Some points in the making and judging of bread

University of

lllincis Library

at Urbana-Champaign

ACE

640

IL61b

v.10:25

-- (

JSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN

IsscED Weekly
March 17, 1013

No. 25

[Entered as second-class matter December 11, 1912, at ;lie Post Office at Urbana, liliaols.
under the Act of Coiijfress of August 24, 1912 1

Department of Home Economics

Some Points in the Making
and Judging of Bread

By

Isabel Bevier, Ph. M.

First Edition, 1913

FOUBTH KolTION, 1920

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. UEBANA

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

LIBRARY

AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

ACES

PREFACE

For many years the Household Science Department of the Univer-
sity of Illinois has been interested in various phases of the bread
question, and members of the Department, both faculty and students,
have worked with bread. Much of the earlier work was done by Miss
Anna VanMeter, Miss Ruth A. Wardall, and Miss Carolyn Busey,
under the direction of the author; the later work largely by Miss
Katherine Jensen and Miss Anna Williams, under the direct super-
vision of Dr. N. E. Goldtlnvaite. This bulletin has been prepared for
the purpose of bringing together the results of these experiments.

Note to Fourth EorrioN. — The war taught people a great deal
about the use of flour and flour substitutes, and particularly that good
breads could be made with a large proportion of other ingredients
than the flour of hard spring wheat. The war also emphasized the
economic importance of using home-grown products. According to
the Report of the State Board of Agriculture, in 1918 Illinois pro-
duced 40,498,958 bushels of wheat of the variety known as winter
wheat. This yields what is known in common terms as a soft wheat
flour. Since this wheat is a home-grown product, and experiments
have shown that a very good type of bread can be made from it, its
use in bread making should be encouraged. Pages 30 and 31 give
the methods for using a soft wheat flour.

While the processes and technic of bread making in the home and
some of the physical and chemical problems involved, as discussed in
the following pages, have not been changed materially, yet in the last
few years modern industry has developed bread making on a tre-
mendous commercial scale, and, as a result, considerable addition has
been made to our knowledge of the processes along the lines of phys-
ical and biological chemistry. For those interested in these phases
of the subject, the following references are given.

Elizabeth Sprague, "Study of Yeast Breads with Substitute Flours,"
Journal of Home Economics, June, 1918, p. 272-9.

Emil Braun, "The Best Ways to Use Substitutes," The Northwestern
Miller, September 25, 1918, p. 1063.

E. J. Cohn and L. J. Henderson, "The Physical Chemistry of Bread,"
Science, November 22, 1918, p. 501-5.

Kobcrt Kennedy Duncan, "Some Chemical Problems of Today," p. 143-161,
231, 237.

Caroline L. Hunt and Hannah L. Wessling. "Bread and Bread Making in
the Home," Farmers' Bulletin 807, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Isabel Bevier

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Preface 3

Responsibility of Women as EegarJs Bread Standards 5

Types of Flour 6

Terms Used 7

Bread as Food 7

Chemical Composition of Wheat, Flour, Bread 9

Changes Produced in Making Bread 9

Characteristics of Good Bread , 10

Essential and Non-essential Factors 11

Recipes 12

Study of Essential Ingredients 13

Yeast 13

Liquid 18

Study of Non-essential Ingredients 19

Salt — Influence 19

Sugar — Influence 20

Salt and Sugar — Combined Influence , 20

Bread making 26

Time of Fermentation 27

Bulk of Dough 28

Baking 28

Material of Pans 29

Covered and Uncovered Pans 29

Use of Winter Wheat Flour 30

Score Cards for Bread 31

Williams, Anna 32

Jensen, Katherine 32

Simmons, Owen 40

Bevier, Isabel

Original 31

Revised 33

Explanations 33

Summary , 35

SOME POINTS IN THE MAKING AND
JUDGING OF BREAD

"Bread is the staff of life." This old and familiar statement rep-
resents a universal idea, for, in whatever terms it may be expressed,
there is very general agreement as to the value as food of some form
of bread. The German, the Frenchman, the Englishman, and the
American may have in mind a very different product, yet each of
them would agree to the general statement.

Aside from its value as food and its vast commercial importance,
bread has a peculiar interest to women because, while many primitive
industries have gone from the home, statistics' seem to show that sev-
enty percent of the bread used in the United States is made in the home.
If this statement be true, it indicates at once the responsibiliy of the
American housekeeper for the standard of bread and her opportunity
to influence that standard. If she is to meet this responsibility wisely
and well, knowledge of various kinds about bread is demanded of her.
She must laiow its sources, its value as food, the factors of bread mak-
ing, the cost in time, energy and materials. In short she must have
an ideal of what good bread is and be familiar with the details of the
process by which it may be obtained. She must be able to recognize
essentials and non-essentials in the process. The Book of Bread,^ for
example, gives some three hundred recipes for making bread and all
of them agree that to obtain desirable results, yeast and flour must
be in good condition and must be kept at a proper temperature
throughout the process.

This bulletin proposes to deal with but two of the innumerable
types of bread to be found : first, that made from the flour obtained
from spring wheat, and, second, that made from the flour obtained
from winter wheat.

The study of a product so familiar as bread develops many sur-
prising points of ignorance about it. For example, questions such as,
how much bread ought to be obtained from a pound of flour, do you
use spring or winter wheat flour in this region, usually bring to light
the fact that women in general are quite ignorant on these two points ;
yet everyone recognizes that any true estimate of the actual cost of

'Lafayette B. Mendel, "Changes in the Food Supply and their Eelation to
Nutrition," p. 33.

'Owen Simmons, "Book of Bread."

6 University of Illinois Bulletin [March,

bread implies a knowledge of the yield of a pound of flour in bread,
and bakers know that, in order to attain desirable results, these two
varieties of wheat flour require quite different treatment in the pro-
cess of bread making.

TYPES OF WHEAT FLOUR

Let us understand then the general differences in these two types
of flour in regard to source and properties. (The bread-making pro-
cesses adapted to the two kinds will be discussed later.) Winter
wheat is that type sown in the fall and harvested in the early summer.
It is grown usually in the central and eastern parts ol the United
States where the winters are not severe enough to destroy the crop,
while spring wheat is the type grown largely in the northwestern parts
of the United States and Canada. In general, the grains differ in ap-
pearance: the spring wheat type is harder, yields a flour that has a
granular feel, has a larger proportion of gluten, will absorb more
water and is known as a * ' strong, hard wheat flour. ' ' In distinction
from this, the grains from winter wheat are larger, softer, the flour
has a powdery feel, a smaller percentage of gluten and a larger per-
centage of starch, and is known as a ' ' soft flour. ' '

THE FEEL OF FLOUR

The woman who handles flour readily distinguishes this difference
in feel, but she does not learn to interpret this difference in terms of
a bread recipe, — that is, she does not understand that the granular
onq will take up more water, or, to put it another way, that spring
wheat flour will require less flour to a given quantity of liquid than a
winter wheat flour. She does not understand that the manufacturer 's
claim that the housekeeper can save flour by using his variety is
based upon just this fact of the difference between spring and win-
ter wheat in this power to absorb water. She needs to know the cost
per sack of each variety in her market and the yield in bread of each
before she can tell which is really the cheaper for her.

