FOODS AND COOKERY
AND
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
MARY LMATTHEWS
FOODS AND COOKERY
AND THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
A CANNING-CLUB WINNER
FOODS AND COOKERY
AND
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
FIRST LESSONS
FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
BY
MARY LOCK WOOD MATTHEWS, B.S.
PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS AND HEAD OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS IN
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
vION.REFERI
BOSTON
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
1923
M 33
Copyright, 1921,
BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.
All rights reserved
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PREFACE
THIS volume is intended for use in classes begin-
ning the study of foods and cookery. It has been
arranged for use in the elementary schools and does
not presuppose any training in general science. It
is strictly an elementary treatment of the subject.
The book deals with foods, their selection and
preparation, and the planning of meals from the
nutritive, aesthetic and economic standpoints. The
"meal plan" is used in order to make the meal the
basis of the work. Through the "Home Problems"
the home and school work may be correlated.
The author appreciates the help given in illus-
trating the book by the United States Department
of Agriculture, the United States Bureau of Stand-
ards, the Detroit Stove Works, and the Chambers
Manufacturing Company. The author also grate-
fully acknowledges the criticisms and suggestions
of educators who kindly read the manuscript.
934075
TO THE STUDENT
HAVE you thought about what you will do when
you finish school ?
Perhaps you have decided to be a teacher, a
librarian, a stenographer, a doctor, a nurse. Perhaps
you are making plans to take a course in high school
or college that will fit you for one of these callings ;
you would not consider yourself capable of entering
any of them without training.
Very probably you will be at some time the
manager of a home. Have you thought about the
importance of being trained for home-making?
It is only within the past twenty-five years that
it has been considered proper for the public schools
to train girls for the work which most of them will
do for the longest period in their lives, the work of
home-making.
Mrs. Ellen H. Richards was the first to say that
the schools ought to teach "right living ;" and,
largely through her efforts and her inspiration, plans
have been worked out whereby girls while in school
can be taught many things about right living.
Right living begins with the home. Who makes
the home? The man may furnish the money to
build and maintain the house, but it is the woman
who plans and manages the home. It is her busi-
ness to see that the family lives in a sanitary and an
attractive house ; that every member of the family
viii TO THE STUDENT
has clean, properly selected and well cooked food ;
that every one is suitably clothed ; that the family
income is wisely spent, and that all hi the home are
helped to lead a happy and useful life.
No girl should consider the making and managing
of a home an easy piece of work, for in fact nothing
is harder to do and to do well.
When the girl takes work hi school and college
that covers all phases of home-making, we say that
she is taking a course in Home Economics,
SUGGESTIONS
WHEN planning a course in Home Economics for
any school it is essential that the teacher should know
from what kinds of homes the students come ; what
is the average income of the families of these girls ;
what nationalities they represent ; what is the social
life of the neighborhood. It is impracticable to
follow any textbook, page by page, without first
knowing whether the lesson-plans suit the students
to whom they are presented. When the teacher
knows the neighborhood, she can wisely select and
arrange the parts of the book to be assigned.
In many cases the recipes outlined in this book
should be changed ; and in no case should they be
used as presented when the teacher has recipes
which she has tested and knows to be good, and
which may be used to illustrate the principle that is
under discussion.
The Foods and Cookery lessons are outlined on
the meal basis, making the meal the project, while
the lessons on various foods are the problems to be
studied before the project is completed. It is de-
sirable that the laboratory equipment should include
dining-room equipment, but when that is not avail-
able, serving the meal on a supply-table or at the
individual desks may be the plan used. In any
case the girls should be urged to try the work at
home, making reports on the work done.
x SUGGESTIONS
Lessons on the house and its care are correlated
with the other work whenever possible.
The book is divided into sections instead of
lessons, thus giving the teacher the opportunity to
use as much or as little as is desired at any one time,
since the amount of time allowed for Home Eco-
nomics varies greatly in different schools.
The "Home Problems and Questions" may furnish
material for lessons if plenty of time is allotted to
this course, or may be used only as work to be done
outside of class hours.
Illustrations and exhibit material that can be
secured will help to make the work more interesting.
The following firms furnish "school exhibits" that
will be found useful: E. C. Bridgman, 61 Warren
St., New York City, meat charts ; Hershey Choco-
late Company, Hershey, Pa., chocolate products;
Diamond Crystal Salt Company, St. Clair, Mich.,
folder showing how salt is prepared ; Pillsbury
Flour Mills Company, Minneapolis, Minn., wheat-
flour manufacture; Walter Baker & Company,
Dorchester, Mass., chocolate products ; The Ameri-
can Silver Company, Silversmith Building, Chicago,
111., "The Evolution of a Teaspoon" (50 cents
postage) ; Washburn Crosby Company, Minne-
apolis, Minn., flour exhibit ; The Walter M. Lowney
Company, Boston, Mass., chocolate ; Wilson &
Company, Chicago, 111., meat charts, and recipes
for cooking meat.
In addition to the reference-books that should be
found in the school library there are bulletins which
are very valuable as reference material. Write to
the following addresses and ask that publications be
sent to you and your name put on their permanent
SUGGESTIONS xi
mailing list : Division of Home Economics, Bureau
of Education, Washington, D. C. ; Children's
Bureau, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. ;
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ;
United States Public Health Service, Treasury De-
partment, Washington, D. C. ; Federal Board for
Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. ; all
State universities and agricultural colleges ; Ameri-
can Home Economics Association, 1211 Cathedral
Street, Baltimore, Md., "The Journal of Home
Economics" ($2 per year). In writing to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture ask also for a list of Farmers'
Bulletins and for publications issued by the Office
of Home Economics.
CONTENTS
PREFACE v
To THE STUDENT ........ vii
SUGGESTIONS ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv
PRELIMINARY LESSONS
Processes Used in Cooking 3
Some Points about Food 7
The Kitchen 10
Apparatus for the Kitchen 16
Dishwashing . . . . . . . .21
PROJECT I BREAKFAST
The Breakfast Plan 27
Beverages 30, 34
Fruit 37
Milk 39
Cereals 44
Bread 46, 51
Eggs 56
The Dining Room 60
Table Manners 63
Style of Serving , .67
PROJECT II SUPPER OR LUNCHEON
The Plan for Supper or Luncheon .... 70
Meat Substitutes 73, 76
Salads . . ' . . . ."..". * 80
Dried Fruits . . 84
Quick Breads -. . . . . . .87
xiv CONTENTS
PAGB
Cake . . . . , . . . , . 91
The School Lunch . . . . . . . 95
PROJECT III DINNER
The Dinner Plan 101
Vegetables 106
The Potato Ill
Other Starchy Foods 114
Meat 119, 123
Soups , .... 130
Poultry, Game and Fish . . .1 ." . .133
Desserts I ... 138
The Daily Meals of the Family Group . , .___ . 143
PROJECT IV FOOD PRESERVATION
The Preservation of Foods . . .. . . ^ . 153
Canning . 157
Jelly-making . 162
PROJECT V CHRISTMAS LESSONS . . . . .166
PROJECT VI SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS
The Care of the House 169, 172
Food for the Sick * . . ^ . . .176
INDEX 183
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A Canning-club Winner Frontispiece
PAGE
A Cooking Laboratory in a Rural School .... 3
Card-file Cook Book . . . .' . .... 4
One Type of Cooking-apron Kimono Style ... 6
Kitchen Equipment . 9
A Convenient Kitchen l . .11
"Routing Lines" in a Kitchen 12
"Routing Lines" in a Well Arranged Kitchen ... 14
Circulation of Air around Oven .17
Tireless Gas Range 18
The Fireless Cooker . . . . . .20
One-piece Kitchen Sink, an Excellent Type ... 22
Circulation of Air in Two Common Types of Refrigerator . 25
Three Types of Coffee-pots 32
Sandwiches made in Different Shapes .... 36
Equipment for Bread-making . - . . . . . 48
Bread-mixer ... . . . . . .50
Good Loaves of Bread . . . .... 52
Bread Pans, Bread-stick Pans and Baking-sheet . . 54
Folding the Omelet as it Comes from the Pan ... 59
Proper Way to Hold Knife and Fork ... , . . 64
Arrangement of " Cover " for Dinner -T-- . 66
Serving-dish Passed to the Left . . . . . . 68
Correct Method of Holding Soup or Bouillon Spoon . . 72
A Bean-pot Used for Baking Beans ..... 78
Food-grinder . . i|j 79
Three Salads 82
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Cake-mixer . . . . . . .- . .92
Lunch-box . . . . . . ... .96
Busy Cooks in a Rural School 98
Deep-fat Kettle, with Frying-Basket .... 103
No. 2, Croquettes. No. 3, Meat Loaf. No. 5, Pea Sand-
wiches 104
American Meat-cutting Chart Beef . . . .124
American Meat-cutting Chart Veal . . . .125
American Meat-cutting Chart Lamb . . . 126
American Meat-cutting Chart Pork . . . , . 127
Serving the Dinner with a Tea-cart . . . . .144
Cold-pack Canning .- 154
Types of Canners . . . ... . . 157
Types of Jars Used in Canning . ' 158
Attractive Jars of Fruits and Vegetables . . . .159
Types of Jelly Glasses 163
Pasteboard House, with Furnishings 173
Invalid's Tray, Supported by Pillow 177
Invalid's Tray, Well Arranged . . . - . . .178
FOODS AND COOKERY, AND THE CARE
OF THE HOUSE
FOODS AND COOKERY
AND
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
PROCESSES USED IN COOKING
Food is cooked : (1) to improve its appearance,
(2) to improve its flavor, (3) to make some food-
stuffs more digestible, and (4) to kill micro-
organisms.
A COOKING LABORATORY IN A RURAL SCHOOL
The first cooking that was done by primitive man
was the roasting of game by the open fire and
the parching of corn on hot stones, both processes
FOODS AND COOKERY
requiring no cooking equipment. Before water
could be used as a cooking medium, primitive woman
had to begin pot-
tery-making and
basket-weaving ; she
had to have utensils
which would hold
the water. Food
was first cooked in
water by placing
hot stones in the
water with the food,
not by placing the
utensil containing
the water over the
fire. Some pro-
cesses used in camp
cookery are modified
forms of primitive
cooking.
processes at our command to-day are :
I. "Direct , application of heat.
' ' jl . ; Ettpilihg : cooking over a hot fire, exposing
the surfaces of food to the direct heat,
with short cooking of the interior of the
food ; example, broiled beefsteak.
2. Roasting : cooking by an open fire, exposing
the surface to the direct heat, but allow-
ing a long period of cooking for the in-
terior of the food ; example, a roast
cooked under the direct gas flame in an
oven.
Strictly speaking, the popular use of
the word " roasting", as applied to meat
CARD-FILE COOK BOOK
One card is to be used for each recipe.
Card may be hung up in a convenient
place while in use.
FOODS AND COOKERY 5
cooked in an oven, is incorrect. " Roast
chicken" and " roast beef" are really
baked meats.
II. Application by means of heated air.
Baking : cooking in a heated oven ; example,
baked bread.
III. Application by means of heated water.
1. Boiling: cooking in boiling water ; example,
boiled potatoes.
2. Stewing or simmering : cooking in water
below the boiling-point; example, beef
stew.
IV. Application by means of steam.
Steaming : (a) cooking in a utensil into which
steam passes; example, steamed pudding;
(6) cooking in a closed utensil surrounded
by steam ; example, milk heated in double-
boiler.
V. Application by means of heated fat.
1. Sautelng : cooking in a small quantity of
fat ; example, browned potatoes.
2. Frying : cooking in hot fat deep enough to
cover the food ; example, croquettes.
VI. Application by means of heated metal.
1. Pan-broiling: cooking in a frying-pan or
on a griddle without the addition of fat ;
example, broiled bacon.
VII. Combination processes.
1. Braising: a combination of stewing and
baking ; example, casserole of beef.
2. Fricasseeing : a combination of saut&ng
and stewing ; example, fricasseed chicken.
In all cooking great care must be taken to follow
directions carefully. When tested recipes fail, it
6 FOODS AND COOKERY
is usually the fault of the cook and not the fault of
the recipe. Cooking becomes much more interesting
when one understands why certain processes are
followed, and in the laboratory work in a school
course this is one of the
important things to learn.
Every girl should learn
to work accurately yet
quickly, making only
what motions are neces-
sary, thereby saving time
and energy. Sometimes
there is only one "best"
way to do a thing; in
other cases there may be
several equally good, and
it is always wise to use
methods that are con-
sidered the best by ex-
perts.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
DIRECTIONS FOR WORK IN
LABORATORY
Personal appearance :
1. A wash dress is
always to be preferred in
the school laboratory or
home kitchen.
ONE TYPE OF COOKING- APRON ~ , Trl .. 111
KIMONO STYLE 2. White aprons should
be worn in the cooking
laboratory. There are several types that may be used.
3. Holders for lifting hot dishes, and individual hand
towels, should always be used by every student.
FOODS AND COOKERY 7
4. The hair should be brushed back and fastened so
that it does not fall in the face. If white caps are worn
they should be pulled down to cover the front of the
hair.
5. The hands should be thoroughly washed and the
nails scrubbed with a brush and cleaned thoroughly
before you begin any cooking. When cooking, wash
your hands whenever they become sticky or soiled.
6. Do not wear rings, bracelets, or other jewelry
in the kitchen.
Directions for work should include :
Assignment to desks.
Checking equipment.
Discussion of rules regarding care of towels, desks,
implements, etc.
