FOODS AND COOKERY
AND
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
MARY LMATTHEWS
FOODS AND COOKERY
AND THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
A CANNING-CLUB WINNER
FOODS AND COOKERY
AND
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
FIRST LESSONS
FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
BY
MARY LOCK WOOD MATTHEWS, B.S.
PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS AND HEAD OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS IN
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
vION.REFERI
BOSTON
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY
1923
M 33
Copyright, 1921,
BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.
All rights reserved
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PREFACE
THIS volume is intended for use in classes begin-
ning the study of foods and cookery. It has been
arranged for use in the elementary schools and does
not presuppose any training in general science. It
is strictly an elementary treatment of the subject.
The book deals with foods, their selection and
preparation, and the planning of meals from the
nutritive, aesthetic and economic standpoints. The
"meal plan" is used in order to make the meal the
basis of the work. Through the "Home Problems"
the home and school work may be correlated.
The author appreciates the help given in illus-
trating the book by the United States Department
of Agriculture, the United States Bureau of Stand-
ards, the Detroit Stove Works, and the Chambers
Manufacturing Company. The author also grate-
fully acknowledges the criticisms and suggestions
of educators who kindly read the manuscript.
934075
TO THE STUDENT
HAVE you thought about what you will do when
you finish school ?
Perhaps you have decided to be a teacher, a
librarian, a stenographer, a doctor, a nurse. Perhaps
you are making plans to take a course in high school
or college that will fit you for one of these callings ;
you would not consider yourself capable of entering
any of them without training.
Very probably you will be at some time the
manager of a home. Have you thought about the
importance of being trained for home-making?
It is only within the past twenty-five years that
it has been considered proper for the public schools
to train girls for the work which most of them will
do for the longest period in their lives, the work of
home-making.
Mrs. Ellen H. Richards was the first to say that
the schools ought to teach "right living ;" and,
largely through her efforts and her inspiration, plans
have been worked out whereby girls while in school
can be taught many things about right living.
Right living begins with the home. Who makes
the home? The man may furnish the money to
build and maintain the house, but it is the woman
who plans and manages the home. It is her busi-
ness to see that the family lives in a sanitary and an
attractive house ; that every member of the family
viii TO THE STUDENT
has clean, properly selected and well cooked food ;
that every one is suitably clothed ; that the family
income is wisely spent, and that all hi the home are
helped to lead a happy and useful life.
No girl should consider the making and managing
of a home an easy piece of work, for in fact nothing
is harder to do and to do well.
When the girl takes work hi school and college
that covers all phases of home-making, we say that
she is taking a course in Home Economics,
SUGGESTIONS
WHEN planning a course in Home Economics for
any school it is essential that the teacher should know
from what kinds of homes the students come ; what
is the average income of the families of these girls ;
what nationalities they represent ; what is the social
life of the neighborhood. It is impracticable to
follow any textbook, page by page, without first
knowing whether the lesson-plans suit the students
to whom they are presented. When the teacher
knows the neighborhood, she can wisely select and
arrange the parts of the book to be assigned.
In many cases the recipes outlined in this book
should be changed ; and in no case should they be
used as presented when the teacher has recipes
which she has tested and knows to be good, and
which may be used to illustrate the principle that is
under discussion.
The Foods and Cookery lessons are outlined on
the meal basis, making the meal the project, while
the lessons on various foods are the problems to be
studied before the project is completed. It is de-
sirable that the laboratory equipment should include
dining-room equipment, but when that is not avail-
able, serving the meal on a supply-table or at the
individual desks may be the plan used. In any
case the girls should be urged to try the work at
home, making reports on the work done.
x SUGGESTIONS
Lessons on the house and its care are correlated
with the other work whenever possible.
The book is divided into sections instead of
lessons, thus giving the teacher the opportunity to
use as much or as little as is desired at any one time,
since the amount of time allowed for Home Eco-
nomics varies greatly in different schools.
The "Home Problems and Questions" may furnish
material for lessons if plenty of time is allotted to
this course, or may be used only as work to be done
outside of class hours.
Illustrations and exhibit material that can be
secured will help to make the work more interesting.
The following firms furnish "school exhibits" that
will be found useful: E. C. Bridgman, 61 Warren
St., New York City, meat charts ; Hershey Choco-
late Company, Hershey, Pa., chocolate products;
Diamond Crystal Salt Company, St. Clair, Mich.,
folder showing how salt is prepared ; Pillsbury
Flour Mills Company, Minneapolis, Minn., wheat-
flour manufacture; Walter Baker & Company,
Dorchester, Mass., chocolate products ; The Ameri-
can Silver Company, Silversmith Building, Chicago,
111., "The Evolution of a Teaspoon" (50 cents
postage) ; Washburn Crosby Company, Minne-
apolis, Minn., flour exhibit ; The Walter M. Lowney
Company, Boston, Mass., chocolate ; Wilson &
Company, Chicago, 111., meat charts, and recipes
for cooking meat.
In addition to the reference-books that should be
found in the school library there are bulletins which
are very valuable as reference material. Write to
the following addresses and ask that publications be
sent to you and your name put on their permanent
SUGGESTIONS xi
mailing list : Division of Home Economics, Bureau
of Education, Washington, D. C. ; Children's
Bureau, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. ;
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ;
United States Public Health Service, Treasury De-
partment, Washington, D. C. ; Federal Board for
Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. ; all
State universities and agricultural colleges ; Ameri-
can Home Economics Association, 1211 Cathedral
Street, Baltimore, Md., "The Journal of Home
Economics" ($2 per year). In writing to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture ask also for a list of Farmers'
Bulletins and for publications issued by the Office
of Home Economics.
CONTENTS
PREFACE v
To THE STUDENT ........ vii
SUGGESTIONS ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv
PRELIMINARY LESSONS
Processes Used in Cooking 3
Some Points about Food 7
The Kitchen 10
Apparatus for the Kitchen 16
Dishwashing . . . . . . . .21
PROJECT I BREAKFAST
The Breakfast Plan 27
Beverages 30, 34
Fruit 37
Milk 39
Cereals 44
Bread 46, 51
Eggs 56
The Dining Room 60
Table Manners 63
Style of Serving , .67
PROJECT II SUPPER OR LUNCHEON
The Plan for Supper or Luncheon .... 70
Meat Substitutes 73, 76
Salads . . ' . . . ."..". * 80
Dried Fruits . . 84
Quick Breads -. . . . . . .87
xiv CONTENTS
PAGB
Cake . . . . , . . . , . 91
The School Lunch . . . . . . . 95
PROJECT III DINNER
The Dinner Plan 101
Vegetables 106
The Potato Ill
Other Starchy Foods 114
Meat 119, 123
Soups , .... 130
Poultry, Game and Fish . . .1 ." . .133
Desserts I ... 138
The Daily Meals of the Family Group . , .___ . 143
PROJECT IV FOOD PRESERVATION
The Preservation of Foods . . .. . . ^ . 153
Canning . 157
Jelly-making . 162
PROJECT V CHRISTMAS LESSONS . . . . .166
PROJECT VI SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS
The Care of the House 169, 172
Food for the Sick * . . ^ . . .176
INDEX 183
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A Canning-club Winner Frontispiece
PAGE
A Cooking Laboratory in a Rural School .... 3
Card-file Cook Book . . . .' . .... 4
One Type of Cooking-apron Kimono Style ... 6
Kitchen Equipment . 9
A Convenient Kitchen l . .11
"Routing Lines" in a Kitchen 12
"Routing Lines" in a Well Arranged Kitchen ... 14
Circulation of Air around Oven .17
Tireless Gas Range 18
The Fireless Cooker . . . . . .20
One-piece Kitchen Sink, an Excellent Type ... 22
Circulation of Air in Two Common Types of Refrigerator . 25
Three Types of Coffee-pots 32
Sandwiches made in Different Shapes .... 36
Equipment for Bread-making . - . . . . . 48
Bread-mixer ... . . . . . .50
Good Loaves of Bread . . . .... 52
Bread Pans, Bread-stick Pans and Baking-sheet . . 54
Folding the Omelet as it Comes from the Pan ... 59
Proper Way to Hold Knife and Fork ... , . . 64
Arrangement of " Cover " for Dinner -T-- . 66
Serving-dish Passed to the Left . . . . . . 68
Correct Method of Holding Soup or Bouillon Spoon . . 72
A Bean-pot Used for Baking Beans ..... 78
Food-grinder . . i|j 79
Three Salads 82
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Cake-mixer . . . . . . .- . .92
Lunch-box . . . . . . ... .96
Busy Cooks in a Rural School 98
Deep-fat Kettle, with Frying-Basket .... 103
No. 2, Croquettes. No. 3, Meat Loaf. No. 5, Pea Sand-
wiches 104
American Meat-cutting Chart Beef . . . .124
American Meat-cutting Chart Veal . . . .125
American Meat-cutting Chart Lamb . . . 126
American Meat-cutting Chart Pork . . . , . 127
Serving the Dinner with a Tea-cart . . . . .144
Cold-pack Canning .- 154
Types of Canners . . . ... . . 157
Types of Jars Used in Canning . ' 158
Attractive Jars of Fruits and Vegetables . . . .159
Types of Jelly Glasses 163
Pasteboard House, with Furnishings 173
Invalid's Tray, Supported by Pillow 177
Invalid's Tray, Well Arranged . . . - . . .178
FOODS AND COOKERY, AND THE CARE
OF THE HOUSE
FOODS AND COOKERY
AND
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
PROCESSES USED IN COOKING
Food is cooked : (1) to improve its appearance,
(2) to improve its flavor, (3) to make some food-
stuffs more digestible, and (4) to kill micro-
organisms.
A COOKING LABORATORY IN A RURAL SCHOOL
The first cooking that was done by primitive man
was the roasting of game by the open fire and
the parching of corn on hot stones, both processes
FOODS AND COOKERY
requiring no cooking equipment. Before water
could be used as a cooking medium, primitive woman
had to begin pot-
tery-making and
basket-weaving ; she
had to have utensils
which would hold
the water. Food
was first cooked in
water by placing
hot stones in the
water with the food,
not by placing the
utensil containing
the water over the
fire. Some pro-
cesses used in camp
cookery are modified
forms of primitive
cooking.
processes at our command to-day are :
I. "Direct , application of heat.
' ' jl . ; Ettpilihg : cooking over a hot fire, exposing
the surfaces of food to the direct heat,
with short cooking of the interior of the
food ; example, broiled beefsteak.
2. Roasting : cooking by an open fire, exposing
the surface to the direct heat, but allow-
ing a long period of cooking for the in-
terior of the food ; example, a roast
cooked under the direct gas flame in an
oven.
Strictly speaking, the popular use of
the word " roasting", as applied to meat
CARD-FILE COOK BOOK
One card is to be used for each recipe.
Card may be hung up in a convenient
place while in use.
FOODS AND COOKERY 5
cooked in an oven, is incorrect. " Roast
chicken" and " roast beef" are really
baked meats.
II. Application by means of heated air.
Baking : cooking in a heated oven ; example,
baked bread.
III. Application by means of heated water.
1. Boiling: cooking in boiling water ; example,
boiled potatoes.
2. Stewing or simmering : cooking in water
below the boiling-point; example, beef
stew.
IV. Application by means of steam.
Steaming : (a) cooking in a utensil into which
steam passes; example, steamed pudding;
(6) cooking in a closed utensil surrounded
by steam ; example, milk heated in double-
boiler.
V. Application by means of heated fat.
1. Sautelng : cooking in a small quantity of
fat ; example, browned potatoes.
2. Frying : cooking in hot fat deep enough to
cover the food ; example, croquettes.
VI. Application by means of heated metal.
1. Pan-broiling: cooking in a frying-pan or
on a griddle without the addition of fat ;
example, broiled bacon.
VII. Combination processes.
1. Braising: a combination of stewing and
baking ; example, casserole of beef.
2. Fricasseeing : a combination of saut&ng
and stewing ; example, fricasseed chicken.
In all cooking great care must be taken to follow
directions carefully. When tested recipes fail, it
6 FOODS AND COOKERY
is usually the fault of the cook and not the fault of
the recipe. Cooking becomes much more interesting
when one understands why certain processes are
followed, and in the laboratory work in a school
course this is one of the
important things to learn.
Every girl should learn
to work accurately yet
quickly, making only
what motions are neces-
sary, thereby saving time
and energy. Sometimes
there is only one "best"
way to do a thing; in
other cases there may be
several equally good, and
it is always wise to use
methods that are con-
sidered the best by ex-
perts.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
DIRECTIONS FOR WORK IN
LABORATORY
Personal appearance :
1. A wash dress is
always to be preferred in
the school laboratory or
home kitchen.
ONE TYPE OF COOKING- APRON ~ , Trl .. 111
KIMONO STYLE 2. White aprons should
be worn in the cooking
laboratory. There are several types that may be used.
3. Holders for lifting hot dishes, and individual hand
towels, should always be used by every student.
FOODS AND COOKERY 7
4. The hair should be brushed back and fastened so
that it does not fall in the face. If white caps are worn
they should be pulled down to cover the front of the
hair.
5. The hands should be thoroughly washed and the
nails scrubbed with a brush and cleaned thoroughly
before you begin any cooking. When cooking, wash
your hands whenever they become sticky or soiled.
6. Do not wear rings, bracelets, or other jewelry
in the kitchen.
Directions for work should include :
Assignment to desks.
Checking equipment.
Discussion of rules regarding care of towels, desks,
implements, etc.
Explanation of the kind of notebooks, reference books,
or textbooks required.
SOME POINTS ABOUT FOOD
When people or animals go without food too long,
they lose flesh and become very weak; finally all
motion of the body ceases. The eating of proper food
is very important if the body is to be kept well and
strong.
Food makes muscle, fat, bone, blood, hair and
teeth ; it produces the energy which is needed for
all movements of the body, and it also supplies the
warmth required. Only a part of the food is used
by the body for the purposes named, and such parts
are called foodstuffs or the food principles.
There are five main classes of foodstuffs. In
some foods only one class of foodstuffs is found,
while in other foods several or all of the foodstuffs
may be present.
8 FOODS AND COOKERY
The five groups of foodstuffs are :
1. Protein, used in the body for body-building,
and to produce energy and warmth. It is
present in such foods as meat, milk, cheese,
cereals and legumes.
2. Carbohydrates j used in the body to produce
energy and warmth. They are found in such
foods as potatoes, rice, fruits, cereals and
legumes.
3. Fat, used in the body to produce energy and
warmth. It is found in large amounts in
such foods as butter, cream, olive oil and fat
meat.
4. Minerals, used in the body for body-building,
and found in most foods.
5. Water, used in the body to help in digesting
the food and in carrying away waste material
from the organs of the body, thus keeping
the body in a healthy condition. Water is
found in practically all foods in either large
or small amounts.
Besides these five foodstuffs there is found in some
foods a very important class of substances called
vitamines. Little is known about the vitamines
except that there are probably two kinds, and that
they are necessary for the body growth and also to
keep the body in health. One kind is found in butter,
egg-yolk and such vegetables as lettuce, spinach and
dandelions. The other kind is present in vegetables,
fruits and whole cereals. Milk contains both kinds.
When the meals for the day are planned, foods
must be selected that will furnish some of each of the
foodstuffs and vitamines, so that the body shall
not lack material for growth, warmth and energy.
FOODS AND COOKERY 9
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MEASUREMENTS
Careful measuring or weighing of the ingredients used
in a recipe is very necessary if the results are to be of the
best. The utensils commonly used for measuring foods
are: scales, measuring-cup, measuring-spoons, table-
spoons and teaspoons. In measuring dry materials, fill
KITCHEN EQUIPMENT
Double-boiler, vegetable-press, scales, oven and chemical thermometers,
measuring-cups, spatula, wooden spoon and bread-rack.
the measure and level off the top with a knife. When
one half teaspoon is desired, divide the material length-
wise of the spoon and scrape out one half. For one
fourth teaspoon divide crosswise the remaining half.
Experiment :
Use water for the following :
1. To find the number of teaspoons in one tablespoon.
2. To find the number of tablespoons in one cup.
3. To find the number of cups in one pint.
Use sugar for the following :
1. To find the number of tablespoons in one cup.
2. To find the number of cups in one pound.
10 FOODS AND COOKERY
Use flour for the following :
1. Fill the cup by dipping it into the flour ; weigh.
2. Fill the cup by using a spoon ; weigh.
3. Sift the flour, fill the cup by using a spoon ; weigh.
Use salt for the following :
1. Measure one half, one fourth, and one eighth
teaspoon.
BAKED STUFFED PEPPERS
Cut a thick slice from the stem-end of each pepper,
remove all the seeds, wash thoroughly and let drain. Use
enough stale bread crumbs to fill the peppers ; add salt
to taste, as much butter as desired and enough water to
slightly moisten the crumbs. Heat this mixture until the
butter is melted. Fill the peppers. Place them in a
baking-dish in an upright position, and on top of each
place a small square of bacon. Put water in baking-dish
one half inch in depth. Bake slowly for forty-five
minutes or until tender.
Have you ever seen green peppers used in any other
way? Perhaps some one can bring to school a good
recipe that may be copied in the class notebook and tried
at home by other members of the class.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. For what purpose is food used in the body?
2. Name the five foodstuffs (food principles).
3. Name some foods in which each is found.
4. Do foods ever contain more than one foodstuff?
5. Name one food in which vitamines are found.
THE KITCHEN
The kitchen is a workshop where food is cared for,
prepared, cooked and served.
The most convenient kitchen has windows or doors
on two sides of the room, so that when these are
FOODS AND COOKERY
11
open, a cross draft of air clears the room of smoke
and odors.
The kitchen should be the cleanest room in the
house. The most sanitary kitchen has walls finished
in material that can be washed, such as oil paint or
tile. Walls and woodwork should be light in color,
because this makes the room seem more cheerful and
A CONVENIENT KITCHEN
With built-in ironing-board, ice-box and work-table.
also makes it easy to "see the dirt", which then may
be removed.
Hard-wood floors may be oiled or waxed and used
without covering. Soft-wood floors may be covered
with linoleum or cork carpet, or they may be painted.
The kitchen should have built-in cupboards with
plenty of space for utensils.
The sink, with a drain board at each end, should
be set where there is plenty of light, and it should
Dining Room
"ROUTING LINES" IN A KITCHEN
A wheel- tray would be a convenience in removing dishes from the
dining room. The refrigerator would be more convenient if built into
the wall.
12
FOODS AND COOKERY 13
be open underneath to avoid the dampness often
found in sink cupboards.
The kitchen may have a built-in ice-box arranged
to be iced from the outside of the house. Some
kitchens have a dumb waiter to the basement.
If an ironing-board is used in the kitchen, it may be
built into a space in the wall, being let down when
needed and folded back when not in use.
Other devices sometimes found in the kitchen are :
a closet for cleaning implements, such as broom,
bucket and brushes; a cupboard for the leaves of
the dining-table, and a built-in kitchen cabinet.
There may also be a pantry.
Each housekeeper decides for herself how to make
the kitchen a well arranged and equipped workshop.
In a well arranged kitchen the equipment is so
placed that the housekeeper can use it without losing
time or wasting strength in walking.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Make a drawing of your home kitchen, showing
where the sink, the cupboards, the table, the stove
and other equipment are placed.
Notice with care the steps taken by a person
preparing breakfast, and then make dotted lines
on your drawing to show where she* has walked.
Such a line is called a " routing line."
Do you think any of the equipment could be
changed to make the kitchen more convenient?
Bring your drawing to school for discussion.
14
FOODS AND COOKERY
"ROUTING LINES" IN A WELL ARRANGED KITCHEN
If the refrigerator were built into the wall it could be filled from the
porch outside.
FOODS AND COOKERY 15
LABORATORY EXERCISES
STUDY OF STOVES
Experiment :
Examine the stoves to be used in the laboratory.
If a gas range :
1. What kinds of ovens are there ?
2. Is there a pilot to use when lighting the ovens?
3. Do the oven doors fasten tightly?
4. Does the top burner have a stationary or movable
mixer ?
5. If there is a movable mixer, light the gas burner
and observe the color of the flame ; turn the
mixer and observe the flame.
6. What color should the flame be to give the most
heat?
7. Place a bright clean kettle, containing a small
amount of water, over the yellow flame.
What happens to the outside of the kettle ?
8. What is the use of the mixer ?
9. How is the top burner removed for cleaning?
10. Can other parts be removed for cleaning ?
If a coal or wood range :
1. Examine the firebox to see how it is constructed.
2. Where is the ash-pan? How are the ashes re-
moved ?
3. Find the dampers on the stove, and determine
the use of each.
4. For what is the stovepipe used ?
5. How does the heat warm the oven?
6. Lay the fire in the following manner. Clean the
firebox and ash-pan, crumple paper and put a
generous layer over the bottom of the fire-
box; place kindling on top of the paper in
such a way that the air passes between the
pieces ; place one large or two small shovelfuls
of coal or sticks of stove wood on top of the
16 FOODS AND COOKERY
kindling. How shall the drafts be arranged
before the fire is lighted? Clean the top of
the stove before lighting the fire.
ORANGEADE
Juice of one orange 1| tbsp. sugar
tsp. lemon juice f c. water
Mix ingredients thoroughly. Perhaps the mixture
may need straining. Chill before serving.
Fruitade or lemonade may be made also.
APPARATUS FOR THE KITCHEN
Stoves are of various types and must be selected
to suit the kind of fuel to be used and the size of the
kitchen in which they are to be placed.
A fuel is a substance which when burned produces
heat, and it is this heat that cooks food when applied
to it.
Wood, coal, gasoline, kerosene, manufactured
and natural gas, are the fuels commonly used.
Electricity is also used for cooking, but is not a fuel.
The stove is the apparatus in which the fuel is
burned and through which the heat is given off.
In selecting a stove or range, choose one that is plain
in design and has little nickel finish. A stove
covered with decorations is hard to keep clean.
Many gas and electric ranges have the oven built
on a level with the top of the stove. The oven is
easier to use in this position than when underneath
the burners.
Gas and electric stoves are now made with fireless
cooking attachments for both boiling and baking.
FOODS AND COOKERY
17
While these are more expensive in price than other
types, they are great savers of fuel when properly used.
A stove must be in good condition if it is to do
good cooking. A coal or wood range must have
CIRCULATION OF AIR AROUND OVEN
soot and ashes removed regularly from the inside of
pipes, firebox and ash-pit. Whenever gas burners
cannot be regulated to burn without a yellow flame,
they must be taken apart and cleaned by boiling in
a weak solution of soda.
There should be in the kitchen a supply of cooking
18
FOODS AND COOKERY
utensils of the right kind to meet any need. Good
utensils to use for boiling, stewing and steaming are
made of aluminum or enamel ware of good grade;
for baking, earthenware, glass, sheet iron and tin
are used ; iron is used for sauteing and frying.
Aluminum, wooden, or heavily plated tin spoons
are needed in the kitchen. These are better than
enameled spoons be-
cause enamel is apt
to chip off when the
spoon strikes hard
surfaces. Steel
knives are best with
the steel blade run-
ning through and
riveted into the
wooden handle.
One or more spatu-
las should be a part
of the equipment.
Any device that
aids in doing work
as well, but more quickly and easily than it has been
done before, is a labor-saving device.
Fireless cookers, pressure and steam cookers,
cake and bread-mixers, food-grinders and double-
boilers are examples of labor-saving devices that
are useful in the kitchen. Every housekeeper should
have as many labor-saving devices as possible.
FIRELESS GAS RANGE
Observe "hood" under which fireless
cooking may be done. The oven may also
be made "fireless."
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Find the price of the following : a gas range, a
coal or wood range, a two-compartment fireless
FOODS AND COOKERY 19
cooker, food-grinders, double-boilers, spatulas, re-
frigerators, garbage-cans.
Look through the advertisements in the magazines
and papers, at home or in the public library, and
make a list of other labor-saving devices and cooking
utensils not named in the lesson. How many of
these have you seen used ?
Bring the lists to school for discussion.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
TEMPERATURES
Experiment :
Examine the thermometer to be used in taking
temperatures.
1. Is it a centigrade or Fahrenheit thermometer?
2. What is "boiling-point" on each? freezing-
point ?
3. (a) What is the temperature of one cup of water in
the top part of a double-boiler after the water
in the lower part has been boiling twenty
minutes? Continue boiling. Does the water
in the top part of the double-boiler ever reach
boiling-point? (6) What is the temperature of
one cup of water in a small saucepan over direct
heat when the first small bubbles appear on the
surface? when the large bubbles come to the
surface and break? when the fire is turned
higher and the bubbles form and break more
quickly? The vapor which comes off the sur-
face of the water is called steam. Continue
boiling the water for a few minutes; remove
from the fire and measure the water. What
has happened ?
Examine the fireless cooker, if there is one in the
laboratory; if not, the class may make one, following
20 FOODS AND COOKERY
THE FIRELESS COOKER
Placing the heated stone in the cooker.
FOODS AND COOKERY 21
the directions given in Farmers' Bulletin No. 771,
" Home-made Fireless Cookers and their Use ", ob-
tained by writing to the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C.
ROLLED OATS
3 c. boiling water 1 c. rolled oats 1 tsp. salt
Heat water to boiling point by placing the top part of
the double-boiler over direct heat ; add salt ; stir in the
rolled oats. Cook ten minutes. Place over water in the
double-boiler ; cook one hour.
This may be cooked in the fireless cooker.
If the fireless cooker has a large compartment, fill the
large kettle half full of boiling water, place the prepared
oatmeal in a small tightly covered kettle, and set on the
wire rack placed inside the large kettle, so that the hot
water is below the top of the small kettle. Close the
cooker and do not open until the food is needed for the
meal. Cereals may be put in the fireless cooker at night
and will then be ready for breakfast in the morning.
DISHWASHING
The housekeeper sometimes considers dishwashing
" drudgery", and it may be so when poor equipment
is used for the task, or when she does not know how
to do the work correctly. The best type of house-
keeper feels that every part of her work is worth
doing well, and whenever she thinks about why she
is doing the task, it ceases to be drudgery. To know
the reason for washing dishes helps to make the
work more interesting. Dishes are washed to make
them more sanitary and more pleasing to use. It
is not safe nor pleasant to eat from dirty or sticky
dishes.
22 FOODS AND COOKERY
The equipment needed for washing dishes consists
of plenty of clean hot water, good soap, or soap
powder, scouring-powder, dishpans, dish-drainer,
dishcloth and mops, dish-towels, bottle and sink
brushes; and there may be added a plate-scraper,
a metal dishcloth and soap-shaker.
There are two kinds of water, hard and soft. When
soap will not make good suds in the water, it is
because the water is "hard." Hard water is water
that has taken up lime or iron from the soil, and is
ONE-PIECE KITCHEN SINK; an excellent type
the kind that usually comes from wells. Rain
water is soft water, and is better for washing dishes
because soap makes a good suds in it. If hard water
must be used, borax, ammonia, or a strong soap
powder or soap must be added.
Soap is best for use when it is very dry. It may
be purchased by the dozen cakes or bars, or by the
box. Some persons make "soft" soap at home by
boiling scraps of fat with lye made from wood ashes.
The steps in washing dishes correctly are :
1. Remove the dishes from the table. Remove
the bits of food from the plates with the rubber
FOODS AND COOKERY 23
plate-scraper or a piece of paper. Rinse off very
dirty dishes. Pile together dishes that are alike.
2. Put to soak all cooking utensils. Hot water
should be put in those which have contained sugar
or syrup, and cold water in those which have been
used with milk, eggs, cereal, starch or flour.
3. Pour hot water in the dishpan, make a good
suds with the soap, use a clean dishcloth (not a
"rag") or mop, and wash every dish carefully.
Do not have the dishpan full of dirty dishes while
washing. Always wash the cleanest dishes first.
4. Place the washed dishes in a drain-pan or
dish-drier, being careful not to crowd them. Crowd-
ing dishes in a pan is apt to chip them and makes
it hard to scald them thoroughly. This pan or drier
should be placed at the left of the pan in which the
dishes are washed because this will save unnecessary
motions in putting the dishes from one into the other.
5. Rinse the dishes thoroughly with boiling
water, being sure that each dish has been rinsed
inside and out. If the dishes have been scalded in
a dish-drier, it may be set on the drain-board and the
dishes allowed to dry without wiping. The silver
and glass should be washed first. They will look
best when wiped and polished dry with a towel.
Some persons like to dry all the dishes with a towel.
This is a good method, but it takes more time than
drying them in a rack or drier.
6. Scrape out and rinse off the cooking utensils.
Use plenty of hot soapy water for washing them;
wash thoroughly, both inside and out, scouring if
necessary. Rinse with boiling water and wipe dry.
Steel knives may be scoured with scouring-powder
applied with a cork.
24 FOODS AND COOKERY
7. Wash off the drain-boards and tables, and
scour them with the powder and a brush if necessary.
Use clean water for this. Wash out the sink and
scour it with a brush and scouring-powder when the
soapy water will not remove the stains.
8. Wash the dish-towels in clean soapy water,
removing all spots. Rinse in clean water, shake
out and pull into shape. Hang to dry on a rack for
this purpose in the kitchen, or better still, hang out-
doors in the sun. Wash and rinse the dishcloth or
dish-mop.
9. Clean out the dishpan thoroughly, wipe it
dry and put it away.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CARE OF EQUIPMENT
The Sink
1. Find the waste-pipe; the trap. Of what value is
the trap?
2. Of what material is the sink made ?
3. Of what material are the drain-boards made ?
4. Of what material are the faucets made ?
5. To clean the sink :
(a) Faucets brass may be cleaned with scouring-
powder. If stained, use vinegar or lemon
juice before scouring ; nickel needs only wash-
ing with soap and water.