- THE COLOR OF FLOUR

Perhaps next to feel in the understanding of the home baker
comes color in flour. Now that bleaching of flour is forbidden by
law, one is more likely to find on the market flour of a creamy color.
If it is very white or grayish, it indicates that the flour probably is
not new, and that it contains a large proportion of starch. Age has
a tendency to lessen the color. Moreover, neiv flour from spring wheat
is apt to have more of the creamy color than that made from winter

i^iS] Some Toixts in the Making and Judoing op Bread 7

wheat, because of the larger proportion of gluten in the former, and
the larger proportion of starch in the latter. In any case, a dull gray
color does not indicate a good flour for bread making. Neither is it
true that a deep cream colored flour will not yield an excellent quality
of bread. The world has been slow to learn that whiteness is not nec-
essarily a mark of excellence in quality in bread. Whiteness has
sometimes indicated the use of flour bleached either by age or by
chemicals.

TERMS USED

It is clear, then, that it is desirable for the woman who bakes to
understand the use and meaning of the terms feel, color, gluten, and
strength as applied to flour, and their influence upon the bread mak-
ing process. She can have first-hand information in regard to gluten
and strength by a very simple experiment.

Take a cup of any two flours which are to be compared. Measure
the amount of w^ater required to make each of these into a dough of
the same consistency. This will give an idea of their power to absorb
water. That is one of the differences between a strong and a iveak
flour. Let these doughs stand for an hour. Empty each upon a sep-
arate square of cheese cloth, place over a colander or strainer, and
wash under running water. The starch will go through the cheese
cloth and the threads of gluten will remain on the cloth. When the
water goes through clear, presumably all the starch has been washed
out and the wet gluten is left. Roll the gluten into a ball and then
stretch to show difference in elasticity. Weigh to get difference in
wet gluten.

While one experiment is not conclusive, yet by these simple tests
one may become familiar with the physical properties of flour and
learn to understand the terms color and feel as applied to flour and
their probable influence on the bread made from that flour. One will
also understand the difference in gluten, whether it is elastic or not,
and can judge something of its ability to expand as a framework for
the loaf of bread. This difference between a strong and a weak flour
is an important one from the economic standpoint. The strong flour
absorbs more water and yields a loaf that weighs more. Flours differ
considerably in this respect. In the writer's experience, a pound of
flour has yielded in bread fi'om 1.25 to 1.65 pounds. Bakers con-
sider that 11/3 pounds of bread from a pound of flour is a fair average
yield.

BREAD AS FOOD

The prime object in bread making is to secure a nutritious, pala-
table, and attractive form of food. The value of the cereals as food

8

Uni-versity of Illinois Bulletin

[March,

is well understood. It is known that when properly cooked, the
cereals yield a large amount of easily digested food for a compara-
tively small sum of money. One thinks of cereals, and rightly, as the
chief source of starchy food, but the peculiar value of wheat bread
lies in the fact that it is one of the cheapest sources of protein. Again
this form of protein known as gluten which occurs in wheat flour en-
hances the value of the flour because the gluten has the property of
expanding and serving as a framework for the retention of air or
carbon-dioxide. Because this quality is lacking in the protein of
corn and oats, neither of these grains is extensively used for bread.
The value of a flour, then, for bread depends upon the quantity and
quality of its gluten and upon its strength, and this latter quality is
usually judged by its capacity to absorb water. Large bakeries con-
duct experiments constantly to find just the blend of flour that will
absorb the greatest amount of water, or, in other words, yield the
greatest amount of bread, or take and retain water.

CHEAP FOOD AND DEAR FOOD

It has been understood for a long time that the terms cheap and
dear as applied to foods include not only the amount of money ex-
pended but also the quantity of nutritive materials secured for a
given sum, or, to put it in another way, the quantity of building
material (protein) and energy (calories) that can be secured. The
following table shows how favorably bread compares with other food
stuffs as regards energy.

Amounts of Common Foods Equivalent in Energy (1174 Calories) to

One Pound of Bread

Food as purchased

Weight,
grams

Measure

Cost per 1174
calories

Market price
Mch. 1, 1920

Bread

453.6

295.8

340.4

334.5

152.6

1696.4

1755.1

267.7

459.0

751.4

3354.1

2672.0

3173.0

I lb. loaf
3% cups
1% cups
1% cups
7 cu. in.
m qts.

II large
91/^ oz.

1 lb.
1% lbs.
6% lbs.
5% lbs.
14 large

$ .1000
.0670
.0823
.1475
.2421
.2607
.2709
.2832
.3504
.4971
.6655
.7069
.9900

$ .10 lb.

Rolled oats

. 1037 lb.

Beans, navy

.11 lb.

Rice

.20 lb.

Butter

.72 1b.

Milk

.15 qt.
.07 lb.

Potatoes

Cheese

.48 1b.

Prunes

.35 lb.

Beef, round

.30 1b.

Carrots

. 09 lb.

Onions

. 12 lb.

Oranges

.85doz.

From this table it appears that even with the present high prices
10 cents' worth of bread yields as much energy (calories) as 24 cents'

1

1913]

Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread

worth of butter, 27 cents' of potatoes, 35 cents' of prunes, or 50 cents'
of beef. The only foods listed which are less expensive sources of
energy arc rolled oats and beans, both of which require a considerable
expenditure of time and fuel in preparation.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The relation between the chemical composition of spring and win-
ter wheats, as well as wheat, flour, and bread, is shown by the following
figures :

Water Protein

Fat

Carl)ohy(lrates Ash

nVhcat

Spring varieties

Winter varieties

'Flour

Minnesota Standard Patent

Bread from Minnesota Stan-
dard Patent

'Bread — Average of

198 analvf-es

10.4

12.5

2 2

10.5

11.8

2.1

10.,54

11.99

1.61

34.1

9.

1.30

35.3

9.2

1.3

73.
73.8

75.36

54.9

53.1

1.9

1.8

.5

.7

1.1

'Helen W. Atwater, "Bread and Bread Making,'
U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 16.
=Ibid., p. 41. ^Ibid., p. 38.

Farmers' Bulletin 389,

Climate, soil, and rainfall influence the composition of both wheat
and flour, so the figures showing the chemical compositions vary. One
hundred and ninety-eight analyses of bread give a fair average of its
chemical composition. For practical purposes one would do well to
remember that, chemically speaking, bread is approximately one-third
water, one-tenth protein, and one-half starch.

It is evident from the above table that various changes are wrought
in converting wheat into flour and flour into bread. These changes
arc greatest in the conversion of flour into bread. The process of
bread making is accomplished by the addition of a liquid — milk, water,
or potato water — and yeast to the flour. Usually fat, sugar, and salt
are added also. The flour, by the addition of the liquid, is converted
into dough. The yeast cells are separated and distributed through
the mass of the dough. The yeasts grow and multiply, and in the
process of their growth some of the starch of the flour is changed into
sugar; carbon-dioxide and alcohol are formed from the sugar. The
distribution of this carbon-dioxide through the mass makes it light.
Gas cavities are formed throughout the dough in the process of rising,
and it is upon the number, size, and distribution of these cavities that
the lightness and grain of the bread depends.

When the loaf is baked, the heat of the oven causes the gas to ex-
pand, the alcohol to be driven off, the protein to coagulate and set,
forming tho walls of these cavities and a framework, as it were, for

10 University of Illinois Bulletin [March,

the loaf. Some of the starch is changed into dextrin. Thus the crust is
formed. It is the dextrin which gives the crust its glazed appearance.
As shown by the chemical composition given above, there is a large
gain in the proportion of water in the bread, and a small loss in nutri-
tive material due to the conversion of the starch into alcohol and the
changes wrought in the protein and fat,

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BREAD

It is perhaps well at this point to give what are regarded as the
characteristics of a good loaf of bread. Authorities, as Simmons'
Book of Bread, Jago's Technology of Bread Making, and United
States Government Reports, agree quite generally in the character-
istics of good bread.