Explanation of the kind of notebooks, reference books,
or textbooks required.
SOME POINTS ABOUT FOOD
When people or animals go without food too long,
they lose flesh and become very weak; finally all
motion of the body ceases. The eating of proper food
is very important if the body is to be kept well and
strong.
Food makes muscle, fat, bone, blood, hair and
teeth ; it produces the energy which is needed for
all movements of the body, and it also supplies the
warmth required. Only a part of the food is used
by the body for the purposes named, and such parts
are called foodstuffs or the food principles.
There are five main classes of foodstuffs. In
some foods only one class of foodstuffs is found,
while in other foods several or all of the foodstuffs
may be present.
8 FOODS AND COOKERY
The five groups of foodstuffs are :
1. Protein, used in the body for body-building,
and to produce energy and warmth. It is
present in such foods as meat, milk, cheese,
cereals and legumes.
2. Carbohydrates j used in the body to produce
energy and warmth. They are found in such
foods as potatoes, rice, fruits, cereals and
legumes.
3. Fat, used in the body to produce energy and
warmth. It is found in large amounts in
such foods as butter, cream, olive oil and fat
meat.
4. Minerals, used in the body for body-building,
and found in most foods.
5. Water, used in the body to help in digesting
the food and in carrying away waste material
from the organs of the body, thus keeping
the body in a healthy condition. Water is
found in practically all foods in either large
or small amounts.
Besides these five foodstuffs there is found in some
foods a very important class of substances called
vitamines. Little is known about the vitamines
except that there are probably two kinds, and that
they are necessary for the body growth and also to
keep the body in health. One kind is found in butter,
egg-yolk and such vegetables as lettuce, spinach and
dandelions. The other kind is present in vegetables,
fruits and whole cereals. Milk contains both kinds.
When the meals for the day are planned, foods
must be selected that will furnish some of each of the
foodstuffs and vitamines, so that the body shall
not lack material for growth, warmth and energy.
FOODS AND COOKERY 9
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MEASUREMENTS
Careful measuring or weighing of the ingredients used
in a recipe is very necessary if the results are to be of the
best. The utensils commonly used for measuring foods
are: scales, measuring-cup, measuring-spoons, table-
spoons and teaspoons. In measuring dry materials, fill
KITCHEN EQUIPMENT
Double-boiler, vegetable-press, scales, oven and chemical thermometers,
measuring-cups, spatula, wooden spoon and bread-rack.
the measure and level off the top with a knife. When
one half teaspoon is desired, divide the material length-
wise of the spoon and scrape out one half. For one
fourth teaspoon divide crosswise the remaining half.
Experiment :
Use water for the following :
1. To find the number of teaspoons in one tablespoon.
2. To find the number of tablespoons in one cup.
3. To find the number of cups in one pint.
Use sugar for the following :
1. To find the number of tablespoons in one cup.
2. To find the number of cups in one pound.
10 FOODS AND COOKERY
Use flour for the following :
1. Fill the cup by dipping it into the flour ; weigh.
2. Fill the cup by using a spoon ; weigh.
3. Sift the flour, fill the cup by using a spoon ; weigh.
Use salt for the following :
1. Measure one half, one fourth, and one eighth
teaspoon.
BAKED STUFFED PEPPERS
Cut a thick slice from the stem-end of each pepper,
remove all the seeds, wash thoroughly and let drain. Use
enough stale bread crumbs to fill the peppers ; add salt
to taste, as much butter as desired and enough water to
slightly moisten the crumbs. Heat this mixture until the
butter is melted. Fill the peppers. Place them in a
baking-dish in an upright position, and on top of each
place a small square of bacon. Put water in baking-dish
one half inch in depth. Bake slowly for forty-five
minutes or until tender.
Have you ever seen green peppers used in any other
way? Perhaps some one can bring to school a good
recipe that may be copied in the class notebook and tried
at home by other members of the class.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. For what purpose is food used in the body?
2. Name the five foodstuffs (food principles).
3. Name some foods in which each is found.
4. Do foods ever contain more than one foodstuff?
5. Name one food in which vitamines are found.
THE KITCHEN
The kitchen is a workshop where food is cared for,
prepared, cooked and served.
The most convenient kitchen has windows or doors
on two sides of the room, so that when these are
FOODS AND COOKERY
11
open, a cross draft of air clears the room of smoke
and odors.
The kitchen should be the cleanest room in the
house. The most sanitary kitchen has walls finished
in material that can be washed, such as oil paint or
tile. Walls and woodwork should be light in color,
because this makes the room seem more cheerful and
A CONVENIENT KITCHEN
With built-in ironing-board, ice-box and work-table.
also makes it easy to "see the dirt", which then may
be removed.
Hard-wood floors may be oiled or waxed and used
without covering. Soft-wood floors may be covered
with linoleum or cork carpet, or they may be painted.
The kitchen should have built-in cupboards with
plenty of space for utensils.
The sink, with a drain board at each end, should
be set where there is plenty of light, and it should
Dining Room
"ROUTING LINES" IN A KITCHEN
A wheel- tray would be a convenience in removing dishes from the
dining room. The refrigerator would be more convenient if built into
the wall.
12
FOODS AND COOKERY 13
be open underneath to avoid the dampness often
found in sink cupboards.
The kitchen may have a built-in ice-box arranged
to be iced from the outside of the house. Some
kitchens have a dumb waiter to the basement.
If an ironing-board is used in the kitchen, it may be
built into a space in the wall, being let down when
needed and folded back when not in use.
Other devices sometimes found in the kitchen are :
a closet for cleaning implements, such as broom,
bucket and brushes; a cupboard for the leaves of
the dining-table, and a built-in kitchen cabinet.
There may also be a pantry.
Each housekeeper decides for herself how to make
the kitchen a well arranged and equipped workshop.
In a well arranged kitchen the equipment is so
placed that the housekeeper can use it without losing
time or wasting strength in walking.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Make a drawing of your home kitchen, showing
where the sink, the cupboards, the table, the stove
and other equipment are placed.
Notice with care the steps taken by a person
preparing breakfast, and then make dotted lines
on your drawing to show where she* has walked.
Such a line is called a " routing line."
Do you think any of the equipment could be
changed to make the kitchen more convenient?
Bring your drawing to school for discussion.
14
FOODS AND COOKERY
"ROUTING LINES" IN A WELL ARRANGED KITCHEN
If the refrigerator were built into the wall it could be filled from the
porch outside.
FOODS AND COOKERY 15
LABORATORY EXERCISES
STUDY OF STOVES
Experiment :
Examine the stoves to be used in the laboratory.
If a gas range :
1. What kinds of ovens are there ?
2. Is there a pilot to use when lighting the ovens?
3. Do the oven doors fasten tightly?
4. Does the top burner have a stationary or movable
mixer ?
5. If there is a movable mixer, light the gas burner
and observe the color of the flame ; turn the
mixer and observe the flame.
6. What color should the flame be to give the most
heat?
7. Place a bright clean kettle, containing a small
amount of water, over the yellow flame.
What happens to the outside of the kettle ?
8. What is the use of the mixer ?
9. How is the top burner removed for cleaning?
10. Can other parts be removed for cleaning ?
If a coal or wood range :
1. Examine the firebox to see how it is constructed.
2. Where is the ash-pan? How are the ashes re-
moved ?
3. Find the dampers on the stove, and determine
the use of each.
4. For what is the stovepipe used ?
5. How does the heat warm the oven?
6. Lay the fire in the following manner. Clean the
firebox and ash-pan, crumple paper and put a
generous layer over the bottom of the fire-
box; place kindling on top of the paper in
such a way that the air passes between the
pieces ; place one large or two small shovelfuls
of coal or sticks of stove wood on top of the
16 FOODS AND COOKERY
kindling. How shall the drafts be arranged
before the fire is lighted? Clean the top of
the stove before lighting the fire.
ORANGEADE
Juice of one orange 1| tbsp. sugar
tsp. lemon juice f c. water
Mix ingredients thoroughly. Perhaps the mixture
may need straining. Chill before serving.
Fruitade or lemonade may be made also.
APPARATUS FOR THE KITCHEN
Stoves are of various types and must be selected
to suit the kind of fuel to be used and the size of the
kitchen in which they are to be placed.
A fuel is a substance which when burned produces
heat, and it is this heat that cooks food when applied
to it.
Wood, coal, gasoline, kerosene, manufactured
and natural gas, are the fuels commonly used.
Electricity is also used for cooking, but is not a fuel.
The stove is the apparatus in which the fuel is
burned and through which the heat is given off.
In selecting a stove or range, choose one that is plain
in design and has little nickel finish. A stove
covered with decorations is hard to keep clean.
Many gas and electric ranges have the oven built
on a level with the top of the stove. The oven is
easier to use in this position than when underneath
the burners.
Gas and electric stoves are now made with fireless
cooking attachments for both boiling and baking.
FOODS AND COOKERY
17
While these are more expensive in price than other
types, they are great savers of fuel when properly used.
A stove must be in good condition if it is to do
good cooking. A coal or wood range must have
CIRCULATION OF AIR AROUND OVEN
soot and ashes removed regularly from the inside of
pipes, firebox and ash-pit. Whenever gas burners
cannot be regulated to burn without a yellow flame,
they must be taken apart and cleaned by boiling in
a weak solution of soda.
There should be in the kitchen a supply of cooking
18
FOODS AND COOKERY
utensils of the right kind to meet any need. Good
utensils to use for boiling, stewing and steaming are
made of aluminum or enamel ware of good grade;
for baking, earthenware, glass, sheet iron and tin
are used ; iron is used for sauteing and frying.
Aluminum, wooden, or heavily plated tin spoons
are needed in the kitchen. These are better than
enameled spoons be-
cause enamel is apt
to chip off when the
spoon strikes hard
surfaces. Steel
knives are best with
the steel blade run-
ning through and
riveted into the
wooden handle.
One or more spatu-
las should be a part
of the equipment.
Any device that
aids in doing work
as well, but more quickly and easily than it has been
done before, is a labor-saving device.
Fireless cookers, pressure and steam cookers,
cake and bread-mixers, food-grinders and double-
boilers are examples of labor-saving devices that
are useful in the kitchen. Every housekeeper should
have as many labor-saving devices as possible.
FIRELESS GAS RANGE
Observe "hood" under which fireless
cooking may be done. The oven may also
be made "fireless."
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Find the price of the following : a gas range, a
coal or wood range, a two-compartment fireless
FOODS AND COOKERY 19
cooker, food-grinders, double-boilers, spatulas, re-
frigerators, garbage-cans.
Look through the advertisements in the magazines
and papers, at home or in the public library, and
make a list of other labor-saving devices and cooking
utensils not named in the lesson. How many of
these have you seen used ?
Bring the lists to school for discussion.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
TEMPERATURES
Experiment :
Examine the thermometer to be used in taking
temperatures.
1. Is it a centigrade or Fahrenheit thermometer?
2. What is "boiling-point" on each? freezing-
point ?
3. (a) What is the temperature of one cup of water in
the top part of a double-boiler after the water
in the lower part has been boiling twenty
minutes? Continue boiling. Does the water
in the top part of the double-boiler ever reach
boiling-point? (6) What is the temperature of
one cup of water in a small saucepan over direct
heat when the first small bubbles appear on the
surface? when the large bubbles come to the
surface and break? when the fire is turned
higher and the bubbles form and break more
quickly? The vapor which comes off the sur-
face of the water is called steam. Continue
boiling the water for a few minutes; remove
from the fire and measure the water. What
has happened ?
Examine the fireless cooker, if there is one in the
laboratory; if not, the class may make one, following
20 FOODS AND COOKERY
THE FIRELESS COOKER
Placing the heated stone in the cooker.
FOODS AND COOKERY 21
the directions given in Farmers' Bulletin No. 771,
" Home-made Fireless Cookers and their Use ", ob-
tained by writing to the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C.
ROLLED OATS
3 c. boiling water 1 c. rolled oats 1 tsp. salt
Heat water to boiling point by placing the top part of
the double-boiler over direct heat ; add salt ; stir in the
rolled oats. Cook ten minutes. Place over water in the
double-boiler ; cook one hour.
This may be cooked in the fireless cooker.
If the fireless cooker has a large compartment, fill the
large kettle half full of boiling water, place the prepared
oatmeal in a small tightly covered kettle, and set on the
wire rack placed inside the large kettle, so that the hot
water is below the top of the small kettle. Close the
cooker and do not open until the food is needed for the
meal. Cereals may be put in the fireless cooker at night
and will then be ready for breakfast in the morning.
DISHWASHING
The housekeeper sometimes considers dishwashing
" drudgery", and it may be so when poor equipment
is used for the task, or when she does not know how
to do the work correctly. The best type of house-
keeper feels that every part of her work is worth
doing well, and whenever she thinks about why she
is doing the task, it ceases to be drudgery. To know
the reason for washing dishes helps to make the
work more interesting. Dishes are washed to make
them more sanitary and more pleasing to use. It
is not safe nor pleasant to eat from dirty or sticky
dishes.
22 FOODS AND COOKERY
The equipment needed for washing dishes consists
of plenty of clean hot water, good soap, or soap
powder, scouring-powder, dishpans, dish-drainer,
dishcloth and mops, dish-towels, bottle and sink
brushes; and there may be added a plate-scraper,
a metal dishcloth and soap-shaker.