(6) Wash drain-boards and sink; see lesson above
(Section 7) .
Every sink needs a sink-strainer through which dish-
water or other liquids may be poured, thereby catching
all refuse. Clean boiling water should be poured down
the waste-pipe after very greasy water.
FOODS AND COOKERY
25
The Refrigerator
1. Find the waste-pipe. Into what does it drain?
Can it be removed for cleaning?
2. Of what material is the lining of the refrigerator?
3. What otlier parts of the refrigerator may be removed
when cleaning?
4. To clean the refrigerator :
(a) Remove immediately any food that has been
spilled.
(6) Once a week remove all food and ice ; take
out the shelves and other parts ; wash these
and the inside of the ice-box with clean,
Coldest Part
Warm
J \
Warm
Warm
Warmest Part
I
Coldest
Part
CIRCULATION OF AIR IN Two COMMON TYPES OF REFRIGERATOR
warm, soapy water and rinse with clean cold
water; a solution of washing soda may be
poured down the drain-pipe. Do the work as
quickly as possible.
26 FOODS AND COOKERY
The Garbage-Can
If no liquid material is placed in the garbage-can, the
garbage may be wrapped in newspaper before placing in
the can. This keeps the can in excellent condition.
1. To clean, when garbage is wrapped, wash out with
clean, hot, soapy water once a week.
2. To clean, when garbage is not wrapped, scrub with
a brush, using a strong washing-soda solution; rinse
with boiling water; dry in the sun. A dirty garbage-
can has a bad smell and attracts flies. A garbage-can
must always be kept tightly covered.
BICED POTATOES
Wash and peel a potato. Cook in boiling salted water,
allowing J tsp. of salt to one pint of water. Boil gently.
When the potato can be pierced to the center easily with
a fork, remove from the water. Press through the vege-
table press or ricer into a hot dish. Serve.
MASHED POTATOES
To the riced potato add two teaspoons of hot milk;
one half teaspoon of butter ; salt to taste. Beat with a
fork until the mixture is light and fluffy. Place in a hot
dish and serve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What equipment is needed for washing dishes well?
2. What are the two kinds of water used ?
3. Which is the best kind to use for dishwashing? Why?
4. How should the dishes be prepared for washing? the
cooking utensils?
5. State the steps in washing and drying dishes.
6. How should the dish-towels and dishcloth be cared for
after dishwashing?
7. Have you ever washed dishes by this method ?
8. Have you ever seen a dishwasher used ?
FOODS AND COOKERY 27
THE BREAKFAST PLAN
There are many types of breakfast that may be
served, and every family will have its own particular
plan for this meal.
The foods generally used for breakfast are fruit,
cereals, bread and beverages, with sometimes egg,
meat or vegetable dishes.
The menu should vary with (1) the time of year,
(2) the type of work which the members of the family
are doing, (3) the kind of meal eaten the night before,
and (4) the size, weight and age of the members of
the family.
In the summer it is well to avoid eating much meat,
and meat can easily be omitted from breakfast.
It is well, also, to eat less heat-producing food in
summer than in winter, because then the body does
not need so much heat to keep it warm.
When too much food is eaten, a good deal is lost
because some foodstuffs cannot be stored in the body
and must, therefore, be carried off from the body
in the form of waste material.
If a man is doing hard work out of doors he needs
more food than does the man who sits all day at his
desk in an office, because the man in the office does
not use so much muscular energy in doing his work
as does the man who works with his muscles.
If dinner is the meal served in the evening, the family
does not wish nor need much for breakfast the follow-
ing morning. If a light supper is the last meal of the
day, then more food should be served for breakfast.
The members of the family differ in size, weight
and age, and the food eaten should vary in amount
and kind. The baby and small child should not
28 FOODS AND COOKERY
eat the same food, nor so much, as the man in the
family. How then shall the meal be planned to suit
each member of the family? It is a good plan to
make a menu that contains enough food of the right
kind for the man, and to have in that menu some
food that will suit the small child.
The following are some general suggestions for
planning the breakfast :
1. Breakfast consisting of fruit, bread and bever-
age; suitable for the man who works in an office
and the woman who does light work. For the small
child, cereal and milk would have to be added and
tea or coffee omitted.
2. Breakfast consisting of fruit, cereal, bread
and beverage; suitable for the man who does a
good deal of walking but works indoors, and for the
woman who does ordinary housework, office work,
or teaching. With cocoa or milk as the beverage,
this would be good for the small child, the school-
girl or boy, and the college student.
3. Breakfast consisting of fruit, eggs, bread and
a beverage, instead of No. 2. Milk and cereal, how-
ever, should be added for the child.
4. Breakfast of fruit, cereal, a meat or egg dish,
bread and a beverage; suitable for the man doing
hard manual work out of doors, or for women doing
hard manual work. The meat should be omitted
in the child's diet, and milk or cocoa used as the
beverage.
5. Breakfast consisting of fruit, cereal, meat or
egg dish, a vegetable, bread and a beverage. This
breakfast is a very heavy meal and should be eaten
only by a man doing hard manual labor out of doors
in cold weather. Many families eating this type
FOODS AND COOKERY 29
of breakfast do so because they like it and not
because they need the food in the daily diet. In
many cases they would be in better health if less food
were eaten.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Are these good breakfast plans ? Why ?
1 . For a hot summer morning : stewed fruit,
sausage, buckwheat cakes, coffee.
2. For a small child : coffee, cereal, meat dish and
hot biscuit.
3. For a man doing hard manual labor out of
doors : fruit, coffee, toast.
4. For the schoolgirl : fruit, cereal, cocoa and
toast.
Make two good plans for your breakfast at this
season of the year.
Make two good plans for the breakfast of a small
child at this season of the year.
Bring these plans to class for discussion.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
FRUIT FOR BREAKFAST
ORANGES
1. Wash the orange, cut through crosswise, serve on
plate.
2. Wash the orange, remove the skin and as much of
the white portion as possible, divide in sections, arrange
attractively on plate, serve.
3. Wash the orange, cut in halves, squeeze out the
juice, using the lemon-squeezer ; put juice in glass, cool,
set on fruit-plate, serve.
30 FOODS AND COOKERY
BAKED APPLE
Wash the apple, remove the core, leaving the apple
whole, and fill the cavity with sugar. Raisins or nutmeg
may be used also. Put a little water in the pan to pre-
vent burning. Bake slowly until the apple is tender
when pierced with a fork.
BEVERAGES
Beverages are made by combining liquids and
flavoring materials.
There are many kinds of beverages, examples of
which are coffee, tea, cocoa, lemonade and grape
juice.
Water is the liquid used in making most beverages.
In addition to the water taken in beverages one
should drink a great deal of pure water, because the
composition of the body is two thirds water. One
may go without food for weeks, but it is not possible
to live very long without water. Most persons,
because of the taste, like to drink hard water in
preference to soft water. Hard water comes from
wells and deep springs, and has collected certain
mineral substances from the soil over or through
which it has come.
When the soil is full of filth, the water flowing
through it will be impure and may be the cause of
typhoid fever, malaria, or other diseases. Impure
water may be clear and sparkling in appearance,
and the only way to be certain of its purity is to
know about the source from which it comes. In
the city, the water supply is so carefully watched
that the water coming into the house is usually pure.
If a well is so situated that the water coming into it
FOODS AND COOKERY 31
passes through soil into which a barnyard or an
outside toilet or a pig-pen is drained, it is likely to
be dangerous to health.
When there is the slightest doubt about the
purity of water, it should be boiled before drinking.
Boiled water has a flat taste because some of the air
in it has been driven off by boiling. The taste may
be improved by pouring the water back and forth
between two pitchers, thus forcing air into it again.
Ice is frozen water, and is just as pure as the water
from which it was made. Ice from a pond should
never be dissolved in drinking-water or other bever-
ages. Artificial ice is made by freezing water in
tanks, the freezing temperature being secured by
the evaporation of ammonia. This ice should be
much purer than ice from ponds, lakes and rivers.
At school every student should use his or her own
drinking-cup unless there is a bubbling fountain.
It is dangerous to drink out of a cup that has been
used by other persons, because if any one has a
disease, such as diphtheria, sore throat or tubercu-
losis, it may be given to others who use the same cup.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
BEVERAGES
Experiment :
1. Examine coffee beans, finely ground, and pulver-
ized coffee. What is the price of each?
2. Examine samples of tea, both green and black;
compare the color and shape of the leaves. Are there
bits of stem or other refuse present? Compare prices.
3. Examine cocoa nibs, pulverized cocoa.
4. Pour one half cup of boiling water over two tea-
spoons of cocoa. Observe the liquid.
32 FOODS AND COOKERY
5. Mix together one half cup of cold water and two
teaspoons of cocoa; boil five minutes. Compare this
with No. 4. What has happened ?
COCOA
I c. cocoa 1 c. water
j c. sugar 3 c. milk
| tsp. salt Vanilla
Mix cocoa, sugar, salt and water. Boil ten minutes.
Heat milk in double-boiler, add to this the cocoa paste.
Cook twenty minutes. Add vanilla.
An attractive way to serve cocoa is to place a spoonful
of whipped cream on top of each cup.
COFFEE
Coffee may be made in several ways.
1. Boiled coffee, made with egg.
1 heaping tbsp. of ground coffee
1 c. water
\ egg-shell or \ of an egg-white
THREE TYPES OF COFFEE-POTS
From left to right : drip coffee-pot, coffee percolator and pot for boiled
coffee.
Mix together coffee and egg, using a little of the water ;
add the rest of the water. Boil gently for three to five
FOODS AND COOKERY 33
minutes. Let stand in warm place for five minutes.
Serve. The egg is used to settle the grounds.
2. Boiled coffee without egg.
Use the same proportions as in No. 1. Place the ground
coffee in a cheesecloth bag, being careful to pack it very loosely ;
tie securely.
3. Percolated coffee.
Made in a percolator pot, constructed so that the ground
coffee is placed in a container at the top. The water boils up
through a tube to the ground coffee, and then drips back into the
bottom of the pot.
There are many kinds of percolators sold.
4. Drip coffee.
Like coffee made in percolator, except that the coffee-pot is
arranged so that water must drip through the ground coffee
from the top.
TEA
1 tsp. tea 1 c. water
Heat fresh water to boiling-point. Pour it over the
tea, let stand in a warm place three minutes. Pour off
tea into hot teapot or cups. Serve at once.
Tea should never be boiled, nor the water allowed to
stand on the tea leaves longer than three minutes, be-
cause the longer it stands the more tannic acid is present.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a beverage ?
2. Name some commonly used beverages.
3. Why is it important to drink pure water? ,
4. How should impure water be treated when it must be
used for drinking?
5. From what source does the water supply come that is
used in your school ?
6. What is ice?
7. When may ice be put into beverages?
8. Where does the ice come from that is used in your
neighborhood? What is the price of one hundred pounds?
34 FOODS AND COOKERY
BEVERAGES (Continued)
Coffee, tea, cocoa and chocolate are the beverages
generally used for breakfast. Coffee and tea should
be used only by grown persons ; children may take
cocoa.
The coffee-bean or berry is the seed of a fruit
resembling a cherry, and is produced on an evergreen
tree that grows in nearly all tropical countries.
Most of our coffee comes from South America,
mainly from Brazil. In preparing coffee for market
the cherry-like fruit is allowed to ferment so that the
pulp surrounding the seeds may become soft and
can be removed. These seeds contain two "beans"
which grow with their flat sides together and are
inclosed in a husk. This husk has to be dried and
then removed, when the beans fall apart. The
coffee-beans are then shipped to the country where
they are to be sold. The beans are roasted to make
them brittle and to develop flavor, and are sold to the
housekeeper in this form, or as "ground coffee."
Coffee loses its flavor and aroma very quickly
after being ground if it is left in an open container,
and for this reason some prefer to buy the roasted
coffee-beans and grind them only as needed.
Ground coffee should be sold in air-tight cans, but
if sent from the store in paper sacks should be-
emptied into air-tight cans at once.
Coffee contains substances that are often harmful
for grown persons and are never good for children ;
one is caffeine, a substance that stimulates the
nerves ; another is tannic acid, which may disturb
digestion.
Most of the tea we use comes from China, Japan,
FOODS AND COOKERY 35
Ceylon and India. Tea is made from the leaves of
a plant called Thea. The plant sends out four sets
of new shoots a year, and the leaves from these
shoots are gathered and cured for tea.
There are two types of tea, black and green tea.
Green tea is made by drying the tea leaves at a high
temperature, which causes them to keep their green
color and to curl up. Black tea is made by allowing
the leaves to wither and ferment, which causes them
to turn dark before being dried. This process gives
black tea a flavor different from that of green tea.
Tea contains a substance called "theine" which
acts as a stimulant to the nerves. There is also
present tannic acid, which is bad for the digestion.
Cocoa is produced from the pod of the cocoa tree
which grows in tropical countries. The pod is shaped
somewhat like a cucumber, and inside are a large
number of seeds surrounded by pulp. The seeds
are removed from the pulp and, after being allowed
to ferment a few days, are roasted. The husk is
then removed and the seed is divided into two parts
which are called "cocoa nibs."
When cocoa nibs are ground and pressed into a
cake, the cake is known as chocolate. This chocolate
is rather bitter in taste and is used in cookery.
When sugar is added to the cake it is called sweet
chocolate.
Cocoa is made from chocolate by removing a large
part of the fat. It is then ground and sold in bulk
or in tin containers. The fat that is removed from
the chocolate is used for cocoa butter. Cocoa has a
good deal of food value, and when served as a
beverage in which milk is used adds food value to a
meal.
36 FOODS AND COOKERY
LABORATORY EXERCISES
A RECEPTION FOR MOTHERS
Invite the mothers of the girls to the school for the
laboratory period. The members of the class should re-
ceive and entertain them. Refreshments of tea, coffee or
cocoa, sandwiches and marguerites, may be prepared
and served by the girls.
MARGUERITES
12 wafers tsp. salt
1 egg-white \ tsp. vanilla
2 tbsp. powdered sugar \ c. chopped raisins or nuts, or
the two mixed
Beat the egg very stiff. Sugar should be pressed
through a wire sieve before using. Add the other in-
gredients to the sugar and mix carefully with beaten egg-
white. Spread on top of the wafers. Brown in a moderate
oven.
SANDWICHES
Cut the bread into very thin slices ; cream the butter
by mashing and beating with a fork. Butter the slices
SANDWICHES MADE IN DIFFERENT SHAPES
of bread, add jelly if desired, lay the slices together evenly.
Sandwiches are often cut into fancy shapes, such as round,
FOODS AND COOKERY 37
triangular, rectangular, or square. The crust may be
removed, if desired. The bread scraps may be saved
for a bread pudding. Wrap the sandwiches in a dry
cloth, then in a slightly damp cloth until ready to serve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the preparation of coffee for market.
2. How should coffee be cared for after it is purchased ?
3. From what countries does most of the tea used in this
country come ?
4. Describe the preparation of tea for market.
5. Why are tea and coffee harmful to many people ?
6. Should children drink tea or coffee ?
7. What is cocoa? chocolate? cocoa nibs?
FRUIT
Fruit is very valuable in the diet and, if possible,
should be included in the menu every day. Fresh
fruit can be purchased in the market at all seasons
of the year. Canned and dried fruits can always be
substituted when the fresh fruit is too expensive or
not available.
Fruits are composed largely of water but contain
sugar, which is one form of carbohydrate, very small
amounts of protein and fat, and mineral matter.
Fruit also contains vitamines. The mineral matter
in fruit, including iron, phosphorus, lime, magnesia
and potash, is very valuable to the body.
The botanist says that fruits are the seed-bearing
parts of the plant, but such foods as tomatoes and
cucumbers, which really are fruits, we class as vege-
tables.
When fruits are considered as to their food value
they are sometimes classified as (1) flavor fruits,
containing a very large amount of water and very
38 FOODS AND COOKERY
small amounts of the foodstuffs, and (2) food fruits,
containing less water and larger amounts of the
foodstuffs. Examples of flavor fruits are straw-
berries and watermelons. Examples of food fruits
are bananas, dried figs and dates.
Most persons like fresh fruit, but it does not agree
with everyone. Cooked fruit can often be eaten
when the raw fruit cannot, because the cooking
softens the fruit and kills bacteria that may be
present. Children should be given cooked fruit in
preference to raw fruit. Neither green fruit nor over-
ripe fruit should be eaten.
Fruits are least expensive when purchased in season,
that is, when they are being produced on the farms
and in the gardens of the community. When fruits
have to be shipped long distances they must be sold
at higher prices.
Fruit should be cleaned carefully before being
used as food. Even when the skin of the fruit is
to be removed, it should be washed carefully. One
handles both the skin and the fruit at the time of
peeling. Berries and similar fruits should be washed
thoroughly before being eaten or cooked.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
FRUIT FOR BREAKFAST
GRAPEFRUIT
Wash grapefruit and cut crosswise into halves. Loosen
the thick white skin by cutting each section of the fruit
from the skin. Use scissors to cut the skin loose from
the rind. Cut the core loose from the rind and remove
white skin with core. Fill center of grapefruit with
powdered sugar if desired. Serve on fruit-plate.
Have you ever eaten grapefruit prepared in any other way ?
FOODS AND COOKERY 39
APPLE SAUCE
1 medium-sized apple ^ tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg
| c. water (if desired)
to 1 tbsp. sugar
Wash and pare the apple. Cut it into quarters and re-
move the core. Place in saucepan, add the water, cover
tightly. Boil gently until apples are tender when pierced
with a fork. Add sugar and nutmeg or cinnamon. Cook
until sugar is melted.
Other recipes for using apples may be brought from
home by members of the class. Are all the recipes good
ones to use for breakfast?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the fruits that can be used for breakfast.
2. Which of these grow in your locality?
3. What are the foodstuffs found in fruits?
4. What is meant by purchasing "in season"?
5. What fruits are "in season" at the present time?
6. How much are apples per pound? How many pounds
are in a peck and in a bushel of apples?
7. How does the price per bushel compare with the price
paid when apples are bought by the pound ?
8. What is the price of grapefruit ? What does one serving
cost?
MILK
Milk is one of our most important foods. When
we drink milk we should remember that we are
taking a .real food and not merely something to take
the place of water. When enough milk is used, some
other food can be left out of the diet. Milk is a
perfect food for infants or young animals and is a
good food for grown persons.
When the chemist divides milk into its parts he
finds the following foodstuffs: protein, carbohy-
drates, fat, mineral matter and water.
40 FOODS AND COOKERY
The protein in one glassful of milk is equal to the
protein contained in one large egg or in one and
one third ounces of beef. Therefore when we use
enough milk in a meal we do not need meat. The
milk may be used in custards, escalloped and creamed
dishes, or it may be used to drink.
When the milk stands, the fat separates and
comes to the top. This fat is then called cream.
The milk remaining when the cream is removed is
skim milk. The milk without its cream removed is
whole milk.
The mineral matter in milk is very valuable because
it is in a good form for the body to use. Milk
also contains the vitamines which are so important.
Every boy and girl should use a great deal of milk,
some say a pint a day for all children over six
years old, and a quart a day for the child under six.
Clean milk is the only safe milk. Dirty milk may
contain disease germs that cause typhoid fever,
tuberculosis, or other diseases. Clean milk comes
from clean cows kept in clean barns. The milk
must be handled by persons with clean hands and
clean clothes, and it must be placed in clean pails,
bottles, or pans.
If milk is purchased from a store or dairy wagon
it should be in bottles, tightly covered. The bottles
must be kept in a cool place where there are no flies.
If a bottle of milk is put in the refrigerator it must
always be tightly covered.
There are several kinds of milk that can be pur-
chased. Milk that is heated to the boiling-point,
212 F., and cooled before it is sold, is called steril-
ized milk. The boiling changes the flavor but kills
harmful bacteria that may have been in the milk.
FOODS AND COOKERY .41
Pasteurized milk is milk which has been heated and
kept at a temperature of 140 to 145 F. for twenty
to thirty minutes, and then cooled quickly. This
process kills bacteria that may cause disease. Cer-
tified milk is milk that is guaranteed by the producer
to be especially clean and pure.
At the grocer's we buy condensed or evaporated
milk in tin cans. This is milk that has had most
of the water taken out of it and afterwards has been
canned. This is useful to take on camping trips
or journeys where fresh milk cannot be obtained.
Powdered milk may also be found in the stores.
This is a dry powder and must have water added
before it is used.
Fortunate is the child who lives on a farm and can
have all the milk desired. Milk, however, must be
regarded as a very necessary food and should be used
by every family, whether in town or country. It
is poor economy to reduce the amount of milk pur-
chased. Some other food could be better spared.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MILK
WHITE SAUCE
White sauce is made by combining a liquid, a fat and
a thickening agent. Cream sauces and gravies are ex-
amples of white sauce. White sauce is of different thick-
nesses, according to its use. The following are the general
proportions for white sauce :
No. 1 White Sauce or Thin White Sauce
1 c. liquid 1 tbsp. fat 1 tbsp. flour
Used for cream soups and certain sauces.
42 FOODS AND COOKERY
No. 2 White Sauce or Medium White Sauce
1 c. liquid 1 tbsp. fat 2 tbsp. flour
Used for vegetables, gravies and sauces.
No. 8 White Sauce or Thick White Sauce
1 c. liquid 2 tbsp. fat 3 tbsp. flour
Used for thick sauces, creamed oysters.
No. 4 White Sauce or Very Thick White Sauce
1 c. liquid 3 tbsp. fat 4 tbsp. flour
Used for croquettes.
There are three ways of combining the ingredients in
making white sauces :
Method No. 1. Heat part of the milk in double-boiler ;
mix the remaining milk with the flour, and add gradually
to the heated milk, stirring thoroughly ; add the fat just
before removing from the fire. Cook twenty to thirty
minutes in the double-boiler, stirring occasionally.
Method No. 2. Heat milk in double-boiler ; mix into
a paste the fat and the flour ; add to the heated milk,
stirring until no lumps are present ; cook twenty to thirty
minutes.
Method No. 3. This method is often used in making
gravies. Heat the fat slowly; add the flour, and stir
until a smooth paste is formed ; add the milk, stirring
constantly to prevent lumping. Cook six to ten minutes.
CREAM TOAST
1 tbsp. butter 1 c. milk or cream
1 tbsp. flour i tsp. salt
4 slices bread
Make white sauce from the first four ingredients.
While it is cooking make the toast, being careful not to
FOODS AND COOKERY 43
burn the bread. Dip each piece in the white sauce, place
in a warm dish and pour on the remaining white sauce.
Serve in warmed dishes.
FRENCH TOAST
1 c. milk | tsp. salt
1 egg 6 slices stale bread
Beat the egg slightly, add salt and milk, dip each piece
of bread in the mixture. In a hot frying-pan place some
fat. When it is melted, place the bread in the frying-
pan and brown on both sides. Serve with syrup.
CARAMEL SYRUP
Melt one half cup of sugar in a frying-pan and heat
until it is a brown syrup; add one half cup of boiling
water ; boil until the syrup is as thick as desired. Serve
with the French toast.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is clean milk?
2. Why is it necessary to use clean milk ?
3. What is Pasteurized milk? sterilized milk?
4. Can either of these be purchased in your neighborhood ?
Where?
5. What is the price of milk per quart? What is the price
of one pint of cream ? of one half pint ?
6. Can skim milk be purchased from your dairy man?
Compare the price of this with the price of whole milk.
7. In what ways may skim milk be used ?
8. How should milk be cared for in the home ?
9. What is condensed milk?
10. Does your grocer sell condensed milk? What does it
cost per can? How much does the can contain?
11. Is milk a valuable food? Why?
12. For what food may milk be substituted?
44 FOODS AND COOKERY
CEREALS
Cereals are derived from the seeds or grain of
certain cultivated grasses. The most commonly
used are corn, oats, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat
and rice. From these are made many different
kinds of flour, meal and breakfast foods.
Cereals are very valuable as food because they con-
tain all the foodstuffs. Carbohydrates are found in
the largest amount. Carbohydrates in food are
found mainly in three forms : (1) starch, (2) sugar
and (3) cellulose. Starch and cellulose are the
forms found in cereals.
The grain is made up of cells, the walls of which
are of cellulose, and inside is the starch. Cellu-
lose is not easily digested and is of practically no
value, but it is useful to the body by furnishing
"bulk" which causes the food to pass through the
digestive system in a better and easier way.
Cereals contain, also, large amounts of protein and
mineral matter; therefore they are useful both for
growth and for producing heat and energy.
When the chemist divides a cereal into its parts
he finds 65 to 75 per cent of carbohydrates, 10 to
12 per cent of protein, 2 to 8 per cent of fat, about
2 per cent of mineral matter and 10 to 12 per cent
of water.
Cereals used for breakfast foods may be purchased
at the stores in sealed packages, or in bulk by the
pound. Those in packages are usually the cleaner
but are more expensive.
We can buy ready prepared breakfast foods, such
as cornflakes, puffed cereals and shredded wheat,
or we may purchase the kinds that must be cooked
FOODS AND COOKERY 45
before serving, such as rolled oats and cream of
wheat. The prepared breakfast foods cost more per
pound than those which must be cooked.
Cereals do not keep well and it is not wise to buy
them in large quantities, even though the price may
be lower when bought in that way.
Cereals are cooked for three reasons : (1) to soften
the cellulose, (2) to cause the starch grains to swell
and burst and (3) to make the taste better. In
cooking cereals a fireless cooker may be used.
When cereals are cooked on the stove, always use
a double-boiler. This is to prevent burning.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Make a list of the cereals grown in this region.
Which are the most common ?
Make a list of the prepared cereals that can be
purchased at the grocery.
Make a list of the cereals to be cooked.
What is the cost of rolled oats by the pound when
sold in bulk? What is the cost per box for rolled
oats ? Read the label on the box to find what
amount of oats the box contains. Compare the
price of that in the box and that in bulk.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
BREAKFAST CEREALS
CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES
2 tbsp. cream of wheat | tsp. salt
lj c. water 4 to 6 dates
Heat water to boiling-point, add salt, stir in cream of
wheat gradually. Cook about thirty minutes in double-
46 FOODS AND COOKERY
boiler. When the cooking is about half done, add the
dates, which have been cut into fine pieces.
PREPARED CEREALS
Place cereal on pan and heat in oven until crisp. Serve
with fruit if desired. Milk or cream may be used with a
cereal. Sometimes hot milk is poured over shredded
wheat before serving.
TOAST
Cut slices of bread evenly and of even thickness. Toast
in oven or on toaster until the slices are of an even brown
on both sides, and until the bread is thoroughly dried and
crisp. Toast may be served in this form and then it is
called " dry toast." Butter may be spread on it and
the toast placed in a hot oven until the butter is melted,
when it is known as " buttered toast." " Cinnamon
toast " is made by spreading toast with butter and
sprinkling with sugar and cinnamon, mixed, using three
parts of sugar to one of cinnamon. " Dipped toast " is
made by quickly dipping toasted bread into hot salted
water.
Which kinds would be best to serve for breakfast?
BREAD
In any menu we usually like bread in some form.
Bread is another way of serving cereals, because all
the flours and meals from which bread is made are
prepared from cereals. The cereal used most com-
monly in making bread is wheat. The product
made from wheat and used in bread is called flow.
There are many different brands of wheat flour and
these will make different kinds of bread. The flours
are not alike because they are made from different
kinds of wheat and by different processes. A great
deal of our flour comes from the Northwestern
FOODS AND COOKERY 47
States and is made from wheat sown in the spring
and called hard-wheat flour. Wheat grown in the
Central States is usually sown in the fall and the
flour made from it is called soft-wheat flour. Both
can be used in bread-making.
Flour that is to be used for bread-making should
be creamy in color, rather gritty in feel, and if
pressed in the hand should fall apart when released.
Flour may be purchased by the barrel, by the sack, or
by the pound. It is cheaper when purchased in
quantity, if the housekeeper has a suitable place
for storing a large amount. Flour must be kept in
a clean dry place and in a well covered container.
Whole-wheat flour and Graham flour are types of
wheat flour used for bread-making; these contain
bran (the outer covering of the wheat grain) and other
parts of the grain not found in white flour. These
are valuable in the diet on account of the mineral
matter and vit amines they contain.
The material in flour that is important in bread-
making is the gluten, which is a form of protein
that when mixed with water forms an elastic mass.
It is the gluten that makes it possible to stretch and
pull the dough without its breaking apart.
Yeast is one of the. important materials used when
light bread is made from wheat flour. It is the yeast
that makes 'the dough rise and become light. Yeast,
as it is used in bread, is made up of a large number
of tiny plants, each too small to be seen by the naked
eye. Under a powerful microscope they appear as
little Cell-like plants. When the plants are put into
bread dough they find food material and moisture
in the flour and other ingredients, and begin to grow
and produce more cells. During this growing pro-
48 FOODS AND COOKERY
cess a gas is formed which is called carbon dioxide.
This gas stretches the gluten in the bread dough and
causes the whole mass to rise. Alcohol, also, is
produced during the growth of the yeast plant, but
both the gas and the alcohol pass out of the bread
during baking.
The yeast plant, in order to grow properly, must
have (1) food and (2) moisture, both found in the
dough, and (3) warmth, obtained by keeping the
dough in a warm place. The yeast plant is like all
EQUIPMENT FOB BREAD-MAKING
other plants in that it will be killed if it gets too hot.
A cold temperature does not kill the plants, but they
will not grow when cold.