1. Symmetry of Sliape. — The size should be such that the crust
will not be baked too hard in order to bake the crumb thoroughly. It
is just at this point that the busy housewife often fails. In her de-
sire to get a large quantity of bread ready for the workmen who are
with her, she uses the dripping pan, puts into it three loaves so as to
gain space in the oven, and does not realize that in order to bake the
center loaf the heat must penetrate that mass of moist dough, which is
not nearly so good a conductor of heat as the metal of the pan which
is on the bottom and sides of the end loaves, so, as a frequent result,
the end loaves are scorched before the middle one is baked.

Better results in baking can be obtained by the use of smaller pans
which can be moved about, because most ovens have a different tem-
perature in the center than at the edges, and if single pans are used,
or, at most, those which hold but two loaves, a more even crust and a
better baked crumb can be obtained ; and it is to be remembered that
the crust is the most easily digested part of the bread, and that under-
done, soggy crumb is very indigestible.

2. Crust. — As regards the crust, there is considerable difference
of opinion concerning the depth of color, some preferring a deep
golden brown, others a very light shade, but all like a uniform color
over the whole loaf and a certain crisp quality obtained from a slack
dough well aerated and quickly baked.

Simmons says:

"These surface cracks or lines are a sig^n of quality and are formed usually
when the dough is cooling and give the crackling sound regarded as a sign of good
bread. A tough, leathery crust may mean an immature dough, that is, dough not
sufficiently fermented or a crust rendered thick and hard by a cold oven. A crackly,
pliable, thin crust indicates a su2)erior loaf. ' '

3. Crumh. — Many qualities are demanded of the crumb of good
bread. It must feel and look light, have the gas cavities evenly distri-

1913] Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread 11

butod and of small size, with thin and delicate cell walls. Bakers
say tliat the gas cavities should be oblonj? in shape rather than round.
There must be no hea\y streaks at the sides or bottom of the loaf, no
marks of bad kneading or chilling. There must be elasticity, so that
the {)ai't will resume its orginal shape after pressure is removed. The
crumb must be tender, neither crumbly nor doughy. As said before,
creaminess in color is to "be preferred to Avhitcness, and, above all,
good bread should have the flavor of the wheat grain, — should give
the characteristic taste of the wheat grain when chewed.

ESSENTIAL FACTORS

Even a superficial study of bread reveals that here, as in most
processes and products, there arc essential and non-essential ingre-
dients. One finds very general agreement that flour, yeast, and liquid
are essential ingredients, while sugar, shortening, and salt, though de-
si ral)le, cannot be considered as essential to the production of a loaf
of bread.

RECIPES

In order to secure the consensus of opinion by those in authority
in regard to these ingredients, the amount and proportion of them
used in bread, ]\Iiss Jensen compiled from standard cook books twelve
recipes for the making of bread, and tabulated the amounts of es-
sential and non-essential ingredients which the different authorities
asked for. The results are shown in the table on page 12.

DISCUSSION OF TABLE

Evidently most authorities prefer to use three cups of flour to one
of li([uid; only two suggest a different proportion; water has the pref-
erence as the liquid, though five suggest the use of milk; the amount
of yeast used varies considerably, from one-eighth to one and one-
half cakes per loaf; shortening varies from none to six teaspoonfuls,
but five omit it altogether; sugar is omitted by three, while the nine
others vary the amount from one-half to three teaspoonfuls. "While
no recipe omits salt, there is less variation in the amounts used, viz.,
one-eighth to one teaspoonful.

One should observe not only the actual amounts used, but also
the relation these three ingi'edients, shortening, sugar, and salt, sus-
tain to each other. Three recipes omit shortening and sugar entirely,
two recipes call for equal measures of sugar and salt, but there is
quite general agreement in the idea that the measure of sugar should
exceed that of the salt (in one case six times as much), while in six
cases the quantity of the shortening exceeds that of both sugar and
salt. After looking at such a table, the (luestion arises, what influence

12

University of Illinois Bulletin
^Bread Eecipes (One Loaf)

[March,

References

Young Housekeeper (Parloa) . .

Kitchen Companion (Parloa) . .

Lowney's Cook Book (Howard)

Boston Cooking School

(Farmer)

Vegetable Cookery (Eorer) ....

Practical Cooking and Serving
(Hill)

American School of Home Eco-
nomics

Theory and Practice of Cook-
ery (Williams and Fisher) . .

Mrs. Alice Kirk, of Cleveland. .

Home Science Cook Book (Lin-
coln and Barrows)

The Art of Cookery (Ewing) . .

Selection and Preparation of
Food (Bevier and VanMeter)

Flour

Liquid

Yeast

Shorten-
ing

Sugar Salt

cups
4

3^
3

cups
1 water

1 water

1 water

1 water
1 water

1 water

% milk
V^ water

1/2 milk
% water

1/2 milk
Y2 water

Milk or
1/2 milk
% water

1/2 milk
% water

1 water

cakes

V2

Vs
%

Ve-iyo

tsp.
3

0

3

3

0

tsp.
1

%

IV2

iy2
0

3%
0

V2

0

2

tsp.

1/2
%
1

%
%

%

1

V2
V2
%

V2
1

^Catherine Jensen, Master's Thesis 1912, A Critical Study of the Materials
and of Some of the Processes Used in Bread Making, p. 20.

have the quantity and quality of yeast, and the proportion of short-
ening, sugar, and salt on the final product, the loaf of bread. Fortu-
nately, an answer to these questions is found on consulting further
the work of these students.

RECIPE USED

^The recipe and method of procedure by Miss Williams Avere as
follows :

Salt 1 tsp. (6 g.)

Sugar 1 tsp. (5 g.)

Butter 1 tsp. (5 g.)

Water 1 cup (260. c.c.)

Compressed yeast % cnp (7 g.)

Gold Medal Flour 3.6 cups (440 g.')

'Anna W. Williams, Master's Thesis, 1912, " A Study of the Factors of Bread
Making with a View to Determination of Standards, "p. 3.

*There are 453.6 grams in one pound, so this was a little less than one pound.

1913] Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread 13

"The Clip of water, havinjj licon measured at room tPiii])eraturo, was wanned
to 42° C. (1()7.G° F.) ; three-fourths of it was added to the Itiitter, nalt and sugar,
in a mixing bowl, and one-fourth of it was used to soften the .veast. The yeast
mixture was added to the liquid in the l)0wl; then the flour, slightly warmed, was
beateu in gradually. The dough was kneaded for 20 minutes, and put to rise at
2G° C. (78.8° F.), until doubled in bulk. It was then made into a loaf and
again put to rise until doubled in bulk in the pan. In many cases three risings,
instead of two, were allowed. The loaf was baked in a gas range for 45 minutes.
The oven temperature most used was 180° C. (356° F.) for 10 minutes,
180°-235° C. (35()°-455° F.) rising very gradually during 15 minutes, and 218° C.
(424.4° F.) for 20 minutes. The size of the pan was 8i^x3i4x3 inches."

