodies.
Ptomaine: A poison developed in food by bacteria.
Saturated Solution: A solution which at a given temperature con-
tains such a quantity of a substance that the two are in equi-
librium, there being no tendency for more of the substance to
pass into a solution.
Soluble : Capable of being dissolved in a fluid.
Solution: The conversion of a substance from the solid or gaseous
state to the liquid state by treatment with a liquid.
Solvent: Any fluid or substance that dissolves or renders other bodies
liquid.
Sterilize : To render free from living germs.
Pancreas: A gland situated in the abdomen near the stomach which
pours its secretion into the small intestine.
Parasite : An animal that lives on or in and at the expense of another
animal. A plant which grows upon another plant or upon
an animal and feeds upon its juices.
Peristalsis: The involuntary muscular movement of the alimentary
canal whereby its contents are propelled forward.
Temperature : The degree of heat of a body.
Tissues: An aggregation of cells and cell products.
Vacuum : An empty space.
Volatile Oils: Substances present in fruits, flowers, and some plants
which give the characteristic odor and flavor.
INDEX
Acids, amino, 2
butyric, 83
palmitic, 83
oleic, 83
stearic, 83
Air, as a leaven, 39
Alimentary canal, diagram of, 5
parts, 5
work of, 5
Amylopsin, 6
Animal food, 2
Arrowroot, 22
Artichokes, 71
French, 74
Jerusalem, 71
Baking powders, analysis of, 40, 41
home made, 42
kinds, 40 '
Barley, 28
Batter, definition of, 42
drop-batter, 44
pour-batter, 44
Beans, 69
appearance of, 69
composition, 69
cooking, 69
soy, 3
Beef, characteristics, 106
cuts of, 107, 108
Beverages, 129
effect on body, 134
Bicarbonate of soda, action with
acids, 41, 42
source, 41
Bile, 6
Body energy, requirement, 140
source, 1
Breads, 44
baking, 57
digestibility, 61
effect of ingredients on loaf,
57
judging loaf, 61
mixer, 57, 58
mixing and kneading, 55
quick process, 55
yeast, 54
Brussels sprouts, 74
Buckwheat, 28
Bulbs as foods, 72
Butter, 83, 94
composition of, 95
substitutes, 85, 95
value as food, 85
Cakes, 44
baking, 50, 51
butter, 46
points of good, 51, 52
sponge, 44
Calcium, 126, 149
Calorie, 141
Canning, 157, 158, 159, 160
Carbon dioxide, 40, 41, 57, 60
Carbohydrate, 2, 148
Cellulose, 20
cooking of, 4
digestion, 20
food value of, 20
169
170
INDEX
Cereals, 24, 148
as breakfast foods, 24
common cereals, 24
cooking, 29
digestion of, 28
sparers, 148
Cheese, kinds, 95
value as food, 95
Chloride, sodium, 126, 136
Chocolate, composition, 133
nutritive value, 134
source, 133
Cocoa, source, 133
value, 133
Coffee, 131
adulteration, 132
caffein, 130
effect on body, 134
experiments, 133
preparation, 132
substitutes, 132
Compounds, 2
Condiments, value of, 136
Corn, preparation, 26
syrup, 26
Crabs, 124
Cream of Tartar, 40
source of, 41
use, 42
Dasheen, 71
Dextrin, 12, 21
Dextrose, 12
Diet, 146
variety in, 146
Digestion, definition, 5
process of, 5, 6
Dough, 44, 53
soft, 44
stiff, 44, 62
Drying, 162
methods, 163, 164
storing, 164
Eggs, 97, 147
composition, 97
digestibiUty, 98
experiments, 103
food value, 98
preparation for eating, 102
preservation, 101
selection and care, 99
structure, 97
Elements, 2
Enzymes, 5
Fat, clarifying, 88
composition, 2
cooking in, 87
digestibility, 84
experiments, 89
function in body, 3, 84
kinds, 85
melting point, 83
milk fat, 91
properties, 83
rendering, 88
sources, 85
test for, 3
Fehling's solution, 3
Fish, 118, 147
choosing, 119
common, 120
composition, 118
cooking of, 1 19
preserving, 120
shell, 122
special kinds, 120