Yeast may be purchased at the store in dry yeast
cakes or in the form of compressed yeast. In the dry
yeast the plants are mixed with meal, then dried,
and wrapped for sale. The compressed yeast cake
contains growing plants with enough food and
moisture to permit growth for a few days. It
cannot be kept long, however, and usually is pur-
chased fresh for each baking.
FOODS AND COOKERY 49
Liquid yeast is a third form in which yeast is kept,
and is sometimes called " beer yeast " or " starter/'
It contains the active growing plants and, in a cool
place, can be kept for several days.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
YEAST BREAD
Bread is made in two ways : (1) by the " long process ",
in which a sponge is used and this sponge is allowed to
stand, usually overnight, before being made into dough,
and (2) by the " short process ", in which no sponge is
used, but the dough is made at first. The second is the
more modern method, and is popular because it requires
much less time for making bread than the " long process."
" Short-process " bread is most easily made by using
compressed yeast.
RECIPE FOR ONE LOAF OF BREAD
1 c. liquid (milk or water, or the two mixed)
1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. fat
1 tbsp. sugar 3 c. flour (about)
1 compressed yeast cake
The large amount of yeast is used in order that the
bread may be made and baked in two or three hours.
At home, one cake of yeast would do for three or four
loaves of bread.
Place the salt, sugar and fat in a mixing-bowl. Scald
the liquid and pour over the ingredients in the mixing-
bowl. Let stand until lukewarm. While this is cooling,
place the yeast in 2 tbsp. of lukewarm water to soften.
Add this to the lukewarm mixture in the bowl. Stir
thoroughly. Sift flour into the liquid mixture gradually,
stirring thoroughly. As soon as it is possible to knead the
dough without having it stick to the fingers, place it on a
floured bread-board and knead until it is smooth in ap-
pearance and elastic to touch. Clean out the mixing-
50 FOODS AND COOKERY
bowl, grease, place dough in bowl. Cover with a lid.
Set mixing-bowl in a dishpan half full of lukewarm water ;
put in a warm, but not hot, place. If bread is made in hot
weather the mixing-bowl need not be placed in the water.
Bread dough kept at 80 to 86 F. rises best. Use a ther-
mometer to test the dough. Experienced bread-makers
can tell by the " feel " of the dough whether it is warm
enough.
When the dough has doubled in size, knead again, add-
ing no flour except what is needed on the board to keep
the dough from sticking.
Shape into a loaf and
place in a well greased
bread-pan. Grease the
pan by using a piece of
oil paper on which has
been placed a little fat,
or use a brush made for
the purpose. Cover the
pan and set where the
proper temperature for
rising may be maintained.
When the loaf is doubled
in size, place in an oven
heated to 400 to 425 F.
Gradually lower the tem-
perature to 380 F. Use
BREAD-MIXER ,-,
an oven thermometer.
The loaves should be turned around in the oven once or
twice during the first few minutes of baking, so that the
shape of the loaf will be good. No brown crust should
form on the bread until after the first ten or fifteen minutes.
Bake one hour.
Remove bread from pan and place it, uncovered, on a
bread-rack to cool ; or place loaf against pan in such a
way that no side touches a flat surface.
FOODS AND COOKERY 51
OTHER WORK WITH BREAD
While bread is baking, score it, using the score card
given in the next section.
A lesson in kneading bread might be given, using one
large portion of dough which may be prepared before the
class assembles.
If there is a bread-mixer in the equipment, examine
it. Perhaps there will be dough set to rise in it before
the class begins, so that the kneading may be done by the
class.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What kinds of wheat flour are used for bread-making?
2. State the necessary qualities of white flour that is good
to use for bread-making.
3. How is bread flour purchased? What is the price of
one pound of flour in bulk? of a 25-lb. sack? of a 50-lb. sack?
4. What is gluten? How is it valuable in bread-making?
5. What is yeast ?
6. In what forms do we have yeast for bread-making?
7. How does yeast make dough rise ?
8. Would yeast grow if placed in water alone ? Why?
9. What effect does a hot temperature have on yeast? a
cold temperature ? When does this have a great deal to do with
bread-making ?
10. From what section of the country does a great deal of
flour come?
BREAD (Continued)
Bread should be thoroughly baked, because during
the baking process the yeast plant and other bacteria
present are killed, and other changes also take place
that make the bread more easily digested. It is
better to bake one loaf in a pan instead of two or
three or four loaves together in a larger pan.
Bread that is well baked is an even golden brown
all over ; and when the bread is twenty-four hours old
the crumb from the middle of the loaf will crumble
52 FOODS AND COOKERY
and not form "dough-balls" when rubbed between
the fingers. Bread that has just been baked is hard
to digest because it forms a pasty mass in the mouth
and is not chewed so thoroughly as it should be.
It is better for use after standing twenty-four hours.
Bread should be kept in a metal container rather
than in a wooden or earthenware jar. The con-
tainer should be washed and scalded often with boil-
ing water, and may be placed in the sun to dry
thoroughly. Scalding water and sunshine will kill
any bacteria that may be in the box which would
GOOD LOAVES OF BREAD
cause the bread to spoil. Bread should not be
wrapped in a cloth while warm because this is apt
to spoil the flavor.
A great deal of baker's bread is now used, and in
almost any locality good bread of this kind can be
obtained. The large modern bakeries make good
clean bread. When we buy bread from the store it
is well to know whence it comes and to find out
if it has been properly made and cared for. A
great deal of bread is wrapped in paper before it
leaves the bakery and this is usually the cleanest
bread that can be bought, as all dust, flies, dirty
hands and dirty clothes have been kept away from it.
FOODS AND COOKERY 53
A slice of baker's bread usually does not contain
so much food value as a slice of home-made bread
of the same size, because it does not weigh so much
and therefore contains less flour and probably less
milk and fat.
A girl should know how to make good bread, even
though the bread used in her home is bought from
the baker. The United States government considers
bread-making such an important thing for a girl to
know that the Department of Agriculture has
organized bread clubs in all sections of the country.
The girls who belong to these clubs learn to make
bread by doing it many times and then entering a
loaf to be judged in a contest with other girls. To
decide just how well she has learned to do the work,
the judge uses the Standard Score Card for Bread
that has been adopted by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
SCORE CARD 1
1. General appearance :
Shape 5
Smoothness of crust 5
Depth and evenness of color 5
2. Lightness 10
3. Crust:
Thickness 5
Quality (crispness and elasticity) 5
Color 10
4. Crumb :
Texture (size and uniformity of cells, thickness of cell
walls) 15
Elasticity (softness and springiness) 15
5. Flavor (taste and odor) 25
Total 100
1 From Farmers' Bulletin 807, " Bread and Bread-making in
the Home", U. S. Department of Agriculture.
54 FOODS AND COOKERY
One of the favorite ways of preparing light bread
for breakfast is to make it into toast. Toast is
easier to digest than white bread, when it is properly
made, because there are certain changes that take
place in the starch during the toasting. In making
dry toast, the slice should be dried out and evenly
browned on both sides.
BREAD-PANS, BREAD-STICK PANS AND BAKING-SHEET
All clean scraps of bread and toast should be
dried and made into crumbs; these can be used in
many ways.
Waffles, batter cakes, muffins, popovers and
biscuits may be substituted for yeast bread in the
breakfast plan.
In some parts of the United States hot breads are
used at every meal, and most of the breads used
are quick breads. Quick breads are made to rise
in a different way from yeast breads. We will
study in another lesson the methods used.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
KOLLS AND BATTER CAKES
Experiment : Mix 1 tbsp. flour, 1 tbsp. sugar, f cake com-
pressed yeast, 5 tbsp. cold water to a smooth paste.
FOODS AND COOKERY 55
Divide into three parts, place each in a tumbler and
label 1, 2 and 3.
(a) Fill No. 1 with boiling water, place glass in bowl
of boiling water, let stand in a hot place fifteen minutes.
(6) Half fill No. 2 with lukewarm ^water, let it stand
fifteen minutes in a temperature of 80 to 90 F.
(c) Fill No. 3 with cold water, place it in a bowl of
cracked ice, or outside the window if the weather is
freezing, for fifteen minutes.
Observe the foam on top of each glass the more
foam the more active is the yeast.
Which has produced the most foam? What causes
the foam? What does this teach about the tempera-
ture for bread-making ?
(d) Place i yeast cake in 2 tbsp. water. Let it stand
fifteen minutes. Has any foam come to the top ? Why ?
(e) Let No. 3 stand in a temperature of 80 to 90 F.
for one hour. Has any change occurred in contents of
glass? Why?
(/) Remove No. 1 from bowl of boiling water, let it
stand in a lukewarm place for one hour. Has any
change occurred in contents of glass? Why?
PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
1 c. scalded milk | tsp. salt
1 tbsp. butter \ yeast cake dissolved in J c.
1 tbsp. sugar lukewarm water
3 c. flour (about)
Pour scalded milk over salt, butter and sugar. When
mixture is lukewarm, add yeast and one half the flour.
Beat until smooth ; cover, and let rise. Stir in flour until
dough is stiff enough to handle. Knead until smooth
and elastic. Let rise again, then turn out on bread-board,
roll and pat the mixture until it is one third inch in thick-
ness. Cut with biscuit-cutter. With the handle of a
knife which has been dipped in flour, make a crease through
the middle of each piece. Brush over each piece with
56 FOODS AND COOKERY
butter ; fold, and press edges together. Place in greased
pan, one inch apart, cover and let rise. Bake fifteen to
twenty minutes in a hot oven.
The long process for bread-making is used in making
these rolls. In what other ways may bread dough be
used? Perhaps the class can bring some good recipes
from home.
BATTER CAKES
f c. milk | tsp. salt
1 egg 2 tsp. baking powder
1 tbsp. melted butter 1 c. flour (about)
Add the well beaten egg to the milk. Mix together the
dry ingredients. Sift slowly into egg and milk mixture,
beating thoroughly. Drop by spoonfuls on a hot greased
griddle. Cook on one side until top is puffed and full of
bubbles and edges are crisp. Turn with a spatula or
pancake-turner, and cook on the other side. Serve im-
mediately on warmed plates.
Batter cakes are also known as griddlecakes.
Of what material are griddles made? What do they
cost ? How should they be cared for ?
Perhaps some of the class will make waffles instead of
the batter cakes. Some one will have a good recipe, or
one may be found in the cook book.
EGGS
Hen, duck, goose, turkey and guinea-fowl eggs
are used for food in this country. The hen's egg is
the one most commonly found in the market. Per-
haps the members of this class who live in the
country have used some other kinds of eggs.
The egg has in it food for the baby chick and
for that reason contains all the foodstuffs required
for its growth. When the chemist divides the egg
FOODS AND COOKERY 57
into its parts he finds about 12 per cent of protein,
about 9 per cent of fat and, in addition, water and
mineral matter. Eggs may replace meat in the diet
because they contain a large amount of protein,
which is easily digested and used in the body.
When buying eggs in the market it is often difficult
to get them fresh. A fresh egg need not be newly
laid, but must be in good condition for human food,
although it may be several days old. Eggs that
have been treated or stored are not fresh eggs.
Eggs cannot be kept in good condition for a long
period unless some method of preserving them is
used. The shell of the egg is porous and allows
bacteria from the air to pass through, thereby causing
the egg to spoil. The home methods found to be
best for preserving eggs are by the use of water glass
or lime water. These materials may be purchased
from the druggist and should be combined with clean
boiled water. After the eggs are placed in the
liquid, the container should be kept in a cool place.
Eggs that are laid in April, May, or June are the
best for preservation, and are also lower in price
than at any other season. Large numbers of eggs
are put in cold storage every year and these are the
eggs that are sold during the winter as "storage" or
"packed" eggs.
Eggs are usually sold by the dozen, but as they
vary greatly in size and weight, it would be better
if they were sold by weight.
Eggs that are "soft-cooked ", at a temperature
below that of boiling water, are most easily and
quickly digested. " Hard-cooked " or hard-boiled
eggs are thoroughly digested when not eaten hur-
riedly.
58 FOODS AND COOKERY
Eggs are very good for children, and are among the
first foods added to the milk diet of the small child.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
EGGS FOR BREAKFAST
SOFT-COOKED EGGS
Never cook an egg at boiling temperature, as this makes
the white tough. Place one egg in a pint of boiling water
in the top part of the double-boiler. Place boiling water
in lower part of double-boiler. Remove from fire and set
in warm place. Cook for the length of time desired
five minutes for a soft-cooked egg, seven to ten for a
medium-cooked egg. If the eggs have come out of the
refrigerator and are very cold it will require a longer time
to cook them.
How shall soft-cooked eggs be served for breakfast?
HARD-COOKED EGGS
Place one egg in a pint of boiling water, remove from fire,
cover tightly ; set in a warm place forty-five minutes to
one hour. Using a double-boiler for this is a good method.
Place one egg in a pint of boiling water. Boil for
twenty minutes.
When the two eggs are done, examine the whites.
Which is the more tender?
What are some of the ways in which to use hard-cooked
eggs?
POACHED EGGS
Have a frying-pan two thirds full of water at simmering
point, to which salt has been added. In this may be
placed muffin rings if they are available. Break each egg
separately, pour carefully into muffin ring or water. Do
not allow the water to boil. When the egg-white is firm,
remove eggs from water, using a pancake-turner. Place
each egg on a piece of buttered toast arranged on a warmed
platter.
FOODS AND COOKERY
59
SCRAMBLED EGGS
3 eggs
c. milk
1 tsp. pepper
1 tbsp. butter
TS"
| tsp. salt
Beat eggs slightly, add milk and seasoning. Melt
butter in top of double-boiler, turn in mixture and cook
very slowly, stirring often until white is set. Serve on
warmed platter. Bits of chopped ham or other meat may
be added if desired.
PUFFY OMELET
4 eggs
2 tbsp. milk
1 tsp. salt
Pepper
Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the
yolks of the eggs until " creamy " and add the milk, salt
and pepper. Beat the whites until they are stiff. Pour
the yolks over the
whites and fold to-
gether carefully. Place
in a frying-pan one
tablespoon of butter.
When it is melted pour
in the omelet. Cook
on top of the stove
until the omelet is
slightly browned on
the bottom. Set in
oven and bake slowly
until omelet is " set "
and browned on
the top. Have ready
a warmed platter.
Loosen the omelet
from the pan with a spatula. Slide it half-way from the
pan to the platter and then fold the half of the omelet in
the frying-pan over the half on the platter. Serve.
Grated cheese, minced ham, or chopped parsley may
FOLDING THE OMELET AS IT COMES FROM
THE PAN
60 FOODS AND COOKERY
be sprinkled over the omelet before it is folded, in order
to vary the flavor.
An omelet-pan may be used in place of the regular
frying-pan in making the omelet.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What kinds of eggs are used for food in this country?
2. What foodstuffs does an egg contain ?
3. What food may eggs replace in a meal ? Why?
4. What other food have we studied which is similar in food
value to eggs ?
5. What is a fresh egg? a packed egg?
6. Have you ever seen eggs being packed at home for winter
use ? How was it done ?
7. What is the price per dozen for packed eggs? for fresh
8. Weigh three small eggs, then weigh three large eggs.
What is the difference in weight per dozen? What does this
prove about purchasing eggs by count or by weight ?
THE DINING ROOM
The dining room should be a light, cheerful room,
situated so that the sunlight reaches it at some time
every day, preferably in the morning. This room
should be large enough to permit easy passing behind
the chairs when persons are seated around the table.
The walls should be finished in light colors rather
than dark, which tend to make the room appear
gloomy. The window curtains should be of a kind
easily laundered, since draperies in a dining room are
apt to hold dirt and odors and need frequent cleaning.
The floor is best made of hard wood, as a rug may
then be used instead of a carpet. A dining-room
floor would be more sanitary if no covering were used,
but the noise made by using a bare floor is annoying
to many persons.
FOODS AND COOKERY 61
The furniture should be plain in design. Wood or
cane-seated chairs are perhaps better to use than
upholstered, because they are easier to keep clean.
A dining-table with a top having a waxed finish is
much better than one highly varnished. The top of
the sideboard and serving-table should not be crowded
with dishes of various kinds. A dining room is more
pleasing with few pictures, or none at all, and with
little bric-a-brac or few dishes used as decoration.
When buying a, "set" of dishes it is best to select a
style with simple decoration or without decoration.
Large conspicuous designs and bright colors become
tiresome when the dishes are used often. A good
quality of china with no decoration is a wise choice
for a "set ", because any type of decorated dish looks
well with it.
Silver knives and forks should be of the same
pattern, but the spoons may be of different design.
Silver never looks well unless it is kept polished.
White linen tablecloths and napkins are better to
buy than cotton, because linen wears longer and
launders much better than cotton. Luncheon sets
of various types may be used instead of a tablecloth,
and are much easier to launder.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Collect pictures of dining-room furniture ; of the
interior of dining rooms. Bring them to class for
discussion. Perhaps, if there is a furniture dealer
in the community, you or the teacher can get furni-
ture catalogues that will be good to study.
Which types of chairs are best for the dining room ?
Why ? Do the chairs in the pictures seem too heavy
62 FOODS AND COOKERY
to move about easily? Are they well braced?
Observe whether they would be hard to dust.
What types of tables are best for the dining room ?
Why?
- Which type of sideboard is best ?
For what purpose is a side-table used? What is
a buffet?
See if you can find samples of the kind of cur-
tain material you think would be good for a dining
room.
If your teacher has a sample-book of wall paper,
find a sample of the colors you would like to have
on the walls of your dining room.
What kind of floor-covering would you like?
You may like to mount on sheets of paper pictures
of the furniture you would select to use in your
dining room ; if you have a sample of curtain
material, rug and wall paper that you like, you can
mount these. Then make a floor-plan of your room,
showing the size of the room, the windows, the
doors, and where the china closet is placed. Arrange
the furniture in the room. On another sheet make
a list of the prices of all the furnishings in the dining
room. What is the total cost of furnishing? Tie
these sheets together and make a cover for them.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MEAT DISHES FOR BREAKFAST
BROILED BACON
Place in a hot frying-pan thin slices of bacon from
which the rind has been removed. Turn several times
during the cooking. When the bacon is crisp, not burned,
drain from the fat carefully and serve on a warmed
platter.
FOODS AND COOKERY 63
Bacon may be purchased by the piece, sliced in bulk, or
sliced and packed in sealed containers. In which form is
bacon the cheapest by the pound? Why?
CREAMED DRIED BEEF
Place two tablespoons of fat in a small frying-pan ; when
it is melted, add about three slices of dried beef torn in
pieces. Stir about three minutes, add one cup of milk.
Mix thoroughly one tablespoon of flour with two table-
spoons of milk; add slowly to the scalding hot milk.
Stir to prevent lumping. Cook slowly five to ten minutes.
Serve on toast arranged on a warmed platter.
In making this white sauce, why is the flour mixed with
milk instead of with fat ?
How is dried beef made? Perhaps the butcher will
tell you. What does it cost per pound ?
What are some other meat dishes that would be good
for breakfast? If you have time, try one of these.
TABLE MANNERS
No matter how educated or pleasing in character
one may be, the impression made upon others is not
good if one's manners are poor.
Certain rules for table behavior or manners have
been adopted because they make the eating of the
meal easier and more graceful, and the serving of it
more convenient.
The following are a few rules that should be
observed always when at the dining-table :
1. Never go to the table unless hands and face
are clean and the hair is in order.
2. Stand behind your chair until the hostess takes
her seat.
3. The napkin should be laid across the lap with-
out being entirely opened out. Never stick the
64 FOODS AND COOKERY
corner inside the collar. If the napkin is to be
used again, fold it neatly before leaving the table.
4. The knife should be held in the right hand and
the fork in the left when they are used at the same
time. Hold the knife and fork so that the end of the
handle touches the palm of the hand. The point of
the index-finger is on the top of the handle of the fork
at the lower end, but not on the tines. The knife
must be laid on the plate when not in use. Both
knife and fork should be placed side by side on the
plate when one has
finished using them
at the end of a
course. The fork,
when being used to
carry food to the
mouth, may be held
in either hand, and
may be held in much
the same position
as when used with
the knife, or like a
PROPER WAY TO HOLD KNIFE AND FORK
spoon.
5. The spoon should be held in the right hand, and
such food as soup, tea, or coffee should be taken
from the side of the spoon. A spoon used for stirring
tea or coffee should be laid on the saucer after use
and before drinking from the cup.
6. Always sit erect in the chair while eating.
Keep the arms and elbows off the table.
7. Never eat hurriedly.
8. Do not talk when the mouth is full of food.
9. Ask politely for dishes to be passed, rather than
reach across the table.
FOODS AND COOKERY 65
10. Never complain about the food. If it is not
the kind desired, it need not be eaten.
11. If it is necessary to leave the table before the
others are ready, ask to be excused by the hostess.
12. Do not talk about disagreeable things during
the meal.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
The following breakfast will be served during the
next laboratory period :
Orange Toast
Oatmeal Cocoa
Make a list of the dishes and silver that will be
needed in setting the table and serving the meal.
Decide how much of each food will be required
for serving the number who are to eat the meal.
Decide the order of work for preparation of the
meal, that is, which food must be put on to cook
first, which second, etc.
What will the food cost for each person?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A BREAKFAST
Setting the table : Place the table-pad or silence-cloth on
the table. Over this lay the cloth, arranged straight
and smooth. If a center doily is used, place this in
the middle of the table. Doilies and table-runners may
be used, instead of a tablecloth, for breakfast, luncheon
and supper. Asbestos pads should be placed under all
hot dishes when doilies or runners are used on a polished
table.
A cover means the space with the silver, glass and
china allowed for each person. Enough space must be
66
FOODS AND COOKERY
allowed so that no one is crowded. Twenty-two inches
is the least space that should be used.
At the center of each cover place a plate, the kind de-
pending on the meal that is served. For breakfast it
will probably be the fruit-plate. At the right of the
plate place the knife, with its sharp edge toward the
plate and the end of the handle about one inch from
the edge of the table. Next to the knife place the
spoons, with the bowls up.
At the left of the plate, place the fork or forks with
the tines up and the end of the handle about one inch
\ ^ 5
ARRANGEMENT OF "COVER" FOR DINNER
1, Napkin; 2, Salad Fork; 3, Dinner Fork; 4, Dinner Plate;
5, Dinner Knife ; 6, Soup Spoon ; 7, Dessert or Sauce Spoon ;
8, Coffee Spoon ; 9, Butter Plate ; 10, Water Glass.
from the edge of the table. To the left of the fork lay
the neatly folded napkin.
At the end of the knife, place the glass, right side up.
At the end of the forks, place the bread-and-butter plate.
When flowers are used they should be low, or not high
enough to obstruct the view across the table.
The dishes from which foods are to be served should
be placed conveniently for those doing the serving.
Place the serving-spoons and the carving-knife and fork
where they will be needed, but do not place them in the
dishes before beginning the serving.
FOODS AND COOKERY 67
Cups and saucers, sugar-bowl and cream-pitcher,
should be placed in front of the hostess, with the coffee-
pot or teapot at her right.
The table should never look crowded with dishes.
When the hostess is serving the meal, a tea-cart at
her side may be used for holding dessert-dish, bread-
plate, water-pitcher, etc.
Place the chairs so that the edge of the seat just
touches the tablecloth, but does not keep it from hang-
ing straight.
STYLE OF SERVING
There are three methods of serving meals :
1. English, used in ordinary family service.
Foods are served at the table by the host and hostess
and other members of the family. The served
dishes may be passed by the household helper, or
passed from one person to another at the table. The
hostess usually serves the soup, salad and dessert;
the host serves the meat and vegetables. This is
the style of serving used in most American homes.
2. Russian, used for very formal meals. Each
plate is served in the kitchen and placed in front of
the guest by the household helpers; or the empty
plates are placed before each guest and the serving-
dishes are passed to each person by the household
helper. No serving-dishes are placed on the table.
This form of service is not practical for the ordinary
family, because it requires more work than the
English service.
3. Combination, used for informal meals. This is
a combination of the two other styles. For example,
the soup or salad is served in the kitchen, and the
meat and vegetables are served at the table.
68 FOODS AND COOKERY
Every hostess may follow her own ideas about serv-
ing, as far as details are concerned, but a few general
rules should be followed.
1. Serving-dishes from which the guest is to serve
himself must be passed to the left of the guest.
Why?
2. Plates that have been served are placed in front
of the guest from the right side. Why?
SERVING-DISH PASSED TO THE LEFT
3. Used plates are removed from the right side
when it is possible to do it conveniently.
4. When removing dishes between the courses,
use the following order : remove the used dishes,
then the dishes containing food, next the clean
dishes and silver that will not be needed further,
then the crumbs from the cloth (if necessary). A
table never looks attractive when dirty dishes from
FOODS AND COOKERY 69
one course remain during the next course, and even
at the most informal meals it is better to remove
dishes between courses. This work may be done
by the daughter. When the family is very small,
sometimes the dirty dishes are placed on a side-table
or tea-cart, from which the dessert is taken, thereby
saving the housekeeper steps in serving.
5. In removing dishes from the table, when
serving an informal meal, they may be placed on
a hand-tray for carrying to the kitchen. Never
" stack" dishes at the table or for removing from
the table.
Set the table for breakfast. Practice serving.
If no dining-room furniture is available, the supply-
table may be used. Perhaps dishes to use in setting the
table may be borrowed until the school can get such equip-
ment. If no other way is possible, let every member of
the class arrange a cover at the laboratory desk, using
laboratory dishes. This is never a desirable plan, how-
ever, because the equipment does not supply the best
type of dishes nor the proper kind.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A BREAKFAST
Suggested Menu : Orange Toast
Oatmeal Cocoa
Discuss order of work.
Discuss equipment needed.
Discuss china and silver needed.
Would this type of breakfast suit every family? Why?
Review recipes.
Cook and serve meal.
Several lessons might be given on serving breakfasts.
70 FOODS AND COOKERY
THE PLAN FOR SUPPER OR LUNCHEON
In some families the meal served at noon is called
luncheon and is followed by dinner in the evening ;
in others, dinner is the meal served at noon, fol-
lowed by supper in the evening. Luncheon and
supper are simpler meals than dinner.
The plan varies greatly under different conditions,
but the usual types of food served are meat or meat-
substitute dishes, salads, vegetables, bread in some
form and perhaps a simple dessert or cake. " Quick
breads" are often used for luncheon or supper.
Many consider a cream soup, a vegetable salad,
bread, stewed fruit and cookies a good combination
for such a meal, while other families prefer a meat
dish, a hot vegetable, and bread ; still others may
consider bread and milk a satisfactory menu. No
family needs, in one meal, foods of all the types sug-
gested.
Luncheon or supper is a meal for which it is con-
venient to use the " left-overs " in various ways. Bits
of meat may be combined with other foods to make
attractive dishes. Small portions of vegetables may
be made into salads or soups, or combined with meat.
Sometimes a salad is made of left-over fruit, and used
at the end of the meal in place of a dessert.
Some housekeepers are very wasteful in throwing
into the garbage-can small bits of clean food that
may be left from a meal. Often persons object to
" left-overs", but this is usually the case when the
housekeeper has not learned how to make them into
dishes which are well flavored and pleasing hi ap-
pearance.
When bits of meat are left from a meal they should
FOODS AND COOKERY 71
be put in a covered container and placed in the ice-
box or some other cool place. Vegetables with a
strong flavor should be covered if put in the ice-
box. All "left-over" food should be used promptly
and not left to spoil.
The cost of food should be considered, and if any-
thing can be saved by careful watching and planning
it is a part of the housekeeper's business to do this.
There are several ways of reducing the amount of
money to be spent for food : (1) buy the foods that
are in season ; (2) buy those which contain the great-
est food value, these are not always the highest
priced ; (3) buy in quantity any foods that can be
properly stored ; (4) prepare and cook carefully, so
that nothing shall be wasted; (5) save every part
of the food that is fit for use.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CREAM SOUPS
CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP
Make one cup of No. 1 White Sauce. Strain cooked
tomatoes through a wire sieve, using one half cup of juice.
Place tomato- juice in saucepan, heat, add one sixteenth
teaspoon soda. Add the heated tomato-juice to the white
sauce. Re-heat and serve in warmed soup-plates.
Try mixing one tablespoon tomato-juice and one table-
spoon of milk, and see what happens. The soda prevents
this action, which is the curdling of the milk.
CREAM OF CORN SOUP
c. stewed or canned corn 1 tsp. flour
1 c. milk 1 tbsp. butter
Make a white sauce of the milk, butter and flour. Less
flour is needed for thickening, because the corn will help
thicken the soup.
72
FOODS AND COOKERY
Heat the corn and press through the vegetable-ricer.
Add corn to the white sauce. Re-heat. If desired, a
spoonful of whipped cream may be placed hi each soup-
plate and the soup poured over it.
TO SERVE WITH SOUPS
Soup-sticks. Butter slices of bread. Cut into strips.
Brown them slowly in the oven.
Croutons. Cut but-
tered slices of bread into
cubes. Brown in oven.
Wafers. Heat salted
wafers in oven until
crisp.
Parsley. Chopped
parsley is sometimes
sprinkled over the top
of cream soups as a
garnish.
Celery. Crisp celery
is always good to serve
with soups.
If possible, bring from
home other recipes for
cream soups.
CORRECT METHOD OF HOLDING SOUP OR
BOUILLON SPOON
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the foods usually served for luncheon or supper?
Should all of these be served in the same meal ?
2. What are "left-overs"? How may they be used?
3. How should "left-overs" be cared for?
4. Why do some persons object to "left-overs"?
5. How may the housekeeper reduce the amount of money
spent for food ?
6. Name some foods that are "out of season" at the present
time. Why are they expensive ?