There are two kinds of water, hard and soft. When
soap will not make good suds in the water, it is
because the water is "hard." Hard water is water
that has taken up lime or iron from the soil, and is
ONE-PIECE KITCHEN SINK; an excellent type
the kind that usually comes from wells. Rain
water is soft water, and is better for washing dishes
because soap makes a good suds in it. If hard water
must be used, borax, ammonia, or a strong soap
powder or soap must be added.
Soap is best for use when it is very dry. It may
be purchased by the dozen cakes or bars, or by the
box. Some persons make "soft" soap at home by
boiling scraps of fat with lye made from wood ashes.
The steps in washing dishes correctly are :
1. Remove the dishes from the table. Remove
the bits of food from the plates with the rubber
FOODS AND COOKERY 23
plate-scraper or a piece of paper. Rinse off very
dirty dishes. Pile together dishes that are alike.
2. Put to soak all cooking utensils. Hot water
should be put in those which have contained sugar
or syrup, and cold water in those which have been
used with milk, eggs, cereal, starch or flour.
3. Pour hot water in the dishpan, make a good
suds with the soap, use a clean dishcloth (not a
"rag") or mop, and wash every dish carefully.
Do not have the dishpan full of dirty dishes while
washing. Always wash the cleanest dishes first.
4. Place the washed dishes in a drain-pan or
dish-drier, being careful not to crowd them. Crowd-
ing dishes in a pan is apt to chip them and makes
it hard to scald them thoroughly. This pan or drier
should be placed at the left of the pan in which the
dishes are washed because this will save unnecessary
motions in putting the dishes from one into the other.
5. Rinse the dishes thoroughly with boiling
water, being sure that each dish has been rinsed
inside and out. If the dishes have been scalded in
a dish-drier, it may be set on the drain-board and the
dishes allowed to dry without wiping. The silver
and glass should be washed first. They will look
best when wiped and polished dry with a towel.
Some persons like to dry all the dishes with a towel.
This is a good method, but it takes more time than
drying them in a rack or drier.
6. Scrape out and rinse off the cooking utensils.
Use plenty of hot soapy water for washing them;
wash thoroughly, both inside and out, scouring if
necessary. Rinse with boiling water and wipe dry.
Steel knives may be scoured with scouring-powder
applied with a cork.
24 FOODS AND COOKERY
7. Wash off the drain-boards and tables, and
scour them with the powder and a brush if necessary.
Use clean water for this. Wash out the sink and
scour it with a brush and scouring-powder when the
soapy water will not remove the stains.
8. Wash the dish-towels in clean soapy water,
removing all spots. Rinse in clean water, shake
out and pull into shape. Hang to dry on a rack for
this purpose in the kitchen, or better still, hang out-
doors in the sun. Wash and rinse the dishcloth or
dish-mop.
9. Clean out the dishpan thoroughly, wipe it
dry and put it away.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CARE OF EQUIPMENT
The Sink
1. Find the waste-pipe; the trap. Of what value is
the trap?
2. Of what material is the sink made ?
3. Of what material are the drain-boards made ?
4. Of what material are the faucets made ?
5. To clean the sink :
(a) Faucets brass may be cleaned with scouring-
powder. If stained, use vinegar or lemon
juice before scouring ; nickel needs only wash-
ing with soap and water.
(6) Wash drain-boards and sink; see lesson above
(Section 7) .
Every sink needs a sink-strainer through which dish-
water or other liquids may be poured, thereby catching
all refuse. Clean boiling water should be poured down
the waste-pipe after very greasy water.
FOODS AND COOKERY
25
The Refrigerator
1. Find the waste-pipe. Into what does it drain?
Can it be removed for cleaning?
2. Of what material is the lining of the refrigerator?
3. What otlier parts of the refrigerator may be removed
when cleaning?
4. To clean the refrigerator :
(a) Remove immediately any food that has been
spilled.
(6) Once a week remove all food and ice ; take
out the shelves and other parts ; wash these
and the inside of the ice-box with clean,
Coldest Part
Warm
J \
Warm
Warm
Warmest Part
I
Coldest
Part
CIRCULATION OF AIR IN Two COMMON TYPES OF REFRIGERATOR
warm, soapy water and rinse with clean cold
water; a solution of washing soda may be
poured down the drain-pipe. Do the work as
quickly as possible.
26 FOODS AND COOKERY
The Garbage-Can
If no liquid material is placed in the garbage-can, the
garbage may be wrapped in newspaper before placing in
the can. This keeps the can in excellent condition.
1. To clean, when garbage is wrapped, wash out with
clean, hot, soapy water once a week.
2. To clean, when garbage is not wrapped, scrub with
a brush, using a strong washing-soda solution; rinse
with boiling water; dry in the sun. A dirty garbage-
can has a bad smell and attracts flies. A garbage-can
must always be kept tightly covered.
BICED POTATOES
Wash and peel a potato. Cook in boiling salted water,
allowing J tsp. of salt to one pint of water. Boil gently.
When the potato can be pierced to the center easily with
a fork, remove from the water. Press through the vege-
table press or ricer into a hot dish. Serve.
MASHED POTATOES
To the riced potato add two teaspoons of hot milk;
one half teaspoon of butter ; salt to taste. Beat with a
fork until the mixture is light and fluffy. Place in a hot
dish and serve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What equipment is needed for washing dishes well?
2. What are the two kinds of water used ?
3. Which is the best kind to use for dishwashing? Why?
4. How should the dishes be prepared for washing? the
cooking utensils?
5. State the steps in washing and drying dishes.
6. How should the dish-towels and dishcloth be cared for
after dishwashing?
7. Have you ever washed dishes by this method ?
8. Have you ever seen a dishwasher used ?
FOODS AND COOKERY 27
THE BREAKFAST PLAN
There are many types of breakfast that may be
served, and every family will have its own particular
plan for this meal.
The foods generally used for breakfast are fruit,
cereals, bread and beverages, with sometimes egg,
meat or vegetable dishes.
The menu should vary with (1) the time of year,
(2) the type of work which the members of the family
are doing, (3) the kind of meal eaten the night before,
and (4) the size, weight and age of the members of
the family.
In the summer it is well to avoid eating much meat,
and meat can easily be omitted from breakfast.
It is well, also, to eat less heat-producing food in
summer than in winter, because then the body does
not need so much heat to keep it warm.
When too much food is eaten, a good deal is lost
because some foodstuffs cannot be stored in the body
and must, therefore, be carried off from the body
in the form of waste material.
If a man is doing hard work out of doors he needs
more food than does the man who sits all day at his
desk in an office, because the man in the office does
not use so much muscular energy in doing his work
as does the man who works with his muscles.
If dinner is the meal served in the evening, the family
does not wish nor need much for breakfast the follow-
ing morning. If a light supper is the last meal of the
day, then more food should be served for breakfast.
The members of the family differ in size, weight
and age, and the food eaten should vary in amount
and kind. The baby and small child should not
28 FOODS AND COOKERY
eat the same food, nor so much, as the man in the
family. How then shall the meal be planned to suit
each member of the family? It is a good plan to
make a menu that contains enough food of the right
kind for the man, and to have in that menu some
food that will suit the small child.
The following are some general suggestions for
planning the breakfast :
1. Breakfast consisting of fruit, bread and bever-
age; suitable for the man who works in an office
and the woman who does light work. For the small
child, cereal and milk would have to be added and
tea or coffee omitted.
2. Breakfast consisting of fruit, cereal, bread
and beverage; suitable for the man who does a
good deal of walking but works indoors, and for the
woman who does ordinary housework, office work,
or teaching. With cocoa or milk as the beverage,
this would be good for the small child, the school-
girl or boy, and the college student.
3. Breakfast consisting of fruit, eggs, bread and
a beverage, instead of No. 2. Milk and cereal, how-
ever, should be added for the child.
4. Breakfast of fruit, cereal, a meat or egg dish,
bread and a beverage; suitable for the man doing
hard manual work out of doors, or for women doing
hard manual work. The meat should be omitted
in the child's diet, and milk or cocoa used as the
beverage.
5. Breakfast consisting of fruit, cereal, meat or
egg dish, a vegetable, bread and a beverage. This
breakfast is a very heavy meal and should be eaten
only by a man doing hard manual labor out of doors
in cold weather. Many families eating this type
FOODS AND COOKERY 29
of breakfast do so because they like it and not
because they need the food in the daily diet. In
many cases they would be in better health if less food
were eaten.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Are these good breakfast plans ? Why ?
1 . For a hot summer morning : stewed fruit,
sausage, buckwheat cakes, coffee.
2. For a small child : coffee, cereal, meat dish and
hot biscuit.
3. For a man doing hard manual labor out of
doors : fruit, coffee, toast.
4. For the schoolgirl : fruit, cereal, cocoa and
toast.
Make two good plans for your breakfast at this
season of the year.
Make two good plans for the breakfast of a small
child at this season of the year.
Bring these plans to class for discussion.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
FRUIT FOR BREAKFAST
ORANGES
1. Wash the orange, cut through crosswise, serve on
plate.
2. Wash the orange, remove the skin and as much of
the white portion as possible, divide in sections, arrange
attractively on plate, serve.
3. Wash the orange, cut in halves, squeeze out the
juice, using the lemon-squeezer ; put juice in glass, cool,
set on fruit-plate, serve.
30 FOODS AND COOKERY
BAKED APPLE
Wash the apple, remove the core, leaving the apple
whole, and fill the cavity with sugar. Raisins or nutmeg
may be used also. Put a little water in the pan to pre-
vent burning. Bake slowly until the apple is tender
when pierced with a fork.
BEVERAGES
Beverages are made by combining liquids and
flavoring materials.
There are many kinds of beverages, examples of
which are coffee, tea, cocoa, lemonade and grape
juice.
Water is the liquid used in making most beverages.
In addition to the water taken in beverages one
should drink a great deal of pure water, because the
composition of the body is two thirds water. One
may go without food for weeks, but it is not possible
to live very long without water. Most persons,
because of the taste, like to drink hard water in
preference to soft water. Hard water comes from
wells and deep springs, and has collected certain
mineral substances from the soil over or through
which it has come.
When the soil is full of filth, the water flowing
through it will be impure and may be the cause of
typhoid fever, malaria, or other diseases. Impure
water may be clear and sparkling in appearance,
and the only way to be certain of its purity is to
know about the source from which it comes. In
the city, the water supply is so carefully watched
that the water coming into the house is usually pure.
If a well is so situated that the water coming into it
FOODS AND COOKERY 31
passes through soil into which a barnyard or an
outside toilet or a pig-pen is drained, it is likely to
be dangerous to health.
When there is the slightest doubt about the
purity of water, it should be boiled before drinking.
Boiled water has a flat taste because some of the air
in it has been driven off by boiling. The taste may
be improved by pouring the water back and forth
between two pitchers, thus forcing air into it again.
Ice is frozen water, and is just as pure as the water
from which it was made. Ice from a pond should
never be dissolved in drinking-water or other bever-
ages. Artificial ice is made by freezing water in
tanks, the freezing temperature being secured by
the evaporation of ammonia. This ice should be
much purer than ice from ponds, lakes and rivers.
At school every student should use his or her own
drinking-cup unless there is a bubbling fountain.
It is dangerous to drink out of a cup that has been
used by other persons, because if any one has a
disease, such as diphtheria, sore throat or tubercu-
losis, it may be given to others who use the same cup.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
BEVERAGES
Experiment :
1. Examine coffee beans, finely ground, and pulver-
ized coffee. What is the price of each?
2. Examine samples of tea, both green and black;
compare the color and shape of the leaves. Are there
bits of stem or other refuse present? Compare prices.
3. Examine cocoa nibs, pulverized cocoa.
4. Pour one half cup of boiling water over two tea-
spoons of cocoa. Observe the liquid.
32 FOODS AND COOKERY
5. Mix together one half cup of cold water and two
teaspoons of cocoa; boil five minutes. Compare this
with No. 4. What has happened ?
COCOA
I c. cocoa 1 c. water
j c. sugar 3 c. milk
| tsp. salt Vanilla
Mix cocoa, sugar, salt and water. Boil ten minutes.
Heat milk in double-boiler, add to this the cocoa paste.
Cook twenty minutes. Add vanilla.
An attractive way to serve cocoa is to place a spoonful
of whipped cream on top of each cup.
COFFEE
Coffee may be made in several ways.
1. Boiled coffee, made with egg.
1 heaping tbsp. of ground coffee
1 c. water
\ egg-shell or \ of an egg-white
THREE TYPES OF COFFEE-POTS
From left to right : drip coffee-pot, coffee percolator and pot for boiled
coffee.
Mix together coffee and egg, using a little of the water ;
add the rest of the water. Boil gently for three to five
FOODS AND COOKERY 33
minutes. Let stand in warm place for five minutes.
Serve. The egg is used to settle the grounds.
2. Boiled coffee without egg.
Use the same proportions as in No. 1. Place the ground
coffee in a cheesecloth bag, being careful to pack it very loosely ;
tie securely.
3. Percolated coffee.
Made in a percolator pot, constructed so that the ground
coffee is placed in a container at the top. The water boils up
through a tube to the ground coffee, and then drips back into the
bottom of the pot.
There are many kinds of percolators sold.
4. Drip coffee.
Like coffee made in percolator, except that the coffee-pot is
arranged so that water must drip through the ground coffee
from the top.
TEA
1 tsp. tea 1 c. water
Heat fresh water to boiling-point. Pour it over the
tea, let stand in a warm place three minutes. Pour off
tea into hot teapot or cups. Serve at once.