PROCESSES

"This method, termed the short process, required six or seven hours for
completion acconling as to whether two or three rising were allowed. The changes
in niethoil which were made in order to produce a long-process bread were as fol-
lows: (1) One-fourth of a cake of dry yeast was used, instead of compressed
yeast. (2) The ingredients were mixed at night, only IV2 cups of flour -being
used; this sponge was thoroughly beaten and placed at 21° C. (69.8° F.) to fer-
ment over night. In the morning the remainder of the flour was worked in, and
the resulting dough allowed two subsequent risings. ' '

There seems evident gain in reducing the time of the process of
bread making. In fact, one great reason for the extensive use of com-
pressed yeast is that its use enables tho bread maker to complete the
entire process in from five to seven hours. This avoids the difficulty
that frequently arises of keeping the sponge warm at night, and since
this is sometimes accomplished by the unsanitary method of wrapping
the pan containing the bread in a woolen shawl or blanket, soiled by
use, it is desirable to find a method involving less risk to the flavor of
the bread.

The five or seven-hour process allows the whole work to be accom-
plished in the daylight, while the housewife is carrying on the day's
work and the maintenance of the proper temperature for the bread is
a necessary accompaniment of other operations in the kitchen. In the
short process, compressed yeast was used because it facilitates meas-
uring the quantity used.

' Study of Essential Ingredients

YEAST

The usual forms of yeast on the market are compressed and dry
yeast. Liquid yeast can be secured at most bake shops, from which
some women prefer to secure it as needed, while others prefer to make
it in their own homes or to buy in the market one of the two forms to
be found there. In any case, all women recognize that the essential
part of the product is the yeast plant, which, in the dried cake, may
be combined with corn meal as a carrier, (Sometimes the flavor of

14 University of Illinois Bulletin [March^

the bread is spoiled by the rancidity of the corn meal used.) "Com-
pressed yeast" is a term applied to yeasts grown in a special way,
purified by repeated washing, and compressed into cakes by the addi-
tion of corn starch or other binding material. It has the advantage
of giving a large amount of yeast in a small bulk, but care is needed in
keeping it because it deteriorates rapidly on exposure to air or warmth.

Home-made yeasts are essentially mixtures of flour, water, and
potatoes, with the dry yeasts found in the market or with other yeast
as a ' ' starter. ' ' Home-made yeast is sometimes made into cakes as is
the dry yeast of the market, but more often it is kept in liquid form
or in that of a sponge. Much difficulty has arisen in the use and care
of home-made yeasts because of a failure to appreciate the fact that
yeasts are plants and therefore require conditions favorable for plant
growth. Moreover, careless or uncleanly handling of the yeast in re-
gard to the vessel in which it is kept allows bacteria to mingle with the
yeasts. As these multiply, they sometimes give an unpleasant flavor
to the bread. The practice of keeping a bit of dough in the flour
barrel as a ''starter" is not to be commended, and the woman who does
not understand "why this yeast that made such good bread a month
ago will not w^ork now," will find a probable explanation in the fact
that the yeast has taken from the potato water, or the flour and
sugar, all the food they contained for the yeast plant and so it has died
from starvation, or from the poisonous effects of its own growth. Mean-
time the bacteria have increased in number and given an acid char-
acter to the bread, resulting in the familiar undesirable sour flavor so
characteristic of certain home-made breads.

Miss AVilliams' experiments confirmed previous work done in this
laboratory in regard to the deterioration of home-made yeasts and
seemed to establish the fact that the way to maintain such yeasts in
good condition is to change the medium frequently, that is, make the
yeast frequently — in summer as often as twice a week — or at least give
the plants new food in the form of sugar or water or both, and keep
in a cool place. Even a change of the vessel or addition of water gives
air and apparently revives the yeast.

She speaks on the deterioration of yeasts as follows:

*"The quantity of bread produced seems to depend to a large extent upon
the activity, and consequently upon the age of the yeast cells, those being neither
new nor old giving best results.

"For maintenance of a healthy, active growth of yeast, there must be fre-
quent change of the medium of growth; this is probably due to the fact that if
allowed to remain unchanged, too great a concentration of by-products is formed.

*Miss Williams' Thesis, p. 44.

1913] Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread IS

Simmons' paj's 'Yeast cannot ferment healthily when surrounded by excess of
alcohol; to keep in active state yeast must bo brewed twice a week; do not use
sponge after the fourth or fifth day in any case'; also, 'Yeast in sugar water
reaches a stage where it will not continue to act until the water is changed.'
Lindet- says in sul)stance, the process of refreshing yeasts, as carried on by the
baker, by the addition of flour and water to a portion of the dough, is less for
the purpose of supjilying the yeast new food than for helping it to overcome bac-
terial or acid fermentation, and for diluting a toxic substance whieli Hayduck
showed! was formed at the expense of the proteins of the flour. Manj other in-
vestigators' speak of this toxicity of flours toward yeasts. In addition to this
necessity for change because of harmful by-products, there is also a necessity for
oxygen, and yeast action is accelerated merely by change from one vessel to an-
other, air being introduced."

QUANTITY OF YEAST

One objection to the use of liquid yeast is because it is difficult, if
not impossible, to determine the quantity available in a given measure,
as a cupful. If a pound of compressed j^east is secured, one may es-
tablish a very definite relation between the proportion of yeast used
by starting with one-half cake per loaf and increasing the amount
regularly, say to eight cakes per loaf. Experiments of this kind
showed that as the amount of yeast increased, the time of rising de-
creased,— in this particular instance from one hour and fifty-five
minutes for the rising with one cake of yeast, to one hour with five
cakes per loaf. The maximum volume, was reached in loaves G and H
with five and six cakes of yeast, respectively. See Plate II.

Excess of yeast of course increases the cost and does detract from
the appearance of both the crumb and the crust, and is, therefore, not
to be commended. While excellent results, as regards texture, time,
and tenderness, may be attained with as high as two cakes per loaf,
it is not an economical procedure, and one-half cake is ample. More-
over, experiments show that if sufficient time is allowed, a small quan-
tity of yeast will yield as good results as a much larger quantity.

FLAVOR BY YEAST

I Excess of yeast also gives increase of volume and of crumbliness
and causes some loss of color in crust. Its influence upon the flavor
seems to be an unsettled one, though the common opinion seems to be
that an excess of yeast causes a loss of flavor. People frequently
speak of the yeasty flavor of bread. In the writer's opinion this flavor
is due, in many cases, to the condition of the yeast or the material

'Simmons, "Book of Bread," pp. 48, 53, 54.

-h. Lindet, "Role of Yeast in Baking," Compt. rend. 150, 802-4.

'Baker and Hulton, "Toxicity of Flours Towards Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, "
and "Behaviour of Wheaten Flours Towards Baker's and Brewer's Yeasts,"
Journ. yoc. Chem. Ind., vol. 28, p. 778.

16

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Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bbead

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with which it was combined. Corn meal, for example, will grow ran-
cid and give a bad flavor to a yeast cake. ^Miss Wardall failed to find
that the flavor was influenced by yeast in good condition, while Miss
Williams' experiments seemed to show a deterioration of flavor when
more than three cakes per loaf were used.

Simmons says:

"Much importance is placed by some people on the kind of yeast used, but
on the same principle as the salt and vinegar, the yeast is not added in sufficient
quantity to give a direct flavor of its own. In fact, any flavor is chiefly due to
the amount of fermentation that the yeast is allowed, by time or heat, to produce.
When the system of straight doughs first came into vogue with large quantities of
yeast, it was frequently remarked by those who were counselled to use it that
such larger quantities of yeast would taste, and it was frequently futile for the
author to point out the fallacy of such a statement. The indisputable proof to
the contrary, however, is given by the fact that bread is frequently made for spe-
cial purposes with even five pounds of yeast to the sack, and has no yeasty taste
whatever when properly managed, in fact, not merely so much of this so-called
yeasty taste as in the case of very much less yeast under other conditions, as, for
instance, with a small quantity worked a long time."