7. State ways in which food is wasted in cooking.
8. When should soda be added to tomato soup? Why?
9. Are cream soups of much food value ? Why?
FOODS AND COOKERY 73
10. Name some foods that should not be served when cream
soups are used in the meal plan. Explain.
11. Make several supper or luncheon plans.
MEAT SUBSTITUTES
Such foods as cheese, milk, poultry, nuts, dried
peas, beans, lentils, cowpeas and soy beans are some-
times used in the diet in the place of meat, and are
commonly called meat substitutes.
In the United States, people eat more meat per
person than in any other country, and more than is
necessary. This is because the flavor of meat is very
much liked, because meat is easily cooked, and be-
cause it is popularly believed to be necessary for the
best muscular work. It has been found, however,
that meat may be replaced, for a part of the time at
least, by other foods that contain a large amount of
protein, without injury to the body and without loss
in muscular strength. If meat is high in price it
is well to remember this fact when planning meals.
Cheese is a product made from milk. When
divided into its parts by the chemist, cheese is found
to contain about one third water, one third fat and
one third protein. Cheese is usually divided into two
classes : (1) hard cheese, such as American Cheddar
cheese, Edam and Roquefort, and (2) soft cheese,
such as Neufchatel, Camembert and cottage cheese.
The cheese most commonly found in the market is
American Cheddar cheese, sometimes called " Ameri-
can cheese" or "New York cream cheese." The
States making the most cheese are New York and
Wisconsin. Much of our cheese comes from foreign
countries, as for example, Edam cheese from Hol-
land, and Neufchatel from France.
74 FOODS AND COOKERY
Cottage cheese is often made at home when there
is an extra supply of milk; or skim milk may be
used.
American cheese is usually purchased by the pound.
A large family may find, however, that purchasing a
whole cheese is a better plan, as the cost will be less.
Cheese that is to be kept for several days after it has
been cut should be placed on a plate and left un-
covered in a dry clean place, or it may be covered
with a cloth.
Some persons consider cheese hard to digest, and
this may be so when it is eaten too hurriedly, or eaten
after a meal at which enough food has already been
eaten. When ground or grated cheese is combined
with other foods, it is well digested by most persons.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CHEESE
If there are several kinds of cheese sold in the local
market it would be interesting to have a sample of each
type in the laboratory for examination. Observe the
texture and flavor. What is the price of each kind ?
CHEESE SOUFFLE
I c. No. 4 White Sauce 3 eggs
I c. grated cheese Few grains cayenne
Add the cheese and cayenne to the hot white sauce.
Beat the yolks of the eggs until they are thick and lemon
colored ; pour slowly over these the white sauce. Mix
carefully. Let stand until cool. Beat the whites of
the eggs very stiff. When white-sauce mixture is cool,
fold in the stiffly beaten egg-whites. Turn into a buttered
baking-dish, set the dish in a pan of warm water and bake
in a moderate oven until firm. Serve at once. The
baking-dish may be placed in a holder made for the purpose,
FOODS AND COOKERY 75
or it may be wrapped with a napkin before being placed
on the table.
CHEESE STRATA
In the bottom of a buttered baking-dish place thin
slices of bread, over this pour hot No. 3 White Sauce, on
this a layer of grated cheese, then layers of bread, of white
sauce, and more cheese, until the dish is filled. Cover the
top with buttered bread crumbs. Bake in a slow oven
about thirty minutes. Serve in baking-dish.
WELSH RAREBIT
| lb. grated cheese 1 egg
c. cream or milk 2 tsp. butter
tsp. mustard Few grains cayenne
% tsp. salt Toast
Place the cheese, mixed with the cream or milk, in top
part of double-boiler and heat until the cheese is melted.
Then add the beaten egg, to which the mustard, salt and
cayenne have been added ; then add the butter. Cook
until it thickens, stirring constantly. Pour over toast.
Welsh rarebit is often made in the chafing-dish.
BREAD CRUMBS
All crusts and pieces of bread should be saved for bread
crumbs. Dry them in a slow oven. Put through a food-
grinder, or crush by placing on a bread-board and using a
rolling-pin. Store the crumbs in open jars, never in
tightly closed containers. If the crumbs are to be kept
for several weeks or months, a cloth should be tied over
the top of the container.
Buttered bread crumbs, to be used on the top of escal-
loped dishes, are prepared as follows :
1 c. bread crumbs 2 tbsp. butter
Salt and pepper, if desired
Melt the butter in a frying-pan. Add the crumbs with
which the seasonings have been mixed. Stir until the
butter is thoroughly mixed with the crumbs.
76 FOODS AND COOKERY
Other cheese dishes may be made if desired.
The class may be divided into groups and each group
make one recipe, the others copying the recipe. When
family-size recipes are used, perhaps some of the products
may be sold, either to individuals or in the lunch-room if
there is one.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the meat substitutes.
2. Why are they called meat substitutes?
3. From what is cheese made?
4. What does the chemist find that cheese contains?
5. Into what two classes is cheese divided ?
6. Name some examples of each class.
7. Which is the most commonly used cheese ?
8. How is cottage cheese made ?
9. Find out, if you can, how American Cheddar cheese is
made.
10. How is cheese kept in the grocery?
11. What is the price per pound of American Cheddar cheese ?
12. How should cheese be kept in the home ?
13. Make a luncheon or supper plan in which each of the
cheese dishes made in the laboratory might be served.
MEAT SUBSTITUTES (Continued)
NUTS
Nuts in general contain a large amount of fat and
protein and may sometimes be substituted for meat
in the diet. They may be used in their natural form,
or they may be ground and combined with other foods.
Peanuts are often used for making " peanut
butter", which is a very valuable food.
English walnuts, almonds and peanuts are the
varieties of nuts most used. These are cultivated
nuts, grown in the Southern States and California.
Black walnuts, hazel nuts, hickory nuts, pecans and
chestnuts grow wild in some parts of the United States.
FOODS AND COOKERY 77
Nuts should not be eaten at the end of a meal when
one has already taken the food needed. Nuts may
be hard to digest when eaten at this time, or when
they are not chewed thoroughly.
DRIED LEGUMES
Peas, beans, lentils, soy beans and cowpeas belong
to the class of vegetable foods called legumes. They
contain a large amount of protein, fat, carbohydrate
and mineral matter.
Dried beans, peas and lentils are foods used es-
pecially in winter. When serving them it is not
necessary to use meat at the same meal. Cowpeas
and soy beans, while not so common, are used in the
same way as beans, peas and lentils.
Legumes may be baked, boiled or combined in
some way with other foods. Dried legumes require
long periods for cooking. A fireless cooker is very
useful when cooking legumes, or the pressure-cooker
can be used and the time required much shortened.
Dried legumes must be thoroughly cooked to make
them good for food, since the cellulose in them is
tough. They are often soaked in water for several
hours before cooking.
Dried legumes are usually purchased by the pound.
Buying in quantity makes the cost less.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
DRIED LEGUMES
Examine samples of beans, dried peas, split peas, lentils,
soy beans and cowpeas. Compare the price by the pound.
Which of these may be purchased at groceries in the
neighborhood? Try the seed-store for cowpeas and soy
beans.
78 FOODS AND COOKERY
BAKED BEANS
1 qt. white beans 1 tsp. mustard
1 tsp. soda \ c. molasses
\ Ib. salt pork Salt, if needed
1 small onion, if desired
Cayenne, if desired
Pick over, wash and soak beans in cold water over-
night. Pour off any water remaining. Put in kettle,
cover with water, add soda and boil gently until the beans
are slightly softened. This boiling is sometimes called
__, " parboiling." Drain again.
Put the beans into the bean-
pot. Cut the pork into slices,
but do not remove from the
rind ; press down into the beans
with rind up. Place sliced
onion on top. Mix the mo
lasses, mustard, salt and cay-
enne with one pint of boiling
water and pour over beans. If
liquid does not show on the sur-
A BEAN-POT USED FOB - -. -. , .,.
BAKING BEANS face > add more boiling water.
Cover pot. Bake in slow oven
six to eight hours. Uncover during the last hour, so that
the beans will brown on top. A fireless cooker or oven
may be used for baking beans.
NUT AND CHEESE LOAF
1 c. cottage cheese \ tsp. pepper
1 c. nut meats 1 tsp. salt
1 c. bread crumbs 2 tbsp. chopped onion
Juice of \ lemon 1 tbsp. fat
\ c. water or meat stock
Grind the nuts; mix the cheese, nuts, salt, pepper,
crumbs and lemon juice. Cook the onion with the fat
and water, or with the meat stock, until it is tender;
add to other ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Pour into
FOODS AND COOKERY 79
greased baking-dish. Bake about twenty minutes. Serve
with tomato sauce.
TOMATO SAUCE
1 c. tomato- juice
2 tbsp. flour
Salt and pepper
1 tbsp. fat
1 slice onion
Boil the onion in the tomato-juice for three minutes.
Remove the onion. Continue as for any white sauce.
PEA SANDWICHES
\ c. pea pulp
1 tbsp. chopped nuts
1 tbsp. grated cheese
Lemon juice
Press canned peas through the vegetable-ricer. Measure
the pulp, add the cheese, chopped nuts and enough lemon
juice to make the right
consistency for sandwich
filling. Spread between
thin slices of bread.
Plan a meal in which
such sandwiches would be
suitable to serve.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What foodstuffs are
found in large amounts in
nuts?
2. Which are the nuts com-
monly used in this locality ?
3. What is the price per
pound of peanuts? English
walnuts ?
4. Is it more expensive to
buy them shelled?
5. How many pounds of peanuts in the shell does it take to
make one pound of shelled nuts ?
6. How is peanut butter made ?
7. What are the commonly used dried legumes?
FOOD-GRINDER
Used for grinding meat, vegetables,
nuts, cheese, bread and other foods.
80 FOODS AND COOKERY
8. What foodstuffs do they contain ?
9. Why are they called meat substitutes ?
10. Why are dried legumes soaked in water?
11. How should dried legumes be cooked?
SALADS
Salads may be made from vegetables, fruits, or
meats ; or they may be a combination of vegetables
and fruits, or of meats and vegetables to which has
been added some kind of dressing and perhaps small
amounts of other materials to give flavor.
Salad dressings are of three types : mayonnaise,
French and cooked dressing, and each type may be
varied, making many kinds.
Lettuce is used in the making of many salads, often
only as a " garnish" which is used to make a dish
more attractive. Lettuce always should be clean,
crisp and cold when used for a salad. Celery tops,
endive, nasturtium leaves, water cress and other gar-
nishes are sometimes used for salad.
Salad oil is one of the materials used in some
dressings. Salad oil may be made from olives,
when it is called olive oil; or it may be made from
corn or cottonseed, when it is usually sold by a trade
name. When buying salad oil one should examine
the label on the can or bottle, to see whether the oil
is made from olives or other material, since oil made
from corn or cottonseed should not be sold at so high
a price as olive oil.
Eggs often form a part of the salad dressing and,
when they are combined with the oil and used on the
salad, add to its value as a food. Whipped cream
also adds to the food value of a salad.
When meat salads are served for luncheon or
FOODS AND COOKERY 81
supper, no other meat dish is needed. Vegetable
salads, when made of the legumes, can be used as a
meat substitute. Fruit salads can be substituted
for dessert in many meals.
Besides being used as a part of a meal, salads are
often served with sandwiches as " refreshments."
An attractive salad should have the following
qualities : freshness, crispness and coolness ; it should
have an appetizing flavor, and should combine well
with the other food served in the meal.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SALADS, SALAD DRESSINGS
Use a corn oil, a cottonseed oil and olive oil in making
the following dressings. The class may be divided into
groups for the work. Compare the price of the three kinds
of oil. Compare the taste of the dressings.
Lettuce should be washed, dried on a cloth, and be
thoroughly crisp before it is used with salads.
FRENCH DRESSING
1 tbsp. sugar \ tsp. paprika
2 tbsp. vinegar $ tsp. salt
4 tbsp. oil $ tsp. white pepper
1 tsp. scraped onion, or onion juice
To the dry ingredients add the onion and the vinegar ;
stir thoroughly, add the oil, beat until of a thick creamy
consistency. French dressing may be made in quantity
and kept for several days in a cold place. Beat thoroughly
every time it is used.
MAYONNAISE DRESSING
1 egg-yolk \ tsp. sugar
\ tsp. salt \ tsp. mustard
| tsp. paprika \ c. oil
1^ tbsp. vinegar or lemon juice
82
FOODS AND COOKERY
The oil should be cold. Beat the egg-yolk with the
Dover egg-beater until it is thick and lemon-colored;
add dry ingredients. When the mixture is well blended,
add a little of the oil ; beat, add more oil ; beat again.
When the mixture is thick, add a little of the lemon juice
or vinegar; beat. Then add more oil and vinegar or
lemon juice, beating constantly. Sometimes, in making
this dressing, the mixture separates or curdles and does
not become thick. When this happens, beat another egg-
yolk until it is thick, and add the salad dressing slowly
to the egg, beating constantly. Keep in a cold place.
legg
i c. vinegar
c. milk
| tsp. mustard
COOKED DRESSING
Paprika if desired
\ tsp. salt
1 tbsp. sugar
\\ tbsp. flour
1 tbsp. butter
Make a white sauce from the flour, butter and milk ; add
the seasonings. Beat the egg until it is thick and lemon-
colored. Gradually pour white sauce into the beaten egg,
THREE SALADS
Asparagus tips, potato and head lettuce.
stirring well. Place in double-boiler and cook five to
ten minutes. Add the vinegar slowly. If there are
lumps, strain through a wire sieve. Cool.
If the dressing is thicker than desired, it may be thinned
with a little cream or milk when it is to be used. For
some salads, whipped cream may be added to the dressing.
FOODS AND COOKERY 83
SALMON SALAD
% c. salmon 1 small chopped sweet pickle
1 tbsp. chopped celery or shredded cabbage
Mayonnaise dressing
Drain oil from salmon, remove all pieces of bone and
skin. Add the celery or cabbage and the pickle. Mix
carefully with a fork. Add dressing. Place on a bed of
shredded lettuce. Garnish with hard-cooked egg if
desired.
BANANA SALAD
Peel and scrape a banana. Slice lengthwise and once
crosswise. Arrange on lettuce. Use cooked dressing to
which whipped cream has been added. Chopped nuts
may be sprinkled over the top.
VEGETABLE SALAD
Cooked and fresh vegetables make good salads with the
addition of French or cooked dressing. The following
combinations are suggested :
Diced carrots, peas and chopped peanuts.
Green beans, chopped onion and parsley.
Potato, cucumber and green pepper.
Lima beans, carrots and peas.
Tomato ; stuffed with cabbage, celery or cucumber.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the types of salad dressings.
2. What kinds of oils may be used in making dressings ?
3. Which is most expensive ?
4. What is the use of a "garnish" ? What are some materials
used for garnishing?
5. When should meat salads be served ? Prepare a plan for
a luncheon or supper in which it is proper to serve salmon salad.
6. What kind of vegetable salad can be substituted for meat
in the meal ? Why ? Prepare a plan for a meal in which " Lima
bean, carrot and pea" salad is suitable.
7. Plan a luncheon or supper in which a fruit salad is suitable.
84 FOODS AND COOKERY
8. What are the characteristics of a good salad?
9. What may be served with salads ?
10. Bring to class a good recipe for cheese crackers and one
for cheese straws.
11. How should wafers be crisped when served with salads?
12. What is " head lettuce " ? " leaf lettuce " ? What is the
price of lettuce ?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Suggested Menu : Cream of Corn Soup
Cabbage Salad
Bread and Butter
Baked Apple with Cream
Make other menus for supper or luncheon.
DRIED FRUITS
Drying is one way of preserving fruits. Many
housekeepers on farms dry apples and other fruits
at home, but a very much larger amount is dried by
commercial firms. Many thousand tons of peaches,
apricots, prunes and raisins are dried in California
every year and shipped to all parts of the United
States and to many other countries. Some of our
dried fruits, such as dates, figs and raisins, come from
foreign countries.
Prunes are a kind of plum that have been dried.
Raisins are dried grapes. Dates are the fruit of the
date palm. Figs come from the fig tree.
Apricots, peaches and prunes are usually purchased
by the pound, and when packed in bulk should be
carefully washed before using. They are often
packed several pounds in a box, and if the whole
box is purchased are cheaper in price.
FOODS AND COOKERY 85
Raisins, figs and dates of the best grade are sold
in carefully wrapped packages. They can also be
purchased by the pound. " Seeded " raisins are sold
by the box, but it is well to look them over carefully
to remove any seeds that may have been left.
Dried fruits, before cooking, should be washed
carefully and then soaked in cold water overnight.
The soaking shortens the time required for cooking
and develops the flavor. They should be cooked in
the water in which they have been soaked. A fire-
less cooker is useful in cooking dried fruits because
they require long cooking.
Dried fruits are used in place of fresh fruits or
canned fruit, and when well cooked make a good
dessert for luncheon and supper, or served as the fruit
dish for breakfast.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
DRIED BRUITS
Experiment : 1. Wash one half pound each of dried
peaches, prunes and apricots; to each add one pint
of water. Soak overnight. Drain off and save any
remaining water. How much does each fruit weigh?
Explain what has happened.
2. Place the prunes in a closely covered kettle, add
liquid in which they were soaked. Set kettle inside of
large kettle of fireless cooker, fill cooker kettle half full
of hot water. Cover cooker kettle. Place on hot
radiator in cooker. Cook about three hours. Do
not open the cooker during this period. Remove prunes
from cooker, add one half cup of sugar and boil for ten
minutes over direct heat. Serve cold.
3. Place apricots in a saucepan, add liquid in which
they were soaked, cover saucepan. Place over fire
86 FOODS AND COOKERY
and simmer gently until fruit is tender. Hot water
may be added if necessary. Add one half cup sugar,
and heat until sugar is melted. Serve cold.
4. If there is a steam cooker in the laboratory, cook
the peaches in this. Follow the same directions as for
Experiment 2, except that the small kettle can be set
directly on the shelf of the steam cooker.
5. Compare the fruit cooked in the different ways, as
to appearance. Which is the most economical way of
cooking?
PRUNE WHIP
1 egg-white 1 c. prune pulp
1 tbsp. lemon juice
Remove the seeds from the cooked prunes, rub prunes
through a wire sieve, add lemon juice. Heat pulp. Beat
egg-white very stiff. Add prune pulp gradually, folding
it into the egg-white. Pile on serving-dish. Chill and
serve as dessert.
DATE PUDDING
f c. sugar 1 tsp. baking powder
2 eggs 1 c. dates, seeded and chopped
j c. flour into small pieces
1 c. chopped English walnut | tsp. salt
meats
Beat the eggs slightly, add the sugar, beat until creamy.
Mix dates, nuts, baking powder, flour and salt, and add
to first mixture. Mix and turn into a greased baking-
dish. Bake in moderate oven twenty to thirty minutes,
or until the pudding just becomes firm. Serve hot or
cold with whipped cream.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the dried fruits you have seen.
2. What fruits are often dried at home?
3. What methods are used in drying fruits at home ? Farmers*
Bulletin No. 841, "Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home",
FOODS AND COOKERY 87
from Division of Publications, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C., will tell you how fruits are dried.
4. What fruit are prunes ? raisins ?
5. From which countries do we obtain dates, figs and
raisins ?
6. What is the price per pound of apricots, prunes and dried
peaches?
7. In what kinds of packages may dates, figs and raisins be
purchased ?
8. What is the price of the ordinary package of dates? of
figs? Read the label on the package to find weight of
contents.
9. Give general directions for cooking dried fruits.
10. Plan a luncheon or supper in which date pudding might
be used correctly as the dessert.
QUICK BREADS
All breads are divided into two classes, (1) quick
breads and (2) yeast breads. Quick breads are made
in a shorter time than is required for making yeast
breads, and are generally served hot.
A quick bread requires the following ingredients :
flour, a liquid, salt and a leavening agent. To these
may be added some other ingredients, not necessary
but often desired, such as shortening, sweetening,
flavoring and eggs.
White, whole wheat and Graham flours, and corn
meal, are generally used in the making of quick
breads. Other flours that can be used are corn, rice,
rye, buckwheat, barley and potato flours. Corn
meal is used more extensively in the South than
elsewhere in the United States. Since corn is a cereal
it is a very valuable food ; therefore corn meal and
other corn products should be used in greater
quantities than they are in most families. There
88 FOODS AND COOKERY
are two kinds of corn meal, (1) yellow, made from
yellow corn, and (2) white, made from white corn.
The flavor differs slightly.
The material added to any bread to make it
"light" is called a leavening agent. The leavening
agents commonly used are air, steam, baking powder,
soda and yeast ; all except the last are the ones used
in quick breads.
Air is added by beating eggs very light and folding
them into the flour mixture, or by rapidly beating the
flour mixture itself. The air expands when heated,
causing the mixture to rise.
When the heat in the oven turns the water which
is in the flour mixture into steam, further heat causes
the steam to expand, and this causes the flour mix-
ture to stretch, thus making it "rise." Popovers
are a kind of quick bread made to rise with air and
steam.
Baking powder is a compound made of baking
soda, an acid substance and a starchy material.
The acid substance used varies with different baking
powders. Some of the good baking powders are
made by combining cream of tartar (the acid sub-
stance), baking soda and starch. Whenever baking
soda is put with an acid and moisture is added, carbon
dioxide gas is formed. This is what happens when
baking powder is put in a flour mixture, the
baking powder supplying the acid and soda, while the
moisture is supplied by the flour mixture. When
heat is applied, this gas expands the flour mixture
and causes it to rise.
Baking powder is used when sweet milk or water is
the liquid used in the flour mixture.
It is never wise to buy cheap baking powder,
FOODS AND COOKERY 89
for it is often poorly made and does not produce
good results.
Baking soda is used with sour milk or buttermilk.
The sour milk and buttermilk contain the acid needed
to combine with the soda to form the carbon dioxide
gas. Soda is often used when molasses is needed in
the recipe, because some kinds of molasses contain
a good deal of acid ; but much molasses that is now
sold is not very acid, and soda must be used with it
carefully. Baking soda is difficult to use correctly
with milk in cookery because the amount of acid
present in the milk varies.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Make a list of the brands of baking powder that
you have seen advertised or used. In what kind of
container is baking powder sold ? Why?
What is the difference in price per pound when
baking powder is bought in a one pound container,
one half pound and one fourth pound ?
Is corn meal sold by the pound or in the pack-
age?
Which is the more commonly used in this locality,
white or yellow corn meal ? Why ?
Make a list of firms making flour which you have
seen advertised. Is there a flour mill in the neighbor-
hood ? If so, perhaps the teacher can arrange to go
through the flour mill with the girls. In that case,
write down all the processes through which the
wheat goes in becoming flour.
90 FOODS AND COOKERY
LABORATORY EXERCISES
QUICK BREADS
In all recipes sift the flour before measuring.
BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS
| c. milk 2 tsp. baking powder
1 c. flour 1 tbsp. fat
| tsp. salt
Add the salt and baking powder to the flour ; sift again.
Cut the fat into the flour, using two knives. Add the
liquid and mix quickly. Place on floured board, roll one
half to three fourths inch in thickness, cut with biscuit-
cutter, place in baking-pan. Have oven hot when biscuits
are put in. Bake fifteen minutes.
MUFFINS
2 c. flour 2 tbsp. sugar
4 tsp. baking powder 1 c. milk
| tsp. salt 2 tbsp. melted butter
1 egg
Sift flour, baking powder, salt and sugar together.
Beat egg slightly, add milk. Stir the flour mixture into
the liquid, add the melted butter. Place in greased muffin
tins. Have oven moderately warm when muffins are
put in. Bake about twenty minutes.
SOUTHERN SPOON CORN BREAD
2 c. white corn meal 2 eggs
2^ c. boiling water 1 c. buttermilk
1| tbsp. melted fat 1 tsp. soda
1| tsp. salt
Add corn meal gradually to boiling water and let stand
until cool. Beat egg yolks slightly ; add salt, buttermilk
and soda ; mix immediately with corn meal. Beat two
minutes, add the stiffly beaten egg-whites. Put in buttered
baking-dish. Bake in a moderate oven forty-five minutes.
FOODS AND COOKERY 91
CAKE
Cake, well made and well baked, is not harmful if
eaten slowly and not in too great quantity.
Children should not be allowed to eat large amounts
of cake because it contains a good deal of sugar, and
although sugar is a good food, yet when too much is
eaten it may irritate the stomach and cause trouble
in digestion. Then too, cake, like "new" bread,
is so soft and tender that it is a temptation to swallow
it without proper chewing. When too much cake
is eaten it spoils the appetite for other more useful
foods, such as milk and vegetables.
Cookies are best for little children because they
are drier and require more chewing. Cake should be
eaten at mealtime and not as a "piece" between
meals.
All cakes may be placed in two classes: (1) those
made without fat, such as sponge cake, and (2) those
made with fat, such as plain butter cakes. A plain
cake recipe may be varied in a great many ways,
thereby affording different kinds of cake. Some of
the materials that may be added to change the taste
and appearance are spices, flavoring extracts, fruits,
nuts and chocolate. Butter has been considered the
only fat suitable to use in making cake, but with
butter high in price many have used other fats and
found them very good. Some of these are oleo-
margarine, corn oil, cottonseed oil and other vege-
table fats.
Pastry flour is often used in cake-making and
makes a tenderer cake than many bread flours. A
bread flour made from soft wheat is better for use in
cake than one made from hard wheat.
92
FOODS AND COOKERY
When too much sugar is used, it makes the cake
more crumbly and the crust sticky and tough.
Honey or syrup sometimes may be used in a
cake in place of sugar.
Baking powder, soda,
eggs and air are the
leavening agents used in
cakes.
Loaf and layer cakes
are flour mixtures called
thick batters, while cookies
are called stiff doughs. A
batter is a flour mixture
that is stirred with a
spoon. A dough is a mix-
ture stiff enough to be
kneaded and rolled.
Cakes and cookies
should be kept in tight
metal containers so that
they will not dry out, and so that they will not
absorb moisture from the air.
CAI
-MIXER
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CAKE-MAKING
Cakes made with fat : The following method is generally
used in making cakes with fat :
1. Measure all ingredients.
2. Grease the cake-pans.
3. Cream the fat by rubbing and beating with a
wooden spoon.
4. Add sugar gradually, beating the mixture until
it is of a creamy consistency.
FOODS AND COOKERY 93
5. Beat yolk of eggs until it is thick and lemon-
colored. Add to butter and sugar.
6. Add the baking powder to part of the flour.
7. Add the rest of the flour and milk alternately to
the egg and sugar mixture.
8. Add vanilla and baking powder.
9. Beat egg-whites very stiff and fold into mixture.
10. Half fill greased pans. Bake.
11. Fruit or nuts should be mixed with a little of
the flour and added just before the egg-whites.
STANDARD CAKE
\ c. butter ^ c. milk
1 c. sugar . 1| c. flour
2 eggs 2| tsp. baking powder
| tsp. vanilla
This cake recipe may be varied by adding one cup
chopped nuts ; or 1 tablespoon spice ; or two ounces
melted chocolate ; or one half cup currants.
Cakes made without fat. The following is the method
used in making cakes without fat :
1. Sift flour and sugar several times before measur-
ing.
2. Beat yolks of eggs until the mass is thick and
lemon-colored.
3. Add sugar gradually, beating with Dover egg-
beater.
4. Add lemon juice or other flavoring.
5. Beat egg-whites until very stiff.
6. Partially fold egg-white into sugar and egg mix-
ture.
7. Remove egg-beater; use spatula, and fold in
flour and salt very carefully.
8. Bake in a tube cake-pan, unbuttered.
9. Bake forty to sixty minutes in a slow oven.
10. Do not open oven door for first twenty minutes.
94 FOODS AND COOKERY
11. After removing cake from oven, invert pan on
cake-rack, but do not remove cake until cold.
SPONGE CAKE
6 eggs Grated rind of \ lemon
1 c. sugar 1 c. flour
1 tbsp. lemon juice \ tsp. salt
BOILED FROSTING
1 c. sugar \ c. water
1 tsp. flavoring 1 egg-white
Mix sugar with water and boil until it " spins a thread "
(232 F. on the thermometer). Beat egg-white stiff;
over this pour the syrup slowly, beating all the time until
it first begins to stiffen. Add flavoring and spread over
cooled cake.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a "leavening agent"?
2. Name the leavening agents used in quick breads; in
cakes ; in yeast bread.
3. What leavening agent is used with sweet milk? with sour
milk? with molasses?
4. Explain the action of baking powder in a flour mixture.
5. Explain the action of soda in a flour mixture.
6. What is the leavening agent used in sponge cake ? Explain
the action.
7. Into what two classes may cakes be divided? Give ex-
amples under each class.
8. Give the proportions of ingredients used in a standard cake.
9. How may this be varied ?
10. Give the general rules for making a cake with butter;
without butter.
11. Give directions and proportions for baking-powder
biscuits.
12. What kind of flour may be used in cakes ?
13. Define the terms "dough" and "batter."
14. When and how should cake be eaten ?
15. Why are cookies best for little children?
FOODS AND COOKERY 95
THE SCHOOL LUNCH
Many children must carry their lunch to school
unless the school has a lunch-room where lunch may
be purchased. It is very important that the lunch
be of the right kind for the child, that it be packed in a
way to keep it in good condition, and that it be eaten
in an orderly way at the school.
First let us consider what foods are good to use
in the school lunch. Sandwiches are important and
should be made from well made, thinly sliced bread,
with butter or with a good filling. Eggs, meat, dates,
figs, peanut butter, lettuce, nuts and cheese are some
of the foods that are good for fillings, and there are
many ways of combining them.