Tea should never be boiled, nor the water allowed to
stand on the tea leaves longer than three minutes, be-
cause the longer it stands the more tannic acid is present.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a beverage ?
2. Name some commonly used beverages.
3. Why is it important to drink pure water? ,
4. How should impure water be treated when it must be
used for drinking?
5. From what source does the water supply come that is
used in your school ?
6. What is ice?
7. When may ice be put into beverages?
8. Where does the ice come from that is used in your
neighborhood? What is the price of one hundred pounds?
34 FOODS AND COOKERY
BEVERAGES (Continued)
Coffee, tea, cocoa and chocolate are the beverages
generally used for breakfast. Coffee and tea should
be used only by grown persons ; children may take
cocoa.
The coffee-bean or berry is the seed of a fruit
resembling a cherry, and is produced on an evergreen
tree that grows in nearly all tropical countries.
Most of our coffee comes from South America,
mainly from Brazil. In preparing coffee for market
the cherry-like fruit is allowed to ferment so that the
pulp surrounding the seeds may become soft and
can be removed. These seeds contain two "beans"
which grow with their flat sides together and are
inclosed in a husk. This husk has to be dried and
then removed, when the beans fall apart. The
coffee-beans are then shipped to the country where
they are to be sold. The beans are roasted to make
them brittle and to develop flavor, and are sold to the
housekeeper in this form, or as "ground coffee."
Coffee loses its flavor and aroma very quickly
after being ground if it is left in an open container,
and for this reason some prefer to buy the roasted
coffee-beans and grind them only as needed.
Ground coffee should be sold in air-tight cans, but
if sent from the store in paper sacks should be-
emptied into air-tight cans at once.
Coffee contains substances that are often harmful
for grown persons and are never good for children ;
one is caffeine, a substance that stimulates the
nerves ; another is tannic acid, which may disturb
digestion.
Most of the tea we use comes from China, Japan,
FOODS AND COOKERY 35
Ceylon and India. Tea is made from the leaves of
a plant called Thea. The plant sends out four sets
of new shoots a year, and the leaves from these
shoots are gathered and cured for tea.
There are two types of tea, black and green tea.
Green tea is made by drying the tea leaves at a high
temperature, which causes them to keep their green
color and to curl up. Black tea is made by allowing
the leaves to wither and ferment, which causes them
to turn dark before being dried. This process gives
black tea a flavor different from that of green tea.
Tea contains a substance called "theine" which
acts as a stimulant to the nerves. There is also
present tannic acid, which is bad for the digestion.
Cocoa is produced from the pod of the cocoa tree
which grows in tropical countries. The pod is shaped
somewhat like a cucumber, and inside are a large
number of seeds surrounded by pulp. The seeds
are removed from the pulp and, after being allowed
to ferment a few days, are roasted. The husk is
then removed and the seed is divided into two parts
which are called "cocoa nibs."
When cocoa nibs are ground and pressed into a
cake, the cake is known as chocolate. This chocolate
is rather bitter in taste and is used in cookery.
When sugar is added to the cake it is called sweet
chocolate.
Cocoa is made from chocolate by removing a large
part of the fat. It is then ground and sold in bulk
or in tin containers. The fat that is removed from
the chocolate is used for cocoa butter. Cocoa has a
good deal of food value, and when served as a
beverage in which milk is used adds food value to a
meal.
36 FOODS AND COOKERY
LABORATORY EXERCISES
A RECEPTION FOR MOTHERS
Invite the mothers of the girls to the school for the
laboratory period. The members of the class should re-
ceive and entertain them. Refreshments of tea, coffee or
cocoa, sandwiches and marguerites, may be prepared
and served by the girls.
MARGUERITES
12 wafers tsp. salt
1 egg-white \ tsp. vanilla
2 tbsp. powdered sugar \ c. chopped raisins or nuts, or
the two mixed
Beat the egg very stiff. Sugar should be pressed
through a wire sieve before using. Add the other in-
gredients to the sugar and mix carefully with beaten egg-
white. Spread on top of the wafers. Brown in a moderate
oven.
SANDWICHES
Cut the bread into very thin slices ; cream the butter
by mashing and beating with a fork. Butter the slices
SANDWICHES MADE IN DIFFERENT SHAPES
of bread, add jelly if desired, lay the slices together evenly.
Sandwiches are often cut into fancy shapes, such as round,
FOODS AND COOKERY 37
triangular, rectangular, or square. The crust may be
removed, if desired. The bread scraps may be saved
for a bread pudding. Wrap the sandwiches in a dry
cloth, then in a slightly damp cloth until ready to serve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the preparation of coffee for market.
2. How should coffee be cared for after it is purchased ?
3. From what countries does most of the tea used in this
country come ?
4. Describe the preparation of tea for market.
5. Why are tea and coffee harmful to many people ?
6. Should children drink tea or coffee ?
7. What is cocoa? chocolate? cocoa nibs?
FRUIT
Fruit is very valuable in the diet and, if possible,
should be included in the menu every day. Fresh
fruit can be purchased in the market at all seasons
of the year. Canned and dried fruits can always be
substituted when the fresh fruit is too expensive or
not available.
Fruits are composed largely of water but contain
sugar, which is one form of carbohydrate, very small
amounts of protein and fat, and mineral matter.
Fruit also contains vitamines. The mineral matter
in fruit, including iron, phosphorus, lime, magnesia
and potash, is very valuable to the body.
The botanist says that fruits are the seed-bearing
parts of the plant, but such foods as tomatoes and
cucumbers, which really are fruits, we class as vege-
tables.
When fruits are considered as to their food value
they are sometimes classified as (1) flavor fruits,
containing a very large amount of water and very
38 FOODS AND COOKERY
small amounts of the foodstuffs, and (2) food fruits,
containing less water and larger amounts of the
foodstuffs. Examples of flavor fruits are straw-
berries and watermelons. Examples of food fruits
are bananas, dried figs and dates.
Most persons like fresh fruit, but it does not agree
with everyone. Cooked fruit can often be eaten
when the raw fruit cannot, because the cooking
softens the fruit and kills bacteria that may be
present. Children should be given cooked fruit in
preference to raw fruit. Neither green fruit nor over-
ripe fruit should be eaten.
Fruits are least expensive when purchased in season,
that is, when they are being produced on the farms
and in the gardens of the community. When fruits
have to be shipped long distances they must be sold
at higher prices.
Fruit should be cleaned carefully before being
used as food. Even when the skin of the fruit is
to be removed, it should be washed carefully. One
handles both the skin and the fruit at the time of
peeling. Berries and similar fruits should be washed
thoroughly before being eaten or cooked.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
FRUIT FOR BREAKFAST
GRAPEFRUIT
Wash grapefruit and cut crosswise into halves. Loosen
the thick white skin by cutting each section of the fruit
from the skin. Use scissors to cut the skin loose from
the rind. Cut the core loose from the rind and remove
white skin with core. Fill center of grapefruit with
powdered sugar if desired. Serve on fruit-plate.
Have you ever eaten grapefruit prepared in any other way ?
FOODS AND COOKERY 39
APPLE SAUCE
1 medium-sized apple ^ tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg
| c. water (if desired)
to 1 tbsp. sugar
Wash and pare the apple. Cut it into quarters and re-
move the core. Place in saucepan, add the water, cover
tightly. Boil gently until apples are tender when pierced
with a fork. Add sugar and nutmeg or cinnamon. Cook
until sugar is melted.
Other recipes for using apples may be brought from
home by members of the class. Are all the recipes good
ones to use for breakfast?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the fruits that can be used for breakfast.
2. Which of these grow in your locality?
3. What are the foodstuffs found in fruits?
4. What is meant by purchasing "in season"?
5. What fruits are "in season" at the present time?
6. How much are apples per pound? How many pounds
are in a peck and in a bushel of apples?
7. How does the price per bushel compare with the price
paid when apples are bought by the pound ?
8. What is the price of grapefruit ? What does one serving
cost?
MILK
Milk is one of our most important foods. When
we drink milk we should remember that we are
taking a .real food and not merely something to take
the place of water. When enough milk is used, some
other food can be left out of the diet. Milk is a
perfect food for infants or young animals and is a
good food for grown persons.
When the chemist divides milk into its parts he
finds the following foodstuffs: protein, carbohy-
drates, fat, mineral matter and water.
40 FOODS AND COOKERY
The protein in one glassful of milk is equal to the
protein contained in one large egg or in one and
one third ounces of beef. Therefore when we use
enough milk in a meal we do not need meat. The
milk may be used in custards, escalloped and creamed
dishes, or it may be used to drink.
When the milk stands, the fat separates and
comes to the top. This fat is then called cream.
The milk remaining when the cream is removed is
skim milk. The milk without its cream removed is
whole milk.
The mineral matter in milk is very valuable because
it is in a good form for the body to use. Milk
also contains the vitamines which are so important.
Every boy and girl should use a great deal of milk,
some say a pint a day for all children over six
years old, and a quart a day for the child under six.
Clean milk is the only safe milk. Dirty milk may
contain disease germs that cause typhoid fever,
tuberculosis, or other diseases. Clean milk comes
from clean cows kept in clean barns. The milk
must be handled by persons with clean hands and
clean clothes, and it must be placed in clean pails,
bottles, or pans.
If milk is purchased from a store or dairy wagon
it should be in bottles, tightly covered. The bottles
must be kept in a cool place where there are no flies.
If a bottle of milk is put in the refrigerator it must
always be tightly covered.
There are several kinds of milk that can be pur-
chased. Milk that is heated to the boiling-point,
212 F., and cooled before it is sold, is called steril-
ized milk. The boiling changes the flavor but kills
harmful bacteria that may have been in the milk.
FOODS AND COOKERY .41
Pasteurized milk is milk which has been heated and
kept at a temperature of 140 to 145 F. for twenty
to thirty minutes, and then cooled quickly. This
process kills bacteria that may cause disease. Cer-
tified milk is milk that is guaranteed by the producer
to be especially clean and pure.
At the grocer's we buy condensed or evaporated
milk in tin cans. This is milk that has had most
of the water taken out of it and afterwards has been
canned. This is useful to take on camping trips
or journeys where fresh milk cannot be obtained.
Powdered milk may also be found in the stores.
This is a dry powder and must have water added
before it is used.
Fortunate is the child who lives on a farm and can
have all the milk desired. Milk, however, must be
regarded as a very necessary food and should be used
by every family, whether in town or country. It
is poor economy to reduce the amount of milk pur-
chased. Some other food could be better spared.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MILK
WHITE SAUCE
White sauce is made by combining a liquid, a fat and
a thickening agent. Cream sauces and gravies are ex-
amples of white sauce. White sauce is of different thick-
nesses, according to its use. The following are the general
proportions for white sauce :
No. 1 White Sauce or Thin White Sauce
1 c. liquid 1 tbsp. fat 1 tbsp. flour
Used for cream soups and certain sauces.
42 FOODS AND COOKERY
No. 2 White Sauce or Medium White Sauce
1 c. liquid 1 tbsp. fat 2 tbsp. flour
Used for vegetables, gravies and sauces.
No. 8 White Sauce or Thick White Sauce
1 c. liquid 2 tbsp. fat 3 tbsp. flour
Used for thick sauces, creamed oysters.
No. 4 White Sauce or Very Thick White Sauce
1 c. liquid 3 tbsp. fat 4 tbsp. flour
Used for croquettes.
There are three ways of combining the ingredients in
making white sauces :
Method No. 1. Heat part of the milk in double-boiler ;
mix the remaining milk with the flour, and add gradually
to the heated milk, stirring thoroughly ; add the fat just
before removing from the fire. Cook twenty to thirty
minutes in the double-boiler, stirring occasionally.
Method No. 2. Heat milk in double-boiler ; mix into
a paste the fat and the flour ; add to the heated milk,
stirring until no lumps are present ; cook twenty to thirty
minutes.
Method No. 3. This method is often used in making
gravies. Heat the fat slowly; add the flour, and stir
until a smooth paste is formed ; add the milk, stirring
constantly to prevent lumping. Cook six to ten minutes.
CREAM TOAST
1 tbsp. butter 1 c. milk or cream
1 tbsp. flour i tsp. salt
4 slices bread
Make white sauce from the first four ingredients.
While it is cooking make the toast, being careful not to
FOODS AND COOKERY 43
burn the bread. Dip each piece in the white sauce, place
in a warm dish and pour on the remaining white sauce.
Serve in warmed dishes.
FRENCH TOAST
1 c. milk | tsp. salt
1 egg 6 slices stale bread
Beat the egg slightly, add salt and milk, dip each piece
of bread in the mixture. In a hot frying-pan place some
fat. When it is melted, place the bread in the frying-
pan and brown on both sides. Serve with syrup.
CARAMEL SYRUP
Melt one half cup of sugar in a frying-pan and heat
until it is a brown syrup; add one half cup of boiling
water ; boil until the syrup is as thick as desired. Serve
with the French toast.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is clean milk?
2. Why is it necessary to use clean milk ?
3. What is Pasteurized milk? sterilized milk?
4. Can either of these be purchased in your neighborhood ?
Where?
5. What is the price of milk per quart? What is the price
of one pint of cream ? of one half pint ?
6. Can skim milk be purchased from your dairy man?
Compare the price of this with the price of whole milk.
7. In what ways may skim milk be used ?
8. How should milk be cared for in the home ?
9. What is condensed milk?
10. Does your grocer sell condensed milk? What does it
cost per can? How much does the can contain?