LIQUIDS USED

There are two points to be considered regarding the liquid used in
bread, viz., the proportion and the kind. It has already been stated
that most recipes give one cup of liquid to three of flour as a desirable
proportion. In the experiments conducted in this laboratory, a dif-
ferent proportion has been found to be desirable. Of course, exactness
is best attained by weight rather than by measure. Persons have
been known to differ about one-half cup by measure for the same
weight of flour. Four hundred and forty grams — almost one pound
or 3.6 cups — of spring wheat flour to one cup of liquid, with short
process, in this laboratory has been found to give most satisfactory
results as regards shape, size and general characteristics of loaf. A
larger proportion of liquid gives a soft dough which on baking is
likely to be slightly flat on top, to seem of heavy weight with a ten-
dency to clamminess of crumb and coarseness of texture, while less
liquid yields a stiff dough, usually a loaf rounded on top and of finer
texture, with a tendency to crack open during baking. The kind of
liquid is subject to perennial interest and one often used by food
faddists who praise at intervals the merits of buttermilk bread, of
sweet milk bread, and of potato water bread. Experiments seem to
show that, in so far as flavor is concerned, no liquid is better than
water. Milk and potato water both improve the keeping quality, con-
tribute to the tenderness of the crumb, the color of the crust, and the

lEuth Wardall, Master's Thesis, 1907, "The Relation of Yeast to Flavor in
Bread," Journal of Home Economies, vol. II, p. 75.

I9l3] SOMK I'OINTS I.\ THE MaKING AND JUDGING OF BrEAD 19

elasticity. Buttorniilk lias much the same effect as milk and potato
water but differs from them in the fact that it often leaves an un-
pleasant impression after tasting. The extravagant claims as regards
the inci'case in nuti'itive value by tlic addition of milk overlook the
fact that the proportion of milk used is small and that chemical analy-
sis shows the composition of milk to be 87 percent water. The addi-
tion of potato water may introduce an undesirable clement if the
potatoes are old or not well Avashed. On the whole, it seems better to
add the cooked potato to clean, warm water i-ather than to water in
which old, green, and possibly unclean potatoes have been cooked.

So much for the essential ingredients in the process of bread mak-
ing. The non-essentials, shortening, sugar, and salt, are next to be
considered as to their influence on the product.

Study of Non-Essential Ingredients

By reference to the table on page 12 it will be seen that opinions
differ widely concerning the use of the non-essentials. Five omit
shortening entirely, five advise three teaspoonfuls per loaf, while the
remaining two recipes call for one and six teaspoonfuls, respectively.
Just the exact role which shortening plays in the process is not known.
It is supposed to give tenderness to the crumb and to prevent the dry-
ing out of the bread. The use of shortening is not, as is that of the
other non-essentials, confined to the interior of the loaf. It is a quite
common practice to grease the dough while rising to prevent the for-
mation of a hard crust, while some brsuh lard or butter over the hot
loaves when first taken from the oven, to soften the crust. This latter
process seems to the writer undesirable because much more of the lard
or butter is likely to be added than can be absorbed, leaving the loaves,
when cooled, greasy and unattractive. Moreover, this process detracts
from the crispness of the crust, which is a very desirable attribute.
Fortunately, more data is available concerning the use both of sugar
and of salt. It is easy to show that both of these substances have a
very material influence upon the flavor. Some people, for instance,
like the very sweet taste obtained in the use of much sugar, while
others object to it because it conceals the characteristic flavor of the
wheat grain. They do not wish their bread, by its flavor, to suggest
cake.

USE OF SALT

Again the use of salt to avoid a flat taste is very general. The work
done by Miss «7cnsen on these ingredients seems to indicate that salt,
as is to be expected from its antiseptic properties, inhibits the growth

20 University of Illinois Bulletin [March,

of the yeast and therefore retards fermentation. In these particular
experiments, two teaspoonfuls per loaf checked it three and one-half
hours, and any larger amount checked it entirely. Moreover, salt af-
fected both the weight and the volume of the loaf, as well as the color
of the crust and the tenderness of the crumb. The weight increased
with the increase of the amount of salt, while the volume was de-
creased by the addition of more than one teaspoonful per loaf. The
crust lost in color and the crumb in tenderness, flavor, and texture
when more than one teaspoonful of salt per loaf was used, though
flavor and texture were improved by the use of this amount.

USE or SUGAR

The results from the use of sugar were quite different. Sugar, of
course, serves as a food for the yeast plant and so hastens the fermen-
tation and decreases the total time of bread making. The effect upon
the volume of the use of sugar was not so apparent as in the case of
the use of salt, but it was quite the reverse, for with sugar, after one
teaspoonful, up to four or six, there was a steady gain in volume,
while with the salt there was a decrease in volume.

Perhaps the most striking effect was the deepening color of the
crust as the amount of sugar was increased. The best results, however,
on the loaf as a whole in regard to both flavor and texture, were se-
cured by the use of two teaspoonfuls per loaf. Any excess of sugar
beyond this amount seemed to give a certain toughness to both crust
and crumb.

SALT AND SUGAR

These data concerning the influence of salt and sugar used separ-
ately were obtained that one might be aided to form an intelligent
idea about the amount to be used in combination in the making of
bread. Miss Jensen conducted experiments to determine the combined
effect of varying proportions of sugar and salt as regards (a) the
quality of the bread, and (b) the volume of the loaf. Her results are
given below.

" ' Examination of results shows that when the proportion of salt, 1 tea-
spoonful to the loaf, remained constant as the proportion of sugar added was
increased, the total time required for the bread-making process was greatly de-
creased. This time varied from 7 hours, 30 minutes, in bread which contained
no sugar, to 5 hours, 40 minutes, in bread which contained 4 teaspoonfuls of
sugar per loaf. Results also show that when the salt factor was increased to 2
teaspoonfuls per loaf, the fermentation was retarded, as was to be expected, more-
over, fermentation was not hastened as much by the addition of sugar as it was
in the bread containing less salt. The time in these experiments varied from

*Miss Jensen's thesis, p. 48.

191S]

Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread

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9 hours and 45 minutes in broad containing no sugar, to 8 hours and 30 nvinutes
in bread containing 4 teaspoonfuls of sugar per loaf. It should also be noted
that breads containing 1 teaspoouful of salt, and 2 and 4 teaspoonfuls of sugar,
respectively, per loaf, viz., loaves D and E, required less time for the entire pro-
cess than any of the other breads, the time required being only about 5% hours.

"It is also evident that as the proportion of sugar per loaf was increased,
the salt factor remaining constant, there was an increase in the weight of the loaf.
The increase in weight was greatest in bread containing 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar
per loaf, and in breads containing 4 teaspoonfuls per loaf. These results are
analogous with those recorded in Table V., in which the breads containing 2, 4,
6, and 8 teaspoonfuls of sugar per loaf, respectively, showed a proportional
increase in weight.

"Salt, up to one teaspoonful per loaf, and sugar up to 4 teaspoonfuls per loaf,
increased the volume. It is interesting that the loaf of greatest volume was ob-
tained by the relative proportions of IV2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and 3 teaspoonfuls
of sugar per loaf. This bread, however, was not the best in quality.