Milk is excellent to include in any lunch, and
when one wishes to vary the taste it may be com-
bined with other materials and made into custards,
blanc mange, cocoa, or soups. Soups or cocoa can
be carried to school in a thermos bottle, and some-
thing hot on a cold day is very good.
Rice may be prepared in many ways for the school
lunch. Cookies, -simple little cakes, or sweet crackers
are always good. Fruit, raw or cooked, should be
used often.
Tin buckets or tin boxes keep the lunch in the best
condition. Lunch-boxes with a thermos bottle
slipped in the top may be purchased, but they are
expensive.
Pasteboard boxes are not good because they can-
not be thoroughly cleaned. Newspapers should not
be used for wrapping lunches ; if paper must be used,
choose clean wrapping-paper.
Oiled or waxed paper should be used for separately
96
FOODS AND COOKERY
wrapping sandwiches, cakes and other foods to go in
the lunch. This paper can be purchased at little cost
and keeps the food hi better condition. Covered
glasses should be used for custards and similar foods.
Paper napkins, to be used as a cover for the desk or
table, and for wiping the fingers, should be in every
lunch. Each child should have a drinking-cup and
whatever silver is needed for eating the lunch. In
LUNCH-BOX
With a thermos bottle, oiled paper, drinking-cup, paper napkins and
covered glass.
packing the lunch, place the articles in the box in
such a manner that they will jar as little as possible.
In some schools the girls in the cooking class pre-
pare a hot dish for luncheon at noon ; in other places
the mothers send from home a hot soup, cocoa, or stew
in a fireless cooker.
Before eating the lunch, the hands and face should
be washed. Every child should have his or her own
soap and towel to use. The lunch should be eaten
FOODS AND COOKERY 97
slowly, either at the desk or at the table provided for
that purpose, and the very best table manners should
be practiced. After finishing the lunch; pupils
should put the room in good order.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
THE SCHOOL LUNCH
SANDWICHES
Breads good to use for sandwiches are white yeast bread,
whole wheat bread, brown bread, nut bread and raisin
bread. The butter used should be creamed by stirring
and beating with a spoon until it is creamy instead of
solid. A spatula is best to use for spreading butter on
the bread. The slices of bread coming together in the
loaf should be put together in the sandwich so that
they " fit."
Sandwiches for the lunch may be varied in three ways :
(1) by using different kinds of bread,
(2) by using different kinds of filling,
(3) by cutting the bread into different shapes.
The following are some good sandwich fillings. Perhaps
some of the members of the class can suggest others.
1. Date paste, made of chopped dates and a little water,
cooked together until a paste is formed. Lemon juice
and chopped nuts may be added.
2. Jelly, jam, or marmalade.
3. Cottage cheese with pimento or nuts.
4. Lettuce with salad dressing.
5. Hard-cooked eggs, put through vegetable-ricer and
seasoned. Minced ham or salad dressing may be added.
6. " Left-over " meat, chopped and seasoned, or mixed
with salad dressing.
7. Cooked dried beans, put through a colander and
mixed with cream, or salad dressing and chopped pickle.
8. Pea pulp with grated cheese and nuts.
FOODS AND COOKERY
1 c. brown flour
1 c. white flour
1 c. sweet milk
f c. sugar
NUT BREAD
\ c. chopped nut meats
2 tsp. baking powder
\ tsp. salt
\ egg
Mix a little of the flour with the nuts ; mix a little with
the baking powder. Beat the egg, add the sugar and
salt. Add the sweet milk and flour alternately ; then the
BUSY COOKS IN A RURAL SCHOOL
Perhaps they are preparing the noon lunch.
Pour into greased bread-pan.
Bake one hour in a moderate
nuts and baking powder.
Let rise twenty minutes,
oven.
DATE CAKES
1 lb. dates 2 c. rolled oats
1 c. brown sugar 2| c. flour
1 c. water 1 c. granulated sugar
1 c. fat | tsp. salt
FOODS AND COOKERY 99
Wash, seed and chop dates ; add brown sugar and one
half the water ; cook until a paste is formed. Cream fat
and granulated sugar together. Add the salt. Add re-
mainder of water, flour and rolled oats, alternately. Place
a little of the mixture on the bread-board, roll very thin.
Over the top of half the dough spread some of the date
paste ; fold the other half of the dough over this ; press
together gently. Cut with sharp knife into rectangular
pieces, any size desired. Place on baking-sheets and bake
in a moderate oven twenty to thirty minutes. Never try
to roll more than a small portion of the dough at a time,
because it is difficult to fold over a large amount.
BAKED CUSTARD
1 pt. milk 2 eggs
2 tbsp. sugar \ tsp. vanilla
| tsp. salt
Scald the milk, sugar and salt together. Beat the eggs
slightly, pour the scalded milk over them gradually ; add
vanilla, stir well. Pour into cups or ramekins. Set in
pan of warm water ; bake in a moderate oven until a knife
thrust through the middle of the custard will come out
clean.
Directions. Obtain several good containers and other
equipment necessary for packing lunches. Divide the
class into groups, and have each group prepare foods
suitable to use in the school lunch.
Pack the following lunches :
(1) Nut bread and butter sandwiches (two)
Lettuce sandwich
One orange
Date cookies (two)
(2) Milk
Egg sandwiches (two)
Jelly sandwich
Baked apple
100 FOODS AND COOKERY
(3) Bread and butter sandwiches (two), cut in tri-
angular shape
Nut bread and butter sandwich
Custard
Dates, raisins, or figs
Plan some lunches, in which cocoa, or soup, or meat
stew is served at school and the rest of the lunch is
brought in the lunch-box.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What kind of lunch-boxes should be used ? Why?
2. Name the other equipment needed for packing a lunch well.
3. What is the price of oiled paper? Where can it be ob-
tained in this locality?
4. How should the school lunch be served ?
5. What rules should be followed when eating the lunch?
6. How should good sandwiches be made?
7. Should the daughter in the house help prepare the lunch
for school?
8. What foods should be prepared in sufficient quantity for
several lunches, to be used on different days?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Suggested Menu : Cheese strata
Lettuce sandwiches
Dried peaches
Sponge cake
Estimate the cost of the meal.
Serve several luncheons or suppers, if there is time in the
course.
If possible, serve a buffet supper, inviting the mothers
as guests.
FOODS AND COOKERY 101
THE DINNER PI4\i']V,
Dinner, in most homes, is the' ^
served during the day because it consists usually of a
greater variety of food than do the other two.
The home dinner may be planned in one of three
ways : (1) Meat, with one or two vegetables ;
bread and butter with jam, jelly, or preserves;
dessert. (2) Meat, with one or two vegetables;
salad ; bread and butter with jam, jelly, or preserves ;
dessert. (3) Soup ; meat, with one or two vege-
tables; bread and butter with jam, jelly, or pre-
serves ; salad ; dessert. A very simple meal is
a one-dish meal; that is, a combination dish, con-
sisting of both meat and vegetables, served with
bread and butter, and perhaps a sweet or dessert of
some kind.
The plan which is best to use for dinner de-
pends upon several things : (1) what kind of meals
have already been eaten during the day, (2) what
amount of money can be spent for food and (3)
what amount of time should be spent in getting
the meal.
When meals are planned, they should be arranged
for the whole day at least. If a very light break-
fast and a simple luncheon or supper are to be served,
it is necessary to have a heavier dinner than when a
good deal of heavy food (food containing much food
value) is served for breakfast, luncheon, or supper.
Then, too, the kinds of food served in any one meal
must be considered when the others are planned, be-
cause variety is necessary in the diet. Foods used
often should be varied by preparing them in different
ways; for example, potatoes should not be served
102 FOODS AND COOKERY
mashed ev^ery day for dinner, but should be served in
other ways oil different days.
./ p ( is/npt necessary to have soup at the beginning
oT a dinner/ nor is it necessary always to have a
dessert at the end. The housewife should not serve
a heavy dessert, such as a pie or rich pudding, at the
end of a meal in which a meat, vegetables and a salad
have been served. It is better to serve a dessert of
fruit, or plain gelatine pudding, at the end of such a
meal.
Too many vegetables should not be served at
dinner ; the general rule of serving two is a good one
to follow. Lettuce is usually served with any salad
and would make the third. In choosing the two, it
is better to select one starchy and one green vegetable,
the two being pleasing in taste when eaten together.
When a vegetable salad is served, it can take the
place of one of the cooked vegetables.
Only one kind of meat should be served. A meat
or fish salad should not be served when another
meat dish is being used. Eggs are not needed when
meat is served, nor should meat be served with
baked beans.
The same vegetable should not be served twice
in the same meal ; for example, do not serve potatoes
in a hot dish and also in a salad, nor rice as a vege-
table and in a rice pudding, nor tomato salad and
tomato sauce for the meat. Do not serve more
than one kind of " sweet" at a meal.
When a housekeeper must do everything herself,
without help, she should consider the length of time
needed in the preparation of a meal. Some dishes
require a much longer time in their preparation than
it is right for the housekeeper to spend when there
FOODS AND COOKERY
103
are others more easily prepared that are quite as
good. No person should spend too large a share
of her time in cooking, as there are other things as
important to be done. It is necessary to prepare
enough food and to have it well cooked, but " fancy"
cookery takes too much time when the housekeeper
does all of the household work in her home.
It is wise to think about the amount of fuel used
in getting a meal if other than a coal or wood range
is used. Sometimes
it is economical to
plan a meal with
all the main dishes
baked in the oven,
or cooked in the
steam cooker, or in
the fireless cooker,
instead of cooking
one dish in the oven
and one or two on
top of the stove.
lo plan, COOk and DEEP-FAT KETTLE, WITH FRYING-BASKET
serve a good dinner
is a difficult piece of work, and any girl deserves
praise when she can do this at home without her
mother's help.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
LEFT-OVER DISHES
Experiments: 1. Place the kettle of fat over the fire and
heat until it begins to " foam " on the surface. Place a
cube of bread in the fat. After one minute remove the
bread ; break it apart. Has the bread absorbed the fat ?
104
FOODS AND COOKERY
2. Continue heating the fat until blue smoke rises
from the surface. Place another cube of bread in the
fat. After one minute remove the bread; break it
apart. Has the fat been absorbed as in the bread used
in No. 1 ? Which temperature would be best to use in
frying croquettes? Can you explain why? Would
you want the fat as hot for frying doughnuts? Why?
CROQUETTES
Croquettes may be made of left-over meat, vegetables, or
cereals, alone or combined, and may be mixed with thick
gravies, No. 4 White Sauce, or egg. The croquettes
No. 2, CROQUETTES. No. 3, MEAT LOAF. No. 5, PEA SANDWICHES
should be mixed, the hot sauce added, and then allowed to
cool. Be careful to add only enough sauce or eggs to
bind together the ingredients.
When the mixture is cold, form the croquettes into the
desired shape, either ball, pyramid, or roll. Beat an egg
slightly, add two tablespoons of water, and mix thoroughly.
Use bread crumbs that are very fine. Roll the croquette
in the egg, then in the crumbs, then in egg, and then in
crumbs. Place croquettes in frying-basket and lower the
basket carefully into the hot fat. Fry until brown. Re-
move croquettes and place on crumpled brown paper to
FOODS AND COOKERY 105
drain. Be careful not to pierce or break the crust on the
croquette, either while it is in the fat or when removing
it from the fat.
The following are some combinations used in croquettes :
SALMON CROQUETTES
f c. No. 4 White Sauce
f c. canned salmon, flaked
Lemon juice, paprika and salt to taste
POTATO CROQUETTES
1 pt. mashed potatoes 1 tsp. chopped parsley
2 tbsp. butter 1 egg yolk or \ egg
| tsp. salt Onion juice if desired
BEEF AND RICE CROQUETTES
1 c. finely chopped beef | tsp. pepper
\ c. cooked rice Tomato sauce or left-over gravy
SCALLOPED HAM AND EGGS
2 hard-cooked eggs 1 c. No. 2 White Sauce
\ c. chopped ham Buttered bread crumbs
In the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, or ramekin,
place a layer of crumbs, then a layer of white sauce, then
a layer of the eggs sliced, then white sauce, then ham,
then crumbs; continue until the dish is filled. Finish
with a layer of crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until
crumbs are browned and ingredients thoroughly heated
through.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the material used for binding together the in-
gredients in each of the croquette recipes ?
2. What would be the result if too much white sauce were
added to the croquette mixture?
. 3. What are other recipes for using left-overs?
4. Give three general plans for dinner.
5. What points must be considered when planning a dinner?
106 FOODS AND COOKERY
6. Should meals be planned singly or for the day? Why?
7. Give the general rules to follow in planning the vegetables
for dinner.
8. What are some reasons for not serving more than one
meat for dinner?
9. What should not be served at a dinner where meat is used ?
10. Should the same food be served twice in one meal ? Give
examples.
11. In what way may fuel be saved in getting a dinner?
12. Plan some dinners that would be economical as to price
and time, and that would be pleasing in taste and appearance.
VEGETABLES
The term vegetable includes a large class of foods
which are used in great quantities in our diet.
Vegetables of many kinds can now be had at all
seasons of the year because the canned and dried
vegetables, like the fresh ones, can be shipped suc-
cessfully from one part of the country to another.
In large city markets a great variety of fresh vege-
tables can be bought, even in midwinter. Hot-
house and imported vegetables are expensive and
in many cases not of good flavor. Lettuce is now
used by many households at all seasons of the year ;
it is usually good when carefully selected, and it
satisfies the desire for something green during the
winter.
Vegetables are important in the diet because they
furnish a large share of the mineral matter needed
by the body. They supply carbohydrates, in the
form of starch and sugar, and also supply bulk in
the diet.
There are several classifications given for vege-
tables ; perhaps the best one to use is that which
divides them into green and starchy vegetables.
FOODS AND COOKERY 107
The green vegetables are sometimes called watery
or succulent vegetables. They contain very little
starch, but are valuable as food for their mineral
matter, and for the cellulose and the vitamines they
supply. They are useful because they furnish variety
in our meals. Such vegetables as lettuce, cabbage,
Brussels sprouts, celery, cucumbers, radishes, onions
and tomatoes are green vegetables.
Green vegetables are of two kinds, (1) those with a
mild flavor, such as celery and squash, and (2) those
with a strong flavor, such as cabbage and onions.
All vegetables lose food value when boiled in a
large quantity of water, because mineral matter and
other soluble materials are dissolved out of them.
Steaming is a better way of cooking vegetables,
if all the food value is to be retained. Mild-
flavored vegetables taste well when steamed, or
when boiled in just enough water to keep them from
burning. The strong-flavored vegetables are of better
flavor when cooked in a quantity of water, and this
method is most common, even though the food value
is lessened.
The starchy vegetables are such vegetables as
potatoes, corn, sweet potatoes and parsnips; also
the legumes which have already been studied.
Baking is an excellent method for cooking vege-
tables which taste well when prepared in that way.
Boiling vegetables, such as the potato, with the skin
on, prevents the loss of food value.
Vegetables are cooked for several reasons : (1) to
soften the cellulose, (2) to change or improve the
flavor, (3) to make the starch easier to digest, (4) to
vary the way of serving them.
Vegetables are often cooked for too long a time.
108 FOODS AND COOKERY
This spoils the flavor and perhaps the appearance,
in addition to causing a loss of food value. They
should be cooked until tender and not allowed to
stand after they are done. Cabbage is a vegetable
usually cooked for too long a period, in which case
it becomes strong in flavor, tough and very different
in appearance.
When vegetables are purchased, the fresh crisp ones
should be selected. Withered vegetables are not
good in flavor and are often poor in texture. Many
vegetables, such as corn, green peas and string beans,
retain their good flavor but a very short time after
being gathered. If withered vegetables must be
used, they may be improved by long soaking in cold
water before cooking.
When selecting vegetables, the following points
will be helpful :
Green beans should be crisp, and the pod should
snap easily.
Green peas should have a green pod, the seed
tender when pressed with the finger nail, and the
pods well filled.
Green corn should have a fresh green husk, brown
silk, the ears well filled, and the grain tender and full
of juice when pressed with the finger nail.
Young carrots or fresh beets should be firm and
have tops that are green and fresh.
A head of lettuce should be solid when pressed,
and not have a number of outer leaves that must
be thrown away. Leaf lettuce should be fresh
and of a light green color, without old and coarse
leaves.
Celery should be crisp, tops not wilted, and outer
stalks neither woody nor brown in color.
FOODS AND COOKERY 109
A head of cabbage should be solid and with few
leaves that cannot be used.
Radishes should be firm, tops not wilted.
Tomatoes should be thoroughly ripe, smooth and
without spots that, when removed, will spoil the
shape of the tomato.
Many vegetables are now sold by the pound, and
it is economy to buy those which will require little
waste in preparation.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Make a list of all the vegetables you know.
Divide the list into the following groups :
1. Those that may be baked.
2. Those that may be creamed.
3. Those that may be scalloped.
Can any of the vegetables be put in more than
one class?
Make a list of the green vegetables, and one of the
starchy vegetables commonly used. Use Bulletin
No. 28, "The Composition of American Food Ma-
terials ", obtained from Bureau of Chemistry, De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., to find
to which class they belong.
What is the price by the pound of the following :
onions, carrots, turnips, parsnips, potatoes, sweet
potatoes ?
What is the price by the can of peas, tomatoes and
corn? Does the price vary with the different
brands? Can you give reasons why this might be?
Read the label on a can of vegetables. What is
stated on the label? Why should one read the
label?
110 FOODS AND COOKERY
Bring to class one or two good recipes for prepar-
ing vegetables which have not been used in class.
Let every member of the class copy the recipes in
the class notebook if they are approved.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
VEGETABLES
BAKED SQUASH
Wash the outside of a Hubbard squash. Cut into pieces
about three inches square, or into any shape desired. Re-
move the seeds. Sprinkle the inside of each piece with a
little salt, pepper and sugar. Place on shallow pan and
bake in oven until squash is tender and slightly browned
on top.
SCALLOPED CORN
1 can corn 1 tbsp. butter
1 pt. milk 2 eggs
\ tsp. salt 1 tbsp. sugar
| tsp. pepper Buttered bread crumbs
Chopped green peppers, if desired
Beat the eggs slightly, add milk, sugar, salt and pepper :
mix thoroughly. Add the corn. Pour the mixture into a
buttered baking-dish, add the butter and cover top with
bread crumbs. Set in a pan of water. Bake about forty-
five minutes in a moderate oven.
Would less time be required if this were baked in rame-
kins? Why?
CARROTS AND PEAS
Wash and scrape a carrot. Cut into dice, place in
boiling salted water ; boil gently until the carrot is easily
pierced with a fork. Do not cover the saucepan, and use
as little water as possible. When the carrot is done,
drain it from the water; add it to an equal quantity
of drained canned or fresh peas which are hot. Pour
FOODS AND COOKERY 111
melted butter over them; sprinkle with pepper. Serve
in a warm vegetable-dish.
Instead of serving them in this manner, after combining
the two vegetables, add half as much of No. 2 White Sauce
as there is of vegetables. Re-heat and serve in bread
boxes. Bread boxes are made by taking a piece of bread
about three inches square and two inches high and hollow-
ing it out to make a box. Then butter outside of box,
place on pan, and toast in oven. Use while warm.
These bread boxes are used simply to vary the manner of
serving a food. Creamed oysters, creamed meats and
other creamed vegetables are also served in bread boxes.
How may the bread which you removed from the center
of the box be used?
CREAMED ONIONS
Peel an onion, wash and place in boiling salted water
to cook. Do not cover pan. The onion is done when it
can be pierced easily with a fork. Drain onion and add
No. 2 White Sauce. Re-heat. Serve in a warmed dish.
THE POTATO
Potatoes are used as food in greater amount than
any other vegetable. If all the potatoes grown,
minus those used in other ways than human food,
were equally divided among the people of the world,
it would give every person about four bushels a year.
The potato is a native of America and probably
was first found in Chile. It was first grown in
Europe in or about 1585. In Ireland the potato is
one of the chief foods of the people, and for that
reason the white potato is called the Irish potato.
The botanist calls the potato a tuber, that is, an
underground stem which has thickened and become
a storehouse for food to be used by the new plants.
112 FOODS AND COOKERY
When the chemist examines the potato, he finds
that it contains a large amount of starch, a little
protein, some mineral matter and a large per cent
of water. The potato is particularly valuable for
its starch, and is therefore mainly a heat and energy-
producing food.
The method used in cooking potatoes has much to
do with the food value. Baking or boiling "in their
jackets " saves the food value. Peeling and then
boiling causes some loss of the mineral matter and
protein, since these foodstuffs are found just under
the skin of the potato and may be lost when it is
pared, unless very thin peelings are removed.
Potatoes, to be cooked, should be put in boiling
water, not in cold, as soaking peeled potatoes in
cold water draws out the starch and also causes a
loss of protein and mineral matter. Potatoes should
never soak in cold water after they are peeled, if
all of the food value is to be saved. If they are old
and withered, they should be freshened by soaking
before the skin is removed. Potatoes should be
removed from the boiling water as soon as they are
done. Baked potatoes, when done, should have the
skin broken or pierced with a fork to allow the escape
of the steam, which would cause the potato to be
soggy.
New potatoes are those sold immediately after
they are harvested. Old potatoes are those that
have been stored before being put on the market.
In the spring old potatoes may sprout, which indi-
cates that a new plant is beginning to grow from the
"eye" of the potato. This hurts the quality of the
potato for cooking. Potatoes that have been frozen
are sweet, poor in flavor, and not mealy.
FOODS AND COOKERY 113
When buying potatoes, choose those of fairly
uniform size, having smooth skins and free from
scab. Potatoes are sold by the measure or by weight,
the latter custom being much more common than
formerly.
Sweet potatoes are very much like Irish potatoes
in food value, except that they contain sugar which
gives them their sweet taste. Sweet potatoes are
grown and used more in the South than in the
Northern States.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
POTATOES
BAKED STUFFED POTATOES
Scrub with a brush, in cold water, a medium-sized, well
shaped potato. Cut off a strip of peel one half inch wide
around the middle of the potato. Place the potato on a
rack in a hot oven. A medium-sized potato needs to bake
about forty-five minutes. Test by piercing with a fork
or pressing firmly between the fingers ; it should feel soft
if done.
Cut the potato into halves at the peeled strip, remove
the inside carefully from the shells, mash, add salt, butter
and cream, or milk, using about one teaspoon butter and
one tablespoon milk for each potato. Beat well. Refill
the shell with the mashed potato ; do not press down, but
fill lightly. Place on pan and set in a hot oven to brown
the top slightly.
CANDIED SWEET POTATO
Scrub sweet potatoes and place in boiling water, cook
until partly done, peel and place in a shallow baking-dish.
Make a syrup by boiling together equal parts of sugar and
water ; pour this over the potatoes, sprinkle with salt and
bits of butter. Bake in a hot oven until the potatoes are
done and slightly brown.
114 FOODS AND COOKERY
FRENCH FRIED POTATOES
Wash and peel small potatoes, cut in eighths length-
wise ; soak thirty minutes in cold water to make very
crisp. Take from water and dry between towels. Fry
in a frying-basket in deep fat. Drain on brown paper
and sprinkle with salt.
Test the fat with a small cube of bread. If bread browns
in one minute, the fat is the right temperature for frying
potatoes.
Should the fat be as hot as when frying the croquettes
made in a previous lesson ? Why ?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why are vegetables important in the diet?
2. Into what two groups may vegetables be divided ? Name
examples of each.
3. How should highly flavored vegetables be cooked ?
4. Why are vegetables cooked ?
5. How should mild-flavored vegetables be cooked ?
6. Give the points to be observed in selecting the following :
head lettuce, leaf lettuce, celery, cabbage, tomatoes, green corn
and green peas.
7. What foodstuffs are found in a potato ?
8. Should peeled potatoes be soaked ? Why?
9. In cooking potatoes which are the best methods to use?
Why?
10. How may baked potatoes be kept from becoming soggy?
11. What are "new potatoes"? "old potatoes"?
12. How do sweet potatoes differ from Irish potatoes?
13. Is "French fried" an economical way of preparing
potatoes? Why?
OTHER STARCHY FOODS
RICE
Rice is a food sometimes used in a meal in place
of potatoes. Rice and potatoes should not be used
FOODS AND COOKERY 115
in the same meal because both are starchy foods, of
like appearance, and without much flavor. If a rice
pudding is to be served as dessert, then green vege-
tables are best to use in the main course of the meal.
Most of the rice used in the United States comes
from the Southern States, where the growing of rice
is becoming a much more important industry than
formerly.
Rice is sold in the market in two forms, (1) pol-
ished, and (2) unpolished or brown rice. In prepar-
ing rice for the market, the outer husk of the seed
is removed. The rice then appears brownish in
color and is called brown or unpolished rice. To
remove this brown coating, the grains are polished.
It is then sold as "polished rice" and is white in
color. The brownish coating on the rice contains
mineral matter and vit amines. When it is removed
valuable food material is lost. The brown rice
has a good flavor but does not sell so well as the
polished rice because of its appearance. It is
cheaper than the polished rice. When buying the
" best " rice, one should see that the grains are uni-
form in size and unbroken.
MACARONI, SPAGHETTI, VERMICELLI
Macaroni is a product made by mixing flour with
water to form a stiff dough which is then forced
through metallic plates that have small round
perforations with the center of the hole filled, thus
making long hollow tubes of dough. When the
dough tubes have been dried in ovens they are
packed for market. Macaroni is sold in packages
that contain pieces cut the length of the package,
116 FOODS AND COOKERY
packed closely side by side, or pieces cut about two
or three inches long.
Spaghetti is another form in which this paste is
sold, but for this the tubes are made smaller than
for macaroni. Vermicelli is still another form of this
paste, sometimes rolled and cut in fancy shapes, such
as the alphabet.
Macaroni and spaghetti are served as a substitute
for starchy vegetables, and when either is used, such
foods as potatoes, rice, corn, or beans should be
omitted from the meal. Vermicelli is used in soups.
Any of these products need highly seasoned foods,
such as tomatoes or cheese, either cooked or served
with them. To taste best, they require fat added.
HOMINY
Hominy is a product made from corn by removing
the hard outside layers of the kernel. It may be
sold in this form, or the grains may be broken into
small pieces, when it is called grits, or the pieces
may be steamed and rolled, when it is known as
flaked hominy. Hominy is a starchy food often
used in a meal in place of potatoes, and is very
good when well cooked.
CORNSTARCH
Cornstarch is also a product made from corn, and
is used as a thickening agent. It is a fine white
powder and is sold in packages.
TAPIOCA
Tapioca is a product made from the root of the
cassava plant which grows in South America. It
FOODS AND COOKERY 117
is almost pure starch, and is prepared from the root
by grating, washing and separating the starch, after
which it is dried on metal plates. Tapioca is sold
in two forms, (1) pearl tapioca, which is usually
soaked several hours before cooking, and (2) granu-
lated or minute tapioca, which need not be soaked.
Tapioca is used mainly in making puddings.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
STARCHY FOODS
Experiments : 1. Starch turns to a blue color whenever
tincture of iodine is added to it. Place a drop of iodine
on each of the following : a slice of potato, rice, tapioca,
cream of wheat, flour, sugar, egg, meat. Which contains
starch?
2. Place one half teaspoon of cornstarch in two
tablespoons of cold water in a glass or test tube. Mix
together well. Has the liquid changed in appearance?
Let this stand for fifteen minutes. What has hap-
pened ? Is the starch dissolved in the cold water ?
3. Try the same experiment, using sugar instead of
starch. Is the result the same ? Why?
4. Pour one half cup boiling water directly on one
tablespoon cornstarch, stir, boil one minute. Is the
mixture smooth ? Examine the inside of a lump. Is
it like the uncooked starch ?
5. Mix one half teaspoon cornstarch with two table-
spoons cold water. Heat slowly, boil one minute. Is
the mixture smooth ? Can you explain why ?
6. Try the same experiment, mixing the cornstarch
with an equal amount of sugar, then add boiling water.
What is the result?
7. Try mixing one tablespoon cornstarch with one
half teaspoon fat and stirring into boiling water. What
is the result?
118 FOODS AND COOKERY
The results would have been the same if you had used
flour instead of cornstarch. The starch grains must be
thoroughly separated before cooking, so that each starch
grain may cook thoroughly. From these experiments
determine the best method for making blanc mange.
BLANC MANGE
2 c. milk 2 tsp. vanilla
c. cornstarch i tsp. salt
\ c. sugar Nutmeg
The pudding should be cooked thirty minutes in a double-
boiler. Pour into a mold that has been wet with cold
water. When cold and " set ", remove from mold and
serve with fruit juice, or maple syrup, or cream.
MACARONI AND CHEESE
Break macaroni into short pieces. Rinse and add to
boiling salted water. Use about one fourth cup of
macaroni with one pint of boiling water and one half
teaspoon salt. Boil gently until macaroni is tender.
Drain off water, pour cold water over macaroni and drain
at once ; this prevents the pieces sticking together.
In the bottom of a buttered baking-dish place a layer
of well seasoned No. 2 White Sauce made with milk, then
a layer of macaroni, then a layer of grated cheese, then one
of white sauce, continuing until the dish is almost
filled. Place a layer of buttered bread crumbs on top.
Bake slowly thirty to forty minutes.
RICE AS A VEGETABLE
3 c. water 1 c. rice 1 tsp. salt
Place rice in wire strainer and wash by running water
through the rice. Place water in top part of a double-
boiler over direct heat and bring to boiling-point; add
the rice and salt. Place over boiling water and cook until
the rice is tender. Serve.