11. Is milk a valuable food? Why?
12. For what food may milk be substituted?
44 FOODS AND COOKERY
CEREALS
Cereals are derived from the seeds or grain of
certain cultivated grasses. The most commonly
used are corn, oats, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat
and rice. From these are made many different
kinds of flour, meal and breakfast foods.
Cereals are very valuable as food because they con-
tain all the foodstuffs. Carbohydrates are found in
the largest amount. Carbohydrates in food are
found mainly in three forms : (1) starch, (2) sugar
and (3) cellulose. Starch and cellulose are the
forms found in cereals.
The grain is made up of cells, the walls of which
are of cellulose, and inside is the starch. Cellu-
lose is not easily digested and is of practically no
value, but it is useful to the body by furnishing
"bulk" which causes the food to pass through the
digestive system in a better and easier way.
Cereals contain, also, large amounts of protein and
mineral matter; therefore they are useful both for
growth and for producing heat and energy.
When the chemist divides a cereal into its parts
he finds 65 to 75 per cent of carbohydrates, 10 to
12 per cent of protein, 2 to 8 per cent of fat, about
2 per cent of mineral matter and 10 to 12 per cent
of water.
Cereals used for breakfast foods may be purchased
at the stores in sealed packages, or in bulk by the
pound. Those in packages are usually the cleaner
but are more expensive.
We can buy ready prepared breakfast foods, such
as cornflakes, puffed cereals and shredded wheat,
or we may purchase the kinds that must be cooked
FOODS AND COOKERY 45
before serving, such as rolled oats and cream of
wheat. The prepared breakfast foods cost more per
pound than those which must be cooked.
Cereals do not keep well and it is not wise to buy
them in large quantities, even though the price may
be lower when bought in that way.
Cereals are cooked for three reasons : (1) to soften
the cellulose, (2) to cause the starch grains to swell
and burst and (3) to make the taste better. In
cooking cereals a fireless cooker may be used.
When cereals are cooked on the stove, always use
a double-boiler. This is to prevent burning.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Make a list of the cereals grown in this region.
Which are the most common ?
Make a list of the prepared cereals that can be
purchased at the grocery.
Make a list of the cereals to be cooked.
What is the cost of rolled oats by the pound when
sold in bulk? What is the cost per box for rolled
oats ? Read the label on the box to find what
amount of oats the box contains. Compare the
price of that in the box and that in bulk.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
BREAKFAST CEREALS
CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES
2 tbsp. cream of wheat | tsp. salt
lj c. water 4 to 6 dates
Heat water to boiling-point, add salt, stir in cream of
wheat gradually. Cook about thirty minutes in double-
46 FOODS AND COOKERY
boiler. When the cooking is about half done, add the
dates, which have been cut into fine pieces.
PREPARED CEREALS
Place cereal on pan and heat in oven until crisp. Serve
with fruit if desired. Milk or cream may be used with a
cereal. Sometimes hot milk is poured over shredded
wheat before serving.
TOAST
Cut slices of bread evenly and of even thickness. Toast
in oven or on toaster until the slices are of an even brown
on both sides, and until the bread is thoroughly dried and
crisp. Toast may be served in this form and then it is
called " dry toast." Butter may be spread on it and
the toast placed in a hot oven until the butter is melted,
when it is known as " buttered toast." " Cinnamon
toast " is made by spreading toast with butter and
sprinkling with sugar and cinnamon, mixed, using three
parts of sugar to one of cinnamon. " Dipped toast " is
made by quickly dipping toasted bread into hot salted
water.
Which kinds would be best to serve for breakfast?
BREAD
In any menu we usually like bread in some form.
Bread is another way of serving cereals, because all
the flours and meals from which bread is made are
prepared from cereals. The cereal used most com-
monly in making bread is wheat. The product
made from wheat and used in bread is called flow.
There are many different brands of wheat flour and
these will make different kinds of bread. The flours
are not alike because they are made from different
kinds of wheat and by different processes. A great
deal of our flour comes from the Northwestern
FOODS AND COOKERY 47
States and is made from wheat sown in the spring
and called hard-wheat flour. Wheat grown in the
Central States is usually sown in the fall and the
flour made from it is called soft-wheat flour. Both
can be used in bread-making.
Flour that is to be used for bread-making should
be creamy in color, rather gritty in feel, and if
pressed in the hand should fall apart when released.
Flour may be purchased by the barrel, by the sack, or
by the pound. It is cheaper when purchased in
quantity, if the housekeeper has a suitable place
for storing a large amount. Flour must be kept in
a clean dry place and in a well covered container.
Whole-wheat flour and Graham flour are types of
wheat flour used for bread-making; these contain
bran (the outer covering of the wheat grain) and other
parts of the grain not found in white flour. These
are valuable in the diet on account of the mineral
matter and vit amines they contain.
The material in flour that is important in bread-
making is the gluten, which is a form of protein
that when mixed with water forms an elastic mass.
It is the gluten that makes it possible to stretch and
pull the dough without its breaking apart.
Yeast is one of the. important materials used when
light bread is made from wheat flour. It is the yeast
that makes 'the dough rise and become light. Yeast,
as it is used in bread, is made up of a large number
of tiny plants, each too small to be seen by the naked
eye. Under a powerful microscope they appear as
little Cell-like plants. When the plants are put into
bread dough they find food material and moisture
in the flour and other ingredients, and begin to grow
and produce more cells. During this growing pro-
48 FOODS AND COOKERY
cess a gas is formed which is called carbon dioxide.
This gas stretches the gluten in the bread dough and
causes the whole mass to rise. Alcohol, also, is
produced during the growth of the yeast plant, but
both the gas and the alcohol pass out of the bread
during baking.
The yeast plant, in order to grow properly, must
have (1) food and (2) moisture, both found in the
dough, and (3) warmth, obtained by keeping the
dough in a warm place. The yeast plant is like all
EQUIPMENT FOB BREAD-MAKING
other plants in that it will be killed if it gets too hot.
A cold temperature does not kill the plants, but they
will not grow when cold.
Yeast may be purchased at the store in dry yeast
cakes or in the form of compressed yeast. In the dry
yeast the plants are mixed with meal, then dried,
and wrapped for sale. The compressed yeast cake
contains growing plants with enough food and
moisture to permit growth for a few days. It
cannot be kept long, however, and usually is pur-
chased fresh for each baking.
FOODS AND COOKERY 49
Liquid yeast is a third form in which yeast is kept,
and is sometimes called " beer yeast " or " starter/'
It contains the active growing plants and, in a cool
place, can be kept for several days.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
YEAST BREAD
Bread is made in two ways : (1) by the " long process ",
in which a sponge is used and this sponge is allowed to
stand, usually overnight, before being made into dough,
and (2) by the " short process ", in which no sponge is
used, but the dough is made at first. The second is the
more modern method, and is popular because it requires
much less time for making bread than the " long process."
" Short-process " bread is most easily made by using
compressed yeast.
RECIPE FOR ONE LOAF OF BREAD
1 c. liquid (milk or water, or the two mixed)
1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. fat
1 tbsp. sugar 3 c. flour (about)
1 compressed yeast cake
The large amount of yeast is used in order that the
bread may be made and baked in two or three hours.
At home, one cake of yeast would do for three or four
loaves of bread.
Place the salt, sugar and fat in a mixing-bowl. Scald
the liquid and pour over the ingredients in the mixing-
bowl. Let stand until lukewarm. While this is cooling,
place the yeast in 2 tbsp. of lukewarm water to soften.
Add this to the lukewarm mixture in the bowl. Stir
thoroughly. Sift flour into the liquid mixture gradually,
stirring thoroughly. As soon as it is possible to knead the
dough without having it stick to the fingers, place it on a
floured bread-board and knead until it is smooth in ap-
pearance and elastic to touch. Clean out the mixing-
50 FOODS AND COOKERY
bowl, grease, place dough in bowl. Cover with a lid.
Set mixing-bowl in a dishpan half full of lukewarm water ;
put in a warm, but not hot, place. If bread is made in hot
weather the mixing-bowl need not be placed in the water.
Bread dough kept at 80 to 86 F. rises best. Use a ther-
mometer to test the dough. Experienced bread-makers
can tell by the " feel " of the dough whether it is warm
enough.
When the dough has doubled in size, knead again, add-
ing no flour except what is needed on the board to keep
the dough from sticking.
Shape into a loaf and
place in a well greased
bread-pan. Grease the
pan by using a piece of
oil paper on which has
been placed a little fat,
or use a brush made for
the purpose. Cover the
pan and set where the
proper temperature for
rising may be maintained.
When the loaf is doubled
in size, place in an oven
heated to 400 to 425 F.
Gradually lower the tem-
perature to 380 F. Use
BREAD-MIXER ,-,
an oven thermometer.
The loaves should be turned around in the oven once or
twice during the first few minutes of baking, so that the
shape of the loaf will be good. No brown crust should
form on the bread until after the first ten or fifteen minutes.
Bake one hour.
Remove bread from pan and place it, uncovered, on a
bread-rack to cool ; or place loaf against pan in such a
way that no side touches a flat surface.
FOODS AND COOKERY 51
OTHER WORK WITH BREAD
While bread is baking, score it, using the score card
given in the next section.
A lesson in kneading bread might be given, using one
large portion of dough which may be prepared before the
class assembles.
If there is a bread-mixer in the equipment, examine
it. Perhaps there will be dough set to rise in it before
the class begins, so that the kneading may be done by the
class.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What kinds of wheat flour are used for bread-making?
2. State the necessary qualities of white flour that is good
to use for bread-making.
3. How is bread flour purchased? What is the price of
one pound of flour in bulk? of a 25-lb. sack? of a 50-lb. sack?
4. What is gluten? How is it valuable in bread-making?
5. What is yeast ?
6. In what forms do we have yeast for bread-making?
7. How does yeast make dough rise ?
8. Would yeast grow if placed in water alone ? Why?
9. What effect does a hot temperature have on yeast? a
cold temperature ? When does this have a great deal to do with
bread-making ?
10. From what section of the country does a great deal of
flour come?
BREAD (Continued)
Bread should be thoroughly baked, because during
the baking process the yeast plant and other bacteria
present are killed, and other changes also take place
that make the bread more easily digested. It is
better to bake one loaf in a pan instead of two or
three or four loaves together in a larger pan.
Bread that is well baked is an even golden brown
all over ; and when the bread is twenty-four hours old
the crumb from the middle of the loaf will crumble
52 FOODS AND COOKERY
and not form "dough-balls" when rubbed between
the fingers. Bread that has just been baked is hard
to digest because it forms a pasty mass in the mouth
and is not chewed so thoroughly as it should be.
It is better for use after standing twenty-four hours.
Bread should be kept in a metal container rather
than in a wooden or earthenware jar. The con-
tainer should be washed and scalded often with boil-
ing water, and may be placed in the sun to dry
thoroughly. Scalding water and sunshine will kill
any bacteria that may be in the box which would
GOOD LOAVES OF BREAD
cause the bread to spoil. Bread should not be
wrapped in a cloth while warm because this is apt
to spoil the flavor.
A great deal of baker's bread is now used, and in
almost any locality good bread of this kind can be
obtained. The large modern bakeries make good
clean bread. When we buy bread from the store it
is well to know whence it comes and to find out
if it has been properly made and cared for. A
great deal of bread is wrapped in paper before it
leaves the bakery and this is usually the cleanest
bread that can be bought, as all dust, flies, dirty
hands and dirty clothes have been kept away from it.
FOODS AND COOKERY 53
A slice of baker's bread usually does not contain
so much food value as a slice of home-made bread
of the same size, because it does not weigh so much
and therefore contains less flour and probably less
milk and fat.
A girl should know how to make good bread, even
though the bread used in her home is bought from
the baker. The United States government considers
bread-making such an important thing for a girl to
know that the Department of Agriculture has
organized bread clubs in all sections of the country.
The girls who belong to these clubs learn to make
bread by doing it many times and then entering a
loaf to be judged in a contest with other girls. To
decide just how well she has learned to do the work,
the judge uses the Standard Score Card for Bread
that has been adopted by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
SCORE CARD 1
1. General appearance :
Shape 5
Smoothness of crust 5
Depth and evenness of color 5
2. Lightness 10
3. Crust:
Thickness 5
Quality (crispness and elasticity) 5
Color 10
4. Crumb :
Texture (size and uniformity of cells, thickness of cell
walls) 15
Elasticity (softness and springiness) 15
5. Flavor (taste and odor) 25
Total 100
1 From Farmers' Bulletin 807, " Bread and Bread-making in
the Home", U. S. Department of Agriculture.
54 FOODS AND COOKERY
One of the favorite ways of preparing light bread
for breakfast is to make it into toast. Toast is
easier to digest than white bread, when it is properly
made, because there are certain changes that take
place in the starch during the toasting. In making
dry toast, the slice should be dried out and evenly
browned on both sides.
BREAD-PANS, BREAD-STICK PANS AND BAKING-SHEET
All clean scraps of bread and toast should be
dried and made into crumbs; these can be used in
many ways.
Waffles, batter cakes, muffins, popovers and
biscuits may be substituted for yeast bread in the
breakfast plan.
In some parts of the United States hot breads are
used at every meal, and most of the breads used
are quick breads. Quick breads are made to rise
in a different way from yeast breads. We will
study in another lesson the methods used.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
KOLLS AND BATTER CAKES
Experiment : Mix 1 tbsp. flour, 1 tbsp. sugar, f cake com-
pressed yeast, 5 tbsp. cold water to a smooth paste.