Plate V. Loaf of Largest Volume
Teaspoonfuls Salt 1^2
Teaspoonfuls Sugar 3

"When scoring these breads, the majority of judges* invariably gave the
highest score to breads containing 1 teaspoonful of salt and 2 teaspoonfuls of
sugar. These breads were always excellent in shape, with a beautiful golden-
brown crust; the crumb was moist yet tender and elastic, the texture tine and
even, the flavor sweet and pleasing, and the color of the crumb, a creamy white.
Breads containing less than 1 teaspoonful of salt per loaf were scored low, es-
I)ecially in flavor (such breads had flat taste) ; those containing a greater pro-
portion of salt than 1 teaspoonful per loaf tasted too strongly of salt. Other
qualities of these breads were likewise inferior: the shape of such loaves was lop-
sided, the crust lieteriorated in ajjpearance, the crumb tough, coarse in texture and
poor in color; breads containing less than 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar per loaf
were lacking in flavor, esjjecially when compared with breads containing the

'Household Science Faculty, University of Illinois.

24

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26 University op Illinois Bulletin [March,

2 teaspoonfuls ; more than this amount of sugar per loaf, however, made the
bread too sweet.

' ' From the results of these experiments the proportions, 1 teaspoonf ul of salt
and 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, per loaf, will henceforth be considered, by the writer,
standard amounts. It is interesting to note that not one of the twelve recipes,
tabulated on page 12, designate these proportions of salt and sugar. It is
of further interest that 1 teaspoonful of salt and 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, per
loaf, were the amounts worked out for the tentative recipe. ' '

t

Bread Making and Baking

Two very important parts of the bread-making process yet remain
to be considered after the character and relative proportion of ingre-
dients have been determined. It may as well be understood that bread-
making is so complex a process, includes so many factors, that the
strictest attention to detail is necessary if one would secure an ideal
loaf of bread. The art of making good bread is attained only by
those who, consciously or unconsciously, attend to these details. It is
just because of the lack of this attention that, to so many housewives,
the process of making bread is, as it were, a journey into the great un-
known, from which she emerges with a lump of unsavory dough, sour,
soggy misshapen, not worthy to be regarded as bread. Under the
terms making and baking of breads, many factors could be discussed.
A few of the most important ones have been selected.

making

This includes careful selection of materials, correct proportions,
cleanliness at every point, suitable utensils, and knowledge of the
process of fermentation and of the right waj^ to manipulate the dough.
If one understands the processes involved in the fermentation of
dough, it may be either checked by cold or hastened by heat, but such
changes must be made intelligently.

The temperature best adapted to the growth of the yeast plant is
25°-35° C. (77°-95° F.) Hence the general practice obtains of keep-
ing the bread warm, but ''warm" is a very indefinite term. The in-
vestment of from one to two dollars in a chemical thermometer would
enable the housewife to dispense with this uncertainty of temperature
which causes so much havoc in many household operations, including
all forms of baking and churning. ''The world do move." It may
have been all right for our grandmother to have tested the heat of the
oven by singeing the hair on the back of her hand, but in a hundred
years someone ought to have been shrewd enough to have found a
method involving less discomfort to the owner of the hand, as well as
a method more easily interpreted by the novice.

1913] Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread 27

METHOD OF PROCEDURE

By reference to the general method of procedure (see page 12)
it is observed that both water and flour were warmed and the dough
put to rise at a given temperature, viz., 26° C. (79° F.). Later, experi-
ments showed that a variation of temperature between 26° and 35° C.
(78.8°-95° F.) did not perceptibly affect the result. Either over-heat-
ing or chilling of bread during the last rising seems to result in re-
ducing the volume of the loaf, making the crumb tough and the crust
dull.

TIME OF FERMENTATION

This, of course, depends upon the process used in making the bread.
Where the whole process of bread-making is completed in five hours,
the total time of the rising of both sponge and the dough in the pan
is perhaps not over three hours. Where the long process is used, the
yeast cake with a little flour started at noon, it may be twenty-four
hours before the process is completed. Bakers say the newer the
dough, the better the flavor of the bread, while many people feel that
a better flavor is secured by a long fermentation. To their minds a
certain mellowing and blending of flavors, which they prefer, is at-
tained. It is certain that the two processes produce bread differing
considerably in elasticity, grain and texture, and almost always in
flavor. The longer fermentation allows time for the development of
acid fermentation, and one can detect its presence by odor, if not by
taste, in almost all long-process bread. Such bread is usually lighter
to handle, more crumbly, and more porous than short-process bread.
In this connection the writer recalls the remark of a baker whose
shop she was visiting: "Now this bread I lets rise seven hours, but
this bread, madam, I makes for the folks who wants all they can get
for their money ; I gives it to them. I lets this bread rise seventeen
hours. ' '

This seventeen-hoar loaf was large, coarse-grained, over-light, and
sour, to both taste and smell. One would not be understood as con-
veying the impression that all long-process bread is sour, but rather
that there is much greater probability that it will be sour than bread
made with short process. In the opinion of the writer, it is more dif-
ficult to secure a sweet-flavored bread by the long process than by the
short. Moreover, much depends upon the treatment of the dough dur-
ing the rising process. Some people cut it down occasionally to let
out the gas ; others knead it two or three times. It seemed pretty well
established by these experiments that while two risings did make the
bread a little whiter and of finer grain, the third rising did not yield

28 University of Illinois Bulletin [March,

results that compensated for the extra time and trouble. Miss Wil-
liams found that increased time of fermentation, with frequent let-
ting out of gas, gave increasing fineness of texture, mellowness, and
pile. When the gas was not let out frequently in long fermentation,
silkiness of texture was obtained, but with it a sour flavor, showing
that to prevent the sour flavor in the long-process bread, the dough
must be frequently kneaded or cut down to allow the gas to escape.
She found also that the treatment of the dough in the pan had the
most influence on the final product, not only in regard to size and
shape, but also in texture and grain.

BULK OF DOUGH

The bulk to which the dough is to be allowed to rise in the pan is
an important factor in the results. The general rule that the dough
should double in volume seems to yield the best results. Invariably
that which rose to three times the bulk gave a coarser texture.

BAKING

The temperature and time, as well as the degree of lightness at-
tained before the baking begins, all influence the general results. Know
your oven, is a most important rule for the baker. Good results can
be attained even with poor tools if one understands how to manage
them, but it seems to the writer a great pity that women are not more
insistent upon good tools. No one article, probably, makes for econ-
omy and efficiency in the home more than a really good stove with an
ample fire box, drafts that regulate the heat, and a thick-walled, well-
insulated oven to retain the heat. Much material and energy is worse
than wasted by attempting to work with a poor oven.

The novice at bread-making will find it easier to let her bread rise
to double its bulk, put it into an oven hot enough to set it at once, and
then slowly reduce the temperature and bake her loaf for forty-five
minutes or onel hour, according to size. Carefully conducted experi-
ments have shown, however, that if one allows the bread to rise to not
quite double the bulk, then puts it into an oven at a temperature of
180° C. (356° F.), and allows it to rise for ten minutes as the tempera-
ture slowly rises "to 220° C. (428° F.), a well-shaped loaf with a good
brown crust will be secured. In any case, the temperature of baking
must be conditioned on the size and degree of lightness of the dough.