FOODS AND COOKERY 119
Rice may be cooked in a steamer if desired. It is also
cooked in boiling water over direct heat, using eight cups
of water to one cup of rice. Why is more water needed?
Which method would be best to use when all the food value
is to be retained?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you know about the growing of rice?
2. In what forms is rice sold? Which has the most food
value ? Which is better in appearance ?
3. What is the price of polished rice per pound? of un-
polished rice?
4. How is macaroni made? What nation eats a great deal
of macaroni ?
5. What is spaghetti ? vermicelli?
6. How is hominy made ?
7. What are hominy grits? hominy flakes?
8. What food may hominy replace in a meal?
9. In what kind of package is cornstarch usually sold?
What is the price?
10. What is tapioca?
11. In what two forms may tapioca be purchased?
12. Which is the easier to use ?
MEAT
The flesh of animals is called meat. The principal
kinds used in the United States are beef, veal,
mutton, lamb and pork.
The slaughtering and packing of meat is one of the
most important industries in the United States and
is one that is governed by many federal and State
laws. These are necessary, because meat used as
food must be clean and free from harmful bacteria,
as well as from parasites, which are tiny living crea-
tures in the flesh of unhealthy animals.
Clean meat is that from animals free from disease,
120 FOODS AND COOKERY
slaughtered under sanitary conditions, and kept in
a cold place away from flies, dust and other dirt
until sold to the housekeeper. The large packing
firms have their plants well equipped to carry on
this work according to law. Some of the small
slaughterhouses used by butchers are not clean and
are not good places for handling meat.
The meat market or shop must be kept clean,
and the men handling the meat must wear clean
clothes and have clean hands if the meat is to be
kept in good condition. As soon as fresh meat
comes from the market the paper wrapping should
be removed and the meat put in a cool place, away
from flies and dust.
In order to thoroughly understand what cooking
does to meat, one must understand its structure.
Meat is composed of muscle fibers held together by
connective tissue. Each fiber is composed of
bundles of tiny tubes filled with muscle juice com-
posed of water in which are protein, mineral matter,
coloring matter and extractives. The extractives
give the flavor to meat. In between the muscles,
and surrounding the tubes, are the particles or
globules of fat.
When meat is cooked the connective tissue is
softened, the flavor is improved and changes take
place in the muscle juice. Meat is either tender or
tough, depending upon the age of the animal and
the part of the carcass from which it comes. The
tough portions come from the much exercised sections
of the animal's body. The tough cuts usually
have more flavor, contain as much food value, and
when well cooked are as pleasant to the taste as
the tender cuts. The tough cuts cost less than the
FOODS AND COOKERY 121
tender because there are fewer tender cuts in the
animal carcass.
Tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully
in dry heat by (1) broiling, (2) pan-broiling and
(3) roasting. The tough cuts are best when cooked
in moist heat by (1) stewing, (2) braising and (3)
pot-roasting.
When selecting meat at the market it is important
to know the names of the several cuts and also the
part of the animal carcass from which the cuts are
taken, in order to decide which method is best to
use in cooking them.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MEATS TENDER CUTS
Experiments : 1. Take a small piece of tough lean meat
and scrape with the dull edge of the knife, scraping
both sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass
or framework of the meat. Of what is this framework
made?
2. Place the stringy mass in a frying-pan and heat
for a few minutes. What is the result ?
3. Pour a little water in the frying-pan, cover pan
and simmer slowly for twenty minutes. What effect
has the moist heat had on the stringy mass ?
What would be the best methods to use in cooking
tough meats? Why?
4. Place one cube of meat in a small amount of cold
water and let boil three minutes. Place another cube
of meat in a small amount of boiling water and boil
three minutes. Examine the liquid on both. Do
they differ ? Why ? Which method would you use for
making soup? Which when the meat itself is to be
used? Why?
122 FOODS AND COOKERY
PAN-BROILED STEAK
Wipe steak with a damp cloth. Have frying-pan very
hot. Rub a little fat over the bottom of the frying-pan.
Place the steak in the frying-pan, sear on one side, then
on the other; turn very often and cook until done ac-
cording to taste. Place on warmed platter, sprinkle with
salt and pepper, and with bits of butter if desired.
A steak for broiling should be at least one inch thick.
To cook a steak of this thickness to a medium degree re-
quires about fifteen minutes.
Lamb chops, mutton chops, or pork chops may be broiled
in the same way.
A broiler may be used instead of the frying-pan if there
is one available.
BOAST OF BEEF
Wipe the roast with a damp cloth. Place in a roasting-
pan in a very hot oven. Roast ten minutes, or until the
meat is seared. Dredge the roast with salt, pepper and a
little flour. Reduce heat in the oven and continue roast-
ing until done according to taste ; about fifteen or twenty
minutes must be allowed for each pound to cook to a
medium degree. A little water may be added which
may be used for basting the meat. A large roast is
always more juicy than a small one, four or five pounds
is as small a roast as should be used to obtain good results.
Meat may be roasted in the fireless cooker, if desired.
CASSEROLE OF BEEF
2 c. left-over cooked beef ^ c. canned tomatoes
1 c. gravy onion, thinly sliced
c. celery cut in small pieces j tsp. salt
| c. carrot cut in small cubes -^ tsp. pepper
1 c. potato cubes
Mix together and place in a casserole ; cover. Bake
slowly one hour. Serve from casserole.
FOODS AND COOKERY 123
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the principal kinds of meat used in the United
States?
2. Why must meat be kept clean?
3. What is clean meat?
4. Describe the structure of meat.
5. What are the foodstuffs found in meat?
6. What is the chief value of meat as food ?
7. What changes take place in meat when it is cooked ?
8. What makes meat tough?
9. From what parts of the animal are the tough cuts ob-
tained?
10. How may tender cuts be cooked? How should tough
cuts be cooked ?
11. Make a plan for dinner in which casserole of beef might
be correctly served ; roast beef ; broiled steak.
12. What other meats might be used in place of the beef in
the casserole of beef ?
MEAT (Continued)
BEEF
After beef is butchered, the carcass is first split
lengthwise into two sides of beef, then each side is
divided crosswise into the fore quarter and the hind
quarter. The quarters are divided into the " cuts " or
pieces as we buy them in the meat-shop. Different
butchers make these cuts in slightly different ways,
but in general they are the same.
By looking at the chart showing the cuts of beef
one can learn to what section the various cuts be-
long.
The following are the usual methods of cooking the
most common cuts :
Roasting : rib, loin, round, chuck.
Pot-roasting : chuck, rump.
124
FOODS AND COOKERY
FOODS AND COOKERY 125
Broiling : porterhouse, Delmonico or club steak,
sirloin, T-bone steak.
Soup-making : neck, brisket, leg.
Braising : flank, chuck.
The fireless cooker is very useful in cooking tough
meats, because they need long slow cooking if they
are to be tender and juicy. Heat coagulates or
"sets" the protein in the muscle tubes, and when
Copyright. 1915, by E. C. Bridoman.
AMERICAN MEAT-CUTTING CHART VEAL
the meat is cooked at a high temperature the protein
becomes tough, just as the egg-white does when an
egg is boiled.
When meat is cooked, the object sought is to
coagulate quickly the muscle juice in the ends of
the tubes so that they are closed and no juice can
escape; this process is called searing. Meat is
seared, either by plunging it into boiling water, by
placing it in a very hot oven, over hot coals, or in a
126 FOODS AND COOKERY
very hot frying-pan. After the meat is seared, the
temperature should be lowered and the meat cooked
slowly. When broiling meat, keep the fire very
hot and turn the meat every two or three minutes,
in order to keep the meat at the proper heat.
Veal is meat from a calf about two months old.
Mutton is meat from a sheep about two years
old.
Lamb is meat from a sheep less than one year old.
Copyright, 191 5, by E. C. Bridgman.
AMERICAN MEAT-CUTTING CHART LAMB
Spring Lamb is from a sheep eight weeks to three
months old.
Pork is meat from the hog, and is used in great
quantities. The cuts are shown on the chart.
Bacon and ham are very generally used because they
are both "cured" and can be shipped and easily
kept.
Leaf lard is made from leaf fat (layers of pork fat),
and is the best quality of lard.
>
FOODS AND COOKERY
127
Sausage is made of ground pork scraps, or trim-
mings; it is sold in bulk, or is stuffed in casings
which are made of the treated skin of the intestines
of the hog.
Meat contains such a large amount of protein
that it is considered an important food for body-
building. We do not need to eat as much meat as
we usually do, because other foods can supply the
CopyrlgU, 1915, bv E. C. Bridgman.
AMERICAN MEAT-CUTTING CHART PORK
necessary protein. There is probably no person
who needs meat three times a day. When meats
are expensive, well balanced meals may be planned
without the use of much meat.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
What is the price per pound of the following :
round steak, rump-beef roast, chuck-beef roast,
porterhouse steak, a whole ham, slice of ham, side
of bacon, sliced bacon, mutton chops, veal steak,
rib-pork roast ?
128 FOODS AND COOKERY
Is there a slaughterhouse in the neighborhood ?
Where are the large packing plants from which
the local butcher buys meat? What firms manage
the largest packing plants in the world ?
See if you can find the government inspection
stamp on any of the meat which is used in your
home. What does this indicate?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
MEATS TOUGH CUTS
SWISS STEAK
Place on a meat-board a piece of steak one inch thick
cut from the round. Wipe the meat with a damp cloth,
and pound flour into it, using the dull edge of a heavy
saucer or small plate to pound with. Pound on both sides
thoroughly. The pounding breaks apart the muscle of
the meat, and helps to make it tender.
Have a frying-pan hot ; in this place some fat and when
it is melted place the meat in the pan. Brown the meat
on both sides, and sprinkle it with salt and pepper. Add
boiling water to half cover the meat. Tomato juice may
be used instead, if desired. Chop onion, green peppers
and carrots, and place over and around the meat. Cover
and place in slow oven or fireless cooker. Cook until the
meat is tender.
POT BOAST
Use a piece of rump for this. Wipe the meat with a
damp cloth, and brown it in hot fat in the frying-pan.
Place in a kettle, add boiling water until the meat is half
covered. Diced carrots, turnips, onions, or celery may
be added if desired. Place in a fireless cooker, or simmer
gently on the stove until the meat is tender. For gravy,
the water in which the meat is cooked may be thickened
or served as it is.
FOODS AND COOKERY 129
BEEF STEW
1 lb. beef (tough cut) 1 carrot
2 potatoes \ onion
Flour Salt and pepper
Cut beef in one-inch pieces, dredge with flour. Brown
the onion, and then the meat, in hot fat in a frying-pan.
If there is fat that can be removed from the meat, this
may be used in the frying-pan. Add enough boiling water
to nearly cover the meat. Cook until the meat is almost
done, then add the diced vegetables and cook until the
vegetables are done. The liquid may be thickened before
serving, if desired. If the stew is placed in the fireless
cooker the vegetables may be added at first, since it is not
desirable to open the cooker before the meat is done.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a "side of beef"? a "quarter of beef"? a "cut
of beef"?
2. Name some cuts of meat coming from the fore quarter of
beef ; from the hind quarter.
3. What cuts of beef should be used for broiling? for pot-
roasting? for roasting? for braising?
4. What is meant by "searing"? How is meat seared ?
5. What is meant when the recipe says "dredge" the meat
with flour?
6. What is veal? mutton? lamb? pork?
7. What is "leaf lard"?
8. How is sausage made?
9. Do we need to eat meat three times a day?
10. What foods can sometimes be substituted for meat in
the diet?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A DINNER
Suggested Menu : Broiled pork chops
Baked stuffed potatoes
Creamed onions
Baking-powder biscuit
Banana salad
130 FOODS AND COOKERY
Estimate the cost of the meal.
Discuss order of work.
What dishes will be used?
SOUPS
When meat, bone and gristle are boiled in water,
the liquid that remains after the boiling is called
stock. This is used in making soup.
When stock stands, it sometimes forms a jelly-
like mass that is called gelatine. This gelatine is
formed from the connective tissue which is present
in the meat, bones and gristle, and which is soluble
in hot water.
Commercial gelatine is usually sold in small pack-
ages. It is made from the skin, ligaments and bones
of animals, and is largely used in making desserts
and salads. Gelatine is a form of protein, and has
some food value.
When meat is prepared for making soups, it is cut
into small pieces and put into cold water to allow
the juice to soak out of the muscle tubes as much
as it will. The extractives are also drawn out of
the meat by the water.
Meat stock alone contains very little food value,
but by adding milk, vegetables, or bits of meat, we
make it much more valuable as a food. Soups made
from plain meat stock have a value, however, be-
cause the extractives cause the digestive juices to
become more active, and it is for this purpose
that clear soups are served at the beginning of
a meal.
FOODS AND COOKERY 131
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SOUPS AND GELATINE
SOUP STOCK
Soup stock may be made from fresh meat, bone and
gristle, or it may be made from trimmings and left-over
meats. There may be several kinds of meat cooked to-
gether to make the stock. Some housekeepers keep a
" soup-kettle " in which scraps of meat, bone and trim-
mings are placed. When there is enough in the kettle,
water is added and the stock made. Meat scraps must
not be kept too long, however.
Bouillon is the cleared stock made from beef. Consomm&
is the cleared stock made from two or three kinds of
meat.
Soup stock is used, in combination with other liquids,
in soups and gravies, or with vegetables in vegetable soup.
If fresh meats are used in making stock, the meat itself
should be used in some other way, because it contains
about as much protein as fresh meat. It is tasteless, and
must be well seasoned or used with highly flavored vege-
tables. This meat may be used in croquettes, hash, meat
pies, and in casserole of vegetables and meat.
BEEP STOCK
2 Ib. beef 2 qt. cold water
1 tsp. salt .
Cut the meat into small pieces ; crack the bone (let the
butcher do this when you buy fresh meat) ; pour the
water over this and let stand one hour. Simmer for three
hours. Strain and let cool. For bouillon remove the
fat from the top of the stock and strain the stock through
cheesecloth ; season with a bay leaf or cloves, pepper and
salt, and re-heat. Sometimes egg-white is used for clear-
ing bouillon, using white and shell. How could this be
done?
132 FOODS AND COOKERY
VEGETABLE SOUP
2 qt. stock 1 carrot, diced
1 onion, sliced 1 turnip, diced
1 stalk of celery or dried celery leaves Salt and pepper
Any left-over vegetables may be used. Barley, maca-
roni, or rice are sometimes added. Add the vegetables
to the stock. Simmer gently until vegetables are heated
through or cooked.
Experiments : 1. Examine various kinds of gelatine that
can be purchased in the store. How do they differ?
What is the price per ounce ?
2. Place one fourth teaspoon of gelatine in one table-
spoon cold water, let stand five minutes. What has
happened ? Add two tablespoons boiling water. Does
the gelatine dissolve?
3. Add two tablespoons of boiling water to one fourth
teaspoon gelatine. What happens? What method
should be used in making gelatine dishes ?
PERFECTION SALAD
\ c. sugar 2 tbsp. granulated gelatine
\ c. cold water 1 tsp. salt
\ c. vinegar 2 c. sliced celery
2 c. boiling water 1 c. shredded cabbage
Juice of one lemon 3 pimentos, chopped
Soak the gelatine in the cold water for a few minutes.
Add the boiling water and sugar. Stir until all the
gelatine and sugar are dissolved. Add lemon juice, vinegar
and salt. Let cool until mixture begins to "set", then
stir in vegetables. Wet the inside of individual molds
with cold water. Pour in gelatine mixture. Keep in
cold place until " set." Remove from mold, serve on
lettuce with mayonnaise dressing.
LEMON JELLY
1 tbsp. granulated gelatine f c. sugar
\ c. cold water \\ c. boiling water
J c. lemon juice f tsp. salt
FOODS AND COOKERY 133
Follow directions for mixing given under Perfection
Salad. Pour mixture at once into large mold. When it is
cold and " set ", remove from mold and garnish with
whipped cream.
KEVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is "stock"?
2. Give directions for making "stock."
3. In what ways is meat stock used ?
4. How is bouillon prepared ?
5. Of what value in the diet are clear soups ?
6. Why should the meat left from stock be used ?
7. In what ways may this meat be used ?
8. From what is commercial gelatine made ?
9. Why should the vegetables not be added to the gelatine
mixture until it begins to "set"?
10. Make a plan for a meal in which it would be proper to
serve vegetable soup.
11. Make a dinner plan, using lemon jelly as the dessert.
12. Make a plan for a meal in which it would be correct to
serve Perfection Salad.
POULTRY, GAME AND FISH
Poultry is the name given to domestic birds suit-
able for food, such as chicken, turkey, goose and
duck. Game is the name given to wild birds and
animals that are hunted for food, such as quail,
partridges, wild ducks and geese. Pigeons and
squabs are classed as game. In the United States
game has become very scarce and is little used for
food.
Chicken is used more than any other kind of
poultry, and can be purchased in the market at
any season of the year. A spring chicken is a
chicken not more than four months old. A broiler
is a young chicken that weighs about a pound, or a
134 FOODS AND COOKERY
pound and a half. In selecting chickens in the mar-
ket, it is necessary to know how to tell the age. A
young chicken will have smooth yellow legs, and
the end of the breast bone will be soft and flexible,
while an older bird has scaly legs and a firm breast
bone. In a dressed bird, a large number of small
pinfeathers indicates that it is young, while long
hairs in place of pinfeathers show age in the bird.
The breast or white meat of chicken is especially
tender because it is composed of short fibers with
a small amount of connective tissue and very little
fat. Because of the structure of the meat and its
low percentage of fat, white meat is easily digested,
and is therefore often used in invalid cookery.
Poultry and game are much like meat in food
value, and when either is served it takes the place
of meat in the meal.
FISH
The flesh of fish is not unlike the flesh of meat,
and can be used as a meat substitute.
In some sections of this country fish can be
obtained fresh, and is best when cooked soon after
being caught. Fresh fish is more difficult to keep
in good condition than meat, and is therefore not
easily shipped. When fresh fish can be purchased,
it should be used often to vary the diet. Many
kinds of fish are canned, dried, salted or smoked,
and in these forms are found in every local market ;
but fresh fish is not easily obtained inland, in
many cases because there is no demand for it.
Oysters are one form of shellfish used as food.
The oyster is protected by a hard shell covering.
This shell is usually removed before the oyster is
FOODS AND COOKERY 135
sold in the market. The name "Blue Point ", and
other special names, formerly indicated the locality
where the oysters were grown, but this is no longer
the case.
Oysters stand shipping well, and are sold in most
localities during the winter months at least. While
oysters have little food value, they are much liked
for their flavor.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
POULTRY AND FISH
To dress a chicken : 1 . Remove feathers by pulling them
out, after plunging the fowl into boiling water and hold-
ing it there for a moment or two. Fowls are sometimes
picked without scalding, if the work can be done im-
mediately after they are killed.
2. Singe the plucked fowl by holding it in a flame
of gas or burning paper, being sure that all parts are
exposed during the process so that all hairs are removed.
3. Cut off the head, if it has not been removed.
The neck may be removed by pushing back the skin
and cutting it off.
4. Remove the feet by cutting and breaking the
legs at the joints.
5. Make an incision one inch above the vent and
crosswise between the legs. Draw out the intestines
and other organs carefully, cutting away the vent.
Remove from the mass the heart, liver and gizzard,
being careful not to break the gall bladder which lies
under the liver. Cut the gall bladder away carefully.
6. Remove the skin from around the gizzard ; open
the gizzard and remove the inner skin and contents.
7. Wash the liver, gizzard and heart, squeezing the
latter to remove any blood. These organs are known
as the " giblets."
136 FOODS AND COOKERY
8. The crop and windpipe may be removed at the
neck. Do this without breaking the crop, or tearing
the skin at the neck.
9. Remove all pinfeathers with a sharp-pointed,
small knife. Remove the oil bag from the tail.
10. Wash the chicken well in cold water, both inside
and out. Dry with a cloth. The fowl is now ready
to be used for baking.
1 1 . When a fowl is to be cut into pieces, as for stewing,
it is usually convenient to remove the wings and legs
before removing the intestines and other organs from
the body.
Poultry should always be allowed to stand several
hours after dressing before it is cooked.
STEWED CHICKEN
Place the pieces of chicken in a kettle and cover with
boiling water ; boil a few minutes ; then add one table-
spoon salt, and cook slowly until the meat is tender when
pierced with a fork. Remove chicken to a warm platter
and set in a warm place. Add milk to the liquid in which
the chicken was cooked. Thicken with flour, and cook
for five minutes. Pour over chicken and serve.
Dumplings may be served with the stewed chicken if
desired. These are cooked by placing them on top of the
pieces of chicken in the kettle, keeping the dough out of
the water as far as possible. Cover the kettle tightly.
Cook twenty minutes. Remove dumplings and chicken ;
thicken gravy and serve. Dumplings of this kind are
made like baking-powder biscuits, except that the dough
is not so stiff.
SCALLOPED OYSTERS
1 pt. oysters 4 tbsp. butter
3 c. bread crumbs or Milk
2 c. cracker crumbs tsp. pepper
| tsp. salt
FOODS AND COOKERY 137
Look over the oysters carefully, removing any bits of
shell or other refuse. Drain the liquor from the oysters
by straining it through a wire sieve. Wash the oysters
by dipping the sieve into water, or by allowing water
from the faucet to run through them. Melt the butter
in a frying-pan ; add the crumbs, salt and pepper. Place
a layer of crumbs in a buttered baking-dish, then a layer
of oysters, then a layer of crumbs, until the dish is filled,
finishing with a layer of crumbs on top. Add the liquor
left from draining the oysters, and just enough milk to
show on the top at the side of the dish. Bake in a moderate
oven forty to fifty minutes.
FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH
Clean the fish carefully, being sure that all the scales
are removed. Split the fish on the under side, lengthwise,
and clean the inside carefully. A large fish can then be
cut into pieces of the desired length ; a small fish need not
be cut. Roll each piece in equal parts of corn meal and
flour, or in egg and bread crumbs as for croquettes. Fry
in deep fat or saute* in the frying-pan until tender. Tomato
sauce may be served with the fish if desired.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is included under the name poultry?
2. What is included under game ?
3. What is a " spring chicken"? a broiler?
4. How may the age of a fowl be determined ?
5. What is the white meat of a chicken ?
6. Is it tender or tough ? Explain the structure.
7. What foods should not be used in a meal when chicken is
served ?
8. In what forms may fish be found in every market ?
9. What kinds of fish, fit for food, are caught in the rivers
and lakes in this locality ?
10. In what ways have you seen fresh fish served, other than
fried or saut^ed ?
11. What is the price of oysters per quart? per pint?
138 FOODS AND COOKERY
12. How are oysters kept at the store?
13. Is it economical to serve scalloped oysters and meat in
the same meal? Why?
DESSERTS
Desserts may be divided into four large groups :
(1) fruits, either fresh, dried, or cooked, (2) puddings,
(3) pastry, (4) frozen desserts ; as a fifth, cakes may
be added.
Elaborate desserts, which require a great length
of time spent in preparation, should not be used often
in most households, because simple desserts taste
just as well and the housekeeper may use her time
for more useful work, or for recreation.
In choosing a dessert to use at the end of a meal,
one must consider what foods have already been
served in the other courses. If everyone has had
all the food needed and feels satisfied before dessert
is served, it is then a wise plan to omit dessert.
When a dessert is served after a heavy meal it should
consist of fruit or a gelatine pudding, rather than of
pie or a rich pudding. When pie is served it should
follow a meal in which little fat and protein have
been eaten. No one should eat pie three times a
day, nor every day.
A pie should have a light, flaky, tender crust that
is thoroughly baked. Pie crust must be chewed
thoroughly, since even the best is hard to digest.
It is easier to make tender pie crust from pastry
flour, because that contains less gluten and more
starch than bread flour. Bread flour may be used,
however. Many kinds of fat are used in pie crust,
such as lard, butter, vegetable fats and oils. Fat
makes the crust " short" and flaky, and is often
FOODS AND COOKERY 139
called " shortening ." The crust is made tender by
careful handling, and by folding and rolling several
times so that air is folded into the dough. This
air, and the steam formed from the water used in
the mixture, expand the dough during baking and
make the pie crust light.
Desserts containing eggs and milk should be served
only at the end of a meal when little protein has
been eaten in the other courses.
Frozen desserts may be made, mainly of cream,
milk, eggs and sugar, such as plain ice cream,
French ice cream, or mousse ; or they may be made
of water, fruit juice and sugar, such as sherbet,
water ice or frappe*.
Desserts are frozen by the use of ice mixed with
coarse or "rock" salt in the proportion of one part
of salt to three parts of cracked ice. When ice
melts, heat is absorbed from the surrounding ma-
terials. When salt is added, the ice melts at a
lower temperature and a greater amount of heat is
absorbed. The freezing of the mixture, in a can
surrounded by ice, is brought about because the
ice and salt absorb the heat from the contents of
the can.
In freezing a mixture that is to be of a fine smooth
texture, it is necessary to turn the crank of the
freezer slowly and steadily. Ices and sherbets do
not need such careful beating, and mousse is not
beaten at all after it is put into the freezer.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Plan a dinner, consisting of meat, vegetables and
salad, that is suitable for the season.
140 FOODS AND COOKERY
Plan one consisting of meat, vegetables, salad
and dessert, suitable for the season.
Plan a " one-dish " meal.
Would other foods need to be added for the small
child ? If so, what would you add ?
Plan a dinner in which custard pie might be served.
The following dinner will be served during the
next laboratory period :
Swiss steak with gravy
Candied sweet potatoes
Salad : green beans, chopped onion and parsley, with
French dressing
Lemon gelatine with whipped cream
Make a plan for preparing the dinner. What
proportions of each recipe should be made for the
number to be served ?
Make a list of the food, with the amount that
will be needed for the meal. Give the order in
which the food is to be prepared. What dishes will
be needed for serving the meal in the English style ?
Bring the plan to class for discussion.
Find in the dictionary or encyclopedia what you
can about spices, such as nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon,
mustard and ginger; also about pepper .. and salt.
How is vinegar made? From what is extract of
vanilla made ?
LABORATORY EXERCISES
DESSERTS
PLAIN PASTRY
1 c. flour \ tsp. salt
J c. lard Ice water
FOODS AND COOKERY 141
Sift the flour before measuring it. Add salt to flour,
and sift again. Cut in shortening with two knives. Add
just enough water to make a dough that can be rolled.
Chill, roll out, fold, roll again, repeating two or three
times.
When a crust is to be baked without a filling, the dough
may be placed on the outside of the pie-pan turned up-
side down. Prick the crust well with a fork to keep it
from blistering. A pie crust should be baked in a hot oven.
Care must be taken, however, not to burn the edges.
Let members of the class suggest fillings for a one-crust
pie. Perhaps some can bring a good recipe that may be
used in class.
Fruit pies are much easier digested if they are made
with only a top crust. The fruit is placed in a deep pie-
pan of earthenware, enamel ware, or glass. The crust
is then placed over the top, pressed down well on the edge,
and baked. When two crusts are used, the lower crust
must be baked thoroughly and the pie should be removed
from the pan as soon as it is taken from the oven. The
steam which collects on the pan has a tendency to make
the lower crust soggy.
This is a good pudding to use for Thanksgiving or
Christmas :
STEAMED PUDDING
2 c. bread crumbs c. suet
J tsp. soda | c. molasses
ts&. cloves 1 egg
I tsp. cinnamon c. milk
I tsp. salt c. currants
c. raisins
Mix a little flour with the suet, then chop it in a chop-
ping-bowl with a chopping-knife, or put it through the
meat-grinder. Beat the egg and add the milk. Wash
the raisins and currants in a wire strainer by running cold
water through them ; dry on a towel ; cut the raisins in
halves. Mix the raisins and currants with a little flour,
142 FOODS AND COOKERY
as this makes them mix with the dough more easily. Add
crumbs, spices, soda, currants, raisins and suet to the
milk-and-egg mixture. Then add the molasses. Pour
into a well greased pudding mold. Steam two hours.
Remove lid of pudding mold, place pudding in oven and
bake for a few minutes. Serve with any kind of sauce
desired.
HARD SAUCE
I c. butter 1 tsp. vanilla
1 c. powdered sugar
Cream the butter and add sugar gradually, beating
until the sauce is light and creamy; add flavoring. Set
in a cool place until served.
PUDDING SAUCE
\ c. sugar 3 tbsp. butter
\ c. water J tsp. vanilla
A little cinnamon or nutmeg may be added
Boil together until the sauce is of the desired thickness.
This may be varied by pouring the hot liquid over a well
beaten egg. Beat mixture thoroughly. Why should the
mixture be poured over the egg slowly ?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Into what groups may desserts be divided?
2. Should elaborate desserts be served often in most homes ?
Why?
3. When should pie be eaten?
4. What is ' ' shortening ' ' ?
5. State the characteristics of a good pie crust.
6. What makes the crust "light"?
7. What kind of desserts may be served at the end of a heavy
meal?
8. What materials are used for freezing desserts? in what
proportions ?
9. Explain the freezing of ice cream.
10. How is a smooth texture obtained in a frozen mixture?
FOODS AND COOKERY 143
LABORATORY EXERCISES
SERVE A DINNER
Suggested Menu for a company dinner :
Bouillon, wafers
Swiss steak with gravy
Candied sweet potatoes
Salad : green beans, chopped onion and parsley
Lemon gelatine with whipped cream
Date cakes
Plan other company dinners.
Plan a menu for a Thanksgiving dinner.
Plan a menu for a Christmas dinner.
Discuss the cost of all meals served.