unusual kinds, 122
Flour mixtures, 39, 53
classification, 42
Fireless cooker, 32
home-made cooker, 34
principle of, 33
selection, 34
use of, 35
Food, absorption, 7
INDEX
171
Food, adults and children, 145
amount required, 140
animal, 2
assimilation, 7
changes, 4
classification, 1
combinations, 149
cost of, 145
definition of, 1
energy value, 141
need for growth, 140, 141
preservation, 156
Foodstuffs, 2
composition of, 2
tests for, 3
Fructose, 13
Fruits, 77
canning, 158
composition, 77
dried, 79, 163
food value, 78
preserving, 79
selecting, 78
storing, 79, 164
Galactose, 13
Gastric juice, 6
Game, 114
Gelatin, 112, 148
Gliadin, 54
Glycerides, 83
Glycerol, 83
Glycogen, 14, 21
Gluten, 54
Glutenin, 54
Guinea fowl, 116
Honey, 15, 16
Hydrochloric acid, 6
Income, 143
Inorganic food, 1
Intestine, small, 6
Intestine, large, 7
Iron, 126
Jams, 80, 161
Jellies, 80, 161, 162
Lactose, 13
Lamb, 110
Leavens, 39
Leavening agents, 39
Legumes, 67
cooking, 69
food value, 68
Levulose, 13
Lipase, 6
Lobster, 124
Macaroni, 31
Maltose, 5
Maple sugar, 15
Marmalade, 80, 161
Marrow, 86
Meals, 143
balanced, 146
sample, 152, 153, 154, 155
suggestions for, 150
Meat, 104
composition of, 104
cooking, 105
digestibility, 105
experiments, 113
food value, 105
kinds, 104
ripening, 104
selecting, 105
structure, 104
Milk, care of, 92
certified, 93
compositon of, 90
condensed, 93
cooking with, 94
digestibility, 92
food value, 90
172
INDEX
Milk, malted, 94
powders, 93
modified, 94
pasteurized, 93
sterilized, 93
Mineral matter, 3, 148
definition, 125
function, 3, 125
in milk, 92
sources, 126
test for, 3
Molasses, 15
Mussels, 124
Mutton, 109
Noodles, 31
Nuts, composition, 80
digestibility, 80
flavor, 80
food value, 81
use in cooking, 81
Oats, preparation and food value,
24
Oil, 86
cod liver, 86
cottonseed, 87
olive, 86
Organic foods, 1
Organism, 1
Organs, internal as food, 111
Oxidized tissue, 1
Pancreas, 7
Pastry, 62
baking, 62
digestibility, 63
Peptones, 6
Pepsin, 6
Phosphorous, 126
Pork, cuts of, 101
Poultry, 114
composition, 114
Poultry, digestion of, 114
preparation, 116
selection, 115
Preservatives, 161
kinds, 161, 162
use of, 161
Pressure cooker, 38
Proteins, 2, 147, 148
function in body, 3
milk, 91
test for, 3
wheat, 54
Ptyalin, 5
Rennen, 6
Rice, 26
Roots, as food, 71
Rye, 28
Sago, 22
Salt, 126, 162
Shrimps, 124
Spaghetti, 31
Spices, 137,162
Squab, 116
Starch, as body regulator, 19
composition, 18
cooking, 20
food value, 18
function in body, 19
source, 18
structure, 18
tests for, 3
Steapsin, 6
Sterilizing, 159
milk, 93
Sugar, 1, 148, 162
body regulator, 14
cane, 13
commercial, 15
composition, 12
digestion of, 14
disaccharides, 12
INDEX
173
Sugar, grape, 7
monosaccharides, 12
source of energy, 13
sucrose, 13
test for, 3
Tapioca, 21
Tannin, 130
Tea, 129
classes, 130
effect on body-; 134
grades, 130
Temperature, 10
boiling-point, 10
Terrapin, 124
Thermos bottle, principle of, 36, 37
Tissue, body, 1, 2
Trypsin, 6
Tubers, 71
Turkey, 116
Veal, 108
Vegetables, classification, 64
composition, 64
cooking, 65
definition of, 64
digestion of, 65
Vegetables, food value, 65
green vegetables, 74
selection, 65
Vinegar, 136, 162
Vitamines, 3, 127
function in body, 128
Water, 1, 149
amount required, 9
as body regulator, 9
as cooking medium, 10
composition, 2, 8
function in body, 8
solvent, 8
stimulant, 8
Wheat, as breakfast food, 24
milling, 54
structure of kernel, 53
varieties, 53
Yeast, 58
conmiercial, 58
compressed, 60
dry, 60
function in bread making, 61
liquid, 60
sources, 58
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