191S]

Some Points ik the Making and Judging of Bread

29

1 MATERIAL OF BREAD PANS

Two minor points in reference to the baking of bread have been
given considerable attention from time to time in the laboratories of
this department, viz., (1) the material of the pan used in baking, (2)
its size and shape. Miss VanMeter worked with pans of various ma-
terials and summarized her results as follows :

"Tn order to observe the effect upon, the Tireafl of the material of the pan
used in bakinij, three ex])crinipnts were made, using single loaf pans of sheet iron,
granite ware and tin. The pans were of practically the same size.

"The temi)€rature used in baking was about 175°-200°C. (347°-392° F.)
in each case.

' ' In every instance the loaves baked in the tin pan had a satisfactory crust,
both as to color and to texture.

"The crust of the loaves from the sheet-iron pan showed signs of over-baking.
Otherwise the bread was satisfactory.

"Each loaf baked in the granite-ware pan had a hard shiny undercrust which
had drawn up from the pan, leaving the bottom of the loaf concave. The texture
of the loaf in general was also not so good as in the loaves baked in tin or sheet-
iron pans.

"Observations were also made of student work in bread making where tin
and sheet-iron pans were used indiscriminately.

"Of twelve loaves made by different individuals and baked in tin pans, eight
were first class as to general appearance and crust.

"Of four loaves observed which had been baked in sheet iron pans, none were
first class in these respects.

"While these experiments are not conclusive, they do show that tin pans give
satisfactory results, while it would appear that if either granite or sheet-iron pans
are used, to attain the same results the oven should be at a lower temperature
than with tin pans."

UNCOVERED AND COVERED PANS

"Four experiments were made using pans of sheet-iron 9 inches long, 4^
inches wide, and 2% inches deep. The covered pan was made by hinging to-
gether two pans of the size given.

"Three of the four experiments were made with 'quick process' bread,
using compressed yeast (1 cake to 2 loaves). The fourth was 'long process'
using yeast foam ('^ cake). The flour used throughout was Pillsbury's Best.

' ' Temperatures used in baking were as follows :

Experiment I

Experiment II

Experiment III

Experiment IV

°C.

°F.

°C.

°F.

°C.

°F.

"G.

"F.

Initial temper

ature

182.22

360

204.44

400

256.65

494

200

392

In I.') minutes

208.88

408

213.3

410

205.55

402

203.3

398

in 35 minutes

200

392

187.75

370

202.2

....

171.1

340

In 40 minutes

390

. • . >

In 50 minutes

....

188.5

.372

....

....

"In so far as these four experiments are concerned, the following facts were
observed :

"The flavor, texture, grain, and color of the Ijread were not affected by the
pan used.

^Unpublished data.

30 University of Illinois Bulletin [March,

"In three cases the loaf baked in the uncovered pan was a trifle deeper than
that baked in the covered pan.

"In three cases the covered loaf weighed a trifle (a fraction of an ounce)
more than the uncovered loaf.

' ' In three cases the crust upon the covered loaf was not so thick as that upon
the uncovered. This was true at the high temperature used in Experiment III.

' ' In all cases the crust upon the covered loaf was of better appearance and
more tender to the knife."

Various people have worked with the size and shape o£ pans and
have come to a unanimous agreement that it is desirable to have the
bottom a little narrower than the top. The slanting rather than the
straight sides are preferred. The dimensions found most satisfactory
in this laboratory are 8i/^ x3i/^ x 3 inches.

Winter Wheat Flour

This discussion has dealt only with spring wheat flour, but in many
parts of the country the winter wheat flour is in quite general use.
In fact, excellent authorities say that the best bread is obtained by a
careful blending of flours from spring and winter wheat. Wiley^
speaks of a "patent and family flour that will combine the strength
and the quality of retaining moisture of spring wheat flour and the
sweetness and tenderness of the winter wheat," and, again, "but it
cannot be denied that the very best bread in the world is made from
the soft winter wheat of France. " It is well known that many bakers
consider that winter wheat flour makes more tender biscuits and other
forms of quick breads.

PROCESS FOR USE OF FLOUR FROM WINTER WHEAT

Miss Jensen worked both with the problem of blending flours and
also with developing a satisfactory process for making bread from
winter wheat flour. Th.e process used in the experiments with spring
wheat flour yielded very unsatisfactory results when tried with win-
ter wheat flour. She summarizes her results as follows:

^"Tt appears that the process of bread making from winter wheat flour dif-
fers from that of spring wheat flour in the following particulars:

"(1) Liquid. — For a given weight of flour, winter wheat requires more
liquid per loaf than spring wheat flour. A dough from winter wheat flour should
be made just stiff enough to hold its shape, — just stiff enough to spring back
with the touch of the finger.

"(2) Manipulation. — A winter wheat flour dough requires three risings;
it should never get over-light; it should rise to a little less than 1% times its
original volume in the last rising.

^H. W. Wiley, "Foods and Food Adulterants," Bulletin 13, Division of
Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, part IX, p. 1235.
*Miss Jensen 's Thesis, p. 67.

1913] Some Points in the Making and Judging op Bread 31

"(3) Baking.— Winter wheat flour dough should ho baked at 180°-220'' C.
(356°-428° v.), thus allowing it to finish its proving in the oven. The dough
can, with profit, go to the limit of fermentation in the oven.

" (4) Shape of loaf. — The best shaped loaf from winter wheat flour is pro-
duced by allowing the dough to double its bulk and then baking at 220° C.
(428° F.), but such bread is not of good quality.

"(5) Flavor. — Winter wheat bread is more nutty in flavor than that from
spring wheat.

" (6) Time. — The total time required to make a loaf of winter wheat bread
in these experiments was less than that necessary to make a loaf of bread from
spring wheat flour. ' '

Score Cards For Bread

Some twelve years since, the writer was impressed with the fact
that in teaching the students how to make bread, one ought to set be-
fore them a standard loaf as an ideal to be worked for in the making
of bread, and, at the same time, to give some measuring unit by which
they might judge their results. She had been impressed b.y the use
of the score card in the judging of butter and decided to develop a
similar judging card for bread.

The following tentative card was made and later was introduced
into the work of the ^Farmers' Institute by Mrs. S. Noble King, then
President of the Woman's Department of the Farmers' Institute. The
maker of the score card expected that radical changes would be made
in it very soon after its adoption, for she realized that it had many de-
fects, but, for one reason or another, it has been modified only
slightly, either by the Farmers' Institute or by the Department of
Household Science, and there seems abundant evidence that it has
been useful in calling attention to and improving the quality of the
bread in regions where it has been used. Other states have found the
method desirable, so that many modifications of this pioneer score
card are now to be found .

ORIGINAL score CARD OP MISS BEVIER

I Flavor 35

Lightness 15

Grain and Texture 30

(■Color 1
Crust -l Depth ' 5

iTexture J

Crumb i?"!^'",. i 5

I Doughincss C

Shape and size 5

Moisture 5

Total 100

*Year Book of the Illinois Association of Domestic Science, 1904, p. 55.

32 University of Illinois Bulletin [March,

REVISED BREAD SCORE CARD

DEPARTMENT OF HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE

ILLINOIS farmers' INSTITUTE

Flavor 35

Lightness 15

Grain and texture 20

rColor ^
Crust ^ Depth > 10

iTexturc J

Cr°-MMi,re [ '»

Shape and size 10

Total 100

The author of the pioneer score card is glad to publish in this con-
nection those suggested by Miss Jensen and Miss Williams.