THE DAILY MEALS OF THE FAMILY
GROUP
The three meals that are eaten daily by the family
group have been studied separately, but before leav-
ing the subject it is necessary to consider the making
of the plans for the day and for the week. One
meal may be planned correctly, but the diet is not
well balanced unless the three meals for each and
every day furnish the proper amount of foodstuffs
for body-building and for warmth and energy.
How, then, shall one know when enough of the
right kind of food is eaten ? Persons who have
studied the science of nutrition have set standards
to follow that are a great help to the housekeeper.
Heat and energy furnished by a given amount of
food are measured by the scientist, and the unit of
measure that he uses is called a Calorie. A Calorie
is the amount of heat required to raise the tempera-
144
FOODS AND COOKERY
ture of one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit,
or a kilogram of water one degree centigrade.
By placing food in a food calorimeter, a machine
designed for the purpose, it is possible to measure
SERVING THE DINNEB WITH A TEA-CART
FOODS AND COOKERY
145
how much heat will be produced from a certain
amount of food when it is burned, or oxidized. In
a machine called a respiration calorimeter, it is
possible to measure the amount of warmth and energy
used by a person in doing work, or in merely keeping
the body warm and active. Even when quiet, a
certain amount of energy is being used by the body,
as for example in breathing.
Since, then, the scientist is able to measure in
Calories the amount of heat required by the body,
and is also able to measure how many Calories are
furnished by portions of different foods, it becomes
possible for him to set a standard for the daily re-
quirements of food. This requirement varies with
the age, the size, the weight and the work being
done by the person eating the food.
The following is one standard of food requirements :
WARMTH AND ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR ONE DAY
MEMBER OF FAMILY
AGE
WEIGHT
IN
POUNDS
TOTAL
CALORIES
REQUIRED
Man .
40
154
2770
Woman .
37
125
2250
Baby .
1
21
840
Boy
3
35
1400
Boy
12
75
2250
Girl
6
41
1394
Girl
9
56
1848
Woman
90
110
1500
Total . . .
14252
A list of the number of Calories furnished by a
pound of the different foods has been made and
146 FOODS AND COOKERY
published in a bulletin issued by the Office of Ex-
periment Stations, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C. It is entitled "The
Chemical Composition of American Food Materials."
It is difficult, however, to learn from this bulletin,
without the use of a great deal of arithmetic, just
how much food should be used 'to furnish a certain
number of Calories, and for this reason there have
been prepared convenient tables of standard portions
of the dishes ordinarily used . A " standard portion ' '
is the amount needed to furnish 100 Calories and it is
sometimes called a "100-Calorie portion."
At the end of this section will be found a list of
100-Calorie portions of foods.
The following method should be used when calcu-
lating the number of Calories being served in a meal :
1. Make a list of the foods to be used.
2. Decide on the size of the portion of each to be
served as, for example, whether a whole orange
or one half orange is the amount to be used.
3. Look at the table of " 100-Calorie portions " and
find the size of the portion of each food needed to
furnish 100 Calories to the body.
4. If the portion furnishing 100 Calories is more
than you expect to serve, then multiply 100 by one
half, one third, or by whatever proportion of the " 100-
Calorie portion" is to be served, to determine the
number of Calories being supplied. For example,
if one cup of cooked oatmeal is a "100-Calorie por-
tion" and only a half cup of cooked oatmeal is being
served, it will be necessary to multiply 100 by ^ to
determine the number of Calories served.
5. If the portion furnishing 100 Calories is less
than the amount served, then 100 must be multiplied
FOODS AND COOKERY
147
by the number of times the portion is to be used to
make the desired serving. For example, one half
baked apple is a "100-Calorie portion", but if a
whole baked apple is to be served, it will be necessary
to multiply 100 by 2 to determine the number of
Calories supplied.
The following is an example of the way of working
out the number of Calories served for breakfast :
BREAKFAST
FOOD
AMOUNT SERVED
CALORIES
Orange
i orange
50
Whole milk to drink . . .
Oatmeal, cooked ....
Cream, this for oatmeal
Sugar for oatmeal . . .
Bread
f measuring cup
cup
icup
^ scant teaspoonful
1 slice, \ in. thick
100
50
100
25
100
Total Calories .
425
Each meal may be worked out in the same way
for each member of the family. The total amount
of the foods needed for the entire family may be
found by adding together the individual portions.
No housekeeper will need to work this out every
day, because after doing it several times she can
estimate by the amount of food she is serving whether
enough Calories are being supplied in the diet.
Other necessary points to be observed in planning
the day's diet are :
1. Furnish variety in the diet by serving different
kinds of food or by changing the method of prepara-
tion.
2. It is necessary to have all the foodstuffs repre-
148 FOODS AND COOKERY
sented in the day's diet, and it is best to have them
in good proportions in each meal.
3. An attractive meal is enjoyed by the family.
To be attractive it must be well cooked and served,
and the foods combined properly in regard to flavor
and appearance.
4. It is always wise to consider the cost, and to
remember that the most expensive foods often have
no greater food value than cheaper kinds. One
fourth to one half of the average income has to be
spent for food, and when the housekeeper is careless
in selecting the food, more money than is necessary
may be spent.
5. It is necessary to change the diet to suit the
season of the year. The body requires less food
for warmth in summer than in winter, and there is
less used for muscular energy, therefore foods con-
taining large amounts of fat are not required. Some
of the foods to be avoided in summer are hot breads,
fat meats, pastries, rich cakes, sauces and gravies.
6. It is very important to know that children need
simple, well cooked foods, that milk is essential for
every child, that butter is better for the child than
a butter substitute because the butter contains
vitamines, that fruits and cereals are essential, and
that eggs, milk and cereals are better to use than
a large quantity of meat.
7. No one can balance meals properly without
knowing which foods contain the foodstuffs needed.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Plan meals that might be used by your family for
a day hi summer.
FOODS AND COOKERY 149
Plan the meals for a day in winter.
Make a list of groups of vegetables that may
correctly be served together.
Estimate the cost of the following meal for six
persons :
Broiled mutton chops
Baked stuffed potatoes
Tomato salad with French dressing
Sliced peaches with cream
Sponge cake
LABORATORY EXERCISES
FROZEN DESSERTS
VANILLA ICE CREAM
1 qt. cream 1 tsp. vanilla
f c. sugar
Wash and scald the can, cover and dasher of the freezer.
Carefully place the can in the freezer. Place the ice in a
heavy cloth sack and pound until it is broken into very
small pieces. Crush the rock salt or coarse salt. Pack
the freezer with alternating layers of ice and salt, until the
ice is just below the top of the can. Have the ice-cream
mixture ready and pour it into the can ; place the dasher
in the can ; cover ; add ice until the can is covered. Turn
the dasher slowly and steadily until it will not turn any
more. Remove ice and salt from top of can; wipe off
carefully; remove lid from can; take out dasher care-
fully ; cover can and put a stopper in hole in cover. Drain
off all water from the tub, repack with ice and salt, using
a little less salt (about four parts ice to one part salt).
Cover the can with ice ; cover freezer ; set in cool place
and let stand several hours.
If no freezer is available, two pans may be used for
freezing, placing a small container in a larger one, and
packing the ice and salt around it. The stirring is done
150 FOODS AND COOKERY
with a spoon. This method of freezing is successful only
when a small quantity of ice cream is being made.
LEMON ICE
4 c. water 2 c. sugar
f c. lemon juice
Boil sugar and water together for five minutes. Add
lemon juice. Strain if not clear. Freeze.
CHOCOLATE MOUSSE
1 pt. cream 4 oz. chocolate
% c. powdered sugar | tsp. salt
Cut the chocolate into small pieces, or grate it. Place in
a small saucepan in a pan of boiling water until it is melted.
Whip the cream; add sugar, salt and melted chocolate.
Turn into a mold, and pack the mold in a pan of ice and
salt. Let it stand five hours.
Smaller proportions of the recipes may be made if
desired ; then the freezing will require less time.
100-CALORIE PORTIONS
While the mixtures are freezing, let the class examine
100-Calorie portions of the following foods that have been
prepared by the teacher: eggs, beefsteak, bacon, bread,
butter, oatmeal, milk, cheese, potatoes, dried beans,
apples, onions, carrots, rice, macaroni, olive oil, cotton-
seed oil.
What portion of each of these foods would usually make
one serving? Calculate how many Calories would be
furnished by the following meal, using the table at the
end of this section:
Broiled beefsteak
Baked potato
Lettuce with French dressing
Baked apple
FOODS AND COOKERY 151
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the term "Calorie."
2. What is a "standard portion"? By what other name is
it sometimes called ?
3. How do scientists determine how many Calories we need
each day ?
4. Which of the foodstuffs yield warmth and energy? Which
of these are used by the body in other ways than for the pro-
duction of warmth and energy?
5. How should the foodstuffs be distributed in the meals
eaten in one day?
6. Can you explain why the boy twelve years old requires a
greater number of Calories per day than the woman ninety years
old?
7. Are the following meals for a day well planned ? Explain
the reason for your answer.
QN BREAKFASTS / 2 )
Eggs and bacon Baked apple
Cocoa Oatmeal
Hot baking-powder biscuit Toast
Cocoa
Q\ LUNCHEONS /o\
Cream soup Bouillon
Cheese strata Apple salad with cooked dressing
Salmon salad Lemon gelatine
Bread and butter Bread and butter
/j\ DINNERS / 2 \
Roast beef Baked stuffed potatoes
Baked beans Buttered carrots
Lettuce with French dressing Fresh celery
Rice pudding Apple pie
Bread and butter Cake
8. What foods is it well to avoid in hot weather? Why?
9. Name some foods that may be served to small children ;
some that should not be served.
152
FOODS AND COOKERY
10. Why is butter better for the child than a butter substitute ?
11. State rules, regarding the purchase of food, that will help
reduce the amount of money spent.
12. What are the characteristics of an attractive meal?
100-CALORiE PORTIONS OF UNCOOKED FOODS
FOOD
WEIGHT
IN
OUNCES
MEASURE
REMARKS
Apple
74
1
large size
Bacon
06
slice
4^ by 1^ by ^ inches
Banana
5.5
1
large size
Beef, round steak . .
Butter
2.2
0.5
1 serving
1 tablespoon
2| by 2f by \ inches
Carrot
10.0
1
length 6^, diameter 2
Cabbage
11.2
5 cups
inches
shredded
Corn on cob
Cottonseed oil . . .
Cheese, American . .
Cream, 40% ...
Eecs
9.0
0.4
0.8
24
2 ears
1 tablespoon
cube
2 tablespoons
1
6 inches long
\\ inches
very large
Flour, white . . .
Lettuce
Macaroni ....
Milk, whole ....
Mutton chops . . .
Navy beans ....
Oatmeal
Olive oil
Onions
Orange
1.0
18.5
1.0
5.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
7.0
95
4| tablespoons
2 heads
i cup
f cup
1 chop
2 tablespoons
\ cup
1 tablespoon
4
1
large size
broken into 1-inch
pieces
dried
rolled
medium-sized
large
Peach
105
3
medium-sized
Peas, green ....
Rice ....
3.5
1.0
f cup
2 tablespoons
shelled
Sweet potato . .
Sugar
Tomato, fresh . f . .
3.6
0.9
15.5
potato
2 tablespoons
2 or 3
medium-sized
scant
medium-sized
FOODS AND COOKERY
100-CALORiE PORTIONS OF COOKED FOODS
153
FOOD
WEIGHT
IN
OUNCES
MEASURE
REMARKS
Apple, baked . . .
2.3
\ apple
large size, 2 tbsp. sugar
Baking-powder biscuit
1.2
2 biscuits
small
Bread, white, baker's
1.0
1 slice
\ inch thick
Corn, canned .
3.5
1 serving
French dressing
0.6
\\ tablespoons
Mashed potatoes
3.5
\ cup
scant
Mayonnaise dressing
0.5
1 tablespoon
-^- .
Potato, baked .
3.0
1
medium-sized
Oatmeal, cooked
7.9
1 cup
Saltine cracker .
0.8
8 wafers
Shredded wheat
0.9
1 biscuit
Sponge cake
0.9
piece
1 \ by \\ by 2 inches
THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS
Many kinds of fruit and vegetables; all meat, fish
and poultry, soon spoil unless preserved in some
way. The spoiling of food is brought about by
molds, yeast and bacteria, which are called micro-
organisms. Yeast and bacteria are so small that
they can be seen only through a powerful microscope,
but molds can be seen without using a microscope.
All of these microorganisms require food, warmth
and moisture for growth. They find food and
moisture in many of our foods, and because they
live in the food it changes and perhaps spoils.
Food is preserved either by killing the micro-
organisms or by hindering their growth. There are
four methods used : (1) by keeping food at a low
temperature, (2) by drying, (3) by the use of
preservatives and (4) by sterilization.
Foods in cold storage are kept at such a low temper-
ature that the growth of the microorganisms is
154 FOODS AND COOKERY
hindered. Such foods as meat, eggs, green vegetables
and fruits may be kept in this way for different
lengths of time without spoiling.
Drying is used for preserving certain fruits and
vegetables, meat and fish. The dried product
lacks the moisture required by the microorganisms
COLD-PACK CANNING
Packing asparagus into the jar.
for growth ; therefore their action in the food is
hindered.
Preservatives are materials used to hinder the
growth or to kill microorganisms. Sugar in quan-
tity, salt, vinegar and spices are harmless preserva-
tives. Saltpeter and smoke are also used. There
are also harmful substances that will preserve the
FOODS AND COOKERY 155
food, but which are not healthful to use, such as
formaldehyde, benzole and salicylic acids.
The best method for preserving food is to kill the
microorganisms by the use of heat. This process
is called sterilization. In canning, the food is
sterilized and then sealed in sterilized containers so
that no more microorganisms can reach it from the
air. Fruits, vegetables, meats, fish and poultry may
be preserved by this method.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT
MARMALADES
The general rule for the proportion of ingredients in
marmalades is as follows :
Use one half as much sugar as fruit, by weight.
Use three cups of water to each pound of sugar.
Make orange marmalade :
ORANGE MARMALADE
1^ doz. oranges Water
6 lemons Sugar
Wash fruit ; slice in very thin pieces without removing
skins; remove seeds; cut into small pieces. Weigh the
fruit, calculate the sugar that is needed; calculate the
water that is needed. Place the water over the fruit and
let it stand twenty-four hours. Boil gently for two hours,
add sugar, and boil until the syrup is as thick as desired
(usually about one hour). Place in small sterilized jars
or glasses ; set aside to cool.
When the marmalade is cool, melt paraffin and pour
over the top ; cover the jars or glasses with lids or paper.
GRAPE CONSERVE
2 qts. grape juice 2 Ibs. seeded raisins
3 Ibs. granulated sugar 1 Ib. English walnut meats
156 FOODS AND COOKERY
Boil the grape juice with the raisins and sugar, until it
thickens when a drop is placed on a cool saucer. Add
walnuts, chopped fine. Cook a few minutes; place in
sterilized jars or glasses. Cover the conserve with paraffin
when it is cold.
GRAPE JUICE
10 Ibs. Concord grapes 2 qts. water
2 Ibs. sugar
Wash the grapes and remove them from the stems, add
the water ; boil until the skins are soft. Strain through a
wet jelly-bag. Re-heat the juice and add the sugar;
boil for two or three minutes. Pour into hot sterilized
jars or bottles; seal. When corks are used in the top
of bottles, seal by using paraffin. This juice may be
made in the fall, and the conserve made during the winter.
The grapes left in the jelly-bag may be run through a
wire sieve, and the pulp added to the grape conserve, if
the conserve is to be made at the same time as the grape
juice. If not, the pulp may have sugar added and be
boiled until thickened, and used as grape butter.
SWEET PICKLED PEACHES
7 Ibs. peaches (after stones are 2 oz. cinnamon
removed) 1 qt. vinegar
3 Ibs. sugar 2 oz. cloves
Make a syrup of the sugar, vinegar, stick cinnamon and
cloves ; boil until it is thickened. Cut peaches in halves.
Add peaches and cook until they are tender. Remove
each piece with a spoon and pack in a sterilized jar ; boil
the syrup until it is thick, and pour it over the fruit.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What causes the spoiling of fruits, vegetables and meats?
2. How is food preserved ?
3. What foods are kept in cold storage ?
4. What foods may be dried ?
FOODS AND COOKERY
157
5. Name the materials that are used to preserve food.
6. What is the method of preservation used in making orange
marmalade? sweet pickled peaches?
7. What is meant by sterilization?
8. What is a sterilized jar? (See section on Jelly-making.)
9. Why must the sterilized jars be used while they are hot,
and without wiping them out with a towel?
10. Which method of preservation is the best to use for food
when it must be kept for long periods ?
CANNING
Canning may be done in two ways :
1. Open-kettle method, when the food is cooked
until it is tender and sterilized, and is then put in
TYPES OP CANNERS
Left to right : hot-water bath, steam cooker, pressure cooker.
sterilized jars and immediately sealed. This is the
oldest method of canning foods.
2. Cold-pack method, when the food is packed in
jars, the jar filled with liquid, which may be
syrup, water, or broth, the rubber adjusted to
the can, the cover placed in position, but only
158
FOODS AND COOKERY
partly screwed or clamped on, and the jar placed in
a cooker in which the food will be sterilized and
cooked until tender. The jar is then removed from
the cooker and sealed at once.
Cookers used for canning by the cold-pack process
are (1) the steam-pressure cooker, (2) the steam
cooker and (3) the hot-water bath cooker, the last
being the most commonly used. This cooker can
be made at home by using a wash-boiler or other
container that has a lid and a false bottom, or rack,
TYPES OF JARS USED IN CANNING
to raise the jars at least three quarters of an inch
or an inch . off the bottom of the container. The
steam-pressure cooker and the steam cooker are
manufactured in different types.
Canning can be done in the shortest time with the
pressure cooker, but the product is no better than
that secured with the hot- water bath. Both the
steam-pressure cooker and the steam cooker can be
used for other kinds of cookery than canning, which
makes them comparatively less expensive.
There are numerous types of jars that may be
used, and any type is satisfactory when the cover
FOODS AND COOKERY
159
fits well and is in a sanitary condition. Many old
screw-top jars are not fit to use unless new lids are
purchased, because dirt cannot be cleaned from the
crevices when it has collected in the old lids. In
buying new jars, it is better to select those with glass
lids and a large "mouth" or opening. Tin cans
may be used instead of glass, but any food that
will keep in tin will be more easily and safely canned
in glass. Tin is used in commercial canning, be-
cause tin containers can be more easily packed and
shipped.
Good can-rubbers are necessary if the products
placed in the cans are to keep well. Rubbers should
ATTRACTIVE JARS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
be tested before being used, by stretching them to
see if they will break, and by doubling them together
and pressing at the fold to see whether the rubber
will crack. Good rubbers will not be affected by
either test.
Select for canning, firm fresh fruit that is not over-
ripe, vegetables that are fresh and crisp, and meat
that is in perfect condition. If poor products are
used, the results will be poor.
Vegetables and meat are most successfully canned
by the cold-pack method. Fruits keep their shape
and color better when canned by this method, but
160 FOODS AND COOKERY
the open-kettle method may be used more success-
fully with fruits than with vegetables and meats.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CANNING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
To can pears by the cold-pack method : Wash the pears,
peel, cut into halves and remove the cores. Place in a
clean, hot, tested jar, packing carefully. Over the
pears pour boiling syrup until the can is filled to within
one fourth inch of top ; adjust lid and partially seal.
Place can in hot-water bath cooker, having the water
deep enough to come one inch above the top of the can.
The time for boiling, or " processing " as it is called,
is given in the table at the end of the lesson. Remove
can from cooker and seal at once. Follow the directions
about removing the can which come with the pressure
cooker. Never remove the lid from the can after
processing. Turn the can upside down, so that it can
be observed for leakage (which means a poor seal) and
place where there is no draft. Lay a towel over the cans
until they are partly cooled. This will prevent any chance
of a draft reaching the hot can and causing it to crack.
When cold, jars may be wrapped in paper and stored, or
placed in a dark, cool, dry place without wrapping.
To test a jar : Fill the jar half full of water. Test the
can-rubber. Place the rubber and lid on can. Seal.
Turn can upside down. If it does not leak after stand-
ing a few minutes it is in good condition to use for
canning. When using the jar, be sure that the same
lid with which it was tested is replaced on the jar. If a
jar leaks, remove the lid and test with another lid. In
using glass lids there sometimes will be found a rough
spot on the lid or on the jar that may be removed by
scraping with a knife, after which the fit will be perfect.
If jars are heated before using, then hot syrup, water,
or broth may be poured into them without cracking the
FOODS AND COOKERY 161
jar, and the jar may be placed in hot water in the water
bath, which means a saving of time in cooking.
SYRUP FOR CANNING
Use three cups of sugar to two cups of water, boiling
until as thick as desired. Usually for canning fruit by the
method given for canning pears, a medium thick syrup
would be best to use. A medium thick syrup is one that has
begun to thicken and becomes sticky when cooled on the
spoon. For very sour fruits a thicker syrup should be used.
To can tomatoes by the cold-pack method : Scald or
" blanch " tomatoes 1J minutes. The easier way to do
this is to place the tomatoes in a frying-basket and set
the basket into boiling water. Lift out the basket and
dip at once into cold water. Remove from water, re-
move skins and stem-ends. Pack tightly into tested
jars, pressing down gently but firmly. This will cause
enough juice to form in the can so that no boiling water
need be added. Add 1 teaspoon salt to each quart.
Adjust rubber and lid, partially seal. Place in hot-
water bath, steam cooker, or pressure cooker. Cook for
the required length of time, as given in the table at
end of lesson. For finishing the canning, follow direc-
tions given in the recipe for canning peas.
All vegetables must be blanched, then cold-dipped
before packing in cans. This reduces the bulk, does
away with objectionable flavors and makes the color
better. In canning most vegetables, it is necessary to
add boiling water to fill the can after the food is packed
in the can. The can should be filled to within a quarter
inch of the top.
TIME TABLE FOR PROCESSING FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
This is the time required for quart jars. For pints,
reduce the time five minutes.
162
FOODS AND COOKERY
FOR HOT-
WATER BATH
FOR PRESSURE
COOKER
FOR STEAM
COOKER
BLANCH
FOR EITHER
METHOD
Minutes
Minutes
Minutes
Minutes
Apples . . .
15 to 25
5 Ibs. for 10
15-25
2
Beans, string
120 to 180
20 Ibs. for 40
120-180
5 to 10
Cherries
16
5 Ibs. for 5 to 6
16
1
Corn .
180
20 Ibs. for 40
180
5 to 15
Greens
90
20 Ibs. for 30 to 35
120
15 to 20
Peaches
20
5 Ibs. for 5 to 10
20
|
Pears .
20 to 30
5 Ibs. for 5 to 10
20
ll
Peas .
120
20 Ibs. for 40
120
5 to 10
Pineapple
20 to 30
5 Ibs. for 10
20
3
Sweet peppers
90
20 Ibs. for 35
90
10
C1 J. K '
8tn 1 A
51 Ha fnT* ^ -f n f{
O 1 f\
o tra w Dernes
Tomatoes
LO XO
22
IDS. i or o i/o o
10 Ibs. for 10
o 1O
22
% to 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name the two methods used for canning fruits, vegetables
and meats.
2. Which is the older method ? the better method ?
3. Name the types of cookers that may be used in canning.
In which can the processing be done most rapidly?
4. What are the necessary characteristics of a jar used for
canning?
5. What type of jar is best to purchase?
6. What is the price per dozen of pint jars? of quart jars?
of half-pint jars?
7. Is it advisable to use tin cans for home canning ?
8. State the method for testing rubbers.
9. How should a jar be tested before using?
10. What should be the quality of fruits and vegetables
selected for canning?
11. What is meant by the term "processing"? blanching?
12. Why must the lids never be removed from the cans after
processing?
JELLY-MAKING
Jelly is made from the juice of fruits. Good jelly
is clear, of a pleasing color, tender and firm enough
to keep its shape when turned out of the mold. It
FOODS AND COOKERY 163
should not, however, be so stiff that it does not
"quiver."
Fruit juice can be made into jelly when it con-
tains two substances, (1) pectin and (2) acid. All
fruits do not contain these in sufficient amounts
to make good jelly; and often it is necessary to
combine the juices of two fruits before the juice will
"jell." Sugar helps to make the juice form jelly,
but unless pectin
and acid are present,
no amount of sugar
will have that effect.
Fruits used for
jelly should not be
over-ripe, and some- TYPES OF J ELLY . GLASSES
times it is better to
use green fruits, because as fruit ripens it contains
less pectin and acid. Tart apples, grapes, currants,
crab apples and plums are good fruits to use for
making jelly. Sweet ripe apples, strawberries,
blackberries, peaches and pears are poor fruits
from which to make jelly.
Lemon and orange peel contain pectin in consider-
able amounts and are sometimes used to make fruit
juices "jell." Remove the yellow layer of the peel
and put the white material that is left through the
food-grinder, cover with water and let stand several
hours, then cook slowly for two or three hours, strain
the liquid and add it to the fruit juice that lacks
pectin.
Sometimes fruits lack acid and are improved for
jelly-making by adding lemon juice.
It is always best to test the juice in order to de-
termine how much sugar should be added to make
164 FOODS AND COOKERY
good jelly, since fruits of the same variety vary when
grown under different conditions. This is done by
placing one teaspoonful of fruit juice and one
teaspoonful of grain alcohol together in a glass and
allowing it to stand for five minutes. Pour slowly
from the glass and observe the mass formed ; if a
firm mass that does not break apart has been formed,
then the proportion of one cup of sugar to each cup
of j uice is correct ; if the mass breaks apart into
several pieces, use three fourths of a cup of sugar
to one cup of juice ; if the mass shows no distinct
lumps, use one half cup or less of sugar to each
cup of juice. This test saves a great deal of time
and trouble in making jelly.
In straining the juice from the fruit after cooking,
a jelly-bag is used. It is usually made from firm
cotton cloth that has been thoroughly washed and
boiled. The bag may be made three-cornered in
shape, so that the juice drips from a corner when
hung to drain.
Jelly is usually put up in glasses made for the
purpose. These should be sterilized by placing
them in cold water, bringing it to the boiling-point
and boiling for twenty minutes. Do not wipe the
glasses; take them from the water with a lifter or
wooden spoon and fill at once.
Jelly should be covered. An easy method is to
use paraffin, which may be melted and poured over
the top of the jelly. Cover the glasses, either with
the lid that comes with the regular jelly-glass, or
with white paper tied on. Store in a dark, cool, dry
place.
FOODS AND COOKERY 165
LABORATORY EXERCISES
JELLY-MAKING
Experiment : Test the following juices to determine what
proportion of sugar to juice should be used : grape,
sweet apple, plum, crab apple, peach. If necessary,
add a measured amount of juice, extracted from lemon
peel or orange peel, to the tested juice to make it respond
to the test.
CRAB APPLE JELLY
Wash the apples, cut into quarters and remove cores.
Add water to the apples, using about half as much water
as there is fruit. Boil until tender; place in wet jelly-
bag; drain, but do not squeeze bag. Measure the juice
and measure the amount of sugar to be used according
to the pectin test. Boil the juice a few minutes; add
the sugar, which has been warmed by placing in the oven ;
boil gently until the jelly coats the spoon or until a drop
" jells " when dropped on a cold saucer. Pour into hot
sterilized glasses.
What can you make from the pulp and skins in the bag ?
GRAPE JELLY
Choose grapes that are not over-ripe ; wash and pull
from stems ; place in stew-kettle ; add one cup of water
for each four quarts of grapes. Cook until the grape skins
burst and the fruit is thoroughly softened ; place in wet
jelly-bag to drain. What proportion of sugar should be
used ? Follow directions given under Crab Apple Jelly.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What two substances must fruit contain before good jelly
can be made from it?
2. Give the steps in jelly-making.
3. How should a jelly-glass be sterilized?
4. How should jelly be cared for after it is cooled?
5. What are the characteristics of good jelly?
166 FOODS AND COOKERY
CHRISTMAS LESSONS
Home-made candy, packed attractively in pretty
boxes or baskets, makes a good Christmas gift.
Small children are better without candy, but it
may be used by older persons if it is eaten in reason-
able amounts. Candy is more easily digested at
the end of a meal than between meals. Candy
contains a large proportion of sugar, and sugar
when eaten alone is irritating to the digestive
organs. A great deal of sugar is found in some
dried fruits, such as raisins, dates and figs, and
in this form sugar is better for the small child than
in candy.
Loaf, granulated and powdered are the forms in
which sugar is sold. Sugar is made either from
sugar cane or sugar beets. The juice which is
extracted goes through many processes before the
sugar is ready for the market.
When making candies that are to be of a creamy
consistency, it is better to use part glucose instead
of all granulated sugar. Commercial glucose is a syrup
that does not crystallize, and therefore helps to keep
the candy smooth and creamy. Commercial glucose
is manufactured by boiling cornstarch with an acid,
and is usually sold in tin containers.
By boiling candy mixtures to different tempera-
tures, different types of syrup may be made. It
is always best to use a candy thermometer in order
to know when the syrup is cooked enough but not
too much. When making fudge, panocha and fon-
dant, the candy should be cooked until it reaches
the "soft-ball stage", 236 F. ; for chocolate cara-
mels, cook to the "hard-ball stage", 254 F.; for
FOODS AND COOKERY 167
butterscotch, popcorn balls and molasses taffy, cook
to the "crack stage ", 270 F.
Caramelized sugar is sugar that has been heated
without moisture until it melts and becomes a brown
syrup. When this is poured over peanuts it is
known as " peanut brittle." Caramelized sugar is
used also for flavoring custards and cake icings,
and in sauces.