FOODS AND COOKERY 55
Divide into three parts, place each in a tumbler and
label 1, 2 and 3.
(a) Fill No. 1 with boiling water, place glass in bowl
of boiling water, let stand in a hot place fifteen minutes.
(6) Half fill No. 2 with lukewarm ^water, let it stand
fifteen minutes in a temperature of 80 to 90 F.
(c) Fill No. 3 with cold water, place it in a bowl of
cracked ice, or outside the window if the weather is
freezing, for fifteen minutes.
Observe the foam on top of each glass the more
foam the more active is the yeast.
Which has produced the most foam? What causes
the foam? What does this teach about the tempera-
ture for bread-making ?
(d) Place i yeast cake in 2 tbsp. water. Let it stand
fifteen minutes. Has any foam come to the top ? Why ?
(e) Let No. 3 stand in a temperature of 80 to 90 F.
for one hour. Has any change occurred in contents of
glass? Why?
(/) Remove No. 1 from bowl of boiling water, let it
stand in a lukewarm place for one hour. Has any
change occurred in contents of glass? Why?
PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
1 c. scalded milk | tsp. salt
1 tbsp. butter \ yeast cake dissolved in J c.
1 tbsp. sugar lukewarm water
3 c. flour (about)
Pour scalded milk over salt, butter and sugar. When
mixture is lukewarm, add yeast and one half the flour.
Beat until smooth ; cover, and let rise. Stir in flour until
dough is stiff enough to handle. Knead until smooth
and elastic. Let rise again, then turn out on bread-board,
roll and pat the mixture until it is one third inch in thick-
ness. Cut with biscuit-cutter. With the handle of a
knife which has been dipped in flour, make a crease through
the middle of each piece. Brush over each piece with
56 FOODS AND COOKERY
butter ; fold, and press edges together. Place in greased
pan, one inch apart, cover and let rise. Bake fifteen to
twenty minutes in a hot oven.
The long process for bread-making is used in making
these rolls. In what other ways may bread dough be
used? Perhaps the class can bring some good recipes
from home.
BATTER CAKES
f c. milk | tsp. salt
1 egg 2 tsp. baking powder
1 tbsp. melted butter 1 c. flour (about)
Add the well beaten egg to the milk. Mix together the
dry ingredients. Sift slowly into egg and milk mixture,
beating thoroughly. Drop by spoonfuls on a hot greased
griddle. Cook on one side until top is puffed and full of
bubbles and edges are crisp. Turn with a spatula or
pancake-turner, and cook on the other side. Serve im-
mediately on warmed plates.
Batter cakes are also known as griddlecakes.
Of what material are griddles made? What do they
cost ? How should they be cared for ?
Perhaps some of the class will make waffles instead of
the batter cakes. Some one will have a good recipe, or
one may be found in the cook book.
EGGS
Hen, duck, goose, turkey and guinea-fowl eggs
are used for food in this country. The hen's egg is
the one most commonly found in the market. Per-
haps the members of this class who live in the
country have used some other kinds of eggs.
The egg has in it food for the baby chick and
for that reason contains all the foodstuffs required
for its growth. When the chemist divides the egg
FOODS AND COOKERY 57
into its parts he finds about 12 per cent of protein,
about 9 per cent of fat and, in addition, water and
mineral matter. Eggs may replace meat in the diet
because they contain a large amount of protein,
which is easily digested and used in the body.
When buying eggs in the market it is often difficult
to get them fresh. A fresh egg need not be newly
laid, but must be in good condition for human food,
although it may be several days old. Eggs that
have been treated or stored are not fresh eggs.
Eggs cannot be kept in good condition for a long
period unless some method of preserving them is
used. The shell of the egg is porous and allows
bacteria from the air to pass through, thereby causing
the egg to spoil. The home methods found to be
best for preserving eggs are by the use of water glass
or lime water. These materials may be purchased
from the druggist and should be combined with clean
boiled water. After the eggs are placed in the
liquid, the container should be kept in a cool place.
Eggs that are laid in April, May, or June are the
best for preservation, and are also lower in price
than at any other season. Large numbers of eggs
are put in cold storage every year and these are the
eggs that are sold during the winter as "storage" or
"packed" eggs.
Eggs are usually sold by the dozen, but as they
vary greatly in size and weight, it would be better
if they were sold by weight.
Eggs that are "soft-cooked ", at a temperature
below that of boiling water, are most easily and
quickly digested. " Hard-cooked " or hard-boiled
eggs are thoroughly digested when not eaten hur-
riedly.
58 FOODS AND COOKERY
Eggs are very good for children, and are among the
first foods added to the milk diet of the small child.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
EGGS FOR BREAKFAST
SOFT-COOKED EGGS
Never cook an egg at boiling temperature, as this makes
the white tough. Place one egg in a pint of boiling water
in the top part of the double-boiler. Place boiling water
in lower part of double-boiler. Remove from fire and set
in warm place. Cook for the length of time desired
five minutes for a soft-cooked egg, seven to ten for a
medium-cooked egg. If the eggs have come out of the
refrigerator and are very cold it will require a longer time
to cook them.
How shall soft-cooked eggs be served for breakfast?
HARD-COOKED EGGS
Place one egg in a pint of boiling water, remove from fire,
cover tightly ; set in a warm place forty-five minutes to
one hour. Using a double-boiler for this is a good method.
Place one egg in a pint of boiling water. Boil for
twenty minutes.
When the two eggs are done, examine the whites.
Which is the more tender?
What are some of the ways in which to use hard-cooked
eggs?
POACHED EGGS
Have a frying-pan two thirds full of water at simmering
point, to which salt has been added. In this may be
placed muffin rings if they are available. Break each egg
separately, pour carefully into muffin ring or water. Do
not allow the water to boil. When the egg-white is firm,
remove eggs from water, using a pancake-turner. Place
each egg on a piece of buttered toast arranged on a warmed
platter.
FOODS AND COOKERY
59
SCRAMBLED EGGS
3 eggs
c. milk
1 tsp. pepper
1 tbsp. butter
TS"
| tsp. salt
Beat eggs slightly, add milk and seasoning. Melt
butter in top of double-boiler, turn in mixture and cook
very slowly, stirring often until white is set. Serve on
warmed platter. Bits of chopped ham or other meat may
be added if desired.
PUFFY OMELET
4 eggs
2 tbsp. milk
1 tsp. salt
Pepper
Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the
yolks of the eggs until " creamy " and add the milk, salt
and pepper. Beat the whites until they are stiff. Pour
the yolks over the
whites and fold to-
gether carefully. Place
in a frying-pan one
tablespoon of butter.
When it is melted pour
in the omelet. Cook
on top of the stove
until the omelet is
slightly browned on
the bottom. Set in
oven and bake slowly
until omelet is " set "
and browned on
the top. Have ready
a warmed platter.
Loosen the omelet
from the pan with a spatula. Slide it half-way from the
pan to the platter and then fold the half of the omelet in
the frying-pan over the half on the platter. Serve.
Grated cheese, minced ham, or chopped parsley may
FOLDING THE OMELET AS IT COMES FROM
THE PAN
60 FOODS AND COOKERY
be sprinkled over the omelet before it is folded, in order
to vary the flavor.
An omelet-pan may be used in place of the regular
frying-pan in making the omelet.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What kinds of eggs are used for food in this country?
2. What foodstuffs does an egg contain ?
3. What food may eggs replace in a meal ? Why?
4. What other food have we studied which is similar in food
value to eggs ?
5. What is a fresh egg? a packed egg?
6. Have you ever seen eggs being packed at home for winter
use ? How was it done ?
7. What is the price per dozen for packed eggs? for fresh
8. Weigh three small eggs, then weigh three large eggs.
What is the difference in weight per dozen? What does this
prove about purchasing eggs by count or by weight ?
THE DINING ROOM
The dining room should be a light, cheerful room,
situated so that the sunlight reaches it at some time
every day, preferably in the morning. This room
should be large enough to permit easy passing behind
the chairs when persons are seated around the table.
The walls should be finished in light colors rather
than dark, which tend to make the room appear
gloomy. The window curtains should be of a kind
easily laundered, since draperies in a dining room are
apt to hold dirt and odors and need frequent cleaning.
The floor is best made of hard wood, as a rug may
then be used instead of a carpet. A dining-room
floor would be more sanitary if no covering were used,
but the noise made by using a bare floor is annoying
to many persons.
FOODS AND COOKERY 61
The furniture should be plain in design. Wood or
cane-seated chairs are perhaps better to use than
upholstered, because they are easier to keep clean.
A dining-table with a top having a waxed finish is
much better than one highly varnished. The top of
the sideboard and serving-table should not be crowded
with dishes of various kinds. A dining room is more
pleasing with few pictures, or none at all, and with
little bric-a-brac or few dishes used as decoration.
When buying a, "set" of dishes it is best to select a
style with simple decoration or without decoration.
Large conspicuous designs and bright colors become
tiresome when the dishes are used often. A good
quality of china with no decoration is a wise choice
for a "set ", because any type of decorated dish looks
well with it.
Silver knives and forks should be of the same
pattern, but the spoons may be of different design.
Silver never looks well unless it is kept polished.
White linen tablecloths and napkins are better to
buy than cotton, because linen wears longer and
launders much better than cotton. Luncheon sets
of various types may be used instead of a tablecloth,
and are much easier to launder.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Collect pictures of dining-room furniture ; of the
interior of dining rooms. Bring them to class for
discussion. Perhaps, if there is a furniture dealer
in the community, you or the teacher can get furni-
ture catalogues that will be good to study.
Which types of chairs are best for the dining room ?
Why ? Do the chairs in the pictures seem too heavy
62 FOODS AND COOKERY
to move about easily? Are they well braced?
Observe whether they would be hard to dust.
What types of tables are best for the dining room ?
Why?
- Which type of sideboard is best ?
For what purpose is a side-table used? What is
a buffet?
See if you can find samples of the kind of cur-
tain material you think would be good for a dining
room.
If your teacher has a sample-book of wall paper,
find a sample of the colors you would like to have
on the walls of your dining room.
What kind of floor-covering would you like?
You may like to mount on sheets of paper pictures
of the furniture you would select to use in your
dining room ; if you have a sample of curtain
material, rug and wall paper that you like, you can
mount these. Then make a floor-plan of your room,
showing the size of the room, the windows, the
doors, and where the china closet is placed. Arrange
the furniture in the room. On another sheet make
a list of the prices of all the furnishings in the dining
room. What is the total cost of furnishing? Tie
these sheets together and make a cover for them.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MEAT DISHES FOR BREAKFAST
BROILED BACON
Place in a hot frying-pan thin slices of bacon from
which the rind has been removed. Turn several times
during the cooking. When the bacon is crisp, not burned,
drain from the fat carefully and serve on a warmed
platter.
FOODS AND COOKERY 63
Bacon may be purchased by the piece, sliced in bulk, or
sliced and packed in sealed containers. In which form is
bacon the cheapest by the pound? Why?
CREAMED DRIED BEEF
Place two tablespoons of fat in a small frying-pan ; when
it is melted, add about three slices of dried beef torn in
pieces. Stir about three minutes, add one cup of milk.
Mix thoroughly one tablespoon of flour with two table-
spoons of milk; add slowly to the scalding hot milk.
Stir to prevent lumping. Cook slowly five to ten minutes.
Serve on toast arranged on a warmed platter.
In making this white sauce, why is the flour mixed with
milk instead of with fat ?
How is dried beef made? Perhaps the butcher will
tell you. What does it cost per pound ?
What are some other meat dishes that would be good
for breakfast? If you have time, try one of these.
TABLE MANNERS
No matter how educated or pleasing in character
one may be, the impression made upon others is not
good if one's manners are poor.
Certain rules for table behavior or manners have
been adopted because they make the eating of the
meal easier and more graceful, and the serving of it
more convenient.
The following are a few rules that should be
observed always when at the dining-table :
1. Never go to the table unless hands and face
are clean and the hair is in order.
2. Stand behind your chair until the hostess takes
her seat.
3. The napkin should be laid across the lap with-
out being entirely opened out. Never stick the
64 FOODS AND COOKERY
corner inside the collar. If the napkin is to be
used again, fold it neatly before leaving the table.
4. The knife should be held in the right hand and
the fork in the left when they are used at the same
time. Hold the knife and fork so that the end of the
handle touches the palm of the hand. The point of
the index-finger is on the top of the handle of the fork
at the lower end, but not on the tines. The knife
must be laid on the plate when not in use. Both
knife and fork should be placed side by side on the
plate when one has
finished using them
at the end of a
course. The fork,
when being used to
carry food to the
mouth, may be held
in either hand, and
may be held in much
the same position
as when used with
the knife, or like a
PROPER WAY TO HOLD KNIFE AND FORK
spoon.
5. The spoon should be held in the right hand, and
such food as soup, tea, or coffee should be taken
from the side of the spoon. A spoon used for stirring
tea or coffee should be laid on the saucer after use
and before drinking from the cup.
6. Always sit erect in the chair while eating.
Keep the arms and elbows off the table.
7. Never eat hurriedly.
8. Do not talk when the mouth is full of food.
9. Ask politely for dishes to be passed, rather than
reach across the table.
FOODS AND COOKERY 65
10. Never complain about the food. If it is not
the kind desired, it need not be eaten.
11. If it is necessary to leave the table before the
others are ready, ask to be excused by the hostess.