SUGGESTED SCORE CARD OF MISS WILLIAMS

"From a study of score cards used in other institutions, and experience in
judging the qualities of bread by the on© in use in this Department, the fol-
lowing score card is suggested.

(

Points

40 I^lavor j ^^^^^ 20

Odor 20

Taste 20

Texture 10

Moisture 10

Texture 10

30 CrumbJ Lightness 5

I Color 5

r Color 5

20 Crust J Depth 5

Crispness 5

L Texture 5

10 General appearance of loaf I Size 5

I Shape 5

"Note. — To be of good texture a loaf must be of fine and regular mesh,
and of tender, elastic crumb."

SUGGESTED SCORE CARD OF MISS JENSEN

30 Flavor

40 Crumb

Odor 15

■ Taste 15

Texture 8

Color 8

Tenderness 8

Elasticity 8

Moisture 8

r Crust 10

30 General nppearanee J gj^g jo

I Shape 10

"It will be noted that in making her score card the writer has omitted the
terms 'lightness' and 'grain'; she considers that texture, meaning the even dis-
tribution of air cells in comparison with the solid matter, includes lightness;
likewise crumb includes grain. Hence, the terms ' grain ' and ' lightness ' are
dropped. Then again she considers that the texture applies directly to the crumb
and so it is placed under that head.

1013] Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread 33

"In addition to the tornis applyinfj to the ernnih, the writer has added
tenderness, elasticity, and moisture; the importance of projier liakinj^ is thus em-
phasized, as these qualities are largely dependent upon the baking.

"General appearance, including crust, size and shape, are given a separate
heading and a large score; the writer thinks that by emphasizing especially the
size and shape of the loaf, the housewife will solve more quickly the problem
of making ideal bread, since the doughiness and sogginess are apt to accompany
large, misshapen loaves.

"It is considered that flavor will follow as a sequence of the qualities enum-
erated in the writer's score card, so il is given a lower score than appears in the
Illinois Bread Score card."

^Simmons gives the following table:

SIMMONS' SCORE CARD

THE WAY POINTS HAVE USUALLY BEEN ALLOCATED
AT EXHIBITIONS

English, Welsh and Irish Scotch

Formerly licccnihj

Flavor 20 25 15

Color (2) Of crust 20 .. 10

(1) Of crumb 20 25 5

Texture 20 25 10

Volume 20 25 10

Maximum 100 100 50

REVISED SCORE CARD OF MISS BEVIER

The writer of this bulletin offers tlic following modification of her
original score card with the explanation following.

General appearance .20

Size (5)

Shape (5)

Crust (10)

Color

Character

Depth

Flavor 35

Odor
Taste

Lightness 15

Crumb 30

Character (20)
I Coarse — fine "|

Tough-tendor I ^
Moist — dry I

Elastic or not >
Color (5)
Grain — Distribution of gas (5)

Total 100

EXPLANATION OF REVISED SCORE CARD

General appearance is placed first simply because it comes first
in the order of impressions which the loaf makes upon the eye. More-
'Book of Bread, p. 81.

34 University of Illinois Bulletin [March,

over, in judging a loaf one cuts it and thereby may destroy its shape.

Crust. — The color and character of the crust enter into the general
appearance and are, therefore, grouped with it. The characteristics
of a good crust are given on page 10 and may be summarized as fol-
lows : brightness of bloom or color, crisp, crackl}^, pliable, and smooth,
(coarse, grainy crust means bad molding).

Flavor. — In all the early work with bread, it seemed most desir-
able to emphasize flavor because there was so much bread that looked
very well and yet was really sour both in odor and to the taste. More-
over, the author feels that emphasis should be put upon flavor in all
foods. The teacher habit acquired through the years of teaching in-
clines her to indicate at once as "below passing" or unworthy of fur-
ther consideration, any bread that is conspicuously "off" in flavor.
Flavor is made up of the two elements, odor and taste. A well-trained
nose will detect in the freshly cut loaf the lack of flavor or the ap-
proach to sourness before it can be detected by taste.

The degree of fermentation, the quality and condition of the flour,
and the amount and character of the added substances, all modify
flavor, but the ideal is the flavor obtained by chewing the wheat grain.

Lightness. — This is a quality best shown in the loaf though made
up of many elements. It is often judged by size, by apparent weight,
by presence or absence of holes, by crumbliness, and these points do
enter into the judging of lightness. Possibly the volume per weight of
materials used would be more correct, but it is not easy for the home
maker to determine volume.

Crumh. — A very large part of the value of a loaf of bread is deter-
mined by the condition of the crumb. The author has given the points
in judging the crumb in great detail because in previous work she has
found much confusion regarding the term texture. She hopes in this
arrangement she has indicated in detail the elements that enter into
the formation of texture. The Book of Bread gives the following defi-
nition for it : " Texture can be defined as being the disposition or con-
nection of interwoven threads or fibers," and again, "A loaf to be of
good texture must not only be of fine and regular mesh but also of
soft, pliable and springy crumb, that is, not coarse to look at, nor hard
or unyielding to the thumb when pressed, nor yielding too much."

If a thin slice of bread be looked at by placing it between the ob-
server and the light, the mesh and the distribution of the gluten walls
can be seen easily.

Grain. — There is very general agreement that by grain is meant
the distribution of the gas cavities, also their size and number. This,
too, may be seen in the thin slice when examining texture.

lOlJ] Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread 35

Elasticity is perhaps best shown in the half loaf by pressing the
cut edges together and seeing if they resume the original position
when the pressure is removed.

Summary

Bread making is an important industry for Avomen because seven
tenths of the broad used is made at home. In this fact lies the oppor-
tunity and responsibility to influence the standard.

Lack of knowledge of difference in bread-making qualities of flour
from spring and winter wheat is very prevalent. The flour may bo
distinguished by color, feel, quality, and quantity of gluten. Chemi-
cal composition of wheat, flour, and bread, shows that there is a gain
in the proportion of water, and a loss in the proportion of protein and
starch in converting wheat into flour and flour into bread.

Characteristics of good bread are symmetry of size and shape,
bloom of crust as well as crispness, and a tender, elastic crumb of fine
grain.

Kecipes differ widely as regards non-essentials, sngar, salt, and
chortening, but agree as to the proportion of one cup of liquid to
three of flour. Yeast is a plant, and so is subject to laws of plant
growth as regards food and moisture. If in good condition, yeast
probably does not influence the flavor of bread.

Water is the best liquid as regards flavor. Because of the small
proportion used and the fact that almost any form of milk is largely
water, little effect is produced by the use of skim milk or buttermilk.
Both seem to contribute to tenderness of crumb.

Salt prevents a flat taste, retards fermentation, and, used to ex-
cess, causes loss of color in crust and of tenderness in crumb.

Sugar darkens the color of the crust. Within limits, it increases
the volume of the loaf.

Salt and sugar combined in proportion of one to two respectively
improve the flavor and the volume.

Bread making is an art that demands careful attention to certain
essential details such as the character, temperature, and amount of the
yeast, condition and amount of the flour, time and temperature of fer-
mentation and baking.

Material of pans is a question of choice. Tin seems to yield best
results in common practice. Covered and uncovered pans have not
been tried enough for definite conclusions.

The process for winter wheat flour differs from the process for
spring wheat flour in that winter Avheat requires more liquid, a slacker
dough, is much better with three risings instead of two, and should
be allowed to finish proving in the oven.

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA

3 0112 096200503

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