Other materials that may be used in cookery to
take the place of sugar are honey, maple sugar and
syrups of different kinds.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
CANDIES
FONDANT
2 c. granulated sugar | c. cold water
Mix the sugar and water, place in saucepan over the
fire and stir until sugar is dissolved. Allow the syrup to
boil gently until it reaches the " soft-ball " stage. Turn
into a greased platter and let stand until a thin film forms
on the top, then beat with a wooden spoon until it be-
comes creamy and white. Wash the hands in cold water
and knead the fondant. Wrap the fondant in oiled paper
and let it stand in the ice-box a few hours, or longer if
desired. It is then in good condition for making into
various kinds of candy.
Use in the following ways :
1. Add chopped English walnut meats to some of the
fondant, flavor with vanilla, mold into balls.
2. Cover almonds with flavored fondant.
3. Remove the seeds from dates and refill with the
flavored fondant.
4. With a toothpick, take up a tiny bit of coloring ma-
terial and add to fondant. Knead until thoroughly mixed,
add any flavoring preferred, mold into shape desired.
168 FOODS AND COOKERY
PEANUT BRITTLE
1 c. sugar | c. peanuts
Place sugar in frying-pan over fire and stir until the
sugar is melted and the syrup is a light brown color. Add
peanuts and pour immediately into a buttered pan or
plate. Mark into squares when the brittle is slightly
cooled.
PANOCHA
1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. butter
1 c. granulated sugar 1 c. nut meats
\ c. milk 1 tsp. vanilla
T T tsp. salt
Mix sugar, milk and salt. Boil until it reaches the
" soft-ball " stage ; add butter, vanilla and chopped nuts ;
cool slightly, beat until thick, spread on buttered pan.
Mark into squares before it is too hard to cut easily.
PARISIAN SWEETS
1 c. figs 1 c. dates 1 c. nuts
Clean dates and figs, and grind the three ingredients
through food-grinder. If they are mixed before grinding
they blend more easily. Place on bread-board dredged
with powdered sugar, knead thoroughly, press out into
sheets about one half inch thick. Cut into squares ; roll
each square in powdered sugar.
SALTED ALMONDS
Use Jordan almonds if possible. Blanch by letting
them stand in boiling water until the skin is loosened.
Remove the skins, being careful not to break the almonds
apart when handling them. Place olive oil in a frying-
pan and when it is hot add the nuts ; stir over fire until
nuts are a light brown color ; remove from fat and drain
on paper. Sprinkle with salt.
FOODS AND COOKERY 169
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When should candy be eaten? Why?
2. What may be substituted for candy" when a small child
wants sweets ?
3. From what is sugar made ?
4. In what forms may sugar be purchased ?
5. What is the price per pound of granulated sugar? of
powdered sugar? of lump or loaf sugar?
6. How is loaf sugar used ?
7. Why is it better to use a thermometer when making
candy?
8. To what temperature should a syrup be cooked for the
"soft-ball" stage? "hard-ball" stage? "crack" stage?
9. Give examples of candies with which each of these tem-
peratures should be used.
10. What is caramelized sugar?
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE
The housekeeper who does her work most easily
follows a plan or schedule. Such a schedule will need
to be varied often, because of interruptions of differ-
ent kinds, but having the plan helps to prevent
friction, saves time and energy, and makes possible
some time that can be used for recreation. There is
certain work, such as making beds, planning and
cooking meals, that must be done every day and is
called " daily tasks" ; there are certain other duties,
such as the laundry work, that come once a week
and are called " weekly tasks " ; and there is work
that does not come so frequently, such as canning
fruit, which is called the " occasional tasks. "
When making a schedule, first make a plan for the
daily tasks, allowing time that can be used for the
weekly and occasional tasks. The arrangement of
the work will depend upon the location of the home,
170 FOODS AND COOKERY
the type of family, the standard of living, and
whether household helpers are employed. The be-
ginning housekeeper will have to experiment with
her work until she finds the best arrangement of
tasks.
Good equipment, including labor-saving devices
for housework, will save the housekeeper a great
deal of time and energy. Good equipment for cleaning
should include good brooms, dust mops, a wet mop
with wringer, dust cloths, polishing cloths, cleaning
powders, soaps, brushes, plenty of clean cloths,
and a suction-sweeper if there are many large rugs
or carpets to keep in order. A cupboard or closet
in which all this equipment may be kept is a great
convenience.
The daily cleaning will consist of using the dust
mop on hard- wood or painted floors ; perhaps it will
be necessary to run the sweeper over some of the
rugs, and the furnishings in the much used rooms
will need dusting. Every room in constant use
should be thoroughly cleaned once a week. Dust
the small articles and remove them from the room ;
if the windows are to be washed, take down the
curtains and remove them from the room for dusting ;
open the windows ; wipe down the walls with a broom
that is covered with a clean bag or cloth ; use the
suction-sweeper on the rugs, or a dampened broom
if no sweeper is available ; clean the floor with the
dust mop ; wipe the windows, or wash them if nec-
essary; dust all the woodwork and furniture; re-
hang the draperies and replace the small articles.
When cleaning a bedroom, first remove all the
bed-clothing from the room. Occasionally the mat-
tress may be taken out, aired and sunned. The
FOODS AND COOKERY 171
mattress may be cleaned regularly with the suction-
sweeper which has special apparatus for such pur-
poses. If not taken out, the mattress should be
covered with papers or a sheet while the room is
being cleaned.
The bathroom needs some cleaning every day.
Scour the washstand and tub with a mild cleaning
powder ; rinse thoroughly with clean water. Clean
the faucets (directions are given in the section on
dishwashing). Use a brush made for the purpose
to clean the trap in the closet ; wash off the outside
of the closet and water tank. Use the dust mop on
a hard-wood floor; a floor covered with linoleum
should be mopped with clean water at least once a
week.
Porches usually need sweeping every day, and
must be scrubbed when necessary and the weather
permits.
The equipment used in cleaning should itself be
cleaned before it is replaced in the closet. Dry the
wet mop thoroughly before hanging it away. Dust
cloths must not be used when soiled ; "oil dusters"
are a good type to buy, because they catch and hold
the dust. Never use a feather duster, because the
dust it brushes off one place lodges on another.
The modern house, when cleaned carefully every
week, closets cleaned when necessary, and curtains
washed when soiled, does not require the general
spring or fall " house-cleaning" so familiar to every-
one..
HOME PROBLEMS
Arrange a plan for the work to be done in your
home every day. Probably your mother already
172 FOODS AND COOKERY
has such a plan and will tell you which task she does
first, second, etc.
What part of the work do you perform? At what
time in the day do you do it ? What are the weekly
tasks done in your home? Do you help with any
of them ? How much time every week do you spend
on these tasks?
Make a list of work that you consider " occasional
tasks."
Clean one room at home and write a report telling
just how you did the work.
THE CARE OF THE HOUSE (Continued)
One of the " occasional tasks" to be done in every
home is the cleaning and putting in order of the
closets. This should be done as often as is necessary.
Clothing that has been discarded should be removed
and given, either to some person who can use it, or to
a charitable organization, or put in the " rag-bag"
to be sold to the junk dealer. Soiled clothing should
not be allowed to hang in closets for long periods.
To clean the clothes closet : remove all clothing ;
assort and remove the articles that are not to be put
back ; take out all boxes, bags and shoes ; wash the
shelves with warm water and wipe dry ; wash the
inside of drawers in the same way ; wipe floor, if
not waxed, with a damp cloth ; use an oil duster if
the floor is waxed ; air the closet thoroughly ; dust
and replace boxes ; hang clothing, bags and cases.
Winter clothing, which is to be put away for the
summer after being thoroughly brushed, or perhaps
cleaned, may be placed in moth-proof cedar bags,
chests, or drawers. Clothing, blankets, or rugs that
FOODS AND COOKERY
173
are to be put away must be clean and may be wrapped
in papers to keep out the dust. When articles are
stored in this way, it is wise to inspect them often
to be sure that they are free from moths.
Boxes and bags can be labeled in such a way that
articles may be easily found. A list showing where
PASTEBOARD HOUSE, WITH FURNISHINGS
In process of construction by the Home Economics class in Columbia
City, Indiana.
each article is stored is a convenient record. This list
might be put on cards that fit into a card-index box
and thus be among the records that every house-
keeper would find useful. Other records kept in
the box might be : the sizes of garments worn by
each member of the family ; clippings from papers
giving household hints, garden hints, or sugges-
174 FOODS AND COOKERY
tions for social affairs ; addresses of persons or
firms to whom one writes in a business or social
way. Every housekeeper will make her own list of
desirable records. The use of such a card file
saves the loss of time and energy in " looking for
things."
Drawers in dressers, chiffoniers and dressing-tables
should be kept in order at all times, but it is a wise
plan to remove everything from the drawers once
a month and wipe out with a damp cloth. If the
bottom of the drawer is not well finished, it may
be covered with paper before the articles are re-
placed.
Curtains and draperies should be cleaned when-
ever they need to be. In cities where soft coal is
used, it is often necessary to clean white curtains
every month. Wool and silk draperies must be
dry-cleaned at home or sent to a cleaning establish-
ment often enough to keep them in a sanitary con-
dition. White curtains of net or lace should not
be ironed, but should be dried on curtain stretchers
in order that they may not lose their shape. Scrim,
voile and marquisette curtains look better when
ironed. Muslin, Swiss, or lawn curtains should
always be ironed. When washing any open- weave
material, such as scrim, it is better to squeeze
it between the hands than to rub it. Curtains
should be well shaken and then soaked in warm
soapsuds, washed in hot soapsuds, rinsed thoroughly
in several waters, and if white must be put through
bluing water ; they may be slightly starched if
desired. When curtains are to be dried and ironed,
hang them, doubled lengthwise, with the lengthwise
fold over the clothesline; never hang them by the
FOODS AND COOKERY 175
corners ; dampen and fold carefully ; iron crosswise
of the curtain, being careful not to stretch the edges
in any way.
There are many tasks about the home that can be
performed by the daughter to assist the mother,
and girls who study Home Economics should do such
work well. Suggested work for the girl would in-
clude : caring for her bedroom, putting away her
clothing, collecting her clothing for the laundry,
polishing the silver, dusting, serving a meal and
sometimes preparing a meal, washing dishes, mend-
ing, and helping with the care of a small child.
Housekeeping is a very interesting business, and
every girl wants to be a good housekeeper feed-
ing, clothing and housing her family well. In ad-
dition she wishes to be a good home-maker, making
the house a happy, inspiring place for children to
develop in and for older people to enjoy. She is a
good home-maker when she is intelligent, alert,
happy and active ; when she does her housework
so efficiently that she has time to be interested in
church, social and civic affairs, and to help make
good conditions in her community.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
To what organizations in the community do women
belong ?
What is the purpose of each organization ?
What organizations for girls are there in your
community ?
Collect pictures of furnishings you would like to
have in your bedroom. Furniture catalogues and
advertisements in magazines and newspapers will
176 FOODS AND COOKERY
be helpful for this. Discuss in class the furnishings
of the bedroom. Discuss the care of the bedroom.
A booklet on "My Bedroom" might be made.
FOOD FOR THE SICK
When serious illness occurs in the family the
patient is often taken to a hospital for treatment
because there conditions are such that the best of
equipment is available, with trained workers to
look after the welfare of the patient. There are,
however, many cases of illness not serious enough
to make it necessary to send the patient to the hos-
pital, yet in which the patient must stay in bed
and have good care. In such cases some one in the
home must do the nursing and should have some
knowledge of such work.
One of the most important things for the home
nurse to know is how to prepare and serve the food
which the patient needs. Food is especially im-
portant, because a poorly nourished body cannot
resist nor overcome disease, and in many cases
regulating the diet is the main treatment. For
special diet of this sort, the home nurse will follow
carefully the doctor's instructions regarding kind,
amount and preparation of food.
No one in bed can digest the kind or quantity of
food that the person can who is taking exercise.
Patients often are given too much food while in bed ;
in other instances the patient does not get enough
food.
If the invalid's appetite is poor, perhaps it can be
stimulated by serving fruit juice, by giving meat
broth, or by making the tray extremely attractive.
FOODS AND COOKERY
177
178 FOODS AND COOKERY
To make the invalid's tray attractive there are several
points to remember :
1. Do not have too great a variety of foods on
the tray at one time.
2. Do not serve large portions of food.
INVALID'S TRAY, WELL ARRANGED
3. Have all foods well cooked and served in a
neat way.
4. Use attractive dishes and linen that is
absolutely clean.
5. A flower on the tray makes it more at-
tractive. It may be laid on the tray or placed in
a small vase which is set on it.
6. Sometimes serving the meal as two courses
will make it more appetizing to the patient.
7. Used dishes and trays should be removed
from the room as soon as the patient is done with
them.
FOODS AND COOKERY 179
8. The tray used for serving the meal should
be large enough, but not so large that it is hard to
handle. A rectangular tray is more convenient
than a round one.
9. The temperature of the food served must
be watched carefully. As a rule hot foods should
be served hot and cold foods served cold, but under
certain conditions the rule may have to be modified.
10. Never ask a sick person what kind of food is
desired. When the food is a " surprise" it some-
times stimulates the appetite.
Dietaries for invalids may be classified in the
following way :
1. Liquid, including broths, beef extract, beef
tea, milk, gruels, eggnog, cream soups, cocoa, etc.
2. Soft, including soft-cooked eggs, milk toast,
junket, cooked custards, jellies, etc.
3. Soft solid, including eggs, creamed toast,
asparagus, baked custards, tender chicken, oysters,
creamed sweetbreads, etc.
4. Special diet, one ordered by a physician for a
particular case.
In many cases of illness it is well to consult the
physician regarding the type of diet that the patient
should be given. In the case of high temperatures,
it is wise to give plenty of water with a liquid diet ;
in cases of bad colds, grippe, or similar diseases, a
soft diet may be used ; in cases of constipation, use
coarse foods which contain large quantities of cellu-
lose, such as Graham bread, vegetables, fruits and
cereals. The fruits are especially valuable in the
treatment of constipation because of the organic
acids they contain. Any one troubled with consti-
180 FOODS AND COOKERY
pation should eat meals regularly, take plenty of
exercise, drink plenty of water and should be
regular in regard to the calls of nature.
The convalescent patient should have his or her
requests for certain foods gratified whenever the
food is suitable and the requests reasonable.
HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS
Read in books and bulletins on nursing about the
proper kind of sick-room. Make a drawing showing
how the room should be arranged.
What type of clothing should a home nurse wear ?
Why?
Perhaps a nurse in the neighborhood can give
demonstrations on making the patient's bed, giving
the patient's bath, and on first aid.
LABORATORY EXERCISES
INVALID COOKERY
JUNKET
f c. milk I junket tablet
1 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. cold water
| tsp. vanilla Few grains salt
Dissolve junket tablet in the cold water. Heat milk
in top part of double-boiler, add sugar, salt, flavoring and
dissolved junket tablet. Pour quickly into small molds,
let stand in a warm place until set, then put in a cold place
to chill. Remove from molds and serve with or without
sugar and cream. Sugar may be omitted if desired.
EGGNOG
1 egg If tbsp. fruit juice or
tbsp. sugar % tsp. vanilla
Few grains salt f c. cold milk
FOODS AND COOKERY 181
Beat egg slightly ; add sugar, salt and fruit juice slowly ;
and add the milk gradually. Strain and serve. Sugar
may be omitted if the fruit juice is sweetened.
OATMEAL GRUEL
\ c. rolled oats tsp. salt
1^ c. boiling water Milk or cream
Add oats, mixed with salt, to boiling water ; let boil two
minutes, then cook in double-boiler one hour. Strain,
bring to boiling-point, and add milk or cream to meet the
needs of the case.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State the points that are essential to remember when pre-
paring an invalid's tray.
2. Into what classes may diets for invalids be divided ?
3. Make a day's menu for a patient who is in bed with a bad
cold. What type of diet is this ?
4. What foods should be eaten when one is troubled with
constipation?
5. State several ways in which milk may be served to invalids
living on a liquid diet.
6. State several ways in which egg may be served to an invalid
living on a soft diet.
7. Why are milk and eggs important foods to use in invalid
cookery?
8. Should a large amount of meat be used in an invalid's diet ?
Why? Name some kinds to serve and ways of preparing them
for an invalid on a soft-solid diet.
9. Where can junket tablets be purchased?
INDEX
AIR IN REFRIGERATOR, circulation
of, 25
Almonds, salted, 168
Apple, baked, 30
Apple sauce, 39
Artificial ice, 31
BACON, broiled, 62
Baker's bread, 52-53
Baking, 5
bread, 50-52
Baking powder, 88-89
Baking-powder biscuits, 90
Baking soda, 89
Banana salad, 83
Batter cakes, 56
Beans, baked, 78
Beef, casserole of, 122
creamed dried, 63
cuts of, 123-126
pan-broiled steak, 122
pot roast, 128
roast, 122
stew, 129
stock, 131
Swiss steak, 128
Beef and rice croquettes, 105
Beverages, 30-35
Blanc mange, 118
Boiling, 5
Braising, 5
Bread, 46-56
crumbs, 54, 75
nut, 98
quick, 87-90
"Bread and Bread-making in the
Home ",53
Bread-mixer, 50, 51
Breakfast, cereals for, 45^46
dishes for, 62, ,63, 65, 69
eggs for, 58-60
planning the, 27-29
table of food Calories for,
147
Broiling, 4
Butter, value as food, 148
CAKE, 91-94
date, 98-99
sponge, 94
standard, 93
Cake-making, 92-93
Cake-mixer, 92
Calorie, 143-147, 150-153
Calorimeters, 144-145
Candies, fondant, 167
panocha, 168
Parisian sweets, 168
peanut brittle, 168
Candy, 166-168
Canned fruits, 37, 157-162
Canning, 157-162
Can-rubbers, 159
Caramel syrup, 43
Caramelized sugar, 167
Carbohydrates, 8
Care, of the house, 169-176
Carrots and peas, 110-111
Cereals, 43^46
Certified milk, 41
Cheese, 73-75
souffle 1 , 74
strata, 75
"Chemical Composition of
183
184
INDEX
American Food Materials,
The ", 109, 146-147
Chicken, 133-134, 135-137
stewed, 136
Child, proper food for, 148
China, selection of, 61
Christmas lessons, 166-168
Cleaning, household, 170-172
Cleanliness, at table, 96-97
in the kitchen, 11-13
when cooking, 7
Closets, cleaning, 172
Clothing, care of, 172-173
Coal stove, 15, 16, 17
Cocoa, 32, 35
Coffee, 32-33, 34
Cold-pack method of canning,
157-161
Cold storage, 153-154
Combination service, 67
Compressed yeast, 48
Condensed milk, 41
Conserve, grape, 155-156
Conveniences, in kitchen, 13
Cook book, card-file, 4
Cooked dressing, 82
Cookers, for ca-nning, 158
Cookery, processes used in, 3-6
Cookies, 91
Cooking, importance of following
directions in, 5
utensils, 17-18
Corn, scalloped, 110
Corn bread, Southern spoon, 90
Corn soup, cream of, 71-72
Cornstarch, 116
"Cover", in table service, 65-67
Crab apple jelly, 165
Cream, 40
Cream of wheat with dates,
45-46
Cream toast, 42
Croquettes, 104-105
Croutons, 72
Custard, baked, 99
DATE, cakes, 98-99
pudding, 86
Desserts, 138-142
frozen, 149
Diet, proper, 27-29, 147-148
Dietaries for the sick, 179
Dining room, the, 60-69
Dinner, menu for, 129, 143
plan for, 101-103
planning the, 139-140
Directions in cooking, importance
of following, 5
Dishwashing, 21-24
Draperies, care of, 174
for dining room, 60, 62
Dress, suitable for cooking, 6
Dressing, salad, 80, 81-82
Dried fruits, 37, 84-86
Dried legumes, 77-78
Drying, 154
EGGNOG, 180-181
Eggs, 56-60
fried or sauted, 137
hard-cooked, 58
poached, 58
scrambled, 59
soft-cooked, 58
Electric stove, 16, 17
English service, 67
Evaporated milk, 41
FAT, 8
Fireless cooker, 18-21
Fireless gas range, 18
Fish, 134-135, 137
Floor, dining room, 60
kitchen, 11
Flour, 46-47
pastry, 91
Fondant, 167
Food, economy in using, 70-71
for the sick, 176-181
in daily meals, proportions of,
143-149
INDEX
185
Food Continued
100-Calorie portions of cooked,
153
100-Calorie portions of un-
cooked, 152
principles, 7-8
some points about, 7-8
value of eggs as, 57-58
value of milk as, 39HU
Foods, preservation of, 153-
165
Foodstuffs, five groups of, 7-8
Freezing mixture, 139
French dressing, 81
Fricasseeing, 5
Frosting, boiled, 94
Frozen desserts, 139
Fruit, for breakfast, 29-30
oranges, 29
preservation of, 155-165
Fruits, 37-39
dried, 84-86
Frying, 5
Fuel, 16
Furniture, dining-room, 61, 62
GAME, 133-134
Garbage-can, 26
Gas burner, cleaning, 17
Gas range, 15-18
Gelatine, 130-132
Glucose, 166
Gluten, 47
Graham flour, 47
Grape, conserve, 155-156
jelly, 165
juice, 156
Grapefruit, 38
Gruel, oatmeal, 181
HAM AND EGGS, scalloped, 105
Hard-cooked eggs, 58
"Home-made Fireless Cookers
and their Use ", 21
Hominy, 116
House, care of the, 169-176
Housekeeping, 175
ICE, 31
artificial, 31
Ice-box, 13
Ice cream, freezing, 139
vanilla, 149
Ices, lemon, 150
Invalid cookery, 176-181
Ironing-board, 13
JARS, testing preserve, 160
types of preserve, 158-159
Jelly-bag, 164
Jelly, lemon, 132-133
Jelly-making, 162-165
Juice for jelly, testing, 163-164,
165
Junket, 180
KITCHEN, 10-13
arrangement of, 12
floor of, 11
Knives, 18
LAMB, 126
cuts of, 126
"Left-over" dishes, 103-105
"Left-overs," 70-71
Legumes, dried, 77-78
Lemon, ices, 150
peel, 163
Liquid yeast, 49
Lunch, the school, 95-100
Luncheon, menu for, 100
plan for, 70-71
MACARONI, 115-116
and cheese, 118
Manners, table, 63-65
Marguerites, 36
Marmalades, 155
orange, 155
Mayonnaise dressing, 81-82
186
INDEX
Meals, for the family, 143-149
proper planning of, 8
Measurements in cooking, 9-10
Meat, 119-129
charts, 124, 125, 126, 127
for breakfast, 62-63
substitutes for, 73-74, 76-77
Menu, dessert in the, 138-139
for breakfast, 27-29, 65-69
for dinner, 129, 143
for luncheon, 84, 100
for supper, 84, 100
Milk, 39-42
Mineral matter in milk, 40
Minerals, 8
Mousse, chocolate, 150
Muffins, 90
NUT AND CHEESE LOAF, 78
Nut bread, 98
Nuts, 76-77
OATMEAL GRUEL, 181
Oats, rolled, 21
Omelette, puffy, 59-60
Onions, creamed, 111
Open-kettle method of canning,
157
Orangeade, 16
Orange, marmalade, 155
peel, 163
Oranges, 29
Oysters, 134-135
scalloped, 136-137
PAN-BROILING, 5
Panocha, 168
Parisian sweets, 168
Parker House rolls, 55-56
Pasteurized milk, 41
Pastry, plain, 140-141
Peaches, sweet pickled, 156
Peanut brittle, 168
Pears, canning, 160
Pea sandwiches, 79
Peppers, baked stuffed, 10
Personal appearance, at table, 63
when cooking, 6-7
Pie, 138-139
Poached eggs, 58
Pork, 126-127
cuts of, 127
Potato, 111-114
baked stuffed, 113
croquettes, 105
French fried, 114
mashed, 26
riced, 26
Poultry, 133-134, 135-137
Preservatives, 154-155
Primitive cooking, 3-4
Protein, 8
in eggs, 57
in milk, 40
Prune whip, 86
Pudding, sauce, 142
steamed, 141-142
QUICK BREAD, 87-90
RECIPES, apple sauce, 39
baked apple, 30
baked beans, 78
baked custard, 99
baked squash, 1 10
baked stuffed peppers, 10
baked stuffed potatoes, 113
baking-powder biscuits, 90
banana salad, 83
batter cakes, 56
beef and rice croquettes, 105
beef stew, 129
beef stock, 131
blanc mange, 118
boiled frosting, 94
bread, 49-50
bread crumbs, 75
broiled bacon, 62
candied sweet potatoes, 113
canning pears, 160
INDEX
187
Recipes Continued
canning tomatoes, 161
caramel syrup, 43
carrots and peas, 110-111
casserole of beef, 122
cheese souffle", 74
cheese strata, 75
chocolate mousse, 150
cocoa, 32
coffee, 32-33
cooked dressing, 82
crab apple jelly, 165
creamed dried beef, 63
creamed onions, 111
cream of corn soup, 71-72
cream of tomato soup, 71
cream of wheat with dates,
45-46
cream toast, 42
croquettes, 104-105
croutons, 72
date cakes, 98-99
date pudding, 86
eggnog, 180-181
fondant, 167
French dressing, 81
French fried potatoes, 114
French toast, 43
fried or sauted eggs, 137
grape conserve, 155-156
grape jelly, 165
grape juice, 156
hard-cooked eggs, 58
hard sauce, 142
junket, 180
lemon ice, 150
lemon jelly, 132-133
macaroni and cheese, 118
marguerites, 36
marmalades, 155
mashed potatoes, 26
mayonnaise dressing, 81- 82
muffins, 90
nut and cheese loaf, 78
nut bread, 98
Recipes Continued
oatmeal gruel, 181
orangeade, 16
orange marmalade, 155
pan-broiled steak, 122
panocha, 168
Parisian sweets, 168
Parker House rolls, 55-56
peanut brittle, 168
pea sandwiches, 79
perfection salad, 132
plain pastry, 140-141
poached eggs, 58
potato croquettes, 105
pot roast, 128
prune whip, 86
pudding sauce, 142
puffy omelette, 59-60
rice, 118-119
riced potatoes, 26
roast beef, 122
rolled oats, 21
rolls, 54
salmon croquettes, 105
salmon salad, 83
salted almonds, 168
sandwiches, 36-37
scalloped corn, 110
scalloped ham and eggs, 105
scalloped oysters, 136-137
scrambled eggs, 59
soft-cooked eggs, 58
soup-sticks, 72
soup stock, 131
Southern spoon corn bread, 90
sponge cake, 94
standard cake, 93
steamed pudding, 141-142
stewed chicken, 136
sweet pickled peaches, 156
Swiss steak, 128
syrup for canning, 161
tea, 33
tomato sauce, 79
vanilla ice cream, 149
188
INDEX
Recipes Continued
vegetable salad, 83
vegetable soup, 132
Welsh rarebit, 75
white sauces, 41-42
Records, convenience of keeping,
173-174
Refrigerator, 25
Rice, 114-115, 118
Roasting, 4
Rolls, 54-56
"Routing lines" in kitchen, 12,
13,14
Russian service, 67
SALAD, BANANA, 173
perfection, 132
salmon, 83
vegetable, 83
Salad dressings, 80, 81-82
Salads, 80-83
Salmon, croquettes, 105
salad, 83
Sandwiches, 36-37, 97
pea, 79
Sauce, hard, 142
pudding, 142
tomato, 79
Sautelng, 5
Schedule of work, importance of,
169-172
School lunch, 95-100
Score card for bread, 53
Service, 65-69
combination, 67
English, 67
Russian, 67
Sick, food for the, 176-181
Silence-cloth, 65
Sink, the kitchen, 11-13
care of, 24
Skim milk, 40
Soap, 22
Soft-cooked eggs, 58
Soup, 130-132
Soup Continued
cream of corn, 71-72
cream of tomato, 71
stock, 131
vegetable, 132
Soup-sticks, 72
Spaghetti, 116
Squash, baked, 110
Starchy foods, 112, 114-119
Steaming, 5
Sterilization, 155
Stewing, 5
Stoves, 15-18
Substitutes for meat, 73-74,
76-77
Sugar, 166-167
Supper, menu for, 100
plan for, 70-71
Sweet potatoes, candied, 113
Syrup, caramel, 43
for canning, 161
TABLE, manners, 63-65
setting the, 65-67
Table, for processing fruits and
vegetables, 162
of Calories for breakfast, 147
of 100-Calorie portions of
cooked foods, 153
of 100-Calorie portions of un-
cooked foods, 152
of warmth and energy require-
ments, 145
Tapioca, 116-117
Tea, 33, 34-35
Temperatures in cooking, 19
Tests of juice for jelly, 163-164
Thermometer, 19
candy, 166-167
Toast, 46, 54
cream, 42
French, 43
Tomato sauce, 79
Tomato soup, cream of, 71
Tomatoes, canning, 161
INDEX
189
UTENSILS, cooking, 17-18
VEAL, 126
cuts of, 125
Vegetable salad, 83
Vegetables, 106-114
Vermicelli, 116
Vitamines, 8, 37, 40, 47
WASHING fruit, 38
Water, 8, 30-31
hard and soft, 22
Water glass, 57
Welsh rarebit, 75
White sauces, 41-42
Whole-wheat flour, 47
Wood stove, 15, 16, 17
Work, schedule of, 169-172
YEAST, 47-49
LD 21-100m-7,'40 (6936s
Tb b/010
1134075
THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