12. Do not talk about disagreeable things during
the meal.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
The following breakfast will be served during the
next laboratory period :
Orange Toast
Oatmeal Cocoa
Make a list of the dishes and silver that will be
needed in setting the table and serving the meal.
Decide how much of each food will be required
for serving the number who are to eat the meal.
Decide the order of work for preparation of the
meal, that is, which food must be put on to cook
first, which second, etc.
What will the food cost for each person?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A BREAKFAST
Setting the table : Place the table-pad or silence-cloth on
the table. Over this lay the cloth, arranged straight
and smooth. If a center doily is used, place this in
the middle of the table. Doilies and table-runners may
be used, instead of a tablecloth, for breakfast, luncheon
and supper. Asbestos pads should be placed under all
hot dishes when doilies or runners are used on a polished
table.
A cover means the space with the silver, glass and
china allowed for each person. Enough space must be
66
FOODS AND COOKERY
allowed so that no one is crowded. Twenty-two inches
is the least space that should be used.
At the center of each cover place a plate, the kind de-
pending on the meal that is served. For breakfast it
will probably be the fruit-plate. At the right of the
plate place the knife, with its sharp edge toward the
plate and the end of the handle about one inch from
the edge of the table. Next to the knife place the
spoons, with the bowls up.
At the left of the plate, place the fork or forks with
the tines up and the end of the handle about one inch
\ ^ 5
ARRANGEMENT OF "COVER" FOR DINNER
1, Napkin; 2, Salad Fork; 3, Dinner Fork; 4, Dinner Plate;
5, Dinner Knife ; 6, Soup Spoon ; 7, Dessert or Sauce Spoon ;
8, Coffee Spoon ; 9, Butter Plate ; 10, Water Glass.
from the edge of the table. To the left of the fork lay
the neatly folded napkin.
At the end of the knife, place the glass, right side up.
At the end of the forks, place the bread-and-butter plate.
When flowers are used they should be low, or not high
enough to obstruct the view across the table.
The dishes from which foods are to be served should
be placed conveniently for those doing the serving.
Place the serving-spoons and the carving-knife and fork
where they will be needed, but do not place them in the
dishes before beginning the serving.
FOODS AND COOKERY 67
Cups and saucers, sugar-bowl and cream-pitcher,
should be placed in front of the hostess, with the coffee-
pot or teapot at her right.
The table should never look crowded with dishes.
When the hostess is serving the meal, a tea-cart at
her side may be used for holding dessert-dish, bread-
plate, water-pitcher, etc.
Place the chairs so that the edge of the seat just
touches the tablecloth, but does not keep it from hang-
ing straight.
STYLE OF SERVING
There are three methods of serving meals :
1. English, used in ordinary family service.
Foods are served at the table by the host and hostess
and other members of the family. The served
dishes may be passed by the household helper, or
passed from one person to another at the table. The
hostess usually serves the soup, salad and dessert;
the host serves the meat and vegetables. This is
the style of serving used in most American homes.
2. Russian, used for very formal meals. Each
plate is served in the kitchen and placed in front of
the guest by the household helpers; or the empty
plates are placed before each guest and the serving-
dishes are passed to each person by the household
helper. No serving-dishes are placed on the table.
This form of service is not practical for the ordinary
family, because it requires more work than the
English service.
3. Combination, used for informal meals. This is
a combination of the two other styles. For example,
the soup or salad is served in the kitchen, and the
meat and vegetables are served at the table.
68 FOODS AND COOKERY
Every hostess may follow her own ideas about serv-
ing, as far as details are concerned, but a few general
rules should be followed.
1. Serving-dishes from which the guest is to serve
himself must be passed to the left of the guest.
Why?
2. Plates that have been served are placed in front
of the guest from the right side. Why?
SERVING-DISH PASSED TO THE LEFT
3. Used plates are removed from the right side
when it is possible to do it conveniently.
4. When removing dishes between the courses,
use the following order : remove the used dishes,
then the dishes containing food, next the clean
dishes and silver that will not be needed further,
then the crumbs from the cloth (if necessary). A
table never looks attractive when dirty dishes from
FOODS AND COOKERY 69
one course remain during the next course, and even
at the most informal meals it is better to remove
dishes between courses. This work may be done
by the daughter. When the family is very small,
sometimes the dirty dishes are placed on a side-table
or tea-cart, from which the dessert is taken, thereby
saving the housekeeper steps in serving.
5. In removing dishes from the table, when
serving an informal meal, they may be placed on
a hand-tray for carrying to the kitchen. Never
" stack" dishes at the table or for removing from
the table.
Set the table for breakfast. Practice serving.
If no dining-room furniture is available, the supply-
table may be used. Perhaps dishes to use in setting the
table may be borrowed until the school can get such equip-
ment. If no other way is possible, let every member of
the class arrange a cover at the laboratory desk, using
laboratory dishes. This is never a desirable plan, how-
ever, because the equipment does not supply the best
type of dishes nor the proper kind.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A BREAKFAST
Suggested Menu : Orange Toast
Oatmeal Cocoa
Discuss order of work.
Discuss equipment needed.
Discuss china and silver needed.
Would this type of breakfast suit every family? Why?
Review recipes.
Cook and serve meal.
Several lessons might be given on serving breakfasts.
70 FOODS AND COOKERY
THE PLAN FOR SUPPER OR LUNCHEON
In some families the meal served at noon is called
luncheon and is followed by dinner in the evening ;
in others, dinner is the meal served at noon, fol-
lowed by supper in the evening. Luncheon and
supper are simpler meals than dinner.
The plan varies greatly under different conditions,
but the usual types of food served are meat or meat-
substitute dishes, salads, vegetables, bread in some
form and perhaps a simple dessert or cake. " Quick
breads" are often used for luncheon or supper.
Many consider a cream soup, a vegetable salad,
bread, stewed fruit and cookies a good combination
for such a meal, while other families prefer a meat
dish, a hot vegetable, and bread ; still others may
consider bread and milk a satisfactory menu. No
family needs, in one meal, foods of all the types sug-
gested.
Luncheon or supper is a meal for which it is con-
venient to use the " left-overs " in various ways. Bits
of meat may be combined with other foods to make
attractive dishes. Small portions of vegetables may
be made into salads or soups, or combined with meat.
Sometimes a salad is made of left-over fruit, and used
at the end of the meal in place of a dessert.
Some housekeepers are very wasteful in throwing
into the garbage-can small bits of clean food that
may be left from a meal. Often persons object to
" left-overs", but this is usually the case when the
housekeeper has not learned how to make them into
dishes which are well flavored and pleasing hi ap-
pearance.
When bits of meat are left from a meal they should
FOODS AND COOKERY 71
be put in a covered container and placed in the ice-
box or some other cool place. Vegetables with a
strong flavor should be covered if put in the ice-
box. All "left-over" food should be used promptly
and not left to spoil.
The cost of food should be considered, and if any-
thing can be saved by careful watching and planning
it is a part of the housekeeper's business to do this.
There are several ways of reducing the amount of
money to be spent for food : (1) buy the foods that
are in season ; (2) buy those which contain the great-
est food value, these are not always the highest
priced ; (3) buy in quantity any foods that can be
properly stored ; (4) prepare and cook carefully, so
that nothing shall be wasted; (5) save every part
of the food that is fit for use.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CREAM SOUPS
CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP
Make one cup of No. 1 White Sauce. Strain cooked
tomatoes through a wire sieve, using one half cup of juice.
Place tomato- juice in saucepan, heat, add one sixteenth
teaspoon soda. Add the heated tomato-juice to the white
sauce. Re-heat and serve in warmed soup-plates.
Try mixing one tablespoon tomato-juice and one table-
spoon of milk, and see what happens. The soda prevents
this action, which is the curdling of the milk.
CREAM OF CORN SOUP
c. stewed or canned corn 1 tsp. flour
1 c. milk 1 tbsp. butter
Make a white sauce of the milk, butter and flour. Less
flour is needed for thickening, because the corn will help
thicken the soup.
72
FOODS AND COOKERY
Heat the corn and press through the vegetable-ricer.
Add corn to the white sauce. Re-heat. If desired, a
spoonful of whipped cream may be placed hi each soup-
plate and the soup poured over it.
TO SERVE WITH SOUPS
Soup-sticks. Butter slices of bread. Cut into strips.
Brown them slowly in the oven.
Croutons. Cut but-
tered slices of bread into
cubes. Brown in oven.
Wafers. Heat salted
wafers in oven until
crisp.
Parsley. Chopped
parsley is sometimes
sprinkled over the top
of cream soups as a
garnish.
Celery. Crisp celery
is always good to serve
with soups.
If possible, bring from
home other recipes for
cream soups.
CORRECT METHOD OF HOLDING SOUP OR
BOUILLON SPOON
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the foods usually served for luncheon or supper?
Should all of these be served in the same meal ?
2. What are "left-overs"? How may they be used?
3. How should "left-overs" be cared for?
4. Why do some persons object to "left-overs"?
5. How may the housekeeper reduce the amount of money
spent for food ?
6. Name some foods that are "out of season" at the present
time. Why are they expensive ?
7. State ways in which food is wasted in cooking.
8. When should soda be added to tomato soup? Why?
9. Are cream soups of much food value ? Why?
FOODS AND COOKERY 73
10. Name some foods that should not be served when cream
soups are used in the meal plan. Explain.
11. Make several supper or luncheon plans.
MEAT SUBSTITUTES
Such foods as cheese, milk, poultry, nuts, dried
peas, beans, lentils, cowpeas and soy beans are some-
times used in the diet in the place of meat, and are
commonly called meat substitutes.
In the United States, people eat more meat per
person than in any other country, and more than is
necessary. This is because the flavor of meat is very
much liked, because meat is easily cooked, and be-
cause it is popularly believed to be necessary for the
best muscular work. It has been found, however,
that meat may be replaced, for a part of the time at
least, by other foods that contain a large amount of
protein, without injury to the body and without loss
in muscular strength. If meat is high in price it
is well to remember this fact when planning meals.
Cheese is a product made from milk. When
divided into its parts by the chemist, cheese is found
to contain about one third water, one third fat and
one third protein. Cheese is usually divided into two
classes : (1) hard cheese, such as American Cheddar
cheese, Edam and Roquefort, and (2) soft cheese,
such as Neufchatel, Camembert and cottage cheese.
The cheese most commonly found in the market is
American Cheddar cheese, sometimes called " Ameri-
can cheese" or "New York cream cheese." The
States making the most cheese are New York and
Wisconsin. Much of our cheese comes from foreign
countries, as for example, Edam cheese from Hol-
land, and Neufchatel from France.
74 FOODS AND COOKERY
Cottage cheese is often made at home when there
is an extra supply of milk; or skim milk may be
used.
American cheese is usually purchased by the pound.
A large family may find, however, that purchasing a
whole cheese is a better plan, as the cost will be less.
Cheese that is to be kept for several days after it has
been cut should be placed on a plate and left un-
covered in a dry clean place, or it may be covered
with a cloth.
Some persons consider cheese hard to digest, and
this may be so when it is eaten too hurriedly, or eaten
after a meal at which enough food has already been
eaten. When ground or grated cheese is combined
with other foods, it is well digested by most persons.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CHEESE
If there are several kinds of cheese sold in the local
market it would be interesting to have a sample of each
type in the laboratory for examination. Observe the
texture and flavor. What is the price of each kind ?
CHEESE SOUFFLE
I c. No. 4 White Sauce 3 eggs
I c. grated cheese Few grains cayenne
Add the cheese and cayenne to the hot white sauce.
Beat the yolks of the eggs until they are thick and lemon
colored ; pour slowly over these the white sauce. Mix
carefully. Let stand until cool. Beat the whites of
the eggs very stiff. When white-sauce mixture is cool,
fold in the stiffly beaten egg-whites. Turn into a buttered
baking-dish, set the dish in a pan of warm water and bake
in a moderate oven until firm. Serve at once. The
baking-dish may be placed in a holder made for the purpose,
FOODS AND COOKERY 75
or it may be wrapped with a napkin before being placed
on the table.
CHEESE STRATA
In the bottom of a buttered baking-dish place thin
slices of bread, over this pour hot No. 3 White Sauce, on
this a layer of grated cheese, then layers of bread, of white
sauce, and more cheese, until the dish is filled. Cover the
top with buttered bread crumbs. Bake in a slow oven
about thirty minutes. Serve in baking-dish.
WELSH RAREBIT
| lb. grated cheese 1 egg
c. cream or milk 2 tsp. butter
tsp. mustard Few grains cayenne
% tsp. salt Toast
Place the cheese, mixed with the cream or milk, in top
part of double-boiler and heat until the cheese is melted.
Then add the beaten egg, to which the mustard, salt and
cayenne have been added ; then add the butter. Cook
until it thickens, stirring constantly. Pour over toast.
Welsh rarebit is often made in the chafing-dish.
BREAD CRUMBS
All crusts and pieces of bread should be saved for bread
crumbs. Dry them in a slow oven. Put through a food-
grinder, or crush by placing on a bread-board and using a
rolling-pin. Store the crumbs in open jars, never in
tightly closed containers. If the crumbs are to be kept
for several weeks or months, a cloth should be tied over
the top of the container.
Buttered bread crumbs, to be used on the top of escal-
loped dishes, are prepared as follows :
1 c. bread crumbs 2 tbsp. butter
Salt and pepper, if desired
Melt the butter in a frying-pan. Add the crumbs with
which the seasonings have been mixed. Stir until the
butter is thoroughly mixed with the crumbs.
76 FOODS AND COOKERY
Other cheese dishes may be made if desired.
The class may be divided into groups and each group
make one recipe, the others copying the recipe. When
family-size recipes are used, perhaps some of the products
may be sold, either to individuals or in the lunch-room if
there is one.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the meat substitutes.
2. Why are they called meat substitutes?
3. From what is cheese made?
4. What does the chemist find that cheese contains?
5. Into what two classes is cheese divided ?
6. Name some examples of each class.
7. Which is the most commonly used cheese ?
8. How is cottage cheese made ?
9. Find out, if you can, how American Cheddar cheese is
made.
10. How is cheese kept in the grocery?
11. What is the price per pound of American Cheddar cheese ?
12. How should cheese be kept in the home ?
13. Make a luncheon or supper plan in which each of the
cheese dishes made in the laboratory might be served.
MEAT SUBSTITUTES (Continued)
NUTS
Nuts in general contain a large amount of fat and
protein and may sometimes be substituted for meat
in the diet. They may be used in their natural form,
or they may be ground and combined with other foods.
Peanuts are often used for making " peanut
butter", which is a very valuable food.
English walnuts, almonds and peanuts are the
varieties of nuts most used. These are cultivated
nuts, grown in the Southern States and California.
Black walnuts, hazel nuts, hickory nuts, pecans and
chestnuts grow wild in some parts of the United States.
FOODS AND COOKERY 77
Nuts should not be eaten at the end of a meal when
one has already taken the food needed. Nuts may
be hard to digest when eaten at this time, or when
they are not chewed thoroughly.
DRIED LEGUMES
Peas, beans, lentils, soy beans and cowpeas belong
to the class of vegetable foods called legumes. They
contain a large amount of protein, fat, carbohydrate
and mineral matter.
Dried beans, peas and lentils are foods used es-
pecially in winter. When serving them it is not
necessary to use meat at the same meal. Cowpeas
and soy beans, while not so common, are used in the
same way as beans, peas and lentils.
Legumes may be baked, boiled or combined in
some way with other foods. Dried legumes require
long periods for cooking. A fireless cooker is very
useful when cooking legumes, or the pressure-cooker
can be used and the time required much shortened.
Dried legumes must be thoroughly cooked to make
them good for food, since the cellulose in them is
tough. They are often soaked in water for several
hours before cooking.
Dried legumes are usually purchased by the pound.
Buying in quantity makes the cost less.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
DRIED LEGUMES
Examine samples of beans, dried peas, split peas, lentils,
soy beans and cowpeas. Compare the price by the pound.
Which of these may be purchased at groceries in the
neighborhood? Try the seed-store for cowpeas and soy
beans.
78 FOODS AND COOKERY
BAKED BEANS
1 qt. white beans 1 tsp. mustard
1 tsp. soda \ c. molasses
\ Ib. salt pork Salt, if needed
1 small onion, if desired
Cayenne, if desired
Pick over, wash and soak beans in cold water over-
night. Pour off any water remaining. Put in kettle,
cover with water, add soda and boil gently until the beans
are slightly softened. This boiling is sometimes called
__, " parboiling." Drain again.
Put the beans into the bean-
pot. Cut the pork into slices,
but do not remove from the
rind ; press down into the beans
with rind up. Place sliced
onion on top. Mix the mo
lasses, mustard, salt and cay-
enne with one pint of boiling
water and pour over beans. If
liquid does not show on the sur-
A BEAN-POT USED FOB - -. -. , .,.
BAKING BEANS face > add more boiling water.
Cover pot. Bake in slow oven
six to eight hours. Uncover during the last hour, so that
the beans will brown on top. A fireless cooker or oven
may be used for baking beans.
NUT AND CHEESE LOAF
1 c. cottage cheese \ tsp. pepper
1 c. nut meats 1 tsp. salt
1 c. bread crumbs 2 tbsp. chopped onion
Juice of \ lemon 1 tbsp. fat
\ c. water or meat stock
Grind the nuts; mix the cheese, nuts, salt, pepper,
crumbs and lemon juice. Cook the onion with the fat
and water, or with the meat stock, until it is tender;
add to other ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Pour into
FOODS AND COOKERY 79
greased baking-dish. Bake about twenty minutes. Serve
with tomato sauce.
TOMATO SAUCE
1 c. tomato- juice
2 tbsp. flour
Salt and pepper
1 tbsp. fat
1 slice onion
Boil the onion in the tomato-juice for three minutes.
Remove the onion. Continue as for any white sauce.
PEA SANDWICHES
\ c. pea pulp
1 tbsp. chopped nuts
1 tbsp. grated cheese
Lemon juice
Press canned peas through the vegetable-ricer. Measure
the pulp, add the cheese, chopped nuts and enough lemon
juice to make the right
consistency for sandwich
filling. Spread between
thin slices of bread.
Plan a meal in which
such sandwiches would be
suitable to serve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What foodstuffs are
found in large amounts in
nuts?
2. Which are the nuts com-
monly used in this locality ?
3. What is the price per
pound of peanuts? English
walnuts ?
4. Is it more expensive to
buy them shelled?
5. How many pounds of peanuts in the shell does it take to
make one pound of shelled nuts ?
6. How is peanut butter made ?
7. What are the commonly used dried legumes?
FOOD-GRINDER
Used for grinding meat, vegetables,
nuts, cheese, bread and other foods.
80 FOODS AND COOKERY
8. What foodstuffs do they contain ?
9. Why are they called meat substitutes ?
10. Why are dried legumes soaked in water?
11. How should dried legumes be cooked?
SALADS
Salads may be made from vegetables, fruits, or
meats ; or they may be a combination of vegetables
and fruits, or of meats and vegetables to which has
been added some kind of dressing and perhaps small
amounts of other materials to give flavor.
Salad dressings are of three types : mayonnaise,
French and cooked dressing, and each type may be
varied, making many kinds.
Lettuce is used in the making of many salads, often
only as a " garnish" which is used to make a dish
more attractive. Lettuce always should be clean,
crisp and cold when used for a salad. Celery tops,
endive, nasturtium leaves, water cress and other gar-
nishes are sometimes used for salad.
Salad oil is one of the materials used in some
dressings. Salad oil may be made from olives,
when it is called olive oil; or it may be made from
corn or cottonseed, when it is usually sold by a trade
name. When buying salad oil one should examine
the label on the can or bottle, to see whether the oil
is made from olives or other material, since oil made
from corn or cottonseed should not be sold at so high
a price as olive oil.
Eggs often form a part of the salad dressing and,
when they are combined with the oil and used on the
salad, add to its value as a food. Whipped cream
also adds to the food value of a salad.
When meat salads are served for luncheon or
FOODS AND COOKERY 81
supper, no other meat dish is needed. Vegetable
salads, when made of the legumes, can be used as a
meat substitute. Fruit salads can be substituted
for dessert in many meals.
Besides being used as a part of a meal, salads are
often served with sandwiches as " refreshments."
An attractive salad should have the following
qualities : freshness, crispness and coolness ; it should
have an appetizing flavor, and should combine well
with the other food served in the meal.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SALADS, SALAD DRESSINGS
Use a corn oil, a cottonseed oil and olive oil in making
the following dressings. The class may be divided into
groups for the work. Compare the price of the three kinds
of oil. Compare the taste of the dressings.
Lettuce should be washed, dried on a cloth, and be
thoroughly crisp before it is used with salads.
FRENCH DRESSING
1 tbsp. sugar \ tsp. paprika
2 tbsp. vinegar $ tsp. salt
4 tbsp. oil $ tsp. white pepper
1 tsp. scraped onion, or onion juice
To the dry ingredients add the onion and the vinegar ;
stir thoroughly, add the oil, beat until of a thick creamy
consistency. French dressing may be made in quantity
and kept for several days in a cold place. Beat thoroughly
every time it is used.
MAYONNAISE DRESSING
1 egg-yolk \ tsp. sugar
\ tsp. salt \ tsp. mustard
| tsp. paprika \ c. oil
1^ tbsp. vinegar or lemon juice
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FOODS AND COOKERY
The oil should be cold. Beat the egg-yolk with the
Dover egg-beater until it is thick and lemon-colored;
add dry ingredients. When the mixture is well blended,
add a little of the oil ; beat, add more oil ; beat again.
When the mixture is thick, add a little of the lemon juice
or vinegar; beat. Then add more oil and vinegar or
lemon juice, beating constantly. Sometimes, in making
this dressing, the mixture separates or curdles and does
not become thick. When this happens, beat another egg-
yolk until it is thick, and add the salad dressing slowly
to the egg, beating constantly. Keep in a cold place.
legg
i c. vinegar
c. milk
| tsp. mustard
COOKED DRESSING
Paprika if desired
\ tsp. salt
1 tbsp. sugar
\\ tbsp. flour
1 tbsp. butter
Make a white sauce from the flour, butter and milk ; add
the seasonings. Beat the egg until it is thick and lemon-
colored. Gradually pour white sauce into the beaten egg,
THREE SALADS
Asparagus tips, potato and head lettuce.
stirring well. Place in double-boiler and cook five to
ten minutes. Add the vinegar slowly. If there are
lumps, strain through a wire sieve. Cool.
If the dressing is thicker than desired, it may be thinned
with a little cream or milk when it is to be used. For
some salads, whipped cream may be added to the dressing.
FOODS AND COOKERY 83
SALMON SALAD
% c. salmon 1 small chopped sweet pickle
1 tbsp. chopped celery or shredded cabbage
Mayonnaise dressing
Drain oil from salmon, remove all pieces of bone and
skin. Add the celery or cabbage and the pickle. Mix
carefully with a fork. Add dressing. Place on a bed of
shredded lettuce. Garnish with hard-cooked egg if
desired.
BANANA SALAD
Peel and scrape a banana. Slice lengthwise and once
crosswise. Arrange on lettuce. Use cooked dressing to
which whipped cream has been added. Chopped nuts
may be sprinkled over the top.
VEGETABLE SALAD
Cooked and fresh vegetables make good salads with the
addition of French or cooked dressing. The following
combinations are suggested :
Diced carrots, peas and chopped peanuts.
Green beans, chopped onion and parsley.
Potato, cucumber and green pepper.
Lima beans, carrots and peas.
Tomato ; stuffed with cabbage, celery or cucumber.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the types of salad dressings.
2. What kinds of oils may be used in making dressings ?
3. Which is most expensive ?
4. What is the use of a "garnish" ? What are some materials
used for garnishing?
5. When should meat salads be served ? Prepare a plan for
a luncheon or supper in which it is proper to serve salmon salad.
6. What kind of vegetable salad can be substituted for meat
in the meal ? Why ? Prepare a plan for a meal in which " Lima
bean, carrot and pea" salad is suitable.
7. Plan a luncheon or supper in which a fruit salad is suitable.
84 FOODS AND COOKERY
8. What are the characteristics of a good salad?
9. What may be served with salads ?
10. Bring to class a good recipe for cheese crackers and one
for cheese straws.
11. How should wafers be crisped when served with salads?
12. What is " head lettuce " ? " leaf lettuce " ? What is the
price of lettuce ?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Suggested Menu : Cream of Corn Soup
Cabbage Salad
Bread and Butter
Baked Apple with Cream
Make other menus for supper or luncheon.
DRIED FRUITS
Drying is one way of preserving fruits. Many
housekeepers on farms dry apples and other fruits
at home, but a very much larger amount is dried by
commercial firms. Many thousand tons of peaches,
apricots, prunes and raisins are dried in California
every year and shipped to all parts of the United
States and to many other countries. Some of our
dried fruits, such as dates, figs and raisins, come from
foreign countries.
Prunes are a kind of plum that have been dried.
Raisins are dried grapes. Dates are the fruit of the
date palm. Figs come from the fig tree.
Apricots, peaches and prunes are usually purchased
by the pound, and when packed in bulk should be
carefully washed before using. They are often
packed several pounds in a box, and if the whole
box is purchased are cheaper in price.
FOODS AND COOKERY 85
Raisins, figs and dates of the best grade are sold
in carefully wrapped packages. They can also be
purchased by the pound. " Seeded " raisins are sold
by the box, but it is well to look them over carefully
to remove any seeds that may have been left.
Dried fruits, before cooking, should be washed
carefully and then soaked in cold water overnight.
The soaking shortens the time required for cooking
and develops the flavor. They should be cooked in
the water in which they have been soaked. A fire-
less cooker is useful in cooking dried fruits because
they require long cooking.
Dried fruits are used in place of fresh fruits or
canned fruit, and when well cooked make a good
dessert for luncheon and supper, or served as the fruit
dish for breakfast.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
DRIED BRUITS
Experiment : 1. Wash one half pound each of dried
peaches, prunes and apricots; to each add one pint
of water. Soak overnight. Drain off and save any
remaining water. How much does each fruit weigh?
Explain what has happened.
2. Place the prunes in a closely covered kettle, add
liquid in which they were soaked. Set kettle inside of
large kettle of fireless cooker, fill cooker kettle half full
of hot water. Cover cooker kettle. Place on hot
radiator in cooker. Cook about three hours. Do
not open the cooker during this period. Remove prunes
from cooker, add one half cup of sugar and boil for ten
minutes over direct heat. Serve cold.
3. Place apricots in a saucepan, add liquid in which
they were soaked, cover saucepan. Place over fire
86 FOODS AND COOKERY
and simmer gently until fruit is tender. Hot water
may be added if necessary. Add one half cup sugar,
and heat until sugar is melted. Serve cold.
4. If there is a steam c
